,,sea-,,weeds1 ,,shells ,,and ,,fossils4 ,,by ,,peter ,,gray1 ,a4,b4,s4 ,,edin42 ,,and ,b4 ,b4 ,,woodward1 ,of the ,british ,museum 7,natural ,history71 ,south ,kensington4 ,illustration ,,london3 ,,swan ,,sonnenschein1 ,,le ,,bas ,,lowrey1 ,,paternoster ,,square4 ,,butler ,,tanner1 ,,the ,,selwood ,,printing ,,works ,,frome1 ,,and ,,london4 ,,sea-,,weeds4 ,,by ,,peter ,,gray4 ,algae1 popularly known as sea-weeds1 although many species are inhabitants of fresh water1 or grow on moist ground1 may be briefly described as cellular1 flowerless plants1 having no proper roots1 but imbibing nutriment by their whole surface from the medium in which they grow4 ,as far as has been ascertained1 the total number of species is about #ijjj or #aj1jjj4 ,many of them are microscopic1 as the ,desmids and ,diatoms1 others1 as ,lessonia1 and some of the larger ,laminariae 7oarweeds71 are arborescent1 covering the bed of the sea around the coast with a submarine forest2 while in the ,pacific1 off the northwestern shores of ,america1 ,nereocystis1 a genus allied to ,laminaria1 has a stem over #cjj feet in length1 which1 although not thicker than whipcord1 is stout enough to moor a bladder1 barrel-shaped1 six or seven feet long1 and crowned with a tuft of fifty leaves or more1 each from thirty to forty feet in length4 ,this vegetable buoy is a favourite resting place of the sea otter2 and where the plant exists in any quantity1 the surface of the sea is rendered impassable to boats4 ,the stem of ,macrocystis1 which girds the globe in the southern temperate zone1 is stated to extend sometimes to the enormous length of #aejj feet4 ,it is no thicker than the finger anywhere1 and the upper branches are as slender as pack-thread2 but at the base of each leaf there is placed a buoy1 in the shape of a vesicle filled with air4 ,although the worthlessness of ,algae has been proverbial1 as in the alga inutile of ,horace and ,virgil's projecta vilior alga1 they are not without importance in botanical economics4 ,a dozen or more species found in the ,british seas are made use of1 raw or prepared in several ways1 as food for man4 ,of these edible ,algae1 ,dr4 ,harvey considers the two species of ,porphyra1 or laver1 the most valuable4 ,berkeley says1 ,the best way of preparing this vegetable or condiment1 which is extremely wholesome1 is to heat it thoroughly with a little strong gravy or broth1 adding1 before it is served on toast1 a small quantity of butter and lemon juice4 ,a species of ,nostoc is largely consumed in ,china as an ingredient in soup4 ,a similar use is made of ,enteromorpha intestinalis in ,japan4 ,many species of fish and other animals1 turtle included1 live upon sea-weed4 ,fucus vesiculosus is a grateful food for cattle4 ,in ,norway1 cattle1 horses1 sheep1 and pigs are largely fed upon it1 and on our own coasts cattle eagerly browse on that and kindred species at low water4 ,in some northern countries1 ,fucus serratus sprinkled with meal is used as winter fodder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,group of ,sea-weeds 7chiefly ,laminariae7 ,all the marine ,algae contain iodine2 and even before the value of that substance in glandular complaints had been ascertained1 stems of a sea-weed were chewed as a remedy by the inhabitants of certain districts of ,south ,america where goitre is prevalent4 ,chondrus crispus and 7,gigartina7 mamillosa constitute the ,irish moss of commerce1 which dissolves into a nutritious and delicate jelly1 and the restorative value of which in consumption doubtless depends in some degree on the presence of iodine4 ,the freshwater ,algae not only furnish abundant and nourishing food to the fish and other animals living in ponds and streams1 but by their action in the decomposition of carburetted hydrogen and other noxious gases purify the element in which they live1 thus becoming important sanitary agents4 ,the value of aquatic plants in the aquarium is well known4 ,a ,chinese species of ,gigartina is much employed as a glue and varnish2 and also much used in ,china in the manufacture of lanterns and transparencies1 and in that country and ,japan for glazing windows4 ,handles for table knives and forks1 tools1 and other implements have been made from the thick stems of oarweeds1 and fishing lines from ,chorda filum4 ,tripoli powder1 extensively used for polishing1 consists mainly of the silicious shells of ,diatoms4 ,on various parts of our coast1 the coarser species of sea-weed1 now used as a valuable manure1 were formerly extensively burnt for kelp1 an impure carbonate of soda4 ,this industry1 when carried on upon a large scale1 became a fruitful source of income to some of the poorest districts in the kingdom1 bringing1 in the last decade of last century1 nearly ,l#cj1jjj per annum into ,orkney alone4 ,since the production of soda from rock salt has become general1 kelp is now only burnt for the extraction of iodine1 this being the easiest way of obtaining that substance4 ,although the vegetable structure and mode of reproduction are essentially the same in all ,algae1 as regards the former they vary from the simple cell1 through cells arranged in threads1 to a stem and leaves simulating the vegetation of higher tribes4 ,and although the simpler kinds are obviously formed of threads1 most of the more compound may also be resolved into the same structure by maceration in hot water or diluted muriatic acid4 ,in substance some are mere masses of slime or jelly1 others are silky to the feel1 horny1 cartilaginous or leather-like1 and even apparently woody4 ,a few species secrete carbonate of lime from the water1 laying it up in their tissues2 others cover themselves completely with that mineral1 while some coat themselves with silex or flint4 ,many ,algae are beautifully coloured1 even when growing at depths to which very little light penetrates4 ,as in their vegetative organs1 so in their reproductive1 ,algae exhibit many modifications of structure without much real difference4 ,in the green sea-weeds reproduction is effected by simple cell division in the unicellular species1 and by spores resulting from the union of the contents of two cells in the others4 ,the red sea-weeds have a double system of reproduction1 a distinctly sexual one1 by spores and antheridia1 and another by tetraspores1 which by some are considered to be of the nature of gemmae1 or buds4 ,the spores are generally situated in distinct hollow conceptacles 7favellae1 ceramidium1 coccidium74 ,the tetraspore is also sometimes contained in a conceptacle4 ,it consists of a more or less globular1 transparent cell1 which when mature contains within it four 7rarely three7 sporules4 ,reproduction in the olive sea-weeds is also double1 by zoospores1 generally considered gemmae1 and by spores and antherozoids1 which is a sexual process4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,a1 ,species of ,gleocapsa1 one of the ,palmelleae1 in various stages4 ,a becomes ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 and ,e by repeated division4 ,magnified #cjj diameters4 ,following the classification adopted by ,professor ,harvey1 which is that generally employed in ,english systematic manuals1 we divide the order into three sub-orders1 named from the prevailing colour of their spores4 #a4 ,chlorospermeae1 with green spores2 #b4 ,rhodospermeae1 with red spores2 and #c4 ,melanospermeae1 with olive-coloured spores4 ,the entire plant in the first group is usually grass-green1 but occasionally olive1 purple1 blue1 and sometimes almost black2 in the second it is some shade or other of red1 very seldom green2 and in the third1 while generally olive green1 it is occasionally brown olive or yellow4 ,the ,chlorospermeae are extremely varied in form1 often threadlike1 and are propagated either by the simple division of the contents of their cells 7endochrome71 by the transformation of particular joints1 or by the change of the contents of the cells into zoospores1 which are cells moving freely in water by means of hairlike appendages4 ,in their lower forms they are among the most rudimentary of all plants1 and thus of special interest physiologically1 as representing the component parts of which higher plants are formed4 ,they are subdivided into twelve groups1 as follows3 ,the first group1 ,palmelleae1 are unicellular plants1 the cells of which are either free or surrounded by a gelatinous mass1 and they are propagated by the division of the endochrome4 ,one of the most remarkable of the species of this family is ,protococcus cruentus1 which is found at the foot of walls having a northern aspect1 looking as if blood had been poured out on the ground or on stones4 ,protococcus nivalis1 again1 is the cause of the red snow1 of which early arctic navigators used to give such marvellous accounts4 7,fig4 #b47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,a1 ,fragment of a ,filament of ,zygnema1 one of the ,conjugateae2 ,b1 ,closterium2 ,c1 ,euastrium2 two desmids4 ,the ,desmideaceae1 together with the plants of the next succeeding group1 are favourite subjects of investigation or observation by the possessors of microscopes1 an attention they merit from the beauty and variety of their forms4 ,they are minute plants of a green colour1 consisting of cells generally independent of each other1 but sometimes forming brittle threads or minute fronds1 and are reproduced by spores generated by the conjugation of two distinct individuals4 ,the process of conjugation in ,desmids and ,diatoms consists in the union of the endochrome of two individuals1 each of which in these families is composed of a single cell4 ,this ultimately forms a rounded body or resting spore1 which afterwards germinates1 the resulting plant not however acquiring the normal form until the third generation4 7,fig4 #c47 ,the ,diatomaceae1 closely allied to the preceding group in structure and reproduction1 are however distinguished from them by their flinty shells1 which are often beautifully sculptured4 ,their endochrome is a golden brown1 instead of green as in the ,desmideaceae4 ,the latter1 also1 are confined to fresh water1 while the ,diatomaceae are found1 though not exclusively1 in the sea1 where their shells sometimes1 microscopically minute as they are individually1 form banks extending several hundred miles4 ,it is stated that in the collection made by ,sir ,joseph ,hooker in the ,himalayas the species closely resemble our own4 ,in the next group1 ,confervaceae1 we are introduced to forms more like the general notion of what a plant should be4 ,the individuals of which it consists are composed of threads1 jointed1 either simple or branched1 mostly of a grass-green colour1 and propagating either by minute zoospores or by metamorphosed joints4 ,they are found both in fresh and salt water1 and in damp situations4 ,the number of species is very great4 ,a considerable number consist of unbranched threads2 the branched forms grow sometimes so densely as to assume the form of solid balls4 ,after floods1 when the water stands for several days1 they sometimes increase to such an extent1 as to form on its subsidence a uniform paper-like stratum1 which while decomposing is extremely disagreeable4 ,the name ,conferva has been almost discontinued as a generic title1 the majority of ,british species being now ranged under ,clado- and ,chaeto-phora4 ,the latter are branched1 and require great care and attention in order to distinguish them1 on account of their general resemblance to each other4 ,good characters are however to be found in their mode of branching and the form and comparative size of the terminal joints4 ,the ,batrachospermeae constitute a small but very beautiful group1 consisting of gelatinous threads variously woven into a branched cylindrical frond4 ,the branches are sometimes arranged1 as in the ,british species1 so that the plants appear like necklaces4 ,in colour they pass from green1 through intermediate shades of olive and purple1 to black4 ,in common with some of the higher ,algae1 the threads of the superficial branches send joints down the stem1 changing it from simple to compound4 ,the native species are all fluviatile4 ,the ,hydrodicteae are among the most remarkable of ,algae4 ,hydrodictyon utriculatum1 the solitary ,british species1 is found in the large pond at ,hampton ,court1 and in similar situations in various parts of the country1 but not very generally4 ,it resembles a green purse or net1 from four to six inches in length1 with delicate and regular meshes1 the reticulations being about four lines long4 ,its method of reproduction is no less than its form4 ,each of the cells forms within itself an enormous mass of small elliptic grains4 ,these become attached by the extremities so as to form a network inside the cell1 and1 its walls being dissolved1 a new plant is set free to grow to the size of the parent ,hydrodictyon4 ,the ,nostochineae grow in fresh water1 or attached to moist soil4 ,they consist of slender1 beaded threads surrounded by a firm jelly1 and often spreading into large1 wavy fronds4 ,the larger beads on the inclosed threads are reproductive spores4 7,fig4 #d1 ,a47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,a1 ,fragment of a ,filament of ,nostoc4 ,b1 ,end of a ,filament of ,oscillatoria4 ,the ,oscillatoreae are another remarkable group1 on account of the peculiar animal-like motions they exhibit4 ,they occur both in salt and fresh water1 and on almost every kind of site in which there is sufficient moisture4 ,the threads of which they are composed are jointed1 and generally unbranched2 they are of various tints of blue1 red1 and green1 and1 where their fructification has been ascertained1 are propagated by cell division4 ,the most curious point about them is1 however1 the movements of their fronds4 ,according to ,dr4 ,harvey1 these are of three kinds--a pendulum-like movement from side to side1 performed by one end1 whilst the other remains fixed1 so as to form a pivot2 a movement of flexure of the filament itself1 the oscillating extremity bending over from one side to the other1 like the head of a worm or caterpillar seeking something on its line of march2 and lastly1 a simple onward movement of progression1 the whole phenomenon being1 ,dr4 ,harvey thinks1 resolvable into a spiral onward movement of the filament4 ,whatever is the cause of this motion1 it is not1 as used to be supposed1 of an animal nature2 for the individuals of this group are undoubted plants4 7,fig4 #d1 ,b47 ,several species of ,rivularia1 belonging to the ,oscillatoreae1 are found both in the sea and in fresh water4 ,they are gelatinous1 and have something of the appearance of ,nostoc1 in aspect as well as in minute structure4 ,the ,conjugatae are freshwater articulated ,algae1 which reproduce themselves by the union of two endochromes4 ,they are very interesting objects under the microscope1 owing to the spiral or zigzag arrangement of the endochrome of many of them1 and the delicacy of all4 ,the ,bulbochaeteae constitute a small group1 some half-a-dozen species being ,british4 ,they are freshwater plants1 composed of articulate branched filaments1 with fertile bulbshaped branchlets4 ,the endochrome is believed to be fertilized by bodies developed in antheridia1 the contents of each fertilized cell dividing into four ovate zoospores4 ,the last two groups of green sea-weeds consist chiefly of marine plants4 ,of these the first1 ,siphoneae1 is so called because the plant1 however complicated1 is composed invariably of a single cell4 ,it propagates by minute zoospores1 by large quiescent spores1 or by large active spores clothed with cilia4 ,it includes the remarkable genus ,codium1 three species of which inhabit the ,british seas4 ,in ,codium ,bursa the filamentous frond is spherical and hollow1 presenting more the appearance of a round sponge or puff-ball than a sea-weed1 and is somewhat rare4 ,another species greatly resembles a branched sponge1 and the third forms a velvety crust on the surface of rocks4 ,another genus1 ,vaucheria1 is of a beautiful green colour1 forming a velvety surface on moist soil1 on mud-covered rocks overflowed by the tide1 or parasitic on other sea-weeds4 ,the most attractive plants of this family are however those of the genus ,bryopsis1 two of which are found on the ,british shores4 ,the most common one is ,b4 plumosa1 the fronds of which grow usually in the shady and sheltered sides of rock pools4 ,the fronds of the last of the green-weed groups1 the ,ulvaceae1 are membranous1 and either flat or tubular4 ,two of them1 ,ulva latissima1 the green1 and ,porphyra laciniata1 the purple laver1 are among the most common sea-weeds1 growing well up from low-water mark4 ,the propagation in all of them is by zoospores4 ,an allied genus1 ,enteromorpha1 is protean in its forms1 which have been classed under many species4 ,they may1 however1 be reduced to half a dozen4 ,some of them are very slender1 so as almost to be mistaken for confervoid plants4 ,with the ,rhodospermeae we enter a sub-order of ,algae1 exclusively marine1 the plants in which have always held out great attractions to the collector4 ,in structure they are expanded or filamentous1 nearly always rose-coloured or purple in colour4 ,of the fourteen groups into which they are divided by ,harvey1 the first is ,ceramiaceae1 articulate ,algae1 constituting a large proportion of the marine plants of our shores4 ,of the genus ,ceramium1 ,c4 rubrum is the most frequent1 and it is found in every latitude1 almost from pole to pole4 ,it is very variable in aspect1 but can always be recognized by its fruit4 ,c4 diaphanum is a very handsome species1 growing often in rock pools along with the other4 ,there are about fifteen native species altogether1 some of them rare1 and all very beautiful1 both as displayed on paper and seen under the microscope4 ,crouania attenuata is a beautiful plant1 parasitic upon a ,cladostephus or ,corallina officinalis4 ,it is however extremely rare1 being only found in ,england about ,land's ,end4 ,a more common and conspicuous1 but equally handsome plant is ,ptilota plumosa 7,fig4 #i71 which is mostly confined to our northern coasts2 although ,p4 sericea1 a smaller species1 or variety1 is common in the south1 and easily distinguished from its congener1 which it otherwise greatly resembles1 by its jointed branchlets and pinnules4 ,callithamnion1 ,halurus and ,griffithsia1 articulate like ,ceramium1 furnish also several handsome species4 7,fig4 #e47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,species of ,callithamnion4 ,the group ,spyridiaceae contains only one ,english plant1 ,spyridia filamentosa1 which is curiously and irregularly branched1 the branches being articulate and of a pinky red4 ,one of its kinds of fruit1 consisting of crimson spores1 is contained in a transparent network basket1 formed by the favellae1 or short branches1 whence its name4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,chondrus crispus4 ,the ,cryptonemiaceae are very numerous in genera and species4 ,they all have inarticulate branches1 some are thread-like4 ,grateloupia filicina is a neat little plant1 met with rarely on the south and west coasts4 ,gigartina mamillosa1 a common plant everywhere1 is the plant sold1 along with ,chondrus crispus1 as ,irish or ,carrageen moss4 ,a handsome little plant1 ,stenogramme interrupta1 is very rare1 but it has been gathered both on the ,irish and ,english coasts4 ,the ,phyllophorae1 one species of which is frequent on all our shores1 may be recognised by the way in which the points and surfaces of their fronds throw out proliferous leaves4 ,gymnogongrus has two ,british species1 one much resembling ,chondrus crispus1 already named1 of which it was formerly considered a congener4 ,their fructification is however very different4 ,ahnfeltia plicata is a curiouswiry1 entangled plant1 almost black in colour1 and like horse-hair when dry1 and can scarcely be mistaken4 ,cystoclonium purpurascens is very commonly cast up by the tide on most of our coasts4 ,it varies in colour1 but is easily distinguished by the spore-bearing tubercles imbedded in its slender branches4 ,callophyllis laciniata is a handsome species1 of a rich crimson colour1 and sometimes a foot square4 ,it can scarcely have escaped the notice of the sea-side visitor1 for it is widely distributed and often thrown out in great abundance2 one writer describes the shore near ,tynemouth as having been red for upwards of a mile with this superb sea-weed4 ,kalymenia reniformis is another of the broad1 flat ,algae1 but it is scarcer1 and of a colour not so conspicuous4 ,among the most frequent of our sea-weeds1 both as growing in the rock pools and cast ashore1 is ,chondrus crispus1 already twice referred to in connexion with its officinal uses4 ,it is very variable in form1 one author figuring as many as thirty-six different varieties4 7,fig4 #f47 ,chylocladia clavellosa1 which is sometimes cast ashore a foot and a half long1 is closely set with branches1 and these again clothed with branchlets in one or two series4 ,the whole plant is fleshy1 of a rose-red or brilliant pink colour1 turning to golden yellow in decay4 ,there is another small species1 confined to the extreme north of ,britain4 ,halymenia ligulata is another flat red weed1 but sometimes very narrow in its ramifications4 ,furcellaria fastigiata has a round1 branched1 taper stem1 swollen at the summit1 which contains the fruit1 consisting of masses of tetraspores in a pod-like receptacle4 ,schizymenia edulis1 better known perhaps by its old name ,iridea1 is a flat1 inversely egg-shaped leaf with scarcely any stem4 ,it is one of the edible ,algae1 and pretty frequent in shady rock pools4 ,gloiosiphonia capillaris is a remarkably beautiful plant1 and not common1 being confined to certain parts of the southern coasts4 ,the stem is very soft and gelatinous2 the spores are produced in red globular masses imbedded in the marginal filaments1 which have a fine appearance under the microscope when fresh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,rhodomenia palmata4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,wormskioldia sanguinea4 ,the ,rhodomeniaceae are purplish or blood-red sea-weeds1 inarticulate1 membranaceous1 and cellular4 ,among the dark-coloured is ,rhodomenia palmata1 better known as dulse1 a common and edible species4 7,fig4 #g47 ,wormskioldia sanguinea is not only the most beautiful sea-weed1 but the finest of all leaves or fronds4 ,it is usually