,libraries47        ,,the ,,pros ,,and  
,,cons ,,of ,,vivisection   ,all rights 
reserved  ,illustration3 ,,la ,,mort4   
,by ,bartholome in ,pere ,lachaise1     
,paris4  ,frontispiece4     ,,the ,,pros
 ,,and ,,cons ,,of ,,vivisection  ,,by  
,,dr ,,charles ,,richet  ,,professor    
,,of ,,physiology ,,in ,,the ,,faculty  
,,of ,,medicine  ,,paris   ,,with ,a    
,,preface ,,by  ,w4 ,d4 ,,halliburton1  
,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4  ,,professor
 ,,of ,,physiology1 ,,king',s ,,college1
 ,,london  ,,london  ,,duckworth  ,,co4 
#c ,,henrietta ,,street1 ,,covent       
,,garden  #aijh     ,,preface   ,to     
scientific readers1 ,professor ,charles 
,richet needs no introduction1 but to   
the public at large it may be necessary 
to mention that he is one of the best   
known of ,french physiologists4 ,he has 
occupied for a good many years the      
,chair of ,physiology in the ,faculty of
 ,medicine in ,paris1 and he has        
contributed greatly to the progress of  
the science to which he has devoted his 

life2 some of his discoveries are       
alluded to with all modesty in the pages
 which follow4 ,he is1 moreover1 a man  
of great erudition1 and has been wisely 
selected to be the editor of a          
monumental work1 ,le dictionnaire de    
physiologie1 which is issuing from the  
press to-day4  ,professor ,richet has   
given particular attention to the study 
of the psychological side of physiology1
 and his views on pain will be read as  
coming from one who is specially fitted 
to deal with this and other mental      
phenomena4  ,i therefore consider it a  
great honour that ,professor ,richet    
should have asked me to write a preface 
to his most interesting and convincing  
book on the ,pros and ,cons of          
,vivisection1 and it is a great pleasure
 to me to commend its thoughtful perusal
 to all who are interested in the       
subject4  ,professor ,richet is not only
 one who speaks with authority1 but he  
is one of the gentlest and kindliest of 
men4 ,the science which he teaches is   

the science of life4 ,to understand the 
meaning of vital processes it is        
necessary to study the living organism1 
and to obtain this knowledge it is      
sometimes necessary to perform          
experiments on living animals4 ,when he 
defends a practice which many regard as 
cruel1 detestable1 and immoral1 mainly  
because of the unscrupulous             
misrepresentations put forward by the   
professional ,anti-vivisectionists1 he  
does so because he is convinced that    
none of the epithets just mentioned     
correctly describe the experiments which
 are carried out in physiological       
laboratories at the present time4 ,these
 experiments are undertaken only by     
properly qualified persons having a due 
sense of their responsibilities4 ,every 
regard is paid to the comfort of the    
animals employed2 and the ultimate aim  
of this work is the progress of         
knowledge1 and the consequent relief to 
suffering which is so often only the    
result of ignorance4 ,the benefits which

 accrue are felt not only by human      
beings1 but also 7as in veterinary      
practice7 by the animals themselves4 ,no
 attempt is made here to defend         
experiments which have not these objects
 in view1 or which 7as has happened in  
the past7 pay no consideration to the   
pain an animal experiences4  ,i feel    
quite sure that if the ,british public  
were convinced that the experiments in  
our laboratories were all conducted in  
accordance with our present law1 the    
,anti-vivisection crusade would flicker 
out4 ,it is the object of those who are 
active propagandists on the other side  
to keep their agitation going1 by       
omitting to mention the painlessness of 
the operations performed1 or by         
suggesting 7either directly or by       
innuendo7 that anaesthesia is a sham4   
,my own experience1 which is a wide one1
 has been that physiologists not only   
obey the law literally1 but are most    
punctilious in its due observance4 ,a   
certain number of trivial irregularities

 have been reported to the ,home ,office
 by the inspectors appointed under the  
,vivisection ,act1 but there has been no
 case of omitting the use of            
anaesthetics4 ,the majority of these    
offences have been for using            
anaesthetics unnecessarily4 ,a          
certificate in certain cases is granted 
for the omission of an anaesthetic3 this
 is given when the operation is a       
trifling one1 and has never been granted
 for any operation more serious than the
 prick of a hypodermic needle4          
,nevertheless1 the operator has         
sometimes employed an anaesthetic even  
for this1 and has in consequence been   
reported to the ,home ,office for       
infringing the terms of his certificate4
  ,pawloff has truly said that the ideal
 experiment is one performed without    
anaesthesia and without pain4 ,in many  
cases this ideal can be realised1 but in
 other cases it is unattainable4        
,physiologists have1 therefore1 had to  
select which of the two disturbing      

factors shall be absent1 and they have  
unhesitatingly chosen the latter4 ,pain 
must be absent 7#a7 on grounds of       
humanity1 7#b7 because it is a far      
greater disturber of the normal         
functions than anaesthesia is1 and 7#c7 
because the struggles of an animal in   
pain will nullify the accuracy of the   
experiment1 and endanger the safety of  
the delicate apparatus which it may be  
necessary to employ4  ,exactly the same 
arguments apply to the employment of the
 antiseptic or aseptic methods of       
surgery1 in experiments in which the    
animal is kept alive after an operation 
to study its effects4 ,the healing      
process is then painless1 and there is  
absence of those febrile and            
inflammatory conditions which would     
otherwise complicate the issue4  ,it is 
therefore for two reasons that an       
experimenter uses both anaesthetics and 
antiseptics1 7#a7 to save the animal    
suffering1 and 7#b7 to ensure the       
success of the experiment4  ,the        

barbarities which are recorded by       
,anti-vivisectionist agitators do not   
exist2 the repetition of their stories  
in spite of repeated contradictions is  
partly due to wilful misrepresentation  
and exaggeration1 and partly the result 
of ignorance of the meaning of the      
technical terms employed by             
physiological writers4  ,at the ,royal  
,commission which is now considering the
 question of ,vivisection1 the cases of 
alleged cruelty have been one by one    
sifted to the bottom1 and in no single  
case has a charge of cruelty been       
sustained4 ,any one who cares to wade   
through the four bluebooks of evidence  
which have been printed will discover   
for himself that this is so4 ,in fact1  
one prominent ,anti-vivisection journal 
7the ,verulam ,review1 ,april-,june     
#aijg1 p4 #ahf71 in reference to the    
evidence given by one of the witnesses  
before the ,commission1 had to confess1 
,almost every one of ,mrs ,cook's       
horrifying cases seems1 when examined1  

to melt away4  ,an ,anti-vivisectionist 
publication which has obtained some     
notoriety 7,the ,shambles of ,science7  
figured in a recent lawsuit4 ,when the  
particular charge which was the subject 
of the action was investigated by a     
prolonged inquiry before the ,lord      
,chief-,justice1 a ,british jury showed 
their sense of the enormity of the      
slander by awarding the physiologist    
impugned the very substantial damages of
 ,l#bjjj4 ,an undertaking was           
subsequently given by the publisher of  
this hysterical work 7to quote the words
 of the ,lord ,chief-,justice7 that it  
should be withdrawn from publication4   
,yet the book has been since re-issued  
by the authors1 with the chapter that   
formed the subject of the trial omitted1
 but otherwise with very little         
alteration4 ,the libellous statements   
scattered through its other chapters can
 still be read by the lovers of         
sensation1 and the authors doubtless    
hope that their readers will never take 

the trouble to read also the evidence   
before the ,royal ,commission in which  
all the allegations of cruelty have been
 shown to be groundless4  ,the subject  
of curare1 another bugbear of the       
,anti-vivisection lecturer1 is so       
adequately dealt with by ,professor     
,richet that ,i will spare the reader   
any further discussion on that question 
here4 ,i have taken the liberty of      
adding1 in a footnote on p4 #cf1 a      
statement in respect to the usages of   
,english physiologists in relation to   
that drug4  ,the experiments of the     
pharmacologist in the investigation of  
the action of drugs can be and are      
carried out under anaesthesia in the    
same way as those of the physiologist4  
,but the experiments of the pathologist1
 which consist in conveying germs and   
other disease products to animals1 come 
under a different heading4 ,one does not
 deny that if the animal takes the      
disease1 suffering is produced4 ,this is
 fully admitted by ,professor ,richet1  

and ,i think that any common-sense      
reader will be convinced by the         
arguments put forward that the practice 
is fully justifiable4 ,it is difficult1 
as ,professor ,richet points out1 to    
gauge the amount of pain an animal such 
as a rat1 guinea-pig1 or rabbit 7the    
animals usually employed for the        
purpose7 really feels when given a      
disease experimentally1 and whether this
 is greater or less than the suffering  
it will endure when another disease or a
 violent death carries it off in the    
usual course of nature4 ,it is1 however1
 undeniable that the suffering of these 
animals is much less than those of human
 beings4 ,a man1 when he is ill1 suffers
 a certain amount of discomfort and     
physical bodily pain2 but this is a drop
 in the ocean compared to the mental    
worry and anxiety he endures--all that1 
at any rate1 is absent from the         
suffering rabbit4 ,the pathologist sees 
beyond the pain which he inflicts to the
 pain which he prevents4 ,the death of a

 few lower animals may be1 and has in   
the past been the means of preventing   
pain and disease both to the animals    
themselves and to human beings also1 who
 may be counted by thousands or even    
millions4  ,if there is one piece of    
evidence more than another which was    
given before the ,royal ,commission that
 deserves rescue from the oblivion of a 
bluebook1 it is that given by ,lord     
,justice ,fletcher ,moulton4 ,his is one
 of the keenest legal intellects of     
modern times1 and he at any rate cannot 
be accused of having any axe of his own 
to grind4 ,i regret that exigencies of  
space prevent me from making more than  
one or two references to it4  ,he begins
 by taking the case of a ship infected  
with plague1 and infested also with     
rats1 the carriers of plague4 ,the ship 
enters port4 ,would it be preferable to 
kill the rats1 and so prevent them and  
the disease from entering the port and  
causing untold disaster there1 or       
staying one's hand because the slaughter

 of the rats would be a painful         
proceeding8 ,the captain who gives      
orders for the destruction of the rats  
inflicts pain and death on them in order
 to prevent greater pain and more       
widespread death elsewhere4 ,the captain
 who says1 ,spare the rats1 is guilty of
 the criminal act of causing the death  
of many innocent human beings4 ,so it is
 with the ,anti-vivisectionists3 they   
see only the pain inflicted1 and do not 
heed the pain prevented4 ,on this score 
they are in a sense logical when they   
call ,lord ,lister a brute1 although he 
of all men living at the present time   
has been the means of preventing the    
greatest amount of suffering4 ,they see 
only the pain which he deliberately     
inflicted on a few rats and rabbits2    
they cannot see1 or refuse to see the   
measureless amount of misery he has     
prevented4  ,in another place the ,lord 
,justice points out that the pain       
inflicted in all the laboratories of the
 country put together during a year is  

infinitesimal compared to that which is 
inflicted every day in the slaughter of 
animals for food2 to that which ignorant
 farm labourers inflict without         
anaesthetics1 in spaying animals by     
thousands in order that beef and mutton 
may be tenderer or have a more pleasant 
flavour to the consumer2 to that        
inflicted by sportsmen when their       
victims1 imperfectly shot1 die a        
lingering death2 to that which women    
thoughtlessly allow in order that they  
may have ospreys in their hats and furs 
upon their backs4  ,so far as the       
satisfaction of appetite1 the pandering 
to the so-called sportsman's instincts1 
or the gratification of vanity are      
concerned1 these things may go on4 ,the 
average ,anti-vivisectionist disregards 
them1 or at least makes no effort to    
prevent them4 ,the only kind of pain    
which stirs his feelings1 and meets with
 his opprobrium1 and enables him to     
indulge in his favourite epithets1 is   
the one justifiable bit of pain in the  

whole world--a pain inflicted with the  
noblest of all objects1 and by the most 
humane of all men 7for so the medical   
profession admittedly is71 the object1  
namely1 of preventing future pain1 which
 otherwise would encompass the world of 
life4  ,professor ,richet has wisely not
 made his book too long4 ,he has been   
content to select a few typical and     
striking examples of the benefits which 
experimentation on animals has conferred
 upon humanity1 instead of attempting   
even to enumerate them all4 ,he might   
for instance have dwelt upon the        
extinction of rinderpest in ,south      
,africa3 here1 at the expense of a few  
experimental animals1 ,koch has         
prevented a scourge which formerly      
exterminated hundreds of thousands of   
cattle annually1 and might still be     
exercising this fell influence on to all
 eternity if the opponents of scientific
 knowledge had their way4 ,he might have
 taken the case of snake bite1 and the  
discovery made by his great             

fellow-countryman ,calmette of the means
 of combating this deadly poison1 which 
has hitherto killed our ,indian         
fellow-subjects by its tens of thousands
 a year4  ,on coming to one of the most 
recent of beneficent discoveries1 he    
might have dwelt upon the case of       
,mediterranean fever1 and the way which 
it has been practically stamped out at  
,malta and ,gibraltar1 because the      
method of its spread has been discovered
 and the disease prevented at the       
expense of a few goats and other        
animals4  ,but those who are wilfully   
deaf to such arguments will not1 ,i     
fear1 be convinced1 even if examples are
 multiplied indefinitely4 ,in spite of  
the love for animals which our opponents
 profess1 the life of cattle1           
particularly if they are so far away as 
,south ,africa1 does not appeal to them4
 ,the happiness of the teeming millions 
of ,india does not come home to them4   
,even the comfort of our brave soldiers 
and sailors in the ,mediterranean       

stations is of little account3 they have
 never visited the hospitals at ,malta  
or ,gibraltar1 and seen1 as they could  
have seen a year or two ago1 the poor   
fellows dying off like flies from a     
mysterious disease that nothing could be
 done for1 because the manner in which  
the fatal germ entered their bodies was 
unknown4 ,now1 by the simple prohibition
 of the use of goat's milk1 a           
prohibition due to animal               
experimentation and to that alone1 the  
disease has been exterminated4          
,anti-vivisectionists do not come in    
contact with disease all day and every  
day as medical men do2 they therefore do
 not realise how widespread it is1 and  
what terrible forms it may take4 ,their 
notions are vague2 they talk about      
suffering without any intimate knowledge
 of the question4 ,they bestow their    
sympathies upon the few victims of the  
vivisector's knife or syringe2 they have
 none left for the larger number of     
victims which would have suffered if the

 few had not been sacrificed4 ,can it be
 wondered at that medical men1 whose    
experience is so different to theirs1   
feel otherwise8 ,the doctor's life is   
not one in which these are just a few   
painful partings with dear ones1 but he 
is steeped in such experiences from     
morning till night4 ,his sympathies aim 
at the relief and cure of all this evil2
 and the death of a few guinea-pigs or  
rabbits is a necessary incident which he
 has the courage to permit because of   
the greater good that is the ultimate   
result4  ,there are1 however1 some of   
the examples which ought to stir better 
feelings even in the                    
,anti-vivisectionist camp1 namely1 cases
 of diseases which are common or used to
 be common in our very midst1 and which 
we need not go to ,india or ,malta to   
look for4 ,one of these is diphtheria1  
and the statements and statistics in    
relation to the almost miraculous change
 which has come over our ideas on this  
affection are incontrovertible1 and are 

fully set forth in the following pages4 
,the disease no longer inspires the     
terror it used to do1 for it is one     
which can be cured1 and easily cured1 by
 the method of serum therapy4 ,it has   
not1 it is true1 been stamped out1 for  
up till the present success has not     
attended efforts of prevention4         
,prevention is better than cure1 but    
cure is better than suffering and death4
 ,just now1 medical science can cure the
 disease1 and if medical progress       
continues at its present rapid rate of  
growth1 who can doubt that in the near  
future this disease1 like typhus and    
typhoid1 will be stamped out8  ,typhoid 
fever is an example of a disease which  
has only died out in this country quite 
recently4 ,when ,i was a student the    
hospital wards were full of it2 but     
to-day most medical students in ,london 
pass through their entire curriculum of 
five years or more without ever seeing a
 case4 ,what has been accomplished for  
,london can also be carried out in other

 large cities1 and the extinction of the
 disease is entirely due to improved    
sanitary measures1 and the destruction  
of the bacillus which causes the malady4
 ,we often quite legitimately complain  
of the extravagances of our ,government 
departments and our ,county ,councils1  
and of their apathy in questions        
affecting the health of the country4 ,we
 are still awaiting1 for instance1      
proper legislative measures to ensure   
the purity of milk4 ,but this at least  
we can thank them for--proper methods of
 disinfection and a purer water-supply  
have led to the almost complete         
extinction of what was a common and     
painful and fatal disease4 ,but how does
 ,vivisection come in here8 ,county     
councillors are not ,vivisectors4 ,no1  
they are not1 but their action is the   
undoubted result of public opinion2 and 
that healthy public opinion is the      
outcome of medical opinion1 which was   
preached to deaf ears for many years1   
and at last succeeded in impressing     

itself upon the public at large2 and    
this medical knowledge was the offspring
 of the only certain guide in such      
matters1 pathological experiment4 ,it   
was not until the germ of typhoid fever 
was recognised and isolated1 not until  
the conditions of its growth and the    
means of its destruction were           
experimentally verified upon the lower  
animals1 that any sound knowledge was   
obtained4 ,bacteriology is at the bottom
 of hygiene2 it is by hygienic          
precautions that certain diseases are   
prevented2 and the basis of bacteriology
 is experiment on animals4  ,i will     
allow myself only one more point1 and   
that relates to the general question of 
serum therapy4 ,some people object to   
the whole conception of serum treatment1
 on the ground that serum and allied    
substances are 'messy' things4 ,it was  
by this very expressive phrase that     
,lord ,justice ,fletcher ,moulton       
summarised and paraphrased the          
,anti-vivisectionist attitude on the    

serum method of treatment4 ,miss ,lind  
af ,hageby on one occasion characterised
 it as 'medieval1' a word which is quite
 meaningless in this connection1 but    
prettier1 ,i admit1 than ,behring's     
filth product1 which is the elegant name
 coined for antidiphtheritic serum by   
one of her friends4  ,filth or dirt has 
been well defined as matter in the wrong
 place4 ,blood on a carpet1 for example1
 is certainly messy and dirty2 it ought 
not to be there4 ,but blood or serum    
7the fluid part of the blood7 in the    
heart1 or in the arteries and veins1 is 
in its rightful place1 and it does its  
duty of nutrition and so forth when it  
comes into more immediate contact with  
the tissues in the small tubes we call  
the capillaries4 ,one of these duties is
 to exert a protective influence upon   
the whole body1 by destroying the germs 
of disease which get in1 despite all    
precautions4 ,we are all of us exposed1 
so long as spitting in public places is 
not prohibited1 to the germs of         

consumption1 but we do not all die of   
that disease4 ,this is because the white
 corpuscles of our blood are in good    
trim1 and able successfully to devour   
the bacteria that enter our interior4   
,it is those people who are run down1   
and in whom the white corpuscles are    
'below par1' that catch the disease4 ,in
 assisting the white corpuscles to      
perform this important function1 the    
co-operation of certain substances      
dissolved in the fluid portion of the   
blood is also necessary4 ,the most      
recently discovered of these auxiliary  
substances are called opsonins4 ,the    
word opsonin is derived from a ,greek   
root which means to prepare the feast4  
,the opsonin either adds something to   
the bacterium which makes it tasty to   
the white corpuscle1 or removes 7or     
neutralises7 something which previously 
made it distasteful4 ,white corpuscles  
will not as a rule ingest and devour    
bacteria from a pure culture1 but they  
do so eagerly immediately the bacteria  

are bathed in serum2 and the serum which
 is most efficacious in acting as a sort
 of sauce is that which has been        
obtained from an animal which has been  
previously infected with the same kind  
of bacteria1 and which has recovered    
from the ailment such bacteria have set 
up4  ,this is not mere fancy3 the whole 
sequence of events can be easily        
followed on a glass slide kept at body  
temperature and examined with a         
microscope4  ,it is well known that if  
the yeast plant 7which is very similar  
in many details to bacteria7 is grown in
 a solution of sugar1 the sugar is      
broken up and disappears1 and two new   
substances formed from the sugar take   
its place4 ,these are alcohol and       
carbonic acid gas4 ,if bacteria grow in 
the blood1 they do not produce alcohol1 
but they do produce other poisons in a  
way analogous to that by which yeast    
produces alcohol4 ,these poisons are    
called toxins4 ,there are substances in 
the fluid part of the blood which are   

called antitoxins1 because they         
neutralise the toxins produced by the   
bacteria4 ,their presence constitutes a 
means of defence against the harmful    
effects the toxins would otherwise      
produce4 ,the marvellous part of the    
defence is that1 although we all have a 
certain amount of antitoxin in our      
blood1 the amount increases in          
proportion to the amount of toxin4 ,it  
is a familiar fact that rough manual    
labour increases the hardness of the    
hands2 friction stimulates the epidermis
 or outer skin1 so that it grows in     
thickness4 ,the body affords numerous   
similar instances of how it is capable  
of rising to the occasion and increasing
 its defences4 ,just in the same way1   
the presence of a toxin stimulates the  
living cells to produce more and more   
antitoxin1 and the blood remains rich in
 the antitoxin for a considerable time  
afterwards4 ,this explains why a person 
who has had an infectious disease does  
not take it readily a second time2 he is

 immune for a certain number of years1  
because his blood is so rich in the     
antidote4  ,now1 the principle of serum 
treatment depends on those ascertained  
and definitely proved facts4 ,in the    
modern treatment of tuberculosis1 for   
example1 the aim of the physician is to 
increase nature's method of cure3 good  
food and pure air do much to increase   
the healthiness of the blood and fortify
 its natural power1 of destroying the   
germs2 sometimes this alone suffices4   
,at other times it is not sufficient1   
particularly if the disease has advanced
 and the number of bacteria is too great
 for the enfeebled white corpuscles to  
deal with4 ,then the physician goes a   
step farther1 and administers the       
appropriate opsonin by injecting it     
under the skin1 again simply increasing 
the resistance of his patient by a      
perfectly natural method4  ,in the case 
of diphtheria1 the antitoxin appears to 
be more efficacious than an opsonin4 ,a 
horse is inoculated with diphtheria1 and

 when he has recovered1 his blood is    
collected4 ,this blood is then rich in  
antitoxin1 the natural antidote that has
 enabled the horse to get well again4   
,the blood is allowed to clot1 and the  
clot is removed2 the fluid residue is   
called serum1 and the serum contains the
 antidote4 ,if now another horse has    
diphtheria1 and you want to cure him    
quickly1 what more natural than inject  
the serum of the horse who has just     
recovered8 it will save the second horse
 the trouble and the time of making the 
antitoxin for himself1 and it has been  
proved over and over again that the     
second horse does recover with amazing  
celerity4  ,the pathologists then       
advanced a step1 and asked1 ,why should 
this antidote be used solely for animals
 when they have diphtheria8 ,why should 
not the horse's serum be beneficial to  
human beings when they are attacked with
 the same disease8 ,the diphtheria      
poison is much more harmful to a man1   
and kills him more quickly than it does 

a horse2 it is therefore imperative to  
use the antidote early4 ,the crucial    
experiment was made2 entire success     
followed it1 and now1 as ,professor     
,richet says1 it is the only treatment  
employed1 and any medical man who       
refuses to use it is little short of a  
criminal4  ,i have entered into this    
brief and1 ,i trust1 simple explanation 
of serum treatment1 because so many     
people want to understand it and are    
unable to comprehend the technical terms
 which scientific men1 writing for      
scientific readers1 almost exclusively  
employ4 ,i am even hopeful that some of 
the more reasonable opponents of animal 
experimentation may be convinced that by
 carrying out the new methods of serum  
therapy1 we are not going against nature
 but helping her4 ,it is just these     
'messy things' that nature uses for     
curing infectious diseases1 and the     
introduction of an opsonin or an        
antitoxin is not putting matter in its  
wrong place1 but in its right place2 and

 therefore the use of the terms filth   
and dirt in this relationship should be 
confined either to the foul-mouthed or  
to the ignorant4  ,w4 ,d4 ,,halliburton4
  ,july #aijh4   ,p4,s4--,the proof     
sheets of ,professor ,richet's book have
 passed through my hands during their   
issue from the press4 ,beyond a few     
verbal amendments1 and a footnote here  
and there which ,i have added and       
initialled1 no alterations have been    
made in the original4  ,i am also       
responsible for the insertion of        
,appendix ,c1 regarding the aims and    
objects of the ,research ,defence       
,society4 ,these additions and minor    
alterations have all met with ,professor
 ,richet's approval4  ,i may mention    
that the book has not yet been published
 in ,french1 and is presented to the    
public for the first time in ,english   
dress4 ,the ,english lady who           
collaborated with ,professor ,richet in 
its production has worked with and      
studied under him for some years1 and it

 was largely owing to her persuasion    
that he consented to express his views  
publicly4 ,she desires for the present  
to remain anonymous4  ,w4 ,d4 ,h4       
,october #aijh4     ,,contents   ,,page 
,,preface ,,by ,,professor ,,halliburton
                                       v
   ,,introduction                       
#a   ,,chapter ,i  ,,the ,,necessary    
,,limits ,,of ,,vivisection             
#g   ,,chapter ,,ii  ,,pain ,,and       
,,death                                 
#ah   ,,chapter ,,iii  ,,concerning     
,,anaesthesia ,,in ,,vivisection        
#ca   ,,chapter ,,iv  ,,concerning      
,,experimentation ,,other ,,than        
,,vivisection                     #dj   
,,chapter ,v  ,,services ,,rendered ,,to
 ,,science ,,and ,,humanity ,,by        
,,experimental ,,physiology  #ei        
,,chapter ,,vi  ,,morality ,,and        
,,vivisection                           
#gb   ,,chapter ,,vii  ,,are ,,laws     
,,regulating ,,vivisection ,,necessary8 
#ia   ,,chapter ,,viii  ,,vivisection   

