,transcriber's ,notes3 ,every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible1 including inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation4 ,some corrections of spelling and punctuation have been made4 ,they are listed at the end of the text4 ,where examples were printed in two columns in the original1 the left column has been indented by two spaces1 the right one by four4 ,italic text has been marked with underscores4 ,bold text has been marked with equals signs4 ,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,style ,,by ,,william ,,strunk1 ,jr4 ,,professor ,,of ,,english ,,in ,,cornell ,,university ,,new ,,york ,,harcourt1 ,,brace ,,and ,,company ,,copyright1 #aiah1 #aiai1 ,,by ,,william ,,strunk1 ,,jr4 ,,copyright1 #aibj1 ,,by ,,harcourt1 ,,brace ,,and ,,howe1 ,,inc4 ,,the ,,maple ,,press ,,york ,,pa ,,contents ,page ,i4 ,introductory #e ,,ii4 ,elementary ,rules of ,usage #g #a4 ,form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's #g #b4 ,in a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction1 use a comma after each term except the last #g #c4 ,enclose parenthetic expressions between commas #h #d4 ,place a comma before a conjunction introducing a co-ordinate clause #aj #e4 ,do not join independent clauses by a comma #aa #f4 ,do not break sentences in two #ab #g4 ,a participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject #ac ,,iii4 ,elementary ,principles of ,composition #ae #h4 ,make the paragraph the unit of composition3 one paragraph to each topic #ae #i4 ,as a rule1 begin each paragraph with a topic sentence2 end it in conformity with the beginning #ag #aj4 ,use the active voice #ai #aa4 ,put statements in positive form #ba #ab4 ,use definite1 specific1 concrete language #bb #ac4 ,omit needless words #bd #ad4 ,avoid a succession of loose sentences #be #ae4 ,express co-ordinate ideas in similar form #bf #af4 ,keep related words together #bh #ag4 ,in summaries1 keep to one tense #bi #ah4 ,place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end #ca ,,iv4 ,a ,few ,matters of ,form #cc ,v4 ,words and ,expressions ,commonly ,misused #cf ,,vi4 ,spelling #dh ,,vii4 ,exercises on ,chapters ,,ii and ,,iii #ej ,i4 ,,introductory ,this book aims to give in brief space the principal requirements of plain ,english style4 ,it aims to lighten the task of instructor and student by concentrating attention 7in ,chapters ,,ii and ,,iii7 on a few essentials1 the rules of usage and principles of composition most commonly violated4 ,in accordance with this plan it lays down three rules for the use of the comma1 instead of a score or more1 and one for the use of the semicolon1 in the belief that these four rules provide for all the internal punctuation that is required by nineteen sentences out of twenty4 ,similarly1 it gives in ,chapter ,,iii only those principles of the paragraph and the sentence which are of the widest application4 ,the book thus covers only a small portion of the field of ,english style4 ,the experience of its writer has been that once past the essentials1 students profit most by individual instruction based on the problems of their own work1 and that each instructor has his own body of theory1 which he may prefer to that offered by any textbook4 ,the numbers of the sections may be used as references in correcting manuscript4 ,the writer's colleagues in the ,department of ,english in ,cornell ,university have greatly helped him in the preparation of his manuscript4 ,mr4 ,george ,mc,lane ,wood has kindly consented to the inclusion under ,rule #aj of some material from his ,suggestions to ,authors4 ,the following books are recommended for reference or further study3 in connection with ,chapters ,,ii and ,,iv1 ,f4 ,howard ,collins1 ,author and ,printer 7,henry ,frowde72 ,chicago ,university ,press1 ,manual of ,style2 ,t4 ,l4 ,de ,vinne1 ,correct ,composition 7,the ,century ,company72 ,horace ,hart1 ,rules for ,compositors and ,printers 7,oxford ,university ,press72 ,george ,mc,lane ,wood1 ,extracts from the ,style-,book of the ,government ,printing ,office 7,united ,states ,geological ,survey72 in connection with ,chapters ,,iii and ,v1 ,the ,king's ,english 7,oxford ,university ,press72 ,sir ,arthur ,quiller-,couch1 ,the ,art of ,writing 7,putnam71 especially the chapter1 ,interlude on ,jargon2 ,george ,mc,lane ,wood1 ,suggestions to ,authors 7,united ,states ,geological ,survey72 ,john ,lesslie ,hall1 ,english ,usage 7,scott1 ,foresman and ,co472 ,james ,p4 ,kelley1 ,workmanship in ,words 7,little1 ,brown and ,co474 ,in these will be found full discussions of many points here briefly treated and an abundant store of illustrations to supplement those given in this book4 ,it is an old observation that the best writers sometimes disregard the rules of rhetoric4 ,when they do so1 however1 the reader will usually find in the sentence some compensating merit1 attained at the cost of the violation4 ,unless he is certain of doing as well1 he will probably do best to follow the rules4 ,after he has learned1 by their guidance1 to write plain ,english adequate for everyday uses1 let him look1 for the secrets of style1 to the study of the masters of literature4 ,,ii4 ,,elementary ,,rules ,,of ,,usage #a4 ,form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's4 ,follow this rule whatever the final consonant4 ,thus write1 ,charles's friend ,burns's poems the witch's malice ,this is the usage of the ,united ,states ,government ,printing ,office and of the ,oxford ,university ,press4 ,exceptions are the possessive of ancient proper names in -es and -is1 the possessive ,jesus'1 and such forms as for conscience' sake1 for righteousness' sake4 ,but such forms as ,achilles' heel1 ,moses' laws1 ,isis' temple are commonly replaced by the heel of ,achilles the laws of ,moses the temple of ,isis ,the pronominal possessives hers1 its1 theirs1 yours1 and oneself have no apostrophe4 #b4 ,in a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction1 use a comma after each term except the last4 ,thus write1 red1 white1 and blue gold1 silver1 or copper ,he opened the letter1 read it1 and made a note of its contents4 ,this is also the usage of the ,government ,printing ,office and of the ,oxford ,university ,press4 ,in the names of business firms the last comma is omitted1 as1 ,brown1 ,shipley ,co4 #c4 ,enclose parenthetic expressions between commas4 ,the best way to see a country1 unless you are pressed for time1 is to travel on foot4 ,this rule is difficult to apply2 it is frequently hard to decide whether a single word1 such as however1 or a brief phrase1 is or is not parenthetic4 ,if the interruption to the flow of the sentence is but slight1 the writer may safely omit the commas4 ,but whether the interruption be slight or considerable1 he must never insert one comma and omit the other4 ,such punctuation as ,marjorie's husband1 ,colonel ,nelson paid us a visit yesterday1 or ,my brother you will be pleased to hear1 is now in perfect health1 is indefensible4 ,if a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction1 place the first comma before the conjunction1 not after it4 ,he saw us coming1 and unaware that we had learned of his treachery1 greeted us with a smile4 ,always to be regarded as parenthetic and to be enclosed between commas 7or1 at the end of the sentence1 between comma and period7 are the following3 7#a7 the year1 when forming part of a date1 and the day of the month1 when following the day of the week3 ,february to ,july1 #aiaf4 ,april #f1 #aiag4 ,monday1 ,november #aa1 #aiah4 7#b7 the abbreviations etc4 and jr4 7#c7 non-restrictive relative clauses1 that is1 those which do not serve to identify or define the antecedent noun1 and similar clauses introduced by conjunctions indicating time or place4 ,the audience1 which had at first been indifferent1 became more and more interested4 ,in this sentence the clause introduced by which does not serve to tell which of several possible audiences is meant2 what audience is in question is supposed to be already known4 ,the clause adds1 parenthetically1 a statement supplementing that in the main clause4 ,the sentence is virtually a combination of two statements which might have been made independently3 ,the audience had at first been indifferent4 ,it became more and more interested4 ,compare the restrictive relative clause1 not set off by commas1 in the sentence1 ,the candidate who best meets these requirements will obtain the place4 ,here the clause introduced by who does serve to tell which of several possible candidates is meant2 the sentence cannot be split up into two independent statements4 ,the difference in punctuation in the two sentences following is based on the same principle3 ,nether ,stowey1 where ,coleridge wrote ,the ,rime of the ,ancient ,mariner1 is a few miles from ,bridgewater4 ,the day will come when you will admit your mistake4 ,nether ,stowey is completely identified by its name2 the statement about ,coleridge is therefore supplementary and parenthetic4 ,the day spoken of is identified only by the dependent clause1 which is therefore restrictive4 ,similar in principle to the enclosing of parenthetic expressions between commas is the setting off by commas of phrases or dependent clauses preceding or following the main clause of a sentence4 ,partly by hard fighting1 partly by diplomatic skill1 they enlarged their dominions to the east1 and rose to royal rank with the possession of ,sicily1 exchanged afterwards for ,sardinia4 ,other illustrations may be found in sentences quoted under ,rules #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #af1 and #ah4 ,the writer should be careful not to set off independent clauses by commas3 see under ,rule #e4 #d4 ,place a comma before a conjunction introducing a co-ordinate clause4 ,the early records of the city have disappeared1 and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed4 ,the situation is perilous1 but there is still one chance of escape4 ,sentences of this type1 isolated from their context1 may seem to be in need of rewriting4 ,as they make complete sense when the comma is reached1 the second clause has the appearance of an afterthought4 ,further1 and is the least specific of connectives4 ,used between independent clauses1 it indicates only that a relation exists between them without defining that relation4 ,in the example above1 the relation is that of cause