,,elem5ts ,,( ,,morals3 ,,) ,,special ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,moral ,,law ,,to ,,! ,,duties ,,( ,,! ,,individual ,,& ,,( ,,society ,,& ,,! ,,/ate4 ,,by ,,paul ,,janet1 ,,memb] ,,( ,,! ,,in/itute1 ,,( ,,! ,,academy ,,( ,,moral ,,& ,,political ,,sci5ces1 ,,au?or ,,( ,,!ory ,,( ,,morals1 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,moral ,,& ,,political ,,philosophy1 ,,f9al ,,causes1 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,,translat$ ,,by ,,mrs4 ,c4 ,r4 ,,corson4 ,a4 ,s4 ,,b>nes ,,co41 ,,new ,,york ,,& ,,*icago ,copyright1 #ahhd1 by ,a4 ,s4 ,b>nes ,co4 ,,preface4 ,! ,elem5ts de ,morale1 by ,m4 ,paul ,janet1 :i* we "h pres5t to ! educational _w1 translat$ f ! late/ edition1 is1 ( all ! works ( t di/+ui%$ morali/1 ! "o be/ adapt$ to college & s*ool purposes4 ,its s*ol>ly & me?odical arrangem5t1 its cle> & direct reason+s1 its felicit\s examples & illu/rations1 drawn ) r>e imp>tiality f ! be/ anci5t & mod]n writ]s1 make ( ?is /udy ( ,e?ics1 g5]ally s unattractive to "y /ud5ts1 "o s+ul>ly invit+4 ,x is a sy/em ( morals1 practical r ?an !oretical1 sett+ =? man's duties & ! application !reto ( ! moral law4 ,/>t+ ) ,prelim9>y ,notions1 ,m4 ,janet foll[s ^! up ) a g5]al division ( duties1 e/abli%es ! g5]al pr9ciples ( social & individual morality1 & *apt] by *apt] moves f duties to duties1 develop+ ea* 9 all its ramifications ) un]r+ cle>ness1 decision1 & complet5ess4 ,nev] be=e1 p]haps1 0 ?is difficult subject br\ght to ! compreh5sion ( ! /ud5t ) m conv9c+ c]ta9ty1 &1 at ! same "t1 ) m vivid & impressive illu/rations4 ,! position ( ,m4 ,paul ,janet is t ( ! religi\s morali/4 ,he supplies1 says a writ] 9 ! ,briti% ,qu>t]ly ,review1#a 9 a notice ( 8 ,!ory ( ,morals1 ! v elem5t to :i* ,mr4 ,sully gives s little place4 ,he _c conceive morals )\t religion4 ,/at$ %ortly1 8 position is1 t moral good is f\nd$ ^u a natural & ess5tial good1 & t ! doma9s ( good & ( duty are absolutely equival5t4 ,s f> he w\ld seem to foll[ ,kant2 b he diff]s f ,kant 9 d5y+ t !re are indef9ite duties3 e duty1 he holds1 is def9ite z to its =m2 b x is ei!r def9ite or indef9ite z to its application4 ,z religion is simply belief 9 ! ,div9e goodness1 morality mu/ by necessity lead to religion1 & is l a fl[]less plant if x fail to d s4 ,he holds ) ,kant t practical fai? 9 ! exi/5ce ( ,god is ! po/ulate ( ! moral law4 ,! two ?+s exi/ or fall toge!r4 ,?is1 z to ,m4 ,janet's position z a morali/2 z to 8 mann] ( treat+ 8 subject1 ! writ] adds3 444 x is beyond our p[] to set =?1 ) approa* to success1 ! admirable s]ies ( reason+s & illu/rations by :i* 8 positions are e/abli%$ & ma9ta9$4 ,m4 ,janet's signal m]it is ! cle>ness & decision :i* he gives to ! ma9 po9ts ( 8 subject1 keep+ !m ev] di/9ctly 9 view1 & /r5g!n+ & supplem5t+ !m by sub/antial & conclusive facts1 drawn f ! be/ s\rces1 fram+1 s to say1 8 idea 9 "t-honor$ & irrefutable tru?s4 ,! law ( duty ?us made cle> to ! compreh5sion ( ! /ud5t1 _c fail to fix 8 att5tion2 & betwe5 fix+ ! att5tion & /rik+ root1 ! diff]5ce is n v great4 ,c4 ,r4 ,c4 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,page ,i4--,prelim9>y ,notions #a ,,ii4--,division ( ,duties4--,g5]al ,pr9ciples ( ,social ,morality #cc ,,iii4--,duties ( ,ju/ice4--,duties t[>d ,human ,life #ej ,,iv4--,duties ,conc]n+ ! ,prop]ty ( ,o!rs #fc ,v4--,duties t[>d ! ,lib]ty & t[>d ! ,honor ( ,o!rs4--,ju/ice1 ,di/ributive & ,remun]ative4-- ,equity #ic ,,vi4--,duties ( ,*>ity & ,self-,sacrifice #aaa ,,vii4--,duties t[>d ! ,/ate #aci ,,viii4--,pr(essional ,duties #aeg ,,ix4--,duties ( ,nations among !mselves4--,int]national ,law #ahb ,x4--,family ,duties #aij ,,xi4--,duties t[>d ,"o's ,self4--,duties relative to ! ,body #bbc ,,xii4--,duties relative to ,ext]nal ,goods #bdd ,,xiii4--,duties relative to ! ,intellect #bfj ,,xiv4--,duties relative to ! ,w #bha ,,xv4--,religi\s ,morality4--,religi\s ,rights & ,duties #bii ,,xvi4--,moral ,m$ic9e & ,gymna/ics #cae ,app5dix to ,*apt] ,,viii #cda ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,morals4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelim9>y ,,notions4 ,,summ>y4 ,/>t+ po9t ( morals4--,notions ( common s5se4 ,object & divisions ( morals4--,practical morality & !oretical morality4 ,utility ( morals4--,morals are useful3 #a1 9 protect+ u aga9/ ! sophisms :i* combat !m2 #b1 9 fix+ pr9ciples 9 ! m9d2 #c1 9 tea*+ u to reflect ^u ! motives ( our actions2 #d1 9 prep>+ u = ! difficulties :i* may arise 9 practice4 ,%ort resume ( !oretical morality4--,pleasure & ! good4--,! useful & ! hone/4--,duty4--,moral consci5ce & moral s5tim5t4--,lib]ty4--,m]it & dem]it4--,moral responsibility4--,moral sanction4 ,all sci5ces h = _! />t+-po9t c]ta9 elem5t>y notions :i* are furni%$ !m by ! common exp]i5ce ( mank9d4 ,!re w\ld be no ari?metic if m5 _h n1 z _! wants increas$1 begun by c\nt+ & calculat+1 & if !y _h n already _h "s ideas ( numb]s1 unity1 fractions1 etc42 nei!r w\ld !re be any geometry if !y _h n also _h ideas ( ! r\nd1 ! squ>e1 ! /raight l9e4 ,! same is true ( morals4 ,!y presuppose a c]ta9 numb] ( notions exi/+ among all m51 at lea/ to "s degree4 ,good & evil1 duty & obligation1 consci5ce1 lib]ty & responsibility1 virtue & vice1 m]it & dem]it1 sanction1 puni%m5t & rew>d1 are notions :i* ! philosoph] has n inv5t$1 b :i* he has borr[$ f common s5se1 to return !m aga9 cle>$ & deep5$4 ,let u beg91 !n1 by rapidly enum]at+ ! elem5t>y & common notions1 ! analysis & elucidation ( :i* is ! object ( moral sci5ce1 & expla9 ! t]ms employ$ to express !m4 #a4 ,/>t+ po9t ( morals3 common notions4--,all m5 di/+ui% ! good & ! bad1 good actions & bad actions4 ,= in/ance1 to love "o's p>5ts1 respect o!r p's prop]ty1 to keep "o's ^w1 etc41 is "r2 to h>m ^? :o h done u no h>m1 to deceive & lie1 to be ungrateful t[>ds our b5efactors1 & unfai?ful to our fri5ds1 etc41 is wrong4 ,to d "r is obligatory on e "o--t is1 x %\ld be done2 wrong1 on ! contr>y1 %\ld be avoid$4 ,duty is t law by :i* we are held to d ! "r & avoid ! wrong4 ,x is also call$ ! moral law4 ,?is law1 l all laws1 comm&s1 =bids1 & p]mits4 ,he :o acts & is capable ( do+ ! "r & ! wrong1 & :o consequ5tly is held to obey ! moral law1 is call$ a moral ag5t4 ,9 ord] t an ag5t may be held to obey a law1 he mu/ "k x & und]/& x4 ,9 morals1 z 9 legislation1 no "o is suppos$ to be ignorant ( ! law4 ,!re is1 !n1 9 e man a c]ta9 k ( ! law1 t is to say1 a natural disc]nm5t ( ! "r & ! wrong4 ,?is disc]nm5t is :at is call$ consci5ce1 or sometimes ! moral s5se4 ,consci5ce is an act ( ! m9d1 a judgm5t4 ,b x is n only ! m9d t is made aw>e ( ! "r & ! wrong3 x is ! he>t4 ,good & evil1 done ei!r by o!rs or by ourselves1 awak5 9 u emotions1 affections ( div]se nature4 ,^! emotions or affections are :at collectively con/itute ! moral s5tim5t4 ,x does n suffice t a man "k & di/+ui% ! good & ! evil1 & exp]i5ce = ! "o & = ! o!r diff]5t s5tim5ts2 x is also necess>y1 9 ord] to be a moral ag5t1 t he be capable ( *oos+ betwe5 !m2 he _c be comm&$ to d :at he _c d1 nor c he be =bidd5 to d :at he _c help do+4 ,?is p[] ( *oos+ is call$ lib]ty1 or free w4 ,a free ag5t--"o1 namely1 :o c disc]n betwe5 ! "r & ! wrong--is said to be responsible = 8 actions2 t is to say1 he c answ] = !m1 give an acc\nt ( !m1 suff] _! consequ5ces2 he is !n _! real cause4 ,8 actions may consequ5tly be attribut$ to him1 put to 8 acc\nt2 9 o!r words imput$ to him4 ,! ag5t is responsible1 ! actions are imputable4 ,human actions1 we h said1 are sometimes good1 sometimes bad4 ,^! two qualifications h degrees 9 proportion to ! importance or ! difficulty ( ! action4 ,x is ?us we call an action suitable1 e/imable1 beautiful1 admirable1 sublime1 etc4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a bad action is sometimes b a simple mi/ake1 & sometimes a crime4 ,x is culpable1 base1 abom9able1 execrable1 etc4 ,if we obs]ve 9 an ag5t ! habit ( good actions1 a con/ant t5d5cy to con=m to ! law ( duty1 ?is habit or con/ant t5d5cy is call$ virtue1 & ! contr>y t5d5cy is call$ vice4 ,:il/ man feels himself b\nd by 8 consci5ce to seek ! "r1 he is impell$ by 8 nature to seek pleasure4 ,:5 he enjoys pleasure )\t any admixture ( pa91 he is happy2 & ! highe/ degree ( possible pleasure ) ! lea/ degree ( possible pa9 is happ9ess4 ,n[1 exp]i5ce %[s t happ9ess is n always 9 h>mony ) virtue1 & t pleasure does n necess>ily accompany "r do+4 ,& yet we f9d su* a sep>ation unju/2 & we believe 9 a natural & legitimate connection betwe5 pleasure & "r1 pa9 & wrong4 ,pleasure1 consid]$ z ! consequ5ce ( well-do+1 is call$ recomp5se2 & pa91 consid]$ z ! legitimate consequ5ce ( evil1 is call$ puni%m5t4 ,:5 a man has done well he ?9ks1 & all o!r m5 ?9k1 t he has a "r to a recomp5se4 ,:5 he has done ill !y ?9k ! contr>y1 & he himself ?9ks also t he mu/ atone = 8 wrong-do+ by a *a/isem5t4 ,?is pr9ciple1 by virtue ( :i* we decl>e a moral ag5t des]v+ ( happ9ess or unhapp9ess accord+ to 8 good or bad actions1 is call$ ! pr9ciple ( m]it & dem]it4 ,! sum total ( ! rew>ds & puni%m5ts atta*$ to ! execution or violation ( a law is call$ sanction2 ! sanction ( ! moral law w !n be call$ moral sanction4 ,all law presupposes a legislator4 ,! moral law w presuppose1 !n1 a moral legislator1 & morality consequ5tly raises u to ,god4 ,all human or e>?ly sanction be+ %[n by obs]vation to be insuffici5t1 ! moral law calls = a religi\s sanction4 ,x is ?us t morality conducts u to ! immortality ( ! s\l4 ,if we g back ^u ! :ole ( ! ideas we h j briefly express$1 we %all see t at ea* ( ! /eps we h tak5 !re are always two contr>ies oppos$ ! "o to ! o!r3 good & evil1 comm& & prohibition1 virtue & vice1 m]it & dem]it1 pleasure & pa91 rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,human life pres5ts itself1 !n1 "u two aspects4 ,man c *oose betwe5 ! two4 ,?is p[] is lib]ty4 ,?is *oice is difficult & labori\s2 x exacts f u incessant ef=ts4 ,x is = ?is reason t life is said to be a trial1 & is (t5 repres5t$ z a combat4 ,x %\ld !re=e n be repres5t$ z a play1 b r z a manly & valiant ef=t4 ,/ruggle is its condition1 peace its prize4 ,su* are ! fundam5tal ideas morality has = its object1 & ( :i* x seeks1 at ! same "t1 bo? ! pr9ciples & ! applications4 #b4 ,:at is morality8 ! object ( morality4--,morality may be consid]$ z a sci5ce or z an art4 ,by sci5ce we und]/& a totality ( tru?s connect$ ) ea* o!r conc]n+ "o & ! same object4 ,sci5ce has = its object prop]1 k4 ,by art we und]/& a totality ( rules or precepts = direct+ activity t[>ds a def9ite end2 art has = its object prop]1 action4 ,sci5ce is !oretical or speculative2 art is practical4 ,morality is a sci5ce inasmu* z x seeks to "k & demon/rate ! pr9ciples & conditions ( morality2 x is an art inasmu* z x %[s & prescribes to u its applications4 ,z sci5ce1 morality may be def9$3 sci5ce ( good or sci5ce ( duty4 ,z art1 morality may be def9$3 ! art ( "r liv+ or ! art ( "r act+4 #c4 ,division ( morality4--,morality is divid$ into two p>ts3 9 "o x /udies pr9ciples1 9 ! o!r1 applications2 9 ! "o1 duty2 9 ! o!r1 duties4 ,h5ce a !oretical morality & a practical morality4 ,! fir/ may also be call$ g5]al morality1 & ! second p>ticul> morality1 because ! fir/ has = its object ! /udy ( ! common & g5]al "* ( all our duties1 & ! o!r especially t ( ! p>ticul> duties1 :i* v>y accord+ to objects & circum/ances4 ,x is 9 ! fir/ t morality has especially ! "* ( sci5ce1 & 9 ! second1 ! "* ( art4 #d4 ,utility ( morality4--,! utility ( moral sci5ce has be5 disput$4 ,! anci5ts que/ion$ :e!r virtue c\ld be taught4 ,x may also be ask$ :e!r x %\ld be taught4 ,morality1 x is said1 dep5ds mu* m ^u ! he>t ?an ^u ! reason+ faculties4 ,x is r by education1 example1 habit1 religion1 s5tim5t1 ?an ?r\gh !ories1 t m5 become habituat$ to virtue4 ,if ?is 7 s1 moral sci5ce w\ld be ( no use4 ,h[ev]1 ?\gh x may be true t = happ9ess no?+ c take ! place ( practice1 x does n foll[ t reflection & /udy may n v efficaci\sly contribute t[>d x1 & = ! foll[+ reasons3 #a4 ,x (t5 happ5s t evil has its orig9 9 ! sophisms ( ! m9d1 sophisms ev] at ! s]vice ( ! passions4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to w>d (f or prev5t ^! sophisms by a ?or\gh discussion ( pr9ciples4 #b4 ,a c>eful /udy ( ! pr9ciples ( morality causes !m to p5etrate deep] into ! s\l & gives !m !re great] fixity4 #c4 ,morality consi/s n only 9 ! actions !mselves1 b especially 9 ! motives ( our actions4 ,an outw>d morality1 :olly ( habit & imitation1 is n yet ! true morality4 ,morality mu/ ne$s be accompani$ by consci5ce & reflection4 ,s view$1 moral sci5ce is a necess>y elem5t ( a s\nd education1 & ! high] its pr9ciples ! m ! consci5ce is rais$ & ref9$4 #d4 ,life (t5 pres5ts moral problems = our solution4 ,if ! m9d is n prep>$ = !m x w lack c]ta9ty ( decision2 :at above all is to be fe>$ is t x w mo/ly pref] ! easi] & ! m conv5i5t solution4 ,x %\ld be =tifi$ 9 advance aga9/ its own weakness by acquir+ ! habit ( judg+ ( g5]al que/ions be=e ev5ts put x to ! pro(4 ,su* is ! utility ( morality4 ,x is ( ! same s]vice to man z geometry is to ! workman2 x does n take ! place ( tact & common s5se1 b x guides & p]fects !m4 ,x is well und]/ood1 moreov]1 t su* a /udy 9 n[ise excludes1 x ev5 exacts1 ! co-op]ation ( all ! practical means we h indicat$ above1 :i* con/itute :at is call$ education4 ,doctr9al tea*+ is b ! complem5t & confirmation ( tea*+ by practice & by example4 #e4 ,%ort resume ( !oretical morality4--,!oretical morality %\ld1 9 fact1 prec$e practical morality1 & t is :at usually takes place2 b z x pres5ts m difficulties & less imm$iate applications ?an practical morality1 we %all def] ! developm5ts x may give rise to1 to a subsequ5t ye>4#b ,! pres5t w be a %ort resume1 purely elem5t>y1 conta9+ only prelim9>y & /rictly necess>y notions4 ,x w be an exposition ( ! common notions we h j enum]at$ above4 #f4 ,pleasure & ! good4--,morality be+1 z we h said1 ! sci5ce ( ! good1 ! fir/ "q t pres5ts itself is3 ,:at is good8 ,if we are to believe ! fir/ impulses ( nature1 :i* in/9ctively urge u t[>ds ! agreeable & cause u to repel all t is pa9ful1 ! answ] to ! prec$+ "q w\ld n be difficult2 we %\ld h b to reply3 ,good is :at makes u happy2 good is pleasure4 ,"o c1 )\t d\bt1 affirm t morality tea*es u to be happy1 & puts u on ! way to true happ9ess4 ,b x is n1 z "o might believe1 9 obey+ t bl9d law ( nature :i* incl9es u t[>ds pleasure1 t we %all be truly happy4 ,! road morality po9ts out is less easy1 b sur]4 ,"s v simple reflections w suffice to %[ u t x _c be said absolutely t pleasure is ! good & pa9 ! bad4 ,exp]i5ce & reason+ easily demon/rate ! falsity ( ?is op9ion4 #a4 ,pleasure is n always a good1 & 9 c]ta9 circum/ances x may ev5 become a real evil2 &1 vice v]sa1 pa9 is n always an evil1 & x may ev5 become a great good4 ,?us we see1 on ! "o h&1 t ! pleasures ( intemp]ance br+ ) !m sickness1 ! loss ( heal? & reason1 %ort5+ ( life4 ,! pleasures ( idl5ess br+ pov]ty1 uselessness1 ! contempt ( m54 ,! pleasures ( v5geance & ( crime c>ry ) !m *a/isem5t1 remorse1 etc4 ,conv]sely1 aga91 we see ! mo/ pa9ful tr\bles & trials br++ ) !m evid5t good4 ,! amputation ( a limb saves our life2 en]getic & pa9/ak+ "w br+s com=t1 etc4 ,9 ^! diff]5t cases1 if we consid] _! results1 x is pleasure t is an evil & pa9 a good4 #b4 ,x mu/ be add$ t among ! pleasures !re are "s t are l[1 degrad+1 vulg>2 = example1 ! pleasures ( drunk5ness2 o!rs1 aga91 t are noble & g5]\s1 z ! h]oism ( ! soldi]4 ,among ! pleasures ( man !re are "s he has 9 common ) ! bea/s1 & o!rs t are peculi> to him alone4 ,%all we put ! "o k9d & ! o!r on ! same level8 ,assur$ly n4 #c4 ,!re are pleasures v ke51 :i*1 h[ev]1 are fleet+1 & soon pass away1 z ! pleasures ( ! passions2 o!rs :i* are durable & cont9u\s1 z ^? ( heal?1 security1 dome/ic com=t1 & ! respect ( mank9d4 ,%all we sacrifice life-long pleasures to pleasures t la/ b an h\r8 #d4 ,o!r pleasures are v great1 b equally unc]ta91 & dep5d5t on *ance2 z1 = in/ance1 ! pleasures ( ambition or ! pleasures ( ! gam+-table2 o!rs1 aga91 calm] & less intoxicat+1 b sur]1 z ! pleasures ( ! family circle4 ,pleasures may !n be comp>$ 9 reg>d to c]ta9ty1 purity1 durability1 int5sity1 etc4 ,exp]i5ce tea*es t we %\ld n seek pleasures )\t di/9ction & *oice2 t we %\ld use our reason & comp>e !m2 t we %\ld sacrifice an unc]ta9 & fleet+ pres5t to a durable future2 pref] ! simple & peaceful pleasures1 free f regrets1 to ! tumultu\s & dang]\s pleasures ( ! passions1 etc42 9 a ^w1 sacrifice ! agreeable to ! useful4 #g4 ,utility & hone/y4--,"o %\ld pref]1 we h j se51 ! useful to ! agreeable2 b ! useful itself %\ld n be conf\nd$ ) ! real good--t is1 ) ! hone/4 ,let u expla9 ! diff]5ces betwe5 ^! two ideas4 #a4 ,!re is no hone/y or moral goodness )\t dis9t]e/$ness2 & he :o nev] seeks any?+ b 8 own p]sonal int]e/ is br&$ by all z a selfi% man4 #b4 ,int]e/ gives only advice2 morality gives comm&s4 ,a man is n oblig$ to be skillful1 b he is oblig$ to be hone/4 #c4 ,p]sonal int]e/ _c be ! f\ndation ( any univ]sal & g5]al law z applicable to o!rs z to ourselves1 = ! happ9ess ( ea* dep5ds on 8 own way ( view+ ?+s4 ,e man takes 8 pleasure :]e he f9ds x1 & und]/&s 8 int]e/ z he pleases2 b hone/y or ju/ice is ! same = all m54 #d4 ,! hone/ is cle> & self-evid5t2 ! useful is unc]ta94 ,consci5ce tells e "o :at is "r or wrong2 b x requires a long tra9$ exp]i5ce to calculate all ! possible consequ5ces ( our actions1 & x w\ld (t5 be absolutely impossible = u to =esee !m4 ,we _c1 !re=e1 always "k :at is useful to u2 b we c always "k :at is "r4 #e4 ,x is nev] impossible to d "r2 b "o _c always c>ry out 8 own wi%es 9 ord] to be happy4 ,! prison] may always bravely be> 8 prison1 b he _c always get out ( x4 #f4 ,we judge ourselves accord+ to ! pr9ciples ( action we recognize4 ,! man :o loses 9 gambl+ may be tr\bl$ & regret 8 imprud5ce2 b he :o is consci\s ( hav+ *eat$ 9 gambl+ 7?\gh he won !reby7 mu/ despise himself if he judges himself f ! /&po9t ( moral law4 ,?is law mu/ !re=e be some?+ else ?an ! pr9ciple ( p]sonal happ9ess4 ,=1 to be able to say to "o's self1 ,i am a villa91 ?\gh ,i h fill$ my purse1 requires ano!r pr9ciple ?an t by :i* "o congratulates himself1 say+1 ,i am a prud5t man1 = ,i h fill$ my ca%-box4 #g4 ,! idea ( puni%m5t or *a/isem5t c\ld n be und]/ood1 moreov]1 if ! good only 7 ! useful4 ,a man is n puni%$ = hav+ be5 awkw>d2 he is puni%$ = be+ culpable4 #h4 ,! good or ! hone/4--,we h j se5 t nei!r pleasure nor usefulness is ! legitimate & supreme object ( human life4 ,we are c]ta9ly p]mitt$ to seek pleasure1 s9ce nature invites u to x2 b we %\ld n make x ! aim ( life4 ,we are also p]mitt$1 & ev5 sometimes comm&$1 to seek :at is useful1 s9ce reason dem&s we see to our self-pres]vation4 ,b1 above pleasure & utility1 !re is ano!r aim1 a high] aim1 ! real object ( human life4 ,?is high] & f9al aim is :at we call1 accord+ to circum/ances1 ! good1 ! hone/1 & ! j4 ,n[1 :at is hone/y8 ,we di/+ui% 9 man a d\ble nature1 body & s\l2 & 9 ! s\l itself two p>ts1 "o sup]ior1 "o inf]ior2 "o m p>ticul>ly des]v+ ( ! "n ( s\l1 ! o!r m c>nal1 m mat]ial1 if "o may say s1 :i* comes ne>] ! body4 ,9 "o class we h intellig5ce1 s5tim5ts1 w2 9 ! o!r1 s5ses1 appetites1 passions4 ,n[1 t :i* di/+ui%es man f ! l[] animal is ! p[] to rise above ! s5ses1 appetites1 & passions1 & to be capable ( ?9k+1 lov+1 & will+4 ,?us1 moral good consi/s 9 pref]r+ :at !re is be/ 9 u to :at !re is lea/ good2 ! goods ( ! s\l to ! goods ( ! body2 ! dignity ( human nature to ! s]vitude ( animal passions2 ! noble affections ( ! he>t to ! incl9ations ( a vile selfi%ness4 ,9 "o ^w1 moral good consi/s 9 man becom+ truly man--t is to say1 ,a free w1 guid$ by ! he>t & enlight5$ by reason4 ,moral good takes diff]5t names1 accord+ to ! relations "u :i* we consid] x4 ,= in/ance1 :5 we consid] x z hav+ = its special object ! individual man 9 relation ) himself1 good becomes :at is prop]ly call$ ! hone/1 & has = its prime object p]sonal dignity4 ,9 its relation ) o!r m51 good takes ! "n ( ! j1 & has = its special object ! happ9ess ( o!rs4 ,x consi/s ei!r 9 n do+ to o!rs :at we %\ld n wi% !y %\ld d to u1 or 9 do+ to o!rs z we %\ld ourselves wi% to be done by4 ,f9ally1 9 its relation to ,god1 ! good is call$ piety or sa9tl9ess1 & consi/s 9 r5d]+ to ! ,fa!r ( m5 & ( ! univ]se :at is 8 due4 #i4 ,duty4--,?us1 ! hone/1 ! j1 & ! pi\s are ! diff]5t names :i* moral good takes 9 its relations to ourselves1 to o!r m51 or to ,god4 ,moral good1 "u ^! diff]5t =ms1 pres5ts itself always 9 ! same "*1 namely1 impos+ on u ! obligation to d x z soon z we recognize x1 & t1 too1 )\t reg>d to consequ5ces & :atev] be our incl9ations to ! contr>y4 ,?us1 we %\ld tell ! tru? ev5 ?\gh x injures u2 we %\ld respect ! prop]ty ( o!rs1 ?\gh x be necess>y to our exi/5ce2 f9ally1 we %\ld ev5 sacrifice1 if necess>y1 our life = ! family & ! c\ntry4 ,?is law1 :i* prescribes to u ! do+ "r = its own sake1 is :at is call$ moral law or ! law ( duty4 ,x is a sort ( con/ra9t1 b a moral con/ra9t1 & is di/+ui%$ f physical con/ra9t by ! fact t ! latt] is dictat$ by fate & is irresi/ible1 :il/ ! con/ra9t ( duty imposes itself ^u our reason )\t violat+ our lib]ty4 ,?is k9d ( necessity1 :i* comm&s reason alone )\t con/ra9+ ! w1 is moral obligation4 ,to say t ! "r is obligatory is to say1 !n1 t we consid] ourselves held to d x1 )\t be+ =c$ to d x4 ,on ! contr>y1 if we 7 to d x by =ce x w\ld cease to be ! "r4 ,x mu/ !re=e be done freely1 & duty may ?us be def9$ an obligation cons5t$ to4 ,duty pres5ts itself 9 a two-fold "*3 x is absolute & univ]sal4 #a4 ,x is absolute3 t is to say1 x imposes its comm&s unconditionally1 )\t tak+ acc\nt ( our desires1 our passions1 our int]e/s4 ,x is by ?is t ! comm&s ( duty may be di/+ui%$1 z we h already said1 f ! c\nsels ( an int]e/$ prud5ce4 ,! rules or calculations ( prud5ce are no?+ b means to rea* a c]ta9 end1 :i* is ! useful4 ,! law ( duty1 on ! contr>y1 is 9 itself its own aim4 ,"h ! law %\ld be obey$ = its own sake1 & n = any o!r reason4 ,prud5ce says3 ,! end ju/ifies ! means4 ,duty says3 ,d z ?\ %\ld/ d1 let come :at w4 #b4 ,f ?is fir/ "* a second is d$uc$3 duty be+ absolute1 is univ]sal2 t is to say1 x c be appli$ to all m5 9 ! same mann] & "u ! same circum/ances2 :5ce x foll[s t ea* mu/ ackn[l$ge t ?is law is impos$ n only on himself1 b on all o!r m5 also4 ,to :i* correspond ^? two beautiful maxims ( ! ,gospel3 ,d to o!rs z ?\ wi%e/ to be done by4 ,d n d to o!rs :at ?\ do/ n wi% !y %\ld d to !e4 ,! law ( duty is n only obligatory 9 itself1 x is s also because x is d]iv$ f ,god1 :o 9 8 ju/ice & goodness wi%es we %\ld submit to x4 ,god be+ himself ! absolutely p]fect be+1 & hav+ creat$ u 9 8 image1 wi%es1 = ?is v reason1 t we %\ld make e ef=t to imitate him z mu* z possible1 & has ?us impos$ on u ! obligation ( be+ virtu\s4 ,x is ,god we obey 9 obey+ ! law ( hone/y & duty4 #aj4 ,moral consci5ce4--,a law _c be impos$ on a free ag5t )\t its be+ kn[n to him2 )\t its be+ pres5t to 8 m9d--t is to say1 )\t 8 accept+ x z true1 & recogniz+ ! necessity ( its application 9 e p>ticul> case4 ,?is faculty ( recogniz+ ! moral law1 & apply+ x 9 all ! circum/ances t may pres5t !mselves1 is :at is call$ consci5ce4 ,consci5ce is !n t act ( ! m9d by :i* we apply to a p>ticul> case1 to an action to be p]=m$ or already p]=m$1 ! g5]al rules prescrib$ by moral law4 ,x is bo? ! p[] t comm&s & ! inw>d judge t condemns or absolves4 ,on ! "o h& x dictates :at %\ld be done or avoid$2 on ! o!r x judges :at has be5 done4 ,h5ce x is ! condition ( ! p]=mance ( all our duties4 ,consci5ce be+ ! practical judgm5t :i* 9 ea* p>ticul> case decides ! "r & ! wrong1 "o c ask ( man only "o ?+3 namely1 to act accord+ to 8 consci5ce4 ,at ! mom5t ( action !re is no o!r rule4 ,b "o mu/ take great c>e le/ by subtle d\bts1 he obscures ei!r )9 himself or 9 o!rs ! cle> & di/9ct decisions ( consci5ce4 ,9 fact1 m5 (t51 to div]t !mselves f ! "r :5 !y wi% to d c]ta9 bad actions1 fight _! own consci5ce ) sophisms4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ^! sophisms1 consci5ce becomes errone\s2 t is to say1 x ends by tak+ good = evil & evil = good1 & ?is is ev5 "o ( ! puni%m5ts ( ^? :o foll[ ! pa? ( vice3 !y become at la/ incapable ( disc]n+ betwe5 "r & wrong4 ,:5 x is said ( a man t he has no consci5ce1 x is n meant t he is really depriv$ ( x 7else he 7 n a man72 b t he has fall5 into ! habit ( n consult+ x or ( hold+ its decisions 9 contempt4 ,by ignorant consci5ce we mean t consci5ce :i* does wrong because x has n yet le>n$ to "k :at is "r4 ,?us1 a *ild torm5t+ animals does n always d s out ( bad motives3 he does n "k or does n ?9k t he hurts !m4 ,9 fact1 x is ) good z x is ) evil2 ! *ild is already good or bad be=e x is able to disc]n betwe5 ! "o or ! o!r4 ,?is is :at is call$ ! /ate ( innoc5ce1 :i* 9 "s respects is consci5ce asleep4 ,b ?is /ate _c la/2 ! *ild's consci5ce1 & 9 g5]al ! consci5ce ( all m51 mu/ be enlight5$4 ,?is is ! progress ( human reason :i* e day tea*es u bett] to "k ! diff]5ce betwe5 good & evil4 ,x sometimes happ5s t "o is 9 "s respects 9 d\bt betwe5 two indications ( consci5ce2 n1 ( c\rse1 betwe5 duty & passion1 :i* is ! highe/ moral combat1 b betwe5 two or m duties4 ,?is is :at is call$ a d\bt+ or p]plex$ consci5ce4 ,9 su* a case ! simple/ rule to foll[1 :5 x is practicable1 is ! "o express$ by t celebrat$ maxim3 ,:5 9 d\bt1 ab/a94 ,9 cases :]e x is impossible to absolutely ab/a91 & :]e x becomes necess>y n only to act b to *oose1 ! rule %\ld always be to *oose t "p :i* favors lea/ our int]e/s1 = we may always suppose t t :i* causes our consci5ce to d\bt1 is an int]e/$1 unobs]v$ motive4 ,if !re is no private int]e/ 9 ! matt] ei!r on ! "o side or ! o!r1 !re rema9s no?+ bett] to d ?an to decide accord+ to circum/ances4 ,b x is v r>e t consci5ce ev] f9ds itself 9 su* an absolute /ate ( d\bt1 & !re are almo/ always m reasons on ! "o side ?an on ! o!r4 ,! simple/ & mo/ g5]al rule 9 su* a case is to *ose :at seems mo/ probable4 #aa4 ,moral ,s5tim5t4--,at ! same "t1 z ! m9d di/+ui%es betwe5 good & evil by a judgm5t call$ consci5ce1 ! he>t exp]i5ces emotions or div]s affections1 :i* are embrac$ "u ! common t]m moral s5tim5t4 ,^! are ! pleasures or pa9s :i* arise 9 our s\l at ! sight ( good or evil1 ei!r 9 ourselves or 9 o!rs4 ,9 respect to our own actions ?is s5tim5t is modifi$ accord+ z ! action is to be p]=m$1 or is already p]=m$4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance we exp]i5ce1 on ! "o h&1 a c]ta9 attraction = ! "r 7t is :5 passion is n /rong en\gh to /ifle x71 & on ! o!r1 a repugnance or av]sion = ! wrong 7m or less att5uat$1 accord+ to circum/ances1 by habit or ! viol5ce ( ! design74 ,usage has n giv5 any p>ticul> names to ^! two s5tim5ts4 ,:51 on ! contr>y1 ! action is p]=m$1 ! pleasure :i* results f x1 if we h act$ rightly1 is call$ moral satisfaction2 & if we h act$ wrong1 remorse1 or rep5tance4 ,remorse is a burn+ pa92 &1 z ! ^w indicates1 ! bite t tortures ! he>t aft] a culpable action4 ,?is pa9 may be f\nd among ! v ones :o h no regret = hav+ done wrong1 & :o w\ld d x ov] aga9 if !y c\ld4 ,x has !re=e no moral "* :atsoev]1 & mu/ be consid]$ z a sort ( puni%m5t atta*$ to crime by nature h]self4 ,malice1 said ,montaigne1 poisons itself ) its own v5om4 ,vice leaves1 l an ulc] 9 ! fle%1 a rep5tance 9 ! s\l1 :i*1 ev] scrat*+ itself1 draws ev] fre% blood4 ,rep5tance is also1 l remorse1 a pa9 :i* comes f a bad action2 b !re is c\pl$ ) x ! regret ( hav+ done x1 & ! wi%1 if n ! firm resolution1 nev] to d x aga94 ,rep5tance is a sadness ( ! s\l2 remorse is a torture & an angui%4 ,rep5tance is almo/ a virtue2 remorse is a puni%m5t2 b ! "o leads to ! o!r1 & he :o feels no remorse c feel no rep5tance4 ,moral satisfaction1 on ! contr>y1 is a peace1 a joy1 a ke5 & delici\s emotion born f ! feel+ ( hav+ accompli%$ "o's duty4 ,x is ! only remun]ation t nev] fails u4 ,among ! s5tim5ts call$ =? by our own actions1 !re are two :i* are ! natural auxili>ies ( ! moral s5tim5t3 !y are ! s5tim5t ( honor & ! s5tim5t ( %ame4 ,honor is a pr9ciple :i* incites u to p]=m actions :i* raise u 9 our own eyes1 & to avoid su* z w\ld l[] u4 ,%ame is ! opposite ( honor2 x is :at we feel :5 we h done some?+ t l[]s u n only 9 ! eyes ( o!rs1 b 9 our own4 ,all remorse is m or less accompani$ by %ame2 yet ! %ame is great] = actions :i* indicate a c]ta9 bas5ess ( s\l4 ,= in/ance1 "o w feel m a%am$ ( hav+ told a falsehood ?an = hav+ /ruck a p]son2 = hav+ *eat$ 9 gambl+ ?an = hav+ f\ght a duel4 ,honor & %ame are !re=e n always an exact measure ( ! moral value ( actions2 = be !y b brilliant1 man w soon rid himself ( all %ame2 ?is happ5s1 = in/ance1 9 cases ( prodigality1 lic5ti\sness1 ambition4 ,"o does wrong1 n )\t remorse1 b ) a c]ta9 o/5tation :i* /ifles ! feel+s ( %ame4 ,let u pass n[ to ! s5tim5ts :i* ! actions ( o!rs excite 9 u4 ,sympa?y1 antipa?y1 k9dness1 e/eem1 contempt1 respect1 en?usiasm1 indignation1 ^! are ! v>i\s t]ms by :i* we express ! div]se s5tim5ts ( ! s\l t\*+ virtue & vice4 ,sympa?y is a disposition to %>e ! same impressions ) o!r m52 to sympa?ize ) _! joy is to %>e t joy2 to sympa?ize ) _! grief is to %>e t grief4 ,x may happ5 t "o sympa?izes ) ! defects ( o!rs :5 !y are ! same z our own2 b1 z a g5]al ?+1 p sympa?ize above all ) ! good qualities1 & exp]i5ce only antipa?y = ! bad4 ,at ! !atre1 all ! spectators1 good & bad1 wi% to see virtue rew>d$ & crime puni%$4 ,! contr>y ( sympa?y is antipa?y4 ,k9dness is ! disposition to wi% o!rs well4 ,e/eem is a sort ( k9dness m+l$ ) judgm5t & reflection1 :i* we feel = ^? :o h act$ well1 especially 9 cases ( ord9>y virtues2 = be=e ! high] & m difficult virtues1 e/eem becomes respect2 if x be h]oism1 respect turns into admiration & en?usiasm2 admiration be+ ! feel+ ( surprise :i* great actions excite 9 u1 & en?usiasm t same feel+ pu%$ to an extreme2 c>ry+ u away f ourselves1 z if a god 7 9 u4#c ,contempt is ! feel+ ( av]sion we ent]ta9 t[>ds him :o does wrong2 x implies p>ticul>ly a case ( base & %ameful actions4 ,:5 ^! actions are only condemnable )\t be+ odi\s1 ! s5tim5t is "o ( blame1 :i*1 l e/eem1 is ne>] be+ a judgm5t ?an a s5tim5t4 ,:51 f9ally1 x is a case ( crim9al & revolt+ actions1 ! feel+ is "o ( horror or execration4 #ab4 ,lib]ty4--,we h already said t man or ! moral ag5t is free1 :5 he is 9 a condition to *oose betwe5 "r & wrong1 & able to d ei!r at 8 w4 ,lib]ty always supposes "o to be 9 possession ( himself4 ,man is free :5 he is awake1 9 a /ate ( reason1 & an adult4 ,he is n free1 or v little s1 :5 he is asleep1 or deliri\s1 or 9 8 fir/ *ildhood4 ,lib]ty is c]tifi$ to man4 #a4 ,by ! inw>d s5tim5t :i* accompanies ea* ( 8 acts2 = in/ance1 at ! mom5t ( act+1 ,i feel t ,i c w or n w to d su* or su* an action2 if ,i ent] on x1 ,i feel t ,i c discont9ue x z long z x is n fully execut$2 :5 x is complet$1 ,i am conv9c$ t ,i might h act$ o!rwise4 #b4 ,by ! v fact ( moral law or duty2 ,i ought1 !re=e ,i c4 ,no "o is held to d ! impossible4 ,if1 !n1 !re is 9 me a law t comm&s me to d good & avoid evil1 x is because ,i c d ei!r z ,i wi%4 #c4 ,by ! moral satisfaction :i* accompanies a good action2 by ! remorse or rep5tance :i* foll[s a bad "o4 ,"o does n rejoice ov] a ?+ done aga9/ 8 w1 & no "o reproa*es himself = an act committ$ "u compulsion4 ,! fir/ ^w ( all ^? reproa*$ = a bad action is1 t x 0 n done on purpose1 int5tionally4 ,!y ackn[l$ge !reby t we c only be reproa*$ = an action done wilfully2 namely1 freely4 #d4 ,by ! rew>ds & puni%m5ts1 & 9 g5]al by ! moral responsibility :i* is atta*$ to all our actions :5 !y h be5 committ$ kn[+ly4 ,we d n puni% actions :i* are ! result ( con/ra9t or ignorance4 #e4 ,by ! exhortations or c\nsels we give to o!rs4 ,we d n exhort a man to be w>m or cold1 n to suff] hung] or ?ir/1 because x is well kn[n t ?is is n a ?+ dep5d5t on 8 w4 ,b we exhort him to be hone/1 because we believe t he c be s if he wi%es4 #f4 ,by promises3 no "o promises n to die1 n to be sick1 etc41 b "o promises to be pres5t at a c]ta9 meet+1 to pay a c]ta9 sum ( money1 on su* a day1 to su* a man1 because "o feels he c d s unless circum/ances ov] :i* he has no control prev5t4 ,prejudices aga9/ ,lib]ty4--,al?\gh m51 z we h se51 may h ! s5se ( lib]ty v /rong1 & may %[ x by _! acts1 by _! approbation or blame1 etc41 yet1 on ! o!r h&1 !y (t5 yield to ! =ce ( c]ta9 prejudices :i* seem to contradict ! univ]sal belief we h j spok5 (4 #a4 ,"*4--,! pr9cipal "o ( ^! prejudices is ! (t5 express$ op9ion t e man is impell$ by 8 own "* to p]=m ! actions :i* accord ) ?is "*1 & t !re is no help aga9/ ?is irresi/ible necessity ( nature2 ?is is (t5 express$ by ! common axiom3 ,"o _c make himself ov] aga94 ,! same has also be5 express$ by ! poet ,de/\*es 9 t celebrat$ l9e3 ,*assez le naturel1 il revi5t au galop4#d ,no?+ is less exact z a fact & m dang]\s z a pr9ciple1 ?an ?is pret5d$ immutability ( human "*1 :i*1 if true1 w\ld r5d] evil irrem$iable & incorrigible4 ,exp]i5ce tea*es ! contr>y4 ,no man is :olly depriv$ ( good & bad incl9ations2 he may develop ! "o or ! o!r1 z he *ooses betwe5 !m4 #b4 ,habits4--,habits 9 ! long run become1 x is true1 irresi/ible4 ,x is a fact :i* has be5 (t5 obs]v$2 b if1 on ! "o h&1 an invet]ate habit is irresi/ible1 x is n s 9 ! beg9n+1 & man is ?us free to prev5t ! encroa*m5ts ( bad habits4 ,x is = ?is reason t morali/s w>n u above all aga9/ ! beg9n+s ( habits4 ,bew>e especially ( beg9n+s1 says ! ,imitation4 #c4 ,passions4--,passions h especially enjoy$ ! privilege ( pass+ = uncontrollable & irresi/ible4 ,all great s9n]s f9d _! excuse 9 ! fatal allurem5ts ( passions4 ,! _s is will+1 b ! fle% is weak1 says ! ,gospel4 ,! rem>ks we h j made t\*+ ! habits1 may be equally appli$ to ! passions4 ,x is r>e t passions manife/ !mselves all ( a sudd51 & ) t excess ( viol5ce :i*1 break+ ^u "o unexpect$ly & l a delirium1 assume1 inde$1 all ! appe>ances ( a fatality4 ,b1 z a g5]al ?+1 passions gr[ little by little4 ,"s small] crimes always prec$e ! great] crimes4 ,x is especially :5 ! fir/ attacks ( a passion beg9 to %[ !mselves t x %\ld be en]getically f\ght d[n4 #d4 ,education & circum/ances4--,! education "o has receiv$1 ! circum/ances "o f9ds himself 91 may put a limit to 8 lib]ty2 & man is n :olly responsible = ! impulses :i* he may owe to example & ! bad pr9ciples 9 :i* he may h be5 br\ght up4 ,^! may1 p]haps1 be call$ att5uat+ circum/ances2 b !y d n g s f> z :olly to suppress lib]ty & responsibility4 ,9 ! appreciation ( o!r p's acts1 we may all[ ! att5uat+ circum/ances z l>ge a m>g9 z possible1 b 9 ! case ( self-gov]nm5t1 "o %\ld make x z /rict & n>r[ z possible4 ,no "o hav+1 9 fact1 a measure by :i* he may det]m9e 8 moral /r5g? 9 an absolute mann]1 x is bett] to aim too high ?an too l[4 ,"o %\ld be guid$ by ! pr9ciple t no?+ is impossible to him :o has a /rong w2 = we c d a ?+ :5 we ?9k we c4 ,9 conclusion1 lib]ty means no?+ else b moral /r5g?4 ,exp]i5ce c]tifies t man c become ! ma/] ( ! physical nature :i* he c subject to 8 designs2 he c ga9 ! ma/]y ov] 8 own body1 8 passions1 8 habits1 8 own disposition2 9 a ^w1 he c be ma/] ( himself4 ,9 ?us asc5d+1 /ep by /ep1 f ext]ior nature to ! body1 f ! body to ! passions1 f ! passions to ! habits & ! "*1 we arrive at ! fir/ motor ( action :i* moves ev]y?+ )\t be+ mov$3 namely1 lib]ty4 #ac4 ,m]it & dem]it4--,we call 9 g5]al m]it ! quality by virtue ( :i* a moral ag5t r5d]s himself wor?y ( a rew>d2 & dem]it t by :i* he r5d]s himself1 s to say1 wor?y ( puni%m5t4 ,! m]it ( an action may be det]m9$3 #a1 by ! difficulty ( ! action2 #b1 by ! importance ( ! duty4 #a4 ,:y1 = in/ance1 is !re 9 g5]al v little m]it 9 respect+ o!r p's prop]ty & ab/a9+ f !ft8 ,because education 9 ?is respect has s fa%ion$ u1 t few m5 h any temptation to ! contr>y2 &1 ev5 7 !re su* a temptation1 we %\ld be a%am$ to publicly claim any m]it = hav+ resi/$ x4 ,:y1 on ! o!r h&1 is !re great m]it 9 sacrific+ "o's life to ! happ9ess ( o!rs8 ,because we are /rongly atta*$ to life1 & comp>atively v little atta*$ to m5 9 g5]al2 to sacrifice :at we love mo/1 to :at we love b little1 f a s5se ( duty1 is evid5tly v difficult2 = ?is reason1 we f9d 9 ?is action a v great m]it4 ,suppose a man1 :o _h enjoy$ 9 all security ( consci5ce & dur+ a long life1 a l>ge =tune :i* he believes 81 & ( :i* he has made ! noble/ use1 %\ld le>n all at once1 & at ! br9k ( old age1 t ?is =tune belongs to ano!r4 ,suppose1 to r5d] ! action /ill m difficult to p]=m1 t he alone kn[s ! fact1 & c\ld consequ5tly 9 all security keep ! =tune if he wi%es2 aggravate ! situation /ill m by suppos+ t ?is =tune belongs to heirs 9 great pov]ty1 & t 9 r5\nc+ x ! possessor w\ld himself be r$uc$ to utt] mis]y4 ,imag9e1 f9ally1 all ! circum/ances :i* may r5d] a duty bo? ! /ricte/ & mo/ difficult1 & y w h an action ! m]it ( :i* w be v great4 #b4 ,x is n only ! difficulty ( an action t con/itutes its m]it1 b also ! importance ( ! duty4 ,?us ! m]it ( a difficulty surm\nt$1 has no m value 9 morality ?an x has 9 poetry1 :5 x /&s alone4 ,"o may ( c\rse impose ^u himself a sort ( moral gymna/ics1 & consequ5tly v difficult tasks1 ?\gh v useless 9 ! end2 b ^! w be consid]$ only 9 ! light ( discipl9e & ex]cise1 & n 9 t ( duty2 & ?is discipl9e w\ld h to be m or less connect$ ) ! life "o may be call$ to lead4 ,= in/ance1 suppose a mission>y1 call$ to brave dur+ all 8 life all k9ds ( climates & dang]s1 %\ld ex]cise himself be=eh& 9 und]tak+s brave & bold1 su* und]tak+s w\ld be bo? reasonable & m]itori\s4 ,b he :o out ( bravado1 o/5tation1 & )\t any wor?y aim1 %\ld und]take ! climb+ to inaccessible m\nta9-tops1 ! swimm+ across an arm ( ! sea1 ! fight+ op5ly f]oci\s animals1 etc41 he w\ld accompli% actions :i*1 x is true1 w\ld n be )\t m]it1 s9ce !y are brave2 b _! m]it w\ld n be equival5t to t we %\ld attribute to o!r actions less difficult1 b m wise4 ,z to dem]it1 x is 9 proportion to ! gravity ( duties1 & ! facility ( accompli%+ !m4 ,! m important a matt]1 & ! easi] to fulfil1 ! m is "o culpable 9 fail+ to fulfil x4 ,accord+ to ^! pr9ciples1 "o may det]m9e z foll[s ! e/imation ( moral actions3 ,human actions1 we h said1 are divid$ into two classes3 ! good & ! bad4 ,x is a "q among ! morali/s to det]m9e :e!r !re are any t are to be call$ indiff]5t4 ,among ! good actions1 "s are beautiful1 h]oic1 sublime2 o!rs1 prop]1 "r1 & hone/2 among ! bad1 "s are simply c5surable1 o!rs %ameful1 crim9al1 hide\s2 f9ally1 among ! indiff]5t ones1 "s are agreeable & all[able1 o!rs necess>y & unavoidable4 ,let u give "s examples by :i* ! diff]5t *>act]s ( human actions may be well und]/ood4 ,a judge :o adm9i/]s ju/ice )\t p>tiality1 a m]*ant :o sells 8 m]*&ise = no m ?an x is wor?1 a debtor :o regul>ly pays 8 cr$itor1 a soldi] punctual at drill1 ob$i5t to discipl9e1 & fai?ful at 8 po/ 9 times ( peace or w>1 a s*oolboy do+ regul>ly ! task assign$ to him1 all ^! p]sons p]=m actions good & laudable1 b !y _c be call$ extraord9>y4 ,!y are approv$ (1 b n admir$4 ,to manage "o's =tune economically1 n to yield too mu* to ! pleasure ( ! s5ses1 to tell no lies1 to nei!r /rike nor w\nd o!rs1 are s _m good1 "r1 prop]1 & e/imable actions2 b !y _c be call$ admirable actions4 ,actions are beautiful 9 proportion to ! difficulty ( _! p]=mance2 :5 !y are extremely difficult & p]il\s1 !n we call !m h]oic & sublime2 t is1 provid$ !y are good actions1 = h]oism is un=tunately sometimes alli$ ) wrong4 ,he :o1 l ,presid5t de ,h>lay1 c say to a v p[]ful usurp]3 ,x is a sad ?+ :5 ! s]vant is all[$ to dismiss ! ma/]2 he :o c say1 l ,visc\nt d',or!z1 :o made opposition to ,*>les ,,ix4 aft] ,/4 ,b>?olomew1 say+3 ,my soldi]s are no execution]s2 he :o1 l ,boissy d',anglas1 c firmly & resolutely uphold ! rights ( an assembly 9 ! face ( a sangu9>y1 viol5t1 & rebelli\s populace2 he :o1 l ,morus or ,dub\rg1 w\ld r die ?an sacrifice 8 tru/2 he :o1 l ,columbus1 c v5ture ^u an unkn[n ocean1 & brave ! revolt ( a rude & sup]/iti\s crew1 to obey a g5]\s conviction2 he :o1 l ,alex&]1 confides 9 fri5d%ip en\gh to receive f ! h&s ( 8 physician a dr9k reput$ poison$2 any man1 9 %ort1 :o devotes himself = 8 fell[ be+s1 :o1 9 fire1 9 wat]1 9 ! dep?s ( ! e>?1 braves dea? to save life2 :o1 9 ord] to spread ! tru?1 to rema9 true & hone/1 to "w 9 ! int]e/s ( religion1 sci5ce1 or humanity1 w suff] hung] & ?ir/1 pov]ty1 slav]y1 torture1 or dea?1 is a h]o4 ,epictetus 0 a slave4 ,8 ma/]1 = "s neglig5ce or o!r1 caus$ him to be beat54 ,y w break my leg1 said ! suff]]2 & ! leg broke1 inde$1 "u ! bl[s4 ,i told y y w\ld break x1 he rem>k$ quietly4 ,?is is a h]o4 ,joan ( ,arc1 defeat$ by ! ,engli% & made a prison]1 ?reat5$ ) ! /ake1 said to h] execution]s3 ,i knew q well t ! ,engli% w\ld put me to dea?2 b 7 !re a hundr$ ?\s& ( !m1 !y %\ld n h ?is k+dom4 ,?is is a h]o9e4 ,bad actions h _! degrees likewise4 ,b "h we %\ld call att5tion to ! fact t ! wor/ are ^? t /& 9 opposition to ! simply good actions2 on ! contr>y1 an action :i* is n h]oic is n necess>ily bad2 & :5 x is bad x is n to be class$ among ! mo/ crim9al4 ,"s examples w aga9 be necess>y to und]/& ^! v>i\s %ades ( mean+1 :i* e "o feels & recognizes 9 practice1 b :i* are v difficult to analyze !oretically4 ,to be respectful t[>ds "o's p>5ts is a good & prop] action1 b n a h]oic "o4 ,on ! contr>y1 to /rike !m1 insult !m1 kill !m1 are abom9able actions1 & to be class$ among ! base/ & mo/ hide\s t c be committ$4 ,to love "o's fri5ds1 to be z s]viceable to !m z possible1 %[s a /raight=w>d & well-end[$ s\l2 b !re is no?+ sublime 9 x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 to betray fri5d%ip2 to sl&] ^? t love u2 to lie 9 ord] to w9 _! favor2 to inquire into _! secrets = ! purpose ( us+ !m aga9/ !m1 are black1 base1 & %ameful actions4 ,!re is sc>cely any m]it 9 n tak+ :at does n belong to u2 !ft1 on ! contr>y1 is ! mo/ contemptible ( ?+s4 ,n[1 n to be able to be> ) adv]sity1 to fe> dea?1 to %r9k f brav+ ! ice ( ! ,nor? ,pole1 to /ay at home :5 fire or flood ?reat5s our neighbor1 may be mean or weak1 b n crim9al4 ,let u add1 h[ev]1 t !re are cases :]e h]oism becomes obligatory1 & :]e x is crim9al n to be h]oic4 ,a sea-capta91 :o has endang]$ 8 %ip1 & :o1 in/ead ( sav+ x1 leaves 8 po/2 a g5]al :o1 :5 ! mom5t calls = x1 refuses to die at ! head ( 8 army1 lack c\rage2 ! *ief ( a ,/ate :o1 9 times ( revolt1 or :5 ! c\ntry is 9 p]il1 fe>s dea?2 ! presid5t ( a conv5tion :o takes to flight be=e a rebellion2 ! physician :o runs away be=e an epidemic2 ! magi/rate :o is afraid to be j2 all ^! are truly culpable4 ,e condition ( life has its peculi> h]oism1 :i* at c]ta9 mom5ts becomes a duty4 ,yet w x always be true t ! m easy an action is1 ! less excusable is its neglect1 & consequ5tly ! m odi\s is x to try to escape f x4 ,besides ! good or bad actions1 !re are o!rs :i* appe> to p>take ( nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r ( ^! two *>act]s1 :i* are nei!r good nor bad1 & :i* = ?is reason are call$ indiff]5t4 ,= in/ance1 to g & take a walk is an action :i*1 consid]$ by itself1 is nei!r good nor bad1 al?\gh x may become ! "o or ! o!r accord+ to circum/ances4 ,to be asleep1 to be awake1 to eat1 to take ex]cise1 to talk ) "o's fri5ds1 to read an agreeable book1 to play on "s in/rum5t1 are actions :i* c]ta9ly h no?+ bad 9 !mselves1 b :i*1 nev]!less1 c\ld n be cit$ z examples ( good actions4 ,"o w\ld n say1 = in/ance1 su* a "o is an hone/ man because he plays ! viol9 well2 su* a "o is a s*ol> because he has a good appetite2 /ill less :5 actions absolutely necess>y come into "q1 z ! act ( brea?+ & sleep+4 ,actions1 !n1 :i* are insep>able f ! necessities ( our exi/5ce1 h no moral "*2 !y are ! same ) u z ) ! animals & plants2 !y are purely natural actions4 ,!re are o!rs1 aga91 t are n necess>y1 b simply agreeable1 :i* we p]=m because !y suit our ta/es & fancies4 ,x is suffici5t t !y are n contr>y to ! "r1 t "o _c call !m bad2 b x does n foll[ f ?is t !y are good1 & su* are :at are call$ indiff]5t actions4 ,su*1 at lea/1 is ! appe>ance ( ?+s2 =1 9 a m elevat$ s5se1 ! morali/s 7 "r 9 say+ t !re is no action absolutely indiff]5t1 & t all actions are 9 "s respect good or bad1 accord+ to motive4 #ad4 ,moral responsibility4--,man be+ free1 is = ?is reason responsible = 8 actions3 !y c be imput$ to him4 ,^! two expressions h ab\t ! same mean+1 only ! t]m responsibility applies to ! ag5t1 & imputability to ! actions4 ,! two fundam5tal conditions ( moral responsibility are3 #a1 ! k ( good & evil2 #b1 ! lib]ty ( action4 ,9 proportion z ^! two conditions v>y1 ! responsibility w v>y4 ,x foll[s f ?is1 t idiocy1 insanity1 delirium 9 cases ( illness--de/roy+ ne>ly always bo? conditions ( responsibility--namely1 disc]nm5t & free ag5cy1 deprive !reby ( all moral "* ! actions committ$ 9 ^! diff]5t /ates4 ,!y are n ( a nature to be imput$ to a moral ag5t4 ,yet are !re c]ta9 lunatics n :olly insane :o may pres]ve 9 _! lucid /ate a c]ta9 portion ( responsibility4 #b4 ,drunk5ness4 ,may t be consid]$ a cause ( irresponsibility8 ,no1 c]ta9ly n2 =1 on ! "o h&1 "o is responsible = ! v act ( drunk5ness2 &1 on ! o!r1 "o kn[s t 9 putt+ himself 9 su* a condition he exposes himself to all its consequ5ces1 & accepts !m implicitly4 ,= example1 he :o puts himself 9 a /ate ( drunk5ness1 cons5ts be=eh& to all ! l[1 vulg> actions insep>able f t /ate4 ,z to ! viol5t & dang]\s actions :i* may accid5tally result f x1 z bl[s & murd]s spr++ f qu>rels1 "o _c1 ( c\rse1 impute !m to ! drunk5 man ) ! same sev]ity z to ! sob] man1 = he c]ta9ly did n explicitly *ose !m :5 he put himself into a /ate ( drunk5ness2 b nei!r is he :olly innoc5t ( !m1 = he knew t !y 7 "s ( ! possible consequ5ces ( t condition4 ,z to him :o puts himself volunt>ily into a /ate ( drunk5ness1 ) ! express int5tion ( committ+ a crime & giv+ himself c\rage = ! act1 x is evid5t t1 s f> f dim9i%+ !reby 8 %>e ( responsibility 9 ! action1 he1 on ! contr>y1 increases x1 s9ce he makes viol5t ef=ts to keep (f all ! scruples or hesitations :i* might keep him f committ+ x4 #c4 ,no "o is held to d impossible ?+s4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 x is evid5t t "o is n responsible = an action he has be5 absolutely unable to accompli%2 ?us we _c blame a p>alytic1 or a *ild1 or an invalid1 = n tak+ up arms 9 def5ce ( 8 c\ntry4 ,yet we mu/ n h volunt>ily creat$ ! impossibility ( act+1 z x (t5 happ5$ 9 ,rome1 :]e "s1 9 ord] n to g to w>1 cut (f _! ?umbs4 ,! same ) a debtor :o1 by circum/ances indep5d5t ( 8 w 7fire1 %ipwreck1 epidemics71 is unable to acquit himself3 he is excusable2 b if he plac$ himself 9 circum/ances :i* he knew w\ld disable him1 8 inability is no long] an excuse4 #d4 ,natural qualities or defects ( m9d & body _c be imput$ to any "o1 ei!r = good or = bad4 ,:o w\ld reproa* a man = be+ born bl9d1 or because he became s 9 consequ5ce ( sickness or a bl[8 ,! same ) ! defects ( ! m9d3 no "o is responsible = hav+ no memory1 or = n be+ bright4 ,yet z ^! defects may be correct$ by ex]cise1 we are m or less responsible = mak+ no ef=ts to rem$y !m4 ,z to ! defects or de=mities :i* result f our own fault1 z1 = example1 ! consequ5ces ( our passions1 x is evid5t t !y c ju/ly be imput$ to u4 ,natural qualities _c be cr$it$ to any "o4 ,?us we %\ld n honor p = _! physical /r5g?1 heal?1 beauty1 or ev5 wit2 & no "o %\ld boa/ ( su* advantages1 or pride himself on !m4 ,h[ev]1 he :o by a wise & labori\s life has succe$$ 9 pres]v+ or develop+ 8 physical /r5g?1 or :o1 by ! ef=t ( 8 w1 has cultivat$ & p]fect$ 8 m9d1 des]ves praise2 & x is ?us t physical & moral advantages may become indirectly legitimate matt] = moral approbation4 #e4 ,! effects ( extrane\s causes & ev5ts1 :atev] !y may be1 :e!r good or bad1 c only be imput$ to a man1 z he c\ld or %\ld h produc$1 prev5t$1 or direct$ !m1 & has be5 c>eful or neglig5t 9 do+ s4 ,?us a f>m]1 accord+ z he works ! l& entru/$ to him well or badly1 is made responsible = a good or bad h>ve/4 #f4 ,a f9al "q is t ( ! responsibility ( a man = o!r p's actions4 ,!oretically1 no man c]ta9ly is responsible = any b 8 own actions4 ,b human actions are s int]l9k$ ) ea* o!r t x is v r>e t we h n "s %>e1 direct or indirect1 9 ! conduct ( o!rs4 ,= in/ance1 "o is responsible 9 a c]ta9 measure = ! conduct ( ^? "u him2 a fa!r = 8 *ildr51 a ma/] = 8 s]vants1 &1 up to a c]ta9 po9t1 an employ] = 8 workm52 #b1 "o is responsible 9 a measure = actions :i* he might h prev5t$1 :51 ei!r ?r\gh neglig5ce or laz9ess1 he did n d s2 if y see a man ab\t to kill himself1 & make no ef=t to prev5t x1 y are n innoc5t ( 8 dea?1 unless1 ( c\rse1 y did n suspect :at he 0 go+ to d2 #c1 y are responsible = o!r p's actions :51 ei!r by y\r in/igations1 or ev5 by a simple approbation1 y h co-op]at$ t[>ds !m4 #ae4 ,moral sanction4--,we call ! sanction ( a law ! body ( recomp5ses & puni%m5ts atta*$ to ! execution or violation ( ! law4 ,civil laws1 9 g5]al1 make m use ( puni%m5ts ?an rew>ds2 = puni%m5ts may appe> means suffici5t to h ! law execut$4 ,9 education1 on ! contr>y1 ! comm&s or laws laid d[n by a sup]ior1 h z mu* ne$ ( rew>ds z puni%m5ts4 ,b :at is to be und]/ood by ! t]ms recomp5se & puni%m5t8 ,! recomp5se ( a good & virtu\s action is ! pleasure we d]ive f x1 & = ! v reason t x is good & virtu\s4 ,!re are to be di/+ui%$1 h[ev]1 two o!r k9ds ( rew>ds1 :i*1 ?\gh !y resemble recomp5se1 are nev]!less v diff]5t f x namely1 favor & remun]ation4 ,favor is a pleasure or an advantage be/[$ on u1 )\t our hav+ des]v$ or e>n$ x2 a pure expression ( ! good-w ( o!rs t[>ds u4 ,x is ?us t a k+ grants favors to 8 c\rti]s1 t ^? 9 p[] di/ribute favors4 ,x is ?us we speak ( ! favors ( =tune4 ,al?\gh !oretically !re is no reason :y we %\ld und]/& ! ^w favor 9 a bad s5se1 yet has x by usage come to signify n only an advantage undes]v$1 b unwor?y2 n only a legitimate pref]5ce :i* has its reason 9 sympa?y1 b an arbitr>y *oice m or less contr>y to ju/ice4 ,h[ev]1 al?\gh no su* ugly signification ne$ be atta*$ to x1 a favor1 z a gratuit\s gift1 mu/ always be di/+ui%$ f rew>d1 :i*1 on ! contr>y1 implies a remun]ation2 t is to say1 a gift 9 return = some?+4 ,yet n all remun]ation is necess>ily a rew>d2 & "h we mu/ e/abli% ano!r di/9ction betwe5 rew>d & remun]ation4 ,by remun]ation we mean ! price we pay = a s]vice r5d]$ u1 no matt] :at motive may det]m9e a p]son to r5d] u ?is s]vice2 x is = its utility we pay1 & = no?+ else4 ,! rew>d1 on ! contr>y1 implies ! idea ( a c]ta9 ef=t to d good4 ,he :o r5d]s u a s]vice f affection & devotion1 w\ld refuse be+ paid = x1 &1 vice v]sa1 he :o sells u 8 "w does n ask u = a recomp5se1 b = an equival5t ( :at he w\ld h e>n$ = himself if he _h appli$ 8 "w to 8 own wants4 ,on ! contr>y1 we call e pa9 or suff]+ inflict$ on an ag5t = committ+ a bad action1 = no o!r reason ?an t x is bad1 *a/isem5t or puni%m5t4 ,puni%m5t /&s aga9/ damage or wrong2 t is to say1 aga9/ undes]v$ h>m4 ,! bl[s ( =tune or ( m5 are n always puni%m5ts4 ,"o may be /ruck )\t be+ puni%$4 ,al?\gh we say 9 a g5]al way t ! ills t befall m5 are (t5 ! *a/isem5ts ( _! faults1 yet ?is %\ld n be tak5 too /rictly1 o!rwise we %\ld too easily trans=m ! m]ely un=tunate into crim9als4 ,al?\gh recomp5ses & puni%m5ts may be only second>y means by :i* m5 may be l$ to d good & avoid evil1 ?is %\ld n be _! ess5tial (fice nor _! real idea4 ,x is n t ! law %\ld be fulfill$ t !re are rew>ds & puni%m5ts 9 morality2 x is because x has be5 fulfill$ or violat$4 ,su* is ! true pr9ciple ( rew>d4 ,x comes f ju/ice1 n utility4 ,= ! same reason1 *a/isem5t1 9 its true s5se1 %\ld n only be a m5ace insur+ ! execution ( ! law1 b a rep>ation or expiation = its violation4 ,! ord] ( ?+s di/urb$ by a rebelli\s w is aga9 re-e/abli%$ by ! suff]+ :i* is ! consequ5ce ( ! fault committ$4 ,9 "o s5se x may be said t puni%m5t is ! rem$y = ! fault4 ,9 fact1 inju/ice & vice be+1 z x 71 ! diseases ( ! s\l1 x is c]ta9 t suff]+ is _! rem$y2 b only on condition t ?is suff]+ be accept$ by way ( *a/isem5t4 ,x is ?us t grief has a purify+ virtue1 & t in/ead ( be+ consid]$ an evil1 x may be call$ a good4 ,ano!r confusion ( ideas :i* %\ld be equally avoid$1 & :i* is v common among m51 is t :i* consi/s 9 tak+ ! rew>d itself = a good1 & ! puni%m5t = an evil4 ,x is ?us t m5 are (t5 m pr\d ( ! titles & honors !y h obta9$1 ?an ( ! real m]it ?r\gh :i* !y h won !m4 ,x is ?us also t !y fe> ! prison m ?an ! crime1 & %ame m ?an vice4 ,x is = ?is reason t ! greate/ c\rage is ne$$ to be> undes]v$ puni%m5t4 ,we di/+ui% g5]ally f\r species ( sanction3 #a4 ,natural sanction2 #b1 legal sanction2 #c1 ! sanction ( public op9ion2 #d1 inw>d sanction4 #a4 ,natural sanction is t :i* re/s on ! natural consequ5ces ( our actions4 ,x is natural = sobriety to keep up & e/abli% heal?1 = intemp]ance to be a cause ( disease4 ,x is natural = "w to br+ ) x ease ( circum/ances1 = idl5ess to be a s\rce ( mis]y & pov]ty4 ,x is natural t probity %\ld insure security1 confid5ce1 & cr$it2 t c\rage %\ld put (f ! *ances ( dea?2 t pati5ce %\ld r5d] life m be>able2 t good-w %\ld call =? good-w2 t wick$ness %\ld drive m5 f u2 t p]jury %\ld cause !m to di/ru/ u1 etc4 ,^! facts h ev] be5 v]ifi$ by exp]i5ce4 ,! hone/ is n always ! useful2 b x is (t5 :at is mo/ useful4 #b4 ,legal sanction is above all a p5al sanction4 ,x is compos$ ( ! *a/isem5ts :i* ! law has e/abli%$ = ! guilty4 ,!re are1 9 g5]al1 few rew>ds e/abli%$ by ! law1 & !y may be class$ among :at is call$ ! e/eem ( m54 #c4 ,ano!r k9d ( sanction consi/s 9 ! op9ion o!r m5 ent]ta9 9 reg>d to our actions & "*4 ,we h se5 t x is 9 ! nature ( good actions to inspire e/eem1 9 ! nature ( ! bad to inspire blame & contempt4 ,! hone/ man g5]ally enjoys public honor & consid]ation4 ,! di%one/ man1 ev5 ?\gh ! law does n rea* him1 is br&$ ) discr$it1 av]sion1 contempt1 etc4 #d4 ,f9ally1 a m exact & c]ta9 sanction is t :i* results f ! v consci5ce & moral s5tim5t m5tion$ above4 #af4 ,! sup]ior sanction3 ! future life4--,^! v>i\s sanctions be+ insuffici5t to satisfy our want ( ju/ice1 !re is requir$ /ill ano!r1 namely1 ! sup]ior religi\s sanction4 ,x is a well-kn[n fact t virtue is n a suffici5t %ield to protect u aga9/ ! bl[s ( adv]sity1 & t immorality does n necess>ily condemn "o to mis]y & grief4 ,x is evid5t t a man corrupt & wick$ may be born ) all ! advantages ( g5ius1 =tune1 heal?2 & t an hone/ man may h inh]it$ none ( ^!4 ,!re is 9 ?is nei!r inju/ice nor bl9d *ance2 b x proves t ! h>mony betwe5 moral good & happ9ess is n ( ?is _w4 ,9 reg>d to ! pleasures & pa9s ( consci5ce1 x is also evid5t t !y are n suffici5t4 ,9 fact1 ! pleasures ( ! s5ses may div]t & dead5 ! pangs ( remorse2 & x mu/ also be said1 ?\gh x be /ill m sad1 t x sometimes happ5s t a m]ciless cont9uance ( mis=tune dead5s 9 an hone/ s\l ! delight 9 virtue2 & ! pa9ful ef=ts :i* virtue co/s may f9ally oblit]ate 9 a man1 tir$ ( life1 ! calm & sweet enjoym5t :i* x naturally br+s ) x4 ,if su* is ! disproportion & disagreem5t betwe5 ! inn] pleasures & pa9s1 & ! moral m]it ( him :o exp]i5ces !m1 :at %all we say ( t :olly outw>d sanction :i* consi/s 9 ! rew>ds & puni%m5ts di/ribut$ by ! unequal ju/ice ( man8 ,i d n speak ( legal pa9s alone2 x is well kn[n t !y (t5 fall ^u ! innoc5t1 & are sp>$ to ! guilty2 t !y are almo/ always disproportion$3 ! law puni%+ ! crime1 )\t tak+ note ( ! exact moral value ( ! action2 b ,i speak also ( ! pa9s & rew>ds ( public op9ion1 e/eem1 & contempt4 ,are ^! always 9 an exact proportion to m]it8 ,f all ^! obs]vations x results t ! law ( h>mony betwe5 good & happ9ess is n ( ?is _w2 t !re is always disagreem5t1 or at lea/ disproportion1 betwe5 moral m]it & ! pleasures ( ! s5ses4 ,h5ce ! necessity ( a sup]ior sanction1 ! means & "t ( :i* are 9 ! h& ( ,god4 ,! m ,i g )9 myself1 says a philosoph]1#e ! m ,i consult myself1 ! m ,i read ^! words writt5 9 my s\l3 be j & ?\ %alt be happy4 ,& yet x is n s1 look+ at ! actual /ate ( ?+s3 ! wick$ prosp]1 & ! j are oppress$4 ,see1 also1 :at indignation arises 9 u :5 ?is expectation is fru/rat$6 ,! consci5ce murmurs & rebels aga9/ its au?or2 x cries to him1 groan+3 ,?\ ha/ deceiv$ me6 ,i h deceiv$ !e1 oh ?\ ra% "o8 ,:o has told !e s8 ,is ?y s\l annihilat$8 ,ha/ ?\ ceas$ to exi/8 ,oh1 ,brutus6 oh1 my son1 d n /a9 ?y noble life by putt+ an end to x2 d n leave ?y hopes & glory ) ?y body on ! fields ( ,philippi4 ,:y saye/ ?\3 ,virtue is no?+ :5 ?\ art n[ ab\t ent]+ into ! enjoym5t ( ?9e8 ,?\ %alt die1 ?9ke/ ?\2 no1 ?\ %alt live1 & x is !n ,i %all keep :at ,i h promis$6 ,"o w\ld say1 he>+ ! murmur+s ( impati5t mortals1 t ,god owes !m a rew>d be=e !y h %[n any m]it1 & t he is oblig$ to pay _! virtue 9 advance4 ,oh6 let u fir/ be good2 we %all be happy aft]w>ds4 ,d n let u claim ! prize be=e ! victory1 nor ! sal>y be=e ! "w4 ',x is n 9 ! li/s1' says ,plut>*1 't ! victors 9 our sacr$ games are cr[n$2 x is aft] !y h run ! c\rse4' ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,division ,,( ,,duties--,,g5]al ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,social ,,morality4 ,,summ>y4 ,division ( duties4--,9 !ory !re is b "o duty1 :i* is to d "r2 b ?is duty is subdivid$ accord+ to ! v>i\s relations ( man4 ,h5ce ?ree classes ( duties3 duties t[>ds ourselves1 t[>ds o!rs1 t[>ds ,god3 individual1 social1 religi\s morality4 ,we w beg9 ) social morality1 :i* requires ! mo/ exp\nd+4 ,g5]al pr9ciples ( social duties3 to d good2 n to d evil4 ,diff]5t degrees ( ?is d\ble obligation3 #a1 n to return evil = good 7+ratitude72 #b1 n to d evil to ^? :o h n done u any 7inju/ice & cruelty72 #c1 n to return evil = evil 7rev5ge72 #d1 to return good = good 7gratitude72 #e1 to d good to ^? :o h n done u any 7*>ity72 #f1 to return good = evil 7clem5cy1 g5]osity74 ,di/9ction betwe5 ! v>i\s k9ds ( social duties3 #a1 t[>ds ! lives ( o!r m52 #b1 t[>ds _! prop]ty2 #c1 t[>ds _! family2 #d1 t[>ds _! honor2 #e1 t[>ds _! lib]ty4 ,di/9ction betwe5 ! duties ( ju/ice & ! duties ( *>ity4--,ju/ice is absolute1 )\t re/riction1 )\t exception4 ,*>ity1 al?\gh z obligatory z ju/ice1 is m indep5d5t 9 its application4 ,x *ooses its "t & place2 its objects & means2 its beauty is 9 its lib]ty4 ,we h se5 t practical morality or private morality has = its object to acqua9t u ) ! application ( !oretical morality4 ,x be>s n s mu* on duty z on duties4 ,! fir/ "q1 !n1 t pres5ts itself to u is t ( ! division ( duties4 #ag4 ,division ( duties4--,x has be5 reasonably ass]t$ t !re is 9 reality b "o duty1 :i* is to d good "u all circum/ances1 ! same z x has also be5 said t !re is b "o virtue3 wisdom1 or ob$i5ce to ! laws ( reason4 ,b z ^! two g5]al divisions tea* u 9 reality no?+ t\*+ our v>i\s actions1 :i* are v num]\s1 x is useful & necess>y to classify ! pr9cipal circum/ances 9 :i* we h to act1 9 ord] to specify 9 a m p>ticul> mann] :]e9 ! g5]al pr9ciple :i* comm&s u to d good may be appli$ 9 ea* case4 ,human actions may !n be divid$1 ei!r 9 reg>d to ! diff]5t be+s !y h = _! object1 or 9 reg>d to ! v>i\s faculties to :i* !y relate4 ,! anci5ts divid$ morality p>ticul>ly 9 ref]5ce to ! div]s human faculties1 & 9 private morality !y consid]$ above all ! virtues4 ,! mod]ns1 on ! o!r h&1 h divid$ morality p>ticul>ly 9 its relations to ! diff]5t objects ( our actions2 &1 9 private morality1 !y h consid]$1 above all1 ! duties4 ,! anci5ts r$uc$ all virtues to f\r pr9cipal ones3 prud5ce1 temp]ance1 c\rage1 & ju/ice4 ,?is division 0 transmitt$ to u1 & x is ^! f\r virtues :i* ! cate*ism tea*es "u ! "n ( c>d9al virtues4 ,! mod]ns r$uc$ duties to ?ree classes3 ! duties t[>ds ourselves1 t[>ds o!rs1 & t[>ds ,god4 ,"s add a f\r? class1 namely1 duties t[>ds animals4 ,t portion ( morality :i* treats ( ! duties t[>ds ourselves1 is call$ individual morality2 t :i* treats ( ! duties t[>ds ,god1 is call$ religi\s morality2 t :i* treats ( ! duties t[>ds o!r m51 social morality4 ,z to ! duties t[>ds animals1 !y are ( s second>y an ord]1 t x is n wor? :ile to classify !m ap>t2 we %all include !m 9 social morality4 ,social morality is by f> ! mo/ ext5d$ 9 precepts & applications1 ! v>i\s relations ( m5 ) ea* o!r be+ extremely num]\s4 ,x may be subdivid$ into ?ree p>ts3 #a1 g5]al duties ( social life1 or morality prop]ly call$ social2 #b1 duties t[>ds ! ,/ate1 or civil morality2 #c1 duties t[>ds ! family1 or dome/ic morality4 ,we w beg9 ) ! /udy ( social morality1 social duties t[>ds m5 9 g5]al1 & we w fir/ e/abli% _! pr9ciples & diff]5t v>ieties4 ,let u 9 a few pages rapidly take a summ>y review ( ! g5]al pr9ciples ( social morality4 #ah4 ,g5]al pr9ciples ( social duties3 to d good1 n to d evil4--,all human actions1 9 reg>d to o!rs1 may be r$uc$ to ^! two precepts3 #a1 to d good to m52 #b1 n to d !m h>m4 ,to ?is all ! virtues ( social morality may be r$uc$4 ,b be=e exhibit+ ^! virtues & vices m 9 detail1 let u expla9 :at is und]/ood by ! expressions to d good & to d evil4 ,9 ! mo/ g5]al & app>5t s5se to d any "o good w\ld seem to be to give him pleasure2 to d him h>m1 w\ld seem to be to give him pa94 ,yet1 is x always do+ good to a p]son to procure him pleasure8 & is x always do+ him h>m1 to cause him pa98 ,= example1 ,kant#f says1 ,%all we all[ ! idl] s(t cu%ions2 ! drunk>d w9es 9 abundance2 ! rogue an agreeable face & mann]s1 to deceive m easily2 ! viol5t man audacity & a good fi/8 ,w\ld x really be do+ good to ^! m5 to grant !m ! object ( _! desires1 :at may satisfy _! passions8 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! surgeon :o amputates a mortifi$ limb1 ! d5ti/ :o pulls out a bad too?1 ! tea*] :o obliges y to le>n1 ! fa!r :o corrects y\r faults or re/ra9s y\r passions1 d !y really d y h>m because !y give y pa98 ,no1 c]ta9ly n4 ,!re are1 !n1 cases :]e to d "s "o good is to cause him pa91 & to d him h>m is to procure him pleasure4 ,"o may reasonably r$uce all pr9ciples ( social morality to ^! two maxims ( ! gospel3 ,d n d to o!rs :at y d n wi% !m d to y2--,d to o!rs z y wi% to be done by4 ,^! two maxims are admirable1 c]ta9ly2 b !y mu/ be int]pret$ rightly4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we h done wrong1 d we g5]ally wi% to be correct$ & puni%$8 ,:5 we are yield+ to a passion1 d we wi% to be repress$ 9 x1 h x repell$8 ,on ! contr>y1 d we n r wi% to be all[$ to enjoy x1 & h ! free range ( our vices8 ,is n ?is g5]ally :at we all wi%1 :5 ! voice ( duty is mute & does n sil5ce our passionate feel+s8 ,if ?is is s1 %\ld we wi% to d to o!rs z we wi% 9 simil> circum/ances1 namely1 9 ! gratification ( passions1 to be done by8 ,%\ld we n r d to !m :at we %\ld n l !m d to u1 t is1 puni% & correct !m8 ,x is evid5tly n 9 t s5se we are to und]/& ! two evangelical maxims2 = !y w\ld be !n no o!r ?an maxims ( remissness & improp] k9dness2 :il/ !y1 on ! contr>y1 express mo/ admirably a moral tru?2 only :5 !y speak ( :at we wi%1 !y mean a true & good wi%1 n ! desires ( passion2 ! same :5 we recomm5d m5 to d good1 we mean real good & n app>5t good2 z also 9 recomm5d+ to d no h>m1 we mean real h>m1 n ! illusory h>m ( ! s5ses1 imag9ation & passions4 ,?us1 to well und]/& ! duties we h to fulfil t[>ds o!r m51 we mu/ und]/& ! di/9ction betwe5 true good & false good4 ,false good is t :i* consi/s exclusively 9 pleasure1 all ab/raction be+ made ( usefulness or moral value2 z1 = example1 ! pleasures ( passions4 ,true good is t :i* indep5d5tly ( pleasure recomm5ds itself ei!r ?r\gh usefulness or ?r\gh moral value2 z1 = in/ance1 heal? or education4 ,! real evils1 ( c\rse1 are ^? :i* injure ei!r ! int]e/s ( o!rs or _! moral dignity1 su* z mis]y or corruption4 ,app>5t evils are ^? :i* cause u to suff] b a mom5t & r$eem !mselves by subsequ5t advantages3 z1 = in/ance1 rem$ies or *a/isem5ts4 ,:5 we speak ( good 9 reg>d to o!rs1 we %\ld n fe> to und]/& by t _! int]e/1 z well z _! moral welf>e2 =1 ?\gh we %\ld n make our own int]e/ ! aim ( our actions1 x is n s 9 our relation ) o!rs4 ,! seek+ ( our own happ9ess has no moral value2 b ! seek+ ( o!r p's happ9ess may h "o1 provid$1 we repeat1 t we d n deceive ourselves t\*+ ! real s5se ( ! ^w happ9ess1 & t we d n und]/& by x a deceitful & %ort-liv$ delight4 ,to d to o!rs z we wi% to be done by2 n to d to !m :at we d n wi% !y %\ld d u1 %\ld1 !re=e1 be und]/ood 9 ! s5se ( an enlight5$ w1 :i* wills = itself no?+ b :at is truly con=mable ei!r to a prop] int]e/ or to virtue4 ,?us und]/ood 7& x is _! true s5se#g71 ^! two maxims compreh5d p]fectly ! :ole ( social morality4 #ai4 ,diff]5t degrees ( ?is d\ble obligation4--,! s5se ( ^! two expressions1 to d good & to d h>m1 be+ n[ well-def9$1 let u exam9e ! v>i\s cases :i* may pres5t !mselves1 9 ris+1 s to say1 f ! l[e/ to ! highe/ r\nd ( duty4 ,let u fir/ suppose a c]ta9 good or a c]ta9 evil1 :i* w n v>y 9 any ( ! foll[+ cases3 ?is is ! scale "o may obs]ve />t+ f ! lea/ virtue1 to :i* corresponds evid5tly ! greate/ vice 7by virtue ( ! pr9ciple set =? above#h71 to rise to ! highe/ virtue1 to :i* ! lea/ vice corresponds4 #a4 ,n to return evil = good4--,?is is1 "o may say 7all ?+s be+ equal71 ! feeble/ ( ! virtues1 z to return evil = good con/itutes ! greate/ ( wrongs4 ,say1 = example1 homicide3 is x n evid5t t ! murd] ( a b5efactor is ! mo/ abom9able ( all8 t to rob a b5efactor is ! mo/ horrible ( robb]ies8 t ! sl&] ( a b5efactor is ! mo/ crim9al ( sl&]s8 ,on ! o!r h& aga91 n to kill1 n to /eal1 n to sl&]1 n to deceive a b5efactor1 is ! m9imum ( moral virtue4 ,to ab/a9 f do+ h>m to him :o has done y good1 is a :olly negative virtue1 :i* is simply ! abs5ce ( a crime4 ,we _c call t gratitude1 = gratitude is a positive virtue1 n a negative "o2 x is all 9 action1 & n 9 omission2 b1 be=e be+ grateful1 ! fir/ condition at lea/1 is to be n ungrateful4 ,we %all !n say t ! greate/ ( crimes is +ratitude4 ,x is by reason ( ?is pr9ciple t ! crimes t[>ds p>5ts are ! mo/ odi\s ( all2 = we h no great] b5efactors ?an our p>5ts1 & )\t m5tion+ ! crimes nature f9ds repugnant en\gh1 x is evid5t t ! same k9d ( h>m 7w\nds1 bl[s1 insults1 neglig5ce1 etc47 w always be m blamable :5 done to p>5ts ?an to any o!r b5efactors1 & to b5efactors 9 g5]al1 ?an to any o!r m54 #b4 ,n to d h>m to ^? :o h n done u any4--,! violation ( ?is maxim is ! second degree ( crime & ( s91 some:at less s]i\s ?an ! prec$+ "o1 b /ill odi\s en\gh t to ab/a9 f x is1 9 _m cases1 a r feeble virtue4 ,n to kill1 n to /eal1 n to deceive1 n to expose "o's self to ! puni%m5ts ( ! law1 are1 inde$1 ( a v feeble moral value2 :il/ _! contr>ies con/itute ! base/ & mo/ odi\s ( actions4 ,! k9d ( vice :i* injures o!rs )\t provocation is :at is call$ inju/ice1 & :5 ! pleasure ( do+ wrong is jo9$ !reto1 x is call$ cruelty4 ,cruelty is an inju/ice :i* rejoices 9 ! h>m done to o!rs2 inju/ice cont5ts itself ) tak+ advantage ( x4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 a high] degree ( evil 9 cruelty ?an 9 inju/ice pure & simple4 ,! virtue oppos$ to inju/ice is ju/ice1 :i* has two degrees & two =ms3 ! "o negative1 :i* consi/s simply 9 ab/a9+ f do+ injury to any "o2 ! second positive1 :i* consi/s 9 r5d]+ to ea* 8 due4 ,?is second =m ( ju/ice is m difficult ?an ! fir/1 = x is active4 ,x is m difficult to re/ore to o!rs :at we hold z our own1 or to pay "o's debts1 ?an to ab/a9 f /eal+2 x is m difficult to speak well ( "o's rivals1 ?an to ab/a9 f sl&]+ !m2 x is m difficult to give up "o's position to ano!r :o des]ves x1 ?an to ab/a9 f tak+ 82 & yet !re are cases :]e ju/ice requires "o %\ld act in/ead ( simply ab/a9+4 #c4 ,n to return evil = good4--,"h we rise1 9 "s respect1 a degree 9 ! moral scale4 ,! two inf]ior degrees1 namely1 +ratitude & cruelty1 h always & ev]y:]e be5 consid]$ z crimes4 ,n[h]e has x ev] be5 consid]$ all[able to d h>m to ^? :o h done u good4 ,b 9 ne>ly all societies1 at a c]ta9 degree ( civilization1 has x be5 consid]$ all[able1 & ev5 praisewor?y1 to return evil = evil4 ,to d good to our fri5ds1 & h>m to our enemies1 is "o ( ! maxims ! poets & sages ( ,greece (t5e/ repeat4 ,among ! ,indians ( ,am]ica1 glory consi/s 9 ornam5t+ "o's dwell+ ) ! greate/ possible numb] ( scalps tak5 f conqu]$ enemies4 ,we "k ab\t ! ,corsican v5detta4 ,9 "o ^w1 ! passion ( rev5ge 7:i* consi/s precisely 9 return+ evil = evil7 is "o ( ! mo/ natural & ! mo/ pr(\nd 9 ! human he>t1 & x dem&s a v advanc$ moral education to compreh5d t rev5ge is contr>y to ! laws ( morality4 ,n[1 z ! beauty ( virtue is 9 proportion to ! difficulty ( ! passions to be ov]come1 x is evid5t t ! virtues contr>y to rev5ge1 namely3 g5tl5ess1 clem5cy1 p>don ( injuries1 are among/ ! mo/ beautiful & mo/ sublime4 ,already among ! anci5ts _h morality rea*$ ?is maxim1 t "o %\ld n d any h>m1 namely1 ev5 to ^? :o _h done u "s1 z may be se5 f ! dialogue ( ,plato1 entitl$ ! ,crito4 ,socrates3 ,"o %\ld !n commit no inju/ice :atsoev]8 ,crito3 ,no1 c]ta9ly n4 ,socrates3 ,!n %\ld "o n be unju/ ev5 t[>ds ^? :o are unju/ t[>ds u4 #d4 ,?us f> we h only spok5 ( ! virtues :i* express !mselves negatively1 & :i* consi/ especially 9 do+ no h>m4 ,let u n[ consid] ^? :i* express !mselves affirmatively1 & :i* consi/ 9 do+ good4 ,! fir/ degree is to return good = good3 :i* is gratitude1 ! contr>y ( :i*1 z we h se51 is +ratitude2 b !re are two sorts ( +ratitude1 z !re are two sorts ( gratitude4 ,!re is a negative +ratitude1 z !re is a positive +ratitude4 ,! positive +ratitude1 :i* is1 z we h se51 ! mo/ odi\s ( all crimes1 consi/s 9 return+ evil = good2 negative +ratitude consi/s simply 9 n return+ good = good1 namely1 9 =gett+ a k9dness4 ,x is n s repreh5sible z ! =m]1 b x has /ill a c]ta9 "* ( bas5ess4 ,gratitude is also tw(old 9 its degrees & =ms3 x is negative1 inasmu* z x ab/a9s f injur+ a b5efactor2#i x is positive1 inasmu* z x returns good = good4 ,9 "o s5se1 gratitude is a "p ( ju/ice1 = x consi/s 9 return+ to a b5efactor :at is due him2 b x is also a notable "p1 & "o :i* des]ves be+ po9t$ out1 = x seems t !re is no?+ easi] ?an to return good = good2 & exp]i5ce1 on ! contr>y1 tea*es u t !re is no?+ m r>e4 ,?is is c]ta9ly too /rongly put4 #e4 ,to d good to ^? :o h done u nei!r good nor h>m4 ,?is is :at is call$ *>ity1 :i* is a degree above ! prec$+1 = 9 ! prec$+ case we sc>cely d m ?an give back :at we h receiv$2 9 ?is case we put 9 some?+ ( our own4 ,b to *>act]ize ?is new degree ( virtue1 x is necess>y to well expla9 t ! "q relates to a good t is n due4 ,= ju/ice1 we h se51 does n always mean to ab/a9 f evil2 x ev5 does good sometimes4 ,to re/ore a tru/ to "o n expect+ x2 to d good to him :o des]ves x2 to elect to a position "o wor?y ( x2 or1 :at is /ill m h]oic1 to give "o's own position up to him1 ?is evid5tly is do+ good to o!rs1 & to ^? :o h n done u any2 b ^! are goods due1 :i* already belong 9 "s respects to ^? ^u :om we conf] !m4 ,x is n s ) ! goods :i* *>ity di/ributes4 ,! gifts ,i make to ! poor1 ! consolations ,i give to ! afflict$1 ! c>e ,i be/[ ^u ! sick1 all ( :i* take f my "t1 my int]e/s1 & my life :i* ,i endang] to save a fell[-be+1 are also goods :i* are my own & n 84 ,i d n return to him :at he w\ld o!rwise legitimately possess1 :e!r he kn[s x or n4 ,i give him some?+ ( my own2 x is a pure gift4 ,?is gift is sugge/$ to me by love1 n by ju/ice4 ,! contr>y ( *>ity or devotion to o!rs is selfi%ness4 ,f9ally1 !re is a la/ degree above all o!r prec$+ degrees1 namely1 to return good = evil4 ,?is k9d ( virtue1 ! highe/ ( all1 has no p>ticul> "n 9 ! language4 ,*>ity1 9 fact1 consi/s 9 do+ good g5]ally1 & comprises ! two degrees3 to d good to ! un=tunate1 & return good = evil4 ,clem5cy may consi/ 9 simply p>don+2 x does n necess>ily g s f> z to return good = evil4 ,corneille might z well h call$ 8 trag$y ( ,c9na1 ! ,clem5cy ( ,augu/us1 ev5 if ,augu/us _h m]ely p>don$ ,c9na1 & n add$3 ,let u be fri5ds6 ,?us has ?is great & magnific5t virtue no "n1 & z sci5ce is p[]less 9 creat+ words suitable = e-day language1 x mu/ re/ satisfi$ ) p]iphrases4 ,nev]!less1 ?is sublime virtue f9ds n[h]e a gr&] expression ?an 9 ^? maxims ( ! ,gospel3 ,y h be5 told t x 0 said3 ,?\ %alt love ?y neighbor & hate ?y enemy3 ,b ,i say to y3 ,love y\r enemies2 d good to ^? t hate y1 & pray = ^? t despitefully use y & p]secute y4 #bj4 ,diff]5t k9ds ( social duties4--,aft] ! prec$+ division1 :i* answ]s to ! diff]5t degrees ( obligation :i* may exi/ among m51 !re is ano!r classification :i* re/s on ! v>i\s species or k9ds ( duties :i* we may h to p]=m t[>ds our fell[-be+s4 ,let u fir/ briefly /ate :at w be develop$ at great] l5g? 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s4 #a4 ,duties relat+ to ! life ( o!rs4--,accord+ to ! two maxims cit$ above1 ^! duties are ( two k9ds3 #a1 n to attempt ! life ( o!rs2 #b1 to make ef=ts to save ! life ( o!rs4 ,all attempt at ! life ( o!rs is call$ homicide4 ,:5 accompani$ by p]fidy or treason1 x is assass9ation4 ,! murd] ( p>5ts by *ildr5 is call$ p>ricide2 ( *ildr5 by p>5ts 7especially at ! t5d]e/ age71 infanticide2 ( bro!rs by bro!rs1 fratricide4 ,all ^! crimes are mo/ odi\s1 & mo/ repugnant to ! human he>t4 ,murd] is nev] p]mitt$1 ev5 :5 ! highe/ int]e/ & ! greate/ good is at /ake4 ,?us did ! anci5ts err 9 believ+ t ! murd] ( a tyrant1 or tyrannicide1 0 n only legitimate1 b also honorable & beautiful4 ,h[ev]1 !re is to be except$ ! case ( legitimate self-def5se2 = we _c be =bidd5 to def5d ourselves aga9/ him :o wi%es to deprive u ( life4 ,b ! duel %\ld n be consid]$ an act ( legitimate self-def5se3 t is evid5t 9 ! case ( ! aggressor2 &1 on ! o!r side1 !re is only ! def5se t !re has be5 ! cons5t to be put 9 p]il4 ,z to ! "q :e!r an attack on honor is n equival5t to an attack on life1 x _c be said t x is false 9 all cases2 b ! abuse ( ! ?+ is "h s ne> ! pr9ciple1 t x is wis] to condemn altoge!r a b>b>\s practice1 ( :i* s deplorable an abuse has be5 made4 ,f9ally1 homicide 9 w>1 )9 ! conditions au?oriz$ by int]national law1 is consid]$ a case ( legitimate self-def5se4#aj ,if murd] is ! mo/ crim9al ( actions1 & ! mo/ revolt+ to our s5sibilities1 ! action1 on ! contr>y1 :i* consi/s 9 sav+ ! life ( o!rs is ! mo/ beautiful ( all4 ,! good %eph]d gives 8 life = ! %eep4 ,) ! fundam5tal duty n to attempt ! life ( o!r m51 is connect$1 z coroll>y1 ! duty n to injure !m bodily by bl[s or w\nds1 or by dang]\s viol5ce done to _! heal?1 &1 conv]sely1 to assi/ !m 9 illness4 #b4 ,duties relat+ to prop]ty4--,x is evid5t#aa t man _c pres]ve 8 life & r5d] x happy & com=table )\t a c]ta9 numb] ( mat]ial objects :i* are 84 ,! legitimate possession ( ^! goods is :at is call$ prop]ty4#ab ,! "r ( prop]ty re/s 9 "o respect on social utility1 & 9 ! o!r on human labor4 ,on ! "o h&1 society _c subsi/ )\t a c]ta9 ord] t settles = ea* :at is 8 own2 on ! o!r1 x is b "r t ea* %\ld be ! proprietor ( :at he has e>n$ by 8 "w2 ! "r ( possession c>ries ) x ! "r ( economiz+1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! "r ( =m+ a capital1 &1 moreov]1 ! "r ( us+ ?is capital 9 mak+ x be> int]e/4 ,aga91 ! "r ( pres]v+ implies also ! "r ( transmission2 h5ce ! legitimacy ( inh]itance4 ,prop]ty once f\nd$ ^u law1 x becomes our duty n to transgress ! law4 ,! act ( tak+ :at belongs to ano!r is call$ !ft4 ,!ft is absolutely =bidd5 by ! moral law1 :atev] "n x may assume1 or "u :atev] pre/ige x may pres5t itself4 ,?\ %alt n /eal4 ,!ft does n consi/ m]ely 9 putt+ "o's h& into a neighbor's pocket2 x includes all possible ways :]eby ! prop]ty ( o!rs may be appropriat$4 ,= example1 to defraud 9 reg>d to ! quality ( ! ?+ sold2 to practice illegal /ock-jobb+2 to conv]t to "o's own use a deposit entru/$ to "o's c>e2 to borr[ )\t kn[+ :e!r "o c pay1 & aft] hav+ borr[$1 to dis[n ! debt1 or refuse to pay x2 !re are z _m =ms ( !ft z !re are ways ( appropriat+ ! prop]ty ( o!rs4 ,reg>d+ ! prop]ty ( o!rs1 ! negative duty !n consi/s 9 n tak+ :at belongs to o!rs4 ,! positive duty consi/s 9 assi/+ o!rs ) "o's own prop]ty1 9 reliev+ _! mis]y4 ,?is is call$ b5evol5ce1 :i* b5evol5ce may be ex]cis$ 9 v>i\s ways1 ei!r by gift1 or by loan4 ,x may also be ex]cis$ 9 k9d1 t is 9 giv+ to o!rs ! objects necess>y to _! ma9t5ance or support1 or 9 money1 t is1 9 furni%+ !m ! means ( procur+ !m2 or 9 "w1 :i* is ! be/ ( all gifts2 = 9 ?us reliev+ o!rs we procure !m ! means ( help+ !mselves4 ,) ! duty relat+ to ! prop]ty ( o!rs1 are connect$ z coroll>ies1 ! duties relat+ to ! obs]vance ( agreem5ts or contracts2 ! transmission ( prop]ty 9 society be+ n always done f h& to h&1 b by means ( promises & writ+s4 ,to fail 9 keep+ "o's promise1 to p]v]t ! s5se ( solemn contracts1 is1 on ! "o side1 to appropriate o!r p's prop]ty1 & on ! o!r1 to lie & deceive1 & ?us to fail 9 a d\ble duty4 #c4 ,duties relat+ to ! families ( o!rs4--,we h se5 above :at are ! duties ( man 9 8 family2 !re rema9s to be said a few words t\*+ ! duties t[>ds ! families ( o!rs4 ,"o may fail 9 ^! duties ei!r by violat+ ! conjugal bond1 :i* is adult]y2 or by c>ry+ (f o!r p's *ildr51 :i* is abduction1 or by deprav+ !m ?r\gh bad advice or bad examples1 :i* is corruption4 #d4 ,duties relat+ to ! honor ( o!rs4--,"o may fail 9 ^! duties1 ei!r by say+ to a man 7:o does n des]ve x71 w\nd+ & rude ?+s to 8 face1 :i* are insults1 or 9 speak+ ill ( o!rs2 & "h we di/+ui% two degrees3 if :at is said is true1 x is backbit+2 if :at is said is false & an inv5tion1 x is sl&]4 ,9 g5]al "o mu/ n too easily ascribe evil to o!r m52 ?is k9d ( defect is :at is call$ ra% judgm5ts4 ,! positive duty respect+ o!r p's reputation is to be j t[>ds e "o1 ev5 t[>ds "o's enemies2 to speak well ( !m if !y des]ve x1 & ev5 ( ^? :o speak ill ( u4 ,x is a duty to ent]ta9 a k9dly disposition t[>ds m5 9 g5]al1 provid$ ?is does n g s f> z to w9k at wrong4 ,9 our relations ) our neighbors1 usage ( ! _w has1 9 ord] to avoid qu>rels & insults1 introduc$ :at is call$ polit5ess1 :i*1 = be+ a worldly virtue1 is n ! less a necess>y virtue 9 ! ord] ( society4 #e4 ,duties t[>ds ! lib]ty ( o!rs4--,^! are r ! duties ( ! ,/ate ?an ( ! individual4 ,!y consi/ 9 respect+ 9 o!rs ! lib]ty ( consci5ce1 ! lib]ty ( labor1 individual lib]ty1 p]sonal responsibility1 all ( :i* are ! natural rights ( man4 ,h[ev]1 private individuals may !mselves also fail 9 ?is k9d ( duties4 ,! violation ( ! lib]ty ( consci5ce is call$ intol]ance2 x consi/s ei!r 9 employ+ =ce to con/ra9 ! consci5ces1 or 9 imput+ bad morals or bad motives to ^? :o d n ?9k z we d4 ,! virtue oppos$ to intol]ance is tol]ance1 a disposition ( ! s\l :i* consi/s1 n 9 approv+ :at we ?9k false1 b 9 respect+ 9 o!rs :at we wi% !y %\ld respect 9 u1 namely1 consci5ce4 ,"o may also violate individual lib]ty1 ! lib]ty ( labor1 9 keep+ "o's fell[-be+s 9 slav]y2 b slav]y is r a social in/itution ?an an individual act4 ,h[ev]1 !re may be cases :]e "o may seek to injure o!r p's "w1 9 re/ra9+ o!rs by ?reats f "w2 :i*1 = example1 takes sometimes place 9 workm5's /rikes4 ,!re is also a c]ta9 way ( dom9e]+ ov] ! fre$om ( o!rs )\t re/ra9+ x mat]ially1 :i* con/itutes real tyranny2 x is ! dom9ion :i* a /rong w ex]cises ov] a feeble w1 & ( :i* x too (t5 is tempt$ to take advantage4 ,on ! contr>y1 x is a duty1 n only to respect ! lib]ty ( o!rs1 b also to enc\rage x1 to develop x1 to enlight5 x ?r\gh education4 #f4 ,duties relat+ to fri5d%ip4--,all ! prec$+ duties are ! same t[>ds all m54 ,!re are o!rs :i* conc]n m p>ticul>ly c]ta9 m51 ^?1 = example1 to :om we are atta*$ ei!r by cong5iality ( disposition or uni=mity ( occupation1 or a common education1 etc41 ^?1 namely1 :om we call fri5ds4 ,! duties relat+ to fri5d%ip are3 #a1 to *oose well "o's fri5ds2 to *oose ! hone/1 & enlight5$1 9 ord] to f9d 9 _! society enc\ragem5t to "r-do+4 ,no?