,,and ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,science     
#ig   ,,post ,,scriptum                 
#aad  ,,appendix ,a4--,,diphtheria      
,,statistics                            
#aba  ,,appendix ,b4--,,bibliography    
#abd  ,,appendix ,c4--,,the ,,research  
,,defence ,,society                     
#acj   ,,illustrations  ,,la ,,mort4 ,by
 ,,bartholome1 in ,pere ,lachaise1      
,paris1        ,frontispiece  ,,pasteur 
,,in ,,his ,,laboratory1                
facing page       #dd  ,l',,enfant4 ,in 
,musee du ,luxembourg1 ,paris1          
#ec     ,,introduction   ,the object of 
this book is to set forth1 as           
impartially as possible1 the reasons    
which militate for and against          
vivisection4 ,it is1 however1 a         
physiologist who is speaking1 therefore 
no one will be surprised that he should 
defend a practice which is at the basis 
of the science he teaches4  ,may he be  
permitted1 at the same time1 to express 
the high moral esteem which he feels for
 all those who1 nobly enamoured of a    

very high ideal1 deny to men the right  
of inflicting suffering1 or even death1 
upon animals8 ,there is not a more      
generous thought than this4 ,without    
doubt it is our duty to have sympathy   
for1 and to abstain from indifference   
and cruelty in our dealings with all    
living creatures3 might does not        
constitute right4 ,man is stronger than 
the animal2 but this superiority of     
power1 this might1 does not constitute a
 right to act contrary to moral         
obligation4  ,morality does not consist 
solely of duties towards human beings2  
it is more general3 it extends to every 
being capable of suffering4 ,the        
physiologist is not an ignoramus1       
neither is he a barbarian2 and he has   
right well understood this duty4        
,physiologists have concluded that      
experimentation upon living animals is  
necessary1 and it is the many reasons   
which have led them to this opinion     
which ,i propose to set forth4 ,but it  
will1 ,i hope1 be quite understood that 

my defence of vivisection implies no    
contempt1 no raillery1 no unfriendly    
sentiment towards those who oppose it4  
,my opponents are not always courteous  
or loyal in their polemics2 but that is 
of no importance2 and ,i shall reply    
only to such objections as are potent1  
able1 and rational4 ,in other words1 ,i 
shall take from among the arguments of  
anti-vivisectionists those only which   
can be called legitimate1 those which   
deserve to be studied methodically and  
profoundly by every man of good faith4  
,i shall deliberately put on one side   
both abuse and nonsense4  ,i should here
 mention an anonymous leaflet which has 
received a considerable amount of       
publicity in ,england 7,how ,scientific 
,cruelty is defended1 ,london1 #aijg1 #d
 pp474 ,in this leaflet1 a reply is     
given to an article which ,i once       
published on ,vivisection4 ,certainly1  
after a lapse of twenty-six years1 ,i   
might claim the right to abjure some of 
the notions of my youth4 ,taken as a    

whole1 however1 my ideas concerning     
vivisection have changed but little1 and
 ,i still consider it to be necessary4  
,i of course recognise that the number  
of physiological laboratories1 which ,i 
estimated at thirty in my article1 is   
for present-day purposes too low4       
,during the last twenty-six years their 
number has very considerably increased4 
,but a laboratory of physiology does not
 necessarily mean a laboratory of       
vivisection4 ,there is the whole range  
of physiological chemistry1 the study of
 ferments and psychological physiology1 
not one of which makes any demands on   
vivisection4 ,many eminent              
physiologists--for example1 my former   
master1 ,m4 ,marey--have performed very 
little vivisection4 ,even in those      
laboratories where vivisection is       
performed1 it is not practised every    
day1 and especially not upon dogs6 ,far 
from it6 ,in ,paris1 for example1 where 
every dog experimented upon is a stray  
animal handed over by the prefecture of 

police1 there are only about six hundred
 dogs per annum thus available for      
experimentation4 ,now the laboratories  
in ,paris represent1 from the point of  
view of activity1 at least half of all  
the laboratories in ,france put         
together4  ,it is alleged that ,schiff  
stated to ,mrs ,anna ,kingsford that he 
had experimented on more than #ad1jjj   
dogs1 that is to say1 an average of one 
dog a day for fifty years6 ,this is     
obviously an exaggeration1 though it is 
difficult to trace now who was          
responsible for it4  ,finally1 the      
remaining objections of the anonymous   
author in question amount only to this3 
,the author believes that physiologists 
work for money and renown1 and not at   
all for the sake of humanity 76674      
,also1 that young men are made cruel by 
the sight of cruel experiments4 ,but the
 author simply forgets this fact1 that  
there is not at this present moment one 
single honourable physiologist who would
 consent to perform long and distressing

 experiments on an animal not under     
anaesthetics4 ,i hold no brief for those
 who do otherwise1 and ,i disapprove    
energetically of the use of curare4 ,the
 conclusions of my anonymous critic     
therefore fall to the ground4  ,i       
confess ,i do not understand the        
statement that experimentation on       
rabbits and other animals is of no use  
to humanity2 and my critic unfortunately
 from his point of view has selected    
,claude ,bernard's experiments as an    
example of uselessness4 ,does he not    
know that ,claude ,bernard discovered   
the presence of sugar in the blood1 of  
glycogen in the liver1 of diabetes      
produced through nervous action1 of the 
action of oxygen and of carbonic oxide  
on the red blood corpuscles1 the action 
of the pancreatic juice on fat1 the part
 played by the pneumogastric nerve in   
the innervation of the heart8 ,these    
discoveries not only rejuvenated        
physiology1 but exercise a permanent    
influence over the whole of medicine1   

and over the entire realm of            
therapeutics6 ,i refuse to accept the   
antiquated conception of an empirical   
medicine which does not aim at          
discovering the truth2 which thinks     
solely of clumsy practical application2 
and which regards as useful only that   
which leads immediately and directly to 
the cure of a given illness4 ,all truth 
is useful2 all ignorance is baneful2 and
 the sole limit to man's power lies in  
the extent of his knowledge4 ,we must   
forego discussion with those who cannot 
understand this fundamental notion4     
,,chapter ,i  ,,the ,,necessary ,,limits
 ,,of ,,vivisection   ,first of all ,i  
declare1 without fear of being          
contradicted by any physiologist1 that  
the past has witnessed much excess1     
almost guilty excess1 and that at the   
present time excess might still be      
pointed out4 ,i quite believe that1 even
 to-day1 here and there in the          
laboratories of physiology1 young men   
may be found who are no doubt enamoured 

of science1 but who have not            
sufficiently reflected on the nature of 
pain1 and consequently1 through lack of 
sympathy1 are callous and indifferent   
about inflicting useless1 or almost     
useless1 tortures on innocent animals4  
,on this point ,i might mention numerous
 facts which are extremely painful to   
relate1 but which nevertheless we must  
have the courage to acknowledge and     
denounce4  ,to quote only one instance1 
a most abominable one1 ,i will mention  
the following1 which is old1 dating back
 about forty years4 ,in the veterinary  
schools1 surgical studies1 at that time1
 were not made on the dead carcase1 but 
on the living animal2 so that the       
wretched victim1 generally a horse1     
served as a subject1 while yet alive1   
for all the operations which the        
veterinary surgeon is called upon to    
perform4 ,the detestable argument given 
at that time to qualify this barbarism  
was that the veterinary surgeon should  
be familiar with the reactions of a     

living animal1 and that1 as a guarantee 
of being able to perform an operation on
 a diseased horse1 he should have       
already practised the same operation    
several times1 not on the dead body1 but
 on a horse full of life and vigour1    
able to defend himself1 and obliged     
therefore to be held down motionless by 
special processes4 ,but this is scarcely
 a sufficient justification4 ,but       
happily such things no longer exist2    
public opinion1 stimulated no doubt by  
the writings of anti-vivisectionists1   
has altered the customs of veterinary   
experimentalists so well that in no     
veterinary school to-day are surgical   
exercises now performed on other than   
the dead body4  ,thus1 as far as surgery
 is concerned1 unquestionably all       
vivisection should rigorously be        
proscribed4 ,i will discuss later the   
point as to whether this interdiction   
should be moral--that is1 recommended as
 a precept of humanity1 or enforced by  
law under penalty of imprisonment or    

fine4 ,for the moment it will suffice to
 establish the point that no living     
animal should serve for surgical        
exercises4  ,i will go even further1 and
 on this point my opinion will perhaps  
clash with that of some of my friends   
and colleagues3 ,i maintain that no     
experimental physiological              
demonstrations which involve suffering  
should ever be performed4 ,much abuse   
has taken place in experimentation for  
instruction1 which is a very different  
thing from experimentation for          
investigation4 ,important as it may be  
to demonstrate physiological facts to   
students1 ,i do not consider that this  
importance is greater than the suffering
 of an animal4 ,and here again ,i will  
take an example1 that of the distinction
 between the motor nerves and the       
sensory nerves4  ,magendie1 in #ahaa1   
following up an idea somewhat           
hesitatingly put forth by ,charles ,bell
 a few years previously1 demonstrated   
that the anterior nerve roots1 starting 

from the spinal cord1 give movement to  
the muscles1 whilst the posterior roots 
are exclusively devoted to sensibility2 
so that there are anterior motor nerves 
and posterior sensory nerves4 ,in order 
to demonstrate this1 it is evidently    
necessary to operate on a living and    
sensitive animal4  ,the discovery was   
confirmed by several physiologists      
between #ahcj and #ahej2 and ,i do not  
think we have the right to repeat this  
cruel experiment for the sake of the    
instruction of students4 ,it is not only
 cruel1 but also useless1 for it        
consists in laying bare the anterior and
 posterior nerve-fibres of the spinal   
cord1 with the sole object of allowing  
students to see that the excitation of  
the anterior nerve-fibres provokes      
movement and not pain1 whilst the       
excitation of posterior nerve-fibres    
provokes pain and not movement4 ,now1 in
 order to make students clearly         
understand this distinction between the 
motor and sensory nerves1 ,i require    

only a blackboard and a piece of chalk2 
and ,i claim that1 with a piece of chalk
 and a blackboard1 ,i am able to explain
 very clearly all the details of this   
phenomenon4 ,not only does the chalk    
suffice for comprehension as well as    
vivisection1 but it is better2 because  
the experiment is so delicate1 so       
difficult1 and1 in order to be          
understood1 it must be observed so      
narrowly1 so closely1 that out of the   
whole class scarcely two or three       
students are able to follow the         
experiment4 ,the rest of the class have 
before them only the frightful spectacle
 of the reactions of a mutilated1       
suffering animal under excitations which
 are made in the very depths of a wound 
on organs which they do not see4  ,this 
experiment is rendered more particularly
 cruel by the fact that anaesthetics    
cannot be used1 precisely because the   
point in question is the sensibility or 
non-sensibility of the animal1 and      
consequently by its very nature the     

operation cannot be made on the         
insensible animal4#a  ,and now1 at once 
entering further into the difficulty of 
the problem of vivisection1 we may ask  
ourselves if we have the right to allow 
demonstrations of experimental          
physiology on living animals that have  
been rendered insensible by chloroform4 
,although1 further on1 ,i intend coming 
back to this important question of      
anaesthetics1 ,i will say at once ,i do 
not understand what repugnance there can
 be to operating upon an anaesthetised  
animal4 ,once he is insensible he cannot
 suffer2 why hesitate1 therefore1 to    
perform prolonged experiments upon that 
insensible being8 ,it appears to me just
 as inhuman to boil milk as to excite   
the pneumogastric nerve of a dog        
rendered incapable of suffering4 ,the   
milk does not suffer2 the dog does not  
suffer2 in both cases it is living      
matter1 but insensible living matter4   
,consequently1 as far as physiological  
demonstrations are concerned1 every     

individual capable of reflection should 
recognise that there is nothing wrong in
 experimenting upon animals that cannot 
suffer4  ,i shall1 however1 make two    
restrictions4 ,the first is that        
professors should energetically call the
 attention of the pupils to the fact    
that the animal is insensible1 and that 
no one has the right to make the        
experiment upon a sensitive animal2 that
 we1 physiologists1 more than all other 
men1 are under the obligation of dealing
 humanely with animals4 ,the professor  
of physiology should take advantage of  
the occasion to develop in his hearers  
the best and noblest sentiments1 those  
of pity and of generosity4 ,in a word1  
he should excuse himself1 so to speak1  
for performing vivisection1 and prove   
that such is only legitimate when it    
entails no suffering4  ,the second      
restriction is that the animal thus     
chloroformed or anaesthetised should    
never be permitted to awaken4 ,if he    
shows the slightest sign of sensibility1

 he should be given chloroform until    
anaesthesia is complete1 and1 finally1  
he ought to be killed after the         
experiment1 without allowing him to     
regain consciousness4  ,after all1 death
 under these conditions is a painless   
end4 ,we ourselves1 who will disappear  
after a long1 and certainly painful1    
agony1 in those weary moments of pain   
which will precede our end1 shall envy  
that absence of suffering1 that rapid   
end of all pain1 which is the death of  
an animal under an anaesthetic4  ,let   
us1 therefore1 banish every painful     
experiment the object of which is purely
 didactic4 ,moreover1 ,i fail to see    
what experiments in painful vivisection 
are necessary for the teaching of       
physiology4 ,studies on reflex movement 
can be made perfectly well on a         
decapitated animal2 and in that case it 
is well understood that there can be no 
question of pain2 for it would be absurd
 to suppose that the spinal cord        
possesses the power of receiving the    

notion of pain4 ,such a supposition     
would mean the negation of the          
best-established facts of physiology4   
,experiments on the heart 7notably of   
the frog and the tortoise7 are performed
 very much better on a decapitated      
animal than on an animal which is       
intact2 and experiments can even be made
 on the heart separated from the        
organism4 ,it would be downright puerile
 to lack the courage to watch the       
beating of the living heart of a dead   
tortoise6 ,as for the mammalia1 all     
experiments on the heart and on the     
respiration necessary in a course of    
lectures on physiology are admirably    
carried out on an animal rendered       
completely insensible4#b  ,we have not1 
however1 quite finished with the        
difficulties of physiological           
instruction3 there are certain poisons  
for which chloroform cannot be used4    
,as the essential property of chloroform
 is to deaden the nervous cells1 the    
effects of some poisons cannot be       

studied in an animal profoundly         
chloroformed4 ,we can watch very well   
indeed the effects of carbonic oxide1   
which poisons the blood1 but many other 
poisons no longer produce their         
characteristic symptoms2 nevertheless1  
it is of the highest importance to show 
medical students the effects of certain 
formidable toxic substances4  ,permit me
 to quote myself4 ,however little ,i may
 be a partisan of painful experimental  
demonstrations1 ,i make one exception   
for an experiment which ,i consider it  
essential to present1 in all its horror1
 before the young men who attend my     
lectures4 ,i refer to absinthe4 ,if two 
or three drops of essence of absinthe   
are injected into the veins of a dog1 he
 is at once seized by a violent attack  
of epilepsy with hallucinations1        
convulsions1 and foaming at the mouth4  
,it is truly a terrible sight1 one which
 fills with disgust and horror all who  
have witnessed this experiment4 ,but it 
is precisely for the sake of arousing   

this disgust1 this horror1 that ,i      
perform the experiment4 ,the unfortunate
 dog will1 during ten minutes1 have had 
an attack of intoxication and absinthian
 epilepsy2 but at the end of an hour he 
will have recovered completely4 ,at the 
same time1 the two hundred students who 
have witnessed this hideous spectacle   
will retain1 profoundly engraved on     
their minds1 the memory of that         
epileptic fury1 a memory which will     
remain with them to the end of their    
days4 ,they will then be able1 by their 
propaganda against absinthe1 to exercise
 around them a salutary influence1 to   
prevent perhaps ten1 fifteen1 one       
hundred human personalities from        
destroying themselves by the use of this
 abominable poison4 ,after all1 it is   
better to give a dog ten minutes of     
absinthism than to allow twenty human   
families to be plunged1 by absinthism1  
into degradation and misery4  ,finally1 
as far as surgical exercises are        
concerned1 they should never be made on 

a living animal2 as regards             
demonstrations of experimental          
physiology intended for instruction1    
they should be made only on decapitated 
or anaesthetised animals2 and as for    
intoxications1#c save on very rare and  
altogether exceptional occasions1 they  
should not be made the object of        
experimental demonstrations4  ,it seems 
to me that these formal declarations    
might be accepted by every physiologist 
as well as by every anti-vivisectionist4
  ,,footnotes3  #a ,the usages in       
,english laboratories in relation to    
this experiment are in accord with      
,professor ,richet's views4--7,w4 ,d4   
,h47  #b ,it may not be known to many   
readers1 that it is possible to keep    
alive for hours and even days the heart 
entirely removed from the body of a dead
 mammal4 ,on such a heart the action of 
drugs can be admirably studied and      
demonstrated4 ,i once had in my own     
laboratory a rabbit's heart that        
continued to beat for nearly five days  

after the remainder of the rabbit had   
served for the dinner of my laboratory  
attendant4--7,w4 ,d4 ,h47  #c ,the word 
intoxication here and elsewhere is used 
in its literal sense1 viz41 poisoning4  
,it is not limited1 as in popular       
parlance1 to the poisonous effects of   
alcohol4--7,w4 ,d4 ,h47     ,,chapter   
,,ii  ,,pain ,,and ,,death   ,we have   
not yet touched at the root of the      
problem1 for physiology is not mere     
demonstration4 ,the real point at issue 
is the search for new truths4 ,the      
demonstration of an acquired truth1     
however important this may be1 must not 
be confused with the research for an    
unknown truth4 ,now1 physiologists claim
 that they have not only the right--but 
that it is their duty--to inflict some  
suffering on animals1 if by so doing    
they diminish human suffering4 ,i am    
going to put this proposition to the    
test4  #a4 ,it is universally           
recognised1 except perhaps by the       
,brahmans1 that we have the right to    

kill dangerous or offensive animals4 ,i 
do not believe there is a man foolish   
enough not to kill a mosquito which is  
stinging him4 ,no one would hesitate to 
crush a viper which is on the point of  
biting him1 or the caterpillar which is 
eating the leaves of his fruit trees4   
,if an invasion of locusts threatens our
 harvest1 we have the right to stamp out
 these legions of enemies4 ,to refuse   
man the right to defend himself against 
his animal foes is such a ridiculous    
proposition that it is useless even to  
attempt to combat it4  ,not only have we
 the right to wage war against offensive
 animals1 such as rats1 mice1           
caterpillars1 locusts1 bugs1 mosquitoes1
 serpents1 wolves1 tigers1 hyaenas1 and 
all ferocious and mischievous animals1  
but we have also the right to kill such 
animals as are necessary for our        
nourishment4 ,i am quite aware of the   
fact that certain religions proscribe   
the use of meat4 ,i am also aware that  
an exclusively vegetable alimentation   

might be substituted for our customary  
mixed diet1 which is both animal and    
vegetable4 ,but1 though a vegetable     
alimentation is possible1 our western   
civilisation is bound up with the       
principle of a mixed diet in the        
ordinary conditions of life4 ,if1       
indeed1 alimentation should be          
exclusively vegetable1 it would be      
useless to hunt1 to fish1 to rear       
poultry1 to breed cattle for the market2
 and it would be necessary to confine   
our nutriment exclusively to wheat1     
corn1 maize1 rice1 herbs1 and fruits4   
,undoubtedly man1 thus nourished1 could 
live1 and indeed live very well2 but    
vegetarianism would be such a radical   
reform in our customs that in an article
 bearing solely upon vivisection ,i     
cannot handle such a vast problem4  ,i  
recognise that those                    
anti-vivisectionists who are at the same
 time strict vegetarians are consistent2
 they live entirely on fruit and        
vegetables1 make no use of animal flesh1