and result4 ,the two sentences might be rewritten3 ,as the early records of the city have disappeared1 the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed4 ,although the situation is perilous1 there is still one chance of escape4 ,or the subordinate clauses might be replaced by phrases3 ,owing to the disappearance of the early records of the city1 the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed4 ,in this perilous situation1 there is still one chance of escape4 ,but a writer may err by making his sentences too uniformly compact and periodic1 and an occasional loose sentence prevents the style from becoming too formal and gives the reader a certain relief4 ,consequently1 loose sentences of the type first quoted are common in easy1 unstudied writing4 ,but a writer should be careful not to construct too many of his sentences after this pattern 7see ,rule #ad74 ,two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by as 7in the sense of because71 for1 or1 nor1 and while 7in the sense of and at the same time7 likewise require a comma before the conjunction4 ,if the second member is introduced by an adverb1 a semicolon1 not a comma1 is required 7see ,rule #e74 ,the connectives so and yet may be used either as adverbs or as conjunctions1 accordingly as the second clause is felt to be co-ordinate or subordinate2 consequently either mark of punctuation may be justified4 ,but these uses of so 7equivalent to accordingly or to so that7 are somewhat colloquial and should1 as a rule1 be avoided in writing4 ,a simple correction1 usually serviceable1 is to omit the word so and begin the first clause with as or since3 ,i had never been in the place before2 so ,i had difficulty in finding my way about4 ,as ,i had never been in the place before1 ,i had difficulty in finding my way about4 ,if a dependent clause1 or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off by a comma1 precedes the second independent clause1 no comma is needed after the conjunction4 ,the situation is perilous1 but if we are prepared to act promptly1 there is still one chance of escape4 ,when the subject is the same for both clauses and is expressed only once1 a comma is required if the connective is but4 ,if the connective is and1 the comma should be omitted if the relation between the two statements is close or immediate4 ,i have heard his arguments1 but am still unconvinced4 ,he has had several years' experience and is thoroughly competent4 #e4 ,do not join independent clauses by a comma4 ,if two or more clauses1 grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction1 are to form a single compound sentence1 the proper mark of punctuation is a semicolon4 ,stevenson's romances are entertaining2 they are full of exciting adventures4 ,it is nearly half past five2 we cannot reach town before dark4 ,it is of course equally correct to write the above as two sentences each1 replacing the semicolons by periods4 ,stevenson's romances are entertaining4 ,they are full of exciting adventures4 ,it is nearly half past five4 ,we cannot reach town before dark4 ,if a conjunction is inserted the proper mark is a comma 7,rule #d74 ,stevenson's romances are entertaining1 for they are full of exciting adventures4 ,it is nearly half past five1 and we cannot reach town before dark4 ,a comparison of the three forms given above will show clearly the advantage of the first4 ,it is1 at least in the examples given1 better than the second form1 because it suggests the close relationship between the two statements in a way that the second does not attempt1 and better than the third1 because briefer and therefore more forcible4 ,indeed it may be said that this simple method of indicating relationship between statements is one of the most useful devices of composition4 ,the relationship1 as above1 is commonly one of cause or of consequence4 ,note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb1 such as accordingly1 besides1 then1 therefore1 or thus1 and not by a conjunction1 the semicolon is still required4 ,two exceptions to the rule may be admitted4 ,if the clauses are very short1 and are alike in form1 a comma is usually permissible3 ,man proposes1 ,god disposes4 ,the gate swung apart1 the bridge fell1 the portcullis was drawn up4 ,note that in these examples the relation is not one of cause or consequence4 ,also in the colloquial form of expression1 ,i hardly knew him1 he was so changed1 a comma1 not a semicolon1 is required4 ,but this form of expression is inappropriate in writing1 except in the dialogue of a story or play1 or perhaps in a familiar letter4 #f4 ,do not break sentences in two4 ,in other words1 do not use periods for commas4 ,i met them on a ,cunard liner several years ago4 ,coming home from ,liverpool to ,new ,york4 ,he was an interesting talker4 ,a man who had traveled all over the world and lived in half a dozen countries4 ,in both these examples1 the first period should be replaced by a comma1 and the following word begun with a small letter4 ,it is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve the purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly3 ,again and again he called out4 ,no reply4 ,the writer must1 however1 be certain that the emphasis is warranted1 and that he will not be suspected of a mere blunder in syntax or in punctuation4 ,rules #c1 #d1 #e1 and #f cover the most important principles in the punctuation of ordinary sentences2 they should be so thoroughly mastered that their application becomes second nature4 #g4 ,a participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject4 ,walking slowly down the road1 he saw a woman accompanied by two children4 ,the word walking refers to the subject of the sentence1 not to the woman4 ,if the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman1 he must recast the sentence3 ,he saw a woman accompanied by two children1 walking slowly down the road4 ,participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition1 nouns in apposition1 adjectives1 and adjective phrases come under the same rule if they begin the sentence4 ,on arriving in ,chicago1 his friends met him at the station4 ,when he arrived 7or1 ,on his arrival7 in ,chicago1 his friends met him at the station4 ,a soldier of proved valor1 they entrusted him with the defence of the city4 ,a soldier of proved valor1 he was entrusted with the defence of the city4 ,young and inexperienced1 the task seemed easy to me4 ,young and inexperienced1 ,i thought the task easy4 ,without a friend to counsel him1 the temptation proved irresistible4 ,without a friend to counsel him1 he found the temptation irresistible4 ,sentences violating this rule are often ludicrous4 ,being in a dilapidated condition1 ,i was able to buy the house very cheap4 ,wondering irresolutely what to do next1 the clock struck twelve4 ,,iii4 ,,elementary ,,principles ,,of ,,composition #h4 ,make the paragraph the unit of composition3 one paragraph to each topic4 ,if the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent1 or if you intend to treat it very briefly1 there may be no need of subdividing it into topics4 ,thus a brief description1 a brief summary of a literary work1 a brief account of a single incident1 a narrative merely outlining an action1 the setting forth of a single idea1 any one of these is best written in a single paragraph4 ,after the paragraph has been written1 examine it to see whether subdivision will not improve it4 ,ordinarily1 however1 a subject requires subdivision into topics1 each of which should be made the subject of a paragraph4 ,the object of treating each topic in a paragraph by itself is1 of course1 to aid the reader4 ,the beginning of each paragraph is a signal to him that a new step in the development of the subject has been reached4 ,the extent of subdivision will vary with the length of the composition4 ,for example1 a short notice of a book or poem might consist of a single paragraph4 ,one slightly longer might consist of two paragraphs3 ,a4 ,account of the work4 ,b4 ,critical discussion4 ,a report on a poem1 written for a class in literature1 might consist of seven paragraphs3 ,a4 ,facts of composition and publication4 ,b4 ,kind of poem2 metrical form4 ,c4 ,subject4 ,d4 ,treatment of subject4 ,e4 ,for what chiefly remarkable4 ,f4 ,wherein characteristic of the writer4 ,g4 ,relationship to other works4 ,the contents of paragraphs ,c and ,d would vary with the poem4 ,usually1 paragraph ,c would indicate the actual or imagined circumstances of the poem 7the situation71 if these call for explanation1 and would then state the subject and outline its development4 ,if the poem is a narrative in the third person throughout1 paragraph ,c need contain no more than a concise summary of the action4 ,paragraph ,d would indicate the leading ideas and show how they are made prominent1 or would indicate what points in the narrative are chiefly emphasized4 ,a novel might be discussed under the heads3 ,a4 ,setting4 ,b4 ,plot4 ,c4 ,characters4 ,d4 ,purpose4 ,an historical event might be discussed under the heads3 ,a4 ,what led up to the event4 ,b4 ,account of the event4 ,c4 ,what the event led up to4 ,in treating either of these last two subjects1 the writer would probably find it necessary to subdivide one or more of the topics here given4 ,as a rule1 single sentences should not be written or printed as paragraphs4 ,an exception may be made of sentences of transition1 indicating the relation between the parts of an exposition or argument4 ,frequent exceptions are also necessary in textbooks1 guidebooks1 and other works in which many topics are treated briefly4 ,in dialogue1 each speech1 even if only a single word1 is a paragraph by itself2 that is1 a new paragraph begins with each change of speaker4 ,the application of this rule1 when dialogue and narrative are combined1 is best learned from examples in well-printed works of fiction4 #i4 ,as a rule1 begin each paragraph with a topic sentence1 end it in conformity with the beginning4 ,again1 the object is to aid the reader4 ,the practice here recommended enables him to discover the purpose of each paragraph as he begins to read it1 and to retain this purpose in mind as he ends it4 ,for this reason1 the most generally useful kind of paragraph1 particularly in exposition and argument1 is that in which 7a7 the topic sentence comes at or near the beginning2 7b7 the succeeding sentences