,v]4#jg_/bg_/ja99;,,end99 ,?is etext 0 produc$ by ,john ,mam\n mam\njoumdnj4edu ) ! ,onl9e ,di/ribut$ ,pro(read+ ,team ( ,*>les ,franks4 ,an ,introduction to ,*emical ,sci5ce by ,r4,p4 ,williams1 ,a4,m41 ,,cont5ts ,,preface1 ,,by ,r4,p4 ,,williams ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,*emical ,,sci5ce ,,app5dix ,,textbook ,,adv]tisem5ts ,,t ,,appe>$ ,,9 ,,! ,,orig9al ,,edition ,,info ,,ab\t ,,?is ,e-,,text ,,edition ,,preface1 ,,by ,r4,p4 ,,williams ,! object held con/antly 9 view 9 writ+ ?is book has be5 to prep>e a suitable text-book 9 ,*emi/ry = ! av]age ,high ,s*ool1--"o t %all be simple1 practical1 exp]im5tal1 & inductive1 r ?an a cyclopa$ia ( *emical in=mation4 ,= ! accompli%m5t ( ?is purpose ! au?or has endeavor$ to omit sup]flu\s matt]1 & give only ! mo/ useful & int]e/+ exp]im5ts1 facts & !ories4 ,9 call+ att5tion1 by que/ions1 & o!rwise1 to ! m important ph5om5a to be obs]v$ & facts to be le>n$1 ! be/ features ( ! inductive sy/em h be5 utiliz$4 ,especially is ! writ+ ( equations1 :i* con/itute ! multum 9 p>vo ( *emical k1 insi/$ ^u4 ,z soon z ! pupil has become imbu$ ) ! _s & mean+ ( *emical equations1 he ne$ h little fe> ( fail+ to und]/& ! re/4 ,to ?is end ,*apt]s ,,ix41 ,,xi41 & ,,xvi4 %\ld be /udi$ ) great c>e4 ,9 ! e>ly /ages ( ! "w ! equations may ) advantage be memoriz$1 b ?is c soon be discont9u$4 ,:5ev] symbols are employ$1 pupils %\ld be requir$ to give ! correspond+ *emical names1 or1 bett]1 bo? names & symbols4 ,! classification ( *emical sub/ances into acids1 bases & salts1 & ! di/9ctions & analogies betwe5 ea* ( ^! classes1 h be5 br\ght into especial prom95ce4 ,! g5]al relation%ip betwe5 ! ?ree classes1 & ! g5]al pr9ciples prevail+ 9 ! prep>ation ( ea*1 mu/ be fully und]/ood be=e aught b ! m]e/ smatt]+ ( *emical sci5ce c be kn[n4 ,*apt]s ,,xv4-,,xxi4 %\ld be ma/]$ z a key to ! subsequ5t p>ts ( ! book4 ,! ma!matical & !oretical p>ts ( ,*emi/ry x has be5 ?\ght be/ to int]sp]se ?r\gh\t ! book1 plac+ ea* :]e x seem$ to be especially ne$$2 9 ?is way1 x is hop$ t ! t$ium :i* pupils f9d 9 /udy+ consecutively _m *apt]s ( !ories w be avoid$1 & t ! arrangem5t w give an occasional *ange f ! discussion ( facts & exp]im5ts to t ( pr9ciples4 ,9 ^! *apt]s additional que/ions %\ld be giv51 & ! pupil %\ld be p>ticul>ly enc\rag$ to make new problems ( 8 own1 & to solve !ta4 ,x is ne$less to say t ?is treatise is prim>ily design$ to be us$ 9 connection ) a laboratory4 ,l all o!r text- books on ! subject1 x c be /udi$ )\t su* an accessory2 b ! au?or atta*es v little value to ! /udy ( ,*emi/ry )\t exp]im5tal "w4 ,! requir$ app>atus & *emicals involve b little exp5se1 & ! directions = exp]im5tation are ! result ( sev]al ye>s' exp]i5ce ) classes z l>ge z are to be f\nd 9 ! laboratory ( any s*ool or college 9 ! c\ntry4 ,dur+ ! pres5t ye> ! au?or p]sonally sup]vises ! "w ( m ?an #ahj diff]5t pupils 9 *emi/ry4 ,?is enables him n only to assure himself t ! exp]im5ts ( ! book are practical1 b t ! directions = p]=m+ !m are ample4 ,x is f\nd advisable to p]=m mo/ ( ! exp]im5ts1 ) full explanation1 9 pres5ce ( ! class1 be=e requir+ ! pupils ei!r to d ! "w or to recite ! lesson4 ,9 ! laboratory ea* pupil has a lock] "u 8 table1 furni%$ ) app>atus1 z specifi$ 9 ! ,app5dix4 ,ea* has also ! au?or's ,laboratory ,manual1 :i* conta9s on e left-h& page full directions = an exp]im5t1 ) obs]vations to be made1 etc4 ,! "r-h& page is blank1 & on t ! pupil makes a record ( 8 "w4 ,^! notes are exam9$ at ! "t1 or subsequ5tly1 by ! tea*]1 & ! pupil is n all[$ to take ! book f ! laboratory2 nor c he use any o!r book on ,*emi/ry :ile exp]im5t+4 ,by ?is means he le>ns to make 8 own obs]vations & inf]5ces4 ,= ! b5efit ( ! sci5ce & ! add$ int]e/ 9 ! /udy1 x is e>ne/ly recomm5d$ t tea*]s enc\rage pupils to fit up laboratories ( _! own at home4 ,?is ne$ n at fir/ entail a l>ge outlay4 ,a small attic room ) runn+ wat]1 a v few *emicals1 & a little app>atus1 are en\gh to beg9 )2 ^! c be add$ to f "t to "t1 z new mat]ial is want$4 ,9 ?is way ! /ud5t w f9d 8 love = sci5ce gr[+ apace4 ,:ile endeavor+1 by secur+ an able corps ( critics1 & 9 all o!r ways possible1 to r$uce errors to a m9imum1 ! au?or disclaims any pret5sions to a "w entirely free f mi/akes1 hold+ himself alone responsible = any %ortcom+s1 & tru/+ to ! l5i5cy ( tea*]s & critics4 ,! manuscript has be5 read by ,pr(4 ,h5ry ,c>mi*ael1 ,ph4,d41 ( ,bo/on1 & to 8 broad & accurate s*ol>%ip1 z well z to 8 deep p]sonal int]e/ 9 ! "w1 ! au?or is indebt$ = mu* valuable & orig9al matt]4 ,! foll[+ p]sons h g5]\sly read ! pro(1 z a :ole or 9 "p1 & made sugge/ions reg>d+ x1 & to !m ! au?or w\ld return 8 ?anks1 z well z ackn[l$ge 8 obligation3 ,pr(4 ,e4 ,j4 ,b>tlett1 ,d>tm\? ,college1 ,n4,h42 ,pr(4 ,f4 ,c4 ,rob9son1 ,b[do9 ,college1 ,me42 ,pr(4 ,h4 ,s4 ,c>h>t1 ,mi*igan ,univ]sity2 ,pr(4 ,b4 ,d4 ,hal/$1 ,i[a ,agricultural ,college2 ,pr(4 ,w4 ,t4 ,s$gwick1 ,in/itute ( ,te*nology1 ,bo/on2 ,pres4 ,m4 ,e4 ,wadswor?1 ,mi*igan ,m9+ ,s*ool2 ,pr(4 ,george ,hunt+ton1 ,c>leton ,college1 ,m9n42 ,pr(4 ,joseph ,torrey1 ,i[a ,college2 ,mr4 ,c4 ,j4 ,l9coln1 ,ea/ ,bo/on ,high4,s*ool2 ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,sylve/]1 ,engli% ,high ,s*ool1 ,bo/on2 ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,gilley1 ,*elsea1 ,mass41 ,high ,s*ool2 ! late ,d4 ,s4 ,lewis1 ,*emi/ ( ! ,bo/on ,gas ,works1 & o!rs4 ,r4 ,p4 ,w4 ,,bo/on1 ,janu>y #c1 #ahhh4 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,metric ,,sy/em4 ,l5g?4--,volume4--,weight ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,divisibility ,,( ,,matt]4 ,mass4-,molecule4--,atom4--,elem5t4--,co mp\nd4--,mixture4-- ,analysis4--,syn!sis4--,meta!sis4--,*emi sm ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,molecules ,,& ,,atoms4 ,syn!sis ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,elem5ts ,,& ,,b9>ies4 ,symbols4--,names4--,coeffici5ts4--,expo n5ts4--,table ( elem5ts ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,manipulation4 ,to prep>e & cut glass1 etc4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,oxyg54 ,prep>ation4--,prop]ties4--,combu/ion ( c>bon2 sulphur2 phosphorus2 iron4 ,*apt] ,,vii ,,nitrog5 ,sep>ation--,prop]ties ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,hydrog5 ,prep>ation--,prop]ties--,combu/ion--,ox y-hydrog5 bl[pipe ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,union ,,by ,,weight ,mean+ ( equations--,problems ,,*apt] ,x ,,c>bon ,prep>ation--,allotropic =ms3 diamond1 graphite1 amorph\s c>bon1 coke1 m9]al coal4--,c>bon a r$uc+ ag5t1 a decoloriz]1 dis9fectant1 absorb] ( gases ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,val5ce ,poles ( attraction--,radicals ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,electro-,,*emical ,,relation ,,( ,,elem5ts ,deposition ( silv]2 copp]2 lead--,table ( metals & non- metals1 & discussion ( _! diff]5ces ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,electrolysis4 ,decomposition ( wat] & ( salts--,conclusions ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,union ,,by ,,volume4 ,avogadro's law & its applications4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,acids ,,& ,,bases4 ,*>act]i/ics ( acids & bases4--,anhydrides4--,nam+ ( acids4--,alkalies ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,salts4 ,prep>ation f acids & bases4--,nam+ ( salts4--,occurr5ce ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,*lorhydric ,,acid4 ,prep>ation & te/s4--,bromhydric1 iodhiydric1 & fluorhydric acids4--,et*+ glass ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,nitric ,,acid4 ,prep>ation1 prop]ties1 te/s1 & uses4--,aqua regia3 prep>ation & action ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,sulphuric ,,acid4 ,prep>ation1 te/s1 manufacture1 & importance4-,fum+ sulphuric acid ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,ammonium ,,hydrate4 ,prep>ation ( bases4--,=mation1 prep>ation1 te/s1 & uses ( ammonia4 ,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,sodium ,,hydrate4 ,prep>ation & prop]ties4--,potassium hydrate & calcium hydrate ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,oxides ,,( ,,nitrog54 ,nitrog5 monoxide1 dioxide1 trioxide1 tetroaide1 p5toxide4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,laws ,,( ,,def9ite ,,& ,,( ,,multiple ,,proportion1 & _! application ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,c>bon ,,protoxide & wat] gas4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,c>bon ,,dioxide4 ,prep>ation & te/s4--,oxidation 9 ! human sy/em4--,oxidation 9 wat]4--,deoxidation 9 plants ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,ozone4 ,description1 prep>ation1 & te/ ,,*apt] ,,xxvii ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]e4 ,con/itu5ts ( ! air4--,air a mixture4--,wat]1 c>bon dioxide1 & o!r +r$i5ts ( ! atmosph]e ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,wat]4 ,di/illation ( wat]4--,?ree /ates4--,pure wat]1 sea-wat]1 riv]-wat]1 spr+-wat] ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,flame4 ,c&le flame4--,buns5 flame4--,light & heat4--,temp]ature ( combu/ion4--,oxidiz+ & r$uc+ flames4--,combu/ible & support]4--,explosive mixture ( gases4--,g5]alizations ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,,*lor9e4 ,prep>ation4--,*lor9e wat]4--,blea*+ prop]ties4-- ,dis9fect+ p[]4--,a support] ( combu/ion4--,s\rces & uses ,,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,,brom9e4 ,prep>ation4--,te/s4--,description4--,us es ,,*apt] ,,xxxii4 ,,iod9e4 ,prep>ation4--,te/s4--,iodo-/>* pap]4--,occurr5ce4--,uses4-- ,fluor9e ,,*apt] ,,xxxiii4 ,,! ,,halog5s4 ,comp>ison4--,acids1 oxides1 & salts ,,*apt] ,,xxxiv4 ,,vapor ,,d5sity ,,& ,,molecul> ,,weight4 ,gase\s weights & volumes4--,vapor d5sity def9$4--,vapor d5sity ( oxyg5 ,,*apt] ,,xxxv4 ,,atomic ,,weight4 ,def9ition4--,atomic weight ( oxyg54--,molecul> symbols4-- ,molecul> & atomic volumes ,,*apt] ,,xxxvi4 ,,diffusion ,,& ,,cond5sation ,,( ,,gases4 ,diffusion ( gases4--,law ( diffusion4--,cause4--,liquefaction & solidification ( gases ,,*apt] ,,xxxvil ,,sulphur4 ,sep>ation4--,cry/als f fusion4--,allotropy4--,solution4-- ,!ory ( ,allotropy4--,occurr5ce & purification4--,uses4--- ,sulphur dioxide ,,*apt] ,,xxxviii4 ,,hydrog5 ,,sulphide4 ,prep>ation4--,te/s4--,combu/ion4--,uses 4--,an analyz] ( metals4- -,occurr5ce & prop]ties ,,*apt] ,,xxxix4 ,,phosphorus4 ,solution & combu/ion4--,combu/ion "u wat]4--,occurr5ce4-- ,s\rces4--,prep>ation ( phosphates & phosphorus4--- ,prop]ties4--,uses4--,mat*es4--,r$ phosphorus4---,phosph5e ,,*apt] ,,xl4 ,,ars5ic4 ,sep>ation4--,te/s4--,exp]t analysis4--,prop]ties & occurr5ce4-- ,atomic volume4--,uses ( ars5ic trioxide ,,*apt] ,,xli4 ,,silicon1 ,,silica1 ,,& ,,silicates4 ,comp>ison ( silicon & c>bon4--,silica4--,silicates4--,=mation ( silica4 ,*apt] ,,xlii ,,glass ,,& ,,pott]y4 ,glass an artificial silicate4--,manufacture4--,importance4-- ,porcela9 & pott]y4 ,,*apt] ,,xliii4 ,,metals ,,& ,,_! ,,alloys4 ,comp>ison ( metals & non-metals4--,alloys4--,l[ fusibility4 -- ,amalgams ,,*apt] ,,xliv4 ,,sodium ,,& ,,its ,,comp\nds4 ,ord] ( d]ivation4--,occurr5ce & prep>ation ( sodium *loride2 uses4--,sodium sulphate3 manufacture & uses4 --,sodium c>bonate3 occurr5ce1 manufacture1 & uses4-- ,sodium3 prep>ation & uses4--,sodium hydrate3 prep>ation & use4-- ,hydrog5 sodium c>bonate4--,sodium nitrate ,,*apt] ,,xlv4 ,,potassium ,,& ,,ammonium4 ,occurr5ce & prep>ation ( potassium4--,potassium *lorate & cyanide4--,gunp[d]4--,ammonium comp\nds ,,*apt] ,,xlvi4 ,,calcium ,,comp\nds4 ,calcium c>bonate4--,lime & its uses4--,h>d wat]4--,=mation ( caves4--,calcium sulphate ,,*apt] ,,xlvii4 ,,magnesium1 ,,alum9ium1 ,,& ,,z9c4 ,occurr5ce & prep>ation ( magnesium4--,comp\nds ( alum9ium3 r$uction2 prop]ties1 & uses4--,comp\nds1 uses1 & r$uction ( z9c ,,*apt] ,,xlviii4 ,,iron ,,& ,,its ,,comp\nds4 ,ores ( iron4--,pig-iron4--,/eel4--,wr\ght-iron4 --,prop]ties4 -- ,salts ( iron4--,*ange ( val5ce & ( color ,,*apt] ,,xlix4 ,,lead ,,& ,,t94 ,di/ribution ( lead4--,poison\s prop]ties4--,"s lead comp\nds4-- ,t9 ,,*apt] ,l4 ,,copp]1 ,,m]cury1 ,,& ,,silv]4 ,occurr5ce & uses ( copp]4--,comp\nds & uses ( m]cury4-- ,occurr5ce1 r$uction1 & salts ( silv] ,,*apt] ,,li4 ,,photography4 ,description4 ,,*apt] ,,lii4 ,,plat9um ,,& ,,gold4 ,me?ods ( obta9+1 & uses ,,*apt] ,,liii4 ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,rocks4 ,classification4--,composition4--,import ance ( silice\s rocks4-- ,soils4--,m9]als4--,! e>?'s int]ior4--,p]c5tage ( elem5ts ,,*apt] ,,liv4 ,,organic ,,*emi/ry4 ,comp>ison ( organic & inorganic comp\nds4--,molecul> diff]5ces4--,syn!sis ( organic comp\nds4--,m>%-gas4 s]ies4---,alcohols4--,e!rs4--,o!r sub/itution products4 -- ,olef9es & o!r s]ies4 ,,*apt] ,,lv4 ,,illum9at+ ,,gas4 ,s\rce1 prep>ation1 purification1 & composition4--,natural gas ,,*apt] ,,lvi4 ,,alcohol4 ,f]m5t$ & di/ill$ liquors4--,effect on ! sy/em4--,aff9ity = wat]4--,purity ,,*apt] ,,lvii ,,oils1 ,,fats1 ,,& ,,soaps4 ,s\rces & k9ds ( oils & fats4--,saponification4--,manufacture & action ( soap4--,glyc]91 nitro-glyc]91 & dynamite4 -- ,butt] & oleom>g>9e4 ,,*apt] ,,lviii ,,c>bo-,,hydrates4 ,sug>s4--,glucose4--,/>*4--,cellulose4-- ,gun-cotton4--,dextr94 -- ,zylonite ,,*apt] ,,lix4 ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,f]m5tation4 ,f]m5ts4--,alcoholic1 acetic1 & lactic f]m5tation4-- ,putrefaction4--,infecti\s diseases ,,*apt] ,,lx4 ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,life4 ,gr[? ( m9]als & ( organic life4--,food ( plants & ( man4--,cons]vation ( en]gy & ( matt] ,,*apt] ,,lxi4 ,,!ories4 ,! ,la ,place !ory--,!ory ( evolution--,new !ory ( *emi/ry ,,*apt] ,,lxii ,,gas ,,volumes ,,& ,,weights4 ,quantitative exp]im5ts ) oxyg5 & hydrog5--,problems ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,*emical ,,sci5ce ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,metric ,,sy/em4 #a4 ,! ,metric ,sy/em is ! "o "h employ$4 ,a suffici5t k ( x = use 9 ! /udy ( ?is book may be ga9$ by means ( ! foll[+ exp]im5ts1 :i* %\ld be p]=m$ at ! outset by ea* pupil4 #b4 ,l5g?4 ,exp]im5t #a4--,note ! l5g? ( #aj cm4 7c5timet]s7 on a metric rul]1 z %[n 9 ,figure #a4 ,e/imate by ! eye alone ?is di/ance on ! cov] ( a book1 & !n v]ify ! result4 ,d ! same on a t4t4 7te/-tube74 ,try ?is sev]al times on diff]5t objects till y c c>ry 9 m9d a tol]ably accurate idea ( #aj cm4 ,ab\t h[ _m in*es is x8 ,9 ! same way e/imate ! l5g? ( #a cm1 v]ify+ ea* result4 ,h[ does ?is comp>e ) ! di/ance betwe5 two blue l9es ( foolscap8 ,measure ! diamet] ( ! old nickel five- c5t piece4 ,next1 try 9 ! same way #e cm4 ,c>ry ea* result 9 m9d1 tak+ su* notes z may be necess>y4 7,fig4 #a7 #c4 ,capacity4 ,exp]im5t #b4--;,into a graduate1 %[n 9 ,figure #b1 hold+ #be or #ej cc4 7cubic c5timet]s7 put #aj cc4 ( wat]2 !n p\r ?is into a t4t4 ,note1 )\t m>k+1 :at proportion ( ! latt] is fill$2 p\r out ! wat]1 & aga9 put into ! t4t4 ! same quantity z ne>ly z c be e/imat$ by ! eye4 ,v]ify ! result by p\r+ ! wat] back into ! graduate4 ,repeat sev]al times until y\r e/imate is q accurate ) a t4t4 ( giv5 size4 ,if y wi%1 try x ) o!r sizes4 ,n[ e/imate #a cc4 ( a liquid 9 a simil> way4 ,d ! same ) #e cc4 ,a cubic bas9 #aj cm on a side holds a lit]4 ,a lit] conta9s #a1jjj cc4 ,if fill$ ) wat]1 x weighs1 "u /&>d conditions1 #a1jjj grams4 ,v]ify by measurem5t4 #d4 ,weight4 ,exp]im5t #c4--,put a small piece ( pap] on ea* pan ( a pair ( scales4 ,on "o place a #aj g4 7gram7 weight4 ,balance ?is by plac+ f9e salt on ! o!r pan4 ,note ! quantity z ne>ly z possible ) ! eye1 !n remove4 ,n[ put on ! pap] :at y ?9k is #aj g4 ( salt4 ,v]ify by weigh+4 ,repeat1 z be=e1 sev]al times4 ,weigh #a g41 & e/imate z be=e4 ,c #a g4 ( salt be pil$ on a "o-c5t co98 ,exp]im5t ) #e g4 #e4 ,resume--,l5g?s are measur$ 9 c5timet]s1 liquids 9 cubic c5timet]s1 solids 9 grams4 ,9 cases :]e x is n conv5i5t to measure a liquid or weigh a solid1 ! e/imates above w be ne> en\gh = mo/ exp]im5ts h]e9 giv54 ,diff]5t solids ( ! same bulk ( c\rse diff] 9 weight1 b = "o gram :at c be pil$ on a "o-c5t piece may be call$ a suffici5tly close e/imate4 ,! di/ance betwe5 two l9es ( foolscap is v ne>ly a c5timet]4 ,a cubic c5timet] is se5 9 ,figure #a4 ,temp]atures are record$ 9 ! c5tigrade scale4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,:at ,,*emi/ry ,,is4 #f4 ,divisibility ( ,matt]4 ,exp]im5t #d4--;,exam9e a few cry/als ( sug>1 & cru% !m ) ! f+]s4 ,gr9d !m z f9e z conv5i5t1 & exam9e ) a l5s4 ,!y are /ill capable ( division4 ,put #c g4 ( sug> into a t4t41 p\r ov] x #e cc4 ( wat]1 %ake well1 boil = a m9ute1 hold+ ! t4t4 obliquely 9 ! flame1 us+ = ! purpose a pair ( wood5 nipp]s 7,fig4 #c74 ,if ! sug> does n disappe>1 add m wat]4 ,:5 cool1 t\* a drop ( ! liquid to ! tongue4 ,evid5tly ! sug> rema9s1 ?\gh 9 a /ate too f9ely divid$ to be se54 ,?is is call$ a solution1 ! sug> is said to be soluble 9 wat]1 & wat] to be a solv5t ( sug>4 7,fig #c47 ,n[ fold a filt] pap]1 z 9 ,figure #d1 arrange x 9 a funnel 7,fig4 #e71 & p\r ! solution ^u x1 cat*+ :at passes ?r\gh1 :i* is call$ ! filtrate1 9 ano!r t4t4 t re/s 9 a receiv] 7,fig4 #e74 ,aft] filt]+1 notice :e!r any residue is left on ! filt] pap]4 ,ta/e a drop ( ! filtrate4 ,has sug> gone ?r\gh ! filt]8 ,if s1 :at d y inf] ( sub/ances 9 solution pass+ ?r\gh a filt]8 ,save half ! filtrate = ,exp]im5t #e1 & dilute ! o!r half ) two or ?ree times its own volume ( wat]4 ,%ake well1 & ta/e4 7,fig #d47 7,fig #e47 ,we might h dilut$ ! sug> solution _m times m1 & /ill ! sweet ta/e w\ld h rema9$4 ,?us ! small quantity ( sug> w\ld be di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! :ole mass1 & be v f9ely divid$4 ,by o!r exp]im5ts a mu* f9] subdivision c be made4 ,a solution (4#jjjjjjjb g4 ( ! r$ color+ matt]1 fu*s9e1 9 #a cc4 ( alcohol gives a di/9ct color4 ,su* exp]im5ts w\ld seem to indicate t !re is no limit to ! divisibility ( matt]4 ,b consid]ations :i* we _c discuss "h lead to ! belief t su* a limit does exi/2 t !re are p>ticles ( sug>1 & ( all sub/ances1 :i* are incapable ( fur!r division )\t entirely *ang+ ! nature ( ! sub/ance4 ,to ^! smalle/ p>ticles ! "n molecules is giv54 ,a mass is any portion ( a sub/ance l>g] ?an a molecule2 x is an aggregation ( molecules4 ,a molecule is ! smalle/ p>ticle ( a sub/ance t c exi/ alone4 ,a sub/ance 9 solution may be 9 a m f9ely divid$ /ate ?an o!rwise1 b x is n necess>ily 9 its ultimate /ate ( division4 #g4 ,a ,*emical ,*ange4--,_c ?is smalle/ p>ticle ( sug>1 ! molecule1 be sep>at$ into /ill small] p>ticles ( some?+ else8 ,may x n be a comp\nd body1 & w n "s =ce sep>ate x into two or m sub/ances8 ,! next exp]im5t w answ] ! "q4 ,exp]im5t #e4--,take ! sug> solution sav$ f ,exp]im5t #d1 & add sl[ly #d cc4( /rong sulphuric acid4 ,note any *ange ( color1 also ! heat ( ! t4t4 ,add m acid if ne$$4 ,a sub/ance entirely diff]5t 9 color & prop]ties has be5 =m$4 ,n[ ei!r ! sug>1 ! acid1 or ! wat] has und]gone a *emical *ange4 ,x is1 9 fact1 ! sug>4 ,b ! molecule is ! smalle/ p>ticle ( sug> possible4 ,! acid mu/ h ei!r add$ some?+ to ! sug> molecules1 or subtract$ some?+ f !m4 ,x 0 ! latt]4 ,"h1 !n1 is a =ce entirely diff]5t f ! "o :i* t5ds to r$uce masses to molecules4 ,! molecule has ! same prop]ties z ! mass4 ,only a physical =ce 0 us$ 9 dissolv+ ! sug>1 & no heat 0 lib]at$4 ,! acid has *ang$ ! sug> into a black mass1 9 fact into *>coal or c>bon1 & wat]2 & heat has be5 produc$4 ,a *emical *ange has be5 br\ght ab\t4 ,f ?is we see t molecules are n ! ultimate divisions ( matt]4 ,! smalle/ sug> p>ticles are made up ( /ill small] p>ticles ( o!r ?+s :i* d n resemble sug>1 z a ^w is compos$ ( lett]s :i* alone d n resemble ! ^w4 ,b c ! *>coal itself be resolv$ into o!r sub/ances1 & ^! into /ill o!rs1 & s on8 ,c>bon is "o ( ! sub/ances f :i* no?+ else has be5 obta9$4 ,!re are ab\t sev5ty o!rs :i* h n be5 resolv$4 ,^! are call$ elem5ts2 & out ( !m are built all ! comp\nds-- m9]al1 vegetable1 & animal--:i* we "k4 #h4 ,an elem5t is a *emically indivisible sub/ance1 or "o f :i* no?+ else c be extract$4 ,a comp\nd is a sub/ance :i* is made up ( elem5ts unit$ 9 exact proportions by a =ce call$ *emism1 or *emical aff9ity4 ,a mixture is compos$ ( two or m elem5ts or comp\nds bl5d$ toge!r1 b n held by any *emical attraction4 ,to :i* ( ^! ?ree classes does sug> belong8 ,c>bon8 ,! solution ( sug> 9 wat]8 ,c>bon is an elem5t2 we call its smalle/ p>ticle an atom4 ,an atom is ! smalle/ p>ticle ( an elem5t t c ent] into comb9ation4 ,atoms are indivisible & usually d n exi/ alone4 ,bo? elem5ts & comp\nds h molecules4 ,! molecule ( an elem5t usually conta9s two atoms2 t ( a comp\nd may h two1 or x may h hundr$s4 ,= a giv5 comp\nd ! numb] is always def9ite4 ,*emism is ! =ce t b9ds atoms toge!r to =m molecules4 ,! sug> molecule conta9s atoms1 =ty-five 9 all1 ( ?ree diff]5t elem5ts3 c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg54 ,t ( salt has two atoms3 "o ( sodium1 "o ( *lor9e4 ,%\ld we say an atom ( sug>8 ,:y8 ,( :at is a mass ( sug> made up8 ,a molecule8 ,a mass ( c>bon8 ,a molecule8 ,did ! *emical aff9ity ( ! acid break up masses or molecules8 ,9 ?is respect x is a type ( all *emical action4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 physics & *emi/ry is "h well %[n4 ,! molecule is ! unit ( ! physici/1 ! atom t ( ! *emi/4 ,h[ev] l>ge ! masses *ang$ by *emical action1 t action is always on ! individual molecule1 ! atoms ( :i* are sep>at$4 ,if ! molecule 7 an indivisible p>ticle1 no sci5ce ( *emi/ry w\ld be possible4 ,! physici/ f9ds ! prop]ties ( masses ( matt] & resolves !m into molecules1 ! *emi/ breaks up ! molecule & f its atoms builds up o!r comp\nds4 ,analysis is ! sep>ation ( comp\nds into _! elem5ts4 ,syn!sis is ! build+ up ( comp\nds f _! elem5ts4 ,( :i* is ! sug> exp]im5t an example8 ,meta!sis is an ex*ange ( atoms 9 two diff]5t comp\nds2 x gives rise to /ill o!r comp\nds4 ,a *emical *ange may add some?+ to a sub/ance1 or subtract some?+ f x1 or x may bo? subtract & add1 mak+ a new sub/ance ) entirely diff]5t prop]ties4 ,sulphur & c>bon are two /able solids4 ,! *emical union ( ! two =ms a volatile liquid4 ,a sub/ance may be at "o "t a solid1 at ano!r a liquid1 at ano!r a gas1 & yet n und]go any *emical *ange1 because 9 ea* case ! *emical composition is id5tical4 ,/ate :i* ( ^! are *emical *anges3 ru/+ ( iron1 fall+ ( ra91 radiation ( heat1 s\r+ ( milk1 evaporation ( wat]1 decay ( vegetation1 burn+ ( wood1 break+ ( iron1 blea*+ ( clo?4 ,give any o!r illu/rations t occur to y4 ,*emi/ry treats ( matt] 9 its simple/ =ms1 & ( ! v>i\s comb9ations ( ^? simple/ =ms4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,molecules ,,& ,,atoms4 #i4 ,molecules are ,extremely ,small4--,x has be5 e/imat$ t a lit] ( any gas at #j degrees & #gfj mm4 pressure conta9s #ajbd molecules1 i4e4 "o ) tw5ty-f\r ciph]s4 ,?omson e/imates t if a drop ( wat] 7 magnifi$ to ! size ( ! e>?1 & its molecules increas$ 9 ! same proportion1 !y w\ld be l>g] ?an f9e %ot1 b n s l>ge z cricket balls4 ,a ,g]man has rec5tly obta9$ a deposit ( silv] two-million?s ( a millimet] ?ick1 & visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,! comput$ diamet] ( ! molecule is only "o & a half million?s ( a millimet]4 ,by a law ( *emi/ry !re is ! same numb] ( molecules 9 a giv5 volume ( e gas1 if ! temp]ature & pressure are ! same4 ,h5ce1 all gase\s molecules are ( ! same size1 includ+1 ( c\rse1 ! surr\nd+ space4 ,!y are 9 rapid motion1 & ! light] ! gas ! m rapid ! motion4 ,?is gives rise to diffusion4 ,see page #aad4 #aj4 ,we ,"k ,no?+ ,def9ite ( ! ,=m ( ,molecules4--,9 ?is book !y w always be repres5t$ z ( ! same size1 t ( two squ>es4 ,a molecule is itself compos$ ( atoms1--f two to sev]al hundr$4 ,! size ( ! atom ( mo/ elem5ts we repres5t by "o squ>e4#aa4 ,atoms4--,if ! gase\s molecules be ( ! same size1 x is cle> t ei!r ! atoms !mselves mu/ be cond5s$1 or ! spaces betwe5 !m mu/ be small] ?an be=e4 ,we suppose ! latt] to be ! case1 & t !y d n t\* "o ano!r1 ! same ?+ be+ true ( molecules4 ,atoms compos+ sug> mu/ be cr[d$ ne>] toge!r ?an ^? ( salt4 ,^! atoms are probably 9 con/ant motion 9 ! molecule1 z ! latt] is 9 ! mass4 ,if we reg>d ?is squ>e z a mass ( matt]1 ! dots may repres5t molecules2 if we call x a molecule1 ! dots may be call$ atoms1 ?\gh _m molecules h no m ?an two or ?ree atoms4 ,! foll[+ exp]im5ts illu/rate ! union ( atoms to =m molecules1 & ( elem5ts to =m comp\nds4 #ab4 ,union ( ,atoms4 ,exp]im5t #f4--,mix1 on a pap]1 #e g4 ( iron turn+s1 & ! same bulk ( p[d]$ sulphur1 & transf] !m to an ignition tube1 a tube ( h>d glass = )/&+ high temp]atures4 ,hold ! tube 9 ! flame ( a burn] till ! cont5ts h become r$-hot4 ,aft] a m9ute break x by hold+ x "u a jet ( wat]4 ,put ! cont5ts into an evaporat+-di%1 & look = any uncomb9$ iron or sulphur4 ,bo? iron & sulphur are elem5ts4 ,is ?is an example ( syn!sis or ( analysis8 ,:y8 ,is ! *emical union betwe5 masses ( iron & sulphur1 or betwe5 molecules1 or betwe5 atoms8 ,is ! product a comp\nd1 an elem5t1 or a mixture8 ,exp]im5t #g4--,try ! same exp]im5t1 us+ copp] in/ead ( iron4 ,! full explanation ( ^! exp]im5ts is giv5 on page #ac4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,elem5ts ,,& ,,b9>ies4 #ac4 ,ab\t ,sev5ty ,diff]5t ,elem5ts are n[ recogniz$1 half ( :i* h be5 discov]$ )9 little m ?an a c5tury4 ,^! diff] f "o ano!r 9 7#a7 atomic weight1 7#b7 physical & *emical prop]ties1 7#c7 mode ( occurr5ce1 etc4 ,page #ab conta9s ! mo/ important elem5ts4 ,! symbol ( an elem5t is usually ! initial lett] or lett]s ( its ,lat9 "n1 & /&s = "o atom ( ! elem5t4 ,c is ! symbol = c>bon1 & repres5ts "o atom ( x4 ,o means "o atom ( oxyg54,! symbols ( elem5ts w also be us$ 9 ?is book to /& = an indef9ite quantity ( !m2 e4g4 ,o w be us$ = oxyg5 9 g5]al z well z = "o atom4 ,! text w readily decide :5 symbols h a def9ite mean+1 & :5 !y are us$ 9 place ( words4 ,write1 expla91 & memorize ! symbols ( ! elem5ts 9 heavy type4 #ad4 ,! ,atomic ,weight ( an elem5t is ! weight ( its atom comp>$ ) t ( hydrog54 ,h is tak5 z ! /&>d because x has ! lea/ atomic weight4 ,! atomic weight ( ,o is #af1 :i* means t its atom weighs #af times z mu* z ! ,h atom4 ,e symbol1 !n1 /&s = a def9ite weight ( ! elem5t1 i4e4 its atomic weight1 z well z = its atom4 ,h[ mu* brom9e by weight does ,br /& =8 ,:at d ^! symbols mean--,z1 ,na1 ,n1 ,p8 ,if ,o repres5ts "o atom1 h[ mu* does ,o#b or #b ,o /& =8 ,h[ mu* by weight8 ,mo/ elem5ts h two atoms 9 ! molecule4 ,h[ _m molecules 9 #f ,h8 #aj ,n8 ,s#h8 ,i#bj8 ,! symbol ( a comp\nd is =m$ by writ+ 9 succession ! symbols ( ! elem5ts ( :i* x is compos$4 ,h[ _m atoms 9 ! foll[+ molecules1 & h[ _m ( ea* elem5t3 ,c#b;,h#fj8 ,,hno#c8 ,pb,s,o#d8 ,mg,cl#b8 7,hg#b7,,no#c7b87 #ae4 ,! ,simple/ ,comp\nds are ,b9>ies4--,a b9>y is a sub/ance compos$ ( two elem5ts2 e4g4 common salt1 :i* is a comp\nd ( sodium & *lor9e4 ,its symbol is ,na,cl1 its *emical "n sodium *loride4 ,! end+ ide is appli$ to ! la/ "n ( b9>ies4 ,h[ _m p>ts by weight ( ,na & ( ,cl 9 ,na,cl8 ,:at is ! molecul> weight1 i4e4 ! weight ( its molecule8 ,"n ,k,cl4 ,h[ _m atoms 9 its molecule8 ,p>ts by weight ( ea* elem5t8 ,molecul> weight8 ,does ! symbol /& = m ?an "o molecule8 ,h[ _m molecules 9 #d ,na,cl8 ,h[ _m atoms ( ,na & ( ,cl8 ,"n ^!3 ,h,cl1 ,na,br1 ,na,i1 ,k,br1 ,ag,cl1 ,ag,i1 ,h,br1 ,,hi1 ,,hf1 ,hg,o1 ,zn,o1 ,zn,s1 ,mg,o1 ,ca,o4 ,compute ! proportion by weight ( ea* elem5t 9 ! la/ ?ree4 ,a coeffici5t be=e ! symbol ( a comp\nd includes all ! elem5ts ( ! symbol1 & %[s ! numb] ( molecules4 ,h[ _m 9 ^!3 #f ,k,br8 #c ,sn#j8 #ab ,na,cl8 ,h[ _m atoms ( ea* elem5t 9 ! above8 ,an expon5t1 always writt5 bel[1 applies only to ! elem5t aft] :i* x is writt51 & %[s ! numb] ( atoms4 ,expla9 ^!3 ,au,cl#c1 ,zn,cl#b1 ,hg#b;,cl#b4 ,write symbols = f\r molecules ( sodium bromide1 "o ( silv] iodide 7always omit coeffici5t "o71 eight ( potassium bromide1 t5 ( hydrog5 *loride2 also = "o molecule ( ea* ( ^!3 hydrog5 fluoride1 potassium iodide1 silv] *loride4 ,9 all ! above cases ! elem5ts h unit$ atom = atom4 ,"s elem5ts w n s unite4 ,9 ,ca,cl#b h[ _m atoms ( ea* elem5t8 ,p>ts by weight ( ea*8 ,give molecul> weight4 ,is ! size ( ! molecule !reby *ang$8 ,"n ^!1 give ! numb] ( atoms ( ea* elem5t 9 ! molecule1 & ! proportion by weight1 also _! molecul> weights3 ,au,cl#c1 ,zn,cl#b1 ,mn,cl#b1 ,na#b,o1 ,k#b,s1 ,h#c,p1 ,h#d;,c4 ,pr9cipal ,elem5ts4 ,"n4 ,sym4 ,at4 ,wt4 ,val5ce4 ,vap4,d4 ,at4,vol4 ,mol4,vol4 ,/ate4 ,alum9ium ,al #bg4 ,,ii1 ,,iv 444 444 444 ,solid ,antimony ,sb #abj4 ,,iii1 ,v4 444 444 444 ,ars5ic ,z #ge4 ,,iii1 ,v #aej4 ,b>ium ,ba #acg4 ,,ii 444 444 444 ,bismu? ,bi #baj4 ,,iii1 ,v 444 444 444 ,boron ,b #aa4 ,,iii 444 444 444 ,brom9e ,br #hj4 ,i1 7,v7 #hj4 ,liquid ,cadmium ,cd #aab4 ,,ii #ef4 ,solid ,calcium ,ca #dj4 ,,ii 444 444 444 ,c>bon ,c #ab4 7,,ii71 ,,iv 444 444 444 ,*lor9e ,cl #ce4e ,i1 7,v7 #ce4e ,gas ,*romium ,cr #eb4 7,,ii71,,iv1,,vi 444 444 444 ,solid ,cobalt ,co #ei4 ,,ii1 ,,iv 444 444 444 ,gas ,copp] ,cu #fc4 ,i1 ,,ii 444 444 444 ,fluor9e ,f #ai4 ,i1 7,v7 444 444 444 ,gas ,gold ,au #aif4 7,i71 ,,iii 444 444 444 ,solid ,hydrog5 ,h #a4 ,i #a4 ,gas ,iod9e ,i #abg4 ,i1 7,v7 #abg4 444 444 ,solid ,iron ,fe #ef4 ,,ii1,,iv17,,vi7 444 444 444 ,lead ,pb #bjf4 ,,ii1 ,,iv 444 444 444 ,li?ium ,li #g4 ,i 444 444 444 ,magnesium ,mg #bd4 ,,ii 444 444 444 ,manganese ,mn #ee4 ,,ii1 ,,iv1 ,,vi 444 444 444 ,m]cury ,hg #bjj4 ,i1 ,,ii #ajj4 ,liquid ,nickel ,ni #ei4 ,,ii1 ,,iv 444 444 444 ,solid ,nitrog5 ,n #ad4 7,i71,,iii1,v #ad4 ,gas ,oxyg5 ,o #af4 ,,ii #af4 ,phosphorus ,p #ca4 7,i71,,iii1 ,v #fb4 ,solid ,plat9um ,pt #aig4 7,,ii71 ,,iv 444 444 444 ,potassium ,k #ci4 ,i 444 444 444 ,silicon ,si #bh4 ,,iv 444 444 444 ,silv] ,ag #ajh4 ,i 444 444 444 ,sodium ,na #bc4 ,i 444 444 444 ,/rontium ,sr #hg4 ,,ii 444 444 444 ,sulphur ,s #cb4 ,,ii1,,iv17,,vi7 #cb7if7 ,t9 ,sn #aah4 ,,ii1 ,,iv 444 444 444 ,z9c ,zn #fe4 ,,ii #cb4e ,if m ?an "o atom ( an elem5t ent]s into ! composition ( a b9>y1 a prefix is (t5 us$ to d5ote ! numb]4 ,,s#b is call$ sulphur dioxide1 to di/+ui% x f ,,s#c1 sulphur trioxide4 ,"n ^!3 ,,co#b1 ,si,o#b1 ,mn,o#b4 ,! prefixes are3 mono or proto1 "o2 di or bi1 two2 tri or t]1 ?ree2 tetra1 f\r2 p5te1 five2 hex1 six2 etc4 ,di>s5ic p5toxide is writt51 ,z#b,o#e4 ,symbolize ^!3 c>bon protoxide1 diphosphorus p5toxide1 diphosphorus trioxide1 iron disulphide1 iron protosulphide4 ,(t5 only ! prefix ( ! la/ "n is us$4 #af4 ,an ,oxide is a ,comp\nd ( ,oxyg5 & ,"s ,o!r ,elem5t1 z ,hg,o4 ,:at is a *loride8 ,def9e sulphide1 phosphide1 ars5ide1 c>bide1 bromide1 iodide1 fluoride4 ,9 ,exp]im5t #f1 :]e ,s & ,fe unit$1 ! symbol ( ! product 0 ,fe,s4 ,"n x4 ,h[ _m p>ts by weight ( ea* elem5t8 ,:at is its molecul> weight8 ,to produce ,fe,s a *emical union took place betwe5 ea* atom ( ! ,fe & ( ! ,s4 ,we may express ?is reaction1 i4e4 *emical action1 by an equation3-- ,iron ,sulphur ,iron ,sulphide ,or1 us+ symbols ,fe ,s ,fe,s ,us+ atomic weights1 #ef #cb #hh4 ,^! equations are expla9$ by say+ t #ef p>ts by weight ( iron unite *emically ) #cb p>ts by weight ( sulphur to produce #hh p>ts by weight ( iron sulphide4 ,?is1 !n1 indicates ! proportion ( ea* elem5t :i* comb9es1 & :i* %\ld be tak5 = ! exp]im5t4 ,if #ef g4 ( ,fe be us$1 #cb g4 ( ,s %\ld be tak54 ,if we use m ?an #ef p>ts ( ,fe ) #cb ( ,s1 w x all comb9e8 ,if m ?an #cb ( ,s ) #ef ( ,fe8 ,!re is f\nd to be a def9ite quantity ( ea* elem5t 9 e *emical comp\nd4 ,symbols w\ld h no mean+ if ?is 7 n s4 ,write & expla9 ! equation = ! exp]im5t ) copp] & sulphur1 us+ names1 symbols1 & weights1 z above4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,manipulation4 #ag4 ,to ,break ,glass ,tub+4 ,exp]im5t #h4--,lay ! tub+ on a flat surface1 & draw a %>p ?ree-corn]$ file two or ?ree times at "r angles across x :]e x is to be brok51 till a scrat* is made4 ,take ! tube 9 ! h&s1 hav+ ! two ?umbs ne>ly opposite ! scrat*1 & ! f+]s on ! o!r side4 ,press outw>d quickly ) ! ?umbs1 & at ! same "t pull ! h&s /rongly ap>t1 & ! tub+ %\ld break squ>ely at ! scrat*4 ,to break l>ge tub+1 or cut (f bottles1 lamp *imneys1 etc41 fir/ make a scrat* z be=e2 !n heat ! h&le ( a file1 or a blunt iron--9 a bla/-lamp flame by pref]5ce--till x is r$-hot1 & at once press x aga9/ ! scrat* till ! glass beg9s to crack4 ,! fracture c be l$ 9 any direction by keep+ ! iron j 9 front ( x4 ,re-heat ! iron z (t5 z necess>y4 #ah4 ,to ,make ,ignition-,tubes4 ,exp]im5t #i4--;,hold ! glass tub+ betwe5 ! ?umb & =ef+] ( ea* h&1 re/+ x aga9/ ! second f+]4 ,heat x 9 ! upp] flame1 sl[ly at fir/1 !n /rongly1 b heat only a v small portion 9 l5g?1 & keep x 9 con/ant rotation ) ! "r h&4 ,hold x /eadily1 & avoid twi/+ x z ! glass s(t5s4 ,! yield+ is detect$ by ! yell[ flame above ! glass & by an unev5 pressure on ! h&s4 ,pull x a little z x yields1 !n heat a "p j at "o side ( ! mo/ s(t5$ portion4 ,rotate con/antly )\t twi/+1 & soon x c be sep>at$ into two clos$ tubes4 ,no ?read %\ld be atta*$2 b if !re be "o1 x c be brok5 (f & ! end weld$4 ,! bottom c be made m symmetrical by heat+ x r$-hot1 !n bl[+1 gradually1 into ! op5 end1 ?is be+ ins]t$ 9 ! m\?4 ,! p>ts %\ld be anneal$ by hold+ above ! flame = a %ort "t1 to cool sl[ly4 ,= h>d glass--,bohemian--or l>ge tubes1 ! bla/-lamp or bl[pipe is ne$$4 ,9 ! bla/-lamp air is =c$ out ) illum9at+ gas4 ,?is gives a high degree ( heat4 ,bulbs c be made 9 ! same way z ignition-tubes1 & ?i/le-tubes are made by bl[+ out ! end ( a heat$ bulb1 & r\nd+ x ) *>coal4 #ai4 ,to ,b5d ,glass ,tub+4 ,exp]im5t #aj4--;,hold ! tube 9 ! upp] flame4 ,rotate x s z to heat all p>ts equally1 & let ! flame spread ov] #c or #d cm4 9 l5g?4 ,:5 ! glass beg9s to yield1 )\t remov+ f ! flame sl[ly b5d x z desir$4 ,avoid twi/+1 & be sure to h all p>ts 9 ! same plane2 also avoid b5d+ too quickly1 if y w\ld h a well-r\nd$ jo9t4 ,anneal ea* b5d z made4 ,heat$ glass ( any k9d %\ld nev] be br\ght 9 contact ) a cool body4 ,= mak+ ,o1 ,h1 etc41 a glass tube -- deliv]y-tube--#ej cm4 long %\ld h ?ree b5ds1 z 9 ,figure #f4 ,! pupil %\ld fir/ exp]im5t ) %ort pieces ( glass1 #aj or #ae cm4 long4 ,an ord9>y gas flame is ! be/ = b5d+ glass4 #bj4 ,to ,cut ,glass4 ,exp]im5t #aa4--,lay ! glass plate on a flat surface1 & draw a /eel glass-cutt]--revolv+ :eel--ov] x1 hold+ ?is aga9/ a rul] = a guide1 & press+ d[n h>d en\gh to scrat* ! glass4 ,!n break x by hold+ betwe5 ! ?umb & f+]s1 hav+ ! ?umbs on ! side opposite to ! scrat*1 & press+ !m outw>d :ile b5d+ ! ends ( ! glass inw>d4 ,! break w foll[ ! scrat*4 ,holes c be bor$ ?r\gh glass & bottles ) a brok5 end ( a r\nd file kept wet ) a solution ( camphor 9 oil ( turp5t9e4 #ba4 ,to ,p]=ate ,corks4 ,exp]im5t #ab4--;,fir/ make a small hole 9 ! cork ) ! po9t$ h&le ( a r\nd--rat-tail--file4 ,h ! hole p]p5dicul> to ! surface ( ! cork4 ,?is c be done by hold+ ! cork 9 ! left h& & press+ aga9/ ! l>g] surface1 or upp] "p1 ( ! cork1 ) ! file 9 ! "r h&4 ,only a m]e op5+ is made 9 ?is way1 :i* mu/ be enl>g$ by ! o!r end ( ! file4 ,a second or ?ird file ( l>g] size may be employ$1 accord+ to ! size ( ! hole to be made1 :i* mu/ be a little small] ?an ! tube x is to receive1 & p]fectly r\nd4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,oxyg54 #bb4 ,to ,obta9 ,oxyg54 ,exp]im5t #ac4--,take #e g4 ( cry/als ( potassium *lorate 7,k,cl,o#c7 &1 )\t pulv]iz+1 mix ) ! same weight ( pure p[d]$ manganese dioxide 7,mn,o#b74 ,put ! mixture into a t4t41 & ins]t a d4t4--deliv]y-tube--hav+ ! cork fit tightly4 ,hang x on a r4s4--r+-/&1-- z 9 ,figure #g1 hav+ ! o!r end ( ! d4t4 7,fig #g47 "u ! %elf1 9 a pneumatic tr\gh1 fill$ ) wat] j above ! %elf4 ,fill ?ree or m receiv]s--wide-m\!d bottles--) wat]1 cov] ! m\? ( ea* ) a glass plate1 inv]t x ) its m\? "u wat]1 & put x on ! %elf ( ! tr\gh1 remov+ ! plate4 ,no air %\ld be 9 ! bottles4 ,h ! end ( ! d4t4 s t ! gas w rise ?r\gh ! orifice4 ,hold a light$ lamp 9 ! h&1 & br+ ! flame aga9/ ! mixture 9 ! t4t4 ,keep ! lamp slightly 9 motion1 ) ! h&1 s z n to break ! t4t4 by ov]-heat+ 9 "o place4 ,heat ! mixture /rongly1 if necess>y4 ,! upp] "p ( ! t4t4 is fill$ ) air3 all[ ?is to escape = a few seconds2 !n move a receiv] ov] ! orifice1 & fill x ) gas4 ,z soon z ! lamp is tak5 away1 remove ! d4t4 f ! wat]4 ,! gas contracts1 on cool+1 & if n remov$1 wat] w be drawn ov]1 & ! t4t4 w be brok54 ,let ! t4t4 hang on ! r4s4 till cool4 ,) glass plates take out ! receiv]s1 leav+ !m cov]$1 m\? upw>d 7,fig4 #h71 ) little or no wat] inside4 ,:5 cool1 ! t4t4 may be clean$ ) wat]1 by cov]+ its m\? ) ! ?umb or h&1 & %ak+ x vigor\sly4 ,:at elem5ts1 & h[ _m1 9 ,k,cl,o#c8 ,9 ,mn#jb8 ,x is evid5t t ea* ( ^! comp\nds conta9s ,o4 ,:y1 !n1 c\ld we n h tak5 ei!r sep>ately1 in/ead ( mix+ ! two8 ,?is c\ld h be5 done at a suffici5tly high temp]ature4 ,mu#jb requires a mu* high] temp]ature = dissociation1 i4e4 sep>ation into its elem5ts1 ?an ,k,cl,o#c1 :ile a mixture ( ! two causes ,o to come (f f ,k,cl,o#c at a l[] temp]ature ?an if alone4 ,x is n kn[n t ,mn#jb suff]s any *ange4 ,ea* molecule ( potassium *lorate und]goes ! foll[+ *ange3-- ,potassium ,*lorate ,potassium ,*loride ,oxyg5 ,k,cl,o#c ,k,cl #c ,o4 ,is ?is analysis or syn!sis8 ,complete ! equation1 by us+ weights1 & expla9 x4 ,notice :e!r ! "r- h& memb] ( ! equation has ! same numb] ( atoms z ! left4 ,has any?+ be5 lo/ or ga9$8 ,:at elem5t has heat sep>at$8 ,does ! exp]im5t %[ :e!r ,o is v soluble 9 wat]8 ,h[ _m grams ( ,o are obta9able f #abb4eh g4 ,,kcio#c8 ,,prop]ties4 #bc4 ,combu/ion ( ,c>bon4 ,,oxyg5 ,exp]im5t #ad4--;,exam9e ! gas 9 "o ( ! receiv]s4 ,put a light$ spl9t] into ! receiv]1 slid+ along ! glass cov]4 ,remove x1 bl[ x out1 & put 9 aga9 :ile gl[+4 ,is x re-k9dl$8 ,repeat till x w no long] burn4 ,is ! gas a support] ( combu/ion8 ,h[ did ! combu/ion comp>e ) t 9 air8 ,is x probable t air is pure ,o8 ,:y did ! flame at la/ g out8 ,has ! ,o be5 de/roy$1 or *emically unit$ ) some?