,a ,,naturalist',s ,,voyage ,,round ,,the ,,world ,first ,edition ,may #ahfj ,second ,edition ,may #ahgj ,third ,edition ,february #ahgb ,fourth ,edition ,july #ahgd ,fifth ,edition ,march #ahgf ,sixth ,edition ,january #ahgi ,seventh ,edition ,may #ahhb ,eighth ,edition ,february #ahhd ,ninth ,edition ,august #ahhf ,tenth ,edition ,january #ahhh ,eleventh ,edition ,january #ahij ,reprinted ,june #aiac ,illustration3 ,h4,m4,s4 ,,beagle ,,in ,,straits ,,of ,,magellan4 ,,mt ,,sarmiento ,,in ,,the ,,distance4 ,journal of ,researches into the ,natural ,history ,geology of the countries visited during the voyage round the world of ,h4,m4,s4 ,beagle under the command of ,captain ,fitz ,roy1 ,r4,n4 ,by ,charles ,darwin1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,author ,,of #8,,origin ,,of ,,species1' ,,etc4 ,illustration ,a new edition with illustrations by ,r4 ,t4 ,pritchett of places visited and objects described4 ,,london ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albemarle ,,street #aiac4 ,,to ,,charles ,,lyell1 ,,esq41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,this second edition is dedicated with grateful pleasure1 as an acknowledgment that the chief part of whatever scientific merit this journal and the other works of the author may possess1 has been derived from studying the well-known and admirable ,,principles ,,of ,,geology4 ,,prefatory ,,notice ,,to ,,the ,,illustrated ,,edition4 ,this work was described1 on its first appearance1 by a writer in the ,quarterly ,review as 8,one of the most interesting narratives of voyaging that it has fallen to our lot to take up1 and one which must always occupy a distinguished place in the history of scientific navigation40 ,this prophecy has been amply verified by experience2 the extraordinary minuteness and accuracy of ,mr4 ,darwin's observations1 combined with the charm and simplicity of his descriptions1 have ensured the popularity of this book with all classes of readers--and that popularity has even increased in recent years4 ,no attempt1 however1 has hitherto been made to produce an illustrated edition of this valuable work3 numberless places and objects are mentioned and described1 but the difficulty of obtaining authentic and original representations of them drawn for the purpose has never been overcome until now4 ,most of the views given in this work are from sketches made on the spot by ,mr4 ,pritchett1 with ,mr4 ,darwin's book by his side4 ,some few of the others are taken from engravings which ,mr4 ,darwin had himself selected for their interest as illustrating his voyage1 and which have been kindly lent by his son4 ,mr4 ,pritchett's name is well known in connection with the voyages of the ,sunbeam and ,wanderer1 and it is believed that the illustrations1 which have been chosen and verified with the utmost care and pains1 will greatly add to the value and interest of the 8,,voyage ,,of ,a ,,naturalist40 ,,john ,,murray4 ,december #ahhi4 ,,author',s ,,preface4 ,i have stated in the preface to the first ,edition of this work1 and in the ,zoology of the ,voyage of the ,beagle1 that it was in consequence of a wish expressed by ,captain ,fitz ,roy1 of having some scientific person on board1 accompanied by an offer from him of giving up part of his own accommodations1 that ,i volunteered my services1 which received1 through the kindness of the hydrographer1 ,captain ,beaufort1 the sanction of the ,lords of the ,admiralty4 ,as ,i feel that the opportunities which ,i enjoyed of studying the ,natural ,history of the different countries we visited have been wholly due to ,captain ,fitz ,roy1 ,i hope ,i may here be permitted to repeat my expression of gratitude to him2 and to add that1 during the five years we were together1 ,i received from him the most cordial friendship and steady assistance4 ,both to ,captain ,fitz ,roy and to all the ,officers of the ,beagle#a ,i shall ever feel most thankful for the undeviating kindness with which ,i was treated during our long voyage4 #a ,i must take this opportunity of returning my sincere thanks to ,mr4 ,bynoe1 the surgeon of the ,beagle1 for his very kind attention to me when ,i was ill at ,valparaiso4 ,this volume contains1 in the form of a ,journal1 a history of our voyage1 and a sketch of those observations in ,natural ,history and ,geology1 which ,i think will possess some interest for the general reader4 ,i have in this edition largely condensed and corrected some parts1 and have added a little to others1 in order to render the volume more fitted for popular reading2 but ,i trust that naturalists will remember that they must refer for details to the larger publications which comprise the scientific results of the ,expedition4 ,the ,zoology of the ,voyage of the ,beagle includes an account of the ,fossil ,mammalia1 by ,professor ,owen2 of the ,living ,mammalia1 by ,mr4 ,waterhouse2 of the ,birds1 by ,mr4 ,gould2 of the ,fish1 by the ,reverend ,l4 ,jenyns2 and of the ,reptiles1 by ,mr4 ,bell4 ,i have appended to the descriptions of each species an account of its habits and range4 ,these works1 which ,i owe to the high talents and disinterested zeal of the above distinguished authors1 could not have been undertaken had it not been for the liberality of the ,lords ,commissioners of ,her ,majesty's ,treasury1 who1 through the representation of the ,right ,honourable the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer1 have been pleased to grant a sum of one thousand pounds towards defraying part of the expenses of publication4 ,i have myself published separate volumes on the ,structure and ,distribution of ,coral ,reefs2 on the ,volcanic ,islands visited during the ,voyage of the ,beagle2 and on the ,geology of ,south ,america4 ,the sixth volume of the ,geological ,transactions contains two papers of mine on the ,erratic ,boulders and ,volcanic ,phenomena of ,south ,america4 ,messrs4 ,waterhouse1 ,walker1 ,newman1 and ,white1 have published several able papers on the ,insects which were collected1 and ,i trust that many others will hereafter follow4 ,the plants from the southern parts of ,america will be given by ,dr4 ,j4 ,hooker1 in his great work on the ,botany of the ,southern ,hemisphere4 ,the ,flora of the ,galapagos ,archipelago is the subject of a separate memoir by him1 in the ,linnean ,transactions4 ,the ,reverend ,professor ,henslow has published a list of the plants collected by me at the ,keeling ,islands2 and the ,reverend ,j4 ,m4 ,berkeley has described my cryptogamic plants4 ,i shall have the pleasure of acknowledging the great assistance which ,i have received from several other naturalists in the course of this and my other works2 but ,i must be here allowed to return my most sincere thanks to the ,reverend ,professor ,henslow1 who1 when ,i was an undergraduate at ,cambridge1 was one chief means of giving me a taste for ,natural ,history1--who1 during my absence1 took charge of the collections ,i sent home1 and by his correspondence directed my endeavours1--and who1 since my return1 has constantly rendered me every assistance which the kindest friend could offer4 ,,down1 ,,bromley1 ,,kent1 ,june #ahde4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,porto ,praya -- ,ribeira ,grande -- ,atmospheric ,dust with ,infusoria -- ,habits of a ,sea-slug and ,cuttle-fish -- ,st4 ,paul's ,rocks1 non-volcanic -- ,singular ,incrustations -- ,insects the first ,colonists of ,islands -- ,fernando ,noronha -- ,bahia -- ,burnished ,rocks -- ,habits of a ,diodon -- ,pelagic ,conferv and ,infusoria -- ,causes of discoloured ,sea4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,rio de ,janeiro -- ,excursion north of ,cape ,frio -- ,great ,evaporation -- ,slavery -- ,botofogo ,bay -- ,terrestrial ,planari -- ,clouds on the ,corcovado -- ,heavy ,rain -- ,musical ,frogs -- ,phosphorescent insects -- ,elater1 springing powers of -- ,blue ,haze -- ,noise made by a ,butterfly -- ,entomology -- ,ants -- ,wasp killing a ,spider -- ,parasitical ,spider -- ,artifices of an ,epeira -- ,gregarious ,spider -- ,spider with an unsymmetrical web4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,monte ,video -- ,maldonado -- ,excursion to ,r4 ,polanco -- ,lazo and ,bolas -- ,partridges -- ,absence of trees -- ,deer -- ,capybara1 or ,river ,hog -- ,tucutuco -- ,molothrus1 cuckoo-like habits -- ,tyrant-flycatcher -- ,mocking-bird -- ,carrion ,hawks -- ,tubes formed by lightning -- ,house struck4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,rio ,negro -- ,estancias attacked by the ,indians -- ,salt-,lakes -- ,flamingoes -- ,r4 ,negro to ,r4 ,colorado -- ,sacred ,tree -- ,patagonian ,hare -- ,indian ,families -- ,general ,rosas -- ,proceed to ,bahia ,blanca -- ,sand ,dunes -- ,negro ,lieutenant -- ,bahia ,blanca -- ,saline incrustations -- ,punta ,alta -- ,zorillo4 ,,chapter ,v ,bahia ,blanca -- ,geology -- ,numerous gigantic extinct ,quadrupeds -- ,recent ,extinction -- ,longevity of ,species -- ,large ,animals do not require a luxuriant vegetation -- ,southern ,africa -- ,siberian ,fossils -- ,two ,species of ,ostrich -- ,habits of ,oven-bird -- ,armadilloes -- ,venomous ,snake1 ,toad1 ,lizard -- ,hybernation of ,animals -- ,habits of ,sea-,pen -- ,indian ,wars and ,massacres -- ,arrowhead -- ,antiquarian ,relic4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,set out for ,buenos ,ayres -- ,rio ,sauce -- ,sierra ,ventana -- ,third ,posta -- ,driving ,horses -- ,bolas -- ,partridges and ,foxes -- ,features of the country -- ,long-legged ,plover -- ,teru-tero -- ,hail-storm -- ,natural enclosures in the ,sierra ,tapalguen -- ,flesh of ,puma -- ,meat ,diet -- ,guardia del ,monte -- ,effects of cattle on the ,vegetation -- ,cardoon -- ,buenos ,ayres -- ,corral where cattle are slaughtered4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,excursion to ,st4 ,f -- ,thistle ,beds -- ,habits of the ,bizcacha -- ,little ,owl -- ,saline streams -- ,level plains -- ,mastodon -- ,st4 ,f -- ,change in landscape -- ,geology -- ,tooth of extinct ,horse -- ,relation of the ,fossil and recent ,quadrupeds of ,north and ,south ,america -- ,effects of a great drought -- ,parana -- ,habits of the ,jaguar -- ,scissor-beak -- ,kingfisher1 ,parrot1 and ,scissor-tail -- ,revolution -- ,buenos ,ayres -- ,state of ,government4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,excursion to ,colonia del ,sacramiento -- ,value of an ,estancia -- ,cattle1 how counted -- ,singular breed of ,oxen -- ,perforated pebbles -- ,shepherd-dogs -- ,horses broken-in1 ,gauchos riding -- ,character of ,inhabitants -- ,rio ,plata -- ,flocks of ,butterflies -- ,aronaut ,spiders -- ,phosphorescence of the ,sea -- ,port ,desire -- ,guanaco -- ,port ,st4 ,julian -- ,geology of ,patagonia -- ,fossil gigantic ,animal -- ,types of ,organisation constant -- ,change in the ,zoology of ,america -- ,causes of ,extinction4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,santa ,cruz -- ,expedition up the ,river -- ,indians -- ,immense streams of basaltic lava -- ,fragments not transported by the river -- ,excavation of the valley -- ,condor1 habits of -- ,cordillera -- ,erratic boulders of great size -- ,indian relics -- ,return to the ship -- ,falkland ,islands -- ,wild horses1 cattle1 rabbits -- ,wolf-like fox -- ,fire made of bones -- ,manner of hunting wild cattle -- ,geology -- ,streams of stones -- ,scenes of violence -- ,penguin -- ,geese -- ,eggs of ,doris -- ,compound animals4 ,,chapter ,x ,tierra del ,fuego1 first arrival -- ,good ,success ,bay -- ,an account of the ,fuegians on board -- ,interview with the savages -- ,scenery of the forests -- ,cape ,horn -- ,wigwam ,cove -- ,miserable condition of the savages -- ,famines -- ,cannibals -- ,matricide -- ,religious feelings -- ,great ,gale -- ,beagle ,channel -- ,ponsonby ,sound -- ,build wigwams and settle the ,fuegians -- ,bifurcation of the ,beagle ,channel -- ,glaciers -- ,return to the ,ship -- ,second visit in the ,ship to the ,settlement -- ,equality of condition amongst the natives4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,strait of ,magellan -- ,port ,famine -- ,ascent of ,mount ,tarn -- ,forests -- ,edible fungus -- ,zoology -- ,great ,seaweed -- ,leave ,tierra del ,fuego -- ,climate -- ,fruit-trees and productions of the southern coasts -- ,height of snow-line on the ,cordillera -- ,descent of glaciers to the sea -- ,icebergs formed -- ,transportal of boulders -- ,climate and productions of the ,antarctic ,islands -- ,preservation of frozen carcasses -- ,recapitulation4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,valparaiso -- ,excursion to the foot of the ,andes -- ,structure of the land -- ,ascend the ,bell of ,quillota -- ,shattered masses of greenstone -- ,immense valleys -- ,mines -- ,state of miners -- ,santiago -- ,hot-baths of ,cauquenes -- ,gold-mines -- ,grinding-mills -- ,perforated stones -- ,habits of the ,puma -- ,el ,turco and ,tapacolo -- ,humming-birds4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,chiloe -- ,general aspect -- ,boat excursion -- ,native ,indians -- ,castro -- ,tame fox -- ,ascend ,san ,pedro -- ,chonos ,archipelago -- ,peninsula of ,tres ,montes -- ,granitic range -- ,boat-wrecked sailors -- ,low's ,harbour -- ,wild potato -- ,formation of peat -- ,myopotamus1 otter and mice -- ,cheucau and ,barking-bird -- ,opetiorhynchus -- ,singular character of ornithology -- ,petrels4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,san ,carlos1 ,chiloe -- ,osorno in eruption1 contemporaneously with ,aconcagua and ,coseguina -- ,ride to ,cucao -- ,impenetrable forests -- ,valdivia -- ,indians -- ,earthquake -- ,concepcion -- ,great earthquake -- ,rocks fissured -- ,appearance of the former towns -- ,the sea black and boiling -- ,direction of the vibrations -- ,stones twisted round -- ,great ,wave -- ,permanent ,elevation of the land -- ,area of volcanic phenomena -- ,the connection between the elevatory and eruptive forces -- ,cause of earthquakes -- ,slow elevation of mountain-chains4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,valparaiso -- ,portillo ,pass -- ,sagacity of mules -- ,mountain-torrents -- ,mines1 how discovered -- ,proofs of the gradual elevation of the ,cordillera -- ,effect of snow on rocks -- ,geological structure of the two main ranges1 their distinct origin and upheaval -- ,great subsidence -- ,red snow -- ,winds -- ,pinnacles of snow -- ,dry and clear atmosphere -- ,electricity -- ,pampas -- ,zoology of the opposite sides of the ,andes -- ,locusts -- ,great ,bugs -- ,mendoza -- ,uspallata ,pass -- ,silicified trees buried as they grew -- ,incas ,bridge -- ,badness of the passes exaggerated -- ,cumbre -- ,casuchas -- ,valparaiso4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,coast-road to ,coquimbo -- ,great loads carried by the miners -- ,coquimbo -- ,earthquake -- ,step-formed terraces -- ,absence of recent deposits -- ,contemporaneousness of the ,tertiary formations -- ,excursion up the valley -- ,road to ,guasco -- ,deserts -- ,valley of ,copiap -- ,rain and ,earthquakes -- ,hydrophobia -- ,the ,despoblado -- ,indian ruins -- ,probable change of climate -- ,river-bed arched by an earthquake -- ,cold gales of wind -- ,noises from a hill -- ,iquique -- ,salt alluvium -- ,nitrate of soda -- ,lima -- ,unhealthy country -- ,ruins of ,callao1 overthrown by an earthquake -- ,recent subsidence -- ,elevated shells on ,san ,lorenzo1 their decomposition -- ,plain with embedded shells and fragments of pottery -- ,antiquity of the ,indian ,race4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,galapagos ,archipelago -- ,the whole group volcanic -- ,number of craters -- ,leafless bushes -- ,colony at ,charles ,island -- ,james ,island -- ,salt-lake in crater -- ,natural history of the group -- ,ornithology1 curious finches -- ,reptiles -- ,great tortoises1 habits of -- ,marine lizard1 feeds on seaweed -- ,terrestrial lizard1 burrowing habits1 herbivorous -- ,importance of reptiles in the ,archipelago -- ,fish1 shells1 insects -- ,botany -- ,american type of organisation -- ,differences in the species or races on different islands -- ,tameness of the birds -- ,fear of man an acquired instinct4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,pass through the ,low ,archipelago -- ,tahiti -- ,aspect -- ,vegetation on the mountains -- ,view of ,eimeo -- ,excursion into the interior -- ,profound ravines -- ,succession of waterfalls -- ,number of wild useful plants -- ,temperance of the inhabitants -- ,their moral state -- ,parliament convened -- ,new ,zealand -- ,bay of ,islands -- ,hippahs -- ,excursion to ,waimate -- ,missionary establishment -- ,english weeds now run wild -- ,waiomio -- ,funeral of a ,new ,zealand woman -- ,sail for ,australia4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,sydney -- ,excursion to ,bathurst -- ,aspect of the woods -- ,party of natives -- ,gradual extinction of the aborigines -- ,infection generated by associated men in health -- ,blue ,mountains -- ,view of the grand gulf-like valleys -- ,their origin and formation -- ,bathurst1 general civility of the lower orders -- ,state of ,society -- ,van ,diemen's ,land -- ,hobart ,town -- ,aborigines all banished -- ,mount ,wellington -- ,king ,george's ,sound -- ,cheerless aspect of the country -- ,bald ,head1 calcareous casts of branches of trees -- ,party of natives -- ,leave ,australia4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,keeling ,island -- ,singular appearance -- ,scanty ,flora -- ,transport of seeds -- ,birds and insects -- ,ebbing and flowing springs -- ,fields of dead coral -- ,stones transported in the roots of trees -- ,great crab -- ,stinging corals -- ,coral-eating fish -- ,coral formations -- ,lagoon islands or atolls -- ,depth at which reef-building corals can live -- ,vast areas interspersed with low coral islands -- ,subsidence of their foundations -- ,barrier-reefs -- ,fringing-reefs -- ,conversion of fringing-reefs into barrier-reefs1 and into atolls -- ,evidence of changes in level -- ,breaches in barrier-reefs -- ,maldiva atolls1 their peculiar structure -- ,dead and submerged reefs -- ,areas of subsidence and elevation -- ,distribution of volcanoes -- ,subsidence slow and vast in amount4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,mauritius1 beautiful appearance of -- ,great crateriform ring of mountains -- ,hindoos -- ,st4 ,helena -- ,history of the changes in the vegetation -- ,cause of the extinction of land-shells -- ,ascension -- ,variation in the imported rats -- ,volcanic bombs -- ,beds of infusoria -- ,bahia1 ,brazil -- ,splendour of tropical scenery -- ,pernambuco -- ,singular reefs -- ,slavery -- ,return to ,england -- ,retrospect on our voyage4 ,list of ,illustrations ,index ,illustration ,illustration ,,journal ,chapter ,i ,porto ,praya--,ribeira ,grande--,atmospheric ,dust with ,infusoria--,habits of a ,sea-slug and ,cuttle-fish--,st4 ,paul's ,rocks1 non-volcanic--,singular ,incrustations--,insects the first ,colonists of ,islands--,fernando ,noronha--,bahia--,burnished ,rocks--,habits of a ,diodon--,pelagic ,conferv and ,infusoria--,causes of discoloured ,sea4 ,,st4 ,,jago--,,cape ,,de ,,verd ,,islands ,after having been twice driven back by heavy south-western gales1 ,her ,majesty's ship ,beagle1 a ten-gun brig1 under the command of ,captain ,fitz ,roy1 ,r4,n41 sailed from ,devonport on the #bgth of ,december1 #ahca4 ,the object of the expedition was to complete the survey of ,patagonia and ,tierra del ,fuego1 commenced under ,captain ,king in #ahbf to #ahcj--to survey the shores of ,chile1 ,peru1 and of some islands in the ,pacific--and to carry a chain of chronometrical measurements round the ,world4 ,on the #fth of ,january we reached ,teneriffe1 but were prevented landing1 by fears of our bringing the cholera3 the next morning we saw the sun rise behind the rugged outline of the ,grand ,canary ,island1 and suddenly illumine the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 whilst the lower parts were veiled in fleecy clouds4 ,this was the first of many delightful days never to be forgotten4 ,on the #afth of ,january #ahcb we anchored at ,porto ,praya1 in ,st4 ,jago1 the chief island of the ,cape de ,verd archipelago4 ,the neighbourhood of ,porto ,praya1 viewed from the sea1 wears a desolate aspect4 ,the volcanic fires of a past age1 and the scorching heat of a tropical sun1 have in most places rendered the soil unfit for vegetation4 ,the country rises in successive steps of table-land1 interspersed with some truncate conical hills1 and the horizon is bounded by an irregular chain of more lofty mountains4 ,the scene1 as beheld through the hazy atmosphere of this climate1 is one of great interest2 if1 indeed1 a person1 fresh from sea1 and who has just walked1 for the first time1 in a grove of cocoa-nut trees1 can be a judge of anything but his own happiness4 ,the island would generally be considered as very uninteresting1 but to any one accustomed only to an ,english landscape1 the novel aspect of an utterly sterile land possesses a grandeur which more vegetation might spoil4 ,a single green leaf can scarcely be discovered over wide tracts of the lava plains2 yet flocks of goats1 together with a few cows1 contrive to exist4 ,it rains very seldom1 but during a short portion of the year heavy torrents fall1 and immediately afterwards a light vegetation springs out of every crevice4 ,this soon withers2 and upon such naturally formed hay the animals live4 ,it had not now rained for an entire year4 ,when the island was discovered1 the immediate neighbourhood of ,porto ,praya was clothed with trees1#a the reckless destruction of which has caused here1 as at ,st4 ,helena1 and at some of the ,canary islands1 almost entire sterility4 ,the broad1 flat-bottomed valleys1 many of which serve during a few days only in the season as watercourses1 are clothed with thickets of leafless bushes4 ,few living creatures inhabit these valleys4 ,the commonest bird is a kingfisher 7,dacelo ,iagoensis71 which tamely sits on the branches of the castor-oil plant1 and thence darts on grasshoppers and lizards4 ,it is brightly coloured1 but not so beautiful as the ,european species3 in its flight1 manners1 and place of habitation1 which is generally in the driest valley1 there is also a wide difference4 #a ,i state this on the authority of ,dr4 ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 in his ,german translation of the first edition of this ,journal4 ,one day1 two of the officers and myself rode to ,ribeira ,grande1 a village a few miles eastward of ,porto ,praya4 ,until we reached the valley of ,st4 ,martin1 the country presented its usual dull brown appearance2 but here1 a very small rill of water produces a most refreshing margin of luxuriant vegetation4 ,in the course of an hour we arrived at ,ribeira ,grande1 and were surprised at the sight of a large ruined fort and cathedral4 ,this little town1 before its harbour was filled up1 was the principal place in the island3 it now presents a melancholy1 but very picturesque appearance4 ,having procured a black ,padre for a guide1 and a ,spaniard who had served in the ,peninsular war as an interpreter1 we visited a collection of buildings1 of which an ancient church formed the principal part4 ,it is here the governors and captain-generals of the islands have been buried4 ,some of the tombstones recorded dates of the sixteenth century4#b ,the heraldic ornaments were the only things in this retired place that reminded us of ,europe4 ,the church or chapel formed one side of a quadrangle1 in the middle of which a large clump of bananas were growing4 ,on another side was a hospital1 containing about a dozen miserable-looking inmates4 #b ,the ,cape de ,verd ,islands were discovered in #addi4 ,there was a tombstone of a bishop with the date of #aega2 and a crest of a hand and dagger1 dated #adig4 ,we returned to the ,vnda to eat our dinners4 ,a considerable number of men1 women1 and children1 all as black as jet1 collected to watch us4 ,our companions were extremely merry2 and everything we said or did was followed by their hearty laughter4 ,before leaving the town we visited the cathedral4 ,it does not appear so rich as the smaller church1 but boasts of a little organ1 which sent forth singularly inharmonious cries4 ,we presented the black priest with a few shillings1 and the ,spaniard1 patting him on the head1 said1 with much candour1 he thought his colour made no great difference4 ,we then returned1 as fast as the ponies would go1 to ,porto ,praya4 ,another day we rode to the village of ,st4 ,domingo1 situated near the centre of the island4 ,on a small plain which we crossed1 a few stunted acacias were growing2 their tops had been bent by the steady trade-wind1 in a singular manner--some of them even at right angles to their trunks4 ,the direction of the branches was exactly north-east by north1 and south-west by south1 and these natural vanes must indicate the prevailing direction of the force of the trade-wind4 ,the travelling had made so little impression on the barren soil1 that we here missed our track1 and took that to ,fuentes4 ,this we did not find out till we arrived there2 and we were afterwards glad of our mistake4 ,fuentes is a pretty village1 with a small stream2 and everything appeared to prosper well1 excepting1 indeed1 that which ought to do so most--its inhabitants4 ,the black children1 completely naked1 and looking very wretched1 were carrying bundles of firewood half as big as their own bodies4 ,near ,fuentes we saw a large flock of guinea-fowl--probably fifty or sixty in number4 ,they were extremely wary1 and could not be approached4 ,they avoided us1 like partridges on a rainy day in ,september1 running with their heads cocked up2 and if pursued1 they readily took to the wing4 ,the scenery of ,st4 ,domingo possesses a beauty totally unexpected1 from the prevalent gloomy character of the rest of the island4 ,the village is situated at the bottom of a valley1 bounded by lofty and jagged walls of stratified lava4 ,the black rocks afford a most striking contrast with the bright green vegetation1 which follows the banks of a little stream of clear water4 ,it happened to be a grand feast-day1 and the village was full of people4 ,on our return we overtook a party of about twenty young black girls1 dressed in excellent taste2 their black skins and snow-white linen being set off by coloured turbans and large shawls4 ,as soon as we approached near1 they suddenly all turned round1 and covering the path with their shawls1 sung with great energy a wild song1 beating time with their hands upon their legs4 ,we threw them some vintms1 which were received with screams of laughter1 and we left them redoubling the noise of their song4 ,one morning the view was singularly clear2 the distant mountains being projected with the sharpest outline1 on a heavy bank of dark blue clouds4 ,judging from the appearance1 and from similar cases in ,england1 ,i supposed that the air was saturated with moisture4 ,the fact1 however1 turned out quite the contrary4 ,the hygrometer gave a difference of #bi4f degrees1 between the temperature of the air1 and the point at which dew was precipitated4 ,this difference was nearly double that which ,i had observed on the previous mornings4 ,this unusual degree of atmospheric dryness was accompanied by continual flashes of lightning4 ,is it not an uncommon case1 thus to find a remarkable degree of aerial transparency with such a state of weather8 ,generally the atmosphere is hazy2 and this is caused by the falling of impalpably fine dust1 which was found to have slightly injured the astronomical instruments4 ,the morning before we anchored at ,porto ,praya1 ,i collected a little packet of this brown-coloured fine dust1 which appeared to have been filtered from the wind by the gauze of the vane at the masthead4 ,mr4 ,lyell has also given me four packets of dust which fell on a vessel a few hundred miles northward of these islands4 ,professor ,ehrenberg#c finds that this dust consists in great part of infusoria with siliceous shields1 and of the siliceous tissue of plants4 ,in five little packets which ,i sent him1 he has ascertained no less than sixty-seven different organic forms6 ,the infusoria1 with the exception of two marine species1 are all inhabitants of fresh-water4 ,i have found no less than fifteen different accounts of dust having fallen on vessels when far out in the ,atlantic4 ,from the direction of the wind whenever it has fallen1 and from its having always fallen during those months when the harmattan is known to raise clouds of dust high into the atmosphere1 we may feel sure that it all comes from ,africa4 ,it is1 however1 a very singular fact1 that1 although ,professor ,ehrenberg knows many species of infusoria peculiar to ,africa1 he finds none of these in the dust which ,i sent him4 ,on the other hand1 he finds in it two species which hitherto he knows as living only in ,south ,america4 ,the dust falls in such quantities as to dirty everything on board1 and to hurt people's eyes2 vessels even have run on shore owing to the obscurity of the atmosphere4 ,it has often fallen on ships when several hundred1 and even more than a thousand miles from the coast of ,africa1 and at points sixteen hundred miles distant in a north and south direction4 ,in some dust which was collected on a vessel three hundred miles from the land1 ,i was much surprised to find particles of stone above the thousandth of an inch square1 mixed with finer matter4 ,after this fact one need not be surprised at the diffusion of the far lighter and smaller sporules of cryptogamic plants4 #c ,i must take this opportunity of acknowledging the great kindness with which this illustrious naturalist has examined many of my specimens4 ,i have sent 7,june #ahde7 a full account of the falling of this dust to the ,geological ,society4 ,the geology of this island is the most interesting part of its natural history4 ,on entering the harbour1 a perfectly horizontal white band in the face of the sea cliff1 may be seen running for some miles along the coast1 and at the height of about forty-five feet above the water4 ,upon examination1 this white stratum is found to consist of calcareous matter1 with numerous shells embedded1 most or all of which now exist on the neighbouring coast4 ,it rests on ancient volcanic rocks1 and has been covered by a stream of basalt1 which must have entered the sea when the white shelly bed was lying at the bottom4 ,it is interesting to trace the changes1 produced by the heat of the overlying lava1 on the friable mass1 which in parts has been converted into a crystalline limestone1 and in other parts into a compact spotted stone4 ,where the lime has been caught up by the scoriaceous fragments of the lower surface of the stream1 it is converted into groups of beautifully radiated fibres resembling arragonite4 ,the beds of lava rise in successive gently-sloping plains1 towards the interior1 whence the deluges of melted stone have originally proceeded4 ,within historical times no signs of volcanic activity have1 ,i believe1 been manifested in any part of ,st4 ,jago4 ,even the form of a crater can but rarely be discovered on the summits of the many red cindery hills2 yet the more recent streams can be distinguished on the coast1 forming lines of cliffs of less height1 but stretching out in advance of those belonging to an older series3 the height of the cliffs thus affording a rude measure of the age of the streams4 ,during our stay1 ,i observed the habits of some marine animals4 ,a large ,aplysia is very common4 ,this sea-slug is about five inches long2 and is of a dirty yellowish colour1 veined with purple4 ,on each side of the lower surface1 or foot1 there is a broad membrane1 which appears sometimes to act as a ventilator1 in causing a current of water to flow over the dorsal branchi or lungs4 ,it feeds on the delicate seaweeds which grow among the stones in muddy and shallow water2 and ,i found in its stomach several small pebbles1 as in the gizzard of a bird4 ,this slug1 when disturbed1 emits a very fine purplish-red fluid1 which stains the water for the space of a foot around4 ,besides this means of defence1 an acrid secretion1 which is spread over its body1 causes a sharp1 stinging sensation1 similar to that produced by the ,physalia1 or ,portuguese man-of-war4 ,i was much interested1 on several occasions1 by watching the habits of an ,octopus1 or cuttle-fish4 ,although common in the pools of water left by the retiring tide1 these animals were not easily caught4 ,by means of their long arms and suckers1 they could drag their bodies into very narrow crevices2 and when thus fixed1 it required great force to remove them4 ,at other times they darted tail first1 with the rapidity of an arrow1 from one side of the pool to the other1 at the same instant discolouring the water with a dark chestnut-brown ink4 ,these animals also escape detection by a very extraordinary1 chameleon-like power of changing their colour4 ,they appear to vary their tints according to the nature of the ground over which they pass3 when in deep water1 their general shade was brownish purple1 but when placed on the land1 or in shallow water1 this dark tint changed into one of a yellowish green4 ,the colour1 examined more carefully1 was a ,french grey1 with numerous minute spots of bright yellow3 the former of these varied in intensity2 the latter entirely disappeared and appeared again by turns4 ,these changes were effected in such a manner that clouds1 varying in tint between a hyacinth red and a chestnut-brown1#d were continually passing over the body4 ,any part1 being subjected to a slight shock of galvanism1 became almost black3 a similar effect1 but in a less degree1 was produced by scratching the skin with a needle4 ,these clouds1 or blushes as they may be called1 are said to be produced by the alternate expansion and contraction of minute vesicles containing variously coloured fluids4#e #d ,so named according to ,patrick ,symes's nomenclature4 #e ,see ,encyclopedia of ,anatomy and ,physiology article 8,cephalopoda40 ,this cuttle-fish displayed its chameleon-like power both during the act of swimming and whilst remaining stationary at the bottom4 ,i was much amused by the various arts to escape detection used by one individual1 which seemed fully aware that ,i was watching it4 ,remaining for a time motionless1 it would then stealthily advance an inch or two1 like a cat after a mouse2 sometimes changing its colour3 it thus proceeded1 till having gained a deeper part1 it darted away1 leaving a dusky train of ink to hide the hole into which it had crawled4 ,while looking for marine animals1 with my head about two feet above the rocky shore1 ,i was more than once saluted by a jet of water1 accompanied by a slight grating noise4 ,at first ,i could not think what it was1 but afterwards ,i found out that it was this cuttle-fish1 which1 though concealed in a hole1 thus often led me to its discovery4 ,that it possesses the power of ejecting water there is no doubt1 and it appeared to me that it could certainly take good aim by directing the tube or siphon on the under side of its body4 ,from the difficulty which these animals have in carrying their heads1 they cannot crawl with ease when placed on the ground4 ,i observed that one which ,i kept in the cabin was slightly phosphorescent in the dark4 ,,st4 ,,paul',s ,,rocks4--,in crossing the ,atlantic we hove-to1 during the morning of ,february #afth1 #ahcb1 close to the island of ,st4 ,paul's4 ,this cluster of rocks is situated in #j #eh north latitude1 and #bi #ae west longitude4 ,it is #edj miles distant from the coast of ,america1 and #cej from the island of ,fernando ,noronha4 ,the highest point is only fifty feet above the level of the sea1 and the entire circumference is under three-quarters of a mile4 ,this small point rises abruptly out of the depths of the ocean4 ,its mineralogical constitution is not simple2 in some parts the rock is of a cherty1 in others of a feldspathic nature1 including thin veins of serpentine4 ,it is a remarkable fact that all the many small islands1 lying far from any continent1 in the ,pacific1 ,indian1 and ,atlantic ,oceans1 with the exception of the ,seychelles and this little point of rock1 are1 ,i believe1 composed either of coral or of erupted matter4 ,the volcanic nature of these oceanic islands is evidently an extension of that law1 and the effect of those same causes1 whether chemical or mechanical1 from which it results that a vast majority of the volcanoes now in action stand either near sea-coasts or as islands in the midst of the sea4 ,illustration ,the rocks of ,st4 ,paul appear from a distance of a brilliantly white colour4 ,this is partly owing to the dung of a vast multitude of seafowl1 and partly to a coating of a hard glossy substance with a pearly lustre1 which is intimately united to the surface of the rocks4 ,this1 when examined with a lens1 is found to consist of numerous exceedingly thin layers1 its total thickness being about the tenth of an inch4 ,it contains much animal matter1 and its origin1 no doubt1 is due to the action of the rain or spray on the birds' dung4 ,below some small masses of guano at ,ascension1 and on the ,abrolhos ,islets1 ,i found certain stalactitic branching bodies1 formed apparently in the same manner as the thin white coating on these rocks4 ,the branching bodies so closely resembled in general appearance certain nullipor 7a family of hard calcareous sea-plants71 that in lately looking hastily over my collection ,i did not perceive the difference4 ,the globular extremities of the branches are of a pearly texture1 like the enamel of teeth1 but so hard as just to scratch plate-glass4 ,i may here mention1 that on a part of the coast of ,ascension1 where there is a vast accumulation of shelly sand1 an incrustation is deposited on the tidal rocks1 by the water of the sea1 resembling1 as represented in the picture above1 certain cryptogamic plants 7,marchanti7 often seen on damp walls4 ,the surface of the fronds is beautifully glossy2 and those parts formed where fully exposed to the light1 are of a jet black colour1 but those shaded under ledges are only grey4 ,i have shown specimens of this incrustation to several geologists1 and they all thought that they were of volcanic or igneous origin6 ,in its hardness and translucency--in its polish1 equal to that of the finest oliva-shell--in the bad smell given out1 and loss of colour under the blowpipe--it shows a close similarity with living sea-shells4 ,moreover in sea-shells1 it is known that the parts habitually covered and shaded by the mantle of the animal1 are of a paler colour than those fully exposed to the light1 just as is the case with this incrustation4 ,when we remember that lime1 either as a phosphate or carbonate1 enters into the composition of the hard parts1 such as bones and shells1 of all living animals1 it is an interesting physiological fact#f to find substances harder than the enamel of teeth1 and coloured surfaces as well polished as those of a fresh shell1 re-formed through inorganic means from dead organic matter--mocking1 also1 in shape1 some of the lower vegetable productions4 #f ,mr4 ,horner and ,sir ,david ,brewster have described 7,philosophical ,transactions1 #ahcf1 p4 #fe7 a singular 8artificial substance resembling shell40 ,it is deposited in fine1 transparent1 highly polished1 brown-coloured lamin1 possessing peculiar optical properties1 on the inside of a vessel1 in which cloth1 first prepared with glue and then with lime1 is made to revolve rapidly in water4 ,it is much softer1 more transparent1 and contains more animal matter1 than the natural incrustation at ,ascension2 but we here again see the strong tendency which carbonate of lime and animal matter evince to form a solid substance allied to shell4 ,we found on ,st4 ,paul's only two kinds of birds--the booby and the noddy4 ,the former is a species of gannet1 and the latter a tern4 ,both are of a tame and stupid disposition1 and are so unaccustomed to visitors1 that ,i could have killed any number of them with my geological hammer4 ,the booby lays her eggs on the bare rock2 but the tern makes a very simple nest with seaweed4 ,by the side of many of these nests a small flying-fish was placed2 which ,i suppose1 had been brought by the male bird for its partner4 ,it was amusing to watch how quickly a large and active crab 7,graspus71 which inhabits the crevices of the rock1 stole the fish from the side of the nest1 as soon as we had disturbed the parent birds4 ,sir ,w4 ,symonds1 one of the few persons who have landed here1 informs me that he saw the crabs dragging even the young birds out of their nests1 and devouring them4 ,not a single plant1 not even a lichen1 grows on this islet2 yet it is inhabited by several insects and spiders4 ,the following list completes1 ,i believe1 the terrestrial fauna3 a fly 7,olfersia7 living on the booby1 and a tick which must have come here as a parasite on the birds2 a small brown moth1 belonging to a genus that feeds on feathers2 a beetle 7,quedius7 and a woodlouse from beneath the dung2 and lastly1 numerous spiders1 which ,i suppose prey on these small attendants and scavengers of the waterfowl4 ,the often-repeated description of the stately palm and other noble tropical plants1 then birds1 and lastly man1 taking possession of the coral islets as soon as formed1 in the ,pacific1 is probably not quite correct2 ,i fear it destroys the poetry of this story1 that feather and dirt-feeding and parasitic insects and spiders should be the first inhabitants of newly formed oceanic land4 ,the smallest rock in the tropical seas1 by giving a foundation for the growth of innumerable kinds of seaweed and compound animals1 supports likewise a large number of fish4 ,the sharks and the seamen in the boats maintained a constant struggle which should secure the greater share of the prey caught by the fishing-lines4 ,i have heard that a rock near the ,bermudas1 lying many miles out at sea1 and at a considerable depth1 was first discovered by the circumstance of fish having been observed in the neighbourhood4 ,,fernando ,,noronha1 ,feb4 #bjth4--,as far as ,i was enabled to observe1 during the few hours we stayed at this place1 the constitution of the island is volcanic1 but probably not of a recent date4 ,the most remarkable feature is a conical hill1 about one thousand feet high1 the upper part of which is exceedingly steep1 and on one side overhangs its base4 ,the rock is phonolite1 and is divided into irregular columns4 ,on viewing one of these isolated masses1 at first one is inclined to believe that it has been suddenly pushed up in a semi-fluid state4 ,at ,st4 ,helena1 however1 ,i ascertained that some pinnacles1 of a nearly similar figure and constitution1 had been formed by the injection of melted rock into yielding strata1 which thus had formed the moulds for these gigantic obelisks4 ,the whole island is covered with wood2 but from the dryness of the climate there is no appearance of luxuriance4 ,half-way up the mountain some great masses of the columnar rock1 shaded by laurel-like trees1 and ornamented by others covered with fine pink flowers but without a single leaf1 gave a pleasing effect to the nearer parts of the scenery4 ,,bahia1 ,,or ,,san ,,salvador4 ,,brazil1 ,feb4 #bith4--,the day has past delightfully4 ,delight itself1 however1 is a weak term to express the feelings of a naturalist who1 for the first time1 has wandered by himself in a ,brazilian forest4 ,the elegance of the grasses1 the novelty of the parasitical plants1 the beauty of the flowers1 the glossy green of the foliage1 but above all the general luxuriance of the vegetation1 filled me with admiration4 ,a most paradoxical mixture of sound and silence pervades the shady parts of the wood4 ,the noise from the insects is so loud1 that it may be heard even in a vessel anchored several hundred yards from the shore2 yet within the recesses of the forest a universal silence appears to reign4 ,to a person fond of natural history1 such a day as this brings with it a deeper pleasure than he can ever hope to experience again4 ,after wandering about for some hours1 ,i returned to the landing-place2 but1 before reaching it1 ,i was overtaken by a tropical storm4 ,i tried to find shelter under a tree1 which was so thick that it would never have been penetrated by common ,english rain2 but here1 in a couple of minutes1 a little torrent flowed down the trunk4 ,it is to this violence of the rain that we must attribute the verdure at the bottom of the thickest woods3 if the showers were like those of a colder clime1 the greater part would be absorbed or evaporated before it reached the ground4 ,i will not at present attempt to describe the gaudy scenery of this noble bay1 because1 in our homeward voyage1 we called here a second time1 and ,i shall then have occasion to remark on it4 ,along the whole coast of ,brazil1 for a length of at least #bjjj miles1 and certainly for a considerable space inland1 wherever solid rock occurs1 it belongs to a granitic formation4 ,the circumstance of this enormous area being constituted of materials which most geologists believe to have been crystallised when heated under pressure1 gives rise to many curious reflections4 ,was this effect produced beneath the depths of a profound ocean8 or did a covering of strata formerly extend over it1 which has since been removed8 ,can we believe that any power1 acting for a time short of infinity1 could have denuded the granite over so many thousand square leagues8 ,on a point not far from the city1 where a rivulet entered the sea1 ,i observed a fact connected with a subject discussed by ,humboldt4#g ,at the cataracts of the great rivers ,orinoco1 ,nile1 and ,congo1 the syenitic rocks are coated by a black substance1 appearing as if they had been polished with plumbago4 ,the layer is of extreme thinness2 and on analysis by ,berzelius it was found to consist of the oxides of manganese and iron4 ,in the ,orinoco it occurs on the rocks periodically washed by the floods1 and in those parts alone where the stream is rapid2 or1 as the ,indians say1 8the rocks are black where the waters are white40 ,here the coating is of a rich brown instead of a black colour1 and seems to be composed of ferruginous matter alone4 ,hand specimens fail to give a just idea of these brown burnished stones which glitter in the sun's rays4 ,they occur only within the limits of the tidal waves2 and as the rivulet slowly trickles down1 the surf must supply the polishing power of the cataracts in the great rivers4 ,in like manner1 the rise and fall of the tide probably answer to the periodical inundations2 and thus the same effects are produced under apparently different but really similar circumstances4 ,the origin1 however1 of these coatings of metallic oxides1 which seem as if cemented to the rocks1 is not understood2 and no reason1 ,i believe1 can be assigned for their thickness remaining the same4 #g ,personal ,narrative1 vol4 v1 pt4 i1 p4 #ah4 ,illustration ,one day ,i was amused by watching the habits of the ,diodon antennatus1 which was caught swimming near the shore4 ,this fish1 with its flabby skin1 is well known to possess the singular power of distending itself into a nearly spherical form4 ,after having been taken out of water for a short time1 and then again immersed in it1 a considerable quantity both of water and air is absorbed by the mouth1 and perhaps likewise by the branchial orifices4 ,this process is effected by two methods3 the air is swallowed1 and is then forced into the cavity of the body1 its return being prevented by a muscular contraction which is externally visible3 but the water enters in a gentle stream through the mouth1 which is kept wide open and motionless2 this latter action must1 therefore1 depend on suction4 ,the skin about the abdomen is much looser than that on the back2 hence1 during the inflation1 the lower surface becomes far more distended than the upper2 and the fish1 in consequence1 floats with its back downwards4 ,cuvier doubts whether the ,diodon in this position is able to swim2 but not only can it thus move forward in a straight line1 but it can turn round to either side4 ,this latter movement is effected solely by the aid of the pectoral fins2 the tail being collapsed and not used4 ,from the body being buoyed up with so much air1 the branchial openings are out of water1 but a stream drawn in by the mouth constantly flows through them4 ,the fish1 having remained in this distended state for a short time1 generally expelled the air and water with considerable force from the branchial apertures and mouth4 ,it could emit1 at will1 a certain portion of the water1 and it appears1 therefore probable that this fluid is taken in partly for the sake of regulating its specific gravity4 ,this ,diodon possessed several means of defence4 ,it could give a severe bite1 and could eject water from its mouth to some distance1 at the same time making a curious noise by the movement of its jaws4 ,by the inflation of its body1 the papill1 with which the skin is covered1 become erect and pointed4 ,but the most curious circumstance is1 that it secretes from the skin of its belly1 when handled1 a most beautiful carmine-red fibrous matter1 which stains ivory and paper in so permanent a manner1 that the tint is retained with all its brightness to the present day3 ,i am quite ignorant of the nature and use of this secretion4 ,i have heard from ,dr4 ,allan of ,forres1 that he has frequently found a ,diodon1 floating alive and distended1 in the stomach of the shark2 and that on several occasions he has known it eat its way1 not only through the coats of the stomach1 but through the sides of the monster1 which has thus been killed4 ,who would ever have imagined that a little soft fish could have destroyed the great and savage shark8 ,march #ahth4--,we sailed from ,bahia4 ,a few days afterwards1 when not far distant from the ,abrolhos ,islets1 my attention was called to a reddish-brown appearance in the sea4 ,the whole surface of the water1 as it appeared under a weak lens1 seemed as if covered by chopped bits of hay1 with their ends jagged4 ,these are minute cylindrical conferv1 in bundles or rafts of from twenty to sixty in each4 ,mr4 ,berkeley informs me that they are the same species 7,trichodesmium erythrum7 with that found over large spaces in the ,red ,sea1 and whence its name of ,red ,sea is derived4#h ,their numbers must be infinite3 the ship passed through several bands of them1 one of which was about ten yards wide1 and1 judging from the mud-like colour of the water1 at least two and a half miles long4 ,in almost every long voyage some account is given of these conferv4 ,they appear especially common in the sea near ,australia2 and off ,cape ,leeuwin ,i found an allied1 but smaller and apparently different species4 ,captain ,cook1 in his third voyage1 remarks that the sailors gave to this appearance the name of sea-sawdust4 #h ,m4 ,montagne in ,comptes ,rendus1 etc4 ,juillet #ahdd2 and ,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles1 ,december #ahdd4 ,illustration ,near ,keeling ,atoll1 in the ,indian ,ocean1 ,i observed many little masses of conferv a few inches square1 consisting of long cylindrical threads of excessive thinness1 so as to be barely visible to the naked eye1 mingled with other rather larger bodies1 finely conical at both ends4 ,two of these are shown above united together4 ,they vary in length from 4#jd to 4#jf1 and even to 4#jh of an inch in length2 and in diameter from 4#jjf to 4#jjh of an inch4 ,near one extremity of the cylindrical part1 a green septum1 formed of granular matter1 and thickest in the middle1 may generally be seen4 ,this1 ,i believe1 is the bottom of a most delicate1 colourless sac1 composed of a pulpy substance1 which lines the exterior case1 but does not extend within the extreme conical points4 ,in some specimens1 small but perfect spheres of brownish granular matter supplied the places of the septa2 and ,i observed the curious process by which they were produced4 ,the pulpy matter of the internal coating suddenly grouped itself into lines1 some of which assumed a form radiating from a common centre2 it then continued1 with an irregular and rapid movement1 to contract itself1 so that in the course of a second the whole was united into a perfect little sphere1 which occupied the position of the septum at one end of the now quite hollow case4 ,the formation of the granular sphere was hastened by any accidental injury4 ,i may add1 that frequently a pair of these bodies were attached to each other1 as represented above1 cone beside cone1 at that end where the septum occurs4 ,i will here add a few other observations connected with the discoloration of the sea from organic causes4 ,on the coast of ,chile1 a few leagues north of ,concepcion1 the ,beagle one day passed through great bands of muddy water1 exactly like that of a swollen river2 and again1 a degree south of ,valparaiso1 when fifty miles from the land1 the same appearance was still more extensive4 ,some of the water placed in a glass was of a pale reddish tint2 and1 examined under a microscope1 was seen to swarm with minute animalcula darting about1 and often exploding4 ,their shape is oval1 and contracted in the middle by a ring of vibrating curved cili4 ,it was1 however1 very difficult to examine them with care1 for almost the instant motion ceased1 even while crossing the field of vision1 their bodies burst4 ,sometimes both ends burst at once1 sometimes only one1 and a quantity of coarse1 brownish1 granular matter was ejected4 ,the animal an instant before bursting expanded to half again its natural size2 and the explosion took place about fifteen seconds after the rapid progressive motion had ceased3 in a few cases it was preceded for a short interval by a rotatory movement on the longer axis4 ,about two minutes after any number were isolated in a drop of water1 they thus perished4 ,the animals move with the narrow apex forwards1 by the aid of their vibratory cili1 and generally by rapid starts4 ,they are exceedingly minute1 and quite invisible to the naked eye1 only covering a space equal to the square of the thousandth of an inch4 ,their numbers were infinite2 for the smallest drop of water which ,i could remove contained very many4 ,in one day we passed through two spaces of water thus stained1 one of which alone must have extended over several square miles4 ,what incalculable numbers of these microscopical animals6 ,the colour of the water1 as seen at some distance1 was like that of a river which has flowed through a red clay district2 but under the shade of the vessel's side it was quite as dark as chocolate4 ,the line where the red and blue water joined was distinctly defined4 ,the weather for some days previously had been calm1 and the ocean abounded1 to an unusual degree1 with living creatures4#i #i ,m4 ,lesson 7,voyage de la ,coquille1 tome i1 p4 #bee7 mentions red water off ,lima1 apparently produced by the same cause4 ,peron1 the distinguished naturalist1 in the ,voyage aux ,terres ,australes1 gives no less than twelve references to voyagers who have alluded to the discoloured waters of the sea 7vol4 ii1 p4 #bci74 ,to the references given by ,peron may be added1 ,humboldt's ,personal ,narrative1 vol4 vi1 p4 #hjd2 ,flinder's ,voyage1 vol4 i1 p4 #ib2 ,labillardire1 vol4 i1 p4 #bhg2 ,ulloa's ,voyage2 ,voyage of the ,astrolabe and of the ,coquille2 ,captain ,king's ,survey of ,australia1 etc4 ,in the sea around ,tierra del ,fuego1 and at no great distance from the land1 ,i have seen narrow lines of water of a bright red colour1 from the number of crustacea1 which somewhat resemble in form large prawns4 ,the sealers call them whale-food4 ,whether whales feed on them ,i do not know2 but terns1 cormorants1 and immense herds of great unwieldy seals derive1 on some parts of the coast1 their chief sustenance from these swimming crabs4 ,seamen invariably attribute the discoloration of the water to spawn2 but ,i found this to be the case only on one occasion4 ,at the distance of several leagues from the ,archipelago of the ,galapagos1 the ship sailed through three strips of a dark yellowish1 or mud-like water2 these strips were some miles long1 but only a few yards wide1 and they were separated from the surrounding water by a sinuous yet distinct margin4 ,the colour was caused by little gelatinous balls1 about the fifth of an inch in diameter1 in which numerous minute spherical ovules were embedded3 they were of two distinct kinds1 one being of a reddish colour and of a different shape from the other4 ,i cannot form a conjecture as to what two kinds of animals these belonged4 ,captain ,colnett remarks that this appearance is very common among the ,galapagos ,islands1 and that the direction of the bands indicates that of the currents2 in the described case1 however1 the line was caused by the wind4 ,the only other appearance which ,i have to notice1 is a thin oily coat on the water which displays iridescent colours4 ,i saw a considerable tract of the ocean thus covered on the coast of ,brazil2 the seamen attributed it to the putrefying carcass of some whale1 which probably was floating at no great distance4 ,i do not here mention the minute gelatinous particles1 hereafter to be referred to1 which are frequently dispersed throughout the water1 for they are not sufficiently abundant to create any change of colour4 ,there are two circumstances in the above accounts which appear remarkable3 first1 how do the various bodies which form the bands with defined edges keep together8 ,in the case of the prawn-like crabs1 their movements were as coinstantaneous as in a regiment of soldiers2 but this cannot happen from anything like voluntary action with the ovules1 or the conferv1 nor is it probable among the infusoria4 ,secondly1 what causes the length and narrowness of the bands8 ,the appearance so much resembles that which may be seen in every torrent1 where the stream uncoils into long streaks the froth collected in the eddies1 that ,i must attribute the effect to a similar action either of the currents of the air or sea4 ,under this supposition we must believe that the various organised bodies are produced in certain favourable places1 and are thence removed by the set of either wind or water4 ,i confess1 however1 there is a very great difficulty in imagining any one spot to be the birthplace of the millions of millions of animalcula and conferv3 for whence come the germs at such points8--the parent bodies having been distributed by the winds and waves over the immense ocean4 ,but on no other hypothesis can ,i understand their linear grouping4 ,i may add that ,scoresby remarks that green water abounding with pelagic animals is invariably found in a certain part of the ,arctic ,sea4 ,illustration ,chapter ,,ii ,illustration ,rio de ,janeiro--,excursion north of ,cape ,frio--,great ,evaporation--,slavery--,botofogo ,bay--,terrestrial ,planari--,clouds on the ,corcovado--,heavy ,rain--,musical ,frogs--,phosphorescent ,insects--,elater1 springing powers of--,blue ,haze--,noise made by a ,butterfly--,entomology--,ants--,wasp killing a ,spider--,parasitical ,spider--,artifices of an ,epeira--,gregarious ,spider--,spider with an unsymmetrical ,web4 ,,rio ,,de ,,janeiro4 ,april #dth to ,july #eth1 #ahcb4--;,a few days after our arrival ,i became acquainted with an ,englishman who was going to visit his estate1 situated rather more than a hundred miles from the capital1 to the northward of ,cape ,frio4 ,i gladly accepted his kind offer of allowing me to accompany him4 ,april #hth1 #ahcb4--,our party amounted to seven4 ,the first stage was very interesting4 ,the day was powerfully hot1 and as we passed through the woods1 everything was motionless1 excepting the large and brilliant butterflies1 which lazily fluttered about4 ,the view seen when crossing the hills behind ,praia ,grande was most beautiful2 the colours were intense1 and the prevailing tint a dark blue2 the sky and the calm waters of the bay vied with each other in splendour4 ,after passing through some cultivated country1 we entered a forest which in the grandeur of all its parts could not be exceeded4 ,we arrived by midday at ,ithacaia2 this small village is situated on a plain1 and round the central house are the huts of the negroes4 ,these1 from their regular form and position1 reminded me of the drawings of the ,hottentot habitations in ,southern ,africa4 ,as the moon rose early1 we determined to start the same evening for our sleeping-place at the ,lagoa ,marica4 ,as it was growing dark we passed under one of the massive1 bare1 and steep hills of granite which are so common in this country4 ,this spot is notorious from having been1 for a long time1 the residence of some runaway slaves1 who1 by cultivating a little ground near the top1 contrived to eke out a subsistence4 ,at length they were discovered1 and a party of soldiers being sent1 the whole were seized with the exception of one old woman1 who1 sooner than again be led into slavery1 dashed herself to pieces from the summit of the mountain4 ,in a ,roman matron this would have been called the noble love of freedom3 in a poor negress it is mere brutal obstinacy4 ,we continued riding for some hours4 ,for the few last miles the road was intricate1 and it passed through a desert waste of marshes and lagoons4 ,the scene by the dimmed light of the moon was most desolate4 ,a few fireflies flitted by us2 and the solitary snipe1 as it rose1 uttered its plaintive cry4 ,the distant and sullen roar of the sea scarcely broke the stillness of the night4 ,april #ith1 #ahcb4--,we left our miserable sleeping-place before sunrise4 ,the road passed through a narrow sandy plain1 lying between the sea and the interior salt lagoons4 ,the number of beautiful fishing birds1 such as egrets and cranes1 and the succulent plants assuming most fantastical forms1 gave to the scene an interest which it would not otherwise have possessed4 ,the few stunted trees were loaded with parasitical plants1 among which the beauty and delicious fragrance of some of the orchide were most to be admired4 ,as the sun rose1 the day became extremely hot1 and the reflection of the light and heat from the white sand was very distressing4 ,we dined at ,mandetiba2 the thermometer in the shade being #hd4 ,the beautiful view of the distant wooded hills1 reflected in the perfectly calm water of an extensive lagoon1 quite refreshed us4 ,as the vnda#a here was a very good one1 and ,i have the pleasant1 but rare remembrance1 of an excellent dinner1 ,i will be grateful and presently describe it1 as the type of its class4 ,these houses are often large1 and are built of thick upright posts1 with boughs interwoven1 and afterwards plastered4 ,they seldom have floors1 and never glazed windows2 but are generally pretty well roofed4 ,universally the front part is open1 forming a kind of verandah1 in which tables and benches are placed4 ,the bedrooms join on each side1 and here the passenger may sleep as comfortably as he can1 on a wooden platform covered by a thin straw mat4 ,the vnda stands in a courtyard1 where the horses are fed4 ,on first arriving1 it was our custom to unsaddle the horses and give them their ,indian corn2 then1 with a low bow1 to ask the senhr to do us the favour to give us something to eat4 8,anything you choose1 sir10 was his usual answer4 ,for the few first times1 vainly ,i thanked ,providence for having guided us to so good a man4 ,the conversation proceeding1 the case universally became deplorable4 8,any fish can you do us the favour of giving 80--8,oh no1 sir40--8,any soup80--8,no1 sir40--8,any bread80--8,oh no1 sir40--8,any dried meat80--8,oh no1 sir40 ,if we were lucky1 by waiting a couple of hours1 we obtained fowls1 rice1 and farinha4 ,it not unfrequently happened that we were obliged to kill1 with stones1 the poultry for our own supper4 ,when1 thoroughly exhausted by fatigue and hunger1 we timorously hinted that we should be glad of our meal1 the pompous1 and 7though true7 most unsatisfactory answer was1 8,it will be ready when it is ready40 ,if we had dared to remonstrate any further1 we should have been told to proceed on our journey1 as being too impertinent4 ,the hosts are most ungracious and disagreeable in their manners2 their houses and their persons are often filthily dirty2 the want of the accommodation of forks1 knives1 and spoons is common2 and ,i am sure no cottage or hovel in ,england could be found in a state so utterly destitute of every comfort4 ,at ,campos ,novos1 however1 we fared sumptuously2 having rice and fowls1 biscuit1 wine1 and spirits1 for dinner2 coffee in the evening1 and fish with coffee for breakfast4 ,all this1 with good food for the horses1 only cost #b shillings #f pence per head4 ,yet the host of this vnda1 being asked if he knew anything of a whip which one of the party had lost1 gruffly answered1 8,how should ,i know8 why did you not take care of it8--,i suppose the dogs have eaten it40 #a ,vnda1 the ,portuguese name for an inn4 ,leaving ,mandetiba1 we continued to pass through an intricate wilderness of lakes2 in some of which were fresh1 in others salt water shells4 ,of the former kind1 ,i found a ,limna in great numbers in a lake1 into which the inhabitants assured me that the sea enters once a year1 and sometimes oftener1 and makes the water quite salt4 ,i have no doubt many interesting facts in relation to marine and fresh-water animals might be observed in this chain of lagoons which skirt the coast of ,brazil4 ,m4 ,gay#b has stated that he found in the neighbourhood of ,rio shells of the marine genera solen and mytilus1 and fresh-water ampullari1 living together in brackish water4 ,i also frequently observed in the lagoon near the ,botanic ,garden1 where the water is only a little less salt than in the sea1 a species of hydrophilus1 very similar to a water-beetle common in the ditches of ,england3 in the same lake the only shell belonged to a genus generally found in estuaries4 #b ,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles for #ahcc4 ,leaving the coast for a time1 we again entered the forest4 ,the trees were very lofty1 and remarkable1 compared with those of ,europe1 from the whiteness of their trunks4 ,i see by my notebook1 8wonderful and beautiful flowering parasites10 invariably struck me as the most novel object in these grand scenes4 ,travelling onwards we passed through tracts of pasturage1 much injured by the enormous conical ants' nests1 which were nearly twelve feet high4 ,they gave to the plain exactly the appearance of the mud volcanoes at ,jorullo1 as figured by ,humboldt4 ,we arrived at ,engenhodo after it was dark1 having been ten hours on horseback4 ,i never ceased1 during the whole journey1 to be surprised at the amount of labour which the horses were capable of enduring2 they appeared also to recover from any injury much sooner than those of our ,english breed4 ,the ,vampire bat is often the cause of much trouble1 by biting the horses on their withers4 ,the injury is generally not so much owing to the loss of blood1 as to the inflammation which the pressure of the saddle afterwards produces4 ,the whole circumstance has lately been doubted in ,england2 ,i was therefore fortunate in being present when one 7,desmodus d'orbignyi1 ,wat47 was actually caught on a horse's back4 ,we were bivouacking late one evening near ,coquimbo1 in ,chile1 when my servant1 noticing that one of the horses was very restive1 went to see what was the matter1 and fancying he could distinguish something1 suddenly put his hand on the beast's withers1 and secured the vampire4 ,in the morning the spot where the bite had been inflicted was easily distinguished from being slightly swollen and bloody4 ,the third day afterwards we rode the horse1 without any ill effects4 ,illustration ,april #acth1 #ahcb4--;,after three days' travelling we arrived at ,socgo1 the estate of ,senhr ,manuel ,figuireda1 a relation of one of our party4 ,the house was simple1 and1 though like a barn in form1 was well suited to the climate4 ,in the sitting-room gilded chairs and sofas were oddly contrasted with the whitewashed walls1 thatched roof1 and windows without glass4 ,the house1 together with the granaries1 the stables1 and workshops for the blacks1 who had been taught various trades1 formed a rude kind of quadrangle2 in the centre of which a large pile of coffee was drying4 ,these buildings stand on a little hill1 overlooking the cultivated ground1 and surrounded on every side by a wall of dark green luxuriant forest4 ,the chief produce of this part of the country is coffee4 ,each tree is supposed to yield annually1 on an average1 two pounds2 but some give as much as eight4 ,mandioca or cassava is likewise cultivated in great quantity4 ,every part of this plant is useful3 the leaves and stalks are eaten by the horses1 and the roots are ground into a pulp1 which1 when pressed dry and baked1 forms the farinha1 the principal article of sustenance in the ,brazils4 ,it is a curious1 though well-known fact1 that the juice of this most nutritious plant is highly poisonous4 ,a few years ago a cow died at this ,faznda1 in consequence of having drunk some of it4 ,senhr ,figuireda told me that he had planted1 the year before1 one bag of feija or beans1 and three of rice2 the former of which produced eighty1 and the latter three hundred and twenty fold4 ,the pasturage supports a fine stock of cattle1 and the woods are so full of game that a deer had been killed on each of the three previous days4 ,this profusion of food showed itself at dinner1 where1 if the tables did not groan1 the guests surely did2 for each person is expected to eat of every dish4 ,one day1 having1 as ,i thought1 nicely calculated so that nothing should go away untasted1 to my utter dismay a roast turkey and a pig appeared in all their substantial reality4 ,during the meals1 it was the employment of a man to drive out of the room sundry old hounds1 and dozens of little black children1 which crawled in together1 at every opportunity4 ,as long as the idea of slavery could be banished1 there was something exceedingly fascinating in this simple and patriarchal style of living3 it was such a perfect retirement and independence from the rest of the world4 ,as soon as any stranger is seen arriving1 a large bell is set tolling1 and generally some small cannon are fired4 ,the event is thus announced to the rocks and woods1 but to nothing else4 ,one morning ,i walked out an hour before daylight to admire the solemn stillness of the scene2 at last1 the silence was broken by the morning hymn1 raised on high by the whole body of the blacks2 and in this manner their daily work is generally begun4 ,on such fazndas as these1 ,i have no doubt the slaves pass happy and contented lives4 ,on ,saturday and ,sunday they work for themselves1 and in this fertile climate the labour of two days is sufficient to support a man and his family for the whole week4 ,illustration ,april #adth1 #ahcb4--,leaving ,socgo1 we rode to another estate on the ,rio ,mace1 which was the last patch of cultivated ground in that direction4 ,the estate was two and a half miles long1 and the owner had forgotten how many broad4 ,only a very small piece had been cleared1 yet almost every acre was capable of yielding all the various rich productions of a tropical land4 ,considering the enormous area of ,brazil1 the proportion of cultivated ground can scarcely be considered as anything compared to that which is left in the state of nature3 at some future age1 how vast a population it will support6 ,during the second day's journey we found the road so shut up that it was necessary that a man should go ahead with a sword to cut away the creepers4 ,the forest abounded with beautiful objects2 among which the tree ferns1 though not large1 were1 from their bright green foliage1 and the elegant curvature of their fronds1 most worthy of admiration4 ,in the evening it rained very heavily1 and although the thermometer stood at #fe1 ,i felt very cold4 ,as soon as the rain ceased1 it was curious to observe the extraordinary evaporation which commenced over the whole extent of the forest4 ,at the height of a hundred feet the hills were buried in a dense white vapour1 which rose like columns of smoke from the most thickly-wooded parts1 and especially from the valleys4 ,i observed this phenomenon on several occasions3 ,i suppose it is owing to the large surface of foliage1 previously heated by the sun's rays4 ,while staying at this estate1 ,i was very nearly being an eye-witness to one of those atrocious acts which can only take place in a slave country4 ,owing to a quarrel and a lawsuit1 the owner was on the point of taking all the women and children from the male slaves1 and selling them separately at the public auction at ,rio4 ,interest1 and not any feeling of compassion1 prevented this act4 ,indeed1 ,i do not believe the inhumanity of separating thirty families1 who had lived together for many years1 even occurred to the owner4 ,yet ,i will pledge myself1 that in humanity and good feeling he was superior to the common run of men4 ,it may be said there exists no limit to the blindness of interest and selfish habit4 ,i may mention one very trifling anecdote1 which at the time struck me more forcibly than any story of cruelty4 ,i was crossing a ferry with a negro who was uncommonly stupid4 ,in endeavouring to make him understand1 ,i talked loud1 and made signs1 in doing which ,i passed my hand near his face4 ,he1 ,i suppose1 thought ,i was in a passion1 and was going to strike him2 for instantly1 with a frightened look and half-shut eyes1 he dropped his hands4 ,i shall never forget my feelings of surprise1 disgust1 and shame1 at seeing a great powerful man afraid even to ward off a blow1 directed1 as he thought1 at his face4 ,this man had been trained to a degradation lower than the slavery of the most helpless animal4 ,illustration ,april #ahth1 #ahcb4--;,in returning we spent two days at ,socgo1 and ,i employed them in collecting insects in the forest4 ,the greater number of trees1 although so lofty1 are not more than three or four feet in circumference4 ,there are1 of course1 a few of much greater dimension4 ,senhr ,manuel was then making a canoe #gj feet in length from a solid trunk1 which had originally been #aaj feet long1 and of great thickness4 ,the contrast of palm trees1 growing amidst the common branching kinds1 never fails to give the scene an intertropical character4 ,here the woods were ornamented by the ,cabbage ,palm--one of the most beautiful of its family4 ,with a stem so narrow that it might be clasped with the two hands1 it waves its elegant head at the height of forty or fifty feet above the ground4 ,the woody creepers1 themselves covered by other creepers1 were of great thickness3 some which ,i measured were two feet in circumference4 ,many of the older trees presented a very curious appearance from the tresses of a liana hanging from their boughs1 and resembling bundles of hay4 ,if the eye was turned from the world of foliage above1 to the ground beneath1 it was attracted by the extreme elegance of the leaves of the ferns and mimos4 ,the latter1 in some parts1 covered the surface with a brushwood only a few inches high4 ,in walking across these thick beds of mimos1 a broad track was marked by the change of shade1 produced by the drooping of their sensitive petioles4 ,it is easy to specify the individual objects of admiration in these grand scenes2 but it is not possible to give an adequate idea of the higher feelings of wonder1 astonishment1 and devotion1 which fill and elevate the mind4 ,illustration ,april #aith1 #ahcb4--,leaving ,socgo1 during the two first days we retraced our steps4 ,it was very wearisome work1 as the road generally ran across a glaring hot sandy plain1 not far from the coast4 ,i noticed that each time the horse put its foot on the fine siliceous sand1 a gentle chirping noise was produced4 ,on the third day we took a different line1 and passed through the gay little village of ,madre de ,des4 ,this is one of the principal lines of road in ,brazil2 yet it was in so bad a state that no wheel vehicle1 excepting the clumsy bullock-wagon1 could pass along4 ,in our whole journey we did not cross a single bridge built of stone2 and those made of logs of wood were frequently so much out of repair that it was necessary to go on one side to avoid them4 ,all distances are inaccurately known4 ,the road is often marked by crosses1 in the place of milestones1 to signify where human blood has been spilled4 ,on the evening of the #bcrd we arrived at ,rio1 having finished our pleasant little excursion4 ,during the remainder of my stay at ,rio1 ,i resided in a cottage at ,botofogo ,bay4 ,it was impossible to wish for anything more delightful than thus to spend some weeks in so magnificent a country4 ,in ,england any person fond of natural history enjoys in his walks a great advantage1 by always having something to attract his attention2 but in these fertile climates1 teeming with life1 the attractions are so numerous1 that he is scarcely able to walk at all4 ,the few observations which ,i was enabled to make were almost exclusively confined to the invertebrate animals4 ,the existence of a division of the genus ,planaria1 which inhabits the dry land1 interested me much4 ,these animals are of so simple a structure1 that ,cuvier has arranged them with the intestinal worms1 though never found within the bodies of other animals4 ,numerous species inhabit both salt and fresh water2 but those to which ,i allude were found1 even in the drier parts of the forest1 beneath logs of rotten wood1 on which ,i believe they feed4 ,in general form they resemble little slugs1 but are very much narrower in proportion1 and several of the species are beautifully coloured with longitudinal stripes4 ,their structure is very simple3 near the middle of the under or crawling surface there are two small transverse slits1 from the anterior one of which a funnel-shaped and highly irritable mouth can be protruded4 ,for some time after the rest of the animal was completely dead from the effects of salt water or any other cause1 this organ still retained its vitality4 ,i found no less than twelve different species of terrestrial ,planari in different parts of the southern hemisphere4#c ,some specimens which ,i obtained at ,van ,diemen's ,land1 ,i kept alive for nearly two months1 feeding them on rotten wood4 ,having cut one of them transversely into two nearly equal parts1 in the course of a fortnight both had the shape of perfect animals4 ,i had1 however1 so divided the body1 that one of the halves contained both the inferior orifices1 and the other1 in consequence1 none4 ,in the course of twenty-five days from the operation1 the more perfect half could not have been distinguished from any other specimen4 ,the other had increased much in size2 and towards its posterior end1 a clear space was formed in the parenchymatous mass1 in which a rudimentary cup-shaped mouth could clearly be distinguished2 on the under surface1 however1 no corresponding slit was yet open4 ,if the increased heat of the weather1 as we approached the equator1 had not destroyed all the individuals1 there can be no doubt that this last step would have completed its structure4 ,although so well known an experiment1 it was interesting to watch the gradual production of every essential organ1 out of the simple extremity of another animal4 ,it is extremely difficult to preserve these ,planari2 as soon as the cessation of life allows the ordinary laws of change to act1 their entire bodies become soft and fluid1 with a rapidity which ,i have never seen equalled4 #c ,i have described and named these species in the ,annals of ,natural ,history1 vol4 xiv1 p4 #bda4 ,i first visited the forest in which these ,planari were found1 in company with an old ,portuguese priest who took me out to hunt with him4 ,the sport consisted in turning into the cover a few dogs1 and then patiently waiting to fire at any animal which might appear4 ,we were accompanied by the son of a neighbouring farmer--a good specimen of a wild ,brazilian youth4 ,he was dressed in a tattered old shirt and trousers1 and had his head uncovered3 he carried an old-fashioned gun and a large knife4 ,the habit of carrying the knife is universal2 and in traversing a thick wood it is almost necessary1 on account of the creeping plants4 ,the frequent occurrence of murder may be partly attributed to this habit4 ,the ,brazilians are so dexterous with the knife that they can throw it to some distance with precision1 and with sufficient force to cause a fatal wound4 ,i have seen a number of little boys practising this art as a game of play1 and from their skill in hitting an upright stick1 they promised well for more earnest attempts4 ,my companion1 the day before1 had shot two large bearded monkeys4 ,these animals have prehensile tails1 the extremity of which1 even after death1 can support the whole weight of the body4 ,one of them thus remained fast to a branch1 and it was necessary to cut down a large tree to procure it4 ,this was soon effected1 and down came tree and monkey with an awful crash4 ,our day's sport1 besides the monkey1 was confined to sundry small green parrots and a few toucans4 ,i profited1 however1 by my acquaintance with the ,portuguese padre1 for on another occasion he gave me a fine specimen of the ,yagouaroundi cat4 ,every one has heard of the beauty of the scenery near ,botofogo4 ,the house in which ,i lived was seated close beneath the well-known mountain of the ,corcovado4 ,it has been remarked1 with much truth1 that abruptly conical hills are characteristic of the formation which ,humboldt designates as gneiss-granite4 ,nothing can be more striking than the effect of these huge rounded masses of naked rock rising out of the most luxuriant vegetation4 ,i was often interested by watching the clouds1 which1 rolling in from seaward1 formed a bank just beneath the highest point of the ,corcovado4 ,this mountain1 like most others1 when thus partly veiled1 appeared to rise to a far prouder elevation than its real height of #bcjj feet4 ,mr4 ,daniell has observed1 in his meteorological essays1 that a cloud sometimes appears fixed on a mountain summit1 while the wind continues to blow over it4 ,the same phenomenon here presented a slightly different appearance4 ,in this case the cloud was clearly seen to curl over1 and rapidly pass by the summit1 and yet was neither diminished nor increased in size4 ,the sun was setting1 and a gentle southerly breeze1 striking against the southern side of the rock1 mingled its current with the colder air above2 and the vapour was thus condensed3 but as the light wreaths of cloud passed over the ridge1 and came within the influence of the warmer atmosphere of the northern sloping bank1 they were immediately redissolved4 ,the climate1 during the months of ,may and ,june1 or the beginning of winter1 was delightful4 ,the mean temperature1 from observations taken at nine o'clock1 both morning and evening1 was only #gb4 ,it often rained heavily1 but the drying southerly winds soon again rendered the walks pleasant4 ,one morning1 in the course of six hours1 #a4f inches of rain fell4 ,as this storm passed over the forests which surround the ,corcovado1 the sound produced by the drops pattering on the countless multitude of leaves was very remarkable1 it could be heard at the distance of a quarter of a mile1 and was like the rushing of a great body of water4 ,after the hotter days1 it was delicious to sit quietly in the garden and watch the evening pass into night4 ,nature1 in these climes1 chooses her vocalists from more humble performers than in ,europe4 ,a small frog1 of the genus ,hyla1 sits on a blade of grass about an inch above the surface of the water1 and sends forth a pleasing chirp3 when several are together they sing in harmony on different notes4 ,i had some difficulty in catching a specimen of this frog4 ,the genus ,hyla has its toes terminated by small suckers2 and ,i found this animal could crawl up a pane of glass1 when placed absolutely perpendicular4 ,various cicad and crickets1 at the same time1 keep up a ceaseless shrill cry1 but which1 softened by the distance1 is not unpleasant4 ,every evening after dark this great concert commenced2 and often have ,i sat listening to it1 until my attention has been drawn away by some curious passing insect4 ,at these times the fireflies are seen flitting about from hedge to hedge4 ,on a dark night the light can be seen at about two hundred paces distant4 ,it is remarkable that in all the different kinds of glowworms1 shining elaters1 and various marine animals 7such as the crustacea1 medus1 nereid1 a coralline of the genus ,clytia1 and ,pyrosoma71 which ,i have observed1 the light has been of a well-marked green colour4 ,all the fireflies1 which ,i caught here1 belonged to the ,lampyrid 7in which family the ,english glowworm is included71 and the greater number of specimens were of ,lampyris occidentalis4#d ,i found that this insect emitted the most brilliant flashes when irritated3 in the intervals1 the abdominal rings were obscured4 ,the flash was almost coinstantaneous in the two rings1 but it was just perceptible first in the anterior one4 ,the shining matter was fluid and very adhesive3 little spots1 where the skin had been torn1 continued bright with a slight scintillation1 whilst the uninjured parts were obscured4 ,when the insect was decapitated the rings remained uninterruptedly bright1 but not so brilliant as before3 local irritation with a needle always increased the vividness of the light4 ,the rings in one instance retained their luminous property nearly twenty-four hours after the death of the insect4 ,from these facts it would appear probable1 that the animal has only the power of concealing or extinguishing the light for short intervals1 and that at other times the display is involuntary4 ,on the muddy and wet gravel-walks ,i found the larv of this lampyris in great numbers3 they resembled in general form the female of the ,english glowworm4 ,these larv possessed but feeble luminous powers2 very differently from their parents1 on the slightest touch they feigned death1 and ceased to shine2 nor did irritation excite any fresh display4 ,i kept several of them alive for some time3 their tails are very singular organs1 for they act1 by a well-fitted contrivance1 as suckers or organs of attachment1 and likewise as reservoirs for saliva1 or some such fluid4 ,i repeatedly fed them on raw meat2 and ,i invariably observed1 that every now and then the extremity of the tail was applied to the mouth1 and a drop of fluid exuded on the meat1 which was then in the act of being consumed4 ,the tail1 notwithstanding so much practice1 does not seem to be able to find its way to the mouth2 at least the neck was always touched first1 and apparently as a guide4 #d ,i am greatly indebted to ,mr4 ,waterhouse for his kindness in naming for me this and many other insects1 and giving me much valuable assistance4 ,when we were at ,bahia1 an elater or beetle 7,pyrophorus luminosus1 ,illig47 seemed the most common luminous insect4 ,the light in this case was also rendered more brilliant by irritation4 ,i amused myself one day by observing the springing powers of this insect1 which have not1 as it appears to me1 been properly described4#e ,the elater1 when placed on its back and preparing to spring1 moved its head and thorax backwards1 so that the pectoral spine was drawn out1 and rested on the edge of its sheath4 ,the same backward movement being continued1 the spine1 by the full action of the muscles1 was bent like a spring2 and the insect at this moment rested on the extremity of its head and wing-cases4 ,the effort being suddenly relaxed1 the head and thorax flew up1 and in consequence1 the base of the wing-cases struck the supporting surface with such force1 that the insect by the reaction was jerked upwards to the height of one or two inches4 ,the projecting points of the thorax1 and the sheath of the spine1 served to steady the whole body during the spring4 ,in the descriptions which ,i have read1 sufficient stress does not appear to have been laid on the elasticity of the spine3 so sudden a spring could not be the result of simple muscular contraction1 without the aid of some mechanical contrivance4 #e ,kirby's ,entomology1 vol4 ii1 p4 #cag4 ,on several occasions ,i enjoyed some short but most pleasant excursions in the neighbouring country4 ,one day ,i went to the ,botanic ,garden1 where many plants1 well known for their great utility1 might be seen growing4 ,the leaves of the camphor1 pepper1 cinnamon1 and clove trees were delightfully aromatic2 and the bread-fruit1 the jaca1 and the mango1 vied with each other in the magnificence of their foliage4 ,the landscape in the neighbourhood of ,bahia almost takes its character from the two latter trees4 ,before seeing them1 ,i had no idea that any trees could cast so black a shade on the ground4 ,both of them bear to the evergreen vegetation of these climates the same kind of relation which laurels and hollies in ,england do to the lighter green of the deciduous trees4 ,it may be observed that the houses within the tropics are surrounded by the most beautiful forms of vegetation1 because many of them are at the same time most useful to man4 ,who can doubt that these qualities are united in the banana1 the cocoa-nut1 the many kinds of palm1 the orange1 and the bread-fruit tree8 ,illustration ,during this day ,i was particularly struck with a remark of ,humboldt's1 who often alludes to 8the thin vapour which1 without changing the transparency of the air1 renders its tints more harmonious1 and softens its effects40 ,this is an appearance which ,i have never observed in the temperate zones4 ,the atmosphere1 seen through a short space of half or three-quarters of a mile1 was perfectly lucid1 but at a greater distance all colours were blended into a most beautiful haze1 of a pale ,french grey1 mingled with a little blue4 ,the condition of the atmosphere between the morning and about noon1 when the effect was most evident1 had undergone little change1 excepting in its dryness4 ,in the interval1 the difference between the dew point and temperature had increased from #g4e to #ag4 ,on another occasion ,i started early and walked to the ,gavia1 or topsail mountain4 ,the air was delightfully cool and fragrant2 and the drops of dew still glittered on the leaves of the large liliaceous plants1 which shaded the streamlets of clear water4 ,sitting down on a block of granite1 it was delightful to watch the various insects and birds as they flew past4 ,the humming-bird seems particularly fond of such shady retired spots4 ,whenever ,i saw these little creatures buzzing round a flower1 with their wings vibrating so rapidly as to be scarcely visible1 ,i was reminded of the sphinx moths3 their movements and habits are indeed in many respects very similar4 ,following a pathway ,i entered a noble forest1 and from a height of five or six hundred feet1 one of those splendid views was presented1 which are so common on every side of ,rio4 ,at this elevation the landscape attains its most brilliant tint2 and every form1 every shade1 so completely surpasses in magnificence all that the ,european has ever beheld in his own country1 that he knows not how to express his feelings4 ,the general effect frequently recalled to my mind the gayest scenery of the ,opera-house or the great theatres4 ,i never returned from these excursions empty-handed4 ,this day ,i found a specimen of a curious fungus1 called ,hymenophallus4 ,most people know the ,english ,phallus1 which in autumn taints the air with its odious smell3 this1 however1 as the entomologist is aware1 is to some of our beetles a delightful fragrance4 ,so was it here2 for a ,strongylus1 attracted by the odour1 alighted on the fungus as ,i carried it in my hand4 ,we here see in two distant countries a similar relation between plants and insects of the same families1 though the species of both are different4 ,when man is the agent in introducing into a country a new species this relation is often broken3 as one instance of this ,i may mention that the leaves of the cabbages and lettuces1 which in ,england afford food to such a multitude of slugs and caterpillars1 in the gardens near ,rio are untouched4 ,during our stay at ,brazil ,i made a large collection of insects4 ,a few general observations on the comparative importance of the different orders may be interesting to the ,english entomologist4 ,the large and brilliantly-coloured ,lepidoptera bespeak the zone they inhabit1 far more plainly than any other race of animals4 ,i allude only to the butterflies2 for the moths1 contrary to what might have been expected from the rankness of the vegetation1 certainly appeared in much fewer numbers than in our own temperate regions4 ,i was much surprised at the habits of ,papilio feronia4 ,this butterfly is not uncommon1 and generally frequents the orange-groves4 ,although a high flier1 yet it very frequently alights on the trunks of trees4 ,on these occasions its head is invariably placed downwards2 and its wings are expanded in a horizontal plane1 instead of being folded vertically1 as is commonly the case4 ,this is the only butterfly which ,i have ever seen that uses its legs for running4 ,not being aware of this fact1 the insect1 more than once1 as ,i cautiously approached with my forceps1 shuffled on one side just as the instrument was on the point of closing1 and thus escaped4 ,but a far more singular fact is the power which this species possesses of making a noise4#f ,several times when a pair1 probably male and female1 were chasing each other in an irregular course1 they passed within a few yards of me2 and ,i distinctly heard a clicking noise1 similar to that produced by a toothed wheel passing under a spring catch4 ,the noise was continued at short intervals1 and could be distinguished at about twenty yards' distance3 ,i am certain there is no error in the observation4 #f ,mr4 ,doubleday has lately described 7before the ,entomological ,society1 ,march #crd1 #ahde7 a peculiar structure in the wings of this butterfly1 which seems to be the means of its making its noise4 ,he says1 8,it is remarkable for having a sort of drum at the base of the fore wings1 between the costal nervure and the subcostal4 ,these two nervures1 moreover1 have a peculiar screw-like diaphragm or vessel in the interior40 ,i find in ,langsdorff's travels 7in the years #ahjc-g1 p4 #gd7 it is said1 that in the island of ,st4 ,catherine's on the coast of ,brazil1 a butterfly called ,februa ,hoffmanseggi1 makes a noise1 when flying away1 like a rattle4 ,i was disappointed in the general aspect of the ,coleoptera4 ,the number of minute and obscurely coloured beetles is exceedingly great4#g ,the cabinets of ,europe can1 as yet1 boast only of the larger species from tropical climates4 ,it is sufficient to disturb the composure of an entomologist's mind1 to look forward to the future dimensions of a complete catalogue4 ,the carnivorous beetles1 or ,carabid1 appear in extremely few numbers within the tropics3 this is the more remarkable when compared to the case of the carnivorous quadrupeds1 which are so abundant in hot countries4 ,i was struck with this observation both on entering ,brazil1 and when ,i saw the many elegant and active forms of the ,harpalid reappearing on the temperate plains of ,la ,plata4 ,do the very numerous spiders and rapacious ,hymenoptera supply the place of the carnivorous beetles8 ,the carrion-feeders and ,brachelytra are very uncommon2 on the other hand1 the ,rhyncophora and ,chrysomelid1 all of which depend on the vegetable world for subsistence1 are present in astonishing numbers4 ,i do not here refer to the number of different species1 but to that of the individual insects2 for on this it is that the most striking character in the entomology of different countries depends4 ,the orders ,orthoptera and ,hemiptera are particularly numerous2 as likewise is the stinging division of the ,hymenoptera2 the bees1 perhaps1 being excepted4 ,a person1 on first entering a tropical forest1 is astonished at the labours of the ants3 well-beaten paths branch off in every direction1 on which an army of never-failing foragers may be seen1 some going forth1 and others returning1 burdened with pieces of green leaf1 often larger than their own bodies4 #g ,i may mention1 as a common instance of one day's 7,june #bcrd7 collecting1 when ,i was not attending particularly to the ,coleoptera1 that ,i caught sixty-eight species of that order4 ,among these1 there were only two of the ,carabid1 four ,brachelytra1 fifteen ,rhyncophora1 and fourteen of the ,chrysomelid4 ,thirty-seven species of ,arachnid1 which ,i brought home1 will be sufficient to prove that ,i was not paying overmuch attention to the generally favoured order of ,coleoptera4 ,a small dark-coloured ant sometimes migrates in countless numbers4 ,one day1 at ,bahia1 my attention was drawn by observing many spiders1 cockroaches1 and other insects1 and some lizards1 rushing in the greatest agitation across a bare piece of ground4 ,a little way behind1 every stalk and leaf was blackened by a small ant4 ,the swarm having crossed the bare space1 divided itself1 and descended an old wall4 ,by this means many insects were fairly enclosed2 and the efforts which the poor little creatures made to extricate themselves from such a death were wonderful4 ,when the ants came to the road they changed their course1 and in narrow files reascended the wall4 ,having placed a small stone so as to intercept one of the lines1 the whole body attacked it1 and then immediately retired4 ,shortly afterwards another body came to the charge1 and again having failed to make any impression1 this line of march was entirely given up4 ,by going an inch round1 the file might have avoided the stone1 and this doubtless would have happened1 if it had been originally there3 but having been attacked1 the lion-hearted little warriors scorned the idea of yielding4 ,certain wasp-like insects1 which construct in the corners of the verandahs clay cells for their larv1 are very numerous in the neighbourhood of ,rio4 ,these cells they stuff full of half-dead spiders and caterpillars1 which they seem wonderfully to know how to sting to that degree as to leave them paralysed but alive1 until their eggs are hatched2 and the larvae feed on the horrid mass of powerless1 half-killed victims--a sight which has been described by an enthusiastic naturalist#h as curious and pleasing6 ,i was much interested one day by watching a deadly contest between a ,pepsis and a large spider of the genus ,lycosa4 ,the wasp made a sudden dash at its prey1 and then flew away3 the spider was evidently wounded1 for1 trying to escape1 it rolled down a little slope1 but had still strength sufficient to crawl into a thick tuft of grass4 ,the wasp soon returned1 and seemed surprised at not immediately finding its victim4 ,it then commenced as regular a hunt as ever hound did after fox2 making short semicircular casts1 and all the time rapidly vibrating its wings and antenn4 ,the spider1 though well concealed1 was soon discovered1 and the wasp1 evidently still afraid of its adversary's jaws1 after much manuvring1 inflicted two stings on the under side of its thorax4 ,at last1 carefully examining with its antenn the now motionless spider1 it proceeded to drag away the body4 ,but ,i stopped both tyrant and prey4#i #h ,in a ,manuscript in the ,british ,museum by ,mr4 ,abbott1 who made his observations in ,georgia2 see ,mr4 ,a4 ,white's paper in the ,annals of ,natural ,history1 vol4 vii1 p4 #dgb4 ,lieutenant ,hutton has described a sphex with similar habits in ,india1 in the ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society1 vol4 i1 p4 #eee4 #i ,don ,felix ,azara 7vol4 i1 p4 #age71 mentioning a hymenopterous insect1 probably of the same genus1 says he saw it dragging a dead spider through tall grass1 in a straight line to its nest1 which was one hundred and sixty-three paces distant4 ,he adds that the wasp1 in order to find the road1 every now and then made 8demi-tours d'environ trois palmes40 ,the number of spiders1 in proportion to other insects1 is here compared with ,england very much larger2 perhaps more so than with any other division of the articulate animals4 ,the variety of species among the jumping spiders appears almost infinite4 ,the genus1 or rather family of ,epeira1 is here characterized by many singular forms2 some species have pointed coriaceous shells1 others enlarged and spiny tibi4 ,every path in the forest is barricaded with the strong yellow web of a species1 belonging to the same division with the ,epeira clavipes of ,fabricius1 which was formerly said by ,sloane to make1 in the ,west ,indies1 webs so strong as to catch birds4 ,a small and pretty kind of spider1 with very long fore-legs1 and which appears to belong to an undescribed genus1 lives as a parasite on almost every one of these webs4 ,i suppose it is too insignificant to be noticed by the great ,epeira1 and is therefore allowed to prey on the minute insects1 which1 adhering to the lines1 would otherwise be wasted4 ,when frightened1 this little spider either feigns death by extending its front legs1 or suddenly drops from the web4 ,a large ,epeira of the same division with ,epeira tuberculata and conica is extremely common1 especially in dry situations4 ,its web1 which is generally placed among the great leaves of the common agave1 is sometimes strengthened near the centre by a pair or even four zigzag ribbons1 which connect two adjoining rays4 ,when any large insect1 as a grasshopper or wasp1 is caught1 the spider1 by a dexterous movement1 makes it revolve very rapidly1 and at the same time emitting a band of threads from its spinners1 soon envelops its prey in a case like the cocoon of a silkworm4 ,the spider now examines the powerless victim1 and gives the fatal bite on the hinder part of its thorax2 then retreating1 patiently waits till the poison has taken effect4 ,the virulence of this poison may be judged of from the fact that in half a minute ,i opened the mesh1 and found a large wasp quite lifeless4 ,this ,epeira always stands with its head downwards near the centre of the web4 ,when disturbed1 it acts differently according to circumstances3 if there is a thicket below1 it suddenly falls down2 and ,i have distinctly seen the thread from the spinners lengthened by the animal while yet stationary1 as preparatory to its fall4 ,if the ground is clear beneath1 the ,epeira seldom falls1 but moves quickly through a central passage from one to the other side4 ,when still further disturbed1 it practises a most curious manuvre3 standing in the middle1 it violently jerks the web1 which is attached to elastic twigs1 till at last the whole acquires such a rapid vibratory movement1 that even the outline of the spider's body becomes indistinct4 ,it is well known that most of the ,british spiders1 when a large insect is caught in their webs1 endeavour to cut the lines and liberate their prey1 to save their nets from being entirely spoiled4 ,i once1 however1 saw in a hot-house in ,shropshire a large female wasp caught in the irregular web of a quite small spider2 and this spider1 instead of cutting the web1 most perseveringly continued to entangle the body1 and especially the wings1 of its prey4 ,the wasp at first aimed in vain repeated thrusts with its sting at its little antagonist4 ,pitying the wasp1 after allowing it to struggle for more than an hour1 ,i killed it and put it back into the web4 ,the spider soon returned2 and an hour afterwards ,i was much surprised to find it with its jaws buried in the orifice through which the sting is protruded by the living wasp4 ,i drove the spider away two or three times1 but for the next twenty-four hours ,i always found it again sucking at the same place4 ,the spider became much distended by the juices of its prey1 which was many times larger than itself4 ,i may here just mention1 that ,i found1 near ,st4 ,f ,bajada1 many large black spiders1 with ruby-coloured marks on their backs1 having gregarious habits4 ,the webs were placed vertically1 as is invariably the case with the genus ,epeira3 they were separated from each other by a space of about two feet1 but were all attached to certain common lines1 which were of great length1 and extended to all parts of the community4 ,in this manner the tops of some large bushes were encompassed by the united nets4 ,azara#aj has described a gregarious spider in ,paraguay1 which ,walckanaer thinks must be a ,theridion1 but probably it is an ,epeira1 and perhaps even the same species with mine4 ,i cannot1 however1 recollect seeing a central nest as large as a hat1 in which1 during autumn1 when the spiders die1 ,azara says the eggs are deposited4 ,as all the spiders which ,i saw were of the same size1 they must have been nearly of the same age4 ,this gregarious habit1 in so typical a genus as ,epeira1 among insects1 which are so bloodthirsty and solitary that even the two sexes attack each other1 is a very singular fact4 #aj ,azara's ,voyage1 vol4 #a1 p4 #bac4 ,in a lofty valley of the ,cordillera1 near ,mendoza1 ,i found another spider with a singularly-formed web4 ,strong lines radiated in a vertical plane from a common centre1 where the insect had its station2 but only two of the rays were connected by a symmetrical mesh-work2 so that the net1 instead of being1 as is generally the case1 circular1 consisted of a wedge-shaped segment4 ,all the webs were similarly constructed4 ,illustration ,illustration ,chapter ,,iii ,monte ,video--,maldonado--,excursion to ,r4 ,polanco--,lazo and ,bolas--,partridges--,absence of ,trees--,deer--,capybara1 or ,river ,hog--,tucutuco--,molothrus1 cuckoo-like habits--,tyrant-flycatcher--,mocking-bir d--,carrion ,hawks--,tubes formed by ,lightning--,house struck4 ,,maldonado ,july #eth1 #ahcb4--;,in the morning we got under way1 and stood out of the splendid harbour of ,rio de ,janeiro4 ,in our passage to the ,plata1 we saw nothing particular1 excepting on one day a great shoal of porpoises1 many hundreds in number4 ,the whole sea was in places furrowed by them2 and a most extraordinary spectacle was presented1 as hundreds1 proceeding together by jumps1 in which their whole bodies were exposed1 thus cut the water4 ,when the ship was running nine knots an hour1 these animals could cross and recross the bows with the greatest ease1 and then dash away right ahead4 ,as soon as we entered the estuary of the ,plata1 the weather was very unsettled4 ,one dark night we were surrounded by numerous seals and penguins1 which made such strange noises1 that the officer on watch reported he could hear the cattle bellowing on shore4 ,on a second night we witnessed a splendid scene of natural fireworks2 the mast-head and yard-arm ends shone with ,st4 ,elmo's light2 and the form of the vane could almost be traced1 as if it had been rubbed with phosphorus4 ,the sea was so highly luminous1 that the tracks of the penguins were marked by a fiery wake1 and the darkness of the sky was momentarily illuminated by the most vivid lightning4 ,when within the mouth of the river1 ,i was interested by observing how slowly the waters of the sea and river mixed4 ,the latter1 muddy and discoloured1 from its less specific gravity1 floated on the surface of the salt water4 ,this was curiously exhibited in the wake of the vessel1 where a line of blue water was seen mingling in little eddies with the adjoining fluid4 ,july #bfth1 #ahcb4--,we anchored at ,monte ,video4 ,the ,beagle was employed in surveying the extreme southern and eastern coasts of ,america1 south of the ,plata1 during the two succeeding years4 ,to prevent useless repetitions1 ,i will extract those parts of my journal which refer to the same districts1 without always attending to the order in which we visited them4 ,,maldonado is situated on the northern bank of the ,plata1 and not very far from the mouth of the estuary4 ,it is a most quiet1 forlorn1 little town2 built1 as is universally the case in these countries1 with the streets running at right angles to each other1 and having in the middle a large plaza or square1 which1 from its size1 renders the scantiness of the population more evident4 ,it possesses scarcely any trade2 the exports being confined to a few hides and living cattle4 ,the inhabitants are chiefly landowners1 together with a few shopkeepers and the necessary tradesmen1 such as blacksmiths and carpenters1 who do nearly all the business for a circuit of fifty miles round4 ,the town is separated from the river by a band of sand-hillocks1 about a mile broad3 it is surrounded on all other sides by an open slightly-undulating country1 covered by one uniform layer of fine green turf1 on which countless herds of cattle1 sheep1 and horses graze4 ,there is very little land cultivated even close to the town4 ,a few hedges made of cacti and agave mark out where some wheat or ,indian corn has been planted4 ,the features of the country are very similar along the whole northern bank of the ,plata4 ,the only difference is1 that here the granitic hills are a little bolder4 ,the scenery is very uninteresting2 there is scarcely a house1 an enclosed piece of ground1 or even a tree1 to give it an air of cheerfulness4 ,yet1 after being imprisoned for some time in a ship1 there is a charm in the unconfined feeling of walking over boundless plains of turf4 ,moreover1 if your view is limited to a small space1 many objects possess beauty4 ,some of the smaller birds are brilliantly coloured2 and the bright green sward1 browsed short by the cattle1 is ornamented by dwarf flowers1 among which a plant1 looking like the daisy1 claimed the place of an old friend4 ,what would a florist say to whole tracts1 so thickly covered by the ,verbena melindres1 as1 even at a distance1 to appear of the most gaudy scarlet8 ,i stayed ten weeks at ,maldonado1 in which time a nearly perfect collection of the animals1 birds1 and reptiles1 was procured4 ,before making any observations respecting them1 ,i will give an account of a little excursion ,i made as far as the river ,polanco1 which is about seventy miles distant1 in a northerly direction4 ,i may mention1 as a proof how cheap everything is in this country1 that ,i paid only two dollars a day or eight shillings1 for two men1 together with a troop of about a dozen riding-horses4 ,my companions were well armed with pistols and sabres2 a precaution which ,i thought rather unnecessary2 but the first piece of news we heard was1 that1 the day before1 a traveller from ,monte ,video had been found dead on the road1 with his throat cut4 ,this happened close to a cross1 the record of a former murder4 ,on the first night we slept at a retired little country-house2 and there ,i soon found out that ,i possessed two or three articles1 especially a pocket compass1 which created unbounded astonishment4 ,in every house ,i was asked to show the compass1 and by its aid1 together with a map1 to point out the direction of various places4 ,it excited the liveliest admiration that ,i1 a perfect stranger1 should know the road 7for direction and road are synonymous in this open country7 to places where ,i had never been4 ,at one house a young woman who was ill in bed1 sent to entreat me to come and show her the compass4 ,if their surprise was great1 mine was greater1 to find such ignorance among people who possessed their thousands of cattle1 and 8estancias0 of great extent4 ,it can only be accounted for by the circumstance that this retired part of the country is seldom visited by foreigners4 ,i was asked whether the earth or sun moved2 whether it was hotter or colder to the north2 where ,spain was1 and many other such questions4 ,the greater number of the inhabitants had an indistinct idea that ,england1 ,london1 and ,north ,america1 were different names for the same place2 but the better informed well knew that ,london and ,north ,america were separate countries close together1 and that ,england was a large town in ,london6 ,i carried with me some promethean matches1 which ,i ignited by biting2 it was thought so wonderful that a man should strike fire with his teeth1 that it was usual to collect the whole family to see it3 ,i was once offered a dollar for a single one4 ,washing my face in the morning caused much speculation at the village of ,las ,minas2 a superior tradesman closely cross-questioned me about so singular a practice2 and likewise why on board we wore our beards2 for he had heard from my guide that we did so4 ,he eyed me with much suspicion2 perhaps he had heard of ablutions in the ,mahomedan religion1 and knowing me to be a heretic1 probably he came to the conclusion that all heretics were ,turks4 ,it is the general custom in this country to ask for a night's lodging at the first convenient house4 ,the astonishment at the compass1 and my other feats of jugglery1 was to a certain degree advantageous1 as with that1 and the long stories my guides told of my breaking stones1 knowing venomous from harmless snakes1 collecting insects1 etc41 ,i repaid them for their hospitality4 ,i am writing as if ,i had been among the inhabitants of ,central ,africa3 ,banda ,oriental would not be flattered by the comparison2 but such were my feelings at the time4 ,the next day we rode to the village of ,las ,minas4 ,the country was rather more hilly1 but otherwise continued the same2 an inhabitant of the ,pampas no doubt would have considered it as truly alpine4 ,the country is so thinly inhabited1 that during the whole day we scarcely met a single person4 ,las ,minas is much smaller even than ,maldonado4 ,it is seated on a little plain1 and is surrounded by low rocky mountains4 ,it is of the usual symmetrical form1 and with its whitewashed church standing in the centre1 had rather a pretty appearance4 ,the outskirting houses rose out of the plain like isolated beings1 without the accompaniment of gardens or courtyards4 ,this is generally the case in the country1 and all the houses have1 in consequence1 an uncomfortable aspect4 ,at night we stopped at a pulperia1 or drinking-shop4 ,during the evening a great number of ,gauchos came in to drink spirits and smoke cigars3 their appearance is very striking2 they are generally tall and handsome1 but with a proud and dissolute expression of countenance4 ,they frequently wear their moustaches1 and long black hair curling down their backs4 ,with their brightly coloured garments1 great spurs clanking about their heels1 and knives stuck as daggers 7and often so used7 at their waists1 they look a very different race of men from what might be expected from their name of ,gauchos1 or simple countrymen4 ,their politeness is excessive2 they never drink their spirits without expecting you to taste it2 but whilst making their exceedingly graceful bow1 they seem quite as ready1 if occasion offered1 to cut your throat4 ,on the third day we pursued rather an irregular course1 as ,i was employed in examining some beds of marble4 ,on the fine plains of turf we saw many ostriches 7,struthio rhea74 ,some of the flocks contained as many as twenty or thirty birds4 ,these1 when standing on any little eminence1 and seen against the clear sky1 presented a very noble appearance4 ,i never met with such tame ostriches in any other part of the country3 it was easy to gallop up within a short distance of them2 but then1 expanding their wings1 they made all sail right before the wind1 and soon left the horse astern4 ,at night we came to the house of ,don ,juan ,fuentes1 a rich landed proprietor1 but not personally known to either of my companions4 ,on approaching the house of a stranger1 it is usual to follow several little points of etiquette3 riding up slowly to the door1 the salutation of ,ave ,maria is given1 and until somebody comes out and asks you to alight1 it is not customary even to get off your horse3 the formal answer of the owner is1 8sin pecado concebida0--that is1 conceived without sin4 ,having entered the house1 some general conversation is kept up for a few minutes1 till permission is asked to pass the night there4 ,this is granted as a matter of course4 ,the stranger then takes his meals with the family1 and a room is assigned him1 where with the horsecloths belonging to his recado 7or saddle of the ,pampas7 he makes his bed4 ,it is curious how similar circumstances produce such similar results in manners4 ,at the ,cape of ,good ,hope the same hospitality1 and very nearly the same points of etiquette1 are universally observed4 ,the difference1 however1 between the character of the ,spaniard and that of the ,dutch boor is shown1 by the former never asking his guest a single question beyond the strictest rule of politeness1 whilst the honest ,dutchman demands where he has been1 where he is going1 what is his business1 and even how many brothers1 sisters1 or children he may happen to have4 ,shortly after our arrival at ,don ,juan's one of the largest herds of cattle was driven in towards the house1 and three beasts were picked out to be slaughtered for the supply of the establishment4 ,these half-wild cattle are very active2 and knowing full well the fatal lazo1 they led the horses a long and laborious chase4 ,after witnessing the rude wealth displayed in the number of cattle1 men1 and horses1 ,don ,juan's miserable house was quite curious4 ,the floor consisted of hardened mud1 and the windows were without glass2 the sitting-room boasted only of a few of the roughest chairs and stools1 with a couple of tables4 ,the supper1 although several strangers were present1 consisted of two huge piles1 one of roast beef1 the other of boiled1 with some pieces of pumpkin3 besides this latter there was no other vegetable1 and not even a morsel of bread4 ,for drinking1 a large earthenware jug of water served the whole party4 ,yet this man was the owner of several square miles of land1 of which nearly every acre would produce corn1 and1 with a little trouble1 all the common vegetables4 ,the evening was spent in smoking1 with a little impromptu singing1 accompanied by the guitar4 ,the signoritas all sat together in one corner of the room1 and did not sup with the men4 ,illustration ,so many works have been written about these countries1 that it is almost superfluous to describe either the lazo or the bolas4 ,the lazo consists of a very strong1 but thin1 well-plaited rope1 made of raw hide4 ,one end is attached to the broad surcingle1 which fastens together the complicated gear of the recado1 or saddle used in the ,pampas2 the other is terminated by a small ring of iron or brass1 by which a noose can be formed4 ,the ,gaucho1 when he is going to use the lazo1 keeps a small coil in his bridle-hand1 and in the other holds the running noose1 which is made very large1 generally having a diameter of about eight feet4 ,this he whirls round his head1 and by the dexterous movement of his wrist keeps the noose open2 then1 throwing it1 he causes it to fall on any particular spot he chooses4 ,the lazo1 when not used1 is tied up in a small coil to the after part of the recado4 ,the bolas1 or balls1 are of two kinds3 the simplest1 which is chiefly used for catching ostriches1 consists of two round stones1 covered with leather1 and united by a thin plaited thong1 about eight feet long4 ,the other kind differs only in having three balls united by the thongs to a common centre4 ,the ,gaucho holds the smallest of the three in his hand1 and whirls the other two round and round his head2 then1 taking aim1 sends them like chain shot revolving through the air4 ,the balls no sooner strike any object1 than1 winding round it1 they cross each other1 and become firmly hitched4 ,the size and weight of the balls varies1 according to the purpose for which they are made3 when of stone1 although not larger than an apple1 they are sent with such force as sometimes to break the leg even of a horse4 ,i have seen the balls made of wood1 and as large as a turnip1 for the sake of catching these animals without injuring them4 ,the balls are sometimes made of iron1 and these can be hurled to the greatest distance4 ,the main difficulty in using either lazo or bolas is to ride so well as to be able at full speed1 and while suddenly turning about1 to whirl them so steadily round the head1 as to take aim3 on foot any person would soon learn the art4 ,one day1 as ,i was amusing myself by galloping and whirling the balls round my head1 by accident the free one struck a bush1 and its revolving motion being thus destroyed1 it immediately fell to the ground1 and1 like magic caught one hind leg of my horse2 the other ball was then jerked out of my hand1 and the horse fairly secured4 ,luckily he was an old practised animal1 and knew what it meant2 otherwise he would probably have kicked till he had thrown himself down4 ,the ,gauchos roared with laughter2 they cried out that they had seen every sort of animal caught1 but had never before seen a man caught by himself4 ,during the two succeeding days1 ,i reached the farthest point which ,i was anxious to examine4 ,the country wore the same aspect1 till at last the fine green turf became more wearisome than a dusty turnpike road4 ,we everywhere saw great numbers of partridges 7,nothura major74 ,these birds do not go in coveys1 nor do they conceal themselves like the ,english kind4 ,it appears a very silly bird4 ,a man on horseback by riding round and round in a circle1 or rather in a spire1 so as to approach closer each time1 may knock on the head as many as he pleases4 ,the more common method is to catch them with a running noose1 or little lazo1 made of the stem of an ostrich's feather1 fastened to the end of a long stick4 ,a boy on a quiet old horse will frequently thus catch thirty or forty in a day4 ,in ,arctic ,north ,america#a the ,indians catch the ,varying ,hare by walking spirally round and round it1 when on its form3 the middle of the day is reckoned the best time1 when the sun is high1 and the shadow of the hunter not very long4 #a ,hearne's ,journey1 p4 #chc4 ,on our return to ,maldonado1 we followed rather a different line of road4 ,near ,pan de ,azucar1 a landmark well known to all those who have sailed up the ,plata1 ,i stayed a day at the house of a most hospitable old ,spaniard4 ,early in the morning we ascended the ,sierra de las ,animas4 ,by the aid of the rising sun the scenery was almost picturesque4 ,to the westward the view extended over an immense level plain as far as the ,mount1 at ,monte ,video1 and to the eastward1 over the mammillated country of ,maldonado4 ,on the summit of the mountain there were several small heaps of stones1 which evidently had lain there for many years4 ,my companion assured me that they were the work of the ,indians in the old time4 ,the heaps were similar1 but on a much smaller scale1 to those so commonly found on the mountains of ,wales4 ,the desire to signalise any event1 on the highest point of the neighbouring land1 seems a universal passion with mankind4 ,at the present day1 not a single ,indian1 either civilised or wild1 exists in this part of the province2 nor am ,i aware that the former inhabitants have left behind them any more permanent records than these insignificant piles on the summit of the ,sierra de las ,animas4 ,the general1 and almost entire absence of trees in ,banda ,oriental is remarkable4 ,some of the rocky hills are partly covered by thickets1 and on the banks of the larger streams1 especially to the north of ,las ,minas1 willow-trees are not uncommon4 ,near the ,arroyo ,tapes ,i heard of a wood of palms2 and one of these trees1 of considerable size1 ,i saw near the ,pan de ,azucar1 in lat4 #ce4 ,these1 and the trees planted by the ,spaniards1 offer the only exceptions to the general scarcity of wood4 ,among the introduced kinds may be enumerated poplars1 olives1 peach1 and other fruit trees3 the peaches succeed so well1 that they afford the main supply of firewood to the city of ,buenos ,ayres4 ,extremely level countries1 such as the ,pampas1 seldom appear favourable to the growth of trees4 ,this may possibly be attributed either to the force of the winds1 or the kind of drainage4 ,in the nature of the land1 however1 around ,maldonado1 no such reason is apparent2 the rocky mountains afford protected situations2 enjoying various kinds of soil2 streamlets of water are common at the bottoms of nearly every valley2 and the clayey nature of the earth seems adapted to retain moisture4 ,it has been inferred1 with much probability1 that the presence of woodland is generally determined#b by the annual amount of moisture2 yet in this province abundant and heavy rain falls during the winter2 and the summer1 though dry1 is not so in any excessive degree4#c ,we see nearly the whole of ,australia covered by lofty trees1 yet that country possesses a far more arid climate4 ,hence we must look to some other and unknown cause4 #b ,maclaren1 article 8,america10 ,encyclopedia ,britannica4 #c ,azara says 8,je crois que la quantit annuelle des pluies est1 dans toutes ces contres1 plus considrable qu'en ,espagne40--,vol4 i1 p4 #cf4 ,confining our view to ,south ,america1 we should certainly be tempted to believe that trees flourished only under a very humid climate2 for the limit of the forest-land follows1 in a most remarkable manner1 that of the damp winds4 ,in the southern part of the continent1 where the western gales1 charged with moisture from the ,pacific1 prevail1 every island on the broken west coast1 from lat4 #ch to the extreme point of ,tierra del ,fuego1 is densely covered by impenetrable forests4 ,on the eastern side of the ,cordillera1 over the same extent of latitude1 where a blue sky and a fine climate prove that the atmosphere has been deprived of its moisture by passing over the mountains1 the arid plains of ,patagonia support a most scanty vegetation4 ,in the more northern parts of the continent1 within the limits of the constant south-eastern trade-wind1 the eastern side is ornamented by magnificent forests2 whilst the western coast1 from lat4 #d ,s4 to lat4 #cb ,s41 may be described as a desert2 on this western coast1 northward of lat4 #d ,s41 where the trade-wind loses its regularity1 and heavy torrents of rain fall periodically1 the shores of the ,pacific1 so utterly desert in ,peru1 assume near ,cape ,blanco the character of luxuriance so celebrated at ,guayaquil and ,panama4 ,hence in the southern and northern parts of the continent1 the forest and desert lands occupy reversed positions with respect to the ,cordillera1 and these positions are apparently determined by the direction of the prevalent winds4 ,in the middle of the continent there is a broad intermediate band1 including central ,chile and the provinces of ,la ,plata1 where the rain-bringing winds have not to pass over lofty mountains1 and where the land is neither a desert nor covered by forests4 ,but even the rule1 if confined to ,south ,america1 of trees flourishing only in a climate rendered humid by rain-bearing winds1 has a strongly marked exception in the case of the ,falkland ,islands4 ,these islands1 situated in the same latitude with ,tierra del ,fuego and only between two and three hundred miles distant from it1 having a nearly similar climate1 with a geological formation almost identical1 with favourable situations and the same kind of peaty soil1 yet can boast of few plants deserving even the title of bushes2 whilst in ,tierra del ,fuego it is impossible to find an acre of land not covered by the densest forest4 ,in this case1 both the direction of the heavy gales of wind and of the currents of the sea are favourable to the transport of seeds from ,tierra del ,fuego1 as is shown by the canoes and trunks of trees drifted from that country1 and frequently thrown on the shores of the ,western ,falkland4 ,hence perhaps it is1 that there are many plants in common to the two countries3 but with respect to the trees of ,tierra del ,fuego1 even attempts made to transplant them have failed4 ,during our stay at ,maldonado ,i collected several quadrupeds1 eighty kinds of birds1 and many reptiles1 including nine species of snakes4 ,of the indigenous mammalia1 the only one now left of any size1 which is common1 is the ,cervus campestris4 ,this deer is exceedingly abundant1 often in small herds1 throughout the countries bordering the ,plata and in ,northern ,patagonia4 ,if a person crawling close along the ground1 slowly advances towards a herd1 the deer frequently1 out of curiosity1 approach to reconnoitre him4 ,i have by this means1 killed from one spot1 three out of the same herd4 ,although so tame and inquisitive1 yet when approached on horseback1 they are exceedingly wary4 ,in this country nobody goes on foot1 and the deer knows man as its enemy only when he is mounted and armed with the bolas4 ,at ,bahia ,blanca1 a recent establishment in ,northern ,patagonia1 ,i was surprised to find how little the deer cared for the noise of a gun3 one day ,i fired ten times from within eighty yards at one animal2 and it was much more startled at the ball cutting up the ground than at the report of the rifle4 ,my powder being exhausted1 ,i was obliged to get up 7to my shame as a sportsman be it spoken1 though well able to kill birds on the wing7 and halloo till the deer ran away4 ,the most curious fact with respect to this animal1 is the overpoweringly strong and offensive odour which proceeds from the buck4 ,it is quite indescribable3 several times whilst skinning the specimen which is now mounted at the ,zoological ,museum1 ,i was almost overcome by nausea4 ,i tied up the skin in a silk pocket-handkerchief1 and so carried it home3 this handkerchief1 after being well washed1 ,i continually used1 and it was of course as repeatedly washed2 yet every time1 for a space of one year and seven months1 when first unfolded1 ,i distinctly perceived the odour4 ,this appears an astonishing instance of the permanence of some matter1 which nevertheless in its nature must be most subtile and volatile4 ,frequently1 when passing at the distance of half a mile to leeward of a herd1 ,i have perceived the whole air tainted with the effluvium4 ,i believe the smell from the buck is most powerful at the period when its horns are perfect1 or free from the hairy skin4 ,when in this state the meat is1 of course1 quite uneatable2 but the ,gauchos assert1 that if buried for some time in fresh earth1 the taint is removed4 ,i have somewhere read that the islanders in the north of ,scotland treat the rank carcasses of the fish-eating birds in the same manner4 ,the order ,rodentia is here very numerous in species3 of mice alone ,i obtained no less than eight kinds4#d ,the largest gnawing animal in the world1 the ,hydrochrus capybara 7the water-hog71 is here also common4 ,one which ,i shot at ,monte ,video weighed ninety-eight pounds3 its length1 from the end of the snout to the stump-like tail1 was three feet two inches2 and its girth three feet eight4 ,these great ,rodents occasionally frequent the islands in the mouth of the ,plata1 where the water is quite salt1 but are far more abundant on the borders of fresh-water lakes and rivers4 ,near ,maldonado three or four generally live together4 ,in the daytime they either lie among the aquatic plants1 or openly feed on the turf plain4#e ,when viewed at a distance1 from their manner of walking and colour they resemble pigs3 but when seated on their haunches1 and attentively watching any object with one eye1 they reassume the appearance of their congeners1 cavies and rabbits4 ,both the front and side view of their head has quite a ludicrous aspect1 from the great depth of their jaw4 ,these animals1 at ,maldonado1 were very tame2 by cautiously walking1 ,i approached within three yards of four old ones4 ,this tameness may probably be accounted for1 by the ,jaguar having been banished for some years1 and by the ,gaucho not thinking it worth his while to hunt them4 ,as ,i approached nearer and nearer they frequently made their peculiar noise1 which is a low abrupt grunt1 not having much actual sound1 but rather arising from the sudden expulsion of air3 the only noise ,i know at all like it1 is the first hoarse bark of a large dog4 ,having watched the four from almost within arm's length 7and they me7 for several minutes1 they rushed into the water at full gallop with the greatest impetuosity1 and emitted at the same time their bark4 ,after diving a short distance they came again to the surface1 but only just showed the upper part of their heads4 ,when the female is swimming in the water1 and has young ones1 they are said to sit on her back4 ,these animals are easily killed in numbers2 but their skins are of trifling value1 and the meat is very indifferent4 ,on the islands in the ,rio ,parana they are exceedingly abundant1 and afford the ordinary prey to the ,jaguar4 #d ,in ,south ,america ,i collected altogether twenty-seven species of mice1 and thirteen more are known from the works of ,azara and other authors4 ,those collected by myself have been named and described by ,mr4 ,waterhouse at the meetings of the ,zoological ,society4 ,i must be allowed to take this opportunity of returning my cordial thanks to ,mr4 ,waterhouse1 and to the other gentleman attached to that ,society1 for their kind and most liberal assistance on all occasions4 #e ,in the stomach and duodenum of a capybara which ,i opened1 ,i found a very large quantity of a thin yellowish fluid1 in which scarcely a fibre could be distinguished4 ,mr4 ,owen informs me that a part of the sophagus is so constructed that nothing much larger than a crowquill can be passed down4 ,certainly the broad teeth and strong jaws of this animal are well fitted to grind into pulp the aquatic plants on which it feeds4 ,the ,tucutuco 7,ctenomys ,brasiliensis7 is a curious small animal1 which may be briefly described as a ,gnawer1 with the habits of a mole4 ,it is extremely numerous in some parts of the country1 but it is difficult to be procured1 and never1 ,i believe1 comes out of the ground4 ,it throws up at the mouth of its burrows hillocks of earth like those of the mole1 but smaller4 ,considerable tracts of country are so completely undermined by these animals that horses1 in passing over1 sink above their fetlocks4 ,the tucutucos appear1 to a certain degree1 to be gregarious3 the man who procured the specimens for me had caught six together1 and he said this was a common occurrence4 ,they are nocturnal in their habits2 and their principal food is the roots of plants1 which are the object of their extensive and superficial burrows4 ,this animal is universally known by a very peculiar noise which it makes when beneath the ground4 ,a person1 the first time he hears it1 is much surprised2 for it is not easy to tell whence it comes1 nor is it possible to guess what kind of creature utters it4 ,the noise consists in a short1 but not rough1 nasal grunt1 which is monotonously repeated about four times in quick succession3#f the name ,tucutuco is given in imitation of the sound4 ,where this animal is abundant1 it may be heard at all times of the day1 and sometimes directly beneath one's feet4 ,when kept in a room1 the tucutucos move both slowly and clumsily1 which appears owing to the outward action of their hind legs2 and they are quite incapable1 from the socket of the thigh-bone not having a certain ligament1 of jumping even the smallest vertical height4 ,they are very stupid in making any attempt to escape2 when angry or frightened they utter the tucu-tuco4 ,of those ,i kept alive1 several1 even the first day1 became quite tame1 not attempting to bite or to run away2 others were a little wilder4 #f ,at the ,r4 ,negro1 in ,northern ,patagonia1 there is an animal of the same habits1 and probably a closely allied species1 but which ,i never saw4 ,its noise is different from that of the ,maldonado kind2 it is repeated only twice instead of three or four times1 and is more distinct and sonorous3 when heard from a distance it so closely resembles the sound made in cutting down a small tree with an axe1 that ,i have sometimes remained in doubt concerning it4 ,the man who caught them asserted that very many are invariably found blind4 ,a specimen which ,i preserved in spirits was in this state2 ,mr4 ,reid considers it to be the effect of inflammation in the nictitating membrane4 ,when the animal was alive ,i placed my finger within half an inch of its head1 and not the slightest notice was taken3 it made its way1 however1 about the room nearly as well as the others4 ,considering the strictly subterranean habits of the tucu-tuco1 the blindness1 though so common1 cannot be a very serious evil2 yet it appears strange that any animal should possess an organ frequently subject to be injured4 ,lamarck would have been delighted with this fact1 had he known it1 when speculating#g 7probably with more truth than usual with him7 on the gradually-acquired blindness of the ,aspalax1 a ,gnawer living under ground1 and of the ,proteus1 a reptile living in dark caverns filled with water2 in both of which animals the eye is in an almost rudimentary state1 and is covered by a tendinous membrane and skin4 ,in the common mole the eye is extraordinarily small but perfect1 though many anatomists doubt whether it is connected with the true optic nerve2 its vision must certainly be imperfect1 though probably useful to the animal when it leaves its burrow4 ,in the tucu-tuco1 which ,i believe never comes to the surface of the ground1 the eye is rather larger1 but often rendered blind and useless1 though without apparently causing any inconvenience to the animal2 no doubt ,lamarck would have said that the tucu-tuco is now passing into the state of the ,aspalax and ,proteus4 #g ,philosoph4 ,zoolog4 tome i1 p4 #bdb4 ,birds of many kinds are extremely abundant on the undulating grassy plains around ,maldonado4 ,there are several species of a family allied in structure and manners to our ,starling3 one of these 7,molothrus niger7 is remarkable from its habits4 ,several may often be seen standing together on the back of a cow or horse2 and while perched on a hedge1 pluming themselves in the sun1 they sometimes attempt to sing1 or rather to hiss2 the noise being very peculiar1 resembling that of bubbles of air passing rapidly from a small orifice under water1 so as to produce an acute sound4 ,according to ,azara1 this bird1 like the cuckoo1 deposits its eggs in other birds' nests4 ,i was several times told by the country people that there certainly is some bird having this habit2 and my assistant in collecting1 who is a very accurate person1 found a nest of the sparrow of this country 7,zonotrichia matutina71 with one egg in it larger than the others1 and of a different colour and shape4 ,in ,north ,america there is another species of ,molothrus 7,m4 pecoris71 which has a similar cuckoo-like habit1 and which is most closely allied in every respect to the species from the ,plata1 even in such trifling peculiarities as standing on the backs of cattle2 it differs only in being a little smaller1 and in its plumage and eggs being of a slightly different shade of colour4 ,this close agreement in structure and habits1 in representative species coming from opposite quarters of a great continent1 always strikes one as interesting1 though of common occurrence4 ,mr4 ,swainson has well remarked1#h that with the exception of the ,molothrus pecoris1 to which must be added the ,m4 niger1 the cuckoos are the only birds which can be called truly parasitical2 namely1 such as 8fasten themselves1 as it were1 on another living animal1 whose animal heat brings their young into life1 whose food they live upon1 and whose death would cause theirs during the period of infancy40 ,it is remarkable that some of the species1 but not all1 both of the ,cuckoo and ,molothrus should agree in this one strange habit of their parasitical propagation1 whilst opposed to each other in almost every other habit3 the molothrus1 like our starling1 is eminently sociable1 and lives on the open plains without art or disguise3 the cuckoo1 as every one knows1 is a singularly shy bird2 it frequents the most retired thickets1 and feeds on fruit and caterpillars4 ,in structure also these two genera are widely removed from each other4 ,many theories1 even phrenological theories1 have been advanced to explain the origin of the cuckoo laying its eggs in other birds' nests4 ,m4 ,prvost alone1 ,i think1 has thrown light by his observations#i on this puzzle3 he finds that the female cuckoo1 which1 according to most observers1 lays at least from four to six eggs1 must pair with the male each time after laying only one or two eggs4 ,now1 if the cuckoo was obliged to sit on her own eggs1 she would either have to sit on all together1 and therefore leave those first laid so long1 that they probably would become addled2 or she would have to hatch separately each egg or two eggs1 as soon as laid3 but as the cuckoo stays a shorter time in this country than any other migratory bird1 she certainly would not have time enough for the successive hatchings4 ,hence we can perceive in the fact of the cuckoo pairing several times1 and laying her eggs at intervals1 the cause of her depositing her eggs in other birds' nests1 and leaving them to the care of foster-parents4 ,i am strongly inclined to believe that this view is correct1 from having been independently led 7as we shall hereafter see7 to an analogous conclusion with regard to the ,south ,american ostrich1 the females of which are parasitical1 if ,i may so express it1 on each other2 each female laying several eggs in the nests of several other females1 and the male ostrich undertaking all the cares of incubation1 like the strange foster-parents with the cuckoo4 #h ,magazine of ,zoology and ,botany1 vol4 i1 p4 #bag4 #i ,read before the ,academy of ,sciences in ,paris4 ,l',institut1 #ahcd1 p4 #dah4 ,i will mention only two other birds1 which are very common1 and render themselves prominent from their habits4 ,the ,saurophagus sulphuratus is typical of the great ,american tribe of tyrant-flycatchers4 ,in its structure it closely approaches the true shrikes1 but in its habits may be compared to many birds4 ,i have frequently observed it1 hunting a field1 hovering over one spot like a hawk1 and then proceeding on to another4 ,when seen thus suspended in the air1 it might very readily at a short distance be mistaken for one of the ,rapacious order2 its stoop1 however1 is very inferior in force and rapidity to that of a hawk4 ,at other times the ,saurophagus haunts the neighbourhood of water1 and there1 like a kingfisher1 remaining stationary1 it catches any small fish which may come near the margin4 ,these birds are not unfrequently kept either in cages or in courtyards1 with their wings cut4 ,they soon become tame1 and are very amusing from their cunning odd manners1 which were described to me as being similar to those of the common magpie4 ,their flight is undulatory1 for the weight of the head and bill appears too great for the body4 ,in the evening the ,saurophagus takes its stand on a bush1 often by the roadside1 and continually repeats without change a shrill and rather agreeable cry1 which somewhat resembles articulate words3 the ,spaniards say it is like the words 8,bien te veo0 7,i see you well71 and accordingly have given it this name4 ,a mocking-bird 7,mimus orpheus71 called by the inhabitants ,calandria1 is remarkable1 from possessing a song far superior to that of any other bird in the country3 indeed1 it is nearly the only bird in ,south ,america which ,i have observed to take its stand for the purpose of singing4 ,the song may be compared to that of the ,sedge warbler1 but is more powerful2 some harsh notes and some very high ones1 being mingled with a pleasant warbling4 ,it is heard only during the spring4 ,at other times its cry is harsh and far from harmonious4 ,near ,maldonado these birds were tame and bold2 they constantly attended the country houses in numbers1 to pick the meat which was hung up on the posts or walls3 if any other small bird joined the feast1 the ,calandria soon chased it away4 ,on the wide uninhabited plains of ,patagonia another closely allied species1 ,o4 ,patagonica of d',orbigny1 which frequents the valleys clothed with spiny bushes1 is a wilder bird1 and has a slightly different tone of voice4 ,it appears to me a curious circumstance1 as showing the fine shades of difference in habits1 that judging from this latter respect alone1 when ,i first saw this second species1 ,i thought it was different from the ,maldonado kind4 ,having afterwards procured a specimen1 and comparing the two without particular care1 they appeared so very similar1 that ,i changed my opinion2 but now ,mr4 ,gould says that they are certainly distinct2 a conclusion in conformity with the trifling difference of habit1 of which1 however1 he was not aware4 ,the number1 tameness1 and disgusting habits of the carrion-feeding hawks of ,south ,america make them pre-eminently striking to any one accustomed only to the birds of ,northern ,europe4 ,in this list may be included four species of the ,caracara or ,polyborus1 the ,turkey buzzard1 the ,gallinazo1 and the ,condor4 ,the ,caracaras are1 from their structure1 placed among the eagles3 we shall soon see how ill they become so high a rank4 ,in their habits they well supply the place of our carrion-crows1 magpies1 and ravens2 a tribe of birds widely distributed over the rest of the world1 but entirely absent in ,south ,america4 ,to begin with the ,polyborus ,brasiliensis3 this is a common bird1 and has a wide geographical range2 it is most numerous on the grassy savannahs of ,la ,plata 7where it goes by the name of ,carrancha71 and is far from unfrequent throughout the sterile plains of ,patagonia4 ,in the desert between the rivers ,negro and ,colorado1 numbers constantly attend the line of road to devour the carcasses of the exhausted animals which chance to perish from fatigue and thirst4 ,although thus common in these dry and open countries1 and likewise on the arid shores of the ,pacific1 it is nevertheless found inhabiting the damp impervious forests of ,west ,patagonia and ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,the ,carranchas1 together with the ,chimango1 constantly attend in numbers the estancias and slaughtering-houses4 ,if an animal dies on the plain the ,gallinazo commences the feast1 and then the two species of ,polyborus pick the bones clean4 ,these birds1 although thus commonly feeding together1 are far from being friends4 ,when the ,carrancha is quietly seated on the branch of a tree or on the ground1 the ,chimango often continues for a long time flying backwards and forwards1 up and down1 in a semicircle1 trying each time at the bottom of the curve to strike its larger relative4 ,the ,carrancha takes little notice1 except by bobbing its head4 ,although the ,carranchas frequently assemble in numbers1 they are not gregarious2 for in desert places they may be seen solitary1 or more commonly by pairs4 ,the ,carranchas are said to be very crafty1 and to steal great numbers of eggs4 ,they attempt1 also1 together with the ,chimango1 to pick off the scabs from the sore backs of horses and mules4 ,the poor animal1 on the one hand1 with its ears down and its back arched2 and1 on the other1 the hovering bird1 eyeing at the distance of a yard the disgusting morsel1 form a picture1 which has been described by ,captain ,head with his own peculiar spirit and accuracy4 ,these false eagles most rarely kill any living bird or animal2 and their vulture-like1 necrophagous habits are very evident to any one who has fallen asleep on the desolate plains of ,patagonia1 for when he wakes1 he will see1 on each surrounding hillock1 one of these birds patiently watching him with an evil eye3 it is a feature in the landscape of these countries1 which will be recognised by every one who has wandered over them4 ,if a party of men go out hunting with dogs and horses1 they will be accompanied1 during the day1 by several of these attendants4 ,after feeding1 the uncovered craw protrudes2 at such times1 and indeed generally1 the ,carrancha is an inactive1 tame1 and cowardly bird4 ,its flight is heavy and slow1 like that of an ,english rook4 ,it seldom soars2 but ,i have twice seen one at a great height gliding through the air with much ease4 ,it runs 7in contradistinction to hopping71 but not quite so quickly as some of its congeners4 ,at times the ,carrancha is noisy1 but is not generally so3 its cry is loud1 very harsh and peculiar1 and may be likened to the sound of the ,spanish guttural g1 followed by a rough double r r2 when uttering this cry it elevates its head higher and higher1 till at last1 with its beak wide open1 the crown almost touches the lower part of the back4 ,this fact1 which has been doubted1 is quite true2 ,i have seen them several times with their heads backwards in a completely inverted position4 ,to these observations ,i may add1 on the high authority of ,azara1 that the ,carrancha feeds on worms1 shells1 slugs1 grasshoppers1 and frogs2 that it destroys young lambs by tearing the umbilical cord2 and that it pursues the ,gallinazo1 till that bird is compelled to vomit up the carrion it may have recently gorged4 ,lastly1 ,azara states that several ,carranchas1 five or six together1 will unite in chase of large birds1 even such as herons4 ,all these facts show that it is a bird of very versatile habits and considerable ingenuity4 ,the ,polyborus ,chimango is considerably smaller than the last species4 ,it is truly omnivorous1 and will eat even bread2 and ,i was assured that it materially injures the potato-crops in ,chiloe1 by stocking up the roots when first planted4 ,of all the carrion-feeders it is generally the last which leaves the skeleton of a dead animal1 and may often be seen within the ribs of a cow or horse1 like a bird in a cage4 ,another species is the ,polyborus ,nov ,zelandi1 which is exceedingly common in the ,falkland ,islands4 ,these birds in many respects resemble in their habits the ,carranchas4 ,they live on the flesh of dead animals and on marine productions2 and on the ,ramirez rocks their whole sustenance must depend on the sea4 ,they are extraordinarily tame and fearless1 and haunt the neighbourhood of houses for offal4 ,if a hunting party kills an animal1 a number soon collect and patiently await1 standing on the ground on all sides4 ,after eating1 their uncovered craws are largely protruded1 giving them a disgusting appearance4 ,they readily attack wounded birds3 a cormorant in this state having taken to the shore1 was immediately seized on by several1 and its death hastened by their blows4 ,the ,beagle was at the ,falklands only during the summer1 but the officers of the ,adventure1 who were there in the winter1 mention many extraordinary instances of the boldness and rapacity of these birds4 ,they actually pounced on a dog that was lying fast asleep close by one of the party2 and the sportsmen had difficulty in preventing the wounded geese from being seized before their eyes4 ,it is said that several together 7in this respect resembling the ,carranchas7 wait at the mouth of a rabbit-hole1 and together seize on the animal when it comes out4 ,they were constantly flying on board the vessel when in the harbour2 and it was necessary to keep a good look-out to prevent the leather being torn from the rigging1 and the meat or game from the stern4 ,these birds are very mischievous and inquisitive2 they will pick up almost anything from the ground2 a large black glazed hat was carried nearly a mile1 as was a pair of the heavy balls used in catching cattle4 ,mr4 ,usborne experienced during the survey a more severe loss1 in their stealing a small ,kater's compass in a red morocco leather case1 which was never recovered4 ,these birds