explain or establish or develop the statement made in the topic sentence2 and 7c7 the final sentence either emphasizes the thought of the topic sentence or states some important consequence4 ,ending with a digression1 or with an unimportant detail1 is particularly to be avoided4 ,if the paragraph forms part of a larger composition1 its relation to what precedes1 or its function as a part of the whole1 may need to be expressed4 ,this can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase 7again2 therefore2 for the same reason7 in the topic sentence4 ,sometimes1 however1 it is expedient to precede the topic sentence by one or more sentences of introduction or transition4 ,if more than one such sentence is required1 it is generally better to set apart the transitional sentences as a separate paragraph4 ,according to the writer's purpose1 he may1 as indicated above1 relate the body of the paragraph to the topic sentence in one or more of several different ways4 ,he may make the meaning of the topic sentence clearer by restating it in other forms1 by defining its terms1 by denying the contrary1 by giving illustrations or specific instances2 he may establish it by proofs2 or he may develop it by showing its implications and consequences4 ,in a long paragraph1 he may carry out several of these processes4 #a ,now1 to be properly enjoyed1 a walking tour should be gone upon alone4 #b ,if you go in a company1 or even in pairs1 it is no longer a walking tour in anything but name2 it is something else and more in the nature of a picnic4 #c ,a walking tour should be gone upon alone1 because freedom is of the essence2 because you should be able to stop and go on1 and follow this way or that1 as the freak takes you2 and because you must have your own pace1 and neither trot alongside a champion walker1 nor mince in time with a girl4 #d ,and you must be open to all impressions and let your thoughts take colour from what you see4 #e ,you should be as a pipe for any wind to play upon4 #f ,i cannot see the wit1 says ,hazlitt1 of walking and talking at the same time4 #g ,when ,i am in the country1 ,i wish to vegetate like the country1 which is the gist of all that can be said upon the matter4 #h ,there should be no cackle of voices at your elbow1 to jar on the meditative silence of the morning4 #i ,and so long as a man is reasoning he cannot surrender himself to that fine intoxication that comes of much motion in the open air1 that begins in a sort of dazzle and sluggishness of the brain1 and ends in a peace that passes comprehension4--,stevenson1 ,walking ,tours4 #a ,topic sentence4 #b ,the meaning made clearer by denial of the contrary4 #c ,the topic sentence repeated1 in abridged form1 and supported by three reasons2 the meaning of the third 7you must have your own pace7 made clearer by denying the contrary4 #d ,a fourth reason1 stated in two forms4 #e ,the same reason1 stated in still another form4 #f-g ,the same reason as stated by ,hazlitt4 #h ,repetition1 in paraphrase1 of the quotation from ,hazlitt4 #i ,final statement of the fourth reason1 in language amplified and heightened to form a strong conclusion4 #a ,it was chiefly in the eighteenth century that a very different conception of history grew up4 #b ,historians then came to believe that their task was not so much to paint a picture as to solve a problem2 to explain or illustrate the successive phases of national growth1 prosperity1 and adversity4 #c ,the history of morals1 of industry1 of intellect1 and of art2 the changes that take place in manners or beliefs2 the dominant ideas that prevailed in successive periods2 the rise1 fall1 and modification of political constitutions2 in a word1 all the conditions of national well-being became the subject of their works4 #d ,they sought rather to write a history of peoples than a history of kings4 #e ,they looked especially in history for the chain of causes and effects4 #f ,they undertook to study in the past the physiology of nations1 and hoped by applying the experimental method on a large scale to deduce some lessons of real value about the conditions on which the welfare of society mainly depend4--,lecky1 ,the ,political ,value of ,history4 #a ,topic sentence4 #b ,the meaning of the topic sentence made clearer2 the new conception of history defined4 #c ,the definition expanded4 #d ,the definition explained by contrast4 #e ,the definition supplemented3 another element in the new conception of history4 #f ,conclusion3 an important consequence of the new conception of history4 ,in narration and description the paragraph sometimes begins with a concise1 comprehensive statement serving to hold together the details that follow4 ,the breeze served us admirably4 ,the campaign opened with a series of reverses4 ,the next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set of entries4 ,but this device1 if too often used1 would become a mannerism4 ,more commonly the opening sentence simply indicates by its subject with what the paragraph is to be principally concerned4 ,at length ,i thought ,i might return towards the stockade4 ,he picked up the heavy lamp from the table and began to explore4 ,another flight of steps1 and they emerged on the roof4 ,the brief paragraphs of animated narrative1 however1 are often without even this semblance of a topic sentence4 ,the break between them serves the purpose of a rhetorical pause1 throwing into prominence some detail of the action4 #aj4 ,use the active voice4 ,the active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive3 ,i shall always remember my first visit to ,boston4 ,this is much better than ,my first visit to ,boston will always be remembered by me4 ,the latter sentence is less direct1 less bold1 and less concise4 ,if the writer tries to make it more concise by omitting by me1 ,my first visit to ,boston will always be remembered1 it becomes indefinite3 is it the writer1 or some person undisclosed1 or the world at large1 that will always remember this visit8 ,this rule does not1 of course1 mean that the writer should entirely discard the passive voice1 which is frequently convenient and sometimes necessary4 ,the dramatists of the ,restoration are little esteemed to-day4 ,modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the ,restoration4 ,the first would be the right form in a paragraph on the dramatists of the ,restoration2 the second1 in a paragraph on the tastes of modern readers4 ,the need of making a particular word the subject of the sentence will often1 as in these examples1 determine which voice is to be used4 ,as a rule1 avoid making one passive depend directly upon another4 ,gold was not allowed to be exported4 ,it was forbidden to export gold 7,the export of gold was prohibited74 ,he has been proved to have been seen entering the building4 ,it has been proved that he was seen to enter the building4 ,in both the examples above1 before correction1 the word properly related to the second passive is made the subject of the first4 ,a common fault is to use as the subject of a passive construction a noun which expresses the entire action1 leaving to the verb no function beyond that of completing the sentence4 ,a survey of this region was made in #aijj4 ,this region was surveyed in #aijj4 ,mobilization of the army was rapidly effected4 ,the army was rapidly mobilized4 ,confirmation of these reports cannot be obtained4 ,these reports cannot be confirmed4 ,compare the sentence1 ,the export of gold was prohibited1 in which the predicate was prohibited expresses something not implied in export4 ,the habitual use of the active voice makes for forcible writing4 ,this is true not only in narrative principally concerned with action1 but in writing of any kind4 ,many a tame sentence of description or exposition can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a verb in the active voice for some such perfunctory expression as there is1 or could be heard4 ,there were a great number of dead leaves lying on the ground4 ,dead leaves covered the ground4 ,the sound of a guitar somewhere in the house could be heard4 ,somewhere in the house a guitar hummed sleepily4 ,the reason that he left college was that his health became impaired4 ,failing health compelled him to leave college4 ,it was not long before he was very sorry that he had said what he had4 ,he soon repented his words4 #aa4 ,put statements in positive form4 ,make definite assertions4 ,avoid tame1 colorless1 hesitating1 non-committal language4 ,use the word not as a means of denial or in antithesis1 never as a means of evasion4 ,he was not very often on time4 ,he usually came late4 ,he did not think that studying ,latin was much use4 ,he thought the study of ,latin useless4 ,the ,taming of the ,shrew is rather weak in spots4 ,shakespeare does not portray ,katharine as a very admirable character1 nor does ,bianca remain long in memory as an important character in ,shakespeare's works4 ,the women in ,the ,taming of the ,shrew are unattractive4 ,katharine is disagreeable1 ,bianca insignificant4 ,the last example1 before correction1 is indefinite as well as negative4 ,the corrected version1 consequently1 is simply a guess at the writer's intention4 ,all three examples show the weakness inherent in the word not4 ,consciously or unconsciously1 the reader is dissatisfied with being told only what is not2 he wishes to be told what is4 ,hence1 as a rule1 it is better to express even a negative in positive form4 not honest dishonest not important trifling did not remember forgot did not pay any attention to ignored did not have much confidence in distrusted ,the antithesis of negative and positive is strong3 ,not charity1 but simple justice4 ,not that ,i loved ,caesar less1 but ,rome the more4 ,negative words other than not are usually strong3 ,the sun never sets upon the ,british flag4 #ab4 ,use definite1 specific1 concrete language4 ,prefer the specific to the general1 the definite to the vague1 the concrete to the abstract4 ,a period of unfavorable weather set in4 ,it rained every day for a week4 ,he showed satisfaction as he took possession of his well-earned reward4 ,he grinned as he pocketed the coin4 ,there is a general agreement among those who have enjoyed the experience that surf-riding is productive of great exhilaration4 ,all who have tried surf-riding agree that it is most exhilarating4 ,if those who have studied the art of writing