,,sea-,,we$s1 ,,%ells ,,& ,,fossils4    
,,by    ,,pet] ,,gray1 ,a4,b4,s4 ,,ed942
    ,,&    ,b4 ,b4 ,,woodw>d1    ,( !   
,briti% ,museum 7,natural ,hi/ory71 ,s\?
 ,k5s+ton4    ,illu/ration    ,,london3 
,,swan ,,sonn5s*e91 ,,le ,,bas  ,,l[rey1
   ,,pat]no/] ,,squ>e4     ,,butl]      
,,tann]1   ,,! ,,selwood ,,pr9t+ ,,works
   ,,frome1 ,,& ,,london4               
,,sea-,,we$s4  ,,by ,,pet] ,,gray4      
,algae1 popul>ly kn[n z sea-we$s1 al?\gh
 _m species are inhabitants ( fre% wat]1
 or gr[ on moi/ gr\nd1 may be briefly   
describ$ z cellul>1 fl[]less plants1    
hav+ no prop] roots1 b imbib+ nutrim5t  
by _! :ole surface f ! m$ium 9 :i* !y   
gr[4 ,z f> z has be5 asc]ta9$1 ! total  
numb] ( species is ab\t #ijjj or        
#aj1jjj4 ,_m ( !m are microscopic1 z !  
,desmids & ,diatoms1 o!rs1 z ,lessonia1 
& "s ( ! l>g] ,lam9>iae 7o>we$s71 are   
arboresc5t1 cov]+ ! b$ ( ! sea ar\nd !  
coa/ ) a subm>9e =e/2 :ile 9 ! ,pacific1
 (f ! nor?we/]n %ores ( ,am]ica1        
,n]eocy/is1 a g5us alli$ to ,lam9>ia1   

has a /em ov] #cjj feet 9 l5g?1 :i*1    
al?\gh n ?ick] ?an :ipcord1 is /\t en\gh
 to moor a bladd]1 b>rel-%ap$1 six or   
sev5 feet long1 & cr[n$ ) a tuft ( fifty
 leaves or m1 ea* f ?irty to =ty feet 9 
l5g?4 ,?is vegetable buoy is a fav\rite 
re/+ place ( ! sea ott]2 & :]e ! plant  
exi/s 9 any quantity1 ! surface ( ! sea 
is r5d]$ impassable to boats4 ,! /em (  
,macrocy/is1 :i* girds ! globe 9 ! s\!rn
 temp]ate zone1 is /at$ to ext5d        
sometimes to ! enorm\s l5g? ( #aejj     
feet4 ,x is no ?ick] ?an ! f+] any:]e1 &
 ! upp] bran*es are z sl5d] z           
pack-?read2 b at ! base ( ea* leaf !re  
is plac$ a buoy1 9 ! %ape ( a vesicle   
fill$ ) air4  ,al?\gh ! wor?lessness (  
,algae has be5 prov]bial1 z 9 ! alga    
inutile ( ,horace & ,virgil's projecta  
vilior alga1 !y are n )\t importance 9  
botanical economics4 ,a doz5 or m       
species f\nd 9 ! ,briti% seas are made  
use (1 raw or prep>$ 9 sev]al ways1 z   
food = man4 ,( ^! edible ,algae1 ,dr4   
,h>vey consid]s ! two species (         

,porphyra1 or lav]1 ! mo/ valuable4     
,b]keley says1 ,! be/ way ( prep>+ ?is  
vegetable or condim5t1 :i* is extremely 
:olesome1 is to heat x ?or\ghly ) a     
little /rong gravy or bro?1 add+1 be=e x
 is s]v$ on toa/1 a small quantity (    
butt] & lemon juice4 ,a species ( ,no/oc
 is l>gely consum$ 9 ,*9a z an +r$i5t 9 
s\p4 ,a simil> use is made (            
,ent]omorpha inte/9alis 9 ,japan4 ,_m   
species ( fi% & o!r animals1 turtle     
includ$1 live ^u sea-we$4 ,fucus        
vesiculosus is a grateful food = cattle4
 ,9 ,norway1 cattle1 horses1 %eep1 &    
pigs are l>gely f$ ^u x1 & on our own   
coa/s cattle eag]ly br[se on t & k9dr$  
species at l[ wat]4 ,9 "s nor!rn        
c\ntries1 ,fucus s]ratus spr9kl$ ) meal 
is us$ z w9t] fodd]4     ,illu/ration3  
,fig4 #a4 ,gr\p ( ,sea-we$s 7*iefly     
,lam9>iae7  ,all ! m>9e ,algae conta9   
iod9e2 & ev5 be=e ! value ( t sub/ance 9
 gl&ul> compla9ts _h be5 asc]ta9$1 /ems 
( a sea-we$ 7 *ew$ z a rem$y by !       
inhabitants ( c]ta9 di/ricts ( ,s\?     

,am]ica :]e goitre is preval5t4 ,*ondrus
 crispus & 7,gig>t9a7 mamillosa         
con/itute ! ,iri% moss ( comm]ce1 :i*   
dissolves into a nutriti\s & delicate   
jelly1 & ! re/orative value ( :i* 9     
consumption d\btless dep5ds 9 "s degree 
on ! pres5ce ( iod9e4 ,! fre%wat] ,algae
 n only furni% abundant & n\ri%+ food to
 ! fi% & o!r animals liv+ 9 ponds &     
/reams1 b by _! action 9 ! decomposition
 ( c>burett$ hydrog5 & o!r noxi\s gases 
purify ! elem5t 9 :i* !y live1 ?us      
becom+ important sanit>y ag5ts4 ,! value
 ( aquatic plants 9 ! aqu>ium is well   
kn[n4 ,a ,*9ese species ( ,gig>t9a is   
mu* employ$ z a glue & v>ni%2 & also mu*
 us$ 9 ,*9a 9 ! manufacture ( lant]ns & 
transp>5cies1 & 9 t c\ntry & ,japan =   
glaz+ w9d[s4 ,h&les = table knives &    
=ks1 tools1 & o!r implem5ts h be5 made f
 ! ?ick /ems ( o>we$s1 & fi%+ l9es f    
,*orda filum4 ,tripoli p[d]1 ext5sively 
us$ = poli%+1 consi/s ma9ly ( ! silici\s
 %ells ( ,diatoms4 ,on v>i\s p>ts ( our 
coa/1 ! co>s] species ( sea-we$1 n[ us$ 

z a valuable manure1 7 =m]ly ext5sively 
burnt = kelp1 an impure c>bonate ( soda4
 ,?is indu/ry1 :5 c>ri$ on ^u a l>ge    
scale1 became a fruitful s\rce ( income 
to "s ( ! poore/ di/ricts 9 ! k+dom1    
br++1 9 ! la/ decade ( la/ c5tury1 ne>ly
 ,l#cj1jjj p] annum into ,orkney alone4 
,s9ce ! production ( soda f rock salt   
has become g5]al1 kelp is n[ only burnt 
= ! extraction ( iod9e1 ?is be+ ! easie/
 way ( obta9+ t sub/ance4  ,al?\gh !    
vegetable /ructure & mode ( reproduction
 are ess5tially ! same 9 all ,algae1 z  
reg>ds ! =m] !y v>y f ! simple cell1    
?r\gh cells arrang$ 9 ?reads1 to a /em &
 leaves simulat+ ! vegetation ( high]   
tribes4 ,& al?\gh ! simpl] k9ds are     
obvi\sly =m$ ( ?reads1 mo/ ( ! m comp\nd
 may also be resolv$ into ! same        
/ructure by mac]ation 9 hot wat] or     
dilut$ muriatic acid4 ,9 sub/ance "s are
 m]e masses ( slime or jelly1 o!rs are  
silky to ! feel1 horny1 c>tilag9\s or   
lea!r-l1 & ev5 app>5tly woody4 ,a few   
species secrete c>bonate ( lime f !     

wat]1 lay+ x up 9 _! tissues2 o!rs cov] 
!mselves completely ) t m9]al1 :ile "s  
coat !mselves ) silex or fl9t4 ,_m      
,algae are beautifully col\r$1 ev5 :5   
gr[+ at dep?s to :i* v little light     
p5etrates4 ,z 9 _! vegetative organs1 s 
9 _! reproductive1 ,algae exhibit _m    
modifications ( /ructure )\t mu* real   
diff]5ce4 ,9 ! gre5 sea-we$s            
reproduction is effect$ by simple cell  
division 9 ! unicellul> species1 & by   
spores result+ f ! union ( ! cont5ts (  
two cells 9 ! o!rs4 ,! r$ sea-we$s h a  
d\ble sy/em ( reproduction1 a di/9ctly  
sexual "o1 by spores & an!ridia1 & ano!r
 by tetraspores1 :i* by "s are consid]$ 
to be ( ! nature ( gemmae1 or buds4 ,!  
spores are g5]ally situat$ 9 di/9ct     
holl[ conceptacles 7favellae1 c]amidium1
 coccidium74 ,! tetraspore is also      
sometimes conta9$ 9 a conceptacle4 ,x   
consi/s ( a m or less globul>1 transp>5t
 cell1 :i* :5 mature conta9s )9 x f\r   
7r>ely ?ree7 sporules4 ,reproduction 9 !
 olive sea-we$s is also d\ble1 by       

zoospores1 g5]ally consid]$ gemmae1 & by
 spores & an!rozoids1 :i* is a sexual   
process4     ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,a1
 ,species ( ,gleocapsa1 "o ( !          
,palmelleae1 9 v>i\s /ages4 ,a becomes  
,b1 ,c1 ,d1 & ,e by    repeat$ division4
 ,magnifi$ #cjj diamet]s4  ,foll[+ !    
classification adopt$ by ,pr(essor      
,h>vey1 :i* is t g5]ally employ$ 9      
,engli% sy/ematic manuals1 we divide !  
ord] into ?ree sub-ord]s1 nam$ f !      
prevail+ col\r ( _! spores4 #a4         
,*lorosp]meae1 ) gre5 spores2 #b4       
,rhodosp]meae1 ) r$ spores2 & #c4       
,melanosp]meae1 ) olive-col\r$ spores4  
,! entire plant 9 ! fir/ gr\p is usually
 grass-gre51 b occasionally olive1      
purple1 blue1 & sometimes almo/ black2 9
 ! second x is "s %ade or o!r ( r$1 v   
seldom gre52 & 9 ! ?ird1 :ile g5]ally   
olive gre51 x is occasionally br[n olive
 or yell[4  ,! ,*lorosp]meae are        
extremely v>i$ 9 =m1 (t5 ?readlike1 &   
are propagat$ ei!r by ! simple division 
( ! cont5ts ( _! cells 7endo*rome71 by !

 trans=mation ( p>ticul> jo9ts1 or by ! 
*ange ( ! cont5ts ( ! cells into        
zoospores1 :i* are cells mov+ freely 9  
wat] by means ( hairlike app5dages4 ,9  
_! l[] =ms !y are among ! mo/ rudim5t>y 
( all plants1 & ?us ( special int]e/    
physiologically1 z repres5t+ ! compon5t 
p>ts ( :i* high] plants are =m$4 ,!y are
 subdivid$ into twelve gr\ps1 z foll[s3 
,! fir/ gr\p1 ,palmelleae1 are          
unicellul> plants1 ! cells ( :i* are    
ei!r free or surr\nd$ by a gelat9\s     
mass1 & !y are propagat$ by ! division (
 ! endo*rome4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( ! 
species ( ?is family is ,protococcus    
cru5tus1 :i* is f\nd at ! foot ( walls  
hav+ a nor!rn aspect1 look+ z if blood  
_h be5 p\r$ out on ! gr\nd or on /ones4 
,protococcus nivalis1 aga91 is ! cause (
 ! r$ sn[1 ( :i* e>ly arctic navigators 
us$ to give su* m>vell\s acc\nts4 7,fig4
 #b47     ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,a1   
,fragm5t ( a ,filam5t ( ,zygnema1    "o 
( ! ,conjugateae2 ,b1 ,clo/]ium2 ,c1    
,eua/rium2 two    desmids4  ,!          

,desmideaceae1 toge!r ) ! plants ( !    
next succe$+ gr\p1 are fav\rite subjects
 ( inve/igation or obs]vation by !      
possessors ( microscopes1 an att5tion !y
 m]it f ! beauty & v>iety ( _! =ms4 ,!y 
are m9ute plants ( a gre5 col\r1 consi/+
 ( cells g5]ally indep5d5t ( ea* o!r1 b 
sometimes =m+ brittle ?reads or m9ute   
fronds1 & are reproduc$ by spores g5]at$
 by ! conjugation ( two di/9ct          
individuals4 ,! process ( conjugation 9 
,desmids & ,diatoms consi/s 9 ! union ( 
! endo*rome ( two individuals1 ea* ( :i*
 9 ^! families is compos$ ( a s+le cell4
 ,?is ultimately =ms a r\nd$ body or    
re/+ spore1 :i* aft]w>ds g]m9ates1 !    
result+ plant n h[ev] acquir+ ! normal  
=m until ! ?ird g5]ation4 7,fig4 #c47   
,! ,diatomaceae1 closely alli$ to !     
prec$+ gr\p 9 /ructure & reproduction1  
are h[ev] di/+ui%$ f !m by _! fl9ty     
%ells1 :i* are (t5 beautifully          
sculptur$4 ,_! endo*rome is a gold5     
br[n1 in/ead ( gre5 z 9 ! ,desmideaceae4
 ,! latt]1 also1 are conf9$ to fre%     

wat]1 :ile ! ,diatomaceae are f\nd1 ?\gh
 n exclusively1 9 ! sea1 :]e _! %ells   
sometimes1 microscopically m9ute z !y   
are individually1 =m banks ext5d+ sev]al
 hundr$ miles4 ,x is /at$ t 9 !         
collection made by ,sir ,joseph ,hook] 9
 ! ,himalayas ! species closely resemble
 our own4  ,9 ! next gr\p1 ,conf]vaceae1
 we are introduc$ to =ms m l ! g5]al    
notion ( :at a plant %\ld be4 ,!        
individuals ( :i* x consi/s are compos$ 
( ?reads1 jo9t$1 ei!r simple or bran*$1 
mo/ly ( a grass-gre5 col\r1 & propagat+ 
ei!r by m9ute zoospores or by           
metamorphos$ jo9ts4 ,!y are f\nd bo? 9  
fre% & salt wat]1 & 9 damp situations4  
,! numb] ( species is v great4 ,a       
consid]able numb] consi/ ( unbran*$     
?reads2 ! bran*$ =ms gr[ sometimes s    
d5sely z to assume ! =m ( solid balls4  
,aft] floods1 :5 ! wat] /&s = sev]al    
days1 !y sometimes increase to su* an   
ext5t1 z to =m on its subsid5ce a uni=m 
pap]-l /ratum1 :i* :ile decompos+ is    
extremely disagreeable4 ,! "n ,conf]va  

has be5 almo/ discont9u$ z a g5]ic      
title1 ! majority ( ,briti% species be+ 
n[ rang$ "u ,clado- & ,*aeto-phora4 ,!  
latt] are bran*$1 & require great c>e & 
att5tion 9 ord] to di/+ui% !m1 on acc\nt
 ( _! g5]al resemblance to ea* o!r4     
,good *>act]s are h[ev] to be f\nd 9 _! 
mode ( bran*+ & ! =m & comp>ative size (
 ! t]m9al jo9ts4  ,! ,batra*osp]meae    
con/itute a small b v beautiful gr\p1   
consi/+ ( gelat9\s ?reads v>i\sly wov5  
into a bran*$ cyl9drical frond4 ,!      
bran*es are sometimes arrang$1 z 9 !    
,briti% species1 s t ! plants appe> l   
necklaces4 ,9 col\r !y pass f gre51     
?r\gh int]m$iate %ades ( olive & purple1
 to black4 ,9 common ) "s ( ! high]     
,algae1 ! ?reads ( ! sup]ficial bran*es 
s5d jo9ts d[n ! /em1 *ang+ x f simple to
 comp\nd4 ,! native species are all     
fluviatile4  ,! ,hydrodicteae are among 
! mo/ rem>kable ( ,algae4 ,hydrodictyon 
utriculatum1 ! solit>y ,briti% species1 
is f\nd 9 ! l>ge pond at ,hampton ,c\rt1
 & 9 simil> situations 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! 

c\ntry1 b n v g5]ally4 ,x resembles a   
gre5 purse or net1 f f\r to six in*es 9 
l5g?1 ) delicate & regul> me%es1 !      
reticulations be+ ab\t f\r l9es long4   
,its me?od ( reproduction is no less ?an
 its =m4 ,ea* ( ! cells =ms )9 itself an
 enorm\s mass ( small elliptic gra9s4   
,^! become atta*$ by ! extremities s z  
to =m a network inside ! cell1 &1 its   
walls be+ dissolv$1 a new plant is set  
free to gr[ to ! size ( ! p>5t          
,hydrodictyon4  ,! ,no/o*9eae gr[ 9 fre%
 wat]1 or atta*$ to moi/ soil4 ,!y      
consi/ ( sl5d]1 bead$ ?reads surr\nd$ by
 a firm jelly1 & (t5 spread+ into l>ge1 
wavy fronds4 ,! l>g] beads on ! inclos$ 
?reads are reproductive spores4 7,fig4  
#d1 ,a47     ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,a1
 ,fragm5t ( a ,filam5t ( ,no/oc4 ,b1    
,end ( a ,filam5t ( ,oscillatoria4  ,!  
,oscillatoreae are ano!r rem>kable gr\p1
 on acc\nt ( ! peculi> animal-l motions 
!y exhibit4 ,!y occur bo? 9 salt & fre% 
wat]1 & on almo/ e k9d ( site 9 :i* !re 
is suffici5t moi/ure4 ,! ?reads ( :i* !y

 are compos$ are jo9t$1 & g5]ally       
unbran*$2 !y are ( v>i\s t9ts ( blue1   
r$1 & gre51 &1 :]e _! fructification has
 be5 asc]ta9$1 are propagat$ by cell    
division4 ,! mo/ curi\s po9t ab\t !m is1
 h[ev]1 ! movem5ts ( _! fronds4 ,accord+
 to ,dr4 ,h>vey1 ^! are ( ?ree k9ds--a  
p5dulum-l movem5t f side to side1 p]=m$ 
by "o end1 :il/ ! o!r rema9s fix$1 s z  
to =m a pivot2 a movem5t ( flexure ( !  
filam5t itself1 ! oscillat+ extremity   
b5d+ ov] f "o side to ! o!r1 l ! head ( 
a worm or cat]pill> seek+ some?+ on its 
l9e ( m>*2 & la/ly1 a simple onw>d      
movem5t ( progression1 ! :ole ph5om5on  
be+1 ,dr4 ,h>vey ?9ks1 resolvable into a
 spiral onw>d movem5t ( ! filam5t4      
,:atev] is ! cause ( ?is motion1 x is n1
 z us$ to be suppos$1 ( an animal       
nature2 = ! individuals ( ?is gr\p are  
und\bt$ plants4 7,fig4 #d1 ,b47 ,sev]al 
species ( ,rivul>ia1 belong+ to !       
,oscillatoreae1 are f\nd bo? 9 ! sea & 9
 fre% wat]4 ,!y are gelat9\s1 & h some?+
 ( ! appe>ance ( ,no/oc1 9 aspect z well

 z 9 m9ute /ructure4  ,! ,conjugatae are
 fre%wat] articulat$ ,algae1 :i*        
reproduce !mselves by ! union ( two     
endo*romes4 ,!y are v int]e/+ objects "u
 ! microscope1 ow+ to ! spiral or zigzag
 arrangem5t ( ! endo*rome ( _m ( !m1 & !
 delicacy ( all4  ,! ,bulbo*aeteae      
con/itute a small gr\p1 "s half-a-doz5  
species be+ ,briti%4 ,!y are fre%wat]   
plants1 compos$ ( articulate bran*$     
filam5ts1 ) f]tile bulb%ap$ bran*lets4  
,! endo*rome is believ$ to be f]tiliz$  
by bodies develop$ 9 an!ridia1 ! cont5ts
 ( ea* f]tiliz$ cell divid+ into f\r    
ovate zoospores4  ,! la/ two gr\ps (    
gre5 sea-we$s consi/ *iefly ( m>9e      
plants4 ,( ^! ! fir/1 ,siphoneae1 is s  
call$ because ! plant1 h[ev] complicat$1
 is compos$ inv>iably ( a s+le cell4 ,x 
propagates by m9ute zoospores1 by l>ge  
quiesc5t spores1 or by l>ge active      
spores clo!d ) cilia4 ,x includes !     
rem>kable g5us ,codium1 ?ree species (  
:i* inhabit ! ,briti% seas4 ,9 ,codium  
,bursa ! filam5t\s frond is sph]ical &  

holl[1 pres5t+ m ! appe>ance ( a r\nd   
sponge or puff-ball ?an a sea-we$1 & is 
some:at r>e4 ,ano!r species greatly     
resembles a bran*$ sponge1 & ! ?ird =ms 
a velvety cru/ on ! surface ( rocks4    
,ano!r g5us1 ,vau*]ia1 is ( a beautiful 
gre5 col\r1 =m+ a velvety surface on    
moi/ soil1 on mud-cov]$ rocks ov]fl[$ by
 ! tide1 or p>asitic on o!r sea-we$s4 ,!
 mo/ attractive plants ( ?is family are 
h[ev] ^? ( ! g5us ,bryopsis1 two ( :i*  
are f\nd on ! ,briti% %ores4 ,! mo/     
common "o is ,b4 plumosa1 ! fronds ( :i*
 gr[ usually 9 ! %ady & %elt]$ sides (  
rock pools4  ,! fronds ( ! la/ ( !      
gre5-we$ gr\ps1 ! ,ulvaceae1 are        
membran\s1 & ei!r flat or tubul>4 ,two (
 !m1 ,ulva latissima1 ! gre51 &         
,porphyra lac9iata1 ! purple lav]1 are  
among ! mo/ common sea-we$s1 gr[+ well  
up f l[-wat] m>k4 ,! propagation 9 all (
 !m is by zoospores4 ,an alli$ g5us1    
,ent]omorpha1 is protean 9 its =ms1 :i* 
h be5 class$ "u _m species4 ,!y may1    
h[ev]1 be r$uc$ to half a doz54 ,"s ( !m

 are v sl5d]1 s z almo/ to be mi/ak5 =  
conf]void plants4  ,) ! ,rhodosp]meae we
 ent] a sub-ord] ( ,algae1 exclusively  
m>9e1 ! plants 9 :i* h always held out  
great attractions to ! collector4 ,9    
/ructure !y are exp&$ or filam5t\s1     
ne>ly always rose-col\r$ or purple 9    
col\r4 ,( ! f\rte5 gr\ps into :i* !y are
 divid$ by ,h>vey1 ! fir/ is            
,c]amiaceae1 articulate ,algae1         
con/itut+ a l>ge proportion ( ! m>9e    
plants ( our %ores4 ,( ! g5us ,c]amium1 
,c4 rubrum is ! mo/ frequ5t1 & x is f\nd
 9 e latitude1 almo/ f pole to pole4 ,x 
is v v>iable 9 aspect1 b c always be    
recogniz$ by its fruit4 ,c4 diaphanum is
 a v h&some species1 gr[+ (t5 9 rock    
pools along ) ! o!r4 ,!re are ab\t      
fifte5 native species altoge!r1 "s ( !m 
r>e1 & all v beautiful1 bo? z display$  
on pap] & se5 "u ! microscope4 ,cr\ania 
att5uata is a beautiful plant1 p>asitic 
^u a ,clado/ephus or ,corall9a          
(fic9alis4 ,x is h[ev] extremely r>e1   
be+ only f\nd 9 ,engl& ab\t ,l&'s ,end4 

,a m common & conspicu\s1 b equally     
h&some plant is ,ptilota plumosa 7,fig4 
#i71 :i* is mo/ly conf9$ to our nor!rn  
coa/s2 al?\gh ,p4 s]icea1 a small]      
species1 or v>iety1 is common 9 ! s\?1 &
 easily di/+ui%$ f its cong5]1 :i* x    
o!rwise greatly resembles1 by its jo9t$ 
bran*lets & p9nules4 ,calli?amnion1     
,halurus & ,griffi?sia1 articulate l    
,c]amium1 furni% also sev]al h&some     
species4 7,fig4 #e47     ,illu/ration3  
,fig4 #e4 ,species ( ,calli?amnion4  ,! 
gr\p ,spyridiaceae conta9s only "o      
,engli% plant1 ,spyridia filam5tosa1 :i*
 is curi\sly & irregul>ly bran*$1 !     
bran*es be+ articulate & ( a p9ky r$4   
,"o ( its k9ds ( fruit1 consi/+ (       
crimson spores1 is conta9$ 9 a transp>5t
 network basket1 =m$ by ! favellae1 or  
%ort bran*es1 :5ce its "n4              
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,*ondrus        
crispus4  ,! ,cryptonemiaceae are v     
num]\s 9 g5]a & species4 ,!y all h      
in>ticulate bran*es1 "s are ?read-l4    
,gratel\pia filic9a is a neat little    

plant1 met ) r>ely on ! s\? & we/ coa/s4
 ,gig>t9a mamillosa1 a common plant     
ev]y:]e1 is ! plant sold1 along )       
,*ondrus crispus1 z ,iri% or ,c>rage5   
moss4 ,a h&some little plant1 ,/5ogramme
 int]rupta1 is v r>e1 b x has be5 ga!r$ 
bo? on ! ,iri% & ,engli% coa/s4 ,!      
,phyllophorae1 "o species ( :i* is      
frequ5t on all our %ores1 may be        
recognis$ by ! way 9 :i* ! po9ts &      
surfaces ( _! fronds ?r[ out prolif]\s  
leaves4 ,gymnogongrus has two ,briti%   
species1 "o mu* resembl+ ,*ondrus       
crispus1 already nam$1 ( :i* x 0 =m]ly  
consid]$ a cong5]4 ,_! fructification is
 h[ev] v diff]5t4 ,ahnfeltia plicata is 
a curi\swiry1 entangl$ plant1 almo/     
black 9 col\r1 & l horse-hair :5 dry1 & 
c sc>cely be mi/ak54 ,cy/oclonium       
purpurasc5s is v commonly ca/ up by !   
tide on mo/ ( our coa/s4 ,x v>ies 9     
col\r1 b is easily di/+ui%$ by !        
spore-be>+ tub]cles imb$d$ 9 its sl5d]  
bran*es4 ,callophyllis lac9iata is a    
h&some species1 ( a ri* crimson col\r1 &

 sometimes a foot squ>e4 ,x c sc>cely h 
escap$ ! notice ( ! sea-side visitor1 = 
x is widely di/ribut$ & (t5 ?r[n out 9  
great abundance2 "o writ] describes !   
%ore ne> ,tynem\? z hav+ be5 r$ = upw>ds
 ( a mile ) ?is sup]b sea-we$4 ,kalym5ia
 r5i=mis is ano!r ( ! broad1 flat       
,algae1 b x is sc>c]1 & ( a col\r n s   
conspicu\s4 ,among ! mo/ frequ5t ( our  
sea-we$s1 bo? z gr[+ 9 ! rock pools &   
ca/ a%ore1 is ,*ondrus crispus1 already 
twice ref]r$ to 9 connexion ) its       
(fic9al uses4 ,x is v v>iable 9 =m1 "o  
au?or figur+ z _m z ?irty-six diff]5t   
v>ieties4 7,fig4 #f47 ,*ylocladia       
clavellosa1 :i* is sometimes ca/ a%ore a
 foot & a half long1 is closely set )   
bran*es1 & ^! aga9 clo!d ) bran*lets 9  
"o or two s]ies4 ,! :ole plant is fle%y1
 ( a rose-r$ or brilliant p9k col\r1    
turn+ to gold5 yell[ 9 decay4 ,!re is   
ano!r small species1 conf9$ to ! extreme
 nor? ( ,brita94 ,halym5ia ligulata is  
ano!r flat r$ we$1 b sometimes v n>r[ 9 
its ramifications4 ,furcell>ia fa/igiata

 has a r\nd1 bran*$1 tap] /em1 swoll5 at
 ! summit1 :i* conta9s ! fruit1 consi/+ 
( masses ( tetraspores 9 a pod-l        
receptacle4 ,s*izym5ia edulis1 bett]    
kn[n p]haps by its old "n ,iridea1 is a 
flat1 inv]sely egg-%ap$ leaf ) sc>cely  
any /em4 ,x is "o ( ! edible ,algae1 &  
pretty frequ5t 9 %ady rock pools4       
,gloiosiphonia capill>is is a rem>kably 
beautiful plant1 & n common1 be+ conf9$ 
to c]ta9 p>ts ( ! s\!rn coa/s4 ,! /em is
 v s(t & gelat9\s2 ! spores are produc$ 
9 r$ globul> masses imb$d$ 9 ! m>g9al   
filam5ts1 :i* h a f9e appe>ance "u !    
microscope :5 fre%4     ,illu/ration3   
,fig4 #g4 ,rhodom5ia palmata4           
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,wormskioldia   
sangu9ea4  ,! ,rhodom5iaceae are purpli%
 or blood-r$ sea-we$s1 in>ticulate1     
membranace\s1 & cellul>4 ,among !       
d>k-col\r$ is ,rhodom5ia palmata1 bett] 
kn[n z dulse1 a common & edible species4
 7,fig4 #g47 ,wormskioldia sangu9ea is n
 only ! mo/ beautiful sea-we$1 b ! f9e/ 
( all leaves or fronds4 ,x is usually   

ab\t six in*es long1 b sometimes ne>ly  
d\ble t l5g? & six in*es broad1 ) a     
di/9ct midrib & bran*+ ve9s1 & a        
delicate wavy lam9a1 p9k or deep r$4 ,! 
fruit is produc$ 9 w9t] f small leaflets
 gr[+ ^u ! b>e midrib4 7,fig4 #h47 ,!   
commone/ ( all r$ sea-we$s on our coa/1 
"o ( ! mo/ elegant1 & mu* s\ght aft] by 
sea-we$ picture mak]s1 ,plocamium       
cocc9eum1 belongs to ?is gr\p4          
,callibleph>is ciliata & jubata are     
co>s] plants1 ! latt] be+ ! m frequ5t4  
,!y 7 =m]ly includ$ 9 ! g5us ,rhodym5ia1
 f :i* !y 7 remov$ :5 _! fruit 0 bett]  
und]/ood4     ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4   
,ptilota plumosa4  ,wrangelia & ,nacc>ia
 are ! only ,briti% g5]a 9              
,wrangeliaceae4 ,!re is only "o native  
species 9 ea*1 bo? be+ r>e1 ! latt]     
especially4  ,! ,helm9?ocladiae are also
 a limit$ gr\p1 ( a gelat9\s /ructure2 s
 mu* s t on be+ ga!r$ !y feel l a bun* (
 slimy worms1 :5ce ! "n ( ! family4     
,helm9?ora purpurea & div>icata )       
,nemaleon multifidum & ,sc9aia          

furcellata repres5t !m 9 ,brita94 ,!y   
are ne>ly all v r>e1 pretty plants1 & v 
effective z microscopic objects4  ,!    
,squam>iae1 =m]ly includ$ 9 !           
,corall9aceae1 are a small gr\p (       
inconspicu\s plants resembl+ li*5s1 ( a 
lea!ry texture1 & gr[+ on rocks & %ells 
atta*$ by _! l[] surface4  ,a s+le g5us 
only1 ,polyides1 repres5ts !            
,spongioc>peae4 ,polyides rotundus      
resembles ,furcell>ia fa/igiata v       
closely1 b diff]s widely 9 ! fruit1 :i* 
consi/s ( spongy w>ts surr\nd+ ! frond1 
compos$ ( spores & articulat$ ?reads4   
,( ! next gr\p repres5t$ 9 ,brita91     
,gelidiaceae1 we h only "o plant1       
,gelidium corneum1 v common on our      
%ores1 & p]haps ! mo/ v>iable ( all     
vegetable species4  ,! ,spha]ococcidae  
include bo? membranace\s & c>tilag9\s   
species4 ,( ! latt] is ,spha]ococcus    
coronopifolius1 :i* _c easily be mi/ak51
 ow+ to ! num]\s b]ry-l fruits t tip its
 bran*lets4 ,x is r r>e on ! nor!rn1 b  
(t5 ?r[n a%ore 9 l>ge quantities on !   

