,,social ,,rights ,,& ,,duties     ,!   
,volumes ( ! ,s]ies already ,publi%$    
are3--        ,civilisation ( ,*ri/5dom1
 & o!r ,/udies4 ,by ,,b]n>d             
,,bosanquet1 ,m4,a4 7,oxon471 ,hon4     
,,ll4,d4 7,glasg[74 #ds4 #f;d4          
,%ort ,/udies 9 ,"*4 ,by ,,sophie       
,,bryant1 ,d4,sc4 7,lond474 #ds4        
#f;d4       ,social ,rights & ,duties4  
,by ,,leslie ,,/eph54 #b vols41 #is4    
,o!r ,volumes to foll[ by--  ,pr(essor  
,a4 ,,sidgwick1 ,pr(essor ,d4 ,g4       
,,rit*ie1 & ,j4 ,h4 ,,muirhead1 ,esq4 7!
 ,editor74     ,! ,e?ical ,libr>y       
,,social ,,rights ,,& ,,duties          
,,addresses ,,to ,,e?ical ,,societies   
,,leslie ,,/eph5  ,,9 ,,two ,,volumes   
,,vol4 ,,ii4  ,illu/ration3 ,logo       
,,london ,,swan ,,sonn5s*e9  ,,co41     
,,limit$ ,,new ,,york3 ,,macmillan      
,,co4 #ahif   ,,ab]de5 ,,univ]sity      
,,press4     ,,note4   ,! foll[+ *apt]s 
are *iefly a republication ( addresses  
deliv]$ to ! ,e?ical ,societies (       
,london4 ,"s h previ\sly appe>$ 9 !     

,int]national ,j\rnal ( ,e?ics1 !       
,national ,review1 & ! ,contempor>y     
,review4 ,! au?or has to ?ank !         
proprietors ( ^! p]iodicals = _! cons5t 
to ! republication4  ,l4 ,s4            
,,cont5ts4                              
,,page ,,h]$ity1                        
#a  ,,puni%m5t1                         
#ee  ,,luxury1                          
#ie  ,,! ,,duties ,,( ,,au?ors1         
#acg  ,,! ,,vanity ,,( ,,philosophis+1  
#ahc  ,,=gott5 ,,b5efactors1            
#bbe     ,,h]$ity4   ,i f\nd1 ! o!r day1
 t an address ^u ,h]$ity _h be5 ann\nc$1
 ( :i* ,i 0 to be ! deliv]]4 ,i admit t 
,i 0 fully responsible = ! /atem5t1     
al?\gh1 = reasons ) :i* ,i ne$ n tr\ble 
y1 ,i 0 n q prep>$ = x 9 ?is =m4 ,i     
m5tion ?is fact 9 ord] simply to say t !
 title may possibly give rise to false  
expectations4 ,i am q incompet5t to     
express any op9ion ( ! slighte/         
sci5tific value ^u c]ta9 problems       
sugge/$ by t r ugly ^w h]$ity4 ,! "q z  
to ! precise relation%ip betwe5 any     

organism & its p>5ts or remot] ance/ors1
 is "o ( ! highe/ int]e/4 ,! solution1 =
 example1 ( ! problem1 :e!r is x        
possible = a liv+ be+ to transmit to its
 desc5dants qualities :i* h only be5    
acquir$ dur+ its own lifetime1 has an   
important be>+ ^u ! g5]al !ory (        
evolution4 ,b ,i h no?+ :atev] to sugge/
 9 reg>d to t problem4 ,i simply take x 
= grant$ t !re is "s relation betwe5    
p>5ts & *ildr53 & a relation1 speak+ 9 !
 mo/ g5]al way1 su* t ! qualities ) :i* 
we />t 9 life1 resemble m or less       
closely ^? ( our ance/ors4 ,i may also  
assume t1 9 "s =m or o!r1 ! doctr9e (   
evolution mu/ be accept$3 & t all liv+  
?+s n[ 9 ! _w are ! desc5dants1 m or    
less modifi$1 ( ! population :i* prec$$ 
!m4 ,i proce$ to ask :e!r1 z "s p appe> 
to believe1 ! acceptance ( ?is doctr9e 9
 ! mo/ unqualifi$ =m1 w\ld introduce any
 difficulty into our prim>y e?ical      
conceptions4 ,i w also at once give my  
answ]4 ,i d n believe t x introduces any
 difficulty :atev]4 ,i d believe t !    

g5]al !ory ( evolution t5ds 9 v         
important ways to give additional       
di/9ctness to c]ta9 e?ical doctr9es2    
al?\gh1 to g at all fully into ! h[ & ! 
:y w\ld take me beyond my pres5t        
purpose4 ,all t ,i h to argue to-day is1
 t a belief 9 h]$ity ne$ n be a         
/umbl+-block to any reasonable p]son4   
,i _c d\bt t ! popul> m9d is vaguely    
al>m$ by ! doctr9e4 ,i read1 ! o!r day1 
a novel by a well-kn[n au?or1 ( :i*1 s  
f> z ,i c rememb]1 ! ma9 sub/ance 0 z   
foll[s3 ,a virtu\s doctor 78 virtue _h  
"s limitations7 /udi$ ! problem (       
h]$ity1 & _h read ,d>w91 & ,h]b]t       
,sp5c]1 & ,weissmann1 & all ! prop]     
au?orities4 ,8 own rese>*es are c>efully
 describ$1 ) ! app>5t assumption t !y 7 
bo? pr(\nd & ( trem5d\s significance4   
,he _h1 x appe>s1 accumulat$ a va/ am\nt
 ( mat]ial2 & 8 me?od 0 to cut out slips
 f newspap]s1 :5ev] !y record$ any ev5ts
 9 8 own family hi/ory1 & to pres]ve !m 
9 a my/]i\s cab9et4 ,^! inve/igations   
prov$ t !re 0 a decid$ family lik5ess   

runn+ ?r\gh ! desc5dants ( a common     
ance/or4 ,z a g5]al rule1 !y _h all     
belong$ to ! class blackgu>d4 ,f ?is    
result he inf]r$ t !re 0 no ,god & no   
s\l4 ,8 relations 7 dreadfully sc&alis$3
 "o 0 conv]t$ to 8 views2 b ! o!rs      
contriv$ diabolical plots = sett+ fire  
to ^! m>vell\s collections & s /opp+ !  
contagion ( ^! dreadful doctr9es at _!  
s\rce4 ,x /ruck me1 ,i confess1 t in/ead
 ( burn+ ! collections1 !y w\ld h done  
bett] to ask him :at 0 ! connection     
betwe5 8 premisses & 8 conclusions4 ,:at
 0 ?is t]rible1 he>t-p>alys+ tru? :i* ! 
poor man _h discov]$8 ,has any human be+
 ev] d\bt$1 s9ce mo!rs 7 inv5t$1 t      
*ildr5 are apt to resemble _! p>5ts8 ,i 
d n p]sonally rememb] ! fact1 b ,i %\ld 
be prep>$ to bet1 if ! po9t c\ld be     
settl$1 t1 be=e ,i 0 a mon? old1--& 9 ^?
 days nei!r ,d>w9 nor ,weissmann _h     
publi%$ a l9e1--my nurse & my "m _h     
affirm$ t ! baby 0 l 8 papa4 ,t1 at any 
rate1 is a rem>k1 ! omission ( :i* w\ld 
%[ m orig9ality ?an ! ass]tion4 ,if ,i  

desir$1 aga91 to produce classical      
au?ority = ! importance ( race1 ,i %\ld 
n h to ext5d my rese>*es beyond ! ,lat9 
,gramm>4 ,if1 once m1 we look into !    
writ+s ( fam\s !ologians1 we meet x     
ev]y:]e4 ,i take ! fir/ t comes to h&4  
,good m51 says ,calv91 & beyond all     
o!rs1 ,augu/9e1 h lab\r$ to demon/rate1 
t we are n corrupt$ by any adv5titi\s   
means b t we d]ive an innate depravity f
 our v bir?4 ,! d5ial ( ?is 0 an in/ance
 ( consummate impud5ce--res]v$1 z ,calv9
 %[s1 = su* wick$ h]etics z ,pelagius4  
,! doctr9e ( h]$ity1 9 %ort1 9 a        
!ological v]sion1 is ess5tially involv$ 
9 ! dogmatic f\ndations ( ! or?odox     
cre$4 ,i h no d\bt t an inve/igation ( !
 reason+s ( ,augu/9e & o!rs w\ld exhibit
 mu* aff9ity to mod]n controv]sy1 ?\gh 9
 a v diff]5t t]m9ology4 ,:atev] we may  
?9k ( its m]its1 ! doctr9e ( orig9al s9 
implies t a deprav$ nature may h be5    
transmitt$ to ! :ole human race2 &1 if !
 commonly alleg$ cause ( ! orig9al      
depravity /rikes u z insuffici5t1 x is1 

at lea/1 a v famili> argum5t ( div9es1 t
 ! doctr9e corresponds to und5iable     
facts4 ,:y %\ld x />tle u 9 a sci5tific 
dress8 ,if we c transmit depravity1 :y n
 g5ius & bodily heal?8 ,9 "o respect1   
mod]n !ories t5d r to limit ?an to ext5d
 ! applicability ( ! pr9ciple4 ,no "o   
ev] d\bt$1 nor c\ld d\bt1 t ! *ild ( a  
monkey is always a monkey2 & t ! *ild ( 
a negro1 or ev5 ( a ,mongol1 has c]ta9  
*>act]i/ics :i* di/+ui% x f ! *ild ( a  
,european4 ,b ! diff]5ce is t1 :]eas x  
us$ to be held t !re 0 an impassable    
b>ri] betwe5 ! monkey & ! man1 x is n[  
widely believ$ t bo? may be desc5dants f
 a common ance/or4 ,%\ld ?is belief     
e/abli% itself1 we %all h to admit t1 9 
spite ( h]$ity1 organic =ms are capable 
( mu* wid] v>iation ?an 0 believ$ by our
 fa!rs to be ev5 conceivable4  ,let u   
try1 !n1 to discov] "s m plausible      
explanation ( ! fe> excit$ by ! doctr9e4
 ,n[1 ,i wi% to give z wide a b]? z     
possible to t freewill controv]sy :i*   
p]plexes s _m m9ds1 & is apt to intrude 

at ?is po9t4 ,i w try to assume1--?\gh x
 is n my own position1--! doctr9e ( !   
fre$om ( ! w 9 ! wide/ s5se t any       
reasonable p]son c devise4 ,no su* p]son
 w d5y t !re is a close connection--!   
t]ms ( :i* h n yet be5 def9$--betwe5 !  
physical con/itution & ! moral or       
intellectual "*4 ,! man pla9ly gr[s out 
( ! baby4 ,if ! baby's skull has a c]ta9
 con=mation x c only be an idiot2 )     
ano!r skull & bra9 x may be develop$    
into a ,%akespe>e or a ,dante4 ,!       
possibilities rang+ betwe5 ^? limits are
 immovably fix$ at bir?4 ,& :at det]m9es
 ! con/itution ) :i* ! *ild is born8    
,surely x c be no?+ b ! con/itution &   
circum/ances ( its p>5ts4 ,:e!r ,i c be 
a great man1 or _c be m ?an a           
commonplace man1 or a fool1--nay1 :e!r  
,i %all be man or monkey or an oak1--is 
settl$ be=e ,i h _h any p[] ( volition  
at all4 ,n[1 x is curi\s h[1 ev5 at ?is 
e>ly p]iod1 we are l$ to use delusive   
language4 ,! difficulty is qua9tly      
indicat$ 9 a rem>k by ,jona?an ,swift4  

,! dean ha? (t5 be5 he>d to say 7says a 
fragm5t ( autobiography7 t he felt !    
consequ5ces ( 8 p>5ts' m>riage1 n only  
?r\gh ! :ole c\rse ( 8 education1 b dur+
 ! great] "p ( 8 life4 ,if !y _h n      
m>ri$1 he app>5tly implies1 he w\ld h   
be5 born ( o!r p>5ts1 & c]ta9ly w\ld h  
felt x = life4 ,:at ! ^w he means 9 t   
connection1 is a puzzle = logicians4 ,i 
fell into ! difficulty myself1 ! o!r    
day1 :5 ,i _h occasion to say t a man's 
"* _h be5 influ5c$1 bo? by 8 inh]itance 
( c]ta9 qualities & by ! lat]           
circum/ances ( 8 education4 ,hav+ said  
?is1 :i*1 ,i ?9k1 aim$ at a real mean+1 
x occurr$ to me t ! phrase 0 grossly    
illogical1 & ,i %all be /ill oblig$ if  
any "o w put x /raight = me4 ,!         
difficulty 01 t ,i _h us$ ! same =m (   
words to indicate ! influ5ce ( a        
sep>able accid5t1 & to describe "o      
aspect ( ! ess5tial "*4 ,to say t a man 
is influ5c$ by 8 education is to say t  
he w\ld h be5 diff]5t _h he gone1 =     
example1 to ano!r s*ool4 ,t is          

intelligible4 ,b to say t he w\ld h be5 
diff]5t if he _h be5 born ( o!r p>5ts is
 absurd1 = he w\ld n h be5 he4 ,he w\ld 
n h exi/$ at all4 ,he means ! man :o has
 gr[n out ( ! baby ) all its innate     
qualities2 & n "s1 b all ^? qualities1 !
 v ess5ce ( ! man himself1 is1 ( c\rse1 
! product ( 8 prog5itors4 ,su* phrases1 
9 %ort1 sugge/ ! fancy t a man _h a     
pre-exi/5ce some:]e1 & w5t ab\t l ,er ! 
,pamphylian 9 ,plato's my?1 select+ !   
conditions ( 8 next /ay ^u e>?4 ,9 t    
case1 no d\bt1 !re might be "s mean+ 9 !
 doctr9e4 ,! "* ( ! future inc>nation   
w\ld dep5d ^u ! s\l's *oice ( position4 
,b z we "k no?+ ab\t any pre-exi/5t s\l1
 we mu/ agree t ea* ( u />ts z ! little 
lump ( humanity1 e *>act]i/ic ( :i* is  
det]m9$ by ! *>act]i/ics ( ! p>5ts1     
h[ev] mu* its lat] c>e] may be affect$  
by ! indep5d5t p[]s ( ?\ght & volition  
:i* x develops4 ,s mu*1 x seems to me1  
mu/ be grant$ on all h&s1 & is p]haps   
implicitly d5i$ by no "o4  ,b grant+ ?is
 v obvi\s rem>k1 :at h>m does h]$ity d  

u8 ,x is ! mo/ famili> ( all rem>ks t y 
& ,i & all ( u dep5d ^u our bra9s 9 "s  
s5se4 ,if !y are pi]c$1 we die2 if !y   
are inflam$1 we g mad2 & _! con/itution 
det]m9es ! :ole ( our c>e]4 ,a gra9 ( s&
 9 ! wrong place1 z ! old epigrams h    
told u1--9 ,caes>'s eye1 = example1--may
 *ange ! c\rse ( hi/ory4 ,t unlucky fly1
 :i*1 z ,full] rem>ks1 c\ld f9d no o!r  
place to creep into 9 ! :ole patrimony (
 ,/4 ,pet] except ! ,pope's ?roat1 *ok$ 
! unlucky man1 &1 = ! "t at lea/1 alt]$ 
! ecclesia/ical ord] ( ,*ri/5dom4 ,9 o!r
 words1 we are dep5d5t at e in/ant ^u   
elem5ts 9 ! outside _w1--bact]ia1 =     
in/ance1--& ! work+ ( our own physical  
organism4 ,b1 t be+ s1 :at conceivable  
diff]5ce does x make :e!r ! bra91 :i* we
 c]ta9ly did n ourselves make1 has a    
fix$ resemblance to t ( our p>5ts1 or   
be1 if x be possible1 ! product ( "s o!r
 s]ies ( processes8 ,x is important1 no 
d\bt1 to recognise ! fact2 x w\ld be ( !
 highe/ importance if we c\ld def9e !   
exact nature ( ! fact2 b ! influ5ce ^u  

any g5]al e?ical doctr9e ( ! recognition
 ( ! b>e fact itself seems to be        
precisely no?+ at all4 ,x is "p ( !     
necess>y data ( all psy*ological        
speculation1 & has be5 recognis$ ) m or 
less precision f ! v fir/ attempts to   
speculate4  ,try+1 once m1 to discov]   
:at x is t al>ms1 or is said to al>m1 "s
 p1 we are rem9d$ ( c]ta9 facts1 :i*    
aga9 are ( pr(\nd int]e/ 9 "s respects4 
,i take a special in/ance1--n1          
un=tunately1 a r>e or at all a /range   
in/ance1--to illu/rate ! po9t4 ,_m ye>s 
ago ,i knew a cl]gyman1 a man ( mo/     
amiable "* & ref9$ ta/es4 ,"o morn+ he  
%ock$ 8 fri5ds by p]=m+ ! ,*ur* s]vice 9
 a /ate ( intoxication1 & )9 a few mon?s
 _h drunk himself to dea?4 ,! case 0    
expla9$1--t is1 a prop] "n = x 0        
f\nd1--:5 we le>nt t m ?an "o ( 8 ne>e/ 
relations _h develop$ simil>            
prop5sities1 & di$ 9 mu* ! same way4 ,!n
 we call$ x an in/ance ( h]$it>y        
dipsomania1 & 7 m or less consol$ by !  
classification4 ,we 7 n1 ,i ?9k1        

unreasonable4 ,! discov]y prov$ app>5tly
 t ! man :om we _h respect$ & admir$ 0 n
 a vulg> debau*ee1 :o _h be5            
hypocritically conceal+ 8 vices2 b t he 
_h really possess$ ! excell5t qualities 
attribut$ to him1 only comb9$ ) an      
un=tunate con/itutional t5d5cy1 :i* 0 z 
mu* a "p ( 8 orig9al nature z a t5d5cy  
to g\t or consumption4 ,n[ ?is1 z ,i    
?9k1 sugge/s ! problem :i* puzzles u at 
times4 ,a man develops "s vici\s        
prop5sity1 = :i* we 7 q unprep>$4 ,9 "s 
cases1 p]haps1 he may %[ homicidal mania
 or kleptomania1 or "s ( ! o!r manias   
:i* physicians h discov]$ 9 late ye>s4  
,!y say1 ?\gh ! lawy]s are r            
recalcitrant1 t a man suff]+ f su* a    
mania is n responsible2 & if ask$1 :y n8
 !y reply1 because he 0 ! victim ( a    
disease :i* made him unable to resi/ !  
morbid impulse4 ,b !n1 we say1 are n all
 our actions dep5d5t ^u our physical    
con/itution8 ,if a man develops         
homicidal mania1 may n a murd]] ( !     
av]age type excuse himself ^u ! same    

gr\nd8 ,y h committ$ an action1 we say1 
:i* %[s y to be a man ( abnormal        
wick$ness4 ,y are a blood?ir/y1 f]oci\s1
 inhuman villa94 ,c]ta9ly1 he may reply2
 b if y c\ld exam9e my bra9 y w\ld see t
 ,i c\ld n be any?+ else4 ,!re is some?+
 wrong ab\t its molecul> con/ruction1 or
 ab\t ! %ape ( ! skull into :i* x 0     
fitt$1 :i* makes blood?ir/9ess q z      
inevitable 9 me z a t5d5cy to dr9k is 9 
o!rs1 or p]haps z ! mo/ ard5t           
philan?ropy may be 9 "s4 ,9 %ort1 ,i am 
a murd]]2 b wick$ness is s natural to me
 t y mu/ 9 all fairness excuse me4  ,?is
 is1 ( c\rse1 a k9d ( excuse :i* w\ld n 
free a man f ! gall[s4 ,x w\ld simply   
sugge/ t puni%m5t %\ld n be consid]$ f !
 moral1 b1 if ,i may say s1 f ! sanit>y 
po9t ( view4 ,we %\ld hang ! murd]]--n  
to satisfy our s5se ( ju/ice1 b to get  
rid ( a nuisance4 ,i w n n[ inquire :at 
may be said ^u t und\bt$ly difficult    
problem2 b ,i mu/ t\* ^u ! previ\s "q   
:i* is rais$ by ! argum5t4 ,w\ld our    
suppos$ murd]] make out a good case =   