+ m dang]\s ?an pleasure-fri5ds or int]e/$ fri5ds1 unit$ by vices & passions1 in/ead ( be+ unit$ by wisdom & virtue2 #b1 ! fri5ds once *os51 ! reciprocal duty is fidelity4 ,!y %\ld treat ea* o!r ) p]fect equality & ) confid5ce4 ,!y owe ea* o!r secrecy :5 !y mutually entru/ _! de>e/ int]e/s2 !y owe ea* o!r self-devotion :5 !y ne$ ea* o!r's help4 ,f9ally1 !y owe to ea* o!r 9 a m /rict & rigor\s a s5se1 all !y g5]ally owe to o!r m51 = ! faults or crimes aga9/ humanity 9 g5]al assume a /ill m odi\s "* :5 aga9/ fri5ds4 #ba4 ,pr(essional duties & civic duties4--,su* are ! g5]al duties ( m5 9 relation to ea* o!r1 :5 simply view$ z m54 ,b ^! duties become div]sifi$ & specializ$ accord+ z we view man ei!r 9 ! light ( ! private functions he fills 9 society1 :i* are 8 pr(essional duties1 or 9 ! light ( ! p>ticul> society ( :i* he is a memb]1 & :i* is call$ ! ,/ate or ! c\ntry1 & ^! are ! civic duties4 7,see *apt]s xii4 & xiii47 #bb4 ,di/9ction betwe5 ! duties ( ju/ice & ! duties ( *>ity4--,we h said above t all ! social duties c\ld be r$uc$ to ^! two maxims3 ,d n d unto o!rs :at y d n wi% !y %\ld d to y4 ,d to o!rs z y wi% to be done by4 ,^! two maxims correspond ) :at is call$3 #a1 ! duties ( ju/ice2 #b1 ! duties ( *>ity4 ,! fir/ consi/s 9 n do+ wrong1 or at lea/ 9 repair+ ! wrong already done4 ,*>ity consi/s 9 do+ good1 or at lea/ 9 giv+ to o!rs :at is n really _! due4 ,a celebrat$ writ]#ac has made a v subtle & =cible di/9ction betwe5 ^! two virtues3 ,! respect = ! rights ( o!rs is call$ ju/ice4 ,all violation ( any "r :atsoev] is an inju/ice4 ,! greate/ ( inju/ices1 s9ce x comprises all1 is slav]y4 ,slav]y is ! subjugation ( all ! faculties ( a man = ! b5efit ( ano!r4 ,moral p]sonality %\ld be respect$ 9 y z well z 9 me1 & = ! same reason4 ,9 reg>d to myself x has impos$ a duty on me2 9 y x becomes ! f\ndation ( a "r1 & imposes !reby1 relatively to y1 a new duty on me4 ,i owe y ! tru? z ,i owe x to myself1 & x is my /rict duty to respect ! developm5t ( y\r intellig5ce & n arre/ its progress t[>ds ! tru?4 ,i mu/ also respect y\r lib]ty2 p]haps ev5 ,i owe x to y m ?an ,i d to myself1 = ,i h n always ! "r to prev5t y f mak+ a mi/ake4 ,i mu/ respect y 9 y\r affections1 :i* are a "p ( y\rself2 & ( all ! affections none are m holy ?an ^? ( ! family4 ,to violate ! conjugal & pat]nal "r is to violate :at a p]son holds mo/ sacr$4 ,i owe respect to y\r body1 inasmu* z belong+ to y1 x is ! in/rum5t ( y\r p]sonality4 ,i h nei!r ! "r to kill y nor to w\nd y1 unless 9 self-def5se4 ,i owe respect to y\r prop]ty1 = x is ! product ( y\r labor2 ,i owe respect to y\r labor1 :i* is y\r v lib]ty 9 action2 & if y\r prop]ty comes f inh]itance1 ,i owe respect to ! free w :i* has transmitt$ x to y4 ,ju/ice1 t is1 ! respect = ! p]son 9 all t con/itutes 8 p]sonality1 is ! fir/ duty ( man t[>ds 8 fell[-man4 ,is ?is duty ! only "o8 ,:5 we h respect$ ! p]son ( o!rs1 :5 we h nei!r put a re/ra9t ^u _! lib]ty1 nor smo!r$ _! intellig5ce1 nor maltreat$ _! body1 nor int]f]$ ) _! family rights nor _! prop]ty1 c we say t we h fulfill$ t[>ds !m all moral duties8 ,a wret* is "h suff]+ be=e u4 ,is our consci5ce satisfi$ if we c assure ourselves t we h n contribut$ to 8 suff]+s8 ,no2 some?+ tells u t x w\ld be well if we %\ld give him bread1 help1 consolation2 & yet ?is man 9 pa91 :o1 p]haps1 is go+ to die1 has n ! lea/ "r to ! lea/ "p ( our =tune1 7 ?is =tune ev] s great2 & if he 7 to use viol5ce to take a f>?+ f u1 he w\ld commit a crime4 ,we %all meet "h a new ord] ( duties :i* d n correspond to rights4 ,man1 we h se51 may resort to =ce to h 8 rights respect$1 b he _c impose on ano!r a sacrifice1 :atev] t may be4 ,ju/ice respects or re/ores3 *>ity gives4 ,"o _c say t to be *>itable is n obligatory2 b ?is obligation is by no means z precise & z inflexible z ju/ice4 ,*>ity implies sacrifice4 ,n[1 :o w furni% ! rule = sacrifice1 ! =mula = self-r5unciation8 ,= ju/ice1 ! =mula is cle>3 to respect ! rights ( o!rs4 ,b *>ity kn[s nei!r rule nor limits4 ,x is above all obligation4 ,its beauty is precisely 9 its lib]ty4 ,x foll[s f ^! consid]ations t ju/ice is absolute1 )\t re/riction1 )\t exception4 ,*>ity1 :il/ x is z obligatory z ju/ice1 is m indep5d5t 9 its applications2 x *ooses its place & its "t1 consid]s its objects & means4 ,9 a ^w1 z ,victor ,c\s9 says1 its beauty is 9 its lib]ty4 ,let u n hesitate to borr[ f ! ,apo/le ,/4 ,paul 8 admirable exaltation ( *>ity3 ,?\gh ,i speak ) ! tongues ( m5 & ( angels1 & h n *>ity1 ,i am become z s\nd+ brass or a t9kl+ cymbal4 ,& ?\gh ,i h ! gift ( prophecy1 & und]/& all my/]ies1 & all k1 & ?\gh ,i h all fai?1 s t ,i c\ld remove m\nta9s1 & h n *>ity1 ,i am no?+4#ad ,& ?\gh ,i be/[$ all my goods to fe$ ! poor1 & ?\gh ,i give my body to be burn$1 & h n *>ity1 x pr(ite? me no?+4 ,*>ity suff]e? long1 & is k9d2 *>ity envie? n2 *>ity vaunte? n itself2 is n puff$ up4 ,do? n behave itself unseemely2 seeke? n h] own2 is n easily provok$2 ?9ke? no evil4 ,be>e? all ?+s2 believe? all ?+s2 endure? all ?+s4#ae ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,duties ,,( ,,ju/ice--,,duties ,,t[>ds ,,human ,,life4 ,,summ>y4 ,division ( ! duties ( ju/ice4--,f\r k9ds ( duties3 #a1 t[>ds ! life ( o!rs2 #b1 t[>ds ! lib]ty ( o!rs2 #c1 t[>ds ! honor ( o!rs2 #d1 t[>ds ! prop]ty ( o!rs4 ,duties t[>ds human life4--,avoid homicide1 acts ( viol5ce1 & mutilation4 ,pascal & ! ,prov9ciales4 ,! "r ( self-def5se4--,"r to oppose =ce to =ce4 ,limits ( ?is "r4 ,problems4--,f\r v grave problems are b\nd up 9 ! "q ( self-def5se3 #a1 ! p5alty ( dea?2 #b1 political assass9ation2 #c1 ! duel2 #d1 w>4 ,! p5alty ( dea?4--,! p5alty ( dea? is ! "r ( self-def5se ex]cis$ by society3 x is j s f> z x is efficaci\s4 ,political assass9ation4--,murd] is always a crime1 "u :atev] pretext x may conceal itself4 ,! duel4--,! duel is at ! same "t a homicide & a suicide2 x is falsely consid]$ ju/ice1 s9ce x appeals to *ance & skill4 ,w>4--,w> is ! only mode ( self-def5se exi/+ among nations2 x is desirable = ! sake ( humanity t x may "s day disappe>2 b humanity _c n[ exact ?is sacrifice ( ! c\ntry4 #bc4 ,division ( social duties4--,accord+ to ! =ego+ di/9ctions1 we w fir/ divide duties into duties ( ju/ice & duties ( *>ity4 ,let u beg9 by exp\nd+ ! duties ( ju/ice4 ,^! duties may be summ$ up 9 a g5]al mann] 9 ! respect = ! p]son ( o!rs1 & = all t is necess>y = ! pres]vation & developm5t ( t p]son4 ,h5ce f\r k9ds ( duties3 #a4 ,t[>ds ! life ( o!r m54 #b4 ,t[>ds _! lib]ty4 #c4 ,t[>ds _! honor4 #d4 ,t[>ds _! prop]ty4 ,besides ^! duties1 purely negative1 :i* consi/ only 9 do+ o!rs no h>m1 !re are also ! duties ( ju/ice1 :i* may be call$ positive2 & :i* consi/ n only 9 n injur+ o!rs1 b also 9 grant+ ea* :at he has a "r to4 ,?is is call$ di/ributive or remun]ative ju/ice1 & is ! duty ( all ^? :o h o!rs "u !m1 & :o are commission$ to di/ribute rew>ds1 titles1 or functions4 #bd4 ,duties t[>ds ! life ( m54--,we h se5 above t self-pres]vation is ! duty ( e "o1 & t "o %\ld n attempt "o's own life1 nor mutilate "o's self1 nor injure "o's heal?4 ,n[1 all ^! obligations :i* we h t[>ds ourselves1 we h equally t[>ds o!rs2 = t :i* ea* owes to himself1 he owes x to 8 quality1 z man1 to 8 quality z a free & reasonable be+1 a moral p]son4 ,x is1 z ,kant says1 humanity itself t ea* "o mu/ respect 9 8 own p]son2 & x is also humanity :i* ea* mu/ respect 9 o!rs4 ,we %\ld n d to o!rs :at we d n wi% t !y %\ld d to u1 or :at we %\ld n wi% to d to ourselves4 ,n[1 no "o wi%es o!rs to attempt 8 life2 no "o %\ld wi% to attempt x himself4 ,= ! same reason he %\ld n wi% to attempt ! life ( o!rs4 ,^! are su* self-evid5t consid]ations t x is useless to insi/ on !m4 ,let u add t ?is duty re/s1 besides1 on "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful in/9cts ( humanity1 ! in/9ct ( sympa?y = o!r m51 ! horror ( _! suff]+s1 ! horror ( spilt blood4 ,^? :o are want+ 9 ?is s5tim5t are l mon/]s 9 ! mid/ ( humanity4 ,"o ( ! coroll>ies ( ?is pr9ciple is to avoid ! bl[s & w\nds :i* might1 ?r\gh imprud5ce & unexpect$ly1 cause dea?1 & :i*1 besides1 are 9 !mselves to be condemn$1 inasmu* z !y contribute1 if n t[>ds de/roy+1 at lea/ t[>ds mutilat+1 ! p]son & r5d]+ x unfitt$ to fulfil its duties & functions4 ,9 a ^w1 to avoid scuffles1 bodily qu>rels1 :i* are unwor?y1 moreov]1 f _! v brutality1 ( a reasonable be+2 all ?is is compris$ 9 ! duty ( avoid+ homicide4 ,all may be summ$ up 9 ^! words ( ! ,decalogue3 ,?\ %alt n kill4 ,pascal1 9 8 lett] on homicide 7xiv4 ,prov9ciale71 express$ mo/ eloqu5tly ! duty conc]n+ ! respect = human life3 ,ev]ybody kn[s1 my fa!rs1 t individuals are nev] p]mitt$ to seek ! dea? ( any p]son1 & t1 ev5 if a man %\ld h ru9$ u1 maim$ u1 burnt our h\ses1 kill$ our p>5ts1 & 0 prep>+ to murd] u1 to rob u ( our honor1 t our seek+ 8 dea? w\ld n be li/5$ to 9 a c\rt ( ju/ice4 ,s t x 0 necess>y to e/abli% public function>ies :o seek x 9 ! "n ( ! k+1 or r 9 ! "n ( ,god4 ,suppose1 !n1 ^! public function>ies %\ld seek ! dea? ( him :o has committ$ all ^! crimes1 h[ w\ld !y proce$8 ,w\ld !y plunge ! dagg] 9 8 brea/ at once8 ,no2 ! life ( man is too important2 !y w\ld proce$ ) m consid]ation2 ! law has n left x subject to ! decision ( all sorts ( p2 b only to t ( ! judges1 ^: integrity & suffici5cy h be5 asc]ta9$4 ,& ?9k y t "o alone is en\gh to condemn a man to dea?8 ,no2 !re are at lea/ sev5 requir$2 & among ^! sev5 !re mu/ n be any "o :om ! crim9al has 9 any way (f5d$1 = fe> t 8 judgm5t be affect$1 or corrupt$ by ang]4 ,9 %ort1 !y c judge him only ^u ! te/imony ( witnesses1 & accord+ to ! o!r =ms prescrib$ to !m2 9 consequ5ce ( :i* !y c consci5ti\sly pron\nce ^u him only accord+ to law1 or judge wor?y ( dea? only ^? :om ! law condemns4 ,aft] hav+ ?us exp\nd$ ! innum]able precautions :i* society has tak51 out ( respect = human life1 t\*+ ! p]sons ( crim9als1 ,pascal cont9ues z foll[s3 ,behold 9 :at way1 9 ! ord] ( ju/ice1 ! life ( man is dispos$ (2 let u see n[ h[ y dispose ( x4#af ,9 y\r new laws !re is b "o judge1 & ?is judge is ! (f5d$ p>ty4 ,he is at ! same "t judge1 accus]1 & execution]4 ,he seeks himself ! dea? ( 8 enemy2 he comm&s x1 he executes him on ! spot2 &1 )\t respect = ei!r ! body or s\l ( 8 bro!r1 he kills & damns him = :om ,*ri/ di$2 & all ?is to av5ge an affront1 or sl&]1 or an insult+ ^w1 or o!r simil> (f5ces = :i* a judge1 al?\gh clo!d ) legal au?ority1 w\ld be consid]$ a crim9al if he %\ld condemn to dea? ^? :o _h committ$ !m1 because ! laws !mselves are v f> f condemn+ !m4 ,f9ally1 ga!r+ into "o ^w all ! evils :i* homicide comprises1 ,pascal ends by say+ homicide is ! only crime :i* at ! same "t de/roys ! ,/ate1 ! ,*ur*1 nature1 & piety4 #be4 ,! "r ( self-def5se4--,none ( ! =ego+ pr9ciples w\ld pres5t ! %ad[ ( a difficulty to any except ^? :o are ne>] ! brute ?an man1 if x 7 n = an app>5t exception to ! rule1 :i* is ! case ( legitimate self-def5se4 ,to und]/& prop]ly ! solution ( ?is "q1 x is necess>y to exam9e c>efully ! nature ( ! relations :i* b9d m5 to ea* o!r4 ,e man is a moral p]son2 t is to say1 a free be+1 & = t v reason inviolable 9 8 dignity & 9 8 rights4 ,he is1 z ,kant says1 an end to himself1 & %\ld n be treat$ z a means4 ,! ?+s ( nature are to u b means to satisfy our wants2 we may !re=e mutilate & de/roy !m1 n z our :ims may dictate1 b z our wants require4 ,?us c we cut ! f9e/ trees ( a =e/ to make fire (1 or = furniture4 ,we ev5 claim a simil> "r ov] animals1 al?\gh x may1 p]haps1 n be s evid5t4 ,b we h no su* "r ov] man4 ,we c nei!r mutilate nor de/roy him = our use4 ,&1 9 fact1 to de/roy or mutilate ?r\gh %e] =ce a memb] ( humanity1 is to apply to him ! law ( compulsion1 :i* is ! law ( physical nature1 & :i* )\t res]ve gov]ns all physical ph5om5a3 x is to make ( man a ?+ ( nature1 to see 9 him ! body only1 & ignore ! s\l4 ,! consequ5ce ( su* conduct is evid5t3 x is t :osoev] employs aga9/ ano!r ! law ( compulsion means !reby t he does n recognize betwe5 himself & o!r m5 any o!r law b t4 ,treat+ !m z if !y 7 purely physical ag5ts1 he gives u !reby to und]/& t he recognizes himself1 & expects to be treat$1 z su*2 he means to take advantage ( 8 /r5g? z long z he is ! /ronge/1 b gives u to und]/& !reby t he is satisfi$ to submit to /r5g? if he is ! weak]4 ,x is "h t ! "r ( self-def5se comes 94 ,he :o is viol5tly attack$1 has ! "r to oppose to viol5ce j z mu* /r5g? z !re is employ$ aga9/ him4 ,o!rwise1 9 all[+ himself to be knock$ d[n by /r5g?1 he w\ld cons5t to ! abasem5t1 to ! suppression ( 8 own p]sonality2 he w\ld 9 "s respect be ! accomplice ( ! viol5ce he is made to suff]4 ,"s ,*ri/ian sects1 /ra9+ ?is po9t1 g s f> z to condemn absolutely ! "r ( self-def5se2 !y d n see t ?is w\ld infallibly br+ ) x ! triumph ( brute =ce1 & ! suppression ( all ju/ice4 ,su* sects may1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 manage to exi/ 9 civiliz$ societies2 b ! pr9ciple is self-de/ructive1 s9ce n to resi/ viol5ce is 9 "s respect to be its accomplice4 ,yet1 :il/ admitt+ ! "r ( self-def5se1 x is necess>y to recognize its limits4 ,?is ag5t1 says ,m4 ,r5\vi]1 :om ! "r ( self-def5se treats z a brute1 ?is be+ is a man1 nev]!less1 or has be5 "o1 or may become su*4 ,h5ce ! doctr9e ( consci5ce is to admit ?is "r only :5 necess>y1 & n beyond :at is necess>y4 7,moral ,sci5ce1 ,*4 ,,lvi47 ,?is is1 to beg9 )1 a natural consequ5ce ( ! duties t[>ds "o's self1 s9ce x is already a surr5d] ( "o's dignity to be oblig$ to act 9 ! capacity ( a physical ag5t1 & r5\nce "o's "* ( a moral p]son2 x is also a duty t[>ds humanity 9 g5]al1 :i* is repres5t$ by e man1 ev5 ! mo/ viol5t & ! mo/ uncultivat$4 #bf4 ,problems4--,! "r ( legitimate self-def5se gives rise to a c]ta9 numb] ( problems relative to ! law ( homicide4 ,m4 ,jules ,simon#ag r$uces !m to five3 homicide 9 case ( self-def5se1 p5alty ( dea?1 political assass9ation1 duel1 & w>4 ,9 ! fir/ case x is impli$ 9 :at prec$es1 t legitimate self-def5se may g s f> z to deprive ano!r man ( life2 b only 9 case ( absolute necessity4 ,!re rema9 ! f\r o!r cases1 :i* are n all ( ! same ord]4 #bg4 ,! p5alty ( dea?4--,! p5alty ( dea? 9 ^! days has be5 v mu* conte/$1 & sev]al ,/ates h tri$ to aboli% x4#ah ,! foll[+ argum5ts are br\ght to be> aga9/ x3 #a4 ,! inviolability ( human life4--,! ,/ate1 x is said1 %\ld n give ! example ( :at x proscribes & puni%es4 ,n[1 x puni%es homicide2 !n x %\ld n itself commit homicide4 #b4 ,! possible mi/akes1 :i* 9 all o!r cases c be correct$1 b :i* 9 ?is case alone are irrep>able4 #c4 ,exp]i5ce1 :i*1 x is said1 tells aga9/ x 9 c]ta9 c\ntries by prov+ t ! numb] ( crimes has n be5 increas$ by ! suppression ( ! p5alty ( dea?4 #d4 ,f9ally1 ! ref9em5t ( mann]s1 :i* c no long] be> ! idea ( capital puni%m5t4 ,no "o ( ^! argum5ts is :olly decisive4 #a4 ,! inviolability ( human life is n an absolute ?+1 at lea/ n = ^? :o admit ! "r ( legitimate self-def5se4 ,we %all exam9e ?is pres5tly4 #b4 ,judici>y mi/akes are v r>e1 & w become m & m s1 z ju/ice becomes m respectful t[>ds ! rights ( ! accus$1 & ?r\gh great] publicity1 by ! int]v5tion ( a jury1 etc4 #c4 ,exp]i5ce is n s mu* ( a te/ z x is said to be1 & is (t5 made on too small a scale4 ,! attempts at abolition h n be5 v num]\s4 ,9 ,tuscany murd]s h always be5 v r>e on acc\nt ( ! g5tl5ess ( mann]s4 ,9 ,switz]l&1 on ! contr>y1 crime is on ! increase1 & c]ta9 cantons h ask$ = a return to ! dea? p5alty4 ,besides1 x is a v difficult exp]im5t to make4 ,h[ c\ld a society z complicat$ z ours d>e to tru/ its security to s haz>d\s an exp]im5t8 #d4 ,! ref9em5t ( mann]s may gradually br+ ab\t1 ?anks to ! in/itution ( ! jury1 ! dim9ution1 p]haps "s day ! suppression1 ( ! p5alty ( dea?1 )\t its be+ necess>y = ! ,/ate to lay aside ?is p[]ful means ( def5se & intimidation4 ,! p5alty ( dea?1 9 fact1 c be consid]$ legitimate only 9 ! light ( ! "r ( self-def5se4 ,if society ne$s ?is p5alty to protect ! life ( its memb]s1 x may be said t x is au?oriz$ to use x1 on ! same gr\nd z ea* individual to :om we h conc$$ ! "r to repel =ce by =ce1 & to deprive ( 8 own life "o :o %\ld ?reat5 to take 8 life4 ,b1 x w be object$1 ! "r ( self-def5se1 :5 end+ 9 homicide1 is ju/ifiable only at ! mom5t ( ! attack1 & to w>d (f a sudd5 aggression itself ?reat5+ murd]2 b ! de$ once committ$ & ! crim9al 9 ! h&s ( ! law1 !re is no reason to fe> a new aggression f him1 & 8 *ances ( escape f ju/ice ?r\gh evasion are too few to ju/ify ! violation ( a duty s absolute z ! respect = human life4 ,x may be answ]$ t society1 by ! dea? p5alty1 n only def5ds itself aga9/ ! crim9al himself1 b aga9/ all ^? :o might be incl9$ to imitate him4 ,! p5alty ( dea? is above all a precaution>y means ( def5se1 t is to say1 a means ( intimidation4 ,! future crim9al is w>n$ be=eh& ( ! risks he runs2 he accepts volunt>ily ! puni%m5t he w incur4 ,if society %\ld cat* him 9 ! act--flagrante delicto--x w\ld c]ta9ly1 9 ord] to prev5t ! crime1 s9ce x is ! repres5tative ( all individuals1 h ! same rights z ! individual ( def5d+ himself4 ,b ! difficulty ( seiz+ ^u ! crim9al at ! mom5t ( commission1 c x be consid]$ a circum/ance 9 favor ( ! crim9al1 & does society lose its "r1 because1 ?r\gh ! skill & precautions ( assass9s1 x c b v r>ely1 & sc>cely ev]1 cat* !m 9 ! act8 ,! "r ( society to def5d itself by ! dea? p5alty does n seem to u1 !n1 to admit any d\bt4 ,! :ole "q is to "k :e!r su* a means ( def5se is really necess>y & efficaci\s4 ,x is1 z we h said1 a "q ( exp]i5ce :i* x is v difficult to settle1 = ! reason t we d>e n make ! exp]im5t4 ,all t c be said is t1 z a pr9ciple1 e man fe>s dea?2 x is ! greate/ ( fe>s4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 reason to believe t x is ! mo/ p[]ful ( ! means ( intimidation4 ,besides1 x is kn[n t pr(essional crim9als e/imate ) great accuracy (f5ses & crimes proportionably to _! p5alties4 ,?us1 ^? :o /eal "k t !y expose !mselves to su* or su* puni%m5t1 b !y g no f>!r 9 ord] n to incur a m sev]e puni%m5t2 = ^! ! p5alty ( dea? is c]ta9ly a great item 9 _! plans1 & x w\ld be dang]\s to relieve !m ( ?is m5ace4 ,we d n mean to say t 9 future society may n rea* a /ate ( organization /rong & enlight5$ en\gh to be able to d )\t su* means2 b 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s we %\ld consid] ! attempt to aboli% !m dang]\s = society4 #bh4 ,( political assass9ation4--,conc]n+ ?is pret5d$ "r1 s %ock+ly promulgat$ 9 ^! days by savage factions1 we _c d bett] ?an quote ! words ( ,m4 ,jules ,simon 9 8 book on ,duty3 ,political assass9ation1 he says1 is ess5tially wor?y ( condemnation f :i*ev] side "o looks at x4 ,x has ! same orig9 z ! p5alty ( dea?1 ) ?is d\ble diff]5ce t1 9 ! application ( ! p5alty ( dea?1 x is ! ,/ate t pron\nces ! s5t5ce con=mably to ! law1 :il/ 9 political assass9ation x is ! same man :o makes ! law1 pron\nces ! s5t5ce1 & executes x4 ,n[1 society1 ?\gh badly con/itut$1 & ! law1 ?\gh bad1 are nev]!less a gu>anty1 :il/ !re is none at all aga9/ ! caprice1 passion or false judgm5t ( a s+le individual4 ,besides1 ! legitimacy ( ! p5alty ( dea? is connect$ ) ! legitimacy ( ! p[] t pron\nces x1 & ! uni=mity ( ! law4 ,let "s tyrannical au?ority cause a man to be %ot at ! corn] ( a /reet1 )\t =m ( legal process1 t _c be call$ p5alty ( dea?2 x is call$ murd]2 & ev5 :5 ! victim %\ld h des]v$ 8 dea?1 ! gov]nm5t w\ld n be ! less crim9al = hav+ execut$ him )\t trial4 ,if ^! pr9ciples are j1 h[ c we admit ! !ory ( political assass9ation1 :i* all[s ! de/9y ( all to dep5d ^u ! consci5ce ( a s+le individual4 ,we reflect s little ^u ! rights ( m5 t !re are ^? :o w condemn ! dea? p5alty & yet approve ( political assass9ation4 ,we judge s badly1 t "u ! ,re/oration a monum5t 0 erect$ to ,georges ,cad\dal1 & we he> e day ! eulogy ( ,*>lotte ,corday4 ,! guilt9ess ( ! victim does n legitimate ! act ( ! murd]]4 ,x is bo? unwise & crim9al to furni% hatr$ ) su* excuses4 #bi4 ,! duel4--,does ! duel come "u ! head ( legitimate self-def5se8 ,no2 :atev] cu/om & prejudice may say 9 its favor4 #a4 ,we mu/ fir/ lay aside )\t discussion all duels be>+ on frivol\s causes1 & !y are ! l>ge/ 9 numb]4 #b4 ,9 _m o!r cases rep>ation may be obta9$ ?r\gh ! law1 & prejudice alone c prev5t hav+ rec\rse to x4 ,if ,i am will+ to h rec\rse to law 9 a case ( robb]y1 :y %\ld ,i n appeal to ?is same law :5 my honor is attack$8 #c4 ,! duel is an absurd =m ( ju/ice1 because x puts ! (f5d] & ! "o (f5d$ on ! same level4 ,x is n ! guilty "o t is puni%$2 x is ! awkw>d "o4 #d4 ,social ju/ice has degrees ( p5alty 9 proportion to ! gravity ( ! (f5se1 & is appli$ only aft] a v sev]e exam9ation4 ,! aim ( ! duel is to apply to v unequal (f5ses "o & ! same p5alty1 dea? 7,jules ,simon1 ,le ,devoir1 ,,iv471 or if !re are any degrees1 s9ce x does n always result 9 dea?1 ^! degrees are ! effect ( *ance4 ,f9ally1 if 9 a duel ! p>ties agree to use skill en\gh to hurt ea* o!r z little z possible1 is x n z if !y confess$ to ! inju/ice & insanity ( ! proce$+8 #e4 ,! duel _h its orig9 9 sup]/ition3 9 ! ,combat ( ,god1 9 ! belief1 namely1 t ,god himself w\ld arbitrate by means ( ! combat1 & give ! victory to ! innoc5t & /rike ! guilty4 #f4 ,! duel is a homicide or a suicide4 ,x is1 !re=e1 contr>y to ! duty t[>ds o!rs & ! duty t[>ds ourselves4 ,f9ally1 ! duel is contr>y to ! duty t[>ds society1 :i* =bids ea* to be 8 own judge4 ,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau1 9 ! ,n\velle ,heloise1 has writt5 on ! duel & suicide 7see fur!r on1 ,*apt] xi47 a lett] (t5 quot$1 ( :i* we w briefly give ! pr9cipal passages4 #a4 ,"o mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 real honor & app>5t honor3 ,:at is !re 9 common betwe5 ! glory ( kill+ a man & ! te/imony ( a righte\s s\l8 ,:at hold c ! va9 op9ion ( o!rs h ^u true honor1 ! roots ( :i* are 9 ! dep?s ( ! he>t8 ,:at6 ! lies ( a sl&]] c de/roy real virtues8 ,d ! insults ( a drunk>d prove t "o des]ves !m8 ,& c ! honor ( a s5sible man be at ! m]cy ( ! fir/ ruffian he meets8 #b4 ,! use ( =ce _c be a title to virtue3 ,w y tell me t "o mu/ %[ c\rage1 & t c\rage suffices to efface ! %ame & reproa* ( all o!r vices8 ,9 ?is case a rogue w\ld h b to fight a duel to cease to be a rogue2 ! words ( a li> w\ld become true if ma9ta9$ at ! po9t ( a sword2 & if y 7 *>g$ ) hav+ kill$ a man1 y w\ld g & kill a second "o to prove t ! *>ge is n true4 ,?us1 virtue1 vice1 honor1 infamy1 tru?1 falsehood1 all d]ive _! be+ f ! ev5t ( a fight2 a f5c+-hall becomes ! seat ( all ju/ice2 might makes "r4 #c4 ,antiquity1 s ri* 9 h]oes & great *>act]s1 knew no?+ ( ! duel4 ,!re may !n exi/ societies civiliz$ & ref9$ :]e a man may def5d 8 honor )\t hav+ to resort to ! duel4 ,?is is a rem>kably /rik+ argum5t3#ai ,did ev] ! valiant m5 ( antiquity ?9k ( av5g+ _! p]sonal insults by s+le combats8 ,did ,caes> s5d a *all5ge to ,cato1 or ,pompey to ,caes>8 ,o!r times1 o!r mann]s1 y'll say1 ,i "k1 b true honor does n v>y2 x does n dep5d on times or places or prejudices2 x c nei!r pass away nor be born aga92 x has its et]nal s\rce 9 ! he>t ( ! j man & 9 ! unalt]able rule ( 8 duties4 ,if ! mo/ enlight5$1 ! brave/1 ! mo/ virtu\s nations ( ! e>? knew no?+ ( ! duel1 ,i say t x is n an in/itution ( honor1 b r a frightful & b>b>\s fa%ion wor?y ( its savage orig94 #d4 ,x is n true t a man ( honor incurs contempt by refus+ a duel3 ,! righte\s man ^: :ole life is pure1 :o nev] gave any sign ( c[>dice1 w refuse to /a9 8 h& by a homicide1 & w be only ! m honor$ = x4 ,always ready to s]ve 8 c\ntry1 to protect ! feeble1 to fulfil ! mo/ dang]\s duties1 & def5d 9 all j & hone/ enc\nt]s1 & at ! price ( 8 blood1 :at he holds de>1 he w reveal 9 all 8 transactions t resolute firmness :i* always accompanies true c\rage4 ,9 ! security ( 8 consci5ce he walks ) head erect2 he nei!r flies f nor seeks 8 enemy2 "o c easily see t he fe>s less to die ?an to d wrong1 & t x is n dang] he %uns1 b crime4 #cj4 ,w>4--,w> is ! mo/ s]i\s & ! mo/ solemn exception to ! law :i* =bids homicide4 ,n only does x p]mit homicide1 b x comm&s x4 ,! means !reto are prep>$ 9 public2 ! art ( practic+ !m is a bran* ( education1 & x is glori\s to de/roy z _m enemies z possible4 ,"o _c fail to see ! sad side ( w>1 & h[ contr>y x is to ! ideal t5d5cies ( mod]n society4 ,x is /ill to be hop$ t !re w come a "t :5 nations w f9d a m rational & m humane means ( conciliat+ _! diff]5ces4 ,b !re is no indication ( ?is good "t z yet1 nor ev5 t x is ne>1 & x is necess>y to gu>d aga9/ a false philan?ropy1 :i* w\ld imp]il ! sacr$ rights ( patriotism4 ,! problem ( w> 9 itself belongs r to ! law ( nations ?an to morality prop]ly s call$4 ,x w be 9 /udy+ lat] ! relations ( ! nations betwe5 ea* o!r t we %all h to e/abli% z a rule t ! "r ( self-def5se exi/s = !m z well z = ! individual4 ,! only "q 9 a moral po9t ( view is to "k :e!r ! individual1 by ! sole fact ( ! ord] ( society1 is releas$ f ! duty impos$ on him n to %$ blood4 ,"s religi\s sects 9 ! e>ly times ( ,*ri/ianity1 o!rs 9 mod]n times 9 ,engl& & 9 ,am]ica 7! ,quak]s71 believe t ! int]diction ( homicide is an absolute ?+2 !y claim ! "r to be exempt f milit>y duty4 ,! ,/ate1 ( c\rse1 nev] recogniz$ ! legitimacy ( su* a scruple1 :i* w\ld prev5t all social subord9ation & deprive ! def5se ( ! c\ntry ( all its /r5g?4 ,b nei!r does morality recognize su* a "r4 ,z a "p ( a society :i* is commission$ to def5d u1 & :i* c d s only by us+ =ce1 x is evid5t t ea* "o %\ld %>e 9 ! acts by :i* x und]takes to def5d u4 ,= h[ c malefactors be prosecut$ )\t employ+ =ce8 ,! same may be ask$ z to enemies f )\t4 ,n[1 z society def5ds e "o equally1 x _c make any exception 9 favor ( su* or su* scruple4 ,x c grant exemptions1 b _c admit t ea* %\ld exempt himself by ! scruples ( 8 consci5ce4 ,c]ta9ly x ought n to be ma9ta9$ t any ord] giv5 by society releases ! individual consci5ce f all consid]ation4 ,b ob$i5ce to ! law is ! f\ndation ( social ord]1 & co-op]ation 9 ! public def5se is a duty ( absolute necessity4 ,( c\rse "o assumes 9 ?is view implicitly ! legitimacy ( w>2 b ?is "q w be treat$ lat] on by itself1 & 9 accordance ) ! reasons belong+ to x4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,duties ,,conc]n+ ,,! ,,prop]ty ,,( ,,o!rs4 ,,summ>y4 ,( prop]ty4--,its fundam5tal pr9ciple2 "w sanction$ by law4 ,communi/ic ,utopia4--,inequality ( weal?3 x is f\nd$ on nature1 b %\ld n be aggravat$ by ! law4--,diff]5t =ms ( ! rights ( prop]ty3 loans1 tru/s1 ?+s lo/1 sales1 prop]ty prop]ly s call$4 ,loan4--,is x a duty to loan8--,! int]e/ ( money4--,! "q ( usury4--,duties ( cr$itor & debtor4--,failures & bankruptcies4--,! commodate or ?+s loan$ = use4 ,tru/4--,duties ( ! deposit>y & ! depon5t4 ,( ! possession 9 good fai?4--,! ?+ lo/4 ,sales4--,obligations ( sell] & buy]4 ,( prop]ty 9 g5]al4--,violation ( prop]ty or !ft4--,! elem5ts :i* con/itute !ft4--,simple !fts & qualifi$ !fts4--,abuse ( confid5ce1 sw9dl+4--,re/itution4 ,promises & contracts4--,diff]5ces betwe5 ^! two facts4--,/rict obligation to keep "o's promises3 r>e exceptions 7practical impossibility1 illicit promises1 etc47--,diff]5t k9ds ( contracts4--,conditions ( ! contract3 cons5t1 capacity ( contract+ p>ties1 a real object1 a licit cause4--,rules = ! =mation ( contracts4--,rules = ! int]pretation ( contracts4 ,! imm$iate consequ5ce ( ! "r ( self-pres]vation :i* ea* has1 etc41 implies ! "r ( prop]ty4 #ca4 ,prop]ty4--,:at is prop]ty8 ,:at is its orig9 & pr9ciple8 ,:at objections has x rais$8 ,:at moral & social reasons ju/ify x1 r5d]+ its ma9t5ance bo? sacr$ & necess>y8 ,prop]ty1 says ! civil code1 is ! "r to enjoy & dispose ( ?+s 9 ! mo/ absolute mann]1 provid$ no use is made ( !m prohibit$ by ! laws or ! rules4 7,art4 #edd47 ,! "r ( prop]ty1 says ! ,con/itution ( '#ic1 is t :i* belongs to e citiz53 to enjoy1 & dispose at w ( 8 prop]ty1 8 income1 ( ! fruit ( 8 labor & indu/ry4 7,art4 #h47 ,^! are ! judicial & political def9itions ( prop]ty4 ,philosophically1 x may be said1 t x is ! "r ea* man has to make some?+ 8 own1 t is to say1 to attribute to himself ! exclusive "r to enjoy some?+ outside ( himself4 ,we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 possession & prop]ty4 ,possession is no?+ else ?an actual cu/ody3 ,i may h 9 my h&s an object t is n m9e1 :i* has ei!r be5 loan$ to me1 or :i* ,i may h f\nd2 ?is does n make me its proprietor4 ,prop]ty is ! "r ,i h to exclude all o!rs f ! use ( a ?+1 ev5 if ,i %\ld n be 9 actual possession ( x4 #cb4 ,orig9 & fundam5tal pr9ciple ( prop]ty4--,! fir/ prop]ty is t ( my own body1 b ?us f> x is no?+ else ?an :at may be call$ corporeal lib]ty4 ,h[ d we g beyond t8 ,h[ d we ext5d ?is primitive "r ov] ?+s :i* are outside ( ourselves8 ,let u fir/ rem>k t ?is "r ( appropriat+ ext]nal ?+s re/s on necessity & on ! laws ( organiz$ be+s4 ,x is evid5t1 9 fact1 t life _c be pres]v$ o!rwise ?an by a p]petual ex*ange betwe5 ! p>ts ( ! liv+ body & ! p>ticles ( ! surr\nd+ bodies4 ,nutrition is assimilation1 &1 consequ5tly1 appropriation4 ,x is1 !n1 necess>y t c]ta9 ?+s ( ! ext]nal _w %\ld become m9e1 o!rwise life is impossible4 ,prop]ty is !n necess>y2 let u n[ see by :at means x becomes legitimate4 ,prop]ty has be5 giv5 sev]al orig9s3 occupation1 law1 "w4 ,accord+ to "s1 prop]ty has = its fundam5tal pr9ciple ! "r ( ! fir/ occupant4 ,x is said t man has ! "r ( appropriat+ a ?+ n 9 possession ( "s "o else2 ! same z at ! !atre1 ! spectator :o comes fir/ has ! "r to take ! be/ place4 7,cic]o47 ,s be x2 b at ! !atre ,i occupy only ! place occupi$ by my own body2 ,i h n ! "r to appropriate ! :ole !atre1 or ev5 ! pit4 ,x is ! same ) ! "r ( ! fir/ occupant4 ,i h c]ta9ly a "r to ! place my own body w\ld occupy1 b no fur!r3 = :]e w\ld my "r !n /op8 ,w ! sett+ "o's foot1 says ,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau1 on a piece ( common gr\nd be suffici5t to decl>e "o's self at once ! ma/] ( x8 ,:5 ,nunez ,balboa took on l&+ possession ( ! ,s\!rn ,sea1 & ( ! :ole ( ,s\!rn ,am]ica 9 ! "n ( ! ,cr[n ( ,ca/ile1 0 t en\gh to exclude f x all ! pr9ces ( ! _w8 ,at t rate ! ,ca?olic k+ _h b to take all at once possession 9 8 /udy ( ! :ole univ]se1 rely+ ^u subsequ5tly /rik+ (f f 8 empire :at be=e 0 9 possession ( ! o!r pr9ces4 7,contrat social1 liv4 #a;er1 ,*4 ix47 ,! law4--,if occupation ( itself alone is insuffici5t 9 f\nd+ ! "r ( prop]ty1 w x n become legitimate by add+ to x conv5tion--t is to say1 ! law8 ,prop]ty1 we h se51 is necess>y2 b if e "o is free to appropriate to himself :at he ne$s1 x becomes an>*y2 x is1 z ,hobbes said1 ! w> ( all aga9/ all4 ,x is necess>y t ! law %\ld fix ! prop]ty ( ea* 9 ! int]e/ ( all4 ,prop]ty1 "u ?is new hypo!sis1 w\ld !n mean ! "p :i* public au?ority has fix$ or recogniz$1 :e!r we admit a primitive division made by a magi/rate1 or a primitive occupation m or less due to *ance1 b consecrat$ by law4 ,c]ta9ly1 ! reason ( social utility plays a great "p 9 ! e/abli%m5t & consecration ( prop]ty2 & x w\ld be absurd n to take ?is consid]ation into acc\nt4 ,c]ta9ly1 ev5 if prop]ty 7 b a fact consecrat$ by "t1 by necessity1 & by law1 x w\ld already by t alone h a v great au?ority2 b we believe t t is n say+ en\gh4 ,prop]ty is n only a consecrat$ fact1 x is also a "r4 ,x f9ds 9 ! law its gu>anty1 b n its f\ndation4 ,! true pr9ciple ( prop]ty is "w2 & prop]ty becomes bl5d$ ) lib]ty itself3 lib]ty & prop]ty1 say ! ,engli%4 ,"w4--,if all ! ?+s man has ne$ ( 7 9 unlimit$ numb]1 & if !y c\ld be acquir$ )\t ef=t1 !re w\ld be no prop]ty4 ,?is1 = example1 takes place 9 ! case ( ! atmosph]e1 ( :i* we all h ne$1 b :i* belongs to no "o4 ,b if ! "q is ( ?+s t _c be acquir$ except by a c]ta9 ef=t 7z 9 ! case ( animals runn+ wild71 or ev5 t c be produc$ only by human ef=t 7z a h>ve/ 9 a b>r5 gr\nd71 ^! ?+s belong by "r to him :o conqu]s !m or br+s !m ab\t4 ,i take wild :eat into my h&1 ,i s[ x 9 soil ,i h dug1 & ,i wait = ! e>?1 aid$ by ra9 & sun%9e1 to d its "w4 ,is ! gr[+ crop my prop]ty8 ,:]e w\ld x be )\t me8 ,i creat$ x4 ,:o c d5y x8444 ,?is e>? 0 wor? no?+ & produc$ no?+3 ,i dug ! soil2 ,i br\ght f a di/ance friable & f]tiliz+ e>?2 ,i enri*$ x ) manure2 x is n[ f]tile = _m ye>s to come4 ,?is f]tility is my "w4444 ,! e>? belong$ to no "o2 9 f]tiliz+ x1 ,i made x m9e4 ,accord+ to ,locke1 n9e t5?s at lea/ ( ! produce ( ! soil %\ld be attribut$ to human labor4#bj ,x has be5 said t "w is n a suffici5t f\ndation to e/abli% ! "r ( prop]ty2 t occupation mu/ be add$ !reto1 = o!rwise "w alone w\ld make u ! proprietors ( :at is already occupi$ by o!rs2 ! f>m] w\ld become ! proprietor ( ! fields he cultivates f ! fact alone t he cultivates !m4 ,occupation is !re=e a necess>y elem5t ( prop]ty4 ,c]ta9ly2 b occupation itself has no value except z x already repres5ts labor1 & inasmu* z x is labor4 ,! fact ( cull+ a fruit1 ( seiz+ an animal1 & ev5 ( sett+ foot ^u a des]t l&1 is an ex]cise ( my activity :i* is m or less easy or difficult to accompli%1 b :i* 9 reality is n ! less ! result ( an ef=t4 ,x is1 !n1 "w itself :i* lays ! f\ndation ( occupation & consecrates x4 ,b :5 ! ?+ once occupi$ has become ! prop]ty ( a man by a fir/ "w1 x c no long] )\t contradiction become ! prop]ty ( ano!r by a subsequ5t "w4 ,?is "w appli$ to ! prop]ty ( o!rs is n ! less itself ! f\ndation ( prop]ty1 namely3 ! price receiv$ 9 ex*ange ( "w1 :i* is call$ sal>y1 & :i* aga9 by ex*ange c obta9 = u ! possession ( ?+s n ours4 #cc4 ,accumulation & transmission4--,! "r ( appropriation1 f\nd$ z we h j se5 on "w1 c>ries ) x z its consequ5ce1 ! "r ( accumulation & t ( transmission4 ,9 fact1 if ,i h acquir$ a ?+1 ,i c ei!r enjoy x actually1 or res]ve x to enjoy x lat]2 & if ,i h m ?an my actual wants require1 ,i c lay aside :at to-day is useless to me1 b :i* w be useful to me lat]4 ,?is is :at is call$ sav+2 & ! successive additions to sav+s is call$ accumulation4 ,?is "r _c be d5i$ to man2 = t w\ld be ignor+ 9 him "o ( 8 noble/ faculties1 namely1 ! faculty ( provid+ = ! future4 ,9 suppress+ ?is "r1 ! v s\rce ( all production1 namely1 "w1 w\ld dry up2 = x is 8 ?\ght ( ! future :i*1 above all1 induces man to "w to insure 8 security4 ,! "r ( transmission is ano!r consequ5ce ( prop]ty2 = if ,i h enjoym5t myself1 ,i ought to be able to transmit x to o!rs2 f9ally1 ,i c give up my prop]ty to obta9 9 its place ! prop]ty ( o!rs :i* might be m agreeable or m useful to me2 h5ce ! "r ( ex*ange1 :i* gives rise to :at is call$ pur*ase & sale4 ,( all transmissions1 ! mo/ natural is t :i* takes place betwe5 a fa!r & 8 *ildr53 ?is is :at is call$ inh]itance4 ,if we 7 to deprive ! head ( a family ( ! "r ( ?9k+ ( 8 *ildr5 9 ! accumulation ( ! fruits ( 8 labors1 we %\ld de/roy !reby ! mo/ en]getic in/igation to "w !re is 9 ! human he>t4 #cd4 ,individual prop]ty & ! community4--,! adv]s>ies ( prop]ty h (t5 said t !y did n attack prop]ty 9 itself1 b only individual prop]ty4 ,! soil :i*1 if n ! pr9ciple1 is at lea/ ! s\rce ( all ri*es1 belongs1 !y say1 n to ! individual1 b to society2 to ! ,/ate1 t is to say1 to all1 z common & undivid$ prop]ty3 ea* individual is b a consum]1 & receives 8 %>e f ! ,/ate1 :i* alone is ! true proprietor4 ,?is is :at is call$ ! community sy/em1 or communism1 :i* takes two =ms1 accord+ z x admits ! division to be made 9 a mann] absolutely equal among ! co-memb]s ( ! society1 :i* is ! equality sy/em 7sy/eme egalitaire72 or by reason ( capacity & works4 ,x is ?is =m ( communism :i* ! s*ool ( ,sa9t-,simon ma9ta9s at ?is day4 ,we ne$ n po9t out ! practical impossibility ( realiz+ su* a sy/em4 ,let u conf9e ourselves to %[+ its ess5tial vice4 ,if communism means absolute equality 7& true communism does71 x de/roys ! ma9 inducem5t to "w3 = man assur$ ( 8 liv+ by ! ,/ate1 has no?+ left to /imulate him to p]sonal ef=t4 ,"w1 depriv$ ( ! hope ( a legitimate remun]ation1 w\ld be r$uc$ to a /rict m9imum1 & civilization1 :i* lives by "w1 w\ld rapidly g backw>d3 g5]al wret*$ness w\ld be ! necess>y consequ5ce ( ?is /ate ( ?+s2 all w\ld be equally poor & mis]able2 humanity w\ld g back to its primitive /ate1 to get f :i* x /ruggl$ s h>d1 & f :i* x em]g$ by means ( "w & prop]ty alone4 ,moreov]1 z x is absolutely impossible to disp5se ) "w1 ! ,/ate w\ld be oblig$ to en=ce x ^u ^? :om _! int]e/ did n spontane\sly incl9e to x2 f be+ free1 "w w\ld become s]vile1 & ! p5sion]s ( ! ,/ate w\ld 9 reality be b its slaves4 ,z to ! inequality-communism 7communisme inegalitaire7 :i* recomm5ds a remun]ation f ! ,/ate1 proportion$ to m]it & products1 t is to say1 to capacity & works1 x c]ta9ly does n s v s]i\sly impair ! pr9ciple ( prop]ty & lib]ty2 b1 on ! "o h&1 x does n satisfy ! in/9cts ( equality1#ba :i* h at all times inspir$ ! communi/ic utopias2 on ! o!r1 x attacks ! family in/9cts by suppress+ inh]itance2 n[1 if man is int]e/$ 9 8 own fate1 he int]e/s himself /ill m1 z he gr[s old1 9 ! fate ( 8 *ildr52 9 depriv+ him ( ! responsibility = _! de/9ies1 y deprive him ( ! mo/ en]getic /imulus to "w2 & ! t5d5cy w\ld be1 ?\gh 9 a less] degree1 to produce ! same evil ( g5]al impov]i%m5t1 z w\ld communism prop]ly s call$4 ,b ! pr9cipal vice ( all communism1 :e!r ( equality or inequality1 is to sub/itute ! ,/ate = ! individual1 to make ( all m5 function>ies1 to commit to ! ,/ate ! de/9ies ( all individuals2 9 "o ^w1 to make ( ! ,/ate a provid5ce4#bb #ce4 ,inequality ( ri*es4--,yet !re w always arise 9 ! m9d a grave problem3 ,:y are goods creat$ = all1 di/ribut$ 9 s unequal & caprici\s a mann]8 ,:y ! ri* & ! poor8 & if inequality mu/ exi/1 :y is x n 9 proportion to inequality ( m]it & individual "w8 ,:y are ! idle & prodigal sometimes ri*8 ,:y are ! poor ov]:elm$ by bo? "w & pov]ty8 ,!re are two que/ions "h3 #a4 ,:y is !re any inequality at all8 #b4 ,:y1 suppos+ ?is inequality mu/ exi/1 has x no connection ) m]it or ! "w ( ! individual8 ,reg>d+ ! fir/ po9t1 we _c d5y1 unless we %\ld wi% to suppress all human responsibility1 all free & p]sonal activity--9 a ^w1 all lib]ty--we _c d5y1 ,i say1 t ! inequality ( m]it & ( "w does n au?orize & ju/ify a c]ta9 inequality 9 ! di/ribution ( prop]ty4 ,b1 x is said1 ?is inequality is n always 9 proportion to ! "w4 ,x may be answ]$ t z civic laws become m p]fect 7by ! abolition ( monopoly1 privileges1 abuse ( rights1 su* z ! feudal rights1 etc417 ! di/ribution ( ri*es w t5d to become m & m 9 proportion to individual m]it & ef=ts4 ,!re rema9 b two s\rces ( inequality :i* d n proce$ f p]sonal "w3 #a1 accid5ts2 #b1 h]$it>y transmission4 ,b 9 reg>d to accid5ts1 !re is no way ( absolutely suppress+ ! "p *ance plays 9 man's de/9y2 x c only be correct$ & dim9i%$1 & !reto t5d ! in/itutions ( life-assurances1 sav+s-banks1 banks ( assi/ance1 etc41 :i* are means ( equalization gr[+ along ) ! g5]al progress4 ,z to ! inequality produc$ by inh]itance1 "o ( two ?+s is to be consid]$3 ei!r ! heir keeps & increases by 8 own "w :at he has acquir$1 & ?us succe$s 9 des]v+ x2 or1 on ! contr>y1 he ceases to "w & consumes )\t produc+1 & 9 ?is case he de/roys 8 privilege himself )\t ! ,/ate's m$dl+ ) x4 ,besides1 ! "q is less conc]n+ ! relative well-be+ ( m5 ?an _! absolute well-be+4 ,:at use w\ld x be to m5 to be all equal if !y 7 all mis]able8 ,!re is c]ta9ly m equality 9 a republic ( savages ?an 9 our ,european societies2 b h[ _m ( our poor ,europeans are !re :o w\ld ex*ange _! condition = an exi/5ce among savages8 ,9 reality1 social progress1 9 cont9ually increas+ g5]al weal?1 increases at ! same "t ! well-be+ ( ea*1 )\t increas+ ! sum ( individual ef=ts4 ,?is sup]addition ( well-be+ is 9 reality gratuit\s1 z ,ba/iat has demon/rat$4 ,h5ce1 z he says1 ) a community increas+ 9 well-be+1#bc z by prop]ty ev] bett] gu>ante$1 we leave beh9d u ! community ( mis]y f :i* we came4 ,prop]ty1 says ,ba/iat1 t5ds to trans=m on]\s into gratuit\s utility4 ,x is t spur :i* obliges human intellig5ce to draw f ! in]tia ( matt] its lat5t natural =ces4 ,x /ruggles1 c]ta9ly = its own b5efit1 aga9/ ! ob/acles :i* make utility on]\s2 & :5 ! ob/acle is ov]?r[n1 x is f\nd t its disappe>ance b5efits all4 ,!n ! indefatigable proprietor attacks new ob/acles1 & cont9ually rais+ ! human level1 he m & m realizes community1 & ) x equality 9 ! mid/ ( ! great human family4 #cf4 ,duties conc]n+ ! prop]ty ( o!rs4--,aft] hav+ e/abli%$ ! "r ( g5]al prop]ty1 we h to exp\nd ! duties relative to ! prop]ty ( o!rs4 ,! prop]ty ( o!rs may be injur$ 9 v>i\s ways1 & 9 diff]5t cases4 ,^! cases are3 #a1 loans2 #b1 tru/s2 #c1 ?+s lo/2 #d1 sales2 #e1 prop]ty /rictly s-call$4 #cg4 ,loans4--,debts4--,! inequality ( ri*es is ! cause t among m5 "s h ne$ ( :at o!rs possess1 & yet _c procure by pur*ase1 = want ( means4 ,9 ?is case1 ! fir/ turn to ! second to obta9 ! tempor>y enjoym5t ( ! ?+ !y /& 9 ne$ (2 ?is is call$ borr[+2 ! reciprocal act1 :i* consi/s 9 conc$+ = a "t ! desir$ object1 is call$ loan+4 ,he :o borr[s1 & :o by ?is v act engages himself to return ! ?+ aga91 is call$ debtor 7:o owes71 & he :o loans is call$ cr$itor2 he has a cr$it on 8 debtor4 ,sev]al que/ions spr+ f ?is1 "s v simple1 o!rs v delicate1 & (t5 debat$4 #ch4 ,rights & duties ( ! cr$itor4--,money int]e/4--,usury4--,& fir/1 is x a duty to loan to any t ask y8 ,x is evid5t t if x is a duty x c be only a duty ( *>ity1 or fri5dl9ess1 b n ( /rict ju/ice4 ,"o is no m oblig$ to loan to all ?an to give to all4 ,! duty ( loan+1 l ! duty ( giv+ )\t discrim9ation1 w\ld be tantam\nt to ! negation ( prop]ty2 = he :o w\ld op5 8 money-*e/ to all unconditionally1 h[ev] ri* he might be1 w\ld 9 a few days be absolutely despoil$4 ,besides1 ! same duty weigh+ equally on ^? :o h receiv$1 !y 9 _! turn w\ld be oblig$ to pass _! goods ov] to o!rs1 & no "o w\ld ev] be proprietor4 ,9 ?is case1 x w\ld ev5 be bett] to h& all prop]ty ov] to ! ,/ate1 t x might e/abli% a c]ta9 ord] & fixity 9 ! rep>tition ( x4 ,x is ?is doctr9e :i* a ,fa!r ( ! ,*ur*1 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria1 has express$ 9 ^! t]ms 9 8 treatise3 ,c any ri* man be sav$8 ,:at division ( prop]ty c\ld !re be among m5 if no "o _h any?+8 ,if we _c fulfil ! duties ( *>ity )\t any money1 & if at ! same "t we 7 comm&$ to reject ri*es1 w\ld !re n be contradiction8 ,w\ld x n be to say at ! same "t give & n give1 fe$ & n fe$1 %>e & n %>e8 ,x is !re=e n a /rict duty to loan to all2 x is a =m ( b5evol5ce1 & we mu/ put (f to ano!r *apt] 7*4 vi47 ! conditions & ! degrees ( ?is duty4 ,b a "q :i* necess>ily pres5ts itself "h1 is to "k if1 :5 "o loans1 x is a duty to deprive "o's self ( all remun]ation2 or if x is1 on ! contr>y1 p]mitt$ to exact a price ov] & beyond ! sum loan$4 ,?is is :at is call$ money int]e/2 & :5 ?is int]e/ is or appe>s excessive1 x is call$ usury4 ,?is "q1 discuss$ dur+ ! :ole middle ages1 01 be=e its true pr9ciples 7 e/abli%$1 fir/ resolv$ by practice & necessity4 ,x is to-day evid5t to all s5sible m9ds1 t capital1 l "w1 has a "r to remun]ation4 ,:y8 ,because )\t ! expectation ( ?is remun]ation1 ! possessor ( ! capital w\ld =?) consume x himself or all[ x to wa/e away )\t use4 ,?is w be bett] und]/ood 9 consid]+ ! two pr9cipal =ms ( remun]ation = capital3 int]e/ & r5t4 ,int]e/ & r5t are bo? ! product ( a capital loan$1 b ) ?is diff]5ce1 t r5t is ! product ( a fix$ capital 7h\se1 field1 work%op72 :ile int]e/ is ! product ( a circulat+ capital 7money or pap]74 ,! int]e/ ( capital repres5ts two ?+s3 #a1 ! deprivation ( him :o loans1 & :o might consume 8 capital2 #b1 ! risk he incurs1 = capital is nev] loan$ except to be inve/$1 & consequ5tly x may be lo/4 ,^! are ! two fundam5tal reasons :i* e/abli% ! legitimacy ( int]e/1 despite ! prejudices :i* h long condemn$ x z usury1 & ! utopias :i* w\ld e/abli% ! gratuity ( cr$it4#bd ,! pr9cipal reason aga9/ ! legitimacy ( int]e/ is d$uc$ f ! /]ility ( money4 ,int]e/1 says ,ari/otle1 is money br$ f money2 & no?+ is m contr>y to nature4 ,b1 z ,b5?am rem>ks 7,def5se ( ,usury1 lett] #aj71 if x be true t a sum ( money is ( itself incapable to bre$1 x is n ! less true t ) ?is same borr[$ sum1 a man c buy a ram & a %eep1 :i*1 at ! end ( a ye>1 w h produc$ two or ?ree lambs4 ,9 o!r t]ms1 z ,calv9 says1 x is n f ! money itself t ! b5efit comes1 x is f ! use t is made ( x4 ,x has be5 said t he :o loans does n deprive himself ( 8 money1 s9ce he c d )\t x4 7,pr\dhon1 ,lett]s to ,ba/iat1 #c;d lett]47 ,b he does deprive himself ( x1 s9ce he might h consum$ x himself4 ,! pro( t a loan is a privation1 is ! pa9 m5 h 9 economiz+ & 9 inve/+ _! money4 ,h[ _m m5 are !re :o1 9 possession ( a sum ( "o hundr$ francs1 w\ld n r sp5d x ?an place x on int]e/8 ,z to :at is call$ gratuit\s cr$it1 x c\ld be possible only by be+ reciprocal4 ,9 fact1 if ,i loan y my h\se1 & y loan me 9 return y\r l&1 suppos+ !y are ( equal value1 x is evid5t t1 ! "o be+ wor? z mu* z ! o!r1 & ! two s]vices equival5t1 we ne$ n pay ea* o!r any?+2 = x w\ld be only an ex*ange ( money4 ,b no?+ c be inf]r$ f ?is1 t\*+ ! mo/ usual case3 namely1 :]e ! capital is loan$ by ! possessor to him :o does n possess2 = !n !re is no reciprocity1 consequ5tly no gratuity4 ,z to ! rate ( int]e/ x v>ies l all values accord+ to ! law ( supply & dem& 9 ! money m>ket4 7,see ! ,c\rs d',economie ,politique47 ,! great] ! supply ( capital ! less de> x is4 ,x is1 !n1 ! increase ( capital t is to dim9i% int]e/ & br+ ab\t a sort ( relative gratuity4 ,e ent]prise aga9/ capital w produce a contr>y result4 ,z to ! r5t ( capital1 x has g5]ally rais$ few] objections ?an int]e/2 = x is easi] to und]/& t if ,i give myself ! tr\ble to build a h\se1 x is t x w br+ me 9 some?+2 b x is1 on ! :ole1 ! same ?+1 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t circulat+ capital1 runn+ m risks ?an fix$ capital1 seems to h a /ill bett] "r to remun]ation4 ,! l5d] has !n ! "r to exact a c]ta9 am\nt ov] & above ! sum loan$4 ,c]ta9ly1 he _c exact x1 z x (t5 occurs among fri5ds1 & = v small sums4 ,b z a pr9ciple1 "o is no m oblig$ to l5d gratuit\sly1 ?an to give to o!rs gratuit\sly :at !y ne$4 ,9 admitt+ t ! int]e/ ( money is a legitimate ?+1 is "o oblig$ also to admit t ! money-l5d] has a "r to fix ! rate ( int]e/ z high z he wi%es8 ,beyond a c]ta9 limit1 w n ! int]e/ become :at we call usury8 ,to :i* may be repli$3 #a4 ,if ! "o borr[+ cons5ts to pay ! price1 x is t ?is s]vice done him does n appe> to him too de>4 ,"o may borr[ at #bj & ev5 #cj p] c5t41 if "o =esees a ga9 ( #dj4 #b4 ,:y n look at ! ?+ f ! l5d]'s /&po9t8 ,if ! return ( ! funds appe>s m or less d\btful1 :y %\ld he n h ! "r to protect himself8 7,diction>y ( ,politics1 by ,maurice ,block47 ,^! argum5ts prove1 9 fact1 t x is impossible to det]m9e be=eh& & absolutely ! rate at :i* x may be p]mitt$ to l5d1 & !re are _m cases :]e a v high int]e/ may be legitimate3 = in/ance1 9 :at is call$ bottomry-loan1 :i* consi/s 9 advances made to %ipp+ m]*ants on _! %ips2 ! law "h sanctions v high int]e/1 because ( ! exceptional risks ?is k9d ( ent]prise runs4 ,does x1 h[ev]1 foll[1 z "s economi/s seem to ?9k1 t !re is no occasion to speak ( usury1 prop]ly s call$1 t ! t]m usur] is an insult1 inv5t$ by ignorance1 :i* has no real basis8 ,?is we _c admit4 ,political economy & morality are two diff]5t ?+s4 ,ev5 if "o %\ld admit t !re is no reason = legally fix+ ! rate ( int]e/1 because money is a m]*&ise l all o!rs :i* %\ld be left to free circulation1 to ! free appreciation ( ! p>ties1 x w\ld n foll[ t !re c\ld be no abuse made ( ! requir$ int]e/4 ,exp]i5ce proves ! contr>y4 ,x is n s mu* ! rate ( ! int]e/ :i* con/itutes ! inju/ice !re(1 z ! reasons & circum/ances ( ! loan4 ,if1 tak+ advantage ( ! passions ( y\?1 "o loans to a prodigal1 kn[+ him unable to refuse ! conditions1 because he only li/5s to pleasure2 or if1 s$uc+ ! ignorant1 "o dazzles him ) magnific5t b>ga9s2 or1 la/ly1 if pr(it+ by ! common desire among peasants to enl>ge _! gr\nds1 we advance !m money1 kn[+ !y _c return x1 & secure !reby ! prop]ty !y ?9k !y are buy+1 9 all su* cases1 or simil> ones1 !re is always usury1 & morality mu/ condemn su* hateful practices4 ,! hatefulness ( usury is br\ght into /rong relief 9 ,moli]e's celebrat$ sc5e 9 ,! ,mis] 7,act ii41 ,sc4 i473 ,,la ,,fle*e3 ,suppose t ! l5d] sees all ! securities1 & t ! borr[] be ( age & ( a family ( l>ge prop]ty1 sub/antial1 secure1 cle> & free f any incumbrances1 !re w !n be drawn up a regul> bond be=e a not>y1 z hone/ a man z may be f\nd1 :o to ?is effect %all be *os5 by ! l5d]1 to :om x is ( p>ticul> importance t ! bond be prop]ly drawn up4 ,,cleante3 ,t's all "r4 ,,la ,,fle*e3 ,! l5d] n to burd5 8 consci5ce ) any scruples1 means to give 8 money at ! l[ rate ( d5i] eighte5#be 7#e1 #i p] c5t47 only4 ,,cleante3 ,d5i] eighte58 ,jolly6 ,t's hone/ inde$6 ,no fault to f9d !re6 ,,la ,,fle*e3 ,no4 ,b z ! said l5d] has n ) him ! sum 9 "q1 &1 to oblige ! borr[]1 he w himself be oblig$ to borr[ f ano!r at ! rate ( d5i] five 7#bj p] c5t471 x w be b j t ! abovesaid fir/ borr[] %\ld pay t int]e/ )\t prejudice to ! o!r1 = x is only to oblige him t ! said l5d] resorts to ?is loan4 ,,cleante3 ,! devil6 ,:at a ,jew6 ,:at an ,arab is t6 ,t w\ld be at a great] rate ?an d5i] f\r 7#be p] c5t474 ,,la ,,fle*e3 ,t's s3 x is j :at ,i said4 ,,cleante3 ,is !re any?+ m8 ,,la ,,fle*e3 ,b j a small item4 ,( ! fifte5 ?\s& francs t are ask$1 ! l5d] c give 9 ca% only twelve ?\s&1 & = ! ?\s& cr[ns rema9+1 x w be necess>y t ! borr[] take ! clo!s1 /ock1 jewelry1 etc41 ( :i* "h is ! li/4 ,,cleante3 ,! plague on him6 ,! next sc5e %[s ) rem>kable en]gy ! sp5d?rift & ! usur] 9 conflict ) ea* o!r4#bf #ci4 ,duties ( ! debtor4--,aft] ! duties ( ! l5d] & ! cr$itor1 let u po9t out ^? ( ! borr[] or ! debtor4 ,! only duty = him "h is to return :at he has borr[$3 x is ! duty ( pay+ "o's debts4 ,= a long "t1 ! duty ( pay+ "o's debts appe>$ to be "o ( ^? vulg> & commonplace duties int5d$ = ! g5]ality ( m51 b f :i* ! great lords fre$ !mselves easily4 ,! poor cr$itors h be5 ! laugh+ /ock 9 com$ies4#bg ,b x is n d\bt$ n[adays t to refuse to pay :at "o owes1 is really tak+ f ! prop]ty ( o!rs1 & appropriat+ :at does n belong to u4 ,?is duty1 besides1 is s simple & /r+5t t x is necess>y only to m5tion x )\t fur!r developm5t4 ,! same pr9ciples apply to ! v>i\s ways 9 :i* "o may make use ( prop]ty1 & p>ticul>ly to ! ?ree k9ds indicat$ 9 ! ,civil ,code--! usufruct1 ! usage1 & ! "r ( action4 ,! common obligation 9 ^! ?ree cases1 m5tion$ by ! ,code1 is to use ! ?+ belong+ to o!rs z a prud5t fa!r w\ld1 :i* is to say1 to use x z ! proprietor himself w\ld use x1 )\t injur+ ! object1 & ev5 improv+ x z mu* z possible4 ,x is especially 9 comm]ce t ! act ( pay+ "o's debts1 is n only m obligatory morally1 b socially m necess>y ?an any:]e else4 ,! reason ( x is t comm]ce is impossible )\t cr$it4 ,by exact+ ( e m]*ant ! paym5t ( ca%1 ! spr+s ( ex*ange w\ld dry up2 besides1 mo/ ( ! "t x w\ld be useless2 = 9 comm]ce m]*&ise is con/antly b\ght aga9/ m]*&ise4 ,x w\ld be loss ( "t1 loss ( writ+1 limitation ( ! m>ket4 ,9 comm]ce "o _c say ( him :o owes t he is a borr[]2 = ! next day1 accord+ to ! fluctuations ( dem& & supply1 he may be ! l5d]4 ,b x is j because cr$it is indisp5sable 9 comm]ce1 t ! obligations ( ! debtors are 9 "s respect m /r+5t2 = ! great] ! confid5ce1 ! m /r+5t ! duty4 ,s t comm]cial honor is l milit>y honor--x does n admit ( break+ promises4 #dj4 ,failures & bankruptcies4--,h[ev] /rict "o %\ld be 9 comm]ce 9 reg>d to keep+ promises1 !re is nev]!less 9 ! ,code cause = di/+ui%+ two diff]5t cases ( promise-break+--failure & bankruptcy2 & 9 ?is second case1 !re is simple bankruptcy & fraudul5t bankruptcy4 ,failure is purely & simply ! susp5sion ( paym5ts result+ f circum/ances indep5d5t ( ! w ( him :o fails4 ,bankruptcy1 on ! contr>y1 is susp5sion ( paym5ts result+ ei!r f imprud5ce or f mi/akes ( ! bankrupt4 ,simple bankruptcy occurs 9 ! foll[+ cases3 #a4 ,if ! p]sonal exp5ses ( ! m]*ant or ! exp5ses ( 8 h\se are judg$ excessive2 #b4 ,if he has sp5t l>ge sums ( money 9 op]ations ( pure *ance ei!r 9 fictiti\s op]ations or extravagant pur*ases2 #c4 ,if ) ! int5tion ( putt+ (f 8 failure1 he has made pur*ases to sell aga9 bel[ p>2 #d4 ,if aft] cessation ( paym5t1 he has paid a cr$itor to ! prejudice ( all o!rs4 7,code ( ,comm]ce47 ,bankruptcy is call$ fraudul5t1 :5 ! bankrupt has ab/ract$ 8 books1 misrepres5t$ a portion ( 8 assets1 or decl>$ himself debtor = sums he does n owe4 ,x is useless to say t ?is ?ird case is b ano!r case ( !ft & des]ves ! sev]e/ d5unciation4 ,simple bankruptcy is already v culpable2 & failure itself %\ld be reg>d$ by all m]*ants z a v great mis=tune1 :i* !y mu/ avoid at any co/4 #da4 ,! commodate or gratuit\s loan4--,! gratuit\s loan or commodate is a contract by :i* "o ( ! p>ties gives to ! o!r a ?+ to be made use (1 on ! condition t x be return$ aft] hav+ s]v$ its purpose4 7,code ,civ41 ,art4 #ahge47 ,z a fundam5tal pr9ciple1 ! receiv] mu/ return to ! l5d] ! v ?+ he has loan$ him4 ,b 9 case ( loss or det]ioration ( ! ?+ loan$1 result+ f ! use made ( x1 on :om is to fall ! loss8 ,x _c be presum$1 says ,kant 7,doctr9e ( ! ,law1 ,fr5* translation1 p4 #adf71 t ! l5d] %\ld take ^u himself all ! *ances ( loss or det]ioration ( ! ?+ loan$2 = x /&s to reason t ! proprietor1 besides grant+ to ! borr[] ! use ( ! ?+ he loans him1 w\ld n agree to insure him also aga9/ all risks4 ,if1 = in/ance1 dur+ a %[]1 ,i ent] a h\se1 :]e ,i borr[ a cloak1 & ?is cloak gets to be =ev] spoil$ f color+ matt]s ?r[n ^u me by mis*ance1 f a w9d[1 or if x be /ol5 f me 9 a h\se :]e ,i laid x d[n1 x w\ld be consid]$ g5]ally absurd1 to say t ,i _h no?+ else to d ?an to s5d back ! cloak1 su* z x is1 or report ! !ft t has tak5 place4 ,! case w\ld be v diff]5t if1 aft] hav+ ask$ p]mission to use a ?+1 ,i %\ld insure myself aga9/ ! loss 9 case x %\ld suff] any damage at my h&s1 by begg+ n to be held responsible = x4 ,no "o w\ld ?9k ?is precaution sup]flu\s & ridicul\s1 except p]haps ! l5d]1 suppos+ he 0 a ri* & g5]\s man2 = x w\ld !n be almo/ an (f5se n to expect f 8 g5]osity ! remission ( my debt4 #db4 ,! tru/4--,tru/1 9 g5]al1 is an act by :i* "o receives ! ?+ ( ano!r on condition to keep x & re/ore x 9 k9d4 7,code ,civ41 ,art4 #aiae47 ,he :o deposits is call$ depon5t 7or bailor 9 ,engl&72 he :o receives ! tru/ is call$ deposit>y 79 ,engl& bailee74 ,! obligations ( ! deposit>y are morally ! same z ^? f\nd 9 positive law4 ,we h !n no?+ bett] to d "h ?an to reproduce ! precepts ( ! ,code on ?is matt]4 #a4 ,! deposit>y1 9 keep+ ! ?+ deposit$ ) him1 mu/ ex]cise ! same c>e z ) ! ?+s belong+ to himself 7,art4 #aibg74 #b4 ,?is obligation becomes /ill m /r+5t 9 ! foll[+ cases3 7a71 :5 ! deposit>y (f]s himself to receive ! ?+ 9 tru/2 7b71 :5 he /ipulates = a comp5sation = ! keep+ ( ! ?+ deposit$2 7c71 :5 ! tru/ is to ! int]e/ ( ! deposit>y2 7d71 :5 x has be5 expressly agre$ ^u t ! deposit>y be answ]able = all k9ds ( mi/akes 7,art4 #aibh74 #c4 ,! deposit>y _c make use ( ! tru/ )\t ! express or presum$ cons5t ( ! depon5t 7,art #aibi74--;,= example1 if a libr>y has be5 left 9 my tru/1 x may be presum$ t ! depon5t w\ld n object to my us+ x2 b if ! tru/ consi/s 9 valuable jewelry1 x c be only by ! express wi% ( ! depon5t t ,i c\ld we> x4 ,! diff]5ce is simple & easily und]/ood4 #d4 ,! deposit>y %\ld n seek to "k :at ! ?+s deposit$ ) him are1 if !y h be5 left ) him 9 a clos$ trunk or a seal$ envelope 7,art4 #aica74 #e4 ,! deposit>y mu/ return ! id5tical ?+ he has receiv$4 ,?us ! tru/ consi/+ 9 specie1 mu/ be return$ 9 ! same specie4 ,! obligation to re/ore ! ?+ deposit$ 9 k9d1 & su* z x 0 :5 deliv]$1 is evid5t1 & con/itutes ! v ess5ce ( ! tru/4 ,h[ev]1 we %\ld take into acc\nt ! foll[+ circum/ances3 #a4 ,! deposit>y is n held responsible 9 cases ( insup]able accid5ts 7,art4 #aibi74 #b4 ,! deposit>y is only held to return ! ?+s deposit$ ) him1 9 ! /ate :]e9 !y are at ! mom5t ( re/itution4 ,det]iorations1 ?r\gh no fault ( 81 are at ! exp5se ( ! depon5t 7,art4 #aice74 ,su* are ! obligations ( ! deposit>y2 z to ^? ( ! depon5t1 !y resolve !mselves into ! foll[+ rule3 ,! depon5t is held to reimburse ! deposit>y = any exp5se he may h incurr$ 9 ! keep+ ( ! tru/1 & to indemnify him = any loss ! tru/ may h occasion$ him 7,art4 #aidg74 #dc4 ,possession 9 good fai?4--,possession 9 good fai? is analog\s to tru/4 ,9 fact1 he :o possesses 9 good fai? a ?+ t is n 81 is 9 reality b a deposit>y1 b he is s )\t kn[+ x4 ,h5ce analogies & diff]5ces betwe5 ^! two cases1 :i* x is well to po9t out4 ,! foll[+ are "s rules propos$ on ?is subject by ,grotius 7,de la paix et de la gu]re1 ,b4 #aa1 *4 xii41 ,sec4 #c72 & ,puff5dorf 7,droit de la ,nature et des ,g5s1 ,b4 iv41 *4 xiii41 ,sec4 #ab74 ,b z ^! rules appe>$ excessive to o!r jurisconsults1 we give !m "h r z problems ?an solutions3 #a4 ,a possessor 9 good fai? is n oblig$ to re/ore a ?+ :i*1 aga9/ 8 wi%1 has come to be de/roy$ or lo/1 = 8 good fai? /ood to him 9 lieu ( prop]ty4 #b4 ,a possessor 9 good fai? is held to return n only ! ?+ itself1 b also its fruits /ill exi/+ 9 k9d4 #c4 ,a possessor 9 good fai? is held to return ! ?+ itself1 & ! value ( ! fruit !re( :i* he has consum$1 if !re is reason to believe t he w\ld h o!rwise consum$ z _m simil> ones4 #d4 ,a possessor 9 good fai? is n held to return 9 k9d ! value ( ! fruit he has neglect$ to ga!r or to gr[4 #e4 ,if a possessor 9 good fai?1 hav+ receiv$ ! ?+ z a pres5t1 %\ld aft]w>ds give x to ano!r1 he is n oblig$ to return x1 unless he w\ld o!rwise h giv5 "o ( ! same value4 #f4 ,if a possessor 9 good fai?1 hav+ acquir$ a ?+ by an on]\s title1 %\ld aft]w>ds dispose ( x 9 "s way or o!r1 he ne$ return b ! ga9 x procur$ him4 ,x is necess>y to rem>k "h t 9 ?is matt] morality %\ld be m sev]e ?an ! /rict law2 = if morality dem&s t a possessor be above all m9dful ( ! rights ( o!rs1 ! law %\ld also consid] ! rights ( him :o 9 good fai? & ignorance enjoys :at belongs to o!rs4 ,h5ce1 an ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ?is case & t ( ! tru/4 #dd4 ,?+s lo/4--,! "q ( ?+s lo/ is relat$ to t ( possession 9 good fai?4 ,if ! ?+ lo/ %\ld fall into my h&s by a regul> acquisition1 by pur*ase1 contract1 etc4 7z1 = in/ance1 buy+ a horse 9 ! m>ket71 x is evid5t t ?is case comes "u possession 9 good fai?1 & t x is ! bus9ess ( ! law to decide betwe5 proprietor & possessor4 ,b if ,i appropriate to myself ! ?+ lo/1 kn[+ x to be lo/1 & consequ5tly n m9e1 !re is fraud & conv]t+ to my own use ! prop]ty ( o!rs4 ,public op9ion 0 = a long "t indulg5t t[>ds ?is k9d ( appropriation4 ,x seem$ t luck gave a c]ta9 title to prop]ty4 ,! difficulty1 moreov]1 ( f9d+ ! true own]1 seem$ to give to him :o _h f\nd ! object a c]ta9 "r to x4 ,b to-day society plays ! "p ( int]m$i>y1 & assumes ! duty ( re/or+ ! ?+ lo/ to its own]4 ,x is1 !re=e1 to ! au?orities ! object mu/ be return$4#bh ,= a long "t a misjudgm5t ( ! same k9d all[$ wreck]s a pret5d$ "r to ! objects ?r[n on ! /r& by ! tempe/ foll[+ a wreck4 #de4 ,sale4--,sale is a contract by :i* "o ( ! p>ties engages to deliv] a ?+1 & ! o!r to pay = x 7,civ4 ,code1 ,art4 #aihb74 ,!re are1 !n1 two contract+ p>ties--! sell] & ! buy]4 ,!y are subject to diff]5t obligations4 ,obligations ( ! sell]4--,! sell] is held cle>ly to expla9 :at he engages to d4 ,an obscure & ambigu\s agreem5t is int]pret$ aga9/ ! sell] 7,civ4 ,code1 ,art4 #afjb74 ,su* is ! g5]al & fundam5tal obligation ( a sale4 ,x implies1 moreov]1 two o!rs1 m p>ticul>3 #a1 t ( deliv]+2 #b1 t ( gu>antee+ ! ?+ sold4 ,! fir/ is v simple1 & raises only que/ions ( fact1 z 9 reg>d to delays1 exp5ses ( removal1 etc42 x is ! bus9ess ( ! law to regulate ^! details4 ,! gu>anty1 9 a moral po9t ( view1 is ( great] importance4 ,! two ess5tial pr9ciples 9 ?is matt] are express$ by ! ,code 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3 #a4 ,! sell] is held to 8 gu>anty 9 proportion to ! conceal$ defects ( ! ?+ sold1 r5d]+ x improp] = ! use = :i* x 0 de/9$1 or s dim9i%+ ?is use1 t ! buy] w\ld n h b\ght x1 or w\ld n h giv5 s mu* = x1 _h he kn[n ( ^! defects4 #b4 ,! sell] is n held to ! obvi\s defects :i* ! buy] may h be5 able to see himself4 ,x is to ?is "q ( gu>antee+ ! ?+ sold1 t ! consci5ce-case m5tion$ by ,cic]o1 9 8 treatise on ,duties1 is applicable3 ,an hone/ man puts up = sale a h\se1 = defects only kn[n to him2 ?is h\se is unheal?y & passes = heal?y2 x is n kn[n t !re is n a room 9 x :]e !re are no s]p5ts2 ! timb] is bad & ?reat5s ru92 b ! ma/] alone kn[s x4 ,i ask if ! sell] :o %\ld n say any?+ ab\t x to ! buy]s1 & %\ld get = x mu* m ?an he has a "r to expect1 w\ld d a j or unju/ ?+4 ,c]ta9ly he w\ld d wrong1 says ,antipat]2 is x n1 9 fact1 lead+ a man into error kn[+ly8 ,diog5es1 on ! contr>y1 replies3 ,7 y oblig$ to buy8 ,y 7 n ev5 invit$ to d s4 ,?is man put up = sale a h\se t no long] suit$ him1 & y b\ght x because x suit$ y4 ,if any "o %\ld adv]tise3 ,f9e c\ntry-h\se well built1 he is n *>g$ ) deceit1 ev5 ?\gh x 0 nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r4 ,& :il/ "o is n responsible = :at he says1 y w\ld make "o responsible = :at he does n say6 ,:at w\ld be m ridicul\s ?an a sell] :o w\ld make kn[n ! defects ( ! ?+ he puts up = sale8 ,:at m absurd ?an a public cri] :o1 by ord] ( 8 ma/]1 %\ld cry3 ,unheal?y h\se = sale6 ,despite ,diog5es' raill]ies1 ,cic]o decides 9 favor ( ,antipat] & ! m rigor\s solution4 ,! truly hone/ man1 he says1 is he :o conceals no?+4 ,if x is a fault n to reveal ! defects ( ! ?+ sold1 x is a /ill grav] "o1 & "o :i* becomes a fraud1 to ascribe to x qualities or advantages x has n4 ,cic]o cites on ?is subject a *>m+ & well-kn[n anecdote4 ,! ,roman patrician1 ,c4 ,canius1 a man lack+ nei!r 9 p]sonal attractions nor le>n+1 hav+ gone to ,syracuse1 n on bus9ess1 b to d no?+1#bi z he express$ x1 said ev]y:]e t he wi%$ to buy a pleasure-h\se1 to :i* he might invite 8 fri5ds1 & amuse himself ) !m away f intrud]s4 ,^u ?is report1 a c]ta9 ,py?ius1 a ,syracuse bank]1 came to tell him t he _h a pleasure-h\se :i* 0 n = sale1 b :i* he (f]$ him & begg$ him to use z 8 own1 invit+ him at ! same "t to supp] = ! next day4 ,canius hav+ accept$1 ,py?ius1 :o 9 8 quality ( bank] _h mu* influ5ce among p ( all pr(essions1 assembl$ "s fi%]m51 reque/+ !m to g fi%+ ! next day 9 front ( 8 pleasure-h\se1 giv+ !m 8 ord]s4 ,canius did n fail to pres5t himself at ! supp] h\r4 ,he f\nd prep>$ a spl5did banquet1 & a multitude ( boats be=e ! gr\nds ( 8 ho/4 ,ea* ( ! fi%]m5 br\ght ! fi% he _h caught1 & ?rew !m at ,py?ius' feet4 ,canius wond]$3 ,:at means ?is1 ,py?ius8 ,h[6 s _m fi% "h1 & s _m boats6 ,no?+ to wond] at1 says ,py?ius2 all ! fi% ( ,syracuse come up "h4 ,x is "h ! fi%]m5 come = wat]4 ,!y c\ld n d )\t ?is h\se4 ,canius !n becomes excit$2 he presses1 solicits ,py?ius to sell him ! h\se4 ,py?ius fir/ holds back1 b at la/ gives 94 ,! ,roman patrician gives him all he asks = x1 & buys x all furni%$4 ,! contract is drawn up1 & ! b>ga9 conclud$4 ,! next day1 ,canius invites 8 fri5ds1 & comes himself e>ly 9 ! morn+2 b n a boat is 9 sight4 ,he inquires ( ! fir/ neighbor if x 0 a holiday ) ! fi%]m51 t he did n see any ab\t4 ,n t ,i "k (1 repli$ ! neighbor2 b !y nev] come ?is way1 & ,i did n "k1 see+ !m ye/]day1 :at x all meant4 ,canius 0 no less indignant ?an surpris$4 ,b :at rem$y8 ,aquillius1 my colleague & fri5d1 _h n yet e/abli%$ 8 =mulas on fraudul5t acts4#cj #df4 ,! price 9 sell+4--,if we adh]e to ! pr9ciples ( political economy1 ! price 9 sell+ is entirely free3 x dep5ds exclusively ^u ! agreem5t betwe5 ! v5d] & ! buy]1 & z x is said1 on ! relation betwe5 ! supply & dem&4 ,no?+ m unju/ ?an ! int]v5tion ( ! law 9 comm]cial relations4 ,if ! buy] buys at su* or su* a price1 h[ev] high1 x is t he /ill f9ds x to 8 int]e/ to buy ev5 at t rate4 ,if ! v5d] sells at su* or su* a price1 h[ev] l[1 x is t he _c get m1 & t x suits him r to sell at t price ?an keep ! ?+4 ,x is !n c]ta9 t ! value ( ?+s be+ :olly relative1 x is impossible to det]m9e 9 an absolute mann] :at may be call$ ! j price2 = t dep5ds on ! frequ5cy & r>ity ( ! ?+1 on ! m>ket1 on ! wi%es ( ! buy]1 & ! ?\s& cont9ually v>y+ circum/ances4 ,9 %ort1 ! sale tak+ place :5 "o wi%+ to sell & "o wi%+ to buy1 meet ea* o!r1 x seems t _! accord is a pro( t ! two int]e/$ p>ties h come to an und]/&+4 ,!re w\ld1 accord+ to t1 nev] be any unju/ sale or pur*ase4 ,we mu/ consequ5tly consid] ! def9ition ( comm]ce giv5 by ! sociali/1 ,*4 ,f\ri]3 ,comm]ce is ! art ( buy+ = ?ree c5ts :at is wor? six1 & sell+ = six :at is wor? ?ree1 n only z satirical & hyp]bolical1 b also z unju/ & anti-sci5tific2 = we _c say :e!r a ?+ is 9 itself absolutely wor? six c5ts or ?ree c5ts4 ,does x foll[1 h[ev]1 t !re c nev] be any inju/ice 9 sale or pur*ase8 ,if !re is no absolute price1 !re is a m$ium price result+ f ! /ate ( ! m>ket4 ,n[1 ! buy] may n "k ?is m$ium price2 & x is an inju/ice on ! "p ( ! sell] to take advantage ( ?is ignorance to sell above t4 ,! same 9 ! case ( ! v5d]'s n kn[+ ! price ( ! ?+ he has = sale1 :i* ! buy] appropriates1 pay+ = x bel[ its real value4 ,besides1 :il/ admitt+ t ! prices are free1 & t ! law _c int]v5e betwe5 v5d] & buy]1 x is1 h[ev]1 necess>y to admit t !re is a c]ta9 mod]ation beyond :i* inju/ice beg9s1 if n 9 a legal1 at lea/ 9 a moral po9t ( view4 ,b x is = p>ticul> circum/ances to det]m9e ?is limit2 & !re is no g5]al rule = x4 ,x is a case :]e n /rict ju/ice1 b equity is j4 #dg4 ,violation ( ! prop]ty ( o!rs4--,!ft4--,9 g5]al1 e k9d ( violation ( prop]ty "u "o =m or ano!r1 is call$ !ft1 & ?is action is condemn$ by morality4 ,x is express$ by t anci5t comm&m5t3 ,?\ %alt n /eal4 ,! foll[+ are ! v>i\s def9itions ( !ft giv5 by ! juri/s3 ,by !ft is meant e illegal usurpation ( ! prop]ty ( o!rs4#ca--;,by !ft is meant e fraudul5t c>ry+ (f = ga9 a ?+ belong+ to o!rs4#cb ,f9ally our ,code decl>es t1 :osoev] has fraudul5tly c>ri$ (f any?+ t does n belong to him1 is guilty ( !ft4 7,p5al ,code1 ,art4 #cgi47 ,x takes1 !n1 ?ree elem5ts to con/itute !ft3 #a1 c>ry+ (f2 #b1 fraud2 #c1 ! ?+ ( ano!r4 ,two k9ds ( !ft are di/+ui%$3 ! simple !fts & ! qualifi$ !fts4 ,! fir/ are ^? 9 :i* are met ! ?ree prec$+ elem5ts1 b )\t any fur!r aggravat+ circum/ance4 ,! second 7qualifi$ !fts7 are ^? :i* to ! ?ree prec$+ elem5ts add "s aggravat+ circum/ances4 ,^! circum/ances are3 #a1 ! quality ( ! ag5ts 7s]vants1 inn-keep]s1 driv]s or boatm574 ,x is cle> t ?is is an aggravat+ circum/ance by reason ( ! facility giv5 by ! m intimate relations 9 :i* !y /& ) ! injur$ p]sons1 & ! great] confid5ce ^! are oblig$ to grant !m4 #b4 ,times & places4--,= example1 !fts committ$ by night are m grave ?an ^? committ$ by day1 because x is m difficult to anticipate !m1 to cat* _! p]petrators1 & because !y place ! injur$ p]son 9 great] dang]4 ,! places t aggravate !ft are3 #a1 ! fields2 #b1 inhabit$ h\ses2 #c1 edifices consecrat$ to div9e wor%ip2 #d1 highways1 etc4 ,x is easy to und]/& :y ^! diff]5t places aggravate ! crime by r5d]+ x m easy4 #c4 ,circum/ances ( execution1 z = example3 #a1 !ft committ$ by sev]al p]sons2 #b1 !ft by break+ op52 #c1 !ft ) an arm$ h&1 etc4 ,9 a ^w1 !ft becomes great] 9 proportion to ! difficulty ( =e/all+ x1 & its m5ac+ "*4 ,"o p>ticul> =m ( !ft is sw9dl+4 ,sw9dl+ is a sort ( !ft1 s9ce x is a fraudul5t appropriation ( ! ?+ ( ano!r4 ,b x is *>act]iz$ by ! fact t x does n take place ?r\gh viol5ce1 b ?r\gh cunn+1 & 9 deceiv+ ! victim by fraudul5t maneuv]s2 = in/ance1 9 mak+ him believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( false ent]prises1 9 an imag9>y p[] or cr$it1 9 call+ =? ! hope & fe> ( a *im]ical ev5t1 etc4 ,embezzlem5t is a sort ( sw9dl+1 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t if ! crim9al has betray$ ! confid5ce :i* has be5 plac$ 9 him1 he has n solicit$ ?is confid5ce by crim9al maneuv]s4 ,among ^! may be class$3 #a1 tak+ improp] advantage ( ! wants ( a m9or2 #b1 misuse ( lett]s ( confid5ce2 #c1 embezzlem5t ( tru/s2 #d1 ! ab/raction ( docum5ts produc$ 9 c\rt4 ,we h to po9t out /ill sev]al o!r k9ds ( !ft3 = example1 !ft at gambl+ or *eat+2 !ft ( public moneys or peculation1 etc4 ,9 "o ^w1 "u :atev] =m x may be conceal$1 misappropriation ( ano!r's goods is always a !ft4 ,9 popul> op9ion x (t5 seems1 z if !ft really takes place only :5 ! crim9al takes viol5t possession ( ano!r's prop]ty4 ,v (t5 a few false appe>ances suffice to conceal to ! eyes ( easy consci5ces ! hatefulness & %amefulness ( fraudul5t spoliations4 ,"o :o w\ld scruple to take a piece ( money f ! purse ( ano!r1 may h no scruple 9 deceiv+ /ockhold]s ) fictiti\s adv]tisem5ts1 & appropriate capital by fraudul5t maneuv]s4 ,!ft ?us committ$ on a l>ge scale is /ill m culpable1 p]haps1 ?an ! act ( him :o1 ?r\gh want1 ignorance1 h]$it>y vices1 nev] knew ( any o!r means ( liv+ ?an by !ft4 #dh4 ,re/itution4--,he :o has tak5 possession ( any?+ t belongs to ano!r1 or reta9s x = any cause1 is held to re/itution z a rep>ation ( 8 fault4 ,?is re/itution mu/ be made z soon z possible2 o!rwise x is necess>y to obta9 an ext5sion ( "t f ! injur$ p]son4 ,if ! ?+ has be5 lo/1 re/itution %\ld no less be made "u "s =m ( comp5sation4 ,re/itution is indep5d5t ( ! p5alty atta*$ to ! damage & fault4 #di4 ,promises & contracts4--,we h se5 above t x is an absolute obligation = man to use language only s z to express ! tru?4 ,h5ce e ^w giv5 becomes ess5tially obligatory4 ,b x is z yet only a duty ( ! man t[>ds himself4 ,we h to see :]e9 & h[ ! ^w giv5 may become a duty t[>ds o!rs4 ,?is is ! case ) promises & contracts4 ,promises4--,a promise is ! act :]eby "o gives 8 ^w to ano!r ei!r to give him some?+ or d some?+ = him4 ,accord+ to juri/s1 a promise is obligatory only :5 accept$ by him to :om x is made4 ,pollicitation 7promise7 says ,po?i]1#cc produces no obligation prop]ly s call$1 & he :o has made su* a promise may1 z long z t promise has n be5 accept$ by him to :om x 0 made1 revoke x2 = !re c be no obligation )\t a "r acquir$ by ! p]son to :om x has be5 made & aga9/ ! "o "u obligation4 ,n[1 z ,i _c ( my own free w1 transf] to any "o a "r ov] my prop]ty1 if 8 own w does n concur ) m9e 9 accept+ x2 s ,i _c1 by my promise1 grant any "o a "r ov] my p]son1 until t "o's w concurs ) m9e 9 acquir+ x by ! acceptance ( my promise4 ,x may be true t 9 /rict law1 & f ! /&po9t ( positive law1 ! promise may be obligatory only & capable ( en=cem5t :5 x has be5 accept$1 & accept$ 9 an obvi\s & op5 way2 b 9 natural law & 9 morality1 ! promise is obligatory 9 itself4 ,( c\rse1 x is und]/ood t ! promise be>s on some?+ advantage\s to him to :om we make x2 = if ,i promise "s "o a ?ra%+1 x _c be ma9ta9$ t ,i am oblig$ to give x to him2 & if he to :om ,i make ! promise w n receive :at ,i (f]1 ,i am by t v fact reliev$ f my promise2 = "o _c give any?+ to ano!r aga9/ 8 w2 ,i am "u no obligation to him :o w n receive any?+ f me4 ,b if ! promise be>s on some?+ advantage\s to any "o1 ,i am oblig$ to keep x )\t ask+ myself :e!r he to :om ,i made x1 is dispos$ to accept x2 presum+ /ill t he w accept x4 ,x is !re=e n ! explicit acceptance ( a ?+ t r5d]s ! promise obligatory2 x is ! explicit refusal :i* relieves "o ( ! promise2 & toge!r ) t x w\ld be necess>y t ! refusal be absolute & n cont+5t2 = ev5 !n ! promise may rema9 obligatory1 at lea/ 9 its g5]al pr9ciples1 :ile und]go+ "s modification 9 ! execution4 ,is "o oblig$ to keep 8 promise :5 ! fulfillm5t ( x is injuri\s to ^? to :om x 0 made8 ,no1 says ,cic]o2 = example3 ,sol _h promis$ ,phae?on1 8 son1 to fulfil all 8 wi%es4 ,phae?on wi%$ to get on ! *>iot ( 8 fa!r2 he got 8 wi%1 b at ! same in/ant he 0 /ruck ) lightn+4 ,x w\ld h be5 bett] = him _h 8 fa!r n kept 8 promise4 ,may we n say ! same ( ! "o ,!seus claim$ ( ,neptune8 ,?is god hav+ made him ! promise to grant him ?ree wi%es1 ,!seus wi%$ = ! dea? ( 8 son ,hippolytus1 :om he suspect$ ( crim9al love4#cd ,h[ bitt] ! te>s he %$ :5 8 wi% 0 accompli%$6 ,:at %all we say ( ,agamemnon8 ,he _h made a v[ to immolate ! mo/ beautiful object 9 8 k+dom2 ?is 0 ,iphig5ia2 & he immolat$ h]2 ?is cruel action 0 worse ?an p]jury4 ,! tru? ( ?is doctr9e _c be conte/$4 ,h[ev]1 x is necess>y to und]/& ?is exception 9 ! /ricte/ s5se1 & n to seek 9 ! pret5d$ int]e/ ( ! p]son "o obliges1 a pretext to *ange "o's m9d4 ,= example1 if y h promis$ any "o a po/ :i* he accepts & desires1 y _c be all[$ to relieve y\rself ( x1 by suppos+ t ! po/ w 9 reality be a disadvantage to him1 & t y w give him a bett] "o ano!r "t4 ,"s o!r exceptions are po9t$ out by ! morali/s & juri/s2 = example3 #a4 ,necessity relieves ( all promise4 ,if1 = example1 ,i h promis$ to g to a meet+ & am kept 9 b$ by a s]i\s illness1 x is impossible = me to g1 & h5ce ,i am reliev$ ( my promise4 #b4 ,"o is n oblig$ to p]=m illicit acts3 =1 says ,puff5dorf1 x w\ld be a contradiction1 to be held by civil or moral law1 to p]=m ?+s :i* ! civil or moral law int]dicts4 ,x is already do+ wrong to promise illicit ?+s1 & x is do+ wrong twice to p]=m !m4#ce #c4 ,"o _c promise :at belongs to ano!r3 = ,i _c promise :at ,i _c dispose (4 #ej4 ,contracts4--,a contract is an agreem5t by :i* "o or sev]al p]sons engage to d or n to d a c]ta9 ?+ = "o or sev]al o!rs4 7,code ,civ41 ,art4 #aaja47 ,conditions ( ! contract 7,art4 #aajh74--;,f\r conditions are necess>y to con/itute a valid & legitimate agreem5t3 #a4 ,! cons5t ( ! p>ties4 #b4 ,! capacity ( ! contractors4 #c4 ,a sure object z a basis = ! contract4 #d4 ,a licit cause 9 ! obligation4 7#a47 ,! cons5t4--,! cons5t is ! volunt>y acceptance ( ! *>ges impli$ 9 ! contract4 ,x is express or impli$3 express1 :5 x is made manife/ by words1 writ+1 or any o!r k9d ( expressive signs4 ,x is impli$1 :51 )\t be+ express$ by outw>d signs1 x may be d$uc$1 z a manife/ consequ5ce ( ! v nature ( ! ?+1 & o!r circum/ances4 ,all cons5t presupposes1 #a1 ! use ( reason3 ! insane _c contract any obligation2 *ildr5 nei!r2#cf #b1 necess>y k4 ,!re=e all real cons5t excludes error1 at lea/ :5 x falls on ! v sub/ance ( ! ?+ :i* is its object4#cg ,x is1 besides1 = ! juri/s to def9e ) precision :at is to be und]/ood by error 9 matt] ( contract2 #c1 ! lib]ty ( ! contract+ p>ties3 :5ce x foll[s t cons5t extort$ by con/ra9t & viol5ce is n valid4 7#b47 ,! capacity to make a contract is d$uc$ f ! =ego+ pr9ciples4 ,all ^? :o are n suppos$ to be able to give an intellig5t & free cons5t1 are incapable & _c make contracts3 = in/ance1 p]sons "u age1 p]sons int]dict$1 insane or idiots1 etc4 7#c47 ,! matt] ( a contract4--,all contract has = its object some?+ t a c]ta9 p>ty engages to give1 or d or n d4 ,x is evid5t t a contract )\t subject-matt] & be>+ on no?+1 is void1 & does n exi/4 7#d47 ,! cause ( ! contract mu/ be real & legal4 ,contracts are subject "h to ! same rules z are promises4 ,! prec$+ di/9ctions are all borr[$ f ! civil law2 b !y express no less pr9ciples ( ju/ice & equity :i* may be resolv$ into ! foll[+ rules3 #a4 ,no "o %\ld take by surprise or extort a cons5t ?r\gh artifice or viol5ce4 #b4 ,no "o %\ld make a contract ) "o :om he kn[s to be incapable ( und]/&+ ! value ( ! engagem5t he is call$ ^u to make3 = example1 ) "o "u age1 incapable be=e ! law1 b ( :om x is kn[n t ! p>5ts w pay ! debts2 or ) "o feeble-m9d$1 ?\gh n yet an int]dict$ p]son1 etc4 #c4 ,no "o %\ld contract a fictiti\s engagem5t be>+ on matt]s non-exi/+1 or su* z h only an imag9>y or illegal cause4 ,int]pretation ( contracts4--,juri/s give ! foll[+ rules reg>d+ ! int]pretation ( obscure clauses 9 contracts4 ,! rules :i* are to guide ! judge 9 reg>d to ! law are ! same z ^? :i* are to enlight5 ! consci5ces ( ! int]e/$ p>ties3 #a4 ,"o %\ld1 9 agreem5ts1 f9d out ! mutual int5tion ( ! contract+ p>ties1 r ?an /op at ! lit]al s5se ( ! words4 7,art4 #aaef47 #b4 ,:5 a clause is susceptible ( a d\ble mean+1 "o %\ld und]/& x 9 ! s5se 9 :i* x may h "s effect1 r ?an 9 ! "o 9 :i* x w\ld n h any4 7,art4 #aaeg47 #d4 ,t :i* is ambigu\s is to be int]pret$ by :at is cu/om>y 9 ! c\ntry :]e ! contract is made4 7,art4 #aaei47 #e4 ,"o %\ld supply 9 a contract its cu/om>y clauses1 ?\gh !y be n !re9 express$4 7,art4 #aafj47 #f4 ,all ! clauses ( agreem5ts are to be int]pret$ by "o ano!r1 giv+ ea* ! s5se :i* results f ! entire docum5t4 7,art4 #aafa47 #g4 ,if d\btful1 ! agreem5t is to be int]pret$ aga9/ ! /ipulator1 & 9 favor ( him :o contract$ ! obligation4 7,art4 #aafb47 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,duties ,,t[>ds ,,! ,,lib]ty ,,& ,,t[>ds ,,! ,,honor ,,( ,,o!rs4--,,ju/ice1 ,,di/ributive ,,& ,,remun]ative2 ,,equity4 ,,summ>y4 ,lib]ty 9 g5]al4--,natural rights4 ,slav]y4--,argum5ts ( ,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau aga9/ slav]y1 s]vitude2 oppression ( "w "u div]s =ms4 ,! honor ( o!rs4--,backbit+ & sl&]4 ,ra% judgm5ts4--,analysis ( a treatise ( ,nicole4--,envy2 rancor2 delation4 ,ju/ice1 di/ributive & remun]ative4--,to ea* accord+ to 8 m]its & 8 works4 ,equity4 ,aft] self-pres]vation1 ! mo/ sacr$ pr]ogative ( man is lib]ty--t is to say1 ! "r ( us+ 8 faculties1 bo? physical & moral1 )\t injury to o!rs1 at 8 own risks & p]ils1 & on 8 own responsibility4 #ea4 ,lib]ty--,natural rights4--,! ^w lib]ty sums up all t is und]/ood by ! natural rights ( man1 namely1 ! "r to g & come1 or individual lib]ty2 ! "r to use 8 physical faculties to supply 8 wants1 or lib]ty ( "w2 ! "r to ex]cise 8 intellig5ce & reason1 or lib]ty ( ?