 for they contest the right of man to   
kill an animal for his nourishment4 ,it 
is difficult to reply to such           
vegetarian1#d for1 after all1 animal    
alimentation is not indispensable to    
human life4 ,but we must take things as 
they actually exist4 ,the bulk of my    
readers and the majority of             
anti-vivisectionists are not            
vegetarians2 and it is only an innocent 
pastime to build up new civilisations in
 the fantastic realms of ,utopia4  ,we  
are not1 then1 addressing ourselves to  
vegetarians1 but to those               
anti-vivisectionists who feel no        
compunction in drinking broth or milk or
 eating the wing of a chicken1 who do   
not shrink with horror from the sight of
 a cutlet1 and who are capable of eating
 meat twice a day throughout the whole  
term of their existence4 ,these people  
know full well that it was necessary to 
kill the animal which serves them for   
food3 the ox was beaten to death2 the   
sheep had its throat cut open2 the pig  

was bled to death2 the cod and the      
sardine were suffocated4 ,i pass over   
the tortures which special preparations 
and elegant sports inflict on the animal
 for the mere savour of our meals3 geese
 stuffed by force for months whilst     
nailed down to boards2 pheasants1       
partridges1 hares1 slaughtered in the   
hunt2 fish thrown into boats1 gasping   
and finally dying after long1 agonising 
struggles4 ,all these and other tortures
 are inflicted by man on the animal in  
order to satisfy his pleasure and his   
appetite4  ,perhaps these               
anti-vivisectionists have never visited 
a slaughter-house when the moment for   
killing the sheep has arrived4 ,there1  
bound and stretched out on an immense   
table1 are to be seen five hundred      
unfortunate sheep1 with their throats   
thrust forth4 ,the butcher passes in    
front and1 with a stroke of his knife1  
slashes open the neck and throat of the 
poor wretches2 the blood spouts out1    
convulsions rend the body1 and only at  

the end of one minute or one and a half 
minutes does death supervene4 ,this is  
death in all its savage horror inflicted
 by man on the animal4 ,there are       
anti-vivisectionists who accept this4   
,therefore1 they recognise implicitly   
man's right to kill animals1 since they 
profit by such slaughter for their      
alimentation2 they add1 however1 that   
though man has a right to kill1 he has  
no right to cause suffering4 ,is there  
no suffering in the slaughter-house8    
,are anaesthetics ever dreamt of there8 
#b4 ,now it is impossible to point out  
the boundary line which separates the   
being that suffers from the being that  
does not suffer2 and ,i defy any one to 
establish any line of demarcation       
whatsoever between a being capable of   
pain and a being incapable of pain4     
,plants certainly do not suffer4        
,already1 however1 there are certain    
difficulties in the way of determining  
the exact boundary line between the     
animal and the plant4 ,when we expose an

 infusion of hay to the air1 for        
instance1 various microbes develop      
therein4 ,a learned and minute analysis 
allows us to distinguish both bacteria  
and infusoria among the innumerable     
micro-organisms which swarm in the      
infusion4 ,now we know that bacteria are
 plants and infusoria are animals4 ,if1 
therefore1 all animal life were         
eliminated from experimentation1 we     
should have no right to boil an infusion
 of hay1 because we know that it        
contains infusoria which are animals4   
,these infusoria are so closely related 
to bacteria that they may be confused   
with the latter1 as indeed has been the 
case up to the last few years4 ,a number
 of inferior beings were formerly called
 zoophytes1 that is to say1 animal      
plants2 and it is sheer nonsense to     
suppose that they are conscious of pain4
 ,sponges1 corals1 sea-anemones1        
star-fishes1 sea-urchins1 possess a     
nervous system which is so little       
developed1 and reactions which are so   

indistinct1 that we can scarcely suppose
 they possess an intelligent            
consciousness1 and1 consequently1       
sensibility to pain4 ,moreover1 ,i do   
not see how their reactions would differ
 if they possessed the notion of pain4  
,when we touch the tentacles of a       
star-fish1 we notice1 near the tentacles
 touched1 a sort of agitation set up    
among the neighbouring tentacles1 but   
this agitation does not extend to the   
tentacles of the others' arms2 so that a
 general consciousness does not appear  
to exist1 unless it be in a prodigiously
 rudimentary state1 among inferior      
beings4 ,in certain classes of the      
mollusca there is no head4 ,thus oysters
 and mussels1 named on that account     
acephala1 have in all probability no    
consciousness4 ,i would have no scruple1
 therefore1 either in eating living     
oysters1 or in experimenting upon living
 oysters and mussels1 since it seems to 
me evident that the notion of pain does 
not exist in them4  ,it is not the same 

thing with insects2 it is here that the 
first signs of pain begin to appear4    
,nevertheless1 we must be careful to    
avoid confusing pain with signs of pain4
 ,when we take a worm and cut it into   
three segments1 each of these segments  
will struggle and writhe in a perfect   
frenzy4 ,it would1 therefore1 be        
necessary to admit that pain existed in 
each of these three segments--in other  
words1 that each fragment possesses a   
central seat of pain1 which is absurd2  
it is much more rational to suppose that
 the perturbed movements of the animal  
are the result of a strong nervous      
excitation1 and that the injury is      
accompanied by defensive reflex         
movements but provokes no painful       
perception4  ,among the superior animals
 however1 and especially among the      
vertebrata1 pain exists4 ,there can be  
no doubt about this1 although it is     
impossible to know exactly in what      
consists the consciousness of pain in an
 animal2 the most profound obscurity    

still reigns1 and will perhaps always   
reign1 over their consciousness and     
sensations4 ,it would be ridiculous to  
deny that a dog suffers when his paw is 
crushed4 ,certainly1 ,i fully believe   
that all pain is much less clearly      
perceived by the dog than by man4 ,but1 
after all1 it is a phenomenon of the    
same order and identical1 save in       
intensity4  ,now pain1 taken in its     
profoundest sense1 consists of two      
essential elements3 a shock to the      
conscious self1 the ego1 in the first   
place2 and1 in the second place1 the    
prolongation of the shock4 ,if the self 
is not distinctly conscious1 if it does 
not go so far as to assert itself by the
 separation of that self from the       
external world1 we cannot say that pain 
is possible4 ,the ego never asserts     
itself with so much force as under a    
very painful impression4 ,so that among 
beings whose reactions are mechanical1  
automatic1 governed by other forces than
 by the assertion of the self and a     

freely deliberate will1 pain becomes so 
indistinct1 so confused1 that it        
probably does not exist in the strict   
psychological sense at all4 ,the        
greatest philosopher of modern times1   
,descartes1 imagined a system of        
machine-animals2 this idea has been     
turned into ridicule by the ignorant1   
but nevertheless we are almost forced to
 return to it when we dive to the bottom
 of reflex movements4 ,now1 if we are   
able to admit that there is a vague     
consciousness of the selfhood among     
superior animals1 such as the mammalia  
and birds1 this consciousness1 as far as
 concerns the inferior vertebrata1 is   
most certainly extremely hazy1 if1      
indeed1 it exists at all4 ,i have       
difficulty in conceiving that a frog is 
able to ponder over its ego1 assert its 
existence in presence of the external   
world1 and say or think1 ,i ,,suffer4   
,no being suffers unless he is able to  
think that he suffers1 and meditate on  
his suffering4 ,to suffer means to have 

consciousness2 and as far as it is      
permissible for a man to picture to     
himself the sensations of a frog1 ,i    
should say that the frog has no         
consciousness of suffering4  ,even as   
regards the more highly developed       
vertebrata1 such as birds1 rabbits1 and 
guinea-pigs1 suffering is probably of a 
very obscure nature4 ,it is not enough  
to say that an animal suffers because we
 see him animated by the contortions and
 reactions of defence4 ,the new-born    
infant1 which has neither intelligence  
nor memory nor consciousness1 is        
probably incapable of real conscious    
suffering1 nevertheless it screams and  
cries when it is hungry or when it is   
pricked4 ,but these screams and tears do
 not suffice to allow us to affirm that 
the child is suffering real pain4 ,it is
 a nervous excitation which is          
translated by the reactions of defence2 
it is not the conscious assertion of an 
ego which has been painfully perturbed4 
,further1 for pain to exist the         

impression must be durable and not      
fugitive4 ,the assertion of the ego is  
not enough4 ,it must be prolonged4 ,a   
pain1 however intense we may suppose it 
to be1 which traverses the organism for 
a second and which leaves no painful    
echo behind it1 is no real pain4 ,i will
 allow any one to inflict the most      
excruciating tortures on me if he can   
assure me that1 at the end of one       
second1 ,i shall have lost all          
recollection of the suffering and that  
no trace of the torture will remain4    
,the extraction of a tooth lasts perhaps
 only half a second1 but you remember it
 all your life4 ,in any case1 for       
several minutes the pain continues to be
 atrocious4 ,therefore we may certainly 
consider that pain is a phenomenon of   
memory4 ,pain is an empty word for every
 being that has no memory4  ,from these 
facts we may evolve the general         
conclusion that1 under penalty of       
falling into vulgar anthromorphism1 we  
cannot apply to the pain of animals the 

data which have been gathered on human  
pain4#e ,with man1 the developed        
intelligence and vivacious memory enable
 pain to acquire an extreme intensity4  
,but with animals1 in proportion as the 
intelligence lessens and the memory     
becomes more rudimentary1 so does pain  
diminish1 and1 without having the right 
to be very affirmative1 as we are in    
profound darkness concerning the        
consciousness of animals1 it appears to 
me that1 as we descend the scale of the 
animal kingdom1 pain rapidly becomes    
very hazy1 scarcely perceived1 and as   
indistinct as the consciousness of the  
ego4  ,we have1 therefore1 the right to 
perform vivisection on beings which1    
because they possess no selfhood1 do not
 suffer4 ,now1 this absence of memory1  
consciousness1 and intelligence extends 
assuredly over the whole of the         
vegetable kingdom1 almost certainly over
 all the groups of the invertebrata1 and
 also probably over all the inferior    
vertebrata4  ,finally1 there remain only

 the mammalia and birds which are       
capable of real pain4 ,although this    
pain may be obscure and indistinct1 it  
is certain2 and we must take it into    
consideration or fall into barbarism2   
therefore we shall restrict the problem 
of vivisection to the vivisection of    
superior animals1 who1 alone1 are       
capable of suffering4  ,,footnotes3  #d 
,the true vegetarian is an extremely    
rare person4 ,the usual so-called       
vegetarian ought more properly to be    
called a non-meat eater1 for he does not
 scruple to consume milk 7intended by   
nature for the calf7 and milk products  
7cream1 cheese1 and butter7 and eggs1   
nor to wear garments made of wool and   
leather4--7,w4 ,d4 ,h47  #e ,in the     
little leaflet already referred to1     
quotation is made of a sentence from    
,professor ,pritchard1 which says that  
the various animals have a skin of      
different thickness1 but that           
sensibility is the same among all1      
including man4 ,it seems to me that     

,professor ,pritchard has scarcely      
looked into the questions of general    
psychology4     ,,chapter ,,iii         
,,concerning ,,anaesthesia ,,in         
,,vivisection   ,a few words are first  
of all necessary to indicate precisely  
what anaesthesia is4  ,by definition1 an
 anaesthetic is a substance which1      
without paralysing the activity of the  
heart and the respiration1 abolishes    
sensibility4 ,indeed1 whenever general  
sensibility is abolished1 there is1 at  
the same time1 abolition of             
consciousness1 of intelligence1 and of  
memory4 ,another characteristic of an   
anaesthetic is that its action is of a  
transient nature4 ,at the end of a      
certain time1 it disappears2 and then   
intelligence1 consciousness1 and memory 
return gradually with sensibility4  ,it 
is well known that the admirable        
discovery of general anaesthesia1       
allowing operations to be performed on  
man without the accompaniment of pain1  
was due to chance4 ,it was an ,american 

dentist1 ,horace ,wells1 and his        
colleague1 ,morton 7and others also     
perhaps71 who discovered by chance that 
protoxide of nitrogen 7commonly called  
laughing gas7 has the power1 when       
inhaled1 of annulling all sensibility to
 pain for a certain length of           
time--sufficiently long for a surgical  
operation 7#ahdj74 ,then they discovered
 the effects of ether 7#ahdb74 ,since   
then1 many other anaesthetics have been 
introduced1 notably chloroform1 prepared
 by ,soubeiran in #ahcb1 but the        
anaesthetic properties of which were    
only discovered in #ahdg by ,flourens   
and ,simpson2 so that physiologists and 
surgeons are now quite familiar with the
 mode of action of anaesthetics4        
,anaesthetics1 in appropriate doses1    
poison the nervous cells1 which are the 
seat of intelligence and sensibility1   
but leave unimpaired the functions of   
the cardiac nervous system and of the   
nervous system governing the            
respiration4 ,an individual under       

chloroform breathes regularly2 his heart
 beats rhythmically1 but all            
intelligence has disappeared2 he has no 
longer any will or memory or reflex     
actions1 and the most painful operations
 can be performed on him without        
provoking the smallest phenomenon of    
sensibility4  ,further1 we have no      
hesitation in asserting that the        
anaesthetised animal behaves like the   
anaesthetised man2 that is to say1      
chloroform given to an animal abolishes 
all sensibility to pain4 ,vivisection1  
therefore1 on an anaesthetised animal1  
does not provoke any pain4              
,physiologists are so convinced of this 
that1 however humane they may be1 they  
have no scruple in performing lengthy   
vivisections on an animal which is      
thoroughly anaesthetised4  ,if          
chloroform1 for some reason or other1   
cannot be employed1 many other          
anaesthetics1 such as chloral and       
morphia1 may be used4 ,chloral1 in      
certain doses1 produces complete        

anaesthesia1 and it is easier to        
administer than chloroform4 ,formerly1  
chloral was injected1 by a small        
puncture1 into the veins of rabbits and 
dogs4 ,i pointed out another method     
which allows one to avoid even the      
puncture2 it is sufficient to make a    
rectal injection of the solution of     
chloral4 ,in two or three minutes1 the  
dog1 the rabbit1 or the guinea-pig1 is  
seized with a kind of inebriety2 he     
staggers1 falls to the ground1 and in   
about ten minutes he is completely      
anaesthetised4 ,large doses of morphia  
can be injected into animals without    
causing immediate death4 ,an animal     
under a moderate dose of morphia does   
not absolutely lose all sensibility to  
pain2 but the slight pain which he then 
feels is very transient4 ,if the animal 
is submitted to strong excitation1 he   
wakens for a few seconds1 but soon falls
 back again into profound slumber4      
,morphia in moderate doses is not such a
 perfect anaesthetic as chloral or      

chloroform2 it is therefore usual under 
such circumstances to administer also   
volatile anaesthetics like chloroform1  
and quite small quantities of the latter
 will then produce perfect anaesthesia4 
,if1 however1 morphia is given in lethal
 doses1 as is sometimes done for        
comparatively short experiments1 it is  
an absolutely complete anaesthetic in   
itself1 just as it is when a man takes a
 fatal dose of morphia1 or of its parent
 substance1 opium4  ,nevertheless1      
chloroform1 chloral1 and ether have a   
very serious disadvantage for the       
physiologist4 ,they abolish sensibility1
 but1 at the same time1 they abolish the
 majority of the reflex actions in which
 voluntary muscles are concerned4 ,now1 
in many experiments1 it is indispensable
 to be able to study such reflex        
movements1 that is to say1 the          
fundamental reactions of the nervous    
system4 ,thus1 physiologists1 more      
preoccupied1 it must be said1 with      
assuring the immobility than the        

insensibility of the animal1 have had   
recourse to another substance1 curare1  
the properties of which were            
investigated by ,claude ,bernard4       
,curare is a poison which the natives on
 the banks of the ,amazon prepare from a
 bind-weed of the strychnia family4     
,they boil the plant with several       
ingredients1 finally obtaining a sort of
 blackish resin1 or gummy juice1 which  
they place in little gourds1 which can  
be procured also in ,europe4 ,this juice
 is used by ,south ,american ,indians   
for their arrows1 and physiologists use 
it to ensure the immobility of the      
animal on which they are experimenting4 
,curare dissolves in water1 and a       
solution of a few centigrams injected   
under the skin of a dog1 a cat1 a       
rabbit1 will bring about the death of   
the animal in a few minutes4 ,but death 
is not due to the arrest of the heart's 
action1 it is due entirely to paralysis 
of the respiration4 ,therefore the      
curarised animal can continue to live   

for several hours if artificial         
breathing be substituted for the natural
 breathing which is paralysed4 ,for     
several hours the animal is completely  
motionless2 the heart beats with force  
and regularity1 provided that the       
insufflation of air into the lungs      
introduces into the blood the quantity  
of oxygen necessary for the life of the 
tissues4 ,now1 under these conditions1  
as ,claude ,bernard has so well         
demonstrated1 we have no proof that     
sensibility is abolished also4 ,there is
 immobility2 there is no true           
anaesthesia4 ,take two animals1 one     
chloroformed1 the other curarised2 both 
are equally inert2 but the chloroformed 
animal is insensible1 whilst the        
curarised animal retains sensibility4   
,it is impossible1 therefore1 to say    
that curare replaces anaesthetics1      
because curare is not an anaesthetic4#f 
,now1 in #ahid ,i was able to discover a
 substance which has all the anaesthetic
 properties of chloroform1 and which    

nevertheless does not abolish reflex    
actions1 so that physiologists are able 
to use it for experiments which1        
formerly1 necessitated the use of       
curare4 ,this substance is called       
chloralose2 it is obtained by mixing    
anhydrous chloral with glucose4 ,it is  
not necessary for me to describe here in
 detail its chemical or physiological   
properties2 ,i will only say that in    
very small doses 7about twenty-five     
centigrams7 it is an excellent hypnotic 
for man1 and that in larger doses1      
injected into the vein of a dog or a    
rabbit1 it brings about complete        
anaesthesia without affecting either the
 breathing1 the heart1 or the reflex    
actions4  ,since this discovery1 many   
physiologists--and ,i regret not to be  
able to say so of every                 
physiologist--have given up curare and  
use nothing but chloralose1 which is a  
perfect anaesthetic1 and which allows   
the reflex actions to be studied        
although anaesthesia is perfect4  ,it   

may be objected that a tiny puncture has
 to be made in the vein to introduce the
 chloralose into the circulation2 but   
this puncture is really such a trifle   
that it would be sheer childishness to  
pay any attention to it4 ,what doctor   
would hesitate to make a puncture in the
 skin of his patient for the injection  
of a solution of morphia8 ,however1 if  
sentimentality be pushed to such a      
degree as to shrink from touching the   
vein of a dog in order to put him to    
sleep1 even this tiny puncture can be   
avoided by mixing the chloralose with   
the food of the animal to be            
experimented upon4 ,in half an hour or  
three-quarters of an hour after the     
mixture is given he is in a state of    
perfect anaesthesia4  ,for these        
reasons1 vivisection with anaesthesia   
seems to me to be quite legitimate4 ,as 
soon as it is recognised that man has   
the right to kill the animal1 he has the
 right to kill him as he pleases1       
provided he spares him all suffering4   

,let us also reflect a little on this   
point3 an animal has to die just as much
 as we ourselves4 ,now1 natural death   
would certainly be for him a long and   
cruel agony1 lasting several hours1     
several days1 perhaps several weeks4    
,well1 then1 we replace hideous old age1
 the agony of prolonged tortures due to 
disease1 by a dreamless sleep1 which at 
once plunges the animal into            
nothingness1 without his passing through
 the intermediary stage of necessary    
suffering4 ,is this what is called being
 inhuman8 ,for my part1 ,i shall regret 
on my death-bed that no physiologist    
will be found whose conscience will     
permit him1 or1 if so1 who would have   
sufficient courage to help me to pass   
away under the influence of chloroform1 
ether1 chloralose1 morphia1 or chloral1 
thus saving me from the throes of the   
final struggle1 and bestowing upon me a 
peaceful death and an easy termination  
of all suffering4  ,,footnotes3  #f ,in 
,england1 the ,vivisection ,act         

expressly states that curare is not to  
be regarded as an anaesthetic1 and this 
proviso has been loyally accepted by    
,english physiologists4 ,on those rare  
occasions when curare is used1 and the  
occasions are very rare indeed1 and year
 by year they become rarer1 a volatile  
anaesthetic such as chloroform or       
,a4,c4,e4 7alcohol1 chloroform1 ether7  
mixture is administered at the same time
 in sufficient amount to render         
anaesthesia absolute4 ,one should add   
that since ,claude ,bernard's work on   
curare1 physiologists have seen reason  
for doubting whether it leaves          
sensibility intact1 as ,bernard thought4
 ,but as there is doubt on the question1
 and the available evidence in favour of
 its lulling sensations is small1 it is 
still considered advisable to retain    
,bernard's views1 and act as though it  
is not an anaesthetic at all4--7,w4 ,d4 
,h47     ,,chapter ,,iv  ,,concerning   
,,experimentation ,,other ,,than        
,,vivisection   ,we must1 however1 give 

to the word ,vivisection its largest    
acceptation4 ,it is not only a question 
of cutting nerves1 of stimulating the   
glands1 or of exciting the muscles4     
,there are experiments of much longer   
duration in which there is no mutilation
 properly speaking1 but intoxication1#g 
produced by the injection of poisons and
 disease germs4  ,it is1 indeed1 evident
 that pain can be provoked in other ways
 than by a sharp-edged instrument1 which
 can always be done under anaesthesia4  
,but may inoculation be performed8 ,may 
prolonged intoxication be caused8 ,to   
treat the question in all its fulness1  
we will put the problem in the following
 manner4  ,in order to study a disease1 
have we the right to give that disease  
to an animal8  ,for my part1 there can  
be no doubt on the point1 and ,i affirm 
that such is our right4  ,as a matter of
 fact1 and as every unbiassed person is 
forced to recognise1 it is only by      
experimentation that these diseases can 
be studied thoroughly4 ,clinical        

observation1 bearing exclusively upon   
man1 can only give incomplete results1  
much poorer1 though its documents are   
multitudinous1 than the results         
furnished by experimentation1 which can 
be infinitely varied at will4 ,if we    
were limited to the ,hippocratic method 
of observation1 which consists in       
studying the symptoms and the progress  
of a morbid affliction1 we should be    
reduced to poor enough resources2 and if
 meditation on the aphorisms of         
,hippocrates constituted the whole      
extent of our medical science1 medical  
science would be a sad vacuum4          
,fortunately1 however1 such is not the  
case4 ,marvellous progress has been     
realised1 which allows us to entertain  
quite other ideas than those of the     
,father of ,medicine on the nature of   
diseases1 and consequently on their     
treatment and their prevention4 ,those  
very persons who rise up in arms against
 physiological experimentation would    
not1 ,i imagine1 desire to be handed    

over to the care of a ,hippocratic      
doctor if they were ill1 to a doctor who
 took no notice of any modern           
discoveries under the pretext that they 
were acquired by experimentation in     
anima vili4  ,if1 however1 we wish to   
discuss the problem thoroughly1 it will 
not do to remain on indefinite ground4  
,let us arrive at precise facts4 ,i will
 mention only three discoveries1 the    
importance of which is considerable1 and
 which have been established solely by  
experimentation4  ,first of all1 there  
is antisepsis4 ,for centuries and       
centuries surgeons operated without     
understanding why it was that death     
struck down so unmercifully those       
operated upon4 ,in vain did surgeons    
display great skill2 in vain did the    
operation succeed3 the patient died4    
,erysipelas1 lock-jaw1 abscess-formation
 and gangrene reigned supreme4 ,every   
confinement exposed the mother to death2
 the slightest wounds were followed by  
the most serious after-effects2 in      