himself8 ,is !re no diff]5ce betwe5 him 
& ! maniac2 or1 r1 :at is ! nature ( !  
diff]5ce :i* we cle>ly recognise 9      
practice8 ,9 ! extreme case :i* our     
ance/ors took z ! typical case1 ! madman
 kills because he is "u "s complete     
illusion3 he supposes t he is only      
break+ a glass :5 he is really tak+ a   
life1 & s =?4 ,he is !re=e n wick$1 b   
accid5tally mis*iev\s4 ,we h n[ come to 
recognise ! exi/5ce ( _m /ates ( m9d    
int]v5+ betwe5 ?is & complete sanity4   
,among !m1 = example1 is ! /ate ( m9d ( 
! homicidal monomaniac1 ^: prop5sity is 
consid]$ to be ! cause ( 8 actions1 &   
:i* may be consi/5t ) 8 be+ 9 _m o!r    
respects capable ( act+ ^u ! ord9>y     
motives & judg+ reasonably 9 mo/ ( !    
affairs ( life4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! mean+ ( !
 /atem5t t he is a madman1 & !re=e      
excusable8 ,! cont5tion mu/1 ( c\rse1   
be1 9 ! fir/ place1 t 8 "* is 9 "s way  
abnormal4 ,he is n gov]nable by ! ord9>y
 motives :i* det]m9e human action4 ,b1  
beyond ?is1 x is evid5t t ! abnormality 

is tak5 to mean some?+ m ?an ! m]e      
deviation f ! av]age4 ,a man may be     
abom9ably wick$1 & yet n 9 ! lea/       
abnormal 9 ! s5se "h requir$4 ,he may be
 defici5t 9 ! high] motives1 & ! m      
brutal passions may be unusually        
develop$2 & yet we d n hold t he !re=e  
deviates f ! type4 ,s1 9 a diff]5t      
sph]e1 we may h "o man possess+ enorm\s 
/r5g? & ano!r exce$+ly feeble1 "o v     
active & ano!r v clumsy2 & yet !y may   
all be p]fectly normal1 !y are free f   
physical disease1 & all _! physical     
functions may be p]=m$ accord+ to !     
normal sy/em4 ,entire fre$om f disease1 
9 %ort1 is p]fectly compatible )        
exce$+ly wide deviations f ! av]age1 )  
capacity = walk+ a ?\s& miles 9 a ?\s&  
h\rs1 or ) inability to walk a s+le     
mile2 & yet su* deviations d n imply a  
dep>ture f a c]ta9 common type4 ,to say 
precisely :at symptoms indicate m]e     
diff]5ces )9 ! normal type1 & :at imply 
an actual deviation f ! type1 is        
exce$+ly difficult1 if n impossible2 &  

yet t su* a di/9ction exi/s has to be   
con/antly recognis$4 ,s-&-s is delicate1
 b n diseas$2 feeble1 b n de=m$1 has a  
def9ite mean+1 ?\gh we may be unable to 
def9e ! precise mean+ ( our words1 or to
 decide :i* /atem5t is true 9 p>ticul>  
cases4  ,! great difficulty 9 ! case (  
insanity corresponds to ?is4 ,!         
physician tells u t ! madman's m9d works
 abnormally1 b n abnormally 9 ! s5se    
m]ely ( hav+ "s faculties weak] & o!rs  
/rong] ?an is common2 b 9 su* a way z to
 indicate disease1 &1 moreov]1 a        
p>ticul> k9d ( disease1 or "o1 p]haps1 (
 sev]al p>ticul> k9ds ( diseases4 ,!    
vagu5ess ( ?is /atem5t provokes lawy]s1 
:o h a natural love ( def9ite ext]nal   
te/s to gov]n _! decisions2 & x has l$  
to a numb] ( delicate discussions1 ^u   
:i* ,i ne$ n ent]4 ,! legal problem     
seems ess5tially to be1 :at te/s %\ld   
guide u 9 det]m9+ :e!r a man %\ld be    
reg>d$ z a normal human be+1 or z a be+ 
s f> diff]+ f ! normal type t he %\ld be
 treat$ exceptionally1 & especially put 

"u ! guidance ( o!r p]sons1 & excus$ f  
legal responsibility1 t is1 liability to
 puni%m5t4  ,i h to d ) ! moral problem 
alone4 ,x is a /ill m difficult problem2
 b x has ?is advantage1 t we d n require
 s def9ite an answ]4 ,we h n1 happily1  
to decide :e!r our fell[s %all g to     
heav5 or to hell1 ?\gh we h to decide   
:e!r !y %all be hang$ or lock$ up2 & we 
mu/ be cont5t z a rule ) v vague        
e/imates z to _! moral "*4 ,:at we      
practically h to take1 m or less r\ghly1
 into acc\nt is simply ?is3 t our       
inf]5ce f conduct to "* has (t5 to be   
modifi$ by ! exi/5ce ( ^! abnormal      
cases4 ,a man is drunk on an important  
occasion2 ,i inf]1 z a rule1 t he has   
all ! qualities :i* g ) l[ s5suality2 b 
9 "s cases ! inf]5ce is wrong2 ! man may
 be really a p]son ( mo/ admirable      
feel+s2 b "o ( 8 in/9cts has sudd5ly    
tak5 an abnormal developm5t1 ow+ to a   
set ( causes entirely diff]5t f ! usual 
causes4 ,ano!r man sudd5ly & causelessly
 kills a fri5d4 ,! natural inf]5ce t he 

mu/ be a blood?ir/y brute is errone\s1  
if x turns out t he has act$ f impulses 
n g5]at$ by any habitual want (         
b5evol5ce1 b f "s special defect 9 !    
con/itution ( 8 bra94 ,9 o!r words1 our 
moral judgm5t mu/ v>y 9 ! two cases1 &  
may v>y s mu* t ! same action may       
rightly sugge/ only pity 9 "o case &    
abhorr5ce 9 ! o!r2 al?\gh1 9 _m cases1  
:]e x may be v difficult to say :at is !
 precise implication z to "*1 ! judgm5t 
mu/1 if we are prop]ly diffid5t1 rema9  
obscure4 ,! moral problem always dep5ds 
ultimately ^u ?is3 ,:at is ! "* impli$  
by ?is conduct8 ,if ! moral conduct %[s 
malignity )9 ! normal type1 x ju/ifies  
condemnation2 if x %[s only a bl9d      
in/9ctive impulse1 due to a deflection f
 ! type1 x may ju/ify no o!r feel+s ?an 
^? :i* we h = ! poor maniac :o fancies  
himself a k+1 & takes 8 limbs to be made
 ( glass4  ,if we hold t su*            
responsibility implies free w we %all   
argue t ! madman is depriv$ ( free w1 or
 t 8 fre$om ( w is m or less re/rict$1 &

 t he is !re=e irresponsible4 ,9 my own 
op9ion1 t proposition w\ld be by no     
means an easy "o to e/abli%4 ,i fancy t 
a man may be insane & yet capable1 )9 v 
wide limits1 ( be+ good or bad1 & t     
!re=e we mu/ at any rate hold t he has  
/ill "s p[] ( free w4 ,! be>+ ( ?is ^u !
 "q ( moral responsibility br+s u )9    
sight ( "s delicate problems4 ,b1 h[ev] 
?is may be1 ! crit]ion by :i* we %all h 
to judge :e!r we are believ]s 9 free w  
or det]m9i/s w be ! same4 ,! problem is 
ess5tially1 is ?is man accessible to !  
motives by :i* normal m5 regulate _!    
conduct8 or does he s f> deflect f !    
typical con/itution1 h[ev] t con/itution
 may be precisely def9$1 t 8 consci5ce  
or 8 affections or 8 intellectual p[]s  
are unable to act accord+ to ! g5]al    
laws ( human nature8  ,hav+ said s mu*1 
,i ?9k t ,i may proce$ to ?is           
conclusion1 t ! !ory ( h]$ity c make no 
real diff]5ce :atev] to our problem4    
,!re is a difficulty = !                
metaphysician--! difficulty :i* is      

involv$ 9 discussions betwe5 mat]iali/s 
& ideali/s1 det]m9i/s & believ]s 9 free 
w4 ,i d n d5y ! exi/5ce ( t difficulty4 
,i only say t ! "q ( h]$ity is altoge!r 
irrelevant to ! difficulty4 ,! desire to
 treat e?ical problems by ! me?ods (    
sci5ce may pr$ispose a ?9k] to          
mat]ialism1 & may at ! same "t lead him 
to atta* p>ticul> importance to !       
doctr9e ( h]$ity4 ,b t doctr9e only     
takes note ( facts :i* e !ory has to    
/ate 9 its own phraseology1 & d n alt] !
 ultimate problem4  ,let u1 9 fact1 g   
back to our murd]]4 ,i am n responsible1
 he says1 because ,i am det]m9$ by !    
processes 9 my bra94 ,i am a m]e ma*9e1 
gr9d+ out "o set ( actions or ano!r z   
ext]nal accid5ts set my :eels & pulleys 
9 motion4 ,if t argum5t be fatal to     
moral responsibility1 or to ! belief t  
any truly moral action exi/s 7a po9t :i*
 ,i d n argue71 x w no d\bt remove !    
moral elem5t f ! treatm5t bo? ( murd]]s 
& madm54 ,!y might /ill require diff]5t 
measures1 j z we treat a ma*9e diff]5tly

 :5 we consid] t x is n ( ! normal      
con/ruction1 or t its v>i\s p>ts h      
someh[ got out ( ge>1 s t we c no long]1
 = example1 expect t ! ma9spr+ w        
transmit its motion to ! :eels4 ,b1 9   
any case1 if ! dep5d5ce ^u ! body be a  
fatal objection to morality 9 ! highe/  
s5se1 ! circum/ance t ! body is made ^u 
! plan ( previ\sly exi/+ bodies makes no
 additional difficulty4 ,if we c\ld     
suppose e bra9 to be />t$ afre% by a    
=tuit\s conc\rse ( atoms1 ! difficulty  
w\ld be nei!r increas$ nor dim9i%$4 ,!  
problem1 are we automatic8 & ! validity 
( ! inf]5ce1 is morality mean+less8 are 
que/ions altoge!r indep5d5t ( ! "q1 :at 
p>ticul> k9d ( automata are we8 & d we  
or d we n resemble a previ\s g5]ation ( 
automata8  ,if1 h[ev]1 we reply to !    
crim9al t he is n a ma*9e or an         
automaton1 b a responsible1 reason+1 &  
?9k+ be+1 we d n get away f ! facts4 ,we
 !n ass]t t he is responsible because he
 possesses a c]ta9 moral con/itution4 ,b
 :atev] words we may use to express !   

facts correctly1 we mu/ /ill all[ t !re 
is su* a correlation betwe5 s\l & body  
7if ^? old-fa%ion$ words be admissible7 
t ! heal? ( 8 moral con/itution dep5ds  
at e in/ant ^u ! heal? ( 8 n]v\s sy/em &
 8 bra94 ,x may be %att]$ or de/roy$ by 
an injury2 &1 if ?is be s1 :at does x   
matt] :e!r ! injury--say ! defective    
%ape ( ! skull1 :i* causes pressure on !
 bra9--is due to "s accid5t or to a     
connate mal=mation due to 8 p>5ts8 ,!   
difficulty1 if x be difficulty1 is t !  
want ( responsibility is due to "s      
cause1 accid5tal relatively to him2 & x 
matt]s n :e!r t cause be 9 8 p>5ts'     
con/itution or 9 "s o!r comb9ation (    
circum/ances4 ,9 any case1 we h to      
suppose1 :atev] ! relation ( m9d & body1
 we mu/ at lea/ assume t a man is born )
 "s "*4 ,l ev]y?+ t exi/s1 he has c]ta9 
def9ite qualities :i* he did n make =   
himself1 & ^u :i* 8 subsequ5t developm5t
 dep5ds4 ,&1 if t be once admitt$1 !    
:ole difficulty /ill occurs1 & ! "q z to
 :e!r ! orig9 ( ^! innate qualities be  

d]iv$ f 8 p>5ts or f a some?+ else is a 
m]e matt] ( detail4  ,9 fact1 !         
confusion seems to me to arise f ! vague
 phraseology :i* induces u to accept1   
virtually at lea/1 ! m5tal attitude (   
,dean ,swift 9 ,er ! ,pamphylian4 ,we   
speak z if ! man 7 an indep5d5t entity1 
ly+ someh[ outside ! *a9 ( cause &      
effect1 & arbitr>ily plung$ into x2 nay1
 z if ev5 8 inn] con/itution 7 some?+   
sup]9duc$ ^u 8 nature4 ,x is really an  
absurd ab/raction to di/+ui% betwe5 !   
man & 8 "*1 z ?\gh he meant a some?+    
exi/+ )\t a "*1 & aft]w>ds run into a   
m\ld by fate4 ,! "* is ! man 9 c]ta9    
relations1 & he c nev] exi/ )\t x1 any m
 ?an a piece ( matt] c be outside ( all 
p>ticul> times & places4 ,if ! doctr9e (
 free w & moral responsibility be s     
int]pret$ z to imply our acceptance (   
su* fallacies1 ,i c only say t x appe>s 
to me to be irreconcilable ) ! mo/      
und5iable facts4 ,b ,i am v f> f suppos+
 t any intellig5t support] ( ! doctr9e  
w\ld /ate x 9 su* a =m4 ,he w\ld admit z

 fully z ,i d ! facts1 &1 if !y c be    
admitt$ & reconcil$ to ! doctr9e ( moral
 responsibility1 c]ta9ly ! doctr9e (    
h]$ity c be s reconcil$4 ,! only        
peculi>ity ( ! doctr9e is1 t x has call$
 att5tion to an ord] ( facts :i* mu/ 9  
any case be recognis$ by e philosoph]2 &
 t x helps1 !re=e1 to disp]se a fallacy 
:i* only requires articulate /atem5t to 
%[ its radical want ( logic or ev5      
conceivability4 ,we are1 beyond all     
d\bt1 affect$ someh[1 & affect$         
pr(\ndly1 by our environm5t2 & ?is      
p>ticul> =m ( relation to o!r be+s has  
no m be>+ ^u ! problem ?an ! o!r =ces   
:i* h be5 recognis$ ev] s9ce speculation
 began4  ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r side f   
:i* ,i mu/ briefly consid] ! "q (       
h]$ity2 & x is a side :i*1 ,i ?9k1 is   
really m important1 because x involves  
issues ( facts1 & has sugge/$ "s m      
reasonable prejudices4 ,x is1 und\bt$ly1
 v common t :5 a !ory has obta9$ a c]ta9
 curr5cy x %\ld be appli$ ra%ly beyond  
its prop] limits4 ,:5 ! speculations (  

,d>w9 enc\rag$ u to believe t ! natural 
selection might be analog\s to          
artificial selection1 t diff]5t species 
( animals h be5 produc$ z v>ieties (    
dogs & pigeons h be5 produc$ by bre$]s1 
x 01 at lea/1 tempt+ to apply ! same    
=mula directly to o!r cases4 ,"s m5 (   
sci5ce h endeav\r$ to %[ t g5ius or     
crim9ality is h]$it>y2 & t1 if "o man   
writes a great poem & ano!r picks a     
pocket1 x is always 9 virtue ( _!       
h]$it>y end[m5t4 ,)9 c]ta9 limits1 ?is  
/atem5t is n surpris+1 & ,i %all be v   
glad :5 m5 ( sci5ce c tell u :at ^?     
limits may be4 ,)\t be+ a man ( sci5ce1 
,i fully believe t our cong5ital        
*>act]i/ics =m1 z ,i h said1 c]ta9      
impassable limits to our developm5t4 ,"o
 baby is a pot5tial ,%akespe>e1 &1      
probably1 only "o 9 a million4 ,!       
qualities ) :i* he />ts1 aga91 are1 no  
d\bt1 d]iv$ f 8 p>5ts1 ?\gh we d n1 z   
yet1 und]/& 9 :at way2 :e!r1 = example1 
we %\ld inf] t ,%akespe>e's p>5ts _h m  
?an usual capacity1 or 7 especially     

heal?y1 or _h "s peculi> =m ( "o-sid$   
developm5t :i* g5]at$ ! disease call$   
poetical g5ius2 or :e!r he may h inh]it$
 qualities f a remote ance/or1 :i* _h   
rema9$ lat5t = sev]al g5]ations4 ,9 any 
case1 he 0 at bir? only a pot5tial      
,%akespe>e4 ,he might h di$ ( ! measles1
 or be5 made /upid by a sun/roke1 or h  
tak5 to dr9k 9 bad company1 or h run    
away to sea1 or be5 s5t to ! ,univ]sity 
& become a m]e bi%op or pr(essor (      
casui/ry2 9 %ort1 ?\gh he c\ld n easily 
h done v mu* bett] "w ?an he did1 he    
might h done inconceivably less4 ,t is  
to say1 8 cong5ital qualities impli$    
c]ta9 p[]s2 b :at he w\ld d ) !m rema9$ 
to be p>tly det]m9$ by an indef9ite     
v>iety ( ext]nal circum/ances act+ ^u   
him 9 v>i\s ways4 ,h5ce1 we h always !  
complex problem1 :at1 giv5 c]ta9 raw    
mat]ial 9 ! %ape ( new-born babies1 w be
 ! *>act]i/ics ( ! f9i%$ product 9 !    
%ape ( a gr[n-up population8 ,if !      
social /ate is det]m9$ f ! inh]it$      
qualities directly1 we %\ld be able1 =  

example1 to inf] f a giv5 proportion (  
crim9als1 t a c]ta9 numb] ( *ildr5 7    
born ) a correspond+ physical           
con/itution1 ) =eheads villa9\s l[1 &   
progna?\s jaws1 & ) ! o!r peculi> signs 
:i* m>k ! felon f 8 bir?4 ,9 t case1    
aga91 we %\ld inf]1 ,i suppose1 t ! only
 possible means ( improv+ ! social /ate 
w\ld be by someh[ improv+ ! bre$2       
p]haps1 by appo9t+ "s ( ! inspectors :o 
play s great a "p 9 mod]n society1 to   
exam9e infants1 & get rid ( ^? :o 7 ?us 
di/+ui%$1 by ! means n[ adopt$ 9 ! case 
( sup]flu\s puppies4 ,"o objection to   
?is sy/em is1 ( c\rse1 t m5 ( sci5ce h n
 yet %[n t !y are qualifi$ = ex]cis+ su*
 a sup]vision2 & !re are o!r            
difficulties ^u :i* ,i ne$ n dwell4 ,?is
 mu*1 inde$1 we may grant )\t any       
sci5tific prepossessions :atev]4 ,x is  
cle>ly v desirable t e g5]ation %\ld    
raise up = its successors z _m *ildr5 ) 
/urdy bodies & vigor\s bra9s z possible2
 & x is to be hop$ t ! objection to     
transmitt+ disease & imbecility may be m

 g5]ally recognis$1 &1 9 "s %ape or o!r1
 h an influ5ce ev5 ^u ! /ronge/         
passions4 ,b ,i am only conc]n$ ) !     
g5]al !ory1 :i*1 if ,i und]/& x rightly1
 w\ld appe> to imply t ! *>act]i/ics ( a
 society are irrevocably fix$ by !      
*>act]i/ics ( ! *ildr5 born into x2 &1  
:e!r ?is !ory be true or false1 we mu/  
admit t x has a consid]able be>+ ^u     
morality4 ,if1 9 fact1 we hold x to be  
rigidly true1 we %\ld h to suppose t no 
s]i\s improvem5t c be produc$ 9 society 
at l>ge1 except by bre$+ a sup]ior race 
( m54 ,?is1 aga91 is a disc\rag+        
prospect4 ,let me quote :at has be5 said
 by an au?ority :o expresses1 ,i        
believe1 ! accept$ sci5tific view4 ,!re 
c be no d\bt1 says ,pr(essor ,huxley1 t 
va/ *anges h tak5 place 9 ,engli%       
civilisation s9ce ! days ( ! ,tudors4 ,b
 ,i am n aw>e t !re is a s+le p>ticle ( 
evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! conclusion t ?is    
evolution>y process has be5 accompani$  
by any modification ( ! physical or !   
m5tal *>act]s ( ! m5 :o h be5 ! subjects