s\!rn coa/s4 ,! g5us ,deless]ia has f\r 
,briti% species1 ! l>ge/ be+ ! well-kn[n
 ,d4 s9uosa1 ! fronds ( :i* resemble an 
oak leaf 9 outl9e4 ,! h&some/ are ,d4   
ruscifolia & ,d4 hypoglossum1 :i* are m 
delicate & ( a f9] col\r ?an s9uosa4    
,!re are ?ree ,briti% species (         
,gracill>ia1 9 two ( :i* ! bran*es are  
cyl9drical1 & 9 ! o!r flat4 ,g4         
compressa makes an excell5t pres]ve &   
pickle1 b un=tunately x is ! r>e/ ( !   
?ree4 ,nitophyllum is "o ( ! greate/    
ornam5ts ( ?is tribe4 ,!re are six      
,briti% species1 :i* are among/ ! mo/   
delicate & beautiful ( our native       
,algae4  ,! ,corall9aceae are rem>kable 
= ! prop]ty !y possess ( absorb+        
c>bonate ( lime into _! tissues1 s t !y 
appe> z a succession ( *alky            
articulations or incru/ations4 ,! mo/   
common is ,corall9a (fic9alis4 ,!re are 
two ,briti% species ( ,corall9a1 & two  
also ( ! ne>ly alli$ g5us1 ,jania4 ,( ! 
foliace\s gr\p !re are likewise two     
,briti% g5]a1 ,melobesia &              

,hild5brantia4  ,! next gr\p1 !         
,laur5ciaceae1 are c>tilag9\s &         
cyl9drical or compress$1 ! frond 9 !    
great] portion ( !m be+ in>ticulate &   
solid4 ,!y conta9 sev]al species valu$  
by collectors1 al?\gh "s ( !m are among/
 our commone/ plants4 ,_! col\r is1 :5  
p]fect1 a dull purple or br[ni% r$1 b !y
 *ange "u ! influ5ce ( light & air1 :ile
 fre% wat] is rapidly de/ructive to _!  
t9ts4 7,fig4 #aj47     ,illu/ration3    
,fig4 #aj4 ,laur5cia p9natifida4  ,!    
,*ylocladiae are curi\sly jo9t$ plants1 
remov$ by ,ag>dh to a new g5us1         
,lom5t>ia1 & a new ord] ,*ondriae4      
,bonnemaisonia asp>agoides is ! mo/ r>e 
& beautiful ( ! tribe4  ,! la/ tribe (  
r$ we$s1 ,rhodomelaceae1 v>ies greatly 9
 ! /ructure ( ! frond1 b ! fruit is m   
uni=m4 ,polysiphonia & ,dasya conta9 !  
f9e/ ( ! fili=m division2 ! leafy "o1   
,odon?alia1 a nor!rn =m1 is a v         
beautiful sea-we$ bo? z respects =m &   
col\r4 ,well-gr[n specim5s are n unlike 
a haw?orn twig1 & ( a blood r$ col\r4   

,! plants ( ! sub-ord] ,melanosp]meae1  
are1 l ! r$ sea-we$s1 exclusively m>9e4 
,!y are usually l>ge & co>se1 & conf9$  
mo/ly to comp>atively %all[ wat]4 ,9 !  
,lam9>iaceae we f9d ! gigantic o>we$s   
already briefly ref]r$ to4 ,lessonia1   
:i* encircles 9 subm>9e =e/s ! ant>ctic 
coa/s1 is an erect1 tree-l plant1 ) a   
trunk f five to t5 feet high1 =k$       
bran*es1 & droop+ leaves1 "o to ?ree    
feet 9 l5g?1 & has be5 comp>$ to a weep+
 will[4 ,sir ,joseph ,hook] says1 t f a 
boat !re may on a calm day be witness$ 9
 ! ant>ctic regions1 ov] ^! subm>9e     
groves1 z busy a sc5e z is pres5t$ by ! 
coral reefs ( ! tropics4 ,! leaves ( !  
,lessoniae are cr[d$ ) ,s]tul>iae &     
,mollusca1 or encircl$ ) ,flu/ra2 on !  
trunks p>asitic ,algae ab\nd1 toge!r )  
*itons1 limpets1 & o!r %ells2 at ! base 
& among ! tangl$ roots sw>m ?\s&s (     
,cru/aceae & ,radiata1 :ile fi% ( sev]al
 species d>t among ! leaves & bran*es4  
,( ^! & o!r gigantic melanosp]ms1 flung 
a%ore by ! waves1 a belt ( decay+       

vegetable matt] is =m$1 miles 9 ext5t1  
"s y>ds broad1 & ?ree feet 9 dep?2 &    
,sir ,j4 ,hook] adds t ! trunks (       
,lessonia s mu* resemble driftwood t no 
p]suasion c\ld prev5t an ignorant       
%ipma/] f employ+ 8 crew1 dur+ two      
bitt]ly cold days1 9 collect+ ?is       
incombu/ible mat]ial = fuel4 ,macrocy/is
 & ,n]eocy/is are also giant memb]s (   
?is sub-ord]4 ,"s ( ! ,lam9>iae :i* =m a
 belt ar\nd our own coa/s n seldom atta9
 a l5g? ( f eight to twelve feet4 ,!    
common bladd]-wrack 7,fucus vesiculosus7
 sometimes gr[s 9 ,jutl& to a height (  
t5 feet1 & 9 clu/]s sev]al feet 9       
diamet]4 ,! col\r ( mo/ ( ! plants 9 ?is
 sub-ord] is "s %ade ( olive1 b sev]al (
 !m turn to gre5 9 dry+4  ,! fir/ gr\p1 
,ectoc>peae1 is compos$ ( ?read-l jo9t$ 
plants1 ! fructification ( :i* consi/s (
 ext]nal spores1 sometimes =m$ by !     
swell+ ( a bran*let4 ,! typical g5us1   
,ectoc>pus1 ab\nds 9 species1 a doz5 or 
s ( :i*1 v ne>ly alli$ plants1 be+ f\nd 
ar\nd our own %ores4 ,"o or two ( !m are

 v h&some4 ,!re are also "s v beautiful 
plants 9 ! g5us ,sphacel>ia1 belong+ to 
?is gr\p1 sev]al ( !m resembl+ m9iature 
f]ns4 ,all ! ,sphacel>iae are easily    
recogniz$ by ! )]$ appe>ance ( ! tips ( 
! fruit+ bran*es4 ,myriotri*ia is a g5us
 ( small p>asitical plants1 ! two       
,briti% species ( :i* gr[ *iefly on !   
sea ?ongs 7,*orda74  ,! ,*ord>iae are   
sometimes gelat9\s 9 /ructure1 9 o!r    
cases c>tilag9\s4 ,! fruit is conta9$ 9 
! sub/ance ( ! frond4 ,! g5us ,*ord>ia  
consi/s ( plants :i* h ! appe>ance ( d>k
 col\r$ tw9e4 ,!re are two ,briti%      
species1 "o be+ r common4 ,*orda filum1 
sea-rope1 ano!r /r+-l sea-we$1 gr[s 9   
tufts f a few in*es to _m feet 9 l5g?1 &
 tap]+ at ! roots to ab\t ! ?ickness ( a
 pig's bri/le4 ,9 quiet l&-lock$ bays ) 
a s&y or muddy bottom1 x sometimes      
ext5ds to =ty feet 9 l5g?1 =m+ ext5sive 
mead[s1 ob/ruct+ ! passage ( boats1 &   
endang]+ ! lives ( swimm]s entangl$ 9   
its slimy cords1 :5ce probably its o!r  
"n ( dead m5's l9es4     ,illu/ration3  

,fig4 #aa4 ,pad9a pavonia4  ,!          
,mesogloieae 9 a fre% /ate resemble     
bundles ( gre51 slimy worms4 ,!re are   
?ree ,briti% species1 two ( :i* are n   
uncommon4 ,al?\gh s unattractive 9      
ext]nal aspect1 !y1 l _m o!rs ( ! same  
description1 prove v int]e/+ "u !       
microscope4 ,"o ( ! c>tilag9\s species1 
,lea?sia tub]i=mis1 has ! appe>ance1 :5 
gr[+1 ( a mass ( di/ort$ tub]s4  ,!     
species ( ,ela*i/a1 compos$ ( m9ute     
p>asites1 are1 z well z unattractive l !
 ,mesogloieae1 inconspicu\s1 b are      
beautiful objects :5 plac$ "u !         
microscope4 ,myrionemae are also        
p>asitic1 & ev5 small] ?an ! plants ( ! 
prec$+ g5us4  ,9 ! ,dictyoteae ! frond  
is mo/ly flat1 ) a reticulat$ surface1  
:i* is spr9kl$ :5 9 fruit ) gr\ps ( nak$
 spores or spore cy/s4 ,?is tribe       
includes n a few ( ! mo/ elegant among !
 ,algae4 ,9 /ructure !y are coriace\s1 &
 include plants bo? ) broad & n>r[1     
bran*$ & unbran*$ fronds4 ,9 ,halis]is  
!re is a di/9ct midrib4 ,! l>ge/ ( !    

,briti% ,dictyoteae is ,cutl]ia         
multifida1 sometimes f\nd a foot & a    
half long2 & ! be/ kn[n is d\btless     
,pad9a pavonia1 mu* s\ght aft] by       
seaside visitors :]e x gr[s4 ,its       
segm5ts are fan-%ap$1 v>iegat$ ) light] 
curv$ l9es1 & fr+$ ) gold5 t9t$         
filam5ts4 7,fig4 #aa47 ,ow+ to its p[] (
 decompos+ light1 its fronds1 :5 gr[+ "u
 wat]1 sugge/ ! tra9 ( ! peacock1 :5ce  
its specific "n4 ,taonia atom>ia some:at
 resembles ,cutl]ia1 b exhibits also !  
wavy l9es ( ,pad9a4 ,! plant ( ?is gr\p 
mo/ (t5 ca/ a%ore is ,dictyota di*otoma4
 ,x makes a h&some specim5 :5 well dri$1
 & is int]e/+ on acc\nt ( ! mann] 9 :i* 
x v>ies 9 ! bread? ( its divisions4 ,!  
v>iety intricata is curi\sly curl$ &    
entangl$4 ,dictyosiphon fo5iculaceus1 ! 
solit>y ,briti% example ( its g5us1 is a
 bu%y fili=m plant1 rem>kable = !       
beautiful net-l m>k+s ( its surface4 ,! 
,punct>iae h flatt5$ fronds1 m>k$ )     
dots1 :i* suffici5tly di/+ui% !m f all !
 o!rs4 ,a small =m is (t5 f\nd p>asitic 

on ,*orda filum1 spread+ out            
horizontally l ! hairs ( a bottle bru%4 
,asp]ococcus d]ives its "n f its r\gh5$ 
surface1 occasion$ by ! ?ickly scatt]$  
spots ( fructification4  ,! ,lam9>iaceae
 are in>ticulate1 mo/ly flat1 (t5       
/rap-%ap$4 ,_! spores occur 9 sup]ficial
 pat*es1 or cov]+ ! :ole frond4 ,!      
plants ( ?is ord]1 z we h already se51  
include ! giants ( subm>9e vegetation4  
,9 po9t ( mass !y con/itute ! l>g] "p ( 
our native ,algae1 al?\gh !y numb] only 
a few species4 ,!y are popul>ly kn[n z  
tangle or o>we$s1 & ! /ems ( ,lam9>ia   
sac*>9a & ! midrib ( ,al>ia escul5ta are
 us$ z food4  ,! ,sporo*naceae are a    
small b beautiful tribe1 in>ticulate1 & 
produc+ _! spores 9 jo9t$ filam5ts or   
knob-l masses1 & rem>kable = _! prop]ty 
( turn+ f olive br[n to a v]digris gre5 
:5 expos$ to ! atmosph]e4               
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,fucus s]ratus1
 %[+ a transv]se    section ( !         
,conceptacle1 & ,an!ridium ) ,an!rozoids
    escap+4   ,!y are deep sea plants1  

or at lea/ gr[ ab\t l[ wat] m>k4 ,!     
l>ge/ ( ! gr\p is ,desm>e/ia ligulata1  
:i*1 ) ! o!r ,briti% species1 ,d4       
aculeata1 is (t5 ca/ a%ore4 ,! latt]    
species1 at an e>ly p]iod ( its exi/5ce1
 is clo!d ) tufts ( sl5d] hairs1 spr++ f
 ! m>g9 ( ! frond4 ,desm>e/ia viridis is
 ! mo/ delicate & also ! r>e/ ( ! ?ree4 
,no?+ l fruit has be5 discov]$ on any ( 
!m4 ,ar?ocladia villosa & ,sporo*nus    
p$unculatus are bran*$ sea-we$s1 cov]$  
also ) tufts ( closely set hairs4       
,c>pomitra ,cabr]ae1 a r>e species1     
be>s1 9 common ) ! two prec$+ species1  
its spores 9 a special receptacle4 ,9 ! 
fir/ ! receptacle is pod-l2 9 ! second  
knott$2 & 9 ! la/ mitri=m4  ,! conclud+ 
gr\p ( ,algae is ! ,fucaceae1 includ+ ! 
univ]sally kn[n sea wrack 7,fucus74 ,!  
frond 9 all ( !m is jo9tless4 ,!y are   
reproduc$ by means ( an!ridia & oogonia 
develop$ 9 conceptacles1 clu/]$ toge!r  
at ! apex ( ! bran*es4 ,bo? f _! bulk & 
_! decid$ sexual di/9ctions1 !y des]ve  
to rank at ! head ( ! ord]4 ,( all      

sea-we$s !y are also p]haps ( ! greate/ 
use to man4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ among !m
 is ! ,gulfwe$ 7,s>gassum baccif]um71   
occupy+ a tract ( ! ,atlantic ext5d+ ov]
 _m degrees ( latitude4 ,pieces ( x1 & (
 its cong5]1 ,s4 vulg>e1 are            
occasionally drift$ to our %ores1 & !y  
consequ5tly f9d a place 9 works on      
,briti% ,algae1 al?\gh !y h no claim to 
be consid]$ native plants4 ,on rocky    
coa/s ! v>i\s species ( ,fucus occupy ! 
great] "p ( ! space betwe5 tide-m>ks1 ! 
mo/ pl5tiful be+ ,fucus vesiculosus4 ,f4
 s]ratus 7,fig4 #ab7 is ! h&some/ ( !   
g5us1 ! o!r species be+ ,f4 nodosus1    
said to be ! mo/ useful = mak+ kelp1 &  
,f4 canaliculatus4 ,halidrys siliquosa  
is rem>kable = its spore receptacles1   
:i* h q ! appe>ance ( ! se$ vessel ( a  
fl[]+ plant4 ,! species ( ,cy/oseira1   
*iefly conf9$ to ! s\!rn coa/s1 are also
 v int]e/+4 ,_! subm]g$ fronds are      
beautifully iridesc5t1 & ! /ems1 ( !    
l>ge/ species at lea/1 are g5]ally cov]$
 ) a great v>iety ( p>asites1 animal &  

vegetable1 ! =m] consi/+ ( ,hydrozoa &  
,polyzoa1 & o!r curi\s =ms4 ,himan?alia 
lorea is ano!r rem>kable plant4 ,x has  
conspicu\s =k$ fruit-be>+ receptacles2 b
 ! real plants are ! small cones at !   
base ( ^!1 & f :i* !y are %$ :5 ripe4   
,z to conditions ( site & geographical  
di/ribution1 ,algae d n diff] f l&      
plants4 ,latitude1 dep? ( wat]1 &       
curr5ts influ5ce !m 9 ! same way z      
latitude1 elevation1 & /ation op]ate on 
! latt]2 & ! analogy is ma9ta9$ 9 !     
almo/ cosmopolitan range ( "s1 & !      
re/rict$ habitat ( o!rs4 ,n _m          
extra-,european species ( ,desmids are  
kn[n1 b ^? ( ,diatoms are f> m widely   
diffus$1 & ext5d beyond ! limits ( all  
o!r vegetation1 exi/+ :]ev] !re is wat] 
suffici5t to all[ ( _! production2 & !y 
are f\nd n only 9 wat]1 b also on ! moi/
 surface ( ! gr\nd & on o!r plants1 9   
hot spr+s & amid pol> ice4 ,!y are said 
to occur 9 su* c\ntless myriads 9 ! ,s\?
 ,pol> ,sea z to /a9 ! b]g & pack ice   
:]ev] ^! are wa%$ by ! surge4 ,a deposit

 ( mud1 *iefly consi/+ ( ! %ells (      
,diatoms1 #djj miles long1 #abj miles   
broad1 & ( unkn[n ?ickness1 0 f\nd at a 
dep? ( betwe5 #bjj & #djj feet on !     
flanks ( ,victoria ,l& 9 #gj deg4 s\?   
latitude4 ,su* is _! abundance 9 "s     
riv]s & e/u>ies t ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g    
goes ! l5g? ( affirm+ t !y h ex]cis$ an 
important influ5ce 9 block+ up h>b\rs & 
dim9i%+ ! dep? ( *annels4 ,! trade & o!r
 w9ds di/ribute l>ge quantities ov] !   
e>?1 :i* may acc\nt = ! univ]sality ( _!
 specific di/ribution2 = ,sir ,joseph   
,hook] f\nd ! ,himalayan species to     
closely resemble our own4 ,common       
,briti% species also occur 9 ,ceylon1   
,italy1 ,virg9ia1 & ,p]u4 ,! typical    
species ( ! ,conf]vaceae are also       
di/ribut$ ov] ! :ole surface ( ! globe4 
,!y inhabit bo? fre% & salt wat]1 & are 
f\nd alike 9 ! pol> seas & 9 ! boil+    
spr+s ( ,icel&1 9 m9]al wat]s & 9       
*emical solutions4 ,"s ( ! tropical ones
 are exce$+ly l>ge & d5se4              
,batra*osp]mum vagum1 9 ! next tribe1 a 

native ( ,engl&1 is also f\nd 9 ,new    
,zeal&4 ,an edible species ( ,no/o*9eae1
 produc$ on ! boggy slopes bord]+ !     
,arctic ,ocean1 is bl[n ab\t by ! w9ds  
sometimes t5 miles f l&1 :]e x is f\nd  
ly+ 9 small depressions 9 ! sn[ ^u !    
ice4 ,! common ,no/oc ( moi/ gr\nd 9    
,engl& occurs also 9 ,k]guel5's ,l&1    
high 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,float+ masses
 ( ,monormia are (t5 ! cause ( ! gre5   
hue assum$ by ! wat] ( ponds & lakes4   
,c]ta9 species ( ,oscillatoria ( a deep 
r$ col\r live 9 hot spr+s 9 ,india1 & ! 
,r$ ,sea is suppos$ to h d]iv$ its "n f 
a species ( ?is tribe1 :i* cov]s x ) a  
scum = _m miles1 accord+ to ! direction 
( ! w9d4 ,! lake ( ,glasl\gh 9 ,c\nty   
,monaghan1 ,irel&1 owes its col\r & its 
"n to ,oscillatoria a]ugesc5s1 & l>ge   
masses ( wat] 9 ,scotl& & ,switz]l& are 
t9t$ gre5 or purple by a simil> ag5cy4  
,a few species ( ,siphoneae h a v wide  
range1 two ,briti% species ( ,codium    
occurr+ 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,! ,ulvaceae     
ab\nd pr9cipally 9 ! cold] latitudes4   

,ent]omorpha inte/9alis1 a common       
,briti% species1 is z frequ5t 9 ,japan1 
:]e x is us$1 :5 dri$1 9 s\p4 ,!        
,rhodosp]ms are f\nd 9 e sea1 al?\gh !  
geographical b\nd>ies ( g5]a are (t5    
well-m>k$4 ,gloiosiphonia1 "o ( our r>e/
 & mo/ beautiful ,algae1 is widely      
diffus$4 ,( ,melanosp]ms ! ,lam9>iae    
affect ! high] nor!rn latitudes1        
,s>gassa ab\nd 9 ! w>m] seas1 :ile      
,durvillaea1 ,lessonia1 & ,macrocy/is   
*>act]ize ! m>9e flora ( ! ,s\!rn       
,ocean4 ,! ,fucaceae are mo/ abundant   
t[>ds ! poles1 :]e !y atta9 _! greate/  
size4 ,! m>9e mead[s ( ,s>gassum1       
conceiv$ by "s naturali/s to m>k ! site 
( ! lo/ ,atlantis1 & :i* give its "n to 
! ,s>gasso ,sea1 ext5d+ betwe5 #bj deg4 
& #be deg4 nor? latitude1 9 #dj deg4 we/
 longitude1 occupy n[ ! same position z 
:5 ! e>ly navigators1 ) consid]able     
trepidation1 =c$ ?r\gh _! masses on !   
way to ! ,new ,_w4 ,s>gassum is drift$  
into ?is tract ( ocean by curr5ts1 !    
plants be+ all deta*$2 & !y d n produce 

fruit 9 t /ate1 be+ propagat$ by buds1  
:i* orig9ate new bran*es & leaves4      
7,fig4 #ac47     ,illu/ration3 ,fig4    
#ac4 ,! ,gulf-we$ 7,s>gassum bacci=um74 
,ow+ to _! s(t1 cellul> /ructure1 ,algae
 are n likely to be pres]v$ 9 a fossil  
/ate2 b :at h be5 consid]$ su* h be5    
f\nd z l[ d[n z ! ,silurian =mation1    
al?\gh _! id5tity has be5 disput$1 &    
sev]al ( !m1 x is m ?an probable1 belong
 to o!r ord]s1 & "s ev5 to ! animal     
k+dom4 ,fre%wat] =ms1 all ( exi/+ g5]a &
 species1 are believ$ to h be5 detect$ 9
 ! c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,brita9 & ,france2
 o!rs also ( ! gre5-col\r$ division are 
said to occur f ! ,silurian to ! ,eoc5e1
 & ! ,florideae to be repres5t$ f !     
,lias to ! ,mioc5e4 ,! inde/ructible    
nature ( ! %ells ( ! ,diatomaceae has   
enabl$ !m to survive :]e ! less protect$
 species may h p]i%$4 ,tripoli /one1 a  
,t]ti>y rock1 is entirely compos$ ( !   
rema9s ( microscopic plants ( ?is tribe4
 ,x is f _! silici\s %ells t m9]al      
acquires its use 9 ! arts1 z p[d] =     

poli%+ /ones & metals4 ,ehr5b]g e/imates
 t 9 e cubic in* ( ! tripoli ( ,bil91 9 
,bohemia1 !re are #da1jjj1jjj (         
,gaillonella di/ans4 ,di/ricts recov]$ f
 ! sea frequ5tly conta9 myriads (       
,diatoms1 =m+ /rata ( consid]able       
?ickness2 & simil> deposits occur 9 !   
anci5t sites ( lakes 9 ?is & o!r        
c\ntries4         99       99       99  
99       99  ,be=e sett+ out 9 se>* (   
,algae ! collector ought to provide     
himself ) a pair ( /\t boots to gu>d 8  
feet f ! %>p-po9t$ rocks1 z well z a    
/aff or pole to balance himself 9       
rock-climb+1 :i* ought to h a hook =    
draw+ float+ we$ a%ore4 ,a /\t          
table-knife ti$ to ! o!r end w be f\nd v
 useful4 ,a basket--a fi%+-basket does v
 well--or a wat]pro( bag1 = /[+ away 8  
plants1 is also necess>y4 ,x is         
advisable to c>ry a few bottles = ! v   
small & delicate plants1 & c>e %\ld be  
tak5 to keep ap>t1 & 9 sea-wat]1 any    
specim5s ( ! ,sporo*naceae2 = !y are n  
only apt to decay !mselves b to become a

 cause ( corruption 9 ! o!r we$s ) :i*  
!y come 9 contact4 ,^! bottles %\ld     
always be c>ri$ 9 ! bag or pocket1 nev] 
9 ! h&4  ,sea-we$s1 z e visitor to !    
coa/ kn[s1 are torn up 9 great numb]s by
 ! waves1 especially dur+ /orms1 &      
aft]w>ds left on ! %ore by ! retir+     
tide4 ,_m %all[-gr[+ species are also to
 be f\nd atta*$ to ! rocks1 & 9 ! rock  
pools1 betwe5 high & l[ wat] m>k4 ,!re  
are ?ree po9ts on ! bea* :]e ! greate/  
accumulations ( float+ ,algae are f\nd3 
high wat] m>k1 mid-tide level1 & l[ wat]
 m>k4 ,l[ wat] occurs ab\t five or five 
& a half h\rs aft] high wat]4 ,! be/ "t 
= ! collector to comm5ce is half an h\r 
or s be=e dead l[ wat]4 ,he c !n "w to !
 l[e/ po9t safely1 &1 retir+ be=e !     
approa*+ tide1 exam9e ! high] "p ( !    
bea* up to high wat] m>k4 ,if ! co>se   
we$s 9 ! rock pools & *9ks are turn$    
back1 _m r>e & delicate ,algae w be f\nd
 gr[+ "u !m1 especially at ! l[e/ level4
 ,! mo/ effective me?od ( collect+ !    
plants ( deep] wat] is by dr$g+1 or go+ 

r\nd ) a boat at ! extreme ebb1 & tak+  
!m f ! rocks & f ! ,lam9>ia /ems1 on :i*
 a great numb] h _! /ation4 ,/ems (     
,lam9>ia ?r[n out by ! waves %\ld also  
be c>efully exam9$4 ,9 all cases ! we$  
%\ld be well r9s$ 9 a cle> rock pool    
be=e be+ put away 9 ! bag or o!r        
receptacle4  ,! next ?+ to be consid]$  
is ! lay+ out & pres]v+ ( ! specim5s    
select$ = ! h]b>ium4 ,:]ev] possible ^! 
%\ld be laid out on pap]1 & put "u      
pressure z soon z ga!r$1 or on ! same   
day at all ev5ts4 ,:5 ?is is            
impracticable1 !y may be spread betwe5 !
 folds ( s(t & ?ick t[els & roll$ up4   
,?us treat$ ! mo/ delicate plants w keep
 fre% until next day4 ,ano!r way is to  
pack ! plants 9 lay]s ( salt1 l h]r+s2 b
 ! mo/ usual me?od ( r\ghly pres]v+     
sea-we$s collect$ dur+ an unprep>$ visit
 to ! %ore is by mod]ately dry+ !m 9 an 
airy room out ( ! direct rays ( ! sun4  
,!y are !n to be plac$ lightly 9 bags1 &
 aft]w>ds relax$ by imm]sion & prep>$ 9 
! usual way4 ,! f9] plants1 h[ev]1 suff]

 m or less by ?is delay4 ,if c>ri$      
directly home f ! sea ! plants %\ld be  
empti$ into a vessel ( sea-wat]4 ,a flat
 di%1 ab\t f\rte5 in*es squ>e & ?ree    
deep1 is !n to be fill$ ) clean wat]4 ,=
 mo/ plants ?is may be fre%1 = "s x is  
ess5tial t x %\ld be salt4 ,"s ( !      
,polysiphonias & o!rs beg9 to decompose 
at once if plac$ 9 fre% wat]4 ,!        
,griffi?sias bur/ & let out _! col\r+   
matt]1 & a good _m *ange _! col\r4 ,!   
appliances requir$ are "s f9e :ite      
pap]--good pr9t+ demy1 ?irty-six p\nds  
or s 9 weight p] ream1 does v well1--an 
ample supply ( smoo? blott+ pap]1 !     
co>se pap] us$ by groc]s & call$ sug>   
royal1 or1 be/ ( all1 ,b5tall's         
botanical dry+ pap]1 pieces ( well-wa%$ 
book musl91 a camel's hair bru%1 a bodk9
 = assi/+ to spread out ! plants1 a pair
 ( scissors1 & a pair ( =ceps4 ,! m\nt+ 
pap] may be cut 9 ?ree sizes3 #e 94 by  
#d 941 #ga_/b 94 by #ea_/d 941 & #aj 94 
by #ga_/b 94 ,!n hav+ select$ a specim51
 place x 9 ! flat di% ref]r$ to above1 &

 prune x if necess>y4 ,next take a piece
 ( ! m\nt+ pap] ( suitable size1 & slip 
x into ! wat] und]nea? ! plant1 keep+   
hold ( x ) ! ?umb ( ! left h&4 ,hav+    
arrang$ ! plant 9 a natural mann] on !  
pap]1 bru% x g5tly ) ! camel's hair bru%
 to remove any dirt or fragm5ts1 draw   
out pap] & plant g5tly & c>efully 9 an  
oblique direction1 & set !m on end = a  
%ort "t to dra94 ,hav+ 9 ?is way        
transf]r$ z _m specim5s z w cov] a %eet 
( dry+ pap]1 lay !m ^u x neatly side by 
side1 & cov] !m ) a piece ( old musl94  
,f\r %eets ( dry+ pap] are !n to be     
plac$ ^u ?is1 !n ano!r lay] ( plants &  
musl9 & f\r m %eets ( dry+ pap]1 until a
 heap1 x may be six or eight in*es ?ick1
 is built up4 ,place ?is betwe5 two flat
 bo>ds1 weight$ ) /ones1 bricks1 or o!r 
weights2 b ! pressure %\ld be mod]ate at
 fir/1 o!rwise ! texture ( ! musl9 may  
be /amp$ on bo? pap] & plant4 ,! pap]s  
mu/ be *ang$ 9 ab\t ?ree h\rs' "t1 &    
aft]w>ds e twelve h\rs4 ,9 ?ree or f\r  
days1 accord+ to ! /ate ( ! wea!r1 !    