certain amputations1 for instance1 the  
mortality was #gj per cent4 ,no one     
dared to touch either the peritoneum or 
the joints1 because every operation on  
the peritoneum or on the articulations  
was sure to prove fatal4 ,but ,lister   
and ,pasteur came6 ,these two men1      
simultaneously and concurrently1        
demonstrated that all disease following 
on an operation was the result of       
infection by parasites4 ,by preventing  
the wounds from being contaminated by   
parasites1 infection was prevented2 for 
the wounds themselves are innocent1 as  
long as they are not infected4  ,this is
 the astounding and simple truth which  
,lister and ,pasteur established4 ,and  
let no one pretend it is so simple that 
the data could have been furnished by   
clinical observation alone1 for such an 
assertion would be contradicted by the  
facts4  ,thousands and thousands of     
surgeons1 right up to #ahfh1 had        
understood nothing of infection4 ,in    
order to understand this big word       

infection1 which sums up in itself the  
whole of surgery and the whole of       
medicine1 it was necessary to inject pus
 into animals1 gather the microbes which
 then developed in the blood of these   
animals1 isolate the microbes1 cultivate
 them1 inject them afresh1 and produce  
an experimental disease4 ,it was in this
 manner only that we were able to       
understand the mechanism of antisepsis1 
and1 consequently1 apply it to the      
treatment of operations and wounds4     
,three or four volumes could be written 
on this subject alone1 but all ,i can   
attempt here is a summary of the main   
points4 ,i say without hesitation that  
as long as clinical medicine confined   
itself only to the observation of       
patients1 it was able to understand     
nothing1 to analyse nothing1 to foresee 
nothing4 ,it was necessary to           
experiment1 to sacrifice a few hundred  
mice1 rats1 and rabbits1 in order to    
demonstrate that erysipelas is an       
inoculable disease1 that puerperal      

infection is of the same nature as      
purulent infection1 that all these      
diseases are due to micro-organisms1 and
 that certain substances1 called        
antiseptics1 can stop the development of
 these fatal germs4  ,it appears quite  
natural to-day 7and it seems to simple  
minds1 ignorant of the past and         
powerless to imagine the past1 that     
these notions have been current from all
 eternity7 to know that instruments1    
water1 and linen heated to #abj deg4    
contain no living germs4 ,but this      
discovery is not so very old4 ,it was   
,pasteur who1 between #ahfc and #ahgc1  
established it by some memorable        
experiments at the cost of a little     
disease given to rats and guinea-pigs4  
,illustration3 ,,pasteur ,,in ,,his     
,,laboratory4  facing p4 #dd4  ,now--and
 ,i appeal to the good sense of my      
readers--would it be better to efface   
the suffering of those rats1 those      
guinea-pigs1 those rabbits1 and return  
to the olden times when the mortality in

 lying-in hospitals was often #dj per   
cent4 7it is to-day1 #j4jb per cent4678 
,must we condemn ,lister and ,pasteur as
 great criminals because they dared to  
inoculate microbes into a few rabbits   
and bring about in those unfortunate    
animals--they would have died a long    
time ago even without that--experimental
 ailments in order to ward off malignant
 diseases from thousands and thousands  
of human beings8         99       99    
99       99       99  ,the second       
discovery which ,i shall mention is that
 of the infectiousness of tuberculosis4 
,thousands and thousands of doctors had 
had tuberculous patients under their    
care4 ,three thousand years ago1        
,hippocrates described tuberculosis with
 as much precision as could be done     
to-day4 ,illustrious physicians in every
 land had tried to analyse the nature of
 this terrible disease and to unravel   
its cause2 nevertheless1 they were      
unable1 from clinical observation alone1
 to prove what is to-day quite          

commonplace knowledge1 viz41 that       
tuberculosis is infectious4 ,in #ahfd1 a
 ,french doctor1 ,villemin1 conceived   
the simple and ingenious idea of        
inoculating rabbits with the tuberculous
 matter found in the lungs of           
consumptive patients4 ,these rabbits    
became tuberculous2 they died in a few  
weeks with tuberculous granulations in  
lungs and liver4 ,it was thus           
demonstrated that tuberculosis was      
infectious4 ,later on1 in #ahgh1 ,koch  
discovered that the active agent of this
 infection is a special microbe4 ,but1  
however important may be the discovery  
of the microbe of tuberculosis 7the     
tubercle-bacillus of ,koch71 the        
essential dominating fact is that       
tuberculosis is infectious4  ,as soon as
 this great fact became known1 a        
profound revolution occurred in social  
hygiene1 in the treatment and in the    
prevention of this terrible evil4 ,we   
know now the consumptive man carries in 
his lungs and sputum the germ capable of

 developing the same evil in others2    
consequently we know how to preserve    
ourselves against tuberculosis4 ,we must
 purify or destroy the habitations      
wherein consumptives have lived1 burn or
 carbolise all the sputum1 make spitting
 in public places a punishable offence1 
take sanitary measures against unhealthy
 meat1 defend our children against      
contaminated milk--in a word1 we are    
armed against a disease1 the sole and   
unique cause of which1 as               
experimentation alone has taught us1 is 
infection4  ,formerly it was believed   
that diseases were due to a sort of     
divine anger1 or1 what amounts pretty   
much to the same thing1 to certain      
imperceptible epidemic exhalations      
stretching over whole populations1 or   
attacking isolated individuals1 striking
 like an exterminating angel1 as his    
fancy chose1 such or such an unhappy    
victim4 ,a sort of will or caprice1     
governed only by chance1 was exercised  
in relation to this disease1 and man was

 powerless1 because he was unarmed      
against chance4 ,he did not even think  
of it4 ,he resigned himself to being    
ill1 and waited for the disease1 without
 doing anything to fight against it1    
benumbed under a kind of ,oriental      
fatalism4 ,the doctor shook his head1   
bore testimony to the evil1 and confined
 himself to prescribing inefficacious   
treatments which were only1 according to
 a celebrated saying1 a long meditation 
on death4  ,but the times have changed2 
there is no longer any fatality in      
tuberculosis2 there is imprudence1 there
 is error1 there is vice1 and1          
specially1 social vice4 ,we may almost  
say that1 if there are still            
consumptives in our midst1 it is because
 of our defective social institutions4  
,we leave innumerable populations       
steeped in misery1 seven or eight       
individuals living in the same infected 
hovel4 ,in the slums of our large       
cities1 swarms of infants are to be     
found morally and materially perverted  

by misery4 ,therefore1 if consumption   
still exists1 it is our own fault2 it is
 no longer as it was in olden times1    
when we knew not1 because now we know4  
,the plague can be battled with2 and if 
it still has so much power left1 it is  
because we have not the courage to apply
 to public and individual hygiene the   
treatment science has definitely shown  
us should be applied4 ,to foresee is to 
know2 and now that we know1 we must not 
forget that it is to experimenters1 and 
to experimenters alone1 that we are     
indebted for this great benefit4        
,moreover1 however imperfect our defence
 against tuberculosis may still be1 it  
is by no means nil2 great progress has  
been made2 the mortality has decreased  
in a considerable proportion4 ,during   
the last twenty-five years1 it has      
decreased by about #be per cent41 and   
notably in ,england1 where the laws of  
public hygiene1 energetically upheld by 
the good sense of the people1 are       
strictly applied1 the mortality has     

diminished by #ej per cent4 ,this is    
only a beginning1 and the near future   
will bring about the complete           
extermination of the disease4  ,now1    
honestly1 ,i ask if the rabbits which   
,villemin sacrificed weigh more in the  
scales of universal progress1 and even  
in public morality1 than the three      
millions of individuals who1 by progress
 in hygiene1 have been preserved from an
 early and painful death4 ,i estimate at
 a high price the life and the          
sufferings of fifty rabbits1 but1 at the
 risk of appearing a barbarian1 ,i      
prefer1 to these fifty rabbits1 the     
three millions of young people who have 
been saved by ,villemin's discovery1 and
 the millions which it will still save4 
,all the more so1 inasmuch as           
experimental studies on tuberculosis    
have not only preserved men2 they have  
also preserved animals4 ,thanks to      
,koch1 there is now a very simple way of
 recognising if an animal is or is not  
tuberculous4 ,koch was able to extract  

from tubercle bacilli1 a substance which
 he has called tuberculin4 ,at first he 
thought tuberculin cured the disease2   
but this was an error4 ,subsequent      
experiments showed that tuberculin      
exercised quite a different action to   
that of healing4 ,it has the property1  
when injected in small doses into a     
tuberculous animal1 of provoking an     
intense fever1 whilst it produces no    
reaction whatsoever in a normal animal4 
,if1 therefore1 tuberculin is injected  
into every animal in the cattle shed1 we
 can feel sure--and this is impossible  
otherwise--that such or such animals are
 tuberculous or healthy4 ,all cows that 
show a rise in temperature after an     
injection of tuberculin are tuberculous2
 the others1 on the contrary1 are in    
good health4  ,thus the sanitary        
inspection of stables and cattle-sheds  
can be carried out thoroughly2 and we   
are now able to protect not only men but
 also animals from the disease of       
tuberculosis4  ,such results could only 

have been obtained at the cost of many  
and methodical experiments4 ,whatever   
may be the genius of                    
anti-vivisectionists1 they would never  
have been able to imagine anything      
similar had they been left to their own 
intellectual powers4 ,it is not in the  
study that we are able to discover this 
long series of unforeseen1              
extraordinary1 almost miraculous facts  
which laboratory experimentation has    
been able to find out4 ,man1 said       
,pascal1 tires of conceiving sooner than
 ,nature tires of providing2 and        
experimentation is man's method of      
interrogating ,nature4         99       
99       99       99       99  ,the     
third discovery which ,i shall take as  
an example demonstrating the value of   
experimentation1 is the history of      
,serotherapy4 ,and ,i may be permitted  
to dwell somewhat on this subject as ,i 
had the good fortune1 in #ahhh1 of      
making the decisive experiment which was
 the beginning of serotherapy4  ,whilst 

inoculating some rabbits and dogs with a
 microbe taken from pus 7,staphylococcus
 pyosepticus71 ,i developed a certain   
disease both in the rabbits and in the  
dogs4 ,but the dogs did not die1 whilst 
all the rabbits died from the results of
 the inoculation4 ,i thought then that1 
the cause of that resistance being due  
to the difference of blood1 ,i might be 
able to make the rabbit refractory to   
the infection by injecting it with the  
blood of a dog in normal health4 ,the   
experiment succeeded4 ,the rabbits which
 had received the blood of the dog1 when
 they were afterwards infected with the 
staphylococcus1 became very ill but did 
not die4 ,later on1 ,i took1 not the    
blood of a dog in normal health1 but the
 blood of a dog that had received the   
infection of the staphylococcus and had 
recovered from that infection1 and ,i   
injected this blood into the rabbits4   
,now the rabbits that received the blood
 of the infected1 healed dog had        
acquired complete immunity to this form 

of microbe infection3 the principle of  
serotherapy was discovered 7#eth ,nov4  
#ahhh74  ,illustration3 ,l',,enfant4    
,in ,musee du ,luxembourg1 ,paris4      
facing p4 #ec4  ,since then1 serotherapy
 has been applied1 by ,behring in       
,germany and by ,roux in ,france1 to    
diphtheria 7#ahib74 ,these two savants  
showed that the blood of animals1 and   
especially of horses1 that had been     
infected with diphtheria and cured1     
could1 when injected into patients      
attacked by diphtheria1 diminish1 in an 
extraordinary proportion1 the duration  
and intensity of the disease4 ,there is 
no other treatment for diphtheria       
to-day4 ,a doctor is guilty1 and even   
criminal1 if he does not use it1 for the
 therapeutic results of this treatment  
are marvellous4  ,i do not speak of     
clinical observation only4 ,all those   
who have seen the effects of one of     
these injections of serum on children   
down with diphtheria are veritably      
stupefied at the resurrection which they

 witness only a few minutes after the   
injection4 ,the unfortunate child with  
his purple face and convulsed limbs1    
scarcely breathing1 comes back to fresh 
life as soon as he has received the     
beneficent injection of serum4 ,the     
facts are so decisively clear that even 
if we have only seen them once we can   
never again forget them4 ,but ,i shall  
simply call the attention of my readers 
to the following statistics1 the result 
of more than #ejj1jjj observations made 
in ,england1 in the ,united ,states1 in 
,france1 in ,russia1 in ,germany1 in    
,italy1 in ,austria1 in fact everywhere3
 the death-rate in diphtheria before    
#ahib 7for the serotherapic method took 
four years to become known and          
practised7 was #de per cent4 ,after     
#ahib1 this death-rate fell to #ab per  
cent4#h ,consequently1 out of every     
hundred patients suffering from         
diphtheria1 thirty are saved by the     
serotherapic treatment4  ,let us stop   
for a moment to consider these figures1 

which seem mere abstractions to those   
who have not reflected4 ,at the present 
time1 about #cjj1jjj children per annum 
in ,france are attacked by diphtheria2  
that makes #d1ejj1jjj from #ahib to     
#aijg4 ,the proportion of #cj per cent4 
is therefore #a1cej1jjj4 ,the number of 
children who have been saved in ,france 
alone by serotherapy in fifteen years is
 therefore #a1cej1jjj4 ,let us put it in
 round numbers at one million only2 this
 would be sufficient to justify the     
death of the twenty-five dogs and the   
one hundred rabbits which ,i sacrificed1
 and of the two hundred horses which    
,behring and ,roux used for the         
preparation of the anti-diphtheria      
serum4 ,a million families in mourning1 
a million hopes mowed down in the bud6  
,only fanatics would dare to say this   
weighs for nought in the balance4       
,moreover--and why should ,i not say it 
aloud8--this so-called humanity of      
anti-vivisectionists seems to me the    
antithesis of humanity4 ,to satisfy a   

conception which they have forged out of
 a certain hazy ideal1 they make quick  
shrift of human life and suffering4 ,a  
hundred weeping mothers1 a hundred      
unfortunate children with gaping        
throats1 suffocating1 gasping1 the      
death-rattle at hand--that is what these
 sensitive souls declare is nothing     
beside one rabbit which has had to      
receive a little blood of a dog into its
 abdomen6 ,these philanthropists are    
creatures of a fixed idea6 ,let humanity
 suffer1 weep and die6 ,what does that  
matter1 provided that their fixed idea1 
driven right up to the hilt of delirium1
 triumphs6 ,after all1 if they persist  
in believing that the faint and         
uncertain suffering of a sick rabbit is 
not worth the certain and excruciating  
suffering of a thousand human creatures1
 ,i can say but one thing3 ,i pity them 
from the very bottom of my heart4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,these examples--antisepsis1            
tuberculosis1 and serotherapy--will     

suffice perhaps to justify experimental 
pathology4 ,there is now another        
experimental science which ,i am going  
to try to justify also4 ,this is        
,therapeutics4  ,we are only able to    
learn the action of medicaments by      
studying the action of poisons1 for all 
medicaments in strong doses are         
poisonous4 ,now1 to understand a poison 
thoroughly1 we must experiment with it  
on the animal4 ,simpson administered    
chloroform to men only after ,flourens  
had determined its anaesthesic          
properties on animals4 ,liebreich1 after
 he discovered chloral1 studied its     
physiological properties on animals1 and
 only after long and learned studies was
 he able to give it a place in human    
therapeutics4 ,at the present day1      
chloral is one of the most extensively  
used medicines1 one which has relieved  
innumerable patients4 ,when ,i carried  
out my research on chloralose1 before   
studying its effects on myself1 ,i began
 by giving it to cats and fowls4 ,i was 

ignorant of the degree of toxic power of
 this new1 still unknown substance1 and1
 at the risk of appearing very          
pusillanimous1 ,i did not wish to begin 
on myself2 ,i preferred trying it on a  
fowl4 ,not that ,i estimate my life very
 highly1 but after all1 however low an  
estimate ,i may place on my own life1 ,i
 think it is worth more than that of a  
fowl4 ,many other medicines have been   
thus experimented with on animals before
 it was possible to ascertain their     
effects on man4 ,kocher discovered      
cocaine1 ,knorr antipyrine2 and these   
two admirable medicines did not find    
their way into therapeutics until their 
mode of action and their toxic power had
 been ascertained on animals4  ,in a    
word1 the whole of present-day          
therapeutics has for foundation1 not    
only ancient clinical observation1 which
 it would be supremely foolish to       
disdain1 but also the experiments of    
modern times1 which it would be equally 
foolish to proscribe4  ,perhaps certain 

people imagine that there are no        
therapeutics1 and that we can replace by
 auto-suggestion1 prayer1 or            
hypnotisation1 everything which doctors 
generally use to cure or allay disease4 
,it is difficult to reply to such       
objections1 because those who make them 
have never opened a work of science nor 
seen a patient4 ,they see things as they
 wish to see them4 ,they imagine that   
the exterior world is constructed       
according to their interior vision1 and 
they do not deign to come into contact  
with reality4 ,they believe that        
enthusiasm can supply the place of      
instruction1 and that a certain doubtful
 generosity can replace profound and    
patient study4 ,they maintain perhaps   
that chloral does not make one sleep1   
that salicylate of soda does not        
alleviate rheumatic pains1 that bromide 
of potassium does not check attacks of  
epilepsy4 ,perhaps they will even       
continue to say so for a long time to   
come4 ,let them talk2 progress will be  

made without them4      ,les chiens     
aboient et la caravane passe4           
,,footnotes3  #g ,see footnote1 p4 #ag4 
#h ,these statistics can be found in all
 technical works2 and ,i refer those who
 may be curious to study them in detail 
to the special memoirs and excellent    
treatises on pathology which have been  
published in ,england1 ,france1 and     
,germany4  ,see also appendix4          
,,chapter ,v  ,,services ,,rendered ,,to
 ,,science ,,and ,,humanity ,,by        
,,experimental ,,physiology   ,i now    
come to a favourite theme of            
anti-vivisectionists1 viz41 that        
experimental physiology has produced    
nothing1 and that the differences of    
opinion among savants are so            
considerable that this alone proves the 
impossibility of vivisection ever       
establishing anything permanent4  ,here 
again it is difficult to reply because  
of the very ignorance of the honourable 
gentlemen who criticise us4 ,most       
certainly there still remain many       

disputed and disputable points in       
physiology1 and nothing is easier than  
to find therein striking and abundant   
contradictions4 ,if we wished to amuse  
ourselves1 we might write five or six   
big volumes on the subject2 but let us  
leave this tedious and useless labour to
 the anti-vivisectionists to accomplish 
to their hearts' content4 ,i prefer to  
tell them1 what they do not wish to know
 perhaps1 that contradiction is the very
 essence of science4 ,as our            
demonstrations appeal not to faith but  
to reason2 as we admit free discussion1 
free investigation from every side2 any 
proposition must have multitudinous and 
positive proofs in its favour before it 
can be adopted without hesitation4 ,even
 our opinions were never prescribed by  
faith or violence2 we take pleasure in  
provoking discussion and contradiction4 
,with our adversaries' leave be it said 
that a dogmatic1 irreproachable book1   
where there was no place for hesitation 
or doubt1 would be the very negation of 

science4 ,even the treatises of geometry
 and mechanics1 although                
non-experimental1 rational sciences1    
sometimes contradict themselves4 ,it has
 been rightly said that the history of  
science is the history of human         
errors--errors which1 little by little1 
draw nearer and nearer to supreme truth 
without ever attaining it4 ,we must     
understand this1 or we shall be         
rebelling against the conception of     
scientific truth4  ,now1 in treatises on
 physiology1 we find a number of        
well-demonstrated truths1 and a still   
larger number of truths only half       
demonstrated1 and1 consequently1        
contested4 ,our successors will also    
certainly find in our books of to-day an
 enormous number of errors4  ,what      
conclusion is to be drawn from this     
fact8 ,have those who reproach the      
science of physiology with being only a 
tissue of contradictions and errors ever
 opened a book on physiology 7for       
example1 the text-book of ,schaefer1 in 

two large1 compact1 closely written     
volumes of #ajjj pages each78 ,they     
would there find thousands of positive1 
incontestable facts on all the questions
 which concern physiology4  ,let us     
take1 each in its turn1 the great       
functions of life1 and we shall see that
 they have become known only by         
experimentation4  #a4 ,the ,circulation 
of the ,blood1 suspected by ,michel     
,servet1 ,realdo ,colombo1 and ,andreas 
,cesalpin1 was really established by    
,harvey in #afbh4  ,yet ,harvey was only
 able to demonstrate it by experiments  
performed on the living bodies of frogs 
and deer4 ,since ,harvey's time1 the    
laws of the circulation have been       
established with admirable precision4   
,hales demonstrated the pressure of     
blood in the vessels4 ,chauveau and     
,marey introduced into the heart of a   
horse an apparatus which enabled the    
pressure of the blood in the heart1 in  
the arteries1 and in the veins1 to be   
measured4 ,weber found that the         

pneumogastric nerve stopped the heart's 
action4 ,ludwig applied the graphic     
method to the circulation4 ,delicate    
instruments have been constructed which 
give diagrams of the pulsations and     
measure the pressure of the blood in the
 arteries and in the heart of man4      
,claude ,bernard discovered the nerves  
which regulate the movements of the     
vessel walls4 ,in short1 the whole      
history of the circulation is due solely
 to vivisections1 and it would be       
ridiculous to speak of our uncertainties
 in this respect2 for the essential     
mechanical or nervous laws of the       
circulation are as well known now as    
those of the combinations of nitrogen   
with oxygen4  #b4 ,the ,respiration     
remained profoundly unknown1 as to its  
inmost nature1 right up to ,lavoisier's 
time4 ,lavoisier placed some guinea-pigs
 in a box filled with ice1 measured the 
quantity of heat thrown off1 the        
quantity of oxygen consumed1 the        
quantity of carbonic acid produced2 and 

he was thus able to deduce a fundamental
 law of life1 viz41 that life is        
essentially combustion4 ,he made        
experiments on himself also2 but however
 great one's respect for the life of a  
guinea-pig may be1 must it be considered
 wrong that ,lavoisier should have      
experimented on the guinea-pig before   
experimenting on himself8  ,as for the  
laws which regulate this consumption of 
oxygen and this production of carbonic  
acid1 to discover these it was necessary
 to put into cages animals of every     
species and of every size4 ,and there   
is1 perhaps1 not a single physiologist  
who has not made this experiment1 at the
 risk of annoying the cats and dogs thus
 exposed--without1 as far as that goes1 
doing them any harm--to varied          
temperatures or to different diets4     
,moreover1 in order to study the        
respiratory exchanges1 physiologists    
experiment on man as well2 is1          
therefore1 the extraordinary scruple    
against experimenting on animals to be  