+ else8 ,wood is 9 "p ,c4 ,,co#b is =m$ by ! combu/ion2 "n x4 ,! equation is ,c #b,o ,,co#b4 ,affix ! names & weights4 ,is ,,co#b a support] ( combu/ion8 ,note t :5 ,c is burn$ ) pl5ty ( ,o1 ,,co#b is always =m$1 & t no matt] h[ great ! conflagration1 ! union is atom by atom4 ,combu/ion1 z "h %[n1 is only a rapid union ( ,o ) "s o!r sub/ance1 z ,c or ,h4 #bd4 ,combu/ion ( ,sulphur4 ,exp]im5t #ae4--;,holl[ out "o end ( a piece ( electric-light p5cil1 or ( crayon1 #c cm4 long1 & atta* x to a ,cu wire 7,fig4 #i74 ,put into ?is a piece ( ,s z l>ge z a pea1 ignite x by hold+ 9 ! flame1 & !n hold x 9 a receiv] ( ,o4 ,note ! color & brightness ( ! flame1 & comp>e ) ! same 9 ! air4 ,also note ! color & odor ( ! product4 ,! new gas is ,,s#b4 ,"n x1 & write ! equation = its production f ,s & ,o4 ,h[ d y almo/ daily p]=m a simil> exp]im5t8 ,is ! product a support] ( combu/ion8 #be4 ,combu/ion ( ,phosphorus4 ,exp]im5t #af4--,) =ceps1 :i* %\ld always be us$ 9 h&l+ ?is elem5t1 put a bit ( ,p1 half z l>ge z ! ,s above1into ! crayon1 call$ a deflagrat+-spoon4 ,heat ano!r wire1 t\* x to ! ,p1 & at once l[] ! latt] into a receiv] ( ,o4 ,notice ! combu/ion1 ! color ( ! flame & ( ! product4 ,aft] remov+1 be sure to burn e bit ( ,p by hold+ x 9 a flame1 z x is liable to take fire if left4 ,! product ( ! combu/ion is a union ( :at two elem5ts8 ,is x an oxide8 ,its symbol is ,p#b,o#e4 ,write ! equation1 us+ symbols1 names1 & weights4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! exp]im5t1 :5 ! ,o is ne>ly all comb9$1 ,p#b,o#c is =m$1 z x is also :5 ,p oxidizes at a l[ temp]ature4 ,"n x & write ! equation4 #bf4 ,combu/ion ( ,iron4 ,exp]im5t #ag4--,take 9 ! =ceps a piece ( iron picture-cord wire #f or #h;cm long1 hold "o end 9 ! flame = an in/ant1 !n dip x into "s ,s4 ,en\gh ,s w adh]e to be set on fire by hold+ x 9 ! flame aga94 ,!n at once dip x into a receiv] ( ,o ) a little wat] 9 ! bottom4 ,! iron w burn ) sc9tillations4 ,is ?is analysis or syn!sis8 ,:at elem5ts comb9e8 ,a wat*-spr+1 heat$ to take out ! temp]1 may be us$1 b picture-wire is bett]4 ,! product is ,fe#c,o#d4 ,write ! equation4 ,h[ mu* ,fe by weight 9 ! =mula8 ,h[ mu* ,o8 ,:at p] c5t by weight ( ,fe 9 ! comp\nd8 ,multiply ! fractional "p by #ajj4 ,:at p] c5t ( #j8 ,:atp] c5t ( ,c#j 4is ,c8 ,o#b8 ,f9d ! p]c5tage composition ( ,,s#b4 ,p#b,o#e4 ,f ! la/ five exp]im5ts :at d y inf] ( ! t5d5cy ( ,o to unite ) o!r elem5ts8 #bg4 ,oxyg5 is a ,gas )\t ,color1 ,odor1 or ,ta/e4 ,x is *emically a v active elem5t2 t is1 x unites ) almo/ ev]y?+4 ,fluor9e is ! only elem5t ) :i* x w n comb9e4 ,:5 oxyg5 comb9es ) a s+le elem5t1 :at is ! comp\nd call$8 ,we h f\nd t ,o makes up a c]ta9 portion ( ! air2 lat]1 we %all see h[ l>ge ! proportion is4 ,its t5d5cy to comb9e ) almo/ ev]y?+ is a reason = ! decay1 ru/1 & oxidation ( s _m sub/ances1 & = conflagrations1 great & small4 ,new comp\nds are ?us=m$1 ( :i* ,o con/itutes "o factor4 ,wat]1 ,h#b,o1 is only a *emical union ( ,o & ,h4 ,iron ru/1 ,fe#b,o#c & ,h#b,o1 is compos$ ( ,o1 ,fe1 & wat]4 ,! burn+ ( wood or ( coal gives rise to c>bon dioxide1 ,,co#b1 & wat]4 ,decay ( animal & vegetable matt] is ha/5$ by ?is all-p]vad+ elem5t4 ,o =ms a portion ( all animal & vegetable matt]1 ( almo/ all rocks & m9]als1 & ( wat]4 ,x is ! mo/ abundant ( all elem5ts1 & makes up f "o-half to two- ?irds ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,compute ! proportion ( x1 by weight1 9 wat]1 ,h#b,o4 ,x is ! union ( ,o 9 ! air ) ,c & ,h 9 our blood t keeps up ! heat ( ! body & supports life4 ,see page #ha4 ,!re are _m ways ( prep>+ ?is elem5t besides ! "o giv5 above4 ,x may be obta9$ f wat] 7,exp]im5t #ch7 & f _m o!r comp\nds1 e4g4 by heat+ m]cury oxide1 ,hg,o4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,nitrog54 #bh4 ,sep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #ah4--;,fa/5 a piece ( electric-light p5cil1 or ( crayon1 to a wire1 z 9 ,exp]im5t #ae1 & b5d ! wire s x w rea* half-way to ! bottom ( a receiv]4 ,us+ =ceps1 put into ! crayon a small piece ( phosphorus4 ,pass ! wire up ?r\gh ! orifice 9 ! %elf ( a p4t4 7pneumatic tr\gh71 hav+ wat] at lea/ l cm4 above ! %elf4 ,heat ano!r wire1 t\* x to ! ,p1 & quickly inv]t an empty receiv] ov] ! ,p1 hav+ ! m\? "u wat]1 s z to admit no air 7,fig4 #aj74 ,let ! ,p burn z long z x w1 !n remove ! wire & ! crayon1 lett+ 9 no air4 ,note ! color ( ! product1 & leave till x is tol]ably cle>1 !n remove ! receiv] ) a glass plate1 leav+ ! wat] 9 ! bottom4 ,d ! fumes resemble ^? ( ,exp]im5t #af8 ,does x seem likely 7,fig #aj47 t "p ( ! air is ,o8 ,:y a "p only8 ,f9d :at proportion ( ! receiv] is fill$ ) wat] by measur+ ! wat] ) a graduate2 !n fill x ) wat] & measure t2 compute ! p]c5tage :i* ! =m] is ( ! latt]4 ,:at proportion ( ! air1 !n1 is ,o8 ,:at 0 ! only means ( escape = ! ,p#b,o#f1 & ,p#b,o#b =m$8 ,^! products are solids4 ,are !y soluble 9 wat]8 ,compute ! p]c5tage composition1 always by weight1 ( ,p#b,o#b & ,p#b,o#e4 ,! gas left 9 ! receiv] is evid5tly n ,o4 ,exp]im5t #ai w prove ?is conclusively1 & %[ ! prop]ties ( ! new gas4 #bi4 ,prop]ties4 ,exp]im5t #ai4--,:5 ! :ite cl\d has disappe>$1 slide ! plate along1 & ins]t a burn+ /ick2 try "o t /ill gl[s4 ,see :e!r ! ,p & ,s on ! end ( a mat* w burn4 ,is ! gas a support] ( combu/ion8 ,s9ce x does n unite ) ,c1 ,s1 or ,p1 is x an active or a passive elem5t8 ,comp>e x ) ,o4 ,air is ab\t #ad #a_/b times z heavy z ,h4 ,:i* is heavi]1 air or ,n8 ,see page #ab4 ,air or ,o8 ,write out ! *ief prop]ties1 physical & *emical1 ( ,n1 z f\nd 9 ?is exp]im5t4 #cj4 ,inactivity ( ,n4--,n w sc>cely unite *emically except on be+ set free f comp\nds4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 an int5se aff9ity = boron1 & w ev5 g ?r\gh a c>bon crucible to unite ) x4 ,x is n comb9$ ) ,o 9 ! air2 b ! two =m a mixture 7page #hf71 ( :i* ,n makes up f\r-fif?s1 its use be+ to dilute ! ,o4 ,:at w\ld be ! effect1 9 case ( a fire1 if air 7 pure ,o8 ,:at effect on ! human sy/em8 ,gr[+ plants ne$ a great deal ( ,n1 b !y are incapable ( mak+ use ( t 9 ! air1 on acc\nt ( ! *emical inactivity ( ! elem5t4 ,_! supply comes f comp\nds 9 e>?1 wat]1 & air4 ,by reason ( its in]tness ,n is v easily set free f its comp\nds4 ,= ?is reason x is a con/itu5t ( mo/ explosives1 z gunp[d]1 nitro-glyc]9e1 dynamite1 etc4 ,^! solids1 by heat or concussion1 are sudd5ly *ang$ to gases1 :i* !reby occupy mu* m space1 caus+ an explosion4 ,nitrog5 exi/s 9 _m comp\nds1 su* z ! nitrates2 b ! great s\rce ( x all is ! atmosph]e4 ,see page #he4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,hydrog54 #ca4 ,prep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #bj4--,prep>e app>atus z = mak+ ,o4 ,be sure t ! cork p]fectly fits bo? d4t4 & t4t41 or ! ,h w escape4 ,cov] #e g4 granulat$ ,zn1 9 ! t4t41 ) #aj cc4 ,h#b,o1 & add #e cc4 *lorhydric acid1 ,h,cl4 ,adju/ z = ,o 7,fig4 #g71 except t no heat is to be appli$4 ,if ! action is n brisk en\gh1 add m ,h,cl4 ,collect sev]al receiv]s ( ! gas ov] wat]1 add+ small quantities ( ,h,cl :5 necess>y4 ,obs]ve ! black float+ residuum2 x is c>bon1 lead1 etc4 ,) a glass plate remove ! receiv]s1 keep+ !m inv]t$ 7,fig4 #aa71 or ! ,h w escape4 #cb4 ,! ,*emical ,*ange is z foll[s3-- ,z9c hydrog5 *loride z9c *loride hydrog54 ,zn #b ,h,cl ,zn,cl#b #b;,h4 ,complete by add+ ! weights1 & expla94 ,notice t ! wat] does n take "p 9 ! *ange2 x is add$ to dissolve ! ,zn,cl#b =m$1 & ?us keep x f coat+ ! ,zn & prev5t+ fur!r action ( ! acid4 ,note also t ,zn has simply *ang$ places ) ,h1 "o atom ( ! =m] hav+ driv5 (f two atoms ( ! latt]4 ,! ,h1 hav+ no?+ to unite )1 is set free z a gas1 & collect$ ov] wat]4 ,( c\rse ,zn mu/ h a /rong] *emical aff9ity = ,cl ?an ,h has1 or ! *ange c\ld n h tak5 place4 ,:y "o ,zn atom replaces two ,h atoms w be expla9$ lat]1 asf> z an explanation is possible4 ,?is equation1 %\ld be /udi$ c>efully1 z a type ( all equations4 ,! left-h& memb] %[s :at 7 tak51 i4e4 ! factors2 ! "r-h& %[s :at 7 obta9$1 i4e4 ! products4 ,h#b,,s#d might h be5 us$ in/ead ( ,h,cl4 ,9 t case ! reaction1 or equation1 w\ld h be53 -- ,z9c hydrog5 sulphate z9c sulphate hydrog54 ,zn ,h#b,,s#d ,zn,s,o#d #b;,h4 ,iron might h be5 us$ in/ead ( z9c1 9 :i* case ! reactions w\ld h be53-- ,iron hydrog5 *loride iron *loride hydrog54 ,fe #b ,h,cl ,fe,cl#b #b ,h4 ,iron hydrog5 sulphate iron sulphate hydrog54 ,fe ,h#b,,s#d ,fe,s,o#d #b ,h4 ,write ! weights & expla9 ! equations4 ,! latt] %\ld be memoriz$4 #cc4 ,prop]ties4 ,exp]im5t #ba4--,lift ) ! left h& a receiv] ( ,h1 /ill inv]t$1 & ins]t a burn+ spl9t] ) ! "r 7,fig4 #ab74 ,does ! spl9t] cont9ue to burn8 ,does ! gas burn8 ,if s1 :]e8 ,is ! light brilliant8 ,note ! color ( ! flame4 ,is !re any explosion8 ,try ?is exp]im5t ) sev]al receiv]s4 ,is ! gas a support] ( combu/ion8 i4e4 w c>bon burn 9 x8 ,is x combu/ible8 i4e4 does x burn8 ,if s1 x unites ) "s "p ( ! air4 ,) :at "p8#cd4 ,collect+ ,h by ,upw>d ,displacem5t4 ,exp]im5t #bb4--,pass a d4t4 f a ,h g5]ator to ! top ( a receiv] or t4t4 7,fig4 #ac74 ,! escap+ ,h be+ s mu* light] ?an air w =ce ! latt] d[n4 ,to obta9 ! gas unmix$ ) air1 ! d4t4 %\ld tightly fit a c>dbo>d plac$ "u ! m\? ( ! receiv]4 ,:5 fill$1 ! receiv] c be remov$1 inv]t$ z usual1 & ! gas te/$4 ,9 ?is & o!r exp]im5ts = g5]at+ ,h1 a ?i/le-tube1 ! end ( :i* dips "u ! liquid1 c be us$ = p\r+ 9 acid1 z 9 ,figure #ac4 #ce4 ,philosoph]'s ,lamp & ,musical ,flame4 ,exp]im5t #bc4--;,fit to a cork a piece ( glass tub+ #aj or #ae cm4 long1 hav+ ! out] end drawn out to a po9t ) a small op5+1 & ins]t x 9 ! ,h g5]ator4 ,be=e ignit+ ! gas at ! end ( ! tube take !1 precaution to collect a t4t4 ( x by upw>d displacem5t1 & br+ ?is 9 contact ) a flame4 ,if a %>p explosion ensues1 air is n :olly expell$ f ! g5]ator1 & x w\ld be dang]\s to light ! gas4 ,:5 no s\nd1 or v little1 foll[s1 light ! escap+ gas4 ,! g5]ation ( ,h mu/ n be too rapid1 nei!r %\ld ! t4t4 be held "u ! face1 z ! cork is liable to be =c$ out by ! pressure ( ,h4 ,a safety-tube1 simil> to ! ?i/le- tube above1 w prev5t ?is4 ,?is app>atus is call$ ! philosoph]'s lamp4 ,?ru/ ! flame into a long glass tube #a- #a_/b to #c cm4 9 diamet]1 z %[n 9 ,figure #ad1 & li/5 = a musical note4 #cf4 ,product ( ,burn+ ,h 9 ,air4 ,exp]im5t #bd4--;,fill a tube #b or #c cm4 9 diamet] ) calcium *loride1 ,ca,cl#b1 & connect "o end ) a g5]ator ( ,h 7,fig4 #ae74 ,at ! o!r end h a philosoph]'s lamp-tube4,obs]v+ ! usual precautions1 light ! gas & hold ov] x a receiv]1 till q a quantity ( moi/ure collects4 ,all wat] 0 tak5 f ! gas by ! dry]1 ,ca,cl#b4 ,:at is1 !re=e1 ! product ( burn+ ,h 9 air8 ,complete ?is equation & expla9 x3 #b;,h ,o 8 ,figure #af %[s a dry+ app>atus arrang$ to hold ,ca,cl#b4 ,fig4 #ae;,fig4 #af #cg4 ,explosiv5ess ( ,h4 ,exp]im5t #be4 -- ,fill a soda-wat] bottle ( ?ick glass ) wat]1 inv]t x 9 a pneumatic tr\gh1 & collect n ov] #a_/d full ( ,h4 ,n[ remove ! bottle1 /ill inv]t$1 lett+ air 9 to fill ! o!r #c_/d4 ,mix ! air & ,h by cov]+ ! m\? ( ! bottle ) ! h&1 & %ak+ well2 !n hold ! m\? ( ! bottle1 slightly incl9$1 9 a flame4 ,expla9 ! explosion :i* foll[s4 ,if #c_/d 0 air1 :at "p 0 ,o8 ,:at use did ! ,n s]ve8 ,note any dang] 9 explod+ ,h mix$ ) pure ,o4 ,:at proportions ( ,o & ,h by volume w\ld be mo/ dang]\sly explosive8 ,:at proportion by weight8 ,by ! rapid union ( ! two elem5ts1 ! high temp]ature sudd5ly exp&$ ! gase\s product1 :i* imm$iately contract$2 bo? expansion & contraction produc$ ! noise ( explosion4 #ch4 ,pure ,h ,is a ,gas )\t ,color1 ,odor1 or ,ta/e4 --,x is ! lighte/ ( ! elem5ts1 #ad #a_/b times z light asair4 ,x occurs uncomb9$ 9 coal-m9es1 & "s o!r places1 b ! read9ess ) :i* x unites ) o!r elem5ts1 p>ticul>ly ,o1 prev5ts its accumulation 9 l>ge quantities4 ,x con/itutes two-?irds ( ! volume ( ! gases result+ f ! decomposition ( wat]1 & "o-n9? ( ! weight4 ,compute ! latt] f its symbol4 ,x is a con/itu5t ( plants & animals1 & "s rocks4 ,consid]+ ! volume ( ! ocean1 ! total am\nt ( ,h is l>ge4 ,x c be sep>at$ f ,h#b,o by electrolysis1 or by ,c1 z 9 ! manufacture ( wat] gas4 ,:5 burn$ ) ,o x =ms ,h#b,o4 ,pure ,o & ,h :5 burn+ give great heat1 b little light4 ,! oxy-hydrog5 bl[-pipe 7,fig4 #ag7 is a device = produc+ ! highe/ temp]atures ( combu/ion4 ,x has ,o 9 ! inn] tube & ,h 9 ! out]4 ,:y w\ld x n be bett] ! o!r way8 ,^! unite at ! end1 & are burn$1 giv+ great heat4 ,a piece ( lime put into ! flame gives ! brilliant ,drummond or calcium light4 ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,union ,,by ,,weight4 #ci4 ,9 ! ,equation -- ,zn #b ,h,cl ,zn,cl#b #b ,h #fe #gc #acf #b #fe p>ts by weight ( ,zn are requir$ to lib]ate #b p>ts by weight ( ,h2 or1 by us+ #fe g ,zn ) #gc g ,h,cl1 we obta9 #b g ,h4 ,if twice z mu* ,zn 7#acj g7 7 us$1 #d g ,h c\ld be obta9$1 )1 ( c\rse1 twice z mu* ,h,cl4 ,) #bfj g4 ,zn1 h[ mu* ,h c\ld be lib]at$8 ,a proportion may be made z foll[s3-- ,zn giv5 3 ,zn requir$ 33 ,h giv5 3 ,h requir$4 #fe 3 #bfj 33 #b 3 x4 footnote3 ,giv51 z "h us$1 means ! weight call$ = by ! equation2 requir$ means t call$ = by ! "q4 ,solv+1 we h #h g ,h4 ,h[ mu* ,h is obta9able by us+ #e g ,zn1 z 9 ! exp]im5t8 ,to avoid error 9 solv+ simil> problems1 ! be/ plan is z foll[s3-- ,zn #b;,h,cl ,zn,cl#b #b ,h #fe3e33b3x #fe #b #fe x #aj #e x x #aj_/fe #b_/ac ,ans4 #b_/ac g4 ,! equation %\ld fir/ be writt52 next1 ! atomic or molecul> weights :i* y wi% to use1 & only ^?1 to avoid confusion2 !n1 on ! ?ird l9e1 ! quantity ( ! sub/ance to be us$1 ) und]nea? ! sub/ance want$4 ,! example above w be/ h[ ?is4 ,?is plan w prev5t ! possibility ( error4 ,! proportion w !n be3-- a giv5 3 a requir$ 33 b giv5 3 b requir$4 ,h[ mu* ,zn is requir$ to produce #cj g4 ,h8 ,zn #b;,h,cl ,zn,cl#b #b;,h #b3cj33fe3x #fe #b #bx #aiej x #cj x #ige ,ans4 #ige g4 ,zn4 ,solve3-- 7#a7 ,h[ mu* ,zn is necess>y = #ad g4 ,h8 7#b7 ,h[ _m p\nds ( ,zn are necess>y = #c p\nds ( ,h8 7#c7 ,h[ _m grams ( ,h f #ag g4 ( ,zn8 7#d7 ,h[ _m tons ( ,h f #a_/b ton ( ,zn8 ,suppose we wi% to f9d h[ mu* *lorhydric acid--pure gas-- w give #ab g4 ,h4 ,! "q involves only ,h,cl & ,h4 ,arrange z foll[s3-- ,zn #b;,h,cl ,zn,cl#b #b ,h ,h giv4 3 ,h req4 33 ,h,cl giv4 3 ,h,cl req4 #gc #b #b 3 #ab 33 #gc x x #ab #bx#hgf x#dch ,ans4 #dch g4 ,h,cl4 ,solve3-- 7#a7 ,h[ mu* ,h,cl is ne$$ to produce #ajj g4 ,h8 7#b7 ,h[ mu* ,h 9 #aj g4 ,h,cl8 7#c7 ,h[ mu* ,zn,cl#b is =m$ by us+ #ej g4 ,h,cl8 ,! "q is n[ betwe5 ,h,cl & ,zn,cl#b4 ,zn #b;,,hc#a ,zn,cl#b #b;,h #gc #acf ,arrange ! proportion1 & solve4 #ej x ,suppose we h g5]at$ ,h by us+ ,h#b,s#jd3 ! equation is ,zn ,h#b,s#jd ,zn,s,o#d #b ,h4 ,!re is ! same relation z be=e betwe5 ! quantities ( ,zn & ( ,h1 b ! ,h#b,s#jd & ,zn,s#jd are diff]5t4 ,h[ mu* ,h#b,,s#d is ne$$ to g5]ate #ab g4 ,h8 ,zn ,h#b,,s#d ,zn,s#jd #b ,h #ih #b ,make ! proportion1 & solve x #ab ,solve3-- 7#a7 ,h[ mu* ,h 9 #bjj g4 ,h#b,s#jd8 7#b7 ,h[ mu* ,zn,s#jd is produc$ f #bjj g4 ,h#b,s#jd8 7#c7 ,h[ mu* ,h#b,s#jd is ne$$ = #g #a_/b g ,h8 7#d7 ,h[ mu* ,zn w #dj g4 ,h#b,,s#d comb9e )8 7#e7 ,h[ mu* ,fe w #dj g4 ,h#b,,s#d comb9e )8 7#f7 ,h[ mu* ,h c be obta9$ by us+ #ge g ,fe8 ,^! pr9ciples apply to all reactions4 ,suppose1 = example1 we wi% to get l#j g4 ( ,o3 h[ mu* ,k,cl,o#c w x be necess>y to use8 ,! reaction is3-- ,k,cl,o#c ,k,cl ,o#c #dh 3 #aj 33 #abb4e 3 x #abb4e #dh x #aj ,ans4 #be4e g4 ,k,cl,o#c4 ,! pupil %\ld be requir$ to make up problems ( 8 own1 us+ v>i\s reactions1 & to solve !m4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,c>bon4 ,exam9e graphite1 an?racite coal1 bitum9\s coal1 cannel coal1 wood1 gas c>bon1 coke4 #dj4 ,prep>ation ( ,c4 ,exp]im5t #bf4--;,hold a porcela9 di% or a plate 9 ! flame ( a c&le1 or ( a ,buns5 burn] ) ! op5+s at ! bottom clos$4 ,aft] a m9ute exam9e ! deposit4 ,x is c>bon1 i4e4 lamp- black or soot1 :i* is a con/itu5t ( gas1 or ( ! c&le4 ,op5 ! valve at ! base ( ! ,buns5 burn]1 & hold ! deposit 9 ! flame4 ,does ! ,c gradually disappe>8 ,if s1 x has be5 burn$ to ,,co#b4 ,c #b ,o ,,co#b4 ,is ,c a combu/ible elem5t8 ,exp]im5t #bg4--;,ignite a spl9t]1 & obs]ve ! combu/ion & ! smoke1 if any4 ,try to collect "s ,c 9 ! same way z be=e4 ,) pl5ty ( ,o & high en\gh temp]ature1 all ! ,c is burn$ to ,,co#b1 :e!r 9 gas1 c&le1 or wood4 ,,co#b is an invisible gas4 ,! porcela91 :5 held 9 ! flame1 cools ! ,c bel[ ! po9t at :i* x burns1 call$ ! k9dl+-po9t1 & h5ce x is deposit$4 ,! great] "p ( smoke is unburn$ c>bon4 ,exp]im5t #bh4--;,hold an inv]t$ dry t4t4 or receiv] ov] ! flame ( a burn+ c&le1 & look = any moi/ure 7,h#b,o74 ,:at two elem5ts are %[n by ^! exp]im5ts to exi/ 9 ! c&le8 ,! same two are f\nd 9 wood & 9 gas4 ,exp]im5t #bi4--,put into a small ,hessian crucible 7,fig4 #ah7 "s pieces ( wood #b or #c cm long1 cov] ) s&1 & heat ! crucible /rongly4 ,:5 smok+ /ops1 cool ! crucible1 remove ! cont5ts1 & exam9e ! *>coal4 ,! gases h be5 driv5 (f f ! wood1 & ! great] "p ( :at is left is ,c4 ,exp]im5t #cj4--,put #a g4 ( sug> into a porcela9 crucible1 & heat till ! sug> is black4 ,c is left4 ,see ,exp]im5t #e4 ,remove ! ,c ) a /rong solution ( sodium hydrate 7page #bjh74 #da4 ,allotropic ,=ms4--,c>bon is peculi> 9 t x occurs 9 at lea/ ?ree allotropic1 i4e4 diff]5t1 =ms1 all hav+ diff]5t prop]ties4 ,^! are diamond1 graphite1 & amorph\s --n cry/all9e--c>bon4 ,! latt] includes *>coal1 lamp- black1 bone-black1 gas c>bon1 coke1 & m9]al coal4 ,all ^! =ms ( ,c h "o prop]ty 9 common2 !y burn 9 ,o at a high temp]ature1 =m+ ,,co#b4 ,?is proves t ea* is ! elem5t ,c1 ?\gh x is (t5 mix$ ) "s impurities4 ,allotropy1 or allotropism1 is ! quality :i* an elem5t (t5 has ( appe>+ "u v>i\s =ms1 ) diff]5t prop]ties4 ,! =ms ( ,c are a good illu/ration4 #db4 ,diamond is ! pure/ ,c2 b ev5 ?is 9 burn+ leaves a little a%1 %[+ t x is n q pure4 ,x is a r>e m9]al1 f\nd 9 ,india1 ,s\? ,africa1 & ,brazil1 & is ! h>de/ & mo/ highly refractive to light ( all m9]als4 ,boron is h>d]4 ,footnote3 ,b1 n occurr+ free1 is n a m9]al4 ,:5 heat$ 9 ! electric arc1 at v high temp]atures1 diamond swells & turns black4 #dc4 ,graphite1 or ,plumbago1 is ,"o ( ! ,s(te/ ,m9]als4--,x is black & infusible1 & oxidizes only at v high temp]atures1 high] ?an ! diamond4 ,x conta9s f #ie to #ih p] c5t ,c4 ,graphite is f\nd 9 ! olde/ rock =mations1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,sib]ia4 ,x is artificially =m$ 9 ! iron furnace4 ,graphite is employ$ = crucibles :]e great heat is requir$1 = a lubricant1 = mak+ metal ca/+s1 &1 mix$ ) clay1 = lead-p5cils4 ,x is (t5 call$ black-lead4 #dd4 ,amorph\s ,c>bon comprises ! foll[+ v>ieties4 ,*>coal is made by heat+ wood1 = a long "t1 out ( contact ) ! air4 ,! volatile gases are ?us driv5 (f f ! wood2 :at is left is ,c1 & a small quantity ( m9]al matt] :i* rema9s z a% :5 ! coal is burn$4 #de4 ,lamp-black is prep>$ z 9 ,exp]im5t #bf1 or by ignit+ turp5t9e 7,c#a,,oh#af71 naph?a1 & v>i\s oils1 & collect+ ! ,c ( ! smoke4 ,x is us$ = mak+ pr9t]s' ink1 ,india ink1 etc4 ,a v pure v>iety is obta9$ f natural gas4 ,bone-black1 or animal *>coal1 is obta9$ by di/ill+ bones1 i4e4 by heat+ !m 9 retorts into :i* no air is admitt$4 ,! ,c is ! *>r$ residue4 ,gas ,c>bon is =m$ 9 ! retorts ( ! gas-h\se4 ,see page #ahb4 ,x is us$ to "s ext5t 9 electrical "w4 #df4 ,coke is ! residue left aft] di/ill+ s(t coal4 ,x is tol]ably pure c>bon1 ) "s a% & a little volatile matt]4 ,x burns )\t flame4 #dg4 ,m9]al ,coal is fossiliz$ wood or o!r vegetable matt]4 ,millions ( ye>s ago trees & o!r vegetation cov]$ ! e>? z !y d to-day4 ,9 c]ta9 places !y sl[ly sank1 toge!r ) ! l&1 into ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 7 cov]$ ) s&1 rock1 & wat]1 & heat$ f ! e>?'s int]ior4 ,a sl[ di/illation took place1 :i* drove (f "s ( ! gases1 & conv]t$ vegetable matt] into coal4 ,all ! coal dug f ! e>? repres5ts vegetable life ( a =m] p]iod4 ,millions ( ye>s 7 requir$ = ! trans=mation2 b ! same *ange is 9 progress n[1 :]e peat b$s are =m+ f turf4 ,coal is f\nd 9 all c\ntries1 ! l>ge/ b$s be+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,f ! nature ( its =mation1 coal v>ies mu* 9 purity4 ,an?racite1 or h>d coal1 is pure/ 9 c>bon1 "s v>ieties hav+ f #ij to #ie p] c5t4 ,?is repres5ts mo/ complete di/illation 9 ! e>?2 i4e4 ! gases h mo/ly be5 driv5 (f4 ,x is mu* us$ 9 ,new ,engl&4 #dh4 ,bitum9\s1 or s(t coal1 crocks ! h&s1 & burns rapidly ) mu* flame & smoke4 ,! great] "p ( ! coal 9 ! e>? is bitum9\s4 ,x repres5ts incomplete di/illation4 ,h5ce1 by artificially di/ill+ x1 illum9at+ gas is made4 ,see page #ahj4 ,x is f> less pure ,c ?an an?racite4 #di4 ,cannel ,coal is a v>iety ( bitum9\s coal :i* c be ignit$ l a c&le4 ,?is is because s _m ( ! gases are /ill left1 & x %[s cannel to be less pure ,c ?an bitum9\s coal4 #ej4 ,lignite1 ,peat1 ,turf1 etc41 are /ill less pure v>ieties ( ,c4 ,con/ruct a table ( ! naturally occurr+ =ms ( ?is elem5t1 9 ! ord] ( _! purity4 ,c>bon =ms ! basis ( all vegetable & animal life2 x is f\nd 9 _m rocks1 m9]al oils1 asphaltum1 natural gas1 & 9 ! air z ,,co#b4 #ea4 ,c a ,r$uc+ ,ag5t4 ,exp]im5t #ca4--,put into a small ignition-tube a mixture ( #d or #e g4 ( p[d]$ copp] oxide 7,cu,o71 ) half its bulk ( p[d]$ *>coal4 ,heat /rongly = t5 or fifte5 m9utes4 ,exam9e ! cont5ts = metallic copp]4 ,) :i* elem5t ( ,cu,o has ,c unit$8 ,! reaction may be writt53 ,cu#j ,c ,,co ,cu4 ,complete & expla94 ,a ,r$uc+1 or ,deoxidiz+1 ,ag5t is a sub/ance :i* takes away oxyg5 f a comp\nd4 ,c is ! mo/ common & important r$uc+ ag5t1 be+ us$ = ?is purpose 9 smelt+ iron & o!r ores1 mak+ wat]-gas1 etc4 ,an ,oxidiz+ ,ag5t is a sub/ance t gives up its ,o to a r$uc+ ag5t4 ,:at oxidiz+ ag5t 9 ! above exp]im5t8 #eb4 ,c a ,decoloriz]4 ,exp]im5t #cb4--,put #c or #d g4 ( bone-black into a receiv]1 & add #aj or #ae cc4( co*9eal solution4 ,%ake ?is ?or\ghly1 cov]+ ! bottle ) ! h&4 ,!n p\r ! :ole on a filt] pap]1 & exam9e ! filtrate4 ,if all ! color is n remov$1 filt] aga94 ,:at prop]ty ( ,c is %[n by ?is exp]im5t8 ,any o!r color+ solution may be tri$4 ,! decoloriz+ p[] ( *>coal is an important *>act]i/ic4 ,animal *>coal is us$ 9 l>ge quantities = decoloriz+ sug>4 ,! color+ matt] is tak5 out me*anically by ! ,c1 !re be+ no *emical action4 #ec4 ,c a ,dis9fectant4 ,exp]im5t #cc4--,repeat ! previ\s exp]im5t1 add+ a solution ( ,h#b,s#c i4e4 hydrog5 sulphide1 9 wat]1 in/ead ( co*9eal solution4 ,see page #abj4 ,note :e!r ! bad odor is remov$4 ,if n1 repeat4 ,*>coal has ! prop]ty ( absorb+ l>ge quantities ( _m gases4 ,ill-smell+ & noxi\s gases are cond5s$ 9 ! pores ( ! ,c2 ,o is tak5 9 at ! same "t f ! air1 & ^! gases are !re oxidiz$ & r5d]$ odorless & h>mless4 ,= ?is reason *>coal is mu* us$ 9 hospitals & sick-rooms1 z a dis9fectant4 ,?is prop]ty ( cond5s+ ,o1 z well z o!r gases1 is %[n 9 ! exp]im5t bel[4 #ed4 ,c an ,absorb] ( ,gases & a ,reta9] ( ,heat4 ,exp]im5t #cd4--,put a piece ( phosphorus ( ! size ( a pea1 & well dri$1 on a ?ick pap]4 ,cov] x well ) bone-black1 & look = combu/ion aft] a :ile4 ,o has be5 cond5s$ f ! air1 absorb$ by ! ,c1 & ?us communicat$ to ! ,p4 ,burn all ! ,p at la/4 ,,val5ce4 #ee4 ,! ,symbols ,na,cl & ,mg,cl#b diff] 9 two ways4--,:at are !y8 ,let u see :y ! atom ( ,mg unites ) two ,cl atoms1 :ile t ( ,na takes b "o4 ,if ! atoms ( two elem5ts attract ea* o!r1 !re mu/ be ei!r a g5]al attraction all ov] _! surfaces1 or else "s "o or m po9ts ( attraction4 ,suppose ! latt] to be true1 ea* atom mu/ h "o or m poles or bonds ( attraction1 l ! poles ( a magnet4 ,diff]5t elem5ts diff] 9 _! numb] ( bonds4 ,na has "o1 :i* may be writt5 graphically ,na-2 ,cl has "o1 -,cl4 ,:5 ,na unites ) ,cl1 ! bonds ( ea* elem5t balance1 z foll[s3 ,na-,cl4 ,! elem5t ,mg1 h[ev]1 has two su* bonds1 z ,mg or -,mg-4 ,:5 ,mg unites ) ,cl1 9 ord] to balance1 or saturate1 ! bonds1 x is evid5t t two atoms ( ,cl mu/ be us$1 z ,cl-,mg-,cl1 or ,mg,cl#b4 ,a comp\nd or an elem5t1 9 ord] to exi/1 mu/ h no free bonds4 ,9 organic *emi/ry ! exceptions to ?is rule are v num]\s1 &1 9 fact1 we d n "k t atoms h bonds at all2 b we c be/ expla9 ! ph5om5a by suppos+ !m1 & = a g5]al /atem5t we may say t !re mu/ be no free bonds4 ,9 b9>ies ! bonds ( ea* elem5t mu/ balance4 #ef4 ,! ,val5ce1 ,quantival5ce1 ( an ,elem5t is its ,comb9+ ,p[] ,measur$ by ,bonds4--,h1 hav+ ! lea/ numb] ( bonds1 "o1 is tak5 z ! unit4 ,val5ce has always to be tak5 into acc\nt 9 writ+ ! symbol ( a comp\nd4 ,x is (t5 writt5 above & aft] ! elem5ts i4e4 writt5 l an expon5t1 z ,k,i1 ,mg,,ii4 ,an elem5t hav+ a val5ce ( "o is a monad2 ( two1 a dyad2 ?ree1 a triad2 f\r1 tetrad2 five1 p5tad2 six1 hexad1 etc4 ,x is also said to be monoval5t1 di- or bival5t1 etc4 ,?is !ory ( bonds %[s :y an atom _c exi/ alone4 ,x w\ld h free or unus$ bonds1 & h5ce mu/ comb9e ) its fell[ to =m a molecule1 9 case ( an elem5t z well z 9 t ( a comp\nd4 ,?is is illu/rat$ by ^! graphic symbols 9 :i* !re are no free bonds3 ,h-,h1 ,o,o1 ,n#c-;bond symbol,n1 ,c#d-;bond symbol,c4 ,a graphic symbol %[s app>5t molecul> /ructure4 ,aft] all1 h[ d we "k t !re are twice z _m ,cl atoms 9 ! *loride ( magnesium z 9 t ( sodium8 ,! comp\nds h be5 analyz$ ov] & ov] aga91 & h be5 f\nd to correspond to ! symbols ,mg,cl#b & ,na,cl4 ,?is w be bett] und]/ood aft] /udy+ ! *apt] on atomic weights4 ,9 writ+ ! symbol = ! union ( ,h ) ,o1 if we take an atom ( ea*1 ! bonds d n balance1 ,h-,o1 ! =m] hav+ "o2 ! latt]1 two4 ,evid5tly two atoms ( ,h are ne$$1 z ,h-,o-,h1 or ,h ,o 1 or ,h#b,o4 ,9 ! union ( ,zn & ,o1 ea* has two bonds2 ,h h5ce !y unite atom ) atom1 ,zn ,o1 or ,zn,o4 ,write ! grapbic & ! common symbols = ! union ( ,h,i & ,cl,i2 ( ,k,i & ,br,i2 ,ag,i & ,o,,ii2 ,na,i & ,s,,ii2 ,h,i & ,p,,iii4 ,/udy val5ces4 ,x w be se5 t "s elem5ts h a v>iable quantival5ce4 ,sn has ei!r #b or #d2 ,p has #c or #e4 ,x usually v>ies by two = a giv5 elem5t1 z ?\gh a pair ( bonds sometimes saturat$ ea* o!r24 e4g4 ,sn1 a quantival5ce ( #d1 & ,sn1 a quantival5ce ( #b4 ,!re are1 !re=e1 two oxides ( t91 ,sn,o & ,sn,o#b1 or ,sn,o & ,o,sn,o4 ,write symbols = ! two *lorides ( t92 two oxides ( ,p2 two oxides ( ars5ic4 ,! *lorides ( iron are ,fe,cl#b & ,fe#b;,cl#f4 ,9 ! latt]1 x might be suppos$ t ! quantival5ce ( ,fe is #c1 b ! graphic symbol %[s x to be #d4 ,x is call$ a pseudo-triad1 or false triad4 ,cr & ,al are also pseudo-triads4 ,cl ,cl ,cl--,fe--,fe--,cl ,cl ,cl ,write =mulae = two oxides ( iron2 ! oxide ( ,al4 #eg4 ,a ,radical is a ,gr\p ( ,elem5ts :i* has no sep>ate exi/5ce1 b ent]s into comb9ation l a s+le atom2 e4g4 7,,no#c7 9 ! comp\nds ,,hno#c or ,,kno#c2 7,,s#d7 9 ,h#b,,s#d4 ,9 ,,hno#c ! radical has a val5ce ( #a1 to balance t ( ,h1 ,h-,,no#c74 ,9 ,h#b,,s#d1 :at is ! val5ce ( 7,,s#d78 ,give x 9 ea* ( ^! radicals1 not+ fir/ t ( ! fir/ elem5t3 ,k7,,no#c71 ,na#b7,,s#d71 ,na#b7;,,co#c71 ,k7,cl,o#c71 ,h#c7,,po#d71 ,ca#c7,,po#d7b1 ,na#d7,si,o#d74 ,suppose we wi% to "k ! symbol = calcium phosphate4 ,ca & ,,po#d are ! two p>ts4 ,9 ,h#c7,,po#d7 ! radical is a triad1 to balance ,h#c4 ,ca is a dyad1 ,ca7,p#jd74 ,! lea/ common multiple ( ! bonds 7#b & #c7 is #f1 :i*1 divid$ by #b 7no4 ,ca bonds71 gives #c 7no4 ,ca atoms to be tak574 #f _/ #c 7no4 7,,po#d7 bonds7 gives #b 7no4 ,,po#d radicals to be tak574 ,h5ce ! symbol ,ca#c7,p#jd7b4 ,v]ify ?is by writ+ graphically4 ,write symbols = ! union ( ,mg & 7,,s#d71 ,na & 7,,po#d71 ,zn & 7,,no#c71 ,k & 7,,no#c71 ,k & 7,,s#d71 ,mg & 7,,po#d71 ,fe & 7,,s#d7 7bo? val5ces ( ,fe71 ,fe & 7,,no#c71 tak+ ! val5ces ( ! radicals f ,,hno#c1 ,h#b,,s#d1 ,h#c,,po#d4 ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,electro-,,*emical ,,relation ,,( ,,elem5ts4 #eh4 ,exam9e unt>ni%$ pieces ( iron1 silv]1 nickel1 lead1 etc42 also qu>tz1 res91 silk1 wood1 pap]4 ,notice t f ! fir/ f\r light is reflect$ 9 a diff]5t way f t ( ! o!rs4 ,?is prop]ty ( reflect+ light is kn[n z lu/]4 ,metals h a metallic lu/] :i* is peculi> to !mselves2 & ?is1 = ! pres5t1 may be reg>d$ z _! *ief *>act]i/ic4 ,are !y at ! positive or negative end ( ! li/8 ,see page #dc4 ,h[ is x ) ! non-metals8 ,?is arrangem5t has a significance 9 *emi/ry :i* we mu/ n[ exam9e4 ,! ?ree app5d$ exp]im5ts %[ h[ "o metal c be )drawn f solution by a second1 ?is second by a ?ird1 ! ?ird by a f\r?1 & s on4 ,= exp$ition1 ?ree pupils c "w toge!r = ! ?ree foll[+ exp]im5ts1 ea* do+ "o1 & exam9+ ! results ( ! o!rs4 #ei4 ,deposition ( ,silv]4 ,exp]im5t #ce4--,put a t5-c5t ,ag co9 into an evaporat+-di%1 & p\r ov] x a mixture ( #e cc4 ,,hno#c & #aj cc4 ,h#b,o4 ,w>m till all1 or ne>ly all1 ! ,ag dissolves4 ,remove ! lamp4 #c ,ag #d ,,hno#c #c ,ag,n,o#c #b ,h#b,o ,,no4 ,!n add #aj cc4 ,h#b,o1 & at once put 9 a %ort piece ( ,cu wire1 or a c5t4 ,leave till q a deposit appe>s1 !n p\r (f ! liquid1 wa% ! deposit ?or\ghly1 & remove x f ! co94 ,see :e!r ! metal resembles ,ag4 #b ,ag,n,o#c ,cu 8#fj4 ,deposition ( ,copp]4 ,exp]im5t #cf4--;,dissolve a c5t or "s ,cu turn+s 9 dilute ,,hno#c1 z 9 ,exp]im5t #ce1 & dilute ! solution4 #c ,cu #h ,,hn#ji - #c ,cu 7,,noa#d ,h#b,o#b ,,no47 ,!n put 9 a clean /rip ( ,pb1 & set aside z be=e1 exam9+ ! deposit f9ally4 ,cu7,,no#c71 ,pb - 8 #fa4 ,deposition ( ,lead4 ,exp]im5t #cg4--,p]=m ?is exp]im5t 9 ! same mann] z ! two previ\s ones1 dissolv+ a small piece ( ,pb1 & us+ a /rip ( ,zn to precipitate ! ,pb4 #c ,pb #h ,,hno#c - #c ,pb 7,,no#d7b #d ,ha#j #b ,,no4 ,pb 7,,no#c7 #b ,zn 8 h4 #fb4 ,explanation4 -,^! exp]im5ts %[ t ,cu w replace ,ag 9 a solution ( ,ag,n,o#c1 t ,pb w replace & deposit ,cu f a simil> comp\nd1 & t ,zn w deposit ,pb 9 ! same way4 ,!y %[ t ! aff9ity ( ,zn = 7,,no#c7 is /rong] ?an ei!r ,ag1 ,cu1 or ,pb4 ,we4 express ?is aff9ity by say+ t ,zn is ! mo/ positive ( ! f\r metals1 :ile ,ag is ! mo/ nega- tive4 ,cu is positive to ,ag1 b negative to ,pb & ,zn4 ,:i* ( ! f\r elem5ts are positive to ,pb1 & :i* negative8 ,mg w\ld )draw ,zn f a simil> solution1 & be 9 its turn )drawn by ,na4 ,! table on page #dc is f\nd$ on ?is relation4 ,a giv5 elem5t is positive to e elem5t above x 9 ! li/1 & negative to all bel[ x4 ,metals are usually class$ z positive1 non-metals z negative4 ,ea* 9 union ) ,o & #a;,i gives rise to a v important class ( comp\nds1--! negative to acids1 ! positive to bases4 ,9 ! foll[+1 note :e!r ! positive or ! negative elem5t is writt5 fir/3--,h,cl1 ,na#bj1-;,z#b,s#c1 -,mg,br#b1 ,ag#b,s4 ,na#b,,s#d is made up ( two p>ts1 ,na#b be+ positive1 ! radical ,,s#d negative4 ,l elem5ts1 radicals are ei!r positive or negative4 ,9 ! foll[+1 sep>ate ! positive elem5t f ! negative radical by a v]tical l9e3 ,na#b;,,co#c1 ,na,n,o#c1 ,zn,s,o#d1 ,k,cl,o#c4 ,! mo/ common positive radical is ,,nh#d1 ammonium1 z 9 ,,nh#d;,cl4 ,x always deports itself z a metal4 ,! commone/ radical is ! negative ,,oh1 call$ hydroxyl1 f hydrog5- oxyg54 ,take away ,h f ! symbol ( wat]1 ,h-,o-,h1 & hydroxyl --7,,oh7 ) "o free bond is left4 ,if an elem5t takes ! place ( ,h1 i4e4 unites ) ,,oh1 ! comp\nd is call$ a hydrate4 ,,koh is potassium hydrate4 ,"n ,na,o,h1 ,ca7,,oh7#b1 ,,nh#d,,oh1 ,zn7,,oh7#b1 ,al#b7,,oh7#f4 ,is ! fir/ "p ( ea* symbol above positive or negative8 ,h has an int]m$iate place 9 ! li/4 ,x is a con/itu5t ( bo? acids & bases1 & ( ! neutral sub/ance1 wat]4 ,,ord]4 -- ,negative or ,non-,metallic ,elem5ts4 ,acid-=m+ ) ,h7usually ,,oh74 ,oxyg5 ,sulphur ,nitrog5 ,fluor9e ,*lor9e ,brom9e ,iod9e ,phosphorus ,ars5ic ,c>bon ,silicon ,hydrog5 ,positive or ,metallic ,elem5ts4 ,base-=m+ ) ,,oh4 ,gold ,plat9um ,m]cury ,silv] ,copp] ,t9 ,lead ,iron ,z9c ,alum9ium ,magnesium ,calcium ,sodium ,potassium ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,electrolysis4 ,! foll[+ exp]im5t is to be p]=m$ only by ! tea*]1 b pupils %\ld make draw+s & expla94 #fc4 ,decomposition ( ,wat]4 ,exp]im5t #ch4--;,arrange 9 s]ies two or m cells ( a ,buns5 batt]y 7,physics1 page #afd71 ,ref]5ces are made 9 ?is book to ,gage's ,introduction to ,physical ,sci5ce4 & atta* ! t]m9al wires to an electrolytic app>atus 7,fig4 #ai7 fill$ ) wat] made slightly acid ) ,h#b,,s#d4 ,con/ruct a diagram ( ! app>atus1 m>k+ ! ,zn 9 ! liquid 1 s9ce x is positive1 & ! ,c1 or o!r elem5t1 -4 ,m>k ! electrode atta*$ to ! ,zn -1 & t atta*$ to ! ,c 2 positive electricity at "o end ( a body commonly implies negative at ! o!r4 ,opposites attract1 :ile l electricities repel ea* o!r4 ,^! analogies w aid ! memory4 ,at ! electrode is ! - elem5t ( ,h#b,o1 & at ! - electrode ! elem5t4 ,note1 page #dc1 :e!r ,h or ,o is positive ) ref]5ce to ! o!r1 & write ! symbol = ea* at ! prop] electrode4 ,comp>e ! diagram ) ! app>atus1 to v]ify y\r conclusion4 ,:y does gas collect twice z fa/ at "o electrode z at ! o!r8 ,:at does ?is prove ( ! composition ( wat]8 ,:5 fill$1 te/ ! gases 9 ea* tube1 = ,o & ,h1 ) a burn+ /ick4 ,electrical analysis is call$ electrolysis4 ,if a solution ( ,na,cl be electrolyz$1 :i* elem5t w g to ! pole8 ,:i*1 if ! salt 7 ,k#b,,s#d8 ,expla9 ^! reactions 9 ! electrolysis ( t salt4 ,k#b,,s#d ,k#b ,s#jc ,o4 ,,s#d is un/able1 & breaks up into ,,s#c & ,o4 ,bo? ,k & ,,s#c h great aff9ity = wat]4 ,k#b #b ,h#b,o #b ,,koh ,h#b4 ,s#jc ,h#b,o ,h#b,,s#d4 ,! base ,,koh w\ld be f\nd at ! - electrode1 & ! acid ,h#b,,s#d at ! electrode4 ,! positive portion1 ,k1 unit+ ) ,h#b,o =ms a base2 ! negative "p1 ,s#jc1 ) ,h#b,o =ms an acid4 ,( :at does ?is %[ a salt to be compos$8 #fd4 ,conclusions4--,^! exp]im5ts %[ 7#a7 t at ! electrode !re always appe>s ! negative elem5t1 or radical1 ( ! comp\nd1 & at ! - electrode ! positive elem5t2 7#b7 t ^! elem5ts unite ) ^? ( wat]1 to make1 9 ! =m] case1 acids1 9 ! latt]1 bases2 7#c7 t acids & bases diff] z negative & positive elem5ts diff]1 ea* be+ unit$ ) ,o & ,h1 & yet produc+ comp\nds ( a directly opposite "*2 7#d7 t salts are really comp\nd$ ( acids & bases4 ,?is expla9s :y salts are usually inactive & neutral 9 "*1 :ile acids & bases are active ag5ts4 ,?us we see :y ! mo/ positive or ! mo/ negative elem5ts 9 g5]al h ! /ronge/ aff9ities1 :ile ^? int]m$iate 9 ! li/ are inactive1 & h weak aff9ities2 :y alloys ( ! metals are weak comp\nds2 :y a neutral sub/ance1 l wat]1 has su* a weak aff9ity = ! salts :i* x holds 9 solution2 & :y an aque\s solution is reg>d$ z a me*anical mixture r ?an a *emical comp\nd4 ,9 ?is view1 ! division l9e betwe5 *emi/ry & physics is n a di/9ct "o4 ,^! w be bett] und]/ood aft] /udy+ ! *apt]s on acids1 bases & salts4 ,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,union ,,by ,,volume4 #ff4 ,avogadro's ,law ( ,gases4--,equal volumes ( all gases1 ! temp]ature & pressure be+ ! same1 h ! same numb] ( molecules4 ,?is law is ! f\ndation ( mod]n *emi/ry4 ,a cubic c5timet] ( ,o has z _m molecules z a cubic c5timet] ( ,h1 a lit] ( ,n ! same numb] z a lit] ( /eam1 "u simil> conditions4 ,comp>e ! numb] ( molecules 9 #e l4 ( ,n#b,o ) t 9 #aj l4 ,cl4 #g cc4 vapor ( ,i to #f cc4 vapor ( ,s4 ,! half-molecules ( two gases h1 ( c\rse1 ! same relation to ea* o!r1 & 9 elem5ts ! half-molecule is usually ! atom4 ,! molecul> volumes--molecules & ! surr\nd+ space--( all gases mu/ !re=e be equal1 z mu/ ! half-volumes4 ,notice t ?is law applies only to gases1 n to liquids or solids4 ,let u apply x to ! exp]im5t = ! electrolysis ( wat]4 ,9 ?is we f\nd twice z mu* ,h by volume z ,o4 ,evid5tly1 !n1 /eam has twice z _m molecules ( ,h z ( ,o1 & twice z _m half-molecules1 or atoms4 ,if ! molecule has "o atom ( ,o1 x mu/ h two ( ,h1 & ! =mula w be ,h#b,o4 ,suppose we rev]se ! process & syn!size /eam1 :i* c be done by pass+ an electric sp>k ?r\gh a mixture ( ,h & ,o 9 a eudiomet] ov] m]cury2 we %\ld ne$ to take twice z mu* ,h z ,o4 ,n[ :5 #b cc4 ( ,h comb9e ?us ) #a cc4 ( ,o1 only #b cc4( /eam are produc$4 ,?ree volumes are cond5s$ into two volumes1 & ( c\rse ?ree molecul> volumes into two1 ?ree atomic volumes into two4 ,?is may be writt5 z foll[s3-- ,h ,h ,o ,h#b,o4 ,?is is a cond5sation ( "o-?ird4 ,if #b l4 ( *lorhydric acid gas be analyz$1 !re w result #a l4 ( ,h & #a l4 ( ,cl4 ,! same relation exi/s betwe5 ! molecules & ! atoms1 & ! reaction is3-- ,h,cl ,h ,cl4 ,rev]se ! process1 & #a l4 ( ,h unites ) #a l4 ( ,cl to produce #b l4 ( ! acid gas2 !re is no cond5sation1 & ! symbol is ,h,cl4 ,9 sev5 volumes ,h,cl h[ _m ( ea* con/itu5t8 ,! comb9ation ( two volumes ( ,h ) "o volume ( ,s is f\nd to produce two volumes ( hydrog5 sulphide4 ,!re=e two atoms ( ,h comb9e ) "o ( ,s to =m a molecule ^: symbol is ,h#b,s4 ,h ,h ,s ,h#b,s4 ,:at is ! cond5sation 9 ?is case8 ,,problems4 7#a7 ,h[ _m lit]s ( ,s w x take to unite ) #d l4 ( ,h8 ,h[ mu* ,h#b,s w be =m$8 7#b7 ,h[ _m lit]s ( ,h w x take to comb9e ) #e l4 ( ,s8 ,h[ mu* ,h#b,s results8 7#c7 ,9 #f l4 ,h#b,s h[ _m lit]s ,h1 & h[ mu* ,s8 ,prove4 7#d7 ,9 f\r volumes ,h#b,s h[ _m volumes ( ea* con/itu5t8 7#e7 ,if ?ree volumes ( ,h be mix$ ) two volumes ( ,s1 s z to make ,h#b,s1 h[ mu* w be =m$8 ,h[ mu* ( ei!r elem5t w be left8 ,an analysis ( #b cc4 ( ammonia gives #a cc4 ,n & #c cc4 ,h4 ,! symbol mu/ !n be ,,nh#c1 ! reaction1-- ,,nh#c ,n ,h ,h ,h4 ,:at cond5sation 9 ! syn!sis ( ,,nh#c8 ,9 #ab cc4 ,,nh#c h[ _m cubic c5timet]s ( ea* elem5t8 ,9 #b #a_/b cc8 ,h[ mu* ,h by volume is requir$ to comb9e ) n9e volumes ( ,n8 ,h[ _m volumes ( ,,nh#c are produc$8 ,9 elem5ts t h n be5 weigh$ 9 ! gase\s /ate1 z ,c1 ! evid5ce ( atomic volume is n direct1 b we w assume x4 ,?us two volumes ( m>% gas w\ld sep>ate into "o ( ,c & f\r ( ,h4 ,:at is its symbol & suppos$ cond5sation8 ,two volumes ( alcohol vapor resolve into two ( ,c1 six ( ,h1 & "o ( ,o4 ,:at is its symbol8 its cond5sation8 ,! symbol itself ( a comp\nd w usually %[ :at its cond5sation is2 e4g4 ,h,cl1 ,h,br1 ,,hf1 etc41 h two atoms2 h5ce !re w be no %r9kage4 ,9 ,h#b,o1 ,,s#b1 ,,co#b1 ! molecule has ?ree atoms cond5s$ into ! space ( two1 or "o-?ird %r9kage4 ,9 ,,nh#c f\r volumes are cr[d$ into ! space ( two1 a cond5sation ( "o-half4 ,p1 ,z1 ,hg1 ,zn1 h exceptional atomic volumes4 ,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,acids ,,& ,,bases4 #ff4 ,:at ,acids ,are4 ,exp]im5t #ci4--,p\r a few drops ( *lorhydric acid1 ,h,cl1 into a clean evaporat+-di%4 ,add #e cc4 ,h#b,o1 & /ir4 ,t\* a drop to ! tongue1 not+ ! ta/e4 ,dip into x ! end ( a piece ( blue litmus pap]1 & record ! result4 ,?or\ghly wa% ! di%1 !n p\r 9 a few drops ( nitric acid1 ,,hno#c1 & #e cc4 ,h#b,o1 & /ir4 ,ta/e1 & te/ ) blue litmus4 ,te/ 9 ! same way sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d4 ,"n two *>act]i/ics ( an acid4 ,9 a v]tical l9e write ! =mulae ( ! acids above4 ,:at elem5t is common to !m all8 ,is ! re/ ( ! =mula positive or negative8 #fg4 ,an ,acid is a sub/ance compos$ ( ,h & a negative elem5t or radical4 ,x has usually a s\r ta/e1 & turns blue litmus r$4 ,litmus is a vegetable extract obta9$ f li*5s 9 ,s\!rn ,europe4 ,acids h ! same action on _m o!r vegetable pigm5ts4 ,are ! foll[+ acid =mulae1 & :y8 ,h#b,,s#c1 ,h,br1 ,,hno#b1 ,h#c,,po#c1 ,h#d,si,o#d4 ,mo/ acids h ,o z well z ,h4 ,complete ! symbols = acids 9 ! foll[+ li/1 & "n !m1 f ! type giv53-- ,h,cl1 *lorhydric acid4 ,,hn#jc1 nitric acid4 8,br1 8 8,cl8 8 8,i1 8 8,br8 8 8,f1 8 8,i8 8 ,h#c,,po#d1 phosphoric acid4 ,h#c,,po#c1 phosphor\s acid4 8,z8 8 8,z8 8 ,complete ^! equations3-- ,h#b,,s#c - ,h#b,o 8 #b ,,hn#jc - ,h#b,o 8 ,h#b,,s#d - ,h#b,o 8 #b ,,hno#b - ,h#b,o 8 ,h#b;,,co#c - ,h#b,o 8 #b ,h#c;,as,o#d - #c ,h#b,o 8 ,are ! products 9 ea* case metallic or non-metallic oxides8 ,!y are call$ anhydrides4 ,notice t ea* is =m$ by ! )drawal ( wat] f an acid4 ,rev]se ! equations2 z1 ,,s#c ,h#b,o 8 #fh4 ,an ,anhydride is :at rema9s aft] wat] has be5 remov$ f an acid2 or1 x is ! oxide ( a non- metallic elem5t1 :i*1 unit$ ) wat]1 =ms an acid4 ,,s#b is sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b sulphuric anhydride1 ! end+ ic mean+ m ,o1 or negative elem5t1 ?an ous4 ,"n ! o!rs above4 ,anhydrides 7 =m]ly call$ acids1--anhydr\s acids1 9 di/9ction f hydrat$ ones1 z ,,co#b ev5 n[ is (t5 call$ c>bonic acid4 ,exp]im5t #dj4--;,hold a piece ( wet blue litmus pap] 9 ! fumes ( ,,s#b1 & note ! acid te/4 ,try ! same ) dry litmus pap]4 ,exp]im5t #da4--;,burn a little ,s 9 a receiv] ( air conta9+ #aj cc4 ,h#b,o1 & loosely cov]$1 z 9 ! ,o exp]im5t4 ,!n %ake to dissolve ! ,,s#b4 ,h#b,o ,,s#b ,h#b,,s#c4 ,apply te/ pap]4 #fi4 ,nam+ ,acids4--,comp>e =mulae ,h#b,,s#c & ,h#b,,s#d4 ,( two acids hav+ ! same elem5ts1 ! "n ( ! "o ) lea/ ,o1 or negative elem5t1 ends 9 ous1 ! o!r 9 ic4 ,h#b,,s#c is sulphur\s acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 sulphuric acid4 ,"n ,h#c,,po#d & ,h#c,,po#c2 ,h#c;,as,o#c & ,h#c;,,aso#d2 ,,hno#b & ,,hno#c4 ,if !re are m ?an two acids 9 a s]ies1 ! prefixes hypo1 less1 & p]1 m1 are us$4 ,! foll[+ is su* a s]ies3 ,h,cl,o1 ,h,cl,o#b1 ,h,cl,o#c1 ,h,cl,o#d4 ,h,cl,o#c is *loric acid2 ,h,cl,o#b1 *lor\s2 ,h,cl,o1 hypo*lor\s2 ,h,cl,o#d p]*loric4 ,hypo means less ( ! negative elem5t ?an ous2 p] means m ( ! negative elem5t ?an ic4 ,"n3 ,h#c,,po#d 7ic71 ,h#c,,po#c1 ,h#c,,po#b4 ,also ,h,br,o 7,h,br,o#b does n exi/71 ,h,br,o#c 7ic71 ,h,br,o#d4 ,:at are ! ?ree mo/ negative elem5ts8 ,note _! occurr5ce 9 ! ?ree /ronge/ & mo/ common acids4 ,h]eaft] note ! names & symbols ( all ! acids y see4 #gj4 ,:at ,bases ,are4 ,exp]im5t #db4--,put a few drops ( ,,nh#d,,oh into an evaporat+- di%4 ,add #e cc4 ,h#b,o1 & /ir4 ,ta/e a drop4 ,dip into x a piece ( r$ litmus pap]1 not+ ! effect4 ,cleanse ! di%1 & treat 9 ! same way a few drops ,na,o,h solution1 record+ ! result4 ,d ! same ) ,,koh4 ,acid /a9s on ! clo?