musl9 may be remov$1 ! plants aga9      
transf]r$ to dry pap]1 & subject$ to r  
sev]e pressure = sev]al days4  ,! v     
gelat9\s plants require p>ticul>        
treatm5t4 ,"o way is to put !m 9 dry+   
pap] & "u a bo>d b to apply no o!r      
pressure1 *ange ! dry+ pap] at lea/     
twice dur+ ! fir/ half h\r1 & aft] !    
second *ange ( dry]s apply v g5tle      
pressure1 increas+ x until ! specim5s   
are fully dry4 ,a saf] & less tr\blesome
 way1 = ! efficacy ( :i* we c v\*1 is to
 lay d[n ! plants & dry !m )\t any      
pressure1 aft]w>ds damp+ ! back ( !     
m\nt+ pap]s & plac+ !m 9 ! dry+ press4  
,"s ,algae w sc>cely adh]e to pap]4 ,^! 
%\ld be press$ until tol]ably dry1 !n be
 imm]s$ 9 skim-milk = a qu>t] ( an h\r1 
& press$ & dri$ z be=e4 ,a slight       
application ( is+lass1 dissolv$ 9       
alcohol1 to ! "u side ( ! specim5 is    
sometimes necess>y4 ,be=e m\nt+1 or at  
all ev5ts be=e transf]5ce to ! h]b>ium1 
c>e %\ld be tak5 to write 9 p5cil on !  
back ( ! pap] ! "n ( ! plant1 if kn[n1 !

 place :]e ga!r$1 & ! date4 ,! co>se    
olive we$s1 su* z ! bladd]-wrack1       
,halidrys1 & ! l1 may 9 ! case ( a %ort 
visit to ! coa/ be all[$ to dry 9 an    
airy place1 & tak5 home 9 ! r\gh4 ,be=e 
press+1 9 any case1 !y %\ld be /eep$ 9  
boil+ wat] = ab\t half an h\r to extract
 ! salt1 !n wa%$ 9 clean fre% wat]1 dri$
 betwe5 co>se t[els1 & press$ & dri$ 9 !
 same way z fl[]+ plants4 ,a collection 
( ,algae may be fa/5$ on %eets ( pap] ( 
! usual h]b>ium size & kept 9 a cab9et  
or portfolios1 or atta*$ to ! leaves (  
an album4 ,= sci5tific purposes1 h[ev]1 
! latt] is ! lea/ conv5i5t way4  ,!re   
are few objects m beautiful ?an _m ( !  
sea-we$s :5 well pres]v$2 b ! fili=m    
species1 especially ^? ( ! fir/         
sub-ord]1 d n reta9 _! di/+ui%+ *>act]s 
:5 press$ z has be5 describ$4 ,portions 
( ^!1 h[ev]1 z well z sections ( /ems & 
fruit1 may be usefully dri$ on small    
squ>es ( ?9 mica1 = subsequ5t           
microscopic exam9ation1 or !y may be    
m\nt$ on ! ord9>y microscope slides4    

,?is is ! only c\rse possible ) ,desmids
 & ,diatoms4 ,! =m] are to be s\ght 9   
%all[ pools1 especially 9 op5 boggy     
moors4 ,! l>g] species commonly lie 9 a 
?9 gelat9\s /ratum at ! bottom ( !      
pools1 & by g5tly pass+ ! f+]s "u !m !y 
w be caus$ to rise t[>ds ! surface1 :5  
!y c be lift$ ) a scoop4 ,o!r species =m
 a gre5i% or dirty cl\d on ! /ems &     
leaves ( o!r aquatic plants1 & by /ripp+
 ! plant betwe5 ! f+]s ^! also may be   
simil>ly deta*$ & secur$4 ,if !y are mu*
 diffus$ ?r\gh ! wat]1 !y may be sep>at$
 by /ra9+ ?r\gh l952 & ?is is a v common
 way ( procur+ !m4 ,liv+ ,diatoms are   
f\nd on aquatic plants1 on rocks &      
/ones1 "u wat] or on mud1 pres5t+       
!mselves z col\r$ fr+es1 cu%ion-l tufts1
 or filmy /rata4 ,9 col\r ! masses v>y f
 a yell[i% br[n to almo/ black4 ,!y are 
difficult1 bo? :5 liv+ & dead1 to       
sep>ate f =eign matt]2 b repeat$ wa%+s  
are effectual 9 bo? cases1 &1 = ! liv+  
ones1 _! t5d5cy to move t[>ds ! light   
may also be tak5 advantage (4 ,:5 only !

 %ells are want$ = m\nt+1 ! cell cont5ts
 are remov$ by means ( hydro*loric &    
nitric acid4 ,! mo/ satisfactory m$ium =
 pres]v+ fre% ,desmids & ,diatoms is    
di/ill$ wat]1 & if ! wat] is saturat$ ) 
camphor1 or has dissolv$ 9 x a gra9 (   
alum & a gra9 ( bay salt to an ounce (  
wat]1 conf]void gr[?s w be prev5t$4 ,=  
l>g] prep>ations ( ,algae1 ,?waites'    
fluid is /rongly recomm5d$4 ,?is is made
 by add+ to "o "p ( rectifi$ _s z _m    
drops ( creasote z w saturate x1 & !n   
gradually mix+ ) x 9 a pe/le & mort> "s 
prep>$ *alk1 ) sixte5 p>ts ( wat]2 an   
equal quantity ( wat] saturat$ ) camphor
 is !n to be add$1 & ! mixture1 aft] /&+
 = a few days1 to be c>efully filt]$4   
,= au?orities on ! morphology &         
classification ( ! ,algae1 /ud5ts may be
 ref]r$ to ,sa*s' ,text ,book & ,le     
,ma\t's ,sy/em ( ,botany1 ( :i* !re are 
good translations1 & ! ,introduction to 
,cryptogamic ,botany1 by ! ,rev4 ,m4 ,j4
 ,b]keley2 = descriptions & !           
id5tification ( species1 to ! text &    

figures ( ,h>vey's ,phycologia          
,britannica1 & ,nature-,pr9t$ ,sea-we$s4
 ,bo? ( ^! are h[ev] co/ly4 ,among !    
*eap] works are ,briti% ,sea-we$s1 by   
,s4 ,o4 ,gray 7,lovell1 ,reeve  ,co471  
,h>vey's ,manual & an abridgm5t by ,mrs4
 ,a4 ,gatty1 ) r$uc$ b well execut$     
copies ( ! figures1 ( ! ,phycologia4    
,?is synopsis c (t5 be pick$ up *eap at 
second-h& book-/alls2 & !re is a v      
excell5t l[-pric$ "w suitable =         
amateurs1 ,grattann's ,briti% ,m>9e     
,algae1 conta9+ recognizable figures (  
ne>ly all our native species4           
,l&sbor\gh's ,popul> ,hi/ory ( ,briti%  
,sea-we$s1 & ,mrs4 ,lane ,cl>ke's       
,common ,sea-we$s1 are also *eap &      
useful manuals on ! subject4            
,illu/ration3 ,floral design            
,,%ells4  ,,by  ,b4 ,b4 ,,woodw>d4      
,illu/ration3 ,,pond ,,snails4          
,,%ells4     ,,introductory4   ,9 ! v   
e>lie/ times1 long be=e !re 0 any       
attempt at ! sci5tific classification & 
arrangem5t ( %ells1 !y appe> to h be5   

objects ( admiration1 & to h be5 valu$  
on acc\nt ( _! beauty1 = we f9d t !     
pre-hi/oric m51 :o1 9 company ) !       
mammo?1 or hairy elephant1 & o!r animals
 n[ ext9ct1 inhabit$ ,s\!rn ,france 9   
days long gone by1 us$ to bore holes 9  
!m1 &1 l ! savage ( to-day1 we> !m z    
ornam5ts4 ,! ,greek physician &         
philosoph]1 ,ari/otle1 is said to h be5 
! fir/ to /udy ! =mation ( %ells1 & to  
raise ! k ?us acquir$ into ! position ( 
a sci5ce2 by him %ells 7 divid$ into    
?ree ord]s--an arrangem5t pres]v$1 ) "s 
small *anges1 by ,l9naeus4 ,x is        
possible t ! _w-wide r5[n ( ! ,sw$i%    
naturali/ dur+ ! la/ c5tury1 & ! ard\r )
 :i* he pursu$ 8 inve/igations1 may h   
giv5 an impetus to ! /udy ( natural     
objects1 = we f9d t at t p]iod l>ge sums
 7 (t5 giv5 by collectors = *oice       
specim5s ( %ells4 ,nor is ?is to be     
wond]$ at1 = few ?+s look nic]1 or bett]
 repay tr\ble exp5d$ on !m1 ?an does a  
well-arrang$ & c>efully m\nt$ & nam$    
collection ( %ells4 ,c]ta9ly no?+ looks 

worse ?an a numb] ( %ells ( all         
descriptions1 ( e k9d1 %ape1 & col\r1   
?r[n promiscu\sly into a box1 l !       
un=tunate animals 9 a toy ,noah's ark1  
to ! great detrim5t ( _! value & beauty2
 =1 z ! inevitable result ( %ak+ aga9/  
ea* o!r1 ! natural poli% is tak5 (f "s1 
! delicate po9ts & ornam5ts are brok5 (f
 o!rs1 ! :ole collection becom+ 9 "t    
unsightly & disappo9t+1 & all = want ( a
 little c>e at ! outset4  ,9 ?is1 z 9 e 
o!r und]tak+1 h[ to set ab\t x is ! *ief
 difficulty ) beg9n]s2 & "h1 p]haps1 a  
few h9ts ga!r$ f exp]i5ce may n be )\t  
value4 ,"o ?+ a "y collector %\ld always
 be> 9 m9d1 h[ev]1 is1 t no in/ructions 
c be ( any avail to him unless1 = 8 "p1 
he is prep>$ to br+ pati5ce1 neatness1 &
 att5tion to detail1 to be> ^u 8 "w4    
,s9ce x is important to "k ! be/ way (  
/or+ specim5s already acquir$1 we w1 9 !
 fir/ place1 devote a few words to ?is  
po9t1 & !n proce$ to describe ! be/     
means ( collect+ specim5s1 & ( nam+1    
m\nt+1 & arrang+ ! same4     ,,h[ ,,to  

,,make ,a ,,cab9et4   ,x is a common    
mi/ake1 bo? ) old & "y1 to imag9e t a   
h&some cab9et is1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 a   
necessity2 b no great] blund] c be made3
 ! cab9et %\ld be consid]$ m]ely an     
accessory1 ! collection itself be+ j z  
valuable1 & g5]ally m useful1 :5 kept 9 
a s]ies ( pla9 wood5 or c>dbo>d boxes4  
,we int5d1 !re=e1 to describe ! simple/ 
possible means ( keep+ a collection (   
%ells1 leav+ elaborate & co/ly me?ods to
 ^? :o value ! case m ?an its cont5ts4  
,! fir/ ?+ requir$ is "s me?od ( keep+ !
 diff]5t species ( %ells ap>t1 s t !y   
may n get mix$1 or be difficult to f9d  
:5 want$4 ,! simple/ plan ( do+ ?is is  
to collect all ! empty *ip mat*-boxes y 
c f9d1 ?r[ away ! cases 9 :i* !y slide1 
& keep ! trays1 try+ to get z _m ( a    
size z possible4 7,! ord9>y ,bryant     
,may's1 or ,bell  ,black's1 are ! mo/   
useful1 & ) !m ! trays ( ! small ,sw$i% 
mat*-boxes1 two ( :i*1 plac$ side by    
side1 occupy ne>ly exactly ! same space 
z "o & a half ( ! l>g] size1 & s fit 9 )

 !m nicely47 ,9 ^! trays y\r %ells %\ld 
be plac$1 "o k9d 9 ea* tray2 b al?\gh v 
conv5i5t = mo/ specim5s1 !y w ( c\rse be
 too small = v _m1 & s ! l>g] trays mu/ 
be made4 ,?is may easily be done z      
foll[s3 cut a rectangul> piece ( c>dbo>d
 two in*es long] "o way ?an ! l5g? ( !  
mat*-tray1 & two in*es m ! o!r way ?an  
twice ! wid? ( ! mat*-tray2 !n ) a p5cil
 rule l9es "o in* f ! edges & p>allel ) 
!m 7,fig4 #a72 next cut out ! little    
squ>es 7a a1 a a7 ^! l9es =m 9 ! corn]s 
( ! piece ( c>dbo>d1 & !n ) a p5knife   
cut half ?r\gh ! c>d1 exactly on !      
rema9+ p5cil-l9es1 & b5d up ! pieces1   
:i* w !n =m sides = y\r tray2 & by b9d+ 
x r\nd ) a piece ( blue pap]1 y w h "o t
 w look neat1 uni=m ) ! o!rs1 & yet be j
 twice _! size4 ,if requir$1 y c make 9 
! same way any size1 only take c>e t !y 
are all multiples ( "o /&>d size1 z loss
 ( space w !reby be avoid$ :5 y come to 
! next process 9 y\r cab9et4 ,?is is1 to
 get a l>ge box or tray 9 :i* to hold   
y\r small] ones4     ,illu/ration3 ,fig4

 #a4 ,h[ to cut a c>dbo>d tray4         
-----------------       a           a   
-----------------                       
-----------------       a           a   
-----------------  ,! simple/ plan is to
 get "s half-doz5 c>dbo>d boxes 7su* z  
may be obta9$ = ! ask+ or = a v trifl+  
co/ at any drap]'s71 hav+ a dep? ( f "o 
to two in*es 7accord+ to ! size ( y\r   
%ells72 9 ^! y\r trays may be arrang$ 9 
columns1 & ! boxes c be kept "o above ! 
o!r 9 a cupbo>d or 9 a l>g] box4 ,m     
boxes & trays c1 f "t to "t1 be add$ z  
occasion requires1 & ?us ! :ole         
collection may be kept 9 good work+ ord]
 at a trifl+ co/4 ,a m durable =m ( *eap
 cab9et may be made by collect+ ! wood5 
boxes s common 9 groc]s' %ops1 clean+ !m
 ) s&-pap]1 /a9+ & v>ni%+ !m outside1 & 
l9+ !m inside ) pap]2 or1 if h&y at     
c>p5t]+1 y may make all y\r boxes1 or   
ev5 a real cab9et1 = y\rself4     ,,h[  
,,to ,,collect ,,%ells4   ,provision be+
 ?us made = ! com=table accommodation ( 
y\r treasures1 ! next consid]ation is1  

h[ to set ab\t collect+ !m4 ,mollusca   
are to be f\nd all ov] ! globe1 f !     
froz5 nor? to ! sun-bak$ tropics1 on !  
l& or 9 lakes1 riv]s1 or seas--:]ev]1 9 
fact1 !y c f9d ! food & o!r conditions  
suitable = _! gr[? & developm5t2 b !    
collector :o is n also a great travell]1
 mu/ ( c\rse rely = 8 =eign specim5s ^u 
! g5]osity ( fri5ds1 or else procure !m 
f deal]s4 ,9 mo/ di/ricts ( our own     
c\ntry1 !re are1 h[ev]1 to be f\nd l>ge 
numb]s ( %ells ^: v>iety & beauty w     
a/oni% & rew>d ! ef=ts ( any pati5t     
seek]4 ,beg9 ) y\r own g>d51--se>* 9 !  
out-(-!-way1 & especially damp1 corn]s2 
turn ov] ! fl[]-pots & /ones :i* h la9  
longe/ 9 "o place1 se>* among/ ! roots (
 ! grass gr[+ "u walls1 & 9 ! moss r\nd 
! roots ( ! trees1 & y w be surpris$ at 
! numb] ( diff]5t %ells y may f9d 9 a v 
%ort space ( "t4 ,:5 ! res\rces ( ! g>d5
 h be5 exhau/$1 g into ! ne>e/ lanes &  
aga9 se>* ! grass & at ! roots ( plants1
 especially ! nettles :i* gr[ beside    
dit*es & 9 damp places2 hunt among/ !   

dead leaves 9 plantations1 & lit]ally   
leave no /one unturn$4 ,all ! app>atus x
 is necess>y to take on ^! excursions   
consi/s ( a few small mat* or pill-boxes
 9 :i* to c>ry home ! specim5s2 a pair (
 =ceps to pick up ! small] ones1 or to  
get !m out ( cracks2 a hook$ /ick to    
beat d[n & pull away ! nettles2 &1 above
 all1 %>p eyes tra9$ to p[]s (          
obs]vation4 ,! be/ "t to g out1 is j    
aft] a w>m %[]1 :5 all ! grass & leaves 
are /ill wet1 = ! l&-snails are v fond (
 moi/ure1 & ! %[] entices !m out ( _!   
lurk+-places4 ,:]e ! gr\nd is made (    
*alk or lime/one1 !y w be f\nd mo/      
abundant2 = z ! snail's %ell is compos$ 
( lay]s ( animal tissue1 /r5g!n$ by     
depositions ( calc>e\s e>?y-matt] :i* ! 
creature gets f ! plants on :i* x fe$s1 
& ^! 9 _! turn obta9 f ! soil--x        
naturally foll[s t ! snail pref]s to    
dwell :]e t article is mo/ abundant1 z  
an h\r's hunt on any *alk-d[n w soon %[4
  ,:5 g>d5 & lanes are bo? exhau/$1 y   
may !n turn to ! ponds & /reams 9 !     

neighb\rhood1 :]e y w f9d sev]al new    
k9ds4 ,"s w be crawl+ up ! ru%es ne> !  
m>g9 ( ! wat]1 o!rs w be f\nd 9 ! wat]  
ne> ! bank1 :ile o!rs may be obta9$ by  
pull+ on %ore pieces ( wood & bran*es t 
may be float+ 9 ! wat]2 b ! be/ are sure
 to be beyond ! rea* ( arm or /ick1 & x 
w be necess>y to employ a net1 :i* may  
be easily made by b5d+ a piece ( wire   
into a circle ( ab\t f\r in*es 9        
diamet]1 & sew+ to x a small gauze bag2 
x may be m\nt$ ei!r on a long bamboo1   
or1 bett] /ill1 on "o ( ^? +5i\s        
,japanese walk+-/ick fi%+-rods4 ,=      
heavi] "w1 h[ev]1 su* z gett+ fre%-wat] 
mussels & o!r mollusca f ! bottom1 y w  
require a net some?+ l ! accompany+     
figure 7,fig4 #b71 ab\t "o foot 9       
diamet]4 ,?is1 :5 atta*$ to a long rope1
 may be ?r[n out "s di/ance & dragg$    
?r\gh ! wat]-we$s to ! %ore1 or if made 
) a squ>e in/ead ( a circul> m\?1 x may 
be s weight$ t x w s9k to ! bottom1 & be
 us$ z a dr$ge = cat*+ ! mussels :i*    
live half-buri$ 9 ! mud4 ,to c>ry !     

wat]-snails home1 y w f9d x necess>y to 
h t9 boxes 7empty mu/>d-t9s are ! be/71 
z mat*-boxes come to pieces :5 wett$4   
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,net = tak+     
wat]-snails4  ,! f9e/ collections (     
%ells1 h[ev]1 are to be made at !       
sea-side1 = ! m>9e mollusca are bo? m   
v>i$ 9 k9d & m abundant ?an ! l& &      
fre%-wat] ones1 & q an ext5sive         
collection may be made 9 ! c\rse ( an   
aft]noon's ramble along ! %ore2 x is    
necess>y1 h[ev]1 to c>efully reject su* 
specim5s z are worn by hav+ be5 roll$ by
 ! waves ^u ! bea*1 z !y are n ( any    
great value 9 a collection2 x is bett]1 
9 fact1 if possible1 to g d[n to ! rocks
 at l[ wat] & collect ! liv+ specim5s4  
,se>* well ab\t & "u ! sea-we$s1 & 9 !  
rock-pools1 &1 :5 boat+1 ?r[ y\r        
dr$ge-net out & t[ x beh9d1 haul+ x 9   
occasionally to see :at y h caught1 & to
 empty ! /ones & rubbi% out4  ,at l[    
tide also1 look out = rocks ) a numb] ( 
r\nd holes 9 !m1 all close toge!r1 = 9  
^! holes ! ,pholas 7,fig4 #bb7 dwells1  

hav+ bor$ a burr[ 9 ! solid rock1 ?\gh  
h[ he does x we d n yet q "k4  ,!       
,razor-%ells & ,cockles live 9 ! s&1 _! 
pres5ce be+ indicat$ by a small r\nd    
hole2 b !y bury !mselves s fa/ t y w f9d
 x difficult to get at !m4 ,"s good     
specim5s1 too1 ( ! deep] wat] =ms are   
sure to be f\nd ne> ! spots :]e fi%]m5  
drag _! boats a%ore1 z !y are (t5 ?r[n  
away 9 cle>+ out ! nets2 moreov]1 if y c
 make fri5ds ) any ( ! said fi%]m51 !y w
 be able to f9d & br+ y _m nice specim5s
 f "t to "t4  ,! reason t s mu* has be5 
said ab\t collect+ liv+ specim5s1 is n  
only because 9 !m ! %ell is m likely to 
be p]fect1 b also because 9 its liv+    
/ate ! %ell is coat$ ) a lay] ( animal  
matt]1 sometimes ?9 & transp>5t1 at o!rs
 ?ick & opaque1 call$ ! p]io/racum 7or  
epid]mis71 :i* s]ves to protect ! %ell f
 ! wea!r1 b :i* p]i%es ) ! animal1 s t  
dead %ells :i* h la9 = "s "t t5antless  
on ! gr\nd1 or at ! bottom ( ! wat]1    
expos$ to ! de/ructive ag5cies t are    
con/antly at "w 9 nature1 h almo/       

inv>iably lo/ bo? _! natural poli% & _! 
v>i$ hues1 & are besides only too (t5   
brok5 z well4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ev5 a damag$
 specim5 is bett] ?an none at all1 su*  
%\ld always be kept until a m p]fect    
example c be obta9$4     ,,h[ ,,to      
,,prep>e ,,! ,,%ells ,,= ,,! ,,cab9et4  
,! "q ) :i* we h next to deal is1 aft]  
collect+ a numb] ( liv+ mollusks1 h[1 9 
! quicke/ & mo/ pa9less mann] possible1 
to kill ! animals 9 ord] to obta9       
possession ( _! %ells4 ,!re is b "o way 
we "k ( 9 :i* ?is may be accompli%$1 & t
 is by plac+ ! creatures 9 an e>!n j> & 
p\r+ boil+ wat] on !m4 ,) l&1 or        
fre%-wat] snails1 ! addition ( a l>ge   
spoonful ( table-salt is advisable1 z x 
acts ^u !m *emically1 & n only puts !m  
soon] out ( pa91 b also r5d]s _!        
subsequ5t extraction f> easi]4 ,dea? by 
?is process is in/antane\s1 &           
consequ5tly pa9less2 b to leave snails 9
 cold salt wat] is to inflict on !m !   
tortures ( a l+]+ dea?2 :ile = !        
brutality ( g>d5]s & o!r ?\ghtless      

p]sons :o seek to de/roy ! poor snail !y
 f9d eat+ _! plants by cru%+ x "u foot  
on ! gravel pa?1 no words ( condemnation
 are too /rong1 s9ce x mu/ always be    
borne 9 m9d t snails h n1 l u1 "o n]v\s 
c5tre1 b ?ree1 & are f> m t5aci\s (     
life2 h5ce1 unless all ! n]ves are      
de/roy$ at once1 a great deal ( suff]+  
is entail$ on ! poor creature2 & if     
m]ely cru%$ "u foot1 ! mangl$ portions w
 live = h\rs4 ,hot wat] has also !      
advantage ( t5d+ to remove ! dirt :i* is
 almo/ sure to h ga!r$ on ! %ells1 & s  
help+ to prep>e !m bett] = ! cab9et4 ,z 
soon z ! wat] is cool en\gh1 fi% out !  
%ells "o by "o & proce$ to extract !    
dead animals4 ,?is1 if ! mollusk is     
univalve 7i4e41 ^: %ell is compos$ ( a  
s+le piece71 su* z an ord9>y g>d5 snail1
 c easily be done by pick+ !m out ) a   
p92 y w f9d1 probably1 t "s ( ! small]  
ones h %runk back s f> into _! %ells z  
to be beyond ! rea* ( a /raight p91 s x 
w be necess>y to b5d ! p9 ) a pair (    
pli]s1 or1 if none are at h&1 a key w   

answ] ! purpose if ! p9 be put into "o (
 ! not*es & b5t ov] ! edge until        
suffici5tly curv$ to rea* up ! %ell4 ,y 
w f9d x conv5i5t to keep a set ( p9s b5t
 to diff]5t curves1 to :i* y may fit    
h&les by cutt+ (f ! heads & /ick+ !m    
into mat* /ems4 ,x is a good plan to    
soak "s ( ! small] snails 9 clean cold  
wat] be=e kill+ !m1 z !y swell out ) !  
wat]1 & d n1 :5 dead1 retreat s f> into 
_! %ells4 ,if y h a microscope1 & wi% to
 keep ! animals till y h "t to get !    
tongues out1 drop ! bodies into small   
bottles ( me?ylat$ _s & wat]1 :5 !y w   
keep till requir$1 o!rwise !y %\ld (    
c\rse be ?r[n away at once4 ,! n[ empty 
%ells %\ld be wa%$ 9 clean w>m wat]1 &1 
if v dirty1 g5tly scrubb$ ) a s(t nail  
or too? bru%1 & !n c>efully dri$4  ,9   
su* %ells z ! ,p]iw9kle1 ,:elk1 etc41 ^:
 inhabitants close ! entrance ( _!      
dwell+ ) a trap-door1 or op]culum z x is
 call$1 y %\ld be c>eful to pres]ve ea* 
) its prop] %ell4  ,if y are clean+     
bivalves1 or %ells compos$ ( two pieces1

 l ! common mussel1 y w h to remove !   
animal ) a p5knife1 & :ile leav+ !      
inside q clean1 be v c>eful n to break !
 ligam5t :i* s]ves z a h+e2 !n wa% z    
be=e1 & tie !m toge!r to prev5t _! gap+ 
op5 :5 dry4  ,sometimes ! fre%-wat] or  
m>9e %ells are s coat$ ov] ) a vegetable
 gr[? t no scrubb+ ) wat] alone w remove
 x1 & 9 ^! cases a weak solution (      
cau/ic soda may be us$1 b v c>efully1   
s9ce1 if too /rong a solution be        
employ$1 ! surface ( ! %ell w be remov$ 
) ! dirt1 & ! specim5 spoilt4 ,9 "s     
%ells ! p]io/racum is v ?ick & co>se1 & 
mu/ be remov$ be=e ! %ell itself c be   
se52 b x is always well to keep at lea/ 
"o specim5 9 its r\gh /ate z an example4
 ,9 o!r %ells ! p]io/racum is cov]$ ov] 
) v f9e1 delicate hairs 7,helix s]icea &
 ,helix hispida1 ,fig4 #c71 & great c>e 
mu/ !n be tak5 n to bru% ^! (f4         
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 7a7 ,helix      
s]icea &      7b7 ,helix hispida4       
,,h[ ,,to ,,m\nt ,,! ,,%ells ,,= ,,!    
,,cab9et4   ,:5 ! specim5s are ?or\ghly 

clean$1 ! next process is to sort out ! 
diff]5t k9ds1 plac+ ea* description 9 a 
diff]5t tray1 & !n to get !m ready =    
m\nt+1 = no collection w look well      
unless ea* k9d is s arrang$ t x may be  
se5 to ! be/ advantage1 & is also       
c>efully nam$4 ,:]e y h a good numb]1   
pick out fir/ ! l>ge/ specim5s ( _! k9d1
 !n ! smalle/1 !n a s]ies1 z y h room = 
!m1 ( ! mo/ p]fect2 & f9ally ^? :i* %[  
any peculi>ity ( /ructure or m>k+4 ,try1
 too1 to get "y =ms z well z adult1 = ! 
"y are (t5 v diff]5t 9 appe>ance f !    
full-gr[n %ell4 ,m>k on !m1 especially  
on su* z y h f\nd y\rself1 ! locality !y
 came f1 z x is v important to ! %ell   
collector to "k ?is1 s9ce specim5s      
common en\gh 9 "o di/rict are (t5 r>e 9 
ano!r4 ,ei!r write ! "n ( ! place 9 ink 
on a corn] ( ! %ell itself1 or gum a    
small label j inside x1 or simply numb] 
x1 & write ! "n ( ! place ) a           
correspond+ numb] aga9/ x 9 a book kept 
= ! purpose4 ,next select a tray l>ge   
en\gh to hold all y h ( ?is k9d2 place a

 piece ( cotton wool at ! bottom1 & lay 
y\r %ells ^u x4 ,= small %ells1 h[ev]1  
?is me?od is n suitable1 z ! cotton wool
 acts on !m l a spr+ mattress1 & !y are 
liable on ! lea/ %ock to be j]k$ out (  
_! trays & lo/4 ,?is difficulty may be  
met by cutt+ a piece ( c>dbo>d s t x j  
fits into y\r tray1 & !n gumm+ ! %ells  
on to x 9 r[s2 b rememb] t1 9 ?is plan (
 m\nt+1 x is impossible to take ! %ells 
up & exam9e !m on all sides z y d !     
loose ones1 & s y mu/ m\nt a good _m1 & 
place !m 9 _m diff]5t positions1 s t !y 
may be se5 f z _m po9ts ( view z        
possible4 ,! gum us$ %\ld always h ne>ly
 "o-six? ( its bulk ( pure glyc]9e add$ 
to x2 ?is prev5ts x f becom+ brittle :5 
dry1 o!rwise y\r specim5s w\ld be liable
 aft] a "t to break away f ! c>d & get  
lo/4 ,if ! %ells w n /ay 9 ! position y 
require1 w$ge !m up ) little pieces (   
cork until ! gum is dry4  ,:5 ! %ells   
are m\nt$1 y mu/ try1 if y h n already  
done s1 to get ! prop] names = !m2 x is 
z important to be able to call %ells by 