imposed upon them also8  ,to take an    
excellent example of the services which 
experimental physiology can render not  
to science only--which would1 indeed1 be
 quite sufficient to justify them--but  
to humanity1 ,i will cite the           
experiments of ,paul ,bert with relation
 to elevated atmospheric pressures4     
,there are certain workmen who are      
obliged to work under water1 at a depth 
of #bj to #cj yards1 for the            
construction of piers and bridges1 or   
the exploration of sunken vessels4 ,now1
 it had long been observed that some of 
these men died suddenly on returning to 
the surface4 ,experimental physiology   
was able to discover the cause of that  
sudden death4 ,when a man 7or an        
animal71 after having been subjected to 
several times the normal atmospheric    
pressure1 is suddenly released from this
 pressure1 the nitrogen dissolved in the
 blood is disengaged suddenly3 this     
produces gaseous embolism1 that is to   
say1 bubbles of gas are formed1 which   

block the blood-vessels and prevent the 
blood circulating in the capillaries4   
,knowing this1 the death of men working 
at a pressure of four atmospheres could 
then be avoided by releasing them       
slowly1 that is by bringing them slowly 
back to the normal atmospheric pressure4
 ,is it barbarous to attach more        
importance to the death of these men    
than to the death of the few dogs and   
mice that served to establish this law8 
,i was able to demonstrate that1 if the 
temperature of the air is very high1 as 
in the hottest days of summer1 dogs that
 are muzzled die rapidly of hyperpyrexia
 7i4e4 high fever71 for they are no     
longer able to cool themselves by       
panting4 ,it is true that this          
experiment cost the lives of a few dogs1
 but has it not saved many others by    
pointing out that dogs should not be    
muzzled under certain conditions8 ,it   
goes without saying ,i am not speaking  
of the theoretical consequences of this 
experiment4  ,artificial respiration1   

which can restore to life the apparently
 drowned1 is one1 of the conquests of   
experimental physiology2 for we have    
been able to determine the best method  
and the essential conditions 7for       
artificial breathing7 by experiments of 
a very precise nature4 ,is it nothing to
 know how to restore to life the        
apparently drowned8  #c4 ,the ,process  
of ,digestion has also been learned     
solely by experiment4 ,in the history of
 science there are two or three cases of
 individuals in whom a wound or an      
operation has produced a gastric        
fistula1 that is to say an abdominal    
opening through which the stomach can be
 reached and food introduced4 ,had we   
remained satisfied with these accidental
 observations1 we should have obtained  
but mediocre results4 ,physiologists    
therefore have made experimental gastric
 fistulae4 ,dogs thus operated on1 after
 an illness of a few days1 recover      
thoroughly4 ,some physiologists have    
kept dogs for several years in this     

condition3 gay1 caressing1 docile1 they 
did not appear to complain of their lot4
 ,they were better nourished1 more      
petted and loved than the many starving 
dogs which roam about the country4 ,they
 were not a whit more unhappy than was  
,alexis ,st ,martin 7observed in #ahca  
by ,dr ,beaumont7 and ,marcellin 7whom  
,i observed in #ahgh1 at the beginning  
of my career74 ,quite recently an       
eminent ,russian physiologist1 ,pawloff1
 has1 by making gastric fistulae in     
animals1 been able to discover a number 
of important facts1 absolutely necessary
 to be known for the treatment of       
diseases of the stomach1 and even for   
the establishment of a normal           
alimentation4  ,the problem of          
alimentation is1 indeed1 one of the most
 essential1 perhaps the most essential1 
in the history of humanity4 ,i suppose  
that anti-vivisectionists are aware of  
the fact that1 even in ,europe1 large   
populations exist who are insufficiently
 nourished4 ,under these conditions1 is 

it not desirable to know exactly the    
quantities of carbon1 nitrogen1 salt1   
lime1 and phosphorus which are necessary
 for animals1 and consequently for man8 
,should not anti-vivisectionists1       
interested in vegetarianism1 before     
venturing to institute a vegetable diet 
for man1 try it first of all upon       
carnivorous animals1 so as to know how a
 mixed alimentation can be modified by a
 vegetable alimentation1 and to what    
extent those modifications are          
compatible with health8  #d4 ,the       
,nervous ,system is not so well known1  
so far as its functions are concerned1  
as the circulatory system or the        
digestive system4 ,nevertheless1        
positive discoveries are extremely      
numerous3 the action of the nerves on   
the glands and on the muscles2 the part 
played by the different portions of the 
brain2 nervous degenerations2 the laws  
governing reflex actions--all this      
constitutes a formidable body of        
well-established facts4 ,i do not       

pretend that everything is known4 ,alas6
 ,no6 ,there are still innumerable      
truths to be discovered1 and serious    
errors are doubtless most learnedly     
taught1 with many contradictions1 much  
uncertainty1 much confusion--all of     
which simply proves that physiology is  
not a science whose last chapter has yet
 been written1 that the last word of    
this science has not yet been           
pronounced4 ,nevertheless1 blind indeed 
would the man be who would venture to   
conclude that physiology was not a      
science2 or to assert that physiology is
 a science of little importance2 that   
the role of the physiologist1 from the  
point of view of the alleviation of     
human miseries1 is null2 and that       
knowledge of physiological facts is     
useless4 ,will it be claimed that the   
doctor has no need of a knowledge of    
physiology8 ,i will reply by a          
comparison ,i am accustomed to make     
before my medical students when ,i wish 
to make them understand the necessity of

 a sound physiological education4  ,let 
us suppose that a watchmaker claimed to 
be able to cure disordered watches1 but 
at the same time declared himself unable
 to tell by what springs and by what    
mysterious mechanism a healthy watch    
should mark the hour2 that watchmaker   
would inspire me with a very small      
amount of confidence1 and ,i would not  
go to him2 for1 until the contrary is   
proved to me1 ,i believe that an        
indispensable condition for repairing a 
watch when out of order is to know how a
 watch should work when in good repair4 
,physiology exists only because there   
have been physiologists4 ,by that ,i do 
not mean to say that all the truths of  
physiology are due exclusively to       
vivisection4 ,i only claim that         
physiology without vivisection would be 
strangely clumsy1 limited to a few      
empirical facts1 and that1 if           
vivisection be proscribed1 we must      
resolutely give up classing physiology  
among the sciences4 ,we may study the   

stars and the earth1 electricity and    
heat1 geography and history1 and are we 
to be forbidden to study the functions  
of living matter8 ,such a proposal is   
obviously absurd1 for of all the        
sciences accessible to man1 physiology  
is that which is nearest to him4  ,it is
 only the ignorant who dare assert that 
experimentation on animals cannot be    
applied to man4 ,there are of course    
differences which physiologists train   
themselves to perceive2 for example1    
certain poisons are almost innocuous to 
some animals1 and are very fatal to man4
 ,the alkaloid of belladonna1 atropine1 
is a thousand times more toxic for a man
 than for a goat4 ,it is difficult to   
kill a goat with morphia1 whilst a drop 
of laudanum kills a new-born babe4      
,carbonic oxide is absolutely harmless  
for the invertebrata which have no      
blood4 ,crayfish and snails live with   
impunity in pure oxide of carbon4 ,and  
,i could cite a number of other facts   
which are described in detail in every  

treatise of physiology or pharmacology4 
,but what does it matter to us if we    
know it8--and we can nearly always know 
it4 ,there are functional differences   
between men and animals2 and            
physiologists know these perfectly well 
by their training2 but there are1 above 
all things1 much more striking          
resemblances4 ,it would be1 for         
instance1 ridiculous to suppose that    
oxygen did not dissolve in our blood in 
about the same way in which it dissolves
 in the blood of a cat or a rabbit2 that
 the pneumogastric nerve1 which stops   
the heart of the cat and the rabbit1    
will not stop the heart of man2 that the
 arterial pressure1 which is #af c4m4 of
 mercury in the horse1 the dog1 and the 
cat1 is #a c4m4 or #a4fj c4m4 in man2   
that the transformation of albuminous   
matters into urea takes place           
differently in the dog and in man4 ,on  
the contrary1 everything goes to prove  
the general laws are the same1 and that 
the physiology of man1 whilst not       

rigorously identical in every respect   
with the physiology of the animal1 is   
nevertheless sufficiently analogous to  
enable a general physiology to comprise 
in its vast laws the functions of every 
living being1 man1 mammal1 vertebrata1  
invertebrata1 and even every living     
cell4     ,,chapter ,,vi  ,,morality    
,,and ,,vivisection   ,if we took the   
assertions of anti-vivisectionists      
literally1 we should arrive at the      
strange conclusion1 that the victims of 
vivisection are immensely numerous1 and 
that vivisection is one of the          
calamities of the century4 ,as a matter 
of fact1 the number of victims due to   
physiology is very low4 ,let us try to  
count them up4  ,there are only about   
twenty laboratories in ,france where    
experiments on animals are made4 ,let us
 allow that there are twenty in         
,england1 twenty in ,italy1 forty in    
,germany1 and fifty in other countries1 
making a total of #aej laboratories4 ,if
 we suppose that a dog1 a cat1 and a    

rabbit are sacrificed every day in each 
of these laboratories1 we should        
certainly exaggerate4  ,let us suppose1 
nevertheless1 that it is so2 and let us 
even admit five victims a day1 with #cjj
 working days in the year1 which is also
 an evident exaggeration3 this will make
 about #bjj1jjj victims a year4 ,this   
number1 which seems very considerable1  
is in reality very small1 if we put it  
against the enormous number of living   
beings4 ,probably about two thousand    
millions of mammals die every year1 so  
that the proportion of animals that     
suffer a little 7and very little7       
through the act of man in his search for
 knowledge is one in #aj1jjj1 in other  
words1 a negligible quantity4  ,in the  
immense earthly universe are thousands  
and thousands of pains1 of fierce1      
incessant struggles between living      
animals4 ,every rock in the ocean1 every
 tree in the forest1 shelters ferocious 
combats1 and is the constant scene of   
painful death-agonies4 ,darwin has      

admirably shown that life is a struggle 
for life1 that the weak are crushed by  
the strong1 and that the voice of living
 nature is a cry of distress rather than
 a hymn of joy4 ,therefore1 in this     
universal concert of animal pain and of 
human pain1 the slight pain of animals  
experimented upon is a little thing1 and
 from an absolute point of view we have 
the right to disregard it4  ,think well 
over it all for a moment4 ,by giving an 
experimental disease to a rabbit1 for   
example1 ,i scarcely change its lot4 ,if
 ,i had left it to itself1 in one1 two1 
or perhaps three years it would have    
been attacked by another disease1       
probably more cruel than the            
tuberculosis with which ,i infected it4 
,the lot of dogs which die of old age is
 scarcely enviable4 ,how many poor old  
dogs have ,i seen1 impotent from        
rheumatism1 completely blind1 no longer 
able to crawl about1 covered with       
disgusting ulcers1 seeming to beg for   
the finishing stroke which would put an 

end to their misery6 ,and old1 worn-out 
horses6 ,what a spectacle6 ,this        
residuum of existence of old animals is 
truly pitiable1 and1 taking everything  
into consideration1 it is not an        
enormous dose of happiness we have left 
them in not sacrificing them when they  
were young4  ,but ,i shall not dwell    
upon this argument1 for it might also be
 applied to human beings4 ,the ,greeks  
said3 ,happy are they who die young1 for
 they are beloved of the gods4 ,perhaps 
some day human ethics will allow us to  
spare our dear ones the cruel and       
useless sufferings of old age6 ,i know  
not4 ,but what ,i do know is that it is 
not inhuman to sacrifice an old horse or
 an old dog in order to save it from    
going through all the tortures which old
 age and disease hold in reserve for    
him4  ,in any case1 the sufferings      
produced by physiologists who inoculate 
diseases into animals weigh very little 
in comparison with natural suffering1   
not only because the suffering of       

animals is always more or less immersed 
in the nihilism of semi-consciousness1  
but also because these experimental     
sufferings are less than natural        
sufferings1 and extend over a very small
 number of victims4  ,but the question  
does not lie there4 ,the point is not   
whether the suffering of animals be a   
large or small quantity in nature from  
an absolute standpoint2 the question is 
a higher one3 we must ask ourselves if  
the fact of inflicting pain is          
compatible with human morality4         
,tolstoi says somewhere that the        
sciences are nothing1 that art is       
nothing1 that the true science is that  
of good and evil1 of justice and        
injustice4 ,everything sinks into       
insignificance in presence of this great
 duty1 or rather life has no other      
object4 ,we should be entirely engrossed
 in doing good2 justice should be our   
sole preoccupation4  ,if1 then1 from an 
absolute point of view the suffering of 
frogs and rabbits does not count1 it    

counts a lot from the point of view of  
human morality4 ,if a bad child should  
martyrise a toad1 it is not the toad    
which would interest me3 poor creature  
of diffused consciousness1 ignorant even
 of its own pain1 such a tiny pain1 too1
 in comparison with the immense pains   
which the beings of this great universe 
are suffering at this moment6 ,no2 the  
toad would scarcely exist for me4 ,the  
child would interest me greatly2 and all
 my pity would be turned upon that cruel
 child4 ,my efforts would tend much less
 towards preventing the toad from       
suffering than towards preventing that  
human being from becoming a barbarian4  
,if the anti-vivisectionists were true  
moralists and not fanatics they would   
say3 ,to provoke suffering to produce   
disease1 to inflict tortures1 is an     
execrable moral lesson4 ,whilst the     
first duty of man is to be good1 you    
instruct young men to be wicked4 ,the   
doctor1 who ought to be compassionate   
for human suffering1 should not serve   

his apprenticeship in that noble        
profession by showing himself devoid of 
pity for the suffering of innocent      
victims4 ,a civilisation which allows   
itself to inflict death and torture on  
living beings can be only a barbarous   
civilisation4  ,i recognise the force of
 that argument4 ,and whilst not a single
 one of the preceding assertions of the 
anti-vivisectionists had succeeded in   
moving me1 ,i confess that this         
objection of human morality is a most   
powerful one4 ,i am nevertheless going  
to try to show that it is not           
admissible4  ,and first of all1 because 
there is in this world much suffering1  
human suffering1 which it is more       
important to allay than that of the     
victims of vivisection4 ,if our sole    
care were that of morality1 what battles
 would we not have to fight6 ,there are 
thousands of people in ,india who die of
 hunger2 and throughout ,asia whole     
populations perish of disease which a   
little hygiene could prevent4 ,the      

hunger-evil is rife in ,russia2 most of 
the peasants in ,sicily also never know 
what it is to satisfy their hunger4 ,the
 misery of children is lamentable       
everywhere3 in our large cities1 ,paris1
 ,berlin1 ,london1 it is not            
exceptional1 alas6 to come across people
 dying of hunger4 ,the terribly high    
rate of mortality among children less   
than a year old is due to hunger and to 
hunger alone4 ,in ,europe two million   
children1 under one year of age1 die    
every year solely because their parents 
are plunged in misery1 because the      
mother1 instead of nursing her child1 is
 forced to work1 to earn her living at  
manual labour1 which dries up her milk4 
,these two million children who die of  
hunger are the disgrace of our          
civilisation4 ,and yet we continue to   
live in luxury1 we look on calmly and   
indifferently at the agony of our human 
brothers1 an agony which we could easily
 alleviate4 ,for my part1 willingly     
shall ,i allow myself to be melted with 

pity at the sight of tuberculous rabbits
 when ,i see those persons who champion 
these same rabbits1 develop within      
themselves some pity for human          
suffering1 a pity grown so deep1 so     
powerful1 that they devote their entire 
fortune towards rescuing their brethren 
from death through hunger4  ,there is   
not only famine and want4 ,there are    
many other social scourges2 and these   
scourges are much more serious than     
vivisection can ever become4 ,there is  
alcoholism1 prostitution1 war4 ,and ,i  
have no need to say that alcoholism is  
an evil1 that prostitution is an evil1  
that war is an evil4 ,when human        
morality has been developed to such a   
pitch that man will no longer be able to
 look on these great social miseries    
without horror1 it will be time enough  
perhaps to ask if it be permissible to  
seek for truth at the expense of a      
little animal suffering4 ,but until then
 ,i have the right to stigmatise as     
hypocrisy all that immense pity which   

certain people profess for dogs1 side by
 side with their immense heedlessness1  
which they do not fear to display1      
towards the fate of so many unfortunate 
human beings4  ,if anti-vivisectionists 
were animated by a great desire for     
morality1 they would endeavour to reform
 our social condition1 which is         
abominable and full of horrors2 they    
would strive to impart into youth other 
notions than that of smug satisfaction  
with the present social conditions4 ,as 
long as we have not faced the profound  
evils which gnaw at the root of our     
social system1 as long as we take a     
delight in the egotistical satisfaction 
of our capitalist and martial society1  
it is not permissible1 if we would not  
be accused of scandalous hypocrisy1 to  
affect pretensions to morality4  ,even  
from the very exclusive and rather      
paltry point of view of animals' rights1
 are there not among                    
anti-vivisectionists those of social    
position who make no scruple in amusing 

themselves by fishing and hunting8 ,in  
this case they kill1 they martyrise1 not
 to conquer new truths1 but for their   
amusement and recreation4  ,the hunter  
who fires at a hare sends after the     
wounded animal a savage dog1 trained to 
fierceness for this pursuit1 and he     
looks on at the chase with delight4 ,the
 angler who has hooked a fish feels a   
pleasurable emotion when he holds in the
 palm of his hand the struggling1       
writhing being4 ,elegant sportsmen aim  
at pigeons to give proofs of their      
dexterity4 ,a large number of victims do
 not die on the spot1 but1 with wounded 
wing1 or chest pierced with lead1 creep 
away to die in agony in the neighbouring
 woods4 ,quite a large gathering of     
fashionable young women and             
distinguished young men follow on       
horseback the tortures of a wretched    
stag pursued by a furious pack of       
hounds4 ,and1 finally1 the entire       
population of a large city 7,seville or 
,madrid1 ,san ,sebastian or ,valencia71 

men and women1 old and young1 go crazy  
with delight at the hideous spectacle of
 a noble bull disembowelling horses1    
tormented by the picadors1 and finally  
succumbing1 exhausted1 done to death by 
his cowardly enemies4 ,there are sights 
for you6 there are amusements for you if
 you like1 which reflect scant honour on
 human ethics2 and well do ,i understand
 generous-hearted men and women forming 
societies to combat war1 alcoholism1    
prostitution1 distributing their wealth 
among the starving populations1 also    
turning their energies against hunting1 
angling1 pigeon-shooting1 and           
bullfights4 ,it is a noble programme of 
life which they have drawn up for       
themselves1 and such people merit our   
highest admiration4  ,societies for the 
prevention of cruelty to animals are    
admirable and irreproachable when they  
defend animals against human savagery3  
for example1 when they prevent carters  
from lashing into ribbons the skin of   
the miserable horses under their charge2

 or when they put down the practice of  
harnessing a horse to a cart too heavily
 loaded2 or when they interdict         
cock-fighting and bull-baiting4 ,i will 
even point out to these same societies1 
so enamoured of animals' rights1 a new  
kind of protection of quite a special   
nature4  ,there exist a number of       
species of animals which1 hunted and    
hemmed in by man1 are on the point of   
extinction4 ,how many1 alas6 have for   
ever disappeared2 and no human power    
will ever be able to bring back to life 
an animal species once extinct4  ,it is 
a great pity2 for these charming forms1 
the joy of the eyes1 provided with      
curious and delicate instincts1 have    
been annihilated for ever4 ,i will give 
some examples to show to what an extent 
it is necessary for man to protect the  
animal against man himself4 ,man has the
 taste for devastation2 and when he is  
excited1 either by the fury of the hunt 
or the bait of gain1 he does not        
hesitate to make many victims without   

asking himself if these furious ravages 
will not find their consummation in the 
destruction of an entire race of        
animals4  ,already in the ,polar        
regions1 some fine species of animals   
have disappeared4 ,the great auk        
7extinct since #ahdd7 exists no longer4 
,one species of walrus has also         
disappeared4  ,the seal is on the road  
to extinction2 fishermen have indulged  
in such orgies of destruction that      
international measures have had to be   
taken to prevent the total destruction  
of the species4 ,and indeed be it not   
forgotten that if the ,governments of   
,england and of the ,united ,states have
 made regulations restricting the       
massacre of seals1 it is not by any     
means in order to stem the tide of      
destruction of an animal species        
interesting in itself1 but solely       
because such destruction would put an   
end to a source of very considerable    
commercial profit4  ,a hundred years    
ago1 whales were so abundant that       

#cj1jjj fishermen earned their living by
 whale-hunting4 ,now1 our means of      
warfare against the cetacea have become 
so effective that whales can no longer  
defend themselves1 and their number is  
decreasing every day to such an extent  
that we can almost foretell the moment  
when the whale will have ceased to      
exist4  ,in ,america1 vast regions were 
overrun by immense herds of bisons4     
,they have been massacred with such mad 
and blind ardour that if the ,government
 had not finally taken some tardy and   
insufficient measures of precaution1 the
 bison would be extinct too4  ,aurochs1 
elks1 chamois1 bears have almost        
disappeared1 whereas a century ago they 
were widely diffused in ,europe4 ,in    
proportion as man takes possession of   
the earth to cultivate it1 he kills off 
every wild species and replaces them by 
domestic species where race loses its   
value4 ,if this goes on1 a time will    
come1 unfortunately1 when all-powerful  
man1 having given himself up to the     

thoughtless destruction of everything   
not of immediate use to him1 will have  
wiped off the face of the earth all save
 domestic animals4 ,there will be hens1 
ducks1 geese1 turkeys1 and guinea-fowls1
 sheep1 oxen1 donkeys1 horses1 cows4    
,perhaps for the pleasure of hunting1 a 
few deer and a few hares will be        
preserved2 but all wild species which   
cannot be reproduced in captivity will  
have disappeared1 will no longer be     
there to delight our gaze4 ,in ,france1 
the small birds are destroyed in rank   
fury1 and every measure taken to protect
 them is inefficacious1 thanks to the   
rage for destruction among the          
inhabitants4 ,asia and ,africa once upon
 a time--when almost unknown and        
unexplored by ,europeans--sheltered many
 a noble animal species to-day well-nigh
 extinct1 and which1 if strict measures 
of precaution be not speedily taken1    
will soon have disappeared for ever4    
,the large monkeys1 the ostrich1 the    
giraffe1 and especially the elephant1   

shun the haunts of man1 for man is their
 ruthless enemy4 ,it looks as though a  
hundred years hence1 not one will be    
left4  ,it is not without sadness we    
think of that future civilisation1 a    
brilliant one perhaps from several      
points of view1 but monotonous and tame1
 as it will no longer possess this      
marvellous variety of different animal  
species which is as one of the smiles of
 nature4 ,a pitiable uniformity will    
replace the varied forms which natural  
selection has taken thousands of years  
to bring forth2 and then perhaps some   
tardy poet1 in contemplation before the 
vast sheepfolds and poultry farms1 where
 man will cultivate the species of use  
to him1 will regret those far-off days  
when birds of all kinds sang in the     
forests1 blending their gambols with    
those of the graceful animals which     
human civilisation will have            
annihilated4  ,there1 ,i fancy1 is a    
fertile subject for meditation1 and     
interesting initiative for all those who

 have at heart the rights of animals1   
and1 if ,i may express myself thus1 the 
future of animality4  ,but the sight of 
a vivisection1 the preparation of a     
laboratory experiment cannot be compared
 with the stupid and mischievous        
pleasures of angling and hunting4 ,it is
 not a question of amusing oneself1 of  
killing time1 of diversion1 of finding  
in the sight of blood or pain a         
recreation for boredom4 ,it is quite    
another motive which animates the       
savant4 ,he has ever before his mind the
 thought that his efforts are going to  
bring a little alleviation to the great 
sum of human suffering4 ,if he          
inoculates a rabbit with tuberculosis1  
he cannot help thinking of all the      
wretched consumptives who are at that   
moment in the throes of death4 ,he knows
 well that each time he discovers even  
only a particle of truth1 that little   
bit of new truth is going to bring in   
its train some consequence which will   
bear fruit in the healing of suffering  

mankind4  ,it is with no                
light-heartedness that the physiologist 
causes the blood to flow1 inoculates    
disease1 injects poisons4 ,i know the   
thought which animates my friends and my
 colleagues when they make their        
experiments3 it is never without the    
most profound pity that we dare to take 
a healthy1 gay1 confiding animal1 and   
give him chloroform1 or inject a poison 
into him4 ,this respect for pain1 far   
from decreasing with age1 on the        
contrary goes on increasing4 ,just as   
the doctor as he grows older becomes    
more and more sensitive to the sight of 
human suffering1 so the physiologist who
 has performed many experiments         
understands more and more thoroughly the
 seriousness of pain4 ,he feels all the 
weight of it3 he has a greater          
responsibility4 ,his morality has become
 higher and higher1 his sensibility has 
increased4 ,often he repeats to himself 
this line of ,virgil's3--      ,non     
ignara mali miseris succurrere disco4   