+1 ) ! exception ( ^? made by ,,hno#c1 maybe remov$ by ,,nh#d,,oh4 ,h#b,,s#d1 h[ev]1 rapidly de/roys ! fib] ( ! clo?4 ,"n two *>act]i/ics ( a base4 ,9 ! =mulae ( ^? bases1 :at two common elem5ts8 ,"n ! radical4 ,comp>e ^? symbols ) ! symbol = wat]1 ,,hoh4 ,is 7,,oh7 positive or negative8 ,is ! o!r "p ( ea* =mula positive or negative8 ,:at are two con/itu5ts1 !n1 ( a base8 ,bases are call$ hydrates4 ,write 9 a v]tical l9e five positive elem5ts4 ,note ! val5ce ( ea*1 & complete ! =mula = its base4 ,affix ! names4 ,c y see any reason :y ! ?ree bases above giv5 are ! /ronge/8 ,tak+ ! val5ces ( ,cr & ,fe1 write symbols = two sets ( hydrates1 & "n !m4 ,try to recognize & "n e base h]eaft] met )4 ,a ,base is a sub/ance :i* is compos$ ( a metal1 or positive radical1 & ,,oh4 ,x g5]ally turns r$ litmus blue1 & (t5 has an acrid ta/e4 ,an ,alkali is a base :i* is readily soluble 9 wat]4 ,! ?ree pr9cipal alkalies are ,,nh#d,,oh1 ,,koh1 & ,na,o,h4 ,alkali ,metals are ^? :i* =m alkalies4 ,"n ?ree4 ,an ,alkal9e ,reaction is ! turn+ ( r$ litmus blue4 ,an ,acid ,reaction is ! turn+ ( blue litmus r$4 ,exp]im5t #dc4--,p\r #e cc4 ( a solution ( litmus 9 wat]1 into a clean t4t4 or small beak]4 ,p\r #b or #c cc4 ( ,h,cl into an evaporat+-di%1 & ! same quantity ( ,,nh#d,,oh into ano!r di%4 ,take a drop ( ! ,h,cl on a /irr+-rod & /ir ! litmus solution ) x4 ,note ! acid reaction4 ,clean ! rod1 & ) x take a drop 7or m if necess>y7 ( ,,nh#d,,oh1 & add ?is to ! r$ litmus solution1 not+ ! alkal9e reaction4 ,exp]im5t 9 ! same way ) ! two o!r pr9cipal acids & ! two o!r alkalies4 ,litmus pap] is commonly us$ to te/ ^! reactions1 & h]eaft] :5ev] ! t]m ,,litmus is employ$ 9 t s5se1 ! te/-pap] %\ld be und]/ood4 ,?is pap] c be prep>$ by dipp+ unglaz$ pap] into a /rong aque\s solution ( litmus4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,salts4 #ga4 ,acids & ,bases are usually ,opposite 9 ,"*4--,:5 two =ces act 9 opposition !y t5d to neutralize ea* o!r4 ,we may see an analogy to ?is 9 ! union ( ! two opposite classes ( comp\nds1 acids & bases1 to =m salts4 #gb4 ,neutralization4 ,exp]im5t #dd4--,put into an evaporat+-di% #e cc4 ( ,na,o,h solution4 ,add ,h,cl to ?is f a t4t41 a few drops at a "t1 /irr+ ! mixture ) a glass rod 7,fig4 #bj71 & te/+ x ) litmus pap]1 until ! liquid is neutral1 i4e4 w n turn ! te/ pap] f blue to r$1 or r$ to blue4 ,te/ ) bo? colors4 ,if x turns blue to r$1 too mu* acid has be5 add$2 if r$ to blue1 too mu* base4 ,:5 x is v ne>ly neutral1 add ! reag5t1 ,h,cl or ,na,o,h1 a drop at a "t ) ! /irr+-rod4 ,x mu/ be absolutely neutral to bo? colors4 ,evaporate ! wat] by heat+ ! di% ov] asbe/us pap]1 wire gauze1 or s&1 9 an iron plate 7,fig4 #ba7 till ! residue becomes dry & :ite4 ,cool ! residue1 ta/e1 & "n x4 ,! equation is3 ,h,cl ,na,o,h ,na,cl ,,hoh or ,h#b,o4 ,note :i* elem5ts1 positive or negative1 *ange places4 ,:y 0 ! liquid boil$8 ,! residue is a type ( a l>ge class ( comp\nds1 call$ salts4 7,fig4 #bj7 7,fig4 #ba7 ,exp]im5t #de4 -- ,exp]im5t 9 ! same way ) ,,koh solution & ,h#b,,s#d1 apply+ ! same te/s4 ,h#b,,s#d #b ,,koh ,k#b,,s#d #b ,,hoh4 ,:at is ! solid product8 ,exp]im5t #df4--,neutralize ,,nh#d,,oh ) ,,hno#c1 evaporate1 apply ! te/s1 & write ! equation4 ,write equations = ! comb9ation ( ,na,o,h & ,h#b,,s#d2 ,na,o,h & ,,hno#c2 ,,koh & ,h,cl2 ,,koh & ,,hno#c2 ,,nh#d,,oh & ,h,cl2 ,,nh#d,,oh & ,h#b,,s#d4 ,describe ! exp]im5t repres5t$ by ea* equation1 & be sure y c p]=m x if ask$ to d s4 ,:at is ! usual action ( a salt on litmus8 ,h[ is a salt made8 ,:at else is =m$ at ! same "t8 ,h all salts a sal9e ta/e8 ,does e salt conta9 a positive elem5t or radical8 ,a negative8 #gc4 ,a ,salt is ! product ( ! union ( a positive & a negative elem5t or radical2 x may be made by mix+ a base & an acid4 ,! salt ,,ki repres5ts :at acid8 ,:at base1 or hydrate8 ,write ! equation = mak+ ,,ki f its acid & base4 ,describe ! exp]im5t 9 full4 ,classify1 z to acids1 bases1 or salts3 ,k,br1 ,fe7,,oh7#b1 ,,hi1 ,na,br1 ,,hno#b1 ,al#b7,,oh7#f1 ,k,cl,o#c1 ,h,cl,o#c1 ,h#b,s1 ,k#b,s1 ,h#b,s#jc1 ,k#b,,s#d1 ,ca7,,oh7#b1 ,ca,c,o#c1 ,na,br#jc1 ,ca,s,o#d1 ,h#b;,,co#c1 ,k#b;,,co#c1 ,cu7,,oh7#b1 ,cu7,,no#c7b1 ,pb,s,o#d1 ,h#c,p#jd1 ,na#b,p#jd4 ,9 ! ,,salts above1 draw a light v]tical l9e1 sep>at+ ! positive f ! negative "p ( ! symbol4 ,n[ /ate :at acid ea* repres5ts4 ,:at base4 ,write ! reaction 9 ! prep>ation ( ea* salt above f its acid & base2 !n /ate ! exp]im5t = produc+ x4 #gd4 ,nam+ ,salts4--7,,no#c7 is ! nitrate radical2 ,,kno#c is potassium nitrate4 ,f :at acid8 7,,no#b7 is ! nitrite radical2 ,,kn#jb is potassium nitrite4 ,f :at acid8 ,note t ! end+s ( ! acids are ,,ous & ,,ic2 also t ! names ( _! salts end 9 ,,ite & ,,ate4 ,f :i* acid--,,ic or ,,ous--is ! salt end+ 9 ,,ate d]iv$8 ,t end+ 9 ,,ite8 ,"n ^! salts1 ! acids f :i* !y are d]iv$1 & ! end+s ( bo? acids & salts3 ,na,n,o#c1 ,na,n,o#b1 ,k#b,,s#d1 ,k#b,,s#c1 ,ca,s,o#d1 ,ca,s,o#c1 ,k,cl,o#c1 ,k,cl,o#b1 ,k,cl,o1 ,k,cl,o#d 7use prefixes ,,hypo & ,,p]1 z ) acids71 ,ca#c7,,po#d7b1 ,ca#c7,p#jc7b1 ,cu,s,o#d1 ,cu,s,o#c1 ,ag,n,o#c1 ,cu7,,no#c7b4 ,fe,s1 ,fe,s#b1 are respectively ,,f]r\s ,,sulphide & ,,f]ric ,,sulphide4 ,"n3 ,hg,cl1 ,hg,cl#b1 ,fe,cl#b1 ,fe#b;,cl#f1 ,fe,s,o#d1 ,fe#b7,,s#d7c4ge4 ,acid ,salts4--,write symbols = nitric1 sulphuric1 phosphoric acids4 ,h[ _m ,h atoms 9 ea*8 ,replace all ! ,h 9 ! symbol ( ea* ) ,na1 & "n ! products4 ,aga91 9 sulphuric acid replace "o atom ( ,h ) ,na2 !n 9 phosphoric replace fir/ "o1 !n two1 & f9ally ?ree ,h atoms ) ,na4 ,h,na,s,o#d is hydrog5 sodium sulphate2 ,h,na#b,p#jd is hydrog5 di-sodium phosphate4 ,"n ! o!r salts symboliz$4 ,"n ,h,na,n,h#d,p#jd4 ,?\gh ^! products are all salts1 "s conta9 replaceable ,h1 & are call$ acid salts4 ,^? :i* h all ! ,h replac$ by a metal are normal salts4 ,"n & classify1 z to normal or acid salts3 ,na#b;,,co#c1 ,h,na,c,o#c1 ,k#b,,s#d1 ,,hkso#d1 7,,nh#d7b,,s#d1 ,,hnh#d,,s#d1 ,na#c,p#jd1 ,h,na#b,p#jd1 ,h#b,na,p#jd4 ,! ,,basicity ( an acid is det]m9$ by ! numb] ( replaceable ,h atoms 9 its molecule4 ,x is call$ ,,monobasic if x has "o2 ,,dibasic if two2 ,,tri- if ?ree1 etc4 ,note ! basicity ( ea* acid nam$ above4 ,h[ _m possible salts ( ,h#b,,s#d ) ,na8 ,( ,h#c,p#jd ) ,na8 ,:i* are normal & :i* acid8 ,:at is ! basicity ( ,h#d,si#jd8 ,"s normal1 z well z acid1 salts *ange litmus4 ,na#b;,,co#c1 repres5t+ a /rong base & a weak acid1 turns x blue4 ,!re are o!r modes ( obta9+ salts1 b ?is is ! only "o :i* we sball consid]4 #gf4 ,salts ,occur ,abundantly 9 ,nature1 su* z ,na,cl1 ,mg,s,o#d1 ,ca,c,o#c4 ,acids & bases are f\nd 9 small quantities only4 ,:y is ?is8 ,:y are !re n spr+s ( ,h#b,,s#d & ,,nh#d,,oh8 ,we h se5 t acids & bases are extremely active1 h opposite *>act]s1 & comb9e to =m relatively inactive salts4 ,if !y exi/$ 9 ! free /ate1 !y w\ld soon comb9e by reason ( _! /rong aff9ities4 ,?is is :at 9 all ages ( ! _w has tak5 place1 & ?is is :y salts are common1 acids & bases r>e4 ,active ag5ts r>ely exi/ 9 ! free /ate 9 l>ge quantities4 ,oxyg5 seems to be an exception1 b ?is is because !re is a sup]abundance ( x4 ,:ile va/ quantities are lock$ up 9 comp\nds 9 rocks1 wat]1 & salts ( ! e>?1 mu* rema9s ) :i* !re is no?+ to comb9e4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,*lorhydric ,,acid4 #gg4 ,we h se5 t salts are made by ! union ( acids & bases4 ,c ^! la/ be obta9$ f salts8 #gh4 ,prep>ation ( ,h,cl4 ,exp]im5t #dg4--;,into a flask put #aj g4 co>se ,na,cl1 & add #bj cc4 ,h#b,,s#d4 ,connect ) ,w\lff bottles ,w\lff bottles may be made by fitt+ to wide-m\!d bottles corks ) ?ree holes1 ?r\gh :i* pass two deliv]y tubes1 & a c5tral safety tube dipp+ into ! liquid1 z 9 ,figures #bb & #bc4 p>tly fill$ ) wat]1 z 9 ,figure #bb4 ,"o bottle is en\gh to collect ! ,h,cl2 b 9 t case x is less pure1 s9ce "s ,h#b,,s#d & o!r impurities are c>ri$ ov]4 ,sev]al may be connect$1 z 9 ,figure #bc4 ,! wat] 9 ! fir/ bottle mu/ be ne>ly saturat$ be=e mu* gas w pass into ! second4 ,heat ! mixture #ae or #bj m9utes1 n v /rongly1 to prev5t too mu* foam+4 ,notice any curr5t 9 ! fir/ bottle4 ,na,cl ,h#b,,s#d ,h,na,s,o#d ,h,cl4 ,int5se heat w\ld h giv53 #b,na,cl ,h#b,,s#d ,na#b,,s#d #b;,h,cl4 ,comp>e ^! equations ) ^? = ,,hno#c4 ,9 :i* equation above is ,h#b,,s#d us$ mo/ economically8 ,bo? reactions take place :5 ,h,cl is made on ! l>ge scale4 7,fig4 #bb7 #gi4 ,te/s4 ,exp]im5t #dh4--7a7 ,te/ ) litmus ! liquid 9 ea* ,w\lffbottle4 7#b7 ,put a piece ( ,zn into a t4t4 & cov] x ) liquid f ! fir/ bottle4 ,write ! reaction1 & te/ ! gas4 7#c7 ,to #b cc4solution ,ag,n,o#c 9 a t4t4 add #b cc4( ! acid4 ,describe1 & write ! reaction4 ,is ,ag,cl soluble 9 wat]8 7#d7 ,into a t4t4 p\r #e cc4,pb7,,no#c7b solution1 & add ! same am\nt ( prep>$ acid4 ,give ! description & ! reaction4 7#e7 ,9 ! same way te/ ! acid ) ,hg#b7,,no#c7b solution1 giv+ ! reaction4 7#f7 ,drake a little ,h,cl 9 a t4t41 & br+ ! gas escap+ f ! d4t4 9 contact ) a burn+ /ick4 ,does x support ! combu/ion ( ,c8 7#g7 ,hold a piece ( dry litmus pap] aga9/ x4 figure #bc 7#h7 ,hold x ov] #b cc4( ,,nh#d,,oh 9 an evaporat+-di%4 ,describe1 "n ! product1 & write ! reaction4 7#c71 7#d71 7#e71 7#h71 are *>act]i/ic te/s = ?is acid4 #hj4 ,*lorhydric1 ,hydro*loric or ,muriatic1 ,acid is a ,gas4--,z us$1 x is dissolv$1 9 wat]1 = :i* x has great aff9ity4 ,wat] w hold1 accord+ to temp]ature1 f #djj to #ejj times its volume ( ,h,cl4 ,hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( tons ( ! acid are annually made1 mo/ly 9 ,europe1 z a bye-product 9 ,na#b;,,co#c manufacture4 ,! gas is pass$ into t[]s ?r\gh :i* a spray ( wat] falls2 ?is absorbs x4 ,! yell[ color 9 mo/ comm]cial ,h,cl indicates impurities1 "s ( :i* are ,fe1 ,s1 ,z1 & organic matt]4 ,z1 ,s1 etc41 come f ! pyrites us$ 9 mak+ ,h#b,,s#d4 ,*emically pure 7,c4,p47 acid is fre$ f ^!1 & is )\t color4 ,! gas may be dri$ by pass+ x ?r\gh a glass tube hold+ ,ca,cl#b 7,fig4 #af7 & collect+ x ov] m]cury4 ,! muriatic acid ( comm]ce consi/s ( ab\t two- ?irds wat] by weight4 ,h,cl c also be made by direct union ( its con/itu5ts4#ha4 ,uses4--,h,cl is us$ to make ,cl1 & also blea*+- p[d]4 ,its use z a reag5t 9 ! laboratory is illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ exp]im5t3-- ,exp]im5t #di4--,put into a t4t4 #b cc4 ,ag,n,o#c solution1 add #e cc4 ,h#b,o1 !n add sl[ly ,h,cl s long z a ppt4 7precipitate7 is =m$4 ,?is ppt4 is ,ag,cl4 ,n[ 9 ano!r t4t4 put #b cc4 ,cu7,,no#c7b1 solution1 add #e cc4 ,h#b,o1 !n a little ,h,cl4 ,no ppt4 is =m$4 ,n[ if a solution ( ,ag,n,o#c & a solution ( ,cu7,,no#c7b 7 mix$1 & ,h,cl add$1 x is evid5t t ! silv] w\ld be precipitat$ z *loride ( silv]1 :ile ! copp] w\ld rema9 9 solution4 ,if n[ ?is be filt]$1 ! silv] w rema9 on ! filt] pap]1 :ile 9 ! filtrate w be ! copp]4 ,?us we %all h p]=m$ an analysis1 or sep>at$ "o metal f ano!r4 ,p]=m x4 ,note1 h[ev]1 t any soluble *loride1 z ,na,cl1 w\ld produce ! same result z ,h,cl4 ,,bromhydric ,,& ,,iodihydric ,,acids4 #hb4 ,na,cl1 be+ ! mo/ abundant comp\nd ( ,cl1 is ! s\rce ( comm]cial ,h,cl4 ,k,cl treat$ 9 ! same way w\ld give a l product4 ,!oretically ,h,br & ,,hi might be made 9 ! same way f ,na,br & ,na,i1 b ! aff9ity ( ,h = ,br & ,i is weak1 & ! acids sep>ate into _! elem5ts1 :5 ?us prep>$4 #hc4 ,to make ,,hi4 ,exp]im5t #ej4--;,drop into a t4t4 ?ree or f\r cry/als ( ,i1 & add #aj cc4 ,h#b,o4 ,hold 9 ! wat] ! end ( a d4t4 f :i* ,h#b,s gas is escap+4 ,obs]ve any deposit1 & write ! reaction4 ,,fluorhydric ,,acid4 #hd4 ,prep>ation & ,action4 ,exp]im5t #ea4--,put #c or #d g4 p[d]$ ,ca,f#b1 i4e4 fluor sp> or fluorite1 into a %all[ lead tray1 e4g4 #dx#e cm1 & p\r ov] x #d or #e cc4 ,h#b,,s#d4 ,a piece ( glass l>ge en\gh to cov] ?is %\ld previ\sly be w>m$ & cov]$ on "o side ) a v ?9 coat ( beeswax4 ,to di/ribute itev5ly1 w>m ! o!r side ( ! glass ov] a flame4 ,:5 cool1 scrat* a design 7,fig4 #bd7 ?r\gh ! wax ) a %>p metallic po9t4 ,lay ! glass1 film side d[n1 ov] ! lead tray4 ,w>m ?is five m9utes or m by plac+ x high ov] a small flame 7,fig4 #be7 to avoid melt+ ! wax4 ,d n inhale ! fumes4 ,take away ! lamp1 & leave ! tray & glass :]e x is n cold1 = half an h\r or m4 ,!n remove ! wax & clean ! glass ) naph?a or b5z9e4 ,look = ! et*+4 ,two ?+s %\ld h occurr$3 7#a7 ! g5]ation ( ,,hf4 ,write ! equation = x4 7#b7 ,its et*+ action on glass4 ,9 ?is la/ process ,,hf acts on ,si,o#b ( ! glass1 =m+ ,h#b,o & ,si,f#d4 ,:y _c ,,hf be kept 9 glass bottles8 ,a dilute solution ( ,,hf1 :i* is a gas1 may be kept 9 gutta p]*a bottles1 ! anhydr\s acid 9 plat9um only2 b = ! mo/ "p1 x is us$ z soon z made1 its *ief use be+ to et* designs on glass-w>e4 ,glass is also (t5 et*$ by a bla/ ( s& 7,si,o#b74 ,notice ! abs5ce ( ,o 9 ! acids ,,hf1 ,,hci1 ,h,br1 ,,hi1 & t ea* is a gas4 ,,hf is ! only acid t w dissolve or act appreciably on glass4 ,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,nitric ,,acid4 #he4 ,prep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #eb4--,to #aj g4 ,,kno#c or ,na,n,o#c1 9 a flask1 add #ae cc4 ,h#b,,s#d4 ,securely fa/5 ! cork ( ! d4t41 z ,,hno#c is likely to loos5 x1 & pass ! o!r end to ! bottom ( a t4t4 held deep 9 a bottle ( wat] 7,fig4 #bf74 ,apply heat1 & collect #d or #e cc4( ! liquid4 ,! usual reaction is3 ,,kno#c ,h#b,,s#d ,,hkso#d ,,hno#c4 ,) great] heat1 #b ,,kno#c ,h#b,,s#d ,k#b,,s#d #b;,,hno#c4 ,:i* is mo/ economical ( ,,kno#c8 ,( ,h#b,,s#d8 ,in/ead ( a flask1 a t4t4 may be us$ if desir$ 7,fig4 #bg74 #hf4 ,prop]ties & ,te/s4 ,exp]im5t #ec4--7a7 ,note ! color ( ! prep>$ liquid4 7#b7 ,put a drop on ! f+]2 !n wa% x (f at once4 7#c7 ,dip a quill or piece ( :ite silk into x2 !n wa% (f ! acid4 ,:at color is imp>t$ to animal sub/ances8 7#d7 ,add a little to a few bits ( ,cu turn+s1 or to a ,cu co94 ,write ! equation4 7#e7 ,to #b cc4indigo solution1 add #b cc4 ,,hno#c4 ,/ate ! lead+ prop]ties ( ,,hno#c1 f ^! te/s4 #hg4 ,*emically ,pure ,,hno#c is a ,colorless ,liquid4-- ,! yell[ color ( t prep>$ 9 ,exp]im5t #eb is due to liquid ,,no#b dissolv$ 9 x4 ,x is !n call$ fum+ ,,hno#c1 & is v /rong4 ,,no#b is =m$ at a high temp]ature4 ,comm]cial or ord9>y ,,hno#c1 is made f ,na,n,o#c1 ?is be+ *eap] ?an ,,kno#c2 x is ab\t half wat]4 #hh4 ,uses4 ,,hno#c is ! basis ( _m nitrates1 z ,ag,n,o#c1 us$ = photography1 ,ba7,,no#c7b & ,sr7,,no#c7b = fire-works1 & o!rs = dye+ & pr9t+ calico2 x is employ$ 9 mak+ aqua regia1 sulphuric acid1 nitro-glyc]9e1 gun-cotton1 anil9e colors1 zylonite1 etc4 ,en\gh exp]im5ts h be5 p]=m$ to answ] ! "q :e!r "s acids c be prep>$ f _! salts4 ,h#b,,s#d is n s made1 because no acid is /rong en\gh to act on its salts4 ,9 mak+ ,h,cl1 ,,hno#c1 etc41 sulphuric acid 0 us$1 be+ ! /ronge/4 ,,aqua ,,regia4 #hi4 ,prep>ation & ,action4 ,exp]im5t #ed4--;,into a t4t4 put #b cc4 ,,hno#c1 & #ad qcm4 ( ei!r ,au leaf or ,pt4 ,w>m 9 a flame4 ,if ! metal is pure1 no action takes place4 ,into ano!r tube put #f cc4 ,h,cl & add a simil> leaf4 ,heat ?is also4 ,!re %\ld be no action4 ,p\r ! cont5ts ( "o t4t4 into ! o!r4 ,note ! effect4 ,:i* is /rong]1 "o ( ! acids1 or ! comb9ation ( ! two8 ,note ! odor4 ,x is t ( ,cl4 #c;,h,cl ,,hno#c ,n,o,cl #b;,h#b,o ,cl#b4 ,?is reaction is approximate only4 ,! /r5g? is ow+ to nasc5t *lor9e1 :i* unites ) ,au4 ,au #c;,cl ,au,cl#c4 ,if ,pt be us$1 ,pt,cl#d is produc$4 ,no o!r acid except nitro-hydro*loric w dissolve ,au or ,pt2 h5ce ! anci5ts call$ x aqua regia1 or k+ ( liquids4 ,x mu/ be made z want$1 s9ce x _c be kept & reta9 its /r5g?4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,sulphuric ,,acid4 #ij4 ,prep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #ee4--;,hav+ fitt$ a cork ) f\r or five p]=ations to a l>ge t4t41 pass a d4t4 f ?ree ( ^! to ?ree small] t4t41 leav+ ! o!rs op5 to ! air1 z 9 ,figure #bh4 ,into "o t4t4 put #e cc4 ,h#b,o1 into ano!r #e g4 ,cu turn+s & #aj cc4 ,h#b,,s#d1 into ! ?ird #e g4 ,cu turn+s & #aj cc4 dilute ,,hno#c1 half wat]4 ,hang on a r+ /&1 & sl[ly heat ! tubes conta9+ ,h#b,o & ,h#b,,s#d4 ,notice ! fumes t pass into ! l>ge t4t4 ,trace out & apply to ,figure #bh ^! reactions3-- 7#a7 ,cu #b ,h#b,,s#d ,cu,s,o#d #b ,h#b,o ,,s#b4 7#b7 #c ,cu #h ,,hno#c #c ,cu7,,no#c7b #d ,h#b,o #b ,,no4 7#c7 ,,no ,o ,,no#b4 7#d7 ,,s#b ,h#b,o ,,no#b ,h#b,,s#d ,,no4 7#d7 comes f comb9+ ! gase\s products 9 7#a71 7#b71 7#c74 ,9 7#c71 ,,no takes an atom ( ,o f ! air1 becom+ ,,no#b1 & at once gives x up1 to ! ,h#b,,s#c 7,h#b,o ,,s#b71 mak+ ,h#b,,s#d1 & aga9 goes ?r\gh ! same op]ation ( tak+ up ,o & pass+ x along4 ,,no is ?us call$ a c>ri] ( ,o4 ,x is a r$uc+ ag5t1 :ile ,,no#b is an oxidiz+ ag5t4 ,?is is a cont9u\s process1 & v important1 s9ce x *anges useless ,h#b,,s#c into valuable ,h#b,,s#d4 ,if expos$ to ! air1 ,h#b,,s#c w\ld v sl[ly take up ,o & become ,h#b,,s#d4 ,in/ead ( ! la/ exp]im5t1 ?is may be employ$ if pref]r$3 ,burn a little ,s 9 a receiv]4 ,put into an evaporat+-di%1 #e cc4 ,,hno#c1 & dip a pap] or piece ( clo? into x4 ,hang ! pap] 9 ! receiv] ( ,,s#b1 lett+ no ,,hno#c drop f x4 ,cont9ue ?is op]ation till a small quantity ( liquid is f\nd 9 ! bottle4 ,! fumes %[ t ,,hno#c has lo/ ,o4 #b ,,hno#c ,,s#b ,h#b,,s#d #b ,,no#b4 #ia4 ,te/s = ,h#b,,s#d4 ,exp]im5t #ef4--7a7 ,te/ ! liquid ) litmus4 7#b7 ,transf] x to a t4t41 & add an equal volume ( ,ba,cl#b solution4 ,h#b,,s#d ,ba,cl#b 8 ,is ,ba,s,o#d soluble8 7#c7 ,put "o drop ,h#b,,s#d f ! reag5t bottle 9 #aj cc4 ,h#b,o 9 a clean t4t41 & add #a cc4 ,ba,cl#b solution4 ,look = any cl\d9ess4 ,?is is ! *>act]i/ic te/ = ,h#b,,s#d & soluble sulphates1 & s delicate t "o drop 9 a lit] ( ,h#b,o c be detect$4 7#d7 ,in/ead ( ,h#b,,s#d1 try a little ,na#b,,s#d solution4 7#e7 ,put two or ?ree drops ( /rong ,h#b,,s#d on writ+-pap]1 & evaporate1 high ov] a flame1 s z n to burn ! pap]4 ,exam9e x :5 dry4 7#f7 ,put a /ick into a t4t4 conta9+ #b cc4 ,h#b,,s#d1 & note ! effect4 7#g7 ,review ,exp]im5t #e4 7#h7 ,into an e4d4 p\r #e cc4 ,h#b,o1 & !n #ae cc4 ,h#b,,s#d4 ,/ir x meantime ) a small t4t4 conta9+ #b or #c cc4 ,,nh#d,,oh1 & notice :at takes place 9 ! latt]2 also note ! heat ( ! e4d4 ,! effects ( 7#e71 7#f71 7#g71 & 7#h7 are due to ! int5se aff9ity :i* ,h#b,,s#d has = ,h#b,o4 ,s ?ir/y is x t x ev5 ab/racts ,h & ,o f oxalic acid 9 ! "r proportion to =m ,h#b,o1 comb9es !m1 & !n absorbs ! wat]4 #ib4 ,aff9ity = ,wat]4--,?is acid is a desiccator or dry]1 & is us$ to take moi/ure f ! air & prev5t metallic sub/ances f ru/+4 ,9 ?is way x dilutes itself1 & may increase its weight ?reefold4 ,9 dilut+1 ! acid mu/ always be p\r$ into ! wat] sl[ly & ) /irr+1 n wat] into ! acid1 s9ce1 z ,h#b,o is light] ?an ,h#b,,s#d1 heat en\gh may be set free at ! surface ( contact to cause an explosion4 ,contraction also takes place1 z may be %[n by accurately measur+ ea* liquid 9 a graduate1 be=e mix+1 & aga9 :5 cold4 ,! mixture occupies less volume ?an ! sum ( ! two volumes4 ,= ! be/ results ! volume ( ! acid %\ld be ab\t ?ree times t ( ! wat]4 #ic4 ,sulphuric ,acid made on a ,l>ge ,scale involves ! same pr9ciples z %[n 9 ,exp]im5t #ee1 except+ t ,s#jb is obta9$ by burn+ ,s or roa/+ ,fe,s#b 7pyrite71 ,fig4 #bi4 & ,,hno#c is made on ! spot f ,na,n,o#c & ,h#b,,s#d4 ,,s#b ent]s a l>ge lead5 *amb]1 (t5 #ajj to #cjj feet long1 & jets ( /eam & small portions ( ,,hno#c are also =c$ 94 ,! *amb] acid ?us =m$ is v dilute1 & mu/ be evaporat$ fir/ 9 lead5 pans1 & f9ally 9 glass or plat9um retorts1 s9ce /rong ,h#b,,s#d1 especially if hot1 dissolves lead4 ,see ,exp]im5t #abd4 ,/udy ,figure #bi1 & write ! reactions4 #b ,,hno#c breaks up into #b ,,no#b1 ,h#b,o1 & ,o4 #id4 ,importance4--,sulphuric acid has be5 call$1 next to human food1 ! mo/ indisp5sable article kn[n4 ,!re is h>dly a product ( mod]n civilization 9 ! manufacture ( :i* x is n directly or indirectly us$4 ,ne>ly a million tons are made ye>ly 9 ,great ,brita9 alone4 ,x is ! basis ( all acids1 z ,na#b;,,co#c is ( alkalies4 ,x is ! life ( *emical indu/ry1 & ! quantity ( x consum$ is an index ( a p's civilization4 ,only a few ( its uses c be /at$ "h4 ,! two lead+ ones are ! r$uction ( ,ca#c7,,po#d7b = artificial manures & ! sodium c>bonate manufacture4 ,foods dep5d on ! productiv5ess ( soils & on f]tiliz]s1 & ?us indirectly our daily bread is suppli$ by means ( ?is acid2 & f sodium c>bonate glass1 soap1 sal]atus1 bak+- p[d]s1 & mo/ alkalies are made directly or indirectly4 ,h#b,,s#d is employ$ 9 blea*+1 dye+1 pr9t+1 telegraphy1 electroplat+1 galvaniz+ iron & wire1 clean+ metals1 ref9+ ,au & ,ag1 mak+ alum1 black+1 vitriols1 glucose1 m9]al wat]s1 e!r1 indigo1 madd]1 nitroglyc]9e1 gun- cotton1 p>*m5t1 celluloid1 etc41 etc4 ,,fum+ ,,sulphuric ,,acid4 #ie4 ,nordhaus5 or ,fum+ ,sulphuric ,acid1 ,h#b,s#bjg us$ 9 dissolv+ indigo & prep>+ coal-t> pigm5ts1 is made by di/ill+ ,fe,s,o#d4 #d;,fe,s,o#d ,h#b,o ,h#b,s#bjg #b;,fe#bjc #b,s#jb4 ,?is 0 ! orig9al sulphuric acid4 ,x is also =m$ :5 ,s#jc is dissolv$ 9 ,h#b,,s#d4 ,:5 expos$ to ! air1 ,s#jc escapes ) fum+4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,ammonium ,,hydrate4 #if4 ,prep>ation ( ,bases4--,we h se5 t _m acids are made by act+ on a salt ( ! acid requir$1 ) a /rong] acid4 ,?is is ! direct way4 ,! foll[+ exp]im5ts w %[ t bases may be prep>$ 9 a simil> way by act+ on salts ( ! base requir$ ) o!r bases1 :i* we may reg>d z /rong] ?an ! ones to be obta9$4 #ig4 ,prep>ation ( ,,nh#d,,oh & ,,nh#c4 ,exp]im5t #eg4--,p[d] #aj g4 ammonium *loride1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 9 a mort> & mix ) #aj g4 calcium hydrate1 ,ca7,,oh7#b2 rec5tly slak$ lime is ! be/4 ,cov] ) wat] 9 a flask1 & connect ) ,w\lff bottles1 z = mak+ ,h,cl 7,fig4 #bb72 heat ! flask = fifte5 m9utes or m4 ,! exp]im5t may be tri$ on a small] scale ) a t4t4 if desir$4 ,! reaction is3 #b,,nh#d;,cl ,ca7,,oh7#b ,ca,cl#b #b,,nh#d,,oh4 ,,nh#d,,oh is brok5 up into ,,nh#c1 ammonia gas1 & wat]4 ,,nh#d,,oh ,,nh#c ,h#b,o4 ,^! pass ov] into ! fir/ bottle1 :]e ! wat] takes up ! ,,nh#c1 = :i* x has great aff9ity4 ,"o volume ( wat] at #j w absorb m ?an #ajjj volumes ( ,,nh#c4 ,?us ,,nh#d,,oh may be call$ a solution ( ,,nh#c1 9 ,h#b,o4 ,write ! reaction4 ,exp]im5t #eh4--,p[d] & mix #b or #c g4 ea* ( ammonium nitrate1 ,,nh#d,,no#c1 & ,ca7,,oh7#b2 put !m into a t4t41 & heat sl[ly4 ,note ! odor4 #b,,nh#d,,no#c ,ca7,,oh7#b 8 #ih4 ,te/s4 ,exp]im5t #ei4--7a7 ,g5]ate a little ( ! gas 9 a t4t41 & note ! odor4 7#b7 ,te/ ! gas ) wet r$ litmus pap]4 7#c7 ,put a little ,h,cl into an e4d41 & pass ov] x ! fumes ( ,,nh#c f a d4t4 ,note ! result1 & write ! equation4 7#d7 ,fill a small t4t4 ) ! gas by upw>d displacem5t2 !n1 :ile /ill inv]t$1 put ! m\? ( ! t4t4 into wat]4 ,expla9 ! rise ( ! wat]4 7#e7 ,h[ might ,,nh#d;,cl be obta9$ f ! ,,nh#d,,oh 9 ! ,w\lff bottles8 7#f7 ,te/ ! liquid 9 ea* bottle ) r$ litmus pap]4 7#g7 ,add "s f ! fir/ bottle to #e or #aj cc4 ( a solution ( ,fe,s,o#d or ,fe,cl#b1 & look = a ppt4 ,/ate ! reaction4 #ii4 ,=mation4--,ammonia1 h>t%orn1 exi/s 9 animal & vegetable comp\nds1 9 salts1 &1 9 small quantities1 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,ra9 wa%es x f ! atmosph]e into ! soil2 plants take x f ! soil2 animals extract x f plants4 ,coal1 bones1 horns1 etc41 are ! *ief s\rces ( x1 & f !m x is obta9$ by di/illation4 ,x results also f decompos+ animal matt]4 ,,nh#c c be produc$ by ! direct union ( ,n & ,h1 only by an electric dis*>ge or by ozone4 ,x may be collect$ ov] ,hg l o!r gases t are v soluble 9 wat]4 #ajj4 ,uses4 --,ammonium hydrate1 ,,nh#d,,oh1 & ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 are us$ 9 *emical op]ations1 9 mak+ artificial ice1 & to "s ext5t 9 m$ic9e2 f !m also may be obta9$ ammonium salts4 ,/ate :at y w\ld put ) ,,nh#d,,oh to obta9 7,,nh#d7b,,s#d4 ,to obta9 ,,nh#d,,no#c4 ,! use ( ,,nh#d,,oh 9 ! laboratory may be illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ exp]im5t3-- ,exp]im5t #fj4--;,into a t4t4 put #aj cc4 ( a solution ( f]r\s sulphate1 ,fe,s,o#d4 ,into ano!r put #aj cc4 ( sodium sulphate solution1 ,na#b,,s#d4 ,add a little ,,nh#d,,oh to ea*4 ,notice a ppt4 9 ! "o case b none 9 ! o!r4 ,if solutions ( ^! two comp\nds 7 mix$1 ! metals ,fe & ,na c\ld be sep>at$ by ! addition ( ,,nh#d,,oh1 simil> to ! sep>ation ( ,ag & ,cu by ,h,cl4 ,try ! exp]im5t4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,sodium ,,hydrate4 #aja4 ,prep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #fa4--;,dissolve #c g4 sodium c>bonate1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 9 #aj or #ae cc4 ,h#b,o 9 an e4d41 & br+ x to ! boil+-po9t4 ,!n add to ?is a mixture ( #a or #b g4 calcium hydrate1 ,ca7,,oh7#b1 9 #e or #aj;cc4 ,h#b,o4 ,x w n dissolve4 ,boil ! :ole = five m9utes4 ,!n p\r (f ! liquid :i* holds ,na,o,h 9 solution4 ,evaporate if desir$4 ,?is is ! usual mode ( prep>+ ,na,o,h4 ,! reaction is ,na#b;,,co#c ,ca7,,oh7#b #b,na,o,h ,ca,c,o#c4 ,! residue is ,ca7,,oh7#b & ,ca,c,o#c2 ! solution conta9s ,na,o,h1 :i* c be solidifi$ by evaporat+ ! wat]4 ,sodium hydrate is an +r$i5t 9 ! manufacture ( h>d soap1 & = ?is use ?\s&s ( tons are made annually1 mo/ly 9 ,europe4 ,x is an important laboratory reag5t1 its use be+ simil> to t ( ammonium hydrate4 ,expos$ to ! air1 x takes up wat] & ,,co#b1 =m+ a mixture ( ,na,o,h & ,na#b;,,co#c4 ,x is "o ( ! /ronge/ alkalies1 & corrodes ! sk94 ,exp]im5t #fb4--,put #bj cc4 ( ,h#b,o 9 a receiv]4 ,) ! =ceps take a piece ( ,na1 n l>g] ?an half a pea1 f ! naph?a 9 :i* x is kept1 drop x into ! ,h#b,o1 & at once cov] ! receiv] loosely ) pap] or c>dbo>d4 ,wat* ! action1 z ! ,na decomposes ,h#b,o4 ,,hoh ,na ,na,o,h ,h4 ,if ! wat] be hot ! action is s rapid t en\gh heat is produc$ to set ! ,h on fire4 ,t ! gas is ,h c be %[n by putt+ ! ,na "u ! m\? ( a small inv]t$ t4t41 fill$ ) cold wat]1 9 a wat]-pan4 ,na rises to ! top1 & ! t4t4 fills ) ,h1 :i* c be te/$4 ,na,o,h dissolves 9 ! wat]4#ajb4 ,prop]ties4 ,exp]im5t #fc4--7a7 ,te/ ) r$ litmus pap] ! solutions obta9$ 9 ! la/ two exp]im5ts4 7#b7 ,to #e;cc4( alum solution1 ,k#b;,a#ab7,,s#d7d1 add #b;cc4( ! liquid1 & notice ! color & =m ( ! ppt4 ,,potassium ,,hydrate4 #ajc4 ,,koh is made 9 ! ,same ,way z ,na,o,h4 ,describe ! process 9 full 7,exp]im5t #fa71 & give ! equation4 ,exp]im5t #fd4--;,drop a small piece ( ,k into a receiv] ( ,h#b,o1 z 9 ,exp]im5t #fb4 ,! ,k mu/ be v small1 & ! exp]im5t %\ld n be wat*$ at too close a range4 ,! receiv] %\ld n be cov]$ ) glass1 b ) pap]4 ,! ,h burns1 unit+ ) ,o ( ! air4 ,! purple color is imp>t$ by ! burn+1 or oxidation ( small p>ticles ( ,k4 ,write ! equation = ! combu/ion ( ea*4 ,h#b,o might be consid]$ ! symbol ( an acid1 s9ce x is ! union ( ,h & a negative elem5t2 or1 if writt5 ,,hoh1 x might be call$ a base1 s9ce x has a positive elem5t & ! 7,,oh7 radical4 ,x is neutral to litmus1 & on ?is acc\nt might be call$ a salt4 ,x is bett]1 h[ev]1 to call x simply an oxide4 ,potassium hydrate1 cau/ic pota%1 is employ$ = ! manufacture ( s(t soap4 ,z a *emical reag5t its action is almo/ precisely l t ( cau/ic soda1 ?\gh x is usually consid]$ a /rong] base1 z ,k is a m electro-positive elem5t ?an ,na4 ,,calcium ,,hydrate4 #ajd4 ,calcium ,hydrate1 ! ,mo/ ,common ( ! ,bases1 is ne>ly z important to !m z ,h#b,,s#d is to acids4 ,s9ce x is us$ to make ! o!r bases1 x might be call$ ! /ronge/ base2 z ,h#b,,s#d is (t5 call$ ! /ronge/ acid4 ,! /r5g? ( an acid or base1 h[ev]1dep5ds on ! sub/ance to :i* x is appli$1 z well z on itself1 & = mo/ purposes ?is "o is classifi$ z a weak] base ?an ! ?ree previ\sly describ$4 ,sulphuric acid1 ! mo/ useful ( ! acids1 is n made directly f its salts1 b has to be syn!siz$4 ,calcium hydrate is also made by an indirect process1 z foll[s3 ,ca,c,o#c1 i4e4 lime/one1 m>ble1 etc41 is burnt 9 kilns ) ,c1 a process :i* sep>ates ! gas1 ,,co#b1 accord+ to ! reaction3 ,ca,c,o#c ,ca,o ,,co#b4 ,ca,o is unslak$ lime1 or quick-lime4 ,on treat+ ?is ) wat]1 slak$ lime1 ,ca7,,oh7#b is =m$1 ) g5]ation ( great heat4 ,ca,o ,h#b,o ,ca7,,oh7#b4 ,its aff9ity = ,h#b,o is s great t x takes ! latt] f ! air1 if expos$4 ,exp]im5t #fe4--,saturate "s unslak$ lime ) wat]1 9 an e4d41 & look = ! results /at$ above1 leav+ x z long z may be necess>y4 #aje4 ,resume4--,f ! exp]im5ts 9 ! la/ few *apt]s on ! ?ree divisions ( *emical comp\nds1 acids1 bases & salts1 we h se5 7#a7 t acids & bases are ! *emical opposites ( ea* o!r2 7#b7 t salts are =m$ by ! union ( acids & bases2 7#c7 t "s acids c be obta9$ f _! salts by ! action ( a /rong] acid2 7#d7 t "s bases c be got f salts by ! simil> action ( o!r bases2 7#e7 t ! /ronge/ acids & bases1 z well z o!rs1 may be obta9$ 9 an indirect way by syn!sis4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,oxides ,,( ,,nitrog54 #ajf4 ,!re are five oxides ( ,n1 only two ( :i* are important4 ,,nitrog5 ,,monoxide 7,n#b,o74 #ajg4 ,prep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #ff4--,put into a flask1 hold+ #bjj;cc1 l,og ( ammonium nitrate1 ,,nh#d,,no#c2 heat x ov] wire gauze or asbe/us 9 an iron plate1 hav+ a d4t4 connect$ ) a l>ge t4t41 :i* is held 9 a receiv] ( wat]1 & f ?is t4t41 ano!r d4t4 pass+ into a pneumatic tr\gh1 s z to collect ! gas ov] wat] 7,fig4 #cj74 ,h all ! be>+s tight4 ,! reaction is ,,nh#d,,no#c #b;,h#b,o ,n#b,o4 ,! t4t4 is = collect+ ! ,h#b,o4 ,fig4 #cj4 ,note ! color ( ! liquid 9 ! t4t42 ta/e a drop1 & te/ x ) litmus4 ,if ! flask is heat$ too fa/1 "s ,,no is =m$1 & ?is tak+ ,o f ! air makes ,,no#b1 :i* liquefies & gives an acid reaction & a r$ color4 ,"s ,,nh#d,,no#c is also liable to be c>ri$ ov]4 #ajh4 ,prop]ties4 ,exp]im5t #fg4--,te/ ! gas 9 ! receiv] ) a burn+ /ick & a gl[+ "o1 & comp>e ! combu/ion ) t 9 ,o4 ,n#bjmay also be te/$ ) ,s & ,p1 if desir$4 ,n is set free 9 ea* case4 ,write ! reactions4 ,nitrog5 monoxide or protoxide1 ! nitr\s oxide ( d5ti/s1 :5 inhal$1 produces ins5sibility to pa91-- anae/hesia1-- &1 if cont9u$1 dea? f suffocation4 ,birds die 9 half a m9ute f brea?+ x4 ,mix$ ) "o-f\r? ,o1 & inhal$ = a m9ute or two1 x produces intoxication & laught]1 & h5ce is call$ laugh+ gas4 ,z made 9 ,exp]im5t #ff1 x conta9s ,cl & ,,no1 z impurities1 & %\ld n be brea!d4 ,,nitrog5 ,,dioxide 7,,no1 ,,or ,n#b,o#b74 #aji4 ,prep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #fh4--;,into a t4t4 or receiv] put #e;g ,cu turn+s1 add #e cc4 ,h#b,o & #e cc4 ,,hno#c4 ,collect ! gas l ,h1 ov] wat]4 #c;,cu #h;,,hno#c 8 ,:at two products w be left 9 ! g5]ator8 ,notice ! color ( ! liquid4 ,?is color is *>act]i/ic ( ,cu salts4 ,notice also ! r$ fumes ( ,,no#b4 #aaj4 ,prop]ties4 ,exp]im5t #fi4--,te/ ! gas ) a burn+ /ick1 admitt+ z little air z possible4 ,te/ x ) burn+ ,s4 ,,no is n a support] ( ,c & ,s combu/ion4 ,put a small bit ( ,p 9 a deflagrat+-spoon1 & :5 x is vigor\sly burn+1 l[] x into ! gas4 ,x %\ld cont9ue to burn4 ,/ate ! reaction4 ,:at combu/ion w ,,no support8 ,note t ,,no is half ,n1 :ile ,n#b,o is two-?irds ,n1 & acc\nt = ! diff]5ce 9 support+ combu/ion4 ,,nitrog5 ,,tetroxide 7,,no#b or ,n#b,o#d74 #aaa4 ,prep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #gj4--,lift f ! wat]-pan a receiv] ( ,,no1 & note ! color$ fumes4 ,!y are ,,no#b1 or ,n#b,o#d1 nitrog5 tetroxide4 ,,no ,o ,,no#b4 ,is ,,no combu/ible8 ,:at is ! s\rce ( ,o 9 ! exp]im5t8,,oxides ,,( ,,nitrog54 ,,nitrog5 ,,trioxide 7,n#b,o#c74 #aab4 ,prep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #ga4--,put into a t4t4 #a g4 ( />* & #a cc4 ( ,,hno#c4 ,heat ! mixture = a m9ute4 ,! r$ fumes are ,n#b,o#c & ,,no#b4 ,nitrog5 p5toxide1 ,n#b,o#e1 is an unimportant solid4 ,unit$ ) wat] x =ms ,,hno#c4 ,n#b,o#e ,h#b,o #b;,,hno#c4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,laws ,,( ,,def9ite ,,& ,,( ,,multiple ,,proportion4 #aac4 ,weight & ,volume4--,we h se5 t wat] conta9s two p>ts ( ,h by volume to "o "p ( ,o2 or1 by weight1 two p>ts ( ,h to sixte5 ( ,o4 ,^! proportions are inv>iable1 or no symbol = wat] w\ld be possible4 ,e comp\nd 9 ! same way has an unv>y+ proportion ( elem5ts4 #aad4 ,law ( ,def9ite ,proportion4--,9 a giv5 comp\nd ! proportion ( any elem5t by weight1 or1 if a gas1 by volume is always con/ant4 ,apply ! law1 by weight & by volume1 to ^!3 ,h,cl1 ,,nh#c1 ,h#b,s1 ,n#b,o4 ,!re is ano!r law ( equal importance 9 *emi/ry1 :i* ! comp\nds ( ,n & ,o well illu/rate4 ,weight4 ,volume4 ,n4 ,o4 ,n4 ,o4 ,nitrog5 protoxide ,n#b,o #bh #af #b #a ,nitrog5 dioxide ,n#b,o#b #bh #cb #b #b ,nitrog5 trioxide4 ,n#b,o#c #bh #dh #b #c ,nitrog5 tetroxide ,n#b,o#d #bh #fd #b #d ,nitrog5 p5toxide ,n#b,o#e #bh #hj #b #e ,note t ! proportion ( ,o by weight is 9 ea* case a multiple ( ! fir/1 #af4 ,also t ! proportion by volume ( ,o is a multiple ( t 9 ! fir/ comp\nd4 ,9 ?is example ! ,n rema9s ! same4 ,if t _h v>i$ 9 ! diff]5t comp\nds1 x w\ld also havev>i$ by a multiple ( ! smalle/ proportion4 ,?is is true 9 all comp\nds4 #aae4 ,law ( ,multiple ,proportion4--,:5ev] "o elem5t comb9es ) ano!r 9 m ?an "o proportion1 x always comb9es 9 "s multiple1 "o or m1 ( its lea/ comb9+ weight1 or1 if a gas1 ( its lea/ comb9+ volume4 ,! lea/ comb9+ weight ( an elem5t is its atomic weight2 & x is ?is fact ( a lea/ comb9+ weight t leads u to believe ! atom to be indivisible4 ,apply ! law 9 ! case ( ,p#b,o1 ,p#b,o#c1 ,p#b,o#e2 9 ,h,cl,o1 ,h,cl,o#b1 ,h,cl,o#c1 ,h,cl,o#d1 arrang+ ! symbols1 weights1 & volumes 9 a table1 z above4 ,! volumetric proportions ( ea* elem5t 9 ! oxides ( nitrog5 are exhibit$ bel[4 ,n ,n ,o ,n#b,o ,n ,n ,o ,o ,n#b,o#b ,n ,n ,o ,o ,o ,n#b,o#c ,n ,n ,o ,o ,o ,o ,n#b,o#d ,n ,n ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,n#b,o#e ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,c>bon ,,protoxide4 #aaf4 ,prep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #gb4--,put into a flask1 ( #bjj cc41 #e g4 ( oxalic acid cry/als1 ,h#b;,c#b,o#d1 & #be cc4 ,h#b,,s#d4 ,h ! d4t4 pass into a solution ( ,na,o,h 9 a ,w\lff bottle 7,fig4 #ca71 & collect ! gas ov] wat]4 ,heat ! flask sl[ly1 & avoid inhal+ ! gas4 #aag4 ,te/s4 ,exp]im5t #gc4--,remove a receiv] ( ! gas1 & try to light ! latt] ) a spl9t]4 ,is x combu/ible1 or a support] ( 7,c7 combu/ion8 ,:at is ! color ( ! flame8 ,:5 ! combu/ion ceases1 %ake up a little lime wat] ) ! gas left 9 ! receiv]4 ,:at gas has be5 =m$ by ! combu/ion1 z %[n by ! te/8 ,see page #hj4 ,give ! reaction = ! combu/ion4 ,we h se5 t ,h#b,,s#d has great aff9ity = ,h#b,o4 ,oxalic acid consi/s ( ,h1 ,c1 ,o 9 ! "r proportion to =m ,h#b,o1 ,,co#b1 & ,,co4 ,h#b,,s#d )draws ,h & ,o 9 ! "r proportion to =m wat]1 unites !m1 & !n absorbs ! wat]1 leav+ ! ,c & ,o to comb9e & =m ,,co#b & ,,co4 ,na,o,h solution removes ,,co#b f ! mixture1 =m+ ,na#b;,,co#c1 & leaves ,,co4 ,write bo? reactions4 #aah4 ,c>bon ,protoxide1 call$ also c>bon monoxide1 c>bonic oxide1 etc41 is a gas1 hav+ no color or ta/e1 butpossess+ a fa9t odor4 ,x is v poison\s4 ,be+ ! less] oxide ( ,c1 x is =m$ :5 ,c is burn$ 9 a limit$ supply ( ,o1 :]eas ,,co#b is always produc$ :5 ,o is abundant4 ,! =mation ( ea* is well %[n by trac+ ! combu/ion 9 a coal fire4 ,air ent]s at ! bottom1 & ,,co#b is fir/ =m$4 ,c #b,o ,,co#b4 ,z ?is gas passes up1 ! :ite-hot coal removes "o atom ( ,o1 leav+ ,,co4 ,,co#b ,c - #b;,,co4 ,at ! top1 if ! draft be op51 a blue flame %[s ! combu/ion ( ,,co4 ,,co ,o ,,co#b4 ,! same r$uction ( ,,co#b takes place 9 ! iron furnace1 & :5ev] !re is n en\gh oxyg5 to =m ,,co#b1 ! product is ,,co4 ,great c>e %\ld be tak5 t ?is gas does n escape into ! room1 z "o p] c5t has prov$ fatal4 ,n all ( x is burn$ at ! top ( ! coal2 & :5 ! /ove door is op51 ! upp] drafts %\ld be op5 also4 ,x is ! mo/ poison\s ( ! gases f coal2 h5ce ! dang] f sleep+ 9 a room hav+ a coal fire4 #aai4 ,wat] ,gas4--,,co is "o ( ! con/itu5ts ( wat] gas1 :i*1 by reason ( its *eapness1 is supplant+ gas made f coal1 z an illum9ator1 9 "s cities4 ,x is made by pass+ sup]heat$ /eam ov] r$-hot *>coal or coke4 ,c unites ) ! ,o ( ,h#b,o1 =m+ ,,co1 & sets ,h free1 ?us produc+ two inflammable gases4 ,c ,h#b,o --8 ,z nei!r ( ^! gives mu* light1 naph?a is di/ill$ & mix$ ) !m 9 small quantities to furni% illum9at+ p[] ,see page #ahc4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,c>bon ,,dioxide4 #abj4 ,prep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #gd4--,put into a t4t41 or a bottle ) a d4t4 & a ?i/le-tube1 #aj or #bj g4 ,ca,c,o#c1 m>ble 9 lumps2 add z _m cubic c5timet]s ( ,h#b,o1 & half z mu* ,h,cl1 & collect ! gas by d[nw>d displacem5t 7,fig4 #ci74 ,add m acid z ne$$4 ,ca,c,o#c #b ,h,cl ,ca,cl#b ,h#b;,,co#c4 ,h#b;,,co#c ,h#b,o ,,co#b4 ,h#b;,,co#c is a v weak comp\nd1 & at once breaks up4 ,by "s1 its exi/5ce z a comp\nd is d\bt$4 #aba4 ,te/s4 ,exp]im5t #ge4--7a7 ,put a burn+ & a gl[+ /ick into ! t4t4 or bottle4 7#b7 ,hold ! end ( ! d4t4 directly aga9/ ! flame ( a small burn+ /ick4 ,does ! gas support combu/ion8 7#c7 ,p\r a receiv] ( ! gas ov] a c&le flame4 ,:at does ?is %[ ( ! weight ( ! gas8 7#d7 ,pass a little ,,co#b into "s ,h#b,o 7,fig4 #cb71 & te/ x ) litmus4 ,give ! reaction = ! solution ( ,,co#b 9 ,h#b,o4 ,exp]im5t #gf4--,put into a t4t4 #ea cc4 ( cle> ,ca7,,oh7#b solution1 i4e4 lime wat]2 ins]t 9 ?is ! end ( a d4t4 f a ,,co#b g5]ator 7,fig4 #cb74 ,notice any ppt4 =m$4 ,x is ,ca,c,o#c4 ,let ! action cont9ue until ! ppt4 disappe>s & ! liquid is cle>4 ,!n remove ! d4t41 boil ! cle> liquid = a m9ute1 & notice :e!r ! ppt4 reappe>s4 #abb4 ,explanation4 ,ca7,,oh7#b ,,co#b ,ca,c,o#c ,h#b,o4 ,! curi\s ph5om5a ( ?is exp]im5t are expla9$ by ! solubility ( ,ca,c,o#c 9 wat] conta9+ ,,co#b1 & its insolu-bility 9 wat]1 hav+ no ,,co#b4 ,:5 all ! ,ca7,,oh7#c is comb9$1 or *ang$ to ,ca,c,o#c1 ! excess ( ,,co#b unites ) ,h#b,o1 =m+ ! weak acid ,h#b;,,co#c1 :i* dissolves ! precipitate1 ,ca,c,o#c1 & gives a cle> liquid4 ,on heat+ ?is1 ,h#b;,,co#c gives up its ,,co#b1 & ,ca,c,o#c is reprecipitat$1 n be+ soluble 9 pure wat]4 ,lime wat]1 ,ca7,,oh7#b solution1 is !re=e a te/ = ! pres5ce ( ,,co#b4 ,to %[ t c>bon dioxide is =m$ 9 brea?