 ( x4 ,i h n met ) any gr\nds = suspect+
 t ! av]age ,engli%m5 ( to-day are      
s5sibly diff]5t f ^? t ,%akespe>e knew &
 drew4 ,! /atem5t1 ,i imag9e1 might be v
 mu* ext5d$4 ,i d n suppose t ! av]age  
cockney ( to-day is a sup]ior animal1   
physically or morally1 to ! av]age      
,a!nian ( ! days ( ,p]icles1 or ev51 x  
may be1 to ! pre-hi/oric savages :o made
 fl9t implem5ts = ! amusem5t ( our      
antiqu>ies4 ,briefly1 :atev] *ange has  
tak5 place1 )9 hi/orical p]iod1 has be5 
a social *ange1 n a *ange 9 ! /ructure (
 ! individual4 ,?is is surely           
conceivable4 ,we ne$ only consid]1 =    
example1 h[ va/ a *ange has be5 made 9  
all ! conditions ( life by ! mod]n      
applications ( practical sci5ce4 ,:e!r1 
9 o!r respects1 we are bett] or worse   
?an our =efa!rs1 we h an enorm\sly      
great] aggregate ( weal? n[ ?an we _h1  
say1 two c5turies ago2 we c support f\r 
times ! population1 ?\gh ! condition ( !
 l[e/ /ratum may n be bett]4 ,& ?is     
amaz+ advance ( weal? is n due to ! fact

 t ,engli%m5 ( to-day h bett] bra9s =   
ma!matics ?an ! ,engli%m5 ( ,newton's   
"t2 b to ! accumulation ( capital1 !    
improvem5t ( ! natural conditions ( !   
soil1 ! turn+ to acc\nt ( va/ masses (  
mat]ial1 previ\sly neglect$2 to !       
inv5tion ( ma*9]y1 & s =?2 all ( :i*    
imply1 n necess>ily ! v slighte/        
improvem5t ( natural capacity1 b simply 
! gr[? ( k1 & ! fact t ea* g5]ation has 
pres]v$ m ?an x has consum$4 ,:at we    
call progress or civilisation1 :i*      
means1 :atev] else x may or may n mean1 
a gigantic increase 9 ! p[] ( man ov]   
nature1 is due1 !re=e1 to ! "o fact t   
man c accumulate4 ,he c modify ! e>? 9  
su* a way z to facilitate ! lab\rs ( !  
com+ g5]ations2 he c make tools :i* la/ 
beyond 8 own "t1 & :i* !mselves become1 
z x 71 ! ance/ors ( incomp>ably sup]ior 
tools2 he c1 moreov]1 accumulate &      
transmit k1 n m]ely ! k ( facts1 b ! k (
 sci5tific laws & ( useful inv5tions1 & 
( ! "r me?ods ( inve/igat+ facts4 ,:5   
,newton made a discov]y1 he made x = all

 ! foll[+ g5]ations2 &1 ?\gh x may well 
be t no sup]ior or ev5 equal intellect  
has s9ce aris5 to c>ry on 8 "w1 ! dw>f  
n[ /&s on ! %\ld]s ( ! giant4 ,x is n   
simply t we "k m facts4 ,! modes (      
ma!matical inquiry diff] z mu* f ^? :i* 
,newton c\ld employ1 z ! late/ /eam     
eng9e f ! crude fire ma*9e be=e ! "t (  
,watt2 & an av]age und]graduate c solve 
) ease problems :i* once puzzl$ !       
greate/ intellects t ev] appe>$ among   
m54 ,man1 !n1 c accumulate2 & t simple  
fact enables e g5]ation enorm\sly to    
surpass its pr$ecessors4 ,accumulation1 
aga91 is1 ( c\rse1 a =m ( inh]itance4   
,we are born heirs to ! intellectual z  
well z to ! mat]ial =tunes ( our        
ance/ors4 ,b1 x is obvi\s1 ?is is some?+
 v diff]5t f h]$ity4 ,x supposes an     
alt]ation1 n 9 ! man1 b 9 8 surr\nd+s or
 8 education 9 ! wide/ s5se2 n 9 8      
intellectual capacity1 b 9 ! k :i* x c  
atta9 & ! rules :i* x has work$ out4 ,9 
ord] t a man may be capable ei!r (      
bequea?+ or inh]it+1 he mu/ h c]ta9     

faculties2 he mu/ be an obs]v+1         
rememb]+1 reason+ animal2 b he may      
become indef9itely ri*]1 n f any        
improvem5t 9 8 p[]s ( obs]v+ & rememb]+ 
& us+1 b simply f ! *ange 9 8 position4 
,p's memories1 x is sometimes sugge/$1 h
 be5 weak5$ by ! inv5tion ( pr9t+4 ,b1  
weak5$ or n1 we h an incomp>ably great] 
k ( ! pa/ ?an 0 =m]ly possible1 because 
we c n[ keep our memories ^u our        
book%elves1 9 ! =m ( hi/ories &         
encyclopa$ias1 & "k e fact t we want to 
"k :5 we want x1 )\t tr\bl+ ourselves to
 fill our m9ds ) all ! k t may ev] be   
possibly useful4 ,a libr>y is an ext]nal
 & mat]ialis$ memory4 ,b )\t illu/rat+ s
 pla9 a po9t any fur!r1 ,i simply take  
note ( :at x implies3 t is1 t1 z        
,pr(essor ,huxley has po9t$ out1 all t  
di/+ui%es ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s f ! /ate (
 ?+s 9 ! "t ( ,elizabe?1 or1 p]haps1 at 
! "t ( remote ,egyptian dyna/ies1 may be
 due1 n to any *ange 9 ! individual1 b  
to :at is call$ ! social factor4 ,!     
inf]5ce f ! individual to ! society1 or 

f ! society to ! individual1 is1 !re=e1 
rigidly impossible1 because1 giv5 ! man1
 ! position 9 :i* he is plac$ & ! /age (
 developm5t ( ! society to :i* he       
belongs1 are relevant facts :i* ex]cise 
an incalculably great influ5ce4  ,if ?is
 be true1 :at foll[s8 ,we rem>k1 9 !    
fir/ place1 t ! evolution ( :i* we speak
 9 reg>d to natural hi/ory1 ! process by
 :i* ! pres5t population ( ! globe has  
gradually gr[n out ( ! population (     
remote geological epo*s1 is sl[4 ,!     
*anges :i* x may produce are n s5sible  
)9 a g5]ation--=1 inde$1 ! v nature ( ! 
case implies t !y mu/ take _m           
g5]ations--n p]haps ev5 )9 su* a p]iod z
 is cov]$ by all au!ntic hi/ory4 ,x is  
n1 ( c\rse1 on t acc\nt to be ov]look$ =
 sci5tific purposes4 ,monkeys mu/ h gr[n
 into m5 be=e !y c\ld beg9 to accumulate
 capital1 ei!r mat]ial or spiritual4 ,! 
faculty ( accumulat+ mu/ itself h be5   
develop$4 ,only :5 once x 0 develop$1   
ano!r process w\ld beg91 ! process (    
social evolution1 :i*1 h[ev] x may      

resemble ! o!r1 or possibly be 9 "s s5se
 its cont9uation1 proce$s1 at lea/1 at a
 totally diff]5t rate4 ,! diff]5ce is   
comp>able1 "o may say r\ghly1 to !      
diff]5ce betwe5 ! spe$ ( an express tra9
 & ! spe$ ( a f\r-:eel$ waggon4 ,b5ea? !
 surface1 x may be1 ! sl[] process is   
/ill cont9u+2 m51 = any?+ ,i c say to ! 
contr>y1 may be acquir+ l>g] bra9s & m  
s5sitive bodies2 & x is fur!r possible1 
or r obvi\s1 t if we c d any?+ to       
facilitate ?is proce$+1 to behave s z to
 give nature a bett] *ance ( turn+ out  
bett] "w1 we ought to d s4 ,only nature 
is pretty sure to take h] "t ab\t x4 ,h[
 f>1 aga91 "o process is to be consid]$ 
z a cont9uation ( ! o!r1 or z a         
modification1 or ev5 z 9 opposition to  
x1 is a po9t :i* ,i _c n[ t\*4 ,:at ,i h
 to say is simply ?is3 t if we take any 
two p]iods ( society1 ! pres5t1 =       
example1 & t ( a ?\s& or five ?\s& ye>s 
ago1 we %all f9d enorm\s or incalculably
 great diff]5ces 9 ! social /ructure1 9 
! am\nt ( k1 9 ! "* ( ! e?ical1         

religi\s1 & philosophical beliefs1 & 9 !
 relations betwe5 ! individuals ( :i* ! 
society is con/ruct$2 b betwe5 !        
individuals at ! two p]iods we may f9d  
h>dly any def9able diff]5ce :atev]4 ,=  
any?+ we c say1 we %\ld be able1 if we  
c\ld move p ab\t 9 "t z well z 9 space1 
to ex*ange a ?\s& infants ( ! n9ete5?   
c5tury ,a4,d41 = a ?\s& ( ! n9ete5?     
c5tury ,b4,c41 & nobody w\ld be able to 
detect ! diff]5ce :i* w\ld result4      
,h5ce x foll[s1 9 my op9ion1 t !        
evolution>y process ) :i* morali/s &    
political philosoph]s h practically to  
deal1 is :at ,i h call$ ! social1 & n ! 
individual process4 ,we inh]it ?\ghts z 
we inh]it weal?2 we inh]it cu/oms & laws
 & =ms ( wor%ip1 & inde$ our :ole m5tal 
furniture2 we c add enorm\sly to our    
inh]itance1 & c transmit ! augm5t$ fund 
to our desc5dants4 ,b ! o!r process (   
inh]itance1 to :i* ! ^w h]$ity is tak5  
to apply1 is n1 imm$iately at lea/1     
cumulative4 ,we inh]it ! old faculties1 
bodily & m5tal1 unalt]$1 or )           

inf9itesimal alt]ations1 ?\gh we live 9 
a diff]5t environm5t1 & are ourselves z 
mu* alt]$ z our environm5t4 ,! mod]n    
social organism is built up1 if ,i may  
say s1 ( cells almo/ id5tical 9 _!      
prop]ties ) ^? ( ! old organism1 al?\gh 
! mode ( comb9ation gives entirely new  
prop]ties to ! :ole1 & br+s out new     
actions & reactions among ! con/itu5t   
cells !mselves4  ,i h be5 t\*+ ! edge ( 
c]ta9 problems ( great int]e/ b enorm\s 
complexity1 & ,i %all v5ture to indicate
 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! views & "s :i* h  
rec5tly attract$ mu* att5tion4 ,mr4     
,kidd's "w ^u ,social ,evolution has    
made ! phrase popul>2 b1 in/ead ( us+ x 
9 my s5se1 he speaks z ?\gh social      
evolution involv$ :at ,i h call$        
individual evolution4 ,9 ord] to keep )9
 limits1 ,i w conf9e myself to "o case  
^u :i* he lays great /ress4 ,x w %[     
suffici5tly :y ,i hold 8 mode ( reason+ 
to be inconclusive4 ,mr4 ,kidd has      
a*iev$ success by v excell5t qualities1 
by rem>kable lit]>y ability1 & by 8     

uni=mly high tone ( moral feel+4 ,i     
%\ld1 !re=e1 be v sorry to speak ( him  
o!rwise ?an respectfully4 ,mr4 ,kidd1   
h[ev]1 *ooses to ma9ta9 a !sis 9 :i* he 
has c]ta9ly no p]sonal int]e/1--! !sis1 
namely1 t a little /upidity may be a v  
good ?+4 ,?is view is1 p]haps1          
intelligible :5 we obs]ve t he also     
ma9ta9s t ! progress ( ! race dep5ds ^u 
its hold+ ultra-rational1 :i* ,i ?9k he 
w\ld f9d x h>d to di/+ui% f irrational1 
beliefs4 ,9 support ( ?is view he writes
 a *apt] to prove t progress is n       
prim>ily intellectual4 ,! argum5t ( :i* 
,i h spok5 is "p ( ?is pro(4 ,! ,greeks1
 he tells u1 7 a race intellectually    
sup]ior to ourselves4 ,!y 71 s ,mr4     
,galton in=ms him1 two degrees above    
mod]n ,engli%m5 9 ! scale ( intellig5ce1
 & z sup]ior to u z we are to ! negro4  
,& yet1 says ,mr4 ,kidd1 ?is m>vell\s   
race di$ out1 & no trace ( its blood is 
n[ to be f\nd 9 ! pres5t population ( ! 
_w4 ,let u look %ortly into ! logic (   
?is argum5t1 & consid] h[ f> x is       

entitl$ to be reg>d$ z sci5tific        
reason+4  ,fir/ ( all1 ,i %\ld ask1 :at 
precisely is meant by ! ,greeks8 ,!     
argum5t is f\nd$ p>tly on ! numb] (     
great ?9k]s1 poets1 & arti/s1 9         
proportion to ! population4 ,n[1 x is   
obvi\sly ess5tial to a sci5tific /atem5t
 t we %\ld "k :at is ! population       
indicat$4 ,if we comp>e ! numb] ( great 
m5 at ,a!ns 9 its be/ p]iod ) ! numb] ( 
free ,a!nians1 we %all get "o ratio2 if 
we admit ! ,a!nian slaves1 or add       
,boeotia & o!r ,greek ,/ates to our     
population1 we get q a diff]5t ratio4 ,&
 ! diff]5ce is ( imm5se importance4 ,!  
small] ! population1 ! high] ! excell5ce
 indicat$ by a giv5 numb] ( great m52 b1
 also1 ! small] ! population1 ! less is 
! wond] t x %\ld h di$ out or be5       
swall[$ up 9 ! :irlpools ( political1   
religi\s1 & social convulsions4 ,a      
simil> rem>k applies 9 reg>d to ! p]iod 
dur+ :i* ?is race fl\ri%$4 ,:5 did !y   
beg9 & :5 did !y cease to be sup]ior to 
o!r p8 ,till ! /atem5t is m precise we d

 n ev5 "k :at are ! ph5om5a to be       
expla9$2 & ! case is susceptible ( any  
numb] ( explanations4 ,did ! sup]ior    
race cease to be prolific2 or 0 x       
prolific1 b ( inf]ior desc5dants2 &1 if 
s1 0 x because x 0 mix$ ) races ( an    
inf]ior /amp2 or 0 x because its        
position expos$ x to ! attacks ( m      
num]\s enemies2 or because its en]gy l$ 
x to attempt impossible feats8 ,has x   
di$ out1 or has x be5 swamp$ by o!r     
races8 ,to answ] su* que/ions is        
absolutely necess>y be=e we c say       
positively t ! high] organisation 0 !   
cause ( ! decay1 or t x did n cause !   
decay by "s indirect process due to !   
special comb9ation ( circum/ances4 ,b to
 answ] su* que/ions1 if !y be answ]able 
at all1 w\ld require ! inve/igations ( a
 lifetime1 & a ma/]y ( a :ole s]ies (   
/udies1 hi/orical1 /ati/ical1           
e?nological1 & s =?1 9 :i* ,i am an     
absolute ignoramus4 ,b ,i _c p]ceive t  
,mr4 ,kidd claims m ?an second-h&       
in=mation4  ,b1 secondly1 !re is ano!r  

obvi\s "q to :i* an answ] is necess>y4  
,mr4 ,kidd & ,mr4 ,galton d$uce _! view 
ab\t ,greek intellect1 fir/1 f !        
proportion ( great m54 ,does1 !n1 !     
occurr5ce ( a gr\p ( great m5 at a c]ta9
 p]iod prove a sup]ior organisation 9 ! 
race8 ,t leads to a v famili> problem3  
,:at 7 ! causes ( :at we may call !     
fl[]+ times ( arts & sci5ces8 ,we are   
all famili> ) ! ph5om5on2 ) ! sudd5     
display ( a/oni%+ excell5ce at ,a!ns1 at
 ,flor5ce1 or 9 ! ,engl& ( ,elizabe?4 ,x
 seems to be ! rule t processes :i* may 
h be5 go+ on quietly = c5turies sudd5ly 
culm9ate2 t arti/ic1 poetic1 or         
philosophic excell5ce becomes           
unprec$5t$ly common = a g5]ation or two1
 & t ! impulse !n dies away z rapidly4  
,x is ! k9d ( problem :i* is            
satisfactorily solv$ by ! au?ors (      
univ]sity prize essays1 :i* someh[ fail 
to conv9ce ! _w or to be republi%$ by _!
 writ]s4 ,are we1 !n1 entitl$ to argue f
 ! great works an organic sup]iority 9 !
 race8 ,mu/ we suppose1 = example1 t    

,engli%m5 at ! "t ( ,%akespe>e & ,bacon 
& ,sp5s] & ,raleigh 7 an abl] race ?an  
_! desc5dants1 because1 :5 !re 0 a v mu*
 small] numb] ( educat$ m51 !y produc$ m
 fir/-rate au?ors ?an h be5 produc$ by  
g5]ations mu* m num]\s & m g5]ally      
cultivat$8 ,?is seems to me at lea/ to  
be a v ra% hypo!sis2 & "s ( ! obvi\s    
rem>ks made 9 our univ]sity essays seem 
to me to indicate consid]ations :i*1    
?\gh n conclusive1 _c be neglect$4 ,x is
 cle>1 = example1 t p>ticul> /ages (    
intellectual progress are abnormally    
/imulat+2 t1 z ! la/ /ep to a pass 9 !  
m\nta9s sudd5ly reveals va/ prospects1  
:ile a hundr$ equally difficult /eps    
be=e made no appreciable *ange1 s !re   
are m5tal advances :i*1 z at ! "t (     
,bacon1 seem$ sudd5ly to disclose       
b\ndless prospects ( k4 ,x is ! ,pisgah 
sight ( ! promis$ l& :i* causes a bur/ (
 en]gy4 ,or1 aga91 a c]ta9 social       
condition is obvi\sly requir$2          
philosoph]s & poets may exi/ pot5tially 
among b>b>\s tribes1 b !y _c get a *ance

 to speak1 & !y h no opportunity (      
communication ) o!r ?9k]s4 ,! intellect 
may be impell$ 9 v>i\s directions1 "s ( 
:i* leave no trace ( a tangible k9d4 ,! 
am\nt ( intellectual p[] impli$ 9 build+
 up ! ,roman ,empire may h be5 z great z
 t impli$ 9 develop+ ,greek art2 & 9    
,am]ica1 z we are (t5 told1 intellect   
turns to doll>-mak+1 in/ead (           
book-writ+4 ,s1 conv]sely1 ! outbur/ (  
p[] may indicate1 n great] faculties1 b 
special opportunities1 or special       
/imulus1 appli$ to already exi/+        
faculties4 ,ev]ybody :o has writt5 an   
ae/hetic treatise has po9t$ to all mann]
 ( conditions :i* 7 9 ?is s5se fav\rable
 to ! ,greeks4 ,h[ f> su* conditions 7  
suffici5t ,i _c ev5 guess2 b at lea/ an 
all[ance mu/ be made = !m be=e we c     
argue f ! a*ievem5ts to ! intr9sic p[] (
 ! race :i* a*iev$4 ,i d n see t x is   
ev5 prov$ t ! av]age ,a!nian 0 9 ! lea/ 
sup]ior 9 ?is s5se to ! av]age          
,engli%man4 ,x w\ld require a lifetime (
 /udy to pron\nce any op9ion wor? hav+4 