_! "r names z x is to "k p by !irs4 ,!  
common] sorts y w be able to "n f !     
figures ( !m giv5 9 text-books1 su* z ^?
 quot$ 9 ! li/ at ! end ( ?is little "w2
 b "s y w f9d x v difficult to "n1 & x w
 !n be necess>y to ask fri5ds :o h      
collections to help y1 or to take !m to 
"s museum & comp>e !m ) ! nam$ specim5s 
!re exhibit$4 ,:5 ! "r "n is discov]$1  
y\r label mu/ !n be writt5 9 a v small1 
neat h&1 & gumm$ to ! edge ( ! tray or  
on ! c>d if y\r specim5s are m\nt$4 ,at 
! top y put ! ,lat9 "n1 rul+ a l9e      
und]nea? x1 & !n1 if y l1 add ! ,engli% 
"n2 next1 put ! "n ( ! place & ! date at
 :i* x 0 f\nd1 ?us3--           ,helix  
asp]sa 7,common snail71                 
-----------------------------           
,lane ne> ,hamp/ead ,hea?1       ,july  
#aj?1 #ahhb4     ,a d\ble r$ ink l9e    
rul$ at ! top & bottom w add a f9i%$    
appe>ance to x4     ,,h[ ,,to ,,classify
 ,,! ,,%ells ,,= ,,! ,,cab9et4   ,all ! 
=ego+ processes1 except ! nam+ ( y\r    
specim5s1 are m or less me*anical1 & are

 only ! means to ! end--a prop]ly       
arrang$ collection4 ,=1 h[ev] well a    
collection may be m\nt$1 x is           
practically useless if ! diff]5t %ells  
compos+ x be n prop]ly classifi$4 ,by   
classification is meant ! br++ toge!r ^?
 k9ds t mo/ resemble ea* o!r1 fir/ ( all
 into l>ge gr\ps hav+ special           
*>act]i/ics 9 common1 & !n by subdivid+ 
^! into o!r small] gr\ps1 & s on4 ,?us !
 animal k+dom is divid$1 fir/ ( all1    
into ,sub-k+doms1 !n ea* ,sub-k+dom into
 s _m ,classes conta9+ ^? :i* h fur!r   
*>act]i/ics 9 common1 ! ,classes into   
,ord]s1 ! ,ord]s into ,families1 !      
,families into ,g5]a1 & ^! aga9 into    
species or k9ds4  ,! ,mollusca1 or      
s(t-bodi$ animals1 ( ^: protect+ %ells  
y\r collection consi/s1 =m a sub-k+dom1 
& are subdivid$ into f\r classes3--     
#a4 ,cephalopoda4   #b4 ,ga/]opoda4     
#c4 ,pt]opoda4   #d4 ,lamellibran*iata  
7or ,con*if]a74  ,& ^! aga9 into        
,families1 ,g5]a1 & ,species4  ,! space 
at our disposal be+ limit$1 x is        

impossible to d m ?an furni% "s g5]al   
outl9es ( ! diff]5t =ms4 ,= fur!r       
details x w be necess>y to ref] to "o ( 
! l>g] works1 a li/ ( :i* w be f\nd on !
 la/ page4     ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4  
,argonauta ,argo4     ,illu/ration3     
,fig4 #e4 ,bone ( ,sepia (fic9alis4     
,,class ,i4--,! ,,cephalopoda           
7,head-foot$7 conta9s ^? mollusca t1 l !
 common ,octopus1 h a numb] ( feet 7or  
arms7 set r\nd ! m\?1 & is divid$ into  
^? hav+ two gills4 7,ord] ,i4           
,dibran*iata72 & ^? ) f\r 7,ord] ,,ii4  
,tetrabran*iata74 ,ord] ,i4 is aga9     
divid$ into3 7a47 ,^? ) eight feet l !  
,argonaut 7or ,pap]-nautilus1 ,fig4 #d71
 :i* fable has s long end[$ ) ! p[] (   
sail+ on ! surface ( ! ocean1 7x is ev5 
repres5t$ 9 "o book z propell+ itself   
?r\gh ! air67 & ! common ,octopus4 7b47 
,^? ) t5 feet1 su* z ! ,loligo 7or      
,squid1 ,fig4 #f71 ^: delicate int]nal  
%ell s mu* resembles a p5 9 %ape2 !     
,cuttle-fi% 7,sepia1 ,figs4 #e  #g71 ^: 
s-call$ bone 7once l>gely us$ z an ink  

eras]7 is frequ5tly f\nd on our s\!rn   
coa/s2 & ! pretty little ,spirula 7,fig4
 #h74     ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4       
,loligo vulg>is1 & ,p54                 
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,sepia          
(fic9alis4  ,! only repres5tative ( !   
f\r-gill$ ord] n[ liv+ is ! well-kn[n   
,pe>ly ,nautilus2 b 9 =m] times !       
,tetrabran*iata 7 extremely num]\s1     
especially ! ,ammonites4                
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,spirula4       
,,class ,,ii4--,,ga/]opoda              
7,belly-foot$7 comprises ^? mollusca    
:i*1 l ! common snail1 creep on !       
"u-surface ( ! body1 & ) "o exception   
7,*iton1 ,fig4 #bj7 _! %ells are        
univalve 7i4e41 compos$ ( "o piece74 ,b 
be=e we g fur!r1 x may be well to po9t  
out ! names giv5 to diff]5t p>ts ( a    
univalve %ell4 ,! ap]ture :5ce ! animal 
issues is call$ ! m\?1 & its out] edge !
 lip2 ea* turn ( ! %ell is a :orl2 ! la/
 & bigge/1 ! body-:orl1 ! :orls1 f !    
po9t at ! top1 or apex1 d[n to ! m\? =m 
! spire2 & ! l9e :]e ! :orls jo9 ea* o!r

 is call$ ! suture4 ,! axis ( ! %ell    
ar\nd :i* ! :orls are coil$ is sometimes
 op5 or holl[1 & ! %ell is !n said to be
 umbilicat$ 7z 9 ,fig4 #c;b72 :5 closely
 coil$1 a pill> ( %ell1 or columella1 is
 left 7z 9 ,fig4 #i74 ,sometimes ! corn]
 ( ! m\? f>!/ f ! spire & next !        
columella1 is produc$ into a *annel1 !  
ant]ior canal 7z 9 ,fig4 #i72 :il/ :]e !
 m\? meets ! base ( ! spire !re may be a
 k9d ( not* :i* is t]m$ ! po/]ior canal4
 ,mo/ ,ga/]opods are dextral1 t is to   
say1 ! m\? is to ! "r ( ! axis z y look 
at x2 a few1 h[ev]1 are s9i/ral1 or w\nd
 to ! left 7l ,physa72 :il/ rev]s$      
v>ieties ( bo? k9ds are met )4          
,ga/]opods ( ! fir/ ord] h comb-l gills 
plac$ 9 advance ( ! he>t1 & are h5ce    
t]m$ ,,prosobran*iata4 ,!y are divid$   
into two gr\ps3 7a7 ,siphono/omata      
7,tube-m\!d71 9 :i* ! animal has a long 
proboscis1 & a tube1 or siphon1 f !     
brea?+-*amb] t passes along ! ant]ior   
canal ( ! %ell1 :i* 9 ?is gr\p is well  
develop$4 ,!y h a horny op]culum1 or    

lid1 ) :i* to close ! ap]ture4 7b7      
,holo/omata 7or ,:ole-m\!d74 ,9 ^! !    
siphon is n s produc$1 & does n want to 
be protect$2 accord+ly ! m\? ( ! %ell is
 entire1 i4e4 has no canal4 ,! op]culum 
is horny or %elly4 ,! =m] 7gr\p a7      
includes sev]al families3  #a4          
,/rombidae1 compris+ %ells1 l ! huge    
,/rombus1 or ,f\nta9-%ell1 :i* is s (t5 
us$ to adorn ! mantelpiece or rock]y1 & 
f :i* cameos are cut4  #b4 ,!           
,muricidae1 ( :i* ! ,murex 7an          
extraord9>y =m ( ?is is ! ,v5us' comb1  
,murex t5uisp9a1 ,fig4 #i71 !           
,mitre-%ells1 & ! ,r$-,:elks 7,fusus7   
are examples4     ,illu/ration3 ,fig4   
#i4 ,murex t5uisp9a4  #c4 ,! ,bucc9idae1
 tak+ its "n f its type1 ! ,common ,:elk
 7,bucc9um undatum71 & includ+ su* o!r  
=ms z ! ,dog-,:elk 7,nassa71 ! ,purpura1
 ! /range ,magilus1 & ! lovely          
,h>p-,%ells & ,olives 7,fig4 #aj74      
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,oliva         
tessellata4  #d4 ,! ,cassididae1 or     
,helmet-,%ells4 ,cassis rufa1 f ,we/    

,africa1 is not$ z ! be/ species ( %ell 
= cameo engrav+2 ) x are class$ ! ,tun  
7,dolium7 & ! great ,triton 7,triton    
tritonis71 su* z ! sea-gods ( my?ology  
are repres5t$ bl[+ into by way (        
trumpet1 & :i* are us$ by ! ,polynesian 
,isl&]s to ?is day in/ead ( horns4  #e4 
,! ,conidae1 ^: type1 ! ,cone-%ell      
7,fig4 #aa71 is at once di/9ctive &     
h&some1 b :i* 9 ! liv+ /ate is cov]$ by 
a dull yell[i%-br[n p]io/racum t has to 
be c>efully remov$ be=e ! full beauties 
( ! %ell are display$4     ,illu/ration3
 ,fig4 #aa4 ,conus v]miculatus4  #f4 ,! 
,volutidae1 embrac+ ! ,volutes &        
,boat-%ells 7,cymba74  #g4 ,!           
,cypraeidae1 or ,c[ries 7,fig4 #ab71 :i*
 owe _! high poli% to ! size ( !        
%ell-secret+ organ 7mantle71 ^: edges   
meet ov] ! back ( ! %ell1 conceal+ x )9 
its folds4 ,) ^! is class$ ! ,*9a-%ell  
7,ovulum74     ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 
,cypraea oniscus4  ,! second gr\p1 or   
,holo/omata1 is divid$ into n9ete5      
families1 beg9n+ )--  #a4 ,! ,naticidae1

 ^: type1 ! g5us ,natica1 is well kn[n  
to all %ell-collectors ?r\gh ! common   
,natica monilif]a ( our coa/s4  #b4 ,!  
,cancell>iadae1 9 :i* ! %ells are       
cancellat$ or cross-b>r$ by a d\ble     
s]ies ( l9es runn+1 "o set ) ! :orls1 & 
! o!r across !m4  #c4 ,!                
,pyramidellidae1 :i* are high-spir$1    
elongat$1 & sl5d] %ells1 ) ! exception (
 ! g5us ,/yl9a1 :i* lives atta*$ to !   
sp9es ( sea-ur*9s or buri$ 9 liv+       
/>-fi%es & corals4 #d4 ,! ,sol>idae or  
,/aircase-%ells1 ^: umbilicus is s wide 
t1 z y look d[n x1 ! project+ edges ( ! 
:orls appe> l a w9d+ /aircase4 ,x is a v
 %ort-spir$ %ell4  #e4 ,! ,scal>idae1   
,w5tle-traps or ,ladd]-%ells1 :i* may be
 readily recognis$ f _! :ite & lu/r\s   
appe>ance & ! /rong rib-l m>k+s ( !     
p]iodic m\?s t encircle ! :orls4  #f4 ,!
 ,c]i?iadae1 or ,horn-%ells1 :i* are v  
high-spir$1 & ^: columella & ant]ior    
canal are produc$ 9 ! =m ( an impud5t   
little tail1 ! effect ( :i*1 h[ev]1 9 ! 
g5us ,aporrhais1 or ,sp\t-%ells1 is tak5

 away by ! exp&$ & ?ick5$ lip4  #g4 ,9 !
 next family1 ! ,turritellidae1 or      
,t[]-%ells1 ! type ,turritella is       
spiral2 b 9 ! alli$ =m ,v]metus1 ?\gh ! 
spire beg9s 9 ! natural mann]1 x goes (f
 into a twi/$ tube resembl+ some:at an  
ill-made corkscrew4 ,! m\? 9 ?is family 
is (t5 ne>ly r\nd4  #h4 ,! ,melaniadae1 
& #i4 ,! ,palud9idae1 are fre%-wat]     
%ells4 ,! =m] are turret$1 & ! latt]    
conical or globul>4 ,bo? are furni%$ )  
op]cula1 b ! m\? 9 ! fir/ is m or less  
oval & frequ5tly not*$ 9 front1 :ile 9 !
 latt] x is r\nd$ & entire4  #aj4 ,!    
,litor9idae1 or ,p]iw9kles1 ne$ no ^w f 
u4  #aa4 ,! ,calyptraeidae comprise !   
,bonnet-limpet1 or ,pileopsis1 &        
,cup-&-sauc]-limpets 7,calyptraea74 ,!y 
may be describ$ briefly z limpets )     
traces ( a spire left4 ,! g5us ,phorus1 
h[ev]1 is spiral1 & resembles a ,tro*us4
 ,!y h be5 call$ ,c>ri]s f _! /range    
habit ( build+ any /ray fragm5ts ( %ell 
or /one into _! h\se1 ?us r5d]+ !mselves
 almo/ indi/+ui%able f ! gr\nd on :i* !y

 crawl4  #ab4 ,! ,turb9idae1 or         
,top-%ells1 are next 9 ord]1 & ( ^! !   
great ,turbo m>moreus is a well-kn[n    
example1 be+ prep>$ z an ornam5t = !    
:atnot or mantelpiece by remov+ !       
ext]nal lay] ( ! %ell 9 ord] to display 
! brilliant pe>ly nacre bel[4 ,^!       
mollusca close _! m\?s ) a horny        
op]culum1 coat$ on its ext]ior by a ?ick
 lay] ( porcela9-l %elly matt]4 ,) !m   
are class$ ! famili> ,tro*us & o!r      
closely alli$ g5]a4  #ac4 ,! ,haliotidae
 (f] 9 ! repres5tative g5us ,haliotis1  
or ! ,e>-%ell1 ano!r famili> mantelpiece
 ornam5t4  #ad4 ,! ,ian?9idae1 or       
,violet-snails1 t float ab\t 9          
mid-,atlantic ^u ! gulf-we$1 & at c]ta9 
seasons secrete a curi\s float or raft1 
to :i* _! eggs are atta*$1 are next 9   
ord]1 & are foll[$ by--  #ae4 ,!        
,fissurellidae1 or ,key-hole & ,not*$   
limpets1 ^: "n suffici5tly describes !m4
 ,to ^! succe$--  #af4 ,! ,n]itidae1 an 
unmi/akable gr\p ( globul> %ells1 hav+  
next to no spire & a v glossy ext]ior1  

g5]ally ornam5t$ ) a great v>iety (     
spots & b&s4  #ag4 ,! ,patellidae1 or   
true ,limpets1 are well kn[n to e       
sea-side visitor3 l>ge species1 z mu* z 
two in*es across1 are to be f\nd on !   
coa/ ( ,devon1 b ^! are pigmies comp>$ )
 a ,s\? ,am]ican v>iety :i* atta9s a    
foot 9 diamet]4  #ah4 ,! ,d5taliadae1   
repres5t$ by ! g5us ,d5talium1 or       
,too?-%ell1 are simply slightly curv$   
tubes1 op5 at bo? ends & tap]+ f ! m\?  
d[nw>ds1 & _c be mi/ak54  #ai4 ,la/ly1  
we h ! ,*itonidae1 ^: s+le g5us ,*iton  
possesses %ells diff]+ f all o!r        
mollusca 9 be+ compos$ ( eight plates   
ov]lapp+ ea* o!r1 & 9 appe>ance rem9d+  
"o ( ! wood-l\se4 ,?is animal is n only 
l ! limpet 9 =m b also 9 habits1 be+    
f\nd adh]+ to ! rocks & /ones at        
l[-wat]4   ,ord] ,,ii4--,,pulmonif]a4   
,conta9s ! air-brea?+ ,ga/]opods1 & to x
 consequ5tly belong all ! t]re/rial     
mollusca1 ?\gh "s few aquatic g5]a are  
also includ$4 ,! memb]s ( ?is ord] h an 
air-*amb] in/ead ( gills1 & are divid$  

into two gr\ps1 7a7 ^? )\t an op]culum1 
& 7b7 ^? hav+ an op]culum4 ,=emo/ 9 !   
fir/ gr\p /&s ! great family--  #a4     
,helicidae1 nam$ aft] its *ief          
repres5tative1 ! g5us ,helix4 ,x also   
includes ! ,glass-%ell 7,vitr9a71 !     
,amb]-%ell 7,succ9ea71 & su* g5]a z     
,bulimus1 ,a*at9a1 ,pupa1 ,clausilia    
7,fig4 #ac71 etc41 :i* diff] f ! typical
 ,helix 9 appe>ance1 possess+ z !y d    
comp>atively high spires4               
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,clausilia     
biplicata4  #b4 ,! ,limacidae1 or slugs1
 foll[ next2 ( ^! only "o1 ! g5us       
,te/acella1 has an ext]nal %ell /uck on 
! end ( its tail2 ! re/ h ei!r a m or   
less imp]fect %ell conceal$ und]nea? !  
mantle1 or else none at all4  #c4 ,!    
,oncidiadae are slug-l1 & devoid ( %ell4
  #d4 ,! ,limnaeidae embrace !          
,pond-snails1 *ief ( :om is ! well-kn[n1
 high-spir$ ,limnaea /agnalis4 ,o!r     
%ells ( ?is family associat$ ) ,limnaea 
are1 h[ev]1 v diff]5t 9 %ape2 = in/ance1
 ,physa has its :orls turn+ to ! left   

in/ead ( to ! "r2 ,ancylus 7,fig4 #bd71 
or ! fre%wat] limpet1 is ( c\rse        
limpet-l2 :ile ,planorbis1 or !         
,coil-%ell1 is w\nd l a wat*-spr+4  #e4 
,! ,auriculidae includes bo? spiral     
%ells1 su* z ,auricula & ,*>y*ium1 & a  
limpet-l "o ,siphon>ia4  ,at ! head (   
gr\p b /&s #a1 ,cyclo/omidae4 ,cyclo/oma
 elegans is a common %ell on our        
*alk-d[ns1 & well illu/rates its family1
 9 :i* ! m\? is ne>ly circul>4 ,=eign   
examples ( ?is g5us are mu* e/eem$ by   
collectors4 ,! o!r two families are1    
7#b7 ,helic9idae & 7#c7 ,aciculidae4    
,ord] ,,iii4--,,opi/hobran*iata4 ,^!    
animals c>ry _! gills expos$ on ! back &
 sides1 t[>ds ! re> ( ! body4 ,only a   
few h any %ell4 #a4 ,! ,tornatellidae1  
:i* h a /\t little spiral %ell4 #b4 ,!  
,bullidae1 9 :i* ! spire is conceal$    
7,fig4 #bf74 #c4 ,! ,aplysiadae1 :]e !  
%ell is flat & oblong or triangul> 9    
%ape4 ,! rema9+ families are slug-l &   
%ell-less4     ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 
,bulla ampulla4   ,ord]                 

,,iv4--,,nucleobran*iata4 ,d]ives its "n
 f ! fact t ! animals con/itut+ x h _!  
respiratory & dige/ive organs 9 a sort (
 nucleus on ! po/]ior "p ( ! back1 &    
cov]$ by a m9ute %ell4 ,z !y are        
pelagic1 ! %ells are n readily to be    
obta9$4 ,!y are divid$ into two         
families1 ,firolidae & ,atlantidae4     
,,class ,,iii4--,,pt]opoda4 ,l ! la/1 ^!
 pretty little mollusca are             
ocean-swimm]s4 ,! memb]s ( "o division (
 !m1 to :i* ! ,cleodora belongs1 is     
furni%$ ) iridesc5t ext]nal %ells4      
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,petunculus    
gu]ang]i4     ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4  
,v5us plicata4   ,,class ,,iv4--,!      
,,lamellibran*iata 7,plate-gill$71 or   
,,con*if]a 7,%ell-be>+71 includes !     
mollusca commonly kn[n z bivalves1 !    
animal be+ snugly hidd5 betwe5 two m or 
less closely fitt+ %elly valves4 ,!     
oy/]s1 cockles1 etc41 are examples ( ?is
 class4 ,! two valves are fa/5$ toge!r  
ne> _! po9ts1 or beaks 7te*nically call$
 umbones71 by a t\gh ela/ic ligam5t1    

sometimes supplem5t$ by an int]nal      
c>tilage4 ,if ?is be sev]$ & ! valves   
p>t$1 x w be f\nd t 9 mo/ cases !y are  
fur!r articulat$ by project+ ridges or  
po9ts call$ ! tee?1 :i*1 :5 ! valves are
 toge!r1 int]lock & =m a h+e2 ! m>g9 ( !
 %ell on :i* ! tee? & ligam5t are       
situat$ is t]m$ ! h+e-l9e4 ,a bivalve is
 said to be equivalve :5 ! two %ells    
compos+ x are ( ! same size1 inequivalve
 :5 !y are n4 ,if ! umbones are 9 !     
middle1 ! %ell is equilat]al 7,fig4     
#ae72 b inequilat]al :5 !y are ne>] "o  
side ?an ! o!r 7,fig4 #af74 ,if ! %ell  
be an oy/] or a scallop1 y w f9d on !   
inside a s+le circul> sc>-l m>k ne> !   
c5tre2 ?is is ! po9t to :i* ! muscles t 
close ! valves & hold !m s tightly      
toge!r are atta*$4 ,9 ! majority (      
bivalves1 h[ev]1 !re are two su* muscul>
 impressions1 or sc>s1 "o on ei!r side (
 ea* valve ( ! %ell4 ,! =m] gr\p on ?is 
acc\nt are (t5 call$ ,monomy>ia 7hav+ "o
 %ell-muscle71 & ! latt] ,dimy>ia 7hav+ 
two %ell-muscles74 ,9 ! la/ nam$ ! two  

muscul> impressions are unit$ by a f9e  
groove 7or pallial-l9e71 :i* 9 "s runs  
p>allel to ! m>g9 ( ! %ell 7,fig4 #ae71 
:il/ 9 o!rs x makes a b5d 9             
7pallial-s9us7 on "o side ( ! valve     
t[>ds ! c5tre 7,fig4 #af74 ,9 ,monomy>ia
 x w be f\nd runn+ p>allel to ! m>g9 ( !
 %ell4 ,x m>ks ! l9e ( atta*m5t ( !     
mantle or %ell-secret+ organ ( ! animal 
to ! %ell :i* gr[s by ! addition ( fre% 
matt] along its edges1 s t ! conc5tric  
curv$ m>k+s s (t5 se5 on ! ext]ior      
correspond 9 _! orig9 ) ! p]iodic m\?s (
 ! ,ga/]opods4 ,! bivalves are all      
aquatic1 & _m bury !mselves 9 ! s& or   
mud by means ( a fle%y1 muscul> foot4   
,^! are furni%$ ) two siphons1 or fle%y 
tubes1 sometimes unit$1 sometimes       
sep>ate1 ?r\gh :i* !y respire1 draw+ !  
wat] 9 ?r\gh "o & expell+ x by ! o!r4   
,^? k9ds ^: habit x is to bury !mselves 
bel[ ! surface ( ! mud or s& are furni%$
 ) long retractile siphons1 & to admit (
 _! )drawal into ! %ell1 ! mantle is at 
?is po9t atta*$ f>!r back1 giv+ rise to 

! pallial-s9us above describ$2 ?is s9us 
is deep] z ! siphons are proportionately
 long]1 & 9 _m cases1 too1 ! valves d n 
meet at ?is po9t :5 ! %ell is clos$4    
,att5tion to ^! p>ticul>s is necess>y :5
 arrang+ y\r bivalves1 z on !m _!       
classification dep5ds1 ! class be+      
divid$ into--  a4 ,,asiphonida          
7,siphonless74  b4 ,,siphonida          
,integro-pallialia 7)                   
,siphons74--,pallial-l9e entire4  c4    
,,siphonida ,s9u-pallialia 7)           
,siphons74--,s9us 9 pallial-l9e4        
,,division a4--,,asiphonida--is next    
subdivid$ into--  #a4 ,! ,o/reidae1 or  
oy/]s1 :i* are des]v$ly a di/9ct family 
9 !mselves4  #b4 ,! ,anomiadae1 compris+
 ! multi=m & curi\sly con/ruct$ ,anomia1
 ) ! ,w9d[-%ells 7,placuna74  #c4 ,!    
,pect9idae1 tak+ its "n f ! g5us ,pect51
 or ,scallop-%ells1 ( :i* "o k9d 7,p4   
maximus7 is frequ5tly to be se5 at !    
fi%mong]s' %ops4 ,! ,?orney oy/]s       
7,spondylus7 take rank "h1 & are highly 
e/eem$ by collectors1 "o specim5 inde$  

hav+ be5 valu$ at ,l#be6  #d4 ,!        
,aviculidae1 or ,w+-%ells1 among :i* are
 numb]$ ! ,pe>l-oy/] ( comm]ce          
7,meleagr9a m>g>itif]a74 ,! /range      
,t-%ap$ ,hamm] oy/] belongs to ?is      
family1 z does also ! ,p9na4 ,! ,p9nas1 
l ! mussels & "s o!r bivalves1 moor     
!mselves to rocks by means ( a numb] (  
?reads spun by ! foot ( ! mollusc1 &    
t]m$ ! byssus1 :i* 9 ?is g5us is f9]1 m 
silky1 ?an 9 any o!r1 & has be5 wov5    
into articles ( dress4  #e4 ,!          
,mytilidae1 or mussels1 includ+ !       
,li?odomus1 or ,date-%ell1 :i* bores    
into corals & ev5 h>d lime/one rocks4   
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,h+e-tee? (    
,arca b>bata4  #f4 ,! ,arcadae1 or      
,noah's-ark-%ells1 *>act]iz$ by _! long 
/raight h+e-l9e set ) num]\s v f9e tee? 
7,fig4 #ag74 ,! ,nut-%ell 7,nucula7     
belongs to ?is family4  #g4 ,!          
,trigoniadae1 ^: s+le liv+ g5us1 !      
h&some ,trigonia 7,fig4 #ah71 is conf9$ 
to ! ,au/ralian coa/-l9e1 :]eas 9 times 
n[ long pa/ !y _h a _w-wide di/ribution4

     ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,trigonia 
m>g>itacea4  #h4 ,! ,unionidae1 compris+
 ! fre%-wat] mussels4   ,,division      
b4--,,siphonida ,integropallialia4  #a4 
,! ,*amidae1 repres5t$ by ! reef-dwell+ 
,*ama4  #b4 ,! ,tridacnidae1 ^: sole    
g5us ,tridacna conta9s ! l>ge/ specim5 (
 ! :ole class ( bivalves1 ! %ells       
sometimes measur+ two feet & m across4  
#c4 ,! ,c>diadae1 or cockles4  #d4 ,!   
,luc9idae1 9 :i* ! valves are ne>ly     
circul>1 & z a rule n v attractive 9    
appe>ance1 ?\gh ! ,basket-%ell 7,corbis7
 has an elegantly sculptur$ ext]ior4    
#e4 ,! ,cycladidae1 ^: typical g5us     
,cyclas1 ) its r\nd =m & ?9 horny %ell1 
is to be f\nd 9 mo/ ( our ponds &       
/reams4  #f4 ,! ,a/>tidae1 a family (   
%ells hav+ v /rongly develop$ tee?1 & ! 
surface ( ^: valves is (t5 conc5trically
 ribb$4     ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4    
,h+e ( ,c>dita s9uata4  #g4 ,!          
,cypr9idae1 :i* h v solid oval or       
elongat$ %ells & conspicu\s tee? 7,fig4 
#ai74 ,! ,he>t-cockle 7,isoc>dia7       

belongs to ?is family4   ,,division     
c4--,,siphonida ,s9u-pallialia4  #a4 ,! 
,v5]idae4 ,! h>d1 solid %ells ( ?is     
family are = elegance ( =m & beauty (   
col\r among/ ! mo/ attractive a         
collector c posses4 ,_! %ells are m or  
less oval & h ?ree tee? 9 ea* valve     
7,fig4 #bj74     ,illu/ration3 ,fig4    
#bj4 ,h+e ( ,cy!rea cryc9a4             
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,h+e ( ,lutr>ia
 elliptica  #b4 ,! ,mactridae are       
some:at triangul> 9 %ape1 & may be at   
once recognis$ by ! pit = ! h+e-ligam5t1
 :i* also assumes t =m1 z se5 9 !       
accompany+ figure ( ,lutr>ia elliptica  
7,fig4 #ba74  #c4 ,! ,tell9idae comprise
 "s ( ! mo/ delicately t9t$1 bo?        
ext]nally & int]nally1 ( all %ells4 ,9  
"s1 col\r$ b&s radiate f ! umbones1 &   
well be> out ! fanciful "n ( ,sunset    
%ells be/[$ ^u !m4 ,_! valves are       
g5]ally mu* compress$4  #d4 ,!          
,sol5idae1 or ,razor-%ells1 rank next1 &
 are readily recognis$ by ! extreme l5g?
 ( ! valves 9 proportion to _! wid?1 &  

also by _! gap+ at bo? ends4  #e4 ,!    
,myacidae or ,gap]s1 h ! siphonal ends  
wide ap>t 79 ! g5us ,mya bo? ends gape71
 & are fur!r *>act]iz$ by ! triangul>   
process = ! c>tilage1 :i* projects into 
! int]ior ( ! %ell4 ,"o valve 7! left7  
is g5]ally small] ?an ! o!r4  #f4 ,!    
,anat9idae h ?91 (t5 inequivalve pe>ly  
%ells4 ,! g5us ,p&ora is ! =m mo/       
frequ5tly met ) 9 collections4  #g4 ,!  
,ga/ro*a5idae embraces two g5]a         
7,ga/ro*a5a & ,saxicava7 ( bor+         
mollusca1 :i* p]=ate %ells & rocks1 &   
also1 ! rem>kable tube-l ,wat]+-pot-%ell
 7,asp]gillum7 :i* is h>dly recognisable
 z a bivalve at all4     ,illu/ration3  
,fig4 #bb4 ,pholas dactylus4  #h4 ,!    
,pholadidae concludes ! li/ ( bivalves1 
& comprises ! common rock-bor+ ,pholas  
7,fig4 #bb7 ( our coa/s & ! wood-bor+   
%ipworm ,t]$o 7,fig4 #bc74         99   
99       99       99       99  ,al?\gh !
 ,bra*iopoda1 or ,lamp-%ells1 are n true
 mollusca1 !y are n v f> remov$ f !m1 & 
are s (t5 to be f\nd 9 cab9ets t x w n d

 to pass !m ov]1 especially s9ce 9 pa/  
times !y 7 v abundant1 an enorm\s numb] 
occurr+ 9 ! fossil /ate4 ,only eight    
g5]a are n[ liv+4 ,%ells belong+ to ?is 
class are readily recognis$ by ! fact ( 
"o valve be+ l>g] ?an ! o!r1 & possess+ 
a di/9ct peak1 ! apex ( :i* is p]=at$4  
,! ,t]ebratulidae are ! mo/ ext5sive    
family ( ?is class4     ,illu/ration3   
,fig4 #bc4 ,t]$o navalis4     ,,h[ ,,to 
,,arrange ,,! ,,%ells ,,9 ,,! ,,cab9et4 
,:5 y h arrang$ y\r specim5s 9 ! ord]   
above indicat$1 proce$ to place !m 9 y\r
 boxes1 arrang+ & labell+ !m aft] !     
mann] %[n 9 ! accompany+ diagram4       
----------------------------------------
----------     ,class4                  
---------- ,species4  ,species4         
,species4  ,species4      ,ord]4        
----------------------------------------
----------     ,family                  
,"n4                                    
---------- ,species4  ,species4         
,species4  ,species4     ,g5]ic         
,"n4                       ----------   

------------------------------  ,family 
----------                              
,"n4                 ,species4          
,species4  ,species4 ----------         
,species4                               
,g5]ic                                  
------------------------------  ,"n4    
----------                              
----------                        ,g5]ic
                                        
,species4   ,"n4    ,species4  ,species4
  ,species4                             
----------------------------------------
----------                              
,g5]ic      ,species4  ,species4        
,species4  ,species4   ,"n4             
----------------------------------------
----------                        ,g5]ic
                          ,species4     
,species4   ,"n4    ,species4  ,species4
                                        
----------------------------------------
----------                              
,species4  ,species4  ,species4         
,species4  ,species4                    

----------------------------------------
----------  ,on ! lid1 or on a slip (   
pap] or c>d plac$ at ! head ( y\r       
columns ( trays1 write ! class & ord]1 )
 its prop] numb] 7,i41 ,,ii41 etc41 z ! 
case may be72 !n at ! top ( y\r left-h& 
column place ! family & its numb]1 & "u 
x ! "n ( ! fir/ g5us4 ,! species 7"o 9  
ea* tray7 come next1 !n ! "n ( ! next   
g5us foll[+ x1 succe$$ by its species1 &
 s on4  ,! object ( ! "y collector %\ld 
be to obta9 examples ( z _m g5]a z      
possible1 s9ce a collection 9 :i* a     
great numb] ( g5]a are repres5t$ is f> m
 useful & in/ructive ?an "o compos$ ( a 
great _m species ref]able to b few g5]a4
 ,he w also f9d x v conv5i5t to sep>ate 
! ,briti% ,%ells f 8 g5]al collection1  
sub-divid+ !m = conv5i5ce into ,l& &    
,fre%-wat]1 & ,m>9e4 ,( ^! he %\ld      
endeav\r to get e species1 & ev5 v>iety1
 mak+ ! ?+ z complete z possible4 ,or a 
sep>ate collection may be made ( all ^? 
k9ds :i* he c f9d )9 a c]ta9 di/ance ( 8
 own home4 ,a collection ( ?is sort     

possesses1 9 addition to its sci5tific  
wor?1 an int]e/ ( its own1 ow+ to !     
local associations t inv>iably connect  
!mselves ) x4     ,,table ,,( ,,"s ,,(  
,,! ,,m ,,important ,,g5]a1 ,,%[+ ,,!   
,,approximate ,,numb] ,,( ,,species     
,,belong+ ,,to ,,ea* ,,g5us ,,& ,,_!    
,,di/ribution4    ,,class               
,i4--,,cephalopoda4     ,,ord]          
,i4--,dibran*iata4    ,section          
,a4--,octopoda4    ,family4  ,g5us4     
,no4 ( ,species4  ,di/ribution4      #a4
     ,argonauta        #d               
,tropical seas4     #b4     ,octopus    
#df           ,rocky coa/s 9 temp]ate & 
tropical regions4   ,section            
,b4--,decapoda4      #c4     ,loligo    
#ai           ,cosmopolitan4     #d4    
,sepia           #cj           ,on all  
coa/s4     #e4     ,spirula          #c 
,all ! w>m] seas4     ,,ord]            
,,ii4--,tetrabran*iata4      #f4        
,nautilus         #c or #d      ,*9ese  
,seas1 ,indian ,ocean1                  
,p]sian ,gulf4    ,,class               

,,ii4--,,ga/]opoda4     ,,ord]          
,i4--,prosobran*iata4    ,division      
a4--,siphono/omata4                     
,no4 (   ,family4  ,g5us4      ,species4
   ,di/ribution4      #a4     ,/rombus  
#fj      ,w4 ,indies1 ,m$it]ranean1 ,r$ 
,sea1                                   
,indian ,ocean1 ,pacific--l[ wat]       
to #aj fa?oms4            ,pt]oc]as     
#ab      ,india1 ,*9a4     #b4          
,murex         #ahj      ,on all coa/s4 
,columbella    #bjj      ,sub-tropical  
regions1 9 %all[                        
wat] on /ones4            ,mitra        
#cej      ,tropical regions1 f l[ wat]  
to #hj fa?oms4            ,fusus        
#ajj      ,on all coa/s4     #c4        
,bucc9um       #bj      ,nor!rn seas1 f 
l[ wat] to                              
#adj fa?oms4            ,eburna         
#i      ,r$ ,sea1 ,india1 ,au/ralia1    
,*9a1                                   
,cape ( ,good ,hope4            ,nassa  
#baj      ,_w-wide--l[ wat] to #ej      
fa?oms4            ,purpura       #adj  

,_w-wide--l[ wat] to #be fa?oms4        
,h>pa           #i      ,tropical--deep 
wat]1 s&1 muddy                         
bottoms4            ,oliva         #aag 
,sub-tropical--l[ wat] to #be fa?oms4   
#d4     ,cassis         #cd             
,tropical regions1 9 %all[ wat]4        
,dolium         #ae      ,m$it]ranean1  
,india1 ,*9a1 ,w4                       
,indies1 ,brazil1 ,new ,gu9ea1 ,pacific4
            ,triton        #ajj         
,temp]ate & sub-tropical regions1       
f l[ wat] to #ej fa?oms4                
,ranella        #ej      ,tropical      
regions1 on rocks &                     
coral-reefs4            ,pyrula         
#dj      ,sub-tropical regions1 9 #ag to
 #ce                                    
fa?oms4     #e4     ,conus         #cjj 
,equatorial seas--%all[ wat] to #ej     
fa?oms4            ,pleurotoma    #ejj  
,almo/ _w-wide--l[ wat] to #ajj         
fa?oms4     #f4     ,voluta        #ajj 
,on tropical coa/s1 f ! %ore to         
#ajj fa?oms4            ,cymba          

#aj      ,we/ ,coa/ ( ,africa1 ,lisbon1 
,/raits                                 
( ,gibralt>4            ,m>g9ella       
#ij      ,mo/ly tropical4     #g4       
,cypraea        #aej      ,w>m] seas ( !
 globe1 on rocks                        
& coral-reefs4            ,ovulum       
#cf      ,brita91 ,m$it]ranean1 ,w4     
,indies1                                
,*9a1 ,w4 ,am]ica4    ,division         
b4--,holo/omata4      #h4     ,natica   
#ij      ,arctic to tropical regions1 on
 s&y                                    
& gravelly bottoms1 f l[ wat]           
to #ij feet4            ,sig>etus       
#bf      ,e4 & ,w4 ,indies1 ,*9a1 ,p]u4 
#i4     ,cancell>ia    #gj      ,w4     
,indies1 ,*9a1 ,s4 ,am]ica1 ,e4         
,ar*ipelago--l[ wat] to #dj fa?oms4     
#aj4     ,pyramidella    #aa      ,w4   
,indies1 ,mauritius1 ,au/ralia1 9       
s&y bays & on %all[ mud-banks4          
,odo/omia      #ce      ,brita91        
,m$it]ranean1 &                         
,madeira--l[ wat] to #ej fa?oms4        

,*emnitzia     #gj      ,_w-wide--l[    
wat] to #ajj fa?oms4            ,eulima 
#bf      ,cuba1 ,norway1 ,brita91       
,india1                                 
,m$it]ranean1 ,au/ralia--#e             
to #ij fa?oms4    #aa4     ,sol>ium     
#be      ,sub-tropical &                
tropical--widely                        
di/ribut$4    #ab4     ,scal>ia         
#ajj      ,_w-wide--l[ wat] to #ajj     
fa?oms4    #ac4     ,c]i?ium     #ajj   
,_w-wide4            ,potamides      #da
      ,africa & ,india1 9 mud ( l>ge    
riv]s4            ,aporrhais       #c   
,labrador1 ,norway1 ,brita91            
,m$it]ranean--#bj to #ajj fa?oms4       
#ad4     ,turritella     #ej            
,_w-wide--l[ wat] to #ajj fa?oms4       
,v]metus       #ca      ,portugal1      
,m$it]ranean1 ,africa1                  
,india4    #ae4     ,melania       #afj 
,s4 ,europe1 ,india1 ,philipp9es &      
,pacific ,isl&s--9 riv]s4               
,melanopsis     #bj      ,spa91         
,au/ralia1 ,asia ,m9or1 ,new            

,zeal&--9 riv]s4    #af4     ,palud9a   
#fj      ,nor!rn ,hemisph]es1 ,africa1  
,india1                                 
,*9a1 etc4--9 lakes & riv]s4            
,ampull>ia     #ej      ,s4 ,am]ica1 ,w4
 ,indies1 ,africa1                      
,india--9 lakes & riv]s4    #ag4        
,litor9a       #dj      ,on all %ores4  
,rissoa         #gj      ,_w-wide--9    
%all[ wat] on                           
sea-we$ to #ajj fa?oms4    #ah4         
,calyptrea      #ej                     
,_w-wide--adh]5t to rocks1 etc4         
,crepidula      #dj      ,we/ ,indies1  
,m$it]ranean1 ,cape (                   
,good ,hope1 ,au/ralia4                 
,pileopsis       #g      ,brita91       
,norway1 ,m$it]ranean1 ,e4              
& ,w4 ,indies1 ,au/ralia4               
,hipponyx       #gj      ,w4 ,indies1   
,galapagos1 ,philipp9es1                
,au/ralia4            ,phorus           
#i      ,w4 ,indies1 ,india1 ,javan &   
,*9ese                                  
,seas--9 deep wat]4    #ai4     ,turbo  

#fj      ,on ! %ores ( ,tropical seas4  
,phas9ella     #cj      ,au/ralia1      
,pacific1 ,w4 ,indies1                  
,m$it]ranean4            ,imp]ator      
#bj      ,s4 ,africa1 ,india1 etc4      
,tro*us       #aej      ,_w-wide--f l[  
wat] to #ajj                            
fa?oms4            ,rotella        #ah  
,india1 ,philipp9es1 ,*9a1 ,new         
,zeal&4            ,/omatella     #bj   
,cape1 ,india1 ,au/ralia1 etc4    #bj4  
,haliotis       #ge      ,brita91       
,can>ies1 ,india1 ,au/ralia1            
,cali=nia--on rocks at l[ wat]4         
,/omatia       #ab      ,java1          
,philipp9es1 ,pacific1 etc4--           
"u /ones at l[ wat]4    #ba4     ,ian?9a
        #f      ,greg>i\s 9 ! op5 seas (
 !                                      
,atlantic & ,pacific4    #bb4           
,fissurella    #abj      ,_w-wide--on   
rocks f l[ wat]                         
to #e fa?oms4            ,em>g9ula      
#bf      ,brita91 ,norway1 ,philipp9es1 
,au/ralia--f l[ wat] to                 

#ij fa?oms4    #bc4     ,n]ita          
#aaf      ,on ! %ores ( all w>m seas4   
,n]it9a      #aaj      ,9 fre% wat]s (  
all w>m c\ntries1                       
& 9 ,brita94            ,navicella      
#bd      ,india1 ,mauritius1 ,moluccas1 
,au/ralia1                              
,pacific--9 fre% wat]1 atta*$           
to /ones4    #bd4     ,patella          
#ajj      ,on all coa/s--adh]+ to /ones 
&                                       
rocks4    #be4     ,d5talium      #cj   
,_w-wide--buri$ 9 mud4    #bf4          
,*iton        #bjj      ,_w-wide--l[    
wat] to #ajj fa?oms4     ,,ord]         
,,ii4--,pulmonif]a4    ,division        
a4--,inop]culata4                       
,no4 (   ,family4  ,g5us4      ,species4
   ,di/ribution4     #bg4     ,helix    
#a1fjj             ,succ9ea       #fh   
,_w-wide--on l& 9 moi/ places4          
,bulimus       #fej             ,a*at9a 
#abj      ,_w-wide--burr[+ at roots &   
bulbs4            ,pupa          #bcf   
,_w-wide--among/ wet moss4              

,clausilia     #djj      ,europe &      
,asia--9 moi/ spots4    #bh4     ,limax 
#bb      ,europe & ,can>ies--on l& 9    
damp                                    
localities4            ,te/acella       
#c      ,s4 ,europe1 ,can>ies1 &        
,brita9--                               
burr[+ 9 g>d5s4    #bi4     ,oncidium   
#af      ,brita91 ,r$ ,sea1             
,m$it]ranean--on                        
rocks on ! sea%ore4    #cj4     ,limnaea
         #ej      ,europe1 ,madeira1    
,india1 ,*9a1 ,n4                       
,am]ica--9 ponds1 riv]s1 lakes1 etc4    
,physa          #bj      ,am]ica1       
,europe1 ,s4 ,africa1 ,india1           
,philipp9es--9 ponds1 riv]s1            
lakes1 etc4            ,ancylus         
#ad      ,europe1 ,n4 & ,s4 ,am]ica--9  
ponds1                                  
riv]s1 lakes1 etc4            ,planorbis
     #ade      ,europe1 ,n4 ,am]ica1    
,india1 ,*9a--9                         
ponds1 riv]s1 lakes1 etc4    #ca4       
,auricula       #ej      ,tropical--9   

salt m>%es4            ,siphon>ia       
#cj      ,_w-wide--betwe5 high & l[     
wat]4    ,division b4--,op]culata4      
#cb4     ,cyclo/oma     #hj      ,s4    
,europe1 ,africa                        
,cyclophorus   #ajj      ,india1        
,philipp9es       --on l&4              
,pup9a         #hj      ,philipp9es1    
,new ,gu9ea      #cc4     ,helic9a      
#aej      ,w4 ,indies1 ,philipp9es1     
,c5tral                                 
,am]ica1 ,isl&s 9 ,pacific--on l&4      
#cd4     ,acicula         #e            
,brita91 ,europe1 ,vanicoro--on leaves  
& at roots ( grass4                     
,geomelania     #ba      ,jamaica--on   
l&4     ,,ord] ,,iii4--,opi/hobran*iata4
    ,division a4--,tectibran*iata4      
,no4 (   ,family4  ,g5us4      ,species4
   ,di/ribution4     #ce4               
,tornatella     #af      ,r$ ,sea1      
,philipp9es1 ,japan--9 deep             
wat]4    #cf4     ,bulla          #ej   
,widely di/ribut$--l[ wat] to #cj       
fa?oms4    #cg4     ,aplysia        #dj 

,brita91 ,norway1 ,w4 ,indies--l[ wat]  
to #ae fa?oms on sea-we$4    #ch4       
,pleurobran*us #bj      ,brita91        
,norway1 ,m$it]ranean4    ,division     
b4--,nudibran*iata4     #ci-dd4         
,all %ell-less4     ,,ord]              
,,iv4--,nucleobran*iata4                
,no4 (   ,family4  ,g5us4      ,species4
   ,di/ribution4     #de4     ,firola   
#h      ,atlantic1 ,m$it]ranean4        
,c>9>ia       #e      ,atlantic &       
,indian ,oceans4    #df4     ,atlanta   
#ae      ,w>m] p>ts ( ! ,atlantic4      
,,class ,,iii4--,,pt]opoda4             
,division a4--,!cosomata4               
,no4 (   ,family4  ,g5us4      ,species4
   ,di/ribution4      #a4     ,hyalea   
#ai             ,cleodora       #ab     
,atlantic1 ,m$it]ranean1 ,indian ,ocean4
     #b4     ,limac9a        #b         
,arctic & ,ant>ctic ,seas4     ,division
 b4--,gymnosomata4      #c4     ,clio1  
etc4             ,%ell-less4    ,,class 
,,iv4--,,lamellibran*iata4              
,no4 (   ,family4  ,g5us4      ,species4

   ,di/ribution4    ,division           
a4--,asiphonida4      #a4    ,o/rea     
#ajj      ,_w-wide--9 e/u>ies1 atta*$4  
#b4    ,anomia          #bj      ,india1
 ,au/ralia1 ,*9a1 ,ceylon--             
atta*$ to %ells f l[ wat]               
to #ajj fa?oms4           ,placuna      
#d      ,sc9de1 ,nor? ,au/ralia1 ,*9a--9
                                        
bracki% wat]4     #c4    ,pect5         
#agf      ,_w-wide--f #c to #dj fa?oms4 
,lima            #bj      ,norway1      
,brita91 ,india1 ,au/ralia--            
f #a to #aej fa?oms4                    
,spondylus       #gj      ,tropical     
seas--atta*$ to coral-reefs4     #d4    
,avicula         #be      ,brita91      
,m$it]ranean1 ,india--                  
#be fa?oms4           ,p]na             
#ah      ,9 tropical seas--atta*$4      
,p9na           #cj      ,unit$ ,/ates1 
,brita91 ,m$it]ranean1                  
,au/ralia1 ,pacific--l[ wat] to         
#fj fa?oms4     #e4    ,mytilus         
#gj      ,_w-wide--betwe5 high & l[ wat]

                                    m>k4
           ,modiola         #gj         
,briti% & tropical seas--l[ wat]        
to #ajj fa?oms4     #f4    ,arca        
#djj      ,9 w>m seas--f l[ wat] to #bjj
                                        
fa?oms4           ,pectunculus     #eh  
,we/ ,indies1 ,brita91 ,new ,zeal&--    
f #h to #fj fa?oms4           ,nucula   
#gj      ,norway1 ,japan--f #e to #ajj  
fa?oms4     #g4    ,trigonia         #c 
,(f ! coa/ ( ,au/ralia4     #h4    ,unio
           #dbj      ,_w-wide--9 fre%   
wat]s4           ,anodon         #ajj   
,nor? ,am]ica1 ,europe1 ,sib]ia--9      
fre% wat]s4    ,division b4--,siphonida4
      #i4    ,*ama           #ej      ,9
 tropical seas on coral reefs4    #aj4  
,tridacna         #g      ,indian &     
,pacific ,oceans1 ,*9ese ,seas4    #aa4 
,c>dium        #bjj      ,_w-wide--f !  
%ore l9e to                             
#adj fa?oms4    #ab4    ,luc9a          
#gj      ,tropical & temp]ate seas--s&y 
&                                       

muddy bottoms--f l[ wat] to             
#bjj fa?oms4           ,kellia          
#bj      ,norway1 ,new ,zeal&1          
,cali=nia--l[                           
wat] to #bjj fa?oms4    #ac4    ,cyclas 
#fj      ,temp]ate regions--9 all fre%  
wat]s4           ,cyr5a         #acj    
,f ! ,nile & o!r riv]s to               
,*9a--& 9 mangrove swamps4    #ad4      
,a/>te         #bj      ,mo/ly          
,arctic--f #cj to #aab fa?oms4          
,crassatella     #cd      ,au/ralia1    
,philipp9es1 ,africa1 etc4    #ae4      
,cypr9a          #a      ,f ,brita9 to !
 mo/ nor!rly                            
po9t yet rea*$--f #e to                 
#hj fa?oms4           ,circe            
#dj      ,brita91 ,au/ralia1 ,india1 ,r$
 ,sea--                                 
#h to #ej fa?oms4           ,isoc>dia   
#e      ,m$it]ranean1 ,*9a1             
,japan--burr[+                          
9 s&4           ,c>dita         #ed     
,tropical seas--f %all[ wat] to         
#aej fa?oms4     #af4   ,v5us           

#agf     ,_w-wide--buri$ 9 s&1 f l[     
,cy!rea       #aac      wat] to #ajj    
fa?oms4           ,artemis        #ajj  
,nor!rn to tropical seas--f l[          
wat] to #ajj fa?oms4           ,tapes   
#hj      ,widely di/ribut$--burr[+ 9 s&1
                                    f l[
 wat] to #ajj fa?oms4           ,v5]upis
       #bj      ,brita91 ,can>ies1      
,india1 ,p]u--9                         
crevices ( rocks4     #ag4   ,mactra    
#abe      ,_w-wide--burr[+ 9 s&4        
,lutr>ia        #ah      ,widely        
di/ribut$--burr[+ 9 s&4     #ah4        
,tell9a        #cjj      ,9 all seas--f 
! %ore l9e to                           
#ae fa?oms4           ,psammobia        
#ej      ,brita91 ,pacific & ,indian    
,oceans--                               
f ! littoral zone to #ajj fa?oms4       
,sangu9ol>ia   #bj      ,w4 ,indies1    
,au/ralia1 ,p]u4           ,semele      
#fj      ,brazil1 ,india1 ,*9a1 etc4    
,donax           #fh      ,norway1      
,baltic1 ,brita9--9 s& ne>              

l[ wat] m>k4     #ai4   ,sol5           
#cc      ,_w-wide--burr[+ 9 s&4         
,solecurtus      #be      ,brita91      
,africa1 ,madeira1                      
,m$it]ranean--burr[+ 9 s&4     #bj4     
,mya             #aj      ,nor? ,seas1  
,w4 ,africa1 ,philipp9es1               
etc4--riv] m\?s f l[ wat] to            
#be fa?oms4           ,corbula          
#fj      ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,brita91        
,norway1                                
,m$it]ranean1 ,w4 ,africa1 ,*9a--       
f #ae to #hj fa?oms4     #ba4   ,anat9a 
#ej      ,india1 ,w4 ,africa1           
,philipp9es1                            
,new ,zeal&4           ,?racia          
#ag      ,gre5l& to ,can>ies & ,*9a--f  
#d to #abj fa?oms4           ,p&ora     
#ah      ,spitzb]g51 ,panama1 ,india--f 
#d to                                   
#aaj fa?oms1 burr[+ 9 s& & mud4     #bb4
   ,ga/ro*a5a     #aj      ,w4 ,indies1 
,brita91 ,r$ ,sea1 ,pacific             
,isl&s--f %ore l9e to #cj fa?oms4       
,saxicava                ,arctic ,seas1 

,brita91 ,m$it]ranean1                  
,can>ies & ! ,cape--9 crevices          
& bor+ into lime/one & rocks4           
,asp]gillum     #ba      ,r$ ,sea1      
,java1 ,new ,zeal&--9 s&4     #bc4      
,pholas          #cb      ,almo/        
univ]sal--f l[ wat] to                  
#be fa?oms4           ,xylophaga        
#b      ,norway1 ,brita91 ,s4           
,am]ica--bor+                           
into float+ wood4           ,t]$o       
#ad      ,9 tropical seas--f l[ wat] to 
#ajj fa?oms4     ,,"s ,,works ,,(       
,,ref]5ce4   ,,mollusca ,,9 ,,g5]al4  ,a
 ,manual ( ,mollusca4 ,by ,dr4 ,s4 ,p4  
,woodw>d4  ,tabul> ,view ( ! ,ord]s &   
,families ( ! ,mollusca4 ,publi%$ by !  
,society = ,promot+ ,*ri/ian ,k4        
,cassell's ,natural ,hi/ory1 late/      
edition1 article on ! ,mollusca4 ,by    
,dr4 ,h5ry ,woodw>d4   ,,briti%         
,,mollusca4  ,a ,hi/ory ( ,briti%       
,mollusca & _! ,%ells4 ,by ,pr(essor ,e4
 ,=bes & ,s4 ,hanley4  ,briti%          
,con*ology4 ,by ,j4 ,g4 ,jeffreys4      

