,note3 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive_/,american ,libraries4 ,see http3_/_/www4archive4org_/details_/popul arbooksonna#jj;bernrich ,transcriber's note3 ,there is an error in the calculation on page #af 7in the paragraph beginning1 ,hence1 it is through the movement of the mirror that the time1 which is necessary for electricity to go through the circuit of the wire 4 4 474 ,i have left the calculation as it was printed4 ,inconsistent hyphenation has been left as printed4 ,,popular ,,books ,,on ,,natural ,,science4 ,for ,practical ,use in ,every ,household1 ,for ,readers of ,all ,classes4 by ,a4 ,,bernstein4 ,,contents3 ,,the ,,weight ,,of ,,the ,,earth--,,velocity--,,nutrition--,,ligh t ,,and ,,distance--,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,astronomy--,,meteorology--,,the ,,food ,,proper ,,for ,,man4 ,new ,york3 ,chr4 ,schmidt1 ,publisher1 #ci ,centre ,street4 ,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahfi1 by ,chr4 ,schmidt1 ,in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,united ,states1 for the ,southern ,district of ,new ,york4 ,,bernstein',s ,,popular ,,treatise ,,on ,,natural ,,science4 ,in primis1 hominis est propria ,,veri inquisitio atque investigatio4 ,itaque cum sumus negotiis necessariis1 curisque vacui1 tum avemus aliquid videre1 audire1 ac dicere1 cognitionemque rerum1 aut occultarum aut admirabilium1 ad bene beateque vivendum necessariam ducimus2--ex quo intelligitur1 quod ,,verum1 simplex1 sincerumqe sit1 id esse naturae hominis aptissimum4 ,huic veri videndi cupiditati adjuncta est appetitio quaedam principatus1 ut nemini parere animus bene a natura1 informatus velit1 nisi praecipienti1 aut docenti1 aut utilitatis causa juste et legitime imperanti3 ex quo animi magnitudo existit1 et humanarum rerum contemtio4 ,cicero1 de ,officiis1 ,lib4 #a4 ,sec4 #ac4 ,before all other things1 man is distinguished by his pursuit and investigation of ,,truth4 ,and hence1 when free from needful business and cares1 we delight to see1 to hear1 and to communicate1 and consider a knowledge of many admirable and abstruse things necessary to the good conduct and happiness of our lives3 whence it is clear that whatsoever is ,,true1 simple1 and direct1 the same is most congenial to our nature as men4 ,closely allied with this earnest longing to see and know the truth1 is a kind of dignified and princely sentiment which forbids a mind1 naturally well constituted1 to submit its faculties to any but those who announce it in precept or in doctrine1 or to yield obedience to any orders but such as are at once just1 lawful1 and founded on utility4 ,from this source spring greatness of mind and contempt of worldly advantages and troubles4 ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4 ,,the ,,weight ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,,chapter4 ,,page4 ,i4 ,how many pounds the whole earth weighs4 #c ,,ii4 ,the attempt to weigh the earth4 #e ,,iii4 ,description of the experiment to weigh the earth4 #h ,,part ,,ii4 ,,velocity4 ,i4 ,velocities of the forces of nature4 #ac ,,ii4 ,how can the velocity of the electric current be ascertained4 #ae ,,part ,,iii4 ,,nutrition4 ,i4 ,nothing but milk4 #ba ,,ii4 ,man the transformed food4 #bd ,,iii4 ,what strange food we eat4 #bf ,,iv4 ,how nature prepares our food4 #bi ,v4 ,what becomes of the mother's milk after it has entered the body of the child4 #cb ,,vi4 ,how the blood becomes the vital part of the body4 #ce ,,vii4 ,the circulation of matter4 #ch ,,viii4 ,food4 #da ,,ix4 ,about nutrition4 #dd ,,part ,,iv4 ,,light ,,and ,,distance4 ,i4 ,something about illumination4 #di ,,ii4 ,the illumination of the planets by the sun4 #eb ,,part ,v4 ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,astronomy4 ,i4 ,a wonderful discovery4 #eg ,,ii4 ,the main support of ,leverrier's discovery4 #fj ,,iii4 ,the great discovery4 #fc ,,part ,,vi4 ,,meteorology4 ,i4 ,something about the weather4 #fi ,,ii4 ,of the weather in summer and winter4 #gc ,,iii4 ,the currents of air and the weather4 #ge ,,iv4 ,the firm rules of meteorology4 #gh ,v4 ,air and water in their relations to weather4 #ha ,,vi4 ,fog1 clouds1 rain1 and snow4 #hd ,,vii4 ,how heat in the air becomes latent1 and how it gets free again4 #hg ,,viii4 ,latent heat produces cold1 free heat produces warmth4 #ij ,,ix4 ,rules about the weather1 and disturbances of the same4 #ic ,x4 ,the changeableness of the weather with regard to our geographical position4 #if ,,xi4 ,about the difficulty and possibility of determining the weather4 #ih ,,xii4 ,the false-weather prophets4 #aja ,,xiii4 ,has the moon influence upon the weather8 #ajc ,,part ,,vii4 ,,our ,,articles ,,of ,,food4 ,i4 ,the rapid renewal of the blood is an advantage4 #aji ,,ii4 ,digestion4 #aab ,,iii4 ,coffee4 #aad ,,iv4 ,coffee as a medicine4 #aag ,v4 ,usefulness and hurtfulness of coffee4 #aai ,,vi4 ,breakfast4 #aba ,,vii4 ,liquor4 #abe ,,viii4 ,injuriousness of drinking liquor4 #aca ,,ix4 ,the poor and the liquor4 #acd ,x4 ,the consequences of intemperance1 and its prevention4 #acg ,,xi4 ,dinner4 #adj ,,xii4 ,necessity for variety in food4 #adc ,,xiii4 ,broth4 #adf ,,xiv4 ,what is best to be put into soup4 #adi ,,xv4 ,leguminous vegetables4 #aeb ,,xvi4 ,meat and vegetables4 #aee ,,xvii4 ,the nap after dinner4 #aeh ,,xviii4 ,water and beer4 #afa ,,xix4 ,the supper4 #afd ,,part ,i4 ,,the ,,weight ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,how ,,many ,,pounds ,,the ,,whole ,,earth ,,weighs4 ,natural philosophers have considered and investigated subjects that often appear to the unscientific man beyond the reach of human intelligence4 ,among these subjects may be reckoned the question1 ,how many pounds does the whole earth weigh8 ,one would1 indeed1 believe that this is easy to answer4 ,a person might assign almost any weight1 and be perfectly certain that nobody would run after a scale1 in order to examine1 whether or not an ounce were wanting4 ,yet this question is by no means a joke1 and the answer to it is by no means a guess2 on the contrary1 both are real scientific results4 ,the question in itself is as important a one1 as the answer1 which we are able to give1 is a correct one4 ,knowing the size of our globe1 one would think that there was no difficulty in determining its weight4 ,to do this1 it would be necessary only to make a little ball of earth that can be accurately weighed2 then we could easily calculate how many times the earth is larger than this little ball2 and by so doing1 we might tell1 at one's finger-ends1 that--if we suppose the little earth-ball to weigh a hundred-weight--the whole globe1 being so many times larger1 must weigh so many hundred-weights4 ,such a proceeding1 however1 would be very likely to mislead us4 ,for all depends on the substance the little ball is made of4 ,if made of loose earth1 it will weigh little2 if stones are taken with it1 it will weigh more2 while1 if metals were put in1 it would1 according to the kind of metal you take1 weigh still more4 ,if1 then1 we wish to determine the weight of our globe by the weight of that little ball1 it is first necessary to know of what our globe consists2 whether it contains stones1 metals1 or things entirely unknown2 whether empty cavities1 or whether1 indeed1 the whole earth is nothing but a hollow sphere1 on the surface of which we live1 and in whose inside there is possibly another world that might be reached by boring through the thick shell4 ,with the exercise of a little thought1 it will readily be seen that the question1 ,how much does our earth weigh8 in reality directs us to the investigation of the character of the earth's contents2 this1 however1 is a question of a scientific nature4 ,the problem was solved not very long ago4 ,the result obtained was1 that the earth weighs #f1jfi1jid1bgb billions of tons2 that1 as a general thing1 it consists of a mass a little less heavy than iron2 that towards the surface it contains lighter materials2 that towards the centre they increase in density2 and that1 finally1 the earth1 though containing many cavities near the surface1 is itself not a hollow globe4 ,the way and manner in which they were able to investigate this scientifically1 we will attempt now to set forth as plainly and briefly as it can possibly be done4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,attempt ,,to ,,weigh ,,the ,,earth4 ,it is our task to explain1 by what means men have succeeded in weighing the earth1 and thus become acquainted with the weight of its ingredients4 ,the means is simpler than might be thought at the moment4 ,the execution1 however1 is more difficult than one would at first suppose4 ,ever since the great discovery of the immortal ,newton1 it has been known that all celestial bodies attract one another1 and that this attraction is the greater1 the greater the attracting body is4 ,not only such celestial bodies as the sun1 the earth1 the moon1 the planets1 and the fixed stars1 but all bodies have this power of attraction2 and it increases in direct proportion to the increase of the mass of the body4 ,in order to make this clear1 let us illustrate it by an example4 ,a pound of iron attracts a small body near by2 two pounds of iron attract it precisely twice as much2 in other words1 the greater the weight of an object1 the greater the power of attraction it exercises on the objects near by4 ,hence1 if we know the attractive power of a body1 we also know its weight4 ,nay1 we would be able to do without scales of any kind in the world1 if we were only able to measure accurately the attractive power of every object4 ,this1 however1 is not possible2 for the earth is so large a mass1 and has consequently so great an attractive power1 that it draws down to itself all objects which we may wish other bodies to attract4 ,if1 therefore1 we wish to place a small ball in the neighborhood of ever so large an iron-ball1 for the purpose of having the little one attracted by the large one1 this little ball will1 as soon as we let it go1 fall to the earth1 because the attractive power of the earth is many1 very many times greater than that of the largest iron-ball2 so much greater is it1 that the attraction of the iron-ball is not even perceptible4 ,physical science1 however1 has taught us to measure the earth's attractive power very accurately1 and this by a very simple instrument1 viz41 a pendulum1 such as is used in a clock standing against the wall4 ,if a pendulum in a state of rest--in which it is nearest to the earth--is disturbed1 it hastens back to this resting-point with a certain velocity4 ,but because it is started and cannot stop without the application of force1 it recedes from the earth on the other side4 ,the earth's attraction in the meanwhile draws it back1 making it go the same way over again4 ,thus it moves to and fro with a velocity which would increase1 if the earth's mass were to increase2 and decrease1 if the earth's mass were to decrease4 ,since the velocity of a pendulum may be measured very accurately by counting the number of vibrations it makes in a day1 we are able also to calculate accurately the attractive power of the earth4 ,a few moments' consideration will make it clear to everybody1 that the precise weight of the earth can be known so soon as an apparatus is contrived1 by means of which a pendulum may be attracted by a certain known mass1 and thus be made to move to and fro4 ,let us suppose this mass to be a ball of a hundred pounds1 and placed near a pendulum4 ,then as many times as this ball weighs less than the earth1 so many times more slowly will a pendulum be moved by the ball4 ,it was in this way that the experiment was made and the desired result obtained4 ,but it was not a very easy undertaking1 and we wish1 therefore1 to give our thinking readers in the next chapter a more minute description of this interesting experiment1 with which we shall for the present conclude the subject4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,experiment ,,to ,,weigh ,,the ,,earth4 ,cavendish1 an ,english physicist1 made the first successful attempt to determine the attractive power of large bodies4 ,his first care was1 to render the attraction of the earth an inefficient element in his experiment4 ,he did it in the following way3 ,on the point of an upright needle he laid horizontally a fine steel bar1 which could turn to the right and left like the magnetic needle in a compass-box4 ,then he fastened a small metallic ball on each end of the steel bar4 ,the balls were of the same weight1 for this reason the steel bar was attracted by the earth with the same force at both ends2 it therefore remained horizontal like the beam of a balance1 when the same weight is lying in each of the scales4 ,by this the attractive force of the earth was not suspended1 it is true2 but it was balanced by the equality of the weights4 ,thus the earth's attractive power was rendered ineffective for the disturbance of his apparatus4 ,next he placed two large and very heavy metallic balls at the ends of the steel bar1 not1 however1 touching them4 ,the attractive force of the large balls began now to tell2 it so attracted the small ones that they were drawn quite near to the large balls4 ,when1 then1 the observer1 by a gentle push1 removed the small balls from their resting-place1 the large ones were seen to draw them back again4 ,but as the latter could not stop if once started1 they crossed their resting-point1 and began to vibrate near the large balls in the same manner as a pendulum does1 when acted upon by the attractive force of the earth4 ,of course this force was exceedingly small1 compared with that of the earth2 and for that reason the vibrations of this pendulum were by far slower than those of a common one4 ,this could not be otherwise2 and from the slowness of a vibration1 or from the small number of vibrations in a day1 ,cavendish computed the real weight of the earth4 ,such an experiment1 however1 is always connected with extraordinary difficulties4 ,the least expansion of the bar1 or the unequal expansion or contraction of the balls1 caused by a change of temperature1 would vitiate the result2 besides1 the experiment must be made in a room surrounded on all sides by masses equal in weight4 ,moreover1 the observer must not be stationed in the immediate neighborhood1 lest this might exercise attractive force1 and by that a disturbance4 ,finally1 the air around must not be set in motion1 lest it might derange the pendulum2 and lastly1 it is necessary not only to determine the size and weight of the balls1 but also to obtain a form spherical to the utmost perfection2 and also to take care that the centre of gravity of the balls be at the same time the centre of magnitude4 ,in order to remove all these difficulties1 unusual precautions and extraordinary expenses were necessary4 ,reich1 a naturalist in ,freiberg1 took infinite pains for the removal of these obstacles4 ,to his observations and computations we owe the result he transmitted to us1 viz43 that the mass total of the earth is nearly five and a half times heavier than a ball of water of the same size2 or1 in scientific language3 ,the mean density of the earth is nearly five and a half times that of water4 ,thence results the real weight of the earth as being nearly fourteen quintillions of pounds4 ,from this1 again1 it follows that the matter of the earth grows denser the nearer the centre2 consequently it cannot be a hollow sphere4 ,if we consider1 that from the earth's surface to its centre there is a distance of #c1ief miles1 and that1 with all our excavations1 no one has yet penetrated even five miles1 we have reason to be proud of investigations which1 at least in part1 disclose to man the unexplorable depths of the earth4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,velocity4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,velocities ,,of ,,the ,,forces ,,of ,,nature4 ,in former times1 when a man would speak of the rapidity with which light traverses space1 most of his hearers thought it to be a scientific exaggeration or a myth4 ,at present1 however1 when daily opportunity is afforded to admire1 for example1 the velocity of the electric current in the electro-magnetic telegraph1 every one is well convinced of the fact1 that there are forces in nature which traverse space with almost inconceivable velocity4 ,a wire a mile in length1 if electrified at one end1 becomes in the very instant electrified also at the other end4 ,this and similar things every one may observe for himself2 then1 even the greatest sceptic among you will clearly see1 that the change--or electric force--which an electrified wire undergoes at one end1 is conveyed the length of a mile in a twinkle1 verily as if a mile were but an inch4 ,but we learn more yet from this observation4 ,the velocity with which the electric force travels is so great1 that if a telegraph-wire1 extending from ,new ,york to ,st4 ,louis and back again1 is electrified at one end1 the electric current will manifest itself at the other end in the same moment4 ,from this it follows1 that the electric force travels with such speed as to make a thousand miles in a space of time scarcely perceptible4 ,or1 in other words1 it travels a thousand miles in the same imperceptible fraction of a moment that it does a single mile4 ,and experience has taught us even more yet4 ,however great the distance connected by a telegraphic wire may be1 the result has always been1 that the time which electricity needs to run that distance1 is imperceptibly small2 so that it may well be said1 its passage occupies an indivisible moment of time4 ,one might even be led to believe that this is really no running through--in other words1 that this transmission of effect from one end of the wire to the other end does not require any time at all1 but that it happens1 as if by enchantment1 in one and the same instant4 ,this1 however1 is not the case4 ,ingenious experiments have been tried1 to measure the velocity of the elective force4 ,it is now undoubtedly proved1 that it actually does require time for it to be transmitted from one place to another2 that this certain amount of time is imperceptible to us for this reason1 viz41 that all distances which have ever been connected by telegraph1 are yet too small1 to make the time it takes for the current to go from one end to the other1 perceptible to us4 ,indeed1 if our earth were surrounded by a wire1 it would still be too short for common observation1 because the electric force would run even through this space--twenty-five thousand miles very nearly--in the tenth part of a second4 ,ingenious experiments have shown that the electric current moves two hundred and fifty thousand miles in a second4 ,but how could this have been ascertained8 ,and are we certain that the result is trustworthy8 ,the measurements have been made with great exactitude4 ,to those who are not afraid of a little thinking1 we will try to represent the way in which this measurement was taken2 although a perfect representation of it is very difficult to give in a few words4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,how ,,can ,,the ,,velocity ,,of ,,the ,,electric ,,current ,,be ,,ascertained4 ,in order to illustrate1 how the velocity of the electric current can actually be measured1 we must first introduce the following3 ,whenever a wire is to be magnetized by an electric machine1 at the moment it touches the machine1 a bright spark is seen at the end of the wire4 ,the same spark is seen also at the other end of the wire1 if touching another apparatus4 ,let us call the first spark the entrance-spark1 the other the exit-spark4 ,if a wire1 many miles in extent1 is put up1 and led back to where the beginning of the wire is1 both sparks may be seen by the same observer4 ,now it is evident1 that the exit-spark appears after the entrance-spark just as much later1 as the time it took the electric current to run from one end of the wire to the other end4 ,but in spite of all efforts made1 to see whether the exit-spark actually appears later1 the human eye has not been able to detect the difference4 ,the cause of this is partly owing to the long duration of the impression upon the retina1 which leads us to the belief1 that we see objects much longer than we really do2 partly1 the immense rapidity with which the exit-spark follows the entrance-spark4 ,from these two causes1 we are tempted to believe both sparks to appear at the same moment4 ,by an ingenious and excellent means1 however1 this defect in our eye has been greatly diminished4 ,it is well worth the trouble to read a description of the experiment attentively4 ,the truly remarkable way in which it was tried1 will please all who read it4 ,in order to measure the velocity of the electric current1 the ends of a very long wire are placed one above the other4 ,if1 now1 one makes the observation with the naked eye1 both sparks will be found to stand in a vertical line1 one above the other1 as the points of a colon1 thus 7374 ,but he who wishes to measure the velocity of the electrical current does not look upon the sparks with the naked eye1 but into a small mirror1 which1 by a clock-work1 is made to revolve upon an upright axis with exceedingly great rapidity4 ,thus he can see both sparks in the mirror4 ,if the apparatus be a good one1 it will be observed that the sparks1 as seen by the aid of the mirror1 do not stand in a vertical line above one another1 but obliquely1 thus 7474 ,whence does this come8 ,the reason of it is1 that after the appearance of the entrance-spark it takes a short time1 before the exit-spark appears4 ,during this short time the mirror moves1 though but little1 and in it the exit-spark is seen as if it had moved aside from the entrance-spark4 ,hence1 it is through the movement of the mirror that the time1 which is necessary for electricity to go through the circuit of the wire1 is ascertained4 ,a little reflection will readily convince the reader1 that the time may be precisely calculated1 provided three things be known1 viz43 the length of the wire1 the velocity of rotation of the mirror1 and the angular distance of the two sparks as seen in the mirror4 ,thus3 ,suppose the wire to be #a1jjj miles long2 and suppose the mirror is made to revolve #ajj1jjj times in a second4 ,now1 if the electrical current traversed these #a1jjj miles of wire during one revolution of the mirror1 then it follows1 that the current must move #a1jjj miles in the #a_/ajj part of a second2 or1 #ajj1jjj miles in a second4 ,it is found1 however1 that the mirror does not revolve an entire circle1 or #cfj degrees1 while the current is passing over #a1jjj miles of wire1 but we find that the mirror turns through #add degrees very nearly2 therefore the electric current must travel more than #ajj1jjj miles a second4 ,how much more8 ,just as many times #ajj1jjj miles1 as #add degrees are contained in #cfj degrees 7the entire circle71 viz41 two and a half times4 ,hence1 the current travels #bej1jjj miles in a second4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,nutrition4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,nothing ,,but ,,milk4 ,conceive a man1 gifted with the keenest intellect1 but not knowing from experience1 that sucklings grow and become men1 and imagine what he would say1 if you were to tell him this3 ,know1 that the little being you see here1 is a suckling1 that is1 a developing human being1 who by and by will become thicker and taller4 ,the bones of his body will become firmer and longer4 ,the muscles that animate these bones will likewise increase in size4 ,the same will happen with regard to his eyes1 ears1 nose1 mouth2 to his head1 body1 and feet2 every component part of his small body will be developed further and further1 until the child will become a perfect man4 ,there is no doubt1 that he who does not know all this from experience1 will shake his head at it4 ,but if you were to tell him3 ,this development and growth have their source in the baby's sucking at the mother's breast a white juice called milk1 and out of this milk all the constituent parts of the child are manufactured within himself1--certainly your hearer would laugh in your face1 and perhaps call you a credulous fool4 ,what6 he would exclaim1 do you mean to say that milk contains flesh8 ,or can you make bones out of milk1 or hair8 ,can you make nails and teeth out of milk8 ,do you wish to persuade me1 that milk may be changed into eyes8 that from milk may be manufactured feet1 hands1 cheeks1 eyelids1 and the various other parts of the human body8 ,and if1 in answer to this1 you were to reply3 ,yes1 it is so4 ,within this little creature is a factory1 that not only makes all you have mentioned1 but much more4 ,in this establishment1 bones1 hair1 teeth1 nails1 flesh1 blood1 veins1 nerves1 skin1 juices1 and water are manufactured2 all this is made from milk1 and during the first months of the child's life from nothing but milk1--then your hearer1 though he may have the understanding of the most judicious of men1 would be dumbfounded1 and would beseech you to tell him more about this factory4 ,you may be certain1 he would like to know1 how many boilers1 cylinders1 valves1 wires1 ladles1 oars1 pumps1 hooks1 pins1 spokes1 and knobs there may be in this factory2 more especially would he wish to know1 whether the engine of this wonderful establishment be made of steel1 wood1 cast-iron1 silver or gold1 or of diamonds4 ,now1 if you were to tell him1 ,it contains nothing of the kind4 ,of all the factories you have seen in your life1 there is none that bears any resemblance to this one4 ,and ,i will tell you furthermore1 that it is not even a complete factory1 but it is continually developing2 it becomes larger and heavier like the child's body itself2 moreover1 the factory does not consist of iron or steel1 nor of gold or diamonds1 but it reproduces itself at every moment2 it does so merely from the milk that the child drinks1--then1 to be sure1 your hearer would begin to doubt his own senses2 he would exclaim3 ,what is the intellect of the intelligent1 the judgment of the judicious1 what is the wisdom of the wise1 when compared to a little of the mother's milk8 ,and yet1 you are well aware1 my friendly reader1 that mother's milk is1 after all1 nothing but milk2 and that milk1 again1 is nothing but a means of nutrition2 and nutrition1 in its turn1 is nothing but a part of the action of the human body4 ,may ,i hope that you will favor me with your attention1 while1 in a few articles1 ,i speak to you about the nutrition of the human body8 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,man ,,the ,,transformed ,,food4 ,before speaking of the process of nutrition in the human body1 we must first obtain a correct idea of what is meant by nutrition4 ,why are we obliged to eat8 ,of course we know that hunger forces us to do so4 ,but every one is aware also1 that above all we must ask1 whence hunger arises2 that we must first get better acquainted with hunger itself1 in order to understand nutrition4 ,to explain this1 however1 it is necessary to turn our attention to another thing1 no less a miracle than nutrition itself1 viz41 what in scientific language is called ,exchange of ,matter4 ,to all of you it is a well-known fact1 that nothing in the human body remains even for a moment in the same state2 but that in every part of the body a continued exchange takes place4 ,air is breathed in and exhaled again2 but the air exhaled is different from the air inhaled4 ,by this process