are in accord on any one point1 it is on this1 that the surest method of arousing and holding the attention of the reader is by being specific1 definite1 and concrete4 ,critics have pointed out how much of the effectiveness of the greatest writers1 ,homer1 ,dante1 ,shakespeare1 results from their constant definiteness and concreteness4 ,browning1 to cite a more modern author1 affords many striking examples4 ,take1 for instance1 the lines from ,my ,last ,duchess1 ,sir1 'twas all one6 ,my favour at her breast1 ,the dropping of the daylight in the west1 ,the bough of cherries some officious fool ,broke in the orchard for her1 the white mule ,she rode with round the terrace--all and each ,would draw from her alike the approving speech1 ,or blush1 at least1 and those which end the poem1 ,notice ,neptune1 though1 ,taming a sea-horse1 thought a rarity1 ,which ,claus of ,innsbruck cast in bronze for me4 ,these words call up pictures4 ,recall how in ,the ,bishop ,orders his ,tomb in ,st4 ,praxed's ,church the ,renaissance spirit--its worldliness1 inconsistency1 pride1 hypocrisy1 ignorance of itself1 love of art1 of luxury1 of good ,latin1 to quote ,ruskin's comment on the poem1 is made manifest in specific details and in concrete terms4 ,prose1 in particular narrative and descriptive prose1 is made vivid by the same means4 ,if the experiences of ,jim ,hawkins and of ,david ,balfour1 of ,kim1 of ,nostromo1 have seemed for the moment real to countless readers1 if in reading ,carlyle we have almost the sense of being physically present at the taking of the ,bastille1 it is because of the definiteness of the details and the concreteness of the terms used4 ,it is not that every detail is given2 that would be impossible1 as well as to no purpose2 but that all the significant details are given1 and not vaguely1 but with such definiteness that the reader1 in imagination1 can project himself into the scene4 ,in exposition and in argument1 the writer must likewise never lose his hold upon the concrete1 and even when he is dealing with general principles1 he must give particular instances of their application4 ,this superiority of specific expressions is clearly due to the effort required to translate words into thoughts4 ,as we do not think in generals1 but in particulars--as whenever any class of things is referred to1 we represent it to ourselves by calling to mind individual members of it1 it follows that when an abstract word is used1 the hearer or reader has to choose1 from his stock of images1 one or more by which he may figure to himself the genus mentioned4 ,in doing this1 some delay must arise1 some force be expended2 and if by employing a specific term an appropriate image can be at once suggested1 an economy is achieved1 and a more vivid impression produced4 ,herbert ,spencer1 from whose ,philosophy of ,style the preceding paragraph is quoted1 illustrates the principle by the sentences3 ,in proportion as the manners1 customs1 and amusements of a nation are cruel and barbarous1 the regulations of their penal code will be severe4 ,in proportion as men delight in battles1 bull-fights1 and combats of gladiators1 will they punish by hanging1 burning1 and the rack4 #ac4 ,omit needless words4 ,vigorous writing is concise4 ,a sentence should contain no unnecessary words1 a paragraph no unnecessary sentences1 for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts4 ,this requires not that the writer make all his sentences short1 or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline1 but that he make every word tell4 ,many expressions in common use violate this principle3 the question as to whether whether 7the question whether7 there is no doubt but that no doubt 7doubtless7 used for fuel purposes used for fuel he is a man who he in a hasty manner hastily this is a subject which this subject ,his story is a strange one4 ,his story is strange4 ,in especial the expression the fact that should be revised out of every sentence in which it occurs4 owing to the fact that since 7because7 in spite of the fact that though 7although7 call your attention to the fact that remind you 7notify you7 ,i was unaware of the fact that ,i was unaware that 7did not know7 the fact that he had not succeeded his failure the fact that ,i had arrived my arrival ,see also under case1 character1 nature1 system in ,chapter ,v4 ,who is1 which was1 and the like are often superfluous4 ,his brother1 who is a member of the same firm ,his brother1 a member of the same firm ,trafalgar1 which was ,nelson's last battle ,trafalgar1 ,nelson's last battle ,as positive statement is more concise than negative1 and the active voice more concise than the passive1 many of the examples given under ,rules #aa and #ab illustrate this rule as well4 ,a common violation of conciseness is the presentation of a single complex idea1 step by step1 in a series of sentences or independent clauses which might to advantage be combined into one4 ,macbeth was very ambitious4 ,this led him to wish to become king of ,scotland4 ,the witches told him that this wish of his would come true4 ,the king of ,scotland at this time was ,duncan4 ,encouraged by his wife1 ,macbeth murdered ,duncan4 ,he was thus enabled to succeed ,duncan as king4 7#ea words47 ,encouraged by his wife1 ,macbeth achieved his ambition and realized the prediction of the witches by murdering ,duncan and becoming king of ,scotland in his place4 7#bf words47 ,there were several less important courses1 but these were the most important1 and although they did not come every day1 they came often enough to keep you in such a state of mind that you never knew what your next move would be4 7#dc words47 ,these1 the most important courses of all1 came1 if not daily1 at least often enough to keep one under constant strain4 7#ba words47 #ad4 ,avoid a succession of loose sentences3 ,this rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular type1 those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses1 the second introduced by a conjunction or relative4 ,although single sentences of this type may be unexceptionable 7see under ,rule #d71 a series soon becomes monotonous and tedious4 ,an unskilful writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of sentences of this kind1 using as connectives and1 but1 so1 and less frequently1 who1 which1 when1 where1 and while1 these last in non-restrictive senses 7see under ,rule #c74 ,the third concert of the subscription series was given last evening1 and a large audience was in attendance4 ,mr4 ,edward ,appleton was the soloist1 and the ,boston ,symphony ,orchestra furnished the instrumental music4 ,the former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank1 while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation4 ,the interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the ,committee1 and it is planned to give a similar series annually hereafter4 ,the fourth concert will be given on ,tuesday1 ,may #aj1 when an equally attractive programme will be presented4 ,apart from its triteness and emptiness1 the paragraph above is weak because of the structure of its sentences1 with their mechanical symmetry and sing-song4 ,contrast with them the sentences in the paragraphs quoted under ,rule #i1 or in any piece of good ,english prose1 as the preface 7,before the ,curtain7 to ,vanity ,fair4 ,if the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences of the type described1 he should recast enough of them to remove the monotony1 replacing them by simple sentences1 by sentences of two clauses joined by a semicolon1 by periodic sentences of two clauses1 by sentences1 loose or periodic1 of three clauses--whichever best represent the real relations of the thought4 #ae4 ,express co-ordinate ideas in similar form4 ,this principle1 that of parallel construction1 requires that expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly similar4 ,the likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and function4 ,familiar instances from the ,bible are the ,ten ,commandments1 the ,beatitudes1 and the petitions of the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,the unskillful writer often violates this principle1 from a mistaken belief that he should constantly vary the form of his expressions4 ,it is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it he may have need to vary its form4 ,for illustration1 see the paragraph from ,stevenson quoted under ,rule #i4 ,but apart from this1 he should follow the principle of parallel construction4 ,formerly1 science was taught by the textbook method1 while now the laboratory method is employed4 ,formerly1 science was taught by the textbook method2 now it is taught by the laboratory method4 ,the left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or timid2 he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to it4 ,the right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made his choice and abided by it4 ,by this principle1 an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term4 ,the ,french1 the ,italians1 ,spanish1 and ,portuguese ,the ,french1 the ,italians1 the ,spanish1 and the ,portuguese ,in spring1 summer1 or in winter ,in spring1 summer1 or winter 7,in spring1 in summer1 or in winter7 ,correlative expressions 7both1 and2 not1 but2 not only1 but also2 either1 or2 first1 second1 third2 and the like7 should be followed by the same grammatical construction1 that is1 virtually1 by the same part of speech4 7,such combinations as both ,henry and ,i1 not silk1 but a cheap substitute1 are obviously within the rule47 ,many violations of this rule 7as the first three below7 arise from faulty arrangement2 others 7as the last7 from the use of unlike constructions4 ,it was both a long ceremony and very tedious4 ,the ceremony was both long and tedious4 ,a time not for words1 but action4 ,a time not for words1 but for action4 ,either you must grant his request or incur his ill will4 ,you must either grant his request or incur his ill will4 ,my objections are1 first1 the injustice of the measure2 second1 that it is unconstitutional4 ,my objections are1 first1 that the measure is unjust2 second1 that it is unconstitutional4 ,see also the third example under ,rule #ab and the last under ,rule #ac4 ,it may be asked1 what if a writer needs to express a very large number of similar ideas1 say twenty8 ,must he write twenty consecutive