,common ,%ells ( ! ,sea-%ore4 ,by ,rev4 
,j4 ,g4 ,wood4   ,,briti% ,,l& ,,&      
,,fre%-,,wat] ,,mollusca4  ,l& &        
,fre%-wat] ,mollusca indig5\s to !      
,briti% ,isles4 ,by ,lovell ,reeve4  ,a 
,pla9 & ,easy ,acc\nt ( ! ,l& &         
,fre%-wat] ,mollusca ( ,great ,brita94  
,by ,ralph ,tate4     ,illu/ration      
,,fossils4  ,,by  ,b4 ,b4 ,,woodw>d4    
,,fossils4   ,,introductory4   ,geology 
is ( all hobbies ! "o be/ calculat$ n   
only to develop ! physical p[]s1 b also1
 if pursu$ ) any degree ( e>ne/ness1 to 
tra9 & ext5d ! m5tal faculties4 ,to /udy
 geology prop]ly1 ! rocks !mselves mu/  
be visit$ & c>efully obs]v$1 _!         
appe>ance not$1 & ! fossils1 if any1 :i*
 !y conta91 collect$4 ,?is necessitates 
_m a pleasant walk into ! op5 c\ntry to 
qu>ries & cutt+s1 or rambles along !    
sea-%ore to cliffs :i* may be wor?      
inve/igat+1 :il/ botany1 entomology1 or 
any o!r cong5ial pursuit1 may be foll[$ 
on ! way2 = natural sci5ce 9 its diff]5t
 bran*es has s _m po9ts ( connection t x

 is impossible to /udy "o ( !m )\t      
increas+ "o's int]e/ 91 & k (1 all !    
o!rs4 ,aga91 9 arrang+1 classify+1 &    
/udy+ at home ! specim5s collect$ on ^! 
exp$itions1 _m an h\r may be usefully   
sp5t2 habits ( exactitude & neatness are
 acquir$2 :il/ 9 endeav\r+ to draw      
correct conclusions z to ! way 9 :i*    
p>ticul> rocks 7 =m$1 & by :at ag5cies  
br\ght to _! pres5t position1 ! reason+ 
faculties are ex]cis$ & develop$4  ,!   
exi/5ce ( fossil %ells & bones 9 v>i\s  
/rata ( ! e>?'s cru/ attract$ att5tion  
at a v e>ly date ( ! _w's hi/ory2 !     
,egyptian prie/s 7 aw>e ( ! exi/5ce (   
m>9e %ells 9 ! hills b\nd+ ! ,nile      
valley1 & f ?is fact ,h]odotus drew !   
conclusion t ! sea =m]ly cov]$ ! spot4  
,! bones ( ! l>g] mammalia 7rh9oc]os1   
elephant1 etc471 71 h[ev]1 ?\ght by !   
anci5ts to be human1 & h5ce arose ! idea
 ( a race ( giants hav+ exi/$ at "s     
previ\s p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,x 0 n1 
h[ev]1 until ne> ! end ( ! la/ c5tury t 
geology began to be recognis$ z a       

sci5ce1 & ! true be>+ ( fossils 9       
relation to ! rocks 9 :i* !y 7 f\nd 0   
conclusively prov$4 ,william ,smi? 9    
,engl&1 & ,w]n] 9 ,g]many1 :ile work+   
indep5d5tly ( ea* o!r1 bo? came to !    
same conclusion1 viz4 t ! num]\s /rata  
inv>iably re/$ on ea* o!r 9 a c]ta9     
ord]1 & t ?is ord] 0 nev] inv]t$1#a :il/
 ,william ,smi? 9 addition prov$ t ea*  
gr\p ( rocks1 & ev5 ea* /ratum1 _h its  
own peculi> set ( fossils1 by :i* x     
might be recognis$ :]ev] x occurr$4 ,f t
 "t =? ! /udy ( ! v>i\s fossils began to
 be consid]$ z a sep>ate sci5ce ap>t f t
 ( ! b$s conta9+ !m2 ?is is n[ kn[n z   
,palaeontology1 ! /udy ( ! composition (
 ! rocks !mselves be+ t]m$ ,petrology4  
#a ,except 9 su* cases :]e ! rocks      
!mselves h be5        displac$ by       
movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/4  ,at ?is mom5t1
 h[ev]1 we are less conc]n$ ) ! /udy (  
rocks & fossils ?an ) ! be/ & simple/   
way ( collect+1 prep>+1 & arrang+       
specim5s z a means to ?is /udy4     ,,! 
,,cab9et4   ,) reg>d to ! cab9et = su*  

specim5s z y are able to collect1 ! same
 advice holds good z t giv5 9 a previ\s 
,manual 7,! ,"y ,collector's ,%ell      
,book71 namely1 ! simpl] ! cab9et !     
bett]1 ?\gh ( c\rse c>d-bo>d boxes w\ld 
n z a rule be /rong en\gh to /& ! weight
 ( ! specim5s1 & h5ce x is advisable to 
h wood5 ones4 ,! boxes 9 :i* ,oakey's   
,well+ton ,knife-p[d] is s5t out 7!y    
measure ab\t #ae 94 x #aj 94 x #c 947   
are on ! :ole ! mo/ conv5i5t size1 & are
 easily obta9able at any oil &          
col\rman's4 ,^!1 :5 pa9t$ ov] ) ,b]l9   
,black1 aft] fir/ remov+ ! ext]nal      
labels1 look v neat4 ,! inside may be   
pap]$ accord+ to ta/e1 :5 ! trays may be
 arrang$ 9 ord] ready = ! reception (   
y\r specim5s4#b     #b ,= description ( 
trays1 see ,! ,"y ,collector's          
,%ell-,book4     ,,implem5ts ,,requir$  
,,:5 ,,collect+4   ,a c]ta9 am\nt (     
app>atus is ne$ful 9 collect+ geological
 specim5s4 ,x is necess>y to break op5 !
 h>d rocks 9 ord] to get at ! fossils   
)91 & = ?is purpose a /rong hamm] is    

requir$4 ,"o end ( ! hamm]-head %\ld be 
squ>e1 tap]+1 slightly1 to a flat /rik+ 
face2 = :5 ?us %ap$ ! edges & corn]s are
 less likely to break (f2 ! o!r side    
%\ld be produc$ into a r long1 flat1 &  
slightly curv$ pick1 t]m9at+ 9 a        
*isel-edge at "r-angles to ! h&le2 !    
total l5g? ( ! head %\ld n exce$ #ia_/b 
941 ! /rik+ face be+ #c 94 f ! c5tre ( !
 eye 9 :i* ! h&le 7#ah 94 long7 is      
ins]t$2 ! latt] %\ld be made ( ! t\ghe/ 
a%1 ,am]ican hickory1 or gre5-he>t1 &   
fix$ 9 ) an iron w$ge 7r\gh$ to prev5t  
its com+ out aga971 tak+ c>e t #a_/d 94 
( ! h&le protrudes on ! o!r side4 ,x is 
! usual practice1 b a mi/ak5 "o1 to cut 
x (f level ) ! hamm] head1 :i* is       
likely1 "u ^! circum/ances1 to come (f  
aft] x has be5 9 use = a "t1 :]eas1 by  
leav+ a small portion ( ! w$g$-out end  
project+1 ?is mis*ance is avoid$1 & y\r 
weapon w n fail ev5 :5 us$ to drag its  
own] up a /iff asc5t4 ,x is bett] to    
%ape & fix ! h&le y\rself1 z by ?is     
means y c n only cut x to fit y\r h&1 b 

may rely ^u its be+ prop]ly fa/5$ 94 ,by
 fil+ grooves ar\nd x an in* ap>t1 x w  
s]ve to take r\gh measurem5ts )1 :ile a 
firm grasp may be insur$ by bees-wax+   
in/ead ( poli%+ x4 ,ano!r & mu* small]  
hamm] w also be necess>y1 *iefly = home 
use1 to trim ! specim5s be=e putt+ !m   
away 9 ! cab9et2 ! head ( ?is hamm] mu/ 
n be m ?an #ba_/b in*es long1 ! h&le    
spr++ f ! c5tre2 "o end has a flat /rik+
 face1 squ>e 9 section1 ! o!r1 in/ead ( 
be+ =m$ l a pick1 is w$ge-%ap$1 ! %>p   
edge be+ at "r-angles to ! h&le4 ,next  
to a hamm]1 a cold *isel is indisp5sable
 to ! collector1 s9ce )\t its aid _m a  
*oice specim5 emb$d$ 9 ! middle ( a mass
 ( rock too l>ge to break ) ! hamm] w\ld
 h to be left beh9d4 ,!re is "o ?+1     
h[ev]1 to bew>e ( 9 us+ ?is tool--x has 
sometimes to be hit ) great =ce1 & %\ld 
y *ance to miss x & /rike y\r h& in/ead1
 ! result may be m s]i\s ?an ev5 a sev]e
 bruise4 ,to prev5t ?is1 procure f !    
%oemak] or saddl] a piece ( ?ick lea!r1 
ab\t #d in*es 9 diamet]1 hav+ a hole cut

 9 ! c5tre ?r\gh :i* to pass ! %ank ( ! 
*isel1 &1 ?us protect$1 y may wield !   
hamm] ) impunity4  ,= digg+ fossils out 
( clay1 an old1 /\t knife1 su* z !      
worn-d[n /ump ( a c>v]1 is h&y1 & 9 s&y 
b$s an ord9>y g>d5 tr[el is v useful1   
:il/ 9 a *alk-pit a small saw is        
sometimes ( great aid 9 extricat+ a     
desirable specim54 ,! same may be said (
 an ord9>y c>p5t]'s wood-*isel4 ,= pick+
 up small & delicate specim5s1 a pair ( 
=ceps %\ld be c>ri$1 :il/ )\t a pocket  
l5s no true naturali/ ev] /irs abroad4  
,an ord9>y /\t canvas sat*el1 su* z is  
commonly us$ by s*oolboys1 is ! be/ ?+ =
 c>ry+ home y\r specim5s2 ?is may be    
made mu* /rong] by ! addition ( two %ort
 /rips ( lea!r /it*$ on ! back & runn+1 
"o f ea* r+1 to :i* ! /rap pass+ ov] !  
%\ld] is fa/5$1 d[n to ! bottom ( ! bag2
 by leav+ a small portion un/it*$ ne> ! 
bottom ( ea* ( ^!1 wide en\gh = !       
%\ld]-/rap to pass ?r\gh1 ! sat*el may  
at a mom5t's notice be slung            
knapsackwise on ! %\ld]s--a me?od (     

c>ry+ x :i* is1 z all :o h tri$ x "k1 by
 f> ! mo/ conv5i5t :5 x is heavily lad5 
or n 9 imm$iate requisition4 ,a /\t     
lea!r belt may be worn 9 :i* to c>ry all
 y\r hamm]s1 support+ x on ! side :]e ! 
heavy hamm] hangs by a b& pass+ ov] !   
opposite %\ld]4 ,be=e />t+ on an        
excursion1 make a practice ( see+ t y h 
ev]y?+ ) y1 or :5 ! critical mom5t      
comes1 & "s *oice & fragile specim5 is  
ready to be borne (f1 y may f9d t y are 
)\t ! means necess>y = tak+ x home4 ,=  
ord9>y h>d specim5s1 newspap] well      
crumpl$ ar\nd !m is )\t its equal1 b "s 
( ! m delicate mu/ be fir/ wrapp$ 9     
tissue pap] or ev5 cotton-wool1 :il/ !  
mo/ fragile fossils %\ld be pack$ 9 t9s 
) bran or sawdu/1 ! p>ticles ( :i* fill 
9 all ! corn]s & press equally ev]y:]e1 
a useful faculty :i* cotton wool does n 
possess4 ,:5 nei!r ( ^! are to be       
obta9$1 dry s& w answ] q z well1 ?\gh x 
is heavi] to c>ry4  ,al?\gh n absolutely
 necess>y 9 ! field1 x is (t5 useful to 
h a small bottle ( acid 9 y\r pocket    

7nitric acid dilut$ to #a-ab? ) di/ill$ 
wat] is ! be/7 ) :i* to te/ = lime/ones2
 a drop ( acid plac$ on a rock w1 if !re
 be any c>bonate ( lime 9 x1 imm$iately 
beg9 to fizz4 ,f9ally1 e "y collector   
%\ld c>ry a note-book1 & c>efully record
 9 x :at he sees 9 ea* pit he visits1   
:ile1 if x c be procur$ or borr[$1 a    
geological map ( ! di/rict y are explor+
 is a great help1 = ) its aid & t ( a   
good compass y become practically       
indep5d5t ( mu* extrane\s assi/ance4    
,,h[ ,,to ,,use ,,y\r ,,implem5ts4   ,we
 w suppose by way ( illu/ration t ne> u 
fl[s a riv]1 on ! ris+ gr\nd above :i*  
is a pit t we propose to visit = !      
purpose ( putt+ our app>atus into       
practical op]ation4 ,:5 we h rea*$ !    
floor ( ! pit1 & /& look+ up at !       
section be=e u1 we are at fir/ r puzzl$ 
z to :at ! b$s1 :i* we see be=e u1 are2 
= z ! pit has n be5 work$ = "s "t1 its  
sides are p>tially ov]gr[n ) grass1 & 9 
places bits & pieces ( ! upp] b$s h     
fall5 d[n & =m a heap b5ea? :i* ! l[]   

ones lie buri$4 ,we mu/ !re=e make our  
way to ^? spots :]e ! b$s are left cle>1
 & f9d out1 if possible1 :at !y are4 ,by
 climb+ up "o ( ! heaps ( fall5 e>?     
7talus7 we rea* ! top1 :]e1 fir/ ( all1 
"u ! roots ( ! grass & %rubs1 we f9d !  
m\ld 9 :i* ^! gr[1 & :i* is =m$ ( !     
brok5 up 7dis9tegrat$7 rocks =m+ ! /ill 
high] gr\nd above1 & :i* ! ra9s1 fro/s &
 sn[s1 aid$ aft]w>ds by ! e>?worms1 h   
conv]t$ into m\ld4 ,?is1 geologically   
speak+1 is call$ surface soil1 & is "h  
ab\t two feet deep4 ,j bel[ x we f9d a  
lay] ( co>se gravel2 ! pebbles ( :i* ?is
 is compos$ are ( all sorts1 sizes1 &   
%apes1 & are /a9$ a deep br[n by oxide (
 iron4 ,mo/ ( !m are fl9ts1 & by dilig5t
 se>* y may f9d ca/s & impressions 9 ^! 
( sponges1 %ells1 sp9es ( sea ur*9s1    
etc4 ,fl9ts1 :e!r f gravel or _! p>5t   
rock ! *alk1 are easie/ brok5 by a light
 sm>t tap ( ! hamm]1 ?\gh :5 x is desir$
 to %ape !m = ! cab9et a s(t iron hamm] 
%\ld be us$1 & ! piece to be %ap$ plac$ 
on a s(t pad on ! knee1 = :5 /ruck ) a  

/eel hamm] fl9ts spl9t] 9 all           
directions1 & (t5 ?r\gh ! v portion y   
mo/ desire to pres]ve4 ,9 "o spot we f9d
 a mass ( s& includ$ 9 ! gravel2 ?is    
mass is ?icke/ 9 ! middle1 & tap]s away 
t[>ds ea* end1 its total l5g? be+ ab\t  
fifty feet4 ,c\ld we see ! :ole mass1 we
 %\ld probably f9d x to be a pat* ly+ on
 ! gravel & ?9n+ out all ar\nd its      
edges2 9 o!r words x w\ld be %ap$ l a   
l5s--l5ticul> z geologi/s t]m x4 ,:5 we 
exam9e ?is mass m closely1 we f9d t !   
lay]s ( s& d n run p>allel ) ! b$1 b are
 incl9$ 9 diff]5t directions1 sometimes 
ly+ "o way1 sometimes ano!r4 ,?is false 
b$d+ is due to ! s& hav+ be5 ?r[n d[n 9 
wat]s agitat$ by /rong curr5ts t swept  
ov] ! spot1 n[ 9 "o direction & n[ 9    
ano!r1 scatt]+ at "o mom5t half ! s& !y 
_h j pil$ up "o way only to r$eposit x !
 next m9ute 9 ano!r4 ,9 ! gravel also   
may be obs]v$ a simil> ?\gh less m>k$   
arrangem5t1 ow+ to ! l>g] size ( its    
con/itu5ts1 :i* ( c\rse requir$ a /ill  
/rong] curr5t action to wa% !m d[n4     

,among/ ! s& we n[ see "s %ells1 & set  
to "w to dig !m out v c>efully1 = !y are
 exce$+ly brittle4 ,! be/ specim5s are  
to be obta9$ by ?r[+ d[n masses ( ! s&y 
mat]ial & se>*+ 9 x2 b only ! /rong] &  
f9] examples w be> su* usage4 ,we next  
notice t ^! %ells are precisely simil>  
to ^? /ill f\nd ) liv+ occupants 9 !    
riv] bel[1 only !y are no long] ( a     
br[ni% col\r1 b ow+ to ! loss ( ! animal
 matt] ( ! %ell h an e>?y1 dirty-:ite   
appe>ance4 ,to c>ry ^! home !y %\ld be  
pack$ 9 bran 9 "o ( y\r t9s ) a note z  
foll[s made on a piece ( pap] & plac$ j 
inside--,s& 9 gravel3 topmo/ b$ ----    
pit1 ,augu/ #bnd1 #ahh-4 ,!n if y are n 
able to "w !m out at once on rea*+ home1
 y w n =get :5ce !y came4 ,f ! appe>ance
 ( ^! s&s & gravels1 & ! pres5ce 9 !m ( 
%ells exactly l ^? 9 ! riv] bel[1 x may 
reasonably be inf]r$ t !y once =m$ a    
portion ( ! b$ ( t riv] long ago1 be=e x
 _h scoop$ out its valley to ! pres5t   
dep?4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 some?+ else 9 ?is 
s&-b$--a piece ( bone protrud+2 cle>    

away ! s& above x1 & dig back until !   
:ole is visible4 ,x is brok5 ?r\gh 9 "o 
or two places1 b o!rwise is 9 fair      
condition2 remove ! pieces c>efully "o  
by "o1 & wrap !m 9 sep>ate pieces (     
pap]1 & !n proce$ to se>* = o!rs4 ,^!   
bones1 :i* are pl5tiful 9 "s ( our riv] 
valley gravel-b$s1 are ! rema9s (       
animals t once roam$ 9 ! =e/s :i* at t  
"t cov]$ ! c\ntry2 !y 7 probably ei!r   
dr[n$ 9 cross+ ! wat]1 or got /uck 9 !  
mud on ! banks on com+ d[n to dr9k4 ,a  
f9e collection 0 made at ,il=d by ! late
 ,sir ,antonio ,brady1 & is n[ 9 !      
,briti% ,museum 7,natural ,hi/ory7 at   
,s\? ,k5s+ton4 ,besides ! bones (       
animals1 y may expect to f9d examples ( 
all1 or ne>ly all1 ! diff]5t rocks 9 :i*
 ! riv] has cut its valley1 & samples ( 
^! may be pick$ out & tak5 home4 ,ea*   
specim5 %\ld be wrapp$ 9 a sep>ate piece
 ( pap] to prev5t its rubb+ aga9/ o!rs1 
c>e be+ tak5 to note ! locality ei!r by 
writ+ x on ! pap] or by affix+ to !     
specim5 a numb] correspond+ to "o 9 y\r 

note book aga9/ ! description y h writt5
 ( ! b$4 ,! gravel1 ) its accompany+ b$ 
( s&1 may be trac$ d[n1 by scrap+ away !
 surface1 = ab\t t5 feet1 :5 y w discov]
 t x re/s unev5ly ^u ! b$s bel[1 :i*1   
in/ead ( be+ horizontal1 slope 7dip7 9 a
 ,n4,n4,e4 direction1 mak+ an angle (   
ab\t #de deg4 ) ! floor ( ! pit2 !      
gravel !re=e re/s successively ^u !     
upturn$ ends ( ! l[] b$s1 &1            
geologically speak+1 is uncon=mable to  
!m4 ,n[ z ^! und]ly+ rocks 7 ( c\rse    
orig9ally deposit$ 9 an horizontal      
position1 !y mu/ h be5 pu%$ up & ! upp] 
p>ts worn away 7d5ud$7 be=e ! gravel 0  
deposit$ on !m1 = ! accompli%m5t ( :i*  
process an am\nt ( "t mu/ h elaps$ t x  
w\ld be impossible to reckon by ye>s4   
,:5 we come to exam9e ^! l[] b$s1 we f9d
 fir/ a /ratum ( /iff d>k-br[n clay     
conta9+ fossils dispos$ 9 lay]s3 ^? ne> 
! out] surface h be5 r5d]$ s brittle by 
! wea!r1 t x is necess>y to make use ( !
 pick end ( ! hamm] & dig a little way  
into ! face ( ! section be=e we come ^u 

"s :i* w be> removal by cutt+ !m out ) a
 knife4 ,pack !m 9 a t9 ) bran1 or1 :]e 
mu* clay /ill adh]es to !m1 wrap !m 9   
pap]4  ,! true top ( ?is b$ is n        
visible1 be+ conceal$ b5ea? a heap ( e>?
 9 ! corn] ( ! pit1 b we c see & measure
 ab\t six feet ( x4  ,! next b$ 9 ord]  
is a light br[ni% b& ( s&y clay t splits
 along its lay]s into ?9 pieces or      
lam9ae1 :5ce we may describe x z a s&y1 
lam9at$ clay4 ,on ! fre%ly split surface
 ( "o piece we see scatt]$ a numb] (    
small d>k] br[n fragm5ts2 an exam9ation 
) a pocket l5s cle>ly %[s t ^! are      
little bits ( leaves & /ems1 ) "h & !re 
a m p]fect specim54 ,^! b$s mu/ h be5   
deposit$ 9 ! /ill wat]s j (f ! ma9 /ream
 ( a l>ge riv] :i* br\ght ! plants      
float+ d[n to ?is spot1 :]e !y became   
wat]-logg$ & sunk2 s1 too1 if y exam9e !
 %ells 9 ! b$ imm$iately above1 y w see 
t !y are v l ?\gh n ! same z ^? :i* at !
 pres5t day love to dwell 9 ! mud (f !  
e/u>ies ( big riv]s 9 w>m] p>ts ( !     
globe2 h5ce we discov] t at "s f> di/ant

 p]iod a big riv]1 b "o :i* _h no       
connection ) t runn+ close by1 once fl[$
 ov] ?is v spot4 ,on trac+ ! leaf-b$    
d[n1 we come all at once1 at ab\t ?ree  
feet f its upp] surface1 ^u a n>r[ b& "o
 or two in*es ?ick ( a sub/ance compos$ 
( num]\s bits ( /icks & /alks closely   
matt$ toge!r & p>tially m9]aliz$4       
,vegetable matt] 9 ?is =m is kn[n z     
lignite1 & is "o ( ! fir/ /ages t[>ds ! 
=mation ( coal out ( plant rema9s4 ,bel[
 ?is lignite b& we f9d our leaf-b$ gett+
 s&i] & s&i]1 & los+ all trace ( !      
plants by degrees till x becomes almo/  
pure s&4 ,"h & !re1 h[ev]1 x conta9s "s 
curi\sly %ap$ masses1 :i*1 :5 brok5     
?r\gh ) ! hamm]1 seem compos$ ( no?+ b !
 same gra9s ( s& cem5t$ toge!r into a   
h>d mass4 ,9 "o !re is1 h[ev]1 a        
curi\sly %ap$ holl[1 :i*1 ^u exam9+ x   
closely1 y w see is a p]fect ca/ ( a    
small %ell t has itself disappe>$4 ,a   
drop ( acid on x fizzes away & s9ks 9   
betwe5 ! gra9s ( s& :i* 9 ?is spot      
become loose4 ,a mass ( s& or p>ticles (

 clay ?us cem5t$ toge!r1 be x by iron1  
lime1 or any o!r sub/ance1 is t]m$ a    
nodule or concretion1 & 9 ?is p>ticul>  
in/ance has be5 =m$ z foll[s3--,!       
ra9-wat] fall+ on ! s& :]e x comes to ! 
surface s9ks 9 & filt]s ?r\gh ! b$4 ,n[ 
!re is always a c]ta9 am\nt ( c>bonic   
acid 9 ra9-wat]1 & ?is acid act$ on !   
c>bonate ( lime ( :i* ! %ell 0 compos$1 
dissolv+ & disp]s+ x among/ ! neighb\r+ 
gra9s ( s& :]e x 0 re-deposit$1 cem5t+  
!m toge!r z we h se54 ,! bottom ( ?is b$
 ( s& we f9d to be j fifte5 feet f !    
lignite b& :5 measur$ at "r-angles to ! 
b$1 & x is succe$$ by a h>d greyi% rock1
 :i* requires a sm>t bl[ ( ! hamm] to   
break x1 b ! surface ( :i*1 :]e x has   
be5 expos$ to ! wea!r1 is mu* crumbl$   
7wea!r$71 & breaks readily into small   
pieces4 ,x is easily scrat*$ ) ! po9t ( 
a knife1 & !re=e is n fl9t2 moreov]1 x  
fizzes /rongly :5 t\*$ ) acid--h5ce !re 
is a great deal ( c>bonate ( lime 9 x1 &
 we "k t x is lime/one4  ,lime/ones are 
v l>gely1 sometimes almo/ entirely1 made

 up ( ! calc>e\s portions ( m>9e        
creatures1 su* z ! h>d p>ts ( corals1 ! 
te/s ( sea-ur*9s1 ! %ells ( mollusca1   
etc41 weld$1 s to speak1 into "o mass by
 ! heat1 pressure1 & *emical *anges :i* 
! b$ has und]gone s9ce its deposition at
 ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,!re w\ld be e       
reason1 !re=e1 "o might suppose1 to     
expect a numb] ( fossils 9 ?is b$2 b1   
alas6 disappo9tm5t awaits ! "y explor]1 
= ) ! exception ( *alk & a few o!r      
lime/ones1 ^! rocks are g5]ally ( su*   
uni=m texture t on be+ /ruck ) ! hamm]  
!y split ?r\gh fossils & all1 ! fractur$
 surface only too frequ5tly %[+ n\ght   
save a few obscure m>k+s4 ,b :at we fail
 to accompli% 9 our impati5ce1 nature   
effects by sl[ degrees1 & if y w turn   
ov] ! wea!r$ pieces & blocks ly+ ab\t1 y
 w soon f9d pl5ty ( fossils /ick+ out   
all ov] !m2 by a judici\s use ( hamm] & 
*isel any ( ^! may be deta*$ & add$ to  
y\r /ock1 ea* be+ sep>ately pack$ 9 pap]
 & ! locality writt5 on ! outside4 ,"s  
sev5ty or eighty feet is all t is       

visible ( ?is lime/one2 ! re/ is        
unexcavat$4  ,be=e leav+ ! pit1 x w be z
 well to select su* rock specim5s z y   
wi% to place 9 y\r cab9et1 trimm+ !m to 
! requir$ size on ! spot1 = %\ld y1 z is
 n unlikely1 spoil two or ?ree1 y c     
readily pick a fre% "o4 ,hav+ secur$ our
 specim5s1 we w take a look at our      
note-book1 to see if we h not$ all !    
details we require4 ,if s1 our entries  
%\ld run some?+ z foll[s3--,fir/1 we h  
made a r\gh sket* ( ! position ( ! b$s1 
c>efully numb]+ ea* "o2 !n foll[ our    
notes on ! individual b$s1 prec$$ by    
numb]s correspond+ ) ^? 9 ! sket*1      
?us3--    #a4 ,surface ,soil            
#b ft4   #b4 ,riv] ,gravel1 includ+ a   
l5ticul> mass (                  #c4    
,s&1 ) l& & fre%-wat] %ells & bones (   
#aj ft4      animals                    
#d4 ,/iff d>k-br[n clay1 ) e/u>9e %ells 
#f ft4 se54   #e4 ,light-br[n s&y clay1 
) leaves & /ems ( plants       #c ft4   
#f4 ,b& ( ,lignite                      
#b 94   #g4 ,same z #e1 pass+ into--    

#h4 ,pure ,s&1 ) lay]s ( concretions    
conta9+ ca/s           ( %ells          
#ae ft4   #i4 ,d>k-,grey ,lime/one1 )   
num]\s fossils             #hj ft4 se54 
,b$s #d to #i dip at an angle ( #de deg4
 to ! ,n4,n4,e4  ,our imag9>y pit is (  
c\rse only a sort ( geological ,juan    
,f]n&ez1 b x w s]ve 9 "s degree to      
illu/rate ! me?od ( deal+ ) v>i\s rocks 
& fossils :5 met ) 9 ! field1 & h[ !y   
may be/ be collect$ & c>ri$ home4 ,a few
 additional sugge/ions :]e to look =    
fossils may1 h[ev]1 be giv5 "h4 ,to beg9
 )1 ,i nev] neglect to se>* ! fall5     
masses1 especially _! wea!r$ surfaces1  
or to look c>efully ov] ! heaps ( qu>ri$
 mat]ials1 :atev] !y may happ5 to be1   
pil$ on ! floor ( ! pit4 ,9 work+ at !  
b$s !mselves1 rememb] t fossils         
frequ5tly occur 9 lay]s :i* ( c\rse     
repres5t ! old sea-bottom ( ! p]iod2 to 
f9d ^!1 x is necess>y to foll[ ! b$s 9 a
 direction at "r angles to _!           
/ratification1 till y arrive at !       
s\ght-= lay]s1 or zones4  ,d n be       

surpris$1 :5 collect+ f a =mation y h   
nev] be=e /udi$1 if ! fossils are n at  
fir/ app>5t1 ?\gh _m are kn[n to be     
pres5t4 ,! eye requires a few days 9 :i*
 to become accu/om$ to its fre%         
surr\nd+s1 & :5 ! same spot has be5     
c>efully hunt$ ov] e day = a week1 x is 
a/oni%+ :at a quantity ( fossils are    
disc]nible :]e n "o 9 ! fir/ in/ance 0  
recognis$4     ,,h[ ,,to ,,prep>e ,,!   
,,specim5s ,,= ,,! ,,cab9et4   ,! fir/  
?+ to be done on unpack+ our specim5s is
 to pick out ^? :i* require ! lea/      
att5tion1 & get !m out ( ! way4 ,^! w be
 y\r rock specim5s1 :i*1 if !y h be5    
trimm$ prop]ly 9 ! pit1 w n ne$ mu*     
fur!r manipulation2 a ^w or two1 h[ev]1 
z to ! be/ me?od ( proce$+ :5 x is      
desirable to r$uce a specim51 w n be out
 ( place4 ,if y wi% to divide x 9 two1  
or deta* any consid]able portion1 !     
specim5 may1 :ile held 9 ! h&1 be /ruck 
a sm>t bl[ ) ! hamm]2 z1 h[ev]1 x n     
frequ5tly happ5s t ev5 ) ! greate/ c>e !
 specim5 "u ?is treatm5t breaks 9 an    

opposite direction to t requir$1 x is   
advisable to adopt a some:at sur] me?od1
 namely1 to procure a block ( t\gh wood1
 & 9 ! c5tre bore a hole j l>ge en\gh to
 receive ! %ank ( ! cold *isel1 & ?us   
hold x 9 an upright position ) ! cutt+  
edge upp]mo/2 plac+ ! specim5 on ?is1 & 
!n hitt+ x imm$iately above ) ! hamm]1 x
 may be fractur$ ?r\gh 9 any requir$    
direction4 ,to trim (f a small          
projection1 hold ! specim5 9 y\r h& ) ! 
corn] t[>ds y & direct$ slightly        
d[nw>ds1 !n ) ! edge ( ! /rik+ face ( ! 
hamm] hit x a sm>t bl[ at ! l9e along   
:i* y wi% x to break (f2 ! object (     
incl9+ ! specim5 is to make sure t ! bl[
 %all fall 9 a direction incl9$ away f !
 portion y wi% to pres]ve1 a modus op]&i
 :i* x is necess>y to be> well 9 m9d if 
y w\ld n spoil _m a *oice specim54      
,any?+ beyond v g5]al directions1 h[ev]1
 x is impossible to give 9 su* matt]s z 
?is3 exp]i5ce1 & a few h9ts f ^? :o h   
!mselves _h practice 9 collect+ &       
arrang+ specim5s1 are wor? m ?an any    

writt5 description1 h[ev] l5g?y &       
elaborate4  ,hav+ r$uc$ y\r specim5 to !
 requir$ size & %ape1 ! next ?+ to be   
done is to write a neat little label =  
x--! small] ! bett]--/at+1 fir/ ! nature
 ( ! specim51 secondly ! geological     
=mation to :i* x belongs1 ?irdly !      
locality f :i* x 0 procur$1 & f\r?ly !  
date :5 acquir$1 ?us--    ,lime/one4    
,l[] ,c>bonif]\s4   ,qu>ry1 #a mile     
,n4,w4 ( ----              #ba4 #h4 #h-4
  rul+ a neat l9e at ! top & bottom 7r$ 
ink l9es give a m f9i%$ appe>ance ?an   
black74 ,:5 ! label is dry1 damp x to   
r5d] x m pliant1 & gum x on to ! flatte/
 available surface ( ! specim51 press+ x
 well into any small inequalities t x   
may hold ! firm]4 ,a small quantity (   
pure glyc]9e 7ab\t an eigh? "p7 %\ld be 
add$ to ! gum be=e use1 9 ord] to prev5t
 its dry+ h>d & brittle4 ,! specim5 is  
n[ ready to place 9 its tray & be put   
away 9 ! cab9et4  ,9 ! next place1 pick 
out ! fossils :i* y obta9$ f ! lime/one4
 ,) ! cold *isel set 9 its block ( wood1