about six inches long1 but sometimes nearly double that length and six inches broad1 with a distinct midrib and branching veins1 and a delicate wavy lamina1 pink or deep red4 ,the fruit is produced in winter from small leaflets growing upon the bare midrib4 7,fig4 #h47 ,the commonest of all red sea-weeds on our coast1 one of the most elegant1 and much sought after by sea-weed picture makers1 ,plocamium coccineum1 belongs to this group4 ,calliblepharis ciliata and jubata are coarser plants1 the latter being the more frequent4 ,they were formerly included in the genus ,rhodymenia1 from which they were removed when their fruit was better understood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,ptilota plumosa4 ,wrangelia and ,naccaria are the only ,british genera in ,wrangeliaceae4 ,there is only one native species in each1 both being rare1 the latter especially4 ,the ,helminthocladiae are also a limited group1 of a gelatinous structure2 so much so that on being gathered they feel like a bunch of slimy worms1 whence the name of the family4 ,helminthora purpurea and divaricata with ,nemaleon multifidum and ,scinaia furcellata represent them in ,britain4 ,they are nearly all very rare1 pretty plants1 and very effective as microscopic objects4 ,the ,squamariae1 formerly included in the ,corallinaceae1 are a small group of inconspicuous plants resembling lichens1 of a leathery texture1 and growing on rocks and shells attached by their lower surface4 ,a single genus only1 ,polyides1 represents the ,spongiocarpeae4 ,polyides rotundus resembles ,furcellaria fastigiata very closely1 but differs widely in the fruit1 which consists of spongy warts surrounding the frond1 composed of spores and articulated threads4 ,of the next group represented in ,britain1 ,gelidiaceae1 we have only one plant1 ,gelidium corneum1 very common on our shores1 and perhaps the most variable of all vegetable species4 ,the ,sphaerococcidae include both membranaceous and cartilaginous species4 ,of the latter is ,sphaerococcus coronopifolius1 which cannot easily be mistaken1 owing to the numerous berry-like fruits that tip its branchlets4 ,it is rather rare on the northern1 but often thrown ashore in large quantities on the southern coasts4 ,the genus ,delesseria has four ,british species1 the largest being the well-known ,d4 sinuosa1 the fronds of which resemble an oak leaf in outline4 ,the handsomest are ,d4 ruscifolia and ,d4 hypoglossum1 which are more delicate and of a finer colour than sinuosa4 ,there are three ,british species of ,gracillaria1 in two of which the branches are cylindrical1 and in the other flat4 ,g4 compressa makes an excellent preserve and pickle1 but unfortunately it is the rarest of the three4 ,nitophyllum is one of the greatest ornaments of this tribe4 ,there are six ,british species1 which are amongst the most delicate and beautiful of our native ,algae4 ,the ,corallinaceae are remarkable for the property they possess of absorbing carbonate of lime into their tissues1 so that they appear as a succession of chalky articulations or incrustations4 ,the most common is ,corallina officinalis4 ,there are two ,british species of ,corallina1 and two also of the nearly allied genus1 ,jania4 ,of the foliaceous group there are likewise two ,british genera1 ,melobesia and ,hildenbrantia4 ,the next group1 the ,laurenciaceae1 are cartilaginous and cylindrical or compressed1 the frond in the greater portion of them being inarticulate and solid4 ,they contain several species valued by collectors1 although some of them are amongst our commonest plants4 ,their colour is1 when perfect1 a dull purple or brownish red1 but they change under the influence of light and air1 while fresh water is rapidly destructive to their tints4 7,fig4 #aj47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,laurencia pinnatifida4 ,the ,chylocladiae are curiously jointed plants1 removed by ,agardh to a new genus1 ,lomentaria1 and a new order ,chondriae4 ,bonnemaisonia asparagoides is the most rare and beautiful of the tribe4 ,the last tribe of red weeds1 ,rhodomelaceae1 varies greatly in the structure of the frond1 but the fruit is more uniform4 ,polysiphonia and ,dasya contain the finest of the filiform division2 the leafy one1 ,odonthalia1 a northern form1 is a very beautiful sea-weed both as respects form and colour4 ,well-grown specimens are not unlike a hawthorn twig1 and of a blood red colour4 ,the plants of the sub-order ,melanospermeae1 are1 like the red sea-weeds1 exclusively marine4 ,they are usually large and coarse1 and confined mostly to comparatively shallow water4 ,in the ,laminariaceae we find the gigantic oarweeds already briefly referred to4 ,lessonia1 which encircles in submarine forests the antarctic coasts1 is an erect1 tree-like plant1 with a trunk from five to ten feet high1 forked branches1 and drooping leaves1 one to three feet in length1 and has been compared to a weeping willow4 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker says1 that from a boat there may on a calm day be witnessed in the antarctic regions1 over these submarine groves1 as busy a scene as is presented by the coral reefs of the tropics4 ,the leaves of the ,lessoniae are crowded with ,sertulariae and ,mollusca1 or encircled with ,flustra2 on the trunks parasitic ,algae abound1 together with chitons1 limpets1 and other shells2 at the base and among the tangled roots swarm thousands of ,crustaceae and ,radiata1 while fish of several species dart among the leaves and branches4 ,of these and other gigantic melanosperms1 flung ashore by the waves1 a belt of decaying vegetable matter is formed1 miles in extent1 some yards broad1 and three feet in depth2 and ,sir ,j4 ,hooker adds that the trunks of ,lessonia so much resemble driftwood that no persuasion could prevent an ignorant shipmaster from employing his crew1 during two bitterly cold days1 in collecting this incombustible material for fuel4 ,macrocystis and ,nereocystis are also giant members of this sub-order4 ,some of the ,laminariae which form a belt around our own coasts not seldom attain a length of from eight to twelve feet4 ,the common bladder-wrack 7,fucus vesiculosus7 sometimes grows in ,jutland to a height of ten feet1 and in clusters several feet in diameter4 ,the colour of most of the plants in this sub-order is some shade of olive1 but several of them turn to green in drying4 ,the first group1 ,ectocarpeae1 is composed of thread-like jointed plants1 the fructification of which consists of external spores1 sometimes formed by the swelling of a branchlet4 ,the typical genus1 ,ectocarpus1 abounds in species1 a dozen or so of which1 very nearly allied plants1 being found around our own shores4 ,one or two of them are very handsome4 ,there are also some very beautiful plants in the genus ,sphacelaria1 belonging to this group1 several of them resembling miniature ferns4 ,all the ,sphacelariae are easily recognized by the withered appearance of the tips of the fruiting branches4 ,myriotrichia is a genus of small parasitical plants1 the two ,british species of which grow chiefly on the sea thongs 7,chorda74 ,the ,chordariae are sometimes gelatinous in structure1 in other cases cartilaginous4 ,the fruit is contained in the substance of the frond4 ,the genus ,chordaria consists of plants which have the appearance of dark coloured twine4 ,there are two ,british species1 one being rather common4 ,chorda filum1 sea-rope1 another string-like sea-weed1 grows in tufts from a few inches to many feet in length1 and tapering at the roots to about the thickness of a pig's bristle4 ,in quiet land-locked bays with a sandy or muddy bottom1 it sometimes extends to forty feet in length1 forming extensive meadows1 obstructing the passage of boats1 and endangering the lives of swimmers entangled in its slimy cords1 whence probably its other name of dead men's lines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,padina pavonia4 ,the ,mesogloieae in a fresh state resemble bundles of green1 slimy worms4 ,there are three ,british species1 two of which are not uncommon4 ,although so unattractive in external aspect1 they1 like many others of the same description1 prove very interesting under the microscope4 ,one of the cartilaginous species1 ,leathsia tuberiformis1 has the appearance1 when growing1 of a mass of distorted tubers4 ,the species of ,elachista1 composed of minute parasites1 are1 as well as unattractive like the ,mesogloieae1 inconspicuous1 but are beautiful objects when placed under the microscope4 ,myrionemae are also parasitic1 and even smaller than the plants of the preceding genus4 ,in the ,dictyoteae the frond is mostly flat1 with a reticulated surface1 which is sprinkled when in fruit with groups of naked spores or spore cysts4 ,this tribe includes not a few of the most elegant among the ,algae4 ,in structure they are coriaceous1 and include plants both with broad and narrow1 branched and unbranched fronds4 ,in ,haliseris there is a distinct midrib4 ,the largest of the ,british ,dictyoteae is ,cutleria multifida1 sometimes found a foot and a half long2 and the best known is doubtless ,padina pavonia1 much sought after by seaside visitors where it grows4 ,its segments are fan-shaped1 variegated with lighter curved lines1 and fringed with golden tinted filaments4 7,fig4 #aa47 ,owing to its power of decomposing light1 its fronds1 when growing under water1 suggest the train of the peacock1 whence its specific name4 ,taonia atomaria somewhat resembles ,cutleria1 but exhibits also the wavy lines of ,padina4 ,the plant of this group most often cast ashore is ,dictyota dichotoma4 ,it makes a handsome specimen when well dried1 and is interesting on account of the manner in which it varies in the breadth of its divisions4 ,the variety intricata is curiously curled and entangled4 ,dictyosiphon foeniculaceus1 the solitary ,british example of its genus1 is a bushy filiform plant1 remarkable for the beautiful net-like markings of its surface4 ,the ,punctariae have flattened fronds1 marked with dots1 which sufficiently distinguish them from all the others4 ,a small form is often found parasitic on ,chorda filum1 spreading out horizontally like the hairs of a bottle brush4 ,asperococcus derives its name from its roughened surface1 occasioned by the thickly scattered spots of fructification4 ,the ,laminariaceae are inarticulate1 mostly flat1 often strap-shaped4 ,their spores occur in superficial patches1 or covering the whole frond4 ,the plants of this order1 as we have already seen1 include the giants of submarine vegetation4 ,in point of mass they constitute the larger part of our native ,algae1 although they number only a few species4 ,they are popularly known as tangle or oarweeds1 and the stems of ,laminaria saccharina and the midrib of ,alaria esculenta are used as food4 ,the ,sporochnaceae are a small but beautiful tribe1 inarticulate1 and producing their spores in jointed filaments or knob-like masses1 and remarkable for their property of turning from olive brown to a verdigris green when exposed to the atmosphere4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,fucus serratus1 showing a transverse section of the ,conceptacle1 and ,antheridium with ,antherozoids escaping4 ,they are deep sea plants1 or at least grow about low water mark4 ,the largest of the group is ,desmarestia ligulata1 which1 with the other ,british species1 ,d4 aculeata1 is often cast ashore4 ,the latter species1 at an early period of its existence1 is clothed with tufts of slender hairs1 springing from the margin of the frond4 ,desmarestia viridis is the most delicate and also the rarest of the three4 ,nothing like fruit has been discovered on any of them4 ,arthocladia villosa and ,sporochnus pedunculatus are branched sea-weeds1 covered also with tufts of closely set hairs4 ,carpomitra ,cabrerae1 a rare species1 bears1 in common with the two preceding species1 its spores in a special receptacle4 ,in the first the receptacle is pod-like2 in the second knotted2 and in the last mitriform4 ,the concluding group of ,algae is the ,fucaceae1 including the universally known sea wrack 7,fucus74 ,the frond in all of them is jointless4 ,they are reproduced by means of antheridia and oogonia developed in conceptacles1 clustered together at the apex of the branches4 ,both from their bulk and their decided sexual distinctions1 they deserve to rank at the head of the order4 ,of all sea-weeds they are also perhaps of the greatest use to man4 ,one of the most interesting among them is the ,gulfweed 7,sargassum bacciferum71 occupying a tract of the ,atlantic extending over many degrees of latitude4 ,pieces of it1 and of its congener1 ,s4 vulgare1 are occasionally drifted to our shores1 and they consequently find a place in works on ,british ,algae1 although they have no claim to be considered native plants4 ,on rocky coasts the various species of ,fucus occupy the greater part of the space between tide-marks1 the most plentiful being ,fucus vesiculosus4 ,f4 serratus 7,fig4 #ab7 is the handsomest of the genus1 the other species being ,f4 nodosus1 said to be the most useful for making kelp1 and ,f4 canaliculatus4 ,halidrys siliquosa is remarkable for its spore receptacles1 which have quite the appearance of the seed vessel of a flowering plant4 ,the species of ,cystoseira1 chiefly confined to the southern coasts1 are also very interesting4 ,their submerged fronds are beautifully iridescent1 and the stems1 of the largest species at least1 are generally covered with a great variety of parasites1 animal and vegetable1 the former consisting of ,hydrozoa and ,polyzoa1 and other curious forms4 ,himanthalia lorea is another remarkable plant4 ,it has conspicuous forked fruit-bearing receptacles2 but the real plants are the small cones at the base of these1 and from which they are shed when ripe4 ,as to conditions of site and geographical distribution1 ,algae do not differ from land plants4 ,latitude1 depth of water1 and currents influence them in the same way as latitude1 elevation1 and station operate on the latter2 and the analogy is maintained in the almost cosmopolitan range of some1 and the restricted habitat of others4 ,not many extra-,european species of ,desmids are known1 but those of ,diatoms are far more widely diffused1 and extend beyond the limits of all other vegetation1 existing wherever there is water sufficient to allow of their production2 and they are found not only in water1 but also on the moist surface of the ground and on other plants1 in hot springs and amid polar ice4 ,they are said to occur in such countless myriads in the ,south ,polar ,sea as to stain the berg and pack ice wherever these are washed by the surge4 ,a deposit of mud1 chiefly consisting of the shells of ,diatoms1 #djj miles long1 #abj miles broad1 and of unknown thickness1 was found at a depth of between #bjj and #djj feet on the flanks of ,victoria ,land in #gj deg4 south latitude4 ,such is their abundance in some rivers and estuaries that ,professor ,ehrenberg goes the length of affirming that they have exercised an important influence in blocking up harbours and diminishing the depth of channels4 ,the trade and other winds distribute large quantities over the earth1 which may account for the universality of their specific distribution2 for ,sir ,joseph ,hooker found the ,himalayan species to closely resemble our own4 ,common ,british species also occur in ,ceylon1 ,italy1 ,virginia1 and ,peru4 ,the typical species of the ,confervaceae are also distributed over the whole surface of the globe4 ,they inhabit both fresh and salt water1 and are found alike in the polar seas and in the boiling springs of ,iceland1 in mineral waters and in chemical solutions4 ,some of the tropical ones are exceedingly large and dense4 ,batrachospermum vagum1 in the next tribe1 a native of ,england1 is also found in ,new ,zealand4 ,an edible species of ,nostochineae1 produced on the boggy slopes bordering the ,arctic ,ocean1 is blown about by the winds sometimes ten miles from land1 where it is found lying in small depressions in the snow upon the ice4 ,the common ,nostoc of moist ground in ,england occurs also in ,kerguelen's ,land1 high in the southern hemisphere4 ,floating masses of ,monormia are often the cause of the green hue assumed by the water of ponds and lakes4 ,certain species of ,oscillatoria of a deep red colour live in hot springs in ,india1 and the ,red ,sea is supposed to have derived its name from a species of this tribe1 which covers it with a scum for many miles1 according to the direction of the wind4 ,the lake of ,glaslough in ,county ,monaghan1 ,ireland1 owes its colour and its name to ,oscillatoria aerugescens1 and large masses of water in ,scotland and ,switzerland are tinted green or purple by a similar agency4 ,a few species of ,siphoneae have a very wide range1 two ,british species of ,codium occurring in ,new ,zealand4 ,the ,ulvaceae abound principally in the colder latitudes4 ,enteromorpha intestinalis1 a common ,british species1 is as frequent in ,japan1 where it is used1 when dried1 in soup4 ,the ,rhodosperms are found in every sea1 although the geographical boundaries of genera are often well-marked4 ,gloiosiphonia1 one of our rarest and most beautiful ,algae1 is widely diffused4 ,of ,melanosperms the ,laminariae affect the higher northern latitudes1 ,sargassa abound in the warmer seas1 while ,durvillaea1 ,lessonia1 and ,macrocystis characterize the marine flora of the ,southern ,ocean4 ,the ,fucaceae are most abundant towards the poles1 where they attain their greatest size4 ,the marine meadows of ,sargassum1 conceived by some naturalists to mark the site of the lost ,atlantis1 and which give its name to the ,sargasso ,sea1 extending between #bj deg4 and #be deg4 north latitude1 in #dj deg4 west longitude1 occupy now the same position as when the early navigators1 with considerable trepidation1 forced through their masses on the way to the ,new ,world4 ,sargassum is drifted into this tract of ocean by currents1 the plants being all detached2 and they do not produce fruit in that state1 being propagated by buds1 which originate new branches and leaves4 7,fig4 #ac47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,the ,gulf-weed 7,sargassum bacciforum74 ,owing to their soft1 cellular structure1 ,algae are not likely to be preserved in a fossil state2 but what have been considered such have been found as low down as the ,silurian formation1 although their identity has been disputed1 and several of them1 it is more than probable1 belong to other orders1 and some even to the animal kingdom4 ,freshwater forms1 all of existing genera and species1 are believed to have been detected in the carboniferous rocks of ,britain and ,france2 others also of the green-coloured division are said to occur from the ,silurian to the ,eocene1 and the ,florideae to be represented from the ,lias to the ,miocene4 ,the indestructible nature of the shells of the ,diatomaceae has enabled them to survive where the less protected species may have perished4 ,tripoli stone1 a ,tertiary rock1 is entirely composed of the remains of microscopic plants of this tribe4 ,it is from their silicious shells that mineral acquires its use in the arts1 as powder for polishing stones and metals4 ,ehrenberg estimates that in every cubic inch of the tripoli of ,bilin1 in ,bohemia1 there are #da1jjj1jjj of ,gaillonella distans4 ,districts recovered from the sea frequently contain myriads of ,diatoms1 forming strata of considerable thickness2 and similar deposits occur in the ancient sites of lakes in this and other countries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before setting out in search of ,algae the collector ought to provide himself with a pair of stout boots to guard his feet from the sharp-pointed rocks1 as well as a staff or pole to balance himself in rock-climbing1 which ought to have a hook for drawing floating weed ashore4 ,a stout table-knife tied to the other end will be found very useful4 ,a basket--a fishing-basket does very well--or a waterproof bag1 for stowing away his plants1 is also necessary4 ,it is advisable to carry a few bottles for the very small and delicate plants1 and care should be taken to keep apart1 and in sea-water1 any specimens of the ,sporochnaceae2 for they are not only apt to decay themselves but to become a cause of corruption in the other weeds with which they come in contact4 ,these bottles should always be carried in the bag or pocket1 never in the hand4 ,sea-weeds1 as every visitor to the coast knows1 are torn up in great numbers by the waves1 especially during storms1 and afterwards left on the shore by the retiring tide4 ,many shallow-growing species are also to be found attached to the rocks1 and in the rock pools1 between high and low water mark4 ,there are three points on the beach where the greatest accumulations of floating ,algae are found3 high water mark1 mid-tide level1 and low water mark4 ,low water occurs about five or five and a half hours after high water4 ,the best time for the collector to commence is half an hour or so before dead low water4 ,he can then work to the lowest point safely1 and1 retiring before the approaching tide1 examine the higher part of the beach up to high water mark4 ,if the coarse weeds in the rock pools and chinks are turned back1 many rare and delicate ,algae will be found growing under them1 especially at the lowest level4 ,the most effective method of collecting the plants of deeper water is by dredging1 or going round with a boat at the extreme ebb1 and taking them from the rocks and from the ,laminaria stems1 on which a great number have their station4 ,stems of ,laminaria thrown out by the waves should also be carefully examined4 ,in all cases the weed should be well rinsed in a clear rock pool before being put away in the bag or other receptacle4 ,the next thing to be considered is the laying out and preserving of the specimens selected for the herbarium4 ,wherever possible these should be laid out on paper1 and put under pressure as soon as gathered1 or on the same day at all events4 ,when this is impracticable1 they may be spread between the folds of soft and thick towels and rolled up4 ,thus treated the most delicate plants will keep fresh until next day4 ,another way is to pack the plants in layers of salt1 like herrings2 but the most usual method of roughly preserving sea-weeds collected during an unprepared visit to the shore is by moderately drying