,i fully confess t1 s f> z a vague      
impression is wor? any?+1 x is ! mo/    
obvi\s impression1 aft] look+ at ! ,elg9
 m>bles1 t ! ,greeks 7 possess$ ( a f9] 
organisation ?an ourselves4 ,/ill1 ,i _c
 accept z c]ta9 ! quasi-ma!matical =mula
 t ! ,greek is to ! ,engli%man z !      
,engli%man to ! negro4  ,?is1 h[ev]1    
sugge/s ano!r & v difficult s]ies (     
problems4 ,mr4 ,kidd is argu+ aga9/     
intellectual sup]iority4 ,he1 ( c\rse1  
does n argue t ! g5]al sup]iority ( a   
race leads to its disappe>ance2 b t a   
"o-sid$ sup]iority--an improvem5t ( "o  
set ( faculties at ! exp5se ( o!rs--may 
h t result4 ,?is at once sugge/s a :ole 
s]ies ( psy*ological problems4 ,!       
intellect & ! emotional nature are n two
 sep>ate organs1 ea* capable ( indep5d5t
 developm5t4 ,e m5tal process involves  
bo?1 & nei!r faculty c be develop$ )\t  
ref]5ce to ! o!r4 ,mr4 ,kidd accepts !  
conclusion t c]ta9 primitive races 7 z  
clev] z ourselves1 because _! bra9s 7 z 
l>ge4 ,if ! argum5t be s\nd1 x proves   

equally t _! emotional nature 0 z well  
develop$ z ours2 = no "o c d\bt t ! bra9
 is ! physical condition ( feel+ z well 
z ( ?\ght4 ,ev5 ! mo/ ab/ract ?\ght1 z  
he else:]e notices1 implies c]ta9 moral 
qualities4 ,newton rem>k$ t he 0 sup]ior
 to o!r m51 n because 8 intellect 0     
cle>]1 b because he att5d$ m p]si/5tly  
to 8 problems4 ,! /atem5t1 ,i ?9k1      
involves a fallacy4 ,newton himself1 no 
d\bt1 did bett] ! long] he kept a       
problem be=e him4 ,he inf]r$1           
unju/ifiably1 t ( two diff]5t m51 ! "o  
:o c\ld keep up 8 att5tion longe/ w\ld  
be ! be/4 ,t does n foll[4 ,! diff]5ce  
may inde$ be moral z well z             
intellectual2 & x is q true t a p[] (   
su/a9$ att5tion is ( ! highe/ importance
 9 ma!matics1 & t t p[] supposes a moral
 quality2 b1 conv]sely1 ! p[] ( att5tion
 probably implies also ! p[] ( cle>     
intellectual vision4 ,a muddle-head$ man
 w\ld f9d att5tion useless4 ,?is is1 (  
c\rse1 /ill cle>] 9 ! case :]e ! m9d is 
ex]cis$ ^u que/ions ( human int]e/4 ,!  

/atesman & ! dramati/ bo? dep5d ^u _!   
p[] ( sympa?y & ! /r5g? ( _! emotions1 z
 mu* z ^u _! logical capacity4 ,to feel 
= o!rs ,i mu/ imag9e _! position3 if ,i 
imag9e x1 ,i c h>dly avoid feel+ = !m4  
,altruism is ! product1 9 o!r words1 ( a
 process bo? intellectual & moral4  ,n[1
 rememb]+ ?is1 we see ! difficulty (    
pron\nc+ ^u ! nature ( ! ,greek         
organisation4 ,p]haps ! commone/ ( all  
rem>ks ^u ,greek "w is ! symmetry &     
h>mony1 ! all-r\ndness1 if ,i may say s1
 ( ! developm5t impli$4 ,poetry &       
philosophy1 art & sci5ce seem to be s   
bl5d$ 9 _! "w t we _c tell :i* faculty  
is pr$om9ant4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! inequality 
( developm5t :i* is ess5tial to ,mr4    
,kidd's argum5t8 ,!y 7 want+1 he seems  
to answ]1 9 altruism4 ,:at does ?is     
mean8 ,! a/oni%+ p[] ( ! ,greeks 0      
c]ta9ly z conspicu\s 9 poetry & art z 9 
any?+ else2 & t p[] surely implies      
developm5t ( ! emotional z well z ( !   
intellectual nature4 ,by a defect (     
altruism1 ,i take him to mean t ^!      

emotions did n fl[ along ! *annel (     
g5]al philan?ropy4 ,!y 7 want+ !n1 z ,i 
%\ld put x1 r 9 cosmopolitanism ?an 9   
altruism4 ,if altruism means c>e =      
some?+ outside y\rself1 :]e c\ld we f9d 
bett] examples ( altruism ?an at        
,!rmopylae or ,m>a?on8 ,0 x n due to    
,greek altruism 9 ?is =m 7"s hi/orians  
w\ld say7 t ,mr4 ,kidd is n n[ liv+ "u !
 rule ( a ,p]sian ,satrap8 ,! altruism1 
no d\bt1 meant an int5se & patriotic    
devotion to a small ,/ate1 or an int]e/ 
9 ,greek z aga9/ b>b>ian1 & 0 compatible
 ) mu* brutality to individuals &       
acquiesc5ce 9 slav]y4 ,b ?is does n     
indicate an abs5ce ( ! emotions         
!mselves1 b simply _! conf9em5t )9 n>r[ 
limits1 by ! conditions "u :i* !y 7     
plac$4 ,slav]y1 = example1 is abom9able2
 b ,i see no reason = suppos+ t !       
slave-hold]s 9 ,am]ica 7 worse m5 by    
innate con/itution ?an _! oppon5ts4 ,!y 
7 corrupt$ by _! position4  ,?is1 9 any 
case1 leads to ano!r problem4 ,7 !      
,greeks m or less altrui/ic ?an o!r     

races8 ,if y c\ld %[ t altrui/ic races  
_h surviv$ :ile ! ,greeks p]i%$1 !re    
might be a presumption t ! want (       
altruism 0 ! cause ( _! decay4 ,b ?is   
aga9 does n seem to be ! case4 ,h>dly "o
 ( ! anci5t races1 inde$1 has surviv$   
unv>i$4 ,! ,romans 7 at lea/ z brutal z 
! ,greeks1 &1 "o w\ld say1 z f> f       
altrui/ic4 ,yet !y ov]p[]$ ! ,greeks4   
,h[1 !n1 c x be inf]r$ t ! ,greeks p]i%$
 because ( defective altruism8 ,!       
/ruggle = exi/5ce 0 betwe5 races equally
 defective to all appe>ance 9 t quality2
 & x mu/ be a sophi/ry to signalise its 
abs5ce 9 "o z ! cause ( its             
disappe>ance4 ,!re is1 inde$1 "o race to
 :i* e "o w\ld turn z ! mo/ prom95t     
example ( survival1 namely1 ! ,jews4 ,! 
,jews h enorm\s m]its & great           
intellectual end[m5ts2 b c anybody say t
 !y 7 altrui/ic 9 ! s5se ( be+          
cosmopolitan8 ,are !y n conspicu\s1     
beyond any race1 = ! n>r[] =ms (        
altruism1 rejection ( a cosmopolitan    
cre$1 ev5 :5 x arose among !m1 &        

exclusive devotion to ! welf>e ( _! own 
p8 ,i ?9k t x w\ld be p]fectly easy to  
argue t ! ,greeks di$ out j because ( _!
 cosmopolitan & !re=e disp]sive         
t5d5cies1 & t ! ,jews h held out f a    
judici\s adh]5ce to n>r[] views (       
self-pres]vation4 ,b p]sonally ,i reg>d 
all su* argum5ts z really belong+ to !  
extra-sci5tific regions ( rhetorical    
illu/ration4  ,?is sugge/s "o o!r po9t  
:i* requires consid]ation4 ,mr4 ,kidd   
reg>ds x z prov$ t progress has be5 due 
to ! ,*ri/ian religion1 :i* reveal$ !   
new moral doctr9e4 ,! ,*ri/ian religion 
introduc$1 x seems1 t belief 9 !        
sup]natural :i* is ess5tial to altruism4
 ,x seems to me to be inconsi/5t ) 8 own
 pr9ciples1 t he %\ld attribute progress
 to :at is ess5tially1 on 8 own %[+1 an 
intellectual *ange3 t is1 to a *ange 9  
belief & ev5 to a *ange :i*1 9 comp>ison
 ) ! old poly!ism1 0 di/9ctly sceptical 
& rationali/ic4 ,b "o po9t is cle>4 ,!  
introduction ( ,*ri/ianity may be       
int]pret$ m consi/5tly 9 a totally      

diff]5t way4 ,! ,greek :o became a      
,*ri/ian 0 n provid$ ) a new set (      
emotions1 b 8 emotions 7 direct$ into   
new *annels4 ,he ceas$ to c>e = ,a!ns1  
because ,a!ns _h ceas$ to be an         
indep5d5t ,/ate2 he began to be         
cosmopolitan :5 he 0 =c$ to be "p ( a   
cosmopolitan empire4 ,! important       
di/9ction 0 no long] ! di/9ction betwe5 
,a!nian & ,sp>tan1 b betwe5 ! diff]5t   
classes 9 ! _w-wide sy/em4 ,t is to say1
 ! altruism :i* came 9 ) ,*ri/ianity 0 n
 ! product ( a new dogma sudd5ly dropp$ 
f heav52 b ( ! new social condition1 :i*
 made x inevitable t ! =ces :i*         
previ\sly /imulat$ a local patriotism   
%\ld n[ ex]t !mselves ne>] a            
cosmopolitan organisation4 ,?is is1 (   
c\rse1 a commonplace2 b1 = t reason1 x  
%\ld n be simply ignor$4 ,x sugge/s "o  
o!r consequ5ce ( ,mr4 ,kidd's !ory4 ,x  
is prov$1 he says1 t ! progress ( !     
,we/]n _w is due to ,*ri/ianity4 ,8     
pro(1 z ,i suppose1 is t ! ,/ates :i* h 
sprung out ( ! old ,empire ( ! ,we/ h   

be5 ,*ri/ian & h progress$4 ,h[1 !n1    
ab\t ! ,empire ( ! ,ea/8 ,if ! great    
,k+doms ( ! ,we/ are ! unique example ( 
progress1 :at is ! unique example (     
decay8 ,surely1 ! regions :]e ,*ri/ian  
dogmatic !ology 0 def5d$ by ,a?anasius &
 ,*ryso/om4 ,if y wi% to po9t out a     
region :]e ! race has actually gone     
backw>ds1 y w\ld ref] to ! ,turki%      
,empire4 ,:y1 if ,*ri/ianity 0 ! sole   
cause ( progress 9 "o qu>t]1 0 x        
comp>able ) complete decay 9 ! o!r8     
,does ! ,ea/]n !ory ab\t ! filioque     
expla9 x8 ,or 7 ! ,mohamm$ans m         
altrui/ic ?an ! ,*ri/ians8 ,or is x t x 
is absurd1 especially ^u ,mr4 ,kidd's   
own doctr9e1 to assign ! dogmatic cre$ (
 a race z ! sole cause ( its "* & its   
success 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce8  ,i d n  
lay any /ress ^u ! argum5t1 except 9 a  
negative s5se4 ,i d n see1 t is1 h[ ,mr4
 ,kidd c make 8 !ory fit ! facts4 ,b ,i 
inf] "o o!r rem>k4 ,x is impossible to  
div9e ! causes ( ! rise & fall (        
empires1 ! success or decay ( a race1 f 

any ( ^! sweep+ g5]alisations ab\t      
ill-def9$ qualities4 ,if we ask :y !    
,greeks di$ out1 we %\ld h to take into 
acc\nt ano!r & a totally diff]5t set (  
consid]ations3 :at ,i may call !        
accid5ts ( _! position4 ,we %\ld h to   
consid] all ! argum5ts by :i* hi/orians 
h tri$ to expla9 ! ev5ts2 ! facts (     
physical geography1 = example1 :i*      
acc\nt = ! division into small sep>ate  
,/ates2 ! relations ( ! ,greeks to !    
,ea/]n races on ! "o side1 & to !       
,romans on ! o!r2 &1 briefly1 to all !  
mat]ial conditions1 ^? diff]5t f !      
intr9sic "* ( ! race1 by :i* ! :ole     
c\rse ( political developm5t & ( !      
conflict betwe5 diff]5t peoples1 is     
m\ld$ & direct$ into p>ticul> c\rses4 ,i
 d n say1 = ,i _c guess1 :at w\ld be !  
result ( su* an inquiry2 b ,i ?9k x j z 
possible t x w\ld lead u to wond] at !  
p]si/5ce ( ! ,greek ,/ates = s long a   
p]iod1 z t x w\ld lead u to wond] at _! 
disappe>ance4 ,our conclusion might be1 
t no?+ b ! a/oni%+ intellectual p[]s ( !

 ,greeks enabl$ !m to play s great a "p 
9 ! _w's hi/ory1 n t _! intellectual    
sup]iority 0 ! cause ( _! decay4  ,i    
consid]1 !re=e1 t ! alleg$ fact is /at$ 
s vaguely t we h no di/9ct problem set  
be=e u2 t we don't "k :at is ! process  
to be expla9$2 t ! sugge/$ intellectual 
sup]iority is d\btful1 at lea/ 9 degree3
 t ! excess ( intellectual above o!r    
developm5t1 :i* ! sup]iority is suppos$ 
to h creat$1 is n prov$1 &1 /ill less1 t
 su* excess 0 m conspicu\s among !      
,greeks ?an among _! rivals2 t1 ev5 if x
 exi/$1 x is n prov$ t x w\ld h produc$ 
! effect ascrib$ to x2 &1 f9ally1 t !   
o!r causes :i* und\bt$ly op]at$1 are    
simply ov]look$4 ,i confess1 !re=e1 t ! 
:ole argum5t seems to me to illu/rate ! 
dang] ( ra%ly apply+ c]ta9 sci5tific    
=mulae1--!mselves1 p]haps1 /ill         
d\btful1--to new & exce$+ly complex     
que/ions4 ,if ,d>w9 _h reason$ 9 ?is    
light-he>t$ way1 no "o w\ld h be5 mov$  
by 8 conclusions4  ,b ,i mu/ /ill add1  
:at br+s me back to my po9t1 t ev5 if ! 

proposition 7 prov$1 x w\ld n e/abli% ! 
conclusion4 ,x may be1 t races (        
abnormal intellectual developm5t are at 
a disadvantage 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,t
 does n prove t progress is n prim>ily  
intellectual4 ,buckle1 :o argu$ t       
progress 0 due to intellectual causes   
exclusively1 always assum$ t human      
nature 0 con/ant1 or t ! faculties did n
 *ange4 ,?\gh ,i d n accept 8 view1 any 
m ?an ,mr4 ,kidd's1 ,i d n see t he 0   
inconsi/5t4 ,i take ! mo/ obvi\s case to
 illu/rate ! po9t4 ,no "o c d\bt t "o ( 
! mo/ important influ5ces 9 mod]n social
 evolution 0 ! set ( me*anical          
contrivances devis$ by ,arkwright &     
,watt & _! contempor>ies4 ,)\t !m1 !    
enorm\s developm5t ( great cities1 ( a  
population ( artisans1 & ( ! br++ toge!r
 ( all qu>t]s ( ! globe1 w\ld h be5     
impossible4 ,! inv5tions1 aga91 7 due to
 no moral purpose 9 ! inv5tors4 ,!y     
want$ to make money1 & repres5t$ :at is 
call$ 7,i d n say ju/ly7 ! mo/ egoi/ic  
impulse ( mod]n times4 ,"o condition1   

!n1 ( ! great social *ange 0 ess5tially 
intellectual4 ,?is does n mean t ,watt 0
 a clev]] man ?an ,ar*im$es4 ,i don't "k
 :e!r he 0 or n2 b x does mean t !      
me*anical sci5ces _h improv$2 &1        
consequ5tly1 t ,watt1 ?\gh n possess$ ( 
intr9sically great] p[]s1 01 9 ?is      
direction1 a m intellectual p]son4 ,he  
_h inh]it$ ! tru?s discov]$ by ,ar*im$es
 & _m g5]ations ( successors4 ,t sci5ce 
%\ld be effici5t1 x is n requir$ t m5   
%\ld be great] g5iuses ?an _!           
pr$ecessors2 b simply t !y %\ld "k m ( !
 facts & laws ( nature1 & h1 s to speak1
 bett] intellectual tools4 ,mr4 ,kidd   
?9ks t ! inability ( a savage to c\nt   
?ree does n prove him to be /upid1 only 
to be )\t c]ta9 rules discov]$ by !     
high] races4 ,yet1 he w n d5y t by !    
help ( ari?metic we c "w out sums       
inconceivable to ! savage2 & t our p[]  
affects our :ole social position4 ,does 
n ! exi/5ce ( a curr5cy affect mank9d2 &
 if we c\ld n c\nt1 c\ld we make use (  
x8  ,i !re=e hold t 9 _m cases ! causes 