an exchange of matter has taken place2 new matter has entered the body and waste matter has been thrown out4 ,this exchange of matter--we shall speak more about it at another opportunity--is a principal necessity for the body and its functions2 it consists in the main of an incessant change1 by which our body is forced to cast out matter that formed parts of it1 and is therefore obliged1 in order to compensate for the loss1 to take in new matter4 ,hence there is no exaggeration in the expression1 ,man is continually renewing himself2 we indeed lose and receive particles of our body at every moment4 ,people have gone so far as to calculate that it takes seven years for the renewal of the whole body of man1 and that after this space1 there is not even an atom left of the man as he was seven years before4 ,the regular exchange of matter1 as we have seen1 supposes the body to be a barter-place1 where people take in at the same ratio they pay out4 ,since1 however1 man often pays out involuntarily and suffers so many losses--by the mere process of breathing he ejects matter which he must replace afterwards--this exchange of matter is the cause of the body's possessing the feeling of want4 ,the body has paid out and receives nothing in return2 this feeling of want is what we call ,hunger4 ,it forces us to absorb as much as we have paid out4 ,nutrition1 consequently1 is the continual replacing of continual losses4 ,it is the wonderful transformation of food into the materials composing the human body4 ,when looking at our fellow-men1 however1 we must not think1 that they are merely beings that have eaten food2 but rather that they themselves1 viz41 their skin1 hair1 bones1 brain1 flesh1 blood1 nails1 and teeth1 are nothing but their own food1 consumed and transformed4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,what ,,strange ,,food ,,we ,,eat4 ,man1 according to what has preceded1 is nothing but transformed food4 ,this idea may frighten us2 it may be terrible to our hearts2 but let us frankly confess1 it is a true one6 ,man consists only of such substances as he has consumed2 he is1 in fact1 nothing but the food he has eaten2 he is food in the shape of a living being4 ,a child is said to live on his mother's milk2 but what else does this mean than3 ,it is mother's milk1 that has become alive by having been changed into head1 body1 hands1 feet1 etc41 etc4 ,indeed1 it may sound strange1 yet it is quite correct3 ,this mother's milk in the shape of a human being consumes again new mother's milk1 and1 by respiration1 by evaporation and secretion of matter1 casts out the used-up milk4 ,this being so1 it will now appear evident to every one1 that by a profound chemical knowledge of our daily food1 we may readily learn to know the chemical components of man1 and vice versa2 knowing the substances of which man is made1 it is easy for us to determine1 what kind of food he must take1 in order to continually renew his body4 ,since the mother's milk is the simplest and most natural food for the child1 let us consider it according to its importance4 ,we shall then have a stepping-stone towards the knowledge of the food of adults and its effects4 ,the mother's milk contains all the elements1 with which the human body can renew itself2 should there be but one of those elements wanting in it1 the child would inevitably perish4 ,if1 for example1 milk did not contain calcareous earth1 the consequence would be1 that the bones of the child would1 soon after its birth1 neither grow nor increase in number1 but they would fast diminish1 and the child would die in consequence of this4 ,the attempt was once made to feed animals on articles without calcareous parts1 when1 strange to behold1 they all grew fat1 but very weak in their bones1 and finally broke down4 ,if milk contained no phosphorus1 not only would the bones and teeth suffer from the want of it1 but even the completion of the child's brain could not properly take place1 and the child could not replace the quantity of brain which it emits and loses every moment by breathing4 ,if there were no iron in the mother's milk1 the child would die from the green-sickness1 a malady which1 by the way1 is dangerous also for grown people1 and which is cured by medicines containing plenty of iron4 ,if there were no sulphur in it1 the child's bile could not develop2 the bile1 as every one knows1 has an important function in the human body4 ,these are but accessory elements of the mother's milk1 elements which usually are not looked upon as articles of food2 for who is aware that he must eat1 and actually does eat daily1 phosphorus1 iron1 calcareous earth1 and sulphur8 ,and not only these2 there are a great many other articles1 such as magnesia1 chlorine1 and fluor1 that we eat without being aware of it2 moreover1 our proper food consists also of three gases3 nitrogen1 oxygen1 and hydrogen2 and of a solid substance called carbon1 which is no less and no more than pure coal4 ,all these1 my friendly readers1 are contained in milk--all these are the elements which in truth constitute the human body4 ,perhaps some persons believe that there is nothing easier than to procure proper food4 ,it would only be necessary to take a certain quantity of carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 and nitrogen2 a little bit of potassium1 natron1 calcium1 and magnesia2 to mix a small piece of iron1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 chlorine1 and fluor1 and take this mixture by the spoon at regular intervals1 in order to give the body the necessary aliments4 ,this1 however1 would be a mistake1 for which the perpetrator would pay with his life4 ,although it is true that these substances form the proper and most important constituents of our daily food2 yet1 in order to enjoy the desired result1 we must not partake of them in their primary forms2 they can actually feed our body only when they are combined together in a peculiar1 wondrous manner4 ,in the next chapter it may be seen how nature first must combine these substances before they are presented to us as proper food2 and it will also be seen1 that we receive them sometimes in altogether different forms and combinations2 for example1 in the mother's milk1 when we eat the above-named elements in the forms of caseine 7cheese71 butyrine 7butter71 sugar of milk1 salt1 and water4 ,these latter names have a more savory sound1 have they not8 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,how ,,nature ,,prepares ,,our ,,food4 ,in the preceding article it was stated1 that the food of the child which lives on mother's milk1 consists in its primary elements of peculiar substances4 ,these are principally oxygen1 hydrogen1 and nitrogen2 three gases to which may be added a large quantity of carbon1 or1 what is the same1 coal4 ,besides this wondrous mixture of air and coal1 the mother's milk contains still other elements1 but in a smaller proportion4 ,in every-day life many of them are unfamiliar2 for example1 natron1 calcium1 magnesia1 chlorine1 and fluor2 the others1 however1 are known to every one2 viz41 iron1 sulphur1 and phosphorus4 ,all these strange ingredients nature has carefully transformed into milk4 ,for in their primary state1 and even in various chemical combinations that may be produced artificially1 they would be little adapted for the purpose4 ,it is therefore essentially necessary that nature herself should make them ready for us4 ,this she does by letting them pass first into the vegetable state1 and changing them afterwards into new forms4 ,the plant feeds on primary chemical elements2 or1 to state it more correctly1 the plant is nothing but transformed primary elements6 ,not before the transformation of these elements into plants are the elements adapted for food for animals and men4 ,moreover1 all that man eats must first have been in the vegetable state4 ,now1 it is true that man also eats the flesh1 fat1 and eggs of animals2 but whence have the animals meat and eggs8 ,only from the plants they consume4 ,there is a remarkable succession of transformations in nature4 ,the primary elements nourish the plant2 the plant nourishes the animal2 and both1 plant and animal1 form the nourishment of man4 ,even the mother's milk1 the simplest and most natural food of the child1 owes its existence only to the fact that the mother has eaten vegetable and animal matter4 ,this food1 prepared for the mother by nature1 has been changed into the body of the same2 and partly1 also1 it has become the milk destined to nourish the child4 ,hence it is evident that mother's milk consists of oxygen1 nitrogen1 hydrogen1 carbon1 and a small portion of other chemical primary elements4 ,but these substances when appearing in the shape of milk1 are combined in such a manner as to form ready-made food2 as such they constitute1 as stated above1 caseine1 butyrine1 sugar of milk1 salt1 and water4 ,the next questions are3 ,what do these elements of food perform when in the child's body8 ,what becomes of these substances after they have been eaten by the child8 ,how are they changed during the time of their stay in the body8 ,and in what condition do they leave the child's body1 and how do they force him to desire food again8 ,these questions properly belong to the chapter on ,nutrition1 where they will be answered in their turn4 ,afterwards1 we must be permitted to turn our attention to a further question1 viz41 ,what articles of food are the most advantageous to man from the time he is weaned or the time1 he takes from among vegetable and animal matter the same substances for food1 that are contained in the mother's milk8 ,in order to arrive at the answers to all these questions1 we were obliged to first prepare the ground a little4 ,this was a gain on our part1 for now we shall attain the end in a shorter time than would have been possible otherwise4 ,we trust that we may give our reader a correct idea of the subject1 if he will but come to our aid with his most earnest attention and reflection2 these are needed here the more1 as we have to treat a difficult subject in a very short space4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,what ,,becomes ,,of ,,the ,,mother',s ,,milk ,,after ,,it ,,has ,,entered ,,the ,,body ,,of ,,the ,,child8 ,when the child has freed itself from the body of its mother1 it consists of blood1 flesh1 and bones1 which heretofore were formed and nourished by the blood of the mother4 ,as soon1 however1 as the child is born1 it ceases to be nourished in this manner4 ,it ceases1 also1 to secrete through its mother1 substances which are useless to it4 ,the child now begins to breathe for itself1 and by its breath secretes carbon in the form of carbonic acid4 ,its skin begins to perspire1 and secretes chiefly hydrogen and oxygen in the shape of water or vapor2 by the urine1 finally1 it secretes nitrogen4 ,these substances--carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 nitrogen--before their secretion1 constituted vital parts of the child's body2 now1 however1 they are wasted1 and for this reason must be thrown off4 ,it is evident that the child wants compensation for this loss4 ,this is given by the mother's milk2 for it contains chiefly these same substances4 ,but how is this effected8 ,the milk passes from the child's mouth through the gullet into the stomach4 ,while yet in the mouth1 the milk is mixed with a certain liquid called saliva4 ,this saliva possesses the quality of preparing the milk for the necessary change which will take place1 when it reaches the child's stomach4 ,the principal work1 however1 is carried on in the stomach itself4 ,its sides secrete a liquid called gastric juice1 whose business it is1 to transform into a pulp milk1 and also solid food1 provided the latter be well masticated and moistened4 ,science has taught us to prepare gastric juice artificially4 ,the process of digestion1 that is1 the transformation of solid food--the crust of bread1 meat1 etc4--into a pulp1 may nowadays be observed in a glass filled with warm1 artificial1 gastric juice4 ,after the digestion is completed1 the lower opening of the stomach1 which leads into the duodenum1 and which1 during the process of digestion1 was closed by a muscle1 opens itself4 ,the pulp1 now called chyme1 flows into the continuation of the stomach--the alimentary canal or duodenum4 ,this is but a long bag with many folds and windings4 ,the chyme is here mixed again with a liquid called intestinal juice2 it has the quality of continuing digestion until the chyme separates into two parts2 one of them1 a milky fluid called chyle1 contains the substance which feeds the body4 ,the other is the solid parts not adapted to nutrition2 they are thrown out by the lower opening of the rectum4 ,but how is this nutritive part1 the chyle1 conveyed into the various parts of the body8 ,the intestinal canal is filled with extremely small vessels called lacteal absorbents4 ,these vessels absorb the chyle4 ,this absorption1 on account of the great length of the intestinal canal--in adults it is nearly thirty feet long--is1 in a healthy body1 accomplished very thoroughly4 ,the real nutriment for the body is now contained in the lacteal absorbents1 an infinite number of small tubes4 ,all these small vessels1 however1 converge towards the lower part of the spinal column1 and uniting1 form a vessel which ascends into the chest2 here it empties into a large blood-vessel1 the blood of which is on its way to the heart4 ,thrown out of the heart in another direction1 the blood is pushed through the whole body4 ,thus the food1 after having been transformed into a juice very similar to the blood1 joins the blood after a circuitous journey1 and is finally mixed with1 or1 more properly1 changed into1 blood4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,how ,,the ,,blood ,,becomes ,,the ,,vital ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,body4 ,one would be well justified in calling the blood man's body in a liquid state4 ,for the blood is destined to become the living solid body of man4 ,people were astonished1 when ,liebig1 the great naturalist1 called blood the liquid flesh2 we are correct even in going further and calling the blood man's body in a liquid state4 ,from blood are prepared not only muscles and flesh1 but also bones1 brain1 fat1 teeth1 eyes1 veins1 cartilages1 nerves1 tendons1 and even hair4 ,it is utterly wrong for anybody to suppose1 that the constituents of all these parts are dissolved in the blood1 say as sugar is dissolved in water4 ,by no means4 ,water is something quite different from the sugar dissolved in it2 while the blood is itself the material from which all the solid parts of the body are formed4 ,the blood is received into the heart1 and the heart1 like a pump1 forces it into the lungs4 ,there it absorbs in a remarkable manner the oxygen of the air which comes into the lungs by breathing4 ,this blood1 saturated now with oxygen1 is then recalled to another part of the heart by an expansive movement of that organ4 ,this part of the heart contracts again and impels the oxygenated blood into the whole body by means of arteries1 which branch out more and more1 and become smaller and smaller1 until at last they are no longer visible to the naked eye4 ,in this manner the blood penetrates all parts of the body1 and returns to the heart by means of similar thread-like veins1 which gradually join and form larger veins4 ,having reached the heart1 it is again forced into the lungs1 and absorbs there more oxygen1 returns to the heart1 and is again circulated through the whole system4 ,during this double circulation of the blood from the heart to the lungs and back1 and then from the heart to all parts of the body and back again--during all this1 the change of particles1 so remarkable in itself1 is constantly going on3 the exchange by which the useless and wasted matter are secreted and new substances distributed4 ,this fact is wonderful1 and its cause not yet fully explained by science2 but so much is certain1 that the blood when being conveyed to all parts of the human body1 deposits whatever at the time may be needed there for the renewal of that part4 ,thus the blood that has been formed in the child from the mother's milk1 contains phosphorus1 oxygen1 and calcium4 ,these substances1 during the circulation of the blood1 are deposited in the bones1 and form phosphate of lime1 the principal element in the bone4 ,in the same manner fluor and calcium are given to the teeth4 ,the muscles1 or flesh1 also receive their ingredients from the blood2 so do the nerves1 veins1 membranes1 brain1 and nails2 also the inner organs1 such as the heart1 lungs1 liver1 kidneys1 intestines1 and stomach4 ,they all1 however1 in return give to the blood their waste particles1 which it carries to that part of the human body where they may be secreted4 ,if any member of the body is so bound1 that the blood cannot circulate1 it must decay2 for the life of the body consists in its constant change and transformation1 in the continual exchange of fresh substances for waste ones4 ,but this vital exchange is only kept up by the constant circulation of the blood1 which1 while it decreases by being transformed into vital parts of the body1 is always formed anew by our daily food4 ,food is therefore very justly called ,means of ,existence1 and the blood may rightly be called the ,juice of ,life4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,circulation ,,of ,,matter4 ,thus we have seen that the human body is vital blood1 transformed and solidified4 ,now1 blood is food transformed2 food consists of primary elements prepared and changed by nature2 hence1 man himself is primary matter transformed and vivified4 ,but the human race being thousands and thousands of years old1 and there being upon the earth besides man the whole of the animal kingdom1 developing1 preserving1 and nourishing itself bodily like man2 the question arises3 ,whence do they all come1 these primary elements that are obliged forever to undergo transformation before they can become animated vital matter8 ,do these primary elements not incessantly decrease during the long process of their being changed into plants and consumed by man and animal1 in order to form human and animal bodies afterwards8 ,the answer to this interesting question has been given already4 ,the human body is not framed or created anew at every moment by food2 but it is at every moment1 that small particles of the human body die4 ,these particles are returned to mother earth from which they sprang1 thus going back to the primary elements4 ,it is not only those who are dead1 that render to the earth what belongs to her1 that return to nature what she gave them2 but in a far greater degree it is the living1 that pay their debt to nature4 ,man's body is not his own2 nature has lent it to him but for a short term of service2 then nature wrests her loan back from him4 ,thus must man1 spite all his pride1 accept her never-ceasing offer2 daily he must borrow and daily he must repay in part1 until the moment comes when he borrows for the last time1 the moment he expires2 and dying he leaves it to those around his bedside1 to pay his last debt to earth4 ,is it not wonderful8 ,his own blood is the messenger that daily carries new loans to him1 and1 in the shape of transformed food1 of transformed elements of nature1 equips his body4 ,but his own blood is at the same time also his cashier1 who1 having rendered him service1 takes the loan away1 by secreting from the body elements that are thus returned to nature4 ,with every revolution of the blood the body is supplied with transformed food1 which is immediately changed into vital parts of the body2 with every return of the blood waste matter is carried off and deposited1 where it may be thrown out4 ,the blood carries waste matter to the kidneys that they may send out of the body1 in the shape of urine1 waste nitrogen1 mixed with a part of the phosphate of lime1 that served to form bones and teeth1 but is now useless4 ,the blood1 besides1 secretes perspiration through the skin4 ,this is a liquid containing water1 hence oxygen and hydrogen2 but is moreover mixed with various other waste substances of the body1 as for example1 carbonic acid1 nitrogen and fat4 ,chiefly1 however1 the blood is employed in carrying waste carbon to the lungs1 so that they may1 by the process of respiration1 exhale carbonic acid1 a gas which would prove of deadly effect if remaining in the lungs too long1 or if inhaled4 ,the quantity of man's secretion per day is by no means small4 ,it amounts to the fourteenth part of his own weight3 nay1 more--the weight of his perspiration alone1 secreted partly by evaporation in the shape of gas1 partly as a liquid in drops1 amounts during twenty-four hours to nearly two pounds4 ,secreted substances have lost all the qualities of transformed and vital matter4 ,they return to the primary elements and serve as food principally to plants1 which before had offered those very same substances as food to man4 ,it is in this manner that the great circulation of matter in nature takes place4 ,from the lifeless primary elements to the plant2 from the plant1 in the shape of food1 to animal and man2 from these1 as waste substances1 back again to the primary elements1 there to begin anew a circulation1 by means of which inanimate elements are reanimated1 and vital elements made lifeless again2 that is1 life changed again into death4 ,and it is in this circulation that our ,nutrition1 or1 more precisely1 the ,change of ,matter in ,man1 consists1 an important link in the life-preserving chain of nature4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,food4 ,from what has been said1 it must appear evident that only such dishes make good food as contain the same constituents as the blood4 ,to have these constituents1 food must contain salt1 fat1 and sugar2 all these ingredients must1 of course1 be in a certain proportion4 ,that water is essential for the support and renewal of the body is clear to every one4 ,the flesh we eat1 contains nearly eighty per cent4 of water1 and yet a man must die1 if he were to eat nothing but meat and to have no water1 for the reason that the eighty per cent4 of water he takes in would by no means be sufficient to form all the liquids necessary for the human body4 ,the albumen that we eat1 forms in the blood chiefly the substances composing the muscular part of the flesh4 ,but it is an error to suppose1 that therefore it is absolutely necessary to eat eggs--the white of an egg is nearly pure albumen--because the caseine 7cheese7 contains precisely the same ingredients as the albumen2 for we have seen before1 and our readers are doubtless aware of it1 that the mother's milk contains caseine1 while it is entirely free of albumen4 ,hence1 he who eats plenty of caseine1 as do shepherds in ,switzerland1 for example1 scarcely needs any meat4 ,but besides caseine there is another element1 viz41 the vegetable albumen called gluten1 which contains albuminous matter2 so do all glutinous plants4 ,peas1 beans1 and lentils in particular form food productive of flesh4 ,the salts that must be given to the blood1 do not only consist in the common kitchen-salt4 ,by the expression ,salts are meant various combinations of substances which are usually not considered articles of food1 for example1 the combinations of phosphorus1 iron1 etc41 but are not visible to the eye4 ,they help to form bones1 teeth1 nails1 cartilages1 and hair4 ,the fat which we take1 appears to many people to be a very important part of our food1 and they believe that by eating much fat1 one may become fat4 ,but this is not correct4 ,ferocious animals that live only on meat and fat1 do not get fat2 while herbivorous animals fatten excessively1 if provided with good mast1 consisting of course but of plants4 ,yet fat is1 for all this1 by no means superfluous to our body4 ,man needs it1 because it is the fat which chiefly supports his respiration4 ,but the fat that is needed for the body1 is formed by man himself2 so that but little of it need be eaten1 and that little only for the purpose of helping to form new fat from sugar4 ,it is therefore best to consider fat and sugar as food belonging together2 for the fat is formed in the body from sugar1 and the small quantity of fat which we take daily is only to promote the transformation of sugar into fat4 ,but let no one believe that one must needs actually eat sugar2 no1 every food that contains starch supplies the place of sugar very well1 as starch is changed1 when in the body1 first to sugar and then to fat4 ,the potato contains starch and serves its purpose well2 it is necessary1 however1 to put butter with it in order that the starch and sugar formed from the potato in the stomach1 may be easily converted into fat4 ,an excellent article of food is bread1 for it contains nearly all the elements of nutrition4 ,it contains vegetable albumen1 and therefore is converted into flesh4 ,it has nearly all the salts that are essential to the body2 moreover1 it contains starch from which fat is produced4 ,therefore1 by the mere addition of a little butter in order to make the formation of fat easier1 and by drinking water besides1 the human body is able to exist4 ,on the other hand1 the potato1 if taken alone1 is an insufficient means of nutrition4 ,neither would meat or albumen1 if taken alone1 be able to preserve life4 ,various experiments have been tried with animals1 and a great deal of information about the best means of feeding the body has been collected4 ,in order to investigate the effect of the nutritive qualities of food1 inquiries have been made especially at military establishments1 such as barracks1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,about ,,nourishment4 ,in obedience to the demands of modern science1 numerous experiments about nutrition have been made1 in regard to digestion as well as to the effects of hunger and of various elements of food4 ,as to digestion1 the most excellent observations were made on men afflicted with a fistula in the abdomen1 that is1 a wound penetrating to the stomach4 ,by means of this wound1 it was ascertained very minutely how long it took to digest food1 and what kind of transformation it underwent4 ,from this and other experiments it appeared1 that the time for digestion1 though varying greatly with the various articles of food1 lasts from one and one-half to five and one-half hours4 ,those most quickly digested are3 soft sweet apples1 beaten eggs1 and cooked brain4 ,to digest boiled milk1 raw eggs1 soft sour apples1 roasted beef1 liver1 two hours were required4 ,cooked spinal marrow1 raw cabbage1 fresh milk1 roasted beef1 oysters1 soft-boiled eggs1 and raw ham1 took nearly three hours4 ,wheat bread1 old cheese1 potatoes were digested in nearly three and one-half hours2 pork1 boiled cabbage1 lamb's fat1 not before five hours4 ,the experiments about the effects produced by hunger were tried only on animals4 ,the results were that during the state of starvation three-fourths of the blood disappeared2 the fat was almost entirely consumed2 the flesh disappeared one-half2 even the skin diminished one-third1 and the bones lost about one-sixth of their weight4 ,the least decrease was found to be in the nerves1 a striking proof that nerves possess a great power of self-preservation1 provided there be but a minimum of matter to feed them4 ,from numerous experiments the conclusion was drawn1 that an adult weighing about one hundred and thirty pounds