them in an airy room out of the direct rays of the sun4 ,they are then to be placed lightly in bags1 and afterwards relaxed by immersion and prepared in the usual way4 ,the finer plants1 however1 suffer more or less by this delay4 ,if carried directly home from the sea the plants should be emptied into a vessel of sea-water4 ,a flat dish1 about fourteen inches square and three deep1 is then to be filled with clean water4 ,for most plants this may be fresh1 for some it is essential that it should be salt4 ,some of the ,polysiphonias and others begin to decompose at once if placed in fresh water4 ,the ,griffithsias burst and let out their colouring matter1 and a good many change their colour4 ,the appliances required are some fine white paper--good printing demy1 thirty-six pounds or so in weight per ream1 does very well1--an ample supply of smooth blotting paper1 the coarse paper used by grocers and called sugar royal1 or1 best of all1 ,bentall's botanical drying paper1 pieces of well-washed book muslin1 a camel's hair brush1 a bodkin for assisting to spread out the plants1 a pair of scissors1 and a pair of forceps4 ,the mounting paper may be cut in three sizes3 #e in4 by #d in41 #ga_/b in4 by #ea_/d in41 and #aj in4 by #ga_/b in4 ,then having selected a specimen1 place it in the flat dish referred to above1 and prune it if necessary4 ,next take a piece of the mounting paper of suitable size1 and slip it into the water underneath the plant1 keeping hold of it with the thumb of the left hand4 ,having arranged the plant in a natural manner on the paper1 brush it gently with the camel's hair brush to remove any dirt or fragments1 draw out paper and plant gently and carefully in an oblique direction1 and set them on end for a short time to drain4 ,having in this way transferred as many specimens as will cover a sheet of drying paper1 lay them upon it neatly side by side1 and cover them with a piece of old muslin4 ,four sheets of drying paper are then to be placed upon this1 then another layer of plants and muslin and four more sheets of drying paper1 until a heap1 it may be six or eight inches thick1 is built up4 ,place this between two flat boards1 weighted with stones1 bricks1 or other weights2 but the pressure should be moderate at first1 otherwise the texture of the muslin may be stamped on both paper and plant4 ,the papers must be changed in about three hours' time1 and afterwards every twelve hours4 ,in three or four days1 according to the state of the weather1 the muslin may be removed1 the plants again transferred to dry paper1 and subjected to rather severe pressure for several days4 ,the very gelatinous plants require particular treatment4 ,one way is to put them in drying paper and under a board but to apply no other pressure1 change the drying paper at least twice during the first half hour1 and after the second change of dryers apply very gentle pressure1 increasing it until the specimens are fully dry4 ,a safer and less troublesome way1 for the efficacy of which we can vouch1 is to lay down the plants and dry them without any pressure1 afterwards damping the back of the mounting papers and placing them in the drying press4 ,some ,algae will scarcely adhere to paper4 ,these should be pressed until tolerably dry1 then be immersed in skim-milk for a quarter of an hour1 and pressed and dried as before4 ,a slight application of isinglass1 dissolved in alcohol1 to the under side of the specimen is sometimes necessary4 ,before mounting1 or at all events before transference to the herbarium1 care should be taken to write in pencil on the back of the paper the name of the plant1 if known1 the place where gathered1 and the date4 ,the coarse olive weeds1 such as the bladder-wrack1 ,halidrys1 and the like1 may in the case of a short visit to the coast be allowed to dry in an airy place1 and taken home in the rough4 ,before pressing1 in any case1 they should be steeped in boiling water for about half an hour to extract the salt1 then washed in clean fresh water1 dried between coarse towels1 and pressed and dried in the same way as flowering plants4 ,a collection of ,algae may be fastened on sheets of paper of the usual herbarium size and kept in a cabinet or portfolios1 or attached to the leaves of an album4 ,for scientific purposes1 however1 the latter is the least convenient way4 ,there are few objects more beautiful than many of the sea-weeds when well preserved2 but the filiform species1 especially those of the first sub-order1 do not retain their distinguishing characters when pressed as has been described4 ,portions of these1 however1 as well as sections of stems and fruit1 may be usefully dried on small squares of thin mica1 for subsequent microscopic examination1 or they may be mounted on the ordinary microscope slides4 ,this is the only course possible with ,desmids and ,diatoms4 ,the former are to be sought in shallow pools1 especially in open boggy moors4 ,the larger species commonly lie in a thin gelatinous stratum at the bottom of the pools1 and by gently passing the fingers under them they will be caused to rise towards the surface1 when they can be lifted with a scoop4 ,other species form a greenish or dirty cloud on the stems and leaves of other aquatic plants1 and by stripping the plant between the fingers these also may be similarly detached and secured4 ,if they are much diffused through the water1 they may be separated by straining through linen2 and this is a very common way of procuring them4 ,living ,diatoms are found on aquatic plants1 on rocks and stones1 under water or on mud1 presenting themselves as coloured fringes1 cushion-like tufts1 or filmy strata4 ,in colour the masses vary from a yellowish brown to almost black4 ,they are difficult1 both when living and dead1 to separate from foreign matter2 but repeated washings are effectual in both cases1 and1 for the living ones1 their tendency to move towards the light may also be taken advantage of4 ,when only the shells are wanted for mounting1 the cell contents are removed by means of hydrochloric and nitric acid4 ,the most satisfactory medium for preserving fresh ,desmids and ,diatoms is distilled water1 and if the water is saturated with camphor1 or has dissolved in it a grain of alum and a grain of bay salt to an ounce of water1 confervoid growths will be prevented4 ,for larger preparations of ,algae1 ,thwaites' fluid is strongly recommended4 ,this is made by adding to one part of rectified spirit as many drops of creasote as will saturate it1 and then gradually mixing with it in a pestle and mortar some prepared chalk1 with sixteen parts of water2 an equal quantity of water saturated with camphor is then to be added1 and the mixture1 after standing for a few days1 to be carefully filtered4 ,for authorities on the morphology and classification of the ,algae1 students may be referred to ,sachs' ,text ,book and ,le ,maout's ,system of ,botany1 of which there are good translations1 and the ,introduction to ,cryptogamic ,botany1 by the ,rev4 ,m4 ,j4 ,berkeley2 for descriptions and the identification of species1 to the text and figures of ,harvey's ,phycologia ,britannica1 and ,nature-,printed ,sea-weeds4 ,both of these are however costly4 ,among the cheaper works are ,british ,sea-weeds1 by ,s4 ,o4 ,gray 7,lovell1 ,reeve ,co471 ,harvey's ,manual and an abridgment by ,mrs4 ,a4 ,gatty1 with reduced but well executed copies of the figures1 of the ,phycologia4 ,this synopsis can often be picked up cheap at second-hand book-stalls2 and there is a very excellent low-priced work suitable for amateurs1 ,grattann's ,british ,marine ,algae1 containing recognizable figures of nearly all our native species4 ,landsborough's ,popular ,history of ,british ,sea-weeds1 and ,mrs4 ,lane ,clarke's ,common ,sea-weeds1 are also cheap and useful manuals on the subject4 ,illustration3 ,floral design ,,shells4 ,,by ,b4 ,b4 ,,woodward4 ,illustration3 ,,pond ,,snails4 ,,shells4 ,,introductory4 ,in the very earliest times1 long before there was any attempt at the scientific classification and arrangement of shells1 they appear to have been objects of admiration1 and to have been valued on account of their beauty1 for we find that the pre-historic men1 who1 in company with the mammoth1 or hairy elephant1 and other animals now extinct1 inhabited ,southern ,france in days long gone by1 used to bore holes in them1 and1 like the savage of to-day1 wear them as ornaments4 ,the ,greek physician and philosopher1 ,aristotle1 is said to have been the first to study the formation of shells1 and to raise the knowledge thus acquired into the position of a science2 by him shells were divided into three orders--an arrangement preserved1 with some small changes1 by ,linnaeus4 ,it is possible that the world-wide renown of the ,swedish naturalist during the last century1 and the ardour with which he pursued his investigations1 may have given an impetus to the study of natural objects1 for we find that at that period large sums were often given by collectors for choice specimens of shells4 ,nor is this to be wondered at1 for few things look nicer1 or better repay trouble expended on them1 than does a well-arranged and carefully mounted and named collection of shells4 ,certainly nothing looks worse than a number of shells of all descriptions1 of every kind1 shape1 and colour1 thrown promiscuously into a box1 like the unfortunate animals in a toy ,noah's ark1 to the great detriment of their value and beauty2 for1 as the inevitable result of shaking against each other1 the natural polish is taken off some1 the delicate points and ornaments are broken off others1 the whole collection becoming in time unsightly and disappointing1 and all for want of a little care at the outset4 ,in this1 as in every other undertaking1 how to set about it is the chief difficulty with beginners2 and here1 perhaps1 a few hints gathered from experience may not be without value4 ,one thing a young collector should always bear in mind1 however1 is1 that no instructions can be of any avail to him unless1 for his part1 he is prepared to bring patience1 neatness1 and attention to detail1 to bear upon his work4 ,since it is important to know the best way of storing specimens already acquired1 we will1 in the first place1 devote a few words to this point1 and then proceed to describe the best means of collecting specimens1 and of naming1 mounting1 and arranging the same4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,cabinet4 ,it is a common mistake1 both with old and young1 to imagine that a handsome cabinet is1 in the first instance1 a necessity2 but no greater blunder can be made3 the cabinet should be considered merely an accessory1 the collection itself being just as valuable1 and generally more useful1 when kept in a series of plain wooden or cardboard boxes4 ,we intend1 therefore1 to describe the simplest possible means of keeping a collection of shells1 leaving elaborate and costly methods to those who value the case more than its contents4 ,the first thing required is some method of keeping the different species of shells apart1 so that they may not get mixed1 or be difficult to find when wanted4 ,the simplest plan of doing this is to collect all the empty chip match-boxes you can find1 throw away the cases in which they slide1 and keep the trays1 trying to get as many of a size as possible4 7,the ordinary ,bryant ,may's1 or ,bell ,black's1 are the most useful1 and with them the trays of the small ,swedish match-boxes1 two of which1 placed side by side1 occupy nearly exactly the same space as one and a half of the larger size1 and so fit in with them nicely47 ,in these trays your shells should be placed1 one kind in each tray2 but although very convenient for most specimens1 they will of course be too small for very many1 and so the larger trays must be made4 ,this may easily be done as follows3 cut a rectangular piece of cardboard two inches longer one way than the length of the match-tray1 and two inches more the other way than twice the width of the match-tray2 then with a pencil rule lines one inch from the edges and parallel with them 7,fig4 #a72 next cut out the little squares 7a a1 a a7 these lines form in the corners of the piece of cardboard1 and then with a penknife cut half through the card1 exactly on the remaining pencil-lines1 and bend up the pieces1 which will then form sides for your tray2 and by binding it round with a piece of blue paper1 you will have one that will look neat1 uniform with the others1 and yet be just twice their size4 ,if required1 you can make in the same way any size1 only take care that they are all multiples of one standard size1 as loss of space will thereby be avoided when you come to the next process in your cabinet4 ,this is1 to get a large box or tray in which to hold your smaller ones4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,how to cut a cardboard tray4 ----------------- a a ----------------- ----------------- a a ----------------- ,the simplest plan is to get some half-dozen cardboard boxes 7such as may be obtained for the asking or for a very trifling cost at any draper's71 having a depth of from one to two inches 7according to the size of your shells72 in these your trays may be arranged in columns1 and the boxes can be kept one above the other in a cupboard or in a larger box4 ,more boxes and trays can1 from time to time1 be added as occasion requires1 and thus the whole collection may be kept in good working order at a trifling cost4 ,a more durable form of cheap cabinet may be made by collecting the wooden boxes so common in grocers' shops1 cleaning them with sand-paper1 staining and varnishing them outside1 and lining them inside with paper2 or1 if handy at carpentering1 you may make all your boxes1 or even a real cabinet1 for yourself4 ,,how ,,to ,,collect ,,shells4 ,provision being thus made for the comfortable accommodation of your treasures1 the next consideration is1 how to set about collecting them4 ,mollusca are to be found all over the globe1 from the frozen north to the sun-baked tropics1 on the land or in lakes1 rivers1 or seas--wherever1 in fact1 they can find the food and other conditions suitable for their growth and development2 but the collector who is not also a great traveller1 must of course rely for his foreign specimens upon the generosity of friends1 or else procure them from dealers4 ,in most districts of our own country1 there are1 however1 to be found large numbers of shells whose variety and beauty will astonish and reward the efforts of any patient seeker4 ,begin with your own garden1--search in the out-of-the-way1 and especially damp1 corners2 turn over the flower-pots and stones which have lain longest in one place1 search amongst the roots of the grass growing under walls1 and in the moss round the roots of the trees1 and you will be surprised at the number of different shells you may find in a very short space of time4 ,when the resources of the garden have been exhausted1 go into the nearest lanes and again search the grass and at the roots of plants1 especially the nettles which grow beside ditches and in damp places2 hunt amongst the dead leaves in plantations1 and literally leave no stone unturned4 ,all the apparatus it is necessary to take on these excursions consists of a few small match or pill-boxes in which to carry home the specimens2 a pair of forceps to pick up the smaller ones1 or to get them out of cracks2 a hooked stick to beat down and pull away the nettles2 and1 above all1 sharp eyes trained to powers of observation4 ,the best time to go out1 is just after a warm shower1 when all the grass and leaves are still wet1 for the land-snails are very fond of moisture1 and the shower entices them out of their lurking-places4 ,where the ground is made of chalk or limestone1 they will be found most abundant2 for as the snail's shell is composed of layers of animal tissue1 strengthened by depositions of calcareous earthy-matter which the creature gets from the plants on which it feeds1 and these in their turn obtain from the soil--it naturally follows that the snail prefers to dwell where that article is most abundant1 as an hour's hunt on any chalk-down will soon show4 ,when garden and lanes are both exhausted1 you may then turn to the ponds and streams in the neighbourhood1 where you will find several new kinds4 ,some will be crawling up the rushes near the margin of the water1 others will be found in the water near the bank1 while others may be obtained by pulling on shore pieces of wood and branches that may be floating in the water2 but the best are sure to be beyond the reach of arm or stick1 and it will be necessary to employ a net1 which may be easily made by bending a piece of wire into a circle of about four inches in diameter1 and sewing to it a small gauze bag2 it may be mounted either on a long bamboo1 or1 better still1 on one of those ingenious ,japanese walking-stick fishing-rods4 ,for heavier work1 however1 such as getting fresh-water mussels and other mollusca from the bottom1 you will require a net something like the accompanying figure 7,fig4 #b71 about one foot in diameter4 ,this1 when attached to a long rope1 may be thrown out some distance and dragged through the water-weeds to the shore1 or if made with a square instead of a circular mouth1 it may be so weighted that it will sink to the bottom1 and be used as a dredge for catching the mussels which live half-buried in the mud4 ,to carry the water-snails home1 you will find it necessary to have tin boxes 7empty mustard-tins are the best71 as match-boxes come to pieces when wetted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,net for taking water-snails4 ,the finest collections of shells1 however1 are to be made at the sea-side1 for the marine mollusca are both more varied in kind and more abundant than the land and fresh-water ones1 and quite an extensive collection may be made in the course of an afternoon's ramble along the shore2 it is necessary1 however1 to carefully reject such specimens as are worn by having been rolled by the waves upon the beach1 as they are not of any great value in a collection2 it is better1 in fact1 if possible1 to go down to the rocks at low water and collect the living specimens4 ,search well about and under the sea-weeds1 and in the rock-pools1 and1 when boating1 throw your dredge-net out and tow it behind1 hauling it in occasionally to see what you have caught1 and to empty the stones and rubbish out4 ,at low tide also1 look out for rocks with a number of round holes in them1 all close together1 for in these holes the ,pholas 7,fig4 #bb7 dwells1 having bored a burrow in the solid rock1 though how he does it we do not yet quite know4 ,the ,razor-shells and ,cockles live in the sand1 their presence being indicated by a small round hole2 but they bury themselves so fast that you will find it difficult to get at them4 ,some good specimens1 too1 of the deeper water forms are sure to be found near the spots where fishermen drag their boats ashore1 as they are often thrown away in clearing out the nets2 moreover1 if you can make friends with any of the said fishermen1 they will be able to find and bring you many nice specimens from time to time4 ,the reason that so much has been said about collecting living specimens1 is not only because in them the shell is more likely to be perfect1 but also because in its living state the shell is coated with a layer of animal matter1 sometimes thin and transparent1 at others thick and opaque1 called the periostracum 7or epidermis71 which serves to protect the shell from the weather1 but which perishes with the animal1 so that dead shells which have lain for some time tenantless on the ground1 or at the bottom of the water1 exposed to the destructive agencies that are constantly at work in nature1 have almost invariably lost both their natural polish and their varied hues1 and are besides only too often broken as well4 ,since1 however1 even a damaged specimen is better than none at all1 such should always be kept until a more perfect example can be obtained4 ,,how ,,to ,,prepare ,,the ,,shells ,,for ,,the ,,cabinet4 ,the question with which we have next to deal is1 after collecting a number of living mollusks1 how1 in the quickest and most painless manner possible1 to kill the animals in order to obtain possession of their shells4 ,there is but one way we know of in which this may be accomplished1 and that is by placing the creatures in an earthen jar and pouring boiling water on them4 ,with land1 or fresh-water snails1 the addition of a large spoonful of table-salt is advisable1 as it acts upon them chemically1 and not only puts them sooner out of pain1 but also renders their subsequent extraction far easier4 ,death by this process is instantaneous1 and consequently painless2 but to leave snails in cold salt water is to inflict on them the tortures of a lingering death2 while for the brutality of gardeners and other thoughtless persons who seek to destroy the poor snail they find eating their plants by crushing it under foot on the gravel path1 no words of condemnation are too strong1 since it must always be borne in mind that snails have not1 like us1 one nervous centre1 but three1 and are far more tenacious of life2 hence1 unless all the nerves are destroyed at once1 a great deal of suffering is entailed on the poor creature2 and if merely crushed under foot1 the mangled portions will live for hours4 ,hot water has also the advantage of tending to remove the dirt which is almost sure to have gathered on the shells1 and so helping to prepare them better for the cabinet4 ,as soon as the water is cool enough1 fish out the shells one by one and proceed to extract the dead animals4 ,this1 if the mollusk is univalve 7i4e41 whose shell is composed of a single piece71 such as an ordinary garden snail1 can easily be done by picking them out with a pin2 you will find1 probably1 that some of the smaller ones have shrunk back so far into their shells as to be beyond the reach of a straight pin1 so it will be necessary to bend the pin with a pair of pliers1 or1 if none are at hand1 a key will answer the purpose if the pin be put into one of the notches and bent over the edge until sufficiently curved to reach up the shell4 ,you will find it convenient to keep a set of pins bent to different curves1 to which you may fit handles by cutting off the heads and sticking them into match stems4 ,it is a good plan to soak some of the smaller snails