 & ! trimm+ hamm]1 remove z mu* ( !     
surr\nd+ rock 7matrix7 z y c )\t damag+ 
! fossil1 & ) a small] *isel any pieces 
t may be /ick+ to & obscur+ x4 ,fossils 
9 s(t lime/one1 su* z *alk1 are be/     
clean$ ) an old p5knife1 & ne$les fix$  
into wood5 h&les1 & f9i%$ (f by !       
application ( wat] ) a nail-bru%4 ,%\ld 
y h ! mis=tune to break any specim5 9 ! 
process ( trimm+1 x %\ld at once be     
m5d$4 ,! mo/ effectual cem5t = ?is      
purpose is made by simply dissolv+      
is+lass 9 acetic acid1 or1 :]e ! specim5
 conta9s mu* iron pyrites1 & !re w\ld be
 a dang] 9 />t+ decomposition1 %ellac   
dissolv$ 9 spirits ( w9e4 ,:51 h[ev]1   
nei!r ( ^! are h&y1 *alk scrap$ ) a     
p5knife into a p[d]1 & mix$ ) gum to !  
consi/5cy ( a ?ick pa/e1 answ]s         
admirably4 ,fail+ ?is1 h[ev]1 gum alone 
w frequ5tly suffice4  ,! next ?+ is to  
place ! l k9ds toge!r 9 _! sev]al trays1
 writ+ a label1 z be=e1 = ea* tray1 b   
leav+ a blank space at ! top = !        
ins]tion ( ! "n :5 asc]ta9$4 ,! common] 

sorts may be nam$ f ! figures ( !m giv5 
9 ! text-books 7see li/ at ! back ( !   
title page72 b fail+ ?is1 x w be ! be/  
plan to seek ! help ( any fri5ds :o h   
collections1 or to take ! fossils to "s 
museum1 & comp>e !m ) ! nam$ specim5s   
!re exhibit$4 ,! label may be laid at ! 
bottom ( ! tray ) ! fossils loose on !  
top ( x1 ea* fossil be+ m>k$ ) a numb]  
correspond+ to "o on ! label4 ,ano!r    
plan is to fa/5 ! label by "o ( its     
edges to ! side ( ! tray2 or1 if !      
fossils are small & m\nt$ on a piece (  
c>d fitt+ into ! tray1 x may be gumm$ ) 
!m to ! c>d4  ,n[ let u take ! %ells we 
obta9$ f ! d>k-blue clay1 ) ^? & ! bones
 f ! old riv] b$ up above4 ,g5tly turn  
!m out ( ! t9s1 9 :i* !y 7 pack$ 9 !    
qu>ry1 on to a pap] or ! lid ( a        
c>d-bo>d box1 & ) a pair ( =ceps pick !m
 c>efully out ( ! bran1 & place !m 9    
l>ge %all[ trays1 tak+ c>e n to mix ^? f
 ! diff]5t b$s4 ,z we f\nd :5 collect+  
!m1 ^! %ells are extremely brittle f    
loss ( animal matt]1 & our fir/ object  

is !re=e to h>d5 !m by "s process1 s t  
!y w be> h&l+4 ,to accompli% ?is y mu/  
get a saucepan1 "o ( ^? wire            
contrivances = hold+ eggs :5 boil+1 or a
 big wire spoon1 su* z =m]ly 0 us$ =    
cook+ purposes1 a packet ( gelat9e1 & "s
 flat pieces ( t91 :i* la/ are easily   
procur$ by hamm]+ out an old mu/>d or   
o!r t91 hav+ previ\sly melt$ 9 a gas    
flame ! sold] :]e) x is jo9$4 ,half fill
 ! saucepan ) clean wat]1 & put 9 z mu* 
gelat9e z :5 cold w make a /iff jelly2  
melt ?is ov] ! fire1 plac+ ! fossils    
mean:ile 9 a w>m 7n hot7 corn] ( !      
fire-place2 !n :5 ! gelat9e is q        
dissolv$1 pile z _m ( !m1 :ole or 9     
pieces1 into ! egg-boil]1 or spoon1 z x 
w conta91 hold !m = a second 9 ! /eam1 &
 !n l[] !m gradually into ! hot gelat9e 
until x completely cov]s !m4 ,little    
bubbles ( air w rise & float on !       
surface4 ,z soon z ^! cease to appe>1   
raise ! fossils above ! surface & all[  
!m to drip2 !n pick !m up "o by "o ) !  
=ceps1 & spread !m out on pieces ( t9   

be=e ! fire1 b n too close to x4 ,z soon
 z _! ext]ior surfaces become dry1 &    
be=e ! gelat9e gets h>d1 !y %\ld be tak5
 up 7!y may be h&l$ fe>lessly n[71 & !  
sup]flu\s gelat9e /ick+ to ! surface    
g5tly remov$ ) a camel's-hair bru% dipp$
 9 clean w>m wat]2 o!rwise1 :5 dry1 !y  
pres5t an unnatural v>ni%$ appe>ance1 & 
h a t5d5cy1 on small provocation1 to    
become unpleasantly /icky4  ,small bones
 may be treat$ 9 l mann]1 b = l>ge ones1
 weak glue is to be pref]r$ to gelat9e1 
:i* is only suitable = ! f9] & m        
delicate objects4 ,:]e x is desir$ to   
h>d5 only a few ?+s1 x is bett] to mix !
 gelat9e 9 a gallipot1 :i* c be heat$ :5
 requir$ by /&+ x 9 a saucepan ( wat] on
 ! fire4 ,9 any case ! gelat9e ne$ nev] 
be wa/$1 z x w keep almo/ any l5g? ( "t1
 & c !re=e be put by = future use4 ,9   
default ( ! egg-boil] or wire-net spoon1
 an equally useful plan is to make a    
/ra9] f a piece ( p]=at$ z9c by turn+ up
 ! edges all ar\nd1 & atta*+ copp] wire 
to x by :i* to l[] ! fossils into !     

gelat9e1 & raise !m aga94  ,:5 ! fossils
 are q dry !y c be sort$1 & ^? :i* h    
come to pieces may be m5d$ ) diamond    
cem5t 7i4e4 is+lass dissolv$ 9 acetic   
acid71 & !n prop]ly labell$ & plac$ 9   
trays1 or m\nt$ z previ\sly describ$4   
,to ! plant rema9s & ,lignite !re is    
little t c be done beyond trimm+ !m to  
suit ! trays4 ,%\ld !re be mu* iron     
pyrites 9 ! ,lignite1 x is sure1 soon]  
or lat]1 to decompose1 :5 all t c be    
done is to ?r[ x away4 ,9 ! case1 h[ev]1
 ( valuable fruits & se$s1 su* z ^? f ! 
,london ,clay ( ,%eppey1 x is wor? :ile 
to pres]ve !m1 if possible1 9 almo/ !   
only way kn[n1 viz4 by keep+ !m 9       
glyc]9e 9 wide-m\!d /opp]$ bottles1 or  
by saturat+ !m ) p>aff94  ,hav+ prep>$ !
 specim5s = ! cab9et1 ! next ?+ is to   
arrange !m 9 prop] ord]4 ,!re are sev]al
 ways ( do+ ?is1 b = ^? :o h n _h mu*   
exp]i5ce ! foll[+ plan w be f\nd !      
be/3--,gr\p ! specim5s accord+ to !     
=mations to :i* !y belong1 & arrange ^! 
gr\ps 9 prop] sequ5ce 7vide ,table1 p4  

#af72 !n take ea* gr\p1 & arrange !     
specim5s x comprises 9 columns4 ,beg9n+ 
at ! top ( ! left-h& corn]1 place fir/ !
 specim5s ( ! rock itself1 & "u x any   
examples ( m9]als1 concretions1 etc41   
f\nd 9 t rock2 next ! fossil plants1 if 
any2 & f9ally1 su* animal rema9s z y h  
arrang$ accord+ to _! zoological        
sequ5ce1 beg9n+ ) ! l[] =ms 7vide       
,table1 p4 #cb74 ,unless cramp$ = room1 
ea* =mation %\ld beg9 a new box1 its "n 
be+ writt5 on a slip ( pap] & plac$ at !
 head ( ! columns ( trays4 ,a label     
sett+ =? its cont5ts %\ld be fix$       
outside ea* ( ! boxes1 :i* c !n be put  
away on y\r cupbo>d %elves4     ,,table 
,,( ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,fossilif]\s ,,/rata
 ,,arrang$ ,,9 ,,*ronological ,,ord]4   
,l& ,plants4-----------                 
,inv]tebrata4--------                   
,fi%es4------------                     
,amphibia4--------                      
,reptiles4------                        
,birds4-------                          
,mammalia4--                            

,man4-----                              
,alluvial ,deposits1                    
,quat]n>y1                         ,riv]
 ,valley                      or        
,gravels &                  ,plei/oc5e4 
,cave ,deposits4                        
,drift & ,glacial                       
,deposits4          ,v                  
,ca9ozoic1                              
,plioc5e4                            or 
,mioc5e4                                
,t]ti>y4                        ,eoc5e4 
,*alk4                           ,m     
,cretace\s4               ,upp] ,gre5s&4
                 ,e                     
,gault4                           ,s    
,o    ,neocomian4                ,l[]   
,gre5s&4        ,v         ,z           
,weald54                3         ,o    
3         ,i                            
,purbeck4                3         ,c1  
,upp]4,portl&4               3          
,kimm]idge ,clay4        3         or   
3                                  ,mid4
 ,coral ,rag4              3         ,s 

,oo-          ,ox=d ,clay4            3 
,e               lites4                 
3         ,c                            
,cornbra% &           3         ,o      
,=e/ ,m>ble4        3         ,n        
,jurassic4       ,l[]4,great ,oolite4   
3         ,d                            
,full]s' ,e>?4         3         ,a     
,inf]ior ,oolite4        3         ,r   
3         ,y                            
,lias4                   3              
3                                       
,trias1 or ,new           3         ,p  
,poikilitic4                 ,r$        
,s&/one4       ,v 8 ,v        ,a        
,p]mian4                            ,l  
,,ae                                    
,coal ,measures4               ,v       
,o                                      
,mill/one ,grit                       ,z
    ,c>bonif]\s4              & ,yor$ale
                       ,o               
,rocks4                             ,i  
,c>bonif]\s                        ,c1  
,lime/one1 etc4                         

or                                      
,devonian & ,old                        
,r$ ,s&/one4                     ,p     
,r                                ,ludl[
 ,b$s4                         ,i       
,w5lock ,b$s4                    ,v     
,m    ,silurian4                        
,woolhope ,b$s4                      ,a 
,t>annon ,%ale4                     ,r  
,ll&ov]y or ,may                   ,y4  
,hill ,gr\p4                  ,v        
,bala &                                 
,c>adoc ,b$s4                           
,ll&eilo ,flags4                        
,ar5ig ,gr\p4                           
,cambrian4                 ,tremadoc    
,slates4                                
,l+ula ,flags4                          
,m5evian ,b$s4                          
,longmynd &                             
,h>le* ,gr\p4                 ,v        
3                                       
,pre-,cambrian &                 3      
,laur5tian4                    8        
,,notes ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,=mations   

,,m5tion$ ,,9 ,,! ,,table4              
,,rec5t4--,! alluvial deposits ( mo/    
riv] valleys & "s e/u>ies /ill 9 c\rse (
 =mation1 conta9+ fossil %ells &        
mammals1 all ( liv+ species4            
,,quat]n>y1 ,,po/-,,plioc5e1 or         
,,plei/oc5e4--#a4 ,includ+ ! rais$      
bea*es ar\nd ! coa/1 ! old] gravels (   
riv] valleys & ! cave deposits1 9 all ( 
:i* ! %ells are id5tical ) ^? liv+ 9 !  
riv]s & seas ( to-day1 :il/ ! animals   
are _m ( !m ext9ct1 only a few be+ n[   
f\nd liv+ on ! spot4  #b4 ,! glacial    
drifts t cov] all ,engl& nor? ( !       
,?ames1 & :i* consi/ ( s&s1 gravels1 &  
clays1 full ( big angul> /ones frequ5tly
 flatt5$ on "o side1 scrat*$ & sometimes
 poli%$ f hav+ be5 fix$ 9 mov+ ice & =c$
 ov] o!r rocks4 ,a v int]e/+ collection 
( ^! b\ld]s1 z !y are call$1 c be easily
 made1 = !y belong to almo/ e =mation 9 
,engl&1 & h "s ( !m be5 br\ght f great  
di/ances1 :il/ ! numb] & v>iety         
obta9able f a s+le pit is a/oni%+4      
,,ca9ozoic1 or ,,t]ti>y4--,b$s ( ?is    

age1 9 ,engl& at all ev5ts1 are = ! mo/ 
"p made up ( comp>atively s(t rocks1    
gravels1 s&s1 & clays1 & are f\nd 9 !   
ea/]n & s\?-ea/]n c\nties4 ,!y are      
divid$ into--   #a4 ,plioc5e1 ma9ly     
consi/+ ( a s]ies ( iron-/a9$ s&s1 )    
abundant %ell rema9s1 & locally kn[n z  
crags4 ,! %ells are v p>tial 9 _!       
di/ribution1 ! b$s 9 places be+ almo/   
entirely made up ( !m1 :il/ 9 o!rs      
sc>cely "o is to be f\nd4 ,! great      
majority are ( ! same species z _m /ill 
liv+4 ,! ,plioc5e is subdivid$ into ?ree
 gr\ps3--  a4 ,! ,norwi* ,crag ,s]ies1  
sometimes call$ ! ,mammalif]\s ,crag1 z 
at its base ! bones ( ma/odon1 elephant1
 hippopotamus1 rh9oc]os1 & "s de] h be5 
f\nd4 ,! %ells 9 x are su* z /ill ab\nd 
on ! bea*es ( ! ea/]n coa/              
to-day--:elks1 scallop %ells1 cockles1  
p]iw9kles1 etc4  b4 ,! ,r$ or ,suffolk  
,crag1 its two names indicat+ its       
*>act]i/ic col\r 7a d>k r$-br[n7 & *ief 
locality4 ,f ! base are obta9$ !        
celebrat$ phosphatic nodules miscall$   

,coprolites1 :5ce is manufactur$ an     
artificial manure1 & ) !m are f\nd !    
roll$ & phosphatiz$ bones & tee? (      
:ales1 %>ks1 etc4 ,among/ ! %ells !     
,rev]s$ ,:elks 7,fusus contr>ius71      
,fect5 op]cul>is1 ,pectunculus          
glycim]is1 sev]al k9ds ( ,mactra &      
,c>dium1 etc41 are ! commone/4          
,walton-on-!-,naze1 ,felix/[e1 &        
,woodbridge are ! be/ kn[n localities4  
c4 ,! ,:ite or ,corall9e ,crag is       
g5]ally ( a pale buff col\r1 & is 9     
places almo/ entirely compos$ ( ! rema9s
 ( ,polyzoa4 ,^! 7=m]ly call$           
,corall9es1 :5ce ! "n ,corall9e ,crag7  
are beautiful objects = a l[-p[]        
microscope1 or pocket l5s1 & are easily 
m\nt$ 9 deep cells on slides4 ,! bits ( 
%ell & s& t /ick to !m %\ld be c>efully 
remov$ ) ! po9t ( a ne$le4 ,a v l>ge    
numb] ( %ells occur 9 ?is crag3 (       
bivalves1 ! ,pect5 is v abundant1 & its 
valves are frequ5tly ?ickly gr[n ov] )  
,polyzoa2 ,cypr9a ,isl&ica1 ,c>dita     
,s5ilis are also pl5tiful2 & (          

univalves1 ! g5us ,natica is common4 ,! 
,corall9e ,crag is be/ se5 9 !          
neighb\rhood ( ,aldbor\gh1 ,or=d1       
,woodbridge1 & o!r places 9 ,suffolk4   
#b4 ,mioc5e1 possibly repres5t$ 9 !     
,briti% ,isles by a small pat* ( clays &
 lignites at ,bovey ,tracey4   #c4      
,eoc5e1 divid$ into--  a4 ,upp] ,eoc5e1 
consi/+ ( a s]ies ( v fossilif]\s s&s1  
clays1 & lime/ones1 expos$ 9 ! cliffs at
 ! ea/]n & we/]n ends ( ! ,isle ( ,wight
 & on ! neighb\r+ coa/ ( ,hamp%ire4 ,!y 
are p>tly ( fre%wat] orig91 :5 !y conta9
 ! rema9s ( fre%wat] %ells su* z        
,limnoea ,palud9a1 ,planorbis1 etc42    
p>tly ( m>9e orig91 :5 %ells belong+ to 
su* g5]a z ,o/rea1 ,v5us1 etc41 take _! 
place2 p>tly ( e/u>9e1 :5 ! bracki% wat]
 mollusca are f\nd ) bones & scutes (   
crocodiles & tortoises4  b4 ,middle     
,eoc5e1 or ! ,bag%ot ,b$s1 compos$ ( s&s
 & clays4 ,! beautiful col\r$ s&s (     
,alum ,bay1 ! s&s ( ! ,surrey &         
,hamp/ead ,hea?s1 are famili> examples (
 ! b$s ( ?is age4 ,v few fossils inde$ h

 be5 f\nd 9 !m4 ,! clay-b$s on ! contr>y
 z se5 at ,b>ton & ,hordwell on !       
,hamp%ire coa/ & aga9 9 ! ,isle (       
,wight1 ab\nd ) %ells belong+ to g5]a   
su* z ,conus1 ,voluta & ,v5us1 t inhabit
 w>m seas4 ,) !m are ! ,nummulites1     
look+ ext]nally v l buttons1 b on !     
inside divid$ into innum]able *amb]s 9  
:i* ! complex animal t =m$ ! nummulite  
dwelt4  c4 ,l[] ,eoc5e1 ! well-kn[n     
,london clay1 may almo/ be said to      
compose ?is division1 = ! und]ly+ s&s1  
gravels1 & clays are 9 mass comp>atively
 insignificant4 ,! ,london clay conta9s 
pl5ty ( fossils1 only z !y are dispos$ 9
 lay]s 7zones7 at a consid]able di/ance 
ap>t1 !y are n (t5 hit ^u4 ,lay]s (     
,sept>ia or cem5t-/ones are ( frequ5t   
occurr5ce4 ,%eppy is ! great locality = 
,london clay fossils1 z ! sea annually  
wa%es d[n l>ge masses ( ! cliffs &      
breaks !m up on ! bea*4 ,a great _m     
fossil fruits & se$s1 rema9s ( crabs1   
%ells ( ,nautili1 ,volutes1 & o!r       
mollusca1 besides turtles1 a species (  

snake1 a bird ) tee?1 & a tapir-l       
animal1 h at diff]5t times & 9 v>i\s    
places be5 f\nd 9 ?is deposit1 :i*      
sometimes atta9s a ?ickness ( ov] #djj  
ft4 ,! ,bognor ,rock is a local v>iety (
 ! basem5t b$ ( ?is =mation4            
,illu/ration3 ,aturia ,zic-zac 7f !     
,london clay74   ,! ,,mesozoic or       
,,second>y rocks embrace a s]ies (      
lime/one1 clays1 s&s1 & s&/ones t on !  
:ole are well consolidat$4 ,! ma9 mass (
 !m lies to ! we/ ( a l9e drawn across !
 map ( ,engl& f ! m\? ( ! ,tyne1 9      
,nor?umb]l&1 s\?w>ds to ,nott+ham1 &    
!nce to ! m\? ( ! ,teign 9 ,devon%ire4  
,9 ! s\?-ea/]n c\nties !y und]lie !     
t]ti>y rocks ( ! ,london & ,hamp%ire    
bas9s1 z !y are call$1 at no great dep? 
f ! surface4 ,outly+ pat*es ( second>y  
rocks occur 9 ,scotl&1 :]e !y are f\nd  
ne> ,brora on ! ea/ coa/1 & 9 ! isl&s ( 
,skye & ,mull on ! we/4 ,9 ,irel& !y are
 scantily repres5t$ r\nd ab\t !         
neighb\rhood ( ,antrim4 ,! second>y     
rocks are divid$ into--   #a4           

,cretace\s4  a4 ,! ,*alk is too well    
kn[n to ne$ description1 ?\gh te*nically
 x may be describ$ z a s(t :ite lime/one
 *iefly built up ( ! microscopic %ells (
 ,=am9if]a1 & *>act]iz$ 9 its upp] "p by
 nodules & b&s ( fl9t4 ,^! fl9ts        
frequ5tly inclose ca/s ( fossils        
7sponges1 sea-ur*9s1 etc471 & sometimes 
%ells !mselves4 ,fossils1 too1 are      
fairly abundant1 scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! mass4
 ,among/ ! common] may be notic$ !      
sea-ur*9s1 su* z ! sug> loaf            
7,anan*ytes7 & ! he>t-%ap$ ,micra/]1 !  
,bra*iopods or ,lamp-%ells 7,t]ebratula1
 ,rhyn*onella71 a ,?orny ,oy/]          
7,spondylus sp9osus71 besides           
,ammonites1 ,belemnites 7"p ( ! int]nal 
%ell ( a k9d ( cuttle-fi%71 & ! tee? (  
sev]al species ( %>ks4 ,altoge!r ! *alk 
is ab\t #a1jjj feet ?ick4               
,illu/ration3 ,ammonites v>i\s 7f !     
*alk74  b4 ,upp] ,gre5s& is a s]ies (   
gre5i%-grey s&s & s&/ones4 ,! gre5      
col\r1 on close inspection1 is se5 to be
 due to ! pres5ce ( innum]able small    

gre5 gra9s ( a m9]al call$ glauconite4  
,^! are frequ5tly ca/s ( ! *amb]s ( ! v 
same =am9if]a t ! *alk is s l>gely      
compos$ (4    ,illu/ration3 ,rhyn*onella
 depressa 7a ,bra*iopod1 f ! ,upp]      
,gre5s&74  ,nodules & lay]s ( *]t 7an   
impure k9d ( fl9t7 occur 9 x1 :il/ 9    
places x =ms a h>d rock call$ fire/one4 
,! commone/ fossils are ,bra*iopods1 v  
simil> to ^? 9 ! *alk1 a scallop-%ell ) 
f\r /rongly m>k$ ribs on x 7,pect5      
quodrico/atus71 an oy/] ) a curv$ beak  
7,exogyra columba71 & a pe>-%ap$ sponge 
7,siphonia pyri=mis74 ,! ,upp] ,gre5s&  
is bett] se5 at places 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! 
,isle ( ,wight1 9 cliffs on !           
,dorset%ire coa/1 9 ,wilt%ire1 at       
,sidm\?1 & 9 "s p>ts ( ,surrey4         
,illu/ration3 ,ammonites auritus 7f !   
,gault74  c4 ,gault1 a /iff blue clay   
ab\nd+ 9 fossils3 ,ammonites (t5 reta9+ 
_! pe>ly %ell2 ,belemnites1 a bivalve ) 
v deep furr[s on x 7,inoccramus         
sulcatus71 & its fir/ c\s9 7,i4         
conc5tricus1 p4 #ba71 9 :i* ! ridge-l   

m>k+s correspond ) ! l9es ( gr[?1       
besides _m o!rs1 may be obta9$ 9        
abundance f x4 ,lay]s ( phosphatic      
nodules occur at irregul> int]vals4 ,!  
gault is be/ /udi$ at ,ea/ ,we> ,bay1   
ne> ,folk/one2 x may also be se5 9      
,dorset%ire1 ,wilt%ire1 &               
,cambridge%ire2 lately x has be5 f\nd z 
f> we/ z ,exet]4   #b4 ,neocomian4  a4  
,! s-call$ ,l[] ,gre5 ,s&1 nam$ 9       
contradi/9ction to ! ,upp] ,gre5 ,s&1   
includes a s]ies ( iron /a9$ s&s1       
s&/ones & clays ( great ?ickness4 ,!    
clayey b$s are se5 at ,a!rfield 9 !     
,isle ( ,wight1 & at ,nutfield 9        
,surrey1 :ile ! s&y b$s are met ) at    
,speeton1 at ,folke/one1 & ne> ,reigate4
 ,besides bra*iopods & oy/]s1 ^! b$s h  
furni%$ a species ( ,p]na 7,p4          
,mulleti71 an elongat$ mussel 7,g]villia
 anceps71 a pretty ,trigonia 7,t4       
cordata71 "s ,ammonites & ,nautili1 ) ! 
tee? & bones ( big reptiles4 ,!         
celebrat$ ,k5ti% ,rag & ! sponge gravels
 ( ,f>r+don are ( ?is age4  b4 ,weald54 

,! ma9 mass ( ^! rocks occupies ! area  
inclos$ betwe5 ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,d[ns1 &  
=ms ! ,valley ( ! ,weald1 :5ce !y take  
_! "n4 ,!y consi/ ( a s]ies ( s&s1      
s&/ones1 clays1 & %elly lime/ones t 7   
deposit$ 9 ! delta & (f ! m\? ( a big   
riv]4 ,! %ells 9 !m belong to fre%wat]  
g5]a1 ,cyr5a1 ,unio1 ,palud9a1 etc4     
,bones ( a huge liz>d t hopp$ along on 8
 h9d legs 7,iguanodon71 & ^? (          
crocodiles1 etc41 are f "t to "t br\ght 
to light4 ,! ,weald5 rocks occur also on
 bo? ea/]n & we/]n sides ( ! ,isle (    
,wight1 & 9 ,dorset%ire4                
,illu/ration3 ,inoc]amus conc5tricus 7f 
! ,gault74   #c4 ,oolites 7or           
,roe-/ones7 are s nam$ because !        
*>act]i/ic lime/ones ( ?is =mation      
resemble v mu* ! roe ( a fi%4 ,! small  
r\nd gra9s1 ( :i* ! typical examples are
 built up1 :5 cut or brok5 ?r\gh w be   
se5 to be =m$ ( num]\s lay]s ( c>bonate 
( lime1 dispos$ l ! coats ( an onion1   
ar\nd "s c5tral nucleus1 g5]ally a gra9 
( s&1 a fragm5t ( coral1 or ! %ell ( "o 

( ! ,=am9if]a4 ,!y are divid$ into      
,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,oolites1 & ^!   
aga9 are subdivid$ z foll[s--  ,upp]    
,oolite4  a4 ,purbeck ,b$s1 a s]ies (   
fre%-wat]1 ) a few e/u>9e1 or m>9e b$s1 
:i* 9 po9t ( fact connect ! deposits we 
are next com+ to ) ! ,weald5 j pass$4   
,!y conta9 num]\s fre%-wat]             
%ells--,palud9a1 ,physa1 ,limnaea1 etc41
 ) ! microscopic valves ( ! little      
fre%-wat] cru/acean ,cypris1 ^:         
desc5dants are abundant 9 ! riv]s &     
lakes ( to-day4 ,an oy/] occurs 9 !     
,c9d] ,b$ & ,plant rema9s 9 ! ,dirt     
,b$s4 ,b ! ,purbecks are be/ kn[n = !   
num]\s rema9s ( small mammals           
7,plagiaulax7 alli$ to ! kang>oo rat1 at
 pres5t liv+ 9 ,au/ralia4  b4 ,! ,portl&
 ,/one & ,s&1 :i* come next 9 ord]1 are 
l>gely qu>ri$ 9 ! isl& :5ce !y take _!  
"n4 ,! qu>rym5 po9t out fossils 9 !     
/one1 :i* !y call ,horses'-heads &      
,portl& screws4 ,! =m] is ! ca/ ( a     
,trigonia %ell2 ! latt]1 t ( a tall     
spir$ univalve 7,c]i?ium74  ,9          

,wilt%ire1 a coral 7,isa/rea oblonga7 is
 f\nd 9 ! s&y b$s1 ! orig9al calc>e\s   
matt] ( :i* has be5 replac$ by silex4   
c4 ,kimm]idge ,clay4 ,?is1 by ! pressure
 ( ! rocks subsequ5tly deposit$ on x1   
has 9 great] "p be5 h>d5$1 & possesses a
 t5d5cy to split 9 ?9 lay]s1 & h5ce is  
t]m$ by geologi/s a %ale4 ,x is se5 at  
v>i\s po9ts betwe5 ,kimm]idge on !      
,dorset%ire coa/ & ! ,vale ( ,pick]+ 9  
,york%ire1 & =ms broad valleys4 ,!      
pr9cipal fossils 9 x are ,ammonites1 a  
triangul>-%ap$ oy/] 7,o/rea deltoidea71 
& "o resembl+ a comma 7,exogyra         
virgula74  ,middle ,oolites4  a4 ,!     
,coral ,rag1 or ,corall9e ,oolite1      
comprises a mo/ v>iable set ( b$s1 b    
pr9cipally a s]ies ( lime/one1 ) fossil 
corals /ill 9 ! position 9 :i* !y grew1 
& resembl+ 9 =m ! reef-build+ corals ( !
 ,pacific4 ,!y re/ on  b4 ,ox=d ,clay1 a
 d>k blue or slate-col\r$ clay )\t any  
corals1 b conta9+ a great _m ,ammonites 
& ,belemnites4 ,! ,kell[ay ,rock1 a s&y 
lime/one at ! base ( ! ,ox=d ,clay1 is  

well develop$ 9 ,york%ire1 & furni%es   
among/ o!r fossils a l>ge belemnite & an
 oy/] 7,gryphaea dilatata74  ,l[]       
,oolites4  a4 ,cornbra%1 a v %elly      
deposit ( pale-col\r$ e>?y1 & rubbly or 
sometimes compact lime/one ) pl5ty (    
fossils4 ,! commone/ are ,bra*iopods1   
,limas1 oy/]s 7,o/rea ,m>%ii71          
,pholadomyas & ,ammonites4 ,x is be/ se5
 9 ,dorset%ire1 ,som]set%ire1 & ne>     
,sc>bor\gh 9 ,york%ire4  b4 ,=e/ ,m>ble 
& ,brad=d ,clay4 ,! =m] is an exce$+ly  
%elly lime/one1 (t5 splitt+ into ?9     
slabs4 ,on ! surfaces ( "s ( ! b$s may  
be se5 ! ripple m>ks ! sea made c\ntless
 ye>s ago1 & ! tracks ( worms & crabs t 
dwelt 9 ! mud or crawl$ on its surface  
at a "t :5 x 0 s(t mud4 ,! ,brad=d clay 
is a v local deposit1 tak+ its "n f     
,brad=d 9 ,wilt%ire1 :]e x is mo/       
develop$1 & its *>act]i/ic fossil is !  
pe>-%ap$ ,encr9ite or /one-lily         
7,apiocr9us ,p>k9soni74  c4 ,! ,great or
 ,ba? ,oolite1 compris+ a s]ies ( %elly 
lime/ones & f9e ,oolites1 or free/ones4 