( progress are prim>ily intellectual4 ,!
 me*anical discov]ies ( :i* ,i h spok5 h
 revolutionis$ ! :ole _w4 ,i agree1     
inde$1 fully1 t ! causes are n          
exclusively intellectual4 ,a c]ta9      
social condition--! exi/5ce1 to say no?+
 m1 ( peace & ord] ov] wide regions--0 z
 necess>y z ! intellectual condition to 
! developm5t ( comm]ce & manufactures4  
,?is1 ( c\rse1 implies ! gr[? (         
correspond+ s5tim5ts1 includ+1 no d\bt1 
:at ,mr4 ,kidd means by altruism4 ,b !  
*ange may1 &1 ,i fancy1 g5]ally does1   
orig9ate 9 intellectual movem5ts4 ,! new
 ideas %ake ! _w4 ,reason1 says ,mr4    
,kidd1 is ! great dis9tegrat+ & egoi/ic 
=ce4 ,i %\ld say t reason+ is ess5tially
 altrui/ic3 my discov]ies are m5tally   
discov]ies = y2 ,i _c keep a tru? = my  
private consumption1 z ,i c keep a      
mat]ial product4 ,b x is true1 to use   
eulogi/ic in/ead ( dyslogi/ic language1 
t reason is ! great =ce ( movem5t1 &    
breaks up ! old social conditions1 n    
only by gett+ rid ( ! ultra-rational1 b 

by spread+ ! p[] ( ! rational2 & !re=e x
 inevitably br+s ab\t a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i*
 ! old moral impulses h to run 9 new    
*annels2 a n>r[ patriotism1 to wid5 into
 a reg>d = ! int]e/s ( o!r races2 & !   
class di/9ctions :i* repose ^u no       
reasonable gr\nd1 to disappe> 9 fav\r ( 
a wid] humanity4 ,:5 we are argu+ ab\t  
an organism1 x is surely a mi/ake to fix
 our m9ds ^u "o aspect ( ! problem3 to  
d5y ) ,buckle ! moral evolution1 & )    
,mr4 ,kidd to disp>age ! intellectual   
evolution4  ,mr4 ,kidd's doctr9e appe>s 
to me1 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 n to him1 to be   
em95tly disc\rag+4 ,if he work$ x out   
logically1 8 argum5t1 ,i ?9k1 w\ld come 
to ?is3 t ! progress ( mank9d has       
result$ f ! accid5tal1 t is1            
inexplicable1 appe>ance ( a quality     
call$ altruism1 :i* gave to ^? :o       
possess$ x an advantage 9 ! /ruggle =   
exi/5ce4 ,x w\ld be f> m consi/5t to say
 t ! religi\s dogma 0 det]m9$ by ?is new
 elem5t1 ?an t x 0 ! cause4 ,altruism1  
aga91 0 only produc$ 9 effect on ?is    

hypo!sis by ! sl[ results ( a process   
necess>ily la/+ ?r\gh _m g5]ations2 &   
our only hope mu/ be 9 a sl[ organic    
*ange ( ! prim>y *>act]i/ics ( mank9d4  
,n[1 x is1 ( c\rse1 true t ^?           
*>act]i/ics1 :atev] !y may be1 impose   
def9ite limits ^u our progress4 ,! raw  
mat]ial limits ! product2 & ! new-born  
baby is ! raw mat]ial ( society1 z wool 
is ( clo?3 y _c conv]t x into tissue (  
gold4 ,s mu* is und5iable4 ,we1 x is    
said1 h be5 develop$ out ( an arboreal  
animal1 & ,i h sometimes regrett$ t we 7
 n develop$ out ( a fly+ animal4 ,!     
c\rse ( civilisation w\ld h be5 v       
diff]5t if we _h n be5 =c$ to come into 
contact by crawl+ & swimm+1 in/ead ( !  
mu* fre] me?ods ( a]ial travell+4       
,h[ev]1 z ?+s 71 ! *oice 0 app>5tly     
betwe5 w+s & h&s2 & if we c\ld n h bo?1 
p]haps h&s 7 pref]able1 & may 9 "t lead 
to fly+ ma*9es4 ,! speculation1 x may   
be1 bord]s ^u ! fanciful4 ,i m5tion x   
only by way ( illu/rat+ ! unevitable    
conditions impos$ ^u u by h]$ity4 ,we h 

to be cont5t ) walk+ in/ead ( fly+2 &   
simil>ly we h to be cont5t ) hav+ only !
 five s5ses ( our =efa!rs1 & ! v>i\s    
old-fa%ion$ app>atuses = eat+1 dr9k+1   
dige/+1 & s =?1 :i* !y unconsci\sly     
elaborat$4 ,no mat]ial *ange c possibly 
be made 9 ?is sy/em )9 any p]iod to :i* 
we c look =w>d4 ,to regret ^!           
limitations is j z idle z to regret t we
 _c fly1 or t we _c ext5d our voyages to
 ! moon4 ,!y are "p ( ! prim>y data ( ! 
problem ) :i* we h to deal2 & to regret 
t t problem 0 n diff]5tly contriv$ is to
 propose to set ab\t recon/ruct+ !      
univ]se4 ,b :5 we g on to ask h[ f> ?is 
limits any possibilities ( a*iev+ really
 desirable1 because di/9ctly conceivable
 results1 ,i say t we h ample room =    
hopes l>ge en\gh to animate our l(tie/  
desires4 ,we inh]it1 x is true1 c]ta9   
faculties :i* sc>cely alt]1 or d n      
p]ceptibly alt]1 = ! bett]4 ,we d n see 
or smell or he> bett] ?an ! savage1 & 9 
"s ( ^! faculties we are surpass$ by !  
dog4 ,we inh]it also c]ta9 intellectual 

p[]s1 &1 if !y improve1 ! improvem5t is 
s sl[ z to be p]ceptible only aft] _m   
g5]ations4 ,b !n ?is intellect c>ries ) 
x ano!r p[]1--! p[] ( inh]it+ ?\ghts1   
beliefs1 me?ods ( reason+ & rules (     
conduct4 ,&1 !re=e1 to ! organic        
evolution is add$ ! social evolution1   
:i* enables u to accumulate our va/     
spiritual inh]itance4 ,! inh]itance is  
ev]y?+1 or almo/ ev]y?+1 t makes !      
di/9ctions betwe5 ! civilis$ races (    
to-day & ! w&]+ savages :o roam$ ! f5s &
 ! =e/s :i* 7 supplant$ by fields &     
t[ns4 ,& ?is1 ,i ?9k1 makes room en\gh =
 all reasonable aspirations1 ?\gh x     
c]ta9ly does n op5 any prospect t we    
%all ev] become gods or angels4  ,?us1 =
 example1 we look ) sorr[1 sometimes )  
some?+ l despair1 ^u ! masses ( !       
crim9al or degrad$ population :i*       
grovels at ! base ( mod]n society4 ,if  
we 7 b\nd to say1 ! crime & ! /upidity  
are ! necess>y expression ( ! %ape ( !  
skull & ! organisation ( ! bra92 if we  
_h !re=e to inf] t ! only possible rem$y

 is by s modify+ ! /ruggle = exi/5ce t !
 inf]ior =ms may be kill$ (f & a bett]  
bre$ ( humanity take ! place ( ! pres5t2
 we %\ld c]ta9ly feel t we 7 conf9$ )9 v
 n>r[ limits4 ,i d n = a mom5t say1 t   
su* consid]ations may n po9t to         
important practical conclusions4 ,i %\ld
 be v glad to he> ( any practical       
sugge/ions = s apply+ ^! doctr9es z to  
increase ! probability t ! next g5]ation
 may be /rong]1 heal?i]1 & m intellig5t 
?an ! pres5t4 ,b ,i also ass]t t ! mo/  
obvi\s facts also %[ t !re are enorm\s  
possibilities ( progress )\t suppos+ any
 su* organic trans=mation4 ,if all t    
makes ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,engl& (      
to-day & ! ,engl& ( two or ?ree c5turies
 back is ! pres5ce ( ! social factor1 n 
( ! organic *ange1 x %[s 9 ! mo/ /rik+  
way ! va/ educability ( mank9d1 ev5 )\t 
any ultimate *ange ( human nature4 ,we  
mu/ all1 ,i ?9k1 h be5 impress$ lately  
by "o ( ! mo/ s+ul> ph5om5a :i* h ev]   
tak5 place 9 hi/ory4 ,we h ourselves se5
 ! trans=mation ( ! ,japanese--:om we s 

rec5tly reg>d$ z semi-b>b>ians--acquire 
almo/ at a b\nd all ! arts ( ,we/]n     
civilisation1 & able n only to use )    
s+ul> effect t mo/ complex & delicate   
piece ( ma*9]y :i* =ms a mod]n w>%ip1 b 
to adopt sy/ems ( milit>y organisation &
 ! /rategy ( a ,moltke4 ,t is n because 
! ,japanese h *ang$ any "o ( _! physical
 *>act]i/ics1 = !y are ! v same m5 :o ! 
o!r day 7 *iefly kn[n to u z p]=m+ !    
happy despat*4 ,!y h *ang$ simply       
because !y 7 able to assimilate         
,european results4 ,n[1 if t be a       
p]fectly possible result1 consi/5tly )  
all ! s-call$ laws ( h]$ity1 ! same laws
 _c be inconsi/5t ) *anges ( a simil> "*
 )9 ourselves4 ,y take a ?or\gh         
ruffian1--a dr9k+1 r[dy1 fight+ brute1  
:o has /amp$ 8 wife or 8 fri5d into a   
jelly4 ,y say t he is an illu/ration (  
slavism1 or ! reproduction ( an anci5t  
type :i* once _h its place among 8      
ance/ors4 ,! fact may be q true2 t he   
is1 = example1 act+-/ill 9 ! _s ( ^?    
anci5t ,vik+s :o h be5 idealis$ by our  

romantic writ]s2 b :o1 :5 !y l&$ 9 an   
old ,briti% village1 behav$ pretty mu* z
 ! mod]n r\ghs or "s ( ^? noble         
blackgu>ds :o are describ$ 9 ,mr4       
,rudy>d ,kipl+'s novels4 ,b if y mean t 
he is divid$ f civilis$ be+s by an      
impassable gulf1 & is doom$ to be a     
sc\ndrel by ! %ape ( 8 skull1 ,i v5ture 
to dispute ! assumption4 ,! ,vik+ 9 a   
g5]ation or two became ! ,norman knight1
 capable ( ! highe/ cultivation ( 8 "t2 
& ev5 ! r\gh1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,rudy>d   
,kipl+1 is capable1 "u judici\s         
discipl9e1 ( develop+ "s v f9e          
qualities1 *iefly1 x is true1 9 ! %ape (
 devotion to 8 col\rs4 ,to wean him f "s
 ( 8 weaknesses x is probably necess>y  
to cat* him r y\ng]4 ,all1 h[ev]1 t ,i  
desire to say1 = ! pres5t1 is ?is--z x  
seems to me--v und5iable fact3 t !      
diff]5ce betwe5 a civilis$ man & a      
b>b>ian1 betwe5 ! highe/ types ( mod]n  
life & ! app>5tly irreclaimable brutes  
:o are exhibit$ 9 our police-c\rts1 is n
 dep5d5t ^u ! m>k ( ! bea/ irreclaimably

 fix$ ^u !m at _! bir?2 b to c]ta9 lat] 
influ5ces1 :i* may or may n be br\ght to
 be> ^u !m effectually4 ,!re is no?+1 = 
example1 9 ! doctr9e ( h]$ity inconsi/5t
 ) ! belief t if su* influ5ces c\ld be  
prop]ly direct$1 ! /&>d1 say1 ( sobriety
 & prud5ce among ! l[e/ classes might be
 improv$1 z mu* z ! /&>d ( ! same       
virtues has be5 improv$ 9 classes above 
!m4 ,! consequ5ces ( su* a *ange w\ld1  
,i suspect1 be incomp>ably great] ?an ! 
consequ5ces ( :ole sy/ems ( laws        
regulat+ ! h\rs ( lab\r & :ole armies ( 
(ficial inspectors4  ,b into ?is ,i ne$ 
n g2 & ,i h only "o ?+ to say 9         
conclusion4 ,i h spok5 ( ! enorm\s      
results ( :at we call progress &        
civilisation4 ,t !y are 9 "o s5se       
enorm\s is1 ,i suppose1 und5iable4 ,t ! 
p[] :i* we g5]ally describe z ! comm& ( 
man ov] nature has be5 imm5sely increas$
 is too palpable a fact to be d5i$2 t   
!re has be5 a correspond+ *ange 9 _m    
political & social respects is a fact   
:i* ,i only m5tion )\t seek+ to say h[  

f> x has be5 9 all respects a *ange = ! 
bett]4 ,fur!r1 ,i urge t ?is *ange1     
:atev] x is1 has n be5 due to a *ange 9 
! individual con/itution1 b to a *ange 9
 ! social factor4 ,&1 ?is be+ s1 ,i     
simply sugge/ t1 consid]+ h[ va/ is !   
total *ange ?us effect$1 we may         
reasonably hope1 or1 at ! v lea/1 we may
 reasonably endeav\r to ju/ify ! hope1 t
 a *ange ( great magnitude may be br\ght
 ab\t 9 ^? directions :]e we all h to   
regret ! survival or ev5 ! developm5t ( 
s mu* t is melan*oly3 ( reg5]ation go+  
on alongside ( amelioration4 ,i ?9k t ! 
doctr9e ( h]$ity is sometimes int]pret$ 
9 su* a way z to sugge/ ! hopelessness  
or at lea/ ! extreme difficulty (       
introduc+ any s5sible improvem5t )9 any 
limit$ "t2 & :at ,i h tri$ to urge is t1
 if prop]ly und]/ood1 x does n 9 ! lea/ 
degree t5d to ju/ify su* =ebod+s1 or to 
imply t we are to ab&on ourselves to a  
demoralis+ fatalism4     ,,puni%m5t4    
,i invite y to consid] a r dry problem4 
,i v5tur$ to select ?is topic because x 

has lately be5 my duty to occupy myself 
) c]ta9 legal writ+s1 :i*1 p]haps1 took 
me a little beyond my dep?4 ,!y t\*$1   
h[ev]1 problems :i* are common to !     
lawy] & to ! morali/4 ,al?\gh n a lawy]1
 ,i am int]e/$ 9 "s moral problems :i* h
 also a legal aspect3 ,:at ,i propose to
 d ?is ev5+ is1 to consid] c]ta9        
que/ions :i* lie 9 ! region common to   
bo? prov9ces ( inquiry1 & especially ?is
 "q3 ,:at is ! true e?ical !ory (       
puni%m5ts inflict$ by ! crim9al law8    
,h[1 & 9 :at s5se1 are !y to be reg>d$ z
 j8 ,!re is1 obvi\sly1 a relation betwe5
 ! two codes--moral & legal4 ,murd] is  
bo? a s9 & a crime3 a brea* ( ! moral   
law1 & ( ! laws ( e civilis$ c\ntry4    
,yet1 !re is "o broad & deep di/9ction  
betwe5 ! two sy/ems ( law4 ,! moral law 
is ess5tially conc]n$ ) a man's motives4
 ,to say t a man's conduct is wick$1 is 
necess>ily also to say t x is ! action (
 a bad man1 or due to evil passions4    
,murd] is wick$1 z x is ! manife/ation (
 ! murd]]'s hatr$ ( 8 neighb\r4 ,!      

crim9al law1 on ! o!r h&1 has to deal1 9
 ! fir/ in/ance1 ) ! ext]nal facts4 ,x  
contemplates1 prim>ily1 :at a man does1 
n :at he is4 ,x does n attempt to puni% 
e man :o hates 8 neighb\r1 b e man :o   
has1 9 fact1 kill$1 :e!r ! action spr+s 
f hatr$ or "s o!r motive4 ,e "o :o      
delib]ately kills1 unless ! act falls "u
 c]ta9 def9ite exceptions1 is guilty (  
murd]4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 does n imply t !  
moral aspect is ( no acc\nt4 ,!         
exceptions are s arrang$ t ! legal      
classification corresponds r\ghly to !  
moral classification4 ,"u c]ta9         
exceptions1 kill+ is reg>d$ z ju/ifiable
 homicide1 & "u o!rs1 x is only         
manslaught]1 &1 !re=e1 receives none1 or
 a slight] p5alty4 ,! co9cid5ce betwe5 !
 codes may ?us be v close4 ,9 n9ety-n9e 
cases out ( a hundr$ ! action condemn$  
by ! crim9al law w be condemn$ by !     
morali/4 ,! man :o is legally guilty (  
murd] is also1 almo/ inv>iably1 guilty (
 a great moral (f5ce4 ,al?\gh1 aga91 !  
moral law applies to l>ge classes (     

conduct1 :i* are n )9 ! cognisance ( !  
crim9al law1 x is1 at lea/1 pla9ly      
desirable t ! crim9al law %\ld condemn  
no?+ :i* is n also morally wrong4 ,!    
sway ( ! moral law is univ]sal2 x       
applies to all conduct1 &1 ( c\rse1 to !
 conduct ( legislators & judges3 !y & ! 
law :i* !y def9e & apply %\ld be        
consi/5t ) ! g5]al law ( "r & wrong4 ,!y
 & all ( u are b\nd n to make virtue m  
difficult nor vice easi]4  ,b1 fur!r1 ! 
que/ions z to ! relations betwe5 ! two  
codes arise 9 v>i\s directions4 ,x is   
obvi\s t ! crim9al law has to employ v  
r\gh & ready me?ods4 ,x _c e/imate1 )   
any accuracy1 ! degree ( immorality     
impli$ by any giv5 action4 ,x _c1 & x   
does n attempt to1 look closely into !  
secrets ( a man's he>t4 ,x _c inquire1 z
 a rule1 h[ f> a man's crime is ! result
 ( bad education or bad surr\nd+s2 h[ f>
 x implies ?or\gh corruption or only    
sup]ficial faults ( temp]1 or a         
misund]/&+ ( "s fact or doctr9e4 ,x _c  
take into acc\nt a numb] ( metaphysical 

or psy*ological consid]ations :i* are   
connect$ ) ! !ory ( moral               
responsibility4 ,to settle su* po9ts y  
w\ld h to empanel a jury ( philosoph]s1 
& ! only ?+ ( :i* y c\ld be c]ta9 w\ld  
be1 t su* a jury w\ld nev] agree ^u a   
v]dict4 ,aga91 !re are :ole classes (   
virtues & vices ) :i* ! crim9al law is n
 conc]n$4 ,+ratitude1 to take ! common  
example1 is a grave vice1 b "o :i* x    
w\ld be absurd to puni% legally4 ,n only
 w\ld su* an attempt involve impossible 
inquiries1 b ! attempt w\ld be          
self-defeat+4 ,if ! duty ( gratitude to 
a b5efactor 7 turn$ into a legal        
obligation1 gratitude prop] w\ld cease  
to exi/4 ,to conf] a b5efit w\ld be !   
same ?+ z to acquire a "r to repaym5t4  
,a man :o all[s 8 be/ fri5d to />ve1 or 
to g to ! workh\se1 may be1 morally1 f> 
worse ?an a ?ief2 b y c\ld n puni% him  
legally1 )\t adopt+ a pr9ciple :i*1 ev5 
if practicable1 w\ld1 s f> z x op]at$1  
be de/ructive ( all dis9t]e/$ fri5d%ip4 
,! law1 aga91 c deal only ) crim9als :o 

are f\nd out4 ,:at proportion !y may be>
 to ! :ole class ( moral (f5d]s is n    
discov]able2 b x is1 at lea/1 safe to   
say t1 = e man :om y convict ( a crime1 
y mu/ leave unpuni%$1 because undetect$1
 ano!r s9n] :o is equally des]v+ (      
puni%m5t4 ,&1 f9ally1 x is app>5tly     
impossible to say1 ^u any intelligible  
gr\nds1 :at %\ld be ! proportion betwe5 
crime & puni%m5t4 ,h[ _m ye>s'          
imprisonm5t does a man des]ve = putt+   
out 8 neighb\r's eye8 ,i d n see h[ su* 
a rule ( ?ree c be /at$4 ,! good old    
!ory ( an eye = an eye & a too? = a     
too?1 seems to sugge/ a possible        
crit]ion4 ,b x 0 difficult to c>ry out4 
,delora9e1 9 ! ,lay ( ! ,la/ ,m9/rel1   
has1 z he po9ts out1 kill$ ,musgrove's  
bro!r2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 ,musgrove has    
kill$ ,delora9e's nephew1 &1 besides1   
got a ?\s& m>ks ransom out ( ,delora9e  
himself4 ,is ! acc\nt to be reg>d$ z    
accurately balanc$8 ,is "o bro!r j equal
 to a nephew plus a ?\s& m>ks8 ,! !ory1 
( c\rse1 is an application ( an         