are1 moreover1 quarrelsome and very passionate2 tearing up the grass with their bills from rage4 ,they are not truly gregarious2 they do not soar1 and their flight is heavy and clumsy2 on the ground they run extremely fast1 very much like pheasants4 ,they are noisy1 uttering several harsh cries1 one of which is like that of the ,english rook1 hence the sealers always call them rooks4 ,it is a curious circumstance that1 when crying out1 they throw their heads upwards and backwards1 after the same manner as the ,carrancha4 ,they build in the rocky cliffs of the sea-coast1 but only on the small adjoining islets1 and not on the two main islands3 this is a singular precaution in so tame and fearless a bird4 ,the sealers say that the flesh of these birds1 when cooked1 is quite white1 and very good eating2 but bold must the man be who attempts such a meal4 ,we have now only to mention the turkey-buzzard 7,vultur aura71 and the ,gallinazo4 ,the former is found wherever the country is moderately damp1 from ,cape ,horn to ,north ,america4 ,differently from the ,polyborus ,brasiliensis and ,chimango1 it has found its way to the ,falkland ,islands4 ,the turkey-buzzard is a solitary bird1 or at most goes in pairs4 ,it may at once be recognised from a long distance1 by its lofty1 soaring1 and most elegant flight4 ,it is well known to be a true carrion-feeder4 ,on the west coast of ,patagonia1 among the thickly-wooded islets and broken land1 it lives exclusively on what the sea throws up1 and on the carcasses of dead seals4 ,wherever these animals are congregated on the rocks1 there the vultures may be seen4 ,the ,gallinazo 7,cathartes atratus7 has a different range from the last species1 as it never occurs southward of lat4 #da4 ,azara states that there exists a tradition that these birds1 at the time of the conquest1 were not found near ,monte ,video1 but that they subsequently followed the inhabitants from more northern districts4 ,at the present day they are numerous in the valley of the ,colorado1 which is three hundred miles due south of ,monte ,video4 ,it seems probable that this additional migration has happened since the time of ,azara4 ,the ,gallinazo generally prefers a humid climate1 or rather the neighbourhood of fresh water2 hence it is extremely abundant in ,brazil and ,la ,plata1 while it is never found on the desert and arid plains of ,northern ,patagonia1 excepting near some stream4 ,these birds frequent the whole ,pampas to the foot of the ,cordillera1 but ,i never saw or heard of one in ,chile3 in ,peru they are preserved as scavengers4 ,these vultures certainly may be called gregarious1 for they seem to have pleasure in society1 and are not solely brought together by the attraction of a common prey4 ,on a fine day a flock may often be observed at a great height1 each bird wheeling round and round without closing its wings1 in the most graceful evolutions4 ,this is clearly performed for the mere pleasure of the exercise1 or perhaps is connected with their matrimonial alliances4 ,i have now mentioned all the carrion-feeders1 excepting the condor1 an account of which will be more appropriately introduced when we visit a country more congenial to its habits than the plains of ,la ,plata4 ,in a broad band of sand-hillocks which separate the ,laguna del ,potrero from the shores of the ,plata1 at the distance of a few miles from ,maldonado1 ,i found a group of those vitrified1 siliceous tubes1 which are formed by lightning entering loose sand4 ,these tubes resemble in every particular those from ,drigg in ,cumberland1 described in the ,geological ,transactions4#aj ,the sand-hillocks of ,maldonado1 not being protected by vegetation1 are constantly changing their position4 ,from this cause the tubes projected above the surface2 and numerous fragments lying near1 showed that they had formerly been buried to a greater depth4 ,four sets entered the sand perpendicularly3 by working with my hands ,i traced one of them two feet deep2 and some fragments which evidently had belonged to the same tube1 when added to the other part1 measured five feet three inches4 ,the diameter of the whole tube was nearly equal1 and therefore we must suppose that originally it extended to a much greater depth4 ,these dimensions are however small1 compared to those of the tubes from ,drigg1 one of which was traced to a depth of not less than thirty feet4 #aj ,geological ,transactions1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ebh4 ,in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 #agij1 p4 #bid1 ,dr4 ,priestley has described some imperfect siliceous tubes and a melted pebble of quartz1 found in digging into the ground1 under a tree1 where a man had been killed by lightning4 ,the internal surface is completely vitrified1 glossy1 and smooth4 ,a small fragment examined under the microscope appeared1 from the number of minute entangled air or perhaps steam bubbles1 like an assay fused before the blowpipe4 ,the sand is entirely1 or in greater part1 siliceous2 but some points are of a black colour1 and from their glossy surface possess a metallic lustre4 ,the thickness of the wall of the tube varies from a thirtieth to a twentieth of an inch1 and occasionally even equals a tenth4 ,on the outside the grains of sand are rounded1 and have a slightly glazed appearance3 ,i could not distinguish any signs of crystallisation4 ,in a similar manner to that described in the ,geological ,transactions1 the tubes are generally compressed1 and have deep longitudinal furrows1 so as closely to resemble a shrivelled vegetable stalk1 or the bark of the elm or cork tree4 ,their circumference is about two inches1 but in some fragments1 which are cylindrical and without any furrows1 it is as much as four inches4 ,the compression from the surrounding loose sand1 acting while the tube was still softened from the effects of the intense heat1 has evidently caused the creases or furrows4 ,judging from the uncompressed fragments1 the measure or bore of the lightning 7if such a term may be used7 must have been about one inch and a quarter4 ,at ,paris1 ,m4 ,hachette and ,m4 ,beudant#aa succeeded in making tubes1 in most respects similar to these fulgurites1 by passing very strong shocks of galvanism through finely-powdered glass3 when salt was added1 so as to increase its fusibility1 the tubes were larger in every dimension4 ,they failed both with powdered feldspar and quartz4 ,one tube1 formed with pounded glass1 was very nearly an inch long1 namely 4#ihb1 and had an internal diameter of 4#jai of an inch4 ,when we hear that the strongest battery in ,paris was used1 and that its power on a substance of such easy fusibility as glass was to form tubes so diminutive1 we must feel greatly astonished at the force of a shock of lightning1 which1 striking the sand in several places1 has formed cylinders1 in one instance of at least thirty feet long1 and having an internal bore1 where not compressed1 of full an inch and a half2 and this in a material so extraordinarily refractory as quartz6 #aa ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique1 tome xxxvii1 p4 #cai4 ,the tubes1 as ,i have already remarked1 enter the sand nearly in a vertical direction4 ,one1 however1 which was less regular than the others1 deviated from a right line1 at the most considerable bend1 to the amount of thirty-three degrees4 ,from this same tube1 two small branches1 about a foot apart1 were sent off2 one pointed downwards1 and the other upwards4 ,this latter case is remarkable1 as the electric fluid must have turned back at the acute angle of #bf1 to the line of its main course4 ,besides the four tubes which ,i found vertical1 and traced beneath the surface1 there were several other groups of fragments1 the original sites of which without doubt were near4 ,all occurred in a level area of shifting sand1 sixty yards by twenty1 situated among some high sand-hillocks1 and at the distance of about half a mile from a chain of hills four or five hundred feet in height4 ,the most remarkable circumstance1 as it appears to me1 in this case as well as in that of ,drigg1 and in one described by ,m4 ,ribbentrop in ,germany1 is the number of tubes found within such limited spaces4 ,at ,drigg1 within an area of fifteen yards1 three were observed1 and the same number occurred in ,germany4 ,in the case which ,i have described1 certainly more than four existed within the space of the sixty by twenty yards4 ,as it does not appear probable that the tubes are produced by successive distinct shocks1 we must believe that the lightning1 shortly before entering the ground1 divides itself into separate branches4 ,the neighbourhood of the ,rio ,plata seems peculiarly subject to electric phenomena4 ,in the year #agic1ab one of the most destructive thunderstorms perhaps on record happened at ,buenos ,ayres3 thirty-seven places within the city were struck by lightning1 and nineteen people killed4 ,from facts stated in several books of travels1 ,i am inclined to suspect that thunderstorms are very common near the mouths of great rivers4 ,is it not possible that the mixture of large bodies of fresh and salt water may disturb the electrical equilibrium8 ,even during our occasional visits to this part of ,south ,america1 we heard of a ship1 two churches1 and a house having been struck4 ,both the church and the house ,i saw shortly afterwards3 the house belonged to ,mr4 ,hood1 the consul-general at ,monte ,video4 ,some of the effects were curious3 the paper1 for nearly a foot on each side of the line where the bell-wires had run1 was blackened4 ,the metal had been fused1 and although the room was about fifteen feet high1 the globules1 dropping on the chairs and furniture1 had drilled in them a chain of minute holes4 ,a part of the wall was shattered as if by gunpowder1 and the fragments had been blown off with force sufficient to dent the wall on the opposite side of the room4 ,the frame of a looking-glass was blackened1 and the gilding must have been volatilised1 for a smelling-bottle1 which stood on the chimney-piece1 was coated with bright metallic particles1 which adhered as firmly as if they had been enamelled4 #ab ,azara's ,voyage1 vol4 i1 p4 #cf4 ,illustration ,illustration ,chapter ,,iv ,rio ,negro--,estancias attacked by the ,indians--,salt ,lakes--,flamingoes--,r4 ,negro to ,r4 ,colorado--,sacred ,tree--,patagonian ,hare--,indian ,families--,general ,rosas--,proceed to ,bahia ,blanca--,sand ,dunes--,negro ,lieutenant--,bahia ,blanca--,saline ,incrustations--,punta ,alta--,zorillo4 ,,rio ,,negro ,,to ,,bahia ,,blanca4 ,july #bdth1 #ahcc4--,the ,beagle sailed from ,maldonado1 and on ,august the #crd she arrived off the mouth of the ,rio ,negro4 ,this is the principal river on the whole line of coast between the ,strait of ,magellan and the ,plata4 ,it enters the sea about three hundred miles south of the estuary of the ,plata4 ,about fifty years ago1 under the old ,spanish government1 a small colony was established here2 and it is still the most southern position 7lat4 #da7 on this eastern coast of ,america inhabited by civilised man4 ,the country near the mouth of the river is wretched in the extreme3 on the south side a long line of perpendicular cliffs commences1 which exposes a section of the geological nature of the country4 ,the strata are of sandstone1 and one layer was remarkable from being composed of a firmly-cemented conglomerate of pumice pebbles1 which must have travelled more than four hundred miles1 from the ,andes4 ,the surface is everywhere covered up by a thick bed of gravel1 which extends far and wide over the open plain4 ,water is extremely scarce1 and1 where found1 is almost invariably brackish4 ,the vegetation is scanty2 and although there are bushes of many kinds1 all are armed with formidable thorns1 which seem to warn the stranger not to enter on these inhospitable regions4 ,the settlement is situated eighteen miles up the river4 ,the road follows the foot of the sloping cliff1 which forms the northern boundary of the great valley in which the ,rio ,negro flows4 ,on the way we passed the ruins of some fine estancias1 which a few years since had been destroyed by the ,indians4 ,they withstood several attacks4 ,a man present at one gave me a very lively description of what took place4 ,the inhabitants had sufficient notice to drive all the cattle and horses into the 8corral0#a which surrounded the house1 and likewise to mount some small cannon4 #a ,the corral is an enclosure made of tall and strong stakes4 ,every estancia1 or farming estate1 has one attached to it4 ,the ,indians were ,araucanians from the south of ,chile2 several hundreds in number1 and highly disciplined4 ,they first appeared in two bodies on a neighbouring hill2 having there dismounted1 and taken off their fur mantles1 they advanced naked to the charge4 ,the only weapon of an ,indian is a very long bamboo or chuzo1 ornamented with ostrich feathers1 and pointed by a sharp spear-head4 ,my informer seemed to remember with the greatest horror the quivering of these chuzos as they approached near4 ,when close1 the cacique ,pincheira hailed the besieged to give up their arms1 or he would cut all their throats4 ,as this would probably have been the result of their entrance under any circumstances1 the answer was given by a volley of musketry4 ,the ,indians1 with great steadiness1 came to the very fence of the corral3 but to their surprise they found the posts fastened together by iron nails instead of leather thongs1 and1 of course1 in vain attempted to cut them with their knives4 ,this saved the lives of the ,christians3 many of the wounded ,indians were carried away by their companions1 and at last1 one of the under caciques being wounded1 the bugle sounded a retreat4 ,they retired to their horses1 and seemed to hold a council of war4 ,this was an awful pause for the ,spaniards1 as all their ammunition1 with the exception of a few cartridges1 was expended4 ,in an instant the ,indians mounted their horses1 and galloped out of sight4 ,another attack was still more quickly repulsed4 ,a cool ,frenchman managed the gun2 he stopped till the ,indians approached close1 and then raked their line with grape-shot3 he thus laid thirty-nine of them on the ground2 and1 of course1 such a blow immediately routed the whole party4 ,the town is indifferently called ,el ,carmen or ,patagones4 ,it is built on the face of a cliff which fronts the river1 and many of the houses are excavated even in the sandstone4 ,the river is about two or three hundred yards wide1 and is deep and rapid4 ,the many islands1 with their willow-trees1 and the flat headlands1 seen one behind the other on the northern boundary of the broad green valley1 form1 by the aid of a bright sun1 a view almost picturesque4 ,the number of inhabitants does not exceed a few hundreds4 ,these ,spanish colonies do not1 like our ,british ones1 carry within themselves the elements of growth4 ,many ,indians of pure blood reside here3 the tribe of the ,cacique ,lucanee constantly have their ,toldos#b on the outskirts of the town4 ,the local government partly supplies them with provisions1 by giving them all the old worn-out horses1 and they earn a little by making horse-rugs and other articles of riding-gear4 ,these ,indians are considered civilised2 but what their character may have gained by a lesser degree of ferocity1 is almost counterbalanced by their entire immorality4 ,some of the younger men are1 however1 improving2 they are willing to labour1 and a short time since a party went on a sealing-voyage1 and behaved very well4 ,they were now enjoying the fruits of their labour1 by being dressed in very gay1 clean clothes1 and by being very idle4 ,the taste they showed in their dress was admirable2 if you could have turned one of these young ,indians into a statue of bronze1 his drapery would have been perfectly graceful4 #b ,the hovels of the ,indians are thus called4 ,one day ,i rode to a large salt-lake1 or ,salina1 which is distant fifteen miles from the town4 ,during the winter it consists of a shallow lake of brine1 which in summer is converted into a field of snow-white salt4 ,the layer near the margin is from four to five inches thick1 but towards the centre its thickness increases4 ,this lake was two and a half miles long1 and one broad4 ,others occur in the neighbourhood many times larger1 and with a floor of salt1 two and three feet in thickness1 even when under water during the winter4 ,one of these brilliantly white and level expanses1 in the midst of the brown and desolate plain1 offers an extraordinary spectacle4 ,a large quantity of salt is annually drawn from the salina3 and great piles1 some hundred tons in weight1 were lying ready for exportation4 ,the season for working the salinas forms the harvest of ,patagones2 for on it the prosperity of the place depends4 ,nearly the whole population encamps on the bank of the river1 and the people are employed in drawing out the salt in bullock-waggons4 ,this salt is crystallised in great cubes1 and is remarkably pure3 ,mr4 ,trenham ,reeks has kindly analysed some for me1 and he finds in it only #j4bf of gypsum and #j4bb of earthy matter4 ,it is a singular fact that it does not serve so well for preserving meat as sea-salt from the ,cape de ,verd islands2 and a merchant at ,buenos ,ayres told me that he considered it as fifty per cent less valuable4 ,hence the ,cape de ,verd salt is constantly imported1 and is mixed with that from these salinas4 ,the purity of the ,patagonian salt1 or absence from it of those other saline bodies found in all sea-water1 is the only assignable cause for this inferiority3 a conclusion which no one1 ,i think1 would have suspected1 but which is supported by the fact lately ascertained1#c that those salts answer best for preserving cheese which contain most of the deliquescent chlorides4 #c ,report of the ,agricultural ,chemistry ,association in the ,agricultural ,gazette1 #ahde1 p4 #ic4 ,the border of the lake is formed of mud3 and in this numerous large crystals of gypsum1 some of which are three inches long1 lie embedded2 whilst on the surface others of sulphate of soda lie scattered about4 ,the ,gauchos call the former the 8,padre del sal10 and the latter the 8,madre20 they state that these progenitive salts always occur on the borders of the salinas1 when the water begins to evaporate4 ,the mud is black1 and has a fetid odour4 ,i could not at first imagine the cause of this1 but ,i afterwards perceived that the froth which the wind drifted on shore was coloured green1 as if by conferv2 ,i attempted to carry home some of this green matter1 but from an accident failed4 ,parts of the lake seen from a short distance appeared of a reddish colour1 and this perhaps was owing to some infusorial animalcula4 ,the mud in many places was thrown up by numbers of some kind of worm1 or annelidous animal4 ,how surprising it is that any creatures should be able to exist in brine1 and that they should be crawling among crystals of sulphate of soda and lime6 ,and what becomes of these worms when1 during the long summer1 the surface is hardened into a solid layer of salt8 ,flamingoes in considerable numbers inhabit this lake1 and breed here1 throughout ,patagonia1 in ,northern ,chile1 and at the ,galapagos ,islands1 ,i met with these birds wherever there were lakes of brine4 ,i saw them here wading about in search of food--probably for the worms which burrow in the mud2 and these latter probably feed on infusoria or conferv4 ,thus we have a little living world within itself1 adapted to these inland lakes of brine4 ,a minute crustaceous animal 7,cancer salinus7 is said#d to live in countless numbers in the brine-pans at ,lymington3 but only in those in which the fluid has attained1 from evaporation1 considerable strength--namely1 about a quarter of a pound of salt to a pint of water4 ,well may we affirm that every part of the world is habitable6 ,whether lakes of brine1 or those subterranean ones hidden beneath volcanic mountains--warm mineral springs--the wide expanse and depths of the ocean--the upper regions of the atmosphere1 and even the surface of perpetual snow--all support organic beings4 #d ,linnan ,transactions1 vol4 xi1 p4 #bje4 ,it is remarkable how all the circumstances connected with the salt-lakes in ,siberia and ,patagonia are similar4 ,siberia1 like ,patagonia1 appears to have been recently elevated above the waters of the sea4 ,in both countries the salt-lakes occupy shallow depressions in the plains2 in both the mud on the borders is black and fetid2 beneath the crust of common salt1 sulphate of soda or of magnesia occurs1 imperfectly crystallised2 and in both1 the muddy sand is mixed with lentils of gypsum4 ,the ,siberian salt-lakes are inhabited by small crustaceous animals2 and flamingoes 7,edinburgh ,new ,philosophical ,journal1 ,jan4 #ahcj7 likewise frequent them4 ,as these circumstances1 apparently so trifling1 occur in two distant continents1 we may feel sure that they are the necessary results of common causes4--,see ,pallas's ,travels1 #agic to #agid1 pp4 #abi to #acd4 ,to the northward of the ,rio ,negro1 between it and the inhabited country near ,buenos ,ayres1 the ,spaniards have only one small settlement1 recently established at ,bahia ,blanca4 ,the distance in a straight line to ,buenos ,ayres is very nearly five hundred ,british miles4 ,the wandering tribes of horse ,indians1 which have always occupied the greater part of this country1 having of late much harassed the outlying estancias1 the government at ,buenos ,ayres equipped some time since an army under the command of ,general ,rosas for the purpose of exterminating them4 ,the troops were now encamped on the banks of the ,colorado2 a river lying about eighty miles northward of the ,rio ,negro4 ,when ,general ,rosas left ,buenos ,ayres he struck in a direct line across the unexplored plains3 and as the country was thus pretty well cleared of ,indians1 he left behind him1 at wide intervals1 a small party of soldiers with a troop of horses 7a posta71 so as to be enabled to keep up a communication with the capital4 ,as the ,beagle intended to call at ,bahia ,blanca1 ,i determined to proceed there by land2 and ultimately ,i extended my plan to travel the whole way by the postas to ,buenos ,ayres4 ,august #aath1 #ahcc4--,mr4 ,harris1 an ,englishman residing at ,patagones1 a guide1 and five ,gauchos who were proceeding to the army on business1 were my companions on the journey4 ,the ,colorado1 as ,i have already said1 is nearly eighty miles distant3 and as we travelled slowly1 we were two days and a half on the road4 ,the whole line of country deserves scarcely a better name than that of a desert4 ,water is found only in two small wells2 it is called fresh2 but even at this time of the year1 during the rainy season1 it was quite brackish4 ,in the summer this must be a distressing passage2 for now it was sufficiently desolate4 ,the valley of the ,rio ,negro1 broad as it is1 has merely been excavated out of the sandstone plain2 for immediately above the bank on which the town stands1 a level country commences1 which is interrupted only by a few trifling valleys and depressions4 ,everywhere the landscape wears the same sterile aspect2 a dry gravelly soil supports tufts of brown withered grass1 and low scattered bushes1 armed with thorns4 ,shortly after passing the first spring we came in sight of a famous tree1 which the ,indians reverence as the altar of ,walleechu4 ,it is situated on a high part of the plain2 and hence is a landmark visible at a great distance4 ,as soon as a tribe of ,indians come in sight of it1 they offer their adorations by loud shouts4 ,the tree itself is low1 much branched1 and thorny3 just above the root it has a diameter of about three feet4 ,it stands by itself without any neighbour1 and was indeed the first tree we saw2 afterwards we met with a few others of the same kind1 but they were far from common4 ,being winter the tree had no leaves1 but in their place numberless threads1 by which the various offerings1 such as cigars1 bread1 meat1 pieces of cloth1 etc41 had been suspended4 ,poor ,indians1 not having anything better1 only pull a thread out of their ponchos1 and fasten it to the tree4 ,richer ,indians are accustomed to pour spirits and mat into a certain hole1 and likewise to smoke upwards1 thinking thus to afford all possible gratification to ,walleechu4 ,to complete the scene1 the tree was surrounded by the bleached bones of horses which had been slaughtered as sacrifices4 ,all ,indians of every age and sex make their offerings2 they then think that their horses will not tire1 and that they themselves shall be prosperous4 ,the ,gaucho who told me this1 said that in the time of peace he had witnessed this scene1 and that he and others used to wait till the ,indians had passed by1 for the sake of stealing from ,walleechu the offerings4 ,the ,gauchos think that the ,indians consider the tree as the god itself2 but it seems far more probable that they regard it as the altar4 ,the only cause which ,i can imagine for this choice1 is its being a landmark in a dangerous passage4 ,the ,sierra de la ,ventana is visible at an immense distance2 and a ,gaucho told me that he was once riding with an ,indian a few miles to the north of the ,rio ,colorado1 when the ,indian commenced making the same loud noise1 which is usual at the first sight of the distant tree1 putting his hand to his head1 and then pointing in the direction of the ,sierra4 ,upon being asked the reason of this1 the ,indian said in broken ,spanish1 8,first see the ,sierra40 ,about two leagues beyond this curious tree we halted for the night3 at this instant an unfortunate cow was spied by the lynx-eyed ,gauchos1 who set off in full chase1 and in a few minutes dragged her in with their lazos1 and slaughtered her4 ,we here had the four necessaries of life 8en el campo10--pasture for the horses1 water 7only a muddy puddle71 meat and firewood4 ,the ,gauchos were in high spirits at finding all these luxuries2 and we soon set to work at the poor cow4 ,this was the first night which ,i passed under the open sky1 with the gear of the recado for my bed4 ,there is high enjoyment in the independence of the ,gaucho life--to be able at any moment to pull up your horse1 and say1 8,here we will pass the night40 ,the deathlike stillness of the plain1 the dogs keeping watch1 the gipsy-group of ,gauchos making their beds round the fire1 have left in my mind a strongly-marked picture of this first night1 which will never be forgotten4 ,the next day the country continued similar to that above described4 ,it is inhabited by few birds or animals of any kind4 ,occasionally a deer1 or a ,guanaco 7wild ,llama7 may be seen2 but the ,agouti 7,cavia ,patagonica7 is the commonest quadruped4 ,this animal here represents our hares4 ,it differs1 however1 from that genus in many essential respects2 for instance1 it has only three toes behind4 ,it is also nearly twice the size1 weighing from twenty to twenty-five pounds4 ,the ,agouti is a true friend of the desert2 it is a common feature of the landscape to see two or three hopping quickly one after the other in a straight line across these wild plains4 ,they are found as far north as the ,sierra ,tapalguen 7lat4 #cg #cj71 where the plain rather suddenly becomes greener and more humid2 and their southern limit is between ,port ,desire and ,st4 ,julian1 where there is no change in the nature of the country4 ,it is a singular fact1 that although the ,agouti is not now found as far south as ,port ,st4 ,julian1 yet that ,captain ,wood1 in his voyage in #afgj1 talks of them as being numerous there4 ,what cause can have altered1 in a wide1 uninhabited1 and rarely-visited country1 the range of an animal like this8 ,it appears also1 from the number shot by ,captain ,wood in one day at ,port ,desire1 that they must have been considerably more abundant there formerly than at present4 ,where the ,bizcacha lives and makes its burrows1 the ,agouti uses them2 but where1 as at ,bahia ,blanca1 the ,bizcacha is not found1 the ,agouti burrows for itself4 ,the same thing occurs with the little owl of the ,pampas 7,athene cunicularia71 which has so often been described as standing like a sentinel at the mouth of the burrows2 for in ,banda ,oriental1 owing to the absence of the ,bizcacha1 it is obliged to hollow out its own habitation4 ,the next morning1 as we approached the ,rio ,colorado1 the appearance of the country changed2 we soon came on a plain covered with turf1 which1 from its flowers1 tall clover1 and little owls1 resembled the ,pampas4 ,we passed also a muddy swamp of considerable extent1 which in summer dries1 and becomes incrusted with various salts2 and hence is called a salitral4 ,it was covered by low succulent plants1 of the same kind with those growing on the sea-shore4 ,the ,colorado1 at the pass where we crossed it1 is only about sixty yards wide2 generally it must be nearly double that width4 ,its course is very tortuous1 being marked by willow-trees and beds of reeds3 in a direct line the distance to the mouth of the river is said to be nine leagues1 but by water twenty-five4 ,we were delayed crossing in the canoe by some immense troops of mares1 which were swimming the river in order to follow a division of troops into the interior4 ,a more ludicrous spectacle ,i never beheld than the hundreds and hundreds of heads1 all directed one way1 with pointed ears and distended snorting nostrils1 appearing just above the water like a great shoal of some amphibious animal4 ,mare's flesh is the only food which the soldiers have when on an expedition4 ,this gives them a great facility of movement2 for the distance to which horses can be driven over these plains is quite surprising3 ,i have been assured that an unloaded horse can travel a hundred miles a day for many days successively4 ,the encampment of ,general ,rosas was close to the river4 ,it consisted of a square formed by waggons1 artillery1 straw huts1 etc4 ,the soldiers were nearly all cavalry2 and ,i should think such a villainous1 banditti-like army was never before collected together4 ,the greater number of men were of a mixed breed1 between ,negro1 ,indian1 and ,spaniard4 ,i know not the reason1 but men of such origin seldom have a good expression of countenance4 ,i called on the ,secretary to show my passport4 ,he began to cross-question me in the most dignified and mysterious manner4 ,by good luck ,i had a letter of recommendation from the government of ,buenos ,ayres#e to the commandant of ,patagones4 ,this was taken to ,general ,rosas1 who sent me a very obliging message2 and the ,secretary returned all smiles and graciousness4 ,we took up our residence in the rancho1 or hovel1 of a curious old ,spaniard1 who had served with ,napoleon in the expedition against ,russia4 #e ,i am bound to express1 in the strongest terms1 my obligation to the government of ,buenos ,ayres for the obliging manner in which passports to all parts of the country were given me1 as naturalist of the ,beagle4 ,we stayed two days at the ,colorado2 ,i had little to do1 for the surrounding country was a swamp1 which in summer 7,december71 when the snow melts on the ,cordillera1 is overflowed by the river4 ,my chief amusement was watching the ,indian families as they came to buy little articles at the rancho where we stayed4 ,it was supposed that ,general ,rosas had about six hundred ,indian allies4 ,the men were a tall1 fine race1 yet it was afterwards easy to see in the ,fuegian savage the same countenance rendered hideous by cold1 want of food1 and less civilisation4 ,illustration ,some authors1 in defining the primary races of mankind1 have separated these ,indians into two classes2 but this is certainly incorrect4 ,among the young women or chinas1 some deserve to be called even beautiful4 ,their hair was coarse1 but bright and black2 and they wore it in two plaits hanging down to the waist4 ,they had a high colour1 and eyes that glistened with brilliancy2 their legs1 feet1 and arms were small and elegantly formed2 their ankles1 and sometimes their waists1 were ornamented by broad bracelets of blue beads4 ,nothing could be more interesting than some of the family groups4 ,a mother with one or two daughters would often come to our rancho1 mounted on the same horse4 ,they ride like men1 but with their knees tucked up much higher4 ,this habit1 perhaps1 arises from their being accustomed1 when travelling1 to ride the loaded horses4 ,the duty of the women is to load and unload the horses2 to make the tents for the night2 in short to be1 like the wives of all savages1 useful slaves4 ,the men fight1 hunt1 take care of the horses1 and make the riding gear4 ,one of their chief indoor occupations is to knock two stones together till they become round1 in order to make the bolas4 ,with this important weapon the ,indian catches his game1 and also his horse1 which roams free over the plain4 ,in fighting1 his first attempt is to throw down the horse of his adversary with the bolas1 and when entangled by the fall to kill him with the chuzo4 ,if the balls only catch the neck or body of an animal1 they are often carried away and lost4 ,as the making the stones round is the labour of two days1 the manufacture of the balls is a very common employment4 ,several of the men and women had their faces painted red1 but ,i never saw the horizontal bands which are so common among the ,fuegians4 ,their chief pride consists in having everything made of silver2 ,i have seen a cacique with his spurs1 stirrups1 handle of his knife1 and bridle made of this metal3 the head-stall and reins being of wire1 were not thicker than whipcord2 and to see a fiery steed wheeling about under the command of so light a chain1 gave to the horsemanship a remarkable character of elegance4 ,illustration ,general ,rosas intimated a wish to see me2 a circumstance which ,i was afterwards very glad of4 ,he is a man of an extraordinary character1 and has a most predominant influence in the country1 which it seems probable he will use to its prosperity and advancement4#f ,he is said to be the owner of seventy-four square leagues of land1 and to have about three hundred thousand head of cattle4 ,his estates are admirably managed1 and are far more productive of corn than those of others4 ,he first gained his celebrity by his laws for his own estancias1 and by disciplining several hundred men1 so as to resist with success the attacks of the ,indians4 ,there are many stories current about the rigid manner in which his laws were enforced4 ,one of these was1 that no man1 on penalty of being put into the stocks1 should carry his knife on a ,sunday3 this being the principal day for gambling and drinking1 many quarrels arose1 which from the general manner of fighting with the knife often proved fatal4 #f ,this prophecy has turned out entirely and miserably wrong4 #ahde4 ,one ,sunday the ,governor came in great form to pay the estancia a visit1 and ,general ,rosas1 in his hurry1 walked out to receive him with his knife1 as usual1 stuck in his belt4 ,the steward touched his arm1 and reminded him of the law2 upon which turning to the ,governor1 he said he was extremely sorry1 but that he must go into the stocks1 and that till let out1 he possessed no power even in his own house4 ,after a little time the steward was persuaded to open the stocks1 and to let him out1 but no sooner was this done1 than he turned to the steward and said1 8,you now have broken the laws1 so you must take my place in the stocks40 ,such actions as these delighted the ,gauchos1 who all possess high notions of their own equality and dignity4 ,general ,rosas is also a perfect horseman--an accomplishment of no small consequence in a country where an assembled army elected its general by the following trial3 ,a troop of unbroken horses being driven into a corral1 were let out through a gateway1 above which was a cross-bar3 it was agreed whoever should drop from the bar on one of these wild animals1 as it rushed out1 and should be able1 without saddle or bridle1 not only to ride it1 but also to bring it back to the door of the corral1 should be their general4 ,the person who succeeded was accordingly elected2 and doubtless made a fit general for such an army4 ,this extraordinary feat has also been performed by ,rosas4 ,by these means1 and by conforming to the dress and habits of the ,gauchos1 he has obtained an unbounded popularity in the country1 and in consequence a despotic power4 ,i was assured by an ,english merchant1 that a man who had murdered another1 when arrested and questioned concerning his motive1 answered1 8,he spoke disrespectfully of ,general ,rosas1 so ,i killed him40 ,at the end of a week the murderer was at liberty4 ,this doubtless was the act of the general's party1 and not of the general himself4 ,in conversation he is enthusiastic1 sensible1 and very grave4 ,his gravity is carried to a high pitch3 ,i heard one of his mad buffoons 7for he keeps two1 like the barons of old7 relate the following anecdote4 8,i wanted very much to hear a certain piece of music1 so ,i went to the general two or three times to ask him2 he said to me1 #8,go about your business1 for ,i am engaged4' ,i went a second time2 he said1 #8,if you come again ,i will punish you4' ,a third time ,i asked1 and he laughed4 ,i rushed out of the tent1 but it was too late--he ordered two soldiers to catch and stake me4 ,i begged by all the saints in heaven he would let me off2 but it would not do1--when the general laughs he spares neither mad man nor sound40 ,the poor flighty gentleman looked quite dolorous1 at the very recollection of the staking4 ,this is a very severe punishment2 four posts are driven into the ground1 and the man is extended by his arms and legs horizontally1 and there left to stretch for several hours4 ,the idea is evidently taken from the usual method of drying hides4 ,my interview passed away without a smile1 and ,i obtained a passport and order for the government post-horses1 and this he gave me in the most obliging and ready manner4 ,in the morning we started for ,bahia ,blanca1 which we reached in two days4 ,leaving the regular encampment1 we passed by the toldos of the ,indians4 ,these are round like ovens1 and covered with hides2 by the mouth of each1 a tapering chuzo was stuck in the ground4 ,the toldos were divided into separate groups1 which belonged to the different caciques' tribes1 and the groups were again divided into smaller ones1 according to the relationship of the owners4 ,for several miles we travelled along the valley of the ,colorado4 ,the alluvial plains on the side appeared fertile1 and it is supposed that they are well adapted to the growth of corn4 ,turning northward from the river1 we soon entered on a country1 differing from the plains south of the river4 ,the land still continued dry and sterile3 but it supported many different kinds of plants1 and the grass1 though brown and withered1 was more abundant1 as the thorny bushes were less so4 ,these latter in a short space entirely disappeared1 and the plains were left without a thicket to cover their nakedness4 ,this change in the vegetation marks the commencement of the grand calcareo-argillaceous deposit1 which forms the wide extent of the ,pampas1 and covers the granitic rocks of ,banda ,oriental4 ,from the ,strait of ,magellan to the ,colorado1 a distance of about eight hundred miles1 the face of the country is everywhere composed of shingle3 the pebbles are chiefly of porphyry1 and probably owe their origin to the rocks of the ,cordillera4 ,north of the ,colorado this bed thins out1 and the pebbles become exceedingly small1 and here the characteristic vegetation of ,patagonia ceases4 ,having ridden about twenty-five miles1 we came to a broad belt of sand-dunes1 which stretches1 as far as the eye can reach1 to the east and west4 ,the sand-hillocks resting on the clay1 allow small pools of water to collect1 and thus afford in this dry country an invaluable supply of fresh water4 ,the great advantage arising from depressions and elevations of the soil1 is not often brought home to the mind4 ,the two miserable springs in the long passage between the ,rio ,negro and ,colorado were caused by trifling inequalities in the plain1 without them not a drop of water would have been found4 ,the belt of sand-dunes is about eight miles wide2 at some former period1 it probably formed the margin of a grand estuary1 where the ,colorado now flows4 ,in this district1 where absolute proofs of the recent elevation of the land occur1 such speculations can hardly be neglected by any one1 although merely considering the physical geography of the country4 ,having crossed the sandy tract1 we arrived in the evening at one of the post-houses2 and1 as the fresh horses were grazing at a distance we determined to pass the night there4 ,the house was situated at the base of a ridge between one and two hundred feet high--a most remarkable feature in this country4 ,this posta was commanded by a negro lieutenant1 born in ,africa3 to his credit be it said1 there was not a ranche between the ,colorado and ,buenos ,ayres in nearly such neat order as his4 ,he had a little room for strangers1 and a small corral for the horses1 all made of sticks and reeds2 he had also dug a ditch round his house as a defence in case of being attacked4 ,this would1 however1 have been of little avail1 if the ,indians had come2 but his chief comfort seemed to rest in the thought of selling his life dearly4 ,a short time before1 a body of ,indians had travelled past in the night2 if they had been aware of the posta1 our black friend and his four soldiers would assuredly have been slaughtered4 ,i did not anywhere meet a more civil and obliging man than this negro2 it was therefore the more painful to see that he would not sit down and eat with us4 ,in the morning we sent for the horses very early1 and started for another exhilarating gallop4 ,we passed the ,cabeza del ,buey1 an old name given to the head of a large marsh1 which extends from ,bahia ,blanca4 ,here we changed horses1 and passed through some leagues of swamps and saline marshes4 ,changing horses for the last time1 we again began wading through the mud4 ,my animal fell1 and ,i was well soused in black mire--a very disagreeable accident1 when one does not possess a change of clothes4 ,some miles from the fort we met a man1 who told us that a great gun had been fired1 which is a signal that ,indians are near4 ,we immediately left the road1 and followed the edge of a marsh1 which when chased offers the best mode of escape4 ,we were glad to arrive within the walls1 when we found all the alarm was about nothing1 for the ,indians turned out to be friendly ones1 who wished to join ,general ,rosas4 ,bahia ,blanca scarcely deserves the name of a village4 ,a few houses and the barracks for the troops are enclosed by a deep ditch and fortified wall4 ,the settlement is only of recent standing 7since #ahbh72 and its growth has been one of trouble4 ,the government of ,buenos ,ayres unjustly occupied it by force1 instead of following the wise example of the ,spanish ,viceroys1 who purchased the land near the older settlement of the ,rio ,negro1 from the ,indians4 ,hence the need of the fortifications2 hence the few houses and little cultivated land without the limits of the walls2 even the cattle are not safe from the attacks of the ,indians beyond the boundaries of the plain on which the fortress stands4 ,the part of the harbour where the ,beagle intended to anchor being distant twenty-five miles1 ,i obtained from the ,commandant a guide and horses1 to take me to see whether she had arrived4 ,leaving the plain of green turf1 which extended along the course of a little brook1 we soon entered on a wide level waste consisting either of sand1 saline marshes1 or bare mud4 ,some parts were clothed by low thickets1 and others with those succulent plants which luxuriate only where salt abounds4 ,bad as the country was1 ostriches1 deers1 agoutis1 and armadilloes1 were abundant4 ,my guide told me1 that two months before he had a most narrow escape of his life3 he was out hunting with two other men1 at no great distance from this part of the country1 when they were suddenly met by a party of ,indians1 who giving chase1 soon overtook and killed his two friends4 ,his own horse's legs were also caught by the bolas1 but he jumped off1 and with his knife cut them free3 while doing this he was obliged to dodge round his horse1 and received two severe wounds from their chuzos4 ,springing on the saddle1 he managed1 by a most wonderful exertion1 just to keep ahead of the long spears of his pursuers1 who followed him to within sight of the fort4 ,from that time there was an order that no one should stray far from the settlement4 ,i did not know of this when ,i started1 and was surprised to observe how earnestly my guide watched a deer1 which appeared to have been frightened from a distant quarter4 ,we found the ,beagle had not arrived1 and consequently set out on our return1 but the horses soon tiring1 we were obliged to bivouac on the plain4 ,in the morning we had caught an armadillo1 which1 although a most excellent dish when roasted in its shell1 did not make a very substantial breakfast and dinner for two hungry men4 ,the ground at the place where we stopped for the night was incrusted with a layer of sulphate of soda1 and hence1 of course1 was without water4 ,yet many of the smaller rodents managed to exist even here1 and the tucutuco was making its odd little grunt beneath my head1 during half the night4 ,our horses were very poor ones1 and in the morning they were soon exhausted from not having had anything to drink1 so that we were obliged to walk4 ,about noon the dogs killed a kid1 which we roasted4 ,i ate some of it1 but it made me intolerably thirsty4 ,this was the more distressing as the road1 from some recent rain1 was full of little puddles of clear water1 yet not a drop was drinkable4 ,i had scarcely been twenty hours without water1 and only part of the time under a hot sun1 yet the thirst rendered me very weak4 ,how people survive two or three days under such circumstances1 ,i cannot imagine3 at the same time1 ,i must confess that my guide did not suffer at all1 and was astonished that one day's deprivation should be so troublesome to me4 ,i have several times alluded to the surface of the ground being incrusted with salt4 ,this phenomenon is quite different from that of the salinas1 and more extraordinary4 ,in many parts of ,south ,america1 wherever the climate is moderately dry1 these incrustations occur2 but ,i have nowhere seen them so abundant as near ,bahia ,blanca4 ,the salt here1 and in other parts of ,patagonia1 consists chiefly of sulphate of soda with some common salt4 ,as long as the ground remains moist in the salitrales 7as the ,spaniards improperly call them1 mistaking this substance for saltpetre71 nothing is to be seen but an extensive plain composed of a black1 muddy soil1 supporting scattered tufts of succulent plants4 ,on returning through one of these tracts1 after a week's hot weather1 one is surprised to see square miles of the plain white1 as if from a slight fall of snow1 here and there heaped up by the wind into little drifts4 ,this latter appearance is chiefly caused by the salts being drawn up1 during the slow evaporation of the moisture1 round blades of dead grass1 stumps of wood1 and pieces of broken earth1 instead of being crystallised at the bottoms of the puddles of water4 ,the salitrales occur either on level tracts elevated only a few feet above the level of the sea1 or on alluvial land bordering rivers4 ,m4 ,parchappe#g found that the saline incrustation on the plain1 at the distance of some miles from the sea1 consisted chiefly of sulphate of soda1 with only seven per cent of common salt2 whilst nearer to the coast1 the common salt increased to #cg parts in a hundred4 ,this circumstance would tempt one to believe that the sulphate of soda is generated in the soil1 from the muriate left on the surface during the slow and recent elevation of this dry country4 ,the whole phenomenon is well worthy the attention of naturalists4 ,have the succulent1 salt-loving plants1 which are well known to contain much soda1 the power of decomposing the muriate8 ,does the black fetid mud1 abounding with organic matter1 yield the sulphur and ultimately the sulphuric acid8 #g ,voyage dans l',amrique ,mrid4 par ,m4 ,a4 d',orbigny4 ,part4 ,hist41 tome i1 p4 #ffd4 ,two days afterwards ,i again rode to the harbour3 when not far from our destination1 my companion1 the same man as before1 spied three people hunting on horseback4 ,he immediately dismounted1 and watching them intently1 said1 8,they don't ride like ,christians1 and nobody can leave the fort40 ,the three hunters joined company1 and likewise dismounted from their horses4 ,at last one mounted again and rode over the hill out of sight4 ,my companion said1 8,we must now get on our horses3 load your pistol20 and he looked to his own sword4 ,i asked1 8,are they ,indians80--8,quien sabe8 7who knows87 if there are no more than three1 it does not signify40 ,it then struck me1 that the one man had gone over the hill to fetch the rest of his tribe4 ,i suggested this2 but all the answer ,i could extort was1 8,quien sabe80 ,his head and eye never for a minute ceased scanning slowly the distant horizon4 ,i thought his uncommon coolness too good a joke1 and asked him why he did not return home4 ,i was startled when he answered1 8,we are returning1 but in a line so as to pass near a swamp1 into which we can gallop the horses as far as they can go1 and then trust to our own legs2 so that there is no danger40 ,i did not feel quite so confident of this1 and wanted to increase our pace4 ,he said1 8,no1 not until they do40 ,when any little inequality concealed us1 we galloped2 but when in sight1 continued walking4 ,at last we reached a valley1 and turning to the left1 galloped quickly to the foot of a hill2 he gave me his horse to hold1 made the dogs lie down1 and then crawled on his hands and knees to reconnoitre4 ,he remained in this position for some time1 and at last1 bursting out in laughter1 exclaimed1 8,mugeres60 7women67 ,he knew them to be the wife and sister-in-law of the major's son1 hunting for ostrich's eggs4 ,i have described this man's conduct1 because he acted under the full impression that they were ,indians4 ,as soon1 however1 as the absurd mistake was found out1 he gave me a hundred reasons why they could not have been ,indians2 but all these were forgotten at the time4 ,we then rode on in peace and quietness to a low point called ,punta ,alta1 whence we could see nearly the whole of the great harbour of ,bahia ,blanca4 ,the wide expanse of water is choked up by numerous great mudbanks1 which the inhabitants call ,cangrejales1 or crabberies1 from the number of small crabs4 ,the mud is so soft that it is impossible to walk over them1 even for the shortest distance4 ,many of the banks have their surfaces covered with long rushes1 the tops of which alone are visible at high water4 ,on one occasion1 when in a boat1 we were so entangled by these shallows that we could hardly find our way4 ,nothing was visible but the flat beds of mud2 the day was not very clear1 and there was much refraction1 or1 as the sailors expressed it1 8things loomed high40 ,the only object within our view which was not level was the horizon2 rushes looked like bushes unsupported in the air1 and water like mudbanks1 and mudbanks like water4 ,we passed the night in ,punta ,alta1 and ,i employed myself in searching for fossil bones2 this point being a perfect catacomb for monsters of extinct races4 ,the evening was perfectly calm and clear2 the extreme monotony of the view gave it an interest even in the midst of mudbanks and gulls1 sand-hillocks and solitary vultures4 ,in riding back in the morning we came across a very fresh track of a ,puma1 but did not succeed in finding it4 ,we saw also a couple of ,zorillos1 or skunks1--odious animals1 which are far from uncommon4 ,in general appearance the ,zorillo resembles a polecat1 but it is rather larger1 and much thicker in proportion4 ,conscious of its power1 it roams by day about the open plain1 and fears neither dog nor man4 ,if a dog is urged to the attack1 its courage is instantly checked by a few drops of the fetid oil1 which brings on violent sickness and running at the nose4 ,whatever is once polluted by it1 is for ever useless4 ,azara says the smell can be perceived at a league distant2 more than once1 when entering the harbour of ,monte ,video1 the wind being off shore1 we have perceived the odour on board the ,beagle4 ,certain it is1 that every animal most willingly makes room for the ,zorillo4 ,illustration ,illustration ,chapter ,v ,bahia ,blanca--,geology--,numerous gigantic extinct ,quadrupeds--,recent ,extinction--,longevity of ,species--,large ,animals do not require a luxuriant ,vegetation--,southern ,africa--,siberian ,fossils--,two ,species of ,ostrich--,habits of ,oven-bird--,armadilloes--,venomous ,snake1 ,toad1 ,lizard--,hybernation of ,animals--,habits of ,sea-,pen--,indian ,wars and ,massacres--,arrowhead1 antiquarian ,relic4 ,,bahia ,,blanca4 ,the ,beagle arrived here on the #bdth of ,august1 and a week afterwards sailed for the ,plata4 ,with ,captain ,fitz ,roy's consent ,i was left behind1 to travel by land to ,buenos ,ayres4 ,i will here add some observations1 which were made during this visit and on a previous occasion1 when the ,beagle was employed in surveying the harbour4 ,the plain1 at the distance of a few miles from the coast1 belongs to the great ,pampean formation1 which consists in part of a reddish clay1 and in part of a highly calcareous marly rock4 ,nearer the coast there are some plains formed from the wreck of the upper plain1 and from mud1 gravel1 and sand thrown up by the sea during the slow elevation of the land1 of which elevation we have evidence in upraised beds of recent shells1 and in rounded pebbles of pumice scattered over the country4 ,at ,punta ,alta we have a section of one of these later-formed little plains1 which is highly interesting from the number and extraordinary character of the remains of gigantic land-animals embedded in it4 ,these have been fully described by ,professor ,owen1 in the ,zoology of the ,voyage of the ,beagle1 and are deposited in the ,college of ,surgeons4 ,i will here give only a brief outline of their nature4 ,first1 parts of three heads and other bones of the ,megatherium1 the huge dimensions of which are expressed by its name4 ,secondly1 the ,megalonyx1 a great allied animal4 ,thirdly1 the ,scelidotherium1 also an allied animal1 of which ,i obtained a nearly perfect skeleton4 ,it must have been as large as a rhinoceros3 in the structure of its head it comes1 according to ,mr4 ,owen1 nearest to the ,cape ,ant-eater1 but in some other respects it approaches to the armadilloes4 ,fourthly1 the ,mylodon ,darwinii1 a closely related genus of little inferior size4 ,fifthly1 another gigantic edental quadruped4 ,sixthly1 a large animal1 with an osseous coat in compartments1 very like that of an armadillo4 ,seventhly1 an extinct kind of horse1 to which ,i shall have again to refer4 ,eighthly1 a tooth of a ,pachydermatous animal1 probably the same with the ,macrauchenia1 a huge beast with a long neck like a camel1 which ,i shall also refer to again4 ,lastly1 the ,toxodon1 perhaps one of the strangest animals ever discovered3 in size it equalled an elephant or megatherium1 but the structure of its teeth1 as ,mr4 ,owen states1 proves indisputably that it was intimately related to the ,gnawers1 the order which1 at the present day1 includes most of the smallest quadrupeds3 in many details it is allied to the ,pachydermata3 judging from the position of its eyes1 ears1 and nostrils1 it was probably aquatic1 like the ,dugong and ,manatee1 to which it is also allied4 ,how wonderfully are the different ,orders1 at the present time so well separated1 blended together in different points of the structure of the ,toxodon6 ,the remains of these nine great quadrupeds and many detached bones were found embedded on the beach1 within the space of about #bjj yards square4 ,it is a remarkable circumstance that so many different species should be found together2 and it proves how numerous in kind the ancient inhabitants of this country must have been4 ,at the distance of about thirty miles from ,punta ,alta1 in a cliff of red earth1 ,i found several fragments of bones1 some of large size4 ,among them were the teeth of a gnawer1 equalling in size and closely resembling those of the ,capybara1 whose habits have been described2 and therefore1 probably1 an aquatic animal4 ,there was also part of the head of a ,ctenomys2 the species being different from the ,tucutuco1 but with a close general resemblance4 ,the red earth1 like that of the ,pampas1 in which these remains were embedded1 contains1 according to ,professor ,ehrenberg1 eight fresh-water and one salt-water infusorial animalcule2 therefore1 probably1 it was an estuary deposit4 ,the remains at ,punta ,alta were embedded in stratified gravel and reddish mud1 just such as the sea might now wash up on a shallow bank4 ,they were associated with twenty-three species of shells1 of which thirteen are recent and four others very closely related to recent forms4#a ,from the bones of the ,scelidotherium1 including even the kneecap1 being entombed in their proper relative positions1#b and from the osseous armour of the great armadillo-like animal being so well preserved1 together with the bones of one of its legs1 we may feel assured that these remains were fresh and united by their ligaments1 when deposited in the gravel together with the shells4 ,hence we have good evidence that the above enumerated gigantic quadrupeds1 more different from those of the present day than the oldest of the tertiary quadrupeds of ,europe1 lived whilst the sea was peopled with most of its present inhabitants2 and we have confirmed that remarkable law so often insisted on by ,mr4 ,lyell1 namely1 that the 8longevity of the species in the mammalia is upon the whole inferior to that of the testacea40#c #a ,since this was written1 ,m4 ,alcide d',orbigny has examined these shells1 and pronounces them all to be recent4 #b ,m4 ,aug4 ,bravard has described1 in a ,spanish work 7,observaciones ,geologicas1 #aheg71 this district1 and he believes that the bones of the extinct mammals were washed out of the underlying ,pampean deposit1 and subsequently became embedded with the still existing shells2 but ,i am not convinced by his remarks4 ,m4 ,bravard believes that the whole enormous ,pampean deposit is a sub-aerial formation1 like sand-dunes3 this seems to me to be an untenable doctrine4 #c ,principles of ,geology1 vol4 iv1 p4 #dj4 ,the great size of the bones of the ,megatheroid animals1 including the ,megatherium1 ,megalonyx1 ,scelidotherium1 and ,mylodon1 is truly wonderful4 ,the habits of life of these animals were a complete puzzle to naturalists1 until ,professor ,owen#d solved the problem with remarkable ingenuity4 ,the teeth indicate1 by their simple structure1 that these ,megatheroid animals lived on vegetable food1 and probably on the leaves and small twigs of trees2 their ponderous forms and great strong curved claws seem so little adapted for locomotion1 that some eminent naturalists have actually believed that1 like the sloths1 to which they are intimately related1 they subsisted by climbing back downwards on trees1 and feeding on the leaves4 ,it was a bold1 not to say preposterous1 idea to conceive even antediluvian trees1 with branches strong enough to bear animals as large as elephants4 ,professor ,owen1 with far more probability1 believes that1 instead of climbing on the trees1 they pulled the branches down to them1 and tore up the smaller ones by the roots1 and so fed on the leaves4 ,the colossal breadth and weight of their hinder quarters1 which can hardly be imagined without having been seen1 become1 on this view1 of obvious service1 instead of being an encumbrance3 their apparent clumsiness disappears4 ,with their great tails and their huge heels firmly fixed like a tripod on the ground1 they could freely exert the full force of their most powerful arms and great claws4 ,strongly rooted1 indeed1 must that tree have been1 which could have resisted such force6 ,the ,mylodon1 moreover1 was furnished with a long extensile tongue like that of the giraffe1 which1 by one of those beautiful provisions of nature1 thus reaches with the aid of its long neck its leafy food4 ,i may remark1 that in ,abyssinia the elephant1 according to ,bruce1 when it cannot reach with its proboscis the branches1 deeply scores with its tusks the trunk of the tree1 up and down and all round1 till it is sufficiently weakened to be broken down4 #d ,this theory was first developed in the ,zoology of the ,voyage of the ,beagle1 and subsequently in ,professor ,owen's ,memoir on ,mylodon robustus4 ,the beds including the above fossil remains stand only from fifteen to twenty feet above the level of high water2 and hence the elevation of the land has been small 7without there has been an intercalated period of subsidence1 of which we have no evidence7 since the great quadrupeds wandered over the surrounding plains2 and the external features of the country must then have been very nearly the same as now4 ,what1 it may naturally be asked1 was the character of the vegetation at that period2 was the country as wretchedly sterile as it now is8 ,as so many of the co-embedded shells are the same with those now living in the bay1 ,i was at first inclined to think that the former vegetation was probably similar to the existing one2 but this would have been an erroneous inference1 for some of these same shells live on the luxuriant coast of ,brazil2 and generally1 the characters of the inhabitants of the sea are useless as guides to judge of those on the land4 ,nevertheless1 from the following considerations1 ,i do not believe that the simple fact of many gigantic quadrupeds having lived on the plains round ,bahia ,blanca1 is any sure guide that they formerly were clothed with a luxuriant vegetation3 ,i have no doubt that the sterile country a little southward1 near the ,rio ,negro1 with its scattered thorny trees1 would support many and large quadrupeds4 ,that large animals require a luxuriant vegetation1 has been a general assumption which has passed from one work to another2 but ,i do not hesitate to say that it is completely false1 and that it has vitiated the reasoning of geologists on some points of great interest in the ancient history of the world4 ,the prejudice has probably been derived from ,india1 and the ,indian islands1 where troops of elephants1 noble forests1 and impenetrable jungles1 are associated together in every one's mind4 ,if1 however1 we refer to any work of travels through the southern parts of ,africa1 we shall find allusions in almost every page either to the desert character of the country1 or to the numbers of large animals inhabiting it4 ,the same thing is rendered evident by the many engravings which have been published of various parts of the interior4 ,when the ,beagle was at ,cape ,town1 ,i made an excursion of some days' length into the country1 which at least was sufficient to render that which ,i had read more fully intelligible4 ,dr4 ,andrew ,smith1 who1 at the head of his adventurous party1 has lately succeeded in passing the ,tropic of ,capricorn1 informs me that1 taking into consideration the whole of the southern part of ,africa1 there can be no doubt of its being a sterile country4 ,on the southern and south-eastern coasts there are some fine forests1 but with these exceptions1 the traveller may pass for days together through open plains1 covered by a poor and scanty vegetation4 ,it is difficult to convey any accurate idea of degrees of comparative fertility2 but it may be safely said that the amount of vegetation supported at any one time#e by ,great ,britain1 exceeds1 perhaps even tenfold1 the quantity on an equal area in the interior parts of ,southern ,africa4 ,the fact that bullock-waggons can travel in any direction1 excepting near the coast1 without more than occasionally half an hour's delay in cutting down bushes1 gives1 perhaps1 a more definite notion of the scantiness of the vegetation4 ,now1 if we look to the animals inhabiting these wide plains1 we shall find their numbers extraordinarily great1 and their bulk immense4 ,we must enumerate the elephant1 three species of rhinoceros1 and probably1 according to ,dr4 ,smith1 two others1 the hippopotamus1 the giraffe1 the bos caffer--as large as a full-grown bull1 and the elan--but little less1 two zebras1 and the quaccha1 two gnus1 and several antelopes even larger than these latter animals4 ,it may be supposed that although the species are numerous1 the individuals of each kind are few4 ,by the kindness of ,dr4 ,smith1 ,i am enabled to show that the case is very different4 ,he informs me1 that in lat4 #bd1 in one day's march with the bullock-waggons1 he saw1 without wandering to any great distance on either side1 between one hundred and one hundred and fifty rhinoceroses1 which belonged to three species3 the same day he saw several herds of giraffes1 amounting together to nearly a hundred2 and that1 although no elephant was observed1 yet they are found in this district4 ,at the distance of a little more than one hour's march from their place of encampment on the previous night1 his party actually killed at one spot eight hippopotamuses1 and saw many more4 ,in this same river there were likewise crocodiles4 ,of course it was a case quite extraordinary1 to see so many great animals crowded together1 but it evidently proves that they must exist in great numbers4 ,dr4 ,smith describes the country passed through that day1 as 8being thinly covered with grass1 and bushes about four feet high1 and still more thinly with mimosa-trees40 ,the waggons were not prevented travelling in a nearly straight line4 #e ,i mean by this to exclude the total amount which may have been successively produced and consumed during a given period4 ,besides these large animals1 every one the least acquainted with the natural history of the ,cape has read of the herds of antelopes1 which can be compared only with the flocks of migratory birds4 ,the numbers indeed of the lion1 panther1 and hyna1 and the multitude of birds of prey1 plainly speak of the abundance of the smaller quadrupeds3 one evening seven lions were counted at the same time prowling round ,dr4 ,smith's encampment4 ,as this able naturalist remarked to me1 the carnage each day in ,southern ,africa must indeed be terrific6 ,i confess it is truly surprising how such a number of animals can find support in a country producing so little food4 ,the larger quadrupeds no doubt roam over wide tracts in search of it2 and their food chiefly consists of underwood1 which probably contains much nutriment in a small bulk4 ,dr4 ,smith also informs me that the vegetation has a rapid growth2 no sooner is a part consumed1 than its place is supplied by a fresh stock4 ,there can be no doubt1 however1 that our ideas respecting the apparent amount of food necessary for the support of large quadrupeds are much exaggerated3 it should have been remembered that the camel1 an animal of no mean bulk1 has always been considered as the emblem of the desert4 ,the belief that where large quadrupeds exist1 the vegetation must necessarily be luxuriant1 is the more remarkable1 because the converse is far from true4 ,mr4 ,burchell observed to me that when entering ,brazil1 nothing struck him more forcibly than the splendour of the ,south ,american vegetation contrasted with that of ,south ,africa1 together with the absence of all large quadrupeds4 ,in his ,travels1#f he has suggested that the comparison of the respective weights 7if there were sufficient data7 of an equal number of the largest herbivorous quadrupeds of each country would be extremely curious4 ,if we take on the one side1 the elephant1#g hippopotamus1 giraffe1 bos caffer1 elan1 certainly three1 and probably five species of rhinoceros2 and on the ,american side1 two tapirs1 the guanaco1 three deer1 the vicuna1 peccari1 capybara 7after which we must choose from the monkeys to complete the number71 and then place these two groups alongside each other1 it is not easy to conceive ranks more disproportionate in size4 ,after the above facts1 we are compelled to conclude1 against anterior probability1#h that among the mammalia there exists no close relation between the bulk of the species and the quantity of the vegetation in the countries which they inhabit4 #f ,travels in the ,interior of ,south ,africa1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bjg4 #g ,the elephant which was killed at ,exeter ,change was estimated 7being partly weighed7 at five tons and a half4 ,the elephant actress1 as ,i was informed1 weighed one ton less2 so that we may take five as the average of a full-grown elephant4 ,i was told at the ,surry ,gardens1 that a hippopotamus which was sent to ,england cut up into pieces was estimated at three tons and a half2 we will call it three4 ,from these premises we may give three tons and a half to each of the five rhinoceroses2 perhaps a ton to the giraffe1 and half to the bos caffer as well as to the elan 7a large ox weighs from #abjj to #aejj pounds74 ,this will give an average 7from the above estimates7 of #b4g of a ton for the ten largest herbivorous animals of ,southern ,africa4 ,in ,south ,america1 allowing #abjj pounds for the two tapirs together1 #eej for the guanaco and vicuna1 #ejj for three deer1 #cjj for the capybara1 peccari1 and a monkey1 we shall have an average of #bej pounds1 which ,i believe is overstating the result4 ,the ratio will therefore be as #fjdh to #bej1 or #bd to #a1 for the ten largest animals from the two continents4 #h ,if we suppose the case of the discovery of a skeleton of a ,greenland whale in a fossil state1 not a single cetaceous animal being known to exist1 what naturalist would have ventured conjecture on the possibility of a carcass so gigantic being supported on the minute crustacea and mollusca living in the frozen seas of the extreme ,north8 ,with regard to the number of large quadrupeds1 there certainly exists no quarter of the globe which will bear comparison with ,southern ,africa4 ,after the different statements which have been given1 the extremely desert character of that region will not be disputed4 ,in the ,european division of the world1 we must look back to the tertiary epochs1 to find a condition of things among the mammalia1 resembling that now existing at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,those tertiary epochs1 which we are apt to consider as abounding to an astonishing degree with large animals1 because we find the remains of many ages accumulated at certain spots1 could hardly boast of more large quadrupeds than ,southern ,africa does at present4 ,if we speculate on the condition of the vegetation during those epochs1 we are at least bound so far to consider existing analogies1 as not to urge as absolutely necessary a luxuriant vegetation1 when we see a state of things so totally different at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,we know#i that the extreme regions of ,north ,america many degrees beyond the limit where the ground at the depth of a few feet remains perpetually congealed1 are covered by forests of large and tall trees4 ,in a like manner1 in ,siberia1 we have woods of birch1 fir1 aspen1 and larch1 growing in a latitude#aj 7#fd7 where the mean temperature of the air falls below the freezing point1 and where the earth is so completely frozen1 that the carcass of an animal embedded in it is perfectly preserved4 ,with these facts we must grant1 as far as quantity alone of vegetation is concerned1 that the great quadrupeds of the later tertiary epochs might1 in most parts of ,northern ,europe and ,asia1 have lived on the spots where their remains are now found4 ,i do not here speak of the kind of vegetation necessary for their support2 because1 as there is evidence of physical changes1 and as the animals have become extinct1 so may we suppose that the species of plants have likewise been changed4 #i ,see ,zoological ,remarks to ,captain ,back's ,expedition1 by ,dr4 ,richardson4 ,he says1 8,the subsoil north of latitude #ef is perpetually frozen1 the thaw on the coast not penetrating above three feet1 and at ,bear ,lake1 in latitude #fd1 not more than twenty inches4 ,the frozen substratum does not of itself destroy vegetation1 for forests flourish on the surface1 at a distance from the coast40 #aj ,see ,humboldt ,fragmens ,asiatiques1 p4 #chf3 ,barton's ,geography of ,plants2 and ,malte ,brun4 ,in the latter work it is said that the limit of the growth of trees in ,siberia may be drawn under the parallel of #gj4 ,these remarks1 ,i may be permitted to add1 directly bear on the case of the ,siberian animals preserved in ice4 ,the firm conviction of the necessity of a vegetation possessing a character of tropical luxuriance1 to support such large animals1 and the impossibility of reconciling this with the proximity of perpetual congelation1 was one chief cause of the several theories of sudden revolutions of climate1 and of overwhelming catastrophes1 which were invented to account for their entombment4 ,i am far from supposing that the climate has not changed since the period when those animals lived1 which now lie buried in the ice4 ,at present ,i only wish to show1 that as far as quantity of food alone is concerned1 the ancient rhinoceroses might have roamed over the steppes of central ,siberia 7the northern parts probably being under water7 even in their present condition1 as well as the living rhinoceroses and elephants over the ,karros of ,southern ,africa4 ,i will now give an account of the habits of some of the more interesting birds which are common on the wild plains of ,northern ,patagonia3 and first for the largest1 or ,south ,american ostrich4 ,the ordinary habits of the ostrich are familiar to every one4 ,they live on vegetable matter1 such as roots and grass2 but at ,bahia ,blanca ,i have repeatedly seen three or four come down at low water to the extensive mudbanks which are then dry1 for the sake1 as the ,gauchos say1 of feeding on small fish4 ,although the ostrich in its habits is so shy1 wary1 and solitary1 and although so fleet in its pace1 it is caught without much difficulty by the ,indian or ,gaucho armed with the bolas4 ,when several horsemen appear in a semicircle1 it becomes confounded1 and does not know which way to escape4 ,they generally prefer running against the wind2 yet at the first start they expand their wings1 and like a vessel make all sail4 ,on one fine hot day ,i saw several ostriches enter a bed of tall rushes1 where they squatted concealed1 till quite closely approached4 ,it is not generally known that ostriches readily take to the water4 ,mr4 ,king informs me that at the ,bay of ,san ,blas1 and at ,port ,valdes in ,patagonia1 he saw these birds swimming several times from island to island4 ,they ran into the water both when driven down to a point1 and likewise of their own accord when not frightened3 the distance crossed was about two hundred yards4 ,when swimming1 very little of their bodies appear above water2 their necks are extended a little forward1 and their progress is slow4 ,on two occasions ,i saw some ostriches swimming across the ,santa ,cruz river1 where its course was about four hundred yards wide1 and the stream rapid4 ,captain ,sturt1#aa when descending the ,murrumbidgee1 in ,australia1 saw two emus in the act of swimming4 #aa ,sturt's ,travels1 vol4 ii1 p4 #gd4 ,the inhabitants of the country readily distinguish1 even at a distance1 the cock bird from the hen4 ,the former is larger and darker-coloured1#ab and has a bigger head4 ,the ostrich1 ,i believe the cock1 emits a singular1 deep-toned1 hissing note3 when first ,i heard it1 standing in the midst of some sand-hillocks1 ,i thought it was made by some wild beast1 for it is a sound that one cannot tell whence it comes1 or from how far distant4 ,when we were at ,bahia ,blanca in the months of ,september and ,october1 the eggs1 in extraordinary numbers1 were found all over the country4 ,they lie either scattered and single1 in which case they are never hatched1 and are called by the ,spaniards huachos2 or they are collected together into a shallow excavation1 which forms the nest4 ,out of the four nests which ,i saw1 three contained twenty-two eggs each1 and the fourth twenty-seven4 ,in one day's hunting on horseback sixty-four eggs were found2 forty-four of these were in two nests1 and the remaining twenty1 scattered huachos4 ,the ,gauchos unanimously affirm1 and there is no reason to doubt their statement1 that the male bird alone hatches the eggs1 and for some time afterwards accompanies the young4 ,the cock when on the nest lies very close2 ,i have myself almost ridden over one4 ,it is asserted that at such times they are occasionally fierce1 and even dangerous1 and that they have been known to attack a man on horseback1 trying to kick and leap on him4 ,my informer pointed out to me an old man1 whom he had seen much terrified by one chasing him4 ,i observe in ,burchell's ,travels in ,south ,africa that he remarks1 8,having killed a male ostrich1 and the feathers being dirty1 it was said by the ,hottentots to be a nest bird40 ,i understand that the male emu in the ,zoological ,gardens takes charge of the nest3 this habit1 therefore1 is common to the family4 #ab ,a ,gaucho assured me that he had once seen a snow-white or ,albino variety1 and that it was a most beautiful bird4 ,the ,gauchos unanimously affirm that several females lay in one nest4 ,i have been positively told that four or five hen birds have been watched to go in the middle of the day1 one after the other1 to the same nest4 ,i may add1 also1 that it is believed in ,africa that two or more females lay in one nest4#ac ,although this habit at first appears very strange1 ,i think the cause may be explained in a simple manner4 ,the number of eggs in the nest varies from twenty to forty1 and even to fifty2 and according to ,azara1 sometimes to seventy or eighty4 ,now although it is most probable1 from the number of eggs found in one district being so extraordinarily great in proportion to the parent birds1 and likewise from the state of the ovarium of the hen1 that she may in the course of the season lay a large number1 yet the time required must be very long4 ,azara states1#ad that a female in a state of domestication laid seventeen eggs1 each at the interval of three days one from another4 ,if the hen was obliged to hatch her own eggs1 before the last was laid the first probably would be addled2 but if each laid a few eggs at successive periods1 in different nests1 and several hens1 as is stated to be the case1 combined together1 then the eggs in one collection would be nearly of the same age4 ,if the number of eggs in one of these nests is1 as ,i believe1 not greater on an average than the number laid by one female in the season1 then there must be as many nests as females1 and each cock bird will have its fair share of the labour of incubation2 and that during a period when the females probably could not sit1 from not having finished laying4#ae ,i have before mentioned the great numbers of huachos1 or deserted eggs2 so that in one day's hunting twenty were found in this state4 ,it appears odd that so many should be wasted4 ,does it not arise from the difficulty of several females associating together1 and finding a male ready to undertake the office of incubation8 ,it is evident that there must at first be some degree of association between at least two females2 otherwise the eggs would remain scattered over the wide plains1 at distances far too great to allow of the male collecting them into one nest3 some authors have believed that the scattered eggs were deposited for the young birds to feed on4 ,this can hardly be the case in ,america1 because the huachos1 although often found addled and putrid1 are generally whole4 #ac ,burchell's ,travels1 vol4 i1 p4 #bhj4 #ad ,azara1 vol4 iv1 p4 #agc4 #ae ,lichtenstein1 however1 asserts 7,travels1 vol4 ii1 p4 #be7 that the hens begin sitting when they have laid ten or twelve eggs2 and that they continue laying1 ,i presume in another nest4 ,this appears to me very improbable4 ,he asserts that four or five hens associate for incubation with one cock1 who sits only at night4 ,when at the ,rio ,negro in ,northern ,patagonia1 ,i repeatedly heard the ,gauchos talking of a very rare bird which they called ,avestruz ,petise4 ,they described it as being less than the common ostrich 7which is there abundant71 but with a very close general resemblance4 ,they said its colour was dark and mottled1 and that its legs were shorter1 and feathered lower down than those of the common ostrich4 ,it is more easily caught by the bolas than the other species4 ,the few inhabitants who had seen both kinds1 affirmed they could distinguish them apart from a long distance4 ,the eggs of the small species appeared1 however1 more generally known2 and it was remarked1 with surprise1 that they were very little less than those of the ,rhea but of a slightly different form1 and with a tinge of pale blue4 ,this species occurs most rarely on the plains bordering the ,rio ,negro2 but about a degree and a half farther south they are tolerably abundant4 ,when at ,port ,desire1 in ,patagonia 7lat4 #dh71 ,mr4 ,martens shot an ostrich2 and ,i looked at it1 forgetting at the moment1 in the most unaccountable manner1 the whole subject of the ,petises1 and thought it was a not full-grown bird of the common sort4 ,it was cooked and eaten before my memory returned4 ,fortunately the head1 neck1 legs1 wings1 many of the larger feathers1 and a large part of the skin1 had been preserved2 and from these a very nearly perfect specimen has been put together1 and is now exhibited in the museum of the ,zoological ,society4 ,mr4 ,gould1 in describing this new species1 has done me the honour of calling it after my name4 ,among the ,patagonian ,indians in the ,strait of ,magellan1 we found a half ,indian1 who had lived some years with the tribe1 but had been born in the northern provinces4 ,i asked him if he had ever heard of the ,avestruz ,petise4 ,he answered by saying1 8,why1 there are none others in these southern countries40 ,he informed me that the number of eggs in the nest of the petise is considerably less than in that of the other kind1 namely1 not more than fifteen on an average1 but he asserted that more than one female deposited them4 ,at ,santa ,cruz we saw several of these birds4 ,they were excessively wary3 ,i think they could see a person approaching when too far off to be distinguished themselves4 ,in ascending the river few were seen2 but in our quiet and rapid descent many1 in pairs and by fours or fives1 were observed4 ,it was remarked that this bird did not expand its wings1 when first starting at full speed1 after the manner of the northern kind4 ,in conclusion ,i may observe that the ,struthio rhea inhabits the country of ,la ,plata as far as a little south of the ,rio ,negro in lat4 #da1 and that the ,struthio ,darwinii takes its place in ,southern ,patagonia2 the part about the ,rio ,negro being neutral territory4 ,m4 ,a4 d',orbigny1#af when at the ,rio ,negro1 made great exertions to procure this bird1 but never had the good fortune to succeed4 ,dobrizhoffer#ag long ago was aware of there being two kinds of ostriches1 he says1 8,you must know1 moreover1 that ,emus differ in size and habits in different tracts of land2 for those that inhabit the plains of ,buenos ,ayres and ,tucuman are larger1 and have black1 white and grey feathers2 those near to the ,strait of ,magellan are smaller and more beautiful1 for their white feathers are tipped with black at the extremity1 and their black ones in like manner terminate in white40 #af ,when at the ,rio ,negro1 we heard much of the indefatigable labours of this naturalist4 ,m4 ,alcide d',orbigny1 during the years #ahbe to #ahcc1 traversed several large portions of ,south ,america1 and has made a collection1 and is now publishing the results on a scale of magnificence1 which at once places himself in the list of ,american travellers second only to ,humboldt4 #ag ,account of the ,abipones1 ,a4,d4 #agdi1 vol4 i1 7,english translation7 p4 #cad4 ,a very singular little bird1 ,tinochorus rumicivorus1 is here common3 in its habits and general appearance it nearly equally partakes of the characters1 different as they are1 of the quail and snipe4 ,the ,tinochorus is found in the whole of southern ,south ,america1 wherever there are sterile plains1 or open dry pasture land4 ,it frequents in pairs or small flocks the most desolate places1 where scarcely another living creature can exist4 ,upon being approached they squat close1 and then are very difficult to be distinguished from the ground4 ,when feeding they walk rather slowly1 with their legs wide apart4 ,they dust themselves in roads and sandy places1 and frequent particular spots1 where they may be found day after day3 like partridges1 they take wing in a flock4 ,in all these respects1 in the muscular gizzard adapted for vegetable food1 in the arched beak and fleshy nostrils1 short legs and form of foot1 the ,tinochorus has a close affinity with quails4 ,but as soon as the bird is seen flying1 its whole appearance changes2 the long pointed wings1 so different from those in the gallinaceous order1 the irregular manner of flight1 and plaintive cry uttered at the moment of rising1 recall the idea of a snipe4 ,the sportsmen of the ,beagle unanimously called it the short-billed snipe4 ,to this genus1 or rather to the family of the ,waders1 its skeleton shows that it is really related4 ,the ,tinochorus is closely related to some other ,south ,american birds4 ,two species of the genus ,attagis are in almost every respect ptarmigans in their habits2 one lives in ,tierra del ,fuego1 above the limits of the forest land2 and the other just beneath the snow-line on the ,cordillera of ,central ,chile4 ,a bird of another closely allied genus1 ,chionis alba1 is an inhabitant of the antarctic regions2 it feeds on seaweed and shells on the tidal rocks4 ,although not web-footed1 from some unaccountable habit it is frequently met with far out at sea4 ,this small family of birds is one of those which1 from its varied relations to other families1 although at present offering only difficulties to the systematic naturalist1 ultimately may assist in revealing the grand scheme1 common to the present and past ages1 on which organised beings have been created4 ,the genus ,furnarius contains several species1 all small birds1 living on the ground1 and inhabiting open dry countries4 ,in structure they cannot be compared to any ,european form4 ,ornithologists have generally included them among the creepers1 although opposed to that family in every habit4 ,the best known species is the common oven-bird of ,la ,plata1 the ,casara or housemaker of the ,spaniards4 ,the nest1 whence it takes its name1 is placed in the most exposed situations1 as on the top of a post1 a bare rock1 or on a cactus4 ,it is composed of mud and bits of straw1 and has strong thick walls3 in shape it precisely resembles an oven1 or depressed beehive4 ,the opening is large and arched1 and directly in front1 within the nest1 there is a partition1 which reaches nearly to the roof1 thus forming a passage or antechamber to the true nest4 ,another and smaller species of ,furnarius 7,f4 cunicularius71 resembles the oven-bird in the general reddish tint of its plumage1 in a peculiar shrill reiterated cry1 and in an odd manner of running by starts4 ,from its affinity1 the ,spaniards call it ,casarita 7or little housebuilder71 although its nidification is quite different4 ,the ,casarita builds its nest at the bottom of a narrow cylindrical hole1 which is said to extend horizontally to nearly six feet under ground4 ,several of the country people told me1 that when boys1 they had attempted to dig out the nest1 but had scarcely ever succeeded in getting to the end of the passage4 ,the bird chooses any low bank of firm sandy soil by the side of a road or stream4 ,here 7at ,bahia ,blanca7 the walls round the houses are built of hardened mud1 and ,i noticed that one1 which enclosed a courtyard where ,i lodged1 was bored through by round holes in a score of places4 ,on asking the owner the cause of this1 he bitterly complained of the little casarita1 several of which ,i afterwards observed at work4 ,it is rather curious to find how incapable these birds must be of acquiring any notion of thickness1 for although they were constantly flitting over the low wall1 they continued vainly to bore through it1 thinking it an excellent bank for their nests4 ,i do not doubt that each bird1 as often as it came to daylight on the opposite side1 was greatly surprised at the marvellous fact4 ,i have already mentioned nearly all the mammalia common in this country4 ,of armadilloes three species occur1 namely1 the ,dasypus minutus or pichy1 the ,d4 villosus or peludo1 and the apar4 ,the first extends ten degrees farther south than any other kind2 a fourth species1 the ,mulita1 does not come as far south as ,bahia ,blanca4 ,the four species have nearly similar habits2 the peludo1 however1 is nocturnal1 while the others wander by day over the open plains1 feeding on beetles1 larv1 roots1 and even small snakes4 ,the apar1 commonly called mataco1 is remarkable by having only three movable bands2 the rest of its tesselated covering being nearly inflexible4 ,it has the power of rolling itself into a perfect sphere1 like one kind of ,english woodlouse4 ,in this state it is safe from the attack of dogs2 for the dog not being able to take the whole in its mouth1 tries to bite one side1 and the ball slips away4 ,the smooth hard covering of the mataco offers a better defence than the sharp spines of the hedgehog4 ,the pichy prefers a very dry soil2 and the sand-dunes near the coast1 where for many months it can never taste water1 is its favourite resort3 it often tries to escape notice1 by squatting close to the ground4 ,in the course of a day's ride1 near ,bahia ,blanca1 several were generally met with4 ,the instant one was perceived1 it was necessary1 in order to catch it1 almost to tumble off one's horse2 for in soft soil the animal burrowed so quickly1 that its hinder quarters would almost disappear before one could alight4 ,it seems almost a pity to kill such nice little animals1 for as a ,gaucho said1 while sharpening his knife on the back of one1 8,son tan mansos0 7they are so quiet74 ,of reptiles there are many kinds3 one snake 7a ,trigonocephalus1 or ,cophias1 subsequently called by ,m4 ,bibron ,t4 crepitans71 from the size of the poison channel in its fangs1 must be very deadly4 ,cuvier1 in opposition to some other naturalists1 makes this a sub-genus of the rattlesnake1 and intermediate between it and the viper4 ,in confirmation of this opinion1 ,i observed a fact1 which appears to me very curious and instructive1 as showing how every character1 even though it may be in some degree independent of structure1 has a tendency to vary by slow degrees4 ,the extremity of the tail of this snake is terminated by a point1 which is very slightly enlarged2 and as the animal glides along1 it constantly vibrates the last inch2 and this part striking against the dry grass and brushwood1 produces a rattling noise1 which can be distinctly heard at the distance of six feet4 ,as often as the animal was irritated or surprised1 its tail was shaken2 and the vibrations were extremely rapid4 ,even as long as the body retained its irritability1 a tendency to this habitual movement was evident4 ,this ,trigonocephalus has1 therefore1 in some respects the structure of a viper1 with the habits of a rattlesnake3 the noise1 however1 being produced by a simpler device4 ,the expression of this snake's face was hideous and fierce2 the pupil consisted of a vertical slit in a mottled and coppery iris2 the jaws were broad at the base1 and the nose terminated in a triangular projection4 ,i do not think ,i ever saw anything more ugly1 excepting1 perhaps1 some of the vampire bats4 ,i imagine this repulsive aspect originates from the features being placed in positions1 with respect to each other1 somewhat proportional to those of the human face2 and thus we obtain a scale of hideousness4 ,amongst the ,batrachian reptiles1 ,i found only one little toad 7,phryniscus nigricans71 which was most singular from its colour4 ,if we imagine1 first1 that it had been steeped in the blackest ink1 and then1 when dry1 allowed to crawl over a board1 freshly painted with the brightest vermilion1 so as to colour the soles of its feet and parts of its stomach1 a good idea of its appearance will be gained4 ,if it had been an unnamed species1 surely it ought to have been called ,diabolicus1 for it is a fit toad to preach in the ear of ,eve4 ,instead of being nocturnal in its habits1 as other toads are1 and living in damp obscure recesses1 it crawls during the heat of the day about the dry sand-hillocks and arid plains1 where not a single drop of water can be found4 ,it must necessarily depend on the dew for its moisture2 and this probably is absorbed by the skin1 for it is known that these reptiles possess great powers of cutaneous absorption4 ,at ,maldonado1 ,i found one in a situation nearly as dry as at ,bahia ,blanca1 and thinking to give it a great treat1 carried it to a pool of water2 not only was the little animal unable to swim1 but ,i think without help it would soon have been drowned4 ,of lizards there were many kinds1 but only one 7,proctotretus multimaculatus7 remarkable from its habits4 ,it lives on the bare sand near the sea-coast1 and from its mottled colour1 the brownish scales being speckled with white1 yellowish red1 and dirty blue1 can hardly be distinguished from the surrounding surface4 ,when frightened1 it attempts to avoid discovery by feigning death1 with outstretched legs1 depressed body1 and closed eyes3 if further molested1 it buries itself with great quickness in the loose sand4 ,this lizard1 from its flattened body and short legs1 cannot run quickly4 ,illustration ,i will here add a few remarks on the hybernation of animals in this part of ,south ,america4 ,when we first arrived at ,bahia ,blanca1 ,september #gth1 #ahcb1 we thought nature had granted scarcely a living creature to this sandy and dry country4 ,by digging1 however1 in the ground1 several insects1 large spiders1 and lizards were found in a half-torpid state4 ,on the #aeth1 a few animals began to appear1 and by the #ahth 7three days from the equinox71 everything announced the commencement of spring4 ,the plains were ornamented by the flowers of a pink wood-sorrel1 wild peas1 nother1 and geraniums2 and the birds began to lay their eggs4 ,numerous ,lamellicorn and ,heteromerous insects1 the latter remarkable for their deeply sculptured bodies1 were slowly crawling about2 while the lizard tribe1 the constant inhabitants of a sandy soil1 darted about in every direction4 ,during the first eleven days1 whilst nature was dormant1 the mean temperature taken from observations made every two hours on board the ,beagle1 was #ea2 and in the middle of the day the thermometer seldom ranged above #ee4 ,on the eleven succeeding days1 in which all living things became so animated1 the mean was #eh1 and the range in the middle of the day between sixty and seventy4 ,here then an increase of seven degrees in mean temperature1 but a greater one of extreme heat1 was sufficient to awake the functions of life4 ,at ,monte ,video1 from which we had just before sailed1 in the twenty-three days included between the #bfth of ,july and the #aith of ,august1 the mean temperature from #bgf observations was #eh4d2 the mean hottest day being #fe4e1 and the coldest #df4 ,the lowest point to which the thermometer fell was #da4e1 and occasionally in the middle of the day it rose to #fi or #gj4 ,yet with this high temperature1 almost every beetle1 several genera of spiders1 snails1 and land-shells1 toads and lizards1 were all lying torpid beneath stones4 ,but we have seen that at ,bahia ,blanca1 which is four degrees southward1 and therefore with a climate only a very little colder1 this same temperature1 with a rather less extreme heat1 was sufficient to awake all orders of animated beings4 ,this shows how nicely the stimulus required to arouse hybernating animals is governed by the usual climate of the district1 and not by the absolute heat4 ,it is well known that within the tropics the hybernation1 or more properly stivation1 of animals is determined not by the temperature1 but by the times of drought4 ,near ,rio de ,janeiro1 ,i was at first surprised to observe that1 a few days after some little depressions had been filled with water1 they were peopled by numerous full-grown shells and beetles1 which must have been lying dormant4 ,humboldt has related the strange accident of a hovel having been erected over a spot where a young crocodile lay buried in the hardened mud4 ,he adds1 8,the ,indians often find enormous boas1 which they call ,uji1 or water serpents1 in the same lethargic state4 ,to reanimate them1 they must be irritated or wetted with water40 ,i will only mention one other animal1 a zoophyte 7,i believe ,virgularia ,patagonica71 a kind of sea-pen4 ,it consists of a thin1 straight1 fleshy stem1 with alternate rows of polypi on each side1 and surrounding an elastic stony axis1 varying in length from eight inches to two feet4 ,the stem at one extremity is truncate1 but at the other is terminated by a vermiform fleshy appendage4 ,the stony axis which gives strength to the stem may be traced at this extremity into a mere vessel filled with granular matter4 ,at low water hundreds of these zoophytes might be seen1 projecting like stubble1 with the truncate end upwards1 a few inches above the surface of the muddy sand4 ,when touched or pulled they suddenly drew themselves in with force1 so as nearly or quite to disappear4 ,by this action1 the highly elastic axis must be bent at the lower extremity1 where it is naturally slightly curved2 and ,i imagine it is by this elasticity alone that the zoophyte is enabled to rise again through the mud4 ,each polypus1 though closely united to its brethren1 has a distinct mouth1 body1 and tentacula4 ,of these polypi1 in a large specimen1 there must be many thousands2 yet we see that they act by one movement3 they have also one central axis connected with a system of obscure circulation1 and the ova are produced in an organ distinct from the separate individuals4#ah ,well may one be allowed to ask1 ,what is an individual8 ,it is always interesting to discover the foundation of the strange tales of the old voyagers2 and ,i have no doubt but that the habits of this ,virgularia explain one such case4 ,captain ,lancaster1 in his ,voyage#ai in #afja1 narrates that on the sea-sands of the ,island of ,sombrero1 in the ,east ,indies1 he 8found a small twig growing up like a young tree1 and on offering to pluck it up it shrinks down to the ground1 and sinks1 unless held very hard4 ,on being plucked up1 a great worm is found to be its root1 and as the tree groweth in greatness1 so doth the worm diminish1 and as soon as the worm is entirely turned into a tree it rooteth in the earth1 and so becomes great4 ,this transformation is one of the strangest wonders that ,i saw in all my travels3 for if this tree is plucked up1 while young1 and the leaves and bark stripped off1 it becomes a hard stone when dry1 much like white coral3 thus is this worm twice transformed into different natures4 ,of these we gathered and brought home many40 #ah ,the cavities leading from the fleshy compartments of the extremity were filled with a yellow pulpy matter1 which1 examined under a microscope1 presented an extraordinary appearance4 ,the mass consisted of rounded1 semi-transparent1 irregular grains1 aggregated together into particles of various sizes4 ,all such particles1 and the separate grains1 possessed the power of rapid movement2 generally revolving around different axes1 but sometimes progressive4 ,the movement was visible with a very weak power1 but even with the highest its cause could not be perceived4 ,it was very different from the circulation of the fluid in the elastic bag1 containing the thin extremity of the axis4 ,on other occasions1 when dissecting small marine animals beneath the microscope1 ,i have seen particles of pulpy matter1 some of large size1 as soon as they were disengaged1 commence revolving4 ,i have imagined1 ,i know not with how much truth1 that this granulo-pulpy matter was in process of being converted into ova4 ,certainly in this zoophyte such appeared to be the case4 #ai ,kerr's ,collection of ,voyages1 vol4 viii1 p4 #aai4 ,during my stay at ,bahia ,blanca1 while waiting for the ,beagle1 the place was in a constant state of excitement1 from rumours of wars and victories1 between the troops of ,rosas and the wild ,indians4 ,one day an account came that a small party forming one of the postas on the line to ,buenos ,ayres had been found all murdered4 ,the next day three hundred men arrived from the ,colorado1 under the command of ,commandant ,miranda4 ,a large portion of these men were ,indians 7mansos1 or tame71 belonging to the tribe of the ,cacique ,bernantio4 ,they passed the night here2 and it was impossible to conceive anything more wild and savage than the scene of their bivouac4 ,some drank till they were intoxicated2 others swallowed the steaming blood of the cattle slaughtered for their suppers1 and then1 being sick from drunkenness1 they cast it up again1 and were besmeared with filth and gore4 ,nam simul expletus dapibus1 vinoque sepultus ,cervicem inflexam posuit1 jacuitque per antrum ,immensus1 saniem eructans1 ac frusta cruenta ,per somnum commixta mero4 ,in the morning they started for the scene of the murder1 with orders to follow the rastro1 or track1 even if it led them to ,chile4 ,we subsequently heard that the wild ,indians had escaped into the great ,pampas1 and from some cause the track had been missed4 ,one glance at the rastro tells these people a whole history4 ,supposing they examine the track of a thousand horses1 they will soon guess the number of mounted ones by seeing how many have cantered2 by the depth of the other impressions1 whether any horses were loaded with cargoes2 by the irregularity of the footsteps1 how far tired2 by the manner in which the food has been cooked1 whether the pursued travelled in haste2 by the general appearance1 how long it has been since they passed4 ,they consider a rastro of ten days or a fortnight quite recent enough to be hunted out4 ,we also heard that ,miranda struck from the west end of the ,sierra ,ventana1 in a direct line to the island of ,cholechel1 situated seventy leagues up the ,rio ,negro4 ,this is a distance of between two and three hundred miles1 through a country completely unknown4 ,what other troops in the world are so independent8 ,with the sun for their guide1 mare's flesh for food1 their saddle-cloths for beds1--as long as there is a little water1 these men would penetrate to the end of the world4 ,a few days afterwards ,i saw another troop of these banditti-like soldiers start on an expedition against a tribe of ,indians at the small ,salinas1 who had been betrayed by a prisoner cacique4 ,the ,spaniard who brought the orders for this expedition was a very intelligent man4 ,he gave me an account of the last engagement at which he was present4 ,some ,indians1 who had been taken prisoners1 gave information of a tribe living north of the ,colorado4 ,two hundred soldiers were sent2 and they first discovered the ,indians by a cloud of dust from their horses' feet as they chanced to be travelling4 ,the country was mountainous and wild1 and it must have been far in the interior1 for the ,cordillera were in sight4 ,the ,indians1 men1 women1 and children1 were about one hundred and ten in number1 and they were nearly all taken or killed1 for the soldiers sabre every man4 ,the ,indians are now so terrified that they offer no resistance in a body1 but each flies1 neglecting even his wife and children2 but when overtaken1 like wild animals1 they fight against any number to the last moment4 ,one dying ,indian seized with his teeth the thumb of his adversary1 and allowed his own eye to be forced out sooner than relinquish his hold4 ,another1 who was wounded1 feigned death1 keeping a knife ready to strike one more fatal blow4 ,my informer said1 when he was pursuing an ,indian1 the man cried out for mercy1 at the same time that he was covertly loosing the bolas from his waist1 meaning to whirl it round his head and so strike his pursuer4 8,i however struck him with my sabre to the ground1 and then got off my horse1 and cut his throat with my knife40 ,this is a dark picture2 but how much more shocking is the unquestionable fact1 that all the women who appear above twenty years old are massacred in cold blood8 ,when ,i exclaimed that this appeared rather inhuman1 he answered1 8,why1 what can be done8 they breed so60 ,every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war1 because it is against barbarians4 ,who would believe in this age that such atrocities could be committed in a ,christian civilised country8 ,the children of the ,indians are saved1 to be sold or given away as servants1 or rather slaves for as long a time as the owners can make them believe themselves slaves2 but ,i believe in their treatment there is little to complain of4 ,in the battle four men ran away together4 ,they were pursued1 one was killed1 and the other three were taken alive4 ,they turned out to be messengers or ambassadors from a large body of ,indians1 united in the common cause of defence1 near the ,cordillera4 ,the tribe to which they had been sent was on the point of holding a grand council1 the feast of mare's flesh was ready1 and the dance prepared3 in the morning the ambassadors were to have returned to the ,cordillera4 ,they were remarkably fine men1 very fair1 above six feet high1 and all under thirty years of age4 ,the three survivors of course possessed very valuable information and to extort this they were placed in a line4 ,the two first being questioned1 answered1 8,no s0 7,i do not know71 and were one after the other shot4 ,the third also said 8,no s20 adding1 8,fire1 ,i am a man1 and can die60 ,not one syllable would they breathe to injure the united cause of their country6 ,the conduct of the above-mentioned cacique was very different2 he saved his life by betraying the intended plan of warfare1 and the point of union in the ,andes4 ,it was believed that there were already six or seven hundred ,indians together1 and that in summer their numbers would be doubled4 ,ambassadors were to have been sent to the ,indians at the small ,salinas1 near ,bahia ,blanca1 whom ,i have mentioned that this same cacique had betrayed4 ,the communication1 therefore1 between the ,indians1 extends from the ,cordillera to the coast of the ,atlantic4 ,general ,rosas's plan is to kill all stragglers1 and having driven the remainder to a common point1 to attack them in a body1 in the summer1 with the assistance of the ,chilenos4 ,this operation is to be repeated for three successive years4 ,i imagine the summer is chosen as the time for the main attack1 because the plains are then without water1 and the ,indians can only travel in particular directions4 ,the escape of the ,indians to the south of the ,rio ,negro1 where in such a vast unknown country they would be safe1 is prevented by a treaty with the ,tehuelches to this effect2--that ,rosas pays them so much to slaughter every ,indian who passes to the south of the river1 but if they fail in so doing1 they themselves are to be exterminated4 ,the war is waged chiefly against the ,indians near the ,cordillera2 for many of the tribes on this eastern side are fighting with ,rosas4 ,the general1 however1 like ,lord ,chesterfield1 thinking that his friends may in a future day become his enemies1 always places them in the front ranks1 so that their numbers may be thinned4 ,since leaving ,south ,america we have heard that this war of extermination completely failed4 ,among the captive girls taken in the same engagement1 there were two very pretty ,spanish ones1 who had been carried away by the ,indians when young1 and could now only speak the ,indian tongue4 ,from their account they must have come from ,salta1 a distance in a straight line of nearly one thousand miles4 ,this gives one a grand idea of the immense territory over which the ,indians roam3 yet1 great as it is1 ,i think there will not1 in another half-century1 be a wild ,indian northward of the ,rio ,negro4 ,the warfare is too bloody to last2 the ,christians killing every ,indian1 and the ,indians doing the same by the ,christians4 ,it is melancholy to trace how the ,indians have given way before the ,spanish invaders4 ,schirdel#bj says that in #aece1 when ,buenos ,ayres was founded1 there were villages containing two and three thousand inhabitants4 ,even in ,falconer's time 7#agej7 the ,indians made inroads as far as ,luxan1 ,areco1 and ,arrecife1 but now they are driven beyond the ,salado4 ,not only have whole tribes been exterminated1 but the remaining ,indians have become more barbarous3 instead of living in large villages1 and being employed in the arts of fishing1 as well as of the chase1 they now wander about the open plains1 without home or fixed occupation4 #bj ,purchas's ,collection of ,voyages4 ,i believe the date was really #aecg4 ,i heard also some account of an engagement which took place1 a few weeks previously to the one mentioned1 at ,cholechel4 ,this is a very important station on account of being a pass for horses2 and it was1 in consequence1 for some time the head-quarters of a division of the army4 ,when the troops first arrived there they found a tribe of ,indians1 of whom they killed twenty or thirty4 ,the cacique escaped in a manner which astonished every one4 ,the chief ,indians always have one or two picked horses1 which they keep ready for any urgent occasion4 ,on one of these1 an old white horse1 the cacique sprung1 taking with him his little son4 ,the horse had neither saddle nor bridle4 ,to avoid the shots1 the ,indian rode in the peculiar method of his nation2 namely1 with an arm round the horse's neck1 and one leg only on its back4 ,thus hanging on one side1 he was seen patting the horse's head1 and talking to him4 ,the pursuers urged every effort in the chase2 the ,commandant three times changed his horse1 but all in vain4 ,the old ,indian father and his son escaped1 and were free4 ,what a fine picture one can form in one's mind1--the naked1 bronze-like figure of the old man with his little boy1 riding like a ,mazeppa on the white horse1 thus leaving far behind him the host of his pursuers6 ,i saw one day a soldier striking fire with a piece of flint1 which ,i immediately recognised as having been a part of the head of an arrow4 ,he told me it was found near the island of ,cholechel1 and that they are frequently picked up there4 ,it was between two and three inches long1 and therefore twice as large as those now used in ,tierra del ,fuego3 it was made of opaque cream-coloured flint1 but the point and barbs had been intentionally broken off4 ,it is well known that no ,pampas ,indians now use bows and arrows4 ,i believe a small tribe in ,banda ,oriental must be excepted2 but they are widely separated from the ,pampas ,indians1 and border close on those tribes that inhabit the forest1 and live on foot4 ,it appears1 therefore1 that these arrow-heads are antiquarian#ba relics of the ,indians1 before the great change in habits consequent on the introduction of the horse into ,south ,america4 #ba ,azara has even doubted whether the ,pampas ,indians ever used bows4 ,several similar agate arrow-heads have since been dug up at ,chupat1 and two were given to me1 on the occasion of my visit there1 by the ,governor4--,r4 ,t4 ,pritchett1 #ahhj4 ,illustration ,illustration ,chapter ,,vi ,set out for ,buenos ,ayres--,rio ,sauce--,sierra ,ventana--,third ,posta--,driving ,horses--,bolas--,partridges and ,foxes--,features of the ,country--,long-legged ,plover--,teru-tero--,hail-storm--,natur al ,enclosures in the ,sierra ,tapalguen--,flesh of ,puma--,meat ,diet--,guardia del ,monte--,effects of ,cattle on the ,vegetation--,cardoon--,buenos ,ayres--,corral where ,cattle are slaughtered4 ,,bahia ,,blanca ,,to ,,buenos ,,ayres4 ,september #hth4--,i hired a ,gaucho to accompany me on my ride to ,buenos ,ayres1 though with some difficulty1 as the father of one man was afraid to let him go1 and another who seemed willing1 was described to me as so fearful that ,i was afraid to take him1 for ,i was told that even if he saw an ostrich at a distance1 he would mistake it for an ,indian1 and would fly like the wind away4 ,the distance to ,buenos ,ayres is about four hundred miles1 and nearly the whole way through an uninhabited country4 ,we started early in the morning2 ascending a few hundred feet from the basin of green turf on which ,bahia ,blanca stands1 we entered on a wide desolate plain4 ,it consists of a crumbling argillaceo-calcareous rock1 which1 from the dry nature of the climate1 supports only scattered tufts of withered grass1 without a single bush or tree to break the monotonous uniformity4 ,the weather was fine1 but the atmosphere remarkably hazy2 ,i thought the appearance foreboded a gale1 but the ,gauchos said it was owing to the plain1 at some great distance in the interior1 being on fire4 ,after a long gallop1 having changed horses twice1 we reached the ,rio ,sauce3 it is a deep1 rapid1 little stream1 not above twenty-five feet wide4 ,the second posta on the road to ,buenos ,ayres stands on its banks1 a little above there is a ford for horses1 where the water does not reach to the horses' belly2 but from that point1 in its course to the sea1 it is quite impassable1 and hence makes a most useful barrier against the ,indians4 ,insignificant as this stream is1 the ,jesuit ,falconer1 whose information is generally so very correct1 figures it as a considerable river1 rising at the foot of the ,cordillera4 ,with respect to its source1 ,i do not doubt that this is the case2 for the ,gauchos assured me1 that in the middle of the dry summer this stream1 at the same time with the ,colorado1 has periodical floods1 which can only originate in the snow melting on the ,andes4 ,it is extremely improbable that a stream so small as the ,sauce then was should traverse the entire width of the continent2 and indeed1 if it were the residue of a large river1 its waters1 as in other ascertained cases1 would be saline4 ,during the winter we must look to the springs round the ,sierra ,ventana as the source of its pure and limpid stream4 ,i suspect the plains of ,patagonia1 like those of ,australia1 are traversed by many watercourses1 which only perform their proper parts at certain periods4 ,probably this is the case with the water which flows into the head of ,port ,desire1 and likewise with the ,rio ,chupat1 on the banks of which masses of highly cellular scori were found by the officers employed in the survey4 ,as it was early in the afternoon when we arrived1 we took fresh horses and a soldier for a guide1 and started for the ,sierra de la ,ventana4 ,this mountain is visible from the anchorage at ,bahia ,blanca2 and ,captain ,fitz ,roy calculates its height to be #ccdj feet--an altitude very remarkable on this eastern side of the continent4 ,i am not aware that any foreigner1 previous to my visit1 had ascended this mountain2 and indeed very few of the soldiers at ,bahia ,blanca knew anything about it4 ,hence we heard of beds of coal1 of gold and silver1 of caves1 and of forests1 all of which inflamed my curiosity1 only to disappoint it4 ,the distance from the posta was about six leagues1 over a level plain of the same character as before4 ,the ride was1 however1 interesting1 as the mountain began to show its true form4 ,when we reached the foot of the main ridge1 we had much difficulty in finding any water1 and we thought we should have been obliged to have passed the night without any4 ,at last we discovered some by looking close to the mountain1 for at the distance even of a few hundred yards1 the streamlets were buried and entirely lost in the friable calcareous stone and loose detritus4 ,i do not think ,nature ever made a more solitary1 desolate pile of rock2--it well deserves its name of ,hurtado1 or separated4 ,the mountain is steep1 extremely rugged1 and broken1 and so entirely destitute of trees1 and even bushes1 that we actually could not make a skewer to stretch out our meat over the fire of thistle-stalks4#a ,the strange aspect of this mountain is contrasted by the sea-like plain1 which not only abuts against its steep sides1 but likewise separates the parallel ranges4 ,the uniformity of the colouring gives an extreme quietness to the view2--the whitish grey of the quartz rock1 and the light brown of the withered grass of the plain1 being unrelieved by any brighter tint4 ,from custom one expects to see in the neighbourhood of a lofty and bold mountain a broken country strewed over with huge fragments4 ,here ,nature shows that the last movement before the bed of the sea is changed into dry land may sometimes be one of tranquillity4 ,under these circumstances ,i was curious to observe how far from the parent rock any pebbles could be found4 ,on the shores of ,bahia ,blanca1 and near the settlement1 there were some of quartz1 which certainly must have come from this source3 the distance is forty-five miles4 #a ,i call these thistle-stalks for the want of a more correct name4 ,i believe it is a species of ,eryngium4 ,the dew1 which in the early part of the night wetted the saddle-cloths under which we slept1 was in the morning frozen4 ,the plain1 though appearing horizontal1 had insensibly sloped up to a height of between #hjj and #ijj feet above the sea4 ,in the morning 7#ith of ,september7 the guide told me to ascend the nearest ridge1 which he thought would lead me to the four peaks that crown the summit4 ,the climbing up such rough rocks was very fatiguing2 the sides were so indented1 that what was gained in one five minutes was often lost in the next4 ,at last1 when ,i reached the ridge1 my disappointment was extreme in finding a precipitous valley as deep as the plain1 which cut the chain traversely in two1 and separated me from the four points4 ,this valley is very narrow1 but flat-bottomed1 and it forms a fine horse-pass for the ,indians1 as it connects the plains on the northern and southern sides of the range4 ,having descended1 and while crossing it1 ,i saw two horses grazing3 ,i immediately hid myself in the long grass1 and began to reconnoitre2 but as ,i could see no signs of ,indians ,i proceeded cautiously on my second ascent4 ,it was late in the day1 and this part of the mountain1 like the other1 was steep and rugged4 ,i was on the top of the second peak by two o'clock1 but got there with extreme difficulty2 every twenty yards ,i had the cramp in the upper part of both thighs1 so that ,i was afraid ,i should not have been able to have got down again4 ,it was also necessary to return by another road1 as it was out of the question to pass over the saddle-back4 ,i was therefore obliged to give up the two higher peaks4 ,their altitude was but little greater1 and every purpose of geology had been answered2 so that the attempt was not worth the hazard of any further exertion4 ,i presume the cause of the cramp was the great change in the kind of muscular action1 from that of hard riding to that of still harder climbing4 ,it is a lesson worth remembering1 as in some cases it might cause much difficulty4 ,i have already said the mountain is composed of white quartz rock1 and with it a little glossy clay-slate is associated4 ,at the height of a few hundred feet above the plain1 patches of conglomerate adhered in several places to the solid rock4 ,they resembled in hardness1 and in the nature of the cement1 the masses which may be seen daily forming on some coasts4 ,i do not doubt these pebbles were in a similar manner aggregated1 at a period when the great calcareous formation was depositing beneath the surrounding sea4 ,we may believe that the jagged and battered forms of the hard quartz yet show the effects of the waves of an open ocean4 ,i was1 on the whole1 disappointed with this ascent4 ,even the view was insignificant2--a plain like the sea1 but without its beautiful colour and defined outline4 ,the scene1 however1 was novel1 and a little danger1 like salt to meat1 gave it a relish4 ,that the danger was very little was certain1 for my two companions made a good fire--a thing which is never done when it is suspected that ,indians are near4 ,i reached the place of our bivouac by sunset1 and drinking much mat1 and smoking several cigaritos1 soon made up my bed for the night4 ,the wind was very strong and cold1 but ,i never slept more comfortably4 ,september #ajth4--,in the morning1 having fairly scudded before the gale1 we arrived by the middle of the day at the ,sauce posta4 ,on the road we saw great numbers of deer1 and near the mountain a guanaco4 ,the plain1 which abuts against the ,sierra1 is traversed by some curious gulleys1 of which one was about twenty feet wide1 and at least thirty deep2 we were obliged in consequence to make a considerable circuit before we could find a pass4 ,we stayed the night at the posta1 the conversation1 as was generally the case1 being about the ,indians4 ,the ,sierra ,ventana was formerly a great place of resort2 and three or four years ago there was much fighting there4 ,my guide had been present when many ,indians were killed3 the women escaped to the top of the ridge1 and fought most desperately with great stones2 many thus saving themselves4 ,september #aath4--,proceeded to the third posta in company with the lieutenant who commanded it4 ,the distance is called fifteen leagues2 but it is only guess-work1 and is generally overstated4 ,the road was uninteresting1 over a dry grassy plain2 and on our left hand at a greater or less distance there were some low hills2 a continuation of which we crossed close to the posta4 ,before our arrival we met a large herd of cattle and horses1 guarded by fifteen soldiers2 but we were told many had been lost4 ,it is very difficult to drive animals across the plains2 for if in the night a puma1 or even a fox1 approaches1 nothing can prevent the horses dispersing in every direction2 and a storm will have the same effect4 ,a short time since1 an officer left ,buenos ,ayres with five hundred horses1 and when he arrived at the army he had under twenty4 ,soon afterwards we perceived by the cloud of dust1 that a party of horsemen were coming towards us2 when far distant my companions knew them to be ,indians1 by their long hair streaming behind their backs4 ,the ,indians generally have a fillet round their heads1 but never any covering2 and their black hair blowing across their swarthy faces1 heightens to an uncommon degree the wildness of their appearance4 ,they turned out to be a party of ,bernantio's friendly tribe1 going to a salina for salt4 ,the ,indians eat much salt1 their children sucking it like sugar4 ,this habit is very different from that of the ,spanish ,gauchos1 who1 leading the same kind of life1 eat scarcely any3 according to ,mungo ,park1#b it is people who live on vegetable food who have an unconquerable desire for salt4 ,the ,indians gave us good-humoured nods as they passed at full gallop1 driving before them a troop of horses1 and followed by a train of lanky dogs4 #b ,travels in ,africa1 p4 #bcc4 ,september #abth and #acth4--,i stayed at this posta two days1 waiting for a troop of soldiers1 which ,general ,rosas had the kindness to send to inform me would shortly travel to ,buenos ,ayres2 and he advised me to take the opportunity of the escort4 ,in the morning we rode to some neighbouring hills to view the country1 and to examine the geology4 ,after dinner the soldiers divided themselves into two parties for a trial of skill with the bolas4 ,two spears were stuck in the ground twenty-five yards apart1 but they were struck and entangled only once in four or five times4 ,the balls can be thrown fifty or sixty yards1 but with little certainty4 ,this1 however1 does not apply to a man on horseback2 for when the speed of the horse is added to the force of the arm1 it is said that they can be whirled with effect to the distance of eighty yards4 ,as a proof of their force1 ,i may mention1 that at the ,falkland ,islands1 when the ,spaniards murdered some of their own countrymen and all the ,englishmen1 a young friendly ,spaniard was running away1 when a great tall man1 by name ,luciano1 came at full gallop after him1 shouting to him to stop1 and saying that he only wanted to speak to him4 ,just as the ,spaniard was on the point of reaching the boat1 ,luciano threw the balls3 they struck him on the legs with such a jerk1 as to throw him down and to render him for some time insensible4 ,the man1 after ,luciano had had his talk1 was allowed to escape4 ,he told us that his legs were marked by great weals1 where the thong had wound round1 as if he had been flogged with a whip4 ,in the middle of the day two men arrived1 who brought a parcel from the next posta to be forwarded to the general3 so that besides these two1 our party consisted this evening of my guide and self1 the lieutenant1 and his four soldiers4 ,the latter were strange beings2 the first a fine young negro2 the second half ,indian and negro2 and the two others nondescripts2 namely1 an old ,chilian miner1 the colour of mahogany1 and another partly a mulatto2 but two such mongrels1 with such detestable expressions1 ,i never saw before4 ,at night1 when they were sitting round the fire1 and playing at cards1 ,i retired to view such a ,salvator ,rosa scene4 ,they were seated under a low cliff1 so that ,i could look down upon them2 around the party were lying dogs1 arms1 remnants of deer and ostriches2 and their long spears were stuck in the turf4 ,farther in the dark background their horses were tied up1 ready for any sudden danger4 ,if the stillness of the desolate plain was broken by one of the dogs barking1 a soldier1 leaving the fire1 would place his head close to the ground1 and thus slowly scan the horizon4 ,even if the noisy teru-tero uttered its scream1 there would be a pause in the conversation1 and every head1 for a moment1 a little inclined4 ,what a life of misery these men appear to us to lead6 ,they were at least ten leagues from the ,sauce posta1 and since the murder committed by the ,indians1 twenty from another4 ,the ,indians are supposed to have made their attack in the middle of the night2 for very early in the morning after the murder1 they were luckily seen approaching this posta4 ,the whole party here1 however1 escaped1 together with the troop of horses2 each one taking a line for himself1 and driving with him as many animals as he was able to manage4 ,the little hovel1 built of thistle-stalks1 in which they slept1 neither kept out the wind nor rain2 indeed in the latter case the only effect the roof had1 was to condense it into larger drops4 ,they had nothing to eat excepting what they could catch1 such as ostriches1 deer1 armadilloes1 etc41 and their only fuel was the dry stalks of a small plant1 somewhat resembling an aloe4 ,the sole luxury which these men enjoyed was smoking the little paper cigars1 and sucking mat4 ,i used to think that the carrion vultures1 man's constant attendants on these dreary plains1 while seated on the little neighbouring cliffs1 seemed by their very patience to say1 8,ah6 when the ,indians come we shall have a feast40 ,illustration ,in the morning we all sallied forth to hunt1 and although we had not much success1 there were some animated chases4 ,soon after starting the party separated1 and so arranged their plans1 that at a certain time of the day 7in guessing which they show much skill7 they should all meet from different points of the compass on a plain piece of ground1 and thus drive together the wild animals4 ,one day ,i went out hunting at ,bahia ,blanca1 but the men there merely rode in a crescent1 each being about a quarter of a mile apart from the other4 ,a fine male ostrich being turned by the headmost riders1 tried to escape on one side4 ,the ,gauchos pursued at a reckless pace1 twisting their horses about with the most admirable command1 and each man whirling the balls round his head4 ,at length the foremost threw them1 revolving through the air3 in an instant the ostrich rolled over and over1 its legs fairly lashed together by the thong4 ,the plains abound with three kinds of partridge1#c two of which are as large as hen pheasants4 ,their destroyer1 a small and pretty fox1 was also singularly numerous2 in the course of the day we could not have seen less than forty or fifty4 ,they were generally near their earths1 but the dogs killed one4 ,when we returned to the posta1 we found two of the party returned who had been hunting by themselves4 ,they had killed a puma1 and had found an ostrich's nest with twenty-seven eggs in it4 ,each of these is said to equal in weight eleven hens' eggs2 so that we obtained from this one nest as much food as #big hens' eggs would have given4 #c ,two species of ,tinamus and ,eudromia elegans of ,a4 d',orbigny1 which can only be called a partridge with regard to its habits4 ,september #adth4--,as the soldiers belonging to the next posta meant to return1 and we should together make a party of five1 and all armed1 ,i determined not to wait for the expected troops4 ,my host1 the lieutenant1 pressed me much to stop4 ,as he had been very obliging--not only providing me with food1 but lending me his private horses--,i wanted to make him some remuneration4 ,i asked my guide whether ,i might do so1 but he told me certainly not2 that the only answer ,i should receive probably would be1 8,we have meat for the dogs in our country1 and therefore do not grudge it to a ,christian40 ,it must not be supposed that the rank of lieutenant in such an army would at all prevent the acceptance of payment3 it was only the high sense of hospitality1 which every traveller is bound to acknowledge as nearly universal throughout these provinces4 ,after galloping some leagues1 we came to a low swampy country1 which extends for nearly eighty miles northward1 as far as the ,sierra ,tapalguen4 ,in some parts there were fine damp plains1 covered with grass1 while others had a soft1 black1 and peaty soil4 ,there were also many extensive but shallow lakes1 and large beds of reeds4 ,the country on the whole resembled the better parts of the ,cambridgeshire fens4 ,at night we had some difficulty in finding1 amidst the swamps1 a dry place for our bivouac4 ,september #aeth4--,rose very early in the morning1 and shortly after passed the posta where the ,indians had murdered the five soldiers4 ,the officer had eighteen chuzo wounds in his body4 ,by the middle of the day1 after a hard gallop1 we reached the fifth posta3 on account of some difficulty in procuring horses we stayed there the night4 ,as this point was the most exposed on the whole line1 twenty-one soldiers were stationed here2 at sunset they returned from hunting1 bringing with them seven deer1 three ostriches1 and many armadilloes and partridges4 ,when riding through the country1 it is a common practice to set fire to the plain2 and hence at night1 as on this occasion1 the horizon was illuminated in several places by brilliant conflagrations4 ,this is done partly for the sake of puzzling any stray ,indians1 but chiefly for improving the pasture4 ,in grassy plains unoccupied by the larger ruminating quadrupeds1 it seems necessary to remove the superfluous vegetation by fire1 so as to render the new year's growth serviceable4 ,the rancho at this place did not boast even of a roof1 but merely consisted of a ring of thistle-stalks1 to break the force of the wind4 ,it was situated on the borders of an extensive but shallow lake1 swarming with wild fowl1 among which the black-necked swan was conspicuous4 ,the kind of plover which appears as if mounted on stilts 7,himantopus nigricollis71 is here common in flocks of considerable size4 ,it has been wrongfully accused of inelegance2 when wading about in shallow water1 which is its favourite resort1 its gait is far from awkward4 ,these birds in a flock utter a noise1 that singularly resembles the cry of a pack of small dogs in full chase3 waking in the night1 ,i have more than once been for a moment startled at the distant sound4 ,the teru-tero 7,vanellus cayanus7 is another bird which often disturbs the stillness of the night4 ,in appearance and habits it resembles in many respects our peewits2 its wings1 however1 are armed with sharp spurs1 like those on the legs of the common cock4 ,as our peewit takes its name from the sound of its voice1 so does the teru-tero4 ,while riding over the grassy plains1 one is constantly pursued by these birds1 which appear to hate mankind1 and ,i am sure deserve to be hated for their never-ceasing1 unvaried1 harsh screams4 ,to the sportsman they are most annoying1 by telling every other bird and animal of his approach3 to the traveller in the country they may possibly1 as ,molina says1 do good1 by warning him of the midnight robber4 ,during the breeding season1 they attempt1 like our peewits1 by feigning to be wounded1 to draw away from their nests dogs and other enemies4 ,the eggs of this bird are esteemed a great delicacy4 ,september #afth4--,to the seventh posta at the foot of the ,sierra ,tapalguen4 ,the country was quite level1 with a coarse herbage and a soft peaty soil4 ,the hovel was here remarkably neat1 the posts and rafters being made of about a dozen dry thistle-stalks bound together with thongs of hide2 and by the support of these ,ionic-like columns1 the roof and sides were thatched with reeds4 ,we were here told a fact1 which ,i would not have credited1 if ,i had not had partly ocular proof of it2 namely1 that1 during the previous night1 hail as large as small apples1 and extremely hard1 had fallen with such violence as to kill the greater number of the wild animals4 ,one of the men had already found thirteen deer 7,cervus campestris7 lying dead1 and ,i saw their fresh hides2 another of the party1 a few minutes after my arrival1 brought in seven more4 ,now ,i well know1 that one man without dogs could hardly have killed seven deer in a week4 ,the men believed they had seen about fifteen dead ostriches 7part of one of which we had for dinner72 and they said that several were running about evidently blind in one eye4 ,numbers of smaller birds1 as ducks1 hawks1 and partridges1 were killed4 ,i saw one of the latter with a black mark on its back1 as if it had been struck with a paving-stone4 ,a fence of thistle-stalks round the hovel was nearly broken down1 and my informer1 putting his head out to see what was the matter1 received a severe cut1 and now wore a bandage4 ,the storm was said to have been of limited extent3 we certainly saw from our last night's bivouac a dense cloud and lightning in this direction4 ,it is marvellous how such strong animals as deer could thus have been killed2 but ,i have no doubt1 from the evidence ,i have given1 that the story is not in the least exaggerated4 ,i am glad1 however1 to have its credibility supported by the ,jesuit ,dobrizhoffer1#d who1 speaking of a country much to the northward1 says1 hail fell of an enormous size and killed vast numbers of cattle3 the ,indians hence called the place ,lalegraicavalca1 meaning 8the little white things40 ,dr4 ,malcolmson1 also1 informs me that he witnessed in #ahca in ,india a hail-storm1 which killed numbers of large birds and much injured the cattle4 ,these hail-stones were flat1 and one was ten inches in circumference1 and another weighed two ounces4 ,they ploughed up a gravel-walk like musket-balls1 and passed through glass-windows1 making round holes1 but not cracking them4 #d ,history of the ,abipones1 vol4 ii1 p4 #f4 ,having finished our dinner of hail-stricken meat1 we crossed the ,sierra ,tapalguen2 a low range of hills1 a few hundred feet in height1 which commences at ,cape ,corrientes4 ,the rock in this part is pure quartz2 farther eastward ,i understand it is granitic4 ,the hills are of a remarkable form2 they consist of flat patches of table-land1 surrounded by low perpendicular cliffs1 like the outliers of a sedimentary deposit4 ,the hill which ,i ascended was very small1 not above a couple of hundred yards in diameter2 but ,i saw others larger4 ,one which goes by the name of the 8,corral10 is said to be two or three miles in diameter1 and encompassed by perpendicular cliffs between thirty and forty feet high1 excepting at one spot1 where the entrance lies4 ,falconer#e gives a curious account of the ,indians driving troops of wild horses into it1 and then by guarding the entrance keeping them secure4 ,i have never heard of any other instance of table-land in a formation of quartz1 and which1 in the hill ,i examined1 had neither cleavage nor stratification4 ,i was told that the rock of the 8,corral0 was white1 and would strike fire4 #e ,falconer's ,patagonia1 p4 #gj4 ,we did not reach the posta on the ,rio ,tapalguen till after it was dark4 ,at supper1 from something which was said1 ,i was suddenly struck with horror at thinking that ,i was eating one of the favourite dishes of the country1 namely1 a half formed calf1 long before its proper time of birth4 ,it turned out to be ,puma2 the meat is very white1 and remarkably like veal in taste4 ,dr4 ,shaw was laughed at for stating that 8the flesh of the lion is in great esteem1 having no small affinity with veal1 both in colour1 taste1 and flavour40 ,such certainly is the case with the ,puma4 ,the ,gauchos differ in their opinion whether the ,jaguar is good eating1 but are unanimous in saying that cat is excellent4 ,september #agth4--,we followed the course of the ,rio ,tapalguen1 through a very fertile country1 to the ninth posta4 ,tapalguen itself1 or the town of ,tapalguen1 if it may be so called1 consists of a perfectly level plain1 studded over1 as far as the eye can reach1 with the toldos1 or oven-shaped huts of the ,indians4 ,the families of the friendly ,indians1 who were fighting on the side of ,rosas1 resided here4 ,we met and passed many young ,indian women1 riding by two or three together on the same horse3 they1 as well as many of the young men1 were strikingly handsome1--their fine ruddy complexions being the picture of health4 ,besides the toldos1 there were three ranchos2 one inhabited by the ,commandant1 and the two others by ,spaniards with small shops4 ,we were here able to buy some biscuit4 ,i had now been several days without tasting anything besides meat3 ,i did not at all dislike this new regimen2 but ,i felt as if it would only have agreed with me with hard exercise4 ,i have heard that patients in ,england1 when desired to confine themselves exclusively to an animal diet1 even with the hope of life before their eyes1 have hardly been able to endure it4 ,yet the ,gaucho in the ,pampas1 for months together1 touches nothing but beef4 ,but they eat1 ,i observe1 a very large proportion of fat1 which is of a less animalised nature2 and they particularly dislike dry meat1 such as that of the ,agouti4 ,dr4 ,richardson1#f also1 has remarked1 8that when people have fed for a long time solely upon lean animal food1 the desire for fat becomes so insatiable1 that they can consume a large quantity of unmixed and even oily fat without nausea30 this appears to me a curious physiological fact4 ,it is1 perhaps1 from their meat regimen that the ,gauchos1 like other carnivorous animals1 can abstain long from food4 ,i was told that at ,tandeel some troops voluntarily pursued a party of ,indians for three days1 without eating or drinking4 #f ,fauna ,boreali-,americana1 vol4 i1 p4 #ce4 ,we saw in the shops many articles1 such as horsecloths1 belts1 and garters1 woven by the ,indian women4 ,the patterns were very pretty1 and the colours brilliant2 the workmanship of the garters was so good that an ,english merchant at ,buenos ,ayres maintained they must have been manufactured in ,england1 till he found the tassels had been fastened by split sinew4 ,september #ahth4--,we had a very long ride this day4 ,at the twelfth posta1 which is seven leagues south of the ,rio ,salado1 we came to the first estancia with cattle and white women4 ,afterwards we had to ride for many miles through a country flooded with water above our horses' knees4 ,by crossing the stirrups1 and riding ,arab-like with our legs bent up1 we contrived to keep tolerably dry4 ,it was nearly dark when we arrived at the ,salado2 the stream was deep1 and about forty yards wide2 in summer1 however1 its bed becomes almost dry1 and the little remaining water nearly as salt as that of the sea4 ,we slept at one of the great estancias of ,general ,rosas4 ,it was fortified1 and of such an extent1 that arriving in the dark ,i thought it was a town and fortress4 ,in the morning we saw immense herds of cattle1 the general here having seventy-four square leagues of land4 ,formerly nearly three hundred men were employed about this estate1 and they defied all the attacks of the ,indians4 ,september #aith4--,passed the ,guardia del ,monte4 ,this is a nice scattered little town1 with many gardens1 full of peach and quince trees4 ,the plain here looked like that around ,buenos ,ayres2 the turf being short and bright green1 with beds of clover and thistles1 and with bizcacha holes4 ,i was very much struck with the marked change in the aspect of the country after having crossed the ,salado4 ,from a coarse herbage we passed on to a carpet of fine green verdure4 ,i at first attributed this to some change in the nature of the soil1 but the inhabitants assured me that here1 as well as in ,banda ,oriental1 where there is as great a difference between the country around ,monte ,video and the thinly-inhabited savannahs of ,colonia1 the whole was to be attributed to the manuring and grazing of the cattle4 ,exactly the same fact has been observed in the prairies#g of ,north ,america1 where coarse grass1 between five and six feet high1 when grazed by cattle1 changes into common pasture land4 ,i am not botanist enough to say whether the change here is owing to the introduction of new species1 to the altered growth of the same1 or to a difference in their proportional numbers4 ,azara has also observed with astonishment this change3 he is likewise much perplexed by the immediate appearance of plants not occurring in the neighbourhood1 on the borders of any track that leads to a newly-constructed hovel4 ,in another part he says1#h 8,ces chevaux 7sauvages7 ont la manie de prfrer les chemins1 et le bord des routes pour dposer leurs excrmens1 dont on trouve des monceaux dans ces endroits40 ,does this not partly explain the circumstance8 ,we thus have lines of richly manured land serving as channels of communication across wide districts4 #g ,see ,mr4 ,atwater's 8,account of the ,prairies10 in ,silliman's ,north ,american ,journal1 vol4 i1 p4 #aag4 #h ,azara's ,voyage1 vol4 i1 p4 #cgc4 ,illustration ,near the ,guardia we find the southern limit of two ,european plants1 now become extraordinarily common4 ,the fennel in great profusion covers the ditch-banks in the neighbourhood of ,buenos ,ayres1 ,monte ,video1 and other towns4 ,but the cardoon 7,cynara cardunculus7#i has a far wider range3 it occurs in these latitudes on both sides of the ,cordillera1 across the continent4 ,i saw it in unfrequented spots in ,chile1 ,entre ,rios1 and ,banda ,oriental4 ,in the latter country alone1 very many 7probably several hundred7 square miles are covered by one mass of these prickly plants1 and are impenetrable by man or beast4 ,over the undulating plains1 where these great beds occur1 nothing else can now live4 ,before their introduction1 however1 the surface must have supported1 as in other parts1 a rank herbage4 ,i doubt whether any case is on record of an invasion on so grand a scale of one plant over the aborigines4 ,as ,i have already said1 ,i nowhere saw the cardoon south of the ,salado2 but it is probable that in proportion as that country becomes inhabited1 the cardoon will extend its limits4 ,the case is different with the giant thistle 7with variegated leaves7 of the ,pampas1 for ,i met with it in the valley of the ,sauce4 ,according to the principles so well laid down by ,mr4 ,lyell1 few countries have undergone more remarkable changes1 since the year #aece1 when the first colonist of ,la ,plata landed with seventy-two horses4 ,the countless herds of horses1 cattle1 and sheep1 not only have altered the whole aspect of the vegetation1 but they have almost banished the guanaco1 deer1 and ostrich4 ,numberless other changes must likewise have taken place2 the wild pig in some parts probably replaces the peccari2 packs of wild dogs may be heard howling on the wooded banks of the less-frequented streams2 and the common cat1 altered into a large and fierce animal1 inhabits rocky hills4 ,as ,m4 d',orbigny has remarked1 the increase in numbers of the carrion-vulture1 since the introduction of the domestic animals1 must have been infinitely great2 and we have given reasons for believing that they have extended their southern range4 ,no doubt many plants1 besides the cardoon and fennel1 are naturalised2 thus the islands near the mouth of the ,parana are thickly clothed with peach and orange trees1 springing from seeds carried there by the waters of the river4 #i ,m4 ,a4 d',orbigny 7vol4 i1 p4 #dgd7 says that the cardoon and artichoke are both found wild4 ,dr4 ,hooker 7,botanical ,magazine1 vol4 lv4 p4 #bhfb7 has described a variety of the ,cynara from this part of ,south ,america under the name of inermis4 ,he states that botanists are now generally agreed that the cardoon and the artichoke are varieties of one plant4 ,i may add1 that an intelligent farmer assured me that he had observed in a deserted garden some artichokes changing into the common cardoon4 ,dr4 ,hooker believes that ,head's vivid description of the thistle of the ,pampas applies to the cardoon1 but this is a mistake4 ,captain ,head referred to the plant which ,i have mentioned a few lines lower down under the title of giant thistle4 ,whether it is a true thistle1 ,i do not know2 but it is quite different from the cardoon2 and more like a thistle properly so called4 ,while changing horses at the ,guardia several people questioned us much about the army1--,i never saw anything like the enthusiasm for ,rosas1 and for the success of the 8most just of all wars1 because against barbarians40 ,this expression1 it must be confessed1 is very natural1 for till lately1 neither man1 woman1 nor horse was safe from the attacks of the ,indians4 ,we had a long day's ride over the same rich green plain1 abounding with various flocks1 and with here and there a solitary estancia1 and its one ombu tree4 ,in the evening it rained heavily3 on arriving at a post-house we were told by the owner that if we had not a regular passport we must pass on1 for there were so many robbers he would trust no one4 ,when he read1 however1 my passport1 which began with 8,el ,naturalista ,don ,carlos10 his respect and civility were as unbounded as his suspicions had been before4 ,what a naturalist might be1 neither he nor his countrymen1 ,i suspect1 had any idea2 but probably my title lost nothing of its value from that cause4 ,september #bjth4--,we arrived by the middle of the day at ,buenos ,ayres4 ,the outskirts of the city looked quite pretty1 with the agave hedges1 and groves of olive1 peach and willow trees1 all just throwing out their fresh green leaves4 ,i rode to the house of ,mr4 ,lumb1 an ,english merchant1 to whose kindness and hospitality1 during my stay in the country1 ,i was greatly indebted4 ,the city of ,buenos ,ayres is large2#aj and ,i should think one of the most regular in the world4 ,every street is at right angles to the one it crosses1 and the parallel ones being equidistant1 the houses are collected into solid squares of equal dimensions1 which are called quadras4 ,on the other hand1 the houses themselves are hollow squares2 all the rooms opening into a neat little courtyard4 ,they are generally only one story high1 with flat roofs1 which are fitted with seats1 and are much frequented by the inhabitants in summer4 ,in the centre of the town is the ,plaza1 where the public offices1 fortress1 cathedral1 etc41 stand4 ,here also1 the old viceroys1 before the revolution1 had their palaces4 ,the general assemblage of buildings possesses considerable architectural beauty1 although none individually can boast of any4 #aj ,it is said to contain #fj1jjj inhabitants4 ,monte ,video1 the second town of importance on the banks of the ,plata1 has #ae1jjj4 ,the great corral1 where the animals are kept for slaughter to supply food to this beef-eating population1 is one of the spectacles best worth seeing4 ,the strength of the horse as compared to that of the bullock is quite astonishing3 a man on horseback having thrown his lazo round the horns of a beast1 can drag it anywhere he chooses4 ,the animal ploughing up the ground with outstretched legs1 in vain efforts to resist the force1 generally dashes at full speed to one side2 but the horse1 immediately turning to receive the shock1 stands so firmly that the bullock is almost thrown down1 and it is surprising that their necks are not broken4 ,the struggle is not1 however1 one of fair strength2 the horse's girth being matched against the bullock's extended neck4 ,in a similar manner a man can hold the wildest horse1 if caught with the lazo1 just behind the ears4 ,when the bullock has been dragged to the spot where it is to be slaughtered1 the matador with great caution cuts the hamstrings4 ,then is given the death bellow2 a noise more expressive of fierce agony than any ,i know4 ,i have often distinguished it from a long distance1 and have always known that the struggle was then drawing to a close4 ,the whole sight is horrible and revolting3 the ground is almost made of bones2 and the horses and riders are drenched with gore4 ,illustration ,illustration ,chapter ,,vii ,excursion to ,st4 ,f--,thistle ,beds--,habits of the ,bizcacha--,little ,owl--,saline ,streams--,level ,plains--,mastodon--,st4 ,f--,change in ,landscape--,geology--,tooth of extinct ,horse--,relation of the ,fossil and recent ,quadrupeds of ,north and ,south ,america--,effects of a great ,drought--,parana--,habits of the ,jaguar--,scissor-beak--,kingfisher1 ,parrot1 and ,scissor-tail--,revolution--,buenos ,ayres--,state of ,government4 ,,buenos ,,ayres ,,to ,,st4 ,f4 ,september #bgth4--,in the evening ,i set out on an excursion to ,st4 ,f1 which is situated nearly three hundred ,english miles from ,buenos ,ayres1 on the banks of the ,parana4 ,the roads in the neighbourhood of the city1 after the rainy weather1 were extraordinarily bad4 ,i should never have thought it possible for a bullock waggon to have crawled along3 as it was1 they scarcely went at the rate of a mile an hour1 and a man was kept ahead1 to survey the best line for making the attempt4 ,the bullocks were terribly jaded3 it is a great mistake to suppose that with improved roads1 and an accelerated rate of travelling1 the sufferings of the animals increase in the same proportion4 ,we passed a train of waggons and a troop of beasts on their road to ,mendoza4 ,the distance is about #ehj geographical miles1 and the journey is generally performed in fifty days4 ,these waggons are very long1 narrow1 and thatched with reeds2 they have only two wheels1 