sentences of the same pattern8 ,on closer examination he will probably find that the difficulty is imaginary1 that his twenty ideas can be classified in groups1 and that he need apply the principle only within each group4 ,otherwise he had best avoid difficulty by putting his statements in the form of a table4 #af4 ,keep related words together4 ,the position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of showing their relationship4 ,the writer must therefore1 so far as possible1 bring together the words1 and groups of words1 that are related in thought1 and keep apart those which are not so related4 ,the subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not1 as a rule1 be separated by a phrase or clause that can be transferred to the beginning4 ,wordsworth1 in the fifth book of ,the ,excursion1 gives a minute description of this church4 ,in the fifth book of ,the ,excursion1 ,wordsworth gives a minute description of this church4 ,cast iron1 when treated in a ,bessemer converter1 is changed into steel4 ,by treatment in a ,bessemer converter1 cast iron is changed into steel4 ,the objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlessly interrupts the natural order of the main clause4 ,usually1 however1 this objection does not hold when the order is interrupted only by a relative clause or by an expression in apposition4 ,nor does it hold in periodic sentences in which the interruption is a deliberately used means of creating suspense 7see examples under ,rule #ah74 ,the relative pronoun should come1 as a rule1 immediately after its antecedent4 ,there was a look in his eye that boded mischief4 ,in his eye was a look that boded mischief4 ,he wrote three articles about his adventures in ,spain1 which were published in ,harper's ,magazine4 ,he published in ,harper's ,magazine three articles about his adventures in ,spain4 ,this is a portrait of ,benjamin ,harrison1 grandson of ,william ,henry ,harrison1 who became ,president in #ahhi4 ,this is a portrait of ,benjamin ,harrison1 grandson of ,william ,henry ,harrison4 ,he became ,president in #ahhi4 ,if the antecedent consists of a group of words1 the relative comes at the end of the group1 unless this would cause ambiguity4 ,the ,superintendent of the ,chicago ,division1 who ,a proposal to amend the ,sherman ,act1 which has been variously judged4 ,a proposal1 which has been variously judged1 to amend the ,sherman ,act4 ,a proposal to amend the much-debated ,sherman ,act4 ,the grandson of ,william ,henry ,harrison1 who ,william ,henry ,harrison's grandson1 who ,a noun in apposition may come between antecedent and relative1 because in such a combination no real ambiguity can arise4 ,the ,duke of ,york1 his brother1 who was regarded with hostility by the ,whigs ,modifiers should come1 if possible1 next to the word they modify4 ,if several expressions modify the same word1 they should be so arranged that no wrong relation is suggested4 ,all the members were not present4 ,not all the members were present4 ,he only found two mistakes4 ,he found only two mistakes4 ,major ,r4 ,e4 ,joyce will give a lecture on ,tuesday evening in ,bailey ,hall1 to which the public is invited1 on ,my ,experiences in ,mesopotamia at eight ,p4 ,m4 ,on ,tuesday evening at eight ,p4 ,m41 ,major ,r4 ,e4 ,joyce will give in ,bailey ,hall a lecture on ,my ,experiences in ,mesopotamia4 ,the public is invited4 #ag4 ,in summaries1 keep to one tense4 ,in summarizing the action of a drama1 the writer should always use the present tense4 ,in summarizing a poem1 story1 or novel1 he should preferably use the present1 though he may use the past if he prefers4 ,if the summary is in the present tense1 antecedent action should be expressed by the perfect2 if in the past1 by the past perfect4 ,an unforeseen chance prevents ,friar ,john from delivering ,friar ,lawrence's letter to ,romeo4 ,meanwhile1 owing to her father's arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding1 ,juliet has been compelled to drink the potion on ,tuesday night1 with the result that ,balthasar informs ,romeo of her supposed death before ,friar ,lawrence learns of the non-delivery of the letter4 ,but whichever tense be used in the summary1 a past tense in indirect discourse or in indirect question remains unchanged4 ,the ,friar confesses that it was he who married them4 ,apart from the exceptions noted1 whichever tense the writer chooses1 he should use throughout4 ,shifting from one tense to the other gives the appearance of uncertainty and irresolution 7compare ,rule #ae74 ,in presenting the statements or the thought of some one else1 as in summarizing an essay or reporting a speech1 the writer should avoid intercalating such expressions as he said1 he stated1 the speaker added1 the speaker then went on to say1 the author also thinks1 or the like4 ,he should indicate clearly at the outset1 once for all1 that what follows is summary1 and then waste no words in repeating the notification4 ,in notebooks1 in newspapers1 in handbooks of literature1 summaries of one kind or another may be indispensable1 and for children in primary schools it is a useful exercise to retell a story in their own words4 ,but in the criticism or interpretation of literature the writer should be careful to avoid dropping into summary4 ,he may find it necessary to devote one or two sentences to indicating the subject1 or the opening situation1 of the work he is discussing2 he may cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities4 ,but he should aim to write an orderly discussion supported by evidence1 not a summary with occasional comment4 ,similarly1 if the scope of his discussion includes a number of works1 he will as a rule do better not to take them up singly in chronological order1 but to aim from the beginning at establishing general conclusions4 #ah4 ,place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end4 ,the proper place in the sentence for the word1 or group of words1 which the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end4 ,humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time1 though it has advanced in many other ways4 ,humanity1 since that time1 has advanced in many other ways1 but it has hardly advanced in fortitude4 ,this steel is principally used for making razors1 because of its hardness4 ,because of its hardness1 this steel is principally used in making razors4 ,the word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is usually the logical predicate1 that is1 the new element in the sentence1 as it is in the second example4 ,the effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the prominence which it gives to the main statement4 ,four centuries ago1 ,christopher ,columbus1 one of the ,italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the world and of adventure1 seeking for ,spain a westward passage to the ,indies as a set-off against the achievements of ,portuguese discoverers1 lighted on ,america4 ,with these hopes and in this belief ,i would urge you1 laying aside all hindrance1 thrusting away all private aims1 to devote yourself unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war4 ,the other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning4 ,any element in the sentence1 other than the subject1 may become emphatic when placed first4 ,deceit or treachery he could never forgive4 ,so vast and rude1 fretted by the action of nearly three thousand years1 the fragments of this architecture may often seem1 at first sight1 like works of nature4 ,a subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic1 but hardly by its position alone4 ,in the sentence1 ,great kings worshipped at his shrine1 the emphasis upon kings arises largely from its meaning and from the context4 ,to receive special emphasis1 the subject of a sentence must take the position of the predicate4 ,through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream4 ,the principle that the proper place for what is to be made most prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence1 to the sentences of a paragraph1 and to the paragraphs of a composition4 ,,iv4 ,a ,,few ,,matters ,,of ,,form ,headings4 ,leave a blank line1 or its equivalent in space1 after the title or heading of a manuscript4 ,on succeeding pages1 if using ruled paper1 begin on the first line4 ,numerals4 ,do not spell out dates or other serial numbers4 ,write them in figures or in ,roman notation1 as may be appropriate4 ,august #i1 #aiah 7#i ,august #aiah7 ,rule #c ,chapter ,,xii #cebnd ,infantry ,parentheses4 ,a sentence containing an expression in parenthesis is punctuated1 outside of the marks of parenthesis1 exactly as if the expression in parenthesis were absent4 ,the expression within is punctuated as if it stood by itself1 except that the final stop is omitted unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point4 ,i went to his house yesterday 7my third attempt to see him71 but he had left town4 ,he declares 7and why should we doubt his good faith87 that he is now certain of success4 7,when a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized1 the final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis47 ,quotations4 ,formal quotations1 cited as documentary evidence1 are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks4 ,the provision of the ,constitution is3 ,no tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state4 ,quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects of verbs are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks4 ,i recall the maxim of ,la ,rochefoucauld1 ,gratitude is a lively sense of benefits to come4 ,aristotle says1 ,art is an imitation of nature4 ,quotations of an entire line1 or more1 of verse1 are begun on a fresh line and centered1 but need not be enclosed in quotation marks4 ,wordsworth's enthusiasm for the ,revolution was at first unbounded3 ,bliss was it in that dawn to be alive1 ,but to be young was very heaven6 ,quotations introduced by that are regarded as in indirect discourse and not enclosed in quotation marks4 ,keats declares that beauty is truth1 truth beauty4 ,proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary origin require no quotation marks4 ,these are the times that try men's souls4 ,he lives far from the madding crowd4 ,the same is true of colloquialisms and slang4 ,references4 ,in scholarly work requiring exact references1 abbreviate titles that