must die if he were to lose1 say fifty pounds1 by starvation4 ,with regard to the effects of the various articles of food1 experiments applied to dogs have shown that they can live on bones for a long time2 but that they die if fed on sugar only1 and when examined after death1 no trace of any fat is to be found4 ,animals fed on substances that contained no phosphorus and lime became fat2 but they died for want of the proper nourishment for their bones4 ,animals died also when nourished only with pure albumen or pure caseine4 ,the most remarkable fact in this connection is1 that they perished in the same length of time in which they would have died1 if they had taken no food whatever4 ,experiments tried on man have shown that it is injurious to eat uniform food4 ,a constant change in our food is extremely nourishing and healthy4 ,this is an experience made in prisons and barracks2 changes of food are made there every day during the week1 so that each day they have a different dinner4 ,once1 a physician in ,england wished to try the effects of uniform food on himself4 ,he took nothing but bread and water for forty-five days2 in consequence of this he decreased eight pounds4 ,then he ate for four weeks but bread and sugar1 then bread and oil three weeks2 but finally he succumbed under his experiments1 and died1 after having experimented thus for eight months4 ,we must not1 therefore1 call it daintiness when we feel an appetite for more variety of food1 or if we soon get tired of uniform meals3 a constant change in this respect is necessary4 ,experiments have shown that rabbits continue their health1 if alternately they receive one day potatoes1 the next day barley2 but if they receive exclusively potatoes or barley1 they soon die4 ,in conclusion1 we will mention a few articles of food and their qualities4 ,among grains1 wheat is known to be the most nutritive1 and wheat bread and meat taken together is always good1 wholesome food4 ,rice produces fat1 but if taken by itself1 it is not worth much1 since it is nourishing only if eaten with butter1 or fat1 and a little meat4 ,potato is a cheap1 and yet an expensive food2 for it contains very little nutriment4 ,in order to be of benefit it must be eaten in great quantity2 besides1 it is necessary to season it with salt1 butter1 or fat1 as otherwise it would be totally useless4 ,a good diet is peas1 beans1 and lentils2 but their hulls are indigestible1 and must be removed4 ,in general1 beverages are not counted among articles of food2 and kitchen-salt is commonly believed to be but a matter of taste2 but this is a great mistake4 ,coffee and tea1 too1 are nourishing in their way2 good beer is equal to half a dinner1 and as to salt1 a frequent relish of the same is an excellent means of nutrition4 ,cheap coffee1 cheap beer1 and cheap salt are therefore a great benefit to the people4 ,,part ,,iv4 ,,light ,,and ,,distance4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,something ,,about ,,illumination4 ,from time to time we hear of plans to illuminate whole cities by a great light from a single point4 ,the credulity of the newspaper public about affairs belonging to ,physics is so great1 that we are not surprised if such plans are spoken of as practicable2 though1 indeed1 one needs but cast a glance of reflection on them1 to be at once convinced of their impracticability4 ,the impracticability does not consist so much in this1 that no such intense light can be made artificially1 as in the circumstance that the illuminating power of light decreases enormously as we recede from it4 ,in order to explain this to our readers1 let us suppose that on some high point in ,new ,york city1 say ,trinity-church steeple1 an intensely brilliant light be placed1 as bright as can be produced by gases or electricity4 ,we shall see1 presently1 how the remoter streets in ,new ,york would be illuminated4 ,for the sake of clearness1 let us imagine for a moment1 that at a square's distance from ,trinity church there is a street1 intersecting ,broadway at right angles4 ,we will call it ,a street4 ,at a square's distance from ,a street let us imagine another street running parallel to it1 which we will call ,b street2 and again1 at a square's distance1 a street parallel to ,b street1 called ,c street2 thus let us imagine seven streets in all--from ,a to ,g--running parallel1 each at a square's distance from the other1 and intersecting ,broadway at right angles4 ,besides this1 let us suppose there is a street called ,x street1 running parallel with ,broadway and at a square's distance from it2 then we shall have seven squares1 which are to be illuminated by one great light4 ,it is well known that light decreases in intensity the further we recede from it2 but this intensity decreases in a peculiar proportion4 ,in order to understand this proportion we must pause a moment1 for it is something not easily comprehended4 ,we hope1 however1 to present it in such a shape1 that the attentive reader will find no difficulty in grasping a great law of nature1 which1 moreover1 is of the greatest moment for a multitude of cases4 ,physics teach us1 by calculation and experiments1 the following3 ,if a light illuminates a certain space1 its intensity at twice the distance is not twice as feeble1 but two times two1 equal four times1 as feeble4 ,at three times the distance it does not shine three times as feeble1 but three times three1 that is nine times4 ,in scientific language this is expressed thus3 ,the intensity of light decreases in the ratio of the square of the distance from its source4 ,let us now try to apply this to our example4 ,we will take it for granted that the great light on ,trinity steeple shines so bright1 that one is just able to read these pages at a square's distance1 viz41 on ,a street4 ,on ,b street it will be much darker than on ,a street2 it will be precisely four times darker1 because ,b street is twice the distance from ,trinity church1 and #b x #b #d4 ,hence1 if we wish to read this on ,b street1 our letters must cover four times the space they do now4 ,c street is three times as far from the light as ,a street2 hence it will be nine times darker there1 for #c x #c #i4 ,this page in order to be readable there1 would then have to cover nine times the space it occupies now4 ,the next street1 being four times as remote from the light as ,a street1 our letters1 according to the rule given above1 would have to cover sixteen times the present space1 for it is sixteen times darker there than on ,a street4 ,e street1 which lies at five times the distance from the light1 will be twenty-five times darker1 for #e x #e #be4 ,f street1 which is six times the distance1 we shall find thirty-six times darker2 and1 lastly1 ,g street1 seven times the distance from the light1 will be forty-nine times darker than ,a street1 because #g x #g #di4 ,the letters of a piece of writing1 in order to be legible there1 must cover forty-nine times the surface that our letters cover now4 ,but the reader will exclaim3 ,this evil can be remedied4 ,we need but place forty-nine lights on ,trinity steeple2 there will then be sufficient light on ,g street for any newspaper to be read4 ,our friend will easily perceive1 however1 that it is more judicious to distribute forty-nine lights in different places on ,broadway1 than to put them all on one spot4 ,this is sufficient to convince any one that we may be able to illuminate large public places with one light1 but not the streets of a city1 and still less whole cities4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,illumination ,,of ,,the ,,planets ,,by ,,the ,,sun4 ,it was demonstrated above1 that it is impossible to illuminate large distances by a single light4 ,yet we must acknowledge that nature herself does this1 and that the sun is the only light which shines throughout the solar system2 for the light which is seen in the planets is but light received and reflected from the sun4 ,this is sufficient reason for us to believe1 that there are not on every planet creatures as we see them on our earth2 but that1 on the contrary1 each celestial body may be inhabited by creatures organized according to the distance of the planet from the sun2 that is1 adapted to the degree of light produced there by the sun4 ,for the natural sciences teach us1 that solar light is subject to the same laws as our artificial light3 it decreases as the distance increases4 ,the planets more remote from the sun are illuminated less than those nearer to it4 ,the ratio in which this light decreases1 is precisely the same as that of the terrestrial light illustrated above1 viz41 according to the square of the distance4 ,in other words1 when the distance is double1 the intensity of the light is one-fourth as great2 when three times1 one-ninth as great2 when four times more remote1 one-sixteenth as strong1 etc42 in short1 at every distance as much weaker as the distance multiplied by itself4 ,presently we shall see that the planets are illuminated in inverse proportion to their distance from the sun4 ,from this alone we come to the conclusion1 that on every planet the living beings must necessarily be differently constituted4 ,the name of the planet nearest to the sun is ,mercury4 ,it is about two and a half times nearer to the sun than our earth1 therefore it receives nearly seven times as much light4 ,we can scarcely conceive such an intensity of light and all the consequences resulting from it4 ,if instead of one sun we should happen to have three1 there is no doubt that we should go blind2 but seven suns1 that is1 seven times the light of our brightest days1 we could not endure1 even if our eyes were closed2 the more so1 as our eyelids1 even when firmly closed1 do not protect us from the sun's light entirely4 ,this is a proof of our assertion1 that the living beings on the planet ,mercury must be differently organized from us4 ,venus1 the third planet1 is one and a third times nearer to the sun than we are4 ,the light on that planet1 therefore1 is nearly twice as bright as on ours4 ,but inasmuch as even this would be unbearable for us1 the creatures on this planet must likewise be different from us4 ,the third planet is the earth we inhabit4 ,the intensity of the sunlight in bright summer days is well known to us from experience1 although no one has as yet been successful in measuring its degree as precisely as has been done with heat by the thermometer4 ,it is true that in modern times a certain ,mr4 ,schell1 in ,berlin1 proposed to measure light accurately1 in a way that elicited the approbation of naturalists1 especially of ,alexander von ,humboldt4 ,however1 the experiments proposed have not yet been properly carried out1 though they are very useful to photographists4 ,therefore we do not know1 up to the present time1 whether there is any difference in the light of two cloudless summer days2 just as little are we able to determine how much the moon's light is weaker than the sun's4 ,the fourth planet's name is ,mars2 its distance from the sun is one and a half times our distance from the sun4 ,there the sun's light is about half as strong as with us4 ,now1 although we often may have days which are half as bright as others1 it is yet very doubtful whether we could live on ,mars2 for light does not act upon our eyes only1 but on our whole body and its health4 ,it is likely that the very want of light there would prove fatal to us4 ,the twenty-four newly discovered planets have days that are nearly six times darker than ours4 ,the daylight on these planets is probably as it was with us during the great eclipse of the sun in ,july1 #ahea4 ,this light was very interesting for a few minutes1 but if it were to continue it would certainly make us melancholy4 ,far worse yet fare the remoter planets4 ,on the planet ,jupiter it is as much as thirty times darker than with us4 ,on ,saturn1 eighty times4 ,on ,uranus1 even three hundred times2 and upon the last of the planets1 ,neptune1 discovered in #ahde1 light is nine hundred times more feeble than upon our globe4 ,although it is true that all of the remoter planets have many moons or satellites1 yet it must not be forgotten that the moons themselves are but very feebly illuminated2 that their light benefits during the night only1 and even then only lovers and night revellers4 ,,part ,v4 ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,astronomy4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,a ,,wonderful ,,discovery4 ,many people are greatly surprised1 that when a new planet is discovered--and within late years this has been frequently the case--astronomers should be able to determine a few days afterwards its distance from the sun1 together with the number of years necessary for its orbit4 ,how is it possible1 they ask1 to survey a new guest after such a short acquaintance so accurately1 as to foretell his path1 nay1 even the time of his course8 ,nevertheless it is true that this can be done1 and certainly no stage-coach nor locomotive can announce the hour and minute of its arrival with as much accuracy as the astronomer can foretell the arrival of a celestial body1 though he may have observed it but a short time4 ,more yet is done sometimes4 ,in #ahdf1 a naturalist in ,paris1 ,leverrier by name1 found out1 without looking in the sky1 without making observations with the telescope1 simply by dint of calculation1 that there must exist a planet at a distance from us of #b1hfb millions of miles2 that this planet takes #fj1bch days and #aa hours to move round the sun2 that it is #bd #a_/b heavier than our earth1 and that it must be found at a given time at a given place in the sky2 provided1 of course1 the quality of the telescope be such as to enable it to be seen4 ,leverrier communicated all this to the ,academy of ,sciences in ,paris4 ,the ,academy did not by any means say1 ,the man is insane2 how can he know what is going on #b1hfb millions of miles from us2 he does not even know what kind of weather we shall have to-morrow6 ,neither did they say1 ,this man wishes to sport with us1 for he maintains things that no one can prove to be false6 ,nor1 ,the man is a swindler1 for he very likely has seen the planet accidentally1 and pretends now that he discovered it by his learning4 ,no1 nothing of the kind2 on the contrary1 his communication was received with the proper regard for its importance2 ,leverrier was well known as a great naturalist4 ,having thus learned how he made the discovery1 the members of the ,academy felt convinced that there were good reasons to believe his assertions to be true4 ,complete success crowned his efforts4 ,he made the announcement to the ,academy in ,january1 #ahdf2 on the #cast of ,august he sent in further reports about the planet1 which he had not seen as yet4 ,the surprise and astonishment on the part of scientific men can scarcely be imagined1 while on the part of the uneducated there were but smiles and incredulity4 ,on the #bc;d of ,september1 ,mr4 ,galle--now ,director of the ,breslau ,observatory1 at that time ,assistant in that of ,berlin1 a gentleman who had distinguished himself before by successful observations and discoveries1 received a letter from ,leverrier1 requesting him to watch for the new planet at a place designated in the heavens4 ,though other cities at that time possessed better telescopes than ,berlin1 this city was chosen because of its favorable situation for observations4 ,that same evening ,galle directed his telescope to that spot in the sky indicated by ,leverrier1 and1 at an exceedingly small distance from it1 actually discovered the planet4 ,this discovery of ,leverrier is very justly called the greatest triumph that ever crowned a scientific inquiry4 ,indeed1 nothing of the kind had ever transpired before2 our century may well be proud of it4 ,but1 my friendly reader1 he who lives in this age without having any idea whatever of the way in which such discoveries are made--he does not deserve to be called a contemporary of this age4 ,we will not try to make an astronomer out of you2 we merely wish to explain to you the miracle of this discovery4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,main ,,support ,,of ,,leverrier',s ,,discovery4 ,when ,leverrier was working at his great discovery he did not strike out a new path in science2 he was supported by a great law of nature1 the base of all astronomical knowledge4 ,it is the law of gravitation1 discovered by ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,those of our readers who have fully understood what we said before 7page #ej7 about light1 will now easily comprehend1 what we are going to say about the force of gravity4 ,every heavenly body is endowed with the power of attraction2 that is1 it attracts every other body in the same manner that a magnet attracts iron4 ,if the celestial bodies1 or1 to speak only of one class1 if all the planets were at rest1 that is1 without motion1 they would1 on account of the great attractive power of the sun1 rapidly approach it1 and finally unite with it and form one body4 ,that this does not take place1 may be ascribed solely to the fact that all planets have their own motion4 ,this motion1 combined with the attractive force of the sun1 causes them to move in circles around it4 ,this may be illustrated by the following3 ,suppose a strong magnet to lie in the centre of a table4 ,now1 suppose some one to place an iron ball on the table2 then will this ball run straightway towards the magnet4 ,but if some one were to roll the ball so that it should pass the magnet1 it would at first run in a straight line1 but the magnet attracting it at every moment of time1 the ball would be compelled to deviate from its straight course and would begin to circulate round the magnet4 ,we see that this circular motion round the magnet springs from two forces3 first1 from the hand that starts the ball in a straight line2 and secondly1 from the attraction of the magnet1 which at every moment draws the ball towards itself4 ,newton1 the greatest natural philosopher of all times1 who lived in ,england two hundred years ago1 proved1 that all the orbits round the sun1 as described by the planets1 are caused by two such forces2 by the motion of the planets peculiar to themselves1 which1 if not interfered with1 would make them fly through space in a straight line2 and by the attractive force of the sun1 which is continually disturbing that straight course1 thus forcing the planets to move in circles around him4 ,but ,newton has discovered more than this4 ,he succeeded in proving that1 knowing the time of a planet's revolution around the sun1 we can determine precisely with what force the attractive power of the sun affects it4 ,for if the sun's attractive power is strong1 the planet will revolve very quickly2 if weak1 it will move slowly4 ,were the sun1 for example1 all of a sudden to lose a portion of his attractive force1 the consequence would be that the earth must revolve around him more slowly4 ,our year1 which now has three hundred and sixty-five days1 would then have a much greater number of days4 ,newton has also shown--and this is for us the main thing--that the attractive force of the sun is strong in his close proximity1 but that it diminishes as the distance from him increases4 ,in other words1 the remoter planets are attracted by the sun with less force than those nearer to him4 ,the attractive force decreases with the distance in the same proportion as light1 which1 we saw a little while ago1 decreases in intensity as the square of the distance increases4 ,this means1 that a planet at a distance from the sun twice as great as that of the earth1 is attracted with only one-fourth the force2 one that is three times the distance1 with one-ninth of the force1 etc4 ,this great law pervades all nature4 ,it is the basis of the science of astronomy1 and was the main support of ,leverrier's discovery4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,great ,,discovery4 ,perhaps the question presents itself to the thinking reader3 ,if it be true that the heavenly bodies attract each other1 why do not the planets attract one another in such a manner that they will run round and about each other8 ,newton himself proposed this question2 he also found the answer4 ,the attractive power of a celestial body depends upon its larger or smaller mass4 ,in our solar system the sun's mass is so much larger than that of any of the planets1 that the balance of attractive power is largely in his favor2 hence the revolving of the planets around him4 ,if the sun were to disappear suddenly the effect of the attractive influence of the planets upon one another would be tremendous4 ,there can be no doubt that they would all begin to revolve around ,jupiter1 because that planet has the largest mass4 ,to give some examples in figures1--the sun's mass is #cee1dii heavier1 while ,jupiter's is but #cci times heavier than that of the earth4 ,it is evident that1 the sun's mass being more than a thousand times larger than ,jupiter's1 so long as the sun exists the earth will never revolve around ,jupiter4 ,yet ,jupiter is not without influence upon the earth2 and though it is not able to draw it out of its course round the sun1 yet it attracts the earth to some extent4 ,observations and computations have shown us1 that the earth's orbit around the sun1 owing to the attraction of ,jupiter1 is somewhat changed1 or1 as it is called1 disturbed4 ,as with ,jupiter and the earth1 so with all the other planets2 their mutual attraction disturb their orbits round the sun4 ,in reality1 every planet revolves in an orbit which1 without this disturbance1 would be a different one4 ,the computation of these disturbances constitutes a great difficulty in astronomy1 and requires the keenest and most energetic studies ever made in science4 ,perhaps some of our readers may ask here1 whether in course of time these disturbances will become so great as to throw our whole solar system into confusion8 ,well1 the same question was proposed by a great mathematician named ,laplace1 who lived towards the end of the last century4 ,but he himself answered the question in an immortal work1 ,the ,mechanics of the ,heavens4 ,he furnished the proof1 that all disturbances last but a certain time2 and that the solar system is constructed so that the very attractions by which the disturbances are caused1 produce at the end of certain periods a regulation or rectification2 so that in the end there is always complete order4 ,after what has been said1 it is evident that if one of the planets were invisible1 its presence would still be known to our naturalists1 on account of the disturbances it would cause in the orbits of the other planets2 unless1 perhaps1 its mass be so insignificant as to render its power of attraction imperceptible4 ,and now we may proceed to explain the subject of this chapter4 ,up to the year #ahdf1 when ,leverrier made his great discovery1 it was believed that ,uranus was the most distant planet revolving around the sun4 ,uranus itself was discovered by ,sir ,john ,herschel in ,england in the year #agha4 ,as this planet takes eighty-four years to go round the sun1 its complete revolution had not yet been observed in #ahdf2 in spite of this1 however1 the course of ,uranus was calculated and known very precisely1 because the attractive force of the sun was known2 and all the disturbances that might influence the planet were taken into account4 ,but notwithstanding all nicety of calculations1 the real course of ,uranus would not at all agree with the one computed4 ,at that time already1 long before ,leverrier's discovery1 the idea arose that beyond ,uranus1 in a region where the human eye could1 in spite of all telescopes1 discover nothing1 there must probably exist a planet which changed the course of ,uranus4 ,bessel1 a great astronomer1 who unfortunately for science died too soon1 was already on the point of finding out by computation the unknown disturber4 ,but he died1 shortly before ,leverrier's discovery4 ,as early even as #ahdj1 ,maedler1 in the city of ,dorpat1 in ,russia1 wrote a fine article on this as yet unseen disturber4 ,leverrier1 however1 began the task and finished it4 ,he computed with an acuteness that was admired by all men of science4 ,he investigated whereabout in the heavens that intruder must be situated1 so as to be able to trouble ,uranus to such an extent2 how fast this disturber itself must move in its orbit1 and how large must be its mass4 ,we live to see the triumph of ,leverrier's being able to discover with his mental eye1 by means of computation only1 a planet at a distance of millions of miles from him4 ,therefore let us say3 ,honor science6 ,honor the men that cultivate it6 ,and all honor to the human intellect which sees farther than the human eye6 ,,part ,,vi4 ,,meteorology ,,chapter ,i4 ,,something ,,about ,,the ,,weather4 ,we presume that in a state of unusual bad weather there are many persons1 who find occasion to reflect on the nature of weather in general4 ,a few years ago1 we had green ,christmas and white ,easter1 and spring was of course far behind when ,pentecost arrived4 ,we had still cold and rainy days1 while the nights were frosty2 and1 if one might judge from appearances1 it seemed that nature had made a mistake1 and had not known of our being then in the month of ,june1 which1 with us1 is usually a delightful month4 ,the sun alone was right4 ,he rose on the #ith of ,june of that year precisely at #d o'clock #cj minutes1 as was prescribed to him by the calendar2 and set at #g o'clock #cj minutes1 precisely according to orders4 ,at that time the sun was hastening towards summer1 he lengthened the days and shortened the nights2 but he alone is not capable of governing the weather1 and our friends the astronomers1 although they are able to calculate the sun's course with more precision than the engineer can the locomotive's1 are themselves greatly embarrassed when asked1 ,what kind of weather shall we have the day after to-morrow8 ,it is unpardonable that some of our almanacs1 especially those for the farmer1 contain prophecies about the weather4 ,we cannot be too indignant against the foolish superstition which this abuse tends to foster4 ,and what is worse1 really shameful1 is1 that those who print such things do not believe in them themselves1 but consider them a necessity sanctioned by age and custom1 and offer it as such to the credulity of the public4 ,the subject of this article on the knowledge of weather1 is a science1 a great branch of the natural sciences2 but it is a branch just developing1 and therefore has1 up to the present time1 not yet brought forth any fruit4 ,it is very likely that at some future day we shall be able to indicate in advance the weather of any given place4 ,but for the present this is impossible2 and if from time to time men arise and announce that they can calculate and determine in advance the state of the weather in any given place--pretending to consult the planets1 etc4--we take it for granted that they are as unreliable as the weather-prophets of the almanacs4 ,we said above that the weather might possibly be determined a few days ahead2 science is at present almost far enough advanced for it4 ,but there are needed for that purpose grand institutions1 which must first be called into life4 ,if for the proper observation of the weather1 stations were erected throughout the extent of our country1 at a distance of about seventy miles from each other1 and if these stations were connected by a telegraph-wire1 