the diameter of which in some cases is as much as ten feet4 ,each is drawn by six bullocks1 which are urged on by a goad at least twenty feet long3 this is suspended from within the roof2 for the wheel bullocks a smaller one is kept2 and for the intermediate pair1 a point projects at right angles from the middle of the long one4 ,the whole apparatus looked like some implement of war4 ,september #bhth4--,we passed the small town of ,luxan1 where there is a wooden bridge over the river--a most unusual convenience in this country4 ,we passed also ,areco4 ,the plains appeared level1 but were not so in fact2 for in various places the horizon was distant4 ,the estancias are here wide apart2 for there is little good pasture1 owing to the land being covered by beds either of an acrid clover1 or of the great thistle4 ,the latter1 well known from the animated description given by ,sir ,f4 ,head1 were at this time of the year two-thirds grown2 in some parts they were as high as the horse's back1 but in others they had not yet sprung up1 and the ground was bare and dusty as on a turnpike-road4 ,the clumps were of the most brilliant green1 and they made a pleasing miniature-likeness of broken forest land4 ,when the thistles are full grown1 the great beds are impenetrable1 except by a few tracks1 as intricate as those in a labyrinth4 ,these are only known to the robbers1 who at this season inhabit them1 and sally forth at night to rob and cut throats with impunity4 ,upon asking at a house whether robbers were numerous1 ,i was answered1 8,the thistles are not up yet20--the meaning of which reply was not at first very obvious4 ,there is little interest in passing over these tracts1 for they are inhabited by few animals or birds1 excepting the bizcacha and its friend the little owl4 ,the bizcacha#a is well known to form a prominent feature in the zoology of the ,pampas4 ,it is found as far south as the ,rio ,negro1 in lat4 #da1 but not beyond4 ,it cannot1 like the agouti1 subsist on the gravelly and desert plains of ,patagonia1 but prefers a clayey or sandy soil1 which produces a different and more abundant vegetation4 ,near ,mendoza1 at the foot of the ,cordillera1 it occurs in close neighbourhood with the allied alpine species4 ,it is a very curious circumstance in its geographical distribution1 that it has never been seen1 fortunately for the inhabitants of ,banda ,oriental1 to the eastward of the river ,uruguay3 yet in this province there are plains which appear admirably adapted to its habits4 ,the ,uruguay has formed an insuperable obstacle to its migration3 although the broader barrier of the ,parana has been passed1 and the bizcacha is common in ,entre ,rios1 the province between these two great rivers4 ,near ,buenos ,ayres these animals are exceedingly common4 ,their most favourite resort appears to be those parts of the plain which during one half of the year are covered with giant thistles1 to the exclusion of other plants4 ,the ,gauchos affirm that it lives on roots2 which1 from the great strength of its gnawing teeth1 and the kind of places frequented by it1 seems probable4 ,in the evening the bizcachas come out in numbers1 and quietly sit at the mouths of their burrows on their haunches4 ,at such times they are very tame1 and a man on horseback passing by seems only to present an object for their grave contemplation4 ,they run very awkwardly1 and when running out of danger1 from their elevated tails and short front legs1 much resemble great rats4 ,their flesh1 when cooked1 is very white and good1 but it is seldom used4 #a ,the bizcacha 7,lagostomus trichodactylus7 somewhat resembles a large rabbit1 but with bigger gnawing teeth and a long tail2 it has1 however1 only three toes behind1 like the agouti4 ,during the last three or four years the skins of these animals have been sent to ,england for the sake of the fur4 ,the bizcacha has one very singular habit2 namely1 dragging every hard object to the mouth of its burrow3 around each group of holes many bones of cattle1 stones1 thistle-stalks1 hard lumps of earth1 dry dung1 etc41 are collected into an irregular heap1 which frequently amounts to as much as a wheelbarrow would contain4 ,i was credibly informed that a gentleman1 when riding on a dark night1 dropped his watch2 he returned in the morning1 and by searching the neighbourhood of every bizcacha hole on the line of road1 as he expected1 he soon found it4 ,this habit of picking up whatever may be lying on the ground anywhere near its habitation must cost much trouble4 ,for what purpose it is done1 ,i am quite unable to form even the most remote conjecture3 it cannot be for defence1 because the rubbish is chiefly placed above the mouth of the burrow1 which enters the ground at a very small inclination4 ,no doubt there must exist some good reason2 but the inhabitants of the country are quite ignorant of it4 ,the only fact which ,i know analogous to it1 is the habit of that extraordinary ,australian bird1 the ,calodera maculata1 which makes an elegant vaulted passage of twigs for playing in1 and which collects near the spot land and sea-shells1 bones1 and the feathers of birds1 especially brightly coloured ones4 ,mr4 ,gould1 who has described these facts1 informs me1 that the natives1 when they lose any hard object1 search the playing passages1 and he has known a tobacco-pipe thus recovered4 ,the little owl 7,athene cunicularia71 which has been so often mentioned1 on the plains of ,buenos ,ayres exclusively inhabits the holes of the bizcacha2 but in ,banda ,oriental it is its own workman4 ,during the open day1 but more especially in the evening1 these birds may be seen in every direction standing frequently by pairs on the hillock near their burrows4 ,if disturbed they either enter the hole1 or1 uttering a shrill harsh cry1 move with a remarkably undulatory flight to a short distance1 and then turning round1 steadily gaze at their pursuer4 ,occasionally in the evening they may be heard hooting4 ,i found in the stomachs of two which ,i opened the remains of mice1 and ,i one day saw a small snake killed and carried away4 ,it is said that snakes are their common prey during the daytime4 ,i may here mention1 as showing on what various kinds of food owls subsist1 that a species killed among the islets of the ,chonos ,archipelago had its stomach full of good-sized crabs4 ,in ,india#b there is a fishing genus of owls1 which likewise catches crabs4 #b ,journal of ,asiatic ,soc41 vol4 v1 p4 #cfc4 ,in the evening we crossed the ,rio ,arrecife on a simple raft made of barrels lashed together1 and slept at the post-house on the other side4 ,i this day paid horse-hire for thirty-one leagues2 and although the sun was glaring hot ,i was but little fatigued4 ,when ,captain ,head talks of riding fifty leagues a day1 ,i do not imagine the distance is equal to #aej ,english miles4 ,at all events1 the thirty-one leagues was only #gf miles in a straight line1 and in an open country ,i should think four additional miles for turnings would be a sufficient allowance4 #bith and #cjth4--,we continued to ride over plains of the same character4 ,at ,san ,nicolas ,i first saw the noble river of the ,parana4 ,at the foot of the cliff on which the town stands1 some large vessels were at anchor4 ,before arriving at ,rozario1 we crossed the ,saladillo1 a stream of fine clear running water1 but too saline to drink4 ,rozario is a large town built on a dead level plain1 which forms a cliff about sixty feet high over the ,parana4 ,the river here is very broad1 with many islands1 which are low and wooded1 as is also the opposite shore4 ,the view would resemble that of a great lake1 if it were not for the linear-shaped islets1 which alone give the idea of running water4 ,the cliffs are the most picturesque part2 sometimes they are absolutely perpendicular1 and of a red colour2 at other times in large broken masses1 covered with cacti and mimosa-trees4 ,the real grandeur1 however1 of an immense river like this is derived from reflecting how important a means of communication and commerce it forms between one nation and another2 to what a distance it travels1 and from how vast a territory it drains the great body of fresh water which flows past your feet4 ,illustration ,for many leagues north and south of ,san ,nicolas and ,rozario1 the country is really level4 ,scarcely anything which travellers have written about its extreme flatness can be considered as exaggeration4 ,yet ,i could never find a spot where1 by slowly turning round1 objects were not seen at greater distances in some directions than in others2 and this manifestly proves inequality in the plain4 ,at sea1 a person's eye being six feet above the surface of the water1 his horizon is two miles and four-fifths distant4 ,in like manner1 the more level the plain1 the more nearly does the horizon approach within these narrow limits2 and this1 in my opinion1 entirely destroys that grandeur which one would have imagined that a vast level plain would have possessed4 ,illustration ,october #ast4--,we started by moonlight and arrived at the ,rio ,tercero by sunrise4 ,this river is also called the ,saladillo1 and it deserves the name1 for the water is brackish4 ,i stayed here the greater part of the day1 searching for fossil bones4 ,besides a perfect tooth of the ,toxodon1 and many scattered bones1 ,i found two immense skeletons near each other1 projecting in bold relief from the perpendicular cliff of the ,parana4 ,they were1 however1 so completely decayed1 that ,i could only bring away small fragments of one of the great molar teeth2 but these are sufficient to show that the remains belonged to a ,mastodon1 probably to the same species with that which formerly must have inhabited the ,cordillera in ,upper ,peru in such great numbers4 ,the men who took me in the canoe said they had long known of these skeletons1 and had often wondered how they had got there3 the necessity of a theory being felt1 they came to the conclusion that1 like the bizcacha1 the mastodon was formerly a burrowing animal6 ,in the evening we rode another stage1 and crossed the ,monge1 another brackish stream1 bearing the dregs of the washings of the ,pampas4 ,october #bnd4--,we passed through ,corunda1 which1 from the luxuriance of its gardens1 was one of the prettiest villages ,i saw4 ,from this point to ,st4 ,f the road is not very safe4 ,the western side of the ,parana northward ceases to be inhabited2 and hence the ,indians sometimes come down thus far1 and waylay travellers4 ,the nature of the country also favours this1 for instead of a grassy plain1 there is an open woodland1 composed of low prickly mimosas4 ,we passed some houses that had been ransacked and since deserted2 we saw also a spectacle1 which my guides viewed with high satisfaction2 it was the skeleton of an ,indian with the dried skin hanging on the bones1 suspended to the branch of a tree4 ,in the morning we arrived at ,st4 ,f4 ,i was surprised to observe how great a change of climate a difference of only three degrees of latitude between this place and ,buenos ,ayres had caused4 ,this was evident from the dress and complexion of the men--from the increased size of the ombu-trees--the number of new cacti and other plants--and especially from the birds4 ,in the course of an hour ,i remarked half-a-dozen birds1 which ,i had never seen at ,buenos ,ayres4 ,considering that there is no natural boundary between the two places1 and that the character of the country is nearly similar1 the difference was much greater than ,i should have expected4 ,october #crd and #dth4--,i was confined for these two days to my bed by a headache4 ,a good-natured old woman1 who attended me1 wished me to try many odd remedies4 ,a common practice is1 to bind an orange-leaf or a bit of black plaster to each temple3 and a still more general plan is1 to split a bean into halves1 moisten them1 and place one on each temple1 where they will easily adhere4 ,it is not thought proper ever to remove the beans or plaster1 but to allow them to drop off1 and sometimes1 if a man1 with patches on his head1 is asked1 what is the matter8 he will answer1 8,i had a headache the day before yesterday40 ,many of the remedies used by the people of the country are ludicrously strange1 but too disgusting to be mentioned4 ,one of the least nasty is to kill and cut open two puppies and bind them on each side of a broken limb4 ,little hairless dogs are in great request to sleep at the feet of invalids4 ,st4 ,f is a quiet little town1 and is kept clean and in good order4 ,the governor1 ,lopez1 was a common soldier at the time of the revolution2 but has now been seventeen years in power4 ,this stability of government is owing to his tyrannical habits2 for tyranny seems as yet better adapted to these countries than republicanism4 ,the governor's favourite occupation is hunting ,indians3 a short time since he slaughtered forty-eight1 and sold the children at the rate of three or four pounds apiece4 ,october #eth4--,we crossed the ,parana to ,st4 ,f ,bajada1 a town on the opposite shore4 ,the passage took some hours1 as the river here consisted of a labyrinth of small streams1 separated by low wooded islands4 ,i had a letter of introduction to an old ,catalonian ,spaniard1 who treated me with the most uncommon hospitality4 ,the ,bajada is the capital of ,entre ,rios4 ,in #ahbe the town contained #fjjj inhabitants1 and the province #cj1jjj2 yet1 few as the inhabitants are1 no province has suffered more from bloody and desperate revolutions4 ,they boast here of representatives1 ministers1 a standing army1 and governors3 so it is no wonder that they have their revolutions4 ,at some future day this must be one of the richest countries of ,la ,plata4 ,the soil is varied and productive2 and its almost insular form gives it two grand lines of communication by the rivers ,parana and ,uruguay4 ,i was delayed here five days1 and employed myself in examining the geology of the surrounding country1 which was very interesting4 ,we here see at the bottom of the cliffs1 beds containing sharks' teeth and sea-shells of extinct species1 passing above into an indurated marl1 and from that into the red clayey earth of the ,pampas1 with its calcareous concretions and the bones of terrestrial quadrupeds4 ,this vertical section clearly tells us of a large bay of pure salt-water1 gradually encroached on1 and at last converted into the bed of a muddy estuary1 into which floating carcasses were swept4 ,at ,punta ,gorda1 in ,banda ,oriental1 ,i found an alternation of the ,pampan estuary deposit1 with a limestone containing some of the same extinct sea-shells2 and this shows either a change in the former currents1 or more probably an oscillation of level in the bottom of the ancient estuary4 ,until lately1 my reasons for considering the ,pampan formation to be an estuary deposit were1 its general appearance1 its position at the mouth of the existing great river the ,plata1 and the presence of so many bones of terrestrial quadrupeds3 but now ,professor ,ehrenberg has had the kindness to examine for me a little of the red earth1 taken from low down in the deposit1 close to the skeletons of the mastodon1 and he finds in it many infusoria1 partly salt-water and partly fresh-water forms1 with the latter rather preponderating2 and therefore1 as he remarks1 the water must have been brackish4 ,m4 ,a4 d',orbigny found on the banks of the ,parana1 at the height of a hundred feet1 great beds of an estuary shell1 now living a hundred miles lower down nearer the sea2 and ,i found similar shells at a less height on the banks of the ,uruguay2 this shows that just before the ,pampas was slowly elevated into dry land1 the water covering it was brackish4 ,below ,buenos ,ayres there are upraised beds of sea-shells of existing species1 which also proves that the period of elevation of the ,pampas was within the recent period4 ,in the ,pampan deposit at the ,bajada ,i found the osseous armour of a gigantic armadillo-like animal1 the inside of which1 when the earth was removed1 was like a great cauldron2 ,i found also teeth of the ,toxodon and ,mastodon1 and one tooth of a ,horse1 in the same stained and decayed state4 ,this latter tooth greatly interested me1#c and ,i took scrupulous care in ascertaining that it had been embedded contemporaneously with the other remains2 for ,i was not then aware that amongst the fossils from ,bahia ,blanca there was a horse's tooth hidden in the matrix3 nor was it then known with certainty that the remains of horses are common in ,north ,america4 ,mr4 ,lyell has lately brought from the ,united ,states a tooth of a horse2 and it is an interesting fact1 that ,professor ,owen could find in no species1 either fossil or recent1 a slight but peculiar curvature characterising it1 until he thought of comparing it with my specimen found here3 he has named this ,american horse ,equus curvidens4 ,certainly it is a marvellous fact in the history of the ,mammalia1 that in ,south ,america a native horse should have lived and disappeared1 to be succeeded in after ages by the countless herds descended from the few introduced with the ,spanish colonists6 #c ,i need hardly state here that there is good evidence against any horse living in ,america at the time of ,columbus4 ,illustration ,the existence in ,south ,america of a fossil horse1 of the mastodon1 possibly of an elephant1#d and of a hollow-horned ruminant1 discovered by ,,mm4 ,lund and ,clausen in the caves of ,brazil1 are highly interesting facts with respect to the geographical distribution of animals4 ,at the present time1 if we divide ,america1 not by the ,isthmus of ,panama1 but by the southern part of ,mexico#e in lat4 #bj1 where the great table-land presents an obstacle to the migration of species1 by affecting the climate1 and by forming1 with the exception of some valleys and of a fringe of low land on the coast1 a broad barrier2 we shall then have the two zoological provinces of ,north and ,south ,america strongly contrasted with each other4 ,some few species alone have passed the barrier1 and may be considered as wanderers from the south1 such as the puma1 opossum1 kinkajou1 and peccari4 ,south ,america is characterised by possessing many peculiar gnawers1 a family of monkeys1 the llama1 peccari1 tapir1 opossums1 and1 especially1 several genera of ,edentata1 the order which includes the sloths1 ant-eaters1 and armadilloes4 ,north ,america1 on the other hand1 is characterised 7putting on one side a few wandering species7 by numerous peculiar gnawers1 and by four genera 7the ox1 sheep1 goat1 and antelope7 of hollow-horned ruminants1 of which great division ,south ,america is not known to possess a single species4 ,formerly1 but within the period when most of the now existing shells were living1 ,north ,america possessed1 besides hollow-horned ruminants1 the elephant1 mastodon1 horse1 and three genera of ,edentata1 namely1 the ,megatherium1 ,megalonyx1 and ,mylodon4 ,within nearly this same period 7as proved by the shells at ,bahia ,blanca7 ,south ,america possessed1 as we have just seen1 a mastodon1 horse1 hollow-horned ruminant1 and the same three genera 7as well as several others7 of the ,edentata4 ,hence it is evident that ,north and ,south ,america1 in having within a late geological period these several genera in common1 were much more closely related in the character of their terrestrial inhabitants than they now are4 ,the more ,i reflect on this case1 the more interesting it appears3 ,i know of no other instance where we can almost mark the period and manner of the splitting up of one great region into two well-characterised zoological provinces4 ,the geologist1 who is fully impressed with the vast oscillations of level which have affected the earth's crust within late periods1 will not fear to speculate on the recent elevation of the ,mexican platform1 or1 more probably1 on the recent submergence of land in the ,west ,indian ,archipelago1 as the cause of the present zoological separation of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,the ,south ,american character of the ,west ,indian mammals#f seems to indicate that this archipelago was formerly united to the southern continent1 and that it has subsequently been an area of subsidence4 #d ,cuvier1 ,ossemens ,fossils1 tome i1 p4 #aeh4 #e ,this is the geographical division followed by ,lichtenstein1 ,swainson1 ,erichson1 and ,richardson4 ,the section from ,vera ,cruz to ,acapulco1 given by ,humboldt in the ,polit4 ,essay on ,kingdom of ,n4 ,spain will show how immense a barrier the ,mexican table-land forms4 ,dr4 ,richardson1 in his admirable ,report on the ,zoology of ,n4 ,america read before the ,british ,assoc4 #ahcf 7p4 #aeg71 talking of the identification of a ,mexican animal with the ,synetheres prehensilis1 says1 8,we do not know with what propriety1 but if correct1 it is1 if not a solitary instance1 at least very nearly so1 of a rodent animal being common to ,north and ,south ,america40 #f ,see ,dr4 ,richardson's ,report1 p4 #aeg2 also ,l',institut1 #ahcg1 p4 #bec4 ,cuvier says the kinkajou is found in the larger ,antilles1 but this is doubtful4 ,m4 ,gervais states that the ,didelphis crancrivora is found there4 ,it is certain that the ,west ,indies possess some mammifers peculiar to themselves4 ,a tooth of a mastodon has been brought from ,bahama2 ,edinburgh ,new ,philosophical ,journal1 #ahbf1 p4 #cie4 ,illustration ,when ,america1 and especially ,north ,america1 possessed its elephants1 mastodons1 horse1 and hollow-horned ruminants1 it was much more closely related in its zoological characters to the temperate parts of ,europe and ,asia than it now is4 ,as the remains of these genera are found on both sides of ,behring's ,straits#g and on the plains of ,siberia1 we are led to look to the north-western side of ,north ,america as the former point of communication between the ,old and so-called ,new ,world4 ,and as so many species1 both living and extinct1 of these same genera inhabit and have inhabited the ,old ,world1 it seems most probable that the ,north ,american elephants1 mastodons1 horse1 and hollow-horned ruminants migrated1 on land since submerged near ,behring's ,straits1 from ,siberia into ,north ,america1 and thence1 on land since submerged in the ,west ,indies1 into ,south ,america1 where for a time they mingled with the forms characteristic of that southern continent1 and have since become extinct4 #g ,see the admirable ,appendix by ,dr4 ,buckland to ,beechey's ,voyage2 also the writings of ,chamisso in ,kotzebue's ,voyage4 ,while travelling through the country1 ,i received several vivid descriptions of the effects of a late great drought2 and the account of this may throw some light on the cases where vast numbers of animals of all kinds have been embedded together4 ,the period included between the years #ahbg and #ahcj is called the 8gran seco10 or the great drought4 ,during this time so little rain fell1 that the vegetation1 even to the thistles1 failed2 the brooks were dried up1 and the whole country assumed the appearance of a dusty high-road4 ,this was especially the case in the northern part of the province of ,buenos ,ayres and the southern part of ,st4 ,f4 ,very great numbers of birds1 wild animals1 cattle1 and horses perished from the want of food and water4 ,a man told me that the deer#h used to come into his courtyard to the well1 which he had been obliged to dig to supply his own family with water2 and that the partridges had hardly strength to fly away when pursued4 ,the lowest estimation of the loss of cattle in the province of ,buenos ,ayres alone1 was taken at one million head4 ,a proprietor at ,san ,pedro had previously to these years #bj1jjj cattle2 at the end not one remained4 ,san ,pedro is situated in the middle of the finest country2 and even now abounds again with animals2 yet during the latter part of the 8gran seco10 live cattle were brought in vessels for the consumption of the inhabitants4 ,the animals roamed from their estancias1 and1 wandering far southward1 were mingled together in such multitudes1 that a government commission was sent from ,buenos ,ayres to settle the disputes of the owners4 ,sir ,woodbine ,parish informed me of another and very curious source of dispute2 the ground being so long dry1 such quantities of dust were blown about1 that in this open country the landmarks became obliterated1 and people could not tell the limits of their estates4 ,i was informed by an eye-witness that the cattle in herds of thousands rushed into the ,parana1 and being exhausted by hunger they were unable to crawl up the muddy banks1 and thus were drowned4 ,the arm of the river which runs by ,san ,pedro was so full of putrid carcasses1 that the master of a vessel told me that the smell rendered it quite impassable4 ,without doubt several hundred thousand animals thus perished in the river3 their bodies when putrid were seen floating down the stream2 and many in all probability were deposited in the estuary of the ,plata4 ,all the small rivers became highly saline1 and this caused the death of vast numbers in particular spots2 for when an animal drinks of such water it does not recover4 ,azara describes#i the fury of the wild horses on a similar occasion1 rushing into the marshes1 those which arrived first being overwhelmed and crushed by those which followed4 ,he adds that more than once he has seen the carcasses of upwards of a thousand wild horses thus destroyed4 ,i noticed that the smaller streams in the ,pampas were paved with a breccia of bones1 but this probably is the effect of a gradual increase1 rather than of the destruction at any one period4 ,subsequently to the drought of #ahbg to #ahcb1 a very rainy season followed which caused great floods4 ,hence it is almost certain that some thousands of the skeletons were buried by the deposits of the very next year4 ,what would be the opinion of a geologist1 viewing such an enormous collection of bones1 of all kinds of animals and of all ages1 thus embedded in one thick earthy mass8 ,would he not attribute it to a flood having swept over the surface of the land1 rather than to the common order of things8#aj #h ,in ,captain ,owen's ,surveying ,voyage 7vol4 ii1 p4 #bgd7 there is a curious account of the effects of a drought on the elephants1 at ,benguela 7west coast of ,africa74 8,a number of these animals had some time since entered the town1 in a body1 to possess themselves of the wells1 not being able to procure any water in the country4 ,the inhabitants mustered1 when a desperate conflict ensued1 which terminated in the ultimate discomfiture of the invaders1 but not until they had killed one man1 and wounded several others40 ,the town is said to have a population of nearly three thousand6 ,dr4 ,malcolmson informs me1 that during a great drought in ,india the wild animals entered the tents of some troops at ,ellore1 and that a hare drank out of a vessel held by the adjutant of the regiment47 #i ,travels1 vol4 i1 p4 #cgd4 #aj ,these droughts to a certain degree seem to be almost periodical2 ,i was told the dates of several others1 and the intervals were about fifteen years4 ,october #abth4--,i had intended to push my excursion farther1 but not being quite well1 ,i was compelled to return by a balandra1 or one-masted vessel of about a hundred tons' burden1 which was bound to ,buenos ,ayres4 ,as the weather was not fair1 we moored early in the day to a branch of a tree on one of the islands4 ,the ,parana is full of islands1 which undergo a constant round of decay and renovation4 ,in the memory of the master several large ones had disappeared1 and others again had been formed and protected by vegetation4 ,they are composed of muddy sand1 without even the smallest pebble1 and were then about four feet above the level of the river2 but during the periodical floods they are inundated4 ,they all present one character2 numerous willows and a few other trees are bound together by a great variety of creeping plants1 thus forming a thick jungle4 ,these thickets afford a retreat for capybaras and jaguars4 ,the fear of the latter animal quite destroyed all pleasure in scrambling through the woods4 ,this evening ,i had not proceeded a hundred yards1 before1 finding indubitable signs of the recent presence of the tiger1 ,i was obliged to come back4 ,on every island there were tracks2 and as on the former excursion 8el rastro de los ,indios0 had been the subject of conversation1 so in this was 8el rastro del tigre40 ,the wooded banks of the great rivers appear to be the favourite haunts of the jaguar2 but south of the ,plata1 ,i was told that they frequented the reeds bordering lakes3 wherever they are1 they seem to require water4 ,their common prey is the capybara1 so that it is generally said1 where capybaras are numerous there is little danger from the jaguar4 ,falconer states that near the southern side of the mouth of the ,plata there are many jaguars1 and that they chiefly live on fish2 this account ,i have heard repeated4 ,on the ,parana they have killed many wood-cutters1 and have even entered vessels at night4 ,there is a man now living in the ,bajada1 who1 coming up from below when it was dark1 was seized on the deck2 he escaped1 however1 with the loss of the use of one arm4 ,when the floods drive these animals from the islands1 they are most dangerous4 ,i was told that a few years since a very large one found its way into a church at ,st4 ,f3 two padres entering one after the other were killed1 and a third1 who came to see what was the matter1 escaped with difficulty4 ,the beast was destroyed by being shot from a corner of the building which was unroofed4 ,they commit also at these times great ravages among cattle and horses4 ,it is said that they kill their prey by breaking their necks4 ,if driven from the carcass1 they seldom return to it4 ,the ,gauchos say that the jaguar1 when wandering about at night1 is much tormented by the foxes yelping as they follow him4 ,this is a curious coincidence with the fact which is generally affirmed of the jackals accompanying1 in a similarly officious manner1 the ,east ,indian tiger4 ,the jaguar is a noisy animal1 roaring much by night1 and especially before bad weather4 ,one day1 when hunting on the banks of the ,uruguay1 ,i was shown certain trees1 to which these animals constantly recur for the purpose1 as it is said1 of sharpening their claws4 ,i saw three well-known trees2 in front1 the bark was worn smooth1 as if by the breast of the animal1 and on each side there were deep scratches1 or rather grooves1 extending in an oblique line1 nearly a yard in length4 ,the scars were of different ages4 ,a common method of ascertaining whether a jaguar is in the neighbourhood is to examine these trees4 ,i imagine this habit of the jaguar is exactly similar to one which may any day be seen in the common cat1 as with outstretched legs and exserted claws it scrapes the leg of a chair2 and ,i have heard of young fruit-trees in an orchard in ,england having been thus much injured4 ,some such habit must also be common to the puma1 for on the bare hard soil of ,patagonia ,i have frequently seen scores so deep that no other animal could have made them4 ,the object of this practice is1 ,i believe1 to tear off the ragged points of their claws1 and not1 as the ,gauchos think1 to sharpen them4 ,the jaguar is killed1 without much difficulty1 by the aid of dogs baying and driving him up a tree1 where he is despatched with bullets4 ,owing to bad weather we remained two days at our moorings4 ,our only amusement was catching fish for our dinner3 there were several kinds1 and all good eating4 ,a fish called the 8armado0 7a ,silurus7 is remarkable from a harsh grating noise which it makes when caught by hook and line1 and which can be distinctly heard when the fish is beneath the water4 ,this same fish has the power of firmly catching hold of any object1 such as the blade of an oar or the fishing-line1 with the strong spine both of its pectoral and dorsal fin4 ,in the evening the weather was quite tropical1 the thermometer standing at #gi4 ,numbers of fireflies were hovering about1 and the musquitoes were very troublesome4 ,i exposed my hand for five minutes1 and it was soon black with them2 ,i do not suppose there could have been less than fifty1 all busy sucking4 ,illustration ,october #aeth4--,we got under way and passed ,punta ,gorda1 where there is a colony of tame ,indians from the province of ,missiones4 ,we sailed rapidly down the current1 but before sunset1 from a silly fear of bad weather1 we brought-to in a narrow arm of the river4 ,i took the boat and rowed some distance up this creek4 ,it was very narrow1 winding1 and deep2 on each side a wall thirty or forty feet high1 formed by trees intwined with creepers1 gave to the canal a singularly gloomy appearance4 ,i here saw a very extraordinary bird1 called the ,scissor-beak 7,rhynchops nigra74 ,it has short legs1 web feet1 extremely long-pointed wings1 and is of about the size of a tern4 ,the beak is flattened laterally1 that is1 in a plane at right angles to that of a spoonbill or duck4 ,it is as flat and elastic as an ivory paper-cutter1 and the lower mandible1 differently from every other bird1 is an inch and a half longer than the upper4 ,in a lake near ,maldonado1 from which the water had been nearly drained1 and which1 in consequence1 swarmed with small fry1 ,i saw several of these birds1 generally in small flocks1 flying rapidly backwards and forwards close to the surface of the lake4 ,they kept their bills wide open1 and the lower mandible half buried in the water4 ,thus skimming the surface1 they ploughed it in their course3 the water was quite smooth1 and it formed a most curious spectacle to behold a flock1 each bird leaving its narrow wake on the mirror-like surface4 ,in their flight they frequently twist about with extreme quickness1 and dexterously manage with their projecting lower mandible to plough up small fish1 which are secured by the upper and shorter half of their scissor-like bills4 ,this fact ,i repeatedly saw1 as1 like swallows1 they continued to fly backwards and forwards close before me4 ,occasionally when leaving the surface of the water their flight was wild1 irregular1 and rapid2 they then uttered loud harsh cries4 ,when these birds are fishing1 the advantage of the long primary feathers of their wings1 in keeping them dry1 is very evident4 ,when thus employed1 their forms resemble the symbol by which many artists represent marine birds4 ,their tails are much used in steering their irregular course4 ,these birds are common far inland along the course of the ,rio ,parana2 it is said that they remain here during the whole year1 and breed in the marshes4 ,during the day they rest in flocks on the grassy plains1 at some distance from the water4 ,being at anchor1 as ,i have said1 in one of the deep creeks between the islands of the ,parana1 as the evening drew to a close1 one of these scissor-beaks suddenly appeared4 ,the water was quite still1 and many little fish were rising4 ,the bird continued for a long time to skim the surface1 flying in its wild and irregular manner up and down the narrow canal1 now dark with the growing night and the shadows of the overhanging trees4 ,at ,monte ,video1 ,i observed that some large flocks during the day remained on the mud-banks at the head of the harbour1 in the same manner as on the grassy plains near the ,parana2 and every evening they took flight seaward4 ,from these facts ,i suspect that the ,rhynchops generally fishes by night1 at which time many of the lower animals come most abundantly to the surface4 ,m4 ,lesson states that he has seen these birds opening the shells of the mactr buried in the sand-banks on the coast of ,chile3 from their weak bills1 with the lower mandible so much projecting1 their short legs and long wings1 it is very improbable that this can be a general habit4 ,in our course down the ,parana1 ,i observed only three other birds1 whose habits are worth mentioning4 ,one is a small kingfisher 7,ceryle ,americana72 it has a longer tail than the ,european species1 and hence does not sit in so stiff and upright a position4 ,its flight also1 instead of being direct and rapid1 like the course of an arrow1 is weak and undulatory1 as among the soft-billed birds4 ,it utters a low note1 like the clicking together of two small stones4 ,a small green parrot 7,conurus murinus71 with a grey breast1 appears to prefer the tall trees on the islands to any other situation for its building-place4 ,a number of nests are placed so close together as to form one great mass of sticks4 ,these parrots always live in flocks1 and commit great ravages on the corn-fields4 ,i was told that near ,colonia #bejj were killed in the course of one year4 ,a bird with a forked tail1 terminated by two long feathers 7,tyrannus savana71 and named by the ,spaniards scissor-tail1 is very common near ,buenos ,ayres3 it commonly sits on a branch of the ombu tree1 near a house1 and thence takes a short flight in pursuit of insects1 and returns to the same spot4 ,when on the wing it presents in its manner of flight and general appearance a caricature-likeness of the common swallow4 ,it has the power of turning very shortly in the air1 and in so doing opens and shuts its tail1 sometimes in a horizontal or lateral and sometimes in a vertical direction1 just like a pair of scissors4 ,october #afth4--,some leagues below ,rozario1 the western shore of the ,parana is bounded by perpendicular cliffs1 which extend in a long line to below ,san ,nicolas2 hence it more resembles a sea-coast than that of a fresh-water river4 ,it is a great drawback to the scenery of the ,parana1 that1 from the soft nature of its banks1 the water is very muddy4 ,the ,uruguay1 flowing through a granitic country1 is much clearer2 and where the two channels unite at the head of the ,plata1 the waters may for a long distance be distinguished by their black and red colours4 ,in the evening1 the wind being not quite fair1 as usual we immediately moored1 and the next day1 as it blew rather freshly1 though with a favouring current1 the master was much too indolent to think of starting4 ,at ,bajada1 he was described to me as 8hombre muy aflicto0--a man always miserable to get on2 but certainly he bore all delays with admirable resignation4 ,he was an old ,spaniard1 and had been many years in this country4 ,he professed a great liking to the ,english1 but stoutly maintained that the battle of ,trafalgar was merely won by the ,spanish captains having been all bought over2 and that the only really gallant action on either side was performed by the ,spanish admiral4 ,it struck me as rather characteristic1 that this man should prefer his countrymen being thought the worst of traitors1 rather than unskilful or cowardly4 #ahth and #aith4--,we continued slowly to sail down the noble stream3 the current helped us but little4 ,we met1 during our descent1 very few vessels4 ,one of the best gifts of nature1 in so grand a channel of communication1 seems here wilfully thrown away--a river in which ships might navigate from a temperate country1 as surprisingly abundant in certain productions as destitute of others1 to another possessing a tropical climate1 and a soil which1 according to the best of judges1 ,m4 ,bonpland1 is perhaps unequalled in fertility in any part of the world4 ,how different would have been the aspect of this river if ,english colonists had by good fortune first sailed up the ,plata6 ,what noble towns would now have occupied its shores6 ,till the death of ,francia1 the ,dictator of ,paraguay1 these two countries must remain distinct1 as if placed on opposite sides of the globe4 ,and when the old bloody-minded tyrant is gone to his long account1 ,paraguay will be torn by revolutions1 violent in proportion to the previous unnatural calm4 ,that country will have to learn1 like every other ,south ,american state1 that a republic cannot succeed till it contains a certain body of men imbued with the principles of justice and honour4 ,october #bjth4--,being arrived at the mouth of the ,parana1 and as ,i was very anxious to reach ,buenos ,ayres1 ,i went on shore at ,las ,conchas1 with the intention of riding there4 ,upon landing1 ,i found to my great surprise that ,i was to a certain degree a prisoner4 ,a violent revolution having broken out1 all the ports were laid under an embargo4 ,i could not return to my vessel1 and as for going by land to the city1 it was out of the question4 ,after a long conversation with the commandant1 ,i obtained permission to go the next day to ,general ,rolor1 who commanded a division of the rebels on this side the capital4 ,in the morning ,i rode to the encampment4 ,the general1 officers1 and soldiers1 all appeared1 and ,i believe really were1 great villains4 ,the general1 the very evening before he left the city1 voluntarily went to the ,governor1 and with his hand to his heart1 pledged his word of honour that he at least would remain faithful to the last4 ,the general told me that the city was in a state of close blockade1 and that all he could do was to give me a passport to the commander-in-chief of the rebels at ,quilmes4 ,we had therefore to take a great sweep round the city1 and it was with much difficulty that we procured horses4 ,my reception at the encampment was quite civil1 but ,i was told it was impossible that ,i could be allowed to enter the city4 ,i was very anxious about this1 as ,i anticipated the ,beagle's departure from the ,rio ,plata earlier than it took place4 ,having mentioned1 however1 ,general ,rosas's obliging kindness to me when at the ,colorado1 magic itself could not have altered circumstances quicker than did this conversation4 ,i was instantly told that though they could not give me a passport1 if ,i chose to leave my guide and horses1 ,i might pass their sentinels4 ,i was too glad to accept of this1 and an officer was sent with me to give directions that ,i should not be stopped at the bridge4 ,the road for the space of a league was quite deserted4 ,i met one party of soldiers1 who were satisfied by gravely looking at an old passport3 and at length ,i was not a little pleased to find myself within the city4 ,this revolution was supported by scarcely any pretext of grievances3 but in a state which1 in the course of nine months 7from ,february to ,october1 #ahbj71 underwent fifteen changes in its government--each governor1 according to the constitution1 being elected for three years--it would be very unreasonable to ask for pretexts4 ,in this case1 a party of men--who1 being attached to ,rosas1 were disgusted with the governor ,balcarce--to the number of seventy left the city1 and with the cry of ,rosas the whole country took arms4 ,the city was then blockaded1 no provisions1 cattle or horses1 were allowed to enter2 besides this1 there was only a little skirmishing1 and a few men daily killed4 ,the outside party well knew that by stopping the supply of meat they would certainly be victorious4 ,general ,rosas could not have known of this rising2 but it appears to be quite consonant with the plans of his party4 ,a year ago he was elected governor1 but he refused it1 unless the ,sala would also confer on him extraordinary powers4 ,this was refused1 and since then his party have shown that no other governor can keep his place4 ,the warfare on both sides was avowedly protracted till it was possible to hear from ,rosas4 ,a note arrived a few days after ,i left ,buenos ,ayres1 which stated that the ,general disapproved of peace having been broken1 but that he thought the outside party had justice on their side4 ,on the bare reception of this the ,governor1 ministers1 and part of the military1 to the number of some hundreds1 fled from the city4 ,the rebels entered1 elected a new governor1 and were paid for their services to the number of #eejj men4 ,from these proceedings1 it was clear that ,rosas ultimately would become the dictator3 to the term king1 the people in this1 as in other republics1 have a particular dislike4 ,since leaving ,south ,america1 we have heard that ,rosas has been elected1 with powers and for a time altogether opposed to the constitutional principles of the republic4 ,illustration ,illustration ,chapter ,,viii ,excursion to ,colonia del ,sacramiento--,value of an ,estancia--,cattle1 how counted--,singular ,breed of ,oxen--,perforated ,pebbles--,shepherd-dogs--,horses broken-in1 ,gauchos ,riding--,character of ,inhabitants--,rio ,plata--,flocks of ,butterflies--,aronaut ,spiders--,phosphorescence of the ,sea--,port ,desire--,guanaco--,port ,st4 ,julian--,geology of ,patagonia--,fossil gigantic ,animal--,types of ,organisation constant--,change in the ,zoology of ,america--,causes of ,extinction4 ,,banda ,,oriental ,,and ,,patagonia4 ,having been delayed for nearly a fortnight in the city1 ,i was glad to escape on board a packet bound for ,monte ,video4 ,a town in a state of blockade must always be a disagreeable place of residence2 in this case moreover there were constant apprehensions from robbers within4 ,the sentinels were the worst of all2 for1 from their office and from having arms in their hands1 they robbed with a degree of authority which other men could not imitate4 ,our passage was a very long and tedious one4 ,the ,plata looks like a noble estuary on the map2 but is in truth a poor affair4 ,a wide expanse of muddy water has neither grandeur nor beauty4 ,at one time of the day1 the two shores1 both of which are extremely low1 could just be distinguished from the deck4 ,on arriving at ,monte ,video ,i found that the ,beagle would not sail for some time1 so ,i prepared for a short excursion in this part of ,banda ,oriental4 ,everything which ,i have said about the country near ,maldonado is applicable to ,monte ,video2 but the land1 with the one exception of the ,green ,mount1 #dej feet high1 from which it takes its name1 is far more level4 ,very little of the undulating grassy plain is enclosed2 but near the town there are a few hedge-banks1 covered with agaves1 cacti1 and fennel4 ,november #adth4--,we left ,monte ,video in the afternoon4 ,i intended to proceed to ,colonia del ,sacramiento1 situated on the northern bank of the ,plata and opposite to ,buenos ,ayres1 and thence1 following up the ,uruguay1 to the village of ,mercedes on the ,rio ,negro 7one of the many rivers of this name in ,south ,america71 and from this point to return direct to ,monte ,video4 ,we slept at the house of my guide at ,canelones4 ,in the morning we rose early1 in the hopes of being able to ride a good distance2 but it was a vain attempt1 for all the rivers were flooded4 ,we passed in boats the streams of ,canelones1 ,st4 ,lucia1 and ,san ,jos1 and thus lost much time4 ,on a former excursion ,i crossed the ,lucia near its mouth1 and ,i was surprised to observe how easily our horses1 although not used to swim1 passed over a width of at least six hundred yards4 ,on mentioning this at ,monte ,video1 ,i was told that a vessel containing some mountebanks and their horses1 being wrecked in the ,plata1 one horse swam seven miles to the shore4 ,in the course of the day ,i was amused by the dexterity with which a ,gaucho forced a restive horse to swim a river4 ,he stripped off his clothes1 and jumping on its back1 rode into the water till it was out of its depth2 then slipping off over the crupper1 he caught hold of the tail1 and as often as the horse turned round the man frightened it back by splashing water in its face4 ,as soon as the horse touched the bottom on the other side1 the man pulled himself on1 and was firmly seated1 bridle in hand1 before the horse gained the bank4 ,a naked man on a naked horse is a fine spectacle2 ,i had no idea how well the two animals suited each other4 ,the tail of a horse is a very useful appendage2 ,i have passed a river in a boat with four people in it1 which was ferried across in the same way as the ,gaucho4 ,if a man and horse have to cross a broad river1 the best plan is for the man to catch hold of the pommel or mane1 and help himself with the other arm4 ,we slept and stayed the following day at the post of ,cufre4 ,in the evening the postman or letter-carrier arrived4 ,he was a day after his time1 owing to the ,rio ,rozario being flooded4 ,it would not1 however1 be of much consequence2 for1 although he had passed through some of the principal towns in ,banda ,oriental1 his luggage consisted of two letters6 ,the view from the house was pleasing2 an undulating green surface1 with distant glimpses of the ,plata4 ,i find that ,i look at this province with very different eyes from what ,i did upon my first arrival4 ,i recollect ,i then thought it singularly level2 but now1 after galloping over the ,pampas1 my only surprise is1 what could have induced me ever to have called it level4 ,the country is a series of undulations1 in themselves perhaps not absolutely great1 but1 as compared to the plains of ,st4 ,f1 real mountains4 ,from these inequalities there is an abundance of small rivulets1 and the turf is green and luxuriant4 ,november #agth4--,we crossed the ,rozario1 which was deep and rapid1 and passing the village of ,colla1 arrived at mid-day at ,colonia del ,sacramiento4 ,the distance is twenty leagues1 through a country covered with fine grass1 but poorly stocked with cattle or inhabitants4 ,i was invited to sleep at ,colonia1 and to accompany on the following day a gentleman to his estancia1 where there were some limestone rocks4 ,the town is built on a stony promontory something in the same manner as at ,monte ,video4 ,it is strongly fortified1 but both fortifications and town suffered much in the ,brazilian war4 ,it is very ancient2 and the irregularity of the streets1 and the surrounding groves of old orange and peach trees1 gave it a pretty appearance4 ,the church is a curious ruin2 it was used as a powder-magazine1 and was struck by lightning in one of the ten thousand thunderstorms of the ,rio ,plata4 ,two-thirds of the building were blown away to the very foundation2 and the rest stands a shattered and curious monument of the united powers of lightning and gunpowder4 ,in the evening ,i wandered about the half-demolished walls of the town4 ,it was the chief seat of the ,brazilian war--a war most injurious to this country1 not so much in its immediate effects1 as in being the origin of a multitude of generals and all other grades of officers4 ,more generals are numbered 7but not paid7 in the ,united ,provinces of ,la ,plata than in the ,united ,kingdom of ,great ,britain4 ,these gentlemen have learned to like power1 and do not object to a little skirmishing4 ,hence there are many always on the watch to create disturbance and to overturn a government which as yet has never rested on any stable foundation4 ,i noticed1 however1 both here and in other places1 a very general interest in the ensuing election for the ,president2 and this appears a good sign for the prosperity of this little country4 ,the inhabitants do not require much education in their representatives2 ,i heard some men discussing the merits of those for ,colonia2 and it was said that1 8although they were not men of business1 they could all sign their names30 with this they seemed to think every reasonable man ought to be satisfied4 #ahth4--,rode with my host to his estancia1 at the ,arroyo de ,san ,juan4 ,in the evening we took a ride round the estate3 it contained two square leagues and a half1 and was situated in what is called a rincon2 that is1 one side was fronted by the ,plata1 and the two others guarded by impassable brooks4 ,there was an excellent port for little vessels1 and an abundance of small wood1 which is valuable as supplying fuel to ,buenos ,ayres4 ,i was curious to know the value of so complete an estancia4 ,of cattle there were #cjjj1 and it would well support three or four times that number2 of mares #hjj1 together with #aej broken-in horses1 and #fjj sheep4 ,there was plenty of water and limestone1 a rough house1 excellent corrals1 and a peach orchard4 ,for all this he had been offered #bjjj1 and he only wanted #ejj additional1 and probably would sell it for less4 ,the chief trouble with an estancia is driving the cattle twice a week to a central spot1 in order to make them tame1 and to count them4 ,this latter operation would be thought difficult1 where there are ten or fifteen thousand head together4 ,it is managed on the principle that the cattle invariably divide themselves into little troops of from forty to one hundred4 ,each troop is recognised by a few peculiarly marked animals1 and its number is known3 so that1 one being lost out of ten thousand1 it is perceived by its absence from one of the tropillas4 ,during a stormy night the cattle all mingle together2 but the next morning the tropillas separate as before2 so that each animal must know its fellow out of ten thousand others4 ,on two occasions ,i met with in this province some oxen of a very curious breed1 called nta or niata4 ,they appear externally to hold nearly the same relation to other cattle1 which bull or pug dogs do to other dogs4 ,their forehead is very short and broad1 with the nasal end turned up1 and the upper lip much drawn back2 their lower jaws project beyond the upper1 and have a corresponding upward curve2 hence their teeth are always exposed4 ,their nostrils are seated high up and are very open2 their eyes project outwards4 ,when walking they carry their heads low1 on a short neck2 and their hinder legs are rather longer compared with the front legs than is usual4 ,their bare teeth1 their short heads1 and upturned nostrils give them the most ludicrous self-confident air of defiance imaginable4 ,since my return1 ,i have procured a skeleton head1 through the kindness of my friend ,captain ,sulivan1 ,r4,n41 which is now deposited in the ,college of ,surgeons4#a ,don ,f4 ,muniz1 of ,luxan1 has kindly collected for me all the information which he could respecting this breed4 ,from his account it seems that about eighty or ninety years ago1 they were rare and kept as curiosities at ,buenos ,ayres4 ,the breed is universally believed to have originated amongst the ,indians southward of the ,plata2 and that it was with them the commonest kind4 ,even to this day1 those reared in the provinces near the ,plata show their less civilised origin1 in being fiercer than common cattle1 and in the cow easily deserting her first calf1 if visited too often or molested4 ,it is a singular fact that an almost similar structure to the abnormal#b one of the niata breed1 characterises1 as ,i am informed by ,dr4 ,falconer1 that great extinct ruminant of ,india1 the ,sivatherium4 ,the breed is very true2 and a niata bull and cow invariably produce niata calves4 ,a niata bull with a common cow1 or the reverse cross1 produces offspring having an intermediate character1 but with the niata characters strongly displayed3 according to ,seor ,muniz1 there is the clearest evidence1 contrary to the common belief of agriculturists in analogous cases1 that the niata cow when crossed with a common bull transmits her peculiarities more strongly than the niata bull when crossed with a common cow4 ,when the pasture is tolerably long1 the niata cattle feed with the tongue and palate as well as common cattle2 but during the great droughts1 when so many animals perish1 the niata breed is under a great disadvantage1 and would be exterminated if not attended to2 for the common cattle1 like horses1 are able just to keep alive1 by browsing with their lips on twigs of trees and reeds2 this the niatas cannot so well do1 as their lips do not join1 and hence they are found to perish before the common cattle4 ,this strikes me as a good illustration of how little we are able to judge from the ordinary habits of life1 on what circumstances1 occurring only at long intervals1 the rarity or extinction of a species may be determined4 #a ,mr4 ,waterhouse has drawn up a detailed description of this head1 which ,i hope he will publish in some ,journal4 #b ,a nearly similar abnormal1 but ,i do not know whether hereditary1 structure has been observed in the carp1 and likewise in the crocodile of the ,ganges3 ,histoire des ,anomalies1 par ,m4 ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire1 tome i1 p4 #bdd4 ,november #aith4--,passing the valley of ,las ,vacas1 we slept at a house of a ,north ,american1 who worked a lime-kiln on the ,arroyo de las ,vivoras4 ,in the morning we rode to a projecting headland on the banks of the river1 called ,punta ,gorda4 ,on the way we tried to find a jaguar4 ,there were plenty of fresh tracks1 and we visited the trees on which they are said to sharpen their claws2 but we did not succeed in disturbing one4 ,from this point the ,rio ,uruguay presented to our view a noble volume of water4 ,from the clearness and rapidity of the stream1 its appearance was far superior to that of its neighbour the ,parana4 ,on the opposite coast1 several branches from the latter river entered the ,uruguay4 ,as the sun was shining1 the two colours of the waters could be seen quite distinct4 ,in the evening we proceeded on our road towards ,mercedes on the ,rio ,negro4 ,at night we asked permission to sleep at an estancia at which we happened to arrive4 ,it was a very large estate1 being ten leagues square1 and the owner is one of the greatest landowners in the country4 ,his nephew had charge of it1 and with him there was a captain in the army1 who the other day ran away from ,buenos ,ayres4 ,considering their station1 their conversation was rather amusing4 ,they expressed1 as was usual1 unbounded astonishment at the globe being round1 and could scarcely credit that a hole would1 if deep enough1 come out on the other side4 ,they had1 however1 heard of a country where there were six months of light and six of darkness1 and where the inhabitants were very tall and thin6 ,they were curious about the price and condition of horses and cattle in ,england4 ,upon finding out we did not catch our animals with the lazo1 they cried out1 8,ah1 then1 you use nothing but the bolas30 the idea of an enclosed country was quite new to them4 ,the captain at last said1 he had one question to ask me1 which he should be very much obliged if ,i would answer with all truth4 ,i trembled to think how deeply scientific it would be3 it was1 8,whether the ladies of ,buenos ,ayres were not the handsomest in the world40 ,i replied1 like a renegade1 8,charmingly so40 ,he added1 8,i have one other question3 ,do ladies in any other part of the world wear such large combs80 ,i solemnly assured him that they did not4 ,they were absolutely delighted4 ,the captain exclaimed1 8,look there6 a man who has seen half the world says it is the case2 we always thought so1 but now we know it40 ,my excellent judgment in combs and beauty procured me a most hospitable reception2 the captain forced me to take his bed1 and he would sleep on his recado4 #bast4--,started at sunrise1 and rode slowly during the whole day4 ,the geological nature of this part of the province was different from the rest1 and closely resembled that of the ,pampas4 ,in consequence1 there were immense beds of the thistle1 as well as of the cardoon3 the whole country1 indeed1 may be called one great bed of these plants4 ,the two sorts grow separate1 each plant in company with its own kind4 ,the cardoon is as high as a horse's back1 but the ,pampas thistle is often higher than the crown of the rider's head4 ,to leave the road for a yard is out of the question2 and the road itself is partly1 and in some cases entirely1 closed4 ,pasture1 of course1 there is none2 if cattle or horses once enter the bed1 they are for the time completely lost4 ,hence it is very hazardous to attempt to drive cattle at this season of the year2 for when jaded enough to face the thistles1 they rush among them1 and are seen no more4 ,in these districts there are very few estancias1 and these few are situated in the neighbourhood of damp valleys1 where fortunately neither of these overwhelming plants can exist4 ,as night came on before we arrived at our journey's end1 we slept at a miserable little hovel inhabited by the poorest people4 ,the extreme though rather formal courtesy of our host and hostess1 considering their grade of life1 was quite delightful4 ,november #bbnd4--,arrived at an estancia on the ,berquelo belonging to a very hospitable ,englishman1 to whom ,i had a letter of introduction from my friend ,mr4 ,lumb4 ,i stayed here three days4 ,one morning ,i rode with my host to the ,sierra del ,pedro ,flaco1 about twenty miles up the ,rio ,negro4 ,nearly the whole country was covered with good though coarse grass1 which was as high as a horse's belly2 yet there were square leagues without a single head of cattle4 ,the province of ,banda ,oriental1 if well stocked1 would support an astonishing number of animals1 at present the annual export of hides from ,monte ,video amounts to three hundred thousand2 and the home consumption1 from waste1 is very considerable4 ,an estanciero told me that he often had to send large herds of cattle a long journey to a salting establishment1 and that the tired beasts were frequently obliged to be killed and skinned2 but that he could never persuade the ,gauchos to eat of them1 and every evening a fresh beast was slaughtered for their suppers6 ,the view of the ,rio ,negro from the ,sierra was more picturesque than any other which ,i saw in this province4 ,the river1 broad1 deep1 and rapid1 wound at the foot of a rocky precipitous cliff3 a belt of wood followed its course1 and the horizon terminated in the distant undulations of the turf-plain4 ,when in this neighbourhood1 ,i several times heard of the ,sierra de las ,cuentas3 a hill distant many miles to the northward4 ,the name signifies hill of beads4 ,i was assured that vast numbers of little round stones1 of various colours1 each with a small cylindrical hole1 are found there4 ,formerly the ,indians used to collect them1 for the purpose of making necklaces and bracelets--a taste1 ,i may observe1 which is common to all savage nations1 as well as to the most polished4 ,i did not know what to understand from this story1 but upon mentioning it at the ,cape of ,good ,hope to ,dr4 ,andrew ,smith1 he told me that he recollected finding on the south-eastern coast of ,africa1 about one hundred miles to the eastward of ,st4 ,john's river1 some quartz crystals with their edges blunted from attrition1 and mixed with gravel on the sea-beach4 ,each crystal was about five lines in diameter1 and from an inch to an inch and a half in length4 ,many of them had a small canal extending from one extremity to the other1 perfectly cylindrical1 and of a size that readily admitted a coarse thread or a piece of fine catgut4 ,their colour was red or dull white4 ,the natives were acquainted with this structure in crystals4 ,i have mentioned these circumstances because1 although no crystallised body is at present known to assume this form1 it may lead some future traveller to investigate the real nature of such stones4 ,while staying at this estancia1 ,i was amused with what ,i saw and heard of the shepherd-dogs of the country4#c ,when riding1 it is a common thing to meet a large flock of sheep guarded by one or two dogs1 at the distance of some miles from any house or man4 ,i often wondered how so firm a friendship had been established4 ,the method of education consists in separating the puppy1 while very young1 from the bitch1 and in accustoming it to its future companions4 ,an ewe is held three or four times a day for the little thing to suck1 and a nest of wool is made for it in the sheep-pen2 at no time is it allowed to associate with other dogs1 or with the children of the family4 ,the puppy is1 moreover1 generally castrated2 so that1 when grown up1 it can scarcely have any feelings in common with the rest of its kind4 ,from this education it has no wish to leave the flock1 and just as another dog will defend its master1 man1 so will these the sheep4 ,it is amusing to observe1 when approaching a flock1 how the dog immediately advances barking1 and the sheep all close in his rear1 as if round the oldest ram4 ,these dogs are also easily taught to bring home the flock at a certain hour in the evening4 ,their most troublesome fault1 when young1 is their desire of playing with the sheep2 for in their sport they sometimes gallop their poor subjects most unmercifully4 #c ,m4 ,a4 d',orbigny has given nearly a similar account of these dogs1 tome i1 p4 #age4 ,the shepherd-dog comes to the house every day for some meat1 and as soon as it is given him1 he skulks away as if ashamed of himself4 ,on these occasions the house-dogs are very tyrannical1 and the least of them will attack and pursue the stranger4 ,the minute1 however1 the latter has reached the flock1 he turns round and begins to bark1 and then all the house-dogs take very quickly to their heels4 ,in a similar manner a whole pack of the hungry wild dogs will scarcely ever 7and ,i was told by some never7 venture to attack a flock guarded by even one of these faithful shepherds4 ,the whole account appears to me a curious instance of the pliability of the affections in the dog2 and yet1 whether wild or however educated1 he has a feeling of respect or fear for those that are fulfilling their instinct of association4 ,for we can understand on no principle the wild dogs being driven away by the single one with its flock1 except that they consider1 from some confused notion1 that the one thus associated gains power1 as if in company with its own kind4 ,f4 ,cuvier has observed that all animals that readily enter into domestication consider man as a member of their own society1 and thus fulfil their instinct of association4 ,in the above case the shepherd-dog ranks the sheep as its fellow-brethren1 and thus gains confidence2 and the wild dogs1 though knowing that the individual sheep are not dogs1 but are good to eat1 yet partly consent to this view when seeing them in a flock with a shepherd-dog at their head4 ,one evening a 8domidor0 7a subduer of horses7 came for the purpose of breaking-in some colts4 ,i will describe the preparatory steps1 for ,i believe they have not been mentioned by other travellers4 ,a troop of wild young horses is driven into the corral1 or large enclosure of stakes1 and the door is shut4 ,we will suppose that one man alone has to catch and mount a horse1 which as yet had never felt bridle or saddle4 ,i conceive1 except by a ,gaucho1 such a feat would be utterly impracticable4 ,the ,gaucho picks out a full-grown colt2 and as the beast rushes round the circus1 he throws his lazo so as to catch both the front legs4 ,instantly the horse rolls over with a heavy shock1 and whilst struggling on the ground1 the ,gaucho1 holding the lazo tight1 makes a circle1 so as to catch one of the hind legs just beneath the fetlock1 and draws it close to the two front legs3 he then hitches the lazo1 so that the three are bound together4 ,then sitting on the horse's neck1 he fixes a strong bridle1 without a bit1 to the lower jaw3 this he does by passing a narrow thong through the eye-holes at the end of the reins1 and several times round both jaw and tongue4 ,the two front legs are now tied closely together with a strong leathern thong1 fastened by a slip-knot4 ,the lazo1 which bound the three together1 being then loosed1 the horse rises with difficulty4 ,the ,gaucho1 now holding fast the bridle fixed to the lower jaw1 leads the horse outside the corral4 ,if a second man is present 7otherwise the trouble is much greater7 he holds the animal's head1 whilst the first puts on the horsecloths and saddle1 and girths the whole together4 ,during this operation1 the horse1 from dread and astonishment at thus being bound round the waist1 throws himself over and over again on the ground1 and1 till beaten1 is unwilling to rise4 ,at last1 when the saddling is finished1 the poor animal can hardly breathe from fear1 and is white with foam and sweat4 ,the man now prepares to mount by pressing heavily on the stirrup1 so that the horse may not lose its balance2 and at the moment that he throws his leg over the animal's back1 he pulls the slip-knot binding the front legs1 and the beast is free4 ,some 8domidors0 pull the knot while the animal is lying on the ground1 and1 standing over the saddle1 allow him to rise beneath them4 ,the horse1 wild with dread1 gives a few most violent bounds1 and then starts off at full gallop3 when quite exhausted1 the man1 by patience1 brings him back to the corral1 where1 reeking hot and scarcely alive1 the poor beast is let free4 ,those animals which will not gallop away1 but obstinately throw themselves on the ground1 are by far the most troublesome4 ,this process is tremendously severe1 but in two or three trials the horse is tamed4 ,it is not1 however1 for some weeks that the animal is ridden with the iron bit and solid ring1 for it must learn to associate the will of its rider with the feel of the rein1 before the most powerful bridle can be of any service4 ,animals are so abundant in these countries1 that humanity and self-interest are not closely united2 therefore ,i fear it is that the former is here scarcely known4 ,one day1 riding in the ,pampas with a very respectable 8,estanciero10 my horse1 being tired1 lagged behind4 ,the man often shouted to me to spur him4 ,when ,i remonstrated that it was a pity1 for the horse was quite exhausted1 he cried out1 8,why not8--never mind--spur him--it is my horse40 ,i had then some difficulty in making him comprehend that it was for the horse's sake1 and not on his account1 that ,i did not choose to use my spurs4 ,he exclaimed1 with a look of great surprise1 8,ah1 ,don ,carlos1 que cosa60 ,it was clear that such an idea had never before entered his head4 ,the ,gauchos are well known to be perfect riders4 ,the idea of being thrown1 let the horse do what it likes2 never enters their head4 ,their criterion of a good rider is1 a man who can manage an untamed colt1 or who1 if his horse falls1 alights on his own feet1 or can perform other such exploits4 ,i have heard of a man betting that he would throw his horse down twenty times1 and that nineteen times he would not fall himself4 ,i recollect seeing a ,gaucho riding a very stubborn horse1 which three times successively reared so high as to fall backwards with great violence4 ,the man judged with uncommon coolness the proper moment for slipping off1 not an instant before or after the right time2 and as soon as the horse got up1 the man jumped on his back1 and at last they started at a gallop4 ,the ,gaucho never appears to exert any muscular force4 ,i was one day watching a good rider1 as we were galloping along at a rapid pace1 and thought to myself1 8,surely if the horse starts1 you appear so careless on your seat1 you must fall40 ,at this moment a male ostrich sprang from its nest right beneath the horse's nose3 the young colt bounded on one side like a stag2 but as for the man1 all that could be said was1 that he started and took fright with his horse4 ,in ,chile and ,peru more pains are taken with the mouth of the horse than in ,la ,plata1 and this is evidently a consequence of the more intricate nature of the country4 ,in ,chile a horse is not considered perfectly broken till he can be brought up standing1 in the midst of his full speed1 on any particular spot1--for instance1 on a cloak thrown on the ground3 or1 again1 he will charge a wall1 and rearing1 scrape the surface with his hoofs4 ,i have seen an animal bounding with spirit1 yet merely reined by a forefinger and thumb1 taken at full gallop across a courtyard1 and then made to wheel round the post of a veranda with great speed1 but at so equal a distance1 that the rider1 with outstretched arm1 all the while kept one finger rubbing the post4 ,then making a demi-volte in the air1 with the other arm outstretched in a like manner1 he wheeled round1 with astonishing force1 in an opposite direction4 ,such a horse is well broken2 and although this at first may appear useless1 it is far otherwise4 ,it is only carrying that which is daily necessary into perfection4 ,when a bullock is checked and caught by the lazo1 it will sometimes gallop round and round in a circle1 and the horse being alarmed at the great strain1 if not well broken1 will not readily turn like the pivot of a wheel4 ,in consequence many men have been killed2 for if the lazo once takes a twist round a man's body1 it will instantly1 from the power of the two opposed animals1 almost cut him in twain4 ,on the same principle the races are managed2 the course is only two or three hundred yards long1 the wish being to have horses that can make a rapid dash4 ,the racehorses are trained not only to stand with their hoofs touching a line1 but to draw all four feet together1 so as at the first spring to bring into play the full action of the hind-quarters4 ,in ,chile ,i was told an anecdote1 which ,i believe was true2 and it offers a good illustration of the use of a well-broken animal4 ,a respectable man riding one day met two others1 one of whom was mounted on a horse1 which he knew to have been stolen from himself4 ,he challenged them2 they answered him by drawing their sabres and giving chase4 ,the man1 on his good and fleet beast1 kept just ahead3 as he passed a thick bush he wheeled round it1 and brought up his horse to a dead check4 ,the pursuers were obliged to shoot on one side and ahead4 ,then instantly dashing on1 right behind them1 he buried his knife in the back of one1 wounded the other1 recovered his horse from the dying robber1 and rode home4 ,for these feats of horsemanship two things are necessary3 a most severe bit1 like the ,mameluke1 the power of which1 though seldom used1 the horse knows full well2 and large blunt spurs1 that can be applied either as a mere touch1 or as an instrument of extreme pain4 ,i conceive that with ,english spurs1 the slightest touch of which pricks the skin1 it would be impossible to break in a horse after the ,south ,american fashion4 ,at an estancia near ,las ,vacas large numbers of mares are weekly slaughtered for the sake of their hides1 although worth only five paper dollars1 or about half a crown apiece4 ,it seems at first strange that it can answer to kill mares for such a trifle2 but as it is thought ridiculous in this country ever to break in or ride a mare1 they are of no value except for breeding4 ,the only thing for which ,i ever saw mares used1 was to tread out wheat from the ear1 for which purpose they were driven round a circular enclosure1 where the wheat-sheaves were strewed4 ,the man employed for slaughtering the mares happened to be celebrated for his dexterity with the lazo4 ,standing at the distance of twelve yards from the mouth of the corral1 he has laid a wager that he would catch by the legs every animal1 without missing one1 as it rushed past him4 ,there was another man who said he would enter the corral on foot1 catch a mare1 fasten her front legs together1 drive her out1 throw her down1 kill1 skin1 and stake the hide for drying 7which latter is a tedious job72 and he engaged that he would perform this whole operation on twenty-two animals in one day4 ,or he would kill and take the skin off fifty in the same time4 ,this would have been a prodigious task1 for it is considered a good day's work to skin and stake the hides of fifteen or sixteen animals4 ,november #bfth4--,i set out on my return in a direct line for ,monte ,video4 ,having heard of some giant's bones at a neighbouring farmhouse on the ,sarandis1 a small stream entering the ,rio ,negro1 ,i rode there accompanied by my host1 and purchased for the value of eighteenpence the head of the ,toxodon4#d ,when found it was quite perfect2 but the boys knocked out some of the teeth with stones1 and then set up the head as a mark to throw at4 ,by a most fortunate chance ,i found a perfect tooth1 which exactly fitted one of the sockets in this skull1 embedded by itself on the banks of the ,rio ,tercero1 at the distance of about #ahj miles from this place4 ,i found remains of this extraordinary animal at two other places1 so that it must formerly have been common4 ,i found here1 also1 some large portions of the armour of a gigantic armadillo-like animal1 and part of the great head of a ,mylodon4 ,the bones of this head are so fresh1 that they contain1 according to the analysis by ,mr4 ,t4 ,reeks1 seven per cent of animal matter2 and when placed in a spirit-lamp1 they burn with a small flame4 ,the number of the remains embedded in the grand estuary deposit which forms the ,pampas and covers the granitic rocks of ,banda ,oriental1 must be extraordinarily great4 ,i believe a straight line drawn in any direction through the ,pampas would cut through some skeleton or bones4 ,besides those which ,i found during my short excursions1 ,i heard of many others1 and the origin of such names as 8the stream of the animal10 8the hill of the giant10 is obvious4 ,at other times ,i heard of the marvellous property of certain rivers1 which had the power of changing small bones into large2 or1 as some maintained1 the bones themselves grew4 ,as far as ,i am aware1 not one of these animals perished1 as was formerly supposed1 in the marshes or muddy river-beds of the present land1 but their bones have been exposed by the streams intersecting the subaqueous deposit in which they were originally embedded4 ,we may conclude that the whole area of the ,pampas is one wide sepulchre of these extinct gigantic quadrupeds4 #d ,i must express my obligation to ,mr4 ,keane1 at whose house ,i was staying on the ,berquelo1 and to ,mr4 ,lumb at ,buenos ,ayres1 for without their assistance these valuable remains would never have reached ,england4 ,by the middle of the day1 on the #bhth1 we arrived at ,monte ,video1 having been two days and a half on the road4 ,the country for the whole way was of a very uniform character1 some parts being rather more rocky and hilly than near the ,plata4 ,not far from ,monte ,video we passed through the village of ,las ,pietras1 so named from some large rounded masses of syenite4 ,its appearance was rather pretty4 ,in this country a few fig-trees round a group of houses1 and a site elevated a hundred feet above the general level1 ought always to be called picturesque4 ,during the last six months ,i have had an opportunity of seeing a little of the character of the inhabitants of these provinces4 ,the ,gauchos1 or countrymen1 are very superior to those who reside in the towns4 ,the ,gaucho is invariably most obliging1 polite1 and hospitable3 ,i did not meet with even one instance of rudeness or inhospitality4 ,he is modest1 both respecting himself and country1 but at the same time a spirited1 bold fellow4 ,on the other hand1 many robberies are committed1 and there is much bloodshed3 the habit of constantly wearing the knife is the chief cause of the latter4 ,it is lamentable to hear how many lives are lost in trifling quarrels4 ,in fighting1 each party tries to mark the face of his adversary by slashing his nose or eyes2 as is often attested by deep and horrid-looking scars4 ,robberies are a natural consequence of universal gambling1 much drinking1 and extreme indolence4 ,at ,mercedes ,i asked two men why they did not work4 ,one gravely said the days were too long2 the other that he was too poor4 ,the number of horses and the profusion of food are the destruction of all industry4 ,moreover1 there are so many feast-days2 and again1 nothing can succeed without it be begun when the moon is on the increase2 so that half the month is lost from these two causes4 ,police and justice are quite inefficient4 ,if a man who is poor commits murder and is taken1 he will be imprisoned1 and perhaps even shot2 but if he is rich and has friends1 he may rely on it no very severe consequence will ensue4 ,it is curious that the most respectable inhabitants of the country invariably assist a murderer to escape3 they seem to think that the individual sins against the government1 and not against the people4 ,a traveller has no protection besides his firearms2 and the constant habit of carrying them is the main check to more frequent robberies4 ,the character of the higher and more educated classes who reside in the towns1 partakes1 but perhaps in a lesser degree1 of the good parts of the ,gaucho1 but is1 ,i fear1 stained by many vices of which he is free4 ,sensuality1 mockery of all religion1 and the grossest corruption1 are far from uncommon4 ,nearly every public officer can be bribed4 ,the head man in the post-office sold forged government franks4 ,the governor and prime minister openly combined to plunder the ,state4 ,justice1 where gold came into play1 was hardly expected by any one4 ,i knew an ,englishman who went to the ,chief ,justice 7he told me that1 not then understanding the ways of the place1 he trembled as he entered the room71 and said1 8,sir1 ,i have come to offer you two hundred 7paper7 dollars 7value about five pounds sterling7 if you will arrest before a certain time a man who has cheated me4 ,i know it is against the law1 but my lawyer 7naming him7 recommended me to take this step40 ,the ,chief ,justice smiled acquiescence1 thanked him1 and the man before night was safe in prison4 ,with this entire want of principle in many of the leading men1 with the country full of ill-paid turbulent officers1 the people yet hope that a democratic form of government can succeed6 ,on first entering society in these countries1 two or three features strike one as particularly remarkable4 ,the polite and dignified manners pervading every rank of life1 the excellent taste displayed by the women in their dresses1 and the equality amongst all ranks4 ,at the ,rio ,colorado some men who kept the humblest shops used to dine with ,general ,rosas4 ,a son of a major at ,bahia ,blanca gained his livelihood by making paper cigars1 and he wished to accompany me1 as guide or servant1 to ,buenos ,ayres1 but his father objected on the score of the danger alone4 ,many officers in the army can neither read nor write1 yet all meet in society as equals4 ,in ,entre ,rios1 the ,sala consisted of only six representatives4 ,one of them kept a common shop1 and evidently was not degraded by the office4 ,all this is what would be expected in a new country2 nevertheless the absence of gentlemen by profession appears to an ,englishman something strange4 ,when speaking of these countries1 the manner in which they have been brought up by their unnatural parent1 ,spain1 should always be borne in mind4 ,on the whole1 perhaps1 more credit is due for what has been done1 than blame for that which may be deficient4 ,it is impossible to doubt but that the extreme liberalism of these countries must ultimately lead to good results4 ,the very general toleration of foreign religions1 the regard paid to the means of education1 the freedom of the press1 the facilities offered to all foreigners1 and especially1 as ,i am bound to add1 to every one professing the humblest pretensions to science1 should be recollected with gratitude by those who have visited ,spanish ,south ,america4 ,december #fth4--,the ,beagle sailed from the ,rio ,plata1 never again to enter its muddy stream4 ,our course was directed to ,port ,desire1 on the coast of ,patagonia4 ,before proceeding any farther1 ,i will here put together a few observations made at sea4 ,several times when the ship has been some miles off the mouth of the ,plata1 and at other times when off the shores of ,northern ,patagonia1 we have been surrounded by insects4 ,one evening1 when we were about ten miles from the ,bay of ,san ,blas1 vast numbers of butterflies1 in bands or flocks of countless myriads1 extended as far as the eye could range4 ,even by the aid of a telescope it was not possible to see a space free from butterflies4 ,the seamen cried out 8it was snowing butterflies10 and such in fact was the appearance4 ,more species than one were present1 but the main part belonged to a kind very similar to1 but not identical with1 the common ,english ,colias edusa4 ,some moths and hymenoptera accompanied the butterflies2 and a fine beetle 7,calosoma7 flew on board4 ,other instances are known of this beetle having been caught far out at sea2 and this is the more remarkable1 as the greater number of the ,carabid seldom or never take wing4 ,the day had been fine and calm1 and the one previous to it equally so1 with light and variable airs4 ,hence we cannot suppose that the insects were blown off the land1 but we must conclude that they voluntarily took flight4 ,the great bands of the ,colias seem at first to afford an instance like those on record of the migrations of another butterfly1 ,vanessa cardui2#e but the presence of other insects makes the case distinct1 and even less intelligible4 ,before sunset a strong breeze sprung up from the north1 and this must have caused tens of thousands of the butterflies and other insects to have perished4 #e ,lyell's ,principles of ,geology1 vol4 iii1 p4 #fc4 ,on another occasion1 when seventeen miles off ,cape ,corrientes1 ,i had a net overboard to catch pelagic animals4 ,upon drawing it up1 to my surprise ,i found a considerable number of beetles in it1 and although in the open sea1 they did not appear much injured by the salt water4 ,i lost some of the specimens1 but those which ,i preserved belonged to the genera ,colymbetes1 ,hydroporus1 ,hydrobius 7two species71 ,notaphus1 ,cynucus1 ,adimonia1 and ,scarabus4 ,at first ,i thought that these insects had been blown from the shore2 but upon reflecting that out of the eight species four were aquatic1 and two others partly so in their habits1 it appeared to me most probable that they were floated into the sea by a small stream which drains a lake near ,cape ,corrientes4 ,on any supposition it is an interesting circumstance to find live insects swimming in the open ocean seventeen miles from the nearest point of land4 ,there are several accounts of insects having been blown off the ,patagonian shore4 ,captain ,cook observed it1 as did more lately ,captain ,king of the ,adventure4 ,the cause probably is due to the want of shelter1 both of trees and hills1 so that an insect on the wing with an offshore breeze1 would be very apt to be blown out to sea4 ,the most remarkable instance ,i have known of an insect being caught far from the land1 was that of a large grasshopper 7,acrydium71 which flew on board1 when the 8,beagle0 was to windward of the ,cape de ,verd ,islands1 and when the nearest point of land1 not directly opposed to the trade-wind1 was ,cape ,blanco on the coast of ,africa1 #cgj miles distant4#f #f ,the flies which frequently accompany a ship for some days on its passage from harbour to harbour1 wandering from the vessel1 are soon lost1 and all disappear4 ,on several occasions1 when the ,beagle has been within the mouth of the ,plata1 the rigging has been coated with the web of the ,gossamer ,spider4 ,one day 7,november #ast1 #ahcb7 ,i paid particular attention to this subject4 ,the weather had been fine and clear1 and in the morning the air was full of patches of the flocculent web1 as on an autumnal day in ,england4 ,the ship was sixty miles distant from the land1 in the direction of a steady though light breeze4 ,vast numbers of a small spider1 about one-tenth of an inch in length1 and of a dusky red colour1 were attached to the webs4 ,there must have been1 ,i should suppose1 some thousands on the ship4 ,the little spider1 when first coming in contact with the rigging1 was always seated on a single thread1 and not on the flocculent mass4 ,this latter seems merely to be produced by the entanglement of the single threads4 ,the spiders were all of one species1 but of both sexes1 together with young ones4 ,these latter were distinguished by their smaller size and more dusky colour4 ,i will not give the description of this spider1 but merely state that it does not appear to me to be included in any of ,latreille's genera4 ,the little aronaut as soon as it arrived on board was very active1 running about1 sometimes letting itself fall1 and then reascending the same thread2 sometimes employing itself in making a small and very irregular mesh in the corners between the ropes4 ,it could run with facility on the surface of water4 ,when disturbed it lifted up its front legs1 in the attitude of attention4 ,on its first arrival it appeared very thirsty1 and with exserted maxill drank eagerly of drops of water2 this same circumstance has been observed by ,strack3 may it not be in consequence of the little insect having passed through a dry and rarefied atmosphere8 ,its stock of web seemed inexhaustible4 ,while watching some that were suspended by a single thread1 ,i several times observed that the slightest breath of air bore them away out of sight1 in a horizontal line4 ,on another occasion 7#beth7 under similar circumstances1 ,i repeatedly observed the same kind of small spider1 either when placed or having crawled on some little eminence1 elevate its abdomen1 send forth a thread1 and then sail away horizontally1 but with a rapidity which was quite unaccountable4 ,i thought ,i could perceive that the spider1 before performing the above preparatory steps1 connected its legs together with the most delicate threads1 but ,i am not sure whether this observation was correct4 ,one day1 at ,st4 ,f1 ,i had a better opportunity of observing some similar facts4 ,a spider which was about three-tenths of an inch in length1 and which in its general appearance resembled a ,citigrade 7therefore quite different from the gossamer71 while standing on the summit of a post1 darted forth four or five threads from its spinners4 ,these1 glittering in the sunshine1 might be compared to diverging rays of light2 they were not1 however1 straight1 but in undulations like films of silk blown by the wind4 ,they were more than a yard in length1 and diverged in an ascending direction from the orifices4 ,the spider then suddenly let go its hold of the post1 and was quickly borne out of sight4 ,the day was hot and apparently quite calm2 yet under such circumstances1 the atmosphere can never be so tranquil as not to affect a vane so delicate as the thread of a spider's web4 ,if during a warm day we look either at the shadow of any object cast on a bank1 or over a level plain at a distant landmark1 the effect of an ascending current of heated air is almost always evident3 such upward currents1 it has been remarked1 are also shown by the ascent of soap-bubbles1 which will not rise in an indoors room4 ,hence ,i think there is not much difficulty in understanding the ascent of the fine lines projected from a spider's spinners1 and afterwards of the spider itself2 the divergence of the lines has been attempted to be explained1 ,i believe by ,mr4 ,murray1 by their similar electrical condition4 ,the circumstance of spiders of the same species1 but of different sexes and ages1 being found on several occasions at the distance of many leagues from the land1 attached in vast numbers to the lines1 renders it probable that the habit of sailing through the air is as characteristic of this tribe1 as that of diving is of the ,argyroneta4 ,we may then reject ,latreille's supposition1 that the gossamer owes its origin indifferently to the young of several genera of spiders3 although1 as we have seen1 the young of other spiders do possess the power of performing arial voyages4#g #g ,mr4 ,blackwall1 in his ,researches in ,zoology1 has many excellent observations on the habits of spiders4 ,during our different passages south of the ,plata1 ,i often towed astern a net made of bunting1 and thus caught many curious animals4 ,of ,crustacea there were many strange and undescribed genera4 ,one1 which in some respects is allied to the ,notopods 7or those crabs which have their posterior legs placed almost on their backs1 for the purpose of adhering to the under side of rocks71 is very remarkable from the structure of its hind pair of legs4 ,the penultimate joint1 instead of terminating in a simple claw1 ends in three bristle-like appendages of dissimilar lengths--the longest equalling that of the entire leg4 ,these claws are very thin1 and are serrated with the finest teeth1 directed backwards3 their curved extremities are flattened1 and on this part five most minute cups are placed which seem to act in the same manner as the suckers on the arms of the cuttle-fish4 ,as the animal lives in the open sea1 and probably wants a place of rest1 ,i suppose this beautiful and most anomalous structure is adapted to take hold of floating marine animals4 ,in deep water1 far from the land1 the number of living creatures is extremely small3 south of the latitude #ce1 ,i never succeeded in catching anything besides some beroe1 and a few species of minute entomostracous crustacea4 ,in shoaler water1 at the distance of a few miles from the coast1 very many kinds of crustacea and some other animals are numerous1 but only during the night4 ,between latitudes #ef and #eg south of ,cape ,horn1 the net was put astern several times2 it never1 however1 brought up anything besides a few of two extremely minute species of ,entomostraca4 ,yet whales and seals1 petrels and albatross1 are exceedingly abundant throughout this part of the ocean4 ,it has always been a mystery to me on what the albatross1 which lives far from the shore1 can subsist2 ,i presume that1 like the condor1 it is able to fast long2 and that one good feast on the carcass of a putrid whale lasts for a long time4 ,the central and intertropical parts of the ,atlantic swarm with ,pteropoda1 ,crustacea1 and ,radiata1 and with their devourers the flying-fish1 and again with their devourers the bonitos and albicores2 ,i presume that the numerous lower pelagic animals feed on the ,infusoria1 which are now known1 from the researches of ,ehrenberg1 to abound in the open ocean3 but on what1 in the clear blue water1 do these ,infusoria subsist8 ,while sailing a little south of the ,plata on one very dark night1 the sea presented a wonderful and most beautiful spectacle4 ,there was a fresh breeze1 and every part of the surface1 which during the day is seen as foam1 now glowed with a pale light4 ,the vessel drove before her bows two billows of liquid phosphorus1 and in her wake she was followed by a milky train4 ,as far as the eye reached1 the crest of every wave was bright1 and the sky above the horizon1 from the reflected glare of these livid flames1 was not so utterly obscure as over the vault of the heavens4 ,as we proceed farther southward the sea is seldom phosphorescent2 and off ,cape ,horn ,i do not recollect more than once having seen it so1 and then it was far from being brilliant4 ,this circumstance probably has a close connection with the scarcity of organic beings in that part of the ocean4 ,after the elaborate paper#h by ,ehrenberg1 on the phosphorescence of the sea1 it is almost superfluous on my part to make any observations on the subject4 ,i may however add1 that the same torn and irregular particles of gelatinous matter1 described by ,ehrenberg1 seem in the southern as well as in the northern hemisphere to be the common cause of this phenomenon4 ,the particles were so minute as easily to pass through fine gauze2 yet many were distinctly visible by the naked eye4 ,the water when placed in a tumbler and agitated gave out sparks1 but a small portion in a watch-glass scarcely ever was luminous4 ,ehrenberg states that these particles all retain a certain degree of irritability4 ,my observations1 some of which were made directly after taking up the water1 gave a different result4 ,i may also mention1 that having used the net during one night1 ,i allowed it to become partially dry1 and having occasion twelve hours afterwards to employ it again1 ,i found the whole surface sparkled as brightly as when first taken out of the water4 ,it does not appear probable in this case that the particles could have remained so long alive4 ,on one occasion having kept a jelly-fish of the genus ,diana till it was dead1 the water in which it was placed became luminous4 ,when the waves scintillate with bright green sparks1 ,i believe it is generally owing to minute crustacea4 ,but there can be no doubt that very many other pelagic animals1 when alive1 are phosphorescent4 #h ,an abstract is given in ,no4 ,,iv of the ,magazine of ,zoology and ,botany4 ,on two occasions ,i have observed the sea luminous at considerable depths beneath the surface4 ,near the mouth of the ,plata some circular and oval patches1 from two to four yards in diameter1 and with defined outlines1 shone with a steady but pale light2 while the surrounding water only gave out a few sparks4 ,the appearance resembled the reflection of the moon1 or some luminous body2 for the edges were sinuous from the undulations of the surface4 ,the ship1 which drew thirteen feet water1 passed over1 without disturbing these patches4 ,therefore we must suppose that some animals were congregated together at a greater depth than the bottom of the vessel4 ,near ,fernando ,noronha the sea gave out light in flashes4 ,the appearance was very similar to that which might be expected from a large fish moving rapidly through a luminous fluid4 ,to this cause the sailors attributed it2 at the time1 however1 ,i entertained some doubts1 on account of the frequency and rapidity of the flashes4 ,i have already remarked that the phenomenon is very much more common in warm than in cold countries2 and ,i have sometimes imagined that a disturbed electrical condition of the atmosphere was most favourable to its production4 ,certainly ,i think the sea is most luminous after a few days of more calm weather than ordinary1 during which time it has swarmed with various animals4 ,observing that the water charged with gelatinous particles is in an impure state1 and that the luminous appearance in all common cases is produced by the agitation of the fluid in contact with the atmosphere1 ,i am inclined to consider that the phosphorescence is the result of the decomposition of the organic particles1 by which process 7one is tempted almost to call it a kind of respiration7 the ocean becomes purified4 ,december #bcrd4--,we arrived at ,port ,desire1 situated in lat4 #dg1 on the coast of ,patagonia4 ,the creek runs for about twenty miles inland1 with an irregular width4 ,the ,beagle anchored a few miles within the entrance1 in front of the ruins of an old ,spanish settlement4 ,the same evening ,i went on shore4 ,the first landing in any new country is very interesting1 and especially when1 as in this case1 the whole aspect bears the stamp of a marked and individual character4 ,at the height of between two and three hundred feet above some masses of porphyry a wide plain extends1 which is truly characteristic of ,patagonia4 ,the surface is quite level1 and is composed of well-rounded shingle mixed with a whitish earth4 ,here and there scattered tufts of brown wiry grass are supported1 and still more rarely1 some low thorny bushes4 ,the weather is dry and pleasant1 and the fine blue sky is but seldom obscured4 ,when standing in the middle of one of these desert plains and looking towards the interior1 the view is generally bounded by the escarpment of another plain1 rather higher1 but equally level and desolate2 and in every other direction the horizon is indistinct from the trembling mirage which seems to rise from the heated surface4 ,in such a country the fate of the ,spanish settlement was soon decided2 the dryness of the climate during the greater part of the year1 and the occasional hostile attacks of the wandering ,indians1 compelled the colonists to desert their half-finished buildings4 ,the style1 however1 in which they were commenced shows the strong and liberal hand of ,spain in the old time4 ,the result of all the attempts to colonise this side of ,america south of #da has been miserable4 ,port ,famine expresses by its name the lingering and extreme sufferings of several hundred wretched people1 of whom one alone survived to relate their misfortunes4 ,at ,st4 ,joseph's ,bay1 on the coast of ,patagonia1 a small settlement was made2 but during one ,sunday the ,indians made an attack and massacred the whole party1 excepting two men1 who remained captives during many years4 ,at the ,rio ,negro ,i conversed with one of these men1 now in extreme old age4 ,the zoology of ,patagonia is as limited as its ,flora4#i ,on the arid plains a few black beetles 7,heteromera7 might be seen slowly crawling about1 and occasionally a lizard darted from side to side4 ,of birds we have three carrion hawks1 and in the valleys a few finches and insect-feeders4 ,an ibis 7,theristicus melanops--a species said to be found in central ,africa7 is not uncommon on the most desert parts3 in their stomachs ,i found grasshoppers1 cicad1 small lizards1 and even scorpions4#aj ,at one time of the year these birds go in flocks1 at another in pairs1 their cry is very loud and singular1 like the neighing of the guanaco4 #i ,i found here a species of cactus1 described by ,professor ,henslow1 under the name of ,opuntia ,darwinii 7,magazine of ,zoology and ,botany71 vol4 i1 p4 #dff1 which was remarkable for the irritability of the stamens1 when ,i inserted either a piece of stick or the end of my finger in the flower4 ,the segments of the perianth also closed on the pistil1 but more slowly than the stamens4 ,plants of this family1 generally considered as tropical1 occur in ,north ,america 7,lewis and ,clarke's ,travels1 p4 #bba71 in the same high latitude as here1 namely1 in both cases1 in #dg4 #aj ,these insects were not uncommon beneath stones4 ,i found one cannibal scorpion quietly devouring another4 ,illustration ,the guanaco1 or wild llama1 is the characteristic quadruped of the plains of ,patagonia2 it is the ,south ,american representative of the camel of the ,east4 ,it is an elegant animal in a state of nature1 with a long slender neck and fine legs4 ,it is very common over the whole of the temperate parts of the continent1 as far south as the islands near ,cape ,horn4 ,it generally lives in small herds of from half a dozen to thirty in each2 but on the banks of the ,st4 ,cruz we saw one herd which must have contained at least five hundred4 ,they are generally wild and extremely wary4 ,mr4 ,stokes told me that he one day saw through a glass a herd of these animals which evidently had been frightened1 and were running away at full speed1 although their distance was so great that he could not distinguish them with his naked eye4 ,the sportsman frequently receives the first notice of their presence1 by hearing from a long distance their peculiar shrill neighing note of alarm4 ,if he then looks attentively1 he will probably see the herd standing in a line on the side of some distant hill4 ,on approaching nearer1 a few more squeals are given1 and off they set at an apparently slow1 but really quick canter1 along some narrow beaten track to a neighbouring hill4 ,if1 however1 by chance he abruptly meets a single animal1 or several together1 they will generally stand motionless and intently gaze at him2 then perhaps move on a few yards1 turn round1 and look again4 ,what is the cause of this difference in their shyness8 ,do they mistake a man in the distance for their chief enemy the puma8 ,or does curiosity overcome their timidity8 ,that they are curious is certain2 for if a person lies on the ground1 and plays strange antics1 such as throwing up his feet in the air1 they will almost always approach by degrees to reconnoitre him4 ,it was an artifice that was repeatedly practised by our sportsmen with success1 and it had moreover the advantage of allowing several shots to be fired1 which were all taken as parts of the performance4 ,on the mountains of ,tierra del ,fuego1 ,i have more than once seen a guanaco1 on being approached1 not only neigh and squeal1 but prance and leap about in the most ridiculous manner1 apparently in defiance as a challenge4 ,these animals are very easily domesticated1 and ,i have seen some thus kept in ,northern ,patagonia near a house1 though not under any restraint4 ,they are in this state very bold1 and readily attack a man by striking him from behind with both knees4 ,it is asserted that the motive for these attacks is jealousy on account of their females4 ,the wild guanacos1 however1 have no idea of defence2 even a single dog will secure one of these large animals1 till the huntsman can come up4 ,in many of their habits they are like sheep in a flock4 ,thus when they see men approaching in several directions on horseback1 they soon become bewildered1 and know not which way to run4 ,this greatly facilitates the ,indian method of hunting1 for they are thus easily driven to a central point1 and are encompassed4 ,the guanacos readily take to the water3 several times at ,port ,valdes they were seen swimming from island to island4 ,byron1 in his voyage1 says he saw them drinking salt water4 ,some of our officers likewise saw a herd apparently drinking the briny fluid from a salina near ,cape ,blanco4 ,i imagine in several parts of the country1 if they do not drink salt water1 they drink none at all4 ,in the middle of the day they frequently roll in the dust1 in saucer-shaped hollows4 ,the males fight together2 two one day passed quite close to me1 squealing and trying to bite each other2 and several were shot with their hides deeply scored4 ,herds sometimes appear to set out on exploring parties3 at ,bahia ,blanca1 where1 within thirty miles of the coast1 these animals are extremely unfrequent1 ,i one day saw the tracks of thirty or forty1 which had come in a direct line to a muddy salt-water creek4 ,they then must have perceived that they were approaching the sea1 for they had wheeled with the regularity of cavalry1 and had returned back in as straight a line as they had advanced4 ,the guanacos have one singular habit1 which is to me quite inexplicable2 namely1 that on successive days they drop their dung in the same defined heap4 ,i saw one of these heaps which was eight feet in diameter1 and was composed of a large quantity4 ,this habit1 according to ,m4 ,a4 d',orbigny1 is common to all the species of the genus2 it is very useful to the ,peruvian ,indians1 who use the dung for fuel1 and are thus saved the trouble of collecting it4 ,the guanacos appear to have favourite spots for lying down to die4 ,on the banks of the ,st4 ,cruz1 in certain circumscribed spaces1 which were generally bushy and all near the river1 the ground was actually white with bones4 ,on one such spot ,i counted between ten and twenty heads4 ,i particularly examined the bones2 they did not appear1 as some scattered ones which ,i had seen1 gnawed or broken1 as if dragged together by beasts of prey4 ,the animals in most cases must have crawled1 before dying1 beneath and amongst the bushes4 ,mr4 ,bynoe informs me that during a former voyage he observed the same circumstance on the banks of the ,rio ,gallegos4 ,i do not at all understand the reason of this1 but ,i may observe1 that the wounded guanacos at the ,st4 ,cruz invariably walked towards the river4 ,at ,st4 ,jago in the ,cape de ,verd ,islands1 ,i remember having seen in a ravine a retired corner covered with bones of the goat2 we at the time exclaimed that it was the burial-ground of all the goats in the island4 ,i mention these trifling circumstances1 because in certain cases they might explain the occurrence of a number of uninjured bones in a cave1 or buried under alluvial accumulations2 and likewise the cause why certain animals are more commonly embedded than others in sedimentary deposits4 ,one day the yawl was sent under the command of ,mr4 ,chaffers with three days' provisions to survey the upper part of the harbour4 ,in the morning we searched for some watering-places mentioned in an old ,spanish chart4 ,we found one creek1 at the head of which there was a trickling rill 7the first we had seen7 of brackish water4 ,here the tide compelled us to wait several hours2 and in the interval ,i walked some miles into the interior4 ,the plain as usual consisted of gravel1 mingled with soil resembling chalk in appearance1 but very different from it in nature4 ,from the softness of these materials it was worn into many gulleys4 ,there was not a tree1 and1 excepting the guanaco1 which stood on the hilltop a watchful sentinel over its herd1 scarcely an animal or a bird4 ,all was stillness and desolation4 ,yet in passing over these scenes1 without one bright object near1 an ill-defined but strong sense of pleasure is vividly excited4 ,one asked how many ages the plain had thus lasted1 and how many more it was doomed thus to continue4 ,none can reply--all seems eternal now4 ,the wilderness has a mysterious tongue1 ,which teaches awful doubt4#aa #aa ,shelley1 ,lines on ,m4 ,blanc4 ,in the evening we sailed a few miles farther up1 and then pitched the tents for the night4 ,by the middle of the next day the yawl was aground1 and from the shoalness of the water could not proceed any higher4 ,the water being found partly fresh1 ,mr4 ,chaffers took the dingey and went up two or three miles farther1 where she also grounded1 but in a fresh-water river4 ,the water was muddy1 and though the stream was most insignificant in size1 it would be difficult to account for its origin1 except from the melting snow on the ,cordillera4 ,at the spot where we bivouacked1 we were surrounded by bold cliffs and steep pinnacles of porphyry4 ,i do not think ,i ever saw a spot which appeared more secluded from the rest of the world than this rocky crevice in the wide plain4 ,the second day after our return to the anchorage1 a party of officers and myself went to ransack an old ,indian grave1 which ,i had found on the summit of a neighbouring hill4 ,two immense stones1 each probably weighing at least a couple of tons1 had been placed in front of a ledge of rock about six feet high4 ,at the bottom of the grave on the hard rock there was a layer of earth about a foot deep1 which must have been brought up from the plain below4 ,above it a pavement of flat stones was placed1 on which others were piled1 so as to fill up the space between the ledge and the two great blocks4 ,to complete the grave1 the ,indians had contrived to detach from the ledge a huge fragment1 and to throw it over the pile so as to rest on the two blocks4 ,we undermined the grave on both sides1 but could not find any relics1 or even bones4 ,the latter probably had decayed long since 7in which case the grave must have been of extreme antiquity71 for ,i found in another place some smaller heaps1 beneath which a very few crumbling fragments could yet be distinguished as having belonged to a man4 ,falconer states1 that where an ,indian dies he is buried1 but that subsequently his bones are carefully taken up and carried1 let the distance be ever so great1 to be deposited near the sea-coast4 ,this custom1 ,i think1 may be accounted for by recollecting that1 before the introduction of horses1 these ,indians must have led nearly the same life as the ,fuegians now do1 and therefore generally have resided in the neighbourhood of the sea4 ,the common prejudice of lying where one's ancestors have lain1 would make the now roaming ,indians bring the less perishable part of their dead to their ancient burial-ground on the coast4 ,january #ith4--,before it was dark the ,beagle anchored in the fine spacious harbour of ,port ,st4 ,julian1 situated about one hundred and ten miles to the south of ,port ,desire4 ,we remained here eight days4 ,the country is nearly similar to that of ,port ,desire1 but perhaps rather more sterile4 ,one day a party accompanied ,captain ,fitz ,roy on a long walk round the head of the harbour4 ,we were eleven hours without tasting any water1 and some of the party were quite exhausted4 ,from the summit of a hill 7since well named ,thirsty ,hill7 a fine lake was spied1 and two of the party proceeded with concerted signals to show whether it was fresh water4 ,what was our disappointment to find a snow-white expanse of salt1 crystallised in great cubes6 ,we attributed our extreme thirst to the dryness of the atmosphere2 but whatever the cause might be1 we were exceedingly glad late in the evening to get back to the boats4 ,although we could nowhere find1 during our whole visit1 a single drop of fresh water1 yet some must exist2 for by an odd chance ,i found on the surface of the salt water1 near the head of the bay1 a ,colymbetes not quite dead1 which must have lived in some not far distant pool4 ,three other insects 7a ,cincindela1 like hybrida1 a ,cymindis1 and a ,harpalus1 which all live on muddy flats occasionally overflowed by the sea71 and one other found dead on the plain1 complete the list of the beetles4 ,a good-sized fly 7,tabanus7 was extremely numerous1 and tormented us by its painful bite4 ,the common horsefly1 which is so troublesome in the shady lanes of ,england1 belongs to this same genus4 ,we here have the puzzle that so frequently occurs in the case of musquitoes--on the blood of what animals do these insects commonly feed8 ,the guanaco is nearly the only warm-blooded quadruped1 and it is found in quite inconsiderable numbers compared with the multitude of flies4 ,the geology of ,patagonia is interesting4 ,differently from ,europe1 where the tertiary formations appear to have accumulated in bays1 here along hundreds of miles of coast we have one great deposit1 including many tertiary shells1 all apparently extinct4 ,the most common shell is a massive gigantic oyster1 sometimes even a foot in diameter4 ,these beds are covered by others of a peculiar soft white stone1 including much gypsum1 and resembling chalk1 but really of a pumiceous nature4 ,it is highly remarkable1 from being composed1 to at least one-tenth part of its bulk1 of ,infusoria3 ,professor ,ehrenberg has already ascertained in it thirty oceanic forms4 ,this bed extends for #ejj miles along the coast1 and probably for a considerably greater distance4 ,at ,port ,st4 ,julian its thickness is more than #hjj feet6 ,these white beds are everywhere capped by a mass of gravel1 forming probably one of the largest beds of shingle in the world3 it certainly extends from near the ,rio ,colorado to between #fjj and #gjj nautical miles southward1 at ,santa ,cruz 7a river a little south of ,st4 ,julian7 it reaches to the foot of the ,cordillera2 half way up the river its thickness is more than #bjj feet2 it probably everywhere extends to this great chain1 whence the well-rounded pebbles of porphyry have been derived3 we may consider its average breadth as #bjj miles1 and its average thickness as about #ej feet4 ,if this great bed of pebbles1 without including the mud necessarily derived from their attrition1 was piled into a mound1 it would form a great mountain chain6 ,when we consider that all these pebbles1 countless as the grains of sand in the desert1 have been derived from the slow falling of masses of rock on the old coast-lines and banks of rivers1 and that these fragments have been dashed into smaller pieces1 and that each of them has since been slowly rolled1 rounded1 and far transported1 the mind is stupefied in thinking over the long1 absolutely necessary1 lapse of years4 ,yet all this gravel has been transported1 and probably rounded1 subsequently to the deposition of the white beds1 and long subsequently to the underlying beds with the tertiary shells4 ,everything in this southern continent has been effected on a grand scale3 the land1 from the ,rio ,plata to ,tierra del ,fuego1 a distance of #abjj miles1 has been raised in mass 7and in ,patagonia to a height of between #cjj and #djj feet71 within the period of the now existing sea-shells4 ,the old and weathered shells left on the surface of the upraised plain still partially retain their colours4 ,the uprising movement has been interrupted by at least eight long periods of rest1 during which the sea ate deeply back into the land1 forming at successive levels the long lines of cliffs or escarpments1 which separate the different plains as they rise like steps one behind the other4 ,the elevatory movement1 and the eating-back power of the sea during the periods of rest1 have been equable over long lines of coast2 for ,i was astonished to find that the step-like plains stand at nearly corresponding heights at far distant points4 ,the lowest plain is #ij feet high2 and the highest1 which ,i ascended near the coast1 is #iej feet2 and of this only relics are left in the form of flat gravel-capped hills4 ,the upper plain of ,santa ,cruz slopes up to a height of #cjjj feet at the foot of the ,cordillera4 ,i have said that within the period of existing sea-shells1 ,patagonia has been upraised #cjj to #djj feet3 ,i may add1 that within the period when icebergs transported boulders over the upper plain of ,santa ,cruz1 the elevation has been at least #aejj feet4 ,nor has ,patagonia been affected only by upward movements3 the extinct tertiary shells from ,port ,st4 ,julian and ,santa ,cruz cannot have lived1 according to ,professor ,e4 ,forbes1 in a greater depth of water than from #dj to #bej feet2 but they are now covered with sea-deposited strata from #hjj to #ajjj feet in thickness3 hence the bed of the sea1 on which these shells once lived1 must have sunk downwards several hundred feet1 to allow of the accumulation of the superincumbent strata4 ,what a history of geological changes does the simply-constructed coast of ,patagonia reveal6 ,illustration ,at ,port ,st4 ,julian1#ab in some red mud capping the gravel on the #ij-;feet plain1 ,i found half the skeleton of the ,macrauchenia ,patachonica1 a remarkable quadruped1 full as large as a camel4 ,it belongs to the same division of the ,pachydermata with the rhinoceros1 tapir1 and palotherium2 but in the structure of the bones of its long neck it shows a clear relation to the camel1 or rather to the guanaco and llama4 ,from recent sea-shells being found on two of the higher step-formed plains1 which must have been modelled and upraised before the mud was deposited in which the ,macrauchenia was intombed1 it is certain that this curious quadruped lived long after the sea was inhabited by its present shells4 ,i was at first much surprised how a large quadruped could so lately have subsisted1 in lat4 #di #ae1 on these wretched gravel plains with their stunted vegetation2 but the relationship of the ,macrauchenia to the ,guanaco1 now an inhabitant of the most sterile parts1 partly explains this difficulty4 #ab ,i have lately heard that ,captain ,sulivan1 ,r4,n41 has found numerous fossil bones1 embedded in regular strata1 on the banks of the ,r4 ,gallegos1 in lat4 #ea #d4 ,some of the bones are large2 others are small1 and appear to have belonged to an armadillo4 ,this is a most interesting and important discovery4 ,the relationship1 though distant1 between the ,macrauchenia and the ,guanaco1 between the ,toxodon and the ,capybara1--the closer relationship between the many extinct ,edentata and the living sloths1 ant-eaters1 and armadillos1 now so eminently characteristic of ,south ,american zoology1--and the still closer relationship between the fossil and living species of ,ctenomys and ,hydrochrus1 are most interesting facts4 ,this relationship is shown wonderfully--as wonderfully as between the fossil and extinct ,marsupial animals of ,australia--by the great collection lately brought to ,europe from the caves of ,brazil by ,,mm4 ,lund and ,clausen4 ,in this collection there are extinct species of all the thirty-two genera1 excepting four1 of the terrestrial quadrupeds now inhabiting the provinces in which the caves occur2 and the extinct species are much more numerous than those now living3 there are fossil ant-eaters1 armadillos1 tapirs1 peccaries1 guanacos1 opossums1 and numerous ,south ,american gnawers and monkeys1 and other animals4 ,this wonderful relationship in the same continent between the dead and the living1 will1 ,i do not doubt1 hereafter throw more light on the appearance of organic beings on our earth1 and their disappearance from it1 than any other class of facts4 ,it is impossible to reflect on the changed state of the ,american continent without the deepest astonishment4 ,formerly it must have swarmed with great monsters3 now we find mere pigmies1 compared with the antecedent allied races4 ,if ,buffon had known of the gigantic sloth and armadillo-like animals1 and of the lost ,pachydermata1 he might have said with a greater semblance of truth that the creative force in ,america had lost its power1 rather than that it had never possessed great vigour4 ,the greater number1 if not all1 of these extinct quadrupeds lived at a late period1 and were the contemporaries of most of the existing sea-shells4 ,since they lived1 no very great change in the form of the land can have taken place4 ,what1 then1 has exterminated so many species and whole genera8 ,the mind at first is irresistibly hurried into the belief of some great catastrophe2 but thus to destroy animals1 both large and small1 in ,southern ,patagonia1 in ,brazil1 on the ,cordillera of ,peru1 in ,north ,america up to ,behring's ,straits1 we must shake the entire framework of the globe4 ,an examination1 moreover1 of the geology of ,la ,plata and ,patagonia1 leads to the belief that all the features of the land result from slow and gradual changes4 ,it appears from the character of the fossils in ,europe1 ,asia1 ,australia1 and in ,north and ,south ,america1 that those conditions which favour the life of the larger quadrupeds were lately coextensive with the world3 what those conditions were1 no one has yet even conjectured4 ,it could hardly have been a change of temperature1 which at about the same time destroyed the inhabitants of tropical1 temperate1 and arctic latitudes on both sides of the globe4 ,in ,north ,america we positively know from ,mr4 ,lyell that the large quadrupeds lived subsequently to that period1 when boulders were brought into latitudes at which icebergs now never arrive3 from conclusive but indirect reasons we may feel sure1 that in the southern hemisphere the ,macrauchenia1 also1 lived long subsequently to the ice-transporting boulder-period4 ,did man1 after his first inroad into ,south ,america1 destroy1 as has been suggested1 the unwieldy ,megatherium and the other ,edentata8 ,we must at least look to some other cause for the destruction of the little tucutuco at ,bahia ,blanca1 and of the many fossil mice and other small quadrupeds in ,brazil4 ,no one will imagine that a drought1 even far severer than those which cause such losses in the provinces of ,la ,plata1 could destroy every individual of every species from ,southern ,patagonia to ,behring's ,straits4 ,what shall we say of the extinction of the horse8 ,did those plains fail of pasture1 which have since been overrun by thousands and hundreds of thousands of the descendants of the stock introduced by the ,spaniards8 ,have the subsequently introduced species consumed the food of the great antecedent races8 ,can we believe that the ,capybara has taken the food of the ,toxodon1 the ,guanaco of the ,macrauchenia1 the existing small ,edentata of their numerous gigantic prototypes8 ,certainly1 no fact in the long history of the world is so startling as the wide and repeated exterminations of its inhabitants4 ,nevertheless1 if we consider the subject under another point of view1 it will appear less perplexing4 ,we do not steadily bear in mind how profoundly ignorant we are of the conditions of existence of every animal2 nor do we always remember that some check is constantly preventing the too rapid increase of every organised being left in a state of nature4 ,the supply of food1 on an average1 remains constant1 yet the tendency in every animal to increase by propagation is geometrical2 and its surprising effects have nowhere been more astonishingly shown1 than in the case of the ,european animals run wild during the last few centuries in ,america4 ,every animal in a state of nature regularly breeds2 yet in a species long established1 any great increase in numbers is obviously impossible1 and must be checked by some means4 ,we are1 nevertheless1 seldom able with certainty to tell in any given species1 at what period of life1 or at what period of the year1 or whether only at long intervals1 the check falls2 or1 again1 what is the precise nature of the check4 ,hence probably it is that we feel so little surprise at one1 of two species closely allied in habits1 being rare and the other abundant in the same district2 or1 again1 that one should be abundant in one district1 and another1 filling the same place in the economy of nature1 should be abundant in a neighbouring district1 differing very little in its conditions4 ,if asked how this is1 one immediately replies that it is determined by some slight difference in climate1 food1 or the number of enemies3 yet how rarely1 if ever1 we can point out the precise cause and manner of action of the check6 ,we are therefore1 driven to the conclusion that causes generally quite inappreciable by us1 determine whether a given species shall be abundant or scanty in numbers4 ,in the cases where we can trace the extinction of a species through man1 either wholly or in one limited district1 we know that it becomes rarer and rarer1 and is then lost3 it would be difficult to point out any just distinction#ac between a species destroyed by man or by the increase of its natural enemies4 ,the evidence of rarity preceding extinction is more striking in the successive tertiary strata1 as remarked by several able observers2 it has often been found that a shell very common in a tertiary stratum is now most rare1 and has even long been thought to be extinct4 ,if then1 as appears probable1 species first become rare and then extinct--if the too rapid increase of every species1 even the most favoured1 is steadily checked1 as we must admit1 though how and when it is hard to say--and if we see1 without the smallest surprise1 though unable to assign the precise reason1 one species abundant and another closely-allied species rare in the same district--why should we feel such great astonishment at the rarity being carried a step farther to extinction8 ,an action going on1 on every side of us1 and yet barely appreciable1 might surely be carried a little farther without exciting our observation4 ,who would feel any great surprise at hearing that the ,magalonyx was formerly rare compared with the ,megatherium1 or that one of the fossil monkeys was few in number compared with one of the now living monkeys8 and yet in this comparative rarity1 we should have the plainest evidence of less favourable conditions for their existence4 ,to admit that species generally become rare before they become extinct--to feel no surprise at the comparative rarity of one species with another1 and yet to call in some extraordinary agent and to marvel greatly when a species ceases to exist1 appears to me much the same as to admit that sickness in the individual is the prelude to death--to feel no surprise at sickness--but when the sick man dies to wonder1 and to believe that he died through violence4 #ac ,see the excellent remarks on this subject by ,mr4 ,lyell1 in his ,principles of ,geology4 ,illustration ,illustration ,chapter ,,ix ,santa ,cruz--,expedition up the ,river--,indians--,immense ,streams of basaltic lava--,fragments not transported by the ,river--,excavation of the valley--,condor1 habits of--,cordillera--,erratic boulders of great size--,indian relics--,return to the ship--,falkland ,islands--,wild horses1 cattle1 rabbits--,wolf-like fox--,fire made of bones--,manner of hunting wild cattle--,geology--,streams of stones--,scenes of violence--,penguin--,geese--,eggs of ,doris--,compound animals4 ,,santa ,,cruz1 ,,patagonia1 ,,and ,,the ,,falkland ,,islands4 ,april #acth1 #ahcd4--,the ,beagle anchored within the mouth of the ,santa ,cruz4 ,this river is situated about sixty miles south of ,port ,st4 ,julian4 ,during the last voyage ,captain ,stokes proceeded thirty miles up it1 but then1 from the want of provisions1 was obliged to return4 ,excepting what was discovered at that time1 scarcely anything was known about this large river4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy now determined to follow its course as far as time would allow4 ,on the #ahth three whale-boats started1 carrying three weeks' provisions2 and the party consisted of twenty-five souls--a force which would have been sufficient to have defied a host of ,indians4 ,with a strong flood-tide and a fine day we made a good run1 soon drank some of the fresh water1 and were at night nearly above the tidal influence4 ,the river here assumed a size and appearance which1 even at the highest point we ultimately reached1 was scarcely diminished4 ,it was generally from three to four hundred yards broad1 and in the middle about seventeen feet deep4 ,the rapidity of the current1 which in its whole course runs at the rate of from four to six knots an hour1 is perhaps its most remarkable feature4 ,the water is of a fine blue colour1 but with a slight milky tinge1 and not so transparent as at first sight would have been expected4 ,it flows over a bed of pebbles1 like those which compose the beach and the surrounding plains4 ,it runs in a winding course through a valley1 which extends in a direct line westward4 ,this valley varies from five to ten miles in breadth2 it is bounded by step-formed terraces1 which rise in most parts1 one above the other1 to the height of five hundred feet1 and have on the opposite sides a remarkable correspondence4 ,april #aith4--,against so strong a current it was1 of course1 quite impossible to row or sail3 consequently the three boats were fastened together head and stern1 two hands left in each1 and the rest came on shore to track4 ,as the general arrangements made by ,captain ,fitz ,roy were very good for facilitating the work of all1 and as all had a share in it1 ,i will describe the system4 ,the party1 including every one1 was divided into two spells1 each of which hauled at the tracking line alternately for an hour and a half4 ,the officers of each boat lived with1 ate the same food1 and slept in the same tent with their crew1 so that each boat was quite independent of the others4 ,after sunset the first level spot where any bushes were growing was chosen for our night's lodging4 ,each of the crew took it in turns to be cook4 ,immediately the boat was hauled up1 the cook made his fire2 two others pitched the tent2 the coxswain handed the things out of the boat2 the rest carried them up to the tents and collected firewood4 ,by this order1 in half an hour everything was ready for the night4 ,a watch of two men and an officer was always kept1 whose duty it was to look after the boats1 keep up the fire1 and guard against ,indians4 ,each in the party had his one hour every night4 ,during this day we tracked but a short distance1 for there were many islets1 covered by thorny bushes1 and the channels between them were shallow4 ,april #bjth4--,we passed the islands and set to work4 ,our regular day's march1 although it was hard enough1 carried us on an average only ten miles in a straight line1 and perhaps fifteen or twenty altogether4 ,beyond the place where we slept last night1 the country is completely terra incognita1 for it was there that ,captain ,stokes turned back4 ,we saw in the distance a great smoke1 and found the skeleton of a horse1 so we knew that ,indians were in the neighbourhood4 ,on the next morning 7#bast7 tracks of a party of horse1 and marks left by the trailing of the chuzos1 or long spears1 were observed on the ground4 ,it was generally thought that the ,indians had reconnoitred us during the night4 ,shortly afterwards we came to a spot where1 from the fresh footsteps of men1 children1 and horses1 it was evident that the party had crossed the river4 ,april #bbnd4--,the country remained the same1 and was extremely uninteresting4 ,the complete similarity of the productions throughout ,patagonia is one of its most striking characters4 ,the level plains of arid shingle support the same stunted and dwarf plants2 and in the valleys the same thorn-bearing bushes grow4 ,everywhere we see the same birds and insects4 ,even the very banks of the river and of the clear streamlets which entered it1 were scarcely enlivened by a brighter tint of green4 ,the curse of sterility is on the land1 and the water flowing over a bed of pebbles partakes of the same curse4 ,hence the number of waterfowl is very scanty2 for there is nothing to support life in the stream of this barren river4 ,patagonia1 poor as she is in some respects1 can however boast of a greater stock of small rodents#a than perhaps any other country in the world4 ,several species of mice are externally characterised by large thin ears and a very fine fur4 ,these little animals swarm amongst the thickets in the valleys1 where they cannot for months together taste a drop of water excepting the dew4 ,they all seem to be cannibals2 for no sooner was a mouse caught in one of my traps than it was devoured by others4 ,a small and delicately-shaped fox1 which is likewise very abundant1 probably derives its entire support from these small animals4 ,the guanaco is also in his proper district1 herds of fifty or a hundred were common2 and1 as ,i have stated1 we saw one which must have contained at least five hundred4 ,the puma1 with the condor and other carrion-hawks in its train1 follows and preys upon these animals4 ,the footsteps of the puma were to be seen almost everywhere on the banks of the river2 and the remains of several guanacos1 with their necks dislocated and bones broken1 showed how they had met their death4 #a ,the desserts of ,syria are characterised1 according to ,volney 7tome i1 p4 #cea71 by woody bushes1 numerous rats1 gazelles and hares4 ,in the landscape of ,patagonia the guanaco replaces the gazelle1 and the agouti the hare4 ,april #bdth4--,like the navigators of old when approaching an unknown land1 we examined and watched for the most trivial sign of a change4 ,the drifted trunk of a tree1 or a boulder of primitive rock1 was hailed with joy1 as if we had seen a forest growing on the flanks of the ,cordillera4 ,the top1 however1 of a heavy bank of clouds1 which remained almost constantly in one position1 was the most promising sign1 and eventually turned out a true harbinger4 ,at first the clouds were mistaken for the mountains themselves1 instead of the masses of vapour condensed by their icy summits4 ,april #bfth4--,we this day met with a marked change in the geological structure of the plains4 ,from the first starting ,i had carefully examined the gravel in the river1 and for the two last days had noticed the presence of a few small pebbles of a very cellular basalt4 ,these gradually increased in number and in size1 but none were as large as a man's head4 ,this morning1 however1 pebbles of the same rock1 but more compact1 suddenly became abundant1 and in the course of half an hour we saw1 at the distance of five or six miles1 the angular edge of a great basaltic platform4 ,when we arrived at its base we found the stream bubbling among the fallen blocks4 ,for the next twenty-eight miles the river-course was encumbered with these basaltic masses4 ,above that limit immense fragments of primitive rocks1 derived from the surrounding boulder-formation1 were equally numerous4 ,none of the fragments of any considerable size had been washed more than three or four miles down the river below their parent-source3 considering the singular rapidity of the great body of water in the ,santa ,cruz1 and that no still reaches occur in any part1 this example is a most striking one1 of the inefficiency of rivers in transporting even moderately-sized fragments4 ,the basalt is only lava which has flowed beneath the sea2 but the eruptions must have been on the grandest scale4 ,at the point where we first met this formation it was #abj feet in thickness2 following up the river-course1 the surface imperceptibly rose and the mass became thicker1 so that at forty miles above the first station it was #cbj feet thick4 ,what the thickness may be close to the ,cordillera1 ,i have no means of knowing1 but the platform there attains a height of about three thousand feet above the level of the sea3 we must therefore look to the mountains of that great chain for its source2 and worthy of such a source are streams that have flowed over the gently inclined bed of the sea to a distance of one hundred miles4 ,at the first glance of the basaltic cliffs on the opposite sides of the valley it was evident that the strata once were united4 ,what power1 then1 has removed along a whole line of country a solid mass of very hard rock1 which had an average thickness of nearly three hundred feet1 and a breadth varying from rather less than two miles to four miles8 ,the river1 though it has so little power in transporting even inconsiderable fragments1 yet in the lapse of ages might produce by its gradual erosion an effect1 of which it is difficult to judge the amount4 ,but in this case1 independently of the insignificance of such an agency1 good reasons can be assigned for believing that this valley was formerly occupied by an arm of the sea4 ,it is needless in this work to detail the arguments leading to this conclusion1 derived from the form and the nature of the step-formed terraces on both sides of the valley1 from the manner in which the bottom of the valley near the ,andes expands into a great estuary-like plain with sand-hillocks on it1 and from the occurrence of a few sea-shells lying in the bed of the river4 ,if ,i had space ,i could prove that ,south ,america was formerly here cut off by a strait1 joining the ,atlantic and ,pacific oceans1 like that of ,magellan4 ,but it may yet be asked1 how has the solid basalt been removed8 ,geologists formerly would have brought into play the violent action of some overwhelming debacle2 but in this case such a supposition would have been quite inadmissible2 because1 the same step-like plains with existing sea-shells lying on their surface1 which front the long line of the ,patagonian coast1 sweep up on each side of the valley of ,santa ,cruz4 ,no possible action of any flood could thus have modelled the land1 either within the valley or along the open coast2 and by the formation of such step-like plains or terraces the valley itself has been hollowed out4 ,although we know that there are tides which run within the ,narrows of the ,strait of ,magellan at the rate of eight knots an hour1 yet we must confess that it makes the head almost giddy to reflect on the number of years1 century after century1 which the tides1 unaided by a heavy surf1 must have required to have corroded so vast an area and thickness of solid basaltic lava4 ,nevertheless1 we must believe that the strata undermined by the waters of this ancient strait were broken up into huge fragments1 and these lying scattered on the beach were reduced first to smaller blocks1 then to pebbles1 and lastly to the most impalpable mud1 which the tides drifted far into the ,eastern or ,western ,ocean4 ,with the change in the geological structure of the plains the character of the landscape likewise altered4 ,while rambling up some of the narrow and rocky defiles1 ,i could almost have fancied myself transported back again to the barren valleys of the island of ,st4 ,jago4 ,among the basaltic cliffs ,i found some plants which ,i had seen nowhere else1 but others ,i recognised as being wanderers from ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,these porous rocks serve as a reservoir for the scanty rain-water2 and consequently on the line where the igneous and sedimentary formations unite1 some small springs 7most rare occurrences in ,patagonia7 burst forth2 and they could be distinguished at a distance by the circumscribed patches of bright green herbage4 ,illustration ,april #bgth4--,the bed of the river became rather narrower1 and hence the stream more rapid4 ,it here ran at the rate of six knots an hour4 ,from this cause1 and from the many great angular fragments1 tracking the boats became both dangerous and laborious4 ,this day ,i shot a condor4 ,it measured from tip to tip of the wings eight and a half feet1 and from beak to tail four feet4 ,this bird is known to have a wide geographical range1 being found on the west coast of ,south ,america1 from the ,strait of ,magellan along the ,cordillera as far as eight degrees north of the equator4 ,the steep cliff near the mouth of the ,rio ,negro is its northern limit on the ,patagonian coast2 and they have there wandered about four hundred miles from the great central line of their habitation in the ,andes4 ,further south1 among the bold precipices at the head of ,port ,desire1 the condor is not uncommon2 yet only a few stragglers occasionally visit the sea-coast4 ,a line of cliff near the mouth of the ,santa ,cruz is frequented by these birds1 and about eighty miles up the river1 where the sides of the valley are formed by steep basaltic precipices1 the condor reappears4 ,from these facts1 it seems that the condors require perpendicular cliffs4 ,in ,chile1 they haunt1 during the greater part of the year1 the lower country near the shores of the ,pacific1 and at night several roost together in one tree2 but in the early part of summer they retire to the most inaccessible parts of the inner ,cordillera1 there to breed in peace4 ,with respect to their propagation1 ,i was told by the country people in ,chile that the condor makes no sort of nest1 but in the months of ,november and ,december lays two large white eggs on a shelf of bare rock4 ,it is said that the young condors cannot fly for an entire year2 and long after they are able1 they continue to roost by night1 an hunt by day with their parents4 ,the old birds generally live in pairs2 but among the inland basaltic cliffs of the ,santa ,cruz ,i found a spot where scores must usually haunt4 ,on coming suddenly to the brow of the precipice1 it was a grand spectacle to see between twenty and thirty of these great birds start heavily from their resting-place1 and wheel away in majestic circles4 ,from the quantity of dung on the rocks1 they must long have frequented this cliff for roosting and breeding4 ,having gorged themselves with carrion on the plains below1 they retire to these favourite ledges to digest their food4 ,from these facts1 the condor1 like the gallinazo must to a certain degree be considered as a gregarious bird4 ,in this part of the country they live altogether on the guanacos which have died a natural death1 or as more commonly happens1 have been killed by the pumas4 ,i believe1 from what ,i saw in ,patagonia1 that they do not on ordinary occasions extend their daily excursions to any great distance from their regular sleeping-places4 ,the condors may oftentimes be seen at a great height1 soaring over a certain spot in the most graceful circles4 ,on some occasions ,i am sure that they do this only for pleasure1 but on others1 the ,chileno countryman tells you that they are watching a dying animal1 or the puma devouring its prey4 ,if the condors glide down1 and then suddenly all rise together1 the ,chileno knows that it is the puma which1 watching the carcass1 has sprung out to drive away the robbers4 ,besides feeding on carrion1 the condors frequently attack young goats and lambs2 and the shepherd-dogs are trained1 whenever they pass over1 to run out1 and looking upwards to bark violently4 ,the ,chilenos destroy and catch numbers4 ,two methods are used2 one is to place a carcass on a level piece of ground within an enclosure of sticks with an opening1 and when the condors are gorged1 to gallop up on horseback to the entrance1 and thus enclose them3 for when this bird has not space to run1 it cannot give its body sufficient momentum to rise from the ground4 ,the second method is to mark the trees in which1 frequently to the number of five or six together1 they roost1 and then at night to climb up and noose them4 ,they are such heavy sleepers1 as ,i have myself witnessed1 that this is not a difficult task4 ,at ,valparaiso ,i have seen a living condor sold for sixpence1 but the common price is eight or ten shillings4 ,one which ,i saw brought in1 had been tied with rope1 and was much injured2 yet1 the moment the line was cut by which its bill was secured1 although surrounded by people1 it began ravenously to tear a piece of carrion4 ,in a garden at the same place1 between twenty and thirty were kept alive4 ,they were fed only once a week1 but they appeared in pretty good health4#b ,the ,chileno countrymen assert that the condor will live1 and retain its vigour1 between five and six weeks without eating3 ,i cannot answer for the truth of this1 but it is a cruel experiment1 which very likely has been tried4 #b ,i noticed that several hours before any one of the condors died1 all the lice1 with which it was infested1 crawled to the outside feathers4 ,i was assured that this always happens4 ,when an animal is killed in the country1 it is well known that the condors1 like other carrion-vultures1 soon gain intelligence of it1 and congregate in an inexplicable manner4 ,in most cases it must not be overlooked1 that the birds have discovered their prey1 and have picked the skeleton clean1 before the flesh is in the least degree tainted4 ,remembering the experiments of ,m4 ,audubon1 on the little smelling powers of carrion-hawks1 ,i tried in the above-mentioned garden the following experiment3 the condors were tied1 each by a rope1 in a long row at the bottom of a wall2 and having folded up a piece of meat in white paper1 ,i walked backwards and forwards1 carrying it in my hand at the distance of about three yards from them1 but no notice whatever was taken4 ,i then threw it on the ground1 within one yard of an old male bird2 he looked at it for a moment with attention1 but then regarded it no more4 ,with a stick ,i pushed it closer and closer1 until at last he touched it with his beak2 the paper was then instantly torn off with fury1 and at the same moment1 every bird in the long row began struggling and flapping its wings4 ,under the same circumstances it would have been quite impossible to have deceived a dog4 ,the evidence in favour of and against the acute smelling powers of carrion-vultures is singularly balanced4 ,professor ,owen has demonstrated that the olfactory nerves of the turkey-buzzard 7,cathartes aura7 are highly developed1 and on the evening when ,mr4 ,owen's paper was read at the ,zoological ,society1 it was mentioned by a gentleman that he had seen the carrion-hawks in the ,west ,indies on two occasions collect on the roof of a house1 when a corpse had become offensive from not having been buried3 in this case1 the intelligence could hardly have been acquired by sight4 ,on the other hand1 besides the experiments of ,audubon and that one by myself1 ,mr4 ,bachman has tried in the ,united ,states many varied plans1 showing that neither the turkey-buzzard 7the species dissected by ,professor ,owen7 nor the gallinazo find their food by smell4 ,he covered portions of highly-offensive offal with a thin canvas cloth1 and strewed pieces of meat on it3 these the carrion-vultures ate up1 and then remained quietly standing1 with their beaks within the eighth of an inch of the putrid mass1 without discovering it4 ,a small rent was made in the canvas1 and the offal was immediately discovered2 the canvas was replaced by a fresh piece1 and meat again put on it1 and was again devoured by the vultures without their discovering the hidden mass on which they were trampling4 ,these facts are attested by the signatures of six gentlemen1 besides that of ,mr4 ,bachman4#c #c ,loudon's ,magazine of ,natural ,history1 vol4 vii4 ,often when lying down to rest on the open plains1 on looking upwards1 ,i have seen carrion-hawks sailing through the air at a great height4 ,where the country is level ,i do not believe a space of the heavens1 of more than fifteen degrees above the horizon1 is commonly viewed with any attention by a person either walking or on horseback4 ,if such be the case1 and the vulture is on the wing at a height of between three and four thousand feet1 before it could come within the range of vision1 its distance in a straight line from the beholder's eye would be rather more than two ,british miles4 ,might it not thus readily be overlooked8 ,when an animal is killed by the sportsman in a lonely valley1 may he not all the while be watched from above by the sharp-sighted bird8 ,and will not the manner of its descent proclaim throughout the district to the whole family of carrion-feeders1 that their prey is at hand8 ,when the condors are wheeling in a flock round and round any spot1 their flight is beautiful4 ,except when rising from the ground1 ,i do not recollect ever having seen one of these birds flap its wings4 ,near ,lima1 ,i watched several for nearly half an hour1 without once taking off my eyes3 they moved in large curves1 sweeping in circles1 descending and ascending without giving a single flap4 ,as they glided close over my head1 ,i intently watched from an oblique position the outlines of the separate and great terminal feathers of each wing2 and these separate feathers1 if there had been the least vibratory movement1 would have appeared as if blended together2 but they were seen distinct against the blue sky4 ,the head and neck were moved frequently1 and apparently with force2 and the extended wings seemed to form the fulcrum on which the movements of the neck1 body and tail acted4 ,if the bird wished to descend1 the wings were for a moment collapsed2 and when again expanded with an altered inclination1 the momentum gained by the rapid descent seemed to urge the bird upwards with the even and steady movement of a paper kite4 ,in the case of any bird soaring1 its motion must be sufficiently rapid1 so that the action of the inclined surface of its body on the atmosphere may counterbalance its gravity4 ,the force to keep up the momentum of a body moving in a horizontal plane in the air 7in which there is so little friction7 cannot be great1 and this force is all that is wanted4 ,the movement of the neck and body of the condor1 we must suppose is sufficient for this4 ,however this may be1 it is truly wonderful and beautiful to see so great a bird1 hour after hour1 without any apparent exertion1 wheeling and gliding over mountain and river4 ,april #bith4--,from some high land we hailed with joy the white summits of the ,cordillera1 as they were seen occasionally peeping through their dusky envelope of clouds4 ,during the few succeeding days we continued to get on slowly1 for we found the river-course very tortuous1 and strewed with immense fragments of various ancient slaty rocks1 and of granite4 ,the plain bordering the valley had here attained an elevation of about #aajj feet above the river1 and its character was much altered4 ,the well-rounded pebbles of porphyry were mingled with many immense angular fragments of basalt and of primary rocks4 ,the first of these erratic boulders which ,i noticed was sixty-seven miles distant from the nearest mountain2 another which ,i measured was five yards square1 and projected five feet above the gravel4 ,its edges were so angular1 and its size so great1 that ,i at first mistook it for a rock in situ1 and took out my compass to observe the direction of its cleavage4 ,the plain here was not quite so level as that nearer the coast1 but yet it betrayed no signs of any great violence4 ,under these circumstances it is1 ,i believe1 quite impossible to explain the transportal of these gigantic masses of rock so many miles from their parent-source1 on any theory except by that of floating icebergs4 ,during the two last days we met with signs of horses1 and with several small articles which had belonged to the ,indians--such as parts of a mantle and a bunch of ostrich feathers--but they appeared to have been lying long on the ground4 ,between the place where the ,indians had so lately crossed the river and this neighbourhood1 though so many miles apart1 the country appears to be quite