\ght2 ! "r to honor ,god accord+ to 8 lights1 or lib]ty ( consci5ce2 ! "r to h a family1 a wife & *ildr51 or ! family "r1 & f9ally ! "r to keep :at he has acquir$1 or ! "r ( prop]ty4 #eb4 ,slav]y4--,! privation ( all ^! rights1 ( all ^! lib]ties 9 an individual1 is call$ slav]y4 ,slav]y is ! suppression ( ! human p]sonality4 ,x consi/s 9 trans=m+ man into a ?+4 ,x takes away f him ! "r ( prop]ty & makes ( himself a prop]ty4 ,! slave is b\ght & sold z a ?+4 ,! fruits ( 8 labor d n belong to him2 he _c come & g at w2 he c nei!r ?9k nor believe freely2 9 "s c\ntries he is int]dict$ ! "r ( in/ruct+ himself2 he has no family1 or has "o tempor>ily only1 s9ce 8 wife or *ildr5 may be sep>ately sold2 & s9ce ! wom5 belong to _! ma/]s z _! prop]ty1 !re is no bridle aga9/ ! lic5se ( passions4 ,al?\gh slav]y is at ! pres5t day well-nigh aboli%$ 9 ! _w1 /ill z x is n yet :olly s1 & z ?is abolition is q rec5t1 & t5ds con/antly to be r5ew$ "u "o =m or ano!r1 x is important to sum up ! pr9cipal reasons t %[ ! immorality & iniquity ( ?is in/itution4 #ec4 ,refutation ( slav]y--,op9ion ( ,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau4--,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau1 9 8 ,contrat ,social 7,i41 iv471 combat$ slav]y ) z mu* pr(undity z eloqu5ce4 ,let u sum up 8 argum5ts ) a few citations3 #a4 ,slav]y _c arise f a contract betwe5 ! ma/] & ! slave2 = to cons5t to slav]y is to r5\nce "o's manhood1 ( :i* no "o c dispose at 8 w4 ,to r5\nce "o's lib]ty is to r5\nce "o's manhood1 & ! rights ( humanity1 ev5 "o's duties4 ,!re is no rep>ation possible = him t r5\nces ev]y?+4 ,su* a r5unciation is incompatible ) ! nature ( man1 & is depriv+ 8 actions ( all morality1 & 8 w ( all lib]ty4 #b4 ,su* a contract is contradictory1 = ! slave giv+ himself :olly & )\t res]ve1 c receive no?+ 9 return4 ,x is a va9 & contradictory agreem5t to /ipulate an absolute au?ority on "o side1 & on ! o!r unlimit$ ob$i5ce4 ,is x n cle> t "o c be "u no obligation t[>ds him ( :om "o has a "r to dem& ev]y?+8 & does n ?is s+le condition1 )\t equival5t1 )\t ex*ange1 c>ry ) x ! nullity ( ! act8 ,= :at "r c\ld my slave h aga9/ me1 s9ce all he has belongs to me1 & t 8 "r be+ my own1 ?is my "r aga9/ myself is a ^w )\t any s5se4 #c4 ,ev5 if "o _h ! "r to sell "o's self1 "o has n ! "r to sell "o's *ildr54 ,slav]y at lea/ %\ld n be h]$it>y4 ,admitt+ t "o c\ld ali5ate himself1 he c\ld n ali5ate 8 *ildr52 !y are born m5 & free2 _! lib]ty is _! own2 no "o has a "r to dispose ( x b !mselves4 ,be=e !y h rea*$ ! age ( reason1 _! fa!r may1 9 _! "n1 /ipulate conditions = _! welf>e1 b n give !m irrevocably & unconditionally ov] to ano!r2 = su* a gift is contr>y to ! ends ( nature1 & passes ! rights ( pat]nity4 #d4 ,slav]y1 fur!rmore1 comes n f ! "r ( kill+ 9 w>2 = ?is "r does n exi/4 ,! conqu]or1 accord+ to ,grotius1 hav+ ! "r to kill ! conqu]$ enemy1 ! latt] may ransom 8 life at ! exp5se ( 8 lib]ty3 an agreem5t all ! m legitimate1 z x turns to ! pr(it ( bo?4 ,b x is cle> t ?is pret5d$ "r to kill ! conqu]$ adv]s>y does n result 9 any way f ! /ate ( w>4444 ,"o has a "r to kill ! def5d]s ( ! enemy's ,/ate z long z !y hold to _! arms2 b :5 !y lay ^! d[n & surr5d]1 & cease to be enemies1 !y become simply m5 aga91 & "o has no long] a "r on _! life4 ,if w> does n give ! conqu]or ! "r ( massacr+ ! conqu]$1 x does n give him ! "r ( r$uc+ !m to slav]y4444 ,! "r ( mak+ ( ! enemy a slave1 does n !n foll[ ! "r ( kill+ him2 x is !n an iniquit\s ex*ange to make him buy 8 life at ! price ( 8 lib]ty1 ov] :i* "o has no "r :atsoev]4 ,montesquieu has also combat$ slav]y2 b he has done x "u a =m ( irony1 :i* gives /ill great] =ce to 8 eloqu5ce4 ,if ,i _h to def5d ! "r we h _h to make slaves ( ! negroes1 ?is is :at ,i %\ld say3 ,! peoples ( ,europe hav+ ext]m9at$ ^? ( ,am]ica1 !y 7 oblig$ to r$uce to slav]y ^? ( ,africa 9 ord] to use !m to cle> ! l&s4 ,sug> w\ld be too de> if ! plant t produces x 7 n cultivat$ by slaves4 ,! p 9 "q are black f head to foot1 & !y h s flat a nose t x is almo/ impossible to pity !m4 ,"o _c conceive t ,god1 :o is a be+ mo/ wise1 c\ld h put a s\l1 & above all a good s\l1 9 s black a body4 ,x is impossible = u to suppose t ^! p are m52 because if we suppos$ !m to be m51 "o might beg9 to ?9k we are n ,*ri/ians ourselves4 ,n>r[ m9ds exagg]ate too mu* ! inju/ice done to ,africans4 ,= if x 7 z !y say1 w\ld x n h come to ! m9ds ( ! pr9ces ( ,europe1 :o make s _m useless contracts among ea* o!r1 to make a g5]al "o 9 favor ( m]cy & ( pity8#ch #ed4 ,s]vitude--,re/rictions ( ! lib]ty to "w--,oppression ( *ildr5 "u age1 etc4--,absolute slav]y exi/$ 9 antiquity1 & has p>ticul>ly reappe>$ s9ce ! discov]y ( ,am]ica1 ow+ to ! diff]5ce ( ! races3 ! black race be+1 seem+ly1 p>ticul>ly adapt$ to ! cultivation ( ! torrid zones1 & end[$ ) great physical vitality1 became ! s]v+-race p> excell5ce3 x has ev5 be5 hunt$ d[n = purposes ( procreation2 h5ce t infam\s traffic1 call$ slave trade1 & :i* is to-day int]dict$ by all civiliz$ c\ntries4 ,b !re exi/$ 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 & has subsi/$ ev5 to ^! days1 9 ,russia1 = example1 a relative slav]y1 less rigor\s & odi\s1 b :i*1 ?\gh circumscrib$ )9 c]ta9 limits1 0 n ! less a grave outrage to lib]ty4 ,! s]f 0 all[$ a family1 & ev5 a c]ta9 am\nt ( money2 b ! gr\nd :i* he cultivat$ c\ld nev] belong to him2 & above all he c\ld n leave ?is gr\nd1 nor make ( 8 "w & s]vices ! use he wi%$4 ,x 0 c]ta9ly less ( an inju/ice ?an slav]y2 b x 0 /ill an inju/ice4 ,h[ev]1 ?is inju/ice exi/s to-day no long] ?an z an hi/orical memory4 ,morality has no long] any?+ to d ) x4 ,x is ! same ) ! re/rictions =m]ly impos$ on ! fre$om ( "w "u ! old adm9i/ration 7anci5 regime71 ! organization ( maitrises & jur&es1#ci namely1 & t ( corporations2 ! "w 0 "u regulations3 ea* trade _h its corporation1 :i* no "o c\ld ent] or leave )\t p]mission4 ,no "o 0 all[$ to encroa* ^u 8 neighbor's trade2 ! b>b]s def5d$ !mselves aga9/ ! wig-mak]s2 ! bak]s aga9/ ! pa/ry-cooks2 h5ce mu* t 0 wrong1 & :i* ^? :o regret ?is adm9i/ration h =gott54 ,b "h aga91 x is ! object ( hi/ory to inquire into ! good or ! evil ( ^! in/itutions2 & ^! que/ions belong r to political economy ?an to morals4 ,x is n ! same reg>d+ ! abuse made ( ! "w ( *ildr5 & m9ors1 or ! "w ( wom54 ,sev]e laws h =bidd5 su*2 b x is always to be fe>$ t mann]s get ! bett] ( ! laws4 ,! "w ( *ildr5 & wom5 be+ naturally *eap] ?an ! "w ( m5 & adults1 "o is tempt$ to make use ( x2 b ! "w ( *ildr5 is improp] because x is tak+ advantage ( & us+ up be=eh& a con/itution n yet e/abli%$1 & also because x is ?us depriv+ *ildr5 ( ! means ( be+ educat$4 ,z to girls & wom51 9 abus+ _! /r5g?1 "o compromises _! heal?1 & contributes !reby to ! impov]i%m5t ( ! race4 ,among ! violations ! lib]ty ( "w may suff]1 we mu/ n =get ! ?reats & viol5ces ex]cis$ by ! work]s !mselves & inflict$ ^u ea* o!r4 ,x is n r>e1 9 fact1 9 times ( /rikes1 to see ! workm5 :o d n "w try to impose1 by ma9 =ce1 _! w on ^? t are at "w4 ,su* viol5ces1 :i* h _! s\rce 9 false ideas ( bro!rhood 7a mi/ak5 esprit de corps71 & 9 a false s5se ( honor1 con/itute1 nev]!less1 ev5 :5 free f ! co>se enmity ( laz9ess & vice1 wag+ w> ) "w & hone/y--a grave violation ( lib]ty2 & x may be consid]$ a sort ( slav]y & s]vitude to suff] !m4 ,x is ! same ) ! attempts by :i* m5 try to =bid to wom5 factory "w1 "u pretext t x br+s ! wages d[n4 ,?is reason1 9 ! fir/ place1 is a bad "o1 because ! woman's e>n+s come 9 ! end all back to ! family1 increas+ by t mu* m ! %>e ( ea*4 ,b by :at "r %\ld "w be prohibit$ to woman m ?an to man8 ,c]ta9ly x w\ld be desirable if ! woman c\ld /ay at home1 & busy h]self exclusively ) ! c>es ( ! h\sehold2 b 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s su* an ideal is n possible4 ,x is !n necess>y t woman1 :o has1 l man1 h] rights z a moral p]sonality1 %\ld be all[$ by h] e-day "w to make a liv+1 "u ! protection ( ! laws1 & at h] own risks & p]ils4 #ee4 ,moral oppression--,inw>d lib]ty & responsibility4--,! "q is n only "o ( corporal lib]ty1 ! lib]ty to "w2 ! laws 9 a c]ta9 measure provide = t1 & "o c appeal to _! au?ority = self-protection4 ,b !re may exi/ a sort ( moral bondage1 :i* consi/s 9 ! subord9ation ( "o w to ano!r4 ,x is "h t ! respect we owe to o!rs calls = a m delicate & a m /rict s5se ( ju/ice3 = ?is sort ( slav]y is n s obvi\s1 & ! love we be> to o!rs may be ! v ?+ to lead u into error4 #ef4 ,violation ( ! honor ( o!rs--,backbit+ & sl&]4--,among ! fir/ rights ( a man1 !re is "o sometimes =gott51 al?\gh x is "o ( ! mo/ ess5tial1 & ?is is 8 "r to honor4 ,9 our ignorance ( mo/ m5's actions1 & 9 all cases ( ! real motives ( ^! actions1 x is a duty = u to respect 9 o!rs :at we wi% !y %\ld respect 9 u3 namely1 our honor & our respectability4 ,9 fact1 x is v difficult = m5 to =m true judgm5ts reg>d+ ea* o!r4 ,= fe> ( committ+ an inju/ice1 x is bett] n to judge at all ?an to judge wrongly4 ,!re are two ways ( violat+ o!r p's honor3 backbit+ & sl&]4 ,backbit+ consi/s 9 say+ evil ( o!rs1 ei!r des]v$ly or undes]v$ly2 b :5 undes]v$ly1 & especially :5 "o kn[s x to be s1 backbit+ becomes sl&]4 ,backbit+ may arise f ill-w or ?\ghtlessness1 & sl&] is ! "w ( bas5ess & p]fidy4 ,backbit+ :i* consi/s 9 say+ evil ( o!rs des]v$ly1 is n 9 itself an inju/ice3 !re is to be recogniz$ ! "r & jurisdiction ( public op9ion4 ,! hone/ man %\ld be held 9 great] e/eem ?an ! rogue1 ev5 ?\gh ! latt] _c be rea*$ by ! law4 ,nev]!less1 backbit+ becomes an inju/ice ?r\gh ! abuse t is made ( x4 ,x is n a "q ( sev]e judgm5ts t\*+ actions des]v+ blame & contempt4 ,x is a "q ( ?\ghtless & unk9d judgm5ts1 & :i* we are all too easily & readily incl9$ to pron\nce ^u o!rs1 =gett+ t we des]ve ourselves z _m & sev]] ones4 ,h[ %all we conciliate1 h[ev]1 ! j sev]ity :i* vice des]ves1 ) ! _s ( k9dness :i* *>ity & bro!rly love dem& ( u8 ,on ! "o h&1 an excess ( k9dness seems to weak5 ! horror ( evil1 to put on ! same level ! hone/ man & ! rogue2 on ! o!r1 ! habit ( speak+ evil weak5s ! bonds ( human society1 sets m5 aga9/ ea* o!r1 & is always1 9 a c]ta9 measure1 a %ortcom+ ( s9c]ity2 = "o h>dly ev] tells to p's faces ! evil "o says ( !m 9 _! abs5ce4 ,x is n easy to f9d ! j m$ium betwe5 ^! two extremes4 ,x may be laid d[n z a pr9ciple t1 except ! case :]e notori\s vices1 contr>y to honor1 comes into "q1 x is bett] absolutely to ab/a9 f speak+ evil ( o!rs4 ,=1 ei!r ! "q is ( p]sons "o does n "k1 or kn[s imp]fectly1 & !n "o is nev] sure n to be mi/ak52 & mo/ ( ! "t "o judges p on ! te/imony ( o!rs only1 or "o speaks ( p]sons :om "o kn[s1 & ) :om "o /&s 9 m or less fri5dly relations2 & !n backbit+ becomes a sort ( treason4 ,ev5 des]v$ blame %\ld n be a favorite subject ( conv]sation3 x is an un:olesome & ung5]\s pleasure to lay any /ress ^u ! weakness ( o!rs4 ,if1 at lea/1 "o accept$ ) x ! "r ( o!rs to judge u ) ! same sev]ity1 su* reciprocal lib]ty might prove ( "s utility2 b ! backbit] n[ise admits t he may be himself ! subject ( backbit+2 & at ! v mom5t :5 he criticises o!rs1 he w\ld himself be v mu* (f5d$ if he le>n$ t ! same p]sons _h1 on _! side1 be5 do+ ! same 9 reg>d to him4 ,z to sl&]1 x is n necess>y to say mu* on ! subject to %[ to :at degree x is c[>dly & crim9al4 ,:at makes x1 above all1 c[>dly is t x is always v difficult to combat & refute sl&]4 ,(t51 & = a long "t1 x is n kn[n3 at ! mom5t :5 "o he>s ( x1 x has tak5 roots :i* no?+ c de/roy4 ,"o does n "k :o spread x1 nor :om to answ]4 ,x is1 besides1 (t5 impossible to prove a negative ?+3 namely1 t "o has done no h>m1 t "o has n committ$ su* & su* an action1 & said su* or su* a ^w4 ,"o always confronts ! well-accr$it$ say+3 ,!re is no smoke )\t fire4 ,! wrong done by sl&] w be bett] und]/ood by ! description ,beaum>*ais has giv5 ( x3 ,sl&]1 sir--y h>dly "k h[ great a ?+ y hold 9 contempt3 ,i h se5 ! be/ ( p cru%$ by x4 ,believe me1 !re is no flat malice1 no hateful /ory1 no absurd tale :i* a skillful mis*ief-mak] _c make ! idl]s ( a l>ge t[n believe4444 ,at fir/1 a slight report1 j graz+ ! gr\nd z a swall[ does be=e ! /orm3 murmur+ pianissimo1 & sp9n+ away1 x laun*es 9 its c\rse ! poison$ arr[4 ,a c]ta9 e> is op5 to take x 91 & x is deftly :isp]$ piano1 piano1 to ! next4 ,! h>m is done2 x spr\ts1 crawls1 makes its way2 & r9=z&o f m\? to m\?1 goes l wildfire2 !n all at once1 y sc>cely "k h[1 y see ! sl&] rise be=e y1 :i/l+1 bl[+1 gr[+ :ile y look at x4 ,x />ts1 takes its flight1 :irls ab\t1 envelops1 pulls1 c>ries ev]y?+ along ) x1 bur/s & ?und]s1 & becomes a g5]al cry1 a public cresc5do1 a univ]sal *orus ( hatr$ & proscription4#dj #eg4 ,ra% judgm5ts4--,we call ra% judgm5ts ill-natur$ rem>ks made ab\t o!rs )\t suffici5t k ( facts4 ,x is ?r\gh ra% judgm5ts "o becomes (t5 ! accomplice ( sl&]1 )\t kn[+ x & )\t wi%+ x4 ,nicole1 9 8 ,essais de ,morale1 has ?or\ghly treat$ ! "q ( ra% judgm5ts4 ,we h b to give "h a %ort resume ( 8 ,treatise on ?is subject4 #a4 ,ra% judgm5ts are a usurpation ( ,god's judgm5t4 ,ra% judgm5ts be+ always accompani$ by ignorance & want ( k1 are a manife/ inju/ice & a presumptu\s usurpation ( ,god's au?ority4 #b4 ,?is s9 has degrees accord+ to ! quality ( its object1 ! causes f :i* x spr+s1 & ! effects x produces4 ,! quality ( ! object increases x or dim9i%es x1 because ! m ?+s are important ! m is "o oblig$ to be circumspect & res]v$ 9 ! judgm5ts "o pron\nces4#da ,! causes may be v diff]5t3 ,"o falls into x sometimes simply f ov]-ha/9ess4 ,sometimes we are l$ into x ?r\gh ! presumptu\s atta*m5t we h = our s5tim5ts4 ,b ! mo/ ord9>y s\rce ( ?is ignorance is ! malici\sness :i* causes u to see /a9s & defects 9 p]sons :i* a s+le eye w\ld nev] discov] 9 !m4444 ,x causes u to feel /rongly ! lea/ conjectures1 & enl>ges 9 our eyes ! slighte/ appe>ances4 ,we believe !m guilty because we %\ld be v glad if !y 74 ,! consequ5ces ( ra% judgm5ts are sometimes t]rible & fatal4 ,! divisions & hatr$s :i* di/urb human society & ext+ui% *>ity come g5]ally only f a few indiscreet words t escape u4 ,moreov]1 we d n always conf9e ourselves to simple judgm5ts4 ,we pass f ! ?\ghts ( ! m9d to ! prompt+s ( ! he>t4 ,we conceive av]sion & contempt = ^? we h ?\ghtlessly condemn$1 & we inspire ! same s5tim5ts 9 o!rs4 ,ra% judgm5ts are ! s\rce ( :at we call prejudices2 or1 r1 prejudices are b ra% judgm5ts fix$ & p]man5t4444 ,we portray human be+s to ourselves f ! inconsid]ate rem>ks made ab\t !m be=e u1 & we !n adju/ all _! o!r actions to ! ideas we h =m$ ( !m4 ,x s]ves u z a key :]eby to expla9 ! conduct ( ^! p]sons1 & z a rule = our conduct t[>ds !m4 #c4 ,we are apt to delude ourselves z to ! motives ( ! judgm5ts we pron\nce4 ,! mann] 9 :i* we conceal f ourselves ?is defect is v delicate & v difficult to avoid4 ,= x comes f ! bad use we make ( a maxim v true 9 itself :5 view$ g5]ally1 b :i* 9 private we imp]ceptibly p]v]t4 ,?is maxim is1 t :il/ x is =bidd5 to judge1 x is n =bidd5 to see--t is to say1 to give "o's self up to conv9c+ evid5ce4 ,?us1 9 mak+ our judgm5ts pass = views or evid5ces1 we %ield !m f all t c be said aga9/ ! ra%ness ( our judgm5ts4 ,to enable u to di/ru/ ?is pret5d$ evid5ce1 x w\ld only be necess>y to call our att5tion ^u ^? :om we ?9k guilty ( ra% judgm5ts 9 reg>d to u4 ,!y ?9k z we d1 t ! ra%e/ ( _! judgm5ts are f obs]vation evid5tly true4 ,:o1 !n1 w assure u t x is diff]5t ) u1 & t we are ! only ones free f ?is illusion8 #d4 ,x is ma9ta9$ t "o _c help see+ ! faults ( o!rs3 s be x2 b "o ne$ n make x volunt>ily an object4 ,x may be said t we _c help b see4 ,b t is n true4 ,x is r>e t our m9d is s viol5tly /ruck t x _c help decid+4 ,x is g5]ally oblig$ to make an ef=t to look at ?+s1 & x is ?is volunt>y look+ at ! faults ( o!rs :i* ,*ri/ian prud5ce %\ld correct 9 ! p]sons ^: function x is n to correct !m4 #e4 ,besides1 ev5 if we knew ! evil = c]ta91 x is n = u to make x kn[n to o!rs4 ,:atev] evid5ce we may ?9k we h ( ! faults ( our neighbor1 ,*ri/ian prud5ce =bids u to make ^! kn[n to o!rs :5 x is n incumb5t on u or useful s to d4444 ,?is ex]cise does n only s]ve 9 regulat+ our spee* & =e/all+ ! consequ5ces ( ra% judgm5ts1 b x is also ( inf9ite s]vice 9 regulat+ ! m9d & correct+ ! ra%ness ( judgm5t at its v s\rce2 = "o h>dly ev] all[s "o's m9d to judge ! faults ( o!rs1 except to speak ab\t !m1 & if "o did n speak ( !m1 "o w\ld ins5sibly /op try+ to judge !m4 #f4 ,b z x is n always possible to avoid judg+1 x becomes necess>y to employ o!r rem$ies aga9/ ! abuse ( ra% judgm5ts4 7a47 ,! rem$y = malignity is to fill "o's he>t ) *>ity2 to ?9k (t5 ab\t ! virtues & good qualities ( o!rs4 7b47 ,! rem$y aga9/ ha/e is to accu/om "o's self to judge sl[ly & to take m "t 9 look+ at ?+s4 7c47 ,! rem$y aga9/ ! too /rong atta*m5t to our own s5tim5ts is to cont9ually rememb] ! weakness ( our m9ds & ! frequ5t mi/akes we1 z well z o!rs1 make4 ,nicole goes s f> 9 proscrib+ ra% judgm5ts1 t he ev5 =bids !m reg>d+ ! dead 7xxxv471 reg>d+ ourselves 7xxxvi471 ev5 :5 !y h good r ?an evil = _! object 7xxxvii471 ev5 reg>d+ ab/ract maxims ( morality 7xli472 & he concludes by say+ t ! only reasonable me?od is sil5ce6 ,we recognize "h ! rigorism ( ! ,jans5i/s4#db ,x suffices to say t1 z a g5]al pr9ciple1 "o %\ld nei!r judge nor pron\nce )\t inve/igation2 b "o mu/ all[ a little m latitude & lib]ty ?an does ,nicole2 = if all m5 agre$ to keep sil5t1 human society w\ld be no?+ b a semblance1 a ^w void ( s5se4 ,h[ c\ld m5 get to love ea* o!r if !y did n "k ea* o!r8 ,& h[ c\ld !y "k ea* o!r if !y did n talk to ea* o!r8 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 adh]e to c]ta9 g5]al pr9ciples )\t pret5d+ to br+ all words & ?\ghts "u regulations4 #eh4 ,( envy & delation4--,among ! vices :i* may lead to ! greate/ inju/ices1 & :i* already 9 !mselves are odi\s z s5tim5ts1 ! mo/ blamewor?y & ! vile/ is ! passion ( envy4 ,we call envi\s him :o suff]s f ! happ9ess ( o!rs1 him :o hates o!rs because ( ! advantages !y possess & ! sup]iority !y enjoy4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ?is s5tim5t is an inju/ice2 = ! happ9ess ( "o is n ! cause ( ano!r's mis=tune2 ! heal? ( "o does n make ! o!r sick2 ,voltaire's wit is n ! cause ( ! m$iocrity ( our own tal5ts2 beautiful wom5 are n answ]able = ! ugl9ess ( o!r wom54 ,let ! ill-favor$ "o accuse nature or ,provid5ce1 & !re w be "s reason 9 x1 ?\gh x is a bad feel+2 = x is a want ( resignation to a wisdom ! motives ( :i* we _c always div9e2 b to accuse ! favor$ ( =tune1 is a %ock+ bas5ess ( ! he>t4 ,x is ! hateful feature ( a celebrat$ sect ( ^! pres5t days2 !y desire n ! happ9ess ( all1 b ! mis=tune ( all4 ,unable to procure ! same advantages to all m51 _! ideal is g5]al de/ruction4 ,_! utopia is j ! rev]se ( all o!r utopias4 ,^! believ$ !y c\ld secure to all ! advantages res]v$ to a few4 ,?is new utopia1 p]suad$ ( ! impossibility ( ! ?+1 h ov]?r[n ! problem & propose to r$uce ! m =tunate to ! wret*$ness ( ! less happy2 & z among ! numb] ( heads !y hit !re are /ill "s :i* reta9 a few advantages ov] ! o!rs1 ! "w ( de/ruction w g on till !y %all h rea*$ ! level ( univ]sal degradation4 ,b1 )\t speak+ ( ! social envy1 :i* has _h s l>ge a %>e 9 ! revolutions ( our "t1 :at we ought above all to fight aga9/ is ! individual envy :i* ea* ( u has s mu* tr\ble 9 def5d+ himself aga9/ 9 pres5ce ( ! success ( 8 neighbor4 ,x is above all dang]\s :5 disput$ goods are 9 "q--?+s all _c h at ! same "t--& :i* he :o is 9 ! enjoym5t ( !m seems !reby to rob ! o!rs (3 z1 = in/ance1 a situation "o obta9s at ! exp5se ( ano!r1 be x t he is m des]v+ ( x1 or m favor$ by =tune4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 "o %\ld be j en\gh to recognize ! rights ( o!rs to ^! ?+s1 & 9 ! second1 g5]\s en\gh to =give !m ! favors ( *ance4 ,x is want+ 9 p]sonal dignity to begrudge m5 _! *ances & good =tune2 & ev5 7 ^! *ances undes]v$1 x is /ill l[]+ "o's self to d !m ! honor ( envy+ !m4 ,envy comes close to ano!r s5tim5t1 less odi\s p]haps1 & less unju/1 b :i* is1 nev]!less1 unwor?y ( a "r-feel+ man2 ?is is res5tm5t1 rancor1 a v9dictive _s4 ,if we are comm&$ to return good = good1 we are1 on ! o!r h&1 =bidd5 to return evil = evil4 ,= c5turies x has be5 said3 ,eye = eye & too? = too?4 ,?is is call$ retaliation 7lex talionis74 ,*ri/ian morality has re=m$ ?is law ( b>b>\s times4 ,x is writt53 eye = eye1 too? = too?2 b ,i say unto y3 ,love ^? :o hate y2 pray = ^? :o p]secute y & speak evil ( y4 ,)\t insi/+ "h on ! love = enemies 7:i* is a duty ( *>ity & n ( ju/ice71 we w simply say t ! _s ( v5geance is ev5 contr>y to ju/ice4 ,nature1 :5 we h be5 (f5d$1 calls =? 9 our he>ts a spontane\s emotion1 :i* inspires 9 u an av]sion = ! cause ( ! (f5se4 ,?is is a m]e revolt ( nature1 innoc5t 9 itself1 s9ce x is ! pr9ciple ( ! "r ( self-def5se4 ,b we %\ld n yield to ?is ?\ghtless impulse2 we %\ld combat ! desire to return evil = evil2 = o!rwise we place ourselves on a level ) him :om we hate4 ,& "h aga9 we %\ld di/+ui% betwe5 ang] & rancor4 ,ang] is ! imm$iate impression we receive f ! wrong committ$1 & :i* may induce u to return evil = evil on ! spot2 b rancor is hatr$ coldly kept up2 x is ! sl[ & calculat$ prep>ation = a rev5ge2 x is ! remembrance ( wrong c>efully nurs$3 & x is ?is :i* is contr>y to human dignity4 ,man %\ld rememb] good1 n evil3 he :o is capable ( hatr$ is wor?y ( hatr$1 & w\ld seem to h be=eh& des]v$ ! wrong he has be5 made to suff]4 ,we d n g s f> z to say t wrong mu/ be p>don$ z wrong1 = t w\ld be sid+ ) inju/ice2 b x %\ld be p>don$ to human nature1 because x is weak1 & we are no less liable to s9 ?an o!rs4 ,f ^! feel+s ( hatr$1 envy1 rancor1 covet\sness1 spr+s sometimes a vice :i* l[]s ! s\l & corrupts x3 ?is is delation4 ,to report to "o ! wrong done by ano!r2 to sup]iors ! wrongs done by our colleagues2 to fri5ds ! evil said ( !m 9 _! abs5ce2 to in=m ! au?orities ( ! pres5ce & lodg+s ( an outlaw1 su* are ! faults designat$ by ! t]m delation1 & ! ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( :i* are1 t !y are committ$ )\t ! k ( ! int]e/$ p>ties4 ,x is evid5t1 besides1 t ?is t]m c n[ise be appli$ to function>ies commission$ to wat* & discov] faults1 or to ^? :o compla9 ( inju/ice done !m1 & f9ally :]e great crimes committ$ aga9/ society are 9 "q1 to ^? :o1 kn[+ ! crim9als1 report !m to ! au?orities4 #ei4 ,di/ributive & remun]at+ ju/ice--,equity4--,all ! acts we h ?us f> enum]at$1 & :i* consi/ 9 do+ no wrong to o!rs1 relate to :at may be call$ negative ju/ice4#dc ,!re is ano!r k9d ( ju/ice1 m positive1 :i* consi/s1 l *>ity1 9 do+ good to o!rs1 n 9 ! s5se ( lib]ality & a gift1 b z a debt2 only ! "q !n is n a mat]ial debt1 :i* obliges to return a ?+ loan$1 or intru/$1 or ! v5al value ( t ?+2 b x is a moral debt 9 proportion to ! m]it & s]vices x relates to4 ,?is k9d ( ju/ice1 :i* di/ributes goods1 advantages1 praises 9 proportion to c]ta9 ef=ts1 capacities1 virtues1 is :at is call$ di/ributive ju/ice1 &1 inasmu* z x rew>ds s]vices1 remun]at+4 ,di/ributive ju/ice goes into effect e "t :5 !re is occasion to classify m51 to di/ribute among !m (fices1 ranks1 honors1 degrees1 etc4 ,x is t :i* especially adm9i/rators :o di/ribute places1 h to ex]cise2 also1 exam9]s :o give diplomas1 le>n$ societies :o grant prizes1 or take 9 new memb]s2 f9ally1 critical judges :o appreciate ! m]it ( books1 works ( art1 dramatic productions4 ,! adm9i/rators :o h to fill po/s1 mu/ above all consid] ! int]e/s ( ! situation :i* is to be fill$4 ,favoritism %\ld be /rictly exclud$3 ! misuse ( te/imonials has be5 (t5 po9t$ out2 x is ! plague ( our adm9i/rations4 ,!y h n always all ! influ5ce attribut$ to !m2 b x is en\gh t x is ?\ght !y h any1 to give rise to bad habits & a v s]i\s laxity ( morals4 ,!y make y believe t success does n :olly dep5d on consci5ti\s "w1 & t x requires1 above all1 ! favor ( ! great 7protections74 ,x is1 !re=e1 ! duty ( adm9i/rators to consid] ! m]it ( function>ies only1 & n _! patrons4 ,b ev5 ?is rule is f> f be+ suffici5t3 = p]sonal m]it is n ev]y?+2 is n ! only elem5t to be consid]$2 age1 l5g? ( s]vice1 h also _! value2 =1 9 ord] t ! ,/ate be well s]v$1 x is necess>y t ^? :o "w = x1 %\ld h fai? 9 ! future2 %\ld "k t _! pa/ s]vices w be tak5 acc\nt (1 t z !y gr[ old] & _! burd5s heavi]1 ! ,/ate w come to _! assi/ance 9 rais+ _! functions4 ,?us mu/ l5g? ( s]vice be comb9$ ) m]it & be itself a "p ( ! m]it4 ,9 _m adm9i/rations1 ! division betwe5 ^! two elem5ts is made by grant+ vacant po/s half to l5g? ( s]vice1 half to *oice4 ,b ! *oice itself dep5ds on v>i\s elem5ts2 = p]sonal m]it is itself compos$ ( _m elem5ts3 = example1 :i* %\ld be consid]$ ! high]1 tal5t or "w8 ,a lively m9d w accompli% m "w 9 less "t2 b x may be neglig5t1 =getful1 disord]ly3 a sub/antial m9d1 always ready1 indu/ri\s1 consci5ti\s1 (f]s bett] gu>antees & m security2 yet 9 difficult transactions1 tal5t (f]s m res\rces4 ,?is %[s h[ _m practical difficulties h to be met 9 ! *oice ( m54 ,x is = exp]i5ce & consci5ce to decide 9 ea* p>ticul> case4 ,morality c give no g5]al rules1 except negative rules3 to avoid nepotism1 simony1#dd gu>d aga9/ ! arbitr>y1 aga9/ favor1 te/imonials1 etc4 ,9 exam9ations !re are ! same dang]s to avoid3 = "h1 also1 x is un=tunately too mu* a g5]al belief t favoritism is ! rule1 & t te/imonials g = ev]y?+4 ,! fir/ duty is to set aside all p]sonal int]e/1 worldly influ5ce1 pressure f )\t4 ,b all does n end "h2 = !re rema9s to be se5 :at rule is to be foll[$ 9 ! *oice ( c&idates4 ,if ! numb] ( ^? :o are to be elect$ is fix$ be=eh&1 z 9 conte/s1 !re is !n already a great difficulty obviat$3 = !re is b to be det]m9$ ! ord] ( m]it ( ! c&idates4 ,b 9 _m exam9ations ! numb] is n fix$4 ,x becomes !n necess>y to f9d a j m$ium betwe5 excess ( sev]ity & excess ( indulg5ce4 ,?is m$ium is g5]ally det]m9$ ?r\gh ! co-op]ation ( diff]5t m9ds1 ( :i* "s are incl9$ to sev]ity & o!rs to indulg5ce4 ,b "o mu/ n tru/ to ?is co-op]ation ( o!rs to arrive at a /rict ju/ice4 ,x is cle> t ea*1 = 8 own "p1 mu/ fix ^u a mean1 & endeavor to adh]e to x z /rictly z possible4 ,9 cases :]e !re is occasion = classification1 "o mu/1 above all1 consid] ! m sub/antial qualities1 & n all[ "o's self to be too easily l$ away by m]e appe>ances & surface-tal5t4 ,?us1 facility ( spee*1 :i* 9 itself is a m]it1 %\ld n h any advantage ov] s\nd le>n+1 especially 9 reg>d to functions :]e spee*-mak+ plays no "p4 ,pres5ce ( m9d1 ready wit1 are also brilliant & preci\s qualities1 b ! abs5ce ( :i* does n always d5ote ignorance & incapacity4 ,9 le>n$ or political societies1 :i* are recruit$ among !mselves1 ! same pr9ciples ( indep5d5ce & imp>tiality %\ld always pr$om9ate1 except 9 cases ( diff]5ce 9 circum/ances4 ,tal5t is "h ! pr9cipal ?+ to g by1 & :i* %\ld prevail2 l5g? ( s]vice c\nts = no?+ except :]e ! m]it is equal4 ,! int]e/ ( sci5ce 9 le>n$ societies1 ! int]e/ ( ! ,/ate 9 political societies1 %\ld be ! prime consid]ations4 ,lit]>y or arti/ic criticism comes "u ! same rules1 only x has n = its object p]sons1 b works4 ,"h ! dang] to be fe>$ is n exactly favor1 b good fell[%ip3 "o upholds ! o!r1 ! praise is mutual1 & all sev]ity is res]v$ = ^? :o d n belong to ! society4 ,b1 :e!r good fell[%ip or favor1 all privilege-pref]5ce sub/itut$ = ! e/eem ! ?+ %\ld be held 9 = its own sake1 is contr>y to ju/ice4 ,criticism may1 ( c\rse1 be m or less sev]e--m or less laudatory2 !re is z mu* impropriety 9 con/ant blame z 9 con/ant praise2 "o mu/ /rike z ne> z possible a j mean betwe5 ! two1 & ?is mean may n be ! same ) ! diff]5t critics2 "h comes 9 ! "p :i* individual temp]am5t plays 9 ! matt]4 ,b :atev] rule ea* may adopt = himself1 !y mu/ all apply x to ! same end3 !re mu/ be no undue respect = ! p]son1 & ! int]e/ ( art mu/ be alone consid]$4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,duties ,,( ,,*>ity ,,& ,,self-,,sacrifice4 ,,summ>y4 ,a retrospect ( :at di/+ui%es ju/ice & *>ity4 ,duties ( k9dness4--,! l[e/ degree ( *>ity is k9dness3 to wi% o!rs well leads to do+ !m good4 ,civility4--,p]sonal civility2 civility ( ! m9d2 civility ( ! he>t4 ,mode/y4--,mode/y is z mu* a duty to o!rs z to ourselves4 ,peace among m54--,analysis ( ,nicole's diss]tation on ! means ( pres]v+ peace among m54--,citations f ,kant on society virtues4 ,duties ( fri5d%ip4--,citations f ,ari/otle & ,kant4 ,duties ( b5evol5ce4--,duties m9ima3 s]vices :i* co/ no?+4--,hospitality ) ! anci5ts4 ,good de$s4--,analysis ( ,s5eca4 ,duties ( b5efactors4--#a1 ,! b5efaction consi/s r 9 ! s5tim5t ?an 9 ! ?+ giv52 #b1 "o %\ld n tr\ble "o's self if ! b5efaction results 9 +ratitude2 #c1 degrees 9 b5efactions3 ! necess>y1 ! useful1 ! agreeable2 #d1 ! mann] ( giv+ is (t5 bett] ?an ! gift itself2 #e1 "o %\ld n reproa* b5efactions2 #f1 b5efaction consi/s sometimes 9 refus+2 #g1 b5efaction %\ld be dis9t]e/$4 ,duties ( ! p]son "u obligation3--#a1 ,n to be too gre$y2 #b1 a k9dness %\ld be accept$ *e]fully2 #c1 "o %\ld rememb] a k9dness4 ,kant's rules reg>d+ b5evol5ce & gratitude4 ,precautions requir$ by b5evol5ce3 ,cic]o's rules4 ,self-sacrifice4--,diff]5t =ms ( self-sacrifice3 ,! life1 ! prop]ty1 ! morality ( o!rs1 etc42 clem5cy2 =giv5ess ( injuries2 love ( enemies4 ,we h said t *>ity consi/s1 above all1 9 do+ good to m51 :il/ ju/ice consi/s 9 do+ !m no wrong4 ,x is true1 !re is a positive ju/ice1 z !re is a negative ju/ice2 & ?is positive ju/ice consi/s also 9 do+ good to m51 b x is a good :i* is due !m1 :i* belongs to !m by "r1 & :i* is itself an ackn[l$gm5t ( t due & t "r4 ,! good done to o!rs 9 ! ex]cise ( ! duties ( *>ity is1 on ! contr>y1 some?+ we take f our own2 x is a gift2 :il/ ! good done 9 ! "n ( ju/ice1 is always a debt4 ,! l[e/ degree ( ! duty ( *>ity consi/s 9 :at are call$ duties ( k9dl9ess4 #fj4 ,duties ( k9dl9ess4--,! fir/ /ep to arrive at do+ good to m51 is to wi% !m well4 ,k9dl9ess is ! road to b5evol5ce4 ,k9dl9ess is t disposition :i* induces u to give o!rs pleasure2 to rejoice ov] _! good =tune1 to make !m happy !mselves1 if n by our own k9dnesses1 if t is n 9 our p[]1 at lea/ by outw>d demon/rations ( sympa?y & affection4 #fa4 ,civility4--,! l[e/ degree ( ?is virtue1 consi/s 9 us+ g5tle & amiable mann]s 9 our int]c\rse ) o!rs1 9 n repell+ !m by a gruff & unsociable disposition2 9 w\nd+ no "o's feel+s by ! affectation ( contempt & raill]y1 etc4 ,?is k9d ( surface-virtue1 :i* is conf9$ to ! outw>d1 is :at is call$ civility4 ,civility is ! ensemble ( ! =ms usage has e/abli%$ to regulate ! habitual & daily relations ( m5 ) ea* o!r4 ,x corresponds 9 society to ! c]emonial ( diplomatic life4 ,to avoid ! cla%es :i* ! rivalries ( c\rts & p[]s w\ld necess>ily c>ry ) !m1 a code ( agreem5ts 0 e/abli%$ :i* fix ) precision ! relations ( ! diplomatic ag5ts4 ,! same 9 social life4 ,civility is compos$ n ( absolute & :olly mat]ial rules1 b ( =ms fix$ 9 a g5]al way1 yet m or less free 9 _! application1 & all ! m pleas+ z !y are ! m free4 ,^! =ms1 (t5 laugh$ at :5 reg>d$ sup]ficially1 h a s]i\s value :5 we consid] t !y express ! g5]al duty :]eby peace is e/abli%$ & ma9ta9$ among m54 7,see ,nicole1 ,essais de morale1#de #afga47 ,!re is1 !n1 9 civility a pr9ciple :i* is ess5tial & a =m :i* is arbitr>y4 ,usage has ev]y:]e e/abli%$ ! =m ( b[+1 = in/ance2 ev]y:]e !re are conv5tional expressions :]e) to greet p accord+ to _! age1 _! sex2 b ^! outw>d manife/ations v>y accord+ to times & c\ntries4 ,a di/9ction has be5 made betwe5 p]sonal civility & ! civility ( ! m9d & he>t4 ,civility prop]ly s call$ is t ( ! outw>d mann]s2 b x is wor? v little if x is n su/a9$ by ! delicacy :i* says no?+ w\nd+ & ! true k9dl9ess :i* seeks to give pleasure3 ?is is :at is call$ civility ( ! m9d & he>t4 ,! mo/ amiable natural gifts1 & ! tal5ts made mo/ supple by education1 *ange into defects & vices if !y are n inspir$ by a feel+ ( k9dness4 ,suppl5ess1 !n1 is no?+ else ?an p]fidy2 delicacy no?+ else b cunn+2 ?is civility lavi%$ ^u ev]ybody is no?+ else ?an duplicity4444 ,x is n en\gh to be a man ( ! _w2 "o mu/ also be a man ( he>t4444 ,true civility is t :i* has its s\rce 9 ju/ice1 9 ! respect = humanity2 x is a =m ( *>ity2 x is ! luxury ( virtue4#df #fb4 ,mode/y4--,"o ( ! mo/ ess5tial p>ts ( k9dness is mode/y4 ,mode/y is c]ta9ly a duty we owe to ourselves2 b x is also a duty we owe to o!rs4 ,no?+ m fatigu+ ?an p :o br+ ev]y?+ back to !mselves1 & c speak ( no?+ b !mselves4 ,x is n by appe>+ satisfi$ ) y\r own accompli%m5ts1 b 9 hav+ o!rs satisfi$ ) !m1 t y w please2 & !y w nev] f9d y m *>m+ ?an :51 completely =gett+ y\rself1 y w be only occupi$ ) !m4 ,to succe$ 9 mak+ !m satisfi$ ) !mselves1 is ! true means ( hav+ !m satisfi$ ) y4 ,among rem>kable in/ances ( mode/y (t5 cit$1 are ^? ( ,tur5ne & ,cat9at4 ,! latt] hav+ s5t 9 a report ( ! battle ( ,m>saglia1 _h s totally =gott5 to m5tion himself t "s "o +5u\sly ask$3 ,0 ! m>%al pres5t8 #fb 7bis74 ,peace among m54--,y h b a day to sp5d on e>?1 says ,lam5nais2 try to sp5d x 9 peace4#dg ,nicole has writt5 an excell5t treatise on ! means ( pres]v+ peace among m5 7,essais de morale1 #afga74 ,let u give a resume ( x4 ,two causes1 accord+ to ,nicole1 produce disunion among m53 ei!r 9 w\nd+ _! feel+s we cause !m to )draw f u1 or1 9 be+ w\nd$ ourselves1 we )draw f !m4 ,consequ5tly1 ! only means ( avoid+ su* divisions is n to w\nd ! feel+s ( o!rs1 & n to feel "o's self w\nd$ by !m4 #a4 ,if we look into ! causes :i* g5]ally give (f5se1 we %all see t !y may be r$uc$ to two1 :i* are3 to contradict p 9 _! op9ions1 & to oppose _! passions4 #a4 ,op9ions4--,m5 are naturally atta*$ to _! op9ions1 because !y desire to rule ov] o!rs3 n[ we rule ?r\gh ! tru/ t is plac$ 9 u2 x is a sort ( empire to h "o's op9ions receiv$ by o!rs4 ,= ?is reason1 :5 "o seeks to combat ! op9ions ( a man1 "o does him 9 "s sort injury4 ,x _c be done )\t giv+ him to und]/& t he is mi/ak52 & he does n take pleasure 9 be+ mi/ak54 ,he :o contradicts ano!r on "s po9t1 pret5ds to m k ?an has he :om he wi%es to p]suade2 he ?us pres5ts to him two disagreeable ideas at ! same "t3 "o1 t he is defici5t 9 k1 & ! o!r t he :o corrects him surpasses him 9 intellig5ce4 ,"o %\ld1 !re=e1 sp>e p 9 _! op9ions2 b among ^! op9ions !re are "s :i* mu/ be treat$ ) m reg>d ?an o!rs3 ,!y are ^? advanc$ by no "o p>ticul> p]son ( ! place :]e "o may live1 b :i* are e/abli%$ by univ]sal approbation3 9 runn+ aga9/ su* op9ions1 "o appe>s wi%+ to rise above all ! re/4 ,n t "o %\ld always scruple 9 conv]sation to %[ t "o does n approve "s op9ions3 t w\ld be de/roy+ society1 in/ead ( pres]v+ x4444 ,b x is a ?+ wor? po9t+ out h[ "o may express 8 s5tim5ts s g5tly & agreeably t !y give no (f5se4444 ,= v (t5 x is n s mu* our s5tim5ts t %ock o!rs1 z ! pr\d1 presumptu\s1 passionate1 disda9ful1 insult+ mann] 9 :i* we express !m4 ,!re are1 !n1 sev]al mi/akes to be avoid$3 7a7 ,! fir/ is assum$ sup]iority1 t is to say an imp]i\s mann] 9 ! expression ( "o's s5tim5ts1 & :i* mo/ p]sons res5t1 z mu* because x %[s a pr\d & haughty s\l1 z because x indicates a dom9e]+ _s tyranniz+ ov] m9ds4 7b7 ,! second is ! decid$ & dogmatic mann] 9 :i* an op9ion is giv52 z if x c\ld n be reasonably contradict$4 7c7 ,vehem5ce does n belong to ! mi/akes we h j spok5 (4 ,x consi/s 9 convey+ ! impression t "o is n only atta*$ to "o's s5tim5ts f conviction1 b also passionately1 :i* furni%es _m p a reason = suspect+ ! tru? ( ^? s5tim5ts1 ?us inspir+ 9 !m a :olly contr>y feel+4 7d7 ,! contempt & insults :i* ent] into disputes1 are s obvi\sly %ock+1 t x is n necess>y to w>n aga9/ !m2 b x may be well to rem>k t !re are c]ta9 rud5esses & incivilities ne>ly ak9 to contempt1 al?\gh !y spr+ f ano!r s\rce4 ,*ange ( op9ion is 9 itself su* a h>d ?+1 & s contr>y to nature1 t we mu/ n add to x o!r difficulties4 7e7 ,f9ally1 h>dness1 :i* does n s mu* consi/ 9 ! h>dness ( ! t]ms employ$ z 9 ! abs5ce ( c]ta9 s(t5+ words1 also (t5 %ocks ^? ?us address$1 because x implies a sort ( indiff]5ce & contempt4 #b4 ,passions4--,x is n en\gh to avoid contradict+ p's op9ions1 or to d s cauti\sly only2 "o mu/ also sp>e _! incl9ations & _! passions1 because o!rwise1 x is impossible to avoid compla9ts1 murmurs1 & qu>rels4 ,^! incl9ations are ( ?ree k9ds3 :i* may be call$ j1 indiff]5t1 & unju/4 7a7 ,"o %\ld nev] really satisfy ! unju/ ones2 b x is n always necess>y to oppose !m2 = x is w\nd+ o!rs to make "o's self conspicu\s )\t p>ticul> reason4444 ,"o mu/ always make am5ds = good & evil 444 especially :5 !re are o!rs :o c\ld d x ) bett] results ?an we4 ,besides1 ?is same rule obliges u to *oose ! lea/ (f5sive1 ! g5tle/1 ! lea/ irritat+ means4 7b7 ,i call indiff]5t passions ^? ! objects ( :i* are n bad 9 !mselves1 al?\gh !y may be s\ght aft] ) a vici\s adhesion4 ,n[1 9 ?is sort ( ?+s we are at great] lib]ty to yield to ! incl9ations ( o!rs3 #a1 because we are n _! judges2 #b1 because we d n "k :e!r ^! affections are n necess>y to !m 7lead+ !m away f /ill m dang]\s objects72 #c1 because ^! sorts ( affections mu/ be de/roy$ ) prud5ce & circumspection2 #d1 because !re is reason to fe> we might d !m m h>m 9 indirectly oppos+ _! innoc5t passions1 ?an we %\ld d !m good 9 w>n+ !m aga9/ !m4 7c7 ,i call j passions1 ^? 9 :i* we are oblig$ to foll[ o!rs by reason ( "s duty1 al?\gh !y might p]haps n be ju/ifi$ 9 requir+ ( u su* def]5ce4 ,! peace ( society re/+ ?us on reciprocal e/eem & love1 x is j t m5 %\ld wi% to be e/eem$ & lov$1 & %\ld dem& outw>d signs ( e/eem & love4 ,^u ?is re/ ! rules ( civility e/abli%$ among m51 & ( :i* we h spok5 above4 ,,ii4 ,x is n en\gh to avoid w\nd+ m5's feel+s1 "o %\ld1 moreov]1 n all[ "o's self to feel w\nd$ by !m1 :5 !y !mselves fail to treat u z we ought to treat !m4 ,= x is impossible to practice inw>d peace1 if we are s s5sitive to all t may be done & said contr>y to our incl9ations & s5tim5ts2 & x is ev5 difficult to prev5t ! inn] dissatisfaction f %[+ itself outw>dly1 & induc+ u to treat ^? :o h %ock$ u 9 a mann] calculat$ to %ock !m 9 _! turn4 ,x is1 !n1 necess>y to avoid compla9+ ( o!rs1 :5 "o has be5 (f5d$ by !m4 ,9 fact3 444 ,let u compla9 ( o!rs z mu* z we please1 we %all g5]ally only embitt] !m ! m1 )\t correct+ !m4 ,we %all be acc\nt$ s5sitive1 pr\d1 haughty 444 & if ^? we compla9 ( h any sort ( skill1 !y w give su* an aspect to ?+s t ! blame w fall back ^u u4 ,we mu/ !n endeavor to e/abli% our peace & quiet on our own re=mation & on ! mod]ation ( our passions4 ,we _c dispose ( ! m9ds or ! tongues ( o!rs 444 we are enjo9$ to "w on ourselves & to correct our own faults4 ,!re is no?+ m useful ?an to suppress "o's compla9+ & res5tm5t4 ,x is ! sure/ way to appease diff]5ces at _! bir? & prev5t _! increase2 x is a *>ity we practice t[>ds ourselves by procur+ to ourselves ! good ( pati5ce 444 x is a *>ity we d to o!rs 9 be>+ ) _! foibles1 9 sp>+ !m ! little %ame !y h des]v$1 & ! new faults !y might commit 9 ju/ify+ !mselves4 ,b x is n possible = u to obs]ve outw>dly su* discretion1 if we all[ our res5tm5t to "w inw>dly 9 all its =ce & viol5ce4 ,! outw>d compla9ts come f ! inw>d1 & x is v difficult to hold !m back1 if "o's m9d is full ( !m2 !y always escape & break ?r\gh "s op5+ or o!r4444 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 also qu5* ! compla9ts :i* ! s\l eng5d]s4 ,among ! subjects ( compla9t :i* o!r m5 give u1 & :i* %\ld be treat$ ) contempt1 ,nicole po9ts out p>ticul>ly3 ,false judgm5ts1 sl&]1 rud5ess1 neglig5ce1 res]ve1 or want ( confid5ce1 +ratitude1 disagreeable temp]s1 etc4 ,let u m]ely repeat :at he says ( ! unfavorable judgm5ts ( o!rs reg>d+ u3 ,!re is a ridicul\s oddity 9 ?is spite :i* we feel :5 we he> ( ! unfavorable judgm5ts & rem>ks made ab\t u2 = "o mu/ h v little k ( ! _w to suppose x g5]ally possible t !y w\ld n be made4 ,pr9ces are talk$ aga9/ 9 _! ante-*amb]s2 _! s]vants mimic !m4 ,!re is no?+ s common z to speak ( ! defects ( "o's fri5ds & pride "o's self 9 po9t+ !m frankly out to o!rs4 ,!re are ev5 occasions :5 ?is may be done innoc5tly4444 ,x is1 !re=e1 ridicul\s to expect be+ sp>$ 444 = !re is no "t :5 we may n be g5]ally sure ei!r t p talk or h talk$ ab\t u o!rwise ?an we %\ld wi%4444 ,we %[ annoyance at ^! judgm5ts :5 !y are expressly report$ to u 444 yet ! report itself adds next to no?+ to ! matt]1 = be=e x 0 made we ought to h be5 almo/ sure t we & our faults 7 unpleasantly comm5t$ on4444 ,if ?is res5tm5t 7 j1 "o w\ld !n h to be always angry1 or nev] s1 because x is unju/4 ,b to keep v quiet1 z we d1 ?\gh we %\ld "k t !re are p laugh+ at u1 & to be di/urb$ & upset :5 we are told :at we already knew1 is a ridicul\s foible4 #fc4 ,social virtues--,kant's advice4--,kant has also treat$ ! duties ( k9dness t[>ds m51 "u ! title ( ,social ,virtues4#dh ,x is a duty to "o's self z well z to o!rs to c>ry ! comm]ce ( life to ! highe/ degree ( moral p]fection2 n to isolate "o's self2 n only to h ! happ9ess ( ! _w 9 view ideally1 b to cultivate ! means :i* indirectly lead to x2 urbanity 9 social relations1 g5tl5ess1 reciprocal love & respect1 affability & propriety1 ?us add+ ! graces to virtue1 = ?is also is a duty ( virtue4 ,^!1 x is true1 are b ext]nal & accessory works1 pres5t+ a f9e appe>ance ( virtue1 :i*1 h[ev]1 deceives no "o1 because e "o kn[s h[ mu* to ?9k ( x4 ,x is b a sort ( small co92 b ! ef=t we are oblig$ to make to br+ ?is appe>ance z ne> to ! tru? z possible1 helps ! s5tim5t ( virtue greatly along4 ,an easy access1 an amiable mode ( spee*1 polit5ess1 hospitality1 t g5tl5ess 9 controv]sy :i* keeps (f all qu>rel--all ^! =ms ( sociability are ext]nal obligations :i* put also ! o!rs "u obligation1 & :i* favor ! s5tim5t ( virtue 9 r5d]+ x at lea/ amiable4 ,"h arises ! "q to "k :e!r "o c keep up fri5dly relations ) ! vici\s4#di ,"o _c avoid meet+ !m2 = "o w\ld h to quit ! _w1 & we are n ourselves compet5t judges 9 respect to !m4 ,b :5 vice becomes a sc&al--t is to say1 a public example ( contempt ( ! /rict laws ( duty1 ?us c>ry+ ) x opprobrium--!n "o %\ld /op all relations "o may h _h h]et(ore ) ! guilty p]son2 = ! cont9uation ( ?is relation w\ld deprive virtue ( honor1 & make ( x a m]*&ise = ! use ( :oev] 7 ri* en\gh to corrupt p>asites ?r\gh ! pleasures ( good liv+4 #fd4 ,duties ( fri5d%ip4--,besides ! g5]al duties ( e k9d :i* l9k u ) all m51 = ! only reason t !y are m51 !re are p>ticul> duties impos$ on u t[>d ^? ( our fell[-be+s1 to :om we are unit$ by ! bonds ( fri5d%ip4 ,! duties ( fri5d%ip h be5 admirably kn[n & describ$ by ! anci5ts4 ,we c\ld n1 !re=e1 treat ?is subject bett] "h ?an by briefly recall+ "s few passages f ,ari/otle or ,cic]o4 ,accord+ to ,ari/otle1 !re are ?ree k9ds ( fri5d%ip3 ! fri5d%ip ( pleasure1 ! fri5d%ip ( int]e/1 & ! fri5d%ip ( virtue4 ,! latt] is ! only true "o4 ,!re are ?ree k9ds ( fri5d%ip4444 ,! p :o love ea* o!r f int]e/$ motives1 = ! use !y are to ea* o!r1 love ea* o!r1 n = _! own sakes1 b only inasmu* z !y get any good or pr(it f _! mutual relations4 ,x is ! same ) ^? :o only love ea* o!r = pleasure's sake4 ,:5 "o loves f motives ( pleasure only1 "o really seeks no?+ else b ?is same pleasure4 ,su* fri5d%ips are only indirect & accid5tal4 ,!y are v easily brok51 because ^! pret5d$ fri5ds d n long rema9 ! same4 ,utility1 int]e/1 h no?+ fix$2 !y v>y f "o mom5t to ano!r4 ,! motive :i* orig9at$ ! fri5d%ip disappe>+1 ! fri5d%ip disappe>s z rapidly ) x4 ,! p]fect fri5d%ip is t ( virtu\s p1 & :o resemble ea* o!r 9 _! virtue2 = ^! wi% ea* o!r well1 inasmu* z !y are good2 & ,i add t !y are good 9 !mselves4 ,^? :o wi% _! fri5ds well f su* a noble motive are ! fri5ds p> excell5ce4 ,h5ce x is t ! fri5d%ip ( su* g5]\s he>ts la/s z long z !y rema9 good & virtu\s !mselves2 n[ virtue is a sub/antial & durable ?+4 ,ea* ( ! two fri5ds is 9 ! fir/ place good 9 himself1 & he is1 moreov]1 good to all 8 fri5ds1 = good p are useful to ea* o!r1 & also mutually agreeable to ea* o!r4 ,su* a fri5d%ip unites1 !n1 all ! conditions4 ,!re is no?+ m lovely4 ,x is q natural1 h[ev]1 t su* fri5d%ips are v r>e1 because !re are v few p ( su* a disposition4 ,x requires1 moreov]1 "t & habit4 ,! prov]b is true :i* says t p c h>dly "k ea* o!r well1 'be=e hav+ eat5 toge!r bu%els ( salt4' ,9 ! same way p]sons _c be fri5ds be=e hav+ %[n !mselves wor?y ( affection1 be=e reciprocal confid5ce is e/abli%$4 7,nicoma*ean ,e?ics1 liv4 viii41 *4 vii47 ,fri5d%ip1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 consi/s 9 lov+ r ?an 9 be+ lov$4 ,fri5d%ip1 besides1 consi/s mu* r 9 lov+ ?an 9 be+ lov$4 ,! pro( ( x is ! pleasure mo!rs exp]i5ce 9 lavi%+ _! love4444 ,to love is1 !n1 ! great virtue ( fri5ds2 x is ?us t ! mo/ unequal ( p may be fri5ds2 _! mutual e/eem r5d]s !m equals4 7,*4 viii47 ,fri5d%ip gives rise to a numb] ( delicate problems3 !y may be f\nd discuss$ 9 great detail 9 ,cic]o's ,treatise on ,fri5d%ip4 #fe4 ,kant's precepts t\*+ fri5d%ip4--,among ! mod]ns1 ,kant is ! only moral philosoph] :o has giv5 fri5d%ip a place 9 practical morality4 ,he has f\nd new & delicate traits to add to ! rules ( ! anci5ts4 ,he insi/s above all on :at he calls ! difficulties ( fri5d%ip1 & above all on ! difficulty ( conciliat+ love & respect4 ,to look at ! moral aspect ( ! ?+1 he says1 x is c]ta9ly a duty to call a fri5d's att5tion to ! mi/akes he may commit2 = x is done = 8 good1 & is consequ5tly a duty ( love4 ,b ! fri5d1 ?us admoni%$1 sees 9 ! ?+ b a lack ( e/eem he _h n expect$1 & ?9ks he has lo/ some?+ 9 y\r m9d2 or1 see+ himself ?us obs]v$ & criticis$1 may at lea/ be 9 con/ant fe> ( los+ y\r e/eem4 ,besides1 ! fact alone ( be+ obs]v$ & c5sur$1 w already appe> to him an (f5sive ?+ 9 itself4 ,h[ mu* 9 adv]sity d we n wi% = a fri5d1 especially an effective fri5d1 "o f9d+ 9 8 own res\rces abundant means = help+ u8 ,yet is x a v heavy burd5 to feel "o's self responsible = ! =tunes ( ano!r1 & call$ to provide = 8 necessities4444 ,!n if ! "o receives a k9dness f ! o!r1 p]haps !re may be yet reason to hope = p]fect equality 9 love2 b he c\ld no long] expect p]fect equality 9 respect2 = be+ "u obligation to "o he _c oblige 9 8 turn1 he feels himself manife/ly "o degree 8 inf]ior4444 ,fri5d%ip is some?+ s t5d] t if "o does n subject ?is reciprocal ab&onm5t & int]*ange ( ?\ghts to pr9ciples1 to fix$ rules1 :i* prev5t too great a famili>ity & limit reciprocal love by ! requirem5ts ( respect1 x w see itself e in/ant ?reat5$ by "s int]ruption4444 ,9 any case affection 9 fri5d%ip %\ld n be a passion2 = passion is bl9d 9 its *oice1 & evaporates ) "t4#ej #ff4 ,duties ( b5evol5ce4--,duties m9ima4--,f k9dness we pass to b5evol5ce4 ,! "o resides 9 s5tim5t1 ! o!r 9 acts3 ! fir/ consi/s 9 wi%+ well1 ! second 9 do+ good4 ,! lea/ degree ( b5evol5ce consi/s 9 r5d]+ to o!rs ^? small] s]vices :i* co/ u no?+1 & :i* are helpful to !m4 ,x is :at ,puff5dorf calls ! duties m9ima ( b5evol5ce4#ea ,cic]o1 9 8 ,treatise on duties 7,i41 xvi471 gives sev]al examples ( ?is k9d3 ,to %[ ! way to him :o asks = x2 to =bid no "o ! use ( runn+ wat]2 to give fire to him :o has ne$ ( x2 to give advice 9 good fai? to him :o is 9 d\bt4 ,plut>*1 9 ! same s5se1 says t ! ,romans nev] ext+ui%$ _! lamps aft] _! meals1 & always left some?+ on ! table to accu/om ! s]vants ( ! h\se to ! duties ( humanity4 ,by ! law ( ,moses1 ! own] ( a field 0 oblig$ always to leave "s corn] uncut & n glean ! e>s t _h escap$ ! reap]s4 ,f9ally1 a ,greek poet1 ,phocylides1 express$ 9 ! foll[+ l9es ?is m9imum ( b5evol5ce :i* e "o c ex]cise3 ,give %elt] to ^? :o h none2 lead ! bl9d2 be m]ciful to ^? :o h suff]$ %ipwreck2 ext5d a help+ h& to ! fall52 assi/ ^? t h no "o to help !m out ( dang]4 ,among ^! primitive duties1 :i* co/ him t fulfills !m b little1 ! anci5ts put 9 ! fir/ rank hospitality4 ,x is 9 fact a virtue ( primitive times :i* exi/s especially among b>b>\s & savage peoples4 ,9 ! poems ( ,hom] we see to :at degree ! gue/ 0 held sacr$2 x is /ill s among ! ,arabs & ! ,indians ( ,am]ica4 ,?is virtue1 on ! contr>y1 seems to h disappe>$ ) civilization4 ,! reason ( x is t among b>b>\s populations1 :]e security is feeble1 x 0 ! po9t ( honor :i* gu>ante$ ! security ( /rang]s4 ,b z civilization becomes m complicat$1 z travel+ increases1 & security becomes great]1 m]c5>y hospitality takes ! place ( free & private hospitality4 ,nev]!less1 !re c always rema9 "s occasion = ?is primitive virtue 9 places isolat$ & sep>at$ f ! great c5tres3 ?is1 = example1 c /ill be se5 9 our days 9 ! great wa/es ( ,am]ica & ,au/ralia4 #fg4 ,b5efactions--,duties ( ! b5efactor4--,! =ego+ actions1 h[ev] praisewor?y !y may be1 are too simple & too easy to be pres5t$ z real acts ( b5evol5ce4 ,?is t]m is res]v$ = ! m difficult actions1 :i* may co/ u "s real sacrifices m or less great1 & :i*1 moreov]1 are important s]vices4 ,^! are :at are call$ b5efactions4 ,s5eca1 9 8 ,treatise on b5efactions1 has fix$ ! pr9ciples ( b5evol5ce3 #a4 ,b5efaction consi/s especially 9 ! feel+ :i* accompanies x1 r ?an 9 ! ?+ giv54 ,:at is a b5efaction8 he asks2 x is an act ( b5evol5ce :i* procures joy to him :o is ! object ( x & to him :o ex]cises x3 x is a volunt>y & spontane\s act4 ,x is !n n at ! ?+ done & giv5 t we mu/ look1 b at ! int5tion1 because ! b5efaction does n consi/ 9 ! gift or 9 ! action1 b 9 ! disposition ( him :o gives4 ,! pro( ( ?is diff]5ce is t ! b5efaction is always a good1 :il/ ! ?+ done or giv5 is nei!r a good nor an evil4 ,! b5efaction is !n n ! money t is c\nt$ out to y1 ! pres5t t is made y2 no m ?an ! wor%ip ( ! gods consi/s 9 its fatte/ victims1 b 9 ! uprightness & piety ( _! wor%ip]s4 ,"o pref]s a h& t op5s easily to "o t gives l>gely4 ,he has done little = me1 b he c\ld n d any m4 ,t o!r has giv5 mu*1 b he hesitat$1 he delay$1 he groan$ 9 giv+1 he gave ) o/5tation2 he proclaim$ 8 good de$2 he did n c>e to please him :om he oblig$3 x is n to me he gave1 x is to 8 vanity4 7,i41 vi47 #b4 ,"o %\ld d good )\t c>+ ab\t +rates4 ,:at is aft] all ! wrong ! +rate does y8 ,y h lo/ y\r good de$4 ,b !re rema9s to y ! mo/ preci\s "p ( x3 ! m]it ( hav+ done x4 ,!re are s]vices "o %\ld le>n h[ to r5d] )\t hope ( returns1 to p "o may presume w be ungrateful1 & :om "o ev5 kn[s to h be5 s4 ,if1 = example1 ,i c save f a great p]il ! *ildr5 ( "o :o has be5 ungrateful to me1 ,i %all n hesitate to d s4 7,i41 x47 #c4 ,!re mu/ be degrees 9 b5efactions1 &1 hav+ to *oose1 "o mu/ fir/ give ! necess>y1 !n ! useful1 !n ! agreeable4 ,! necess>y1 says ,s5eca1 is divid$ into ?ree classes3 ! fir/ comprises ! ?+s )\t :i* "o _c live 7= example1 to rescue a man f ! sword ( ! enemy1 f ! rage ( tyrants1 f proscription1 etc472 ! second1 ^? )\t :i* "o %\ld n live 7su* z lib]ty1 honor1 virtue72 f9ally 7#c;d class71 our *ildr51 our wives1 our h\sehold gods are objects de>] to u ?an life4--,aft] ! necess>y comes ! useful2 x may be subdivid$ into a great numb] ( species2 x comprises money1 honors1 & above all ! progress 9 ! sci5ce ( virtue4--,f9ally come ! agreeable ?+s :i* are innum]able4444 ,let u seek ?+s :i* please because !y are to ! purpose2 t are n common2 t recall ! donor2 let u above all bew>e ( useless pres5ts4 7,i41 xi47 #d4 ,! mann] ( grant+ a b5efit is m important ?an ! b5efit itself4 ,! simple/ rule to foll[ is to give z we %\ld ourselves wi% to be giv5 to4 ,"o mu/ above all give he>tily1 )\t hesitation 444 aft] a refusal no?+ s h>d z irresolution4444 ,! mo/ agreeable k9dnesses are ^? "o does n expect1 :i* fl[ naturally2 :i* anticipate _! ne$4 ,x is bett] to anticipate ! reque/4 ,to =e/all ?is tr\ble is d\bl+ ! good de$4 ,!re are p :o spoil _! greate/ k9dnesses by _! sil5ce1 _! sl[ness to speak :i* comes f con/ra9t & mood9ess2 !y promise ) ! same air ) :i* !y w\ld refuse4444 ,_! knit br[s1 _! h>angues1 _! disda9 make "o regret hav+ obta9$ ! promis$ ?+4 ,no?+ m disagreeable ?an to be a long "t 9 susp5se4 ,!re are p]sons :o pref] giv+ up hope to langui%+ 9 expectation4444 ,promptness !n enhances ! good de$1 & t>d9ess dim9i%es x4 7,,ii41 ii-vi47 #e4 ,"o mu/ n reproa* good de$s4 ,"o ( ! fir/ & mo/ indisp5sable laws1 is n to reproa* or ev5 recall to ! m9d ( recipi5ts "o's k9dnesses4 ,! tacit agreem5t betwe5 ! giv] & ! receiv] is1 t ! "o %\ld imm$iately =get :at he has giv51 & t ! o!r %\ld nev] =get :at he has receiv$4 ,! frequ5t m5tion ( k9dnesses is a cru%+ weight to ! s\l4 #f4 ,b5evol5ce consi/s sometimes 9 refus+4 ,if ! ?+ ask$ = is prejudicial to him :o asks = x1 !n b5evol5ce consi/s no long] 9 giv+1 b 9 refus+4 ,we %\ld h m reg>d to ! int]e/s ( ! petition] ?an to 8 wi%es4 ,z we refuse pati5ts cold wat]1 arms to angry p]sons1 s %\ld we also refuse a k9dness to ! mo/ press+ reque/s1 if t k9dness is injuri\s to ! int]e/$ p]son4444 ,"o %\ld no less consid] ! end ?an ! pr9ciple ( k9dnesses4 #g4 ,b5evol5ce mu/ be dis9t]e/$4 ,x is %ameful to d good = any o!r motive ?an do+ good4 ,if "o gave only 9 ! hope ( re/itution1 "o w\ld *oose ! ri*e/ 9 pref]5ce to ! mo/ wor?y4444 ,! lea/ b5evol5t m5 w\ld be ^? :o _h ! be/ means = be+ b5evol5t3 ! ri*1 ! great1 ! k+1 etc4 444 ,z an insult is a ?+ "o %\ld = itself avoid1 s b5evol5ce is desirable = its own sake 7xv474444 ,!re is no b5evol5ce :]e !re is expectation ( pr(it4 ,i %all give s mu*2 ,i %all receive s mu*3 ?is is call$ a b>ga94 7xiv47 ,we w put aside ! o!r que/ions1 m curi\s ?an useful1 rais$ by ,s5eca 7z1 = example1 :e!r "o %\ld give to ! wick$2 :e!r "o may be 8 own b5efactor2 :e!r "o may all[ himself to be outdone by good de$s1 etc471 & consid] n[ ! duties ( ! "o "u obligation4 #fh4 ,duties ( ! p]son "u obligation4--,gratitude4--,aft] hav+ exp\nd$ ! duties ( ! b5efactor1 we h to ask ourselves :at are ^? ( ! p]son "u obligation4 ,! pr9ciple ( all is gratitude2 t only comes aft] ! k9dness2 b !re are duties :i* prec$e ! good de$ or accompany x4 ,we %all aga9 cite "h ,s5eca z au?ority4 ,aft] hav+ set =? ! pr9ciples :i* %\ld actuate ! giv]1 he also sets =? ^? ! receiv] %\ld be guid$ by4 #a4 ,! fir/ pr9ciple is t we %\ld n be too gre$y & receive f any "o1 b only f ^? to :om we %\ld l to give ourselves3 ,x is a pa9ful ?+ to be "u obligations to p aga9/ "o's w4 ,no?+ sweet]1 on ! contr>y1 ?an to receive a k9dness f a p]son "o loves4444 ,i mu/ !n *oose ! p]son ( :om ,i cons5t to receive any?+1 & ,i %\ld ev5 be m p>ticul> 9 reg>d to k9dness-cr$itors ?an to money-cr$itors2 to ! latt] "o ne$ only return :at he has receiv$ f !m2 ?is reimbursem5t done we h acquitt$ ourselves t[>d !m2 9 ! matt] ( k9dnesses1 on ! contr>y1 "o %\ld pay m ?an :at he has receiv$4 #b4 ,a second rule is t f ! mom5t "o accepts a k9dness1 he mu/ accept x *e]fully4 ,:5 we h conclud$ to accept a k9dness1 let u d x *e]fully4444 ,to accept a k9dness ) pleasure1 is mak+ ! fir/ paym5t ( ! int]e/ 7,,ii41 xxii474--,!re are p :o only cons5t to receive 9 secret2 !y wi% nei!r witnesses to1 nor confidants (1 ! obligations !y are contract+4 ,if ! b5efactor is b\nd to proclaim 8 k9dness only inasmu* z its publicity w give pleasure to ! p]son he obliges1 ! "o receiv+ %\ld1 on ! contr>y1 call toge!r ! cr[d4 ,"o is at lib]ty n to accept :at he blu%es to receive 7xxxiii474444 ,"o ( ! less] p>adoxes ( ! /oics is1 t 9 receiv+ a k9dness *e]fully1 "o has already acquitt$ himself4 #c4 ,"o mu/ awak5 ! remembrance ( a good de$3 to rememb] is already to acquit "o's self 7xxiv474 ,:i*1 accord+ to y1 is ! mo/ culpable1 he :o feels no gratitude = a k9dness1 or he :o does n ev5 keep x 9 m9d8444 ,x w\ld seem t "o ?\ght v little ab\t re/itution :5 he has got s f> z to =get ! k9dness4444 ,to acquit "o's self ( a k9dness1 "o ne$s means1 "s =tune2 b ! recollection ( x is a gratitude :i* co/s no?+4 ,to )hold a paym5t :i* requires nei!r tr\ble nor ri*es1 is inexcusable4444 ,! objects memory is busy ) nev] escape x2 x only loses ^? x does n (t5 rev]t to4 #fi4 ,kant's rules t\*+ b5evol5ce & gratitude4--,to ! maxims ( ! anci5ts :i* we h j summ$ up1 let u add a few pr9ciples borr[$ ( a mod]n morali/1 ! philosoph] ,kant3 ,b5evol5ce4--,b5evol5ce1 :5 "o is ri*1 & f9ds 9 8 sup]fluity ! means ( mak+ o!rs happy1 %\ld nev] be consid]$ by ! b5efactor ev5 a m]itori\s duty4 ,! satisfaction he procures to himself !reby1 & :i* does n co/ him any sacrifice1 is a means ( fill+ himself ) moral s5tim5ts4 ,!re=e mu/ he c>efully avoid look+ z if he ?\ght he 0 oblig+ o!rs2 = o!rwise 8 k9dness w\ld no long] be "o2 s9ce he w\ld seem wi%+ to put "u obligation ! p]son to :om he grants x4 ,he %\ld1 on ! contr>y1 %[ himself "u obligation1 or z honor$ by ! acceptance ( 8 k9dness1 & consequ5tly fulfill ?is duty z he w\ld pay a debt he _h contract$2 or1 :at is /ill bett]1 practice b5evol5ce :olly 9 secret4 ,?is virtue is /ill great] :5 ! means = be+ b5evol5t are re/rict$3 x is !n he des]ves to be consid]$ z v ri* morally4 7,kant1 ,doctr9e de la ,v]tu1 trad4 ,fr41 p4 #abh47 ,gratitude4--,gratitude %\ld be consid]$ a holy duty4 ,we call1 9 fact1 holy any moral object reg>d+ :i* no act c\ld entirely acquit "o ( ! contract$ obligation4 ,n[ !re is no way ( acquitt+ "o's self ( a b5efit receiv$1 because he :o receives x _c refuse to him :o grants x ! m]it & advantage ( hav+ be5 ! fir/ 9 %[+ 8 k9dness4 ,! lea/ degree ( gratitude is to r5d] to ! b5efactor equival5t s]vices4 ,x is1 also1 nev] to look ^u a k9dness receiv$ z ^u a burd5 "o w\ld be glad to be rid ( 7"u pretext t x places ! "o "u obligation 9 a position inf]ior to t ( 8 b5efactor1 :i* is w\nd+ to 8 pride74 ,"o mu/1 on ! contr>y1 accept x z a moral k9dness1 t is to say1 z furni%+ u an opportunity to practice a virtue4 7,ibid41 p4 #acj1 #acb47 #gj4 ,precautions :i* b5evol5ce requires4--,b5evol5ce %\ld n be ex]cis$ )\t res]ve & precaution4 ,9 ab&on+ "o's self to x imprud5tly1 "o may d m h>m ?an good4 ,cic]o on ?is subject recomm5ds ?ree pr9cipal precautions3 ,"o mu/ take c>e1 he says3 #a4 ,le/1 9 wi%+ to d a p]son good1 "o does h>m1 ei!r to him or to o!rs2 #b4 ,9 ! second place1 let n our b5evol5ce exce$ our means2 #c4 ,f9ally1 let e "o be treat$ accord+ to 8 des]ts4 #a4 ,^?1 9 fact1 ^: b5evol5ce injures him :o is ! object !re(1 %\ld be look$ ^u z flatt]]s1 r ?an g5]\s m54 ,^? :o injure "s1 to be g5]\s t[>ds o!rs 7z1 = example1 to omit pay+ "o's debts1 9 ord] to ex]cise *>ity71 commit ! same inju/ice z if !y appropriat$ :at belongs to o!rs4 ,?us1 :5 ,sylla & ,caes> transf]r$ to /rang]s ! prop]ty ( lawful own]s1 !y 7 n g5]\s2 lib]ality may exi/ !n :]e ju/ice is abs5t4 #b4 ,! second precaution is to ex]cise our b5evol5ce accord+ to our means4 ,^? :o wi% to be m b5evol5t ?an !y c af=d1 are 9 ! fir/ place unju/ to _! family2 s9ce ! prop]ty1 to ! inh]itance ( :i* x has a "r1 goes ?us ov] to /rang]s4 ,su* g5]osity (t5 leads1 moreov]1 to ! enri*+ ( "o's self at ! exp5se ( o!rs1 9 ord] to provide = lib]alities4 ,"o sees1 ?us1 _m p1 m va9 ?an g5]\s1 pass = be+ b5evol5t4 ,x becomes !n a borr[$ virtue1 :i* has m ( vanity ?an lib]ality4 #c4 ,! ?ird rule is1 :il/ disp5s+ our lib]alities1 to proportion !m to m]it2 to consid] ! morals ( him :o is _! object1 ! atta*m5t he %[s u1 ! diff]5t relations he may h ) u2 la/ly1 ! s]vices he may h r5d]$ u4 ,x 7 desirable he _h all ^! titles to our b5evol5ce2 b if he has !m n all1 ! greate/ & l>ge/ 9 numb]s %\ld weigh mo/ 9 ! scales4 #ga4 ,self-devotion--,self-abnegation--,sacri fice4--,:5 *>ity rea*es ! highe/ degree2 :5 x requires we %\ld give to o!rs :at we hold mo/ de>--z1 = in/ance1 life1 =tune1 etc4--x takes ano!r "n & is call$ devotion1 self-abnegation1 sacrifice4 ,^! ?ree words1 ) v>i\s %ad+s1 express ! idea ( a preci\s gift ( :i* "o deprives himself to b5efit o!rs4 ,"o may devote "o's self to o!rs 9 v>i\s ways1 9 *oos+ = "o's object ei!r ! life1 or welf>e1 or lib]ty1 or ! morality & intellig5ce ( o!rs4 ,let u exam9e ^! v>i\s =ms ( devotion4 #gb4 ,! nature ( ! b5efit4--,div]se =ms ( self-devotion4--,! life1 ! welf>e1 ! morality ( o!rs1 etc4--,sacrific+ "o's life = o!rs4--,ju/ice requires we %\ld n attack ! life ( o!rs2 *>ity requires m3 x dem&s t we make e ef=t to save ! life ( our fell[-be+s1 ev5 sometimes at ! co/ ( our own4 ,?is duty1 :i* is a duty ( *>ity = m5 9 g5]al1 is a duty ( ju/ice = ! physician & all ^? :o h c>e ( ! sick4 ,! physician owes 8 devotion to ! pati5t1 z ! soldi] owes 8 to 8 c\ntry4 ,9 bo? ^! cases m$ical duty1 milit>y duty1 devotion is a /rict duty4 ,x is at ! same "t a duty t[>ds m5 & a duty t[>ds ! pr(ession4 ,x is 9 bo? cases :at may be call$ ! honor ( ! flag4 ,?us d we e ye> see a c]ta9 numb] ( "y hospital physicians die1 l soldi]s on ! field ( honor4 ,! duty ( att5d+ ! sick & be+ !reby expos$ to contagion1 falls alike on all :o h *os5 ?is pr(ession3 si/]s ( *>ity1 ! nurses1 ! male & female att5dants 9 infirm>ies4 ,x is also a duty 9 ! family2 ! p>5ts owe !mselves to _! *ildr52 ! s]vants !mselves %\ld assume 9 a c]ta9 measure ! same responsibility1 al?\gh x is ! duty ( ! ma/]s to sp>e !m z mu* z possible4 ,moreov]1 x is kn[n h[ common ?is devotion is1 especially ) mo!rs1 & h[ _m ( !m die ( ! illness !y h contract$ at ! b$side ( _! *ildr54 ,9 all ^! circum/ances1 x is ( c\rse n =bidd5 to be cauti\s1 & wisdom requires "o %\ld n g beyond ! /rictly necess>y2 b ! necess>y is obligatory2 & on :om %\ld x fall m naturally ?an on ! p>5ts8 ,besides ! illnesses :i* ?reat5 ! lives ( m51 !re are dang]s m sudd51 m viol5t1 m t]rible1 :i* arise f ! invasion ( ! =ces ( nature3 fire & wat] are ! mo/ t]rible2 conflagrations1 inundations1 %ipwrecks1 cata/rophes ( all k9ds imp]il ! lives ( m54 ,"h ! "q is no long] "o ( sl[ & leisurely att5tions4 ,to save a life :i* a m9ute lat] w be ext+ui%$1 !re is want$ a sudd5 resolution1 a well-te/$ c\rage1 & ! w to risk "o's life = t ( ano!r4 ,9 ^! t]rible circum/ances !re are "s m5 :o seem to be m naturally call$ ?an o!rs to sacrifice !mselves2 = example1 firem5 & sailors4 ,x is c]ta9 t x is ^? :o are ! m famili> ) ! elem5t x is necess>y to combat1 t are mo/ call$ to d s1 & = :om self-devotion becomes a great] duty4 ,b x is n always possible to h !m imm$iately at h&2 9 a sudd5 cata/rophe1 all mu/ take _! %>e ( ! p]il2 all mu/ be ready to give _! life = o!rs if !y c d s ) "s utility4 ,devotion t[>ds ! wret*$4--,next to heal? & life1 :at m5 mo/ e/eem are mat]ial goods & t :i* is call$ =tune4 ,c]ta9ly1 we %\ld n enc\rage ?is e/imation m5 h = mat]ial goods2 "o %\ld z mu* z possible tea* !m to d )\t !m2 & ! say+ t happ9ess resides r 9 a small compet5ce ?an 9 ri*es1 is mo/ true4 ,b x is n less true t ! mat]ial ?+s are absolutely necess>y to life1 & t ! abs5ce ( ^! ?+s is 9 e respect prejudicial to man1 s9ce heal?1 life1 & ev5 ! int]e/s ( ! s\l & m9d1 dep5d on ^! mat]ial goods4 ,h[ c we educate ourselves )\t eat+8 ,h[ c we improve ! he>t & s\l :5 want impels u to all sorts ( temptations8 ,f9ally1 suff]+ itself1 ?\gh morality comm&s u to be> x ) c\rage1 is a legitimate object ( sympa?y4 ,f all ^! consid]ations arises1 = ^? :o possess any?+1 ! obligation to come to ! assi/ance ( ^? :o h no?+3 ?is is :at is call$ gift4 ,?is obligation c be satisfi$ 9 _m ways1 b ! mode %\ld c]ta9ly consi/ ) ! dignity & responsibility ( ^? :o are ! object ( ! gift4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n t an ill-und]/ood *>ity enc\rages idl5ess & (t5 rew>ds & p]petuates vice4 ,x is !re=e "w :i* %\ld above all be furni%$ to ! poor3 ! loan %\ld g5]ally be pref]r$ to ! gift2 b f9ally1 :atev] precautions "o may take1 & :atev] be ! causes ( ! mis]y1 !re comes always a mom5t :51 9 pres5ce ( hung]1 illness1 supreme want1 "o mu/ give2 mu/ deprive himself = o!rs4 ,z to ! p>ticul> rules :i* gov]n b5evol5ce1 we h giv5 !m above 9 speak+ ( b5efactions4 ,consolations1 exhortations1 in/ructions4 ,aft] ! duties t[>d ! body come ! duties t[>d ! s\l3 & ?is di/9ction has place = o!rs z = ourselves4 ,x is n en\gh to insure & save ! lives ( m51 & give !m ! daily bread2 "o mu/ also n\ri% _! s\ls1 _! intellig5ces1 _! moral weaknesses1 :i* also ne$ su/5ance4 ,!nce ?ree diff]5t obligations3 to console ! afflict$2 to exhort ! weak2 to in/ruct ! ignorant4 ,! consol+ ( ! afflict$ is a virtue1 :i* ne$s no rule1 & does n admit ( any4 ,"o does n console by ord]1 by processes1 by pr9ciples4 ,"h ! he>t is bett] ?an /rict laws4 ,li/5 to y\r he>t2 x w tea* y h[ to be m]ciful )\t be+ indiscreet2 h[ to t\* )\t w\nd+2 h[ to say en\gh )\t say+ too mu*4 ,9 respect to poor p1 "o (t5 consoles !m by reliev+ _! mis]y1 & ! duty "h bl5ds ) b5evol5ce4 ,aft] ! consolation come ! exhortations4 ,! duty "h becomes m & m delicate4 ,x is no easy ?+ to advise m52 we h n ev5 always a "r to d s2 = x is attribut+ to ourselves a c]ta9 sup]iority ov] !m4 ,?is duty ( exhortation is !re=e an affectation ( pride r ?an an inspiration ( frat]nity4 ,x is especially ) *ildr51 ) "y p1 t good exhortations prop]ly made c be useful4 ,9 a few words1 mod]ate & j1 "o may (t5 recall to !m _! duties ( respect t[>ds !mselves1 & ( economy1 sobriety1 devotion t[>ds _! relatives4 ,f9ally comes ! duty ( in/ruction4 ,"h x is n ! (fice ( all1 b only ( ^? :o are *>g$ ) ?is function4 ,yet may we contribute our %>e t[>ds ! in/ruction ( *ildr5 ei!r by money-contributions1 or by visit+ ! s*ools1 or by enc\ragem5t-societies2 9 a ^w1 by all sorts ( auxili>y means4 ,su* are ! pr9cipal duties 9 reg>d to s\ls4 #gc4 ,clem5cy4--,p>don ( injuries4--,love ( enemies4--,! =ego+ duties consi/ n only 9 return+ good = evil1 b also 9 do+ good to ^? :o h n done u any4 ,a sup]ior degree ( *>ity1 :i* is call$ g5]osity1 consi/s 9 return+ good = evil1 9 =giv+ ! wick$1--n ! wrong !y h done to o!rs1 b ! wrong !y h done to ourselves4 ,?is1 9 ! case ( sov]eigns1 is call$ clem5cy4 ,! say+ ( ,l\is ,,xii4 is well kn[n1 hav+ p>don$ ! enemies he _h _h be=e tak+ ! cr[n3 ,! k+1 said he1 %\ld =get ! injuries done to ! duke ( ,orleans4 ,! great ,conde 0 mov$ to te>s ov] ,corneille's celebrat$ l9es 9 ,c9na3 ,let u be fri5ds1 ,c9na2 x is ,i :o invite !e3 ,i gave !e ?y life z to my enemy1 ,& despite ! fury ( ?y c[>dly designs1 ,i /ill give x !e1 z to my murd]]4 ,! duty ( return+ good = evil goes ev5 fur!r ?an clem5cy & ! p>don ( injuries3 = ?is is no?+ m ?an to ab/a9 f wrong+ "o's enemies4 ,b we %\ld d m3 we mu/ be capable ( do+ good to our enemies :5 !y des]ve x1 or ne$ x2 & fur!r /ill1 we %\ld try to c>ry ! virtue ev5 s f> z to int]dict ourselves any feel+ ( pride1 :i* w\ld naturally arise 9 a he>t great en\gh to av5ge itself by b5efits4 ,! philosoph] ,sp9oza has admirably express$ ?is doctr9e3 ,hatr$ mu/ be ov]come n by hatr$1 b by love & g5]osity4 #gd4 ,duties ( k9dness t[>ds animals4--,among ! morali/s1 !re are "s :o d n admit t we h any duties t[>ds be+s inf]ior to man1 namely1 animals2 o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 d n admit any duties t[>ds any above man1 consequ5tly t[>ds ,god2 o!rs1 9 f9e1 d5y t man has any t[>ds himself4 ,!re are sc>cely any duties1 except ^? t[>ds our fell[-be+s1 t h n be5 que/ion$ by "o or ! o!r ( ! morali/s3 "s connect+ ! latt] ) ! duties t[>ds ourselves1 or ! duties t[>ds ,god4 ,accord+ to u1 !re are f\r classes ( duties1 & ^! f\r classes are n r$ucible ! "o to ! o!r4#eb ,no "o c d5y f a practical po9t ( view t !re are duties t[>ds animals2 = we "k v well t x is n p]mitt$ to maltreat !m or cause !m unnecess>y pa92 & e enlight5$ consci5ce condemns cruelty to animals4 ,!re=e c !re be "h "q only ( a speculative scruple4 ,x c be v well se5 t !re is a duty "h2 b x is1 !y say1 a duty t[>ds ourselves2 = x is our duty n to be cruel1 & cruelty t[>d animals accu/oms u too easily to cruelty t[>d m54 ,b ?is is a v useless subtlety1 & too r\ndab\t a way to express a v simple ?+4 ,we pref] simply say+ t k9dness t[>d an animal is a duty t[>d t animal4 ,besides1 ! reasons giv5 aga9/ ! duties t[>d animals1 appe> to u m speci\s ?an sub/antial4 ,x is said t animals1 hav+ nei!r w nor intellig5ce1 are n p]sons1 b ?+s2 t1 consequ5tly1 !y h no rights1 & t we c h no duties t[>d :at has no rights4 ,^! are inadmissible subtleties4 ,"o c1 9 law t]ms1 divide all objects ( nature into p]sons & ?+s2 & animals1 n be+ p]sons1 are ?+s1 9 ! s5se t !y c be appropriat$4 ,b1 /rictly speak+1 c a be+ end[$ ) s5sibility be call$ a ?+8 ,is x true1 moreov]1 t an animal has no intellig5ce1 no w--t consequ5tly x has n any ve/ige ( p]sonality8 ,is x true aga9 t an animal has no k9d ( rights8 ,?is1 9 ! fir/ place1 is to suppose :at is 9 "q4 ,&1 moreov]1 does n consci5ce say to u t an animal :i* has s]v$ u long ye>s ) affection has !reby acquir$ a c]ta9 "r to our gratitude8 ,&1 f9ally1 is x really true t we h only duties t[>ds ^? t h duties t[>ds u8 ,t 7 a v p]il\s maxim 9 social morality4 ,we are told n to be cruel to animals 9 ord] n to become cruel t[>ds m54 ,b if "o 7 sure n to become cruel t[>ds m51 w\ld x foll[ !refrom t x is p]mitt$ to be s t[>ds animals8 ,no1 x w be said2 b x is because cruelty1 ?\gh its object be only animals1 is 9 itself a vice1 base & unwor?y ( man4 ,"o %\ld n conclude f t1 t cruelty is a direct crime aga9/ !m4 ,b = ! same reason x might be ma9ta9$ t we h no duties t[>d o!rs1 & only t[>d ourselves2 inju/ice1 cruelty1 are odi\s vices 9 !mselves2 goodness & ju/ice1 noble qualities2 we %\ld %un ! "o & avoid ! o!r out ( respect = ourselves1 & reg>dless ( ! object ( ^! vices & virtues4 ,if1 despite ^! consid]ations1 x is !n ?\ght bett] to make1 nev]!less1 a di/9ction betwe5 ! duties t[>d o!rs & ^? t[>d ourselves1 !re %\ld = ! same reason be made a di/9ct class ( ! duties t[>d animals4 ,f9ally1 if we owe no?+ to animals1 x is n v cle> :y acts hypo!tically indiff]5t %\ld be treat$ z cruelties2 nor :y su* acts %\ld be consid]$ z l[]+ & di%onor+ ! "*4 ,on ! :ole1 & to avoid all !oretical difficulties1 x may be said t we h duties1 if n t[>d animals1 at lea/ 9 reg>d to animals4 ,our duties 9 reg>d to animals1 are !y1 h[ev]1 ( a k9d to make u d\bt our "r to de/roy or r$uce !m to s]vitude8 ,! de/ruction ( animals may h two causes2 x may be = our def5se1 x may be = our subsi/5ce4 ,z to ! fir/ !re is no difficulty2 ! "r ( legitimate self-def5se au?orizes u to de/roy :at w\ld o!rwise de/roy u4 ,betwe5 u & bea/s injuri\s to man !re is evid5tly a /ate ( natural w>1 & 9 t /ate ! law is t might makes "r4 ,?is same law is ! "o :i* regulates ! relations ( ! animals betwe5 !mselves3 x is also _! law 9 reg>d to u4 ,! lion1 = in/ance1 might n always be z t5d]ly incl9$ z ! lion ( ,&rocles or ! lion ( ,flor5ce3 x w\ld n be well to tru/ x4 ,we ne$ n1 !re=e1 ev5 !oretically1 ent]ta9 any scruples conc]n+ ! de/ruction ( injuri\s animals4 ,is x ! same ) ! de/ruction ( animals int5d$ = our n\ri%m5t8 ,is ?is de/ruction innoc5t1 or mu/ we1 z did ! ,py?agoreans or ,brahm9s ( old 7= sup]/iti\s reasons1 h[ev]71 int]dict all animal food8#ec ,?is "q has be5 s well solv$ by g5]al usage t x is sc>cely necess>y to raise x4 ,x is n likely m5 w ev] ?9k ( giv+ up animal food1 & no "o regrets hav+ eat5 ( a good roa/4 ,yet = ^? :o l to f9d out ! reason ( ?+s1 x is a problem to "k :e!r we h ! "r to d :at we d )\t remorse & scruples2 & :e!r a univ]sal & app>5tly inde/ructible practice is also a legitimate & innoc5t practice4 ,man1 accord+ to u1 9 liv+ on fle%1 is ju/ifi$ by nature h]self1 :o made him a c>nivor\s creature4 ,e be+ is au?oriz$ to p]=m ! acts :i* result f its organization4#ed ,! human organization1 z ! nature ( ! tee? & ! :ole dige/ive sy/em indicate1 is prep>$ to n\ri% itself ) fle%4 ,9 _m c\ntries ev5 all o!r n\ri%m5t is impossible2 !re are peoples ^: v situation makes !m necess>ily hunt]s1 fi%]m51 or %eph]ds2 x is only 9 "s c\ntries highly favor$1 &1 ?anks to sci5tific cultivation1 ! result ( civilization1 t vegetable food c\ld be made abundant en\gh to suffice1 & h>dly t = l>ge masses ( population2 = we "k q well :at disa/]s foll[ ^u a sc>city ( crops4 ,:at w\ld be ! result if ! human race 7 depriv$ ( half its means ( subsi/5ce8 ,add to ?is t1 :atev] may h be5 said aga9/ x1 animal food mix$ 9 a c]ta9 measure ) vegetable food1 is indisp5sable to ! heal? & vigor ( ! human race4 ,z to ! s]vitude ( animals & ! labor we impose on !m1 its ju/ification lies fir/ 9 ! pr9ciple ( legitimate self-def5se1 to :i* we h j n[ allud$4 ,_m ( our dome/ic races w\ld1 9 a savage /ate1 become v]itable wild bea/s4 ,! wild hog is1 !y say1 ! wild bo>2 ! wild dog1 ! jackal2 ! wild cat belongs to ! leop>d & tig] family4 ,9 r$uc+ ^! sorts ( animals to s]vitude1 & 9 mak+ ( !m companions & help-mates 9 our "w1 we !reby deliv] ourselves f dang]\s enemies4 ,dome/ication is bett] ?an de/ruction4 ,add to ?is1 t if we except ! fir/ animals :i* h pass$ f ! savage /ate to ! dome/ic /ate 7:i*1 z to our dome/ic races1 is lo/ 9 ! night ( "t & escapes all responsibility71 ! pres5t animals1 born 9 s]vitude1 "k no o!r /ate1 d n suff] f a want ( lib]ty1 & f9d ev51 ?anks to our c>es1 a m c]ta9 subsi/5ce ?an if !y 7 free4 ,!y are1 x is true1 sacrific$ by u to our wants1 b !y w\ld be s by o!r animals 9 ! savage /ate4 ,:e!r a %eep be eat5 by m5 or wolves1 x is n to be m piti$ = t1 "o way or ! o!r4 ,! "r ( man ov] animals be+ set aside1 !re rema9s an ess5tial duty respect+ !m1 namely3 n to make !m suff] )\t necessity4 ,font5elle relates t1 hav+ gone "o day to see ,malebran*e1#ee at ! fa!rs ( ! ,oratoire1 a dog ( ! h\se1 big ) "y1 ent]$ ! room & roll$ ab\t at ! feet ( ! fa!r4 ,aft] hav+ tri$ 9 va9 to drive x away1 ,malebran*e gave ! dog a kick :i* caus$ x to utt] a cry ( pa9 & ,font5elle a cry ( compassion3 ,oh1 p%aw6 said fa!r ,malebran*e1 coolly1 d y n "k t ^! ?+s d n feel8 ,h[ c\ld ?is philosoph] be sure t ^! ?+s did n feel8 ,is n ! animal organiz$ 9 ! same mann] z man8 ,has he n ! same s5ses1 ! same n]v\s sy/em8 ,does he n give ! same signs ( impressions receiv$8 ,:y %\ld n ! cry ( ! animal express pa9 z does ! cry ( a *ild8 ,:5 man is n p]v]t$ by cu/om1 cruelty1 or ! _s ( sy/em1 he _c see ! suff]+s ( animals )\t suff]+ himself1 a manife/ pro( t !re is some?+ 9 common betwe5 !m & u1 = sympa?y is by reason ( similitude4 ,animals1 !n1 suff]2 ?is is und5iable2 !y h1 l ourselves1 a physical s5sibility2 b !y h also a c]ta9 moral s5sibility2 !y are capable ( atta*m5t1 ( gratitude1 ( fidelity2 ( love = _! little ones1 ( reciprocal affection4 ,f ?is physical & moral analogy betwe5 m5 & animals1 !re obvi\sly results ! obligation ( inflict+ ^u !m no useless suff]+4 ,madame ,neck] de ,saussure#ef relates ! /ory ( a *ild :o1 f9d+ himself 9 a g>d5 :]e a tam$ quail 0 freely runn+ ab\t beside ! cage ( a bird ( prey1 yield$ to ! temptation ( seiz+ ! poor quail & giv+ x to ! bird to dev\r4 ,! h]o ( ?is adv5ture relates himself ! puni%m5t inflict$ on him3 ,at d9n]--!re 0 a great deal ( company t day--! ma/] ( ! h\se began to relate ! sc5e1 coolly & )\t any rem>ks1 simply nam+ me4 ,:5 he 0 ?r\gh1 !re 0 a mom5t ( g5]al sil5ce1 :]e e "o look$ at me ) a k9d ( horror4 ,i he>d "s words ex*ang$ among ! gue/s1 & )\t any "o's directly speak+ to me1 ,i c\ld und]/& t ev]ybody ?\ght me a mon/]4 ,connect$ ) ! cruelty t[>d animals are c]ta9 b>b>\s games :]e animals are made to fight ) ea* o!r = our pleasure4 ,su* are ! bull-fights 9 ,spa92 ! cock-fights 9 ,engl&2 we d n g s f> z to rank ! *ase among inhuman games1 because1 on ! "o h&1 x has = its object to de/roy ! animals injuri\s to our =e/s & crops1 & to furni% u useful food2 & on ! o!r1 x is an ex]cise favorable to heal?1 & ex]cises c]ta9 faculties ( ! s\l2 b ! *ase mu/ at lea/ n be a massacre1 & mu/ h = its end utility4 ,brutality t[>d ! animals :i* r5d] u ! greate/ s]vices1 & :i* we see e day load$ beyond _! /r5g?1 & beat5 to be> up "u ! load1 is also an odi\s act1 & d\bly wrong1 z x is bo? contr>y to humanity & contr>y to our int]e/s1 s9ce ^! animals1 ov]load$ & beat51 w n be long 9 succumb+ to ! viol5ce ( _! p]secutors4 ,nor c we consid] z absolutely indiff]5t ! act ( kill+ or sell+ 7except 9 cases ( extreme necessity7 a dome/ic animal t has s]v$ u a long "t1 & ^: atta*m5t we h exp]i5c$4 ,among ! conqu]ors at ! ,olympic ,games1 ! anci5ts tell u1 _m %>e ! di/9ctions :i* !y receive ) ! horses :i* h help$ to procure !m2 !y provide = !m a happy old age2 !y accord !m an honorable burial1 & sometimes ev5 raise a monum5t ov] _! graves4 ,x is n reasonable1 says ,plut>*1 to use ?