managed by a scientific reliable observer2 then we might1 in the middle portion of our country1 be able to determine in advance the state of the weather1 though for a short time only4 ,for the changeableness of the weather depends on the nature and motion of the air1 and on the amount of moisture1 and the direction of the winds4 ,it is mostly occasioned by currents of air which pass over the earth1 producing1 wherever they meet1 here cold1 there heat--here rain1 there hail or snow4 ,along a part of the coast of the ,united ,states electric telegraphs have been established4 ,vessels receive1 at a considerable distance1 the news of a storm approaching1 together with its velocity and direction4 ,the electric telegraph being quicker than the wind1 the vessels receive the news in time to take their directions4 ,before the storm reaches them1 they have been enabled to take precautionary measures for its reception4 ,this is a great step forward in our new science4 ,but not before the time when such stations shall be established everywhere throughout the land1 will meteorology manifest its real importance4 ,for it has1 like every other science1 firmly established rules1 which can easily be calculated and verified2 while1 on the other hand1 allowances must be made for changeable conditions which tend to disturb the rules4 ,we will now endeavor to introduce to our readers these established rules1 and explain the changeable conditions to which we refer4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,of ,,the ,,weather ,,in ,,summer ,,and ,,winter4 ,as we have stated above1 there exist fixed rules about the weather2 these rules are simple and easy to compute4 ,but our computations are often disturbed by a great many circumstances beyond our reach1 so much that we are governed more by exceptions than rules4 ,these latter are based on the position of our earth with regard to the sun4 ,they are1 therefore1 easy to determine1 for astronomy is a science resting on firm pillars2 and although nothing in the universe is so far from us as the stars1 yet there is nothing in the world so certain as our knowledge of the courses of the constellations and their distances4 ,many of our readers may be surprised1 perhaps1 to hear that we know more accurately the distance from the earth to the sun than the distance from ,new ,york to ,cincinnati4 ,indeed1 astronomical knowledge is the most reliable in the world4 ,no merchant is able to measure a piece of cloth without being mistaken1 to say the least1 as much as #a_/cjj part2 while the uncertainty with respect to distances of bodies in the solar system amounts to a great deal less than #a_/cjj part4 ,our earth turns on its axis once in every twenty-four hours1 and goes also round the sun once a year4 ,but the earth's axis is inclined towards the earth's orbit--orbit is the circle which a celestial body describes in its revolution around another--in such a manner as to cause the earth1 in its orbit round the sun1 to be illuminated for six months on one side1 and for six months on the other side of the earth4 ,hence it happens1 that at the north pole there is continual day during six months in the year1 after which follows uninterrupted winter for the next six months2 in the same way the day on the south pole lasts six months1 and the night following the same length of time4 ,in the middle between both poles1 however1 in the regions around the equator1 the day has throughout the year twelve hours2 the night1 of course1 the same2 while in the countries between the equator and the poles1 the length of day and night is1 through the whole year1 constantly varying4 ,we1 in the ,united ,states1 inhabit the northern hemisphere2 when1 therefore1 the time comes that the north pole has day for six months1 we in ,north ,america1 being situated about half-way between the equator and north pole1 enjoy long days and short nights4 ,the inhabitants of those countries1 however1 situated on the southern hemisphere1 have at that time short days and long nights4 ,but when the time comes that there is six months' night on the north pole and six months' day on the south pole1 then will the inhabitants of the southern hemisphere have long days1 and we long nights4 ,intimately connected with the length of day and night are our seasons1 especially summer and winter2 for together with the sun's light heat is also called forth4 ,during our long days1 therefore1 it is very warm with us1 for the sun's rays heat the soil4 ,during our short days we experience cold1 because the warming light of the sun does not reach our earth directly4 ,for this reason the northern hemisphere enjoys summer while the southern has winter2 and vice versa1 when we have mid-winter1 people in the other hemisphere are in the midst of summer4 ,when we are snowed up at ,christmas1 and seek joy and elevation by the cheerful fireside in the brightly-lighted room1 we may1 perhaps1 think of our friends and relatives who have emigrated to ,australia1 and the question may occur to us1 how things may be with them this cold weather1 and how they are enjoying the holidays8 ,now1 would not the uninformed be surprised1 if a letter were to arrive from ,australia1 written at ,christmas1 telling how the writer enjoyed ,christmas in his vine-arbor1 where he had sought shelter from the terrible heat of the day1 and that he had but late at night gone to his room1 and he could scarcely sleep then on account of the heat1 and the longing for his former home in the ,united ,states1 where he could always enjoy cool weather at ,christmas4 ,the uninformed will now learn that ,australia lies in the southern hemisphere1 while we are in the northern1 and that there they live in midst of summer1 while we are buried in snow4 ,nor will he now be surprised when he reads1 that it snowed in ,australia in the month of ,august1 and that his friend or relative there reposed by the fireside1 and read the letter from home by the light of the lamp1 at the same hour that we here were taking an afternoon walk in the summer shade4 ,the heat of summer1 however1 does not altogether depend upon the length of the day2 nor does the cold of winter upon its shortness2 but principally on this1 that during summer-time the sun at noon stands directly over head2 that therefore his vertical rays are enabled to pierce the soil with intense heat2 while in winter-time the sun at noon stands nearer to the horizon2 his rays fall on the earth obliquely1 therefore heating the soil with but feeble power4 ,we shall presently see that this position of the sun exercises great influence upon the weather4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,currents ,,of ,,air ,,and ,,the ,,weather4 ,in order to fully understand the conditions of the atmosphere1 one must carefully notice the following3 ,though the sun produces summer and winter1 and although his beams call forth heat1 and the absence of heat causes intense cold on the surface of the globe1 yet the sun alone does not make what we call ,weather4 ,if the sun's influence alone were prevalent1 there would be no change at all during our seasons2 once cold or warm1 it would invariably continue to be so1 according to the time of the year4 ,the sun1 however1 produces certain movements in the air2 currents of air or winds pour from cold countries into warm ones1 and vice versa from warm ones into cold ones4 ,it is this that makes our sky be cloudy or clear2 that produces rain and sunshine1 snow and hail1 refreshing coolness in summer and warmth sometimes in midwinter1 as also chilly nights in summer and thaw in winter4 ,in other words1 it is more properly the motion of the air1 the wind1 that produces what we call weather2 that is1 that changeableness from heat to cold1 from dryness to moisture1 all of which may be comprised in one name1 weather4 ,but whence does the wind arise8 ,it is caused by the influence of the sun's heat upon the air4 ,the whole earth is enveloped with a misty cover called air4 ,this air has the peculiar quality of expanding when it becomes heated4 ,if you put a bladder that is filled with air and tied up1 into the pipe of a heated stove1 the air inside will expand so much as to burst the bladder with a loud report4 ,the warm expanded air is lighter than the cold air1 and always ascends in the atmosphere4 ,lofty rooms are therefore difficult to heat because the warm air ascends towards the ceiling4 ,in every room it is much cooler near the floor than near the top of the room4 ,this accounts for the singular fact that in winter our feet1 though warmly clad in stockings and shoes or boots1 feel cold more often than our hands1 which are entirely uncovered4 ,if you ascend a ladder in a tolerably cold room1 you are surprised at finding it much warmer above than below in the room4 ,the flies take advantage of this in autumn1 when they are seen to promenade on the ceiling1 because there it is warm as in summer1 while near the floor it is cold2 owing to the circumstance that warm air1 being lighter than cold1 ascends4 ,precisely the same takes place on the earth4 ,in the hot zone near the equator the sun heats the air continually2 hence the air there ascends4 ,but from both the northern and southern hemispheres1 cold air is constantly pouring towards the equator in order to fill the vacuum thus produced4 ,this cold air is now heated also and rises1 while other cold air rushes in after4 ,by this continued motion of the air towards the equator1 however1 a vacuum is created also at both poles of the earth2 and the heated air of the equator1 after having ascended1 flows towards these two vacuums4 ,thus arise the currents in the air2 currents which continue the whole year1 and cause the cold air to move from the poles to the equator along the surface of the earth2 while higher in the atmosphere the heated air flows from the equator back to the poles4 ,therefore the air is said to circulate below from the poles to the equator1 but above to go back from the equator to the poles4 ,he who is in the habit of noticing phenomena of nature1 may often have observed something of the kind when opening the window of a room filled with smoke4 ,the smoke escapes above1 while below it seems to come back into the room again4 ,but this is an illusion which has its origin in the fact1 that above the warm air of the room goes out of the window1 and1 of course1 takes the smoke with it2 below at the window1 however1 cold air pours in from without1 driving the smoke that is below back into the room4 ,the attentive observer may also see how the two currents of air above and below move in contrary directions2 while in the middle part they repel each other1 and form a kind of eddy which may be clearly perceived by the motion of the smoke4 ,what takes place on our earth is nothing different from this1 and we shall presently see the great influence this has upon our weather4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,firm ,,rules ,,of ,,meteorology4 ,the air which is continually rising in the hot zones and circulating towards the poles and back again to the equator1 is the prime source of the wind4 ,this latter modifies the temperature of the atmosphere2 for the cold air from the poles of the earth1 in coming to the equator1 cools the torrid zone2 again1 the hot air going from there to the poles heats the colder regions4 ,this accounts for the fact that very often it is not so cold in cold countries as it really would be1 were it not for this circulation of the air2 and that in hot countries we never find the degree of heat that there would be if the air were continually at rest4 ,according to what has been said1 however1 but two different winds would exist on the earth1 and these two moving in fixed directions2 one sweeping over the earth from the poles to the equator1 with us called ,north wind1 and one from the equator to the icy regions1 with us the ,south wind4 ,but we must add here something which considerably modifies this1 viz41 the revolution of the globe4 ,the earth1 it is well known1 revolves round its axis from west to east once in twenty-four hours2 the atmosphere performs this revolution also4 ,but since that part of the atmosphere nearest to the equator must move with greater velocity than the part nearer the poles1 it may with a little thinking be easily understood1 that the air which goes on the surface of the earth from the poles to the equator1 passes over ground which moves faster east than the air itself2 while1 on the contrary1 the air coming from the hot zone starts in an eastern direction with the velocity it had on the equator2 but1 as it is moving on1 it passes over that part of the earth which rotates with less velocity4 ,this gives rise to what are called the trade-winds1 so very important to navigation4 ,in our hemisphere the trade-winds come in the lower strata of the air from the northeast2 while in the upper strata they move towards northeast1 they come from the southwest4 ,on the other hemisphere the trade-winds in the lower strata of the air move in a northwesterly direction2 in the upper they move in a southeasterly direction4 ,from this arise our rules respecting the weather4 ,the idea that many persons have that wind and weather are two things entirely different1 is wrong4 ,weather is nothing else but a condition of the atmosphere4 ,a cold winter1 cold spring1 cold summer1 and cold autumn1 do not mean1 as some believe1 that the earth1 or that part of it on which they live1 is colder than usual2 for if we dig a hole in the ground1 it will be found that neither cold nor warm weather has any influence upon the temperature below the surface of the earth4 ,at the small depth of thirty inches below the surface1 no difference can be found between the heat of the day and the cold of the night4 ,in a well sixty feet deep no difference is perceivable between the hottest summer and the coldest winter-day1 for below the surface of the earth the differences of temperature do not exist4 ,what we call ,weather is but a state of the atmosphere1 and depends solely upon the wind4 ,it has been stated already that there are fixed rules of weather1 or1 which is the same thing1 that there are laws governing the motion of the winds2 but we have added also1 that there are a great many causes which disturb these rules1 and therefore make any calculations in advance a sheer impossibility4 ,we have seen that these rules are called forth1 #ast1 by the course of the sun2 #b;d1 by the circulation of the air from the poles to the equator and back again2 and #c;d1 by the revolution of the earth1 causing the trade-winds4 ,all these various items have been calculated correctly2 and1 owing to this1 we have now a firm basis in meteorology4 ,but in the next article1 we shall see what obstacles are put in the way of this new science by other things2 and the allowances to be made for these disturbances cannot be easily computed4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,air ,,and ,,water ,,in ,,their ,,relations ,,to ,,weather4 ,let us now examine the causes which disturb the regular currents of air1 and which render the otherwise computable winds incomputable1 thus producing the great irregularities of the weather4 ,the main cause lies in this1 that neither the air nor the earth is everywhere in the same condition4 ,every housewife that but once in her life hung up clothes to dry1 knows full well that air absorbs moisture when passing over1 or through1 wet objects4 ,if she wishes to dry her clothes very quickly1 she will hang them up where there is much wind4 ,and she is perfectly right in maintaining that the wind dries clothes better than the quiet sunshine4 ,whence does this come8 ,from this3 dry air1 when coming in contact with wet objects1 absorbs the moisture1 and by this dries the object somewhat4 ,if there be no wind1 the moistened air will remain around the wet object1 and the drying goes on very slowly4 ,but so soon as a little wind arises1 the moist air is moved away1 new dry air constantly takes its place1 and coming into contact with the wet article1 effects in a very short time the desired result4 ,hence1 it is not heat alone that causes the clothes to dry2 for in winter-time1 though it is so cold that the clothes on the line freeze to stiffness1 they dry nevertheless1 if it be very windy4 ,it is the wind which dries them by allowing fresh air to pass through them continually4 ,for the same reason our housewives open doors and windows after a room has been scoured1 so that by a thorough draft of air1 the floor may dry quickly2 a large fire in the stove or fireplace could not effect it so readily4 ,from all this we may learn that the air absorbs particles of water4 ,it will now be evident to every one1 why water in a tumbler1 standing uncovered at the open window for a few days1 constantly decreases1 until it finally disappears entirely and the tumbler is dry4 ,where has the water gone8 ,the air drank it off1 little by little1 until at last the tumbler was emptied4 ,but1 you will exclaim1 what does the air do with all the water it drinks8 ,the air goes over the whole ocean2 over lakes1 rivers1 brooks1 and springs2 over woods and fields1 and everywhere it takes in particles of water4 ,what becomes of them8 ,after being absorbed1 the particles of water unite and form clouds2 then they fall down in the form of fog1 rain1 snow1 or hail4 ,many persons1 even highly educated ones1 have false ideas about these phenomena of the atmosphere4 ,some think a cloud is a kind of bag that contains the rain which is let fall by the cloud4 ,this is entirely false4 ,the clouds are nothing but fogs in the upper regions of the atmosphere2 fog itself is nothing but a cloud immediately over ground4 ,it is easy to obtain a correct idea of the formation of fog and rain2 one need but observe for one's self4 ,he who has ever blown upon his hands in winter-time in order to warm them1 will have observed that his hands become moist from his breath4 ,if a window-pane is breathed upon1 it is covered by a thin coat of water4 ,what is the cause of this8 ,it arises from the fact that the air we exhale contains water-particles from our blood4 ,we do not see them when it is warm1 because they are airy themselves2 everybody knows that they become visible so soon as the air turns cool2 or that they appear like fog when one is in a cold room in winter2 that they form drops when you breathe upon cold objects2 that they freeze and become snow2 nay1 that in severe cold weather1 after a long walk outdoors1 they even cling to one's moustache like icicles4 ,this may illustrate1 that these particles of water are invisible in the warm air1 but that when the air is colder they appear as fog2 when still colder1 as drops of rain2 and in very cold weather they turn to snow1 while in severe cold they freeze and form ice4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,fog1 ,,clouds1 ,,rain1 ,,and ,,snow4 ,the air imbibes particles of water from all parts of the earth2 and thus charged with water it is the same and operates the same as our breath4 ,so soon as a stratum of air that contains water-particles1 meets with a colder stratum1 these airy particles of water immediately flow together to form fog4 ,but fog1 as has been said1 is nothing but a cloud4 ,he who has travelled in mountainous countries1 has often noticed this4 ,from the valley it often appears that the top of a high mountain is wrapped in clouds2 and his curiosity may be excited to ascend the mountain in order to examine these clouds4 ,but when he arrives there1 he sees nothing whatever either before or behind him but fog1 which most assuredly he has often seen before without so much trouble4 ,the ignorant person who believes that a cloud is something else than fog1 and who fancies that the clouds which he saw from below have disappeared during his ascent1 leaving but a mist behind1 will be no little amazed when he has arrived at the foot of the mountain again1 to see the cloud above as before1 and to perceive that he actually walked among the clouds4 ,hence it is understood now1 that the particles of water in the air form fog1 or1 which is the same1 clouds1 so soon as they come into a colder stratum4 ,but the cloud is not rain as yet2 the change into rain will depend upon circumstances that may be easily guessed4 ,if a warmer and dryer stratum passes over the one containing the newly formed clouds1 then this warmer stratum will absorb the water-particles of the other4 ,the moist air fares like the wet clothes we spoke of2 the warm dry air absorbs its particles of water4 ,but if a colder stratum of air approaches the stratum containing clouds1 then the water-particles of the latter are condensed2 the cloud becomes small drops of water2 these drops are too heavy to be supported in the air1 and they fall down as rain4 ,during its descent1 the drop of rain is steadily increased by the water-particles of the air through which it passes4 ,thus it happens1 that rain often arrives at the earth in the form of large drops of water1 while when yet in the air and beginning to fall1 it consisted of tiny drops4 ,it is well known that the rain-drops on the roof are smaller than those that fall on the street4 ,the difference is so great1 that on the roof of the royal castle in ,berlin1 ,prussia1 there falls four and a half inches less rain during the year than on the square before the building4 ,our readers may now imagine1 without difficulty1 how in a similar way1 snow is formed4 ,if a stratum of air saturated with moisture meets a very cold one1 the fog begins to freeze1 and becomes specks of snow4 ,they1 too1 increase while falling1 and on arriving upon the earth they are large flakes4 ,on the occasion of a lecture about the formation of snow in the atmosphere1 ,professor ,dove once told an anecdote1 which is as interesting as it is instructive4 ,a musician in ,st4 ,petersburg gave a concert in a large hall1 where the fashionable world had assembled in great numbers4 ,it was an icy cold night1 such as is almost unknown with us2 but in the overcrowded hall there was such excessive heat as only ,russians can endure4 ,soon1 however1 it became too intense even for them4 ,the hall was densely crowded2 the throng was alarming2 several ladies fainted4 ,an effort was made to open a window1 but without success--the window was frozen fast4 ,a gallant officer devised means2 he broke the window in4 ,and what happened8 ,it commenced to snow in the concert room6 ,how did this come8 ,the vapor exhaled by the multitude of persons in the hall had collected above1 where the air was hottest4 ,the sudden entrance of the icy air through the broken window changed the particles of water into snow4 ,thus it was this time not heaven1 but the upper space of an unventilated concert-hall1 that sent down snow4 ,in a similar way hail is formed in the atmosphere2 this we shall consider at more length hereafter4 ,at present we must turn our attention to the influence of these phenomena upon cold and heat2 for it is a known fact1 that rain and evaporation are not only engendered by cold and heat1 but1 vice versa1 that rain and evaporation1 in their turn1 engender cold and heat in the air4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,how ,,heat ,,in ,,the ,,air ,,becomes ,,latent1 ,,and ,,how ,,it ,,gets ,,free ,,again4 ,in the preceding chapter it was shown how warm air produces evaporation1 and how cold air causes rain and snow4 ,in this chapter we desire to demonstrate how the reverse may take place1 viz41 the engendering of cold and heat by evaporation and rain4 ,although what we wish to prove in the following is firmly established1 yet it is not easy to make it understood4 ,for this reason many educated men1 who have read much about free and latent heat1 have mistaken ideas about it4 ,in order that what we shall explain may be in the reach of every one1 we must again choose our examples from life itself1 and request our readers to come to our aid with their thoughts4 ,every one knows how water is boiled4 ,it is placed over the fire1 the heat of which communicates itself to the water and heats it more and more4 ,now1 where does the heat of the fire go8 ,it is taken up by the water2 thus to speak1 the water absorbs the heat4 ,this explains why a cooking-stove on which a dinner is cooked1 does not get near as warm as it would1 if the same quantity of fuel had been used without any cooking on the stove4 ,for a portion of the heat being absorbed by the meat1 it cannot heat the stove2 hence the stove fails to receive the amount of heat that is used in cooking the meat4 ,what will be the effect of taking boiling water from the stove and placing it in the room somewhere8 ,where will the heat of the water go then8 ,we all know that in this case the water cools down by degrees4 ,the water gives out its heat4 ,now1 it is evident that while on the fire1 the water had absorbed heat2 and that it gave out that heat on being put in a colder place4 ,but what will become of the water if it is allowed to continue to absorb heat8 ,what becomes of a pot of water1 if1 on beginning to boil1 it is not taken off the fire8 ,does such water continue to absorb heat8 ,observation shows that this is not the case4 ,put a thermometer into boiling water2 it will immediately rise to #bab degrees2 let it remain there ever so long1 it will not rise a degree higher4 ,but during that time there was a brisk fire2 it is evident1 therefore1 that heat was continually passing into the water4 ,where1 then1 is this heat8 ,it has not remained in the water1 or else the thermometer would have continued to rise4 ,it must be1 then1 that it has passed away with the burning hot steam which has been constantly rising and floating about in the room4 ,moreover1 it is well known that water1 when allowed to continue to boil1 decreases in quantity4 ,our housewives call this boiling down4 ,in truth1 however1 the water boils up2 for1 if you notice carefully1 a part of the water1 while boiling1 is changed into steam1 which may be seen rising from the pot and ascending in the air4 ,the question naturally arises now1 where is the heat that the boiling water has been continually absorbing8 ,it has not remained in the water1 or the thermometer would have continued to rise4 ,the answer is now evident3 the heat has risen with the steam1 and with it floats about in the air2 or1 in other words1 the heat has been absorbed by the steam2 or1 which is the same1 the heat has become latent in the steam4 ,therefore we are correct in saying1 it takes heat to change water into steam4 ,we know now where the heat has gone2 it has become latent in the steam4 ,the next question might be3 ,can this latent heat become free again8 ,certainly it can2 and many a good housewife has convinced herself of it very often1 though perhaps she did not philosophize about it4 ,when touching unawares the spout of the tea-kettle with her hand she felt as though her hand was wet1 and scalded besides4 ,whence did this come8 ,the hand was wetted by the steam1 which1 on coming in contact with the hand1 changed to water again1 but in the same moment1 also1 the steam gave up its heat to the hand by scalding it4 ,steam1 therefore1 when changing into water1 gives its latent heat up again2 or1 the latent heat becomes free4 ,this phenomenon1 which may be witnessed in every kitchen1 happens in nature on a larger scale2 by what powerful effects it is accompanied1 we propose to show in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,latent ,,heat ,,produces ,,cold2 ,,free ,,heat1 ,,warmth4 ,he who