in clean cold water before killing them1 as they swell out with the water1 and do not1 when dead1 retreat so far into their shells4 ,if you have a microscope1 and wish to keep the animals till you have time to get the tongues out1 drop the bodies into small bottles of methylated spirit and water1 when they will keep till required1 otherwise they should of course be thrown away at once4 ,the now empty shells should be washed in clean warm water1 and1 if very dirty1 gently scrubbed with a soft nail or tooth brush1 and then carefully dried4 ,in such shells as the ,periwinkle1 ,whelk1 etc41 whose inhabitants close the entrance of their dwelling with a trap-door1 or operculum as it is called1 you should be careful to preserve each with its proper shell4 ,if you are cleaning bivalves1 or shells composed of two pieces1 like the common mussel1 you will have to remove the animal with a penknife1 and while leaving the inside quite clean1 be very careful not to break the ligament which serves as a hinge2 then wash as before1 and tie them together to prevent their gaping open when dry4 ,sometimes the fresh-water or marine shells are so coated over with a vegetable growth that no scrubbing with water alone will remove it1 and in these cases a weak solution of caustic soda may be used1 but very carefully1 since1 if too strong a solution be employed1 the surface of the shell will be removed with the dirt1 and the specimen spoilt4 ,in some shells the periostracum is very thick and coarse1 and must be removed before the shell itself can be seen2 but it is always well to keep at least one specimen in its rough state as an example4 ,in other shells the periostracum is covered over with very fine1 delicate hairs 7,helix sericea and ,helix hispida1 ,fig4 #c71 and great care must then be taken not to brush these off4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 7a7 ,helix sericea and 7b7 ,helix hispida4 ,,how ,,to ,,mount ,,the ,,shells ,,for ,,the ,,cabinet4 ,when the specimens are thoroughly cleaned1 the next process is to sort out the different kinds1 placing each description in a different tray1 and then to get them ready for mounting1 for no collection will look well unless each kind is so arranged that it may be seen to the best advantage1 and is also carefully named4 ,where you have a good number1 pick out first the largest specimens of their kind1 then the smallest1 then a series1 as you have room for them1 of the most perfect2 and finally those which show any peculiarity of structure or marking4 ,try1 too1 to get young forms as well as adult1 for the young are often very different in appearance from the full-grown shell4 ,mark on them1 especially on such as you have found yourself1 the locality they came from1 as it is very important to the shell collector to know this1 since specimens common enough in one district are often rare in another4 ,either write the name of the place in ink on a corner of the shell itself1 or gum a small label just inside it1 or simply number it1 and write the name of the place with a corresponding number against it in a book kept for the purpose4 ,next select a tray large enough to hold all you have of this kind2 place a piece of cotton wool at the bottom1 and lay your shells upon it4 ,for small shells1 however1 this method is not suitable1 as the cotton wool acts on them like a spring mattress1 and they are liable on the least shock to be jerked out of their trays and lost4 ,this difficulty may be met by cutting a piece of cardboard so that it just fits into your tray1 and then gumming the shells on to it in rows2 but remember that1 in this plan of mounting1 it is impossible to take the shells up and examine them on all sides as you do the loose ones1 and so you must mount a good many1 and place them in many different positions1 so that they may be seen from as many points of view as possible4 ,the gum used should always have nearly one-sixth of its bulk of pure glycerine added to it2 this prevents it from becoming brittle when dry1 otherwise your specimens would be liable after a time to break away from the card and get lost4 ,if the shells will not stay in the position you require1 wedge them up with little pieces of cork until the gum is dry4 ,when the shells are mounted1 you must try1 if you have not already done so1 to get the proper names for them2 it is as important to be able to call shells by their right names as it is to know people by theirs4 ,the commoner sorts you will be able to name from the figures of them given in text-books1 such as those quoted in the list at the end of this little work2 but some you will find it very difficult to name1 and it will then be necessary to ask friends who have collections to help you1 or to take them to some museum and compare them with the named specimens there exhibited4 ,when the right name is discovered1 your label must then be written in a very small1 neat hand1 and gummed to the edge of the tray or on the card if your specimens are mounted4 ,at the top you put the ,latin name1 ruling a line underneath it1 and then1 if you like1 add the ,english name2 next1 put the name of the place and the date at which it was found1 thus3-- ,helix aspersa 7,common snail71 ----------------------------- ,lane near ,hampstead ,heath1 ,july #ajth1 #ahhb4 ,a double red ink line ruled at the top and bottom will add a finished appearance to it4 ,,how ,,to ,,classify ,,the ,,shells ,,for ,,the ,,cabinet4 ,all the foregoing processes1 except the naming of your specimens1 are more or less mechanical1 and are only the means to the end--a properly arranged collection4 ,for1 however well a collection may be mounted1 it is practically useless if the different shells composing it be not properly classified4 ,by classification is meant the bringing together those kinds that most resemble each other1 first of all into large groups having special characteristics in common1 and then by subdividing these into other smaller groups1 and so on4 ,thus the animal kingdom is divided1 first of all1 into ,sub-kingdoms1 then each ,sub-kingdom into so many ,classes containing those which have further characteristics in common1 the ,classes into ,orders1 the ,orders into ,families1 the ,families into ,genera1 and these again into species or kinds4 ,the ,mollusca1 or soft-bodied animals1 of whose protecting shells your collection consists1 form a sub-kingdom1 and are subdivided into four classes3-- #a4 ,cephalopoda4 #b4 ,gasteropoda4 #c4 ,pteropoda4 #d4 ,lamellibranchiata 7or ,conchifera74 ,and these again into ,families1 ,genera1 and ,species4 ,the space at our disposal being limited1 it is impossible to do more than furnish some general outlines of the different forms4 ,for further details it will be necessary to refer to one of the larger works1 a list of which will be found on the last page4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,argonauta ,argo4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,bone of ,sepia officinalis4 ,,class ,i4--,the ,,cephalopoda 7,head-footed7 contains those mollusca that1 like the common ,octopus1 have a number of feet 7or arms7 set round the mouth1 and is divided into those having two gills4 7,order ,i4 ,dibranchiata72 and those with four 7,order ,,ii4 ,tetrabranchiata74 ,order ,i4 is again divided into3 7a47 ,those with eight feet like the ,argonaut 7or ,paper-nautilus1 ,fig4 #d71 which fable has so long endowed with the power of sailing on the surface of the ocean1 7it is even represented in one book as propelling itself through the air67 and the common ,octopus4 7b47 ,those with ten feet1 such as the ,loligo 7or ,squid1 ,fig4 #f71 whose delicate internal shell so much resembles a pen in shape2 the ,cuttle-fish 7,sepia1 ,figs4 #e #g71 whose so-called bone 7once largely used as an ink eraser7 is frequently found on our southern coasts2 and the pretty little ,spirula 7,fig4 #h74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,loligo vulgaris1 and ,pen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,sepia officinalis4 ,the only representative of the four-gilled order now living is the well-known ,pearly ,nautilus2 but in former times the ,tetrabranchiata were extremely numerous1 especially the ,ammonites4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,spirula4 ,,class ,,ii4--,,gasteropoda 7,belly-footed7 comprises those mollusca which1 like the common snail1 creep on the under-surface of the body1 and with one exception 7,chiton1 ,fig4 #bj7 their shells are univalve 7i4e41 composed of one piece74 ,but before we go further1 it may be well to point out the names given to different parts of a univalve shell4 ,the aperture whence the animal issues is called the mouth1 and its outer edge the lip2 each turn of the shell is a whorl2 the last and biggest1 the body-whorl1 the whorls1 from the point at the top1 or apex1 down to the mouth form the spire2 and the line where the whorls join each other is called the suture4 ,the axis of the shell around which the whorls are coiled is sometimes open or hollow1 and the shell is then said to be umbilicated 7as in ,fig4 #c;b72 when closely coiled1 a pillar of shell1 or columella1 is left 7as in ,fig4 #i74 ,sometimes the corner of the mouth farthest from the spire and next the columella1 is produced into a channel1 the anterior canal 7as in ,fig4 #i72 whilst where the mouth meets the base of the spire there may be a kind of notch which is termed the posterior canal4 ,most ,gasteropods are dextral1 that is to say1 the mouth is to the right of the axis as you look at it2 a few1 however1 are sinistral1 or wound to the left 7like ,physa72 whilst reversed varieties of both kinds are met with4 ,gasteropods of the first order have comb-like gills placed in advance of the heart1 and are hence termed ,,prosobranchiata4 ,they are divided into two groups3 7a7 ,siphonostomata 7,tube-mouthed71 in which the animal has a long proboscis1 and a tube1 or siphon1 from the breathing-chamber that passes along the anterior canal of the shell1 which in this group is well developed4 ,they have a horny operculum1 or lid1 with which to close the aperture4 7b7 ,holostomata 7or ,whole-mouthed74 ,in these the siphon is not so produced1 and does not want to be protected2 accordingly the mouth of the shell is entire1 i4e4 has no canal4 ,the operculum is horny or shelly4 ,the former 7group a7 includes several families3 #a4 ,strombidae1 comprising shells1 like the huge ,strombus1 or ,fountain-shell1 which is so often used to adorn the mantelpiece or rockery1 and from which cameos are cut4 #b4 ,the ,muricidae1 of which the ,murex 7an extraordinary form of this is the ,venus' comb1 ,murex tenuispina1 ,fig4 #i71 the ,mitre-shells1 and the ,red-,whelks 7,fusus7 are examples4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,murex tenuispina4 #c4 ,the ,buccinidae1 taking its name from its type1 the ,common ,whelk 7,buccinum undatum71 and including such other forms as the ,dog-,whelk 7,nassa71 the ,purpura1 the strange ,magilus1 and the lovely ,harp-,shells and ,olives 7,fig4 #aj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,oliva tessellata4 #d4 ,the ,cassididae1 or ,helmet-,shells4 ,cassis rufa1 from ,west ,africa1 is noted as the best species of shell for cameo engraving2 with it are classed the ,tun 7,dolium7 and the great ,triton 7,triton tritonis71 such as the sea-gods of mythology are represented blowing into by way of trumpet1 and which are used by the ,polynesian ,islanders to this day instead of horns4 #e4 ,the ,conidae1 whose type1 the ,cone-shell 7,fig4 #aa71 is at once distinctive and handsome1 but which in the living state is covered by a dull yellowish-brown periostracum that has to be carefully removed before the full beauties of the shell are displayed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,conus vermiculatus4 #f4 ,the ,volutidae1 embracing the ,volutes and ,boat-shells 7,cymba74 #g4 ,the ,cypraeidae1 or ,cowries 7,fig4 #ab71 which owe their high polish to the size of the shell-secreting organ 7mantle71 whose edges meet over the back of the shell1 concealing it within its folds4 ,with these is classed the ,china-shell 7,ovulum74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,cypraea oniscus4 ,the second group1 or ,holostomata1 is divided into nineteen families1 beginning with-- #a4 ,the ,naticidae1 whose type1 the genus ,natica1 is well known to all shell-collectors through the common ,natica monilifera of our coasts4 #b4 ,the ,cancellariadae1 in which the shells are cancellated or cross-barred by a double series of lines running1 one set with the whorls1 and the other across them4 #c4 ,the ,pyramidellidae1 which are high-spired1 elongated1 and slender shells1 with the exception of the genus ,stylina1 which lives attached to the spines of sea-urchins or buried in living star-fishes and corals4 #d4 ,the ,solaridae or ,staircase-shells1 whose umbilicus is so wide that1 as you look down it1 the projecting edges of the whorls appear like a winding staircase4 ,it is a very short-spired shell4 #e4 ,the ,scalaridae1 ,wentle-traps or ,ladder-shells1 which may be readily recognised from their white and lustrous appearance and the strong rib-like markings of the periodic mouths that encircle the whorls4 #f4 ,the ,cerithiadae1 or ,horn-shells1 which are very high-spired1 and whose columella and anterior canal are produced in the form of an impudent little tail1 the effect of which1 however1 in the genus ,aporrhais1 or ,spout-shells1 is taken away by the expanded and thickened lip4 #g4 ,in the next family1 the ,turritellidae1 or ,tower-shells1 the type ,turritella is spiral2 but in the allied form ,vermetus1 though the spire begins in the natural manner1 it goes off into a twisted tube resembling somewhat an ill-made corkscrew4 ,the mouth in this family is often nearly round4 #h4 ,the ,melaniadae1 and #i4 ,the ,paludinidae1 are fresh-water shells4 ,the former are turreted1 and the latter conical or globular4 ,both are furnished with opercula1 but the mouth in the first is more or less oval and frequently notched in front1 while in the latter it is rounded and entire4 #aj4 ,the ,litorinidae1 or ,periwinkles1 need no word from us4 #aa4 ,the ,calyptraeidae comprise the ,bonnet-limpet1 or ,pileopsis1 and ,cup-and-saucer-limpets 7,calyptraea74 ,they may be described briefly as limpets with traces of a spire left4 ,the genus ,phorus1 however1 is spiral1 and resembles a ,trochus4 ,they have been called ,carriers from their strange habit of building any stray fragments of shell or stone into their house1 thus rendering themselves almost indistinguishable from the ground on which they crawl4 #ab4 ,the ,turbinidae1 or ,top-shells1 are next in order1 and of these the great ,turbo marmoreus is a well-known example1 being prepared as an ornament for the whatnot or mantelpiece by removing the external layer of the shell in order to display the brilliant pearly nacre below4 ,these mollusca close their mouths with a horny operculum1 coated on its exterior by a thick layer of porcelain-like shelly matter4 ,with them are classed the familiar ,trochus and other closely allied genera4 #ac4 ,the ,haliotidae offer in the representative genus ,haliotis1 or the ,ear-shell1 another familiar mantelpiece ornament4 #ad4 ,the ,ianthinidae1 or ,violet-snails1 that float about in mid-,atlantic upon the gulf-weed1 and at certain seasons secrete a curious float or raft1 to which their eggs are attached1 are next in order1 and are followed by-- #ae4 ,the ,fissurellidae1 or ,key-hole and ,notched limpets1 whose name sufficiently describes them4 ,to these succeed-- #af4 ,the ,neritidae1 an unmistakable group of globular shells1 having next to no spire and a very glossy exterior1 generally ornamented with a great variety of spots and bands4 #ag4 ,the ,patellidae1 or true ,limpets1 are well known to every sea-side visitor3 large species1 as much as two inches across1 are to be found on the coast of ,devon1 but these are pigmies compared with a ,south ,american variety which attains a foot in diameter4 #ah4 ,the ,dentaliadae1 represented by the genus ,dentalium1 or ,tooth-shell1 are simply slightly curved tubes1 open at both ends and tapering from the mouth downwards1 and cannot be mistaken4 #ai4 ,lastly1 we have the ,chitonidae1 whose single genus ,chiton possesses shells differing from all other mollusca in being composed of eight plates overlapping each other1 and in appearance reminding one of the wood-louse4 ,this animal is not only like the limpet in form but also in habits1 being found adhering to the rocks and stones at low-water4 ,order ,,ii4--,,pulmonifera4 ,contains the air-breathing ,gasteropods1 and to it consequently belong all the terrestrial mollusca1 though some few aquatic genera are also included4 ,the members of this order have an air-chamber instead of gills1 and are divided into two groups1 7a7 those without an operculum1 and 7b7 those having an operculum4 ,foremost in the first group stands the great family-- #a4 ,helicidae1 named after its chief representative1 the genus ,helix4 ,it also includes the ,glass-shell 7,vitrina71 the ,amber-shell 7,succinea71 and such genera as ,bulimus1 ,achatina1 ,pupa1 ,clausilia 7,fig4 #ac71 etc41 which differ from the typical ,helix in appearance1 possessing as they do comparatively high spires4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,clausilia biplicata4 #b4 ,the ,limacidae1 or slugs1 follow next2 of these only one1 the genus ,testacella1 has an external shell stuck on the end of its tail2 the rest have either a more or less imperfect shell concealed underneath the mantle1 or else none at all4 #c4 ,the ,oncidiadae are slug-like1 and devoid of shell4 #d4 ,the ,limnaeidae embrace the ,pond-snails1 chief of whom is the well-known1 high-spired ,limnaea stagnalis4 ,other shells of this family associated with ,limnaea are1 however1 very different in shape2 for instance1 ,physa has its whorls turning to the left instead of to the right2 ,ancylus 7,fig4 #bd71 or the freshwater limpet1 is of course limpet-like2 while ,planorbis1 or the ,coil-shell1 is wound like a watch-spring4 #e4 ,the ,auriculidae includes both spiral shells1 such as ,auricula and ,charychium1 and a limpet-like one ,siphonaria4 ,at the head of group b stands #a1 ,cyclostomidae4 ,cyclostoma elegans is a common shell on our chalk-downs1 and well illustrates its family1 in which the mouth is nearly circular4 ,foreign examples of this genus are much esteemed by collectors4 ,the other two families are1 7#b7 ,helicinidae and 7#c7 ,aciculidae4 ,order ,,iii4--,,opisthobranchiata4 ,these animals carry their gills exposed on the back and sides1 towards the rear of the body4 ,only a few have any shell4 #a4 ,the ,tornatellidae1 which have a stout little spiral shell4 #b4 ,the ,bullidae1 in which the spire is concealed 7,fig4 #bf74 #c4 ,the ,aplysiadae1 where the shell is flat and oblong or triangular in shape4 ,the remaining families are slug-like and shell-less4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,bulla ampulla4 ,order ,,iv4--,,nucleobranchiata4 ,derives its name from the fact that the animals constituting it have their respiratory and digestive organs in a sort of nucleus on the posterior part of the back1 and covered by a minute shell4 ,as they are pelagic1 the shells are not readily to be obtained4 ,they are divided into two families1 ,firolidae and ,atlantidae4 ,,class ,,iii4--,,pteropoda4 ,like the last1 these pretty little mollusca are ocean-swimmers4 ,the members of one division of them1 to which the ,cleodora belongs1 is furnished with iridescent external shells4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,petunculus guerangeri4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,venus plicata4 ,,class ,,iv4--,the ,,lamellibranchiata 7,plate-gilled71 or ,,conchifera 7,shell-bearing71 includes the mollusca commonly known as bivalves1 the animal being snugly hidden between two more or less closely fitting shelly valves4 ,the oysters1 cockles1 etc41 are examples of this class4 ,the two valves are fastened together near their points1 or beaks 7technically called umbones71 by a tough elastic ligament1 sometimes supplemented by an internal cartilage4 ,if this be severed and the valves parted1 it will be found that in most cases they are further articulated by projecting ridges or points called the teeth1 which1 when the valves are together1 interlock and form a hinge2 the margin of the shell on which the teeth and ligament are situated is termed the hinge-line4 ,a bivalve is said to be equivalve when the two shells composing it are of the same size1 inequivalve when they are not4 ,if the umbones are in the middle1 the shell is equilateral 7,fig4 #ae72 but inequilateral when they are nearer one side than the other 7,fig4 #af74 ,if the shell be an oyster or a scallop1 you will find on the inside a single circular scar-like mark near the centre2 this is the point to which the muscles that close the valves and hold them so tightly together are attached4 ,in the majority of bivalves1 however1 there are two such muscular impressions1 or scars1 one on either side of each valve of the shell4 ,the former group on this account are often called ,monomyaria 7having one shell-muscle71 and the latter ,dimyaria 7having two shell-muscles74 ,in the last named the two muscular impressions are united by a fine groove 7or pallial-line71 which in some runs parallel to the margin of the shell 7,fig4 #ae71 whilst in others it makes a bend in 7pallial-sinus7 on one side of the valve towards the centre 7,fig4 #af74 ,in ,monomyaria it will be found running parallel to the margin of the shell4 ,it marks the line of attachment of the mantle or shell-secreting organ of the animal to the shell which grows by the addition of fresh matter along its edges1 so that the concentric curved markings so often seen on the exterior correspond in their origin with the periodic mouths of the ,gasteropods4 ,the bivalves are all aquatic1 and many bury themselves in the sand or mud by means of a fleshy1 muscular foot4 ,these are furnished with two siphons1 or fleshy tubes1 sometimes united1 sometimes separate1 through which they respire1 drawing the water in through one and expelling it by the other4 ,those kinds whose habit it is to bury themselves below the surface of the mud or sand are furnished with long retractile siphons1 and to admit of their withdrawal into the shell1 the mantle is at this point attached farther back1 giving rise to the pallial-sinus above described2 this