+s :i* h life & feel+1 z we w\ld use a %oe or any o!r in/rum5t1 ?r[+ x away :5 worn out & ru9$ by d9t ( s]vice done2 if x 7 = no o!r cause ?an to induce & /imulate u to con/ant compassion1 we %\ld accu/om ourselves to g5tl5ess & *>itabl5ess1 ev5 to p]=m+ ! humble/ (fices ( k9dness2 z = me1 ,i %\ld nev] h ! he>t to sell an ox :o = a long "t _h pl\gh$ my l&1 because1 by reason ( old age1 he c no long] "w4 ,a v s]i\s "q has be5 rais$ ^! latt] times1 namely1 ! "q ( vivisection1 & h[ f>1 9 a sci5tific po9t ( view1 we h a "r to practice on liv+ animals4 ,! po9t is n to int]dict to sci5ce :at is ! indisp5sable condition ( its progress & propagation2 b we %\ld limit ourself to ! /rictly necess>y1 & n ) revolt+ prodigality multiply sacrifices t are n absolutely useful4 ,"o ( ! pr9cipal reasons = condemn+ cruelty t[>d animals1 is t ?r\gh ! in/9ct ( imitation & sympa?y m5 may get into ! habit ( do+ to o!rs :at !y h se5 practic$ on animals4 ,!re is a /ory ( a *ild :o caus$ 8 bro!r to suff] ! same dea? he _h j se5 inflict$ on an animal4#eg ,! m5 :o are brutal t[>d animals are likewise s t[>d ea* o!r1 & treat ) ! same cruelty _! wives & *ildr54 ,x is by reason ( ^! consid]ations ( social utility & humanity t ! law 9 ,france decid$ to int]f]e to prev5t & puni% ! bad treatm5t inflict$ ^u animals2#eh & ! consequ5ces ( ?is measure h be5 mo/ happy4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,duties ,,t[>d ,,! ,,/ate4 ,,summ>y4 ,?ree gr\ps ( societies among m53 ,humanity1 ! family1 ! c\ntry1 or ! ,/ate4 ,analysis ( patriotism4 ,f\ndation ( ! ,/ate4--,law & rights4 ,public au?ority3 di/9ction betwe5 society & ! ,/ate4 ,! ?ree p[]s4 ,sov]eignty4 ,! "r ( puni%m5t4 ,duties t[>d ! ,/ate3 #a4 ,ob$i5ce to ! laws4--,! ,crito ( ,plato4 ,pret5d$ exceptions to ?is pr9ciple4 ,criticis+ ! laws is n disob$i5ce4 #b4 ,respect to magi/rates4--,! magi/rates be+ ! repres5tatives ( ! laws1 to respect !m is to respect ! law itself2 to insult !m is to insult ! law4 #c4 ,! ballot4--,obligation to vote4 ,! "* ( ! ballot3 #a1 dis9t]e/$2 #b1 free2 #c1 enlight5$4 #d4 ,taxes4--,immorality ( frauds aga9/ ! ,/ate4 #e4 ,milit>y s]vice4--,legal & moral obligation4 ,attempts to escape x3 #a1 by mutilations2 #b1 by simulat$ infirmities2 #c1 by des]tion2 want ( discipl9e4 #f4 ,educational obligation4 ,civil c\rage4--,not$ example3 ,boissy d',anglas4 #ge4 ,?ree gr\ps ( societies4--,cic]o & ,f5elon rem>k t !re are ?ree sorts ( societies among m53 ! fir/ comprises ! :ole ( humanity2 ! la/1 :i* is ! mo/ circumscrib$1 is :at is call$ ! family4 ,b betwe5 ! family & ! human race 9 g5]al1 !re is an int]m$iate society1 l>g] ?an ! "o & m circumscrib$ ?an ! o!r1 & ?is is :at is call$ ! c\ntry4 #gf4 ,patriotism4--,! s5tim5t :i* b9ds u to ! c\ntry1 & :i*1 articulat$1 becomes a duty1 is :at is call$ patriotism4 ,we h already giv5 else:]e1#ei an analysis ( patriotism4 ,let u repeat :at we h said3 ,patriotism is "o ( our mo/ complex s5tim5ts3 x is 9 fact compos$ ( _m di/9ct elem5ts3 x is1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! love ( ! soil :]e we 7 born2 & ?is soil is at fir/ ! n>r[ t]ritory :]e our y\? pass$1 & :i* we embrac$ entire ) ! eyes & recollections3 x is ! native village1 ! native city4 ,b if ?is is ! fir/ s5se ( c\ntry1 x falls f> %ort ( embrac+ ! :ole c\ntry4 ,! love = ! native *ur* /eeple is n patriotism3 x is ev5 its opposite (t54 ,! soil mu/ ext5d1 wid51 & f ! natal h\se1 mu/ gradually embrace1 by successive additions1 ! village1 ! t[n1 ! c\nty1 ! prov9ce1 ! :ole c\ntry4 ,b :at is to det]m9e ! ext5t ( ?is t]ritory8 ,:o is to decide t x %all g s f> & no f>!r8 ,!re ent] into x _m elem5ts3 fir/1 ! inhabitants1 ! fell[-citiz5s1 fell[-c\ntrym52 a soil des]t$ w\ld n be a c\ntry2 to ! love ( ! t]ritory !re mu/ be add$ ! love ( ^? :o inhabit x ) u1 or ( our fell[-c\ntrym52 to ! nomadic p ! c\ntry is only _! tribe4 ,conv]sely1 ! citiz5s )\t ! soil are n ! c\ntry ei!r1 = exile 9 common is n ! less exile4 ,f9ally1 ! union ( soil & fell[-citiz5s may /ill n be ! c\ntry1 at lea/ n all ! c\ntry2 a conqu]$ nation may pres]ve its soil & its inhabitants1 & h lo/ ! c\ntry3 z ,pol&1 = in/ance4 ,:at1 !n1 are ! ties to det]m9e ! exi/5ce ( a c\ntry8 ,!re are a l>ge numb] ( !m1 su* z ! unity ( language1 ! unity ( laws1 ! unity ( ! flag1 hi/oric tradition1 &1 f9ally1 above all1 ! unity ( gov]nm5t & ( an accept$ gov]nm5t4 ,a c\ntry exi/s only :]e !re is an indep5d5t political /ate4 ,?is political unity does n suffice :5 ! o!r ties are want+2 :5 x is a con/ra9t1 :5 peoples unit$ "u ! same gov]nm5t h diff]5t mann]s1 cu/oms1 traditions2 conv]sely1 unity ( language & community ( habits1 w nei!r be suffici5t :5 ! political unity or a c]ta9 =m ( political unity is want+4 ,b :at1 be=e ev]y?+ else1 con/itutes ! c\ntry1 is a common _s1 a common s\l1 9 %ort1 a common "n1 :i* fuses into "o all ^! sep>ate facts ( :i* no s+le "o is absolutely necess>y1 b ( :i* ea* =ms an additional elem5t to ! /r5g? ( ! c\ntry4 ,f9ally1 z a la/ condition1 ! association :i* is to become a c\ntry mu/ n1 z 0 ! case ) ! ,roman empire1 ext5d ov] too mu* t]ritory2 = beyond c]ta9 limits1 patriotism relaxes4 ,nature has end[$ u ) ?is s5tim5t ( patriotism4 ,!re is no "o t does n love 8 c\ntry bett] ?an o!r c\ntries1 t is n flatt]$ by national glory1 t does n suff] f ! humiliations & mis]ies ( 8 native c\ntry4 ,b ?is s5tim5t is m or less /rong1 accord+ to temp]am5ts4 ,(t5 x is no?+ m ?an a s5tim5t1 & does n express itself 9 actions4 ,x is ! reflective faculties :i* make ( patriotism a duty1 :i* duty dem&s t s5tim5t pass into action2 dem&s ( all ! citiz5s ! same acts1 :atev] be ! p]sonal incl9ations ( ea*4 ,! duties impos$ on ea* man 9 reg>d to ! p>ticul> society ( :i* he is a memb]1 are call$ civil duties4 ,he1 himself1 9 reg>d to ?is society1 is :at is call$ a citiz52 f9ally1 ! society itself1 consid]$ z "o & ! same p]son1 ( :i* ! citiz5s are ! memb]s1 is :at is call$ ! ,/ate or ! city4 ,on ! :ole1 !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 c\ntry & ,/ate4 ,c\ntry is at ! same "t ,society & soil4 ,x is call$ by t "n 7,/ate7 :5 look$ ^u 9 ! light ( a family ( :i* ! citiz5s are ! *ildr51 & also :5 consid]$ 9 its relations ) o!r nations & o!r societies4 ,! ,/ate is t same society consid]$ int]iorly & 9 itself1 n z to its soil & t]ritory1 b z to ! memb]s t compose x1 & 9 z f> z ^! memb]s =m "o & ! same body & are gov]n$ by laws4 ,! c\ntry is a m concrete & m vivid expression1 :i* appeals m to ! feel+s2 ! ,/ate is a m ab/ract expression1 :i* addresses itself to reason4 ,besides1 we %all und]/& bett] :at is meant by ! ,/ate1 :5 we %all h expla9$ ! nature ( public au?ority & ! laws4 #gg4 ,f\ndation ( ! ,/ate--,rights4--,to und]/& ! nature ( ! ,/ate & :at is call$ au?ority1 sov]eignty1 magi/racy1 law1 "o mu/ beg9 ) ! notion ( rights & ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( rights4 ,duty is ! law :i* imposes on u obligations ei!r t[>d ourselves or t[>d o!rs2 x is a moral necessity 7p4 #aa74 ,rights is ! p[] we h to ex]cise & develop our faculties con=mably to our de/9y1 provid$ we all[ o!r m5 ! same p[]3 x is a moral p[] 7,leibnitz74 ,ea* man1 by reason ( 8 enjoy+ lib]ty & intellig5ce1 is a p]son1 & %\ld n be treat$ z a ?+4 ,man is a ?+ sacr$ to man1 said ! anci5ts4 ,he is inviolable 9 8 p]sonality & 9 all t con/itutes ! developm5t ( 8 p]sonality4 ,!nce foll[s an imm$iate consequ5ce3 x is1 t e man be+ man by ! same title1 no "o c claim = himself a "r :i* he is n will+ to recognize at ! same "t 9 ano!r2 h5ce ! equality ( rights4 ,besides1 ! lib]ty ( "o _c1 )\t contradiction1 suppress ! lib]ty ( ano!r1 :5ce ?is o!r def9ition3 ,"r is ! accord ( lib]ties4 #gh4 ,! rights ( man4--,:at are ! pr9cipal rights ( man8 ,!y are3 ! "r ( self-pres]vation2 ! "r ( go+ & com+1 or individual lib]ty2 ! lib]ty ( "w2 ! "r ( prop]ty2 ! lib]ty ( ?\ght2 ! lib]ty ( consci5ce2 ! "r ( family1 etc4 ,we h also se5 t man 7p4 #eb7 has a f9al "r :i* is ! gu>anty & ! sanction ( all o!rs2 x is ! "r ( prev5t+ by =ce e attempt at 8 rights2 to con/ra9 o!rs to respect 8 rights1 & la/ly1 to puni% e violation ( 8 rights4 ,?is is :at is call$ ! "r ( self-def5se4 #gi4 ,public au?ority4--,man hav+1 z we h j se51 ! "r ( self-def5se by oppos+ =ce to any attack1 possesses1 :5 alone1 & f> f all human help1 ?is "r 9 all its pl5itude4 ,b x is easy to see ! dang]s & inexp$i5cy ( su* a "r 9 a society4 ,ea* man1 9 fact1 :5 he meets ) opposition to 8 w & desires1 always ?9ks himself injur$ 9 8 rights4 ,if e "o 7 free to def5d himself 9 all circum/ances1 ! "r ( self-def5se w\ld keep m5 con/antly "u arms2 & society1 )\t a regulat+ p[] to *eck _! do+s1 w\ld soon1 z ! philosoph] ,hobbes express$ x1 be ! w> ( all aga9/ all4 ,h5ce ! necessity ( ! ,/ate--t is to say1 ( a dis9t]e/$ p[]--tak+ 9 h& ! def5se ( all1 & insur+ ! prop] ex]cise ( ! "r ( self-def5se by suppress+ its abuses4 ,?is is :at is call$ public au?ority4 #hj4 ,society & ! ,/ate4--,we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 society & ! ,/ate1 or natural society & civil society4 ,society is ! union :i* exi/s betwe5 m51 )\t di/9ction ( fronti]s--)\t ext]ior re/ra9t--& = ! sole reason t !y are m54 ,an ,engli%man & an ,indian1 z ,locke says1 meet+ 9 ! wa/e =e/s ( ,am]ica 7,rob9son & ,friday71 are1 f ! fact alone ( _! common nature1 9 a /ate ( society4 ,! civil society or ,/ate is an assemblage ( m5 subject to a common au?ority1 to common laws--t is to say1 a society ^: memb]s may be con/ra9$ by public =ce to respect _! reciprocal rights4 #ha4 ,! ?ree p[]s4--,!re results f t1 t two necess>y elem5ts ent] into ! idea ( ! ,/ate3 laws & =ce4 ,! laws are ! g5]al rules :i* e/abli% be=eh& & fix aft] delib]ation1 & ab/ractly1 ! rights ( ea*2 =ce is ! physical re/ra9t ! public p[] is arm$ ) to h ! laws execut$4 ,h5ce two p[]s 9 ! ,/ate1 ! legislative p[] & ! executive p[]--"o t makes ! law2 ! o!r t executes x1 & to :i* may g5]ally be add$ a ?ird1 namely1 judici>y p[]1 :i*1 on its "p1 is emp[]$ to apply & int]pret ! law4#fj #hb4 ,sov]eignty4--,^! ?ree p[]s emanate f a common s\rce :i* is call$ sov]eign4 ,9 all ,/ates1 ! sov]eign is ! au?ority :i* is 9 possession ( ! ?ree prec$+ p[]s & delegates !m4 ,9 an absolute mon>*y1 ! sov]eign is ! mon>*1 :o ( himself ex]cises ! legislative & executive p[]1 sometimes ev5 ! judicial p[]4 ,9 a democracy1 ! sov]eign is ! univ]sality ( ! citiz5s1 or ! p1 :i* delegates ! ?ree p[]s1 & ev5 9 "s cases ex]cises !m4 ,z to ! basis ( sov]eignty1 two sy/ems face ea* o!r3 ! div9e "r & ! sov]eignty ( ! p4 ,9 ! fir/1 ! au?ority emanates f ,god1 :o transmits x to *os5 families2 9 ! second1 societies1 l individuals1 are free arbit]s1 & belong to !mselves2 !y are answ]able = _! de/9ies2 & ?is c only be true ( ! entire society2 = :y %\ld c]ta9 classes r ?an o!rs h ! privilege to decide ab\t ! fate ( ea*8 ,! sov]eignty ( ! p is !n no?+ else ?an ! "r ( ea* to p>ticipate 9 public p[]1 ei!r ( himself or ?r\gh 8 repres5tatives4 ,?is pr9ciple t5ds m & m to pr$om9ate 9 civiliz$ ,/ates4 #hc4 ,political lib]ty4--,political lib]ty means all ! gu>anties :i* insure to e citiz5 ! legitimate ex]cise ( 8 natural rights2 political lib]ty is1 !n1 ! sanction ( civil lib]ty4 ,! pr9cipal ( ^! gu>anties are3 #a1 ! "r ( suffrage1 :i* insures to e "o 8 %>e ( sov]eignty2 #b1 ! sep>ation ( p[]s1 :i* puts into diff]5t h&s ! executive1 legislative1 & judicial p[]s2 #c1 ! lib]ty ( ! press1 :i* insures ! "r ( m9orities1 & all[s !m to employ argum5t to *ange or modify ! ideas & op9ions ( ! majority4 #hd4 ,! "r ( puni%m5t4--,! "r ( puni%m5t 9 a ,/ate is no?+ else ?an ! "r ( re/ra9t1 :i*1 z we h already se51 is inh]5t 9 ! v idea ( ! ,/ate2 = ! ,/ate only exi/s to insure to ea* ! ex]cise ( 8 rights1 & x c only d s by re/ra9t & ! use ( =ce4 ,h[ f> c ?is "r ( =ce g8 ,c x1 = example1 g s f> z ! tak+ ( life ev58 ,?is is a moot$ "q betwe5 publici/s1 & ^u :i* we h1 moreov]1 already express$ ourselves 7p4 #ee et seq474 ,aft] hav+ 9 ^! summ>y views resolv$ ! pr9ciple ^u :i* ! ,/ate re/s1#fa & ! ess5tial elem5ts :i* ent] into ! idea1 we are bett] prep>$ to approa* :at con/itutes ! object prop] ( civil morality1 namely1 ! duties ( citiz5s t[>d ! c\ntry or ! ,/ate4 #he4 ,civil duties4--,^! duties are ! foll[+3 ,ob$i5ce to ! laws2 respect ( magi/rates2 ! ballot2 milit>y s]vice2 educational obligations4 #hf4 ,ob$i5ce to ! laws4--,! fir/ ( ! civil duties1 is ob$i5ce to ! laws4 ,! reason is evid5t4 ,! ,/ate re/s on ! law4 ,x is ! law :i* sub/itutes1 = ! w ( individuals1 always m or less c>ri$ away by passion or gov]n$ by self-int]e/1 a g5]al1 imp>tial1 & dis9t]e/$ rule4 ,! law is ! gu>anty ( all3 x opposes itself to =ce1 or r puts =ce 9 ! s]vice ( ju/ice1 in/ead ( mak+ ( ju/ice ! slave ( =ce4 ,pascal says3 ,n be+ able to make t :i* is j1 /rong1 m5 h wi%$ t :at is /rong %\ld be j4 ,?is is ! je/ ( a misan?rope4 ,c]ta9ly ! laws are n always z j z !y might be1 despite ! ef=ts made to r5d] !m s3 ! reason ( x is1 ! extreme complexity ( int]e/s betwe5 :i* x is difficult to f9d a true balance & j equilibrium2 b su* z !y are1 !y are inf9itely m j ?an ! "r ( ! /ronge/1 :i* w\ld alone reign if !re 7 no laws4 ,! empire ( ! laws is !n t :i* secures ord] 9 a society1 & consequ5tly procures = ea* ( its memb]s security & peace1 & ?r\gh ^!1 ! means ( devot+ himself to 8 "w1 :e!r intellectual or mat]ial1 & ( reap+ ! fruits !re(4 ,at ! same "t t ! law gu>antees ord] )91 x also insures ! indep5d5ce ( ! nation f )\t4 ,= a nation )\t laws1 or :i* no long] obeys its laws1 falls into an>*y & becomes ! prey ( ! fir/ conqu]or :o pres5ts himself1 z is %[n by ! hi/ory ( ,pol&4 ,x is especially 9 democratic or republican /ates1 t ob$i5ce to ! laws is necess>y1 z x is !re ! mo/ difficult4 ,montesquieu has %[n ) great sagacity ! difficulty & !reby ! necessity ( ob$i5ce to ! laws 9 a democracy2 9 fact1 :at 9 o!r gov]nm5ts is obta9$ by con/ra9t1 9 a democracy dep5ds only ^u ! w ( ! citiz5s4 ,x is cle>1 says ,montesquieu1 t 9 a mon>*y1 :]e he :o causes ! laws to be execut$ is above ! laws1 !re is less virtue requisite ?an 9 a popul> gov]nm5t1 :]e he :o causes ! laws to be execut$1 feels t he is himself subject to !m1 & w h to be> ! consequ5ce ( _! violation4 ,x is fur!r cle> t a mon>* :o1 ?r\gh bad advice or neglig5ce1 ceases to h ! laws execut$1 may easily repair ! evil2 he has b to *ange c\nselors or correct himself ( 8 neglig5ce4 ,b :5 9 a popul> gov]nm5t1 ! laws h ceas$ to be execut$1 z ?is c only happ5 ?r\gh ! corruption ( ! republic1 ! ,/ate is already lo/4 ,montesquieu !n describes1 9 ! /ronge/ & livelie/ colors1 a republican /ate :]e ! laws h ceas$ to be en=c$4 ,!y 7 free ) ! laws2 !y wi% to be free )\t !m4 ,ea* citiz5 is z a slave escap$ f ! h\se ( 8 ma/]4 ,:at be=e 0 call$ maxim1 is n[ call$ sev]ity2 :at 0 rule is n[ annoy+ re/ra9t2 :at 0 att5tion1 is n[ fe>4 ,! republic has become booty1 & its /r5g? is no long] any?+ m ?an ! p[] ( a few & ! lic5se ( all4 ,9 ! republics ( ,a!ns & ,rome1 z long z !y 7 prosp]\s & great1 ! empire ( ! laws 0 admirable4 ,socrates1 9 8 prison1 gave ( ?is a sublime example4 ,he 0 unju/ly condemn$ by 8 fell[-citiz5s to dr9k ! hemlock1 namely1 to die by poison4 ,mean:ile1 8 fri5ds press$ him to resort to flight2 & ev]y?+ leads to ! belief t ?is w\ld h be5 q easy1 z ! judges !mselves almo/ wi%$ to be reliev$ ( ! responsibility ( 8 dea?4 ,yet ,socrates resi/$1 & refus$ to employ ?is means ( safety4 ,! pr9cipal reason giv5 by him 01 t1 hav+ be5 condemn$ by ! laws ( 8 c\ntry1 he c\ld save himself only by violat+ ^! laws4 ,?is is :at ,plato has express$ 9 ! dialogue entitl$ ,crito4 ,! laws ( ! c\ntry are repres5t$ z address+ a spee* to ,socrates2 x is call$ ! ,prosopopoeia#fb ( ,crito3 ,socrates1 !y w say to me1 0 t our agreem5t1 or 0 x n r t ?\ %\ld/ submit to ! judgm5ts r5d]$ by ! republic8444 ,:at cause ( compla9t ha/ ?\ aga9/ u t ?\ %\ld/ try to de/roy u8 ,do/ ?\ n1 9 ! fir/ place1 owe u ?y life8 ,0 x n "u our auspices t ?y fa!r took to himself ! companion t gave !e bir?8 ,if ?\ owe/ u ?y bir? & education1 can/ ?\ d5y t ?\ art our *ild & s]vant8 ,& if ?is be s1 ?9ke/ ?\ ?y rights equal to ours2 & t ?\ art p]mitt$ to make u suff] = :at we make !e suff]8 ,:at6 9 ! case ( a fa!r or a ma/]1 if ?\ had/ "o1 ?\ w\ld/ n h ! "r to d to him :at he w\ld d to !e2 to speak to him insult+ly if he insult$ !e2 to /rike him1 if he /ruck !e1 nor any?+ l x2 & ?\ %\ld/ hold su* a "r t[>d ?y c\ntry6 & if we _h s5t5c$ !e to dea?1 ?9k+ ! s5t5ce j1 ?\ %\ld/ und]take to de/roy u6444 ,does n ?y wisdom tea* !e t ! c\ntry has a great] "r to ?y respect & homage1 t x is m augu/ & m wise be=e ! gods & ! sages1 ?an fa!r1 "m1 & all ance/ors2 t ! c\ntry 9 its ang] mu/ be respect$1 t "o mu/ conv9ce x ( its error ?r\gh p]suasion1 or obey its comm&s1 suff] )\t murmur+ :atev] x ord]s to be suff]$1 ev5 to be beat5 & load$ ) *a9s8444 ,:at else !n do/ ?\ d8 !y w\ld proce$ to say1 ?an violate ! treaty t b9ds !e to u1 & trample "u foot ?y agreem5t8444 ,9 suff]+ ?y s5t5ce1 ?\ die/ an honorable victim ( ! iniquity1 n ( ! laws1 b ( m52 b if ?\ take/ to flight1 ?\ repelle/ unwor?ily inju/ice by inju/ice1 evil by evil1 & ?\ violate/ ! treaty :]eby ?\ w]t "u obligation to u3 ?\ imp]ile/ ^? x 0 ?y duty to protect1 ?\ imp]ile/ ?yself1 ?y fri5ds1 ?y c\ntry1 & u4 ,we %all be ?y enemies all ?y life2 & :5 ?\ %alt desc5d to ! dead1 our si/]s1 ! laws ( ,hades1 kn[+ t ?\ ha/ tri$ ?y be/ to de/roy u "h1 w n receive !e v favorably4 ,pret5d$ ,exceptions4--,! duty ( ob$i5ce to ! laws mu/ !n be admitt$ z a pr9ciple2 b is ?is duty absolute8 is x n susceptible ( "s exceptions8 ,a le>n$ !ologian ( ! ,,xvi4 c5tury1 a ,jesuit1 ,su>ez 7,traite des lois1 ,,iii41 iv471 admits ?ree exceptions to ! ob$i5ce due to ! law3 #a1 if a law is unju/--= an unju/ law is no law--n only is "o n oblig$ to accept1 b ev51 :5 accept$1 "o is n oblig$ to obey x2 #b1 if x is too h>d2 = !n "o may reasonably presume t ! law 0 n made by ! pr9ce ) ! absolute int5tion t x %\ld be obey$1 b r z an exp]im5t2 n[1 "u ?is supposition "o c always beg9 by n obs]v+ x2--#c1 if1 9 fact1 ! majority ( ! p h ceas$ to obs]ve x1 ev5 ?\gh ! fir/ :o _h comm5c$ %\ld h s9n$2 ! m9ority is n oblig$ to obs]ve :at ! majority has ab&on$3 = "o _c suppose ! pr9ce to int5d oblig+ su* or su* individuals to obs]ve x1 :5 ! community at l>ge h ceas$ obs]v+ x4 ,^! exceptions1 propos$ by ,su>ez1 are inadmissible1 at lea/ ! two fir/4 ,to au?orize disob$i5ce to unju/ laws is introduc+ into society an inw>d pr9ciple ( de/ruction4 ,all law is suppos$ to be j1 o!rwise x is arbitr>9ess & n law4 ,e man f9ds always ! law t puni%es him unju/4 ,if !re are unju/ laws1 :i* is possible1 we mu/ ask _! abrogation2 &1 9 ^! our days1 ! lib]ty ( ! press is ready to give satisfaction to ! ne$ ( criticism2 b1 9 ! meantime1 we mu/ obey4 ,! second exception is n t5able ei!r4 ,to say t x is p]mitt$ to disobey a law :5 x is too h>d1 9 suppos+ t ! pr9ce only made x = an exp]im5t1 is to p]mit ! elud+ ( all ! laws3 = e law is h>d = somebody2 & !re is1 besides1 no det]m9+ ! h>dness ( laws4 ,su* an appreciation is1 moreov]1 fictiti\s2 a pr9ce :o makes a law is suppos$ a priori to wi% x execut$3 to say t he only meant to try u !re) is a :olly gratuit\s inv5tion4 ,c]ta9ly "o may by su* conduct succe$ 9 we>+ a law out :5 ! pr9ce is feeble2 b x is n ! less unju/1 & no ,/ate c\ld resi/ su* a cause ( dissolution4 ,z to ! ?ird exception1 x c be admitt$ t !re are laws fall5 into disuse1 & :i* are no long] appli$ by any "o because !y /& 9 contradiction to ! mann]s1 & are no long] ( any use2 b1 except 9 su* case1 x is n[ise p]mitt$ to say t x is suffici5t = ! majority to disobey to entitle ! m9ority to d ! same4 ,= in/ance1 if x pleas$ ! majority to engage 9 smuggl+1 or to make false decl>ations 9 ! matt] ( taxes1 x w\ld n[ise acquit ! good citiz5s f cont9u+ to fulfill _! duty4 ,n[1 if x is an absolute duty to obey a law1 we mu/1 at ! same "t1 admit z a corrective1 ! "r ( criticis+ ! law4 ,?is "r is ! "r ( ! m9ority1 & x is recogniz$ to-day 9 all civiliz$ c\ntries4 ,a law may1 9 fact1 be unju/ or errone\s3 x may h be5 introduc$ by passion1 by p>ty-_s2 ev5 )\t hav+ be5 orig9ally unju/1 x may h become s 9 "t ?r\gh *ange 9 mann]s2 x may also be ! "w ( ignorance1 prejudice1 etc42 & !reby hurtful4 ,h5ce ! necessity ( :at is call$ ! lib]ty ( ! press1 ! inviolable gu>anty ( ! m9orities4 ,b ! "r ( criticis+ ! law is n ! "r ( insult+ x4 ,discussion is n insult4 ,e law is entitl$ to respect because x is a law2 x is ! expression ( ! public reason1 ! public w1 ( sov]eignty4 ,"o may try to p]suade ! sov]eign by reason+1 & induce him to *ange ! law2 "o %\ld n inspire contempt :i* leads unavoidably to disob$i5ce4 #hg4 ,respect = magi/rates4--,ano!r duty1 :i* is ! coroll>y to ob$i5ce to ! laws1 is ! respect = ! magi/rate4 ,! magi/rate--t is1 ! function>y1 :oev] he be1 9 *>ge ( ! execution ( ! laws--%\ld be obey$1 n only because he repres5ts =ce1 b also because he is ! expression ( ! law4 ,= ?is reason1 he %\ld be = all an object ( respect4 ,! p]son is no?+2 x is ! au?ority itself t is entitl$ to respect1 & n su* or su* an individual4 ,_m ignorant p]sons are always dispos$ to reg>d ! function>y z a tyrant1 & e act ( au?ority1 an act ( oppression4 ,?is is a pu]ile & lam5table prejudice4 ,! greate/ oppression is always t ( individual passions1 & ! mo/ dang]\s ( despotisms is an>*y3 = !n x is ! "r ( ! /ronge/ :i* alone pr$om9ates4 ,au?ority1 :atev] x be1 makes ! ma9t5ance ( ord] its special int]e/1 & ord] is ! gu>anty ( e "o4 ,! magi/rate is1 moreov]1 entitl$ to respect1 z he repres5ts ! c\ntry2 if ! c\ntry be a family1 ! au?ority ( ! magi/rate %\ld be reg>d$ ! same z t ( ! head ( ! family1 an au?ority entitl$ to respect ev5 9 its errors4 #hh4 ,! ballot4--,( all ! special obligations :i* we h enum]at$1 ! mo/ important to po9t out is t ( ! ballot1 because x is free & left entirely at ! w ( ! citiz5s4 ,9 reg>d to ! o!r obligations1 con/ra9t may1 up to a c]ta9 po9t1 supply ! good w2 he :o does n pay 8 taxes f a s5se ( duty1 is oblig$ to pay !m f necessity2 b ! ballot is free2 "o may vote or n vote2 "o may vote = :om he pleases3 !re is no o!r re/ra9t ?an ! s5se ( duty2 = ?is reason1 x is necess>y to insi/ on ?is k9d ( obligation4 #a4 ,x is a duty to vote4 ,:at 9 fact ! law dem&s1 9 grant+ to ! citiz5s ! "r ( suffrage1 is t ! w ( ! citiz5s be made manife/1 & t ! decisions ab\t to be tak51 be ^? ( ! majority4 ,?is pr9ciple ( ! "r ( ! majorities has (t5 be5 que/ion$3 =1 x is said1 :y might n ! majority be mi/ak58 ,c]ta9ly1 b :y might n ! m9ority be also mi/ak58 ,! majority is a rule :i* puts an end to disputes & =e/alls ! appeal to =ce4 ,! m9orities c]ta9ly may h cause = compla9t1 = no rule is absolutely p]fect2 b !y h ! *ance ( becom+ majorities 9 _! turn4 ,?is is se5 9 all free ,/ates1 :]e ! majority is con/antly be+ modifi$ ) ! "t4 ,if su* is ! pr9ciple ( elective gov]nm5ts 7:atev] be ! measure or ext5sion ( ! electoral "r71 x c be se5 ( :at importance x is t ! true majority %[ itself2 & ?is c only take place ?r\gh ! greate/ possible numb] ( vot]s4 ,if1 = example1 half ( ! citiz5s ab/a91 & t ( ! half t vote1 "o-half alone1 plus "o1 con/itute ! majority1 x foll[s t x is a f\r? ( ! citiz5s t make ! law2 :i* w\ld seem to be rev]s+ ! pr9ciple ( majorities4 ,?is is c]ta9ly n absolutely unju/1 = x may be said t ^? :o d n vote admit implicitly ! result obta9$2 b ?is negative compliance has n ! same value z a positive compliance4 ,to ab/a9 f vot+ may h two causes3 ei!r indiff]5ce1 or ignorance ( ! que/ions prop\nd$1 & consequ5tly ! impossibility ( decid+ "o way or ano!r4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 especially is ! ab/a9+ culpable4 ,no citiz5 has ! "r to be indiff]5t to public affairs4 ,skepticism 9 ?is matt] is want ( patriotism4 ,9 ! second case1 ! "q is a m delicate "o4 ,h[ c ,i vote8 x may be said4 ,i und]/& no?+ ab\t ! "q2 ,i h no op9ion2 ,i h no pref]5ce z to c&idates4 ,to combat ?is evil1 x is1 ( c\rse1 necess>y t education ga9 a l>g] developm5t1 & t lib]ty ent] into cu/oms & mann]s4 ,!re w be se5 !n a great] & great] numb] ( citiz5s und]/&+ly int]e/$ 9 public affairs4 ,b ev5 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s1 a man may /ill fulfill 8 duty 9 consult+ enlight5$ m51 9 *oos+ "s "o 9 :om he may h confid5ce2 9 %ort1 9 mak+ e ef=t to ga9 in=mation4 #b4 ,! vote %\ld be dis9t]e/$4 ,! "q "h is n only "o conc]n+ ! v5ality ( ! vote1 :i* is a %ameful act1 puni%able1 moreov]1 by ! laws2 b x embraces dis9t]e/$ness 9 a wid] s5se4 ,"o %\ld 9 vot+ consid] ! int]e/s ( ! c\ntry alone1 & 9 n[ise1 or at lea/1 only second>ily1 ! int]e/s ( localities1 unless ! "q be precisely z to ^? latt] int]e/s1 :5 vot+ = municipal (fic]s4 #c4 ,! vote %\ld be free4 ,! electors or repres5tatives ( an assembly %\ld obey _! consci5ce alone3 !y %\ld repel all pressure1 z well t f committees arrogat+ omnipot5ce1 z f ! p[] itself4 #d4 ,9 f9e1 ! vote %\ld be enlight5$4 ,ea* vot] %\ld ga!r in=mation t\*+ ! matt] 9 h&1 ! c&idates1 _! morality1 _! g5]al fitness = _! duty1 _! op9ions4 ,9 ord] to vote ) k ( ! facts1 "o mu/ h "s education4 ,t1 ( c\rse1 dep5ds on our p>5ts2 b :at dep5ds on u1 is to develop ! education already obta9$2 we mu/ read ! pap]s1 b n "o only1 or we may become ! slaves ( a wat* ^w & ( bigot$ m9ds2 we mu/ also ga!r in=mation f m5 m enlight5$1 etc4 #hi4 ,taxes4--,x is a duty to pay ! taxes2 =1 )\t ! contributions ( ea* citiz51 ! ,/ate w\ld h no budget1 & c\ld n set ! (fices x is commission$ )1 to "w4 ,h[ c\ld ju/ice be r5d]$1 in/ruction be giv51 ! t]ritory be def5d$1 ! roads kept up1 )\t money8 ,?is money1 besides1 is vot$ by ! repres5tatives ( ! c\ntry1 elect$ = t purpose4 ,b if ! ,/ate is n to tax ! citiz5s )\t _! cons5t & sup]vision1 !y 9 _! turn %\ld n refuse x _! money4 ,c]ta9ly1 ?is evil is n mu* to be fe>$1 = 9 ! abs5ce ( good w1 !re is /ill ! con/ra9t :i* c be br\ght to be> ^u refractory citiz5s4 ,yet !re are /ill means ( defraud+ ! law4 ,! common p believe too readily t to deceive ! ,/ate is n deceiv+2 !y d n scruple to make false decl>ations :]e decl>ations are requir$1 to pass prohibit$ goods ov] ! fronti]1 etc42 :i* are s _m ways ( refus+ to pay ! taxes4 #ij4 ,milit>y s]vice1 z are ! taxes1 is obligatory by law1 & consequ5tly does n dep5d on individual *oice4 ,b x is n en\gh to d our duty because we are oblig$ to d x2 we mu/ also d x consci5ti\sly & he>tily4 ,x is n en\gh to pay out ( "o's purse1 says a morali/2#fc "o mu/ also pay ) "o's p]son4 ,c]ta9ly1 x is n = any "o's pleasure t he leaves 8 p>5ts & fri5ds1 8 "w & habits1 to g to d milit>y s]vice 9 b>racks1 &1 if ne$s be1 to fight on ! fronti]s4 ,b :o w def5d ! c\ntry 9 case ( attack if x be n its "y & robu/ m58 ,& mu/ !y n le>n ! use ( arms 9 ord] to be effici5t on ! day :5 ! c\ntry %all ne$ !m8 ,?is is :y !re are armies4 ,c]ta9ly1 x w\ld be a ?\s& times bett] if !re 7 no ne$ ( ?is1 if all nations 7 j en\gh nev] to make w> ) ea* o!r4 ,b :il/ ?is ideal is be+ realiz$1 ! lea/ any "o c d is to hold himself 9 read9ess to def5d 8 lib]ty1 8 honor4444 ,?anks to a good army1 "o n only c rema9 quiet at home1 b ! humble/ citiz5 is respect$ :]ev] he goes1 :]ev] 8 int]e/s take him4 ,9 look+ c>efully at ! matt] x c be se5 t ev5 9 respect to simple int]e/s1 ! "t sp5t 9 ! s]vice ( ! flag1 is no?+ 9 comp>ison ) ! advantages d]iv$ f x4 ,is x n because o!rs h be5 !re be=e u t we h be5 enabl$ to gr[ up peacefully & happy to ! age ( manhood8 ,is x n j t we %\ld take _! place & 9 our turn wat* ov] ! c\ntry8 ,& :5 we return1 o!rs w take our place1 & we1 9 our turn1 %all be enabl$ to raise a family1 att5d to our bus9ess1 & lead a quiet & cont5t$ life4 ,let u add to ^! judici\s rem>ks t milit>y s]vice is a s*ool ( discipl9e1 ord]1 ob$i5ce1 c\rage1 pati5ce1 & z su*1 contributes to /r5g!n+ ! m9d & body1 to develop+ p]sonality1 to =m+ good citiz5s4 ,! pr9cipal infractions ( ! duty ( milit>y s]vice are3 #a1 mutilations by :i* "s r5d] !mselves improp] = s]vice2 #b1 simulat$ infirmities by :i* "o tries to escape f ! obligation2 #c1 des]tion 9 times ( w>1 & :at is m crim9al /ill1 pass+ ov] to ! enemy2 #d1 insubord9ation or disob$i5ce to sup]iors4 ,?is latt] vice is ! mo/ important to po9t out1 ! o!rs be+ m or less r>e2 b insubord9ation is an evil mo/ frequ5t 9 our armies1 & a mo/ dang]\s evil4 ,milit>y op]ations h become s complicat$ & difficult 9 ^! days1 t no?+ is possible )\t ! /ricte/ ob$i5ce on ! "p ( soldi]s4 ,9 times :5 individual valor 0 almo/ ev]y?+1 insubord9ation might h pres5t$ few] inconv5i5ces2 b 9 ^! days1 all is done ?r\gh masses1 & if ! m5 d n obey1 ! armies are necess>ily beat5 because !y _c oppose an equal =ce to ! enemy4 ,suppose ! enemy to be #ej1jjj m5 /rong 9 a c]ta9 place1 t y y\rself belong to a body ( #ej1jjj1 & t y all toge!r rea* ! same place at ! same "t z ! enemy3 y are equal 9 numb]s1 "o aga9/ "o1 & y h at lea/ z _m *ances z !y2 & if1 besides1 y h o!r qualities :i* !y h n1 y w h m *ances4 ,b if 9 ! corps y belong to1 !re is no discipl9e1 if e "o disobeys--if1 = example1 :5 ! ord] = m>*+ is giv51 ea* />ts :5 he pleases1 & m>*es b z he pleases1 y w arrive too late1 & ! enemy w h tak5 ! be/ positions2 !re is !n "o *ance lo/4 ,if1 moreov]1 ?r\gh ! disord] 9 y\r ranks1 y d n all arrive toge!r1 if !re are b #be1jjj m5 9 a l9e1 ! o!rs rema9+ beh9d1 ^! #be1jjj w be ov]:elm$4 ,z = ^? :o d n rea* ! spot1 ?9k y !y w escape ! consequ5ces ( ! battle8 ,by no means2 ! disord] w n save !m2 x w deliv] !m def5seless into ! h&s ( ! pursu+ enemy4 ,n[1 all disord] is foll[$ by simil> consequ5ces4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ob$i5ce ( ! soldi] be+ sure1 ! army is z "o man :o l5ds himself to all ! plans1 all ! comb9ations2 :o takes advantage ( all ! happy *ances1 :o runs less dang]s because ! bus9ess proce$s m rapidly1 & t ) less means "o obta9s m results4 ,su* are ! reasons = ! punctili\s discipl9e requir$ ( soldi]s4 ,we are treat$ z ma*9es1 y w say4 ,yes2 if y resi/3 = !n con/ra9t becomes indisp5sable2 b if y und]/& ! necessity ( ! discipl9e1 if y submit to x on y\r own accord1 !n are y no long] ma*9es3 y are m54 ,! only way ( n be+ a ma*9e is !n precisely to obey freely4 ,x has (t5 be5 ask$1 9 ^! days1 :e!r ! soldi] is always oblig$ to obey1 ev5 su* ord]s z 8 consci5ce disapproves (4 ,^! are dang]\s que/ions to raise1 & !y t5d to imp]il discipl9e )\t mu* pr(it to morality4 ,no d\bt if a soldi] 7 ord]$ to commit a crime--z1 = example1 to g & kill a def5seless man--he w\ld h ! "r to refuse do+ x4 ,at ! "t ( ! massacre ( ,/4 ,b>?olomew1 an ord] 0 s5t to all ! prov9ces to foll[ ! example ( ,p>is4 ,"o ( ! gov]nors1 ! ,visc\nt ,or!z1 repli$ t 8 soldi]s did n d execution]'s s]vice2 & ?is answ] 0 admir$ by all ! _w4 ,b ^! are v r>e cases2 & x is dang]\s = su* unc]ta9 ev5tualities to inspire mi/ru/ aga9/ ord] & discipl9e1 :i* are ! c]ta9 gu>anties ( ! def5se & indep5d5ce ( a c\ntry4 #ia4 ,educational obligation4--,! duty to in/ruct *ildr5 results f ! natural relations betwe5 p>5ts & *ildr54 ,! obligation to raise *ildr5 implies1 9 fact1 ! obligation to in/ruct !m4 ,!re is no m education )\t in/ruction ?an in/ruction )\t education4 ,to-day educational obligation is ins]t$ 9 ! law1 & has its sanction !re94 ,b p>5ts owe x to !mselves to obey ! law )\t con/ra9t4 #ib4 ,civil c\rage4--,we h already spok5 above ( civil c\rage z oppos$ to milit>y c\rage4 ,b "h is ! place to return to ?is subject4 ,let u recall a f9e page by ,j4 ,b>ni 9 8 book on ,morality 9 ,democracy3 ,! /oics def9$ c\rage admirably3 ,virtue combat+ = equity4 ,civil c\rage might be def9$3 virtue def5d+ ! lib]ty & rights ( citiz5s aga9/ tyranny1 :e!r ?is tyranny be t ( ! masses or a despot's4 ,z mu* c\rage1 & p]haps m1 is dem&$ 9 ! fir/ case z 9 ! second2 x is less easy to resi/ a cr[d ?an a s+le man1 7 !re no?+ m to be fe>$ ?an unpopul>ity1 "o ( ! disadvantages h>de/ to brave4 ,h[ mu* m difficult :5 x comes to risk+ a popul>ity already acquir$8 ,yet mu/ "o1 if necess>y1 be able to make ! sacrifice4 ,true civil c\rage %[s itself ! same 9 all cases4 ,?us1 ,socrates1 ?is type ( civil virtue1 z he 0 ( all o!r virtues1 refus$1 at ! p]il ( 8 life1 to obey ! iniquit\s ord]s ( ! tyrant ,critias2 & he resi/$ ) no less c\rage ! p1 :o1 contr>y to ju/ice & law1 ask$ = ! dea? ( ! g5]als :o conqu]$ at ,arg9usae4 ,ano!r "n pres5ts itself to ! memory1 namely1 t ( ,boissy d',anglas1 immortaliz$ = ! h]oism he %[$ z presid5t ( ! ,national ,conv5tion1 ! #a/ ,prairial1 ye> ,,ii4 7#bj ,may1 #agie74 ,assail$ by ! clamors ( ! cr[d :i* _h invad$ ! ,assembly1 ?reat5$ by ! guns :i* 7 po9t$ at him1 he rema9s impassible2 & )\t ev5 appe>+ to be aw>e ( ! dang] he is runn+1 he rem9ds ! cr[d ( ! respect due to national repres5tatives4 ,!y cry3 ,we d n want ?y ,assembly2 ! p is "h2 ?\ art ! presid5t ( ! p2 sign1 says "o1 ! decree %all be good1 or ,i kill !e6 ,he quietly repli$3 ,life to me is a trifle2 y speak ( committ+ a great crime2 ,i am a repres5tative ( ! p2 ,i am presid5t ( ! conv5tion2 & he refus$ to sign4 ,! head ( a repres5tative ( ! p :o _h j be5 massacr$ by ! populace = hav+ attempt$ to prev5t ! invasion ( ! ,conv5tion1 is pres5t$ to him on ! end ( a pike2 he salutes x & rema9s firm at 8 po/4 ,?is is a great example ( civil c\rage4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,pr(essional ,,duties4 ,,summ>y4 ,pr(essional duties3 f\nd$ on ! division ( social "w4 ,! abs5ce ( a pr(ession--,leisure4--,is x a duty to h a pr(ession8 ,rules = ! *oice ( a pr(ession4 ,division ( social pr(essions4--,plato's !ory2 ! ,sa9t ,simonian !ory2 ,fi*te's !ory4 ,resume & syn!sis ( ^! !ories4 ,me*anic & indu/rial pr(essions4--,employ]s & employees4--,workm5 & f>m]s4 ,milit>y duties4 ,public functions4--,elective functions2 ! magi/racy & ! b>4 ,sci5ce4--,tea*+4--,m$ic9e4--,! arts & lett]s4 #ic4 ,division ( social "w4--,indep5d5tly ( ! g5]al duties to :i* man is held1 z man or memb] ( a p>ticul> gr\p 7family1 c\ntry71 !re are /ill o!rs relat+ to ! situation he holds 9 society1 to ! "p he plays !re91 to 8 p>ticul> l9e ( "w4 ,society is1 9 fact1 a sort ( great ent]prise :]e all pursue a common end1 namely1 ! greate/ happ9ess or ! greate/ morality ( ! human species2 b z ?is end is v complex1 x is necess>y t ! p>ts to be play$ t[>d rea*+ x be divid$2 &1 z 9 indu/rial pursuits1 unity ( purpose1 rapidity ( execution1 p]fection ( "w1 _c be obta9$ except by division ( labor1 s is !re also 9 society a sort ( social division ( labor1 :i* allots to ea* 8 %>e ( ! common "w4 ,! special "w ea* is appo9t$ to accompli% 9 society is :at is call$ a pr(ession1 & ! peculi> duties ( ea* pr(ession are ! pr(essional duties4 #id4 ,! abs5ce ( a pr(ession--,leisure4--,! fir/ "q to be consid]$ is1 :e!r a man %\ld h a pr(ession1 or if1 hav+ receiv$ f 8 family a suffici5t =tune to live )\t do+ any?+1 he has a "r to disp5se ) all pr(ession & give himself up to :at is call$ leisure4 ,"s s*ools h condemn$ leisure absolutely1 h d5\nc$ :at !y call idl]s z ! enemies ( society4 ,?is is a r delicate "q1 & conc]n+ :i* "o mu/ gu>d aga9/ arriv+ at a too absolute conclusion4 ,&1 9 ! fir/ place1 !re _c be "q "h ( approv+ or p]mitt+ t sort ( fooli% & %ameful leisure to :i* "s "y prodigals1 )\t s5se ( dignity & morality1 are giv51 :o dissipate 9 disord] h]$it>y =tunes1 or ! weal? obta9$ by ! indefatigable labor ( _! fa!rs4 ,x is sometimes said t ?is does m good ?an h>m1 because =tunes pass ?us f h& to h&1 & ea* pr(its by x 9 8 turn4 ,b :o does n "k t to make a good use ( a =tune is m pr(itable to society ?an dissipation8 ,h[ev] t may be1 no?+ is m unwor?y ( y\? ?an ?is nameless idl5ess1 :]e all ! /r5g? ( ! body & s\l1 ! en]gy ( "*1 ! life ( ! intellig5ce1 all ! gifts ( nature are squ&]$4 ,!re h be5 sometimes se5 sup]ior s\ls :o rose f su* disord]s victori\s ov] !mselves1 & /rong] = ! combat ( life4 ,b h[ r>e su* examples6 ,h[ (t5 does x n1 on ! contr>y1 happ5 t ! idl5ess ( 8 y\? det]m9es ! :ole c\rse ( ! man's life8 ,sometimes1 x is true1 "o may *oose a life ( leisure design$ly1 n ) an idea ( dissipation1 b1 on ! contr>y1 ) t ( be+ free to d great ?+s4 ,c]ta9 indep5d5t m9ds believe t a pr(ession deprives a p]son ( 8 lib]ty1 n>r[s him1 fa/5s him d[n to mean & monoton\s occupations1 subjects him to conv5tional & n>r[ modes ( ?9k+--9 %ort1 t a positive k9d ( "w weak5s & l[]s ! m9d4 ,!re is "s tru? 9 ^! rem>ks4 ,ev]ybody has obs]v$ h[ m5 ( diff]5t pr(essions diff] 9 _! mode ( ?9k+4 ,:at m diff]5t ?an a physician1 a man ( lett]s1 a soldi]1 a m]*ant8 ,all ^! m5 ?\ght ab\t ! same 9 _! y\?2 !y see ea* o!r tw5ty ye>s lat]2 ea* has und]gone a peculi> b5t2 ea* has 8 p>ticul> physiognomy1 co/ume1 etc4 ,n only has ! pr(ession absorb$ ! man1 b x has also dead5$ 8 individuality4 ,"o may conceive1 !n1 h[ "s ambiti\s m9ds may expect to escape ! yoke & pres]ve _! lib]ty 9 r5\nc+ all pr(essions4 ,to be subject to no fix$ & prescrib$ occupation1 to dep5d ^u no ma/]1 to nobly cultivate ! m9d 9 e direction1 to make va/ exp]im5ts1 to be a /rang] to no?+1 b\nd to no?+1 is n t1 seem+ly1 ! height ( human happ9ess8 ,"s m5 ( g5ius h foll[$ ?is sy/em1 & f\nd no bad results f x4 ,desc>tes relates to u 9 8 ,disc\rs sur la ,me?ode 7,"p ,i471 t1 dur+ n9e ye>s ( 8 life1 he did no?+ b roll ab\t ! _w1 hi!r & ?i!r1 try+ to be a spectator1 r ?an an actor1 9 ! com$ies play$ !re94 ,he tells u fur!r1 t he employ$ 8 y\? 9 travel+1 9 visit+ c\rts & armies1 9 associat+ ) p ( v>i\s humors & conditions1 9 ga!r+ div]s exp]i5ces1 9 te/+ himself 9 ! enc\nt]s *ance favor$ him )1 etc4 ,t ?is may be an admirable s*ool1 a m>vel\sly in/ructive ar5a = well-end[$ m9ds1 no "o w d\bt2 b :at is possible & useful to a ,desc>tes or a ,pascal1 w x suit ! majority ( m58 ,is x n to be fe>$ t ?is w&]+ 9 e direction1 ?is habit ( hav+ n[h]e a foot-hold1 may make ! m9d sup]ficial & weak5 its en]gy8 ,he :o r5\nces be+ an actor1 to be only a spectator1 z did ,desc>tes1 takes too easy a "p2 he frees himself f all responsibility3 ?is may %>p5 ! m9d1 b !re w always rema9 "s radical defici5cy4 ,=ce ( "*1 h[ev]1 & p]sonal sup]iority may set at naught all ^! conclusions--s\nd z !y 9 g5]al are 9 !ory4#fd ,x may1 !re=e1 be d\btful :e!r a life ( leisure1 ) "s exceptions1 be good = him :o gives himself up to x2 b :at is n legitimate1 is ! k9d ( jeal\sy & envy :i* ^? :o "w (t5 ent]ta9 aga9/ ^? :o h no?+ to d4 ,!re is a legitimate leisure & nobly employ$4 ,= example1 a legitimate leisure is t :i*1 obta9$ ?r\gh h]$it>y =tune1 is engag$ 9 gratuit\sly s]v+ ! c\ntry1 9 /udy1 9 ! managem5t ( prop]ty1 ! cultivation ( l&1 9 travels devot$ to obs]vation & ! amelioration ( human ?+s1 9 a noble int]c\rse ) society4 ,x is a griev\s error to wi% to blot out ( societies all exi/5ce t has n ga9 = its end1 & is n connect$ ) daily wants4 ,prop]ty & ri*es are true social functions1 & among ! mo/ difficult ( functions4 ,^? :o "k h[ to use !m ) pr(it1 fill "o ( ! mo/ useful p>ts 9 society1 & _c be said to be )\t a pr(ession4 #ie4 ,( ! *oice ( a pr(ession4--,if x is necess>y 9 society to h a pr(ession1 x is important t x be well *os54 ,he :o is n 9 8 "r place1 is want+ 9 "s ess5tial quality to fill ! "o he occupies3 ,if ! abbe de ,c>ignan _h yield$ to ! wi%es ( ,madame de ,soissons1 8 "m1 :at glory w\ld n ! h\se ( ,savoy h be5 depriv$ (6 ,! empire w\ld h be5 depriv$ ( "o ( its greate/ capta9s1 "o ( ! bulw>ks ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,pr9ce ,eug5e 0 a v great man 9 ! pr(ession !y wi%$ to int]dict him2 :at w\ld he h be5 9 ! pr(ession !y wi%$ him to embrace8 ,m4 de ,retz insi/$ absolutely t 8 y\nge/ son %\ld be an ecclesia/ic1 despite ! repugnance he manife/$ = ?is pr(ession1 despite ! sc&al\s conduct he indulg$ 9 to escape f x4 ,?is duke ,m4 de ,retz gives to ! *ur* a sacrilegi\s prie/1 to ,p>is a sangu9>y ar*bi%op1 to ! k+dom a great rebel1 & deprives 8 h\se ( ! la/ prop t c\ld h su/a9$ x4#fe ,"o %\ld1 !re=e1 /udy 8 vocation1 n decide too quickly1 get in=mation on ! nature & duties ( diff]5t pr(essions2 !n consult 8 ta/e1 b )\t all[+ himself to be c>ri$ away by illusory1 pr\d1 inconsi/5t fancies2 consult wise & enlight5$ p]sons2 f9ally1 if necess>y1 make c]ta9 exp]im5ts1 tak+ c>e1 h[ev]1 to /op 9 "t4 #if4 ,division ( social pr(essions4--,x w\ld be impossible to make a survey ( all ! pr(essions society is compos$ (3 x 7 an inf9ite labor4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 br+ ! pr(essions d[n to a c]ta9 numb] ( types or classes1 :i* all[ ! r$uc+ ( ! rules ( pr(essional morality to a small numb]4 ,sev]al philosoph]s h busi$ !mselves 9 divid+ & classify+ social occupations4 ,we %all recall only ! pr9cipal ones ( ^! divisions4 ,plato has r$uc$ ! diff]5t social functions to f\r classes1 namely3 #a1 magi/rates2 #b1 w>riors2 #c1 f>m]s2 #d1 artisans4 ,! two fir/ classes are ! gov]n+ classes2 ! two o!rs are ! classes gov]n$4 ,! two fir/ apply !mselves to moral ?+s3 education1 sci5ce1 ! def5se ( ! c\ntry2 ! o!rs to mat]ial life4 ,?is classification ( ,plato is some:at too g5]al = our mod]n societies1 :i* comprise m v>i$ & num]\s elem5ts3 ^! divisions1 nev]!less1 are important1 & %\ld be tak5 acc\nt ( 9 morals4 ,s9ce ,plato1 !re is sc>cely any b ! sociali/ ,sa9t-,simon :o attempt$ to classify ! social c>e]s4 ,he r$uces !m to ?ree gr\ps3 indu/rials1 arti/s1 & sci5ti/s 7savants74 ,! mean+ ( ?is classification is ?is3 ! object ( human labor1 accord+ to ,sa9t-,simon1 is ! cultivation ( ! globe--t is to say1 ! greate/ possible production2 b ?is is ! object ( productive labor2 x is :at is call$ indu/ry4 ,n[1 ! cultivation ( nature requires a k ( nature's laws1 namely1 sci5ce4 ,sci5ce & inv5tion are1 !n1 ! two great bran*es ( social activity4 ,accord+ to ,sa9t-,simon1 "w--t is to say1 indu/ry--mu/ take ! place ( w>2 sci5ce1 t ( ! laws4 ,h5ce no w>riors1 no magi/rates2 or1 r1 ! sci5ti/s 7savants7 %\ld be ! true magi/rates4 ,sci5ce & indu/ry1 h[ev]1 hav+ only relation to mat]ial nature1 ,sa9t-,simon ?\ght !re 0 a "p to be giv5 to ! moral ord]1 to ! beautiful or ! good2 h5ce a ?ird class1 :i* he n[ calls arti/s1 n[ morali/s & philosoph]s1 & to :om a sort ( religi\s role is assign$4 ,x w be se5 t ?is !ory is absolutely artificial & utopian1 t x has relation to an imag9>y sy/em1 & n to ! ord] ( ?+s z x is3 x is an +5i\s conception1 b q impracticable4 ,"o ( ! greate/ ( mod]n morali/s1 ! ,g]man philosoph] ,fi*te1 assign$1 9 8 ,practical ,morality1 a "p to ! doctr9e ( pr(essional duties2 & he began by giv+ a !ory ( ! pr(essions m complete & satisfactory ?an any ( ! prec$+ ones4 ,fi*te makes ( ! special pr(essions two great divisions3 #a1 ^? :i* h = _! object ! keep+ up ( mat]ial life2 #b1 ^? :i* h = _! object ! keep+ up ( intellectual & moral life4 ,on ! "o side1 me*anical labor2 on ! o!r1 intellectual & moral labor4 ,! object ( me*anical labor is production1 manufacture1 & ex*ange ( produce2 h5ce ?ree functions3 ^? ( produc]s1 manufactur]s1 & m]*ants4 ,! moral & spiritual labor has also ?ree objects3 #a1 ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice 9 ! ,/ate2 #b1 ! !oretic culture ( intellig5ce2 #c1 ! moral culture ( ! w4 ,h5ce ?ree classes3 #a1 public functions2 #b1 sci5ce & in/ruction2 #c1 ! ,*ur* & ! cl]gy4 ,la/ly1 !re is 9 human nature a faculty :i* s]ves z a l9k betwe5 ! !oretical & ! practical faculties3 x is ! e/hetic s5se2 ! s5se ( ! beautiful2 h5ce a la/ class1 t ( arti/s4 ,?is !ory is m sci5tific ?an t ( ! ,sa9t-,simonians1 b x is /ill some:at defective2 x is n cle>1 = example1 9 a moral po9t ( view1 t !re is a great diff]5ce ( duties betwe5 ! produc]s1 manufactur]s1 & m]*ants3 !y are economical r ?an moral di/9ctions4 ,plato's division is bett]1 :5 he puts ! f>m]s 9 opposition to ! artisans4 ,x is c]ta9 t !re are1 especially 9 ^! days1 int]e/+ moral que/ions1 :i* diff] accord+ z ! workm5 live 9 ! city or 9 ! c\ntry4 ,we !re=e pref] on ?is po9t ,plato's division2 & we w treat1 on ! "o side1 indu/ry & comm]ce1 & on ! o!r agriculture2 & 9 ea* ( ^! divisions we w di/+ui% ^? :o direct or remun]ate ! "w1 namely1 contractors1 ma/]s1 proprietors1 capitali/s 9 "s degree1 & ^? :o "w ) _! h&s & receive wages4 ,9 *>act]iz+ ! second class ( c>e]s1 ^? :i* h moral int]e/s = _! object1 we w aga9 borr[ ( ,plato "o ( ! names ( 8 division1 namely1 ! def5se ( ! ,/ate4 ,z to ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice 9 ! ,/ate1 x is divid$1 z we h already said1 into ?ree p[]s3 ! executive1 legislative1 & judicial p[]s4 ,h5ce ?ree ord]s ( functions3 adm9i/ration1 deputation1 & ! magi/racy1 ) :i* latt] is connect$ ! b>4 ,z to sci5ce1 x is ei!r speculative or practical4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 x only conc]ns ! individual2 we h spok5 ( x "u individual duties 7*4 iv474 ,9 ! second case1 x has = its object application1 & be>s ei!r on ?+s or on m54 ,appli$ to ?+s1 sci5ce is associat$ ) ! indu/ry we h already spok5 (4 ,appli$ to m51 x is m$ic9e1 9 respect to bodies2 morality or religion1 9 respect to he>ts & s\ls4 ,la/ly1 along ) ! sci5ces :i* seek ! true1 !re are ! lett]s & ! arts :i* treat ( & produce ! beautiful4 ,h5ce a la/ class1 namely1 poets1 writ]s1 arti/s4 ,su* is ab\t ! outl9e ( :at a sy/em ( social pr(essions might be4 ,a treatise ( pr(essional morality :i* w\ld be 9 h>mony ) ?is outl9e1 w\ld be all "o sci5ce1 ! elem5ts ( :i* sc>cely exi/1 be+ disp]s$ 9 a multitude ( works1 or r 9 ! practice & int]ior life ( ea* pr(ession4 ,we w cont5t ourselves ) a few g5]al indications4 #ig4 ,i4 ,me*anical & indu/rial pr(essions4--#a4 ,employ]s & employees4--,! pr(essions :i* h = _! object ! mat]ial cultivation ( ! globe1 & p>ticul>ly indu/ry & comm]ce1 are divid$ into two great classes3 #a1 on "o side1 ^? :o1 hav+ capital1 und]take & direct ! works2 #b1 ^? :o execute !m ) _! arms & receive wages4 ,! fir/ are ! employ]s2 ! second ! employees4 ,:at are ! respective duties ( ^! two classes8 #ih4 ,duties ( employ]s4--,! duties ( all ^? :o1 by virtue ( _! capital legitimately acquir$1 or by virtue ( _! intellig5ce1 comm&1 direct & pay = ! "w done by m51 are ! foll[+3 #a4 ,!y %\ld raise ! wages ( ! workm5 z high z ! /ate ( ! m>ket p]mits2 & !y %\ld n wait to be compell$ to x by /rikes or ?reats ( /rikes4 ,conv]sely1 !y %\ld n1 f weakness or want ( =esight1 yield to e ?reat ( ! k9d2 = 9 rais+ ! wages unreasonably high1 "o may disable himself f ent]+ into =eign competition1 or may cause ! ru9 ( ! humbl] manufactur]s :o h n suffici5t capital4 #b4 ,capitali/s1 employ]s & ma/]s %\ld obey /rictly ! laws e/abli%$ = ! protection ( *ildhood4 ,!y %\ld employ ! "w ( m9ors )9 prop] limits1 & accord+ to ! conditions fix$ by ! law4 #c4 ,_! task is n done :5 !y h secur$ to ! workm5 & _! *ildr5 ! %>e ( "w & wages :i* is _! due1 ev5 :5 !y are cont5t to claim no?+ beyond ju/ice4 ,!y h yet to fulfill t[>d _! subord9ates ! duties ( protection & b5evol5ce2 !y mu/ assi/ !m1 relieve !m1 be x 9 accid5ts happ5+ to !m 9 ! "w !y are engag$ 91 or 9 illness4 ,!y mu/ sp>e !m susp5sions ( "w z mu* z possible2 9 %ort1 !y mu/1 ?r\gh all sorts ( e/abli%m5ts--s*ools1 mutual-help societies1 workm5-cities 7cites ouvri]es71 etc4--enc\rage education1 economy1 prop]ty1 yet )\t =c+ ^u !m any?+ t w\ld dim9i% _! own responsibility or impair _! p]sonal dignity4 #ii4 ,duties ( work+m54--,! duties ( work+m5 %\ld correspond to ^? ( ! employ]s4 #a4 ,! work+m5 owe x to !mselves n to *]i% 9 _! he>ts feel+s ( hatr$1 envy1 covet\sness1 & revolt aga9/ ! employ]s4 ,division ( "w requires t 9 indu/rial matt]s "s %\ld direct & o!rs be direct$4 ,mat]ial exploitation requires capital2 & ^? :o br+ ?is capital1 ! fruit ( =m] "w1 are z necess>y to ! work+m5 to utilize _! "w z ^! are to ! fir/ 9 utiliz+ _! capital4 #b4 ,! work+m5 owe _! "w to ! e/abli%m5t :i* pays !m2 x is z mu* _! int]e/ z _! duty4 ,! result ( laz9ess & intemp]ance is mis]y4 ,we _c en\gh deplore ! use ( :at is call$ ! ,mondays--a day ( re/ ov] & beyond ! legitimate & necess>y ,sunday4 ,x is c]ta9 t "o day ( re/ 9 a week is absolutely a necessity4 ,no man c nor ought 7except 9 circum/ances unavoidable7 "w )\t int]ruption ! :ole ye> ?r\gh4 ,b ! week's day ( re/ once secure1 all t is ov] & above t1 is tak5 f :at belongs to ! family & ! provisions aga9/ old age4 #c4 ,suppos+ t1 9 consequ5ce ( ! progress ( indu/ry1 ! numb] ( h\rs ( re/ c\ld be increas$--t1 = example1 ! h\rs ( ! day's "w c\ld be r$uc$--^! h\rs ( re/ %\ld !n be devot$ to ! family1 to ! cultivation ( ! m9d1 & n to ! fatal pleasures ( intoxication4 ,! work+m5 h c]ta9ly a "r to ask1 z f> z !y are wor?y ( x1 equality ( consid]ation & influ5ce 9 society2 & all our mod]n laws are s con/itut$ z to insure !m ?is equality4 ,x re/s ) !m1 !re=e1 to r5d] !mselves wor?y ( ?is new equality by _! morals & _! education4 ,to h _! *ildr5 educat$2 to educate !mselves2 to occupy _! leisure ) family int]e/s1 9 read+1 9 innoc5t & elevat+ recreations 7music1 ! !atre1 g>d5+1 if possible71 x is by all su* pursuits t ! work+m5 w r$uce or entirely remove ! inequality ( mann]s & education :i* may /ill exi/ betwe5 !m & _! sup]iors4 #d4 ,work+m5 _c be blam$ = seek+ to def5d _! int]e/s & increase _! com=ts2 9 s do+ !y only d :at all m5 %\ld d4 ,!y h also ! "r1 9 ord] to get satisfaction1 to atta* to _! "w su* conditions z !y may reasonably desire3 x is ! law ( dem& & supply1 common to all indu/ries4 ,9 %ort1 z an individual refusal to "w is a means absolutely inefficaci\s to br+ ab\t an increase ( wages1 x mu/ be admitt$ t ! work+m5 h a "r to act 9 conc]t & collectively to refuse to "w1 &1 collectively1 to make _! conditions2 h5ce ! "r ( /rikes recogniz$ to-day by ! law4 ,b ?is "r1 grant$ to ! pr9ciple ( ! lib]ty ( "w1 mu/ n be turn$ aga9/ ?is pr9ciple4 ,! work+m5 :o freely refuse to "w %\ld n /& 9 ! way ( ^? :o1 f9d+ _! dem&s ill-f\nd$1 p]si/ 9 cont9u+ to "w "u ! exi/+ conditions4 ,all viol5ce1 all ?reats to =ce into ! /rike him :o is oppos$ !reto1 is an inju/ice & a tyranny4 ,?is viol5ce is condemn$ by law2 b z x is easily disguis$1 x _c always be rea*$2 x is1 !re=e1 ?r\gh ! morals "o mu/ act ^u x--?r\gh p]suasion & education4 ,! workm5 mu/ gradually adopt ! morals ( lib]ty1 mu/ respect ea* o!r4 ,= ! same reason !y %\ld respect wom5's "w2 %\ld n int]dict to _! wives & daught]s ! "r ( improv+ _! condition by "w4 ,unque/ionably x is mu* to be desir$ t woman %\ld become m & m c5tr$ 9 dome/ic duties1 ! c>e ( h] h\sehold & family4 ,?is is h] pr9cipal "p 9 ! social "w4 ,b z long z ! imp]fect condition ( ! labor+ classes does n p]mit ?is /ate ( ?+s1 x may be said t ! workm5 "w aga9/ !mselves 9 try+ to close ! field ( indu/ry to wom54 ,! t5d5cy t[>d ! equality ( wages1 z ! ideal ( ! remun]ation ( "w1 is also to be condemn$4 ,no?+ is m contr>y to ! _s ( ! times1 :i* dem&s t e "o be treat$ accord+ to 8 "w4 ,capacity1 pa9/ak+1 p]sonal ef=ts1 are elem5ts t dem& to be proportionately remun]at$4 ,let u add1 t x is ! duty ( head ma/]s1 9 ! case ( a good w1 succumb+ to physical inability1 to conciliate b5evol5ce & equity ) ju/ice2 ?is1 h[ev]1 is only an exceptional case4 ,b1 z a pr9ciple1 ea* "o %\ld be rew>d$ only = :at he has done4 ,o!rwise !re w\ld be an inducem5t to indiff]5ce & idl5ess4 #ajj4 ,workm5 & f>m]s4--,hav+ consid]$ workm5 9 _! relations ) _! ma/]s1 let u consid] !m n[ on a l9e ) f>m]s2 =1 accord+ z "o lives 9 ! city or 9 ! c\ntry1 !re is a great diff]5ce 9 mann]s1 & consequ5tly 9 duties4 ,! workm5 :o live 9 ! city are = t v reason m apt to acquire new ideas & g5]al in=mation2 !y h _m m means ( educat+ !mselves2 ! v pleasures ( ! city af=d !m opportunities to cultivate _! m9d4 ,besides1 liv+ ne>] to ea* o!r1 !y are m dispos$ to consid] _! common int]e/s & turn !m to acc\nt4 ,h5ce advantages & disadvantages4 ,! advantages are1 ! sup]iority ( intellectual culture1 ! great] aptitude 9 conceiv+ g5]al ideas1 a /rong] int]e/ 9 public affairs2 9 all ^! respects1 city-life pres5ts advantages ov] c\ntry-life4 ,b h5ce also arise great dang]s4 ,! work+m51 q ready to admit g5]al ideas1 b )\t suffici5t in=mation & political exp]i5ce to control !m1 ab&on !mselves readily to utopian prea*+s & in/igations to revolt4 ,fur!r1 v mu* preoccupi$ ) _! common int]e/s1 !y are too mu* dispos$ to ?9k only ( _! own class1 & to =m1 z x 71 a class ap>t 9 society & 9 ! nation4 ,h5ce = ! workm5 a d\ble duty3 #a1 to obta9 en\gh in=mation n to bl9dly foll[ all demagogues2 #b1 to le>n to consid] _! int]e/s z connect$ ) all ^? ( ! o!r classes & pr(essions4 ,f>m]s are indebt$ to ! c\ntry-life = c]ta9 advantages1 :i* c>ry ) !m1 at ! same "t1 c]ta9 disadvantages4 ,! f>m] is g5]ally m atta*$ to social /ability ?an ! m or less %ift+ inhabitants ( ! t[ns2 he ?9ks mu* ( prop]ty2 he does n l to *ange 9 8 mann]s & ideas4 ,he is !reby a p[]ful support to cons]vatism & ! _s ( tradition1 )\t :i* society c\ld n live & la/4 ,he has1 moreov]1 _h till n[ ! great m]it ( n s+l+ himself out1 ( n sep>at+ 8 int]e/s f ^? ( ! c\ntry 9 g5]al4 ,?us1 on ^! two po9ts--opposition to utopias1 pres]vation ( social unity--! c\ntryman s]ves z a c\nt]poise to all ! opposite t5d5cies 9 ! workm54 ,b ^! v qualities are1 p]haps1 ! result ( c]ta9 defects3 namely1 ! abs5ce ( in=mation & enlight5m5t4 ,! c\ntryman sees n v mu* beyond 8 *ur*-/eeple2 mat]ial life occupies & absorbs him :olly2 individual & p]sonal int]e/s are absolutely pr$om9ant 9 him4 ,he is b little dispos$ to give 8 *ildr5 any education2 & he is dispos$ to look ^u !m z s _m in/rum5ts ( "w less exp5sive ?an o!rs4 ,! idea ( a g5]al c\ntry1 g5]al int]e/s surpass+ private int]e/s1 is m or less want+ 9 him4 ,:at x is necess>y to p]suade ! c\ntryman (1 is ! usefulness ( education4 ,he %\ld be inspir$ ) a ta/e = lib]ty1 :i* is a security to him & 8 family1 z well z to all ! o!r classes ( society4 ,! workman 9 becom+ bett] in=m$1 ! f>m] m in=m$1 !y w gradually bl5d ) ! middle classes1 & !re w !n be no long] ^? oppositions ( classes & int]e/s s dang]\s at ! pres5t day4 7,see ,app5dix47 #aja4 ,,ii4 ,milit>y duties4--,we h already consid]$ milit>y duties1 z ! duty ( citiz5s t[>d ! ,/ate2 we h n[ to consid] "h milit>y duties 9 !mselves1 z special duties1 peculi> to a c]ta9 class ( citiz5s1 to a c]ta9 social pr(ession4 #a4 ,x is useless to say t ! peculi> virtue & special duty ( ! milit>y class is c\rage4 ,we h b to ref] ! read] to :at w be said fur!r on 7*4 xiv47 t\*+ ! virtue ( c\rage1 9 reg>d to ! duties ( man t[>d himself4 #b4 ,patriotism is a duty ( all classes & all pr(essions2 b x is p>ticul>ly "o ) ^? :o are commission$ to def5d ! c\ntry3 x is1 !re=e1 ! milit>y virtue p> excell5ce4 #c4 ,fidelity to ! flag4--,?is duty is impli$ 9 ! two prec$+ ones4 ,! duty ( c\rage1 9 fact1 implies t "o %\ld n flee be=e ! enemy3 x is ! crime ( des]tion2 t "o %\ld n pass ov] to ! enemy3 x is ! crime ( defection or treason4 ,?is latt] crime has become v r>e1 & has ev5 :olly disappe>$ 9 mod]n ,france4 ,=m]ly !re 0 se5 a ,conde1 ! great ,conde fight+ aga9/ ! ,fr5* at ! head ( ,spani% troops2 & s great a fault sc>cely injur$ 8 reputation2 9 our days1 a simple suspicion1 & t an unju/ "o1 black5$ ! :ole life ( a ,m>%al ( ,france4#ff #d4 ,ob$i5ce & discipl9e4 7,see above1 ,duties t[>d ! ,/ate1 prec$+ *apt]47 #ajb4 ,,iii4 ,public functions--,adm9i/ration--,deputation--, magi/racy--,! ,b>4--,! public functions are ! div]s acts :i* compose ! gov]nm5t ( a ,/ate4 ,we ev5 include ! elective functions 7deputation1 g5]al c\ncils1 t[n c\ncils1 etc471 because1 :il/ !y h _! orig9 9 election1 !y are1 nev]!less1 functions1 ! purpose ( :i* is ! common weal1 public int]e/s4 ,= ! same reason1 ?\gh ! b> is a free pr(ession1 x is s connect$ ) magi/racy1 x is s necess>y a dep5d5cy ( ! judicial p[]1 t x is !reby itself a sort ( public p[]4 #ajc4 ,function>ies4--,we call function>ies1 m p>ticul>ly1 ^? :o take "p 9 ! adm9i/ration ( ! c\ntry & ! execution ( its laws4 ,?is admitt$1 ! pr9cipal duties ( function>ies are3 #a4 ,! ,k ( ! laws !y are commission$ to execute4 ,p[] is only legitimate z f> z x is gu>ante$ by compet5cy4 ,ignorance 9 public functions has = its results inju/ice1 s9ce arbitr>9ess takes !n ! place ( ! law2 adm9i/rative disord]1 s9ce ! law has precisely = its object to e/abli% rules & ma9ta9 traditions2 neglig5ce1 s9ce ignorant ( ! pr9ciples by :i* affairs ought to be settl$1 conclusions are kept (f z mu* z possible4 ,b "o mu/ n def] obta9+ adm9i/rative in=mation till call$ to take a %>e 9 ! adm9i/ration4 ,a g5]al in=mation %\ld be acquir$ be=eh&2 =1 once engag$ 9 adm9i/rative affairs1 !re is !n no long] "t to acquire x4 ,to g to "w is1 !re=e1 ! fir/ duty ( ^? :o w\ld be prep>$ = public functions2 & ?is duty ( "w cont9ues ) ! functions2 = aft] g5]al in=mation has be5 obta9$1 comes ! special & te*nical in=mation1 :]e !re is always some?+ new to le>n4 #b4 ,! second duty ( function>ies ( any degree1 is exactitude & assiduity4 ,! mo/ brilliant qualities1 & ! l>ge/ & ample/ m9d = public affairs1 w r5d] b ineffici5t s]vice--at any rate1 a s]vice v inf]ior to :at c\ld be expect$ ( !m1 if ^! qualities are c\nt]balanc$ & p>alyz$ by neglig5ce1 laz9ess1 disord]1 inexactness4 ,"o mu/ n =get t all neglig5ce 9 public affairs is a d5ial ( ju/ice to "s "o4 ,an adm9i/rative decision1 :atev] x be1 has always = its result to satisfy ! j1 or to d5y ! unju/1 claims ( "s "o4 ,to ret>d a case ?r\gh neglig5ce1 may !re=e deprive "s "o ( :at he has a "r to4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 necess>y delays :i* arise f ! complication ( affairs1 & ord] itself requires t ev]y?+ come 9 "t2 b delays occasion$ by our own fault are a wrong t[>d o!rs4 #c4 ,integrity & discretion are also among ! mo/ important duties ( function>ies4 ,! fir/ be>s especially ^u :at conc]ns f9ances2 b !re are ev]y:]e m or less opportunities to fail 9 probity4 ,= example1 !re is no?+ m %ameful ?an to sell "o's influ5ce2 ?is is :at is call$ extortion4 ,an adm9i/rator giv5 to extortion is ! %ame & ru9 ( ! ,/ate4 ,z to discretion1 x is aga9 a duty :i* dep5ds on ! nature ( ?+s4 ,x is especially obligatory :5 p]sons are 9 "q1 & /ill m s 9 c]ta9 c>e]s--z1 = example1 9 diplomacy4 #d4 ,ju/ice4--,! /rict duty ( e adm9i/rator or function>y1 is to h no o!r rule ?an ! law2 to avoid arbitr>9ess & favor1 to h no reg>d to p]sons4 ,?is duty1 x mu/ be said1 :il/ x is ! mo/ necess>y1 is also ! mo/ difficult to ex]cise1 & "o :i* requires mo/ c\rage & w4 ,public op9ion1 un=tunately1 enc\rages 9 ?is respect1 ! weaknesses ( (ficials2 x is conv9c$1 & spreads ev]y:]e ?is conviction1 t all is due to favoritism1 t x is n ! mo/ des]v+ t succe$1 b ! be/ recomm5d$4 ,ev]ybody compla9s ( x1 & ev]ybody helps t[>d x4 ,!re is unque/ionably mu* exagg]ation 9 ^! compla9ts4 ,favor is n ev]y?+ 9 ?is _w4 ,x is too mu* ! int]e/ ( adm9i/rators t !y %\ld h indu/ri\s & intellig5t assi/ants1 & t !y %\ld employ e means to *oose !m well2 & 9 public affairs1 ! int]e/s ( ! common weal always pr$om9ate 9 ! end4 ,x is1 nev]!less1 an evil t s unfavorable a prejudice %\ld exi/2 & x is absolutely a duty ) function>ies to uproot x1 9 %[+ x to be false4 #ajd4 ,elective functions--,deputation--,elective c\ncils4--,!re is a :ole class ( function>ies1 if x be p]mitt$ to say s1 :o owe _! orig9 to election1 & :o are ! m&at>ies ( ! p1 ei!r 9 municipal c\ncils1 or 9 g5]al c\ncils1 or 9 ! great elective bodies ( ! ,/ate1 ! ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 7,see ,civil in/ruction47 ,! pr9ciple ( ! sov]eignty ( ! p requires t = all its int]e/s1 communal1 dep>tm5tal or national1 ! c\ntry h a delib]ative voice by means ( its repres5tatives4 ,! duties ( ^! m&at>ies are g5]ally ! same 9 any degree ( rank4 #a4 ,fidelity to ! m&ate4--,! repres5tative is ! int]pret] ( c]ta9 op9ions1 ( c]ta9 t5d5cies1 & al?\gh ! majority :i* h elect$ him comprise v div]se elem5ts1 !re exi/s an av]age ( op9ions1 & x is ?is av]age :i* ! deputy repres5ts1 or %\ld repres5t4 ,he w\ld1 !re=e1 fail 9 8 duty if1 once elect$1 he pass$ ov] to 8 oppon5ts1 or1 if wi%+ to d s1 he did n t5d] 8 resignation4 ,h[ev]1 ?is fidelity to ! m&ate %\ld n be c>ri$ s f> z to accept :at is call$ ! imp]ative m&ate1 :i* is ! negation ( all lib]ty 9 ! repres5tative1 & makes ( him a simple vot+ ma*9e4 ,! repres5tative is a repres5tative precisely because he is emp[]$1 on 8 own responsibility1 to f9d ! be/ means to c>ry out ! wi%es ( 8 con/itu5ts4 #b4 ,indep5d5ce4--,! deputy1 s5ator1 municipal1 or dep>tm5tal (fic] %\ld be indep5d5t bo? 9 reg>d to ! au?orities & 9 reg>d to ! electors4 ,f ! au?orities he %\ld receive no favors2 he %\ld n sell 8 vote 9 any int]e/ :atsoev]2 f ! electors he has to receive advice only1 b no ord]s4 ,outside _! (fice z electors1 ! electors are no?+ b simple individuals4 ,z su* !y may try to influ5ce repres5tatives1 b !y h o!rwise no o!r title be=e ! repres5tatives ( ! electoral corps4 ,! repres5tative %\ld1 above all1 avoid mak+ himself ! s]vant ( ! electors1 = ! satisfaction ( _! private int]e/s & passions4 ,x is (t5 ?\ght t indep5d5ce only consi/s 9 resi/+ c\rts & pr9ces2 !re is no less indep5d5ce1 & sometimes ev5 is !re m m]it & c\rage requir$ to resi/ ! tyranny ( ! masses1 & especially t ( popul> lead]s4 ,! deputy %\ld1 we h said1 be fai?ful to 8 tru/--t is to say1 to ! g5]al l9e ( politics adopt$ by ! political p>ty to :i* he belongs2 b )9 ^! g5]al limits x is = him to assume ! responsibility1 = x is = ?is v reason t he is elect$ a repres5tative4 ,let u1 moreov]1 add t fidelity to op9ions %\ld n deg5]ate into p>ty _s1 & t !re is an int]e/ :i* %\ld sup]s$e all o!rs1 namely1 ! int]e/ ( ! c\ntry4 #c4 ,! _s ( conciliation & ! _s ( discipl9e4--,political lib]ty1 m ?an any o!r political pr9ciple1 requires ! _s ( concession4 ,if ea*1 inde$1 =tifies himself 9 8 own op9ions1 )\t ev] mak+ a concession1 all hav+ ! "r to d ! same1 x is evid5t t no common conclusion c be arriv$ at4 ,! consequ5ce ( ! lib]um veto1#fg pu%$ to excess1 is p>alysis ( p[] or an>*y4 ,no?+ is done2 & 9 politics1 :5 no?+ is done1 all becomes disorganiz$1 dissolv$4 ,x is1 !re=e1 necess>y t :il/ pres]v+ _! indep5d5ce1 ! repres5tatives s5t =? by ! electors %\ld endeavor to r5d] gov]nm5t possible2 !y %\ld n ov]/ep ! limits ( _! tru/ by conf\nd+ legislative p[] ) executive p[]2 !y %\ld try to h>monize ) ! o!r bodies ( ! ,/ate--9 %ort1 !y ought ea* to sacrifice ! necess>y am\nt ( _! individual op9ion to br+ ab\t a common op9ion4 ,9 a free gov]nm5t x is no m a duty to belong to ! majority ?an to ! opposition1 s9ce ! opposition may1 9 its turn1 become majority2 b :e!r belong+ to ! "o or to ! o!r1 ! repres5tative %\ld subord9ate 8 p>ticul> views to ! common int]e/2 o!rwise ! p>ties scatt]1 :i*1 9 ! long run1 c only be pr(itable to despotism4 #aje4 ,judicial p[]4--,! magi/racy & ! b>4--,! judicial p[] is ex]cis$ by magi/rates call$ judges3 x is !y :o decide ab\t qu>rels betwe5 individuals3 ?is is :at is call$ civil ju/ice2 !y also decide ab\t ! puni%m5ts inflict$ on crim9als :o h made attempts ^u a life or prop]ty2 & ?is is p5al ju/ice4 ,! duties ( ! magi/rate are easily d$uc$ f ^! obligations4 #a4 ,imp>tiality & neutrality4--,! judge mu/ necess>ily rema9 neutral among all p>ties2 he %\ld h no reg>d to p]sons1 %\ld r5d] equal ju/ice to ! ri* & to ! poor1 to ! high & to ! l[4 ,equality be=e ! law1 :i* is "o ( ! pr9ciples ( our mod]n in/itutions1 %\ld n only be a pr9ciple 9 ! ab/ract2 x %\ld also be a practical pr9ciple1 & be br\ght be=e ! eyes ( ! judges z "o among ! fir/ ( _! obligations4 #b4 ,integrity & dis9t]e/$ness4--,no less /rict a duty = ! judges1 & :i* x is sc>cely necess>y to po9t out1 is integrity4 ,! magi/rate %\ld be free f all suspicion ( v5ality4 ,"u ! old regime1 z may be se5 9 ,rac9e's com$y ( ,! ,plead]s1 ! judges 7 n always free f su* suspicion4 ,( c\rse1 x is b a com$y2 b su* a com$y c\ld no long] be writt5 n[adays2 x w\ld no long] be und]/ood2 our morals are too mu* improv$ = t4 ,! obligation %\ld1 nev]!less1 be po9t$ out4 #c4 ,imp>tiality & integrity conc]n above all civil ju/ice4 ,! duty :i* m especially conc]ns crim9al ju/ice1 is equity2 namely1 a mod]ate ju/ice1 int]m$i>y betwe5 a dang]\s l5ity & an excessive sev]ity4 ,9 tru?1 9 mo/ cases1 at lea/ 9 ! grav] cases1 ! judge has sc>cely any?+ m to d ?an to apply ! law4 ,x is = ! jury1 a sort ( free & irresponsible magi/racy1 to decide ^u ! culpability or innoc5ce ( ! prison]s4 ,x is = ! jury to f9d a j m$ium betwe5 h>%ness & l5ity4 ,b ! juryman :o1 above all1 judges z a man1 & (t5 recoils f responsibility1 %\ld fe> ! excess ( l5ity3 ! judge1 on ! contr>y1 accu/om$ to repression1 & above all preoccupi$ ) ! int]e/s ( society1 %\ld r def5d himself aga9/ excess ( rigor & sev]ity4 #d4 ,k4--,:at is = mo/ m5 b a luxury1 becomes 9 su* or su* a pr(ession a /rict duty4 ,! k ( ! laws1 = example1 is1 = ! magi/rate1 z ! k ( ! human body = ! physician1 a /rict obligation4 ,he :o wi%es to ent] ! magi/racy1 %\ld !re=e c>ry ! /udy ( ! law z f> z 8 y\? p]mits x2 b he %\ld n /op 8 /udies ! mom5t he has ent]$ ^u 8 c>e]4 ,he has always some?+ to le>n2 he %\ld keep himself in=m$ ( ! progress jurisprud5ce is mak+4 ,x is useless to say t1 indep5d5tly ( ?is g5]al "w1 ! special & ?or\gh /udy ( ea* case br\ght be=e him is = ! judge a duty /ill m /rict4 ,alongside ( ! magi/racy1 & co-op]at+ ) x1 is plac$ ! b>1 :i* is *>g$ ) ! def5se ( private int]e/s f a civil or crim9al po9t ( view4 ,f a civil po9t ( view1 ! trial is betwe5 two citiz5s1 ea* claim+ 8 "r 9 ! case2 !y are :at is call$ plead]s1 & ! trial itself is call$ a law-suit4 ,! plead]s1 n kn[+ ! laws1 ne$ an int]m$i>y to expla9 & def5d _! cause1 br+ x cle>ly to ! compreh5sion ( ! magi/rates & en=ce its reasons4 ,?is is ! "p ( ! lawy]s4 ,f a crim9al po9t ( view1 ! trial is n betwe5 two individuals2 b betwe5 society & ! crim9al4 ,society1 to def5d itself1 employs :at is call$ a public prosecutor2 ! crim9al ne$s a c\nsel4 ,! "p ( a c\nsel belongs aga9 to ! lawy]s4 ,! duties ( lawy]s are v>i$ accord+ z ! cases are civil or crim9al cases4 ,9 civil law-suits1 ! absolute duty is ! foll[+3 n to take up bad cases4 ,only x is necess>y to und]/& well ?is pr9ciple4 ,x is g5]ally believ$ t a bad case is ! los+ "o1 & a good case ! w9n+ "o4 ,?us w\ld !re 9 e law-suit be a lawy] :o fail$ 9 8 duty3 ! "o1 namely1 :o lo/ ! case4 ,?is is a false idea1 :i* v unju/ly ?r[s 9 _m m9ds discr$it ^u ! pr(ession ( ! law4 ,c]ta9ly !re are cases :]e ! law is s cle>1 jurisprud5ce s e/abli%$1 ! morality s evid5t & imp]i\s1 t a suit hav+ ! ?ree aga9/ itself1 may be call$ a bad case2 & ! lawy] :o c all[ 8 cli5t to believe ! suit def5sible1 & :o employs 8 skill & eloqu5ce 9 def5d+ x1 fails 9 8 pr(essional duty4 ,b ?is is n g5]ally ! case4 ,9 mo/ cases1 x is v difficult to tell be=eh& :o is "r1 :o wrong1 & precisely because x is difficult1 are !re judges ^: prop] function x is to decide4 ,n[1 9 ord] t ! judge may decide1 he mu/ be acqua9t$ ) all ! details ( ! case2 all possible reasons f bo? sides mu/ be laid be=e him4 ,ev]ybody kn[s t "o c nev] ( "o's own acc\nt f9d 9 favor ( a solution or conclusion1 all ! reasons :i* ! int]e/$ p>ty c2 n[1 x is j t ^! reasons be set =?3 ?is is ! bus9ess ( ! lawy]s4 ,"o mu/ n =get t 9 e law-suit !re is a pro & a con4 ,x is = ?is v reason !re is a suit4 ,! lawy]s are specially "h to plead = ! pro & con1 ea* f 8 own /&po9t4 ,"o c\ld v well und]/&1 = example1 t ! c\rt %\ld h at its disposal function>ies commission$ to prep>e ! cases & plead = ! cont5d+ p>ties3 "o w\ld take up ,pet]'s cause1 ! o!r1 ,paul's2 ?is is j ! "p ( ! lawy]s1 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t ! *oice ( ! lawy] is left to ! cli5t1 because x is b j t a deputy be *os5 by him he is suppos$ to repres5t4 ,9 crim9al cases !re are equally v delicate que/ions4 ,h[ c a lawy] def5d z innoc5t "o :o is guilty8 ,7 x n an actual lie8 ,& yet society does n all[ t any accus$1 :oev] he be1 be left )\t c\nsel2 & :5 none pres5t !mselves1 x provides "o1 *>g+ him to save ! life ( ! accus$ if he c4 ,x is ! int]e/ ( society t no innoc5t p]son be condemn$1 & t ev5 ! guilty %\ld n be puni%$ beyond :at he des]ves2 9 %ort1 x takes c>e t all ! reasons t c be br\ght =? to att5uate ! gravity ( an (f5se be well weigh$1 & ev5 set =? 9 a mann] to ar\se pity & sympa?y4 ,su* is ! bus9ess ( ! lawy]s4 ,x is evid5t t ^! consid]ations1 :i* %[ ! lawy]'s pr(ession to be "o s legitimate & exalt$1 %\ld n be improp]ly und]/ood4 ,^! g5]al rules mu/ be int]pret$ ) delicacy ( feel+ & consci5ce4 #ajf4 ,,iv4 ,sci5ce--,tea*+--,m$ic9e--,! lett]s & arts4--,beside ! social p[]s :i* make1 execute & apply ! laws1 !re is sci5ce1 :i* in/ructs m51 enlight5s !m1 directs _! "w1 & :i* ev51 sett+ utility aside1 is yet 9 itself an object ( dis9t]e/$ rese>*4 ,side by side ) ! sci5ces are ! lett]s & arts1 :i* pursue & express ! beautiful1 z sci5ce pursues ! true4 ,f9ally1 to sci5ce & art are add$ morality & religion1 ^: object is ! good4 ,! morali/s1 x is true1 d n con/itute a p>ticul> pr(ession 9 society1 or at lea/ _! "p is bl5d$ ) tea*+ 9 g5]al2 religion has its int]pret]s1 :o f9d 9 _! dogmas & traditions ! rules ( _! duties4 ,x is n ! bus9ess ( lay morality to tea* ^!4 ,let u1 !re=e1 cont5t ourselves ) a few pr9ciples conc]n+ ! sci5ces & lett]s4 #ajg4 ,sci5ce--,duties ( ,sci5ti/s4--,sci5ce may be cultivat$ 9 two diff]5t ways & f two diff]5t /&po9ts3 #a1 = itself2 #b1 = its social advantages--= ! s]vices x r5d]s to m54 ,!re is b a small numb] ( m5 :o h a natural ta/e = pure sci5ce1 & ! leisure to give !mselves up to ! love ( x2 b ^? :o *oose su* a life contract !reby c]ta9 duties4 ,! fir/ ( all is ! love ( tru?4 ,! only object = ! sci5ti/ to pursue is tru?4 ,he mu/1 !re=e1 lay aside all int]e/s & passions antagoni/ic to tru?2 &1 above all1 p]sonal int]e/ :i* incl9es "o to pref] "o !me to ano!r1 because ( ! advantages x may br+2 ?is is1 h[ev]1 s gross a motive1 t x w\ld n be suppos$ to exi/ ) a true s*ol>2 yet are !re o!r causes ( error no less dang]\s--= example1 ! int]e/ ( a cause--( a conviction :i* is de> to u2 ! int]e/ ( our self-love1 :i* makes u p]si/ 9 error kn[n to be su*2 ! _s ( sy/em1 by :i* "o %[s 8 peculi> =te1 etc4 ,all ^! passions %\ld give way be=e ! pure love ( tru?4 #ajh4 ,! communication ( sci5ce--,tea*+4--,! pr9cipal duty ( ^? :o are possess$ ( sci5ce is to communicate x to o!r m54 ,c]ta9ly1 all m5 are n call$ to be s*ol>s2 b all %\ld 9 "s degree h _! intellig5ce cultivat$ by in/ruction4 ,h5ce ! duty ( tea*+ impos$ ^u s*ol>s2 b ?is duty br+s ) x _m o!rs4 #a4 ,! ma/]s :o tea* o!rs %\ld !mselves fir/ be educat$4 ,h5ce ! duty ( intellectual "w1 n m]ely to acquire k1 )\t :i* "o _c be a tea*]1 b to pres]ve & increase x4 ,! tea*] %\ld1 !re=e1 set an example to 8 pupil ( assidu\s & cont9u\s intellectual "w4 #b4 ,! tea*] %\ld love 8 pupils--*ildr51 if he is call$ ^u to tea* *ildr52 "y m51 if he is to address "y m54 ,! tea*] %\ld n only ?9k ( ! sci5ce he tea*es1 b ( ! fruits 8 pupils are to reap f x2 "o c only be int]e/$ 9 :at he loves4 ,a tea*] indiff]5t t[>d ! "y1 w nev] make ! necess>y ef=t to lead & educate !m4 #c4 ,! tea*]1 9 tea*+1 %\ld unite 9 a j measure discipl9e & lib]ty4 ,in/ruction naturally presupposes "o t kn[s & "o t does n "k2 & x is necess>y t ! "o %\ld direct ! o!r2 h5ce ! necessity ( discipl9e4 ,b ! purpose ( in/ruction is to tea* to d )\t ! ma/]--to be "o's own ma/] 9 ?\ght & conduct2 h5ce ! necessity ( lib]ty4 ,?is lib]ty %\ld gr[ along ) ! in/ruction1 &1 ( c\rse1 proportionately to age2 b1 at any age1 "o %\ld take advantage ( ! faculties ( a *ild1 & make x z mu* z possible f9d out by itself :at is )9 its rea*4 #d4 ,! tea*] %\ld n sep>ate in/ruction f education4 ,he %\ld n only communicate k--he %\ld above all =m m51 *>act]s1 wills4 ,in/ruction is1 besides1 already 9 itself an education4 ,c "o in/ruct )\t accu/om+ "y m9ds to "w1 to ob$i5ce1 to correct habits ( ?\ght2 )\t putt+ into _! h&s good books2 )\t giv+ !m good examples8 ,x is mo/ true t "o does n =m m5 ) pure & ab/ract sci5ce alone1--x is necess>y to add ! lett]s1 hi/ory1 morality1 religion4 ,! tea*]1 besides1 %\ld /udy ! "* ( 8 pupils1 %\ld1 ?r\gh "w & moral & physical ex]cises1 put d[n presumption1 correct unmanl9ess1 combat selfi%ness1 anticipate or re/ra9 ! passions4 #aji4 ,appli$ sci5ce--,indu/ry--,m$ic9e4--,sci5ce may f9d its application 9 two ways1 ei!r to ?+s1 or to m54 ,appli$ to ?+s1 x is call$ indu/ry2 appli$ to m51 m$ic9e4 ,!re are no special duties conc]n+ indu/rial pursuits4 ,eng9e]s1 private or 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,/ate1 employ$ 9 civil or milit>y works1 h no o!r duties !n ! g5]al duties ( function>ies1 milit>y-m51 employees1 etc4 ,x is n ! same ) m$ic9e4 ,!re are "h obligations ( a special & grav] nature4 #aaj4 ,duties ( ! physician--,8 k4--,k is an obligation 9 e pr(ession2 ev]y:]e x is indisp5sable to "k ! ?+ "o is engag$ 92 b1 9 m$ic9e1 ignorance is ( a mu* m s]i\s "*3 = x may end 9 manslaught]4 ,h[ c any "o att5d ! sick if he kn[s no?+ ( ! human body2 if he is ignorant ( ! symptoms ( a disease8 ,he has1 x is true1 ! res\rce ( do+ no?+2 b might n ?is also be manslaught]8 ,does he n !n take ! place ( him :o kn[s & might save ! pati5t8 #b4 ,secrecy4--,! physician is above all held to secrecy4 ,he mu/ n make kn[n ! diseases :i* h be5 reveal$ to him4 ,?is is :at is call$ m$ical secrecy4 ,?is obligation may 9 c]ta9 cases give rise to ! mo/ s]i\s tr\bles ( consci5ce2 b1 z a pr9ciple1 x may be said t secrecy is z absolute a duty = ! physician z x is = ! fa!r-confessor4 #c4 ,c\rage4--,! physician1 we h se51 has 8 po9t d'honneur1 l ! milit>y-man2 he (t5 runs equally great dang]s3 he mu/1 if necess>y1 devote himself & risk 8 life4 ,he requires also a great moral c\rage1 :5 he is br\ght be=e a s]i\s illness :]e1 at ! mom5t ( a dang]\s op]ation1 :5 8 h& mu/ be z firm z 8 m9d1 he ne$s all ! self-possession he c comm&4 #d4 ,duties t[>d ! sick3 ,k9dness & sev]ity4--,! physician %\ld be firm 9 ! treatm5t ( 8 pati5ts2 he %\ld insi/ t 8 prescriptions be unconditionally foll[$1 = 8 responsibility re/s on ?is3 he %\ld r give up ! case ?an cons5t to a dang]\s disob$i5ce4 ,at ! same "t he mu/ enc\rage ! pati5t1 raise 8 /r5g? by inspir+ him ) confid5ce1 :i* is half ! cure4 ,he mu/ also1 )\t deceiv+ x1 uphold ! c\rage ( ! family4 ,9 "s cases x may be necess>y to tell ! pati5t ! dang] he is 94 #aaa4 ,writ]s & arti/s4--,! morality ( writ]s & arti/s is1 z 9 all ! prec$+ cases1 det]m9$ by ! object ^! p]sons devote _! lives to4 ,! object ( ! writ] & arti/ is ! realization ( ! beautiful1 ei!r 9 spee* or writ+ 7lit]ature71 or ?r\gh color & l9es 7pa9t+1 sculpture71 or ?r\gh s\nd 7music74 ,9 all ^! arts1 ! lead+ ?\ght %\ld be ! int]e/s ( ! art "o is cultivat+4 ,"o %\ld z mu* z possible bew>e turn+ x into a trade--t is to say1 into a m]c5>y art1 hav+ ga9 only = its object4 ,c]ta9ly "o mu/ live1 & x is r>e t writ]s1 poets1 arti/s1 h at _! comm& res\rces en\gh to d )\t ! pecuni>y fruit ( p5 or h&2 b ! atta9m5t ( ! beautiful %\ld be pref]r$ to t ( ! useful3 /udy1 ! imitation ( ! great ma/]s1 contempt = fa%ion1 /riv+ aft] all t is delicate1 noble1 pure1 ! avoid+ ( all t is l[1 frivol\s1 factiti\s3 su* are ! pr9ciples :i* %\ld regulate ! morality ( arti/ & writ]4 ,x is useless to add t !y %\ld seek _! success 9 :at elevates ! s\l1 & n 9 :at corrupts & degrades x4 ,co>s5ess1 brutality1 lic5se1 %\ld be absolutely condemn$4 ,bett] to devote "o's self to a useful & humble pr(ession ?an employ "o's tal5t 9 deprav+ morals1 & degrad+ s\ls4 ,! duties ( ! poet h be5 eloqu5tly express$ by ,boileau 9 8 ,art poetique4 #a4 ,x is a duty to devote "o's self to poetry & ! f9e arts only :5 "o has a decid$ vocation = !m4 ,be r a mason1 if t be y\r tal5t4 #b4 ,! poet %\ld li/5 to good advice4 ,make *oice ( a solid & :olesome c5sor4 #c4 ,! poet & arti/ %\ld1 9 _! v]ses & works1 be ! int]pret]s ( virtue4 ,let y\r s\l & y\r morals1 depict$ 9 y\r works1 ,nev] pres5t ( y b noble images4 ,love1 !n1 virtue2 n\ri% y\r s\l !re)4 ,! v]se always savors ( ! bas5ess ( ! he>t4 #d4 ,!y mu/ avoid jeal\sies & rivalries4 ,flee1 above all1 flee base jeal\sies4 #e4 ,!y mu/ pref] glory to ga94 ,"w = glory & let no sordid ga9 ,ev] be ! object ( a noble writ]4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,duties ,,( ,,nations ,,among ,,!mselves--,,int]national ,,law4 ,,summ>y4 ,g5]al pr9ciples ( int]national law4--,!y are ! pr9ciples ( ! natural law appli$ to ! relations nations su/a9 to ea* o!r4 ,( w>4--,w> f\nd$ on ! "r ( self-def5se4 ,! reasons = a j w>4 ,def5sive & (f5sive w>s4--,?is division does n necess>ily correspond to t ( j or unju/ w>s4--,precautions & prep>ations4--,duties 9 times ( w>3 to reconcile z mu* z possible ! rights ( humanity ) ^? ( patriotism4--,rights ( w> conc]n+ ! enemy's prop]ty4--,conque/4--,neutrality4 ,int]national treaties3 _! "*2 _! =ms2 _! diff]5t species4--,ess5tial conditions = public treaties3 !y are ! same z = private contracts4 ,obs]vance ( treaties4--,obligatory "* ( treaties3 te/imony ( ,c>d9al ,ri*elieu4 ,! human race be+ divid$ into div]s p>ticul> societies call$ ,/ates or nations1 ^? diff]5t bodies /& t[>d ea* o!r z individuals2 !y are subject to ! primitive laws exi/+ naturally among all m51 & !y are oblig$ to practice c]ta9 duties t[>d ea* o!r4 #aab4 ,int]national law4--,g5]al pr9ciples4--,x is ?is body ( laws :i* is call$ int]national law1 & :i* is no?+ m ?an ! natural law itself1 or ! moral law appli$ to nations4 ,x is by virtue ( ?is natural law t ! nations ought to consid] ea* o!r equals1 & indep5d5t ( ea* o!r2 t !y %\ld n injure ea* o!r1 & %\ld make ea* o!r1 on ! contr>y1 rep>ation = injury done4 ,h5ce ! "r ( self-def5se 9 case ( attack1 ( repell+ & re/ra9+ by =ce :atev] viol5ce may ?reat5 or oppress !m4 ,:5 nations practice t[>d ea* o!r ! prescriptions ( ! natural law1 !y are 9 a /ate ( peace ) ea* o!r2 :5 !y are oblig$ to resort to =ce to repel inju/ice1 !y are 9 a /ate ( w>4 #aac4 ,w>4--,x is evid5t t 9 all nations ! rul]1 :oev] he be 7! p1 nobles1 or k+71 ought to h ! "r to c>ry on w>2 = x is no?+ else ?an ! "r ( self-def5se1 & ?is "r is ! same = ! nation z = individuals4 ,w> is1 !n1 legitimate 9 pr9ciple2 b 9 fact1 x may be j or unju/ accord+ z x takes place = good or bad reasons1 & sometimes = no reason at all4 #aad4 ,reasons ( a j w>4--,x is n easy to say 9 advance & 9 a g5]al mann]1 :at may be ! reasons ( a j w>2 = !y v>y accord+ to circum/ances2 !y may be all r$uc$ to "o fundam5tal pr9ciple1 namely1 ! def5se ( ! national t]ritory :5 ?reat5$4 ,moreov]1 a w> may be und]tak5 n only 9 self-def5se1 b to protect allies :5 !y are unju/ly attack$4 ,z = ! foll[+ reasons1 m or less frequ5tly alleg$ z pretexts = w>1 good morality _c ju/ify !m3 #a4 ,?us1 ! fe> ( ! p[]ful neighbor1 giv+1 = example1 z a pretext t he erects new citadels on 8 l&s1 organizes an army1 increases 8 troops1 etc41 is n a suffici5tly j reason = w>4 #b4 ,utility does n give ! same "r z necessity3 = example1 arms c\ld n legitimately be resort$ to 9 ord] to ga9 possession ( a place :i* might suit our conv5i5ce1 & be prop] to protect our fronti]s4 #c4 ,! same may be said ( ! desire to *ange dwell+-place1 to leave m>%es1 des]ts1 9 ord] to settle 9 a m f]tile c\ntry4 #d4 ,x is no less unju/ to make attempt ^u ! rights & lib]ties ( a p "u pretext t !y are less intellig5t or less civiliz$ ?an we are4 ,! cause ( civilization is1 !n1 n a cause = j w> s long z we h n ourselves be5 attack$ by b>b>ians4 #e4 ,nor is x j to conqu] a p "u pretext t our conque/ may be to its advantage1 br+ x ri*es1 or lib]ty1 or morality1 etc4 #aae4 ,def5sive & (f5sive w>s4--,we di/+ui% two k9ds ( w>1 def5sive & (f5sive4 ,! fir/ consi/s 9 def5d+ ! national t]ritory1 ! second1 9 attack+ ! enemy's t]ritory4 ,x w\ld be a mi/ake to conf\nd def5sive & (f5sive w>s ) j & unju/ w>s1 & to believe t only ! def5sive w>s are j1 & all (f5sive ones unju/4 ,?is di/9ction has no?