occur frequently1 giving the full forms in an alphabetical list at the end4 ,as a general practice1 give the references in parenthesis or in footnotes1 not in the body of the sentence4 ,omit the words act1 scene1 line1 book1 volume1 page1 except when referring by only one of them4 ,punctuate as indicated below4 ,in the second scene of the third act ,in ,,iii4ii 7still better1 simply insert ,,iii4ii in parenthesis at the proper place in the sentence7 ,after the killing of ,polonius1 ,hamlet is placed under guard 7,,iv4ii4 #ad74 #b ,samuel i3#ag-bg ,othello ,,ii4iii4 #bfd-bfg1 ,,iii4iii4 #aee-afa4 ,syllabication4 ,if there is room at the end of a line for one or more syllables of a word1 but not for the whole word1 divide the word1 unless this involves cutting off only a single letter1 or cutting off only two letters of a long word4 ,no hard and fast rule for all words can be laid down4 ,the principles most frequently applicable are3 7a7 ,divide the word according to its formation3 know-ledge 7not knowl-edge72 ,shake-speare 7not ,shakes-peare72 de-scribe 7not des-cribe72 atmo-sphere 7not atmos-phere72 7b7 ,divide on the vowel3 edi-ble 7not ed-ible72 propo-sition2 ordi-nary2 espe-cial2 reli-gious2 oppo-nents2 regu-lar2 classi-fi-ca-tion 7three divisions allowable72 deco-rative2 presi-dent2 7c7 ,divide between double letters1 unless they come at the end of the simple form of the word3 ,apen-nines2 ,cincin-nati2 refer-ring2 but tell-ing4 7d7 ,do not divide before final -ed if the e is silent3 treat-ed 7but not roam-ed or nam-ed74 ,the treatment of consonants in combination is best shown from examples3 for-tune2 pic-ture2 sin-gle2 presump-tuous2 illus-tration2 sub-stan-tial 7either division72 indus-try2 instruc-tion2 sug-ges-tion2 incen-diary4 ,the student will do well to examine the syllable-division in a number of pages of any carefully printed book4 ,titles4 ,for the titles of literary works1 scholarly usage prefers italics with capitalized initials4 ,the usage of editors and publishers varies1 some using italics with capitalized initials1 others using ,roman with capitalized initials and with or without quotation marks4 ,use italics 7indicated in manuscript by underscoring71 except in writing for a periodical that follows a different practice4 ,omit initial ,a or ,the from titles when you place the possessive before them4 ,the ,iliad2 the ,odyssey2 ,as ,you ,like ,it2 ,to a ,skylark2 ,the ,newcomes2 ,a ,tale of ,two ,cities2 ,dickens's ,tale of ,two ,cities4 ,v4 ,,words ,,and ,,expressions ,,commonly ,,misused 7,some of the forms here listed1 as like ,i did1 are downright bad ,english2 others1 as the split infinitive1 have their defenders1 but are in such general disfavor that it is at least inadvisable to use them2 still others1 as case1 factor1 feature1 interesting1 one of the most1 are good in their place1 but are constantly obtruding themselves into places where they have no right to be4 ,if the writer will make it his purpose from the beginning to express accurately his own individual thought1 and will refuse to be satisfied with a ready-made formula that saves him the trouble of doing so1 this last set of expressions will cause him little trouble4 ,but if he finds that in a moment of inadvertence he has used one of them1 his proper course will probably be not to patch up the sentence by substituting one word or set of words for another1 but to recast it completely1 as illustrated in a number of examples below and in others under ,rules #ab and #ac47 ,all right4 ,idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached phrase in the sense1 ,agreed1 or ,go ahead4 ,in other uses better avoided4 ,always written as two words4 ,as good or better than4 ,expressions of this type should be corrected by rearranging the sentence4 ,my opinion is as good or better than his4 ,my opinion is as good as his1 or better 7if not better74 ,as to whether4 ,whether is sufficient2 see under ,rule #ac4 ,bid4 ,takes the infinitive without to4 ,the past tense in the sense1 ordered1 is bade4 ,but4 ,unnecessary after doubt and help4 ,i have no doubt but that ,i have no doubt that ,he could not help see but that ,he could not help seeing that ,the too frequent use of but as a conjunction leads to the fault discussed under ,rule #ad4 ,a loose sentence formed with but can always be converted into a periodic sentence formed with although1 as illustrated under ,rule #d4 ,particularly awkward is the following of one but by another1 making a contrast to a contrast or a reservation to a reservation4 ,this is easily corrected by re-arrangement4 ,america had vast resources1 but she seemed almost wholly unprepared for war4 ,but within a year she had created an army of four million men4 ,america seemed almost wholly unprepared for war1 but she had vast resources4 ,within a year she had created an army of four million men4 ,can4 ,means am 7is1 are7 able4 ,not to be used as a substitute for may4 ,case4 ,the ,concise ,oxford ,dictionary begins its definition of this word3 instance of a thing's occurring2 usual state of affairs4 ,in these two senses1 the word is usually unnecessary4 ,in many cases1 the rooms were poorly ventilated4 ,many of the rooms were poorly ventilated4 ,it has rarely been the case that any mistake has been made4 ,few mistakes have been made4 ,see ,wood1 ,suggestions to ,authors1 pp4 #fh-ga1 and ,quiller-,couch1 ,the ,art of ,writing1 pp4 #ajc-ajf4 ,certainly4 ,used indiscriminately by some writers1 much as others use very1 to intensify any and every statement4 ,a mannerism of this kind1 bad in speech1 is even worse in writing4 ,character4 ,often simply redundant1 used from a mere habit of wordiness4 ,acts of a hostile character ,hostile acts ,claim1 vb4 ,with object-noun1 means lay claim to4 ,may be used with a dependent clause if this sense is clearly involved3 ,he claimed that he was the sole surviving heir4 7,but even here1 claimed to be would be better47 ,not to be used as a substitute for declare1 maintain1 or charge4 ,clever4 ,this word has been greatly overused2 it is best restricted to ingenuity displayed in small matters4 ,compare4 ,to compare to is to point out or imply resemblances1 between objects regarded as essentially of different order2 to compare with is mainly to point out differences1 between objects regarded as essentially of the same order4 ,thus life has been compared to a pilgrimage1 to a drama1 to a battle2 ,congress may be compared with the ,british ,parliament4 ,paris has been compared to ancient ,athens2 it may be compared with modern ,london4 ,consider4 ,not followed by as when it means believe to be4 ,i consider him thoroughly competent4 ,compare1 ,the lecturer considered ,cromwell first as soldier and second as administrator1 where considered means examined or discussed4 ,data4 ,a plural1 like phenomena and strata4 ,these data were tabulated4 ,dependable4 ,a needless substitute for reliable1 trustworthy4 ,different than4 ,not permissible4 ,substitute different from1 other than1 or unlike4 ,divided into4 ,not to be misused for composed of4 ,the line is sometimes difficult to draw2 doubtless plays are divided into acts1 but poems are composed of stanzas4 ,don't4 ,contraction of do not4 ,the contraction of does not is doesn't4 ,due to4 ,incorrectly used for through1 because of1 or owing to1 in adverbial phrases3 ,he lost the first game1 due to carelessness4 ,in correct use related as predicate or as modifier to a particular noun3 ,this invention is due to ,edison2 losses due to preventable fires4 ,folk4 ,a collective noun1 equivalent to people4 ,use the singular form only4 ,effect4 ,as noun1 means result2 as verb1 means to bring about1 accomplish 7not to be confused with affect1 which means to influence74 ,as noun1 often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions1 music1 painting1 and other arts3 an ,oriental effect2 effects in pale green2 very delicate effects2 broad effects2 subtle effects2 a charming effect was produced by4 ,the writer who has a definite meaning to express will not take refuge in such vagueness4 ,etc4 ,equivalent to and the rest1 and so forth1 and hence not to be used if one of these would be insufficient1 that is1 if the reader would be left in doubt as to any important particulars4 ,least open to objection when it represents the last terms of a list already given in full1 or immaterial words at the end of a quotation4 ,at the end of a list introduced by such as1 for example1 or any similar expression1 etc4 is incorrect4 ,fact4 ,use this word only of matters of a kind capable of direct verification1 not of matters of judgment4 ,that a particular event happened on a given date1 that lead melts at a certain temperature1 are facts4 ,but such conclusions as that ,napoleon was the greatest of modern generals1 or that the climate of ,california is delightful1 however incontestable they may be1 are not properly facts4 ,on the formula the fact that1 see under ,rule #ac4 ,factor4 ,a hackneyed word2 the expressions of which it forms part can usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic4 ,his superior training was the great factor in his winning the match4 ,he won the match by being better trained4 ,heavy artillery has become an increasingly important factor in deciding battles4 ,heavy artillery has played a constantly larger part in deciding battles4 ,feature4 ,another hackneyed word2 like factor it usually adds nothing to the sentence in which it occurs4 ,a feature of the entertainment especially worthy of mention was the singing of ,miss ,a4 7,better use the same number of words to tell what ,miss ,a4 sang1 or if the programme has already been given1 to tell how she sang47 ,as a verb1 in the advertising sense of offer as a special attraction1 to be avoided4 ,fix4 ,colloquial in ,america for arrange1 prepare1 mend4 ,in writing restrict it to its literary senses1 fasten1 make firm or immovable1 etc4 ,get4 ,the colloquial have got for have should not be used in writing4 ,the preferable form of the participle is got4 ,he is a man who4 ,a common type of redundant expression2 see ,rule #ac4 ,he is a man who is very ambitious4 ,he is very ambitious4 ,spain is a country which ,i have always wanted to visit4 ,i have always wanted to visit ,spain4 ,help4 ,see under ,but4 ,however4 ,in the meaning nevertheless1 not to come first in its sentence or clause4 ,the roads were almost impassable4 ,however1 we at last succeeded in reaching camp4 ,the roads were almost impassable4 ,at last1 however1 we succeeded in reaching camp4 ,when however comes first1 it means in whatever way or to whatever extent4 ,however you advise him1 he will probably do as he thinks best4 ,however discouraging the prospect1 he never lost heart4 ,interesting4 ,avoid this word as a perfunctory means of introduction4 ,instead of announcing that what you are about to tell is interesting1 make it so4 ,an interesting story is told of 7,tell the story without preamble47 ,in connection with the anticipated visit of ,mr4 ,b4 to ,america1 it is interesting to recall that he ,mr4 ,b41 who it is expected will soon visit ,america ,kind of4 ,not to be used as a substitute for rather 7before adjectives and verbs71 or except in familiar style1 for something like 7before nouns74 ,restrict it to its literal sense3 ,amber is a kind of fossil resin2 ,i dislike that kind of notoriety4 ,the same holds true of sort of4 ,less4 ,should not be misused for fewer4 ,he had less men than in the previous campaign ,he had fewer men than in the previous campaign ,less refers to quantity1 fewer to number4 ,his troubles are less than mine means ,his troubles are not so great as mine4 ,his troubles are fewer than mine means ,his troubles are not so numerous as mine4 ,it is1 however1 correct to say1 ,the signers of the petition were less than a hundred1 where the round number a hundred is something like a collective noun1 and less is thought of as meaning a less quantity or amount4 ,like4 ,not to be misused for as4 ,like governs nouns and pronouns2 before phrases and clauses the equivalent word is as4 ,we spent the evening like in the old days4 ,we spent the evening as in the old days4 ,he thought like ,i did4 ,he thought as ,i did 7like me74 ,line1 along these lines4 ,line in the sense of course of procedure1 conduct1 thought1 is allowable1 but has been so much overworked1 particularly in the phrase along these lines1 that a writer who aims at freshness or originality had better discard it entirely4 ,mr4 ,b4 also spoke along the same lines4 ,mr4 ,b4 also spoke1 to the same effect4 ,he is studying along the line of ,french literature4 ,he is studying ,french literature4 ,literal1 literally4 ,often incorrectly used in support of exaggeration or violent metaphor4 ,a literal flood of abuse4 ,a flood of abuse4 ,literally dead with fatigue ,almost dead with fatigue 7dead tired7 ,lose out4 ,meant to be more emphatic than lose1 but actually less so1 because of its commonness4 ,the same holds true of try out1 win out1 sign up1 register up4 ,with a number of verbs1 out and up form idiomatic combinations3 find out1 run out1 turn out1 cheer up1 dry up1 make up1 and others1 each distinguishable in meaning from the simple verb4 ,lose out is not4 ,most4 ,not to be used for almost4 ,most everybody ,almost everybody ,most all the time ,almost all the time ,nature4 ,often simply redundant1 used like character4 ,acts of a hostile nature ,hostile acts ,often vaguely used in such expressions as a lover of nature2 poems about nature4 ,unless more specific statements follow1 the reader cannot tell whether the poems have to do with natural scenery1 rural life1 the sunset1 the untracked wilderness1 or the habits of squirrels4 ,near by4 ,adverbial phrase1 not yet fully accepted as good ,english1 though the analogy of close by and hard by seems to justify it4 ,near1 or near at hand1 is as good1 if not better4 ,not to be used as an adjective2 use neighboring4 ,oftentimes1 ofttimes4 ,archaic forms1 no longer in good use4 ,the modern word is often4 ,one hundred and one4 ,retain the and in this and similar expressions1 in accordance with the unvarying usage of ,english prose from ,old ,english times4 ,one of the most4 ,avoid beginning essays or paragraphs with this formula1 as1 ,one of the most interesting developments of modern science is1 etc42 ,switzerland is one of the most interesting countries of ,europe4 ,there is nothing wrong in this2 it is simply threadbare and forcible-feeble4 ,a common blunder is to use a singular verb in a relative clause following this or a similar expression1 when the relative is the subject4 ,one of the ablest men that has attacked this problem4 ,one of the ablest men that have attacked this problem4 ,participle for verbal noun4 ,do you mind me asking a question8 ,do you mind my asking a question8 ,there was little prospect of the ,senate accepting even this compromise4 ,there was little prospect of the ,senate's accepting even this compromise4 ,in the left-hand column1 asking and accepting are present participles2 in the right-hand column1 they are verbal nouns 7gerunds74 ,the construction shown in the left-hand column is occasionally found1 and has its defenders4 ,yet it is easy to see that the second sentence has to do not with a prospect of the ,senate1 but with a prospect of accepting4 ,in this example1 at least1 the construction is plainly illogical4 ,as the authors of ,the ,king's ,english point out1 there are sentences apparently1 but not really1 of this type1 in which the possessive is not called for4 ,i cannot imagine ,lincoln refusing his assent to this measure4 ,in this sentence1 what the writer cannot imagine is ,lincoln himself1 in the act of refusing his assent4 ,yet the meaning would be virtually the same1 except for a slight loss of vividness1 if he had written1 ,i cannot imagine ,lincoln's refusing his assent to this measure4 ,by using the possessive1 the writer will always be on the safe side4 ,in the examples above1 the subject of the action is a single1 unmodified term1 immediately preceding the verbal noun1 and the construction is as good as any that could be used4 ,but in any sentence in which it is a mere clumsy substitute for something simpler1 or in which the use of the possessive is awkward or impossible1 should of course be recast4 ,in the event of a reconsideration of the whole matter's becoming necessary ,if it should become necessary to reconsider the whole matter ,there was great dissatisfaction with the decision of the arbitrators being favorable to the company4 ,there was great dissatisfaction that the arbitrators should have decided in favor of the company4 ,people4 ,the people is a political term1 not to be confused with the public4 ,from the people comes political support or opposition2 from the public comes artistic appreciation or commercial patronage4 ,phase4 ,means a stage of transition or development3 the phases of the moon2 the last phase4 ,not to be used for aspect or topic4 ,another phase of the subject ,another point 7another question7 ,possess4 ,not to be used as a mere substitute for have or own4 ,he possessed great courage4 ,he had great courage 7was very brave74 ,he was the fortunate possessor of ,he owned ,prove4 ,the past participle is proved4 ,respective1 respectively4 ,these words may usually be omitted with advantage4 ,works of fiction are listed under the names of their respective authors4 ,works of fiction are listed under the names of their authors4 ,the one mile and two mile runs were won by ,jones and ,cummings respectively4 ,the one mile and two mile runs were won by ,jones and by ,cummings4 ,in some kinds of formal writing1 as geometrical proofs1 it may be necessary to use respectively1 but it should not appear in writing on ordinary subjects4 ,shall1 ,will4 ,the future tense requires shall for the first person1 will for the second and third4 ,the formula to express the speaker's belief regarding his future action or state is ,i shall2 ,i will expresses his determination or his consent4 ,should4 ,see under ,would4 ,so4 ,avoid1 in writing1 the use of so as an intensifier3 so good2 so warm2 so delightful4 ,on the use of so to introduce clauses1 see ,rule #d4 ,sort of4 ,see under ,kind of4 ,split ,infinitive4 ,there is precedent from the fourteenth century downward for interposing an adverb between to and the infinitive which it governs1 but the construction is in disfavor and is avoided by nearly all careful writers4 ,to diligently inquire ,to inquire diligently ,state4 ,not to be used as a mere substitute for say1 remark4 ,restrict it to the sense of express fully or clearly1 as1 ,he refused to state his objections4 ,student ,body4 ,a needless and awkward expression meaning no more than the simple word students4 ,a member of the student body ,a student ,popular with the student body ,liked by the students ,the student body passed resolutions4 ,the students passed resolutions4 ,system4 ,frequently used without need4 ,dayton has adopted the commission system of government4 ,dayton has adopted government by commission4 ,the dormitory system ,dormitories ,thanking ,you in ,advance4 ,this sounds as if the writer meant1 ,it will not be worth my while to write to you again4 ,in making your request1 write1 ,will you please1 or ,i shall be obliged1 and if anything further seems necessary write a letter of acknowledgment later4 ,they4 ,a common inaccuracy is the use of the plural pronoun when the antecedent is a distributive expression such as each1 each one1 everybody1 every one1 many a man1 which1 though implying more than one person1 requires the pronoun to be in the singular4 ,similar to this1 but with even less justification1 is the use of the plural pronoun with the antecedent anybody1 any one1 somebody1 some one1 the intention being either to avoid the awkward he or she1 or to avoid committing oneself to either4 ,some bashful speakers even say1 ,a friend of mine told me that they1 etc4 ,use he with all the above words1 unless the antecedent is or must be feminine4 ,very4 ,use this word sparingly4 ,where emphasis is necessary1 use words strong in themselves4 ,viewpoint4 ,write point of view1 but do not misuse this1 as many do1 for view or opinion4 ,while4 ,avoid the indiscriminate use of this word for and1 but1 and although4 ,many writers use it frequently as a substitute for and or but1 either from a mere desire to vary the connective1 or from uncertainty which of the two connectives is the more appropriate4 ,in this use it is best replaced by a semicolon4 ,the office and salesrooms are on the ground floor1 while the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing4 ,the office and salesrooms are on the ground floor2 the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing4 ,its use as a virtual equivalent of although is