inappropriate analogy4 ,if we reg>d     
crime simply z a case ( private injury1 
we may say t x is fair t ! wrong-do]    
%\ld re/ore ! ?+ t he has tak51 & s put 
matt]s :]e !y 7 be=e4 ,b ?is is obvi\sly
 to take a view :i* is q inapplicable 9 
mo/ cases1 & 9 all cases becomes        
inadequate :5 we take ! moral view1 &   
reg>d crime z an (f5ce aga9/ society--n 
simply z a wrong to ano!r individual4   
,= su* reasons1 x is app>5tly impossible
 to say t a legal puni%m5t c be j1 9 !  
full s5se 9 :i* ! morali/ w\ld use !    
words4 ,no d\bt we may say1--& we wi% t 
we c\ld always say1--t a man des]ves :at
 he has got2 & t implies t we recognise 
z desirable "s satisfaction to our s5se 
( ju/ice4 ,&1 ( c\rse1 too1 we dem& t   
ju/ice %\ld be done 9 ano!r s5se ( ! ^w2
 t ! case1 = example1 %\ld be imp>tially
 inve/igat$2 t a man %\ld n be puni%$   
sev]ely because he is poor1 or because  
he is unpopul>1 or let (f easily because
 he is a private fri5d ( ! judge4 ,su*  
dem&s mean t ju/ice %\ld n be p]v]t$ by 

apply+ irrelevant consid]ations2 b !y   
leave our previ\s que/ions unt\*$4 ,!   
crim9al law1 f its nature1 _c impose    
equal p5alties ^u all m5 :o are equally 
wick$2 b only ^u ^? :o h made !mselves  
liable3 & t always involves elem5ts (   
accid5t2 x _c take into acc\nt at all "s
 ( ! elem5ts ^u :i* ! dep? ( moral      
depravity ess5tially dep5ds2 & x is1 at 
lea/1 v difficult to say :at specific   
mean+ c be giv5 to ! proportion betwe5  
crime & ! suff]+ impos$ ^u ! crim9al4   
,if1 !n1 ! legislative action mu/1 (    
necessity1 be v imp]fect f ! moral po9t 
( view1 we may try :at w be ! effect (  
dismiss+ ! moral "q altoge!r1 or1 at    
lea/1 r$uc+ x to a second>y place4 ,we  
may1 t is1 consid] crime n 9 s f> z     
immoral1 b 9 s f> z mis*iev\s4 ,"h we h 
! doctr9e work$ out v consi/5tly by     
,b5?am & 8 foll[]s4 ,pa91 !y said1 is an
 evil1 ! only evil2 pleasure1 a good1 & 
! only good4 ,to inflict ne$less        
pa9--pa9 :i* does n cause a balance (   
pleasure--^u any "o1 be he a good man or

 be he a bad man1 is1 s f>1 wrong4 ,= ! 
same reason1 x is ju/ifiable1 &1 inde$1 
"r1 to inflict pa91 s f> z x prev5ts "s 
great] evil4 ,h5ce1 y %\ld puni%        
crim9als j s f> z ! pa9 :i* y inflict is
 less ?an ! pa9 :i* y prev5t4 ,x is     
wrong to give a s+le useless pang ev5 to
 ! wor/ ( m54 ,if 7accord+ to a s5tim5t 
attribut$ to ,b5?am7 a f9e ( five %ill+s
 w\ld prev5t a man f committ+ murd]1 x  
w\ld be wrong to f9e him sev5 %ill+s &  
sixp5ce4 ,?is gives a ju/ification (    
puni%m5t1 9 s f> z det]r5t4 ,x is       
obvi\sly connect$ ) ano!r doctr9e4 ,a   
man is ! be/ judge ( 8 own pleasures &  
pa9s4 ,!re=e1 9 s f> z a man's actions  
affect himself alone1 !y are n to be    
=bidd5 by ! law4 ,we may ?9k !m bad or  
degrad+2 b s long z !y d n affect o!rs1 
! fact t a man *ooses !m is a pro( t !y 
give him pleasure2 & we %all1 !re=e1    
only dim9i% ! sum ( happ9ess by int]f]+4
 ,n[1 x is pla9 t ?is di/9ction does n  
draw ! l9e betwe5 :at is morally bad or 
good4 ,e habit :i* affects a man's own  

"*1 affects1 also1 8 capacity to fulfil 
8 duties to o!rs4 ,b ?is !ory ov]looks  
immorality1 except s f> z x happ5s to   
involve c]ta9 extrane\s consequ5ces4 ,we
 are1 ^u ?is %[+1 to puni% a crim9al    
precisely 9 ! same _s z we are to abate 
a nuisance4 ,! ?ief is to be suppress$1 
z we are to extirpate a mis*iev\s we$1 &
 to be suppress$ by j z mu* sev]ity z is
 requir$ = ! purpose4 ,! drunk>d1 s long
 z he conf9es himself to mak+ a bea/ (  
himself 9 8 own room1 does 8 neighb\rs  
no direct injury1 & mu/ be left to enjoy
 ! pleasure :i* is %[n1 because he      
*ooses x1 to be a pleasure to him4 ,(   
?is !ory1 x may1 ,i ?9k1 be said t1     
h[ev] imp]fect1 x is tol]ably consi/5t1 
&1 moreov]1 t x und\bt$ly does express  
"o legitimate end ( puni%m5t4 ,!re c be 
no d\bt1 t is1 t ! puni%m5t ( murd]]s   
may be rightly def5d$1 among o!r gr\nds1
 at any rate1 on ! gr\nd t x disc\rages 
! practice2 ?\gh we may n fully agree ) 
! fam\s say+ ( ! judge1 ,y are n hang$ =
 /eal+ %eep1 b hang$ 9 ord] t %eep may n

 be /ol54 ,&1 fur!r1 ?\gh !re are v>i\s 
difficulties ab\t ! di/9ction betwe5    
self-reg>d+ & extra-reg>d+ conduct1 we  
mu/ also1 ,i ?9k1 all[1 9 g5]al t]ms1 t 
! fact t a man's conduct has a direct & 
assignable influ5ce ^u 8 neighb\r's     
happ9ess1 mu/ always be "o reason1 &1   
frequ5tly1 ! only suffici5t reason1 =   
suppress+ x by legal p5alties4  ,?is    
doctr9e ( simple det]r5ce1 h[ev]1 seems1
 to mo/ critics1 to be insuffici5t4 ,x  
omits ! moral elem5t too completely4 ,:5
 a man is puni%$ = "s revolt+ (f5ce1 we 
are n simply provid+ him & 8 l ) reasons
 = ab/a9+ 9 future4 ,we are1 z a fact1  
expos+ him to infamy1 sometimes m pa9ful
 to be> ?an ! imm$iate p5alty1 & are    
?us1 9 fact1 invok+ ! sanction ( ! moral
 s5tim5t4 ,!re=e1 x is urg$1 we mu/     
/ill1 :e!r we l x or n1 be morali/s4 ,! 
purely utilit>ian argum5t has omitt$ "o 
elem5t ( ! calculation4 ,! puni%m5t n   
only det]s (f5d]s1 b gratifies ! feel+ (
 res5tm5t to moral indignation1 :i* has 
be5 approv$ by _m morali/s4 ,h5ce1 x is 

urg$1 besides ! det]r5t !ory1 we mu/    
make room = ! v9dictive !ory4 ,x is     
legitimate & "r to hate crime1 &1 !re=e1
 to hate crim9als2 & legal puni%m5ts are
 def5sible1 n m]ely z add+ to ! motives 
= refra9+ f crime1 b z gratify+ ! desire
 = rev5ge1 :i*1 9 e>ly ages1 0 assum$ 9 
! rude modes ( putt+ d[n viol5ce1 & :i*1
 ev5 n[1 %\ld be n eradicat$ b conf9$ )9
 legal *annels & direct$ t[>ds !        
desirable ends4  ,po/pon+1 = ! pres5t1 a
 consid]ation ( ?is propos$ em5dation1  
let u consid]1 a little m closely1 !    
objection made to ! !ory ( det]r5ce4 ,9 
:at way does x come into direct conflict
 ) a moral !ory ( puni%m5t8 ,x looks ^u 
immorality z mis*iev\s1 or z dim9i%+    
happ9ess2 & ^u ! utilit>ian view        
immorality means ! dim9ution ( happ9ess4
 ,n[1 )\t discuss+ ultimate moral       
que/ions1 ,i may assume t1 = practical  
purposes1 ?is seems to be a suffici5tly 
t5able position4 ,aft] all1 we admit1 to
 :atev] s*ool we belong1 t crime is     
mis*iev\s1 &1 :atev] deep] mean+ may be 

assign$ to x1 may be consid]$ 9 t light 
by ! legislator4 ,he _c--c]ta9ly he     
ought n to--=bid actions :i* d no h>m to
 anybody1 or :i* nobody1 at ! "t &      
place1 feels to be injuri\s to happ9ess4
 ,ev51 !re=e1 if utilit>ianism be       
unsatisfactory z an ultimate !ory1 x may
 repres5t adequately ! po9t ( view ( !  
practical legislator4 ,he tries to      
suppress viol5ce & fraud because1 z a   
fact1 !y cause :at _! victims unanim\sly
 agree to be pa9ful consequ5ces2 & he   
ne$ n look any fur!r = a reason4 ,p1 x  
is said1 h v diff]5t /&>ds ( pleasure4  
,/ill1 we all dislike hav+ our ?roats   
cut or our pockets pick$2 & t fact      
supplies a suffici5t gr\nd ^u :i* to    
base ! :ole crim9al law4 ,:5 we g a     
little fur!r1 a po9t ( div]g5ce may be  
notic$1 a %ort consid]ation ( :i* may   
help to cle> ! case4 ,let u assume !    
legitimate end ( all puni%m5t to be     
det]r5ce4 ,x w foll[1 t we mu/ annex z a
 consequ5ce to crimes an adequate       
c\nt]poise1 & a c\nt]poise n m ?an      

adequate to ! crim9al's motives4 ,! f9e 
to be paid mu/ be j suffici5t to prev5t 
! transgression4 ,n[1 x has be5 urg$1   
?is necess>ily implies a conflict )     
morality4 ,! degree ( moral guilt impli$
 9 a giv5 crime v>ies inv]sely z !      
temptation4 ,! great] ! inducem5t to !  
(f5ce1 ! less ! wick$ness %[n 9 committ+
 ! (f5ce4 ,a man may h en\gh virtue to  
refra9 f a gratuit\s inju/ice1 al?\gh he
 has n virtue en\gh to resi/ a l>ge     
bribe1 or ! ?reats ( a man 9 p[]4 ,b1 if
 ! legislator is to provide simply a    
c\nt]poise1 he w h to foll[ ! opposite  
rule4 ,! great] ! temptation1 ! great]  
mu/ be ! =ce ( ! motive :i* mu/ be add$ 
to c\nt]balance ! temptation4 ,if !re be
 a crime by :i* a man might make a      
million ( money1 y mu/1 if y w\ld prev5t
 x1 hold out ! prospect ( su* pa9s z    
w\ld1 9 8 e/imation1 be *eaply avoid$ at
 ! sacrifice ( a million2 or1 mak+      
all[ance = ! unc]ta9ty ( detection1 by !
 sacrifice ( m ?an a million4 ,b if1 by 
! same crime1 he only got a five-p\nd   

note1 ! prospect ( pay+ a hundr$ p\nds 9
 case ( detection might be a suffici5t  
pres]vative ( 8 hone/y4 ,yet1 ! man :o  
is tempt$ by ! million gives less pro( (
 di%one/y ?an ! man :o commits ! same   
crime = a paltry five p\nds4 ,!re=e !   
puni%m5t mu/ be increas$1 z ! wick$ness 
is less4  ,i mu/ fir/ set aside "o      
ambiguity :i* p]plexes ?is argum5t4 ,:5 
we speak ( a temptation z v>y+1 we may  
mean "o ( two v diff]5t ?+s4 ,to say t  
,i am m tempt$ ?an y to commit a giv5   
crime1 may mean t ! ga9 expect$ by me is
 itself great]2 or1 x may mean t ,i am m
 pr$ispos$ to ! crime4 ,i may be m      
tempt$1 let u say1 to poison my uncle   
?an y are to poison y\rs4 ,t may mean t 
my uncle is a ri* old s9n] & ,i am 8    
heir1 :]eas y\r uncle is a poor sa9t & y
 w get no?+ by 8 dea?4 ,or x may mean t 
,i am m tempt$ because1 our uncles be+  
alike1 ,i am spiteful1 & y affectionate1
 by nature4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 to say t ,i 
am "u ! /rong] temptation w\ld1 p]haps1 
t5d to alleviate ! gravity ( my crime2 9

 ! second1 x w\ld simply be ano!r way ( 
say+ t ,i 0 ! great] brute4 ,9 bo?      
cases1 ( c\rse1 x is true t ! great]    
temptation w\ld require ! great]        
c\nt]poise4 ,9 "o case1 ?is only means t
 ! worse ! man1 ! /rong] ! re/ra9ts :i* 
he requires2 &1 if y c\ld make diff]5t  
laws = bad m5 & good1 x w\ld foll[ t !  
bad w\ld require ! heavie/ p5alties4 ,b 
?is does n conflict ) ! moral view4 ,x  
is no excuse = a murd]] to say1 ,i am s 
blood?ir/y t ,i really c\ld n help      
murd]+4 ,no contradiction to morality   
arises f puni%+ 8 crime m sev]ely4 ,9 ! 
o!r case alone1--! case 9 :i* we made   
di/9ctions f\nd$ ^u ! diff]5ce (        
surr\nd+ circum/ances1--x is true t we  
%\ld1 f ! po9t ( view ( simple det]r5ce1
 require heavi] p5alties :]e !          
temptations 7 great]1 &1 !re=e1 !       
intr9sic malevol5ce prov$ to exi/ less4 
,= mo/ purposes1 ?is argum5t seems to h 
v little practical application4 ,! law  
is made = p 9 g5]al2 we _c h "o law =   
bad m5 & ano!r = good2 p>tly because    

good & bad p d n c>ry ab\t tangible m>ks
 ( _! quality writt5 ^u _! faces4 ,no   
d\bt1 inde$1 ! atrocity ( a crime is    
recognis$1 if n by ! g5]al law1 by !    
nature ( ! s5t5ce4 ,an assault may %[   
unnatural f]ocity or m]ely a r excessive
 w>m? ( temp]2 &1 ?\gh ! (f5ce may be   
=bidd5 "u ! same clause ( ! crim9al law1
 ! judge may be emp[]$ to give s5t5ces (
 v>y+ sev]ity1 v>y+ m or less accord+ to
 ! moral depravity impli$4 ,s f>1 ! wor/
 (f5ces 79 a moral s5se7 get ! heavie/  
puni%m5t2 & ! det]r+ influ5ce is rightly
 ex]t$ by proportion+ ! p5alty to !     
temptation1 t is1 to ! pr$isposition to 
crime4 ,! o!r case1 aga91 requires "s   
qualification4 ,x is n true1 z an       
absolute proposition1 t ! crim9ality is 
always1 or g5]ally1 dim9i%$1 9          
proportion to ! greatness ( !           
temptation2 = we mu/ rememb] t bo? !    
temptation & ! crime w g5]ally be great]
 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( mis*ief      
inflict$4 ,x is m tempt+1 no d\bt1 to   
appropriate a ?\s& p\nds ?an a %ill+2 b 

we _c inf] t ! man :o takes ! l>g] sum  
is1 !re=e1 less wick$2 t he has a       
consci5ce :i* w\ld h kept him hone/ "u !
 small] temptation1 & has only yield$ to
 ! great]4 ,comp>e1 = example1 ! case ( 
! petty pilf]] :o appropriates my wat*1 
) ! case ( ! man ( bus9ess :o           
appropriates securities wor? _m ?\s&    
p\nds & ru9s wid[s & orphans by ! doz54 
,we %\ld all agree1 ,i imag9e1 t !      
p]petrator ( ! m gigantic fraud w\ld    
require ! /rong] det]r+ motive to be    
kept /raight4 ,he is play+ = heavy      
/akes1 & we _c hold out too /rong a     
?reat ( infamy & suff]+1 if our aim is  
simply to prev5t ! crime4 ,b nei!r1 if  
we consid] him f ! purely moral po9t (  
view1 w\ld x be fair to argue t he 0 a  
bett] man ?an ! pickpocket1 because !   
plund] :i* tempt$ him 0 great]4 ,!      
opposite1 ,i fancy1 w\ld be true4 ,he   
%[s a call\sness to human suff]+1 & an  
am\nt ( delib]ate hypocrisy & trea*]y   
:i* proves him to be n only ! m dang]\s1
 b ! m ?or\ghly corrupt ( ! two4 ,! two 

ends ( provid+ a suffici5t c\nt]poise & 
( puni%+ ! wor/ m5 mo/ sev]ely1 w\ld1   
!re=e1 co9cide 9 ?is case also2 & !     
argum5t t ! great] temptation implies   
less wick$ness is pla9ly inapplicable4  
,)\t go+ fur!r into ?is1 :i* may briefly
 indicate "s ( ! p]plexities involv$1 ,i
 may m5tion c]ta9 cases 9 :i* !re seems 
to be a real div]g5ce ( ! two pr9ciples4
 ,!re are cases 9 :i* ! temptation may  
be fairly held to less5 guilt1 & 9 :i*  
puni%m5t has1 not)/&+1 be5 made sev]] 9 
consequ5ce4 ,! crim9al law ( ! la/      
c5tury1 = example1 impos$ a p5alty (    
dea? ^u p]sons :o /ole c]ta9 k9ds (     
prop]ty left 9 specially expos$         
positions4 ,! ease ( tak+ x w\ld v      
possibly tempt to !ft m5 :o w\ld else:]e
 be hone/2 & x 0 s\ght to comp5sate = ! 
/r5g? ( ! temptation by m savage        
puni%m5t ( ^? :o yield$ to x4 ,or1 aga91
 !re are c]ta9 problems ( a simil> k9d  
connect$ ) political (f5ces4 ,a man :o  
gets up a rebellion f s9c]e political   
motives is g5]ally f> bett] morally ?an 