+ to d ) ! causes ( ! w>1 b conc]ns ! mann] ( engag+ 9 x2 sometimes "o's int]e/ lies 9 all[+ "o's self to be attack$1 sometimes 9 attack+4 ,he :o has done u inju/ice may v well wait = u to come to him1 in/ead ( c>ry+ arms to u2 ?is does n prove him to be 9 ! "r4 ,he :o1 on ! contr>y1 takes up arms to obta9 rep>ation = an inju/ice or an insult1 does n prove !reby t he is 9 ! wrong4 #aaf4 ,precautions & prep>ations4--,ev5 9 ! case ( j causes1 !re are c]ta9 precautions & prep>ations necess>y 9 ord] t ! w> be call$ a j "o4 #a4 ,! subject mu/ be ( great consequ5ce4 ,x is crim9al1 = a frivol\s cause1 to expose m5 to all ! evils t accompany a w>1 ev5 ! mo/ =tunate4 #b4 ,!re mu/ be "s probability ( success3 = x w\ld be crim9ally ra% to expose "o's self foolh>dily to c]ta9 de/ruction &1 to avoid a less] evil1 ?r[ "o's self into a great]4 #c4 ,if we _h no g5tl] means at our disposal4 ,!re are two ways ( settl+ a dispute betwe5 nations1 )\t rec\rse to arms3 #a1 an amicable conf]5ce betwe5 ! p>ties2 #b1 ! int]v5tion ( a dis9t]e/$ ?ird p>ty1 or arbitram5t4 ,a ?ird means1 mu* r>] & n[ ab&on$1 is t ( ca/+ lots4 ,:5 all ! means ( settl+ ! difficulty amicably h be5 exhau/$1 !re rema9s1 be=e tak+ up arms1 a f9al obligation1 namely1 to decl>e to ! enemy ! resolution ( employ+ ! la/ means3 ?is is :at is call$ a decl>ation ( w>4 #aag4 ,duties 9 times ( w>4--,w> hav+ become a sad & unavoidable necessity betwe5 nations1 & ! use ( =ce det]m9$ on1 x behooves z mu* z possible to re/rict x 9 its effects1 & to reconcile ! rights ( humanity ) ^? ( ju/ice4 ,h5ce1 c]ta9 rules e/abli%$ by jurisconsults :o h treat$ ^! matt]s1 & notably ,grotius1 ! f\nd] ( int]national law4 ,! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! "r ( w> is ! foll[+3 ,all t has a morally necess>y connection ) ! purpose ( ! w> is all[$1 b no?+ m4 ,9 fact1 x w\ld be :olly useless to h ! "r to d a ?+1 if1 to accompli% x1 "o c\ld n employ ! necess>y means !reto2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x w\ld n be j if1 "u ! pretext ( only def5d+ "o's rights1 "o %\ld believe t ev]y?+ is p]mitt$1 & %\ld resort to ! la/ extremities4 ,f ?is g5]al pr9ciple are d$uc$ ! foll[+ consequ5ces1 :i* are only its applications3 #a4 ,x is c]ta9 t x is lawful to kill ! enemy's soldi]s1 &1 9 fact1 ! purpose ( ! w> be+ to con/ra9 ! enemy to recognize ! ju/ice ( our cause1 x w\ld be va9 to take up arms if "o c\ld n use !m4 ,x is !n "o ( ! cases :]e manslaught] may be consid]$ innoc5t1 & ju/ifi$ by ! "r ( p]sonal self-def5se4 7,see above1 ,*4 iii41 p4 #ej47 #b4 ,h[ev]1 ! "r ( dea? ^u ! enemy has its limits4 ,z a pr9ciple1 x only ext5ds to ^? :o c>ry arms1 & n to private individuals :o d n def5d !mselves1 arms 9 h&4 ,su* c only accid5tally become ! victims ( ! w>3 = in/ance1 x is impossible 9 a battle to protect ! inhabitants ( a disput$ village aga9/ ! balls ( ei!r p>ty2 b we %\ld n kn[+ly /rike dead ^? :o d n def5d !mselves4 #c4 ,/rang]s %\ld be all[$ to quit a c\ntry expos$ to w>2 & if oblig$ to /ay1 !y %\ld be no fur!r expos$ ?an to %>e its inevitable p]ils ) ! o!r citiz5s4 #d4 ,prison]s ( w> %\ld be nei!r kill$ nor r$uc$ to slav]y1 b simply prev5t$ f do+ mis*ief4 ,z to ! means employ$ to deprive an enemy ( 8 life1 humanity1 ) j reason1 int]dicts ! use ( c]ta9 c[>dly & p]fidi\s means2 z1 = in/ance1 poison$ bullets1 or too cruel means ( de/ruction1 or la/ly1 assass9ation4 ,?us1 x w\ld be odi\s to s5d traitors secretly *>g$ to kill ! ho/ile g5]al4 ,!re is1 besides1 no example ( su* attempts 9 mod]n w>s1 & ! human consci5ce w\ld unanim\sly reprove !m4 ,?us mu* conc]n+ ! rights w> gives ov] ! lives ( enemies4 ,let u consid] n[ ! duties reg>d+ prop]ty4 #a4 ,w> gives ! "r to de/roy ! prop]ty ( ! enemy2 x is :at is call$ ! "r ( ravage4 ,b ravage %\ld n be pursu$ = its own sake1 b only to weak5 ! enemy4 ,?us we %\ld z mu* z possible sp>e public monum5ts1 works ( art1 etc4 #b4 ,x is a "r ( w> to acquire & appropriate ?+s belong+ to ! enemy until agreem5t z to ! moneys due1 includ+ ! exp5ses ( ! w>4 #c4 ,x is by virtue ( ^! pr9ciples t1 9 case ( naval enc\nt]s1 x is ju/ifiable to take possession ( ! enemy's vessels1 & n only ( m5-(-w>1 b ( m]*ant-m5 & ! goods !y c>ry4 #d4 ,?is "r ^u ! enemy's prop]ty is only ! sov]eign's2 he alone has a "r to appropriate1 9 ! "n ( ! ,/ate1 ! prop]ty ( ! invad$ t]ritory1 by way ( re/itution or gu>anty2 b w> does n conf] ^u s+le individuals ! "r ( tak+ possession ( p's prop]ty & appropriat+ x3 ?is is simply pillage4 #aah4 ,conque/4--,we call "r ( conque/ ! "r :i* belongs to a ,/ate to br+ "u its sov]eignty ! :ole or "p ( ano!r ,/ate1 by virtue ( ! "r ( w>4 ,conque/1 x w be se51 is b ! "r ( ! /ronge/4 ,x is contr>y to ! pr9ciple ( mod]n political societies1 :i* requires t ! ,/ate re/ on ! free contract ( citiz5s1 & t a p %\ld only be subject to laws cons5t$ to4 ,x is n easy to h an (ficial au!ntication ( ?is cons5t2 b x is c]ta9 t !re are annexations t are volunt>y1 & o!rs t are n4 ,! latt]1 x mu/ be hop$1 w become less & less frequ5t z ! idea ( ju/ice among nations develops4 #aai4 ,neutrality4--,we call neutrality ! situation ( ,/ates :i*1 9 a case ( w>1 side ) nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r ( ! bellig]5ts1 b rema9 at peace ) ! two p>ties4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 oblig$ to practice t[>d !m ! laws ( natural "r imp>tially3 if1 = example1 !y r5d] to "o a s]vice ( humanity1 !y mu/ n refuse ! same s]vice to ! o!r4 ,!y mu/ n furni% means ( ho/ility to ei!r ! "o or ! o!r1 or !y mu/ furni% !m to bo?4 ,!y mu/ l5d _! good (fices = a settlem5t if !y h any *ance ( be+ li/5$ to4 ,^! rules are v simple2 b1 practically1 ! situation ( neutrals is a v delicate "o1 & gives rise to num]\s difficulties1 = ! solution ( :i*1 resort mu/ be _h to ! special treatises on ! law ( nations4 #abj4 ,int]national treaties3 _! *>act]s3 _! =ms4--,we h se5 t nations h among ea* o!r1 ! same z individuals1 obligations & rights :i* !y d]ive f ! natural law4 ,b !re are o!r obligations & o!r rights :i* are no long] bas$ on nature1 b on special contracts or usages4 ,! int]national law :i* be>s on usages is call$ cu/om>y "r2 t :i* comes f compacts1 is call$ conv5tional "r4 ,! compacts betwe5 ,/ates are call$ treaties4 ,treaties are equal or unequal1 accord+ z !y promise equal or unequal ?+s2 p]sonal or real1 accord+ z !y relate only to c]ta9 p]sons1 & dur+ _! lives1 or z !y are indep5d5t ( p]sons & la/ z long z ! ,/ate itself2 pure & simple or conditional2 9 ! fir/ case ! /ipulations are absolute2 9 ! second !y dep5d on c]ta9 conditions4 ,!re are diff]5t species ( treaties accord+ to _! diff]5t objects3 treaties ( alliance2 treaties ( b\nd>ies2 treaties ( cession2 treaties ( navigation & comm]ce2 treaties ( neutrality2 treaties ( peace4 #aba4 ,ess5tial conditions ( public treaties4--,z a pr9ciple1 ! rules :i* gov]n int]national compacts are 7) ! exception ( a few diff]5ces7 ! same z ^? :i* gov]n private compacts4 ,!re are ?ree fundam5tal conditions3 #a1 ! cons5t2 #b1 a licit cause2 #c1 ! capacity ( ! contract+ p>ties4 7,see above1 #ib47 ,! cons5t %\ld be3 #a1 decl>$2 #b1 free2 #c1 mutual4 ,! licit causes are ^? :i* are physically possible or morally legitimate2 ! illicit causes are ^? :i* are contr>y to morality1 z1 = example1 w\ld be ! e/abli%m5t ( slav]y4 ,! capacity ( mak+ a compact belongs to ! sov]eign ( ! ,/ate alone2 b x is necess>y t ?is sov]eign be really inve/$ ) ! p[]4 ,a sov]eign /ripp$ ( 8 sov]eignty has no p[] to make compacts1 al?\gh he might h all ! mo/ legitimate rights2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 a usurp+ p[] c legitimately make compacts4 ,! reason ( ?is is1 t =eign nations are n capable to decide :at ) ano!r p con/itutes ! legitimacy or non-legitimacy ( p[]3 !re is = !m1 !re=e1 only ! p[] de facto4 ,yet ?is is b ! g5]al rule4 ,!re may be cases :]e a =eign gov]nm5t may refuse to recognize a usurp]'s p[]4 #abb4 ,obs]vance ( treaties4--,! obligation to obs]ve treaties is bas$ on ! natural law4 ,:e!r compacts take place betwe5 ,/ates or individuals1 x matt]s little4 ,! ,/ates1 9 respect to ea* o!r1 are l private individuals4 ,c]ta9 publici/s1 p>ticul>ly ,ma*iavelli1 h ma9ta9$ t ! obligation to obs]ve treaties only la/s z long z ^! accord ) our int]e/s4 ,z mu* z to say t "o %\ld n make any compacts4 ,besides1 ,ma*iavelli's op9ion is 9 su* disrepute t x is almo/ useless to discuss x4 ,we w cont5t ourselves ) sett+ aga9/ x ! foll[+ beautiful ?\ght ( a great politician3 ,k+s %\ld be v c>eful 9 mak+ treaties1 b :5 once made1 !y mu/ obs]ve !m religi\sly4 ,i "k v well t _m politicians tea* ! contr>y2 b )\t /opp+ to consid] :at ,*ri/ianity has to say reg>d+ ^! maxims1 ,i ma9ta9 t1 s9ce ! loss ( honor is great] ?an t ( life1 a great pr9ce %\ld r risk 8 p]son1 & ev5 ! loss ( 8 ,/ate1 ?an break 8 ^w1 :i* he _c break )\t los+ 8 reputation1 consequ5tly1 8 greate/ /r5g? z a sov]eign4 7,c>d9al de ,ri*elieu1 ,te/am5t politique1 #b;e p>tie1 *4 vi47 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,family ,,duties4 ,,summ>y4 ,! family4--,orig9 & hi/ory ( ! family4--,! family orig9at+ 9 ! necessity ( ! p]petuation ( ! species1 has gradually ga9$ 9 morality until x has rea*$ ! pres5t /ate1 namely1 monogamy1 or m>riage betwe5 "o man & "o woman3 a progress s f> z ! dignity ( woman & ! equality ( ! sexes are conc]n$4 ,duties ( m>riage4--,! duties ( m>riage beg9 be=e m>riage3 to be prud5t 9 ! *oice ( a p>tn]2 to pref] ! moral int]e/s to ! mat]ial int]e/s4 ,mutual duties ( ! m>ri$ c\ple3 fidelity f\nd$3 #a1 on a free promise2 #b1 on ! v idea ( m>riage4 ,duties peculi> to ! husb&3 protection ( ! family1 "w1 etc4 ,celibacy & its duties4 ,duties ( p>5ts t[>d *ildr54--,( ! rights ( p>5ts4--,basis & limits ( ! pat]nal au?ority4--,in/itut$ 9 ! int]e/ ( ! *ildr51 x is limit$ by t v int]e/4 ,p>5ts h n1 !re=e1 #a1 ! "r ( life & dea?2 #b1 ! "r to /rike & maltreat2 #c1 ! "r to sell2 #d1 ! "r to corrupt4 ,duties ( p>5ts4--,g5]al duty ( affection )\t privileges or pref]5ces4--,duty ( ma9t5ance & education4--,decrease ( p>5tal responsibility 9 proportion to ! age ( ! *ildr54--,?ree p]iods 9 pat]nal au?ority4 ,duties ( *ildr5 respect+ _! p>5ts & respect+ ea* o!r4--,filial duty4--,frat]nal duty4 ,duties ( ma/]s t[>ds _! s]vants4 #abc4 ,! family4--,x is a law among all liv+ be+s to p]petuate _! species4 ,?is law is among animals subject to no moral law4 ,yet are !re c]ta9 species :]e betwe5 ! male & female a k9d ( society is e/abli%$2 & ) ne>ly all animals ! atta*m5t ( ! "m to h] "y1 %[s itself by mo/ /rik+ & t\*+ pro(s4 ,b ?is mat]nal int]e/ does n usually la/ beyond ! "t necess>y to br+ up ! little ones & enable !m to provide = !mselves4 ,beyond ?is "t1 ! (fspr+ sep>ate & disp]se4 ,!y live _! own life2 ! "m kn[s !m no long]4 ,z to ! fa!r1 he has sc>cely ev] kn[n !m4 ,su* are ! dome/ic ties among animals3 &1 rude z !y may be1 "o _c help already recogniz+ & admir+ 9 !m ! anticipat$ image ( ! family4 ,! family 9 ! human species has ! same orig9 & ! same end z 9 ! animal species1 namely1 ! p]petuation ( ! species2 b 9 ! =m] x is exalt$ & ennobl$ by additional s5tim5ts3 x is consecrat$ & sanction$ by laws ( duty & "r to :i* animals are absolutely incapable ( ris+4 ,if we consid] ! hi/ory ( ! human race1 we see ! family rise progressively f a c]ta9 primitive /ate1 :i* is n v f> f ! animal promiscuity1 to ! condition 9 :i* we see x to-day 9 mo/ civiliz$ c\ntries4 ,among savage nations1 m>riages h little /ability & duration3 !y are z easily brok5 z =m$4 ,female dignity & mode/y are sc>cely kn[n among !m3 woman is m a slave ?an a companion1 & ! fre$om ( morals has sc>cely any limits4 ,yet is !re no society :]e m>riages are n subject to "s sacr$ or civil =malities1 :i* %[s t savages1 ignorant z we may suppose !m to be1 h a pres5tim5t ( duties :i*1 "u favorable circum/ances1 t5d to purify & elevate ! relations ( ! sexes4 ,lat]1 9 o!r societies1 m>riages take a m regul> =m & a m fix$ "*2 yet1 admitt+ polygamy1 m or less1 z among ! anci5ts4 ,9 %ort1 _m circum/ances h presid$ ov] ! legal relations ( ! two sexes1 be=e1 ?r\gh ! natural progress ( morals & ,*ri/ian influ5ce1 monogamy became ! almo/ univ]sal law ( ! family 9 civiliz$ c\ntries4 ,x has be5 se51 !n1 t z ! moral s5tim5t became m ref9$1 ! family1 z x exi/s to-day1 became m closely relat$ to ! ,/ate2 & x w always be saf]1 9 ord] to e/abli% ! legitimacy ( su* an in/itution & secure = x due respect1 to dep5d m on s5tim5t ?an on reason+4 ,besides1 ! family is a natural result ( ! necess>y relations :i* exi/ betwe5 "m1 fa!r1 & *ild4 ,x is ! bir? ( ! *ildr5 :i* is ! end & raison d'etre ( ! family4 ,?is fact1 let x be well not$1 already det]m9es betwe5 "m & *ild a relation ( "s duration4 ,! *ild is altoge!r unable to live & develop alone4 ,! "m owes x its n\ri%m5t2 & nature1 hav+ h]self prep>$ = ! *ild 9 ! brea/ ( ! "m ! s\rces ( its subsi/5ce truly indicat$ !reby t !y %\ld be b\nd to ea* o!r by a positive & inevitable tie4 ,x is true ! same tie exi/s also among ! families ( ! animals & _! "y 7at lea/ ) mammalia72 & we h se5 t !re exi/ among !m "s g]ms ( family4 ,b let u n =get t x takes only a little "t = ! "y ( ! animal species to rea* t degree ( /r5g? :i* enables x to leave its "m )\t dang]4 ,) ! human species1 on ! contr>y1 x takes a consid]able "t4 ,be=e ! fir/ or second ye> ! *ild is unable to walk2 :5 x walks1 x is /ill unable to walk alone1 to f9d its food1 to develop 9 any way4 ,imag9e a *ild two1 ?ree1 five ye>s old1 ab&on$ to himself 9 a des]t isl&3 he w\ld die ( hung]4 ,besides1 in/9ct is mu* less /rong 9 man ?an 9 animals1 & mu* less c]ta92 :5 an adult1 man foll[s 8 own reason2 9 *ildhood he ne$s ! reason ( o!rs4 ,:at %all ,i say ( 8 moral education & intellectual developm5t8 ,! *ild ne$s a tea*] z well z a nurse4 ,we see t ! relations betwe5 "m & *ild mu/ naturally be prolong$ f> beyond ^? betwe5 animals4 ,! fir/ natural & necess>y relations w f9ally create betwe5 ^! two be+s habits ( su* a "* t !y w nev] m sep>ate1 ev5 :5 !y c d )\t ea* o!r4 ,at lea/1 ?is sep>ation w n take place be=e man is completely man2 & al?\gh son & daught] may sep>ate f ! family to become 9 _! turn heads ( families1 !re w always exi/ betwe5 p>5ts & *ildr5 c]ta9 ties1 c]ta9 relations1 all ! clos]1 z !y ea* foll[ ! laws ( nature4 ,9 %ort1 *ildr5 c nev] be se51 z is ! case 9 ! animal species1 becom+ complete /rang]s to _! fa!r & "m4 ,i h fir/ consid]$ ! tie betwe5 ! "m & ! *ild1 because x is ! mo/ evid5t & ! mo/ necess>y4 ,b ?is relation is n ! only "o4 ,! *ild1 we h said1 ne$s protection = a long "t3 does ! "m's protection suffice8 ,to judge f ! way woman is con/itut$1 "o c see t %e ne$s protection h]self4 ,h] weakness & h] sex expose h] to attacks2 %e is !n b an insuffici5t protection to ! feeble creature %e is unit$ to by s _m ties4 ,!re=e mu/ ! family h a protector2 & :o %\ld be ! natural protector ( ! *ild1 if n ! fa!r8 ( ! wife1 if n ! husb&8 ,! necessity ( protection r5d]s1 !n1 man indisp5sable to ! family4 ,we may add to ?is1 ! necessity ( subsi/5ce4 ,und\bt$ly ! "m gives ! *ild its fir/ n\ri%m5t2 b lat] on1 ! common means ( subsi/5ce mu/ come f "w4 ,n[1 )\t d5y+ t woman is call$ to "w ! same z man1 & :il/ admitt+ t 9 ! simple & natural /ate %e is v mu* /rong] ?an 9 ! civiliz$ /ate1 x mu/1 nev]!less1 be admitt$ t woman1 9 g5]al1 is less fitt$ = "w ?an man2 t ) m tr\ble1 %e produces less1 & t a l>ge portion ( h] life is necess>ily tak5 up ) h] peculi> c>es4 ,)\t ! "w ( ! head ( ! family1 ! common subsi/5ce w\ld1 !re=e1 be imp]il$4 ,if we n[ consid] ! education ( ! *ildr51 x is beyond d\bt t ! mat]nal education is insuffici5t4 ,! "m repres5ts 9 ! family1 love1 solicitude1 s]viceabl5ess4 ,9 a solid education1 au?ority %\ld be add$ to ^!4 ,x may be notic$ t 9 *ildr5 br\ght up by "o ( ! p>5ts only1 !re is 9 g5]al some?+ incomplete4 ,^? :o h _h ! fa!r only1 lack some?+ 9 t5d]ness & delicacy ( feel+ :i* ! graces ( mat]nity ins5sibly communicate to ! *ild2 ^? :o h _h ! "m only1 are lack+ 9 discipl9e & solidity ( "*3 !y are caprici\s & ( a m passionate willfulness4 ,nature1 !n1 appeals to ! jo9t ef=ts ( bo? fa!r & "m 9 ! education ( ! *ild4 ,let u add n[ t ?is close tie1 :i* on "o side atta*es ! *ild to ! "m & on ! o!r to ! fa!r1 %\ld also atta* p>5ts to ea* o!r1 f> beyond ! fir/ & transitory tie :i* fir/ jo9$ !m4 ,unit$ 9 a common und]tak+1 namely1 to support & educate ! be+ !y h br\ght into ! _w--x is impossible t !y %\ld n cont9ue to be m & m closely unit$4 #abd4 ,family duties4--,?is is ! natural hi/ory ( ! family4 ,x 0 probably 9 a simil> mann]1 ) _m vicissitudes1 t x gradually =m$ & !n became trans=m$4 ,let u n[ see h[ out ( ?is association1 f\nd$ by in/9cts1 int]e/s1 & circum/ances1 ! pr9ciple ( duty makes a sacr$ & indissoluble in/itution4 ,!re c be di/+ui%$ 9 ! family f\r k9ds ( relations1 :5ce spr+ f\r classes ( duties3 #a4 ,! relations betwe5 ! husb& & wife4 #b4 ,! relations ( p>5ts to *ildr54 #c4 ,! relations ( *ildr5 to p>5ts4 #d4 ,! relations ( *ildr5 to ea* o!r4 ,:5ce conjugal duty1 pat]nal or mat]nal duty1 filial duty1 & frat]nal duty4 ,to ^! f\r relations1 !re may be add$ a fif?3 t ( ! head ( a family to 8 s]vants4 #abe4 ,duties ( m>riage4--,! duties ( m>riage beg9 be=e m>riage3 !y beg9 ) ! mutual *oice ( ! man & ! woman4 ,= ! woman1 x usually happ5s1 at lea/ 9 our society 9 ,france1 t ! *oice is det]m9$ by ! p>5ts4 ,! responsibility1 !n1 falls ^u !m4 ,n[1 ?is *oice %\ld n be made lightly & fooli%ly4 ,x %\ld be det]m9$ by a s]i\s & noble conception ( ! duties & end ( m>riage4 ,m>riage1 our ,code admirably says1 is an association betwe5 man & woman1 to %>e ! pleasures & be> 9 common ! trials ( life4#fh ,m>riage is1 !re=e1 a compact entirely moral3 x is n only a union ( bodies or =tunes1 x is a union ( s\ls4 ,life 9 common & indissoluble1 ) all its possible accid5ts1 is too heavy a burd5 to be left to *ance4 ,a man %\ld ?9k n only ( 8 own happ9ess1 b also ( t ( ! woman :om he associates ) 8 de/9y2 if he does n consid] himself /rong en\gh to fulfill t[>d h] all ! duties :i* su* a connection imposes on him1 he %\ld n unite h] to himself by indissoluble v[s2 if he does n ?9k t he c love & respect h] all ?r\gh life1 let him sp>e himself & h] a life-long mis]y4 ,we may see by ?is h[ important 9 conjugal union are a h>mony ( "*1 a j & mutual e/eem1 & an enlight5$ affection4 ,to m>ry ra%ly & too ha/ily1 & ?us to risk future happ9ess1 is already fail+ 9 a fir/ duty4 ,"o %\ld1 !re=e1 n rely too implicitly ^u indiff]5t or int]e/$ g-betwe5s4 ,x is said1 inde$1 t !re is no way ( kn[+ ) c]ta9ty ! "* & s9c]ity ( m54 ,_m a "o :o 9 society appe>s amiable & e/imable1 is p]haps1 9 private life1 selfi% & tyrannical2 wom51 x is said1 moreov]1 are p>ticul>ly skill$1 ev5 :5 "y1 9 assum+ qualities :i* !y d n possess1 & 9 disguis+ _! faults2 t if "o 7 con/antly scrut9iz+ & di/ru/+1 m>riage w\ld be impossible2 = ! mo/ sagaci\s are deceiv$ 9 !m1 etc41 etc4 ,all ?is1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 is true2 & !re c\ld be no?+ done )\t "s sort ( confid5ce2 b ?is confid5ce1 :5 x is ! result ( precaution & prud5ce1 is mu* less (t5 deceiv$ ?an satiri/s w\ld h x4 ,besides1 if !re be room = deception1 ev5 aft] a reasonably long intimacy1 ! *ances are at lea/ bett] ?an !y w\ld be if ! p>ties 7 to ru% headlong into a future absolutely unkn[n to !m4 ,ano!r grave error is t ( see+ 9 m>riage no?+ b a union ( =tunes & names4 ,x is br++ :at 9 reality is ! noble/ & mo/ delicate ( contracts1 d[n to a simple comm]cial act4 ,c]ta9ly "o %\ld n propose to ! inexp]i5ce ( "y p ! union ( two pov]ties1 z an ideal3 x is well kn[n t pov]ty is mu* h>d] to be> :5 "o has to %>e x ) a wife & *ildr51 ?an alone4 ,b :il/ 9 c]ta9 classes ( society m>riage c\ld sc>cely be possible o!rwise 7work+m5 hav+ no capital to back _! m>riage contracts71 ! classes t h "s compet5cy %\ld n make prop]ty ! fir/ consid]ation2 "*1 m9d1 & m]it %\ld by f> outweigh x4 ,we di/+ui% g5]ally two k9ds ( m>riages3 ! reason-m>riages 7m>iages de raison7 & ! incl9ation m>riages2 & mu* has be5 said = & aga9/ bo?4 ,^! are que/ions :i* w nev] be solv$1 because exp]i5ce %[s t !y are mo/ly dep5d5t on circum/ances4 ,x may be said t1 z a pr9ciple1 ! true m>riage is ! m>riage bas$ on incl9ation enlight5$ by reason4 ,:at exp]i5ce & wisdom condemn1 are ! fooli% incl9ations--^?1 = example1 t take no acc\nt ( age1 education1 social surr\nd+s1 necessities ( life4 ,^! sorts ( passion sc>cely ev] /& ! te/ ( "t & circum/ances1 & are g5]ally foll[$ by a pa9ful reaction4 ,!re is1 says ,la ,bruy]e1 h>dly any o!r reason = lov+ no long]1 ?an to h lov$ too mu*4 ,b incl9ation is n always unreasonable2 & :5 x c be reconcil$ ) ! c\nsels ( wisdom1 :i* is no r>e ?+1 x is bett] ?an cold reason1 & answ]s bett] to ! purpose ( m>riage3 x is a sur] gu>anty ( its dignity & happ9ess4 ,a wise morali/1 ,mr4 ,adolphe ,g>ni]1 makes a v reasonable reply to ^? :o pret5d t incl9ation disappe>s v fa/ 9 m>riage3 ,we reply1 he says1 t incl9ation w at lea/ h =m$ a true m>riage :il/ x la/$4 ,x w leave = all ! re/ ( life a remembrance ( ! fir/ ye>s1 :i* %all h be5 purifi$1 ennobl$1 sanctifi$ by ?is he>t-affection4 ,?is remembrance w sweet5 m ?an "o bitt] mom5t1 w prev5t m ?an "o angui%4 ,duty w be su/a9$ by a remembrance ( pa/ happ9ess4#fi ,! m>riage once made1 we h to consid]1 "o aft] ! o!r1 ! duties ( ! husb& & ^? ( ! wife4 ,!re are "s !y h 9 common1 & o!rs :i* belong to ! p>ticul> "p ea* plays 9 ! h\sehold4 ,! duty :i* ! husb& & wife h 9 common1 is fidelity4 ,?is duty is bas$ on ! v nature ( m>riage1 z also ^u a mutual promise4 ,let u beg9 by ?is latt] consid]ation4 ,m>riage1 su* z x is in/itut$ 9 civiliz$ or ,*ri/ian c\ntries1 is monogamy1 or m>riage ( "o man ) "o woman 7except 9 cases ( decease74 ,su* is ! /ate "o b9ds "o's self to 9 ent]+ ! m>riage relation3 "o accepts !reby ! obligation ( an inviolable fidelity4 ,if !n a promise is sacr$ 9 respect to mat]ial goods1 h[ mu* m sacr$ is ! promise betwe5 he>ts1 & ?is mutual gift ( s\l to s\l1 :i* con/itutes ! dignity ( m>riage6 ,conjugal fidelity is1 !n1 a duty ( honor1 a v]itable debt4 ,b fidelity is n only ! obligatory result ( a promise1 ( a giv5 ^w2 x is also ! result ( ! v idea ( m>riage1 & m>riage 9 its turn results f ! nature ( ?+s4 ,m>riage 0 in/itut$ to save ! dignity ( woman4 ,exp]i5ce1 9 fact1 tea*es u t :]ev] polygamy exi/s1 woman is n f> f be+ man's slave4 ,man1 divid+ 8 affections betwe5 sev]al wom51 _c love ea* "o ) t ref9em5t & con/ancy :i* r5d] h] 8 equal4 ,h[ c\ld !re exi/ betwe5 a ma/] & sev]al slaves vy+ = 8 looks & caprices1 t intimacy1 t mutual %>+ ( good & evil :]e9 ! moral beauty ( m>riage consi/s8 ,x is q evid5t t equality betwe5 man & woman _c exi/ :]e ! latt] is oblig$ to %>e ) o!rs ! common good ( conjugal affection4 ,h5ce ! in/itution ( m>riage :i* 0 e/abli%$ 9 ! int]e/ ( ! woman1 & :i* is ! protection ( ! weak] p>ty4 ,x evid5tly foll[s t1 on h] side1 %e is held to ! same fidelity :i* %e has a "r to dem&4 ,conjugal infidelity1 on :i*ev] side x occurs1 is !n a disguis$ polygamy1 &1 moreov]1 an irregul> & caprici\s polygamy1 v inf]ior to ! legal2 = ?is recognizes at lea/ c]ta9 rules1 & e/abli%es ) precision ! condition ( ! sev]al wives4 ,b adult]y de/roys all regul> & fix$ relations betwe5 ! m>ri$ c\ple2 x introduces into m>riage ! op5 or cl&e/9e usurpation ( sworn rights2 x t5ds to re-e/abli% ! primitive & savage /ate1 :]e ! com+ toge!r ( ! sexes dep5d$ on *ance & caprice4 ,fidelity is = ! m>ri$ c\ple a common & reciprocal duty4 ,ea*1 besides1 has peculi> duties4 ,we %all lay p>ticul> /ress on ^? ( ! husb&4 ,! fir/ ( all1 :i* c>ries ) x all o!rs1 is protection4 ,man1 be+ ! head ( ! family1 is its natural protector4 ,he holds 8 au?ority f ! laws & f usage4 ,moreov]1 x results f ! v nature ( ?+s3 = betwe5 two p]sons1 ev5 p]fectly unit$1 x is difficult1 x is impossible1 to meet ) a con/ant uni=mity ( views1 s5tim5ts1 & wi%es4 ,!re mu/ be1 !n1 a det]m9+ voice2 "o ( ! two p]sons %>+ 9 common dome/ic au?ority1 mu/ h ! privilege ( sup]ior au?ority4 ,n[1 :at are ! titles to ?is sup]ior au?ority8 ,^! titles are /r5g? & reason4 ,evid5tly1 p[] 9 ! family belongs by "r to him :o is /rong en\gh to def5d x & reasonable en\gh to ex]cise x4 ,b ?is au?ority w\ld only be an insupportable privilege if man pret5d$ to ex]cise x )\t do+ any ?+1 )\t return+ to ! family 9 ! =m ( security :at x pays him 9 respect & ob$i5ce4 ,"w is ! fir/ duty ( man z head ( ! family4 ,?is is true ( all classes ( society1 z well ( ^? :o live ^u _! income1 z ( ^? :o live by _! "w4 ,= ! fir/ h to make !mselves wor?y ( ! =tune !y h receiv$ by noble occupations1 or1 at lea/1 by pres]v+ x & mak+ x be> fruit ?r\gh a wise managem5t3 & ! second h1 ,i d n say1 a =tune to acquire1 :i* is an aim r>ely atta9$1 b !y h a f> m press+ object be=e !m1 namely1 ! livelihood ( ^? :o live "u _! protection4#gj ,no "o has bett] depict$1 & 9 a m delicate & s5sible mann]1 ! common duties ( husb&s & wives ?an ,x5ophon1 :o 9 ?is p>ticul> is a wor?y pupil ( ,socrates1 ! "o ( all ! anci5t sages :o be/ und]/ood ! duties ( ! family4 ,socrates relates 9 ! foll[+ t]ms ! conv]sation ( ,is*oma*us & 8 wife1--a "y m>ri$ pair1--9 :i* ! husb& in/ructs 8 wife 9 dome/ic duties4 ,:5 %e _h become m famili> ) me1 & a clos] connection _h embold5$ h] to speak freely1 ,i put to h] some?+ l ! foll[+ que/ions3 ',tell me1 my wife1 do/ ?\ beg9 to und]/& :y ,i h *os5 !e1 & :y ?y p>5ts h giv5 !e to me8444 ,if ! gods give u *ildr51 we mu/ consult ) ea* o!r & d our be/ 9 br++ !m up3 = x w be a happ9ess = bo? ( u to f9d 9 !m ! protectors & support ( our old age4 ,b f ?is day on1 all t is 9 ?is h\se is ours 9 common2 :at is m9e is ?9e1 & ?\ ha/ ?yself already put 9 common all t ?\ ha/ br\ght4 ,we h b to c\nt :i* has br\ght mo/2 b we mu/ well rememb] "o ?+1 & t is1 t x w be ! "o ( u two :o w be/ manage ! common prop]ty t %all h br\ght ! mo/ valuable %>e ( capital4' ,to ?is1 my wife repli$3 ',9 :at c ,i assi/ !e8 ,:at am ,i able to d8 ,all dep5ds on !e4 ,my "m told me t my task 0 to conduct myself well4'--',yes1 by ,jupit]6' ,i repli$1 '& my fa!r also told me ! same ?+2 b x is ! duty ( a well-behav+ c\ple s to behave t !y may be z prosp]\s z possible1 t by hone/ & j means !y may add new goods to ^? !y h4 ,! gods1 =soo?1 did well :5 !y c\pl$ man ) woman = ! greate/ utility ( mank9d4 ,! int]e/ ( ! family & h\se dem&s "w )\t & )94 ,n[ ! gods1 f ! fir/1 adapt$ ! nature ( woman = ! c>es & ! works ( ! int]ior1 & t ( man = ! c>es & ! works ( ! ext]ior4 ,cold1 heat1 travels1 w>1 man is s con/itut$ z to be able to be> all2 on ! o!r h&1 ! gods h giv5 to woman ! incl9ation & mission to nurse h] (fspr+2 x is also %e :o is 9 *>ge ( ! provisions1 :il/ man's c>e is to w>d (f all t c\ld injure ! h\sehold4 ',z nei!r is by nature p]fect 9 all po9ts1 !y necess>ily ne$ ea* o!r2 & _! union is all ! m useful1 z :at ! "o lacks may be suppli$ by ! o!r4 ,!re=e1 ,o wife1 x behooves u1 :5 in/ruct$ reg>d+ ! functions ! gods h assign$ to ea* ( u1 to endeavor to acquit ourselves ! be/ we c ( ^? t are incumb5t on bo?4 ',!re is1 h[ev]1' ,i said1 '"o function ( ?9e :i* w please !e lea/1 & t is1 t if any "o ( ?y slaves %\ld sick51 ?\1 by ! c>es due to all1 %\ld/ wat* ov] 8 or h] recov]y4' ',by ,jupit]1' said my wife1 'no?+ w please me m1 s9ce1 recov]+ by my c>e1 !y w be grateful to me & %[ me /ill m affection ?an 9 ! pa/4' ,?is answ] delight$ me1 cont9u$ ,is*oma*us1 & ,i said to h]3 ',?\ %alt h o!r c>es m agreeable1 namely1 :5 ( an unskill$ slave ?\ %alt make a good sp9n]2 :5 ( an ignorant /ew>d or /ew>dess1 ?\ %alt make a capable1 devot$1 intellig5t s]vant4 ,b ! sweete/ *>m %all be1 :51 m p]fect ?an ,i1 ?\ %alt h made me ?y s]vant2 :51 in/ead ( fe>+ old age1 le/ x deprive !e ( ?y influ5ce 9 ?y h\sehold1 ?\ %alt h ga9$ ! assurance t 9 gr[+ old ?\ become/ = me a /ill bett] companion1 = ?y *ildr5 a /ill bett] h\sekeep]1 = ?y h\sehold a /ill m honor$ mi/ress4 ,= beauty & goodness d n dep5d on y\?3 !y increase ?r\gh life 9 ! eyes ( m51 by means ( virtues4'#ga ,we %all say a few words1 )\t lay+ great] /ress ?an necess>y1 ab\t a "q (t5 debat$1 namely1 t ( ! dissolution ( m>riage or divorce4 ,we may obs]ve1 on ?is subject1 ) an excell5t morali/1#gb :om we h already cit$1 t z m>riage becomes pur]1 its dissolution w become m & m difficult4 ,9 =m] days1 ! fir/ aspect ( ! conjugal relation %[$ ! husb& to be ! ma/] ( ! woman2 he b\ght h] & s5t h] aga9 away z he w\ld a slave--he _h ! "r ( repudiation4 ,lat] on1 he c\ld no long] s5d h] away f him )\t ask+ ! law to pron\nce a divorce2 b he 0 at fir/ alone 9 claim+ ?is "r4 ,next1 woman obta9$ ! same "r 9 h] turn4 ,at la/ divorce 0 suppress$1 at lea/ 9 "s ,/ates1 & p>ticul>ly 9 our c\ntry2#gc & we ?9k1 ) ! morali/ quot$ above1 t ?is is ! true road to progress4 ,an ,engli% morali/#gd has ju/ly said3 ,if love is a passion :i* a trifle may />t & a trifle kill1 fri5d%ip is a calm affection cem5t$ by reason & habit4 ,x becomes /rong] by rule1 & x is nev] s /rong z :5 two p]sons unite 9 ! pursuit ( a common int]e/4 ,h[ _m slight annoyances w !y n endeavor to ov]look1 out ( prud5ce1 if !y are oblig$ to live ) ea* o!r1 & :i*1 ) ! prospect ( an easy sep>ation1 w\ld be all[$ to fe/] ev5 to av]sion6 ,x is a duty = ! individual consci5ce1 ev5 ?\gh divorce %\ld be legally p]mitt$1 to consid] m>riage absolutely indissoluble1 or at lea/ make x a la/ resort2 x is1 above all1 a /rict duty1 9 contract+ a m>riage1 n to look to divorce z a hope & end4 ,"s morali/s h ask$ :e!r m>riage 0 a duty4 ,we d n hesitate to answ] 9 ! negative2#ge t x is n a duty 9 ! case ( wom5 is evid5t1 s9ce x is _! lot n to *oose !mselves1 b to be *os52 n[ x does n always dep5d on !m to f9d "s "o to *oose !m2 & if x is n an obligation = "o ( ! two sexes1 x w\ld be /range if x 7 "o = ! o!r4 ,besides1 ! "r ( celibacy _c be d5i$ to "o :o gives up family life to devote himself to works ( *>ity1 z 9 ! religi\s ord]s1 & if ?is be a suffici5t reason1 !re are _m m ( ! same k9d :i* might sanction ! same conduct3 z1 = example1 devotion to sci5ce or ! c\ntry4 ,if x be object$ t e "o owes himself to ! pres]vation ( ! race1 & t if no "o m>ri$ ! race w\ld p]i%1 we c reply t !re w always be m5 ready en\gh to m>ry1 s t no su* consequ5ces ne$ be fe>$4 ,b ! lib]ty ( celibacy c be grant$ by ! moral law on two conditions only3 ! fir/1 t x be bas$ on s]i\s reasons & n on selfi%ness2 namely1 t !re be good reasons to believe t "o c\ld r5d] m s]vice 9 t /ate ?an 9 an imprud5tly contract$ m>riage4 ,! second condition1 t celibacy does n int]f]e ) purity ( morals--! relations betwe5 ! sexes be+1 9 fact1 only prop] & legitimate 9 m>riage4 ,! relations betwe5 ! sexes outside ( m>riage c only be adult]y1 s$uction1 or lic5ti\sness4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 ! woman is induc$ to violate h] duties1 h] v[s1 to give up all t alone c gu>antee h] dignity4 ,9 ! second1 ! honor & dignity ( a :ole life is sacrific$ to passion2 9 ! ?ird1 y make y\rself an accomplice to a public & delib]ate %ame--a %ame :i* w\ld n exi/ except = j su* accomplices4 ,at any rate1 ! dignity ( ! woman--t is to say1 ( ! weak] sex--is sacrific$ to ! passion ( ! /rong]4 #abf4 ,duties ( p>5ts t[>d _! *ildr54--,an ,engli% philosoph] said3 ,su* a "o is ! fa!r ( su* a "o2 h5ce he is 8 ma/]1 & he claims t pat]nal au?ority 0 ?us bas$ on ! au?ority ( ma/]%ip4 ,?is is a pr(\nd error4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 no man c be absolutely ! ma/] ( ano!r man1 unless t o!r be a slave3 !re c only exi/ relations ( ob$i5ce or allegiance1 requir$ by social necessity1 b :i* d n p]mit any man to be 9 absolute dep5d5ce ^u ano!r4 ,! relation betwe5 fa!r & *ild is1 x is true1 ( a p>ticul> k9d2 b x is n any m ?an ! o!r ! au?ority ( a ma/] ov] 8 slave1 or ( a proprietor ov] 8 prop]ty4 ,let u look into its orig91 & we %all f9d1 at ! same "t1 ! ext5t & ! limits ( pat]nal au?ority4 ,to beg9 )1 we w obs]ve t1 al?\gh usage has consecrat$ ! t]m pat]nal au?ority z mean+ ! au?ority ex]cis$ by p>5ts ov] *ildr51 ?is au?ority includes ! rights ( bo?2 ( ! "m z well z ( ! fa!r3 #a1 9 default ( ! fa!r1 9 case ( abs5ce or dea?1 ! "m has ov] ! *ild exactly ! same au?ority z ! fa!r2 #b1 x is an absolute duty ) p>5ts to see t !re be n1 9 reg>d to _! *ildr51 two sep>ate au?orities 9 ! h\se1 two k9ds ( contradictory ord]s2 9 ! eyes ( ! *ild !re %\ld be b "o & ! same au?ority1 ex]cis$ by two p]sons1 b ess5tially indivisible2 #c1 9 cases ( conflict1 ! w ( ! fa!r %\ld prevail1 unless ! law int]f]e2 b ! fa!r %\ld use su* a privilege only z a la/ resort1 & :]e x c be made evid5t t x is 9 ! int]e/ ( ! *ild4 ,ev5 !n he %\ld see t ! ob$i5ce to "o ( ! p>5ts be no disob$i5ce to ! o!r1 = t w\ld be de/roy+ at its root ! v au?ority he makes use (4 ,pat]nal au?ority is1 !n1 ! common au?ority ( bo? p>5ts ov] _! *ildr52 & x is only an exception to ! rule :5 ! au?ority ( "o p>5t becomes detrim5tal to t ( ! o!r4 ,:at is n[ ! pr9ciple ( ?is au?ority8 ,a purely physical reason is giv5 = x2 t ! *ild1 namely1 is 9 "s respect a "p ( ! p>5ts4 ,b ?is reason is n suffici5t2 = x w\ld presuppose pat]nal au?ority to la/ all ?r\gh life "u ! same conditions & same degree ( =ce2 :]eas x cont9ues ev] dim9i%+ z ! *ild becomes able to gov]n himself4 ,! true reason = pat]nal or mat]nal au?ority lies 9 ! feebl5ess ( ! *ild1 9 its physical1 intellectual1 & moral incapacity4 ,! *ild 9 com+ into ! _w is utt]ly incapable ( do+ = itself4 ,suppos+ ev5 t x c\ld satisfy its physical wants1 exp]i5ce %[s t x c\ld n give itself an education1 )\t :i* x _c be truly a man4 ,?is /ate ( feebl5ess requires1 !n1 indisp5sable assi/ance1 & an assi/ance ( long duration4 ,x ne$s a h& to support & fe$ x1 a he>t to love x1 an intellig5ce to enlight5 x4 ,to :om belongs ?is role ( educator1 protector1 su/a9]8 ,!re h be5 "s :o h wi%$ to take ! *ild f ! family to give x to ! ,/ate2 ?is is a great error2 = ! *ild %\ld evid5tly belong to ^? )\t :om he w\ld h no exi/5ce4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x 7 burd5+ society ) a ?+ x is n responsible =2 moreov]1 x has no "r ^u ! *ild1 no p>ticul> tie exi/+ betwe5 !m2 f9ally1 x (f]s no suffici5t gu>anty1 & !re c be at be/ expect$ ( x b a vague & g5]al solicitude1 if1 inde$1 ! same is n a p>tial "o1 & 9 favor ( ^? f :om x may d]ive mo/ advantages2 :il/ p>5ts %\ld unque/ionably h *>ge ( ! *ild1 s9ce x is ?r\gh !m x exi/s2 & hav+ *>ge ( x1 gives !m a "r to x3 & h[ c\ld !y be responsible = ?is be+ !y h giv5 life to1 if !y c\ld n 9 "s measure dispose ( x8 ,!re are ?ree ties betwe5 ! p>5ts & ! *ild3 a physical bond1 a he>t-bond1 a reason-bond3 no o!r au?ority re/s on m natural pr9ciples2 none is m necess>y1 none is protect$ by great] gu>antees4#gf ,n only w\ld ! ,/ate1 9 tak+ possession ( ! *ild1 encumb] itself ) functions = ! p]=mance ( :i* x is unfitt$1 b x w\ld also violate ! natural rights ( ! human he>t4 ,p>5ts are1 !n1 inve/$ by nature h]self1 ) ! duty ( support+ & educat+ _! *ildr54 ,b ?is duty calls = au?ority4 ,h[ c\ld a fa!r & "m direct ! *ild 9 ! pa? ( "r & ju/ice2 h[ c\ld !y imp>t to x _! wisdom & exp]i5ce2 h[ c\ld !y prep>e ! way = its becom+ 9 its turn a moral ag5t--"o1 namely1 t acts & gov]ns himself ( 8 own accord--if !y are n at ! same "t inve/$ ) ! au?ority t comm&s ob$i5ce8 ,pat]nal au?ority1 z we see by ?is1 has no o!r orig9 ?an ! actual int]e/ ( ! *ild3 ! mission ( ! p>5ts is to repres5t x2 !y h 9 "s respect ! gov]nm5t ( its life4 ,! :ole au?ority ( ! fa!r ^u ! *ild is1 !n1 limit$ by ! int]e/s & ! rights ( ! *ild itself4 ,beyond :at may be useful to its physical & moral exi/5ce1 ! fa!r c d no?+4 ,su* are ! ext5t & limits ( 8 au?ority4 ,f ^! pr9ciples we d$uce3 #a4 ,t p>5ts h n[ no "r ( life & dea? ^u _! *ildr5 z !y h _h "u c]ta9 legislations4 #b4 ,t !y h nei!r ! "r to /rike !m1 maltreat !m1 w\nd !m--9 %ort1 treat !m z !y w\ld animals or ?+s2 & al?\gh usage appe>s to all[ c]ta9 corporeal puni%m5ts1 x w always be a bad example & a bad habit to use bl[s z a means ( education4 #c4 ,p>5ts h no "r to traffic ) ! lib]ty ( _! sons1 to sell !m z slaves z 9 anci5t times1 or to turn !m into in/rum5ts ( ga91 z 9 _m families ev5 to ?is day4 ,c]ta9ly "o c\ld n :olly =bid a fa!r to make a *ild "w t[>d ! support ( ! family1 b x mu/ be done )\t los+ sight ( ! *ild's /r5g?1 & )\t sacrific+ its intellectual & moral education4 #d4 ,p>5ts h no "r to corrupt _! *ildr51 by mak+ !m accomplices 9 _! own pr(ligacy4 ,grotius ju/ly di/+ui%es ?ree p]iods 9 pat]nal au?ority3#gg ! fir/1 :5 ! *ildr5 h z yet no disc]nm5t1 & are n capable ( act+ ) full k2 ! second1 :5 _! judgm5t1 be+ already ripe1 !y are /ill memb]s ( ! family & h no bus9ess ( _! own2 ! la/1 :5 !y h left _! fa!r's h\se1 ei!r to become heads ( families !mselves1 or to ent] into ano!r4 ,9 ! fir/ ( ^! conditions1 ! w ( ! p>5ts is entirely sub/itut$ = t ( ! *ildr51 & _! au?ority1 )9 ! limits above /at$1 is consequ5tly absolute4 ,9 ! ?ird case1 ! son1 hav+ rea*$ 8 majority or maturity1 has conqu]$ = himself an indep5d5t w2 pat]nal au?ority mu/ consequ5tly *ange into moral influ5ce1 :i* a grateful son w respect1 b :i* is no long]1 prop]ly s call$1 an au?ority4 ,f9ally1 9 ! int]m$iate /ate1 :i* is ! mo/ difficult ( all1 ! pat]nal w1 :il/ rema9+ prepond]ant1 yields m & m to ! w ( ! *ildr51 !reby prep>+ x t[>d becom+ suffici5t to itself4 ,let u exam9e ! duties ( ! p>5ts at ^! diff]5t p]iods ( pat]nal au?ority4 ,!re is1 to beg9 )1 a g5]al duty1 :i* ov]rules ! :ole life ( ! p>5ts z well z ( ! *ildr51 & :i* is indep5d5t ( ! latt]'s age3 x is ! duty ( love4 ,p>5ts mu/ love _! *ildr52 x is ! f\ndation ( all ! re/4 ,x may p]haps be object$ t love is a natural feel+ & _c be a duty2 t ! he>t is n subject to ! w2 t "o may love or n love1 accord+ z "o is by nature s con/itut$2 t duty !re=e has no?+ to d ) x4 ,x is also said t pat]nal or mat]nal love is s natural a s5tim5t t x is useless to make a duty ( x4 ,^! argum5ts d n appe> to u decisive2 & we h already answ]$ !m4 ,we _c1 ( c\rse1 create )9 ourselves s5tim5ts :i* d n already exi/4 ,b we c cultivate or all[ to die out s5tim5ts :i* d exi/ )9 u naturally4 ,! degree ( s5sibility 9 ea* individual dep5ds1 ,i admit1 on 8 or h] peculi> con/itution ( m9d & he>t2 b x dep5ds on u to rea* ! highe/ degree ( s5sibility we are capable (4 ,= example1 he :o leaves 8 *ildr5 or removes !m f him 7unless x be = _! good#gh7 may be c]ta9 t ! love he be>s !m w ins5sibly die out4 ,he1 on ! contr>y1 :o takes ! tr\ble to busy himself ) 8 *ildr51 to w9 _! love by intellig5t & con/ant att5tions1 w necess>ily feel 8 he>t gr[ s(t] by ?is int]c\rse1 & 8 natural feel+s w ga9 m & m /r5g?4 ,b if x is a duty to love "o's *ildr51 x is also 9 consequ5ce ( ?is duty t "o %\ld love !m = !mselves1 & n = "o's self4 ,x is n our happ9ess we %\ld seek 9 our *ildr51 b !irs2 & = ?is reason does x sometimes become necess>y to gov]n "o's own s5sibility1 & d5y *ildr5 pleasures detrim5tal to _! be/ int]e/s4 ,! excess ( t5d]ness is (t51 z has be5 said1 b a want ( t5d]ness2 x is a sort ( delicate selfi%ness1 %r9k+ f ! pa9 ! seem+ suff]+ ( ! *ildr5 might inflict1 & n kn[+ h[ to refuse !m any ?+ = fe> ( displeas+ !m1 prep>es = !m 9 ?is mann] cruel deceptions aga9/ ! "t :5 !y w h to face ! sad realities ( life4 ,a coroll>y ( :at prec$es1 is t ! fa!r %\ld love all 8 *ildr5 equally1 & gu>d aga9/ %[+ a pref]5ce4 ,he %\ld h no favorites among !m1 /ill less victims4 ,he %\ld n1 f feel+s ( family pride1 pref] ! boys to ! girls1 or ! olde/ to ! y\nge/4 ,he %\ld n ev5 yield to ! natural pr$ilection :i* incl9es u to give our pref]5ce to ! mo/ amiable1 ! mo/ intellig5t1 ! mo/ attractively end[$4 ,x has (t5 be5 obs]v$ t mo!rs h a p>ticul> t5d]ness = ! feeble/ ( _! *ildr51 or ^? t h giv5 mo/ tr\ble4 ,if pref]5ce is at all ju/ifiable x is 9 ?is case4 ,aft] hav+ e/abli%$ ! g5]al pr9ciple ( ! duties ( ! head ( a family1 namely1 love1 & an equal love1 = all 8 *ildr51 let u consid] ! p>ticul> duties ?is g5]al duty comprises4 ,!y be> ^u two pr9cipal po9ts3 ! pres]vation & ! education ( ! *ildr54 ,we h se5 t ! fact ( giv+ life to *ildr51 c>ries ) x z an inevitable consequ5ce ! duty ( pres]v+ x to !m4 ,! *ild n be+ able to provide its own food1 ! p>5ts mu/ furni% x3 ?is results f ! v nature ( ?+s4 ,:5ce x foll[s1 t a fa!r mu/ "w to provide = 8 *ildr53 ?is is s evid5t & necess>y a duty t !re is h>dly any ne$ ( dwell+ on x4 ,b x is n only = ! pres5t t ! head ( ! family ought to provide2 he %\ld provide = ! future also4 ,he %\ld1 on ! "o h&1 =esee ! case :51 by "s possible mis=tune1 he may be tak5 f 8 *ildr5 be=e !y are gr[n2 & on ! o!r1 prep>e ! way to _! provid+ = !mselves4 ,! fir/ case %[s u h[ economy & prud5ce become ?us a sacr$ duty = ! head ( a family4 ,?is also expla9s h[ x may be a duty 9 contract+ a m>riage n to lose sight ( ! "q ( prop]ty3 n t ?is consid]ation %\ld n give way be=e o!rs m important2 b o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! be/ m>riage is t :i*1 keep+ 9 view ! future int]e/s ( ! *ildr51 provides aga9/ ! case :5 by "s mis=tune !y may be left orphans at an e>ly age4 ,9 suppos+ ! mo/ favorable cases1 ! fa!r & "m may hope t !y w live long en\gh to see _! *ildr5 becom+ 9 _! turn indep5d5t p]sons1 able to provide = !mselves4 ,x is 9 view ( ?is1 t p>5ts %\ld plan a pr(ession or a c>e] = _! *ildr52 9 mo/ cases1 x is a necessity1 x is exp$i5t 9 all4 ,b ! prep>ation = a c>e] presupposes education2 & "h ! mat]ial int]e/s & security ( ! *ildr5 bl5d ) _! intellectual & moral int]e/s4 ,ev]ybody recognizes 9 ! education ( *ildr5 two di/9ct ?+s3 in/ruction & education prop]ly s call$3 ! fir/ has = its object ! m9d2 & ! second ! "*4 ,^! two ?+s mu/ n be sep>at$3 =1 )\t in/ruction1 all education is p[]less2 & )\t a moral education1 in/ruction may be dang]\s4 ,p>5ts %\ld !n--& x is a /rict duty--give to _! *ildr5 ! in/ruction _! res\rces & condition all[2 b !y are n p]mitt$ to leave !m 9 ignorance if !y h ! means to educate !m4 ,"s n>r[ m9ds /ill believe t in/ruction is ( no use to ! p1 & is ev5 a dang]\s ?+4 ,?is has be5 suffici5tly refut$4 ,! greate/ numb] ( crimes & (f5ses are committ$ by ! mo/ ignorant classes3 ! m !y le>n1 ! bett] w !y und]/& ! duties ( _! condition & ! dignity ( human nature4 ,x has be5 ju/ly said t little k may be m dang]\s ?an ignorance3 = ?is reason %\ld m5 be rais$ above ! dang]\s po9t1 & be put 9 possession ( z mu* k z _! condition w>rants4 ,in/ruction has two useful effects3 fir/1 x increases ! res\rces ( a man1 r5d]s him bett] qualifi$ = a great] v>iety ( ?+s2 x is !n1 z political economy /yles x1 a capital4 ,p>5ts1 9 hav+ _! *ildr5 taught1 give !m !reby a f> m sub/antial & productive capital ?an :at !y c\ld transmit to !m by gift or legacy4 ,9 ! second place1 in/ruction elevates man & ennobles 8 nature4 ,if x is reason t di/+ui%es man f ! brute1 k enl>ges & height5s reason4 ,in/ruction ?us works toge!r ) moral education & =ms "o ( its ess5tial p>ts4 ,! head ( a family :o !n1 f p]sonal int]e/1 neglig5ce1 ill-w1 or1 9 f9e1 f ignorance1 deprives 8 *ildr5 ( ! in/ruction :i* is _! due1 fails !reby 9 an ess5tial duty4#gi ,x mu/1 moreov]1 be admitt$1 t in/ruction alone does n suffice2 sci5ce alone does n =m "*2 p]suasion1 au?ority1 example1 ! moral action ( e in/ant is necess>y !reto4 ,x is a great problem to "k h[ mu* ( fe> & g5tl5ess1 re/ra9t & lib]ty %\ld ent] 9 pat]nal education4 ,all agree t a *ild %\ld n be br\ght up ?r\gh fe> alone1 z ! animals are4 ,z ,f5elon admirably puts x1 ,joy & confid5ce %\ld be ! natural /ate ( m9d ( *ildr52 o!rwise _! intellig5ce becomes obscur$1 _! c\rage droops2 if !y are lively1 fe> w irritate !m2 if s(t1 x w make !m /upid2 fe> is l ! viol5t rem$ies employ$ 9 extreme illnesses3 !y purge2 b !y injure ! con/itution & we> out its organs2 a s\l l$ by fe> is always ! feebl] = x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ev]ybody admits also t an excessive indulg5ce is z dang]\s z a despotic au?ority4 ,r\sseau +5u\sly rem>ks3 ,! be/ means ( mak+ y\r *ild mis]able is to accu/om x to obta9+ all x wants2 = its desires w incessantly gr[ ) ! facility ) :i* x c satisfy !m2 soon] or lat] ! inability to cont5t x1 w1 despite y\rself1 oblige y to refuse1 & ?is unexpect$ d5ial w give x m pa9 ?an ! deprivation ( ! ?+ itself4 ,fir/ x w want ! cane y h 9 y\r h&2 !n y\r wat*2 !n ! bird 9 ! air2 ! bright /> 9 ! sky2 9 %ort1 all t x sees3 & unless y 7 a god1 h[ c\ld y satisfy x8 ,?is rem>k ( ,r\sseau ref]s to ! e>lie/ *ildhood1 b x c be appli$ to all ages4 ,x is evid5t t all ! duties we h "h m5tion$ relate pr9cipally to ! fir/ ( ! ?ree p]iods di/+ui%$ by ,grotius4 ,z ! *ildr5 gr[ up1 _! own p]sonal responsibility gradually takes ! place ( ! pat]nal responsibility1 & !re comes ! "t ( ! ?ird /ate above m5tion$1 :5 bo? fa!r & "m no long] owe _! *ildr5 any ?+ m ?an love or advice4 ,in/ead ( be+ answ]able = _! exi/5ce1 x is r ! rev]se4 ,x is ! *ildr5's turn to become responsible = ! happ9ess & safety ( _! p>5ts4 ,b1 z we h said1 ! really difficult mom5t is t :5 ! "y man1 awak5+ to himself1 becomes consci\s ( a w1 &1 )\t exp]i5ce & s5se ( proportion1 wi%es to ex]cise ?is w )\t re/ra9t4 ,x is "h especially t ! pat]nal w mu/ %[ itself firm )\t despotism1 & p]suasive )\t flatt]y & weakness1 & :]e x becomes necess>y t ! pat]nal au?ority be firmly root$ 9 ! fir/ age & ^u solid f\ndations1 s t ! "y man1 ev5 9 8 fits ( self-w1 may submit to ?is au?ority ) confid5ce & respect4 ,!re is no p>ticul> =mula :i* c\ld set =? a rule ( conduct obligatory "u all circum/ances4 ,tact 9 ?is case is bett] ?an rules4 #abg4 ,duties ( *ildr54--,! ,g]man philosoph] ,fi*te1 9 8 book on ,e?ics1 has said "s v good ?+s t\*+ ! duties ( *ildr52 we w cite f x "s ( ! pages devot$ to ?is subject4#hj ,! "r ( p>5ts to set limits to ! lib]ty ( _! *ildr5 _c be que/ion$4 ,i %\ld respect ! lib]ty ( ano!r man1 because ,i reg>d him z a be+ morally educat$1 ^: lib]ty is ! necess>y means :]eby he may rea* ! end reason po9ts out to him4 ,i _c be 8 judge1 = he is my equal4 ,b x is n ! same 9 ! case ( my *ild4 ,i reg>d my *ild n z a moral creature already =m$1 b to be =m$2 & x is precisely = ?is reason t x is my duty to educate x4 ,! same reason :i* comm&s me to respect ! lib]ty ( my equals1 comm&s me to limit t ( my *ild4 ,b ,i am to limit ?is lib]ty only 9 s f> z ! use ! *ild may make ( x might be injuri\s to ! v end ( its education4 ,any o!r repression is contr>y to duty1 = x is contr>y to ! end 9 view4 ,x is ! v lib]ty ( ! *ild :i* mu/ be in/ruct$2 & t ?is in/ruction be possible1 ! *ild mu/ be free4 ,p>5ts %\ld n1 !re=e1 ?r\gh m]e caprice1 =bid *ildr51 ) a view1 z is said1 to break _! w3 x is only :]e ! w w\ld run c\nt] to ! direct aims ( _! education t x %\ld be brok54 ,"h1 h[ev]1 p>5ts mu/ be ! sole judges2 & are answ]able to _! consci5ce alone4 ,! only duty ( ! *ild1 says ,fi*te aga91 is ob$i5ce3 ?is %\ld be develop$ be=e any o!r moral s5tim5t2 = x is ! root ( all morality4 ,lat] on1 :5 9 ! sph]e left free by ! p>5ts1 morality has become possible1 ! duty ( ob$i5ce is /ill ! greate/ ( all duties1 ! *ild %\ld n wi% to be free beyond ! limits fix$ by ! p>5ts !mselves4 ,fi*te expla9s next v +5i\sly1 h[ ob$i5ce is ! only way by :i* ! *ild c imitate ! morality x _c yet "k3 ,! same relation :i* b9ds ! full-gr[n man to ! moral law1 & to its au?or1 ,god1 b9ds ! *ild to its p>5ts4 ,we %\ld d all t duty comm&s u to d1 absolutely & )\t tr\bl+ ourselves ab\t consequ5ces2 b to be able to d ?is1 we mu/ suppose ^! consequ5ces to be 9 ! h&s ( ,god1 & int5d$ = our good3 ! same ) ! *ild 9 reg>d to p>5tal comm&s4 ,*ri/ianity repres5ts ,god 9 ! image ( a fa!r1 & ju/ly s4 ,b we %\ld n simply be satisfi$ always & incessantly to speak ( 8 goodness2 we %\ld also ?9k ( our obligations t[>d him2 ( our ob$i5ce1 & t *ildlike tru/ free f all anxiety & uneas9ess :i* we ought to cultivate 9 reg>d to 8 w4 ,to create a simil> ob$i5ce is ! only means by :i* p>5ts may implant ! s5tim5t ( morality 9 ! he>ts ( _! *ildr53 x is1 !re=e1 a real duty = p>5ts to ex]cise _! *ildr5 9 a simil> ob$i5ce4 ,x is a v false notion1 :i*1 l _m o!rs1 we owe to ! rul+ eudemonism#ha ( ! day1 t wrong incl9ations ( ! *ild c be ?w>t$ by reason+ ) x4 ,!re is impli$ 9 ?is notion ! absurdity ( suppos+ ! *ild to be possess$ ( a great] %>e ( reason+ p[] ?an ourselves3 = ev5 adults are mo/ ( ! "t prompt$ 9 _! acts by incl9ation1 & n by reason4#hb ,ano!r "q pres5ts itself n[3 ,h[ f>1 9 its relation to its p>5ts1 %\ld ! *ild's absolute ob$i5ce g8 ,?is "q may h two sides3 ! "o z to ! ext5t ( ?is ob$i5ce1 & ! o!r z to its limits2 h[ f> x %\ld g2 or 9 reg>d to l5g? ( "t1 h[ long x %all la/1 &1 if x is to cease at all1 at :at p>ticul> "t x is to /op8 ,9 ! fir/ case1 ! "q may be rais$ ei!r f ! *ild's or f ! p>5ts' /&po9t4 ,on ! "p ( ! *ild x %\ld nev] be rais$4 ,! answ] is ?is3 ,! *ild %\ld obey1 & its ob$i5ce consi/s 9 its n wi%+ to h any m lib]ty ?an its p>5ts p]mit x to h4 ,( ! necess>y limits ( ?is ob$i5ce1 ! p>5ts c alone judge2 ! *ild _c4 ,! doctr9e t ! *ild %\ld obey 9 all reasonable cases1 z we (t5 he> x said1 is a contradictory "o4 ,he :o only obeys 9 reasonable cases does n obey1 = he becomes himself !n ! judge ( :at is reasonable & :at is n4 ,if he does any ?+ suitable because he judges x to be s1 he acts accord+ to 8 own conviction1 & n f ob$i5ce4 ,:e!r ?is ob$i5ce :i* !y exact be reasonable or n1 x is = ! p>5ts to answ] = x be=e _! own consci5ces2 b !y %\ld n all[ _! *ildr5 to sit 9 judgm5t ov] !m4 ,b1 x may be ask$1 suppose ! p>5ts comm& _! *ildr5 to d an immoral ?+8 ,i answ]3 ,ei!r ! immorality ( x is only discov]$ aft] a labori\s inve/igation1 or x is obvi\s4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 !re c be no difficulty2 = ! ob$i5t *ild does n suspect 8 p>5ts capable ( comm&+ him to d any wrong4 ,9 ! second1 ! v basis ( ob$i5ce--namely1 ! belief 9 ! sup]ior morality ( ! p>5ts--is de/roy$2 & !n a prolong$ ob$i5ce w\ld be contr>y to duty4 ,! same :5 ! immorality or ! %ame ( ! p>5ts is self-evid5t 9 ! *ildr5's eyes4 ,ob$i5ce !n ceases because education ?r\gh ! p>5ts becomes impossible4 ,! second "q is3 ,h[ long does ! duty ( ob$i5ce la/8 ,! answ] to ?is is3 ,ob$i5ce1 9 ! fir/ place1 is only exact$ 9 view ( education2 & education is a means to an end2 t end be+ ! utilization ( ! *ild's p[]s = "s reasonable purpose1 "u :atev] circum/ances or ?r\gh :atev] mode4 ,:5 t end has be5 atta9$1 ! *ild _c judge3 x is = ! p>5ts to decide4 ,n[ two cases are possible "h3 ,"o is :]e ! fa!r himself decl>es ! end atta9$ & leaves 8 *ildr5 free to act accord+ to _! own w & judgm5t4 ,! o!r is :]e a c]ta9 result is suffici5t to decl>e ! end atta9$4 ,! ,/ate is 9 ?is in/ance a compet5t outside judge4 ,= example1 if ! ,/ate entru/s an (fice to a son1 x decl>es ! latt]'s education complet$2 ! judgm5t ( ! ,/ate is ! p>5ts' judicial bond3 !y mu/ submit to x )\t appeal3 x b9ds !m also morally1 & !y mu/ submit to x f a s5se ( duty4 ,!re is f9ally a ?ird case3 ?is is :]e p>5tal education is no long] possible1 z1 = example1 on ! m>riage ( ! *ildr54 ,! daught] !n gives h]self to h] husb& & becomes subject to 8 w3 %e c !re=e no long] dep5d ^u h] p>5ts' w4 ,! son assumes ! c>e ( 8 wife1 con=mably to h] wi%es2 he c !re=e no long] be guid$ by o!rs' wi%es1 n ev5 by ^? ( 8 p>5ts4 ,^! ?ree cases d n yet exhau/ ! "q2 = we may suppose a f\r?3 ! "o :]e ! *ildr5 are n call$ to a function1 by ! ,/ate2 :5 !y d n m>ry1 & :5 ! p>5ts are nev]!less unwill+ to relax _! au?ority1 seem+ly wi%+ to uphold ! ob$i5ce ( e>ly *ildhood4 ,9 ?is case1 ! p>5ts evid5tly ov]/ep _! rights2 = x is obvi\s t at a giv5 "t man mu/ belong to himself4 ,?is "t has be5 fix$ by ! ,/ate2 :i* det]m9es :5 "o atta9s to 8 majority4 ,9 grant+ to a son ! free disposal ( 8 prop]ty1 ! lib]ty to make contracts1 to traffic1 ! "r ( suffrage1 ! "r to m>ry1 etc41 ! ,/ate puts an end to pat]nal au?ority z an au?ority arm$ ) re/ra9t1 yet c]ta9ly n z a moral au?ority1 = 9 ?is respect x is indelible4 ,! son hav+ become a p]son1 & be+ 9 8 turn inve/$ ) moral responsibility1 may lay ob$i5ce aside1 b he does n ) ?is lay aside ! respect1 gratitude1 & affection he owes 8 p>5ts4 ,ev5 aft] ! emancipation ( ! *ildr51 !re /ill exi/s betwe5 !m & _! p>5ts a moral tie4 ,p>5ts1 especially if !y h be51 z we suppose1 ! educators ( _! *ildr51 "k _! inn] be+1 _! disposition3 !y h se5 x develop "u _! eyes2 !y h =m$ x4 ,!y !re=e "k x bett] ?an ! *ildr5 !mselves c "k x4 ,!y consequ5tly cont9ue to be _! be/ advis]s4 ,!re is !n left to p>5ts a special duty1 namely1 t ( advis+ _! *ildr51 & on ! "p ( ! *ildr5 a correlative duty1 t ( li/5+ att5tively to ! advice ( _! p>5ts1 & ( consid]+ x c>efully4 ,?us d p>5ts reta9 _! c>e & solicitude = _! *ildr51 & ! *ildr5 ! duty ( respect4 ,^! duties ( respect & gratitude t[>d p>5ts h be5 admirably express$ by ! anci5t writ]s4 ,plato1 aft] speak+ ( ! honor :i* %\ld be giv5 to ! gods1 says3 ,next comes ! honor ( liv+ p>5ts1 to :om1 z is meet1 we h to pay ! fir/ & greate/ & olde/ ( all debts1 consid]+ t all :i* a man has belongs to ^? :o gave him bir? & br\ght him up1 & t he mu/ d all t he c to m9i/] to !m3 fir/1 9 8 prop]ty2 secondly1 9 8 p]son2 & ?irdly1 9 8 s\l2 pay+ ! debts due to !m = ! c>e & travail :i* !y be/[$ ^u him ( old1 9 ! days ( 8 infancy1 & :i* he is n[ to pay back to !m :5 !y are old & 9 ! extremity ( _! ne$4 ,& all 8 life long he ought nev] to utt]1 or to h utt]$1 an unbecom+ ^w to !m2 = all light & w+$ words he w h to give an acc\nt2 ,nemesis1 ! mess5g] ( ju/ice1 is appo9t$ to wat* ov] !m4 ,& we ought to yield to our p>5ts :5 !y are angry1 & let !m satisfy _! feel+s 9 ^w or de$1 consid]+ t1 :5 a fa!r ?9ks t he has be5 wrong$ by 8 son1 he may be expect$ to be v angry4#hc ,x5ophon1 likewise1 relates to u an admirable exhortation ( ,socrates to 8 olde/ son ,lamprocles1 on filial piety4 ,x is well kn[n t ! wife ( ,socrates1 ,xantippe1 0 not$ = h] crabb$ disposition1 :i* (t5 sorely tri$ ,socrates' pati5ce4 ,no d\bt ?is 0 ! case ) ! sons also2 b1 less pati5t ?an _! fa!r1 !y yield$ sometimes to _! ang]4 ,socrates recalls ,lamprocles to 8 duty z a son1 enum]at+ to him all t mo!rs h to endure = _! *ildr53 ,! woman receives & be>s ! burd51 oppress+ & endang]+ h] life1 & imp>t+ a portion ( ! nutrim5t ) :i* %e is h]self support$2 & at l5g?1 aft] be>+ x ! full "t1 & br++ x =? ) great pa91 %e suckles & *]i%es x1 ?\gh %e has receiv$ no previ\s b5efit f x1 nor does ! infant "k by :om x is t5d$1 nor is x able to signify :at x wants1 b %e1 conjectur+ :at w n\ri% & please x1 tries to satisfy its calls1 & fe$s x = a long "t1 bo? night & day1 submitt+ to ! tr\ble1 & n kn[+ :at return %e w receive = x4 ,nor does x satisfy ! p>5ts m]ely to fe$ _! (fspr+1 b z soon z ! *ildr5 appe> capable ( le>n+ any ?+1 !y tea* !m :atev] !y "k t may be ( use = _! conduct 9 life2 & :5ev] !y consid] ano!r m capable ( communicat+ ?an !mselves1 !y s5d _! sons to him at _! own exp5se1 & take c>e to adopt e c\rse t _! *ildr5 may be z mu* improv$ z possible4 ,^u ?is ! "y man said3 ,b1 ev5 if %e has done all ?is1 no "o1 assur$ly1 c\ld endure h] ill-humor4 ,& d y reflect1 return$ ,socrates1 h[ mu* griev\s tr\ble y h giv5 h] by y\r peevi%ness1 by voice & by action1 9 ! day & 9 ! night1 & h[ mu* anxiety y h caus$ h] :5 y 7 ill8444 ,or d y suppose y\r "m m$itates evil t[>d y8 ,no1 inde$1 said ,lamprocles1 t ,i d n suppose4 ,d y !n say t ?is "m1 rejo9$ ,socrates1 :o is s b5evol5t to y1 :o1 :5 y are ill1 takes c>e ( y1 to ! utmo/ ( h] p[]1 t y may recov] y\r heal?1 & :o1 besides1 entreats ! gods = _m bless+s on y\r head1 is a h>% "m8 ,oh1 my son1 if y are wise1 y w entreat ! gods to p>don y if y h be5 want+ 9 respect t[>d y\r "m1 le/1 reg>d+ y z an ungrateful p]son1 !y %\ld be dis9cl9$ to d y good2 & y w h reg>d1 also1 to ! op9ion ( m51 le/1 obs]v+ y to be neglectful ( y\r p>5ts1 !y %\ld all contemn y1 & y %\ld !n be f\nd de/itute ( fri5ds2 = if m5 surmise t y are ungrateful t[>d y\r p>5ts1 no "o w believe t if he does y a k9dness he w meet ) gratitude 9 return4#hd ,al?\gh *ildr51 :5 ( age1 belong legally to !mselves1 !re are yet two s]i\s circum/ances1 :]e !y %\ld exhau/ all ! =ms ( respect & submission be=e !y make a h>% use ( ! rights :i* ! law grants !m3 ^! are m>riage1 & ! *oice ( a pr(ession4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 bo? ! law & morality require ! cons5t ( ! p>5ts2 & x is only z a la/ extremity1 & aft] ?ree respectful appeals to !m1 t proce$+s may g on4 ,"h aga91 al?\gh ! law p]mits x1 x may be said t1 except 9 extreme & exceptional cases1 x is always bett] n to proce$1 b wait till "s *ange ( circum/ances br+s ab\t a *ange 9 ! m9d ( ! p>5ts4 ,9 fact1 ! p>5ts' resi/ance 9 ^! cases is g5]ally 9 ! int]e/ ( ! *ildr52 !y wi% to protect !m aga9/ ! impulses ( _! passions4 ,!y h1 besides1 a sort ( "r to int]dict ! admission into ! family & ! tak+ ( its "n to any "o t might be unwor?y ( ^! favors4 ,! obligation n to m>ry )\t ! cons5t ( ! p>5ts 7except 9 extreme cases7 does n c>ry ) x ! obligation ( m>ry+ aga9/ "o's w 9 ord] to obey !m4 ,?is w\ld be ! violation ( a duty t[>d o!rs2 y h no "r to jeop>dize ! happ9ess ( a ?ird p>ty1 t y might on y\r side practice ! duty ( ob$i5ce4 ,to m>ry ) repugnance is contr>y to duty1 = x is ent]+ into ! bonds ( an unhappy union4 ,z to ! *oice ( a pr(ession1 ! obligation to con=m to ! desires & ! w ( ! p>5ts is less /rict ?an 9 m>riage2 & x is obvi\s t ! fir/1 ! /rict] duty "h1 is to *oose ! pr(ession "o is be/ fitt$ =4 ,b z !re is "h also1 on ! side ( ! *ildr51 mu* inexp]i5ce 7z among ! v>i\s pr(essions !re are "s v difficult1 ev5 dang]\s ones1 :]e success is (t5 v r>e1 & :i* = ?is reason are all ! m tempt+71 x is cle> t 9 su* a case x is ! *ildr5's duty1 except :]e !re is an irresi/ible proclivity1 to all[ !mselves to be guid$ by a m enlight5$ & m prud5t exp]i5ce4 ,at any rate1 ! /rict duty is to conf] ) ! p>5ts1 consult _! sup]ior wisdom1 & delay z mu* z possible a f9al resolve4 ,^! pr9ciples once set d[n1 x is c]ta9 t1 on ! o!r h&1 "o %\ld n1 to obey "o's p>5ts1 foll[ a pr(ession "o felt no capacity = :atsoev]4 ,!re ! duties t[>d society & t[>d "o's self take prec$5ce ( ! family duties4 #abh4 ,frat]nal duties4--,socrates1 :o has spok5 s well ( ! duties ( husb&s & wives & ! duties ( *ildr51 %all "h aga9 be our guide z to ! duties ( bro!rs & si/]s4 ,two bro!rs1 ,*aesephon & ,*aesecrates1 did n live well toge!r4 ,socrates tri$ to reconcile !m ) ea* o!r by an exhortation1 ( :i* ! foll[+ gives ! pr9cipal po9ts3#he #a4 ,bro!rs are bett] ?an ri*es2 = !y are ?+s end[$ ) reason1 :il/ weal? is b a s5seless ?+2 bro!rs are a protection2 ri*es1 on ! contr>y1 ne$ protection4 #b4 ,"o _h r live ) fell[-citiz5s ?an live alone2 h[ mu* m w\ld "o n r live ) bro!rs4 #c4 ,is n ! be+ born ( ! same p>5ts1 ! hav+ be5 br\ght up toge!r1 v /rong reasons to love "o ano!r8 ,ev5 among brutes a c]ta9 affection spr+s up betwe5 ^? t are rais$ toge!r4 #d4 ,ev5 ?\gh our bro!rs be ( dispositions difficult to live )1 we %\ld make advances to br+ !m ne>] to u4 #e4 ,x is = ! y\nge/ to make advances to ! olde/4 ,a mod]n morali/1 ,silvio ,pellico1#hf expresses mo/ delicately ! duties ( bro!rs & si/]s 9 _! int]c\rse ) ea* o!r3 ,to practice prop]ly1 9 "o's relations ) m51 ! div9e sci5ce ( *>ity1 "o mu/ h le>n$ x at home4 ,:at ineffable sweetness is !re 9 ! ?\ght3 ',we are ! *ildr5 ( ! same "m6444' ,if y wi% to be a good bro!r1 bew>e ( selfi%ness4 ,let ea* ( y\r bro!rs1 ea* ( y\r si/]s1 see t _! int]e/s are z de> to y z y\r own4 ,if "o ( !m commits a fault1 be indulg5t to x4 ,rejoice ov] _! virtues2 imitate !m4 ,! famili>ity ( ! fireside %\ld nev] make y =get to be c\rte\s t[>d y\r bro!rs4 ,be /ill m c\rte\s t[>d y\r si/]s4 ,_! sex is end[$ ) a p[]ful attraction2 x is a div9e gift :i* !y use to make ! h\se pleasant & *e]ful4 ,y w f9d 9 y\r si/]s ! delici\s *>m ( womanly virtues2 & s9ce nature has made !m m feeble & s5sitive ?an y1 be att5tive to !m 9 _! tr\bles1 console !m1 & d n cause !m any unnecess>y pa94 ,^? :o contract ! habit ( be+ ill-natur$ & rude t[>d _! bro!rs & si/]s1 are rude & ill-natur$ t[>d ev]ybody else4 ,if ! home-int]c\rse is t5d] & true1 man w exp]i5ce 9 8 o!r social relations ! same ne$ ( e/eem & noble affections4 #abi4 ,duties ( ma/]s t[>d _! s]vants4--,"o ( ! mo/ important functions ( home adm9i/ration1 is ! managem5t ( dome/ics4 ,x comprises two ?+s3 *oice & direction4 ,x is well kn[n h[ important 9 a h\sehold ! *oice ( s]vants is2 z x is !y :o att5d to ! m>ket+ & pay ! bills1 s t ! f9ances ( ! h\se are1 to "s ext5t1 9 _! h&s4#hg ,b ?is is b "o ( ! less] features ( ! influ5ce ( s]vants 9 a h\sehold2 ! mo/ s]i\s "o is _! famili> int]c\rse ) ! *ildr52 & x is !re especially t x becomes necess>y to make sure ( _! fidelity & hone/y4 ,yet to make a c>eful & successful *oice is ( no use1 if "o is ignorant ( ! art ( direct+ & gov]n+1 :i* consi/s 9 a j m$ium betwe5 too mu* l5ity & too mu* sev]ity4 ,! ma/] ( ! h\se %\ld1 ( c\rse1 always h 8 eyes op51 b he %\ld also "k t no human be+ le>ns to d ?+s well1 if he is n all[$ to act ) "s sort ( fre$om4 ,surveillance & confid5ce are ! two pr9ciples ( a wise dome/ic gov]nm5t4 ,)\t ! fir/1 "o is apt to be *eat$2 )\t ! second1 "o *eats "o's self 9 depriv+ ! s]vant ( ! mo/ en]getic elem5ts ( human w1 responsibility & honor4#hh ,! ma/]1 aga91 %\ld avoid be+ viol5t & brutal t[>d 8 s]vants4 ,he %\ld require ( !m all t is j1 yet )\t pu%+ 8 requirem5ts to ! po9t ( p]secution4 ,_m p]sons deprive !mselves ( good s]vants1 because !y _c pati5tly be> ) ! inevitable defects inh]5t 9 human nature4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! s]vant owes 8 ma/]3 #a1 an absolute hone/y4 ,z x is ! s]vants :o d ! m>ket+ & pay ! bills1 !y h ! funds ( ! family 9 _! h&s4 ,! m "o is oblig$ to tru/ !m ! m are !y b\nd to re/ra9 !mselves f ! slighte/ act ( di%one/y4 #b4 ,!y owe ob$i5ce & exactness 9 ! duties p]ta9+ to _! s]vice4 #c4 ,!y %\ld1 z mu* z possible1 atta* !mselves to ! p]sons ^: s]vice !y h ent]$2 ! long] !y /ay ) !m1 ! m w !y be consid]$ z "p ( ! family1 & ! great] w be _! "r to ! reg>d & affection due to age & fidelity4 #acj4 ,duties ( *ildr5 t[>d s]vants4--,x is n only ! ma/] & mi/ress ( ! h\se t h duties to fulfill t[>d s]vants1 b ! *ildr5 also4 ,! latt] are1 9 g5]al1 too mu* dispos$ to treat s]vants z in/rum5ts ( _! wi%es & ! play?+s ( _! caprices4 ,al?\gh slav]y is no long] all[$1 "s *ildr51 if let alone1 w\ld v soon re-e/abli% x = _! own b5efit4 ,to comm&1 insult1 beat1 are ! n uncommon modes ( proc$ure ) *ildr5 t are left entirely free 9 _! relations ) inf]iors4 ,! latt]1 on ! o!r h&1 d n hesitate to employ =ce1 9 ! abs5ce ( ! ma/]s1 & pass readily f slav]y to tyranny4 ,all su* conduct is repreh5sible4 ,! s]vant %\ld nev] be all[$ to /rike2 b he %\ld himself n be /ruck or insult$4 ,9 *ildhood1 x is = ! p>5ts to ov]see ! relations betwe5 _! s]vants & *ildr54 ,lat] x is = ! *ildr5 !mselves1 :5 !y h rea*$ ! age ( reason1 to "k t !y mu/ n treat s]vants l brutes4 ,! same obs]vations may be appli$ to workm51 9 circum/ances :]e workm5 are 9 "s respect 9 ! s]vice ( ! family4 ,al?\gh s]vants are no long] slaves1 nor ev5 s]fs1 "o may /ill1 modify+ its mean+1 quote ,s5eca's admirable prote/ation aga9/ slav]y3 ,!y are slaves6 r say !y are m56 ,!y are slaves6 ,n any m ?an ?\6 ,he :om ?\ calle/ a slave1 0 born ( ! same se$ z ?yself2 he enjoys ! same sky1 brea!s ! same air1 lives & dies ! same z ?\4 ,s5eca closes ?is eloqu5t apo/rophe ) a maxim recall+ ! ,gospel3 ,live ) ?y inf]iors1 z ?\ w\ld/ ?y sup]ior %\ld live ) !e4 ,z to ! duties ( s]vants to _! ma/]s1 !y belong to ! class ( pr(essional duties :i* we %all take up fur!r on 7,*ap4 ,,xiii474 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,duties ,,t[>d ,,"o',s ,,self--,,duties ,,relative ,,to ,,! ,,body4 ,,summ>y4 ,h we duties t[>d ourselves8--,! p]son ( a man %\ld n only be sacr$ to o!rs1 x also %\ld be s to himself4 ,ev5 ?\gh man ceas$ to be 9 any relation ) o!r m5 7z1 = example1 9 a des]t isl&71 he w\ld /ill h duties to p]=m4 ,! duty ( self-pres]vation4--,suicide4--,argum5ts ( ,r\sseau = & aga9/ suicide4 ,! diff]5t /&po9ts f :i* "o may condemn suicide3 #a1 ei!r z contr>y to ! duties t[>d m52 #b1 or to ! duties t[>d ,god2 #c1 or1 la/ly1 to ! duties t[>d ourselves4 ,kant's fundam5tal argum5t aga9/ suicide3 ,man _c abdicate 8 p]sonality z long z he has duties to p]=m1 :i* is ! same z to say1 z long z he lives4 ,case ( consci5ce4--,n to conf\nd suicide ) self-sacrifice4 ,( volunt>y mutilations & ( ! duty to avoid injur+ "o's heal?4 ,t ?is duty %\ld be und]/ood 9 a wide s5se1 & n z an enc\ragem5t to con/ant preoccupation ab\t ! condition ( "o's body4 ,( cleanl9ess4 ,o!r duties conc]n+ ! body4--,temp]ance4--,temp]ance recomm5d$ = two reasons3 #a1 z necess>y to heal?1 & consequ5tly z a coroll>y to ! duty ( self-pres]vation2 #b1 z necess>y to human dignity1 :i*1 ?r\gh intemp]ance1 falls bel[ ! brute4 ,( ! mod]ate use ( s5sual pleasures4 ,t we %\ld elevate !m by atta*+ to !m ideas & s5tim5ts4 ,o!r virtues3 ,dec5cy1 mode/y1 propriety1 etc4 #aca4 ,h we duties t[>d ourselves8--,?is has be5 disput$1 & x seems r /range t x %\ld h be54 ,no "o1 say ! juri/s1 b9ds himself to himself2 no "o does himself inju/ice1 !y say aga94 ,9 %ort1 man belongs to himself3 is n t ! fir/ ( own]%ips1 & ! basis ( all ! o!rs8 ,no1 replies ,victor ,c\s91 f man's be+ free & belong+ to himself1 x is n to be conclud$ t he has all p[] ov] himself4 ,f ! fact alone t he is end[$ ) bo? lib]ty & intellig5ce1 ,i1 on ! contr>y1 conclude t he _c1 )\t fail+ 9 8 duty1 degrade 8 lib]ty any m ?an he c degrade 8 intellig5ce4 ,lib]ty is n only sacr$ to o!rs2 x is s 9 itself4 ,?is obligation impos$ on ! moral p]sonality to respect itself1 x is n ,i :o e/abli%$ x2 ,i _c1 !re=e1 de/roy x4 ,is ! respect ,i h = myself f\nd$ on "o ( ^? arbitr>y agreem5ts :i* cease to be :5 ! two p>ties freely r5\nce x8 ,are ! two contract+ p>ties "h ,i & myself8 ,no2 !re is "o ( ! p>ties t is n ,i1 namely1 humanity itself1 ! moral p]sonality1 ! human ess5ce :i* does n belong to me1 :i* is n my prop]ty1 :i* ,i c no m degrade or w\nd 9 myself ?an ,i c 9 o!rs4 ,!re is n ev5 any agreem5t "h or contract4 ,f9ally1 man w\ld /ill h duties1 ev5 ?\gh he ceas$ to be 9 any relation ) o!r m54 ,z long z he has any intellig5ce & lib]ty left1 ! idea ( "r rema9s 9 him1 & ) t idea1 duty4 ,if he 7 all at once ?r[n ^u a des]t isl&1 duty w\ld /ill foll[ him !re4#hi ,kant has likewise def5d$ ! exi/5ce ( ! duties ( man t[>d himself4 ,suppos+1 he says1 t !re 7 no duties ( ?is k9d1 !re w\ld n be any duties !n ( any k9d2 = ,i c only ?9k myself "u obligations to o!rs1 s f> z ,i am "u obligations to myself4444 ,?us d p say1 :5 ! "q is to save a man or 8 life3 ,i owe ?is to myself2 ,i owe x to myself to cultivate su* dispositions ( m9d z make ( me a fit memb] ( society 7,doctr9e de la v]tu1 trad4 franc4 de ,b>ni1 p4 #gj74 #acb4 ,duties conc]n+ ! body4--,duty ( self-pres]vation4--,! duties t[>d "o's self are g5]ally divid$ into two classes3 duties t[>d ! body1 duties t[>d ! s\l4 ,kant ju/ly criticis$ ?is di/9ction1 & asks h[ c !re be any obligations t[>d ! body--t is to say1 t[>d a mass ( matt]--:i*1 ap>t f ! s\l1 is no?+ bett] ?an any ( ! r\gh bodies :i* surr\nd u4 ,kant proposes to sub/itute = ?is di/9ction ! foll[+3 duties ( man t[>d himself z an animal 7t is1 unit$ to animality by ! corporeal functions71 & ! duties ( man t[>d himself z a moral be+4 ,consid]$ z an animal1 man is unit$ to a body1 & ?is union ( s\l & body is :at is call$ life4 ,h5ce a fir/ duty :i* may be consid]$ a fundam5tal duty1 & ! basis ( all ! o!rs1 namely1 ! duty ( self-pres]vation4 ,x is1 9 fact1 obvi\s t ! fulfillm5t ( all our o!r duties re/s on ?is prior "o4 ,be=e be+ a duty1 self-pres]vation is = man an in/9ct1 & ev5 s en]getic & s univ]sal an in/9ct t !re w\ld seem to be v little ne$ to trans=m x into duty3 s mu* s is x an in/9ct t man has r to combat 9 himself ! c[>dly t5d5cy :i* atta*es him to life1 ?an t :i* induces him to seek dea?4 ,yet does x happ51 & un=tunately too (t51 t m51 craz$ by despair1 come to believe t !y h a "r to free !mselves ( life3 ?is is :at is call$ suicide4 ,x is1 !re=e1 v important 9 morals to combat ?is fatal idea1 & to tea* m5 t1 ev5 ?\gh life ceases to be a pleasure1 !re is /ill a moral obligation :i* !y _c escape4 #acc4 ,suicide4--,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau & ,kant4--,! "q ( suicide 0 treat$ ) great ability by ,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau 9 "o ( 8 mo/ celebrat$ works4 ,he put into ! m\? ( two p]sonages1 on ! "o side1 ! apology =1 & on ! o!r1 ! condemnation ( suicide4 ,we w n cite "h ^! two pieces1 ! eloqu5ce ( :i* is some:at declamatory1 b we w give an ab/ract ( ! pr9cipal argum5ts pres5t$ on ea* side 9 favor ( its own position4 ,argum5ts 9 favor ( suicide4--#a4 ,x is said t life is n our own because x 0 giv5 u4--,n s1 =1 j because x 0 giv5 u1 is x our own4 ,god has giv5 u arms1 & yet we all[ !m to be cut (f :5 necess>y4 #b4 ,man1 x is said1 is a soldi] on s5try on e>?3 he %\ld n leave 8 po/ )\t ord]s4--,s be x2 b mis=tune is precisely t ord] :i* in=ms me t ,i h no?+ m to d "h bel[4 #c4 ,suicide1 x is said aga91 is rebellion aga9/ ,provid5ce4--,b h[8 x is n to escape its laws "o puts an end to "o's life2 x is to execute !m ! bett]3 9 :atev] place ! s\l may be1 x w always be "u ,god's gov]nm5t4 #d4 ,if ?y slave attempt$ to kill himself1 says ,socrates to ,cebes 9 ! ,pha$o1 w\ld/ ?\ n puni% him = try+ unju/ly to deprive !e ( ?y prop]ty8--,good ,socrates1 :at saye/ ?\8 ,does "o no long] belong to ,god :5 dead8 ,?\ art q wrong2 ?\ %\ld/ h said3 ,if ?\ putte/ on ?y slave a g>m5t :i* is 9 8 way 9 ! s]vice he owes !e1 w\ld/ ?\ puni% him = lay+ ?is g>m5t aside 9 ord] ! bett] to s]ve !e8 #e4 ,x is said t life is nev] an evil4--,yet has nature implant$ 9 u s great a horror ( dea? t life to c]ta9 be+s mu/ surely be an evil1 s9ce !y resolve to r5\nce x4 #f4 ,x is said t suicide is a c[>dice4--,h[ _m c[>ds1 !n1 among ! anci5ts6 ,arria1 ,epon9a1 ,lucretia1 ,brutus1 ,cato6 ,c]ta9ly !re is c\rage 9 suff]+ ! evils "o _c avoid2 b x 7 insanity to suff] volunt>ily ^? f :i* "o c free himself4 #g4 ,!re are unque/ionably duties t %\ld atta* u to life4--,b he :o is a burd5 to e "o1 & ( no use to himself1 :y %\ld he n h a "r to quit a place :]e 8 compla9ts are importunate & 8 suff]+s useless8 #h4 ,:y %\ld x be all[able to get cur$ ( ! g\t & n ( life8 ,if we consid] ! w ( ,god1 :at evil is !re = u to combat1 t he has n himself s5t u8 ,are we n p]mitt$1 !n1 to *ange ! nature ( any ?+ because all t is1 is z he wi%$ x8 #i4 ,?\ %all n kill1 says ! ,decalogue4--,b if ?is comm&m5t is to be tak5 lit]ally1 "o %\ld kill nei!r crim9als nor enemies4 ,next comes ! answ] ( my "l ,edw>d1 namely1 ,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau3 ,argum5ts aga9/ suicide4--#a4 ,if life has no moral end1 "o c unque/ionably free "o's self f x :5 x is too pa9ful3 if x has "o1 x is n p]mitt$ to set x arbitr>y limits4 #b4 ,! wi% to die does n con/itute a "r to die2 o!rwise1 a simil> wi% might ju/ify all crimes4 #c4 ,?\ saye/3 ,life is an evil2 b if ?\ ha/ ! c\rage to be> x1 ?\ wilt "s day say3 ,life is a good4 #d4 ,physical pa9 may 9 extreme cases deprive "o ( ! use ( reason & w2 b moral pa9 %\ld be borne bravely4 #e4 ,no man is :olly useless2 he has always "s duties to fulfill4 ,x has be5 ju/ly obs]v$1 we ?9k1 t ?is second lett] is feebl] ?an ! fir/1 & t ,r\sseau display$ m tal5t 9 ju/ify+ suicide ?an 9 combat+ x2 at any rate1 ! foll[+ p]oration w always be consid]$ an admirable passage to quote3 ,li/5 to me1 ?\ fooli% y\?3 ?\ art de> to me1 ,i pity ?y errors4 ,if ?\ ha/ at ! bottom ( ?y he>t ! lea/ feel+ ( virtue left1 come to me1 let me tea* !e to love life4 ,e "t ?\ %alt be tempt$ to put an end to x1 say to ?yself3 ',let me d "o m good de$ be=e ,i die6' ,!n g & seek "s pov]ty to relieve1 "s mis=tune to console1 "s oppress$ wret* to protect4 ,if ?is contemplation does n /op !e to-day1 x w /op !e to-morr[1 or ! day aft]1 or p]haps = ! re/ ( ?y life4 ,if x does n /op !e1 g !n & die2 = ?\ art n wor?y to live4 ,suicide may be consid]$ f ?ree diff]5t /&po9ts1 :i* are all ?ree involv$ & bl5d$ 9 ! prec$+ discussion3 #a4 ,suicide is a transgression ( our duty t[>d o!r m5 7inasmu* z1 h[ev] mis]able1 "o c always r5d] "s s]vice to o!rs74 #b4 ,suicide is contr>y to our duties t[>d ,god 7inasmu* z man ab&ons !reby1 )\t be+ reliev$ ( x1 ! po/ intru/$ to him 9 ?is _w74 #c4 ,f9ally--& ?is is = u "h ! ess5tial po9t--suicide is a violation ( ! duty ( man t[>d himself2 z1 all o!r consid]ations set aside1 he is b\nd to self-pres]vation z a moral p]sonality1 & has no "r :atsoev] ^u himself4 ,kant's discussion4--,kant is1 ( all philosoph]s1 ! "o :o mo/ insi/$ on ?is latt] view ( ! matt]1 & develop$ x ) ! greate/ =ce4 ,x seems absurd1 he says1 t man c\ld d himself injury4 7,vol5ti non fit injuria4#ij7 ,?us did ! /oic reg>d x z a pr]ogative ( ! sage1 to be able1 quietly & ( 8 own free w1 to /ep out ( ?is life z he w\ld out ( a room full ( smoke4 ,b ?is v c\rage1 ?is /r5g? ( s\l :i* enables u to brave dea?1 reveal+ to u a some?+ man prizes m ?an life1 %\ld h be5 to him ! /oic all ! great] inc5tive n to de/roy 9 himself a be+ end[$ ) a faculty s great1 s sup]ior to all ! mo/ p[]ful ( s5su\s motives1 & consequ5tly n to deprive himself ( life4 ,man _c abdicate 8 p]sonality z long z !re are duties = him1 consequ5tly z long z he lives2 & !re is contradiction 9 grant+ him ! "r ( free+ himself f all obligation--t is to say1 act+ z freely z if he _h no ne$ ( any k9d ( p]mission4 ,to annihilate 9 "o's own p]son ! subject ( morality1 is to extirpate f ! _w z mu* z possible ! exi/5ce ( morality itself2 x is dispos+ ( "o's self z ( an in/rum5t1 = a simply arbitr>y end2 x is l[]+ humanity 9 "o's own p]son4 #acd4 ,resume ( ! discussion on suicide4--,f ! above po9t ( view ! sophisms ( ,sa9t-,preux 9 ,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau are easily controv]t$4 ,i c cut my arm (f1 y say2 :y c ,i n de/roy my body8--,b 9 de/roy+ a )]$ or mortifi$ arm1 ,i n[ise injure ! human p]sonality1 :i* rema9s )9 me entire2 &1 on ! contr>y1 ,i deliv] ! moral p]sonality )9 me ( a physical tr\ble :i* deprives x ( its lib]ty4 ,i c1 y say1 avoid pa93 no "o is oblig$ to be> a too?a*e1 if he c free himself f x4--,yes1 unque/ionably2 b 9 f9d+ a rem$y = physical pa91 in/ead ( wrong+ ! moral p]sonality ( man1 ,i free x1 on ! contr>y1 ( ! evils :i*1 9 cru%+ x1 t5d to debase x4 ,besides1 !re are1 moreov]1 pa9s f :i* x is n "r to free "o's self4 ,= example1 x is n "r to leave ! sickb$ ( "o de> to u because 8 pa9s are unbe>able4 ,b life is full ( mis]y1 &1 9 c]ta9 cases1 ! evil is )\t any comp5sation4--,! "q is n :e!r life is agreeable or pa9ful3 x might be a "q1 if pleasure 7 ! end ( life2 b if ?is end is duty1 !re are no circum/ances1 h[ev] pa9ful1 :i* d n leave room = ! possibility ( fulfill+ a duty4 ,x is a sophism1 !y say1 to call suicide a c[>dice2 = x requires a great deal ( c\rage to take "o's life4--,no "o d5ies t !re is a c]ta9 am\nt ( physical c\rage c\pl$ ) tak+ "o's life2 b !re is a /ill great] c\rage1 a moral c\rage1 9 brav+ pa91 pov]ty1 slav]y4 ,suicide is !re=e a relative c[>dice4 ,x matt]s n1 moreov]1 :e!r suicide be a brave or a c[>dly act2 :at is c]ta9 is1 t man _c de/roy )9 himself ! ag5t subject to ! law ( duty )\t implicitly d5y+ ?is law & all !re is )9 conta9$4 ,f9ally1 x w be said t ! moral p]sonality is di/9ct f ! body1 & t 9 de/roy+ ! body1 "o does n injure ! p]sonality4 ,b we %all answ]1 t ! only p]sonality ( :i* we c dispose1 & ( :i* we h ! c>e1 is t :i* is actually unit$ to our physical body4 ,x is t v p]sonality t has duties to p]=m2 x is t :i* we _c sacrifice to a /ate ( ?+s absolutely unkn[n to u4 ,z to our duties t[>d o!rs1 !re is no "o t has absolutely no s]vice to r5d] to 8 fell[-m52 & ea* ( u is always able to r5d] !m ! greate/ ( s]vices1 namely1 to give !m ! example ( virtue1 c\rage1 g5tl5ess1 & pati5ce4 ,f9ally1 9 respect to ,god1 if we look ^u life z a trial1 man has no "r to free himself ( ?is trial be=e x is end$2 if we look ^u x z a puni%m5t1 we h no "r to cut %ort its duration z long z nature has n pron\nc$ on x4 ,c we n1 !n1 x is ask$1 *ange any ?+ 9 ! ord] ( ?+s1 s9ce all is dispos$ by ,god8--,c]ta9ly we c2 we c1 z we see fit1 modify ?+s1 b n p]sons4 ,god1 x is said aga91 has giv5 u life3 we c1 !n1 d ) x :at we l4--,b life is n purely a gift1 an absolute gift3 x is b\nd up 9 ! moral p]sonality :i* is n 9 our p[]1 & :i* is n to be consid]$ a ?+ to traffic )1 give away1 or de/roy4 ,to admit ! legitimacy ( suicide1 is to admit t man belongs to himself z a ?+ belongs to its ma/]2 x is implicitly to admit ! "r to traffic ) "o's own p]sonality &1 accord+ to ,kant's en]getic expression1 to treat "o's self z a means & n z an end4 #ace4 ,suicide f a s5se ( honor4--,all suicide1 hav+ = its motive ! escape f pa9 7exception be+ made1 ( c\rse1 ( suicides caus$ by insanity71 %\ld be condemn$ )\t qualification4 ,b is x ! same ) suicides in/igat$ by a feel+ ( honor1 ei!r to avoid an outrage "o is ?reat5$ )1 or to escape ! %ame ( an outrage "o has suff]$8 ,we %\ld c]ta9ly n blame too sev]ely acts t h _! s\rce 9 purity & greatness ( s\l1 & 9 su* matt]s x is yet bett] to =give ! excess1 ?an accu/om "o's m9d1 by too cold reason+1 to look ^u di%onor ) pati5ce or complac5cy4 ,aft] all1 ! love ( life speaks en\gh = itself )\t its be+ necess>y to give x too mu* enc\ragem5t4 ,nev]!less1 to consid] ! matt] closely1 x is c]ta9 t no "o is responsible = acts he has n cons5t$ to2 t1 consequ5tly1 an act impos$ on u by =ce1 _c inflict real di%onor2 t ill-natur$ int]pretations %\ld h no weight ) a /rong m9d1 & t consci5ce is ! only judge4 ,we %\ld1 says ,/4 ,augu/91 speak+ ( ,lucretia's suicide1 resi/ ! temptation ( suicide :5 we h no crime to atone =4444 ,:y %\ld a man :o has done no h>m to ano!r1 d "s to himself8 ,is he ju/ifi$ 9 kill+ an innoc5t man 9 8 own p]son1 to prev5t ! real crim9al f p]petrat+ 8 design1 & w\ld he crim9ally cut %ort 8 own life = fe> x be cut %ort by ano!r8#ia ,) /ill great] reason w suicide be condemn$ 9 cases :]e %ame1 if !re is any1 c make rep>ation4 ,let u1 = example1 suppose ! case ( a m]*ant oblig$ to susp5d paym5ts4 ,?is susp5sion may be caus$ by ov]:elm+ circum/ances1 z1 = example1 un=ese5 physical cata/rophes1 or neglig5ce1 imprud5ce1 or ev5 di%one/y on ! "p ( ! m]*ant4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 ! m]*ant is obvi\sly innoc5t1#ib &1 z we h already rem>k$1 x is an outw>d & n a real %ame4 ,in/ead ( giv+ way be=e a mis=tune1 he %\ld1 on ! contr>y1 /rive aga9/ x & f9d 9 himself ! means to repair ! damage4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 x is ?r\gh 8 own fault1 ?r\gh dissipation1 laz9ess1 etc41 t ! tr\ble 0 br\ght ab\t1 he is all ! m oblig$ to make honorable am5ds1 & by 8 c\rage & en]gy rehabilitate himself4 ,if1 f9ally1 ! evil is /ill grav]1 if he fail$ ?r\gh lack ( honor1 he owes x to himself to expiate 8 fault1 = 9 try+ by suicide to escape a m]it$ %ame1 he only es*ews a well-des]v$ puni%m5t4 ,mod]n consci5ce refuses ev5 to admire )\t res]ve1 ! noble/ & mo/ g5]\s ( suicides1 ^?1 namely1 occasion$ by ! grief ov] a great cause lo/3 ,i mean ,cato's suicide4 ,! capital error ( ?is k9d ( suicides 7lay+ aside ! reasons already po9t$ out71 is to ?9k t a cause c be lo/4 ,on ! "o h&1 !re is nev] any reason /rong en\gh to p]suade any "o t :at is lo/ to-day1 is def9itively lo/2 & if ea* ( ^? :o belong to t cause %\ld kill himself1 he w\ld only contribute 8 %>e t[>d ! loss ( t cause4 ,besides1 ev5 suppos+ a cause to be def9itively & absolutely lo/1 ! honor ( humanity requires none ! less t ! cause be fai?fully & inviolably repres5t$ to ! end by its adh]5ts3 = if !y d n s]ve !reby _! own cause1 !y s]ve at lea/ t ( loyalty1 fidelity1 & honor1 :i* is ! highe/ ( all4 ,c]ta9ly an act z impressive z 0 ,cato's1 %[s h[ f> man c c>ry ! devotion to a cre$1 & su* h]oism elevates ! s\l3 ?us may we admire x z an individual act1 b n z an example to be foll[$4 ,=1 al?