unfrequented4 ,at first1 considering the abundance of the guanacos1 ,i was surprised at this2 but it is explained by the stony nature of the plains1 which would soon disable an unshod horse from taking part in the chase4 ,nevertheless1 in two places in this very central region1 ,i found small heaps of stones1 which ,i do not think could have been accidentally thrown together4 ,they were placed on points projecting over the edge of the highest lava cliff1 and they resembled1 but on a small scale1 those near ,port ,desire4 ,may #dth4--,captain ,fitz ,roy determined to take the boats no higher4 ,the river had a winding course1 and was very rapid2 and the appearance of the country offered no temptation to proceed any farther4 ,everywhere we met with the same productions1 and the same dreary landscape4 ,we were now one hundred and forty miles distant from the ,atlantic1 and about sixty from the nearest arm of the ,pacific4 ,the valley in this upper part expanded into a wide basin1 bounded on the north and south by the basaltic platforms1 and fronted by the long range of the snow-clad ,cordillera4 ,but we viewed these grand mountains with regret1 for we were obliged to imagine their nature and productions1 instead of standing1 as we had hoped1 on their summits4 ,besides the useless loss of time which an attempt to ascend the river any higher would have cost us1 we had already been for some days on half allowance of bread4 ,this1 although really enough for reasonable men1 was1 after a hard day's march1 rather scanty food3 a light stomach and an easy digestion are good things to talk about1 but very unpleasant in practice4 #eth4--,before sunrise we commenced our descent4 ,we shot down the stream with great rapidity1 generally at the rate of ten knots an hour4 ,in this one day we effected what had cost us five and a half hard days' labour in ascending4 ,on the #hth we reached the ,beagle after our twenty-one days' expedition4 ,every one1 excepting myself1 had cause to be dissatisfied2 but to me the ascent afforded a most interesting section of the great tertiary formation of ,patagonia4 ,on ,march #ast1 #ahcc1 and again on ,march #afth1 #ahcd1 the ,beagle anchored in ,berkeley ,sound1 in ,east ,falkland ,island4 ,this archipelago is situated in nearly the same latitude with the mouth of the ,strait of ,magellan2 it covers a space of one hundred and twenty by sixty geographical miles1 and is a little more than half the size of ,ireland4 ,after the possession of these miserable islands had been contested by ,france1 ,spain1 and ,england1 they were left uninhabited4 ,the government of ,buenos ,ayres then sold them to a private individual1 but likewise used them1 as old ,spain had done before1 for a penal settlement4 ,england claimed her right an seized them4 ,the ,englishman who was left in charge of the flag was consequently murdered4 ,a ,british officer was next sent1 unsupported by any power3 and when we arrived1 we found him in charge of a population1 of which rather more than half were runaway rebels and murderers4 ,the theatre is worthy of the scenes acted on it4 ,an undulating land1 with a desolate and wretched aspect1 is everywhere covered by a peaty soil and wiry grass1 of one monotonous brown colour4 ,here and there a peak or ridge of grey quartz rock breaks through the smooth surface4 ,every one has heard of the climate of these regions2 it may be compared to that which is experienced at the height of between one and two thousand feet1 on the mountains of ,north ,wales2 having however less sunshine and less frost1 but more wind and rain4#d #d ,from accounts published since our voyage1 and more especially from several interesting letters from ,capt4 ,sulivan1 ,r4,n41 employed on the survey1 it appears that we took an exaggerated view of the badness of the climate on these islands4 ,but when ,i reflect on the almost universal covering of peat1 and on the fact of wheat seldom ripening here1 ,i can hardly believe that the climate in summer is so fine and dry as it has lately been represented4 #afth4--,i will now describe a short excursion which ,i made round a part of this island4 ,in the morning ,i started with six horses and two ,gauchos3 the latter were capital men for the purpose1 and well accustomed to living on their own resources4 ,the weather was very boisterous and cold1 with heavy hail-storms4 ,we got on1 however1 pretty well1 but1 except the geology1 nothing could be less interesting than our day's ride4 ,the country is uniformly the same undulating moorland2 the surface being covered by light brown withered grass and a few very small shrubs1 all springing out of an elastic peaty soil4 ,in the valleys here and there might be seen a small flock of wild geese1 and everywhere the ground was so soft that the snipe were able to feed4 ,besides these two birds there were few others4 ,there is one main range of hills1 nearly two thousand feet in height1 and composed of quartz rock1 the rugged and barren crests of which gave us some trouble to cross4 ,on the south side we came to the best country for wild cattle2 we met1 however1 no great number1 for they had been lately much harassed4 ,in the evening we came across a small herd4 ,one of my companions1 ,st4 ,jago by name1 soon separated a fat cow2 he threw the bolas1 and it struck her legs1 but failed in becoming entangled4 ,then dropping his hat to mark the spot where the balls were left1 while at full gallop he uncoiled his lazo1 and after a most severe chase again came up to the cow1 and caught her round the horns4 ,the other ,gaucho had gone on ahead with the spare horses1 so that ,st4 ,jago had some difficulty in killing the furious beast4 ,he managed to get her on a level piece of ground1 by taking advantage of her as often as she rushed at him2 and when she would not move1 my horse1 from having been trained1 would canter up1 and with his chest give her a violent push4 ,but when on level ground it does not appear an easy job for one man to kill a beast mad with terror4 ,nor would it be so if the horse1 when left to itself without its rider1 did not soon learn1 for its own safety1 to keep the lazo tight2 so that1 if the cow or ox moves forward1 the horse moves just as quickly forward2 otherwise1 it stands motionless leaning on one side4 ,this horse1 however1 was a young one1 and would not stand still1 but gave in to the cow as she struggled4 ,it was admirable to see with what dexterity ,st4 ,jago dodged behind the beast1 till at last he contrived to give the fatal touch to the main tendon of the hind leg2 after which1 without much difficulty1 he drove his knife into the head of the spinal marrow1 and the cow dropped as if struck by lightning4 ,he cut off pieces of flesh with the skin to it1 but without any bones1 sufficient for our expedition4 ,we then rode on to our sleeping-place1 and had for supper 8carne con cuero10 or meat roasted with the skin on it4 ,this is as superior to common beef as venison is to mutton4 ,a large circular piece taken from the back is roasted on the embers with the hide downwards and in the form of a saucer1 so that none of the gravy is lost4 ,if any worthy alderman had supped with us that evening1 8carne con cuero10 without doubt1 would soon have been celebrated in ,london4 ,during the night it rained1 and the next day 7#agth7 was very stormy1 with much hail and snow4 ,we rode across the island to the neck of land which joins the ,rincon del ,tor 7the great peninsula at the ,s4,w4 extremity7 to the rest of the island4 ,from the great number of cows which have been killed1 there is a large proportion of bulls4 ,these wander about single1 or two and three together1 and are very savage4 ,i never saw such magnificent beasts2 they equalled in the size of their huge heads and necks the ,grecian marble sculptures4 ,captain ,sulivan informs me that the hide of an average-sized bull weighs forty-seven pounds1 whereas a hide of this weight1 less thoroughly dried1 is considered as a very heavy one at ,monte ,video4 ,the young bulls generally run away for a short distance2 but the old ones do not stir a step1 except to rush at man and horse2 and many horses have been thus killed4 ,an old bull crossed a boggy stream1 and took his stand on the opposite side to us2 we in vain tried to drive him away1 and failing1 were obliged to make a large circuit4 ,the ,gauchos in revenge determined to emasculate him and render him for the future harmless4 ,it was very interesting to see how art completely mastered force4 ,one lazo was thrown over his horns as he rushed at the horse1 and another round his hind legs3 in a minute the monster was stretched powerless on the ground4 ,after the lazo has once been drawn tightly round the horns of a furious animal1 it does not at first appear an easy thing to disengage it again without killing the beast3 nor1 ,i apprehend1 would it be so if the man was by himself4 ,by the aid1 however1 of a second person throwing his lazo so as to catch both hind legs1 it is quickly managed3 for the animal1 as long as its hind legs are kept outstretched1 is quite helpless1 and the first man can with his hands loosen his lazo from the horns1 and then quietly mount his horse2 but the moment the second man1 by backing ever so little1 relaxes the strain1 the lazo slips off the legs of the struggling beast which then rises free1 shakes himself1 and vainly rushes at his antagonist4 ,during our whole ride we saw only one troop of wild horses4 ,these animals1 as well as the cattle1 were introduced by the ,french in #agfd1 since which time both have greatly increased4 ,it is a curious fact that the horses have never left the eastern end of the island1 although there is no natural boundary to prevent them from roaming1 and that part of the island is not more tempting than the rest4 ,the ,gauchos whom ,i asked1 though asserting this to be the case1 were unable to account for it1 except from the strong attachment which horses have to any locality to which they are accustomed4 ,considering that the island does not appear fully stocked1 and that there are no beasts of prey1 ,i was particularly curious to know what has checked their originally rapid increase4 ,that in a limited island some check would sooner or later supervene1 is inevitable2 but why has the increase of the horse been checked sooner than that of the cattle8 ,capt4 ,sulivan has taken much pains for me in this inquiry4 ,the ,gauchos employed here attribute it chiefly to the stallions constantly roaming from place to place1 and compelling the mares to accompany them1 whether or not the young foals are able to follow4 ,one ,gaucho told ,capt4 ,sulivan that he had watched a stallion for a whole hour1 violently kicking and biting a mare till he forced her to leave her foal to its fate4 ,captain ,sulivan can so far corroborate this curious account1 that he has several times found young foals dead1 whereas he has never found a dead calf4 ,moreover1 the dead bodies of full-grown horses are more frequently found1 as if more subject to disease or accidents than those of the cattle4 ,from the softness of the ground their hoofs often grow irregularly to a great length1 and this causes lameness4 ,the predominant colours are roan and iron-grey4 ,all the horses bred here1 both tame and wild1 are rather small-sized1 though generally in good condition2 and they have lost so much strength1 that they are unfit to be used in taking wild cattle with the lazo3 in consequence1 it is necessary to go to the great expense of importing fresh horses from the ,plata4 ,at some future period the southern hemisphere probably will have its breed of ,falkland ponies1 as the northern has its ,shetland breed4 ,the cattle1 instead of having degenerated like the horses1 seem1 as before remarked1 to have increased in size2 and they are much more numerous than the horses4 ,capt4 ,sulivan informs me that they vary much less in the general form of their bodies and in the shape of their horns than ,english cattle4 ,in colour they differ much2 and it is a remarkable circumstance1 that in different parts of this one small island1 different colours predominate4 ,round ,mount ,usborne1 at a height of from #ajjj to #aejj feet above the sea1 about half of some of the herds are mouse or lead coloured1 a tint which is not common in other parts of the island4 ,near ,port ,pleasant dark brown prevails1 whereas south of ,choiseul ,sound 7which almost divides the island into two parts7 white beasts with black heads and feet are the most common3 in all parts black1 and some spotted animals may be observed4 ,capt4 ,sulivan remarks that the difference in the prevailing colours was so obvious1 that in looking for the herds near ,port ,pleasant1 they appeared from a long distance like black spots1 whilst south of ,choiseul ,sound they appeared like white spots on the hill-sides4 ,capt4 ,sulivan thinks that the herds do not mingle2 and it is a singular fact1 that the mouse-coloured cattle1 though living on the high land1 calve about a month earlier in the season than the other coloured beasts on the lower land4 ,it is interesting thus to find the once domesticated cattle breaking into three colours1 of which some one colour would in all probability ultimately prevail over the others1 if the herd were left undisturbed for the next several centuries4 ,the rabbit is another animal which has been introduced1 and has succeeded very well2 so that they abound over large parts of the island4 ,yet1 like the horses1 they are confined within certain limits2 for they have not crossed the central chain of hills1 nor would they have extended even so far as its base1 if1 as the ,gauchos informed me1 small colonies had not been carried there4 ,i should not have supposed that these animals1 natives of ,northern ,africa1 could have existed in a climate so humid as this1 and which enjoys so little sunshine that even wheat ripens only occasionally4 ,it is asserted that in ,sweden1 which any one would have thought a more favourable climate1 the rabbit cannot live out of doors4 ,the first few pairs1 moreover1 had here to contend against pre-existing enemies1 in the fox and some large hawks4 ,the ,french naturalists have considered the black variety a distinct species1 and called it ,lepus ,magellanicus4#e ,they imagined that ,magellan1 when talking of an animal under the name of 8conejos0 in the ,strait of ,magellan1 referred to this species2 but he was alluding to a small cavy1 which to this day is thus called by the ,spaniards4 ,the ,gauchos laughed at the idea of the black kind being different from the grey1 and they said that at all events it had not extended its range any farther than the grey kind2 that the two were never found separate2 and that they readily bred together1 and produced piebald offspring4 ,of the latter ,i now possess a specimen1 and it is marked about the head differently from the ,french specific description4 ,this circumstance shows how cautious naturalists should be in making species2 for even ,cuvier1 on looking at the skull of one of these rabbits1 thought it was probably distinct6 #e ,lesson's ,zoology of the ,voyage of the ,coquille1 tome i1 p4 #afh4 ,all the early voyagers1 and especially ,bougainville1 distinctly state that the wolf-like fox was the only native animal on the island4 ,the distinction of the rabbit as a species is taken from peculiarities in the fur1 from the shape of the head1 and from the shortness of the ears4 ,i may here observe that the difference between the ,irish and ,english hare rests upon nearly similar characters1 only more strongly marked4 ,the only quadruped native to the island#f is a large wolf-like fox 7,canis antarcticus71 which is common to both ,east and ,west ,falkland4 ,i have no doubt it is a peculiar species1 and confined to this archipelago2 because many sealers1 ,gauchos1 and ,indians1 who have visited these islands1 all maintain that no such animal is found in any part of ,south ,america4 ,molina1 from a similarity in habits1 thought that this was the same with his 8culpeu02#g but ,i have seen both1 and they are quite distinct4 ,these wolves are well known from ,byron's account of their tameness and curiosity1 which the sailors1 who ran into the water to avoid them1 mistook for fierceness4 ,to this day their manners remain the same4 ,they have been observed to enter a tent1 and actually pull some meat from beneath the head of a sleeping seaman4 ,the ,gauchos also have frequently in the evening killed them1 by holding out a piece of meat in one hand1 and in the other a knife ready to stick them4 ,as far as ,i am aware1 there is no other instance in any part of the world1 of so small a mass of broken land1 distant from a continent1 possessing so large an aboriginal quadruped peculiar to itself4 ,their numbers have rapidly decreased2 they are already banished from that half of the island which lies to the eastward of the neck of land between ,st4 ,salvador ,bay and ,berkeley ,sound4 ,within a very few years after these islands shall have become regularly settled1 in all probability this fox will be classed with the dodo1 as an animal which has perished from the face of the earth4 #f ,i have reason1 however1 to suspect that there is a field-mouse4 ,the common ,european rat and mouse have roamed far from the habitations of the settlers4 ,the common hog has also run wild on one islet2 all are of a black colour3 the boars are very fierce1 and have great tusks4 #g ,the 8culpeu0 is the ,canis ,magellanicus brought home by ,captain ,king from the ,strait of ,magellan4 ,it is common in ,chile4 ,at night 7#agth7 we slept on the neck of land at the head of ,choiseul ,sound1 which forms the south-west peninsula4 ,the valley was pretty well sheltered from the cold wind2 but there was very little brushwood for fuel4 ,the ,gauchos1 however1 soon found what1 to my great surprise1 made nearly as hot a fire as coals2 this was the skeleton of a bullock lately killed1 from which the flesh had been picked by the carrion-hawks4 ,they told me that in winter they often killed a beast1 cleaned the flesh from the bones with their knives and then with these same bones roasted the meat for their suppers4 #ahth4--,it rained during nearly the whole day4 ,at night we managed1 however1 with our saddle-cloths to keep ourselves pretty well dry and warm2 but the ground on which we slept was on each occasion nearly in the state of a bog1 and there was not a dry spot to sit down on after our day's ride4 ,i have in another part stated how singular it is that there should be absolutely no trees on these islands1 although ,tierra del ,fuego is covered by one large forest4 ,the largest bush in the island 7belonging to the family of ,composit7 is scarcely so tall as our gorse4 ,the best fuel is afforded by a green little bush about the size of common heath1 which has the useful property of burning while fresh and green4 ,it was very surprising to see the ,gauchos1 in the midst of rain and everything soaking wet1 with nothing more than a tinder-box and a piece of rag1 immediately make a fire4 ,they sought beneath the tufts of grass and bushes for a few dry twigs1 and these they rubbed into fibres2 then surrounding them with coarser twigs1 something like a bird's nest1 they put the rag with its spark of fire in the middle and covered it up4 ,the nest being then held up to the wind1 by degrees it smoked more and more1 and at last burst out in flames4 ,i do not think any other method would have had a chance of succeeding with such damp materials4 #aith4--,each morning1 from not having ridden for some time previously1 ,i was very stiff4 ,i was surprised to hear the ,gauchos1 who have from infancy almost lived on horseback1 say that1 under similar circumstances1 they always suffer4 ,st4 ,jago told me1 that having been confined for three months by illness1 he went out hunting wild cattle1 and in consequence1 for the next two days1 his thighs were so stiff that he was obliged to lie in bed4 ,this shows that the ,gauchos1 although they do not appear to do so1 yet really must exert much muscular effort in riding4 ,the hunting wild cattle1 in a country so difficult to pass as this is on account of the swampy ground1 must be very hard work4 ,the ,gauchos say they often pass at full speed over ground which would be impassable at a slower pace2 in the same manner as a man is able to skate over thin ice4 ,when hunting1 the party endeavours to get as close as possible to the herd without being discovered4 ,each man carries four or five pair of the bolas2 these he throws one after the other at as many cattle1 which1 when once entangled1 are left for some days1 till they become a little exhausted by hunger and struggling4 ,they are then let free and driven towards a small herd of tame animals1 which have been brought to the spot on purpose4 ,from their previous treatment1 being too much terrified to leave the herd1 they are easily driven1 if their strength last out1 to the settlement4 ,the weather continued so very bad that we determine to make a push1 and try to reach the vessel before night4 ,from the quantity of rain which had fallen1 the surface of the whole country was swampy4 ,i suppose my horse fell at least a dozen times1 and sometimes the whole six horses were floundering in the mud together4 ,all the little streams are bordered by soft peat1 which makes it very difficult for the horses to leap them without falling4 ,to complete our discomforts we were obliged to cross the head of a creek of the sea1 in which the water was as high as our horses' backs2 and the little waves1 owing to the violence of the wind1 broke over us1 and made us very wet and cold4 ,even the iron-framed ,gauchos professed themselves glad when they reached the settlement1 after our little excursion4 ,the geological structure of these islands is in most respects simple4 ,the lower country consists of clay-slate and sandstone1 containing fossils1 very closely related to1 but not identical with1 those found in the ,silurian formations of ,europe2 the hills are formed of white granular quartz rock4 ,the strata of the latter are frequently arched with perfect symmetry1 and the appearance of some of the masses is in consequence most singular4 ,pernety#h has devoted several pages to the description of a ,hill of ,ruins1 the successive strata of which he has justly compared to the seats of an amphitheatre4 ,the quartz rock must have been quite pasty when it underwent such remarkable flexures without being shattered into fragments4 ,as the quartz insensibly passes into the sandstone1 it seems probable that the former owes its origin to the sandstone having been heated to such a degree that it became viscid1 and upon cooling crystallised4 ,while in the soft state it must have been pushed up through the overlying beds4 #h ,pernety1 ,voyage aux ,isles ,malouines1 p4 #ebf4 ,in many parts of the island the bottoms of the valleys are covered in an extraordinary manner by myriads of great loose angular fragments of the quartz rock1 forming 8streams of stones40 ,these have been mentioned with surprise by every voyager since the time of ,pernety4 ,the blocks are not waterworn1 their angles being only a little blunted2 they vary in size from one or two feet in diameter to ten1 or even more than twenty times as much4 ,they are not thrown together into irregular piles1 but are spread out into level sheets or great streams4 ,it is not possible to ascertain their thickness1 but the water of small streamlets can be heard trickling through the stones many feet below the surface4 ,the actual depth is probably great1 because the crevices between the lower fragments must long ago have been filled up with sand4 ,the width of these sheets of stones varies from a few hundred feet to a mile2 but the peaty soil daily encroaches on the borders1 and even forms islets wherever a few fragments happen to lie close together4 ,in a valley south of ,berkeley ,sound1 which some of our party called the 8great valley of fragments10 it was necessary to cross an uninterrupted band half a mile wide1 by jumping from one pointed stone to another4 ,so large were the fragments1 that being overtaken by a shower of rain1 ,i readily found shelter beneath one of them4 ,their little inclination is the most remarkable circumstance in these 8streams of stones40 ,on the hill-sides ,i have seen them sloping at an angle of ten degrees with the horizon2 but in some of the level1 broad-bottomed valleys1 the inclination is only just sufficient to be clearly perceived4 ,on so rugged a surface there was no means of measuring the angle2 but to give a common illustration1 ,i may say that the slope would not have checked the speed of an ,english mail-coach4 ,in some places a continuous stream of these fragments followed up the course of a valley1 and even extended to the very crest of the hill4 ,on these crests huge masses1 exceeding in dimensions any small building1 seemed to stand arrested in their headlong course3 there1 also1 the curved strata of the archways lay piled on each other1 like the ruins of some vast and ancient cathedral4 ,in endeavouring to describe these scenes of violence one is tempted to pass from one simile to another4 ,we may imagine that streams of white lava had flowed from many parts of the mountains into the lower country1 and that when solidified they had been rent by some enormous convulsion into myriads of fragments4 ,the expression 8streams of stones10 which immediately occurred to every one1 conveys the same idea4 ,these scenes are on the spot rendered more striking by the contrast of the low1 rounded forms of the neighbouring hills4 ,i was interested by finding on the highest peak of one range 7about #gjj feet above the sea7 a great arched fragment1 lying on its convex side1 or back downwards4 ,must we believe that it was fairly pitched up in the air1 and thus turned8 ,or1 with more probability1 that there existed formerly a part of the same range more elevated than the point on which this monument of a great convulsion of nature now lies4 ,as the fragments in the valleys are neither rounded nor the crevices filled up with sand1 we must infer that the period of violence was subsequent to the land having been raised above the waters of the sea4 ,in a transverse section within these valleys the bottom is nearly level1 or rises but very little towards either side4 ,hence the fragments appear to have travelled from the head of the valley2 but in reality it seems more probable that they have been hurled down from the nearest slopes2 and that since1 by a vibratory movement of overwhelming force1#i the fragments have been levelled into one continuous sheet4 ,if during the earthquake#aj which in #ahce overthrew ,concepcion1 in ,chile1 it was thought wonderful that small bodies should have been pitched a few inches from the ground1 what must we say to a movement which has caused fragments many tons in weight to move onwards like so much sand on a vibrating board1 and find their level8 ,i have seen1 in the ,cordillera of the ,andes1 the evident marks where stupendous mountains have been broken into pieces like so much thin crust1 and the strata thrown on their vertical edges2 but never did any scene1 like these 8streams of stones10 so forcibly convey to my mind the idea of a convulsion1 of which in historical records we might in vain seek for any counterpart3 yet the progress of knowledge will probably some day give a simple explanation of this phenomenon1 as it already has of the so long thought inexplicable transportal of the erratic boulders which are strewed over the plains of ,europe4 #i 8,nous n'avons pas t moins saisis d'tonnement la ve de l'innombrable quantit de pierres de toutes grandeurs1 bouleverses les unes sur les autres1 et cependant ranges1 comme si elles avoient t amonceles ngligemment pour remplir des ravins4 ,on ne se lassoit pas d'admirer les effets prodigieux de la nature40--,pernety1 p4 #ebf4 #aj ,an inhabitant of ,mendoza1 and hence well capable of judging1 assured me that1 during the several years he had resided on these islands1 he had never felt the slightest shock of an earthquake4 ,i have little to remark on the zoology of these islands4 ,i have before described the carrion-vulture of ,polyborus4 ,there are some other hawks1 owls1 and a few small land-birds4 ,the waterfowl are particularly numerous1 and they must formerly1 from the accounts of the old navigators1 have been much more so4 ,one day ,i observed a cormorant playing with a fish which it had caught4 ,eight times successively the bird let its prey go1 then dived after it1 and although in deep water1 brought it each time to the surface4 ,in the ,zoological ,gardens ,i have seen the otter treat a fish in the same manner1 much as a cat does a mouse3 ,i do not know of any other instance where dame ,nature appears so wilfully cruel4 ,another day1 having placed myself between a penguin 7,aptenodytes demersa7 and the water1 ,i was much amused by watching its habits4 ,it was a brave bird2 and till reaching the sea1 it regularly fought and drove me backwards4 ,nothing less than heavy blows would have stopped him2 every inch he gained he firmly kept1 standing close before me erect and determined4 ,when thus opposed he continually rolled his head from side to side1 in a very odd manner1 as if the power of distinct vision lay only in the anterior and basal part of each eye4 ,this bird is commonly called the jackass penguin1 from its habit1 while on shore1 of throwing its head backwards1 and making a loud strange noise1 very like the braying of an ass2 but while at sea1 and undisturbed1 its note is very deep and solemn1 and is often heard in the night-time4 ,in diving1 its little wings are used as fins2 but on the land1 as front legs4 ,when crawling1 it may be said on four legs1 through the tussocks or on the side of a grassy cliff1 it moves so very quickly that it might easily be mistaken for a quadruped4 ,when at sea and fishing1 it comes to the surface for the purpose of breathing with such a spring1 and dives again so instantaneously1 that ,i defy any one at first sight to be sure that it was not a fish leaping for sport4 ,two kinds of geese frequent the ,falklands4 ,the upland species 7,anas ,magellanica7 is common1 in pairs and in small flocks1 throughout the island4 ,they do not migrate1 but build on the small outlying islets4 ,this is supposed to be from fear of the foxes3 and it is perhaps from the same cause that these birds1 though very tame by day1 are shy and wild in the dusk of the evening4 ,they live entirely on vegetable matter4 ,the rock-goose1 so called from living exclusively on the sea-beach 7,anas antarctica71 is common both here and on the west coast of ,america1 as far north as ,chile4 ,in the deep and retired channels of ,tierra del ,fuego1 the snow-white gander1 invariably accompanied by his darker consort1 and standing close by each other on some distant rocky point1 is a common feature in the landscape4 ,in these islands a great loggerheaded duck or goose 7,anas brachyptera71 which sometimes weighs twenty-two pounds1 is very abundant4 ,these birds were in former days called1 from their extraordinary manner of paddling and splashing upon the water1 racehorses2 but now they are named1 much more appropriately1 steamers4 ,their wings are too small and weak to allow of flight1 but by their aid1 partly swimming and partly flapping the surface of the water1 they move very quickly4 ,the manner is something like that by which the common house-duck escapes when pursued by a dog2 but ,i am nearly sure that the steamer moves its wings alternately1 instead of both together1 as in other birds4 ,these clumsy1 loggerheaded ducks make such a noise and splashing1 that the effect is exceedingly curious4 ,thus we find in ,south ,america three birds which use their wings for other purposes besides flight2 the penguin as fins1 the steamer as paddles1 and the ostrich as sails3 and the ,apteryx of ,new ,zealand1 as well as its gigantic extinct prototype the ,deinornis1 possess only rudimentary representatives of wings4 ,the steamer is able to dive only to a very short distance4 ,it feeds entirely on shell-fish from the kelp and tidal rocks2 hence the beak and head1 for the purpose of breaking them1 are surprisingly heavy and strong3 the head is so strong that ,i have scarcely been able to fracture it with my geological hammer2 and all our sportsmen soon discovered how tenacious these birds were of life4 ,when in the evening pluming themselves in a flock1 they make the same odd mixture of sounds which bull-frogs do within the tropics4 ,in ,tierra del ,fuego1 as well as in the ,falkland ,islands1 ,i made many observations on the lower marine animals1#aa but they are of little general interest4 ,i will mention only one class of facts1 relating to certain zoophytes in the more highly organised division of that class4 ,several genera 7,flustra1 ,eschara1 ,cellaria1 ,crisia1 and others7 agree in having singular movable organs 7like those of ,flustra avicularia1 found in the ,european seas7 attached to their cells4 ,the organ1 in the greater number of cases1 very closely resembles the head of a vulture2 but the lower mandible can be opened much wider than in a real bird's beak4 ,the head itself possesses considerable powers of movement1 by means of a short neck4 ,in one zoophyte the head itself was fixed1 but the lower jaw free3 in another it was replaced by a triangular hood1 with a beautifully-fitted trap-door1 which evidently answered to the lower mandible4 ,in the greater number of species1 each cell was provided with one head1 but in others each cell had two4 #aa ,i was surprised to find1 on counting the eggs of a large white ,doris 7this sea-slug was three and a half inches long71 how extraordinarily numerous they were4 ,from two to five eggs 7each three-thousandths of an inch in diameter7 were contained in spherical little case4 ,these were arranged two deep in transverse rows forming a ribbon4 ,the ribbon adhered by its edge to the rock in an oval spire4 ,one which ,i found measured nearly twenty inches in length and half in breadth4 ,by counting how many balls were contained in a tenth of an inch in the row1 and how many rows in an equal length of the ribbon1 on the most moderate computation there were six hundred thousand eggs4 ,yet this ,doris was certainly not very common3 although ,i was often searching under the stones1 ,i saw only seven individuals4 ,no fallacy is more common with naturalists1 than that the numbers of an individual species depend on its powers of propagation4 ,the young cells at the end of the branches of these corallines contain quite immature polypi1 yet the vulture-heads attached to them1 though small1 are in every respect perfect4 ,when the polypus was removed by a needle from any of the cells1 these organs did not appear in the least affected4 ,when one of the vulture-like heads was cut off from the cell1 the lower mandible retained its power of opening and closing4 ,perhaps the most singular part of their structure is1 that when there were more than two rows of cells on a branch1 the central cells were furnished with these appendages1 of only one-fourth the size of the outside ones4 ,their movements varied according to the species2 but in some ,i never saw the least motion2 while others1 with the lower mandible generally wide open1 oscillated backwards and forwards at the rate of about five seconds each turn2 others moved rapidly and by starts4 ,when touched with a needle1 the beak generally seized the point so firmly that the whole branch might be shaken4 ,these bodies have no relation whatever with the production of the eggs or gemmules1 as they are formed before the young polypi appear in the cells at the end of the growing branches2 as they move independently of the polypi1 and do not appear to be in any way connected with them2 and as they differ in size on the outer and inner rows of cells1 ,i have little doubt that in their functions they are related rather to the horny axis of the branches than to the polypi in the cells4 ,the fleshy appendage at the lower extremity of the sea-pen 7described at ,bahia ,blanca7 also forms part of the zoophyte1 as a whole1 in the same manner as the roots of a tree form part of the whole tree1 and not of the individual leaf or flower-buds4 ,in another elegant little coralline 7,crisia87 each cell was furnished with a long-toothed bristle1 which had the power of moving quickly4 ,each of these bristles and each of the vulture-like heads generally moved quite independently of the others1 but sometimes all on both sides of a branch1 sometimes only those on one side1 moved together coinstantaneously2 sometimes each moved in regular order one after another4 ,in these actions we apparently behold as perfect a transmission of will in the zoophyte1 though composed of thousands of distinct polypi1 as in any single animal4 ,the case1 indeed1 is not different from that of the sea-pens1 which1 when touched1 drew themselves into the sand on the coast of ,bahia ,blanca4 ,i will state one other instance of uniform action1 though of a very different nature1 in a zoophyte closely allied to ,clytia1 and therefore very simply organised4 ,having kept a large tuft of it in a basin of salt-water1 when it was dark ,i found that as often as ,i rubbed any part of a branch1 the whole became strongly phosphorescent with a green light3 ,i do not think ,i ever saw any object more beautifully so4 ,but the remarkable circumstance was1 that the flashes of light always proceeded up the branches1 from the base towards the extremities4 ,the examination of these compound animals was always very interesting to me4 ,what can be more remarkable than to see a plant-like body producing an egg1 capable of swimming about and of choosing a proper place to adhere to1 which then sprouts into branches1 each crowded with innumerable distinct animals1 often of complicated organisations4 ,the branches1 moreover1 as we have just seen1 sometimes possess organs capable of movement and independent of the polypi4 ,surprising as this union of separate individuals in a common stock must always appear1 every tree displays the same fact1 for buds must be considered as individual plants4 ,it is1 however1 natural to consider a polypus1 furnished with a mouth1 intestines1 and other organs1 as a distinct individual1 whereas the individuality of a leaf-bud is not easily realised2 so that the union of separate individuals in a common body is more striking in a coralline than in a tree4 ,our conception of a compound animal1 where in some respects the individuality of each is not completed1 may be aided1 by reflecting on the production of two distinct creatures by bisecting a single one with a knife1 or where ,nature herself performs the task of bisection4 ,we may consider the polypi in a zoophyte1 or the buds in a tree1 as cases where the division of the individual has not been completely effected4 ,certainly in the case of trees1 and judging from analogy in that of corallines1 the individuals propagated by buds seem more intimately related to each other1 than eggs or seeds are to their parents4 ,it seems now pretty well established that plants propagated by buds all partake of a common duration of life2 and it is familiar to every one1 what singular and numerous peculiarities are transmitted with certainty1 by buds1 layers1 and grafts1 which by seminal propagation never or only casually reappear4 ,illustration3 ,berkeley ,sound1 ,falkland ,islands4 ,illustration3 ,york ,minster1 bearing ,s4 #ff ,e4 ,chapter ,x ,tierra del ,fuego1 first arrival--,good ,success ,bay--,an account of the ,fuegians on board--,interview with the savages--,scenery of the forests--,cape ,horn--,wigwam ,cove--,miserable condition of the savages--,famines--,cannibals--,matricid e--,religious feelings--,great gale--,beagle ,channel--,ponsonby ,sound--,build wigwams and settle the ,fuegians--,bifurcation of the ,beagle ,channel--,glaciers--,return to the ship--,second visit in the ship to the settlement--,equality of condition amongst the natives4 ,,tierra ,,del ,,fuego4 ,december #agth1 #ahcb4--;,having now finished with ,patagonia and the ,falkland ,islands1 ,i will describe our first arrival in ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,a little after noon we doubled ,cape ,st4 ,diego1 and entered the famous ,strait of ,le ,maire4 ,we kept close to the ,fuegian shore1 but the outline of the rugged1 inhospitable ,staten-land was visible amidst the clouds4 ,in the afternoon we anchored in the ,bay of ,good ,success4 ,while entering we were saluted in a manner becoming the inhabitants of this savage land4 ,a group of ,fuegians partly concealed by the entangled forest1 were perched on a wild point overhanging the sea2 and as we passed by1 they sprang up and waving their tattered cloaks sent forth a loud and sonorous shout4 ,the savages followed the ship1 and just before dark we saw their fire1 and again heard their wild cry4 ,the harbour consists of a fine piece of water half surrounded by low rounded mountains of clay-slate1 which are covered to the water's edge by one dense gloomy forest4 ,a single glance at the landscape was sufficient to show me how widely different it was from anything ,i had ever beheld4 ,at night it blew a gale of wind1 and heavy squalls from the mountains swept past us4 ,it would have been a bad time out at sea1 and we1 as well as others1 may call this ,good ,success ,bay4 ,in the morning the ,captain sent a party to communicate with the ,fuegians4 ,when we came within hail1 one of the four natives who were present advanced to receive us1 and began to shout most vehemently1 wishing to direct us where to land4 ,when we were on shore the party looked rather alarmed1 but continued talking and making gestures with great rapidity4 ,it was without exception the most curious and interesting spectacle ,i ever beheld3 ,i could not have believed how wide was the difference between savage and civilised man3 it is greater than between a wild and domesticated animal1 inasmuch as in man there is a greater power of improvement4 ,the chief spokesman was old1 and appeared to be the head of the family2 the three others were powerful young men1 about six feet high4 ,the women and children had been sent away4 ,these ,fuegians are a very different race from the stunted1 miserable wretches farther westward2 and they seem closely allied to the famous ,patagonians of the ,strait of ,magellan4 ,their only garment consists of a mantle made of guanaco skin1 with the wool outside3 this they wear just thrown over their shoulders1 leaving their persons as often exposed as covered4 ,their skin is of a dirty coppery-red colour4 ,the old man had a fillet of white feathers tied round his head1 which partly confined his black1 coarse1 and entangled hair4 ,his face was crossed by two broad transverse bars2 one1 painted bright red1 reached from ear to ear and included the upper lip2 the other1 white like chalk1 extended above and parallel to the first1 so that even his eyelids were thus coloured4 ,the other two men were ornamented by streaks of black powder1 made of charcoal4 ,the party altogether closely resembled the devils which come on the stage in plays like ,der ,freischutz4 ,their very attitudes were abject1 and the expression of their countenances distrustful1 surprised1 and startled4 ,after we had presented them with some scarlet cloth1 which they immediately tied round their necks1 they became good friends4 ,this was shown by the old man patting our breasts1 and making a chuckling kind of noise1 as people do when feeding chickens4 ,i walked with the old man1 and this demonstration of friendship was repeated several times2 it was concluded by three hard slaps1 which were given me on the breast and back at the same time4 ,he then bared his bosom for me to return the compliment1 which being done1 he seemed highly pleased4 ,the language of these people1 according to our notions1 scarcely deserves to be called articulate4 ,captain ,cook has compared it to a man clearing his throat1 but certainly no ,european ever cleared his throat with so many hoarse1 guttural1 and clicking sounds4 ,they are excellent mimics3 as often as we coughed or yawned1 or made any odd motion1 they immediately imitated us4 ,some of our party began to squint and look awry2 but one of the young ,fuegians 7whose whole face was painted black1 excepting a white band across his eyes7 succeeded in making far more hideous grimaces4 ,they could repeat with perfect correctness each word in any sentence we addressed them1 and they remembered such words for some time4 ,yet we ,europeans all know how difficult it is to distinguish apart the sounds in a foreign language4 ,which of us1 for instance1 could follow an ,american ,indian through a sentence of more than three words8 ,all savages appear to possess1 to an uncommon degree1 this power of mimicry4 ,i was told1 almost in the same words1 of the same ludicrous habit among the ,caffres2 the ,australians1 likewise1 have long been notorious for being able to imitate and describe the gait of any man1 so that he may be recognised4 ,how can this faculty be explained8 is it a consequence of the more practised habits of perception and keener senses1 common to all men in a savage state1 as compared with those long civilised8 ,when a song was struck up by our party1 ,i thought the ,fuegians would have fallen down with astonishment4 ,with equal surprise they viewed our dancing2 but one of the young men1 when asked1 had no objection to a little waltzing4 ,little accustomed to ,europeans as they appeared to be1 yet they knew and dreaded our firearms2 nothing would tempt them to take a gun in their hands4 ,they begged for knives1 calling them by the ,spanish word 8cuchilla40 ,they explained also what they wanted1 by acting as if they had a piece of blubber in their mouth1 and then pretending to cut instead of tear it4 ,i have not as yet noticed the ,fuegians whom we had on board4 ,during the former voyage of the ,adventure and ,beagle in #ahbf to #ahcj1 ,captain ,fitz ,roy seized on a party of natives1 as hostages for the loss of a boat1 which had been stolen1 to the great jeopardy of a party employed on the survey2 and some of these natives1 as well as a child whom he bought for a pearl-button1 he took with him to ,england1 determining to educate them and instruct them in religion at his own expense4 ,to settle these natives in their own country was one chief inducement to ,captain ,fitz ,roy to undertake our present voyage2 and before the ,admiralty had resolved to send out this expedition1 ,captain ,fitz ,roy had generously chartered a vessel1 and would himself have taken them back4 ,the natives were accompanied by a missionary1 ,r4 ,matthews2 of whom and of the natives1 ,captain ,fitz ,roy has published a full and excellent account4 ,two men1 one of whom died in ,england of the smallpox1 a boy and a little girl1 were originally taken2 and we had now on board1 ,york ,minster1 ,jemmy ,button 7whose name expresses his purchase-money71 and ,fuegia ,basket4 ,york ,minster was a full-grown1 short1 thick1 powerful man3 his disposition was reserved1 taciturn1 morose1 and when excited violently passionate2 his affections were very strong towards a few friends on board2 his intellect good4 ,jemmy ,button was a universal favourite1 but likewise passionate2 the expression of his face at once showed his nice disposition4 ,he was merry and often laughed1 and was remarkably sympathetic with any one in pain3 when the water was rough1 ,i was often a little sea-sick1 and he used to come to me and say in a plaintive voice1 8,poor1 poor fellow60 but the notion1 after his aquatic life1 of a man being sea-sick1 was too ludicrous1 and he was generally obliged to turn on one side to hide a smile or laugh1 and then he would repeat his 8,poor1 poor fellow60 ,he was of a patriotic disposition2 and he liked to praise his own tribe and country1 in which he truly said there were 8plenty of trees10 and he abused all the other tribes3 he stoutly declared that there was no ,devil in his land4 ,jemmy was short1 thick1 and fat1 but vain of his personal appearance2 he used always to wear gloves1 his hair was neatly cut1 and he was distressed if his well-polished shoes were dirtied4 ,he was fond of admiring himself in a looking glass2 and a merry-faced little ,indian boy from the ,rio ,negro1 whom we had for some months on board1 soon perceived this1 and used to mock him3 ,jemmy1 who was always rather jealous of the attention paid to this little boy1 did not at all like this1 and used to say1 with rather a contemptuous twist of his head1 8,too much skylark40 ,it seems yet wonderful to me1 when ,i think over all his many good qualities1 that he should have been of the same race1 and doubtless partaken of the same character1 with the miserable1 degraded savages whom we first met here4 ,lastly1 ,fuegia ,basket was a nice1 modest1 reserved young girl1 with a rather pleasing but sometimes sullen expression1 and very quick in learning anything1 especially languages4 ,this she showed in picking up some ,portuguese and ,spanish1 when left on shore for only a short time at ,rio de ,janeiro and ,monte ,video1 and in her knowledge of ,english4 ,york ,minster was very jealous of any attention paid to her2 for it was clear he determined to marry her as soon as they were settled on shore4 ,although all three could both speak and understand a good deal of ,english1 it was singularly difficult to obtain much information from them concerning the habits of their countrymen2 this was partly owing to their apparent difficulty in understanding the simplest alternative4 ,every one accustomed to very young children knows how seldom one can get an answer even to so simple a question as whether a thing is black or white2 the idea of black or white seems alternately to fill their minds4 ,so it was with these ,fuegians1 and hence it was generally impossible to find out1 by cross-questioning1 whether one had rightly understood anything which they had asserted4 ,their sight was remarkably acute2 it is well known that sailors1 from long practice1 can make out a distant object much better than a landsman2 but both ,york and ,jemmy were much superior to any sailor on board3 several times they have declared what some distant object has been1 and though doubted by every one1 they have proved right when it has been examined through a telescope4 ,they were quite conscious of this power2 and ,jemmy1 when he had any little quarrel with the officer on watch1 would say1 8,me see ship1 me no tell40 ,it was interesting to watch the conduct of the savages1 when we landed1 towards ,jemmy ,button3 they immediately perceived the difference between him and ourselves1 and held much conversation one with another on the subject4 ,the old man addressed a long harangue to ,jemmy1 which it seems was to invite him to stay with them4 ,but ,jemmy understood very little of their language1 and was1 moreover1 thoroughly ashamed of his countrymen4 ,when ,york ,minster afterwards came on shore1 they noticed him in the same way1 and told him he ought to shave2 yet he had not twenty dwarf hairs on his face1 whilst we all wore our untrimmed beards4 ,they examined the colour of his skin1 and compared it with ours4 ,one of our arms being bared1 they expressed the liveliest surprise and admiration at its whiteness1 just in the same way in which ,i have seen the ourang-outang do at the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,we thought that they mistook two or three of the officers1 who were rather shorter and fairer1 though adorned with large beards1 for the ladies of our party4 ,the tallest amongst the ,fuegians was evidently much pleased at his height being noticed4 ,when placed back to back with the tallest of the boat's crew1 he tried his best to edge on higher ground1 and to stand on tiptoe4 ,he opened his mouth to show his teeth1 and turned his face for a side view2 and all this was done with such alacrity1 that ,i daresay he thought himself the handsomest man in ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,after our first feeling of grave astonishment was over1 nothing could be more ludicrous than the odd mixture of surprise and imitation which these savages every moment exhibited4 ,the next day ,i attempted to penetrate some way into the country4 ,tierra del ,fuego may be described as a mountainous land1 partly submerged in the sea1 so that deep inlets and bays occupy the place where valleys should exist4 ,the mountain sides1 except on the exposed western coast1 are covered from the water's edge upwards by one great forest4 ,the trees reach to an elevation of between #ajjj and #aejj feet1 and are succeeded by a band of peat1 with minute alpine plants2 and this again is succeeded by the line of perpetual snow1 which1 according to ,captain ,king1 in the ,strait of ,magellan descends to between #cjjj and #djjj feet4 ,to find an acre of level land in any part of the country is most rare4 ,i recollect only one little flat piece near ,port ,famine1 and another of rather larger extent near ,goeree ,road4 ,in both places1 and everywhere else1 the surface is covered by a thick bed of swampy peat4 ,even within the forest1 the ground is concealed by a mass of slowly putrefying vegetable matter1 which1 from being soaked with water1 yields to the foot4 ,finding it nearly hopeless to push my way through the wood1 ,i followed the course of a mountain torrent4 ,at first1 from the waterfalls and number of dead trees1 ,i could hardly crawl along2 but the bed of the stream soon became a little more open1 from the floods having swept the sides4 ,i continued slowly to advance for an hour along the broken and rocky banks1 and was amply repaid by the grandeur of the scene4 ,the gloomy depth of the ravine well accorded with the universal signs of violence4 ,on every side were lying irregular masses of rock and torn-up trees2 other trees1 though still erect1 were decayed to the heart and ready to fall4 ,the entangled mass of the thriving and the fallen reminded me of the forests within the tropics--yet there was a difference3 for in these still solitudes1 ,death1 instead of ,life1 seemed the predominant spirit4 ,i followed the watercourse till ,i came to a spot where a great slip had cleared a straight space down the mountain side4 ,by this road ,i ascended to a considerable elevation1 and obtained a good view of the surrounding woods4 ,the trees all belong to one kind1 the ,fagus betuloides2 for the number of the other species of ,fagus and of the ,winter's ,bark is quite inconsiderable4 ,this beech keeps its leaves throughout the year2 but its foliage is of a peculiar brownish-green colour1 with a tinge of yellow4 ,as the whole landscape is thus coloured1 it has a sombre1 dull appearance2 nor is it often enlivened by the rays of the sun4 ,december #bjth4--,one side of the harbour is formed by a hill about #aejj feet high1 which ,captain ,fitz ,roy has called after ,sir ,j4 ,banks1 in commemoration of his disastrous excursion which proved fatal to two men of his party1 and nearly so to ,dr4 ,solander4 ,the snow-storm1 which was the cause of their misfortune1 happened in the middle of ,january1 corresponding to our ,july1 and in the latitude of ,durham6 ,i was anxious to reach the summit of this mountain to collect alpine plants2 for flowers of any kind in the lower parts are few in number4 ,we followed the same watercourse as on the previous day1 till it dwindled away1 and we were then compelled to crawl blindly among the trees4 ,these1 from the effects of the elevation and of the impetuous winds1 were low1 thick and crooked4 ,at length we reached that which from a distance appeared like a carpet of fine green turf1 but which1 to our vexation1 turned out to be a compact mass of little beech-trees about four or five feet high4 ,they were as thick together as box in the border of a garden1 and we were obliged to struggle over the flat but treacherous surface4 ,after a little more trouble we gained the peat1 and then the bare slate rock4 ,cape ,horn ,a ridge connected this hill with another1 distant some miles1 and more lofty1 so that patches of snow were lying on it4 ,as the day was not far advanced1 ,i determined to walk there and collect plants along the road4 ,it would have been very hard work1 had it not been for a well-beaten and straight path made by the guanacos2 for these animals1 like sheep1 always follow the same line4 ,when we reached the hill we found it the highest in the immediate neighbourhood1 and the waters flowed to the sea in opposite directions4 ,we obtained a wide view over the surrounding country3 to the north a swampy moorland extended1 but to the south we had a scene of savage magnificence1 well becoming ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,there was a degree of mysterious grandeur in mountain behind mountain1 with the deep intervening valleys1 all covered by one thick1 dusky mass of forest4 ,the atmosphere1 likewise1 in this climate1 where gale succeeds gale1 with rain1 hail1 and sleet1 seems blacker than anywhere else4 ,in the ,strait of ,magellan1 looking due southward from ,port ,famine1 the distant channels between the mountains appeared from their gloominess to lead beyond the confines of this world4 ,cape ,horn 7another view7 ,december #bast4--,the ,beagle got under way3 and on the succeeding day1 favoured to an uncommon degree by a fine easterly breeze1 we closed in with the ,barnevelts1 and running past ,cape ,deceit with its stony peaks1 about three o'clock doubled the weather-beaten ,cape ,horn4 ,the evening was calm and bright1 and we enjoyed a fine view of the surrounding isles4 ,cape ,horn1 however1 demanded his tribute1 and before night sent us a gale of wind directly in our teeth4 ,we stood out to sea1 and on the second day again made the land1 when we saw on our weather-bow this notorious promontory in its proper form--veiled in a mist1 and its dim outline surrounded by a storm of wind and water4 ,great black clouds were rolling across the heavens1 and squalls of rain1 with hail1 swept by us with such extreme violence1 that the ,captain determined to run into ,wigwam ,cove4 ,this is a snug little harbour1 not far from ,cape ,horn2 and here1 at ,christmas-eve1 we anchored in smooth water4 ,the only thing which reminded us of the gale outside was every now and then a puff from the mountains1 which made the ship surge at her anchors4 ,december #beth4--,close by the cove1 a pointed hill1 called ,kater's ,peak1 rises to the height of #agjj feet4 ,the surrounding islands all consist of conical masses of greenstone1 associated sometimes with less regular hills of baked and altered clay-slate4 ,this part of ,tierra del ,fuego may be considered as the extremity of the submerged chain of mountains already alluded to4 ,the cove takes its name of 8,wigwam0 from some of the ,fuegian habitations2 but every bay in the neighbourhood might be so called with equal propriety4 ,the inhabitants1 living chiefly upon shell-fish1 are obliged constantly to change their place of residence2 but they return at intervals to the same spots1 as is evident from the piles of old shells1 which must often amount to many tons in weight4 ,these heaps can be distinguished at a long distance by the bright green colour of certain plants1 which invariably grow on them4 ,among these may be enumerated the wild celery and scurvy grass1 two very serviceable plants1 the use of which has not been discovered by the natives4 ,the ,fuegian wigwam resembles1 in size and dimensions1 a haycock4 ,it merely consists of a few broken branches stuck in the ground1 and very imperfectly thatched on one side with a few tufts of grass and rushes4 ,the whole cannot be the work of an hour1 and it is only used for a few days4 ,at ,goeree ,roads ,i saw a place where one of these naked men had slept1 which absolutely offered no more cover than the form of a hare4 ,the man was evidently living by himself1 and ,york ,minster said he was 8very bad man10 and that probably he had stolen something4 ,on the west coast1 however1 the wigwams are rather better1 for they are covered with seal-skins4 ,we were detained here several days by the bad weather4 ,the climate is certainly wretched3 the summer solstice was now past1 yet every day snow fell on the hills1 and in the valleys there was rain1 accompanied by sleet4 ,the thermometer generally stood about #de1 but in the night fell to #ch or #dj4 ,from the damp and boisterous state of the atmosphere1 not cheered by a gleam of sunshine1 one fancied the climate even worse than it really was4 ,while going one day on shore near ,wollaston ,island1 we pulled alongside a canoe with six ,fuegians4 ,these were the most abject and miserable creatures ,i anywhere beheld4 ,on the east coast the natives1 as we have seen1 have guanaco cloaks1 and on the west they possess seal-skins4 ,amongst these central tribes the men generally have an otter-skin1 or some small scrap about as large as a pocket-handkerchief1 which is barely sufficient to cover their backs as low down as their loins4 ,it is laced across the breast by strings1 and according as the wind blows1 it is shifted from side to side4 ,but these ,fuegians in the canoe were quite naked1 and even one full-grown woman was absolutely so4 ,it was raining heavily1 and the fresh water1 together with the spray1 trickled down her body4 ,in another harbour not far distant1 a woman1 who was suckling a recently-born child1 came one day alongside the vessel1 and remained there out of mere curiosity1 whilst the sleet fell and thawed on her naked bosom1 and on the skin of her naked baby6 ,these poor wretches were stunted in their growth1 their hideous faces bedaubed with white paint1 their skins filthy and greasy1 their hair entangled1 their voices discordant1 and their gestures violent4 ,viewing such men1 one can hardly make oneself believe that they are fellow-creatures1 and inhabitants of the same world4 ,it is a common subject of conjecture what pleasure in life some of the lower animals can enjoy3 how much more reasonably the same question may be asked with respect to these barbarians6 ,at night five or six human beings1 naked and scarcely protected from the wind and rain of this tempestuous climate1 sleep on the wet ground coiled up like animals4 ,whenever it is low water1 winter or summer1 night or day1 they must rise to pick shellfish from the rocks2 and the women either dive to collect sea-eggs1 or sit patiently in their canoes1 and with a baited hair-line without any hook1 jerk out little fish4 ,if a seal is killed1 or the floating carcass of a putrid whale is discovered1 it is a feast2 and such miserable food is assisted by a few tasteless berries and fungi4 ,they often suffer from famine3 ,i heard ,mr4 ,low1 a sealing-master intimately acquainted with the natives of this country1 give a curious account of the state of a party of one hundred and fifty natives on the west coast1 who were very thin and in great distress4 ,a succession of gales prevented the women from getting shell-fish on the rocks1 and they could not go out in their canoes to catch seal4 ,a small party of these men one morning set out1 and the other ,indians explained to him that they were going a four days' journey for food3 on their return1 ,low went to meet them1 and he found them excessively tired1 each man carrying a great square piece of putrid whales-blubber with a hole in the middle1 through which they put their heads1 like the ,gauchos do through their ponchos or cloaks4 ,as soon as the blubber was brought into a wigwam1 an old man cut off thin slices1 and muttering over them1 broiled them for a minute1 and distributed them to the famished party1 who during this time preserved a profound silence4 ,mr4 ,low believes that whenever a whale is cast on shore1 the natives bury large pieces of it in the sand1 as a resource in time of famine2 and a native boy1 whom he had on board1 once found a stock thus buried4 ,the different tribes when at war are cannibals4 ,from the concurrent1 but quite independent evidence of the boy taken by ,mr4 ,low1 and of ,jemmy ,button1 it is certainly true1 that when pressed in winter by hunger they kill and devour their old women before they kill their dogs3 the boy1 being asked by ,mr4 ,low why they did this1 answered1 8,doggies catch otters1 old women no40 ,this boy described the manner in which they are killed by being held over smoke and thus choked2 he imitated their screams as a joke1 and described the parts of their bodies which are considered best to eat4 ,horrid as such a death by the hands of their friends and relatives must be1 the fears of the old women1 when hunger begins to press1 are more painful to think of2 we were told that they then often run away into the mountains1 but that they are pursued by the men and brought back to the slaughter-house at their own firesides6 ,captain ,fitz ,roy could never ascertain that the ,fuegians have any distinct belief in a future life4 ,they sometimes bury their dead in caves1 and sometimes in the mountain forests2 we do not know what ceremonies they perform4 ,jemmy ,button would not eat land-birds1 because 8eat dead men02 they are unwilling even to mention their dead friends4 ,we have no reason to believe that they perform any sort of religious worship2 though perhaps the muttering of the old man before he distributed the putrid blubber to his famished party may be of this nature4 ,each family or tribe has a wizard or conjuring doctor1 whose office we could never clearly ascertain4 ,jemmy believed in dreams1 though not1 as ,i have said1 in the devil3 ,i do not think that our ,fuegians were much more superstitious than some of the sailors2 for an old quartermaster firmly believed that the successive heavy gales1 which we encountered off ,cape ,horn1 were caused by our having the ,fuegians on board4 ,the nearest approach to a religious feeling which ,i heard of1 was shown by ,york ,minster1 who1 when ,mr4 ,bynoe shot some very young ducklings as specimens1 declared in the most solemn manner1 8,oh1 ,mr4 ,bynoe1 much rain1 snow1 blow much40 ,this was evidently a retributive punishment for wasting human food4 ,in a wild and excited manner he also related that his brother one day1 whilst returning to pick up some dead birds which he had left on the coast1 observed some feathers blown by the wind4 ,his brother said 7,york imitating his manner71 8,what that80 and crawling onwards1 he peeped over the cliff1 and saw 8wild man0 picking his birds2 he crawled a little nearer1 and then hurled down a great stone and killed him4 ,york declared for a long time afterwards storms raged1 and much rain and snow fell4 ,as far as we could make out1 he seemed to consider the elements themselves as the avenging agents3 it is evident in this case1 how naturally1 in a race a little more advanced in culture1 the elements would become personified4 ,what the 8bad wild men0 were1 has always appeared to me most mysterious3 from what ,york said1 when we found the place like the form of a hare1 where a single man had slept the night before1 ,i should have thought that they were thieves who had been driven from their tribes2 but other obscure speeches made me doubt this2 ,i have sometimes imagined that the most probable explanation was that they were insane4 ,the different tribes have no government or chief2 yet each is surrounded by other hostile tribes1 speaking different dialects1 and separated from each other only by a deserted border or neutral territory3 the cause of their warfare appears to be the means of subsistence4 ,their country is a broken mass of wild rocks1 lofty hills1 and useless forests3 and these are viewed through mists and endless storms4 ,the habitable land is reduced to the stones on the beach2 in search of food they are compelled unceasingly to wander from spot to spot1 and so steep is the coast1 that they can only move about in their wretched canoes4 ,they cannot know the feeling of having a home1 and still less that of domestic affection2 for the husband is to the wife a brutal master to a laborious slave4 ,was a more horrid deed ever perpetrated1 than that witnessed on the west coast by ,byron1 who saw a wretched mother pick up her bleeding dying infant-boy1 whom her husband had mercilessly dashed on the stones for dropping a basket of sea-eggs6 ,how little can the higher powers of the mind be brought into play3 what is there for imagination to picture1 for reason to compare1 for judgment to decide upon8 to knock a limpet from the rock does not require even cunning1 that lowest power of the mind4 ,their skill in some respects may be compared to the instinct of animals2 for it is not improved by experience3 the canoe1 their most ingenious work1 poor as it is1 has remained the same1 as we know from ,drake1 for the last two hundred and fifty years4 ,whilst beholding these savages1 one asks1 ,whence have they come8 ,what could have tempted1 or what change compelled1 a tribe of men1 to leave the fine regions of the north1 to travel down the ,cordillera or backbone of ,america1 to invent and build canoes1 which are not used by the tribes of ,chile1 ,peru1 and ,brazil1 and then to enter on one of the most inhospitable countries within the limits of the globe8 ,although such reflections must at first seize on the mind1 yet we may feel sure that they are partly erroneous4 ,there is no reason to believe that the ,fuegians decrease in number2 therefore we must suppose that they enjoy a sufficient share of happiness1 of whatever kind it may be1 to render life worth having4 ,nature by making habit omnipotent1 and its effects hereditary1 has fitted the ,fuegian to the climate and the productions of his miserable country4 ,bad weather1 ,magellan ,straits ,after having been detained six days in ,wigwam ,cove by very bad weather1 we put to sea on the #cjth of ,december4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy wished to get westward to land ,york and ,fuegia in their own country4 ,when at sea we had a constant succession of gales1 and the current was against us3 we drifted to #eg #bc south4 ,on the #aath of ,january1 #ahcc1 by carrying a press of sail1 we fetched within a few miles of the great rugged mountain of ,york ,minster 7so called by ,captain ,cook1 and the origin of the name of the elder ,fuegian71 when a violent squall compelled us to shorten sail and stand out to sea4 ,the surf was breaking fearfully on the coast1 and the spray was carried over a cliff estimated at #bjj feet in height4 ,on the #abth the gale was very heavy1 and we did not know exactly where we were3 it was a most unpleasant sound to hear constantly repeated1 8,keep a good lookout to leeward40 ,on the #acth the storm raged with its full fury3 our horizon was narrowly limited by the sheets of spray borne by the wind4 ,the sea looked ominous1 like a dreary waving plain with patches of drifted snow3 whilst the ship laboured heavily1 the albatross glided with its expanded wings right up the wind4 ,at noon a great sea broke over us1 and filled one of the whale-boats1 which was obliged to be instantly cut away4 ,the poor ,beagle trembled at the shock1 and for a few minutes would not obey her helm2 but soon1 like a good ship that she was1 she righted and came up to the wind again4 ,had another sea followed the first1 our fate would have been decided soon1 and for ever4 ,we had now been twenty-four days trying in vain to get westward2 the men were worn out with fatigue1 and they had not had for many nights or days a dry thing to put on4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy gave up the attempt to get westward by the outside coast4 ,in the evening we ran in behind ,false ,cape ,horn1 and dropped our anchor in forty-seven fathoms1 fire flashing from the windlass as the chain rushed round it4 ,how delightful was that still night1 after having been so long involved in the din of the warring elements6 ,fuegian basket and bone weapons ,january #ae1 #ahcc4--,the ,beagle anchored in ,goeree ,roads4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy having resolved to settle the ,fuegians1 according to their wishes1 in ,ponsonby ,sound1 four boats were equipped to carry them there through the ,beagle ,channel4 ,this channel1 which was discovered by ,captain ,fitz ,roy during the last voyage1 is a most remarkable feature in the geography of this1 or indeed of any other country3 it may be compared to the valley of ,loch ,ness in ,scotland1 with its chain of lakes and friths4 ,it is about one hundred and twenty miles long1 with an average breadth1 not subject to any very great variation1 of about two miles2 and is throughout the greater part so perfectly straight1 that the view1 bounded on each side by a line of mountains1 gradually becomes indistinct in the long distance4 ,it crosses the southern part of ,tierra del ,fuego in an east and west line1 and in the middle is joined at right angles on the south side by an irregular channel1 which has been called ,ponsonby ,sound4 ,this is the residence of ,jemmy ,button's tribe and family4 #aith4--,three whale-boats and the yawl1 with a party of twenty-eight1 started under the command of ,captain ,fitz ,roy4 ,in the afternoon we entered the eastern mouth of the channel1 and shortly afterwards found a snug little cove concealed by some surrounding islets4 ,here we pitched our tents and lighted our fires4 ,nothing could look more comfortable than this scene4 ,the glassy water of the little harbour1 with the branches of the trees hanging over the rocky beach1 the boats at anchor1 the tents supported by the crossed oars1 and the smoke curling up the wooded valley1 formed a picture of quiet retirement4 ,the next day 7#bjth7 we smoothly glided onwards in our little fleet1 and came to a more inhabited district4 ,few if any of these natives could ever have seen a white man2 certainly nothing could exceed their astonishment at the apparition of the four boats4 ,fires were lighted on every point 7hence the name of ,tierra del ,fuego1 or the land of fire71 both to attract our attention and to spread far and wide the news4 ,some of the men ran for miles along the shore4 ,i shall never forget how wild and savage one group appeared3 suddenly four or five men came to the edge of an overhanging cliff2 they were absolutely naked1 and their long hair streamed about their faces2 they held rugged staffs in their hands1 and1 springing from the ground1 they waved their arms round their heads1 and sent forth the most hideous yells4 ,at dinner-time we landed among a party of ,fuegians4 ,at first they were not inclined to be friendly2 for until the ,captain pulled in ahead of the other boats1 they kept their slings in their hands4 ,we soon1 however1 delighted them by trifling presents1 such as tying red tape round their heads4 ,they liked our biscuit3 but one of the savages touched with his finger some of the meat preserved in tin cases which ,i was eating1 and feeling it soft and cold1 showed as much disgust at it1 as ,i should have done at putrid blubber4 ,jemmy was thoroughly ashamed of his countrymen1 and declared his own tribe were quite different1 in which he was woefully mistaken4 ,it was as easy to please as it was difficult to satisfy these savages4 ,young and old1 men and children1 never ceased repeating the word 8yammerschooner10 which means 8give me40 ,after pointing to almost every object1 one after the other1 even to the buttons on our coats1 and saying their favourite word in as many intonations as possible1 they would then use it in a neuter sense1 and vacantly repeat 8yammerschooner40 ,after yammerschoonering for any article very eagerly1 they would by a simple artifice point to their young women or little children1 as much as to say1 8,if you will not give it me1 surely you will to such as these40 ,at night we endeavoured in vain to find an uninhabited cove2 and at last were obliged to bivouac not far from a party of natives4 ,they were very inoffensive as long as they were few in numbers1 but in the morning 7#bast7 being joined by others they showed symptoms of hostility1 and we thought that we should have come to a skirmish4 ,an ,european labours under great disadvantages when treating with savages like these who have not the least idea of the power of firearms4 ,in the very act of levelling his musket he appears to the savage far inferior to a man armed with a bow and arrow1 a spear1 or even a sling4 ,nor is it easy to teach them our superiority except by striking a fatal blow4 ,like wild beasts1 they do not appear to compare numbers2 for each individual1 if attacked1 instead of retiring1 will endeavour to dash your brains out with a stone1 as certainly as a tiger under similar circumstances would tear you4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy1 on one occasion being very anxious1 from good reasons1 to frighten away a small party1 first flourished a cutlass near them1 at which they only laughed2 he then twice fired his pistol close to a native4 ,the man both times looked astounded1 and carefully but quickly rubbed his head2 he then stared awhile1 and gabbled to his companions1 but he never seemed to think of running away4 ,we can hardly put ourselves in the position of these savages1 and understand their actions4 ,in the case of this ,fuegian1 the possibility of such a sound as the report of a gun close to his ear could never have entered his mind4 ,he perhaps literally did not for a second know whether it was a sound or a blow1 and therefore very naturally rubbed his head4 ,in a similar manner1 when a savage sees a mark struck by a bullet1 it may be some time before he is able at all to understand how it is effected2 for the fact of a body being invisible from its velocity would perhaps be to him an idea totally inconceivable4 ,moreover1 the extreme force of a bullet that penetrates a hard substance without tearing it1 may convince the savage that it has no force at all4 ,certainly ,i believe that many savages of the lowest grade1 such as these of ,tierra del ,fuego1 have seen objects struck1 and even small animals killed by the musket1 without being in the least aware how deadly an instrument it is4 #bbnd4--,after having passed an unmolested night1 in what would appear to be neutral territory between ,jemmy's tribe and the people whom we saw yesterday1 we sailed pleasantly along4 ,i do not know anything which shows more clearly the hostile state of the different tribes1 than these wide border or neutral tracts4 ,although ,jemmy ,button well knew the force of our party1 he was1 at first1 unwilling to land amidst the hostile tribe nearest to his own4 ,he often told us how the savage ,oens men 8when the leaf red10 crossed the mountains from the eastern coast of ,tierra del ,fuego1 and made inroads on the natives of this part of the country4 ,it was most curious to watch him when thus talking1 and see his eyes gleaming and his whole face assume a new and wild expression4 ,as we proceeded along the ,beagle ,channel1 the scenery assumed a peculiar and very magnificent character2 but the effect was much lessened from the lowness of the point of view in a boat1 and from looking along the valley1 and thus losing all the beauty of a succession of ridges4 ,the mountains were here about three thousand feet high1 and terminated in sharp and jagged points4 ,they rose in one unbroken sweep from the water's edge1 and were covered to the height of fourteen or fifteen hundred feet by the dusky-coloured forest4 ,it was most curious to observe1 as far as the eye could range1 how level and truly horizontal the line on the mountain side was1 at which trees ceased to grow3 it precisely resembled the high-water mark of driftweed on a sea-beach4 ,at night we slept close to the junction of ,ponsonby ,sound with the ,beagle ,channel4 ,a small family of ,fuegians1 who were living in the cove1 were quiet and inoffensive1 and soon joined our party round a blazing fire4 ,we were well clothed1 and though sitting close to the fire were far from too warm2 yet these naked savages1 though farther off1 were observed1 to our great surprise1 to be streaming with perspiration at undergoing such a roasting4 ,they seemed1 however1 very well pleased1 and all joined in the chorus of the seamen's songs3 but the manner in which they were invariably a little behindhand was quite ludicrous4 ,during the night the news had spread1 and early in the morning 7#bcrd7 a fresh party arrived1 belonging to the ,tekenika1 or ,jemmy's tribe4 ,several of them had run so fast that their noses were bleeding1 and their mouths frothed from the rapidity with which they talked2 and with their naked bodies all bedaubed with black1 white1#a and red1 they looked like so many demoniacs who had been fighting4 ,we then proceeded 7accompanied by twelve canoes1 each holding four or five people7 down ,ponsonby ,sound to the spot where poor ,jemmy expected to find his mother and relatives4 ,he had already heard that his father was dead2 but as he had had a 8dream in his head0 to that effect1 he did not seem to care much about it1 and repeatedly comforted himself with the very natural reflection--8,me no help it40 ,he was not able to learn any particulars regarding his father's death1 as his relations would not speak about it4 #a ,this substance1 when dry1 is tolerably compact1 and of little specific gravity3 ,professor ,ehrenberg has examined it3 he states 7,knig ,akad4 der ,wissen3 ,berlin1 ,feb4 #ahde7 that it is composed of infusoria1 including fourteen polygastrica and four phytolitharia4 ,he says that they are all inhabitants of fresh water2 this is a beautiful example of the results obtainable through ,professor ,ehrenberg's microscopic researches2 for ,jemmy ,button told me that it is always collected at the bottoms of mountain-brooks4 ,it is1 moreover1 a striking fact in the geographical distribution of the infusoria1 which are well known to have very wide ranges1 that all the species in this substance1 although brought from the extreme southern point of ,tierra del ,fuego1 are old1 known forms4 ,jemmy was now in a district well known to him1 and guided the boats to a quiet pretty cove named ,woollya1 surrounded by islets1 every one of which and every point had its proper native name4 ,we found here a family of ,jemmy's tribe1 but not his relations3 we made friends with them2 and in the evening they sent a canoe to inform ,jemmy's mother and brothers4 ,the cove was bordered by some acres of good sloping land1 not covered 7as elsewhere7 either by peat or by forest-trees4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy originally intended1 as before stated1 to have taken ,york ,minster and ,fuegia to their own tribe on the west coast2 but as they expressed a wish to remain here1 and as the spot was singularly favourable1 ,captain ,fitz ,roy determined to settle here the whole party1 including ,matthews1 the missionary4 ,five days were spent in building for them three large wigwams1 in landing their goods1 in digging two gardens1 and sowing seeds4 ,the next morning after our arrival 7the #bdth7 the ,fuegians began to pour in1 and ,jemmy's mother and brothers arrived4 ,jemmy recognised the stentorian voice of one of his brothers at a prodigious distance4 ,the meeting was less interesting than that between a horse1 turned out into a field1 when he joins an old companion4 ,there was no demonstration of affection2 they simply stared for a short time at each other2 and the mother immediately went to look after her canoe4 ,we heard1 however1 through ,york that the mother had been inconsolable for the loss of ,jemmy1 and had searched everywhere for him1 thinking that he might have been left after having been taken in the boat4 ,the women took much notice of and were very kind to ,fuegia4 ,we had already perceived that ,jemmy had almost forgotten his own language4 ,i should think there was scarcely another human being with so small a stock of language1 for his ,english was very imperfect4 ,it was laughable1 but almost pitiable1 to hear him speak to his wild brother in ,english1 and then ask him in ,spanish 78no sabe807 whether he did not understand him4 ,everything went on peaceably during the three next days1 whilst the gardens were digging and wigwams building4 ,we estimated the number of natives at about one hundred and twenty4 ,the women worked hard1 whilst the men lounged about all day long1 watching us4 ,they asked for everything they saw1 and stole what they could4 ,they were delighted at our dancing and singing1 and were particularly interested at seeing us wash in a neighbouring brook2 they did not pay much attention to anything else1 not even to our boats4 ,of all the things which ,york saw1 during his absence from his country1 nothing seems more to have astonished him than an ostrich1 near ,maldonado3 breathless with astonishment he came running to ,mr4 ,bynoe1 with whom he was out walking--8,oh1 ,mr4 ,bynoe1 oh1 bird all same horse60 ,much as our white skins surprised the natives1 by ,mr4 ,low's account a negro-cook to a sealing vessel did so more effectually1 and the poor fellow was so mobbed and shouted at that he would never go on shore again4 ,everything went on so quietly1 that some of the officers and myself took long walks in the surrounding hills and woods4 ,suddenly1 however1 on the #bgth1 every woman and child disappeared4 ,we were all uneasy at this1 as neither ,york nor ,jemmy could make out the cause4 ,it was thought by some that they had been frightened by our cleaning and firing off our muskets on the previous evening3 by others1 that it was owing to offence taken by an old savage1 who1 when told to keep farther off1 had coolly spit in the sentry's face1 and had then1 by gestures acted over a sleeping ,fuegian1 plainly showed1 as it was said1 that he should like to cut up and eat our man4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy1 to avoid the chance of an encounter1 which would have been fatal to so many of the ,fuegians1 thought it advisable for us to sleep at a cove a few miles distant4 ,matthews1 with his usual quiet fortitude 7remarkable in a man apparently possessing little energy of character71 determined to stay with the ,fuegians1 who evinced no alarm for themselves2 and so we left them to pass their first awful night4 ,on our return in the morning 7#bhth7 we were delighted to find all quiet1 and the men employed in their canoes spearing fish4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy determined to send the yawl and one whale-boat back to the ship2 and to proceed with the two other boats1 one under his own command 7in which he most kindly allowed me to accompany him71 and one under ,mr4 ,hammond1 to survey the western parts of the ,beagle ,channel1 and afterwards to return and visit the settlement4 ,the day to our astonishment was overpoweringly hot1 so that our skins were scorched2 with this beautiful weather1 the view in the middle of the ,beagle ,channel was very remarkable4 ,looking towards either hand1 no object intercepted the vanishing points of this long canal between the mountains4 ,the circumstance of its being an arm of the sea was rendered very evident by several huge whales#b spouting in different directions4 ,on one occasion ,i saw two of these monsters1 probably male and female1 slowly swimming one after the other1 within less than a stone's throw of the shore1 over which the beech-tree extended its branches4 #b ,one day1 off the ,east coast of ,tierra del ,fuego1 we saw a grand sight in several spermaceti whales jumping upright quite out of the water1 with the exception of their tail-fins4 ,as they fell down sideways1 they splashed the water high up1 and the sound reverberated like a distant broadside4 ,we sailed on till it was dark1 and then pitched our tents in a quiet creek4 ,the greatest luxury was to find for our beds a beach of pebbles1 for they were dry and yielded to the body4 ,peaty soil is damp2 rock is uneven and hard2 sand gets into one's meat1 when cooked and eaten boat-fashion2 but when lying in our blanket-bags1 on a good bed of smooth pebbles1 we passed most comfortable nights4 ,it was my watch till one o'clock4 ,there is something very solemn in these scenes4 ,at no time does the consciousness in what a remote corner of the world you are then standing come so strongly before the mind4 ,everything tends to this effect2 the stillness of the night is interrupted only by the heavy breathing of the seamen beneath the tents1 and sometimes by the cry of a night-bird4 ,the occasional barking of a dog1 heard in the distance1 reminds one that it is the land of the savage4 ,january #bith4--,early in the morning we arrived at the point where the ,beagle ,channel divides into two arms2 and we entered the northern one4 ,the scenery here becomes even grander than before4 ,the lofty mountains on the north side compose the granitic axis1 or backbone of the country1 and boldly rise to a height of between three and four thousand feet1 with one peak above six thousand feet4 ,they are covered by a wide mantle of perpetual snow1 and numerous cascades pour their waters1 through the woods1 into the narrow channel below4 ,in many parts1 magnificent glaciers extend from the mountain side to the water's edge4 ,it is scarcely possible to imagine anything more beautiful than the beryl-like blue of these glaciers1 and especially as contrasted with the dead white of the upper expanse of snow4 ,the fragments which had fallen from the glacier into the water were floating away1 and the channel with its icebergs presented1 for the space of a mile1 a miniature likeness of the ,polar ,sea4 ,the boats being hauled on shore at our dinner-hour1 we were admiring from the distance of half a mile a perpendicular cliff of ice1 and were wishing that some more fragments would fall4 ,at last1 down came a mass with a roaring noise1 and immediately we saw the smooth outline of a wave travelling towards us4 ,the men ran down as quickly as they could to the boats2 for the chance of their being dashed to pieces was evident4 ,one of the seamen just caught hold of the bows1 as the curling breaker reached it3 he was knocked over and over1 but not hurt1 and the boats1 though thrice lifted on high and let fall again1 received no damage4 ,this was most fortunate for us1 for we were a hundred miles distant from the ship1 and we should have been left without provisions or firearms4 ,i had previously observed that some large fragments of rock on the beach had been lately displaced2 but until seeing this wave ,i did not understand the cause4 ,one side of the creek was formed by a spur of mica-slate2 the head by a cliff of ice about forty feet high2 and the other side by a promontory fifty feet high1 built up of huge rounded fragments of granite and mica-slate1 out of which old trees were growing4 ,this promontory was evidently a moraine1 heaped up at a period when the glacier had greater dimensions4 ,when we reached the western mouth of this northern branch of the ,beagle ,channel1 we sailed amongst many unknown desolate islands1 and the weather was wretchedly bad4 ,we met with no natives4 ,the coast was almost everywhere so steep that we had several times to pull many miles before we could find space enough to pitch our two tents3 one night we slept on large round boulders1 with putrefying sea-weed between them2 and when the tide rose1 we had to get up and move our blanket-bags4 ,the farthest point westward which we reached was ,stewart ,island1 a distance of about one hundred and fifty miles from our ship4 ,we returned into the ,beagle ,channel by the southern arm1 and thence proceeded1 with no adventure1 back to ,ponsonby ,sound4 ,february #fth4--,we arrived at ,woollya4 ,matthews gave so bad an account of the conduct of the ,fuegians1 that ,captain ,fitz ,roy determined to take him back to the ,beagle2 and ultimately he was left at ,new ,zealand1 where his brother was a missionary4 ,from the time of our leaving1 a regular system of plunder commenced2 fresh parties of the natives kept arriving3 ,york and ,jemmy lost many things1 and ,matthews almost everything which had not been concealed underground4 ,every article seemed to have been torn up and divided by the natives4 ,matthews described the watch he was obliged always to keep as most harassing2 night and day he was surrounded by the natives1 who tried to tire him out by making an incessant noise close to his head4 ,one day an old man1 whom ,matthews asked to leave his wigwam1 immediately returned with a large stone in his hand3 another day a whole party came armed with stones and stakes1 and some of the younger men and ,jemmy's brother were crying3 ,matthews met them with presents4 ,another party showed by signs that they wished to strip him naked and pluck all the hairs out of his face and body4 ,i think we arrived just in time to save his life4 ,jemmy's relatives had been so vain and foolish1 that they had showed to strangers their plunder1 and their manner of obtaining it4 ,it was quite melancholy leaving the three ,fuegians with their savage countrymen2 but it was a great comfort that they had no personal fears4 ,york1 being a powerful resolute man1 was pretty sure to get on well1 together with his wife ,fuegia4 ,poor ,jemmy looked rather disconsolate1 and would then1 ,i have little doubt1 have been glad to have returned with us4 ,his own brother had stolen many things from him2 and as he remarked1 8,what fashion call that30 he abused his countrymen1 8all bad men1 no sabe 7know7 nothing0 and1 though ,i never heard him swear before1 8damned fools40 ,our three ,fuegians1 though they had been only three years with civilised men1 would1 ,i am sure1 have been glad to have retained their new habits2 but this was obviously impossible4 ,i fear it is more than doubtful whether their visit will have been of any use to them4 ,in the evening1 with ,matthews on board1 we made sail back to the ship1 not by the ,beagle ,channel1 but by the southern coast4 ,the boats were heavily laden and the sea rough1 and we had a dangerous passage4 ,by the evening of the #gth we were on board the ,beagle after an absence of twenty days1 during which time we had gone three hundred miles in the open boats4 ,on the #aath ,captain ,fitz ,roy paid a visit by himself to the ,fuegians and found them going on well2 and that they had lost very few more things4 ,on the last day of ,february in the succeeding year 7#ahcd7 the ,beagle anchored in a beautiful little cove at the eastern entrance of the ,beagle ,channel4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy determined on the bold1 and as it proved successful1 attempt to beat against the westerly winds by the same route which we had followed in the boats to the settlement at ,woollya4 ,we did not see many natives until we were near ,ponsonby ,sound1 where we were followed by ten or twelve canoes4 ,the natives did not at all understand the reason of our tacking1 and1 instead of meeting us at each tack1 vainly strove to follow us in our zigzag course4 ,i was amused at finding what a difference the circumstance of being quite superior in force made1 in the interest of beholding these savages4 ,while in the boats ,i got to hate the very sound of their voices1 so much trouble did they give us4 ,the first and last word was 8yammerschooner40 ,when1 entering some quiet little cove1 we have looked round and thought to pass a quiet night1 the odious word 8yammerschooner0 has shrilly sounded from some gloomy nook1 and then the little signal-smoke has curled up to spread the news far and wide4 ,on leaving some place we have said to each other1 8,thank heaven1 we have at last fairly left these wretches60 when one more faint halloo from an all-powerful voice1 heard at a prodigious distance1 would reach our ears1 and clearly could we distinguish--8yammerschooner40 ,but now1 the more ,fuegians the merrier2 and very merry work it was4 ,both parties laughing1 wondering1 gaping at each other2 we pitying them1 for giving us good fish and crabs for rags1 etc42 they grasping at the chance of finding people so foolish as to exchange such splendid ornaments for a good supper4 ,it was most amusing to see the undisguised smile of satisfaction with which one young woman with her face painted black1 tied several bits of scarlet cloth round her head with rushes4 ,her husband1 who enjoyed the very universal privilege in this country of possessing two wives1 evidently became jealous of all the attention paid to his young wife2 and1 after a consultation with his naked beauties1 was paddled away by them4 ,some of the ,fuegians plainly showed that they had a fair notion of barter4 ,i gave one man a large nail 7a most valuable present7 without making any signs for a return2 but he immediately picked out two fish1 and handed them up on the point of his spear4 ,if any present was designed for one canoe1 and it fell near another1 it was invariably given to the right owner4 ,the ,fuegian boy1 whom ,mr4 ,low had on board1 showed1 by going into the most violent passion1 that he quite understood the reproach of being called a liar1 which in truth he was4 ,we were this time1 as on all former occasions1 much surprised at the little notice1 or rather none whatever1 which was taken of many things1 the use of which must have been evident to the natives4 ,simple circumstances--such as the beauty of scarlet cloth or blue beads1 the absence of women1 our care in washing ourselves1--excited their admiration far more than any grand or complicated object1 such as our ship4 ,bougainville has well remarked concerning these people1 that they treat the 8chefs d'uvres de l'industrie humaine1 comme ils traitent les loix de la nature et ses phnomnes40 ,on the #eth of ,march we anchored in a cove at ,woollya1 but we saw not a soul there4 ,we were alarmed at this1 for the natives in ,ponsonby ,sound showed by gestures that there had been fighting2 and we afterwards heard that the dreaded ,oens men had made a descent4 ,soon a canoe1 with a little flag flying1 was seen approaching1 with one of the men in it washing the paint off his face4 ,this man was poor ,jemmy1--now a thin1 haggard savage1 with long disordered hair1 and naked1 except a bit of blanket round his waist4 ,we did not recognize him till he was close to us1 for he was ashamed of himself1 and turned his back to the ship4 ,we had left him plump1 fat1 clean1 and well-dressed2--,i never saw so complete and grievous a change4 ,as soon however as he was clothed1 and the first flurry was over1 things wore a good appearance4 ,he dined with ,captain ,fitz ,roy1 and ate his dinner as tidily as formerly4 ,he told us that he had 8too much0 7meaning enough7 to eat1 that he was not cold1 that his relations were very good people1 and that he did not wish to go back to ,england3 in the evening we found out the cause of this great change in ,jemmy's feelings1 in the arrival of his young and nice-looking wife4 ,with his usual good feeling1 he brought two beautiful otter-skins for two of his best friends1 and some spear-heads and arrows made with his own hands for the ,captain4 ,he said he had built a canoe for himself1 and he boasted that he could talk a little of his own language6 ,but it is a most singular fact1 that he appears to have taught all his tribe some ,english3 an old man spontaneously announced 8,jemmy ,button's wife40 ,jemmy had lost all his property4 ,he told us that ,york ,minster had built a large canoe1 and with his wife ,fuegia1#c had several months since gone to his own country1 and had taken farewell by an act of consummate villainy2 he persuaded ,jemmy and his mother to come with him1 and then on the way deserted them by night1 stealing every article of their property4 #c ,captain ,sulivan1 who1 since his voyage in the ,beagle1 has been employed on the survey of the ,falkland ,islands1 heard from a sealer in 7#ahdb871 that when in the western part of the ,strait of ,magellan1 he was astonished by a native woman coming on board1 who could talk some ,english4 ,without doubt this was ,fuegia ,basket4 ,she lived 7,i fear the term probably bears a double interpretation7 some days on board4 ,jemmy went to sleep on shore1 and in the morning returned1 and remained on board till the ship got under weigh1 which frightened his wife1 who continued crying violently till he got into his canoe4 ,he returned loaded with valuable property4 ,every soul on board was heartily sorry to shake hands with him for the last time4 ,i do not now doubt that he will be as happy as1 perhaps happier than1 if he had never left his own country4 ,every one must sincerely hope that ,captain ,fitz ,roy's noble hope may be fulfilled1 of being rewarded for the many generous sacrifices which he made for these ,fuegians1 by some shipwrecked sailor being protected by the descendants of ,jemmy ,button and his tribe6 ,when ,jemmy reached the shore1 he lighted a signal fire1 and the smoke curled up1 bidding us a last and long farewell1 as the ship stood on her course into the open sea4 ,the perfect equality among the individuals composing the ,fuegian tribes must for a long time retard their civilisation4 ,as we see those animals1 whose instinct compels them to live in society and obey a chief1 are most capable of improvement1 so is it with the races of mankind4 ,whether we look at it as a cause or a consequence1 the more civilised always have the most artificial governments4 ,for instance1 the inhabitants of ,otaheite1 who1 when first discovered1 were governed by hereditary kings1 had arrived at a far higher grade than another branch of the same people1 the ,new ,zealanders1--who1 although benefited by being compelled to turn their attention to agriculture1 were republicans in the most absolute sense4 ,in ,tierra del ,fuego1 until some chief shall arise with power sufficient to secure any acquired advantage1 such as the domesticated animals1 it seems scarcely possible that the political state of the country can be improved4 ,at present1 even a piece of cloth given to one is torn into shreds and distributed2 and no one individual becomes richer than another4 ,on the other hand1 it is difficult to understand how a chief can arise till there is property of some sort by which he might manifest his superiority and increase his power4 ,i believe1 in this extreme part of ,south ,america1 man exists in a lower state of improvement than in any other part of the world4 ,the ,south ,sea ,islanders1 of the two races inhabiting the ,pacific1 are comparatively civilised4 ,the ,esquimaux1 in his subterranean hut1 enjoys some of the comforts of life1 and in his canoe1 when fully equipped1 manifests much skill4 ,some of the tribes of ,southern ,africa1 prowling about in search of roots1 and living concealed on the wild and arid plains1 are sufficiently wretched4 ,the ,australian1 in the simplicity of the arts of life1 comes nearest the ,fuegian3 he can1 however1 boast of his boomerang1 his spear and throwing-stick1 his method of climbing trees1 of tracking animals1 and of hunting4 ,although the ,australian may be superior in acquirements1 it by no means follows that he is likewise superior in mental capacity3 indeed1 from what ,i saw of the ,fuegians when on board and from what ,i have read of the ,australians1 ,i should think the case was exactly the reverse4 ,illustration3 ,false ,horn1 ,cape ,horn4 ,illustration3 ,wollaston ,island1 ,tierra del ,fuego ,chapter ,,xi ,strait of ,magellan--,port ,famine--,ascent of ,mount ,tarn--,forests--,edible fungus--,zoology--,great ,seaweed--,leave ,tierra del ,fuego--,climate--,fruit-trees and productions of the southern coasts--,height of snow-line on the ,cordillera--,descent of glaciers to the sea--,icebergs formed--,transportal of boulders--,climate and productions of the ,antarctic ,islands--,preservation of frozen carcasses--,recapitulation4 ,,strait ,,of ,,magellan4--,,climate ,,of ,,the ,,southern ,,coasts4 ,in the end of ,may #ahcd we entered for a second time the eastern mouth of the ,strait of ,magellan4 ,the country on both sides of this part of the ,strait consists of nearly level plains1 like those of ,patagonia4 ,cape ,negro1 a little within the second ,narrows1 may be considered as the point where the land begins to assume the marked features of ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,on the east coast1 south of the ,strait1 broken park-like scenery in a like manner connects these two countries1 which are opposed to each other in almost every feature4 ,it is truly surprising to find in a space of twenty miles such a change in the landscape4 ,if we take a rather greater distance1 as between ,port ,famine and ,gregory ,bay1 that is about sixty miles1 the difference is still more wonderful4 ,at the former place we have rounded mountains concealed by impervious forests1 which are drenched with the rain brought by an endless succession of gales2 while at ,cape ,gregory there is a clear and bright blue sky over the dry and sterile plains4 ,the atmospheric currents1#a although rapid1 turbulent1 and unconfined by any apparent limits1 yet seem to follow1 like a river in its bed1 a regularly determined course4 #a ,the south-westerly breezes are generally very dry4 ,january #bith1 being at anchor under ,cape ,gregory3 a very hard gale from west by south1 clear sky with few cumuli2 temperature #eg1 dew-point #cf1--;difference #ba4 ,on ,january #aeth1 at ,port ,st4 ,julian3 in the morning light winds with much rain1 followed by a very heavy squall with rain1--settled into heavy gale with large cumuli1--cleared up1 blowing very strong from south-south-west4 ,temperature #fj1 dew-point #db1--;difference #ah4 ,patagonians from ,cape ,gregory ,during our previous visit 7in ,january71 we had an interview at ,cape ,gregory with the famous so-called gigantic ,patagonians1 who gave us a cordial reception4 ,their height appears greater than it really is1 from their large guanaco mantles1 their long flowing hair1 and general figure3 on an average their height is about six feet1 with some men taller and only a few shorter2 and the women are also tall2 altogether they are certainly the tallest race which we anywhere saw4 ,in features they strikingly resemble the more northern ,indians whom ,i saw with ,rosas1 but they have a wilder and more formidable appearance3 their faces were much painted with red and black1 and one man was ringed and dotted with white like a ,fuegian4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy offered to take any three of them on board1 and all seemed determined to be of the three4 ,it was long before we could clear the boat2 at last we got on board with our three giants1 who dined with the ,captain1 and behaved quite like gentlemen1 helping themselves with knives1 forks1 and spoons3 nothing was so much relished as sugar4 ,this tribe has had so much communication with sealers and whalers1 that most of the men can speak a little ,english and ,spanish2 and they are half civilised1 and proportionally demoralised4 ,port ,famine1 ,magellan ,the next morning a large party went on shore1 to barter for skins and ostrich-feathers2 fire-arms being refused1 tobacco was in greatest request1 far more so than axes or tools4 ,the whole population of the toldos1 men1 women1 and children1 were arranged on a bank4 ,it was an amusing scene1 and it was impossible not to like the so-called giants1 they were so thoroughly good-humoured and unsuspecting3 they asked us to come again4 ,they seem to like to have ,europeans to live with them2 and old ,maria1 an important woman in the tribe1 once begged ,mr4 ,low to leave any one of his sailors with them4 ,they spend the greater part of the year here2 but in summer they hunt along the foot of the ,cordillera3 sometimes they travel as far as the ,rio ,negro1 #gej miles to the north4 ,they are well stocked with horses1 each man having1 according to ,mr4 ,low1 six or seven1 and all the women1 and even children1 their one own horse4 ,in the time of ,sarmiento 7#aehj7 these ,indians had bows and arrows1 now long since disused2 they then also possessed some horses4 ,this is a very curious fact1 showing the extraordinarily rapid multiplication of horses in ,south ,america4 ,the horse was first landed at ,buenos ,ayres in #aecg1 and the colony being then for a time deserted1 the horse ran wild2#b in #aehj1 only forty-three years afterwards1 we hear of them at the ,strait of ,magellan6 ,mr4 ,low informs me1 that a neighbouring tribe of foot-,indians is now changing into horse-,indians3 the tribe at ,gregory ,bay giving them their worn-out horses1 and sending in winter a few of their best skilled men to hunt for them4 #b ,rengger1 ,natur4 der ,saeugethiere von ,paraguay4 ,s4 #ccd4 ,june #ast4--,we anchored in the fine bay of ,port ,famine4 ,it was now the beginning of winter1 and ,i never saw a more cheerless prospect2 the dusky woods1 piebald with snow1 could be only seen indistinctly through a drizzling hazy atmosphere4 ,we were1 however1 lucky in getting two fine days4 ,on one of these1 ,mount ,sarmiento1 a distant mountain #fhjj feet high1 presented a very noble spectacle4 ,i was frequently surprised1 in the scenery of ,tierra del ,fuego1 at the little apparent elevation of mountains really lofty4 ,i suspect it is owing to a cause which would not at first be imagined1 namely1 that the whole mass1 from the summit to the water's edge1 is generally in full view4 ,i remember having seen a mountain1 first from the ,beagle ,channel1 where the whole sweep from the summit to the base was full in view1 and then from ,ponsonby ,sound across several successive ridges2 and it was curious to observe in the latter case1 as each fresh ridge afforded fresh means of judging of the distance1 how the mountain rose in height4 ,before reaching ,port ,famine1 two men were seen running along the shore and hailing the ship4 ,a boat was sent for them4 ,they turned out to be two sailors who had run away from a sealing-vessel1 and had joined the ,patagonians4 ,these ,indians had treated them with their usual disinterested hospitality4 ,they had parted company through accident1 and were then proceeding to ,port ,famine in hopes of finding some ship4 ,i daresay they were worthless vagabonds1 but ,i never saw more miserable-looking ones4 ,they had been living for some days on mussel-shells and berries1 and their tattered clothes had been burnt by sleeping so near their fires4 ,they had been exposed night and day1 without any shelter1 to the late incessant gales1 with rain1 sleet1 and snow1 and yet they were in good health4 ,illustration ,during our stay at ,port ,famine1 the ,fuegians twice came and plagued us4 ,as there were many instruments1 clothes1 and men on shore1 it was thought necessary to frighten them away4 ,the first time a few great guns were fired1 when they were far distant4 ,it was most ludicrous to watch through a glass the ,indians1 as often as the shot struck the water1 take up stones1 and1 as a bold defiance1 throw them towards the ship1 though about a mile and a half distant6 ,a boat was then sent with orders to fire a few musket-shots wide of them4 ,the ,fuegians hid themselves behind the trees1 and for every discharge of the muskets they fired their arrows2 all1 however1 fell short of the boat1 and the officer as he pointed at them laughed4 ,this made the ,fuegians frantic with passion1 and they shook their mantles in vain rage4 ,at last1 seeing the balls cut and strike the trees1 they ran away1 and we were left in peace and quietness4 ,during the former voyage the ,fuegians were here very troublesome1 and to frighten them a rocket was fired at night over their wigwams2 it answered effectually1 and one of the officers told me that the clamour first raised1 and the barking of the dogs1 was quite ludicrous in contrast with the profound silence which in a minute or two afterwards prevailed4 ,the next morning not a single ,fuegian was in the neighbourhood4 ,patagonian spurs and pipe ,when the ,beagle was here in the month of ,february1 ,i started one morning at four o'clock to ascend ,mount ,tarn1 which is #bfjj feet high1 and is the most elevated point in this immediate district4 ,we went in a boat to the foot of the mountain 7but unluckily not to the best part71 and then began our ascent4 ,the forest commences at the line of high-water mark1 and during the first two hours ,i gave over all hopes of reaching the summit4 ,so thick was the wood1 that it was necessary to have constant recourse to the compass2 for every landmark1 though in a mountainous country1 was completely shut out4 ,in the deep ravines the death-like scene of desolation exceeded all description2 outside it was blowing a gale1 but in these hollows not even a breath of wind stirred the leaves of the tallest trees4 ,so gloomy1 cold1 and wet was every part1 that not even the fungi1 mosses1 or ferns could flourish4 ,in the valleys it was scarcely possible to crawl along1 they were so completely barricaded by great mouldering trunks1 which had fallen down in every direction4 ,when passing over these natural bridges1 one's course was often arrested by sinking knee deep into the rotten wood2 at other times1 when attempting to lean against a firm tree1 one was startled by finding a mass of decayed matter ready to fall at the slightest touch4 ,we at last found ourselves among the stunted trees1 and then soon reached the bare ridge1 which conducted us to the summit4 ,here was a view characteristic of ,tierra del ,fuego2 irregular chains of hills1 mottled with patches of snow1 deep yellowish-green valleys1 and arms of the sea intersecting the land in many directions4 ,the strong wind was piercingly cold1 and the atmosphere rather hazy1 so that we did not stay long on the top of the mountain4 ,our descent was not quite so laborious as our ascent1 for the weight of the body forced a passage1 and all the slips and falls were in the right direction4 ,i have already mentioned the sombre and dull character of the evergreen forests1#c in which two or three species of trees grow1 to the exclusion of all others4 ,above the forest land there are many dwarf alpine plants1 which all spring from the mass of peat1 and help to compose it3 these plants are very remarkable from their close alliance with the species growing on the mountains of ,europe1 though so many thousand miles distant4 ,the central part of ,tierra del ,fuego1 where the clay-slate formation occurs1 is most favourable to the growth of trees2 on the outer coast the poorer granitic soil1 and a situation more exposed to the violent winds1 do not allow of their attaining any great size4 ,near ,port ,famine ,i have seen more large trees than anywhere else3 ,i measured a ,winter's ,bark which was four feet six inches in girth1 and several of the beech were as much as thirteen feet4 ,captain ,king also mentions a beech which was seven feet in diameter seventeen feet above the roots4 #c ,captain ,fitz ,roy informs me that in ,april 7our ,october7 the leaves of those trees which grow near the base of the mountains change colour1 but not those on the more elevated parts4 ,i remember having read some observations1 showing that in ,england the leaves fall earlier in a warm and fine autumn than in a late and cold one4 ,the change in the colour being here retarded in the more elevated1 and therefore colder situations1 must be owing to the same general law of vegetation4 ,the trees of ,tierra del ,fuego during no part of the year entirely shed their leaves4 ,illustration ,there is one vegetable production deserving notice from its importance as an article of food to the ,fuegians4 ,it is a globular1 bright-yellow fungus1 which grows in vast numbers on the beech-trees4 ,when young it is elastic and turgid1 with a smooth surface2 but when mature1 it shrinks1 becomes tougher1 and has its entire surface deeply pitted or honeycombed1 as represented in the figure at right4 ,this fungus belongs to a new and curious genus2#d ,i found a second species on another species of beech in ,chile3 and ,dr4 ,hooker informs me that just lately a third species has been discovered on a third species of beech in ,van ,diemen's ,land4 ,how singular is this relationship between parasitical fungi and the trees on which they grow1 in distant parts of the world6 ,in ,tierra del ,fuego the fungus in its tough and mature state is collected in large quantities by the women and children1 and is eaten uncooked4 ,it has a mucilaginous1 slightly sweet taste1 with a faint smell like that of a mushroom4 ,with the exception of a few berries1 chiefly of a dwarf arbutus1 the natives eat no vegetable food besides this fungus4 ,in ,new ,zealand1 before the introduction of the potato1 the roots of the fern were largely consumed2 at the present time1 ,i believe1 ,tierra del ,fuego is the only country in the world where a cryptogamic plant affords a staple article of food4 #d ,described from my specimens and notes by the ,reverend ,j4 ,m4 ,berkeley in the ,linnean ,transactions 7vol4 xix1 p4 #cg71 under the name of ,cyttaria ,darwinii3 the ,chilean species is the ,c4 ,berteroii4 ,this genus is allied to ,bulgaria4 ,the zoology of ,tierra del ,fuego1 as might have been expected from the nature of its climate and vegetation1 is very poor4 ,of mammalia1 besides whales and seals1 there is one bat1 a kind of mouse 7,reithrodon chinchilloides71 two true mice1 a ctenomys allied to or identical with the tucutuco1 two foxes 7,canis ,magellanicus and ,c4 ,azar71 a sea-otter1 the guanaco1 and a deer4 ,most of these animals inhabit only the drier eastern parts of the country2 and the deer has never been seen south of the ,strait of ,magellan4 ,observing the general correspondence of the cliffs of soft sandstone1 mud1 and shingle1 on the opposite sides of the ,strait1 and on some intervening islands1 one is strongly tempted to believe that the land was once joined1 and thus allowed animals so delicate and helpless as the tucutuco and ,reithrodon to pass over4 ,the correspondence of the cliffs is far from proving any junction2 because such cliffs generally are formed by the intersection of sloping deposits1 which1 before the elevation of the land1 had been accumulated near the then existing shores4 ,it is1 however1 a remarkable coincidence1 that in the two large islands cut off by the ,beagle ,channel from the rest of ,tierra del ,fuego1 one has cliffs composed of matter that may be called stratified alluvium1 which front similar ones on the opposite side of the channel1--while the other is exclusively bordered by old crystalline rocks2 in the former1 called ,navarin ,island1 both foxes and guanacos occur2 but in the latter1 ,hoste ,island1 although similar in every respect1 and only separated by a channel a little more than half a mile wide1 ,i have the word of ,jemmy ,button for saying that neither of these animals is found4 ,the gloomy woods are inhabited by few birds3 occasionally the plaintive note of a white-tufted tyrant-flycatcher 7,myiobius albiceps7 may be heard1 concealed near the summit of the most lofty trees2 and more rarely the loud strange cry of a black woodpecker1 with a fine scarlet crest on its head4 ,a little1 dusky-coloured wren 7,scytalopus ,magellanicus7 hops in a skulking manner among the entangled mass of the fallen and decaying trunks4 ,but the creeper 7,oxyurus tupinieri7 is the commonest bird in the country4 ,throughout the beech forests1 high up and low down1 in the most gloomy1 wet1 and impenetrable ravines1 it may be met with4 ,this little bird no doubt appears more numerous than it really is1 from its habit of following with seeming curiosity any person who enters these silent woods3 continually uttering a harsh twitter1 it flutters from tree to tree1 within a few feet of the intruder's face4 ,it is far from wishing for the modest concealment of the true creeper 7,certhia familiaris72 nor does it1 like that bird1 run up the trunks of trees1 but industriously1 after the manner of a willow-wren1 hops about1 and searches for insects on every twig and branch4 ,in the more open parts1 three or four species of finches1 a thrush1 a starling 7or ,icterus71 two ,opetiorhynchi1 and several hawks and owls occur4 ,the absence of any species whatever in the whole class of ,reptiles is a marked feature in the zoology of this country1 as well as in that of the ,falkland ,islands4 ,i do not ground this statement merely on my own observation1 but ,i heard it from the ,spanish inhabitants of the latter place1 and from ,jemmy ,button with regard to ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,on the banks of the ,santa ,cruz1 in #ej degrees south1 ,i saw a frog2 and it is not improbable that these animals1 as well as lizards1 may be found as far south as the ,strait of ,magellan1 where the country retains the character of ,patagonia2 but within the damp and cold limit of ,tierra del ,fuego not one occurs4 ,that the climate would not have suited some of the orders1 such as lizards1 might have been foreseen2 but with respect to frogs1 this was not so obvious4 ,beetles occur in very small numbers3 it was long before ,i could believe that a country as large as ,scotland1 covered with vegetable productions and with a variety of stations1 could be so unproductive4 ,the few which ,i found were alpine species 7,harpalid and ,heteromid7 living under stones4 ,the vegetable-feeding ,chrysomelid1 so eminently characteristic of the ,tropics1 are here almost entirely absent2#e ,i saw very few flies1 butterflies1 or bees1 and no crickets or ,orthoptera4 ,in the pools of water ,i found but few aquatic beetles1 and not any fresh-water shells3 ,succinea at first appears an exception2 but here it must be called a terrestrial shell1 for it lives on the damp herbage far from water4 ,land-shells could be procured only in the same alpine situations with the beetles4 ,i have already contrasted the climate as well as the general appearance of ,tierra del ,fuego with that of ,patagonia2 and the difference is strongly exemplified in the entomology4 ,i do not believe they have one species in common2 certainly the general character of the insects is widely different4 #e ,i believe ,i must except one alpine ,haltica1 and a single specimen of a ,melasoma4 ,mr4 ,waterhouse informs me1 that of the ,harpalid there are eight or nine species--the forms of the greater number being very peculiar2 of ,heteromera1 four or five species2 of ,rhyncophora1 six or seven2 and of the following families one species in each3 ,staphylinid1 ,elaterid1 ,cebrionid1 ,melolonthid4 ,the species in the other orders are even fewer4 ,in all the orders1 the scarcity of the individuals is even more remarkable than that of the species4 ,most of the ,coleoptera have been carefully described by ,mr4 ,waterhouse in the ,annals of ,nat4 ,hist4 ,if we turn from the land to the sea1 we shall find the latter as abundantly stocked with living creatures as the former is poorly so4 ,in all parts of the world a rocky and partially protected shore perhaps supports1 in a given space1 a greater number of individual animals than any other station4 ,there is one marine production which1 from its importance1 is worthy of a particular history4 ,it is the kelp1 or ,macrocystis pyrifera4 ,this plant grows on every rock from low-water mark to a great depth1 both on the outer coast and within the channels4#f ,i believe1 during the voyages of the ,adventure and ,beagle1 not one rock near the surface was discovered which was not buoyed by this floating weed4 ,the good service it thus affords to vessels navigating near this stormy land is evident2 and it certainly has saved many a one from being wrecked4 ,i know few things more surprising than to see this plant growing and flourishing amidst those great breakers of the western ocean1 which no mass of rock1 let it be ever so hard1 can long resist4 ,the stem is round1 slimy1 and smooth1 and seldom has a diameter of so much as an inch4 ,a few taken together are sufficiently strong to support the weight of the large loose stones1 to which in the inland channels they grow attached2 and yet some of these stones were so heavy that when drawn to the surface1 they could scarcely be lifted into a boat by one person4 ,captain ,cook1 in his second voyage1 says that this plant at ,kerguelen ,land rises from a greater depth than twenty-four fathoms2 8and as it does not grow in a perpendicular direction1 but makes a very acute angle with the bottom1 and much of it afterwards spreads many fathoms on the surface of the sea1 ,i am well warranted to say that some of it grows to the length of sixty fathoms and upwards40 ,i do not suppose the stem of any other plant attains so great a length as three hundred and sixty feet1 as stated by ,captain ,cook4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy1 moreover1 found it growing#g up from the greater depth of forty-five fathoms4 ,the beds of this sea-weed1 even when of not great breadth1 make excellent natural floating breakwaters4 ,it is quite curious to see1 in an exposed harbour1 how soon the waves from the open sea1 as they travel through the straggling stems1 sink in height1 and pass into smooth water4 #f ,its geographical range is remarkably wide2 it is found from the extreme southern islets near ,cape ,horn1 as far north on the eastern coast 7according to information given me by ,mr4 ,stokes7 as lat4 #dc1--;but on the western coast1 as ,dr4 ,hooker tells me1 it extends to the ,r4 ,san ,francisco in ,california1 and perhaps even to ,kamtschatka4 ,we thus have an immense range in latitude2 and as ,cook1 who must have been well acquainted with the species1 found it at ,kerguelen ,land1 no less than #adj in longitude4 #g ,voyages of the ,adventure and ,beagle1 vol4 i1 p4 #cfc4 ,it appears that seaweed grows extremely quick4 ,mr4 ,stephenson found 7,wilson's ,voyage round ,scotland vol4 ii1 p4 #bbh7 that a rock uncovered only at spring-tides1 which had been chiselled smooth in ,november1 on the following ,may1 that is1 within six months afterwards1 was thickly covered with ,fucus digitatus two feet1 and ,f4 esculentus six feet1 in length4 ,the number of living creatures of all ,orders1 whose existence intimately depends on the kelp1 is wonderful4 ,a great volume might be written1 describing the inhabitants of one of these beds of seaweed4 ,almost all the leaves1 excepting those that float on the surface1 are so thickly incrusted with corallines as to be of a white colour4 ,we find exquisitely delicate structures1 some inhabited by simple hydra-like polypi1 others by more organised kinds1 and beautiful compound ,ascidi4 ,on the leaves1 also1 various patelliform shells1 ,trochi1 uncovered molluscs1 and some bivalves are attached4 ,innumerable crustacea frequent every part of the plant4 ,on shaking the great entangled roots1 a pile of small fish1 shells1 cuttlefish1 crabs of all orders1 sea-eggs1 starfish1 beautiful ,holothuri1 ,planari1 and crawling nereidous animals of a multitude of forms1 all fall out together4 ,often as ,i recurred to a branch of the kelp1 ,i never failed to discover animals of new and curious structures4 ,in ,chiloe1 where the kelp does not thrive very well1 the numerous shells1 corallines1 and crustacea are absent2 but there yet remain a few of the ,flustrace1 and some compound ,ascidi2 the latter1 however1 are of different species from those in ,tierra del ,fuego2 we see here the fucus possessing a wider range than the animals which use it as an abode4 ,i can only compare these great aquatic forests of the southern hemisphere with the terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions4 ,yet if in any country a forest was destroyed1 ,i do not believe nearly so many species of animals would perish as would here1 from the destruction of the kelp4 ,amidst the leaves of this plant numerous species of fish live1 which nowhere else could find food or shelter2 with their destruction the many cormorants and other fishing birds1 the otters1 seals1 and porpoises1 would soon perish also2 and lastly1 the ,fuegian savage1 the miserable lord of this miserable land1 would redouble his cannibal feast1 decrease in numbers1 and perhaps cease to exist4 ,june #hth4--,we weighed anchor early in the morning and left ,port ,famine4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy determined to leave the ,strait of ,magellan by the ,magdalen ,channel1 which had not long been discovered4 ,our course lay due south1 down that gloomy passage which ,i have before alluded to as appearing to lead to another and worse world4 ,the wind was fair1 but the atmosphere was very thick2 so that we missed much curious scenery4 ,the dark ragged clouds were rapidly driven over the mountains1 from their summits nearly down to their bases4 ,the glimpses which we caught through the dusky mass were highly interesting2 jagged points1 cones of snow1 blue glaciers1 strong outlines1 marked on a lurid sky1 were seen at different distances and heights4 ,in the midst of such scenery we anchored at ,cape ,turn1 close to ,mount ,sarmiento1 which was then hidden in the clouds4 ,at the base of the lofty and almost perpendicular sides of our little cove there was one deserted wigwam1 and it alone reminded us that man sometimes wandered into these desolate regions4 ,but it would be difficult to imagine a scene where he seemed to have fewer claims or less authority4 ,the inanimate works of nature--rock1 ice1 snow1 wind1 and water1 all warring with each other1 yet combined against man--here reigned in absolute sovereignty4 ,june #ith4--,in the morning we were delighted by seeing the veil of mist gradually rise from ,sarmiento1 and display it to our view4 ,this mountain1 which is one of the highest in ,tierra del ,fuego1 has an altitude of #fhjj feet4 ,its base1 for about an eighth of its total height1 is clothed by dusky woods1 and above this a field of snow extends to the summit4 ,these vast piles of snow1 which never melt1 and seem destined to last as long as the world holds together1 present a noble and even sublime spectacle4 ,the outline of the mountain was admirably clear and defined4 ,owing to the abundance of light reflected from the white and glittering surface1 no shadows were cast on any part2 and those lines which intersected the sky could alone be distinguished3 hence the mass stood out in the boldest relief4 ,several glaciers descended in a winding course from the upper great expanse of snow to the sea-coast3 they may be likened to great frozen ,niagaras2 and perhaps these cataracts of blue ice are full as beautiful as the moving ones of water4 ,by night we reached the western part of the channel2 but the water was so deep that no anchorage could be found4 ,we were in consequence obliged to stand off and on in this narrow arm of the sea1 during a pitch-dark night of fourteen hours long4 ,june #ajth4--,in the morning we made the best of our way into the open ,pacific4 ,the western coast generally consists of low1 rounded1 quite barren hills of granite and greenstone4 ,sir ,j4 ,narborough called one part ,south ,desolation1 because it is 8so desolate a land to behold30 and well indeed might he say so4 ,outside the main islands there are numberless scattered rocks on which the long swell of the open ocean incessantly rages4 ,we passed out between the ,east and ,west ,furies2 and a little farther northward there are so many breakers that the sea is called the ,milky ,way4 ,one sight of such a coast is enough to make a landsman dream for a week about shipwrecks1 peril1 and death2 and with this sight we bade farewell for ever to ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,the following discussion on the climate of the southern parts of the continent with relation to its productions1 on the snow-line1 on the extraordinarily low descent of the glaciers1 and on the zone of perpetual congelation in the antarctic islands1 may be passed over by any one not interested in these curious subjects1 or the final recapitulation alone may be read4 ,i shall1 however1 here give only an abstract1 and must refer for details to the ,thirteenth ,chapter and the ,appendix of the former edition of this work4 ,on the ,climate and ,productions of ,tierra del ,fuego and of the ,south-west ,coast4--,the following table gives the mean temperature of ,tierra del ,fuego1 the ,falkland ,islands1 and1 for comparison1 that of ,dublin3-- ,summer ,winter ,mean of ,summer ,latitude4 ,temp4 ,temp4 and ,winter4 ,tierra del ,fuego #ec #ch ,s4 #ej #cc4jh #da4ed ,falkland ,islands #ea #cj ,s4 #ea -- -- ,dublin #ec #ba ,n4 #ei4ed #ci4bj #di4cg ,hence we see that the central part of ,tierra del ,fuego is colder in winter1 and no less than #i4e less hot in summer1 than ,dublin4 ,according to von ,buch the mean temperature of ,july 7not the hottest month in the year7 at ,saltenfiord in ,norway1 is as high as #eg4h1 and this place is actually #ac nearer the pole than ,port ,famine6#h ,inhospitable as this climate appears to our feelings1 evergreen trees flourish luxuriantly under it4 ,humming-birds may be seen sucking the flowers1 and parrots feeding on the seeds of the ,winter's ,bark1 in latitude #ee degrees south4 ,i have already remarked to what a degree the sea swarms with living creatures2 and the shells 7such as the ,patell1 ,fissurell1 ,chitons1 and ,barnacles71 according to ,mr4 ,g4 ,b4 ,sowerby1 are of a much larger size1 and of a more vigorous growth1 than the analogous species in the northern hemisphere4 ,a large ,voluta is abundant in southern ,tierra del ,fuego and the ,falkland ,islands4 ,at ,bahia ,blanca1 in lat4 #ci ,s41 the most abundant shells were three species of ,oliva 7one of large size71 one or two ,volutas1 and a ,terebra4 ,now these are amongst the best characterised tropical forms4 ,it is doubtful whether even one small species of ,oliva exists on the southern shores of ,europe1 and there are no species of the two other genera4 ,if a geologist were to find in lat4 #ci on the coast of ,portugal a bed containing numerous shells belonging to three species of ,oliva1 to a ,voluta1 and ,terebra1 he would probably assert that the climate at the period of their existence must have been tropical2 but1 judging from ,south ,america1 such an inference might be erroneous4 #h ,with respect to ,tierra del ,fuego1 the results are deduced from the observations of ,capt4 ,king 7,geographical ,journal1 #ahcj71 and those taken on board the ,beagle4 ,for the ,falkland ,islands1 ,i am indebted to ,captain ,sulivan for the mean of the mean temperature 7reduced from careful observation at midnight1 #h ,a4,m41 noon1 and #h ,p4,m47 of the three hottest months1 namely1 ,december1 ,january1 and ,february4 ,the temperature of ,dublin is taken from ,barton4 ,the equable1 humid1 and windy climate of ,tierra del ,fuego extends1 with only a small increase of heat1 for many degrees along the west coast of the continent4 ,the forests for #fjj miles northward of ,cape ,horn1 have a very similar aspect4 ,as a proof of the equable climate1 even for #cjj or #djj miles still farther northward1 ,i may mention that in ,chiloe 7corresponding in latitude with the northern parts of ,spain7 the peach seldom produces fruit1 whilst strawberries and apples thrive to perfection4 ,even the crops of barley and wheat#i are often brought into the houses to be dried and ripened4 ,at ,valdivia 7in the same latitude of #dj with ,madrid7 grapes and figs ripen1 but are not common2 olives seldom ripen even partially1 and oranges not at all4 ,these fruits1 in corresponding latitudes in ,europe1 are well known to succeed to perfection2 and even in this continent1 at the ,rio ,negro1 under nearly the same parallel with ,valdivia1 sweet potatoes 7convolvulus7 are cultivated2 and grapes1 figs1 olives1 oranges1 water and musk melons1 produce abundant fruit4 ,although the humid and equable climate of ,chiloe1 and of the coast northward and southward of it1 is so unfavourable to our fruits1 yet the native forests1 from lat4 #de to #ch1 almost rival in luxuriance those of the glowing intertropical regions4 ,stately trees of many kinds1 with smooth and highly coloured barks1 are loaded by parasitical monocotyledonous plants2 large and elegant ferns are numerous1 and arborescent grasses entwine the trees into one entangled mass to the height of thirty or forty feet above the ground4 ,palm-trees grow in latitude #cg2 an arborescent grass1 very like a bamboo1 in #dj2 and another closely allied kind1 of great length1 but not erect1 flourishes even as far south as #de ,s4 #i ,ageros1 ,descrip4 ,hist4 de la ,prov4 de ,chilo1 #agia1 p4 #id4 ,an equable climate1 evidently due to the large area of sea compared with the land1 seems to extend over the greater part of the southern hemisphere2 and as a consequence1 the vegetation partakes of a semi-tropical character4 ,tree-ferns thrive luxuriantly in ,van ,diemen's ,land 7lat4 #de71 and ,i measured one trunk no less than six feet in circumference4 ,an arborescent fern was found by ,forster in ,new ,zealand in #df1 where orchideous plants are parasitical on the trees4 ,in the ,auckland ,islands1 ferns1 according to ,dr4 ,dieffenbach1#aj have trunks so thick and high that they may be almost called tree-ferns2 and in these islands1 and even as far south as lat4 #ee in the ,macquarie ,islands1 parrots abound4 #aj ,see the ,german ,translation of this ,journal2 and for the other facts ,mr4 ,brown's ,appendix to ,flinders's ,voyage4 ,on the ,height of the ,snow-line1 and on the ,descent of the ,glaciers1 in ,south ,america4--,for the detailed authorities for the following table1 ,i must refer to the former edition3-- ,latitude4 ,height in feet ,observer of ,snow-line ,equatorial region3 mean result #ae1gdh ,humboldt4 ,bolivia1 lat4 #af to #ah ,s4 #ag1jjj ,pentland4 ,central ,chile1 lat4 #cc ,s4 #ad1ejj to #ae1jjj ,gillies1 and the ,author4 ,chiloe1 lat4 #da to #dc ,s4 #fjjj ,officers of the ,beagle and the ,author4 ,tierra del ,fuego1 #ed ,s4 #cejj to #djjj ,king4 ,as the height of the plane of perpetual snow seems chiefly to be determined by the extreme heat of the summer1 rather than by the mean temperature of the year1 we ought not to be surprised at its descent in the ,strait of ,magellan1 where the summer is so cool1 to only #cejj or #djjj feet above the level of the sea2 although in ,norway1 we must travel to between lat4 #fg and #gj ,n41 that is1 about #ad nearer the pole1 to meet with perpetual snow at this low level4 ,the difference in height1 namely1 about #ijjj feet1 between the snow-line on the ,cordillera behind ,chiloe 7with its highest points ranging from only #efjj to #gejj feet7 and in central ,chile#aa 7a distance of only #i of latitude71 is truly wonderful4 ,the land from the southward of ,chiloe to near ,concepcion 7lat4 #cg7 is hidden by one dense forest dripping with moisture4 ,the sky is cloudy1 and we have seen how badly the fruits of southern ,europe succeed4 ,in central ,chile1 on the other hand1 a little northward of ,concepcion1 the sky is generally clear1 rain does not fall for the seven summer months1 and southern ,european fruits succeed admirably2 and even the sugar-cane has been cultivated4#ab ,no doubt the plane of perpetual snow undergoes the above remarkable flexure of #ijjj feet1 unparalleled in other parts of the world1 not far from the latitude of ,concepcion1 where the land ceases to be covered with forest-trees2 for trees in ,south ,america indicate a rainy climate1 and rain a clouded sky and little heat in summer4 #aa ,on the ,cordillera of central ,chile1 ,i believe the snow-line varies exceedingly in height in different summers4 ,i was assured that during one very dry and long summer1 all the snow disappeared from ,aconcagua1 although it attains the prodigious height of #bc1jjj feet4 ,it is probable that much of the snow at these great heights is evaporated1 rather than thawed4 #ab ,miers's ,chile1 vol4 i1 p4 #dae4 ,it is said that the sugar-cane grew at ,ingenio1 lat4 #cb to #cc1 but not in sufficient quantity to make the manufacture profitable4 ,in the valley of ,quillota1 south of ,ingenio1 ,i saw some large date-palm trees4 ,eyre ,sound ,the descent of glaciers to the sea must1 ,i conceive1 mainly depend 7subject1 of course1 to a proper supply of snow in the upper region7 on the lowness of the line of perpetual snow on steep mountains near the coast4 ,as the snow-line is so low in ,tierra del ,fuego1 we might have expected that many of the glaciers would have reached the sea4 ,nevertheless ,i was astonished when ,i first saw a range1 only from #cjjj to #djjj feet in height1 in the latitude of ,cumberland1 with every valley filled with streams of ice descending to the sea-coast4 ,almost every arm of the sea1 which penetrates to the interior higher chain1 not only in ,tierra del ,fuego1 but on the coast for #fej miles northwards1 is terminated by 8tremendous and astonishing glaciers10 as described by one of the officers on the survey4 ,great masses of ice frequently fall from these icy cliffs1 and the crash reverberates like the broadside of a man-of-war through the lonely channels4 ,these falls1 as noticed in the last chapter1 produce great waves which break on the adjoining coasts4 ,it is known that earthquakes frequently cause masses of earth to fall from sea-cliffs3 how terrific1 then1 would be the effect of a severe shock 7and such occur here#ac7 on a body like a glacier1 already in motion1 and traversed by fissures6 ,i can readily believe that the water would be fairly beaten back out of the deepest channel1 and then1 returning with an overwhelming force1 would whirl about huge masses of rock like so much chaff4 ,in ,eyre's ,sound1 in the latitude of ,paris1 there are immense glaciers1 and yet the loftiest neighbouring mountain is only #fbjj feet high4 ,in this ,sound1 about fifty icebergs were seen at one time floating outwards1 and one of them must have been at least #afh feet in total height4 ,some of the icebergs were loaded with blocks of no inconsiderable size1 of granite and other rocks1 different from the clay-slate of the surrounding mountains4 ,the glacier farthest from the ,pole1 surveyed during the voyages of the ,adventure and ,beagle1 is in lat4 #df #ej1 in the ,gulf of ,penas4 ,it is #ae miles long1 and in one part #g broad1 and descends to the sea-coast4 ,but even a few miles northward of this glacier1 in the ,laguna de ,san ,rafael1 some ,spanish missionaries#ad encountered 8many icebergs1 some great1 some small1 and others middle-sized10 in a narrow arm of the sea1 on the #bbnd of the month corresponding with our ,june1 and in a latitude corresponding with that of the ,lake of ,geneva6 #ac ,bulkeley's and ,cummin's ,faithful ,narrative of the ,loss of the ,wager4 ,the earthquake happened ,august #be1 #agda4 #ad ,ageros1 ,desc4 ,hist4 de ,chilo1 p4 #bbg4 ,glacier in ,gulf of ,penas ,in ,europe1 the most southern glacier which comes down to the sea is met with1 according to ,von ,buch1 on the coast of ,norway1 in lat4 #fg4 ,now1 this is more than #bj of latitude1 or #abcj miles1 nearer the pole than the ,laguna de ,san ,rafael4 ,the position of the glaciers at this place and in the ,gulf of ,penas may be put even in a more striking point of view1 for they descend to the sea-coast within #g degrees of latitude1 or #dej miles1 of a harbour1 where three species of ,oliva1 a ,voluta1 and a ,terebra1 are the commonest shells1 within less than #i from where palms grow1 within #d of a region where the jaguar and puma range over the plains1 less than #b from arborescent grasses1 and 7looking to the westward in the same hemisphere7 less than #b from orchideous parasites1 and within a single degree of tree-ferns6 ,these facts are of high geological interest with respect to the climate of the northern hemisphere1 at the period when boulders were transported4 ,i will not here detail how simply the theory of icebergs being charged with fragments of rock explains the origin and position of the gigantic boulders of eastern ,tierra del ,fuego1 on the high plain of ,santa ,cruz1 and on the island of ,chiloe4 ,in ,tierra del ,fuego the greater number of boulders lie on the lines of old sea-channels1 now converted into dry valleys by the elevation of the land4 ,they are associated with a great unstratified formation of mud and sand1 containing rounded and angular fragments of all sizes1 which has originated#ae in the repeated ploughing up of the sea-bottom by the stranding of icebergs1 and by the matter transported on them4 ,few geologists now doubt that those erratic boulders which lie near lofty mountains have been pushed forward by the glaciers themselves1 and that those distant from mountains1 and embedded in subaqueous deposits1 have been conveyed thither either on icebergs1 or frozen in coast-ice4 ,the connection between the transportal of boulders and the presence of ice in some form1 is strikingly shown by their geographical distribution over the earth4 ,in ,south ,america they are not found farther than #dh of latitude1 measured from the southern pole2 in ,north ,america it appears that the limit of their transportal extends to #ec from the northern pole2 but in ,europe to not more than #dj of latitude1 measured from the same point4 ,on the other hand1 in the intertropical parts of ,america1 ,asia1 and ,africa1 they have never been observed2 nor at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 nor in ,australia4#af #ae ,geological ,transactions1 vol4 vi1 p4 #dae4 #af ,i have given details 7the first1 ,i believe1 published7 on this subject in the first edition1 and in the ,appendix to it4 ,i have there shown that the apparent exceptions to the absence of erratic boulders in certain hot countries are due to erroneous observations2 several statements there given ,i have since found confirmed by various authors4 ,on the ,climate and ,productions of the ,antarctic ,islands4--,considering the rankness of the vegetation in ,tierra del ,fuego1 and on the coast northward of it1 the condition of the islands south and south-west of ,america is truly surprising4 ,sandwich ,land1 in the latitude of the north part of ,scotland1 was found by ,cook1 during the hottest month of the year1 8covered many fathoms thick with everlasting snow20 and there seems to be scarcely any vegetation4 ,georgia1 an island #if miles long and #aj broad1 in the latitude of ,yorkshire1 8in the very height of summer1 is in a manner wholly covered with frozen snow40 ,it can boast only of moss1 some tufts of grass1 and wild burnet2 it has only one land-bird 7,anthus correndera71 yet ,iceland1 which is #aj nearer the pole1 has1 according to ,mackenzie1 fifteen land-birds4 ,the ,south ,shetland ,islands1 in the same latitude as the southern half of ,norway1 possess only some lichens1 moss1 and a little grass2 and ,lieut4 ,kendall#ag found the bay in which he was at anchor1 beginning to freeze at a period corresponding with our #hth of ,september4 ,the soil here consists of ice and volcanic ashes interstratified2 and at a little depth beneath the surface it must remain perpetually congealed1 for ,lieut4 ,kendall found the body of a foreign sailor which had long been buried1 with the flesh and all the features perfectly preserved4 ,it is a singular fact that on the two great continents in the northern hemisphere 7but not in the broken land of ,europe between them7 we have the zone of perpetually frozen under-soil in a low latitude--namely1 in #ef degrees in ,north ,america at the depth of three feet1#ah and in #fb in ,siberia at the depth of twelve to fifteen feet--as the result of a directly opposite condition of things to those of the southern hemisphere4 ,on the northern continents1 the winter is rendered excessively cold by the radiation from a large area of land into a clear sky1 nor is it moderated by the warmth-bringing currents of the sea2 the short summer1 on the other hand1 is hot4 ,in the ,southern ,ocean the winter is not so excessively cold1 but the summer is far less hot1 for the clouded sky seldom allows the sun to warm the ocean1 itself a bad absorbent of heat3 and hence the mean temperature of the year1 which regulates the zone of perpetually congealed under-soil1 is low4 ,it is evident that a rank vegetation1 which does not so much require heat as it does protection from intense cold1 would approach much nearer to this zone of perpetual congelation under the equable climate of the southern hemisphere1 than under the extreme climate of the northern continents4 #ag ,geographical ,journal1 #ahcj1 pp4 #fe1 #ff4 #ah ,richardson's ,append4 to ,back's ,exped4 and ,humboldt's ,fragm4 ,asiat4 tome ii1 p4 #chf4 ,illustration ,the case of the sailor's body perfectly preserved in the icy soil of the ,south ,shetland ,islands 7lat4 #fb to #fc ,s471 in a rather lower latitude than that 7lat4 #fd ,n47 under which ,pallas found the frozen rhinoceros in ,siberia1 is very interesting4 ,although it is a fallacy1 as ,i have endeavoured to show in a former chapter1 to suppose that the larger quadrupeds require a luxuriant vegetation for their support1 nevertheless it is important to find in the ,south ,shetland ,islands a frozen under-soil within #cfj miles of the forest-clad islands near ,cape ,horn1 where1 as far as the bulk of vegetation is concerned1 any number of great quadrupeds might be supported4 ,the perfect preservation of the carcasses of the ,siberian elephants and rhinoceroses is certainly one of the most wonderful facts in geology2 but independently of the imagined difficulty of supplying them with food from the adjoining countries1 the whole case is not1 ,i think1 so perplexing as it has generally been considered4 ,the plains of ,siberia1 like those of the ,pampas1 appear to have been formed under the sea1 into which rivers brought down the bodies of many animals2 of the greater number of these only the skeletons have been preserved1 but of others the perfect carcass4 ,now it is known that in the shallow sea on the ,arctic coast of ,america the bottom freezes1#ai and does not thaw in spring so soon as the surface of the land1 moreover1 at greater depths1 where the bottom of the sea does not freeze1 the mud a few feet beneath the top layer might remain even in summer below #cb1 as is the case on the land with the soil at the depth of a few feet4 ,at still greater depths the temperature of the mud and water would probably not be low enough to preserve the flesh2 and hence1 carcasses drifted beyond the shallow parts near an arctic coast1 would have only their skeletons preserved3 now in the extreme northern parts of ,siberia bones are infinitely numerous1 so that even islets are said to be almost composed of them2#bj and those islets lie no less than ten degrees of latitude north of the place where ,pallas found the frozen rhinoceros4 ,on the other hand1 a carcass washed by a flood into a shallow part of the ,arctic ,sea1 would be preserved for an indefinite period1 if it were soon afterwards covered with mud sufficiently thick to prevent the heat of the summer water penetrating to it2 and if1 when the sea-bottom was upraised into land1 the covering was sufficiently thick to prevent the heat of the summer air and sun thawing and corrupting it4 #ai ,messrs4 ,dease and ,simpson1 in ,geographical ,journal vol4 viii1 pp4 #bah and #bbj4 #bj ,cuvier 7,ossemens ,fossiles1 tome i1 p4 #aea71 from ,billing's ,voyage4 ,recapitulation4--,i will recapitulate the principal facts with regard to the climate1 ice-action1 and organic productions of the southern hemisphere1 transposing the places in imagination to ,europe1 with which we are so much better acquainted4 ,then1 near ,lisbon1 the commonest sea-shells1 namely1 three species of ,oliva1 a ,voluta1 and a ,terebra1 would have a tropical character4 ,in the southern provinces of ,france1 magnificent forests1 intwined by arborescent grasses and with the trees loaded with parasitical plants1 would hide the face of the land4 ,the puma and the jaguar would haunt the ,pyrenees4 ,in the latitude of ,mont ,blanc1 but on an island as far westward as ,central ,north ,america1 tree-ferns and parasitical ,orchide would thrive amidst the thick woods4 ,even as far north as central ,denmark humming-birds would be seen fluttering about delicate flowers1 and