considers how water when heated is transformed into steam1 and how this steam has absorbed the whole portion of heat that was necessary to form it1 will easily understand1 that places where vapor is formed must become cooler4 ,just as the fire used for cooking purposes cannot heat the stove1 so that portion of the sun's heat which changes the water on the surface of the earth into vapor1 cannot heat the earth4 ,hence it follows1 that wherever water evaporates1 the air turns cool1 because the heat1 instead of being imparted to the air1 is used in forming vapor2 this vapor1 then1 contains the same portion of heat that was necessary to form it2 or1 scientifically speaking1 vapor makes heat latent4 ,when in summer it is oppressively hot1 and a heavy shower comes1 it is often more oppressive during the rain than before2 but after the rain the weather is1 as we call it1 cooled off4 ,what is the cause of this8 ,after the rain the surface of the earth is wet1 and the moisture begins to evaporate4 ,in other words1 the rain-water changes again into vapor4 ,to do this1 heat is necessary1 and is withdrawn from the air and from the surface of the earth2 by this means air and earth become cool4 ,it is very agreeable during the summer-time to have the streets of cities sprinkled with water1 and it is also very healthy1 because the evaporation of the sprinkled water renders heat latent1 and thus cools off the air4 ,the reverse1 however1 may also take place4 ,as the housewife's hand is scalded when the steam changes on her hand into water1 that is1 as the steam by turning into water again gives up the heat it possessed1 just so acts nature4 ,when vapor in the air turns into rain1 it gives up that portion of heat which it had held latent1 and hence it is1 that before a rain or snow-storm the weather turns warmer4 ,when in winter it suddenly turns a little warm1 that is1 when the cold suddenly diminishes1 we know that it is going to snow4 ,the only reason why it has become warm is this1 that in the air above1 vapor has changed into snow1 thus giving up its heat1 the benefit of which we feel4 ,thus in summer-time1 when the sun becomes fiercest1 people say ,the sun draws water1 it will rain4 ,the truth is1 that the vapors in the air change into water1 and thus give up their heat2 people now think the sun has become hotter4 ,another consequence of this phenomenon is the fact1 that in countries where there is much water1 the air in summer is much cooler1 because a great deal of water evaporates there1 by which means heat is absorbed or made latent4 ,in winter the air in such countries is warmer1 because much vapor is changed into water2 thus heat becomes free4 ,it is evident that all this has a great influence upon the weather--an influence that may be calculated even in advance4 ,to state an example3 ,the positions of ,berlin and ,london are such1 that the summer-heat and the winter-cold ought to be equal in both places4 ,but because ,england is an island in the ocean1 that is1 surrounded by large masses of water1 the evaporation of water is in ,london much greater2 hence the summer there is cooler4 ,for the same reason rain and fog are much more frequent there1 and the winter1 consequently1 is less severe4 ,in the course of this work we shall see how similar conditions have very great influence upon whole countries1 and therefore often cause1 contrary to the rule1 cold summers and warm winters4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,rules ,,about ,,the ,,weather1 ,,and ,,disturbances ,,of ,,the ,,same4 ,if we cast a glance upon the phenomena of our atmosphere1 we find that they are indeed computable1 and that the weather in general may be foretold1 even for large countries1 with some degree of certainty4 ,nay1 there are countries where the weather is not variable at all1 but changes at regular periods and according to fixed rules4 ,in countries near the equator1 where the sun's heat is very strong1 heat1 calm1 and dryness prevail during the summer-time4 ,this state of the atmosphere continues uninterruptedly until winter2 nor can there be any frost there in winter1 because even then the sun's rays fall with but little obliquity upon the surface of the earth4 ,but inasmuch as the sun no longer heats the earth to the same degree1 the air ceases to retain the same amount of heat1 and as a great deal of cold air is constantly passing in from the poles1 the vapor spoken of above is1 at that season of the year1 changed back into water4 ,thus1 winter there is merely a long1 uninterrupted rainy season4 ,we see that for the warmer countries the rules of temperature are pretty constant and sure2 there one is not surprised by irregularities of weather such as occur with us4 ,summer brings heat1 calm1 and dryness2 winter1 east winds1 thunder-storms1 and continual rain4 ,the rain once ceasing1 the sun reappears in a few days1 and everything begins to bloom again4 ,this holds good only for the countries near the equator4 ,the further you go towards the poles1 the more varied become summer and winter1 the length of day and night1 heat and cold1 and consequently1 also1 the condition of the atmosphere and of the weather proper4 ,a glance upon the map will convince any one1 that it is with us that the weather is most changeable4 ,the reasons for this may now be more closely examined4 ,our country lies nearly half way between the pole and the equator4 ,from our pole we constantly receive a cold wind1 the north wind4 ,and above1 in the atmosphere1 a warm wind1 the south wind1 goes continually from the equator to the pole4 ,through the rotation of the earth around its axis from west to east1 the north wind becomes an easterly1 that is1 a northeast wind2 and the south wind in the upper atmosphere becomes a westerly1 or southwest wind4 ,the former1 coming from cold countries1 carries no vapor with it2 hence1 during northeast wind we have clear sky1 or sunshine1 but without heat4 ,if this wind occurs in winter1 it brings us dry frost2 in daytime the sun shines splendidly1 at night the stars sparkle brilliantly2 yet our breath freezes on our lips4 ,the same wind when prevailing in the first days of spring1 causes us1 in spite of the glaring sun1 to feel considerably cold in the shade4 ,and it is but natural that it should be so4 ,the wind comes from the north2 there ice and snow are just melting1 and the sun's heat being employed for this melting business1 the air cannot receive much of it4 ,this kind of weather would be regular with us2 but1 as we know already1 the heated upper air flows from the equator to the north pole2 now we live in the very region where this upper air1 in its descent towards the poles1 at times touches the surface of the earth1 thus causing warm currents of air1 which occasionally are followed by cold ones4 ,near the equator the cold current of air moves below and the warm one above2 while in our regions1 both currents meet near the surface of the earth1 struggle with each other1 seek to repel one another1 rush and roll in all directions over the land1 and bring us such varieties of weather as will exasperate all weather prophets1 and greatly increase the difficulty of scientific solutions in meteorology4 ,in the next chapter we shall endeavor to prove that this state of affairs1 together with the situation of our country1 are the main causes of the changeableness of our weather4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,changeableness ,,of ,,the ,,weather ,,with ,,regard ,,to ,,our ,,geographical ,,position4 ,we have endeavored to explain why our weather is so uncertain and incomputable4 ,as we have seen1 it has its origin in this1 that in our regions the warmer equatorial currents of air no longer move above the colder ones1 but that they descend here1 and pursue their northern course alongside and opposing the colder currents4 ,this often gives rise to a struggle between cold and warm currents4 ,in summer we witness such combats very frequently4 ,the sky is at first bright2 the sun sends down his most powerful rays2 in the shade we are refreshed by a strong draught1 which keeps the sky clear1 and free from clouds4 ,suddenly there comes a calm4 ,even in the shade the heat now becomes intolerable4 ,the trees stand immovable2 no leaflet stirs4 ,the complete calm becomes unendurable1 and causes anxiety4 ,always a calm before a storm1 say the people1 and hasten to seek shelter in their houses--and well6 for it is not long before a counter wind commences to blow4 ,the weathercock turns round1 the dust in the streets is whirled up in eddies1 and here and there rises in clouds to the house-tops4 ,suddenly clouds are seen to form themselves2 the trees shake their crowns2 the leaves rustle1 and before one is aware of it1 we have storm1 thunder1 and violent rain1 which cool off the earth4 ,whence came this weather2 more especially1 whence came the calm preceding it1 and the whirlwind following8 ,there were two opposite currents of air1 which for a time avoided each other1 but at length met over our heads4 ,each current at first pressed on the other with equal force1 so that they mutually were brought to a stand-still2 this we called a calm4 ,but such an equilibrium does not last long1 for one current must in the end overcome the other2 they whirl through one another1 raise the dust in high columns1 seize the trees and give them a thorough shaking4 ,the cold current changes the vapor of the warm current into clouds1 then into rain4 ,the pouring down rain immediately sets free the heat4 ,at this stage electrical phenomena are witnessed1 such as lightnings1 claps of thunder1 and concussions of the air4 ,and this continues until one current of air has carried the victory over the other2 not till then does the weather become quiet again4 ,besides these opposing currents of air1 which come from the north and south1 there are other causes disturbing our weather1 viz41 the geographical position of our country in regard to the east and west4 ,a glance on the map reminds us that our continent borders1 on the east and west1 on that immense waste of water1 the ocean4 ,we know now that the air above the water is always saturated with vapors1 while the air over the land is comparatively dry4 ,and moist air contains heat1 dry air does not2 both1 however1 are continually tending towards equilibrium and wish to exchange temperatures from each other4 ,as our dry air is surrounded on both sides by moist air1 it is evident that we must more or less partake of both heat and cold2 but it moreover accounts for the happy circumstance that we have much rain2 hence our soil is well watered1 and this is a blessing to any country4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,about ,,the ,,difficulty ,,and ,,possibility ,,of ,,determining ,,the ,,weather4 ,having now explained the rules referring to the conditions of our weather1 and proved that owing to the geographical position of our country1 to determine the weather in advance1 is difficult1 we wish to examine this difficulty a little more closely in pointing out the wrong direction which has hitherto been pursued in the science of meteorology4 ,the main difficulty in predicting the weather for any given place consists in this1 that a change in the atmosphere need not originate in the place where it occurs4 ,thus1 to-morrow's weather in ,new ,york is not a consequence of the condition of the air as it exists there to-day2 for the air is continually moving1 and1 owing to many disturbances1 is carried over city and country4 ,we have no sure means of ascertaining whence the wind will come to us to-morrow4 ,all we know is1 that from all sides currents of air are moving simultaneously2 from the north pole a cold current1 from the equator a warm one1 from the ocean one saturated with moisture4 ,all these winds are in continual commotion1 and have the characteristics of the neighborhood from which they come4 ,if from the state of the weather in ,new ,york to-day it were desired to predict the weather there for to morrow1 one ought to be able to overlook a space of about a thousand miles around2 in other words1 it must first be ascertained what is the state of the atmosphere within about a thousand miles of the city4 ,besides1 there should be known the direction of all the winds within this wide space1 and their speed1 and whether they contain much moisture or little4 ,not without this information could a calculation be made about the velocity with which a change of the weather would take place in ,new ,york2 what results the meeting of two or more currents of air might call forth2 and what kind of weather this might produce there4 ,weather1 therefore1 for the present state of meteorology1 is but a subject of investigation into the existing condition of existing phenomena1 and not a subject of prediction of coming phenomena4 ,it is true1 there are general rules by which a proximate success in predicting may be obtained4 ,if winter begins mild1 or1 better1 if southwest winds and rain prevail till the middle of ,january1 it is very likely that this will be counterbalanced by a northeast wind in the latter part of the winter4 ,the saying1 therefore1 is correct1 green ,christmas and white ,easter2 but this rule is by no means infallible1 the counteraction may be accelerated by violent storms1 or greatly retarded by mild currents of air4 ,not before the time that meteorological stations are established throughout the land1 and connected by electric telegraphs--a project which to us may seem immense1 but to our children will appear very simple and natural--not before that time will a city like ,new ,york1 for example1 receive timely information about the conditions of the currents of air at all the stations4 ,at each of these places the force of the current1 its warmth1 moisture1 and weight will be accurately ascertained by instruments4 ,then1 and then only1 we may calculate what currents will meet and where1 and what effects the meeting will have4 ,if this be done on ,saturday1 the ,sunday papers will be enabled to state precisely whether the church-goers must provide themselves with umbrellas or parasols4 ,but not for ,sunday alone will this be of importance4 ,it will be long after their establishment1 that such weather-stations1 connected by telegraphs1 will prove their real efficiency and blessing2 and our descendants1 perhaps1 will wonder how we could live without an institution1 which to them will appear as simple and natural as do to us gaslights and railroads1 which by our forefathers would have been rejected as idle dreams or works of witchcraft4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,false ,,weather-,,prophets4 ,we wish to speak here a few words about the false methods1 that have hitherto been applied to the investigation and foretelling of the weather4 ,the weather prophecies of the almanac are a disgrace to our advanced age4 ,those who still print them deserve that their productions should nowhere find sale4 ,we are not of those who expect everything of the magistrates and their orders2 but an example should be set to prevent the publishers from dishing up to the people such absurdities4 ,some of these wily prophets pretend to read their predictions in the course of the planets4 ,for this purpose1 they have divided the planets into two classes1 according to their positions in regard to the earth and sun3 #ast1 those that produce cold1 and #b;d1 those that produce heat4 ,by this means they pretend to prophesy how many degrees of heat or cold there will be every day at sunrise or sunset4 ,when critically analyzed1 these prophecies prove to be theoretically and practically nothing but charlatanry4 ,it is beyond all doubt that the position of the planets is1 to state an example1 for ,boston the same as for the city of ,washington2 if there are any heat or cold-producing planets1 they would have the same effect at ,boston that they would at ,washington4 ,but this is not the case4 ,boston has often cold weather when in ,washington it is very warm1 and vice versa4 ,besides such a heating or cooling influence of planets would be perceivable on every spot of the earth alike which again is not warranted by facts4 ,on the contrary it often happens that when cold winds are passing over one part of the country1 warm winds are passing over another4 ,it is almost certain that cold winters in ,europe always accompany warm winters in ,america2 and again1 that cold winters in ,america usually accompany warm ones in ,europe4 ,on a closer examination of the facts in the case1 we must conclude that1 on the whole1 weather-prophets take things very easy4 ,noting the mean heat of each day1 and trusting to their good luck1 they prophesy one or two degrees above or below4 ,now1 there is no great risk in doing this1 and as a matter of course such prophecies are realized one out of two4 ,but at times1 almanacs announce an extraordinary increase of cold or heat for a given day1 although the situation of the planets does not change suddenly in one day4 ,then1 their predictions very seldom prove to be correct4 ,in such cases the almanac-makers know how to manage affairs4 ,the country being very large1 they send for information to those places where observations on the weather are made4 ,it is almost certain that somewhere in the land their prophesy has come true4 ,very likely the cold may have increased extraordinarily in the course of a day at ,new ,york1 ,boston1 ,chicago1 ,cincinnati1 or ,st4 ,louis1 etc41 afterwards the weather-prophets compare their predictions with the results of observation in the various cities1 and publish whatever of them are found to have been true4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,has ,,the ,,moon ,,influence ,,upon ,,the ,,weather8 ,the idea that the moon exercises an influence upon the state of the weather is very general1 not only with the people1 but also among the better educated4 ,what induces them to entertain it1 is not real observation of nature1 but a belief which is not without a semblance of truth4 ,if1 they say1 the moon has enough influence upon our waters to produce tides1 it must exercise a still greater influence upon the sea of air surrounding us1 and hence it must be of the greatest importance to our weather4 ,this is1 however1 an illusion4 ,a long time ago it was proved by ,laplace1 that tides are caused by the great weight of a liquid4 ,if the ocean were filled with mercury instead of water1 the tides would reach a formidable height4 ,tides1 then1 do exist in the atmosphere1 but in comparison much less than in the water1 because the air is so much lighter4 ,it happens that we do not live on the surface of the atmosphere1 but in the lowest strata of this airy sea2 and in these strata1 where the weather manifests itself1 the effect of the tides in the upper air is so insignificant1 that nothing of it has yet been discovered in spite of most diligent barometer observations4 ,learned men have had such a respect for this popular belief1 that thorough observations and investigations have been made in order to settle the question4 ,those investigations were of three kinds3 #ast4 ,what influence with regard to heat and cold has the nearness or remoteness of the moon upon our weather8 #b;d4 ,what influence has the same upon rain or dryness in the atmosphere8 #c;d4 ,has the change of the moon any bearing upon the variability of our weather8 ,for the reply to these questions1 some naturalists have made use of the minutest observations for a period of nearly forty years2 during which time the temperature1 pressure1 and moisture of the air have been measured daily4 ,these observations have been scrupulously examined2 the conclusion arrived at is1 that the moon is not quite without influence upon the state of our atmosphere2 but this influence is so very small1 that it is not brought to bear at all on meteorology4 ,when the moon is nearest to the earth1 it is certainly a little colder than when she is farther off2 but the decrease of heat amounts in the average scarcely to one-fifth of a degree1 and this is a quantity entirely imperceptible in our weather4 ,as to rain1 it is a little less frequent in the time of the moon's greatest distance from the earth2 but this difference1 too1 is imperceptibly small4 ,in one thousand rain-storms there are four hundred and eighty-eight during the moon's greatest distance1 five hundred and twelve during her nearest4 ,as to the pressure of the air1 it is during the moon's greater distance somewhat greater than when she is nearer1 but this difference is still less than the preceding ones1 so much so that a common barometer does not even indicate it4 ,the most thorough investigations have been made about the influence of the waxing and waning moon upon the weather1 because it was on this subject that the greatest illusion prevailed4 ,the result here is likewise1 that scarcely any difference exists1 and that it is a mere superstition for people to maintain1 that when the moon changes1 the weather changes also4 ,the change in the moon1 moreover1 does not take place all of a sudden1 but with great regularity from day to day1 from minute to minute2 while the weather1 especially with us1 changes often very abruptly4 ,it is therefore certain1 that in meteorology one has only to observe the earth and her position with regard to the sun1 together with the currents of air and the position of land and water4 ,other phenomena of the atmosphere may be entirely omitted4 ,,part ,,vii4 ,,our ,,articles ,,of ,,food4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,rapid ,,renewal ,,of ,,the ,,blood ,,is ,,an ,,advantage4 ,our articles of food are also called articles of life1 and very properly so2 for that which lives in us is1 indeed1 nothing but food transformed into ourselves4 ,according to this1 it is very easy to determine what a man must eat in order to live2 what kind of food can best maintain his health2 what constantly renews his working-power2 what compensates for the loss he experiences by emission of breath1 perspiration1 and excretions4 ,this easy task many have proposed to themselves4 ,they believe they have solved the problem1 if they can but prove that all parts of the human body are fed by the blood2 and1 the constituents of the blood being well known1 they believe they have done enough1 if they designate that food as the most proper for man which contains the constituent parts of the blood1 or which1 by digestion1 may be changed into blood4 ,as a general thing this is true2 yet it is not sufficient to give the necessary information about the principal articles of our food4 ,the poor ,irishman1 who lives almost exclusively on potatoes1 has as much blood in his body as the ,englishman1 whose workmen threaten him with a strike1 if they do not earn enough to have a piece of meat and a good glass of beer for breakfast4 ,the ,irishman's blood contains quite the same elements that the ,englishman's does1 and yet their food is very different2 and the ,irishman is as justly called poor1 as the ,englishman is said to be well fed4 ,it is evident that the blood alone does not account for this1 nor can it do so4 ,there must be other additional items2 and these we shall try to learn before we speak of the different articles of food and their worth4 ,the first principle which we must set up before all others1 runs thus3 ,nutrition does not depend on the blood1 but rather on its quick renewal4 ,the blood resembles the capital which a man possesses4 ,no one can live on his capital without consuming it2 he must live on the interest of the capital2 he must live by constantly turning the capital over4 ,and so must it be with the blood4 ,the comparison seems so perfect1 that we can illustrate our idea best by an example4 ,imagine two merchants1 each of whom has but a hundred dollars4 ,both merchants are therefore equally rich in capital4 ,but there is the following difference between them3 the one goes to the country twice a week and buys cattle and brings it to market1 where he sells it again4 ,by doing this he realizes every time five dollars on his capital4 ,the other establishes a notion-store1 buys himself a hundred dollars' worth of goods1 which he sells in a month1 and thereby gains twenty-five dollars4 ,now1 which of these two fares the better8 ,the notion-dealer1 who with his hundred dollars has earned twenty-five dollars1 or the cattle-dealer1 who gained but five8 ,most assuredly the cattle-dealer4 ,for while the other has twenty-five dollars to live on1 the cattle-dealer has eight times five1 or forty dollars4 ,whence does this come8 ,in a month the notion-dealer turns over his capital but once1 while the cattle-dealer turns his eight times4 ,the same holds good with the ,irishman and the ,englishman4 ,both have the same quantity of blood2 it is their capital1 and the same for both4 ,but the renewal is not the same4 ,the ,englishman works vigorously and eats vigorously4 ,when he works1 he spends his capital1 his blood2 by every blow of the hammer particles of his body are wasted2 the activity of his body is great and his appetite is great4 ,he invests his capital again and again in rapid succession1 and he takes it in just as rapidly and fares well with it4 ,the poor1 unhappy ,irishman1 however1 spends his blood but very slowly2 he does not work2 he eats potatoes1 which1 taken alone1 are bad food2 thus1 he invests his capital very slowly and takes it in again very slowly2 and though the capital is in both cases the same1 its slow renewal is the cause of the ,irishman's being miserable1 dull1 and lazy1 while the ,englishman is sound in body and soul4 ,therefore the blood alone is not all1 but its rapid consumption and renewal is the most important object4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,digestion4 ,in the preceding article we said that the rapid conversion and waste of the blood is the main point in nutrition4 ,in the examination of food1 only such articles ought to be pronounced good and healthy1 as are capable of rapidly replacing the blood lost by work and vital activity4 ,it follows from this1 that our chemists do not do enough1 when they examine the food and determine its worth merely according to its contents2 articles of food must be studied also in reference to the rapidity and ease with which they may be converted into blood4 ,an article that contains little of what the blood needs1 but which converts that little rapidly and easily into blood1 is much preferable to food which contains many of the constituent parts of the blood1 but turns into blood very slowly and with difficulty4 ,an example will illustrate this better3 ,it has been proved chemically1 that the husks of grain1 the pure bran1 contain a remarkably large quantity of vegetable albumen and fat2 in this particular1 bran is richer than even flour1 and a distinguished chemist1 ,millon1 in ,paris1 in #ahdi1 created quite a sensation by his earnest admonition to use bran no longer only to feed cattle1 but to use it mixed with flour1 as food for man4 ,he calculated minutely and proved irrefutably1 that such food must be considered a great advantage1 a real blessing4 ,although his investigations and computations were correct1 it has since been shown that his proposition is false4 ,in his capacity of a chemist he was right2 but the stomach has not as much time and patience as a studious chemist4 ,notwithstanding bran contains much that the blood can use1 yet it is of no avail so long as our digestive apparatus is not organized to perform the change of the bran into blood rapidly and