7,knowing misfortune1 ,i teach the      
succour of the wretched47  ,it would1   
therefore1 be altogether unjust to      
reproach the experimenter with barbarism
 or inhumanity2 for more than any one   
else does he possess the sentiment of   
the immense misfortunes of humanity1 and
 if he resigns himself to               
experimentation1 it is because he sees  
behind his experiment an alleviation of 
the sufferings of both man and beast4   
,it is related that1 in one of the great
 battles of the last century1 a general1
 in order to protect the retreat of his 
army1 was obliged to send a squadron of 
cavalry to make a hopeless charge upon  
the enemy's infantry4 ,this meant       
sending those brave fellows to certain  
death4 ,yet he did not hesitate2 and    
with tears in his eyes he gave the order
 to charge1 convinced1 as every general 
should be1 that it is sometimes         
necessary to sacrifice a few human lives
 for the salvation of the army1 for the 
salvation of the country4  ,well1 then6 

,we consider ourselves as soldiers      
waging battle against the blind1 malefic
 forces of nature4 ,on certain days1 so 
as to triumph over disease and          
ignorance1 we must sacrifice a few      
victims4 ,then we do not hesitate1 and  
it is our duty not to hesitate4  ,it    
even seems to me that those men who pass
 their lives in nauseous rooms1 amidst  
poison and virus1 receiving no other    
recompense for long labours than the    
satisfaction of duty accomplished1 merit
 the esteem and respect of every one4   
,they seek neither wealth nor honours4  
,it is not in the laboratories of       
physiology that a man grows rich4 ,it is
 not in the laboratories of physiology  
that man wins high social positions4    
,but what matter6 ,he has used his life 
to alleviate the sufferings of others4  
,he has had ever before him another     
ideal than that of the                  
anti-vivisectionists1 the ideal of human
 suffering1 which is much more to be    
respected than animal suffering in spite

 of all empty words and phrases4        
,therefore1 when we speak of vivisection
 or of experimentation before young men1
 we must not be taxed with immorality2  
because work1 the search for truth1 pity
 for the misfortunes of man1 pity also  
for the unfortunate animals--these ,i   
think are subjects which should ennoble 
the minds of the young men who listen to
 us4     ,,chapter ,,vii  ,,are ,,laws  
,,regulating ,,vivisection ,,necessary8 
,we will now briefly consider an        
interesting and highly practical side of
 the question4 ,in certain countries1 as
 in ,england1 there are laws regulating 
vivisection4 ,in other countries1 as in 
,france1 ,germany1 and ,italy1 there is 
nothing analogous2 consequently public  
opinion on this point is uncertain4  ,in
 the beginning of this book1 ,i         
acknowledged that1 in spite of the      
exaggeration of their complaints1       
anti-vivisectionists had rendered real  
service to general morality by calling  
attention to the excesses committed by a

 few vivisectionists in the past4 ,no   
one recognises this benefit more than   
,i1 and ,i willingly grant that their   
preaching has1 on the whole1 had a happy
 result4 ,is it however1 expedient to go
 further1 and to prohibit or simply to  
regulate vivisection8  ,for reasons     
given above1 it seems to me that        
prohibition would be absurd and         
injurious1 as well in the land of       
,harvey and ,hunter as in the lands of  
,bernard and ,pasteur1 of ,galvani and  
,spallanzani1 of ,johannes ,mueller and 
,helmholtz4 ,prohibition would mean     
closing the book of science1 stemming   
all progress1 condemning humanity       
eternally to the same miseries1 to      
writhe1 powerless1 in the same old      
track4 ,fortunately1 no one thinks      
seriously of suppressing physiological  
experimentation2 and1 therefore1 we have
 no need to dwell on this point4  ,but  
regulation is quite a different thing   
from prohibition4 ,now1 ,i showed that  
certain practices should be condemned4  

,should they1 however1 be condemned by  
law8 ,why should the law be substituted 
for the exigencies of science8 ,here is 
a physiologist1 fully conscious of the  
magnitude of his task1 to whom the      
government or a university has confided 
the direction of a laboratory1 who finds
 himself face to face with a problem    
needing to be solved4 ,it is impossible 
to limit his efforts and to lay down    
principles from which he could not turn 
aside4 ,just as he is referred to for   
the purchase of his instruments and the 
nomination of his staff1 so must he be  
left full latitude in the arrangement of
 his experiments4 ,nothing is so        
pernicious in matters of science as     
official regulation2 it takes away all  
initiative1 and does not allow the      
genius of the inventor to have full     
play4  ,as a matter of fact1 even in    
,england1 the only country where up to  
the present the conditions of           
vivisection have been regulated by law1 
no one has ventured to confine the      

initiative of the experimenter within   
narrow regulations4 ,and it is fortunate
 that no one has ventured to define the 
limits of experimental investigation1   
for most excellent work is due to       
contemporary ,english                   
,physiologists--,schaefer1 ,horsley1    
,sherrington1 ,langley1 ,bayliss1       
,starling1 ,stirling1 etc4 ,they have   
been able to pursue their researches    
freely1 to the very great advantage of  
our science4  ,one should not1 then1    
think of prohibiting such or such a     
proceeding in vivisection4 ,it may even 
be dangerous to absolutely prohibit     
vivisections without anaesthesia4 ,i    
make no mystery of my opinion on this   
point1 since ,i have distinctly declared
 further back that no sensitive animal  
should ever be operated upon4 ,i regard 
as a moral error all vivisection made on
 an animal capable of suffering4 ,but ,i
 would leave the physiologist to be the 
judge in the matter4 ,i do not believe  
the law should take his place2 for      

perhaps cases will occur where          
anaesthesia is impossible1 and he cannot
 be placed under the hard alternative of
 not making an experiment which his     
conscience as a savant judges to be     
useful1 or of disobeying the law4       
,moreover1 how are the many possible    
conditions of an experiment to be       
precisely laid down8 ,is the law to     
indicate the kind of anaesthetic to be  
used1 and the degree of anaesthesia to  
be attained8 ,is it to prohibit all     
experiments on toxic actions8 ,many     
insoluble difficulties would be         
encountered1 the sole result of which   
would be to paralyse the savant in his  
researches or to cause him to break the 
laws of his country4  ,and yet ,i       
recognise that regulation is            
indispensable1 but it ought not to bear 
on the nature of the experiment2 it     
should deal solely with the person      
experimenting4  ,i believe the right of 
practising vivisection should not be    
accorded to every citizen1 to every     

medical student2 it should not be       
permissible for any chance person to    
take a dog1 to fasten him down on the   
operating table1 and to experiment on   
the brain1 the glands1 the muscles of   
that unfortunate animal1 for that chance
 person is1 in all probability1 a clumsy
 and ignorant man4 ,vivisection may not 
be undertaken in a light-hearted        
fashion4 ,after all1 science would lose 
nothing if such an experiment were not  
made1 and ,i see no advantage in        
encouraging attempts of this sort which 
are condemned beforehand to be          
fruitless4  ,but in a laboratory of     
physiology1 under the direction of the  
professor and his assistants1 under     
their moral responsibility1 vivisection 
should not be prohibited2 the number of 
vivisections should not be limited1 and 
no restrictions ought to be imposed4    
,as ,i have no intention of formulating 
or drawing up regulations or enacting   
laws1 ,i shall not indicate the         
penalties to which those who violate the

 law should be liable4 ,i shall content 
myself with enunciating this double     
principle3 entire liberty in vivisection
 for professors of physiology and their 
assistants2 prohibition of vivisection  
for all others4     ,,chapter ,,viii    
,,vivisection ,,and ,,the ,,future ,,of 
,,science   ,let us now leave the       
opinions of anti-vivisectionists1 and   
carry the problem on to higher ground4  
,let us see what are the rights of man  
in ,nature1 and what is the purpose of  
human life4  ,amidst all the unsettled  
and contradictory theories accumulated  
by philosophers1 thinkers and founders  
of religion1 there remains scarcely any 
fixed and immutable theory save that of 
one dominating principle3 ,the respect  
and love of our brothers in humanity4   
,all else is contestable and contested4 
,though we are unable to demonstrate it 
formally1 there is one universal moral  
law 7the great ,categorical ,imperative 
of ,kant7 which commands us to be just  
and beneficent to our fellow-creatures4 

,all the most subtle sophisms will never
 be able to persuade me that ,i ought   
not1 above all things1 to feel          
solicitude for the lives and happiness  
of men4  ,i willingly admit that beside 
man there is the animal1 our inferior   
brother as it has been ingeniously      
called1 so that we have also our duties 
towards these inferior brothers4 ,but   
this must never be to the detriment of  
our real brothers4 ,it seems to me      
insane to consider the life of a cat of 
more account than that of a man2 the    
pain of a dog than that of a child4 ,all
 the more so because living matter1 if  
,i may use that expression1 possesses   
varying degrees of perfection2 from the 
sea-weed up to man there are successive 
stages of living forms which constitute 
an uninterrupted chain ending in its    
final phase1 which is man4  ,man1 by his
 power of thought1 and consequently of  
suffering1 by the conception which he is
 able to make of the non-self1 by his   
faculties of abstraction and the notion 

of good and evil1 is vastly superior to 
every other living being4 ,so that1 for 
respecting1 defending and loving men1 ,i
 have not only the reason that man is my
 brother1 but also that this brother is 
superior to every other living thing4   
,that is why a moral code must be       
essentially human1 having for its       
highest object the happiness of other   
men4 ,every other code of morals1 having
 in view a different purpose supporting 
itself on metaphysical lucubrations or  
haunted by puerile anxieties1 such as   
the adoration of beasts1 appears to me  
to bear the stamp of fetishism4 ,an     
unknown power has caused us to be born2 
we are entirely ignorant of our         
destinies1 we know not why we were born1
 why we die1 why1 following in the wake 
of countless generations1 we transmit   
the vital spark to countless succeeding 
generations4 ,we know nothing of all    
that2 but it matters little from the    
point of view of our duty4 ,duty is     
independent of all theory4 ,no mere     

religion is necessary to constitute a   
moral code4  ,homo sum1 humani nihil a  
me alienum puto1 or rather our moral    
code1 will be the religion of humanity4 
,it does not seem to me possible to     
conceive of any other4  ,and when we say
 humanity1 we take that word in its     
largest acceptation4 ,it is not a       
question of compatriots1 nor of         
,europeans1 nor even of humanity of     
to-day4 ,it is also a question of the   
humanity of the future4 ,we have our    
duties towards the man of to-day2 but we
 have also our duties towards the man   
who will live in the centuries to come4 
,we should prepare the way for a happier
 and better humanity4 ,our task is not  
limited to the present hour2 it extends 
to all those human beings who will come 
after us4 ,inasmuch as we of to-day1 at 
every moment of our lives1 benefit from 
the accumulated services of our         
ancestors1 so the men to come will      
profit by the benefits which we are     
endeavouring to prepare for them4       

,assuredly1 ,humanity will not be       
eternal1 and ,science seems to prove    
that a time will come when the sun's    
heat will be insufficient to develop    
life on the surface of our puny planet4 
,a time will come when the earth will   
have cooled down and become like our    
pale satellite1 the moon1 a dead star1  
where the debris of extinct             
multitudinous civilisations will        
disappear under the ice4 ,but what      
matter6 ,we have not to trouble         
ourselves about those far-off times4 ,we
 have to think of the man of the coming 
centuries1 and1 at the same time1 it    
goes without saying1 of the man of      
to-day4  ,to lessen their misery1 to    
make their existence less lamentable1 to
 develop within them the sentiments of  
justice and brotherhood1 to secure their
 moral welfare and their material       
welfare1 that is our strict and sole    
duty4 ,i recognise no other4  ,now1     
there is but one way open to attain this
 noble goal3 ,science4 ,we are plunged  

in an ocean of gloom4 ,all is dark1     
unknown1 disturbing4 ,we have not yet   
understood anything of the blind forces 
surrounding us on all sides4 ,we are but
 feeble beings cast into the midst of   
sovereign powers which overwhelm and    
bear us down4 ,now1 to avoid being      
completely and definitely crushed out of
 existence1 it is necessary to penetrate
 into the nature of these forces4 ,alas6
 we shall never penetrate into them1 for
 it is madness to think that a particle 
of the whole can ever fully cognise the 
whole2 but we may at least demonstrate  
some facts1 fathom some phenomena1      
perhaps trace a few of the features of  
certain laws4 ,that is enough to make us
 instantly the masters of matter and not
 its slaves4  ,every new truth at once  
brings about an amelioration in human   
conditions4 ,it may be said that our    
happiness is made up of truth4 ,let us  
suppose what is improbable1 that is to  
say1 that we have come to know all the  
laws of ,nature1 should we not          

immediately become all-powerful8 ,should
 we not be the sovereign masters of     
disease and pain1 perhaps of old age and
 death8  ,such1 indeed1 appears to be   
the conviction of the human societies   
which assign a preponderating role to   
,science4 ,they have understood that    
there is no better future in store for  
the human being than that which ,science
 will bring about for him4  ,to be able 
to appreciate the extent to which the   
man of to-day is materially and morally 
happier than the man of past ages1 we   
have only to compare the present state  
of our civilisation with the state of   
past civilisations4 ,we may say that an 
,english labourer of to-day has a much  
easier existence than had an ,italian   
prince of the fourteenth century4       
,everywhere1 the progress achieved by   
,science has entered into the life of   
each individual4 ,we find it in the book
 we read1 in the electricity which gives
 us light1 in the train or the steamer  
which carries us to the uttermost       

corners of the earth in little time and 
at little cost4 ,it is the same thing   
also with medicaments1 which are        
certainly able to lessen the pain of    
disease4  ,moral progress has kept pace 
with material progress4 ,at the same    
time that matter has been overcome1 our 
customs have become gentler2 individual 
liberty is a sacred thing2 each citizen 
takes part in the decisions of his      
government2 there is no longer either   
slavery or torture or tyranny of        
conscience4 ,in a word1 the man of      
to-day is happier and more powerful than
 the man of bygone days4  ,this         
happiness has not been acquired through 
any providential miracles4 ,no ,god came
 down from ,his ,heaven to alleviate    
human misfortunes4 ,it is man1 and man  
alone1 who1 by his genius and his       
labours1 has been able to make himself  
master of the forces which1 even        
yesterday1 held him in bondage4 ,and we 
cannot be too grateful to our fathers   
for their immense and fruitful labours1 

by which they succeeded in constructing 
the society in the midst of which we    
live4 ,it is still wretched enough1 this
 society of ours1 afflicted with crimes 
and horrors1 the infamy of which we     
understand full well2 but however       
wretched it may be1 it is a thousand    
times less wretched than was society of 
yore4  ,therefore1 this formal          
conclusion may at once be deduced2 we   
must do for our descendants what our    
fathers did for us4 ,we would be without
 excuse if we rested content to benefit 
from the works of our predecessors      
without ourselves also creating         
something1 without leaving1 by means of 
our personal labours1 a better lot to   
our descendants4 ,the man who has not   
understood this supreme duty is truly   
unworthy of being a man4  ,verily1 every
 individual1 when he has arrived at the 
end of his life1 should examine his     
conscience and ask himself if in the    
humble sphere of his action1 he has not1
 even he also1 contributed a stone to   

the human edifice1 if he has not done   
his share in promoting and increasing   
the forces of humanity4  ,since matters 
stand thus1 since the development of    
,science is the fundamental condition of
 the happiness of man1 we must          
resolutely put ,science at the basis of 
every civilisation4 ,alas6 it has not   
been so up to the present2 and if we    
study the development of human          
societies1 we see that they are above   
all things attracted to war4 ,science   
has had only the leavings4 ,but the time
 has come when man should no longer     
believe that the principle of morality  
is man's struggle against man4 ,that was
 the history of bye-gone times4 ,the    
history of to-day1 and especially the   
history of to-morrow1 is the struggle of
 man against matter1 the subjection of  
natural forces to our intelligence4 ,and
 there is no other way to subjugate     
these forces than by learning to know   
them4  ,then ,science will be put in the
 foreground4 ,and without making any    

classification which distinguishes      
between the sciences1 which are all     
useful1 beautiful1 and noble1 for all   
contain a portion of truth1 we shall be 
permitted to say that the ,science of   
life is one of the most useful1 the most
 noble1 and the most beautiful4  ,now1  
the ,science of life is ,physiology1    
taking physiology in its widest sense1  
that is to say1 the study of normal     
beings and of diseased beings4 ,it is   
proved by innumerable facts1 facts which
 only bad faith and ignorance can call  
into question1 that our physiological   
knowledge is due1 in a very large       
measure1 to experimentation4 ,if in     
thought we suppressed the scientific    
results which experimentation has       
conquered1 we should have but an        
inferior science1 within the reach of   
the ,brahmans may be1 but unworthy of   
our present scientific standing4 ,we    
should know nothing of the circulation  
of the blood1 nor the function of the   
blood corpuscles1 nor the formation of  

sugar1 nor the innervation of the       
glands1 nor the contagiousness of       
disease1 nor the power of poisons2 we   
should be reduced to the notions of     
,hippocrates1 we should be less advanced
 than ,galileo1 the first ingenious     
experimenter who indicated1 less by his 
writings than by his experiments1 that  
the basis of physiology1 and            
consequently of the whole of pathology1 
is experimentation on animals4  ,those  
most sincere persons who wish to banish 
experimentation from ,science are       
consequently1 ,i do not fear to say it1 
standing in the position of direct      
contradiction to true morality4 ,to     
refuse man the right to study living    
nature1 is as though we declared that   
living nature ought not to be known4    
,alas6 anti-vivisectionists will not    
listen4 ,in vain do we tell them that   
we1 physiologists1 preserve man from    
disease2 that we have alleviated the    
ills of our human brothers4 ,they stop  
up their ears2 they shut their eyes2    

they have no pity for the sufferings of 
human beings4 ,it seems as though the   
tears of their brethren were profoundly 
indifferent to them4 ,is this a high    
morality8 ,is this a realisation of     
their duty as men8 ,they cover with     
opprobrium the names of ,harvey and     
,jenner1 ,bernard and ,pasteur1         
,spallanzani and ,helmholtz4 ,what base 
ingratitude6 ,it is these great men who 
have turned aside many excruciating     
sufferings from humanity2 it is these   
grand men who have bestowed a better lot
 on so many human beings4 ,when1        
therefore1 they dare to calumniate the  
masters who have scattered over us so   
much beneficence1 anti-vivisectionists  
seem to me to be not only the most      
ungrateful but even the cruellest of    
men4  ,fortunately the conquering march 
of ,science will not be hindered4 ,we   
shall never return to those sinister    
times when our great ,vesalius had to   
forfeit his life for having dared to    
dissect a human corpse4 ,we shall       

continue to make ,science advance       
towards its great aim1 the good of man4 
,and this is the moment which has been  
chosen for striving to arrest the march 
of ,science3 when epidemic disease1 such
 as the plague and cholera1 is checked2 
tuberculosis half-conquered2 diptheria  
rendered inoffensive2 operations become 
almost harmless2 cancer on the eve of   
being understood and subjugated6 ,and   
are we to stop there8 ,are we not to    
seek to fathom the many problems still  
waiting to be solved1 and on which      
depend the lives of so many human       
beings1 and so much human happiness8 ,do
 you believe that ,science has come to  
an end8 ,certainly we already know a    
great deal2 but what we know is as      
nothing compared to what we do not know4
  ,an immense domain of unknown truths  
lies open to our activity4 ,and we are  
able to forsee what inexpressible       
benefits these new truths will scatter  
over suffering humanity4 ,consequently1 
everyone1 every man enamoured of        

goodness and justice1 should be filled  
with respect for ,science1 and set all  
his hopes on her4  ,at the same time1   
however great may be my adoration for   
,science1 it must not be at the expense 
of human personalities1 or1 let us say  
it distinctly1 at the expense of animal 
personalities1 which although uncertain 
and indistinct1 still merit a share1 and
 a large share1 of justice and of pity4 
,as for human personalities1 without the
 slightest doubt1 we have not the right 
to sacrifice an innocent creature for   
,science4 ,every human being ought to be
 treated with respect1 and we have not  
the right to kill and martyrise a human 
being even if his death and his         
martyrdom might serve the cause of      
,science4  ,as for animal personalities1
 the question becomes much more         
doubtful4 ,for inferior beings with     
indistinct consciousness1 and1 without a
 doubt powerless to perceive pain1 no   
scruple should hold us back4 ,but if it 
concerns beings nearer to ourselves1    

such as monkeys1 cats1 dogs1 horses1 all
 certainly capable of feeling pain1 we  
must be chary of inflicting pain1 and   
experiment only after having totally    
abolished in them all sensation of pain4
 ,but under penalty of falling into     
fetishism1 we must not fear to use the  
life of these beings in order to prolong
 the life of man4 ,every time we propose
 to make an experiment1 it is as though 
we put this question to ourselves3 is   
this dog worth more than a man8 or than 
a hundred men8 or than the whole of     
humanity to come8 ,thus put1 the problem
 bears only one solution3 ,avoid giving 
pain to the animal on condition that it 
is not at the cost of innumerable human 
pains4 ,moreover1 it is the same here as
 in every question we may wish to       
investigate3 ,each of the two           
adversaries set out from a just         
principle1 incontestably just4 ,but each
 one pushes the just principle so far   
that he ends by transforming it into a  
colossal absurdity4  ,in the present    