! man :o gets up a rebellion = ! sake1  
say1 ( simple plund]4 ,ought ! motive to
 be all[$ z an ext5uation ( ! (f5ce8 ,x 
ought1 x may be said1 f a moral po9t (  
view2 b1 f ! po9t ( view ( simple       
det]r5ce1 we might r consid] t !        
patriotic rebel is ! m dang]\s p]son ( !
 two1 &1 !re=e1 requires ! prospect ( at
 lea/ z heavy a puni%m5t to keep him    
quiet4 ,s1 aga91 x has be5 ask$1 :e!r x 
%\ld be admitt$ z an excuse = a riot]1 t
 he has jo9$ 9 viol5t c\rses "u ?reats f
 ! riot\s mob4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 an     
excuse f ! morali/'s po9t ( view2 ! man 
is only attack+ ! police 9 ord] to save 
8 own h\se f be+ burnt1 n f a disord]ly 
or disaffect$ _s4 ,b x is repli$1 f !   
det]r+ po9t ( view1 t1 if su* an excuse 
be all[$1 y are ceas+ to ?reat5 at !    
precise mom5t :5 ! ?reats are mo/       
requir$4 ,if ! law is n to press f "o   
side1 all ! pressure w come f ! o!r1 & e
 argum5t w be 9 fav\r ( jo9+ ! side (   
disord]4 ,h5ce1 x is argu$1 we ought to 
proportion ! puni%m5t1 n to ! (f5ce1 b  

to ! temptation4  ,n[1 ,i may say1 v    
briefly1 t su* a div]g5ce ( ! two       
pr9ciples appe>s to me to be possible2  
&1 fur!r1 t cases may be put 9 :i* x    
might be necess>y to det]1 at all       
haz>ds1 ev5 to ! neglect ( moral        
consid]ations4 ,a g5]al :o is def5d+ a  
t[n mu/ sometimes burn ! h\ses ( innoc5t
 p1 )\t /opp+ to consid] :e!r !y c ev]  
be comp5sat$2 & ,i ?9k t !re may be     
analog\s cases ev5 9 reg>d to law1 :]e !
 consid]ation ( ! absolute necessity (  
putt+ d[n mis*iev\s conduct may ov]ride 
! normal moral consid]ations4 ,b ! g5]al
 answ] is1 ,i ?9k1 diff]5t1 & may help  
to cle> ! pr9ciple4 ,! law to :i* ,i h  
ref]r$1 = ! protection ( expos$ prop]ty1
 obvi\sly sugge/s "o rem>k4 ,! true     
rem$y = ! evil w\ld h be5 n to increase 
! p5alty1 b to increase ! protection4 ,y
 ought to h provid$ m wat*m51 or to h   
=bidd5 own]s to put temptation 9 ! way (
 _! neighb\rs1 & n to h tri$ to make !  
hangman d ! "w ( ! policeman4 ,s our    
ance/ors err$ :5 !y protect$ _! fields1 

n by putt+ up f5ces1 b by sett+ mantraps
 to mutilate occasional trespass]s4 ,9  
t1 z 9 o!r cases1 ! mi/ake is to confuse
 betwe5 ! det]r+ influ5ce ( puni%m5t & !
 prev5tive influ5ce ( protective        
measures4 ,argum5ts1 que/ionable :5 us$ 
on behalf ( puni%m5t consid]$ z det]r+1 
are p]fectly applicable to ! prev5tive  
measures4 ,x is obvi\sly "r t su*       
measures %\ld be proportion$ to !       
temptation4 ,:5 a />v+ man /eals a loaf1
 he is n s bad z a man :o /eals :5 he is
 n />v+4 ,we %\ld1 !re=e1 ?9k x morally 
wrong to puni% him z sev]ely4 ,b1 if we 
?\ght t he ought n to h ! loaf1 we %\ld 
take /rong] precautions 9 proportion to 
! probable temptation4 ,if1 = example1  
we 7 s5d+ supplies to relieve a />v+    
di/rict1 x w\ld be cle>ly "r to s5d su* 
a =ce ) !m z might prev5t _!            
appropriation by ! /ronge/1 or ! fir/   
com]s4 ,b1 at ! same "t1 we %\ld also   
?9k x "r to save ! m5 f temptation1 by  
provid+ z mu* z possible aga9/ ! dang] (
 />vation4 ,s1 aga91 x w\ld be mon/r\s  

to puni% a poor man m sev]ely ?an a     
duke1 = /eal+ a wat*2 b1 z a matt] (    
prud5ce1 ,i %\ld take m precautions if  
,i 7 d9+ 9 a poor public-h\se1 ?an if ,i
 7 d9+ 9 a ducal palace4  ,?is sugge/s !
 true application ( ano!r doctr9e1 ab\t 
! responsibility ( society4 ,society1 x 
is sometimes said1 has no "r to puni%1  
because x ought to h suppress$ ! causes 
( crime4 ,?is doctr9e is (t5 /at$ v     
illogically1 & w\ld sanction a great    
deal ( false s5tim5talism4 ,if society  
includes _m corrupt & dang]\s elem5ts1 t
 is no reason at all = n suppress+ !m by
 all available means4 ,b1 no d\bt1 x is 
a v good & suffici5t reason = try+1 z f>
 z possible1 to remove ! cause z well z 
! effects2 = gett+ rid ( ! temptations  
to crime1 & tra9+ p s z to make !m less 
dispos$ to crime1 in/ead ( simply puni%+
 m sev]ely ^? :o h yield$ to temptation 
& giv5 play to in/9cts :i* h n be5      
prop]ly discipl9$4 ,?is applies         
conspicu\sly to ! case ( ! political    
crim9al4 ,x is g5]ally ess5tial to !    

welf>e ( a nation1 t ord] %\ld be       
pres]v$ by a settl$ gov]nm5t4 ,x is !   
duty ( e gov]nm5t1 n only to cru%       
resi/ance1 b to take su* precautions z w
 make resi/ance hopeless4 ,b a          
correlative duty is sugge/$ :5 a        
rebellion actually occurs1 & especially 
a rebellion :i* excites ! sympa?y (     
o!rwise moral p4 ,su* a case1 t is1     
af=ds ! /ronge/ presumption t !re are   
real grievances to be r$ress$1 & t !    
rebel %\ld n be conf\nd$ ) ! vulg>      
crim9al4 ,x may be1 & (t5 is1 q necess>y
 to %oot him d[n1 s long z he is        
actively attack+ au?ority2 b1 :5 he is  
dis>m$1 he _c be reg>d$ simply z a ?ief 
or murd]]1 b z a man :o has giv5 a      
useful1 ?\gh a disagreeable1 h9t t !    
times are out ( jo9t4  ,i h gone s f>   
into ^! que/ions--:i* might lead to a   
great _m o!r problems ( legal           
casui/ry--) ! desire ( br++ out "o      
ess5tial "p ( ! "q4 ,! difficulties :i* 
h aris5 po9t1 ,i ?9k1 to ! impossibility
 ( treat+ ! problem exclusively1 f a    

simple consid]ation ( ! det]r+ influ5ce 
( puni%m5t4 ,t1 h[ev]1 rema9s an        
ess5tial elem5t4 ,if ! sole reason =    
puni%+ a %eep-/eal] be n ! prev5tion (  
%eep-/eal+1 t is1 at lea/1 a v excell5t 
reason z f> z x goes4 ,b x seems to me  
an insuffici5t reason f ! moral po9t (  
view1 &1 9 p>ticul>1 to fail 9 assign+ a
 suffici5tly di/9ct gr\nd = det]m9+ !   
desirable degree ( puni%m5t4 ,! pr9ciple
 0 advocat$ z limit+ ! sev]ity ( ! old  
laws2 b x is n q easy to def9e ! limit  
sugge/$4 ,!re is a necess>y clums9ess   
ab\t ! me?od4 ,a puni%m5t only becomes  
op]ative 9 ! cases 9 :i* ! ?reat has    
fail$ to det]4 ,! fact t a man has      
committ$ a crime demon/rates !          
inadequacy ( ! sy/em 9 8 case2 we h n   
giv5 him a suffici5t motive = ab/a9+4   
,:5 ,b5?am says1 t if a f9e ( five      
%ill+s w\ld prev5t a murd]1 y ought n to
 f9e ! murd]] sev5 & sixp5ce1 he says   
:at is1 9 a s5se1 obvi\sly true4 ,if ,i 
c\ld prev5t a murd]1 or1 inde$1 a*ieve  
any o!r desirable object1 = a giv5 sum1 

:y %\ld ,i ?r[ away ano!r p5ny8 ,b ! f9e
 is n inflict$ till somebody has        
committ$ a murd]1 &1 9 t case1 ! ?reat (
 f9+ has obvi\sly fail$4 ,! "q arises1  
!re=e1 h[ f> am ,i to g8 ,am ,i to g on 
rais+ ! t>iff till murd] becomes        
altoge!r obsolete8 ,b we h already got z
 f> z capital puni%m5t1 )\t a*iev+ t    
result4 ,&1 if we consid] ! case ^u ?is 
me?od1 we beg9 to f9d a difficulty 9 !  
me?od ( calculation4 ,we are to comp>e !
 pa9 inflict$ ^u ! crim9al ) ! pa9 sav$ 
to ! victim4 ,b ! great] ! pa9 inflict$1
 ! small]1 accord+ to ! assumption made1
 w be ! numb] ( crim9als1 & ! great] !  
numb] ( victims sav$4 ,if we c\ld adopt 
! ,draconic sy/em1 & be sure ( puni%+ e 
crime ) dea?1 crime ought to disappe>2 =
 h>dly anybody w\ld break ! law if he 7 
q c]ta9 ( ! gall[s4 ,b1 9 t case1 ! pa91
 bo? ( ! crim9al & ! victim1 w\ld       
disappe>1 = !re w\ld be no "o 9 ei!r    
class4 ,! result1 !re=e1 w\ld be a pure 
ga93 no crime & no puni%m5t4 ,aga9/ ?is 
practical conclusion1 inde$1 ,b5?am 0 "o

 ( ! fir/ to prote/2 & he uses "o v s\nd
 argum5t4 ,puni% all crime equally1 he  
says1 & y put a premium on ! wor/       
crimes4 ,if bo? robb] & murd]] are to be
 hang$1 ! robb] w h a good reason =     
de/roy+ evid5ce1 by add+ ! murd] to !   
plund] ( 8 victims4 ,b1 ?\gh ! argum5t  
is v mu* to ! purpose1 x seems to make  
our calculations r difficult4 ,we _c    
look simply to ! det]r+ influ5ce ( a    
giv5 puni%m5t1 b h to consid] its place 
9 ! g5]al t>iff1 & its influ5ce 9 induc+
 p to pref] "o v>iety ( crime to ano!r4 
,& if we try to f9d our way out ( ?is   
difficulty1 we %all h1 ,i ?9k1 to f9d t 
! mode ( reason+ requires "s            
modification4  ,! !ory on :i* !         
calculation goes may1 p]haps1 be        
repres5t$ ?us3 ,x is suppos$ t by hang+ 
a murd]]1 y prev5t1 say1 t5 murd]s :i*  
w\ld o!rwise happ54 ,! suff]+ sav$ to ! 
t5 victims is great] ?an ! actual suff]+
 ( ! s+le crim9al4 ,!re=e1 ! infliction 
( ! p5alty gives a balance on ! side (  
happ9ess4 ,! argum5t seems to me to be  

s\nd z f> z x goes1 &1 9 "s cases1 x    
w\ld1 ,i ?9k1 be suffici5t4 ,if1 =      
example1 x 7 prov$ t ! use ( a c]ta9    
rem$y1 su* z inoculation1 caus$ a c]ta9 
numb] ( dea?s1 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 x     
prev5t$ t5 times z _m1 we %\ld consid] t
 a good case _h be5 made out = its      
adoption4 ,&1 simil>ly1 if we att5d$    
simply to ! numb] ( executions & to !   
numb] ( crimes1 & c\ld make ! necess>y  
ari?metical comp>ison1 we %\ld be able  
to e/imate ! balance ( good or evil 9   
t]ms ( pa9 & pleasure4 ,b ?is mode (    
consid]+ ! case is obvi\sly inadequate2 
&1 inde$1 ,b5?am 7?\gh ,i _c n[ g into 8
 tea*+7 feels & makes all[ance = its    
inadequacy4 ,=1 to say no?+ else1 ! m]e 
det]r5ce ( a c]ta9 numb] ( crimes is an 
entirely insuffici5t measure ( ! effect 
( ! law4 ,! "o obvi\s rem>k is t1 by    
suppress+ viol5ce1 y n only save a c]ta9
 numb] ( lives1 b y secure an ess5tial  
condition ( all civilis$ life4 ,i came  
"h to-night )\t a revolv] 9 my pocket2 &
 ,i am n aw>e t ,i %[$ any p>ticul>     

c\rage by do+ s4 ,b x w\ld h be5        
foolh>dy to h %[n ! same neglig5ce1 a   
few ye>s ago1 9 "s ( ! ,we/]n ,/ates (  
,am]ica4 ,if ,i _h liv$ 9 su*           
conditions1 ,i %\ld n only h tak5 a     
revolv]1 b h1 v possibly1 ?\ght x a duty
 to jo9 a vigilance committee1 ) a view 
to ! suppression ( crimes ( viol5ce4    
,!re are /ill regions :]e ! fact t a man
 lives 9 a neighb\r+ village is a       
suffici5t ju/ification = %oot+ him d[n z
 soon z he comes 9 sight1 = ! simple    
reason t1 o!rwise1 he w\ld %oot y4 ,s1  
:5 private w> 0 /ill "p ( ! regul>      
cu/om1 !re 0 an ob/acle :i* _h to be    
cru%$ be=e any progress c\ld be made 9  
indu/rial developm5t1 :i* presupposes   
peaceful int]c\rse & mutual confid5ce4  
,! =mation ( all t is meant by social   
ord]1 ! br++ ab\t ( a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i*  
m5 c meet habitually )\t fe> or         
precaution1 c\nt+ ) complete confid5ce  
^u ! abs5ce ( any ho/ile int5tion1 is1  
obvi\sly1 an ess5tial condition ( ev]y?+
 t makes life wor? liv+ 9 a civilis$    

c\ntry4 ,! fact is too obvi\s to require
 mu* illu/ration2 b x requires notice1 =
 x is v imp]fectly recognis$ :5 y reg>d 
murd]1 = example1 simply z a k9d (      
sporadic disease1 :i* breaks out "h &   
!re1 & c be kept )9 limits by kill+ "s  
murd]]s1 & s fright5+ o!r w\ld-be       
murd]]s4 ,! crim9al law1 no d\bt1       
includes t consid]ation2 b x includes   
inf9itely m4 ,x is a necess>y coroll>y (
 t /ate ( social relations :i* alone    
gives a secure base = e conceivable k9d 
( satisfactory social relation4 ,x      
might1 p]haps1 s]ve z a suffici5t def5ce
 ( ! old sy/em1 :51 9 ! abs5ce ( any    
settl$ ord]1 ! sy/em ( private v5geance1
 ( blood-feuds1 & s =?1 s]v$ to re/ra9 !
 preval5ce ( actual viol5ce4 ,b x is a  
totally insuffici5t measure ( ! real    
advantage ga9$ by en=c+ ord]4 ,we h to  
comp>e1 n only ! numb] ( murd]s & !     
numb] ( victims :i* w\ld exi/ 9 a giv5  
social ord]1 suppos+ ! p5alty to be     
inflict$ or n inflict$2 b to comp>e two 
radically diff]5t social /ates1 & to    

ask1 :e!r x is bett] to live 9 a society
 :]e peace is ! almo/ inv>iable rule1 & 
viol5ce ! r>e exception1 or 9 "o 9 :i*  
!re is a *aos ( little societies1 ea* ( 
!m be+ 9 con/ant fe> ( all its          
neighb\rs4 ,! con/ruction ( a c5tral    
au?ority :i* w keep ! peace is a        
necess>y "p ( ! process ( civilisation1 
& ! crim9al law is involv$ 9 ! process4 
,=1 ( c\rse1 x foll[s t1 s long z       
anti-social elem5ts exi/ )9 ! bord]s (  
society1 & "s p resort to ! old me?ods (
 ! knife or ! bludgeon1 !y mu/ be put   
d[n2 & ! hangman & ! jail]1 clumsy z !  
action may be1 repres5t ! only k9d (    
ma*9]y :i* has hi!rto be5 inv5t$ = !    
purpose4  ,x foll[s t we mu/ und]/&     
det]r5ce 9 a wid] s5se ?an we h hi!rto  
giv5 to x4 ,:5 we speak ( puni%m5t z    
det]r+ f crime1 we mu/ consid]1 n m]ely 
! effect ^u ! individual ( ! prospect ( 
puni%m5t foll[+ detection1 b ! total    
effect ( a sy/ematic adh]5ce to ! law ^u
 ! pres]vation ( a peaceful /ate (      
society at l>ge4 ,we d n simply wi% to  

provide a suffici5t motive to decide !  
individual :o is ask+ himself1 %all ,i  
/eal or n /eal8 b to ma9ta9 an          
organisation "u :i* prop]ty %all be     
normally respect$1 & /eal+ become z     
exceptional z we c make x4 ,?is1 9 turn1
 involves mu* m ?an a simple execution (
 ! crim9al law2 x involves ! support (  
ag5cies = prev5tion1 education1 &       
re=mation2 ?\gh x does1 also1 involve an
 inflexible adh]5ce to ! crim9al law4 ,!
 law has to use r\gh means1 & _c        
possibly affect to adh]e precisely to ! 
moral des]ts ( individual cases4 ,b x is
 ju/ifi$ by ! simple gr\nd t ! only     
alt]native is a *aos ( b>b>ism4 ,if y   
ask1 !re=e1 9 :at s5se is a crim9al law 
j8 we mu/ confess t1 9 c]ta9 respects1 x
 is impossible t x %\ld be /rictly j2 x 
mu/ deal ) ! f\nd-out exclusively & ) ^?
 :o are f\nd out 9 c]ta9 def9ite cases (
 crim9ality1 & x mu/1 !re=e1 impose     
p5alties :i* d n precisely correspond to
 ! degree ( crim9ality impli$4 ,b !     
relation to morality is1 nev]!less1     

intimate4 ,= ! gr[? ( ! social ord]     
dep5ds ^u ! gr[? ( ! correspond+ social 
in/9cts2 or r1 ! two processes are      
correlative4 ,if ,i love my neighb\r ,i 
%all n wi% to cut 8 ?roat2 &1 9 ord] t  
,i may love him1 ,i mu/ be pretty sure t
 he does n mean to cut m9e4 ,! ext]nal  
framework provides a protection "u :i* !
 prim>y moral in/9cts c exp&2 & !       
expansion ( ! in/9cts supposes a        
correlative modification ( ! ext]nal    
framework4 ,! moral requirem5t 9 reg>d  
to ! crim9al law is1 !re=e1 ess5tially1 
t x %\ld be su* a law z is fav\rable1 :5
 consid]$ 9 connection ) ! :ole ord]1 to
 ! /r5g? & developm5t ( ! exi/+         
morality4 ,if ! crim9al asks1 ,h[ d y   
ju/ify y\rself = puni%+ me8 ! reply mu/ 
be1 ,because ! inflexible adm9i/ration (
 ! law is an ess5tial precondition ( !  
:ole sy/em1 "u :i* alone progress is    
possible4 ,a society 9 :i* peace & ord] 
are pres]v$ is sup]ior1 9 morals z 9 o!r
 respects1 to a society 9 :i* peace &   
ord] are made impossible by viol5ce2 & !