+1 & 9 ! combu/ion ( ,c1 & t x is pres5t 9 ! air1 p]=m ! foll[+ exp]im5t3 ,exp]im5t #gg4--7a7 ,put a little lime wat] into a t4t41 & bl[ into x ?r\gh a piece ( glass tub+4 ,any turbidity %[s :at8 7#b7 ,burn a c&le = a few m9utes 9 a receiv] ( air1 !n take out ! c&le & %ake up lime wat] ) ! gas4 7#c7 ,expose "s lime wat] 9 an e4d4 to ! air = "s "t4 #acc4 ,oxidation 9 ! ,human ,sy/em4--,c>bon dioxide1 or c>bonic anhydride1 c>bonic acid1 etc41 ,,co#b1 is a heavy gas1 )\t color or odor4 ,x has a %>p1 prickly ta/e1 & is commonly reckon$ z poison\s if inhal$ 9 l>ge quantities1 ?\gh x does n *emically comb9e ) ! blood z ,,co does4 ,t5 p] c5t 9 ! air w sometimes produce dea?1 & five p] c5t produces dr[s9ess4 ,x exi/s 9 m9ute portions 9 ! atmosph]e1 & (t5 accumulates at ! bottom ( old wells & cav]ns1 ow+ to its sl[ diffusive p[]4 ,be=e go+ d[n into "o ( ^!1 ! air %\ld always be te/$ by l[]+ a light$ c&le4 ,if ?is is ext+ui%$1 !re is dang]4 ,,co#b is ! deadly *oke damp aft] a m9e explosion1 ,,*#d be+ conv]t$ into ,,co#b & ,h#b,o2 a great deal is lib]at$ dur+ volcanic eruptions1 & x is =m$ 9 brea?+ by ! union ( ,o 9 ! air ) ,c 9 ! sy/em4 ,?is union ( ,c & ,o takes place 9 ! lungs & 9 all ! tissues ( ! body1 ev5 on ! surface4 ,oxyg5 is tak5 into ! lungs1 passes ?r\gh ! ?9 membrane into ! blood1 =ms a weak *emical union ) ! r$ corpuscles1 & is convey$ by !m to all p>ts ( ! sy/em4 ,?r\gh\t ! body1 :]ev] necess>y1 ,c & ,h are suppli$ = ! ,o1 & unite ) x to =m ,,co#b & ,h#b,o4 ,^! are tak5 up by ! blood ?\gh !y d n =m a *emical union ) x1 are c>ri$ to ! lungs1 & pass out1 toge!r ) ! unus$ ,n & surplus ,o4 ,! sy/em is ?us purifi$1 & ! wa/e mu/ be suppli$ by food4 ,! process also keeps up ! heat ( ! body z really z ! combu/ion ( ,c or ,p 9 ,o produces heat4 ,! temp]ature ( ! body does n v>y mu* f #ii degrees ,f41 any excess ( heat pass+ (f ?r\gh p]spiration1 & be+ *ang$ into o!r =ms ( en]gy4 ,if1 z 9 "s fev]s1 ! temp]ature rises above ab\t #aje degrees ,f41 ! blood corpuscles are kill$1 & ! p]son dies4 ,dur+ viol5t ex]cise mu* mat]ial is consum$1 circulation is rapid1 & quick brea?+ ensues4 ,oxyg5 is necess>y = life4 ,a heal?y p]son inhales pl5tifully2 & ?is elem5t is "o ( nature's be/ rem$ies = disease4 ,deep & cont9u$ inhalations 9 cold wea!r are bett] ?an furnace fires to heat ! sy/em4 ,all animals brea! ,o & exhale ,,co#b4 ,fi%es & o!r aquatic animals obta9 x1 n by decompos+ ,h#b,o1 b f air dissolv$ 9 wat]4 ,be+ cold-blood$1 !y ne$ relatively little2 b if no fre% wat] is suppli$ to ^? 9 captivity1 !y soon die ( ,o />vation4 #abd4 ,oxidation 9 ,wat]4--,swift-runn+ /reams are cle> & comp>atively pure1 because _! organic impurities are con/antly br\ght to ! surface & oxidiz$1 :]eas 9 /agnant pools ^! impurities accumulate4 ,res]voirs ( wat] = city supply h sometimes be5 fre$ f impurities by a]ation1 i4e4 by =c+ air into ! wat]4 #abe4 ,deoxidation 9 ,plants4--,s9ce ,,co#b is s con/antly p\r$ into ! atmosph]e1 :y does x n accumulate !re 9 l>ge quantity8 ,:y is !re n less free ,o 9 ! air to-day ?an !re 0 a ?\s& ye>s ago8 ,! answ] to ^! que/ions is f\nd 9 ! gr[? ( vegetation4 ,9 ! leaf ( e plant are ?\s&s ( little *emical laboratories2 ,,co#b diffus$ 9 small quantities 9 ! air passes1 toge!r ) a v little ,h#b,o1 into ! leaf1 usually f its "u side1 & is decompos$ by ! radiant en]gy ( ! sun4 ,! ,c is built into ! woody fib] ( ! tree1 & ! ,o is ready to be re-brea!d or burn$ aga94 ,,co#b contributes to ! gr[? ( plants1 ,o to t ( animals2 & ! con/itu5ts ( ! atmosph]e v>y little f "o age to ano!r4 ,! comp5sation ( nature is "h well %[n4 ,plants fe$ ^u :at animals disc>d1 trans=m+ x into mat]ial = ! su/5ance ( ! latt]1 :ile animals prep>e food = plants4 ,all ! ,c 9 plants is suppos$ to come f ! ,,co#b 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,animals obta9 _! supply f plants4 ,! utility ( ! small p]c5tage ( ,,co#b 9 ! air is ?us se54 #abf4 ,uses4--,,co#b is us$ 9 mak+ soda-wat]1 & 9 *emical eng9es to put out fires 9 _! e>ly /ages4 ,9 ei!r case x may be prep>$ by treat+ ,na#b;,,co#c or ,ca,c,o#c ) ,h#b,,s#d4 ,give ! reactions4 ,on a small scale ,,co#b is made f ,h,na,c,o#c4 ,,co#b has a v weak aff9ity = wat]1 b probably =ms ) x ,h#b;,,co#c4 ,mu* c>bon dioxide c be =c$ into wat] "u pressure4 ,?is =ms soda-wat]1 :i* really conta9s no soda4 ,! ju/ification = ! "n is ! mat]ial f :i* x is sometimes made4 ,salts f ,h#b;,,co#c1 call$ c>bonates1 are num]\s1 ,na#b;,,co#c & ,ca,c,o#c be+ ! mo/ important4 ,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,ozone4 #abg4 ,prep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #gh4--,scrape (f ! oxide f ! surface ( a piece ( phosphorus #b cm long1 put x into a wide-m\!d bottle1 half cov] ! ,p ) wat]1 cov] ! bottle ) a glass1 & leave x = half an h\r or m4 #abh4 ,te/s4 ,exp]im5t #gi4--,remove ! glass cov]1 smell ! gas1 & hold 9 x "s wet iodo-/>* pap]4 ,look = any blue color4 ,iod9e has be5 set free1 accord+ to ! reaction1 #b ,,ki #jc ,k#bj ,o#b ,i#b1 & has imp>t$ a blue color to ! />*1 & ord9>y oxyg5 has be5 =m$4 ,:y w n oxyg5 set iod9e free f ,,ki84 ,:at besides ozone w lib]ate x8 #abi4 ,ozone1 oxidiz$ oxyg51 active oxyg51 etc41 is an allotropic =m ( ,o4 ,its molecule is #jc1 :ile t ( ord9>y oxyg5 is #jb4 ,?ree atoms ( oxyg5 are cond5s$ into ! space ( two atoms ( ozone1 or ?ree molecules ( ,o are cond5s$ into two molecules ( ozone1 or ?ree lit]s ( ,o are cond5s$ into two lit]s ( ozone4 ,ozone is ?us =m$ by oxidiz+ ord9>y oxyg54 #jb ,o #jc4 ,?is takes place dur+ ?und] /orms & 9 artificial electrical dis*>ges4 ,! quantity ( ozone produc$ is small1 five p] c5t be+ ! maximum1 & ! usual quantity is f> less ?an t4 ,ozone is a p[]ful oxidiz+ ag5t1 & w *ange ,s1 ,p1 & ,z into _! ic acids4 ,cotton clo? 0 =m]ly blea*$1 & l95 is n[ blea*$1 by spread+ x on ! grass & leav+ x = weeks to be act$ on by ozone1 :i* is usually pres5t 9 ! air 9 small quantities1 especially 9 ! c\ntry4 ,ozone is a dis9fectant1 l o!r blea*+ ag5ts1 & s]ves to cle> ! air ( noxi\s gases & g]ms ( infecti\s diseases4 ,s mu* ozone is r$uc$ 9 ?is way t ! air ( cities conta9s less ( x ?an c\ntry air4 ,a ?ird is consum$ 9 unit+ ) ! sub/ance :i* x oxidizes1 :ile two-?irds are *ang$ into oxyg51 z 9 ,exp]im5t #gi4 ,x is unheal?ful to brea! mu* ozone1 b a little 9 ! air is desirable = dis9fection4 ,ozone w cause ! in]t ,n ( ! air to unite ) ,h1 to =m ammonia4 ,no o!r ag5t capable ( do+ ?is is kn[n1 s t all ! ,,nh#c 9 ! air1 9 fact all ammonium comp\nds tak5 up by plants f soils & f]tiliz]s1 may h be5 made orig9ally ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ozone4 ,at a l[ temp]ature ozone has be5 liquefi$4 ,x is !n di/9ctly blue4 ,electrolysis ( wat] is ! be/ mode ( prep>+ ?is sub/ance 9 quantity4 ,:5 prep>$ f ,p x is mix$ ) ,p#b,o#c4 ,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]e4 #acj4 ,con/itu5ts4--,! f\r *ief con/itu5ts ( ! atmosph]e are ,n1 ,o1 ,h#b,o1 ,,co#b1 9 ! ord] ( _! abundance4 ,:at exp]im5ts %[ ! pres5ce ( ,n1 ,o1 & ,,co#b 9 ! air8 ,set a pit*] ( ice wat] 9 a w>m room1 & ! moi/ure t collects on ! outside is deposit$ f ! air4 ,?is %[s ! pres5ce ( ,h#b,o4 ,ra91 cl\ds1 fog1 & dew prove ! same4 ,h#b,,s#d & ,ca,cl#b1 on exposure to air1 take up wat]4 ,exp]im5t #ah %[s t !re is n f> f f\r times z mu* ,n z ,o by volume 9 air4 ,h5ce if ! atmosph]e 7 a comp\nd ( ,n & ,o1 & ! proportion ( f\r to "o 7 exact1 its symbol w\ld be ,n#d,o4 #aca4 ,air n a ,comp\nd4--,! foll[+ facts %[ t air is n a comp\nd1 b r a mixture ( ^! gases4 #a4 ,! proportion ( ,n & ,o 9 ! air1 ?\gh x does n v>y mu*1 is n always exactly ! same4 ,?is c\ld n be true if x 7 a comp\nd4 ,:y8 #b4 ,if ,n#d,o 7 dissolv$ 9 wat]1 ! ,n w\ld be f\r times ! ,o 9 volume2 b :5 air is dissolv$1 less ?an twice z mu* ,n z ,o is tak5 up4 #c4 ,no heat or cond5sation takes place :5 f\r measures ( ,n are br\ght 9 contact ) "o ( ,o4 ,x _c !n be ,n#d,o1 = ! vapor d5sity ( ,n#d,o w\ld be #cf--;i4e4 7#ad x #d #af7 _/ #b2 b t ( air is #ad #a_/b ne>ly --i4e4 7#ad x #d #af7 _/ #e4 ,analysis %[s ab\t #gi p>ts ( ,n to #ba p>ts ( ,o by volume 9 air4 #acb4 ,wat]4--,! volume ( ,h#b,o1 wat]y vapor1 9 ! atmosph]e is v v>iable4 ,w>m air w hold m ?an cold1 & at any temp]ature air may be ne> saturation1 i4e4 hav+ all x w hold at t temp]ature1 or x may h little4 ,b "s is always pres5t2 ?\gh ! hot des]t w9ds ( ,nor? ,africa are n m ?an #a_/ae saturat$4 ,a cubic met] ( air at #be degrees1 :5 saturat$1 conta9s m ?an #bb g4 ( wat]4 #acc4 ,c>bon ,dioxide4--,c>bon dioxide does n make up m ?an ?ree or f\r p>ts 9 t5 ?\s& ( ! air2 b1 9 ! :ole ( ! atmosph]e1 ?is gives a v l>ge aggregate4 ,:y does n ,,co#b =m a lay] bel[ ! ,o & ,n8 #acd4 ,o!r ,+r$i5ts4--,o!r sub/ances are f\nd 9 ! air 9 m9ute portions1 e4g4 ,,nh#c con/itutes ne>ly "o-million?4 ,air is also impregnat$ ) liv+ & dead g]ms1 du/ p>ticles1 unburn$ c>bon1 etc41 b ^! = ! mo/ "p are conf9$ to ! portion ne> ! e>?'s surface4 ,9 pe/il5tial regions ! g]ms ( disease are said sometimes to contam9ate ! air = miles ar\nd4 ,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,wat]4 #ace4 ,pure ,wat]4--,review ! exp]im5ts = electrolysis1 & = burn+ ,h4 ,pure wat] is obta9$ by di/illation4 ,exp]im5t #hj4--,provide a glass tube #dj or #ej cm long & #c or #d cm 9 diamet]4 ,fit to ea* end a cork ) two p]=ations1 ?r\gh "o ( :i* a long tube passes ! entire l5g? ( ! l>g] tube 7,fig4 #cb;a74 ,connect "o end ( ?is ) a flask ( wat] arrang$ = heat+2 pass ! o!r end into an op5 receptacle = collect+ ! di/ill$ wat]4 ,into ! o!r p]=ations lead %ort tubes1-- ! "o = wat] to fl[ into ! l>ge tube f a jet2 ! o!r1 = ! same to fl[ out4 ,?is cond5ses ! /eam by circulat+ cold wat] ar\nd x4 ,! app>atus is call$ a ,liebig's cond5s]4 ,put wat] into ! flask1 boil x1 & notice ! cond5s$ liquid4 ,x is comp>atively pure wat]2 = mo/ ( ! sub/ances 9 solution h a high] boil+-po9t ?an wat]1 & are left beh9d :5 x is vaporiz$4 7,fig4 #cb;a47 #acf4 ,te/4 ,exp]im5t #ha4--,te/ ! purity ( di/ill$ wat] by sl[ly evaporat+ a few drops on ,pt foil 9 a room free f du/4 ,!re %\ld be no spot or residue left on ! foil4 ,te/ 9 ! same way undi/ill$ wat]4 #acg4 ,wat] exi/s 9 ,?ree ,/ates1-- solid1 liquid1 & vapor\s4 ,x freezes at #j degrees1 sudd5ly exp&+ consid]ably z x passes into ! solid /ate4 ,x boils1 i4e4 ov]comes atmosph]ic pressure & is vaporiz$1 at #ajj degrees 7#gfj mm pressure74 ,if ! pressure is great]1 ! boil+-po9t is rais$1 i4e4 x takes a high] temp]ature to ov]come a great] pressure4 ,if !re be less pressure1 z on a m\nta91 ! boil+-po9t is l[]$ bel[ #ajj degrees4 ,salts dissolv$ 9 wat] raise its boil+-po9t1 & l[] its freez+-po9t to an ext5t dep5d+ on ! k9d & quantity ( ! salt4 ,wat]1 h[ev]1 evaporates at all temp]atures1 ev5 f ice4 ,pure wat] has no ta/e or smell1 &1 9 small quantities1 no color4 ,x is r>ely if ev] f\nd on ! e>?4 ,:at is tak5 up by ! air 9 evaporation is ne>ly pure2 b :5 x falls z ra9 or sn[1 impurities are absorb$ f ! atmosph]e4 ,wat] fall+ aft] a long ra91 especially 9 ! c\ntry1 is tol]ably free f impurities4 ,"s spr+s h also ne>ly pure wat]2 b to sep>ate all =eign matt] f x1 wat] mu/ be di/ill$4 ,ev5 !n x is liable to conta9 traces ( ammonia1 or "s o!r sub/ance :i* vaporizes at a l[] temp]ature ?an wat]4 #ach4 ,sea-,wat]4--,! ocean is ! ultimate s\rce ( all wat]4 ,f x & f lakes1 riv]s1 & soils1 wat] is tak5 into ! atmosph]e1 falls z ra9 or sn[1 & s9ks into ! gr\nd1 reappe>+ 9 spr+s1 or fl[+ (f 9 brooks & riv]s to ! ocean or inl& seas4 ,ocean wat] mu/ naturally conta9 soluble salts2 & _m salts :i* are n soluble 9 pure wat] are dissolv$ 9 sea-wat]4 ,9 fact1 !re is a probability t all elem5ts exi/ to "s ext5t 9 sea-wat]1 b _m ( !m 9 extremely m9ute quantities4 ,sodium & magnesium salts are ! two mo/ abundant1 & ! bitt] ta/e is due to ,mg,s,o#d & ,mg,cl#b4 ,a lit] ( sea- wat]1 ne>ly #ajjj g41 holds ov] #cg g4 ( v>i\s salts1 #bi ( :i* are ,na,cl4 ,see ,h>d ,wat]4 #aci4 ,riv] ,wat]4--,riv] wat] holds few] salts1 b has a great deal ( organic matt]1 liv+ & dead1 d]iv$ f ! regions ?r\gh :i* x fl[s4 ,to r5d] ?is h>mless = dr9k+1 su* wat] %\ld be boil$1 or filt]$ ?r\gh unglaz$ porcela94 ,c>bon filt]s are n[ ?\ght to possess b little virtue = sep>at+ h>mful g]ms4 #adj4 ,spr+ ,wat]4--,! wat] ( spr+s v>ies z widely 9 composition z d ! rocks :5ce x bubbles =?4 ,sulphur spr+s conta9 mu* ,h#b,s2 _m geys]s hold ,si,o#b 9 solution2 *alybeate wat]s h comp\nds ( ,fe2 o!rs h ,na#b,,s#d1 ,mg,s,o#d ,na,cl1 etc4 ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,flame4 #ada4 ,c&le ,flame4 ,exp]im5t #hb4--;,exam9e a c&le flame1 hold+ a d>k object beh9d x4 ,note ?ree di/9ct portions3 7#a7 a colorless int]ior ab\t ! wick1 7#b7 a yell[ light-giv+ portion beyond t1 7#c7 a ?9 blue envelope outside ( all1 & sc>cely disc]nible4 ,hold a small /ick across ! flame s t x may lie 9 all ?ree p>ts1 & obs]ve t no combu/ion takes place 9 ! inn] portion4 #adb4 ,explanation4--,a c&le ( p>aff9e1 or tall[1 is *iefly compos$ ( comp\nds ( ,c & ,h1 9 ! solid /ate4 ,! burn+ wick melts ! solid2 ! liquid is !n drawn up by ! wick till ! heat vaporizes & decomposes x1 & ,o ( ! air comes 9 contact ) ! out] heat$ portion ( gas1 & burns x completely4 ,air t5ds to p5etrate ! :ole body ( ! flame1 b only ,n c pass ?r\gh uncomb9$1 = ! ,o t is left aft] combu/ion 9 ! out] portion seizes ^u ! comp\nds ( ,c & ,h 9 ! next1 or yell[1 "p4 ,!re is n en\gh ,o "h = complete combu/ion2 at ?is temp]ature ,h burns be=e ,c1 & ! latt] is set free4 ,9 t /ate x is ( c\rse a solid4 ,n[ an inc&esc5t solid1 or "o gl[+ ) heat1 gives light1 :ile ! combu/ion ( a gas gives sc>cely any light1 ?\gh x may produce great heat4 ,:ile ,c 9 ! middle flame is gl[+1 dur+ ! mom5t ( its dissociation f ,h1 x gives light4 ,9 ! out] flame ! temp]ature is high en\gh to burn entirely ! gase\s comp\nds ( ,c & ,h toge!r1 s t no solid ,c is set free1 & h5ce no light is giv5 except ! fa9t blue4 ,no combu/ion takes place 9 ! inn] blue cone1 because no ,o rea*es !re4 ,by pack+ a wick into a cyl9drical t9 cup #e or #aj cm high & #d cm 9 diamet]1 conta9+ alcohol1 & light+ x1 gunp[d] c be held 9 ! middle ( ! flame 9 a def4 spoon1 )\t burn+4 ,?is %[s ! l[ temp]ature ( t portion4 ,burn+ ,p w also be ext+ui%$1 ?us %[+ ! exclusion ( ,o4 #adc4 ,buns5 ,flame4 ,exp]im5t #hc4--;,exam9e a ,buns5 burn]4 ,unscrew ! top1 & note ! orifices = ! admission ( gas & ( air4 ,make a draw+4 ,replace ! p>ts2 !n light ! gas at ! top1 op5+ ! air-holes at ! base4 ,notice t ! flame burns ) v little color4 ,try to di/+ui% ! ?ree p>ts1 z 9 ! c&le flame4 ,^! p>ts c be/ be se5 by all[+ direct sunlight to fall on ! flame & obs]v+ its %ad[ on a :ite gr\nd4 ,make a draw+ ( ! flame4 ,hold across x a ,pt wire & note at :at "p ! wire gl[s mo/4 ,also press d[n on ! flame = an in/ant ) a c>dbo>d or piece ( pap]2 remove be=e x takes fire1 & notice ! *>r$ circle4 ,put ! end ( a mat* into ! blue cone1 & note t x does n burn4 ,put ! end ( a ,pt wire into ?is blue cone1 & obs]ve t x gl[s :5 ne> ! top ( ! cone4 ,:at d ^! exp]im5ts %[8 ,asc]ta9 :e!r ?is inn] portion conta9s a combu/ible mat]ial1 by hold+ 9 x "o end ( a small d4t41 & try+ to ignite any gas escap+ at ! o!r end4 ,x %\ld burn4 ,?is %[s t no combu/ion takes place 9 ! int]ior ( ! flame1 because suffici5t free ,o is n pres5t4 ,next1 close ! air-holes1 & note t ! flame is yell[ & gives mu* light4 ,f ?is we inf] ! pres5ce ( solid p>ticles 9 an inc&esc5t /ate4 ,b ^! c\ld n come f ! air4 ,!y mu/ be ,c p>ticles :i* h be5 set free f ! ,c & ,h comp\nds ( ! gas1 j z 9 ! c&le flame4 ,! smoke t rises proves ?is4 ,hold an e4d4 9 ! flame & collect "s ,c4 ,try ! same ) ! air-holes op54 #add4 ,light & ,heat ( ,flame4--,:i* ( ! two flames is hott]1 ! "o ) ! air-holes op51 or t ) !m clos$8 ,evid5tly ! =m]2 = air is drawn 9 & mixes ) ! gas z x rises 9 ! tube1 &1 on rea*+ ! flame at ! top1 ! two are well m+l$1 & ! gase\s comp\nds ( ,c & ,h burn at s high a temp]ature t solid ,c is n fre$2 h5ce !re is little light4 ,on clos+ ! air-holes1 no ,o c rea* ! flame except f ! outside1 & ! heat is mu* less int5se4 7,fig #cc47 7,fig #cd47 ,! ,h burns fir/1 & sets ! ,c free1 :i*1 :ile gl[+1 gives ! light4 ,?is aga9 illu/rates ! facts 7#a7 t flame is caus$ by burn+ gas2 7#b7 t light is produc$ by inc&esc5t solids4 ,*>coal1 coke1 & an?racite coal burn )\t flame1 or ) v little1 because ( ! abs5ce ( gases4 #ade4 ,temp]ature ( ,combu/ion4 ,exp]im5t #hd4--,light a ,buns5 flame1 ) ! basal orifices op51 & hold ov] x a f9e wire gauze4 ,notice t ! flame does n rise above ! gauze4 ,ext+ui% ! light1 & try to ignite ! gas above ! gauze1 hold+ ! latt] )9 #e or #f cm ( ! burn] tube4 ,notice t x does n burn bel[ ! gauze 7,fig4 #cc74 ,gas & ,o are bo? pres5t4 ,evid5tly1 !n1 ! only condition want+ = combu/ion is a suffici5tly high temp]ature4 ,! gauze cools ! gas bel[ its k9dl+- po9t4 ,?is pr9ciple is made use ( 9 ! m9]'s lamp ( ,davy 7,fig4 #cd74 ,9 coal m9es a v inflammable gas1 ,,*#d1 call$ fire-damp1 issues f ! coal4 ,if ?is collects 9 l>ge quantities & mixes ) ,o ( ! air1 a k9dl+-po9t is all t is ne$$ to make a viol5t explosion4 ,an ord9>y lamp w\ld produce ?is1 b ! gauze lamp prev5ts x2 =1 ?\gh ! inside may be fill$ ) burn+ gas1 ,,*#d1 ! flame _c communicate ) ! outside4 7,fig #ce47 7,fig #cf47 a1 r$uc+ flame b1 oxidiz+ flame #adf4 ,oxidiz+ & ,r$uc+ ,flames4--,! hotte/ "p ( a ,buns5 flame is j above ! inn] blue cone 7b1 ,fig4 #cf74 ,evid5tly !re is m ,o at t po9t4 ,if a r$uc+ ag5t1 i4e4 a sub/ance :i* takes up ,o1 be put into ?is "p ( ! flame1 ! latt] w remove ! ,o & appropriate x1 =m+ an oxide4 ,cu heat$ !re w\ld become copp] oxide4 ,?is "p is call$ ! oxidiz+ flame4 ,! inn] blue "p ( ! ,buns5 flame is devoid ( ,o4 ,x ought to remove ,o f an oxidiz+ ag5t1 i4e4 a sub/ance :i* supplies ,o4 ,if copp] oxide be heat$ !re 7a1 ,fig4 #cf7 by means ( a m\? bl[-pipe 7,fig4 #ce71 ! flame w appropriate ! ,o & leave ! copp]4 ,?is is call$ ! r$uc+ flame4 ,only ! upp] "p ( ?is blue c5tral cone has heat en\gh to act 9 ?is way4 ,by us+ a prep>$ piece ( metal1 to make ! flame ?9 & to %ut (f ! air1 & !n bl[+ ! flame ) a bl[-pipe1 great] /r5g? c be obta9$ 9 bo? oxidiz+ & r$uc+ flames 7,fig4 #cf74 #adg4 ,combu/ible & ,support] ,int]*angeable4-- ,h 0 f\nd to burn 9 ,o4 ,h 0 ! combu/ible1 ,o ! support]4 ,w\ld ,o itself burn 9 ,h8--i4e4 w\ld ! combu/ible become ! support]1 & ! support] ! combu/ible8 ,z illum9at+ gas consi/s l>gely ( ,h1 & z air is "p ,o1 we may try ! exp]im5t ) gas & air4 ,gas w burn 9 air4 ,w air burn 9 gas8 ,exp]im5t #he4--;,fit a cork ) two holes 9 x to ! l>ge end ( a lamp *imney4 ,?r\gh ea* hole pass a %ort piece ( tub+1 & connect "o ( ^! ) a rubb] tube lead+ to a gas-jet4 ,pass a metallic tube1 long en\gh to rea* ! top ( ! *imney1 ?r\gh ! o!r1 s t x w move easily up & d[n4 ,turn on ! gas1 & light x at ! top ( ! *imney4 ,hold ! end ( ! tube pass+ ?r\gh ! cork 9 ! flame = a m9ute1 !n draw x d[n to ! middle ( ! *imney 7,fig4 #cg1 a7 & f9ally sl[ly remove x 7b74 ,note t ,o f ! air is burn+ 9 ! gas4 ,:i* is ! support]1 & :i* ! combu/ible 9 ?is case8 ,o w burn equally well 9 an atmosph]e ( ,h1 z c be %[n by exp]im5t4 #adh4 ,explosive ,mixture ( ,gases4 ,exp]im5t #hf4--,sl[ly turn d[n ! burn+ gas ( a ,buns5 lamp1 hav+ ! orifices op51 & notice t x sudd5ly explodes & goes out at ! top1 b n[ burns at ! base4 ,z ! gas 0 gradually turn$ (f1 m air became mix$ ) x1 until !re 0 ! "r proportion ( ea* gas = an explosion4 ,figure #ch %[s ! same ?+4 ,light ! gas at ! top a1 :5 ! tube c cov]s ! jet b4 ,!n gradually raise ! tube c4 ,at a c]ta9 place !re is ! same explosion z ) ! lamp4 #adi4 ,g5]alizations4--,^! exp]im5ts %[ 7#a7 t ?ree conditions are necess>y = combu/ion1--a combu/ible1 a support]1 & a burn+ temp]ature :i* v>ies = diff]5t sub/ances4 ,giv5 ^!1 a fire always results4 ,! conditions = spontane\s combu/ion d n diff] f ^? ( any combu/ion4 ,see ,exp]im5ts #cd1 #aab1 #aac1 #aad4 7#b7 ,t combu/ible & support] are int]*angeable4 ,if ,h burns 9 ,o1 ,o w burn 9 ,h1 ! product1 be+ ! same 9 ea* case4 7#c7 ,= any combu/ion !re mu/ be a c]ta9 proportion ( combu/ible & ( support]4 ,tw5ty p] c5t ( ,,co#b 9 ! air dilutes ! ,o to su* an ext5t t ,c w n burn4 ,h5ce ! utility ( ! *emical eng9e = putt+ out fires4 7#d7 ,:5 two gases1 a combu/ible & a support]1 are mix$ 9 ! requisite proportion1 !y =m an explosive mixture1 ne$+ only ! k9dl+ temp]ature to unite !m4 ,*emical comb9ation is always accompani$ by dis5gagem5t ( heat4 ,*emical dissociation is always accompani$ by absorption ( heat4 ,! dis5gagem5t1 or ! absorption1 is n always evid5t to ! s5ses4 ,combu/ion is ! *emical comb9ation ( two or m sub/ances ) ! self-evid5t dis5gagem5t ( great heat1 & usually ( light4 ,! temp]ature ( ignition v>ies greatly ) diff]5t sub/ances4 ,,ph#c burns spontane\sly at ! usual temp]atures ( ! air4 ,p takes fire at #fj degrees1 b ev5 at #aj degrees x oxidizes ) rapidity en\gh to produce phosphoresc5ce4 ,! vapor ( ,,cs#b may be set on fire by a glass rod heat$ to #aej degrees1 b a r$-hot iron w n ignite illum9at+ gas4 ,spontane\s combu/ion (t5 takes place 9 wool5 or cotton rags :i* h be5 saturat$ ) oil4 ,! oil rapidly absorbs ,o1 & sets fire to ! clo?4 ,?is is ?\ght to be ! orig9 ( "s v de/ructive fires4 ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,,*lor9e4 #aej4 ,prep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #hg4--,put into a t4t4 #e g4 ( f9e granul> ,mn,o#b & #aj cc4 ,h,cl4 ,apply heat c>efully1 & collect ! gas by d[nw>d displacem5t 9 a receiv] loosely cov]$ ) pap] 7,fig4 #ci74 ,add m ,h,cl if ne$$4 ,h a good draft ( air1 & d n inhale ! gas4 ,if y h accid5tally brea!d x1 inhale alcohol vapor f a h&k]*ief2 alcohol has great aff9ity = ,cl4 ,note ! color ( ! gas1 & comp>e its weight ) t ( air4 ,mn,o#b #d ,h,cl ,mn,cl#b #b ,h#b,o #b ,cl4 ,h[ mu* ,cl c be sep>at$ ) #e g4 ,mn,o#b8 ,if pref]r$1 a flask may be us$ = a g5]ator in/ead ( a t4t4 ,cl c be obta9$ directly f ,na,cl by add+ ,h#b,,s#d 7:i* produces ,h,cl7 & ,mn,o#b4 #b ,na,cl #b ,h#b,,s#d ,mn,o#b ,mn,s,o#d ,na#b,,s#d #b ,h#b,o #b ,cl4 ,try ! exp]im5t1 us+ a t4t4 & add+ wat]4 #aea4 ,cl f ,blea*+-,p[d]4 ,exp]im5t #hh4--,put a few grams ( blea*+- p[d] into a small beak]1 & set ?is into a l>g] "o4 ,cov] ! latt] ) pa/ebo>d or pap]1 ?r\gh :i* passes a ?i/le-tube rea*+ into ! small beak] 7,fig4 #dj74 ,p\r ?r\gh ! tube a little ,h#b,,s#d dilat$ ) its volume ( ,h#b,o4 #aeb4 ,*lor9e ,wat]4--,a solution ( ,cl 9 wat] is (t5 useful1 & may be made z foll[s3-- ,exp]im5t #hi4--,to #c or #d cry/als ( ,k,cl,o#c add a few drops ( ,h,cl4 ,heat a m9ute1 & :5 ! gas beg9s to dis5gage1 p\r 9 #aj cc4 ,h#b,o1 :i* dissolves ! gas4 #b ,k,cl,o#c #d ,h,cl #b ,k,cl ,cl#b,o#d #b ,h#b,o #b ,cl4 #aec4 ,blea*+ ,prop]ties4 ,exp]im5t #ij4--,put into a receiv] ( ,cl1 pref]ably be=e g5]at+ x1 two pieces ( ,turkey r$ clo?1 "o wet1 ! o!r dry2 a small piece ( pr9t$ pap] & a writt5 "o2 also a r$ rose or a gre5 leaf1 ea* wet4 ,note f :i* ! color is dis*>g$4 ,if x is n dis*>g$ f all1 put a little ,h#b,o into ! receiv]1 %ake x well1 & /ate :at ones are blea*$4 ,exp]im5t #ia4--7a7 ,add #e cc4 ( ,cl wat] to #e cc4 ( indigo solution4 7#b7 ,treat 9 ! same way #e cc4 ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g 7potassium di*romate7 solution1 & record ! results4 ,indigo1 writ+-ink1 & ,turkey r$ or madd]1 are vegetable pigm5ts2 pr9t]'s ink conta9s ,c1 & ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g is a m9]al pigm5t4 ,/ate :at color+ matt]s ,cl w blea*4 #aed4 ,dis9fect+ ,p[]4 ,exp]im5t #ib4--,pass a little ,h#b,s gas f a g5]ator into a t4t4 conta9+ ,cl wat]4 ,look = a deposit ( ,s4 ,notice t ! odor ( ,h#b,s disappe>s4 ,h#b,s #b ,cl #b ,h,cl ,s4 #aee4 ,a ,support] ( ,combu/ion4 ,exp]im5t #ic4--,spr9kle into a receiv] ( ,cl a v little f9e p[d] or fil+s ( ,cu1 ,z1 or ,sb1 & notice ! combu/ion4 ,obs]ve t "h is a case ( combu/ion 9 :i* ,o does n take "p4 ,*lorides ( ! metals are ( c\rse =m$4 ,write ! reactions4 ,see :e!r ,cl w support ! combu/ion ( pap] or ( a /ick ( wood4 ,exp]im5t #id4--,w>m #b or #c cc4 ( oil ( turp5t9e 7,c#a,,oh#af7 9 an evaporat+-di%2 dip a piece ( tissue pap] into x1 & v quickly ?ru/ ?is into a receiv] ( ,cl4 ,x %\ld take fire & deposit c>bon4 ,c#a,,oh#af #af ,cl 8 ,te/ ! moi/ure on ! sides ( ! receiv] ) litmus4 ,clean ! receiv] ) a little petroleum4 ,exp]im5t #ie4--,prep>e a ,h g5]ator ) a lamp-tube b5t z 9 ,figure #da4 ,light ! ,h1 obs]v+ ! cautions 9 ,exp]im5t #bc1 & :5 well burn+1 l[] ! flame into a receiv] ( ,cl4 ,obs]ve ! *ange ( color :i* ! flame und]goes z x comes 9 contact ) ,cl4 ,give ! reaction = ! burn+4 ,te/ ) litmus any moi/ure on ! sides ( ! receiv]4 ,a mixture ( ,cl & ,h1 9 direct sunlight comb9es ) explosive viol5ce2 :]eas 9 diffus$ sunlight x comb9es sl[ly1 & 9 d>kness x does n comb9e4 ,f ^! exp]im5ts /ate ! *ief prop]ties ( ,cl1 & :at combu/ion x w support4 ,figure #da4 #aef4 ,s\rces & ,uses4--,! great s\rce ( ,cl is ,na,cl1 ?\gh x is (t5 made f ,h,cl4 ,its *ief use is 9 mak+ blea*+- p[d]1 "o p\nd ( :i* w blea* #cjj to #ejj p\nds ( clo?4 ,cl is v easily lib]at$ f ?is p[d] by a dilute acid1 or1 sl[ly1 by tak+ moi/ure f ! air4 ,h5ce its use z a dis9fectant 9 de/roy+ noxi\s gases & ! g]ms ( infecti\s diseases4 ,cl attacks organic matt] & g]ms z x does ! membrane ( ! ?roat or lungs1 ow+ to its aff9ity = ,h4 ,cl is ! be/ blea*+ ag5t = cotton goods4 ,x is n suitable = animal mat]ials1 su* z silk & wool1 z x attacks _! fib]4 ,x does n dis*>ge ei!r m9]al or c>bon colors4 ,! *emi/ry ( blea*+ is obscure4 ,z dry mat]ial w n blea*1 ,cl seems to unite ) ,h 9 ,h#b,o & to set ,o free4 ,! ,o !n unites ) "s portion ( ! color+ matt]1 oxidiz+ x1 & break+ up its molecule4 ,colors blea*$ by ,cl _c be re/or$4 ,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,,brom9e4 ,exam9e brom9e1 potassium bromide1 sodium bromide1 magnesium bromide4 #aeg4 ,prep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #if4--,pulv]ize #b or #c g4 ,k,br1 & mix x ) ab\t ! same bulk ( ,mn,o#b4 ,aft] putt+ ?is into a t4t1 add z mu* ,h#b,,s#d1 mix !m toge!r by %ak+1 atta* a d4t41 & conduct ! end ( x into a t4t4 t is imm]s$ 9 a bottle ( cold wat]4 ,sl[ly heat ! cont5ts ( ! t4t41 & notice ! color ( ! escap+ vapor1 & any liquid t cond5ses 9 ! receiv]4 ,avoid inhal+ ! fumes1 or gett+ !m into ! eyes4 ,mn,o#b #b ,k,br #b ,h#b,,s#d 8 ,comp>e ?is ) ! equation = mak+ ,cl f ,na,cl4 #aeh4 ,te/s4 ,exp]im5t #ig4--,try ! blea*+ action ( ,br vapor z 9 ! case ( ,cl4 ,blea* a piece ( litmus pap]1 & try to re/ore ! color ) ,,nh#d,,oh4 ,expla9 its blea*+ & dis9fect+ action4 ,try ! combu/ibility ( ,z1 ,sb1 & ,cu4 #aei4 ,description4--,brom9e at usual temp]atures is a liquid elem5t2 x is ! only common "o except ,hg2 x4 quickly evaporates on exposure to air4 ,! *emi/ry ( its manufacture is l t ( ,cl2 its blea*+ & dis9fect+ p[]s are simil> to ! latt]1 ?\gh !y are n q s /rong z ^? ( ,cl4 ,its aff9ity = ,h & = metals is also /rongly m>k$4 ,a drop ( ,br on ! sk9 produces a sore sl[ to heal4 ,brom9e salts are ma9ly ,k,br1 ,na,br1 ,mg,br#b4 ,^! 9 small quantities accompany ,na,cl1 & are mo/ common 9 br9e spr+s4 ,! _w's supply ( ,br comes *iefly f ,we/ ,virg9ia & ,ohio1 ov] #cjj1jjj p\nds be+ produc$ f ! salt 7,na,cl7 wells !re 9 #ahhd4 ,! wat] tak5 f ^! wells is ne>ly evaporat$1 aft] :i* ,na,cl cry/allizes out1 leav+ a ?ick liquid--bitt]n1 or "m liquor--:i* conta9s ! salts ( ,br4 ,! bitt]n is treat$ ) ,h#b,,s#d & ,mn#jb1 z above4 ,= transportation 9 l>ge quantities1 ,br has to be made into ! salts ,na,br & ,k,br1 on acc\nt ( ! dang] att5d+ leakage or breakage ( ! receptacles = ,br4 #afj4 ,uses4--,its *ief uses are 9 photography 7page #afg71 m$ic9e1 z ,k,br1 & analytical *emi/ry4 ,*apt] ,,xxxii4 ,,iod9e4 ,exam9e iod9e1 potassium iodide4 #afa4 ,prep>ation ( ,i4 ,exp]im5t #ih4--,put into a t4t4 #b or #c g4 ( p[d]$ ,,ki mix$ ) an equal bulk ( ,mn,o#b1 add ,h#b,,s#d en\gh to cov] well1 %ake toge!r1 complete ! app>atus z = mak+ ,br1 & heat4 ,notice ! color ( ! vapor1 & any sublimate4 ,! direct product ( ! solidification ( a vapor is call$ a sublimate4 ,! process is sublimation4 ,obs]ve any cry/als =m$4 ,write ! reaction1 & comp>e ! process ) t = mak+ ,br & ,cl4 ,comp>e ! vapor d5sity ( ,i ) t ( ,br & ( ,cl4 ,) t ( air4 ,:at vapor is heavi] ?an ,i8 ,:at acid & :at base are repres5t$ by ,,ki8 #afb4 ,te/s4 ,exp]im5t #ii4--7a7 ,put a cry/al ( ,i 9 ! palm ( ! h& & wat* x = a m9ute4 7#b7 ,put #b or #c cry/als into a t4t41 & w>m x1 mean:ile hold+ a /irr+-rod half-way d[n ! tube4 ,notice ! vapor1 also a sublimate on ! sides ( ! t4t4 & rod4 7#c7 ,add to #b or #c cry/als 9 a t4t4 #e cc4 ( alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#e,,oh2 w>m x1 & see :e!r a solution is =m$4 ,if s1 add #e cc4 ,h#b,o & look = a ppt4 ( ,i4 ,does ?is %[ t ,i is n at all soluble 9 ,h#b,o1 or n s soluble z 9 alcohol8 #afc4 ,/>* ,solution & ,iod9e ,te/4 ,exp]im5t #ajj4--,pulv]ize a gram or two ( />*1 put x into an evaporat+-di%1 add #d or #e drops ( wat]1 & mix2 !n heat to ! boil+-po9t #aj cc4 ,h#b,o 9 a t4t41 & p\r x ov] ! />*1 /irr+ x mean:ile4 7#a7 ,dip into ?is />* pa/e a piece ( pap]1 hold x 9 ! vapor ( ,i1 & look = a *ange ( color4 7#b7 ,p\r a drop ( ! />* pa/e into a clean t4t41 & add a drop or two ( ! solution ( ,i 9 alcohol4 ,add #e cc4 ,h#b,o1 note ! color1 !n boil1 & f9ally cool4 7#c7 ,! pres5ce ( />* 9 a potato or apple c be %[n by putt+ a drop ( ,i solution 9 alcohol on a slice ( ei!r1 & obs]v+ ! color4 7#d7 ,try to dissolve a few cry/als ( ,i 9 #e cc4 ,h#b,o by boil+4 ,if x does n disappe>1 see :e!r any has dissolv$1 by t\*+ a drop ( ! wat] to />* pa/e4 ,?is %\ld %[ t ,i is slightly soluble 9 wat]4 #afd4 ,iodo-,/>* ,pap]4 ,exp]im5t #aja4--;,add to "s />* pa/e t conta9s no ,i #e cc4 ( a solution ( ,,ki1 & /ir ! mixture4 ,:y is x n color$ blue8 ,dip into ?is sev]al /rips ( pap]1 dry !m1 & save = use4 ,?is pap] is call$ iodo-/>* pap]1 & is us$ z a te/ = ozone1 *lor9e1 etc4 ,br+ a piece ( x 9 contact ) ! vapor ( *lor9e1 brom9e1 or ozone1 & notice ! blue color4 ,exp]im5t #ajb4--;,add a few drops ( *lor9e wat] to #b;cc4 ( ! />* & ,,ki solution 9 #aj cc4 ,h#b,o4 ,?is %\ld %[ ! same effect z ! previ\s exp]im5t4 #afe4 ,explanation4--,only free ,i1 n comp\nds ( x1 w color />* blue4 ,x mu/ fir/ be set free f ,,ki4 ,ozone1 *lor9e1 etc41 h a /rong aff9ity = ,k1 & :5 br\ght 9 contact ) ,,ki !y unite ) ,k & set free ,i1 :i* !n acts on ! />* pres5t4 ,com- plete ! equation3 ,,ki ,cl 8 #aff4 ,occurr5ce4--,! ultimate s\rce ( ,i is sea wat]1 ( :i* x con/itutes f> too small a p]c5tage to be sep>at$ artificially4 ,sea-we$s1 or algae1 especially ^? gr[+ 9 ! deep sea1 absorb its salts--,na,i1 ,,ki1 etc4--f ! wat]4 ,x ?us =ms a "p ( ! plant1 & f ?is mu* ( ! ,i ( comm]ce is obta9$4 ,algae are collect$ 9 ! spr+1 on ! coa/s ( ,irel&1 ,scotl&1 & ,norm&y1 :]e r\gh wea!r ?r[s !m up4 ,!y are dri$1 & f9ally burn$ or di/ill$2 ! a%es are lea*$ to dissolve ,i salts2 ! wat] is ne>ly evaporat$1 & ! residue is treat$ ) ,h#b,,s#d1 & ,mn,o#b1 z 9 ! case ( ,br & ,cl4 ,i also occurs 9 ,*ili1 z ,na,i & ,na,i,o#c1 mix$ ) ,na,n,o#c4 ,?is is an important s\rce ( ! ,i supply4 #afg4 ,uses4--,i is mu* us$ 9 m$ic9e1 & 0 =m]ly employ$ 9 tak+ dagu]reotypes & photographs4 ,its solution 9 alcohol or 9 e!r is kn[n z t9cture ( iod9e4 #afh4 ,fluor9e4--,f1 ,cl1 ,br1 ,i1 are call$ halog5s or haloids1 & exi/ 9 comp\nds--salts--9 sea wat]4 ,f is ! mo/ active ( all elem5ts1 comb9+ ) e elem5t except ,o4 ,until rec5tly x has nev] be5 isolat$1 = z soon z set free f "o comp\nd x attacks ! ne>e/ sub/ance1 & seems to be z mu* av]se to comb9+ ) itself1 or to exi/+ 9 ! elem5t>y /ate1 z to unit+ ) ,o4 ,x is suppos$ to be a gas1 &1 z is claim$1 has lately be5 isolat$ by electrolysis f ,,hf 9 a ,pt ,u-tube4 ,fluorite 7,ca,f#b7 & cryolite 7,al#b;,f#f #f ,na,f7 are its two pr9cipal m9]al s\rces4 ,! enamel ( ! tee? conta9s ,f 9 composition4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiii4 ,,! ,,halog5s4 #afi4 ,halog5s ,comp>$4--,! elem5ts ,f1 ,cl1 ,br1 ,i1 =m a natural gr\p4 ,_! prop]ties1 z well z ^? ( _! comp\nds1 v>y 9 a /ep-by-/ep way1 z se5 bel[4 ,f is sometimes an exception4 ,!y are be/ rememb]$ by comp>+ !m ) "o ano!r4 ,notice3 #a4 ,simil>ity ( "n-end+4 ,ea* "n ends 9 ine4 #b4 ,simil>ity ( orig94 ,salt wat] is ! ultimate s\rce ( all1 except ,f4 #c4 ,simil>ity ( val5ce4 ,ea* is usually a monad4 #d4 ,simil>ity ( prep>ation4 ,cl1 ,br1 ,i1 are obta9$ f _! salts by means ( ,mn,o#b end ,h#b,,s#d4 #e4 ,v>iation 9 occurr5ce4 ,cl occurs 9 sea-salt1 ,br 9 sea- wat]1 ,i 9 sea-we$4 #f4 ,v>iation 9 color2 ,f be+ colorless1 ,cl gre51 ,br r$1 ,i violet4 #g4 ,gradation 9 sp4 gr42 ,f #ai1 ,cl #ce4e1 ,br #hj1 ,i #abg4 #h4 ,gradation 9 /ate1 correspond+ to sp4 gr42 ,f be+ a light gas1 ,cl a heavy gas1 ,br a liquid1 ,i a solid4 #i4 ,correspond+ gradation 9 _! usual *emical activity2 ,f be+ mo/ active1 !n ,cl1 ,br1 & ,i4 #aj4 ,correspond+ gradation 9 ! /r5g? ( ! ,h acids2 ! /ronge/ be+ ,,hf1 ! next1 ,h,cl1 etc4 #aa4 ,correspond+ gradation 9 ! explosibility ( _! ,n comp\nds2 ! /ronge/ ,n,cl#c1 ! next1 ,n,br#c1 etc4 #ab4 ,correspond+ gradation 9 ! numb] ( ,h & ,o acids2 ,cl #d1 ,br #c1 ,i #b4 #agj4 ,comp\nds4--,! foll[+ are "s ( ! oxides1 acids1 & salts ( ! halog5s4 ,"n !m4 ,,ci#b,o 7,h#b,o7 #b ,h,cl,o4 ,! salts are hypo*lorites1 z ,ca7,cl,o7#b4 ,cl#b,o#c 7,h#bj7 #b ,h,cl,o#b4 ,! salts are *lorites1 z ,k,cl,o#b4 ,cl#b,o#d -- ,h,cl,o#c ,! salts are *lorates1 z ,k,cl,o#c4 -- ,h,cl,o#d ,! salts are p]*lorates1 z ,k,cl,o#d1 -- ,h,br,o ,! salts are 8 ,k,br,o1 -- -- ,! salts are want+4 -- ,h,br,o#c4 ,! salts are 8 ,k,br,o#c1 -- ,h,br,o#d4 ,! salts are 8 ,k,br,o#d1 -- -- ,! salts are want+4 -- -- ,! salts are want+4 ,i#b,o#e 7,h#b,o7 #b ,,hio#c4 ,! salts are 8 ,,kio#c4 -- ,,hio#d4 ,! salts are 8 ,,kio#d4 ,f =ms no oxides1 & no acids except ,,hf4 ,,hf1 ,h,cl1 ,h,br1 ,,hi1 are /rik+ illu/rations ( acids ) no ,o4 ,h,cl,o#d is a v /rong oxidiz+ ag5t4 ,a drop ( x w set pap] on fire1 or ) p[d]$ *>coal explode viol5tly4 ,?is is ow+ to ! ease ) :i* x gives up #j4 ,notice :y its molecule is brok5 up m readily ?an ,,hc#ajc4 ,! high] ! molecul> t[]1 or ! m atoms x conta9s1 ! great] its liability to fall4 ,"s organic comp\nds conta9 hundr$s ( atoms1 & h5ce are easily brok5 d[n1 or1 z we say1 are un/able4 ,inorganic comp\nds are1 z a rule1 mu* m /able ?an organic ones4 ,x is n always true1 h[ev]1 t ! comp\nd ) ! lea/ numb] ( atoms is ! mo/ /able4 ,,s#b is m /able ?an ,,s#c1 b ,h#b,,s#c is less s ?an ,h#b,,s#d4 ,*apt] ,,xxxiv4 ,,vapor ,,d5sity ,,& ,,molecul> ,,weight4 ,exam9e a lit] measure1 9 ! =m ( a cube1--cubic decimet]1 --& a cubic c5timet]4 #aga4 ,gase\s ,weights & ,volumes4--,a lit] ( ,h1 at #j degrees & #gfj mm41 weighs ne>ly #j4ji g4 ,?is weight is call$ a cri?4 ,f9d ! weight ( ,h 9 ! foll[+1 9 cri?s & 9 grams3 #ae #a41 #j4jg #a41 #ej4c #a41 #j4jce #a41 #j4f #a44 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t !re are 7#aj7 #bd4 molecules ( ,h 9 a lit]4 ,does ! numb] v>y = diff]5t gases8 ,! weight ( a molecule ( ,h 9 p>ts ( a cri? is #a_/7aj7 #bd42 9 p>ts ( a gram 4#ji_/7aj7 #bd44 ,if ! ,h molecule is compos$ ( #b atoms1 :at is ! weight ( its atom 9 fractions ( a cri?8 ,:at 9 fractions ( a gram8 ,! weight ( ! ,h atom is a microcri?4 ,:at "p ( a cri? is a microcri?8 #agb4 ,vapor ,d5sity4--,vapor d5sity1 or specific gravity ref]r$ to ,h z ! /&>d1 7,physics7 is ! ratio ( ! weight ( a giv5 volume ( a gas or vapor to ! weight ( ! same volume ( ,h4 ,a lit] ( /eam weighs n9e times z mu* z a lit] ( ,h4 ,its vapor d5sity is !re=e n9e4 ,= conv5i5ce1 a def9ite volume ( ,h is usually tak5 z ! /&>d1 viz41 ! ,h atom4 ,! volume ( ! ,h atom & t ( ! half-molecule ( ,h#b,o1 or ( any gas are id5tical1 ea* be+ repres5t$ by "o squ>e4 ,if1 !n1 ! /&>d ( vapor d5sity is ! ,h atom1 half ! molecul> weight ( a gas mu/ be its vapor d5sity1 s9ce x is evid5t t we ?us comp>e ! weights ( equal volumes4 ,! vapor d5sity ( ,h#b,o1 /eam1 is f\nd f ! symbol z foll[s3 7#b #af7 _/ #b #i4 ,to obta9 ! vapor d5sity ( any comp\nd f ! =mula1 we h only to divide its molecul> weight by two4 ,f9d ! vapor d5sity ( ,h,cl1 ,n#b,o1 ,,no1 ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa1 ,cl1 ,,co#b1 ,,hf1 ,,s#b4 ,expla9 ea* case4 ,! half-molecule1 in/ead ( ! :ole1 is tak52 because our /&>d is ! hydrog5 atom1 ! smalle/ portion ( matt]1 by weight1 kn[n to sci5ce4 ,h[ _m cri?s 9 a lit] ( ,h,cl8 ,h[ _m grams8 ,compute ! numb] ( cri?s & ( grams 9 "o lit] ( ! comp\nds ^: symbols appe> above4 ,,problems4 7#a7 ,a c]ta9 volume ( ,h weighs #j4cf g4 at /&>d temp]ature & pressure4 ,h[ _m lit]s does x conta98 ,if "o lit] weighs #j4ji g41 to weigh #j4cf g4 x w take #j4cf _/ #j4ji #d lit]s4 7#b7 ,h[ _m lit]s1 or cri?s1 ( ,h 9 #fc g48 #b4g g48 #a g48 #e g48 #bej g48 ,expla9 ea*4 7#c7 ,suppose ! gas to be twice z heavy z ,h1 h[ _m lit]s 9 #j4cf g48 ,a lit] ( ! gas w weigh #j4ah g4 7#j4ji ,x #b74 ,9 #j4cf g4 !re w be #j4cf _/ #j4ah #b4 ,answ] ! "q = #fc g41 #b4g g41 etc4 7#d7 ,h[ _m lit]s ( ,cl 9 ea* ( ! above numb]s ( grams8 7#e7 ,h[ _m ( ,h,cl8 ,h#b,o 7/eam78 ,,co#b8 ,expla9 fully e case4 ,vapor d5sity is v easily det]m9$ f ! =mula by ! me?od giv5 above4 ,b 9 practice ! =mula is obta9$ f ! vapor d5sity1 & h5ce ! me?od !re giv5 has to be rev]s$4 #agc4 ,vapor ,d5sity ( ,oxyg54--,suppose we 7 to obta9 ! vapor d5sity ( ,o4 ,we %\ld c>efully seal & weigh a giv5 volume1 say a lit]1 at a not$ temp]ature & b>ometric pressure1 :i* are r$uc$to #j degrees & #gfj mm1 & comp>e x ) ! weight ( ! same volume ( ,h4 ,?is has be5 done repeat$ly1 & ,o has be5 f\nd to weigh #af times z mu* z ,h1 volume = volume1 or1 m exactly1 #ae4if4 ,n[ a lit] ( ea* gas has ! same numb] ( molecules1 !re=e ! ,o molecule weighs #af times ! ,h molecule4 ,! half-molecule ( ea* has ! same proportion1 & ! vapor d5sity ( ,o is #af4 ,atomic weight is obta9$ 9 a v diff]5t way4 ,,problems4 7#a7 ,a lit] ( ,cl is f\nd to weigh #c4aie g4 ,compute its vapor d5sity1 & expla9 fully4 7#b7 ,a lit] ( ,hg vapor1 "u /&>d conditions1 weighs #i g4 ,f9d its vapor d5sity1 & expla94 ,! vapor d5sity ( only a few elem5ts has be5 satisfactorily det]m9$4 ,see page #ab4 ,"s _c be vaporiz$2 o!rs c be1 b only "u conditions :i* prev5t weigh+ !m4 ,! vapor d5sity ( v _m comp\nds also is unkn[n4 7#c7 ,a lit] ( ,,co#b weighs #a4ih g4 ,f9d ! vapor d5sity1 & f t ! molecul> weight1 rememb]+ t ! latt] is twice ! =m]4 ,see :e!r x corresponds to t obta9$ f ! =mula1 ,,co#b4 ,?is is19 fact1 ! way a =mula is asc]ta9$1 if ! atomic weights ( its elem5ts are kn[n4 7#d7 ,a lit] ( a comp\nd gas weighs #b4hh g4 ,analysis %[s t its weight is half ,s & half ,o4 ,z ! atomic weight ( ,s is #cb1 & t ( ,o is #af1 :at is ! symbol = ! gas8 ,solution4 ,its molecul> weight is #fd1 i4e4 7#b4hhj4ji7 ,x #b1 ( :i* #cb is ,s & #cb ,o4 ,! atomic weight ( ,s is #cb1 h5ce !re is "o atom ( ,s1 :ile ( ,o !re are two atoms4 ,! =mula is ,,s#b4 7#e7 ,a lit] ( a comp\nd gas1 :i* is f\nd to conta9 #a ,c & #c ,o by weight1 weighs #a4bf g4 ,:at is its =mula8 ,atomic weights are tak5 f page #ab4 ,prove y\r answ]4 7#f7 ,a lit] ( a comp\nd ( ,n & ,o weighs #a4ih g4 ,! ,n is #g_/aa2 & ! ,o #d_/aa4 ,:at is ! gas8 7#g7 ,a comp\nd ( ,n & ,h gas weighs #j4gfe g4 to ! lit]4 ,! ,n is #ad_/ag ( ! :ole1 ! ,h #c_/ag4 ,:at gas is x8 ,,*apt] ,,xxxv4 ,,atomic ,,weight4 #agd4 ,def9ition4--,we h se5 t ! molecul> weight ( a comp\nd1 z well z ( mo/ elem5ts1 is obta9$ f ! vapor d5sity by d\bl+ ! latt]4 ,x rema9s to expla9 h[ atomic weights are obta9$4 ,! t]m is r mislead+4 ,! atomic weight ( an elem5t is its lea/ comb9+ weight1 ! smalle/ portion t ent]s into *emical union1 :i* is1 ( c\rse1 ! weight ( an atom4 #age4 ,atomic ,weight ( ,oxyg54--,suppose we wi% to f9d ! atomic weight ( oxyg54 ,we mu/ f9d ! smalle/ proportion by weight 9 :i* x occurs 9 any comp\nd4 ,?is c only be done by analyz+ all ! comp\nds ( ,o t c be vaporiz$4 ,z illu/rative ( ^! comp\nds take ! six foll[+3-- ,wt4 ( o!r ,names4 ,v4 d4 ,mol4 ,wt4 ,wt4 ( ,o4 ,elem4 ,symbol4 ,c>bon monoxide444 #ad #bh #af #ab 8 ,c>bon dioxide4444 #bb #dd #cb #ab 8 ,hydrog5 monoxide444 #i #ah #af #b 8 ,nitrog5 monoxide444 #bb #dd #af #bh 8 ,nitrog5 trioxide444 #ch #gf #dh #bh 8 ,nitrog5 p5toxide444 #ed #ajh #hj #bh 8 #agf4 ,molecul> ,symbols4--,f ! vapor d5sity ( ! gases-- column #b--we obta9 _! molecul> weight-- column #c4 ,to f9d ! proportion ( ,o1 x mu/ be sep>at$ by *emical means f its comp\nds & sep>ately weigh$4 ,^! relative weights are giv5 9 column #d4 ,n[ ! smalle/ weight ( ,o :i* unites 9 any case is its atomic weight4 ,if any comp\nd ( ,o %\ld 9 future be f\nd 9 :i* its comb9+ weight is #h or #d1 t w\ld be call$ its atomic weight4 ,by divid+ ! numb]s 9 column #d1 wt4 ( ,o1 by #af1 ! atomic weight ( ,o1 we obta9 ! numb] ( ,o atoms 9 ! molecule4 ,subtract+ ! weights ( ,o f ! molecul> weights1 we h ! p>ts ( ! o!r elem5ts1 column #e1 & divid+ ^! by ! atomic weight ( ! respective elem5ts1 we h ! numb] ( atoms ( ^? elem5ts1 ^! la/1 comb9$ ) ! numb] ( ,o atoms1 give ! symbol4 ,9 ?is way complete ! la/ column4 ,%[ h[ to get ! atomic weight ( ,cl f ^! comp\nds1 arrang+ !m 9 tabul> =m1 & complet+ z above3 ,h,cl1 ,k,cl1 ,na,cl1 ,zn,cl#b1 ,mg,cl#b2 ! atomic weight ( ,n 9 ^!3 ,n#b,o1 ,,no1 ,,nh#c4 #agg4 ,molecul> & ,atomic ,volumes4--,we ?us see t vapor d5sity & atomic weight are obta9$ 9 two q diff]5t ways4 ,9 ! case ( elem5ts ! two are usually id5tical1 i4e4 ) ! few ^: vapor d5sity is kn[n2 b ?is is n always true1 & x leads to int]e/+ conclusions reg>d+ atomic volume4 ,9 ,o bo? vapor d5sity & atomic weight are #af4 ,?is gives #b atoms ( ,o to ! molecule1 i4e4 ! molecul> weight _/ ! atomic weight4 ,! size ( an ,o atom is !re=e half ! gase\s molecule1 & is repres5t$ by "o squ>e4 ,s has a vapor d5sity & an atomic weight ( #cb ea*4 ,compute ! numb] ( atoms 9 ! molecule4 ,compute = ,i1 9 :i* ! two are id5tical1 #abg4 ,p has an atomic weight ( #ca1 :ile its vapor d5sity is #fb4 ,its molecule mu/ consi/ ( #d atoms1 ea* half ! size ( ! ,h atom1 ,! vapor d5sity ( ,z is #aej1 ! atomic weight #ge4 ,compute ! numb] ( atoms 9 its molecule1 & repres5t _! relative size4 ,hg has an atomic weight ( #bjj1 a vapor d5sity ( #ajj4 ,compute z be=e1 & comp>e ! results ) ^? on page #ab4 ,ozone has an atomic weight ( #af1 a vapor d5sity #bd4 ,compute4 ,*apt] ,,xxxvi4 ,,diffusion ,,& ,,cond5sation ,,( ,,gases4 #agh4 ,diffusion ( ,gases4--,oxyg5 is #af times z heavy z ,h4 ,if ! two gases 7 mix$1 )\t comb9+1 9 a conf9$ space1 x might be suppos$ t ,o w\ld settle to ! bottom & ,h rise to ! top4 ,?is w\ld1 9 fact1 take place at fir/1 b only = an in/ant1 = all gases t5d to diffuse or become intimately mix$4 ,! light] ! gas ! m quickly x diffuses4 #agi4 ,law ( ,diffusion ( ,gases4--,! diffusibility ( gases v>ies inv]sely z ! squ>e roots ( _! vapor d5sities4 ,comp>e ! diffusibility ( ,h ) t ( ,o4 dif4 ,h3dif4 ,o33 sqrt7#af73 sqrt7#a71 or dif3 ,h3 dif4 ,o33 #d3 #a4 ,t is to say1 if ,h & ,o be set free f sep>ate receiv]s 9 a room1 ! ,h w become int]m+l$ ) ! atmosph]e f\r times z quickly z ! ,o4 ,comp>e ! diffusibility ( ,o & ,n2 ( ,cl & ,h4 ,take ! atomic weights ( ^!1 s9ce !y are ! same z ! vapor d5sities4 ,9 case ( a comp\nd gas1 half ! molecul> weight mu/ be tak5 = ! vapor d5sity2 e4g4 dif4 ,n#bj3 dif4 ,o433 sqrt7#af73 sqrt7#bb74 #ahj4 ,cause4--,diffusion is due to molecul> motion2 ! light] ! gas ! m rapid ! vibration ( its molecules4 ,comp>e ! diffusibility ( ,,co#b & t ( ,cl2 ( ,h,cl & ,,s#b2 ( ,,hf & ,i4 #aha4 ,liquefaction & ,solidification ( ,gases4--,wat] boils at #ajj degrees1 "u /&>d pressure1 ?