case1 the anti-vivisectionists say3 pain
 is an evil1 even the obscure pain of   
the lowest animal is an evil4 ,now1 we  
should do no evil2 therefore we should  
not at any price inflict any pain       
whatsoever1 however light it may be1 on 
even the lowest animal4 ,that is their  
syllogism4 ,it cannot be replied to1 for
 it is perfectly correct4  ,we on our   
side say3 ,the suffering of man is a    
sacred thing4 ,science casts aside      
suffering from man4 ,therefore we ought 
to sacrifice inferior beings to the     
cause of ,science1 that is to say to the
 happiness of man4 ,there again lies an 
irreproachable syllogism4  ,but these   
two syllogisms1 if driven up to their   
ultimate conclusions1 would lead to     
nonsense on the one hand and cruelty on 
the other4 ,if we were to listen only to
 the friends of animals1 we should not  
have the right to bleed a horse in order
 to save the lives of #djj children2 and
 this contention would be both foolish  
and cruel4  ,if we were to listen only  

to the friends of man1 we should have   
the right1 simply as dictated by our    
might and fancy1 to cause suffering to  
dogs1 cats1 monkeys1 all innocent and   
sensitive animals1 under pretext that   
these tortures are capable of           
alleviating human pain4 ,that also would
 be folly and cruelty4  ,fortunately1   
wisdom avoids both extremes2 it fears   
the brutality of hard and fast          
syllogisms1 which are absurd even by    
their very severity4 ,yes1 there are the
 rights of man2 yes1 there are the      
rights of animals2 and all our efforts  
should consist in holding an even       
balance between these two sometimes     
antagonistic rights4 ,do not let us push
 our reasonings to their logical but    
absurd extremes4 ,pre-occupation for the
 welfare of future humanity and of      
,science does not authorise us to be    
wicked and unjust towards the men of    
to-day1 even towards one single man4 ,so
 that1 notwithstanding my worship of    
,science1 ,i would not sacrifice human  

lives to her4 ,and1 notwithstanding all 
my respect for animal pain1 ,i would    
look upon the man as supremely          
ridiculous1 even guilty1 who would not  
innoculate a microbe into a rabbit to   
achieve a great discovery for humanity4 
,wisdom1 therefore1 consists precisely  
in this3 to know where to stop in       
pushing a reasoning to extremes4 ,this  
is what physiologists have sought and   
are seeking to do4  ,in any case1 and as
 a last conclusion1 ,science ought not  
to be sacrificed4 ,now1 the death-knell 
of science will have sounded when       
savants are prevented from pursuing     
their investigations on living beings4  
,we who1 in full confidence1 hope for a 
happier and better humanity1 will never 
resign ourselves to closing our         
laboratories1 to burning our books4 ,on 
the contrary1 we are determined1 every  
one of us1 to continue our hard labours 
for the great good of the men of to-day 
and of the generations to come4  ,and   
when we speak of ,science1 we do not    

mean only the material benefits she     
scatters abroad2 we think also of her   
power as a moral force4 ,material and   
moral conquests walk hand in hand4      
,science is the basis of the moral law4 
,the universal consciousness of humanity
 grows greater by the acquisition of new
 truths4 ,each individual1 by the very  
fact that he loves truth1 has come to   
understand the moral ideal which should 
be ever before his eyes4  ,and then1 in 
a just measure1 full of pity for all    
suffering1 but placing the suffering of 
man at a higher price than the suffering
 of the animal1 we shall strive to make 
the respect of animal suffering accord  
with the search for the splendid and    
indispensable and divine ,,truth4       
,,post ,,scriptum   ,in the various     
works1 notices1 discourses1 etc41 which 
have been published upon ,vivisection1  
generally against ,vivisection1 ,i find 
various erroneous assertions which it is
 important should be pointed out4 ,i    
will do so briefly4  ,there is1 however1

 one assertion which appears fairly just
 to me4 ,this is that in treatises on   
physiology1 sufficient mention is not   
made of ,vivisection1 of its limits and 
of its abuses4 ,at the beginning of a   
treatise on physiology1 the author      
should distinctly declare there is      
always cruelty in vivisection conducted 
without chloroform or chloralose2 the   
author should indicate that these       
anaesthetics ought to be administered   
under such or such conditions4 ,before  
initiating medical students into the    
study of life1 it is also well to teach 
them to have respect for animal         
suffering4 ,i would that it might be    
thoroughly understood that it is a      
matter of absolute necessity to operate 
upon the animal2 and that when the      
physiologist resigns himself to this    
necessity he ought to perform the       
operation with sufficient humanity to   
prevent the animal from suffering4 ,i   
willingly recognise that the absence of 
this first moral precept is a great gap 

in most treatises on physiology4  ,this1
 however1 is about all ,i can concede to
 anti-vivisectionists2 for truly they   
indulge in such queer1 extraordinary    
assertions that we are completely       
disconcerted4 ,some of these fanatics   
pretend1 for example1 that physiologists
 should practise vivisection upon       
themselves4 ,to torture a dog is as     
criminal as to torture a child1         
according to them2 and animal suffering 
is as much to be respected as human     
suffering6 ,truly such a paradox cannot 
be taken seriously2 if it were admitted1
 evidently the question is settled4 ,but
 it cannot be admitted1 and the whole of
 our argument rests upon this principle1
 which appears quite evident1 that      
living beings occupy different positions
 in the hierarchy of nature4  ,let us   
take a besieged city reduced to famine3 
will anyone pretend that the soldiers   
must be sacrificed before the horses1   
the mules1 etc4 ,yet the case is exactly
 the same4 ,it is in order to avoid the 

death of human beings that mice and     
guinea-pigs are put to death4  ,to deny 
the difference in rank of living beings 
is to deny evidence4 ,a frog is a nobler
 animal than a sea-urchin2 a dog is a   
nobler animal than a frog2 for there are
 degrees in the intelligence1 and       
consequently1 in the capacity to suffer1
 and in the quality of suffering among  
the four animal groups3 the sea-urchin1 
the frog1 the dog1 and man4             
,anti-vivisectionists do not admit      
reflex movements 7which1 moreover1 they 
do not understand72 and they bewail the 
dogs that ,goltz and ,ewald subjected to
 cerebral mutilations which took away   
all intellectual spontaneity and        
prevented them from eating              
spontaneously4 ,but in those very dogs1 
precisely because there is no           
spontaneity1 so there is no longer any  
consciousness of pain4 ,they are1       
therefore1 of all the beings in creation
 those which deserve the least          
commiseration2 for they are protected   

against pain by that very ablation of   
the brain1 the seat of pain4  ,we are   
told that it is through cowardice1      
through the fear of disease1 that       
vivisection is practised4 ,but fear of  
disease is not cowardice4 ,i am neither 
poltroon nor coward1 but ,i would be    
very sorry to be attacked by            
tuberculosis or cancer4 ,i do not blush 
to confess that it would be very        
disagreeable for me to be hanged1 though
 hanging is much less painful than      
tuberculosis or cancer4 ,if it were     
necessary to have a hanged victim1 ,i   
would much prefer that a rabbit were    
taken in preference to myself2 and ,i   
would certainly not put my own neck in  
the cord to save a dog from torture4    
,the state of mind of                   
anti-vivisectionists appears to me      
rather singular1 since they are not at  
all afraid of disease as far as man is  
concerned1 but they have great fear of  
it for animals4 ,if pain is but an empty
 word1 according to the celebrated      

phrase of ,zeno1 why not apply that fine
 maxim to the animal8  ,sir ,james      
,thornton 7,the ,principal ,claims on   
behalf of ,vivisection1 ,london1 #aijg71
 has endeavoured to compile a list of   
the contradictions to be found in the   
treatises of physiology4 ,he could have 
added considerably to the length of this
 chapter1 for the contradictions are    
innumerable2 which only proves1 not that
 vivisection is useless1 but that it is 
difficult4 ,what would chemists say if  
it were maintained that chemical        
analysis was absurd because of the      
contradictions between chemists8 ,they  
would1 and rightly so1 continue to make 
analyses2 for they know that analysis is
 a necessary1 though an imperfect1      
instrument4 ,in the same manner1 we     
shall continue to practise vivisection1 
though we know right well that          
vivisection is an imperfect1 though a   
necessary1 instrument4  ,in the course  
of a recent debate on vivisection1 a    
voice was heard to call out that ,lister

 was a brute4 ,that crowns everything1  
and one would think that nothing more   
inept could be imagined4  ,alas6        
something more inept still has been     
said1 and ,i hand over this prodigious  
and audacious assertion to the judgment 
of every man of heart and common sense4 
,it refers to bacteriology4 ,the author1
 after having said that microbes are not
 the cause of disease1 takes refuge     
behind the opinion of ,lawson ,tait     
7quoted by ,mona ,caird1 ,the           
,inquisition of ,science1 p4 #bj74      
,such experiments never have succeeded1 
never can3 and they have1 as in the     
cases of ,koch1 ,pasteur1 and ,lister1  
not only hindered true progress1 but    
they have covered our profession with   
ridicule4  ,that is something which may 
well confound us1 is it not8 and ,i     
believe those great benefactors of      
humanity1 ,koch1 ,pasteur and ,lister1  
may indeed murmur3 ,forgive them2 for   
they know not what they say4  ,to sum   
up3 the objections of                   

anti-vivisectionists are irrefutable if 
we admit1 7#a7 that man has not the     
right to kill an animal either in       
self-defence or for nourishment2 7#b7   
that the suffering of an animal is as   
worthy of respect as the suffering of a 
man2 and 7#c7 that the misery of one    
individual is as sacred as the misery of
 a thousand individuals4 ,no logical    
reply can be made to these three        
assertions1 which1 according to my      
reasoning1 constitute an offence against
 the most elementary common sense4 ,but 
,i doubt very much if we shall ever     
arrive at demonstrating that it is      
better to allow one hundred children to 
die from diphtheria rather than draw a  
little blood from a horse2 or that we   
should practise vivisection on man so as
 to alleviate the diseases of dogs4     
,concerning the polemics of             
anti-vivisectionists as to the          
uselessness of physiology1 and the      
contradictions of physiologists1 they   
are nothing but a tissue of error and   

ignorance4     ,,appendix ,a   ,we give 
herewith a table showing the absolute   
and relative mortality due to diphtheria
 in ,paris from #ahgb to #aije1 out of a
 population of #b1ejj1jjj inhabitants3--
               ,,absolute4    ,,per     
#ajj1jjj ,,inhabitants4    #ahgb        
#aace               #fa   #ahgc         
#aafd               #fb   #ahgd         
#ajjh               #eb   #ahge         
#acbh               #fh   #ahgf         
#aegb               #gi   #ahgg         
#bcic              #aag   #ahgh         
#aiie               #ie   #ahgi         
#aghc               #hc   #ahhj         
#bjdh               #id   #ahha         
#bbaa               #ii   #ahhb         
#bbdd              #ajj   #ahhc         
#agha               #gi   #ahhd         
#aibh               #hf   #ahhe         
#afee               #gd   #ahhf         
#aeab               #fg   #ahhg         
#aehe               #gj   #ahhh         
#agbi               #gd   #ahhi         
#agjf               #gb   #ahij         

#affh               #gj   #ahia         
#acfa               #ef   #ahib         
#adjc               #eh   #ahic         
#abff               #eb   #ahid         
#ajji               #da   #ahie         
#dce               #ag   #ahif          
#ddd               #ag   #ahig          
#bih               #ab   #ahih          
#bei               #aj   #ahii          
#cci               #ac   #aijj          
#bid               #aa   #aija          
#gcf               #bh   #aijb          
#gji               #bf   #aijc          
#cii               #ae   #aijd          
#bfj               #aj   #aije          
#bjd                #g  ,let us divide  
this mortality due to diphtheria into   
three groups 7in ,paris per #ajj1jjj    
inhabitants73--       ,a4 ,before the   
discovery of serotherapy1 from #ahgb to 
#ahhh4       ,b4 ,during the period of  
experimentation with      serotherapy1  
from #ahhi to #ahid4       ,c4 ,after   
the generalisation of serotherapy1 from 
#ahie      to #aije4  ,we have then the 

following averages3--                   
,,absolute4   ,,per #ajj1jjj            
,,inhabitants4    ,before serotherapy   
#afeg           #hj   ,intermediary     
period      #adjb           #eh   ,after
 serotherapy         #cih           #ae 
,and should these figures not seem      
sufficiently eloquent1 let us set them  
forth in another form3--                
,,absolute ,,mortality4    ,before the  
discovery of serotherapy1 #ahhh         
#agbi   #ast year of serotherapy1       
#ahhi                  #agjf   #bnd     
#ahij                  #affh   #crd     
#ahia                  #acfa   #dth     
#ahib                  #adfc   #eth     
#ahic                  #abff   #fth     
#ahid                  #ajji  ,at this  
moment the practice of serotherapy1     
thanks to ,roux1 became general in      
,paris4         #ast year1 #ahie--dce4  
#bnd      #ahif--ddd4  ,during the next 
six years there were still hesitations  
and uncertainties as to the best method 
to be employed4  ,the mortality during  

these six years1 #ahig-aijb--dci4  ,then
 the practice was definitely            
established4  ,the mortality for the    
three years1 #aijc-aije--bhh4  ,these   
figures are so eloquent1 so striking1 so
 precise1 that it is not possible to    
misunderstand them4 ,they cannot be     
ignored2 and when once they have been   
set forth1 ignorance is no longer       
permissible1 and it is for that reason  
we have here given them4  ,in ,berlin   
and in ,vienna1 it is the same thing4   
,from #ahid the mortality due to        
diphtheria has diminished to the extent 
of #aej per cent4     ,,appendix ,b     
,,bibliography   ,adams 7,c474 ,,hunter 
,,and ,,the ,,stag4 ,a reply to ,prof4  
,owen4 7#hvo1 ,london1 #ahha47  ,adler  
7,h474 ,,zur ,,frage ,,der ,v4 7,wien   
med4 ,woch41 #ahgi1 #aafa1 #abaa1       
#abda47  ,anstie 7,f4 ,e47 ,,the        
,,vivisection ,,controversy4            
7,practitioner1 #ahgd1 #ch and #cba47   
,apinus 7,s4 ,j474 ,,diss4 ,,ex ,,jure  
,,naturae3 ,,an ,,liceat ,,brutorum     

,,corpora ,,mutilare ,,et ,,speciatim   
,,ob ,,es ,,recht ,,sey ,,dass ,,man    
,,den ,,hunden ,,die ,,ohren            
,,abschneide1 ,,variis ,,observationibus
 ,,aucta4 7,altorphii ,noricorum1       
#agbb47  ,basch ,,zur ,v4 ,,frage4      
7,wien med4 ,blaetter1 #ahgi1 #b1 #gc47 
,beck 7,j4 ,m474 ,,the ,,legal ,,aspects
 ,,of ,,vivisection4 7,medical ,news1   
#ahij1 pp4 #bhj-bhb47  ,bedtnitz 7,a474 
,,die ,v4 ,,gaukler4 7,wien1 #hvo1      
#ahhc47  ,berdoe 7,e474 ,,the ,,futility
 ,,of ,,experiments ,,with ,,drugs ,,on 
,,animals4 7#hvo1 ,london1 #ahhi47  ----
 ,,the ,,healing ,,art ,,and ,,the      
,,claims ,,of ,,vivisection4 7#abmo1    
,london1 #ahij47 ,a ,,triumph ,,of      
,,vivisection4 7#hvo1 ,london1 #ahij47  
,bernard 7,claude74 ,,les               
,,vivisections4 7,union medicale1 #ahfe1
 #cje-caj et ,revue ,scientifique1      
#ahgh1 #gii-hjb47  ,bigelow 7,h4 ,r474  
,,the ,,practical ,,utility ,,of        
,,vivisection4 7,maryland ,med4 ,journ41
 #ahhj1 #bdf-bdi47  ,bowditch 7,h4 ,p474

 ,,vivisection ,,justifiable4 7,sanitar4
 ,new ,york ,journ41 #ahif1 #bbi-bdc47  
,bos 7,a474 ,,sulle ,v4 7,imparziale1   
#ahgd1 #bbe-bca47  ,brown 7,j4 ,m474    
,,vivisection1 ,a ,,reply ,,to ,,dr     
,,keen4 7,j4 ,am4 ,med4 ,ass41 #aija1   
#eib47  ,bryan 7,b474 ,,the ,,british   
,,vivisector',s ,,directory1 ,a ,,black 
,,book ,,for ,,the ,,united ,,kingdom4  
7#abmo1 ,london1 #ahij47  ,burt4 ,,the  
,,ethics ,,of ,,experimentation ,,upon  
,,living ,,animals4 7,post-graduate1    
#ahij1 #ec-ee47  ,carpenter 7,w4 ,b474  
,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,vivisection4      
7,fortnightly ,rev41 #ahhb1 #bcg-bdf47  
,cejon 7,e4 de74 ,,the                  
,,anti-,,vivisectionist ,,agitation4    
7,contemporary ,rev41 #ahhc1 #dih-iaj47 
,coats4 ,,on ,,ludwig ,,and ,,pasteur1  
,,and ,,on ,,vivisection4 7,glasg4 ,med4
 ,journ41 #ahie1 #ccj-cce47  ,cobbe     
7,fr4 ,p474 ,,illustrations ,,of        
,,vivisection4 7#hvo1 ,philadelphia1    
#ahhg47  ,cobbe 7,fr474 ,,the ,,modern  
,,rack2 ,,papers ,,on ,,vivisection4    

7#hvo1 ,london1 #ahhi47  ,cobbe 7,fr4   
,p474 ,,vivisection2 ,,four ,,replies4  
7,fortnightly ,rev41 #ahhb1 #hh-ajd1 and
 ,contemporary ,rev41 #ahhb1 #faj-fbf47 
,coleridge 7,lord74 ,,the ,,nineteenth  
,,century ,,defenders ,,of              
,,vivisection4 7,fortnightly ,rev41     
#ahhb1 #bbe-bcf47  ,dalton4             
,,experimentation ,,on ,,animals4       
7#abmo1 ,new ,york1 #ahge47  ,dalton4   
,,magendie ,,as ,a ,,physiologist4      
7,internat4 ,rev41 #ahhj1 #abj-abi47    
,dalton 7,j4 ,c74 ,,vivisection3 ,,what 
,,it ,,is ,,and ,,what ,,it ,,has       
,,accomplished4 7,bull4 ,b4 ,york ,acad4
 med41 #ahff1 #aei-aih47  ,darwin       
7,ch474 ,,views ,,on ,,vivisection4     
7,pop4 ,sc4 ,monthly1 #ahha1 #dbd2 et   
,rev4 ,scient41 #ahha 7#a71 #gca47      
,davis 7,n4 ,b474 ,,the ,,moral         
,,aspects ,,of ,,vivisection4 7,north   
,americ4 ,rev41 #ahhe1 #bjc-bbj47       
,delolm de ,lalaubie4 ,,vivisection1    
,,diss4 ,,in4 7,paris1 #ahfh47          
,deswattines4 ,,suggestif ,,petit       

,,tableau ,,de ,,la ,,cruelle ,,et      
,,inutile ,,vivisection4 7,medecin1     
#aijd1 #ce47  ,ferguson 7,sir ,w474     
,,opinions ,,of ,,eminent ,,surgeons1   
,,physiologists ,,and ,,others1 ,,as    
,,to ,,the ,,folly ,,and ,,misleading   
,,and ,,demoralising ,,results ,,of     
,,vivisection4 7,london1 #ahhj47        
,fletcher4 ,a ,,few ,,notes ,,on        
,,cruelty ,,to ,,animals1 ,,on ,,the    
,,inadequacy ,,of ,,penal ,,law4 7#hvo1 
,london1 #ahdf47  ,foreau de            
,courmelles4 ,,essai ,,de ,,limitation  
,,scientifique ,,de ,,la ,,vivisection4 
7,revue med41 #aijb1 #dha-dhd47  ,foster
 7,m474 ,,vivisection4 7,pop4 ,sc4      
,monthly1 #ahgc1 pp4 #fgb-fhe47  ,gamgee
 7,s474 ,,on ,,vivisection ,,and        
,,scientific ,,surgery4 7,brit4 ,med4   
,journ4 7#b71 #ahgf1 #ajd47  ,guetzlaw  
7,v474 ,,schopenhauer ,ue,b,e,r ,,die   
,,thiere ,,und ,,der ,,thierschutz4     
7#hvo1 ,berlin1 #ahgi47  ,harnack 7,e474
 ,,wider ,,die ,v4-,,gegner4 7,d4 med4  
,woch41 #aije1 #aaae-aaaf47  ,harvey4   

,,the ,,pasteur ,,institute ,,and       
,,vivisection4 7,ind4 ,med4 ,gaz41      
#ahie1 #di-eg47  ,hehir 7,p474          
,,vivisection ,,so ,,called1 ,,its      
,,role ,,in ,,the ,,service ,,of ,,man  
,,and ,,beast4 7,ind4 ,med4 ,gaz41      
#ahig1 #ia47  ,heidenhain 7,r474 ,,die  
,v4 ,,im ,,dienste ,,der ,,heilkunde4   
7#hvo1 ,leipzig1 #ahgi47  ,hermann      
7,l474 ,,die ,v4 ,,frage4 7#hvo1        
,leipzig1 #ahgg47  ,hodge4 ,,the        
,,vivisection ,,question4 7,pop4 ,sc4   
,monthly1 #ahif1 #fad-fcj1 #gga-ghf47   
,horsley 7,v474 and ,rutter 7,a474 ,,the
 ,,morality ,,of ,,vivisection4         
7,nineteenth ,century1 #ahib1 pp4       
#hjd-hag47  ,hutton 7,r4 ,h474 ,,the    
,,biologists ,,on ,,vivisection4        
7,nineteenth ,century1 #ahhb1 #bi-ci1   
and ,contemp4 ,rev41 #ahhc1 #eaj-eaf47  
,jaeger 7,g474 ,v4 ,,und ,,heilkunst4   
7,jaegers ,monatsbl41 #aije1 #acg-ada1  
#agc-ahc1 #aig-bjc47  ,keen 7,w4 ,w474  
,,our ,,recent ,,debts ,,to             
,,vivisection4 7,pop4 ,sc4 ,monthly1    