easily4 ,if bran leaves our body undigested1 which happens even to the strongest1 then it is certainly more judicious to give it to cattle2 they can digest it well1 grow fat and strong upon it1 and give us meat1 fat1 and milk in return4 ,there is another truth we must constantly keep in view2 it is this3 ,of two like articles of food1 the better and more advantageous one to us is that which is digested1 or better1 converted into blood1 the more easily and quickly4 ,and there is a third truth1 which must not be omitted4 ,let no one for a moment believe1 that a great variety of food is something unimportant and indifferent2 on the contrary1 investigations have shown that uniform food is hurtful1 while a constant change is very beneficial to nutrition and health4 ,nor must we neglect1 by way of conclusion1 to mention a very important item1 viz43 that taste comes in for a large share1 and that a judicious assortment and seasoning of the food is an essential part of good nutrition4 ,the husband provides for his wife1 it is true2 but1 on the other hand1 the good housewife who prepares healthy1 tasteful meals1 does in truth perform a great service1 and contributes more to the working power of her husband1 than most of men are aware4 ,after these few preliminaries1 we will speak now of the articles themselves2 in doing so1 we shall keep within the limits of practical life1 though we run the risk of transgressing here and there into the domain of our good housewives1 and of meddling with what1 according to their idea1 is not our business4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,coffee4 ,we come now to consider the various articles of food in detail4 ,we shall take for guide neither the luxurious life of the rich1 who1 on account of his disordered stomach1 constantly tickles his palate with dainties2 nor the miserable life of the poor1 who1 on account of his empty stomach1 is bound to find everything palatable4 ,we wish rather to take into consideration the food of that class of people in which the husband works hard to support his family2 and where the wife is a good housewife1 and cares for the health and strength of her husband and children4 ,in other words1 we wish to consider the kind of food called household fare1 and speak of the meals as taken every day4 ,it is customary with most to take coffee in the morning4 ,now1 what are the qualities of coffee8 ,is coffee an article of food8 ,or is it a beverage merely to quench the thirst8 ,is it a means of warming8 ,or is it a spice8 ,medicine8 ,or perhaps poison8 ,it is strange that science has not yet reached the truth about these questions4 ,coffee has been chemically analyzed1 and has been found to contain a peculiar element1 caffeine1 which has an abundance of nitrogen4 ,it is remarkable also that tea has been found to contain an element called theine1 which has the same quantity of nitrogen4 ,as in some countries tea replaces coffee--this is especially the case in ,russia1 ,holland1 ,england1 and ,america--the great and ingenious naturalist ,liebig has come to the conclusion that it is nitrogen which constitutes the chief value of tea and coffee as articles of food2 and as our blood needs nitrogen1 in order to be able to form our muscles and flesh1 coffee1 according to ,liebig1 must be counted among the articles of food4 ,in later times this view has been attacked4 ,although it is true that nitrogen is very abundant in coffee1 and that we need nitrogen to form muscles1 yet it can never be the nitrogen which incites us to the enjoyment of coffee4 ,it is the berry of the coffee that contains the nitrogen2 a part of it escapes during the process of roasting2 a great part is thrown away with the coffee-grounds1 so that the quantity of nitrogen actually left in the infusion is exceedingly small4 ,besides1 if we enjoy in coffee only the nitrogen1 we pay very high for it4 ,in the ,united ,states1 annually about two hundred and fifty millions of pounds of coffee are used2 the cost is estimated at twenty-five millions of dollars4 ,since the coffee itself is not consumed1 but only the infusion1 it follows that about #ajj1jjj pounds of nitrogen are consumed at a cost of #bej millions of dollars1 which is a terrible waste1 considering that for this money seven times as much nitrogen could be taken1 if1 instead of coffee1 meat were used1 which contains also a large quantity of nitrogen4 ,the natural sciences1 therefore1 show among their scholars professed enemies of coffee4 ,they are1 from a medical as well as economical point of view1 decidedly opposed to its use4 ,some have even gone so far as to declare it poisonous2 a naturalist by name of ,zobel proved that it contains ,prussic acid1 one of the deadliest poisons4 ,fortunately we know that this ,prussic acid is rendered ineffectual by the ammoniac which coffee contains1 and which is used as an antidote against ,prussic acid4 ,be this as it may1 we have reason to esteem coffee very highly4 ,a beverage which has become such a necessity to every nation1 is of great importance2 and the instinct with which millions and millions of our fellow-men are drawn to its enjoyment1 is the best proof that the use of coffee is not hurtful1 but advantageous to man2 notwithstanding the fact that in some diseases it is forbidden1 and that science has not yet succeeded in showing us the real advantage of coffee as a means of food4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,coffee ,,as ,a ,,medicine4 ,in recent times coffee has been considered1 not as an article of food1 but partly as a spice and partly as a kind of medicine4 ,spice it is1 inasmuch as it causes1 like many other spices1 the stomach to secrete an increased quantity of gastric juice4 ,digestion only takes place when the sides of the stomach secrete a liquid having the quality of digesting food4 ,owing to this1 well-to-do people take after dinner a cup of coffee in order to promote digestion4 ,it is because at night the power of digesting is very much enfeebled--hence the bad sleep after one has eaten something difficult to digest--and because the stomach is relaxed and inactive1 that a cup of coffee in the morning refreshes and stimulates the coats of the stomach1 and causes there renewed vigor and activity4 ,it is a common observation1 that more appetite is felt after coffee than before it4 ,so much for the importance of coffee as a spice4 ,very justly we ascribe to coffee also a medicinal influence2 we consider it a medicine for our mental activity1 and for the activity of the nerves4 ,it is well known that at night coffee dispels fatigue1 and that by the use of strong coffee sleep may be banished for a long time4 ,and more2 those that are busy mentally1 often feel a fresh1 invigorating impulse after the enjoyment of coffee2 when fatigued with work1 they make it a means to recruit their strength4 ,for a similar reason1 coffee can animate conversation4 ,when we meet elderly ladies in society1 and notice them sitting quietly and talking but in monosyllables1 we need not be surprised2 they have had no coffee yet6 ,but when1 after a little1 conversation flows with full force like a rapid stream of water1 we may from this safely recognize the mighty influence of coffee2 it has loosened not only the tongues1 but more--the looks1 the hands1 nay1 the whole body and the whole soul4 ,although the mind has rested during the night1 we feel in the morning rather sleepy than otherwise1 and hence it is1 that we are every morning desirous of stimulating our nervous system with a cup of coffee1 preparing1 as it were1 our mind for the day's work4 ,a modern naturalist1 as genial as he is learned1 ,moleschott1 ascribes the lately increased consumption of coffee to the greater degree of mental activity1 which life in former times did not require to such a high extent as our present age4 ,we have now sufficiently explained the need of coffee-drinking1 and we must confess that all we have said here does not in the least affect our conviction that1 according to ,liebig1 coffee is also nutritive4 ,and no one can help believing this who has seen how old people can subsist on but very little food1 provided they can have plenty of coffee4 ,the objection raised1 that it would be better for these persons to take the nitrogen contained in coffee in the form of meat1 is correct2 but1 on the other hand1 we must stop to ask1 whether meat would be good for the stomach at all such times as a cup of coffee is6 ,this would certainly not be the case early in the morning2 and if in the coffee we enjoy a beverage which gives us nutriment1 strengthens the stomach and at the same time stimulates our mind1 we have good reasons to reverence the instinct of man which raised coffee to an essential means of subsistence1 and discovered its beneficial influence long before this was done by science4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,usefulness ,,and ,,hurtfulness ,,of ,,coffee4 ,since coffee possesses the quality of stimulating the nervous system1 it is a matter of course that in many cases its effect is rather injurious4 ,phlegmatic people1 especially1 need coffee1 and they are fond of drinking it2 for a similar reason it is a favorite beverage in the ,orient1 where its consumption is immense4 ,but to persons of an excitable temperament the enjoyment of coffee is hurtful2 they ought only to take it very weak4 ,with lively children it does not agree at all1 and it is very wrong to force them to drink it1 as is often done2 while elderly people1 who are in need of a stimulant for the decreasing activity of their nerves1 are right in taking as much of it as they choose4 ,in households of limited means it is often customary to use succory with coffee4 ,we do not pretend to pronounce this1 if taken in moderate quantity1 hurtful2 but we do say1 that it is a poor substitute for coffee1 and that there is nothing in it to recommend its use4 ,a far better mixture is milk and sugar1 and there is good reason for it2 both milk and sugar are articles of food4 ,milk contains the same ingredients as blood1 and sugar is changed in the body into fat1 which is indispensable to us1 especially to the process of breathing4 ,having taken no food through the night1 the loss our blood has suffered during sleep by perspiration1 and the fat which has been lost by respiration1 must be compensated for in the morning4 ,for this1 milk and sugar in coffee are excellent4 ,it is good for children to have a taste for sweetened milk1 or milk-coffee1 in the morning4 ,we must not find fault with them if they like it4 ,nature very wisely gave them a liking for sugar2 they need it1 because their pulse must be quicker1 their respiration stronger1 in order to facilitate the assimilation of food in their bodies1 and also to promote growth4 ,not that adults need no sugar2 but the sugar necessary for them is formed from the starch contained in their food4 ,for this purpose the digestive apparatus must be strongly developed2 with children this is not the case2 therefore they are given sugar1 instead of the starch to make it from4 ,many diseases1 particularly rickets--prevailing mostly among the children of the poor--are the consequence of feeding the child with bread and potatoes2 these contain starch it is true1 but the digestive apparatus of children being yet too weak to change them into fat1 the result is that the flesh falls away1 and the bones grow soft and crooked4 ,but he who1 to promote digestion1 takes coffee immediately after dinner1 does best not to use sugar or milk2 for both1 so far from helping digestion1 are an additional burden to the full stomach1 and disturb its labor more than the coffee can facilitate it4 ,it is very good to take wheat bread for breakfast4 ,wheat has nearly twice the quantity of sugar and starch that rye contains1 and it is besides easier to digest4 ,and as it is our principal duty in the morning to replace as quickly as possible what we have lost during the night1 it is a matter of importance to give the stomach such food as is both nutritive and quickly digested4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,breakfast4 ,workmen1 even those who must perform hard labor1 are sufficiently strengthened by coffee and wheat bread in the morning to begin their work4 ,but to be able to continue it1 a more substantial breakfast is necessary1 since coffee and bread alone would only replace what was lost during the night4 ,on the continent of ,europe it is therefore the custom to take coffee1 or milk1 and bread very early1 and1 at about nine or ten o'clock a more substantial meal1 a kind of lunch4 ,breakfast is with but few the principal meal of the day2 for those1 however1 who rise early it is the one taken with the best appetite4 ,this fact ought to induce all to give attention to this meal2 especially those who early in the morning have worked hard already1 and those who1 mindful of the old saying1 ,early to bed and early to rise ,makes a man healthy1 wealthy and wise1 intend not to idle away the precious morning hours4 ,to him who is in the habit of laboring1 and who loves to labor1 an early breakfast has a peculiar charm2 and1 what is yet more important to him1 it tastes well4 ,it is customary with us to eat much bread4 ,bread has as its principal constituents1 starch and sugar1 and if it has been well baked1 a part of the starch is already saccharine1 that is1 it is nearly transformed into sugar1 thus greatly facilitating the process of digestion4 ,french naturalists have lately written excellent treatises about the change which fresh bread undergoes when it becomes old4 ,they prove that bread is most nutritive1 and easiest to digest1 when about a day old4 ,bread is changed in our bodies partly into fat1 as all food is which contains starch4 ,but this formation of fat is greatly facilitated1 if we take a little ready-made fat with it4 ,for this purpose we eat butter with our bread4 ,hence we see that some people are wrong when they believe butter to be a mere luxury2 on the contrary1 butter is a very important article of food1 more especially so to children4 ,the reason of this is1 that the fat performs a conspicuous part in the human body2 it serves to keep up the process of respiration4 ,the oxygen which is inhaled1 decomposes the fat in our body and from it forms water and carbonic acid4 ,the water evaporates through perspiration2 the carbonic acid is exhaled again4 ,now1 if there is fat in us1 this perspiration and exhalation will diminish it2 but this very act of using up the fat preserves our flesh from being consumed in the process of producing carbonic acid and perspiration1 which1 if there were no fat1 would greatly weaken us4 ,fat1 thus to speak1 is the spare-money1 while flesh is the capital in the body4 ,fat itself does not make us strong1 while flesh does4 ,but where there is no fat1 the processes of perspiration and respiration attack our flesh1 which1 unless abundantly reinforced1 begins to disappear rapidly1 while our strength begins to decrease more and more4 ,thence it comes that lean persons eat much1 while we often are astonished to see how little food is taken by fat people4 ,the lean one has no fat to meet the drain produced by perspiration and respiration2 he breathes and perspires accordingly at the expense of his flesh1 and1 therefore1 is obliged to continually take in a fresh supply of food4 ,the fat person1 meanwhile1 does not live on his capital1 the flesh and the blood1 but on his supply of fat2 as it were1 he pays expenses from his spare-money1 and for this reason loses very little in strength4 ,from what has preceded1 it follows that he who breathes much and perspires much when at work1 must eat much fat-producing food1 and besides add a little ready-made fat2 while he who breathes and perspires little1 needs but little of that kind of food4 ,this accounts for the circumstance that in winter1 when the air is denser1 and therefore one inhales more oxygen and thus uses more fat for exhalation1 we must eat more fat food2 while in summer every one takes less of it4 ,we know that in cold countries food is taken which1 on account of its containing great quantities of fat1 would in hot climates produce sickness4 ,a hearty worker perspires much at his labor1 and1 in consequence of his increased activity1 breathes more than the quiet and sedentary2 he must therefore eat with his breakfast some fat--bacon1 etc4--because this enables him to prevent his flesh and blood from decreasing4 ,his body will be strong and powerful1 and he will at all times be able to earn with his arm more than his stomach costs him4 ,but let no one believe1 therefore1 that fat alone is a means of food1 and1 above all1 beware of the mistake that ready-made fat is healthier to eat than fat-producing articles4 ,fine experiments have been made about the feeding of animals with fat4 ,the results have shown that fat taken alone is injurious1 and goes off again without having been of any use to the body2 while1 on the other hand1 fat-producing food greatly assists the fattening of animals4 ,he who has seen how geese are fattened1 will have a correct idea about the process of the formation of fat in the human body4 ,a handful of dough is forced into the mouth and gullet of the goose2 during the time of her fattening she is shut up in so close a space that she can neither rise nor walk about4 ,the poor creature is thus deprived of evaporation by perspiration2 the process of breathing is rendered very difficult2 and1 because she breathes and perspires little1 her fat does not change into carbonic acid and water1 but collects in the body in an unusual manner1 until finally the creature is relieved from her pains by being killed4 ,we see that her fat is nothing else than the transformed starch of the dough1 which remained in the body without being used4 ,if we should try1 however1 to feed a goose on pure fat only1 she would not fatten at all1 but fall sick4 ,pure fat must only be taken together with fat-producing food4 ,the cause of this is1 that only a part of the intestines secretes a juice which can dissolve fat2 while the gastric juice in the stomach does not dissolve the fat at all1 but allows it to float on the surface1 as fat does in water4 ,our readers will now find it natural that a workman who perspires and breathes much1 should by all means take but little bacon for breakfast2 and this he must eat only on those days when he has much work before him2 and then he must not eat it without bread4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,liquor4 ,is it advisable to take a drink before breakfast8 ,this is a question of the greatest importance1 and requires a very clear and impartial answer2 for which our space is almost too limited4 ,liquor is no article of food2 if for a moment it were considered as such1 we should find that it is even less nutritious than water with sugar in it4 ,what makes liquor a necessary article1 especially so to the working-classes1 is a certain quality it possesses1 a quality just as dangerous as it is good4 ,liquor is a favorite beverage because of the alcohol it contains2 this is nothing else than sugar which has undergone fermentation4 ,alcohol may be made from all those plants from which starch can be obtained2 for1 by the proper process1 starch may be changed into gluten1 gluten into sugar1 and sugar into alcohol4 ,alcohol therefore conveys more nutriment to the human body than sugar itself1 while it has qualities that the sugar does not possess1 and which make it an article as popular as it is dangerous4 ,if taken in small quantities1 alcohol affects the body like medicine2 in large portions1 like poison4 ,we are therefore not surprised if partly we cannot do without it1 and if1 on the other hand1 we hear it condemned every day4 ,what makes its enjoyment so very dangerous is1 that although it is no article of food1 it offers to the hungry a kind of substitute for food1 and1 what is worse1 a substitute which is often the cheapest1 and of most rapid effect in regard to quieting one's appetite4 ,it is owing to this that its enjoyment may produce the most fatal and pernicious evils that ever were inflicted upon unhappy man4 ,let us now learn the medicinal qualities of liquor1 so that we may see that it is natural for it to be a favorite2 and by exhibiting the dangers of its enjoyment1 we shall succeed best in showing that people are justified in condemning its intemperate use2 but it will also be seen that1 in spite of the evident hurtfulness1 its entire banishment would be a foolishness not resulting in good4 ,liquor1 if taken in a very small dose1 possesses the quality of increasing the quantity of gastric juices4 ,it excites the sides of the stomach1 and by this promotes the secretion of the juice by which food is dissolved4 ,it often occurs1 that if but a minute quantity of fat has been taken1 it envelops the food in the stomach2 and as the gastric juice dissolves fat only with great difficulty1 this food often remains undigested in the stomach1 and nutrition then is carried on but defectively4 ,digestion1 therefore1 may be greatly improved1 if the stomach is so affected as to secrete a greater quantity of gastric juice2 this is often done by means of spice--for example1 by putting a little pepper upon bacon or ham4 ,the pepper itself does not help dissolve food1 but excites the salivary glands and the stomach1 thus increasing the gastric juice which performs digestion4 ,if fat has been eaten1 the same effect may be produced by a little liquor4 ,indeed1 it is even preferable to spice1 inasmuch as it contains ether1 which alone is able to dissolve fat4 ,thus we have seen that liquor is a kind of medicine4 ,and although every one must strive to do without medicine1 still he must not condemn it2 he should scorn rather the wantonness which throws itself on the mercy of medicine4 ,it is right to oppose the enjoyment of much fat2 but if once too much of it has been taken1 there is no reason why we should remonstrate against the medical application of a small quantity of liquor4 ,to those who believe that they see in alcohol the evil spirit himself1 it may some time or other happen1 that even they eat a little too much fat1 and then seek relief by taking some patent or other medicine1 dropped on sugar4 ,most medicines used in such cases1 however1 are nothing but mixtures of sulphuric ether and alcohol2 and if alcohol is the evil spirit1 he is certainly not changed into an angel by putting him on sugar4 ,but liquor has yet another effect of great importance4 ,the alcohol it contains is immediately conveyed to the blood2 through this it affects the brain and the nerves1 exciting them to increased activity4 ,by also affecting the nerves of the heart1 it accelerates the circulation of the blood2 this produces throughout the body a more rapid vital activity4 ,wine1 the ,bible says1 maketh glad the heart of man4 ,and wine itself is nothing else but an alcohol-combination4 ,the animating element in wine is the same as the one in liquor4 ,but it makes man's heart glad2 which means as much as1 it increases our vital activity2 it rouses2 it strengthens the weary and him who is exhausted bodily or mentally2 it excites the body as well as the mind to move vigorous action4 ,taken in very small quantity1 liquor has the same effect4 ,it is therefore not only good for digestion1 but also a prompt remedy for exhaustion4 ,the reanimation1 however1 produced by the use of stimulants1 is by no means a real gain2 for he who feels tired and weary is best restored by nature herself4 ,artificial stimulation is followed by a greater reaction1 by which all is lost again that has been gained by artificial animation4 ,yet many cases occur in human life when there is no time for the natural restoration of strength lost2 thus1 when it is preferable to complete one's task without delay1 without rest until it is finished4 ,in such cases the desire for artificial stimulants is easily explained2 then we ought not to condemn a moderate use of them1 because that use is necessary4 ,the wanderer on his travels1 the soldier in camp or battle1 have often neither time nor opportunity to refresh themselves with a meal1 or to recruit strength by a good rest4 ,with them it is important to complete their journey or task1 and to rest afterwards4 ,a common workman may1 at times1 be in the same situation4 ,in such cases a little brandy is of great service4 ,it increases vital activity and courage2 in many countries the army is for this reason permitted to use liquor1 although1 of course1 sparingly4 ,having now spoken of the medicinal use of liquor1 we wish to examine more closely its dangers1 and to explain the reason why its enjoyment is to many so great a temptation as often to become a passion4 ,a slight quantity of liquor taken at breakfast1 makes one feel increased vital activity4 ,the pulse beats quicker1 the mind is stirred up1 digestion easier1 and before the food has been transformed into blood1 we feel animated to vigorous bodily activity and motion4 ,the enjoyment of spirit fills the long pause between the meal itself and its change into blood4 ,he who feels exhausted and eats1 has yet but satisfied the demands of the stomach1 without therewith replenishing his blood4 ,it takes a long time1 often from five to six hours1 before the blood is directly benefited4 ,it is owing to this1 that after dinner we do not feel lively1 but inactive1 disposed to rest4 ,now1 he who after dinner cannot rest1 but must continue to work1 is anxious to stimulate himself by a dram of liquor1 because this will act more quickly than the food he has taken4 ,the spirits he took fill the long pause which exists between his meal and its complete transformation into blood4 ,is it any longer surprising1 that it is the workmen who mostly are subject to the use of spirits8 ,no1 we are not surprised2 we feel sorry that they are not taught better2 that instead of imparting to the people a knowledge of things useful to the preservation of health1 we constantly remind them of the devil and hell2 and that in place of teaching them1 by the study of nature1 how to avoid errors and dangers1 we merely try to frighten them with future punishments4 ,the danger of spirits consists in this1 that their good qualities1 their advantageous effects1 manifest themselves immediately1 while their evils appear later4 ,liquor is not unlike a man whose virtues are laid open to every one2 whose vices1 however1 are hidden1 and who therefore is seductive and dangerous4 ,if we wish to warn our fellow-men against such a one1 we must not do it by denying or concealing his virtues2 on the contrary1 we must openly tell all his good qualities2 the warning in which we lay bare his vices1 will then be more1 all the more readily heeded4 ,true1 liquor is a medicine2 but1 like every other medical remedy1 it becomes poisonous in the body of him who puts himself continually in such a condition as to be obliged to use it4 ,he who wishes to preserve his health1 must not try to help nature by artificial means2 he will only become weak4 ,to illustrate this by an example3 it is a well-known fact1 that milk contains all the constituent parts of the blood2 but if we were to feed a man merely on milk1 those organs given him by nature to digest solid food1 would weaken to such a degree that he would fall mortally ill4 ,man is healthy only when he permits nature the free and unlimited exercise of her functions2 if he helps nature too much he may kill himself4 ,it is similar with the use of liquor4 ,the person who only now and then