\gh evaporat+ at all temp]atures2 x vaporizes at a l[] po9t if ! pressure be less1 z on a m\nta91 & at a high] temp]ature if ! pressure be great]1 z at po9ts bel[ ! sea level4 ,alcohol boils at #gh degrees1 /&>d pressure1 & e liquid has a po9t ( temp]ature & pressure above :i* x mu/ pass into ! gase\s /ate4 ,likewise e gas has a critical temp]ature above :i* x _c be liquefi$ at any pressure4 ,?is condition 0 n recogniz$ =m]ly1 & be=e #ahgg1 ,o1 ,h1 ,n1 ,c#d1 ,,co1 ,,no1 etc41 _h n be5 liquefi$1 ?\gh put "u a pressure ( m ?an #b1jjj atmosph]es4 ,!y 7 call$ p]man5t gases4 ,9 #ahgg ,cailletet & ,pictet liquefi$ & solidifi$ ^! & o!rs4 ,! l[e/ temp]ature1 ab\t -#bbe degrees1 0 produc$ by sudd5ly releas+ ! pressure f solid ,n to #dmm1 :i* caus$ x rapidly to evaporate4 ,evaporation1 especially "u dim9i%$ pressure1 always l[]s ! temp]ature by )draw+ heat4 ,^! l[ degrees are indicat$ by a ,h !rmomet]1 or if too l[ = t1 by a !rmo-electric c\ple ( copp] & ,g]man silv]4 ,! pupil c easily liquefy ,,s1 by pass+ x ?r\gh a ,u-tube :i* is surr\nd$ by a mixture ( ice & salt 9 a l>ge receiv]4 ,at ! meet+ ( ! ,am]ican ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce 9 #ahhg1 a solid brick ( ,,co#b 0 se5 & h&l$ by ! memb]s1 ,liquid ,h is /eel blue4 ,a few results obta9$ "u a pressure ( "o atmosph]e are3-- ,boil+ ,po9ts3 ,c#b;,h#d--ajb degrees2 ,,*#d--ahd degrees2 ,o--#aha degrees2 ,n --#aid degrees2 ,,co--#aij degrees2 ,,no--#aed degrees2 ,air-- #aia degrees4 ,solidify+ ,po9ts3 ,cl -#ajb degrees2 ,h,cl -#aae degrees2 ,e!r -#abi degrees2 ,alcohol -#acj degrees4 ,*apt] ,,xxxvii4 ,,sulphur4 ,exam9e brim/one1 fl[]s ( sulphur1 pyrite1 *alcopyrite1 sphal]ite1 gal5ite1 gypsum1 b>ite4 #ahb4 ,sep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #ajc4--,to a solution ( #b g4 ( sodium sulphide11 ,na#b,s#b 9 #aj cc4 ,h#b,o add #c or #d;cc4 ,h,cl1 & look = a ppt4 ,filt]1 & exam9e ! residue4 ,x is lac sulphur1 or milk ( sulphur4 #ahc4 ,cry/als f ,fusion4 ,exp]im5t #ajd4--;,9 a beak] ( #be or #ej cc4 capacity put #bj g4 brim/one4 ,place ?is ov] a flame ) asbe/os pap] int]pos$1 & melt x sl[ly4 ,note ! color ( ! liquid1 !n let x cool1 wat*+ = cry/als4 ,:5 p>tly solidifi$ p\r ! liquid portion into an evapo- rat+-di% ( wat]1 & obs]ve ! cry/als ( ,s =m+ 9 ! beak] 7,fig4 #db74 ,! h>d mass may be sep>at$ f ! glass by a little ,,hno#c & a ?9 knife-blade1 or by ,,cs#b4 #ahd4 ,allotropy4 ,exp]im5t #aje4--,place 9 a t4t4 #ae;g ( brim/one1 !n heat sl[ly till x melts4 ,notice ! ?9 amb]-color$ liquid4 ,! temp]ature is n[ a little above #ajj degrees4 ,z ! heat increases1 notice t x gr[s d>k] till x becomes black & s viscid t x _c be p\r$ out4 ,x is n[ above #bjj degrees4 ,/ill heat1 & obs]ve t x *anges to a slightly light] color1 & is aga9 a ?9 liquid4 ,at ?is "t x is above #cjj degrees4 ,n[ p\r a little into an evaporat+ di% conta9+ wat]4 ,exam9e ?is1 notic+ t x c be /ret*$ l rubb]4 ,leave x 9 ! wat] till x becomes h>d4 ,cont9ue heat+ !brim/one 9 ! t4t4 till x boils at ab\t #dej degrees1 & note ! color ( ! escap+ vapor4 ,j above ?is po9t x takes fire4 ,cool ! t4t41 hold+ x 9 ! light meantime1 & look = a sublimate ( ,s on ! sides4 #ahe4 ,solution4 ,exp]im5t #ajf4--,place 9 an evaporat+-di% a gram ( p[d]$ brim/one1 & add #e;cc1 ,,cs#b1 c>bon disulphide4 ,/ir1 & see :e!r ,s is dissolv$4 ,put ?is 9 a draft ( air1 & note ! evaporation ( ! liquid ,,cs#b1 & ! deposit ( ,s cry/als4 ,^! cry/als are diff]5t 9 =m f ^? result+ f cool+ f fusion4 #ahf4 ,!ory ( ,allotropy4--,! la/ ?ree exp]im5ts well illu/rate allotropy4 ,we f\nd ,s to cry/allize 9 two diff]5t ways4 ,sub/ances c cry/allize 9 sev5 diff]5t sy/ems1 & usually a giv5 sub/ance is f\nd 9 "o ( ^! sy/ems only2 e4g4 gal5a is inv>iably cubical4 ,an elem5t hav+ two su* =ms is said to be dimorph\s4 ,if x cry/allizes 9 ?ree sy/ems1 x is trimorph\s4 ,a cry/al has a def9ite arrangem5t ( its molecules4 ,if )\t cry/all9e =m1 a sub/ance is call$ amorph\s4 ,an illu/ration ( amorphism 0 ,s aft] x _h be5 p\r$ into wat]4 ,?us ,s has at lea/ ?ree allotropic =ms1 & ! gradations betwe5 ^! probably repres5t o!rs4 ,allotropy seems to be due to v>i$ molecul> /ructure4 ,we "k b little ( ! molecul> condition ( solids & liquids1 s9ce we h no law to guide u l ,avogadro's 9 gases2 b1 f ! d5sity ( ,s vapor at diff]5t temp]atures1 we inf] t liquids & solids h _! molecules v diff]5tly made up f ^? ( gases4 ,! lea/ comb9+ weight ( ,s is #cb4 ,its vapor d5sity at #a1jjj degrees is #cb2 h5ce its molecul> weight is #fd1 i4e4 vapor d5sity x #b2 & !re are #b atoms 9 its molecule at t temp]ature1 molecul> weight _/ atomic weight4 ,at #ejj degrees1 h[ev]1 ! vapor d5sity is #if;& ! molecul> weight #aib4 ,at ?is degree ! molecule mu/ conta9 #f atoms4 ,h[ _m x has 9 ! allotropic =ms1 z a solid1 is beyond our k2 b x seems q likely t allotropy is due to "s *ange ( molecul> /ructure4 ,! above exp]im5ts %[ two modes ( obta9+ cry/als1 by fusion & by solution4 #ahg4 ,occurr5ce & ,purification4--,sulphur occurs bo? free & comb9$1 & is a v common elem5t4 ,x is f\nd free 9 all volcanic regions1 b ,sicily furni%es mo/ ( x4 ,great quantities are ?r[n up f ! int]ior ( ! e>? dur+ an eruption4 ,! heat ( volcanic action probably sep>ates x f its comp\nd1 :i* may be ,ca,s,o#d4 ,va/ quantities ( ! poison\s ,,s#b gas are also lib]at$ dur+ an eruption1 ?is be+1 9 volume ( gases evolv$1 next to ,h#b,o4 ,s is crudely sep>at$ f its e>?y impurities 9 ,sicily by pil+ x into heaps1 cov]+ to prev5t access ( air1 & ignit+1 :5 "s ( ! ,s burns1 & ! re/ melts & is collect$4 ,aft] removal f ! isl& x is fur!r purifi$ by di/ill+ 9 retorts connect$ ) l>ge *amb]s :]e x sublimes on ! sides z fl[]s ( sulphur 7,fig4 #dc74 ,?is is melt$ & run into molds1 =m+ roll brim/one4 ,s also occurs z a con/itu5t ( animal & vegetable comp\nds1 z 9 mu/>d1 hair1 eggs1 etc4 ,! t>ni%+ ( silv] spoons by eggs is due to ! =mation ( silv] sulphide1 ,ag#b,s4 ,! yell[ color ( eggs1 h[ev]1 is due to oils1 n to ,s4 ,! ma9 comp\nds ( ,s are sulphides & sulphates4 ,:at acids d !y respectively repres5t8 ,metallic sulphides are z common z oxides2 e4g4 ,fe,s#b1 or pyrite1 ,pb,s1 or gal5ite1 ,zn,s1 or sphal]ite1 ,cu,fe,s#b1 or *alcopyrite1 etc4 ,! mo/ abundant sulphate is ,ca,s,o#d1 or gypsum4 ,ba,s,o#d1 or b>ite1 & ,na#b,,s#d1 or ,glaub]'s salt1 are o!rs4 ,! only "o ( ^! comp\nds t is utiliz$ = its ,s is ,fe,s#b4 ,9 ,europe ?is furni%es a great deal ( ! ,s = ,h#b,,s#d4 ,s is obta9$ by roa/+ ,fe,s#b4 #c ,fe,s#b ,fe#c,s#d #b ,s4 #ahh4 ,uses4 -,! greate/ use ( ,s is 9 ! manufacture ( ,h#b,,s#d4 ,a great deal is us$ 9 mak+ gunp[d]1 mat*es1 vulcaniz$ rubb]1 & ! artificial sulphides1 l ,hg,s1 ,h#b,s1 ,,cs#b1 etc4 ,! la/ is a v volatile1 ill- smell+ liquid1 made by ! comb9ation ( two solids1 ,s be+ pass$ ov] r$-hot *>coal4 ,x dissolves ,s1 ,p1 rubb]1 gums1 & _m o!r sub/ances insoluble 9 ,h#b,o4 #ahi4 ,sulphur ,dioxide1 ,,s#b1 has be5 made 9 _m exp]im5ts4 ,x is a blea*+ ag5t1 a dis9fectant1 & a v active comp\nd1 hav+ great aff9ity = wat]1 b x w n support combu/ion4 ,l mo/ dis9fectants1 x is v injuri\s to ! sy/em4 ,x is us$ to blea* silk & wool--animal sub/ances-- & /raw goods1 :i* ,cl w\ld injure2 b ! color c be re/or$1 z ! color+ molecule seems n to be brok5 up1 b to comb9e ) ,,s#b1 :i* is aga9 sep>at$ by reag5ts4 ,goods blea*$ ) ,,s#b (t5 turn yell[ aft] a "t4 #aij4 ,,s#b a ,blea*]4 ,exp]im5t #ajg4-,te/ its blea*+ p[] by burn+ ,s "u a receiv] "u :i* a wet rose or a gre5 leaf is also plac$4 ,*apt] ,,xxxviii4 ,,hydrog5 ,,sulphide4 ,exam9e f]r\s sulphide1 natural & artificial4 #aia4 ,prep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #ajh4--,put a gram ( f]r\s sulphide 7,fe,s7 into a t4t4 fitt$ ) a d4t41 z 9 ,figure #cb4 ,add #aj;cc4 ,h#b,o & #e;cc4 ,h#b,,s#d4 ,h#b,s is =m$4 ,write ! equation1 omitt+ ,h#b,o4 ,:at is left 9 solution8 #aib4 ,te/s4 ,exp]im5t #aji4-7a7 ,take ! odor ( ! escap+ gas4 7#b7 ,p\r into a t4t4 #e;cc4solution ,ag,n,o#c1 & place ! end ( ! d4t4 f a ,h#b,s g5]ator into ! solution & note ! color ( ! ppt4 ,:at is ! ppt48 ,write ! equation4 7#c7 ,exp]im5t 9 ! same way ) ,pb7,,no#c7b solution4 ,write ! equation4 7#d7 ,let "s ,h#b,s bubble into a t4t4 ( clean wat]4 ,to see :e!r ,h#b,s is soluble 9 ,h#b,o1 put a few drops ( ! wat] on a silv] co94 ,ag#b,s is =m$4 ,describe1 & write ! equation4 ,d ! same ) a copp] co94 7#e7 ,put a drop ( lead acetate solution1 ,pb7,c#b;,h#c,o#b7b1 on a piece ( unglaz$ pap]1 & hold ?is be=e ! d4t4 f :i* ,h#b,s is escap- +4 ,pb,s is =m$4 ,write ! equation4 ,?is is ! *>act]i/ic te/ ( ,h#b,s4 #aic4 ,combu/ion ( ,h#b,s ,exp]im5t #aaj4--;,atta* a philosoph]'s lamp tube to ! ,h#b,s g5]ator1 &1 obs]v+ ! same precautions z ) ,h1 light ! gas4 ,:at two products mu/ be =m$8 ,/ate ! reaction4 ,! color ( ! flame4 ,compute ! molecul> weight & ! vapor d5sity ( ,h#b,s4 #aid4 ,uses4 -,hydrog5 sulphide or sulphurett$ hydrog51 ,h#b,s1 is employ$ *iefly z a reag5t 9 ! *emical laboratory4 ,x =ms sulphides ) _m ( ! metals1 z %[n 9 ! la/ exp]im5t4 ,^! are precipitat$ f solution1 & may be sep>at$ f o!r metals :i* are n s precipitat$1 z 0 f\nd 9 ! case ( ,h,cl & ,,nh#d,,oh4 ,! subjo9$ exp]im5t w illu/rate ?is4 ,suppose we wi%$ to sep>ate ,pb f ,ba1 hav+ salts ( ! two mix$ toge!r1 z ,pb7,,no#c7b & ,ba7,,no#c7b4 #aie4 ,h#b,s an ,analyz] ( ,metals4 ,exp]im5t #aaa4--,pass ,"s ,h#b,s gas 9 to #e;cc4solution ,ba7,,no#c7b4 ,no ppt4 is =m$4 ,d ! same ) ,pb7,,no#c7b solution4 ,a ppt4 appe>s4 ,n[ mix #e;cc4( ea* ( ^! solutions 9 a t4t4 & pass ! gas f a ,h#b,s g5]ator into ! liquid4 ,:at is precipitat$1 & :at is un*ang$8 ,:5 fully saturat$ ) ! gas1 z indicat$ by ! smell1 filt]4 ,:i* metal is on ! filt] & :i* is 9 ! filtrate8 ,o!r reag5ts1 z ,na#b;,,co#c solution1 w\ld precipitate ! latt]4 #aif4 ,occurr5ce & ,prop]ties4 -- ,h#b,s is an ill-smell- +1 poison\s gas1 =m$ 9 sew]s1 rott5 eggs1 & o!r decay+ album9\s matt]4 ,x is =m$ 9 ! e>?1 probably f ! action ( wat] on sulphides1 & issues ) wat] f sulphur spr+s4 ,a *>act]i/ic prop]ty is ! =mation ( metallic sulphides1 z above4 ,a skipp] "o night an*or$ 8 newly pa9t$ vessel ne> ! ,bo/on gas-h\se1 :]e ! refuse 0 deposit$1 ) its escap+ ,h#b,s4 ,9 ! morn+1 to 8 con/]nation1 ! craft 0 f\nd to be black4 ,h#b,s _h come 9 contact ) ! lead 9 ! :ite pa9t1 =m+ black ,pb,s4 ,?is gradually oxidiz$ aft] rea*+ ! op5 sea1 & ! :ite color reappe>$4 ,*apt] ,,xxxix4 ,,phosphorus4 ,,note4--,phosphorus %\ld be kept 9 wat]1 & h&l$ ) =ceps1 nev] ) ! f+]s1 except "u wat]1 z x is liable to burn ! fle% & produce ulc]at+ sores4 ,pieces n l>g] ?an half a pea %\ld be us$1 & e bit %\ld f9ally be burn$4 #aig4 ,solution & ,combu/ion4 ,exp]im5t #aab4 -,put #a or #b pieces ( ,p into an evaporat+- di%1 & p\r ov] !m #e or #aj;cc4,,cs#b c>bon disulphide4 ,?is w be en\gh = a class4 ,:5 dissolv$1 dip pieces ( unglaz$ pap] into x1 & hold ^! 9 ! air1 look+ = any combu/ion z !y dry4 ,! ,p is f9ely divid$ 9 solution1 :i* acc\nts = its m ready combu/ion !n4 ,notice t ! pap] is n de/roy$4 ,?is is an example ( s-call$ spontane\s combu/ion4 ,! burn+- po9t ( ,p1 ! combu/ible1 9 air1 ! support]1 is ab\t #fj degrees4 #aih4 ,combu/ion "u ,wat]4 ,exp]im5t #aac4 -,put a piece ( ,p 9 a t4t4 :i* re/s 9 a receiv]1 add a few cry/als ,k,cl,o#c & #e;cc4 ,h#b,o4 ,n[ p\r 9 ?r\gh a ?i/le-tube #a;cc4or m ( ,h#b,,s#d4 ,look = any flame4 ,h#b,,s#d acts v /rongly on ,k,cl,o#c4 ,:at is set free8 ,f ?is fact expla9 ! combu/ion 9 wat]4 #aii4 ,occurr5ce4--,p is v widely dissem9at$1 b n abundant1 & is f\nd only 9 comp\nds1 ! *ief ( :i* is calcium phosphate ,ca#c7,,po#d7b4 ,x occurs 9 granite & o!r rocks1 z ! m9]al apatite1 9 soils1 9 plants1 p>ticul>ly 9 se$s & gra9s1 & 9 ! bones1 bra9s1 etc41 ( v]tebrates4 ,f ! human sy/em x is excret$ by ! kidneys z microcosmic salt1 ,h,na,n,h#d,,po#d2 & :5 ! bra9 is h>d- work$1 m ?an usual is excret$4 ,h5ce bra9-work]s h be5 said to burn phosphorus4 #bjj4 ,s\rces4--,rocks are ! ultimate s\rce ( ?is elem5t4 ,^!1 by ! action ( heat1 ra91 & fro/1 are dis9tegrat$ & g to make soils4 ,! rootlets ( plants are s5t ?r\gh ! soil1 &1 among o!r ?+s1 soluble phosphates 9 ! e>? are absorb$1 circulat$ by ! sap1 & select$ by ! v>i\s tissues4 ,animals fe$ on plants1 & ! phosphates are circulat$ ?r\gh ! blood1 & deposit$ 9 ! osse\s tissue1 or :]ev] ne$$4 ,human bones conta9 ne>ly #fj p] c5t ( ,ca#c7,,po#d7b2 ^? ( "s birds ov] #hj p] c5t4 ,! ma9 s\rces ( phosphates & ,p are ! phosphate b$s ( ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 ! apatite b$s ( ,canada1 & ! bones ( animals4 #bja4 ,prep>ation ( ,phosphates & ,phosphorus4--,bone a%1 obta9$ by burn+ or di/ill+ bones1 & gr9d+ ! residue1 is treat$ ) ,h#a,,s#d1 & =ms soluble ,h#d;,ca7,,po#d7b1 sup]phosphate ( lime1 & insoluble ,ca,s,o#d4 ,ca#c7,,po#d7b #b ,h#b,,s#d ,h#d;,ca7,,po#jd7b #b ,ca,s,o#d4 ,?is completes ! process = f]tiliz]s4 ,if ,p is desir$1 ! above is filt]$2 *>coal1 a r$uc+ ag5t1 is add$ to ! filtrate2 ! sub/ance is evaporat$1 !n v /rongly heat$ & di/ill$ 9 retorts1 ! necks ( :i* dip "u wat]4 ,x is !n purifi$ f any uncomb9$ ,c by melt+ 9 hot wat] & pass+ into molds 9 cold wat]4 ,! "w is v dang]\s & injuri\s1 on acc\nt ( ! l[ burn+-po9t ( ,p1 & its poison\s prop]ties4 ,:ile its comp\nds are necess>y to human life1 ,p itself de/roys ! bones1 p>ticul>ly ! jaw bones1 ( ! work]s 9 x4 ,betwe5 #a1jjj & #b1jjj tons are made ye>ly1 mo/ly = mat*es1 b almo/ all at two factories1 "o 9 ,engl&1 & "o 9 ,france4 #bjb4 ,prop]ties4--,p is a colorless1 transp>5t solid1 :5 pure2 ! impure article is yell[i%1 transluc5t1 & waxy4 ,x is insoluble 9 wat]1 slightly soluble 9 alcohol & e!r1 & x readily dissolves 9 ,,cs#b1 oil ( turp5t9e1 etc4 ,fumes1 hav+ a g>lic odor1 rise :5 x is expos$ to ! air1 & 9 ! d>k x is phosphoresc5t1 emitt+ a gre5i% light4 #bjc4 ,uses4 -,! uses ( ?is elem5t & its comp\nds are = f]tiliz]s1 mat*es1 v]m9 poisons1 & *emical op]ations4 #bjd4 ,mat*es4-,! use ( ,p = mat*es dep5ds on its l[ burn+-po9t4 ,prep>$ wood is dipp$ into melt$ ,s1 & ! end is !n press$ aga9/ a /one slab hav+ on x a pa/e ( ,p1 ,k,cl,o#c1 & glue4 ,,kno#c is (t5 us$ in/ead ( ,k,cl,o#c4 ,9 ei!r case ! object is to furni% ,o to burn ,p4 ,mat*es conta9+ ,k,cl,o#c snap on be+ scrat*$1 :ile ^? hav+ ,,kno#c burn quietly4 ,! friction f scrat*+ a mat* g5]ates heat en\gh to ignite ! ,p1 t en\gh to set ! ,s on fire1 & ! ,s en\gh to burn ! wood4 ,give ! reaction = ea*4 ,p>aff9e is mu* us$ in/ead ( ,s4 ,safety mat*es h no ,p1 & mu/ be scrat*$ on a surface ( r$ ,p & ,sb#b,s#c1 or on glass4 #bje4 ,r$ ,phosphorus4-,two or ?ree allotropic =ms ( ,p are kn[n1 ! pr9cipal "o be+ r$4 ,if heat$ betwe5 #bcj degrees & #bfj degrees1 away f air1 ! yell[ v>iety *anges to r$1 :i* c be kept at all temp]atures bel[ #bfj degrees4 ,above t x *anges back4 ,r$ ,p is n poison\s1 ignites only at a high temp]ature1 & is n phosphoresc5t1 l ! yell[4 #bjf4 ,spontane\s ,combu/ion ( ,phosph5e1 or ,hydrog5 ,phosphide1 ,,ph#c4 ,exp]im5t #aad4--,put into a #bj;cc4flask #a g4 ,p & #ej;cc4saturat$ solution ,na,o,h or ,,koh4 ,connect ) ! p4t4 by a long d4t41 z 9 ,figure #dd1 ! end ( :i* mu/ be kept "u wat]4 ,p\r #c or #d;cc4( e!r into ! flask1 to drive out ! air4 ,x is necess>y to exclude all air1 z a dang]\sly explosive mixture is =m$ ) x4 ,heat ! mixture1 & z ! gas passes ov] & into ! air1 x takes fire spontane\sly1 & r+s ( smoke successively rise4 ,x w d no h>m if1 on tak+ away ! lamp1 ! wat] is drawn back into ! flask2 b 9 t case ! flask %\ld be slightly lift$ to prev5t breakage by ! sudd5 ru% ( wat]4 ,on no acc\nt let ! air be drawn ov]4 ,! exp]im5t has no practical value1 b is an int]e/+ illu/ration ( ! spontane\s combu/ion ( ,,ph#c & ( vortex r+s4 ,:at are ! products ( ! combu/ion8 ,an admixture ( ano!r comp\nd ( ,p & ,h causes ! combu/ion4 ,*apt] ,,xl4 ,,ars5ic4 ,exam9e metallic ars5ic1 realg>1 orpim5t1 ars5opyrite1 ars5ic trioxide1 copp] ars5ite4 ,! comp\nds ( ars5ic are v poison\s if tak5 into ! sy/em1 & mu/ be h&l$ ) c>e4 #bjg4 ,sep>ation4 ,exp]im5t #aae4--;,draw out into two p>ts 9 ! ,buns5 flame a piece ( glass tub+ #bj;cm long & #a or #b;cm 9 diamet]4 ,into ! end ( "o ( ! ignition tubes ?us =m$1 :5 x is cool1 put "o-f\r? ( a gram ( ars5ic trioxide1 ,z#b,o#c1 us+ pap] to transf] x4 ,n[ put into ! tube a piece ( *>coal1 & press x d[n to )9 #b or #c;cm ( ! ,,z#b,o#c 7,fig4 #de74 ,next heat ! coal r$-hot1 & !n at once heat ! ,z#bjc4 ,cont9ue ?is process till y see a metallic sublimate- metallic mirror-on ! tube above ! coal4 ,break ! tube & exam9e ! sublimate4 ,x is ,z4 ,heat vaporizes ! ,z#b,o2#c4 ,expla9 ! *emical action4 ,:at is ! ag5cy ( ,c 9 ! exp]im5t8 ,( ,z#b,o#c8 #b ,z#b,o#c #c ,c 8 #bjh4 ,te/s4-,exp]im5ts #aae & #aaf are us$ z te/s = ! pres5ce ( ars5ic4 ,exp]im5t #aaf4--,prep>e a ,h g5]ator1 - a flask ) a ?i/le- tube & a philosoph]'s lamp tube 7,fig4 #df71 put 9 "s granulat$ ,zn1 wat]1 & ,h,cl4 ,te/ ! purity ( ! escap+ gas 7,exp]im5t #bc71 & :5 pure1 light ! jet ( ,h4 ,h is n[ burn+ 9 air4 ,to be sure t !re is no ,z 9 ! +r$i5ts us$1 hold ! inside ( a porcela9 evaporat+-di% directly aga9/ ! flame = a m9ute4 ,if no silv]y-:ite mirror is f\nd1 ! *emicals are free f ,z4 ,!n p\r ?r\gh ! ?i/le-tube1 :ile ! lamp is /ill burn+1 #a;cc4solution ( ,,z#b,o#c 9 ,h,cl or ,h#b,o a bit ( ,z#b,o#c n l>g] ?an a gra9 ( :eat 9 #aj cc4 ,h,cl4 ,see :e!r ! color ( ! flame *anges2 !n hold ! evaporat+-di% once m 9 ! flame1 & notice a metallic deposit ( ,z4 ,set away ! app>atus "u ! hood & leave ! light burn+4 ,?is exp]im5t mu/ n be p]=m$ unless all ! cautions are obs]v$1 s9ce ! gas 9 ! flask 7,as,h#c7 is ! mo/ poison\s kn[n1 & a s+le bubble ( x inhal$ is said to h kill$ ! discov]]4 ,by conf9+ ! gas inside ! flask !re is no dang]4 ,in/ead ( us+ ,z#b,o#c solution1 a little ,p>is gre51 wall pap] suspect$ ( conta9+ ars5ic1 gre5 silk1 or gre5 pap] labels1 etc41 may be soak$ 9 ,h,cl1 & te/$4 #bji4 ,explanation4--,! *emical *anges are z foll[s3 ,! comp\nds ( ,z1 9 ?is case ,z#b,o#c1 9 pres5ce ( nasc5t ,h1 are imm$iately conv]t$ into ! deadly hydrog5 ars5ide 7ars9e1 ars5iurett$ hydrog571 ,as,h#c4 ,z#b,o#c #ab ,h #b ,as,h#c #c ,h#b,o4 ,! ,as,h#c mix$ ) excess ( ,h t5ds to escape & is burn$ to ,z#b,o#c & ,h#b,o1 & ?us is r5d]$ comp>atively h>mless z x passes into ! air4 ,?is is :y ! flame mu/ be burn+ :5 ! ars5ic comp\nd is introduc$4 #b ,as,h#c #f ,o ,z#b,o#c #c ,h#b,o4 ,9 ! combu/ion ( ,as,h#c1 ,h burns at a l[] po9t ?an ,z4 ,! introduction ( a cold body l porcela9 cools ! flame bel[ ! k9dl+-po9t ( ,z1 & ?is is deposit$1 :ile ,h burns1 9 exactly ! same way z lamp- black 0 collect$ 9 ,exp]im5t #bf4 #baj4 ,exp]t ,analysis4--,a modification ( ?is exp]im5t is employ$ by exp]ts to te/ = ,,z#b,o#c poison+4 ,! organs4-- /oma* or liv]--are cut into small pieces dissolv$ by nasc5t ,cl1 or ,h,cl,o1 made f ,,kc#a,o#c & ,h,cl1 & ! solution is introduc$ into a ,h g5]ator1 z above4 ,,z#b,o#c pres]ves ! tissues x comes 9 contact )1 = a long "t1 & ! te/ c be made ye>s aft] dea?4 ,all ! *emicals mu/ be pure1 s9ce ,z is f\nd 9 small quantities 9 mo/ ores1 & ! ,zn1 ,h,cl1 & ,h#b,,s#d ( comm]ce are v likely to conta9 x4 ,! above is call$ ,m>%'s te/1 & is s delicate t a m]e trace ( ars5ic c be detect$4 #baa4 ,prop]ties & ,occurr5ce4--,z is a grayi% :ite solid1 ( metallic lu/]1 :ile a few ( its *>act]s are non-metallic4 ,x is v widely di/ribut$1 be+ sometimes f\nd native1 & sometimes comb9$1 z ,as,s1 realg>1 ,z#b,s#h1 orpim5t1 & ,fe,as,s1 ars5opyrite4 ,its *ief s\rce is ! la/1 ! f9e p[d] ( :i* is /rongly heat$1 :5 ,z sep>ates & sublimes4 ,x has ! odor ( g>lic1 z may be obs]v$ by heat+ a little on *>coal ) ! bl[-pipe4 #bab4 ,atomic ,volume4--,z is peculi> 9 t its atomic volume1 s f> z ! volume c be det]m9$1 is only half t ( ! ,h atom4 ,its vapor d5sity is #aej1 :i* gives #cjj = ! molecul> weight1 :ile its lea/ comb9+ or atomic weight is #ge4 #cjj1 ! molecul> weight #ge1 ! atomic weight #d1 ! numb] ( atoms 9 ! molecule4 ,all gase\s molecules be+ ( ! same size1 repres5t$ by two squ>es1 ! atomic volume ( ,z mu/ be "o-f\r? ( ?is size1 repres5t$ by half ( "o squ>e4 ,( :at o!r elem5t is ?is true8 #bac4 ,uses ( ,z#b,o#c4-;,ars5ic is us$ 9 %ot-manufacture1 = h>d5+ ! metal4 ,its mo/ important comp\nd is ,z#b,o#c1 ars5ic trioxide1 call$ also ars5i\s anhydride1 ars5i\s acid1 :ite ars5ic1 etc4 ,s poison\s is ?is t en\gh c\ld be pil$ on a "o-c5t piece to kill a doz5 p]sons4 ,tak5 9 too l>ge quantities x acts z an emetic4 ,! antidote is f]ric hydrate ,fe#b7,,oh7#f & a mu/>d emetic1 foll[$ by oil or milk4 ,! vapor d5sity ( ?is comp\nd %[s t its symbol %\ld be ,z#d,o#f1 b ! improp] "o1 ,z#b,o#c1 is likely to rema9 9 use4 ,ano!r oxide1 ,z#b,o#e1 ars5ic p5toxide1 exi/s1 b is less important4 ,%[ h[ ! respective acid =mulae are obta9$ f ^! anhydrides4 ,see page #ej4 ,,z#b,o#c is us$ 9 mak+ ,p>is gre52 9 _m gre5 color+ mat]ials1 9 :i* x exi/s z copp] ars5ite2 9 color+ wall pap]s1 & 9 fly & rat poisons4 ,x is employ$ = pres]v+ sk9s1 etc4 ,fa%ionable wom5 sometimes eat x = ! purpose ( beautify+ ! complexion1 to :i* x imp>ts a gha/ly :ite1 unheal?y hue4 ,m\nta9e]s 9 "s p>ts ( ,europe eat x = ! great] p[] ( endurance :i* x is suppos$ to give !m4 ,by beg9n+ ) small doses ^! ars5ic-eat]s f9ally consume a consid]able quantity ( ! poison ) app>5t impunity2 b z soon z ! habit is /opp$1 all ! pangs ( ars5ic-poison+ set 94 ,wall pap] conta9+ ars5ic is said to be injuri\s to "s p1 :ile app>5tly h>mless to o!rs4 ,*apt] ,,xli4 ,,silicon1 ,,silica1 ,,& ,,silicates4 #bad4 ,comp>ison ( ,si & ,c4--,! elem5t ,si resembles c>bon 9 val5ce & 9 allotropic =ms4 ,x occurs 9 ?ree =ms l ,c1 a diamond =m1 a graphite1 & an amorph\s4 ,c =ms ! basis ( ! vegetable & animal _w2 ,si1 ( ! m9]al4 ,mo/ soils & rocks1 except lime/one1 are ma9ly comp\nds ( ,o1 ,si1 & metals4 ,:ile ,o is e/imat$ to make up ne>ly "o- half ( ! kn[n cru/ ( ! e>?1 ,si con/itutes fully a ?ird4 ,! two are usually comb9$1 z silica1 ,si,o#b1 or silicates1 ,si,o#b comb9$ ) metallic oxides4 ,?is aff9ity = ,o is s /rong t ,si is n f\nd uncomb9$1 & is sep>at$ ) great difficulty & only at ! highe/ temp]atures4 ,no special use has yet be5 f\nd = x1 except z an alloy ) ,al4 ,its comp\nds are v important4 #bae ,silica4--,exam9e "s specim5s ( qu>tz1 rock cry/al1 :ite & color$ s&s1 agate1 jasp]1 fl9t1 etc42 te/ _! h>dness ) a knife blade1 & see :e!r !y w scrat* glass4 ,notice t qu>tz cry/als are hexagonal or six-sid$ prisms1 t]m9at$ by hexagonal pyramids4 ,! color+ matt]s are impurities1 (t5 ,fe & ,mn1 if r$ or br[n4 ,:5 pure1 qu>tz is transp>5t z glass1 infusible except 9 ! oxy- hydrog5 bl[- pipe1 & h>d] ?an glass4 ,rock cry/al is massive ,si#jb4 ,s& is g5]ally ei!r silica or silicates4 ,! common v>iety ( ,si#jb is n soluble 9 wat] or 9 acids1 except ,,hf4 ,an amorph\s v>iety is to "s ext5t soluble 9 wat]4 ,mo/ geys]s deposit ! latt] 9 successive lay]s ab\t _! m\?s4 ,agate1 *alc$ony1 & opal h probably an orig9 simil> to ?is4 ,a solution ( ?is v>iety ( ,si,o#b =ms a jelly-l masscolloid--:i* w n diffuse ?r\gh a membrane ( p>*m5t -dialyz]--:5 susp5d$ 9 wat]4 ,cry/alloids w diffuse ?r\gh su* a membrane1 if !y are 9 solution4 ,?is pr9ciple =ms ! basis ( dialysis4 ,all sub/ances are suppos$ to be ei!r cry/alloids1 i4e4 susceptible ( cry/allization1 or colloids-jelly-l masses4 ,h,cl is ! mo/ diffusible 9 liquids ( all kn[n sub/ances2 c>amel is "o ( ! lea/ s4 ,to sep>ate ! two1 !y w\ld be put into a dialyz] susp5d$ 9 wat]1 :5 ,h,cl w diffuse ?r\gh into ! wat]1 & c>amel w rema94 ,z#b,o#c1 9 cases ( suspect$ poison+1 0 =m]ly sep>at$ f ! /oma* 9 ?is way1 z x is a cry/alloid1 :]eas mo/ ( ! o!r cont5ts ( ! /oma* are colloidal4 #baf4 ,silicates4--,si is a tetrad4 ,si,o#b #b ,h#b,o 8 ,si#jb ,h#b,o 8 ,9 ei!r case ! product is call$ silicic acid4 ,replace all ! ,h ) ,na1 & "n ! product4 ,replace x ) ,k2 ,mg2 ,fe2 ,ph2 ,ca4 ,na#d,si,o#d & ,na#b,si,o#c are typical silicates ( ,na1 b o!rs exi/4 #bag4 ,=mation ( ,si,o#b f ,sodium ,silicate4 ,exp]im5t #aag4--,to #e;cc4,na#d,si,o#d 9 au evaporat+-di% add #e;cc4 ,h,cl4 ,describe ! effect4 ,p\r away any extra ,h,cl4 ,heat ! residue g5tly1 above a flame1 till x becomes :ite1 !n cool x & add wat]4 ,9 a few m9utes ta/e a drop ( ! wat]1 !n p\r x (f1 leav+ ! residue4 ,cru% a little 9 ! f+]s1 & comp>e x ) :ite s&1 ,si,o#b4 ,apply to ! exp]im5t ^! equations3 - ,na#d,si,o#d #d ,h,cl #d ,na,cl ,h#d,si,o#d4 ,h#d,si,o#d #b ,h#b,o ,si#jb4 ,:y 0 ,h#d,si#jd heat$8 ,:y 0 wat] f9ally add$8 ,wat] glass1 sodium or potassium silicate1 us$ some:at = mak+ artificial /one1 is made by fus+ ,si,o#b ) ,na#b;,,co#c or ,k#b;,,co#c1 & dissolv+ 9 wat]4 ,silicic acid =ms ! basis ( a v important s]ies ( comp\nds1 - ! silicates4 ,! above two are ! only soluble ones1 & may be call$ liquid glass4 ,*apt] ,,xlii4 ,,glass ,,& ,,pott]y4 ,exam9e :ite s&1 calcium c>bonate1 sodium c>bonate1 smalt2 bottle1 w9d[1 ,bohemian & fl9t glass4 #bah4 ,glass is an ,artificial ,silicate4--,si#jb alone is almo/ infusible1 z is also ,ca#j2 b mix$ & heat$ ! two readily fuse1 =m+ calcium silicate4 ,ca#j ,si,o#b 8 ,notice t ,si#jb is ! basis ( an acid1 :ile ,ca,o is ess5tially a base1 & ! union ( ! two =ms a salt4 ,!re are f\r pr9cipal k9ds ( glass3 7#a7 ,bohemian1 a silicate ( ,k & ,ca1 n easily fus$1 & h5ce us$ = *emical app>atus :]e high temp]atures are requir$2 7#b7 w9d[ or plate glass1 a silicate ( ,na & ,ca2 7#c7 bottle glass1 a silicate ( ,na1 ,ca1 ,al1 ,fe1 etc41 a v>iety :i* is impure1 & is t+$ gre5 by salts ( ,fe2 7#d7 fl9t glass1 a silicate ( ,k & ,pb1 us$ = l5ses 9 optical in/rum5ts1 cut glass w>e1 &1 ) ,b add$1 = pa/e1 or imitation diamonds1 etc4 ,pb gives to glass high refract+ p[]1 :i* is a valuable prop]ty ( diamonds1 z well z ( l5ses4 #bai4 ,manufacture4--,pure :ite s&1 ,si#jb1 is mix$ ) ,ca,c,o#c & ,na#b;,,co#c1 "s old glass - cullet - is add$1 & ! mixture is fus$ 9 fire-clay crucibles4 ,= fl9t glass1 ,pb#cjd1 r$ lead1 is employ$4 ,if color is desir$1 m9]al color+ matt] is also add$1 b n always at ?is /age4 ,co,o1 or smalt1 gives blue2 uranium oxide1 gre52 a mixture ( ,au & ,sn ( unc]ta9 composition1 call$ ! purple ( ,cassius1 gives purple4 ,mn,o#b is us$ to correct ! gre5 t9t caus$ by ,fe,o1 :i* x is suppos$ to oxidize4 ,opacity1 or enamel1 z 9 lamp-%ades1 is produc$ by add+ ,z#b,o#c1 ,sb#b,o#c1 ,sn,o#b1 cryolite1 etc4 ,! glass- work] dips 8 bl[pipe--a holl[ iron rod five or six feet long--into ! fus$ mass ( glass1 removes a small portion1 rolls x on a smoo? surface1 sw+s x r\nd 9 ! air1 bl[+ mean:ile ?r\gh ! rod1 & ?us fa%ions x z desir$1 into bottles1 flasks1 etc4 ,= "s w>es1 e4g4 common goblets1 ! glass is run into molds & /amp$2 = o!rs x is bl[n & weld$4 ,all glass mu/ be anneal$1 i4e4 cool$ sl[ly1 = sev]al days4 ,! molecules ?us arrange !mselves naturally4 ,if n anneal$1 x breaks v easily4 ,x may be greatly t\gh5$ by dipp+1 :5 ne>ly r$-hot1 into hot oil4 ,cut glass is prep>$ at great exp5se by subsequ5t gr9d+4 ,glass may be r5d]$ semi-opaque by et*+ ei!r ) ,,hf1 or ) a bla/ ( s&4 #bbj4 ,importance4--,few manufactur$ articles h m importance ?an glass4 ,)\t x ! sci5ces ( *emi/ry1 physics1 a/ronomy1 microscopic anatomy1 zoology1 & botany1 n to m5tion its dome/ic uses1 w\ld be almo/ impossible4 #bba4 ,porcela9 & ,pott]y4--,g5u9e porcela9 & *9a-w>e are made ( a f9e clay1 kaol91 :i* results f ! dis9tegration ( feldspa?ic rocks4 ,bricks are bak$ clay4 ,! ,fe,o 9 common clay is oxidiz$ to ,fe#b,o#c1 on heat+1 a process :i* gives _! r$ color4 ,"s clay1 hav+ no ,fe1 is :ite2 ?is is us$ = fire-bricks & clay pipes4 ,t conta9+ ,fe is too fusible = fire-clay1 :i* mu/ also h mu* ,si,o#b4 ,! electric arc1 h[ev]1 w melt ev5 ?is1 & ! mo/ refractory vessels are ( calcium oxide or ( graphite4 ,pott]y is clay1 mold$1 bak$1 & ei!r glaz$1 l crock]y1 or unglaz$1 l fl[]-pots4 ,jugs & co>se e>!nw>e are glaz$ by volatiliz+ ,na,cl 9 an ov5 :i* holds ! por\s mat]ial4 ,?is coats ! w>e ) sodium silicate4 ,to glaze *9a1 x is dipp$ into a p[d] ( feldsp> & ,si,o#b susp5d$ 9 wat] & v9eg>1 & !n fus$4 ,if ! w>e & glaze exp& uni=mly ) heat1 ! latt] does n crack4 ,*apt] ,,xliii4 ,,metals ,,& ,,_! ,,alloys4 #bbb4 ,comp>ison ( ,metals & ,non-,metals4--,! majority ( elem5ts are metals1 only ab\t a doz5 be+ non-metallic 9 _! prop]ties4 ,! division l9e betwe5 ! two classes is n v well def9$2 e4g4 ,z has c]ta9 prop]ties :i* ally x to metals2 x has o!r prop]ties :i* are non-metallic4 ,h occupies a place betwe5 ! two classes4 ,! foll[+ are ! m m>k$ *>act]i/ics ( ea* gr\p3 - ,,metals4 #a4 ,metals are solid at ord9>y temp]atures1 & usually ( high specific gravity4 ,exceptions3 ,hg is liquid above -#ci4e degees2 ,li is ! lighte/ solid kn[n2 ,na & ,k w float on wat]4 #b4 ,metals reflect light 9 a way peculi> to !mselves4 ,!y h :at is call$ a metallic lu/]4 #c4 ,!y are :ite or gray4 ,exceptions3 ,au1 ,ca1 ,sr are yell[2 ,cu is r$4 #d4 ,9 g5]al !y conduct heat & electricity well4 ,,non-,,metals4 #a4 ,non-metals are ei!r gase\s or solid at ord9>y temp]atures1 & ( l[ specific gravity4 ,exceptions3 ,br is a liquid2 ,i has ! heavie/ kn[n vapor4 #b4 ,non-metallic solids h diff]5t lu/]s1 z glassy1 res9\s- silky1 etc4 ,exceptions3 ,i1 ,b1 & ,c h metallic lu/]4 #c4 ,non-metals h no *>act]i/ic color4 #d4 ,!y are non-conductors ( heat & electricity4 ,exceptions3 ,c & "s o!rs are conductors4 #e4 ,!y are usually malleable & ductile4 #f4 ,!y =m alloys1 or *emical mixtures1 ) "o ano!r1 simil> to o!r solutions4 ,exceptions3 ,"s1 z ,ph & ,zn1 w n alloy ) "o ano!r4 #g4 ,metals are electro-positive elem5ts1 & unite ) ,o & ,h to =m bases4 ,exceptions3 ,"s ( ! less electro-positive metals1 ) a l>ge quantity ( ,o1 =m acids1 z ,cr1 ,z1 etc4 ,numb]s #b1 #f1 & #g are ! mo/ *>act]i/ic & important prop]ties4 #e4 ,!y are defici5t 9 malleability & ductility4 #f4 ,!y (t5 =m liquid solutions1 simil> to alloys 9 metals4 #g4 ,non-metals are electronegative1 & ) ,h1 or ) ,h & ,o1 =m acids4 ,exam9e brass1 bronze1 bell-metal1 pewt]1 ,g]man silv]1 sold]1 type-metal4 #bbc4 ,alloys4-,an alloy is n usually a def9ite *emical comp\nd1 b r a mixture ( two or m metals :i* are melt$ toge!r4 ,"o metal may be said to dissolve 9 ! o!r1 z sug> dissolves 9 wat]4 ,! alloy has1 h[ev]1 diff]5t prop]ties f ^? ( its elem5ts4 ,= example1 plumb]'s sold] melts at a l[] temp]ature ?an ei!r ,ph or ,sn1 ( :i* x is compos$4 ,"s metals c alloy 9 any proportions4 ,sold] may h two p>ts ( ,sn to "o ( ,pb1 two ( ,pb to "o ( ,sn1 or equal p>ts ( ea*1 or ! two elem5ts may alloy 9 o!r proportions4 ,n all metals c be ?us fus$ toge!r indef9itely2 e4g41 ,zn & ,pb4 ,nickel & silv] co9s are alloy$ ) ,cu1 gold co9s ) ,cu & ,ag4 ,gun-metal1 bell-metal1 & speculum-metal are ea* alloys ( ,cu & ,sn4 ,speculum-metal1 us$ = reflectors 9 telescopes1 has relatively m ,sn ?an ei!r ( ! o!rs2 gun-metal has ! lea/4 ,an alloy ( ,sb & ,pb is employ$ = type-metal z x exp&s at ! in/ant ( solidification4 ,pewt] is compos$ ( ,sn & ,pb2 brass1 ( ,cu & ,zn2 ,g]man silv]1 ( brass & ,ni2 bronze1 ( ,cu1 ,sn1 & ,zn2 alum9ium bronze1 ( ,cu & ,al4 #bbd4 ,l[ ,fusibility is a feature ( _m alloys4 ,wood's metal1 compos$ ( ,pb eight p>ts1 ,bi fifte51 ,sn f\r1 ,cd ?ree1 melts at j above #fj degrees1 or f> bel[ ! boil+-po9t ( wat]4 ,by v>y+ ! proportions1 diff]5t fus+-po9ts are obta9$4 ,?is pr9ciple is appli$ 9 automatic fire al>ms1 & 9 safety plugs = boil]s & fire ext+ui%]s4 ,wat] pipes ext5d along ! ceil+ ( a build+ & are fitt$ ) plugs ( "s fusible alloy1 at %ort di/ances ap>t4 ,:51 9 case ( fire1 ! heat becomes suffici5tly int5se1 ^! plugs melt & ! wat] fl[s out4 #bbe4 ,amalgams4--,an amalgam is an alloy ( ,hg & ano!r metal4 ,mirrors are silv]$ ) an amalgam ( ,sn4 ,t9-foil is spread on a smoo? surface & cov]$ ) ,hg1 & ! glass is press$ !reon4 ,v>i\s amalgams are employ$ = fill+ tee?1 a common "o be+ compos$ ( ,hg1 ,ag1 & ,sn4 ,au or ,ag1 ) ,hg1 =ms an amalgam us$ = plat+4 ,articles ( gold & silv] %\ld nev] be br\ght 9 contact ) ,hg4 ,if a ?9 amalgam cov] ! surface ( a gold r+ or co91 ,hg c be remov$ ) ,,hno#c1 z ,au is n attack$ by x4 ,w\ld ?is acid d 9 case ( silv] amalgam8 ,heat w also quickly cause ,hg to evaporate f ,au4 ,,*apt] ,,xliv4 ,,sodium ,,& ,,its ,,comp\nds4 ,exam9e ,na,cl1 ,na#b,,s#d1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 ,na1 ,na,o,h1 ,h,na,c,o#c1 ,na,n,o#c4 #bbf4 ,ord] ( ,d]ivation4--,?