allowable in sentences where this leads to no ambiguity or absurdity4 ,while ,i admire his energy1 ,i wish it were employed in a better cause4 ,this is entirely correct1 as shown by the paraphrase1 ,i admire his energy2 at the same time ,i wish it were employed in a better cause4 ,compare3 ,while the temperature reaches #ij or #ie degrees in the daytime1 the nights are often chilly4 ,although the temperature reaches #ij or #ie degrees in the daytime1 the nights are often chilly4 ,the paraphrase1 ,the temperature reaches #ij or #ie degrees in the daytime2 at the same time the nights are often chilly1 shows why the use of while is incorrect4 ,in general1 the writer will do well to use while only with strict literalness1 in the sense of during the time that4 ,whom4 ,often incorrectly used for who before he said or similar expressions1 when it is really the subject of a following verb4 ,his brother1 whom he said would send him the money ,his brother1 who he said would send him the money ,the man whom he thought was his friend ,the man who 7that7 he thought was his friend 7whom he thought his friend7 ,worth while4 ,overworked as a term of vague approval and 7with not7 of disapproval4 ,strictly applicable only to actions3 ,is it worth while to telegraph8 ,his books are not worth while4 ,his books are not worth reading 7are not worth one's while to read2 do not repay reading2 are worthless74 ,the use of worth while before a noun 7a worth while story7 is indefensible4 ,would4 ,a conditional statement in the first person requires should1 not would4 ,i should not have succeeded without his help4 ,the equivalent of shall in indirect quotation after a verb in the past tense is should1 not would4 ,he predicted that before long we should have a great surprise4 ,to express habitual or repeated action1 the past tense1 without would1 is usually sufficient1 and from its brevity1 more emphatic4 ,once a year he would visit the old mansion4 ,once a year he visited the old mansion4 ,,vi4 ,,spelling ,the spelling of ,english words is not fixed and invariable1 nor does it depend on any other authority than general agreement4 ,at the present day there is practically unanimous agreement as to the spelling of most words4 ,in the list below1 for example1 rime for rhyme is the only allowable variation2 all the other forms are co-extensive with the ,english language4 ,at any given moment1 however1 a relatively small number of words may be spelled in more than one way4 ,gradually1 as a rule1 one of these forms comes to be generally preferred1 and the less customary form comes to look obsolete and is discarded4 ,from time to time new forms1 mostly simplifications1 are introduced by innovators1 and either win their place or die of neglect4 ,the practical objection to unaccepted and over-simplified spellings is the disfavor with which they are received by the reader4 ,they distract his attention and exhaust his patience4 ,he reads the form though automatically1 without thought of its needless complexity2 he reads the abbreviation tho and mentally supplies the missing letters1 at the cost of a fraction of his attention4 ,the writer has defeated his own purpose4 ,,words ,,often ,,misspelled accidentally advice affect believe benefit challenge coarse course criticize deceive definite describe despise develop disappoint dissipate duel ecstasy effect embarrass existence fascinate fiery formerly humorous hypocrisy immediately impostor incident incidentally latter led lose marriage mischief murmur necessary occurred opportunity parallel ,philip playwright preceding prejudice principal principle privilege pursue repetition rhyme rhythm ridiculous sacrilegious seize separate shepherd siege similar simile too tragedy tries undoubtedly until villain ,note that a single consonant 7other than v7 preceded by a stressed short vowel is doubled before -ed and -ing3 planned1 letting1 beginning4 7,coming is an exception47 ,write to-day1 to-night1 to-morrow 7but not together7 with a hyphen4 ,write any one1 every one1 some one1 some time 7except in the sense of formerly7 as two words4 ,,vii4 ,,exercises ,,on ,,chapters ,,ii ,,and ,,iii ,i4 ,punctuate3 #a4 ,in #aghh the ,king's advisers warned him that the nation was facing bankruptcy therefore he summoned a body called the ,states-,general believing that it would authorize him to levy new taxes4 ,the people of ,france however were suffering from burdensome taxation oppressive social injustice and acute scarcity of food and their representatives refused to consider projects of taxation until social and economic reforms should be granted4 ,the ,king who did not realize the gravity of the situation tried to overawe them collecting soldiers in and about ,versailles where the sessions were being held4 ,the people of ,paris seeing the danger organized militia companies to defend their representatives4 ,in order to supply themselves with arms they attacked the ,invalides and the ,bastille which contained the principal supplies of arms and munitions in ,paris4 #b4 ,on his first continental tour begun in #ahji ,byron visited ,portugal ,spain ,albania ,greece and ,turkey4 ,of this tour he composed a poetical journal ,childe ,harold's ,pilgrimage in which he ascribed his experiences and reflections not to himself but to a fictitious character ,childe ,harold described as a melancholy young nobleman prematurely familiar with evil sated with pleasures and embittered against humanity4 ,the substantial merits of the work however lay not in this shadowy and somewhat theatrical figure but in ,byron's spirited descriptions of wild or picturesque scenes and in his eloquent championing of ,spain and ,greece against their oppressors4 ,on his return to ,england in #ahaa he was persuaded rather against his own judgment into allowing the work to be published4 ,its success was almost unprecedented in his own words he awoke and found himself famous4 ,,ii4 ,explain the difference in meaning3 #c4 ',god save thee1 ancyent ,marinere6 ',from the fiends that plague thee thus-- ,lyrical ,ballads1 #agih4 ',god save thee1 ancient ,mariner6 ,from the fiends1 that plague thee thus6-- ,lyrical ,ballads1 #ahjj4 ,,iii4 ,explain and correct the errors in punctuation3 #d4 ,this course is intended for ,freshmen1 who in the opinion of the ,department are not qualified for military drill4 #e4 ,a restaurant1 not a cafeteria where good meals are served at popular prices4--,advt4 #f4 ,the poets of ,the ,nation1 for all their intensity of patriotic feeling1 followed the ,english rather than the ,celtic tradition1 their work has a political rather than a literary value and bears little upon the development of modern ,irish verse4 #g4 ,we were in one of the strangest places imaginable4 ,a long and narrow passage overhung on either side by a stupendous barrier of black and threatening rocks4 #h4 ,only a few years ago after a snow storm in the passes not far north of ,jerusalem no less than twenty-six ,russian pilgrims perished amidst the snow4 ,one cannot help thinking largely because they made little attempt to save themselves4 ,,iv4 ,point out and correct the faults in the following sentences3 #i4 ,during childhood his mother had died4 #aj4 ,any language study is good mind training while acquiring vocabulary4 #aa4 ,my farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land1 having given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's lease4 #ab4 ,prepared to encounter a woman of disordered mind1 the appearance presented by ,mrs4 ,taylor at his entrance greatly astonished him4 #ac4 ,pale and swooning1 with two broken legs1 they carried him into the house4 #ad4 ,count ,cassini1 the ,russian plenipotentiary1 had several long and intimate conversations during the tedious weeks of the conference with his ,british colleague1 ,sir ,arthur ,nicholson4 #ae4 ,but though they had been victorious in the land engagements1 they were so little decisive as to lead to no important results4 #af4 ,knowing nothing of the rules of the college or of its customs1 it was with the greatest difficulty that the ,dean could make me comprehend wherein my wrong-doing lay4 #ag4 ,fire1 therefore1 was the first object of my search4 ,happily1 some embers were found upon the hearth1 together with potato-stalks and dry chips4 ,of these1 with much difficulty1 ,i kindled a fire1 by which some warmth was imparted to our shivering limbs4 #ah4 ,in this connection a great deal of historic fact is introduced into the novel about the past history of the cathedral and of ,spain4 #ai4 ,over the whole scene hung the haze of twilight that is so peaceful4 #bj4 ,compared with ,italy1 living is more expensive4 #ba4 ,it is a fundamental principle of law to believe a man innocent until he is proved guilty1 and once proved guilty1 to remain so until proved to the contrary4 #bb4 ,not only had the writer entree to the titled families of ,italy in whose villas she was hospitably entertained1 but by royalty also4 #bc4 ,it is not a strange sight to catch a glimpse of deer along the shore4 #bd4 ,earnings from other sources are of such a favorable character as to enable a splendid showing to be made by the company4 #be4 ,but while earnings have mounted amazingly1 the status of affairs is such as to make it impossible to predict the course events may take1 with any degree of accuracy4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the following is a list of corrections made to the original4 ,the first line is the original line1 the second the corrected one4 ,university have greatly helped him in the preparation of his manuscript ,university have greatly helped him in the preparation of his manuscript4 ,compare the sentence4 ,the export of gold was prohibited1 in which the ,compare the sentence1 ,the export of gold was prohibited1 in which the ,stevenson quoted under ,rule #aj4 ,but apart from this1 he should follow the ,stevenson quoted under ,rule #i4 ,but apart from this1 he should follow the ordered7 is bade4 ordered1 is bade4 ,effect4 ,as noun1 means result2 as verb1 means to bring about1 ,effect4 ,as noun1 means result2 as verb1 means to bring about1 incontestable they ma ybe1 are not properly facts4 incontestable they may be1 are not properly facts4 ,acts of a hostile nature4 ,acts of a hostile nature ,dayton has adopted the commission system of government ,dayton has adopted the commission system of government4 embarass embarrass