\gh x pres5ts itself to u "u a h]oic =m1 x is1 aft] all1 no?+ b an escape f responsibility4 #acf4 ,suicide & sacrifice4--,"o %\ld n conf\nd ) suicide1 ! volunt>y dea?--t is to say1 ! dea? d>$ & ev5 s\ght aft] = ! sake ( humanity1 ! family1 c\ntry1 tru?4 ,= in/ance1 ,eu/a*e de ,sa9t ,pi]re & 8 companions1 ,curtius1 d',assas1 volunt>ily s\ght or accept$ dea? :5 !y c\ld h avoid$ x4 ,are ^! suicides8 ,if we c>ri$ ! matt] z f> z t1 all devotion w\ld h to be suppress$ altoge!r4 ,= ! height ( devotion is to brave dea?2 & "o w\ld h to condemn ev5 ! man :o exposes himself to a simple p]il1 s9ce he has no assurance t ?is p]il may n lead him to dea?4 ,b x is evid5t t ! suicide des]v+ condemnation is t :i* has = its s\rce ei!r selfi%ness1 or fe>1 or a false s5se ( honor4 ,to c>ry ! subject fur!r w\ld be sacrific+ o!r m important duties1 & giv+ to selfi%ness itself ! appe>ance & pre/ige ( virtue4 #acg4 ,mutilations & mortifications4--,c>e ( "o's heal?4--,"o ( ! obvi\s consequ5ces ( ! duty ( self-pres]vation1 is to avoid volunt>y mutilations4 ,= example1 ^? :o mutilate !mselves to escape milit>y s]vice1 fail fir/ 9 _! duty to _! c\ntry1 & next 9 _! duty to !mselves4 ,=1 ! body be+ ! in/rum5t ( ! s\l1 x is =bidd5 to de/roy any "p ( x )\t necessity4 ,?is is p>tial suicide4 ,mu/ we c\nt among ! numb] ( volunt>y mutilations1 ! religi\s mortifications or mac]ations by :i* ! dev\t manife/ _! piety8 ,if x c be prov$ t su* practices are injuri\s to heal?1 x is c]ta9 t !y %\ld be condemn$ f a moral po9t ( view4 ,b if !y are no?+ m ?an self-impos$ privations ( pleasure1 no "o c disapprove ( !m4 ,= man is always p]mitt$ to give up ?is or t pleasure4 ,?us ab/5tion f animal-fle% :i* ! s*ool ( ,py?agoras taught its adepts1 c n be consid]$ contr>y to ! duty ( self-pres]vation1 z long z x _c be demon/rat$ t ?is diet is unfavorable to heal?4 ,besides1 ?is duty n to injure "o's heal?1 mu/ itself be und]/ood 9 a l>ge & g5]al s5se4 ,o!rwise1 tak5 too /rictly1 x w\ld become a n>r[ & selfi% preoccupation1 unwor?y ( man4 ,"o %\ld select & regul>ly obs]ve su* diet z1 f g5]al or p]sonal exp]i5ce1 w\ld seem mo/ suitable to ! pres]vation ( heal?2 b1 ?is pr9ciple once e/abli%$1 precautions too m9ute & circumspect l[] man 9 ! e/imation ( o!rs1 &1 if no?+ m1 give him a t+e ( ! ridicul\s1 :i* he ought to avoid4 ,"o %\ld !re=e n take z a model ! ,italian ,corn>o1 :o _h a pair ( scales at 8 meals to weigh 8 food & dr9k1 al?\gh ?is me?od1 x is said1 prolong$ 8 life to a hundr$ ye>s4 ,! le>n$ ,kant himself1 al?\gh he 0 v high-m9d$1 c>ri$ ! rules he _h laid d[n = 8 heal? to extravagant m9ut5ess4 ,= example1 9 ord] to sp>e 8 *e/1 he _h made x a rule1 nev] to brea! ?r\gh 8 m\? :5 9 ! /reet1 &1 to fai?fully obs]ve ?is rule1 he always walk$ alone1 s z n to be oblig$ to speak4 ,c>e c>ri$ to su* m9ute details falls into a sort ( littl5ess v unbecom+ a be+ de/9$ = high] ?\ghts ?an m]e physical self-pres]vation4 ,"o may say ( su* exagg]at$ prud5ce :at ,r\sseau1 ?\gh mo/ inappropriately1 said ( m$ic9e3 ,x prev5ts illness less ?an x inspires u ) ! fe> ( x2 x does n s mu* w>d (f dea? z x gives u be=eh& a ta/e ( x2 x we>s life out in/ead ( prolong+ x2 & ev5 if x did prolong x1 x w\ld /ill be to ! prejudice ( ! race1 s9ce x takes u away f society by ! c>es x lays ^u u1 & f our duties by ! fe> x inspires u )4#ic ,b1 if too m9ute att5tion to heal? is n to be recomm5d$1 "o _c be too obs]vant1 )9 a reasonable measure1 ( c\rse1 ( ! obligation to foll[ a s5sible & mod]ate diet1 :i* is z favorable to ! m9d z x is to ! body4 ,hygi5e1 9 ?is respect1 =ms no inconsid]able "p ( morals4 ,to avoid sitt+ up late2 to avoid too long or too ri* repa/s2 to make an ev5 di/ribution ( "o's "t2 to get up e>ly2 to dress mod]ately w>m3 are measures recomm5d$ by prud5ce2 ?is1 h[ev]1 does n exclude ! lib]ty ( do+ away ) ^! rules :5 m important ones are necess>y4 ,! pr9ciple consi/s 9 n grant+ ! body too mu*1 :i* is ! be/ means ( /r5g!n+ x4 ,! anci5ts atta*$ a va/ importance to ! /r5g? & beauty ( ! body2 & = ?is reason !y enc\rag$ gymna/ics2 ^! 7 an ess5tial "p ( _! education4 ,?is ta/e = physical ex]cise seems to be reviv+ at ! pres5t day2 x ent]s m & m into our public education1 & its good results are already felt4 ,m5 %\ld1 z mu* z possible1 res]ve "s "t & leisure = su* ex]cises2 = !y n only imp>t /r5g?1 heal?1 & skill to ! body1 b !y accu/om ! s\l to c\rage1 prep>+ x by degrees to enc\nt] m s]i\s p]ils2 ! same may be said ( milit>y ex]cises4 #ach4 ,cleanl9ess4--,among ! virtues belong+ to ! duty ( self-pres]vation1 !re is "o :i* a philosoph] ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury consid]$ ! fir/ & ! "m ( all ! o!rs1 namely1 cleanl9ess4 ,?is is say+ mu*2 & x may be ?\ght t ,volney1 9 8 moral cate*ism1 exagg]at$ some:at ?is virtue4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 "o ( v great importance1 = its opposite is especially repugnant4 ,cleanl9ess1 moreov]1 9 addition to ! "p x plays1 z we "k1 9 ! pres]vation ( heal?1 is (t5 indicative ( o!r virtues ( a high] ord]4 ,cleanl9ess presupposes ord]1 a c]ta9 delicacy ( habits1 a c]ta9 dignity2 x is really ! fir/ condition ( civilization2 :]ev] we meet ) x1 x ann\nces t high] wants ?an ^? ( m]e animality h be5 or are soon to be felt2 :]ev] x is want+1 we may be c]ta9 t civilization is only app>5t1 & t x has yet _m defici5cies to supply4 #aci4 ,o!r duties 9 reg>d to ! body4--,temp]ance4--,we h j se5 t man has no "r to de/roy 8 body1 or mutilate x1 or1 9 %ort1 uselessly to r$uce or enfeeble its p[]2 9 a ^w1 he mu/ n volunt>ily injure 8 physical functions3 =1 9 impair+ himself z a physical be+1 he !reby injures 8 p]sonality1 :i* is ! pr9ciple ( all morality4 ,b !re are two ?+s to be di/+ui%$ 9 ! functions ( ! human body3 on "o side1 _! utility1 & on ! o!r1 ! pleasure :i* att5ds _! heal?ful ex]cise4 ,! same function may be ex]cis$ ) m or less pleasure on ! side ( ! s5ses4 ,h5ce a moral problem3 ,:at is to be grant$ to ! pleasures ( ! s5ses8--,c]ta9ly = ! prop] ex]cise ( _! functions a c]ta9 s5su\s agreeabl5ess is necess>y2 a good appetite1 = in/ance1 is a pleasant season+ :i* excites & facilitates dige/ion4 ,nev]!less1 we all "k t !re is n an exact & cont9u$ proportion betwe5 ! pleasure ( ! s5ses & physiological necessity2 we "k t enjoym5t may by f> exce$ necessity1 & t heal? ev5 (t5 requires a c]ta9 limitation 9 enjoym5t4 ,we "k1 = example1 t ! pleasures ( ! palate may be f> m s\ght aft] & prolong$ ?an is necess>y = ! gratification ( ! appetite4 ,man ne$s v little to live on2 b he c cont9ue to tickle 8 palate long aft] 8 hung] is satisfi$4 ,?ir/1 9 p>ticul>1 has giv5 rise to a multitude ( ref9em5ts inv5t$ by human indu/ry1 & :i* are b v di/antly relat$ to ! pr9ciple :i* has giv5 !m bir?4 ,w9e & alcoholic dr9ks1 :i*1 us$ 9 mod]ation1 may be useful tonics1 are /imulants dem&+ a con/ant r5ewal3 ! m !y are indulg$ 91 ! m !y provoke & captivate ! imag9ation4 ,f ?is disproportion & incongruity :i* exi/ betwe5 ! pleasures ( ! s5ses & ! real wants ( ! body1 arise vices1 c]ta9 habits1 namely1 :i* sacrifice want to pleasure1 & ! consequ5ce ( :i* is ! depravation & ru9 ( ! natural functions4 ,pleasure1 9 fact1 is1 9 a c]ta9 measure1 ! auxili>y1 & 9 "s sort1 ! int]pret] ( nature2 b beyond a c]ta9 limit1 x c only satiate itself at ! exp5se ( ! legitimate function1 & by solid>ity1 at ! exp5se ( all ! o!rs4 ,?us too mu* eat+ de/roys ! dige/ive functions2 /imulat+ dr9ks burn ! /oma* & s]i\sly injure ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,! same1 & ) /ill grav] consequ5ces1 att5ds ^u ! pleasures atta*$ to ! function ( reproduction4 ,:o w\ld1 says ,bossuet1 d>e ?9k ( o!r excesses :i* reveal !mselves 9 a /ill m dang]\s mann]8 ,:o1 ,i say1 w\ld d>e speak ( !m1 or d>e ?9k ( !m1 s9ce !y _c be spok5 ( )\t %ame nor ?\ght ( )\t p]il1 ?\gh x be b to condemn !m8 ,o ,god1 once m1 :o w\ld d>e speak ( ?is deep & %ameful plague ( nature1 ?is concupisc5ce :i* b9ds ! s\l to ! body ) bonds s t5d] & s viol5t--bonds man c sc>cely def5d himself aga9/1 & :i* cause su* frightful disord]s among ! human race6 ,woe to ! e>?6 woe to ! e>?1 f ^: secret passions rise cont9ually vapors s ?ick & black1 conceal+ f u bo? sky & light1 b ( :i* we are rem9d$ ?r\gh ! lightn+s & ?und]-bolts !y s5d =? aga9/ ! corruption ( ! human race6#id ,! abuse ( ! pleasures ( ! s5ses is 9 g5]al call$ intemp]ance1 & ! prop] use ( ^! pleasures1 temp]ance4 ,gorm&iz+ is ! abuse ( ! pleasures ( eat+2 intoxication or drunk5ness1 ! abuse ( ! pleasures ( dr9k+2 immode/y or lu/1 ! abuse ( ! pleasures atta*$ to ! reproduction ( ! species4 ,! opposites ( ^! ?ree vices are1 to ! fir/ two1 sobriety1 to ! la/1 *a/ity4 ,! duty ( temp]ance is en=c$ by two consid]ations3 #a1 intemp]ance be+1 z exp]i5ce %[s1 ! ru9ation ( heal?1 is !reby contr>y to ! duty ( self-pres]vation2 #b1 intemp]ance de/roy+ ! intellectual faculties1 & mak+ u unfit = any en]getic & manly action1 is contr>y to ! duty impos$ on u to respect our moral faculties & protect aga9/ all injury )9 u ! free p]sonality :i* con/itutes ! ess5ce ( humanity4 ,kant does n admit t ! fir/ ( ^! consid]ations--t1 namely1 :i* is d$uc$ f ! int]e/ ( our heal?--has any validity 9 morals3 ,vice1 he says1 %\ld n be judg$ f ! damage x does to man1 = to resi/ x w\ld !n be resi/+ x = reasons ( com=t & commodity1 :i* c\ld nev] be a pr9ciple to f\nd a duty on1 b only a measure ( prud5ce4 ,?is is true2 b if we h 9 ! =ego+ pages e/abli%$ t self-pres]vation is "o ( man's duties1 t he %\ld n de/roy 8 heal? or abridge 8 life1 an evid5t coroll>y ( ?is pr9ciple is to avoid intemp]ance1 because intemp]ance abridges life4 ,?is consid]ation is !n z legitimate f ! /&po9t ( morality z f t ( int]e/4 ,! anci5ts h spok5 admirably ab\t temp]ance4 ,socrates 9 p>ticul>1 9 ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia1 %[$ cle>ly t temp]ance makes ( man a free man1 & intemp]ance1 a brute & a slave4 ,tell me1 ,eutydemus1 ?9ke/ ?\ n t lib]ty is a preci\s & honorable ?+ = an individual & = a ,/ate8--,x is ! mo/ preci\s ( all4--,?9ke/ ?\ him !n :o all[s himself to be ov]rul$ by ! pleasures ( ! body1 & !reby disabl$ f do+ good1 a free man8--,n ! lea/4--,p]haps calle/ ?\ lib]ty ! p[] to d good1 & s]vitude ! be+ prev5t$ f x by ob/acles4--,precisely4--,! intemp]ate !n appe> to !e z slaves8--,yes1 by ,jupit]1 & rightly s4--,:at ?9ke/ ?\ ( ma/]s :o h9d] ! do+ good1 & oblige "o to d wrong4--,x is1 by ,jupit]1 ! wor/ possible k9d4--,& :i* is ! wor/ ( s]vitudes8--,to my m9d t :i* subjects u to ! wor/ ma/]s4--,!n is intemp]ance ! wor/ ( s]vitudes8--,s ,i ?9k4 ,plato1 on 8 side1 9 a *>m+ picture br+s out ) =ce ! insatiabl5ess ( s5sual passions3 ,see1 says ,socrates1 if ! temp]ate man & ! disord]ly man are n l two m5 hav+ ea* a l>ge numb] ( casks3 ! casks ( ! "o are 9 good condition & full1 "o ) w9e1 ano!r ) honey1 a ?ird ) milk1 & o!rs ) o!r liquors2 ^! liquors1 moreov]1 are r>e & h>d to get2 !y co/ inf9ite tr\ble to obta92 _! own] hav+ once fill$ 8 b>rels1 p\rs h5ce=? no?+ m into !m2 he has no long] any anxiety conc]n+ !m1 & is p]fectly at ease4 ,! o!r c1 x is true1 procure ! same liquors1 b only ) difficulty2 8 casks1 moreov]1 be+ leaky & rott51 he is oblig$ to fill !m con/antly1 day & night1 le/ he be dev\r$ by burn+ pa9s4 ,?is picture be+ an image ( bo? lives1 can/ ?\ say t t ( ! lib]t9e is happi] ?an t ( ! temp]ate man8 ,a second consid]ation :i* may be add$ to ! prec$+ "o is1 t ! intemp]ate man1 seek+ pleasure1 does n f9d x2 pleasure passionately pursu$ *anges ev5 into pa93 ,intemp]ance1 says ,montaigne1 is ! pe/ ( voluptu\sness1 :il/ temp]ance is its season+4 ,?is view ( ! matt] is especially t 9 :i* ! epicurean morali/s delight2 !y always1 9 morals1 comp>e "o pleasure ) ano!r2 b x also holds good = ^? :o place duty above pleasure1 = x is likewise a duty to pref] a pure1 simple1 delicate pleasure1 to a viol5t1 disord]ly1 or vulg> pleasure4 ,f ?is /&po9t1 we may say ) ,plato1 9 8 ,philebus1 t ! pure/ pleasures are n ! /ronge/1 & ev5 t ! /rong] & m ard5t a pleasure may be1 ! ne>] x approa*es a *ange into pa94 ,n[1 all o!r duty set aside1 "o %\ld pr9cipally seek ! pleasures :i* are n mix$ ) pa91 because !y are ! mo/ natural & ! mo/ legitimate ( all3 ?us is x t ! pleasure we d]ive f a satisfi$ appetite is a prop] pleasure1 h[ev] humble x be1 :il/ ! pleasure :i* c>ries ) x satiety & disgu/1 indicates by t v fact1 t x is aga9/ nature1 or at lea/ goes beyond nature4 ,virtue requires1 !n1 t we pref] ! fir/ to ! second4 #adj4 ,! pleasures ( ! s5ses4--,b provid$ "o is cont5t ) mod]ate pleasures1 is x all[$ to enjoy ! pleasures ( ! s5ses1 or mu/ we r turn our m9d1 w1 & s\l1 f !m1 & re/ cont5t ) ! satisfi$ want8 ,montaigne1 t naive *ild ( nature1 supports ! fir/ proposition2 ,sa9t ,augu/9e1 ! apo/le ( free grace1 advocates ! second4 ,nature1 says ,montaigne1 has mat]nally provid$ t ! actions %e enjo9s ^u u = ! satisfaction ( our wants be also pleasurable1 & %e invites u !reto n only ?r\gh reason1 b also by ! appetite3 x is n "r to corrupt h] rules4 ,n only did ,montaigne au?orize ! pleasure ( ! s5ses1 b he also favor$ "o's delight+ 9 x3 ,x %\ld be fitly /udi$1 enjoy$1 dwelt ^u1 to %[ ourselves wor?ily ?ankful to him :o disp5ses x4444 ,to t degree1 did ,i myself foll[ ?is precept t 9 ord] t ! pleasure ( sleep+ %\ld n /upidly escape me1 ,i f\nd x well 9 =m] days1 to h myself di/urb$ 9 my sleep1 t ,i might cat* ! feel+ ( x4444 ,is !re any gratification ( ! s5ses8 ,i d n all[ !m to h x all to !mselves2 ,i associate my s\l ) x1 n to lose itself 9 x1 b to f9d itself 9 x4444 ,x e/imates1 !reby1 h[ mu* x owes ,god = putt+ ! body at its own disposal1 all[+ x to enjoy 9 ord] & complet5ess ! s(t & agreeable functions :]eby x pleas$ him to comp5sate u by 8 m]cy = ! pa9s 8 ju/ice inflicts on u 9 its turn4 ,/4 ,augu/9e looks at ! ?+ f an entirely diff]5t /&po9t3 ,?\ ha/ taught me1 ,o my ,god1 he says1 to look ^u food z ^u a rem$y4 ,b :5 ,i pass f ! suff]+ ( hung] to ! repose ( satiety1 ev5 9 ?is passage f ! "o to ! o!r does concupisc5ce lay its sn>es = me2 = ?is passage is a pleasure1 & !re is no o!r means to rea* ! end :i* by necessity we mu/ rea*4 ,& al?\gh real hung] & ?ir/--eat+ & dr9k+ be b a matt] ( heal?1 yet does pleasure jo9 itself !reto z a dang]\s companion1 & sometimes x ev5 takes ! lead & induces me to d f a s5se ( pleasure1 :at ,i only wi% to d = my heal?4 ,:at is en\gh = heal?1 is n en\gh = pleasure1 & x is (t5 difficult to decide :e!r x is ! wants ( ! body t require to be met1 or ! deceiv+ voluptu\sness ( concupisc5ce :i* subjugates u4 ,9 ?is inc]titude our mis]able s\l rejoices because %e f9ds !re9 a def5se & an excuse1 &1 n kn[+ :at is suffici5t = ! ma9t5ance ( heal?1 %e places ! int]e/s ( voluptu\sness "u ! %ad[ ( ?is pretext4 ,e day ,i endeavor to resi/ its temptations & invoke ?y h& to save me1 & ,i lay at ?y feet my inc]titudes1 because1 alas6 my resolution is n yet /rong en\gh4 ,x w be se5 t ! two morali/s use bo? ! same pr9ciple 7namely1 ! w ( ,provid5ce7 to arrive at entirely diff]5t conclusions4 ,accord+ to "o1 pleasure 0 in/itut$ by ,god only z a means to arrive at ! satisfaction ( bodily wants4 ,x is1 !n1 ?is satisfaction alone we %\ld h 9 view4 ,accord+ to ! o!r1 ,god all[+ necessity to be accompani$ by pleasure1 invites u !reby to enjoy pleasure4 ,x seems to u t ! two morali/s fall "h into an excess3 =1 accord+ to u1 we %\ld n too mu* di/ru/ pleasure nor delight 9 x too mu*3 pleasure1 n be+ an evil 9 itself1 !re is no reason :y we %\ld reproa* ourselves = enjoy+ x3 = x is z ess5tial to ! nature ( our be+ z life itself4 ,we may ev5 say t pleasure is already a sup]ior degree ( exi/5ce1 & x is = ?is reason t ! animal is f\nd to be sup]ior to ! plant4 ,! scruples ( ,/4 ,augu/9e 9 reg>d to pleasure are1 !re=e1 exagg]at$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,i d n approve ( ,montaigne's ref9em5t ei!r2 x is n prop] to br+ ! reflective faculties to be> ^u s5sual pleasures 9 ord] to enhance !m3 to h "o's self wak$ up 9 ord] to take cognizance ( ! sweetness ( sleep is an unju/ifiable ref9em5t ( s5suality unless "o admits pleasure to be ! end ( life4 ,9 "o ^w1 x is necess>y "h to avoid at ! same "t exagg]at$ scruples & self-gratification1 z occupy+ ! m9d m ?an is necess>y ) :at has b a v inf]ior value4#ie ,provid5ce1 besides1 has furni%$ u means to enhance ! pleasures ( ! s5ses by m+l+ ) !m ! pleasures ( ! m9d or he>t4 ,banquets1 says ,kant1 h1 besides ! physical pleasure !y procure u1 some?+ t t5ds to a moral end1 namely1 to br+ toge!r a c]ta9 numb] ( p1 & to ma9ta9 among !m an ext5d$ int]*ange ( k9dly feel+s4 ,& ?is au/]e morali/ does n hesitate to lay d[n c]ta9 rules :i* %\ld preside ov] ref9$ fe/ivities4 ,we %all be p>don$ if we reproduce "h "s ( 8 witty rem>ks on t subject4 ,! good *e]1 he says1 :i* be/ accords ) humanity1 is a good repa/ 9 good company2 a company :i* ,*e/]field says %\ld n fall bel[ ! numb] ( ! ,graces1 nor exce$ t ( ! ,muses4444 ,on ! contr>y1 l>ge assemblages & fe/ivities are altoge!r 9 bad ta/e4444 ,to eat alone is un:olesome = a philosophic s*ol>3 x is no re/oration1 x is r exhau/ion2 x is a labor1 & n a play revivify+ ?\ght4 ,! man :o eats alone loses gradually 8 *e]fulness2 he recov]s x1 on ! contr>y1 :5 ! int]mitt5t je/s ( a gue/ give him a new subject ( animation :i*1 alone1 he w\ld n h be5 able to discov]4 ,kant fur!r requires1 t ! repa/ %\ld end ) laught]1 :i*1 if x is l\d & he>ty1 is a sort ( complim5t to nature4 ,!n1 aft] hav+ giv5 rules = table-talk1 he concludes by say+3 ,h[ev] insignificant ^! laws ( polite society may appe>1 especially :5 comp>$ to morality prop]ly s call$1 !y are1 nev]!less1 a g>m5t :i* becomes virtue1 & :i* may be recomm5d$ 9 all s]i\sness4 ,9 fact1 ?anks to ^! laws1 s5sual pleasures are ennobl$ & increas$ by mix+ ) !m intellectual pleasures4 ,x is ! same ) ^? o!r pleasures relat$ to ! pure/ & noble/ s5tim5ts ( ! he>t1 & :i*1 ?anks to ?is alliance1 may be reconcil$ ) p]fect *a/ity4 #ada4 ,! ext]ior be>+4--,propriety4--,decorum4--,temp]anc e %\ld n be conf9$ to ! inn] man2 x %\ld manife/ itself outw>dly ?r\gh acts1 words1 ?r\gh prop] be>+ & attitudes3 ?is is :at is call$ dec5cy2 ! pr9cipal "p ( :i* is mode/y4 ,we mu/ n1 says ,cic]o1 m9d ! cynics & c]ta9 /oics :o turn u into ridicule & reproa* u = be+ a%am$ to speak ( ?+s t h no?+ %ameful 9 !mselves4 ,z = u1 let u foll[ nature1 & ab/a9 f all t might w\nd ! eyes or e>s4 ,let our be>+1 gait1 our looks1 ge/ures1 be always true to dec5cy4444 ,!re are two ?+s to be avoid$3 s(t & effem9ate airs1 & a boori% & unc\? appe>ance4#if ,! anci5ts ju/ly atta*$ great importance to ! outw>d appe>ance & c\nt5ance2 !y reg>d$ x z ! sign ( ! freeman4 ,!re are1 says ,cic]o1 two k9ds ( beauty3 ! "o1 grace2 ! o!r1 dignity4 ,grace belongs to woman1 dignity to man4 ,we %\ld1 !re=e1 int]dict ourselves all t c\ld belie t dignity1 ei!r 9 dress1 be>+1 or ge/ure4 ,!re are movem5ts among our wre/l]s :i* are sometimes displeas+1 & c]ta9 ge/ures ( our com$ians :i* are some:at ridicul\s2 !y w\ld bo? recomm5d !mselves to ! public bett] by simplicity & dec5cy4 ,"o %\ld be nei!r unc\? nor ov]-ref9$2 9 reg>d to dress1 ! mo/ mode/ is ! be/4 ,avoid1 likewise1 9 y\r gait1 ei!r t excessive sl[ness 7rem9d+ "o ( ! impos+ gravity ( sacr$ pomps71 or too mu* ha/e1 :i* is a sure sign ( light-head$ness & ?\ghtlessness4#ig ,^! c\nsels w n appe> m9ute to ^? :o "k t ! s\l is always ready to fall 9 ) ! body1 & t ! inn] man sets himself naturally to ! out] man4 ,disord] 9 mann]s1 dress1 words1 br+ ins5sibly ) !m disord] 9 ?\ght1 & ! outw>d dignity is b ! reflection ( ! dignity ( ! s\l4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,duties ,,relat+ ,,to ,,ext]nal ,,goods4 ,,summ>y4 ,! necessity ( ext]nal goods4--,two sorts ( duties4--#a4 ,^? relative to use2 #b4 ,^? relative to acquisition4 ,use ( ext]nal goods4--,!y are means & n ends3 av>ice1 cupidity1 prodigality4 ,x is n ! degree ( ri*es1 x is ! _s 9 :i* we seek or possess !m1 :i* is ! object ( a moral rule4 ,economy1 a mean betwe5 prodigality & av>ice4 ,economy & sav+ are n only duties ( self-pres]vation1 b ( dignity4 ,maxims ( ,frankl94--,! prodigal & ! mis]1 accord+ to ,ari/otle4 ,acquisition ( ext]nal ?+s4--,univ]sal law ( "w4--,s]vile & free "w4--,nobility ( "w4 ,"w is a pleasure1 a necessity1 a duty4 #adb4 ,necessity ( ext]nal goods4--,ext]nal goods are z necess>y to man z is 8 body3 = x is 9 ! fir/ place a fundam5tal law ( be+s physically organiz$1 t !y only subsi/ by means ( a cont9ual ex*ange ( _! compon5t p>ts1 ) =eign sub/ances4 ,life is a circulation1 a vortex3 we lose & acquire2 we return to nature :at x gave u1 & we take f x back aga9 9 ex*ange :at we ne$ to repair our losses4 ,!re foll[s f ?is t c]ta9 ext]nal ?+s1 especially food1 are indisp5sable to our exi/5ce1 & t x is absolutely necess>y t we be 9 sure possession ( !m 9 ord] to be ourselves sure ( life4 ,food is n ! only ne$ ( man4 ,%elt] & clo?+1 )\t be+ z rigor\sly indisp5sable 7especially 9 w>m c\ntries71 are nev]!less ( great utility to ma9ta9 a c]ta9 equilibrium betwe5 ! temp]ature ( our bodies & ! ext]nal temp]ature2 = x is well kn[n t ! d]angem5t ( ?is equilibrium is "o ( ! mo/ ord9>y causes ( illness4 ,nature n hav+ clo!d man z %e has ! o!r animals1 he is oblig$ to provide himself ) clo!s by 8 indu/ry4 ,z = habitations1 sev]al animals "k z well z man h[ to con/ruct !m3 = example1 beav]s & rabbits2 & despite ! indisputable sup]iority ( 8 art1 ?is is yet1 z we see = man1 b ! developm5t ( an in/9ct :i* he %>es ) o!r creatures4 ,^! v>i\s wants1 !n1 :i* to be satisfi$ dem& a c]ta9 numb] ( mat]ial objects1 su* z food1 h\ses1 clo?+1 etc41 c>ry ) !m o!rs 9 _! tra93 = example1 ! ne$ ( locomotion to procure :at is want$3 h5ce1 c>riages1 boats1 etc42--! ne$ ( protect+ "o's self aga9/ ^? :o w\ld take f u :at we possess3 h5ce1 arms ( e k9d2--! ne$ ( repose & ord] 9 ! h\se3 h5ce1 furniture ( e sort2--9 a high] degree aga9 ! ne$ ( pleas+ ! imag9ation3 h5ce1 works ( art1 pictures1 /atu>y2--! ne$ ( in=mation3 h5ce1 books1 etc4 ,f9ally1 & indep5d5tly ( all ^! diff]5t ?+s1 !re are yet two :i* des]ve to be specially notic$1 because ( _! p>ticul> & di/9ctive "*4 ,^! are1 fir/1 l&1 :i* is ! common & inexhau/ible s\rce ( all ri*es1 ! only ?+ t does n p]i%1 & :i* is always f\nd aga9 9 ! same quantity aft] z well z be=e ! enjoym5t ( x2 l&1 :i* is z ! sub/ance1 ! v basis ( ri*es2#ih & ! second1 money 7gold or silv]1 ) _! repres5tative1 pap]71 :i* is ( a nature to be ex*ang$ aga9/ all k9d ( m]*&ise1 ev5 l&1 & :i*1 consequ5tly1 repres5ts !m all4 ,^! two k9ds ( ?+s1 l& & money1 ! "o an ess5tial1 ! o!r a cond5s$ image1 ( all weal?1 are ! two mo/ natural objects ( man's desires1 because1 ) ! "o or ! o!r1 he c procure all ! re/4 ,we h n to exam9e "h h[ man succe$s 9 secur+ to himself ! exclusive enjoym5t ( ^! sev]al goods3 we %all treat ! subject ( prop]ty fur!r on1 & %all expla9 9 :at1 & :y1 x is inviolable4 ,let x suffice to say "h t ^! goods be+ b\nd up ) ! v pres]vation ( our exi/5ce1 ! desire & in/9ct :i* lead u to appropriate !m1 h no?+ blamewor?y 9 !mselves4 ,ext]nal goods be+ necess>y to life1 we h to consid] h[ we %\ld use !m :5 we possess !m1 & h[ acquire !m :5 we d n possess !m4 #adc4 ,duties relat+ to ! use ( ext]nal goods4--,cupidity4--,av>ice4--,f ! v fact t man is a "p ( nature1 x manife/ly foll[s t he is all[$ to make 8 pr(it ( ! goods ( nature & to turn !m to 8 use4 ,! only "q is !n to "k to :at degree & 9 :at _s1 he %\ld love mat]ial goods1 & :at use he is to make ( !m1 n 9 reg>d to o!rs1 b 9 reg>d to himself4 ,a fir/ consid]ation is t mat]ial ?+s or ri*es h no value 9 !mselves2 !y are only wor? any?+ z !y suit our wants4 ,gold & silv]1 9 p>ticul>1 are only a value because !y c be ex*ang$ aga9/ useful ?+s1 & ^! ?+s1 aga91 are only good because !y are useful4 ,!y are1 to employ ,kant's favorite =mula1 means1 n ends4 ,n[ we precisely ov]?r[ ?is ord] :5 we take mat]ial ?+s z ends & n z means--t is to say1 :5 we attribute to !m an absolute in/ead ( a relative value4 ,?is happ5s :51 = example1 we seek ga9 = ga9's sake2 :5 we accumulate ri*es = ! sole pleasure ( accumulat+ !m--a vice we call cupidity4 ,x is1 aga91 :at happ5s :5 we enjoy weal? = itself1 )\t wi%+ to turn x to use1 & depriv+ ourselves ( ev]y?+ to enjoy ! ?+ itself1 :i* has no o!r value except t ( buy+ o!r ?+s2 a vice we call av>ice4 ,! "* ( ^! two vices 7a "* :i* is n only contr>y to prud5ce1 b also to virtue7 is to trans=m mat]ial ?+s into absolute ends4 ,av>ice1 says ,kant1 v ju/ly1 is n only economy misund]/ood1 b a s]vile subjection to ! goods ( =tune2 an incapacity ( ex]cis+ ma/]y ov] !m4444 ,x is n only oppos$ to g5]osity1 b to lib]ality ( s5tim5ts 9 g5]al--t is to say1 to ! pr9ciple ( indep5d5ce :i* recognizes no?+ b ! law1 & becomes ?us a fraud :i* man commits aga9/ himself4 ,cupidity does n1 at fir/ glance1 appe> to be ( s %ameful1 & especially s ridicul\s a "* z av>ice2 = av>ice is a contradiction to "o's self 7to die r ?an lose t :i* c only s]ve to prev5t u f dy+71 & view$ 9 t light x becomes a comical oddity4 ,b ! love ( ga9 = ga9's sake is1 no less ?an av>ice1 a s]vile subjection to ! goods ( =tune4 ,to e>n money is a necessity to :i* we mu/ submit 7& ( :i* we ne$ n be a%am$1 s9ce x is nature h]self t requires x71 b x is n1 & %\ld n be1 an end to ! s\l4 ,! end ( weal? 7)\t fail+ 9 ! duties we owe to ourselves7 %\ld be to make sure ( ! means ( self-pres]vation1 self-cultivation1 education--yea1 ev5 recreation2 = recreation is a ?+ mu* m ref9$ & noble ?an accumulation ( weal?4 ,9 "o ^w1 accord+ to an old say+1 "o mu/ possess ri*es & n be possess$ by !m4 ,su* is ! _s 9 :i* man %\ld seek or possess ri*es2 & x is = him a /rict duty2 b z to ! degree & limits ( possession1 z to ! ext5t or quantity ( ri*es1 morality gives u nei!r rules nor pr9ciples4 ,!re is no p>ticul> limit kn[n beyond :i* a man 9 mak+ money w\ld become immoral4 ,!re is no re/riction to 8 becom+ a millionaire if he c4 ,a morality t %\ld tea* to look ^u ! ri* z culpable1 w\ld be a v false "o4 ,! contempt = ri*es1 su* z ! anci5t philosoph]s pr(ess$1 is a v beautiful ?+ 9 itself2 b to make good use ( weal? is also v praisewor?y4 ,weal?1 :i* 9 itself has no value1 may h a v great "o f ! use made ( x4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no o!r rule to be obs]v$ "h ?an ! "o we h already po9t$ out1 namely1 t we %\ld n love money = itself1 b acquire x or receive x z a means to be useful to ourselves & to o!rs4 ,let u add1 h[ev]1 t ev5 ) ?is motive1 we %\ld n ent]ta9 too great a desire = ga92#ii = to take too mu* pleasure 9 accumulat+ a =tune1 ev5 to make a good use ( x1 is aga9 ano!r way to become its slave4 #add4 ,pov]ty4--,! duty ( n all[+ "o's self to become morally a slave to ext]nal goods1 c>ries ) x1 z its coroll>y1 ! duty ( be>+ pov]ty pati5tly if circum/ances impose x on u4 ,i d n mean "h ! /r5g? ( s\l ) :i* we %\ld be> adv]sity ( any k9d 7we %all speak ( t fur!r on71 b ! resignation ) :i* we %\ld look ^u ! deprivation ( c]ta9 ?+s1 :i* h no value 9 !mselves4 ,! poor man %\ld1 ( c\rse1 endeavor to improve 8 condition by 8 "w1 & we are f> f recomm5d+ to him a /upid ins5sibility :i* w\ld dry up ! s\rces ( all indu/ry2 b :at we %\ld especially gu>d aga9/ is ?is uneasy discont5t & p[]less desire :i* are also a k9d ( slav]y4 ,we %\ld try to be satisfi$ ) our lot1 z anci5t wisdom has x1 & if x requires a c]ta9 am\nt ( h]oism to be> extreme mis]y1 a limit$ %>e ( wisdom w be suffici5t to enable "o to accept pati5tly pov]ty & m$iocrity4 #ade4 ,prodigality4--,ma9ta9+1 z we h done1 t ri*es h no value 9 !mselves1 except z means to satisfy our wants1 d we mean !reby t !y are to be sp5t injudici\sly8--& w\ld n t appe> to be condemn+ sav+ & economy1 virtues :i* n only morality1 b wisdom also1 recomm5ds8 ,%all we1 9 ord] to avoid cupidity & av>ice1 run into dissipation & prodigality8 ,let u fir/ obs]ve t prodigality1 :i* is ! opposite ( av>ice1 is n always ! opposite ( cupidity4 ,! ne$ ( sp5d+ eng5d]s necess>ily ! ne$ ( obta9+ & ga9+ z mu* money z possible2 & ! prodigal1 if he is n s 9 ! beg9n+1 v soon becomes covet\s1 ?r\gh ! exhau/ion ( 8 res\rces4 ,mo/ prodigals1 says ,ari/otle1 become gre$y & grasp+1 because !y always wi% to sp5d at _! w4 ,_! own res\rces be+ soon exhau/$1 !y mu/ ne$s procure o!rs2 & z !y sc>cely take ?\ght ab\t dignity & honor1 !y appropriate )\t scruple1 & z !y c4 ,we %\ld1 !re=e1 n view prodigality z a noble indep5d5ce 9 respect to ri*es4 ,x is s 9 ! beg9n+1 9 fact1 ) "y ri* p2 b !y soon f9d out ! limits ( _! great =tunes1 & !n beg9s _! slav]y 9 respect to ^? v goods !y made at fir/ s light (4 ,prud5ce & our own int]e/ tea* u1 ( c\rse1 suffici5tly t prodigality is a /upid vice1 & t x is absurd to sacrifice ! wants ( to-morr[ to ! pleasures ( to-day4 ,simple common-s5se advises economy & sav+4 ,b = ?is v reason may we ask1 ) ,kant3 :e!r !y des]ve ! "n ( virtues2 & :e!r prodigality ev51 inasmu* z x t5ds to an unexpect$ indig5ce1 %\ld n be call$ an imprud5ce r ?an a vice8 ,we %all say 9 reply t self-int]e/ well und]/ood becomes itself a duty :5 9 opposition to passion4 ,= in/ance1 if1 on ! "o side1 passion lures me on to procure to myself a c]ta9 pleasure1 & t1 on ! o!r1 self-int]e/ %[s t ?is pleasure imp]ils my heal?1 x is c]ta9 t duty 9 ?is circum/ance comm&s me to pref] my heal? to a mom5t>y pleasure4#ajj ,prud5ce1 !n1 is b ! ex]cise ( a m g5]al duty1 :i*1 if n ! basis1 is at lea/ ! condition ( all ! o!rs3 ! duty ( self-pres]vation4 ,economy & sav+ are n only a duty ( self-pres]vation1 b also a duty ( dignity3 = exp]i5ce tea*es u t pov]ty & mis]y br+ u into ! dep5d5cy ( o!rs & t want leads to begg>y4 ,he :o kn[s h[ to husb& 8 means ( exi/5ce1 secures = himself 9 ! future n only 8 livelihood1 b also indep5d5ce2 9 depriv+ himself ( fleet+ & commonplace pleasures1 he buys :at is f> bett]1 namely1 dignity4 ,be economical1 says ,frankl91 & indep5d5ce %all be ?y %ield & buckl]1 ?y helmet & cr[n2 !n %all ?y s\l walk upright1 nor /oop to ! silk5 wret* because he ha? ri*es2 nor pocket an abuse because ! h& :i* (f]s x we>s a r+ set ) diamonds4 ,x is f ?is po9t ( view t ! *>m+ & witty1 ?\gh sometimes vulg>1 precepts ( poor ,ri*>d may be reg>d$ z moral maxims1 & %\ld h access to all m9ds3 ,if y w\ld be weal?y1 ?9k ( sav+ z well z ( gett+4 ,a fat kit*5 makes a lean w4 ,:at ma9ta9s "o vice w\ld br+ up two *ildr54 ,_m littles make a mickle4 ,fools make fea/s & wise m5 eat !m4 ,x is fooli% to lay out money 9 a pur*ase ( rep5tance4 ,silks & sat9s1 sc>let & velvets put out ! kit*5 fire4 ,:5 ! well is dry1 !y "k ! wor? ( wat]4 ,pride breakfa/$ ) ,pl5ty1 d9$ ) ,pov]ty1 & supp$ ) ,infamy4#aja ,:at ,frankl9 has depict$ ) greate/ =ce & eloqu5ce1 is ! humiliation atta*$ to debts1 a sad consequ5ce ( ! want ( economy4 ,!re is a k9d ( pride :i* is n t ( ,rome & ,sp>ta1 nor ( ! c\rts & ! great1 b :i* has n ! less its price4 ,he t goes a borr[+1 goes a sorr[+4 ,alas6 ?9k well :at y d :5 y run 9 debt2 y give to ano!r p[] ov] y\r lib]ty4 ,if y _c pay at ! "t1 y w be a%am$ to see y\r cr$itor2 y w be 9 fe> :5 y speak to him2 y w make poor1 pitiful1 sneak+ excuses1 & by degrees come to lose y\r v]acity1 & s9k into base1 d[nright ly+4 ,= ly+ rides ^u ,debt's back4 ,a free-born man ought n to be afraid to see or speak to any man liv+4 ,b pov]ty (t5 deprives a man ( all _s & virtue4 ,x is h>d = an empty bag to /& upright4 ,we %\ld !n avoid s to subject ourselves to mat]ial ?+s z n to d>e make use ( !m1 :i* is av>ice2 or to sp5d !m fooli%ly & ?us r5d] ourselves dep5d5t ^u m51 :i* is prodigality4 ,economy lies betwe5 ! two1 & x is "o ( ! virtues ^u :i* ,ari/otle has mo/ successfully e/abli%$ 8 !ory ( ! gold5 mean4 ,kant1 h[ev]1 does n agree ) him on ?is po9t4 ,=1 says he1 if economy is a j m$ium betwe5 two extremes1 !n %\ld we1 9 go+ f "o vice to ! opposite vice1 h to pass ?r\gh virtue3 ! latt] !n w\ld be no?+ m ?an a less] vice4 ,accord+ to ,kant1 x is n ! measure b ! pr9ciple :i* may s]ve to di/+ui% a vice f a virtue3 ! "o is di/+ui%$ f ! o!r n quantitatively1 b specifically4 ,! two vices1 extremes !mselves1 prodigality & av>ice1 namely1 are oppos$ to ea* o!r1 n only 9 degree1 b 9 k9d4 ,:at is prodigality8 ,x is1 says ,kant1 to procure means ( livelihood ) a view to ! enjoym5t only4 ,:at is av>ice8 ,to acquire & pres]ve ^! means 9 view ( possession only1 int]dict+ "o's self ! enjoym5t !re(4 ,^! two qualities1 x is se51 d n only diff] f ea* o!r 9 ! m or ! less1 b 9 _! v nature4 ,!re w\ld rema9 next to ask1 :at is ! quality ( economy1 & t is j :at ,kant does n tell u4 ,9 default ( x1 x might be =mulat$ ?us3 to acquire & pres]ve ! means ( livelihood1 n = ! sake ( possession or enjoym5t1 b = pres5t or future ne$4 ,only !re rema9s /ill ! difficulty ( di/+ui%+ ne$ f enjoym5t4 ,:]e does legitimate ne$ end8 ,:]e does b>r5 enjoym5t beg98 ,x is "h t ,ari/otle's =mula ass]ts itself1 & t we mu/ f9ally come to recognize t ! virtue ( economy consi/s 9 a c]ta9 m$ium betwe5 prodigality & av>ice4 ,yet :atev] x be1 we _c bett] close ?is subject ?an by cit+ ,ari/otle's admirable description ( ! prodigal & ! mis]3 ,la ,bruy]e %[s no great] acut5ess & =ce4 ,! prodigal is he :o ru9s himself on 8 own accord4 ,! s5seless squ&]+ ( 8 prop]ty is a sort ( self-de/ruction1 s9ce "o c only live on :at "o has4 ,prodigality is ! excess ( giv+1 & ! want ( receiv+2 b ^! two conditions _c v long keep toge!r2 = x is n easy to give to e "o1 :5 "o receives f no "o4 ,?is vice1 h[ev]1 %\ld n appe> z blamewor?y z t ( av>ice4 ,age1 di/ress ev51 may easily en\gh correct ! prodigal & br+ him back to a j m$ium4 ,?us is ! nature ( ! prodigal on ! :ole n a bad "o2 !re is no?+ vici\s or l[ 9 ?is excessive t5d5cy to give mu* & take no?+ 9 return2 x is only folly4 ,x is true t prodigals become gre$y & grasp+4 ,?is is also :y _! gifts are n truly lib]al 444 :y !y enri* "s p :o %\ld be left 9 pov]ty1 & refuse do+ any?+ = o!rs f> m des]v+4 ,!y give ) op5 h&s to flatt]]s or p :o procure !m pleasures z unwor?y z ^? ( flatt]y4 ,av>ice is incurable4444 ,av>ice is m natural to man ?an prodigality2 = mo/ ( u pref] keep+ :at we h ?an giv+ x away4444 ,x consi/s ( two pr9cipal elem5ts3 defect ( giv+1 excess ( receiv+4444 ,"s %[ m excess ( receiv+1 "s m defect ( giv+4 ,?us d all ^? br&$ by ! "n %abby1 /+y1 mean1 s9 ?r\gh a defect ( giv+2 yet d !y n covet1 nor w\ld !y take :at belongs to o!rs4444 ,o!r mis]s1 on ! contr>y1 may be kn[n by _! grasp+ prop5sities1 tak+ all !y c get3 = example1 all ^? :o engage 9 ignoble speculations 444 usur]s & all ^? :o l5d small sums at l>ge int]e/4 ,all ^! p take :]e !y %\ld n take1 & m ?an !y ought to take4 ,lu/ = ! mo/ %ameful lucre seems to be ! common vice ( all degrad$ he>ts3 !re is no infamy !y are n will+ to endure1 if !y c make x a pr(it4#ajb #adf4 ,duties relat+ to ! acquisition ( ext]nal ?+s4--,"w4--,! necessity ( procur+ ! ?+s ne$ful to life imposes on u a fundam5tal obligation1 :i* cont9ues ev5 :5 ! want is met3 x is ! obligation ( "w4 ,"w spr+s f want2 ?is is its fir/ orig92 b x survives want2 & its beauty & dignity consi/ 9 t1 be+ at fir/ born ( a natural necessity1 x becomes ! honor ( man & ! salvation ( society4 ,9 its mo/ g5]al s5se1 "w means activity1 & 9 t s5se x may be said t ev]y?+ works 9 nature2 ev]y?+ is 9 motion2 ev]y:]e we see ef=t1 en]gy1 unfold+ ( =ces4 ,take b ! animals3 ! bird works to build its ne/2 ! spid] to weave its web2 ! bee to make h] honey2 ! beav] to con/ruct its lodges2 ! dog to cat* ! game2 ! cat to cat* mice4 ,we f9d among animals workm5 ( all sorts3 masons1 ar*itects1 tailors1 hunt]s1 travel]s2 ev5 politicians & arti/s1 z if !y _h be5 de/9$ to set u examples 9 all k9ds ( "w & activity4 ,9 ! morn+1 says ,m>cus ,aurelius1 :5 ?\ ha/ tr\ble 9 gett+ up1 say to ?yself3 ,i awake to d ! "w ( a man3 :y1 !n1 %\ld ,i grieve = hav+ to d ?+s = :i* ,i am born1 = :i* ,i 0 s5t into ! _w8 ,0 ,i born to rema9 w>mly 9 b$ "u my cov]8--,b x is s pleasant4--,w]t ?\ born = pleasure1 !n8 ,0 x n = action1 = "w8 ,see/ ?\ n ! plants1 ! sp>r[s1 ! ants1 ! spid]s1 ! bees1 fill+ ea* _! functions1 & contribut+ accord+ to _! capacity to ! h>mony ( ! _w8 ,& %\ld/ ?\ refuse to att5d ?y functions z man8 ,%\ld/ ?\ n foll[ ! bidd+s ( nature8#ajc ,! anci5ts di/+ui%$ two k9ds ( "w3 noble & indep5d5t "w1 namely1 ! arts1 ! sci5ces1 w> & politics2 & s]vile or m]c5>y "w impos$ by necessity4 ,! latt] !y deem$ bel[ ! dignity ( man2 manual labor1 prop]ly s call$1 useful "w1 di/9ct f gymna/ics & milit>y ex]cises1 !y consid]$ z belong+ exclusively to slaves4 ,x is to ?is ,ari/otle ref]r$ :5 he said3 ,!re are m5 :o h b j ! necess>y am\nt ( reason to und]/& ! reason ( o!rs3 x is !y ^: only "w is useful manual labor4 ,x is obvi\s t su* m5 _c belong to !mselves2 !y belong necess>ily to o!rs2 !y are slaves by nature4 ,ari/otle believ$1 moreov]1 t nature h]self _h made ! di/9ction betwe5 ! freeman & ! slave3 ,nature1 he said1 made ! bodies ( ! freem5 diff]5t f ^? ( ! slaves2 %e gave to ! latt] ! necess>y vigor = ! heavy "w ( society1 & made ! =m] unable to b5d _! erect natures to su* rude labors4#ajd ,x is n necess>y to h liv$ to ?is pres5t "t to f9d ^! errors refut$4 ,be=e ,ari/otle1 ,socrates _h already und]/ood ! dignity ( labor1 ev5 ( ! productive labor insur+ a livelihood2 he _h se5 t "w 9 itself 0 n s]vile1 z ! foll[+ *>m+ acc\nt relat$ by ,x5ophon1 well proves3 ,socrates1 obs]v+1 on "o occasion1 ,ari/>*us look+ gloomily1 ',y seem1' said he1 ',ari/>*us1 to be tak+ some?+ to he>t2 b y ought to imp>t ! cause ( y\r uneas9ess to y\r fri5ds2 =1 p]haps1 we may by "s means light5 x4' ',i am inde$1 ,socrates1' repli$ ,ari/>*us1 '9 great p]plexity2 = s9ce ! city has be5 di/urb$1 & _m ( our p h fl$ to ! ,piraeus1 my surviv+ si/]s & nieces & c\s9s h ga!r$ ab\t me 9 su* numb]s1 t !re are n[ 9 my h\se f\rte5 free-born p]sons4 ,at ! same "t1 we receive no pr(it f our l&s1 = ! enemy are 9 possession ( !m2 nor any r5t f our h\ses1 = b few inhabitants are left 9 ! city2 no "o w buy our furniture1 nor is x possible to borr[ money f any qu>t]2 a p]son1 inde$1 z x seems to me1 w\ld soon] f9d money by seek+ x on ! road1 ?an get x by borr[+4 ,x is a griev\s ?+ to me1 !re=e1 to leave my relations to p]i%2 & x is impossible = me to support su* a numb] "u su* circum/ances4' ,socrates1 on he>+ ?is1 repli$3 ',are y n aw>e t ,cyrebus1 by mak+ bread1 ma9ta9s 8 :ole h\sehold & lives luxuri\sly2 t ,demea supports himself by mak+ cloaks1 ,m5on by mak+ wool5 cloaks1 & t mo/ ( ! ,meg>ians live by mak+ mantles8' ',c]ta9ly !y d1' said ,ari/>*us2 '= !y pur*ase b>b>ian slaves & keep !m1 9 ord] to =ce !m to d :at !y please2 b ,i h ) me free-born p]sons & relatives4' ',!n1' add$ ,socrates1 'because !y are free & relat$ to y1 d y ?9k t !y ought to d no?+ else b eat & sleep8 ,d y f9d t idl5ess & c>elessness are s]viceable to mank9d1 ei!r = le>n+ :at x becomes !m to "k1 or = rememb]+ :at !y h le>n$1 or = ma9ta9+ ! heal? & /r5g? ( _! bodies1 & t indu/ry & dilig5ce are ( no s]vice at all8 ,& z to ! arts :i* y say !y "k1 did !y le>n !m z be+ useless to ma9ta9 life1 & ) ! int5tion ( nev] practic+ any ( !m1 or1 on ! contr>y1 ) a view to occupy !mselves ab\t !m1 & to reap pr(it f !m8 ,9 :i* condition w m5 be m temp]ate1 liv+ 9 idl5ess or att5d+ to useful employm5ts8 ,9 :i* condition w !y be m hone/1 if !y "w1 or if !y sit 9 idl5ess m$itat+ h[ to procure necess>ies8' ',by ! gods1' exclaim$ ,ari/>*us1 'y seem to me to give su* excell5t advice1 ,socrates1 t ?\gh hi!rto ,i did n l to borr[ money1 kn[+ t1 :5 ,i _h sp5t :at ,i got1 ,i %\ld h no means ( repay+ x1 ,i n[ ?9k t ,i c endure to d s1 9 ord] to ga9 ! necess>y means = comm5c+ "w4' ,! necess>y means 7 accord+ly provid$2 wool 0 b\ght2 & ! wom5 took _! d9n]s z !y cont9u$ at "w1 & supp$ :5 !y _h f9i%$ _! tasks2 !y became *e]ful in/ead ( gloomy 9 c\nt5ance1 &1 in/ead ( reg>d+ ea* o!r ) dislike1 met ! looks ( "o ano!r ) pleasure2 !y lov$ ,ari/>*us z _! protector1 & he lov$ !m z be+ ( use to him4 ,at la/ he came to ,socrates1 & told him ) delight ( ! /ate ( ?+s 9 ! h\se2 add+ t1 '! wom5 compla9$ ( him z be+ ! only p]son 9 ! h\se t ate ! bread ( idl5ess4' ',& d y n tell !m1' said ,socrates1 '! fable ( ! dog8 ,= !y say t :5 bea/s _h ! faculty ( spee*1 ! %eep said to h] ma/]3 ,y act /rangely1 9 grant+ no?+ to u :o supply y ) wool1 & lambs1 & *eese1 except :at we get f ! gr\nd2 :ile to ! dog1 :o br+s y no su* pr(its1 y give a %>e ( ! food :i* y take y\rself4 ,! dog he>+ ^! rem>ks1 said1 ',& n inde$ )\t reason3 = ,i am he t protects ev5 y\rselves1 s t y are nei!r /ol5 by m51 nor c>ri$ (f by wolves2 :ile1 if ,i 7 n to gu>d y1 y w\ld be unable ev5 to fe$1 = fe> le/ y %\ld be de/roy$4' ,9 consequ5ce x is said t ! %eep agre$ t ! dog %\ld h sup]ior honor4 ,y1 accord+ly1 tell y\r relations t y are1 9 ! place ( ! dog1 _! gu>dian & protector1 & t1 by y\r means1 !y "w & live 9 security & pleasure1 )\t suff]+ injury f any "o4'#aje ,if x is unju/ to reg>d manual & productive "w z s]vile1 x is equally unju/ to reg>d !m z alone entitl$ to ! "n ( "w4 ,!re are1 says a ,*9ese sage1 two k9ds ( "w3 "s p "w ) _! m9ds2 "s ) _! h&s4 ,^? :o "w ) _! m9ds gov]n m52 ^? :o "w ) _! h&s are gov]n$ by m54 ,^? :o are gov]n$ by m5 fe$ m52 ^? :o gov]n m5 are f$ by m54#ajf ,! same au?or %[s fur!r h[ div]s functions are necess>ily divid$ 9 society4 ,! holy man said to 8 bro!r3 ,g & com=t m52 call !m to !e2 br+ !m back to virtue2 correct !m1 help !m2 make !m prosp]4 ,9 ?us busy+ !mselves ) ! welf>e ( ! p1 c\ld ^! holy m5 f9d leisure to engage 9 agriculture8 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 admit t all activity usefully employ$ is "w1 & t all "w1 :e!r manual or intellectual1 m]c5>y#ajg or gratuit\s1 is noble & legitimate4 ,"w be+ tak5 9 its mo/ g5]al s5se1 may be set d[n z be+ a pleasure1 a necessity1 a duty4 ,kant1 :o1 z we h se51 refuses to admit 9 morals any o!r pr9ciple b t ( duty1 w\ld probably disagree ) u :5 we say t "w is a pleasure & a necessity4 ,b if x be true1 :y %\ld we n say s8 ,is x necess>y1 9 ord] t ! duty ( "w be truly accompli%$1 t x be bo? pa9ful & useless8 ,wisdom n[ise requires ?is4 ,provid5ce hav+ atta*$ to "w1 :il/ mak+ x ! necess>y condition ( our self-pres]vation1 a c]ta9 pleasure1 light5+ !reby our ef=ts1 morality n[ise =bids u to enjoy ?is pleasure & accept ?is necessity4 ,x w be easily grant$ t "w is a necessity2 b x is m difficult to obta9 f m5 ! admission t x is a pleasure4 ,man1 if he w n die ( hung]1 mu/ "w1 unque/ionably1 !y w say2 b t x is a pleasure is q ano!r ?+4 ,if ! pleasure ( "w is put to "q1 no "o at lea/ w ma9ta9 t x is a pleasure n to "w4 ,= :5 does re/1 leisure1 recreation give u mo/ pleasure8 ,ev]ybody kn[s1 x is :5 we h work$4 ,recall to m9d any unusually heavy "w1 any hurri$ & necess>y task1 or ev5 our daily or weekly duty scrupul\sly fulfill$3 :at joy is x n :5 ! task is done to give ourselves a holiday6 ,idl5ess br+s ) x satiety1 we>9ess1 disgu/1 disord]1 ! ru9 ( ! family1 ! de/ruction ( heal?1 & o!r evils /ill m baleful4 ,"w1 on ! contr>y1 makes repose enjoyable4 ,)\t ! fatigue ( ! day's "w1 no pleasure 9 sleep1 & ev5 no sleep at all4 ,a manife/ pro( t ,provid5ce did n int5d u = repose1 b = action1 = ef=t1 = /ruggle1 = en]getic & con/ant "w4 ,we %\ld ev5 g s f> z to say t "w is n only a /imulant1 b t x is 9 itself a pleasure & a joy4 ,!re is1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! joy ( self-love4 ,we all exp]i5ce joy :5 we h accompli%$ some?+2 :5 we h succe$$ 9 a difficult "w1 & ! m difficult x 01 ! pr\d] we are ( x4 ,besides1 ! ex]cise :i* accompanies activity is 9 itself a great good4 ,! unfold+ ( /r5g?1 physical or moral1 is ! s\rce ( ! true/ pleasures4 ,activity is life itself3 to live1 is to act4 ,"w1 aga91 gives u ! pleasure :i* accompanies any k9d ( /ruggle3 9 work+ we /ruggle aga9/ ! =ces ( nature1 we subdue !m1 discipl9e !m1 we tea* !m to obey u4 ,unque/ionably ! fir/ ef=ts are pa9ful3 b :5 once ! fir/ difficulties are ov]come1 "w is s little a fatigue t x becomes a pleasant necessity4 ,"o is ev5 oblig$ to make an ef=t to take re/4 ,yes1 aft] hav+ 9 *ildhood _h tr\ble to get accu/om$ to "w1 :at 9 ! long run becomes ! mo/ difficult1 is n to "w4 ,"o is almo/ oblig$ to fight aga9/ himself1 to =ce himself to recreation & re/4 ,leisure 9 its turn becomes a duty to :i* we almo/ submit aga9/ our w1 & only because reason bids u to submit to x2 = we "k t we mu/ n abuse ! /r5g? ,provid5ce has entru/$ to u4 ,x is n necess>y to dwell long on ?is po9t to fix 9 our memory t "w alone insures security & com=t4 ,c]ta9ly x does n always secure !m2 ?is is un=tunately too true2 b if we are n q sure t by work+ we c provide = wife & *ildr51 & secure a legitimate re/ = our old age1 we may1 on ! o!r h&1 be q sure t )\t "w we %all br+ ^u ourselves & our family c]ta9 mis]y4 ,!re h n yet be5 f\nd any means :]eby weal? may be /ruck out ( ! e>? )\t "w4 ,?is weal? :i* dazzles our eyes2 ^! palaces1 c>riages1 spl5did dresses1 ?is furniture1 luxury1 all ^! ri*es & o!rs m sub/antial3 ma*9]y1 iron-works1 l& produce1 all ?is is accumulat$ "w4 ,betwe5 ! condition ( savages t w&] ab\t fami%$ 9 ! =e/s ( ,am]ica1 & ! condition ( our civiliz$ societies1 !re is no o!r diff]5ce b "w4 ,suppose 7a ?+ impossible7 t 9 a society l ?is our own1 all "w %\ld all at once be /opp$3 di/ress & hung] w\ld be ! imm$iate & inevitable consequ5ce4 ,spa91 on discov]+ ! gold m9es ( ,am]ica1 ?\ght h]self enri*$ =ev]2 %e ceas$ "w2 x 0 h] ru92 = f be+ ,europe's sov]eign mi/ress1 z %e !n 01 %e fell to ! rank we see h] occupy to-day4 ,laz9ess br+s ) x mis]y2 mis]y begg>y1 & begg>y is n always satisfi$ ) ask+ m]ely--x /eals4 ,"w is n only a pleasure or a necessity1 x is also a duty2 ?\gh pa9ful & joyless1 "w is1 nev]!less1 an obligation = man2 x 7 /ill an obligation = him if he c\ld live )\t x4 ,"w does n only insure security3 x secures dignity4 ,man 0 creat$ to ex]cise ! faculties ( 8 m9d & body4 ,he 0 creat$ to act4 ,i d n speak "h ( :at he owes to o!rs1 b ( :at he owes to himself4 ,! happy man1 says ,ari/otle1 is n ! man asleep1 b ! man awake1 & to be awake is to "w & act4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,duties ,,relat+ ,,to ,,! ,,intellect4 ,,summ>y4 ,duties relative to ! inve/igation ( tru?4--,( intellectual virtues3 t !re are su*4 ,( ! ?ree =ms ( ! intellect3 speculative1 critical1 practical4 ,h5ce1 ?ree pr9cipal qualities3 k1 judgm5t or good s5se1 prud5ce4 ,( k4--,refutation ( ! objections to k3 ,nicole1 ,malebran*e & ,r\sseau4 ,g5]al duty to cultivate "o's intellect3 ! impossibility ( det]m9+ ! full range ( ?is duty4 ,good s5se or judgm5t4--,errors committ$ 9 ord9>y life3 sophisms ( self-love1 int]e/1 & passion4--,o!r sophisms f\nd$ on false appe>ances4--,logical rules4 ,( prud5ce or practical wisdom4--,c x be call$ a virtue8 ,p>ticul> rules4 ,duties relative to tell+ ! tru?4--,ly+4--,two k9ds ( lies3 inw>d & outw>d ly+4 ,inw>d ly+4--,c "o lie to himself8 ,examples4 ,( ! lie prop]ly s-call$4--,h[ & :y x l[]s ! m9d4 ,( sil5ce4--,to di/+ui% betwe5 dissimulation & discretion4 ,duty ( sil5ce3 9 :at cases8 ,( ! oa? & ( p]jury4--,p]jury is a d\ble lie4 ,! diff]5t duties ( man t[>d himself1 consid]$ z a moral be+1 are naturally d$uc$ f ! div]s faculties ( :i* ?is moral be+ is compos$4 ,plato is ! fir/1 to our k1 :o has employ$ ?is mode ( d$uction4#ajh ,x is aft] hav+ di/+ui%$ ?ree p>ts or ?ree faculties 9 ! s\l1 t he attributes to ea* ( !m a virtue prop]1 virtue be+1 he says1 ! quality by means ( :i* "o does a ?+ well4 ,x is ?us t ! virtue ( wisdom corresponds to ! faculty ( ! und]/&+2 ! virtue ( c\rage to ! irascible or c\rage\s faculty1 or to ! he>t2 temp]ance1 to t ( desire or appetite4 ,to ^! ?ree virtues1 ,plato adds ano!r :i* is b ! h>mony1 ! accord1 ! equilibrium betwe5 ^!1 namely1 ju/ice4 ,cic]o aft]w>ds took up ?is d$uction f ano!r /&po9t4#aji ,9 apply+ ?is anci5t me?od to ! pres5t divisions ( psy*ology1 we %all admit1 ) ,plato & ,cic]o1 an ord] ( virtues relative to ! m9d1 & :i* we w call wisdom2 & ano!r class ( virtues relat+ to ! w1 & :i* w\ld correspond ) c\rage or /r5g? ( m9d 7virtus1 magnitudo animi74 ,z to s5sibility1 if we take into consid]ation ! appetites & physical desires1 ! virtue relat+ to !m is temp]ance1 ( :i* we h already spok54 ,!re rema9 ! emotions1 ! affections ( ! he>t :i* relate m p>ticul>ly to ! duties t[>d o!rs4 ,yet !y may1 9 a c]ta9 respect1 be also consid]$ z duties t[>d "o's self1 al?\gh language does n designate ?is k9d ( virtue by a p>ticul> "n4#aaj #adg4 ,duties relative to ! inve/igation ( tru?4--,intellectual virtues4--,!re are two classes ( virtues :i* h be5 (t5 di/+ui%$3 ! /rict duties & ! broad duties3 ! /rict duties to consi/ 9 n injur+ "o's faculties2 ! broad1 to develop & p]fect !m2 x is n easy to apply ?is di/9ction "h2 &1 conc]n+ intellig5ce1 to sep>ate self-pres]vation f self-improvem5t4 ,9 su* a case1 n to ga9 is inevitably to lose2 he :o does n cultivate 8 intellect1 impairs x by t v fact4 ,"o c\ld n !n1 )\t p$antic inve/igation & subtlety1 try to di/+ui% "h1 9 "o & ! same duty1 two di/9ct duties3 ! "o prohibitive1 ! o!r imp]ative4 ,!y are bo? b\nd up 9 ! g5]al duty to cultivate "o's intellect4 ,x is n s ) ! relations exi/+ betwe5 "o's own intellect & ! intellect ( o!rs2 ! expression ( a ?\ght gives rise to a /rict duty3 n to lie2 :i* is ! imm$iate consequ5ce ( ! duty ( ! intellect t[>d itself1 & :i* consequ5tly %\ld1 by way ( coroll>y1 also belong to ! pres5t *apt]4 ,! fir/ "q :i* pres5ts itself to u is to "k :e!r we %\ld admit1 ) ,ari/otle1 intellectual virtues1 prop]ly s call$1 di/9ct f ! moral virtues1 ! fir/ hav+ reg>d to ! intellect1 ! second to ! passions4 ,x w\ld seem t ! v>i\s faculties po9t$ out by ,ari/otle "u ! "n ( intellectual virtues1 are r qualities ( ! m9d ?an virtues3 art1 sci5ce1 prud5ce1 wisdom1 intellig5ce#aaa 7n to m5tion ! difficulty ( det]m9+ ! v>i\s %ades ( mean+ ( ^! t]ms71 are natural or acquir$ aptitudes1 b :i* d n appe> to h any moral m]it3 a s*ol>1 an arti/1 a clev] man1 a man ( good s5se & good c\nsel are naturally di/+ui%$ f virtu\s m54 ,x w\ld seem !n t ! intellectual virtues are oppos$ to ! moral virtues1 z ! m9d is to ! he>t3 n[1 = e "o1 x is ! he>t r ?an ! m9d t is ! seat ( virtue4 ,^! difficulties are only app>5t1 & ,ari/otle himself gives u ! means ( solv+ !m3 ,9 ord] to be truly virtu\s1 he says1 "o %\ld always act 9 a c]ta9 moral _s3 ,i mean t ! *oice ( an action %\ld be a free "o1 det]m9$ only by ! nature ( ! acts "o accompli%es4 ,n[ x is virtue t r5d]s ?is *oice laudable & good4#aab ,x is n ! natural faculties ( ! m9d !n1 no m ?an ^? ( ! he>t & body1 t des]ve ! "n ( virtues4 ,x is ^? same faculties1 develop$ & cultivat$ by ! w3 on ?is condition alone d !y des]ve e/eem & respect4 ,! intellect is 9 itself ( a high] ord] ?an ! s5ses1 ! appetites1 ! passions3 x is !re=e incumb5t ^u u to give x ! l>ge/ %>e 9 our p]sonal developm5t4 ,x is to t we are alli$1 says ,pascal1 n to space & "t4 ,let our ef=ts !n t5d to ?9k well2 ?is is ! pr9ciple ( morality4 ,! intellect pres5ts two p>ticul> =ms3 x is ei!r contemplative or active1 !oretical or practical4 ,! virtue ( ! contemplative intellect is k2 t ( ! practical intellect prud5ce4 ,f9ally a ?ird virtue might be admitt$3 judgm5t or common s5se1 :i* is a critical1#aac n a practical faculty1 & :i* p>takes at ! same "t ( bo? sides ( ! und]/&+4 ,^! subtle di/9ctions ( ,ari/otle h n lo/ _! correctness & application ) "t4 ,"o c1 9 fact1 employ 8 m9d 9 ?ree ways3 ei!r contemplate absolute tru? by ! means ( sci5ce2--or judge ( ev5ts & m5 & =esee future ?+s )\t contribut+ t[>d _! occurr5ce2--or aga9 delib]ate z to :at is to be done or n to be done to br+ ab\t actions useful to "o's self & to o!rs4 ,h5ce ?ree k9ds ( m53 ! wise1 ! intellig5t1 ! prud5t4 ,k4--,tak+ up aga91 "o aft] ! o!r1 ^! ?ree qualities1 we ought to ask ourselves :e!r k is a duty = man2 if he is held to develop 8 m9d 9 a !oretical mann] & )\t any practical end4 ,b be=e we exam9e :e!r x is a duty1 let u fir/ f9d out :e!r x is lawful4 ,! sci5tific & speculative culture ( ! m9d on ! "p ( man1 has (t5 be5 reg>d$ z a pr\d or conceit$ ref9em5t4 ,?is op9ion 0 express$ by "s writ]s ( ! sev5te5? c5tury--= in/ance1 by ,nicole1 9 ! preface to ! ,logique de ,port ,royal3 ,^! sci5ces1 he says1 h n only back-corn]s & secret recesses ( v little use1 b !y are all useless :5 view$ 9 !mselves & = !mselves4 ,m5 7 n born to sp5d _! "t measur+ l9es1 exam9+ ! relations ( angles1 /udy+ ! div]s movem5ts ( matt]3 _! m9d is too va/1 _! life too %ort1 _! "t too preci\s1 to occupy !mselves ) su* small matt]s4 ,malebran*e expresses himself 9 ab\t ! same t]ms3 ,m5 7 n born to become a/ronom]s or *emi/s1 to sp5d _! :ole life hang+ on a telescope or fa/5$ to a furnace1 = no bett] purpose ?an to draw aft]w>ds f _! labori\s obs]vations useless consequ5ces4 ,grant+ "s a/ronom] 0 ! fir/ 9 discov]+ l&s1 seas1 & m\nta9s 9 ! moon2 t he 0 ! fir/ to p]ceive spots mov+ ^u ! sun1 & t he has calculat$ _! movem5ts exactly4 ,grant+ "s *emi/s to h f9ally discov]$ ! secret ( fix+ m]cury or to make t alkahe/ by means ( :i* ,van ,helmont boa/$ he c\ld dissolve all matt]3 7 !y ! wis] & happi] = x8 ,9 express+ !mselves s disda9fully conc]n+ ! sci5ces1 ,nicole & ,malebran*e meant1 9 fact1 only t "o %\ld n pref] speculative k to ! sci5ce ( man or to ! sci5ce ( ,god2 & x is mo/ true t if we view ! sci5ces f a /&po9t ( dignity1 we mu/ admit t ! moral sci5ces h great] excell5ce ?an ! physical sci5ces4 ,b t :i* is equally true is1 t we mu/ n measure ! m]it ( ! sci5ces by _! mat]ial or ev5 moral or logical utility4 ,sci5ce is 9 itself1 & )\t reg>d to any o!r end b itself1 wor?y to be lov$ & /udi$4 ,intellig5ce1 9 fact1 0 giv5 to man t he might "k ! tru? ( ?+s2 inve/igation is its natural food4 ,man1 9 rais+ himself to sci5ce1 increases !reby ! excell5ce ( 8 nature2 he becomes a creature ( a high] ord]2 = 9 ! ord] ( div9e creatures1 ! mo/ p]fect are at ! same "t ^? :o "k ! mo/1 & ! highe/ degree ( happ9ess promis$ to religi\s fai?1 is to "k tru? face to face4 ,x is !re=e no frivol\s amusem5t to increase "h bel[ ! sum ( k we are capable (1 ?\gh ?is k be only t ( ! ?+s ( ?is _w1 & n yet ! high] & direct k ( ,god4 ,)\t admitt+ t sci5ce is ( itself a legitimate object ( rese>*1 x w be recogniz$ t x is lawful to /udy x1 ei!r 9 our own int]e/ or = ! love ( o!rs1 or = ! love ( ,god4 ,b ?is is n en\gh3 to see 9 sci5ce no?+ b a means to be useful to ourselves 7z1 = example1 to make a liv+71#aad is a s]vile & m]c5>y view1 :i* does n des]ve to be discuss$4 ,to ma9ta9 t sci5ce %\ld only be cultivat$ because ( its utility to o!rs1 is ! same z to say t man has no duties t[>d himself1 & t he is n oblig$1 lett+ alone ! int]e/ ( o!rs1 to respect or p]fect 8 own self3 a ?+ we h already refut$4 ,f9ally1 to say t sci5ce %\ld be cultivat$ z a gift f ,god1 & = ! love ( ,god1 may be true2 b ?is is n any m applicable to t occupation ?an to any o!r2 & ! same may be said ( any o!r k9d ( duty )\t exception4 ,c]ta9ly1 sci5ce %\ld n make "o pr\d2 b pride is only an adv5titi\s & n a necess>y consequ5ce1 :i*1 9 speak+ ( cultivat+ sci5ce1 %\ld n be conf\nd$ ) ! fact itself4 ,besides1 :5 ,malebran*e says t ! sci5ti/ is n any happi] or wis] = 8 sci5ce1 he is mi/ak53 = ! greate/ happ9ess is sometimes d]iv$ f sci5ce alone2 & z to ! wisdom ( x1 a ta/e = elevat$ ?\ght is already a gu>antee aga9/ ! allurem5ts ( ! passions2 f9ally1 :il/ we cultivate sci5ce1 we are safe f o!r less innoc5t incl9ations4 ,to ! op9ions ( ,nicole & ,malebran*e1 let u oppose ! te/imony ( two m5 :o possess$ 9 ! highe/ degree ! respect & love ( sci5ce3 ,x is unwor?y ( man1 says ,ari/otle1 n to possess himself ( all ! sci5ce he c4 ,if ! poets are "r1 :5 !y say t ! ,div9ity is capable ( jeal\sy1 ?is jeal\sy w\ld especially manife/ itself 9 reg>d to philosophy1 & !n1 all ^? :o indulg$ 9 elevat$ ?\ght w\ld be unhappy4 ,b x is n possible = ! ,div9ity to be jeal\s1 & ! poets1 z ! prov]b says1 d n always tell ! tru?4 ,let u n[ he> ,desc>tes3 ,al?\gh 9 judg+ myself ,i f9d t ,i am m dispos$ to incl9e t[>d ! side ( di/ru/ ?an presumption1 & t reg>d+ ) a philosoph]'s eye ! div]se actions & ent]prises ( m51 !re be sc>cely any t d n seem to me va9 & useless1 yet does ! progress :i* ,i ?9k ,i h already made 9 ! se>* = tru? give me extreme satisfaction1 & inspire me ) su* hopes = ! future t if1 among ! m mat]ial occupations ( m51 !re are any sub/antially good & important1 ,i d>e believe t x is ! "o ,i h *os54#aae ,if1 f a /&po9t ( some:at my/ical piety1 "s m9ds ( ! sev5te5? c5tury reg>d$ ! sci5ces z useless1 a p>adoxical /oicism accus$ !m 9 ! eighte5? to be a cause ( corruption & decay 9 society4 ,su* is ,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau's celebrat$ !sis 9 8 fir/ spee* at ! ,academy ( ,dijon4 ,?is celebrat$ p>adox1 :i* has creat$ s mu* excitem5t 9 ! pa/ c5tury1 & :i* is ev5 an hi/orical ev5t 7= x 0 ! fir/ attack aga9/ ! society ( ! "t71 has s9ce be5 s decri$ t x is useless to dwell on x4 ,let u make a brief resume ( ,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau's argum5ts3 #a4 ,progress 9 lett]s & sci5ces s]ves = no?+ else b to conceal ! vices & put hypocrisy 9 ! place ( an ill-br$ ru/icity4 #b4 ,all great nations ceas$ to be inv9cible z soon z ! sci5ces p5etrat$ among !m4 ,egypt1 aft] ! conque/ ( ,cambyses2 ,greece1 aft] ,p]icles2 ,rome1 aft] ,augu/us4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 we look = examples ( heal?y1 hone/1 vigor\s nations1 we f9d !m among ! anci5t ,p]sians1 ,scy?ians1 ,sp>tans1 ! fir/ ,romans1 ! ,swiss4 #c4 ,! sci5ces & arts are born ( & n\ri% idl5ess4 ,_! lea/ mis*ief is uselessness4#aaf #d4 ,! lett]s & arts eng5d] luxury1 & luxury is "o ( ! p[]ful in/rum5ts ( corruption 9 morals3 x de/roys c\rage1 l[]s ! "*1 &1 by ano!r consequ5ce1 depraves & corrupts ! ta/e ev54 #e4 ,ano!r consequ5ce3 ! culture ( ! m9d eng5d]s sophisms1 false sy/ems1 & dang]\s d\bts ab\t religion & morality4 ,^! v>i\s argum5ts1 tak+ !m up "o aft] ! o!r1 may be answ]$ z foll[s3 #a4 ,x is n[ise prov$ t 9 ! age ( ignorance vices 7 less num]\s & less deeply root$ ?an 9 ! m enlight5$ age4 ,dec5cy is a good 9 itself1 & is n always hypocrisy4 ,delicacy ( m9d robs at lea/ vice ( its grosse/ features2 x dim9i%es & allays viol5ce1 :i* is a great s\rce ( crimes4 #b4 ,x is n true t milit>y virtues 7:i*1 besides1 are n ! only admirable virtues7 are de/roy$ by ! culture ( ! m9d3 mod]n examples prove ?is suffici5tly4 #c4 ,to say t ! lett]s & sci5ces are born ( & n\ri% idl5ess is an abuse ( words4 ,:]e9 is ! man :o works m5tally m idle ?an he :o works ) 8 h&s8 #d4 ,! sci5ces & lett]s d n develop a ta/e = luxury3 luxury w\ld develop )\t !m1 & w\ld be all ! m frivol\s & corrupt+3 !y are concomitant1 b n mutually relat$ facts4 ,luxury1 besides1 is n absolutely bad 9 itself3 ! ta/e = elegance is a legitimate "o4 ,is n nature h]self adorn$8 #e4 ,sci5ce develops wrong op9ions1 false sy/ems3 s be x2 b x also corrects !m1 & we %\ld look at bo? sides ( a ?+ & see its good p>ts z well z its bad4 ,o!rwise x w\ld be easy to prove t ev]y?+ is wrong4 ,r\sseau's p>adox1 h[ev]1 is n altoge!r false1 & !re are1 unque/ionably1 _m evils mix$ up ) ! culture ( ! m9d1 b ^! evils d n come f ! m9d's be+ cultivat$1 b f its be+ badly cultivat$2 !y d n come f p's seek+ ! true & ! beautiful1 b1 on ! contr>y1 f _! n seek+ !m en\gh4 ,! vanity d]iv$ f false sci5ce %\ld n be imput$ to true sci5ce1 b to ignorance4 ,! moral enfeeblem5t1 :i* is ! result ( an ov]-ref9$ culture ( ! m9d1 comes f our n suffici5tly cultivat+ ! m9d 9 e direction2 = example1 f our neglect+ ! moral sci5ces = ! indu/rial sci5ces1 or ! nobl] arts = ! voluptu\s arts4 ,! rem$y = ! evils po9t$ out by ,r\sseau is1 !re=e1 n ignorance1 b1 on ! contr>y1 a great] abundance ( light1 & high] lights4 ,x is !n = ea* ( u a duty to in/ruct himself1 b x is evid5t t ?is duty mu/ be reg>d$ z a broad duty--t is to say1 t its application _c be det]m9$ by precise =mulas4 ,no man is oblig$ by ! moral law to be :at is call$ a s*ol>2 no "o is oblig$ to le>n a/ronomy or transc5d5tal ma!matics1 /ill less metaphysics4 ,b x c be said t x is a duty = ea* ( u3 #a4 ,to le>n z well z possible ! pr9ciples ( ! art he w h to cultivate3 = in/ance1 ! magi/rate ! pr9ciples ( jurisprud5ce2 ! physician ! pr9ciples ( m$ic9e2 ! artisan ! pr9ciples ( me*anics4 ,9 ?is respect "y /ud5ts1 we mu/ confess1 h f> too easy a consci5ce4 ,!y d n realize ! responsibility !y incur by _! neglig5ce & laz9ess4 #b4 ,x is a duty = all m51 accord+ to ! means !y c dispose (1 to in/ruct !mselves conc]n+ _! duties4 #c4 ,x is also a duty = ea* to g1 z f> z he c1 beyond ! /rictly necess>y 9 matt]s ( education1 & 9 proportion to ! means he has at 8 disposal4 ,x is !n a duty to neglect no occasion ( improv+ "o's self4 #adi4 ,good s5se4--,betwe5 sci5ce & prud5ce1 betwe5 !oretical intellig5ce & practical intellig5ce1 ,ari/otle places ! critical faculty--9 o!r t]ms1 judgm5t1 good s5se1 disc]nm5t4 ,?is faculty is di/+ui%$ f sci5ce 9 t x is only appli$ to ?+s :]e d\bt & delib]ation come 92 x treats !n ( ! same objects z prud5ce2 b x is di/+ui%$ f ! latt] 9 t prud5ce is practical & prescribes :at %\ld be done or n be done2 good s5se1 on ! contr>y1 is purely critical3 x is limit$ to m]e judg+4 ,x is1 !n1 9 "s respects dis9t]e/$ & does n induce to action2 x is ! art ( appreciat+ ?+s1 m51 & ev5ts4 ,good judgm5t may be f\nd among m5 lack+ practical prud5ce3 "o sees (t5 v well ! faults ( o!rs )\t see+ "o's own2 or1 aga91 "o may be aw>e ( "o's own faults & n be able to correct !m4 ,h[ev]1 x is n to be d5i$ t good s5se or good judgm5t is a useful auxili>y to prud5ce2 x is already 9 itself an e/imable quality1 & is f> f be+ z well di/ribut$ among m5 z ,desc>tes claims4#aag ,on ! contr>y1 accord+ to ,nicole3 ,common s5se is n s common a quality z "o ?9ks4444 ,no?+ is m r>e ?an ?is exactness ( judgm5t4 ,ev]y:]e we meet false m9ds :o h sc>cely any disc]nm5t ( :at is true2 :o take ev]y?+ ! wrong way2 :o accept ! wor/ k9d ( reason+s1 & wi% to make o!rs accept !m also2 :o all[ !mselves to be c>ri$ away by ! lea/ appe>ances ( ?+s2 :o are always excessive 9 _! views & run into extremes2 m9ds :o ei!r h no grasp to hold on to ! tru?s !y h acquir$1 because !y h become atta*$ to !m ?r\gh *ance r ?an solid k2 or :o1 on ! contr>y1 p]si/ 9 _! ideas ) su* /ubbornness t !y li/5 to no?+ t c\ld undeceive !m2 :o judge boldly ( ?+s nei!r !y nor any "o else1 p]haps1 ev] und]/ood2 :o make no diff]5ce betwe5 talk+ to ! purpose & talk+ nons5se1 & are guid$ 9 _! judgm5t by m]e trifles4444 ,s t !re are no absurdities1 h[ev] incr$ible1 t d n f9d approv+ adh]5ts4 ,:oev] int5ds dup+ p is sure to f9d p glad to be dup$1 & ! mo/ ridicul\s nons5se is sure to f9d m9ds suit$ = x4 ,"h1 ! rules ( morality are conf\nd$ ) ^? ( logic4 ,x is ! latt] t tea*es u h[ to avoid error1 if n 9 sci5ce 7:i* is ! object ( speculative logic71 at lea/ 9 life4 ,! developm5t ( ^! rules w be f\nd 9 ! ,re*]*e de la v]ite ( ,malebran*e4 ,! ,logique de ,port ,royal w furni% u a resume ( !m :i* w suffice "h3 #aej4 ,illusions com+ f ourselves4--#a4 ,a fir/ cause ( illusion 9 ! judgm5ts we pass ^u ?+s1 is to take our int]e/ = a motive ( belief3 ,i am ( su* or su* a c\ntry1 ergo1 ,i mu/ believe t su* or su* a sa9t has prea*$ ! ,gospel !re2 ,i belong to su* or su* a class1 ergo1 ,i believe t su* or su* a privilege is a j "o4 #b4 ,our affections are ano!r cause ( illusion3 ,i love him1 ergo1 he is ! clev]e/ man 9 ! _w2 ,i hate him1 ergo1 he is nobody4 ,?is is :at may be call$ ! sophi/ry ( ! he>t4 #c4 ,illusions ( self-love4 ,!re are "s :o decide ab\t ev]y?+ by ! g5]al & v conv5i5t pr9ciple1 t !y mu/ be 9 ! "r4 ,!y li/5 b little to ! reasons ( o!rs2 !y wi% to c>ry ev]y?+ be=e !m by ma9 au?ority1 & treat all ^? :o are n ( _! op9ion z indiff]5t ?9k]s4 ,"s ev51 )\t suspect+ x1 g s f> z to say to !mselves3 ,if x 7 s1 ,i %\ld n be ! clev] man ,i am3 or1 ,i am a clev] man2 ergo1 x is n s4 #d4 ,reciprocal reproa*es :i* p may make to ea* o!r ) ! same "r3 = example1 y are a cavil]1 y are selfi%1 bl9d1 di%one/1 etc4 ,:5ce ?is equitable & judici\s rule ( ,sa9t ,augu/9e3 ,let u avoid 9 discussions mutual reproa*+2 reproa*es :i*1 ?\gh !y may n be true at t mom5t1 may ju/ly be made by bo? p>ties4 #e4 ,a _s ( contradiction & dispute1 s admirably depict$ by ,montaigne3 ,we only le>n to dispute t we may contradict1 & e "o contradict+ & be+ contradict$1 x falls out t ! fruit ( disputation is to lose & nullify ! tru?4444 ,"o flies to ! ea/1 ! o!r to ! we/2 !y lose ! pr9cipal1 & w&] 9 ! cr[d ( incid5ts2 aft] an h\r ( tempe/1 !y "k n :at !y seek2 "o is l[1 ! o!r high1 & a ?ird wide2 "o cat*es at a ^w & a simile2 ano!r is no long] s5sible ( :at is said 9 opposition to him1 be+ entirely absorb$ 9 8 own notions1 engag$ 9 foll[+ 8 own c\rse1 & n ?9k+ ( answ]+ y2 ano!r1 f9d+ himself weak1 fe>s all1 refuses all1 &1 at ! v beg9n+1 conf\nds ! subjects1 or1 9 ! v height ( ! dispute1 /ops %ort1 & gr[s sil5t2 by a peevi% ignorance affect+ a pr\d contempt1 or an unseasonable mode/ desire to %un debate4444 #f4 ,! contr>y defect1 namely1 a sycophantic amiability1 :i* approves ( ev]y?+ & admires ev]y?+3 example1 ! ,phil9te ( ,moli]e4 ,besides ^! diff]5t illusions :i* are due to ourselves & our own weaknesses1 !re are o!rs eng5d]$ f )\t1 or at lea/ f ! div]s aspects "u :i* ?+s pres5t !mselves to u3 #aea4 ,illusions aris+ f objects4--#a4 ,! mixture ( ! true & ! false1 ( good & evil :i* we see 9 ?+s1 is cause t we (t5 conf\nd !m4 ,?us d ! good qualities ( ! p]sons we e/eem cause u to approve _! defects1 & vice v]sa4 ,n[1 x is precisely 9 ?is judici\s sep>ation ( good f evil t a correct m9d %[s itself4 #b4 ,illusions aris+ f eloqu5ce & fl[]y rhetoric4 #c4 ,ill-natur$ int]pretations ( p's peculi> views f\nd$ on m]e appe>ances or he>say2 z1 = example3 su* a "o goes ) d\btful *>act]s1 ergo1 he is a bad "* himself2 su* ano!r associates ) free-?9k]s1 ergo1 he is a free-?9k] likewise2 a ?ird criticises ! gov]nm5t1 ergo1 he is a rebel2 he approves its acts1 ergo1 he is a c\rti]1 etc41 etc4 #d4 ,false d$uctions drawn f a few accid5tal occurr5ces2 z = in/ance3 m$ic9e does n cure all diseases1 h5ce x cures none2 !re are frivol\s wom51 h5ce all wom5 are frivol\s2 !re are hypocrites1 h5ce piety is no?+ b hypocrisy4 #e4 ,error ( judg+ ( bad or good advice f subsequ5t ev5ts4 ,z = example3 ,su* or su* an ev5t foll[$ ^u su* & su* advice1 h5ce x 0 good--x 0 bad4 #f4 ,sophi/ry ( au?ority4 ,x consi/s 9 accept+ m5's op9ions on ! /r5g? ( c]ta9 qualities !y may possess1 al?\gh ^! qualities may h no?+ to d ) ! matt] 9 h&4 ,= in/ance1 by reason ( _! age1 or piety1 or1 :at is worse1 ( weal? & influ5ce4 ,c]ta9ly we d n exactly say 9 s _m words3 su* a "o has a hundr$ p\nds income1 & mu/ !re=e be "r2 b !re is nev]!less some?+ simil> go+ on 9 our m9ds1 :i* runs away ) our judgm5t )\t our be+ consci\s ( x4 ,9 po9t+ out ^! v>i\s dang]s ^u :i* good judgm5t & upright reason+ are (t5 wreck$1 we indicate suffici5tly ! rules :i* ought to s]ve 9 ! education ( ! m9d3 = x is en\gh to be w>n$ aga9/ su* errors1 & be end[$ ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( correct judgm5t1 to recognize & avoid !m4 #aeb4 ,prud5ce4--,f ! faculty ( judg+ & hav+ an op9ion ab\t ?+s1 let u pass on to ! ?ird quality ( ! m9d1 namely3 prud5ce1 :i* consi/s1 z ,ari/otle in=ms u1 9 delib]at+ well be=e do+ any?+1 & :i* is ! art ( well disc]n+ our int]e/ 9 ! ?+s conc]n+ u1 & ! int]e/ ( o!rs 9 ! ?+s conc]n+ !m4 ,!re are !n two sorts ( prud5ce3 p]sonal prud5ce1 :i* is no?+ m ?an self-int]e/ well und]/ood1 & civil or dis9t]e/$ prud5ce1 :i* applies to ! int]e/s ( o!rs2 ?us1 a prud5t g5]al1 a prud5t not>y1 a prud5t m9i/]1 are n only prud5t 9 _! own int]e/s1 b = t ( o!rs4 ,prud5ce f ?is po9t ( view is !n b a duty t[>d o!rs4 ,z to p]sonal prud5ce1 x may be ask$ h[ f> x is a "q ( morals1 & :e!r x is n exclud$ f !m by ! v pr9ciple ( morals1 :i* is duty4 ,b we h already solv$ t difficulty4 ,because prud5ce is n all virtue1 x does n foll[ t x is n a virtue4 ,c]ta9ly1 we are too naturally incl9$ to seek our own int]e/1 to make x necess>y to set x d[n z a duty4 ,b 9 case ( /ruggle betwe5 self-int]e/ & passion1#aah self-int]e/ takes sometimes ! "* ( duty4 ,?is is cle> en\gh4 ,int]e/1 if prop]ly und]/ood1 repres5ts g5]al int]e/2 & passion1 private int]e/4 ,to yield to passion1 is to satisfy at a giv5 mom5t1 & = a v %ort "t1 "o ( our desires only4 ,prud5ce1 on ! contr>y1 pleads ! cause ( ! g5]al int]e/ ( ! entire man1 & = all 8 life4 ,man may be repres5t$ 7z ,plato has repres5t$ him7 figuratively z a city1 a republic1 a _w2 x has be5 said t he is a microcosm 7little _w74 ,?is little _w repres5ts 9 m9iature ! h>mony ( ! great _w4 ,! individual to :om ! gov]nm5t ( ?is little _w is intru/$1 & :o /&s 9 reg>d to himself z ,provid5ce /&s 9 reg>d to ! univ]se1 %\ld n favor a "p ( x at ! exp5se ( ! re/4 ,prud5ce is !n ! virtue by means ( :i* man gov]ns ! affairs ( ! little ,/ate ( :i* he is ! k+4 ,prud5ce1 moreov]1 is no?+ m ?an =esight--t is to say1 ! faculty ( =esee+ :at is com+1 ( draw+ f ! pa/1 consequ5ces = ! future1 & act+ con=mably to ! lessons ( exp]i5ce4 ,n[1 x is especially by ?is t man is di/+ui%$ f ! animal3 x is by ?is t he is capable ( progress4 ,he owes x !n to himself to act accord+ to ! pr9ciples ( reason1 & n accord+ to brute in/9cts4 ,ano!r difficulty ( great] import1 is t prud5ce does n repres5t a special virtue1 b is no?+ m ?an a common "n giv5 to sev]al p>ticul> virtues4 ,?us1 prud5ce be+ def9$ ! disc]nm5t betwe5 ! useful & ! hurtful1 x may be said t disc]nm5t1 9 po9t ( s5sual pleasures1 w be call$ mod]ation or temp]ance2 9 po9t ( ri*es1 economy2 t true c\rage hold+ ! mean betwe5 tem]ity & c[>dice1 is necess>ily accompani$ by prud5ce2 we h se5 t sci5ce itself mu/ le>n h[ to keep )9 b\nds1 & ?is also is a sort ( prud5ce4 ,we %all f9d !re=e t prud5ce has n1 l o!r virtues1 a prop]ty ( its own4 ,x is 9 reality no?+ m ?an a mode common to all p]sonal virtues1 ea* pres5t+ two /&po9ts to be consid]$ f3 #a1 f ! /&po9t ( p]sonal dignity1 :i* is ! highe/ pr9ciple2 #b1 f ! /&po9t ( a prop] self-int]e/1 :i*1 subord9ate to ! fir/1 is a second>y & relative /&po9t4 ,h[ev]1 appli$ 9 individual cases1 we w give "h a few ( ! rules conc]n+ prud5ce 9 g5]al3 #a4 ,x is n en\gh to att5d to :at good or evil ! pres5t mom5t may pres5t2 we %\ld also exam9e :at ! natural consequ5ces ( ?is good or evil w be1 s t1 comp>+ ! pres5t ) ! future & balanc+ ! "o ) ! o!r1 we may see ! result be=eh&4 #b4 ,x is unreasonable to seek a good :i* w inevitably be foll[$ by a great] evil4 #c4 ,no?+ is m reasonable ?an to suff] an evil :i* is c]ta9 to be foll[$ by a great] good4 #d4 ,"o %\ld pref] a great] good to a less]1 & conv]sely s 9 ! case ( evils4 #e4 ,x is n necess>y to be fully c]ta9 9 reg>d to great goods or evils1 & probability is suffici5t to induce a reasonable p]son to deprive himself ( "s less] goods1 or to suff] "s slight evils1 9 view ( acquir+ mu* great] goods1 or avoid+ worse evils4#aai #aed4 ,duties relative to tell+ ! tru?4--,v]acity & falsehood4--,x is 9 ! nature ( man to express 8 ?\ghts by signs ( v>i\s k9ds1 & (t5e/ by words4 ,:at is ! law :i* is to regulate ! relations betwe5 words & ?\ghts8 ,are we to reg>d words z arbitr>y means s]v+ indiff]5tly to express any k9d ( ?\ght1 or z hav+ no o!r end ?an to express our own p>ticul> ?\ght1 ! same1 namely1 :i* comes to u at ! mom5t ( speak+8 ,common s5se solves ?is "q by e/eem+ 9 ! highe/ degree ^? :o use spee* only to express _! ?\ght1 & despis+ ^? :o use x to deceive4 ,?is sort ( virtue is call$ v]acity1 & its opposite is falsehood4 ,falsehood is g5]ally reg>d$ among m5 z only a violation ( ! duty t[>d o!rs4 ,x is n f ?is /&po9t we are go+ to consid] x "h4 ,unque/ionably1 "o %\ld injure no "o 9 any way1 no m by a falsehood ?an o!rwise4 ,b = a falsehood to be h>mless1 does x foll[ t x is n bad8 ,! s*ola/ics di/+ui%$ two k9ds ( falsehoods3 ! malici\s falsehood1 ) int5t to deceive1 & ! v]bal falsehood1 :i* consi/s 9 m]e words1 & does n spr+ f any wi% to d h>m 7z1 = example1 ! falsehood ( ! physician :o deceives 8 pati5t74 ,b su* di/9ctions %\ld n be admitt$4 ,falsehood ne$ n be malici\s to be bad3 x is bad ( itself1 :atev] be its consequ5ces4 ,!re rema9s !n to "k :at is to be done 9 cases ( conflict betwe5 our duties1 & if moral law does n 9 c]ta9 cases rel5t8 ,ev5 ?\gh x did1 x w\ld n suffice to au?orize ! di/9ction betwe5 two k9ds ( falsehoods4 ,:at precisely con/itutes a falsehood is to be v]bal--t is to say1 to employ spee* to express ! contr>y ( tru?4 ,:e!r malice ent]s into x or n1 ?is is an accid5t :i* has no?+ to d ) ! ess5ce ( falsehood2 x may aggravate or att5uate x1 c]ta9ly1 b x does n con/itute x4 ,to well und]/& ! moral evil :i* resides 9 falsehood "o mu/ take x at its s\rce--t is to say1 di/+ui% ) ,kant betwe5 inn] & outw>d falsehood3 ! fir/ :]eby "o lies to himself1 namely1 9 lack+ 9 s9c]ity 9 reg>d to himself2 ! second :]eby "o lies to o!rs4 ,! human m9d is naturally con/itut$ = kn[+ ! tru?3 tru? is its object & its end4 ,a m9d t has n tru? = its object is no m9d4 ,:osoev] uses 8 m9d to satisfy 8 incl9ations und\bt$ly debases 8 m9d1 b he does n p]v]t x2 b he :o uses 8 m9d to make himself or o!rs believe ! contr>y to ! tru?1 p]v]ts & ru9s 8 m9d4 ,he !n p]v]ts & de/roys "o ( ! mo/ excell5t gifts ( 8 nature1 & fails !reby 9 "o ( ! /ricte/ & mo/ cle>ly def9$ duties4 ,x may be ask$ :e!r x is possible = man to really lie to himself1 & if x is n r a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,"o c1 9 fact1 und]/& h[ a man may be mi/ak51 b !n he does n "k t he is mi/ak52 x is an error1 b no lie2 if1 on ! contr>y1 he kn[s t he is mi/ak51 !n = t v reason is he no long] mi/ak52 s t x w\ld seem t !re c be no ly+ to "o's self4 ,& yet popul> psy*ology1 ! subtle/ ( all1 because x is =m$ 9 ! pres5ce ( real facts1 & "u ! true tea*+s ( exp]i5ce 7:il/ sci5tific psy*ology is always m or less artificial71 ?is natural psy*ology1 :i* sums up ! exp]i5ce ( ! :ole ( humanity1 has always affirm$ t man c\ld volunt>ily deceive himself1 consequ5tly lie to himself4 ,! mo/ ord9>y case ( inw>d falsehood is :5 man employs sophisms--t is to say1 seeks reasons :]e) to smo!r ! cry ( 8 consci5ce2 or :5 he tries to p]suade himself t he has no o!r motive 9 view ?an moral good1 :il/1 9 fact1 he only acts f fe> ( puni%m5t1 or f any o!r int]e/$ motive4 ,to take1 ?r\gh love ( self1 an int5tion = a fact1 because x has = its object a good end 9 itself1 is aga91 says ,kant1 a defect ( ano!r k9d4 ,x is a weakness simil> to t ( ! lov] :o1 desir\s to see no?+ b good qualities 9 ! woman he loves1#abj %uts 8 eyes to ! mo/ obvi\s defects4 ,! inw>d lie is !n an unp>donable weakness1 if n a real bas5ess1 & we mu/ conclude f ?is t x is ! same ) ! outw>d lie--! lie1 namely1 :i* expresses itself 9 words4 ,"h x may be object$ t spee* is n an integrant "p ( ! m9d1 t x is only an accid5t1 t :atev] use we may make ( spee* we d n de/roy !reby ! pr9ciple ( intellig5ce1 = ,i may use my m9d to discov] & possess myself ( tru?1 ev5 ?\gh ,i %\ld n make kn[n ! same to o!rs1 or make !m believe o!rwise ?an ,i ?9k4 ,f ?is /&po9t falsehood w\ld /ill rema9 a s9 z a violation ( ! duty t[>d o!rs1 ?\gh n z a %ortcom+ 9 reg>d to "o's self4 ,b ?is w\ld be a v false analysis ( ! psy*ological fact call$ communication ( ?\ght4 ,spee* is nev] :olly indep5d5t ( ?\ght4 ,! v fact t ,i speak1 implies t ,i ?9k my spee*3 !re is an inn] affirmation requir$4 ,i _c make sophisms to deceive m5 )\t hav+ fir/ inw>dly comb9$ ^! sophisms ?r\gh ! faculty ( ?9k+ :i* is 9 me4 ,i ?9k !n ( "o ?+ & ano!r at ! same "t2 ,i ?9k at ! same "t ( bo? ! true & ! false1 & ,i am consci\s ( ?is contradiction4 ,i employ !n kn[+ly my m9d 9 de/roy+ itself1 & ,i fall1 consequ5tly1 into ! vice po9t$ out above4 ,kant gives ano!r d$uction ?an ours to prove t falsehood is a violation ( duty t[>d "o's self4 ,b 8 d$uction is1 p]haps1 n suffici5tly sev]e3 ,a man :o does n himself believe :at he tells ano!r1 is ( less wor? ?an is a simple ?+2 = "o may put ! usefulness ( a simple ?+ to "s acc\nt1 :il/ ! li> is n s mu* a real man z a deceiv+ appe>ance ( a man4444 ,once ! major pr9ciple ( v]acity %ak51 dissimulation soon runs into all our relations ) o!rs4 ,?is d$uction is v +5i\s2 b x lacks /rictness1 inasmu* z x is bas$ on ! use a man may be made (1 :i* pr9ciple is contr>y to ! g5]al pr9ciple ( ,kant's morals1 & also because x re/s on ! /&po9t ( social int]e/1 :i* lies outside ! po9t 9 "q4 #aee4 ,discretion4--,x is evid5t t ! duty n to lie1 does n c>ry ) x1 z its consequ5ce1 ! duty ( tell+ all4 ,sil5ce mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) dissimulation1 & no "o is oblig$ to tell all he has 9 8 m9d2 f> f x2 we are "h be=e ano!r duty t[>d ourselves1 :i* /&s 9 "s respect 9 opposition to ! prec$+ "o1 namely1 discretion4 ,! babbl] :o speaks at all times & "u all circum/ances1 & he :o tells :at he %\ld n1 mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! loyal & s9c]e man1 :o only tells :at he ?9ks1 b does n necess>ily tell all he ?9ks4 ,sil5ce is obvi\sly a /rict duty t[>d o!rs1 :5 ! matt] 9 "q has be5 confid$ to u "u ! seal ( secrecy4 ,b x may also be said t x is a duty t[>d ourselves1 & = ! foll[+ reasons3 #a4 ,to use "o's m9d1 z does ! babbl]1 9 giv+ utt]ance to b>r5 & frivol\s ?