,! latt] are l>gely qu>ri$ 9 !          
neighb\rhood ( ,ba?1 & us$ =            
mantelpieces & ! /one fac+s ( w9d[s4 ,! 
great ,oolite is ri* 9 univalve         
mollusca1 among/ :i* may be not$ a      
limpet 7,patella rugosa7 & ! h&some1    
tall-spir$ ,n]9aea ,voltzii1 num]\s     
bivalves belong+ to ! g5]a ,pholadomya  
,trigonia1 ,o/rea 7,o4 greg>ia71 &      
,pect51 besides ,bra*iopods 7,t]ebratula
 digona1 :i* looks v l a sack ( fl\r1 & 
,t4 p]ovalis1 etc474  ,at ! base ( !    
,great ,oolite are ! ,/onesfield slates1
 s-call$--a s]ies ( ?9 %elly ,oolites1  
etc41 t split readily into v ?9 slabs4  
,!y are pr9cipally ( int]e/ to geologi/s
 on acc\nt ( ! discov]y 9 !m ( ! rema9s 
( small insect-fe$+ & possibly p\*$     
mammals4 ,) ^! are associat$ ! bones ( t
 big reptile ! ,megalosaurus2 ! fly+    
liz>ds call$ ,pt]odactyles2 fi% tee? &  
sp9es2 lamp %ells2 oy/]s1 a ,trigonia   
7,t4 impressa72 & ! impressions (       
insects1 includ+ a butt]fly1 & ( plants4
  d4 ,full]s' ,e>?1 a clayey deposit    

occurr+ 9 ! s\?we/]n p>ts ( ,engl&1 b n 
9 ! nor?4 ,x ab\nds ) a small oy/] 7,o4 
acum9ata7 & ,bra*iopods 7e4g4           
,t]ebratula orni?ocephala71 etc4  e4    
,inf]ior ,oolite 7includ+ ! ,mid=d      
,s&s74 ,z ^! b$s are foll[$ across !    
c\ntry f ! s\?-we/ ( ,engl& to          
,york%ire1 !y are f\nd to *ange greatly 
9 "*4 ,lime/one & m>9e b$s 9 ! s\? are  
replac$ by s&y & e/u>9e b$s 9 ! nor?4   
,among/ o!r fossils f b$s ( ?is age may 
be f\nd sev]al ,e*9od]ms1 a cr9kly lamp 
%ell 7,t]ebratula frimbriata71 & a sp9y 
"o 7,rhyn*onella sp9osa71 bivalves      
belong+ to ! ,g5]a ,o/rea1 ,trigonia1   
,pholadomya1 etc41 & "s v h&some        
,ammonites 7e4g4 ,a4 ,humphresianus74   
,illu/ration3 ,i*?yosaurus1 or          
,fi%-liz>d 7f ! ,lias74    ,illu/ration3
 ,plesiosaurus 7f ! ,lias74   #d4 ,lias4
  ,?is = ! mo/ "p consi/s ( v regul>    
alt]nations ( argillace\s 7clayey7      
lime/one & clay1 or %ale4 ,x is ( great 
?ickness1 & h5ce = conv5i5ce has be5    
divid$ into 7a7 ,upp] ,lias1 7b7 ,middle

 ,lias or ,m>l-/one1 & 7c7 ,l[] ,lias4  
,a l>ge numb] ( fossils are to be f\nd 9
 x4 ,lyme ,regis & ,:itby are p]haps !  
be/ kn[n localities2 ! =m]1 on acc\nt ( 
! great numb] ( specim5s obta9$ ( ! huge
 fi%-liz>d 7,i*?yosaurus1 p4 #bd71 &    
long-neck$ ,plesiosaurus 7p4 #be71      
besides numb]less fi%2 :il/ ! latt] is  
r5[n$ = its jet 7or fossiliz$ wood7 &   
its snake-/ones 7,ammonites71 conc]n+   
:i* curi\s old /ories are told4         
,ammonites are pl5tiful 9 ! ,lias1 :i*  
has be5 subdivid$ into zones1 or lay]s1 
nam$ aft] ! ammonite occurr+ 9 greate/  
numb]s 9 t p>ticul> zone4 ,!re is "o ?9 
lime/one b& 9 ! ,m>l/one compos$        
entirely ( ! %ells ( ,ammonites         
planico/atus4 ,a curi\s k9d ( oy/]      
7,gryphaea incurva71 locally kn[n z !   
devil's to5ail1 a huge ,lima 7,l4       
gigantea71 a magnific5t ,encr9ite       
7,extracr9us ,bri>eus71 & num]\s o!r    
fossils1 are also to be obta9$ by pati5t
 se>*4    ,illu/ration3 ,belemnitas     
elongatus7f ! ,lias74   #e4 ,rhaetic1   

,p5>? ,b$s1 or ,:ite ,lias4  ,^! b$s are
 n ( any consid]able ?ickness1 b are v  
p]si/5t1 & ( great int]e/1 inasmu* z !y 
yield ! rema9s ( ! olde/ kn[n mammal    
7,microle/es71 a small insect-fe$]4 ,!y 
are compos$ ( lime/ones1 %ales & m>ls   
7i4e4 limey clays71 & are be/ /udi$ 9   
,som]set%ire & ,dorset%ire4 ,! l&scape  
m>ble belongs to ?is =mation1 :i* also  
conta9s a bone b$1 or ?9 lay] made up ( 
! bones & tee?1 etc41 ( fi%4 ,%ells are 
n num]\s1 ?\gh ! ca/s ( "o species      
7,avicula contorta7 is pl5tiful4   #f4  
,trias1 or ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 a ?ick     
s]ies ( s&/ones & m>ls1 ! great mass (  
:i* =ms ! subsoil ( ! we/]n midl&       
c\nties1 ,birm+ham be+ ne>ly 9 ! c5tre1 
!nce !y ext5d 9 ?ree directions1 "o     
bran* pass+ t[>ds ! nor?-we/1 ?r\gh     
,*e%ire1 to ! sea at ,liv]pool1 reappe>+
 on ! coa/ l9e ( ,lanca%ire1 ,we/morel&1
 & ,cumb]l&1 :]e x also =ms ! ,valley ( 
! ,ed54 ,ano!r bran* ext5ds ?r\gh ,d]by 
& ,york to ,s\? ,%ields1 :il/ ! ?ird may
 be trac$ s\?w>ds 9 isolat$ pat*es d[n  

into ,devon%ire4  ,!re are sc>cely any  
fossils 9 x1 b 9 ,worce/]%ire &         
,w>wick%ire ! bivalve %ell ( a small    
cru/acean 7,e/h]ia m9uta7 occurs 9 !    
upp] b$s2 :il/ n[ & aga9 ! tee? & bones 
( "s /range amphibians 7,labyr9?odon71  
or ! impressions ( _! feet 7,*eiro!rium7
 :]e !y crawl$ on ! !n s(t mud ( !      
=e%ore1 are f\nd4 ,! ,trias is divid$   
into ,upp] ,trias or ,keup]1 & ,l[]     
,trias or ,bunt]4 ,! middle b$s         
7,mus*elkalk71 :i* are f\nd 9 ,g]many1  
:]e !y conta9 pl5ty ( fossils1 are want+
 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,9 ! l[] b$s ( ! ,keup]1 
lay]s ( rock salt1 sometimes ( great    
?ickness1 occur1 :il/ ca/s 7call$       
pseudomorphs7 ( deta*$ salt-cry/als are 
f\nd abundantly 9 ! s&y m>ls4 ,nor?wi*1 
,nantwi*1 ,droitwi*1 & sev]al o!r t[ns 9
 ,*e%ire & ,worce/]%ire1 are fam$ = _!  
salt works1 ! salt be+ ei!r m9$ or pump$
 up z br9e f ^! b$s4    ,illu/ration3   
,c]atites nodosus 7f ! ,mus*elkalk74    
,,palaeozoic or ,,prim>y4--,b$s ( ?is   
age g5]ally possess a m cry/all9e &     

slaty /ructure ?an any ( ^? already     
m5tion$1 are usually m highly incl9$ &  
di/urb$1 & =m = ! mo/ "p m elevat$      
gr\nd4 ,!y are ! pr9cipal /ore-h\ses (  
our m9]al weal?1 conta9+ z !y d coal1   
iron1 & o!r metals4 ,! ,palaeozoic rocks
 are f\nd 9 ,engl& to ! nor? & we/ ( !  
second>y s]ies1 b5ea? :i* !y disappe> :5
 trac$ to ! s\?-ea/4 ,wales1 & ! great] 
"p ( ,scotl& & ,irel&1 consi/ ( b$s (   
?is age4   #a4 ,p]mian4 ,"u ?is t]m are 
includ$ b$s ( r$ s&/ones & m>ls1 closely
 resembl+ ^? ( ,trias1 & l !m conta9+ b 
few fossils1 z well z a v fossilif]\s   
lime/one1 kn[n z ! ,magnesian ,lime/one1
 f ! abundance ( magnesia x conta9s4 ,a 
pretty polyzoan 7,f5e/ella reti=mis71 a 
sp9y bra*iopod 7,productus horridus71   
v>i\s g5]a ( fi%1 *iefly f\nd 9 a m>l   
/ate und]ly+ ! lime/one1 "s             
,labyr9?odonts & plant rema9s1 are !    
pr9cipal =ms met ) 9 ?is =mation4   #b4 
,c>bonif]\s4 ,?is1 f a comm]cial po9t ( 
view1 is ! mo/ important ( all !        
=mations1 compris+ z x does ! coal-be>+ 

/rata4 ,x is subdivid$ into--  a4       
,coalmeasures1 a s]ies ( s&/ones & %ales
 ) :i* are int]/ratifi$ ! seams ( coal1 
v>y+ 9 ?ickness f six in*es to z mu* 9  
"o in/ance z ?irty feet4  ,coal is !    
c>boniz$ rema9s ( innum]able plants1    
*iefly f]ns & gigantic clubmosses1 t    
grew 9 swamps bord]+ on ! sea-coa/ ( !  
p]iod4 ,ea* coal seam is und]la9 by a b$
 ( clay call$ "u-clay1 conta9+ ! roots (
 ! plants t grew on x4 ,"s ( ! be/      
impressions ( f]ns1 etc41 are to be     
obta9$ 9 ! %aley b$s =m+ ! ro( ( ! coal 
seam2 _m good specim5s1 h[ev]1 are to be
 got by se>*+ ! refuse heap at ! pit's  
m\?4 ,besides plants1 ! rema9s ( fi% are
 abundant 9 "s ( ! b$s ( %ale4 ,& 9     
,nova ,scotia ! bones ( air-brea?+      
reptiles & l& snails h be5 discov]$4    
,cockroa*es & o!r insects 7 also d5iz5s 
( ! c>bonif]\s =e/s4  ,! foll[+ are !   
pr9cipal coalfields3--    #a4           
,nor?umb]l& & ,durham coalfield4   #b4  
,s\? ,lanca%ire coalfield4   #c4        
,d]by%ire coalfield4   #d4 ,leice/]%ire 

& ,/af=d%ire coalfields4   #e4 ,s\?     
,wales coalfield4   #f4 ,bri/ol &       
,som]set coalfields4  b4 ,mill/one grit 
or ,f>ewell-rock4 ,! =m] t]m expla9s    
itself1 ! latt] designation has be5     
appli$ to x 9 ! s\!rn di/ricts1 because 
:5 x is rea*$1 !n good-bye to all       
workable coal-seams4  ,x consi/s ( co>se
 s&/ones1 %ales1 & conglom]ates ) a few 
small seams ( coal4 ,fossils are n v    
common 9 x4  c4 ,yor$ale ,rocks1 a s]ies
 ( flag/ones1 grit/ones1 lime/ones &    
%ales1 ) seams ( coal1 occurr+ 9 !      
nor!rn c\nties4 ,x is und]la9 by--  d4  
,c>bonif]\s or ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 :i* 9 
places is upw>ds ( #a1jjj feet ?ick1 &  
full ( fossils4 ,! /ems ( encr9ites1 or 
/one-lilies1 corals1 bra*iopods 7e4g4   
,productus1 ,or?is1 etc471 & ,mollusca1 
includ+ "s ,cephalopods1 l ,goniatites &
 ! /raight ,nautilus 7,or?oc]as71 ) fi% 
tee?1 etc41 g to compose ?is t\gh1      
blui%-grey lime/one :i* is l>gely qu>ri$
 = m>ble mantlepieces1 etc4  e4 ,!      
,tu$ian gr\p 9 ! nor?1 & ,l[] ,lime/one 

,%ale 9 ! s\?1 foll[ next1 & consi/ (   
%ales1 s&/ones1 lime/ones1 &            
conglom]ates1 v>y+ greatly 9 diff]5t    
di/ricts1 & conta9+ few fossils4   #c4  
,devonian or ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,to ?is  
age are assign$ a p]plex+ s]ies ( /rata1
 ! pr9cipal memb]s ( :i* consi/ ( 7a7 a 
?ick lime/one1 well se5 9 ! cliffs &    
m>ble qu>ries ( s\? ,devon1 & full (    
fossil-corals 7e4g4 ,favosites          
polymorpha or c]vicornis7 ,bra*iopods1 &
 ,mollusca1 etc4  b4 ,a s]ies ( s&/ones1
 slates1 & lime/ones 9 ,nor? ,devon     
conta9+ ,trilobites 7,phacops1          
,bronteus1 etc471 ,bra*iopods1 & o!r    
fossils4  c4 ,! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one (      
,wales1 ! ,nor? ( ,engl&1 & ,scotl&1    
consi/+ ( r$ & grey s&/one & m>ly b$s1 )
 rema9s ( fi%4  ,^! fi%1 unlike mo/ n[  
liv+1 7 m or less cov]$ ) h>d ext]nal   
plates1 & possess$ m]ely a c>tilag9\s   
skeleton4 ,9 "o set ( individuals1 inde$
 7,pt]i*?ys71 ! arm\r plates =m$ q a    
little box4 ,^! creatures propell$      
!mselves by means ( two arm-l flipp]s1 r

 ?an f9s4 ,!y 7 b a few in*es long1 &   
appe> pigmies 9 contra/ to ! /range     
half-lob/]-l cru/acean1 ,pt]ygotus1 t   
liv$ ) !m1 & atta9$ sometimes z mu* z   
five feet 9 l5g?4   #d4 ,silurian4 ,nam$
 by ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison aft] a tribe
 ( ,anci5t ,britons t dwelt 9 t "p (    
,wales1 :]e ^! rocks 7 fir/ obs]v$4 ,"s 
( ,mur*ison's ,l[] ,silurian b$s 7      
includ$ by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick 9 8       
,cambrian1 ( :i* we %all h to speak     
next2 & z ^! two geologi/s nev] c\ld    
agree on a divisional l9e betwe5 _!     
respective =mations1 & s9ce succe$+     
obs]v]s h foll[$ sometimes "o &         
sometimes ! o!r me?od ( classification1 
consid]able confusion has result$4 ,"h1 
h[ev]1 = sev]al reasons1 we propose to  
foll[ ,s$gwick's arrangem5t2 & h5ce1 "u 
! t]m ,silurian1 reta9 only ,mur*ison's 
,upp] b$s4 ,!y consi/ ( a s]ies (       
s&/ones1 grit/ones1 conglom]ates1 %ales1
 lime/ones1 etc4  ,among/ ! m important 
fossils1 :i* are v abundant 9 !         
lime/ones1 are v>i\s corals 7e4g4 !     

,*a9-coral ,halysites71 ,/>-fi%1        
,cr9oids1 ,trilobites 7,phacops1 etc471 
,polyzoa1 ,bra*iopods & ,mollusca1      
especially ,cephalopoda 7,or?oc]as1     
,nautilus1 etc474  ,^! rocks occur      
pr9cipally 9 ! bord] l& betwe5 ,engl& & 
,wales1 & ! adjac5t c\nties2 b are also 
repres5t$ 9 ,we/morel&1 ,scotl&1 &      
,irel&4 ,_! pr9cipal subdivisions are   
giv5 9 ! ,table on p4 #af4              
,illu/ration3 ,trilobite 7,asaphus      
c&atus71 7f ! ,silurian74               
,illu/ration3 ,or?oc]as subannulatum 7f 
! ,silurian74   #e4 ,cambrian4 ,"u ?is  
t]m1 d]iv$ f ! old "n = ,wales1 are     
includ$ _m s&/ones1 grits1 slates &     
flags1 ) "h & !re a lime/one b&4 ,!y =m 
! great] "p ( ! we/]n c\nties ( ,wales1 
:]e !y rise to a consid]able height     
above ! sea level4 ,! highe/ hills (    
,we/morel& & m ?an half ( ,scotl& are   
compos$ ( b$s ( ?is age4  ,! fossils1   
save 9 ! lime/one b&s1 are n easy to    
f9d1 b 9 places !y are fairly abundant4 
,bra*iopods are f> m num]\s ?an !       

,mollusca prop]ly s-call$4 ,( ^!1 ! g5us
 ,or?is 0 mo/ abundant at ab\t ! close (
 ?is p]iod4 ,c]ta9 b$s ( ?is age h      
receiv$ ! "n ( ,l+ula ,flags1 ow+ ?is   
preval5ce 9 !m ( ! curi\s ,bra*iopod    
,l+ula s l ! species n[ liv+ 9 "s ( !   
w>m seas ( ! tropics4 ,! ,trilobites    
includ$ sev]al =ms1 & "o species        
7,p>adoxides ,davidis7 atta9$ ! l5g? (  
ne>ly two feet4 ,a few />-fi%1 "s       
,hydrozoans 7,graptolites71 & ! tubes & 
ca/s ( ,annelides & tracks (            
,trilobites1 complete ! li/ ( m         
rem>kable fossils4 ,! subdivisions ( !  
,cambrian rocks w be f\nd 9 ! table on  
p4 #af4   #f4 ,pre-,cambrian4--,ne> ,/4 
,david's ,head & "s o!r places 9 ,wales1
 9 ,anglesea1 ,%rop%ire1 etc41 "s yet   
old] rocks h be5 f\nd4 ,!y are probably 
= ! mo/ "p ( volcanic orig91 b !y h be5 
s mu* *ang$ s9ce !y 7 fir/ deposit$1 & z
 hi!rto no fossils h be5 f\nd 9 !m1     
little is kn[n conc]n+ !m4  ,p>ts ( !   
we/]n coa/ ( ,nor!rn ,scotl& & !        
,hebrides are compos$ ( a cry/all9e rock

 call$ ,gneiss1 & suppos$ to be ! olde/ 
memb] ( ! ,briti% /rata4 ,no fossils h  
be5 f\nd 9 x4    ,illu/ration3 ,skull ( 
,de9o!rium giganteum1 a huge ext9ct     
animal1 relat$ to ! elephants 7f !      
,mioc5e ( ,g]many74   ,,volcanic        
,,rocks4 ,al?\gh !re are =tunately no   
volcanoes to di/urb ! peace ( our c\ntry
 at ! pres5t day1 !re is abundant       
evid5ce ( _! exi/5ce 9 ! pa/4 ,n only   
are "s ( ! b$s1 especially ^? (         
,paleozoic age1 compos$ ( ! du/ & a%es  
?r[n out ( volcanoes1 ) "h & !re a lava 
fl[ n[ h>d5$ into solid rock1 b ! /umps 
( ! volcanoes !mselves are left to tell 
! tale4 ,! cones inde$ are gone1 c>ri$  
(f piecemeal by ! ra9 & fro/s1 & o!r    
de/ructive ag5cies1 9 ! c\rse ( c\ntless
 ages3 n s ! once fluid rock )92 t cool$
 d[n into ,granite1 & ?\gh orig9ally    
bel[ ! surface1 x n[1 ow+ to ! removal (
 ! ov]ly+ s(t] /rata1 =ms rais$ gr\nd   
ov]look+ ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,! granite  
masses ( ,cornwall1 ( ,d>tmoor1 9 !     
s\?-we/ ( ,mt4 ,sorrel2 ! v>iety call$  

,sy5ite at ,malv]n & ,*>nwood ,=e/2 !   
,basalts ( ! ,*eviot ,hills & ( ,antrim2
 ! volcanic rocks ( ,ar?ur's ,seat1     
,ed9burgh1 & ( ! isl&s ( ,skye & ,mull1 
etc41 are examples ( ?is class ( rock4  
,!y are ( diff]5t ages1 & belong to     
diff]5t p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 f e>ly 
,palaeozoic d[n to ,mioc5e times4       
,,table ,,( ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,divisions  
,,( ,,! ,,animal ,,k+dom1 ,,to ,,%[ ,,! 
,,ord] ,,9 ,,:i* ,,! ,,fossils ,,%\ld   
,,be ,,arrang$4   ,,inv]tebrata4        
,=am9if]a1 m9ute *amb]$ %ells l !       
,nummulite4   ,spongida1 ,sponges4      
,hydrozoa1 ,graptolites1 etc4           
,act9ozoa1 ,corals4   ,e*9od]mata1      
,sea-ur*9s1 ,/one-lilies1 ,/>fi%1 etc4  
,annelida1 ,worm tracks4   ,cru/acea1   
,trilobites1 ,crabs1 etc4   ,ara*nida1  
,scorpions & ,spid]s4   ,myriapoda1     
,c5tip$es4   ,insecta1 ,beetles1        
,butt]flies1 etc4   ,polyzoa 7,bryozoa7 
or ,moss ,animals4   ,bra*iopods1       
,lamp%ells4                             
,lamellibran*iata1 ,bivalves4  ,mollusca

    ,ga/]opoda1 ,univalves4             
,cephalopoda1 ,cuttlefi%1 ,ammonites4   
,,v]tebrata4   ,pisces1 ,fi%4           
,amphibia1 ,labyr9?odonts1 ,frogs1 &    
,newts4   ,reptilia1 ,reptiles4   ,aves1
 ,birds4   ,mammalia1 ,mammals4         
,,works ,,( ,,ref]5ce4   ,,= ,,nam+     
,,common ,,fossils4    ,tabul> ,view (  
,*>act]i/ic ,briti% ,fossils            
,/ratigraphically   ,arrang$4     ,by   
,j4 ,w4 ,,l[ry4 ,soc4 ,prom4 ,*ri/4 ,k4 
#ahec4    ,figures ( ! ,*>act]i/ic      
,briti% ,t]ti>y ,fossils 7,*iefly       
,mollusca7     ,/ratigraphically        
,arrang$4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,,l[ry & o!rs4    
,london     7,/an=d74 #ahff4            
,,palaeontology4    ,! ,anci5t ,life    
,hi/ory ( ! ,e>?4     ,by ,h4 ,a4       
,,ni*olson4 #hvo4 ,ed9burgh & ,london4  
#ahgg4    ,a ,manual ( ,palaeontology4  
,by ,h4 ,a4 ,,ni*olson4 #bnd edition4 #b
 vols4 #hvo4 ,ed9burgh &     ,london4   
#ahgi4   ,,petrology4    ,! ,/udy (     
,rocks4     ,by ,f4 ,,rutley4 7,text    
,books ( ,sci5ce47 #hvo4 ,london4 #ahgi4

   ,,field ,,geology4    ,a ,text-,book 
( ,field ,geology4     ,by ,w4 ,h4      
,,p5n+4 ,) a ,section on ,palaeontology1
 by ,a4 ,j4     ,,jukes-,,br[n4 #bnd    
edition4 #hvo4 ,london4 #ahgi4          
,,geology ,,9 ,,g5]al4    ,! ,/ud5t's   
,elem5ts ( ,geology4     ,by ,,sir      
,,*>les ,,lyell1 ,b>t4 #d? edition4     
#hvo4 ,london4 #ahhd4    ,! ,pr9ciples (
 ,geology4     ,by ,,sir ,,*>les        
,,lyell1 ,b>t4 #ab? edition4 #b vols4   
#hvo4 ,london4     #ahge4    ,phillip's 
,manual ( ,geology4     #bnd edition4   
,by ,,seeley ,,& ,,e!ridge4 #b vols41   
#hvo4 ,london4 #ahhe4    ,tabul> ,view (
 ,geological ,sy/ems1 ) _! ,li?ological 
,composition & ,palaeontological        
,rema9s4     ,by ,d4 ,e4 ,,clem5t4      
,london 7,sonn5s*e974 #ahhb4   ,,briti% 
,,geology4    ,! ,physical ,geology &   
,geography ( ,great ,brita94     ,by    
,,sir ,,&rew ,c4 ,,ramsey4 #e? edition4 
#hvo4 ,london4 #ahgh4    ,! ,geology (  
,engl& & ,wales4     ,by ,,horace ,b4   
,,woodw>d4 #hvo4 ,london4 #ahgf4        

,geology ( ! ,c\nties ( ,engl& & ,wales4
     ,by ,w4 ,j4 ,,h>rison4 #hvo4       
,london4 #ahhb4          99       99    
99       99       99     ,,popul>       
,,illu/rat$ ,,sci5tific ,,books1        
,,publi%$ ,,by ,,swan ,,sonn5s*e9  ,,co4
 ,,uni=m ,,) ,,?is ,,volume4 ,,all      
,,fully ,,illu/rat$4     ,,briti%       
,,butt]flies1 ,,mo?s1 ,,& ,,beetles4    
,by ,w4 ,f4 ,,kirby 7,brit4 ,mus474     
,cr[n #hvo1 clo?1 #as4    ,,mosses1     
,,li*5s1 ,,& ,,fungi4     ,by ,,pet]    
,,gray & ,e4 ,m4 ,,holmes4 ,cr[n #hvo1  
clo?1 #as4    ,,engli% ,,co9s ,,&       
,,tok5s4     ,by ,,llewellynn ,,jewitt1 
,f4,s4,a42 ) a *apt] on ,greek & ,roman 
,co9s1 by ,,b>clay ,v4 ,,head1          
,m4,r4,a4,s4 ,cr[n #hvo1 clo?1 #as4     
,,fl[]s ,,& ,,fl[] ,,lore4     ,by ,rev4
 ,,hild]ic ,,fri5d1 ,f4,l4,s4           
,illu/rat$4  ,?ird ,edition1     demy   
#hvo1 clo? gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4    ,,!      
,,dynamo3 ,h[ ,made & ,h[ ,us$4     ,by 
,s4 ,r4 ,,bottone4 ,num]\s ,cuts4 ,cr[n 
#hvo1 clo?1 #bs4 #f;d4    ,a ,,season   

,,among ,,! ,,wild ,,fl[]s4     ,by     
,rev4 ,h4 ,,wood4  ,illu/rat$4  ,cr[n   
#hvo1 clo? gilt1 #bs4 #f;d4    ,,hi/ory 
,,( ,,briti% ,,f]ns4     ,by ,e4        
,,newman1 ,f4,l4,s4  ,fif? ,edition1    
,illu/rat$4 #abmo1 clo?1 #bs4    ,,!    
,,insect ,,hunt]',s ,,companion4     ,by
 ,rev4 ,j4 ,,gre5e4 ,?ird ,edition4     
,cuts4 #abmo1 bo>ds1 #as4    ,,tabul>   
,,view ,,( ,,geological ,,sy/ems4       
,by ,dr4 ,e4 ,,clem5t4 ,cr[n #hvo1 limp 
clo?1 #as4   ,,swan ,,sonn5s*e9  ,,co41 
,,pat]no/] ,,squ>e4          99       99
       99       99       99             
,,transcrib]',s ,,notes3   ,z !re appe> 
to be section & subsections 9 ! second &
 ?ird units 7,%ells & ,fossils7 ( ?is   
book1 ,tables ( ,cont5ts 7 creat$ = !   
electronic edition4 ,a numb] ( ! images 
7 mov$ :]e !y split p>agraphs4 ,!re is a
 ref]5ce to a ,figure #bd = ,ancylus2 b 
no ,fig4 #bd 0 includ$4 ,! ref]5ce to   
,fig4 #bf = ,bullidae 0 assum$ to be a  
ref]5ce to ,fig4 #ad4 ,bulla ampulla4   
,) ! exception ( ! foll[+ items1 all    

page numb] ref]5ces 9 ! orig9al text 7  
reta9$4 ,!re are ref]5ces to two tables 
on ,page #gg4 ,! fir/ 0 li/$ a vide     
,table1 p4 #af & ! second z vide ,table1
 p4 #cb :i* appe> to ref] to ! tables on
 page #gh & #id respectively4 ,! page   
ref]5ces 7 correct$4  ,species "n are   
assum$ to be correct = ! "t (           
publication 7ca4 #ahhf74 ,= example1    
,*>y*ium is today li/$ z ,c>y*ium4      
,text ,emphasis   ,text - ,italics      
,text - ,bold   ,typographic            
,corrections   ,page   ,correction  ----
  ------------------------   #ad    fond
  foot   #bg    x  if   #bg    p5cil    
bru%   #ee    beak  peak   #ef    tis   
its   #fj    ,keilia  ,kellia   #gc     
inev]  ,i nev]   #ia    cru/ucean       
cru/acean