sinus is deeper as the siphons are proportionately longer1 and in many cases1 too1 the valves do not meet at this point when the shell is closed4 ,attention to these particulars is necessary when arranging your bivalves1 as on them their classification depends1 the class being divided into-- a4 ,,asiphonida 7,siphonless74 b4 ,,siphonida ,integro-pallialia 7with ,siphons74--,pallial-line entire4 c4 ,,siphonida ,sinu-pallialia 7with ,siphons74--,sinus in pallial-line4 ,,division a4--,,asiphonida--is next subdivided into-- #a4 ,the ,ostreidae1 or oysters1 which are deservedly a distinct family in themselves4 #b4 ,the ,anomiadae1 comprising the multiform and curiously constructed ,anomia1 with the ,window-shells 7,placuna74 #c4 ,the ,pectinidae1 taking its name from the genus ,pecten1 or ,scallop-shells1 of which one kind 7,p4 maximus7 is frequently to be seen at the fishmongers' shops4 ,the ,thorney oysters 7,spondylus7 take rank here1 and are highly esteemed by collectors1 one specimen indeed having been valued at ,l#be6 #d4 ,the ,aviculidae1 or ,wing-shells1 among which are numbered the ,pearl-oyster of commerce 7,meleagrina margaritifera74 ,the strange ,t-shaped ,hammer oyster belongs to this family1 as does also the ,pinna4 ,the ,pinnas1 like the mussels and some other bivalves1 moor themselves to rocks by means of a number of threads spun by the foot of the mollusc1 and termed the byssus1 which in this genus is finer1 more silky1 than in any other1 and has been woven into articles of dress4 #e4 ,the ,mytilidae1 or mussels1 including the ,lithodomus1 or ,date-shell1 which bores into corals and even hard limestone rocks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,hinge-teeth of ,arca barbata4 #f4 ,the ,arcadae1 or ,noah's-ark-shells1 characterized by their long straight hinge-line set with numerous very fine teeth 7,fig4 #ag74 ,the ,nut-shell 7,nucula7 belongs to this family4 #g4 ,the ,trigoniadae1 whose single living genus1 the handsome ,trigonia 7,fig4 #ah71 is confined to the ,australian coast-line1 whereas in times now long past they had a world-wide distribution4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,trigonia margaritacea4 #h4 ,the ,unionidae1 comprising the fresh-water mussels4 ,,division b4--,,siphonida ,integropallialia4 #a4 ,the ,chamidae1 represented by the reef-dwelling ,chama4 #b4 ,the ,tridacnidae1 whose sole genus ,tridacna contains the largest specimen of the whole class of bivalves1 the shells sometimes measuring two feet and more across4 #c4 ,the ,cardiadae1 or cockles4 #d4 ,the ,lucinidae1 in which the valves are nearly circular1 and as a rule not very attractive in appearance1 though the ,basket-shell 7,corbis7 has an elegantly sculptured exterior4 #e4 ,the ,cycladidae1 whose typical genus ,cyclas1 with its round form and thin horny shell1 is to be found in most of our ponds and streams4 #f4 ,the ,astartidae1 a family of shells having very strongly developed teeth1 and the surface of whose valves is often concentrically ribbed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,hinge of ,cardita sinuata4 #g4 ,the ,cyprinidae1 which have very solid oval or elongated shells and conspicuous teeth 7,fig4 #ai74 ,the ,heart-cockle 7,isocardia7 belongs to this family4 ,,division c4--,,siphonida ,sinu-pallialia4 #a4 ,the ,veneridae4 ,the hard1 solid shells of this family are for elegance of form and beauty of colour amongst the most attractive a collector can posses4 ,their shells are more or less oval and have three teeth in each valve 7,fig4 #bj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,hinge of ,cytherea crycina4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,hinge of ,lutraria elliptica #b4 ,the ,mactridae are somewhat triangular in shape1 and may be at once recognised by the pit for the hinge-ligament1 which also assumes that form1 as seen in the accompanying figure of ,lutraria elliptica 7,fig4 #ba74 #c4 ,the ,tellinidae comprise some of the most delicately tinted1 both externally and internally1 of all shells4 ,in some1 coloured bands radiate from the umbones1 and well bear out the fanciful name of ,sunset shells bestowed upon them4 ,their valves are generally much compressed4 #d4 ,the ,solenidae1 or ,razor-shells1 rank next1 and are readily recognised by the extreme length of the valves in proportion to their width1 and also by their gaping at both ends4 #e4 ,the ,myacidae or ,gapers1 have the siphonal ends wide apart 7in the genus ,mya both ends gape71 and are further characterized by the triangular process for the cartilage1 which projects into the interior of the shell4 ,one valve 7the left7 is generally smaller than the other4 #f4 ,the ,anatinidae have thin1 often inequivalve pearly shells4 ,the genus ,pandora is the form most frequently met with in collections4 #g4 ,the ,gastrochaenidae embraces two genera 7,gastrochaena and ,saxicava7 of boring mollusca1 which perforate shells and rocks1 and also1 the remarkable tube-like ,watering-pot-shell 7,aspergillum7 which is hardly recognisable as a bivalve at all4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,pholas dactylus4 #h4 ,the ,pholadidae concludes the list of bivalves1 and comprises the common rock-boring ,pholas 7,fig4 #bb7 of our coasts and the wood-boring shipworm ,teredo 7,fig4 #bc74 99 99 99 99 99 ,although the ,brachiopoda1 or ,lamp-shells1 are not true mollusca1 they are not very far removed from them1 and are so often to be found in cabinets that it will not do to pass them over1 especially since in past times they were very abundant1 an enormous number occurring in the fossil state4 ,only eight genera are now living4 ,shells belonging to this class are readily recognised by the fact of one valve being larger than the other1 and possessing a distinct peak1 the apex of which is perforated4 ,the ,terebratulidae are the most extensive family of this class4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,teredo navalis4 ,,how ,,to ,,arrange ,,the ,,shells ,,in ,,the ,,cabinet4 ,when you have arranged your specimens in the order above indicated1 proceed to place them in your boxes1 arranging and labelling them after the manner shown in the accompanying diagram4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,class4 ---------- ,species4 ,species4 ,species4 ,species4 ,order4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,family ,name4 ---------- ,species4 ,species4 ,species4 ,species4 ,generic ,name4 ---------- ------------------------------ ,family ---------- ,name4 ,species4 ,species4 ,species4 ---------- ,species4 ,generic ------------------------------ ,name4 ---------- ---------- ,generic ,species4 ,name4 ,species4 ,species4 ,species4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,generic ,species4 ,species4 ,species4 ,species4 ,name4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,generic ,species4 ,species4 ,name4 ,species4 ,species4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,species4 ,species4 ,species4 ,species4 ,species4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,on the lid1 or on a slip of paper or card placed at the head of your columns of trays1 write the class and order1 with its proper number 7,i41 ,,ii41 etc41 as the case may be72 then at the top of your left-hand column place the family and its number1 and under it the name of the first genus4 ,the species 7one in each tray7 come next1 then the name of the next genus following it1 succeeded by its species1 and so on4 ,the object of the young collector should be to obtain examples of as many genera as possible1 since a collection in which a great number of genera are represented is far more useful and instructive than one composed of a great many species referable to but few genera4 ,he will also find it very convenient to separate the ,british ,shells from his general collection1 sub-dividing them for convenience into ,land and ,fresh-water1 and ,marine4 ,of these he should endeavour to get every species1 and even variety1 making the thing as complete as possible4 ,or a separate collection may be made of all those kinds which he can find within a certain distance of his own home4 ,a collection of this sort possesses1 in addition to its scientific worth1 an interest of its own1 owing to the local associations that invariably connect themselves with it4 ,,table ,,of ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,more ,,important ,,genera1 ,,showing ,,the ,,approximate ,,number ,,of ,,species ,,belonging ,,to ,,each ,,genus ,,and ,,their ,,distribution4 ,,class ,i4--,,cephalopoda4 ,,order ,i4--,dibranchiata4 ,section ,a4--,octopoda4 ,family4 ,genus4 ,no4 of ,species4 ,distribution4 #a4 ,argonauta #d ,tropical seas4 #b4 ,octopus #df ,rocky coasts in temperate and tropical regions4 ,section ,b4--,decapoda4 #c4 ,loligo #ai ,cosmopolitan4 #d4 ,sepia #cj ,on all coasts4 #e4 ,spirula #c ,all the warmer seas4 ,,order ,,ii4--,tetrabranchiata4 #f4 ,nautilus #c or #d ,chinese ,seas1 ,indian ,ocean1 ,persian ,gulf4 ,,class ,,ii4--,,gasteropoda4 ,,order ,i4--,prosobranchiata4 ,division a4--,siphonostomata4 ,no4 of ,family4 ,genus4 ,species4 ,distribution4 #a4 ,strombus #fj ,w4 ,indies1 ,mediterranean1 ,red ,sea1 ,indian ,ocean1 ,pacific--low water to #aj fathoms4 ,pteroceras #ab ,india1 ,china4 #b4 ,murex #ahj ,on all coasts4 ,columbella #bjj ,sub-tropical regions1 in shallow water on stones4 ,mitra #cej ,tropical regions1 from low water to #hj fathoms4 ,fusus #ajj ,on all coasts4 #c4 ,buccinum #bj ,northern seas1 from low water to #adj fathoms4 ,eburna #i ,red ,sea1 ,india1 ,australia1 ,china1 ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,nassa #baj ,world-wide--low water to #ej fathoms4 ,purpura #adj ,world-wide--low water to #be fathoms4 ,harpa #i ,tropical--deep water1 sand1 muddy bottoms4 ,oliva #aag ,sub-tropical--low water to #be fathoms4 #d4 ,cassis #cd ,tropical regions1 in shallow water4 ,dolium #ae ,mediterranean1 ,india1 ,china1 ,w4 ,indies1 ,brazil1 ,new ,guinea1 ,pacific4 ,triton #ajj ,temperate and sub-tropical regions1 from low water to #ej fathoms4 ,ranella #ej ,tropical regions1 on rocks and coral-reefs4 ,pyrula #dj ,sub-tropical regions1 in #ag to #ce fathoms4 #e4 ,conus #cjj ,equatorial seas--shallow water to #ej fathoms4 ,pleurotoma #ejj ,almost world-wide--low water to #ajj fathoms4 #f4 ,voluta #ajj ,on tropical coasts1 from the shore to #ajj fathoms4 ,cymba #aj ,west ,coast of ,africa1 ,lisbon1 ,straits of ,gibraltar4 ,marginella #ij ,mostly tropical4 #g4 ,cypraea #aej ,warmer seas of the globe1 on rocks and coral-reefs4 ,ovulum #cf ,britain1 ,mediterranean1 ,w4 ,indies1 ,china1 ,w4 ,america4 ,division b4--,holostomata4 #h4 ,natica #ij ,arctic to tropical regions1 on sandy and gravelly bottoms1 from low water to #ij feet4 ,sigaretus #bf ,e4 and ,w4 ,indies1 ,china1 ,peru4 #i4 ,cancellaria #gj ,w4 ,indies1 ,china1 ,s4 ,america1 ,e4 ,archipelago--low water to #dj fathoms4 #aj4 ,pyramidella #aa ,w4 ,indies1 ,mauritius1 ,australia1 in sandy bays and on shallow mud-banks4 ,odostomia #ce ,britain1 ,mediterranean1 and ,madeira--low water to #ej fathoms4 ,chemnitzia #gj ,world-wide--low water to #ajj fathoms4 ,eulima #bf ,cuba1 ,norway1 ,britain1 ,india1 ,mediterranean1 ,australia--#e to #ij fathoms4 #aa4 ,solarium #be ,sub-tropical and tropical--widely distributed4 #ab4 ,scalaria #ajj ,world-wide--low water to #ajj fathoms4 #ac4 ,cerithium #ajj ,world-wide4 ,potamides #da ,africa and ,india1 in mud of large rivers4 ,aporrhais #c ,labrador1 ,norway1 ,britain1 ,mediterranean--#bj to #ajj fathoms4 #ad4 ,turritella #ej ,world-wide--low water to #ajj fathoms4 ,vermetus #ca ,portugal1 ,mediterranean1 ,africa1 ,india4 #ae4 ,melania #afj ,s4 ,europe1 ,india1 ,philippines and ,pacific ,islands--in rivers4 ,melanopsis #bj ,spain1 ,australia1 ,asia ,minor1 ,new ,zealand--in rivers4 #af4 ,paludina #fj ,northern ,hemispheres1 ,africa1 ,india1 ,china1 etc4--in lakes and rivers4 ,ampullaria #ej ,s4 ,america1 ,w4 ,indies1 ,africa1 ,india--in lakes and rivers4 #ag4 ,litorina #dj ,on all shores4 ,rissoa #gj ,world-wide--in shallow water on sea-weed to #ajj fathoms4 #ah4 ,calyptrea #ej ,world-wide--adherent to rocks1 etc4 ,crepidula #dj ,west ,indies1 ,mediterranean1 ,cape of ,good ,hope1 ,australia4 ,pileopsis #g ,britain1 ,norway1 ,mediterranean1 ,e4 and ,w4 ,indies1 ,australia4 ,hipponyx #gj ,w4 ,indies1 ,galapagos1 ,philippines1 ,australia4 ,phorus #i ,w4 ,indies1 ,india1 ,javan and ,chinese ,seas--in deep water4 #ai4 ,turbo #fj ,on the shores of ,tropical seas4 ,phasinella #cj ,australia1 ,pacific1 ,w4 ,indies1 ,mediterranean4 ,imperator #bj ,s4 ,africa1 ,india1 etc4 ,trochus #aej ,world-wide--from low water to #ajj fathoms4 ,rotella #ah ,india1 ,philippines1 ,china1 ,new ,zealand4 ,stomatella #bj ,cape1 ,india1 ,australia1 etc4 #bj4 ,haliotis #ge ,britain1 ,canaries1 ,india1 ,australia1 ,california--on rocks at low water4 ,stomatia #ab ,java1 ,philippines1 ,pacific1 etc4-- under stones at low water4 #ba4 ,ianthina #f ,gregarious in the open seas of the ,atlantic and ,pacific4 #bb4 ,fissurella #abj ,world-wide--on rocks from low water to #e fathoms4 ,emarginula #bf ,britain1 ,norway1 ,philippines1 ,australia--from low water to #ij fathoms4 #bc4 ,nerita #aaf ,on the shores of all warm seas4 ,neritina #aaj ,in fresh waters of all warm countries1 and in ,britain4 ,navicella #bd ,india1 ,mauritius1 ,moluccas1 ,australia1 ,pacific--in fresh water1 attached to stones4 #bd4 ,patella #ajj ,on all coasts--adhering to stones and rocks4 #be4 ,dentalium #cj ,world-wide--buried in mud4 #bf4 ,chiton #bjj ,world-wide--low water to #ajj fathoms4 ,,order ,,ii4--,pulmonifera4 ,division a4--,inoperculata4 ,no4 of ,family4 ,genus4 ,species4 ,distribution4 #bg4 ,helix #a1fjj ,succinea #fh ,world-wide--on land in moist places4 ,bulimus #fej ,achatina #abj ,world-wide--burrowing at roots and bulbs4 ,pupa #bcf ,world-wide--amongst wet moss4 ,clausilia #djj ,europe and ,asia--in moist spots4 #bh4 ,limax #bb ,europe and ,canaries--on land in damp localities4 ,testacella #c ,s4 ,europe1 ,canaries1 and ,britain-- burrowing in gardens4 #bi4 ,oncidium #af ,britain1 ,red ,sea1 ,mediterranean--on rocks on the seashore4 #cj4 ,limnaea #ej ,europe1 ,madeira1 ,india1 ,china1 ,n4 ,america--in ponds1 rivers1 lakes1 etc4 ,physa #bj ,america1 ,europe1 ,s4 ,africa1 ,india1 ,philippines--in ponds1 rivers1 lakes1 etc4 ,ancylus #ad ,europe1 ,n4 and ,s4 ,america--in ponds1 rivers1 lakes1 etc4 ,planorbis #ade ,europe1 ,n4 ,america1 ,india1 ,china--in ponds1 rivers1 lakes1 etc4 #ca4 ,auricula #ej ,tropical--in salt marshes4 ,siphonaria #cj ,world-wide--between high and low water4 ,division b4--,operculata4 #cb4 ,cyclostoma #hj ,s4 ,europe1 ,africa ,cyclophorus #ajj ,india1 ,philippines --on land4 ,pupina #hj ,philippines1 ,new ,guinea #cc4 ,helicina #aej ,w4 ,indies1 ,philippines1 ,central ,america1 ,islands in ,pacific--on land4 #cd4 ,acicula #e ,britain1 ,europe1 ,vanicoro--on leaves and at roots of grass4 ,geomelania #ba ,jamaica--on land4 ,,order ,,iii4--,opisthobranchiata4 ,division a4--,tectibranchiata4 ,no4 of ,family4 ,genus4 ,species4 ,distribution4 #ce4 ,tornatella #af ,red ,sea1 ,philippines1 ,japan--in deep water4 #cf4 ,bulla #ej ,widely distributed--low water to #cj fathoms4 #cg4 ,aplysia #dj ,britain1 ,norway1 ,w4 ,indies--low water to #ae fathoms on sea-weed4 #ch4 ,pleurobranchus #bj ,britain1 ,norway1 ,mediterranean4 ,division b4--,nudibranchiata4 #ci-dd4 ,all shell-less4 ,,order ,,iv4--,nucleobranchiata4 ,no4 of ,family4 ,genus4 ,species4 ,distribution4 #de4 ,firola #h ,atlantic1 ,mediterranean4 ,carinaria #e ,atlantic and ,indian ,oceans4 #df4 ,atlanta #ae ,warmer parts of the ,atlantic4 ,,class ,,iii4--,,pteropoda4 ,division a4--,thecosomata4 ,no4 of ,family4 ,genus4 ,species4 ,distribution4 #a4 ,hyalea #ai ,cleodora #ab ,atlantic1 ,mediterranean1 ,indian ,ocean4 #b4 ,limacina #b ,arctic and ,antarctic ,seas4 ,division b4--,gymnosomata4 #c4 ,clio1 etc4 ,shell-less4 ,,class ,,iv4--,,lamellibranchiata4 ,no4 of ,family4 ,genus4 ,species4 ,distribution4 ,division a4--,asiphonida4 #a4 ,ostrea #ajj ,world-wide--in estuaries1 attached4 #b4 ,anomia #bj ,india1 ,australia1 ,china1 ,ceylon-- attached to shells from low water to #ajj fathoms4 ,placuna #d ,scinde1 ,north ,australia1 ,china--in brackish water4 #c4 ,pecten #agf ,world-wide--from #c to #dj fathoms4 ,lima #bj ,norway1 ,britain1 ,india1 ,australia-- from #a to #aej fathoms4 ,spondylus #gj ,tropical seas--attached to coral-reefs4 #d4 ,avicula #be ,britain1 ,mediterranean1 ,india-- #be fathoms4 ,perna #ah ,in tropical seas--attached4 ,pinna #cj ,united ,states1 ,britain1 ,mediterranean1 ,australia1 ,pacific--low water to #fj fathoms4 #e4 ,mytilus #gj ,world-wide--between high and low water mark4 ,modiola #gj ,british and tropical seas--low water to #ajj fathoms4 #f4 ,arca #djj ,in warm seas--from low water to #bjj fathoms4 ,pectunculus #eh ,west ,indies1 ,britain1 ,new ,zealand-- from #h to #fj fathoms4 ,nucula #gj ,norway1 ,japan--from #e to #ajj fathoms4 #g4 ,trigonia #c ,off the coast of ,australia4 #h4 ,unio #dbj ,world-wide--in fresh waters4 ,anodon #ajj ,north ,america1 ,europe1 ,siberia--in fresh waters4 ,division b4--,siphonida4 #i4 ,chama #ej ,in tropical seas on coral reefs4 #aj4 ,tridacna #g ,indian and ,pacific ,oceans1 ,chinese ,seas4 #aa4 ,cardium #bjj ,world-wide--from the shore line to #adj fathoms4 #ab4 ,lucina #gj ,tropical and temperate seas--sandy and muddy bottoms--from low water to #bjj fathoms4 ,kellia #bj ,norway1 ,new ,zealand1 ,california--low water to #bjj fathoms4 #ac4 ,cyclas #fj ,temperate regions--in all fresh waters4 ,cyrena #acj ,from the ,nile and other rivers to ,china--and in mangrove swamps4 #ad4 ,astarte #bj ,mostly ,arctic--from #cj to #aab fathoms4 ,crassatella #cd ,australia1 ,philippines1 ,africa1 etc4 #ae4 ,cyprina #a ,from ,britain to the most northerly point yet reached--from #e to #hj fathoms4 ,circe #dj ,britain1 ,australia1 ,india1 ,red ,sea-- #h to #ej fathoms4 ,isocardia #e ,mediterranean1 ,china1 ,japan--burrowing in sand4 ,cardita #ed ,tropical seas--from shallow water to #aej fathoms4 #af4 ,venus #agf ,world-wide--buried in sand1 from low ,cytherea #aac water to #ajj fathoms4 ,artemis #ajj ,northern to tropical seas--from low water to #ajj fathoms4 ,tapes #hj ,widely distributed--burrowing in sand1 from low water to #ajj fathoms4 ,venerupis #bj ,britain1 ,canaries1 ,india1 ,peru--in crevices of rocks4 #ag4 ,mactra #abe ,world-wide--burrowing in sand4 ,lutraria #ah ,widely distributed--burrowing in sand4 #ah4 ,tellina #cjj ,in all seas--from the shore line to #ae fathoms4 ,psammobia #ej ,britain1 ,pacific and ,indian ,oceans-- from the littoral zone to #ajj fathoms4 ,sanguinolaria #bj ,w4 ,indies1 ,australia1 ,peru4 ,semele #fj ,brazil1 ,india1 ,china1 etc4 ,donax #fh ,norway1 ,baltic1 ,britain--in sand near low water mark4 #ai4 ,solen #cc ,world-wide--burrowing in sand4 ,solecurtus #be ,britain1 ,africa1 ,madeira1 ,mediterranean--burrowing in sand4 #bj4 ,mya #aj ,north ,seas1 ,w4 ,africa1 ,philippines1 etc4--river mouths from low water to #be fathoms4 ,corbula #fj ,united ,states1 ,britain1 ,norway1 ,mediterranean1 ,w4 ,africa1 ,china-- from #ae to #hj fathoms4 #ba4 ,anatina #ej ,india1 ,w4 ,africa1 ,philippines1 ,new ,zealand4 ,thracia #ag ,greenland to ,canaries and ,china--from #d to #abj fathoms4 ,pandora #ah ,spitzbergen1 ,panama1 ,india--from #d to #aaj fathoms1 burrowing in sand and mud4 #bb4 ,gastrochaena #aj ,w4 ,indies1 ,britain1 ,red ,sea1 ,pacific ,islands--from shore line to #cj fathoms4 ,saxicava ,arctic ,seas1 ,britain1 ,mediterranean1 ,canaries and the ,cape--in crevices and boring into limestone and rocks4 ,aspergillum #ba ,red ,sea1 ,java1 ,new ,zealand--in sand4 #bc4 ,pholas #cb ,almost universal--from low water to #be fathoms4 ,xylophaga #b ,norway1 ,britain1 ,s4 ,america--boring into floating wood4 ,teredo #ad ,in tropical seas--from low water to #ajj fathoms4 ,,some ,,works ,,of ,,reference4 ,,mollusca ,,in ,,general4 ,a ,manual of ,mollusca4 ,by ,dr4 ,s4 ,p4 ,woodward4 ,tabular ,view of the ,orders and ,families of the ,mollusca4 ,published by the ,society for ,promoting ,christian ,knowledge4 ,cassell's ,natural ,history1 latest edition1 article on the ,mollusca4 ,by ,dr4 ,henry ,woodward4 ,,british ,,mollusca4 ,a ,history of ,british ,mollusca and their ,shells4 ,by ,professor ,e4 ,forbes and ,s4 ,hanley4 ,british ,conchology4 ,by ,j4 ,g4 ,jeffreys4 ,common ,shells of the ,sea-shore4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood4 ,,british ,,land ,,and ,,fresh-,,water ,,mollusca4 ,land and ,fresh-water ,mollusca indigenous to the ,british ,isles4 ,by ,lovell ,reeve4 ,a ,plain and ,easy ,account of the ,land and ,fresh-water ,mollusca of ,great ,britain4 ,by ,ralph ,tate4 ,illustration ,,fossils4 ,,by ,b4 ,b4 ,,woodward4 ,,fossils4 ,,introductory4 ,geology is of all hobbies the one best calculated not only to develop the physical powers1 but also1 if pursued with any degree of earnestness1 to train and extend the mental faculties4 ,to study geology properly1 the rocks themselves must be visited and carefully observed1 their appearance noted1 and the fossils1 if any1 which they contain1 collected4 ,this necessitates many a pleasant walk into the open country to quarries and cuttings1 or rambles along the sea-shore to cliffs which may be worth investigating1 whilst botany1 entomology1 or any other congenial pursuit1 may be followed on the way2 for natural science in its different branches has so many points of connection that it is impossible to study one of them without increasing one's interest in1 and knowledge of1 all the others4 ,again1 in arranging1 classifying1 and studying at home the specimens collected on these expeditions1 many an hour may be usefully spent2 habits of exactitude and neatness are acquired2 whilst in endeavouring to draw correct conclusions as to the way in which particular rocks were formed1 and by what agencies brought to their present position1 the reasoning faculties are exercised and developed4 ,the existence of fossil shells and bones in various strata of the earth's crust attracted attention at a very early date of the world's history2 the ,egyptian priests were aware of the existence of marine shells in the hills bounding the ,nile valley1 and from this fact ,herodotus drew the conclusion that the sea formerly covered the spot4 ,the bones of the larger mammalia 7rhinoceros1 elephant1 etc471 were1 however1 thought by the ancients to be human1 and hence arose the idea of a race of giants having existed