\ghts1 is degrad+3 n all t accid5tally crosses "o's m9d is wor?y ( be+ express$2 & x is simply he$lessness to fix "o's m9d on fleet+ ?+s1 & give !m a c]ta9 fixity & value ?r\gh words2 #b1 !re are1 on ! o!r h&1 o!r ?\ghts1 too preci\s1 too p]sonal1 too elevat$1 to be indiscreetly expos$ to ! curiosity ( fools or indiff]5t p]sons4 ,?us w x be h]oic1 unque/ionably1 to confess "o's fai? be=e ! execution]1 if !re is ne$2 b x is n necess>y to proclaim x all r\nd :5 !re is no occasion = x3 ,i believe su* & su* a ?+2 ,i belong to su* or su* a *ur*2 ,i hold su* & su* a doctr9e2 ,i belong to su* or su* a p>ty1 unless1 ( c\rse1 !re is an int]e/ 9 spread+ "o's belief2 & ev5 !n x w be necess>y to *oose ! "r place & ! "r mom5t4 ,z to us+ discretion 9 reg>d to our s5tim5ts1 our moral qualities1 or our defects1 x is 9 "o in/ance a duty ( mode/y & 9 ano!r "o ( p]sonal dignity4 #aef4 ,p]jury4--,if falsehood is 9 g5]al an abasem5t ( human dignity1 x is a /ill great] abasem5t :5 x is ( ! k9d call$ p]jury1 & a transgression :i* might be def9$ z a d\ble falsehood4 ,p]jury is ( two sorts3 x ei!r means swe>+ falsely or violat+ a =m] oa?4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! mean+ ( p]jury1 "o mu/ "k :at con/itutes an oa?4 ,! oa? is an affirmation :]e ,god is tak5 z a witness ( ! tru? "o is suppos$ to utt]4 ,! oa? consi/s1 !n1 9 "s respect1 9 invok+ ,god 9 our favor1 9 mak+ him speak 9 our "n4 ,we1 s to say1 atte/ t ,god himself1 :o reads ! he>t1 w\ld1 if he 7 call$ 9 te/imony1 speak z we speak ourselves4 ,! oa? indicates t "o accepts 9 advance ! *a/isem5ts ,god does n fail to inflict ^u ^? :o invoke 8 "n 9 va94 ,x w be se5 by ?is h[ p]jury1 namely1 false swe>+1 may be call$ a d\ble lie4 ,= p]jury is a lie1 fir/ 9 affirm+ a ?+ t is false1 & second1 9 affirm+ t ,god w\ld be> te/imony if he 7 pres5t4 ,let u add t !re is "h a sort ( sacrilege :i* consi/s 9 our mak+ ,god1 9 "s respects1 ! accomplice ( our lie4 ,x is true t m51 9 tak+ an oa?1 =get (t5 its sacr$ & religi\s "*1 &1 consequ5tly1 !re is n always a sacrilegi\s int5tion 9 _! false swe>+4 ,b x may /ill be said t p]jury is a d\ble lie2 = 9 e oa? tak51 ev5 ?\gh /ripp$ ( all religi\s "*1 !re is always a d\ble atte/ation3 fir/ we affirm a ?+1 & next we affirm t our affirmation is true4 ,x is ?us t 9 t =m ( spee* long s9ce worn out1 :i* is call$ ^w ( honor1 we give our ^w & engage our honor to atte/ t su* or su* affirmation is true4 ,to break ?is ^w is1 !n1 to lie twice1 = x is affirm+ a false affirmation4 ,x is = ?is reason t falsehood1 :i* is always culpable1 mu/1 9 ?is case1 be reg>d$ z p>ticul>ly di%onorable4 ,z to p]jury1 consid]$ z a violation ( a =m] oa?1 x belongs to ! class ( promise or ^w-break+1 :i* is especially contr>y to ! duty t[>d o!rs4 ,yet1 ev5 9 ?is k9d ( falsehood1 !re is also a violation ( p]sonal duty2 = he :o breaks a promise 7) or )\t oa?7 w\ld seem to indicate by x t he did n int5d keep+ 8 promise1 :i* is de/ructive to ! v idea ( a promise2 x is !n1 once m1 us+ spee*1 n z a necess>y symbol ( ?\ght1 b simply z a means ( obta9+ :at we want1 res]v+ to ourselves ! lib]ty to *ange our m9ds :5 ! mom5t comes = fulfill+ our promise4 ,?is is abas+ our intellig5ce1 & mak+ x s]ve z a means to satisfy our wants1 :il/ x belongs to an ord] f> sup]ior to ^! v wants4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,duties ,,relative ,,to ,,! ,,w4 ,,summ>y4 ,duties relative to ! w4--,/r5g? ( s\l4--,all duty 9 g5]al is relative to ! w3 = !re is n any :i* does n require ! control ( ! w ov] ! incl9ations4 ,virtue1 especially :5 consid]$ f ! latt] /&po9t1--! control ( ! w ov] ! incl9ations1--is /r5g? ( s\l1 or c\rage4 ,( c\rage & its diff]5t =ms3 milit>y c\rage2 civic c\rage2 pati5ce1 mod]ation 9 prosp]ity2 equanimity1 etc4 ,( ang] & its diff]5t k9ds4--,g5]\s ang]4 ,duty ( p]sonal dignity4--,respect = "o's self4 ,true pride & false pride4--,( a j e/eem ( "o's self4--,( mode/y4 ,duties relative to s5tim5t4--,h we any duties 9 reg>d to our s5sibilities8--,kant's objection3 no "o c love at w4 ,reply4--,to di/+ui% s5sibility f s5tim5tality4 #aeg4 ,duties relative to ! w4--,/r5g? ( s\l4--,"o may ju/ly ask :e!r !re are any duties relat+ p>ticul>ly to ! w3 = x w\ld seem t all duties are g5]ally duties ( ! w4 ,!re is no "o t does n require ! control ( ! w ov] ! incl9ations2 & if we say t x is a duty to cultivate & ex]cise ?is control1 is x n z if we said t x is a duty to le>n to d our duty8 ,b :y c\ld we n also suppose a ?ird duty1 comm&+ u to obs]ve ! =m]1 & s ad inf9itum8 ,we may !n say t ! duty to ex]cise "o's w & triumph ov] ! passions1 is no?+ m ?an duty p] se1 ! duty p> excell5ce1 ( :i* all ! o!r duties are b p>ts4 ,?is virtue1 by :i* ! s\l comm&s its passions & does n all[ itself to be subjugat$ by any ( !m1 may be call$ c\rage or /r5g? ( s\l4 ,c\rage ?us und]/ood is n only a virtue2 x is virtue itself4#aba ,9 fact1 :at is temp]ance1 if x is n a c]ta9 k9d ( c\rage be=e ! pleasures ( ! s5ses8 :at economy1 if n c\rage be=e ! temptations ( =tune8 :at v]acity1 if n ! c\rage to tell ! tru? "u all circum/ances8 :at ju/ice & b5evol5ce1 if n ! c\rage to sacrifice self-int]e/ to ! int]e/ ( o!rs8 ,we h already 7page #hg7 made a simil> obs]vation 9 reg>d to prud5ce & wisdom1 namely1 t virtue 9 g5]al is bo? wisdom & c\rage3 = x presupposes at ! same "t /r5g? & light4 ,z /r5g?1 x is c\rage1 en]gy1 greatness ( s\l2 z light1 x is prud5ce & wisdom4 ,all special virtues w\ld1 !n1 /rictly speak+1 be only factors1 or compon5t p>ts1 ( ^? two4 #aeh4 ,c\rage4--,yet if c\rage1 9 its mo/ g5]al s5se1 is virtue itself1 usage has giv5 x a special mean+ :i* def9es x 9 a m p>ticul> mann]1 & makes ( x a c]ta9 di/9ct virtue1 on ! same conditions z all ! o!rs4 ,z ( all ! assaults :i* besiege u 9 life1 dea? appe>s to be ! mo/ t]rible & g5]ally ! mo/ dread$1 x is n to be wond]$ !n t ?is k9d ( en]gy :i* consi/s 9 brav+ dea? &1 consequ5tly1 all t may lead to x1 namely1 p]il1 has be5 designat$ by a p>ticul> "n4 ,c\rage1 !re=e1 is ! sort ( virtue :i* braves p]il & ev5 dea?4 ,!n1 by ext5sion1 ! same ^w 0 appli$ to e manife/ation ( /r5g? ( s\l be=e mis=tune1 mis]y1 grief4 ,a man c be brave 9 pov]ty1 9 slav]y1 "u humiliation ev5--t is1 a humiliation :i* is due to outw>d circum/ances1 & :i* he has n des]v$4 ,?is c\rage\s virtue seems to h be5 ! p>ticul> feature ( ! anci5ts1 & by d9t ( its excell5ce1 /ill reta9s its hold on u1 dazzl+ our imag9ation1 z a privileg$ pre/ige4 ,yet is x only an illusion1 & mod]n times are z ri* 9 h]oes z 7 anci5t times3 only we pay less att5tion to x p]haps2 b1 :e!r x be real sup]iority 9 ?is k9d ( virtue1 or lit]>y rem9isc5ces & habits ( education1 no?+ w ev] erase t lively picture ( anci5t h]oism s celebrat$ "u ! "n ( ,plut>*'s h]oes1 & :i* has always captivat$ all great imag9ations4 ,/oicism1 t orig9al philosophy ( ! ,greek & ,roman _w1 is above all ! philosophy ( c\rage4 ,its "* prop] is ! /r5g? to resi/ "o's self1 to hold pa91 dea?1 all ! accid5ts ( humanity1 9 contempt4 ,its model is ,h]cules1 ! god ( /r5g?2 all ! great m5 ( antiquity1 :e!r consci\sly or n1 7 /oics3 su* 7 especially ! anci5t ,roman citiz5s2 !y 7 au/]e1 inexorable2 slaves to duty & discipl9e1 fai?ful to _! oa?1 to _! c\ntry2--,brutus1 ,regulus1 ,scaevola1 ,decius1 & ?\s&s m l !m4 ,:5 /oicism came 9 contact ) ! la/ great ,romans1 x f\nd mat]ial all ready = its doctr9es2 x !n became ! philosophy ( ! la/ republicans1 ! la/ h]oes ( a _w :i* 0 fa/ disappe>+4 ,! c\rage :i* mo/ impresses m5 is milit>y c\rage4 ,! mo/ honorable dea?s occur 9 w>1 says ,ari/otle1 = 9 w> ! dang] is ! greate/ & mo/ honorable4 ,! public honors t are aw>d$ 9 /ates & by mon>*s atte/ ?is4 ,prop]ly1 !n1 he :o 9 ! case ( an honorable dea?1 & "u circum/ances close at h& :i* cause dea?1 is fe>less1 may be call$ c\rage\s2 & ! dang]s ( w> are1 m ?an any o!rs1 ( ?is description4#abb ,9 look+ at x f ?is some:at exclusive /&po9t1 ,ari/otle refuses to call c\rage\s ^? :o brave sickness & pov]ty2 = x is possible1 he says1 = c[>ds1 9 ! p]ils ( w>1 to be> ) mu* firmness ! losses ( =tune2 nor does he all[ to be call$ c\rage\s him :o firmly meets ! /rokes ( ! :ip he is ?reat5$ )4 ,?is is b a "q ( "n & degree4 ,:]ev] !re are any evils to brave1 ! firmness :i* meets & be>s ^! evils c be call$ c\rage2 on ! o!r h&1 ! s5se ( ! ^w c1 if pref]r$1 be re/rict$ to milit>y p]ils2 b :at ,ari/otle has mo/ ju/ly def9$1 & ( :i* he makes a v subtle analysis1 is ! diff]5ce betwe5 app>5t & true c\rage4 ,?us ! c\rage ( con/ra9t & necessity--z1 = in/ance1 t ( soldi]s :o w\ld be m]cilessly kill$1 if !y retreat$ be=e ! enemy--is n true c\rage1 = "o _c be brave ?r\gh fe>4 ,nor %\ld ang] be conf\nd$ ) c\rage3 ?is 7 b ! c\rage ( wild bea/s obey+ a bl9d impulse "u ! /+ ( pa94 ,at t rate1 ! donkeys ev51 :5 hungry1 w\ld be brave4 ,t :i* det]m9es true c\rage is ! s5tim5t ( honor1 n passion4 ,we %\ld nei!r call brave him :o is s only because he feels himself ! /ronge/1 l ! drunk>d full ( confid5ce 9 ! beg9n+1 b :o runs away :5 he does n succe$4 ,= ?is reason is !re tru] c\rage 9 pres]v+ "o's intrepidity & calm 9 sudd5 dang]s1 ?an 9 dang]s long anticipat$4#abc ,f9ally1 ignorance _c be call$ c\rage ei!r3 to brave a dang] "o is ignorant (1 is only to be app>5tly brave4 ,ari/otle f9ds also 9 c\rage an excell5t opportunity to apply 8 celebrat$ !ory ( ! gold5 mean4 ,c\rage is = him a m$ium betwe5 tem]ity & c[>dice4 ,b x is n ! too mu* or too little 9 dang] :i* det]m9es :at we ought to call c\rage4 ,!re are cases :]e "o may be oblig$ to brave ! greate/ possible dang] )\t be+ = t ra%2 o!r cases :]e1 on ! contr>y1 "o has ! "r to avoid ! lea/ possible p]il )\t be+ = t a c[>d4 ,! true pr9ciple is t "o %\ld brave necess>y p]ils1 be !y ev] s great2 & likewise avoid useless p]ils1 be !y ev] s slight4 ,yet1 ! "q ( degree %\ld n be :olly ov]look$4 ,!re are "s p]ils :i*1 )\t be+ necess>y1 x is useful to brave 77 x b to tra9 "o's self = great] ones74 ,su* are1 = example1 ! dang]s connect$ ) bodily ex]cises4 ,p]il & utility mu/1 ( c\rse1 be comp>$ ) ea* o!r2 = example1 he :o f consid]ations ( utility w\ld wi% to avoid all k9ds ( p]ils1 w be want+ 9 c\rage2 & he :o1 on ! contr>y1 w\ld lightly brave an extreme p]il1 w naturally des]ve to be call$ ra%4 ,?us mu/ we fir/ consid] ! nature ( ! p]il1 &1 secondly1 ! degree4 #aei4 ,civic c\rage4--,al?\gh milit>y c\rage is ! mo/ brilliant & popul> =m ( c\rage1 x may be ask$ :e!r !re is n a high] & nobl] =m /ill1 namely1 civic c\rage4 ,cic]o1 :o1 to say ! tru?1 0 n suffici5tly dis9t]e/$ 9 ! matt]1 p]si/s 9 %[+ t civic virtues are equal to milit>y virtues1 & dem& an equal am\nt ( c\rage & en]gy4#abd ,a firm & high-s\l$ man1 he says1 has no tr\ble 9 difficult circum/ances1 to pres]ve 8 pres5ce ( m9d & ! free use ( 8 reason1 to provide 9 advance aga9/ ev5ts1 & to be always ready = action :5 necess>y4 ,?is is a sort ( c\rage m difficult p]haps ?an ! "o requir$ 9 a h&-to-h& /ruggle ) ! enemy4 ,civic life1 besides1 has itself trials :i* (t5 imp]il "o's exi/5ce4 ,antiquity has left u innum]able & admirable examples ( civic c\rage aga9/ tyranny4 ,helvidius ,priscus 0 ?\ght to look ) disapproval ^u ,vespasian's adm9i/ration4 ,! latt] s5t him ^w to keep away f ! ,s5ate3 ,x is 9 ?y p[]1 repli$ ,helvidius1 to =bid my belong+ to ! ,s5ate1 b z long z ,i belong to x1 ,i %all att5d x4--,g1 !n1 said ! emp]or1 b hold ?y tongue4--,if ?\ ask me no que/ions ,i w make !e no answ]s4--,b ,i mu/ ask !e que/ions4--,& ,i mu/ answ] !e :at ,i ?9k j4--,if ?\ do/1 ,i %all h !e put to dea?4--,:5 h ,i said to !e t ,i 0 immortal8 ,b no?+ ev] surpass$ ! intrepidity ( ,socrates1 ei!r be=e ! ,?irty ,tyrants :o wi%$ to int]dict him free spee*1#abe or be=e ! p's tribunals :i* condemn$ him to dea?3 ,plato 9 8 ,apology makes him say3 ,if y 7 to tell me n[1 ',socrates1 we w n li/5 to ,anytus3 we s5d !e back absolv$ on condition t ?\ cease/ philosophiz+ & give/ up ?y accu/om$ rese>*es1' ,i %\ld answ] y )\t hesitation1 ',o ,a!nians1 ,i honor & love y1 b ,i %all obey ,god be=e ,i obey y4' ,!n1 aft] hav+ be5 condemn$ to dea?1 he closes ) ^! admirable words3 ,i be> my accus]s1 & ^? :o h condemn$ me1 no res5tm5t1 al?\gh !y did n seek my good1 b r to injure me4 ,b ,i %all ask ( !m "o favor3 ,i beg y1 :5 my *ildr5 %all be gr[n up1 to p]secute !m z ,i h myself p]secut$ y1 if y see t !y pref] ri*es to virtue4444 ,if y grant u ?is favor1 ,i & my *ildr5 %all h b to praise y\r ju/ice4 ,b x is "t we g ea* our way3 ,i to die1 y to live4 ,:i* ( u has ! bett] "p1 y or ,i8 ,?is is kn[n to none b ,god4 #afj4 ,pati5ce4--,"o ( ! mo/ difficult =ms ( c\rage is t :i* consi/s n only 9 brav+ or repell+ a ?reat5+ dang] 7:i* presupposes "s ef=t & activity71 b 9 be>+ )\t ang]1 )\t any sign ( va9 revolt1 ! ills & pa9s ( life3 ?is is pati5ce4 ,!re is a k9d ( pati5ce :i* is b a "p ( our duty 9 reg>d to o!rs3 "o mu/ le>n to be> a great deal f o!rs1 !y hav+ (t5 a great deal to be> f u4 ,b we speak "h ( t inn] pati5ce :i* is our /r5g? 9 grief2 ! pati5ce ( ! invalid 9 8 daily suff]+s2 t ( ! poor man 9 8 pov]ty2 ! pati5ce1 9 %ort1 :i* all mu/ ex]cise amid/ ! innum]able & inevitable accid5ts ( life4 ,x is1 above all1 t sort ( virtue :i* ! ,/oics meant :5 !y said ) ,epictetus3 ,y %\ld n wi% ?+s to happ5 z y want !m2 b y %\ld wi% !m z !y d happ54 ,a maxim :i* ,desc>tes translat$ sub/antially1 say+3 ,my maxim is r to try to ov]come myself ?an =tune1 & r to *ange my own wi%es ?an to *ange ! ord] ( ! _w4 ,:i* he expla9$ by say+3 ,if we reg>d ! goods :i* lie outside ( u z unatta9able z ^? we are depriv$ ( f our bir?1 we %all no m grieve at n possess+ !m1 ?an we %\ld 9 n possess+ ! empires ( ,*9a or ,mexico2 &1 mak+1 z x is said1 a virtue ( necessity1 we %all n any m desire to be heal?y :5 ill1 or to be free :5 9 prison1 ?an we desire n[ to h bodies ( z incorruptible a /uff z diamonds1 or to h w+s to fly ) l birds4#abf ,x is ?is k9d ( c\rage :i* at e mom5t ( life is mo/ 9 requisition1 & :i* is ! r>e/2 = !re w be f\nd pl5ty ( m5 capable ( brav+ dea? :5 ! occasion pres5ts itself2 b to be> ) resignation ! inevitable & con/antly r5ew$ ills ( human life1 is a virtue all ! m r>e z "o is sc>cely ev] a%am$ ( its opposite vice4 ,"o w\ld blu% to fe> p]il1 "o does n blu% = rebell+ aga9/ de/9y2 "o is will+ to die if necess>y1 b n to be ?w>t$4 ,yet w x be admitt$ t to succumb "u ! weight ( de/9y1 is a k9d ( c[>dice4 ,x is = ?is reason t x w\ld be ju/ly said t suicide is also a c[>dly act2 = :il/ x is true t x dem&s a c]ta9 physical c\rage1 x is also true t ! moral c\rage :i* be>s ! ills ( life is ( a /ill high] ord]4 ,y take a j\rney to ,olympia1 says ,epictetus1 to behold ! "w ( ,phidias1 & ea* ( y ?9ks x a mis=tune to die )\t a k ( su* ?+s2 & w y h no incl9ation to see & und]/& ^? works1 = :i* !re is no ne$ to take a j\rney2 b :i* are ready & at h&1 ev5 to ^? :o be/[ no pa9s6 ,w y nev] p]ceive :at y are1 or = :at y 7 born1 or = :at purpose y are admitt$ to behold ?is spectacle8 ,b !re are 9 life "s ?+s unpleasant & difficult4 ,& are !re none at ,olympia8 ,are y n heat$8 ,are y n cr[d$8 ,are y n )\t good conv5i5ces = ba?+8 ,are y n wet ?r\gh1 :5 x happ5s to ra98 ,d y n h upro> & noise1 & o!r disagreeable circum/ances8 ,b1 ,i suppose1 by comp>+ all ^! ) ! m]it ( ! spectacle1 y support & endure !m4 ,well1 & h y n receiv$ faculties by :i* y may support e ev5t8 ,h y n receiv$ greatness ( s\l8 ,h y n receiv$ a manly _s8 ,h y n receiv$ pati5ce8 ,:at signifies to me any?+ t happ5s1 :ile my s\l is above x8 ,:at %all disconc]t or tr\ble or appe> griev\s to me8 ,%all ,i n use my p[]s to t purpose = :i* ,i receiv$ !m2 b lam5t & groan at e casualty8#abg ,b we %\ld n conf\nd true /r5g?1 true c\rage1 true pati5ce1 ) false /r5g? & ridicul\s ob/9acy4 ,an acqua9tance ( m9e1 says aga9 ,epictetus1 _h1 = no reason1 det]m9$ to />ve himself to dea?4 ,i w5t ! ?ird day1 & inquir$ :at 0 ! matt]4 ,he answ]$3 ',i am det]m9$4'--',well2 b :at is y\r motive8 ,=1 if y\r det]m9ation be "r1 we w /ay1 & assi/ y\r dep>ture2 b if unreasonable1 *ange x4'--',we ought to keep our det]m9ations4'--',:at d y mean1 sir8 ,n all ( !m2 b su* z are "r4 ,else1 if y %\ld fancy t x is night1 if ?is be y\r pr9ciple1 d n *ange1 b p]si/ & say1 ,we ought to keep to our det]m9ations4 ',:at d y mean1 sir8 ,n to all ( !m4 ,:y d y n beg9 by fir/ lay+ ! f\ndation1 inquir+ :e!r y\r det]m9ation be a s\nd "o1 or n2 & !n build y\r firmness & con/ancy ^u x4 ,=1 if y lay a rott5 & crazy f\ndation1 y mu/ n build2 s9ce ! great] & m weighty ! sup]/ructure1 ! soon] w x fall4 ,)\t any reason y are )draw+ f u1 out ( life1 a fri5d1 a companion1 a fell[-citiz5 bo? ( ! great] & ! less] city2 & :ile y are committ+ murd]1 & de/roy+ an innoc5t p]son1 y say1 ,we mu/ keep to our det]m9ations4 ,suppose1 by any means1 x %\ld ev] come into y\r head to kill me2 mu/ y keep to su* a det]m9ation8' ,) difficulty ?is p]son 01 h[ev]1 at la/ conv9c$2 b !re are "s at pres5t1 :om !re is no conv9c+ 444 a fool w nei!r b5d nor break4#abh #afa4 ,mod]ation4--,! anci5ts always associat$ ) pati5ce 9 adv]sity ano!r k9d ( c\rage1 no less r>e & difficult1 namely1 mod]ation 9 prosp]ity4 ,x 0 = !m1 9 "s respects1 "o & ! same virtue1 ex]cis$ 9 two opposite conditions1 & ?is is :at !y call equanimity4 ,n[1 dur+ our prosp]ity1 says ,cic]o1 & :ile ?+s fl[ agreeably to our desire1 we ought1 ) great c>e1 to avoid pride & arrogance2 =1 z x discov]s weakness n to be> adv]sity ) equanimity1 s also ) prosp]ity4 ,t equanimity1 9 e condition ( life1 is a noble attribute1 & t uni=m expression ( c\nt5ance :i* we f9d record$ ( ,socrates1 & also ( ,caius ,laelius4 ,panaetius tells u1 8 s*ol> & fri5d1 ,africanus1 us$ to say t z horses1 gr[n unruly by be+ 9 frequ5t engagem5ts1 are deliv]$ ov] to be tam$ by horse-break]s1 ?us m51 :o gr[ riot\s & self-suffici5t by prosp]ity1 ought1 z x 71 to be ex]cis$ 9 ! trav]se#abi ( reason & philosophy1 t !y may le>n ! incon/ancy ( human affairs & ! unc]ta9ty ( =tune4#acj ,no?+ occurs m frequ5tly among ! anci5t poets & morali/s ?an ?is idea ( ! vicissitude ( human ?+s4 ,! metaphor ( ,=tune's :eel1 :i* sometimes l[]s to ! greate/ dep? ^? x rais$ highe/1 is well kn[n4 ,we ne$ sc>cely dwell ^u ?is commonplace say+ :i* has nev]1 = an in/ant1 ceas$ to be true2 al?\gh ! m regul> conditions ( mod]n society h introduc$ m security & uni=mity 9 life1 at lea/ = ^? :o live wisely & ) mod]ation4 ,yet is no "o secure aga9/ ! *anges ( =tune2 !re are unexpect$ elevations z !re are sudd5 falls2 & firmness 9 ei!r bad or good =tune w always be necess>y4 #afb4 ,equality ( temp]2 ang]4--,to equality ( temp] or possession ( "o's self1 !re is /ill ano!r obligation atta*$3 t ( avoid+ ang]1 a passion :i* ! anci5ts ) reason consid]$ ! pr9ciple ( c\rage1#aca b :i* ( itself is )\t any rules1 & is m prop] to bea/s ?an m54 ,ari/otle has describ$ ! irascible disposition ) great accuracy4 ,he ju/ly di/+ui%es two k9ds ( ang]2 "o :]e a man is easily c>ri$ away1 & z easily appeas$ aga91 & ! o!r :]e res5tm5t is nurs$ & kept up = a long "t4 ,! fir/ is ! irascible disposition2 ! second1 ! spl5etic or v9dictive disposition4 ,irascible m51 says ,ari/otle1 are easily ang]$1 ) improp] objects1 on improp] occasions1 & too mu*2 b _! ang] quickly ceases1 & ?is is ! be/ po9t 9 _! "*4 ,& ?is is ! case ) !m1 because !y d n re/ra9 _! ang]1 b retaliate op5ly & visibly1 because ( _! impetuosity1 & !n !y become calm4--,b ! bitt] are difficult to be appeas$1 & reta9 _! ang] a long "t1 = !y repress _! rage2 b !re comes a cessation1 :5 !y h retaliat$2 = rev5ge makes _! ang] cease1 because x produces pleasure in/ead ( ! previ\s pa94 ,b if !y d n get rev5ge1 !y feel a weight ( disappo9tm5t3 =1 ow+ to its n %[+ itself1 no "o reasons ) !m2 & !re is ne$ ( "t = a man to dige/ 8 ang] )9 him4 ,p]sons ( ?is "* are v tr\blesome to !mselves1 & to _! be/ fri5ds4#acb ,s5eca1 9 8 treatise on ,ang]1 has conclusively %[n all ! evils ?is passion c>ries ) x1 & ( :i* ,horace ju/ly said3 ,ang] is a %ort madness4 ,yet1 if ang] is an evil1 apa?y1 absolute indiff]5ce1 is f> f be+ a good4 ,:il/ !re is a brutal & bea/ly ang]1 !re is also a noble1 a g5]\s ang]1 namely1 t :i* is at ! s]vice ( noble s5tim5ts4 ,plato describes x 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3 ,:5 we are conv9c$ t inju/ice has be5 done u1 does x n plead ! cause ( :at appe>s to x to be j8 ,in/ead ( all[+ itself to be ov]come by hung]1 by cold1 by all sorts ( ill-treatm5ts1 does x n ov]come !m8 ,x nev] ceases a mom5t to make g5]\s ef=ts t[>d obta9+ satisfaction1 & no?+ b dea? depriv+ x ( its p[]1 or reason p]suad+ or sil5c+ x1 z ! %eph]d sil5ces 8 dog1 c /op x4#acc ,ari/otle also approves ( ?is g5]\s ang]1 & blames ^? ) s\ls too cold3 ,"o c only call /upid ^? :o _c be ar\s$ to ang] ab\t ?+s :]e real ang] ought to be felt4444 ,he :o does n !n get angry appe>s ins5sible & ignorant ( :at j indignation means4 ,"o might ev5 believe him1 s9ce he has no feel+ ( c\rage1 unable to def5d himself :5 necess>y4 ,b x is ! c[>dice ( ! slave's to accept an insult & to all[ 8 k9 to be attack$ ) impunity4#acd ,b t :i* is n easy1 z ,ari/otle rem>ks1 is to f9d an exact & prop] m$ium betwe5 apa?y & viol5ce3 ,x is difficult to det]m9e ) accuracy ! mann]1 ! p]sons1 ! occasions1 & ! l5g? ( "t = :i* "o ought to be angry1 & at :at po9t "o ceases to act rightly or wrongly4 ,= he :o transgresses ! limit a little is n blam$1 :e!r x be on ! side ( excess or defici5cy3 & we sometimes praise ^? :o fall %ort1 & call !m meek2 & we call ! irascible manly1 z be+ able to gov]n 444 ! decision mu/ be left to p>ticul> cases1 & to ! moral s5se4#ace #afc4 ,p]sonal dignity4--,a g5]\s ang]1 z has be5 se51 has its pr9ciple 9 ! s5tim5t ( p]sonal dignity1 ) :i* ! duty ( self-respect is connect$4 ,man's free w is :at ess5tially con/itutes ! dignity ( human nature1 ! moral p]sonality4 ,man's duty t[>d himself z a moral p]sonality is !n dep5d5t ^u 8 w4 ,?is duty ( self-respect1 ( ! moral p]sonality1 has be5 admirably express$ by ,kant1 & we c d no bett] ?an transcribe "h ! passage3 ,man1 consid]$ z an animal1 is a be+ ( b m$iocre importance1 & is n wor? any m ?an o!r animals4 ,8 utility & wor? is t ( any m>ketable ?+4--,b1 consid]$ z a p]sonality1 he is priceless2 he is possess$ ( a dignity :i* c claim ! respect ( all o!r reasonable creatures1 & :i* all[s him to measure himself ) ea* ( !m1 & consid] himself _! equal4 ,b ?is respect1 :i* he has a "r to exact ( e o!r man1 he %\ld n despoil himself (4 ,he c1 & %\ld1 !re=e1 e/imate himself bo? 9 ratio to 8 greatness & littl5ess1 accord+ z he consid]s himself a s5su\s be+ 79 8 animal nature71 or an intellig5t be+ 79 8 moral nature74 ,b z he %\ld n only consid] himself z a p]son 9 g5]al1 b also z an individual man1 8 less] wor? z animal-man %\ld n impair ! consci\sness he has ( 8 dignity z reasonable man1 & he mu/ hold on to ! moral e/imate he makes ( himself z su*4 ,9 o!r words1 he %\ld n pursue 8 aims 9 a l[ly & s]vile mann]1 z if he solicit$ favors3 ?is w\ld be abdicat+ 8 dignity2 he %\ld always uphold )9 himself ! consci\sness ( ! nobility ( 8 moral faculties1 = x is ?is e/imate ( "o's self :i* con/itutes ! duty ( man t[>d himself4 ,! consci\sness & conviction ( our little moral wor?1 comp>$ ) :at ! law requires ( u1 is moral humility4 ,! contr>y consci\sness & conviction1 namely1 ! p]suad+ ourselves1 = want ( ?is comp>ison1 t we are ( v great wor?1 may be call$ ! pride ( virtue4--,to reject all claim to any moral wor? :atsoev]1 9 ! hope ( acquir+ !reby a hidd5 wor?1 is a false moral humility & an abasem5t ( ! m9d4 ,to und]value "o's own moral wor? = ! purpose ( obta9+ !reby ! favor ( ano!r 7?r\gh hypocrisy or flatt]y1 namely71 is also a false humility1 &1 moreov]1 an abasem5t ( "o's p]sonality4 ,true humility %\ld ( necessity be ! result ( an exact & s9c]e comp>ison ( "o's self ) ! moral law 7) its sanctity & sev]ity74 ,?is duty relative to ! human dignity 9 our p]sonality may be m or less cle>ly /at$ 9 ! foll[+ precepts3 ,be no man's slave2 let n y\r rights be trampl$ "u foot2 contract no debts = :i* y _c give full security2 accept no gifts :i* y c d )\t2 be nei!r a p>asite1 nor a flatt]]1 nor a begg>2 compla9ts & lam5tations1 ev5 a s+le cry wrung f u by bodily pa91 are ?+s unwor?y ( u 7/ill m unwor?y if ! pa9 is des]v$74 ,!re=e is a crim9al's dea? ennobl$ by ! firmness ) :i* he meets x4 ,c he :o makes himself a worm compla9 if he be cru%$8#acf #afd4 ,true & false pride4--,we %\ld1 h[ev]1 n conf\nd a true & noble pride1 )\t :i* man is b a ?+ & a slave1 ) a passion :i* looks l x1 b :i* is b its phantom2 ,i mean false pride4 ,true pride is ! j feel+ man has ( 8 moral dignity1 & :i* int]dicts him to humble ! human p]sonality 9 o!rs1 or to all[ x to be humbl$ 9 himself4 ,false pride is ! exagg]at$ feel+ we ent]ta9 9 reg>d to our own advantages & sup]iority ov] o!r m54 ,true pride is relat$ to :at !re is sacr$ & div9e 9 u2 false pride1 on ! contr>y1 fe$s & gr[s fat on ! trifl+ & petty conc]ns ( our m]e individuality4 ,!re is 9 man1 ! /oics said1 an inn] god3 ! human ess5ce1 namely1 ( :i* ! individual is b ! depository1 & :i* he ought to keep sacr$ & holy z a div9e ho/4 ,?is respect = ! human p]sonality1 religi\s morality calls hol9ess2 worldly morality calls x honor2 x is "o & ! same pr9ciple "u diff]5t =ms2 x is ! idea ( some?+ sacr$ 9 u :i* we mu/ nei!r /a9 nor debase4 ,true pride re/s !n on :at !re is common among all m51 on :at makes !m equals4 ,false pride1 on ! contr>y1 reg>ds *iefly our peculi>ities1 & :at we call m especially our own4 ,true pride asks = no?+ m ?an to be free f oppression2 false pride wants to oppress o!rs4 ,true pride is noble2 false pride1 brutal & insol5t4 ,( c\rse x has its degrees accord+ to ! nature ( ! advantages ( :i* x boa/s4 ,! pride1 = example1 :i* boa/s ( mat]ial advantages1 is ! grosse/ ( all2 pride ( bir? & ance/ry is m p>donable1 b if he :o is pr\d ( !m %[s x too mu* he becomes disgu/+1 & true pride w h a "r to protect itself aga9/ t k9d ( false pride4 ,he1 aga91 :o is pr\d ( 8 intellectual advantages is less blamewor?y ?an ! =m]1 = ^! advantages belong1 at lea/1 to 8 p]sonality2 b z !y are n due to ! man1 & z1 h[ev] great !y may be1 !y h /ill _! weak sides1 ?is also is an inexcusable pride4 ,! pride :i* might appe> to be ! mo/ p>donable is ! pride ( virtue1 if !re 7 n 9 "s respects a sort ( contradiction ( t]ms 9 draw+ advantage & honor f a good ! ess5tiality ( :i* consi/s 9 self-=getfulness & ! pure & simple obs]vance ( ! law4 ,! dim9utive ( false pride is vanity4 ,false pride looks to great ?+s1 at lea/ to su* z appe> great to m52 vanity boa/s ( ! smalle/4 ,false pride is insult+2 vanity w\nd+4 ,! "o is odi\s1 ! o!r ridicul\s4 ,! l[e/ ord] ( vanity is foppi%ness1 or ! vanity ( ext]nal advantages--! p]son1 ! toilet1 sup]ficial accompli%m5ts4 ,?is dim9utive ( false pride is "o ( ! mo/ pitiable ( passions1 & %\ld be combat$ by manly ef=ts4 #afe4 ,mode/y4--,! virtue oppos$ to false pride1 & :i*1 besides1 is n[ise irreconcilable ) true pride1 is mode/y1 a correct feel+1 namely1 ( "o's j wor?4 ,morality does n =bid u a prop] e/imate ( our m]its2 ^! m]its1 besides1 hav+ b a relative value1 & repres5t+ b fa9tly ! high ideal we %\ld always keep be=e our eyes4 ,to fail to appreciate ! advantages we owe to nature1 is (t5 indicative only ( laz9ess & apa?y4 ,he :o depreciates himself is n dispos$ to turn :at !re is 9 him to acc\nt4 ,?is self-depreciation1 9 ord] to avoid ! responsibility ( us+ 8 faculties1 is (t5 b a subt]fuge & ! sophi/ry ( indol5ce4 ,!re is no?+ contr>y to duty 9 ! ackn[l$gm5t ( our wor?1 s long z we d n boa/ ( x1 b ?ank ,provid5ce = x1 & put to use ! gifts x has conf]r$ on u4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! "q is ( virtues we h acquir$ by our own ef=ts1 ! satisfaction we exp]i5ce f x is b ! j recomp5se ( ^! ef=ts2 & su* a feel+ c\ld n be condemn$2 = su* condemnation w\ld be a virtual prote/ aga9/ ! moral consci5ce1 :i* consi/s z mu* 9 ! satisfaction we d]ive f good actions z 9 ! regrets :i* accompany ! bad4 ,unque/ionably1 ! left h& %\ld n "k :at ! "r h& doe?2 :i* means t we %\ld n ev]y:]e proclaim al\d our good actions1 & t we %\ld z mu* z possible =get !m4 ,b ?is =gett+ %\ld n g s f> z indiff]5ce2 = our morality dep5ds ^u our consci\sness4 ,b if x is lawful = man to rejoice ov] 8 natural or acquir$ gifts1 x is on ! condition t he d n exagg]ate _! import3 ?is is easy en\gh if we comp>e ourselves to ^? :o are /ill bett] gift$ ?an we are1 or ?9k ( :at we %\ld & c\ld d ) great] ef=ts1 m c\rage1 bett] w2 or 9 recogniz+ ! n>r[ scope1 limits1 & defects ( ^! gifts1 or 9 keep+1 above all1 our eyes m op5 to our faults ?an our good qualities4 ,bew>e ( ! beam ( ! ,gospel4 ,mode/y %\ld n only be ext]nal1 b int]nal also2 ext]nally1 x is above all a duty we owe o!rs1 :om we %\ld n humble by our sup]ior advantages2 int]nally1 x is a duty to ourselves1 = we %\ld n deceive ourselves ab\t our own wor?4 ,"o is sometimes mode/ ext]nally )\t be+ s int]nally1 & conv]sely4 ,i may pret5d be=e m5 to h no great op9ion ( myself1 :il/ int]nally ,i am full ( conceit3 ?is is %e] hypocrisy4 ,i may1 on ! o!r h&1 ext]nally attribute to myself advantages :i* my consci5ce altoge!r d5ies3 ?is is bragg+4 ,"o %\ld be mode/ bo? inw>dly & outw>dly1 9 words & actions4 ,b h[1 9 :at mann]1 & to :at degree mu/ we be mode/8 ,x is impossible 9 matt]s s delicate to e/abli% def9ite rules1 & ! decision mu/ be left to our own judgm5t4 ,!re is ano!r virtue to be di/+ui%$ f mode/y1 namely1 humility4 ,humility %\ld n be an abasem5t2 = x is nev] a virtue 9 man to l[] himself4 ,b1 ev5 z dignity & true pride are virtues :i* spr+ f a prop] s5se ( human greatness1 s humility is a virtue :i* spr+s f a prop] s5se ( human weakness4 ,rememb] t ?\ art a man & d n degrade ?yself3 ?is is self-respect4 ,rememb] t ?\ art b a man & d n all[ ?yself to indulge 9 va9 pride2 ?is is humility4 ,mode/y relates to ! individual2 humility to human nature 9 g5]al4 ,z to t false humility :i* consi/s 9 l[]+ "o's self be=e m5 unnecess>ily1 & )\t any occasion = x 7l ,t>tufe1 = example3 ,yes1 bro!r1 ,i am a s9n] & a wret*6#acg71 x is b ! falsehood ( virtue1 & %\ld be reject$ by all manly & g5]\s morality4 #aff4 ,duties relative to s5tim5t4--,a la/ po9t :i* %\ld n be neglect$ is ?is3 has man1 z f> z he is end[$ ) moral s5sibility--t is to say1 z f> z he is a susceptible be+--capable ( love1 en?usiasm1 affection1 any duties t[>d himself8 ,kant ma9ta9s t love _c be an object ( duty2 t no "o is oblig$ to love3 t s5tim5t is ph5om5al & belongs to ! ord] ( nature1 & c nei!r be produc$ nor prev5t$2 t1 consequ5tly1 x has no?+ to d ) morals4 ,! only love admitt$ by ,kant 9 morals is :at he calls practical love3 namely1 ! love :i* consi/s 9 actions & does o!rs good1 or any k9d ( s5tim5t accompany+ b5evol5ce1 provid$ x be a dis9t]e/$ s5tim5t4 ,all o!r love1 he says 9 8 odd & en]getic language1 is pa?ological1 t is1 sickly4 ,kant1 no d\bt1 is "r if he means t false s5tim5tality or feeble s(tness1#ach :i* ! poet ,gilb]t has s well describ$1 & :i* ! en]vat+ lit]ature ( ! latt] "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury made s ridicul\s4 ,we %\ld take c>e n to fall into an effem9ate t5d]ness or a silly philan?ropy :i* sacrifices ju/ice to a mawki% s5sibility4 ,b all dang] & defects set aside1 !re /ill rema9s ! "q :e!r we owe any?+ to our own he>t1 & :e!r ! only ?+ directly comm&$ u1 be action4 ,x is q true t x is n an effect ( our w if our he>t is m or less t5d]1 m or less sympa!tic4 ,nature has made "s s\ls g5tle & amiable1 o!rs au/]e & cold1 o!rs aga9 h]oic & h>d1 etc42 ! morali/s %\ld n =get ^! diff]5ces1 & ! degree ( s5sibility obligatory on all _c be absolutely det]m9$4 ,b !re are two facts :i* c]ta9ly oblige u to put "s re/rictions ^u ,kant's too h>% doctr9e4 ,! fir/ is t moral emotion 7affection1 en?usiasm = ! beautiful1 = our c\ntry7 is nev] :olly abs5t 9 any human s\l2 ! second is t s5sibility does n altoge!r lie outside our w4 ,we c smo!r our good feel+s z we c smo!r our evil passions2 we c also cultivate !m1 develop !m1 enc\rage !m2 give !m a great] or less %>e 9 our lives1 by plac+ ourselves 9 circum/ances :i* favor !m4 ,= example1 say su* or su* a p]son is b slightly end[$ ) s5sibility or sympa?y = ! suff]+s ( ! wret*$2 yet is x impossible t he be entirely depriv$ ( !m3 let him ov]come 8 repugnance & indiff]5ce2 let him visit ! poor1 put himself at ! s]vice ( human mis]y2 ! dormant sympa?y w inevitably awak5 9 8 he>t4 ,by ?is fact alone w he be enabl$ to d good ) m ease1 & raise 8 s\l to a high] degree ( p]fection & beauty4 ,n only %\ld s5tim5t n be exclud$ f virtue1 z ,kant 9 8 excessive au/]ity dem&s1 b x %\ld be consid]$ its ornam5t & bloom4 ,! virtu\s man1 says ,ari/otle1 is he :o takes pleasure 9 do+ virtu\s acts4 ,"o %\ld !re=e endeavor to awak5 9 "o's self1 if "o has n yet exp]i5c$ x1 or develop1 if "o has already exp]i5c$ x1 ! noble pleasure :i* accompanies great s5tim5ts4 ,on ! o!r h&1 & = ! same reason t x is a duty = man to develop )9 him1 9 ! limits ( ! possible1 ! %>e ( s5sibility he may h receiv$ f nature1 x is also 8 duty n to enc\rage ?is same disposition too mu* if he %\ld be incl9$ ?is way4 ,= s5sibility %\ld only be an auxili>y & a /imulant to virtue2 x %\ld nev] take its place3 o!rwise x w lead u a/ray4 ,an exagg]at$ s5sibility (t5 smo!rs ! voice ( ju/ice1 en]vates u1 & deprives u ( ! robu/ c\rage we ne$ 9 life4 ,!re is a reasonable limit :i* tact & exp]i5ce alone c tea* u4 ,morality c only give advice & directions4 ,m precise rules are impossible1 & w\ld be ridicul\s4 ,!re is no moral !rmomet] to indicate ! degree ( he>t-heat ea* ( u is all[$ & is oblig$ to h4 ,let u only say1 t 9 s delicate a matt]1 x is bett] to h too mu* s5sibility ?an too little4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,religi\s ,,morality4--,,religi\s ,,rights ,,& ,,duties4 ,,summ>y4 ,are !re duties t[>d ,god8 ,duties t[>d ,god4--,analysis ( ! religi\s s5tim5t4--,two elem5ts3 #a1 ! s5tim5t ( ! inf9ite2 #b1 ! ne$ ( hope & consolation4 ,c s5tim5t become a duty8 ,indirect duties t[>d ,god4--,piety unit$ ) all ! acts ( life3 #a1 ob$i5ce2 #b1 resignation2 #c1 love ( ,god unit$ to t ( man4 ,! idea ( ,god 9 morals4--,god ! surety ( ! moral law4 ,religi\s society4--,f5elon & ,epictetus4 ,religi\s rights4--,lib]ty ( consci5ce3 lib]ty ( op9ion1 lib]ty ( wor%ip1 lib]ty ( propag&ism4 ,x is n our purpose to speak "h ( ! diff]5t =ms ( religi\s ?\ght among m53 ?is is ! special doma9 ( consci5ce2 b among all ^! =ms1 is !re no common gr\nd :i* may be said to belong to ! human s\l1 & :i* is f\nd to be ! same ) ! sages ( pagan antiquity & ! mod]n philosoph]s1 al?\gh !y may n h adopt$ any special =m ( wor%ip8 ,yes4 ,?is common gr\nd ( all religion is ! idea ( ,god4 #afg4 ,are !re any duties t[>d ,god8--,if1 z we h se5 9 our fir/ book 7,vol4 ,i41 la/ *apt]71 !re is a ,god1 t is to say1 an au?or ( ! physical & moral univ]se1 & its pres]v] & protector & fa!r1 x foll[s t man1 z a "p ( ?is univ]se1 & di/+ui%$ f its o!r creatures by ! fact t he kn[s himself to be a *ild ( ,god1 is held to ent]ta9 t[>d ?is supreme fa!r1 s5tim5ts ( gratitude & respect1 & t[>d ?is supreme judge s5tim5ts ( fe> & hope1 all ( :i* gives rise to a :ole class ( duties4 ,"s d\bts h be5 rais$ on ?is po9t by c]ta9 philosoph]s1 & ! "q has be5 ask$ :e!r man1 s out ( all proportion :5 comp>$ to ,god1 c\ld h any duties t[>d ,him8 ,x has be5 said1 moreov]1 t !re c\ld be no duty t[>d a be+ to :om we c d nei!r good nor h>m4 ,god1 ! ess5ce ( all p]fection & supreme happ9ess1 c h no?+ add$ to nor tak5 f ^! by u4 ,we are !re=e "u no obligation to him :atsoev]4 #a4 ,z = ! absolute disproportion we imag9e to exi/ betwe5 ,god & man1 ?is disproportion does n prev5t my hav+ an idea ( ,god3 :y %\ld x prev5t my lov+ him & putt+ myself 9 relation ) him8 ,f5elon ju/ly said3 ,no?+ is s wond]ful z ! idea ( ,god :i* ,i c>ry )9 myself2 x is ! inf9ite conta9$ )9 ! f9ite4 ,t :i* is )9 me is inf9itely beyond me4 ,i d n und]/& h[ x comes to be 9 my m9d1 & yet x is !re1 nev]!less4 ,?is indelible & incompreh5sible idea ( ! ,div9e ,be+ is :at1 despite my imp]fection & weakness1 makes me resemble him4 ,z he inf9itely kn[s & loves himself1 s d ,i1 accord+ to my p[]1 "k & love him4 ,i c love ! inf9ite by no o!r means ?an by my f9ite k1 & love x by no o!r ?an a love z f9ite z myself4444 ,i wi% my love 7 z limitless z ! p]fection x loves4 ,x is true1 aga91 t ?is k & ?is love are n equally z p]fect z _! object1 b ! man :o kn[s & loves ,god accord+ to 8 measure ( k & love is incomp>ably m wor?y ( ?is p]fect be+ ?an ! man )\t ,god 9 ! _w1 c>+ nei!r to "k nor to love him4#aci ,h5ce x c be conclud$ t ! duties ( man t[>d ,god are impli$ 9 ! k he has ( him4 #b4 ,z to ! second difficulty1 x consi/s 9 say+ t ,god be+ susceptible ( nei!r b5efits nor injuries1 x is n q cle> :at acts we c\ld p]=m 9 8 behalf4 ,b ! "q is precisely to "k :e!r we only owe duties to be+s susceptible ( b5efits & injuries4 ,we h1 = example1 to p]=m duties ( ju/ice1 love1 respect t[>d ! dead1 al?\gh we c d !m nei!r good nor h>m1 s9ce !y are dead2 & al?\gh we h reason to ?9k t ! dead /ill exi/ "u ano!r =m1 ! duties we /ill owe !m1 are indep5d5t ( ?is consid]ation1 & not)/&+ ! d\bt ( ! immortality ( s\ls1 or _! relations ) ! liv+1 ^! duties /ill subsi/3 ^? s\ls might be s happy1 & 9 conditions s diff]5t f ^? ( our e>?ly life1 t !y might h become :olly indiff]5t to su*1 at lea/ to h>m4 ,a hi/orian1 = in/ance1 w\ld n be ju/ifi$ 9 sl&]+ 8 h]oes "u ! pretext t1 n believ+ 9 ! immortality ( ! s\l1 he knew he c\ld d !m no h>m4 ,man1 ev5 9 ?is life1 c1 ?r\gh pati5ce & g5tl5ess1 s rise above all insults z to become :olly ins5sible to !m3 :i* fact1 h[ev]1 does n imply t ! insults done him are innoc5t4 ,! same man might be s mode/ z to feel no ne$ ( any homage1 :i* w\ld make x no less a duty ( ju/ice on ! "p ( o!rs to r5d] him all ! homage t is due him4 ,:olly inw>d feel+s1 n evid5c$ by any outw>d act :atsoev]1 _c 9 reality d _! object any good or h>m2 yet no "o w "q _! be+ duties4 ,x may !n be se5 t duty is n regulat$ by ! good or evil :i* may outw>dly be done1 b by ! ord] ( ?+s :i* requires t e be+ be lov$ & respect$ accord+ to 8 m]it4 ,n[1 f ?is /&po9t1 !re c be no d\bt t ,god1 :o is supreme p]fection & ! pr9ciple ( all ord] & ju/ice1 is ! legitimate object ( ! highe/ respect & ! pr(\nde/ love4 ,x may be said1 p]haps1 t ^! s5tim5ts t[>d ! ,creator are r duties we owe ourselves ?an ,god1 = x is = our own sakes t we are b\nd to give to our s5sibility & affection ! highe/ object !y c h4 ,s9ce ! p]fection & ! dignity ( ! s\l are enhanc$ by religion1 x is our duty to be religi\s4 ,f5elon is q "r :5 he says t ! man :o kn[s & loves ,god is m wor?y ( him ?an he :o lives )\t him4 ,is x n ! same z to say t religion r5d]+ man m l ,god1 & br++ him ne>] to him1 man owes x to himself to rise above himself ?r\gh piety & ! love ( ,god8 ,b x matt]s v little h[ we expla9 ! nature ( ! duties t[>d ,god1 provid$ we recognize !m4 ,:e!r !y be consid]$ a di/9ct class1 or :e!r we only see 9 !m ! highe/ degree ( man's duties t[>d himself2 all ?is is b a useless speculation4 ,we c\ld say conv]sely1 & ) equal ju/ice1 t our duties t[>d ourselves are b a "p ( our duties t[>d ,god3 = duty itself1 9 its highe/ conception1 be+ to rea* aft] ! highe/ possible p]fection1 we c say1 ) ,plato1 t virtue is ! imitation ( ,god2 t1 consequ5tly1 man owes x to himself to resemble ,god z mu* z possible1 & t1 conv]sely1 he owes ,god1 z ! type ( supreme p]fection1 to draw ev] ne>] to him ?r\gh self-improvem5t4 ,b h[ c\ld he seek to draw ne>] to ,god's supreme p]fection if he did n ent]ta9 = him ! feel+s ( love & respect1 :i* con/itute :at we1 9 g5]al1 call religi\s s5tim5t8 #afh4 ,duties t[>d ,god4--,analysis ( ! religi\s s5tim5t4--,:at is call$ duties t[>d ,god is no?+ else ?an ! diff]5t acts by :i* we endeavor to br+ ab\t1 cultivate1 develop 9 u1 or 9 o!rs1 religi\s s5tim5t4 ,:5 ^! acts are ext]nal1 & take a c]ta9 def9ite =m1 !y con/itute :at is call$ outw>d wor%ip1 & are consequ5t ^u positive religions4 ,:5 !y are conc5trat$ 9 ! s\l1 & conf9$ to s5tim5ts1 !y con/itute :at is call$ inn] wor%ip4 ,! virtue :i* corresponds to ^! inn] acts & s5tim5ts is call$ piety4 ,! duties t[>d ,god be+ ?us bl5d$ ) religi\s s5tim5t we mu/1 9 ord] to set !m =?1 fir/ analyze ?is s5tim5t4 ,religi\s s5tim5t is compos$ ( two elem5ts3 "o :i* may be call$ metaphysical2#adj ! o!r1 moral4 #a4 ,metaphysically1 ! love ( ,god is ! s5tim5t ( ! inf9ite1 ! ne$ ( atta*+ ourselves to ! absolute1 ! et]nal1 ! immutable1 ! true 9 itself--9 "o ^w1 to ,be+4 ,! ?9k+ man1 & ev5 ! ?\ghtless man1 look+ at himself1 f9ds himself small1 feeble1 mis]able4 ,oh6 exclaims ,bossuet1 h[ mu* we are no?+6 ,man becomes vile to himself1 says ,/4 ,b]n>d4 ,man feels t he is frail1 t 8 life hangs b on a ?read1 t he is con/antly pass+ away4 ,! goods ( ! _w are p]i%able4 ,! fa%ion ( ?is _w passe? away4 ,we nei!r "k :o we are1 :5ce we come1 :i!r we are go+1 nor :at su/a9s u dur+ ! %ort p]iod ( our lives4 ,we are susp5d$ betwe5 heav5 & e>?3 betwe5 two inf9ities2 we /& z on quicks&s4 ,all ^! /rong expressions ( my/ics & religi\s writ]s admirably express ! ne$ we /& 9 ( ! absolute1 ! immutable1 ! p]fect1--a ne$ felt m p>ticul>ly by dev\t m9ds1 b :i* all m51 )\t exception1 exp]i5ce 9 "s degree or o!r1 & :i* !y endeavor to satisfy ! be/ !y c4 ,all our ef=ts to rea* ! absolute 9 sci5ce1 9 art1 9 politics ev51 are b ! =ms 9 :i* ?is ne$ ( ! absolute manife/s itself4 ,! insatiable pursuit ( ! gratification ( ! passions ev5 is1 also1 "u a va9 appe>ance1 ! same ne$4 ,x is ?is feel+ ( ! et]nal & ! inf9ite1 :i* ! greate/ metaphysicians all reg>d$ z ! ultimate f\ndation ( morality4 ,plato1 ,plot9us1 ,malebran*e1 ,sp9oza1 all enjo9 ^u u to seek et]nal1 9 pref]5ce to p]i%able1 goods4 ,?is s5tim5t1 consci\s ( ev] /riv+ aft] ! sub/ance ( good & n its %ad[1 is ! pr(\nde/1 ne>e/1 & de>e/ elem5t ( religi\s s5tim5t4 #b4 ,?us mu* 9 reg>d to ! metaphysical elem5t ( religion3 next comes ! moral elem5t4 ,god does n only appe> to ! human s\l z a be+ inf9ite1 inexhau/ible1 et]nal4 ,! s\l wants him ne>]1 & 9 h] respectful boldness %e calls him ,fa!r4 ,man is n only feeble & imp]fect2 he is also a s9n] & a suff]]2 evil is 8 condition4 ,! frailty ( our be+ & its n>r[ limits are already an evil2 b ^! are ! lea/ ( evils2 humanity suff]s1 fur!rmore1 f a d\ble evil f> m real & poignant3 pa9 & s94 ,aga9/ physical pa91 suff]+1 x has b ! feeble res\rce ( prud5ce2 aga9/ moral evil x has b "o means ( def5se1 v weak also--free-w4 ,x w\ld seem t we are ! ma/]s ( ! univ]se2 b exp]i5ce %[s1 on ! contr>y1 t we are ! feeble/ among its creatures2 (t5 does ! w succumb2 & ,kant himself1 despite 8 /oicism1 asks :e!r inde$ a s+le act ( virtue has ev] be5 accompli%$ 9 ! _w4 ,life1 on ! :ole1 not)/&+ its gr& aspects & its few exquisite & sublime joys1 life is bad2 all ends badly1 & dea?1 :i* puts an end to all evils1 is yet ! greate/ ( evils4 ,! human s\l1 says ,plato1 l a bird1 raises its eyes to heav51 & calls = a rem$y1 a help1 a deliv]ance4 ,deliv] u f evil1 is ! cry ( e religion4 ,god is ! lib]ator & com=t]4 ,we love :at is good & we d :at is evil2 we impati5tly desire happ9ess1 & meet ) no?+ b wret*$ness4 ,su* is ! contradiction ,pascal po9ts out ) su* incisive eloqu5ce4 ,?is contradiction mu/ be remov$4 ,hope & tru/ 9 a supreme & b5evol5t ,be+ mu/ ransom u f pa9 & s94 ,_m p]sons place ! ess5ce ( religion 9 ! belief 9 a future life1 or immortality ( ! s\l4 ,:o1 )\t ! hope ( ga9+ p>adise1 w\ld ?9k ( ,god8 ,b ?is is a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,p>adise1 = ! true believ]1 is no?+2 ,god1 ev]y?+4 ,if a future life is a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! div9e ju/ice & b\nty1 we ne$ n d\bt its exi/5ce2 if n1 we h no?+ to ask2 x does n conc]n u4 ,:at especially conc]ns u is to "k :at we ought to d "h bel[1 & to h ! /r5g? to d x )4 ,life is a m$itation1 n ( dea?1 b ( life1 said ,sp9oza4 ,b 9 ord] to live1 & live well1 "o mu/ believe 9 life1 mu/ believe 9 its heal?y & holy significance1 believe t x is n m]e play1 a m]e my/ification1 b t x 0 giv5 u by ! pr9ciple ( good = ! success ( good4 ,! ess5ce ( religion1 !n1 is a belief 9 ! goodness ( ,god4 ,a ,g]man critic1 ,feu]ba*1 said ) great effect1 t religion consi/$ 9 div9iz+ human attributes4 ,?us3 ,god is good1 means accord+ to him3 goodness is div9e4 ,god is j1 signifies3 ju/ice is div9e4 ,! boldness ( ,*ri/ianity1 its pr(\nd1 pa!tic beauty1 its great moral efficacy lie 9 ! fact t x has div9iz$ our mis]ies2 & t1 in/ead ( say+1 pa9 is div9e1 dea? is div9e1 x has said3 ,god has suff]$1 ,god has di$4 ,9 a ^w1 accord+ to ! same au?or1 ,god is ! human he>t div9iz$4 ,no?+ c\ld be m true & beautiful1 only 9 ano!r s5se ?an t 9 :i* ! au?or takes x4 ,if ,god himself 0 n supreme goodness1 ! he>t ( man w\ld !n conta9 some?+ div9e1 & ,god w\ld n himself be div9e6 ,! he>t feels t x exce$s all ?+s1 b1 9 ord] to believe 9 itself1 x mu/ "k itself com+ f a high] & pur] s\rce ?an x is itself4 ,9 ?9k+ ( su* a be+ 7,god71 man exp]i5ces a s5tim5t :i* is above all a religi\s s5tim5t4 ,e man1 z we come into contact ) him1 awak5s 9 u a feel+ ( "s k9d1 accord+ to ! qualities we p]ceive 9 him1 & %\ld n ,he :o possesses all p]fections excite 9 u ! /ronge/ ( feel+s8 ,if we ?9k ( ! inf9ite ess5ce ( ,god1 if we are ?or\ghly impress$ by 8 omnipot5ce1 if we rememb] t ! moral law expresses 8 w1 & t he has atta*$ to ! fulfillm5t & violation ( ?is law1 rew>ds & puni%m5ts :i* he di/ributes ) inflexible ju/ice1 we mu/ ( necessity exp]i5ce be=e su* greatness emotions ( respect & fe>4 ,if next we come to consid] t ?is omnipot5t be+ 0 pleas$ to create u1 we1 :om he _h no ne$ (1 & t 9 creat+ u he heap$ ^u u b5efits ( all k9ds1 t he has giv5 u ?is univ]se to enjoy its ev] r5ew$ beauties1 t he has giv5 u society t our life may become enl>g$ 9 t ( our fell[-be+s1 t he has giv5 u reason to ?9k1 a he>t to love1 lib]ty to act1 t same respect & fe> w receive additional /r5g? f a /ill g5tl] s5tim5t1 namely1 t ( love4 ,love1 :5 direct$ t[>d feeble & circumscrib$ be+s1 inspires u ) ! desire to d !m good3 b1 9 itself1 love does n especially consid] ! advantage ( ! p]son belov$3 we love a ?+1 good or beautiful1 simply because x is good or beautiful1 & )\t ?\ght ( b5efit+ x2 or b5efit+ ourselves4 ,h[ mu* m s :5 ?is love is turn$ to ,god1 z a pure homage to 8 p]fections2 :5 x is ! natural outp\r+ ( ! s\l t[>d a be+ inf9itely adorable4 ,adoration consi/s 9 respect & love4 ,if man1 h[ev]1 sees 9 ,god ! omnipot5t ma/] ( heav5 & e>? only1 ! s\rce ( all ju/ice & ! av5g] ( all wrong1 he w1 9 8 weakness1 be cru%$ by ! ov]:elm+ weight ( ,god's greatness3 he w be liv+ a life ( p]petual fe>1 f ! unc]ta9ty ( ! judgm5t ( ,god2 he w conceive = ?is _w & life1 always s full ( mis]y1 no?+ b hatr$4 ,read ,pascal's ,?\ghts4 ,pascal1 9 8 sup]b humility1 =gets two ?+s3 ! dignity ( man & ! goodness ( ,god4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 man only sees 9 ,god a k9d & indulg5t ,fa!r1 he w run into a *im]ical my/icism4 ,9 sub/itut+ love = fe>1 !re is dang] ( los+ ! awe :i* we %\ld h = him4 ,god is !n no long] a ma/]1 sc>cely a fa!r ev52 = ! idea ( fa!r c>ries ) x1 9 a c]ta9 degree1 t ( a respectful fe>3 he is no?+ m ?an a fri5d4 ,true adoration does n sev] love f respect3 x is respect animat$ by love4 ,adoration is a univ]sal s5tim5t2 x diff]s 9 degrees accord+ to ! diff]5ces 9 human nature2 x takes ! greate/ v>iety ( =ms2 x (t5 does n ev5 "k itself2 sometimes x betrays itself by a sudd5 exclamation1 a cry f ! he>t ov] ! gr& sc5es ( nature & life2 sometimes x rises sil5tly 9 ! deeply-mov$ & dumb-/rick5 s\l2 x may 9 its expression mi/ake its aim2 b fundam5tally x is always ! same4 ,x is a spontane\s & irresi/ible ye>n+ ( ! s\l1 :i* reason mu/ decl>e j & legitimate4 ,:at m j1 9 fact1 ?an to fe> ! judgm5ts ( ,him :o is hol9ess itself1 :o kn[s our actions & our int5tions1 & :o w judge !m z x becomes supreme ju/ice8 ,:at m j1 also1 ?an to love p]fect goodness & ! s\rce ( all love8 ,adoration is fir/ a natural s5tim5t3 reason makes ( x a duty4#ada ,^! two s5tim5ts1 love & respect1 may1 inasmu* z !y relate to ,god--t is to say1 to an inf9ite be+--be resolv$ into "o1 :i* we call v5]ation4 ,v5]ation is ! respect mix$ ) love :i* we feel = our ag$ p>5ts1 = "s exalt$ virtue1 = devotion to a suff]+ c\ntry2 b x is only ?r\gh ext5sion we s und]/& x3 its true object1 its prop] doma91 is ! div9ity2#adb & if !re are o!r objects to be rev]$ & v5]at$1 x is because we detect 9 !m some?+ augu/ & sacr$4 ,x w1 p]haps1 be said t s5tim5ts _c be erect$ into duties3 = h[ c ,i =ce myself to feel :at ,i d n feel8 ,acts c be comm&$1 b n s5tim5ts4 ,?is is true2 b ! acts1 9 ! fir/ place1 are no?+ )\t ! s5tim5ts1 & if piety is n already 9 ! he>t1 ! mo/ pi\s works w h no virtue4 ,moreov]1 if x be true t x is impossible to g5]ate1 ei!r 9 "o's self or 9 o!rs1 s5tim5ts1 ! g]ms ( :i* d n exi/ 9 human nature1 x is n true t s5tim5ts 9 con=mity ) ?is nature1 & :i*1 :il/ we believe !m completely abs5t1 may only be dormant1 c\ld n be excit$1 awak5$1 cultivat$1 & develop$4 ,n[1 x is en\gh to ?9k ( div9e greatness1 to exp]i5ce a feel+ ( fe> & respect2 x is en\gh to ?9k ( div9e p]fection1 to love ?is p]fection1 & seek to come ne>] to x4 ,duty "h consi/s1 !n1 9 ?9k+ ( ,god1 9 giv+ ?is great ?\ght a "p ( our life1 9 unit+ x ) all ! acts ( t life3 ^! s5tim5ts w1 !n1 be g5]at$ & w exp& ( !mselves4 #afi4 ,piety unit$ ) all ! acts ( life3 indirect duties t[>d ,god4--,we h j said t ! idea ( ,god c be unit$ ) all ! acts ( life4 ,e action be+ ! fulfillm5t ( ! w ( ,provid5ce1 c be bo? moral & religi\s4 ,he :o works1 prays1 says ! prov]b2 a life :i* /rives to pres]ve itself pure & virtu\s1 is a cont9u\s pray]4 ,9 ?is s5se1 all our duties are indirect duties t[>d ,god4 #a4 ,ob$i5ce to ,god1 manife/$ by ob$i5ce to moral law4 ,i c obey ! moral law 9 two ways3 on ! "o h&1 because x is a duty1 :atev] besides may be ! reason ( ?is duty1 & next because ?is duty is 9 unison ) univ]sal ord]1 :i* is ! "w ( div9e wisdom4 ,to fulfill "o's duty is1 !n1 to co-op]ate 9 "s respect ) ,god 9 ! a*ievem5t ( ?is ord]4 ,x is ?us t 9 anci5t religions1 agriculture 0 reg>d$ a religi\s act1 because man took !re9 ! "p ( ! creator4 #b4 ,resignation to ! w ( ,provid5ce4--,pati5ce is unque/ionably a duty 9 itself4 ,!re is a lack ( dignity 9 rebell+ aga9/ evils :i* _c be prev5t$2 b ?is is z yet a :olly negative virtue4 ,x becomes a religi\s virtue if we reg>d ! ills ( life 9 ! light ( trials1 & z ! condition ( a high] good1 & expect to volunt>ily submit to !m z be+ 9 ! plan ( ,provid5ce4 ,x is ?us ! ,py?agoreans =bade suicide1 say+ t x 0 leav+ ! po/ 9 :i* ,god _h plac$ u4 ,x w\ld1 moreov]1 be int]pret+ ?is duty ( resignation v falsely to ?9k t x comm&s u to be> tr\ble & make no ef=t to escape x4 ,?is 7 conf\nd+ ,provid5ce ) fatalism4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,god1 hav+ giv5 u free w1 n only p]mits u !reby1 b ev5 positively enjo9s ^u u1 to use x 9 bett]+ our condition4 #c4 ,love ( ,god conjo9$ ) ! love ( man4--,!re is no real love ( ,god )\t love ( neighbor2 x is a false piety :i* ?9ks itself oblig$ to sacrifice ! love ( m5 to ! love ( ,god3 !nce come fanaticism1 intol]ance1 p]secution4 ,to believe ^! to be religi\s virtues is impi\s4 ,we _c please ,god by acts ( hatr$ & cruelty4 ,?us is ! love ( ,god no?+ )\t ! love ( m54 ,b x c also be said t ! love ( m5 is incomplete if x does n get its su/5ance f a high] s\rce1 :i* is ! love ( ,god4 ,we c1 9 fact1 love m5 9 two ways3 fir/1 because !y are m51 because !y are l u1 because !re is betwe5 !m & u a natural bond ( sympa?y4 ,b we c also love !m because !y are1 l ourselves1 memb]s ( ! univ]se ( :i* ,god is ! sov]eign rul]1 memb]s ( a family ( :i* ,god is ! fa!r1 because1 l ourselves1 !y reflect "s ( ! attributes ( supreme p]fection1 because !y ought1 l u1 to /rive aft] all p]fection4 ,we c !n love m5 religi\sly1 love !m 9 ,god 9 "s respect4 ,?us conv]sely to love m5 w be lov+ ,god4 #agj4 ,! idea ( ,god 9 morals4--,we h1 9 a =m] c\rse ( lectures1 se5 h[ ! moral law is relat$ to ,god3 ?is law is c]ta9ly n dep5d5t on 8 w alone1 b on 8 hol9ess & supreme p]fection2 & x is /ill fur!r relat$ to him z to a supreme sanction4 ,we h to consid] "h only ! practical efficacy ( ! idea ( ,god--t is to say1 ! additional /r5g? moral belief receives by a belief 9 absolute ju/ice & hol9ess4 ,x is on ?is condition & f ?is /&po9t t ,kant has call$ ! exi/5ce ( ,god ! po/ulate#adc ( ! moral law4 ,! moral law1 9 fact1 supposes ! _w able to con=m to ?is law2 b h[ are we to believe 9 su* a possibility if ?is _w 7 ! effect ( a bl9d & indiff]5t necessity8 ,s9ce x is our duty1 says ,kant1 to "w t[>d ! realization ( ! supreme good1 x is n only a "r1 b a necessity fl[+ f ?is duty1 to suppose ! possibility ( ?is supreme good1 :i* good is only possible on ! condition ( ,god's exi/5ce#add4444--,suppose1 = example1 he says else:]e1 an hone/ man l ,sp9oza1 firmly conv9c$ t !re is no ,god & no future life4 ,he w1 )\t d\bt1 fulfill dis9t]e/$ly ! duty t holy law imposes on 8 activity2 b 8 ef=ts w be limit$4 ,if "h & !re he f9ds 9 nature accid5tal co-op]ation1 he c nev] expect ( ?is co-op]ation to be 9 p]fect & con/ant accordance ) ! end he feels himself oblig$ to pursue4 ,?\gh hone/1 peaceful1 b5evol5t himself1 he w always be surr\nd$ by fraud1 viol5ce1 envy2 9 va9 d ! good p he meets des]ve to be happy2 nature has no reg>d = _! goodness1 & exposes !m1 l all ! re/ ( e>?'s animals1 to disease & mis]y1 to a premature dea?1 until "o va/ tomb--! gulf ( bl9d matt] f :i* !y issu$--swall[s !m all up aga94 ,?us w\ld ?is righte\s man be oblig$ to give up z absolutely impossible ! end :i* ! law impos$ on him2 or1 if he wi%$ to rema9 true to ! inn] voice ( 8 moral de/9y1 he w1 f a practical po9t ( view1 be oblig$ to recognize ! exi/5ce ( a moral cause 9 ! _w1 namely1 ,god4 ,?us1 accord+ to ,kant1 is religion1 namely1 ! belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 requir$1 n z a !oretical basis = morality1 b z a practical basis4 ,! righte\s man c say3 ,i w t !re be a ,god4#ade ,x may be object$ t moral law c disp5se ) outw>d success2 t x does n appe> to be ess5tial to ! idea ( t law2 t ! wise1 z f> z _! own happ9ess is conc]n$1 ne$ n consid] x1 c ignore x4 ,b :at !y are oblig$ to consid]1 & are n all[$ to ignore1 is ! happ9ess ( o!rs1 & :at is g5]ally und]/ood by progress--! possible improvem5t ( ! race4 ,if1 z "s pessimi/ic & misan?ropic philosoph]s seem to ?9k1 m5 w nev] be any?+ m ?an monkeys or tig]s giv5 to ! l[e/ & mo/ f]oci\s in/9cts1 d y believe t any man1 be he ev] s well end[$ morally1 ev] s deeply conv9c$ ( ! obligation ( ! law ( duty1 c\ld1 if he believ$ su* a ?+1 be able to cont9ue do+ 8 duty1 a duty foll[$ by no appreciable or p]ceptible results8 ,! fir/ condition = becom+ or rema9+ virtu\s1 is to believe 9 virtue4 ,b to believe 9 virtue means to believe t virtue is a fact1 t x exi/s 9 ! _w1 t x c d x good2 9 o!r words1 x is to believe t ! human race 0 creat$ = good2 t nature is capable ( be+ trans=m$ accord+ to ! law ( good2 x is1 9 %ort1 to believe t ! univ]se obeys a pr9ciple ( good1 & n a pr9ciple ( evil--an ,oromazes1 n an ,ahrimanes4 ,z to believ+ 9 an indiff]5t be+1 "o t 7 nei!r good nor evil1 we %\ld n be any bett] (f2 x w\ld leave u j z unc]ta9 9 reg>d to ! possible success ( our ef=ts1 & j z d\btful ab\t ! wor? ( our moral beliefs4 ,9 "o ^w1 & to conclude1 if ,god 7 an illusion1 :y c\ld n virtue be an illusion also8 ,9 ord] t ,i may believe 9 ! dignity & excell5ce ( my s\l & t ( o!r m51 ,i mu/ believe 9 a supreme pr9ciple ( dignity & excell5ce4 ,no?+ comes f no?+4 ,if !re is no be+ to love me & my fell[-m51 :y %\ld ,i be held to love !m8 ,if ! _w is n good1 if x 0 n creat$ = good1 if good is n its orig9 & end1 :at h ,i to d "h 9 ?is _w1 & :at c>e ,i = t sw>m ( ants ( :i* ,i am a "p8 ,let !m get along z well z !y c6 ,:y %\ld ,i take s mu* tr\ble to s little purpose8 ,take any intellig5t man1 a fri5d ( civil & political lib]ty1 & ready to suff] any?+ to procure ^! to 8 c\ntry1 z long z he believes ! ?+ possible1 bo? wisdom & virtue w comm& him to devote himself :olly to x4 ,b let exp]i5ce prove to him t x is a *im]a1 t 8 fell[-citiz5s are ei!r too great c[>ds or too vici\s to be wor?y & capable ( ! good he wi%es to secure to !m2 suppose he sees all ar\nd him no?+ b cupidity1 s]vility1 unbridl$ & abom9able passions2 suppose1 f9ally1 t he becomes conv9c$ t lib]ty among m51 or at lea/ among ! p he lives )1 is an illusion1 d y ?9k he c\ld1 d y ev5 ?9k he %\ld1 cont9ue wa/+ 8 faculties 9 an impossible ent]prise8 ,once m1 ,i c =get myself1 & ,i ought2 & ,i %\ld leave to int]nal ju/ice or div9e goodness ! c>e to wat* ov] my de/9ies2 b t :i* ,i _c =get1 t :i* _c leave me indiff]5t1 is ! reign ( ju/ice on e>?4 ,i mu/ be able to say3 ,let ,?y k+dom come6 ,h[ c ,i co-op]ate ) ! ,div9e ,idea if !re is no ,god1 :o1 9 creat+ u = ! fur!r+ ( 8 k+dom1 made x1 at ! same "t1 possible = u8 ,& h[ any ,i to believe t out ( t great void :]eto a!ism r$uces u1 !re c come a reign ( wills holy & j1 b\nd to ea* o!r by ! laws ( respect & love8 ,kant1 ! great /oic1 )\t borr[+ f !ology1 has m /rongly ?an any o!r1 describ$ ! necessity ( ?is reign ( law2 b he fully und]/ood t ?is ab/ract & ideal ord] ( ?+s w\ld rema9 b a pure conception1 if !re 7 n conjo9$ ) x :at he ju/ly calls ! practical1 ! moral fai? 9 ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 #aga4 ,religi\s rights4--,religi\s duties imply religi\s rights3 = if x is a duty to honor ! ,creator1 x is also a "r4 ,ev5 ^? :o d n admit obligations t[>d ,god1 ought to respect 9 ^? :o d admit !m1 _! lib]ty to d s4 ,! "r ( hav+ a religion1 & practic+ x1 is :at is call$ lib]ty ( consci5ce4 ,! fir/ "r ,i claim1 says an eloqu5t writ]1 is ! "r ( adopt+ a free belief t\*+ ! nature ( ,god1 my duties1 my future2 x is a :olly int]ior "r1 :i* gov]ns ! relations ( my w or consci5ce alone4 ,x is ! lib]ty ( consci5ce 9 its ess5ce1 its fir/ act1 its indisp5sable basis4 ,x is ! lib]ty to believe1 or fai?4 ,free 9 ! inn]mo/ ( my ?\ght1 %all ,i be conf9$ to a sil5t wor%ip8 ,%all ,i n be all[$ to express :at ,i ?9k8 ,fai? is communicative1 & w make itself felt by o!rs4 ,i _c control its express+ itself )\t do+ x viol5ce1 )\t (f5d+ ,god1 )\t r5d]+ myself guilty ( +ratitude4 ,i _c1 moreov]1 wor%ip a ,god t is n my ,god4 ,! fre$om ( belief1 )\t ! fre$om ( pray]--t is to say1 )\t free wor%ip--is only a delusion4 ,n[1 is pray] suffici5t8 ,does ?is solit>y expression ( my fai?1 my love1 my ignorance1 suffice ! wants ( my he>t & my duties t[>d ,god8 ,yes1 if man 7 made to live alone2 b n if he has bre?r54 ,i am a social be+2 ,i h duties t[>d society z well z t[>d ,god2 my cre$ comm&s me to tea* z well z to pray4 ,my voice mu/ be he>d1 & ,i mu/1 foll[+ my de/9y1 & accord+ to ! measure ( my p[]s1 c>ry along ) me all ^? :o are incl9$ to foll[ me4 ,?is is ! lib]ty ( promulgat+ "o's cre$1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! lib]ty ( propag&ism4 ,wor%ip1 !n1 means to believe1 to pray1 to tea*4 ,b1 c ,i consid] myself a free believ]1 if pray+ 9 public be d5i$ me2 if by pray+1 & tea*+1 & confess+ my doctr9e1 ,i risk ! loss ( my rights z man & citiz58 ,!re are o!r means = *eck+ public wor%ip & apo/le%ip ?an burn+ at ! /ake4 ,x is obvi\s t1 9 ord] no inju/ice be done to my p>ticul> cre$1 ,i %\ld risk no?+ by x2 t ,i be n depriv$ ( any ( my civil or political rights4 ,all ?is is includ$ 9 ! t]m lib]ty ( consci5ce3 x is at ! same "t ! "r to believe1 ! "r to pray1 & ! "r to ex]cise ?is triple lib]ty )\t hav+ to suff] any dim9ution 9 "o's dignity z man & citiz54#adf #agb4 ,religi\s society4--,religi\s duties & rights give rise to :at may be call$ religi\s society4 ,f5elon has magnific5tly describ$ ! ideal religi\s society :]e all w\ld =m b "o family unit$ by ! love ( ,god & m54 ,d we n see1 he says1 t ! ext]nal wor%ip foll[s necess>ily ! int]nal wor%ip ( love8 ,give me a society ( m5 :o1 :ile on e>?1 w\ld look ^u ea* o!r z memb]s ( "o & ! same family1 ^: ,fa!r is 9 heav52 give me m5 ^: life 0 sunk 9 ?is love = _! heav5ly ,fa!r1 m5 :o lov$ _! fell[-m5 & !mselves only ?r\gh love = ,him2 :o 7 b "o he>t1 "o s\l3 w n 9 s godly a society ! m\? always speak f ! abundance ( ! he>t8 ,!y w s+ ! praises ( ! ,mo/ ,high1 ! ,mo/ ,good spontane\sly2 !y w bless ,him = all ,8 b\nties4 ,!y w n be cont5t to love ,him m]ely1 !y w proclaim ?is love to all ! nations ( ! _w2 !y w wi% to correct & admoni% _! bre?r5 :5 !y see !m tempt$ ?r\gh pride & l[ passions to =sake ! ,well-,belov$4 ,!y w lam5t ! lea/ cool+ ( t love4 ,!y w cross ! seas1 g to ! utt]mo/ p>ts ( ! e>?1 to tea* ! b5ight$ nations :o h =gott5 ,8 greatness ! k & love ( _! common ,fa!r4 ,:at d y call ext]nal wor%ip if ?is be n x8 ,god !n w\ld be all 9 all2 ,he w\ld be ! univ]sal k+1 fa!r1 fri5d2 ,he w\ld be ! liv+ law ( all he>ts4 ,truly1 if a mortal k+ or head ( a family w9s by 8 wisdom ! e/eem & confid5ce ( 8 *ildr51 if we see !m at all times pay him ! honors due him1 ne$ we ask :]e9 consi/s 8 s]vice1 or :e!r any is due him8 ,all t is done 9 8 honor1 9 ob$i5ce to him1 9 recognition ( 8 b\nties1 is a cont9u\s wor%ip1 obvi\s to all eyes4 ,:at w\ld x be !n if m5 7 possess$ ) ! love ( ,god6 ,_! society w\ld be 9 a /ate ( cont9u\s wor%ip1 l t describ$ to u ( ! bless$ 9 heav54#adg ,! great anci5t morali/1 ,epictetus1 has z sup]bly z ,f5elon express$ ! same s5tim5ts3 ,if we _h any und]/&+1 he says1 ought we n1 bo? 9 public & 9 private1 incessantly to s+ & praise ! ,deity1 & rehe>se ,8 b5efits8 ,ought we n1 :e!r we dig1 or pl\gh1 or eat1 to s+ ?is hymn to ,god8 ,great is ,god1 :o has suppli$ u ) ^! in/rum5ts to till ! gr\nd2 great is ,god1 :o has giv5 u h&s & organs ( dige/ion2 :o has giv5 u to gr[ ins5sibly1 to brea! 9 sleep4 ,^! ?+s we ought =ev] to celebrate1 & to make x ! !me ( ! greate/ & div9e/ hymn t ,he has giv5 u ! p[] to appreciate ^! gifts1 & to use !m well4 ,b because ! mo/ ( y are bl9d & ins5sible !re mu/ be "s "o to fill ?is /ation1 & lead 9 behalf ( all m5 ! hymn to ,god2 = :at else c ,i d1 a lame old man1 b s+ hymns to ,god8 ,7 ,i a night+ale1 ,i w\ld act ! "p ( a night+ale2 7 ,i a swan1 ! "p ( a swan4 ,b s9ce ,i am a reasonable creature x is my duty to praise ,god4 ,?is is my bus9ess4 ,i d x4 ,nor w ,i ev] des]t ?is po/1 s long z x is p]mitt$ me2 & ,i call on y to jo9 9 ! same song4#adh ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,moral ,,m$ic9e ,,& ,,gymna/ics4 ,,summ>y4 ,means & end4--,moral sci5ce %\ld n only po9t out ! end2 x %\ld also indicate ! means ( atta9+ t end4 ,!re is1 z ( ! body1 a culture ( ! s\l3 z1 9 m$ic9e1 we di/+ui% betwe5 temp]am5ts1 diseases & _! treatm5ts1 s d we di/+ui% 9 morals1 *>act]s1 passions1 & rem$ies4 ,( "*4--,"* z comp>$ ) temp]am5t3 f\r pr9cipal types4 ,"* at diff]5t ages3 *ildhood1 y\?1 manhood1 & old age4 ,passions4--,passions may 9 "o respect be consid]$ z natural affections2 b 9 a moral po9t ( view !y %\ld be consid]$ z diseases4 ,! law ( passions consid]$ f ?is la/ /&po9t4 ,enum]ation & analysis ( ^! v>i\s passions4 ,culture ( ! s\l1 or moral treatm5t4--,on ! gov]nm5t ( passions4--,bossuet's advice3 n directly to combat ! passions1 b to turn !m (f into o!r *annels4 ,( ! =mation ( "*4--,rules ( ,malebran*e3 #a1 acts produce habits1 & habits produce acts2 #b1 "o c always act aga9/ a rul+ habit4 ,h[ is "o habit to be sub/itut$ = ano!r8--,ari/otle's rule3 ,to g f "o extreme to ! o!r4--,bacon's rules3 #a1 to proce$ by degrees2 #b1 to *oose = a new virtue two k9ds ( opportunities3 ! fir/ :5 "o is be/ dispos$1 ! second :5 "o is lea/ s2 #c1 n to tru/ too mu* to "o's conv]sion & di/ru/ opportunities4 ,b5jam9 ,frankl9's ,almanac4--,o!r practices4--,kant's moral cate*ism4 ,we h done ) practical morals1 ! morals1 namely1 :i* h = _! object ! sett+ =? ( man's duties & ! pr9cipal applications ( ! moral law4 ,! second "p ( ?is c\rse ( /udy %all be devot$ to ! !ory ( morals1 :i* has = its object ! elucidation ( pr9ciples4 ,b to pass f ! "o to ! o!r1 x seem$ to u prop]1 by way ( conclusion1 to introduce "h an ord] ( rese>*es :i* belongs to bo? practical & !oretical morals1 ! /udy1 namely1 ( ! means man has at 8 disposal 9 8 moral self-p]fection1 ei!r by cur+ himself ( vice1 or 9 advanc+ 9 virtue3 ?is is :at we call moral m$ic9e & gymna/ics4 ,bacon ju/ly rem>ks t mo/ morali/s are l writ+-ma/]s :o lay f9e copies be=e _! pupils1 b tell !m no?+ ( ! mann] ( us+ ! p5 & trac+ *>act]s4 ,?us d ! philosoph]s set be=e u v f9e & magnific5t models1 v fai?ful & noble pictures ( goodness & virtue1 ( duties1 ( happ9ess2 b !y tea* u no?+ ab\t ! means ( atta9+ to su* p]fection4 ,!y make u acqua9t$ ) ! end1 & n ) ! road t leads to x4#adi ,!n1 pres5t+ u himself a sket* ( t portion ( morality :i* does n conf9e itself to precepts only1 b to in/ructions also1 & :i* he calls ! ,georgics ( ! s\l 7sci5ce ( ! culture & ! s\l71 he tells u t x %\ld be l m$ic9e :i* consid]s fir/ ! con/itution ( ! pati5t1 !n ! disease1 !n ! treatm5t4 ,! same 9 reg>d to ! s\l3 !re are moral temp]am5ts z !re are physical temp]am5ts3 ^! are ! *>act]s2 moral diseases z !re are physical diseases2 ^! are ! passions2 & f9ally !re is a moral treatm5t z !re is a physical treatm5t1 & x is ! treatm5t ( morality to indicate ?is treatm5t4 ,n[1 "o _c treat a disease )\t kn[+ x & )\t be+ acqua9t$ ) ! temp]am5t & con/itution ( ! pati5t4 ,a coat _c be fitt$ on a body )\t ! tailor's tak+ fir/ ! measure ( him = :om he makes x4 ,h5ce1 x foll[s t be=e decid+ on a rem$y1 "o mu/ acqua9t himself ) ! *>act]s & passions4 #agc4 ,( "*4--,! /udy ( "* is h>dly susceptible ( a me?odical classification4 ,passions1 mann]s1 habits are s complicat$ & s int]mix$ 9 individuals t !y af=d sc>cely a *ance to fai?fully describe !m1 & ?is subject1 ?\gh v f]tile1 is m ( ! prov9ce ( lit]ature ?an ( sci5ce4 ,!ophra/us among ! anci5ts1 & ,la ,bruy]e among ! mod]ns1 h excell$ 9 ?is k9d ( description2 b x w\ld be v difficult to analyze _! works1 z !y h no?+ didactic3 !y are bett] suit$ = read+4 ,!ophra/us describes dissembl]s1 flatt]]s1 intrud]s1 ru/ics1 p>asites1 babbl]s1 ! sup]/iti\s1 mis]s1 ! pr\d1 sl&]]s1 etc4 ,all ^! are unque/ionably pr9cipal types ( human "*1 b !y _c be /rictly br\ght d[n to a few elem5t>y types4 ,la ,bruy]e is /ill fur!r remov$2 he does n only treat "*1 b mann]s also2 he describes individuals r ?an m5 9 g5]al1 or x is always 9 ! individual t he sees ! man4 ,h5ce ! *>m & piquancy ( 8 pictures2 b moral sci5ce f9ds sc>cely any?+ to borr[ f him4 ,kant tri$ to give a !ory ( "*1 & he />t$ ) ! same idea z ,bacon1 namely1 ! analogy betwe5 *>act]s & temp]am5ts2 ?us did he conf9e himself to tak+ up aga9 ! old physiological !ory ( temp]am5ts & apply x to ! moral man4 ,he di/+ui%es two k9ds ( temp]am5ts3 temp]am5ts ( s5tim5t1 & temp]am5ts ( activity2 & 9 ea* ( ^! two k9ds1 two degrees or two diff]5t %ades3 exaltation or abatem5t4 ,h5ce1 f\r diff]5t k9ds ( temp]am5ts3 ! sangu9e & ! melan*oly 7temp]am5t ( s5tim5t71 ! *ol]ic & phlegmatic 7temp]am5t ( activity74 ,kant describes ^! f\r temp]am5ts or *>act]s z foll[s3#aej ,! sangu9e disposition may be recogniz$ by ! foll[+ indications3 ,! sangu9e man is free f c>e & ( good hope2 he gives to ?+s at "o mom5t undue importance2 at ano!r1 he c no long] ?9k ( !m4 ,he is spl5did 9 8 promises1 b does n keep !m1 because he has n suffici5tly reflect$ :e!r he w be able to keep !m or n4 ,he is well en\gh dispos$ to help o!rs1 b is a poor debtor & always asks = delays4 ,he is good company1 *e]ful1 lively1 takes ?+s easily1 & is ev]ybody's fri5d4 ,he is n usually a bad p]son1 b a confirm$ s9n]1 h>d to conv]t1 & :o1 ?\gh he w rep5t1 w nev] all[ ?is rep5tance to turn into grief3 x is soon aga9 =gott54 ,he is easily tir$ by "w2 yet is he con/antly occupi$1 & t1 = ! reason t 8 "w be+ b play1 x proves a *ange :i* suits him1 z p]sev]ance is n 9 8 nature4 ,! melan*oly man gives to ev]y?+ conc]n+ him a va/ importance2 ! lea/ trifles give him anxiety1 & 8 :ole att5tion is fix$ ^u ! difficulties ( ?+s4 ,contr>y to ! sangu9e1 always hopeful ( success1 b a sup]ficial ?9k]1 ! melan*oly is a pr(\nd ?9k]4 ,he is n ha/y 9 8 promises because he int5ds keep+ !m1 & he consid]s c>efully :e!r he w be able to d s4 ,he di/ru/s & takes ?\ght ( ?+s :i* ! sangu9e passes c>elessly by2 he is no philan?ropi/1 = ! reason t he :o d5ies himself pleasure is r>ely incl9$ to wi% x to o!rs4 ,! *ol]ic man is easily excit$ & z easily appeas$2 he fl>es up l a /raw fire2 b submission soon s(t5s him d[n2 he is !n irritable )\t hatr$1 & loves him :o readily gives up to him1 all ! m ard5tly4 ,he is prompt 9 8 actions1 b 8 activity does n la/ long2 he is nev] idle1 yet n indu/ri\s4 ,8 rul+ passion is honors2 he likes to m$dle ) public affairs1 to he> himself prais$2 he is = %[ & c]emonial4 ,he is fond ( play+ ! "p ( a protector & to appe> g5]\s2 b n f a feel+ ( affection1 b ( pride1 = he loves himself mu* m ?an he loves o!rs4 ,he is passionately giv5 to money mak+2 9 society he is a c]emoni\s c\rti]1 /iff1 & ill at ease1 & ready to accept any flatt]] to s]ve him z a %ield2 9 a ^w1 ! *ol]ic temp]am5t is ! lea/ happy ( all because x is ! "o t meets ) mo/ opposition4 ,! phlegmatic temp]4 ,phlegm means abs5ce ( emotion4 ,! phlegmatic man to :om nature has giv5 a c]ta9 quantum ( reason1 resembles ! man :o acts on pr9ciple1 al?\gh he owes ?is disposition to in/9ct only4 ,8 happy temp]am5t /&s to him 9 lieu ( wisdom1 & (t5 9 ord9>y life he is call$ a philosoph]4 ,sometimes ev5 he is ?\ght cunn+1 because all abuse laun*$ at him b\nces back aga91 z a ball f a sack ( wool4 ,he makes a pretty good husb&1 &1 :il/ pret5d+ to d e "o's w1 he gov]ns bo? wife & s]vants z he likes1 = he kn[s h[ to br+ _! wi%es 9 agreem5t ) 8 own indomitable b ?\ghtful w4 ,!re are !n1 accord+ to ,kant1 f\r ess5tially di/9ct *>act]s3 ! sangu9e1 playful1 k9dly1 sup]ficial2 ! melan*oly1 pr(\nd1 sad1 egoti/ical2 ! *ol]ic1 ard5t1 passionate1 ambiti\s1 covet\s2 ! phlegmatic1 cold1 mod]ate1 inflexible4 ,kant d5ies t ^! f\r k9ds ( temp]am5ts c comb9e ) ea* o!r2 !re are b f\r 9 all1 he says1 & ea* ( !m is complete 9 itself4 ,x seems to u1 on ! contr>y1 t exp]i5ce %[s t no "o ( ^! *>act]s exi/s sep>ately 9 an absolute mann]2 !re is always to "s degree a mixture1 & diff]5t m5 are g5]ally di/+ui%$ by ! lead+ feature 9 _! "*4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 make a di/9ction betwe5 disposition & "*4 ,to be ( su* or su* a disposition is n always be+ a man ( "*4 ,! fir/ ( ^! two expressions signifies ! v>i\s aptitudes1 incl9ations1 or habits :i* di/+ui% a man f o!rs2 ! second signifies t /r5g? ( w1 t empire ov] himself :i* enables a man to foll[ fai?fully ! l9e ( conduct he has *os51 & to bravely resi/ temptations4 ,"* is n always virtue 7= x may be controll$ by false & vici\s pr9ciples71 b x is its condition4 ,t t5d5cy ( ! w :i* acts accord+ to fix$ pr9ciples 7& does n move f ?is to t1 l a fly7 is some?+ truly e/imable1 & :i* des]ves all ! m admiration z x is extremely r>e4 ,! "q "h is n ( :at nature makes ( man1 b ( :at man makes ( himself4 ,tal5t has a v5al value :i* all[s mak+ use ( ! man !re) end[$2 temp]am5t has an affection-value :i* makes ( him an agreeable companion & pleasant talk]2 b "* has a value :i* places him above all ^! ?+s4#aea #agd4 ,age4--,to ?is classification ( *>act]s accord+ to temp]am5ts1 may be add$ t f\nd$ on age4 ,9 fact1 diff]5t ages h1 z x is well kn[n1 v diff]5t *>act]i/ics4 ,ari/otle#aeb 0 ! fir/ to describe ! diff]5ces 9 m5's morals accord+ to _! ages1 & he has s9ce be5 v (t5 imitat$4 ,i4 ,! "y4--,! "y are 9 _! dispositions prone to desire1 & ( a "* to effect :at !y desire4 ,& !y desire ) e>ne/ness1 b spe$ily cease to desire2 = _! wi%es are ke51 )\t be+ durable2 j l ! hung] & ?ir/ ( ! sick4 ,& !y are passionate & irritable1 & ( a temp]am5t to foll[ ! impulse4 ,& !y _c ov]come _! ang]2 = by reason ( _! ambition1 !y d n endure a slight1 b become indignant1 & fancy !mselves injur$2 & !y are ambiti\s inde$ ( honor1 b m s ( victory2 = y\? is desir\s ( sup]iority1 & victory is a sort ( sup]iority4 ,& !y are cr$ul\s1 f _! nev] hav+ yet be5 mu* impos$ on4 ,& !y are sangu9e 9 _! expectations2 =1 l ^? :o are affect$ by w9e1 s ! "y are w>m$ by _! nature2 & at ! same "t f _! hav+ nev] yet met ) _m repulses4 ,_! life too1 = ! mo/ "p1 is "o ( hope2 = hope is ( t :i* is yet to be1 :ile memory is ( t :i* is pass$3 b to ! "y1 t :i* is yet to be is long2 b t :i* has pass$ is %ort4 ,& !y are brave r to an excess2 = !y are irritable & sangu9e1 qualities1 ! "o :]e( cancels fe>1 & ! o!r inspires c\rage2 = :ile no "o :o is affect$ by ang] ev] is afraid1 ! be+ 9 hope ( "s good is a ?+ to give c\rage4 ,& !y are ba%ful2 = !y d n z yet conceive ! honorable to be any?+ di/9ct2 & !y are high-m9d$2 = !y h n z yet be5 humbl$ by ! c\rse ( life1 b are inexp]i5c$ 9 p]emptory circum/ances2 aga91 high-m9d$ness is ! deem+ "o's self wor?y ( mu*2 & ?is belongs to p]sons ( sangu9e expectations4 ,& !y pref] succe$+ 9 an honorable s5se r ?an 9 po9ts ( exp$i5cy2 = !y live m 9 con=mity to moral feel+ ?an to m]e calculations2 & calculation is ( ! exp$i5t1 moral excell5ce1 h[ev]1 ( t :i* is honorable4 ,aga91 !y are fond ( fri5ds & companions1 by reason ( _! delight+ 9 social int]c\rse4 ,& all _! errors are on ! side ( excess2 = _! fri5d%ips are 9 excess1 _! hatr$s are 9 excess1 & !y d ev]y?+ else ) ! same degree ( e>ne/ness2 !y ?9k also t !y "k ev]y?+1 & firmly assev]ate t !y d2 = ?is is ! cause ( _! pu%+ ev]y?+ to an excess4 ,!y are likewise prone to pity2 & !y are also fond ( mir?1 on :i* acc\nt !y are also ( a faceti\s turn4 ,,ii4 ,! old4--,^? :o are advanc$ 9 life are ( dispositions 9 mo/ po9ts ! v opposite ( ^? ( ! "y4 ,s9ce by reason ( _! hav+ liv$ _m ye>s1 & hav+ be5 deceiv$ 9 ! great] numb] ( in/ances1 & hav+ come to ! conclusion1 too1 t ! majority ( human affairs are b wor?less1 !y d n positively assev]ate any?+1 & err 9 ev]y?+ m on ! side ( defect ?an !y ought4 ,& !y always 'suppose' b nev] '"k' c]ta9ly2 & que/ion+ ev]y?+1 !y always subjo9 a 'p]haps1' or a 'possibly4' ,moreov]1 !y are apt to be suspici\s f di/ru/1 & !y are di/ru/ful f _! exp]i5ce4 ,& !y are pusillanim\s f _! hav+ be5 humbl$ by ! c\rse ( life2 = !y raise _! desires to no?+ great or va/1 b to ?+s only :i* conduce to support ( life4 ,& !y are timid & appreh5sive ( ev]y?+2 = _! disposition is ! rev]se ( t ( ! "y2 = !y h be5 *ill$ by ye>s2 & yet !y are atta*$ to life1 & p>ticul>ly at its clos+ day4 ,!y are apt to despond4 ,& !y live m 9 memory ?an 9 hope2 = ! remnant ( life is brief1 & :at has pass$ is consid]able4 ,& _! desires h1 "s1 ab&on$ !m1 ! o!rs are fa9t4 ,!y are nei!r faceti\s nor fond ( mir?4 ,,iii4 ,mature age4--,^? :o are 9 _! prime w1 x is evid5t1 be 9 a mean 9 po9t ( disposition betwe5 ! "y & ! old1 subtract+ ! excesses ( ea*3 be+ nei!r ra% 9 too great a degree1 nor too mu* giv5 to fe>1 b keep+ !mselves "r 9 respect to bo?4 ,& !y are ( a temp]+ coolness jo9$ ) _s1 & are spirit$ n )\t temp]ate coolness4 ,& ?us1 9 a ^w1 :atev] advantages y\? & age h divid$ betwe5 !m1 ! middle age possesses bo?4 ,we mu/ admit t ,ari/otle1 :o has s admirably depict$ "y & old m51 is weak on ! subject ( manhood4 ,boileau1 translat+ ,horace1 makes ( x a f> m cle> & exact picture3 ,manhood1 m ripe1 puts on a wis] look1 succe$s ) ^? 9 p[]1 intrigues1 & sp>es itself1 ?9ks ( hold+ its own aga9/ ! bl[s ( fate1 & f> on 9 ! n[ looks =? to ! to be4 #age4 ,passions4--,"*1 consid]$ f a /rictly philosophical /&po9t1 is no?+ m ?an ! v>i\s comb9ations :i* ! passions1 :e!r natural or acquir$1 :i* exi/ 9 man1 =m 9 ea* individual1 s t !re is1 9 "s respect1 d\ble reason = treat+ ^! two subjects sep>ately4 ,b1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! div]s movem5ts ( ! s\l take1 by usage1 ! "n ( passions1 only :5 !y rea* a c]ta9 degree ( acut5ess1 &1 z ,bacon puts x1 ( disease4 ,9 ! second1 passions are ! elem5ts :i* 9 div]s quantities & proportions compose :at is t]m$ "*2 x is f ?is d\ble po9t ( view t we mu/ speak ( !m sep>ately4 ,if we consid] ! passions f a psy*ological#aec /&po9t1 we %all f9d t !y are no?+ m ?an ! natural incl9ations ( ! human he>t4 ,we h to consid] !m "h especially f a pa?ological po9t ( view 7if x may be p]mitt$ to say s71 t is1 z diseases ( ! human he>t4 ,! "* ( passions reg>d$ z diseases1 is ! foll[+3 #a4 ,!y are exclusive4 ,a man :o has become enslav$ by a passion1 w "k no?+ else1 w li/5 to no?+ else2 he w sacrifice to t passion n only 8 reason & 8 duty1 b 8 o!r incl9ations1 & ev5 8 o!r passions also4 ,! passion ( gambl+ or ( dr9k+ w /ifle all ! re/1 ambition1 love1 ev5 ! in/9ct ( self-pres]vation4 #b4 ,passion1 z a disease1 is 9 a viol5t condition2 x is impetu\s1 disord]$1 v l insanity4 #c4 ,al?\gh !re may be fits ( passion1 sudd5 & fleet+1 :i* rise & fall aga9 9 ! same in/ant1 we g5]ally give ! "n ( passions only to movem5ts :i* h become habitual4 ,passions !n are habits2 appli$ to ?+s base1 !y become vices4 #d4 ,!re is a diagnosis#aed ( passions z !re is ( diseases4 ,!y betray !mselves outw>dly by ext]nal signs :i* are _! symptoms 7acts1 ge/ures1 physiognomy71 & inw>dly1 by fir/ indications or :at 0 =m]ly call$ prodromes1 :i* are _! =]unn]s 7di/urbance1 agitation1 etc474 #e4 ,passion1 l disease1 has its hi/ory3 x has its regul> c\rse1 its crisis1 & t]m9ation4 ,! ,imitation ( ,jesus ,*ri/ gives 9 a few words ! hi/ory ( a passion3 ,9 ! beg9n+ a simple ?