parrots feeding amidst the evergreen woods2 and in the sea there we should have a ,voluta1 and all the shells of large size and vigorous growth4 ,nevertheless1 on some islands only #cfj miles northward of our new ,cape ,horn in ,denmark1 a carcass buried in the soil 7or if washed into a shallow sea1 and covered up with mud7 would be preserved perpetually frozen4 ,if some bold navigator attempted to penetrate northward of these islands1 he would run a thousand dangers amidst gigantic icebergs1 on some of which he would see great blocks of rock borne far away from their original site4 ,another island of large size in the latitude of southern ,scotland1 but twice as far to the west1 would be 8almost wholly covered with everlasting snow10 and would have each bay terminated by ice-cliffs1 whence great masses would be yearly detached3 this island would boast only of a little moss1 grass1 and burnet1 and a titlark would be its only land inhabitant4 ,from our new ,cape ,horn in ,denmark1 a chain of mountains1 scarcely half the height of the ,alps1 would run in a straight line due southward2 and on its western flank every deep creek of the sea1 or fiord1 would end in 8bold and astonishing glaciers40 ,these lonely channels would frequently reverberate with the falls of ice1 and so often would great waves rush along their coasts2 numerous icebergs1 some as tall as cathedrals1 and occasionally loaded with 8no inconsiderable blocks of rock10 would be stranded on the outlying islets2 at intervals violent earthquakes would shoot prodigious masses of ice into the waters below4 ,lastly1 some missionaries attempting to penetrate a long arm of the sea1 would behold the not lofty surrounding mountains1 sending down their many grand icy streams to the sea-coast1 and their progress in the boats would be checked by the innumerable floating icebergs1 some small and some great2 and this would have occurred on our twenty-second of ,june1 and where the ,lake of ,geneva is now spread out6#ba #ba ,in the former edition and ,appendix1 ,i have given some facts on the transportal of erratic boulders and icebergs in the ,antarctic ,ocean4 ,this subject has lately been treated excellently by ,mr4 ,hayes1 in the ,boston ,journal 7vol4 iv1 p4 #dbf74 ,the author does not appear aware of a case published by me 7,geographical ,journal1 vol4 ix1 p4 #ebh71 of a gigantic boulder embedded in an iceberg in the ,antarctic ,ocean1 almost certainly one hundred miles distant from any land1 and perhaps much more distant4 ,in the ,appendix ,i have discussed at length the probability 7at that time hardly thought of7 of icebergs1 when stranded1 grooving and polishing rocks1 like glaciers4 ,this is now a very commonly received opinion2 and ,i cannot still avoid the suspicion that it is applicable even to such cases as that of the ,jura4 ,dr4 ,richardson has assured me that the icebergs off ,north ,america push before them pebbles and sand1 and leave the submarine rocky flats quite bare2 it is hardly possible to doubt that such ledges must be polished and scored in the direction of the set of the prevailing currents4 ,since writing that ,appendix ,i have seen in ,north ,wales 7,london ,phil4 ,mag4 vol4 xxi1 p4 #ahj7 the adjoining action of glaciers and floating icebergs4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,trochilus ,forficatus ,chapter ,,xii ,valparaiso--,excursion to the ,foot of the ,andes--,structure of the land--,ascend the ,bell of ,quillota--,shattered masses of greenstone--,immense valleys--,mines--,state of miners--,santiago--,hot-baths of ,cauquenes--,gold-mines--,grinding-mills --,perforated stones--,habits of the ,puma--,el ,turco and ,tapacolo--,humming-birds4 ,,central ,,chile ,july #bcrd4--,the ,beagle anchored late at night in the bay of ,valparaiso1 the chief seaport of ,chile4 ,when morning came1 everything appeared delightful4 ,after ,tierra del ,fuego1 the climate felt quite delicious--the atmosphere so dry1 and the heavens so clear and blue with the sun shining brightly1 that all nature seemed sparkling with life4 ,the view from the anchorage is very pretty4 ,the town is built at the very foot of a range of hills1 about #afjj feet high1 and rather steep4 ,from its position1 it consists of one long1 straggling street1 which runs parallel to the beach1 and wherever a ravine comes down1 the houses are piled up on each side of it4 ,the rounded hills1 being only partially protected by a very scanty vegetation1 are worn into numberless little gullies1 which expose a singularly bright red soil4 ,from this cause1 and from the low whitewashed houses with tile roofs1 the view reminded me of ,st4 ,cruz in ,teneriffe4 ,in a north-easterly direction there are some fine glimpses of the ,andes3 but these mountains appear much grander when viewed from the neighbouring hills3 the great distance at which they are situated can then more readily be perceived4 ,the volcano of ,aconcagua is particularly magnificent4 ,this huge and irregularly conical mass has an elevation greater than that of ,chimborazo2 for1 from measurements made by the officers in the ,beagle1 its height is no less than #bc1jjj feet4 ,the ,cordillera1 however1 viewed from this point1 owe the greater part of their beauty to the atmosphere through which they are seen4 ,when the sun was setting in the ,pacific1 it was admirable to watch how clearly their rugged outlines could be distinguished1 yet how varied and how delicate were the shades of their colour4 ,i had the good fortune to find living here ,mr4 ,richard ,corfield1 an old schoolfellow and friend1 to whose hospitality and kindness ,i was greatly indebted1 in having afforded me a most pleasant residence during the ,beagle's stay in ,chile4 ,the immediate neighbourhood of ,valparaiso is not very productive to the naturalist4 ,during the long summer the wind blows steadily from the southward1 and a little off shore1 so that rain never falls2 during the three winter months1 however1 it is sufficiently abundant4 ,the vegetation in consequence is very scanty3 except in some deep valleys there are no trees1 and only a little grass and a few low bushes are scattered over the less steep parts of the hills4 ,when we reflect that at the distance of #cej miles to the south1 this side of the ,andes is completely hidden by one impenetrable forest1 the contrast is very remarkable4 ,i took several long walks while collecting objects of natural history4 ,the country is pleasant for exercise4 ,there are many very beautiful flowers2 and1 as in most other dry climates1 the plants and shrubs possess strong and peculiar odours--even one's clothes by brushing through them became scented4 ,i did not cease from wonder at finding each succeeding day as fine as the foregoing4 ,what a difference does climate make in the enjoyment of life6 ,how opposite are the sensations when viewing black mountains half-enveloped in clouds1 and seeing another range through the light blue haze of a fine day6 ,the one for a time may be very sublime2 the other is all gaiety and happy life4 ,august #adth4--,i set out on a riding excursion1 for the purpose of geologising the basal parts of the ,andes1 which alone at this time of the year are not shut up by the winter snow4 ,our first day's ride was northward along the sea-coast4 ,after dark we reached the ,hacienda of ,quintero1 the estate which formerly belonged to ,lord ,cochrane4 ,my object in coming here was to see the great beds of shells which stand some yards above the level of the sea1 and are burnt for lime4 ,the proofs of the elevation of this whole line of coast are unequivocal3 at the height of a few hundred feet old-looking shells are numerous1 and ,i found some at #acjj feet4 ,these shells either lie loose on the surface1 or are embedded in a reddish-black vegetable mould4 ,i was much surprised to find under the microscope that this vegetable mould is really marine mud1 full of minute particles of organic bodies4 #aeth4--,we returned towards the valley of ,quillota4 ,the country was exceedingly pleasant2 just such as poets would call pastoral3 green open lawns1 separated by small valleys with rivulets1 and the cottages1 we may suppose of the shepherds1 scattered on the hill-sides4 ,we were obliged to cross the ridge of the ,chilicauquen4 ,at its base there were many fine evergreen forest-trees1 but these flourished only in the ravines1 where there was running water4 ,any person who had seen only the country near ,valparaiso would never have imagined that there had been such picturesque spots in ,chile4 ,as soon as we reached the brow of the ,sierra1 the valley of ,quillota was immediately under our feet4 ,the prospect was one of remarkable artificial luxuriance4 ,the valley is very broad and quite flat1 and is thus easily irrigated in all parts4 ,the little square gardens are crowded with orange and olive trees and every sort of vegetable4 ,on each side huge bare mountains rise1 and this from the contrast renders the patchwork valley the more pleasing4 ,whoever called 8,valparaiso0 the 8,valley of ,paradise10 must have been thinking of ,quillota4 ,we crossed over to the ,hacienda de ,san ,isidro1 situated at the very foot of the ,bell ,mountain4 ,hacienda1 condor1 cactus1 etc4 ,chile1 as may be seen in the maps1 is a narrow strip of land between the ,cordillera and the ,pacific2 and this strip is itself traversed by several mountain-lines1 which in this part run parallel to the great range4 ,between these outer lines and the main ,cordillera1 a succession of level basins1 generally opening into each other by narrow passages1 extend far to the southward3 in these1 the principal towns are situated1 as ,san ,felipe1 ,santiago1 ,san ,fernando4 ,these basins or plains1 together with the transverse flat valleys 7like that of ,quillota7 which connect them with the coast1 ,i have no doubt are the bottoms of ancient inlets and deep bays1 such as at the present day intersect every part of ,tierra del ,fuego and the western coast4 ,chile must formerly have resembled the latter country in the configuration of its land and water4 ,the resemblance was occasionally shown strikingly when a level fog-bank covered1 as with a mantle1 all the lower parts of the country3 the white vapour curling into the ravines1 beautifully represented little coves and bays2 and here and there a solitary hillock peeping up showed that it had formerly stood there as an islet4 ,the contrast of these flat valleys and basins with the irregular mountains gave the scenery a character which to me was new and very interesting4 ,from the natural slope to seaward of these plains1 they are very easily irrigated1 and in consequence singularly fertile4 ,without this process the land would produce scarcely anything1 for during the whole summer the sky is cloudless4 ,the mountains and hills are dotted over with bushes and low trees1 and excepting these the vegetation is very scanty4 ,each landowner in the valley possesses a certain portion of hill-country1 where his half-wild cattle1 in considerable numbers1 manage to find sufficient pasture4 ,once every year there is a grand 8rodeo10 when all the cattle are driven down1 counted1 and marked1 and a certain number separated to be fattened in the irrigated fields4 ,wheat is extensively cultivated1 and a good deal of ,indian corn3 a kind of bean is1 however1 the staple article of food for the common labourers4 ,the orchards produce an overflowing abundance of peaches1 figs1 and grapes4 ,with all these advantages the inhabitants of the country ought to be much more prosperous than they are4 #afth4--,the mayor-domo of the ,hacienda was good enough to give me a guide and fresh horses2 and in the morning we set out to ascend the ,campana1 or ,bell ,mountain1 which is #fdjj feet high4 ,the paths were very bad1 but both the geology and scenery amply repaid the trouble4 ,we reached1 by the evening1 a spring called the ,agua del ,guanaco1 which is situated at a great height4 ,this must be an old name1 for it is very many years since a guanaco drank its waters4 ,during the ascent ,i noticed that nothing but bushes grew on the northern slope1 whilst on the southern slope there was a bamboo about fifteen feet high4 ,in a few places there were palms1 and ,i was surprised to see one at an elevation of at least #dejj feet4 ,these palms are1 for their family1 ugly trees4 ,their stem is very large1 and of a curious form1 being thicker in the middle than at the base or top4 ,they are excessively numerous in some parts of ,chile1 and valuable on account of a sort of treacle made from the sap4 ,on one estate near ,petorca they tried to count them1 but failed1 after having numbered several hundred thousand4 ,every year in the early spring1 in ,august1 very many are cut down1 and when the trunk is lying on the ground1 the crown of leaves is lopped off4 ,the sap then immediately begins to flow from the upper end1 and continues so doing for some months3 it is1 however1 necessary that a thin slice should be shaved off from that end every morning1 so as to expose a fresh surface4 ,a good tree will give ninety gallons1 and all this must have been contained in the vessels of the apparently dry trunk4 ,it is said that the sap flows much more quickly on those days when the sun is powerful2 and likewise1 that it is absolutely necessary to take care1 in cutting down the tree1 that it should fall with its head upwards on the side of the hill2 for if it falls down the slope1 scarcely any sap will flow2 although in that case one would have thought that the action would have been aided1 instead of checked1 by the force of gravity4 ,the sap is concentrated by boiling1 and is then called treacle1 which it very much resembles in taste4 ,we unsaddled our horses near the spring1 and prepared to pass the night4 ,the evening was fine1 and the atmosphere so clear that the masts of the vessels at anchor in the bay of ,valparaiso1 although no less than twenty-six geographical miles distant1 could be distinguished clearly as little black streaks4 ,a ship doubling the point under sail appeared as a bright white speck4 ,anson expresses much surprise1 in his voyage1 at the distance at which his vessels were discovered from the coast2 but he did not sufficiently allow for the height of the land and the great transparency of the air4 ,the setting of the sun was glorious2 the valleys being black1 whilst the snowy peaks of the ,andes yet retained a ruby tint4 ,when it was dark1 we made a fire beneath a little arbour of bamboos1 fried our charqui 7or dried slips of beef71 took our mat1 and were quite comfortable4 ,there is an inexpressible charm in thus living in the open air4 ,the evening was calm and still2--the shrill noise of the mountain bizcacha1 and the faint cry of a goatsucker1 were occasionally to be heard4 ,besides these1 few birds1 or even insects1 frequent these dry1 parched mountains4 ,august #agth4--,in the morning we climbed up the rough mass of greenstone which crowns the summit4 ,this rock1 as frequently happens1 was much shattered and broken into huge angular fragments4 ,i observed1 however1 one remarkable circumstance1 namely1 that many of the surfaces presented every degree of freshness--some appearing as if broken the day before1 whilst on others lichens had either just become1 or had long grown1 attached4 ,i so fully believed that this was owing to the frequent earthquakes1 that ,i felt inclined to hurry from below each loose pile4 ,as one might very easily be deceived in a fact of this kind1 ,i doubted its accuracy1 until ascending ,mount ,wellington1 in ,van ,diemen's ,land1 where earthquakes do not occur2 and there ,i saw the summit of the mountain similarly composed and similarly shattered1 but all the blocks appeared as if they had been hurled into their present position thousands of years ago4 ,we spent the day on the summit1 and ,i never enjoyed one more thoroughly4 ,chile1 bounded by the ,andes and the ,pacific1 was seen as in a map4 ,the pleasure from the scenery1 in itself beautiful1 was heightened by the many reflections which arose from the mere view of the ,campana range with its lesser parallel ones1 and of the broad valley of ,quillota directly intersecting them4 ,who can avoid wondering at the force which has upheaved these mountains1 and even more so at the countless ages which it must have required to have broken through1 removed1 and levelled whole masses of them8 ,it is well in this case to call to mind the vast shingle and sedimentary beds of ,patagonia1 which1 if heaped on the ,cordillera1 would increase its height by so many thousand feet4 ,when in that country1 ,i wondered how any mountain-chain could have supplied such masses1 and not have been utterly obliterated4 ,we must not now reverse the wonder1 and doubt whether all-powerful time can grind down mountains--even the gigantic ,cordillera--into gravel and mud4 ,the appearance of the ,andes was different from that which ,i had expected4 ,the lower line of the snow was of course horizontal1 and to this line the even summits of the range seemed quite parallel4 ,only at long intervals a group of points or a single cone showed where a volcano had existed1 or does now exist4 ,hence the range resembled a great solid wall1 surmounted here and there by a tower1 and making a most perfect barrier to the country4 ,almost every part of the hill had been drilled by attempts to open gold-mines3 the rage for mining has left scarcely a spot in ,chile unexamined4 ,i spent the evening as before1 talking round the fire with my two companions4 ,the ,guasos of ,chile1 who correspond to the ,gauchos of the ,pampas1 are1 however1 a very different set of beings4 ,chile is the more civilised of the two countries1 and the inhabitants1 in consequence1 have lost much individual character4 ,gradations in rank are much more strongly marked3 the ,guaso does not by any means consider every man his equal2 and ,i was quite surprised to find that my companions did not like to eat at the same time with myself4 ,this feeling of inequality is a necessary consequence of the existence of an aristocracy of wealth4 ,it is said that some few of the greater landowners possess from five to ten thousand pounds sterling per annum3 an inequality of riches which ,i believe is not met with in any of the cattle-breeding countries eastward of the ,andes4 ,a traveller does not here meet that unbounded hospitality which refuses all payment1 but yet is so kindly offered that no scruples can be raised in accepting it4 ,almost every house in ,chile will receive you for the night1 but a trifle is expected to be given in the morning2 even a rich man will accept two or three shillings4 ,the ,gaucho1 although he may be a cutthroat1 is a gentleman2 the ,guaso is in few respects better1 but at the same time a vulgar1 ordinary fellow4 ,the two men1 although employed much in the same manner1 are different in their habits and attire2 and the peculiarities of each are universal in their respective countries4 ,the ,gaucho seems part of his horse1 and scorns to exert himself excepting when on its back2 the ,guaso may be hired to work as a labourer in the fields4 ,the former lives entirely on animal food2 the latter almost wholly on vegetable4 ,we do not here see the white boots1 the broad drawers1 and scarlet chilipa2 the picturesque costume of the ,pampas4 ,here1 common trousers are protected by black and green worsted leggings4 ,the poncho1 however1 is common to both4 ,the chief pride of the ,guaso lies in his spurs1 which are absurdly large4 ,i measured one which was six inches in the diameter of the rowel1 and the rowel itself contained upwards of thirty points4 ,the stirrups are on the same scale1 each consisting of a square1 carved block of wood1 hollowed out1 yet weighing three or four pounds4 ,the ,guaso is perhaps more expert with the lazo than the ,gaucho2 but1 from the nature of the country1 he does not know the use of the bolas4 ,august #ahth4--,we descended the mountain1 and passed some beautiful little spots1 with rivulets and fine trees4 ,having slept at the same hacienda as before1 we rode during the two succeeding days up the valley1 and passed through ,quillota1 which is more like a collection of nursery-gardens than a town4 ,the orchards were beautiful1 presenting one mass of peach-blossoms4 ,i saw1 also1 in one or two places the date-palm2 it is a most stately tree2 and ,i should think a group of them in their native ,asiatic or ,african deserts must be superb4 ,we passed likewise ,san ,felipe1 a pretty straggling town like ,quillota4 ,the valley in this part expands into one of those great bays or plains1 reaching to the foot of the ,cordillera1 which have been mentioned as forming so curious a part of the scenery of ,chile4 ,in the evening we reached the mines of ,jajuel1 situated in a ravine at the flank of the great chain4 ,i stayed here five days4 ,my host1 the superintendent of the mine1 was a shrewd but rather ignorant ,cornish miner4 ,he had married a ,spanish woman1 and did not mean to return home2 but his admiration for the mines of ,cornwall remained unbounded4 ,amongst many other questions1 he asked me1 8,now that ,george ,rex is dead1 how many more of the family of ,rexes are yet alive80 ,this ,rex certainly must be a relation of the great author ,finis1 who wrote all books6 ,these mines are of copper1 and the ore is all shipped to ,swansea1 to be smelted4 ,hence the mines have an aspect singularly quiet1 as compared to those in ,england3 here no smoke1 furnaces1 or great steam-engines1 disturb the solitude of the surrounding mountains4 ,the ,chilian government1 or rather the old ,spanish law1 encourages by every method the searching for mines4 ,the discoverer may work a mine on any ground1 by paying five shillings2 and before paying this he may try1 even in the garden of another man1 for twenty days4 ,illustration ,it is now well known that the ,chilian method of mining is the cheapest4 ,my host says that the two principal improvements introduced by foreigners have been1 first1 reducing by previous roasting the copper pyrites--which1 being the common ore in ,cornwall1 the ,english miners were astounded on their arrival to find thrown away as useless3 secondly1 stamping and washing the scori from the old furnaces--by which process particles of metal are recovered in abundance4 ,i have actually seen mules carrying to the coast1 for transportation to ,england1 a cargo of such cinders4 ,but the first case is much the most curious4 ,the ,chilian miners were so convinced that copper pyrites contained not a particle of copper1 that they laughed at the ,englishmen for their ignorance1 who laughed in turn1 and bought their richest veins for a few dollars4 ,it is very odd that1 in a country where mining had been extensively carried on for many years1 so simple a process as gently roasting the ore to expel the sulphur previous to smelting it1 had never been discovered4 ,a few improvements have likewise been introduced in some of the simple machinery2 but even to the present day1 water is removed from some mines by men carrying it up the shaft in leathern bags6 ,the labouring men work very hard4 ,they have little time allowed for their meals1 and during summer and winter they begin when it is light1 and leave off at dark4 ,they are paid one pound sterling a month1 and their food is given them3 this for breakfast consists of sixteen figs and two small loaves of bread2 for dinner1 boiled beans2 for supper1 broken roasted wheat grain4 ,they scarcely ever taste meat2 as1 with the twelve pounds per annum1 they have to clothe themselves and support their families4 ,the miners who work in the mine itself have twenty-five shillings per month1 and are allowed a little charqui4 ,but these men come down from their bleak habitations only once in every fortnight or three weeks4 ,cactus2 ,cereus ,peruviana ,during my stay here ,i thoroughly enjoyed scrambling about these huge mountains4 ,the geology1 as might have been expected1 was very interesting4 ,the shattered and baked rocks1 traversed by innumerable dikes of greenstone1 showed what commotions had formerly taken place4 ,the scenery was much the same as that near the ,bell of ,quillota--dry barren mountains1 dotted at intervals by bushes with a scanty foliage4 ,the cactuses1 or rather opuntias1 were here very numerous4 ,i measured one of a spherical figure1 which1 including the spines1 was six feet and four inches in circumference4 ,the height of the common cylindrical1 branching kind1 is from twelve to fifteen feet1 and the girth 7with spines7 of the branches between three and four feet4 ,a heavy fall of snow on the mountains prevented me1 during the last two days1 from making some interesting excursions4 ,i attempted to reach a lake which the inhabitants1 from some unaccountable reason1 believe to be an arm of the sea4 ,during a very dry season1 it was proposed to attempt cutting a channel from it for the sake of the water1 but the padre1 after a consultation1 declared it was too dangerous1 as all ,chile would be inundated1 if1 as generally supposed1 the lake was connected with the ,pacific4 ,we ascended to a great height1 but becoming involved in the snow-drifts failed in reaching this wonderful lake1 and had some difficulty in returning4 ,i thought we should have lost our horses2 for there was no means of guessing how deep the drifts were1 and the animals1 when led1 could only move by jumping4 ,the black sky showed that a fresh snowstorm was gathering1 and we therefore were not a little glad when we escaped4 ,by the time we reached the base the storm commenced1 and it was lucky for us that this did not happen three hours earlier in the day4 ,august #bfth4--,we left ,jajuel and again crossed the basin of ,san ,felipe4 ,the day was truly ,chilian3 glaringly bright1 and the atmosphere quite clear4 ,the thick and uniform covering of newly-fallen snow rendered the view of the volcano of ,aconcagua and the main chain quite glorious4 ,we were now on the road to ,santiago1 the capital of ,chile4 ,we crossed the ,cerro del ,talguen1 and slept at a little rancho4 ,the host1 talking about the state of ,chile as compared to other countries1 was very humble3 8,some see with two eyes1 and some with one1 but for my part ,i do not think that ,chile sees with any40 ,august #bgth4--,after crossing many low hills we descended into the small land-locked plain of ,guitron4 ,in the basins1 such as this one1 which are elevated from one thousand to two thousand feet above the sea1 two species of acacia1 which are stunted in their forms1 and stand wide apart from each other1 grow in large numbers4 ,these trees are never found near the sea-coast2 and this gives another characteristic feature to the scenery of these basins4 ,we crossed a low ridge which separates ,guitron from the great plain on which ,santiago stands4 ,the view was here pre-eminently striking3 the dead level surface1 covered in parts by woods of acacia1 and with the city in the distance1 abutting horizontally against the base of the ,andes1 whose snowy peaks were bright with the evening sun4 ,at the first glance of this view1 it was quite evident that the plain represented the extent of a former inland sea4 ,as soon as we gained the level road we pushed our horses into a gallop1 and reached the city before it was dark4 ,i stayed a week in ,santiago and enjoyed myself very much4 ,in the morning ,i rode to various places on the plain1 and in the evening dined with several of the ,english merchants1 whose hospitality at this place is well known4 ,a never-failing source of pleasure was to ascend the little hillock of rock 7,st4 ,lucia7 which projects in the middle of the city4 ,the scenery certainly is most striking1 and1 as ,i have said1 very peculiar4 ,i am informed that this same character is common to the cities on the great ,mexican platform4 ,of the town ,i have nothing to say in detail3 it is not so fine or so large as ,buenos ,ayres1 but is built after the same model4 ,i arrived here by a circuit to the north2 so ,i resolved to return to ,valparaiso by a rather longer excursion to the south of the direct road4 ,september #eth4--,by the middle of the day we arrived at one of the suspension bridges made of hide1 which cross the ,maypu1 a large turbulent river a few leagues southward of ,santiago4 ,these bridges are very poor affairs4 ,the road1 following the curvature of the suspending ropes1 is made of bundles of sticks placed close together4 ,it was full of holes1 and oscillated rather fearfully1 even with the weight of a man leading his horse4 ,in the evening we reached a comfortable farm-house1 where there were several very pretty seoritas4 ,they were much horrified at my having entered one of their churches out of mere curiosity4 ,they asked me1 8,why do you not become a ,christian--for our religion is certain80 ,i assured them ,i was a sort of ,christian2 but they would not hear of it--appealing to my own words1 8,do not your padres1 your very bishops1 marry80 ,the absurdity of a bishop having a wife particularly struck them3 they scarcely knew whether to be most amused or horror-struck at such an enormity4 #fth4--,we proceeded due south1 and slept at ,rancagua4 ,the road passed over the level but narrow plain1 bounded on one side by lofty hills1 and on the other by the ,cordillera4 ,the next day we turned up the valley of the ,rio ,cachapual1 in which the hot-baths of ,cauquenes1 long celebrated for their medicinal properties1 are situated4 ,the suspension bridges1 in the less frequented parts1 are generally taken down during the winter when the rivers are low4 ,such was the case in this valley1 and we were therefore obliged to cross the stream on horseback4 ,this is rather disagreeable1 for the foaming water1 though not deep1 rushes so quickly over the bed of large rounded stones1 that one's head becomes quite confused1 and it is difficult even to perceive whether the horse is moving onward or standing still4 ,in summer1 when the snow melts1 the torrents are quite impassable2 their strength and fury are then extremely great1 as might be plainly seen by the marks which they had left4 ,we reached the baths in the evening1 and stayed there five days1 being confined the two last by heavy rain4 ,the buildings consist of a square of miserable little hovels1 each with a single table and bench4 ,they are situated in a narrow deep valley just without the central ,cordillera4 ,it is a quiet1 solitary spot1 with a good deal of wild beauty4 ,the mineral springs of ,cauquenes burst forth on a line of dislocation1 crossing a mass of stratified rock1 the whole of which betrays the action of heat4 ,a considerable quantity of gas is continually escaping from the same orifices with the water4 ,though the springs are only a few yards apart1 they have very different temperatures2 and this appears to be the result of an unequal mixture of cold water3 for those with the lowest temperature have scarcely any mineral taste4 ,after the great earthquake of #ahbb the springs ceased1 and the water did not return for nearly a year4 ,they were also much affected by the earthquake of #ahce2 the temperature being suddenly changed from #aah to #ib4a ,it seems probable that mineral waters rising deep from the bowels of the earth would always be more deranged by subterranean disturbances than those nearer the surface4 ,the man who had charge of the baths assured me that in summer the water is hotter and more plentiful than in winter4 ,the former circumstance ,i should have expected1 from the less mixture1 during the dry season1 of cold water2 but the latter statement appears very strange and contradictory4 ,the periodical increase during the summer1 when rain never falls1 can1 ,i think1 only be accounted for by the melting of the snow3 yet the mountains which are covered by snow during that season are three or four leagues distant from the springs4 ,i have no reason to doubt the accuracy of my informer1 who1 having lived on the spot for several years1 ought to be well acquainted with the circumstance1--which1 if true1 certainly is very curious3 for we must suppose that the snow-water1 being conducted through porous strata to the regions of heat1 is again thrown up to the surface by the line of dislocated and injected rocks at ,cauquenes2 and the regularity of the phenomenon would seem to indicate that in this district heated rock occurred at a depth not very great4 #a ,caldcleugh1 in ,philosoph4 ,transact4 for #ahcf4 ,one day ,i rode up the valley to the farthest inhabited spot4 ,shortly above that point1 the ,cachapual divides into two deep tremendous ravines1 which penetrate directly into the great range4 ,i scrambled up a peaked mountain1 probably more than six thousand feet high4 ,here1 as indeed everywhere else1 scenes of the highest interest presented themselves4 ,it was by one of these ravines that ,pincheira entered ,chile and ravaged the neighbouring country4 ,this is the same man whose attack on an estancia at the ,rio ,negro ,i have described4 ,he was a renegade half-caste ,spaniard1 who collected a great body of ,indians together and established himself by a stream in the ,pampas1 which place none of the forces sent after him could ever discover4 ,from this point he used to sally forth1 and crossing the ,cordillera by passes hitherto unattempted1 he ravaged the farm-houses and drove the cattle to his secret rendezvous4 ,pincheira was a capital horseman1 and he made all around him equally good1 for he invariably shot any one who hesitated to follow him4 ,it was against this man1 and other wandering ,indian tribes1 that ,rosas waged the war of extermination4 ,cordilleras from ,santiago de ,chile ,september #acth4--,we left the baths of ,cauquenes1 and1 rejoining the main road1 slept at the ,rio ,claro4 ,from this place we rode to the town of ,san ,fernando4 ,before arriving there1 the last land-locked basin had expanded into a great plain1 which extended so far to the south that the snowy summits of the more distant ,andes were seen as if above the horizon of the sea4 ,san ,fernando is forty leagues from ,santiago2 and it was my farthest point southward2 for we here turned at right angles towards the coast4 ,we slept at the gold-mines of ,yaquil1 which are worked by ,mr4 ,nixon1 an ,american gentleman1 to whose kindness ,i was much indebted during the four days ,i stayed at his house4 ,the next morning we rode to the mines1 which are situated at the distance of some leagues1 near the summit of a lofty hill4 ,on the way we had a glimpse of the lake ,tagua-tagua1 celebrated for its floating islands1 which have been described by ,m4 ,gay4#b ,they are composed of the stalks of various dead plants intertwined together1 and on the surface of which other living ones take root4 ,their form is generally circular1 and their thickness from four to six feet1 of which the greater part is immersed in the water4 ,as the wind blows1 they pass from one side of the lake to the other1 and often carry cattle and horses as passengers4 #b ,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles1 ,march1 #ahcc4 ,m4 ,gay1 a zealous and able naturalist1 was then occupied in studying every branch of natural history throughout the kingdom of ,chile4 ,when we arrived at the mine1 ,i was struck by the pale appearance of many of the men1 and inquired from ,mr4 ,nixon respecting their condition4 ,the mine is #dej feet deep1 and each man brings up about #bjj pounds weight of stone4 ,with this load they have to climb up the alternate notches cut in the trunks of trees1 placed in a zigzag line up the shaft4 ,even beardless young men1 eighteen and twenty years old1 with little muscular development of their bodies 7they are quite naked excepting drawers7 ascend with this great load from nearly the same depth4 ,a strong man1 who is not accustomed to this labour1 perspires most profusely1 with merely carrying up his own body4 ,with this very severe labour1 they live entirely on boiled beans and bread4 ,they would prefer having bread alone2 but their masters1 finding that they cannot work so hard upon this1 treat them like horses1 and make them eat the beans4 ,their pay is here rather more than at the mines of ,jajuel1 being from #bd to #bh shillings per month4 ,they leave the mine only once in three weeks2 when they stay with their families for two days4 ,one of the rules of this mine sounds very harsh1 but answers pretty well for the master4 ,the only method of stealing gold is to secrete pieces of the ore1 and take them out as occasion may offer4 ,whenever the major-domo finds a lump thus hidden1 its full value is stopped out of the wages of all the men2 who thus1 without they all combine1 are obliged to keep watch over each other4 ,when the ore is brought to the mill1 it is ground into an impalpable powder2 the process of washing removes all the lighter particles1 and amalgamation finally secures the gold-dust4 ,the washing1 when described1 sounds a very simple process2 but it is beautiful to see how the exact adaptation of the current of water to the specific gravity of the gold so easily separates the powdered matrix from the metal4 ,the mud which passes from the mills is collected into pools1 where it subsides1 and every now and then is cleared out1 and thrown into a common heap4 ,a great deal of chemical action then commences1 salts of various kinds effloresce on the surface1 and the mass becomes hard4 ,after having been left for a year or two1 and then rewashed1 it yields gold2 and this process may be repeated even six or seven times2 but the gold each time becomes less in quantity1 and the intervals required 7as the inhabitants say1 to generate the metal7 are longer4 ,there can be no doubt that the chemical action1 already mentioned1 each time liberates fresh gold from some combination4 ,the discovery of a method to effect this before the first grinding would without doubt raise the value of gold-ores many fold4 ,it is curious to find how the minute particles of gold1 being scattered about and not corroding1 at last accumulate in some quantity4 ,a short time since a few miners1 being out of work1 obtained permission to scrape the ground round the house and mill2 they washed the earth thus got together1 and so procured thirty dollars worth of gold4 ,this is an exact counterpart of what takes place in nature4 ,mountains suffer degradation and wear away1 and with them the metallic veins which they contain4 ,the hardest rock is worn into impalpable mud1 the ordinary metals oxidate1 and both are removed2 but gold1 platina1 and a few others are nearly indestructible1 and from their weight1 sinking to the bottom1 are left behind4 ,after whole mountains have passed through this grinding mill1 and have been washed by the hand of nature1 the residue becomes metalliferous1 and man finds it worth his while to complete the task of separation4 ,bad as the above treatment of the miners appears1 it is gladly accepted of by them2 for the condition of the labouring agriculturists is much worse4 ,their wages are lower1 and they live almost exclusively on beans4 ,this poverty must be chiefly owing to the feudal-like system on which the land is tilled3 the landowner gives a small plot of ground to the labourer1 for building on and cultivating1 and in return has his services 7or those of a proxy7 for every day of his life1 without any wages4 ,until a father has a grown-up son1 who can by his labour pay the rent1 there is no one1 except on occasional days1 to take care of his own patch of ground4 ,hence extreme poverty is very common among the labouring classes in this country4 ,there are some old ,indian ruins in this neighbourhood1 and ,i was shown one of the perforated stones1 which ,molina mentions as being found in many places in considerable numbers4 ,they are of a circular flattened form1 from five to six inches in diameter1 with a hole passing quite through the centre4 ,it has generally been supposed that they were used as heads to clubs1 although their form does not appear at all well adapted for that purpose4 ,burchell#c states that some of the tribes in ,southern ,africa dig up roots by the aid of a stick pointed at one end1 the force and weight of which are increased by a round stone with a hole in it1 into which the other end is firmly wedged4 ,it appears probable that the ,indians of ,chile formerly used some such rude agricultural instrument4 #c ,burchell's ,travels1 vol4 ii1 p4 #de4 ,one day1 a ,german collector in natural history1 of the name of ,renous1 called1 and nearly at the same time an old ,spanish lawyer4 ,i was amused at being told the conversation which took place between them4 ,renous speaks ,spanish so well that the old lawyer mistook him for a ,chilian4 ,renous alluding to me1 asked him what he thought of the ,king of ,england sending out a collector to their country1 to pick up lizards and beetles1 and to break stones8 ,the old gentleman thought seriously for some time1 and then said1 8,it is not well1--hay un gato encerrado aqui 7there is a cat shut up here74 ,no man is so rich as to send out people to pick up such rubbish4 ,i do not like it3 if one of us were to go and do such things in ,england1 do not you think the ,king of ,england would very soon send us out of his country80 ,and this old gentleman1 from his profession1 belongs to the better informed and more intelligent classes6 ,renous himself1 two or three years before1 left in a house at ,san ,fernando some caterpillars1 under charge of a girl to feed1 that they might turn into butterflies4 ,this was rumoured through the town1 and at last the ,padres and ,governor consulted together1 and agreed it must be some heresy4 ,accordingly1 when ,renous returned1 he was arrested4 ,september #aith4--,we left ,yaquil1 and followed the flat valley1 formed like that of ,quillota1 in which the ,rio ,tinderidica flows4 ,even at these few miles south of ,santiago the climate is much damper2 in consequence there were fine tracts of pasturage which were not irrigated4 7#bjth47 ,we followed this valley till it expanded into a great plain1 which reaches from the sea to the mountains west of ,rancagua4 ,we shortly lost all trees and even bushes2 so that the inhabitants are nearly as badly off for firewood as those in the ,pampas4 ,never having heard of these plains1 ,i was much surprised at meeting with such scenery in ,chile4 ,the plains belong to more than one series of different elevations1 and they are traversed by broad flat-bottomed valleys2 both of which circumstances1 as in ,patagonia1 bespeak the action of the sea on gently rising land4 ,in the steep cliffs bordering these valleys there are some large caves1 which no doubt were originally formed by the waves3 one of these is celebrated under the name of ,cueva del ,obispo2 having formerly been consecrated4 ,during the day ,i felt very unwell1 and from that time till the end of ,october did not recover4 ,september #bbnd4--,we continued to pass over green plains without a tree4 ,the next day we arrived at a house near ,navedad1 on the sea-coast1 where a rich ,haciendero gave us lodgings4 ,i stayed here the two ensuing days1 and although very unwell1 managed to collect from the tertiary formation some marine shells4 #bdth4--,our course was now directed towards ,valparaiso1 which with great difficulty ,i reached on the #bgth1 and was there confined to my bed till the end of ,october4 ,during this time ,i was an inmate in ,mr4 ,corfield's house1 whose kindness to me ,i do not know how to express4 ,i will here add a few observations on some of the animals and birds of ,chile4 ,the ,puma1 or ,south ,american ,lion1 is not uncommon4 ,this animal has a wide geographical range2 being found from the equatorial forests1 throughout the deserts of ,patagonia1 as far south as the damp and cold latitudes 7#ec to #ed7 of ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,i have seen its footsteps in the ,cordillera of central ,chile1 at an elevation of at least #aj1jjj feet4 ,in ,la ,plata the puma preys chiefly on deer1 ostriches1 bizcacha1 and other small quadrupeds2 it there seldom attacks cattle or horses1 and most rarely man4 ,in ,chile1 however1 it destroys many young horses and cattle1 owing probably to the scarcity of other quadrupeds3 ,i heard1 likewise1 of two men and a woman who had been thus killed4 ,it is asserted that the puma always kills its prey by springing on the shoulders1 and then drawing back the head with one of its paws1 until the vertebr break3 ,i have seen in ,patagonia the skeletons of guanacos1 with their necks thus dislocated4 ,the puma1 after eating its fill1 covers the carcass with many large bushes1 and lies down to watch it4 ,this habit is often the cause of its being discovered2 for the condors wheeling in the air1 every now and then descend to partake of the feast1 and being angrily driven away1 rise all together on the wing4 ,the ,chileno ,guaso then knows there is a lion watching his prey--the word is given--and men and dogs hurry to the chase4 ,sir ,f4 ,head says that a ,gaucho in the ,pampas1 upon merely seeing some condors wheeling in the air1 cried 8,a lion60 ,i could never myself meet with any one who pretended to such powers of discrimination4 ,it is asserted that if a puma has once been betrayed by thus watching the carcass1 and has then been hunted1 it never resumes this habit2 but that having gorged itself1 it wanders far away4 ,the puma is easily killed4 ,in an open country it is first entangled with the bolas1 then lazoed1 and dragged along the ground till rendered insensible4 ,at ,tandeel 7south of the ,plata71 ,i was told that within three months one hundred were thus destroyed4 ,in ,chile they are generally driven up bushes or trees1 and are then either shot1 or baited to death by dogs4 ,the dogs employed in this chase belong to a particular breed1 called ,leoneros3 they are weak1 slight animals1 like long-legged terriers1 but are born with a particular instinct for this sport4 ,the puma is described as being very crafty3 when pursued1 it often returns on its former track1 and then suddenly making a spring on one side1 waits there till the dogs have passed by4 ,it is a very silent animal1 uttering no cry even when wounded1 and only rarely during the breeding season4 ,of birds1 two species of the genus ,pteroptochos 7megapodius and albicollis of ,kittlitz7 are perhaps the most conspicuous4 ,the former1 called by the ,chilenos 8el ,turco10 is as large as a fieldfare1 to which bird it has some alliance2 but its legs are much longer1 tail shorter1 and beak stronger3 its colour is a reddish brown4 ,the ,turco is not uncommon4 ,it lives on the ground1 sheltered among the thickets which are scattered over the dry and sterile hills4 ,with its tail erect1 and stilt-like legs1 it may be seen every now and then popping from one bush to another with uncommon quickness4 ,it really requires little imagination to believe that the bird is ashamed of itself1 and is aware of its most ridiculous figure4 ,on first seeing it1 one is tempted to exclaim1 8,a vilely stuffed specimen has escaped from some museum1 and has come to life again60 ,it cannot be made to take flight without the greatest trouble1 nor does it run1 but only hops4 ,the various loud cries which it utters when concealed amongst the bushes are as strange as its appearance4 ,it is said to build its nest in a deep hole beneath the ground4 ,i dissected several specimens3 the gizzard1 which was very muscular1 contained beetles1 vegetable fibres1 and pebbles4 ,from this character1 from the length of its legs1 scratching feet1 membranous covering to the nostrils1 short and arched wings1 this bird seems in a certain degree to connect the thrushes with the gallinaceous order4 ,the second species 7or ,p4 albicollis7 is allied to the first in its general form4 ,it is called ,tapacolo1 or 8cover your posterior20 and well does the shameless little bird deserve its name2 for it carries its tail more than erect1 that is1 inclined backwards towards its head4 ,it is very common1 and frequents the bottoms of hedgerows1 and the bushes scattered over the barren hills1 where scarcely another bird can exist4 ,in its general manner of feeding1 of quickly hopping out of the thickets and back again1 in its desire of concealment1 unwillingness to take flight1 and nidification1 it bears a close resemblance to the ,turco2 but its appearance is not quite so ridiculous4 ,the ,tapacolo is very crafty3 when frightened by any person1 it will remain motionless at the bottom of a bush1 and will then1 after a little while1 try with much address to crawl away on the opposite side4 ,it is also an active bird1 and continually making a noise3 these noises are various and strangely odd2 some are like the cooing of doves1 others like the bubbling of water1 and many defy all similes4 ,the country people say it changes its cry five times in the year--according to some change of season1 ,i suppose4#d #d ,it is a remarkable fact that ,molina1 though describing in detail all the birds and animals of ,chile1 never once mentions this genus1 the species of which are so common1 and so remarkable in their habits4 ,was he at a loss how to classify them1 and did he consequently think that silence was the more prudent course8 ,it is one more instance of the frequency of omissions by authors on those very subjects where it might have been least expected4 ,two species of humming-birds are common2 ,trochilus forficatus is found over a space of #bejj miles on the west coast1 from the hot dry country of ,lima to the forests of ,tierra del ,fuego--where it may be seen flitting about in snow-storms4 ,in the wooded island of ,chiloe1 which has an extremely humid climate1 this little bird1 skipping from side to side amidst the dripping foliage1 is perhaps more abundant than almost any other kind4 ,i opened the stomachs of several specimens1 shot in different parts of the continent1 and in all1 remains of insects were as numerous as in the stomach of a creeper4 ,when this species migrates in the summer southward1 it is replaced by the arrival of another species coming from the north4 ,this second kind 7,trochilus gigas7 is a very large bird for the delicate family to which it belongs3 when on the wing its appearance is singular4 ,like others of the genus1 it moves from place to place with a rapidity which may be compared to that of ,syrphus amongst flies1 and ,sphinx among moths2 but whilst hovering over a flower1 it flaps its wings with a very slow and powerful movement1 totally different from that vibratory one common to most of the species1 which produces the humming noise4 ,i never saw any other bird where the force of its wings appeared 7as in a butterfly7 so powerful in proportion to the weight of its body4 ,when hovering by a flower1 its tail is constantly expanded and shut like a fan1 the body being kept in a nearly vertical position4 ,this action appears to steady and support the bird1 between the slow movements of its wings4 ,although flying from flower to flower in search of food1 its stomach generally contained abundant remains of insects1 which ,i suspect are much more the object of its search than honey4 ,the note of this species1 like that of nearly the whole family1 is extremely shrill4 ,illustration3 ,chilian spurs1 stirrup1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,old ,church1 ,castro1 ,chiloe ,chapter ,,xiii ,chiloe--,general ,aspect--,boat excursion--,native ,indians--,castro--,tame fox--,ascend ,san ,pedro--,chonos ,archipelago--,peninsula of ,tres ,montes--,granitic range--,boat-wrecked sailors--,low's ,harbour--,wild potato--,formation of peat--,myopotamus1 otter and mice--,cheucau and ,barking-bird--,opetiorhynchus--,singula r character of ornithology--,petrels4 ,,chiloe ,,and ,,chonos ,,islands ,november #ajth4--,the ,beagle sailed from ,valparaiso to the south1 for the purpose of surveying the southern part of ,chile1 the island of ,chiloe1 and the broken land called the ,chonos ,archipelago1 as far south as the ,peninsula of ,tres ,montes4 ,on the #bast we anchored in the bay of ,s4 ,carlos1 the capital of ,chiloe4 ,this island is about ninety miles long1 with a breadth of rather less than thirty4 ,the land is hilly1 but not mountainous1 and is covered by one great forest1 except where a few green patches have been cleared round the thatched cottages4 ,from a distance the view somewhat resembles that of ,tierra del ,fuego2 but the woods1 when seen nearer1 are incomparably more beautiful4 ,many kinds of fine evergreen trees1 and plants with a tropical character1 here take the place of the gloomy beech of the southern shores4 ,in winter the climate is detestable1 and in summer it is only a little better4 ,i should think there are few parts of the world1 within the temperate regions1 where so much rain falls4 ,the winds are very boisterous1 and the sky almost always clouded3 to have a week of fine weather is something wonderful4 ,it is even difficult to get a single glimpse of the ,cordillera3 during our first visit1 once only the volcano of ,osorno stood out in bold relief1 and that was before sunrise2 it was curious to watch1 as the sun rose1 the outline gradually fading away in the glare of the eastern sky4 ,the inhabitants1 from their complexion and low stature1 appear to have three-fourths of ,indian blood in their veins4 ,they are an humble1 quiet1 industrious set of men4 ,although the fertile soil1 resulting from the decomposition of the volcanic rocks1 supports a rank vegetation1 yet the climate is not favourable to any production which requires much sunshine to ripen it4 ,there is very little pasture for the larger quadrupeds2 and in consequence1 the staple articles of food are pigs1 potatoes1 and fish4 ,the people all dress in strong woollen garments1 which each family makes for itself1 and dyes with indigo of a dark blue colour4 ,the arts1 however1 are in the rudest state2--as may be seen in their strange fashion of ploughing1 their method of spinning1 grinding corn1 and in the construction of their boats4 ,the forests are so impenetrable that the land is nowhere cultivated except near the coast and on the adjoining islets4 ,even where paths exist1 they are scarcely passable from the soft and swampy state of the soil4 ,the inhabitants1 like those of ,tierra del ,fuego1 move about chiefly on the beach or in boats4 ,although with plenty to eat1 the people are very poor3 there is no demand for labour1 and consequently the lower orders cannot scrape together money sufficient to purchase even the smallest luxuries4 ,there is also a great deficiency of a circulating medium4 ,i have seen a man bringing on his back a bag of charcoal1 with which to buy some trifle1 and another carrying a plank to exchange for a bottle of wine4 ,hence every tradesman must also be a merchant1 and again sell the goods which he takes in exchange4 ,november #bdth4--,the yawl and whale-boat were sent under the command of ,mr4 7now ,captain7 ,sulivan to survey the eastern or inland coast of ,chiloe2 and with orders to meet the ,beagle at the southern extremity of the island2 to which point she would proceed by the outside1 so as thus to circumnavigate the whole4 ,i accompanied this expedition1 but instead of going in the boats the first day1 ,i hired horses to take me to ,chacao1 at the northern extremity of the island4 ,the road followed the coast2 every now and then crossing promontories covered by fine forests4 ,in these shaded paths it is absolutely necessary that the whole road should be made of logs of wood1 which are squared and placed by the side of each other4 ,from the rays of the sun never penetrating the evergreen foliage1 the ground is so damp and soft1 that except by this means neither man nor horse would be able to pass along4 ,i arrived at the village of ,chacao shortly after the tents belonging to the boats were pitched for the night4 ,the land in this neighbourhood has been extensively cleared1 and there were many quiet and most picturesque nooks in the forest4 ,chacao was formerly the principal port in the island2 but many vessels having been lost1 owing to the dangerous currents and rocks in the straits1 the ,spanish government burnt the church1 and thus arbitrarily compelled the greater number of inhabitants to migrate to ,s4 ,carlos4 ,we had not long bivouacked1 before the barefooted son of the governor came down to reconnoitre us4 ,seeing the ,english flag hoisted at the yawl's masthead1 he asked with the utmost indifference1 whether it was always to fly at ,chacao4 ,in several places the inhabitants were much astonished at the appearance of men-of-war's boats1 and hoped and believed it was the forerunner of a ,spanish fleet1 coming to recover the island from the patriot government of ,chile4 ,all the men in power1 however1 had been informed of our intended visit1 and were exceedingly civil4 ,while we were eating our supper1 the governor paid us a visit4 ,he had been a lieutenant-colonel in the ,spanish service1 but now was miserably poor4 ,he gave us two sheep1 and accepted in return two cotton handkerchiefs1 some brass trinkets1 and a little tobacco4 #beth4--,torrents of rain3 we managed1 however1 to run down the coast as far as ,huapi-lenou4 ,the whole of this eastern side of ,chiloe has one aspect2 it is a plain1 broken by valleys and divided into little islands1 and the whole thickly covered with one impervious blackish-green forest4 ,on the margins there are some cleared spaces1 surrounding the high-roofed cottages4 #bfth4--,the day rose splendidly clear4 ,the volcano of ,orsono was spouting out volumes of smoke4 ,this most beautiful mountain1 formed like a perfect cone1 and white with snow1 stands out in front of the ,cordillera4 ,another great volcano1 with a saddle-shaped summit1 also emitted from its immense crater little jets of steam4 ,subsequently we saw the lofty-peaked ,corcovado--well deserving the name of 8el famoso ,corcovado40 ,thus we beheld1 from one point of view1 three great active volcanoes1 each about seven thousand feet high4 ,in addition to this1 far to the south there were other lofty cones covered with snow1 which1 although not known to be active1 must be in their origin volcanic4 ,the line of the ,andes is not1 in this neighbourhood1 nearly so elevated as in ,chile2 neither does it appear to form so perfect a barrier between the regions of the earth4 ,this great range1 although running in a straight north and south line1 owing to an optical deception always appeared more or less curved2 for the lines drawn from each peak to the beholder's eye necessarily converged like the radii of a semicircle1 and as it was not possible 7owing to the clearness of the atmosphere and the absence of all intermediate objects7 to judge how far distant the farthest peaks were off1 they appeared to stand in a flattish semicircle4 ,landing at midday1 we saw a family of pure ,indian extraction4 ,the father was singularly like ,york ,minster2 and some of the younger boys1 with their ruddy complexions1 might have been mistaken for ,pampas ,indians4 ,everything ,i have seen convinces me of the close connexion of the different ,american tribes1 who nevertheless speak distinct languages4 ,this party could muster but little ,spanish1 and talked to each other in their own tongue4 ,it is a pleasant thing to see the aborigines advanced to the same degree of civilisation1 however low that may be1 which their white conquerors have attained4 ,more to the south we saw many pure ,indians3 indeed1 all the inhabitants of some of the islets retain their ,indian surnames4 ,in the census of #ahcb there were in ,chiloe and its dependencies forty-two thousand souls3 the greater number of these appear to be of mixed blood4 ,eleven thousand retain their ,indian surnames1 but it is probable that not nearly all of these are of a pure breed4 ,their manner of life is the same with that of the other poor inhabitants1 and they are all ,christians2 but it is said that they yet retain some strange superstitious ceremonies1 and that they pretend to hold communication with the devil in certain caves4 ,formerly1 every one convicted of this offence was sent to the ,inquisition at ,lima4 ,many of the inhabitants who are not included in the eleven thousand with ,indian surnames1 cannot be distinguished by their appearance from ,indians4 ,gomez1 the governor of ,lemuy1 is descended from noblemen of ,spain on both sides2 but by constant intermarriages with the natives the present man is an ,indian4 ,on the other hand1 the governor of ,quinchao boasts much of his purely kept ,spanish blood4 ,we reached at night a beautiful little cove1 north of the island of ,caucahue4 ,the people here complained of want of land4 ,this is partly owing to their own negligence in not clearing the woods1 and partly to restrictions by the government1 which makes it necessary1 before buying ever so small a piece1 to pay two shillings to the surveyor for measuring each quadra 7#aej yards square71 together with whatever price he fixes for the value of the land4 ,after his valuation the land must be put up three times to auction1 and if no one bids more1 the purchaser can have it at that rate4 ,all these exactions must be a serious check to clearing the ground1 where the inhabitants are so extremely poor4 ,in most countries1 forests are removed without much difficulty by the aid of fire2 but in ,chiloe1 from the damp nature of the climate1 and the sort of trees1 it is necessary first to cut them down4 ,this is a heavy drawback to the prosperity of ,chiloe4 ,in the time of the ,spaniards the ,indians could not hold land2 and a family1 after having cleared a piece of ground1 might be driven away1 and the property seized by the government4 ,the ,chilian authorities are now performing an act of justice by making retribution to these poor ,indians1 giving to each man1 according to his grade of life1 a certain portion of land4 ,the value of uncleared ground is very little4 ,the government gave ,mr4 ,douglas 7the present surveyor1 who informed me of these circumstances7 eight and a half square miles of forest near ,s4 ,carlos1 in lieu of a debt2 and this he sold for #cej dollars1 or about #gj sterling4 ,the two succeeding days were fine1 and at night we reached the island of ,quinchao4 ,this neighbourhood is the most cultivated part of the ,archipelago2 for a broad strip of land on the coast of the main island1 as well as on many of the smaller adjoining ones1 is almost completely cleared4 ,some of the farmhouses seemed very comfortable4 ,i was curious to ascertain how rich any of these people might be1 but ,mr4 ,douglas says that no one can be considered as possessing a regular income4 ,one of the richest landowners might possibly accumulate1 in a long industrious life1 as much as #ajjj sterling2 but should this happen1 it would all be stowed away in some secret corner1 for it is the custom of almost every family to have a jar or treasure-chest buried in the ground4 ,november #cjth4--,early on ,sunday morning we reached ,castro1 the ancient capital of ,chiloe1 but now a most forlorn and deserted place4 ,the usual quadrangular arrangement of ,spanish towns could be traced1 but the streets and plaza were coated with fine green turf1 on which sheep were browsing4 ,the church1 which stands in the middle1 is entirely built of plank1 and has a picturesque and venerable appearance4 ,the poverty of the place may be conceived from the fact1 that although containing some hundreds of inhabitants1 one of our party was unable anywhere to purchase either a pound of sugar or an ordinary knife4 ,no individual possessed either a watch or a clock2 and an old man who was supposed to have a good idea of time1 was employed to strike the church bell by guess4 ,the arrival of our boats was a rare event in this quiet retired corner of the world2 and nearly all the inhabitants came down to the beach to see us pitch our tents4 ,they were very civil1 and offered us a house2 and one man even sent us a cask of cider as a present4 ,in the afternoon we paid our respects to the governor--a quiet old man1 who1 in his appearance and manner of life1 was scarcely superior to an ,english cottager4 ,at night heavy rain set in1 which was hardly sufficient to drive away from our tents the large circle of lookers on4 ,an ,indian family1 who had come to trade in a canoe from ,caylen1 bivouacked near us4 ,they had no shelter during the rain4 ,in the morning ,i asked a young ,indian1 who was wet to the skin1 how he had passed the night4 ,he seemed perfectly content1 and answered1 8,muy bien1 seor40 ,december #ast4--,we steered for the island of ,lemuy4 ,i was anxious to examine a reported coal-mine which turned out to be lignite of little value1 in the sandstone 7probably of an ancient tertiary epoch7 of which these islands are composed4 ,when we reached ,lemuy we had much difficulty in finding any place to pitch our tents1 for it was spring-tide1 and the land was wooded down to the water's edge4 ,in a short time we were surrounded by a large group of the nearly pure ,indian inhabitants4 ,they were much surprised at our arrival1 and said one to the other1 8,this is the reason we have seen so many parrots lately2 the cheucau 7an odd red-breasted little bird1 which inhabits the thick forest1 and utters very peculiar noises7 has not cried #8beware' for nothing40 ,they were soon anxious for barter4 ,money was scarcely worth anything1 but their eagerness for tobacco was something quite extraordinary4 ,after tobacco1 indigo came next in value2 then capsicum1 old clothes1 and gunpowder4 ,the latter article was required for a very innocent purpose3 each parish has a public musket1 and the gunpowder was wanted for making a noise on their saint or feast days4 ,the people here live chiefly on shell-fish and potatoes4 ,at certain seasons they catch also1 in 8corrales10 or hedges under water1 many fish which are left on the mud-banks as the tide falls4 ,they occasionally possess fowls1 sheep1 goats1 pigs1 horses1 and cattle2 the order in which they are here mentioned1 expressing their respective numbers4 ,i never saw anything more obliging and humble than the manners of these people4 ,they generally began with stating that they were poor natives of the place1 and not ,spaniards and that they were in sad want of tobacco and other comforts4 ,at ,caylen1 the most southern island1 the sailors bought with a stick of tobacco1 of the value of three-halfpence1 two fowls1 one of which1 the ,indian stated1 had skin between its toes1 and turned out to be a fine duck2 and with some cotton handkerchiefs1 worth three shillings1 three sheep and a large bunch of onions were procured4 ,the yawl at this place was anchored some way from the shore1 and we had fears for her safety from robbers during the night4 ,our pilot1 ,mr4 ,douglas1 accordingly told the constable of the district that we always placed sentinels with loaded arms1 and not understanding ,spanish1 if we saw any person in the dark1 we should assuredly shoot him4 ,the constable1 with much humility1 agreed to the perfect propriety of this arrangement1 and promised us that no one should stir out of his house during that night4 ,during the four succeeding days we continued sailing southward4 ,the general features of the country remained the same1 but it was much less thickly inhabited4 ,on the large island of ,tanqui there was scarcely one cleared spot1 the trees on every side extending their branches over the sea-beach4 ,i one day noticed1 growing on the sandstone cliffs1 some very fine plants of the panke 7,gunnera scabra71 which somewhat resembles the rhubarb on a gigantic scale4 ,the inhabitants eat the stalks1 which are subacid1 and tan leather with the roots1 and prepare a black dye from them4 ,the leaf is nearly circular1 but deeply indented on its margin4 ,i measured one which was nearly eight feet in diameter1 and therefore no less than twenty-four in circumference6 ,the stalk is rather more than a yard high1 and each plant sends out four or five of these enormous leaves1 presenting together a very noble appearance4 ,december #fth4--,we reached ,caylen1 called 8el fin del ,cristiandad40 ,in the morning we stopped for a few minutes at a house on the northern end of ,laylec1 which was the extreme point of ,south ,american ,christendom1 and a miserable hovel it was4 ,the latitude is #dc #aj1 which is two degrees farther south than the ,rio ,negro on the ,atlantic coast4 ,these extreme ,christians were very poor1 and1 under the plea of their situation1 begged for some tobacco4 ,as a proof of the poverty of these ,indians1 ,i may mention that shortly before this we had met a man1 who had travelled three days and a half on foot1 and had as many to return1 for the sake of recovering the value of a small axe and a few fish4 ,how very difficult it must be to buy the smallest article1 when such trouble is taken to recover so small a debt4 ,in the evening we reached the island of ,san ,pedro1 where we found the ,beagle at anchor4 ,in doubling the point1 two of the officers landed to take a round of angles with the theodolite4 ,a fox 7,canis fulvipes71 of a kind said to be peculiar to the island1 and very rare in it1 and which is a new species1 was sitting on the rocks4 ,he was so intently absorbed in watching the work of the officers1 that ,i was able1 by quietly walking up behind1 to knock him on the head with my geological hammer4 ,this fox1 more curious or more scientific1 but less wise1 than the generality of his brethren1 is now mounted in the museum of the ,zoological ,society4 ,we stayed three days in this harbour1 on one of which ,captain ,fitz ,roy1 with a party1 attempted to ascend to the summit of ,san ,pedro4 ,the woods here had rather a different appearance from those on the northern part of the island4 ,the rock1 also1 being micaceous slate1 there was no beach1 but the steep sides dipped directly beneath the water4 ,the general aspect in consequence was more like that of ,tierra del ,fuego than of ,chiloe4 ,in vain we tried to gain the summit3 the forest was so impenetrable1 that no one who has not beheld it can imagine so entangled a mass of dying and dead trunks4 ,i am sure that often1 for more than ten minutes together1 our feet never touched the ground1 and we were frequently ten or fifteen feet above it1 so that the seamen as a joke called out the soundings4 ,at other times we crept one after another1 on our hands and knees1 under the rotten trunks4 ,in the lower part of the mountain1 noble trees of the ,winter's ,bark1 and a laurel like the sassafras with fragrant leaves1 and others1 the names of which ,i do not know1 were matted together by a trailing bamboo or cane4 ,here we were more like fishes struggling in a net than any other animal4 ,on the higher parts1 brushwood takes the place of larger trees1 with here and there a red cedar or an alerce pine4 ,i was also pleased to see1 at an elevation of a little less than #ajjj feet1 our old friend the southern beech4 ,they were1 however1 poor stunted trees1 and ,i should think that this must be nearly their northern limit4 ,we ultimately gave up the attempt in despair4 ,december #ajth4--,the yawl and whale-boat1 with ,mr4 ,sulivan1 proceeded on their survey1 but ,i remained on board the ,beagle1 which the next day left ,san ,pedro for the southward4 ,on the #acth we ran into an opening in the southern part of ,guayatecas1 or the ,chonos ,archipelago2 and it was fortunate we did so1 for on the following day a storm1 worthy of ,tierra del ,fuego1 raged with great fury4 ,white massive clouds were piled up against a dark blue sky1 and across them black ragged sheets of vapour were rapidly driven4 ,the successive mountain ranges appeared like dim shadows1 and the setting sun cast on the woodland a yellow gleam1 much like that produced by the flame of spirits of wine4 ,the water was white with the flying spray1 and the wind lulled and roared again through the rigging3 it was an ominous1 sublime scene4 ,during a few minutes there was a bright rainbow1 and it was curious to observe the effect of the spray1 which1 being carried along the surface of the water1 changed the ordinary semicircle into a circle--a band of prismatic colours being continued1 from both feet of the common arch across the bay1 close to the vessel's side3 thus forming a distorted1 but very nearly entire ring4 ,inside ,chonos ,archipelago ,we stayed here three days4 ,the weather continued bad2 but this did not much signify1 for the surface of the land in all these islands is all but impassable4 ,the coast is so very rugged that to attempt to walk in that direction requires continued scrambling up and down over the sharp rocks of mica-slate2 and as for the woods1 our faces1 hands1 and shin-bones all bore witness to the maltreatment we received1 in merely attempting to penetrate their forbidden recesses4 ,december #ahth4--,we stood out to sea4 ,on the #bjth we bade farewell to the south1 and with a fair wind turned the ship's head northward4 ,from ,cape ,tres ,montes we sailed pleasantly along the lofty weather-beaten coast1 which is remarkable for the bold outline of its hills1 and the thick covering of forest even on the almost precipitous flanks4 ,the next day a harbour was discovered1 which on this dangerous coast might be of great service to a distressed vessel4 ,it can easily be recognised by a hill #afjj feet high1 which is even more perfectly conical than the famous sugar-loaf at ,rio de ,janeiro4 ,the next day1 after anchoring1 ,i succeeded in reaching the summit of this hill4 ,it was a laborious undertaking1 for the sides were so steep that in some parts it was necessary to use the trees as ladders4 ,there were also several extensive brakes of the ,fuchsia1 covered with its beautiful drooping flowers1 but very difficult to crawl through4 ,in these wild countries it gives much delight to gain the summit of any mountain4 ,there is an indefinite expectation of seeing something very strange1 which1 however often it may be balked1 never failed with me to recur on each successive attempt4 ,every one must know the feeling of triumph and pride which a grand view from a height communicates to the mind4 ,in these little frequented countries there is also joined to it some vanity1 that you perhaps are the first man who ever stood on this pinnacle or admired this view4 ,a strong desire is always felt to ascertain whether any human being has previously visited an unfrequented spot4 ,a bit of wood with a nail in it is picked up and studied as if it were covered with hieroglyphics4 ,possessed with this feeling1 ,i was much interested by finding1 on a wild part of the coast1 a bed made of grass beneath a ledge of rock4 ,close by it there had been a fire1 and the man had used an axe4 ,the fire1 bed1 and situation showed the dexterity of an ,indian2 but he could scarcely have been an ,indian1 for the race is in this part extinct1 owing to the ,catholic desire of making at one blow ,christians and ,slaves4 ,i had at the time some misgivings that the solitary man who had made his bed on this wild spot1 must have been some poor shipwrecked sailor1 who1 in trying to travel up the coast1 had here laid himself down for his dreary night4 ,december #bhth4--,the weather continued very bad1 but it at last permitted us to proceed with the survey4 ,the time hung heavy on our hands1 as it always did when we were delayed from day to day by successive gales of wind4 ,in the evening another harbour was discovered1 where we anchored4 ,directly afterwards a man was seen waving his shirt1 and a boat was sent which brought back two seamen4 ,a party of six had run away from an ,american whaling vessel1 and had landed a little to the southward in a boat1 which was shortly afterwards knocked to pieces by the surf4 ,they had now been wandering up and down the coast for fifteen months1 without knowing which way to go1 or where they were4 ,what a singular piece of good fortune it was that this harbour was now discovered6 ,had it not been for this one chance1 they might have wandered till they had grown old men1 and at last have perished on this wild coast4 ,their sufferings had been very great1 and one of their party had lost his life by falling from the cliffs4 ,they were sometimes obliged to separate in search of food1 and this explained the bed of the solitary man4 ,considering what they had undergone1 ,i think they had kept a very good reckoning of time1 for they had lost only four days4 ,december #cjth4--,we anchored in a snug little cove at the foot of some high hills1 near the northern extremity of ,tres ,montes4 ,after breakfast the next morning a party ascended one of these mountains1 which was #bdjj feet high4 ,the scenery was remarkable4 ,the chief part of the range was composed of grand1 solid1 abrupt masses of granite1 which appeared as if they had been coeval with the beginning of the world4 ,the granite was capped with mica-slate1 and this in the lapse of ages had been worn into strange finger-shaped points4 ,these two formations1 thus differing in their outlines1 agree in being almost destitute of vegetation4 ,this barrenness had to our eyes a strange appearance1 from having been so long accustomed to the sight of an almost universal forest of dark-green trees4 ,i took much delight in examining the structure of these mountains4 ,the complicated and lofty ranges bore a noble aspect of durability--equally profitless1 however1 to man and to all other animals4 ,granite to the geologist is classic ground3 from its widespread limits1 and its beautiful and compact texture1 few rocks have been more anciently recognised4 ,granite has given rise1 perhaps1 to more discussion concerning its origin than any other formation4 ,we generally see it constituting the fundamental rock1 and1 however formed1 we know it is the deepest layer in the crust of this globe to which man has penetrated4 ,the limit of man's knowledge in any subject possesses a high interest1 which is perhaps increased by its close neighbourhood to the realms of imagination4 ,january #ast1 #ahce4--,the new year is ushered in with the ceremonies proper to it in these regions4 ,she lays out no false hopes3 a heavy north-western gale1 with steady rain1 bespeaks the rising year4 ,thank ,god1 we are not destined here to see the end of it1 but hope then to be in the ,pacific ,ocean1 where a blue sky tells one there is a heaven1--a something beyond the clouds above our heads4 ,the north-west winds prevailing for the next four days1 we only managed to cross a great bay1 and then anchored in another secure harbour4 ,i accompanied the ,captain in a boat to the head of a deep creek4 ,on the way the number of seals which we saw was quite astonishing3 every bit of flat rock and parts of the beach were covered with them4 ,they appeared to be of a loving disposition1 and lay huddled together1 fast asleep1 like so many pigs2 but even pigs would have been ashamed of their dirt1 and of the foul smell which came from them4 ,each herd was watched by the patient but inauspicious eyes of the turkey-buzzard4 ,this disgusting bird1 with its bald scarlet head1 formed to wallow in putridity1 is very common on the west coast1 and their attendance on the seals shows on what they rely for their food4 ,we found the water 7probably only that of the surface7 nearly fresh3 this was caused by the number of torrents which1 in the form of cascades1 came tumbling over the bold granite mountains into the sea4 ,the fresh water attracts the fish1 and these bring many terns1 gulls1 and two kinds of cormorant4 ,we saw also a pair of the beautiful black-necked swans1 and several small sea-otters1 the fur of which is held in such high estimation4 ,in returning1 we were again amused by the impetuous manner in which the heap of seals1 old and young1 tumbled into the water as the boat passed4 ,they did not remain long under water1 but rising1 followed us with outstretched necks1 expressing great wonder and curiosity4 #gth4--,having run up the coast1 we anchored near the northern end of the ,chonos ,archipelago1 in ,low's ,harbour1 where we remained a week4 ,the islands were here1 as in ,chiloe1 composed of a stratified1 soft1 littoral deposit2 and the vegetation in consequence was beautifully luxuriant4 ,the woods came down to the sea-beach1 just in the manner of an evergreen shrubbery over a gravel walk4 ,we also enjoyed from the anchorage a splendid view of four great snowy cones of the ,cordillera1 including 8el famoso ,corcovado20 the range itself had in this latitude so little height1 that few parts of it appeared above the tops of the neighbouring islets4 ,we found here a party of five men from ,caylen1 8el fin del ,cristiandad10 who had most adventurously crossed in their miserable boat-canoe1 for the purpose of fishing1 the open space of sea which separates ,chonos from ,chiloe4 ,these islands will1 in all probability1 in a short time become peopled like those adjoining the coast of ,chiloe4 ,the wild potato grows on these islands in great abundance1 on the sandy1 shelly soil near the sea-beach4 ,the tallest plant was four feet in height4 ,the tubers were generally small1 but ,i found one1 of an oval shape1 two inches in diameter3 they resembled in every respect1 and had the same smell as ,english potatoes2 but when boiled they shrunk much1 and were watery and insipid1 without any bitter taste4 ,they are undoubtedly here indigenous3 they grow as far south1 according to ,mr4 ,low1 as lat4 #ej1 and are called ,aquinas by the wild ,indians of that part3 the ,chilotan ,indians have a different name for them4 ,professor ,henslow1 who has examined the dried specimens which ,i brought home1 says that they are the same with those described by ,mr4 ,sabine#a from ,valparaiso1 but that they form a variety which by some botanists has been considered as specifically distinct4 ,it is remarkable that the same plant should be found on the sterile mountains of central ,chile1 where a drop of rain does not fall for more than six months1 and within the damp forests of these southern islands4 #a ,horticultural ,transact4 vol4 v1 p4 #bdi4 ,mr4 ,caldeleugh sent home two tubers1 which1 being well manured1 even the first season produced numerous potatoes and an abundance of leaves4 ,see ,humboldt's interesting discussion on this plant1 which it appears was unknown in ,mexico1--in ,polit4 ,essay on ,new ,spain1 book iv1 chap4 ix4 ,in the central parts of the ,chonos ,archipelago 7lat4 #de71 the forest has very much the same character with that along the whole west coast1 for #fjj miles southward to ,cape ,horn4 ,the arborescent grass of ,chiloe is not found here2 while the beech of ,tierra del ,fuego grows to a good size1 and forms a considerable proportion of the wood2 not1 however1 in the same exclusive manner as it does farther southward4 ,cryptogamic plants here find a most congenial climate4 ,in the ,strait of ,magellan1 as ,i have before remarked1 the country appears too cold and wet to allow of their arriving at perfection2 but in these islands1 within the forest1 the number of species and great abundance of mosses1 lichens1 and small ferns1 is quite extraordinary4#b ,in ,tierra del ,fuego trees grow only on the hillsides2 every level piece of land being invariably covered by a thick bed of peat2 but in ,chiloe flat land supports the most luxuriant forests4 ,here1 within the ,chonos ,archipelago1 the nature of the climate more closely approaches that of ,tierra del ,fuego than that of northern ,chiloe2 for every patch of level ground is covered by two species of plants 7,astelia pumila and ,donatia magellanica71 which by their joint decay compose a thick bed of elastic peat4 #b ,by sweeping with my insect-net1 ,i procured from these situations a considerable number of minute insects1 of the family of ,staphylinid1 and others allied to ,pselaphus1 and minute ,hymenoptera4 ,but the most characteristic family in number1 both of individuals and species1 throughout the more open parts of ,chiloe and ,chonos is that of ,telephorid4 ,in ,tierra del ,fuego1 above the region of woodland1 the former of these eminently sociable plants is the chief agent in the production of peat4 ,fresh leaves are always succeeding one to the other round the central tap-root1 the lower ones soon decay1 and in tracing a root downwards in the peat1 the leaves1 yet holding their place1 can be observed passing through every stage of decomposition1 till the whole becomes blended in one confused mass4 ,the ,astelia is assisted by a few other plants1--here and there a small creeping ,myrtus 7,m4 nummularia71 with a woody stem like our cranberry and with a sweet berry1--an ,empetrum 7,e4 rubrum71 like our heath1--a rush 7,juncus grandiflorus71 are nearly the only ones that grow on the swampy surface4 ,these plants1 though possessing a very close general resemblance to the ,english species of the same genera1 are different4 ,in the more level parts of the country1 the surface of the peat is broken up into little pools of water1 which stand at different heights1 and appear as if artificially excavated4 ,small streams of water1 flowing underground1 complete the disorganisation of the vegetable matter1 and consolidate the whole4 ,the climate of the southern part of ,america appears particularly favourable to the production of peat4 ,in the ,falkland ,islands almost every kind of plant1 even the coarse grass which covers the whole surface of the land1 becomes converted into this substance3 scarcely any situation checks its growth2 some of the beds are as much as twelve feet thick1 and the lower part becomes so solid when dry1 that it will hardly burn4 ,although every plant lends its aid1 yet in most parts the ,astelia is the most efficient4 ,it is rather a singular circumstance1 as being so very different from what occurs in ,europe1 that ,i nowhere saw moss forming by its decay any portion of the peat in ,south ,america4 ,with respect to the northern limit at which the climate allows of that peculiar kind of slow decomposition which is necessary for its production1 ,i believe that in ,chiloe 7lat4 #da to #db71 although there is much swampy ground1 no well-characterised peat occurs3 but in the ,chonos ,islands1 three degrees farther southward1 we have seen that it is abundant4 ,on the eastern coast in ,la ,plata 7lat4 #ce7 ,i was told by a ,spanish resident who had visited ,ireland1 that he had often sought for this substance1 but had never been able to find any4 ,he showed me1 as the nearest approach to it which he had discovered1 a black peaty soil1 so penetrated with roots as to allow of an extremely slow and imperfect combustion4 ,the zoology of these broken islets of the ,chonos ,archipelago is1 as might have been expected1 very poor4 ,of quadrupeds two aquatic kinds are common4 ,the ,myopotamus ,coypus 7like a beaver1 but with a round tail7 is well known from its fine fur1 which is an object of trade throughout the tributaries of ,la ,plata4 ,it here1 however1 exclusively frequents salt water2 which same circumstance has been mentioned as sometimes occurring with the great rodent1 the ,capybara4 ,a small sea-otter is very numerous2 this animal does not feed exclusively on fish1 but1 like the seals1 draws a large supply from a small red crab1 which swims in shoals near the surface of the water4 ,mr4 ,bynoe saw one in ,tierra del ,fuego eating a cuttle-fish2 and at ,low's ,harbour1 another was killed in the act of carrying to its hole a large volute shell4 ,at one place ,i caught in a trap a singular little mouse 7,m4 brachiotis72 it appeared common on several of the islets1 but the ,chilotans at ,low's ,harbour said that it was not found in all4 ,what a succession of chances1#c or what changes of level must have been brought into play1 thus to spread these small animals throughout this broken archipelago6 #c ,it is said that some rapacious birds bring their prey alive to their nests4 ,if so1 in the course of centuries1 every now and then1 one might escape from the young birds4 ,some such agency is necessary1 to account for the distribution of the smaller gnawing animals on islands not very near each other4 ,in all parts of ,chiloe and ,chonos1 two very strange birds occur1 which are allied to1 and replace1 the ,turco and ,tapacolo of central ,chile4 ,one is called by the inhabitants 8,cheucau0 7,pteroptochos rubecula73 it frequents the most gloomy and retired spots within the damp forests4 ,sometimes1 although its cry may be heard close at hand1 let a person watch ever so attentively he will not see the cheucau2 at other times let him stand motionless and the red-breasted little bird will approach within a few feet in the most familiar manner4 ,it then busily hops about the entangled mass of rotting canes and branches1 with its little tail cocked upwards4 ,the cheucau is held in superstitious fear by the ,chilotans1 on account of its strange and varied cries4 ,there are three very distinct cries3 ,one is called 8chiduco10 and is an omen of good2 another1 8huitreu10 which is extremely unfavourable2 and a third1 which ,i have forgotten4 ,these words are given in imitation of the noises2 and the natives are in some things absolutely governed by them4 ,the ,chilotans assuredly have chosen a most comical little creature for their prophet4 ,an allied species1 but rather larger1 is called by the natives 8,guid-guid0 7,pteroptochos ,tarnii71 and by the ,english the barking-bird4 ,this latter name is well given2 for ,i defy any one at first to feel certain that a small dog is not yelping somewhere in the forest4 ,just as with the cheucau1 a person will sometimes hear the bark close by1 but in vain may endeavour by watching1 and with still less chance by beating the bushes1 to see the bird2 yet at other times the guid-guid fearlessly comes near4 ,its manner of feeding and its general habits are very similar to those of the cheucau4 ,on the coast1#d a small dusky-coloured bird 7,opetiorhynchus ,patagonicus7 is very common4 ,it is remarkable from its quiet habits2 it lives entirely on the sea-beach1 like a sandpiper4 ,besides these birds only few others inhabit this broken land4 ,in my rough notes ,i describe the strange noises1 which1 although frequently heard within these gloomy forests1 yet scarcely disturb the general silence4 ,the yelping of the guid-guid1 and the sudden whew-whew of the cheucau1 sometimes come from afar off1 and sometimes from close at hand2 the little black wren of ,tierra del ,fuego occasionally adds its cry2 the creeper 7,oxyurus7 follows the intruder screaming and twittering2 the humming-bird may be seen every now and then darting from side to side1 and emitting1 like an insect1 its shrill chirp2 lastly1 from the top of some lofty tree the indistinct but plaintive note of the white-tufted tyrant-flycatcher 7,myiobius7 may be noticed4 ,from the great preponderance in most countries of certain common genera of birds1 such as the finches1 one feels at first surprised at meeting with the peculiar forms above enumerated1 as the commonest birds in any district4 ,in central ,chile two of them1 namely1 the ,oxyurus and ,scytalopus1 occur1 although most rarely4 ,when finding1 as in this case1 animals which seem to play so insignificant a part in the great scheme of nature1 one is apt to wonder why they were created4 ,but it should always be recollected1 that in some other country perhaps they are essential members of society1 or at some former period may have been so4 ,if ,america south of #cg were sunk beneath the waters of the ocean1 these two birds might continue to exist in central ,chile for a long period1 but it is very improbable that their numbers would increase4 ,we should then see a case which must inevitably have happened with very many animals4 #d ,i may mention1 as a proof of how great a difference there is between the seasons of the wooded and the open parts of this coast1 that on ,september #bjth1 in lat4 #cd1 these birds had young ones in the nest1 while among the ,chonos ,islands1 three months later in the summer1 they were only laying1 the difference in latitude between these two places being about #gjj miles4 ,these southern seas are frequented by several species of ,petrels3 the largest kind1 ,procellaria gigantea1 or nelly 7quebrantahuesos1 or break-bones1 of the ,spaniards71 is a common bird1 both in the inland channels and on the open sea4 ,in its habits and manner of flight there is a very close resemblance with the albatross2 and as with the albatross1 a person may watch it for hours together without seeing on what it feeds4 ,the 8break-bones0 is1 however1 a rapacious bird1 for it was observed by some of the officers at ,port ,st4 ,antonio chasing a diver1 which tried to escape by diving and flying1 but was continually struck down1 and at last killed by a blow on its head4 ,at ,port ,st4 ,julian these great petrels were seen killing and devouring young gulls4 ,a second species 7,puffinus cinereus71 which is common to ,europe1 ,cape ,horn1 and the coast of ,peru1 is of a much smaller size than the ,p4 gigantea1 but1 like it1 of a dirty black colour4 ,it generally frequents the inland sounds in very large flocks3 ,i do not think ,i ever saw so many birds of any other sort together1 as ,i once saw of these behind the island of ,chiloe4 ,hundreds of thousands flew in an irregular line for several hours in one direction4 ,when part of the flock settled on the water the surface was blackened1 and a noise proceeded from them as of human beings talking in the distance4 ,there are several other species of petrels1 but ,i will only mention one other kind1 the ,pelacanoides ,berardi1 which offers an example of those extraordinary cases1 of a bird evidently belonging to one well-marked family1 yet both in its habits and structure allied to a very distinct tribe4 ,this bird never leaves the quiet inland sounds4 ,when disturbed it dives to a distance1 and on coming to the surface1 with the same movement takes flight4 ,after flying by the rapid movement of its short wings for a space in a straight line1 it drops1 as if struck dead1 and dives again4 ,the form of its beak and nostrils1 length of foot1 and even the colouring of its plumage1 show that this bird is a petrel3 on the other hand1 its short wings and consequent little power of flight1 its form of body and shape of tail1 the absence of a hind toe to its foot1 its habit of living1 and its choice of situation1 make it at first doubtful whether its relationship is not equally close with the auks4 ,it would undoubtedly be mistaken for an auk1 when seen from a distance1 either on the wing1 or when diving and quietly swimming about the retired channels of ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,illustration3 ,gunnera ,scabra1 ,chiloe ,illustration3 ,antuco ,volcano1 near ,talcahuano ,chapter ,,xiv ,san ,carlos1 ,chiloe--,osorno in eruption1 contemporaneously with ,aconcagua and ,coseguina--,ride to ,cucao--,impenetrable forests--,valdivia--,indians--,earthquak e--,concepcion--,great earthquake--,rocks fissured--,appearance of the former towns--,the sea black and boiling--,direction of the vibrations--,stones twisted round--,great wave--,permanent elevation of the land--,area of volcanic phenomena--,the connection between the elevatory and eruptive forces--,cause of earthquakes--,slow elevation of mountain-chains4 ,,chiloe ,,and ,,concepcion3 ,,great ,,earthquake ,on ,january the #aeth1 #ahce we sailed from ,low's ,harbour1 and three days afterwards anchored a second time in the bay of ,s4 ,carlos in ,chiloe4 ,on the night of the #aith the volcano of ,osorno was in action4 ,at midnight the sentry observed something like a large star1 which gradually increased in size till about three o'clock1 when it presented a very magnificent spectacle4 ,by the aid of a glass1 dark objects1 in constant succession1 were seen1 in the midst of a great glare of red light1 to be thrown up and to fall down4 ,the light was sufficient to cast on the water a long bright reflection4 ,large masses of molten matter seem very commonly to be cast out of the craters in this part of the ,cordillera4 ,i was assured that when the ,corcovado is in eruption1 great masses are projected upwards and are seen to burst in the air1 assuming many fantastical forms1 such as trees3 their size must be immense1 for they can be distinguished from the high land behind ,s4 ,carlos1 which is no less than ninety-three miles from the ,corcovado4 ,in the morning the volcano became tranquil4 ,panoramic view of coast ,i was surprised at hearing afterwards that ,aconcagua in ,chile1 #dhj miles northwards1 was in action on the same night2 and still more surprised to hear that the great eruption of ,coseguina 7#bgjj miles north of ,aconcagua71 accompanied by an earthquake felt over #ajjj miles1 also occurred within six hours of this same time4 ,this coincidence is the more remarkable1 as ,coseguina had been dormant for twenty-six years3 and ,aconcagua most rarely shows any signs of action4 ,it is difficult even to conjecture whether this coincidence was accidental1 or shows some subterranean connection4 ,if ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 and ,hecla in ,iceland 7all three relatively nearer each other than the corresponding points in ,south ,america71 suddenly burst forth in eruption on the same night1 the coincidence would be thought remarkable2 but it is far more remarkable in this case1 where the three vents fall on the same great mountain-chain1 and where the vast plains along the entire eastern coast1 and the upraised recent shells along more than #bjjj miles on the western coast1 show in how equable and connected a manner the elevatory forces have acted4 ,inside island of ,chiloe ,captain ,fitz ,roy being anxious that some bearings should be taken on the outer coast of ,chiloe1 it was planned that ,mr4 ,king and myself should ride to ,castro1 and thence across the island to the ,capella de ,cucao1 situated on the west coast4 ,having hired horses and a guide1 we set out on the morning of the #bbnd4 ,we had not proceeded far1 before we were joined by a woman and two boys1 who were bent on the same journey4 ,every one on this road acts on a 8hail-fellow-well-met0 fashion2 and one may here enjoy the privilege1 so rare in ,south ,america1 of travelling without firearms4 ,at first the country consisted of a succession of hills and valleys3 nearer to ,castro it became very level4 ,the road itself is a curious affair2 it consists in its whole length1 with the exception of very few parts1 of great logs of wood1 which are either broad and laid longitudinally1 or narrow and placed transversely4 ,in summer the road is not very bad3 but in winter1 when the wood is rendered slippery from rain1 travelling is exceedingly difficult4 ,at that time of the year1 the ground on each side becomes a morass1 and is often overflowed3 hence it is necessary that the longitudinal logs should be fastened down by transverse poles1 which are pegged on each side into the earth4 ,these pegs render a fall from a horse dangerous1 as the chance of alighting on one of them is not small4 ,it is remarkable1 however1 how active custom has made the ,chilotan horses4 ,in crossing bad parts1 where the logs had been displaced1 they skipped from one to the other1 almost with the quickness and certainty of a dog4 ,on both hands the road is bordered by the lofty forest-trees1 with their bases matted together by canes4 ,when occasionally a long reach of this avenue could be beheld1 it presented a curious scene of uniformity3 the white line of logs1 narrowing in perspective1 became hidden by the gloomy forest1 or terminated in a zigzag which ascended some steep hill4 ,although the distance from ,s4 ,carlos to ,castro is only twelve leagues in a straight line1 the formation of the road must have been a great labour4 ,i was told that several people had formerly lost their lives in attempting to cross the forest4 ,the first who succeeded was an ,indian1 who cut his way through the canes in eight days1 and reached ,s4 ,carlos3 he was rewarded by the ,spanish government with a grant of land4 ,during the summer1 many of the ,indians wander about the forests 7but chiefly in the higher parts1 where the woods are not quite so thick71 in search of the half-wild cattle which live on the leaves of the cane and certain trees4 ,it was one of these huntsmen who by chance discovered1 a few years since1 an ,english vessel1 which had been wrecked on the outer coast4 ,the crew were beginning to fail in provisions1 and it is not probable that1 without the aid of this man1 they would ever have extricated themselves from these scarcely penetrable woods4 ,as it was1 one seaman died on the march1 from fatigue4 ,the ,indians in these excursions steer by the sun2 so that if there is a continuance of cloudy weather1 they cannot travel4 ,the day was beautiful1 and the number of trees which were in full flower perfumed the air2 yet even this could hardly dissipate the effect of the gloomy dampness of the forest4 ,moreover1 the many dead trunks that stand like skeletons1 never fail to give to these primeval woods a character of solemnity1 absent in those of countries long civilised4 ,shortly after sunset we bivouacked for the night4 ,our female companion1 who was rather good-looking1 belonged to one of the most respectable families in ,castro3 she rode1 however1 astride1 and without shoes or stockings4 ,i was surprised at the total want of pride shown by her and her brother4 ,they brought food with them1 but at all our meals sat watching ,mr4 ,king and myself whilst eating1 till we were fairly shamed into feeding the whole party4 ,the night was cloudless2 and while lying in our beds1 we enjoyed the sight 7and it is a high enjoyment7 of the multitude of stars which illumined the darkness of the forest4 ,january #bcrd4--,we rose early in the morning1 and reached the pretty quiet town of ,castro by two o'clock4 ,the old governor had died since our last visit1 and a ,chileno was acting in his place4 ,we had a letter of introduction to ,don ,pedro1 whom we found exceedingly hospitable and kind1 and more disinterested than is usual on this side of the continent4 ,the next day ,don ,pedro procured us fresh horses1 and offered to accompany us himself4 ,we proceeded to the south--generally following the coast1 and passing through several hamlets1 each with its large barn-like chapel built of wood4 ,at ,vilipilli1 ,don ,pedro asked the commandant to give us a guide to ,cucao4 ,the old gentleman offered to come himself2 but for a long time nothing would persuade him that two ,englishmen really wished to go to such an out-of-the-way place as ,cucao4 ,we were thus accompanied by the two greatest aristocrats in the country1 as was plainly to be seen in the manner of all the poorer ,indians towards them4 ,at ,chonchi we struck across the island1 following intricate winding paths1 sometimes passing through magnificent forests1 and sometimes through pretty cleared spots1 abounding with corn and potato crops4 ,this undulating woody country1 partially cultivated1 reminded me of the wilder parts of ,england1 and therefore had to my eye a most fascinating aspect4 ,at ,vilinco1 which is situated on the borders of the lake of ,cucao1 only a few fields were cleared2 and all the inhabitants appeared to be ,indians4 ,this lake is twelve miles long1 and runs in an east and west direction4 ,from local circumstances1 the sea-breeze blows very regularly during the day1 and during the night it falls calm3 this has given rise to strange exaggerations1 for the phenomenon1 as described to us at ,s4 ,carlos1 was quite a prodigy4 ,the road to ,cucao was so very bad that we determined to embark in a periagua4 ,the commandant1 in the most authoritative manner1 ordered six ,indians to get ready to pull us over1 without deigning to tell them whether they would be paid4 ,the periagua is a strange rough boat1 but the crew were still stranger3 ,i doubt if six uglier little men ever got into a boat together4 ,they pulled1 however1 very well and cheerfully4 ,the stroke-oarsman gabbled ,indian1 and uttered strange cries1 much after the fashion of a pig-driver driving his pigs4 ,we started with a light breeze against us1 but yet reached the ,capella de ,cucao before it was late4 ,the country on each side of the lake was one unbroken forest4 ,in the same periagua with us a cow was embarked4 ,to get so large an animal into a small boat appears at first a difficulty1 but the ,indians managed it in a minute4 ,they brought the cow alongside the boat1 which was heeled towards her2 then placing two oars under her belly1 with their ends resting on the gunwale1 by the aid of these levers they fairly tumbled the poor beast heels over head into the bottom of the boat1 and then lashed her down with ropes4 ,at ,cucao we found an uninhabited hovel 7which is the residence of the padre when he pays this ,capella a visit71 where1 lighting a fire1 we cooked our supper1 and were very comfortable4 ,the district of ,cucao is the only inhabited part on the whole west coast of ,chiloe4 ,it contains about thirty or forty ,indian families1 who are scattered along four or five miles of the shore4 ,they are very much secluded from the rest of ,chiloe1 and have scarcely any sort of commerce1 except sometimes in a little oil1 which they get from seal-blubber4 ,they are tolerably dressed in clothes of their own manufacture1 and they have plenty to eat4 ,they seemed1 however1 discontented1 yet humble to a degree which it was quite painful to witness4 ,these feelings are1 ,i think1 chiefly to be attributed to the harsh and authoritative manner in which they are treated by their rulers4 ,our companions1 although so very civil to us1 behaved to the poor ,indians as if they had been slaves1 rather than free men4 ,they ordered provisions and the use of their horses1 without ever condescending to say how much1 or indeed whether the owners should be paid at all4 ,in the morning1 being left alone with these poor people1 we soon ingratiated ourselves by presents of cigars and mat4 ,a lump of white sugar was divided between all present1 and tasted with the greatest curiosity4 ,the ,indians ended all their complaints by saying1 8,and it is only because we are poor ,indians1 and know nothing2 but it was not so when we had a ,king40 ,the next day after breakfast we rode a few miles northward to ,punta ,huantam4 ,the road lay along a very broad beach1 on which1 even after so many fine days1 a terrible surf was breaking4 ,i was assured that after a heavy gale1 the roar can be heard at night even at ,castro1 a distance of no less than twenty-one sea-miles across a hilly and wooded country4 ,we had some difficulty in reaching the point1 owing to the intolerably bad paths2 for everywhere in the shade the ground soon becomes a perfect quagmire4 ,the point itself is a bold rocky hill4 ,it is covered by a plant allied1 ,i believe1 to ,bromelia1 and called by the inhabitants ,chepones4 ,in scrambling through the beds1 our hands were very much scratched4 ,i was amused by observing the precaution our ,indian guide took1 in turning up his trousers1 thinking that they were more delicate than his own hard skin4 ,this plant bears a fruit1 in shape like an artichoke1 in which a number of seed-vessels are packed3 these contain a pleasant sweet pulp1 here much esteemed4 ,i saw at ,low's ,harbour the ,chilotans making chichi1 or cider1 with this fruit3 so true is it1 as ,humboldt remarks1 that almost everywhere man finds means of preparing some kind of beverage from the vegetable kingdom4 ,the savages1 however1 of ,tierra del ,fuego1 and ,i believe of ,australia1 have not advanced thus far in the arts4 ,the coast to the north of ,punta ,huantam is exceedingly rugged and broken1 and is fronted by many breakers1 on which the sea is eternally roaring4 ,mr4 ,king and myself were anxious to return1 if it had been possible1 on foot along this coast2 but even the ,indians said it was quite impracticable4 ,we were told that men have crossed by striking directly through the woods from ,cucao to ,s4 ,carlos1 but never by the coast4 ,on these expeditions1 the ,indians carry with them only roasted corn1 and of this they eat sparingly twice a day4 #bfth4--,re-embarking in the periagua1 we returned across the lake1 and then mounted our horses4 ,the whole of ,chiloe took advantage of this week of unusually fine weather1 to clear the ground by burning4 ,in every direction volumes of smoke were curling upwards4 ,although the inhabitants were so assiduous in setting fire to every part of the wood1 yet ,i did not see a single fire which they had succeeded in making extensive4 ,we dined with our friend the commandant1 and did not reach ,castro till after dark4 ,the next morning we started very early4 ,after having ridden for some time1 we obtained from the brow of a steep hill an extensive view 7and it is a rare thing on this road7 of the great forest4 ,over the horizon of trees1 the volcano of ,corcovado1 and the great flat-topped one to the north1 stood out in proud pre-eminence3 scarcely another peak in the long range showed its snowy summit4 ,i hope it will be long before ,i forget this farewell view of the magnificent ,cordillera fronting ,chiloe4 ,at night we bivouacked under a cloudless sky1 and the next morning reached ,s4 ,carlos4 ,we arrived on the right day1 for before evening heavy rain commenced4 ,february #dth4--,sailed from ,chiloe4 ,during the last week ,i made several short excursions4 ,one was to examine a great bed of now-existing shells1 elevated #cej feet above the level of the sea3 from among these shells1 large forest-trees were growing4 ,another ride was to ,p4 ,huechucucuy4 ,i had with me a guide who knew the country far too well2 for he would pertinaciously tell me endless ,indian names for every little point1 rivulet1 and creek4 ,in the same manner as in ,tierra del ,fuego1 the ,indian language appears singularly well adapted for attaching names to the most trivial features of the land4 ,i believe every one was glad to say farewell to ,chiloe2 yet if we could forget the gloom and ceaseless rain of winter1 ,chiloe might pass for a charming island4 ,there is also something very attractive in the simplicity and humble politeness of the poor inhabitants4 ,we steered northward along shore1 but owing to thick weather did not reach ,valdivia till the night of the #hth4 ,the next morning the boat proceeded to the town1 which is distant about ten miles4 ,we followed the course of the river1 occasionally passing a few hovels1 and patches of ground cleared out of the otherwise unbroken forest2 and sometimes meeting a canoe with an ,indian family4 ,the town is situated on the low banks of the stream1 and is so completely buried in a wood of apple-trees that the streets are merely paths in an orchard4 ,i have never seen any country where apple-trees appeared to thrive so well as in this damp part of ,south ,america3 on the borders of the roads there were many young trees evidently self-sown4 ,in ,chiloe the inhabitants possess a marvellously short method of making an orchard4 ,at the lower part of almost every branch1 small1 conical1 brown1 wrinkled points project3 these are always ready to change into roots1 as may sometimes be seen1 where any mud has been accidentally splashed against the tree4 ,a branch as thick as a man's thigh is chosen in the early spring1 and is cut off just beneath a group of these points1 all the smaller branches are lopped off1 and it is then placed about two feet deep in the ground4 ,during the ensuing summer the stump throws out long shoots1 and sometimes even bears fruit3 ,i was shown one which had produced as many as twenty-three apples1 but this was thought very unusual4 ,in the third season the stump is changed 7as ,i have myself seen7 into a well-wooded tree1 loaded with fruit4 ,an old man near ,valdivia illustrated his motto1 8,necesidad es la madre del invencion10 by giving an account of the several useful things he manufactured from his apples4 ,after making cider1 and likewise wine1 he extracted from the refuse a white and finely flavoured spirit2 by another process he procured a sweet treacle1 or1 as he called it1 honey4 ,his children and pigs seemed almost to live1 during this season of the year1 in his orchard4 ,february #aath4--,i set out with a guide on a short ride1 in which1 however1 ,i managed to see singularly little1 either of the geology of the country or of its inhabitants4 ,there is not much cleared land near ,valdivia3 after crossing a river at the distance of a few miles1 we entered the forest1 and then passed only one miserable hovel1 before reaching our sleeping-place for the night4 ,the short difference in latitude1 of #aej miles1 has given a new aspect to the forest compared with that of ,chiloe4 ,this is owing to a slightly different proportion in the kinds of trees4 ,the evergreens do not appear to be quite so numerous1 and the forest in consequence has a brighter tint4 ,as in ,chiloe1 the lower parts are matted together by canes3 here also another kind 7resembling the bamboo of ,brazil and about twenty feet in height7 grows in clusters1 and ornaments the banks of some of the streams in a very pretty manner4 ,it is with this plant that the ,indians make their chuzos1 or long tapering spears4 ,our resting-house was so dirty that ,i preferred sleeping outside3 on these journeys the first night is generally very uncomfortable1 because one is not accustomed to the tickling and biting of the fleas4 ,i am sure1 in the morning1 there was not a space on my legs of the size of a shilling which had not its little red mark where the flea had feasted4 #abth4--,we continued to ride through the uncleared forest2 only occasionally meeting an ,indian on horseback1 or a troop of fine mules bringing alerce-planks and corn from the southern plains4 ,in the afternoon one of the horses knocked up2 we were then on a brow of a hill1 which commanded a fine view of the ,llanos4 ,the view of these open plains was very refreshing1 after being hemmed in and buried in the wilderness of trees4 ,the uniformity of a forest soon becomes very wearisome4 ,this west coast makes me remember with pleasure the free1 unbounded plains of ,patagonia2 yet1 with the true spirit of contradiction1 ,i cannot forget how sublime is the silence of the forest4 ,the ,llanos are the most fertile and thickly peopled parts of the country1 as they possess the immense advantage of being nearly free from trees4 ,before leaving the forest we crossed some flat little lawns1 around which single trees stood1 as in an ,english park3 ,i have often noticed with surprise1 in wooded undulatory districts1 that the quite level parts have been destitute of trees4 ,on account of the tired horse1 ,i determined to stop at the ,mission of ,cudico1 to the friar of which ,i had a letter of introduction4 ,cudico is an intermediate district between the forest and the ,llanos4 ,there are a good many cottages1 with patches of corn and potatoes1 nearly all belonging to ,indians4 ,the tribes dependent on ,valdivia are 8reducidos y cristianos40 ,the ,indians farther northward1 about ,arauco and ,imperial1 are still very wild1 and not converted2 but they have all much intercourse with the ,spaniards4 ,the padre said that the ,christian ,indians did not much like coming to mass1 but that otherwise they showed respect for religion4 ,the greatest difficulty is in making them observe the ceremonies of marriage4 ,the wild ,indians take as many wives as they can support1 and a cacique will sometimes have more than ten3 on entering his house1 the number may be told by that of the separate fires4 ,each wife lives a week in turn with the cacique2 but all are employed in weaving ponchos1 etc41 for his profit4 ,to be the wife of a cacique is an honour much sought after by the ,indian women4 ,the men of all these tribes wear a coarse woolen poncho3 those south of ,valdivia wear short trousers1 and those north of it a petticoat1 like the chilipa of the ,gauchos4 ,all have their long hair bound by a scarlet fillet1 but with no other covering on their heads4 ,these ,indians are good-sized men2 their cheek-bones are prominent1 and in general appearance they resemble the great ,american family to which they belong2 but their physiognomy seemed to me to be slightly different from that of any other tribe which ,i had before seen4 ,their expression is generally grave1 and even austere1 and possesses much character3 this may pass either for honest bluntness or fierce determination4 ,the long black hair1 the grave and much-lined features1 and the dark complexion1 called to my mind old portraits of ,james ,i4 ,on the road we met with none of that humble politeness so universal in ,chiloe4 ,some gave their 8mari-mari0 7good morning7 with promptness1 but the greater number did not seem inclined to offer any salute4 ,this independence of manners is probably a consequence of their long wars1 and the repeated victories which they alone1 of all the tribes in ,america1 have gained over the ,spaniards4 ,i spent the evening very pleasantly1 talking with the padre4 ,he was exceedingly kind and hospitable2 and coming from ,santiago1 had contrived to surround himself with some few comforts4 ,being a man of some little education1 he bitterly complained of the total want of society4 ,with no particular zeal for religion1 no business or pursuit1 how completely must this man's life be wasted6 ,the next day1 on our return1 we met seven very wild-looking ,indians1 of whom some were caciques that had just received from the ,chilian government their yearly small stipend for having long remained faithful4 ,they were fine-looking men1 and they rode one after the other1 with most gloomy faces4 ,an old cacique1 who headed them1 had been1 ,i suppose1 more excessively drunk than the rest1 for he seemed both extremely grave and very crabbed4 ,shortly before this1 two ,indians joined us1 who were travelling from a distant mission to ,valdivia concerning some lawsuit4 ,one was a good-humoured old man1 but from his wrinkled beardless face looked more like an old woman than a man4 ,i frequently presented both of them with cigars2 and though ready to receive them1 and ,i daresay grateful1 they would hardly condescend to thank me4 ,a ,chilotan ,indian would have taken off his hat1 and given his 8,dios le page60 ,the travelling was very tedious1 both from the badness of the roads and from the number of great fallen trees1 which it was necessary either to leap over or to avoid by making long circuits4 ,we slept on the road1 and next morning reached ,valdivia1 whence ,i proceeded on board4 ,a few days afterwards ,i crossed the bay with a party of officers1 and landed near the fort called ,niebla4 ,the buildings were in a most ruinous state1 and the gun-carriages quite rotten4 ,mr4 ,wickham remarked to the commanding officer1 that with one discharge they would certainly all fall to pieces4 ,the poor man1 trying to put a good face upon it1 gravely replied1 8,no1 ,i am sure1 sir1 they would stand two60 ,the ,spaniards must have intended to have made this place impregnable4 ,there is now lying in the middle of the courtyard a little mountain of mortar1 which rivals in hardness the rock on which it is placed4 ,it was brought from ,chile1 and cost #gjjj dollars4 ,the revolution having broken out prevented its being applied to any purpose1 and now it remains a monument of the fallen greatness of ,spain4 ,i wanted to go to a house about a mile and a half distant1 but my guide said it was quite impossible to penetrate the wood in a straight line4 ,he offered1 however1 to lead me1 by following obscure cattle-tracks1 the shortest way3 the walk1 nevertheless1 took no less than three hours6 ,this man is employed in hunting strayed cattle2 yet1 well as he must know the woods1 he was not long since lost for two whole days1 and had nothing to eat4 ,these facts convey a good idea of the impracticability of the forests of these countries4 ,a question often occurred to me--how long does any vestige of a fallen tree remain8 ,this man showed me one which a party of fugitive royalists had cut down fourteen years ago2 and taking this as a criterion1 ,i should think a bole a foot and a half in diameter would in thirty years be changed into a heap of mould4 ,february #bjth4--,this day has been memorable in the annals of ,valdivia1 for the most severe earthquake experienced by the oldest inhabitant4 ,i happened to be on shore1 and was lying down in the wood to rest myself4 ,it came on suddenly1 and lasted two minutes1 but the time appeared much longer4 ,the rocking of the ground was very sensible4 ,the undulations appeared to my companion and myself to come from due east1 whilst others thought they proceeded from south-west3 this shows how difficult it sometimes is to perceive the direction of the vibrations4 ,there was no difficulty in standing upright1 but the motion made me almost giddy3 it was something like the movement of a vessel in a little cross-ripple1 or still more like that felt by a person skating over thin ice1 which bends under the weight of his body4 ,a bad earthquake at once destroys our oldest associations3 the earth1 the very emblem of solidity1 has moved beneath our feet like a thin crust over a fluid2--one second of time has created in the mind a strange idea of insecurity1 which hours of reflection would not have produced4 ,in the forest1 as a breeze moved the trees1 ,i felt only the earth tremble1 but saw no other effect4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy and some officers were at the town during the shock1 and there the scene was more striking2 for although the houses1 from being built of wood1 did not fall1 they were violently shaken1 and the boards creaked and rattled together4 ,the people rushed out of doors in the greatest alarm4 ,it is these accompaniments that create that perfect horror of earthquakes1 experienced by all who have thus seen1 as well as felt1 their effects4 ,within the forest it was a deeply interesting1 but by no means an awe-exciting phenomenon4 ,the tides were very curiously affected4 ,the great shock took place at the time of low water2 and an old woman who was on the beach told me that the water flowed very quickly1 but not in great waves1 to high-water mark1 and then as quickly returned to its proper level2 this was also evident by the line of wet sand4 ,the same kind of quick but quiet movement in the tide happened a few years since at ,chiloe1 during a slight earthquake1 and created much causeless alarm4 ,in the course of the evening there were many weaker shocks1 which seemed to produce in the harbour the most complicated currents1 and some of great strength4 ,march #dth4--,we entered the harbour of ,concepcion4 ,while the ship was beating up to the anchorage1 ,i landed on the island of ,quiriquina4 ,the mayor-domo of the estate quickly rode down to tell me the terrible news of the great earthquake of the #bjth3--8,that not a house in ,concepcion or ,talcahuano 7the port7 was standing2 that seventy villages were destroyed2 and that a great wave had almost washed away the ruins of ,talcahuano40 ,of this latter statement ,i soon saw abundant proofs--the whole coast being strewed over with timber and furniture as if a thousand ships had been wrecked4 ,besides chairs1 tables1 book-shelves1 etc41 in great numbers1 there were several roofs of cottages1 which had been transported almost whole4 ,the storehouses at ,talcahuano had been burst open1 and great bags of cotton1 yerba1 and other valuable merchandise were scattered on the shore4 ,during my walk round the island1 ,i observed that numerous fragments of rock1 which1 from the marine productions adhering to them1 must recently have been lying in deep water1 had been cast up high on the beach2 one of these was six feet long1 three broad1 and two thick4 ,the island itself as plainly showed the overwhelming power of the earthquake1 as the beach did that of the consequent great wave4 ,the ground in many parts was fissured in north and south lines1 perhaps caused by the yielding of the parallel and steep sides of this narrow island4 ,some of the fissures near the cliffs were a yard wide4 ,many enormous masses had already fallen on the beach2 and the inhabitants thought that when the rains commenced far greater slips would happen4 ,the effect of the vibration on the hard primary slate1 which composes the foundation of the island1 was still more curious3 the superficial parts of some narrow ridges were as completely shivered as if they had been blasted by gunpowder4 ,this effect1 which was rendered conspicuous by the fresh fractures and displaced soil1 must be confined to near the surface1 for otherwise there would not exist a block of solid rock throughout ,chile2 nor is this improbable1 as it is known that the surface of a vibrating body is affected differently from the central part4 ,it is1 perhaps1 owing to this same reason that earthquakes do not cause quite such terrific havoc within deep mines as would be expected4 ,i believe this convulsion has been more effectual in lessening the size of the island of ,quiriquina1 than the ordinary wear-and-tear of the sea and weather during the course of a whole century4 ,the next day ,i landed at ,talcahuano1 and afterwards rode to ,concepcion4 ,both towns presented the most awful yet interesting spectacle ,i ever beheld4 ,to a person who had formerly known them1 it possibly might have been still more impressive2 for the ruins were so mingled together1 and the whole scene possessed so little the air of a habitable place1 that it was scarcely possible to imagine its former condition4 ,the earthquake commenced at half-past eleven o'clock in the forenoon4 ,if it had happened in the middle of the night1 the greater number of the inhabitants 7which in this one province amount to many thousands7 must have perished1 instead of less than a hundred3 as it was1 the invariable practice of running out of doors at the first trembling of the ground1 alone saved them4 ,in ,concepcion each house1 or row of houses1 stood by itself1 a heap or line of ruins2 but in ,talcahuano1 owing to the great wave1 little more than one layer of bricks1 tiles1 and timber1 with here and there part of a wall left standing1 could be distinguished4 ,from this circumstance ,concepcion1 although not so completely desolated1 was a more terrible1 and if ,i may so call it1 picturesque sight4 ,the first shock was very sudden4 ,the mayor-domo at ,quiriquina told me that the first notice he received of it1 was finding both the horse he rode and himself rolling together on the ground4 ,rising up1 he was again thrown down4 ,he also told me that some cows which were standing on the steep side of the island were rolled into the sea4 ,the great wave caused the destruction of many cattle2 on one low island near the head of the bay1 seventy animals were washed off and drowned4 ,it is generally thought that this has been the worst earthquake ever recorded in ,chile2 but as the very severe ones occur only after long intervals1 this cannot easily be known2 nor indeed would a much worse shock have made any great difference1 for the ruin was now complete4 ,innumerable small tremblings followed the great earthquake1 and within the first twelve days no less than three hundred were counted4 ,after viewing ,concepcion1 ,i cannot understand how the greater number of inhabitants escaped unhurt4 ,the houses in many parts fell outwards2 thus forming in the middle of the streets little hillocks of brickwork and rubbish4 ,mr4 ,rouse1 the ,english consul1 told us that he was at breakfast when the first movement warned him to run out4 ,he had scarcely reached the middle of the courtyard1 when one side of his house came thundering down4 ,he retained presence of mind to remember that1 if he once got on the top of that part which had already fallen1 he would be safe4 ,not being able from the motion of the ground to stand1 he crawled up on his hands and knees2 and no sooner had he ascended this little eminence1 than the other side of the house fell in1 the great beams sweeping close in front of his head4 ,with his eyes blinded and his mouth choked with the cloud of dust which darkened the sky1 at last he gained the street4 ,as shock succeeded shock1 at the interval of a few minutes1 no one dared approach the shattered ruins1 and no one knew whether his dearest friends and relations were not perishing from the want of help4 ,those who had saved any property were obliged to keep a constant watch1 for thieves prowled about1 and at each little trembling of the ground1 with one hand they beat their breasts and cried 8misericordia60 and then with the other filched what they could from the ruins4 ,the thatched roofs fell over the fires1 and flames burst forth in all parts4 ,hundreds knew themselves ruined1 and few had the means of providing food for the day4 ,earthquakes alone are sufficient to destroy the prosperity of any country4 ,if beneath ,england the now inert subterranean forces should exert those powers which most assuredly in former geological ages they have exerted1 how completely would the entire condition of the country be changed6 ,what would become of the lofty houses1 thickly packed cities1 great manufactories1 the beautiful public and private edifices8 ,if the new period of disturbance were first to commence by some great earthquake in the dead of the night1 how terrific would be the carnage6 ,england would at once be bankrupt2 all papers1 records1 and accounts would from that moment be lost4 ,government being unable to collect the taxes1 and failing to maintain its authority1 the hand of violence and rapine would remain uncontrolled4 ,in every large town famine would go forth1 pestilence and death following in its train4 ,shortly after the shock1 a great wave was seen from the distance of three or four miles1 approaching in the middle of the bay with a smooth outline2 but along the shore it tore up cottages and trees1 as it swept onwards with irresistible force4 ,at the head of the bay it broke in a fearful line of white breakers1 which rushed up to a height of #bc vertical feet above the highest spring-tides4 ,their force must have been prodigious2 for at the ,fort a cannon with its carriage1 estimated at four tons in weight1 was moved #ae feet inwards4 ,a schooner was left in the midst of the ruins1 #bjj yards from the beach4 ,the first wave was followed by two others1 which in their retreat carried away a vast wreck of floating objects4 ,in one part of the bay1 a ship was pitched high and dry on shore1 was carried off1 again driven on shore1 and again carried off4 ,in another part two large vessels anchored near together were whirled about1 and their cables were thrice wound round each other3 though anchored at a depth of #cf feet1 they were for some minutes aground4 ,the great wave must have travelled slowly1 for the inhabitants of ,talcahuano had time to run up the hills behind the town2 and some sailors pulled out seaward1 trusting successfully to their boat riding securely over the swell1 if they could reach it before it broke4 ,one old woman with a little boy1 four or five years old1 ran into a boat1 but there was nobody to row it out3 the boat was consequently dashed against an anchor and cut in twain2 the old woman was drowned1 but the child was picked up some hours afterwards clinging to the wreck4 ,pools of salt-water were still standing amidst the ruins of the houses1 and children1 making boats with old tables and chairs1 appeared as happy as their parents were miserable4 ,it was1 however1 exceedingly interesting to observe1 how much more active and cheerful all appeared than could have been expected4 ,it was remarked with much truth1 that from the destruction being universal1 no one individual was humbled more than another1 or could suspect his friends of coldness--that most grievous result of the loss of wealth4 ,mr4 ,rouse1 and a large party whom he kindly took under his protection1 lived for the first week in a garden beneath some apple-trees4 ,at first they were as merry as if it had been a picnic2 but soon afterwards heavy rain caused much discomfort1 for they were absolutely without shelter4 ,in ,captain ,fitz ,roy's excellent account of the earthquake it is said that two explosions1 one like a column of smoke and another like the blowing of a great whale1 were seen in the bay4 ,the water also appeared everywhere to be boiling2 and it 8became black1 and exhaled a most disagreeable sulphureous smell40 ,these latter circumstances were observed in the ,bay of ,valparaiso during the earthquake of #ahbb2 they may1 ,i think1 be accounted for by the disturbance of the mud at the bottom of the sea containing organic matter in decay4 ,in the ,bay of ,callao1 during a calm day1 ,i noticed1 that as the ship dragged her cable over the bottom1 its course was marked by a line of bubbles4 ,the lower orders in ,talcahuano thought that the earthquake was caused by some old ,indian women1 who two years ago1 being offended1 stopped the volcano of ,antuco4 ,this silly belief is curious1 because it shows that experience has taught them to observe that there exists a relation between the suppressed action of the volcanos1 and the trembling of the ground4 ,it was necessary to apply the witchcraft to the point where their perception of cause and effect failed2 and this was the closing of the volcanic vent4 ,this belief is the more singular in this particular instance because1 according to ,captain ,fitz ,roy1 there is reason to believe that ,antuco was noways affected4 ,the town of ,concepcion was built in the usual ,spanish fashion1 with all the streets running at right angles to each other2 one set ranging south-west by west1 and the other set north-west by north4 ,the walls in the former direction certainly stood better than those in the latter2 the greater number of the masses of brickwork were thrown down towards the ,n4,e4 ,both these circumstances perfectly agree with the general idea of the undulations having come from the ,s4,w42 in which quarter subterranean noises were also heard2 for it is evident that the walls running ,s4,w4 and ,n4,e4 which presented their ends to the point whence the undulations came1 would be much less likely to fall than those walls which1 running ,n4,w4 and ,s4,e41 must in their whole lengths have been at the same instant thrown out of the perpendicular2 for the undulations1 coming from the ,s4,w41 must have extended in ,n4,w4 and ,s4,e4 waves1 as they passed under the foundations4 ,this may be illustrated by placing books edgeways on a carpet1 and then1 after the manner suggested by ,michell1 imitating the undulations of an earthquake3 it will be found that they fall with more or less readiness1 according as their direction more or less nearly coincides with the line of the waves4 ,the fissures in the ground generally1 though not uniformly1 extended in a ,s4,e4 and ,n4,w4 direction1 and therefore corresponded to the lines of undulation or of principal flexure4 ,bearing in mind all these circumstances1 which so clearly point to the ,s4,w4 as the chief focus of disturbance1 it is a very interesting fact that the island of ,s4 ,maria1 situated in that quarter1 was1 during the general uplifting of the land1 raised to nearly three times the height of any other part of the coast4 ,the different resistance offered by the walls1 according to their direction1 was well exemplified in the case of the ,cathedral4 ,the side which fronted the ,n4,e4 presented a grand pile of ruins1 in the midst of which door-cases and masses of timber stood up1 as if floating in a stream4 ,some of the angular blocks of brickwork were of great dimensions2 and they were rolled to a distance on the level plaza1 like fragments of rock at the base of some high mountain4 ,the side walls 7running ,s4,w4 and ,n4,e471 though exceedingly fractured1 yet remained standing2 but the vast buttresses 7at right angles to them1 and therefore parallel to the walls that fell7 were in many cases cut clean off1 as if by a chisel1 and hurled to the ground4 ,some square ornaments on the coping of these same walls were moved by the earthquake into a diagonal position4 ,a similar circumstance was observed after an earthquake at ,valparaiso1 ,calabria1 and other places1 including some of the ancient ,greek temples4#a ,this twisting displacement at first appears to indicate a vorticose movement beneath each point thus affected2 but this is highly improbable4 ,may it not be caused by a tendency in each stone to arrange itself in some particular position with respect to the lines of vibration1--in a manner somewhat similar to pins on a sheet of paper when shaken8 ,generally speaking1 arched doorways or windows stood much better than any other part of the buildings4 ,nevertheless1 a poor lame old man1 who had been in the habit1 during trifling shocks1 of crawling to a certain doorway1 was this time crushed to pieces4 #a ,m4 ,arago in ,l',institut1 #ahci1 p4 #ccg4 ,see also ,miers's ,chile1 vol4 i1 p4 #cib2 also ,lyell's ,principles of ,geology1 chap4 xv1 book ii4 ,i have not attempted to give any detailed description of the appearance of ,concepcion1 for ,i feel that it is quite impossible to convey the mingled feelings which ,i experienced4 ,several of the officers visited it before me1 but their strongest language failed to give a just idea of the scene of desolation4 ,it is a bitter and humiliating thing to see works1 which have cost man so much time and labour1 overthrown in one minute2 yet compassion for the inhabitants was almost instantly banished1 by the surprise in seeing a state of things produced in a moment of time1 which one was accustomed to attribute to a succession of ages4 ,in my opinion1 we have scarcely beheld1 since leaving ,england1 any sight so deeply interesting4 ,in almost every severe earthquake1 the neighbouring waters of the sea are said to have been greatly agitated4 ,the disturbance seems generally1 as in the case of ,concepcion1 to have been of two kinds3 first1 at the instant of the shock1 the water swells high up on the beach with a gentle motion1 and then as quietly retreats2 secondly1 some time afterwards1 the whole body of the sea retires from the coast1 and then returns in waves of overwhelming force4 ,the first movement seems to be an immediate consequence of the earthquake affecting differently a fluid and a solid1 so that their respective levels are slightly deranged3 but the second case is a far more important phenomenon4 ,during most earthquakes1 and especially during those on the west coast of ,america1 it is certain that the first great movement of the waters has been a retirement4 ,some authors have attempted to explain this1 by supposing that the water retains its level1 whilst the land oscillates upwards2 but surely the water close to the land1 even on a rather steep coast1 would partake of the motion of the bottom3 moreover1 as urged by ,mr4 ,lyell1 similar movements of the sea have occurred at islands far distant from the chief line of disturbance1 as was the case with ,juan ,fernandez during this earthquake1 and with ,madeira during the famous ,lisbon shock4 ,i suspect 7but the subject is a very obscure one7 that a wave1 however produced1 first draws the water from the shore1 on which it is advancing to break3 ,i have observed that this happens with the little waves from the paddles of a steam-boat4 ,it is remarkable that whilst ,talcahuano and ,callao 7near ,lima71 both situated at the head of large shallow bays1 have suffered during every severe earthquake from great waves1 ,valparaiso1 seated close to the edge of profoundly deep water1 has never been overwhelmed1 though so often shaken by the severest shocks4 ,from the great wave not immediately following the earthquake1 but sometimes after the interval of even half an hour1 and from distant islands being affected similarly with the coasts near the focus of the disturbance1 it appears that the wave first rises in the offing2 and as this is of general occurrence1 the cause must be general3 ,i suspect we must look to the line where the less disturbed waters of the deep ocean join the water nearer the coast1 which has partaken of the movements of the land1 as the place where the great wave is first generated2 it would also appear that the wave is larger or smaller1 according to the extent of shoal water which has been agitated together with the bottom on which it rested4 ,the most remarkable effect of this earthquake was the permanent elevation of the land2 it would probably be far more correct to speak of it as the cause4 ,there can be no doubt that the land round the ,bay of ,concepcion was upraised two or three feet2 but it deserves notice1 that owing to the wave having obliterated the old lines of tidal action on the sloping sandy shores1 ,i could discover no evidence of this fact1 except in the united testimony of the inhabitants1 that one little rocky shoal1 now exposed1 was formerly covered with water4 ,at the island of ,s4 ,maria 7about thirty miles distant7 the elevation was greater2 on one part1 ,captain ,fitz ,roy found beds of putrid mussel-shells still adhering to the rocks1 ten feet above high-water mark3 the inhabitants had formerly dived at lower-water spring-tides for these shells4 ,the elevation of this province is particularly interesting1 from its having been the theatre of several other violent earthquakes1 and from the vast numbers of sea-shells scattered over the land1 up to a height of certainly #fjj1 and ,i believe1 of #ajjj feet4 ,at ,valparaiso1 as ,i have remarked1 similar shells are found at the height of #acjj feet3 it is hardly possible to doubt that this great elevation has been effected by successive small uprisings1 such as that which accompanied or caused the earthquake of this year1 and likewise by an insensibly slow rise1 which is certainly in progress on some parts of this coast4 ,the island of ,juan ,fernandez1 #cfj miles to the ,n4,e41 was1 at the time of the great shock of the #bjth1 violently shaken1 so that the trees beat against each other1 and a volcano burst forth under water close to the shore3 these facts are remarkable because this island1 during the earthquake of #agea1 was then also affected more violently than other places at an equal distance from ,concepcion1 and this seems to show some subterranean connexion between these two points4 ,chiloe1 about #cdj miles southward of ,concepcion1 appears to have been shaken more strongly than the intermediate district of ,valdivia1 where the volcano of ,villarica was noways affected1 whilst in the ,cordillera in front of ,chiloe two of the volcanos burst forth at the same instant in violent action4 ,these two volcanos1 and some neighbouring ones1 continued for a long time in eruption1 and ten months afterwards were again influenced by an earthquake at ,concepcion4 ,some men cutting wood near the base of one of these volcanos1 did not perceive the shock of the #bjth1 although the whole surrounding ,province was then trembling2 here we have an eruption relieving and taking the place of an earthquake1 as would have happened at ,concepcion1 according to the belief of the lower orders1 if the volcano at ,antuco had not been closed by witchcraft4 ,two years and three-quarters afterwards ,valdivia and ,chiloe were again shaken1 more violently than on the #bjth1 and an island in the ,chonos ,archipelago was permanently elevated more than eight feet4 ,it will give a better idea of the scale of these phenomena1 if 7as in the case of the glaciers7 we suppose them to have taken place at corresponding distances in ,europe3--then would the land from the ,north ,sea to the ,mediterranean have been violently shaken1 and at the same instant of time a large tract of the eastern coast of ,england would have been permanently elevated1 together with some outlying islands1--a train of volcanos on the coast of ,holland would have burst forth in action1 and an eruption taken place at the bottom of the sea1 near the northern extremity of ,ireland--and lastly1 the ancient vents of ,auvergne1 ,cantal1 and ,mont d',or would each have sent up to the sky a dark column of smoke1 and have long remained in fierce action4 ,two years and three-quarters afterwards1 ,france1 from its centre to the ,english ,channel1 would have been again desolated by an earthquake1 and an island permanently upraised in the ,mediterranean4 ,the space1 from under which volcanic matter on the #bjth was actually erupted1 is #gbj miles in one line1 and #djj miles in another line at right angles to the first3 hence1 in all probability1 a subterranean lake of lava is here stretched out1 of nearly double the area of the ,black ,sea4 ,from the intimate and complicated manner in which the elevatory and eruptive forces were shown to be connected during this train of phenomena1 we may confidently come to the conclusion that the forces which slowly and by little starts uplift continents1 and those which at successive periods pour forth volcanic matter from open orifices1 are identical4 ,from many reasons1 ,i believe that the frequent quakings of the earth on this line of coast are caused by the rending of the strata1 necessarily consequent on the tension of the land when upraised1 and their injection by fluidified rock4 ,this rending and injection would1 if repeated often enough 7and we know that earthquakes repeatedly affect the same areas in the same manner71 form a chain of hills2--and the linear island of ,st4 ,mary1 which was upraised thrice the height of the neighbouring country1 seems to be undergoing this process4 ,i believe that the solid axis of a mountain differs in its manner of formation from a volcanic hill1 only in the molten stone having been repeatedly injected1 instead of having been repeatedly ejected4 ,moreover1 ,i believe that it is impossible to explain the structure of great mountain-chains1 such as that of the ,cordillera1 where the strata1 capping the injected axis of plutonic rock1 have been thrown on their edges along several parallel and neighbouring lines of elevation1 except on this view of the rock of the axis having been repeatedly injected1 after intervals sufficiently long to allow the upper parts or wedges to cool and become solid2--for if the strata had been thrown into their present highly-inclined1 vertical1 and even inverted positions1 by a single blow1 the very bowels of the earth would have gushed out2 and instead of beholding abrupt mountain-axes of rock solidified under great pressure1 deluges of lava would have flowed out at innumerable points on every line of elevation4#b #b ,for a full account of the volcanic phenomena which accompanied the earthquake of the #bjth1 and for the conclusions deducible from them1 ,i must refer to ,volume ,v of the ,geological ,transactions4 ,illustration3 ,hide ,bridge1 ,santiago de ,chile ,chapter ,,xv ,valparaiso--,portillo ,pass--,sagacity of mules--,mountain-torrents--,mines1 how discovered--,proofs of the gradual elevation of the ,cordillera--,effect of snow on rocks--,geological structure of the two main ranges1 their distinct origin and upheaval--,great subsidence--,red snow--,winds--,pinnacles of snow--,dry and clear atmosphere--,electricity--,pampas--,zool ogy of the opposite sides of the ,andes--,locusts--,great ,bugs--,mendoza--,uspallata ,pass--,silicified trees buried as they grew--,incas ,bridge--,badness of the passes exaggerated--,cumbre--,casuchas--,valpar aiso4 ,,passage ,,of ,,the ,,cordillera ,march #gth1 #ahce4--,we stayed three days at ,concepcion1 and then sailed for ,valparaiso4 ,the wind being northerly1 we only reached the mouth of the harbour of ,concepcion before it was dark4 ,being very near the land1 and a fog coming on1 the anchor was dropped4 ,presently a large ,american whaler appeared close alongside of us2 and we heard the ,yankee swearing at his men to keep quiet1 whilst he listened for the breakers4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy hailed him1 in a loud clear voice1 to anchor where he then was4 ,the poor man must have thought the voice came from the shore3 such a ,babel of cries issued at once from the ship--every one hallooing out1 8,let go the anchor6 veer cable6 shorten sail60 ,it was the most laughable thing ,i ever heard4 ,if the ship's crew had been all captains1 and no men1 there could not have been a greater uproar of orders4 ,we afterwards found that the mate stuttered3 ,i suppose all hands were assisting him in giving his orders4 ,on the #aath we anchored at ,valparaiso1 and two days afterwards ,i set out to cross the ,cordillera4 ,i proceeded to ,santiago1 where ,mr4 ,caldcleugh most kindly assisted me in every possible way in making the little preparations which were necessary4 ,in this part of ,chile there are two passes across the ,andes to ,mendoza3 the one most commonly used1 namely1 that of ,aconcagua or ,uspallata--is situated some way to the north2 the other1 called the ,portillo1 is to the south1 and nearer1 but more lofty and dangerous4 ,march #ahth4--,we set out for the ,portillo pass4 ,leaving ,santiago we crossed the wide burnt-up plain on which that city stands1 and in the afternoon arrived at the ,maypu1 one of the principal rivers in ,chile4 ,the valley1 at the point where it enters the first ,cordillera1 is bounded on each side by lofty barren mountains2 and although not broad1 it is very fertile4 ,numerous cottages were surrounded by vines1 and by orchards of apple1 nectarine1 and peach-trees--their boughs breaking with the weight of the beautiful ripe fruit4 ,in the evening we passed the custom-house1 where our luggage was examined4 ,the frontier of ,chile is better guarded by the ,cordillera than by the waters of the sea4 ,there are very few valleys which lead to the central ranges1 and the mountains are quite impassable in other parts by beasts of burden4 ,the custom-house officers were very civil1 which was perhaps partly owing to the passport which the ,president of the ,republic had given me2 but ,i must express my admiration at the natural politeness of almost every ,chileno4 ,in this instance1 the contrast with the same class of men in most other countries was strongly marked4 ,i may mention an anecdote with which ,i was at the time much pleased3 we met near ,mendoza a little and very fat negress1 riding astride on a mule4 ,she had a gotre so enormous that it was scarcely possible to avoid gazing at her for a moment2 but my two companions almost instantly1 by way of apology1 made the common salute of the country by taking off their hats4 ,where would one of the lower or higher classes in ,europe have shown such feeling politeness to a poor and miserable object of a degraded race8 ,at night we slept at a cottage4 ,our manner of travelling was delightfully independent4 ,in the inhabited parts we bought a little firewood1 hired pasture for the animals1 and bivouacked in the corner of the same field with them4 ,carrying an iron pot1 we cooked and ate our supper under a cloudless sky1 and knew no trouble4 ,my companions were ,mariano ,gonzales1 who had formerly accompanied me in ,chile1 and an 8arriero10 with his ten mules and a 8madrina40 ,the madrina 7or godmother7 is a most important personage3 she is an old steady mare1 with a little bell round her neck2 and wherever she goes1 the mules1 like good children1 follow her4 ,the affection of these animals for their madrinas saves infinite trouble4 ,if several large troops are turned into one field to graze1 in the morning the muleteers have only to lead the madrinas a little apart1 and tinkle their bells2 and although there may be two or three hundred together1 each mule immediately knows the bell of its own madrina1 and comes to her4 ,it is nearly impossible to lose an old mule2 for if detained for several hours by force1 she will1 by the power of smell1 like a dog1 track out her companions1 or rather the madrina1 for1 according to the muleteer1 she is the chief object of affection4 ,the feeling1 however1 is not of an individual nature2 for ,i believe ,i am right in saying that any animal with a bell will serve as a madrina4 ,in a troop each animal carries on a level road1 a cargo weighing #daf pounds 7more than #bi stone71 