\gh ,k is m metallic1 or electro- positive1 ?an ,na1 ! comp\nds ( ,na are m important1 & w be consid]$ fir/4 ,! only two comp\nds ( ,na :i* occur ext5sively 9 nature are ,na,cl & ,na,n,o#c4 ,almo/ all o!rs are obta9$ f ,na,cl1 z %[n by ?is table1 :i* %\ld be memoriz$ & frequ5tly recall$4 7 ,na ,na,cl 7 ,na#b,,s#d7 ,na#b;,,co#c7 ,na,o,h ,na,n,o#c7 7 7 ,h,na,c,o#c ,f :at is ,na#b,,s#d prep>$1 z %[n by ! table8 ,na#b;,,co#c8 ,na8 #bbg4 ,occurr5ce & ,prep>ation ( ,na,cl4--,na,cl occurs 9 sea wat]1 ( :i* x con/itutes ab\t ?ree p] c5t1 9 salt lakes1 ^: wat]s sometimes hold ?irty p] c5t1 or are ne>ly saturat$1 &1 z rock salt1 9 l>ge masses und]gr\nd4 ,pol& has a salt area ( #aj1jjj squ>e miles1 9 "s p>ts ( :i* ! pure transp>5t rock salt is a qu>t] ( a mile ?ick4 ,9 ,spa9 !re is a m\nta9 ( salt five hundr$ feet high & ?ree miles 9 circumf]5ce4 ,france obta9s mu* salt f sea wat]4 ,at high tide x fl[s into %all[ bas9s1 f :i* ! sun evaporates ! wat]1 leav+ ,na,cl to cry/allize4 ,9 ,norway x is sep>at$ by freez+ wat]1 & 9 ,pol& x is m9$ l coal4 ,9 ,new ,york & ,mi*igan x is obta9$ by evaporat+ ! br9e ( salt wells1 ei!r by air & ! sun's heat1 or by fire4 ,sl[ evaporation gives l>ge cry/als2 rapid1 small ones4 #bbh4 ,uses4--,! ma9 uses are = dome/ic purposes & = mak+ ! ,na & ,cl comp\nds4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! consumption am\nts to m ?an =ty p\nds p] ye> = e p]son4 #bbi4 ,sodium ,sulphate4--,:at acid & :at base are repres5t$ by ,na#b,,s#d8 ,:i* is ! /rong] acid1 ,h,cl or ,h#b,,s#d8 ,w\ld ! latt] be apt to act on ,na,cl8 ,:y8 #bcj4 ,manufacture4--,?is comprises two /ages %[n by ! foll[+ reactions1 9 :i* ! fir/ ne$s mod]ate heat only2 ! la/1 mu* great]4 7#a7 #b ,na,cl ,h#b,,s#d ,h,na,s,o#d ,na,cl ,h,cl3 7#b7 ,na,cl ,h,na,s,o#d ,na#b,s#d ,h,cl4 ,! op]ation is c>ri$ on 9 l>ge furnaces4 ,! gase\s ,h,cl is pass$ into t[]s conta9+ fall+ wat] 9 a f9e spray1 = :i* x has great aff9ity4 ,! solution is drawn (f at ! base ( ! t[]4 ,?us all comm]cial ,h,cl is made z a by- product 9 manufactur+ ,na#b,,s#d4 ,:5 cry/all9e1 sodium sulphate has t5 molecules ( wat] ( cry/allization 7,na#b,,s#d1 #aj ,h#b,o72 x is !n kn[n z ,glaub]'s salt4 ,?is salt readily effloresces2 i4e4 loses its wat] ( cry/allization1 & is r$uc$ to a p[d]4 ,compute ! p]c5tage ( wat]4 #bca4 ,uses4--,! lead+ use ( ,na#b,,s#d is to make ,na#b;,,co#c2 x is also us$ to "s ext5t 9 m$ic9e1 & 9 glass manufacture4 #bcb4 ,sodium ,c>bonate4--,note ! base & ! acid :i* ?is salt repres5ts4 ,te/ a solution ( ! salt ) r$ & blue litmus1 & notice ! alkal9e reaction4 ,d y see any reason = ?is reaction 9 ! /rong base & ! weak acid repres5t$ by ! salt8 #bcc4 ,manufacture4--,na#b;,,co#c is n made by ! union ( an acid & a base1 nor is ,h#b;,,co#c /rong en\gh to act on _m salts4 ,! process mu/ be indirect4 ,?is consi/s 9 r$uc+ ,na#b,,s1 to ,na#b,s1 by tak+ away ! ,o ) ,c1 *>coal1 & !n *ang+ ,na#b,s to ,na#b,o#c by ,ca,c,o#c1 lime/one4 ,! ?ree sub/ances1 ,na#b,,s#d1 ,c1 ,ca,c,o#c1 are mix$ toge!r & /rongly heat$4 ,! reactions %\ld be c>efully /udi$1 z ! process is "o ( mu* importance4 7#a7 ,na#b,,s#d #d ,c ,na#b,s #d ,,co4 7#b7 ,na#b,s ,ca,c,o#c ,ca,s ,na#b;,,co#c4 ,obs]ve t ,c is ! r$uc+ ag5t4 ,! gas ,,co escapes4 ,! solid products ,na#b;,,co#c & ,ca,s =m black a%1 ! =m] be+ v soluble1 ! latt] only sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]4 ,na#b;,,co#c is dissolv$ out by wat]1 & ! wat] is evaporat$4 ,?is gives comm]cial soda4 ,ca,s1 ! wa/e comp\nd 9 ! process1 conta9s ! ,s orig9ally 9 ! ,h#b,,s#d us$4 ,?is c be p>tially sep>at$ & aga9 made into acid4 ,describe ! manufacture ( ,na,c,o#c 9 full1 />t+ ) ,na,cl4 ,?is is call$ ! ,le ,blanc process1 b is n ! only "o n[ employ$ to produce ?is important article4 #bcd4 ,occurr5ce4-,sodium c>bonate is f\nd native 9 small quantities4 ,x =ms ! *ief surface deposit ( ! alkali belt 9 we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e x (t5 =ms incru/ations f an in* to a foot 9 ?ickness4 ,x 0 =m]ly obta9$ f sea-we$s1 by lea*+ _! a%es1 z1 by a l process1 ,k#b;,,co#c 0 obta9$ f l& plants4 #bce4 ,uses4--,na#b;,,co#c =ms ! basis ( _m alkalies1 z ,h#b,,s#d does ( acids4 ,( all *emical comp\nds x is "o ( ! mo/ important1 & its manufacture con/itutes "o ( ! greate/ *emical indu/ries4 ,its economical manufacture l>gely dep5ds on ! dem& = ,h,cl1 :i* is always =m$ z a by-product4 ,z b little ,h,cl is us$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 ,na#b;,,co#c is mo/ly manufactur$ 9 ,europe4 ,! *ief uses are = glass & alkalies4 #bcf4 ,sodium4--,na mu/ always be kept "u naph?a1 or "s o!r liquid comp\nd conta9+ no ,o1 s9ce x oxidizes at once on exposure to ! air4 ,= ?is reason x nev] occurs 9 a free /ate4 #bcg4 ,prep>ation4-,by depriv+ ,na#b;,,co#c ( ,c & ,o1 metallic sodium is =m$4 ,z usual1 heat$ *>coal is ! r$uc+ ag5t4 ,! end ( ! retort1 :i* holds ! mixture1 dips "u naph?a4 ,na#b;,,co#c #b ,c #b ,na #c ,,co4 ,! process is a difficult "o1 & ,na br+s five doll>s p] p\nd1 ?\gh 9 its comp\nds x is a ?ird z common z ,fe4 ,k is z abundant z ,na1 b m difficult ( sep>ation1 & is wor? ?ree doll>s p] ounce4 ,notice ! position ( ,k & ,na at ! positive end ( ! elem5ts4 #bch4 ,uses4--,na is us$ to r$uce ,al1 ,ca1 ,mg1 ,si1 :i* are ! mo/ difficult elem5ts to sep>ate f _! comp\nds4 ,x acts 9 ^! cases z a r$uc+ ag5t4 #bci4 ,sodium ,hydrate4 ,review ,exp]im5t #fb4 ,exp]im5t #aah4--,put into a t4t4 #aj;cc4 ,h#b,o & #b or #c g4 ,na,o,h4 ,note its easy solubility4 ,te/ ) litmus4 ,w x neutralize any acids8 #bdj4 ,prep>ation4 -- ,sodium hydrate1 cau/ic soda1 or soda by lime1 is made by treat+ a solution ( ,na#b;,,co#c ) milk ( lime4 ,ca,c,o#c is precipitat$ & al- l[$ to settle1 ! solution is p\r$ (f1 & ,na,o,h is obta9$ by evaporat+ ! wat] & runn+ ! residue into molds4 #bda4 ,use4--,na,o,h is a p[]ful cau/ic1 b its *ief use is 9 mak+ h>d soap4 #bdb4 ,hydrog5 ,sodium ,c>bonate4--,hydrog5 s- dium c>bonate1 bic>bonate ( sodium1 acid sodium c>bonate1 cook+-soda1 etc41 ,h,na,c,o#c1 is prep>$ by pass+ ,,co#b into a solution ( ,na#b;,,co#c4 ,na#b;,,co#c ,h#b,o ,,co#b #b ,h,na,c,o#c4 ,te/ a solution ( x ) litmus4 ,acc\nt = ! result4 ,its use 9 bread-mak+ dep5ds on ! ease ) :i* ,,co#b is lib]at$4 ,ev5 a weak acid1 z ! lactic acid ( s\r milk1 sets ?is free1 & ?us causes ! d\gh to rise4 #bdc4 ,sodium ,nitrate4--,sodium nitrate occurs 9 ,*ili & ,p]u4 ,x is ! ma9 s\rce ( ,,hno#c4 ,review ,exp]im5ts #df & #eb4 ,f ,na,n,o#c is also made ,,kno#c1 7,na,n,o#c ,k,cl ,na,cl ,,kno#c71 "o ( ! +r$i5ts ( gunp[d]4 ,by reason ( its deliqcesc5ce ,na,n,o#c is n suitable = mak+ gunp[d]1 ?\gh x is sometimes us$ = bla/+-p[d]4 ,! action ( ! latt] is sl[] ?an t made f ,,kno#c4 ,na,n,o#c is *eap] & m abundant ?an ,,kno#c2 ?is is true ( mo/ ,na comp\nds 9 comp>ison ) ^? ( ,k4 ,*apt] ,,xlv4 ,,potassium ,,& ,,ammonium4 ,,potassium ,,& ,,its ,,comp\nds4 ,exam9e ,k1 ,k,cl1 ,k#b,,s#d1 ,k#b;,,co#c1 ,,koh1 ,,hkco#c1 ,,kclo#c1 ,,kcn4 #bdd4 ,occurr5ce & ,prep>ation4--,potassium occurs only 9 comb9ation1 *iefly z silicates1 9 su* m9]als z feldsp> & mica4 ,by _! dis9tegration x =ms a "p ( soils f :i* su* portions z are soluble are tak5 up by plants4 ,! a%es ( l&-plants are lea*$ 9 pots to dissolve ,k#b;,,co#c2 h5ce x is call$ pota%4 ,sea-plants likewise give rise to ,na#b;,,co#c4 ,wood a%es orig9ally =m$ ! ma9 s\rce ( ,k#b;,,co#c4 ,f plants ?is sub/ance is tak5 into ! animal sy/em1 & makes a portion ( its tissue4 ,%eep excrete x 9 sweat1 :i* is !n absorb$ by _! wool4 ,l>ge quantities are n[ obta9$ by wa%+ wool & evaporat+ ! wat]4 ,k#b;,,co#c & o!r comp\nds ( ,k are ma9ly d]iv$ f ,k,cl1 b$s ( :i* exi/ 9 ,g]many4 ,9 ! foll[+ li/ ea* ,k comp\nd is prep>$ l ! same ,na comp\nd1 & ! uses ( ea* ( ! =m] are simil> to ^? ( ! latt]4 ,k comp\nds are made 9 mu* small] quantities ?an ^? ( ,na1 z ,k,cl is f> less common ?an ,na,cl4 ,k ,k,cl ,k#b,,s#d ,k#b;,,co#c ,,koh ,,kno#c ,,hkco#c ,exam9e specim5s ( ea*1 side by side ) l ,na comp\nds4 ,describe 9 full _! prep>ation1 giv+ ! reactions4 ,also1 p]=m !exp]im5ts giv5 "u ,na1 sub/itut+ ,k !re=4 ,f ,,koh are made ,k,cl,o#c & ,,kcn4 ,,koh ,k,cl#jc ,,kcn #bde4 ,potassium ,*lorate4--,k,cl#jc is made by pass+ ,cl into a hot conc5trat$ solution ( ,,koh4 #f ,,koh #f ,cl ,k,cl#jc #e ,k,cl #c ,h#b,o ,its uses are mak+ ,o1 & z an oxidiz+ ag5t4 #bdf4 ,potassium ,cyanide1 ,,kcn1 is a salt f ,,hcn--hydrocyanic or prussic acid4 ,ea* is ab\t equally poison\s1 & m s ?an any o!r kn[n sub/ance4 ,a drop ( pure ,,hcn on ! tongue w produce dea? quickly by absorption into ! sy/em4 ,9 exam9+ ^! comp\nds take c>e n to h&le !m or to inhale ! fumes4 ,,kcn is us$ z a solv5t = metals 9 electro-plat+1 & is ! s\rce ( _m cyanides1 i4e4 comp\nds ( ,,cn & a metal4 ,,kcn is employ$ to kill insects = cab9et specim5s4 ,9 a wide-m\!d bottle is plac$ a little ,,kcn1 :i* is cov]$ ) cotton1 & ov] ?is a p]=at$ pap]4 ,! bottle is inv]t$ ov] ! insect1 & ! fumes de/roy life )\t injur+ ! delicate p>ts4 ,,hcn is made f ,,kcn & ,h#b,,s#d4 #bdg4 ,gunp[d]4--,gunp[d] is a mixture ( ,,kno#c1 ,c1 & ,s4 ,heat or concussion causes a *emical *ange1 & trans=ms ! solids into gases4 ,^! gases at ! mom5t ( explosion occupy #aejj or m times ! volume ( ! solids4 ,h5ce ! great r5d+ p[] ( p[d]4 ,if n conf9$1 p[d] burns quietly b quickly4 ,! app5d$ reaction is a "p ( :at takes place1 b x by no means repres5ts all ! *emical *anges4 #b,,kno#c ,s #c;,c ,k#b,s #b,n #c;,,co#b4 ,f ?is equation compute ! p]c5tage1 by weight1 ( ea* sub/ance us$ to make gunp[d] economically4 ,?or\ghly burn$ *>coal1 di/ill$ sulphur1 & ! pure/ nitre are p[d]$ & mix$ 9 a revolv+ drum1made into a pa/e ) wat]1 put "u great pressure betwe5 %eets ( gun metal1 granulat$1 sift$1 to sep>ate ! co>se & f9e gra9s1 & glaz$ by revolv+ 9 a b>rel :i* sometimes conta9s a little p[d]$ graphite4 ,exp]im5t #aai4--,pulv]ize & mix intimately #d g4 ,,kno#c1 l_/#b g4 ,s1 #a_/b g4 *>coal4 ,pile ! mixture on a brick1 & apply a light$ mat*4 ,! adh]+ product c be remov$ by soak+ 9 wat]4 ,,ammonium ,,comp\nds4 #bdh4 ,read ! *apt] on ,,nh#c4 ,also1 review ! exp]im5ts on bases4 ,exam9e ,,nh#d;,cl1 ,,nh#d,,no#c1 7,,nh#d7b,,s#d1 7,,nh#d7b;,,co#c4 ,ammonium1 ,,nh#d1 is too un/able to exi/ alone1 b x =ms salts simil> to ^? ( ,k & ,na4 ,,nh#c dissolv$ 9 wat] =ms ,,nh#d,,oh4 ,! food ( plants1 z well z t ( animals1 mu/ conta9 ,n4 ,x has n yet be5 %[n t !y c make use ( t conta9$ 9 ! air1 b !y d absorb its comp\nds f ! soil4 ,all f]tiliz]s & manures conta9 a soluble comp\nd ( ,,nh#d4 ,all ,,nh#d comp\nds are n[ obta9$ ei!r f coal1 9 mak+ illum9at+-gas1 or f bones1 by di/illation4 ,suppose ! product obta9$ f ! gas-h\se to be ,,nh#d,,oh1 h[ w\ld ,,nh#d;,cl be made8 7,,nh#d7b,,s#d8 ,,nh#d,,no#c8 ,write ! reactions4 7,,nh#d7b;,,co#c is made by heat+ ,,nh#d;,cl ) ,ca,c,o#c4 ,give ! reaction4 ,*apt] ,,xlvi4 ,,calcium ,,comp\nds4 ,exam9e ,ca,c,o#c--m>ble1 lime/one1 *alk1 n crayon1--,ca,s,o#d -- gypsum or sel5ite--,ca,cl#b1 ,ca,o4 #bdi4 ,occurr5ce4--,! above are ! *ief comp\nds ( ,ca4 ,! elem5t itself is n f\nd uncomb9$1 is v difficult to r$uce 7page #ada71 is a yell[ metal1 & has no use4 ,its mo/ abundant comp\nd is ,ca,c,o#c4 ,%ells ( oy/]s1 clams1 snails1 etc41 are ma9ly ,ca,c,o#c1 & coral reefs1 sometimes ext5d+ ?\s&s ( miles 9 ! ocean1 are ! same4 ,ca,c,o#c dissolves 9 wat] hold+ ,,co#b1 & !nce ^! m>9e animals obta9 x & !refrom secrete _! bony framework4 ,all m\nta9s 7 fir/ laid d[n on ! sea bottom lay] by lay]1 & aft]w>ds lift$ up by pressure4 ,rocks & m\nta9s ( ,ca,c,o#c 7 =m$ by m>9e animals1 & all l>ge masses ( ,ca,c,o#c are ?\ght to h be5 at "o "t ! framework ( animals4 ,m>ble is cry/alliz$1 trans=m$ lime/one4 ,! process1 call$ metamorphism1 took place 9 ! dep?s ( ! e>?1 :]e ! heat is great] ?an at ! surface4 #bej4 ,lime4--,if ,ca,c,o#c be roa/$ ) ,c1 ,,co#b escapes & ,ca,o is left4 ,ca,c,o#c - ,,co#b 8 ,?is is call$ burn+ lime1 & is a l>ge indu/ry 9 lime/one c\ntries4 ,ca,o is unslak$ lime1 quicklime or calcium oxide4 ,x may be slak$ ei!r by exposure to ! air1 air-slak+1 :5 x gradually takes up ,h#b,o & ,,co#b2 or by mix+ ) ,h#b,o1 wat]-slak+4 ,ca#j ,h#b,o ,ca7,,oh7#b4 ,great heat is g5]at$ 9 ! latt] case1 ?\gh n s mu* z 9 ! =mation ( ,,koh & ,na,o,h4 ,l !m1 ,ca7,,oh7#b dissolves 9 wat]1 =m+ lime-wat]4 ,milk ( lime1 cream ( lime1 etc41 consi/ ( p>ticles ( ,ca7,,oh7#b susp5d$ 9 ,h#b,o4 #bea4 ,uses ( ,lime--,ca,o is infusible at ! highe/ temp]atures4 ,if x be introduc$ into ! oxy-hydrog5 bl[-pipe 7page #bh71 a brilliant light1 second only to ! electric1 is produc$4 ,mort> is made by mix+ ,ca,o1 ,h#b,o1 & ,si#jb4 ,x h>d5s by evaporat+ ! extra ,h#b,o1 absorb+ ,,co#b f ! air1 & unit+ ) ,si#jb to =m calcium silicate4 ,x (t5 cont9ues to absorb ,,co#b = hundr$s or ?\s&s ( ye>s be=e be+ saturat$1 z is f\nd 9 ! ,egyptian pyramids4 ,h5ce ! t5acity ( old mort>4 ,hydraulic mort> conta9s silicates ( ,al & ,ca1 & is n affect$ by wat]4 ,:at are ! uses ( mort>8 ,be+ ! important con/itu5t ( mort> & pla/]1 lime is ! mo/ useful ( ! bases4 #beb4 ,h>d ,wat]4--,review ,exp]im5t #gf4 ,! solubility ( ,ca,c,o#c 9 wat] t conta9s ,,co#b leads to important results4 ,mu* dissolves 9 ! wat]s ( all lime/one c\ntries2 & ! wat]1 ?\gh p]fectly transp>5t1 is h>d2 i4e4 soap has little action on x4 ,see page #ahg4 ,su* wat] may be s(t5$ by boil+1 a deposit ( ,ca,c,o#c be+ =m$ z a cru/ on ! kettle4 ,su* wat] is call$ wat] ( tempor>y h>dness4 ,mg,c,o#c produces a simil> effect1 & wat] conta9+ x is s(t5$ 9 ! same way4 ,p]man5tly h>d wat]s conta9 ! sulphates ( ,ca & ,mg1 :i* _c be remov$ by boil+1 b may be by add+ 7,,nh#d7b;,,co#c4 #bec4 ,! ,=mation ( ,caves 9 lime/one rocks is due also to ! solubility ( ,ca,c,o#c4 ,wat] collects on ! m\nta9s & trickles d[n ?r\gh crevices1 dissolv+1 if x conta9s ,,co#b1 "s ( ! ,ca,c,o#c1 & ?us mak+ a wid] op5+1 & =c+ its way along fissures & l9es ( lea/ resi/ance into ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 or out at ! base ( ! m\nta94 ,its *annel wid5s z x dissolves ! rock1 & ! /ream enl>ges until 9 ! c\rse ( ages an imm5se cav]n may be =m$1 ) labyr9?s ext5d+ = miles1 f ! entrance ( :i* a riv] (t5 issues4 ,9 ! long ages :i* elaps$ dur+ ! sl[ =mation ( ,mammo? ,cave its d5iz5s lo/ _m ( ! *>act]s ( _! ance/ors1 & eyeless fi% & also eyeless insects n[ ab\nd !re4 #bed4 ,rev]se ,action4--,drops ( wat] on ! ro(s ( ^! cav]ns lose _! ,,co#b1 & deposit ,ca,c,o#c4 ,?us long1 p5dant masses ( lime/one1 call$ /alactites1 are sl[ly =m$ on ! ro(s l icicles4 ,f ^!1 wat] *>g$ ) ,ca,c,o#c drops to ! bottom1 loses ,,co#b & deposits ,ca,c,o#c1 :i* =ms an upw>d- gr[+ mass1 call$ /alagmite4 ,9 "t x may meet ! /alactite & =m a pill>4 ,notice t ! same action :i* =m$ ! cave is fill+ x up2 i4e4 ! solubility ( ,ca,c,o#c 9 wat] *>g$ ) ,,co#b4 #bee4 ,fam\s ,m>bles4--,! m>ble f ,c>r>a1 ,italy1 is mo/ e/eem$ on acc\nt ( a p9ki% t9t giv5 by a trace ( oxide ( iron4 ,! be/ ( ,grecian m>ble 0 f ,p>os1 "o ( ! ,cyclades4 ,! isles ( ! ,m$it]ranean are ( lime/one1 or ( volcanic1 orig91 (t5 ( bo?4 #bef4 ,calcium ,sulphate occurs 9 two =ms1 7#a7 ) wat] ( cry/allization--gypsum1 ,ca,s,o#d #b ,h#b,o1 --7#b7 )\t x--anhydrite1 ,ca,s,o#d4 ,! =m]1 on be+ /rongly heat$1 gives up its wat]1 & is r$uc$ to a p[d]-- pla/] ( ,p>is4 ,?is1 on be+ mix$ ) wat]1 aga9 takes up #b ,h#b,o1 & h>d5s1 or sets1 )\t cry/alliz+4 ,if once m heat$ to expel wat]1 x w n aga9 absorb x4 ,:5 pla/] ( ,p>is sets1 x exp&s slightly1 & on ?is acc\nt is admirable = tak+ ca/s4 #beg4 ,uses4--,gypsum f9ds use z a f]tiliz] & z an adult]ant 9 color+-mat]ials1 etc4 ,ca,s,o#d is employ$ 9 mak+ ca/s1 molds1 /atuettes1 wall-pla/]1 crayons1 etc4 ,h[ c ,ca,cl#b be made8 ,:at is its use8 ,see page #bg4 ,:at else is us$ = a simil> purpose8 ,symbolize & "n ! acid repres5t$ by ,ca7,cl,o7#b1 & "n ?is salt 7page #ajg74 ,x is "o ( ! con/itu5ts ( blea*+- p[d]1 ! symbol ( :i*1 ?\gh /ill "u discussion1 may be consid]$ ,ca7,cl,o7#b ,ca,cl#b4 ,?is is made by pass+ ,cl ov] ,ca7,,oh7#b #b ,ca7,,oh7#b #d ,cl ,ca7,cl,o7#b ,ca,cl#b #b ,h#b,o4 ,,*apt] ,,xlvii4 ,,magnesium1 ,,alum9ium1 ,,& ,,z9c4 ,,magnesium ,,& ,,its ,,comp\nds4 ,exam9e magnesite1 dolomite1 talc1 s]p5t9e1 hornbl5de1 me]s*aum1 magnesium ribbon1 magnesia alba1 ,epsom salt4 #beh4 ,occurr5ce & ,prep>ation4--,mg is v widely di/ribut$1 b does n occur uncomb9$4 ,its salts are f\nd 9 rocks & soils1 9 sea wat] & 9 ! wat] ( "s spr+s1 to :i* !y imp>t a bracki% ta/e4 ,! mo/ common m9]als conta9+ ,mg are magnesite1 ,mg,c,o#c1 dolomite1 ,mg,c,o#c ,ca,c,o#c1 & talc1 s]p5t9e1 hornbl5de1 & me]s*aum4 ,! la/ f\r are silicates1 & (t5 are uncti\s to ! t\*4 ,:at proportion ( ! e>?'s cru/ is compos$ ( ,mg8 ,see page #agc4 #bei4 ,metallic ,mg is prep>$ by fus+ ,mg,cl#b ) ,na4 ,:y is ! process exp5sive8 ,write ! reaction4 ,exp]im5t #abj4--,) =ceps hold a %ort /rip ( ,mg ribbon 9 a flame4 ,note ! brilliancy ( ! light1 & give ! reaction4 ,exam9e & "n ! product4 ,photographs ( ! int]ior ( cav]ns1 :]e sunlight does n p5etrate1 are tak5 by ,mg light4 ,gun-cotton spr9kl$ ) p[d]$ ,mg has rec5tly be5 employ$ = t purpose4 ,mg t>ni%es slightly 9 moi/ air4 ,comp\nds ( ,mg4--,mg,o1 magnesia1 l ,ca,o1 is v infusible1 & is us$ = crucibles4 ,magnesia alba1 a v>iable mixture ( ,mg,c,o#b & ,mg7,,oh7#b1 is employ$ 9 m$ic9e1 z is also ,epsom salt1 ,mg,s,o#d #g ,h#b,o4 ,,alum9ium ,,& ,,its ,,comp\nds4 ,exam9e alum9ium1 alum9ium bronze1 corundum1 em]y1 feldsp>1 argillite1 clay4 ,note especially ! color1 lu/]1 specific gravity & flexibility ( ,al4 ,:at elem5ts are m common 9 ! e>? ?an ,al8 ,:at metals8 ,comp>e ! abundance ( ,al ) t ( ,fe4 #bfj4 ,comp\nds ( ,al4--,al occurs only 9 comb9ation ) o!r elem5ts4 ,feldsp>1 mica1 slate1 & clay are silicates ( x4 ,x occurs 9 all rocks except ,ca,c,o#c & ,si,o#b1 & 9 ne>ly #bjj m9]als4 ,?\gh f\nd 9 all soils1 its comp\nds are n tak5 up by plants1 except by a few cryptogams4 ,corundum1 ,al#b,o#c1 is ! ri*e/ ( its ores4 ,compute its p]c5t ( ,al4 ,comp\nds ( ,al are v infusible & difficult ( r$uction4 #bfa4 ,r$uction4--,l mo/ o!r metals n easily r$ucible by ,c or ,h1 x 0 orig9ally obta9$ by electrolysis1 b m rec5tly f its *loride1 by ! r$uc+ action ( /rongly heat$ ,k or ,na4 ,al#b;,cl#f #f ,na #f ,na,cl #b ,al4 ,:at is ! *ief use ( ,na8 ,z x takes ?ree p\nds ( ,na to make "o p\nd ( ,al1 ! co/ ( ! latt] has be5 fifte5 doll>s or m p] p\nd4 ,its use has ?us be5 re/rict$ to light app>atus & alum9ium bronze1 an alloy ( ,cu #ij1 ,al #aj1 :i* is n unlike gold 9 appe>ance4 ,al#b,o#c has lately be5 r$uc$ by ,c4 ,high] temp]atures ?an h h]et(ore be5 kn[n are obta9$ by means ( ! electric arc & l>ge dynamo ma*9es4 ,afurnace made ( graphite1 because fire-clay melts l wax at su* a high temp]ature1 is fill$ ) ,al#b,o#c--;corundum1 --,c1 & ,cu4 ,9 ! mid/ ( ?is are emb$d$ l>ge c>bon t]m9als1 connect$ ) dynamos4 ,! r$uction takes sev]al h\rs4 ,! foll[+ reaction takes place3 ,al#b,o#c #c ,c #b ,al #c ,,co4 ,cu is also add$1 & an alloy ( ,al & ,cu is ?us =m$4 ,?is alloy is n easily sep>able into its elem5ts4 ,expla9 ! action ( ! ,c4 ,,co escapes ?r\gh p]=ations 9 ! top ( ! furnace1 burn+ !re to ,,co#b4 ,only alloys ( ,al h yet be5 obta9$ by ?is process4 ,?is me?od has n be5 employ$ be=e1 simply because ! highe/ temp]atures ( combu/ion1 #bjjj degrees or #bejj degrees1 w\ld n effect a r$uction4 ,9 ! same way ,si1 ,b1 ,k1 ,na1 ,ca1 ,mg1 ,cr1 h rec5tly be5 r$uc$ f _! oxides2 b a process has yet to be f\nd = sep>at+ !m easily f _! alloys4 #bfb4 ,prop]ties & ,uses4--,al is a silv]y :ite metal1 light] ?an glass1 & only "o-?ird ! weight ( iron4 ,x does n readily ru/ or oxidize1 x fuses at #ajjj degrees 7comp>e ) ,fe71 is unaffect$ by acids1 except by ,h,cl &1 slightly1 by ,h#b,,s#d1 is a good conductor ( electricity1 c be ca/ & hamm]$1 & alloys ) mo/ metals1 =m+ ?us _m valuable comp\nds4 ,e clay-bank is a m9e ( ?is metal1 :i* has s _m ( ! useful prop]ties ( metals & has s few defects t1 if x c\ld be obta9$ 9 suffici5t quantities1 x might1 = _m purposes1 take ! place ( iron1 /eel1 t91 & o!r metals4 ,f its prop]ties /ate any advantages :i* x w\ld h ov] iron 9 ocean vessels1 railroads1 & bridges4 ,:y is x bett] ?an ,sn or ,cu = cul9>y ut5sils8 ,an alloy ( ,al1 ,cu1 & ,si is us$ = telephone wires 9 ,europe1 & ! ,b5nett-,mackay cable is ( ! same mat]ial4 ,wa%+ton monum5t1 ! talle/ %aft 9 ! _w1 is capp$ ) a pyramid ( ,al1t5 in*es high4 ,= ! uses ( alum9a1 ,al#b,o#c1 & its silicates1 see page #acc4 ,,z9c ,,& ,,its ,,comp\nds4 ,exam9e z9cite1 sphal]ite1 ,smi?sonite1 %eet z9c1 galvaniz$ iron1 granulat$ z9c1 z9c du/4 #bfc4 ,comp\nds4--,! comp\nds ( z9c are abundant4 ,its *ief ores are z9cite1 ,zn,o1 sphal]ite or bl5de1 ,zn,s1 ,smi?sonite1 ,zn,c,o#c4 ,= _! r$uction ^! ores are fir/ roa/$1 i4e4 heat$ 9 pres5ce ( air4 ,) ,zn,s ?is reaction takes place3 ,zn,s #c ,o ,zn#j ,s#jb4 ,! oxide is r$uc$ ) ,c1 & !n ,zn is di/ill$4 ,/ate ! reaction4 ,z9c is sublim$-9 ! =m ( z9c du/-l fl[]s ( ,s4 ,granulat$ ,zn is made by p\r+ a /ream ( ! molt5 metal into wat]4 ,exp]im5t #aba4--;,burn a /rip ( ,zn foil1 & note ! color ( ! flame & ( ! product4 ,/ate ! reaction4 ,! r$ color ( z9cite is suppos$ to be imp>t$ by ,mn pres5t 9 ! comp\nd4 #bfd4 ,uses4--,"n any use ( ,zn 9 ! *emical laboratory4 ,x is employ$ = coat+ wire & %eet iron --galvaniz$ iron4 ,?is is done by plung+ ! wire or ! %eets ( iron into melt$ ,zn4 ,describe ! use ( ,zn z an alloy4 ,see page #acf4 ,zn,o =ms ! basis ( a :ite pa9t call$ z9c :ite4 ,:ite vitriol1 ,zn,s,o#d #g ,h#b,o1 is employ$ 9 m$ic9e4 ,"n two o!r vitriols4 ,,*apt] ,,xlviii4 ,,iron ,,& ,,its ,,comp\nds4 ,exam9e magnetite1 hematite1 limonite1 sid]ite1 pig-iron1 wr\ght-iron1 /eel4 #bfe4 ,ores & ,irons4--,z ,fe occurs native only 9 meteorites & 9 small quantities ( t]re/rial orig91 x is obta9$ f its ores4 ,!re are f\r ( ^! ores--magnetite 7,fe#c,o#d71 hematite 7,fe#b,o#c71 limonite 7#b ,fe#b,o#c #c ,h#b,o71 & sid]ite 7,fe,c,o#c74 ,:i* is ri*e/ 9 ,fe8 ,compute ! proportion4 ,fe,c,o#c occurs mo/ly 9 ,europe4 ,! r$uction ( ^! ores1 z well z ( o!r metallic oxides1 consi/s 9 remov+ ,o by ,c at a high temp]a- ture4 ,z ord9>ily classifi$ !re are ?ree k9ds ( iron1--pig- or ca/-iron1 /eel1 & wr\ght-iron4 ,/udy ?is table1 not+ ! purity1 ! fus+-po9t1 & ! p] c5t ( ,c 9 ea* case4 ,p] ,c5t ,fe ,fusibility4 ,p] ,c5t 7g5]al74 ,c4 ,pig444444444 #ij #abjj degrees #b-f ,/eel44444444 #ii #adjj degrees #j4e-b ,wr\ght4444444 #ii4g #aejj degrees ,fraction4 ,pure iron melts at ab\t #ahjj degrees4 ,pig-iron is obta9$ f ! ore by smelt+1 & f ?is are made /eel & wr\ght- iron4 #bff4 ,pig-,iron4--,! ore is r$uc$ 9 a bla/ furnace 7,fig4 #dg71 9 "s cases eighty or "o hundr$ feet high1 & hav+ a capacity ( ab\t #ab1jjj cubic feet4 ,! r$uc+ ag5t is ei!r *>coal1 an?racite coal1 or coke1bitum9\s coal be+ too impure4 ,*>coal is ! be/ ag5t1 & is us$ 9 prep>+ ,sw$i% iron2 b x is too exp5sive = g5]al use4 ,fig4 #dg4 ,bla/ furnace4 ,f1 entrance ( tuy]es1 or bla/-pipes4 ,e1 ,f1 hotte/ "p4 ,c1 conductor = gases1 :i* are subsequ5tly us$ to heat ! air go+ into ! tuy]es4 ,g1 upp] portion1 slag1 l[] portion1 melt$ iron4 ,7 ores absolutely pure1 only ,c w\ld be ne$$ to r$uce !m4 ,complete3 ,fe#c,o#d #d ,c 8 ,fe#c,o#d #b;,c8 ,mu* e>?y mat]ial--gangue--conta9+ silica & silicates is always f\nd ) iron ores4 ,^! are infusible1 & some?+ mu/ be add$ to r5d] !m fusible4 ,ca,o =ms ) ,si,o#b j ! flux ne$$4 ,see page #acb4 ,ca#j ,si#jb 8 ,:i* ( ^! is ! basic1 & :i* ! acidic comp\nd8 ,ca,o results f heat+ ,ca,c,o#c2 h5ce ! latt] is employ$ in/ead ( ! =m]4 ,9 :at case w\ld ,si#jb be us$ z ! flux8 ,into ! bla/ furnace are put1 9 alt]nate lay]s1 ! fuel1 ! flux1 & ! ore4 ,! fire1 once k9dl$1 is kept burn+ = mon?s or ye>s4 ,hot air is driv5 9 ?r\gh ! tuy]es 7twe]s74 ,o unites ) ,c ( ! fuel1 =m+ ,,co#b & ,,co4 ,! ,c also r$uces ! ore4 ,fe#b,o#c #c ,c 8 ,,co accompli%es ! same ?+4 #c ,,co ,fe#b,o#c 8 ,! int5se heat fuses ,ca,o & ,si,o#b to a silicate :i*1 ) o!r impurities1 =ms a slag2 ?is1 ris+ to ! surface ( ! molt5 mass1 is drawn (f4 ,! iron is melt$1 falls 9 drops to ! bottom1 & is drawn (f into s& molds4 ,see ,figure #dg4 ,?is is pig-iron4 ,x conta9s z impurities1 ,c1 ,si1 ,s1 ,p1 ,mn1 etc4 ,if too mu* ,s or ,p is pres5t 9 an ore1 x is wor?less4 ,?is is :y ! abundant m9]al ,fe,s#b _c be us$ z a s\rce ( iron4 ,f ! top ( ! furnace ,n1 ,,co1 ,,co#b1 ,h#b,o1 etc41 escape4 ,^! gases are us$ to heat ! air :i* is =c$ ?r\gh ! tuy]es1 & to make /eam 9 boil]s4 #bfg4 ,/eel4--,! manufacture ( /eel & wr\ght-iron consi/s 9 remov+ mo/ ( ! impurities f pig-iron4 ,x w be se5 t ! mo/ common comp\nds ( ,c1 ,s1 ,si1 & ,p1 are _! oxides1 & ^! are = ! mo/ "p gases4 ,h5ce ^! elem5ts are remov$ by oxidation4 ,bessem] /eel is prep>$ by melt+ pig-iron & bl[+ hot air ?r\gh x4 ,a conv]t] 7,fig4 #dh7 l9$ ) silice\s s&1 & hold+ sev]al tons1 is p>tially fill$ ) ! molt5 metal2 bla/s ( hot air are driv5 into x1 & ! ,c & o!r impurities1 toge!r ) a little ( ! ,fe1 are oxidiz$4 ,! exact mom5t :5 ! process has gone f> en\gh1 & mo/ ( ! impurities h be5 remov$1 is indicat$ by ! appe>ance ( ! escap+ flame4 ,x usually takes f five to t5 m9utes4 ,! bla/ is !n /opp$1 & ! metal has ab\t ! composition ( wr\ght-iron2 x conta9s "s uncomb9$ ,o4 ,a :ite pig-iron 7spiegeleis571 :i* conta9s a kn[n quantity ( ,c & ( ,mn1 is at once add$4 ,mn removes "p ( ! extra ,o1 &1 ?\gh x rema9s1 does n injure ! metal4 ,! ,c is dissolv$ by ! ,fe1 :i* is !n run into molds 7+ots74 ,?is process1 ! ,bessem]1 inv5t$ 9 #ahef1 has revolutioniz$ /eel manufacture4 ,no less ?an t5 tons ( iron h be5 conv]t$ into /eel1 9 five m9utes1 9 a s+le conv]t]4 #bfh4 ,wr\ght-,iron4--,! *emical pr9ciple involv$ 9 mak+ wr\ght-iron is ! same z t 9 mak+ /eel1 b ! process is diff]5t4 ,impurities are burn$ out f pig-iron 9 an op5 rev]b]atory furnace1 by con/antly /irr+ ! metal 9 contact ) air4 ,?is is call$ puddl+4 ,a rev]b]atory furnace is "o 9 :i* ! fuel is 9 "o comp>tm5t1 & ! heat is reflect$ d[nw>d into ano!r1 t holds ! sub/ance to be act$ ^u 7,fig4 #di74 ,/eel may also be made by c>buriz+ wr\ght-iron4 ,iron & *>coal are pack$ toge!r & heat$ = days1 )\t melt+1 :5 x is f\nd t1 9 "s unkn[n way1 solid ,c has p5etrat$ solid ,fe4 ,! f9] k9ds ( /eel are made 9 ?is way1 b !y are v exp5sive4 ,wr\ght-iron may also be made directly f ! ore 9 an op5 he>? furnace1 ) *>coal4 ,?is 0 ! orig9al mode4 #bfi4 ,prop]ties4--,! v>y+ prop]ties ( pig-iron1 /eel1 & wr\ght-iron are due 9 "p to ! proportion ( ,c & ( o!r elem5ts pres5t1 ei!r z mixtures or z comp\nds1 & 9 "p to o!r causes n well und]/ood4 ,wr\ght-iron is fibr\s1 z ?\gh compos$ ( f9e wires1 & h5ce is ductile1 malleable1 t\gh1 & s(t1 & _c be h>d5$ or temp]$1 b x is easily weld$4 ,pig-iron is cry/all9e1 & s is n ductile or malleable2 x is h>d & brittle1 & _c be weld$4 ,on acc\nt ( its l[ melt+-po9t x is g5]ally employ$ = ca/+s4 ,/eel is cry/all9e 9 /ructure1 & :5 sudd5ly cool$ f r$ heat by plung+ into cold wat]1 becomes h>d & brittle4 ,! temp]+ c be v>i$ by aft]w>ds heat+ to any requir$ degree1 indicat$ by ! color ( ! oxide =m$ on ! ext]ior4 ,! high] temp]atures give ! s(t] /eel4 #bgj4 ,salts ( ,iron4--,exam9e ,fe,s,o#d1 ,fe,s1 ,fe,s#b4 ,fe has a val5ce ( #b or #d4 ,?is gives rise to two k9ds ( salts1 f]r\s & f]ric1 z 9 ,fe,cl#b & ,fe#b;,cl#f ,! val5ce ( ,fe 9 f]ric salts is #d4 ,f]r\s sulphate is ,fe,s,o#d2 f]ric sulphate1 ,fe#b7,,s#d7c4 ,write ! symbols = f]r\s & f]ric hydrate2 = ! oxides2 = ! nitrates4 ,write ! graphic symbols = ea*4 #bga4 ,colors4--,! *>act]i/ic color ( f]r\s salts is gre51 z 9 ,fe,s,o#d4 ,^! salts give ! gre5 color to ! *lorophyll 9 leaves & grass1 & bottle glass owes its gre5 color to f]r\s silicate4 ,f]ric salts are a br[ni% r$1 z %[n 9 hematite & limonite1 & 9 "s bottles4 ,r$ s&/one1 & mo/ soils & e>?s1 are illu/rations ( ?is color+ action4 ,! blood ( v]tebrates owes its color to f]ric salts4 ,bricks are made f a gre5i% blue clay 9 :i* iron exi/s 9 ! f]r\s /ate4 ,on be+ heat$1 f]r\s salts are oxidiz$ to f]ric1 & _! color is *ang$ to r$4 ,iron ru/ is hydrat$ f]ric oxide1 ,fe#b,o#c & ,fe#b7,,oh7#f4 #bgb4 ,*ange ( ,val5ce4 ,exp]im5t #abb4--;,dissolve #b g4 ( iron fil+s 9 dilut$ ,h,cl4 ,filt] or p\r (f ! cle> liquid1 divide x into two p>ts1 & add ,,nh#d,,oh to "o "p till a ppt4 occurs4 ,notice ! gre5i% color ( ,fe7,,oh7#b4 ,oxidize ! o!r "p by add+ a few drops ( ,,hno#c & boil+ a m9ute4 ,n[ add ,,nh#d,,oh1 & obs]ve ! r$di% color ( ! ppt41 ,fe#b7,,oh7#f4 ,solutions ( f]r\s salts w gradually *ange to f]ric1 if all[$ to /&1 ?us %[+ ! great] /ability ( ! latt]4 ,9 *ang+ f ,fe,cl#b to ,fe#b;,cl#f oxidation does n consi/ 9 add+ ,o1 b 9 increas+ ! negative elem5t or radical4 ,?is is possible only by *ang+ ! val5ce ( ,fe f #b to #d4 ,h5ce oxidation1 9 its l>g] s5se1 means increas+ ! val5ce ( ! positive elem5t4 ,to oxidize ,fe,s,o#d is to make x ,fe#b7,,s#d7c1 *ang+ ! val5ce ( ,fe z be=e4 ,r$uction or deoxidation dim9i%es ! val5ce ( ! positive elem5t4 ,illu/rate ?is by ! same iron salts4 ,illu/rate x by ,pb,o & ,pb#jb2 ,au,cl & ,au,cl#c2 ,sb#b,s#c & ,sb#b,s#e4 ,9 ?is s5se def9e an oxidiz+ ag5t4 ,a r$uc+ ag5t4 #bgc4 ,f]r\s ,sulphate4 ,exp]im5t #abc4--;,dissolve a few iron fil+s 9 dilute ,h#b,,s#d1 & sl[ly evaporate = a few m9utes4 ,write ! equation4 ,f]r\s sulphate1 gre5 vitriol1 or copp]as1 ,fe,s,o#d #g ,h#b,o1 is ! s\rce ( :at acid8 ,see page #ff4 ,x is also "o ( ! +r$i5ts 9 _m writ+ inks4 ,on be+ heat$1 or expos$ to ! air1 x loses its wat] ( cry/allization & becomes a :ite p[d]4 ,x is prep>$ z above1 or by oxidiz+ moi/5$ ,fe,s#b by exposure to ! air4 ,f]r\s sulphide1 protosulphide ( iron1 ,fe,s1 is h[ prep>$8 ,see ,exp]im5t #f4 ,/ate its use4 ,see ,exp]im5t #ajh4 ,x also occurs native4 ,f]ric sulphide1 pyrite1 ,fe,s#b1 occurs native 9 l>ge quantities4 ,:at is its use8 ,see page #fe4 ,,*apt] ,,xlix4 ,,lead ,,& ,,t94 ,,lead4 ,exam9e gal5a1 lead protoxide & dioxide1 r$-lead1 lead c>bonate1 acetate1 & nitrate4 ,note especially ! colors ( ! oxides1 ! cubical cry/allization & cleavage ( gal5a1 ! specific gravity ( ! comp\nds1 ! s(tness ( ,pb1 & ! t>ni%1 ,pb#b,o1 :i* cov]s x1if long expos$4 #bgd4 ,di/ribution ( ,pb4--,pb is widely di/ribut$1 occurr+ z ,pb,s & ,pb,c,o#c4 ,pb,s1 gal5ite or gal5a1 is its ma9 s\rce4 ,by heat+ x 9 air1 ,,s#b is =m$1 & ,pb lib]at$ & drawn (f4 ,pb is b little act$ on by cold ,h#b,,s#d1 unless conc5trat$4 ,describe its use 9 mak+ t acid4 ,see page #fe4 ,to %[ t a little ,pb has be5 dissolv$1 z ,pb,s,o#d1 9 ! manufacture ( t acid1 p]=m ?is exp]im5t4 ,exp]im5t #abd4--,to #e;cc4 ( wat] 9 a clean t4t4 add ! same volume ( ,h#b,,s#d1 n ,c4,p42 %ake1 & notice any f9e p[d] susp5d$4 ,pb,s,o#d1 be+ insoluble 9 wat]1 is precipitat$4 ,:at is ! te/ = ,pb8 ,see ,exp]im5t #aji4 #bge4 ,poison\s ,prop]ties4--,ph is v flexible & s(t1 & is mu* us$ = wat] pipes4 ,9 moi/ air x is soon coat$ ) suboxide1 ,pb#bj1 z may be se5 by expos+ a fre% surface4 ,"s portion ( ?is is liable to dissolve 9 wat]1 &1 z all soluble salts ( ,pb are poison\s1 wat] t has /ood 9 pipes %\ld n be us$ =dr9k+4 ,lead is employ$ z an alloy ( t9 = cov]+ %eet-iron 9 t]ne plate4 ,t 8 plate is r>ely us$ except = ro(+4 ,! bright plate1 us$ = t9 cans & o!r purposes1 sc>cely ev] conta9s any lead except ! small portion 9 sold]4 ,9 sold]+1 ,zn,cl#b is employ$ = a flux4 ,sn1 ,pb1 & ,zn are some:at soluble 9 vegetable acids4 ,if citric acid be pres5t1 z x usually is1 citrates ( ^! metals are =m$1 & all ( !m are poison\s4 ,! action is f> m rapid aft] op5+ ! c1 s9ce oxidation is ha/5$4 ,h5ce ! cont5ts %\ld be tak5 out directly aft] op5+4 ,lead poisons seem to h an aff9ity = ! tissues ( ! body1 & accumulate little by little4 ,pa9t]'s colic results f lead poison+4 ,epsom salt1 or o!r soluble sulphate1 is an antidote1 s9ce ) ,pb x makes insoluble ,pb,s,o#d4 #bgf4 ,"s ,lead ,comp\nds4--,lead salts =m ! basis ( _m pa9ts4 ,:ite pa9t is a mixture ( ,pb,c,o#c & ,pb7,,oh7#b susp5d$ 9 l9se$ oil4 ,x is (t5 adult]at$ ) ,ba,s,o#d1 ,zn,o1 ,ca,c,o#c4 ,o!r lead comp\nds are us$ = color$ pa9ts4 ,! two *ief soluble salts are ,pb7,,no#c7b & lead acetate1 ,pb7,c#b;,h#cjb7b4 ,r$-lead1 ,pb#c,o#d1 &1 to "s ext5t1 li?>ge1 ,pb,o1 are employ$ 9 glass manufacture4 ,"n ! k9d ( glass 9 :i* x is us$1 describe its manufacture1 & write a symbol = lead silicate4 ,:at is ! *>act]i/ic ( lead glass8 ,see page #acb4 ,exp]im5t #abe4--,put a small fragm5t ( ,pb on a piece ( *>coal1 & bl[ ! oxidiz+ flame aga9/ x = "s "t ) a m\? bl[-pipe4 ,note ! color ( ! coat+ on ! coal4 ,pb,o has =m$4 ,exp]im5t #abf4--;,dissolve a small piece ( lead 9 dilute ,,hno#c4 ,p\r (f ! solution into a t4t4 & add ,h,cl or o!r soluble *loride4 ,pb7,,no#c7b #b ,h,cl 8 ,:at is ! insoluble product8 ,exp]im5t #abg4--;,add to a solution ( ,pb7,c#b;,h#c,o#b7b "s ,h#b,,s#d4 ,give ! reaction & ! explanation4 ,,t94 ,exam9e cassit]ite1 t9 foil1 t]ne plate1 bright plate4 #bgg4 ,sn occurs z ! m9]al cassit]ite1 t9 /one1 ,sn#jb1 & is f\nd 9 only a few localities1 z ,banca1 ,malacca1 & ,engl&4 ,x does n readily t>ni%1 & is us$ to cov] ?9 plates ( copp] & iron4 ,t9 foil is g5]ally an alloy ( ,pb & ,sn4 ,sn is sometimes a dyad1 at o!rs a tetrad4 ,write symbols = its two *lorides1 /ann\s & /annic1 also = its sulphides & oxides4 ,,*apt] ,l4 ,,copp]1 ,,m]cury1 ,,& ,,silv]4 ,,copp]4 ,exam9e native copp]1 *alcopyrite1 mala*ite1 azurite1 copp] acetate1 copp] nitrate1 copp] sulphate4 #bgh4 ,occurr5ce4--,copp] occurs bo? native & 9 _m comp\nds1 be+ diffus$ 9 rocks &1 9 m9ute quantities1 9 soils1 wat]s1 plants1 & animals4 ,spa91 ,*ili1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates are ! *ief ,cu produc+ c\ntries4 ,! ext5sive m9es ( ,mi*igan yield ! native ore4 ,! ,calumet & ,heela m9e alone produces #d1jjj1jjj p\nds p] mon?4 ,! mo/ abundant comp\nd ( ,cu is *alcopyrite1 or copp] pyrites1 ,cu,fe,s#b4 ,mala*ite1 :i* is gre51 & azurite1 :i* is blue1 are c>bonates1 ! =m] be+ us$ = ornam5tal purposes4 ,cu is1 next to ,ag1 ! be/ conductor ( electricity & heat among ! elem5ts2 x is v ductile1 malleable1 & t5aci\s4 ,cu has two val5ces1 #a & #b4 ,symbolize & "n its *lorides1 iodides1 sulphides1 & oxides4 ,cupric comp\nds1 z a rule1 are m /able ?an cupr\s4 #bgi4 ,uses4--,?\s&s ( tons ( ,cu f9d use 9 dome/ic ut5sils1 ocean vessels1 electric wires1 batt]ies1 & plat+4 ,"n ! *ief alloys ( ,cu & _! uses4 ,see page #acf4 ,h[ may ,cu,s be obta9$8 ,see ,exp]im5t #g4 ,cu#b,o1 cupr\s oxide1 is us$ to color glass r$4 ,,cuso#d is employ$ 9 calico-pr9t+1 electric batt]ies1 etc4 ,x is call$ blue vitriol4 ,p>is gre51 us$ = kill+ potato-beetles1 is compos$ *iefly ( copp] ars5ite4 ,write ! symbol = ?is comp\nd4 ,all soluble salts ( ,cu are poison\s2 h5ce c>e %\ld be tak5 n to br+ any acid 9 contact ) copp] vessels ( dome/ic use4 ,) acetic acid1 :at w\ld be =m$8 ,,m]cury ,,& ,,its ,,comp\nds4 ,exam9e c9nab>1 v]milion1 m]cury1 r$ oxide1 m]cur\s & m]curic *loride4 #bhj4 ,c9nab>1 ,hg,s1 is practically ! only s\rce ( m]cury-- quicksilv]4 ,au/ria1 ,spa91 & ,cali=nia conta9 ne>ly all ! m9es4 ,9 ^! m9es ! metal also occurs native to a small ext5t4 ,x is ! only commonly occurr+ metal t is liquid at ord9>y temp]atures2 x solidifies at ab\t -#dj degrees4 ,:at o!r common liquid elem5t8 ,see page #ab4 ,hg is r$uc$ f ! ore by ,fe1 ,hg be+ di/ill$ ov] & collect$ 9 wat]4 ,heat regul>ly exp&s ! metal4 #bha4 ,uses4--,= uses see ,r$uction ( ,ag & ,au1 pages #afe & #agj2 amalgams1 page #acg2 laboratory "w1 page #fh4 ,x is also employ$ = !rmomet]s & b>omet]s1 & z ! s\rce ( ! r$ pigm5t v]milion1 :i* is artificial ,hg,s4 ,comp>e ! vapor d5sity & ! atomic weight ( ,hg1 & expla94 ,see page #ab4 ,hg is ei!r a monad or a dyad4 ,symbolize its ous & ic oxides & *lorides4 ,:i* ( ! foll[+ are is salts1 & :i* are ous1 & :y8 ,hg,n,o#c1 ,hg7,,no#c7b1 ,hg,cl1 ,hg,cl#b8 ,calomel1 ,hg,cl or ,hg#b;,cl#b1 us$ 9 m$ic9e1 & corrosive sublimate1 ,hg,cl#b1 are illu/rations ( ! ous & ic salts4 ,! =m] is insoluble1 ! latt] soluble4 ,all soluble comp\nds ( ,hg are virul5t poisons1 = :i* ! antidote is ! :ite ( egg1 album54 ,) x !y coagulate or =m an insoluble mass4 ,,silv] ,,& ,,its ,,comp\nds4 #bhb4 ,occurr5ce & ,r$uction4--,silv] is f\nd uncomb9$1 & comb9$1 z ,ag#b,s1 arg5ite1 & ,ag,cl1 horn silv]4 ,x occurs usually ) gal5a1 ,pb,s4 ,x is abundant 9 ! ,we/]n ,/ates1 ,mexico1 & ,p]u4 ,silv] is sep>at$ f gal5a by melt+ ! two metals4 ,z !y sl[ly cool1 ,pb cry/allizes1 & is remov$ by asieve1 :ile ,ag is left 9 ! liquid mass4 ,! pr9ciple is mu* l cry/alliz+ ,na,cl f solution & leav+ beh9d ! salts ( ,mg1 etc41 9 ! "m liquor4 ,:51 by repeat+ ! process1 mo/ ( ! ,pb is elim9at$1 ! re/ is oxidiz$ by heat+ 9 ! air4 ,pb ,o ,pb,o4 ,ag does n oxidize1 & is left 9 ! metallic /ate4 ,ano!r mode ( r$uction is to *ange ! silv] salt to its *loride1 & !n remove ! ,cl ) ,fe4 ,roa/+ ) ,na,cl makes ! fir/ *ange1 #b ,na,cl ,ag#b,s ,na#b,s #b ,ag,cl1 & ) ,fe ! second1 #b ,ag,cl ,fe ,fe,cl#b #b ,ag4 ,ag is sep>at$ f ! o!r products by add+ ,hg1 ) :i* x =ms an amalgam4 ,by di/ill+ ?is1 ,hg passes ov] & ,ag rema9s4 ,?is is ! amalgamat+ process4 #bhc4 ,salts ( ,silv] are mu* employ$ 9 organic *emi/ry1 & ,ag,cl1 ,ag,br1 & ,ag,n,o#c are us$ 9 photography4 ,ag,n,o#c is a soluble1 colorless cry/al1 & is ! basis ( ! silv] salts4 ,x black5s :5 9 contact ) organic matt]4 ,/a9s on a photograph]'s h&s are due to ?is sub/ance1 & ! use ( ,ag,n,o#c 9 indelible inks dep5ds on ! same prop]ty4 ,?is may be due to a r$uction ( ,ag,n,o#c to ,ag#d,o4 ,/a9s c be remov$ f ! sk9 or f l95 by a solution ( ,kl1 or ( ,cu,cl#b foll[$ by sodium hyposulphite4 ,lun> cau/ic is made by fus+ ,ag,n,o#c cry/als1 & is us$ = caut]iz+ 7burn+7 ! fle%4 ,mu* ,ag,c,n f9ds use 9 electroplat+4 ,exp]im5t #abh4--,put #e cc4 ,ag,n,o#c solution 9 ea* ( ?ree t4t4 ,to ! fir/ add #c cc4 ,h,cl1 to ! second #c;cc4,na,cl solution1 & to ! ?ird #c cc4 ,k,br solution4 ,write ! reaction = ea* case1 & notice t ! fir/ two give ! same ppt41 z 9 fact any soluble *loride w\ld4 ,filt] ! second & ?ird1 on sep>ate filt] pap]s1 & expose half ! residue to direct sunlight1 obs]v+ ! *ange ( color by occasionally /irr+4 ,sol> rays r$uce ,ag,cl & ,ag,br1 x is ?\ght1 to ,ag#b;,cl & ,ag#b;,br4 ,try to dissolve ! o!r half 9 ,na#b,s#b,o#c1 sodium ?iosulphate solution4 ,?is exp]im5t illu/rates ! ma9 facts ( photography4 ,,*apt] ,,li4 ,,photography4 #bhd4 ,descriptive4--,! silv] halog5s1 ,ag,c,i1 ,ag,br1 ,ag,i1 are v s5sitive to c]ta9 light rays4 ,r$ rays d n affect !m2 h5ce ruby glass is us$ 9 ! d>k room4 ,photography involves two processes4 ,! negative ( ! picture is fir/ tak5 ^u a prep>$ glass plate1 & ! positive is !n pr9t$ on prep>$ pap]4 ,! negative %[s ! lights & %ades rev]s$1 :ile ! positive gives objects _! true appe>ance4 ,few photograph]s n[ make _! own plates1 ^! be+ prep>$ at l>ge manufactories4 ,! glass is !re cov]$ on "o side ) a :ite emulsion ( gelat9e & ,ag,br1 mak+ :at are call$ gelat9e-bromide plates4 ,?is is done 9 a room dimly light$ ) ruby light4 ,! plates are dri$1 pack$ 9 seal$ boxes1 & ?us s5t to photograph]s4 ,! arti/ op5s !m 9 8 d>k room1 simil>ly light$1 ins]ts ! plates 9 hold]s1 film side out1 cov]s ) a slide1 adju/s to ! cam]a1 previ\sly focus$1 & makes ! exposure to light4 ,! "t ( exposure v>ies ) ! k9d ( plate1 ! l5s1 & ! light1 f sev]al seconds1 m9utes1 or h\rs1 to #a_/bej "p ( a second 9 "s in/antane\s "w4 ,9 ! d>k room ! plates are remov$ & c be at once develop$1 or kept = any "t away f ! light4 ,no *ange appe>s 9 ! plate until developm5t1 ?