corrects nature1 that is1 when she actually needs it1 is perfectly right4 ,but he is very wrong and harms himself greatly1 who wishes to assist nature when she needs no help4 ,unfortunately1 the latter is very often the case1 and the prime source of evil4 ,the ignorant1 having once had the experience that brandy promotes digestion1 thinks it is good for him to continue to help his stomach2 but he is greatly mistaken4 ,by accustoming his stomach to secrete gastric juice only after the partaking of brandy1 he weakens it2 the natural digestion becomes defective through this2 and the enjoyment of spirits1 at first a medical remedy1 rapidly becomes an indispensable necessity1 with all its evil consequences4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,injuriousness ,,of ,,drinking ,,liquor4 ,he who accustoms his stomach to secrete gastric juice only after a stimulus effected by spirits1 destroys his digestive power4 ,unhappy man6 ,he is no longer able to digest food1 unless he stimulate his stomach with liquor4 ,the already weak stomach is1 by this habit1 weakened more and more4 ,soon a small quantity will no longer suffice2 a larger portion must effect what formerly was done by the smaller2 this goes further and further1 until finally the drinker becomes--a drunkard4 ,it is well to look at the terrible consequences of such a condition more closely1 to obtain a clear idea of it2 and to examine all the circumstances which unfortunately produce it1 mostly among the poorer and working classes4 ,the condition of an intoxicated person is to be distinguished from that of a regular drunkard4 ,the former has taken alcohol2 it goes into the blood1 arrives in the brain1 and excites the nerves to increased action4 ,the nerves of the heart are also affected by it1 and cause violent beating of the heart and pulse4 ,the blood courses through the veins and rushes to the brain4 ,this produces illusions of the senses1 and confusion of sensations2 sparks before the eyes2 buzzing in the ears2 dizziness1 which makes the walk unsteady2 redness of the skin and eyes2 increased perspiration2 greater activity in the lungs2 a shorter and more rapid breathing2 excitement of the mind to anger1 and dimness of the faculties of judgment1 causing the inebriate to believe that he possesses superior strength4 ,if he begins to move about1 these manifestations1 and especially the dizziness1 increase2 the slightest obstacle in the road causes him to stumble or fall2 he cannot raise himself to his feet1 nor can he sit up2 but1 lying on the ground1 he is unconscious of everything around him2 overcome with complete exhaustion--the effect of the reaction--he at last falls asleep2 but his sleep does not rest him1 although1 if sufficiently long1 it will restore the unfortunate to consciousness4 ,he now suffers from that peculiar fatigue and lassitude which usually follow intoxication4 ,to this abject state every one is brought who in the enjoyment of spirits loses self-control4 ,it is an unworthy1 disgraceful and disgusting condition2 but even the best of men may once fall into it2 all the more so1 if he is no habitual drinker4 ,strictly speaking1 this subject belongs to another chapter2 it belongs to that of intemperance1 dissoluteness or bad society4 ,if such a calamity has befallen an otherwise good man1 let him amend his bodily ache by a cold bath2 and his moral ache by an earnest vow not to do the like again4 ,far more serious1 however1 is the lot of the real drunkard4 ,this belongs to the chapter on nutrition1 for it is true1 we are sorry to say1 that drunkards are produced mostly through want of proper nutriment2 and it is always the case that constant intemperance is accompanied by that sickly condition in which the stomach is unable to digest solid food4 ,in a word1 he who has accustomed his stomach to perform digestion only after the use of stimulants1 has laid the foundation for drunkenness4 ,with wealthy people1 we know it to be frequently the case1 that they take something strong in order to promote digestion2 but the danger is here less great4 ,for if the rich be convinced of his wrong1 even at a late period1 he can yet proceed in his reform energetically4 ,he can afford to take liquid1 easily digestible food instead of solid4 ,he will eat little meat2 but that little very savory and prepared in a manner to be easily digested4 ,he will choose but light vegetables4 ,he will flavor his breakfast with caviare and lemon2 and at dinner he will relish rich stewed fruit1 by means of which appetite and digestion are increased4 ,should he not feel strengthened immediately after dinner1 he has sufficient time to wait till his food is transformed into blood4 ,he takes a nap after dinner1 and a pleasant walk in the open air1 to get an appetite for his well-selected supper4 ,now1 all these are excellent means to restore the wealthy man's appetite and digestive powers1 even if he has gone so far in drinking as to weaken his stomach4 ,it is not virtue and temperance that causes the less number of drunkards among the rich1 but the ready compensation they can afford1 to cure themselves4 ,and it not unfrequently occurs1 that when the rich man loses his fortune1 or1 in other words1 when he becomes poor1 he becomes a drunkard4 ,people generally excuse this1 saying1 it is from despair2 but the truth is1 that now he can no longer afford the costly compensation which previously preserved him from such a fate4 ,but what will the poor do in such a case more especially the workman8 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,poor ,,and ,,the ,,liquor4 ,the poor workman who has accustomed his stomach to perform digestion only through the excitement of a previous stimulant1 cannot1 even if he knows the miserable condition he is in1 abandon this bad habit without almost superhuman efforts4 ,working makes him hungry2 but his stomach not being able to digest solid food1 eating becomes disagreeable to him4 ,his relaxing strength1 however1 demands support4 ,his vital activity is suppressed2 he must have a fresh supply of strength to be able to work and earn his living4 ,to accomplish this1 he knows no other means than liquor again6 ,for1 unfortunately1 experience has taught him that spirits not only stimulate him for the moment and increase his vital activity1 but that they can also be to him a kind of substitute for food4 ,it was not until quite recently that science told us how and in what manner the use of spirits may actually promote the working power of the starving4 ,it is of the utmost importance to obtain a correct idea of this4 ,work promotes evaporation and respiration4 ,evaporation1 however1 that is perspiration proper1 is nothing but a part of the food we have taken1 and which is thus secreted from the body4 ,precisely the same holds good with the breath we exhale2 it consists of carbonic acid1 which is likewise formed from the food we have taken4 ,a man in state of rest does not perspire and breathe so much as the man at work2 therefore he needs less food4 ,if1 on the other hand1 a person works without taking food1 the perspiration and carbonic acid of the breath are formed from the muscles of his body2 for which reason he must greatly decrease1 both in strength and volume4 ,we must bear in mind1 however1 that it is one of the qualities of spirits to be decomposed in the body very easily into water and carbonic acid2 the water is then secreted in the form of perspiration2 the carbonic acid1 by exhalation4 ,thus1 if a man works without food1 he becomes reduced immediately1 because perspiration and breath are supplied from the flesh of his body2 while if he drinks liquor1 perspiration and breath are formed from the liquor itself1 instead of his body1 which thus1 partly at least1 remains intact4 ,this is the solution of the great problem1 viz41 ,how can drunkards live a long time on nothing but spirits1 and1 moreover1 how can they work8 ,we know it now2 liquor furnishes them the material for perspiration and breath2 and their body is not nearly so much taxed as would be the case1 if they were to take no spirits at all4 ,since1 then1 the drunkard cannot eat1 and even if he could1 would not be nourished1 because food passes through him undigested1 he must needs continue taking spirits even if he works but little4 ,spirits help him at his work1 and save his body from being consumed4 ,that spirits are no articles of food1 has been known long2 but it was not known until recently1 why spirits can be a substitute for food1 or1 more correctly1 a kind of saving of food4 ,unfortunately1 liquor is as deplorable as a substitute as it is fatal as a means of saving4 ,it is only calculated to entirely destroy the doomed man that uses it4 ,now1 is it not more judicious to understand the reason why the drunkard cannot abstain from spirits1 than to endeavor to reform him merely by prayer and stories about the devil in the alcohol8 ,and is it not of the highest importance to all1 that the friends of humanity should take care that the workman has good and healthy food1 and that he be always able to earn enough1 so as not to be obliged to replace bad food by liquor8 ,the workman who has nothing but potatoes to eat1 is bound to become a drunkard4 ,this food is insufficient to afford him a proper quantity of carbonic acid for the purpose of breathing2 he therefore must draw for this from his body1 and1 since he must needs work for his living1 he takes to spirits to save his body from being consumed4 ,many an ,apostle of ,temperance would1 in a similar situation1 act no better4 ,for this reason let us all provide healthy food for the working class2 intemperance will then greatly diminish4 ,owing to the importance of the subject we have spent much time over ,breakfast1 and the chapter on ,spirits connected with the same2 but we could not help it2 nay1 we must ask our readers' pardon for continuing the subject4 ,we propose to touch upon the sad consequences of intemperance1 and desire to give the wives of the workmen a hint1 by which they may succeed in checking the vice of their husbands and the misfortune of their families4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,consequences ,,of ,,intemperance ,,and ,,its ,,prevention4 ,the digestion of the drunkard1 as we have seen1 is greatly impaired2 the process of nutrition entirely changed4 ,there is a change in the tissues of the interior of the body4 ,the inner organs are encumbered by fat2 even under the very skin1 layers of fat are formed4 ,it is this that gives the drunkard that bloated appearance1 which is very characteristic1 and an evidence of the fact that the evil has reached a high stage4 ,the stomach and the heart1 the latter now much enlarged1 are in an unnatural manner enveloped by fat4 ,the action of the heart1 at times immoderately increased1 at times fearfully lessened1 causes the blood to rush impetuously even to the finest blood-vessels of the skin1 and to widen them considerably4 ,hence the reddened face of the drunkard4 ,the chest being overburdened with fat1 the lungs are unable to expand properly1 and cannot therefore feed the blood with a sufficient quantity of oxygen1 which would make the blood red2 therefore we notice that the drunkard's blood is of a bluish color2 his nose is blue1 his lips1 and often his whole face1 have a bluish hue4 ,his mind is always clouded1 the activity of his nerves partly increased1 partly weakened2 his hands begin to tremble1 and become unsteady2 soon his very feet refuse to serve4 ,his breath is in the beginning saturated with alcohol1 so that it can be smelled2 in a little while perspiration1 nay the whole body1 is imbued with alcohol1 and cases have been known in which the body1 on coming in contact with fire1 began to burn1 as a wick dipped in alcohol1 inflicting a terrible death upon the unfortunate victim4 ,many die from apoplexy or paralysis of the brain1 in most cases preceded by delirium tremens4 ,when it is considered that all this has its beginning only in this1 that the unhappy man has accustomed himself to promote digestion by means of spirits--when this is well considered1 no one will find it strange that we wish to discourage from the use of liquor everybody1 especially1 however1 those among the laboring classes who work with fire4 ,he who takes proper care of himself will always know how much of spirits he can take and when he must use it2 then1 and only then1 the enjoyment of the article in question cannot be considered a crime4 ,it is difficult to present to our readers a general rule for temperance1 yet we may here state a principle1 the earnest observance of which we heartily recommend4 ,there are many people who say3 ,i can stand a little liquor very well4 ,they mean by this that a little liquor does not intoxicate them4 ,but this is a dangerous standard to take4 ,not the possibility of intoxication1 but the welfare of one's stomach should be consulted4 ,as long as breakfast can be digested without the use of spirits there is no danger1 even if after having eaten fat1 bacon1 etc41 a desire for liquor should be felt2 but when a person must needs take spirits after his breakfast in order to be able to digest it1 then the danger becomes imminent1 and it is high time to consult a physician about this seemingly insignificant circumstance2 it is best to tell him frankly the object of the visit1 viz41 the desire to avoid the cheap remedy1 the liquor4 ,if the physician be the right man he will gladly spend advice and help4 ,in such cases1 however1 the housewife can do even more than the doctor4 ,the attentive housewife will notice the bad condition of her husband's stomach1 and if she is judicious and wishes to be the benefactress of her household1 she can1 by a small sacrifice1 easily prevent great misfortune4 ,above all1 she must bear in mind that only a well-fed husband can support her and her children4 ,it is a shame that we often see a housewife treat her husband in this respect worse than a horse4 ,the owner of a horse knows that his horse cannot render him good service unless he feeds the animal well2 why should woman not comprehend that man1 her husband and provider1 must be properly cared for8 ,let every good wife bear in mind1 that if her husband takes to drinking1 it is mostly owing to her own bad and careless management of her kitchen2 let her hasten to remedy the evil4 ,although it may cost her a sacrifice1 yet she owes it to herself and her family to provide her husband with a cup of broth1 well seasoned with salt and pepper1 when his stomach is weakened4 ,at times she may surprise him with a favorite dish for breakfast1 which he will eat with a relish4 ,and let her be especially careful not to cause him grief or anger at his return home1 but let her rather prepare for him a good savory dinner1 for which he then will save all his appetite4 ,such and similar insignificant acts of womanly kindness preserve often husband1 wife1 and children from disgrace2 while the dutiful wife earns the esteem and gratitude of her family and of her country4 ,this is a merit which in course of time will be duly rewarded4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,dinner4 ,we wish to speak now of dinner1 the principal meal of the day4 ,here1 too1 we shall take for standard neither the unhappy poor1 who must eat what little he can obtain2 nor the opulent rich1 who finds a pleasure in eating what others cannot obtain4 ,we shall take for base the plain household of the citizen1 who takes healthy meals in order to strengthen him for renewed activity4 ,what may have been the reason for putting the principal meal in the middle of the day8 ,it was done for the reason that eating1 too1 is a labor2 a labor which requires rest4 ,now bodily fatigue and appetite constantly keep pace with each other2 they manifest themselves in the body in intervals of three or four hours4 ,since1 then1 we must rest at noon from the fatigue of the morning's labor1 it is best for us to use this time of rest for our dinner2 all the more so as the labor of eating ought not to be performed during manual labor4 ,and because just at the middle of the day we rest from our labor and prepare ourselves for the afternoon work1 it is natural that we should eat our principal meal at that time4 ,but this meal needs to be prepared carefully4 ,the housewife is chained to the kitchen1 because this meal is distinguished from others principally in this1 that it is usually taken warm4 ,the question arises in the first place1 ,why must food be cooked8 ,is it not more natural to take the food as nature gives it to us8 ,why does man eat nothing raw except fruit8 ,why does he take such pains to grind1 bake1 boil1 fry1 etc41 while the animal can live without all this8 ,again1 whence does it come1 that man is so very dainty in regard to eating and drinking1 and that he uses an infinite variety of articles of food1 as does no other creature in the world8 ,are there not animals that live on meat only1 and others that live only on plants8 ,why1 then1 does man need mixed food1 that is1 partly meat and partly vegetable food8 ,to all these questions there is but one answer4 ,nature herself has pointed this out to man2 and experience1 the natural instructor of mankind1 has taught man how he can do best what nature wishes him to do4 ,the human stomach is so constituted that it can digest but very little of raw food4 ,just as the nutritive part of the pea is enclosed by a hull1 so in every organic food the nutritive element proper is contained in a hull1 called cell4 ,the nutritive element of the potato1 for example--the starch--is enclosed in millions of small cells1 which are indigestible for our stomach4 ,by means of good magnifying glasses1 these cells1 invisible to the naked eye1 may be plainly seen4 ,if the potato were eaten raw1 these cells1 together with the nutritive element in them1 would leave the body unchanged4 ,but if the potato is boiled1 fried1 or baked1 the cells1 by their expansion from the heat1 burst1 and thus allow the starch to be free4 ,now1 while animals have been given a digestive apparatus strong enough to dissolve the hardest cells--pigeons1 for example1 swallow and are able to digest raw pease--man has been endowed with intelligence which enables him to prepare his food artificially4 ,cooking1 therefore1 is as natural to man as the act of chewing2 for chewing1 the crushing of food with the teeth1 on the part of animals that live on plants1 is nothing but the tearing asunder of cells4 ,animals that have no teeth1 birds for example1 possess immensely strong powers of digestion4 ,it would be as unnatural for the ox1 who has good teeth to crush peas with1 to swallow them entire as the pigeon does1 as it were unnatural for man to take pease raw while he has the means of cooking them4 ,we often call art what really is nature in man2 for his mental gifts are natural to him2 women1 therefore1 when they perform the art of cooking1 practise a natural art4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,necessity ,,for ,,variety ,,in ,,food4 ,let no one believe that it is from mere daintiness that man is fastidious in regard to food1 and that he lives on a great variety of victuals4 ,the human body is the transformed food which he has eaten4 ,it is quite correct that man can live on bread and water a long time2 but man's nature is so varied1 his qualities are of such numerous kinds2 his character1 his impulses and passions1 his wishes and desires1 his thoughts and labors1 are so infinitely varified and so much exposed to change1 that man's body1 the bearer of all these elements1 must also be formed from material of the most diversified kind4 ,it is a common observation that animals which take uniform food are very much poorer in mind than those animals that feed upon richer and more various kinds of food4 ,nay1 it has even been proved that the character1 the whole nature of an animal may be completely changed by its food4 ,very properly1 therefore1 does the genial naturalist1 ,moleschott1 begin his excellent treatise1 ,our ,articles of ,food1 with the following words3 ,food has made the wild-cat our house-cat2 thus showing that food may completely change the character of an animal1 and more1 it may even change the animal's body4 ,and if civilized man is a being of a higher order1 more spiritual and more intellectual than the savage1 we can ascribe it to no other cause than the impulse his food gives him1 not to sink down to the savage1 but1 by varying his food as much as possible1 to bestow upon his body many superior qualities4 ,nature herself has undeniably impressed upon man1 that she wishes him to take nourishment of different kinds4 ,those animals that live upon plants1 and such as feed solely on meat1 are entirely different from each other in regard to their bodies4 ,the teeth of the former1 the herbivorous1 are broad and flat on the top1 like our molar teeth4 ,they serve to crush vegetable fibres and to chew the cells which contain the nutritive element2 while the other class1 the carnivorous1 have but pointed teeth1 like our eye-teeth1 to tear their food asunder4 ,the stomach of the herbivorous is also different2 it comprises several divisions which have various functions4 ,for blood is not so readily obtained from vegetable as from animal food1 which itself contains ready-made blood4 ,herbivorous animals are for the greater part ruminators1 that is1 their food passes from the first division of the stomach back into the mouth1 where it is masticated a second time2 this is called ruminating4 ,with the carnivorous this is not the case4 ,finally1 the intestines of the herbivorous are long1 because there the final change of the food into blood takes place2 a process requiring more time with vegetable food than with animal4 ,for the same reason the intestines of the carnivorous are short1 the blood to be formed being already present there4 ,considering the fact that man has sharp teeth in front1 at both sides pointed teeth1 and in the rear of them molars2 that his stomach is adapted to the digestion of both vegetable and animal food1 and that his intestine is so constituted as to be able to digest and change into blood both kinds1 we can no longer entertain any doubt that nature herself bids him to change his food constantly1 and to take in such as is of the most varied kind4 ,if1 in addition to that1 we recollect that exclusive animal food renders an animal wild1 quick1 and sly1 while vegetable food makes it tame1 enduring1 and slow in mind1 it will not be denied that food exercises great influence upon the nature of a being1 and it will now be readily understood that it would be a sin1 if man were to be forced to take uniform nourishment4 ,the example of the cat is very instructive2 it teaches us that change of food has transformed her into another being1 mentally as well as bodily4 ,the wild-cat has short intestines and is an animal of prey2 the tame cat has long intestines1 and betrays her old character only now and then by cunning and slyness4 ,we also learn from this1 that variety of food produces variety of bodily and mental qualities2 and lastly1 it may be inferred that nature1 having fitted man for this variety and given him such diversity of mental capacities1 wishes also that his food be well selected and of the greatest variety4 ,these short remarks enable us to pass to the principal dishes themselves2 first to those constituting the principal meal of the day1 the dinner1 for which very justly the greatest variety of food is chosen4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,broth4 ,soup1 meat1 and vegetables are the principal dishes of a plain household dinner4 ,when examining this more closely1 we find the selection so judicious that we may well admire the tact of woman1 who discovered it long before science did4 ,the good tact of woman does even more yet2 it selects the dishes in such a manner that they mutually compensate for their wants1 that is1 that each offers to the body what is wanting in the others4 ,the principal dishes composing a meal are divided into fat-producing and flesh-producing ones4 ,all farinaceous diet provides the body with fat2 all albumen substances1 with flesh4 ,to support the body1 however1 it is also necessary to give it salt1 from which bones1 hair1 nails and teeth may be formed4 ,our domestic wives1 indeed1 look to all that4 ,long before scientific men had investigated the necessity for nutriment of the kind1 all-providing woman had arranged culinary matters so as to be able to satisfy all the demands of nature4 ,but not only the proper selection of articles of food1--the way and manner also in which they are cooked and served1 are of prime importance to a proper nutrition2 and we maintain that household fare may justly be regarded as a guide for scientific investigations4 ,a judicious housewife will first of all place meat on the fire1 to have good soup and well-cooked meat4 ,she will prefer beef to any other kind1 because it contains but little fat and much albumen and animal fibre2 for this reason it makes better broth1 and still preserves strength enough to be a healthy1 strength-giving dish4 ,besides1 meat1 by cooking1 becomes more nutritive1 inasmuch as its digestibility is greatly facilitated4 ,one of the most important tasks of the cook consists in promoting one's digestion2 in other words1 in saving the stomach labor4 ,flesh in its raw state keeps its nutritive elements shut up in cells which are gluey4 ,by boiling it1 the gelatine becomes soft and mixes with the water2 hence it comes that broth is glutinous1 and1 if allowed to cool1 becomes thick and like jelly4 ,this substance is in part very nourishing2 it is often obtained from bones and cartilages1 and then sold under the name of bouillon-tables1 which1 when boiled in water1 make a tolerably good soup4 ,thus we see that the first object of all cooking is the dissolving of the cellular tissues4 ,not before this is done do we obtain the real nutritive element of the flesh1 which then is taken up by the stomach all the easier1 inasmuch as it has thus been well prepared to be easily changed into blood4 ,but before the meat reaches the boiling-point1 albumen is separated from its surface and mixes with the water2 it is this which gives broth its real strength and nutritive power4 ,afterwards1 when the water boils1 this albumen condenses2 the broth becomes white1 as if containing the white of eggs2 from the inside of the meat flows continually more and more albumen into the broth1 and makes it stronger and stronger4 ,during this time1 moreover1 the fat parts of the meat melt1 and its salts are also dissolved in the broth2 hence a great deal of the most nutritive parts of the meat goes over into the broth2 and although much of the strength of the meat has been withdrawn1 still there is much of it left yet1 and the meat has now become easier to masticate and easier to be digested4 ,we need not add that a sufficient quantity of salt is thrown into the soup1 which quickly dissolves in the water2 but in the same degree that the meat excretes a part of its ingredients and gives them to the water1 in the same measure does the meat absorb salt4 ,by this it becomes not only more tasteful and digestible1 but also more nutritive4 ,it was not until recently that the importance of salt as a nutritive was recognized2 this cannot be otherwise1 for the tissues of the human body1 as well as its blood and cartilages1 need salt for their formation and support4 ,who does not know that every farmer gives his cattle salt from time to time1 so as