but in a mountainous country #ajj pounds less2 yet with what delicate slim limbs1 without any proportional bulk of muscle1 these animals support so great a burden6 ,the mule always appears to me a most surprising animal4 ,that a hybrid should possess more reason1 memory1 obstinacy1 social affection1 powers of muscular endurance1 and length of life1 than either of its parents1 seems to indicate that art has here outdone nature4 ,of our ten animals1 six were intended for riding1 and four for carrying cargoes1 each taking turn about4 ,we carried a good deal of food in case we should be snowed up1 as the season was rather late for passing the ,portillo4 ,illustration ,march #aith4--,we rode during this day to the last1 and therefore most elevated1 house in the valley4 ,the number of inhabitants became scanty2 but wherever water could be brought on the land1 it was very fertile4 ,all the main valleys in the ,cordillera are characterised by having1 on both sides1 a fringe or terrace of shingle and sand1 rudely stratified1 and generally of considerable thickness4 ,these fringes evidently once extended across the valleys and were united2 and the bottoms of the valleys in northern ,chile1 where there are no streams1 are thus smoothly filled up4 ,on these fringes the roads are generally carried1 for their surfaces are even1 and they rise with a very gentle slope up the valleys3 hence1 also1 they are easily cultivated by irrigation4 ,they may be traced up to a height of between #gjjj and #ijjj feet1 where they become hidden by the irregular piles of debris4 ,at the lower end or mouths of the valleys they are continuously united to those land-locked plains 7also formed of shingle7 at the foot of the main ,cordillera1 which ,i have described in a former chapter as characteristic of the scenery of ,chile1 and which were undoubtedly deposited when the sea penetrated ,chile1 as it now does the more southern coasts4 ,no one fact in the geology of ,south ,america interested me more than these terraces of rudely-stratified shingle4 ,they precisely resemble in composition the matter which the torrents in each valley would deposit if they were checked in their course by any cause1 such as entering a lake or arm of the sea2 but the torrents1 instead of depositing matter1 are now steadily at work wearing away both the solid rock and these alluvial deposits1 along the whole line of every main valley and side valley4 ,it is impossible here to give the reasons1 but ,i am convinced that the shingle terraces were accumulated1 during the gradual elevation of the ,cordillera1 by the torrents delivering1 at successive levels1 their detritus on the beach-heads of long narrow arms of the sea1 first high up the valleys1 then lower and lower down as the land slowly rose4 ,if this be so1 and ,i cannot doubt it1 the grand and broken chain of the ,cordillera1 instead of having been suddenly thrown up1 as was till lately the universal1 and still is the common opinion of geologists1 has been slowly upheaved in mass1 in the same gradual manner as the coasts of the ,atlantic and ,pacific have risen within the recent period4 ,a multitude of facts in the structure of the ,cordillera1 on this view receive a simple explanation4 ,south ,american bit ,the rivers which flow in these valleys ought rather to be called mountain-torrents4 ,their inclination is very great1 and their water the colour of mud4 ,the roar which the ,maypu made1 as it rushed over the great rounded fragments1 was like that of the sea4 ,amidst the din of rushing waters1 the noise from the stones1 as they rattled one over another1 was most distinctly audible even from a distance4 ,this rattling noise1 night and day1 may be heard along the whole course of the torrent4 ,the sound spoke eloquently to the geologist2 the thousands and thousands of stones which1 striking against each other1 made the one dull uniform sound1 were all hurrying in one direction4 ,it was like thinking on time1 where the minute that now glides past is irrevocable4 ,so was it with these stones2 the ocean is their eternity1 and each note of that wild music told of one more step towards their destiny4 ,it is not possible for the mind to comprehend1 except by a slow process1 any effect which is produced by a cause repeated so often that the multiplier itself conveys an idea not more definite than the savage implies when he points to the hairs of his head4 ,as often as ,i have seen beds of mud1 sand1 and shingle1 accumulated to the thickness of many thousand feet1 ,i have felt inclined to exclaim that causes1 such as the present rivers and the present beaches1 could never have ground down and produced such masses4 ,but1 on the other hand1 when listening to the rattling noise of these torrents1 and calling to mind that whole races of animals have passed away from the face of the earth1 and that during this whole period1 night and day1 these stones have gone rattling onwards in their course1 ,i have thought to myself1 can any mountains1 any continent1 withstand such waste8 ,in this part of the valley1 the mountains on each side were from #cjjj to #fjjj or #hjjj feet high1 with rounded outlines and steep bare flanks4 ,the general colour of the rock was dullish purple1 and the stratification very distinct4 ,if the scenery was not beautiful1 it was remarkable and grand4 ,we met during the day several herds of cattle1 which men were driving down from the higher valleys in the ,cordillera4 ,this sign of the approaching winter hurried our steps1 more than was convenient for geologising4 ,the house where we slept was situated at the foot of a mountain1 on the summit of which are the mines of ,s4 ,pedro de ,nolasko4 ,sir ,f4 ,head marvels how mines have been discovered in such extraordinary situations1 as the bleak summit of the mountain of ,s4 ,pedro de ,nolasko4 ,in the first place1 metallic veins in this country are generally harder than the surrounding strata3 hence1 during the gradual wear of the hills1 they project above the surface of the ground4 ,secondly1 almost every labourer1 especially in the northern parts of ,chile1 understands something about the appearance of ores4 ,in the great mining provinces of ,coquimbo and ,copiap1 firewood is very scarce1 and men search for it over every hill and dale2 and by this means nearly all the richest mines have there been discovered4 ,chanuncillo1 from which silver to the value of many hundred thousand pounds has been raised in the course of a few years1 was discovered by a man who threw a stone at his loaded donkey1 and thinking that it was very heavy1 he picked it up1 and found it full of pure silver3 the vein occurred at no great distance1 standing up like a wedge of metal4 ,the miners1 also1 taking a crowbar with them1 often wander on ,sundays over the mountains4 ,in this south part of ,chile the men who drive cattle into the ,cordillera1 and who frequent every ravine where there is a little pasture1 are the usual discoverers4 #bjth4--,as we ascended the valley1 the vegetation1 with the exception of a few pretty alpine flowers1 became exceedingly scanty2 and of quadrupeds1 birds1 or insects1 scarcely one could be seen4 ,the lofty mountains1 their summits marked with a few patches of snow1 stood well separated from each other2 the valleys being filled up with an immense thickness of stratified alluvium4 ,the features in the scenery of the ,andes which struck me most1 as contrasted with the other mountain chains with which ,i am acquainted1 were1--the flat fringes sometimes expanding into narrow plains on each side of the valleys1--the bright colours1 chiefly red and purple1 of the utterly bare and precipitous hills of porphyry1 the grand and continuous wall-like dikes1--the plainly-divided strata which1 where nearly vertical1 formed the picturesque and wild central pinnacles1 but where less inclined1 composed the great massive mountains on the outskirts of the range1--and lastly1 the smooth conical piles of fine and brightly coloured detritus1 which sloped up at a high angle from the base of the mountains1 sometimes to a height of more than #bjjj feet4 ,i frequently observed1 both in ,tierra del ,fuego and within the ,andes1 that where the rock was covered during the greater part of the year with snow1 it was shivered in a very extraordinary manner into small angular fragments4 ,scoresby#a has observed the same fact in ,spitzbergen4 ,the case appears to me rather obscure3 for that part of the mountain which is protected by a mantle of snow must be less subject to repeated and great changes of temperature than any other part4 ,i have sometimes thought that the earth and fragments of stone on the surface were perhaps less effectually removed by slowly percolating snow-water#b than by rain1 and therefore that the appearance of a quicker disintegration of the solid rock under the snow was deceptive4 ,whatever the cause may be1 the quantity of crumbling stone on the ,cordillera is very great4 ,occasionally in the spring great masses of this detritus slide down the mountains1 and cover the snow-drifts in the valleys1 thus forming natural ice-houses4 ,we rode over one1 the height of which was far below the limit of perpetual snow4 #a ,scoresby's ,arctic ,regions1 vol4 i1 p4 #abb4 #b ,i have heard it remarked in ,shropshire that the water1 when the ,severn is flooded from long-continued rain1 is much more turbid than when it proceeds from the snow melting on the ,welsh mountains4 ,d',orbigny 7tome i1 #a p4 #ahd71 in explaining the cause of the various colours of the rivers in ,south ,america1 remarks that those with blue or clear water have their source in the ,cordillera1 where the snow melts4 ,as the evening drew to a close1 we reached a singular basin-like plain1 called the ,valle del ,yeso4 ,it was covered by a little dry pasture1 and we had the pleasant sight of a herd of cattle amidst the surrounding rocky deserts4 ,the valley takes its name of ,yeso from a great bed1 ,i should think at least #bjjj feet thick1 of white1 and in some parts quite pure1 gypsum4 ,we slept with a party of men1 who were employed in loading mules with this substance1 which is used in the manufacture of wine4 ,we set out early in the morning 7#bast71 and continued to follow the course of the river1 which had become very small1 till we arrived at the foot of the ridge that separates the waters flowing into the ,pacific and ,atlantic ,oceans4 ,the road1 which as yet had been good with a steady but very gradual ascent1 now changed into a steep zigzag track up the great range dividing the republics of ,chile and ,mendoza4 ,i will here give a very brief sketch of the geology of the several parallel lines forming the ,cordillera4 ,of these lines1 there are two considerably higher than the others2 namely1 on the ,chilian side1 the ,peuquenes ridge1 which1 where the road crosses it1 is #ac1baj feet above the sea2 and the ,portillo ridge1 on the ,mendoza side1 which is #ad1cje feet4 ,the lower beds of the ,peuquenes ridge1 and of the several great lines to the westward of it1 are composed of a vast pile1 many thousand feet in thickness1 of porphyries which have flowed as submarine lavas1 alternating with angular and rounded fragments of the same rocks1 thrown out of the submarine craters4 ,these alternating masses are covered in the central parts by a great thickness of red sandstone1 conglomerate1 and calcareous clay-slate1 associated with1 and passing into1 prodigious beds of gypsum4 ,in these upper beds shells are tolerably frequent2 and they belong to about the period of the lower chalk of ,europe4 ,it is an old story1 but not the less wonderful1 to hear of shells which were once crawling on the bottom of the sea1 now standing nearly #ad1jjj feet above its level4 ,the lower beds in this great pile of strata have been dislocated1 baked1 crystallised and almost blended together1 through the agency of mountain masses of a peculiar white soda-granitic rock4 ,the other main line1 namely1 that of the ,portillo1 is of a totally different formation3 it consists chiefly of grand bare pinnacles of a red potash-granite1 which low down on the western flank are covered by a sandstone1 converted by the former heat into a quartz-rock4 ,on the quartz there rest beds of a conglomerate several thousand feet in thickness1 which have been upheaved by the red granite1 and dip at an angle of #de towards the ,peuquenes line4 ,i was astonished to find that this conglomerate was partly composed of pebbles1 derived from the rocks1 with their fossil shells1 of the ,peuquenes range2 and partly of red potash-granite1 like that of the ,portillo4 ,hence we must conclude that both the ,peuquenes and ,portillo ranges were partially upheaved and exposed to wear and tear when the conglomerate was forming2 but as the beds of the conglomerate have been thrown off at an angle of #de by the red ,portillo granite 7with the underlying sandstone baked by it71 we may feel sure that the greater part of the injection and upheaval of the already partially formed ,portillo line took place after the accumulation of the conglomerate1 and long after the elevation of the ,peuquenes ridge4 ,so that the ,portillo1 the loftiest line in this part of the ,cordillera1 is not so old as the less lofty line of the ,peuquenes4 ,evidence derived from an inclined stream of lava at the eastern base of the ,portillo might be adduced to show that it owes part of its great height to elevations of a still later date4 ,looking to its earliest origin1 the red granite seems to have been injected on an ancient pre-existing line of white granite and mica-slate4 ,in most parts1 perhaps in all parts1 of the ,cordillera1 it may be concluded that each line has been formed by repeated upheavals and injections2 and that the several parallel lines are of different ages4 ,only thus can we gain time at all sufficient to explain the truly astonishing amount of denudation which these great1 though comparatively with most other ranges recent1 mountains have suffered4 ,finally1 the shells in the ,peuquenes or oldest ridge prove1 as before remarked1 that it has been upraised #ad1jjj feet since a ,secondary period1 which in ,europe we are accustomed to consider as far from ancient2 but since these shells lived in a moderately deep sea1 it can be shown that the area now occupied by the ,cordillera must have subsided several thousand feet--in northern ,chile as much as #fjjj feet--so as to have allowed that amount of submarine strata to have been heaped on the bed on which the shells lived4 ,the proof is the same with that by which it was shown that1 at a much later period since the tertiary shells of ,patagonia lived1 there must have been there a subsidence of several hundred feet1 as well as an ensuing elevation4 ,daily it is forced home on the mind of the geologist that nothing1 not even the wind that blows1 is so unstable as the level of the crust of this earth4 ,i will make only one other geological remark3 although the ,portillo chain is here higher than the ,peuquenes1 the waters1 draining the intermediate valleys1 have burst through it4 ,the same fact1 on a grander scale1 has been remarked in the eastern and loftiest line of the ,bolivian ,cordillera1 through which the rivers pass3 analogous facts have also been observed in other quarters of the world4 ,on the supposition of the subsequent and gradual elevation of the ,portillo line1 this can be understood2 for a chain of islets would at first appear1 and1 as these were lifted up1 the tides would be always wearing deeper and broader channels between them4 ,at the present day1 even in the most retired ,sounds on the coast of ,tierra del ,fuego1 the currents in the transverse breaks which connect the longitudinal channels are very strong1 so that in one transverse channel even a small vessel under sail was whirled round and round4 ,about noon we began the tedious ascent of the ,peuquenes ridge1 and then for the first time experienced some little difficulty in our respiration4 ,the mules would halt every fifty yards1 and after resting for a few seconds the poor willing animals started of their own accord again4 ,the short breathing from the rarefied atmosphere is called by the ,chilenos 8puna20 and they have most ridiculous notions concerning its origin4 ,some say 8,all the waters here have puna20 others that 8where there is snow there is puna20--and this no doubt is true4 ,the only sensation ,i experienced was a slight tightness across the head and chest1 like that felt on leaving a warm room and running quickly in frosty weather4 ,there was some imagination even in this2 for upon finding fossil shells on the highest ridge1 ,i entirely forgot the puna in my delight4 ,certainly the exertion of walking was extremely great1 and the respiration became deep and laborious3 ,i am told that in ,potosi 7about #ac1jjj feet above the sea7 strangers do not become thoroughly accustomed to the atmosphere for an entire year4 ,the inhabitants all recommend onions for the puna2 as this vegetable has sometimes been given in ,europe for pectoral complaints1 it may possibly be of real service3--for my part ,i found nothing so good as the fossil shells6 ,when about half-way up we met a large party with seventy loaded mules4 ,it was interesting to hear the wild cries of the muleteers1 and to watch the long descending string of the animals2 they appeared so diminutive1 there being nothing but the black mountains with which they could be compared4 ,when near the summit1 the wind1 as generally happens1 was impetuous and extremely cold4 ,on each side of the ridge we had to pass over broad bands of perpetual snow1 which were now soon to be covered by a fresh layer4 ,when we reached the crest and looked backwards1 a glorious view was presented4 ,the atmosphere resplendently clear2 the sky an intense blue2 the profound valleys2 the wild broken forms3 the heaps of ruins1 piled up during the lapse of ages2 the bright-coloured rocks1 contrasted with the quiet mountains of snow1 all these together produced a scene no one could have imagined4 ,neither plant nor bird1 excepting a few condors wheeling around the higher pinnacles1 distracted my attention from the inanimate mass4 ,i felt glad that ,i was alone3 it was like watching a thunderstorm1 or hearing in full orchestra a chorus of the ,messiah4 ,on several patches of the snow ,i found the ,protococcus nivalis1 or red snow1 so well known from the accounts of ,arctic navigators4 ,my attention was called to it by observing the footsteps of the mules stained a pale red1 as if their hoofs had been slightly bloody4 ,i at first thought that it was owing to dust blown from the surrounding mountains of red porphyry2 for from the magnifying power of the crystals of snow1 the groups of these microscopical plants appeared like coarse particles4 ,the snow was coloured only where it had thawed very rapidly1 or had been accidentally crushed4 ,a little rubbed on paper gave it a faint rose tinge mingled with a little brick-red4 ,i afterwards scraped some off the paper1 and found that it consisted of groups of little spheres in colourless cases1 each the thousandth part of an inch in diameter4 ,the wind on the crest of the ,peuquenes1 as just remarked1 is generally impetuous and very cold3 it is said#c to blow steadily from the westward or ,pacific side4 ,as the observations have been chiefly made in summer1 this wind must be an upper and return current4 ,the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 with a less elevation1 and situated in lat4 #bh1 in like manner falls within an upper return stream4 ,at first it appears rather surprising that the trade-wind along the northern parts of ,chile and on the coast of ,peru should blow in so very southerly a direction as it does2 but when we reflect that the ,cordillera1 running in a north and south line1 intercepts1 like a great wall1 the entire depth of the lower atmospheric current1 we can easily see that the trade-wind must be drawn northward1 following the line of mountains1 towards the equatorial regions1 and thus lose part of that easterly movement which it otherwise would have gained from the earth's rotation4 ,at ,mendoza1 on the eastern foot of the ,andes1 the climate is said to be subject to long calms1 and to frequent though false appearances of gathering rain-storms3 we may imagine that the wind1 which coming from the eastward is thus banked up by the line of mountains1 would become stagnant and irregular in its movements4 #c ,dr4 ,gillies in ,journ4 of ,nat4 and ,geograph4 ,science1 ,aug4 #ahcj4 ,this author gives the heights of the ,passes4 ,having crossed the ,peuquenes1 we descended into a mountainous country1 intermediate between the two main ranges1 and then took up our quarters for the night4 ,we were now in the republic of ,mendoza4 ,the elevation was probably not under #aa1jjj feet1 and the vegetation in consequence exceedingly scanty4 ,the root of a small scrubby plant served as fuel1 but it made a miserable fire1 and the wind was piercingly cold4 ,being quite tired with my days work1 ,i made up my bed as quickly as ,i could1 and went to sleep4 ,about midnight ,i observed the sky became suddenly clouded3 ,i awakened the arriero to know if there was any danger of bad weather2 but he said that without thunder and lightning there was no risk of a heavy snow-storm4 ,the peril is imminent1 and the difficulty of subsequent escape great1 to any one overtaken by bad weather between the two ranges4 ,a certain cave offers the only place of refuge3 ,mr4 ,caldcleugh1 who crossed on this same day of the month1 was detained there for some time by a heavy fall of snow4 ,casuchas1 or houses of refuge1 have not been built in this pass as in that of ,uspallata1 and therefore1 during the autumn1 the ,portillo is little frequented4 ,i may here remark that within the main ,cordillera rain never falls1 for during the summer the sky is cloudless1 and in winter snow-storms alone occur4 ,at the place where we slept water necessarily boiled1 from the diminished pressure of the atmosphere1 at a lower temperature than it does in a less lofty country2 the case being the converse of that of a ,papin's digester4 ,hence the potatoes1 after remaining for some hours in the boiling water1 were nearly as hard as ever4 ,the pot was left on the fire all night1 and next morning it was boiled again1 but yet the potatoes were not cooked4 ,i found out this by overhearing my two companions discussing the cause1 they had come to the simple conclusion 8that the cursed pot 7which was a new one7 did not choose to boil potatoes40 ,march #bbnd4--,after eating our potato-less breakfast1 we travelled across the intermediate tract to the foot of the ,portillo range4 ,in the middle of summer cattle are brought up here to graze2 but they had now all been removed3 even the greater number of the guanacos had decamped1 knowing well that if overtaken here by a snow-storm1 they would be caught in a trap4 ,we had a fine view of a mass of mountains called ,tupungato1 the whole clothed with unbroken snow1 in the midst of which there was a blue patch1 no doubt a glacier2--a circumstance of rare occurrence in these mountains4 ,now commenced a heavy and long climb1 similar to that of the ,peuquenes4 ,bold conical hills of red granite rose on each hand2 in the valleys there were several broad fields of perpetual snow4 ,these frozen masses1 during the process of thawing1 had in some parts been converted into pinnacles or columns1#d which1 as they were high and close together1 made it difficult for the cargo mules to pass4 ,on one of these columns of ice a frozen horse was sticking as on a pedestal1 but with its hind legs straight up in the air4 ,the animal1 ,i suppose1 must have fallen with its head downward into a hole1 when the snow was continuous1 and afterwards the surrounding parts must have been removed by the thaw4 #d ,this structure in frozen snow was long since observed by ,scoresby in the icebergs near ,spitzbergen1 and1 lately1 with more care1 by ,colonel ,jackson 7,journ4 of ,geograph4 ,soc4 vol4 v1 p4 #ab7 on the ,neva4 ,mr4 ,lyell 7,principles1 vol4 iv1 p4 #cfj has compared the fissures1 by which the columnar structure seems to be determined1 to the joints that traverse nearly all rocks1 but which are best seen in the non-stratified masses4 ,i may observe that in the case of the frozen snow the columnar structure must be owing to a 8metamorphic0 action1 and not to a process during deposition4 ,when nearly on the crest of the ,portillo1 we were enveloped in a falling cloud of minute frozen spicula4 ,this was very unfortunate1 as it continued the whole day1 and quite intercepted our view4 ,the pass takes its name of ,portillo from a narrow cleft or doorway on the highest ridge1 through which the road passes4 ,from this point1 on a clear day1 those vast plains which uninterruptedly extend to the ,atlantic ,ocean can be seen4 ,we descended to the upper limit of vegetation1 and found good quarters for the night under the shelter of some large fragments of rock4 ,we met here some passengers1 who made anxious inquiries about the state of the road4 ,shortly after it was dark the clouds suddenly cleared away1 and the effect was quite magical4 ,the great mountains1 bright with the full moon1 seemed impending over us on all sides1 as over a deep crevice3 one morning1 very early1 ,i witnessed the same striking effect4 ,as soon as the clouds were dispersed it froze severely2 but as there was no wind1 we slept very comfortably4 ,the increased brilliancy of the moon and stars at this elevation1 owing to the perfect transparency of the atmosphere1 was very remarkable4 ,travellers having observed the difficulty of judging heights and distances amidst lofty mountains1 have generally attributed it to the absence of objects of comparison4 ,it appears to me1 that it is fully as much owing to the transparency of the air confounding objects at different distances1 and likewise partly to the novelty of an unusual degree of fatigue arising from a little exertion1--habit being thus opposed to the evidence of the senses4 ,i am sure that this extreme clearness of the air gives a peculiar character to the landscape1 all objects appearing to be brought nearly into one plane1 as in a drawing or panorama4 ,the transparency is1 ,i presume1 owing to the equable and high state of atmospheric dryness4 ,this dryness was shown by the manner in which woodwork shrank 7as ,i soon found by the trouble my geological hammer gave me72 by articles of food1 such as bread and sugar1 becoming extremely hard2 and by the preservation of the skin and parts of the flesh of the beasts which had perished on the road4 ,to the same cause we must attribute the singular facility with which electricity is excited4 ,my flannel-waistcoat1 when rubbed in the dark1 appeared as if it had been washed with phosphorus1--every hair on a dog's back crackled2--even the linen sheets1 and leathern straps of the saddle1 when handled1 emitted sparks4 ,march #bcrd4--,the descent on the eastern side of the ,cordillera is much shorter or steeper than on the ,pacific side2 in other words1 the mountains rise more abruptly from the plains than from the alpine country of ,chile4 ,a level and brilliantly white sea of clouds was stretched out beneath our feet1 shutting out the view of the equally level ,pampas4 ,we soon entered the band of clouds1 and did not again emerge from it that day4 ,about noon1 finding pasture for the animals and bushes for firewood at ,los ,arenales1 we stopped for the night4 ,this was near the uppermost limit of bushes1 and the elevation1 ,i suppose1 was between seven and eight thousand feet4 ,i was much struck with the marked difference between the vegetation of these eastern valleys and those on the ,chilian side3 yet the climate1 as well as the kind of soil1 is nearly the same1 and the difference of longitude very trifling4 ,the same remark holds good with the quadrupeds1 and in a lesser degree with the birds and insects4 ,i may instance the mice1 of which ,i obtained thirteen species on the shores of the ,atlantic1 and five on the ,pacific1 and not one of them is identical4 ,we must except all those species which habitually or occasionally frequent elevated mountains2 and certain birds1 which range as far south as the ,strait of ,magellan4 ,this fact is in perfect accordance with the geological history of the ,andes2 for these mountains have existed as a great barrier since the present races of animals have appeared2 and therefore1 unless we suppose the same species to have been created in two different places1 we ought not to expect any closer similarity between the organic beings on the opposite sides of the ,andes than on the opposite shores of the ocean4 ,in both cases1 we must leave out of the question those kinds which have been able to cross the barrier1 whether of solid rock or salt water4#e #e ,this is merely an illustration of the admirable laws1 first laid down by ,mr4 ,lyell1 on the geographical distribution of animals1 as influenced by geological changes4 ,the whole reasoning1 of course1 is founded on the assumption of the immutability of species2 otherwise the difference in the species in the two regions might be considered as superinduced during a length of time4 ,a great number of the plants and animals were absolutely the same as1 or most closely allied to1 those of ,patagonia4 ,we here have the agouti1 bizcacha1 three species of armadillo1 the ostrich1 certain kinds of partridges and other birds1 none of which are ever seen in ,chile1 but are the characteristic animals of the desert plains of ,patagonia4 ,we have likewise many of the same 7to the eyes of a person who is not a botanist7 thorny stunted bushes1 withered grass1 and dwarf plants4 ,even the black slowly crawling beetles are closely similar1 and some1 ,i believe1 on rigorous examination1 absolutely identical4 ,it had always been to me a subject of regret that we were unavoidably compelled to give up the ascent of the ,s4 ,cruz river before reaching the mountains3 ,i always had a latent hope of meeting with some great change in the features of the country2 but ,i now feel sure that it would only have been following the plains of ,patagonia up a mountainous ascent4 ,march #bdth4--,early in the morning ,i climbed up a mountain on one side of the valley1 and enjoyed a far extended view over the ,pampas4 ,this was a spectacle to which ,i had always looked forward with interest1 but ,i was disappointed3 at the first glance it much resembled a distant view of the ocean1 but in the northern parts many irregularities were soon distinguishable4 ,the most striking feature consisted in the rivers1 which1 facing the rising sun1 glittered like silver threads1 till lost in the immensity of the distance4 ,at mid-day we descended the valley1 and reached a hovel1 where an officer and three soldiers were posted to examine passports4 ,one of these men was a thoroughbred ,pampas ,indian3 he was kept much for the same purpose as a bloodhound1 to track out any person who might pass by secretly1 either on foot or horseback4 ,some years ago a passenger endeavoured to escape detection by making a long circuit over a neighbouring mountain2 but this ,indian1 having by chance crossed his track1 followed it for the whole day over dry and very stony hills1 till at last he came on his prey hidden in a gully4 ,we here heard that the silvery clouds1 which we had admired from the bright region above1 had poured down torrents of rain4 ,the valley from this point gradually opened1 and the hills became mere water-worn hillocks compared to the giants behind2 it then expanded into a gently sloping plain of shingle1 covered with low trees and bushes4 ,this talus1 although appearing narrow1 must be nearly ten miles wide before it blends into the apparently dead level ,pampas4 ,we passed the only house in this neighbourhood1 the ,estancia of ,chaquaio3 and at sunset we pulled up in the first snug corner1 and there bivouacked4 ,march #beth4--,i was reminded of the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres1 by seeing the disk of the rising sun intersected by an horizon level as that of the ocean4 ,during the night a heavy dew fell1 a circumstance which we did not experience within the ,cordillera4 ,the road proceeded for some distance due east across a low swamp2 then meeting the dry plain1 it turned to the north towards ,mendoza4 ,the distance is two very long days' journey4 ,our first day's journey was called fourteen leagues to ,estacado1 and the second seventeen to ,luxan1 near ,mendoza4 ,the whole distance is over a level desert plain1 with not more than two or three houses4 ,the sun was exceedingly powerful1 and the ride devoid of all interest4 ,there is very little water in this 8traversia10 and in our second day's journey we found only one little pool4 ,little water flows from the mountains1 and it soon becomes absorbed by the dry and porous soil2 so that1 although we travelled at the distance of only ten or fifteen miles from the outer range of the ,cordillera1 we did not cross a single stream4 ,in many parts the ground was incrusted with a saline efflorescence2 hence we had the same salt-loving plants which are common near ,bahia ,blanca4 ,the landscape has a uniform character from the ,strait of ,magellan1 along the whole eastern coast of ,patagonia1 to the ,rio ,colorado2 and it appears that the same kind of country extends inland from this river1 in a sweeping line as far as ,san ,luis1 and perhaps even farther north4 ,to the eastward of this curved line lies the basin of the comparatively damp and green plains of ,buenos ,ayres4 ,the sterile plains of ,mendoza and ,patagonia consist of a bed of shingle1 worn smooth and accumulated by the waves of the sea2 while the ,pampas1 covered by thistles1 clover1 and grass1 have been formed by the ancient estuary mud of the ,plata4 ,after our two days' tedious journey1 it was refreshing to see in the distance the rows of poplars and willows growing round the village and river of ,luxan4 ,shortly before we arrived at this place we observed to the south a ragged cloud of a dark reddish-brown colour4 ,at first we thought that it was smoke from some great fire on the plains2 but we soon found that it was a swarm of locusts4 ,they were flying northward2 and with the aid of a light breeze1 they overtook us at a rate of ten or fifteen miles an hour4 ,the main body filled the air from a height of twenty feet to that1 as it appeared1 of two or three thousand above the ground2 8and the sound of their wings was as the sound of chariots of many horses running to battle30 or rather1 ,i should say1 like a strong breeze passing through the rigging of a ship4 ,the sky1 seen through the advanced guard1 appeared like a mezzotinto engraving1 but the main body was impervious to sight2 they were not1 however1 so thick together1 but that they could escape a stick waved backwards and forwards4 ,when they alighted1 they were more numerous than the leaves in the field1 and the surface became reddish instead of being green3 the swarm having once alighted1 the individuals flew from side to side in all directions4 ,locusts are not an uncommon pest in this country3 already during this season several smaller swarms had come up from the south1 where1 as apparently in all other parts of the world1 they are bred in the deserts4 ,the poor cottagers in vain attempted by lighting fires1 by shouts1 and by waving branches1 to avert the attack4 ,this species of locust closely resembles1 and perhaps is identical with1 the famous ,gryllus migratorius of the ,east4 ,we crossed the ,luxan1 which is a river of considerable size1 though its course towards the sea-coast is very imperfectly known3 it is even doubtful whether1 in passing over the plains1 it is not evaporated and lost4 ,we slept in the village of ,luxan1 which is a small place surrounded by gardens1 and forms the most southern cultivated district in the ,province of ,mendoza2 it is five leagues south of the capital4 ,at night ,i experienced an attack 7for it deserves no less a name7 of the ,benchuca1 a species of ,reduvius1 the great black bug of the ,pampas4 ,it is most disgusting to feel soft wingless insects1 about an inch long1 crawling over one's body4 ,before sucking they are quite thin1 but afterwards they become round and bloated with blood1 and in this state are easily crushed4 ,one which ,i caught at ,iquique 7for they are found in ,chile and ,peru7 was very empty4 ,when placed on a table1 and though surrounded by people1 if a finger was presented1 the bold insect would immediately protrude its sucker1 make a charge1 and if allowed1 draw blood4 ,no pain was caused by the wound4 ,it was curious to watch its body during the act of sucking1 as in less than ten minutes it changed from being as flat as a wafer to a globular form4 ,this one feast1 for which the benchuca was indebted to one of the officers1 kept it fat during four whole months2 but1 after the first fortnight1 it was quite ready to have another suck4 ,march #bgth4--,we rode on to ,mendoza4 ,the country was beautifully cultivated1 and resembled ,chile4 ,this neighbourhood is celebrated for its fruit2 and certainly nothing could appear more flourishing than the vineyards and the orchards of figs1 peaches1 and olives4 ,we bought water-melons nearly twice as large as a man's head1 most deliciously cool and well-flavoured1 for a halfpenny apiece2 and for the value of threepence1 half a wheelbarrowful of peaches4 ,the cultivated and enclosed part of this province is very small2 there is little more than that which we passed through between ,luxan and the ,capital4 ,the land1 as in ,chile1 owes its fertility entirely to artificial irrigation2 and it is really wonderful to observe how extraordinarily productive a barren traversia is thus rendered4 ,we stayed the ensuing day in ,mendoza4 ,the prosperity of the place has much declined of late years4 ,the inhabitants say 8it is good to live in1 but very bad to grow rich in40 ,the lower orders have the lounging1 reckless manners of the ,gauchos of the ,pampas2 and their dress1 riding-gear1 and habits of life1 are nearly the same4 ,to my mind the town had a stupid1 forlorn aspect4 ,neither the boasted alameda1 nor the scenery1 is at all comparable with that of ,santiago2 but to those who1 coming from ,buenos ,ayres1 have just crossed the unvaried ,pampas1 the gardens and orchards must appear delightful4 ,sir ,f4 ,head1 speaking of the inhabitants1 says1 8,they eat their dinners1 and it is so very hot1 they go to sleep--and could they do better80 ,i quite agree with ,sir ,f4 ,head3 the happy doom of the ,mendozinos is to eat1 sleep and be idle4 ,march #bith4--,we set out on our return to ,chile by the ,uspallata pass situated north of ,mendoza4 ,we had to cross a long and most sterile traversia of fifteen leagues4 ,the soil in parts was absolutely bare1 in others covered by numberless dwarf cacti1 armed with formidable spines1 and called by the inhabitants 8little lions40 ,there were1 also1 a few low bushes4 ,although the plain is nearly three thousand feet above the sea1 the sun was very powerful2 and the heat1 as well as the clouds of impalpable dust1 rendered the travelling extremely irksome4 ,our course during the day lay nearly parallel to the ,cordillera1 but gradually approaching them4 ,before sunset we entered one of the wide valleys1 or rather bays1 which open on the plain3 this soon narrowed into a ravine1 where a little higher up the house of ,villa ,vicencio is situated4 ,as we had ridden all day without a drop of water1 both our mules and selves were very thirsty1 and we looked out anxiously for the stream which flows down this valley4 ,it was curious to observe how gradually the water made its appearance3 on the plain the course was quite dry2 by degrees it became a little damper2 then puddles of water appeared2 these soon became connected2 and at ,villa ,vicencio there was a nice little rivulet4 #cjth4--,the solitary hovel which bears the imposing name of ,villa ,vicencio has been mentioned by every traveller who has crossed the ,andes4 ,i stayed here and at some neighbouring mines during the two succeeding days4 ,the geology of the surrounding country is very curious4 ,the ,uspallata range is separated from the main ,cordillera by a long narrow plain or basin1 like those so often mentioned in ,chile1 but higher1 being six thousand feet above the sea4 ,this range has nearly the same geographical position with respect to the ,cordillera1 which the gigantic ,portillo line has1 but it is of a totally different origin3 it consists of various kinds of submarine lava1 alternating with volcanic sandstones and other remarkable sedimentary deposits2 the whole having a very close resemblance to some of the tertiary beds on the shores of the ,pacific4 ,from this resemblance ,i expected to find silicified wood1 which is generally characteristic of those formations4 ,i was gratified in a very extraordinary manner4 ,in the central part of the range1 at an elevation of about seven thousand feet1 ,i observed on a bare slope some snow-white projecting columns4 ,these were petrified trees1 eleven being silicified1 and from thirty to forty converted into coarsely-crystallised white calcareous spar4 ,they were abruptly broken off1 the upright stumps projecting a few feet above the ground4 ,the trunks measured from three to five feet each in circumference4 ,they stood a little way apart from each other1 but the whole formed one group4 ,mr4 ,robert ,brown has been kind enough to examine the wood3 he says it belongs to the fir tribe1 partaking of the character of the ,araucarian family1 but with some curious points of affinity with the yew4 ,the volcanic sandstone in which the trees were embedded1 and from the lower part of which they must have sprung1 had accumulated in successive thin layers around their trunks2 and the stone yet retained the impression of the bark4 ,it required little geological practice to interpret the marvellous story which this scene at once unfolded2 though ,i confess ,i was at first so much astonished that ,i could scarcely believe the plainest evidence4 ,i saw the spot where a cluster of fine trees once waved their branches on the shores of the ,atlantic1 when that ocean 7now driven back #gjj miles7 came to the foot of the ,andes4 ,i saw that they had sprung from a volcanic soil which had been raised above the level of the sea1 and that subsequently this dry land1 with its upright trees1 had been let down into the depths of the ocean4 ,in these depths1 the formerly dry land was covered by sedimentary beds1 and these again by enormous streams of submarine lava--one such mass attaining the thickness of a thousand feet2 and these deluges of molten stone and aqueous deposits five times alternately had been spread out4 ,the ocean which received such thick masses must have been profoundly deep2 but again the subterranean forces exerted themselves1 and ,i now beheld the bed of that ocean1 forming a chain of mountains more than seven thousand feet in height4 ,nor had those antagonistic forces been dormant1 which are always at work wearing down the surface of the land2 the great piles of strata had been intersected by many wide valleys1 and the trees1 now changed into silex1 were exposed projecting from the volcanic soil1 now changed into rock1 whence formerly1 in a green and budding state1 they had raised their lofty heads4 ,now1 all is utterly irreclaimable and desert2 even the lichen cannot adhere to the stony casts of former trees4 ,vast1 and scarcely comprehensible as such changes must ever appear1 yet they have all occurred within a period1 recent when compared with the history of the ,cordillera2 and the ,cordillera itself is absolutely modern as compared with many of the fossiliferous strata of ,europe and ,america4 ,april #ast4--,we crossed the ,uspallata range1 and at night slept at the custom-house--the only inhabited spot on the plain4 ,shortly before leaving the mountains1 there was a very extraordinary view2 red1 purple1 green1 and quite white sedimentary rocks1 alternating with black lavas1 were broken up and thrown into all kinds of disorder by masses of porphyry of every shade of colour1 from dark brown to the brightest lilac4 ,it was the first view ,i ever saw1 which really resembled those pretty sections which geologists make of the inside of the earth4 ,the next day we crossed the plain1 and followed the course of the same great mountain stream which flows by ,luxan4 ,here it was a furious torrent1 quite impassable1 and appeared larger than in the low country1 as was the case with the rivulet of ,villa ,vicencio4 ,on the evening of the succeeding day we reached the ,rio de las ,vacas1 which is considered the worst stream in the ,cordillera to cross4 ,as all these rivers have a rapid and short course1 and are formed by the melting of the snow1 the hour of the day makes a considerable difference in their volume4 ,in the evening the stream is muddy and full1 but about daybreak it becomes clearer and much less impetuous4 ,this we found to be the case with the ,rio ,vacas1 and in the morning we crossed it with little difficulty4 ,the scenery thus far was very uninteresting1 compared with that of the ,portillo pass4 ,little can be seen beyond the bare walls of the one grand1 flat-bottomed valley1 which the road follows up to the highest crest4 ,the valley and the huge rocky mountains are extremely barren3 during the two previous nights the poor mules had absolutely nothing to eat1 for excepting a few low resinous bushes1 scarcely a plant can be seen4 ,in the course of this day we crossed some of the worst passes in the ,cordillera1 but their danger has been much exaggerated4 ,i was told that if ,i attempted to pass on foot1 my head would turn giddy1 and that there was no room to dismount2 but ,i did not see a place where any one might not have walked over backwards1 or got off his mule on either side4 ,one of the bad passes1 called las ,animas 7the ,souls71 ,i had crossed1 and did not find out till a day afterwards that it was one of the awful dangers4 ,no doubt there are many parts in which1 if the mule should stumble1 the rider would be hurled down a great precipice2 but of this there is little chance4 ,i daresay1 in the spring1 the 8laderas10 or roads1 which each year are formed anew across the piles of fallen detritus1 are very bad2 but from what ,i saw1 ,i suspect the real danger is nothing4 ,with cargo-mules the case is rather different1 for the loads project so far1 that the animals1 occasionally running against each other1 or against a point of rock1 lose their balance1 and are thrown down the precipices4 ,in crossing the rivers ,i can well believe that the difficulty may be very great3 at this season there was little trouble1 but in the summer they must be very hazardous4 ,i can quite imagine1 as ,sir ,f4 ,head describes1 the different expressions of those who have passed the gulf1 and those who are passing4 ,i never heard of any man being drowned1 but with loaded mules it frequently happens4 ,the arriero tells you to show your mule the best line1 and then allow her to cross as she likes3 the cargo-mule takes a bad line1 and is often lost4 ,april #dth4--,from the ,rio de las ,vacas to the ,puente del ,incas1 half a day's journey4 ,as there was pasture for the mules1 and geology for me1 we bivouacked here for the night4 ,when one hears of a natural ,bridge1 one pictures to oneself some deep and narrow ravine1 across which a bold mass of rock has fallen2 or a great arch hollowed out like the vault of a cavern4 ,instead of this1 the ,incas ,bridge consists of a crust of stratified shingle cemented together by the deposits of the neighbouring hot springs4 ,it appears as if the stream had scooped out a channel on one side1 leaving an overhanging ledge1 which was met by earth and stones falling down from the opposite cliff4 ,certainly an oblique junction1 as would happen in such a case1 was very distinct on one side4 ,the ,bridge of the ,incas is by no means worthy of the great monarchs whose name it bears4 ,bridge of the ,incas--,uspallata ,pass #eth4--,we had a long day's ride across the central ridge1 from the ,incas ,bridge to the ,ojos del ,agua1 which are situated near the lowest casucha on the ,chilian side4 ,these casuchas are round little towers1 with steps outside to reach the floor1 which is raised some feet above the ground on account of the snow-drifts4 ,they are eight in number1 and under the ,spanish government were kept during the winter well stored with food and charcoal1 and each courier had a master-key4 ,now they only answer the purpose of caves1 or rather dungeons4 ,seated on some little eminence1 they are not1 however1 ill suited to the surrounding scene of desolation4 ,the zigzag ascent of the ,cumbre1 or the partition of the waters1 was very steep and tedious2 its height1 according to ,mr4 ,pentland1 is #ab1ded feet4 ,the road did not pass over any perpetual snow1 although there were patches of it on both hands4 ,the wind on the summit was exceedingly cold1 but it was impossible not to stop for a few minutes to admire1 again and again1 the colour of the heavens1 and the brilliant transparency of the atmosphere4 ,the scenery was grand3 to the westward there was a fine chaos of mountains1 divided by profound ravines4 ,some snow generally falls before this period of the season1 and it has even happened that the ,cordillera have been finally closed by this time4 ,but we were most fortunate4 ,the sky1 by night and by day1 was cloudless1 excepting a few round little masses of vapour1 that floated over the highest pinnacles4 ,i have often seen these islets in the sky1 marking the position of the ,cordillera1 when the far-distant mountains have been hidden beneath the horizon4 ,april #fth4--,in the morning we found some thief had stolen one of our mules1 and the bell of the madrina4 ,we therefore rode only two or three miles down the valley1 and stayed there the ensuing day in hopes of recovering the mule1 which the arriero thought had been hidden in some ravine4 ,the scenery in this part had assumed a ,chilian character3 the lower sides of the mountains1 dotted over with the pale evergreen ,quillay tree1 and with the great chandelier-like cactus1 are certainly more to be admired than the bare eastern valleys2 but ,i cannot quite agree with the admiration expressed by some travellers4 ,the extreme pleasure1 ,i suspect1 is chiefly owing to the prospect of a good fire and of a good supper1 after escaping from the cold regions above3 and ,i am sure ,i most heartily participated in these feelings4 #hth4--,we left the valley of the ,aconcagua1 by which we had descended1 and reached in the evening a cottage near the ,villa de ,st4 ,rosa4 ,the fertility of the plain was delightful3 the autumn being advanced1 the leaves of many of the fruit-trees were falling2 and of the labourers1--some were busy in drying figs and peaches on the roofs of their cottages1 while others were gathering the grapes from the vineyards4 ,it was a pretty scene2 but ,i missed that pensive stillness which makes the autumn in ,england indeed the evening of the year4 ,on the #ajth we reached ,santiago1 where ,i received a very kind and hospitable reception from ,mr4 ,caldcleugh4 ,my excursion only cost me twenty-four days1 and never did ,i more deeply enjoy an equal space of time4 ,a few days afterwards ,i returned to ,mr4 ,corfield's house at ,valparaiso4 ,illustration3 ,lima and ,san ,lorenzo ,chapter ,,xvi ,coast-road to ,coquimbo--,great loads carried by the miners--,coquimbo--,earthquake--,step-fo rmed terraces--,absence of recent deposits--,contemporaneousness of the ,tertiary formations--,excursion up the valley--,road to ,guasco--,deserts--,valley of ,copiap--,rain and ,earthquakes--,hydrophobia--,the ,despoblado--,indian ruins--,probable change of climate--,river-bed arched by an earthquake--,cold gales of wind--,noises from a hill--,iquique--,salt alluvium--,nitrate of soda--,lima--,unhealthy country--,ruins of ,callao1 overthrown by an earthquake--,recent subsidence--,elevated shells on ,san ,lorenzo1 their decomposition--,plain with embedded shells and fragments of pottery--,antiquity of the ,indian ,race4 ,,northern ,,chile ,,and ,,peru4 ,april #bgth4--,i set out on a journey to ,coquimbo1 and thence through ,guasco to ,copiap1 where ,captain ,fitz ,roy kindly offered to pick me up in the ,beagle4 ,the distance in a straight line along the shore northward is only #dbj miles2 but my mode of travelling made it a very long journey4 ,i bought four horses and two mules1 the latter carrying the luggage on alternate days4 ,the six animals together only cost the value of twenty-five pounds sterling1 and at ,copiap ,i sold them again for twenty-three4 ,we travelled in the same independent manner as before1 cooking our own meals1 and sleeping in the open air4 ,as we rode towards the ,vio del ,mar1 ,i took a farewell view of ,valparaiso1 and admired its picturesque appearance4 ,for geological purposes ,i made a detour from the high road to the foot of the ,bell of ,quillota4 ,we passed through an alluvial district rich in gold1 to the neighbourhood of ,limache1 where we slept4 ,washing for gold supports the inhabitants of numerous hovels1 scattered along the sides of each little rivulet2 but1 like all those whose gains are uncertain1 they are unthrifty in their habits1 and consequently poor4 #bhth4--,in the afternoon we arrived at a cottage at the foot of the ,bell mountain4 ,the inhabitants were freeholders1 which is not very usual in ,chile4 ,they supported themselves on the produce of a garden and a little field1 but were very poor4 ,capital is here so deficient that the people are obliged to sell their green corn while standing in the field1 in order to buy necessaries for the ensuing year4 ,wheat in consequence was dearer in the very district of its production than at ,valparaiso1 where the contractors live4 ,the next day we joined the main road to ,coquimbo4 ,at night there was a very light shower of rain3 this was the first drop that had fallen since the heavy rain of ,september #aath and #abth1 which detained me a prisoner at the ,baths of ,cauquenes4 ,the interval was seven and a half months2 but the rain this year in ,chile was rather later than usual4 ,the distant ,andes were now covered by a thick mass of snow1 and were a glorious sight4 ,may #bnd4--,the road continued to follow the coast at no great distance from the sea4 ,the few trees and bushes which are common in central ,chile decreased rapidly in numbers1 and were replaced by a tall plant1 something like a yucca in appearance4 ,the surface of the country1 on a small scale1 was singularly broken and irregular2 abrupt little peaks of rock rising out of small plains or basins4 ,the indented coast and the bottom of the neighbouring sea1 studded with breakers1 would1 if converted into dry land1 present similar forms2 and such a conversion without doubt has taken place in the part over which we rode4 #crd4--,quilimari to ,conchalee4 ,the country became more and more barren4 ,in the valleys there was scarcely sufficient water for any irrigation2 and the intermediate land was quite bare1 not supporting even goats4 ,in the spring1 after the winter showers1 a thin pasture rapidly springs up1 and cattle are then driven down from the ,cordillera to graze for a short time4 ,it is curious to observe how the seeds of the grass and other plants seem to accommodate themselves1 as if by an acquired habit1 to the quantity of rain which falls upon different parts of this coast4 ,one shower far northward at ,copiap produces as great an effect on the vegetation1 as two at ,guasco1 and three or four in this district4 ,at ,valparaiso a winter so dry as greatly to injure the pasture1 would at ,guasco produce the most unusual abundance4 ,proceeding northward1 the quantity of rain does not appear to decrease in strict proportion to the latitude4 ,at ,conchalee1 which is only #fg miles north of ,valparaiso1 rain is not expected till the end of ,may2 whereas at ,valparaiso some generally falls early in ,april3 the annual quantity is likewise small in proportion to the lateness of the season at which it commences4 #dth4--,finding the coast-road devoid of interest of any kind1 we turned inland towards the mining district and valley of ,illapel4 ,this valley1 like every other in ,chile1 is level1 broad1 and very fertile3 it is bordered on each side1 either by cliffs of stratified shingle1 or by bare rocky mountains4 ,above the straight line of the uppermost irrigating ditch1 all is brown as on a high-road2 while all below is of as bright a green as verdigris1 from the beds of alfarfa1 a kind of clover4 ,we proceeded to ,los ,hornos1 another mining district1 where the principal hill was drilled with holes1 like a great ants'-nest4 ,the ,chilian miners are a peculiar race of men in their habits4 ,living for weeks together in the most desolate spots1 when they descend to the villages on feast-days there is no excess of extravagance into which they do not run4 ,they sometimes gain a considerable sum1 and then1 like sailors with prize-money1 they try how soon they can contrive to squander it4 ,they drink excessively1 buy quantities of clothes1 and in a few days return penniless to their miserable abodes1 there to work harder than beasts of burden4 ,this thoughtlessness1 as with sailors1 is evidently the result of a similar manner of life4 ,their daily food is found them1 and they acquire no habits of carefulness2 moreover1 temptation and the means of yielding to it are placed in their power at the same time4 ,on the other hand1 in ,cornwall1 and some other parts of ,england1 where the system of selling part of the vein is followed1 the miners1 from being obliged to act and think for themselves1 are a singularly intelligent and well-conducted set of men4 ,the dress of the ,chilian miner is peculiar and rather picturesque4 ,he wears a very long shirt of some dark-coloured baize1 with a leathern apron2 the whole being fastened round his waist by a bright-coloured sash4 ,his trousers are very broad1 and his small cap of scarlet cloth is made to fit the head closely4 ,we met a party of these miners in full costume1 carrying the body of one of their companions to be buried4 ,they marched at a very quick trot1 four men supporting the corpse4 ,one set having run as hard as they could for about two hundred yards1 were relieved by four others1 who had previously dashed on ahead on horseback4 ,thus they proceeded1 encouraging each other by wild cries3 altogether the scene formed a most strange funeral4 ,we continued travelling northward in a zigzag line2 sometimes stopping a day to geologise4 ,the country was so thinly inhabited1 and the track so obscure1 that we often had difficulty in finding our way4 ,on the #abth ,i stayed at some mines4 ,the ore in this case was not considered particularly good1 but from being abundant it was supposed the mine would sell for about thirty or forty thousand dollars 7that is1 #fjjj or #hjjj pounds sterling72 yet it had been bought by one of the ,english ,associations for an ounce of gold 7#c 3 #hs74 ,the ore is yellow pyrites1 which1 as ,i have already remarked1 before the arrival of the ,english was not supposed to contain a particle of copper4 ,on a scale of profits nearly as great as in the above instance1 piles of cinders1 abounding with minute globules of metallic copper1 were purchased2 yet with these advantages1 the mining associations1 as is well known1 contrived to lose immense sums of money4 ,the folly of the greater number of the commissioners and shareholders amounted to infatuation2--a thousand pounds per annum given in some cases to entertain the ,chilian authorities2 libraries of well-bound geological books2 miners brought out for particular metals1 as tin1 which are not found in ,chile2 contracts to supply the miners with milk1 in parts where there are no cows2 machinery1 where it could not possibly be used2 and a hundred similar arrangements1 bore witness to our absurdity1 and to this day afford amusement to the natives4 ,yet there can be no doubt1 that the same capital well employed in these mines would have yielded an immense return3 a confidential man of business1 a practical miner and assayer1 would have been all that was required4 ,captain ,head has described the wonderful load which the 8,apires10 truly beasts of burden1 carry up from the deepest mines4 ,i confess ,i thought the account exaggerated2 so that ,i was glad to take an opportunity of weighing one of the loads1 which ,i picked out by hazard4 ,it required considerable exertion on my part1 when standing directly over it1 to lift it from the ground4 ,the load was considered under weight when found to be #aig pounds4 ,the apire had carried this up eighty perpendicular yards1--part of the way by a steep passage1 but the greater part up notched poles1 placed in a zigzag line up the shaft4 ,according to the general regulation1 the apire is not allowed to halt for breath1 except the mine is six hundred feet deep4 ,the average load is considered as rather more than #bjj pounds1 and ,i have been assured that one of #cjj pounds 7twenty-two stone and a half7 by way of a trial has been brought up from the deepest mine6 ,at this time the apires were bringing up the usual load twelve times in the day2 that is #bdjj pounds from eighty yards deep2 and they were employed in the intervals in breaking and picking ore4 ,these men1 excepting from accidents1 are healthy1 and appear cheerful4 ,their bodies are not very muscular4 ,they rarely eat meat once a week1 and never oftener1 and then only the hard dry charqui4 ,although with a knowledge that the labour was voluntary1 it was nevertheless quite revolting to see the state in which they reached the mouth of the mine2 their bodies bent forward1 leaning with their arms on the steps1 their legs bowed1 their muscles quivering1 the perspiration streaming from their faces over their breasts1 their nostrils distended1 the corners of their mouth forcibly drawn back1 and the expulsion of their breath most laborious4 ,each time they draw their breath they utter an articulate cry of 8ay-ay10 which ends in a sound rising from deep in the chest1 but shrill like the note of a fife4 ,after staggering to the pile of ore1 they emptied the 8carpacho20 in two or three seconds recovering their breath1 they wiped the sweat from their brows1 and apparently quite fresh descended the mine again at a quick pace4 ,this appears to me a wonderful instance of the amount of labour which habit1 for it can be nothing else1 will enable a man to endure4 ,in the evening1 talking with the mayor-domo of these mines about the number of foreigners now scattered over the whole country1 he told me that1 though quite a young man1 he remembers when he was a boy at school at ,coquimbo1 a holiday being given to see the captain of an ,english ship1 who was brought to the city to speak to the governor4 ,he believes that nothing would have induced any boy in the school1 himself included1 to have gone close to the ,englishman2 so deeply had they been impressed with an idea of the heresy1 contamination1 and evil to be derived from contact with such a person4 ,to this day they relate the atrocious actions of the bucaniers2 and especially of one man1 who took away the figure of the ,virgin ,mary1 and returned the year after for that of ,st4 ,joseph1 saying it was a pity the lady should not have a husband4 ,i heard also of an old lady who1 at a dinner at ,coquimbo1 remarked how wonderfully strange it was that she should have lived to dine in the same room with an ,englishman2 for she remembered as a girl1 that twice1 at the mere cry of 8,los ,ingleses10 every soul1 carrying what valuables they could1 had taken to the mountains4 #adth4--,we reached ,coquimbo1 where we stayed a few days4 ,the town is remarkable for nothing but its extreme quietness4 ,it is said to contain from #fjjj to #hjjj inhabitants4 ,on the morning of the #agth it rained lightly1 the first time this year1 for about five hours4 ,the farmers1 who plant corn near the sea-coast where the atmosphere is more humid1 taking advantage of this shower1 would break up the ground2 after a second they would put the seed in2 and if a third shower should fall1 they would reap a good harvest in the spring4 ,it was interesting to watch the effect of this trifling amount of moisture4 ,twelve hours afterwards the ground appeared as dry as ever2 yet after an interval of ten days all the hills were faintly tinged with green patches2 the grass being sparingly scattered in hair-like fibres a full inch in length4 ,before this shower every part of the surface was bare as on a high-road4 ,coquimbo1 ,chile ,in the evening1 ,captain ,fitz ,roy and myself were dining with ,mr4 ,edwards1 an ,english resident well known for his hospitality by all who have visited ,coquimbo1 when a sharp earthquake happened4 ,i heard the forecoming rumble1 but from the screams of the ladies1 the running of the servants1 and the rush of several of the gentlemen to the doorway1 ,i could not distinguish the motion4 ,some of the women afterwards were crying with terror1 and one gentleman said he should not be able to sleep all night1 or if he did1 it would only be to dream of falling houses4 ,the father of this person had lately lost all his property at ,talcahuano1 and he himself had only just escaped a falling roof at ,valparaiso in #ahbb4 ,he mentioned a curious coincidence which then happened3 he was playing at cards1 when a ,german1 one of the party1 got up1 and said he would never sit in a room in these countries with the door shut1 as1 owing to his having done so1 he had nearly lost his life at ,copiap4 ,accordingly he opened the door2 and no sooner had he done this1 than he cried out1 8,here it comes again60 and the famous shock commenced4 ,the whole party escaped4 ,the danger in an earthquake is not from the time lost in opening the door1 but from the chance of its becoming jammed by the movement of the walls4 ,it is impossible to be much surprised at the fear which natives and old residents1 though some of them known to be men of great command of mind1 so generally experience during earthquakes4 ,i think1 however1 this excess of panic may be partly attributed to a want of habit in governing their fear1 as it is not a feeling they are ashamed of4 ,indeed1 the natives do not like to see a person indifferent4 ,i heard of two ,englishmen who1 sleeping in the open air during a smart shock1 knowing that there was no danger1 did not rise4 ,the natives cried out indignantly1 8,look at those heretics1 they do not even get out of their beds60 ,i spent some days in examining the step-formed terraces of shingle1 first noticed by ,captain ,b4 ,hall1 and believed by ,mr4 ,lyell to have been formed by the sea during the gradual rising of the land4 ,this certainly is the true explanation1 for ,i found numerous shells of existing species on these terraces4 ,five narrow1 gently sloping1 fringe-like terraces rise one behind the other1 and where best developed are formed of shingle3 they front the bay1 and sweep up both sides of the valley4 ,at ,guasco1 north of ,coquimbo1 the phenomenon is displayed on a much grander scale1 so as to strike with surprise even some of the inhabitants4 ,the terraces are there much broader1 and may be called plains1 in some parts there are six of them1 but generally only five2 they run up the valley for thirty-seven miles from the coast4 ,these step-formed terraces or fringes closely resemble those in the valley of ,s4 ,cruz1 and1 except in being on a smaller scale1 those great ones along the whole coast-line of ,patagonia4 ,they have undoubtedly been formed by the denuding power of the sea1 during long periods of rest in the gradual elevation of the continent4 ,shells of many existing species not only lie on the surface of the terraces at ,coquimbo 7to a height of #bej feet71 but are embedded in a friable calcareous rock1 which in some places is as much as between twenty and thirty feet in thickness1 but is of little extent4 ,these modern beds rest on an ancient tertiary formation containing shells1 apparently all extinct4 ,although ,i examined so many hundred miles of coast on the ,pacific1 as well as ,atlantic side of the continent1 ,i found no regular strata containing sea-shells of recent species1 excepting at this place1 and at a few points northward on the road to ,guasco4 ,this fact appears to me highly remarkable2 for the explanation generally given by geologists1 of the absence in any district of stratified fossiliferous deposits of a given period1 namely1 that the surface then existed as dry land1 is not here applicable2 for we know from the shells strewed on the surface and embedded in loose sand or mould1 that the land for thousands of miles along both coasts has lately been submerged4 ,the explanation1 no doubt1 must be sought in the fact1 that the whole southern part of the continent has been for a long time slowly rising2 and therefore that all matter deposited along shore in shallow water must have been soon brought up and slowly exposed to the wearing action of the sea-beach2 and it is only in comparatively shallow water that the greater number of marine organic beings can flourish1 and in such water it is obviously impossible that strata of any great thickness can accumulate4 ,to show the vast power of the wearing action of sea-beaches1 we need only appeal to the great cliffs along the present coast of ,patagonia1 and to the escarpments or ancient sea-cliffs at different levels1 one above another1 on that same line of coast4 ,the old underlying tertiary formation at ,coquimbo appears to be of about the same age with several deposits on the coast of ,chile 7of which that of ,navedad is the principal one71 and with the great formation of ,patagonia4 ,both at ,navedad and in ,patagonia there is evidence1 that since the shells 7a list of which has been seen by ,professor ,e4 ,forbes7 there intombed were living1 there has been a subsidence of several hundred feet1 as well as an ensuing elevation4 ,it may naturally be asked how it comes that although no extensive fossiliferous deposits of the recent period1 nor of any period intermediate between it and the ancient tertiary epoch1 have been preserved on either side of the continent1 yet that at this ancient tertiary epoch1 sedimentary matter containing fossil remains should have been deposited and preserved at different points in north and south lines1 over a space of #aajj miles on the shores of the ,pacific1 and of at least #acej miles on the shores of the ,atlantic1 and in an east and west line of #gjj miles across the widest part of the continent8 ,i believe the explanation is not difficult1 and that it is perhaps applicable to nearly analogous facts observed in other quarters of the world4 ,considering the enormous power of denudation which the sea possesses1 as shown by numberless facts1 it is not probable that a sedimentary deposit1 when being upraised1 could pass through the ordeal of the beach1 so as to be preserved in sufficient masses to last to a distant period1 without it were originally of wide extent and of considerable thickness3 now it is impossible on a moderately shallow bottom1 which alone is favourable to most living creatures1 that a thick and widely extended covering of sediment could be spread out1 without the bottom sank down to receive the successive layers4 ,this seems to have actually taken place at about the same period in southern ,patagonia and ,chile1 though these places are a thousand miles apart4 ,hence1 if prolonged movements of approximately contemporaneous subsidence are generally widely extensive1 as ,i am strongly inclined to believe from my examination of the ,coral ,reefs of the great oceans--or if1 confining our view to ,south ,america1 the subsiding movements have been coextensive with those of elevation1 by which1 within the same period of existing shells1 the shores of ,peru1 ,chile1 ,tierra del ,fuego1 ,patagonia1 and ,la ,plata have been upraised--then we can see that at the same time1 at far distant points1 circumstances would have been favourable to the formation of fossiliferous deposits1 of wide extent and of considerable thickness2 and such deposits1 consequently1 would have a good chance of resisting the wear and tear of successive beach-lines1 and of lasting to a future epoch4 ,may #bast4--,i set out in company with ,don ,jose ,edwards to the silver-mine of ,arqueros1 and thence up the valley of ,coquimbo4 ,passing through a mountainous country1 we reached by nightfall the mines belonging to ,mr4 ,edwards4 ,i enjoyed my night's rest here from a reason which will not be fully appreciated in ,england1 namely1 the absence of fleas6 ,the rooms in ,coquimbo swarm with them2 but they will not live here at the height of only three or four thousand feet3 it can scarcely be the trifling diminution of temperature1 but some other cause which destroys these troublesome insects at this place4 ,the mines are now in a bad state1 though they formerly yielded about #bjjj pounds in weight of silver a year4 ,it has been said that 8a person with a copper-mine will gain2 with silver he may gain2 but with gold he is sure to lose40 ,this is not true3 all the large ,chilian fortunes have been made by mines of the more precious metals4 ,a short time since an ,english physician returned to ,england from ,copiap1 taking with him the profits of one share in a silver-mine1 which amounted to about #bd1jjj pounds sterling4 ,no doubt a copper-mine with care is a sure game1 whereas the other is gambling1 or rather taking a ticket in a lottery4 ,the owners lose great quantities of rich ores2 for no precautions can prevent robberies4 ,i heard of a gentleman laying a bet with another1 that one of his men should rob him before his face4 ,the ore when brought out of the mine is broken into pieces1 and the useless stone thrown on one side4 ,a couple of the miners who were thus employed1 pitched1 as if by accident1 two fragments away at the same moment1 and then cried out for a joke 8,let us see which rolls furthest40 ,the owner1 who was standing by1 bet a cigar with his friend on the race4 ,the miner by this means watched the very point amongst the rubbish where the stone lay4 ,in the evening he picked it up and carried it to his master1 showing him a rich mass of silver-ore1 and saying1 8,this was the stone on which you won a cigar by its rolling so far40 ,may #bcrd4--,we descended into the fertile valley of ,coquimbo1 and followed it till we reached an ,hacienda belonging to a relation of ,don ,jose1 where we stayed the next day4 ,i then rode one day's journey farther1 to see what were declared to be some petrified shells and beans1 which latter turned out to be small quartz pebbles4 ,we passed through several small villages2 and the valley was beautifully cultivated1 and the whole scenery very grand4 ,we were here near the main ,cordillera1 and the surrounding hills were lofty4 ,in all parts of ,northern ,chile fruit trees produce much more abundantly at a considerable height near the ,andes than in the lower country4 ,the figs and grapes of this district are famous for their excellence1 and are cultivated to a great extent4 ,this valley is1 perhaps1 the most productive one north of ,quillota4 ,i believe it contains1 including ,coquimbo1 #be1jjj inhabitants4 ,the next day ,i returned to the ,hacienda1 and thence1 together with ,don ,jose1 to ,coquimbo4 ,june #bnd4--,we set out for the valley of ,guasco1 following the coast-road1 which was considered rather less desert than the other4 ,our first day's ride was to a solitary house1 called ,yerba ,buena1 where there was pasture for our horses4 ,the shower mentioned as having fallen a fortnight ago1 only reached about half-way to ,guasco2 we had1 therefore1 in the first part of our journey a most faint tinge of green1 which soon faded quite away4 ,even where brightest1 it was scarcely sufficient to remind one of the fresh turf and budding flowers of the spring of other countries4 ,while travelling through these deserts one feels like a prisoner shut up in a gloomy court1 who longs to see something green and to smell a moist atmosphere4 ,june #crd4--,yerba ,buena to ,carizal4 ,during the first part of the day we crossed a mountainous rocky desert1 and afterwards a long deep sandy plain1 strewed with broken sea-shells4 ,there was very little water1 and that little saline3 the whole country1 from the coast to the ,cordillera1 is an uninhabited desert4 ,i saw traces only of one living animal in abundance1 namely1 the shells of a ,bulimus1 which were collected together in extraordinary numbers on the driest spots4 ,in the spring one humble little plant sends out a few leaves1 and on these the snails feed4 ,as they are seen only very early in the morning1 when the ground is slightly damp with dew1 the ,guasos believe that they are bred from it4 ,i have observed in other places that extremely dry and sterile districts1 where the soil is calcareous1 are extraordinarily favourable to land-shells4 ,at ,carizal there were a few cottages1 some brackish water1 and a trace of cultivation3 but it was with difficulty that we purchased a little corn and straw for our horses4 #dth4--,carizal to ,sauce4 ,we continued to ride over desert plains1 tenanted by large herds of guanaco4 ,we crossed also the valley of ,chaeral2 which1 although the most fertile one between ,guasco and ,coquimbo1 is very narrow1 and produces so little pasture that we could not purchase any for our horses4 ,at ,sauce we found a very civil old gentleman1 superintending a copper-smelting furnace4 ,as an especial favour1 he allowed me to purchase at a high price an armful of dirty straw1 which was all the poor horses had for supper after their long day's journey4 ,few smelting-furnaces are now at work in any part of ,chile2 it is found more profitable1 on account of the extreme scarcity of firewood1 and from the ,chilian method of reduction being so unskilful1 to ship the ore for ,swansea4 ,the next day we crossed some mountains to ,freyrina1 in the valley of ,guasco4 ,during each day's ride farther northward1 the vegetation became more and more scanty2 even the great chandelier-like cactus was here replaced by a different and much smaller species4 ,during the winter months1 both in ,northern ,chile and in ,peru1 a uniform bank of clouds hangs1 at no great height1 over the ,pacific4 ,from the mountains we had a very striking view of this white and brilliant arial field1 which sent arms up the valleys1 leaving islands and promontories in the same manner as the sea does in the ,chonos archipelago and in ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,we stayed two days at ,freyrina4 ,in the valley of ,guasco there are four small towns4 ,at the mouth there is the port1 a spot entirely desert1 and without any water in the immediate neighbourhood4 ,five leagues higher up stands ,freyrina1 a long straggling village1 with decent whitewashed houses4 ,again1 ten leagues further up ,ballenar is situated1 and above this ,guasco ,alto1 a horticultural village1 famous for its dried fruit4 ,on a clear day the view up the valley is very fine2 the straight opening terminates in the far-distant snowy ,cordillera2 on each side an infinity of crossing lines are blended together in a beautiful haze4 ,the foreground is singular from the number of parallel and step-formed terraces2 and the included strip of green valley1 with its willow-bushes1 is contrasted on both hands with the naked hills4 ,that the surrounding country was most barren will be readily believed1 when it is known that a shower of rain had not fallen during the last thirteen months4 ,the inhabitants heard with the greatest envy of the rain at ,coquimbo2 from the appearance of the sky they had hopes of equally good fortune1 which1 a fortnight afterwards1 were realised4 ,i was at ,copiap at the time2 and there the people1 with equal envy1 talked of the abundant rain at ,guasco4 ,after two or three very dry years1 perhaps with not more than one shower during the whole time1 a rainy year generally follows2 and this does more harm than even the drought4 ,the rivers swell1 and cover with gravel and sand the narrow strips of ground which alone are fit for cultivation4 ,the floods also injure the irrigating ditches4 ,great devastation had thus been caused three years ago4 ,june #hth4--,we rode on to ,ballenar1 which takes its name from ,ballenagh in ,ireland1 the birthplace of the family of ,o',higgins1 who1 under the ,spanish government1 were presidents and generals in ,chile4 ,as the rocky mountains on each hand were concealed by clouds1 the terrace-like plains gave to the valley an appearance like that of ,santa ,cruz in ,patagonia4 ,after spending one day at ,ballenar ,i set out1 on the #ajth1 for the upper part of the valley of ,copiap4 ,we rode all day over an uninteresting country4 ,i am tired of repeating the epithets barren and sterile4 ,these words1 however1 as commonly used1 are comparative2 ,i have always applied them to the plains of ,patagonia1 which can boast of spiny bushes and some tufts of grass2 and this is absolute fertility1 as compared with ,northern ,chile4 ,here again1 there are not many spaces of two hundred yards square1 where some little bush1 cactus or lichen1 may not be discovered by careful examination2 and in the soil seeds lie dormant ready to spring up during the first rainy winter4 ,in ,peru real deserts occur over wide tracts of country4 ,in the evening we arrived at a valley in which the bed of the streamlet was damp3 following it up1 we came to tolerably good water4 ,during the night the stream1 from not being evaporated and absorbed so quickly1 flows a league lower down than during the day4 ,sticks were plentiful for firewood1 so that it was a good place of bivouac for us2 but for the poor animals there was not a mouthful to eat4 ,june #aath4--,we rode without stopping for twelve hours till we reached an old smelting-furnace1 where there was water and firewood2 but our horses again had nothing to eat1 being shut up in an old courtyard4 ,the line of road was hilly1 and the distant views interesting from the varied colours of the bare mountains4 ,it was almost a pity to see the sun shining constantly over so useless a country2 such splendid weather ought to have brightened fields and pretty gardens4 ,the next day we reached the valley of ,copiap4 ,i was heartily glad of it2 for the whole journey was a continued source of anxiety2 it was most disagreeable to hear1 whilst eating our own suppers1 our horses gnawing the posts to which they were tied1 and to have no means of relieving their hunger4 ,to all appearance1 however1 the animals were quite fresh2 and no one could have told that they had eaten nothing for the last fifty-five hours4 ,i had a letter of introduction to ,mr4 ,bingley1 who received me very kindly at the ,hacienda of ,potrero ,seco4 ,this estate is between twenty and thirty miles long1 but very narrow1 being generally only two fields wide1 one on each side the river4 ,in some parts the estate is of no width1 that is to say1 the land cannot be irrigated1 and therefore is valueless1 like the surrounding rocky desert4 ,the small quantity of cultivated land in the whole line of valley does not so much depend on inequalities of level1 and consequent unfitness for irrigation1 as on the small supply of water4 ,the river this year was remarkably full3 here1 high up the valley1 it reached to the horse's belly1 and was about fifteen yards wide1 and rapid2 lower down it becomes smaller and smaller1 and is generally quite lost1 as happened during one period of thirty years1 so that not a drop entered the sea4 ,the inhabitants watch a storm over the ,cordillera with great interest2 as one good fall of snow provides them with water for the ensuing year4 ,this is of infinitely more consequence than rain in the lower country4 ,rain1 as often as it falls1 which is about once in every two or three years1 is a great advantage1 because the cattle and mules can for some time afterwards find a little pasture in the mountains4 ,but without snow on the ,andes1 desolation extends throughout the valley4 ,it is on record that three times nearly all the inhabitants have been obliged to emigrate to the south4 ,this year there was plenty of water1 and every man irrigated his ground as much as he chose2 but it has frequently been necessary to post soldiers at the sluices1 to see that each estate took only its proper allowance during so many hours in the week4 ,the valley is said to contain #ab1jjj souls1 but its produce is sufficient only for three months in the year2 the rest of the supply being drawn from ,valparaiso and the south4 ,before the discovery of the famous silver-mines of ,chanuncillo1 ,copiap was in a rapid state of decay2 but now it is in a very thriving condition2 and the town1 which was completely overthrown by an earthquake1 has been rebuilt4 ,the valley of ,copiap1 forming a mere ribbon of green in a desert1 runs in a very southerly direction2 so that it is of considerable length to its source in the ,cordillera4 ,the valleys of ,guasco and ,copiap may both be considered as long narrow islands1 separated from the rest of ,chile by deserts of rock instead of by salt water4 ,northward of these1 there is one other very miserable valley1 called ,paposo1 which contains about two hundred souls2 and then there extends the real desert of ,atacama--a barrier far worse than the most turbulent ocean4 ,after staying a few days at ,potrero ,seco1 ,i proceeded up the valley to the house of ,don ,benito ,cruz1 to whom ,i had a letter of introduction4 ,i found him most hospitable2 indeed it is impossible to bear too strong testimony to the kindness with which travellers are received in almost every part of ,south ,america4 ,the next day ,i hired some mules to take me by the ravine of ,jolquera into the central ,cordillera4 ,on the second night the weather seemed to foretell a storm of snow or rain1 and whilst lying in our beds we felt a trifling shock of an earthquake4 ,the connexion between earthquakes and the weather has been often disputed3 it appears to me to be a point of great interest1 which is little understood4 ,humboldt has remarked in one part of the ,personal ,narrative1#a that it would be difficult for any person who had long resided in ,new ,andalusia1 or in ,lower ,peru1 to deny that there exists some connection between these phenomena3 in another part1 however1 he seems to think the connexion fanciful4 ,at ,guayaquil it is said that a heavy shower in the dry season is invariably followed by an earthquake4 ,in ,northern ,chile1 from the extreme infrequency of rain1 or even of weather foreboding rain1 the probability of accidental coincidences becomes very small2 yet the inhabitants are here most firmly convinced of some connexion between the state of the atmosphere and of the trembling of the ground3 ,i was much struck by this when mentioning to some people at ,copiap that there had been a sharp shock at ,coquimbo3 they immediately cried out1 8,how fortunate6 there will be plenty of pasture there this year40 ,to their minds an earthquake foretold rain as surely as rain foretold abundant pasture4 ,certainly it did so happen that on the very day of the earthquake that shower of rain fell which ,i have described as in ten days' time producing a thin sprinkling of grass4 ,at other times rain has followed earthquakes at a period of the year when it is a far greater prodigy than the earthquake itself3 this happened after the shock of ,november #ahbb1 and again in #ahbi at ,valparaiso2 also after that of ,september #ahcc1 at ,tacna4 ,a person must be somewhat habituated to the climate of these countries to perceive the extreme improbability of rain falling at such seasons1 except as a consequence of some law quite unconnected with the ordinary course of the weather4 ,in the cases of great volcanic eruptions1 as that of ,coseguina1 where torrents of rain fell at a time of the year most unusual for it1 and 8almost unprecedented in ,central ,america10 it is not difficult to understand that the volumes of vapour and clouds of ashes might have disturbed the atmospheric equilibrium4 ,humboldt extends this view to the case of earthquakes unaccompanied by eruptions2 but ,i can hardly conceive it possible that the small quantity of ariform fluids which then escape from the fissured ground can produce such remarkable effects4 ,there appears much probability in the view first proposed by ,mr4 ,p4 ,scrope1 that when the barometer is low1 and when rain might naturally be expected to fall1 the diminished pressure of the atmosphere over a wide extent of country might well determine the precise day on which the earth1 already stretched to the utmost by the subterranean forces1 should yield1 crack1 and consequently tremble4 ,it is1 however1 doubtful how far this idea will explain the circumstance of torrents of rain falling in the dry season during several days1 after an earthquake unaccompanied by an eruption2 such cases seem to bespeak some more intimate connexion between the atmospheric and subterranean regions4 #a ,vol4 iv1 p4 #aa and vol4 ii1 p4 #bag4 ,for the remarks on ,guayaquil see ,silliman's ,journ4 vol4 xxiv1 p4 #chd4 ,for those on ,tacna by ,mr4 ,hamilton see ,trans4 of ,british ,association1 #ahdj4 ,for those on ,coseguina see ,mr4 ,caldcleugh in ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahce4 ,in the former edition ,i collected several references on the coincidences between sudden falls in the barometer and earthquakes2 and between earthquakes and meteors4 ,finding little of interest in this part of the ravine1 we retraced our steps to the house of ,don ,benito1 where ,i stayed two days collecting fossil shells and wood4 ,great prostrate silicified trunks of trees1 embedded in a conglomerate1 were extraordinarily numerous4 ,i measured one which was fifteen feet in circumference3 how surprising it is that every atom of the woody matter in this great cylinder should have been removed and replaced by silex so perfectly that each vessel and pore is preserved6 ,these trees flourished at about the period of our lower chalk2 they all belonged to the fir-tribe4 ,it was amusing to hear the inhabitants discussing the nature of the fossil shells which ,i collected1 almost in the same terms as were used a century ago in ,europe1--namely1 whether or not they had been thus 8born by nature40 ,my geological examination of the country generally created a good deal of surprise amongst the ,chilenos3 it was long before they could be convinced that ,i was not hunting for mines4 ,this was sometimes troublesome3 ,i found the most ready way of explaining my employment was to ask them how it was that they themselves were not curious concerning earthquakes and volcanos8--why some springs were hot and others cold8--why there were mountains in ,chile1 and not a hill in ,la ,plata8 ,these bare questions at once satisfied and silenced the greater number2 some1 however 7like a few in ,england who are a century behindhand71 thought that all such inquiries were useless and impious2 and that it was quite sufficient that ,god had thus made the mountains4 ,an order had recently been issued that all stray dogs should be killed1 and we saw many lying dead on the road4 ,a great number had lately gone mad1 and several men had been bitten and had died in consequence4 ,on several occasions hydrophobia has prevailed in this valley4 ,it is remarkable thus to find so strange and dreadful a disease appearing time after time in the same isolated spot4 ,it has been remarked that certain villages in ,england are in like manner much more subject to this visitation than others4 ,dr4 ,unane states that hydrophobia was first known in ,south ,america in #ahjc3 this statement is corroborated by ,azara and ,ulloa having never heard of it in their time4 ,dr4 ,unane says that it broke out in ,central ,america1 and slowly travelled southward4 ,it reached ,arequipa in #ahjg2 and it is said that some men there1 who had not been bitten1 were affected1 as were some negroes1 who had eaten a bullock which had died of hydrophobia4 ,at ,ica forty-two people thus miserably perished4 ,the disease came on between twelve and ninety days after the bite2 and in those cases where it did come on1 death ensued invariably within five days4 ,after #ahjh a long interval ensued without any cases4 ,on inquiry1 ,i did not hear of hydrophobia in ,van ,diemen's ,land1 or in ,australia2 and ,burchell says that during the five years he was at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 he never heard of an instance of it4 ,webster asserts that at the ,azores hydrophobia has never occurred2 and the same assertion has been made with respect to ,mauritius and ,st4 ,helena4#b ,in so strange a disease some information might possibly be gained by considering the circumstances under which it originates in distant climates2 for it is improbable that a dog already bitten should have been brought to these distant countries4 #b ,observa4 sobre el clima de ,lima1 p4 #fg4--;,azara's ,travels1 vol4 i1 p4 #cha4--,ulloa's ,voyage1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bh4--;,burchell's ,travels1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ebd4--,webster's ,description of the ,azores1 p4 #abd4--,voyage l',isle de ,france par un ,officier du ,roi1 tome i1 p4 #bdh4--;,description of ,st4 ,helena1 p4 #abc4 ,at night a stranger arrived at the house of ,don ,benito and asked permission to sleep there4 ,he said he had been wandering about the mountains for seventeen days1 having lost his way4 ,he started from ,guasco1 and being accustomed to travelling in the ,cordillera1 did not expect any difficulty in following the track to ,copiap2 but he soon became involved in a labyrinth of mountains whence he could not escape4 ,some of his mules had fallen over precipices and he had been in great distress4 ,his chief difficulty arose from not knowing where to find water in the lower country1 so that he was obliged to keep bordering the central ranges4 ,we returned down the valley1 and on the #bbnd reached the town of ,copiap4 ,the lower part of the valley is broad1 forming a fine plain like that of ,quillota4 ,the town covers a considerable space of ground1 each house possessing a garden3 but it is an uncomfortable place1 and the dwellings are poorly furnished4 ,every one seems bent on the one object of making money1 and then migrating as quickly as possible4 ,all the inhabitants are more or less directly concerned with mines2 and mines and ores are the sole subjects of conversation4 ,necessaries of all sorts are extremely dear2 as the distance from the town to the port is eighteen leagues1 and the land carriage very expensive4 ,a fowl costs five or six shillings2 meat is nearly as dear as in ,england2 firewood1 or rather sticks1 are brought on donkeys from a distance of two and three days' journey within the ,cordillera2 and pasturage for animals is a shilling a day3 all this for ,south ,america is wonderfully exorbitant4 ,june #bfth4--,i hired a guide and eight mules to take me into the ,cordillera by a different line from my last excursion4 ,as the country was utterly desert1 we took a cargo and a half of barley mixed with chopped straw4 ,about two leagues above the town a broad valley called the 8,despoblado10 or uninhabited1 branches off from that one by which we had arrived4 ,although a valley of the grandest dimensions1 and leading to a pass across the ,cordillera1 yet it is completely dry1 excepting perhaps for a few days during some very rainy winter4 ,the sides of the crumbling mountains were furrowed by scarcely any ravines2 and the bottom of the main valley1 filled with shingle1 was smooth and nearly level4 ,no considerable torrent could ever have flowed down this bed of shingle2 for if it had1 a great cliff-bounded channel1 as in all the southern valleys1 would assuredly have been formed4 ,i feel little doubt that this valley1 as well as those mentioned by travellers in ,peru1 were left in the state we now see them by the waves of the sea1 as the land slowly rose4 ,i observed in one place where the ,despoblado was joined by a ravine 7which in almost any other chain would have been called a grand valley71 that its bed1 though composed merely of sand and gravel1 was higher than that of its tributary4 ,a mere rivulet of water1 in the course of an hour1 would have cut a channel for itself2 but it was evident that ages had passed away1 and no such rivulet had drained this great tributary4 ,it was curious to behold the machinery1 if such a term may be used1 for the drainage1 all1 with the last trifling exception1 perfect1 yet without any signs of action4 ,every one must have remarked how mud-banks1 left by the retiring tide1 imitate in miniature a country with hill and dale2 and here we have the original model in rock1 formed as the continent rose during the secular retirement of the ocean1 instead of during the ebbing and flowing of the tides4 ,if a shower of rain falls on the mud-bank1 when left dry1 it deepens the already-formed shallow lines of excavation2 and so it is with the rain of successive centuries on the bank of rock and soil1 which we call a continent4 ,we rode on after it was dark1 till we reached a side ravine with a small well1 called 8,agua amarga40 ,the water deserved its name1 for besides being saline it was most offensively putrid and bitter2 so that we could not force ourselves to drink either tea or mat4 ,i suppose the distance from the river of ,copiap to this spot was at least twenty-five or thirty ,english miles2 in the whole space there was not a single drop of water1 the country deserving the name of desert in the strictest sense4 ,yet about half-way we passed some old ,indian ruins near ,punta ,gorda3 ,i noticed also in front of some of the valleys which branch off from the ,despoblado1 two piles of stones placed a little way apart1 and directed so as to point up the mouths of these small valleys4 ,my companions knew nothing about them1 and only answered my queries by their imperturbable 8quien sabe80 ,i observed ,indian ruins in several parts of the ,cordillera3 the most perfect which ,i saw were the ,ruinas de ,tambillos in the ,uspallata ,pass4 ,small square rooms were there huddled together in separate groups3 some of the doorways were yet standing2 they were formed by a cross slab of stone only about three feet high4 ,ulloa has remarked on the lowness of the doors in the ancient ,peruvian dwellings4 ,these houses1 when perfect1 must have been capable of containing a considerable number of persons4 ,tradition says that they were used as halting-places for the ,incas1 when they crossed the mountains4 ,traces of ,indian habitations have been discovered in many other parts1 where it does not appear probable that they were used as mere resting-places1 but yet where the land is as utterly unfit for any kind of cultivation as it is near the ,tambillos or at the ,incas ,bridge1 or in the ,portillo ,pass1 at all which places ,i saw ruins4 ,in the ravine of ,jajuel1 near ,aconcagua1 where there is no pass1 ,i heard of remains of houses situated at a great height1 where it is extremely cold and sterile4 ,at first ,i imagined that these buildings had been places of refuge1 built by the ,indians on the first arrival of the ,spaniards2 but ,i have since been inclined to speculate on the probability of a small change of climate4 ,in this northern part of ,chile1 within the ,cordillera1 old ,indian houses are said to be especially numerous3 by digging amongst the ruins1 bits of woollen articles1 instruments of precious metals1 and heads of ,indian corn1 are not unfrequently discovered3 an arrow-head made of agate1 and of precisely the same form with those now used in ,tierra del ,fuego1 was given me4 ,i am aware that the ,peruvian ,indians now frequently inhabit most lofty and bleak situations2 but at ,copiap ,i was assured by men who had spent their lives in travelling through the ,andes1 that there were very many 7muchisimas7 buildings at heights so great as almost to border on the perpetual snow1 and in parts where there exist no passes1 and where the land produces absolutely nothing1 and what is still more extraordinary1 where there is no water4 ,nevertheless it is the opinion of the people of the country 7although they are much puzzled by the circumstance71 that1 from the appearance of the houses1 the ,indians must have used them as places of residence4 ,in this valley1 at ,punta ,gorda1 the remains consisted of seven or eight square little rooms1 which were of a similar form with those at ,tambillos1 but built chiefly of mud1 which the present inhabitants cannot1 either here or1 according to ,ulloa1 in ,peru1 imitate in durability4 ,they were situated in the most conspicuous and defenceless position1 at the bottom of the flat broad valley4 ,there was no water nearer than three or four leagues1 and that only in very small quantity1 and bad3 the soil was absolutely sterile2 ,i looked in vain even for a lichen adhering to the rocks4 ,at the present day1 with the advantage of beasts of burden1 a mine1 unless it were very rich1 could scarcely be worked here with profit4 ,yet the ,indians formerly chose it as a place of residence6 ,if at the present time two or three showers of rain were to fall annually1 instead of one1 as now is the case1 during as many years1 a small rill of water would probably be formed in this great valley2 and then1 by irrigation 7which was formerly so well understood by the ,indians71 the soil would easily be rendered sufficiently productive to support a few families4 ,i have convincing proofs that this part of the continent of ,south ,america has been elevated near the coast at least from #djj to #ejj1 and in some parts from #ajjj to #acjj feet1 since the epoch of existing shells2 and farther inland the rise possibly may have been greater4 ,as the peculiarly arid character of the climate is evidently a consequence of the height of the ,cordillera1 we may feel almost sure that before the later elevations1 the atmosphere could not have been so completely drained of its moisture as it now is2 and as the rise has been gradual1 so would have been the change in climate4 ,on this notion of a change of climate since the buildings were inhabited1 the ruins must be of extreme antiquity1 but ,i do not think their preservation under the ,chilian climate any great difficulty4 ,we must also admit on this notion 7and this perhaps is a greater difficulty7 that man has inhabited ,south ,america for an immensely long period1 inasmuch as any change of climate effected by the elevation of the land must have been extremely gradual4 ,at ,valparaiso1 within the last #bbj years1 the rise has been somewhat less than #ai feet3 at ,lima a sea-beach has certainly been upheaved from #hj to #ij feet1 within the ,indio-human period3 but such small elevations could have had little power in deflecting the moisture-bringing atmospheric currents4 ,dr4 ,lund1 however1 found human skeletons in the caves of ,brazil1 the appearance of which induced him to believe that the ,indian race has existed during a vast lapse of time in ,south ,america4 ,when at ,lima1 ,i conversed on these subjects#c with ,mr4 ,gill1 a civil engineer1 who had seen much of the interior country4 ,he told me that a conjecture of a change of climate had sometimes crossed his mind2 but that he thought that the greater portion of land1 now incapable of cultivation1 but covered with ,indian ruins1 had been reduced to this state by the water-conduits1 which the ,indians formerly constructed on so wonderful a scale1 having been injured by neglect and by subterranean movements4 ,i may here mention that the ,peruvians actually carried their irrigating streams in tunnels through hills of solid rock4 ,mr4 ,gill told me he had been employed professionally to examine one3 he found the passage low1 narrow1 crooked1 and not of uniform breadth1 but of very considerable length4 ,is it not most wonderful that men should have attempted such operations1 without the use of iron or gunpowder8 ,mr4 ,gill also mentioned to me a most interesting1 and1 as far as ,i am aware1 quite unparalleled case1 of a subterranean disturbance having changed the drainage of a country4 ,travelling from ,casma to ,huaraz 7not very far distant from ,lima71 he found a plain covered with ruins and marks of ancient cultivation but now quite barren4 ,near it was the dry course of a considerable river1 whence the water for irrigation had formerly been conducted4 ,there was nothing in the appearance of the watercourse to indicate that the river had not flowed there a few years previously2 in some parts1 beds of sand and gravel were spread out2 in others1 the solid rock had been worn into a broad channel1 which in one spot was about #dj yards in breadth and #h feet deep4 ,it is self-evident that a person following up the course of a stream will always ascend at a greater or less inclination3 ,mr4 ,gill1 therefore1 was much astonished1 when walking up the bed of this ancient river1 to find himself suddenly going down hill4 ,he imagined that the downward slope had a fall of about #dj or #ej feet perpendicular4 ,we here have unequivocal evidence that a ridge had been uplifted right across the old bed of a stream4 ,from the moment the river-course was thus arched1 the water must necessarily have been thrown back1 and a new channel formed4 ,from that moment1 also1 the neighbouring plain must have lost its fertilising stream1 and become a desert4 #c ,temple1 in his travels through ,upper ,peru1 or ,bolivia1 in going from ,potosi to ,oruro1 says 8,i saw many ,indian villages or dwellings in ruins1 up even to the very tops of the mountains1 attesting a former population where now all is desolate40 ,he makes similar remarks in another place2 but ,i cannot tell whether this desolation has been caused by a want of population1 or by an altered condition of the land4 ,june #bgth4--,we set out early in the morning1 and by mid-day reached the ravine of ,paypote1 where there is a tiny rill of water1 with a little vegetation1 and even a few algarroba trees1 a kind of mimosa4 ,from having firewood1 a smelting-furnace had formerly been built here3 we found a solitary man in charge of it1 whose sole employment was hunting guanacos4 ,at night it froze sharply2 but having plenty of wood for our fire1 we kept ourselves warm4 ,june #bhth4--,we continued gradually ascending1 and the valley now changed into a ravine4 ,during the day we saw several guanacos1 and the track of the closely-allied species1 the ,vicua3 this latter animal is pre-eminently alpine in its habits2 it seldom descends much below the limit of perpetual snow1 and therefore haunts even a more lofty and sterile situation than the guanaco4 ,the only other animal which we saw in any number was a small fox3 ,i suppose this animal preys on the mice and other small rodents which1 as long as there is the least vegetation1 subsist in considerable numbers in very desert places4 ,in ,patagonia1 even on the borders of the salinas1 where a drop of fresh water can never be found1 excepting dew1 these little animals swarm4 ,next to lizards1 mice appear to be able to support existence on the smallest and driest portions of the earth--even on islets in the midst of great oceans4 ,the scene on all sides showed desolation1 brightened and made palpable by a clear1 unclouded sky4 ,for a time such scenery is sublime1 but this feeling cannot last1 and then it becomes uninteresting4 ,we bivouacked at the foot of the 8primera linea10 or the first line of the partition of the waters4 ,the streams1 however1 on the east side do not flow to the ,atlantic1 but into an elevated district1 in the middle of which there is a large salina1 or salt lake2--thus forming a little ,caspian ,sea at the height1 perhaps1 of ten thousand feet4 ,where we slept1 there were some considerable patches of snow1 but they do not remain throughout the year4 ,the winds in these lofty regions obey very regular laws2 every day a fresh breeze blows up the valley1 and at night1 an hour or two after sunset1 the air from the cold regions above descends as through a funnel4 ,this night it blew a gale of wind1 and the temperature must have been considerably below the freezing-point1 for water in a vessel soon became a block of ice4 ,no clothes seemed to oppose any obstacle to the air2 ,i suffered very much from the cold1 so that ,i could not sleep1 and in the morning rose with my body quite dull and benumbed4 ,in the ,cordillera farther southward people lose their lives from snow-storms2 here1 it sometimes happens from another cause4 ,my guide1 when a boy of fourteen years old1 was passing the ,cordillera with a party in the month of ,may2 and while in the central parts1 a furious gale of wind arose1 so that the men could hardly cling on their mules1 and stones were flying along the ground4 ,the day was cloudless1 and not a speck of snow fell1 but the temperature was low4 ,it is probable that the thermometer would not have stood very many degrees below the freezing-point1 but the effect on their bodies1 ill protected by clothing1 must have been in proportion to the rapidity of the current of cold air4 ,the gale lasted for more than a day2 the men began to lose their strength1 and the mules would not move onwards4 ,my guide's brother tried to return1 but he perished1 and his body was found two years afterwards1 lying by the side of his mule near the road1 with the bridle still in his hand4 ,two other men in the party lost their fingers and toes2 and out of two hundred mules and thirty cows1 only fourteen mules escaped alive4 ,many years ago the whole of a large party are supposed to have perished from a similar cause1 but their bodies to this day have never been discovered4 ,the union of a cloudless sky1 low temperature1 and a furious gale of wind1 must be1 ,i should think1 in all parts of the world an unusual occurrence4 ,june #bith4--,we gladly travelled down the valley to our former night's lodging1 and thence to near the ,agua amarga4 ,on ,july #ast we reached the valley of ,copiap4 ,the smell of the fresh clover was quite delightful1 after the scentless air of the dry sterile ,despoblado4 ,whilst staying in the town ,i heard an account from several of the inhabitants1 of a hill in the neighbourhood which they called 8,el ,bramador10--the roarer or bellower4 ,i did not at the time pay sufficient attention to the account2 but1 as far as ,i understood1 the hill was covered by sand1 and the noise was produced only when people1 by ascending it1 put the sand in motion4 ,the same circumstances are described in detail on the authority of ,seetzen and ,ehrenberg1#d as the cause of the sounds which have been heard by many travellers on ,mount ,sinai near the ,red ,sea4 ,one person with whom ,i conversed had himself heard the noise3 he described it as very surprising2 and he distinctly stated that1 although he could not understand how it was caused1 yet it was necessary to set the sand rolling down the acclivity4 ,a horse walking over dry and coarse sand causes a peculiar chirping noise from the friction of the particles2 a circumstance which ,i several times noticed on the coast of ,brazil4 #d ,edinburgh ,phil4 ,journ4 ,jan4 #ahcj1 p4 #gd2 and ,april #ahcj1 p #beh4 ,also ,daubeny on ,volcanoes1 p4 #dch2 and ,bengal ,journ4 vol4 vii1 p4 #cbd4 ,three days afterwards ,i heard of the ,beagle's arrival at the ,port1 distant eighteen leagues from the town4 ,there is very little land cultivated down the valley2 its wide expanse supports a wretched wiry grass1 which even the donkeys can hardly eat4 ,this poorness of the vegetation is owing to the quantity of saline matter with which the soil is impregnated4 ,the ,port consists of an assemblage of miserable little hovels1 situated at the foot of a sterile plain4 ,at present1 as the river contains water enough to reach the sea1 the inhabitants enjoy the advantage of having fresh water within a mile and a half4 ,on the beach there were large piles of merchandise1 and the little place had an air of activity4 ,in the evening ,i gave my adios1 with a hearty good-will1 to my companion ,mariano ,gonzales1 with whom ,i had ridden so many leagues in ,chile4 ,the next morning the ,beagle sailed for ,iquique4 ,july #abth4--,we anchored in the port of ,iquique1 in latitude #bj #ab1 on the coast of ,peru4 ,the town contains about a thousand inhabitants1 and stands on a little plain of sand at the foot of a great wall of rock1 #bjjj feet in height1 here forming the coast4 ,the whole is utterly desert4 ,a light shower of rain falls only once in very many years2 and the ravines consequently are filled with detritus1 and the mountainsides covered by piles of fine white sand1 even to a height of a thousand feet4 ,during this season of the year a heavy bank of clouds1 stretched over the ocean1 seldom rises above the wall of rocks on the coast4 ,the aspect of the place was most gloomy2 the little port1 with its few vessels1 and small group of wretched houses1 seemed overwhelmed and out of all proportion with the rest of the scene4 ,the inhabitants live like persons on board a ship3 every necessary comes from a distance3 water is brought in boats from ,pisagua1 about forty miles northward1 and is sold at the rate of nine reals 7#ds4 #f;d47 an eighteen-gallon cask3 ,i bought a wine-bottle full for threepence4 ,in like manner firewood1 and of course every article of food1 is imported4 ,very few animals can be maintained in such a place3 on the ensuing morning ,i hired with difficulty1 at the price of four pounds sterling1 two mules and a guide to take me to the nitrate of soda works4 ,these are at present the support of ,iquique4 ,this salt was first exported in #ahcj3 in one year an amount in value of one hundred thousand pounds sterling was sent to ,france and ,england4 ,it is principally used as a manure and in the manufacture of nitric acid3 owing to its deliquescent property it will not serve for gunpowder4 ,formerly there were two exceedingly rich silver-mines in this neighbourhood1 but their produce is now very small4 ,our arrival in the offing caused some little apprehension4 ,peru was in a state of anarchy2 and each party having demanded a contribution1 the poor town of ,iquique was in tribulation1 thinking the evil hour was come4 ,the people had also their domestic troubles2 a short time before1 three ,french carpenters had broken open1 during the same night1 the two churches1 and stolen all the plate3 one of the robbers1 however1 subsequently confessed1 and the plate was recovered4 ,the convicts were sent to ,arequipa1 which1 though the capital of this province1 is two hundred leagues distant2 the government there thought it a pity to punish such useful workmen who could make all sorts of furniture2 and accordingly liberated them4 ,things being in this state1 the churches were again broken open1 but this time the plate was not recovered4 ,the inhabitants became dreadfully enraged1 and declaring that none but heretics would thus 8eat ,god ,almighty10 proceeded to torture some ,englishmen1 with the intention of afterwards shooting them4 ,at last the authorities interfered1 and peace was established4 #acth4--,in the morning ,i started for the saltpetre-works1 a distance of fourteen leagues4 ,having ascended the steep coast-mountains by a zigzag sandy track1 we soon came in view of the mines of ,guantajaya and ,st4 ,rosa4 ,these two small villages are placed at the very mouths of the mines2 and being perched up on hills1 they had a still more unnatural and desolate appearance than the town of ,iquique4 ,we did not reach the saltpetre works till after sunset1 having ridden all day across an undulating country1 a complete and utter desert4 ,the road was strewed with the bones and dried skins of many beasts of burden which had perished on it from fatigue4 ,excepting the ,vultur aura1 which preys on the carcasses1 ,i saw neither bird1 quadruped1 reptile1 nor insect4 ,on the coast-mountains1 at the height of about #bjjj feet1 where during this season the clouds generally hang1 a very few cacti were growing in the clefts of rock2 and the loose sand was strewed over with a lichen1 which lies on the surface quite unattached4 ,this plant belongs to the genus ,cladonia1 and somewhat resembles the reindeer lichen4 ,in some parts it was in sufficient quantity to tinge the sand1 as seen from a distance1 of a pale yellowish colour4 ,farther inland1 during the whole ride of fourteen leagues1 ,i saw only one other vegetable production1 and that was a most minute yellow lichen1 growing on the bones of the dead mules4 ,this was the first true desert which ,i had seen3 the effect on me was not impressive2 but ,i believe this was owing to my having become gradually accustomed to such scenes1 as ,i rode northward from ,valparaiso1 through ,coquimbo1 to ,copiap4 ,the appearance of the country was remarkable1 from being covered by a thick crust of common salt1 and of a stratified saliferous alluvium1 which seems to have been deposited as the land slowly rose above the level of the sea4 ,the salt is white1 very hard1 and compact3 it occurs in water-worn nodules projecting from the agglutinated sand1 and is associated with much gypsum4 ,the appearance of this superficial mass very closely resembled that of a country after snow1 before the last dirty patches are thawed4 ,the existence of this crust of a soluble substance over the whole face of the country shows how extraordinarily dry the climate must have been for a long period4 ,at night ,i slept at the house of the owner of one of the saltpetre mines4 ,the country is here as unproductive as near the coast2 but water1 having rather a bitter and brackish taste1 can be procured by digging wells4 ,the well at this house was thirty-six yards deep3 as scarcely any rain falls1 it is evident the water is not thus derived2 indeed if it were1 it could not fail to be as salt as brine1 for the whole surrounding country is incrusted with various saline substances4 ,we must therefore conclude that it percolates under ground from the ,cordillera1 though distant many leagues4 ,in that direction there are a few small villages1 where the inhabitants1 having more water1 are enabled to irrigate a little land1 and raise hay1 on which the mules and asses1 employed in carrying the saltpetre1 are fed4 ,the nitrate of soda was now selling at the ship's side at fourteen shillings per hundred pounds3 the chief expense is its transport to the sea-coast4 ,the mine consists of a hard stratum1 between two and three feet thick1 of the nitrate mingled with a little of the sulphate of soda and a good deal of common salt4 ,it lies close beneath the surface1 and follows for a length of one hundred and fifty miles the margin of a grand basin or plain2 this1 from its outline1 manifestly must once have been a lake1 or more probably an inland arm of the sea1 as may be inferred from the presence of iodic salts in the saline stratum4 ,the surface of the plain is #ccjj feet above the ,pacific4 #aith4--,we anchored in the ,bay of ,callao1 the seaport of ,lima1 the capital of ,peru4 ,we stayed here six weeks1 but from the troubled state of public affairs ,i saw very little of the country4 ,during our whole visit the climate was far from being so delightful as it is generally represented4 ,a dull heavy bank of clouds constantly hung over the land1 so that during the first sixteen days ,i had only one view of the ,cordillera behind ,lima4 ,these mountains1 seen in stages1 one above the other1 through openings in the clouds1 had a very grand appearance4 ,it is almost become a proverb1 that rain never falls in the lower part of ,peru4 ,yet this can hardly be considered correct2 for during almost every day of our visit there was a thick drizzling mist1 which was sufficient to make the streets muddy and one's clothes damp3 this the people are pleased to call ,peruvian dew4 ,that much rain does not fall is very certain1 for the houses are covered only with flat roofs made of hardened mud2 and on the mole ship-loads of wheat were piled up1 being thus left for weeks together without any shelter4 ,i cannot say ,i liked the very little ,i saw of ,peru3 in summer1 however1 it is said that the climate is much pleasanter4 ,in all seasons1 both inhabitants and foreigners suffer from severe attacks of ague4 ,this disease is common on the whole coast of ,peru1 but is unknown in the interior4 ,the attacks of illness which arise from miasma never fail to appear most mysterious4 ,so difficult is it to judge from the aspect of a country1 whether or not it is healthy1 that if a person had been told to choose within the tropics a situation appearing favourable for health1 very probably he would have named this coast4 ,the plain round the outskirts of ,callao is sparingly covered with a coarse grass1 and in some parts there are a few stagnant1 though very small1 pools of water4 ,the miasma1 in all probability1 arises from these3 for the town of ,arica was similarly circumstanced1 and its healthiness was much improved by the drainage of some little pools4 ,miasma is not always produced by a luxuriant vegetation with an ardent climate2 for many parts of ,brazil1 even where there are marshes and a rank vegetation1 are much more healthy than this sterile coast of ,peru4 ,the densest forests in a temperate climate1 as in ,chiloe1 do not seem in the slightest degree to affect the healthy condition of the atmosphere4 ,the island of ,st4 ,jago1 at the ,cape de ,verds1 offers another strongly-marked instance of a country1 which any one would have expected to find most healthy1 being very much the contrary4 ,i have described the bare and open plains as supporting1 during a few weeks after the rainy season1 a thin vegetation1 which directly withers away and dries up3 at this period the air appears to become quite poisonous2 both natives and foreigners often being affected with violent fevers4 ,on the other hand1 the ,galapagos ,archipelago1 in the ,pacific1 with a similar soil1 and periodically subject to the same process of vegetation1 is perfectly healthy4 ,humboldt has observed that 8under the torrid zone1 the smallest marshes are the most dangerous1 being surrounded1 as at ,vera ,cruz and ,carthagena1 with an arid and sandy soil1 which raises the temperature of the ambient air40#e ,on the coast of ,peru1 however1 the temperature is not hot to any excessive degree2 and perhaps in consequence the intermittent fevers are not of the most malignant order4 ,in all unhealthy countries the greatest risk is run by sleeping on shore4 ,is this owing to the state of the body during sleep1 or to a greater abundance of miasma at such times8 ,it appears certain that those who stay on board a vessel1 though anchored at only a short distance from the coast1 generally suffer less than those actually on shore4 ,on the other hand1 ,i have heard of one remarkable case where a fever broke out among the crew of a man-of-war some hundred miles off the coast of ,africa1 and at the same time one of those fearful periods#f of death commenced at ,sierra ,leone4 #e ,political ,essay on the ,kingdom of ,new ,spain1 vol4 iv1 p4 #aii4 #f ,a similar interesting case is recorded in the ,madras ,medical ,quart4 ,journ4 #ahci1 p4 #cdj4 ,dr4 ,ferguson in his admirable ,paper 7see #ith vol4 of ,edinburgh ,royal ,trans471 shows clearly that the poison is generated in the drying process2 and hence that dry hot countries are often the most unhealthy4 ,no state in ,south ,america1 since the declaration of independence1 has suffered more from anarchy than ,peru4 ,at the time of our visit there were four chiefs in arms contending for supremacy in the government3 if one succeeded in becoming for a time very powerful1 the others coalesced against him2 but no sooner were they victorious than they were again hostile to each other4 ,the other day1 at the ,anniversary of the ,independence1 high mass was performed1 the ,president partaking of the sacrament3 during the ,te ,deum laudamus1 instead of each regiment displaying the ,peruvian flag1 a black one with death's head was unfurled4 ,imagine a government under which such a scene could be ordered1 on such an occasion1 to be typical of their determination of fighting to death6 ,this state of affairs happened at a time very unfortunately for me1 as ,i was precluded from taking any excursions much beyond the limits of the town4 ,the barren island of ,san ,lorenzo1 which forms the harbour1 was nearly the only place where one could walk securely4 ,the upper part1 which is upwards of #ajjj feet in height1 during this season of the year 7winter71 comes within the lower limit of the clouds2 and in consequence an abundant cryptogamic vegetation and a few flowers cover the summit4 ,on the hills near ,lima1 at a height but little greater1 the ground is carpeted with moss1 and beds of beautiful yellow lilies1 called ,amancaes4 ,this indicates a very much greater degree of humidity than at a corresponding height at ,iquique4 ,proceeding northward of ,lima1 the climate becomes damper1 till on the banks of the ,guayaquil1 nearly under the equator1 we find the most luxuriant forests4 ,the change1 however1 from the sterile coast of ,peru to that fertile land is described as taking place rather abruptly in the latitude of ,cape ,blanco1 two degrees south of ,guayaquil4 ,callao is a filthy1 ill-built1 small seaport4 ,the inhabitants1 both here and at ,lima1 present every imaginable shade of mixture1 between ,european1 ,negro1 and ,indian blood4 ,they appear a depraved1 drunken set of people4 ,the atmosphere is loaded with foul smells1 and that peculiar one1 which may be perceived in almost every town within the tropics1 was here very strong4 ,the fortress1 which withstood ,lord ,cochrane's long siege1 has an imposing appearance4 ,but the ,president1 during our stay1 sold the brass guns1 and proceeded to dismantle parts of it4 ,the reason assigned was1 that he had not an officer to whom he could trust so important a charge4 ,he himself had good reason for thinking so1 as he had obtained the presidentship by rebelling while in charge of this same fortress4 ,after we left ,south ,america1 he paid the penalty in the usual manner1 by being conquered1 taken prisoner1 and shot4 ,lima stands on a plain in a valley1 formed during the gradual retreat of the sea4 ,it is seven miles from ,callao1 and is elevated #ejj feet above it2 but from the slope being very gradual1 the road appears absolutely level2 so that when at ,lima it is difficult to believe one has ascended even one hundred feet3 ,humboldt has remarked on this singularly deceptive case4 ,steep barren hills rise like islands from the plain1 which is divided1 by straight mud-walls1 into large green fields4 ,in these scarcely a tree grows excepting a few willows1 and an occasional clump of bananas and of oranges4 ,the city of ,lima is now in a wretched state of decay3 the streets are nearly unpaved2 and heaps of filth are piled up in all directions1 where the black gallinazos1 tame as poultry1 pick up bits of carrion4 ,the houses have generally an upper story1 built1 on account of the earthquakes1 of plastered woodwork2 but some of the old ones1 which are now used by several families1 are immensely large1 and would rival in suites of apartments the most magnificent in any place4 ,lima1 the ,city of the ,kings1 must formerly have been a splendid town4 ,the extraordinary number of churches gives it1 even at the present day1 a peculiar and striking character1 especially when viewed from a short distance4 ,one day ,i went out with some merchants to hunt in the immediate vicinity of the city4 ,our sport was very poor2 but ,i had an opportunity of seeing the ruins of one of the ancient ,indian villages1 with its mound like a natural hill in the centre4 ,the remains of houses1 enclosures1 irrigating streams1 and burial mounds1 scattered over this plain1 cannot fail to give one a high idea of the condition and number of the ancient population4 ,when their earthenware1 woollen clothes1 utensils of elegant forms cut out of the hardest rocks1 tools of copper1 ornaments of precious stones1 palaces1 and hydraulic works1 are considered1 it is impossible not to respect the considerable advance made by them in the arts of civilisation4 ,the burial mounds1 called ,huacas1 are really stupendous2 although in some places they appear to be natural hills encased and modelled4 ,there is also another and very different class of ruins which possesses some interest1 namely1 those of old ,callao1 overwhelmed by the great earthquake of #agdf1 and its accompanying wave4 ,the destruction must have been more complete even than at ,talcahuano4 ,quantities of shingle almost conceal the foundations of the walls1 and vast masses of brickwork appear to have been whirled about like pebbles by the retiring waves4 ,it has been stated that the land subsided during this memorable shock3 ,i could not discover any proof of this2 yet it seems far from improbable1 for the form of the coast must certainly have undergone some change since the foundation of the old town2 as no people in their senses would willingly have chosen for their building place the narrow spit of shingle on which the ruins now stand4 ,since our voyage1 ,m4 ,tschudi has come to the conclusion1 by the comparison of old and modern maps1 that the coast both north and south of ,lima has certainly subsided4 ,on the island of ,san ,lorenzo there are very satisfactory proofs of elevation within the recent period2 this of course is not opposed to the belief of a small sinking of the ground having subsequently taken place4 ,the side of this island fronting the ,bay of ,callao is worn into three obscure terraces1 the lower one of which is covered by a bed a mile in length1 almost wholly composed of shells of eighteen species1 now living in the adjoining sea4 ,the height of this bed is eighty-five feet4 ,many of the shells are deeply corroded1 and have a much older and more decayed appearance than those at the height of #ejj or #fjj feet on the coast of ,chile4 ,these shells are associated with much common salt1 a little sulphate of lime 7both probably left by the evaporation of the spray1 as the land slowly rose71 together with sulphate of soda and muriate of lime4 ,they rest on fragments of the underlying sandstone1 and are covered by a few inches thick of detritus4 ,the shells higher up on this terrace could be traced scaling off in flakes1 and falling into an impalpable powder2 and on an upper terrace1 at the height of #agj feet1 and likewise at some considerably higher points1 ,i found a layer of saline powder of exactly similar appearance1 and lying in the same relative position4 ,i have no doubt that this upper layer originally existed as a bed of shells1 like that on the eighty-five-feet ledge2 but it does not now contain even a trace of organic structure4 ,the powder has been analysed for me by ,mr4 ,t4 ,reeks2 it consists of sulphates and muriates both of lime and soda1 with very little carbonate of lime4 ,it is known that common salt and carbonate of lime left in a mass for some time together partly decompose each other2 though this does not happen with small quantities in solution4 ,as the half-decomposed shells in the lower parts are associated with much common salt1 together with some of the saline substances composing the upper saline layer1 and as these shells are corroded and decayed in a remarkable manner1 ,i strongly suspect that this double decomposition has here taken place4 ,the resultant salts1 however1 ought to be carbonate of soda and muriate of lime1 the latter is present1 but not the carbonate of soda4 ,hence ,i am led to imagine that by some unexplained means the carbonate of soda becomes changed into the sulphate4 ,it is obvious that the saline layer could not have been preserved in any country in which abundant rain occasionally fell3 on the other hand this very circumstance1 which at first sight appears so highly favourable to the long preservation of exposed shells1 has probably been the indirect means1 through the common salt not having been washed away1 of their decomposition and early decay4 ,i was much interested by finding on the terrace1 at the height of eighty-five feet1 embedded amidst the shells and much sea-drifted rubbish1 some bits of cotton thread1 plaited rush1 and the head of a stalk of ,indian corn3 ,i compared these relics with similar ones taken out of the ,huacas1 or old ,peruvian tombs1 and found them identical in appearance4 ,on the mainland in front of ,san ,lorenzo1 near ,bellavista1 there is an extensive and level plain about a hundred feet high1 of which the lower part is formed of alternating layers of sand and impure clay1 together with some gravel1 and the surface1 to the depth of from three to six feet1 of a reddish loam1 containing a few scattered sea-shells and numerous small fragments of coarse red earthenware1 more abundant at certain spots than at others4 ,at first ,i was inclined to believe that this superficial bed1 from its wide extent and smoothness1 must have been deposited beneath the sea2 but ,i afterwards found in one spot that it lay on an artificial floor of round stones4 ,it seems1 therefore1 most probable that at a period when the land stood at a lower level there was a plain very similar to that now surrounding ,callao1 which1 being protected by a shingle beach1 is raised but very little above the level of the sea4 ,on this plain1 with its underlying red-clay beds1 ,i imagine that the ,indians manufactured their earthen vessels2 and that1 during some violent earthquake1 the sea broke over the beach1 and converted the plain into a temporary lake1 as happened round ,callao in #agac and #agdf4 ,the water would then have deposited mud containing fragments of pottery from the kilns1 more abundant at some spots than at others1 and shells from the sea4 ,this bed with fossil earthenware stands at about the same height with the shells on the lower terrace of ,san ,lorenzo1 in which the cotton-thread and other relics were embedded4 ,hence we may safely conclude that within the ,indo-human period there has been an elevation1 as before alluded to1 of more than eighty-five feet2 for some little elevation must have been lost by the coast having subsided since the old maps were engraved4 ,at ,valparaiso1 although in the #bbj years before our visit the elevation cannot have exceeded nineteen feet1 yet subsequently to #ahag there has been a rise1 partly insensible and partly by a start during the shock of #ahbb1 of ten or eleven feet4 ,the antiquity of the ,indo-human race here1 judging by the eighty-five feet rise of the land since the relics were embedded1 is the more remarkable1 as on the coast of ,patagonia1 when the land stood about the same number of feet lower1 the ,macrauchenia was a living beast2 but as the ,patagonian coast is some way distant from the ,cordillera1 the rising there may have been slower than here4 ,at ,bahia ,blanca the elevation has been only a few feet since the numerous gigantic quadrupeds were there entombed2 and1 according to the generally received opinion1 when these extinct animals were living man did not exist4 ,but the rising of that part of the coast of ,patagonia is perhaps no way connected with the ,cordillera1 but rather with a line of old volcanic rocks in ,banda ,oriental1 so that it may have been infinitely slower than on the shores of ,peru4 ,all these speculations1 however1 must be vague2 for who will pretend to say that there may not have been several periods of subsidence1 intercalated between the movements of elevation8 for we know that along the whole coast of ,patagonia there have certainly been many and long pauses in the upward action of the elevatory forces4 ,illustration3 ,huacas1 ,peruvian pottery ,illustration3 ,testudo ,abingdonii1 ,galapagos ,islands ,chapter ,,xvii ,,galapagos ,,archipelago ,the whole group volcanic--,number of craters--,leafless bushes--,colony at ,charles ,island--,james ,island--,salt-lake in crater--,natural history of the group--,ornithology1 curious finches--,reptiles--,great tortoises1 habits of--,marine ,lizard1 feeds on ,sea-weed--,terrestrial ,lizard1 burrowing habits1 herbivorous--,importance of reptiles in the ,archipelago--,fish1 shells1 insects--,botany--,american type of organisation--,differences in the species or races on different islands--,tameness of the birds--,fear of man an acquired instinct4 ,september #aeth4--,this archipelago consists of ten principal islands1 of which five exceed the others in size4 ,they are situated under the ,equator1 and between five and six hundred miles westward of the coast of ,america4 ,they are all formed of volcanic rocks2 a few fragments of granite curiously glazed and altered by the heat can hardly be considered as an exception4 ,some of the craters surmounting the larger islands are of immense size1 and they rise to a height of between three and four thousand feet4 ,their flanks are studded by innumerable smaller orifices4 ,i scarcely hesitate to affirm that there must be in the whole archipelago at least two thousand craters4 ,these consist either of lava and scori1 or of finely-stratified1 sandstone-like tuff4 ,most of the latter are beautifully symmetrical2 they owe their origin to eruptions of volcanic mud without any lava3 it is a remarkable circumstance that every one of the twenty-eight tuff-craters which were examined had their southern sides either much lower than the other sides1 or quite broken down and removed4 ,as all these craters apparently have been formed when standing in the sea1 and as the waves from the trade wind and the swell from the open ,pacific here unite their forces on the southern coasts of all the islands1 this singular uniformity in the broken state of the craters1 composed of the soft and yielding tuff1 is easily explained4 ,galapagos ,archipelago ,considering that these islands are placed directly under the equator1 the climate is far from being excessively hot2 this seems chiefly caused by the singularly low temperature of the surrounding water1 brought here by the great southern ,polar current4 ,excepting during one short season very little rain falls1 and even then it is irregular2 but the clouds generally hang low4 ,hence1 whilst the lower parts of the islands are very sterile1 the upper parts1 at a height of a thousand feet and upwards1 possess a damp climate and a tolerably luxuriant vegetation4 ,this is especially the case on the windward sides of the islands1 which first receive and condense the moisture from the atmosphere4 ,in the morning 7#agth7 we landed on ,chatham ,island1 which1 like the others1 rises with a tame and rounded outline1 broken here and there by scattered hillocks1 the remains of former craters4 ,nothing could be less inviting than the first appearance4 ,a broken field of black basaltic lava1 thrown into the most rugged waves1 and crossed by great fissures1 is everywhere covered by stunted1 sunburnt brushwood1 which shows little signs of life4 ,the dry and parched surface1 being heated by the noonday sun1 gave to the air a close and sultry feeling1 like that from a stove3 we fancied even that the bushes smelt unpleasantly4 ,although ,i diligently tried to collect as many plants as possible1 ,i succeeded in getting very few2 and such wretched-looking little weeds would have better become an arctic than an equatorial ,flora4 ,the brushwood appears1 from a short distance1 as leafless as our trees during winter2 and it was some time before ,i discovered that not only almost every plant was now in full leaf1 but that the greater number were in flower4 ,the commonest bush is one of the ,euphorbiace3 an acacia and a great odd-looking cactus are the only trees which afford any shade4 ,after the season of heavy rains1 the islands are said to appear for a short time partially green4 ,the volcanic island of ,fernando ,noronha1 placed in many respects under nearly similar conditions1 is the only other country where ,i have seen a vegetation at all like this of the ,galapagos ,islands4 ,the ,beagle sailed round ,chatham ,island1 and anchored in several bays4 ,one night ,i slept on shore on a part of the island where black truncated cones were extraordinarily numerous3 from one small eminence ,i counted sixty of them1 all surmounted by craters more or less perfect4 ,the greater number consisted merely of a ring of red scori or slags cemented together3 and their height above the plain of lava was not more than from fifty to a hundred feet3 none had been very lately active4 ,the entire surface of this part of the island seems to have been permeated1 like a sieve1 by the subterranean vapours3 here and there the lava1 whilst soft1 has been blown into great bubbles2 and in other parts1 the tops of caverns similarly formed have fallen in1 leaving circular pits with steep sides4 ,from the regular form of the many craters1 they gave to the country an artificial appearance1 which vividly reminded me of those parts of ,staffordshire where the great iron-foundries are most numerous4 ,the day was glowing hot1 and the scrambling over the rough surface and through the intricate thickets was very fatiguing2 but ,i was well repaid by the strange ,cyclopean scene4 ,as ,i was walking along ,i met two large tortoises1 each of which must have weighed at least two hundred pounds3 one was eating a piece of cactus1 and as ,i approached1 it stared at me and slowly walked away2 the other gave a deep hiss1 and drew in its head4 ,these huge reptiles1 surrounded by the black lava1 the leafless shrubs1 and large cacti1 seemed to my fancy like some antediluvian animals4 ,the few dull-coloured birds cared no more for me than they did for the great tortoises4 #bcrd4--,the ,beagle proceeded to ,charles ,island4 ,this archipelago has long been frequented1 first by the ,bucaniers1 and latterly by whalers1 but it is only within the last six years that a small colony has been established here4 ,the inhabitants are between two and three hundred in number2 they are nearly all people of colour1 who have been banished for political crimes from the ,republic of the ,equator1 of which ,quito is the capital4 ,the settlement is placed about four and a half miles inland1 and at a height probably of a thousand feet4 ,in the first part of the road we passed through leafless thickets1 as in ,chatham ,island4 ,higher up the woods gradually became greener2 and as soon as we crossed the ridge of the island we were cooled by a fine southerly breeze1 and our sight refreshed by a green and thriving vegetation4 ,in this upper region coarse grasses and ferns abound2 but there are no tree-ferns3 ,i saw nowhere any member of the ,palm family1 which is the more singular1 as #cfj miles northward1 ,cocos ,island takes its name from the number of cocoa-nuts4 ,the houses are irregularly scattered over a flat space of ground1 which is cultivated with sweet potatoes and bananas4 ,it will not easily be imagined how pleasant the sight of black mud was to us1 after having been so long accustomed to the parched soil of ,peru and ,northern ,chile4 ,the inhabitants1 although complaining of poverty1 obtain1 without much trouble1 the means of subsistence4 ,in the woods there are many wild pigs and goats2 but the staple article of animal food is supplied by the tortoises4 ,their numbers have of course been greatly reduced in this island1 but the people yet count on two days' hunting giving them food for the rest of the week4 ,it is said that formerly single vessels have taken away as many as seven hundred1 and that the ship's company of a frigate some years since brought down in one day two hundred tortoises to the beach4 ,september #bith4--,we doubled the south-west extremity of ,albemarle ,island1 and the next day were nearly becalmed between it and ,narborough ,island4 ,both are covered with immense deluges of black naked lava1 which have flowed either over the rims of the great caldrons1 like pitch over the rim of a pot in which it has been boiled1 or have burst forth from smaller orifices on the flanks2 in their descent they have spread over miles of the sea-coast4 ,on both of these islands eruptions are known to have taken place2 and in ,albemarle we saw a small jet of smoke curling from the summit of one of the great craters4 ,in the evening we anchored in ,bank's ,cove1 in ,albemarle ,island4 ,the next morning ,i went out walking4 ,to the south of the broken tuff-crater1 in which the ,beagle was anchored1 there was another beautifully symmetrical one of an elliptic form2 its longer axis was a little less than a mile1 and its depth about #ejj feet4 ,at its bottom there was a shallow lake1 in the middle of which a tiny crater formed an islet4 ,the day was overpoweringly hot1 and the lake looked clear and blue3 ,i hurried down the cindery slope1 and1 choked with dust1 eagerly tasted the water--but1 to my sorrow1 ,i found it salt as brine4 ,the rocks on the coast abounded with great black lizards1 between three and four feet long2 and on the hills1 an ugly yellowish-brown species was equally common4 ,we saw many of this latter kind1 some clumsily running out of the way1 and others shuffling into their burrows4 ,i shall presently describe in more detail the habits of both these reptiles4 ,the whole of this northern part of ,albemarle ,island is miserably sterile4 ,october #hth4--,we arrived at ,james ,island3 this island1 as well as ,charles ,island1 were long since thus named after our kings of the ,stuart line4 ,mr4 ,bynoe1 myself1 and our servants were left here for a week1 with provisions and a tent1 whilst the ,beagle went for water4 ,we found here a party of ,spaniards who had been sent from ,charles ,island to dry fish and to salt tortoise-meat4 ,about six miles inland and at the height of nearly #bjjj feet1 a hovel had been built in which two men lived1 who were employed in catching tortoises1 whilst the others were fishing on the coast4 ,i paid this party two visits1 and slept there one night4 ,as in the other islands1 the lower region was covered by nearly leafless bushes1 but the trees were here of a larger growth than elsewhere1 several being two feet and some even two feet nine inches in diameter4 ,the upper region1 being kept damp by the clouds1 supports a green and flourishing vegetation4 ,so damp was the ground1 that there were large beds of a coarse cyperus1 in which great numbers of a very small water-rail lived and bred4 ,while staying in this upper region1 we lived entirely upon tortoise-meat3 the breast-plate roasted 7as the ,gauchos do carne con cuero71 with the flesh on it1 is very good2 and the young tortoises make excellent soup2 but otherwise the meat to my taste is indifferent4 ,one day we accompanied a party of the ,spaniards in their whale-boat to a salina1 or lake from which salt is procured4 ,after landing we had a very rough walk over a rugged field of recent lava1 which has almost surrounded a tuff-crater at the bottom of which the salt-lake lies4 ,the water is only three or four inches deep and rests on a layer of beautifully crystallised1 white salt4 ,the lake is quite circular1 and is fringed with a border of bright green succulent plants2 the almost precipitous walls of the crater are clothed with wood1 so that the scene was altogether both picturesque and curious4 ,a few years since the sailors belonging to a sealing-vessel murdered their captain in this quiet spot2 and we saw his skull lying among the bushes4 ,during the greater part of our stay of a week the sky was cloudless1 and if the trade-wind failed for an hour the heat became very oppressive4 ,on two days the thermometer within the tent stood for some hours at #ic2 but in the open air1 in the wind and sun1 at only #he4 ,the sand was extremely hot2 the thermometer placed in some of a brown colour immediately rose to #acg1 and how much above that it would have risen ,i do not know for it was not graduated any higher4 ,the black sand felt much hotter1 so that even in thick boots it was quite disagreeable to walk over it4 ,the natural history of these islands is eminently curious1 and well deserves attention4 ,most of the organic productions are aboriginal creations found nowhere else2 there is even a difference between the inhabitants of the different islands2 yet all show a marked relationship with those of ,america1 though separated from that continent by an open space of ocean1 between #ejj and #fjj miles in width4 ,the archipelago is a little world within itself1 or rather a satellite attached to ,america1 whence it has derived a few stray colonists1 and has received the general character of its indigenous productions4 ,considering the small size of these islands1 we feel the more astonished at the number of their aboriginal beings1 and at their confined range4 ,seeing every height crowned with its crater1 and the boundaries of most of the lava-streams still distinct1 we are led to believe that within a period geologically recent the unbroken ocean was here spread out4 ,hence1 both in space and time1 we seem to be brought somewhat near to that great fact--that mystery of mysteries--the first appearance of new beings on this earth4 ,of terrestrial mammals there is only one which must be considered as indigenous1 namely a mouse 7,mus ,galapagoensis7 and this is confined1 as far as ,i could ascertain1 to ,chatham ,island1 the most easterly island of the group4 ,it belongs1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,waterhouse1 to a division of the family of mice characteristic of ,america4 ,at ,james ,island there is a rat sufficiently distinct from the common kind to have been named and described by ,mr4 ,waterhouse2 but as it belongs to the old-world division of the family1 and as this island has been frequented by ships for the last hundred and fifty years1 ,i can hardly doubt that this rat is merely a variety produced by the new and peculiar climate1 food1 and soil1 to which it has been subjected4 ,although no one has a right to speculate without distinct facts1 yet even with respect to the ,chatham ,island mouse1 it should be borne in mind that it may possibly be an ,american species imported here2 for ,i have seen1 in a most unfrequented part of the ,pampas1 a native mouse living in the roof of a newly built hovel1 and therefore its transportation in a vessel is not improbable3 analogous facts have been observed by ,dr4 ,richardson in ,north ,america4 ,of land-birds ,i obtained twenty-six kinds1 all peculiar to the group and found nowhere else1 with the exception of one lark-like finch from ,north ,america 7,dolichonyx oryzivorus7 which ranges on that continent as far north as #ed1 and generally frequents marshes4 ,the other twenty-five birds consist1 firstly1 of a hawk1 curiously intermediate in structure between a ,buzzard and the ,american group of carrion-feeding ,polybori2 and with these latter birds it agrees most closely in every habit and even tone of voice4 ,secondly there are two owls1 representing the short-eared and white barn-owls of ,europe4 ,thirdly a wren1 three tyrant-flycatchers 7two of them species of ,pyrocephalus1 one or both of which would be ranked by some ornithologists as only varieties71 and a dove--all analogous to1 but distinct from1 ,american species4 ,fourthly a swallow1 which though differing from the ,progne purpurea of both ,americas1 only in being rather duller coloured1 smaller1 and slenderer1 is considered by ,mr4 ,gould as specifically distinct4 ,fifthly there are three species of mocking-thrush--a form highly characteristic of ,america4 ,the remaining land-birds form a most singular group of finches1 related to each other in the structure of their beaks1 short tails1 form of body and plumage3 there are thirteen species which ,mr4 ,gould has divided into four sub-groups4 ,all these species are peculiar to this archipelago2 and so is the whole group1 with the exception of one species of the sub-group ,cactornis1 lately