at some previous period of the earth's history4 ,it was not1 however1 until near the end of the last century that geology began to be recognised as a science1 and the true bearing of fossils in relation to the rocks in which they were found was conclusively proved4 ,william ,smith in ,england1 and ,werner in ,germany1 while working independently of each other1 both came to the same conclusion1 viz4 that the numerous strata invariably rested on each other in a certain order1 and that this order was never inverted1#a whilst ,william ,smith in addition proved that each group of rocks1 and even each stratum1 had its own peculiar set of fossils1 by which it might be recognised wherever it occurred4 ,from that time forth the study of the various fossils began to be considered as a separate science apart from that of the beds containing them2 this is now known as ,palaeontology1 the study of the composition of the rocks themselves being termed ,petrology4 #a ,except in such cases where the rocks themselves have been displaced by movements of the earth's crust4 ,at this moment1 however1 we are less concerned with the study of rocks and fossils than with the best and simplest way of collecting1 preparing1 and arranging specimens as a means to this study4 ,,the ,,cabinet4 ,with regard to the cabinet for such specimens as you are able to collect1 the same advice holds good as that given in a previous ,manual 7,the ,young ,collector's ,shell ,book71 namely1 the simpler the cabinet the better1 though of course card-board boxes would not as a rule be strong enough to stand the weight of the specimens1 and hence it is advisable to have wooden ones4 ,the boxes in which ,oakey's ,wellington ,knife-powder is sent out 7they measure about #ae in4 x #aj in4 x #c in47 are on the whole the most convenient size1 and are easily obtainable at any oil and colourman's4 ,these1 when painted over with ,berlin ,black1 after first removing the external labels1 look very neat4 ,the inside may be papered according to taste1 when the trays may be arranged in order ready for the reception of your specimens4#b #b ,for description of trays1 see ,the ,young ,collector's ,shell-,book4 ,,implements ,,required ,,when ,,collecting4 ,a certain amount of apparatus is needful in collecting geological specimens4 ,it is necessary to break open the hard rocks in order to get at the fossils within1 and for this purpose a strong hammer is required4 ,one end of the hammer-head should be square1 tapering1 slightly1 to a flat striking face2 for when thus shaped the edges and corners are less likely to break off2 the other side should be produced into a rather long1 flat1 and slightly curved pick1 terminating in a chisel-edge at right-angles to the handle2 the total length of the head should not exceed #ia_/b in41 the striking face being #c in4 from the centre of the eye in which the handle 7#ah in4 long7 is inserted2 the latter should be made of the toughest ash1 ,american hickory1 or green-heart1 and fixed in with an iron wedge 7roughed to prevent its coming out again71 taking care that #a_/d in4 of the handle protrudes on the other side4 ,it is the usual practice1 but a mistaken one1 to cut it off level with the hammer head1 which is likely1 under these circumstances1 to come off after it has been in use for a time1 whereas1 by leaving a small portion of the wedged-out end projecting1 this mischance is avoided1 and your weapon will not fail even when used to drag its owner up a stiff ascent4 ,it is better to shape and fix the handle yourself1 as by this means you can not only cut it to fit your hand1 but may rely upon its being properly fastened in4 ,by filing grooves around it an inch apart1 it will serve to take rough measurements with1 while a firm grasp may be insured by bees-waxing instead of polishing it4 ,another and much smaller hammer will also be necessary1 chiefly for home use1 to trim the specimens before putting them away in the cabinet2 the head of this hammer must not be more than #ba_/b inches long1 the handle springing from the centre2 one end has a flat striking face1 square in section1 the other1 instead of being formed like a pick1 is wedge-shaped1 the sharp edge being at right-angles to the handle4 ,next to a hammer1 a cold chisel is indispensable to the collector1 since without its aid many a choice specimen embedded in the middle of a mass of rock too large to break with the hammer would have to be left behind4 ,there is one thing1 however1 to beware of in using this tool--it has sometimes to be hit with great force1 and should you chance to miss it and strike your hand instead1 the result may be more serious than even a severe bruise4 ,to prevent this1 procure from the shoemaker or saddler a piece of thick leather1 about #d inches in diameter1 having a hole cut in the centre through which to pass the shank of the chisel1 and1 thus protected1 you may wield the hammer with impunity4 ,for digging fossils out of clay1 an old1 stout knife1 such as the worn-down stump of a carver1 is handy1 and in sandy beds an ordinary garden trowel is very useful1 whilst in a chalk-pit a small saw is sometimes of great aid in extricating a desirable specimen4 ,the same may be said of an ordinary carpenter's wood-chisel4 ,for picking up small and delicate specimens1 a pair of forceps should be carried1 whilst without a pocket lens no true naturalist ever stirs abroad4 ,an ordinary stout canvas satchel1 such as is commonly used by schoolboys1 is the best thing for carrying home your specimens2 this may be made much stronger by the addition of two short strips of leather stitched on the back and running1 one from each ring1 to which the strap passing over the shoulder is fastened1 down to the bottom of the bag2 by leaving a small portion unstitched near the bottom of each of these1 wide enough for the shoulder-strap to pass through1 the satchel may at a moment's notice be slung knapsackwise on the shoulders--a method of carrying it which is1 as all who have tried it know1 by far the most convenient when it is heavily laden or not in immediate requisition4 ,a stout leather belt may be worn in which to carry all your hammers1 supporting it on the side where the heavy hammer hangs by a band passing over the opposite shoulder4 ,before starting on an excursion1 make a practice of seeing that you have everything with you1 or when the critical moment comes1 and some choice and fragile specimen is ready to be borne off1 you may find that you are without the means necessary for taking it home4 ,for ordinary hard specimens1 newspaper well crumpled around them is without its equal1 but some of the more delicate must be first wrapped in tissue paper or even cotton-wool1 whilst the most fragile fossils should be packed in tins with bran or sawdust1 the particles of which fill in all the corners and press equally everywhere1 a useful faculty which cotton wool does not possess4 ,when neither of these are to be obtained1 dry sand will answer quite as well1 though it is heavier to carry4 ,although not absolutely necessary in the field1 it is often useful to have a small bottle of acid in your pocket 7nitric acid diluted to #a-abth with distilled water is the best7 with which to test for limestones2 a drop of acid placed on a rock will1 if there be any carbonate of lime in it1 immediately begin to fizz4 ,finally1 every young collector should carry a note-book1 and carefully record in it what he sees in each pit he visits1 while1 if it can be procured or borrowed1 a geological map of the district you are exploring is a great help1 for with its aid and that of a good compass you become practically independent of much extraneous assistance4 ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,your ,,implements4 ,we will suppose by way of illustration that near us flows a river1 on the rising ground above which is a pit that we propose to visit for the purpose of putting our apparatus into practical operation4 ,when we have reached the floor of the pit1 and stand looking up at the section before us1 we are at first rather puzzled as to what the beds1 which we see before us1 are2 for as the pit has not been worked for some time1 its sides are partially overgrown with grass1 and in places bits and pieces of the upper beds have fallen down and form a heap beneath which the lower ones lie buried4 ,we must therefore make our way to those spots where the beds are left clear1 and find out1 if possible1 what they are4 ,by climbing up one of the heaps of fallen earth 7talus7 we reach the top1 where1 first of all1 under the roots of the grass and shrubs1 we find the mould in which these grow1 and which is formed of the broken up 7disintegrated7 rocks forming the still higher ground above1 and which the rains1 frosts and snows1 aided afterwards by the earthworms1 have converted into mould4 ,this1 geologically speaking1 is called surface soil1 and is here about two feet deep4 ,just below it we find a layer of coarse gravel2 the pebbles of which this is composed are of all sorts1 sizes1 and shapes1 and are stained a deep brown by oxide of iron4 ,most of them are flints1 and by diligent search you may find casts and impressions in these of sponges1 shells1 spines of sea urchins1 etc4 ,flints1 whether from gravel or their parent rock the chalk1 are easiest broken by a light smart tap of the hammer1 though when it is desired to shape them for the cabinet a soft iron hammer should be used1 and the piece to be shaped placed on a soft pad on the knee1 for when struck with a steel hammer flints splinter in all directions1 and often through the very portion you most desire to preserve4 ,in one spot we find a mass of sand included in the gravel2 this mass is thickest in the middle1 and tapers away towards each end1 its total length being about fifty feet4 ,could we see the whole mass1 we should probably find it to be a patch lying on the gravel and thinning out all around its edges2 in other words it would be shaped like a lens--lenticular as geologists term it4 ,when we examine this mass more closely1 we find that the layers of sand do not run parallel with the bed1 but are inclined in different directions1 sometimes lying one way1 sometimes another4 ,this false bedding is due to the sand having been thrown down in waters agitated by strong currents that swept over the spot1 now in one direction and now in another1 scattering at one moment half the sand they had just piled up one way only to redeposit it the next minute in another4 ,in the gravel also may be observed a similar though less marked arrangement1 owing to the larger size of its constituents1 which of course required a still stronger current action to wash them down4 ,amongst the sand we now see some shells1 and set to work to dig them out very carefully1 for they are exceedingly brittle4 ,the best specimens are to be obtained by throwing down masses of the sandy material and searching in it2 but only the stronger and finer examples will bear such usage4 ,we next notice that these shells are precisely similar to those still found with living occupants in the river below1 only they are no longer of a brownish colour1 but owing to the loss of the animal matter of the shell have an earthy1 dirty-white appearance4 ,to carry these home they should be packed in bran in one of your tins with a note as follows made on a piece of paper and placed just inside--,sand in gravel3 topmost bed ---- pit1 ,august #bnd1 #ahh-4 ,then if you are not able to work them out at once on reaching home1 you will not forget whence they came4 ,from the appearance of these sands and gravels1 and the presence in them of shells exactly like those in the river below1 it may reasonably be inferred that they once formed a portion of the bed of that river long ago1 before it had scooped out its valley to the present depth4 ,there is1 however1 something else in this sand-bed--a piece of bone protruding2 clear away the sand above it1 and dig back until the whole is visible4 ,it is broken through in one or two places1 but otherwise is in fair condition2 remove the pieces carefully one by one1 and wrap them in separate pieces of paper1 and then proceed to search for others4 ,these bones1 which are plentiful in some of our river valley gravel-beds1 are the remains of animals that once roamed in the forests which at that time covered the country2 they were probably either drowned in crossing the water1 or got stuck in the mud on the banks on coming down to drink4 ,a fine collection was made at ,ilford by the late ,sir ,antonio ,brady1 and is now in the ,british ,museum 7,natural ,history7 at ,south ,kensington4 ,besides the bones of animals1 you may expect to find examples of all1 or nearly all1 the different rocks in which the river has cut its valley1 and samples of these may be picked out and taken home4 ,each specimen should be wrapped in a separate piece of paper to prevent its rubbing against others1 care being taken to note the locality either by writing it on the paper or by affixing to the specimen a number corresponding to one in your note book against the description you have written of the bed4 ,the gravel1 with its accompanying bed of sand1 may be traced down1 by scraping away the surface1 for about ten feet1 when you will discover that it rests unevenly upon the beds below1 which1 instead of being horizontal1 slope 7dip7 in a ,n4,n4,e4 direction1 making an angle of about #de deg4 with the floor of the pit2 the gravel therefore rests successively upon the upturned ends of the lower beds1 and1 geologically speaking1 is unconformable to them4 ,now as these underlying rocks were of course originally deposited in an horizontal position1 they must have been pushed up and the upper parts worn away 7denuded7 before the gravel was deposited on them1 for the accomplishment of which process an amount of time must have elapsed that it would be impossible to reckon by years4 ,when we come to examine these lower beds1 we find first a stratum of stiff dark-brown clay containing fossils disposed in layers3 those near the outer surface have been rendered so brittle by the weather1 that it is necessary to make use of the pick end of the hammer and dig a little way into the face of the section before we come upon some which will bear removal by cutting them out with a knife4 ,pack them in a tin with bran1 or1 where much clay still adheres to them1 wrap them in paper4 ,the true top of this bed is not visible1 being concealed beneath a heap of earth in the corner of the pit1 but we can see and measure about six feet of it4 ,the next bed in order is a light brownish band of sandy clay that splits along its layers into thin pieces or laminae1 whence we may describe it as a sandy1 laminated clay4 ,on the freshly split surface of one piece we see scattered a number of small darker brown fragments2 an examination with a pocket lens clearly shows that these are little bits of leaves and stems1 with here and there a more perfect specimen4 ,these beds must have been deposited in the still waters just off the main stream of a large river which brought the plants floating down to this spot1 where they became water-logged and sunk2 so1 too1 if you examine the shells in the bed immediately above1 you will see that they are very like though not the same as those which at the present day love to dwell in the mud off the estuaries of big rivers in warmer parts of the globe2 hence we discover that at some far distant period a big river1 but one which had no connection with that running close by1 once flowed over this very spot4 ,on tracing the leaf-bed down1 we come all at once1 at about three feet from its upper surface1 upon a narrow band one or two inches thick of a substance composed of numerous bits of sticks and stalks closely matted together and partially mineralized4 ,vegetable matter in this form is known as lignite1 and is one of the first stages towards the formation of coal out of plant remains4 ,below this lignite band we find our leaf-bed getting sandier and sandier1 and losing all trace of the plants by degrees till it becomes almost pure sand4 ,here and there1 however1 it contains some curiously shaped masses1 which1 when broken through with the hammer1 seem composed of nothing but the same grains of sand cemented together into a hard mass4 ,in one there is1 however1 a curiously shaped hollow1 which1 upon examining it closely1 you will see is a perfect cast of a small shell that has itself disappeared4 ,a drop of acid on it fizzes away and sinks in between the grains of sand which in this spot become loose4 ,a mass of sand or particles of clay thus cemented together1 be it by iron1 lime1 or any other substance1 is termed a nodule or concretion1 and in this particular instance has been formed as follows3--,the rain-water falling on the sand where it comes to the surface sinks in and filters through the bed4 ,now there is always a certain amount of carbonic acid in rain-water1 and this acid acted on the carbonate of lime of which the shell was composed1 dissolving and dispersing it amongst the neighbouring grains of sand where it was re-deposited1 cementing them together as we have seen4 ,the bottom of this bed of sand we find to be just fifteen feet from the lignite band when measured at right-angles to the bed1 and it is succeeded by a hard greyish rock1 which requires a smart blow of the hammer to break it1 but the surface of which1 where it has been exposed to the weather1 is much crumbled 7weathered71 and breaks readily into small pieces4 ,it is easily scratched with the point of a knife1 and therefore is not flint2 moreover1 it fizzes strongly when touched with acid--hence there is a great deal of carbonate of lime in it1 and we know that it is limestone4 ,limestones are very largely1 sometimes almost entirely1 made up of the calcareous portions of marine creatures1 such as the hard parts of corals1 the tests of sea-urchins1 the shells of mollusca1 etc41 welded1 so to speak1 into one mass by the heat1 pressure1 and chemical changes which the bed has undergone since its deposition at the bottom of the sea4 ,there would be every reason1 therefore1 one might suppose1 to expect a number of fossils in this bed2 but1 alas6 disappointment awaits the young explorer1 for with the exception of chalk and a few other limestones1 these rocks are generally of such uniform texture that on being struck with the hammer they split through fossils and all1 the fractured surface only too frequently showing nought save a few obscure markings4 ,but what we fail to accomplish in our impatience1 nature effects by slow degrees1 and if you will turn over the weathered pieces and blocks lying about1 you will soon find plenty of fossils sticking out all over them2 by a judicious use of hammer and chisel any of these may be detached and added to your stock1 each being separately packed in paper and the locality written on the outside4 ,some seventy or eighty feet is all that is visible of this limestone2 the rest is unexcavated4 ,before leaving the pit1 it will be as well to select such rock specimens as you wish to place in your cabinet1 trimming them to the required size on the spot1 for should you1 as is not unlikely1 spoil two or three1 you can readily pick a fresh one4 ,having secured our specimens1 we will take a look at our note-book1 to see if we have noted all the details we require4 ,if so1 our entries should run something as follows3--,first1 we have made a rough sketch of the position of the beds1 carefully numbering each one2 then follow our notes on the individual beds1 preceded by numbers corresponding with those in the sketch1 thus3-- #a4 ,surface ,soil #b ft4 #b4 ,river ,gravel1 including a lenticular mass of #c4 ,sand1 with land and fresh-water shells and bones of #aj ft4 animals #d4 ,stiff dark-brown clay1 with estuarine shells #f ft4 seen4 #e4 ,light-brown sandy clay1 with leaves and stems of plants #c ft4 #f4 ,band of ,lignite #b in4 #g4 ,same as #e1 passing into-- #h4 ,pure ,sand1 with layers of concretions containing casts of shells #ae ft4 #i4 ,dark-,grey ,limestone1 with numerous fossils #hj ft4 seen4 ,beds #d to #i dip at an angle of #de deg4 to the ,n4,n4,e4 ,our imaginary pit is of course only a sort of geological ,juan ,fernandez1 but it will serve in some degree to illustrate the method of dealing with various rocks and fossils when met with in the field1 and how they may best be collected and carried home4 ,a few additional suggestions where to look for fossils may1 however1 be given here4 ,to begin with1 ,i never neglect to search the fallen masses1 especially their weathered surfaces1 or to look carefully over the heaps of quarried materials1 whatever they may happen to be1 piled on the floor of the pit4 ,in working at the beds themselves1 remember that fossils frequently occur in layers which of course represent the old sea-bottom of the period2 to find these1 it is necessary to follow the beds in a direction at right angles to their stratification1 till you arrive at the sought-for layers1 or zones4 ,do not be surprised1 when collecting from a formation you have never before studied1 if the fossils are not at first apparent1 though many are known to be present4 ,the eye requires a few days in which to become accustomed to its fresh surroundings1 and when the same spot has been carefully hunted over every day for a week1 it is astonishing what a quantity of fossils are discernible where not one in the first instance was recognised4 ,,how ,,to ,,prepare ,,the ,,specimens ,,for ,,the ,,cabinet4 ,the first thing to be done on unpacking our specimens is to pick out those which require the least attention1 and get them out of the way4 ,these will be your rock specimens1 which1 if they have been trimmed properly in the pit1 will not need much further manipulation2 a word or two1 however1 as to the best method of proceeding when it is desirable to reduce a specimen1 will not be out of place4 ,if you wish to divide it in two1 or detach any considerable portion1 the specimen may1 while held in the hand1 be struck a smart blow with the hammer2 as1 however1 it not frequently happens that even with the greatest care the specimen under this treatment breaks in an opposite direction to that required1 it is advisable to adopt a somewhat surer method1 namely1 to procure a block of tough wood1 and in the centre bore a hole just large enough to receive the shank of the cold chisel1 and thus hold it in an upright position with the cutting edge uppermost2 placing