\ght pres5ts itself to ! m9d2 ?is is foll[$ by a vivid fancy2 !n comes delectation1 a bad impulse1 & f9ally ! cons5t4 ,?us does ! evil "o gradually ent] ! s\l4#aee #f4 ,x is r>e t a passion arises & develops )\t ob/acles & resi/ance4 ,h5ce t /ate we h call$ fluctuation 7,vol4 ,i41 p4 #afg71 & :i* has s (t5 be5 comp>$ to ! ebb & fl[ ( ! sea4 ,^! g5]al features ( ! passions be+ /at$1 let u make a brief sket* ( ! pr9cipal passions4 ,x may be said t our passions pass ?r\gh ?ree di/9ct /ates2 !y are at fir/ natural & unavoidable affections ( ! m9d3 incl9ations1 t5d5cies2 !y become next viol5t & unruly movem5ts3 ^! are ! passions prop]ly s-call$2 !y become habits & embodi$ 9 ! "*1 & take ! "n ( qualities & defects1 virtues & vices4 ,b x is to be not$ t :il/ we c always di/+ui% ^! ?ree /ates !oretically1 language is1 = ! mo/ "p1 inadequate to express !m2 = m5 h designat$ ^! moral /ates only accord+ to ! necessities ( practice1 & n accord+ to ! rules ( !ory4 ,! ?ree /ates :i* we h j po9t$ out1 c be v cle>ly di/+ui%$ 9 ! fir/ ( ! affections ( human nature1 namely1 ! in/9ct ( self-pres]vation4 ,?is in/9ct is at fir/ a natural1 legitimate1 necess>y affection ( ! human he>t2 b by ! =ce ( circum/ances1 ! influ5ce ( age1 disease1 temp]am5t1 x develops out ( proportion into a /ate ( passion1 & becomes :at we call fe>2 or else x turns into a habit & becomes ! vice we call c[>dice4 ,physical self-pres]vation is insep>able f two appetites call$ hung] & ?ir/4 ,^! two appetites1 too mu* indulg$ 91 become passions1 :i* !mselves may become vices4 ,b language fails "h to express _! v>i\s %ades3 !re is only "o ^w to express ! passion or vice relat$ to eat+ & dr9k+3 x is on ! "o h& gluttony1 & on ! o!r drunk5ness2#aef bo? ^! vices1 & 9 g5]al all undue surr5d] to s5sual pleasures1 is call$ intemp]ance4 ,! s\rce ( all our p]sonal incl9ations is ! love = ourselves or self-love1 a legitimate in/9ct :5 kept )9 b\nds2 b :5 c>ri$ to excess1 :5 exclusive & pr$om9ant1 x becomes ! vice we call selfi%ness4 ,self-e/eem1 develop$ into a passion1 becomes1 :5 x turns ^u great ?+s1 false pride2 :5 ^u small1 vanity4 ,! love ( lib]ty deg5]ates into a _s ( revolt2 ! legitimate love ( p[]1 into ambition2 ! in/9ct ( prop]ty becomes gre$1 cupidity1 passion = ga91 & t5ds to run into ! passion = gambl+ or ! desire to ga9 by means ( *ance4 ,! desire = ga9 eng5d]s ! fe> ( loss1 & ?is latt] passion develop+ into a vice & mania1 becomes av>ice4 ,human incl9ations are divid$ into b5evol5t & malevol5t incl9ations4 ,! fir/ may develop into a passion1 b n into a vice2 ! second alone become vices4 ,!re is n a s+le b5evol5t incl9ation :i*1 c>ri$ too f> & beyond reason1 may n become a m or less blamewor?y passion4 ,b1 9 ! fir/ place1 we h no t]ms 9 our language to express ! exagg]ations ( ^! k9ds ( passions1#aeg & 9 ! second1 ?\gh !y be exagg]ations1 we %all nev] call ! t5d]] affections ( ! human he>t1 h[ev] fooli% !y may be1 vices1 if !y are s9c]e4 ,yet1 may "s ( ^! affections become vices :5 !y unite ) p]sonal passion4 ,= example1 good nature or ! desire to please may lead to obsequi\s s]vility1 ! desire to praise1 to flatt]y1 & e/eem1 to hypocrisy4 ,b ^! vices p>take m ( ! nature ( self-love ?an ( b5evol5t incl9ations4 ,malevol5t passions4--,malevol5t incl9ations give rise to ! mo/ t]rible passions4 ,b are !re1 inde$1 9 man naturally malevol5t incl9ations8 ,reid1 ! philosoph]1 disputes x & ju/ly ?9ks1 z we d1 t malevol5t passions are b ! abuse ( c]ta9 p]sonal incl9ations int5d$ to s]ve z auxili>ies 9 ! developm5t ( our activity4 ,!re are two pr9cipal malevol5t passions1 emulation & ang]4 ,emulation is b a special desire = success & sup]iority4 ,?is desire1 induc$ by ! ?\ght t o!r m5 ar\nd u h atta9$ to su* or su* degree ( public e/eem or p[]1 is n 9 itself a malevol5t incl9ation4 ,we may wi% to equal & surpass o!rs )\t1 at ! same "t1 wi%+ !m any h>m4 ,we c exp]i5ce pleasure 9 excell+ !m1 )\t exactly rejoic+ 9 _! defeat2 we c be> be+ excell$ by !m )\t begrudg+ !m _! success4 ,emulation !n is a p]sonal b n a malevol5t s5tim5t2 x becomes malevol5t & vici\s :5 our feel+s t[>d o!rs become inv]t$3 :51 = example1 we regret1 n ! *eck we h be5 made to suff]1 b ! advantage our rivals h ga9$ ov] u1 & :5 we are unable to be> ! idea ( ! good =tune ( o!rs2 or aga9 :51 conv]sely1 we exp]i5ce m pleasure at _! defeat ?an joy at our own victory4 ,?is s5tim5t1 ?us p]v]t$1 becomes :at is call$ envy3 & envy is g5]ally ! pa9 we feel at ! good =tune ( o!rs2 x is !n a s5tim5t imply+ ! wi% to see o!rs unhappy2 & is !re=e an actual vice1 z l[ z x is odi\s4 ,envy :i* has "s analogy ) jeal\sy mu/ be di/+ui%$ f ! latt]4 ,jeal\sy is a k9d ( envy :i* be>s especially ^u affections x is n all[$ to %>e2 envy1 ^u mat]ial goods1 or goods 9 ! ab/ract 7=tune1 honors1 p[]74 ,! envi\s man wants goods he does n possess2 ! jeal\s man refuses to %>e ^? :i* he has4 ,jeal\sy is !n a sort ( selfi%ness1 n z base z envy1 s9ce high] goods are 9 "q1 b :i* = its consequ5ces is nev]!less "o ( ! mo/ t]rible ( passions4 ,ang] is a natural passion1 :i* seems to h be5 be/[$ on u to furni% u an arm aga9/ p]il2 x is an ef=t ! s\l makes to resi/ an evil x /&s 9 dang] (4 ,b ?is incl9ation is "o ( ^? :i* cause u ! quicke/ to lose our self-possession1 & ?r[s u into a sort ( mom5t>y insanity4 ,yet1 al?\gh x is a passion ( :i* ! consequ5ces may be fatal1 x is n necess>ily accompani$ by hatr$ 7z may be se5 by ! soldi] :o w fight furi\sly & :o1 imm$iately aft] ! battle or dur+ a truce1 w %ake h&s ) 8 enemy74 ,ang] !n is an ef=t ( nature 9 ! act ( self-def5se2 x is a fev]1 & z su* x is a fatal & culpable passion1 b x is n a vice4 ,ang] becomes hatr$ :51 ?9k+ ( ! h>m we h done or c\ld d to our enemy1 we rejoice ov] ! ?\ght ( ?is h>m2 x is call$ res5tm5t or rancor :5 x is ! spiteful recollection ( an injury receiv$2 f9ally1 x becomes ! passion ( v5geance 7! mo/ crim9al ( all7 :5 x is ! desire & hope to return evil = evil4 ,pleasure at ! mis=tune ( o!rs1 :5 x rea*es a c]ta9 ref9em5t1 ev5 ?\gh free f hatr$1 becomes cruelty4 ,hatr$ *anges into contempt :5 !re is jo9$ to x ! idea ( ! bas5ess & inf]iority ( ! p]son :o is hat$4 ,contempt is a legitimate s5tim5t :5 x has = its object base & culpable actions2 x is a bad & blamewor?y passion :5 x be>s ^u a pret5d$ inf]iority1 ei!r ( bir?1 or =tune1 or tal5t1 & !n belongs to false pride4 ,false pride1 h[ev]1 is n always accompani$ by contempt4 ,we see m5 full ( self-satisfaction1 :o yet "k h[ to be polite & c\rte\s t[>d ^? !y reg>d _! inf]iors2 o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 :o look d[n ^u _! inf]iors & treat !m l brutes4 ,contempt1 ) su*1 is add$ to false pride4 ,a g5tl] =m ( contempt is disda91 a sort ( delicate & cov]$ contempt4 ,contempt :5 x applies itself to set (f1 n ! vices1 b ! peculi>ities ( m51 try+ to make !m appe> ridicul\s1 becomes raill]y or irony4 ,su* are ! pr9cipal affections ( ! s\l view$ z diseases1 t is to say1 inasmu* z !y h ne$ ( rem$ies4 ,let u n[1 to cont9ue ,bacon's comp>ison1 pass to _! treatm5t4 #agf4 ,culture ( ! s\l4--,aft] hav+ /udi$ *>act]s & passions1 we h to ask ourselves by :at means passions may be gov]n$ & *>act]s modifi$ or correct$4 #agg4 ,bossuet's rule4--,z to ! fir/ po9t1 namely1 ! gov]nm5t ( ! passions1 ,bossuet gives u 9 8 ,connaissance de ,dieu et de soi-meme1#aeh excell5t practical advice3 x is obvi\sly bas$ on 8 /udy ( consci5ces4 ,he ju/ly obs]ves t we _c directly control our passions3 ,we _c1 he says1 />t or appease our ang] z we c move an aim or keep x /ill4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! p[] we ex]cise ov] our ext]nal memb]s gives u also a v great "o ov] our passions4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 b an indirect p[]1 b x is no less efficaci\s3 ,?us c ,i put away f me a disagreeable & irritat+ object1 & :5 my ang] is excit$1 ,i c refuse x ! arm x ne$s to satisfy itself4 ,to d ?is x is necess>y to w x2 b !re is no?+ s difficult z to w :5 ! s\l is possess$ by a passion4 ,! "q is !n to "k h[ "o may escape a rul+ passion4 ,to succe$ 9 x "o %\ld n attack x 9 front1 b z mu* z possible turn ! m9d ^u o!r objects3 x is ) passion z ) a riv] :i* is m easily turn$ (f f its c\rse ?an /opp$ %ort4 ,a passion is (t5 conqu]$ by means ( ano!r passion1 z 9 a ,/ate1 says ,bacon1 :]e a pr9ce re/ra9s "o faction by means ( ano!r4 ,bossuet says ev5 t x may be well1 9 ord] to avoid crim9al passions1 to ab&on "o's self to innoc5t ones4#aei ,"o %\ld also be c>eful 9 ! *oice ( ! p]sons he associates )3 = no?+ m ar\ses ! passions ?an ! talk & actions ( passionate m52 :il/ a quiet m9d1 provid$ its repose be n feel+less & insipid1 seems1 on ! contr>y1 to communicate to u its own peace4 ,we ne$ some?+ lively t may accord ) our own feel+s4 ,9 a ^w1 to conclude ) ,bossuet1 we %\ld try to calm excit$ m9ds by div]t+ !m f ! ma9 object ( _! excitem5t2 approa* !m obliquely r ?an directly 9 front2 t is to say1 t :5 a passion is already excit$1 !re is no "t !n to attack x by reason+1 = "o drives x all ! /rong] 94 ,:]e wise reflections are ( greate/ effect is 9 ! =e/all+ ( passions4 ,"o %\ld !re=e fill 8 m9d ) s5sible ?\ghts1 & accu/om x e>ly to prop] incl9ations1 s t !re be no room = ! objects ( passions4 #agh4 ,improvem5t ( "*4--,bossuet has j in=m$ u h[ we are to conduct ourselves 9 reg>d to ! passions1 z diseases ( ! s\l4 ,let u n[ see h[ "*1 namely1 temp]am5t1 may be modifi$4 ,! "* is a collection ( habits1 a great "p ( :i* belong1 unque/ionably1 to our natural incl9ations1 b :i*1 nev]!less1 are also l>gely =m$ "u ! influ5ce ( education1 circum/ances1 indulg5ce ( passions1 etc4 ,x is ?us "*1 ?is second nature1 z x has (t5 be5 call$1 gradually develops4 ,"* be+1 z we h se5 above1 a habit1 & virtue1 on ! o!r h&1 be+ also a habit1 ! problem :i* pres5ts itself to him :o wi%es to improve 8 "* & ex*ange 8 vices = virtues1 is to "k h[ "o habit may be sub/itut$ = ano!r1 & h[ ev5 a pa9ful habit may be sub/itut$ = an agreeable habit1 sometimes = a habit :i* has lo/ its *>m1 b n yet its empire ov] "o4 ,?is problem may be f\nd analyz$ & mo/ pa!tically describ$ 9 ! ,confessions ( ,/4 ,augu/9e3 ,i 01 he tells u1 l ^? :o wi% to get awake1 b :o1 ov]come by sleep1 fall back into slumb]4 ,!re is c]ta9ly no "o :o w\ld wi% to sleep always1 & :o w\ld n r1 if he is heal?y ( m9d1 pref] ! wak+ to ! sleep+ /ate2 & yet !re is no?+ m difficult ?an to %ake (f ! languor :i* weighs our limbs d[n2 & (t51 ?\gh ! h\r = wak+ has come1 we are aga9/ our w made captives by ! sweetness ( sleep4444 ,i 0 held back by ! frivol\s pleasures & fooli% vanities :i* ,i _h f\nd 9 ! company ( my =m] fri5ds3 !y hung on ! ve/ures ( my fle%1 :isp]+1 ',art ?\ go+ to ab&on u8'444 ,if1 on ! "o h&1 virtue attract$ & p]suad$ me1 pleasure on ! o!r captivat$ & enslav$ me4444 ,i _h no o!r answ] = ! =m]1 ?an3 ',pres5tly1 pres5tly1 wait a little4' ,b ?is 'pres5tly' _h no end & ?is 'wait a little' 0 indef9itely prolong$1 ,wret* t ,i am6 :o w deliv] me f ! body ( ?is dea?8#afj ,at s pa9ful a juncture1 ! ,*ri/ian religion (f]s its *ildr5 an all-p[]ful & efficaci\s rem$y3 ?is is :at x calls grace4 ,b ( ?is means moral philosophy _c dispose2 all x c d is to f9d 9 ! /udy ( human nature ! exclusively natural means ,god has end[$ x )1 to elevate man to virtue4 ,n[1 ^! means1 limit$ ?\gh !y be1 %\ld n be consid]$ ineffici5t1 s9ce = _m c5turies !y suffic$ ! greate/ m5 & sages ( antiquity4#afa #agi4 ,rules ( ,malebran*e & ,ari/otle4--,we may take = a />t+ po9t ?is maxim ( ,malebran*e1 :i* he borr[$ f ,ari/otle3 ,acts produce habits1 & habits produce acts4#afb ,a habit1 9 fact1 is induc$ by a c]ta9 numb] ( (t5 repeat$ actions2 & once g5]at$1 x produces 9 its turn acts1 s to say1 spontane\s & )\t any ef=t ( ! w4 ,!nce spr+ vices & virtues2 & ! problem is to "k h[ ! fir/ may be correct$1 & ! second reta9$3 = ! "q is n only to pass f evil to good1 b we %\ld also take c>e n to slide f good into evil4 ,if ! fir/ maxim ( ,malebran*e 7 absolute1 x w\ld foll[ t ! s\l c\ld n *ange its habits1 nor ! bad man improve1 nor ! good become corrupt2 x w\ld foll[ t hope w\ld be int]dict$ to ! "o1 & t ! o!r w\ld h no?+ m to fe>2 consequ5ces :i* exp]i5ce %[s to be entirely false4 ,"s fanatical sects may h believ$ t virtue or hol9ess once atta9$ c\ld nev] aga9 be lo/1#afc & ?is belief s]v$ z a %ield to ! mo/ %ameful disord]s4 ,facts1 on ! contr>y1 tea* u t !re is no virtue s infallible z to be secure aga9/ a fall1 & no vice ev] s deeply root$ t may n be less5$ or de/roy$4 ,9 fact1 & ?is is ,malebran*e's second maxim3 ,"o c always act aga9/ a rul+ habit4 ,if "o c act contr>y to a positive habit1 su* acts (t5 repeat$ may1 accord+ to ! fir/ maxim1 produce1 by ! ef=t ( ! w1 a new habit :i* w take ! place ( ! prec$+ "o4 ,"o c ?us ei!r corrupt or correct "o's self4 ,only1 z ! virtu\s habits are ! m pa9ful to acquire1 & ! vici\s habits ! m agreeable1 x w always be m easy to pass f good to evil ?an f evil to good4 ,h[ %all we proce$ to sub/itute a good habit = a bad "o8 ,ari/otle says t :5 we h a defect to get rid (1 we %\ld ?r[ ourselves into ! opposite extreme1 s t aft] hav+ remov$ ourselves ) all our might f ! dread$ fault we may 9 "s respects1 & ?r\gh natural ela/icity1 return to ! j m$ium indicat$ by reason1 j z a b5t w& /raight5s itself aga9 :5 let g4 ,?is maxim may d 9 c]ta9 cases & ) c]ta9 *>act]s1 b x w\ld h to be appli$ cauti\sly4 ,"o may1 "u ! influ5ce ( en?usiasm1 ?r[ himself into a viol5t extreme1 & rema9 !re = "s "t2 b at ! mom5t ( reaction x is n impossible t1 in/ead ( /opp+ at ! desir$ m$ium1 he may fall back into ! fir/ extreme aga94 #ahj4 ,rules ( ,bacon & ,leibnitz4--,bacon1#afd :o did n f9d ,ari/otle's maxim suffici5t1 tries to complete x by a few additional ones3 #a4 ,"o %\ld bew>e ( beg9n+ ) too difficult tasks1 & %\ld proportion !m to 8 /r5g?--9 a ^w1 proce$ by degrees4 ,= example1 he :o wi%es to correct himself ( 8 laz9ess1 %\ld n at once impose too great a "w ^u himself1 b he %\ld e day "w a little long] ?an ! day be=e1 until ! habit is =m$4 ,9 ord] to r5d] ^! ex]cises less pa9ful1 x is p]mitt$ to employ "s auxili>y means1 l "s "o le>n+ to swim w use bladd]s or will[ supports4 ,aft] a little :ile ! difficulties w be purposely increas$1 l danc]s :o1 to acquire agility1 practice at fir/ ) v heavy %oes4 ,!re is to be obs]v$1 adds ,bacon1 t !re are c]ta9 vices 7& drunk5ness is "o ( !m7 :]e x is dang]\s to proce$ by degrees only1 & :]e x is bett] to cut %ort at once & 9 an absolute mann]4 #b4 ,! second maxim1 :]e ! "q is ( acquir+ a new virtue1 is to *oose = x two diff]5t opportunities3 ! fir/ :5 "o feels be/ dispos$ t[>d ! k9d ( actions he may h 9 view2 ! second1 :5 z ill dispos$ z possible1 s z to take advantage ( ! fir/ opportunity to make consid]able headway1 & ( ! second1 to ex]cise ! en]gy ( ! w4 ,?is second rule is an excell5t "o1 & truly efficaci\s4 #c4 ,a ?ird rule is1 :5 "o has conqu]$1 or ?9ks he has conqu]$1 8 temp]am5t1 n to tru/ x too mu*4 ,x 7 well to rememb] "h ! old maxim3 ,drive away temp]am5t1 etc41 & rememb] ,a,esop's cat1 :i*1 metamorphos$ into a woman1 behav$ v well at table until x espi$ a m\se4 ,leibnitz also gives u "s good advice z to practical prud5ce1 to tea* u to triumph ov] ourselves1 & exp\nds 9 8 own way ! same ideas z ,bossuet & ,bacon3 ,:5 a man is 9 a good /ate ( m9d he %\ld lay d[n = himself laws & rules = ! future1 & /rictly adh]e to !m2 he %\ld1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! ?+1 ei!r sudd5ly or gradually turn 8 back ^u all occasions liable to degrade him4 ,a j\rney und]tak5 on purpose by a lov] w cure him ( 8 love2 a sudd5 retreat w relieve u ( bad company4 ,francis ,borgia1 g5]al ( ! ,jesuits1 :o 0 f9ally canoniz$1 be+ accu/om$ to dr9k freely :il/ yet a man ( ! _w1 :5 he began to )draw f x gradually r$uc$ 8 all[ance to ! smalle/ am\nt by dropp+ e day a piece ( wax into ! b[l he 0 9 ! habit ( empty+4 ,to dang]\s lik+s "o mu/ oppose m innoc5t lik+s1 su* z agriculture1 g>d5+1 etc42 "o mu/ %un idl5ess2 make collections ( natural hi/ory or art objects2 engage 9 sci5tific exp]im5ts & inve/igations2 "o mu/ make himself "s indisp5sable occupation1 or1 9 default ( su*1 engage 9 useful or agreeable conv]sation or read+4 ,9 a ^w1 "o %\ld take advantage ( all good impulses t[>d =m+ /rong resolutions1 z if !y 7 ! voice ( ,god call+ u4#afe #aha4 ,frankl9's ,almanac4--,to ^! maxims conc]n+ ! =mation & p]fect+ ( "*1 may fitt+ly be add$ ! moral me?od :i* ,b5jam9 ,frankl9 adopt$ = 8 own improvem5t 9 virtue4 ,he _h made a li/ ( ! qualities :i* he wi%$ to acquire & develop )9 himself1 & _h r$uc$ !m to ?irte5 pr9cipal ones4 ,?is classification1 :i* has no sci5tific value1 appe>$ to him entirely suffici5t = ! end he _h 9 view4 ,^! ?irte5 virtues are ! foll[+3 temp]ance1 sil5ce1 ord]1 resolution1 frugality1 indu/ry1 s9c]ity1 ju/ice1 mod]ation1 cleanl9ess1 tranquillity1 *a/ity1 humility4 ,?is catalogue1 once drawn up1 ,frankl91 reflect+ t x w\ld be difficult to fight at ! same "t ?irte5 defects & keep 8 m9d on ?irte5 virtues1 _h an idea simil> to t ( ,horatius 9 8 combat ) ! ,curiatii3 he resolv$ to fight 8 enemies "o by "o2 he appli$ to morality ! well-kn[n pr9ciple ( politicians3 ,divide if ?\ wilt rule4 ,i made a little book1 he says1 9 :i* ,i allott$ a page = ea* ( ! virtues4 ,i rul$ ea* page ) r$ ink1 s z to h sev5 columns1 "o = ea* day ( ! week1 m>k+ ea* column ) a lett] = ! day4 ,i cross$ ^! columns ) ?irte5 r$ l9es1 m>k+ ! beg9n+ ( ea* l9e ) ! fir/ lett] ( "o ( ! virtues2 on :i* l9e1 & 9 its prop] column1 ,i might m>k1 by a little black spot1 e fault ,i f\nd ^u exam9ation to h be5 committ$ respect+ t virtue ^u t day4 ,i det]m9$ to give a week's /rict att5tion to ea* ( ! virtues successively4 ,?us1 9 ! fir/ week1 my great gu>d 0 to avoid ev5 ! lea/ (f5se aga9/ temp]ance2 leav+ ! o!r virtues to _! ord9>y *ance1 only m>k+ e ev5+ ! faults ( ! day4 ,?us1 if 9 ! fir/ week ,i c\ld keep my fir/ l9e1 m>k$ ,t1 cle> ( spots1 ,i suppos$ ! habit ( t virtue s mu* /r5g!n$1 & its opposite weak5$1 t ,i might v5ture ext5d+ my att5tion to include ! next1 & = ! foll[+ week keep bo? l9es cle> ( spots4 ,proce$+ ?us to ! la/1 ,i c\ld get ?r\gh a c\rse complete 9 ?irte5 weeks1 & f\r c\rses 9 a ye>4 ,&1 l him1 :o1 hav+ a g>d5 to we$1 does n attempt to eradicate all ! bad h]bs at once1 :i* w\ld exce$ 8 rea* & 8 /r5g?1 b works on "o ( ! b$s at a "t1 &1 hav+ accompli%$ ! fir/1 proce$s to a second2 s ,i %\ld h1 ,i hop$1 ! enc\rag+ pleasure ( see+ on my pages ! progress made 9 virtue1 by cle>+ successively my l9es ( _! spots2 till1 9 ! end1 by a numb] ( c\rses1 ,i %\ld be happy 9 view+ a clean book1 aft] a ?irte5 weeks' daily exam9ation4 #ahb4 ,maxim ( ,epictetus4--,! wise ,epictetus gives u ! same advice z ,frankl93 ,if y w\ld n be ( an angry temp]1 he says1 !n d n fe$ ! habit4 ,be quiet at fir/1 !n c\nt ! days :]e y h n be5 angry4 ,y w say3 ',i us$ to be angry e day2 n[ e o!r day2 !n e ?ird or f\r? day1 & if y miss x s long z ?irty days1 (f] a sacrifice to ,god4#aff ,he said1 moreov]3 ,if y w practice self-control1 take1 :5 x is w>m & y are ?ir/y1 a m\?ful ( fre% wat]1 & spit x out aga91 & tell no "o4 #ahc4 ,individual "*--,cic]o's maxims4--,! philosoph]s :om we h j cit$ give u rules to combat & correct our temp]am5t :5 x is vici\s4 ,cic]o1 on ! contr>y1 gives u o!rs to ma9ta9 our individual "* & rema9 true to x2 & ^! rules are no less useful ?an ! o!rs4 ,he ju/ly obs]ves t e man has 8 own incl9ations :i* con/itute 8 individual & orig9al "*4 ,"s1 he says1 are m agile 9 ! foot-race2 o!rs /rong] at wre/l+2 ^! are m noble1 ^? m graceful2 ,scaurus & ,drusus 7 s+ul>ly grave2 ,laelius1 v m]ry2 ,socrates 0 playful & amus+ 9 conv]sation4 ,"s are simple-m9d$ & frank1 o!rs1 l ,hannibal & ,fabius1 m crafty4 ,9 %ort1 !re is an inf9ite v>iety ( mann]s & diff]5ces ( "* )\t _! be+ = t blamable4#afg ,n[1 ?is is a v s5sible pr9ciple ( ,cic]o1 t we ought n to g aga9/ ! incl9ations ( our nature :5 !y are n vici\s3 ,9 con/ra9+ our tal5ts ,we d no?+ gracefully1 said ! fabuli/4 ,let ea* ( u !n "k 8 own disposition1 & be to himself a sev]e judge conc]n+ 8 own defects & qualities4 ,let u d z ! play]s :o d n always *oose ! f9e/ p>ts1 b ^? be/ suit$ to _! tal5t4 ,a,esopus#afh did n (t5 play ! "p ( ,ajax4 ,cic]o 9 ?is precept1 t e "o %\ld rema9 true to 8 individual "*1 goes s f> z to ju/ify ,cato's suicide1 = ! reason t x accord$ ) 8 "*4 ,o!rs1 he says1 might be guilty 9 committ+ suicide2 b 9 ! case ( ,cato1 he 0 "r2 x 0 a duty2 ,cato ought to h di$4#afi ,?is is c>ry+ ! rights & duties ( ! individual "* some:at f>2 b x is c]ta9 t1 aside f ! great g5]al duties ( humanity1 :i* are ! same = all m51 ea* individual man has a role to play on e>?1 & ?is role is 9 "p det]m9$ by our natural dispositions2 n[1 we %\ld yield to ^! dispositions1 :5 !y are n vici\s1 & %\ld develop !m4 #ahd4 ,self-exam9ation4--,f9ally1 :at is especially important1 consid]$ f a practical /&po9t & 9 ! light ( moral discipl9e1 is1 t ea* "o %\ld r5d] himself an exact acc\nt ( 8 own disposition1 8 defects1 oddities1 vices1 s t he be able to correct !m4 ,su* 0 ! practical s5se ( t celebrat$ maxim =m]ly inscrib$ ov] ! temple at ,delphi3 ,"k ?yself4 ,?is is ,socrates' own int]pretation ( x 9 8 conv]sations ) 8 disciples3 ,tell me1 ,eu?ydemus1 h y ev] gone to ,delphi8--,yes1 twice4--,& did y obs]ve :at is writt5 some:]e on ! temple-wall3 ,"k ,?yself8--,i did4--,?9k y t to "k "o's self x is en\gh to "k "o's own "n8 ,is !re no?+ m ne$$8 ,& z ^? :o buy horses d n ?9k !y "k ! animal !y wi% to buy till !y h exam9$ x & discov]$ :e!r x is ob$i5t or re/ive1 vigor\s or weak1 swift or sl[1 etc41 mu/ we n likewise "k ourselves to judge :at we are really wor?8--,c]ta9ly4--,x is !n obvi\s t ?is k ( himself is to man a s\rce ( mu* good1 :il/ be+ 9 error ab\t himself exposes him to a ?\s& evils4 ,^? :o "k !mselves well1 "k :at is useful to !m1 disc]n :at !y c or _c d2 n[1 9 do+ :at !y are capable ( do+1 !y procure ! necess>ies ( life & are happy4 ,^? :o1 on ! contr>y1 d n "k !mselves1 fail 9 all _! ent]prises1 & fall into contempt & di%onor4#agj #ahe4 ,exam9ation ( ! consci5ce4--,to "k "o's self well1 x is necess>y to exam9e "o's self4 ,h5ce a practice (t5 recomm5d$ by morali/s1 & p>ticul>ly ,*ri/ian morali/s1 kn[n also by ! anci5ts1 namely1 ! exam9ation ( ! consci5ce4 ,!re is a f9e picture ( x 9 ,s5eca's writ+s3 ,we %\ld1 says ! philosoph]1 call1 e day1 our consci5ce to acc\nt4 ,?us did ,sextius2 :5 8 daily "w 0 done1 he que/ion$ 8 s\l3 ,( :at defect ha/ ?\ cur$ ?yself to-day8 ,:at passion ha/ ?\ combat$8 ,9 :at ha/ ?\ become bett]8 ,:at m beautiful ?an ?is habit ( go+ ?us ov] ! :ole day6444 ,i d ! same1 & be+ my own judge1 ,i call myself be=e my own tribunal4 ,:5 ! light has be5 c>ri$ away f my room1 ,i beg9 an inque/ ( ! :ole day2 ,i exam9e all my actions & words4 ,i conceal no?+1 all[ myself no?+4 ,& :y %\ld ,i hesitate to look at any ( my faults :5 ,i c say to myself3 ,take c>e n to d s aga93 = to-day ,i =give !e8#aga ,to designate all ! practices :i* exp]i5ce ( life has sugge/$ to ! morali/s1 to induce m5 to bett]1 correct1 p]fect !mselves 9 "r do+1 w\ld be an endless task4 ,no bett] me?od 9 ?is respect ?an to read ! ,*ri/ian morali/s3 ,bossuet1 ,f5elon1 ,nicole1 ,b\rdal\e4 ,! advice !y give conc]n+ ! prop] use ( "t1 opportunities1 temptations1 false %ame1 loose conv]sations1 p]sev]ance1 c be appli$ to morals z well z to religion4 ,read+1 m$itation1 prop] company1 good advice1 selection ( "s great model to foll[1 etc41 are ! pr9cipal means we %\ld employ to p]fect ourselves 9 ! "r3 ,if we extirpat$ & uproot$1 e ye>1 a s+le vice only1 we %\ld soon become p]fect m54#agb #ahf4 ,kant's ,cate*ism4--,an excell5t practice 9 moral education is :at ,kant calls a moral cate*ism1 9 :i* ! ma/]1 "u ! =m ( que/ions & answ]s1 sums up ! pr9ciples ( morality4 ,! pupil le>ns !reby to acc\nt = ideas ( :i* he is b vaguely consci\s1 & :i* he (t5 conf\nds ) pr9ciples ( ano!r ord]1 ) ! in/9ct ( happ9ess1 = example1 or ! consid]ation ( self-int]e/4 ,! foll[+ are "s extracts f ,kant's ,moral ,cate*ism4#agc ,tea*]4--,:at is ?y greate/ & ev5 ?y only wi% on e>?8 ,! pupil rema9s sil5t4#agd ,tea*]4--,is x n always to succe$ 9 ev]y?+ accord+ to ?y wi%es & w8 ,h[ d we call su* a /ate8 ,! pupil rema9s sil5t4 ,tea*]4--,we call x happ9ess 7namely1 con/ant prosp]ity1 a life all satisfaction1 & to be absolutely cont5t ) "o's condition74 ,n[1 if ?\ had/ 9 ?y h&s all possible e>?ly happ9ess1 w\ld/ ?\ keep x :olly to ?yself1 or %>e x ) ?y fell[-be+s8 ,pupil4--,i %\ld %>e x ) !m2 ,i %\ld make o!rs happy & cont5t$ also4 ,tea*]4--,?is already %[s t ?\ ha/ a good he>t4 ,let u see n[ if ?\ ha/ also a good judgm5t4 ,w\ld/ ?\ give to ! idl] s(t cu%ions2 to ! drunk>d w9e 9 abundance1 & all else t w produce drunk5ness2 to ! rogue agreeable mann]s & a f9e pres5ce1 t he might ! m easily deceive2 to ! viol5t man1 audacity & a /rong fi/8 ,pupil4--,c]ta9ly n4 ,tea*]4--,?\ see/ !n t if ?\ held/ all happ9ess 9 ?y h&s1 ?\ w\ld/ n1 )\t reflection1 di/ribute x to ea* z he desires2 b ?\ w\ld/ ask ?yself h[ f> he is wor?y ( x4 ,w\ld x n also occur to !e to ask ?yself :e!r ?\ art ?yself wor?y ( happ9ess8 ,pupil4--,und\bt$ly4 ,tea*]4--,well1 !n1 t :i* 9 !e incl9es to happ9ess1 is call$ incl9ation2 t :i* judges t ! fir/ condition to enjoy happ9ess is to be wor?y ( x1 is ! reason2 & ! faculty ?\ ha/ to ov]come ?y incl9ation by ?y reason1 is lib]ty4 ,= example1 if ?\ c\ld/ )\t injur+ any "o procure to ?yself or to "o ( ?y fri5ds a great advantage by means ( an adroit falsehood1 :at says ?y reason8 ,pupil4--,t ,i mu/ n lie1 :atev] great advantage may result f x to me or to my fri5d4 ,falsehood is degrad+1 & r5d]s man unwor?y ( be+ happy4 ,!re is 9 ?is case absolute necessity impos$ on me by a comm& or prohibition ( my reason1 & :i* %\ld sil5ce all my incl9ations4 ,tea*]4--,:at d we call ?is necessity ( act+ con=mably to ! law ( reason8 ,pupil4--,we call x duty4 ,tea*]4--,?us is ! obs]vance ( our duty ! g5]al condition on :i* we c alone be wor?y ( happ9ess4 ,to be wor?y ( happ9ess & to d "o's duty is "o & ! same ?+4 ,,app5dix#age ,,to ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,! ,,union ,,( ,,classes4 ,a subject :i* has attract$ mu* att5tion1 & :i* is (t5 ref]r$ to 9 conv]sation1 9 books1 9 political assemblies1 is ! v>i\s classes ( society2 !re are upp] & l[] classes1 & betwe5 ^! two1 a middle class4 ,we speak ( labor+ classes1 poor classes1 ri* classes4 ,^! are expressions :i* x 7 desirable %\ld disappe>4 ,!y relate to anci5t cu/oms1 anci5t facts1 & 9 ! pres5t /ate ( society correspond no long] to situations n[ all cle>ly def9$4 ,!y are ve/iges :i* la/ long aft] ! facts to :i* !y correspond$ h disappe>$1 & :i* reta9$ are (t5 foll[$ by grave consequ5ces4 ,!y give rise to misund]/&+1 false ideas1 s5tim5ts m or less blamewor?y4 ,i %\ld l to %[ t 9 ! pres5t /ate ( society1 !re are no long] any classes1 t !re are only m51 individuals4 ,! ^w classes1 9 a /rict s5se1 c be appli$ only to a /ate ( society :]e social & natural advantages are conf]r$ by ! law to c]ta9 m5 at ! exp5se ( o!rs2 :]e "s c procure ^! advantages :il/ o!rs nev] c2 :]e ! public burd5 weighs on a c]ta9 class1 on a c]ta9 numb] ( m51 :il/ ! o!rs are entirely free f x1 & ?is1 ,i repeat1 by ! sanction ( law1 & by social organization4 ,?is /ate ( ?+s has exi/$1 ) m or less diff]5ces & notably great *anges1 9 all pa/ c5turies4 ,its l[e/ degree is1 = example1 t :]e x is impossible = c]ta9 m5 to procure to !mselves ! goods desir$ by all1 :]e !y c nev] own any k9d ( prop]ty1 h[ev] small1 :]e !y are !mselves consid]$ prop]ty2 :]e1 in/ead ( be+ all[$ to sell & buy1 !y are !mselves sold & b\ght1 !mselves r$uc$ to an object ( comm]ce4 ,?is /ate is t call$ slav]y4 ,slav]y1 9 its /rict s5se1 is ! /ate :]e man is ! prop]ty ( o!r m51 is a ?+2 :]e he is b\ght & sold1 & :]e 8 "w does n belong to him1 b to 8 ma/]4 ,?is /ate ( ?+s exi/$ ?r\gh all antiquity4 ,society1 ) ! anci5ts1 0 divid$ into two great classes 7! t]m is "h p]fectly 9 its place71 classes v unequal 9 numb]s1 :]e ! m num]\s 7 ! prop]ty ( ! lea/ num]\s4 ,! citiz5s1 z !y 7 call$1 or freem51 :o con/itut$ a "p ( ! ,/ate1 ! ,republic1 _h no ne$ ( work+ to make a liv+1 because !y own$ liv+ in/rum5ts ( "w--m54 ,?is /ate ( ?+s1 y well "k1 did n only exi/ 9 antiquity2 x 0 p]petuat$ till our days1 & x is n v long s9ce x /ill exi/$ 9 "s ( ! greate/ societies ( ! _w4 ,we may consid] x at pres5t z :olly done away )4 ,a not* high]1 we f9d ! /ate call$ s]fdom1 :]e man is n :olly int]dict$ to own prop]ty1 & :]e he is all[$ a family1 :i* fact con/itutes ! sup]iority ( s]fdom ov] slav]y4 ,x is obvi\s t 9 a /ate ( slav]y1 !re c be no family3 a man1 ! prop]ty ( ano!r1 liable to be b\ght & sold1 c h no family4 ,s]fdom1 :i* 9 ! ,middle ,ages exi/$ 9 all ,european societies1 & b rec5tly 0 aboli%$ 9 ,russia1 all[$ ! individual a family1 & 9 a c]ta9 measure ev5 ! "r ( prop]ty2 b he 0 a "p ( ! l& on :i* he 0 born1 &1 l t l&1 belong$ to a ma/]1 a "l4 ,! s]f !n 01 z x is commonly call$1 atta*$ to ! glebe1 to ! l&1 unable to leave x1 unable to buy or sell except "u extremely re/rict$ conditions1 & ?us a "p ( ! soil on :i* he 0 born1 he belong$ ) t soil to 8 "l4 ,?is /ate ( ?+s 0 gradually bett]$4 ,! s]fs1 little by little1 acquir$ by _! "w a small capital2 !y succe$$ 9 buy+ _! lib]ty f _! lords4 ,x is ?is :i* gave rise to t anci5t society1 call$ anci5 regime1 :i* prec$$ ! ,fr5* ,revolution4 ,b all m5 7 n s]fs2 ?+s _h n rea*$ t po9t2 s]fdom _h already be5 aboli%$ by means ( c]ta9 contracts1 c]ta9 sums ( money :i* ! work+m5 paid z a sign ( _! =m] ?raldom4 ,yet 0 !re /ill 9 =ce mu* t 0 iniquit\s1 =m+ :at is call$ an ari/ocratic society1 :]e1 = example1 "s m5 _h ! exclusive "r ( hold+ & transmitt+ to _! *ildr5 t]ritorial prop]ty1 :i* !y 7 n all[$ to put 9 trade1 ! exclusive "r ( hold+ public functions1 ( hav+ grades 9 ! army1 ! "r ( hunt+ & fi%+1 etc4 ,& conv]sely1 on ! o!r h&1 :il/ ! m9ority enjoy$ s exclusively all ^! privileges1 ! co/s ( society re/$ on ! great] numb]1 & ^! co/s ! s]fs 7 oblig$ to pay4 ,h5ce a society 9 :i* !re 7 classes1 s9ce ! law conf]r$ social advantages on "s 9 pref]5ce to o!rs1 & heavy burd5s re/+ on "s )\t re/+ on o!rs4 ,z x is n my purpose to write "h ! hi/ory ( mod]n society1 ,i ne$ n ent] into all ! details ( ^! facts1 :i* are1 besides1 q well kn[n4 ,y all "k t ^! great social inju/ices & iniquit\s practices disappe>$ at ! "t ( ! ,revolution1 & t ! pr9cipal object ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution ( #aghi 0 precisely to suppress all ^! privileges conc$$ to "s1 & ^! burd5s unequally impos$ on o!rs4 ,f t mom5t1 !re 0 equality 9 law1 t is to say1 t all m5 belong+ to our pres5t society are all[$ to accumulate prop]ty1 ex]cise public functions1 rise to high] grades--9 a ^w1 are consid]$ fit to obta9 all ! advantages :i* society has to (f]1 & :i* nature all[s !m to desire & acquire4 ,s9ce #aghi1 society1 z a matt] ( c\rse1 has cont9u$ to move 9 ! same grooves1 &1 ?anks to "w & competition1 all t :i* /ill exi/$ by way ( social inequalities has gradually disappe>$2 if1 by *ance1 !re /ill rema9 9 our laws su* ve/iges ( =m] inequality1 !y w 9 "t1 & ) ! help ( all enlight5$ m51 disappe>2 = x is n[ a tru? fully recogniz$ t ! good ( humanity dem&s t at lea/ all legal inequalities %\ld be done away )1 & t all m51 )\t di/9ction1 %\ld be all[$ to acquire any advantages :i* _! special faculties1 & ! conditions :]e9 !y are plac$1 enable !m to acquire4 ,i say1 !n1 t ?is be+ ! case1 !re is no reason :y1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( society1 m5 %\ld any long] be designat$ by classes4 ,!y are m51 & m5 alone1 & z su* !y %\ld be all[$ to enjoy common advantages1 to live by _! "w--namely1 to con/itute !mselves into families1 to cultivate _! intellig5ce1 to wor%ip ,god accord+ to _! consci5ce--9 a ^w1 to enjoy all ! rights we call ! rights ( a man & citiz54 ,b :5 9 a society all legal inequalities h be5 suppress$1 does x necess>ily foll[ t an absolute equality w be ! f9al result8 ,no4 ,society c only d away ) inequalities ( its own mak+2 inequalities :i*1 f causes we h n "t "h to set =?1 7 add$ to ! already exi/+ natural inequalities4 ,= !re are natural inequalities2 inequalities :i* may be call$ individual inequalities1 !re be+ no two p]sons 9 ! _w exactly ! same4 ,f ?is fact alone--m5 be+ 9 a ?\s& ways diff]5t f ea* o!r--x necess>ily foll[s t ea* man's condition is diff]5t f t ( 8 fell[-m54 ,h5ce an inf9ite multitude ( inequalities :i* h always exi/$ & always w exi/1 because !y result f ! nature ( ?+s2 & su* inequalities mu/ be cle>ly di/+ui%$ f ^? dep5d5t on ! law4 ,:at n[ are ! pr9cipal causes ( ^! inequalities1 :i* ,i call individual inequalities8 ,!y are ( two k9ds3 ! inh]5t faculties ( ! individual1 & ! circum/ances :]e9 he is plac$4 ,! faculties ( ! individual are ! "w ( nature3 !y spr+ f 8 moral & physical organization2 &1 z ,i h said above1 !re be+ no two m5 exactly alike1 ei!r physically or morally1 x naturally foll[s t !re are diff]5ces1 & ^! diff]5ces br+ ) !m inequalities4 ,let u1 = in/ance1 take ! mo/ important ( all ^! diff]5ces1 namely1 physical /r5g?1 heal?4 ,man is a liv+ be+1 an organiz$ be+1 & 8 organization is subject to ! mo/ delicate1 mo/ num]\s1 mo/ complicat$ conditions4 ,h5ce _m diff]5ces4 ,"s are born /rong1 robu/1 able to brave all k9ds ( temp]atures1 all sorts ( trials--trials ( "w1 ( outside ev5ts1 sometimes ! trials ( _! own excesses ev54 ,o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 are born ) a feeble con/itution2 !y are weak1 delicate1 !y _c be> trials ! same z ! o!rs4 ,?is is a fir/ diff]5ce1 & ?is diff]5ce1 y well "k1 may be subdivid$ into a multitude ( o!rs2 = !re are no two individuals equally heal?y1 equally /rong4 ,:at w be ! natural result8 ,?is1 = example3 t :]e /r5g? is requir$ 7& e "o ne$s m or less physical /r5g? to accompli% c]ta9 heavy works71 ! /ronge/ w h ! advantage ov] ! o!rs2 &1 aft] a c]ta9 "t1 ( two m5 :o />t$ at ! same "t1 "u ! same conditions1 ) equal moral advantages1 "o1 ow+ to 8 physical /r5g?1 %all h accompli%$ a great deal1 & ! o!r less2 "o %all h e>n$ mu*1 ! o!r little3 _! c>e] is unequal4 ,b x is n always ! great] physical /r5g? & heal? :i* det]m9e 9 man 8 capacity = "w2 & x is a notable fact1 & a matt] ^u :i* x is well to insi/1 namely1 t all diff]5ces are comp5sat$ =1 balance !mselves1 s to say2 t su* a "o1 = example1 :o1 9 "s respect & f a c]ta9 po9t ( view1 may be inf]ior to ano!r1 may f ano!r /&po9t be sup]ior to him2 :i*1 aga91 is z mu* z to say t !re are no classes 9 society2 = if ! "o :o 9 "o respect is inf]ior to 8 fell[-man1 is 9 ano!r sup]ior to him1 !y are equals4 ,9 ! class call$ ! labor+ class1 = example1 we see e day t x is n always ! /ronge/ & ! heal?ie/ t produce ! l>ge/ am\nt ( "w2 & love ( "w is a notable factor 9 ?is scale ( physical /r5g?1 mak+ ! balance pretty ev54 ,= "s delicate m5 are indu/ri\s1 :il/ o!rs :o are /rong] are n2 "s h a natural lik+ = _! "w1 :il/ o!rs aga9 h n4 ,h5ce a diff]5ce 9 ! "* ( _! "w1 &1 consequ5tly1 9 ! remun]ation ( x4 ,a ?ird diff]5ce is t ( ! intellig5ce4 ,all m5 h receiv$ f nature a special gift :i* di/+ui%es !m f ! animals1 & :i* we call intellig5ce2 b !y h n receiv$ x all to ! same degree4 ,n all m5 h ! same intellectual faculties1 & e "o kn[s h[ great an elem5t ( success intellig5ce is 9 all functions1 9 all dep>tm5ts ( human activity1 ev5 9 ^? requir+ above all physical /r5g? & ! use ( ! h&s4 ,x is well kn[n t ev5 ! latt] f9d 9 intellig5ce _! be/ auxili>y2 t x procures !m an invaluable advantage1 ev5 ov] ^? ^: physical /r5g?1 facility1 ardor1 t5acity 9 "w1 w\ld seem to =e/all all rivalry4 ,!re is f9ally a f\r? elem5t :i* is also inh]5t 9 ! individual man1 & :i* di/+ui%es "o man f ! o!r1 & ?is is morality4 ,we all "k t morality1 indep5d5tly ( its own m]it1 its incomp>able1 intr9sic m]it1 a m]it :i* _c be e/imat$ by its fruits1 is ( itself alone "o ( ! greate/ factors 9 br++ ab\t important results 9 practical life4 ,we all "k t ev5 sett+ aside ! intr9sic wor? ( morality--hone/y1 virtue--! "w result+ f our physical ef=ts is greatly enhanc$ by ?is preci\s elem5t4 ,we all "k t economy1 sobriety1 a _s ( peace & concord1 devotion to ! family--9 %ort1 all moral elem5ts--give to him :o ex]cises !m a va/ sup]iority ov] 8 fell[s :o d n1 despite 8 intellectual & physical disadvantages4 ,:5 ,i say t morality is an elem5t ( inequality1 ,i wi% to be und]/ood rightly4 ,!re are1 x is true1 moral inequalities among m52 & f ^! moral inequalities spr+ o!rs2 b morality is n 9 itself a pr9ciple ( inequality1 = :at precisely con/itutes morality1 is t all m5 c equally atta9 to x2 t x :olly dep5ds on ! individual man to atta9 to x or n4 ,s t if1 on ?is po9t1 a man f9ds himself inf]ior to ano!r1 he c blame no "o = x b himself4 ,"h1 !n1 is a po9t :]e ! law is ( no avail2 :]e x is evid5t t man is ! ma/] ( 8 actions1 & ga9s = himself :at morality he wi%es2 if1 !n1 !re results f ?is a c]ta9 inequality among m51 ?is inequality is to be attribut$ to ! free-w ( ! individual man1 :o did n pr(it by ! admirable gift ,provid5ce has end[$ him )--namely1 moral lib]ty--& by means ( :i* he c *oose betwe5 ! "r & ! wrong4 ,y see1 !n1 t !re are _m causes diff]5tiat+ m5 f ea* o!r1 & 9 su* a mann] t x is impossible to def9e !m /rictly4 ,we _c say3 !re are on ! "o h& ! /rong1 & on ! o!r ! weak2 on ! "o ! intellig5t1 on ! o!r ! feeble-m9d$1 because all ^! elem5ts s comb9e z to comp5sate = "o ano!r4 ,once m1 he :o is lea/ favor$ 9 "o direction1 may be bett] favor$ 9 ano!r2 he :o has an inf]ior %>e ( intellig5ce & physical /r5g?1 may be ! fir/ 9 w-p[]4 ,we c ?us always fill out natural inequalities1 & correct & ov]come !m by an ef=t ( ! w4 ,/ill1 h[ev] t may be1 & despite all ef=t ( individual w-p[] & moral en]gy1 !re unque/ionably result f ^! individual diff]5ces a multitude ( diff]5t conditions among m54 ,besides1 & indep5d5tly ( ^! purely inw>d causes due to bo? ! physical & moral con/itution ( ! individual man1 !re are yet outw>d causes ( inequality4 ,^! are ! circum/ances1 ! conditions :]e9 we are born & live4 ,we are all m or less dep5d5t on ! physical & social conditions :i* surr\nd u4 ,x is q c]ta9 t bir?1 = example1 is a circum/ance :olly indep5d5t ( ! w ( man4 ,"s are born 9 ! mo/ favorable1 "s 9 ! lea/ favorable social conditions--"s ri*1 "s poor2 facts :i* dep5d nei!r on _! con/itution nor on _! w4 ,!re are1 moreov]1 /ill o!r outw>d circum/ances4 ,"o may be born 9 a ri*1 a civiliz$1 an enlight5$1 a progressive c\ntry1 or 9 a poor1 b>b>\s1 b5ight$ c\ntry4 ,"o may live 9 a place :]e !re is e means ( education1 ( mak+ a liv+1 ( improv+ "o's self1 :]e !re may be a ?\s& favorable op5+s = a man1 & aga91 on ! contr>y1 9 a place f> away f all civilization1 )\t opportunities = "w1 )\t enlight5m5t1 )\t means ( communication ) o!r m54 ,all su* circum/ances are indep5d5t ( ! w ( ! individual man1 & c only be correct$ 9 "t & ?r\gh ! progress ( civilization1 :i* gradually equalizes all c\ntries4 ,!re are yet1 besides all ?is1 :at is g5]ally call$ ! happy & unhappy *ances ( life4 ,ev]ybody kn[s t human ev5ts d n always run z "o w\ld wi% !m1 t ?+s turn out m or less =tunately1 z circum/ances1 & n m51 ord] !m4 ,"o may1 = in/ance1 get sick1 :5 he has mo/ ne$ ( heal?2 a wife loses h] husb&1 ! support ( h] family1 :5 %e has mo/ ne$ ( him2 "o may engage 9 an ent]prise app>5tly f\nd$ on ! be/ conditions ( success3 ?is ent]prise fails on acc\nt ( unexpect$ ev5ts1 & )\t its be+ any "o's fault4 ,9 comm]ce1 = in/ance1 we see e day ! mo/ un=tunate consequ5ces ( outw>d circum/ances1 aga9/ :i* "o is utt]ly helpless1 because1 9 comm]ce especially1 !re is a l>ge %>e to be left to *ance1 to ! unkn[n1 :i* no "o c calculate be=eh&4 ,n[1 all su* unexpect$ ev5ts1 z !y are realiz$1 ov]?r[ all our plans1 & are cause t "s atta9 to weal?1 & o!rs fall into pov]ty4 ,f>m]s p>ticul>ly "k b too well h[ dep5d5t !y are on outw>d circum/ances4 ,cold1 heat1 ra91 are = !m elem5ts ( =tune or mis]y1 & !y are elem5ts ov] :i* !y h no control :atsoev]4 ,n[ ^! elem5ts1 work+ bl9dly1 z x w\ld seem1 are ! *ief cause ( ! great div]sity ( human conditions4 ,"s1 x is said1 are lucky2 o!rs are n2 "s meet ) favorable circum/ances1 o!rs ) contr>y & fatal circum/ances4 ,ev]y?+ seems to co-op]ate t[>d cru%+ "s1 :il/ ev]y?+ aga9 favors ! success ( o!rs4 ,^! causes are innum]able1 & c\ld be multipli$ ad inf9itum2 !y expla9 ! inf9ite v>iety ( human conditions1 h[ !re are none exactly simil>1 & h[ !re are consequ5tly no two m5 exactly alike4 ,!y are equals z m51 9 ! s5se t !y h ! same rights to ju/ice1 to tru?2 ! same rights ( consci5ce2 b !y are n equals z to _! circum/ances1 :i* circum/ances1 z we h se51 v>y 9 e respect4 ,b1 x may be ask$1 :y all ^! inequalities8 ,:y are "s happy & o!rs unhappy8 ,:y "s ri*1 =tunate1 p[]ful1 intellig5t1 virtu\s ev58 7= x w\ld almo/ seem t up to a c]ta9 po9t1 virtue also dep5ds on social position1 s9ce ^? :o are born 9 a m elevat$ condition h great] facilities to ex]cise virtue72 :y are o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 un=tunate1 oblig$ to "w s h>d to arrive at su* poor results2 to be sc>cely able to make a liv+ = !mselves or _! family8 ,c]ta9ly ^! are inde$ mo/ grave & s]i\s que/ions4 ,b1 :at ,i cont5d = is1 t x is n to society we %\ld put ^! que/ions1 b to ,provid5ce1 :o has made life :at x is4 ,society c d b "o ?+1 namely1 n to add to natural inequalities1 social ones4 ,x c also1 to a c]ta9 degree1 less5 ! natural inequalities2 b x is n :olly responsible = man's moral & physical con/itution2 x is n :olly responsible = ! c\rse ( ev5ts 9 ! _w2 s t if we w\ld "k :y ?+s are ?us fa%ion$1 we mu/ rise high]2 we mu/ n make our fell[-m5 or society 9 g5]al answ]able = !m4 ,i only add t1 z legal inequalities disappe>1 s w ! natural inequalities also vani%1 & ?is is ! ess5tial po9t4 ,natural inequalities _c be :olly correct$1 = ! reasons above /at$2 b z society1 9 do+ away ) legal inequalities1 /rives to less5 ! %>e ( responsibility x has h]et(ore _h 9 ^! inequalities1 ! natural inequalities mu/ necess>ily gr[ less1 & = ! simple reason t av5ues be+ op5$ to man to enjoy ! fruit ( 8 labor1 & acquire ! rights society holds n[ out to him1 he w be able to fill out ^! natural inequalities4 ,! inequality ( intellig5ce 0 l>gely due to want ( culture4 ,z soon z m5 %all be educat$1 enlight5$1 %all !mselves endeavor to le>n1 ! diff]5ces 9 human intellig5ce w gradually disappe>2 = x has be5 obs]v$ t z civilization progresses1 ! numb] ( great m5 dim9i%es1 & :at 0 =m]ly call$ g5ius1 is lo/ 9 ! l>g] developm5t ( society4 ,?is may be only an illusion1 = g5ius nev] *anges2 only z ! exi/+ diff]5ces among m5 become less5$1 ! inequalities :i* sep>at$ ! great m5 f ! re/ are less obvi\s4 ,?us1 ! m y %all put into ! h&s ( m51 & if possible ( all m51 means = educat+ !mselves1 ! m y w f9d ^! diff]5ces vani%2 ! m w !y gr[ l ea* o!r1 ! m w human intellig5ce become equaliz$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 z social & legal inequalities disappe>1 public prosp]ity1 public weal?1 public com=ts1 w increase at ! same rate4 ,z ! physical /r5g? ( m5 develops1 s w ! means ( combat+ infirmities1 diseases1 all t weak5$1 en]vat$1 deprav$ ! populations1 develop also4 ,z ! moral diff]5ces dim9i% 7n inde$ 9 ! s5se t e "o w rea* ! same degree ( virtue--t is impossible71 ! rud5ess1 ! brutality1 c]ta9 odi\s vices due to ignorance1 to b>b>\s mann]s1 to ! insuffici5t means ( communication ) ea* o!r1 w gradually disappe>2 & ?us1 9 respect to civilization also1 w m5 gr[ m l ea* o!r4 ,y see1 !n1 t by culture1 by ! progress ( civilization1 all ^! inequalities due to outw>d circum/ances1 may be combat$4 ,society at ! pres5t "t1 be+ m +5i\s1 m enlight5$1 m clev] ?an 9 pa/ days1 has at its comm& a multitude ( means :]e)1 if n to de/roy1 at lea/ to r$uce ! ill effects ( outw>d *ances4 ,t1 = example1 :i* we call life-insurance1 is v effective inde$ 9 combat+ mis=tune4 ,by means ( a small sacrifice1 e man may 9 "s respect protect himself aga9/ *ances :i* =m]ly r$uc$ a l>ge "p ( ! population to mis]y4 ,x is ! same ) o!r simil> societies ( mutual assi/ance & b5efit2 !y w increase 9 proportion to g5]al progress1 & w l>gely c\nt]act ! unhappy results ( su* inequalities z may be combat$ by human indu/ry4 ,i g /ill fur!r2 ,i ma9ta9 t ! inequalities above not$ n only %\ld n be imput$ to society1 b n ev5 to ,provid5ce4 ,!y are legitimate & useful2 !y are ! necess>y /imulant to "w4 ,x is because ( t v great v>iety ( conditions t m5 make ! prop] ef=ts to bett] !m1 & t by ^! ef=ts1 by ?is common labor1 society progresses4 ,:y does e "o "w8 ,is x n t ea* sees above him a position he covets1 & :i* he seeks to secure8 ,x is n ! fir/ ( positions1 nor ! highe/1 = man does n ?9k ( ^? too f> above him1 nor %\ld he2 b ! next be/1 su* z o!rs l him occupy1 he c atta94 ,if he e>ns a little money only1 he tries to e>n m2 if he is only a workman1 he may become a =eman2 if only a =eman1 a ma/]2 if only a ma/]1 a capitali/4 ,he :o is b a ?ird cl]k w want to be second cl]k2 he :o is second w want to be fir/2 & ?us ?r\gh ! :ole s]ies ( degrees4 ,n[1 x is j ! possibility ( secur+ a bett] situation ?an ! "o we are 9 t /imulates u to "w & make ! necess>y ef=ts4 ,suppose 7a ?+1 ( c\rse1 impossible7 t all m5 c\ld be assur$ ( a suffici5t quantity ( daily bread equally di/ribut$ among !m1 human activity w\ld at once come to a /op1 human "w w\ld cease2 society w\ld consequ5tly become impov]i%$1 &1 becom+ impov]i%$1 ev5 ! small portion ea* "o is satisfi$ ) c\ld no long] be possible1 & !y w\ld h to fall back ^u "w aga94 ,"w requires a /imulant1 & x is ! inequality ( human conditions :i* furni%es ?is /imulant4 ,societies are l individuals4 ,e society has always be=e its eyes a condition bett] ?an ! "o x is 91 a /ate ( great] mat]ial prosp]ity1 ( great] intellectual developm5t2 & x is because we long to rea* t sup]ior /ate t society /rives aft] improvem5t4 ,!re are1 inde$1 societies t are indiff]5t to ?is2 t d n exp]i5ce su* a want2 b su* peoples rema9 /agnant 9 _! b>b>\s ignorance2 !y nev] advance4 ,x is ! civiliz$ nations :o are n satisfi$ ) _! condition1 & :]e e "o endeavors to bett] 8 own4 ,we %\ld1 !re=e1 look ^u ! inequalities :i* favor individual developm5t1 :i* assi/ ! progress ( ! race1 :i* excite e man to make an ef=t to bett] 8 condition1 z truly desirable4 ,i h demon/rat$ h[ ! great legal inequalities :i*1 be=e ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 au?oriz$ ! division ( society into classes1 h n[ disappe>$1 & t :at rema9s1 & mu/ ( necessity rema91 are ! natural inequalities re/+1 on ! "o h&1 on individual faculties1 & on ! o!r1 on ! div]sity & ! inequality ( ! conditions :]e9 we are plac$4 ,let u n[ see :e!r 9 ^! conditions !re is some?+ requir+ society to be divid$ into p>ts3--"s p above1 "s bel[1 "s 9 ! middle1 & :e!r ea* ( ^! p>ts %\ld be call$ a class4 ,i look 9 va9 = any?+ :]eon su* di/9ctions c\ld be bas$4 ,let u take ! mo/ natural fact :i* c\ld s]ve z a basis = su* di/9ctions--namely1 =tune1 weal?4 ,x is said3 !re are ! ri* & ! poor4 ,b :at m vague ?an su* t]ms8 ,:]e does pov]ty /op8 ,und\bt$ly1 !re are wret*$ p 9 all societies4 ,!re is no society :olly free ( poor un=tunates1 s un=tunate z to require ! assi/ance ( o!rs4 ,x is :at we call begg>y1 & x exi/s 9 all societies4 ,b ?is is n an elem5t :i* may be said to con/itute a class4 ,x is n any m correct to say ! class ( begg>s ?an ! class ( invalids4 ,!re are invalids 9 all societies1 & we are all subject to becom+ invalids1 b we _c say t !re is a class ( invalids4 ,^? :o are ill are to be piti$1 b !y d n1 ,i repeat1 con/itute a class1 :i* w\ld all[ u to divide society into two p>ts3 a class ( p t are well & p t are sick4 ,! same ) begg>y2 x is an anomaly1 an un=tunate exception to ! rule1 & v sad = ^? :o are its victims1 b x does n con/itute a class4 ,yet x is n ?is we g5]ally und]/& by ! poor & ! ri* classes4 ,we und]/& by ri* ^? :o h a c]ta9 appe>ance ( well-be+2 & by poor ^? :o "w m or less ) _! h&s4 ,n[1 !re is no?+ m false ?an su* a di/9ction1 =1 among ^? call$ ri*1 !re are _m t are poor1 & weal? & pov]ty are n g5]ally absolutely diff]5t4 ,x dep5ds on ! relations betwe5 ! wants & ! means ( satisfy+ !m4 ,h[ _m among physicians1 lawy]s1 arti/s1 = example--among m5 :o belong to :at we call ! middle class--are1 ,i ask1 n only poor1 b wret*$8 ,h[ are we to "k !m8 ,:at is x m>ks 9 society ! ri* & ! poor8 ,"h we h1 = in/ance1 c\ntry p1 good folks1 :o h nev] op5$ a book1 :o d n "k ,a f ,b1 & :o are ri*2 & aga9 o!rs ( ! middle class :o are poor4 ,! conditions 9 society s int]tw9e t x is impossible to cut x 9 two & say3 ^! are ! ri* classes1 ^! ! poor4 ,!re is an inf9ite v>iety ( degrees1 ea* hav+ "s sort ( prop]ty1 ! "o m1 ! o!r less4 ,9 su* a numb] ( degrees x is impossible to di/+ui% precisely ! beg9n+ or ! end4 ,we admit ^! individual inequalities1 & z _m diff]5t conditions z !re are individuals2 b !re are no classes1 & no "o c\ld tell _! beg9n+s & ends4 ,h[ c\ld y det]m9e ! am\nt ( prop]ty requisite to belong to ei!r ( ^! categories--! ri* or ! poor8 ,%all y say t ! ri* man is he :o has any capital1 & ! poor1 he :o has n any8 ,!re are _m p ) capital t are poor1 & _m )\t :o are v well (f4 ,^! are b arbitr>y di/9ctions4 ,^u :at1 !n1 %all we base class diff]5ces8 ,on ! pr(essions8 ,on ^? :o ex]cise public functions & ^? :o d n8 ,b ?is w\ld1 9 ! fir/ place1 be a v unequal division2 = ! numb] ( public function>ies is v small 9 comp>ison ) ! imm5se mass ( p :o h no public pr(ession4 ,& aga91 :]e9 is ! public function>y sup]ior to ?is or t m]*ant1 ?is or t big f>m]1 ?is or t great build] or contractor8 ,x is impossible to say2 = 9 ! hi]>*y ( function>ies !re is also a top1 a middle1 a bottom1 ) an inf9ite v>iety ( degrees 9 ea*4 ,take ! nobility4 ,b :o 9 ^! days tr\bles himself ab\t ari/ocratic names8 ,!y are1 unque/ionably1 valuable s\v5irs = ^? :o c boa/ ( !m--( great hi/orical names1 = in/ance2 names :i* h play$ a "p 9 hi/ory2 !y are gr& recollections to *]i% & respect1 b !y give him :o possesses !m b v feeble advantages4 ,x is n v long s9ce !re might h be5 f\nd "s legitimate gr\nd = ! class di/9ctions we are exam9+1 namely1 9 political rights1 at a "t :5 "s few enjoy$ political rights & a great _m _h none2 b ?is "t has gone by1 ?is inequality is also wip$ out2 !re are no m political classes ?an !re are social classes4 ,%all we take mat]ial "w--"w ( h&1 z a class di/9ction among m58 ,we he> (t5 ! t]m labor+ classes--m51 namely1 :o live by "w ( h&2 b are n ^? :o "w ) _! bra9s1 work]s also8 ,!re are a ?\s& k9ds ( "w1 & x is n absolutely necess>y "o %\ld "w ) 8 h&s to be a work]4 ,besides1 !re are _m p work+ ) _! h&s1 :o d n belong to :at is usually und]/ood by ! labor+ class3 ! pa9t]s1 sculptors1 *emi/s1 surgeons2 all ^! p "w ) _! h&s4 ,y see1 !n1 t1 look at x z y w1 x w be v difficult to f9d di/9ctive signs :]eby society c\ld be divid$ into classes4 ,!re are gr\ps ( work]s2 gr\ps =m$ by ! v>iety ( "w :i* has to be done4 ,ev]ybody _c d ! same ?+ 9 society4 ,political economy tea*es a v true & necess>y law1 call$ division ( labor4 ,9 ord] t a c]ta9 piece ( "w be well done1 its diff]5t p>ts mu/ be di/ribut$ among ^? :o are capable ( execut+ !m2 & ! m ea* "o w exclusively att5d to ! portion allott$ to him1 ! bett] w ! "w be done4 ,x is ! same ) society4 ,society is a great "w-%op1 a va/ factory1 :]e !re are a great _m diff]5t k9ds ( "w to be done4 ,ea* mu/ d 8 %>e4 ,h5ce v>i\s gr\ps ( work]s4 ,"s cultivate ! l&1 because m5 mu/ be f$2 "s engage 9 indu/rial pursuits1 = m5 mu/ be clo!d1 mu/ be h\s$ aga9/ ! inclem5cies ( ! wea!r2 !n !re is ju/ice to be r5d]$2 !re are "s ne$$ to protect ! labor]s2 m5 mu/ also be educat$ & ne$ educators4 ,!re are roads to be made1 railroads to be laid1 laws to be en=c$1 & all ?is gives rise to a multitude ( functions1 a l>ge numb] ( gr\ps ( work]s1 ea* work+ 9 ! l9e :i* has be5 det]m9$1 m or less1 by bir?1 circum/ances1 or natural ability4 ,%all we /ill say t ea* ( ^! gr\ps =ms a class8 ,%all x be ! milit>y class1 because x is compos$ ( soldi]s2 ! class ( ecclesia/ics1 because compos$ ( prie/s2 ! tea*+ class1 because compos$ ( tea*]s8 ,9 no wise4 ,!n %\ld we nei!r speak ( ! labor+ classes--( ! middle classes4 ,!re is1 ,i repeat1 b "o society1 & t society compos$ ( an inf9ite numb] ( individuals2 all diff]+ f ea* o!r by reason ( _! v>i\s natural end[m5ts & ! outw>d conditions 9 :i* !y are plac$4 ,!y are subdivid$ into gr\ps :i* m or less bl5d ) ea* o!r1 are m or less dep5d5t on ea* o!r4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a sign :]eby m5 may be di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r1 & t is education3 diff]5ce 9 in/ruction & culture2 & ?is is 9 ^! days ! only k9d ( diff]5ce t c /ill exi/ among !m4 ,h[ is ?is to be rem$i$8 ,9 two ways3 9 obs]v+ ! duties ( society & ! duties ( individuals4 ,society at ?is pres5t mom5t is do+ all 9 its p[] to br+ education )9 ! rea* ( all1 & accord+ to ! p>ticul> ne$ ( ea*4 ,( c\rse all are n oblig$ to le>n ! same ?+s4 ,ev5 among ! mo/ enlight5$1 !re are "s :o1 relatively to o!rs1 are q ignorant4 ,s t !re are degrees "h also4 ,b /ill !re is a c]ta9 common gr\nd ( cu/om>y1 useful1 necess>y k1 :i* br+s all toge!r3--! education common to all1 & :i* is z a bond betwe5 !m4 ,society is do+ its be/ 9 ext5d+ ?is education1 propagat+ x1 develop+ x2 & m5 %\ld d _! be/ t[>d x4 ,x dep5ds1 !re=e1 on ! individual man to d away ) ?is la/ inequality4 ,x behooves u1 !n1 to dissem9ate education & in/ruction1 z f> z x lies 9 our p[]2 & x behooves ^? :o h n yet enjoy$ x to make e ef=t to improve !mselves4 ,f9ally1 connect$ ) education1 !re is a feature :i* also e/abli%es a c]ta9 diff]5ce betwe5 m53 good mann]s2 good habits2 good morals2 all ( :i* are di/+ui%+1 diff]5tiat+1 traits4 ,on :om is x incumb5t to d away ) su* inequalities8 ,on u all4 ,ea* ( u1 9 8 own individual sph]e ( life1 mu/ break d[n ! b>ri] t sep>ates him f ! "o above him2 he mu/ rise up to him1 n s mu* ?r\gh morality1 = morality is ! same bel[ z above1 b ?r\gh 8 mann]s1 8 habits1 8 dignity1 sobriety1 polit5ess1 he mu/ w9 8 e/eem4 ,?is is accompli%$ r ?r\gh education ?an in/ruction1 = x is education t makes m5 good-natur$1 s t x w be ?r\gh education t ! la/ inequality betwe5 m5 w be effac$4 ,i say1 !n1 t we %\ld z mu* z possible "w t[>d ?is end1 & above all avoid us+ expressions :i* t5d to sep>ate m5 f ea* o!r4 ,^! expressions belong to a pa/ age2 !y 7 p]petuat$ by usage1 & /ill uphold c]ta9 imag9>y rights1 & modes ( ?9k+--c]ta9 prejudices & s5tim5ts :i* divide society into two p>ts1 & cause x to believe t x is s divid$ f necessity4 ,9 indulg+ 9 su* prejudices1 :at 9 fact is b an imag9>y division becomes a real "o4 ,x is1 !re=e1 ?is imag9>y division ( classes :i* mu/ be done away )2 = x is f ! imag9ation t all ^! feel+s ( di/ru/1 & jeal\sy1 & ill-w g5]ally spr+2 & !y %\ld be combat$ resolutely1 = !y c>ry ) !m v lam5table consequ5ces4 ,! rem$y is :]e ! evil is4 ,^! old prejudices resid+ 9 ! imag9ation1 x is ! imag9ation we %\ld correct4 ,we mu/ accu/om ourselves to ?9k diff]5tly2 we mu/ look ^u ourselves n z belong+ to a p>ticul> class1 b to "o & ! same society1 a society ( m51 m5 all equals & 9 diff]5t social conditions1 all entitl$ to ! same rights4 ,x is1 !re=e1 9 reciprocal good feel+1 9 ! he>t ( m5 r ?an 9 any legal re=m1 t ! true safety ( society resides4 ,we mu/ give up ^? old notions :i* cause "s to imag9e t !y are oppress$1 or ?reat5$1 or prev5t$ to rise 9 ! social scale1 & o!rs1 t !y run ! dang] ( be+ dispossess$ ( _! privileges4 ,!re is 9 su* antagonism f> great] dang] ?an 9 ! actual evils bo? sides compla9 (4 ,to d away ) x only requires reciprocal good-w1 k9dness1 read9ess to und]/& ea* o!r4 ,! re=m :i* has tak5 place 9 our laws1 mu/ take place 9 our m9ds also4 ,class feel+ mu/ be suppress$1 & !re w !n appe> a truly human society1 all be+ unit$ by bro!rly love4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,no4 ,,clix4--,july #a1 #ahhd1 pp4 #bdf1 #bdg4 #b ,! fif? collegiate ye> w be devot$ to !oretical morality4 #c ,! ^w en?usiasm comes f a ,greek ^w signify+1 to be fill$ ) a god4 #d ,drive away nature1 & x gallops back aga94 ,lafonta9e has said ! same ?+3 ,%ut ! door aga9/ its nose1 & x w return by ! w9d[4 #e ,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau1 ,emile4 #f ,kant1 ,doctr9e de la v]tu4 ,fr5* translation ( ,j4 ,b>ni1 p4 #aga4 #g ,kant is wrong 9 reject+ ^! two maxims1 int]pret+ !m 9 ! s5se we h j refut$4 #h ,*apt] ,i41 page #bb4 #i ,x w\ld seem "h t negative gratitude becomes conf\nd$ ) negative +ratitude2 ! "o do+ no h>m1 ! o!r do+ no good2 x w\ld seem z "o & ! same condition1 :]e9 nei!r h>m nor good is done2 b ! di/9ction exi/s nev]!less2 = ! "q1 on ! "o h&1 is to d no h>m :5 tempt$ to d "s1 & on ! o!r1 n to d any good :5 !re is an occasion = x4 ,= example1 he :o despoils o!rs1 b ab/a9s be=e 8 b5efactor1 exp]i5ces a c]ta9 degree ( gratitude1 & he :o does good to 8 fri5ds & flatt]]s ar\nd him1 & does n d any to 8 b5efactor1 is already ungrateful4 #aj ,^! que/ions w be exam9$ m 9 detail 9 ! next *apt]4 #aa ,see *apt] ,,iv4 #ab ,lawy]s make a di/9ction betwe5 possession & prop]ty4 ,! fir/ consi/s simply 9 hav+ ! object 9 use2 ! second1 9 enjoy+ its exclusive use1 ev5 if ! object 7 n naturally 9 "o's h&s4 #ac ,victor ,c\s91 ,! ,true1 ! ,beautiful1 & ! ,good 7lectures xxi4 & xxii474 #ad ,:i* is to say t ! acts are no?+ if ! he>t is abs5t4 #ae ,/4 ,paul1 #a ,cor41 xiii41 #a-g4 #af ,9 ! ,prov9ciales ?is apo/rophe is address$ to ! ,jesuits1 :om ,pascal accuses ( loose maxims on ! subject4 #ag ,le ,devoir4 ,"p iv41 ,*4 iii4 #ah ,9 ,tuscany ! p5alty ( dea? 0 aboli%$ 9 ! eighte5? c5tury by ! ,gr& ,duke ,leopold4 ,x 0 aga9 e/abli%$ ) ! ,gr& ,du*y's annexation to ! ,k+dom ( ,italy4 ,9 ,switz]l&1 aft] be+ aboli%$ by ! ,conf$]ation1 ! p5alty ( dea? 0 f9ally left to be det]m9$ by ea* p>ticul> canton4 #ai ,x answ]s ! frequ5t ass]tion t ! c\rtesy & reg>ds :i* m5 owe ea* o!r reciprocally1 w\ld soon disappe> if !y 7 n protect$ by ! res\rce ( ! duel4 #bj ,jules ,simon1 ,la ,lib]te1 ii4 "p1 *4 iii4 #ba ,?us we see ,sa9t ,simonian ideas completely disappe> f ! mod]n sociali/ic sects :i* all t5d to bl5d ) ! equality-communism pure & simple4 #bb ,on ! "q ( prop]ty1 see ,?i]s1 ,la ,propriete 7#ahdh7 & ! ,h>monies economiques de ,ba/iat1 *4 viii4 #bc ,see 9 ! ,h>monies economiques viii41 t +5i\s & sub/antial !ory :i* %[s ! gr[+ progress ( ! community by reason ( prop]ty4 #bd ,see especially ab\t ! "q ( int]e/1 ! controv]sy betwe5 ,pr\dhon & ,ba/iat4 7,works ( ,ba/iat1 vol4 v41 ,gratuity ( ,cr$it47 #be ,mode ( reckon+ 9 ! "t ( ,l\is ,,xiv4 #bf ,! sc5e betwe5 fa!r & son 9 ,! ,mis] 7,sc4 ii41 ,act iii474 #bg ,see1 9 ,moli]e's ,don ,juan1 ! *>m+ sc5e betwe5 ,don ,juan & ,mr4 ,diman*e4 #bh ,?+s lo/ _c give rise to an action = !ft1 :5 ! f9d]1 aft] hav+ look$ = _! proprietor 9 va91 & only reta9$ !m :5 8 rese>*es prov$ fruitless1 has asc]ta9$ t ! proprietor w n pres5t himself4 ,b if ! ?+ has be5 tak5 ) ! int5tion ( appropriat+ x1 if x has an own]1 al?\gh unkn[n1 !re is no d\bt ab\t ! del9qu5cy4 7,fau/9-,helie1 ,droit p5al1 iv4 edit41 ,lecon v41 p4 #ff47 #bi ,! play 9 ,lat9 is on ! words oti&i & negoti&i4--,translator4 #cj ,de ,(ficiis1 ,book ,,iii41 *4 xiv4 #ca ,def9ition ( ! canon law4 #cb ,dige/1 ,,ii41 ,sec4 #c1 ,de ,furtis4 #cc ,traite des obligations1 ,"p ,i41 *4 i41 ,sec4 #b4 #cd ,see ,rac9e's trag$y ( ,ph$re4 #ce ,puff5dorf1 ,( ! ,duties ( ,man & ! ,citiz51 ii41 c4 ix41 ,sec4 #ah4 #cf ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates *ildr5 c1 9 ! case ( neglect by _! p>5ts1 make contracts :i* are obligatory = :atev] is necess>y = !m4 #cg ,our ,code does n admit t a mi/ake t\*+ ! p]son1 vitiates ! cons5t ( ! contractors1 unless ?is consid]ation be ! pr9cipal cause ( ! agreem5t4 #ch ,esprit des ,lois1 ,,xv41 iv4 ,! /ipulations :i* ,montesquieu dem&$ h be5 made1 & h l$ to ! suppression1 or at lea/ to a great dim9ution1 ( ! slave-trade4 #ci ,by maitrise 0 und]/ood ! rank or degree ( ma/]2 & jur&es 0 ! "n ( an annual (fice by means ( :i* ! affairs ( ! corporation 7 adm9i/]$3 x also meant ! assembly ( workm51 :o _h l5t ! cu/om>y oa?4 #dj ,beaum>*ais1 ,b>bi] de ,seville4 #da ,nicole does n give any examples2 b x is evid5t1 = in/ance1 t x is a grav] fault to ra%ly incrim9ate ! integrity ( a function>y ?an 8 incapacity1 ! *a/ity ( a woman ?an h] economy4 #db ,nicole belong$ to ! sect ( ! ,jans5i/s1 celebrat$ = ! h>%ness & rigidity ( _! morality4 #dc ,x is also call$ commutative ju/ice1 some:at improp]ly1 9 tak+ = its type ! act ( ex*ange1 :]e "o gives ! equival5t ( :at he receives2 b ?is expression is only truly correct :5 x t\*es ^u prop]ty1 & p>ticul>ly ^u sale1 tru/1 loan4 ,b ! t]m commutative has no long] mu* mean+ :5 appli$ to ! respect due to ! life1 ! lib]ty1 or ! honor ( o!rs4 ,nev]!less1 x is necess>y to be famili> ) ! expression1 z x is usually oppos$ to di/ributive ju/ice4 #dd ,nepotism is ! cu/om ( advanc+ to desirable po/s ! memb]s ( "o's family2 simony 7:i* has especially to d ) ! ,*ur*7 consi/$ 9 ! pur*ase ( ! ecclesia/ical functions3 ! t]m may also1 by ext5sion1 be appli$ to lay functions4 #de ,we give on ! next page an analysis ( ?is ,essay4 #df ,j\ffret1 ,de la politesse 7,a ,lecture at ! di/ribution ( prizes at ! ,t\rnon ,lyceum1 ,t\rnon4 #ahhj74 #dg ,lam5nais1 ,p>oles d'un ,croyant1 xv4 #dh ,kant1 ,doctr9e de la v]tu1 trad4 ,b>ni1 p4 #afj4 #di ,x is ! "q debat$ betwe5 ,alce/e & ,phil9te 9 ! fir/ sc5e ( ! ,misan?rope4 #ej ,kant1 ,doc4 de la v]tu1 trad4 de ,b>ni1 p4 #aee4 #ea ,see ,puff5dorf1 ,droits de la nature et des g5s1 ,,iii41 *4 iii4 #eb ,see our ,morale1 liv4 ,,ii41 *4 v4 #ec ,ab/95ce f ! fle% ( animals 0 bas$ by ,py?agoras1 z x 0 ) ! ,brahm9s1 ^u ! doctr9e ( metempsy*osis4 #ed ,! "q is z to ! acts !mselves1 & n _! abuse4 #ee ,a philosoph] ( ! s*ool ( ,desc>tes1 :o1 l 8 ma/]1 taught t animals are ma*9es4 #ef ,education progressive1 ,,vi41 iv4 #eg ,bullet9 de la ,societe ,protectrice des ,animaux4 ,june1 #ahfh4 #eh ,law ( ! #b;d ,july1 #ahej1 call$ ,grammont ,law3 ,%all be puni%able by a f9e ( f five to fifte5 francs1 or f "o to five days' imprisonm5t1 any "o :o %all publicly & abusively h maltreat$ dome/ic animals4 ,9 case ( repetition ( ! (f5ce1 imprisonm5t4 ,a society--,societe ,protectrice des ,animaux--has be5 =m$ to come 9 aid to ! law4 ,! pr9cipal articles ( its /atutes are3 ,! aim ( ! society is to ameliorate1 by all ! means 9 its p[]1 & con=mably to ! law ( ! #b;d ( ,july1 #ahej1 ! condition ( animals4 ,! society aw>ds recomp5ses to any propagat+ its "w & inv5t+ prop] means to ! relief ( animals2 to ! ag5ts ( ! police1 po9t$ out by _! *iefs z hav+ en=c$ ! laws & regulations = ! prev5tion ( cruelty & ill-treatm5t t[>ds animals2--to ! ag5ts ( agriculture1 %eph]ds1 f>m-help1 f>m]s1 lead]s ( cattle2--to coa*m51 but*]-boys1 smi?s--9 %ort1 to any p]son :o1 9 "s high degree1 %all h giv5 pro( ( good treatm5t1 intellig5t & cont9u$ c>e & compassion t[>d animals4 ,see 9 its ,bullet9s1 ! useful results obta9$ by ?is int]e/+ society4 #ei ,traite elem5taire de philosophie1 p4 #bfb4 #fj ,conc]n+ ^! ?ree p[]s1 see ,montesquieu1 ,esprit des lois1 ,i41 xi4 #fa ,see on ?is subject ! ,notions d'in/ruction civique4 #fb ,prosopopoeia 9 rhetoric is ! =m ( expression :i* consi/s 9 animat+ physical or ab/ract ?+s1 9 l5d+ !m a s\l1 a m9d1 a visage 7,boileau71 9 mak+ !m speak or be+ spok5 to z if !y 7 pres5t & liv+4 ,9 ,crito1 ! laws are p]sonifi$1 & x is !y t speak4 #fc ,droits et devoirs de l'homme1 ,h5ri ,m>ion1 ,p>is1 #ahhj1 p4 #fg4 #fd ,! prec$+ quotation is f our ,philosophie du bonheur4 #fe ,philosophie sociale1 ,essai sur les devoirs de l'homme et du citoy51 p> l'abbe ,durosoi 7,p>is1 #aghc74 #ff ,m>%al ,m>mont 0 accus$ ( treason = hav+ accept$ ! capitulation ( ,essonne1 :i* 0 p]haps impos$ ^u him by necessity4 #fg ,! lib]um veto 9 ,pol& 0 ! "r ( ea* repres5tative to oppose ! veto ( ! laws :i* 7 vot$ unanim\sly4 #fh ,montaigne ?us express$ himself 9 reg>d to m>riage3 ,a good m>riage is a sweet society = life1 full ( con/ancy1 tr\bles1 & an inf9ite numb] ( useful & sub/antial s]vices & mutual obligations4 #fi ,ad4 ,g>ni]1 ,morale sociale ,i41 ii41 p4 #ajd4 #gj ,see our book1 ,la ,famille1 #c;d lecture4 ,we take ! lib]ty to ref] ! read] to ?is book = ! developm5t ( ! subject4 #ga ,x5ophon4 #gb ,a4 ,g>ni]1 ,morale sociale4 #gc ,! law ( divorce has s9ce be5 pass$ aga9 9 ,france4--,transl4 #gd ,david ,hume1 ,essays4 #ge ,a great ,g]man morali/1 ,fi*te1 d5ies1 h[ev]1 p hav+ a "r to volunt>ily & sy/ematically r5\nce m>riage3 ,an unm>ri$ p]son1 he says1 is b half a p]son4 ,a fix$ resolution n to m>ry is absolutely contr>y to duty4 ,n to m>ry is1 )\t its be+ "o's fault1 a great mis=tune2 b n to m>ry ?r\gh "o's fault is a great fault 7,dur* se9e ,s*uld1 e9e grosse ,s*uld74 ,x is n p]mitt$ to sacrifice ?is end to o!r ends1 ev5 :]e ! s]vice ( ! ,*ur*1 or family or ,/ate duties1 or1 9 f9e1 ! repose ( a contemplative life1 are conc]n$2 = !re is no high] end = man ?an to be a complete man4 ,!re is mu* tru? 9 ^! words ( ,fi*te1 yet may we be p]mitt$ to ?9k t 8 doctr9e 9 ?is respect is pu%$ to excess1 z well z t :i* =bids second m>riages4 #gf ,la ,famille4 #d? ,lecture4 #gg ,du droit de la gu]re et de la paix1 ,i41 ,,ii4 *4 v4 ,sec4 #b4 #gh ,& t may be que/ion$4 #gi ,?is duty to-day is impos$ by law3 ,prim>y in/ruction is obligatory = *ildr5 ( bo? sexes f six to ?irte5 ye>s4 7,law ( ! #bh? ,m>*1 #ahhb1 art4 #d47 #hj ,fi*te1 ,sy/em d] ,sitt5lehre1 ,pt4 ,,iii41 *4 iii41 ,sec4 #bi4 #ha ,doctr9e ( happ9ess4 #hb ,fi*te is "r "h :5 he speaks ( ! exagg]ation ( ?is pr9ciple4 ,b ! pr9ciple itself is a true "o1 namely1 t "o %\ld accu/om *ildr5 to act accord+ to _! own reason3 x is ! only means ( tea*+ !m lib]ty4 #hc ,! ,dialogues ( ,plato4 ,laws4 ,b4 ,j[ett's ,translation1 ,b4 ,,iv41 #bch4 #hd ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia ( ,socrates1 translation by ,j4 ,s4 ,watson1 ,b4 ,,ii41 ,*ap4 #b4 #he ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia4 ,translation ,j4 ,s4 ,watson4 #hf ,des ,devoirs de l'homme1 *4 xii4 #hg ,a ,european cu/om4--,transl4 #hh ,see our "w on ,la ,famille 7#c;d lecture74 #hi ,le ,vrai1 le ,beau et le ,bi54 ,lect4 xxi41 *4 xxii4 #ij ,!re is no inju/ice done to him :o cons5ts to x4 #ia ,/4 ,augu/91 ,cite de ,dieu1 ,i41 xvii41 trad4 d',em4 ,saisset4 #ib ,"o w say1 p]haps1 t ! m]*ant is nev] innoc5t1 = he %\ld h =ese5 ! risks :i* ?reat5$ him1 & provid$ aga9/ !m4 ,b !re is no comm]ce )\t risks4 ,!re is1 !n1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( risks :i* x is all[$ & ev5 necess>y to run1 or else suppress comm]ce altoge!r4 ,= example1 a m]*ant 9 times ( peace c]ta9ly kn[s t !re may sudd5ly arise a cause ( w>1 & he mu/ make provision aga9/ ! ev5tuality2 b if all 8 transactions 7 influ5c$ by t idea1 comm]ce 9 times ( peace w\ld n diff] f comm]ce 9 times ( w>1 & w\ld consequ5tly be null4 #ic ,r\sseau's ,emile1 ,i41 i4 #id ,bossuet1 ,traite de la concupisc5ce1 ,*4 iv4 #ie ,we may apply "h :at ,la ,bruy]e said ( clo!s3 ,!re is z mu* weakness 9 avoid+ fa%ion z affect+ x4 ,a philosoph] all[s 8 tailor to dress him4 ,9 ! same s5se is !re z mu* weakness 9 rebell+ aga9/ pleasure z 9 seek+ x too artfully4 ,! hone/ man simply enjoys x )\t ?9k+ ( x4 ,betwe5 ! rigori/ & ! s5suali/1 ! s5sible man has 8 place4 #if ,cic]on1 ,traite des devoirs1 ,i41 xxxiv4 #ig ,cic]o1 ,traite des devoirs1 *4 xxxvi4 #ih ,we n[ise mean to uphold "h ! doctr9e ( ! physiocrats = :om l& 0 ! only ri*es2 we %all m]ely say t x is ! basis ( all weal?4 #ii ,!re is "h1 aga91 a broad duty1 = h[ c we int]dict to a m]*ant ! desire = ga9 )\t suppress+ "o ( ! incitem5ts to 8 activity & "w8 ,all t we c recomm5d to him is mod]ation1 & n to sacrifice to ?is incitem5t s5tim5ts ( a high] ord]4 #ajj ,kant himself recognizes t self-int]e/ may become a duty :5 combat$ by passion4 ,to secure "o's own happ9ess1 he says1 is at lea/ an indirect duty2 = he :o is dissatisfi$ ) 8 condition may easily1 9 ! mid/ ( ! c>es & wants :i* besiege him1 yield to ! temptation ( transgress+ 8 duties4444 ,!re=e1 ev5 ?\gh ?is t5d5cy 9 man to seek 8 happ9ess did n det]m9e 8 w1 ev5 ?\gh heal? 7 n1 = him at lea/1 a ?+ to be tak5 acc\nt ( 9 8 calculations1 !re w\ld /ill rema9 9 ?is case1 z 9 all o!rs1 a law1 ! "o1 namely1 :i* comm&s him to "w = 8 happ9ess1 n f incl9ation1 b f a s5se ( duty1 & x is only by ?is t 8 conduct may h a real moral value4 #aja ,frankl91 ,poor ,ri*>d's ,almanac4 #ajb ,ari/otle1 ,ni*oma*ean ,e?ics1 iv41 i4 #ajc ,m$itations ( ,m>cus ,aurelius ,anton9us1 v41 i4 #ajd ,ari/otle1 ,politics1 i41 ii4 #aje ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia ( ,socrates1 ,bohn's translation1 by ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,watson1 ,m4,a41 ,,ii41 vii4 #ajf ,confucius & ,m5cius1 ,pau?i]'s translation1 p4 #cjc4 #ajg ,! ^w m]c5>y has always _h an unfavorable mean+ atta*$ to x1 a relic ( anci5t prejudice4 ,9 ! prop] s5se1 m]c5>y means remun]ative1 & %\ld h no condemnatory signification4 ,yet already 9 antiquity ! ^w m]c5>y _h a high] s5se ?an ! ^w s]vile2 = ,cic]o1 wi%+ to say t "o %\ld treat "o's slaves well1 said t !y %\ld be treat$ z m]c5>ies--t is to say1 z m5 remun]at$ b free4 #ajh ,plato1 ,republic1 i41 ii4 #aji ,see 8 ,de ,(ficiis1 i41 iv4 #aaj ,x might be call$ s5sibility1 9 ! s5se ?is ^w _h 9 ! ,,xviii4 c5tury4 ,x is n en\gh to be human t[>d o!rs1 "o owes "s feel+ to "o's self also4 #aaa ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics1 ,,vi41 ii4 #aab ,ibid41 ,,vi41 xii4 #aac ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics1 ,,vi41 ii4 #aad ,we d n mean by ?is t sci5ce _c be a means ( livelihood3 no?+ m legitimate1 on ! contr>y4 ,we only mean t x is n t alone4 #aae ,see also ! admirable passage ( ,augu/9 ,?i]ry 9 ! preface to ,dix ans d'etude4 #aaf ,answ] me1 ye illu/ri\s philosoph]s1 ye ?r\gh :om we "k :at are ! causes :i* attract bodies to a vacuum2 :at are 9 ! revolutions ( ! planets1 ! relations ( ! spaces !y travel ov] at equal p]iods 444 h[ man sees ev]y?+ 9 ,god2 h[ ! s\l & ! body correspond to ea* o!r )\t int]-communication1 l two clocks4444 ,ev5 ?\gh y _h n taught u any ( ^! ?+s1 %\ld we be less num]\s1 less fl\ri%+1 m deprav$8 ,?is passage recalls vividly t ( ,malebran*e quot$ above4 ,:at1 h[ev]1 is mo/ curi\s ab\t x is t ,r\sseau 9 8 criticism appropriates ,malebran*e's hypo!sis4 #aag ,good s5se is ! be/ di/ribut$ ?+ 9 ! _w1 says ,desc>tes at ! beg9n+ ( 8 ,disc\rs de la ,me?ode4 #aah ,unless1 ( c\rse1 passion itself implies a duty sup]ior to self-int]e/3 :i* is n ! case "h4 #aai ,see ,burlamaqui1 ,droit naturel1 "p ,i41 *4 vi4 #abj ,see ! celebrat$ l9es 9 ! ,misan?rope1 act ii41 sc4 v4 #aba ,virtus 9 ,lat9 has bo? mean+s4 #abb ,ari/otle1 ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics4 ,translat$ by ,r4 ,w4 ,br[ne1 ,,iii41 vi4 #abc ,?is idea ( ,ari/otle may be que/ion$2 =1 9 a sudd5 p]il1 "o may be su/a9$ by a natural impulse1 & ! feel+ ( self-def5se1 :il/ anticipat$ p]il all[s all ! impressions ( fe> to gr[3 x requires1 !re=e1 a great] ef=t to ov]come !m4 #abd ,de ,(ficiis1 ,i41 xxiii4 #abe ,see ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia ( ,socrates1 ,i41 i4 #abf ,disc\rs de la ,me?ode1 "p ,,iii4 #abg ,! ,works ( ,epictetus4 ,t4 ,w4 ,higg9son's translation1 *4 vi41 p4 #ba4 #abh ,! ,works ( ,epictetus4 ,t4 ,w4 ,higg9son's translation1 *4 xv41 page #aci4 #abi ,lat91 gyrus1 ! r+ 9 :i* colts are driv5 r\nd by horse-break]s4 #acj ,cic]o1 ,de ,(ficiis1 ,i41 xxvi4 #aca ,plato's ,republic1 ,i41 iv43 ,a man des]ves to be call$ c\rage\s :5 t "p ( 8 s\l 9 :i* ang] resides obeys ! comm&s ( reason4 #acb ,ari/otle1 ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics1 ,r4 ,w4 ,br[ne's transl41 ,,iv41 v4 #acc ,plato's ,republic1 ,i41 iv4 #acd ,ang] is /ill nobl] :5 provok$ by inju/ice done to o!rs4 #ace ,ari/otle1 ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics1 ,,iv41 v4 #acf ,kant1 ,doctr9e de la ,v]tu1 trad4 franc41 p4 #if4 #acg ,moli]e's ,t>tufe4 #ach ,& %all ,i speak ( ,iris1 lov$ & prais$ by all8 ,ah6 :at he>t6 ah6 :at he>t6 humanity itself6 ,a w\nd$ butt]fly calls =? ! true/ te>s6 ,ah1 yes2 b :5 to dea? poor ,lally is condemn$1 ,& to ! block is dragg$1 a spectacle to all1 ,iris w be ! fir/ to g to ! dread fea/1 ,& buy h]self ! joy to see 8 de> head fall4 ,,gilb]t1 le ,dix-,huitieme ,siecle4 #aci ,lettre sur la metaphysique1 lettre ,,ii41 *ap4 ix4 #adj ,metaphysics is ! sci5ce :i* treats ( :at is beyond & above nature4 ,we call metaphysical su* attributes ( ,god by :i* he surpasses nature2 z1 = in/ance1 inf9itude1 imm5sity2 ! moral attributes1 on ! contr>y1 are ^? :i* h _! analogies 9 ! human s\l1 su* z k9dness1 wisdom1 etc4 #ada ,v4 ,c\s91 ,le ,vrai1 le ,beau et le ,bi51 xvie lecon4 #adb ,see ,dictionnaire de l',academie francaise 7#g;e edition1 #ahgh73 ,v5]ation1 respect = holy ?+s4 ,x is also said ( ! respectful e/eem 9 :i* c]ta9 p]sons are held4 #adc ,a po/ulate is a tru? :i*1 al?\gh x _c be rigor\sly demon/rat$ %\ld1 nev]!less1 by reason ( ! necessity ( its consequ5ces1 be practically admitt$4 #add ,kant1 ,critique de la raison pratique1 ,,ii41 ii4 ,trad4 de ,j4 ,b>ni1 p4 #ccd4 #ade ,critique de la raison pratique2 trad4 fr41 p4 #cfc4 #adf ,jules ,simon1 ,la ,lib]te de ,consci5ce1 #d;e lecon 7,p>is1 #aheg74--,we h borr[$ "s few passages ( ano!r book ( ! same au?or1 ,la ,lib]te 7,vol4 ii41 #d;e1 "p #a1 *4 #a74 #adg ,f5elon4 ,lettres sur la metaphysique et la religion4 ,lett] ,,ii41 *4 i4 #adh ,! works ( ,epictetus4 ,t4 ,w4 ,higg9son's transl41 ,i41 xvi4 #adi ,de ,augm5tis ,sci5ti>um1 ,,iii41 i4 & iii4 #aej ,kant1 ,an?ropologie4 ,trad4 franc4 de ,tissot1 p4 #bg4 #aea ,kant gives +5i\s examples ( ^! ?ree degrees ( action4 ,see 8 ,an?ropologis*e *>akt]i/ik4 #aeb ,ari/otle's ,rhetoric1 book ,,ii41 *4 xii41 xiii41 xiv41 ,bohn's translation4 #aec ,psy*ology is ! sci5ce :i* treats ( ! faculties & op]ations ( ! s\l4 #aed ,diagnosis 9 m$ic9e is ! art ( det]m9+ a disease by means ( ! symptoms or signs x pres5ts4 #aee ,imitation ( ,jesus ,*ri/1 ,i41 xii4 #aef ,we %\ld1 h[ev]1 make a di/9ction betwe5 ! passion = w9e & drunk5ness4 ,"o c h ?is passion )\t giv+ up to x4 ,drunk5ness is ! habit ( yield+ to x4 #aeg ,s5tim5tality is false s5sibility1 & n exagg]at$ s5sibility4 ,s(tness is a vague expression4 ,patriotism may by exagg]ation become fanaticism2 b ?is is equally true ( o!r s5tim5ts--( ! religi\s s5tim5t1 = example4 #aeh ,*ap4 ,,iii41 #ai4 #aei ,plato 9 ! ,pha$o 7trad4 de ,saisset1 p4 #ca7 seems to condemn ! idea ( combat+ passion by passion3 ,to ex*ange "o s5sual pleasure = ano!r1 he says1 "o grief = ano!r1 "o fe> = ano!r1 & to d l ^? :o get small *ange = a piece ( money1 is n ! pa? :i* leads to virtue4 ,wisdom is ! only true co9 aga9/ :i* all ! o!rs %\ld be ex*ang$4444 ,)\t wisdom all o!r virtues are b %ad[s ( virtues1 a virtue ! slave ( vice1 :]e9 !re is no?+ :olesome nor true4 ,true virtue is free f all passion4 ,no?+ m true & m noble2 b !re is 9 ?is doctr9e no?+ contr>y to t ( ,bossuet4 ,! "q is n to ex*ange "o passion = ano!r1 = su* an act is devoid ( all moral "*1 b to ex*ange passion aga9/ wisdom & virtue2 & all we want to "k is ! means4 ,n[ exp]i5ce confirms :at ,bossuet has said1 namely1 t "o _c imm$iately triumph ov] a passion1 especially :5 at its z5i?1 & t x is necess>y to turn "o's ?\ghts ^u o!r objects & appeal to m innoc5t passions or to passions1 if n less ard5t1 at lea/ m noble1 su* z patriotism or ! religi\s s5tim5t4 #afj ,confessions1 ,,viii41 v4 #afa ,! virtues ( ! pagans h be5 (t5 depreciat$1 & ,/4 ,augu/9e himself1 great an admir] z he 0 ( antiquity1 call$ !m1 nev]!less1 spl5did vices 7vitia spl5dida74 ,!y are (t5 reg>d$ z induc$ by pride r ?an by a s9c]e love ( virtue4 ,we %\ld bew>e ( su* int]pretations1 = once on ! road ( moral pessimism1 !re is no reason = /opp+ at any?+4 ,we may z well ma9ta9 t !re are a ?\s& =ms ( pride1 & t self-love (t5 sets its glory 9 pret5d+ to ov]come itself4 ,we mu/ !re=e n wond] to f9d x c\pl$ ) ! greate/ au/]ity1 &1 9 ord] to de/roy itself1 make u bravely a companion ( x1 = :il/ x ru9s itself 9 "o place1 x />ts up aga9 9 ano!r4 ,x may be se5 by ?is passage ( ,la ,ro*ef\cauld1 t x is ( no use to int]pret ! pagan virtues 9 a bad s5se1 = ! argum5t c be retort$4 ,x is bett] to reg>d virtue z s9c]e & true :]ev] we meet ) x1 s long z !re are no pro(s to ! contr>y4 #afb ,traite de morale1 ,,iii41 #b4 #afc ,! !ory ( inadmissible sanctity consi/$ 9 ma9ta9+ t man1 hav+ rea*$ a /ate ( sanctity1 c\ld nev] aga91 :atev] he might d1 fall f x4 #afd ,! ,dignity ( ,sci5ces1 ,,vii41 iii4 #afe ,essays on ! ,human ,und]/&+1 ,,ii41 xxi4 #aff ,epictetus1 ,,ii41 xxiii4 7,t4 ,w4 ,higg9son's transl474 #afg ,de ,(ficiis1 ,i41 xxx4 #afh ,! greate/ tragic actor at ,rome1 & a contempor>y ( ,roscius1 ! greate/ comic actor4--,,translator4 #afi ,de ,(ficiis1 ,i41 xxxi4 #agj ,memorabilia ( ,socrates1 ,,iv41 iv4 #aga ,s5eca1 on ,ang]1 ,,iii41 #ch4 ,to tell ! tru?1 ,s5eca =gave himself sometimes too easily p]haps1 z1 = example1 on ! day :5 he def5d$ ! murd] ( ,agripp9a2 we are (t5 too mu* dispos$ to imitate him4 #agb ,imitation ( ,jesus ,*ri/1 ,i41 xi4 #agc ,doctr9e de la ,v]tu1 trad4 fr4 p4 #agj4 ,we give "h ?is cate*ism z an example ( :at might be done 9 a c\rse ( morals4 ,! tea*] c modify its =m & developm5ts z he ?9ks be/4 #agd ,we c see by ?is t ,kant und]/ood y\?4 ,9 a ,socratic int]rogation ( ?is k9d1 ! pupil1 di/ru/+ 8 p[]s1 w always beg9 by be+ sil5t4 ,x is only :5 he p]ceives t he kn[s :at 0 ask$ him1 t he v5tures to answ]1 & answ]s well4 #age ,we give ?is z a useful supplem5t to ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,x is a lecture =m]ly deliv]$ on ! ,union ( ,classes 7#ahfg1 ,revue des c\rs litt]aires1 v41 p4 #db74444 ,we beg to be p>don$ = :at neglig5ces ( /yle may h crept into ! improvisation4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,passages 9 italics are indicat$ by italics4 ,passages 9 bold are indicat$ by bold4 ,sup]script$ *>act]s are indicat$ by sup]script4