brought from ,bow ,island1 in the ,low ,archipelago4 ,of ,cactornis the two species may be often seen climbing about the flowers of the great cactus-trees2 but all the other species of this group of finches1 mingled together in flocks1 feed on the dry and sterile ground of the lower districts4 ,the males of all1 or certainly of the greater number1 are jet black2 and the females 7with perhaps one or two exceptions7 are brown4 ,the most curious fact is the perfect gradation in the size of the beaks in the different species of ,geospiza1 from one as large as that of a hawfinch to that of a chaffinch1 and 7if ,mr4 ,gould is right in including his sub-group1 ,certhidea1 in the main group7 even to that of a warbler4 ,the largest beak in the genus ,geospiza is shown above in ,fig4 #a1 and the smallest in ,fig4 #c2 but instead of there being only one intermediate species1 with a beak of the size shown in ,fig4 #b1 there are no less than six species with insensibly graduated beaks4 ,the beak of the sub-group ,certhidea1 is shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,the beak of ,cactornis is somewhat like that of a starling1 and that of the fourth sub-group1 ,camarhynchus1 is slightly parrot-shaped4 ,seeing this gradation and diversity of structure in one small1 intimately related group of birds1 one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago1 one species had been taken and modified for different ends4 ,in a like manner it might be fancied that a bird1 originally a buzzard1 had been induced here to undertake the office of the carrion-feeding ,polybori of the ,american continent4 ,finches from ,galapagos ,archipelago ,of waders and water-birds ,i was able to get only eleven kinds1 and of these only three 7including a rail confined to the damp summits of the islands7 are new species4 ,considering the wandering habits of the gulls1 ,i was surprised to find that the species inhabiting these islands is peculiar1 but allied to one from the southern parts of ,south ,america4 ,the far greater peculiarity of the land-birds1 namely1 twenty-five out of twenty-six being new species1 or at least new races1 compared with the waders and web-footed birds1 is in accordance with the greater range which these latter orders have in all parts of the world4 ,we shall hereafter see this law of aquatic forms1 whether marine or fresh water1 being less peculiar at any given point of the earth's surface than the terrestrial forms of the same classes1 strikingly illustrated in the shells1 and in a lesser degree in the insects of this archipelago4 ,two of the waders are rather smaller than the same species brought from other places3 the swallow is also smaller1 though it is doubtful whether or not it is distinct from its analogue4 ,the two owls1 the two tyrant-flycatchers 7,pyrocephalus7 and the dove1 are also smaller than the analogous but distinct species1 to which they are most nearly related2 on the other hand1 the gull is rather larger4 ,the two owls1 the swallow1 all three species of mocking-thrush1 the dove in its separate colours though not in its whole plumage1 the ,totanus1 and the gull1 are likewise duskier coloured than their analogous species2 and in the case of the mocking-thrush and ,totanus1 than any other species of the two genera4 ,with the exception of a wren with a fine yellow breast1 and of a tyrant-flycatcher with a scarlet tuft and breast1 none of the birds are brilliantly coloured1 as might have been expected in an equatorial district4 ,hence it would appear probable that the same causes which here make the immigrants of some species smaller1 make most of the peculiar ,galapageian species also smaller1 as well as very generally more dusky coloured4 ,all the plants have a wretched1 weedy appearance1 and ,i did not see one beautiful flower4 ,the insects1 again1 are small-sized and dull coloured1 and1 as ,mr4 ,waterhouse informs me1 there is nothing in their general appearance which would have led him to imagine that they had come from under the equator4#a ,the birds1 plants1 and insects have a desert character1 and are not more brilliantly coloured than those from southern ,patagonia2 we may1 therefore1 conclude that the usual gaudy colouring of the intertropical productions is not related either to the heat or light of those zones1 but to some other cause1 perhaps to the conditions of existence being generally favourable to life4 #a ,the progress of research has shown that some of these birds1 which were then thought to be confined to the islands1 occur on the ,american continent4 ,the eminent ornithologist1 ,mr4 ,sclater1 informs me that this is the case with the ,strix punctatissima and ,pyrocephalus nanus2 and probably with the ,otus galapagoensis and ,zenaida galapagoensis3 so that the number of endemic birds is reduced to twenty-three1 or probably to twenty-one4 ,mr4 ,sclater thinks that one or two of these endemic forms should be ranked rather as varieties than species1 which always seemed to me probable4 ,we will now turn to the order of reptiles1 which gives the most striking character to the zoology of these islands4 ,the species are not numerous1 but the numbers of individuals of each species are extraordinarily great4 ,there is one small lizard belonging to a ,south ,american genus1 and two species 7and probably more7 of the ,amblyrhynchus--a genus confined to the ,galapagos ,islands4 ,there is one snake which is numerous2 it is identical1 as ,i am informed by ,m4 ,bibron1 with the ,psammophis ,temminckii from ,chile4#b ,of sea-turtle ,i believe there are more than one species1 and of tortoises there are1 as we shall presently show1 two or three species or races4 ,of toads and frogs there are none3 ,i was surprised at this1 considering how well suited for them the temperate and damp upper woods appeared to be4 ,it recalled to my mind the remark made by ,bory ,st4 ,vincent1#c namely1 that none of this family are found on any of the volcanic islands in the great oceans4 ,as far as ,i can ascertain from various works1 this seems to hold good throughout the ,pacific1 and even in the large islands of the ,sandwich archipelago4 ,mauritius offers an apparent exception1 where ,i saw the ,rana ,mascariensis in abundance3 this frog is said now to inhabit the ,seychelles1 ,madagascar1 and ,bourbon2 but on the other hand1 ,du ,bois1 in his voyage in #affi1 states that there were no reptiles in ,bourbon except tortoises2 and the ,officier du ,roi asserts that before #agfh it had been attempted1 without success1 to introduce frogs into ,mauritius--,i presume for the purpose of eating3 hence it may be well doubted whether this frog is an aboriginal of these islands4 ,the absence of the frog family in the oceanic islands is the more remarkable1 when contrasted with the case of lizards1 which swarm on most of the smallest islands4 ,may this difference not be caused by the greater facility with which the eggs of lizards1 protected by calcareous shells1 might be transported through salt-water1 than could the slimy spawn of frogs8 #b ,this is stated by ,dr4 ,gnther 7,zoolog4 ,soc4 ,jan4 #bdth1 #ahei7 to be a peculiar species1 not known to inhabit any other country4 #c ,voyage aux ,quatres ,iles d',afrique4 ,with respect to the ,sandwich ,islands see ,tyerman and ,bennett's ,journal1 vol4 i1 p4 #dcd4 ,for ,mauritius see ,voyage par un ,officier1 etc41 ,part i1 p4 #agj4 ,there are no frogs in the ,canary ,islands 7,webb et ,berthelot ,hist4 ,nat4 des ,iles ,canaries4 ,i saw none at ,st4 ,jago in the ,cape de ,verds4 ,there are none at ,st4 ,helena4 ,i will first describe the habits of the tortoise 7,testudo nigra1 formerly called ,indica71 which has been so frequently alluded to4 ,these animals are found1 ,i believe1 on all the islands of the ,archipelago2 certainly on the greater number4 ,they frequent in preference the high damp parts1 but they likewise live in the lower and arid districts4 ,i have already shown1 from the numbers which have been caught in a single day1 how very numerous they must be4 ,some grow to an immense size3 ,mr4 ,lawson1 an ,englishman1 and vice-governor of the colony1 told us that he had seen several so large that it required six or eight men to lift them from the ground2 and that some had afforded as much as two hundred pounds of meat4 ,the old males are the largest1 the females rarely growing to so great a size3 the male can readily be distinguished from the female by the greater length of its tail4 ,the tortoises which live on those islands where there is no water1 or in the lower and arid parts of the others1 feed chiefly on the succulent cactus4 ,those which frequent the higher and damp regions eat the leaves of various trees1 a kind of berry 7called guayavita7 which is acid and austere1 and likewise a pale green filamentous lichen 7,usnera plicata71 that hangs from the boughs of the trees4 ,the tortoise is very fond of water1 drinking large quantities1 and wallowing in the mud4 ,the larger islands alone possess springs1 and these are always situated towards the central parts1 and at a considerable height4 ,the tortoises1 therefore1 which frequent the lower districts1 when thirsty1 are obliged to travel from a long distance4 ,hence broad and well-beaten paths branch off in every direction from the wells down to the sea-coast2 and the ,spaniards1 by following them up1 first discovered the watering-places4 ,when ,i landed at ,chatham ,island1 ,i could not imagine what animal travelled so methodically along well-chosen tracks4 ,near the springs it was a curious spectacle to behold many of these huge creatures1 one set eagerly travelling onwards with outstretched necks1 and another set returning1 after having drunk their fill4 ,when the tortoise arrives at the spring1 quite regardless of any spectator1 he buries his head in the water above his eyes1 and greedily swallows great mouthfuls1 at the rate of about ten in a minute4 ,the inhabitants say each animal stays three or four days in the neighbourhood of the water1 and then returns to the lower country2 but they differed respecting the frequency of these visits4 ,the animal probably regulates them according to the nature of the food on which it has lived4 ,it is1 however1 certain that tortoises can subsist even on those islands where there is no other water than what falls during a few rainy days in the year4 ,i believe it is well ascertained that the bladder of the frog acts as a reservoir for the moisture necessary to its existence3 such seems to be the case with the tortoise4 ,for some time after a visit to the springs1 their urinary bladders are distended with fluid1 which is said gradually to decrease in volume1 and to become less pure4 ,the inhabitants1 when walking in the lower district1 and overcome with thirst1 often take advantage of this circumstance1 and drink the contents of the bladder if full3 in one ,i saw killed1 the fluid was quite limpid1 and had only a very slightly bitter taste4 ,the inhabitants1 however1 always first drink the water in the pericardium1 which is described as being best4 ,the tortoises1 when purposely moving towards any point1 travel by night and day and arrive at their journey's end much sooner than would be expected4 ,the inhabitants1 from observing marked individuals1 consider that they travel a distance of about eight miles in two or three days4 ,one large tortoise1 which ,i watched1 walked at the rate of sixty yards in ten minutes1 that is #cfj yards in the hour1 or four miles a day1--allowing a little time for it to eat on the road4 ,during the breeding season1 when the male and female are together1 the male utters a hoarse roar or bellowing1 which1 it is said1 can be heard at the distance of more than a hundred yards4 ,the female never uses her voice1 and the male only at these times2 so that when the people hear this noise1 they know that the two are together4 ,they were at this time 7,october7 laying their eggs4 ,the female1 where the soil is sandy1 deposits them together1 and covers them up with sand2 but where the ground is rocky she drops them indiscriminately in any hole3 ,mr4 ,bynoe found seven placed in a fissure4 ,the egg is white and spherical2 one which ,i measured was seven inches and three-eighths in circumference1 and therefore larger than a hen's egg4 ,the young tortoises1 as soon as they are hatched1 fall a prey in great numbers to the carrion-feeding buzzard4 ,the old ones seem generally to die from accidents1 as from falling down precipices3 at least1 several of the inhabitants told me that they never found one dead without some evident cause4 ,the inhabitants believe that these animals are absolutely deaf2 certainly they do not overhear a person walking close behind them4 ,i was always amused when overtaking one of these great monsters1 as it was quietly pacing along1 to see how suddenly1 the instant ,i passed1 it would draw in its head and legs1 and uttering a deep hiss fall to the ground with a heavy sound1 as if struck dead4 ,i frequently got on their backs1 and then giving a few raps on the hinder part of their shells1 they would rise up and walk away2--but ,i found it very difficult to keep my balance4 ,the flesh of this animal is largely employed1 both fresh and salted2 and a beautifully clear oil is prepared from the fat4 ,when a tortoise is caught1 the man makes a slit in the skin near its tail1 so as to see inside its body1 whether the fat under the dorsal plate is thick4 ,if it is not1 the animal is liberated2 and it is said to recover soon from this strange operation4 ,in order to secure the tortoises1 it is not sufficient to turn them like turtle1 for they are often able to get on their legs again4 ,there can be little doubt that this tortoise is an aboriginal inhabitant of the ,galapagos2 for it is found on all1 or nearly all1 the islands1 even on some of the smaller ones where there is no water2 had it been an imported species this would hardly have been the case in a group which has been so little frequented4 ,moreover1 the old ,bucaniers found this tortoise in greater numbers even than at present3 ,wood and ,rogers also1 in #agjh1 say that it is the opinion of the ,spaniards that it is found nowhere else in this quarter of the world4 ,it is now widely distributed2 but it may be questioned whether it is in any other place an aboriginal4 ,the bones of a tortoise at ,mauritius1 associated with those of the extinct ,dodo1 have generally been considered as belonging to this tortoise2 if this had been so1 undoubtedly it must have been there indigenous2 but ,m4 ,bibron informs me that he believes that it was distinct1 as the species now living there certainly is4 ,amblyrhynchus ,cristatus ,the ,amblyrhynchus1 a remarkable genus of lizards1 is confined to this archipelago2 there are two species1 resembling each other in general form1 one being terrestrial and the other aquatic4 ,this latter species 7,a4 cristatus7 was first characterised by ,mr4 ,bell1 who well foresaw1 from its short1 broad head1 and strong claws of equal length1 that its habits of life would turn out very peculiar1 and different from those of its nearest ally1 the ,iguana4 ,it is extremely common on all the islands throughout the group1 and lives exclusively on the rocky sea-beaches1 being never found1 at least ,i never saw one1 even ten yards in-shore4 ,it is a hideous-looking creature1 of a dirty black colour1 stupid1 and sluggish in its movements4 ,the usual length of a full-grown one is about a yard1 but there are some even four feet long2 a large one weighed twenty pounds3 on the island of ,albemarle they seem to grow to a greater size than elsewhere4 ,their tails are flattened sideways1 and all four feet partially webbed4 ,they are occasionally seen some hundred yards from the shore1 swimming about2 and ,captain ,collnett1 in his ,voyage says1 8,they go to sea in herds a-fishing1 and sun themselves on the rocks2 and may be called alligators in miniature40 ,it must not1 however1 be supposed that they live on fish4 ,when in the water this lizard swims with perfect ease and quickness1 by a serpentine movement of its body and flattened tail--the legs being motionless and closely collapsed on its sides4 ,a seaman on board sank one1 with a heavy weight attached to it1 thinking thus to kill it directly2 but when1 an hour afterwards1 he drew up the line1 it was quite active4 ,their limbs and strong claws are admirably adapted for crawling over the rugged and fissured masses of lava which everywhere form the coast4 ,in such situations a group of six or seven of these hideous reptiles may oftentimes be seen on the black rocks1 a few feet above the surf1 basking in the sun with outstretched legs4 ,i opened the stomachs of several1 and found them largely distended with minced sea-weed 7,ulv71 which grows in thin foliaceous expansions of a bright green or a dull red colour4 ,i do not recollect having observed this sea-weed in any quantity on the tidal rocks2 and ,i have reason to believe it grows at the bottom of the sea1 at some little distance from the coast4 ,if such be the case1 the object of these animals occasionally going out to sea is explained4 ,the stomach contained nothing but the sea-weed4 ,mr4 ,bynoe1 however1 found a piece of a crab in one2 but this might have got in accidentally1 in the same manner as ,i have seen a caterpillar1 in the midst of some lichen1 in the paunch of a tortoise4 ,the intestines were large1 as in other herbivorous animals4 ,the nature of this lizard's food1 as well as the structure of its tail and feet1 and the fact of its having been seen voluntarily swimming out at sea1 absolutely prove its aquatic habits2 yet there is in this respect one strange anomaly1 namely1 that when frightened it will not enter the water4 ,hence it is easy to drive these lizards down to any little point overhanging the sea1 where they will sooner allow a person to catch hold of their tails than jump into the water4 ,they do not seem to have any notion of biting2 but when much frightened they squirt a drop of fluid from each nostril4 ,i threw one several times as far as ,i could1 into a deep pool left by the retiring tide2 but it invariably returned in a direct line to the spot where ,i stood4 ,it swam near the bottom1 with a very graceful and rapid movement1 and occasionally aided itself over the uneven ground with its feet4 ,as soon as it arrived near the edge1 but still being under water1 it tried to conceal itself in the tufts of sea-weed1 or it entered some crevice4 ,as soon as it thought the danger was past1 it crawled out on the dry rocks1 and shuffled away as quickly as it could4 ,i several times caught this same lizard1 by driving it down to a point1 and though possessed of such perfect powers of diving and swimming1 nothing would induce it to enter the water2 and as often as ,i threw it in1 it returned in the manner above described4 ,perhaps this singular piece of apparent stupidity may be accounted for by the circumstance that this reptile has no enemy whatever on shore1 whereas at sea it must often fall a prey to the numerous sharks4 ,hence1 probably1 urged by a fixed and hereditary instinct that the shore is its place of safety1 whatever the emergency may be1 it there takes refuge4 ,during our visit 7in ,october7 ,i saw extremely few small individuals of this species1 and none ,i should think under a year old4 ,from this circumstance it seems probable that the breeding season had not then commenced4 ,i asked several of the inhabitants if they knew where it laid its eggs3 they said that they knew nothing of its propagation1 although well acquainted with the eggs of the land kind--a fact1 considering how very common this lizard is1 not a little extraordinary4 ,we will now turn to the terrestrial species 7,a4 ,demarlii71 with a round tail1 and toes without webs4 ,this lizard1 instead of being found like the other on all the islands1 is confined to the central part of the archipelago1 namely to ,albemarle1 ,james1 ,barrington1 and ,indefatigable islands4 ,to the southward1 in ,charles1 ,hood1 and ,chatham ,islands1 and to the northward1 in ,towers1 ,bindloes1 and ,abingdon1 ,i neither saw nor heard of any4 ,it would appear as if it had been created in the centre of the archipelago1 and thence had been dispersed only to a certain distance4 ,some of these lizards inhabit the high and damp parts of the islands1 but they are much more numerous in the lower and sterile districts near the coast4 ,i cannot give a more forcible proof of their numbers1 than by stating that when we were left at ,james ,island1 we could not for some time find a spot free from their burrows on which to pitch our single tent4 ,like their brothers the sea-kind1 they are ugly animals1 of a yellowish orange beneath1 and of a brownish-red colour above3 from their low facial angle they have a singularly stupid appearance4 ,they are1 perhaps1 of a rather less size than the marine species2 but several of them weighed between ten and fifteen pounds4 ,in their movements they are lazy and half torpid4 ,when not frightened1 they slowly crawl along with their tails and bellies dragging on the ground4 ,they often stop1 and doze for a minute or two1 with closed eyes and hind legs spread out on the parched soil4 ,they inhabit burrows which they sometimes make between fragments of lava1 but more generally on level patches of the soft sandstone-like tuff4 ,the holes do not appear to be very deep1 and they enter the ground at a small angle2 so that when walking over these lizard-warrens1 the soil is constantly giving way1 much to the annoyance of the tired walker4 ,this animal1 when making its burrow1 works alternately the opposite sides of its body4 ,one front leg for a short time scratches up the soil1 and throws it towards the hind foot1 which is well placed so as to heave it beyond the mouth of the hole4 ,that side of the body being tired1 the other takes up the task1 and so on alternately4 ,i watched one for a long time1 till half its body was buried2 ,i then walked up and pulled it by the tail2 at this it was greatly astonished1 and soon shuffled up to see what was the matter2 and then stared me in the face1 as much as to say1 8,what made you pull my tail80 ,they feed by day1 and do not wander far from their burrows2 if frightened1 they rush to them with a most awkward gait4 ,except when running down hill1 they cannot move very fast1 apparently from the lateral position of their legs4 ,they are not at all timorous3 when attentively watching any one1 they curl their tails1 and1 raising themselves on their front legs1 nod their heads vertically1 with a quick movement1 and try to look very fierce2 but in reality they are not at all so3 if one just stamps on the ground1 down go their tails1 and off they shuffle as quickly as they can4 ,i have frequently observed small fly-eating lizards1 when watching anything1 nod their heads in precisely the same manner2 but ,i do not at all know for what purpose4 ,if this ,amblyrhynchus is held and plagued with a stick1 it will bite it very severely2 but ,i caught many by the tail1 and they never tried to bite me4 ,if two are placed on the ground and held together1 they will fight1 and bite each other till blood is drawn4 ,the individuals1 and they are the greater number1 which inhabit the lower country1 can scarcely taste a drop of water throughout the year2 but they consume much of the succulent cactus1 the branches of which are occasionally broken off by the wind4 ,i several times threw a piece to two or three of them when together2 and it was amusing enough to see them trying to seize and carry it away in their mouths1 like so many hungry dogs with a bone4 ,they eat very deliberately1 but do not chew their food4 ,the little birds are aware how harmless these creatures are3 ,i have seen one of the thick-billed finches picking at one end of a piece of cactus 7which is much relished by all the animals of the lower region71 whilst a lizard was eating at the other end2 and afterwards the little bird with the utmost indifference hopped on the back of the reptile4 ,i opened the stomachs of several1 and found them full of vegetable fibres and leaves of different trees1 especially of an acacia4 ,in the upper region they live chiefly on the acid and astringent berries of the guayavita1 under which trees ,i have seen these lizards and the huge tortoises feeding together4 ,to obtain the acacia-leaves they crawl up the low stunted trees2 and it is not uncommon to see a pair quietly browsing1 whilst seated on a branch several feet above the ground4 ,these lizards1 when cooked1 yield a white meat1 which is liked by those whose stomachs soar above all prejudices4 ,humboldt has remarked that in intertropical ,south ,america all lizards which inhabit dry regions are esteemed delicacies for the table4 ,the inhabitants state that those which inhabit the upper damp parts drink water1 but that the others do not1 like the tortoises1 travel up for it from the lower sterile country4 ,at the time of our visit1 the females had within their bodies numerous1 large1 elongated eggs1 which they lay in their burrows3 the inhabitants seek them for food4 ,these two species of ,amblyrhynchus agree1 as ,i have already stated1 in their general structure1 and in many of their habits4 ,neither have that rapid movement1 so characteristic of the genera ,lacerta and ,iguana4 ,they are both herbivorous1 although the kind of vegetation on which they feed is so very different4 ,mr4 ,bell has given the name to the genus from the shortness of the snout3 indeed1 the form of the mouth may almost be compared to that of the tortoise3 one is led to suppose that this is an adaptation to their herbivorous appetites4 ,it is very interesting thus to find a well-characterised genus1 having its marine and terrestrial species1 belonging to so confined a portion of the world4 ,the aquatic species is by far the most remarkable1 because it is the only existing lizard which lives on marine vegetable productions4 ,as ,i at first observed1 these islands are not so remarkable for the number of the species of reptiles1 as for that of the individuals1 when we remember the well-beaten paths made by the thousands of huge tortoises--the many turtles--the great warrens of the terrestrial ,amblyrhynchus--and the groups of the marine species basking on the coast-rocks of every island--we must admit that there is no other quarter of the world where this ,order replaces the herbivorous mammalia in so extraordinary a manner4 ,the geologist on hearing this will probably refer back in his mind to the ,secondary epochs1 when lizards1 some herbivorous1 some carnivorous1 and of dimensions comparable only with our existing whales1 swarmed on the land and in the sea4 ,it is1 therefore1 worthy of his observation that this archipelago1 instead of possessing a humid climate and rank vegetation1 cannot be considered otherwise than extremely arid1 and1 for an equatorial region1 remarkably temperate4 ,to finish with the zoology3 the fifteen kinds of sea-fish which ,i procured here are all new species2 they belong to twelve genera1 all widely distributed1 with the exception of ,prionotus1 of which the four previously known species live on the eastern side of ,america4 ,of land-shells ,i collected sixteen kinds 7and two marked varieties7 of which1 with the exception of one ,helix found at ,tahiti1 all are peculiar to this archipelago3 a single fresh-water shell 7,paludina7 is common to ,tahiti and ,van ,diemen's ,land4 ,mr4 ,cuming1 before our voyage1 procured here ninety species of sea-shells1 and this does not include several species not yet specifically examined1 of ,trochus1 ,turbo1 ,monodonta1 and ,nassa4 ,he has been kind enough to give me the following interesting results3 of the ninety shells1 no less than forty-seven are unknown elsewhere--a wonderful fact1 considering how widely distributed sea-shells generally are4 ,of the forty-three shells found in other parts of the world1 twenty-five inhabit the western coast of ,america1 and of these eight are distinguishable as varieties2 the remaining eighteen 7including one variety7 were found by ,mr4 ,cuming in the ,low ,archipelago1 and some of them also at the ,philippines4 ,this fact of shells from islands in the central parts of the ,pacific occurring here1 deserves notice1 for not one single sea-shell is known to be common to the islands of that ocean and to the west coast of ,america4 ,the space of open sea running north and south off the west coast separates two quite distinct conchological provinces2 but at the ,galapagos ,archipelago we have a halting-place1 where many new forms have been created1 and whither these two great conchological provinces have each sent several colonists4 ,the ,american province has also sent here representative species2 for there is a ,galapageian species of ,monoceros1 a genus only found on the west coast of ,america2 and there are ,galapageian species of ,fissurella and ,cancellaria1 genera common on the west coast1 but not found 7as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,cuming7 in the central islands of the ,pacific4 ,on the other hand1 there are ,galapageian species of ,oniscia and ,stylifer1 genera common to the ,west ,indies and to the ,chinese and ,indian seas1 but not found either on the west coast of ,america or in the central ,pacific4 ,i may here add1 that after the comparison by ,messrs4 ,cuming and ,hinds of about #bjjj shells from the eastern and western coasts of ,america1 only one single shell was found in common1 namely1 the ,purpura patula1 which inhabits the ,west ,indies1 the coast of ,panama1 and the ,galapagos4 ,we have1 therefore1 in this quarter of the world1 three great conchological sea-provinces1 quite distinct1 though surprisingly near each other1 being separated by long north and south spaces either of land or of open sea4 ,i took great pains in collecting the insects1 but excepting ,tierra del ,fuego1 ,i never saw in this respect so poor a country4 ,even in the upper and damp region ,i procured very few1 excepting some minute ,diptera and ,hymenoptera1 mostly of common mundane forms4 ,as before remarked1 the insects1 for a tropical region1 are of very small size and dull colours4 ,of beetles ,i collected twenty-five species 7excluding a ,dermestes and ,corynetes imported wherever a ship touches72 of these1 two belong to the ,harpalid1 two to the ,hydrophilid1 nine to three families of the ,heteromera1 and the remaining twelve to as many different families4 ,this circumstance of insects 7and ,i may add plants71 where few in number1 belonging to many different families1 is1 ,i believe1 very general4 ,mr4 ,waterhouse1 who has published#d an account of the insects of this archipelago1 and to whom ,i am indebted for the above details1 informs me that there are several new genera2 and that of the genera not new1 one or two are ,american1 and the rest of mundane distribution4 ,with the exception of a wood-feeding ,apate1 and of one or probably two water-beetles from the ,american continent1 all the species appear to be new4 #d ,ann4 and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41 vol4 xvi1 p4 #ai4 ,the botany of this group is fully as interesting as the zoology4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,hooker will soon publish in the 8,linnean ,transactions0 a full account of the ,flora1 and ,i am much indebted to him for the following details4 ,of flowering plants there are1 as far as at present is known1 #ahe species1 and #dj cryptogamic species1 making together #bbe2 of this number ,i was fortunate enough to bring home #aic4 ,of the flowering plants1 #ajj are new species1 and are probably confined to this archipelago4 ,dr4 ,hooker conceives that1 of the plants not so confined1 at least #aj species found near the cultivated ground at ,charles ,island have been imported4 ,it is1 ,i think1 surprising that more ,american species have not been introduced naturally1 considering that the distance is only between #ejj and #fjj miles from the continent1 and that 7according to ,collnet1 page #eh7 drift-wood1 bamboos1 canes1 and the nuts of a palm1 are often washed on the south-eastern shores4 ,the proportion of #ajj flowering plants out of #ahe 7or #age excluding the imported weeds7 being new1 is sufficient1 ,i conceive1 to make the ,galapagos ,archipelago a distinct botanical province2 but this ,flora is not nearly so peculiar as that of ,st4 ,helena1 nor1 as ,i am informed by ,dr4 ,hooker1 of ,juan ,fernandez4 ,the peculiarity of the ,galapageian ,flora is best shown in certain families2--thus there are #ba species of ,composit1 of which #bj are peculiar to this archipelago2 these belong to twelve genera1 and of these genera no less than ten are confined to the archipelago6 ,dr4 ,hooker informs me that the ,flora has an undoubted ,western ,american character2 nor can he detect in it any affinity with that of the ,pacific4 ,if1 therefore1 we except the eighteen marine1 the one fresh-water1 and one land-shell1 which have apparently come here as colonists from the central islands of the ,pacific1 and likewise the one distinct ,pacific species of the ,galapageian group of finches1 we see that this archipelago1 though standing in the ,pacific ,ocean1 is zoologically part of ,america4 ,if this character were owing merely to immigrants from ,america1 there would be little remarkable in it2 but we see that a vast majority of all the land animals1 and that more than half of the flowering plants1 are aboriginal productions4 ,it was most striking to be surrounded by new birds1 new reptiles1 new shells1 new insects1 new plants1 and yet by innumerable trifling details of structure1 and even by the tones of voice and plumage of the birds1 to have the temperate plains of ,patagonia1 or the hot dry deserts of ,northern ,chile1 vividly brought before my eyes4 ,why1 on these small points of land1 which within a late geological period must have been covered by the ocean1 which are formed of basaltic lava1 and therefore differ in geological character from the ,american continent1 and which are placed under a peculiar climate1--why were their aboriginal inhabitants1 associated1 ,i may add1 in different proportions both in kind and number from those on the continent1 and therefore acting on each other in a different manner--why were they created on ,american types of organisation8 ,it is probable that the islands of the ,cape de ,verd group resemble1 in all their physical conditions1 far more closely the ,galapagos ,islands than these latter physically resemble the coast of ,america1 yet the aboriginal inhabitants of the two groups are totally unlike2 those of the ,cape de ,verd ,islands bearing the impress of ,africa1 as the inhabitants of the ,galapagos ,archipelago are stamped with that of ,america4 ,i have not as yet noticed by far the most remarkable feature in the natural history of this archipelago2 it is1 that the different islands to a considerable extent are inhabited by a different set of beings4 ,my attention was first called to this fact by the ,vice-,governor1 ,mr4 ,lawson1 declaring that the tortoises differed from the different islands1 and that he could with certainty tell from which island any one was brought4 ,i did not for some time pay sufficient attention to this statement1 and ,i had already partially mingled together the collections from two of the islands4 ,i never dreamed that islands1 about #ej or #fj miles apart1 and most of them in sight of each other1 formed of precisely the same rocks1 placed under a quite similar climate1 rising to a nearly equal height1 would have been differently tenanted2 but we shall soon see that this is the case4 ,it is the fate of most voyagers1 no sooner to discover what is most interesting in any locality1 than they are hurried from it2 but ,i ought1 perhaps1 to be thankful that ,i obtained sufficient materials to establish this most remarkable fact in the distribution of organic beings4 ,the inhabitants1 as ,i have said1 state that they can distinguish the tortoises from the different islands2 and that they differ not only in size1 but in other characters4 ,captain ,porter has described#e those from ,charles and from the nearest island to it1 namely1 ,hood ,island1 as having their shells in front thick and turned up like a ,spanish saddle1 whilst the tortoises from ,james ,island are rounder1 blacker1 and have a better taste when cooked4 ,m4 ,bibron1 moreover1 informs me that he has seen what he considers two distinct species of tortoise from the ,galapagos1 but he does not know from which islands4 ,the specimens that ,i brought from three islands were young ones3 and probably owing to this cause neither ,mr4 ,gray nor myself could find in them any specific differences4 ,i have remarked that the marine ,amblyrhynchus was larger at ,albemarle ,island than elsewhere2 and ,m4 ,bibron informs me that he has seen two distinct aquatic species of this genus2 so that the different islands probably have their representative species or races of the ,amblyrhynchus1 as well as of the tortoise4 ,my attention was first thoroughly aroused by comparing together the numerous specimens1 shot by myself and several other parties on board1 of the mocking-thrushes1 when1 to my astonishment1 ,i discovered that all those from ,charles ,island belonged to one species 7,mimus trifasciatus7 all from ,albemarle ,island to ,m4 parvulus2 and all from ,james and ,chatham ,islands 7between which two other islands are situated1 as connecting links7 belonged to ,m4 melanotis4 ,these two latter species are closely allied1 and would by some ornithologists be considered as only well-marked races or varieties2 but the ,mimus trifasciatus is very distinct4 ,unfortunately most of the specimens of the finch tribe were mingled together2 but ,i have strong reasons to suspect that some of the species of the sub-group ,geospiza are confined to separate islands4 ,if the different islands have their representatives of ,geospiza1 it may help to explain the singularly large number of the species of this sub-group in this one small archipelago1 and as a probable consequence of their numbers1 the perfectly graduated series in the size of their beaks4 ,two species of the sub-group ,cactornis1 and two of the ,camarhynchus1 were procured in the archipelago2 and of the numerous specimens of these two sub-groups shot by four collectors at ,james ,island1 all were found to belong to one species of each2 whereas the numerous specimens shot either on ,chatham or ,charles ,island 7for the two sets were mingled together7 all belonged to the two other species3 hence we may feel almost sure that these islands possess their representative species of these two sub-groups4 ,in land-shells this law of distribution does not appear to hold good4 ,in my very small collection of insects1 ,mr4 ,waterhouse remarks that of those which were ticketed with their locality1 not one was common to any two of the islands4 #e ,voyage in the ,u4,s4 ship ,essex1 vol4 i1 p4 #bae4 ,if we now turn to the ,flora1 we shall find the aboriginal plants of the different islands wonderfully different4 ,i give all the following results on the high authority of my friend ,dr4 ,j4 ,hooker4 ,i may premise that ,i indiscriminately collected everything in flower on the different islands1 and fortunately kept my collections separate4 ,too much confidence1 however1 must not be placed in the proportional results1 as the small collections brought home by some other naturalists though in some respects confirming the results1 plainly show that much remains to be done in the botany of this group3 the ,leguminos1 moreover1 have as yet been only approximately worked out3-- ,name ,total ,no4 of ,no4 of ,no4 ,no4 of ,species of ,no4 of ,species found ,species confined confined to the ,island ,species in other confined to the one ,galapagos parts of to the ,island ,archipelago1 the world ,galapagos but found on ,archipelago more than the one ,island ,james ,island #ga #cc #ch #cj #h ,albermarle ,island #df #ah #bf #bb #d ,chatham ,island #cb #af #af #ab #d ,charles ,island #fh #ci #bi #ba #h 7or #bi1 if the probably imported plants be subtracted7 ,hence we have the truly wonderful fact1 that in ,james ,island1 of the thirty-eight ,galapageian plants1 or those found in no other part of the world1 thirty are exclusively confined to this one island2 and in ,albemarle ,island1 of the twenty-six aboriginal ,galapageian plants1 twenty-two are confined to this one island1 that is1 only four are at present known to grow in the other islands of the archipelago2 and so on1 as shown in the above table1 with the plants from ,chatham and ,charles ,islands4 ,this fact will1 perhaps1 be rendered even more striking1 by giving a few illustrations3--thus1 ,scalesia1 a remarkable arborescent genus of the ,composit1 is confined to the archipelago3 it has six species3 one from ,chatham1 one from ,albemarle1 one from ,charles ,island1 two from ,james ,island1 and the sixth from one of the three latter islands1 but it is not known from which3 not one of these six species grows on any two islands4 ,again1 ,euphorbia1 a mundane or widely distributed genus1 has here eight species1 of which seven are confined to the archipelago1 and not one found on any two islands3 ,acalypha and ,borreria1 both mundane genera1 have respectively six and seven species1 none of which have the same species on two islands1 with the exception of one ,borreria1 which does occur on two islands4 ,the species of the ,composit are particularly local2 and ,dr4 ,hooker has furnished me with several other most striking illustrations of the difference of the species on the different islands4 ,he remarks that this law of distribution holds good both with those genera confined to the archipelago1 and those distributed in other quarters of the world3 in like manner we have seen that the different islands have their proper species of the mundane genus of tortoise1 and of the widely distributed ,american genus of the mocking-thrush1 as well as of two of the ,galapageian sub-groups of finches1 and almost certainly of the ,galapageian genus ,amblyrhynchus4 ,the distribution of the tenants of this archipelago would not be nearly so wonderful1 if1 for instance1 one island had a mocking-thrush1 and a second island some other quite distinct genus2--if one island had its genus of lizard1 and a second island another distinct genus1 or none whatever2--or if the different islands were inhabited1 not by representative species of the same genera of plants1 but by totally different genera1 as does to a certain extent hold good2 for1 to give one instance1 a large berry-bearing tree at ,james ,island has no representative species in ,charles ,island4 ,but it is the circumstance that several of the islands possess their own species of the tortoise1 mocking-thrush1 finches1 and numerous plants1 these species having the same general habits1 occupying analogous situations1 and obviously filling the same place in the natural economy of this archipelago1 that strikes me with wonder4 ,it may be suspected that some of these representative species1 at least in the case of the tortoise and of some of the birds1 may hereafter prove to be only well-marked races2 but this would be of equally great interest to the philosophical naturalist4 ,i have said that most of the islands are in sight of each other3 ,i may specify that ,charles ,island is fifty miles from the nearest part of ,chatham ,island1 and thirty-three miles from the nearest part of ,albemarle ,island4 ,chatham ,island is sixty miles from the nearest part of ,james ,island1 but there are two intermediate islands between them which were not visited by me4 ,james ,island is only ten miles from the nearest part of ,albemarle ,island1 but the two points where the collections were made are thirty-two miles apart4 ,i must repeat1 that neither the nature of the soil1 nor height of the land1 nor the climate1 nor the general character of the associated beings1 and therefore their action one on another1 can differ much in the different islands4 ,if there be any sensible difference in their climates1 it must be between the windward group 7namely1 ,charles and ,chatham ,islands71 and that to leeward2 but there seems to be no corresponding difference in the productions of these two halves of the archipelago4 ,the only light which ,i can throw on this remarkable difference in the inhabitants of the different islands is that very strong currents of the sea running in a westerly and ,w4,n4,w4 direction must separate1 as far as transportal by the sea is concerned1 the southern islands from the northern ones2 and between these northern islands a strong ,n4,w4 current was observed1 which must effectually separate ,james and ,albemarle ,islands4 ,as the archipelago is free to a most remarkable degree from gales of wind1 neither the birds1 insects1 nor lighter seeds1 would be blown from island to island4 ,and lastly1 the profound depth of the ocean between the islands1 and their apparently recent 7in a geological sense7 volcanic origin1 render it highly unlikely that they were ever united2 and this1 probably1 is a far more important consideration than any other with respect to the geographical distribution of their inhabitants4 ,reviewing the facts here given1 one is astonished at the amount of creative force1 if such an expression may be used1 displayed on these small1 barren1 and rocky islands2 and still more so1 at its diverse yet analogous action on points so near each other4 ,i have said that the ,galapagos ,archipelago might be called a satellite attached to ,america1 but it should rather be called a group of satellites1 physically similar1 organically distinct1 yet intimately related to each other1 and all related in a marked though much lesser degree1 to the great ,american continent4 ,i will conclude my description of the natural history of these islands by giving an account of the extreme tameness of the birds4 ,this disposition is common to all the terrestrial species2 namely1 to the mocking-thrushes1 the finches1 wrens1 tyrant-flycatchers1 the dove1 and carrion-buzzard4 ,all of them often approached sufficiently near to be killed with a switch1 and sometimes1 as ,i myself tried1 with a cap or hat4 ,a gun is here almost superfluous2 for with the muzzle ,i pushed a hawk off the branch of a tree4 ,one day1 whilst lying down1 a mocking-thrush alighted on the edge of a pitcher1 made of the shell of a tortoise1 which ,i held in my hand1 and began very quietly to sip the water2 it allowed me to lift it from the ground whilst seated on the vessel3 ,i often tried1 and very nearly succeeded1 in catching these birds by their legs4 ,formerly the birds appear to have been even tamer than at present4 ,cowley 7in the year #afhd7 says that the 8,turtledoves were so tame1 that they would often alight on our hats and arms1 so as that we could take them alive3 they not fearing man1 until such time as some of our company did fire at them1 whereby they were rendered more shy40 ,dampier also1 in the same year1 says that a man in a morning's walk might kill six or seven dozen of these doves4 ,at present1 although certainly very tame1 they do not alight on people's arms1 nor do they suffer themselves to be killed in such large numbers4 ,it is surprising that they have not become wilder2 for these islands during the last hundred and fifty years have been frequently visited by bucaniers and whalers2 and the sailors1 wandering through the wood in search of tortoises1 always take cruel delight in knocking down the little birds4 ,these birds1 although now still more persecuted1 do not readily become wild3 in ,charles ,island1 which had then been colonised about six years1 ,i saw a boy sitting by a well with a switch in his hand1 with which he killed the doves and finches as they came to drink4 ,he had already procured a little heap of them for his dinner1 and he said that he had constantly been in the habit of waiting by this well for the same purpose4 ,it would appear that the birds of this archipelago1 not having as yet learnt that man is a more dangerous animal than the tortoise or the ,amblyrhynchus1 disregard him1 in the same manner as in ,england shy birds1 such as magpies1 disregard the cows and horses grazing in our fields4 ,the ,falkland ,islands offer a second instance of birds with a similar disposition4 ,the extraordinary tameness of the little ,opetiorhynchus has been remarked by ,pernety1 ,lesson1 and other voyagers4 ,it is not1 however1 peculiar to that bird3 the ,polyborus1 snipe1 upland and lowland goose1 thrush1 bunting1 and even some true hawks1 are all more or less tame4 ,as the birds are so tame there1 where foxes1 hawks1 and owls occur1 we may infer that the absence of all rapacious animals at the ,galapagos is not the cause of their tameness here4 ,the upland geese at the ,falklands show1 by the precaution they take in building on the islets1 that they are aware of their danger from the foxes2 but they are not by this rendered wild towards man4 ,this tameness of the birds1 especially of the waterfowl1 is strongly contrasted with the habits of the same species in ,tierra del ,fuego1 where for ages past they have been persecuted by the wild inhabitants4 ,in the ,falklands1 the sportsman may sometimes kill more of the upland geese in one day than he can carry home2 whereas in ,tierra del ,fuego it is nearly as difficult to kill one as it is in ,england to shoot the common wild goose4 ,in the time of ,pernety 7#agfc7 all the birds there appear to have been much tamer than at present2 he states that the ,opetiorhynchus would almost perch on his finger2 and that with a wand he killed ten in half an hour4 ,at that period the birds must have been about as tame as they now are at the ,galapagos4 ,they appear to have learnt caution more slowly at these latter islands than at the ,falklands1 where they have had proportionate means of experience2 for besides frequent visits from vessels1 those islands have been at intervals colonised during the entire period4 ,even formerly1 when all the birds were so tame1 it was impossible by ,pernety's account to kill the black-necked swan--a bird of passage1 which probably brought with it the wisdom learnt in foreign countries4 ,i may add that1 according to ,du ,bois1 all the birds at ,bourbon in #aega-gb1 with the exception of the flamingoes and geese1 were so extremely tame1 that they could be caught by the hand1 or killed in any number with a stick4 ,again1 at ,tristan d',acunha in the ,atlantic1 ,carmichael#f states that the only two land-birds1 a thrush and a bunting1 were 8so tame as to suffer themselves to be caught with a hand-net40 ,from these several facts we may1 ,i think1 conclude1 first1 that the wildness of birds with regard to man is a particular instinct directed against him1 and not dependent upon any general degree of caution arising from other sources of danger2 secondly1 that it is not acquired by individual birds in a short time1 even when much persecuted2 but that in the course of successive generations it becomes hereditary4 ,with domesticated animals we are accustomed to see new mental habits or instincts acquired and rendered hereditary2 but with animals in a state of nature it must always be most difficult to discover instances of acquired hereditary knowledge4 ,in regard to the wildness of birds towards man1 there is no way of accounting for it1 except as an inherited habit3 comparatively few young birds1 in any one year1 have been injured by man in ,england1 yet almost all1 even nestlings1 are afraid of him2 many individuals1 on the other hand1 both at the ,galapagos and at the ,falklands1 have been pursued and injured by man1 but yet have not learned a salutary dread of him4 ,we may infer from these facts1 what havoc the introduction of any new beast of prey must cause in a country1 before the instincts of the indigenous inhabitants have become adapted to the stranger's craft or power4 #f ,linn4 ,trans4 vol4 xii1 p4 #dif4 ,the most anomalous fact on this subject which ,i have met with is the wildness of the small birds in the ,arctic parts of ,north ,america 7as described by ,richardson ,fauna ,bor4 vol4 ii1 p4 #ccb71 where they are said never to be persecuted4 ,this case is the more strange1 because it is asserted that some of the same species in their winter-quarters in the ,united ,states are tame4 ,there is much1 as ,dr4 ,richardson well remarks1 utterly inexplicable connected with the different degrees of shyness and care with which birds conceal their nests4 ,how strange it is that the ,english wood-pigeon1 generally so wild a bird1 should very frequently rear its young in shrubberies close to houses6 ,illustration3 ,opuntia ,galapageia ,illustration3 ,ava or kava 7,macropiper ,methysticum71 ,tahiti ,chapter ,,xviii ,,tahiti ,,and ,,new ,,zealand ,pass through the ,low ,archipelago--,tahiti--,aspect--,vegetat ion on the mountains--,view of ,eimeo--,excursion into the interior--,profound ravines--,succession of waterfalls--,number of wild useful plants--,temperance of the inhabitants--,their moral state--,parliament convened--,new ,zealand--,bay of islands--,hippahs--,excursion to ,waimate--,missionary establishment--,english weeds now run wild--,waiomio--,funeral of a ,new ,zealand woman--,sail for ,australia4 ,october #bjth4--,the survey of the ,galapagos ,archipelago being concluded1 we steered towards ,tahiti and commenced our long passage of #cbjj miles4 ,in the course of a few days we sailed out of the gloomy and clouded ocean-district which extends during the winter far from the coast of ,south ,america4 ,we then enjoyed bright and clear weather1 while running pleasantly along at the rate of #aej or #afj miles a day before the steady trade-wind4 ,the temperature in this more central part of the ,pacific is higher than near the ,american shore4 ,the thermometer in the poop cabin1 by night and day1 ranged between #hj and #hc1 which feels very pleasant2 but with one degree or two higher1 the heat becomes oppressive4 ,we passed through the ,low or ,dangerous ,archipelago1 and saw several of those most curious rings of coral land1 just rising above the water's edge1 which have been called ,lagoon ,islands4 ,a long and brilliantly-white beach is capped by a margin of green vegetation2 and the strip1 looking either way1 rapidly narrows away in the distance1 and sinks beneath the horizon4 ,from the mast-head a wide expanse of smooth water can be seen within the ring4 ,these low hollow coral islands bear no proportion to the vast ocean out of which they abruptly rise2 and it seems wonderful that such weak invaders are not overwhelmed by the all-powerful and never-tiring waves of that great sea1 miscalled the ,pacific4 ,november #aeth4--,at daylight1 ,tahiti1 an island which must for ever remain classical to the voyager in the ,south ,sea1 was in view4 ,at a distance the appearance was not attractive4 ,the luxuriant vegetation of the lower part could not yet be seen1 and as the clouds rolled past1 the wildest and most precipitous peaks showed themselves towards the centre of the island4 ,as soon as we anchored in ,matavai ,bay1 we were surrounded by canoes4 ,this was our ,sunday1 but the ,monday of ,tahiti3 if the case had been reversed1 we should not have received a single visit2 for the injunction not to launch a canoe on the ,sabbath is rigidly obeyed4 ,after dinner we landed to enjoy all the delights produced by the first impressions of a new country1 and that country the charming ,tahiti4 ,a crowd of men1 women1 and children1 was collected on the memorable ,point ,venus1 ready to receive us with laughing1 merry faces4 ,they marshalled us towards the house of ,mr4 ,wilson1 the missionary of the district1 who met us on the road1 and gave us a very friendly reception4 ,after sitting a short time in his house1 we separated to walk about1 but returned there in the evening4 ,the land capable of cultivation is scarcely in any part more than a fringe of low alluvial soil1 accumulated round the base of the mountains1 and protected from the waves of the sea by a coral reef1 which encircles the entire line of coast4 ,within the reef there is an expanse of smooth water1 like that of a lake1 where the canoes of the natives can ply with safety and where ships anchor4 ,the low land which comes down to the beach of coral-sand is covered by the most beautiful productions of the intertropical regions4 ,in the midst of bananas1 orange1 cocoa-nut1 and bread-fruit trees1 spots are cleared where yams1 sweet potatoes1 the sugar-cane1 and pine-apples are cultivated4 ,even the brushwood is an imported fruit-tree1 namely1 the guava1 which from its abundance has become as noxious as a weed4 ,in ,brazil ,i have often admired the varied beauty of the bananas1 palms1 and orange-trees contrasted together2 and here we also have the bread-fruit1 conspicuous from its large1 glossy1 and deeply digitated leaf4 ,it is admirable to behold groves of a tree1 sending forth its branches with the vigour of an ,english oak1 loaded with large and most nutritious fruit4 ,however seldom the usefulness of an object can account for the pleasure of beholding it1 in the case of these beautiful woods1 the knowledge of their high productiveness no doubt enters largely into the feeling of admiration4 ,the little winding paths1 cool from the surrounding shade1 led to the scattered houses2 the owners of which everywhere gave us a cheerful and most hospitable reception4 ,i was pleased with nothing so much as with the inhabitants4 ,there is a mildness in the expression of their countenances which at once banishes the idea of a savage2 and an intelligence which shows that they are advancing in civilisation4 ,the common people1 when working1 keep the upper part of their bodies quite naked2 and it is then that the ,tahitians are seen to advantage4 ,they are very tall1 broad-shouldered1 athletic1 and well-proportioned4 ,it has been remarked that it requires little habit to make a dark skin more pleasing and natural to the eye of a ,european than his own colour4 ,a white man bathing by the side of a ,tahitian was like a plant bleached by the gardener's art compared with a fine dark green one growing vigorously in the open fields4 ,most of the men are tattooed1 and the ornaments follow the curvature of the body so gracefully that they have a very elegant effect4 ,one common pattern1 varying in its details1 is somewhat like the crown of a palm-tree4 ,it springs from the central line of the back1 and gracefully curls round both sides4 ,the simile may be a fanciful one1 but ,i thought the body of a man thus ornamented was like the trunk of a noble tree embraced by a delicate creeper4 ,many of the elder people had their feet covered with small figures1 so placed as to resemble a sock4 ,this fashion1 however1 is partly gone by1 and has been succeeded by others4 ,here1 although fashion is far from immutable1 every one must abide by that prevailing in his youth4 ,an old man has thus his age for ever stamped on his body1 and he cannot assume the airs of a young dandy4 ,the women are tattooed in the same manner as the men1 and very commonly on their fingers4 ,one unbecoming fashion is now almost universal3 namely1 shaving the hair from the upper part of the head1 in a circular form1 so as to leave only an outer ring4 ,the missionaries have tried to persuade the people to change this habit2 but it is the fashion1 and that is a sufficient answer at ,tahiti1 as well as at ,paris4 ,i was much disappointed in the personal appearance of the women3 they are far inferior in every respect to the men4 ,the custom of wearing a white or scarlet flower in the back of the head1 or through a small hole in each ear1 is pretty4 ,a crown of woven cocoa-nut leaves is also worn as a shade for the eyes4 ,the women appear to be in greater want of some becoming costume even than the men4 ,nearly all the natives understand a little ,english--that is1 they know the names of common things2 and by the aid of this1 together with signs1 a lame sort of conversation could be carried on4 ,in returning in the evening to the boat1 we stopped to witness a very pretty scene4 ,numbers of children were playing on the beach1 and had lighted bonfires which illumined the placid sea and surrounding trees2 others1 in circles1 were singing ,tahitian verses4 ,we seated ourselves on the sand1 and joined their party4 ,the songs were impromptu1 and ,i believe related to our arrival3 one little girl sang a line1 which the rest took up in parts1 forming a very pretty chorus4 ,the whole scene made us unequivocally aware that we were seated on the shores of an island in the far-famed ,south ,sea4 #agth4--,this day is reckoned in the log-book as ,tuesday the #agth1 instead of ,monday the #afth1 owing to our1 so far1 successful chase of the sun4 ,before breakfast the ship was hemmed in by a flotilla of canoes2 and when the natives were allowed to come on board1 ,i suppose there could not have been less than two hundred4 ,it was the opinion of every one that it would have been difficult to have picked out an equal number from any other nation1 who would have given so little trouble4 ,everybody brought something for sale3 shells were the main article of trade4 ,the ,tahitians now fully understand the value of money1 and prefer it to old clothes or other articles4 ,the various coins1 however1 of ,english and ,spanish denomination puzzle them1 and they never seemed to think the small silver quite secure until changed into dollars4 ,some of the chiefs have accumulated considerable sums of money4 ,one chief1 not long since1 offered #hjj dollars 7about #afj sterling7 for a small vessel2 and frequently they purchase whale-boats and horses at the rate of from #ej to #ajj dollars4 ,after breakfast ,i went on shore1 and ascended the nearest slope to a height of between two and three thousand feet4 ,the outer mountains are smooth and conical1 but steep2 and the old volcanic rocks1 of which they are formed1 have been cut through by many profound ravines1 diverging from the central broken parts of the island to the coast4 ,having crossed the narrow low girt of inhabited and fertile land1 ,i followed a smooth steep ridge between two of the deep ravines4 ,the vegetation was singular1 consisting almost exclusively of small dwarf ferns1 mingled1 higher up1 with coarse grass2 it was not very dissimilar from that on some of the ,welsh hills1 and this so close above the orchard of tropical plants on the coast was very surprising4 ,at the highest point which ,i reached trees again appeared4 ,of the three zones of comparative luxuriance1 the lower one owes its moisture1 and therefore fertility1 to its flatness2 for1 being scarcely raised above the level of the sea1 the water from the higher land drains away slowly4 ,the intermediate zone does not1 like the upper one1 reach into a damp and cloudy atmosphere1 and therefore remains sterile4 ,the woods in the upper zone are very pretty1 tree-ferns replacing the cocoa-nuts on the coast4 ,it must not1 however1 be supposed that these woods at all equal in splendour the forests of ,brazil4 ,the vast number of productions1 which characterise a continent1 cannot be expected to occur in an island4 ,eimeo and ,barrier-,reef ,from the highest point which ,i attained there was a good view of the distant island of ,eimeo1 dependent on the same sovereign with ,tahiti4 ,on the lofty and broken pinnacles white massive clouds were piled up1 which formed an island in the blue sky1 as ,eimeo itself did in the blue ocean4 ,the island1 with the exception of one small gateway1 is completely encircled by a reef4 ,at this distance1 a narrow but well-defined brilliantly white line was alone visible1 where the waves first encountered the wall of coral4 ,the mountains rose abruptly out of the glassy expanse of the lagoon1 included within this narrow white line1 outside which the heaving waters of the ocean were dark-coloured4 ,the view was striking3 it may aptly be compared to a framed engraving1 where the frame represents the breakers1 the marginal paper the smooth lagoon1 and the drawing the island itself4 ,when in the evening ,i descended from the mountain1 a man1 whom ,i had pleased with a trifling gift1 met me1 bringing with him hot roasted bananas1 a pine-apple1 and cocoa-nuts4 ,after walking under a burning sun1 ,i do not know anything more delicious than the milk of a young cocoa-nut4 ,pine-apples are here so abundant that the people eat them in the same wasteful manner as we might turnips4 ,they are of an excellent flavour--perhaps even better than those cultivated in ,england2 and this ,i believe is the highest compliment which can be paid to any fruit4 ,before going on board1 ,mr4 ,wilson interpreted for me to the ,tahitian who had paid me so adroit an attention1 that ,i wanted him and another man to accompany me on a short excursion into the mountains4 #ahth4--,in the morning ,i came on shore early1 bringing with me some provisions in a bag1 and two blankets for myself and servant4 ,these were lashed to each end of a long pole1 which was alternately carried by my ,tahitian companions on their shoulders4 ,these men are accustomed thus to carry1 for a whole day1 as much as fifty pounds at each end of their poles4 ,i told my guides to provide themselves with food and clothing2 but they said that there was plenty of food in the mountains1 and for clothing1 that their skins were sufficient4 ,our line of march was the valley of ,tia-auru1 down which a river flows into the sea by ,point ,venus4 ,this is one of the principal streams in the island1 and its source lies at the base of the loftiest central pinnacles1 which rise to a height of about #gjjj feet4 ,the whole island is so mountainous that the only way to penetrate into the interior is to follow up the valleys4 ,our road1 at first1 lay through woods which bordered each side of the river2 and the glimpses of the lofty central peaks1 seen as through an avenue1 with here and there a waving cocoa-nut tree on one side1 were extremely picturesque4 ,the valley soon began to narrow1 and the sides to grow lofty and more precipitous4 ,after having walked between three and four hours1 we found the width of the ravine scarcely exceeded that of the bed of the stream4 ,on each hand the walls were nearly vertical2 yet from the soft nature of the volcanic strata1 trees and a rank vegetation sprung from every projecting ledge4 ,these precipices must have been some thousand feet high2 and the whole formed a mountain gorge far more magnificent than anything which ,i had ever before beheld4 ,until the mid-day sun stood vertically over the ravine1 the air felt cool and damp1 but now it became very sultry4 ,shaded by a ledge of rock1 beneath a faade of columnar lava1 we ate our dinner4 ,my guides had already procured a dish of small fish and fresh-water prawns4 ,they carried with them a small net stretched on a hoop2 and where the water was deep and in eddies1 they dived1 and like otters1 with their eyes open followed the fish into holes and corners1 and thus caught them4 ,the ,tahitians have the dexterity of amphibious animals in the water4 ,an anecdote mentioned by ,ellis shows how much they feel at home in this element4 ,when a horse was landing for ,pomarre in #ahag1 the slings broke1 and it fell into the water2 immediately the natives jumped overboard1 and by their cries and vain efforts at assistance almost drowned it4 ,as soon1 however1 as it reached the shore1 the whole population took to flight1 and tried to hide themselves from the man-carrying pig1 as they christened the horse4 ,a little higher up1 the river divided itself into three little streams4 ,the two northern ones were impracticable1 owing to a succession of waterfalls which descended from the jagged summit of the highest mountain2 the other to all appearance was equally inaccessible1 but we managed to ascend it by a most extraordinary road4 ,the sides of the valley were here nearly precipitous2 but1 as frequently happens with stratified rocks1 small ledges projected1 which were thickly covered by wild bananas1 liliaceous plants1 and other luxuriant productions of the tropics4 ,the ,tahitians1 by climbing amongst these ledges1 searching for fruit1 had discovered a track by which the whole precipice could be scaled4 ,the first ascent from the valley was very dangerous2 for it was necessary to pass a steeply inclined face of naked rock by the aid of ropes which we brought with us4 ,how any person discovered that this formidable spot was the only point where the side of the mountain was practicable1 ,i cannot imagine4 ,we then cautiously walked along one of the ledges till we came to one of the three streams4 ,this ledge formed a flat spot above which a beautiful cascade1 some hundred feet in height1 poured down its waters1 and beneath1 another high cascade fell into the main stream in the valley below4 ,from this cool and shady recess we made a circuit to avoid the overhanging waterfall4 ,as before1 we followed little projecting ledges1 the danger being partly concealed by the thickness of the vegetation4 ,in passing from one of the ledges to another there was a vertical wall of rock4 ,one of the ,tahitians1 a fine active man1 placed the trunk of a tree against this1 climbed up it1 and then by the aid of crevices reached the summit4 ,he fixed the ropes to a projecting point1 and lowered them for our dog and luggage1 and then we clambered up ourselves4 ,beneath the ledge on which the dead tree was placed1 the precipice must have been five or six hundred feet deep2 and if the abyss had not been partly concealed by the overhanging ferns and lilies my head would have turned giddy1 and nothing should have induced me to have attempted it4 ,we continued to ascend1 sometimes along ledges1 and sometimes along knife-edged ridges1 having on each hand profound ravines4 ,in the ,cordillera ,i have seen mountains on a far grander scale1 but for abruptness nothing at all comparable with this4 ,in the evening we reached a flat little spot on the banks of the same stream which we had continued to follow1 and which descends in a chain of waterfalls3 here we bivouacked for the night4 ,on each side of the ravine there were great beds of the mountain-banana1 covered with ripe fruit4 ,many of these plants were from twenty to twenty-five feet high1 and from three to four in circumference4 ,by the aid of strips of bark for rope1 the stems of bamboos for rafters1 and the large leaf of the banana for a thatch1 the ,tahitians in a few minutes built us an excellent house2 and with withered leaves made a soft bed4 ,fatahua ,fall1 ,tahiti ,they then proceeded to make a fire1 and cook our evening meal4 ,a light was procured by rubbing a blunt pointed stick in a groove made in another1 as if with intention of deepening it1 until by the friction the dust became ignited4 ,a peculiarly white and very light wood 7the ,hibiscus tiliaceus7 is alone used for this purpose3 it is the same which serves for poles to carry any burden1 and for the floating out-riggers to their canoes4 ,the fire was produced in a few seconds3 but to a person who does not understand the art1 it requires1 as ,i found1 the greatest exertion2 but at last1 to my great pride1 ,i succeeded in igniting the dust4 ,the ,gaucho in the ,pampas uses a different method3 taking an elastic stick about eighteen inches long1 he presses one end on his breast1 and the other pointed end into a hole in a piece of wood1 and then rapidly turns the curved part like a carpenter's centre-bit4 ,the ,tahitians having made a small fire of sticks1 placed a score of stones of about the size of cricket-balls1 on the burning wood4 ,in about ten minutes the sticks were consumed1 and the stones hot4 ,they had previously folded up in small parcels of leaves1 pieces of beef1 fish1 ripe and unripe bananas1 and the tops of the wild arum4 ,these green parcels were laid in a layer between two layers of the hot stones1 and the whole then covered up with earth1 so that no smoke or steam could escape4 ,in about a quarter of an hour the whole was most deliciously cooked4 ,the choice green parcels were now laid on a cloth of banana leaves1 and with a cocoa-nut shell we drank the cool water of the running stream2 and thus we enjoyed our rustic meal4 ,i could not look on the surrounding plants without admiration4 ,on every side were forests of bananas2 the fruit of which1 though serving for food in various ways1 lay in heaps decaying on the ground4 ,in front of us there was an extensive brake of wild sugar-cane2 and the stream was shaded by the dark green knotted stem of the ,ava1--so famous in former days for its powerful intoxicating effects4 ,i chewed a piece1 and found that it had an acrid and unpleasant taste1 which would have induced any one at once to have pronounced it poisonous4 ,thanks to the missionaries1 this plant now thrives only in these deep ravines1 innocuous to every one4 ,close by ,i saw the wild arum1 the roots of which1 when well baked1 are good to eat1 and the young leaves better than spinach4 ,there was the wild yam1 and a liliaceous plant called ,ti1 which grows in abundance1 and has a soft brown root1 in shape and size like a huge log of wood3 this served us for dessert1 for it is as sweet as treacle1 and with a pleasant taste4 ,there were1 moreover1 several other wild fruits1 and useful vegetables4 ,the little stream1 besides its cool water1 produced eels and crayfish4 ,i did indeed admire this scene1 when ,i compared it with an uncultivated one in the temperate zones4 ,i felt the force of the remark that man1 at least savage man1 with his reasoning powers only partly developed1 is the child of the tropics4 ,as the evening drew to a close1 ,i strolled beneath the gloomy shade of the bananas up the course of the stream4 ,my walk was soon brought to a close by coming to a waterfall between two and three hundred feet high2 and again above this there was another4 ,i mention all these waterfalls in this one brook to give a general idea of the inclination of the land4 ,in the little recess where the water fell1 it did not appear that a breath of wind had ever blown4 ,the thin edges of the great leaves of the banana1 damp with spray1 were unbroken1 instead of being1 as is so generally the case1 split into a thousand shreds4 ,from our position1 almost suspended on the mountain-side1 there were glimpses into the depths of the neighbouring valleys2 and the lofty points of the central mountains1 towering up within sixty degrees of the zenith1 hid half the evening sky4 ,thus seated1 it was a sublime spectacle to watch the shades of night gradually obscuring the last and highest pinnacles4 ,before we laid ourselves down to sleep1 the elder ,tahitian fell on his knees1 and with closed eyes repeated a long prayer in his native tongue4 ,he prayed as a ,christian should do1 with fitting reverence1 and without the fear of ridicule or any ostentation of piety4 ,at our meals neither of the men would taste food1 without saying beforehand a short grace4 ,those travellers who think that a ,tahitian prays only when the eyes of the missionary are fixed on him1 should have slept with us that night on the mountain-side4 ,before morning it rained very heavily2 but the good thatch of banana-leaves kept us dry4 ,illustration ,november #aith4--,at daylight my friends1 after their morning prayer1 prepared an excellent breakfast in the same manner as in the evening4 ,they themselves certainly partook of it largely2 indeed ,i never saw any men eat near so much4 ,i suppose such enormously capacious stomachs must be the effect of a large part of their diet consisting of fruit and vegetables which contain1 in a given bulk1 a comparatively small portion of nutriment4 ,unwittingly1 ,i was the means of my companions breaking1 as ,i afterwards learned1 one of their own laws and resolutions3 ,i took with me a flask of spirits1 which they could not refuse to partake of2 but as often as they drank a little1 they put their fingers before their mouths1 and uttered the word 8,missionary40 ,about two years ago1 although the use of the ava was prevented1 drunkenness from the introduction of spirits became very prevalent4 ,the missionaries prevailed on a few good men who saw that their country was rapidly going to ruin1 to join with them in a ,temperance ,society4 ,from good sense or shame1 all the chiefs and the queen were at last persuaded to join4 ,immediately a law was passed that no spirits should be allowed to be introduced into the island1 and that he who sold and he who bought the forbidden article should be punished by a fine4 ,with remarkable justice1 a certain period was allowed for stock in hand to be sold1 before the law came into effect4 ,but when it did1 a general search was made1 in which even the houses of the missionaries were not exempted1 and all the ava 7as the natives call all ardent spirits7 was poured on the ground4 ,when one reflects on the effect of intemperance on the aborigines of the two ,americas1 ,i think it will be acknowledged that every well-wisher of ,tahiti owes no common debt of gratitude to the missionaries4 ,as long as the little island of ,st4 ,helena remained under the government of the ,east ,india ,company1 spirits1 owing to the great injury they had produced1 were not allowed to be imported2 but wine was supplied from the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,it is rather a striking1 and not very gratifying fact1 that in the same year that spirits were allowed to be sold in ,st4 ,helena1 their use was banished from ,tahiti by the free will of the people4 ,after breakfast we proceeded on our journey4 ,as my object was merely to see a little of the interior scenery1 we returned by another track1 which descended into the main valley lower down4 ,for some distance we wound1 by a most intricate path1 along the side of the mountain which formed the valley4 ,in the less precipitous parts we passed through extensive groves of the wild banana4 ,the ,tahitians1 with their naked1 tattooed bodies1 their heads ornamented with flowers1 and seen in the dark shade of these groves1 would have formed a fine picture of man inhabiting some primeval land4 ,in our descent we followed the line of ridges2 these were exceedingly narrow1 and for considerable lengths steep as a ladder2 but all clothed with vegetation4 ,the extreme care necessary in poising each step rendered the walk fatiguing4 ,i did not cease to wonder at these ravines and precipices3 when viewing the country from one of the knife-edged ridges1 the point of support was so small that the effect was nearly the same as it must be from a balloon4 ,in this descent we had occasion to use the ropes only once1 at the point where we entered the main valley4 ,we slept under the same ledge of rock where we had dined the day before3 the night was fine1 but from the depth and narrowness of the gorge1 profoundly dark4 ,before actually seeing this country1 ,i found it difficult to understand two facts mentioned by ,ellis2 namely1 that after the murderous battles of former times1 the survivors on the conquered side retired into the mountains1 where a handful of men could resist a multitude4 ,certainly half a dozen men1 at the spot where the ,tahitian reared the old tree1 could easily have repulsed thousands4 ,secondly1 that after the introduction of ,christianity1 there were wild men who lived in the mountains1 and whose retreats were unknown to the more civilised inhabitants4 ,november #bjth4--,in the morning we started early1 and reached ,matavai at noon4 ,on the road we met a large party of noble athletic men1 going for wild bananas4 ,i found that the ship1 on account of the difficulty in watering1 had moved to the harbour of ,papawa1 to which place ,i immediately walked4 ,this is a very pretty spot4 ,the cove is surrounded by reefs1 and the water as smooth as in a lake4 ,the cultivated ground1 with its beautiful productions1 interspersed with cottages1 comes close down to the water's edge4 ,from the varying accounts which ,i had read before reaching these islands1 ,i was very anxious to form1 from my own observation1 a judgment of their moral state1--although such judgment would necessarily be very imperfect4 ,first impressions at all times very much depend on one's previously acquired ideas4 ,my notions were drawn from ,ellis's ,polynesian ,researches--an admirable and most interesting work1 but naturally looking at everything under a favourable point of view1 from ,beechey's ,voyage2 and from that of ,kotzebue1 which is strongly adverse to the whole missionary system4 ,he who compares these three accounts will1 ,i think1 form a tolerably accurate conception of the present state of ,tahiti4 ,one of my impressions1 which ,i took from the two last authorities1 was decidedly incorrect2 namely1 that the ,tahitians had become a gloomy race1 and lived in fear of the missionaries4 ,of the latter feeling ,i saw no trace1 unless1 indeed1 fear and respect be confounded under one name4 ,instead of discontent being a common feeling1 it would be difficult in ,europe to pick out of a crowd half so many merry and happy faces4 ,the prohibition of the flute and dancing is inveighed against as wrong and foolish2--the more than presbyterian manner of keeping the ,sabbath is looked at in a similar light4 ,on these points ,i will not pretend to offer any opinion1 in opposition to men who have resided as many years as ,i was days on the island4 ,on the whole1 it appears to me that the morality and religion of the inhabitants are highly creditable4 ,there are many who attack1 even more acrimoniously than ,kotzebue1 both the missionaries1 their system1 and the effects produced by it4 ,such reasoners never compare the present state with that of the island only twenty years ago2 nor even with that of ,europe at this day2 but they compare it with the high standard of ,gospel perfection4 ,they expect the missionaries to effect that which the ,apostles themselves failed to do4 ,inasmuch as the condition of the people falls short of this high standard1 blame is attached to the missionary1 instead of credit for that which he has effected4 ,they forget1 or will not remember1 that human sacrifices1 and the power of an idolatrous priesthood--a system of profligacy unparalleled in any other part of the world--infanticide a consequence of that system--bloody wars1 where the conquerors spared neither women nor children--that all these have been abolished2 and that dishonesty1 intemperance1 and licentiousness have been greatly reduced by the introduction of ,christianity4 ,in a voyager to forget these things is base ingratitude2 for should he chance to be at the point of shipwreck on some unknown coast1 he will most devoutly pray that the lesson of the missionary may have extended thus far4 ,in point of morality1 the virtue of the women1 it has been often said1 is most open to exception4 ,but before they are blamed too severely1 it will be well distinctly to call to mind the scenes described by ,captain ,cook and ,mr4 ,banks1 in which the grandmothers and mothers of the present race played a part4 ,those who are most severe1 should consider how much of the morality of the women in ,europe is owing to the system early impressed by mothers on their daughters1 and how much in each individual case to the precepts of religion4 ,but it is useless to argue against such reasoners2--,i believe that1 disappointed in not finding the field of licentiousness quite so open as formerly1 they will not give credit to a morality which they do not wish to practise1 or to a religion which they undervalue1 if not despise4 ,sunday #bbnd4--,the harbour of ,papite1 where the queen resides1 may be considered as the capital of the island3 it is also the seat of government1 and the chief resort of shipping4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy took a party there this day to hear divine service1 first in the ,tahitian language1 and afterwards in our own4 ,mr4 ,pritchard1 the leading missionary in the island1 performed the service4 ,the chapel consisted of a large airy framework of wood2 and it was filled to excess by tidy1 clean people1 of all ages and both sexes4 ,i was rather disappointed in the apparent degree of attention2 but ,i believe my expectations were raised too high4 ,at all events the appearance was quite equal to that in a country church in ,england4 ,the singing of the hymns was decidedly very pleasing1 but the language from the pulpit1 although fluently delivered1 did not sound well3 a constant repetition of words1 like 8tata ta1 mata mai10 rendered it monotonous4 ,after ,english service1 a party returned on foot to ,matavai4 ,it was a pleasant walk1 sometimes along the sea-beach and sometimes under the shade of the many beautiful trees4 ,about two years ago1 a small vessel under ,english colours was plundered by some of the inhabitants of the ,low ,islands1 which were then under the dominion of the ,queen of ,tahiti4 ,it was believed that the perpetrators were instigated to this act by some indiscreet laws issued by her majesty4 ,the ,british government demanded compensation2 which was acceded to1 and a sum of nearly three thousand dollars was agreed to be paid on the first of last ,september4 ,the ,commodore at ,lima ordered ,captain ,fitz ,roy to inquire concerning this debt1 and to demand satisfaction if it were not paid4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy accordingly requested an interview with the ,queen ,pomarre1 since famous from the ill-treatment she has received from the ,french2 and a parliament was held to consider the question1 at which all the principal chiefs of the island and the queen were assembled4 ,i will not attempt to describe what took place1 after the interesting account given by ,captain ,fitz ,roy4 ,the money1 it appeared1 had not been paid2 perhaps the alleged reasons were rather equivocal2 but otherwise ,i cannot sufficiently express our general surprise at the extreme good sense1 the reasoning powers1 moderation1 candour1 and prompt resolution1 which were displayed on all sides4 ,i believe we all left the meeting with a very different opinion of the ,tahitians from what we entertained when we entered4 ,the chiefs and people resolved to subscribe and complete the sum which was wanting2 ,captain ,fitz ,roy urged that it was hard that their private property should be sacrificed for the crimes of distant islanders4 ,they replied that they were grateful for his consideration1 but that ,pomarre was their ,queen1 and that they were determined to help her in this her difficulty4 ,this resolution and its prompt execution1 for a book was opened early the next morning1 made a perfect conclusion to this very remarkable scene of loyalty and good feeling4 ,after the main discussion was ended1 several of the chiefs took the opportunity of asking ,captain ,fitz ,roy many intelligent questions on international customs and laws1 relating to the treatment of ships and foreigners4 ,on some points1 as soon as the decision was made1 the law was issued verbally on the spot4 ,this ,tahitian parliament lasted for several hours2 and when it was over ,captain ,fitz ,roy invited ,queen ,pomarre to pay the ,beagle a visit4 ,november #beth4--,in the evening four boats were sent for her majesty2 the ship was dressed with flags1 and the yards manned on her coming on board4 ,she was accompanied by most of the chiefs4 ,the behaviour of all was very proper3 they begged for nothing1 and seemed much pleased with ,captain ,fitz ,roy's presents4 ,the ,queen is a large awkward woman1 without any beauty1 grace or dignity4 ,she has only one royal attribute3 a perfect immovability of expression under all circumstances1 and that rather a sullen one4 ,the rockets were most admired1 and a deep 8,oh60 could be heard from the shore1 all round the dark bay1 after each explosion4 ,the sailors' songs were also much admired2 and the queen said she thought that one of the most boisterous ones certainly could not be a hymn6 ,the royal party did not return on shore till past midnight4 #bfth4--,in the evening1 with a gentle land-breeze1 a course was steered for ,new ,zealand2 and as the sun set1 we had a farewell view of the mountains of ,tahiti--the island to which every voyager has offered up his tribute of admiration4 ,december #aith4--,in the evening we saw in the distance ,new ,zealand4 ,we may now consider that we have nearly crossed the ,pacific4 ,it is necessary to sail over this great ocean to comprehend its immensity4 ,moving quickly onwards for weeks together1 we meet with nothing but the same blue1 profoundly deep1 ocean4 ,even within the archipelagoes1 the islands are mere specks1 and far distant one from the other4 ,accustomed to look at maps drawn on a small scale1 where dots1 shading1 and names are crowded together1 we do not rightly judge how infinitely small the proportion of dry land is to the water of this vast expanse4 ,the meridian of the ,antipodes has likewise been passed2 and now every league1 it made us happy to think1 was one league nearer to ,england4 ,these ,antipodes call to one's mind old recollections of childish doubt and wonder4 ,only the other day ,i looked forward to this airy barrier as a definite point in our voyage homewards2 but now ,i find it1 and all such resting-places for the imagination1 are like shadows1 which a man moving onwards cannot catch4 ,a gale of wind lasting for some days has lately given us full leisure to measure the future stages in our homeward voyage1 and to wish most earnestly for its termination4 ,december #bast4--,early in the morning we entered the ,bay of ,islands1 and being becalmed for some hours near the mouth1 we did not reach the anchorage till the middle of the day4 ,the country is hilly1 with a smooth outline1 and is deeply intersected by numerous arms of the sea extending from the bay4 ,the surface appears from a distance as if clothed with coarse pasture1 but this in truth is nothing but fern4 ,on the more distant hills1 as well as in parts of the valleys1 there is a good deal of woodland4 ,the general tint of the landscape is not a bright green2 and it resembles the country a short distance to the south of ,concepcion in ,chile4 ,in several parts of the bay little villages of square tidy-looking houses are scattered close down to the water's edge4 ,three whaling-ships were lying at anchor1 and a canoe every now and then crossed from shore to shore2 with these exceptions1 an air of extreme quietness reigned over the whole district4 ,only a single canoe came alongside4 ,this1 and the aspect of the whole scene1 afforded a remarkable1 and not very pleasing contrast1 with our joyful and boisterous welcome at ,tahiti4 ,in the afternoon we went on shore to one of the larger groups of houses1 which yet hardly deserves the title of a village4 ,its name is ,pahia3 it is the residence of the missionaries2 and there are no native residents except servants and labourers4 ,in the vicinity of the ,bay of ,islands the number of ,englishmen1 including their families1 amounts to between two and three hundred4 ,all the cottages1 many of which are whitewashed and look very neat1 are the property of the ,english4 ,the hovels of the natives are so diminutive and paltry that they can scarcely be perceived from a distance4 ,at ,pahia it was quite pleasing to behold the ,english flowers in the gardens before the houses2 there were roses of several kinds1 honeysuckle1 jasmine1 stocks1 and whole hedges of sweetbriar4 ,december #bbnd4--,in the morning ,i went out walking2 but ,i soon found that the country was very impracticable4 ,all the hills are thickly covered with tall fern1 together with a low bush which grows like a cypress2 and very little ground has been cleared or cultivated4 ,i then tried the sea-beach2 but proceeding towards either hand1 my walk was soon stopped by salt-water creeks and deep brooks4 ,the communication between the inhabitants of the different parts of the bay is 7as in ,chiloe7 almost entirely kept up by boats4 ,i was surprised to find that almost every hill which ,i ascended had been at some former time more or less fortified4 ,the summits were cut into steps or successive terraces1 and frequently they had been protected by deep trenches4 ,i afterwards observed that the principal hills inland in like manner showed an artificial outline4 ,these are the ,pas1 so frequently mentioned by ,captain ,cook under the name of 8hippah20 the difference of sound being owing to the prefixed article4 ,that the ,pas had formerly been much used was evident from the piles of shells1 and the pits in which1 as ,i was informed1 sweet potatoes used to be kept as a reserve4 ,as there was no water on these hills1 the defenders could never have anticipated a long siege1 but only a hurried attack for plunder1 against which the successive terraces would have afforded good protection4 ,the general introduction of firearms has changed the whole system of warfare2 and an exposed situation on the top of a hill is now worse than useless4 ,the ,pas in consequence are1 at the present day1 always built on a level piece of ground4 ,they consist of a double stockade of thick and tall posts1 placed in a zigzag line1 so that every part can be flanked4 ,within the stockade a mound of earth is thrown up1 behind which the defenders can rest in safety1 or use their firearms over it4 ,on the level of the ground little archways sometimes pass through this breastwork1 by which means the defenders can crawl out to the stockade and reconnoitre their enemies4 ,the ,reverend ,w4 ,williams1 who gave me this account1 added that in one ,pas he had noticed spurs or buttresses projecting on the inner and protected side of the mound of earth4 ,on asking the chief the use of them1 he replied1 that if two or three of his men were shot their neighbours would not see the bodies1 and so be discouraged4 ,these ,pas are considered by the ,new ,zealanders as very perfect means of defence3 for the attacking force is never so well disciplined as to rush in a body to the stockade1 cut it down1 and effect their entry4 ,when a tribe goes to war1 the chief cannot order one party to go here and another there2 but every man fights in the manner which best pleases himself2 and to each separate individual to approach a stockade defended by firearms must appear certain death4 ,i should think a more warlike race of inhabitants could not be found in any part of the world than the ,new ,zealanders4 ,their conduct on first seeing a ship1 as described by ,captain ,cook1 strongly illustrates this3 the act of throwing volleys of stones at so great and novel an object1 and their defiance of 8,come on shore and we will kill and eat you all10 shows uncommon boldness4 ,this warlike spirit is evident in many of their customs1 and even in their smallest actions4 ,if a ,new ,zealander is struck1 although but in joke1 the blow must be returned2 and of this ,i saw an instance with one of our officers4 ,at the present day1 from the progress of civilisation1 there is much less warfare1 except among some of the southern tribes4 ,i heard a characteristic anecdote of what took place some time ago in the south4 ,a missionary found a chief and his tribe in preparation for war2--their muskets clean and bright1 and their ammunition ready4 ,he reasoned long on the inutility of the war1 and the little provocation which had been given for it4 ,the chief was much shaken in his resolution1 and seemed in doubt3 but at length it occurred to him that a barrel of his gunpowder was in a bad state1 and that it would not keep much longer4 ,this was brought forward as an unanswerable argument for the necessity of immediately declaring war3 the idea of allowing so much good gunpowder to spoil was not to be thought of2 and this settled the point4 ,i was told by the missionaries that in the life of ,shongi1 the chief who visited ,england1 the love of war was the one and lasting spring of every action4 ,the tribe in which he was a principal chief had at one time been much oppressed by another tribe from the ,thames ,river4 ,a solemn oath was taken by the men that when their boys should grow up1 and they should be powerful enough1 they would never forget or forgive these injuries4 ,to fulfil this oath appears to have been ,shongi's chief motive for going to ,england2 and when there it was his sole object4 ,presents were valued only as they could be converted into arms2 of the arts1 those alone interested him which were connected with the manufacture of arms4 ,when at ,sydney1 ,shongi1 by a strange coincidence1 met the hostile chief of the ,thames ,river at the house of ,mr4 ,marsden3 their conduct was civil to each other2 but ,shongi told him that when again in ,new ,zealand he would never cease to carry war into his country4 ,the challenge was accepted2 and ,shongi on his return fulfilled the threat to the utmost letter4 ,the tribe on the ,thames ,river was utterly overthrown1 and the chief to whom the challenge had been given was himself killed4 ,shongi1 although harbouring such deep feelings of hatred and revenge1 is described as having been a good-natured person4 ,in the evening ,i went with ,captain ,fitz ,roy and ,mr4 ,baker1 one of the missionaries1 to pay a visit to ,kororadika3 we wandered about the village1 and saw and conversed with many of the people1 both men1 women1 and children4 ,looking at the ,new ,zealander1 one naturally compares him with the ,tahitian2 both belonging to the same family of mankind4 ,the comparison1 however1 tells heavily against the ,new ,zealander4 ,he may1 perhaps be superior in energy1 but in every other respect his character is of a much lower order4 ,one glance at their respective expressions brings conviction to the mind that one is a savage1 the other a civilised man4 ,it would be vain to seek in the whole of ,new ,zealand a person with the face and mien of the old ,tahitian chief ,utamme4 ,no doubt the extraordinary manner in which tattooing is here practised gives a disagreeable expression to their countenances4 ,the complicated but symmetrical figures covering the whole face puzzle and mislead an unaccustomed eye3 it is moreover probable that the deep incisions1 by destroying the play of the superficial muscles1 give an air of rigid inflexibility4 ,but1 besides this1 there is a twinkling in the eye which cannot indicate anything but cunning and ferocity4 ,their figures are tall and bulky2 but not comparable in elegance with those of the working-classes in ,tahiti4 ,both their persons and houses are filthily dirty and offensive3 the idea of washing either their bodies or their clothes never seems to enter their heads4 ,i saw a chief1 who was wearing a shirt black and matted with filth1 and when asked how it came to be so dirty1 he replied1 with surprise1 8,do not you see it is an old one80 ,some of the men have shirts2 but the common dress is one or two large blankets1 generally black with dirt1 which are thrown over their shoulders in a very inconvenient and awkward fashion4 ,a few of the principal chiefs have decent suits of ,english clothes2 but these are only worn on great occasions4 ,december #bcrd4--,at a place called ,waimate1 about fifteen miles from the ,bay of ,islands1 and midway between the eastern and western coasts1 the missionaries have purchased some land for agricultural purposes4 ,i had been introduced to the ,reverend ,w4 ,williams1 who1 upon my expressing a wish1 invited me to pay him a visit there4 ,mr4 ,bushby1 the ,british resident1 offered to take me in his boat by a creek1 where ,i should see a pretty waterfall1 and by which means my walk would be shortened4 ,he likewise procured for me a guide4 ,upon asking a neighbouring chief to recommend a man1 the chief himself offered to go2 but his ignorance of the value of money was so complete1 that at first he asked how many pounds ,i would give him1 but afterwards was well contented with two dollars4 ,when ,i showed the chief a very small bundle which ,i wanted carried1 it became absolutely necessary for him to take a slave4 ,these feelings of pride are beginning to wear away2 but formerly a leading man would sooner have died than undergone the indignity of carrying the smallest burden4 ,my companion was a light active man1 dressed in a dirty blanket1 and with his face completely tattooed4 ,he had formerly been a great warrior4 ,he appeared to be on very cordial terms with ,mr4 ,bushby2 but at various times they had quarrelled violently4 ,mr4 ,bushby remarked that a little quiet irony would frequently silence any one of these natives in their most blustering moments4 ,this chief has come and harangued ,mr4 ,bushby in a hectoring manner1 saying1 8,a great chief1 a great man1 a friend of mine1 has come to pay me a visit--you must give him something good to eat1 some fine presents1 etc40 ,mr4 ,bushby has allowed him to finish his discourse1 and then has quietly replied by some answer such as1 8,what else shall your slave do for you80 ,the man would then instantly1 with a very comical expression1 cease his braggadocio4 ,some time ago ,mr4 ,bushby suffered a far more serious attack4 ,a chief and a party of men tried to break into his house in the middle of the night1 and not finding this so easy1 commenced a brisk firing with their muskets4 ,mr4 ,bushby was slightly wounded1 but the party was at length driven away4 ,shortly afterwards it was discovered who was the aggressor2 and a general meeting of the chiefs was convened to consider the case4 ,it was considered by the ,new ,zealanders as very atrocious1 inasmuch as it was a night attack1 and that ,mrs4 ,bushby was lying ill in the house3 this latter circumstance1 much to their honour1 being considered in all cases as a protection4 ,the chiefs agreed to confiscate the land of the aggressor to the ,king of ,england4 ,the whole proceeding1 however1 in thus trying and punishing a chief was entirely without precedent4 ,the aggressor1 moreover1 lost caste in the estimation of his equals2 and this was considered by the ,british as of more consequence than the confiscation of his land4 ,as the boat was shoving off1 a second chief stepped into her1 who only wanted the amusement of the passage up and down the creek4 ,i never saw a more horrid and ferocious expression than this man had4 ,it immediately struck me ,i had somewhere seen his likeness3 it will be found in ,retzch's outlines to ,schiller's ballad of ,fridolin1 where two men are pushing ,robert into the burning iron furnace4 ,it is the man who has his arm on ,robert's breast4 ,physiognomy here spoke the truth2 this chief had been a notorious murderer1 and was an arrant coward to boot4 ,at the point where the boat landed1 ,mr4 ,bushby accompanied me a few hundred yards on the road3 ,i could not help admiring the cool impudence of the hoary old villain1 whom we left lying in the boat1 when he shouted to ,mr4 ,bushby1 8,do not you stay long1 ,i shall be tired of waiting here40 ,we now commenced our walk4 ,the road lay along a well-beaten path1 bordered on each side by the tall fern which covers the whole country4 ,after travelling some miles we came to a little country village1 where a few hovels were collected together1 and some patches of ground cultivated with potatoes4 ,the introduction of the potato has been the most essential benefit to the island2 it is now much more used than any native vegetable4 ,new ,zealand is favoured by one great natural advantage2 namely1 that the inhabitants can never perish from famine4 ,the whole country abounds with fern3 and the roots of this plant1 if not very palatable1 yet contain much nutriment4 ,a native can always subsist on these1 and on the shell-fish which are abundant on all parts of the sea-coast4 ,the villages are chiefly conspicuous by the platforms which are raised on four posts ten or twelve feet above the ground1 and on which the produce of the fields is kept secure from all accidents4 ,on coming near one of the huts ,i was much amused by seeing in due form the ceremony of rubbing1 or1 as it ought to be called1 pressing noses4 ,the women1 on our first approach1 began uttering something in a most dolorous voice2 they then squatted themselves down and held up their faces2 my companion standing over them1 one after another1 placed the bridge of his nose at right angles to theirs1 and commenced pressing4 ,this lasted rather longer than a cordial shake of the hand with us1 and as we vary the force of the grasp of the hand in shaking1 so do they in pressing4 ,during the process they uttered comfortable little grunts1 very much in the same manner as two pigs do1 when rubbing against each other4 ,i noticed that the slave would press noses with any one he met1 indifferently either before or after his master the chief4 ,although among these savages the chief has absolute power of life and death over his slave1 yet there is an entire absence of ceremony between them4 ,mr4 ,burchell has remarked the same thing in ,southern ,africa with the rude ,bachapins4 ,where civilisation has arrived at a certain point1 complex formalities soon arise between the different grades of society3 thus at ,tahiti all were formerly obliged to uncover themselves as low as the waist in presence of the king4 ,the ceremony of pressing noses having been duly completed with all present1 we seated ourselves in a circle in the front of one of the hovels1 and rested there half an hour4 ,all the hovels have nearly the same form and dimensions1 and all agree in being filthily dirty4 ,they resemble a cow-shed with one end open1 but having a partition a little way within1 with a square hole in it1 making a small gloomy chamber4 ,in this the inhabitants keep all their property1 and when the weather is cold they sleep there4 ,they eat1 however1 and pass their time in the open part in front4 ,my guides having finished their pipes1 we continued our walk4 ,the path led through the same undulating country1 the whole uniformly clothed as before with fern4 ,on our right hand we had a serpentine river1 the banks of which were fringed with trees1 and here and there on the hill-sides there was a clump of wood4 ,the whole scene1 in spite of its green colour1 had rather a desolate aspect4 ,the sight of so much fern impresses the mind with an idea of sterility3 this1 however1 is not correct2 for wherever the fern grows thick and breast-high1 the land by tillage becomes productive4 ,some of the residents think that all this extensive open country originally was covered with forests1 and that it has been cleared by fire4 ,it is said1 that by digging in the barest spots1 lumps of the kind of resin which flows from the kauri pine are frequently found4 ,the natives had an evident motive in clearing the country2 for the fern1 formerly a staple article of food1 flourishes only in the open cleared tracks4 ,the almost entire absence of associated grasses1 which forms so remarkable a feature in the vegetation of this island1 may perhaps be accounted for by the land having been aboriginally covered with forest-trees4 ,the soil is volcanic2 in several parts we passed over slaggy lavas1 and craters could clearly be distinguished on several of the neighbouring hills4 ,although the scenery is nowhere beautiful1 and only occasionally pretty1 ,i enjoyed my walk4 ,i should have enjoyed it more1 if my companion1 the chief1 had not possessed extraordinary conversational powers4 ,i knew only three words3 8good10 8bad10 and 8yes30 and with these ,i answered all his remarks1 without of course having understood one word he said4 ,this1 however1 was quite sufficient3 ,i was a good listener1 an agreeable person1 and he never ceased talking to me4 ,at length we reached ,waimate4 ,after having passed over so many miles of an uninhabited useless country1 the sudden appearance of an ,english farm-house1 and its well-dressed fields1 placed there as if by an enchanter's wand1 was exceedingly pleasant4 ,mr4 ,williams not being at home1 ,i received in ,mr4 ,davies's house a cordial welcome4 ,after drinking tea with his family party1 we took a stroll about the farm4 ,at ,waimate there are three large houses1 where the missionary gentlemen1 ,messrs4 ,williams1 ,davies1 and ,clarke1 reside2 and near them are the huts of the native labourers4 ,on an adjoining slope fine crops of barley and wheat were standing in full ear2 and in another part fields of potatoes and clover4 ,but ,i cannot attempt to describe all ,i saw2 there were large gardens1 with every fruit and vegetable which ,england produces2 and many belonging to a warmer clime4 ,i may instance asparagus1 kidney beans1 cucumbers1 rhubarb1 apples1 pears1 figs1 peaches1 apricots1 grapes1 olives1 gooseberries1 currants1 hops1 gorse for fences1 and ,english oaks2 also many kinds of flowers4 ,around the farmyard there were stables1 a thrashing-barn with its winnowing machine1 a blacksmith's forge1 and on the ground ploughshares and other tools3 in the middle was that happy mixture of pigs and poultry1 lying comfortably together1 as in every ,english farmyard4 ,at the distance of a few hundred yards1 where the water of a little rill had been dammed up into a pool1 there was a large and substantial water-mill4 ,all this is very surprising when it is considered that five years ago nothing but the fern flourished here4 ,moreover1 native workmanship1 taught by the missionaries1 has effected this change2--the lesson of the missionary is the enchanter's wand4 ,the house had been built1 the windows framed1 the fields ploughed1 and even the trees grafted1 by the ,new ,zealander4 ,at the mill a ,new ,zealander was seen powdered white with flower1 like his brother miller in ,england4 ,when ,i looked at this whole scene ,i thought it admirable4 ,it was not merely that ,england was brought vividly before my mind2 yet1 as the evening drew to a close1 the domestic sounds1 the fields of corn1 the distant undulating country with its trees1 might well have been mistaken for our fatherland3 nor was it the triumphant feeling at seeing what ,englishmen could effect1 but rather the high hopes thus inspired for the future progress of this fine island4 ,several young men1 redeemed by the missionaries from slavery1 were employed on the farm4 ,they were dressed in a shirt1 jacket1 and trousers1 and had a respectable appearance4 ,judging from one trifling anecdote1 ,i should think they must be honest4 ,when walking in the fields1 a young labourer came up to ,mr4 ,davies and gave him a knife and gimlet1 saying that he had found them on the road1 and did not know to whom they belonged6 ,these young men and boys appeared very merry and good-humoured4 ,in the evening ,i saw a party of them at cricket3 when ,i thought of the austerity of which the missionaries have been accused1 ,i was amused by observing one of their own sons taking an active part in the game4 ,a more decided and pleasing change was manifested in the young women1 who acted as servants within the houses4 ,their clean1 tidy1 and healthy appearance1 like that of the dairy-maids in ,england1 formed a wonderful contrast with the women of the filthy hovels in ,kororadika4 ,the wives of the missionaries tried to persuade them not to be tattooed2 but a famous operator having arrived from the south1 they said1 8,we really must just have a few lines on our lips2 else when we grow old1 our lips will shrivel1 and we shall be so very ugly40 ,there is not nearly so much tattooing as formerly2 but as it is a badge of distinction between the chief and the slave1 it will probably long be practised4 ,so soon does any train of ideas become habitual1 that the missionaries told me that even in their eyes a plain face looked mean1 and not like that of a ,new ,zealand gentleman4 ,late in the evening ,i went to ,mr4 ,williams's house1 where ,i passed the night4 ,i found there a large party of children1 collected together for ,christmas ,day1 and all sitting round a table at tea4 ,i never saw a nicer or more merry group2 and to think that this was in the centre of the land of cannibalism1 murder1 and all atrocious crimes6 ,the cordiality and happiness so plainly pictured in the faces of the little circle appeared equally felt by the older persons of the mission4 ,december #bdth4--,in the morning prayers were read in the native tongue to the whole family4 ,after breakfast ,i rambled about the gardens and farm4 ,this was a market-day1 when the natives of the surrounding hamlets bring their potatoes1 ,indian corn1 or pigs1 to exchange for blankets1 tobacco1 and sometimes1 through the persuasions of the missionaries1 for soap4 ,mr4 ,davies's eldest son1 who manages a farm of his own1 is the man of business in the market4 ,the children of the missionaries1 who came while young to the island1 understand the language better than their parents1 and can get anything more readily done by the natives4 ,a little before noon ,messrs4 ,williams and ,davies walked with me to part of a neighbouring forest1 to show me the famous kauri pine4 ,i measured one of these noble trees1 and found it thirty-one feet in circumference above the roots4 ,there was another close by1 which ,i did not see1 thirty-three feet2 and ,i heard of one no less than forty feet4 ,these trees are remarkable for their smooth cylindrical boles1 which run up to a height of sixty1 and even ninety feet1 with a nearly equal diameter1 and without a single branch4 ,the crown of branches at the summit is out of all proportion small to the trunk2 and the leaves are likewise small compared with the branches4 ,the forest was here almost composed of the kauri2 and the largest trees1 from the parallelism of their sides1 stood up like gigantic columns of wood4 ,the timber of the kauri is the most valuable production of the island2 moreover1 a quantity of resin oozes from the bark1 which is sold at a penny a pound to the ,americans1 but its use was then unknown4 ,some of the ,new ,zealand forests must be impenetrable to an extraordinary degree4 ,mr4 ,matthews informed me that one forest only thirty-four miles in width1 and separating two inhabited districts1 had only lately1 for the first time1 been crossed4 ,he and another missionary1 each with a party of about fifty men1 undertook to open a road1 but it cost them more than a fortnight's labour6 ,in the woods ,i saw very few birds4 ,with regard to animals1 it is a most remarkable fact1 that so large an island1 extending over more than #gjj miles in latitude1 and in many parts ninety broad1 with varied stations1 a fine climate1 and land of all heights1 from #ad1jjj feet downwards1 with the exception of a small rat1 did not possess one indigenous animal4 ,the several species of that gigantic genus of birds1 the ,deinornis1 seem here to have replaced mammiferous quadrupeds1 in the same manner as the reptiles still do at the ,galapagos ,archipelago4 ,it is said that the common ,norway rat1 in the short space of two years1 annihilated in this northern end of the island the ,new ,zealand species4 ,in many places ,i noticed several sorts of weeds1 which1 like the rats1 ,i was forced to own as countrymen4 ,a leek has overrun whole districts1 and will prove very troublesome1 but it was imported as a favour by a ,french vessel4 ,the common dock is also widely disseminated1 and will1 ,i fear1 for ever remain a proof of the rascality of an ,englishman who sold the seeds for those of the tobacco plant4 ,on returning from our pleasant walk to the house1 ,i dined with ,mr4 ,williams2 and then1 a horse being lent me1 ,i returned to the ,bay of ,islands4 ,i took leave of the missionaries with thankfulness for their kind welcome1 and with feelings of high respect for their gentlemanlike1 useful1 and upright characters4 ,i think it would be difficult to find a body of men better adapted for the high office which they fulfil4 ,christmas ,day4--,in a few more days the fourth year of our absence from ,england will be completed4 ,our first ,christmas ,day was spent at ,plymouth1 the second at ,st4 ,martin's ,cove near ,cape ,horn2 the third at ,port ,desire in ,patagonia2 the fourth at anchor in a wild harbour in the peninsula of ,tres ,montes1 this fifth here1 and the next1 ,i trust in ,providence1 will be in ,england4 ,we attended divine service in the chapel of ,pahia2 part of the service being read in ,english1 and part in the native language4 ,whilst at ,new ,zealand we did not hear of any recent acts of cannibalism2 but ,mr4 ,stokes found burnt human bones strewed round a fireplace on a small island near the anchorage2 but these remains of a comfortable banquet might have been lying there for several years4 ,it is probable that the moral state of the people will rapidly improve4 ,mr4 ,bushby mentioned one pleasing anecdote as a proof of the sincerity of some1 at least1 of those who profess ,christianity4 ,one of his young men left him1 who had been accustomed to read prayers to the rest of the servants4 ,some weeks afterwards1 happening to pass late in the evening by an outhouse1 he saw and heard one of his men reading the ,bible with difficulty by the light of the fire1 to the others4 ,after this the party knelt and prayed3 in their prayers they mentioned ,mr4 ,bushby and his family1 and the missionaries1 each separately in his respective district4 ,december #bfth4--,mr4 ,bushby offered to take ,mr4 ,sulivan and myself in his boat some miles up the river to ,cawa-,cawa1 and proposed afterwards to walk on to the village of ,waiomio1 where there are some curious rocks4 ,following one of the arms of the bay we enjoyed a pleasant row1 and passed through pretty scenery1 until we came to a village1 beyond which the boat could not pass4 ,from this place a chief and a party of men volunteered to walk with us to ,waiomio1 a distance of four miles4 ,the chief was at this time rather notorious from having lately hung one of his wives and a slave for adultery4 ,when one of the missionaries remonstrated with him he seemed surprised1 and said he thought he was exactly following the ,english method4 ,old ,shongi1 who happened to be in ,england during the ,queen's trial1 expressed great disapprobation at the whole proceeding3 he said he had five wives1 and he would rather cut off all their heads than be so much troubled about one4 ,leaving this village1 we crossed over to another1 seated on a hill-side at a little distance4 ,the daughter of a chief1 who was still a heathen1 had died there five days before4 ,the hovel in which she had expired had been burnt to the ground3 her body1 being enclosed between two small canoes1 was placed upright on the ground1 and protected by an enclosure bearing wooden images of their gods1 and the whole was painted bright red1 so as to be conspicuous from afar4 ,her gown was fastened to the coffin1 and her hair being cut off was cast at its foot4 ,the relatives of the family had torn the flesh of their arms1 bodies1 and faces1 so that they were covered with clotted blood2 and the old women looked most filthy1 disgusting objects4 ,on the following day some of the officers visited this place1 and found the women still howling and cutting themselves4 ,we continued our walk1 and soon reached ,waiomio4 ,here there are some singular masses of limestone resembling ruined castles4 ,these rocks have long served for burial places1 and in consequence are held too sacred to be approached4 ,one of the young men1 however1 cried out1 8,let us all be brave10 and ran on ahead2 but when within a hundred yards1 the whole party thought better of it1 and stopped short4 ,with perfect indifference1 however1 they allowed us to examine the whole place4 ,at this village we rested some hours1 during which time there was a long discussion with ,mr4 ,bushby1 concerning the right of sale of certain lands4 ,one old man1 who appeared a perfect genealogist1 illustrated the successive possessors by bits of stick driven into the ground4 ,before leaving the houses a little basketful of roasted sweet potatoes was given to each of our party2 and we all1 according to the custom1 carried them away to eat on the road4 ,i noticed that among the women employed in cooking1 there was a man-slave3 it must be a humiliating thing for a man in this warlike country to be employed in doing that which is considered as the lowest woman's work4 ,slaves are not allowed to go to war2 but this perhaps can hardly be considered as a hardship4 ,i heard of one poor wretch who1 during hostilities1 ran away to the opposite party2 being met by two men1 he was immediately seized2 but as they could not agree to whom he should belong1 each stood over him with a stone hatchet1 and seemed determined that the other at least should not take him away alive4 ,the poor man1 almost dead with fright1 was only saved by the address of a chief's wife4 ,we afterwards enjoyed a pleasant walk back to the boat1 but did not reach the ship till late in the evening4 ,december #cjth4--,in the afternoon we stood out of the ,bay of ,islands1 on our course to ,sydney4 ,i believe we were all glad to leave ,new ,zealand4 ,it is not a pleasant place4 ,amongst the natives there is absent that charming simplicity which is found in ,tahiti2 and the greater part of the ,english are the very refuse of society4 ,neither is the country itself attractive4 ,i look back but to one bright spot1 and that is ,waimate1 with its ,christian inhabitants4 ,illustration3 ,hippah1 ,new ,zealand ,illustration3 ,sydney1 #ahce ,chapter ,,xix ,,australia ,sydney--,excursion to ,bathurst--,aspect of the woods--,party of natives--,gradual extinction of the aborigines--,infection generated by associated men in health--,blue ,mountains--,view of the grand gulf-like valleys--,their origin and formation--,bathurst1 general civility of the lower orders--,state of society--,van ,diemen's ,land--,hobart ,town--,aborigines all banished--,mount ,wellington--,king ,george's ,sound--,cheerless aspect of the country--,bald ,head1 calcareous casts of branches of trees--,party of natives--,leave ,australia4 ,january #abth1 #ahcf4--;,early in the morning a light air carried us towards the entrance of ,port ,jackson4 ,instead of beholding a verdant country1 interspersed with fine houses1 a straight line of yellowish cliff brought to our minds the coast of ,patagonia4 ,a solitary lighthouse1 built of white stone1 alone told us that we were near a great and populous city4 ,having entered the harbour1 it appears fine and spacious1 with cliff-formed shores of horizontally stratified sandstone4 ,the nearly level country is covered with thin scrubby trees1 bespeaking the curse of sterility4 ,proceeding farther inland1 the country improves3 beautiful villas and nice cottages are here and there scattered along the beach4 ,in the distance stone houses1 two and three stories high1 and windmills standing on the edge of a bank1 pointed out to us the neighbourhood of the capital of ,australia4 ,at last we anchored within ,sydney ,cove4 ,we found the little basin occupied by many large ships1 and surrounded by warehouses4 ,in the evening ,i walked through the town1 and returned full of admiration at the whole scene4 ,it is a most magnificent testimony to the power of the ,british nation4 ,here1 in a less promising country1 scores of years have done many more times more than an equal number of centuries have effected in ,south ,america4 ,my first feeling was to congratulate myself that ,i was born an ,englishman4 ,upon seeing more of the town afterwards1 perhaps my admiration fell a little2 but yet it is a fine town4 ,the streets are regular1 broad1 clean1 and kept in excellent order2 the houses are of a good size1 and the shops well furnished4 ,it may be faithfully compared to the large suburbs which stretch out from ,london and a few other great towns in ,england2 but not even near ,london or ,birmingham is there an appearance of such rapid growth4 ,the number of large houses and other buildings just finished was truly surprising2 nevertheless1 every one complained of the high rents and difficulty in procuring a house4 ,coming from ,south ,america1 where in the towns every man of property is known1 no one thing surprised me more than not being able to ascertain at once to whom this or that carriage belonged4 ,i hired a man and two horses to take me to ,bathurst1 a village about one hundred and twenty miles in the interior1 and the centre of a great pastoral district4 ,by this means ,i hoped to gain a general idea of the appearance of the country4 ,on the morning of the #afth 7,january7 ,i set out on my excursion4 ,the first stage took us to ,paramatta1 a small country town1 next to ,sydney in importance4 ,the roads were excellent1 and made upon the ,mac,adam principle1 whinstone having been brought for the purpose from the distance of several miles4 ,in all respects there was a close resemblance to ,england3 perhaps the alehouses here were more numerous4 ,the iron gangs1 or parties of convicts who have committed here some offence1 appeared the least like ,england3 they were working in chains1 under the charge of sentries with loaded arms4 ,the power which the government possesses1 by means of forced labour1 of at once opening good roads throughout the country1 has been1 ,i believe1 one main cause of the early prosperity of this colony4 ,i slept at night at a very comfortable inn at ,emu ferry1 thirty-five miles from ,sydney1 and near the ascent of the ,blue ,mountains4 ,this line of road is the most frequented1 and has been the longest inhabited of any in the colony4 ,the whole land is enclosed with high railings1 for the farmers have not succeeded in rearing hedges4 ,there are many substantial houses and good cottages scattered about2 but although considerable pieces of land are under cultivation1 the greater part yet remains as when first discovered4 ,the extreme uniformity of the vegetation is the most remarkable feature in the landscape of the greater part of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,everywhere we have an open woodland1 the ground being partially covered with a very thin pasture1 with little appearance of verdure4 ,the trees nearly all belong to one family1 and mostly have their leaves placed in a vertical1 instead of as in ,europe1 in a nearly horizontal position3 the foliage is scanty1 and of a peculiar pale green tint1 without any gloss4 ,hence the woods appear light and shadowless3 this1 although a loss of comfort to the traveller under the scorching rays of summer1 is of importance to the farmer1 as it allows grass to grow where it otherwise would not4 ,the leaves are not shed periodically3 this character appears common to the entire southern hemisphere1 namely1 ,south ,america1 ,australia1 and the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,the inhabitants of this hemisphere1 and of the intertropical regions1 thus lose perhaps one of the most glorious1 though to our eyes common1 spectacles in the world--the first bursting into full foliage of the leafless tree4 ,they may1 however1 say that we pay dearly for this by having the land covered with mere naked skeletons for so many months4 ,this is too true2 but our senses thus acquire a keen relish for the exquisite green of the spring1 which the eyes of those living within the tropics1 sated during the long year with the gorgeous productions of those glowing climates1 can never experience4 ,the greater number of the trees1 with the exception of some of the ,blue-gums1 do not attain a large size2 but they grow tall and tolerably straight1 and stand well apart4 ,the bark of some of the ,eucalypti falls annually1 or hangs dead in long shreds which swing about with the wind1 and give to the woods a desolate and untidy appearance4 ,i cannot imagine a more complete contrast1 in every respect1 than between the forests of ,valdivia or ,chiloe1 and the woods of ,australia4 ,at sunset1 a party of a score of the black aborigines passed by1 each carrying1 in their accustomed manner1 a bundle of spears and other weapons4 ,by giving a leading young man a shilling1 they were easily detained1 and threw their spears for my amusement4 ,they were all partly clothed1 and several could speak a little ,english3 their countenances were good-humoured and pleasant1 and they appeared far from being such utterly degraded beings as they have usually been represented4 ,in their own arts they are admirable4 ,a cap being fixed at thirty yards distance1 they transfixed it with a spear1 delivered by the throwing-stick with the rapidity of an arrow from the bow of a practised archer4 ,in tracking animals or men they show most wonderful sagacity2 and ,i heard of several of their remarks which manifested considerable acuteness4 ,they will not1 however1 cultivate the ground1 or build houses and remain stationary1 or even take the trouble of tending a flock of sheep when given to them4 ,on the whole they appear to me to stand some few degrees higher in the scale of civilisation than the ,fuegians4 ,it is very curious thus to see in the midst of a civilised people1 a set of harmless savages wandering about without knowing where they shall sleep at night1 and gaining their livelihood by hunting in the woods4 ,as the white man has travelled onwards1 he has spread over the country belonging to several tribes4 ,these1 although thus enclosed by one common people1 keep up their ancient distinctions1 and sometimes go to war with each other4 ,in an engagement which took place lately1 the two parties most singularly chose the centre of the village of ,bathurst for the field of battle4 ,this was of service to the defeated side1 for the runaway warriors took refuge in the barracks4 ,the number of aborigines is rapidly decreasing4 ,in my whole ride1 with the exception of some boys brought up by ,englishmen1 ,i saw only one other party4 ,this decrease1 no doubt1 must be partly owing to the introduction of spirits1 to ,european diseases 7even the milder ones of which1 such as the measles1#a prove very destructive71 and to the gradual extinction of the wild animals4 ,it is said that numbers of their children invariably perish in very early infancy from the effects of their wandering life2 and as the difficulty of procuring food increases1 so must their wandering habits increase2 and hence the population1 without any apparent deaths from famine1 is repressed in a manner extremely sudden compared to what happens in civilised countries1 where the father1 though in adding to his labour he may injure himself1 does not destroy his offspring4 #a ,it is remarkable how the same disease is modified in different climates4 ,at the little island of ,st4 ,helena the introduction of scarlet-fever is dreaded as a plague4 ,in some countries foreigners and natives are as differently affected by certain contagious disorders as if they had been different animals2 of which fact some instances have occurred in ,chile2 and1 according to ,humboldt1 in ,mexico 7,polit4 ,essay1 ,new ,spain1 vol4 iv47 ,besides these several evident causes of destruction1 there appears to be some more mysterious agency generally at work4 ,wherever the ,european has trod1 death seems to pursue the aboriginal4 ,we may look to the wide extent of the ,americas1 ,polynesia1 the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and ,australia1 and we find the same result4 ,nor is it the white man alone that thus acts the destroyer2 the ,polynesian of ,malay extraction has in parts of the ,east ,indian archipelago thus driven before him the dark-coloured native4 ,the varieties of man seem to act on each other in the same way as different species of animals--the stronger always extirpating the weaker4 ,it was melancholy at ,new ,zealand to hear the fine energetic natives saying that they knew the land was doomed to pass from their children4 ,every one has heard of the inexplicable reduction of the population in the beautiful and healthy island of ,tahiti since the date of ,captain ,cook's voyages3 although in that case we might have expected that it would have been increased2 for infanticide1 which formerly prevailed to so extraordinary a degree1 has ceased1 profligacy has greatly diminished1 and the murderous wars become less frequent4 ,the ,reverend ,j4 ,williams1 in his interesting work1#b says that the first intercourse between natives and ,europeans 8is invariably attended with the introduction of fever1 dysentery1 or some other disease which carries off numbers of the people40 ,again he affirms 8,it is certainly a fact1 which cannot be controverted1 that most of the diseases which have raged in the islands during my residence there have been introduced by ships2#c and what renders this fact remarkable is that there might be no appearance of disease among the crew of the ship which conveyed this destructive importation40 ,this statement is not quite so extraordinary as it at first appears2 for several cases are on record of the most malignant fevers having broken out1 although the parties themselves1 who were the cause1 were not affected4 ,in the early part of the reign of ,george ,,iii1 a prisoner who had been confined in a dungeon was taken in a coach with four constables before a magistrate2 and although the man himself was not ill1 the four constables died from a short putrid fever2 but the contagion extended to no others4 ,from these facts it would almost appear as if the effluvium of one set of men shut up for some time together was poisonous when inhaled by others2 and possibly more so1 if the men be of different races4 ,mysterious as this circumstance appears to be1 it is not more surprising than that the body of one's fellow-creature1 directly after death1 and before putrefaction has commenced1 should often be of so deleterious a quality that the mere puncture from an instrument used in its dissection should prove fatal4 #b ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprise1 p4 #bhb4 #c ,captain ,beechey 7chap4 iv1 vol4 i47 states that the inhabitants of ,pitcairn ,island are firmly convinced that after the arrival of every ship they suffer cutaneous and other disorders4 ,captain ,beechey attributes this to the change of diet during the time of the visit4 ,dr4 ,macculloch 7,western ,isles1 vol4 ii1 p4 #cb7 says1 8,it is asserted1 that on the arrival of a stranger 7at ,st4 ,kilda7 all the inhabitants1 in the common phraseology1 catch a cold40 ,dr4 ,macculloch considers the whole case1 although often previously affirmed1 as ludicrous4 ,he adds1 however1 that 8the question was put by us to the inhabitants who unanimously agreed in the story40 ,in ,vancouver's ,voyage there is a somewhat similar statement with respect to ,otaheite4 ,dr4 ,dieffenbach1 in a note to his translation of this ,journal1 states that the same fact is universally believed by the inhabitants of the ,chatham ,islands and in parts of ,new ,zealand4 ,it is impossible that such a belief should have become universal in the northern hemisphere1 at the ,antipodes1 and in the ,pacific1 without some good foundation4 ,humboldt 7,polit4 ,essay on ,king4 of ,new ,spain1 vol4 iv47 says that the great epidemics at ,panama and ,callao are 8marked0 by the arrival of ships from ,chile1 because the people from that temperate region first experience the fatal effects of the torrid zones4 ,i may add that ,i have heard it stated in ,shropshire that sheep which have been imported from vessels1 although themselves in a healthy condition1 if placed in the same fold with others1 frequently produce sickness in the flock4 #agth4--,early in the morning we passed the ,nepean in a ferry-boat4 ,the river1 although at this spot both broad and deep1 had a very small body of running water4 ,having crossed a low piece of land on the opposite side1 we reached the slope of the ,blue ,mountains4 ,the ascent is not steep1 the road having been cut with much care on the side of a sandstone cliff4 ,on the summit an almost level plain extends1 which1 rising imperceptibly to the westward1 at last attains a height of more than #cjjj feet4 ,from so grand a title as ,blue ,mountains1 and from their absolute altitude1 ,i expected to have seen a bold chain of mountains crossing the country2 but instead of this1 a sloping plain presents merely an inconsiderable front to the low land near the coast4 ,from this first slope the view of the extensive woodland to the east was striking1 and the surrounding trees grew bold and lofty4 ,but when once on the sandstone platform1 the scenery becomes exceedingly monotonous2 each side of the road is bordered by scrubby trees of the never-failing ,eucalyptus family2 and with the exception of two or three small inns1 there are no houses or cultivated land2 the road1 moreover1 is solitary2 the most frequent object being a bullock-waggon1 piled up with bales of wool4 ,in the middle of the day we baited our horses at a little inn1 called the ,weatherboard4 ,the country here is elevated #bhjj feet above the sea4 ,about a mile and a half from this place there is a view exceedingly well worth visiting4 ,following down a little valley and its tiny rill of water1 an immense gulf unexpectedly opens through the trees which border the pathway1 at the depth of perhaps #aejj feet4 ,walking on a few yards1 one stands on the brink of a vast precipice1 and below one sees a grand bay or gulf1 for ,i know not what other name to give it1 thickly covered with forest4 ,the point of view is situated as if at the head of a bay1 the line of cliff diverging on each side1 and showing headland behind headland1 as on a bold sea-coast4 ,these cliffs are composed of horizontal strata of whitish sandstone2 and are so absolutely vertical1 that in many places a person standing on the edge and throwing down a stone1 can see it strike the trees in the abyss below4 ,so unbroken is the line of cliff that in order to reach the foot of the waterfall formed by this little stream1 it is said to be necessary to go sixteen miles round4 ,about five miles distant in front another line of cliff extends1 which thus appears completely to encircle the valley2 and hence the name of bay is justified1 as applied to this grand amphitheatrical depression4 ,if we imagine a winding harbour1 with its deep water surrounded by bold cliff-like shores1 to be laid dry1 and a forest to spring up on its sandy bottom1 we should then have the appearance and structure here exhibited4 ,this kind of view was to me quite novel1 and extremely magnificent4 ,in the evening we reached the ,blackheath4 ,the sandstone plateau has here attained the height of #cdjj feet2 and is covered1 as before1 with the same scrubby woods4 ,from the road there were occasional glimpses into a profound valley of the same character as the one described2 but from the steepness and depth of its sides1 the bottom was scarcely ever to be seen4 ,the ,blackheath is a very comfortable inn1 kept by an old soldier2 and it reminded me of the small inns in ,north ,wales4 #ahth4--,very early in the morning ,i walked about three miles to see ,govett's ,leap3 a view of a similar character with that near the ,weatherboard1 but perhaps even more stupendous4 ,so early in the day the gulf was filled with a thin blue haze1 which1 although destroying the general effect of the view1 added to the apparent depth at which the forest was stretched out beneath our feet4 ,these valleys1 which so long presented an insuperable barrier to the attempts of the most enterprising of the colonists to reach the interior1 are most remarkable4 ,great armlike bays1 expanding at their upper ends1 often branch from the main valleys and penetrate the sandstone platform2 on the other hand1 the platform often sends promontories into the valleys1 and even leaves in them great1 almost insulated1 masses4 ,to descend into some of these valleys1 it is necessary to go round twenty miles2 and into others1 the surveyors have only lately penetrated1 and the colonists have not yet been able to drive in their cattle4 ,but the most remarkable feature in their structure is1 that although several miles wide at their heads1 they generally contract towards their mouths to such a degree as to become impassable4 ,the ,surveyor-,general1 ,sir ,t4 ,mitchell1#d endeavoured in vain1 first walking and then by crawling between the great fallen fragments of sandstone1 to ascend through the gorge by which the river ,grose joins the ,nepean2 yet the valley of the ,grose in its upper part1 as ,i saw1 forms a magnificent level basin some miles in width1 and is on all sides surrounded by cliffs1 the summits of which are believed to be nowhere less than #cjjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,when cattle are driven into the valley of the ,wolgan by a path 7which ,i descended71 partly natural and partly made by the owner of the land1 they cannot escape2 for this valley is in every other part surrounded by perpendicular cliffs1 and eight miles lower down it contracts from an average width of half a mile1 to a mere chasm1 impassable to man or beast4 ,sir ,t4 ,mitchell states that the great valley of the ,cox river with all its branches1 contracts1 where it unites with the ,nepean1 into a gorge #bbjj yards in width1 and about #ajjj feet in depth4 ,other similar cases might have been added4 #d ,travels in ,australia1 vol4 i1 p4 #aed4 ,i must express my obligation to ,sir ,t4 ,mitchell for several interesting personal communications on the subject of these great valleys of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,the first impression on seeing the correspondence of the horizontal strata on each side of these valleys and great amphitheatrical depressions1 is that they have been hollowed out1 like other valleys1 by the action of water2 but when one reflects on the enormous amount of stone which on this view must have been removed through mere gorges or chasms1 one is led to ask whether these spaces may not have subsided4 ,but considering the form of the irregularly branching valleys1 and of the narrow promontories projecting into them from the platforms1 we are compelled to abandon this notion4 ,to attribute these hollows to the present alluvial action would be preposterous2 nor does the drainage from the summit-level always fall1 as ,i remarked near the ,weatherboard1 into the head of these valleys1 but into one side of their baylike recesses4 ,some of the inhabitants remarked to me that they never viewed one of those baylike recesses1 with the headlands receding on both hands1 without being struck with their resemblance to a bold sea-coast4 ,this is certainly the case2 moreover1 on the present coast of ,new ,south ,wales1 the numerous fine1 widely-branching harbours1 which are generally connected with the sea by a narrow mouth worn through the sandstone coast-cliffs1 varying from one mile in width to a quarter of a mile1 present a likeness1 though on a miniature scale1 to the great valleys of the interior4 ,but then immediately occurs the startling difficulty1 why has the sea worn out these great though circumscribed depressions on a wide platform1 and left mere gorges at the openings1 through which the whole vast amount of triturated matter must have been carried away8 ,the only light ,i can throw upon this enigma is by remarking that banks of the most irregular forms appear to be now forming in some seas1 as in parts of the ,west ,indies and in the ,red ,sea1 and that their sides are exceedingly steep4 ,such banks1 ,i have been led to suppose1 have been formed by sediment heaped by strong currents on an irregular bottom4 ,that in some cases the sea1 instead of spreading out sediment in a uniform sheet1 heaps it round submarine rocks and islands1 it is hardly possible to doubt1 after examining the charts of the ,west ,indies2 and that the waves have power to form high and precipitous cliffs1 even in land-locked harbours1 ,i have noticed in many parts of ,south ,america4 ,to apply these ideas to the sandstone platforms of ,new ,south ,wales1 ,i imagine that the strata were heaped by the action of strong currents1 and of the undulations of an open sea1 on an irregular bottom2 and that the valley-like spaces thus left unfilled had their steeply sloping flanks worn into cliffs during a slow elevation of the land2 the worn-down sandstone being removed1 either at the time when the narrow gorges were cut by the retreating sea1 or subsequently by alluvial action4 ,soon after leaving the ,blackheath we descended from the sandstone platform by the pass of ,mount ,victoria4 ,to effect this pass an enormous quantity of stone has been cut through2 the design and its manner of execution being worthy of any line of road in ,england4 ,we now entered upon a country less elevated by nearly a thousand feet1 and consisting of granite4 ,with the change of rock the vegetation improved2 the trees were both finer and stood farther apart2 and the pasture between them was a little greener and more plentiful4 ,at ,hassan's ,walls ,i left the high-road1 and made a short detour to a farm called ,walerawang2 to the superintendent of which ,i had a letter of introduction from the owner in ,sydney4 ,mr4 ,browne had the kindness to ask me to stay the ensuing day1 which ,i had much pleasure in doing4 ,this place offers an example of one of the large farming1 or rather sheep-grazing1 establishments of the colony4 ,cattle and horses are1 however1 in this case rather more numerous than usual1 owing to some of the valleys being swampy and producing a coarser pasture4 ,two or three flat pieces of ground near the house were cleared and cultivated with corn1 which the harvest-men were now reaping3 but no more wheat is sown than sufficient for the annual support of the labourers employed on the establishment4 ,the usual number of assigned convict-servants here is about forty1 but at the present time there were rather more4 ,although the farm was well stocked with every necessary1 there was an apparent absence of comfort2 and not one single woman resided here4 ,the sunset of a fine day will generally cast an air of happy contentment on any scene2 but here1 at this retired farmhouse1 the brightest tints on the surrounding woods could not make me forget that forty hardened1 profligate men were ceasing from their daily labours1 like the slaves from ,africa1 yet without their holy claim for compassion4 ,early on the next morning ,mr4 ,archer1 the joint superintendent1 had the kindness to take me out kangaroo-hunting4 ,we continued riding the greater part of the day1 but had very bad sport1 not seeing a kangaroo1 or even a wild dog4 ,the greyhounds pursued a kangaroo rat into a hollow tree1 out of which we dragged it3 it is an animal as large as a rabbit1 but with the figure of a kangaroo4 ,a few years since this country abounded with wild animals2 but now the emu is banished to a long distance1 and the kangaroo is become scarce2 to both the ,english greyhound has been highly destructive4 ,it may be long before these animals are altogether exterminated1 but their doom is fixed4 ,the aborigines are always anxious to borrow the dogs from the farmhouses3 the use of them1 the offal when an animal is killed1 and some milk from the cows1 are the peace-offerings of the settlers1 who push farther and farther towards the interior4 ,the thoughtless aboriginal1 blinded by these trifling advantages1 is delighted at the approach of the white man1 who seems predestined to inherit the country of his children4 ,although having poor sport1 we enjoyed a pleasant ride4 ,the woodland is generally so open that a person on horseback can gallop through it4 ,it is traversed by a few flat-bottomed valleys1 which are green and free from trees3 in such spots the scenery was pretty like that of a park4 ,in the whole country ,i scarcely saw a place without the marks of a fire2 whether these had been more or less recent--whether the stumps were more or less black1 was the greatest change which varied the uniformity so wearisome to the traveller's eye4 ,in these woods there are not many birds2 ,i saw1 however1 some large flocks of the white cockatoo feeding in a corn-field1 and a few most beautiful parrots2 crows like our jackdaws were not uncommon1 and another bird something like the magpie4 ,in the dusk of the evening ,i took a stroll along a chain of ponds1 which in this dry country represented the course of a river1 and had the good fortune to see several of the famous ,ornithorhynchus paradoxus4 ,they were diving and playing about the surface of the water1 but showed so little of their bodies that they might easily have been mistaken for water-rats4 ,mr4 ,browne shot one3 certainly it is a most extraordinary animal2 a stuffed specimen does not at all give a good idea of the appearance of the head and beak when fresh2 the latter becoming hard and contracted4#e #e ,i was interested by finding here the hollow conical pitfall of the lion-ant1 or some other insect3 first a fly fell down the treacherous slope and immediately disappeared2 then came a large but unwary ant2 its struggles to escape being very violent1 those curious little jets of sand1 described by ,kirby and ,spence 7,entomol4 vol4 i1 p4 #dbe7 as being flirted by the insect's tail1 were promptly directed against the expected victim4 ,but the ant enjoyed a better fate than the fly and escaped the fatal jaws which lay concealed at the base of the conical hollow4 ,this ,australian pitfall was only about half the size of that made by the ,european lion-ant4 #bjth4--,a long day's ride to ,bathurst4 ,before joining the high road we followed a mere path through the forest2 and the country1 with the exception of a few squatters' huts1 was very solitary4 ,we experienced this day the sirocco-like wind of ,australia1 which comes from the parched deserts of the interior4 ,clouds of dust were travelling in every direction2 and the wind felt as if it had passed over a fire4 ,i afterwards heard that the thermometer out of doors had stood at #aai1 and in a closed room at #if4 ,in the afternoon we came in view of the downs of ,bathurst4 ,these undulating but nearly smooth plains are very remarkable in this country1 from being absolutely destitute of trees4 ,they support only a thin brown pasture4 ,we rode some miles over this country1 and then reached the township of ,bathurst1 seated in the middle of what may be called either a very broad valley1 or narrow plain4 ,i was told at ,sydney not to form too bad an opinion of ,australia by judging of the country from the roadside1 nor too good a one from ,bathurst2 in this latter respect ,i did not feel myself in the least danger of being prejudiced4 ,the season1 it must be owned1 had been one of great drought1 and the country did not wear a favourable aspect2 although ,i understand it was incomparably worse two or three months before4 ,the secret of the rapidly growing prosperity of ,bathurst is that the brown pasture which appears to the stranger's eye so wretched is excellent for sheep-grazing4 ,the town stands at the height of #bbjj feet above the sea1 on the banks of the ,macquarie3 this is one of the rivers flowing into the vast and scarcely known interior4 ,the line of watershed which divides the inland streams from those on the coast1 has a height of about #cjjj feet1 and runs in a north and south direction at the distance of from eighty to a hundred miles from the seaside4 ,the ,macquarie figures in the map as a respectable river1 and it is the largest of those draining this part of the watershed2 yet to my surprise ,i found it a mere chain of ponds1 separated from each other by spaces almost dry4 ,generally a small stream is running2 and sometimes there are high and impetuous floods4 ,scanty as the supply of the water is throughout this district1 it becomes still scantier further inland4 #bbnd4--,i commenced my return and followed a new road called ,lockyer's ,line along which the country is rather more hilly and picturesque4 ,this was a long day's ride2 and the house where ,i wished to sleep was some way off the road1 and not easily found4 ,i met on this occasion1 and indeed on all others1 a very general and ready civility among the lower orders1 which1 when one considers what they are1 and what they have been1 would scarcely have been expected4 ,the farm where ,i passed the night was owned by two young men who had only lately come out1 and were beginning a settler's life4 ,the