the specimen on this1 and then hitting it immediately above with the hammer1 it may be fractured through in any required direction4 ,to trim off a small projection1 hold the specimen in your hand with the corner towards you and directed slightly downwards1 then with the edge of the striking face of the hammer hit it a smart blow at the line along which you wish it to break off2 the object of inclining the specimen is to make sure that the blow shall fall in a direction inclined away from the portion you wish to preserve1 a modus operandi which it is necessary to bear well in mind if you would not spoil many a choice specimen4 ,anything beyond very general directions1 however1 it is impossible to give in such matters as this3 experience1 and a few hints from those who have themselves had practice in collecting and arranging specimens1 are worth more than any written description1 however lengthy and elaborate4 ,having reduced your specimen to the required size and shape1 the next thing to be done is to write a neat little label for it--the smaller the better--stating1 first the nature of the specimen1 secondly the geological formation to which it belongs1 thirdly the locality from which it was procured1 and fourthly the date when acquired1 thus-- ,limestone4 ,lower ,carboniferous4 ,quarry1 #a mile ,n4,w4 of ---- #ba4 #h4 #h-4 ruling a neat line at the top and bottom 7red ink lines give a more finished appearance than black74 ,when the label is dry1 damp it to render it more pliant1 and gum it on to the flattest available surface of the specimen1 pressing it well into any small inequalities that it may hold the firmer4 ,a small quantity of pure glycerine 7about an eighth part7 should be added to the gum before use1 in order to prevent its drying hard and brittle4 ,the specimen is now ready to place in its tray and be put away in the cabinet4 ,in the next place1 pick out the fossils which you obtained from the limestone4 ,with the cold chisel set in its block of wood1 and the trimming hammer1 remove as much of the surrounding rock 7matrix7 as you can without damaging the fossil1 and with a smaller chisel any pieces that may be sticking to and obscuring it4 ,fossils in soft limestone1 such as chalk1 are best cleaned with an old penknife1 and needles fixed into wooden handles1 and finished off by the application of water with a nail-brush4 ,should you have the misfortune to break any specimen in the process of trimming1 it should at once be mended4 ,the most effectual cement for this purpose is made by simply dissolving isinglass in acetic acid1 or1 where the specimen contains much iron pyrites1 and there would be a danger in starting decomposition1 shellac dissolved in spirits of wine4 ,when1 however1 neither of these are handy1 chalk scraped with a penknife into a powder1 and mixed with gum to the consistency of a thick paste1 answers admirably4 ,failing this1 however1 gum alone will frequently suffice4 ,the next thing is to place the like kinds together in their several trays1 writing a label1 as before1 for each tray1 but leaving a blank space at the top for the insertion of the name when ascertained4 ,the commoner sorts may be named from the figures of them given in the text-books 7see list at the back of the title page72 but failing this1 it will be the best plan to seek the help of any friends who have collections1 or to take the fossils to some museum1 and compare them with the named specimens there exhibited4 ,the label may be laid at the bottom of the tray with the fossils loose on the top of it1 each fossil being marked with a number corresponding to one on the label4 ,another plan is to fasten the label by one of its edges to the side of the tray2 or1 if the fossils are small and mounted on a piece of card fitting into the tray1 it may be gummed with them to the card4 ,now let us take the shells we obtained from the dark-blue clay1 with those and the bones from the old river bed up above4 ,gently turn them out of the tins1 in which they were packed in the quarry1 on to a paper or the lid of a card-board box1 and with a pair of forceps pick them carefully out of the bran1 and place them in large shallow trays1 taking care not to mix those from the different beds4 ,as we found when collecting them1 these shells are extremely brittle from loss of animal matter1 and our first object is therefore to harden them by some process1 so that they will bear handling4 ,to accomplish this you must get a saucepan1 one of those wire contrivances for holding eggs when boiling1 or a big wire spoon1 such as formerly was used for cooking purposes1 a packet of gelatine1 and some flat pieces of tin1 which last are easily procured by hammering out an old mustard or other tin1 having previously melted in a gas flame the solder wherewith it is joined4 ,half fill the saucepan with clean water1 and put in as much gelatine as when cold will make a stiff jelly2 melt this over the fire1 placing the fossils meanwhile in a warm 7not hot7 corner of the fire-place2 then when the gelatine is quite dissolved1 pile as many of them1 whole or in pieces1 into the egg-boiler1 or spoon1 as it will contain1 hold them for a second in the steam1 and then lower them gradually into the hot gelatine until it completely covers them4 ,little bubbles of air will rise and float on the surface4 ,as soon as these cease to appear1 raise the fossils above the surface and allow them to drip2 then pick them up one by one with the forceps1 and spread them out on pieces of tin before the fire1 but not too close to it4 ,as soon as their exterior surfaces become dry1 and before the gelatine gets hard1 they should be taken up 7they may be handled fearlessly now71 and the superfluous gelatine sticking to the surface gently removed with a camel's-hair brush dipped in clean warm water2 otherwise1 when dry1 they present an unnatural varnished appearance1 and have a tendency1 on small provocation1 to become unpleasantly sticky4 ,small bones may be treated in like manner1 but for large ones1 weak glue is to be preferred to gelatine1 which is only suitable for the finer and more delicate objects4 ,where it is desired to harden only a few things1 it is better to mix the gelatine in a gallipot1 which can be heated when required by standing it in a saucepan of water on the fire4 ,in any case the gelatine need never be wasted1 as it will keep almost any length of time1 and can therefore be put by for future use4 ,in default of the egg-boiler or wire-net spoon1 an equally useful plan is to make a strainer from a piece of perforated zinc by turning up the edges all around1 and attaching copper wire to it by which to lower the fossils into the gelatine1 and raise them again4 ,when the fossils are quite dry they can be sorted1 and those which have come to pieces may be mended with diamond cement 7i4e4 isinglass dissolved in acetic acid71 and then properly labelled and placed in trays1 or mounted as previously described4 ,to the plant remains and ,lignite there is little that can be done beyond trimming them to suit the trays4 ,should there be much iron pyrites in the ,lignite1 it is sure1 sooner or later1 to decompose1 when all that can be done is to throw it away4 ,in the case1 however1 of valuable fruits and seeds1 such as those from the ,london ,clay of ,sheppey1 it is worth while to preserve them1 if possible1 in almost the only way known1 viz4 by keeping them in glycerine in wide-mouthed stoppered bottles1 or by saturating them with paraffin4 ,having prepared the specimens for the cabinet1 the next thing is to arrange them in proper order4 ,there are several ways of doing this1 but for those who have not had much experience the following plan will be found the best3--,group the specimens according to the formations to which they belong1 and arrange these groups in proper sequence 7vide ,table1 p4 #af72 then take each group1 and arrange the specimens it comprises in columns4 ,beginning at the top of the left-hand corner1 place first the specimens of the rock itself1 and under it any examples of minerals1 concretions1 etc41 found in that rock2 next the fossil plants1 if any2 and finally1 such animal remains as you have arranged according to their zoological sequence1 beginning with the lower forms 7vide ,table1 p4 #cb74 ,unless cramped for room1 each formation should begin a new box1 its name being written on a slip of paper and placed at the head of the columns of trays4 ,a label setting forth its contents should be fixed outside each of the boxes1 which can then be put away on your cupboard shelves4 ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,fossiliferous ,,strata ,,arranged ,,in ,,chronological ,,order4 ,land ,plants4----------- ,invertebrata4-------- ,fishes4------------ ,amphibia4-------- ,reptiles4------ ,birds4------- ,mammalia4-- ,man4----- ,alluvial ,deposits1 ,quaternary1 ,river ,valley or ,gravels and ,pleistocene4 ,cave ,deposits4 ,drift and ,glacial ,deposits4 ,v ,cainozoic1 ,pliocene4 or ,miocene4 ,tertiary4 ,eocene4 ,chalk4 ,m ,cretaceous4 ,upper ,greensand4 ,e ,gault4 ,s ,o ,neocomian4 ,lower ,greensand4 ,v ,z ,wealden4 3 ,o 3 ,i ,purbeck4 3 ,c1 ,upper4,portland4 3 ,kimmeridge ,clay4 3 or 3 ,mid4 ,coral ,rag4 3 ,s ,oo- ,oxford ,clay4 3 ,e lites4 3 ,c ,cornbrash and 3 ,o ,forest ,marble4 3 ,n ,jurassic4 ,lower4,great ,oolite4 3 ,d ,fullers' ,earth4 3 ,a ,inferior ,oolite4 3 ,r 3 ,y ,lias4 3 3 ,trias1 or ,new 3 ,p ,poikilitic4 ,red ,sandstone4 ,v 8 ,v ,a ,permian4 ,l ,,ae ,coal ,measures4 ,v ,o ,millstone ,grit ,z ,carboniferous4 and ,yoredale ,o ,rocks4 ,i ,carboniferous ,c1 ,limestone1 etc4 or ,devonian and ,old ,red ,sandstone4 ,p ,r ,ludlow ,beds4 ,i ,wenlock ,beds4 ,v ,m ,silurian4 ,woolhope ,beds4 ,a ,tarannon ,shale4 ,r ,llandovery or ,may ,y4 ,hill ,group4 ,v ,bala and ,caradoc ,beds4 ,llandeilo ,flags4 ,arenig ,group4 ,cambrian4 ,tremadoc ,slates4 ,lingula ,flags4 ,menevian ,beds4 ,longmynd and ,harlech ,group4 ,v 3 ,pre-,cambrian and 3 ,laurentian4 8 ,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,different ,,formations ,,mentioned ,,in ,,the ,,table4 ,,recent4--,the alluvial deposits of most river valleys and some estuaries still in course of formation1 containing fossil shells and mammals1 all of living species4 ,,quaternary1 ,,post-,,pliocene1 or ,,pleistocene4--#a4 ,including the raised beaches around the coast1 the older gravels of river valleys and the cave deposits1 in all of which the shells are identical with those living in the rivers and seas of to-day1 whilst the animals are many of them extinct1 only a few being now found living on the spot4 #b4 ,the glacial drifts that cover all ,england north of the ,thames1 and which consist of sands1 gravels1 and clays1 full of big angular stones frequently flattened on one side1 scratched and sometimes polished from having been fixed in moving ice and forced over other rocks4 ,a very interesting collection of these boulders1 as they are called1 can be easily made1 for they belong to almost every formation in ,england1 and have some of them been brought from great distances1 whilst the number and variety obtainable from a single pit is astonishing4 ,,cainozoic1 or ,,tertiary4--,beds of this age1 in ,england at all events1 are for the most part made up of comparatively soft rocks1 gravels1 sands1 and clays1 and are found in the eastern and south-eastern counties4 ,they are divided into-- #a4 ,pliocene1 mainly consisting of a series of iron-stained sands1 with abundant shell remains1 and locally known as crags4 ,the shells are very partial in their distribution1 the beds in places being almost entirely made up of them1 whilst in others scarcely one is to be found4 ,the great majority are of the same species as many still living4 ,the ,pliocene is subdivided into three groups3-- a4 ,the ,norwich ,crag ,series1 sometimes called the ,mammaliferous ,crag1 as at its base the bones of mastodon1 elephant1 hippopotamus1 rhinoceros1 and some deer have been found4 ,the shells in it are such as still abound on the beaches of the eastern coast to-day--whelks1 scallop shells1 cockles1 periwinkles1 etc4 b4 ,the ,red or ,suffolk ,crag1 its two names indicating its characteristic colour 7a dark red-brown7 and chief locality4 ,from the base are obtained the celebrated phosphatic nodules miscalled ,coprolites1 whence is manufactured an artificial manure1 and with them are found the rolled and phosphatized bones and teeth of whales1 sharks1 etc4 ,amongst the shells the ,reversed ,whelks 7,fusus contrarius71 ,fecten opercularis1 ,pectunculus glycimeris1 several kinds of ,mactra and ,cardium1 etc41 are the commonest4 ,walton-on-the-,naze1 ,felixstowe1 and ,woodbridge are the best known localities4 c4 ,the ,white or ,coralline ,crag is generally of a pale buff colour1 and is in places almost entirely composed of the remains of ,polyzoa4 ,these 7formerly called ,corallines1 whence the name ,coralline ,crag7 are beautiful objects for a low-power microscope1 or pocket lens1 and are easily mounted in deep cells on slides4 ,the bits of shell and sand that stick to them should be carefully removed with the point of a needle4 ,a very large number of shells occur in this crag3 of bivalves1 the ,pecten is very abundant1 and its valves are frequently thickly grown over with ,polyzoa2 ,cyprina ,islandica1 ,cardita ,senilis are also plentiful2 and of univalves1 the genus ,natica is common4 ,the ,coralline ,crag is best seen in the neighbourhood of ,aldborough1 ,orford1 ,woodbridge1 and other places in ,suffolk4 #b4 ,miocene1 possibly represented in the ,british ,isles by a small patch of clays and lignites at ,bovey ,tracey4 #c4 ,eocene1 divided into-- a4 ,upper ,eocene1 consisting of a series of very fossiliferous sands1 clays1 and limestones1 exposed in the cliffs at the eastern and western ends of the ,isle of ,wight and on the neighbouring coast of ,hampshire4 ,they are partly of freshwater origin1 when they contain the remains of freshwater shells such as ,limnoea ,paludina1 ,planorbis1 etc42 partly of marine origin1 when shells belonging to such genera as ,ostrea1 ,venus1 etc41 take their place2 partly of estuarine1 when the brackish water mollusca are found with bones and scutes of crocodiles and tortoises4 b4 ,middle ,eocene1 or the ,bagshot ,beds1 composed of sands and clays4 ,the beautiful coloured sands of ,alum ,bay1 the sands of the ,surrey and ,hampstead ,heaths1 are familiar examples of the beds of this age4 ,very few fossils indeed have been found in them4 ,the clay-beds on the contrary as seen at ,barton and ,hordwell on the ,hampshire coast and again in the ,isle of ,wight1 abound with shells belonging to genera such as ,conus1 ,voluta and ,venus1 that inhabit warm seas4 ,with them are the ,nummulites1 looking externally very like buttons1 but on the inside divided into innumerable chambers in which the complex animal that formed the nummulite dwelt4 c4 ,lower ,eocene1 the well-known ,london clay1 may almost be said to compose this division1 for the underlying sands1 gravels1 and clays are in mass comparatively insignificant4 ,the ,london clay contains plenty of fossils1 only as they are disposed in layers 7zones7 at a considerable distance apart1 they are not often hit upon4 ,layers of ,septaria or cement-stones are of frequent occurrence4 ,sheppy is the great locality for ,london clay fossils1 as the sea annually washes down large masses of the cliffs and breaks them up on the beach4 ,a great many fossil fruits and seeds1 remains of crabs1 shells of ,nautili1 ,volutes1 and other mollusca1 besides turtles1 a species of snake1 a bird with teeth1 and a tapir-like animal1 have at different times and in various places been found in this deposit1 which sometimes attains a thickness of over #djj ft4 ,the ,bognor ,rock is a local variety of the basement bed of this formation4 ,illustration3 ,aturia ,zic-zac 7from the ,london clay74 ,the ,,mesozoic or ,,secondary rocks embrace a series of limestone1 clays1 sands1 and sandstones that on the whole are well consolidated4 ,the main mass of them lies to the west of a line drawn across the map of ,england from the mouth of the ,tyne1 in ,northumberland1 southwards to ,nottingham1 and thence to the mouth of the ,teign in ,devonshire4 ,in the south-eastern counties they underlie the tertiary rocks of the ,london and ,hampshire basins1 as they are called1 at no great depth from the surface4 ,outlying patches of secondary rocks occur in ,scotland1 where they are found near ,brora on the east coast1 and in the islands of ,skye and ,mull on the west4 ,in ,ireland they are scantily represented round about the neighbourhood of ,antrim4 ,the secondary rocks are divided into-- #a4 ,cretaceous4 a4 ,the ,chalk is too well known to need description1 though technically it may be described as a soft white limestone chiefly built up of the microscopic shells of ,foraminifera1 and characterized in its upper part by nodules and bands of flint4 ,these flints frequently inclose casts of fossils 7sponges1 sea-urchins1 etc471 and sometimes shells themselves4 ,fossils1 too1 are fairly abundant1 scattered throughout the mass4 ,amongst the commoner may be noticed the sea-urchins1 such as the sugar loaf 7,ananchytes7 and the heart-shaped ,micraster1 the ,brachiopods or ,lamp-shells 7,terebratula1 ,rhynchonella71 a ,thorny ,oyster 7,spondylus spinosus71 besides ,ammonites1 ,belemnites 7part of the internal shell of a kind of cuttle-fish71 and the teeth of several species of sharks4 ,altogether the chalk is about #a1jjj feet thick4 ,illustration3 ,ammonites various 7from the chalk74 b4 ,upper ,greensand is a series of greenish-grey sands and sandstones4 ,the green colour1 on close inspection1 is seen to be due to the presence of innumerable small green grains of a mineral called glauconite4 ,these are frequently casts of the chambers of the very same foraminifera that the chalk is so largely composed of4 ,illustration3 ,rhynchonella depressa 7a ,brachiopod1 from the ,upper ,greensand74 ,nodules and layers of chert 7an impure kind of flint7 occur in it1 whilst in places it forms a hard rock called firestone4 ,the commonest fossils are ,brachiopods1 very similar to those in the chalk1 a scallop-shell with four strongly marked ribs on it 7,pecten quodricostatus71 an oyster with a curved beak 7,exogyra columba71 and a pear-shaped sponge 7,siphonia pyriformis74 ,the ,upper ,greensand is better seen at places in the southern part of the ,isle of ,wight1 in cliffs on the ,dorsetshire coast1 in ,wiltshire1 at ,sidmouth1 and in some parts of ,surrey4 ,illustration3 ,ammonites auritus 7from the ,gault74 c4 ,gault1 a stiff blue clay abounding in fossils3 ,ammonites often retaining their pearly shell2 ,belemnites1 a bivalve with very deep furrows on it 7,inoccramus sulcatus71 and its first cousin 7,i4 concentricus1 p4 #ba71 in which the ridge-like markings correspond with the lines of growth1 besides many others1 may be obtained in abundance from it4 ,layers of phosphatic nodules occur at irregular intervals4 ,the gault is best studied at ,east ,wear ,bay1 near ,folkstone2 it may also be seen in ,dorsetshire1 ,wiltshire1 and ,cambridgeshire2 lately it has been found as far west as ,exeter4 #b4 ,neocomian4 a4 ,the so-called ,lower ,green ,sand1 named in contradistinction to the ,upper ,green ,sand1 includes a series of iron stained sands1 sandstones and clays of great thickness4 ,the clayey beds are seen at ,atherfield in the ,isle of ,wight1 and at ,nutfield in ,surrey1 while the sandy beds are met with at ,speeton1 at ,folkestone1 and near ,reigate4 ,besides brachiopods and oysters1 these beds have furnished a species of ,perna 7,p4 ,mulleti71 an elongated mussel 7,gervillia anceps71 a pretty ,trigonia 7,t4 cordata71 some ,ammonites and ,nautili1 with the teeth and bones of big reptiles4 ,the celebrated ,kentish ,rag and the sponge gravels of ,farringdon are of this age4 b4 ,wealden4 ,the main mass of these rocks occupies the area inclosed between the ,north and ,south ,downs1 and forms the ,valley of the ,weald1 whence they take their name4 ,they consist of a series of sands1 sandstones1 clays1 and shelly limestones that were deposited in the delta and off the mouth of a big river4 ,the shells in them belong to freshwater genera1 ,cyrena1 ,unio1 ,paludina1 etc4 ,bones of a huge lizard that hopped along on his hind legs 7,iguanodon71 and those of crocodiles1 etc41 are from time to time brought to light4 ,the ,wealden rocks occur also on both eastern and western sides of the ,isle of ,wight1 and in ,dorsetshire4 ,illustration3 ,inoceramus concentricus 7from the ,gault74 #c4 ,oolites 7or ,roe-stones7 are so named because the characteristic limestones of this formation resemble very much the roe of a fish4 ,the small round grains1 of which the typical examples are built up1 when cut or broken through will be seen to be formed of numerous layers of carbonate of lime1 disposed like the coats of an onion1 around some central nucleus1 generally a grain of sand1 a fragment of coral1 or the shell of one of the ,foraminifera4 ,they are divided into ,upper1 ,middle1 and ,lower ,oolites1 and these again are subdivided as follows-- ,upper ,oolite4 a4 ,purbeck ,beds1 a series of fresh-water1 with a few estuarine1 or marine beds1 which in point of fact connect the deposits we are next coming to with the ,wealden just passed4 ,they contain numerous fresh-water shells--,paludina1 ,physa1 ,limnaea1 etc41 with the microscopic valves of the little fresh-water crustacean ,cypris1 whose descendants are abundant in the rivers and lakes of to-day4 ,an oyster occurs in the ,cinder ,bed and ,plant remains in the ,dirt ,beds4 ,but the ,purbecks are best known for the numerous remains of small mammals 7,plagiaulax7 allied to the kangaroo rat1 at present living in ,australia4 b4 ,the ,portland ,stone and ,sand1 which come next in order1 are largely quarried in the island whence they take their name4 ,the quarrymen point out fossils in the stone1 which they call ,horses'-heads and ,portland screws4 ,the former is the cast of a ,trigonia shell2 the latter1 that of a tall spired univalve 7,cerithium74 ,in ,wiltshire1 a coral 7,isastrea oblonga7 is found in the sandy beds1 the original calcareous matter of which has been replaced by silex4 c4 ,kimmeridge ,clay4 ,this1 by the pressure of the rocks subsequently deposited on it1 has in greater part been hardened1 and possesses a tendency to split in thin layers1 and hence is termed by geologists a shale4 ,it is seen at various points between ,kimmeridge