\gh ! light has done its "w4 ,to develop ! plate1 x is put into a solution ( pyrogallic acid1 ! develop]1 & c>bonate ( sodium1 ! motive p[] 9 ! process4 ,o!r develop]s are (t5 us$4 ,! *emical action "h is some:at obscure1 b ^? p>ts ( ! plates :i* 7 affect$ by ! light are made visible1 a "p ( ! ,agz,br be+ r$uc$ to ,ag by ! aff9ity :i* sodium pyrogallate has = ,br4 ,ag#b;,br #b ,ag ,br4 ,br is dissolv$ & ,ag is deposit$4 ,:5 ! r indi/9ct image beg9s to fade out1 ! plate is dipp$ = a m9ute into a solution ( alum to h>d5 ! gelat9e & prev5t x f peel+ (f 7frill+74 ,x is f9ally soak$ 9 a solution ( sodium ?iosulphate 7hyposulphite or hypo71 ,na#b,s#bjh4 ,?is removes ! ,ag,br t ! light has fail$ to r$uce4 ,! processis call$ fix+1 z ! plate may !reaft] be expos$ to ! light ) impunity4 ,x mu/ be left 9 ?is ba? till all ! :ite "p1 be/ se5 on ! back ( ! plate1 disappe>s4 #b;,ag,br #c,na#b,s#b,o#c ,ag#b,na#d7,s#b,o#c7 #b ,na,br4 ,bo? products are dissolv$4 ,x is !n ?or\ghly wa%$4 ,any d>k objects become light 9 ! negative1 & vice v]sa4 ,:y8 ,= ! positive1 ! be/ l95 pap] is cov]$ on "o side ) album51 soak$ 9 ,na,cl solution1 dri$1 & ! same side laid on a solution ( ,ag,n,o#c4 ,:at reaction takes place8 ,:at is deposit$ on ! pap]1 & :at is dissolv$8 ,?is s5sitiz$ pap]1 :5 dry1 is plac$ ov] a negative1 film to film1 & expos$ 9 a pr9t+ frame to direct sunlight till mu* d>k] ?an desir$ 9 ! f9i%$ picture4 ,:at is d>k 9 ! negative w be light 9 ! positive4 ,:y8 ,! r$uc+ action ( sunlight is simil> to t 9 ! negative4 ,expla9 x4 ,aft] pr9t+1 ! picture is ton$ & fix$4 ,ton+ consi/s 9 giv+ x a ri* color by replac+ "p ( ! ,ag#b;,cl ) gold f a neutral solution ( ,au,cl#c4 #c ,ag#b;,cl ,a,u,cl#c #f;,ag,c,i ,au4 ,fix+ removes ! unaffect$ ,ag,cl1 z 9 ! negative1 ! same sub/ance be+ us$4 ,describe ! action4 #b ,ag,c,i #c ,na#b,s#bjc ,ag#b,na#d7,s#bjc7 #b ,na,cl4 ,bo? ! positive & ! negative mu/ be well wa%$ aft] ea* process1 p>ticul>ly aft] ! la/4 ,! picture is !n ready = m\nt+4 ,9 f9e portrait "w bo? ! negative & ! positive are ret\*$4 ,?is consi/s 9 remov+ blemi%es ) color$ p5cils or ,india ink4 ,! negative--,no4 #a4 ,dissolve3 sulphite soda cry/als1 #b oz4 7#eg g7 9 #h oz4 7#bcf cc47 wat] 7di/ill$72 citric acid1 #fj gra9s 7#d g7 9 #a_/b oz4 7#ae cc47 wat]2 bromide ammonium1 #be gra9s 7#a #a_/b g7 9 #a_/b oz4 wat]2 pyrogallic acid1 #a oz4 7#bh g7 9 #c oz4 7#ij cc47 wat]4 ,aft] dissolv+1 mix 9 ! ord] nam$1 & filt]4 ,no4 #b4 ,dissolve3 sulphite soda1 #b oz4 7#eg g7 9 #d oz4 7#aah cc47 wat]2 c>bonate pota%1 #d oz4 7#aac g7 9 #h oz4 7#bcf cc47 wat]4 ,dissolve sep>ately1 mix1 & filt]4 ,to develop plates1 mix #a dram 7#c #b_/c cc47 ( ,no4 #a & #a dram ( ,no4 #b ) #b oz4 7#fj cc47 wat]4 ,cov] ! plate ) ! mixture1 & leave z long z ! picture increases 9 di/9ctness4 ,remove1 wa%1 & put x into a saturat$ solution ( alum = a m9ute or two1 !n wa% & put x into a half-saturat$ solution ( hypo4 ,leave till no :ite ,ag,cl is se5 ?r\gh ! back ( ! plate4 ,wa% x well4 ,! positive4--#a4 ,dissolve #cj gra9s 7#b g47 pure gold *loride 9 #ae oz4 7#dej cc47 wat]4 ,?is =ms a /ock solution4 #b4 ,make a saturat$ solution ( borax4 #c4 ,prep>e a ton+ ba? by add+ #a_/b oz4 7#ae cc47 ( ! gold *loride solution & #a oz4 7#cj cc47 ( ! borax solution to #g oz4 7#baj cc47 wat]4 ,aft] pr9t+ ! picture1 wa% x 9 #c or #d wat]s1 put x into ! ton+ ba?1 & leave x till consid]ably d>k] ?an desir$2 wa%1 & put x = #ae m9utes into a hypo solution t has be51 aft] saturation1 dilut$ ) #c or #d volumes ( wat]4 ,!n wa% repeat$ly4 ,,*apt] ,,lii4 ,,plat9um ,,& ,,gold4 ,,plat9um4 ,exam9e plat9um foil & wire4 #bhe4 ,plat9um is mu* r>] ?an gold1 & is ab\t two-?irds z co/ly z ! latt]4 ,x is f\nd alloy$ ) o!r metals1 z ,an1 & is obta9$ f s&1 9 :i* x occurs1 by wa%+4 ,aqua regia is ! only acid :i* dissolves x1 & ! action is mu* sl[] ?an ) ,au4 ,pt is "o ( ! heavie/ metals1 hav+ a specific gravity ?ree times t ( ,fe1 or tw5ty-"o & a half times t ( wat]4 ,its fus+-po9t is ab\t #afjj degrees1 or j bel[ ! temp]ature ( ! oxy-hydrog5 flame4 ,l ,au x has little aff9ity = o!r elem5ts1 b alloys ) _m metals4 ,pt is s t5aci\s t x c be drawn into wire invisible to ! nak$ eye1 be+ drawn out 9 ! c5t] ( a silv] wire1 :i* is aft]w>ds dissolv$ away f ! ,pt by ,,hno#c4 ,not+ its val5ces1 #b & #d1 write ! symbols = ! ous & ic *lorides & oxides4 #bhf4 ,uses4--,pt is mu* us$ 9 *emi/ry 9 ! =m ( foil1 wire1 & crucibles4 ,on :at prop]ties does ?is use dep5d8 ,describe its use 9 mak+ ,h#b,,s#d4 ,pt,cl#d is made by dissolv+ ,pt 9 aqua regia1 & evaporat+ ! liquid4 ,on heat+ ,pt,cl#d1 half ( its ,cl is giv5 up1 leav+ ,pt,cl#b4 ,if x be /ill m /rongly heat$1 ! ,cl all passes (f1 leav+ spongy ,pt4 ,by fus+ ?is 9 ! oxy-hydrog5 flame1 ord9>y ,pt is obta9$4 ,spongy ,pt has a rem>kable p[] ( absorb+1 or occlud+1 ,o )\t unit+ ) x4 ,?is ,o x gives up to "s o!r sub/ances1 & ?us becomes indirectly an oxidiz+ ag5t4 ,:at o!r elem5t has ?is prop]ty ( occlud+ gases8 ,,gold4 ,exam9e aurif]\s qu>tz1 gold *loride1 yell[ & ruby glass color$ ) gold4 #bhg4 ,gold is r>ely f\nd comb9$1 & has small aff9ity = o!r elem5ts1 ?\gh =m+ alloys ) ,cu1 ,ag1 & ,hg4 ,its s\rce is usually ei!r qu>tz rock1 call$ aurif]\s qu>tz1 or s& 9 plac] m9es4 ,! elem5t is widely di/ribut$1 occurr+ 9 m9ute quantities 9 mo/ soils1 sea wat]1 etc4 ,cali=nia & ,au/ralia are ! two greate/ gold- produc+ c\ntries4 ,t f ,cali=nia has a light color1 due to a slight admixture ( ,ag4 ,au/ralian gold is ( a r$di% hue1 due to an alloy ( ,cu4 ,gold-be>+ qu>tz is pulv]iz$1 & treat$ ) ,hg to dissolve ! preci\s metal1 :i* is !n sep>at$ f ! alloy by di/illation4 ,comp>e ?is ) ! prep>ation ( ,ag4 ,su* is ! malleability ( ,au t x has be5 hamm]$ into %eets n ov] "o-million? ( an in* ?ick2 x is !n z transp>5t z glass4 ,gold does n t>ni% or *ange bel[ ! melt+-po9t4 ,on acc\nt ( its s(tness x is usually alloy$ ) ,cu1 sometimes ) ,ag4 ,pure gold is tw5ty-f\r c>ats f9e4 ,eighte5 c>at gold has eighte5 p>ts ,au & six ,cu4 ,gold co9 has n9e p>ts ,au to "o "p ,cu4 ,! mo/ important comp\nd is ,au,cl#c4 ,describe a use ( x4 ,?is metal is mu* employ$ 9 electroplat+1 & some:at 9 color+ glass4 ,,*apt] ,,liii4 ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,rocks4 #bhh4 ,classification4--,rocks may be divid$1 accord+ to _! orig91 into ?ree classes3 7#a7 ,aque\s rocks4 ,^! h be5 =m$ by deposition ( s$im5t>y mat]ial1 lay] by lay]1 on ! bottoms ( anci5t oceans1 lakes1 & riv]s1 f :i* !y h gradually be5 rais$1 to =m dry l&4 7#b7 ,eruptive or volcanic rocks4 ,^! h be5 =c$1 z hot fluids1 ?r\gh r5ts & fissures f ! int]ior ( ! e>?4 7#c7 ,metamorphic rocks4 ,^!1 by ! comb9$ action ( heat1 pressure1 wat]1 & *emical ag5ts1 h be5 cry/alliz$ & *emically alt]$4 ,! rocks ( ! fir/ class1 su* z *alk1 lime/one1 %ale1 & s&/one1 are di/+ui%$ by ! exi/5ce ( fossils 9 !m1 or by ! successive lay]s ( ! mat]ial :i* goes to make up _! /ructure & to give !m a /ratifi$ appe>ance4 ,! rocks ( ! second class are recogniz$ by _! resemblance to ! products ( mod]n volcanoes & _! non-/ratifi$ appe>ance4 ,rocks ( ! ?ird class are compos$ ( cry/als1 :i*1 ?\gh (t5 v m9ute1 are m9]als hav+ a def9ite *emical composition4 ,examples ( ! ?ird class are gneiss1 slate1 s*i/1 & m>ble4 ,! la/ two classes ab\nd on ! ,ea/]n sea-bo>d1 :ile ! int]ior ( our cont95t is compos$ almo/ exclusively ( /ratifi$ s$im5t>y rocks4 #bhi4 ,composition4--,rocks are n def9ite comp\nds1 b v>iable mixtures ( m9]als4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 are tol]ably pure1 z lime/one 7,ca,c,o#c7 & s&-/one4 ,granite is ma9ly made up ( ?ree m9]als1--qu>tz1 feldsp>1 & mica4 ,qu>tz1 :5 pure1 is ,si,o#b4 ,feldsp> is a mix$ silicate ( ,k & ,al1 & (t5 sev]al o!r metals1 ,k#b;,al#b,si#f,o#af 7,k#b,o1 ,al#b,o#c1 #f ,si,o#b7 symboliz+ "o v>iety1 :ile a v>iety ( mica is ,h#h,mg#e;,fe#g;,al#b,si#c,o#ah4 ,! pupil %\ld le>n to di/+ui% ! diff]5t m9]als 9 granite4 ,qu>tz is glassy1 mica is 9 scales1 usually :ite or black1 & feldsp> is ! opaque :ite or r$ m9]al4 #bij4 ,importance ( ,silice\s ,rocks4--,slate & s*i/ are also mix$ silicates4 ,pure s&/one is ,si,o#b1 ! r$ v>iety be+ color$ by iron4 ,igne\s rocks are always silice\s4 ,obsidian is a glassy silicate4 ,a m\nta9 ( v pure glass1 obsidian1 two hundr$ feet high1 has lately be5 f\nd 9 ! ,yell[-/one region4 ,we see h[ important ,si is1 9 ! comp\nds ,si#jb & ! silicates1 z a con/itu5t ( ! t]re/rial cru/4 ,lime/one is ! only ext5sive rock f :i* x is abs5t4 ,always comb9$ ) ,o1 x is1 next to ! latt]1 ! mo/ abundant ( elem5ts4 ,silicates ( ,al1 ,fe1 ,ca1 ,k1 ,na1 & ,mg are mo/ common1 & ^! metals1 9 ! ord] giv51 rank next 9 abundance4 #bia4 ,soils4--,b$s ( s&1 clay1 etc41 are dis9tegrat$ rock4 ,s& is *iefly ,si,o#b2 clay is decompos$ feldsp>1 slate/one1 etc4 ,soils are compos$ ( ^! ) an add$ portion ( c>bonace\s matt] f decay+ vegetation1 :i* imp>ts a d>k color4 ,! r$di% br[n hue s (t5 obs]v$ 9 soils & rocks results f f]ric salts4 #bib4 ,m9]als1 ( :i* ne>ly #ajjj v>ieties are n[ kn[n1 may be simple sub/ances1 z graphite & sulphur1 or comp\nds1 z gal5a & gypsum4 ,only sev5 sy/ems ( cry/allizations are kn[n1 b ^! are s modifi$ z to give hundr$s ( =ms ( cry/als4 ,see ,physics4 ,a giv5 *emical sub/ance usually occurs 9 "o sy/em only1 b we saw 9 ! case ( ,s t ?is 0 n always true4 ,cry/als ( "s sub/ances deliquesce1 or take wat] f ! air1 & ?us dissolve !mselves4 ,"s comp\nds _c exi/ 9 ! cry/all9e =m )\t a c]ta9 p]c5tage ( wat]4 ,?is is call$ wat] ( cry/allization2 if x passes into ! air by evaporation1 ! cry/al crumbles to a p[d]- & is !n said to effloresce4 #bic4 ,! ,e>?'s ,int]ior4--,we are ignorant ( ! *emi/ry ( ! e>?'s int]ior4 ,! deepe/ bor+ is b little m ?an a mile1 & volcanic ejections probably come f b a v few miles bel[ ! surface4 ,! specific gravity ( ! int]ior is kn[n to be m ?an twice t ( ! surface rock4 ,f ?is x has be5 imag9$ t t[>ds ! c5t] heavy metals l ,fe & ,au pr$om9ate2 b ?is is by no means c]ta91 s9ce ! great] pressure at ! int]ior w\ld cause ! specific gravity ( any sub/ance to increase4 #bid4 ,p]c5tage ( ,elem5ts4--,compute ! p]c5tage ( ,o 9 ! foll[+ rocks1 :i* compose a l>ge proportion ( ! e>?'s cru/3 ,si,o#b1 ,al#b,si,o#d1 ,ca,c,o#c4 ,f9d ! p]c5tage ( ,o 9 pure wat]4 ,9 air4 ,tak+ cellulose1 ,c#af;,h#cj,o#ae1 z ! basis1 f9d ! p]c5tage ( ,o 9 vegetation4 ,an e/imate1 bas$ on ,buns5's analysis ( rocks1 ( ! *ief elem5ts 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 is z foll[s3-- ,o1 #df p] c5t ,ca1 #c p] c5t ,si1 #cj p] c5t ,na1 #b p] c5t ,al1 #h p] c5t ,k1 #b p] c5t ,fe1 #f p] c5t ,mg1 #a p] c5t ,m ?an half ! elem5ts are kn[n to exi/ 9 sea-wat]1 & ! re/ are ?\ght to be !re1 ?\gh dissolv$ 9 su* small quantity z to elude detection4 ,:at f\r are f\nd 9 ! atmosph]e8,,*apt] ,,liv4 ,,organic ,,*emi/ry4 #bie4 ,g5]al ,consid]ations4--,inorganic *emi/ry is ! *emi/ry ( m9]als1 or unorganiz$ bodies4 ,organic *emi/ry 0 =m]ly def9$ z ! *emi/ry ( ! comp\nds f\nd 9 plants & animals2 b ( late x has tak5 a mu* wid] range1 & is n[ def9$ z ! *emi/ry ( ! ,c comp\nds1 s9ce ,c is ! nucleus ar\nd :i* o!r elem5ts c5tre1 & ) :i* !y comb9e to =m ! organic sub/ances4 ,new organic comp\nds are con/antly be+ discov]$ & syn!siz$1 s t ne>ly #ajj1jjj are n[ kn[n4 ,! molecule ( organic matt] is (t5 v complex1 sometimes conta9+ hundr$s ( atoms4 ,9 organic z 9 inorganic *emi/ry1 atoms are b\nd toge!r by *emical aff9ity1 ?\gh x 0 =m]ly suppos$ t an additional or vital =ce 0 in/rum5tal 9 =m+ organic comp\nds4 ,= ?is reason none ( ^! sub/ances1 x 0 ?\ght1 c\ld be built up 9 ! laboratory1 al?\gh _m _h be5 analyz$4 ,9 #ahbh ! fir/ organic comp\nd1 urea1 0 artificially prep>$1 & s9ce !n ?\s&s h be5 syn!siz$4 ,!y are n necess>ily manufactur$ f organic products1 b c be made f m9]al matt]4 #bif4 ,molecul> ,diff]5ces4--,molecules may diff] 9 ?ree ways3 7#a7 ,9 ! k9d ( atoms !y conta94 ,comp>e ,,co#b & ,,cs#b4 7#b7 ,9 ! numb] ( atoms4 ,comp>e ,,co & ,,co#b4 7#c7 ,9 ! arrangem5t ( atoms1 i4e4 ! molecul> /ructure4 ,e?yl alcohol & me?yl e!r h ! same numb] ( ! same elem5ts1 ,c#b;,h#f,o1 b _! molecul> /ructure is n ! same1 & h5ce _! prop]ties diff]4 ,qualitative analysis %[s :at elem5ts ent] into a comp\nd2 quantitative analysis %[s ! proportion ( ^! elem5ts2 /ructural analysis exhibits molecul> /ructure1 & is ! bran* to :i* organic *emi/s are n[ giv+ p>ticul> att5tion4 ,a speciali/ (t5 works = ye>s to syn!size a s]ies ( comp\nds 9 ! laboratory4 #big4 ,s\rces4--,"s organic products are n[ made 9 a pur] & *eap] =m ?an ,nature h]self prep>es !m4 ,aliz>9e1 ! color+ pr9ciple ( madd]1 0 until lately obta9$ only f ! root ( ! madd] plant2 n[ x is almo/ :olly manufactur$ f coal-t>1 & ! manufactur$ article s]ves its purpose mu* bett] ?an ! native product4 ,t5 million doll>s' wor? is annually made1 & ,holl&1 ! home ( ! plant1 is giv+ up madd] culture4 ,artificial naph?ol-sc>let is aboli%+ ! culture ( ! co*9eal insect4 ,indigo has also be5 syn!siz$4 ,c]ta9 comp\nds h be5 pr$ict$ f a !oretical molecul> /ructure1 !n made1 & aft]w>ds f\nd to exi/ 9 plants4 ,o!rs are made t h no kn[n natural exi/5ce4 ,! s\rce ( a l>ge numb] ( artificial organic products is coal-t>1 f bitum9\s coal4 ,sac*>9e1 a comp\nd ) two hundr$ & eighty times ! sweet5+ p[] ( sug>1 is "o ( its late/ products4 ,wood1 bones1 & v>i\s f]m5table liquids are o!r s\rces ( organic comp\nds4 #bih4 ,m>%-,gas ,s]ies4--,! *emi/ry ( ! hydro-c>bons dep5ds on ! val5ce ( ,c1 :i*1 9 mo/ cases1 is a tetrad4 ,take successively #a1 #b1 & #c ,c atoms1 saturate ) ,h1 & note ! graphic symbols3-- ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h-,c-,h1 or ,,*#d4 ,h-,c-,c-,h1 or8 ,h-,c-,c-,c-,h1 or 8 ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,write ! graphic & common symbols = #d1 #e1 & #f ,c atoms1 saturat$ ) ,h4 ,notice t ! ,h atoms are f\nd by d\bl+ ! ,c atoms & add+ #b4 ,h5ce ! g5]al =mula = ?is s]ies w\ld be ,cn,h#bn#b4 ,write ! common symbol = ,c & ,h ) t5 atoms ( ,c2 twelve atoms2 ?irte54 ,?is s]ies is call$ ! m>%-gas s]ies4 ,! fir/ memb]1 ,,*#d me?ane1 or m>% gas1 may be writt5 ,,*#c;,h1 me?yl hydride1 ,,*#c be+ ! me?yl radical4 ,c#b;,h#f1 e?ane1 ! second "o1 is e?yl hydride1 ,c#b;,h#e;,h4 ,!oretically ?is s]ies ext5ds )\t limit2 practically x ends ) ,c#ce;,h#gb4 ,9 ea* successive comp\nd ( ! foll[+ li/1 ! ,c atoms increase by unity4 ,give ! symbols & names ( ! comp\nds1 & commit ! latt] to memory3-- ,boil+-po9t4 #a4 ,,*#d me?ane1 or ,,*#c;,h1 me?yl hydride1 gas4 #b4 ,c#b;,h#f e?ane1 ,c#b;,h#e;,h1 e?yl hydride1 gas #c4 ,c#c;,h#h propane1 ,c#c;,h#g;,h1 propyl hydride1 gas #d4 8 butane1 8 8 #a degree #e4 8 p5tane 8 8 #ch degrees #f4 8 hexane1 8 8 #gj degrees #g4 8 heptane1 8 8 #ih degrees #h4 8 octane1 8 8 #abe degrees #i4 8 nonane1 8 8 #adh degrees #aj48 dekane1 8 8 #aga degrees ,note a successive increase ( ! boil+-po9t ( ! comp\nds4 ,crude petroleum conta9s ^! hydro-c>bons up to #aj4 ,petroleumissues f ! e>?1 & is sep>at$ into ! diff]5t oils by fractional di/illation & subsequ5t treatm5t ) ,h#b,,s#d1 etc4 ,rhigol9e is mo/ly #e & #f2 gasol9e1 #f & #g2 b5z9e1 #g2 naph?a1 #g & #h2 k]os5e1 #i & #aj4 ,bel[ #aj ! comp\nds are solids4 ,none ( ^? nam$1 h[ev]1 are pure comp\nds4 ,explosions ( k]os5e are caus$ by ! pres5ce ( ! light] hydro-c>bons1 z naph?a1 etc4 ,notice t1 9 go+ d[n ! li/1 ! proportion ( ,c to ,h becomes mu* great]1 & ! l[] comp\nds are ! heavy hydro-c>bons4 ,to !m belong vasel9e1 p>aff9e1 asphaltum1 etc4 #bii4 ,alcohols4--,! foll[+ replacem5ts w %[ h[ ! symbols = alcohols1 e!rs1 etc41 are d]iv$ f ^? ( ! m>%-gas s]ies4 ,notice t ^! symbols also exhibit ! molecul> /ructure ( ! comp\nd4 ,9 ,,*#c;,h by replac+ ! la/ ,h ) ! radical ,,oh1 we h ,,*#c,,oh1 me?yl hydrate4 ,by a l replacem5t ,c#b;,h#e;,h becomes ,c#b;,h#e,,oh1 e?yl hydrate4 ,^! hydrates are alcohols1 & are kn[n z me?yl alcohol1 e?yl alcohol1 etc4 ,! common v>iety is ,c#b;,h#e,,oh4 ,h[ does ?is symbol diff] f t = wat]1 ,,hoh8 ,notice 9 ! =m] ! union ( a positive1 & also ( a negative1 radical4 ,complete ! table bel[1 mak+ a s]ies ( alcohols1 by sub/itutions z above f ! previ\s table4 #a4 ,,*#c,,oh1 me?yl hydrate1 or me?yl alcohol4 #b4 ,c#b;,h#e,,oh1 e?yl hydrate1 or e?yl alcohol4 #c4 8 8 8 #d4 8 8 8 #e4 8 8 8 ,cont9ue 9 l mann] to #aj4 ,! graphic symbol = ,,*#c,,oh is--- ,h ,h-,c-,,oh2 ,h = ,c#b;,h#e,,oh x is-- ,h ,h ,h-,c-,c-,,oh4 ,h ,h ,write x = ! next two4 #cjj4 ,e!rs4--,ano!r int]e/+ class ( comp\nds are ! oxides ( ! m>%-gas s]ies4 ,9 ?is s]ies1 ,o replaces ,h4 ,,*#c;,h becomes 7,,*#c7b,o1 & ,c#b;,h#e;,h becomes 7,c#b;,h#e7b,o4 ,:y is a d\ble radical tak58 ,^! oxides are e!rs1 common or sulphuric e!r be+ 7,c#b;,h#e7b,o4 ,complete ?is table1 by sub/itut+ ,o 9 place ( ,h1 9 ! table on page #agf4 #a4 7,,*#c7b,o1 me?yl oxide1 or me?yl e!r4 #b4 7,c#b;,h#e7b,o1 e?yl oxide1 or e?yl e!r4 #c4 8 8 8 #d4 8 8 8 #e1 etc4 8 8 8 ,graphically repres5t$ ! fir/ two are3-- ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h 7#a7 ,h-,c-,o-,c-,h4 7#b7 ,h-,c-,c-,o-,c-,c-,h4 ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h #cja4 ,sub/itutions4--,a l>ge numb] ( o!r sub/itutions c be made 9 ea* symbol1 ?us giv+ rise to z _m diff]5t comp\nds4 ,9 ,,*#d1 by sub/itut+ #c ,cl = #c ,h1-- ,h ,cl ,h-,c-,h becomes ,h-,c-,,ci1 or ,c,h,cl#c1! symbol = *lor(orm4 ,h ,cl ,replace successively "o1 two1 & f\r atoms ) ,cl1 & write ! common symbols4 ,make ! same *anges ) ,br4 ,= ea* atom ( ,h 9 ,,*#d sub/itute ! radical ,,*#c1 giv+ ! graphic & common =mulae4 ,also sub/itute ,c#b;,h#e4 ,are ^! radicals positive or negative8 ,f ! above s]ies ( =mulae1 ( :i* ,,*#d is ! basis1 are d]iv$1 9 addition to ! alcohols & e!rs1 ! natural oils1 fatty acids1 etc4 #cjb4 ,olef9es4--,a second s]ies ( hydro-c>bons is repres5t$ by ! g5]al =mula ,cn,h#bn4 ,! fir/ memb] ( ?is s]ies is ,c#b;,h#d or1 graphically1-- ,h ,h ,c ,c4 ,h ,h ,comp>e x ) t = ,c#b;,h#f1 9 ! fir/ s]ies1 not+ ! app>5t molecul> /ructure ( ea*4 ,h ,h ,c ,c - ,c - ,h1 or ,c#c;,h#f is ! second memb]4 ,h ,h ,h ,write =mulae = ! ?ird & f\r? memb]s4 ,write ! common =mulae = ! fir/ t5 ( ?is s]ies4 ,?is is ! olefiant-gas s]ies1 & to x belong oxalic & t>t>ic acids1 glyc]91 & a va/ numb] ( o!r comp\nds1 _m ( :i* are d]iv$ by replacem5ts4 #cjc4 ,o!r ,s]ies4--,9 addition to ! two s]ies ( hydro- c>bons above giv51 ,cn,h#bn#b & ,cn,h#bn1 o!r s]ies are kn[n ) ! g5]al =mulm ,cn,h#bn-#b1 ,cn,h#bn-#d1 ,cn,h#bn-#f1 ,cn,h#bn-#h1 etc41 z f> z ,cn,h#bn-#cb1 or ,c#bf;,h#b,o4 ,ea* ( ^! has a l>ge numb] ( repres5tatives1 z 0 f\nd 9 ! m>%-gas s]ies4 ,n f> f two hundr$ direct comp\nds ( ,c & ,h are kn[n1 n to m5tion sub/itutions4 ,! =mula ,cn,h#bn-#f repres5ts a l>ge & int]e/+ gr\p ( comp\nds1 call$ ! b5z9e s]ies4 ,?is is ! basis ( ! anil9e dyes1 & ( _m p]fumes & flavors4 ,*apt] ,,lv4 ,,illum9at+ ,,gas4 #cjd4 ,s\rce4--,! ?ree ma9 elem5ts 9 combu/ion are ,o1 ,h1 ,c4 ,air supplies ,o1 ! support]2 ,c & ,h are usually unit$1 z hydro-c>bons1 9 lum9ants & combu/ibles4 ,h gives little light 9 burn+2 ,c gives mu*4 ,! fib]s ( plants conta9 hydro-c>bons1 & by de/ructive di/illation ^! are sep>at$1 z gases1 f wood & coal1 & us$ = illum9at+ purposes4 ,m9]al coal is fossiliz$ vegetable matt]2 an?racite has _h mo/ ( ! volatile hydro-c>bons remov$ by di/illation 9 ! e>?2 bitum9\s & cannel coals reta9 !m4 ,^! latt] coals are di/ill$1 & furni% u illum9at+ gas4 ,exp]im5t #abi4--,put into a t4t4 #bj g4 ( cannel coal 9 f9e pieces4 ,heat1 & collect ! gas ov] ,h#b,o4 ,te/ its combu/ibility4 ,notice any impurities1 su* z t>1 adh]+ to ! sides ( ! t4t41 or ( ! receiv] aft] combu/ion4 ,try to ignite a piece ( cannel coal by hold+ x 9 a ,buns5 flame4 ,is x ! ,c :i* burns1 or ! hydroc>bons8 ,di/il "s wood %av+s 9 a small ignition-tube1 & light ! escap+ gas4 #cje4 ,prep>ation & ,purification4--,to make illum9at+ gas1 fire-clay retorts fill$ ) coal are heat$ to #aajj degrees or m1 ov] a fire ( coke or coal4 ,tubes lead ! di/ill$ gas into a horizontal pipe1 call$ ! hydraulic ma91 p>tly fill$ ) wat]1 into :i* ! ends ( ! gas-pipe dip4 ,! gas !n passes ?r\gh cond5s]s consi/+ ( sev]al hundr$ feet ( v]tical pipe1 ?r\gh high t[]s1 call$ wa%]s1 9 :i* a f9e spray ,fig4 #fj4 ,gas ,works4 ,a1 furnace2 ,c1 retorts conta9+ coal2 ,t1 gas-tubes lead+ to ,b1 ! hydraulic ma92 ,d1 cond5s]s2 ,o1 wa%]s1 ) a spray ( wat]1 & sometimes coke2 ,m1 purifi]s-f]ric oxide or lime2 ,g1 gas-hold]4 ,9 ,c rema9 ! coke & gas c>bon4 ,at ,b1 ,d1 ,e1 & ,o1 coal t>1 ,h#b,o1 ,,nh#c1 ,,co#b1 & ,,s#b are remov$4 ,at ,m are tak5 out ,h#b,s & ,,co#b4( wat] falls1 into *amb]s ) %elves conta9+ ! purifi]s ,ca,o or hydrat$ ,fe#b,o#c1 & f9ally into a gas-hold]1 :5ce x is di/ribut$4 ,at ! hydraulic ma91 cond5s]s1 wa%]s1 & purifi]s1 c]ta9 impurities are remov$ fro? ! gas4 ,coke is ! solid ,c residue aft] di/illation4 ,gas-c>bon1 also a solid1 is =m$ by ! sep>ation ( ! heavi] hydro-c>bons at high temp]ature1 & is deposit$ on ! sides ( ! retort4 ,coal gas1 z x leaves ! retort1 has _m impurities4 ,x is accompani$ ) ab\t #c its weight ( coal t>1 #a_/b its weight ( ,h#b,o vapor1 #a_/ej ,,nh#c1 #a_/bj ,,co#b1 #a_/bj to #a_/ej ,h#b,s1 #a_/cjj to #a_/fjj ,s 9 o!r =ms4 ,! t> is mo/ly tak5 out at ! hydraulic ma91 :i* also )draws "s ,h#b,o ) o!r impurities 9 solution4 ,! cond5s]s remove ! re/ ( ! t>1 & ! ,h#b,o1 except :at is necess>y to saturate ! gas4 ,at ! ma91 ! cond5s]s1 & ! wa%]s1 ,,nh#c is ab/ract$1 ,,co#b & ,h#b,s are mu* r$uc$1 & ! o!r ,s comp\nds are dim9i%$4 ,lime purification removes ,,co#b & ,h#b,s1 &1 to "s ext5t1 o!r ,s comp\nds4 ,iron purification removes ,h#b,s4 ,fe#b,o#c #c ,h#b,s #b ,fe,s ,s #c ,h#b,o4 ,! ,fe,s is revivifi$ by exposure to ! air4 #b ,fe,s ,o#c ,fe#b,o#c #b,s4 ,x c !n be us$ aga94 ,h#b,s1 if n sep>at$1 burns ) ! gas1 =m+ ,h#b,s#jc1 :i* oxidizes 9 ! air to ,h#b,,s#d2 h5ce ! ne$ ( remov+ x4 ,,co#b dim9i%es ! illum9at+ p[]4 #cjf4 ,composition4--,ev5 :5 fre$ f its impurities coal-gas is a v complex mixture1 ! *ief compon5ts be+ ne>ly z foll[s3-- ,p]c5t ,dilu5ts1 hav+ little ,c1 give ,h #de7 v little light4 ,notice ! small ,,*1 #da7 dilu5ts4 p]c5tage ( lum9ants1 or light- ,,co #e 7 giv+ comp\nds1 also ! proportion ,c1,,hb #a4c7 ( ,c to ,h 9 !m4 ,c1,h#f #a4b7lum9ants4 ,,czh#d #b4e7 ,cannel coal conta9s m ( ,c#jb #b7 impurities4 ! heavy bydro-c>bons1 ,cn,h#bn1 ,n1 etc4 #b7 etc41 ?an ! ord9>y bitum9\s #ajj coal4 ,t5 p] c5t ( ! coal %\ld be cannel2 naph?a is1 h[ev]1 (t5 employ$ to subs]ve ! same purpose1 "o ton ( ord9>y bitum9\s coal requir+ f\r gallons ( oil4 ,9 ,bo/on1 #g1jjj1jjj cubic feet ( gas h be5 burn$ 9 "o day1 consum+ #ejj tons ( coal2 ! av]age is n m ?an half t quantity4 ,( ! o!r products1 coke is employ$ = heat+ purposes1 gas c>bon is us$ to "s ext5t 9 electrical "w1 & coal-t> is ! s\rce ( v _m artificial products t 7 =m]ly only ( natural orig94 ,,nh#c1 is ! ma9 s\rce ( ammonium salts1 & ,s is made into ,h#b,,s#d4 #cjg4 ,natural ,gas occurs ne> ,pittsburg1 ,pa41 & 9 _m o!r places1 9 imm5se quantities4 ,x is n only employ$ to light ! /reets & h\ses1 b is us$ = fires & 9 iron & glass manufactories4 ,x is e/imat$ t #fjj1jjj1jjj cubic feet are burn$1 sav+ #aj1jjj tons ( coal daily 9 ,pittsburg1 ,only half a doz5 factories n[ use coal4 ,m ?an half ! gas is wa/$ ?r\gh safety valves1 on acc\nt ( ! great pressure on ! pipes z x issues f ! e>?4 ,^! res]voirs ( natural gas v frequ5tly occur 9 s&/one1 usually 9 ! vic9ity ( coal-b$s1 b sometimes remote f !m4 ,9 all cases ! orig9 ( ! gas is ?\ght to be 9 ! de/ructive di/illation1 ext5d+ ?r\gh long geological p]iods1 ( coal or ( o!r vegetable or animal matt] 9 ! e>?'s int]ior4 ,natural gas v>ies 9 composition1 & ev5 9 ! same well1 f day to day2 x consi/s *iefly ( ,,*#d1 ) "s o!r hydro-c>bons4 ,,*apt] ,,lvi4 ,,alcohol4 #cjh4 ,f]m5t$ ,liquor4 ,exp]im5t #acj4--;,introduce #bj cc4( molasses into a flask ( #bjj cc1 fill x ) wat] to ! neck1 & put 9 half a cake ( yea/4 ,fit to ?is a d4t41 & pass ! end ( x into a t4t4 hold+ a cle> solution ( lime wat]4 ,leave 9 a w>m place = two or ?ree days4 ,!n look = a turbidity 9 ! lime wat]1 & acc\nt = x4 ,see :e!r ! liquid 9 ! flask is sweet4 ,! sug> %\ld be *ang$ to alcohol & ,,co#b4 ,?is is f]m5t$ liquor2 x conta9s a small p]c5tage ( alcohol4 #cji4 ,di/ill$ ,liquor4 ,exp]im5t #aca4--;,atta* ! flask us$ 9 ! la/ exp]im5t to ! app>atus = di/ill+ wat] 7,fig4 #cb71 & di/il n m ?an "o-fif? ( ! liquid1 leav+ ! re/ 9 ! flask4 ,! great] "p ( ! alcohol w pass ov]4 ,to obta9 x all1 at lea/ half ( ! liquid mu/ be di/ill$2 :at passes ov] t[>ds ! la/ is mo/ly wat]4 ,ta/e & smell ! di/illate4 ,put "s into an e4d4 & t\* a light$ mat* to x4 ,if x does n burn1 r$i/il half ( ! di/illate & try to ignite ! product4 ,try ! combu/ibility ( comm]cial alcohol2 ( ,jamaica g+]1 or ( any o!r liquid kn[n to conta9 alcohol4 #caj4 ,effect on ! ,sy/em4 ,exp]im5t #acb4--,put a little ( ! :ite ( egg into an e4d4 or a beak]2 cov] x ) /rong alcohol & note ! effect4 ,/rong alcohol has ! same coagulat+ action on ! bra9 & on ! tissues g5]ally1 :5 tak5 into ! sy/em1 absorb+ wat] f !m1 h>d5+ !m1 & contract+ !m 9 bulk4 #caa4 ,aff9ity = ,wat]4 ,exp]im5t #acc4--,to %[ ! contraction 9 mix+ alcohol & wat]1 measure exactly #e;cc4( alcohol & #e;cc4( wat]4 ,p\r !m toge!r1 & pres5tly measure ! mixture4 ,! volume is dim9i%$4 ,a /rip ( p>*m5t soak$ 9 wat] till x is limp1 !n dipp$ into /rong alcohol1 becomes aga9 /iff1 ow+ to ! attraction ( alcohol = wat]4 #cab4 ,purity4--,! mo/ important alcohols are me?yl alcohol & e?yl alcohol4 ,! =m]1 wood _s1 is obta9$ 9 an impure /ate by di/ill+ wood2 x is us$ to dissolve res9s1 fats1 oils1 etc41 & to make anil9e4 ,x is poison\s1 z are ! o!rs4 ,e?yl alcohol1 _s ( w9e1 is ! comm]cial article4 ,x is prep>$ by f]m5t+ glucose1 & di/ill+ ! product4 ,x boils at #gh degrees1 vaporiz+ #bb degrees l[] ?an wat]1 f :i* x c be sep>at$ by fractional di/illation4 ,by successive di/illations ( alcohol n9ety-f\r p] c5t c be obta9$1 :i* is ! be/ comm]cial article1 ?\gh mo/ grades fall f> bel[ ?is4 ,five p] c5t m c be remov$ by di/ill+ ) ,ca,o1 :i* has a /rong aff9ity = wat]4 ,! la/ "o p] c5t is remov$ by ,ba,o4 ,"o hundr$ p] c5t con/itutes absolute alcohol1 :i* is a deadly poison4 ,dilut$1 x increases ! circulation1 /imulates ! sy/em1 h>d5s ! tissues by )draw+ wat]1 & is ! intoxicat+ pr9ciple 9 all liquors4--,x is v inflammable1 giv+ little light1 & mu* heat1 & readily evaporates4 ,be] has usually ?ree to six p] c5t ( alcohol2 w9es1 eight to tw5ty p] c5t4 ,! c\rts n[ reg>d all liquors hav+ ?ree p] c5t1 or less1 ( alcohol1 z n intoxicat+4 ,9 ,massa*usetts x is "o p] c5t4 ,,*apt] ,,lvii4 ,,oils1 ,,fats1 ,,& ,,soaps4 #cac4 ,s\rces & ,k9ds ( ,oils & ,fats4--,oils & fats are insoluble 9 wat]2 ! =m] are liquid1 ! latt] solid4 ,mo/ fats are obta9$ f animals1 oils f bo? plants & animals4 ,oils are classifi$ z fix$ & ess5tial4 ,ca/or oil is an example ( ! =m] & oil ( cloves ( ! latt]4 ,fix$ oils include dry+ & non-dry+ oils4 ,!y leave a /a9 on pap]1 :ile ess5tial1 or volatile oils1 leave no trace1 b evaporate readily4 ,ess5tial oils dissolv$ 9 alcohol furni% ess5ces4 ,!y are obta9$ by di/ill+ ) wat] ! leaves1 petals1 etc41 ( plants4 ,dry+ oils1 z l9se$1 absorb ,o f ! air1 & ?us solidify4 ,non-dry+ ones1 z olive1 d n solidify1 b develop acids & become rancid aft] "s "t4 ,oils & fats are salts ( fatty acids & ! base glyc]94 ,! ?ree mo/ common ( ^! salts are ole91 f\nd 9 olive oil1 palmit91 9 palm oil & human fat1 & /e>91 9 l>d4 ,! fir/ is liquid1 ! second semi-solid1 ! la/ solid4 ,mo/ fats are mixtures ( ^! & o!r salts4 ,olef9 ,glyc]yl7 7 oleic7 oleate 7 7 7 ,pahnit9 ,glyc]yl7salts f 7palmitic7acid & glyc]yl hydrate4 palmitate7 7 7 ,/e>9 ,glyc]yl7 7/e>ic 7 /e>ate7 #cad4 ,saponification consi/s 9 sep>at+ ^! salts into _! acids & ! base glyc]92 soap-mak+ is ! be/ illu/ration4 ,to effect ?is sep>ation1 a /rong soluble base is us$1 ,,koh = s(t1 & ,na,o,h = h>d soap4 ,/udy ?is reaction3 ,glyc]yl oleate 7 7sodium 7 7oleate 7 ,glyc]yl palmitate7 7hydrate7 sodium 7palmitate7 7glyc]yl ,glyc]yl /e>ate 7 7/e>ate 7 7hydrate ,soaps are ?us salts ( fatty acids & ( ,k or ,na4 #cae4 ,soap is soluble 9 s(t wat]1 b ! sodium /e>ate probably unites ) wat] to =m hydrog5 sodium /e>ate & ,na,o,h4 ,! grease :i* exudes f ! sk91 or appe>s 9 fabrics to be wa%$1 is attack$ by ?is ,na,o,h & remov$1 toge!r ) ! susp5d$ dirt1 & a new soap is =m$ & dissolv$ 9 ! wat]4 ,h>d wat] conta9s salts ( ,ca & ,mg1 & :5 soap is us$ ) x ! ,na is at once replac$ by ^! metals1 & insoluble ,ca or ,mg soaps are =m$4 ,h5ce 9 h>d wat] soap w n cleanse till all ! ,ca & ,mg comp\nds h comb9$4 #caf4 ,glyc]91 ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c1 is a sweet1 ?ick1 colorless1 unctu\s liquid1 us$ 9 cosmetics1 ungu5ts1 pomades1 etc4 ,x is prep>$ 9 quantity by pass+ sup]heat$ /eam ov] fats :5 "u pressure4 #cag4 ,dynamite4--,treat$ ) ,,hno#c & ,h#b,,s#d glyc]9 =ms ! v explosive & poison\s liquid nitro-glyc]94 ,9 ?is process ! ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c becomes ,c#c;,h#e7,,no#c7c4 ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c #c;,,hno#c ,c#c;,h#e7,,no#c7cc ,h#b,o4 ,h#b,,s#d is us$ to absorb ! ,h#b,o :i* is =m$4 ,nitro-glyc]91 absorb$ by gunp[d]1 diatomace\s e>?1 sawdu/1 etc41 =ms dynamite4 ,= obvi\s reasons ! pupil %\ld n exp]im5t ) ^! sub/ances4 #cah4 ,butt] & ,oleom>g>9e4--,milk conta9s m9ute p>ticles ( fat1 ab\t #a_/ejj ( an in* 9 diamet]1 :i* give x ! :itecolor4 ,^! p>ticles are light] ?an ! conta9+ liquid1 & rise to ! top z cream4 ,*urn+ unites ! p>ticles m closely1 & sep>ates !m f ! butt]milk4 ,! flavor ( butt] is due to ! pres5ce ( five or t5 p] c5t ( butyric & o!r acids ( ! same s]ies4 ,x 0 f\nd t c[s gave milk aft] !y ceas$ to h food2 h5ce x 0 inf]r$ t ! milk 0 produc$ at ! exp5se ( ! c[s' fat4 ,:y c\ld n butt] be artificially made f ! same fat8 ,x 0 b a /ep f fat to milk1 z x 0 f milk to butt]4 ,oleom>g>9e1 or butt]9e1 0 ! result4 ,beef fat1 suet1 is wa%$ 9 wat]1 gr\nd to a pulp1 & p>tially melt$ & /ra9$1 ! /e>9 is sep>at$ f ! filt]$ liquid & made into soap1 & an oily liquid is left4 ,?is is salt$1 color$ ) annotto1 mix$ ) a c]ta9 portion ( milk1 & *urn$4 ,! product is sc>cely di/+ui%able f butt]1 & is *emically ne>ly id5tical ) x1 ?\gh less likely to become rancid f ! abs5ce ( c]ta9 fatty acids2 its co/ is p]haps "o-?ird z mu* z t ( butt]4 ,*apt] ,,lviii ,,c>bo-,,hydrates4 #cai4 ,c>bon & ,wat]4--,"s v important organic comp\nds h ,h & ,o1 9 ! prop] proportion to =m wat]1 unit$ ) ,c4 ,! ?ree lead+ ones are sug>1 ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa or ,c#ab7;,h#b,o7#aa1 />*1 ,c#f;,h#aj,o#f1 or 81 & cellulose1 ,c#ah;,h#cj,o#ae or 84 ,note ! significance ( ! "n c>bo-hydrates z appli$ to !m4 #cbj4 ,sug>s may be divid$ into two classes1--! sucroses1 ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa1 & ! glucoses1 ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f4 ,sucrose1 ! pr9cipal memb] ( ! fir/ class1 is obta9$ f ! juice ( ! maple1 ! palm1 ! beet & ! sug>cane2 9 ,europe l>gely f ! beet1 9 ,am]ica f cane4 ,granulat$ sug> is t :i* has be5 ref9$2 br[n sug> is ! unref9$4 ,f ! sap evaporat$ by boil+1 br[n sug> cry/allizes1 leav+ molasses1 :i* conta9s glucose & o!r sub/ances4 ,good molasses has b a small p]c5tage ( glucose4 ,to ref9e br[n sug> x is dissolv$ 9 wat]1 a small quantity ( blood is add$ to remove c]ta9 vegetable sub/ances1 aft] :i* x is filt]$ ?r\gh animal *>coal1 i4e4 bone-black1 a process :i* takes out ! color+-matt]4 ,! wat] is !n evaporat$ 9 vacuum-pans1 s z to boil at ab\t #gd degrees & to prev5t conv]sion into grape sug>4 ,by ?is process mu* glucose or syrup is =m$1 :i* is sep>at$ f ! cry/all9e sucrose by rapidly revolv+ c5trifugal ma*9es4 ,great quantities ( sucrose are us$ = food by all civiliz$ nations4 ,a s+le ref9]y 9 ,new ,york purifies #b1jjj1jjj p\nds p] day4 #cba4 ,glucose1 or inv]t sug>1 ! pr9cipal memb] ( ! second class1 consi/s ( two di/9ct k9ds ( sug>1 --dextrose & levulose4 ,^! diff] 9 c]ta9 prop]ties1 b h ! same symbol4 ,bo? are f\nd 9 equal p>ts 9 ripe fruits1 :ile sucrose occurs 9 ! unripe4 ,honey conta9s ^! ?ree k9ds ( sug>4 ,sucrose1 by ! action ( heat1 weak acids1 or f]m5ts1 may be resolv$ into ! o!r two v>ieties4 ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa ,h#b,o ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f4 ,no mode ( rev]s+ ?is process1 or ( trans=m+ glucose into sucrose is kn[n4 ,glucose is easily made f />* or f ! cellulose 9 cotton rags1 sawdu/1 etc4 ,if boil$ ) dilute ,h#b,,s#d />* takes up wat] & becomes glucose4 ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e ,h#b,o ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f4 ,ca,c,o#c is add$ to precipitate ! ,h#b,,s#d1 :i* rema9s un*ang$4 ,/ate ! reaction4 ,! product is filt]$ & ! filtrate is evaporat$4 ,mu* glucose is made f ! />* ( corn & potatoes4 #cbb4 ,/>* is f\nd 9 all plants1 especially 9 gra9s1 se$s1 & tub]s4 ,gre5 plants--^? conta9+ *lorophyll-- manufacture _! own />* f ,,co#b & ,h#b,o4 ,^! *lorophyll gra9s are ! plant's *emical laboratories1 & hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( !m exi/ 9 e leaf4 ,,co#b & a v little ,h#b,o ent] ! leaf f ! air1 ,h#b,o be+ also drawn up ?r\gh ! root & /em f ! e>?4 ,9 "s unkn[n way 9 ! leaf1 light has ! p[] ( syn!siz+ ^! into />* & sett+ free ,o1 :i* is return$ to ! atmosph]e4#f ,,co#b #e ,h#b,o ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e #ab ,o4 ,z no su* *ange takes place 9 d>kness1 all gre5 plants mu/ h light4 ,p>asitic plants1 :i* are usually colorless1 obta9 />* ready-made f ^? on :i* !y fe$4 #cbc4 ,uses4--,glucose is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( alcohol & *eap confection]y1 & 9 adult]at+ sucrose4 ,x is only two- ?irds z sweet z ! latt]4 ,! se$s ( all plants conta9 />* = ! g]m9at+ spr\t to fe$ ^u2 b />* is insoluble1 & h5ce useless until x is conv]t$ into glucose4 ,?is is effect$ by ! action ( w>m?1 moi/ure1 & a f]m5t 9 ! se$4 ,glucose is soluble & is at fir/ ! plant's ma9 food4 ,comm]cial />* is made 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates *iefly f corn2 9 ,europe1 f potatoes4 ,diff]5ces 9 ! size ( />* granules enable microscopi/s to det]m9e ! plant to :i* !y belong4 #cbd4 ,cellulose1 or woody fib]1 is ! basis ( all vegetable cell walls4 ,cotton fib] repres5ts almo/ pure cellulose4 ,f x are made pap] & wov5 tissues4 ,9 pap] manufacture1 woody fib] is made into a pulp1 wa%$1 blea*$1 filt]$1 hot- press$1 & sometimes glaz$4 ,p>*m5t pap]1 vegetable p>*m5t1 is made by dipp+ unglaz$ pap] = half a m9ute into cold dilute ,h#b,,s#d1 #a "p ,h#b,o1 #b #a_/b p>ts ,h#b,,s#d1 & !n wa%+4 ,! fib]1 by *emical *ange1 is ?us t\gh5$4 ,! cell walls ( wood are impure cellulose2 h5ce ! inf]ior quality ( pap] made f wood-pulp4 ,pap] is n[ employ$ = a l>ge numb] ( purposes = :i* wood has h]et(ore be5 us$1 su* z = b>rels1 pails1 & o!r holl[ w>e1 :eels1 etc4 #cbe4 ,gun-cotton is made by treat+ cotton fib] ) ,h#b,,s#d & ,,hno#c1 wa%+ & dry+4 ,to all appe>ances no *ange has tak5 place1 b ! sub/ance has become an explosive comp\nd4 #cbf4 ,dextr91 a gummy sub/ance us$ = ! backs ( po/age /amps1 is a c>bo-hydrate1 z 9 fact are gums 9 g5]al4 ,dextr9 is made by heat+ />* ) ,h#b,,s#d at a l[] temp]ature ?an = dextrose4 #cbg4 ,zylonite & ,celluloid4 -,^! two simil> sub/ances embody ! late/ use ( cellulose 9 manufactur$ articles4 ,= zylonite1 l95 pap] is cut into /rips two feet by "o in*1 soak$ t5 m9utes 9 a mixture ( ,h#b,,s#d & ,,hno#c1 a process call$ nitration1 wa%$ = sev]al h\rs1 !n gr\nd to a f9e pulp1 & ?or\ghly dri$4 ,x is !n simil> to pyroxil9e4 ,anil9e color+-matt] ( any desir$ %ade is add$1 aft] :i* x is dissolv$ by soak+ "s h\rs 9 alcohol & camphor1 ! liquid is evaporat$1 & ! sub/ance is knead$ betwe5 /eam-heat$ iron roll]s1 dri$ ) hot air1 & f9ally subject$ to great pressure1 to h>d5 x1 & cut into %eets4 ,zylonite is combu/ible at a l[ temp]ature1 & :5 9 ! pyroxil9e /age1 explosively s4 ,ivory1 coral1 amb]1 bone1 tortoise %ell1 mala*ite1 etc41 are s closely imitat$ t ! imitation c only be detect$ by analysis4 ,coll>s1 combs1 canes1 piano-keys1 & jewelry1 are manufactur$ f x1 & x c be made transp>5t en\gh = w9d[s4 ,,*apt] ,,lix ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,f]m5tation4 #cbh4 ,f]m5ts4--,a l>ge numb] ( *emical *anges are br\ght ab\t ?r\gh ! direct ag5cy ( bodies call$ f]m5ts2 _! action is call$ f]m5tation4 ,f]m5ts are sometimes lifeless *emical products f\nd 9 liv+ bodies2 b 9 o!r cases !y are humble plants4 #cbi4 ,yea/ is "o ( ! mo/ common ( liv+ f]m5ts1 wild yea/ be+ a microscopic plant f\nd on ! gr\nd ne> apple- trees & grape-v9es1 & (t5 9 ! air4 ,! cultivat$ v>iety is sold by groc]s4 ,! temp]ature be/ suit$ to ! rapid multiplication ( ! g]ms =m+ ! f]m5t plant is #be degrees to #ce degrees4 #ccj4 ,alcoholic & ,acetic ,f]m5tation4--,! *anges :i* ! juice ( ! apple und]goes 9 =m+ cid] & v9eg> are a good illu/ration ( f]m5tation by a liv+ plant4 ,apple-juice conta9s sucrose4 ,yea/ g]ms f ! air1 gett+ into ?is unf]m5t$ liquor1 cause x to "w4 ,?is process *anges sucrose to glucose1 & glucose to alcohol & ,,co#b1 & is kn[n z alcoholic f]m5tation4 ,! latt] reaction1 ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f #b ,c#b;,h#f,o #b ,,co1 is only p>tially correct1 z o!r products are =m$4 ,! juice has n[ become cid]2 ! sug> alcohol4 ,aft] a "t1 if left expos$1 ano!r organism f9ds its way to ! alcohol1 & trans=ms x into acetic acid1 ,,hc#b;,h#h,o#b1 & ,h#b,o4 ,?is process is call$ acetic f]m5tation4 ,c#b;,h#f,o ,o#b ,,hc#b;,h#c,o#b ,h#b,o4 ,= ?is f]m5tation1 a liquor %\ld n h ov] t5 p] c5t ( alcohol4 ,"m ( v9eg> consi/s ( ! g]ms t caus$ ! f]m5tation4 ,/ill a ?ird species ( f]m5t may cause ano!r action1 *ang+ acetic acid to ,h#b,o & ,,co#b4 ,! v9eg> !n ta/es flat4 ,,hc#b;,h#c,o#b #d ,o #b;,h#b,o #b ,,co#b4 ,"s m9]al acids1 z ,h#b,,s#d & ,h,cl1 & "s organic acids1 are reg>d$ z lifeless f]m5ts4 ,to ?is class are ?\ght to belong ! dia/ase ( malt & ! peps9 ( ! /oma*4 ,?is v>iety ( f]m5ts exi/s 9 ! se$s ( all plants1 & *anges />* to glucose4 #cca4 ,bread :i* is rais$ by yea/ is f]m5t$1 ! object be+ to produce ,,co#b1 bubbles ( :i*1 ) ! alcohol1 cause ! d\gh to rise & make ! bread light4 ,grapes & o!r fruits f]m5t & produce w9es1 etc41 f :i* di/ill$ liquors are obta9$4 #ccb4 ,lactic ,f]m5tation *anges ! sug> ( milk1 lactose1 to lactic acid1 i4e4 s\r milk4 ,9 cann+ fruit1 any g]ms pres5t are kill$ by heat+1 & ^? f ! air are exclud$ by seal+ ! c4 ,milk has be5 kept sweet = ye>s by boil+1 & tightly cov]+ ! receptacle ) two or ?ree folds ( cotton clo?4 #ccc4 ,putrefaction is f]m5tation 9 :i* ! products ( decay are ill-smell+4 ,saprophytes attack ! dead matt]1 fe$ on x1 & cause x to putrefy4 ,?is action1 z well z t ( ord9>y f]m5tation1 us$ to be attribut$ solely to oxyg54 ,g]ms br+ back organic matt] to a m elem5t>y /ate1 & s h a v important function4 ,by "s sci5ti/s1 dige/ion is reg>d$ z a species ( f]m5tation1 probably due to ! action ( lifeless f]m5ts2 e4g4 sucrose _c be tak5 into ! sy/em1 b is fir/ f]m5t$ to glucose4 #ccd4 ,mo/ ,infecti\s ,diseases are n[ ?