to improve their strength and general health8 ,our readers will readily understand now1 that the weaker the broth the stronger must be the meat1 and vice versa4 ,it often occurs that we care less to have good broth than good beef4 ,in such cases we must not put the meat into cold water1 but into boiling water4 ,so soon as the meat is thrown into boiling water1 the albumen on the outside coagulates1 surrounding the whole piece as it were with a hard crust1 which does not permit the nutritive parts of the inside to escape4 ,the same effect is produced by the roasting of the meat in an oven1 although here it is not covered by water4 ,it is more judicious1 however1 and more important for the household1 to make good broth1 and to let dinner commence with it4 ,for he who has been at work all the forenoon1 needs such food at first as will not cause his stomach too much labor2 and soup is that food4 ,let every good housewife bear this in mind4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,what ,,is ,,best ,,to ,,be ,,put ,,into ,,soup8 ,the answer to this question will be ,something farinaceous1 and1 indeed1 no better answer could be given4 ,broth contains gluten and albumen1 both of which are changed in the body into flesh4 ,not only the animal part of our body1 but chiefly the active1 working part of it requires nutriment that can be transformed partly into fat4 ,breath and perspiration1 so unavoidable in labor1 are supported by means of fat in our body4 ,this explains why fat people perspire more than others2 why fat people get out of breath sooner than lean persons2 why the other sex1 who are more apt to become fat than men1 perspire more2 and why children1 because they run about much1 and hence need more breath and perspiration1 usually prefer bread to meat4 ,as has been said1 broth1 which contains only such ingredients as are intended to produce muscle-fibres1 may well be mixed with something farinaceous1 which should be thrown in and boiled with the soup1 in order to promote the formation of fat in the body4 ,it matters little what may be chosen for the purpose--flour1 groats1 barley1 rice1 or potato1 or any other article2 provided always it contains starch2 for this becomes saccharine even when boiling2 it changes in the body into acid of milk1 and lastly into fat4 ,perhaps it is advisable to use that which contains most starch4 ,rice1 for example1 has much of it2 probably this accounts for the fact that lively children are very fond of it4 ,a hundred pounds of rice include eighty-five of starch2 while a hundred pounds of wheat contain but about seventy-four pounds4 ,a judicious housekeeper will know very well that a less quantity is taken of rice than of flour4 ,the various kinds of farina and barley possess but about one-half the starch of rice2 and potatoes are so poor in that1 that five pounds of potatoes yield no more starch than one pound of rice4 ,all this is a matter of great importance to our housewives4 ,the usefulness of soup-material lies1 however1 not always in its great nutritive capacity1 but very often in the facility with which it may be cooked4 ,thus we cannot boil rice in the broth itself2 it must1 to loosen its cells properly1 be boiled first in water2 this takes a little over half an hour1 and requires of course a place on the fire1 and hence more fuel4 ,the cell of the farina or pearl-barley1 on the other hand1 was crushed already by the grinding2 therefore it needs but little attention1 and may be boiled in the broth itself without any loss of time4 ,when making scientific observations on food1 such circumstances must not be overlooked2 for time and fuel cost money1 and may1 in the eyes of practical housewives1 raise the price of the article too much2 while to a scientific man the same article may appear very cheap4 ,there are other viands which1 though not very nutritive1 are yet very popular and in common use4 ,as an example of this class1 we may give the potato4 ,that the latter is poor in starch1 was stated above4 ,its extensive use is surprising1 when we consider1 that1 according to calculation1 the little nutriment obtained from the potato is paid more highly for than that of flour4 ,and yet there is good reason for the extensive use of the article4 ,its preparation1 in the first place1 is an easy one1 especially when the potato is boiled whole1 without being peeled4 ,this is a great convenience for the housewife1 who1 besides the time devoted to the house1 needs time for work from the proceeds of which she may support herself4 ,she values1 therefore1 any dish which can be prepared with little expense of time and money2 more than any other article may the potato be said to possess this quality4 ,from it a meal can be prepared in half an hour1 and the cook need not watch it constantly2 potatoes do not boil over4 ,besides all this1 there is another advantage1 and it is this which makes it a favorite even with the rich2 already1 when boiling1 its starch is transformed into sugar1 giving the potato a more pleasant flavor than any other cheap dish can be said to have4 ,how easily the potato starch is converted into sugar may be noticed best in half-frozen potatoes1 because there the cells containing the starch burst during the process of freezing4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,leguminous ,,vegetables4 ,the greens which we put in soup cannot be considered nutriment1 but rather a kind of spice1 and perhaps also as a means of giving us the benefit of some medicinal qualities which they in part contain4 ,we will dwell no longer on this subject1 but proceed to the most nutritive articles of food we use1 viz41 the leguminous vegetables4 ,pease1 beans1 and lentils are so extremely rich in fat and muscle-forming elements1 that in this regard they excel bread and are almost on a level with meat4 ,no wonder1 therefore1 that they are very favorite articles if well cooked1 when we consider the fact that they are so very cheap4 ,where people are too poor to buy meat every day1 legumes must not be found wanting4 ,they play a great part in barracks and prisons2 and in order to keep pace with the immense progress gastronomical science has made1 one of the above-named articles ought to be used in those establishments on all days on which there is no meat4 ,the element common to all three is called legumine4 ,it is richer in starch than bread and contains nearly three times more of it than the potato4 ,partly legumes contain also ready-made sugar2 this may be tasted in green pease4 ,besides this1 their flesh-forming parts are in greater quantity than those of other plants1 while their quantity of water is less1 and it is therefore not advisable to take them dry4 ,new pease and beans have1 moreover1 the advantage of being eatable together with their hulls and pods1 as these1 when yet green1 contain likewise sugar and starch4 ,but we must recommend1 above all1 not to eat the hulls of dried legumes4 ,this may be avoided if1 when boiled1 the cook crushes them and strains them through a coarse sieve1 by which process the hulls are left4 ,if this is not done1 we run the danger of disturbing the functions of the body1 inasmuch as these dry hulls are dissolved neither by the saliva of the mouth nor the gastric juice of the stomach4 ,most every one that once in his life had culinary labor to perform1 is acquainted with the fact that the cooking of legumes is often accompanied by a peculiar circumstance4 ,pease sometimes may boil by the hour without getting soft2 it happens even that young pease1 soft by nature1 become harder and harder by boiling2 while1 at other times1 the same pease have become soft and burst open after but half an hour's cooking4 ,the reason of this lies not in the pease1 but in the water they are boiled in4 ,our housewives undoubtedly know1 from the experience of their wash-days1 that there is hard water and soft4 ,soap1 when put in hard water1 breaks into small pieces1 while it dissolves in soft water completely and forms a slimy liquid4 ,science has solved this mystery3 spring-water contains lime1 which combines chemically with the fat in soap and forms with it an insoluble element2 while rain-water contains little or no lime1 and therefore dissolves soap4 ,the same is the case in regard to the legumine4 ,the lime in spring-water1 which settles on the bottom of vessels as sediment1 combines with some constituent parts of the pea and forms a very hard1 indigestible body2 rain-water1 however1 dissolves legumine completely4 ,it must now appear evident to all1 that much fuel and nutritive element is gained by cooking pease1 beans1 and lentils in soft water4 ,to comfort those who1 on the plea of uncleanliness1 are opposed to rain or cistern water1 we desire to state that rain-water when poured through linen or cotton cloth is not in the least impure2 especially if it be allowed to stand quietly for a few hours and then have the scum removed from its surface4 ,pease1 beans1 and lentils produce in the healthy body blood1 flesh1 milk1 and fat4 ,by their being strained through a coarse sieve they lose such disagreeable qualities as1 for example1 the bloating they produce in the body1 which makes them very unpopular with many4 ,another great advantage in leguminous vegetables lies in this1 that they contain phosphorus1 a principle needed for the formation and preservation of the bones and brain2 therefore we may justly maintain that legumine is good for the body and mind both4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,meat ,,and ,,vegetables4 ,it is an old ,german habit to consider meat and vegetables as belonging together4 ,in the common kinds of vegetables there is very little nutriment4 ,nearly nine-tenths of the weight of cabbages and other varieties consist of water4 ,there is therefore but little left for nutriment proper1 as1 for example1 vegetable albumen1 gluten1 vegetable fat1 starch1 and sugar4 ,it is only such vegetables as turnips1 etc41 that contain much sugar1 for which reason they are well adapted for children and convalescents4 ,in fine1 if nutriment alone were considered1 the enjoyment of our common vegetables would be nothing but a luxury4 ,in truth1 however1 they possess elements which make them very beneficial to man1 if he takes them together with meat4 ,they contain organic acids--like fruit1 which for this reason is so universally liked--and have the quality of preserving in a state of dissolution the soluble albumen of the meat4 ,thus they save much labor to the digestive organs1 and accelerate the transition of meat into chyle4 ,hence the well-known fact1 that after dinner1 though we can eat nothing more1 yet we like to taste some good raw fruit1 or cooked fruit of any kind4 ,vegetables are taken for a similar purpose1 and are therefore very healthy when eaten with meat4 ,but why is it that our housewives often serve vegetables before they do meat1 and fruit after the meat8 ,very likely they themselves do not know why1 as is the case so often2 yet they act here1 as in many other things1 with wise instinct4 ,fruit contains organic acid1 which1 in a ready-made condition1 is very beneficial to us2 it needs only to be taken up by the stomach4 ,we do well1 therefore1 if we take fruit after the meat1 and allow digestion to go on with it4 ,from vegetables1 however1 this acid is only produced in the stomach1 and during the process of digestion4 ,if taken before meat1 the acid may promote the digestion of the meat2 while if it is taken after the meat1 the acid comes much too late to be of any benefit4 ,this explains the fact1 that vegetables in which this acid has been produced by fermentation--as is the case1 for example1 with sour-crout--are usually taken together with meat4 ,another great advantage of vegetables is1 that they are rich in mineral salts necessary for the health of the body4 ,there are ingredients in the various kinds of vegetables1 of which it may scarcely be believed that they can be eaten1 for they belong to the metals and metal combinations2 as1 for example1 chlorine1 iron1 potassium1 and natron2 these play an important part in the body4 ,it is1 therefore1 not surprising to us that a judicious physician will more often prescribe a good vegetable than medicine2 and one ought to be thankful to him if he sends people more to the market than to the drug-store4 ,there are1 indeed1 many diseases successfully cured by such organical remedies1 which only nature knows how to prepare4 ,to mention but one remedy1 spinage1 so highly beneficial to children and young girls of very pale appearance4 ,their green-sickness takes origin from a want of iron in the blood4 ,though every physician is able to prescribe medicine which contains iron1 yet the effect of such artificial inorganic remedies is often very doubtful2 while spinage itself contains iron1 and therefore offers a better organic remedy1 and food4 ,meat and vegetables are sufficient for the body4 ,there is not need of much meat4 ,from six to eight ounces a day constitutes the quantity sufficient for a man4 ,meat and vegetables compensate each other's wants2 the former is poor in water1 the latter rich2 vegetables are wanting in albumen1 which is found abundantly in meat4 ,this happy circumstance is favorable to the formation of that mixture of elements essential to the preservation of the body4 ,household fare1 according to what we have seen1 is precisely what it ought to be1 and does not1 as some people are inclined to think1 result solely from the whims of the housewives4 ,thus is proved again what we have said above1 viz41 that the natural instinct and tact of woman have1 by long years of practice1 been guided by a better and more practical course than science itself4 ,there are some other important articles of food1 but we must keep them for ,supper2 and our readers will no doubt be very glad if we conclude this chapter1 and treat in the next one the question1 ,is it good to take a little nap after dinner8 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,nap ,,after ,,dinner4 ,an old adage says1 ,after dinner thou shalt either rest or walk a thousand steps4 ,habit1 however1 has modified this very much2 for people nowadays neither rest nor walk2 but1 if they can1 they lie down and slumber4 ,now1 it is true that sleep does not belong to the articles of food4 ,we might despatch the question of the nap after dinner here at once2 yet1 if it has any influence upon the digestion of food1 it is of enough importance to merit a few words4 ,it was mentioned before1 that eating and digestion are a labor4 ,to many it may be the most pleasant labor1 to others even the only labor of their lives2 but be this as it may1 it is certainly a labor for all and every one2 and it is important that during the process quiet should be enjoyed4 ,he who thinks he gains by not taking enough time for eating1 or he who takes his dinner while working or moving about1 loses actually more than he even thinks of winning4 ,the activity without disturbs seriously the activity within4 ,the perspiration on the surface of the body withdraws moisture from the inside of the body to such an extent as to diminish even the saliva in the mouth1 so necessary to digestion4 ,have not all of you had the experience1 that when fatigued you feel dryness in the mouth2 that you feel as if a piece of dry bread would not pass down1 but remain in your throat8 ,and as with the saliva1 it is with the other digestive fluids2 if there is any want of them1 the food we have taken lies in the stomach like stone4 ,it is therefore desirable to take a short rest before dinner1 not to perform any kind of labor whatever during the same1 and1 above all1 not to exercise the body immediately after dinner4 ,eating is an inward work1 and should not be accompanied by any labor without4 ,as an additional proof of what we said above1 it may be stated that1 as probably many of our readers know already1 even in the hottest summer1 perspiration diminishes after dinner4 ,this will convince all1 that when the digestive apparatus is at work1 the outer organs ought to be at rest4 ,once more1 then3 before and after dinner we need rest1 and it is this rest which renders us indisposed to labor and makes us feel sleepy4 ,on the other hand1 we must take but a short slumber4 ,those who have accustomed themselves to sleep after dinner1 feel that half an hour's slumber is all that is needed1 and that they even feel weary if they have slept longer4 ,the reason of this is1 the process of digestion is properly carried on chemically by the food1 being dissolved through the gastric juice4 ,this digestion1 however1 is greatly promoted by the motions of the stomach1 which tosses the food about from one side to the other1 mixing it entirely1 and finally making a large ball of it1 whose various ingredients are1 as it were1 fused together4 ,this process needs rest on our part2 during it sleep is sweet and agreeable4 ,but for the further digestion of food1 energy is needed1 which we have not during that sleep2 therefore its want makes our prolonged sleep uneasy1 or renders our digestion imperfect4 ,this latter may be felt by every one who goes to bed with a full stomach4 ,his sleep during the first hour is undisturbed and pleasant1 because it is favorable to the first stage of digestion4 ,but after that1 sleep is very uneasy2 weariness and complaints about bad digestion follow1 and the imprudent person rises next morning with headache1 coated tongue1 and indigestion in the stomach4 ,from what has preceded we may conclude1 that a short nap after dinner is conducive to good health2 while if taken too long1 it will produce the contrary effect4 ,dizziness in the head and fetid taste in the mouth are sure signs of one's having overslept one's self1 and he who has been so imprudent must animate his system--not by liquor1 but with a glass of fresh water2 or he must1 if he feels very heavy1 wash with very cold water4 ,for this is the moment when digestion needs activity more than anything else2 the above symptoms are the indications1 and man should consider them as the summons of nature1 who calls to him1 ,thou hast eaten and reposed2 go1 then1 to thy labor2 this is the time6 ,let every one obey her call1 and there will be less sickness4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,water ,,and ,,beer4 ,during the forenoon a general desire for food is felt1 while in the afternoon thirst is more common1 in which case the best and most natural beverage should always be water4 ,properly speaking1 water is no article of food1 if by that term we understand only animal and vegetable matter4 ,water is no organic1 but a mere chemical agent4 ,but if man were to consume no water he would perish4 ,therefore water is essentially necessary to man1 although it does not satisfy his appetite2 for it serves to liquify our food in the body1 and our blood must contain a greater quantity of water than is furnished us by food1 although this itself contains much water4 ,without water there can be neither digestion nor nutrition1 nor formation of blood1 nor secretion4 ,furthermore1 it is remarkable that the most active of the human organs1 the brain and muscles1 contain the most water2 we are therefore obliged1 although we are aware of its containing no nutritious elements1 to call it a nutritive2 all the more1 since it is well known that we can be longer without food than without water4 ,this element plays a great part in the body2 it is used in three ways4 ,in the first place1 the ingredients of water1 hydrogen and oxygen1 combine with the food1 and effect its digestion4 ,the starch which we eat in farinaceous and vegetable food cannot without water be converted into sugar4 ,and the latter being transformed into fat1 we should have no fat if we took no water1 though it may seem strange that water should make us fat4 ,and there is the second task1 viz41 the preservation of all the fluids necessary to our body4 ,this1 also1 is performed by water2 and as they are excreted their loss is compensated for by water4 ,we lose it constantly by breathing1 perspiring1 and urinating2 therefore we must continually take it anew4 ,those who perspire and breathe much1 as1 for example1 workmen or foot-travellers1 must take it in greater quantities4 ,the third reason of its importance lies in this1 that it gives us much of the salts and other ingredients that are dissolved in it1 and which the human body needs for its support4 ,those are wrong1 therefore1 who prefer cistern or distilled water to spring-water2 the former being1 as it were artificially1 free from all metallic and mineral parts which are so beneficial to our health2 while spring-water contains them in abundance1 and ought1 therefore1 to be taken in preference even to the purest rain-water4 ,but one of the most excellent qualities of water is1 that one can scarcely ever drink too much of it4 ,if but for a moment in the stomach1 it is absorbed there and goes immediately into the blood4 ,from this arises its rapid cooling quality2 which1 however1 may become very dangerous when one is heated4 ,there is but one case in which water is not readily absorbed by the stomach2 when it contains salts that make it heavier than blood1 for example1 ,glauber's salt and bitter-salt4 ,it passes then into the intestinal canal1 and produces here--partly as liquid1 partly by its salts exciting the nerves of the intestines--that medicinal effect for which it is famous4 ,many water-cures1 especially those applied in cases of abdominal diseases1 are of similar effects4 ,common water1 however1 which is immediately transmitted to the blood1 effects by this accelerated secretion of perspiration1 respiration and urine2 this constitutes the beneficial effects of water-cures1 where a glass of water often produces better results than a bottle of medicine4 ,if we can control our thirst until several hours after dinner have passed1 a glass of beer will be a welcome beverage to us4 ,beer contains nutriment2 it includes more or less albumen1 sugar1 gluten1 hops1 and alcohol4 ,owing to the variety in its fermentation and manufacture1 we have many kinds of beer1 such as1 for example1 porter1 ale1 and1 above all others1 the lager-beer4 ,good beer--that is1 beer well brewed and containing all the ingredients this beverage generally does contain--is1 very justly1 often given to nurses and mothers1 because it assimilates easily and very rapidly4 ,it is a kind of soup2 one may take it when a person is too heated or fatigued to eat a regular meal4 ,there is a kind of beer that contains more hops1 and is therefore very bitter2 it is very good for the stomach4 ,the ,bavarian beer1 when genuine1 contains more alcohol than the other1 which gives it the advantages of liquor without its disadvantages4 ,it therefore does not satisfy one's appetite1 but1 on the contrary1 tends to increase it2 thus it is more adapted to be taken at breakfast and supper4 ,another kind of beer1 called white-beer1 contains more sugar and oxygen2 it may1 for this reason1 supply the place of sugar1 and ,seltzer-water1 and is recommended to all those who need ,seidlitz powders4 ,in another part of this work we shall perhaps speak more about the usefulness of beer4 ,to-day we must pray our readers to be satisfied with what we have said about it2 we shall now speak about supper4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,supper4 ,no time of the day is more pleasant than the evening hours after the day's work is over2 there is a solemn calm and quiet in them which charms both soul and body4 ,this time of ease and rest must not be disturbed on our part by overburdening the stomach4 ,we eat only for the purpose of compensating for the loss experienced through our work2 we should not eat more than is necessary to supply the strength lost2 in other words1 to give us sufficient strength to continue our labor4 ,and as the day's work is finished1 there being not much work before us1 we need not take much food4 ,when glancing at a sleeping person and noticing his long breathing and increased perspiration1 one may be led to the belief that he loses much oxygen and water during his sleep2 that therefore we must provide ourselves abundantly with food before retiring to bed4 ,this is1 however1 a mistake4 ,the breath of a sleeping person is long and deep1 but very slow2 and his perspiring does not cause any great loss of water1 but comes rather from this1 that one's body during the night is more protected by covers and closed windows1 etc41 from draft which dries our evaporation1 and therefore prevents perspiration in day-time4 ,during sleep we need even less of bodily strength than through the day2 for this reason we feel no hunger in the night1 and1 in spite of the long fasting1 no fatigue in the morning4 ,from this we conclude that supper should not be a meal for the night1 but merely for the last hours of the day4 ,it should be no meal praenumerando1 but postnumerando6 ,it is therefore best to choose but light dishes1 which1 if we wish to rest well1 must be easily digested1 and eaten at least two or three hours before bed-time4 ,for healthy people a warm supper is unnecessary2 our dinner is taken warm for the purpose only of keeping the gluten and fat of the food liquid2 as this kind of food1 however1 is not proper for supper1 we need not take it at all in the evening4 ,if we do1 it is but an additional burden to the housewife1 who surely has enough trouble and labor in the kitchen during the day4 ,he who is not satisfied with a piece of bread and butter and a glass of beer1 may eat a piece of cheese besides2 but it must be no other kind than sour cheese--the ,germans call it ,schmierkaese--common cheese being too heavy for night because of its containing fat4 ,this sour cheese1 whether soft or hardened1 is easily digested2 it even excites the stomach like spice1 especially if you eat it with caraway seeds1 and thus promotes the secretion of gastric juice4 ,the other kind of cheese is1 for no other reason than that1 often eaten after dinner2 for1 though taken by itself scarcely digestible1 if eaten in very small quantity1 it increases by its action upon the stomach1 the quantity of gastric juice there1 and1 therefore1 promotes digestion in general4 ,should we1 however1 for one reason or the other1 insist upon having a more substantial supper1 then let us take soft-boiled eggs4 ,the nutritive quality of eggs is equivalent to that of meat4 ,they unite all good sides of the meat2 nay1 we may say here1 that the most nourishing part in meat is nothing but egg-white1 or1 as we call it1 albumen4 ,we recommend soft-boiled eggs1 because hard ones are difficult to digest4 ,they are best prepared by boiling1 if the water is allowed to boil first and the eggs put in afterwards4 ,the reason of this is1 that the boiling water hardens the outer part of the egg very rapidly1 forming a thick crust1 which prevents the heat of the boiling water from penetrating farther4 ,it is a custom of our country to take tea in the evening4 ,tea is no article of food1 but it possesses the qualities of coffee2 it warms the blood1 increases the activity of the heart1 and produces a certain freshness of the mind1 which is a good remedy against ennui and sleepiness in a company or party4 ,and since we are speaking of ennui and sleepiness1 we think it advisable to close our present subject1 ,the ,articles of ,food for the ,people1 and we part from our readers with the full conviction that they will enjoy their real articles of food much better than they have relished these scientific conversations about them4