on the ,dorsetshire coast and the ,vale of ,pickering in ,yorkshire1 and forms broad valleys4 ,the principal fossils in it are ,ammonites1 a triangular-shaped oyster 7,ostrea deltoidea71 and one resembling a comma 7,exogyra virgula74 ,middle ,oolites4 a4 ,the ,coral ,rag1 or ,coralline ,oolite1 comprises a most variable set of beds1 but principally a series of limestone1 with fossil corals still in the position in which they grew1 and resembling in form the reef-building corals of the ,pacific4 ,they rest on b4 ,oxford ,clay1 a dark blue or slate-coloured clay without any corals1 but containing a great many ,ammonites and ,belemnites4 ,the ,kelloway ,rock1 a sandy limestone at the base of the ,oxford ,clay1 is well developed in ,yorkshire1 and furnishes amongst other fossils a large belemnite and an oyster 7,gryphaea dilatata74 ,lower ,oolites4 a4 ,cornbrash1 a very shelly deposit of pale-coloured earthy1 and rubbly or sometimes compact limestone with plenty of fossils4 ,the commonest are ,brachiopods1 ,limas1 oysters 7,ostrea ,marshii71 ,pholadomyas and ,ammonites4 ,it is best seen in ,dorsetshire1 ,somersetshire1 and near ,scarborough in ,yorkshire4 b4 ,forest ,marble and ,bradford ,clay4 ,the former is an exceedingly shelly limestone1 often splitting into thin slabs4 ,on the surfaces of some of the beds may be seen the ripple marks the sea made countless years ago1 and the tracks of worms and crabs that dwelt in the mud or crawled on its surface at a time when it was soft mud4 ,the ,bradford clay is a very local deposit1 taking its name from ,bradford in ,wiltshire1 where it is most developed1 and its characteristic fossil is the pear-shaped ,encrinite or stone-lily 7,apiocrinus ,parkinsoni74 c4 ,the ,great or ,bath ,oolite1 comprising a series of shelly limestones and fine ,oolites1 or freestones4 ,the latter are largely quarried in the neighbourhood of ,bath1 and used for mantelpieces and the stone facings of windows4 ,the great ,oolite is rich in univalve mollusca1 amongst which may be noted a limpet 7,patella rugosa7 and the handsome1 tall-spired ,nerinaea ,voltzii1 numerous bivalves belonging to the genera ,pholadomya ,trigonia1 ,ostrea 7,o4 gregaria71 and ,pecten1 besides ,brachiopods 7,terebratula digona1 which looks very like a sack of flour1 and ,t4 perovalis1 etc474 ,at the base of the ,great ,oolite are the ,stonesfield slates1 so-called--a series of thin shelly ,oolites1 etc41 that split readily into very thin slabs4 ,they are principally of interest to geologists on account of the discovery in them of the remains of small insect-feeding and possibly pouched mammals4 ,with these are associated the bones of that big reptile the ,megalosaurus2 the flying lizards called ,pterodactyles2 fish teeth and spines2 lamp shells2 oysters1 a ,trigonia 7,t4 impressa72 and the impressions of insects1 including a butterfly1 and of plants4 d4 ,fullers' ,earth1 a clayey deposit occurring in the southwestern parts of ,england1 but not in the north4 ,it abounds with a small oyster 7,o4 acuminata7 and ,brachiopods 7e4g4 ,terebratula ornithocephala71 etc4 e4 ,inferior ,oolite 7including the ,midford ,sands74 ,as these beds are followed across the country from the south-west of ,england to ,yorkshire1 they are found to change greatly in character4 ,limestone and marine beds in the south are replaced by sandy and estuarine beds in the north4 ,amongst other fossils from beds of this age may be found several ,echinoderms1 a crinkly lamp shell 7,terebratula frimbriata71 and a spiny one 7,rhynchonella spinosa71 bivalves belonging to the ,genera ,ostrea1 ,trigonia1 ,pholadomya1 etc41 and some very handsome ,ammonites 7e4g4 ,a4 ,humphresianus74 ,illustration3 ,ichthyosaurus1 or ,fish-lizard 7from the ,lias74 ,illustration3 ,plesiosaurus 7from the ,lias74 #d4 ,lias4 ,this for the most part consists of very regular alternations of argillaceous 7clayey7 limestone and clay1 or shale4 ,it is of great thickness1 and hence for convenience has been divided into 7a7 ,upper ,lias1 7b7 ,middle ,lias or ,marl-stone1 and 7c7 ,lower ,lias4 ,a large number of fossils are to be found in it4 ,lyme ,regis and ,whitby are perhaps the best known localities2 the former1 on account of the great number of specimens obtained of the huge fish-lizard 7,ichthyosaurus1 p4 #bd71 and long-necked ,plesiosaurus 7p4 #be71 besides numberless fish2 whilst the latter is renowned for its jet 7or fossilized wood7 and its snake-stones 7,ammonites71 concerning which curious old stories are told4 ,ammonites are plentiful in the ,lias1 which has been subdivided into zones1 or layers1 named after the ammonite occurring in greatest numbers in that particular zone4 ,there is one thin limestone band in the ,marlstone composed entirely of the shells of ,ammonites planicostatus4 ,a curious kind of oyster 7,gryphaea incurva71 locally known as the devil's toenail1 a huge ,lima 7,l4 gigantea71 a magnificent ,encrinite 7,extracrinus ,briareus71 and numerous other fossils1 are also to be obtained by patient search4 ,illustration3 ,belemnitas elongatus7from the ,lias74 #e4 ,rhaetic1 ,penarth ,beds1 or ,white ,lias4 ,these beds are not of any considerable thickness1 but are very persistent1 and of great interest1 inasmuch as they yield the remains of the oldest known mammal 7,microlestes71 a small insect-feeder4 ,they are composed of limestones1 shales and marls 7i4e4 limey clays71 and are best studied in ,somersetshire and ,dorsetshire4 ,the landscape marble belongs to this formation1 which also contains a bone bed1 or thin layer made up of the bones and teeth1 etc41 of fish4 ,shells are not numerous1 though the casts of one species 7,avicula contorta7 is plentiful4 #f4 ,trias1 or ,new ,red ,sandstone1 a thick series of sandstones and marls1 the great mass of which forms the subsoil of the western midland counties1 ,birmingham being nearly in the centre1 thence they extend in three directions1 one branch passing towards the north-west1 through ,cheshire1 to the sea at ,liverpool1 reappearing on the coast line of ,lancashire1 ,westmoreland1 and ,cumberland1 where it also forms the ,valley of the ,eden4 ,another branch extends through ,derby and ,york to ,south ,shields1 whilst the third may be traced southwards in isolated patches down into ,devonshire4 ,there are scarcely any fossils in it1 but in ,worcestershire and ,warwickshire the bivalve shell of a small crustacean 7,estheria minuta7 occurs in the upper beds2 whilst now and again the teeth and bones of some strange amphibians 7,labyrinthodon71 or the impressions of their feet 7,cheirotherium7 where they crawled on the then soft mud of the foreshore1 are found4 ,the ,trias is divided into ,upper ,trias or ,keuper1 and ,lower ,trias or ,bunter4 ,the middle beds 7,muschelkalk71 which are found in ,germany1 where they contain plenty of fossils1 are wanting in this country4 ,in the lower beds of the ,keuper1 layers of rock salt1 sometimes of great thickness1 occur1 whilst casts 7called pseudomorphs7 of detached salt-crystals are found abundantly in the sandy marls4 ,northwich1 ,nantwich1 ,droitwich1 and several other towns in ,cheshire and ,worcestershire1 are famed for their salt works1 the salt being either mined or pumped up as brine from these beds4 ,illustration3 ,ceratites nodosus 7from the ,muschelkalk74 ,,palaeozoic or ,,primary4--,beds of this age generally possess a more crystalline and slaty structure than any of those already mentioned1 are usually more highly inclined and disturbed1 and form for the most part more elevated ground4 ,they are the principal store-houses of our mineral wealth1 containing as they do coal1 iron1 and other metals4 ,the ,palaeozoic rocks are found in ,england to the north and west of the secondary series1 beneath which they disappear when traced to the south-east4 ,wales1 and the greater part of ,scotland and ,ireland1 consist of beds of this age4 #a4 ,permian4 ,under this term are included beds of red sandstones and marls1 closely resembling those of ,trias1 and like them containing but few fossils1 as well as a very fossiliferous limestone1 known as the ,magnesian ,limestone1 from the abundance of magnesia it contains4 ,a pretty polyzoan 7,fenestella retiformis71 a spiny brachiopod 7,productus horridus71 various genera of fish1 chiefly found in a marl state underlying the limestone1 some ,labyrinthodonts and plant remains1 are the principal forms met with in this formation4 #b4 ,carboniferous4 ,this1 from a commercial point of view1 is the most important of all the formations1 comprising as it does the coal-bearing strata4 ,it is subdivided into-- a4 ,coalmeasures1 a series of sandstones and shales with which are interstratified the seams of coal1 varying in thickness from six inches to as much in one instance as thirty feet4 ,coal is the carbonized remains of innumerable plants1 chiefly ferns and gigantic clubmosses1 that grew in swamps bordering on the sea-coast of the period4 ,each coal seam is underlain by a bed of clay called under-clay1 containing the roots of the plants that grew on it4 ,some of the best impressions of ferns1 etc41 are to be obtained in the shaley beds forming the roof of the coal seam2 many good specimens1 however1 are to be got by searching the refuse heap at the pit's mouth4 ,besides plants1 the remains of fish are abundant in some of the beds of shale4 ,and in ,nova ,scotia the bones of air-breathing reptiles and land snails have been discovered4 ,cockroaches and other insects were also denizens of the carboniferous forests4 ,the following are the principal coalfields3-- #a4 ,northumberland and ,durham coalfield4 #b4 ,south ,lancashire coalfield4 #c4 ,derbyshire coalfield4 #d4 ,leicestershire and ,staffordshire coalfields4 #e4 ,south ,wales coalfield4 #f4 ,bristol and ,somerset coalfields4 b4 ,millstone grit or ,farewell-rock4 ,the former term explains itself1 the latter designation has been applied to it in the southern districts1 because when it is reached1 then good-bye to all workable coal-seams4 ,it consists of coarse sandstones1 shales1 and conglomerates with a few small seams of coal4 ,fossils are not very common in it4 c4 ,yoredale ,rocks1 a series of flagstones1 gritstones1 limestones and shales1 with seams of coal1 occurring in the northern counties4 ,it is underlain by-- d4 ,carboniferous or ,mountain ,limestone1 which in places is upwards of #a1jjj feet thick1 and full of fossils4 ,the stems of encrinites1 or stone-lilies1 corals1 brachiopods 7e4g4 ,productus1 ,orthis1 etc471 and ,mollusca1 including some ,cephalopods1 like ,goniatites and the straight ,nautilus 7,orthoceras71 with fish teeth1 etc41 go to compose this tough1 bluish-grey limestone which is largely quarried for marble mantlepieces1 etc4 e4 ,the ,tuedian group in the north1 and ,lower ,limestone ,shale in the south1 follow next1 and consist of shales1 sandstones1 limestones1 and conglomerates1 varying greatly in different districts1 and containing few fossils4 #c4 ,devonian or ,old ,red ,sandstone4 ,to this age are assigned a perplexing series of strata1 the principal members of which consist of 7a7 a thick limestone1 well seen in the cliffs and marble quarries of south ,devon1 and full of fossil-corals 7e4g4 ,favosites polymorpha or cervicornis7 ,brachiopods1 and ,mollusca1 etc4 b4 ,a series of sandstones1 slates1 and limestones in ,north ,devon containing ,trilobites 7,phacops1 ,bronteus1 etc471 ,brachiopods1 and other fossils4 c4 ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,wales1 the ,north of ,england1 and ,scotland1 consisting of red and grey sandstone and marly beds1 with remains of fish4 ,these fish1 unlike most now living1 were more or less covered with hard external plates1 and possessed merely a cartilaginous skeleton4 ,in one set of individuals1 indeed 7,pterichthys71 the armour plates formed quite a little box4 ,these creatures propelled themselves by means of two arm-like flippers1 rather than fins4 ,they were but a few inches long1 and appear pigmies in contrast to the strange half-lobster-like crustacean1 ,pterygotus1 that lived with them1 and attained sometimes as much as five feet in length4 #d4 ,silurian4 ,named by ,sir ,roderick ,murchison after a tribe of ,ancient ,britons that dwelt in that part of ,wales1 where these rocks were first observed4 ,some of ,murchison's ,lower ,silurian beds were included by ,professor ,sedgwick in his ,cambrian1 of which we shall have to speak next2 and as these two geologists never could agree on a divisional line between their respective formations1 and since succeeding observers have followed sometimes one and sometimes the other method of classification1 considerable confusion has resulted4 ,here1 however1 for several reasons1 we propose to follow ,sedgwick's arrangement2 and hence1 under the term ,silurian1 retain only ,murchison's ,upper beds4 ,they consist of a series of sandstones1 gritstones1 conglomerates1 shales1 limestones1 etc4 ,amongst the more important fossils1 which are very abundant in the limestones1 are various corals 7e4g4 the ,chain-coral ,halysites71 ,star-fish1 ,crinoids1 ,trilobites 7,phacops1 etc471 ,polyzoa1 ,brachiopods and ,mollusca1 especially ,cephalopoda 7,orthoceras1 ,nautilus1 etc474 ,these rocks occur principally in the border land between ,england and ,wales1 and the adjacent counties2 but are also represented in ,westmoreland1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland4 ,their principal subdivisions are given in the ,table on p4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,trilobite 7,asaphus candatus71 7from the ,silurian74 ,illustration3 ,orthoceras subannulatum 7from the ,silurian74 #e4 ,cambrian4 ,under this term1 derived from the old name for ,wales1 are included many sandstones1 grits1 slates and flags1 with here and there a limestone band4 ,they form the greater part of the western counties of ,wales1 where they rise to a considerable height above the sea level4 ,the highest hills of ,westmoreland and more than half of ,scotland are composed of beds of this age4 ,the fossils1 save in the limestone bands1 are not easy to find1 but in places they are fairly abundant4 ,brachiopods are far more numerous than the ,mollusca properly so-called4 ,of these1 the genus ,orthis was most abundant at about the close of this period4 ,certain beds of this age have received the name of ,lingula ,flags1 owing this prevalence in them of the curious ,brachiopod ,lingula so like the species now living in some of the warm seas of the tropics4 ,the ,trilobites included several forms1 and one species 7,paradoxides ,davidis7 attained the length of nearly two feet4 ,a few star-fish1 some ,hydrozoans 7,graptolites71 and the tubes and casts of ,annelides and tracks of ,trilobites1 complete the list of more remarkable fossils4 ,the subdivisions of the ,cambrian rocks will be found in the table on p4 #af4 #f4 ,pre-,cambrian4--,near ,st4 ,david's ,head and some other places in ,wales1 in ,anglesea1 ,shropshire1 etc41 some yet older rocks have been found4 ,they are probably for the most part of volcanic origin1 but they have been so much changed since they were first deposited1 and as hitherto no fossils have been found in them1 little is known concerning them4 ,parts of the western coast of ,northern ,scotland and the ,hebrides are composed of a crystalline rock called ,gneiss1 and supposed to be the oldest member of the ,british strata4 ,no fossils have been found in it4 ,illustration3 ,skull of ,deinotherium giganteum1 a huge extinct animal1 related to the elephants 7from the ,miocene of ,germany74 ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 ,although there are fortunately no volcanoes to disturb the peace of our country at the present day1 there is abundant evidence of their existence in the past4 ,not only are some of the beds1 especially those of ,paleozoic age1 composed of the dust and ashes thrown out of volcanoes1 with here and there a lava flow now hardened into solid rock1 but the stumps of the volcanoes themselves are left to tell the tale4 ,the cones indeed are gone1 carried off piecemeal by the rain and frosts1 and other destructive agencies1 in the course of countless ages3 not so the once fluid rock within2 that cooled down into ,granite1 and though originally below the surface1 it now1 owing to the removal of the overlying softer strata1 forms raised ground overlooking the surrounding country4 ,the granite masses of ,cornwall1 of ,dartmoor1 in the south-west of ,mt4 ,sorrel2 the variety called ,syenite at ,malvern and ,charnwood ,forest2 the ,basalts of the ,cheviot ,hills and of ,antrim2 the volcanic rocks of ,arthur's ,seat1 ,edinburgh1 and of the islands of ,skye and ,mull1 etc41 are examples of this class of rock4 ,they are of different ages1 and belong to different periods of the earth's history1 from early ,palaeozoic down to ,miocene times4 ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,kingdom1 ,,to ,,show ,,the ,,order ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,fossils ,,should ,,be ,,arranged4 ,,invertebrata4 ,foraminifera1 minute chambered shells like the ,nummulite4 ,spongida1 ,sponges4 ,hydrozoa1 ,graptolites1 etc4 ,actinozoa1 ,corals4 ,echinodermata1 ,sea-urchins1 ,stone-lilies1 ,starfish1 etc4 ,annelida1 ,worm tracks4 ,crustacea1 ,trilobites1 ,crabs1 etc4 ,arachnida1 ,scorpions and ,spiders4 ,myriapoda1 ,centipedes4 ,insecta1 ,beetles1 ,butterflies1 etc4 ,polyzoa 7,bryozoa7 or ,moss ,animals4 ,brachiopods1 ,lampshells4 ,lamellibranchiata1 ,bivalves4 ,mollusca ,gasteropoda1 ,univalves4 ,cephalopoda1 ,cuttlefish1 ,ammonites4 ,,vertebrata4 ,pisces1 ,fish4 ,amphibia1 ,labyrinthodonts1 ,frogs1 and ,newts4 ,reptilia1 ,reptiles4 ,aves1 ,birds4 ,mammalia1 ,mammals4 ,,works ,,of ,,reference4 ,,for ,,naming ,,common ,,fossils4 ,tabular ,view of ,characteristic ,british ,fossils ,stratigraphically ,arranged4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,,lowry4 ,soc4 ,prom4 ,christ4 ,knowledge4 #ahec4 ,figures of the ,characteristic ,british ,tertiary ,fossils 7,chiefly ,mollusca7 ,stratigraphically ,arranged4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,,lowry and others4 ,london 7,stanford74 #ahff4 ,,palaeontology4 ,the ,ancient ,life ,history of the ,earth4 ,by ,h4 ,a4 ,,nicholson4 #hvo4 ,edinburgh and ,london4 #ahgg4 ,a ,manual of ,palaeontology4 ,by ,h4 ,a4 ,,nicholson4 #bnd edition4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,edinburgh and ,london4 #ahgi4 ,,petrology4 ,the ,study of ,rocks4 ,by ,f4 ,,rutley4 7,text ,books of ,science47 #hvo4 ,london4 #ahgi4 ,,field ,,geology4 ,a ,text-,book of ,field ,geology4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,penning4 ,with a ,section on ,palaeontology1 by ,a4 ,j4 ,,jukes-,,brown4 #bnd edition4 #hvo4 ,london4 #ahgi4 ,,geology ,,in ,,general4 ,the ,student's ,elements of ,geology4 ,by ,,sir ,,charles ,,lyell1 ,bart4 #dth edition4 #hvo4 ,london4 #ahhd4 ,the ,principles of ,geology4 ,by ,,sir ,,charles ,,lyell1 ,bart4 #abth edition4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,london4 #ahge4 ,phillip's ,manual of ,geology4 #bnd edition4 ,by ,,seeley ,,and ,,etheridge4 #b vols41 #hvo4 ,london4 #ahhe4 ,tabular ,view of ,geological ,systems1 with their ,lithological ,composition and ,palaeontological ,remains4 ,by ,d4 ,e4 ,,clement4 ,london 7,sonnenschein74 #ahhb4 ,,british ,,geology4 ,the ,physical ,geology and ,geography of ,great ,britain4 ,by ,,sir ,,andrew ,c4 ,,ramsey4 #eth edition4 #hvo4 ,london4 #ahgh4 ,the ,geology of ,england and ,wales4 ,by ,,horace ,b4 ,,woodward4 #hvo4 ,london4 #ahgf4 ,geology of the ,counties of ,england and ,wales4 ,by ,w4 ,j4 ,,harrison4 #hvo4 ,london4 #ahhb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,popular ,,illustrated ,,scientific ,,books1 ,,published ,,by ,,swan ,,sonnenschein ,,co4 ,,uniform ,,with ,,this ,,volume4 ,,all ,,fully ,,illustrated4 ,,british ,,butterflies1 ,,moths1 ,,and ,,beetles4 ,by ,w4 ,f4 ,,kirby 7,brit4 ,mus474 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 ,,mosses1 ,,lichens1 ,,and ,,fungi4 ,by ,,peter ,,gray and ,e4 ,m4 ,,holmes4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 ,,english ,,coins ,,and ,,tokens4 ,by ,,llewellynn ,,jewitt1 ,f4,s4,a42 with a chapter on ,greek and ,roman ,coins1 by ,,barclay ,v4 ,,head1 ,m4,r4,a4,s4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 ,,flowers ,,and ,,flower ,,lore4 ,by ,rev4 ,,hilderic ,,friend1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,illustrated4 ,third ,edition1 demy #hvo1 cloth gilt1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,dynamo3 ,how ,made and ,how ,used4 ,by ,s4 ,r4 ,,bottone4 ,numerous ,cuts4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,season ,,among ,,the ,,wild ,,flowers4 ,by ,rev4 ,h4 ,,wood4 ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth gilt1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,history ,,of ,,british ,,ferns4 ,by ,e4 ,,newman1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,fifth ,edition1 ,illustrated4 #abmo1 cloth1 #bs4 ,,the ,,insect ,,hunter',s ,,companion4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,,greene4 ,third ,edition4 ,cuts4 #abmo1 boards1 #as4 ,,tabular ,,view ,,of ,,geological ,,systems4 ,by ,dr4 ,e4 ,,clement4 ,crown #hvo1 limp cloth1 #as4 ,,swan ,,sonnenschein ,,co41 ,,paternoster ,,square4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes3 ,as there appear to be section and subsections in the second and third units 7,shells and ,fossils7 of this book1 ,tables of ,contents were created for the electronic edition4 ,a number of the images were moved where they split paragraphs4 ,there is a reference to a ,figure #bd for ,ancylus2 but no ,fig4 #bd was included4 ,the reference to ,fig4 #bf for ,bullidae was assumed to be a reference to ,fig4 #ad4 ,bulla ampulla4 ,with the exception of the following items1 all page number references in the original text were retained4 ,there are references to two tables on ,page #gg4 ,the first was listed a vide ,table1 p4 #af and the second as vide ,table1 p4 #cb which appear to refer to the tables on page #gh and #id respectively4 ,the page references were corrected4 ,species name are assumed to be correct for the time of publication 7ca4 #ahhf74 ,for example1 ,charychium is today listed as ,carychium4 ,text ,emphasis ,text - ,italics ,text - ,bold ,typographic ,corrections ,page ,correction ---- ------------------------ #ad fond foot #bg it if #bg pencil brush #ee beak peak #ef tis its #fj ,keilia ,kellia #gc inever ,i never #ia crustucean crustacean