\ght to be due to p>asites ( v>i\s k9ds1 su* z bact]ia1 microbes1 etc41 ) :i* ! victim (t5 sw>ms1 & :i* fe$ on 8 tissues1 multiply+ ) enorm\s rapidity4 ,su* diseases are small-pox1 int]mitt5t & yell[ fev]s1 etc4 ,consumption1 or tub]culosis1 is believ$ to be caus$ by a microbe :i* de/roys ! lungs4 ,9 "s diseases n less ?an fifte5 billions ( ! organisms are e/imat$ to exi/ 9 a cubic in*4 ,^! multiply s rapidly t f a s+le g]m 9 =ty-eight h\rs may be produc$ ne>ly ?ree hundr$ billions4 ,^! g]ms d n spr+ into life spontane\sly f inorganic matt]1 b come f pre-exi/5t simil> =ms4 ,p>asites are n s r>e 9 ! sy/em ev5 ( a heal?y p]son z is g5]ally suppos$4 ,!y are f\nd on our tee? & 9 _m ( ! tissues ( ! body4 ,sev]al infecti\s diseases are n[ w>d$ (f or r5d]$ less virul5t by vacc9ation1 ! philosophy ( :i* is t ! organisms are r5d]$ less dang]\s by dome/ication2 sev]al crops1 or g5]ations1 are gr[n 9 a prep>$ liquid1 ea* less injuri\s ?an its p>5t4 ,"s ( ! m dome/icat$ ones are introduc$ into ! sy/em1 & ! p]son has only a modifi$ =m ( ! disease1 (t5 sc>cely any at all1 & is = a m or less limit$ "t insur$ aga9/ fur!r dang]4 ,du/ p>ticles & motes float+ 9 ! air are 9 "p g]ms1 liv+ or dead1 (t5 requir+ only moi/ure & mild temp]ature = resuscitation4 ,mo/ ( ^! are h>mless4 ,*apt] ,,lx4 ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,life4 #cce4 ,gr[?4--,! *emi/ry ( organic life is v complex1 & n well und]/ood4 ,a few ( ! pr9cipal po9ts ( di/9ction betwe5 ! two great classes ( liv+ organisms1 plants & animals1 are all t c be not$ "h4 ,m9]als gr[ by accretion1 i4e4 by ! ext]nal addition ( molecules ( ! same mat]ial z _! int]ior4 ,a cry/al ( qu>tz gr[s by ! addition ( successive molecules ( ,si,o#b1 arrang$ 9 a symmetrical mann] ar\nd its axis4 ,! gr[? ( cry/als c be se5 by susp5d+ a /r+ 9 a saturat$ solution ( ,cu,s,o#d1 or ( sug>4 ,9 plants & animals ! gr[? is v mu* m complex1 b is f ! int]ior1 & is produc$ by ! multiplication ( cells4 ,to produce ?is cell-gr[? & multiplication1 food-mat]ials mu/ be furni%$ & assimilat$4 ,9 plants1 sap s]ves to c>ry ! food-mat]ials to ! p>ts :]e !y are ne$$4 ,9 ! high] animals1 v>i- ous fluids1 ! mo/ important ( :i* is ! blood1 s]ve ! same purpose4 #ccf4 ,*emi/ry ( ,plants4--,9 ultimate analysis1 plants consi/ ma9ly ( ,c1 ,h1 ,o1 ,n1 ,p1 ,k4 ,9 proximate analysis1 z x is call$1 !y are f\nd to conta9 ^! elem5ts comb9$ to =m sub/ances l />*1 sug>1 etc4 ,wat] is ! lead+ comp\nd 9 bo? animals & plants4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important diff]5ces betwe5 animals & plants is1 t all plants1 except p>asitic ones1 are capable ( build+ up su* comp\nds z />* f m9]al food-/uffs1 :ile animals h n t p[]1 b mu/ h ! products ( proximate analysis ready prep>$1 z x 71 by ! plant4 ,h5ce plants ?rive on m9]als1 :]eas animals fe$ on plants or on o!r animals4 ,! p[] :i* plants h ( trans=m+ m9]al matt] is l>gely due to sunlight1 ! action ( :i* 9 sep>at+ ,,co1 0 describ$4 ,! reaction 9 ! syn!sis ( />* f ,,co#b & ,h#b,o 9 ! leaf1 is ?\ght to be z foll[s3 #f ,,co#b #e ,h#b,o ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e #ab ,o4 ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e is tak5 into ! tree z />*2 #ab ,o is giv5 back to ! air4 ,all ! con/itu5ts1 except ,,co#b & a v small quantity ( ,h#b,o1 are absorb$ by ! roots1 f ! soil1 f :i* !y are soon )drawn by vegetation4 ,to r5ew ! supply1 f]tiliz]s or manures are appli$ to ! soil4 ,^! mu/ conta9 comp\nds ( ,n1 ,p1 & ,k4 ,n is usually appli$ 9 ! =m ( ammonium comp\nds1 e4g4 7,,nh#d7b,,s#d1 7,,nh#d7b;,,co#c1 & ,,nh#d,,no#c4 ,! r$uction & application ( ,cas7,,po#d7b = ?is purpose 0 describ$4 ,k is usually appli$ 9 ! =m ( ,k,cl & ,k#b,,s#d4 #ccg4 ,food ( ,man4--,9 ! high] animals ! object is n s mu* to increase ! size z to supply ! wa/e ( ! sy/em4 ,! pr9cipal elem5ts 9 man's body are ,c1 ,h1 ,o1 ,n1 ,s1 ,p4 ,an illu/ration ( ! trans=mation ( m9]al foods by plants be=e !y c be us$ by animals is f\nd 9 ! ,ca#c7,,po#d7b ( bones4 ,?is is r5d]$ soluble2 plants absorb & trans=m x2 animals eat ! plants & obta9 ! phosphates4 ,?us man is said to eat 8 own bones4 ,! food ( mank9d may be divid$ into f\r classes 7#a7 proteids1 :i* conta9 ,c1 ,h1 ,o1 ,n1 & (t5 ,s & ,p2 7#b7 fats1 & 7#c7 amyloids1 bo? ( :i* conta9 ,c1 ,h1 ,o2 7#d7 m9]als4 ,examples ( ! fir/ class are ! glut5 ( fl\r1 ! album5 ( ! :ite ( egg1 & ! case9 ( *eese4 ,to ! second class belong fats & oils2 to ! ?ird1 />*1 sug>1 & gums2 to ! f\r?1 ,h#b,o1 ,na,cl & o!r salts4 ,s9ce only proteids conta9 all ! requisite elem5ts1 !y are ess5tial to human food1 & are ! only absolutely ess5tial ones1 except m9]als2 b s9ce !y d n conta9 all ! elem5ts 9 ! proportion ne$$ by ! sy/em1 a mix$ diet is indisp5sable4 ,milk1 bett] ?an any o!r s+le food1 supplies ! ne$s ( ! sy/em4 ,! dige/ion & assimilation ( ^! food-/uffs & ! composition ( ! v>i\s tissues is too complicat$ to be tak5 up "h2 = _! discussion ! read] is ref]r$ to works on physiological *emi/ry4 #cch4 ,cons]vation4--,plants1 9 gr[+1 decompose ,,co#b1 & !reby /ore up en]gy1 ! en]gy d]iv$ f ! light & heat ( ! sun4 ,:5 !y decay1 or are burn$1 or are eat5 by animals1 exactly ! same am\nt ( en]gy is lib]at$1 or *ang$ f pot5tial to k9etic1 & ! same am\nt ( ,,co#b is re/or$ to ! air4 ,! tree t took a hundr$ ye>s to complete its gr[? may be burn$ 9 an h\r1 or be _m ye>s 9 decay+2 b 9 ei!r case x gives back to its "m ,nature1 all ! matt] & en]gy t x orig9ally borr[$4 ,! a% f burn+ plants repres5ts ! e>?y matt]1 or salts1 :i* ! plant assimilat$ dur+ its gr[?2 ! re/ is volatile4 ,9 ! gr[? & de/ruction ( plants or ( animals1 bo? en]gy & matt] h und]gone trans=mation4 ,animals1 9 fe$+ on plants1 trans=m ! en]gy ( sunlight into ! en]gy ( vitality4 ,?us we are *ildr5 ( ! sun4 ,,*apt] ,,lxi4 ,,!ories4 #cci4 ,! ,la ,place ,!ory4--,?is !ory supposes t at "o "t ! e>? & ! o!r planets1 toge!r ) ! sun1 con/itut$ a s+le mass ( vapor1 ext5d+ billions ( miles 9 space2 t x rotat$ ar\nd its c5t]2 t x gradually %rank 9 volume by ! trans=mation ( pot5tial into k9etic en]gy2 t portions ( its out] rim 7 ?r[n (f1 & f9ally cond5s$ into planets2 t our sun is only ! rema9d] ( t c5tral mass :i* /ill rotates & c>ries ! planets ar\nd ) x2 t ! e>? is a cool+ globe2 t ! o!r planets are go+ ?r\gh ! same phases z ! e>?2 & f9ally t ! sun itself is de/9$ l !m to become a cold body4 #cdj4 ,a ,cool+ ,e>?4--,! sun's temp]ature is v>i\sly e/imat$ at _m ?\s&s1 or ev5 millions o degrees4 ,_m metals :i* exi/ on ! e>? z solids -e4g4 iron- are gases 9 ! d5se atmosph]e ( ! sun4 ,?us ! e>?1 9 its e>ly exi/5ce1 mu/ h be5 compos$ ( gases only1 :i* 9 aft] ages cond5s$ into liquids & solids4 ,s int5se 0 ! heat at t "t1 t sub/ances probably exi/$ z elem5ts in/ead ( comp\nds1 i4e4 ! temp]ature 0 above ! po9t ( dissociation4 ,we h se5 t ,al#b,o#c1 ,ca,o1 ,si,o#b1 etc41 are dissociat$ at ! highe/ temp]atures only4 ,if ! temp]ature 7 above t ( comb9ation1 comp\nds c\ld n exi/ z su*1 b matt] w\ld exi/ 9 its elem5tal /ate4 ,on sl[ly cool+1 ^! elem5ts w\ld comb9e4 ,x is1 !n1 a fair inf]5ce t su* comp\nds z ne$ ! highe/ temp]atures to sep>ate !m1 z silica1 silicates1 & "s oxides1 7 =m$ f _! elem5ts at a mu* e>li] /age ( ! e>?'s hi/ory ?an 7 ^? comp\nds t are m easily sep>able1 su* z wat]1 lead sulphide1 etc41 & t ! mo/ infusible sub/ances 7 solidifi$ fir/4 #cda4 ,evolution4--,z ! e>? sl[ly cool$1 elem5ts unit$ to =m comp\nds1 gases cond5s$ to liquids1 & ^! to solids4 ,at "o "t ! entire surface ( our planet may h be5 liquid4 ,:5 ! cool+ surface rea*$ a po9t some:at bel[ t ( boil+ wat]1 ! l[e/ =ms ( life appe>$ 9 ! ocean4 ,?is 0 _m millions ( ye>s ago4 ,mo/ sci5ti/s believe t all vegetable & animal life has develop$ f ! l[e/ =ms ( life4 ,!re is also a !ory t all *emical elem5ts are d]ivatives ( hydrog51 or ( "s o!r elem5t1 & t all ! s-call$ elem5ts are really comp\nds1 :i* a suffici5tly high temp]ature w\ld dissociate4 ,z evid5ce ( ?is1 x is said t less ?an half z _m elem5ts h be5 discov]$ 9 ! sun z 9 ! e>?1 & t comets & nebula1 :i* are less develop$ =ms ( matt] ?an ! sun1 h a few simple sub/ances only4 ,x is easy to fancy t all liv+ bodies1 bo? animal & vegetable1 are only natural gr[?s f ! l[e/ =ms ( life2 t ^! l[e/ =ms are a developm5t1 ) new manife/ations ( en]gy1 f inorganic matt]2 t comp\nds are d]iv$ f elem5ts2 & t ! la/ are d]ivatives ( "s "o elem5t2 b x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ?is is only a !ory4 #cdb4 ,new ,!ory ( ,*emi/ry4 ,we h se5 t heat lies at ! basis ( *emical z well z ( physical *anges4 ,by ! loss ( heat1 or p]haps by ! *ange ( pot5tial into k9etic en]gy1 9 a nebul\s p>5t mass1 planets 7 =m$1 capable ( support+ liv+ organisms4 ,heat *anges solids to liquids1 & liquids to gases2 x resolves comp\nds1 or x aids *emical union4 ,9 e *emical comb9ation heat is develop$2 9 e case ( dissociation heat is absorb$4 ,prop]ly writt51 e equation %\ld be3 a b c heat2 e4g4 #b ,h #j ,h#b,o heat2 or1 c - a b - heat2 e4g4 ,h#b,o - #b ,h #j - heat4 ,ano!r illu/ration is ! comb9ation ( ,c & ,o1 & ! dissociation ( ,,co#b1 z giv5 on page #hb4 ,c ,o#b ,,co#b en]gy4 ,,co#b - ,o#b ,c - en]gy4 ,9 fact1 !re are indications t ! pres5t !ory ( atoms & molecules ( matt]1 z ! f\ndation ( *emi/ry1 w at no di/ant day give place to a !ory ( *emi/ry bas$ on ! =ms ( en]gy1 ( :i* heat is a manife/ation4 ,*apt]1 ,,lxii4 ,,gas ,,volumes ,,& ,,weights4 #cdc4 ,oxyg54 ,exp]im5t #acd4--,weigh accurately1 us+ delicate balances1 #e g4 ,k,cl,o#c1 & mix ) ! cry/als #a or #b g4 ( pure p[d]$ ,mn,o#b4 ,put ! mixture into a t4t4 ) a tight-fitt+ cork & deliv]y-tube1 & inv]t ov] ! wat]-pan1 to collect ! gas1 a flask ( at lea/ "o & a half lit]s' capacity1 fill$ ) wat]4 ,apply heat1 &1 )\t reject+ any ( ! gas1 collect x z long z any w sep>ate4 ,!n press ! flask d[n into ! wat] till ! level 9 ! flask is ! same z t outside1 & remove ! flask1 leav+ 9 ! bottom all ! wat] t is n displac$4 ,weigh ! flask ) ! wat] x conta9s2 !n completely fill x ) wat] & weigh aga94 ,subtract ! fir/ weight f ! second1 & ! result w evid5tly be ! weight ( wat] t occupies ! same volume z ! ,o collect$4 ,?is weight1 if express$ 9 grams1 repres5ts approximately ! numb] ( cubic c5timet]s ( wat]1--s9ce #a cc4 ( wat] weighs lg1--or ! numb] ( cubic c5timet]s ( ,o4 ,at ! "t ! exp]im5t is p]=m$ ! temp]ature %\ld be not$ ) a c5tigrade !rmomet]1 & ! atmosph]ic pressure ) a b>omet] graduat$ to millimet]s4 ,suppose t we h obta9$ #adej cc4 ( ,o1 t ! temp]ature is #bg degrees1 & ! pressure #geh mm42 we wi% to f9d ! volume & ! weight ( ! gas at #j degrees & #gfj mm4 ,accord+ to ! law ( ,*>les--! volume ( a giv5 quantity ( gas at con/ant pressure v>ies directly z ! absolute temp]ature4 ,to r$uce f ! c5tigrade to ! absolute scale1 we h only to add #bgc degrees4 ,add+ ! obs]v$ temp]ature1 we h #bgc degrees #bg degrees #cjj degrees4 ,apply+ ! above law to ,o obta9$ at #cjj degrees ,a1 we h ! proportion bel[4 ,s9ce ! volume ( ,o at #bgc degrees w be less ?an x w at #cjj degrees1 ! f\r? t]m1 or answ] w be less ?an ! ?ird1 & ! second t]m mu/ be less ?an ! fir/4 #cjj 3 #bgc 33 #adej 3 x4 ,?is w\ld give ! result dep5d5t ^u temp]ature alone4 ,by ! law ( ,m>iotte - ,physics1 - ! volume ( a giv5 quantity ( gas at a con/ant temp]ature v>ies inv]sely z ! pressure4 ,apply+ ?is law to ! ,o obta9$ at #gehmm1 we h ! foll[+ proportion4 ,! volume at #gfjmm w be less ?an at #gehmm2 or ! f\r? t]m w be less ?an ! ?ird2 h5ce ! second mu/ be less ?an ! fir/4 #gfj3 #geh33 #adej3 x4 ,?is w\ld give ! result dep5d5t on pressure alone4 ,comb9+ ! two proportions 9 "o3-- #cjj3 #bgc 733 #adej3 x #acaf;cc4 #gfj3 #geh 7 #acaf;cc#a4caf lit]s4 ,x rema9s to f9d ! weight ( ?is gas4 ,a lit] ( ,h weighs #j4jhif;g4 ,! vapor d5sity ( ,o is #af4 ,h5ce #a4caf lit]s ( ,o w weigh #a4caf ,x #af ,x #j4jhif #a4hi;g4 7,k,cl,o#c ,k,cl ,o#c7 ,f ! equation 7#abb4e #dh7 we make a proportion1 7 #e x7 #abb4e3 #e33 #dh3 x #a4ie1 & obta91 z ! weight ( ,o conta9$ 9 #e;g ( ,k,cl,o#c1 #a4ie;g4 ,! weight we actually1obta9$ 0 #a4hi;g4 ,?is leaves an error ( #j4jf;g1 or a little ov] #d p] c5t ( error 7#j4jf _/ #a4ie #j4jc 74 ,! p]c5tage ( error1 9 p]=m+ ?is exp]im5t1 %\ld fall )9 #aj4 ,"s ( ! liabilities to error are z foll[s3-- #a4 ,impure ,mn,o#b1 :i* sometimes conta9s ,c4 ,,co#b is soluble m ,h#b,o4 #b4 ,solubility ( ,o 9 wat]4 #c4 ,escape ( gas by leakage4 #d4 ,moi/ure tak5 up by ! gas4 #e4 ,diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! gas & t ( ! air 9 ! room4 #f4 ,errors 9 weigh+4 #g4 ,want ( accuracy 9 ! weights & scales4 #cdd4 ,hydrog54 ,exp]im5t #ace4--,weigh #e;g1 or less ( %eet or granulat$ ,zn1 & put x into a small flask provid$ ) a ?i/le-tube & a deliv]y-tube4 ,cov] ! ,zn ) wat]1 & introduce ?r\gh ! ?i/le-tube measur$ quantities ( ,h,cl1 a few cubic c5timet]s at a "t4 ,collect ! ,h ov] wat] 9 l>ge flasks1 obs]v+ ! same directions z 9 remov+ ,o4 ,weigh ! wat]1 compute ! volume ( ! gas1 r$uce x to ! /&>d1 & obta9 ! weight1 z be=e4 ,%\ld any ,zn or o!r solid sub/ance be left1 p\r (f ! wat] or filt] x1 weigh ! dry residue1 & d$uct its weight f t ( ! ,zn orig9ally tak54 ,suppose ! residue to weigh #j4e;g4 ,make & solve ! proportion f ! equation3- ,zn #b;,h,cl ,zn,cl#b #b;,h4 #fe #b4 #d4e x4 ,compute ! p]c5tage ( errcr1 z 9 ! case ( ,o4 ,if ! purity ( ! ,h,cl be kn[n1 i4e4 ! weight ( ,h,cl gas 9 "o cubic c5timet] ( ! liquid1 a proportion c be made betwe5 ,h,cl & ,h1 provid$ no free ,h,cl is left 9 ! flask4 ,/ate any liabilities to error 9 ?is exp]im5t4 ,,problems4 7#a7 ,a gas occupies #bjjj;cc4:5 ! b>omet] /&s #gejmm4 ,:at volume w x fill at #gfjmm8 7#b7 ,at #gejmm my volume ( ,o is #d #a_/b lit]s4 ,:at w x be at #gcjmm8 7#c7 ,at #hbemm8 7#d7 ,at #bjjmm8 7#e7 ,compute ! volume ( a gas at #gj degrees1 :i* at #cj degrees is #aej;cc4 7#f7 ,at #j degrees ,i h #cjjj;cc4( ,o4 ,:at volume w x occupy at #ajj degrees8 7#g7 ,i fill a flask hold+ #b litres ) ,h4 ,! !rmomet] indicates #bf degrees1 ! b>omet] #gfbmm4 ,:at is ! volume ( ! gas at #j degrees & #gfjmm8 ,if ! volumes ( gases v>y z above1 x is evid5t t _! vapor d5sities mu/ v>y inv]sely4 ,a lit] ( ,h at #j degrees weighs #j4jhif4 ,:at w a lit] ( ,h weigh at #bgc degrees8 ,at #bgc degrees ! "o lit] has be- come two lit]s1 "o ( :i* weighs #j4jddh 7 #j4jhif _/ #b74 ,! vapor d5sity ( a gas is inv]sely proportional to ! temp]ature4 ,also1 ! vapor d5sity is directly proportional to ! pressure1 s9ce a lit] ( any gas "u a pressure ( "o atmosph]e is r$uc$ to half a lit] "u two atmosph]es4 ,,problems4 7#a7 ,f9d ! weight ( a lit] ( ,o at #j degrees2 !n compute ! weight ( a lit] at #bg degrees4 7#b7 ,f9d ! weight ( #ejj;cc4( ,n#b,o at #fj degrees4 7#c7 ,( #bjj cc4 ( ,,co at -#e degrees4 7#d7 ,a giv5 volume ( ,o weighs #j4be;g at a pressure ( #gejmm2 f9d ! weight ( a l volume ( ,o at #gehmm4 ,,app5dix4 ,,individual ,,app>atus4 ,ea* pupil %\ld be provid$ ) ! app>atus giv5 bel[1 b 9 cases :]e great economy mu/ be ex]cis$ diff]5t pupils may1 by work+ at diff]5t times1 use ! same set4 ,! au?or has select$ app>atus specially adapt$1 z to exact dim5sions1 quality1 & *eap- ness1 = p]=m+ 9 ! be/ way ! exp]im5ts h]e9 describ$1 & sets or sep>ate pieces ( ?is1 toge!r ) o!r app>atus & *emicals1 c be _h ( ! ,l4,e4 ,knott ,app>atus ,co41 #ad ,a%burton ,place1 ,bo/on1 to :i* firm tea*]s are ref]r$ = catalogs4 #d wide-m\!d bottles 7horse-radi% size71 ) corks4 #a soda-bottle4 #d pieces w9d[-glass 7#c 94 sq474 #b pieces ?ick glass tub+ 7#bj 94 long1 #d 94 outside diam474 #a glass /irr+-rod4 #a glass funnel 7#b #a_/b 94 wide1 #fj degrees74 #b pieces glass tub+ 7#ab 94 long2 #e_/h 94 diam474 #a porcela9 evaporat+-di% 7#c 94 wide74 #a asbe/us pap] & #a f9e wire gauze 7#c 94 sq474 #a iron 7or t97 plate4 #a pair =ceps4 #a triangul> file & #a r\nd file4 #a copp] wire 7#ae 94 long74 #f te/-tubes1 & corks to fit4 #a wood5 te/-tube hold]4 #a flask ) cork 7#bjj;cc74 #a ,buns5 burn] 7or alcohol lamp74 #a iron r+-/&4 #a piece rubb] tub+ 7#ah 94 long1 #c_/h 94 inside diam474 #d reag5t bottles 7#bej;cc71 ,h,cl1 ,,hno#c1 ,h#b,,s#d1 ,,nh#d,,oh4 #a pneumatic tr\gh4 ,:]ev] 9 ?is "w ,buns5 burn] or lamp is m5tion$1 if gas is n to be _h1 an alcohol lamp may be sub/itut$4 ,,g5]al ,,app>atus4 ,! foll[+ li/ includes app>atus ne$$ = occasional use3-- ,metric rules 7#bj or #cj;cm long74 ,scales ) metric weights 7#a-bjj g74 ,metric graduates 7#be or #ej;cc74 ,filt] pap]s4 ,metric graduates 7#ejj;cc74 ,reag5t bottles 7#bej & #ejj;cc74 ,m\? bl[pipes4 ,plat9um wire & foil4 ,mort>s & pe/les4 ,te/-tube racks4 ,?i/le-tubes4 ,filt]-/&s4 ,beak]s4 ,glass tub+ 7#c_/af 941 #a_/d 941 & #a 94 outside74 ,rubb] tub+ 7#a_/h 941 & #c_/h 94 inside74 ,hessian crucibles4 ,porcela9 crucibles4 ,electrolytic app>atus1 includ+ #b or m ,buns5 cells4 ,ignition-tubes4 ,/eel glass-cutt]s4 ,wire-cutt]s4 ,calcium *loride tubes4 ,wat] ba?s4 ,!rmomet]s4 ,b>omet]s1 etc4 ,,app5dix4 ,,*emicals4 ,! foll[+ e/imate is = tw5ty pupils3 - ,alcohol #a pt ,alum #a oz ,ammonium *loride #a_/b lb ,ammonium hydrate #a lb ,ammonium nitrate4 #a_/b lb ,antimony 7p[d]$ metallic7 #a_/b oz4 ,ars5ic 7p[d]$ metallic7 #a_/b oz4 ,ars5ic trioxide44444 #a oz4 ,b>ium *loride44444 #a oz4 ,b>ium nitrate44444 #a oz4 ,beeswax4444444 #a oz4 ,blea*+-p[d]4444 #a_/d lb4 ,bone-black444444 #a_/b lb4 ,brom9e4444444 #a_/d lb4 ,calcium *loride4444 #a lb4 ,calcium fluoride 7p[d]$7 #a lb4 ,cannel coal #a lb ,c>bon disulphide #a_/d lb ,*lorhydric acid #f lb ,co*9eal #a oz ,copp] 7fil+s7 #b lb4 ,copp] nitrate #a oz ,copp] oxide #a_/d lb4 ,e!r 7sulphuric7 #a_/d lb ,f]r\s sulphide #a lb4 ,f]r\s sulphate #a_/d lb ,indigo #a_/d lb ,iod9e #a oz ,iron 7fil+s or turn+s7 #a lb4 ,lead 7%eet7 #d lb ,lead acetate #a oz ,lead nitrate #a_/d lb ,litmus #a_/b oz ,litmus pap] #c %eets ,magnesium ribbon4444 #c ft4 ,manganese dioxide4444 #b lb4 ,m]cur\s nitrate4444 #a_/b oz4 ,nitric acid #c lb4 ,oxalic acid #a_/d lb ,phosphorus #a_/d lb ,potassium 7metallic7 #a_/h oz ,potassium bromide #a_/d lb4 ,potassium di*romate #a_/d lb4 ,potassium *lorate #b lb4 ,potassium hydrate #a_/d lb4 ,potassium iodide #b oz ,potassium nitrate #a_/d llb ,silv] nitrate #a oz4 ,sodium #a_/h oz4 ,sodium c>bonate #a_/d lb ,sodium hydrate #a lb4 ,sodium nitrate #a_/b lb ,sodium silicate44444 #a_/blb ,turkey r$ clo?4444 #a_/byd ,sodium sulphate44444 #a_/dlb ,turp5t9e7spirits74 #a_/dlb ,sodium sulphide44444 #a_/dlb ,z9c7granulat$74444 #blb ,sodium ?iosulphate4 #a_/dlb ,z9c foil44444444444 #c;ft ,sulphur4444444444444 #blb ,sulphuric acid444444 #ablb ,additional ,mat]ial ,^! sub/ances are be/ obta9$ ( local deal]s4 ,calcium c>bonate7m>ble744444 #alb ,molasses4444444444444444444444 #apt ,calcium oxide7unslak$ lime744 #alb ,sodium *loride7f9e7444444444 #alb ,*>coal4444444444444444444444 #alb ,sodium *loride7co>se74444444 #alb ,%eet lead44444444444444444444 #dlb ,sug>4444444444444444444444444 #a_/blb ,,= ,,exam9ation ,^? 9 capitals are mo/ important ,rocks & ,m9]als4 ,,argillite1 ,,ares5ic1 ,,ars5opyrite1 ,b>ite1 ,,calcite1 ,,cassit]ite1 ,,*alcopyrite1 ,,*alk1 ,,c9nab>1 ,,copp] 7native71 ,corundum1 ,dolomite1 ,,em]y1 ,,feldsp>1 ,fl9t1 ,,gal5ite1 ,,granite1 ,,graphite1 ,,gypsum1 ,,hematite1 ,hornbl5de1 ,jasp]1 ,,limonite1 ,,magnesite1 ,,magnetite1 ,,mala*ite1 ,me]s*aum1 ,,mica1 ,,obsidian1 ,orpim5t1 ,,pyrite1 ,,qu>tz1 ,realg>1 ,,s&1 ,,s]p5t9e1 ,,sid]ite1 ,,sphal]ite1 ,talc1 ,,z9cite ,metals & ,alloys4 ,alum9ium1 ,iron 7ca/71 ,alum9ium bronze4 ,pewt]1 ,bell metal1 ,sold]1 ,brass1 ,/eel1 ,bronze1 ,type metal1 ,copp]1 ,t9 foil1 ,galvaniz$ iron1 ,t9 7bright plate & t]ne plate71 ,g]man silv]1 ,z9c 7%eet74 ,iron 7wr\ght7 ,additional ,comp\nds1 = ,exam9ation3 ,copp] acetate1 ,lead c>bonate1 ,copp] ars5ite1 ,r$ lead1 ,copp] nitrate1 ,magnesia alba1 ,copp] sulphate1 ,smalt1 ,lead dioxide1 ,v]milion4 ,lead protoxide1 ,,table ,,( ,,solutions4 ,numb] ( grams ( solids to be dissolv$ 9 #ejj;cc ( wat]4 ,ag,n,o#c444444444 #be ,k#b;,al#b7,,s#d7d444444 #ej ,ba,cl#b444444444 #ej ,k,br4444 #be ,ba7,n#j #c7b44444444 #cj ,k#b;,cr#bjg44444444 #ej ,ca,clz444444444 #fj ,,ki4444444444 #be ,ca7,,oh7#b444444 saturat$ ,,koh4444444 #fj ,ca,s#jd4444444 saturat$ ,na,i,c,o,s44444444 #ej ,,cuc#ab #ej ,na,o,h #fj ,cu7,n#jc7444444444 #ej ,nal,sl#jc4444444 saturat$ ,fe,s#jd444444444 #ej ,,nh1,n#jc44444444 #ej ,hg,c#ab444444444 #cj ,pb7,c#b;,h#cjb7b444444 #ej ,hg,n#jc44444 #be #be ,,hn#jc ,pb7,n,os7#b4444444 4 #ej ,o!r solutions4444saturat$4 ,indigo solution 7sulph9digotic acid7 is prep>$ by heat+ = sev]al h\rs ov] a wat] ba?1 a mixture ( t5 p>ts ( ,h #b,,s#d ) "o ( indigo1 &1 aft] lett+ x /& tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 add+ tw5ty p>ts ( wat] & filt]+4 ,,textbook ,,adv]tisem5ts ,,t ,,appe>$ ,,9 ,,! ,,orig9al ,,edition ,,introduction ,,to ,,*emical ,,sci5ce ,by ,r4,p4 ,,williams1 ,in/ructor 9 ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,engli% ,high ,s*ool1 ,bo/on4 l#bmo4 ,clo?4 #baf pages4 ,by mail1 #ij c5ts2 = introduction1 #hj c5ts4 ,?is "w is /rictly1 b easily1 inductive4 ,! pupil is /imulat$ by qu]y & sugge/ion to obs]ve important ph5om5a1 & to draw correct conclusions4 ,! exp]im5ts are illu/rative1 ! app>atus is simple & easily made4 ,! nom5clature1 symbols1 & writ+ ( equations are made prom95t features4 ,9 descriptive & !oretical *emi/ry1 ! arrangem5t ( subjects is believ$ to be especially sup]ior 9 t x pres5ts1 n a m]e aggregation ( facts1 b ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry4 ,brevity aud conc5tration1 induction1 cle>ness1 accuracy1 & a legitimate reg>d = int]e/1 are lead+ *>act]i/ics4 ,! treatm5t is full en\gh = any high s*ool or academy4 ,?\gh ! me?od is an advanc$ "o1 x has be5 s simplifi$ t pupils exp]i5ce no difficulty1 b r an add$ int]e/1 9 foll[+ x4 ,! au?or himself has successfully employ$ ?is me?od 9 classes s l>ge t ! simple/ & mo/ practical plan has be5 a necessity4 ,?omas ,c4 ,van ,nuys1 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry1 ,indiana ,univ]sity1 ,bloom+ton1 ,ind43 ,i consid] x an excell5t "w = /ud5ts ent]+ ^u ! /udy ( *emi/ry4 ,c4,f4 ,adams1 ,tea*] ( ,sci5ce1 ,high ,s*ool1 ,detroit1 ,mi*43 ,i h c>ri$ two classes ?r\gh ,williams's ,*emi/ry4 ,! book has surpass$ my highe/ expectations4 ,x gives great] satisfaction ) ea* succe$+ class4 ,j4,w4 ,simmons1 ,c\nty ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,s*ools1 ,owosso1 ,mi*43 ,! pro( ( ! m]its ( a textbook1 is f\nd 9 ! crucible ( ! class-room "w4 ,!re are _m *emi/ries1 & good ones2 b1 = our use1 ?is leads !m all4 ,x is /at$ 9 language pla91 int]e/+ & n mislead+4 ,a logical ord] is foll[$1 & ! m9d ( ! /ud5t is at "w because ( ! _m sugge/ions (f]$4 ,we use ,williams's "w1 & ! results are all we c\ld wi%4 ,!re is pl5ty ( *emi/ry 9 ! "w = any ( our high s*ools4 ,w4,j4 ,m>t91 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry1 ,davidson ,college1 ,n4,c43 ,"o ( ! mo/ admirable little text-books ,i h ev] se54 ,t4,h4 ,norton1 ,projessor ( ,*emi/ry1 ,c9c9nati ,univ]sity1 ,o43 ,its cle>ness1 accuracy1 & compact =m r5d] x exceptionally well adapt$ = use 9 high & prep>atory s*ools4 ,i %all w>mly recomm5d x = use1 :5ev] ! ef=t is made to provide satisfactory tra9+ 9 accordance ) ! requirem5ts = admission to ! sci5tific c\rses ( ! ,univ]sity4 ,,*emical ,,exp]im5ts ,g5]al & ,analytical4 ,by ,r4,p4 ,,williams1 ,in/ructor 9 ,*emi/ry1 ,engli% ,high ,s*ool1 ,bo/on4 #hvo4 ,bo>ds4 xv #bab pages4 ,fully illu/rat$4 ,mail+ price1 #fj c5ts2 = introduction1 #ej c5ts4 ,?is book is = ! use ( /ud5ts 9 ! *emical laboratory4 ,x conta9s m ?an "o hundr$ sets ( ! *oice/ illu/rative exp]im5ts1 ab\t half ( :i* belong to ,g5]al ,*emi/ry1 ! re/ to ,metal & ,acid ,analysis4 ,great c>e has be5 tak5 to describe accurately & m9utely ! me?ods ( p]=m+ exp]im5ts1 & 9 direct+ pupils to obs]ve ph5om5a & to expla9 :at is se54 ,! "w is amply illu/rat$ & is replete ) que/ions & sugge/ions4 ,blank pages are ins]t$ = pupils to make a record ( _! "w1 = :i* c>eful directions are giv51 ) a model1 laboratory rules1 tables ( solubilities1 etc4 ,a new feature is ! supplem5t>y & orig9al "w1 vhi* is giv5 at ! end ( ea* set ( exp]im5ts = su* pupils z complete ! prescrib$ "w ahead ( o!rs 9 ! class1 & a li/ ( t]ms to be look$ up 9 "s text-book4 ,?is gives an ela/icity to ! book & fits x = use 9 s*ools :]e mu* "t is devot$ to *emi/ry1 z well z 9 ! mo/ elem5t>y classes 9 labortttory "w4 ,ano!r orig9al feature :i* x is believ$ w be he>tily welcom$ by tea*]s is ! me?od ( treat+ ,metal ,analysis successfully us$ by ! au?or = sev]al ye>s4 ,briefly1 ! aim ( ?is book is to aid ! pupil to d1 to obs]ve1 to expla91 to record1 aud ?us to le>n ! ess5tials ( *emi/ry4 ,,laboratory ,,manual ,,( ,,g5]al ,,*emi/ry ,by ,r4,p4 ,,williams1 ,in/ructor 9 ,*emi/ry1 ,engli% ,high ,s*ool1 ,bo/on4 #abmo4 ,bo>ds4 xvi #bjj pages4 by mail1 #cj c5ts2 = introduction1 #be c5ts4 ,! book conta9s "o hundr$ exp]im5ts 9 g5]al *emi/ry a,nd qualitative analysis1 blanks opposite ea* = pupils to to take notes1 laboratory rules1 complete tables ( symbols1 ) *emical & common names1 reag5ts1 solutions1 *emicals1 & app>atus1 & ! plan ( a model laboratory4 ,,an ,,elem5t>y ,,*emi/ry ,by ,,george ,r4 ,,:ite1 ,in/ructor 9 ,*emi/ry at ,phillips ,academy1 ,exet]4 #abmo4 ,clo?4 xxix #bgb pages4 ,mail+ price1 #a4aj2 = introduction1 #a4jj4 ,?is is an excell5t text-book = ,high ,s*ools & ,academies1 & = elem5t>y classes 9 ,colleges4 ,! /rictly inductive me?od "h foll[$1 toge!r ) ! ins]tion ( num]\s que/ions t mu/ cause ! /ud5t to d 8 own reason+ f ! obs]vations1 r5d]s ?is book p>ticul>ly useful4 ,t4,h4 ,norton1 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry1 ,univ]sity ( ,c9c9nati1 ,c9c9nati1 ,ohio43 ,i am greatly pleas$ ) ! plan & its execution4 ,x is an admirable arrangem5t = our inductive c\rse 9 *emi/ry & %\ld n fail to yield good results4 ,a ,,/ud5ts' ,,manual ,,( ,a ,,laboratory ,,c\rse ,,9 ,,physical ,,measurem5ts ,by ,wallace ,c4 ,sab9e1 ,assi/ant ,pr(essor ( ,physics1 ,h>v>d ,univ]sity4 #hvo4 ,clo?4 ix #abf pages4 ,mail+ price1 #a4ce2 = introduction1 #a4be4 ,?is manual1 :i* is int5d$ = use 9 supplem5t+ college c\rses 9 physics1 conta9s an outl9e ( sev5ty exp]im5ts1 arrang$ ) special reg>d to a sy/ematic & progressive developm5t ( ! subject4 ,le ,roy ,c4 ,cooley1 ,pr(essor ( ,physics1 ,vass> ,college3 ,i h exam9$ x & am ready to comm5d x4 ,j4,f4 ,woodhull1 ,pr(essor ( ,sci5ces1 ,tea*]s' ,college1 ,new ,york3 ,i f9d ,sab9e's ,laboratory ,manual a ?or\ghly good ?+4 ,,high ,,s*ool ,,laboratory ,,manual ,,( ,,physics ,by ,dudley ,g4 ,hays1 ,*>les ,d4 ,l[ry1 & ,au/9 ,c4 ,ri%el1 ,tea*]s ( ,physics 9 ! ,*icago ,high ,s*ools4 #hvo4 ,clo?4 iv #aed pages4 ,mail+ price1 #fj c5ts2 = introduction1 #ej c5ts4 ,?is manual has be5 writt53 ,fir/1 to pres5t a logically arrang$ c\rse ( exp]im5tal "w cov]+ ! gr\nd ( ,elem5t>y ,physics4 ,second1 to provide suffici5t laboratory "w to meet college entrance requirem5ts4 ,! exp]im5ts are l>gely quantitative1 b qualitative "w is introduc$4 ,w4,s4 ,jackman1 ,tea*] ( ,sci5ce1 ,cook ,co4 ,normal ,s*ool1 ,englewood1 ,ill43 ,x is a mo/ excell5t manual1 & ,i believe x meets ! ne$s ( high s*ools on ?is subject bett] ?an any o!r book ,i h se54 ,,"y',s ,,lessons ,,9 ,,a/ronomy ,includ+ ,uranography4 ,revis$ ,edition4 ,by ,,*>les ,a4 ,,"y1 ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy 9 ! ,college ( ,new ,j]sey4 #abmo4 ,clo?4 ,illu/rat$4 ix #ceg pages1 exclusive ( f\r d\ble-page /> maps4 ,by mail1 #a4cj2 = introduction1 #a4bj4 ,! revis$ edition ( ?is book has be5 prep>$ = s*ools t desire a brief c\rse free f ma!matics4 ,x is bas$ ^u ! au?or's ,elem5ts ( ,a/ronomy1 b _m *anges ( arrangem5t h be5 made4 ,9 fact1 ev]y?+ has be5 c>efully work$ ov] & re-writt5 to adapt x to ! special requirem5ts4 ,great pa9s has be5 tak5 n to sacrifice accuracy & tru? to brevity1 & no less to br+ ev]y?+ ?or\ghly d[n to date4 ,! late/ results ( a/ronomical inve/igation w be f\nd "h4 ,! au?or has endeavor$1 too1 :ile disc>d+ ma!matics1 to give ! /ud5t a cle> und]/&+ & a good grasp ( ! subject4 ,z a body ( in=mation & z a means ( discipl9e1 ?is book w be f\nd1 x is believ$1 ( notable value4 ,! mo/ important *ange 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! book has be5 9 br++ ! ,uranography1 or con/ellation trac+1 into ! body ( ! text & plac+ x ne> ! beg9n+1 a *ange 9 h>mony ) ! accept$ pr9ciple t ^? ^: m9ds are n mature succe$ be/ 9 ! /udy ( a new subject by beg9n+ ) :at is concrete & appeals to ! s5ses1 r ?an ) ! ab/ract pr9ciples4 ,brief notes on ! leg5d>y my?ology ( ! con/ellations h be5 add$ = ! b5efit ( su* pupils z are n likely to become famili> ) x 9 ! /udy ( classical lit]ature4 ,n4,w4 ,r>r+ton1 ,presid5t ( ,univ]sity ( ,wa%+ton1 ,seattle1 ,wa%41 =m]ly *ief ( ! ,u4,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c43 ,i %all take pleasure 9 comm5d+ x to s*ools requir+ an a/ronomy ( ?is grade4 ,! :ole s]ies ( ,a/ronomies reflects cr$it on _! di/+ui%$ au?or & %[s t he appreciates ! ne$s ( ! s*ools4 ,cl>5ce ,e4 ,kelly1 ,pr94 ( ,high ,s*ool1 ,hav]hill1 ,mass43 ,x seems to me ! book is admirably adapt$ to its purpose1 & t x accompli%es ! difficult task ( pres5t+ to ! /ud5t or read] n conv]sant ) ,algebra & ,geometry1 an excell5t selection ( :at may ) pr(it be giv5 him z an introduction to ! sci5ce ( a/ronomy4 ,,"y',s ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,a/ronomy ,) a ,uranography4 ,by ,,*>les ,a4 ,,"y1 ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy 9 ! ,college ( ,new ,j]sey4 #abmo4 ,half lea!r4 x #dgb pages1 & f\r /> maps4 ,mail+ price1 #a4ee3 = introduction1 #a4dj4 ,uranography4 ,f ,y\pg's ,elem5ts ( ,a/ronomy4 #abmo4 ,flexible cov]s4 #db pages4 besides f\r /> maps4 ,by mail1 #ce c5ts2 = introduction1 #cj c5ts4 ,?is volume is an indep5d5t "w1 & n an abridgm5t ( ! au?or's ,g5]al ,a/ronomy4 ,x is a text-book = advanc$ ,high ,s*ools1 ,sem9>ies1 & ,brief ,c\rses 9 colleges g5]ally4 ,x 0 prep>$ by "o ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ a/ronom]s ( ! _w1 a mo/ popul> lectur]1 & mo/ successful tea*]4 ,x _h e presumption 9 its favor1 & ! ev5t has m ?an ju/ifi$ expectations4 ,special att5tion has be5 paid to mak+ all /atem5ts correct & accurate s f> z !y g4 ,9 ! text no ma!matics high] ?an elem5t>y algebra & geometry is introduc$2 9 ! foot-notes & 9 ! ,app5dix an occasional trigonometric =mula appe>s1 = ! b5efit ( ! v consid]able numb] ( ,high s*ool /ud5ts :o und]/& su* expressions4 ,g4,b4 ,m]riman1 =m]ly ,pr(4 ( ,ma!mutics & ,a/ronomy1 ,rutg]s ,college1 ,new ,brunswick1 ,n4,j43 ,= a %ort c\rse 9 elem5t>y a/ronomy1 x is by f> ! be/ book ,i h ev] exam9$4 ,w>r5 ,mann1 ,/ate ,normal ,s*ool1 ,potsdam1 ,n4 ,y43 ,accuracy 9 use ( t]ms is a m>k$ feature4 ,i consid] x ! be/ text-book on ?is subject4 ,h4,n4 ,*ute1 ,high ,s*ool1 ,ann ,arbor1 ,mi*43 ,x is j ! book ! s*ol>s h be5 wait+ =4 ,g4,h4 ,h[e1 ,/ate ,normal ,s*ool1 ,w>r5sburg1 ,,mo43 ,x is inde$ an admirable book1 up to ! times1 cle>1 & complete4 ,j]emiah ,slocum1 ,s\? ,division ,high ,s*ool1 ,cugo1 ,ill43 ,x is well adapt$ bo? z to scope & mann] ( treatm5t to high-s*ool "w4 ,ray ,g4 ,hul+1 ,pr94 ( ,engli% ,high ,s*ool1 ,cambridge1 ,mass43 ,x is delightfully fre%1 full1 & cle>4 ,a4,s4 ,roe1 rec5tly ( ,high ,s*ool1 ,worce/]1 ,muss43 ,! book is ext5d$ en\gh to please ! exact+ tea*]4 ,i4,p4 ,bi%op1 ,/ate ,normal ,s*ool1 ,buffalo1 ,n4,y43 ,! book seems to h all ! ess5tials ( a fir/-class text = high s*ool "w2 viz41 concis5ess1 cle>ness1 & ! results ( rec5t rese>*4 ,,"y',s ,,g5]al ,,a/ronomy ,a ,text-book = ,colleges & ,te*nical ,s*ools4 ,by ,,*>les ,a 4 ,,"y1 ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy 9 ! ,college ( ,new ,j]sey4 #hvo4 viii #eea pages4 ,half morocco4 ,illu/rat$ ) ov] #bej cuts & & diagrams1 & supplem5t$ ) ! necess>y tables4 ,mail+ price1 #b4ej2 = introduction1 #b4be4 ,9 am\nt1 ! "w has be5 adju/$ z closely z possible to ! prevail+ c\rses ( /udy 9 our colleges4 ,by omitt+ ! f9e pr9t1 a brief] c\rse may be arrang$4 ,! em95ce ( ,pr(essor ,"y z an orig9al inve/igator 9 a/ronomy1 a lectur] & writ] on ! subject1 & an in/ructor ( college classes1 & 8 scrupul\s c>e 9 prep>+ ?is volume1 l$ ! publi%]s to pres5t ! "w ) ! highe/ confid5ce2 & ?is confid5ce has be5 fully ju/ifi$ by ! ev5t4 ,m ?an "o hundr$ colleges adopt$ ! "w )9 a ye> f its publication1 & x is conc$$ to be ! be/ a/ronomical text-book ( its grade to be f\nd any:]e4 ,edw4 ,c4 ,pick]+1 ,pr(4 ( ,a/ronomy1 ,h>v>d ,univ]sity3 ,i ?9k ?is "w ! be/ ( its k9d1 & admirably adapt$ to its purpose4 ,s4,p4 ,langley1 ,sec4 ,smi?sonian ,in/41 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c43 ,i "k no bett] book 7n to say z good a "o7 = its purpose1 on ! subject4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,sph]ical ,,& ,,practical ,,a/ronomy ,by ,,dascom ,,gre5e1 ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics & ,a/ronomy 9 ! ,r5ssela] ,polyte*nic ,in/itute1 ,troy1 ,n4,y4 ,,nw4 ,clo?4 ,illu/rat$4 viii #aeh pages4 ,mail+ price1 #a4fj2 = introduction1 #a4ej4 ,! book is int5d$ = class-room use & af=ds su* a prep>ation z ! /ud5t ne$s be=e ent]+ ^u ! /udy ( ! l>g] & m elaborate works on ?is subject4 ,! app5dix conta9s an elem5t>y exposition ( ! me?od ( lea/ squ>es4 ,daniel ,c>h>t1 ,act4 ,pr(4 ,ma!matics1 ,we/]n ,univ4 ( ,pa41 ,allegh5y1 ,pa43 ,pr(essor ,gre5e has suppli$ t :i* is ne$$ to make ! usual c\rse 9 ,a/ronomy 9 our colleges m practical4 ,rodney ,g4 ,kimball1 ,polyte*nic ,in/itute1 ,brooklyn1 ,n4,y43 ,! ha/y exam9ation :i* ,i h giv5 x has left a v favorable impression z to its m]its z a judici\s comp\nd ( ! practical "w :i* x pr(esses to cov]4 ,,s*e9]',s ,,a/ronomical ,,spectroscopy ,dep>tm5t ( ,special ,publication4--,revis$ ,edition4 ,translat$1 revis$ & enl>g$ by ,e4,b4 ,,fro/1 ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy 9 ,d>tm\? ,college4 #hvo4 ,half lea!r4 ,illu/rat$4 xiii #dhb pages4 ,price by mail1 #e4jj2 = introdoctiort1 #d4ge4 ,?is "w aims to expla9 ! mo/ practical & mod]n me?ods ( rese>*1 & to /ate our pres5t k ( ! con/itution1 physical condition alld motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 z reveal$ by ! spectroscope4 ,edw>d ,s4 ,hold51 ,director ( ! ,lick ,obs]vatory1 ,mt4 ,hamilton1 ,cali=nia3 ,i congratulate y on ! appe>ance ( ?is v important book2 x is indisp5sable to all a/ronom]s & /ud5ts ( spectroscopy4 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,plant ,,anatomy ,by ,,emily ,l4 ,,gregory1 ,pr(essor ( ,botany 9 ,b>n>d ,college4 #hvo4 ,clo?4 viii #adh pages4 ,illu/rat$4 ,mail+ price1 #a4ce2 = introduction1 #a4be4 ,?is book is design$ z a text-book = /ud5ts :o h already "s k ( g5]al botany4 ,x consi/s ( an outl9e ( ! pr9cipal facts ( plant anatomy1 9 a =m available n only = ^? :o wi% to specialize 9 botany b = all :o wi% to "k ! lead+ facts ab\t ! inn] /ructure ( plants4 ,x af=ds a prep>ation = ! /udy ( ! m intricate & difficult que/ions ( plant anatomy & physiology1 :ile x is especially adapt$ to ! wants ( /ud5ts1 :o ne$ a practical k ( plant /ructure4 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,/ructural ,,& ,,sy/ematic ,,botany ,= ,high ,s*ools & ,elem5t>y ,college ,c\rses4 ,by ,,d\glas ,h4 ,,campbell1 ,pr(essor ( ,botany 9 ! ,lel& ,/an=d ,junior ,univ]sity4 #abmo4 ,clo?4 ix #bec pages4 ,price by mail1 #a4be2 = introduction1 #a4ab4 ,! special m]it ( ?is book is t x beg9s ) ! simple =ms1 & foll[s ! ord] ( nature to ! complex ones4 ,,plant ,,organization ,by ,r4 ,,hal/ead ,,w>d1 =m]ly ,pr(essor ( ,botany 9 ! ,r5ssela] ,polyte*nic ,in/itute1 ,troy1 ,n4,y4 ,qu>to4 #agf pages4 ,illu/rat$4 ,flexible bo>ds4 ,mail+ price1 #he c5ts2 = introduction1 #ge c5ts4 ,,elem5t>y ,,meteorology ,by ,,william ,,morris ,,davis1 ,pr(essor ( ,physical ,geography 9 ,h>v>d ,college4 ,) maps & *>ts4 #hvo4 ,clo?4 xi #cee pages4 ,mail+ price1 #b4gj2 = introduction1 #b4ej4 ,?is "w is believ$ to be v opportune1 s9ce no elem5t>y "w on ! subject has be5 issu$ = ov] a qu>t] ( a c5tury4 ,x repres5ts ! mod]n aspects ( ! sci5ce4 ,x is adapt$ to ! use ( advanc$ /ud5ts1 & w meet ! ne$s ( memb]s ( ! ,national & ,/ate ,wea!r ,s]vices :o wi% to acqua9t !mselves ) some?+ m ?an me?ods ( obs]vation4 ,! ess5tial !ories ( mod]n ,meteorology are pres5t$ 9 su* =m t ! /ud5t %all p]ceive _! logical connection1 & %all d]ive f _! ma/]y some?+ ( ! intellectual tra9+ t comes ) ! grasp ( well-te/$ conclusions4 ,! *>ts ( temp]ature1 pressure1 w9ds1 etc41 are r$uc$ f ! late/ available s\rces1 :ile ! diagrams freely introduc$ ?r\gh ! text are = ! mo/ "p new4 ,a4,w4 ,greeley1 retir$ ,brigadi] ,g5]al ,u4,s4,a41 & =m]ly ,*ief ( ,signal ,(fice1 ,wa%+ton3 ,a valuable & timely contribution to sci5tific text-books4 ,w9sl[ ,upton1 ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy1 ,br[n ,univ]sity3 ,! be/ g5]al book on ! subject 9 our language4 ,wm4 ,b4 ,cl>k1 ,pr(essor ( ,geology1 ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity3 ,an excell5t book & ( great value to ! tea*] ( meteorology4 ,david ,todd1 ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy1 ,amh]/ ,college3 ,cle>1 concise1 & direct4 ,to tea* meteorology ) x mu/ be a delight4 ,,molecules ,,& ,,! ,,molecul> ,,!ory ,,( ,,matt] ,dep>tm5t ( ,special ,publioation4 ,by ,a4 ,d4 ,,ri/e54 #hvo4 ,clo?4 ,illu/rat$4 viii #bbc pages4 ,retail price1 #b4jj ,?is "w is a complete popul> exposition ( ! molecul> !ory ( matt]1 z x is held by ! lead+ physici/s ( today4 ,consid]able space is devot$ to ! k9etic !ory ( gases4 ,liquids also are discuss$1 & solids receive mu* att5tion4 ,!re is also a division discuss+ ! me?ods t h be5 propos$ = f9d+ ! sizes ( molecules1 & "h1 z else:]e ?r\gh\t ! book1 ! me?ods describ$ are illu/rat$ by num]ical examples4 ,! la/ division ( ! book t\*es ^u ! con/itution ( molecules4 ,! subject is ev]y:]e treat$ f a physical /&po9t4 ,,end ,,( ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,*emical ,,sci5ce ,,in=mation ,,ab\t ,,?is ,,electronic ,,edition ,! orig9al edition ( ?is text 0 publi%$ by ,g9n & ,company1 ,publi%]s1 ,bo/on1 ,u4,s4,a4 9 #ahif4 ,! typography 0 by ,j4,s4 ,cu%+ & ,co41 ,bo/on & ! ,presswork 0 by ,g9n & ,co41 ,bo/on4 ,! book 0 ,ent]$ accord+ to ,act ( ,congress1 9 ! ye> #ahhg1 by ,r4,p4 ,williams1 9 ! ,(fice ( ! ,libr>ian ( ,congress1 at ,wa%+ton4 ,?is electronic text 0 prep>$ by ,john ,mam\n ) help f num]\s o!r pro(read]s1 includ+ ^? 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