#ahhi1 #a-ae and ,harper's ,mag41 #ahic1
 pp4 #bh-aci47  ,keen 7,w4 ,w474        
,,misstatements ,,of ,,the              
,,anti-,,vivisectionists ,,again4       
7,phil4 ,med4 ,jour41 #aija1 #bjd-bjf47 
,kingsford 7,a474 ,,the ,,uselessness   
,,of ,,vivisection4 7,nineteenth        
,century1 #ahhb1 #aga-ahc47  ,kleffer   
7,h474 ,,la ,,vivisection1 ,,son        
,,utilite1 ,,sa ,,morale4 7,,geneve1    
,,georg1 #abmo1 #ahhc47  ,lawson 7,h474 
,,the ,,vivisection ,,clamour4 7,pop4   
,sc4 ,rev41 #ahgf1 #cih-dje47           
,leffingwell4 ,,vivisection1 ,a ,,reply 
,,to ,,prof4 ,h4 ,,wood4 7,bost4 ,med4  
and ,surg4 ,journ41 #ahii1 #cga47       
,leneveu 7,g474 ,,de ,l',,utilite ,,de  
,,la ,,vivisection4 7,diss1 in41 ,paris1
 #ahhc47  ,lund 7,p4 ,w474              
,,physiologische ,,resultate ,,der ,v4  
,,neuerer ,,zeit 7trad4 du ,danois74    
7,kopenhagen1 #ahbe47  ,macphail 7,j4   
,a474 ,,vivisection4 7,montreal ,med4   
,journ41 #ahij1 #hie-iai47  ,magnan4    
,,de ,,la ,,folie ,,des                 

,,antivivisectionnistes4 7,c4 ,r4 de la 
,soc4 de ,biol4 de ,paris1 #ahhd1       
#aja-ajd47  ,marechal 7,ph474 ,,la      
,,vivisection4 7,medecin1 #aijd1 #ce1   
and ,revue du ,cien1 #ac-ae47  ,maurel4 
,,la ,,vivisection ,,est ,,elle         
,,indispensable4 7,ass4 pour l'ac4 des  
sciences1 #aija1 #bid47  ,merbach4      
,,ueber ,,die ,,geschichte ,,der ,v4    
7,jahresb4 d4 ,ges4 f4 ,nat4 u4 ,heilk4 
in ,dresd4 #ahgh1 #ih-ajc47  ,metzger   
7,d474 ,,la ,,vivisection1 ,,les        
,,dangers1 ,,et ,,les ,,crimes4 7#hvo1  
,paris1 #ahia47  ,moore 7,w4 ,j474      
,,harvey ,,and ,,vivisection4 7,ind4    
,med4 ,gaz41 #ahgf1 #bcj-bcc47  ,moquin 
,tandon4 ,,rapport ,,sur ,,les          
,,vivisections4 7,bull4 de l'ac4 de     
,medecine de ,paris1 #ahfb1 #idh-ifj47  
,nagel 7,r474 ,,der ,,wissenschaftliche 
,,unwerth ,,der ,v ,,in ,,allen ,,ihren 
,,arten4 7#hvo1 ,berlin1 #ahha47  ,novi 
7,j474 ,,sulla ,v4 7,boll4 d4 sc4 med4  
di ,bologne1 #ahic1 #bfc1 #dba47  ,paget
 7,stephen74 ,,experiments ,,on         

,,animals4 7,murray74  ,renault 7,e474  
,,la ,,soc4 ,,protects4 ,,des ,,animaux 
,,et ,,la ,,vivisection4 7,rec4 de ,med4
 veterin41 #ahfb1 #bca-bdg47  ,renooz   
7,c74 ,a ,,propos ,,de ,,la             
,,vivisection4 7,medecin1 #aijd1        
#agh-agi47  ,richet 7,ch474 ,,man',s    
,,right ,,over ,,animals4 7,pop4 ,sc4   
,monthly1 #ahhd1 xxv41 #gei-gff47       
,smith 7,r4 ,m474 ,,materia ,,medica    
,,and ,,vivisection4 7,merck's ,arch41  
#aijj1 #dd-dg47  ,smith 7,r4 ,m474      
,,should ,,experiments ,,on ,,animals   
,,be ,,restricted ,,or ,,abolished8     
7,therap4 ,gaz41 #ahhd1 #dig1 #ecc47    
,smith 7,pye74 ,,on ,,vivisection4      
7,brit4 ,med4 ,journ4 7#b71 #ahgi1      
#cdi47  ,stuser 7,e474 ,,is             
,,vivisection ,a ,,benefit ,,to         
,,animals ,,and ,,man1 ,,and            
,,justifiable8 7,med4 ,news1 #aijb1     
#ajh-aaa47  ,tait 7,lawson474 ,,the     
,,uselessness ,,of ,,vivisection ,,upon 
,,animals ,,as ,a ,,method ,,of         
,,scientific ,,research4 7,london1 #hvo1

 #ahhc 78747  ,tuckermann4 ,,abstract   
,,of ,,the ,,report ,,of ,,the          
,,committee ,,on ,,vivisection4         
7,columb4 ,med4 ,journ41 #ahig1         
#bcg-bdc47  ,weber 7,e474 ,,les         
,,chambres ,,de ,,torture ,,de ,,la     
,,science4 7,paris1 ,leroux1 #hvo1      
#ahgi47  ,wilberforce 7,c74 ,,women1    
,,clergymen ,,and ,,doctors4 7,new      
,review1 #ahic1 #he-ie47  ,wilks4 ,,the 
,,ethics ,,of ,,vivisection4 7,pop4 ,sc4
 ,monthly1 #ahhb1 xxi41 #cdd-cej47      
,williams4 ,a ,,few ,,personal ,,facts  
,,concerning ,,experiments ,,on         
,,animals ,,opposed ,,to ,,the ,,false  
,,fancies ,,of ,,the ,,persecutors ,,of 
,,vivisectors4 7,brit4 ,med4 ,journ41   
7#b71 #ahgf1 #ajd47  ,wolff4            
,,disputatio ,,philosophica ,,de        
,,moralitate ,,anatomes ,,circa         
,,animalia ,,vica ,,occupatae4          
7,leipzig1 #agji47  ,wood 7,h474 ,,the  
,,control ,,of ,,vivisection4 7,bost4   
,med4 and ,surg4 ,journ41 #ahie1 #cdb47 
,zoellner 7,f474 ,,ueber ,,der          

,,wissenschaftlichen ,,missbrauch ,,der 
,v41 ,,mit ,,historischen ,,documenten  
,ue,b,e,r ,,die ,v4 ,,von ,,menschen4   
7,leipzig1 #hvo1 #ahhj1 #bnd ed41       
#ahhe47     ,,appendix ,c  ,,the        
,,research ,,defence ,,society   ,in    
,january #aijh1 a ,society with the     
above name was formed in ,england1 the  
aims and objects of which are clearly   
stated in the following letter from     
,lord ,cromer1 its ,president2 this     
letter was published in the ,english    
newspapers on #bdth ,april #aijh3--     
,,sir1  ,a ,society has been formed1    
with the name of the ,research ,defence 
,society1 to make known the facts as to 
experiments on animals in this country2 
the immense importance to the welfare of
 mankind of such experiments2 and the   
great saving of human life and health   
directly attributable to them4  ,the    
great advance that has been made during 
the last quarter of a century in our    
knowledge of the functions of the body1 
and of the causes of disease1 would have

 been impossible without a combination  
of experiment and observation4  ,the use
 of antiseptics1 and the modern         
treatment of wounds1 is the direct      
outcome of the experiments of ,pasteur  
and ,lister4 ,pasteur's discovery of the
 microbial cause of puerperal fever has 
in itself enormously reduced the deaths 
of women in child-birth4  ,the nature of
 tuberculosis is now known1 and its     
incidence has materially diminished4    
,we owe the invention of diphtheria     
antitoxin entirely to experiments on    
animals4  ,the causes of plague1        
cholera1 typhoid1 ,mediterranean fever1 
and sleeping sickness1 have been        
discovered solely by the experimental   
method4  ,not only have a large number  
of drugs been placed at our disposal1   
but accurate knowledge has replaced the 
empirical use of many of those          
previously known4  ,the evidence before 
the ,royal ,commission has shown that   
these experiments are conducted with    
proper care2 the small amount of pain or

 discomfort inflicted is insignificant  
compared with the great gain to         
knowledge and the direct advantage to   
humanity4  ,while acknowledging in      
general the utility of the experimental 
method1 efforts have been made by a     
section of the public to throw discredit
 on all experiments involving the use of
 animals4 ,the ,research ,defence       
,society will therefore endeavour to    
make it clear that medical and other    
scientific men who employ these methods 
are not less humane than the rest of    
their countrymen1 who daily1 though     
perhaps unconsciously1 profit by them4  
,the ,society proposes to give          
information to all enquirers1 to publish
 precis1 articles1 and leaflets1 to make
 arrangements for lectures1 to send     
speakers1 if required1 to debates1 and  
to assist all who desire to examine the 
arguments on behalf of experiments on   
animals4 ,it hopes to establish branches
 in our chief cities1 and thus to be in 
touch with all parts of the kingdom2 and

 to be at the service of municipal      
bodies1 hospitals1 and other public     
institutions4  ,the ,society was formed 
on #bgth ,january of the present year1  
and already numbers more than #hjj      
members4#i ,it is not an association of 
men of science or of medical men alone2 
its membership has been drawn from all  
departments of public life1 and includes
 representatives of every class of      
educated ,englishmen and ,englishwomen1 
including many who have taken an active 
part in the prevention of cruelty to    
animals4 ,this fact is in itself a      
remarkable protest against the attacks  
which have been made on the researches  
that the ,society has been formed to    
defend4  ,the annual subscription is    
five shillings to cover working         
expenses3 but larger subscriptions1 or  
donations1 will be gladly received4 ,the
 acting ,hon4 ,treasurer1 pro tem41 is  
,mr ,j4 ,luard ,pattisson1 ,c4,b4 7of   
the ,lister ,institute71#aj and an      
account in the ,society's name has been 

opened with ,messrs ,coutts  ,co41 #ddj 
,strand4 ,the ,hon4 ,secretary is ,mr   
,stephen ,paget1 #gj ,harley ,street1   
,w41 to whom all communications should  
be addressed4  ,yours faithfully1       
,,cromer1 ,president4   ,the following  
is a list of the pamphlets already      
issued by the ,society3--  #a4 ,letter  
from the ,president announcing the      
formation of the ,society1 ,april #bd4  
#b4 ,report of the inaugural meeting4   
#c4 ,experiments on animals during #aijg
 in ,great ,britain and ,ireland4  #d4  
,some facts as to the administration of 
the ,act4  #e4 ,the value of antitoxin  
in the treatment of diphtheria4  #f4    
,evidence of ,sir ,frederick ,treves4   
#g4 ,yellow fever and malaria4  #h4     
,extinction of ,malta fever4  #i4 ,have 
experiments on animals advanced         
,therapeutics8  #aj4 ,the work of the   
,research ,defence ,society4  #aa4      
,vivisection and medicine4 ,evidence of 
,lord ,justice ,fletcher ,moulton before
 the ,royal ,commission4  ,all or any of

 these will be forwarded on application 
to the ,hon4 ,secretary1 ,mr ,stephen   
,paget1 #gj ,harley ,street1 ,london1   
,w4 ,other pamphlets are in active      
preparation2 arrangements are also being
 made for meetings1 and for the         
organisation of ,branch ,societies in   
many parts of the kingdom2 the ,society 
is also concerned in the institution of 
a similar movement for the defence of   
research in ,america4  ,space does not  
permit the publication of the full list 
of members of the ,society4 ,the        
following list of the ,president and    
,vice-,presidents1 however1 will show   
that those who have joined are          
representative not only of the leading  
men and women in the medical profession1
 but also of those who are pre-eminent  
in various other branches of science1 in
 literature1 politics1 art1 and         
theology4   ,,president  ,,the ,,earl   
,,of ,,cromer1 ,g4,c4,b41 ,g4,c4,m4,g41 
,o4,m4   ,,vice-,,presidents  ,,his     
,,grace ,,the ,,duke ,,of ,,abercorn1   

,k4,g4  ,,sir ,,william ,,abney1        
,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4  ,,sir ,t4         
,,clifford ,,allbutt1 ,k4,c4,b41        
,f4,r4,s4 7,regius ,professor of        
,physic1 ,university of ,cambridge74    
,,sir ,l4 ,,alma-,,tadema1 ,o4,m41      
,r4,a4  ,,mrs ,,garrett ,,anderson1     
,m4,d4  ,,sir ,,william ,,anson1 ,,bt41 
,d4,c4,l41 ,m4,p4  ,,the ,,rt4 ,,hon4   
,,lord ,,avebury1 ,f4,r4,s4  ,a,,sir    
,,john ,,banks1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,m4,d4  ,,the
 ,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,lord ,,barrymore4  ,,the
 ,,marquis ,,of ,,bath4  ,,lady ,,bliss4
  ,,lady ,,buckley4  ,,lady             
,,burdon-,,sanderson4  ,,lord ,,blyth4  
,,the ,,very ,,rev4 ,,the ,,dean ,,of   
,,canterbury1 ,d4,d4  ,,earl ,,cathcart4
  ,,lord ,,robert ,,cecil1 ,k4,c41      
,m4,p4  ,,the ,,rt4 ,,rev4 ,,the ,,lord 
,,bishop ,,of ,,chester1 ,d4,d4  ,,the  
,,very ,,rev4 ,,the ,,dean ,,of         
,,chester1 ,d4,d4  ,,lord ,,cheylesmore1
 ,c4,v4,o4 7,chairman1 ,middlesex       
,hospital74  ,,the ,,very ,,rev4 ,,the  
,,dean ,,of ,,christ ,,church1 ,d4,d4   

,,sir ,,james ,,crichton-,,browne1      
,f4,r4,s4  ,,the ,,countess ,,of        
,,cromer4  ,,the ,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,sir     
,,savile ,,crossley1 ,,bt41 ,m4,v4,o4   
,,sir ,,edmund ,,hay ,,currie4  ,,lord  
,,curzon ,,of ,,kedleston1 ,g4,c4,s4,i41
 ,g4,c4,i4,e41 ,f4,r4,s4  ,,the ,,rev4  
,,dr ,,dallinger1 ,f4,r4,s4  ,,francis  
,,darwin1 ,,esq41 ,f4,r4,s4  ,,sir      
,,george ,h4 ,,darwin1 ,k4,c4,b41       
,f4,r4,s4  ,,sir ,,james ,,dewar1       
,f4,r4,s4  ,,sir ,a4 ,,conan ,,doyle1   
,,ll4,d4  ,,the ,,rev4 ,,canon          
,,duckworth1 ,c4,v4,o4  ,,the ,,rt4     
,,rev4 ,,the ,,bishop ,,of ,,edinburgh1 
,d4,d4  ,,earl ,,egerton4  ,,the ,,rt4  
,,rev4 ,,the ,,lord ,,bishop ,,of       
,,exeter1 ,d4,d4  ,,lord ,,faber4  ,,the
 ,,rev4 ,a4 ,m4 ,,fairbairn1 ,d4,d41    
,,ll4,d4 7,principal of ,mansfield      
,college1 ,oxford74  ,,lord ,,farrer4   
,,sir ,,luke ,,fildes1 ,r4,a4  ,,lord   
,,fortescue4  ,,sir ,,thomas ,,fraser1  
,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 7,professor of        
,clinical ,medicine1 ,university of     

,edinburgh74  ,,sir ,,david ,,gill1     
,k4,c4,b41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4  ,,the   
,,earl ,,of ,,glasgow1 ,g4,c4,m4,g4     
,,the ,,rt4 ,,rev4 ,,the ,,lord ,,bishop
 ,,of ,,grantham1 ,d4,d4                
,,field-,,marshal ,,lord ,,grenfell1    
,g4,c4,b41 ,g4,c4,m4,g4  ,,the ,,hon4   
,,walter ,,guinness1 ,m4,p4  ,,the ,,rt4
 ,,hon4 ,,the ,,earl ,,of ,,halsbury1   
,k4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4  ,,lord ,,claud       
,,hamilton4  ,h4 ,a4 ,,harben1 ,,esq4   
7,chairman1 ,st ,mary's ,hospital74  ,j4
 ,t4 ,,helby1 ,,esq4 7,chairman1        
,metropolitan ,asylums ,board74  ,,sir  
,,samuel ,,hoare1 ,,bt4  ,,the ,,hon4   
,,sydney ,,holland 7,chairman1 ,london  
,hospital74  ,,sir ,,joseph ,,dalton    
,,hooker1 ,g4,c4,s4,i41 ,f4,r4,s41      
,o4,m4  ,,sir ,,william ,,huggins1      
,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,o4,m4  ,j4       
,,hughlings ,,jackson1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41
 ,f4,r4,s4  ,,montague ,,rhodes ,,james1
 ,,litt4,d4 7,provost of ,king's        
,college1 ,cambridge74  ,,sir ,,alfred  
,,jones1 ,k4,c4,m4,g4  ,,the ,,rt4      

,,rev4 ,,the ,,lord ,,bishop ,,of       
,,kingston4  ,,the ,,earl ,,of          
,,kilmorey 7,chairman1 ,charing ,cross  
,hospital74  ,,lord ,,lamington1        
,g4,c4,m4,g4  ,,sir ,e4 ,,ray           
,,lankester1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4  ,r4  
,f4 ,c4 ,,leith1 ,m4,,sc41 7,professor  
of ,pathology1 ,birmingham74  ,,the     
,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,lord ,,lindley1 ,,ll4,d41
 ,d4,c4,l41 ,f4,r4,s4  ,,sir ,,norman   
,,lockyer1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4  ,,the  
,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,walter ,,long1 ,m4,p4    
,,henry ,,lucas1 ,,esq4 7,chairman1     
,university ,college ,hospital74  ,,lord
 ,,ludlow4  ,,the ,,hon4 ,g4 ,w4        
,,spencer ,,lyttelton1 ,c4,b4           
,,frederick ,,macmillan1 ,,esq4         
7,chairman1 ,national ,hospital for the 
,paralysed and ,epileptic74  ,,the ,,rt4
 ,,hon4 ,,sir ,,herbert ,e4 ,,maxwell1  
,,bt41 ,f4,r4,s4  ,,lord ,,methuen1     
,g4,c4,b41 ,k4,c4,v4,o4  ,,her ,,grace  
,,the ,,duchess ,,of ,,montrose4  ,,lady
 ,,dorothy ,,nevill4  ,,the ,,earl ,,of 
,,northbrook 7,president1 ,cancer       

,hospital74  ,,lord ,,northcliffe4      
,,william ,,osler1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4    
7,regius ,professor of ,medicine1       
,university of ,oxford74  ,,the ,,rt4   
,,rev4 ,,the ,,lord ,,bishop ,,of       
,,oxford1 ,d4,d4  ,,sir ,,gilbert       
,,parker1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,m4,p4  ,,eden     
,,phillpotts1 ,,esq4  ,,count           
,,plunkett4  ,,sir ,,frederick          
,,pollock1 ,,bt41 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4   
,,sir ,,john ,,dickson ,,poynder1 ,,bt41
 ,m4,p4 7,chairman1 ,great ,northern    
,hospital74  ,,lady ,,priestley4  ,,the 
,,rt4 ,,rev4 ,,the ,,bishop ,,of ,,north
 ,,queensland1 ,d4,d4  ,,sir ,,william  
,,ramsay1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4  ,,the   
,,rt4 ,,rev4 ,,the ,,lord ,,bishop ,,of 
,,rangoon4  ,,sir ,,james ,,reid1 ,,bt41
 ,g4,c4,v4,o4  ,,lady ,,russell         
,,reynolds4  ,,the ,,very ,,rev4 ,,hon4 
,,the ,,dean ,,of ,,ripon1 ,d4,d4       
,,briton ,,riviere1 ,,esq41 ,r4,a41     
,d4,c4,l4  ,,mrs ,,roget4  ,,mrs        
,,romanes4  ,,sir ,,henry ,,roscoe1     
,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4  ,a,,the 

,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,the ,,earl ,,of ,,rosse1 
,k4,p41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 7,chancellor
 of the ,university of ,dublin74  ,,lord
 ,,rothschild1 ,g4,c4,v4,o4  ,,sir      
,,arthur ,r,ue,c,k,e,r1 ,f4,r4,s4  ,,the
 ,,very ,,rev4 ,,the ,,dean ,,of        
,,salisbury1 ,d4,d4  ,,the ,,rt4 ,,hon4 
,,the ,,marquis ,,of ,,salisbury4  ,,the
 ,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,the ,,marquis ,,of      
,,sligo4  ,,isabel ,,marchioness ,,of   
,,sligo4  ,,the ,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,sir      
,,cecil ,,clementi ,,smith1 ,g4,c4,m4,g4
  ,,sir ,,thomas ,,smith1 ,,bt41        
,k4,c4,v4,o4  ,,the ,,hon4 ,w4 ,f4 ,d4  
,,smith1 ,m4,p4 7,chairman1 ,removal    
,fund1 ,king's ,college ,hospital74     
,,the ,,hon4 ,,sir ,,richard ,,solomon1 
,k4,c4,b41 ,k4,c4,m4,g4  ,,sir ,,edgar  
,,speyer1 ,,bt4 7,president1 ,poplar    
,hospital74  ,,the ,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,lord  
,,stalbridge4  ,,lord ,,stanley1        
,k4,c4,v4,o4  ,,lord ,,strathcona1      
,g4,c4,m4,g4  ,,lady ,,sutton4          
,,maj4-,,gen4 ,,sir ,,reginald ,,talbot1
 ,k4,c4,b4  ,,sir ,,frederick ,,treves1 

,,bt41 ,g4,c4,v4,o4  ,,sir ,,john       
,,batty ,,tuke1 ,m4,p4  ,,sir ,,william 
,,turner1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4          
7,principal of the ,university of       
,edinburgh74  ,,james ,g4 ,,wainwright1 
,,esq4 7,chairman1 ,st ,thomas's        
,hospital74  ,earl ,waldegrave4  ,the   
,rt4 ,rev4 ,bishop ,welldon4  ,,his     
,,grace ,,the ,,duke ,,of ,,wellington1 
,k4,g4  ,a4 ,w4 ,,west1 ,,esq4          
7,treasurer and ,chairman1 ,st ,george's
 ,hospital74  ,,sir ,,james ,,whitehead1
 ,,bt4 7,first ,president of the ,lister
 ,institute74  ,,mrs ,,robert ,,peel    
,,wethered4  ,,sir ,,samuel ,,wilks1    
,,bt41 ,f4,r4,s4  ,,the ,,rt4 ,,hon4    
,,sir ,,alfred ,,wills4  ,,the ,,rt4    
,,rev4 ,,the ,,lord ,,bishop ,,of       
,,winchester4  ,,the ,,rev4 ,h4 ,g4     
,,woods1 ,d4,d4 7,master of the         
,temple74  ,note ,a3 ,since deceased4   
,,footnotes3  #i #bbnd ,october #aijh4  
,the number of members is now over      
#aecj1 of whom #afj are ladies4  #aj    
#bgth ,may4 ,dr ,sandwith1 #ca          

,cavendish ,square1 ,london1 ,w41 is now
 ,hon4 ,treasurer4   ,,turnbull ,,and   
,,spears1 ,,printers1 ,,edinburgh4