total want of almost every comfort was not very attractive2 but future and certain prosperity was before their eyes1 and that not far distant4 ,the next day we passed through large tracts of country in flames1 volumes of smoke sweeping across the road4 ,before noon we joined our former road and ascended ,mount ,victoria4 ,i slept at the ,weatherboard1 and before dark took another walk to the amphitheatre4 ,on the road to ,sydney ,i spent a very pleasant evening with ,captain ,king at ,dunheved2 and thus ended my little excursion in the colony of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,before arriving here the three things which interested me most were--the state of society amongst the higher classes1 the condition of the convicts1 and the degree of attraction sufficient to induce persons to emigrate4 ,of course1 after so very short a visit1 one's opinion is worth scarcely anything2 but it is as difficult not to form some opinion1 as it is to form a correct judgment4 ,on the whole1 from what ,i heard1 more than from what ,i saw1 ,i was disappointed in the state of society4 ,the whole community is rancorously divided into parties on almost every subject4 ,among those who1 from their station in life1 ought to be the best1 many live in such open profligacy that respectable people cannot associate with them4 ,there is much jealousy between the children of the rich emancipist and the free settlers1 the former being pleased to consider honest men as interlopers4 ,the whole population1 poor and rich1 are bent on acquiring wealth3 amongst the higher orders1 wool and sheep-grazing form the constant subject of conversation4 ,there are many serious drawbacks to the comforts of a family1 the chief of which1 perhaps1 is being surrounded by convict servants4 ,how thoroughly odious to every feeling1 to be waited on by a man who the day before1 perhaps1 was flogged1 from your representation1 for some trifling misdemeanour4 ,the female servants are of course much worse3 hence children learn the vilest expressions1 and it is fortunate if not equally vile ideas4 ,on the other hand1 the capital of a person1 without any trouble on his part1 produces him treble interest to what it will in ,england2 and with care he is sure to grow rich4 ,the luxuries of life are in abundance1 and very little dearer than in ,england1 and most articles of food are cheaper4 ,the climate is splendid1 and perfectly healthy2 but to my mind its charms are lost by the uninviting aspect of the country4 ,settlers possess a great advantage in finding their sons of service when very young4 ,at the age of from sixteen to twenty they frequently take charge of distant farming stations4 ,this1 however1 must happen at the expense of their boys associating entirely with convict servants4 ,i am not aware that the tone of society has assumed any peculiar character2 but with such habits1 and without intellectual pursuits1 it can hardly fail to deteriorate4 ,my opinion is such that nothing but rather sharp necessity should compel me to emigrate4 ,the rapid prosperity and future prospects of this colony are to me1 not understanding these subjects1 very puzzling4 ,the two main exports are wool and whale-oil1 and to both of these productions there is a limit4 ,the country is totally unfit for canals1 therefore there is a not very distant point beyond which the land-carriage of wool will not repay the expense of shearing and tending sheep4 ,pasture everywhere is so thin that settlers have already pushed far into the interior2 moreover1 the country farther inland becomes extremely poor4 ,agriculture1 on account of the droughts1 can never succeed on an extended scale3 therefore1 so far as ,i can see1 ,australia must ultimately depend upon being the centre of commerce for the southern hemisphere and perhaps on her future manufactories4 ,possessing coal1 she always has the moving power at hand4 ,from the habitable country extending along the coast1 and from her ,english extraction1 she is sure to be a maritime nation4 ,i formerly imagined that ,australia would rise to be as grand and powerful a country as ,north ,america1 but now it appears to me that such future grandeur is rather problematical4 ,with respect to the state of the convicts1 ,i had still fewer opportunities of judging than on other points4 ,the first question is1 whether their condition is at all one of punishment3 no one will maintain that it is a very severe one4 ,this1 however1 ,i suppose1 is of little consequence as long as it continues to be an object of dread to criminals at home4 ,the corporeal wants of the convicts are tolerably well supplied3 their prospect of future liberty and comfort is not distant1 and1 after good conduct1 certain4 ,a 8ticket of leave10 which1 as long as a man keeps clear of suspicion as well as of crime1 makes him free within a certain district1 is given upon good conduct1 after years proportional to the length of the sentence2 yet with all this1 and overlooking the previous imprisonment and wretched passage out1 ,i believe the years of assignment are passed away with discontent and unhappiness4 ,as an intelligent man remarked to me1 the convicts know no pleasure beyond sensuality1 and in this they are not gratified4 ,the enormous bribe which ,government possesses in offering free pardons1 together with the deep horror of the secluded penal settlements1 destroys confidence between the convicts1 and so prevents crime4 ,as to a sense of shame1 such a feeling does not appear to be known1 and of this ,i witnessed some very singular proofs4 ,though it is a curious fact1 ,i was universally told that the character of the convict population is one of arrant cowardice2 not unfrequently some become desperate1 and quite indifferent as to life1 yet a plan requiring cool or continued courage is seldom put into execution4 ,the worst feature in the whole case is that although there exists what may be called a legal reform1 and comparatively little is committed which the law can touch1 yet that any moral reform should take place appears to be quite out of the question4 ,i was assured by well-informed people that a man who should try to improve1 could not while living with other assigned servants2--his life would be one of intolerable misery and persecution4 ,nor must the contamination of the convict-ships and prisons1 both here and in ,england1 be forgotten4 ,on the whole1 as a place of punishment1 the object is scarcely gained2 as a real system of reform it has failed1 as perhaps would every other plan2 but as a means of making men outwardly honest1--of converting vagabonds1 most useless in one hemisphere1 into active citizens of another1 and thus giving birth to a new and splendid country--a grand centre of civilisation--it has succeeded to a degree perhaps unparalleled in history4 #cjth4--,the ,beagle sailed for ,hobart ,town in ,van ,diemen's ,land4 ,on the #eth of ,february1 after a six days' passage1 of which the first part was fine1 and the latter very cold and squally1 we entered the mouth of ,storm ,bay2 the weather justified this awful name4 ,the bay should rather be called an estuary1 for it receives at its head the waters of the ,derwent4 ,near the mouth there are some extensive basaltic platforms2 but higher up the land becomes mountainous1 and is covered by a light wood4 ,the lower parts of the hills which skirt the bay are cleared2 and the bright yellow fields of corn1 and dark green ones of potatoes1 appear very luxuriant4 ,late in the evening we anchored in the snug cove on the shores of which stands the capital of ,tasmania4 ,the first aspect of the place was very inferior to that of ,sydney2 the latter might be called a city1 this is only a town4 ,it stands at the base of ,mount ,wellington1 a mountain #cajj feet high1 but of little picturesque beauty2 from this source1 however1 it receives a good supply of water4 ,round the cove there are some fine warehouses and on one side a small fort4 ,coming from the ,spanish settlements1 where such magnificent care has generally been paid to the fortifications1 the means of defence in these colonies appeared very contemptible4 ,comparing the town with ,sydney1 ,i was chiefly struck with the comparative fewness of the large houses1 either built or building4 ,hobart ,town1 from the census of #ahce1 contained #ac1hbf inhabitants1 and the whole of ,tasmania #cf1eje4 ,hobart ,town and ,mount ,wellington ,all the aborigines have been removed to an island in ,bass's ,straits1 so that ,van ,diemen's ,land enjoys the great advantage of being free from a native population4 ,this most cruel step seems to have been quite unavoidable1 as the only means of stopping a fearful succession of robberies1 burnings1 and murders1 committed by the blacks2 and which sooner or later would have ended in their utter destruction4 ,i fear there is no doubt that this train of evil and its consequences originated in the infamous conduct of some of our countrymen4 ,thirty years is a short period in which to have banished the last aboriginal from his native island1--and that island nearly as large as ,ireland4 ,the correspondence on this subject which took place between the government at home and that of ,van ,diemen's ,land1 is very interesting4 ,although numbers of natives were shot and taken prisoners in the skirmishing1 which was going on at intervals for several years1 nothing seems fully to have impressed them with the idea of our overwhelming power1 until the whole island1 in #ahcj1 was put under martial law1 and by proclamation the whole population commanded to assist in one great attempt to secure the entire race4 ,the plan adopted was nearly similar to that of the great hunting-matches in ,india3 a line was formed reaching across the island1 with the intention of driving the natives into a cul-de-sac on ,tasman's peninsula4 ,the attempt failed2 the natives1 having tied up their dogs1 stole during one night through the lines4 ,this is far from surprising1 when their practised senses and usual manner of crawling after wild animals is considered4 ,i have been assured that they can conceal themselves on almost bare ground1 in a manner which until witnessed is scarcely credible2 their dusky bodies being easily mistaken for the blackened stumps which are scattered all over the country4 ,i was told of a trial between a party of ,englishmen and a native1 who was to stand in full view on the side of a bare hill2 if the ,englishmen closed their eyes for less than a minute1 he would squat down1 and then they were never able to distinguish him from the surrounding stumps4 ,but to return to the hunting-match2 the natives understanding this kind of warfare1 were terribly alarmed1 for they at once perceived the power and numbers of the whites4 ,shortly afterwards a party of thirteen belonging to two tribes came in2 and1 conscious of their unprotected condition1 delivered themselves up in despair4 ,subsequently by the intrepid exertions of ,mr4 ,robinson1 an active and benevolent man1 who fearlessly visited by himself the most hostile of the natives1 the whole were induced to act in a similar manner4 ,they were then removed to an island1 where food and clothes were provided them4 ,count ,strzelecki states1#f that 8at the epoch of their deportation in #ahce1 the number of natives amounted to #baj4 ,in #ahdb1 that is after the interval of seven years1 they mustered only fifty-four individuals2 and1 while each family of the interior of ,new ,south ,wales1 uncontaminated by contact with the whites1 swarms with children1 those of ,flinders' ,island had during eight years an accession of only fourteen in number60 #f ,physical ,description of ,new ,south ,wales and ,van ,diemen's ,land1 p4 #ced4 ,the ,beagle stayed here ten days1 and in this time ,i made several pleasant little excursions1 chiefly with the object of examining the geological structure of the immediate neighbourhood4 ,the main points of interest consist1 first in some highly fossiliferous strata belonging to the ,devonian or ,carboniferous period2 secondly1 in proofs of a late small rise of the land2 and lastly1 in a solitary and superficial patch of yellowish limestone or travertin1 which contains numerous impressions of leaves of trees1 together with land-shells1 not now existing4 ,it is not improbable that this one small quarry includes the only remaining record of the vegetation of ,van ,diemen's ,land during one former epoch4 ,the climate here is damper than in ,new ,south ,wales1 and hence the land is more fertile4 ,agriculture flourishes2 the cultivated fields look well1 and the gardens abound with thriving vegetables and fruit-trees4 ,some of the farmhouses1 situated in retired spots1 had a very attractive appearance4 ,the general aspect of the vegetation is similar to that of ,australia2 perhaps it is a little more green and cheerful2 and the pasture between the trees rather more abundant4 ,one day ,i took a long walk on the side of the bay opposite to the town3 ,i crossed in a steamboat1 two of which are constantly plying backwards and forwards4 ,the machinery of one of these vessels was entirely manufactured in this colony1 which1 from its very foundation1 then numbered only three and thirty years6 ,another day ,i ascended ,mount ,wellington2 ,i took with me a guide1 for ,i failed in a first attempt1 from the thickness of the wood4 ,our guide1 however1 was a stupid fellow1 and conducted us to the southern and damp side of the mountain1 where the vegetation was very luxuriant2 and where the labour of the ascent1 from the number of rotten trunks1 was almost as great as on a mountain in ,tierra del ,fuego or in ,chiloe4 ,it cost us five and a half hours of hard climbing before we reached the summit4 ,in many parts the ,eucalypti grew to a great size and composed a noble forest4 ,in some of the dampest ravines tree-ferns flourished in an extraordinary manner2 ,i saw one which must have been at least twenty feet high to the base of the fronds1 and was in girth exactly six feet4 ,the fronds1 forming the most elegant parasols1 produced a gloomy shade1 like that of the first hour of night4 ,the summit of the mountain is broad and flat and is composed of huge angular masses of naked greenstone4 ,its elevation is #cajj feet above the level of the sea4 ,the day was splendidly clear1 and we enjoyed a most extensive view2 to the north1 the country appeared a mass of wooded mountains1 of about the same height with that on which we were standing1 and with an equally tame outline3 to the south the broken land and water1 forming many intricate bays1 was mapped with clearness before us4 ,after staying some hours on the summit we found a better way to descend1 but did not reach the ,beagle till eight o'clock1 after a severe day's work4 ,february #gth4--,the ,beagle sailed from ,tasmania1 and1 on the #fth of the ensuing month1 reached ,king ,george's ,sound1 situated close to the south-west corner of ,australia4 ,we stayed there eight days2 and we did not during our voyage pass a more dull and uninteresting time4 ,the country1 viewed from an eminence1 appears a woody plain1 with here and there rounded and partly bare hills of granite protruding4 ,one day ,i went out with a party1 in hopes of seeing a kangaroo-hunt1 and walked over a good many miles of country4 ,everywhere we found the soil sandy1 and very poor2 it supported either a coarse vegetation of thin1 low brushwood and wiry grass1 or a forest of stunted trees4 ,the scenery resembled that of the high sandstone platform of the ,blue ,mountains2 the ,casuarina 7a tree somewhat resembling a ,scotch fir7 is1 however1 here in greater number1 and the ,eucalyptus in rather less4 ,in the open parts there were many grass-trees1--a plant which1 in appearance1 has some affinity with the palm2 but1 instead of being surmounted by a crown of noble fronds1 it can boast merely of a tuft of very coarse grass-like leaves4 ,the general bright green colour of the brushwood and other plants1 viewed from a distance1 seemed to promise fertility4 ,a single walk1 however1 was enough to dispel such an illusion2 and he who thinks with me will never wish to walk again in so uninviting a country4 ,one day ,i accompanied ,captain ,fitz ,roy to ,bald ,head1 the place mentioned by so many navigators1 where some imagined that they saw corals1 and others that they saw petrified trees1 standing in the position in which they had grown4 ,according to our view1 the beds have been formed by the wind having heaped up fine sand1 composed of minute rounded particles of shells and corals1 during which process branches and roots of trees1 together with many land-shells1 became enclosed4 ,the whole then became consolidated by the percolation of calcareous matter2 and the cylindrical cavities left by the decaying of the wood were thus also filled up with a hard pseudo-stalactitical stone4 ,the weather is now wearing away the softer parts1 and in consequence the hard casts of the roots and branches of the trees project above the surface1 and1 in a singularly deceptive manner1 resemble the stumps of a dead thicket4 ,a large tribe of natives1 called the ,white ,cockatoo men happened to pay the settlement a visit while we were there4 ,these men1 as well as those of the tribe belonging to ,king ,george's ,sound1 being tempted by the offer of some tubs of rice and sugar1 were persuaded to hold a 8corrobery10 or great dancing-party4 ,as soon as it grew dark1 small fires were lighted1 and the men commenced their toilet1 which consisted in painting themselves white in spots and lines4 ,as soon as all was ready1 large fires were kept blazing1 round which the women and children were collected as spectators2 the ,cockatoo and ,king ,george's men formed two distinct parties1 and generally danced in answer to each other4 ,the dancing consisted in their running either sideways or in ,indian file into an open space1 and stamping the ground with great force as they marched together4 ,their heavy footsteps were accompanied by a kind of grunt1 by beating their clubs and spears together1 and by various other gesticulations1 such as extending their arms and wriggling their bodies4 ,it was a most rude1 barbarous scene1 and1 to our ideas1 without any sort of meaning2 but we observed that the black women and children watched it with the greatest pleasure4 ,perhaps these dances originally represented actions1 such as wars and victories2 there was one called the ,emu dance1 in which each man extended his arm in a bent manner1 like the neck of that bird4 ,in another dance1 one man imitated the movements of a kangaroo grazing in the woods1 whilst a second crawled up and pretended to spear him4 ,when both tribes mingled in the dance1 the ground trembled with the heaviness of their steps1 and the air resounded with their wild cries4 ,every one appeared in high spirits1 and the group of nearly naked figures1 viewed by the light of the blazing fires1 all moving in hideous harmony1 formed a perfect display of a festival amongst the lowest barbarians4 ,in ,tierra del ,fuego we have beheld many curious scenes in savage life1 but never1 ,i think1 one where the natives were in such high spirits1 and so perfectly at their ease4 ,after the dancing was over the whole party formed a great circle on the ground1 and the boiled rice and sugar was distributed1 to the delight of all4 ,after several tedious delays from clouded weather1 on the #adth of ,march we gladly stood out of ,king ,george's ,sound on our course to ,keeling ,island4 ,farewell1 ,australia6 you are a rising child1 and doubtless some day will reign a great princess in the ,south2 but you are too great and ambitious for affection1 yet not great enough for respect4 ,i leave your shores without sorrow or regret4 ,illustration3 ,australian group of weapons and throwing sticks ,illustration3 ,inside an atoll1 ,keeling ,island ,chapter ,,xx ,,keeling ,,island3--,,coral ,,formations ,keeling ,island--,singular appearance--,scanty ,flora--,transport of seeds--,birds and insects--,ebbing and flowing springs--,fields of dead coral--,stones transported in the roots of trees--,great crab--,stinging corals--,coral-eating fish--,coral formations--,lagoon islands or atolls--,depth at which reef-building corals can live--,vast areas interspersed with low coral islands--,subsidence of their foundations--,barrier reefs--,fringing reefs--,conversion of fringing-reefs into barrier-reefs1 and into atolls--,evidence of changes in level--,breaches in barrier-reefs--,maldiva atolls2 their peculiar structure--,dead and submerged reefs--,areas of subsidence and elevation--,distribution of volcanoes--,subsidence slow and vast in amount4 ,april #ast4--,we arrived in view of the ,keeling or ,cocos ,islands1 situated in the ,indian ,ocean1 and about six hundred miles distant from the coast of ,sumatra4 ,this is one of the lagoon-islands 7or atolls7 of coral formation similar to those in the ,low ,archipelago which we passed near4 ,when the ship was in the channel at the entrance1 ,mr4 ,liesk1 an ,english resident1 came off in his boat4 ,the history of the inhabitants of this place1 in as few words as possible1 is as follows4 ,about nine years ago1 ,mr4 ,hare1 a worthless character1 brought from the ,east ,indian archipelago a number of ,malay slaves1 which now1 including children1 amount to more than a hundred4 ,shortly afterwards ,captain ,ross1 who had before visited these islands in his merchant-ship1 arrived from ,england1 bringing with him his family and goods for settlement3 along with him came ,mr4 ,liesk1 who had been a mate in his vessel4 ,the ,malay slaves soon ran away from the islet on which ,mr4 ,hare was settled1 and joined ,captain ,ross's party4 ,mr4 ,hare upon this was ultimately obliged to leave the place4 ,the ,malays are now nominally in a state of freedom1 and certainly are so as far as regards their personal treatment2 but in most other points they are considered as slaves4 ,from their discontented state1 from the repeated removals from islet to islet1 and perhaps also from a little mismanagement1 things are not very prosperous4 ,the island has no domestic quadruped excepting the pig1 and the main vegetable production is the cocoa-nut4 ,the whole prosperity of the place depends on this tree2 the only exports being oil from the nut1 and the nuts themselves1 which are taken to ,singapore and ,mauritius1 where they are chiefly used1 when grated1 in making curries4 ,on the cocoa-nut1 also1 the pigs1 which are loaded with fat1 almost entirely subsist1 as do the ducks and poultry4 ,even a huge land-crab is furnished by nature with the means to open and feed on this most useful production4 ,the ring-formed reef of the lagoon-island is surmounted in the greater part of its length by linear islets4 ,on the northern or leeward side there is an opening through which vessels can pass to the anchorage within4 ,on entering1 the scene was very curious and rather pretty2 its beauty1 however1 entirely depended on the brilliancy of the surrounding colours4 ,the shallow1 clear1 and still water of the lagoon1 resting in its greater part on white sand1 is1 when illumined by a vertical sun1 of the most vivid green4 ,this brilliant expanse1 several miles in width1 is on all sides divided1 either by a line of snow-white breakers from the dark heaving waters of the ocean1 or from the blue vault of heaven by the strips of land1 crowned by the level tops of the cocoa-nut trees4 ,as a white cloud here and there affords a pleasing contrast with the azure sky1 so in the lagoon bands of living coral darken the emerald green water4 ,the next morning after anchoring ,i went on shore on ,direction ,island4 ,the strip of dry land is only a few hundred yards in width2 on the lagoon side there is a white calcareous beach1 the radiation from which under this sultry climate was very oppressive2 and on the outer coast a solid broad flat of coral-rock served to break the violence of the open sea4 ,excepting near the lagoon1 where there is some sand1 the land is entirely composed of rounded fragments of coral4 ,in such a loose1 dry1 stony soil1 the climate of the intertropical regions alone could produce a vigorous vegetation4 ,on some of the smaller islets nothing could be more elegant than the manner in which the young and full-grown cocoa-nut trees1 without destroying each other's symmetry1 were mingled into one wood4 ,a beach of glittering white sand formed a border to these fairy spots4 ,i will now give a sketch of the natural history of these islands1 which1 from its very paucity1 possesses a peculiar interest4 ,the cocoa-nut tree1 at first glance1 seems to compose the whole wood2 there are however1 five or six other trees4 ,one of these grows to a very large size1 but1 from the extreme softness of its wood1 is useless2 another sort affords excellent timber for ship-building4 ,besides the trees the number of plants is exceedingly limited and consists of insignificant weeds4 ,in my collection1 which includes1 ,i believe1 nearly the perfect ,flora1 there are twenty species without reckoning a moss1 lichen1 and fungus4 ,to this number two trees must be added2 one of which was not in flower1 and the other ,i only heard of4 ,the latter is a solitary tree of its kind1 and grows near the beach1 where1 without doubt1 the one seed was thrown up by the waves4 ,a ,guilandina also grows on only one of the islets4 ,i do not include in the above list the sugar-cane1 banana1 some other vegetables1 fruit-trees1 and imported grasses4 ,as the islands consist entirely of coral1 and at one time must have existed as mere water-washed reefs1 all their terrestrial productions must have been transported here by the waves of the sea4 ,in accordance with this1 the ,florula has quite the character of a refuge for the destitute3 ,professor ,henslow informs me that of the twenty species nineteen belong to different genera1 and these again to no less than sixteen families6#a #a ,these plants are described in the ,annals of ,nat4 ,hist4 vol4 i4 #ahch1 p4 #ccg4 ,in ,holman's#b ,travels an account is given1 on the authority of ,mr4 ,a4 ,s4 ,keating1 who resided twelve months on these islands1 of the various seeds and other bodies which have been known to have been washed on shore4 8,seeds and plants from ,sumatra and ,java have been driven up by the surf on the windward side of the islands4 ,among them have been found the ,kimiri1 native of ,sumatra and the peninsula of ,malacca2 the cocoa-nut of ,balci1 known by its shape and size2 the ,dadass1 which is planted by the ,malays with the pepper-vine1 the latter entwining round its trunk1 and supporting itself by the prickles on its stem2 the soap-tree2 the castor-oil plant2 trunks of the sago palm2 and various kinds of seeds unknown to the ,malays settled on the islands4 ,these are all supposed to have been driven by the ,n4,w4 monsoon to the coast of ,new ,holland1 and thence to these islands by the ,s4,e4 trade-wind4 ,large masses of ,java teak and ,yellow wood have also been found1 besides immense trees of red and white cedar1 and the blue gum-wood of ,new ,holland1 in a perfectly sound condition4 ,all the hardy seeds1 such as creepers1 retain their germinating power1 but the softer kinds1 among which is the mangostin1 are destroyed in the passage4 ,fishing-canoes1 apparently from ,java1 have at times been washed on shore40 ,it is interesting thus to discover how numerous the seeds are1 which1 coming from several countries1 are drifted over the wide ocean4 ,professor ,henslow tells me he believes that nearly all the plants which ,i brought from these islands are common littoral species in the ,east ,indian archipelago4 ,from the direction1 however1 of the winds and currents1 it seems scarcely possible that they could have come here in a direct line4 ,if1 as suggested with much probability by ,mr4 ,keating1 they were first carried towards the coast of ,new ,holland1 and thence drifted back together with the productions of that country1 the seeds1 before germinating1 must have travelled between #ahjj and #bdjj miles4 #b ,holman's ,travels1 vol4 iv1 p4 #cgh4 ,chamisso1#c when describing the ,radack ,archipelago1 situated in the western part of the ,pacific1 states that 8the sea brings to these islands the seeds and fruits of many trees1 most of which have yet not grown here4 ,the greater part of these seeds appear to have not yet lost the capability of growing40 ,it is also said that palms and bamboos from somewhere in the torrid zone1 and trunks of northern firs1 are washed on shore2 these firs must have come from an immense distance4 ,these facts are highly interesting4 ,it cannot be doubted that1 if there were land-birds to pick up the seeds when first cast on shore1 and a soil better adapted for their growth than the loose blocks of coral1 the most isolated of the lagoon islands would in time possess a far more abundant ,flora than they now have4 #c ,kotzebue's ,first ,voyage1 vol4 iii1 p4 #aee4 ,the list of land animals is even poorer than that of the plants4 ,some of the islets are inhabited by rats1 which were brought in a ship from the ,mauritius1 wrecked here4 ,these rats are considered by ,mr4 ,waterhouse as identical with the ,english kind1 but they are smaller1 and more brightly coloured4 ,there are no true land-birds1 for a snipe and a rail 7,rallus ,phillippensis71 though living entirely in the dry herbage1 belong to the order of ,waders4 ,birds of this order are said to occur on several of the small low islands in the ,pacific4 ,at ,ascension1 where there is no land-bird1 a rail 7,porphyrio simplex7 was shot near the summit of the mountain1 and it was evidently a solitary straggler4 ,at ,tristan d',acunha1 where1 according to ,carmichael1 there are only two land-birds1 there is a coot4 ,from these facts ,i believe that the waders1 after the innumerable web-footed species1 are generally the first colonists of small isolated islands4 ,i may add that whenever ,i noticed birds1 not of oceanic species1 very far out at sea1 they always belonged to this order2 and hence they would naturally become the earliest colonists of any remote point of land4 ,of reptiles ,i saw only one small lizard4 ,of insects ,i took pains to collect every kind4 ,exclusive of spiders1 which were numerous1 there were thirteen species4#d ,of these one only was a beetle4 ,a small ant swarmed by thousands under the loose dry blocks of coral1 and was the only true insect which was abundant4 ,although the productions of the land are thus scanty1 if we look to the waters of the surrounding sea the number of organic beings is indeed infinite4 ,chamisso has described#e the natural history of a lagoon-island in the ,radack ,archipelago2 and it is remarkable how closely its inhabitants1 in number and kind1 resemble those of ,keeling ,island4 ,there is one lizard and two waders1 namely1 a snipe and curlew4 ,of plants there are nineteen species1 including a fern2 and some of these are the same with those growing here1 though on a spot so immensely remote1 and in a different ocean4 #d ,the thirteen species belong to the following orders3--,in the ,coleoptera1 a minute ,elater2 ,orthoptera1 a ,gryllus and a ,blatta2 ,hemiptera1 one species2 ,homoptera1 two2 ,neuroptera1 a ,chrysopa2 ,hymenoptera1 two ants2 ,lepidoptera nocturna1 a ,diopa1 and a ,pterophorus 7872 ,diptera1 two species4 #e ,kotzebue's ,first ,voyage1 vol4 iii1 p4 #bbb4 ,the long strips of land1 forming the linear islets1 have been raised only to that height to which the surf can throw fragments of coral1 and the wind heap up calcareous sand4 ,the solid flat of coral rock on the outside1 by its breadth1 breaks the first violence of the waves1 which otherwise1 in a day1 would sweep away these islets and all their productions4 ,the ocean and the land seem here struggling for mastery3 although terra firma has obtained a footing1 the denizens of the water think their claim at least equally good4 ,in every part one meets hermit crabs of more than one species1#f carrying on their backs the shells which they have stolen from the neighbouring beach4 ,overhead numerous gannets1 frigate-birds1 and terns1 rest on the trees2 and the wood1 from the many nests and from the smell of the atmosphere1 might be called a sea-rookery4 ,the gannets1 sitting on their rude nests1 gaze at one with a stupid yet angry air4 ,the noddies1 as their name expresses1 are silly little creatures4 ,but there is one charming bird3 it is a small1 snow-white tern1 which smoothly hovers at the distance of a few feet above one's head1 its large black eye scanning1 with quiet curiosity1 your expression4 ,little imagination is required to fancy that so light and delicate a body must be tenanted by some wandering fairy spirit4 #f ,the large claws or pincers of some of these crabs are most beautifully adapted1 when drawn back1 to form an operculum to the shell1 nearly as perfect as the proper one originally belonging to the molluscous animal4 ,i was assured1 and as far as my observations went ,i found it so1 that certain species of the hermit-crab always use certain species of shells4 ,sunday1 ,april #crd4--,after service ,i accompanied ,captain ,fitz ,roy to the settlement1 situated at the distance of some miles1 on the point of an islet thickly covered with tall cocoa-nut trees4 ,captain ,ross and ,mr4 ,liesk live in a large barn-like house open at both ends1 and lined with mats made of woven bark4 ,the houses of the ,malays are arranged along the shore of the lagoon4 ,the whole place had rather a desolate aspect1 for there were no gardens to show the signs of care and cultivation4 ,the natives belong to different islands in the ,east ,indian archipelago1 but all speak the same language3 we saw the inhabitants of ,borneo1 ,celebes1 ,java1 and ,sumatra4 ,in colour they resemble the ,tahitians1 from whom they do not widely differ in features4 ,some of the women1 however1 show a good deal of the ,chinese character4 ,i liked both their general expressions and the sound of their voices4 ,they appeared poor1 and their houses were destitute of furniture2 but it was evident from the plumpness of the little children1 that cocoa-nuts and turtle afford no bad sustenance4 ,on this island the wells are situated from which ships obtain water4 ,at first sight it appears not a little remarkable that the fresh water should regularly ebb and flow with the tides2 and it has even been imagined that sand has the power of filtering the salt from the sea-water4 ,these ebbing wells are common on some of the low islands in the ,west ,indies4 ,the compressed sand1 or porous coral rock1 is permeated like a sponge with the salt water1 but the rain which falls on the surface must sink to the level of the surrounding sea1 and must accumulate there1 displacing an equal bulk of the salt water4 ,as the water in the lower part of the great sponge-like coral mass rises and falls with the tides1 so will the water near the surface2 and this will keep fresh1 if the mass be sufficiently compact to prevent much mechanical admixture2 but where the land consists of great loose blocks of coral with open interstices1 if a well be dug1 the water1 as ,i have seen1 is brackish4 ,after dinner we stayed to see a curious half superstitious scene acted by the ,malay women4 ,a large wooden spoon dressed in garments1 and which had been carried to the grave of a dead man1 they pretend becomes inspired at the full of the moon1 and will dance and jump about4 ,after the proper preparations1 the spoon1 held by two women1 became convulsed1 and danced in good time to the song of the surrounding children and women4 ,it was a most foolish spectacle2 but ,mr4 ,liesk maintained that many of the ,malays believed in its spiritual movements4 ,the dance did not commence till the moon had risen1 and it was well worth remaining to behold her bright orb so quietly shining through the long arms of the cocoa-nut trees as they waved in the evening breeze4 ,these scenes of the tropics are in themselves so delicious that they almost equal those dearer ones at home1 to which we are bound by each best feeling of the mind4 ,the next day ,i employed myself in examining the very interesting1 yet simple structure and origin of these islands4 ,the water being unusually smooth1 ,i waded over the outer flat of dead rock as far as the living mounds of coral1 on which the swell of the open sea breaks4 ,in some of the gullies and hollows there were beautiful green and other coloured fishes1 and the form and tints of many of the zoophytes were admirable4 ,it is excusable to grow enthusiastic over the infinite numbers of organic beings with which the sea of the tropics1 so prodigal of life1 teems2 yet ,i must confess ,i think those naturalists who have described1 in well-known words1 the submarine grottoes decked with a thousand beauties1 have indulged in rather exuberant language4 ,april #fth4--,i accompanied ,captain ,fitz ,roy to an island at the head of the lagoon3 the channel was exceedingly intricate1 winding through fields of delicately branched corals4 ,we saw several turtle and two boats were then employed in catching them4 ,the water was so clear and shallow1 that although at first a turtle quickly dives out of sight1 yet in a canoe or boat under sail the pursuers after no very long chase come up to it4 ,a man standing ready in the bow at this moment dashes through the water upon the turtle's back2 then clinging with both hands by the shell of its neck1 he is carried away till the animal becomes exhausted and is secured4 ,it was quite an interesting chase to see the two boats thus doubling about1 and the men dashing head foremost into the water trying to seize their prey4 ,captain ,moresby informs me that in the ,chagos archipelago in this same ocean1 the natives1 by a horrible process1 take the shell from the back of the living turtle4 8,it is covered with burning charcoal1 which causes the outer shell to curl upwards1 it is then forced off with a knife1 and before it becomes cold flattened between boards4 ,after this barbarous process the animal is suffered to regain its native element1 where1 after a certain time1 a new shell is formed2 it is1 however1 too thin to be of any service1 and the animal always appears languishing and sickly40 ,when we arrived at the head of the lagoon we crossed a narrow islet and found a great surf breaking on the windward coast4 ,i can hardly explain the reason1 but there is to my mind much grandeur in the view of the outer shores of these lagoon-islands4 ,there is a simplicity in the barrier-like beach1 the margin of green bushes and tall cocoa-nuts1 the solid flat of dead coral-rock1 strewed here and there with great loose fragments1 and the line of furious breakers1 all rounding away towards either hand4 ,the ocean throwing its waters over the broad reef appears an invincible1 all-powerful enemy2 yet we see it resisted1 and even conquered1 by means which at first seem most weak and inefficient4 ,it is not that the ocean spares the rock of coral2 the great fragments scattered over the reef1 and heaped on the beach1 whence the tall cocoa-nut springs1 plainly bespeak the unrelenting power of the waves4 ,nor are any periods of repose granted4 ,the long swell caused by the gentle but steady action of the trade-wind1 always blowing in one direction over a wide area1 causes breakers1 almost equalling in force those during a gale of wind in the temperate regions1 and which never cease to rage4 ,it is impossible to behold these waves without feeling a conviction that an island1 though built of the hardest rock1 let it be porphyry1 granite1 or quartz1 would ultimately yield and be demolished by such an irresistible power4 ,yet these low1 insignificant coral-islets stand and are victorious3 for here another power1 as an antagonist1 takes part in the contest4 ,the organic forces separate the atoms of carbonate of lime1 one by one1 from the foaming breakers1 and unite them into a symmetrical structure4 ,let the hurricane tear up its thousand huge fragments2 yet what will that tell against the accumulated labour of myriads of architects at work night and day1 month after month8 ,thus do we see the soft and gelatinous body of a polypus1 through the agency of the vital laws1 conquering the great mechanical power of the waves of an ocean which neither the art of man nor the inanimate works of nature could successfully resist4 ,we did not return on board till late in the evening1 for we stayed a long time in the lagoon1 examining the fields of coral and the gigantic shells of the chama1 into which1 if a man were to put his hand1 he would not1 as long as the animal lived1 be able to withdraw it4 ,near the head of the lagoon ,i was much surprised to find a wide area1 considerably more than a mile square1 covered with a forest of delicately branching corals1 which1 though standing upright1 were all dead and rotten4 ,at first ,i was quite at a loss to understand the cause2 afterwards it occurred to me that it was owing to the following rather curious combination of circumstances4 ,it should1 however1 first be stated1 that corals are not able to survive even a short exposure in the air to the sun's rays1 so that their upward limit of growth is determined by that of lowest water at spring tides4 ,it appears1 from some old charts1 that the long island to windward was formerly separated by wide channels into several islets2 this fact is likewise indicated by the trees being younger on these portions4 ,under the former condition of the reef1 a strong breeze1 by throwing more water over the barrier1 would tend to raise the level of the lagoon4 ,now it acts in a directly contrary manner2 for the water within the lagoon not only is not increased by currents from the outside1 but is itself blown outwards by the force of the wind4 ,hence it is observed that the tide near the head of the lagoon does not rise so high during a strong breeze as it does when it is calm4 ,this difference of level1 although no doubt very small1 has1 ,i believe1 caused the death of those coral-groves1 which under the former and more open condition of the outer reef had attained the utmost possible limit of upward growth4 ,a few miles north of ,keeling there is another small atoll1 the lagoon of which is nearly filled up with coral-mud4 ,captain ,ross found embedded in the conglomerate on the outer coast a well-rounded fragment of greenstone1 rather larger than a man's head3 he and the men with him were so much surprised at this1 that they brought it away and preserved it as a curiosity4 ,the occurrence of this one stone1 where every other particle of matter is calcareous1 certainly is very puzzling4 ,the island has scarcely ever been visited1 nor is it probable that a ship had been wrecked there4 ,from the absence of any better explanation1 ,i came to the conclusion that it must have come entangled in the roots of some large tree3 when1 however1 ,i considered the great distance from the nearest land1 the combination of chances against a stone thus being entangled1 the tree washed into the sea1 floated so far1 then landed safely1 and the stone finally so embedded as to allow of its discovery1 ,i was almost afraid of imagining a means of transport apparently so improbable4 ,it was therefore with great interest that ,i found ,chamisso1 the justly distinguished naturalist who accompanied ,kotzebue1 stating that the inhabitants of the ,radack ,archipelago1 a group of lagoon islands in the midst of the ,pacific1 obtained stones for sharpening their instruments by searching the roots of trees which are cast upon the beach4 ,it will be evident that this must have happened several times1 since laws have been established that such stones belong to the chief1 and a punishment is inflicted on any one who attempts to steal them4 ,when the isolated position of these small islands in the midst of a vast ocean--their great distance from any land excepting that of coral formation1 attested by the value which the inhabitants1 who are such bold navigators1 attach to a stone of any kind1#g--;and the slowness of the currents of the open sea1 are all considered1 the occurrence of pebbles thus transported does appear wonderful4 ,stones may often be thus carried2 and if the island on which they are stranded is constructed of any other substance besides coral1 they would scarcely attract attention1 and their origin at least would never be guessed4 ,moreover1 this agency may long escape discovery from the probability of trees1 especially those loaded with stones1 floating beneath the surface4 ,in the channels of ,tierra del ,fuego large quantities of drift timber are cast upon the beach1 yet it is extremely rare to meet a tree swimming on the water4 ,these facts may possibly throw light on single stones1 whether angular or rounded1 occasionally found embedded in fine sedimentary masses4 #g ,some natives carried by ,kotzebue to ,kamtschatka collected stones to take back to their country4 ,during another day ,i visited ,west ,islet1 on which the vegetation was perhaps more luxuriant than on any other4 ,the cocoa-nut trees generally grow separate1 but here the young ones flourished beneath their tall parents1 and formed with their long and curved fronds the most shady arbours4 ,those alone who have tried it know how delicious it is to be seated in such shade1 and drink the cool pleasant fluid of the cocoa-nut4 ,in this island there is a large bay-like space1 composed of the finest white sand3 it is quite level and is only covered by the tide at high water2 from this large bay smaller creeks penetrate the surrounding woods4 ,to see a field of glittering white sand representing water1 with the cocoa-nut trees extending their tall and waving trunks round the margin1 formed a singular and very pretty view4 ,i have before alluded to a crab which lives on the cocoa-nuts2 it is very common on all parts of the dry land1 and grows to a monstrous size3 it is closely allied or identical with the ,birgos latro4 ,the front pair of legs terminate in very strong and heavy pincers1 and the last pair are fitted with others weaker and much narrower4 ,it would at first be thought quite impossible for a crab to open a strong cocoa-nut covered with the husk2 but ,mr4 ,liesk assures me that he has repeatedly seen this effected4 ,the crab begins by tearing the husk1 fibre by fibre1 and always from that end under which the three eye-holes are situated2 when this is completed1 the crab commences hammering with its heavy claws on one of the eye-holes till an opening is made4 ,then turning round its body1 by the aid of its posterior and narrow pair of pincers it extracts the white albuminous substance4 ,i think this is as curious a case of instinct as ever ,i heard of1 and likewise of adaptation in structure between two objects apparently so remote from each other in the scheme of nature as a crab and a cocoa-nut tree4 ,the ,birgos is diurnal in its habits2 but every night it is said to pay a visit to the sea1 no doubt for the purpose of moistening its branchi4 ,the young are likewise hatched1 and live for some time1 on the coast4 ,these crabs inhabit deep burrows1 which they hollow out beneath the roots of trees2 and where they accumulate surprising quantities of the picked fibres of the cocoa-nut husk1 on which they rest as on a bed4 ,the ,malays sometimes take advantage of this1 and collect the fibrous mass to use as junk4 ,these crabs are very good to eat2 moreover1 under the tail of the larger ones there is a mass of fat1 which1 when melted1 sometimes yields as much as a quart-bottleful of limpid oil4 ,it has been stated by some authors that the ,birgos crawls up the cocoa-nut trees for the purpose of stealing the nuts3 ,i very much doubt the possibility of this2 but with the ,pandanus#h the task would be very much easier4 ,i was told by ,mr4 ,liesk that on these islands the ,birgos lives only on the nuts which have fallen to the ground4 #h ,see ,proceedings of the ,zoological ,society1 #ahcb1 p4 #ag4 ,captain ,moresby informs me that this crab inhabits the ,chagos and ,seychelle groups1 but not the neighbouring ,maldiva archipelago4 ,it formerly abounded at ,mauritius1 but only a few small ones are now found there4 ,in the ,pacific this species1 or one with closely allied habits1 is said#i to inhabit a single coral island north of the ,society group4 ,to show the wonderful strength of the front pair of pincers1 ,i may mention that ,captain ,moresby confined one in a strong tin box1 which had held biscuits1 the lid being secured with wire2 but the crab turned down the edges and escaped4 ,in turning down the edges it actually punched many small holes quite through the tin6 #i ,tyerman and ,bennett1 ,voyage1 etc41 vol4 ii1 p4 #cc4 ,i was a good deal surprised by finding two species of coral of the genus ,millepora 7,m4 complanata and alcicornis71 possessed of the power of stinging4 ,the stony branches or plates1 when taken fresh from the water1 have a harsh feel and are not slimy1 although possessing a strong and disagreeable smell4 ,the stinging property seems to vary in different specimens3 when a piece was pressed or rubbed on the tender skin of the face or arm1 a pricking sensation was usually caused1 which came on after the interval of a second1 and lasted only for a few minutes4 ,one day1 however1 by merely touching my face with one of the branches1 pain was instantaneously caused2 it increased as usual after a few seconds1 and remaining sharp for some minutes1 was perceptible for half an hour afterwards4 ,the sensation was as bad as that from a nettle1 but more like that caused by the ,physalia or ,portuguese man-of-war4 ,little red spots were produced on the tender skin of the arm1 which appeared as if they would have formed watery pustules1 but did not4 ,m4 ,quoy mentions this case of the ,millepora2 and ,i have heard of stinging corals in the ,west ,indies4 ,many marine animals seem to have this power of stinging3 besides the ,portuguese man-of-war1 many jelly-fish1 and the ,aplysia or sea-slug of the ,cape de ,verd ,islands1 it is stated in the ,voyage of the ,astrolabe that an ,actinia or sea-anemone1 as well as a flexible coralline allied to ,sertularia1 both possess this means of offence or defence4 ,in the ,east ,indian sea a stinging sea-weed is said to be found4 ,two species of fish1 of the genus ,scarus1 which are common here1 exclusively feed on coral3 both are coloured of a splendid bluish-green1 one living invariably in the lagoon1 and the other amongst the outer breakers4 ,mr4 ,liesk assured us that he had repeatedly seen whole shoals grazing with their strong bony jaws on the tops of the coral branches3 ,i opened the intestines of several and found them distended with yellowish calcareous sandy mud4 ,the slimy disgusting ,holuthuri 7allied to our star-fish71 which the ,chinese gourmands are so fond of1 also feed largely1 as ,i am informed by ,dr4 ,allan1 on corals2 and the bony apparatus within their bodies seems well adapted for this end4 ,these holuthuri1 the fish1 the numerous burrowing shells1 and nereidous worms1 which perforate every block of dead coral1 must be very efficient agents in producing the fine white mud which lies at the bottom and on the shores of the lagoon4 ,a portion1 however1 of this mud1 which when wet resembled pounded chalk1 was found by ,professor ,ehrenberg to be partly composed of siliceous-shielded infusoria4 ,april #abth4--,in the morning we stood out of the lagoon on our passage to the ,isle of ,france4 ,i am glad we have visited these islands3 such formations surely rank high amongst the wonderful objects of this world4 ,captain ,fitz ,roy found no bottom with a line #gbjj feet in length1 at the distance of only #bbjj yards from the shore2 hence this island forms a lofty submarine mountain1 with sides steeper even than those of the most abrupt volcanic cone4 ,the saucer-shaped summit is nearly ten miles across2 and every single atom1#aj from the least particle to the largest fragment of rock1 in this great pile1 which however is small compared with very many other lagoon islands1 bears the stamp of having been subjected to organic arrangement4 ,we feel surprise when travellers tell us of the vast dimensions of the ,pyramids and other great ruins1 but how utterly insignificant are the greatest of these1 when compared to these mountains of stone accumulated by the agency of various minute and tender animals6 ,this is a wonder which does not at first strike the eye of the body1 but1 after reflection1 the eye of reason4 #aj ,i exclude1 of course1 some soil which has been imported here in vessels from ,malacca and ,java1 and likewise some small fragments of pumice1 drifted here by the waves4 ,the one block of greenstone1 moreover1 on the northern island must be excepted4 ,whitsunday ,island ,i will now give a very brief account of the three great classes of coral-reefs2 namely1 ,atolls1 ,barrier1 and ,fringing ,reefs1 and will explain my views#aa on their formation4 ,almost every voyager who has crossed the ,pacific has expressed his unbounded astonishment at the lagoon islands1 or as ,i shall for the future call them by their ,indian name of atolls1 and has attempted some explanation4 ,even as long ago as the year #afje1 ,pyrard de ,laval well exclaimed1 8,c'est une merveille de voir chacun de ces atollons1 environn d'un grand banc de pierre tout autour1 n'y ayant point d'artifice humain40 ,the accompanying sketch of ,whitsunday ,island in the ,pacific1 copied from ,captain ,beechey's admirable ,voyage1 gives but a faint idea of the singular aspect of an atoll3 it is one of the smallest size1 and has its narrow islets united together in a ring4 ,the immensity of the ocean1 the fury of the breakers1 contrasted with the lowness of the land and the smoothness of the bright green water within the lagoon1 can hardly be imagined without having been seen4 #aa ,these were first read before the ,geological ,society in ,may #ahcg and have since been developed in a separate volume on the ,structure and ,distribution of ,coral ,reefs4 ,the earlier voyagers fancied that the coral-building animals instinctively built up their great circles to afford themselves protection in the inner parts2 but so far is this from the truth that those massive kinds1 to whose growth on the exposed outer shores the very existence of the reef depends1 cannot live within the lagoon1 where other delicately-branching kinds flourish4 ,moreover1 on this view1 many species of distinct genera and families are supposed to combine for one end2 and of such a combination1 not a single instance can be found in the whole of nature4 ,the theory that has been most generally received is that atolls are based on submarine craters2 but when we consider the form and size of some1 the number1 proximity1 and relative positions of others1 this idea loses its plausible character3 thus ,suadiva atoll is #dd geographical miles in diameter in one line1 by #cd miles in another line2 ,rimsky is #ed by #bj miles across1 and it has a strangely sinuous margin2 ,bow atoll is #cj miles long1 and on an average only #f in width2 ,menchicoff atoll consists of three atolls united or tied together4 ,this theory1 moreover1 is totally inapplicable to the northern ,maldiva atolls in the ,indian ,ocean 7one of which is #hh miles in length1 and between #aj and #bj in breadth71 for they are not bounded like ordinary atolls by narrow reefs1 but by a vast number of separate little atolls2 other little atolls rising out of the great central lagoon-like spaces4 ,a third and better theory was advanced by ,chamisso1 who thought that from the corals growing more vigorously where exposed to the open sea1 as undoubtedly is the case1 the outer edges would grow up from the general foundation before any other part1 and that this would account for the ring or cup-shaped structure4 ,but we shall immediately see1 that in this1 as well as in the crater-theory1 a most important consideration has been overlooked1 namely1 on what have the reef-building corals1 which cannot live at a great depth1 based their massive structures8 ,numerous soundings were carefully taken by ,captain ,fitz ,roy on the steep outside of ,keeling atoll1 and it was found that within ten fathoms the prepared tallow at the bottom of the lead invariably came up marked with the impressions of living corals1 but as perfectly clean as if it had been dropped on a carpet of turf2 as the depth increased1 the impressions became less numerous1 but the adhering particles of sand more and more numerous1 until at last it was evident that the bottom consisted of a smooth sandy layer2 to carry on the analogy of the turf1 the blades of grass grew thinner and thinner1 till at last the soil was so sterile that nothing sprang from it4 ,from these observations1 confirmed by many others1 it may be safely inferred that the utmost depth at which corals can construct reefs is between #bj and #cj fathoms4 ,now there are enormous areas in the ,pacific and ,indian ,oceans in which every single island is of coral formation1 and is raised only to that height to which the waves can throw up fragments1 and the winds pile up sand4 ,thus the ,radack group of atolls is an irregular square1 #ebj miles long and #bdj broad2 the ,low ,archipelago is elliptic-formed1 #hdj miles in its longer1 and #dbj in its shorter axis3 there are other small groups and single low islands between these two archipelagoes1 making a linear space of ocean actually more than #djjj miles in length1 in which not one single island rises above the specified height4 ,again1 in the ,indian ,ocean there is a space of ocean #aejj miles in length1 including three archipelagoes1 in which every island is low and of coral formation4 ,from the fact of the reef-building corals not living at great depths1 it is absolutely certain that throughout these vast areas1 wherever there is now an atoll1 a foundation must have originally existed within a depth of from #bj to #cj fathoms from the surface4 ,it is improbable in the highest degree that broad1 lofty1 isolated1 steep-sided banks of sediment1 arranged in groups and lines hundreds of leagues in length1 could have been deposited in the central and profoundest parts of the ,pacific and ,indian ,oceans1 at an immense distance from any continent1 and where the water is perfectly limpid4 ,it is equally improbable that the elevatory forces should have uplifted throughout the above vast areas1 innumerable great rocky banks within #bj to #cj fathoms1 or #abj to #ahj feet1 of the surface of the sea1 and not one single point above that level2 for where on the whole face of the globe can we find a single chain of mountains1 even a few hundred miles in length1 with their many summits rising within a few feet of a given level1 and not one pinnacle above it8 ,if then the foundations1 whence the atoll-building corals sprang1 were not formed of sediment1 and if they were not lifted up to the required level1 they must of necessity have subsided into it2 and this at once solves the difficulty4 ,for as mountain after mountain1 and island after island1 slowly sank beneath the water1 fresh bases would be successively afforded for the growth of the corals4 ,it is impossible here to enter into all the necessary details1 but ,i venture to defy#ab any one to explain in any other manner how it is possible that numerous islands should be distributed throughout vast areas--all the islands being low--all being built of corals1 absolutely requiring a foundation within a limited depth from the surface4 #ab ,it is remarkable that ,mr4 ,lyell1 even in the first edition of his ,principles of ,geology1 inferred that the amount of subsidence in the ,pacific must have exceeded that of elevation1 from the area of land being very small relatively to the agents there tending to form it1 namely1 the growth of coral and volcanic action4 ,barrier-reef1 ,bolabola ,before explaining how atoll-formed reefs acquire their peculiar structure1 we must turn to the second great class1 namely1 ,barrier-reefs4 ,these either extend in straight lines in front of the shores of a continent or of a large island1 or they encircle smaller islands2 in both cases1 being separated from the land by a broad and rather deep channel of water1 analogous to the lagoon within an atoll4 ,it is remarkable how little attention has been paid to encircling barrier-reefs2 yet they are truly wonderful structures4 ,the accompanying sketch represents part of the barrier encircling the island of ,bolabola in the ,pacific1 as seen from one of the central peaks4 ,in this instance the whole line of reef has been converted into land2 but usually a snow-white line of great breakers1 with only here and there a single low islet crowned with cocoa-nut trees1 divides the dark heaving waters of the ocean from the light green expanse of the lagoon-channel4 ,and the quiet waters of this channel generally bathe a fringe of low alluvial soil1 loaded with the most beautiful productions of the tropics1 and lying at the foot of the wild1 abrupt1 central mountains4 ,encircling barrier-reefs are of all sizes1 from three miles to no less than forty-four miles in diameter2 and that which fronts one side1 and encircles both ends1 of ,new ,caledonia1 is #djj miles long4 ,each reef includes one1 two1 or several rocky islands of various heights2 and in one instance1 even as many as twelve separate islands4 ,the reef runs at a greater or less distance from the included land2 in the ,society ,archipelago generally from one to three or four miles2 but at ,hogoleu the reef is #bj miles on the southern side1 and #ad miles on the opposite or northern side1 from the included islands4 ,the depth within the lagoon-channel also varies much2 from #aj to #cj fathoms may be taken as an average2 but at ,vanikoro there are spaces no less than #ef fathoms or #ccf feet deep4 ,internally the reef either slopes gently into the lagoon-channel1 or ends in a perpendicular wall sometimes between two and three hundred feet under water in height3 externally the reef rises1 like an atoll1 with extreme abruptness out of the profound depths of the ocean4 ,what can be more singular than these structures8 ,we see an island1 which may be compared to a castle situated on the summit of a lofty submarine mountain1 protected by a great wall of coral-rock1 always steep externally and sometimes internally1 with a broad level summit1 here and there breached by narrow gateways1 through which the largest ships can enter the wide and deep encircling moat4 ,as far as the actual reef of coral is concerned1 there is not the smallest difference in general size1 outline1 grouping1 and even in quite trifling details of structure1 between a barrier and an atoll4 ,the geographer ,balbi has well remarked that an encircled island is an atoll with high land rising out of its lagoon2 remove the land from within1 and a perfect atoll is left4 ,but what has caused these reefs to spring up at such great distances from the shores of the included islands8 ,it cannot be that the corals will not grow close to the land2 for the shores within the lagoon-channel1 when not surrounded by alluvial soil1 are often fringed by living reefs2 and we shall presently see that there is a whole class1 which ,i have called ,fringing-reefs from their close attachment to the shores both of continents and of islands4 ,again1 on what have the reef-building corals1 which cannot live at great depths1 based their encircling structures8 ,this is a great apparent difficulty1 analogous to that in the case of atolls1 which has generally been overlooked4 ,it will be perceived more clearly by inspecting the following sections which are real ones1 taken in north and south lines1 through the islands with their barrier-reefs1 of ,vanikoro1 ,gambier1 and ,maurua2 and they are laid down1 both vertically and horizontally1 on the same scale of a quarter of an inch to a mile4 ,sections of barrier-reefs ,it should be observed that the sections might have been taken in any direction through these islands1 or through many other encircled islands1 and the general features would have been the same4 ,now bearing in mind that reef-building coral cannot live at a greater depth than from #bj to #cj fathoms1 and that the scale is so small that the plummets on the right hand show a depth of #bjj fathoms1 on what are these barrier-reefs based8 ,are we to suppose that each island is surrounded by a collar-like submarine ledge of rock1 or by a great bank of sediment1 ending abruptly where the reef ends8 ,if the sea had formerly eaten deeply into the islands1 before they were protected by the reefs1 thus having left a shallow ledge round them under water1 the present shores would have been invariably bounded by great precipices2 but this is most rarely the case4 ,moreover1 on this notion1 it is not possible to explain why the corals should have sprung up1 like a wall1 from the extreme outer margin of the ledge1 often leaving a broad space of water within1 too deep for the growth of corals4 ,the accumulation of a wide bank of sediment all round these islands1 and generally widest where the included islands are smallest1 is highly improbable1 considering their exposed positions in the central and deepest parts of the ocean4 ,in the case of the barrier-reef of ,new ,caledonia1 which extends for #aej miles beyond the northern point of the island1 in the same straight line with which it fronts the west coast1 it is hardly possible to believe that a bank of sediment could thus have been straightly deposited in front of a lofty island1 and so far beyond its termination in the open sea4 ,finally1 if we look to other oceanic islands of about the same height and of similar geological constitution1 but not encircled by coral-reefs1 we may in vain search for so trifling a circumambient depth as #cj fathoms1 except quite near to their shores2 for usually land that rises abruptly out of water1 as do most of the encircled and non-encircled oceanic islands1 plunges abruptly under it4 ,on what then1 ,i repeat1 are these barrier reefs based8 ,why1 with their wide and deep moat-like channels1 do they stand so far from the included land8 ,we shall soon see how easily these difficulties disappear4 ,we come now to our third class of ,fringing-reefs1 which will require a very short notice4 ,where the land slopes abruptly under water1 these reefs are only a few yards in width1 forming a mere ribbon or fringe round the shores3 where the land slopes gently under the water the reef extends farther1 sometimes even as much as a mile from the land2 but in such cases the soundings outside the reef always show that the submarine prolongation of the land is gently inclined4 ,in fact the reefs extend only to that distance from the shore at which a foundation within the requisite depth from #bj to #cj fathoms is found4 ,as far as the actual reef is concerned1 there is no essential difference between it and that forming a barrier or an atoll3 it is1 however1 generally of less width1 and consequently few islets have been formed on it4 ,from the corals growing more vigorously on the outside1 and from the noxious effect of the sediment washed inwards1 the outer edge of the reef is the highest part1 and between it and the land there is generally a shallow sandy channel a few feet in depth4 ,where banks of sediment have accumulated near to the surface1 as in parts of the ,west ,indies1 they sometimes become fringed with corals1 and hence in some degree resemble lagoon-islands or atolls1 in the same manner as fringing-reefs1 surrounding gently sloping islands1 in some degree resemble barrier-reefs4 ,section of coral-reef ,no theory on the formation of coral-reefs can be considered satisfactory which does not include the three great classes4 ,we have seen that we are driven to believe in the subsidence of those vast areas1 interspersed with low islands1 of which not one rises above the height to which the wind and waves can throw up matter1 and yet are constructed by animals requiring a foundation1 and that foundation to lie at no great depth4 ,let us then take an island surrounded by fringing-reefs1 which offer no difficulty in their structure2 and let this island with its reef1 represented by the unbroken lines in ,plate #if1 slowly subside4 ,now as the island sinks down1 either a few feet at a time or quite insensibly1 we may safely infer1 from what is known of the conditions favourable to the growth of coral1 that the living masses1 bathed by the surf on the margin of the reef1 will soon regain the surface4 ,the water1 however1 will encroach little by little on the shore1 the island becoming lower and smaller1 and the space between the inner edge of the reef and the beach proportionally broader4 ,a section of the reef and island in this state1 after a subsidence of several hundred feet1 is given by the dotted lines4 ,coral islets are supposed to have been formed on the reef2 and a ship is anchored in the lagoon-channel4 ,this channel will be more or less deep1 according to the rate of subsidence1 to the amount of sediment accumulated in it1 and to the growth of the delicately branched corals which can live there4 ,the section in this state resembles in every respect one drawn through an encircled island3 in fact1 it is a real section 7on the scale of 4#eag of an inch to a mile7 through ,bolabola in the ,pacific4 ,we can now at once see why encircling barrier-reefs stand so far from the shores which they front4 ,we can also perceive that a line drawn perpendicularly down from the outer edge of the new reef1 to the foundation of solid rock beneath the old fringing-reef1 will exceed by as many feet as there have been feet of subsidence1 that small limit of depth at which the effective corals can live3--the little architects having built up their great wall-like mass1 as the whole sank down1 upon a basis formed of other corals and their consolidated fragments4 ,thus the difficulty on this head1 which appeared so great1 disappears4 ,section of coral-reef ,if1 instead of an island1 we had taken the shore of a continent fringed with reefs1 and had imagined it to have subsided1 a great straight barrier1 like that of ,australia or ,new ,caledonia1 separated from the land by a wide and deep channel1 would evidently have been the result4 ,let us take our new encircling barrier-reef1 of which the section is now represented by unbroken lines1 and which1 as ,i have said1 is a real section through ,bolabola1 and let it go on subsiding4 ,as the barrier-reef slowly sinks down1 the corals will go on vigorously growing upwards2 but as the island sinks1 the water will gain inch by inch on the shore--the separate mountains first forming separate islands within one great reef--and finally1 the last and highest pinnacle disappearing4 ,the instant this takes place1 a perfect atoll is formed3 ,i have said1 remove the high land from within an encircling barrier-reef1 and an atoll is left1 and the land has been removed4 ,we can now perceive how it comes that atolls1 having sprung from encircling barrier-reefs1 resemble them in general size1 form1 in the manner in which they are grouped together1 and in their arrangement in single or double lines2 for they may be called rude outline charts of the sunken islands over which they stand4 ,we can further see how it arises that the atolls in the ,pacific and ,indian ,oceans extend in lines parallel to the generally prevailing strike of the high islands and great coast-lines of those oceans4 ,i venture1 therefore1 to affirm that on the theory of the upward growth of the corals during the sinking of the land1#ac all the leading features in those wonderful structures1 the lagoon-islands or atolls1 which have so long excited the attention of voyagers1 as well as in the no less wonderful barrier-reefs1 whether encircling small islands or stretching for hundreds of miles along the shores of a continent1 are simply explained4 #ac ,it has been highly satisfactory to me to find the following passage in a pamphlet by ,mr4 ,couthouy1 one of the naturalists in the great ,antarctic ,expedition of the ,united ,states3--8,having personally examined a large number of coral-islands1 and resided eight months among the volcanic class having shore and partially encircling reefs1 ,i may be permitted to state that my own observations have impressed a conviction of the correctness of the theory of ,mr4 ,darwin40 ,the naturalists1 however1 of this expedition differ with me on some points respecting coral formations4 ,bolabola ,island ,it may be asked whether ,i can offer any direct evidence of the subsidence of barrier-reefs or atolls2 but it must be borne in mind how difficult it must ever be to detect a movement1 the tendency of which is to hide under water the part affected4 ,nevertheless1 at ,keeling atoll ,i observed on all sides of the lagoon old cocoa-nut trees undermined and falling2 and in one place the foundation-posts of a shed1 which the inhabitants asserted had stood seven years before just above high-water mark1 but now was daily washed by every tide2 on inquiry ,i found that three earthquakes1 one of them severe1 had been felt here during the last ten years4 ,at ,vanikoro the lagoon-channel is remarkably deep1 scarcely any alluvial soil has accumulated at the foot of the lofty included mountains1 and remarkably few islets have been formed by the heaping of fragments and sand on the wall-like barrier reef2 these facts1 and some analogous ones1 led me to believe that this island must lately have subsided and the reef grown upwards3 here again earthquakes are frequent and very severe4 ,in the ,society ,archipelago1 on the other hand1 where the lagoon-channels are almost choked up1 where much low alluvial land has accumulated1 and where in some cases long islets have been formed on the barrier-reefs--facts all showing that the islands have not very lately subsided--only feeble shocks are most rarely felt4 ,in these coral formations1 where the land and water seem struggling for mastery1 it must be ever difficult to decide between the effects of a change in the set of the tides and of a slight subsidence3 that many of these reefs and atolls are subject to changes of some kind is certain2 on some atolls the islets appear to have increased greatly within a late period2 on others they have been partially or wholly washed away4 ,the inhabitants of parts of the ,maldiva ,archipelago know the date of the first formation of some islets2 in other parts the corals are now flourishing on water-washed reefs1 where holes made for graves attest the former existence of inhabited land4 ,it is difficult to believe in frequent changes in the tidal currents of an open ocean2 whereas we have in the earthquakes recorded by the natives on some atolls1 and in the great fissures observed on other atolls1 plain evidence of changes and disturbances in progress in the subterranean regions4 ,it is evident1 on our theory1 that coasts merely fringed by reefs cannot have subsided to any perceptible amount2 and therefore they must1 since the growth of their corals1 either have remained stationary or have been upheaved4 ,now it is remarkable how generally it can be shown1 by the presence of upraised organic remains1 that the fringed islands have been elevated3 and so far1 this is indirect evidence in favour of our theory4 ,i was particularly struck with this fact1 when ,i found1 to my surprise1 that the descriptions given by ,,mm4 ,quoy and ,gaimard were applicable1 not to reefs in general as implied by them1 but only to those of the fringing class2 my surprise1 however1 ceased when ,i afterwards found that1 by a strange chance1 all the several islands visited by these eminent naturalists could be shown by their own statements to have been elevated within a recent geological era4 ,not only the grand features in the structure of barrier-reefs and of atolls1 and of their likeness to each other in form1 size1 and other characters1 are explained on the theory of subsidence--which theory we are independently forced to admit in the very areas in question1 from the necessity of finding bases for the corals within the requisite depth--but many details in structure and exceptional cases can thus also be simply explained4 ,i will give only a few instances4 ,in barrier-reefs it has long been remarked with surprise that the passages through the reef exactly face valleys in the included land1 even in cases where the reef is separated from the land by a lagoon-channel so wide and so much deeper than the actual passage itself1 that it seems hardly possible that the very small quantity of water or sediment brought down could injure the corals on the reef4 ,now1 every reef of the fringing class is breached by a narrow gateway in front of the smallest rivulet1 even if dry during the greater part of the year1 for the mud1 sand1 or gravel occasionally washed down kills the corals on which it is deposited4 ,consequently1 when an island thus fringed subsides1 though most of the narrow gateways will probably become closed by the outward and upward growth of the corals1 yet any that are not closed 7and some must always be kept open by the sediment and impure water flowing out of the lagoon-channel7 will still continue to front exactly the upper parts of those valleys at the mouths of which the original basal fringing-reef was breached4 ,corals ,we can easily see how an island fronted only on one side1 or on one side with one end or both ends encircled by barrier-reefs1 might after long-continued subsidence be converted either into a single wall-like reef1 or into an atoll with a great straight spur projecting from it1 or into two or three atolls tied together by straight reefs--all of which exceptional cases actually occur4 ,as the reef-building corals require food1 are preyed upon by other animals1 are killed by sediment1 cannot adhere to a loose bottom1 and may be easily carried down to a depth whence they cannot spring up again1 we need feel no surprise at the reefs both of atolls and barriers becoming in parts imperfect4 ,the great barrier of ,new ,caledonia is thus imperfect and broken in many parts2 hence1 after long subsidence1 this great reef would not produce one great atoll #djj miles in length1 but a chain or archipelago of atolls1 of very nearly the same dimensions with those in the ,maldiva ,archipelago4 ,moreover1 in an atoll once breached on opposite sides1 from the likelihood of the oceanic and tidal currents passing straight through the breaches1 it is extremely improbable that the corals1 especially during continued subsidence1 would ever be able again to unite the rim2 if they did not1 as the whole sank downwards1 one atoll would be divided into two or more4 ,in the ,maldiva ,archipelago there are distinct atolls so related to each other in position1 and separated by channels either unfathomable or very deep 7the channel between ,ross and ,ari atolls is #aej fathoms1 and that between the north and south ,nillandoo atolls is #bjj fathoms in depth71 that it is impossible to look at a map of them without believing that they were once more intimately related4 ,and in this same archipelago1 ,mahlos-,mahdoo atoll is divided by a bifurcating channel from #ajj to #acb fathoms in depth1 in such a manner that it is scarcely possible to say whether it ought strictly to be called three separate atolls1 or one great atoll not yet finally divided4 ,i will not enter on many more details2 but ,i must remark that the curious structure of the northern ,maldiva atolls receives 7taking into consideration the free entrance of the sea through their broken margins7 a simple explanation in the upward and outward growth of the corals1 originally based both on small detached reefs in their lagoons1 such as occur in common atolls1 and on broken portions of the linear marginal reef1 such as bounds every atoll of the ordinary form4 ,i cannot refrain from once again remarking on the singularity of these complex structures--a great sandy and generally concave disk rises abruptly from the unfathomable ocean1 with its central expanse studded and its edge symmetrically bordered with oval basins of coral-rock just lipping the surface of the sea1 sometimes clothed with vegetation1 and each containing a lake of clear water6 ,one more point in detail3 as in the two neighbouring archipelagoes corals flourish in one and not in the other1 and as so many conditions before enumerated must affect their existence1 it would be an inexplicable fact if1 during the changes to which earth1 air1 and water are subjected1 the reef-building corals were to keep alive for perpetuity on any one spot or area4 ,and as by our theory the areas including atolls and barrier-reefs are subsiding1 we ought occasionally to find reefs both dead and submerged4 ,in all reefs1 owing to the sediment being washed out of the lagoon or lagoon-channel to leeward1 that side is least favourable to the long-continued vigorous growth of the corals2 hence dead portions of reef not unfrequently occur on the leeward side2 and these1 though still retaining their proper wall-like form1 are now in several instances sunk several fathoms beneath the surface4 ,the ,chagos group appears from some cause1 possibly from the subsidence having been too rapid1 at present to be much less favourably circumstanced for the growth of reefs than formerly3 one atoll has a portion of its marginal reef1 nine miles in length1 dead and submerged2 a second has only a few quite small living points which rise to the surface1 a third and fourth are entirely dead and submerged2 a fifth is a mere wreck1 with its structure almost obliterated4 ,it is remarkable that in all these cases the dead reefs and portions of reef lie at nearly the same depth1 namely1 from six to eight fathoms beneath the surface1 as if they had been carried down by one uniform movement4 ,one of these 8half-drowned atolls10 so called by ,captain ,moresby 7to whom ,i am indebted for much invaluable information71 is of vast size1 namely1 ninety nautical miles across in one direction1 and seventy miles in another line2 and is in many respects eminently curious4 ,as by our theory it follows that new atolls will generally be formed in each new area of subsidence1 two weighty objections might have been raised1 namely1 that atolls must be increasing indefinitely in number2 and secondly1 that in old areas of subsidence each separate atoll must be increasing indefinitely in thickness1 if proofs of their occasional destruction could not have been adduced4 ,thus have we traced the history of these great rings of coral-rock1 from their first origin through their normal changes1 and through the occasional accidents of their existence1 to their death and final obliteration4 ,in my volume on ,coral ,formations ,i have published a map1 in which ,i have coloured all the atolls dark-blue1 the barrier-reefs pale-blue1 and the fringing reefs red4 ,these latter reefs have been formed whilst the land has been stationary1 or1 as appears from the frequent presence of upraised organic remains1 whilst it has been slowly rising3 atolls and barrier-reefs1 on the other hand1 have grown up during the directly opposite movement of subsidence1 which movement must have been very gradual1 and in the case of atolls so vast in amount as to have buried every mountain-summit over wide ocean-spaces4 ,now in this map we see that the reefs tinted pale and dark-blue1 which have been produced by the same order of movement1 as a general rule manifestly stand near each other4 ,again we see that the areas with the two blue tints are of wide extent2 and that they lie separate from extensive lines of coast coloured red1 both of which circumstances might naturally have been inferred1 on the theory of the nature of the reefs having been governed by the nature of the earth's movement4 ,it deserves notice that in more than one instance where single red and blue circles approach near each other1 ,i can show that there have been oscillations of level2 for in such cases the red or fringed circles consist of atolls1 originally by our theory formed during subsidence1 but subsequently upheaved2 and on the other hand1 some of the pale-blue or encircled islands are composed of coral-rock1 which must have been uplifted to its present height before that subsidence took place1 during which the existing barrier-reefs grew upwards4 ,authors have noticed with surprise that although atolls are the commonest coral-structures throughout some enormous oceanic tracts1 they are entirely absent in other seas1 as in the ,west ,indies3 we can now at once perceive the cause1 for where there has not been subsidence1 atolls cannot have been formed2 and in the case of the ,west ,indies and parts of the ,east ,indies1 these tracts are known to have been rising within the recent period4 ,the larger areas1 coloured red and blue1 are all elongated2 and between the two colours there is a degree of rude alternation1 as if the rising of one had balanced the sinking of the other4 ,taking into consideration the proofs of recent elevation both on the fringed coasts and on some others 7for instance1 in ,south ,america7 where there are no reefs1 we are led to conclude that the great continents are for the most part rising areas3 and from the nature of the coral-reefs1 that the central parts of the great oceans are sinking areas4 ,the ,east ,indian ,archipelago1 the most broken land in the world1 is in most parts an area of elevation1 but surrounded and penetrated1 probably in more lines than one1 by narrow areas of subsidence4 ,i have marked with vermilion spots all the many known active volcanos within the limits of this same map4 ,their entire absence from every one of the great subsiding areas1 coloured either pale or dark blue1 is most striking2 and not less so is the coincidence of the chief volcanic chains with the parts coloured red1 which we are led to conclude have either long remained stationary1 or more generally have been recently upraised4 ,although a few of the vermilion spots occur within no great distance of single circles tinted blue1 yet not one single active volcano is situated within several hundred miles of an archipelago1 or even small group of atolls4 ,it is1 therefore1 a striking fact that in the ,friendly ,archipelago1 which consists of a group of atolls upheaved and since partially worn down1 two volcanos1 and perhaps more1 are historically known to have been in action4 ,on the other hand1 although most of the islands in the ,pacific which are encircled by barrier-reefs are of volcanic origin1 often with the remnants of craters still distinguishable1 not one of them is known to have ever been in eruption4 ,hence in these cases it would appear that volcanos burst forth into action and become extinguished on the same spots1 accordingly as elevatory or subsiding movements prevail there4 ,numberless facts could be adduced to prove that upraised organic remains are common wherever there are active volcanos2 but until it could be shown that in areas of subsidence volcanos were either absent or inactive1 the inference1 however probable in itself1 that their distribution depended on the rising or falling of the earth's surface1 would have been hazardous4 ,but now1 ,i think1 we may freely admit this important deduction4 ,taking a final view of the map1 and bearing in mind the statements made with respect to the upraised organic remains1 we must feel astonished at the vastness of the areas which have suffered changes in level either downwards or upwards1 within a period not geologically remote4 ,it would appear also that the elevatory and subsiding movements follow nearly the same laws4 ,throughout the spaces interspersed with atolls1 where not a single peak of high land has been left above the level of the sea1 the sinking must have been immense in amount4 ,the sinking1 moreover1 whether continuous1 or recurrent with intervals sufficiently long for the corals again to bring up their living edifices to the surface1 must necessarily have been extremely slow4 ,this conclusion is probably the most important one which can be deduced from the study of coral formations2--and it is one which it is difficult to imagine how otherwise could ever have been arrived at4 ,nor can ,i quite pass over the probability of the former existence of large archipelagoes of lofty islands1 where now only rings of coral-rock scarcely break the open expanse of the sea1 throwing some light on the distribution of the inhabitants of the other high islands1 now left standing so immensely remote from each other in the midst of the great oceans4 ,the reef-constructing corals have indeed reared and preserved wonderful memorials of the subterranean oscillations of level2 we see in each barrier-reef a proof that the land has there subsided1 and in each atoll a monument over an island now lost4 ,we may thus1 like unto a geologist who had lived his ten thousand years and kept a record of the passing changes1 gain some insight into the great system by which the surface of this globe has been broken up1 and land and water interchanged4 ,illustration3 ,birgos ,latro1 ,keeling ,island ,illustration3 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mauritius ,chapter ,,xxi ,,mauritius ,,to ,,england ,mauritius1 beautiful appearance of--,great crateriform ring of mountains--,hindoos--,st4 ,helena--,history of the changes in the vegetation--,cause of the extinction of land-shells--,ascension--,variation in the imported rats--,volcanic bombs--,beds of infusoria--,bahia1 ,brazil--,splendour of tropical scenery--,pernambuco--,singular reef--,slavery--,return to ,england--,retrospect on our voyage4 ,april #bith4--,in the morning we passed round the northern end of ,mauritius1 or the ,isle of ,france4 ,from this point of view the aspect of the island equalled the expectations raised by the many well-known descriptions of its beautiful scenery4 ,the sloping plain of the ,pamplemousses1 interspersed with houses1 and coloured by the large fields of sugar-cane of a bright green1 composed the foreground4 ,the brilliancy of the green was the more remarkable because it is a colour which generally is conspicuous only from a very short distance4 ,towards the centre of the island groups of wooded mountains rose out of this highly cultivated plain2 their summits1 as so commonly happens with ancient volcanic rocks1 being jagged into the sharpest points4 ,masses of white clouds were collected around these pinnacles1 as if for the sake of pleasing the stranger's eye4 ,the whole island1 with its sloping border and central mountains1 was adorned with an air of perfect elegance3 the scenery1 if ,i may use such an expression1 appeared to the sight harmonious4 ,i spent the greater part of the next day in walking about the town and visiting different people4 ,the town is of considerable size1 and is said to contain #bj1jjj inhabitants2 the streets are very clean and regular4 ,although the island has been so many years under the ,english government1 the general character of the place is quite ,french3 ,englishmen speak to their servants in ,french1 and the shops are all ,french2 indeed ,i should think that ,calais or ,boulogne was much more ,anglified4 ,there is a very pretty little theatre in which operas are excellently performed4 ,we were also surprised at seeing large booksellers' shops1 with well-stored shelves2--music and reading bespeak our approach to the old world of civilisation2 for in truth both ,australia and ,america are new worlds4 ,the various races of men walking in the streets afford the most interesting spectacle in ,port ,louis4 ,convicts from ,india are banished here for life2 at present there are about #hjj1 and they are employed in various public works4 ,before seeing these people1 ,i had no idea that the inhabitants of ,india were such noble-looking figures4 ,their skin is extremely dark1 and many of the older men had large mustaches and beards of a snow-white colour2 this1 together with the fire of their expression1 gave them quite an imposing aspect4 ,the greater number had been banished for murder and the worst crimes2 others for causes which can scarcely be considered as moral faults1 such as for not obeying1 from superstitious motives1 the ,english laws4 ,these men are generally quiet and well-conducted2 from their outward conduct1 their cleanliness and faithful observance of their strange religious rites1 it was impossible to look at them with the same eyes as on our wretched convicts in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,may #ast4--,sunday4 ,i took a quiet walk along the sea-coast to the north of the town4 ,the plain in this part is quite uncultivated2 it consists of a field of black lava1 smoothed over with coarse grass and bushes1 the latter being chiefly ,mimosas4 ,the scenery may be described as intermediate in character between that of the ,galapagos and of ,tahiti2 but this will convey a definite idea to very few persons4 ,it is a very pleasant country1 but it has not the charms of ,tahiti1 or the grandeur of ,brazil4 ,the next day ,i ascended ,la ,pouce1 a mountain so called from a thumb-like projection1 which rises close behind the town to a height of #b1fjj feet4 ,the centre of the island consists of a great platform1 surrounded by old broken basaltic mountains1 with their strata dipping seawards4 ,the central platform1 formed of comparatively recent streams of lava1 is of an oval shape1 thirteen geographical miles across in the line of its shorter axis4 ,the exterior bounding mountains come into that class of structures called ,craters of ,elevation1 which are supposed to have been formed not like ordinary craters1 but by a great and sudden upheaval4 ,there appear to me to be insuperable objections to this view3 on the other hand1 ,i can hardly believe1 in this and in some other cases1 that these marginal crateriform mountains are merely the basal remnants of immense volcanos1 of which the summits either have been blown off or swallowed up in subterranean abysses4 ,from our elevated position we enjoyed an excellent view over the island4 ,the country on this side appears pretty well cultivated1 being divided into fields and studded with farm-houses4 ,i was however assured that of the whole land not more than half is yet in a productive state2 if such be the case1 considering the present large export of sugar1 this island1 at some future period when thickly peopled1 will be of great value4 ,since ,england has taken possession of it1 a period of only twenty-five years1 the export of sugar is said to have increased seventy-five fold4 ,one great cause of its prosperity is the excellent state of the roads4 ,in the neighbouring ,isle of ,bourbon1 which remains under the ,french government1 the roads are still in the same miserable state as they were here only a few years ago4 ,although the ,french residents must have largely profited by the increased prosperity of their island1 yet the ,english government is far from popular4 #crd4--,in the evening ,captain ,lloyd1 the ,surveyor-general1 so well known from his examination of the ,isthmus of ,panama1 invited ,mr4 ,stokes and myself to his country-house1 which is situated on the edge of ,wilheim ,plains1 and about six miles from the ,port4 ,we stayed at this delightful place two days2 standing nearly #hjj feet above the sea1 the air was cool and fresh1 and on every side there were delightful walks4 ,close by a grand ravine has been worn to a depth of about #ejj feet through the slightly inclined streams of lava1 which have flowed from the central platform4 #eth4--,captain ,lloyd took us to the ,rivire ,noire1 which is several miles to the southward1 that ,i might examine some rocks of elevated coral4 ,we passed through pleasant gardens1 and fine fields of sugar-cane growing amidst huge blocks of lava4 ,the roads were bordered by hedges of ,mimosa1 and near many of the houses there were avenues of the mango4 ,some of the views where the peaked hills and the cultivated farms were seen together1 were exceedingly picturesque2 and we were constantly tempted to exclaim 8,how pleasant it would be to pass one's life in such quiet abodes60 ,captain ,lloyd possessed an elephant1 and he sent it half-way with us1 that we might enjoy a ride in true ,indian fashion4 ,the circumstance which surprised me most was its quite noiseless step4 ,this elephant is the only one at present on the island2 but it is said others will be sent for4 ,may #ith4--,we sailed from ,port ,louis1 and1 calling at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 on the #hth of ,july we arrived off ,st4 ,helena4 ,this island1 the forbidding aspect of which has been so often described1 rises abruptly like a huge black castle from the ocean4 ,near the town1 as if to complete nature's defence1 small forts and guns fill up every gap in the rugged rocks4 ,the town runs up a flat and narrow valley2 the houses look respectable1 and are interspersed with a very few green trees4 ,when approaching the anchorage there was one striking view3 an irregular castle perched on the summit of a lofty hill1 and surrounded by a few scattered fir-trees1 boldly projected against the sky4 ,the next day ,i obtained lodgings within a stone's throw of ,napoleon's tomb2#a it was a capital central situation1 whence ,i could make excursions in every direction4 ,during the four days ,i stayed here ,i wandered over the island from morning to night and examined its geological history4 ,my lodgings were situated at a height of about #bjjj feet2 here the weather was cold and boisterous1 with constant showers of rain2 and every now and then the whole scene was veiled in thick clouds4 #a ,after the volumes of eloquence which have poured forth on this subject1 it is dangerous even to mention the tomb4 ,a modern traveller1 in twelve lines1 burdens the poor little island with the following titles1--it is a grave1 tomb1 pyramid1 cemetery1 sepulchre1 catacomb1 sarcophagus1 minaret1 and mausoleum6 ,st4 ,helena ,near the coast the rough lava is quite bare3 in the central and higher parts feldspathic rocks by their decomposition have produced a clayey soil1 which1 where not covered by vegetation1 is stained in broad bands of many bright colours4 ,at this season the land1 moistened by constant showers1 produces a singularly bright green pasture1 which lower and lower down gradually fades away and at last disappears4 ,in latitude #af1 and at the trifling elevation of #aejj feet1 it is surprising to behold a vegetation possessing a character decidedly ,british4 ,the hills are crowned with irregular plantations of ,scotch firs2 and the sloping banks are thickly scattered over with thickets of gorse1 covered with its bright yellow flowers4 ,weeping-willows are common on the banks of the rivulets1 and the hedges are made of the blackberry1 producing its well-known fruit4 ,when we consider that the number of plants now found on the island is #gdf1 and that out of these fifty-two alone are indigenous species1 the rest having been imported1 and most of them from ,england1 we see the reason of the ,british character of the vegetation4 ,many of these ,english plants appear to flourish better than in their native country2 some also from the opposite quarter of ,australia succeed remarkably well4 ,the many imported species must have destroyed some of the native kinds2 and it is only on the highest and steepest ridges that the indigenous ,flora is now predominant4 ,the ,english1 or rather ,welsh character of the scenery1 is kept up by the numerous cottages and small white houses2 some buried at the bottom of the deepest valleys1 and others mounted on the crests of the lofty hills4 ,some of the views are striking1 for instance that from near ,sir ,w4 ,doveton's house1 where the bold peak called ,lot is seen over a dark wood of firs1 the whole being backed by the red water-worn mountains of the southern coast4 ,on viewing the island from an eminence1 the first circumstance which strikes one is the number of the roads and forts3 the labour bestowed on the public works1 if one forgets its character as a prison1 seems out of all proportion to its extent or value4 ,there is so little level or useful land that it seems surprising how so many people1 about #ejjj1 can subsist here4 ,the lower orders1 or the emancipated slaves1 are1 ,i believe1 extremely poor3 they complain of the want of work4 ,from the reduction in the number of public servants1 owing to the island having been given up by the ,east ,india ,company1 and the consequent emigration of many of the richer people1 the poverty probably will increase4 ,the chief food of the working class is rice with a little salt meat2 as neither of these articles are the products of the island1 but must be purchased with money1 the low wages tell heavily on the poor people4 ,now that the people are blessed with freedom1 a right which ,i believe they value fully1 it seems probable that their numbers will quickly increase3 if so1 what is to become of the little state of ,st4 ,helena8 ,my guide was an elderly man who had been a goatherd when a boy1 and knew every step amongst the rocks4 ,he was of a race many times crossed1 and although with a dusky skin1 he had not the disagreeable expression of a mulatto4 ,he was a very civil1 quiet old man1 and such appears the character of the greater number of the lower classes4 ,it was strange to my ears to hear a man1 nearly white and respectably dressed1 talking with indifference of the times when he was a slave4 ,with my companion1 who carried our dinners and a horn of water1 which is quite necessary1 as all the water in the lower valleys is saline1 ,i every day took long walks4 ,beneath the upper and central green circle1 the wild valleys are quite desolate and untenanted4 ,here1 to the geologist1 there were scenes of high interest1 showing successive changes and complicated disturbances4 ,according to my views1 ,st4 ,helena has existed as an island from a very remote epoch3 some obscure proofs1 however1 of the elevation of the land are still extant4 ,i believe that the central and highest peaks form parts of the rim of a great crater1 the southern half of which has been entirely removed by the waves of the sea3 there is1 moreover1 an external wall of black basaltic rocks1 like the coast-mountains of ,mauritius1 which are older than the central volcanic streams4 ,on the higher parts of the island considerable numbers of a shell1 long thought to be a marine species1 occur imbedded in the soil4 ,it proves to be a ,cochlogena1 or land-shell of a very peculiar form2#b with it ,i found six other kinds2 and in another spot an eighth species4 ,it is remarkable that none of them are now found living4 ,their extinction has probably been caused by the entire destruction of the woods1 and the consequent loss of food and shelter1 which occurred during the early part of the last century4 #b ,it deserves notice that all the many specimens of this shell found by me in one spot differ as a marked variety from another set of specimens procured from a different spot4 ,the history of the changes which the elevated plains of ,longwood and ,deadwood have undergone1 as given in ,general ,beatson's account of the island1 is extremely curious4 ,both plains1 it is said1 in former times were covered with wood1 and were therefore called the ,great ,wood4 ,so late as the year #agaf there were many trees1 but in #agbd the old trees had mostly fallen2 and as goats and hogs had been suffered to range about1 all the young trees had been killed4 ,it appears also from the official records that the trees were unexpectedly1 some years afterwards1 succeeded by a wire grass which spread over the whole surface4#c ,general ,beatson adds that now this plain 8is covered with fine sward1 and is become the finest piece of pasture on the island40 ,the extent of surface1 probably covered by wood at a former period1 is estimated at no less than two thousand acres2 at the present day scarcely a single tree can be found there4 ,it is also said that in #agji there were quantities of dead trees in ,sandy ,bay2 this place is now so utterly desert that nothing but so well attested an account could have made me believe that they could ever have grown there4 ,the fact that the goats and hogs destroyed all the young trees as they sprang up1 and that in the course of time the old ones1 which were safe from their attacks1 perished from age1 seems clearly made out4 ,goats were introduced in the year #aejb2 eighty-six years afterwards1 in the time of ,cavendish1 it is known that they were exceedingly numerous4 ,more than a century afterwards1 in #agca1 when the evil was complete and irretrievable1 an order was issued that all stray animals should be destroyed4 ,it is very interesting thus to find that the arrival of animals at ,st4 ,helena in #aeja did not change the whole aspect of the island1 until a period of two hundred and twenty years had elapsed3 for the goats were introduced in #aejb1 and in #agbd it is said 8the old trees had mostly fallen40 ,there can be little doubt that this great change in the vegetation affected not only the land-shells1 causing eight species to become extinct1 but likewise a multitude of insects4 #c ,beatson's ,st4 ,helena4 ,introductory chapter1 p4 #d4 ,st4 ,helena1 situated so remote from any continent1 in the midst of a great ocean1 and possessing a unique ,flora1 excites our curiosity4 ,the eight land-shells1 though now extinct1 and one living ,succinea1 are peculiar species found nowhere else4 ,mr4 ,cuming1 however1 informs me that an ,english ,helix is common here1 its eggs no doubt having been imported in some of the many introduced plants4 ,mr4 ,cuming collected on the coast sixteen species of sea-shells1 of which seven1 as far as he knows1 are confined to this island4 ,birds and insects1#d as might have been expected1 are very few in number2 indeed ,i believe all the birds have been introduced within late years4 ,partridges and pheasants are tolerably abundant2 the island is much too ,english not to be subject to strict game-laws4 ,i was told of a more unjust sacrifice to such ordinances than ,i ever heard of even in ,england4 ,the poor people formerly used to burn a plant which grows on the coast-rocks1 and export the soda from its ashes2 but a peremptory order came out prohibiting this practice1 and giving as a reason that the partridges would have nowhere to build6 #d ,among these few insects ,i was surprised to find a small ,aphodius 7nov4 spec47 and an ,oryctes1 both extremely numerous under dung4 ,when the island was discovered it certainly possessed no quadruped excepting perhaps a mouse3 it becomes1 therefore1 a difficult point to ascertain1 whether these stercovorous insects have since been imported by accident1 or if aborigines1 on what food they formerly subsisted4 ,on the banks of the ,plata1 where1 from the vast number of cattle and horses1 the fine plains of turf are richly manured1 it is vain to seek the many kinds of dung-feeding beetles which occur so abundantly in ,europe4 ,i observed only an ,oryctes 7the insects of this genus in ,europe generally feed on decayed vegetable matter7 and two species of ,phanus1 common in such situations4 ,on the opposite side of the ,cordillera in ,chiloe another species of ,phanus is exceedingly abundant1 and it buries the dung of the cattle in large earthen balls beneath the ground4 ,there is reason to believe that the genus ,phanus1 before the introduction of cattle1 acted as scavengers to man4 ,in ,europe beetles which find support in the matter which has already contributed towards the life of other and larger animals1 are so numerous that there must be considerably more than one hundred different species4 ,considering this1 and observing what a quantity of food of this kind is lost on the plains of ,la ,plata1 ,i imagined ,i saw an instance where man had disturbed that chain by which so many animals are linked together in their native country4 ,in ,van ,diemen's ,land1 however1 ,i found four species of ,onthophagus1 two of ,aphodius1 and one of a third genus1 very abundant under the dung of cows2 yet these latter animals had been then introduced only thirty-three years4 ,previous to that time the kangaroo and some other small animals were the only quadrupeds2 and their dung is of a very different quality from that of their successors introduced by man4 ,in ,england the greater number of stercovorous beetles are confined in their appetites2 that is1 they do not depend indifferently on any quadruped for the means of subsistence4 ,the change1 therefore1 in habits which must have taken place in ,van ,diemen's ,land is highly remarkable4 ,i am indebted to the ,reverend ,f4 ,w4 ,hope1 who1 ,i hope1 will permit me to call him my master in ,entomology1 for giving me the names of the foregoing insects4 ,in my walks ,i passed more than once over the grassy plain1 bounded by deep valleys1 on which ,longwood stands4 ,viewed from a short distance1 it appears like a respectable gentleman's country-seat4 ,in front there are a few cultivated fields1 and beyond them the smooth hill of coloured rocks called the ,flagstaff1 and the rugged square black mass of the ,barn4 ,on the whole the view was rather bleak and uninteresting4 ,the only inconvenience ,i suffered during my walks was from the impetuous winds4 ,one day ,i noticed a curious circumstance3 standing on the edge of a plain1 terminated by a great cliff of about a thousand feet in depth1 ,i saw at the distance of a few yards right to windward1 some tern1 struggling against a very strong breeze1 whilst1 where ,i stood1 the air was quite calm4 ,approaching close to the brink1 where the current seemed to be deflected upwards from the face of the cliff1 ,i stretched out my arm1 and immediately felt the full force of the wind3 an invisible barrier1 two yards in width1 separated perfectly calm air from a strong blast4 ,i so much enjoyed my rambles among the rocks and mountains of ,st4 ,helena that ,i felt almost sorry on the morning of the #adth to descend to the town4 ,before noon ,i was on board1 and the ,beagle made sail4 ,on the #aith of ,july we reached ,ascension4 ,those who have beheld a volcanic island situated under an arid climate will at once be able to picture to themselves the appearance of ,ascension4 ,they will imagine smooth conical hills of a bright red colour1 with their summits generally truncated1 rising separately out of a level surface of black rugged lava4 ,a principal mound in the centre of the island seems the father of the lesser cones4 ,it is called ,green ,hill3 its name being taken from the faintest tinge of that colour1 which at this time of the year is barely perceptible from the anchorage4 ,to complete the desolate scene1 the black rocks on the coast are lashed by a wild and turbulent sea4 ,the settlement is near the beach2 it consists of several houses and barracks placed irregularly1 but well built of white freestone4 ,the only inhabitants are marines1 and some negroes liberated from slave-ships1 who are paid and victualled by government4 ,there is not a private person on the island4 ,many of the marines appeared well contented with their situation2 they think it better to serve their one-and-twenty years on shore1 let it be what it may1 than in a ship2 in this choice1 if ,i were a marine1 ,i should most heartily agree4 ,the next morning ,i ascended ,green ,hill1 #bhdj feet high1 and thence walked across the island to the windward point4 ,a good cart-road leads from the coast-settlement to the houses1 gardens1 and fields1 placed near the summit of the central mountain4 ,on the roadside there are milestones1 and likewise cisterns1 where each thirsty passer-by can drink some good water4 ,similar care is displayed in each part of the establishment1 and especially in the management of the springs1 so that a single drop of water may not be lost3 indeed the whole island may be compared to a huge ship kept in first-rate order4 ,i could not help1 when admiring the active industry which had created such effects out of such means1 at the same time regretting that it had been wasted on so poor and trifling an end4 ,m4 ,lesson has remarked with justice that the ,english nation would have thought of making the island of ,ascension a productive spot1 any other people would have held it as a mere fortress in the ocean4 ,near this coast nothing grows2 farther inland an occasional green castor-oil plant1 and a few grasshoppers1 true friends of the desert1 may be met with4 ,some grass is scattered over the surface of the central elevated region1 and the whole much resembles the worse parts of the ,welsh mountains4 ,but1 scanty as the pasture appears1 about six hundred sheep1 many goats1 a few cows and horses1 all thrive well on it4 ,of native animals1 land-crabs and rats swarm in numbers4 ,whether the rat is really indigenous may well be doubted2 there are two varieties as described by ,mr4 ,waterhouse2 one is of a black colour1 with fine glossy fur1 and lives on the grassy summit1 the other is brown-coloured and less glossy1 with longer hairs1 and lives near the settlement on the coast4 ,both these varieties are one-third smaller than the common black rat 7,m4 rattus72 and they differ from it both in the colour and character of their fur1 but in no other essential respect4 ,i can hardly doubt that these rats 7like the common mouse1 which has also run wild7 have been imported1 and1 as at the ,galapagos1 have varied from the effect of the new conditions to which they have been exposed3 hence the variety on the summit of the island differs from that on the coast4 ,of native birds there are none2 but the guinea-fowl1 imported from the ,cape de ,verd ,islands1 is abundant1 and the common fowl has likewise run wild4 ,some cats which were originally turned out to destroy the rats and mice1 have increased1 so as to become a great plague4 ,the island is entirely without trees1 in which1 and in every other respect1 it is very far inferior to ,st4 ,helena4 ,one of my excursions took me towards the south-west extremity of the island4 ,the day was clear and hot1 and ,i saw the island1 not smiling with beauty1 but staring with naked hideousness4 ,the lava streams are covered with hummocks1 and are rugged to a degree which1 geologically speaking1 is not of easy explanation4 ,the intervening spaces are concealed with layers of pumice1 ashes and volcanic tuff4 ,whilst passing this end of the island at sea1 ,i could not imagine what the white patches were with which the whole plain was mottled2 ,i now found that they were sea-fowl1 sleeping in such full confidence1 that even in mid-day a man could walk up and seize hold of them4 ,these birds were the only living creatures ,i saw during the whole day4 ,on the beach a great surf1 although the breeze was light1 came tumbling over the broken lava rocks4 ,cellular formation of volcanic bomb ,the geology of this island is in many respects interesting4 ,in several places ,i noticed volcanic bombs1 that is1 masses of lava which have been shot through the air whilst fluid1 and have consequently assumed a spherical or pear-shape4 ,not only their external form1 but1 in several cases1 their internal structure shows in a very curious manner that they have revolved in their arial course4 ,the internal structure of one of these bombs1 when broken1 is represented very accurately in ,plate #ajc4 ,the central part is coarsely cellular1 the cells decreasing in size towards the exterior2 where there is a shell-like case about the third of an inch in thickness1 of compact stone1 which again is overlaid by the outside crust of finely cellular lava4 ,i think there can be little doubt1 first1 that the external crust cooled rapidly in the state in which we now see it2 secondly1 that the still fluid lava within was packed by the centrifugal force generated by the revolving of the bomb1 against the external cooled crust1 and so produced the solid shell of stone2 and lastly1 that the centrifugal force1 by relieving the pressure in the more central parts of the bomb1 allowed the heated vapours to expand their cells1 thus forming the coarse cellular mass of the centre4 ,a hill formed of the older series of volcanic rocks1 and which has been incorrectly considered as the crater of a volcano1 is remarkable from its broad1 slightly hollowed1 and circular summit having been filled up with many successive layers of ashes and fine scori4 ,these saucer-shaped layers crop out on the margin1 forming perfect rings of many different colours1 giving to the summit a most fantastic appearance2 one of these rings is white and broad1 and resembles a course round which horses have been exercised2 hence the hill has been called the ,devil's ,riding ,school4 ,i brought away specimens of one of the tufaceous layers of a pinkish colour and it is a most extraordinary fact that ,professor ,ehrenberg#e finds it almost wholly composed of matter which has been organised2 he detects in it some siliceous-shielded1 fresh-water infusoria1 and no less than twenty-five different kinds of the siliceous tissue of plants1 chiefly of grasses4 ,from the absence of all carbonaceous matter1 ,professor ,ehrenberg believes that these organic bodies have passed through the volcanic fire1 and have been erupted in the state in which we now see them4 ,the appearance of the layers induced me to believe that they had been deposited under water1 though from the extreme dryness of the climate ,i was forced to imagine that torrents of rain had probably fallen during some great eruption1 and that thus a temporary lake had been formed into which the ashes fell4 ,but it may now be suspected that the lake was not a temporary one4 ,anyhow we may feel sure that at some former epoch the climate and productions of ,ascension were very different from what they now are4 ,where on the face of the earth can we find a spot on which close investigation will not discover signs of that endless cycle of change1 to which this earth has been1 is1 and will be subjected8 #e ,monats4 der ,knig4 ,akad4 d4 ,wiss4 zu ,berlin1 ,vom ,april #ahde4 ,on leaving ,ascension1 we sailed for ,bahia1 on the coast of ,brazil1 in order to complete the chronometrical measurement of the world4 ,we arrived there on ,august #ast1 and stayed four days1 during which ,i took several long walks4 ,i was glad to find my enjoyment in tropical scenery had not decreased from the want of novelty1 even in the slightest degree4 ,the elements of the scenery are so simple that they are worth mentioning1 as a proof on what trifling circumstances exquisite natural beauty depends4 ,the country may be described as a level plain of about three hundred feet in elevation1 which in all parts has been worn into flat-bottomed valleys4 ,this structure is remarkable in a granitic land1 but is nearly universal in all those softer formations of which plains are usually composed4 ,the whole surface is covered by various kinds of stately trees1 interspersed with patches of cultivated ground1 out of which houses1 convents1 and chapels arise4 ,it must be remembered that within the tropics the wild luxuriance of nature is not lost even in the vicinity of large cities3 for the natural vegetation of the hedges and hill-sides overpowers in picturesque effect the artificial labour of man4 ,hence1 there are only a few spots where the bright red soil affords a strong contrast with the universal clothing of green4 ,from the edges of the plain there are distant views either of the ocean1 or of the great ,bay with its low-wooded shores1 and on which numerous boats and canoes show their white sails4 ,excepting from these points1 the scene is extremely limited2 following the level pathways1 on each hand1 only glimpses into the wooded valleys below can be obtained4 ,the houses ,i may add1 and especially the sacred edifices1 are built in a peculiar and rather fantastic style of architecture4 ,they are all whitewashed2 so that when illumined by the brilliant sun of mid-day1 and as seen against the pale blue sky of the horizon1 they stand out more like shadows than real buildings4 ,such are the elements of the scenery1 but it is a hopeless attempt to paint the general effect4 ,learned naturalists describe these scenes of the tropics by naming a multitude of objects1 and mentioning some characteristic feature of each4 ,to a learned traveller this possibly may communicate some definite ideas3 but who else from seeing a plant in an herbarium can imagine its appearance when growing in its native soil8 ,who from seeing choice plants in a hothouse can magnify some into the dimensions of forest trees1 and crowd others into an entangled jungle8 ,who when examining in the cabinet of the entomologist the gay exotic butterflies1 and singular cicadas1 will associate with these lifeless objects the ceaseless harsh music of the latter and the lazy flight of the former1--the sure accompaniments of the still1 glowing noonday of the tropics8 ,it is when the sun has attained its greatest height that such scenes should be viewed3 then the dense splendid foliage of the mango hides the ground with its darkest shade1 whilst the upper branches are rendered from the profusion of light of the most brilliant green4 ,in the temperate zones the case is different--the vegetation there is not so dark or so rich1 and hence the rays of the declining sun1 tinged of a red1 purple1 or bright yellow colour1 add most to the beauties of those climes4 ,when quietly walking along the shady pathways1 and admiring each successive view1 ,i wished to find language to express my ideas4 ,epithet after epithet was found too weak to convey to those who have not visited the intertropical regions the sensation of delight which the mind experiences4 ,i have said that the plants in a hothouse fail to communicate a just idea of the vegetation1 yet ,i must recur to it4 ,the land is one great wild1 untidy1 luxuriant hothouse1 made by ,nature for herself1 but taken possession of by man1 who has studded it with gay houses and formal gardens4 ,how great would be the desire in every admirer of nature to behold1 if such were possible1 the scenery of another planet6 yet to every person in ,europe1 it may be truly said1 that at the distance of only a few degrees from his native soil the glories of another world are opened to him4 ,in my last walk ,i stopped again and again to gaze on these beauties1 and endeavoured to fix in my mind for ever an impression which at the time ,i knew sooner or later must fail4 ,the form of the orange-tree1 the cocoa-nut1 the palm1 the mango1 the tree-fern1 the banana1 will remain clear and separate2 but the thousand beauties which unite these into one perfect scene must fade away3 yet they will leave1 like a tale heard in childhood1 a picture full of indistinct1 but most beautiful figures4 ,august #fth4--,in the afternoon we stood out to sea1 with the intention of making a direct course to the ,cape de ,verd ,islands4 ,unfavourable winds1 however1 delayed us1 and on the #abth we ran into ,pernambuco1--a large city on the coast of ,brazil1 in latitude #h south4 ,we anchored outside the reef2 but in a short time a pilot came on board and took us into the inner harbour1 where we lay close to the town4 ,pernambuco is built on some narrow and low sand-banks which are separated from each other by shoal channels of salt water4 ,the three parts of the town are connected together by two long bridges built on wooden piles4 ,the town is in all parts disgusting1 the streets being narrow1 ill-paved1 and filthy2 the houses tall and gloomy4 ,the season of heavy rains had hardly come to an end1 and hence the surrounding country1 which is scarcely raised above the level of the sea1 was flooded with water2 and ,i failed in all my attempts to take long walks4 ,the flat swampy land on which ,pernambuco stands is surrounded1 at the distance of a few miles1 by a semicircle of low hills1 or rather by the edge of a country elevated perhaps two hundred feet above the sea4 ,the old city of ,olinda stands on one extremity of this range4 ,one day ,i took a canoe1 and proceeded up one of the channels to visit it2 ,i found the old town from its situation both sweeter and cleaner than that of ,pernambuco4 ,i must here commemorate what happened for the first time during our nearly five years' wandering1 namely1 having met with a want of politeness2 ,i was refused in a sullen manner at two different houses1 and obtained with difficulty from a third1 permission to pass through their gardens to an uncultivated hill1 for the purpose of viewing the country4 ,i feel glad that this happened in the land of the ,brazilians1 for ,i bear them no good will--a land also of slavery1 and therefore of moral debasement4 ,a ,spaniard would have felt ashamed at the very thought of refusing such a request1 or of behaving to a stranger with rudeness4 ,the channel by which we went to and returned from ,olinda was bordered on each side by mangroves1 which sprang like a miniature forest out of the greasy mud-banks4 ,the bright green colour of these bushes always reminded me of the rank grass in a churchyard3 both are nourished by putrid exhalations2 the one speaks of death past1 and the other too often of death to come4 ,cicada ,homoptera ,the most curious object which ,i saw in this neighbourhood was the reef that forms the harbour4 ,i doubt whether in the whole world any other natural structure has so artificial an appearance4#f ,it runs for a length of several miles in an absolutely straight line1 parallel to and not far distant from the shore4 ,it varies in width from thirty to sixty yards1 and its surface is level and smooth2 it is composed of obscurely-stratified hard sandstone4 ,at high water the waves break over it2 at low water its summit is left dry1 and it might then be mistaken for a breakwater erected by ,cyclopean workmen4 ,on this coast the currents of the sea tend to throw up in front of the land long spits and bars of loose sand1 and on one of these part of the town of ,pernambuco stands4 ,in former times a long spit of this nature seems to have become consolidated by the percolation of calcareous matter1 and afterwards to have been gradually upheaved2 the outer and loose parts during this process having been worn away by the action of the sea1 and the solid nucleus left as we now see it4 ,although night and day the waves of the open ,atlantic1 turbid with sediment1 are driven against the steep outside edges of this wall of stone1 yet the oldest pilots know of no tradition of any change in its appearance4 ,this durability is much the most curious fact in its history3 it is due to a tough layer1 a few inches thick1 of calcareous matter1 wholly formed by the successive growth and death of the small shells of ,serpul1 together with some few barnacles and nullipor4 ,these nullipor1 which are hard1 very simply-organised sea-plants1 play an analogous and important part in protecting the upper surfaces of coral-reefs1 behind and within the breakers1 where the true corals1 during the outward growth of the mass1 become killed by exposure to the sun and air4 ,these insignificant organic beings1 especially the ,serpul1 have done good service to the people of ,pernambuco2 for without their protective aid the bar of sandstone would inevitably have been long ago worn away and without the bar1 there would have been no harbour4 #f ,i have described this ,bar in detail in the ,lond4 and ,edin4 ,phil4 ,mag4 vol4 xix1 7#ahda7 p4 #beg4 ,on the #aith of ,august we finally left the shores of ,brazil4 ,i thank ,god1 ,i shall never again visit a slave-country4 ,to this day1 if ,i hear a distant scream1 it recalls with painful vividness my feelings1 when passing a house near ,pernambuco1 ,i heard the most pitiable moans1 and could not but suspect that some poor slave was being tortured1 yet knew that ,i was as powerless as a child even to remonstrate4 ,i suspected that these moans were from a tortured slave1 for ,i was told that this was the case in another instance4 ,near ,rio de ,janeiro ,i lived opposite to an old lady1 who kept screws to crush the fingers of her female slaves4 ,i have stayed in a house where a young household mulatto1 daily and hourly1 was reviled1 beaten1 and persecuted enough to break the spirit of the lowest animal4 ,i have seen a little boy1 six or seven years old1 struck thrice with a horse-whip 7before ,i could interfere7 on his naked head1 for having handed me a glass of water not quite clean2 ,i saw his father tremble at a mere glance from his master's eye4 ,these latter cruelties were witnessed by me in a ,spanish colony1 in which it has always been said that slaves are better treated than by the ,portuguese1 ,english1 or other ,european nations4 ,i have seen at ,rio de ,janeiro a powerful negro afraid to ward off a blow directed1 as he thought1 at his face4 ,i was present when a kind-hearted man was on the point of separating forever the men1 women1 and little children of a large number of families who had long lived together4 ,i will not even allude to the many heart-sickening atrocities which ,i authentically heard of2--nor would ,i have mentioned the above revolting details1 had ,i not met with several people1 so blinded by the constitutional gaiety of the negro as to speak of slavery as a tolerable evil4 ,such people have generally visited at the houses of the upper classes1 where the domestic slaves are usually well treated1 and they have not1 like myself1 lived amongst the lower classes4 ,such inquirers will ask slaves about their condition2 they forget that the slave must indeed be dull who does not calculate on the chance of his answer reaching his master's ears4 ,homeward bound ,it is argued that self-interest will prevent excessive cruelty2 as if self-interest protected our domestic animals1 which are far less likely than degraded slaves to stir up the rage of their savage masters4 ,it is an argument long since protested against with noble feeling1 and strikingly exemplified1 by the ever-illustrious ,humboldt4 ,it is often attempted to palliate slavery by comparing the state of slaves with our poorer countrymen3 if the misery of our poor be caused not by the laws of nature1 but by our institutions1 great is our sin2 but how this bears on slavery1 ,i cannot see2 as well might the use of the thumb-screw be defended in one land1 by showing that men in another land suffered from some dreadful disease4 ,those who look tenderly at the slave owner1 and with a cold heart at the slave1 never seem to put themselves into the position of the latter2--what a cheerless prospect1 with not even a hope of change6 picture to yourself the chance1 ever hanging over you1 of your wife and your little children--those objects which nature urges even the slave to call his own--being torn from you and sold like beasts to the first bidder6 ,and these deeds are done and palliated by men who profess to love their neighbours as themselves1 who believe in ,god1 and pray that ,his ,will be done on earth6 ,it makes one's blood boil1 yet heart tremble1 to think that we ,englishmen and our ,american descendants1 with their boastful cry of liberty1 have been and are so guilty2 but it is a consolation to reflect1 that we at least have made a greater sacrifice than ever made by any nation1 to expiate our sin4 ,on the last day of ,august we anchored for the second time at ,porto ,praya in the ,cape de ,verd archipelago2 thence we proceeded to the ,azores1 where we stayed six days4 ,on the #bnd of ,october we made the shores of ,england2 and at ,falmouth ,i left the ,beagle1 having lived on board the good little vessel nearly five years4 ,our ,voyage having come to an end1 ,i will take a short retrospect of the advantages and disadvantages1 the pains and pleasures1 of our circumnavigation of the world4 ,if a person asked my advice1 before undertaking a long voyage1 my answer would depend upon his possessing a decided taste for some branch of knowledge1 which could by this means be advanced4 ,no doubt it is a high satisfaction to behold various countries and the many races of mankind1 but the pleasures gained at the time do not counterbalance the evils4 ,it is necessary to look forward to a harvest1 however distant that may be1 when some fruit will be reaped1 some good effected4 ,many of the losses which must be experienced are obvious2 such as that of the society of every old friend1 and of the sight of those places with which every dearest remembrance is so intimately connected4 ,these losses1 however1 are at the time partly relieved by the exhaustless delight of anticipating the long-wished-for day of return4 ,if1 as poets say1 life is a dream1 ,i am sure in a voyage these are the visions which best serve to pass away the long night4 ,other losses1 although not at first felt1 tell heavily after a period3 these are the want of room1 of seclusion1 of rest2 the jading feeling of constant hurry2 the privation of small luxuries1 the loss of domestic society and even of music and the other pleasures of imagination4 ,when such trifles are mentioned1 it is evident that the real grievances1 excepting from accidents1 of a sea-life are at an end4 ,the short space of sixty years has made an astonishing difference in the facility of distant navigation4 ,even in the time of ,cook1 a man who left his fireside for such expeditions underwent severe privations4 ,a yacht now1 with every luxury of life1 can circumnavigate the globe4 ,besides the vast improvements in ships and naval resources1 the whole western shores of ,america are thrown open1 and ,australia has become the capital of a rising continent4 ,how different are the circumstances to a man shipwrecked at the present day in the ,pacific1 to what they were in the time of ,cook6 ,since his voyage a hemisphere has been added to the civilised world4 ,if a person suffer much from sea-sickness1 let him weigh it heavily in the balance4 ,i speak from experience3 it is no trifling evil1 cured in a week4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he take pleasure in naval tactics1 he will assuredly have full scope for his taste4 ,but it must be borne in mind how large a proportion of the time1 during a long voyage1 is spent on the water1 as compared with the days in harbour4 ,and what are the boasted glories of the illimitable ocean8 ,a tedious waste1 a desert of water1 as the ,arabian calls it4 ,no doubt there are some delightful scenes4 ,a moonlight night1 with the clear heavens and the dark glittering sea1 and the white sails filled by the soft air of a gently-blowing trade-wind1 a dead calm1 with the heaving surface polished like a mirror1 and all still except the occasional flapping of the canvas4 ,it is well once to behold a squall with its rising arch and coming fury1 or the heavy gale of wind and mountainous waves4 ,i confess1 however1 my imagination had painted something more grand1 more terrific1 in the full-grown storm4 ,it is an incomparably finer spectacle when beheld on shore1 where the waving trees1 the wild flight of the birds1 the dark shadows and bright lights1 the rushing of the torrents1 all proclaim the strife of the unloosed elements4 ,at sea the albatross and little petrel fly as if the storm were their proper sphere1 the water rises and sinks as if fulfilling its usual task1 the ship alone and its inhabitants seem the objects of wrath4 ,on a forlorn and weather-beaten coast the scene is indeed different1 but the feelings partake more of horror than of wild delight4 ,let us now look at the brighter side of the past time4 ,the pleasure derived from beholding the scenery and the general aspect of the various countries we have visited has decidedly been the most constant and highest source of enjoyment4 ,it is probable that the picturesque beauty of many parts of ,europe exceeds anything which we beheld4 ,but there is a growing pleasure in comparing the character of the scenery in different countries1 which to a certain degree is distinct from merely admiring its beauty4 ,it depends chiefly on an acquaintance with the individual parts of each view2 ,i am strongly induced to believe that as in music1 the person who understands every note will1 if he also possesses a proper taste1 more thoroughly enjoy the whole1 so he who examines each part of a fine view may also thoroughly comprehend the full and combined effect4 ,hence1 a traveller should be a botanist1 for in all views plants form the chief embellishment4 ,group masses of naked rock even in the wildest forms1 and they may for a time afford a sublime spectacle1 but they will soon grow monotonous4 ,paint them with bright and varied colours1 as in ,northern ,chile1 they will become fantastic2 clothe them with vegetation1 they must form a decent1 if not a beautiful picture4 ,when ,i say that the scenery of parts of ,europe is probably superior to anything which we beheld1 ,i except1 as a class by itself1 that of the intertropical zones4 ,the two classes cannot be compared together2 but ,i have already often enlarged on the grandeur of those regions4 ,as the force of impressions generally depends on preconceived ideas1 ,i may add that mine were taken from the vivid descriptions in the ,personal ,narrative of ,humboldt1 which far exceed in merit anything else which ,i have read4 ,yet with these high-wrought ideas1 my feelings were far from partaking of a tinge of disappointment on my first and final landing on the shores of ,brazil4 ,among the scenes which are deeply impressed on my mind1 none exceed in sublimity the primeval forests undefaced by the hand of man2 whether those of ,brazil1 where the powers of ,life are predominant1 or those of ,tierra del ,fuego1 where ,death and ,decay prevail4 ,both are temples filled with the varied productions of the ,god of ,nature3--no one can stand in these solitudes unmoved1 and not feel that there is more in man than the mere breath of his body4 ,in calling up images of the past1 ,i find that the plains of ,patagonia frequently cross before my eyes2 yet these plains are pronounced by all wretched and useless4 ,they can be described only by negative characters2 without habitations1 without water1 without trees1 without mountains1 they support merely a few dwarf plants4 ,why1 then1 and the case is not peculiar to myself1 have these arid wastes taken so firm a hold on my memory8 ,why have not the still more level1 the greener and more fertile ,pampas1 which are serviceable to mankind1 produced an equal impression8 ,i can scarcely analyse these feelings3 but it must be partly owing to the free scope given to the imagination4 ,the plains of ,patagonia are boundless1 for they are scarcely passable1 and hence unknown3 they bear the stamp of having lasted1 as they are now1 for ages1 and there appears no limit to their duration through future time4 ,if1 as the ancients supposed1 the flat earth was surrounded by an impassable breadth of water1 or by deserts heated to an intolerable excess1 who would not look at these last boundaries to man's knowledge with deep but ill-defined sensations8 ,lastly1 of natural scenery1 the views from lofty mountains1 though certainly in one sense not beautiful1 are very memorable4 ,when looking down from the highest crest of the ,cordillera1 the mind1 undisturbed by minute details1 was filled with the stupendous dimensions of the surrounding masses4 ,of individual objects1 perhaps nothing is more certain to create astonishment than the first sight in his native haunt of a barbarian1--of man in his lowest and most savage state4 ,one's mind hurries back over past centuries1 and then asks1 ,could our progenitors have been men like these8--men1 whose very signs and expressions are less intelligible to us than those of the domesticated animals2 men1 who do not possess the instinct of those animals1 nor yet appear to boast of human reason1 or at least of arts consequent on that reason4 ,i do not believe it is possible to describe or paint the difference between savage and civilised man4 ,it is the difference between a wild and tame animal3 and part of the interest in beholding a savage is the same which would lead every one to desire to see the lion in his desert1 the tiger tearing his prey in the jungle1 or the rhinoceros wandering over the wild plains of ,africa4 ,among the other most remarkable spectacles which we have beheld1 may be ranked the ,southern ,cross1 the cloud of ,magellan1 and the other constellations of the southern hemisphere--the waterspout--the glacier leading its blue stream of ice1 overhanging the sea in a bold precipice--a lagoon-island raised by the reef-building corals--an active volcano--and the overwhelming effects of a violent earthquake4 ,these latter phenomena1 perhaps1 possess for me a peculiar interest1 from their intimate connexion with the geological structure of the world4 ,the earthquake1 however1 must be to every one a most impressive event3 the earth1 considered from our earliest childhood as the type of solidity1 has oscillated like a thin crust beneath our feet2 and in seeing the laboured works of man in a moment overthrown1 we feel the insignificance of his boasted power4 ,it has been said that the love of the chase is an inherent delight in man--a relic of an instinctive passion4 ,if so1 ,i am sure the pleasure of living in the open air1 with the sky for a roof and the ground for a table1 is part of the same feeling2 it is the savage returning to his wild and native habits4 ,i always look back to our boat cruises1 and my land journeys1 when through unfrequented countries1 with an extreme delight1 which no scenes of civilisation could have created4 ,i do not doubt that every traveller must remember the glowing sense of happiness which he experienced when he first breathed in a foreign clime where the civilised man had seldom or never trod4 ,there are several other sources of enjoyment in a long voyage which are of a more reasonable nature4 ,the map of the world ceases to be a blank2 it becomes a picture full of the most varied and animated figures4 ,each part assumes its proper dimensions3 continents are not looked at in the light of islands1 or islands considered as mere specks1 which are1 in truth1 larger than many kingdoms of ,europe4 ,africa1 or ,north and ,south ,america1 are well-sounding names1 and easily pronounced2 but it is not until having sailed for weeks along small portions of their shores1 that one is thoroughly convinced what vast spaces on our immense world these names imply4 ,from seeing the present state1 it is impossible not to look forward with high expectations to the future progress of nearly an entire hemisphere4 ,the march of improvement1 consequent on the introduction of ,christianity throughout the ,south ,sea1 probably stands by itself in the records of history4 ,it is the more striking when we remember that only sixty years since1 ,cook1 whose excellent judgment none will dispute1 could foresee no prospect of a change4 ,yet these changes have now been effected by the philanthropic spirit of the ,british nation4 ,in the same quarter of the globe ,australia is rising1 or indeed may be said to have risen1 into a grand centre of civilisation1 which1 at some not very remote period1 will rule as empress over the southern hemisphere4 ,it is impossible for an ,englishman to behold these distant colonies without a high pride and satisfaction4 ,to hoist the ,british flag seems to draw with it as a certain consequence1 wealth1 prosperity1 and civilisation4 ,in conclusion it appears to me that nothing can be more improving to a young naturalist than a journey in distant countries4 ,it both sharpens and partly allays that want and craving1 which1 as ,sir ,j4 ,herschel remarks1 a man experiences although every corporeal sense be fully satisfied4 ,the excitement from the novelty of objects1 and the chance of success1 stimulate him to increased activity4 ,moreover1 as a number of isolated facts soon become uninteresting1 the habit of comparison leads to generalisation4 ,on the other hand1 as the traveller stays but a short time in each place1 his descriptions must generally consist of mere sketches1 instead of detailed observations4 ,hence arises1 as ,i have found to my cost1 a constant tendency to fill up the wide gaps of knowledge by inaccurate and superficial hypotheses4 ,but ,i have too deeply enjoyed the voyage1 not to recommend any naturalist1 although he must not expect to be so fortunate in his companions as ,i have been1 to take all chances1 and to start1 on travels by land if possible1 if otherwise1 on a long voyage4 ,he may feel assured he will meet with no difficulties or dangers1 excepting in rare cases1 nearly so bad as he beforehand anticipates4 ,in a moral point of view the effect ought to be to teach him good-humoured patience1 freedom from selfishness1 the habit of acting for himself1 and of making the best of every occurrence4 ,in short1 he ought to partake of the characteristic qualities of most sailors4 ,travelling ought also to teach him distrust2 but at the same time he will discover how many truly kind-hearted people there are1 with whom he never before had1 or ever again will have any further communication1 who yet are ready to offer him the most disinterested assistance4 ,ascension4 ,terns and noddies ,list of ,illustrations ,h4,m4,s4 ,beagle in ,straits of ,magellan4 ,mt4 ,sarmiento in the distance4 ,h4,m4,s4 ,beagle under full sail1 view from astern4 ,h4,m4,s4 ,beagle3 ,middle section fore and aft1 upper deck1 #ahcb4 ,fernando ,noronha4 ,incrustation of shelly sand4 ,diodon ,maculatus 7,distended and ,contracted74 ,pelagic ,conferv4 ,catamaran 7,bahia74 ,botofogo ,bay1 ,rio ,janeiro4 ,vampire ,bat 7,desmodus ,d',orbigny74 ,virgin ,forest4 ,cabbage ,palm4 ,mandioca or ,cassava4 ,rio ,janeiro4 ,darwin's ,papilio ,feronia1 #ahcc1 now called ,ageronia feronia1 #ahhi4 ,hydrochrus capybara or ,water-hog4 ,recado or ,surcingle of ,gaucho4 ,halt at a ,pulperia on the ,pampas4 ,el ,carmen1 or ,patagones1 ,rio ,negro4 ,brazilian whips4 ,brazilian hobbles and spurs4 ,bringing in a prisoner4 ,irregular troops4 ,skinning uji or water serpents4 ,rhea ,darwinii 7,avestruz ,petise74 ,landing at ,buenos ,ayres4 ,mat pots and bambillio4 ,giant thistle of pampas4 ,cynara ,cardunculus or ,cardoon4 ,evening camp1 ,buenos ,ayres4 ,rozario4 ,parana ,river4 ,toxodon ,platensis4 7,found at ,saladillo47 ,fossil tooth of horse4 7,from ,bahia ,blanca47 ,mylodon4 ,head of ,scissor-beak4 ,rhynchops ,nigra1 or ,scissor-beak4 ,buenos ,ayres bullock-waggons4 ,fuegians and wigwams4 ,opuntia ,darwinii4 ,raised beaches1 ,patagonia4 ,ladies' combs1 banda oriental4 ,condor 7,sarcorhamphus gryphus74 ,basaltic ,glen1 ,santa ,cruz4 ,berkeley ,sound1 ,falkland ,islands4 ,york ,minster 7,bearing ,s4 #ff east47 ,cape ,horn4 ,cape ,horn 7another view74 ,bad weather1 ,magellan ,straits4 ,fuegian basket and bone weapons4 ,false ,horn1 ,cape ,horn4 ,wollaston ,island1 ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,patagonians from ,cape ,gregory4 ,port ,famine1 ,magellan4 ,patagonian ,bolas4 ,patagonian ,spurs and ,pipe4 ,cyttaria ,darwinii4 ,eyre ,sound4 ,glacier in ,gulf of ,penas4 ,flora of ,magellan4 ,macrocystis ,pyrifera1 or ,magellan ,kelp4 ,trochilus ,forficatus4 ,hacienda1 condor1 cactus1 etc4 ,chilian miner4 ,cactus 7,cereus ,peruviana74 ,cordilleras from ,santiago de ,chile4 ,chilian spurs1 stirrup1 etc4 ,old ,church1 ,castro1 ,chiloe4 ,inside ,chonos ,archipelago4 ,gunnera ,scabra1 ,chiloe4 ,antuco ,volcano1 near ,talcahuano4 ,panoramic view of coast1 ,chiloe4 ,inside ,island of ,chiloe4 ,san ,carlos4 ,hide ,bridge1 ,santiago de ,chile4 ,chilenos4 ,south ,american bit4 ,bridge of the ,incas1 ,uspallata ,pass4 ,lima and ,san ,lorenzo4 ,coquimbo1 ,chile4 ,huacas1 ,peruvian pottery4 ,testudo ,abingdonii1 ,galapagos ,islands4 ,galapagos ,archipelago4 ,finches from ,galapagos ,archipelago4 ,amblyrhynchus ,cristatus4 ,opuntia ,galapageia4 ,ava or ,kava 7,macropiper methysticum71 ,tahiti4 ,eimeo and ,barrier-,reef4 ,fatahua ,fall1 ,tahiti4 ,tahitian4 ,hippah1 ,new ,zealand4 ,sydney1 #ahce4 ,hobart ,town and ,mount ,wellington4 ,australian group of weapons and throwing sticks4 ,inside an atoll1 ,keeling ,island4 ,whitsunday ,island4 ,barrier-reef1 ,bolabola4 ,sections of barrier-reefs4 ,section of coral-reef4 ,section of coral-reef4 ,bolabola ,island4 ,corals4 ,birgos ,latro1 ,keeling ,island4 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mauritius4 ,st4 ,helena4 ,cellular formation of volcanic bomb4 ,cicada ,homoptera4 ,homeward bound4 ,ascension4 ,terns and noddies4 ,index ,,abbott1 ,mr41 on spiders1 #cf ,aborigines banished from ,van ,diemen's ,land1 #dge of ,australia1 #dcj to #deh ,abrolhos ,islands1 #i1 #ad ,absence of trees in ,pampas1 #dh ,aconcagua1 volcano of1 #bfi1 #bid1 #cab ,actinia1 stinging species1 #did ,africa1 ,southern part desert1 yet supports large animals1 #hi ,ageronia feronia1 #ci ,agouti1 habits of1 #gb ,ague common in ,peru1 #chi ,albemarle ,island1 #dja1 #dbj ,allan1 ,dr41 on ,diodon1 #ad on ,holuthuri1 #did ,alluvium1 saliferous1 in ,peru1 #cfg stratified1 in ,andes1 #ccc ,amblyrhynchus1 #dja1 #daa ,anas1 species of1 #baj ,animalcul4 ,see ,infusoria ,antarctic islands1 #bfc ,antipodes1 #ddd ,ants at ,keeling ,island1 #dhe in ,brazil1 #cf ,antuco volcano1 #caa ,apires1 or miners #cfd ,aplysia1 #f1 #dic ,apple-trees1 #cah ,aptenodytes demersa1 #bji ,araucanian ,indians1 #ff ,areas of alternate movements in the ,pacific and ,indian oceans1 #dhj ,armadilloes1 habits of1 #aaj fossil animals allied to1 #acg1 #afd ,arqueros mines1 #cfi ,arrow-heads1 ancient1 #aji1 #cha ,ascension1 #ebb1 #ech ,aspalax1 blindness of1 #ec ,athene cunicularia1 #gc1 #acb ,atolls1 #dij1 #die ,attagis1 #ih ,atwater1 ,mr41 on the prairies1 #abd ,audubon1 ,m41 on smelling-power of carrion-hawks1 #aie ,australia1 #dei ,australian barrier1 #dii group of weapons1 #dhj ,ava 7,macropiper methysticum71 #dbh1 #dcf ,azara on spiders1 #ci on rain in ,la ,plata1 #di on habits of carrion-hawks1 #eh on range of carrion-hawks1 #fj on a thunder-storm1 #fe on ostrich-eggs1 #ie on bows and arrows1 #aaj on new plants springing up1 #abe on great droughts1 #adb on hydrophobia1 #cgh ,,bachman1 ,mr41 on carrion-hawks1 #aie ,bahia ,blanca1 #ej1 #gj1 #gg to #aaj fossil tooth of horse from1 #ach ,bahia1 ,brazil1 #aa scenery of1 #ebf ,bajada1 #acf ,balbi on coral reefs1 #dii ,bald ,head1 ,australia1 #dgi ,ballenar1 ,chile1 #cgc ,banda ,oriental1 #dh1 #aeb1 #aeh1 #ahf ,banks's ,hill1 #bba ,barking-bird1 #cjg ,barrier-reef1 ,bolabola1 #dih reefs1 sections of1 #ejj ,basaltic platform of ,santa ,cruz1 #ahb ,bathurst1 ,australia1 #dgj ,batrachian reptiles1 #aja ,bats1 vampire1 #bb1 #bc ,bay of ,islands1 ,new ,zealand1 #ddd ,beads1 hill of1 #aeh ,beagle ,channel1 ,tierra del ,fuego1 #bcj ,beech-trees1 #bea1 #bib ,beetles in brackish water1 #bb on a fungus1 #cb alive in sea1 #afh at ,st4 ,julian1 #ahj dung-feeders1 #ebj1 #eba ,behring's ,straits1 fossils of1 #adj ,bell of ,quillota1 #bgj ,benchuca1 #ceb ,berkeley ,sound1 #aii1 #bad ,rev4 ,j41 on ,conferv1 #ae on ,cyttaria1 #bej ,berquelo river1 #aeh ,bibron1 ,m41 #djg ,bien te veo1 #ef ,birds of the ,galapagos ,archipelago1 #dje tameness of1 #dbd ,birgos latro1 #dib1 #eab ,bizcacha1 habits of1 #gc1 #acj1 #bgc ,blackheath1 ,australia1 #dff ,blackwall1 ,mr41 on spiders1 #aga ,blindness of tucutuco1 #ec ,blue ,mountains1 #dfe ,body1 frozen1 #ic1 #bfc ,bolabola1 barrier-reef1 #dih1 #ejd ,bolas1 manner of using1 #df1 #aag ,bombs1 volcanic1 #ebd ,bones of the guanaco collected in certain spots1 #agg fire made of1 #bje recent in ,pampas1 #adb fossil1 #hf1 #acd1 #acg1 #afd1 #ahb ,bory ,st4 ,vincent on frogs1 #djg ,boulders1 #aig1 #bfb ,bramador1 ,el1 #ceh ,brazil1 great area of granite1 #ab ,brazilian whips1 etc41 #ge ,breaches in coral reefs1 #ejb ,breakwater of seaweed1 #bec ,brewster1 ,sir ,d41 on a calcareous deposit1 #aj ,bridge of hide1 #ccd of ,incas1 #ceg1 #chj1 #cid ,buckland1 ,dr41 on fossils1 #adj ,buenos ,ayres1 #abg trading at1 #aaa evening camp1 #abh bullock-waggons1 #aej ,buffon on ,american ,animals1 #ahc ,bug of ,pampas1 #ceb ,buildings1 ,indian1 #cha to #chc1 #cid ,bulimus on desert places1 #cga ,burchell1 ,mr41 on food of quadrupeds1 #ia on ostrich-eggs1 #ie 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