 suppression by puni%m5t ( (f5d]s is    
involv$ 9 ! sy/em4 ,! advantage (       
belong+ to su* a society is n to be     
measur$ by c\nt+ up ! work+ ( individual
 cases2 b by ! :ole *>act]i/ics ( !     
social /ate1 tak5 z a :ole1 & includ+1 z
 "o ess5tial "p1 ! adm9i/ration (       
crim9al law 9 su* a way z to be 9       
con=mity ) ! conditions ( heal?y social 
developm5t4 ,! difficulty1 ,i ?9k1 ?\gh 
,i c only indicate ! argum5t briefly1   
results f a common illusion1 :i* is     
illu/rat$ by ! once fam\s social        
contract !ory4 ,y suppose a numb] (     
indep5d5t individuals1 agree+ to jo9 &  
expect+ to receive a precise equival5t =
 e sacrifice t !y make 9 consequ5ce4 ,! 
reply is1 t ! individual is ! product ( 
! society1 & x is a m]e fiction to      
consid] him z possess+ any antec$5t     
rights :atev]4 ,8 rights are to be d$uc$
 f1 n to supply ! premisses = d$uc+1 !  
social ord]4 ,! only consid]ations :i*  
are relevant are ^? :i* affect ! welf>e 
( ! social organism1 tak5 z a :ole2 & we

 mu/ reg>d !m z det]m9$1 be=e we come to
 ! di/ribution ( b5efits & burd5s among 
its con/itu5t facts4 ,o!rwise1 we %\ld  
be fall+ into ! same fallacy z if we    
argu$ ab\t ! heal? ( sep>ate bodily     
organs1 legs1 & arms1 & /oma*s1 z ?\gh  
!y 7 indep5d5t ?+s1 fa/5$ toge!r to make
 a s+le ma*9e4 ,s9ce ! leg implies !    
/oma*1 any consid]ation ( ! leg's       
sep>ate rights w\ld be absurd4 ,s !     
individual memb] ( a political society  
_c be reg>d$ z ?\gh he _h exi/$ outside 
society some:]e1 & 0 entitl$ to a       
precise equival5t = ! sacrifice ( 8     
indep5d5ce4 ,! doctr9e involves         
impossible consid]ations4 ,i h to       
contribute to c]ta9 sanit>y regulations1
 ?\gh ,i may be /rong] or weak] ?an my  
neighb\rs1 & !re=e less or m 9 ne$ ( !m4
 ,or1 ,i h to pay a s*ool-rate1 :e!r ,i 
h a doz5 *ildr5 or none at all4 ,d ^?   
facts give me a "r to compla9 if ,i am  
tax$ equally ) my neighb\rs8 ,if s1 e   
b5efit :i* ,i receive f society mu/ be  
set d[n z a sep>ate item 9 an acc\nt to 

be balanc$ by itself4 ,obvi\sly1 !      
advantage :i* ,i receive 9 su* cases is 
! :ole advantage receiv$ f liv+ 9 a     
heal?y place or among educat$ p2 & x is 
ess5tially impossible to cut t up into a
 numb] ( diff]5t bits ( happ9ess conf]r$
 9 return = sep>ate paym5ts on acc\nt4  
,if ,i use ! contract =mula1 ,i mu/     
int]pret x to mean t am5ability to v>i\s
 regulations1 includ+ ! crim9al law1 is 
"p ( ! :ole b>ga91 :i* w\ld h be5 made1 
if x _h ev] be5 real1 :5 ,i decid$1 if  
,i ev] _h decid$1 to jo9 ! society4 ,!  
in/9ct = puni%+ crim9als guilty (       
viol5ce is "o ( ! fundam5tal in/9cts (  
civilisation1 & we mu/ accept x j z we  
accept any o!r fundam5tal in/9ct4  ,! "q
 ( ju/ice1 h[ev]1 is n a :it ! less     
ess5tial because x presupposes ?is      
social *>act]i/ic in/ead ( supply+ !    
prim>y axioms f :i* x is to be d$uc$4 ,x
 is und\bt$ly ( ! highe/ importance t e 
diff]5ce 9 our me?od ( treat+ diff]5t   
classes %\ld h its suffici5t reason1 to 
be assign$ z cle>ly z possible4 ,!      

pres]vation ( ! peace is ess5tial2 b t  
does n settle ! me?ods by :i* x is to be
 pres]v$4  ,on :at gr\nd1 !n1 are we to 
deal ) ! problem ( ju/ice z reg>ds      
diff]5t classes ( crime8 ,if !          
calculation ( pa9 & pleasure1 z already 
/at$1 seems to be unsatisfactory1 :at is
 ! "r pr9ciple ( proportion+ puni%m5t to
 (f5ce8 ,i h notic$ "o argum5t :i*      
,b5?am appli$1 &1 z ,i ?9k1 ) v good    
reason4 ,to puni% crimes equally1 he    
said1 is virtually to put a premium ^u !
 wor/4 ,! 9 = a p5ny 9 = a p\nd maxim   
becomes at once applicable4 ,moreov]1 z 
e "o n[ admits1 ! old brutal sy/em is   
condemn$ by exp]i5ce4 ,to puni% a great 
numb] ( (f5ces ) dea? l$ to a mixture ( 
excessive brutality ) excessive         
unc]ta9ty4 ,! cruel puni%m5t ( "s       
crim9als 0 balanc$ by ! complete escape 
( o!rs4 ,b ?is practical failure cle>ly 
result$1 9 great measure1 f an obscure  
s5se ( ju/ice4 ,x 0 grossly unju/1 x    
seem$1 to hang a man = /eal+ a loaf1 :5 
y c\ld only hang ano!r = ! brutal murd] 

( 8 wife4 ,! p5alty 9 ! fir/ case1 01 x 
0 felt1 altoge!r out ( proportion to !  
(f5ce4 ,?is in/9ctive s5tim5t 01 z ,i   
?9k we all feel1 sub/antially "r4 ,9 any
 case1 x w\ld h to be tak5 into acc\nt  
by ! legislator1 = ! obvi\s reason t    
puni%m5ts :i* outrun public op9ion1 t5d 
to make m>tyrs ( crim9als4 ,!y are ei!r 
n inflict$1 or !y set ! sympa?y ( ! p on
 ! side ( ! (f5d]4 ,b to say ?is1 is n  
to prove ! s5tim5t to be j1 only to take
 acc\nt ( its exi/5ce4 ,& ! "q1 !re=e1  
rema9s1 h[ x is to be logically ju/ifi$1
 = x may seem to imply ! !ory to :i* ,i 
h object$--! hypo!sis ( a sort ( debtor 
& cr$itor acc\nt--( ! old eye = an eye  
doctr9e1 :i*1 z ,i h argu$1 involves a  
misconception ( ! true doctr9e4 ,my     
reply w\ld be1 9 g5]al t]ms1 t ! doctr9e
 requires re/atem5t1 &1 if prop]ly /at$1
 w n lose b acquire new =ces4  ,let u   
consid] ! consequ5ces ( my previ\s      
/atem5ts4 ,! ess5tial condition ( social
 developm5t is en=cem5t1 :]e necess>y1 (
 peace & ord] by adequate means4 ,!     

crim9al law corresponds to "o "p ( ?is  
process4 ,! :ole social sy/em includes  
ma*9]y = prev5tion1 = re=mation & =     
education1 z well z = puni%m5t2 & x is  
only :5 tak5 9 its relation to o!r p>ts 
( ! sy/em1 t we c give ! full           
ju/ification4 ,its me?ods are1 z ,i h   
said1 obvi\sly full ( imp]fections1 f ! 
purely moral po9t ( view4 ,if we consid]
 x z an isolat$ fact1 comp>ably to !    
int]f]5ce ( a quasi-sup]natural p[]1 :i*
 clut*es an (f5d] "h & !re1 & puni%es   
him simply to fright5 o!rs1 ! arbitr>y &
 unequal nature ( ! proce$+ assumes an  
air ( inju/ice4 ,9 fact1 if y take !    
extreme individuali/ view1 accord+ to   
:i* ea* man is an indep5d5t unit1 :ile  
society repres5ts a =ce imp++ ^u him f  
)\t1 x always becomes difficult to      
introduce ! conception ( ju/ice )\t end+
 9 ! approval ( an>*y4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we   
consid] ! social organisation z includ+ 
all ! means ( civilis+ society1 (       
/r5g!n+ ! g5]al _s ( ord]1 z well z act+
 ^u ! fe>s ( ! disord]ly1 we h to take  

wid] consid]ations into acc\nt4 ,we     
become s5sible1 9 ! fir/ place1 ( !     
importance ( ! pr9ciple t puni%m5t %\ld 
nev] be sub/itut$ = prev5tion4 ,:]ev] x 
is possible to remove temptations1 or   
take precautions :i* make crime         
impossible1 we c h no excuse = adopt+ ! 
blund]+ & unsatisfactory sy/em ( puni%+ 
^? :o h committ$ x4 ,we admit1 t is1 t !
 crim9al law1 ?\gh absolutely necess>y1 
is an ess5tially clumsy contrivance1 to 
be us$ only :5 o!r me?ods fail4 ,:5     
c]ta9 puni%m5ts h be5 condemn$ z        
brutalis+1 x has be5 repli$ t ! p]sons  
puni%$ 7 already s brutal t x is        
impossible to make !m worse4 ,b !       
brutalis+ influ5ce is ev5 m             
objectionable z x applies to !          
legislator ?an z x applies to ! crim9al4
 ,to make up = neglect ( appropriate    
precautions by sev]ity aga9/ ! (f5d]1 is
 to adopt ! necess>ily arbitr>y me?od 9 
:i* *ance mu/ always play a "p 9 place (
 m effective & civilis+ me?ods4         
,frugality 9 apply+ puni%m5t is         

desirable z a gu>antee t we are act+ 9 !
 prop] _s4 ,an ,indian (ficial 0 ask$ :y
 ! native police 7 dispos$ to use       
torture = ! detection ( crime4 ,! cause 
01 he said1 ma9ly f laz9ess3 x 0 s mu*  
easi] to sit 9 ! %ade1 rubb+ r$ pepp] 9 
a poor devil's eyes1 ?an to g ab\t 9 a  
hot sun collect+ evid5ce4 ,s1 x w\ld be 
v mu* easi] to inflict cruel puni%m5t   
?an to try to remove ! causes ( crime2 &
 a resolution nev] to use ! m brutal    
me?ods is n1 z ,i ?9k1 to be reg>d$ z a 
pro( ( weak s5tim5talism1 b z a judici\s
 self-d5y+ ord9ance1 impos$ ^u society  
by itself1 z b9d+ x always to adopt1 z  
f> z x possibly c1 :at is at once ! m   
humane & ! m sci5tific me?od4 ,! same   
pr9ciple involves ! c>eful graduation ( 
puni%m5t4 ,!re are1 inde$1 z ,i believe1
 ?\gh ,i _c give reasons1 cases 9 :i*   
crimes ought to be puni%$ ) dea?4 ,!re  
are p]sons ( :om we may say t x w\ld h  
be5 bett]1 especially = _! neighb\rs1 if
 !y _h nev] be5 born4 ,i am wor?        
inconceivably m = hang+ ?an = any o!r   

purpose1 said ! h]oic ,john ,br[n2 & !  
words may be appli$1 9 a v diff]5t s5se1
 to "s ( ! wret*es :o occasionally make 
_! appe>ance 9 ! c\rts4 ,to hang su* a  
man is to act ^u ! assumption t murd]]s 
repres5t elem5ts :i* are entirely &     
radically anti-social4 ,! only rem$y =  
!m is extirpation4 ,b1 if ?is be        
admitt$1 x sugge/s a suffici5t reason = 
n apply+ x to ! cases ( less gravity1 9 
:i* su* radical incompatibility has n   
be5 demon/rat$4 ,puni%m5t by dea?1 ev5  
if necess>y1 is c]ta9ly a confession (  
impot5ce4 ,we are admitt+ t we c d no?+ 
bett] ) ! man ?an conv]t him into a     
sc>ecr[ = ! b5efit ( 8 l4 ,:at m1 x may 
be ask$1 c we d ) a crim9al8 ,! obvi\s  
reply w\ld be1 re=m him4 ,al?\gh no "o c
 d\bt t re=mation w\ld be an extremely  
good ?+1 :]ev] practicable1 x may be    
urg$ t ! ent]prise is exce$+ly          
difficult2 t1 9 _m cases1 x is hopeless2
 & t we might sp5d our money & our ef=ts
 to bett] purpose ^u m hopeful mat]ials4
 ,& yet1 ,i ?9k t ! answ] is ! true "o1 

if prop]ly und]/ood1 & w sugge/ ! "r    
mean+ to be giv5 to ! ^w det]r5ce4 ,s   
long z we consid] ! individual case     
alone1 & m]ely mean t we are giv+       
motives to bad m5 = refra9+ f p>ticul>  
l9es ( conduct1 ! results1 h[ev]        
desirable1 are ( limit$ value4 ,b if we 
consid] det]r5ce z includ+ or co9cid+ ) 
re=mation1 z indicat+ a "p ( ! g5]al    
sy/em ( moral pressure by :i* ! classes 
expos$ to temptation may be gradually   
rais$ 9 ! scale ( civilisation1 we      
recognise an acceptable mean+4 ,9 fact1 
if we ask :at is ! det]r+ influ5ce (    
puni%m5t1 we mu/ obs]ve t at "o extreme 
x w always fail1 or only induce a bad   
man to take precautions aga9/ detection2
 & t1 at ! o!r end ( ! scale1 !re are a 
great _m cases 9 :i* x does n come into 
active op]ation at all4 ,y & ,i1 ,i     
hope1 are n 9 ! lea/ dispos$ to assault 
ea* o!r1 ev5 ?\gh no policeman is       
pres5t4 ,! b>e ?\ght ( resort+ to       
viol5ce1 pelt+ me1 say1 ) rott5 eggs1   
has n ev5 sugge/$ itself to y1 ev5 ?\gh 

,i may be mak+ a v provok+ use ( my     
tongue4 ,b !re is also an int]m$iate    
class ( p ^u :om ! possibility ( hav+ to
 appe> 9 a police c\rt1 & ! /rong s5se (
 %ame atta*$ to su* appe>ances1 is an   
active re/ra9+ =ce1 t5d+ to limit1 &1 9 
cases :]e ! prop] conditions exi/1      
gradually to n>r[1 ! sph]e ( viol5ce4   
,we1 ! peaceable & law-abid+ citiz5s1 h 
ga9$ a "r to ^? epi!ts1 because we h    
liv$ 9 a sph]e :]e ! law has be5        
habitually en=c$4 ,we h ceas$ to c>ry   
deadly weapons ab\t u1 & h e/abli%$ a   
g5]al condition ( good ord]4 ,! det]r+  
influ5ce ( ! crim9al law acts1 or ought 
to act1 by gradually spread+ t /ate (   
m9d ?r\gh a /eadily wid5+ circle4 ,!    
classes :i* are /ill 9 ne$ ( su* a      
support to _! moral in/9cts are cle>ly  
capable ( re=mation1 :atev] may be !    
case ( "s ( ! individuals :o break !    
law4 ,a fight+ tribe1 :i* has be5 9 !   
habit ( res5t+ e injury by ! use ( !    
knife1 may le>n1 9 a v %ort "t1 t a c\rt
 ( law settles disputes m agreeably ?an 

a free fight2 & may become a mo/        
admirable & effici5t "p ( ! society to  
:i* x belongs4 ,& ! same may be said (  
l>ge classes 9 our own society1 :i* are 
p]fectly capable ( be+ conv]t$ into good
 citiz5s1 ?\gh !y may reta9 c]ta9       
prop5sities develop$ "u a r\gh] & m     
brutal sy/em4 ,to employ excessive &    
brutalis+ puni%m5ts 9 ord] to suppress  
small (f5ces1 is1 !re=e1 to ab&on ! aim 
( civilis+1 to decl>e int]nec9e w> aga9/
 ! class1 & to reg>d !m simply z a      
nuisance to be abat$4 ,! effect might   
be1 if ! law c\ld be c>ri$ out1 to      
prev5t a c]ta9 numb] ( crimes2 b x mu/  
also be to g5]ate a m dang]\s _s 9 !    
class :i* y reg>d simply z dang]\s1     
in/ead ( reg>d+ x z ! possible raw      
mat]ials ( a m civilis$ & ord]ly        
society4 ,)\t attempt+ to dwell ^u a    
famili> argum5t1 ,i m]ely say t ?is view
 ( ! case implies t ! gov]n+ p[] %\ld be
 reg>d$1 n simply z a ma*9]y = cat*+ &  
kill+ noxi\s crim9als1 b z a great      
civilis+ influ5ce1 suppress+ all        

temptations to crime1 :]e possible2     
pref]r+ prev5tion1 9 e practicable case1
 to puni%m5t1 & mak+ use ( ! clumsy1    
?\gh necess>y1 weapons 9 ! la/ resort2 &
 act+ by a /eady & regulat$ pressure ^u 
all anti-social elem5ts4 ,x is only     
possible to give a satisfactory !ory ( !
 jail & ! gall[s1 :5 y take !m z a      
subord9ate "p ( ! sy/em :i* includes    
re=matories & s*ools1 & due precautions 
= ! regul> pres]vation ( ord]4 ,!       
ultimate crit]ion ( ju/ice is n to be   
f\nd 9 any attempt to =m a debtor &     
cr$itor acc\nt betwe5 ! gov]nm5t & !    
individual2 b 9 ! civilis+ influ5ce ( ! 
sy/em1 tak5 z a :ole4  ,&1 f9ally1 ,i   
come back to ! o!r !ory :i* ,i h notic$4
 ,to supply ! defects ( ! simply det]r5t
 !ory1 x has be5 f\nd necess>y1 z ,i    
said1 to invoke ! v9dictive !ory4 ,we   
%\ld g1 x 0 sugge/$1 ^u ! !ory t a      
crim9al is hateful1 &1 !re=e1 t x %\ld  
be a pleasure to puni% him4 ,! feel+s ( 
res5tm5t & moral indignation are p>ts ( 
our nature1 to :i* ! puni%m5t ( ! (f5d] 

af=ds !m a legitimate gratification4    
,n[1 to ?is1 ,i %\ld reply t1 9 ! fir/  
place1 ,i d n admit t ! desire = rev5ge1
 z usually und]/ood1 c ev] be           
legitimate4 ,rev5ge1 z ,i und]/& ! ^w1  
implies a p]sonal feel+4 ,x is tak+     
pleasure 9 giv+ pa9 to a man because he 
has giv5 pa9 to me4 ,accord+ to my view 
( morals1 any pleasure 9 caus+ pa9 is1 s
 f>1 wrong2 & ! public puni%m5t %\ld be 
free f all p]sonal motive4 ,i q agree ) 
,b5?am t we ought n to take a positive  
pleasure 9 ! suff]+s1 ev5 ( ! wor/      
crim9al2 & to admit ! legitimacy ( su*  
pleasure is to admit an elem5t ( pure   
s5tim5t to :i* x is difficult to assign 
any precise limits4 ,if y all[ y\rself  
to hate a man s z to take pleasure 9 8  
suff]+s1 y might ju/ify ! infliction (  
sup]flu\s torture & ! old me?ods (      
hang+1 draw+1 & qu>t]+4 ,to d s is      
precisely to approve ! f]oci\s old      
treatm5t1 to :i*1 z ,i conceive1 ! !ory 
( simple det]r5ce 0 an excell5t         
corrective1 9 s f> z x at lea/ impli$ a 

def9ite limit to ! indulg5ce ( fi]c]    
passions4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ,i ?9k1 an    
elem5t ( tru? 9 ! doctr9e4 ,i admit1 t  
is1 t ! puni%m5t ( a crim9al %\ld c>ry a
 moral approval1 & n be reg>d$ purely z 
a measure ( conv5i5ce4 ,successful crime
 %\ld be reg>d$ ) abhorr5ce4 ,if a man  
convict$ ( a grave (f5ce %\ld be all[$  
to g )\t puni%m5t1 we %\ld be rightly   
aggriev$4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 t we %\ld take
 pleasure 9 8 suff]+1 b t we %\ld be    
pa9$ by an example ( ! practical        
impunity ( anti-social conduct4 ,!      
escape ( a murd]] w\ld1 z we %\ld feel1 
be a bl[ to ! security ( all innoc5t p4 
,9 t s5se1 we may take pleasure 9 8     
puni%m5t1 n 9 ! s5se ( positive         
enjoym5t1 b1 c]ta9ly1 9 ! s5se ( relief 
f positive s5se ( evil4 ,x is1 & %\ld   
be1 pa9ful to see ! rogues fl\ri% &     
hone/ m5 droop1 & to obs]ve captive good
 att5d+ capta9 ill4 ,b ! pleasure ( see+
 ! necess>y equilibrium re/or$ is       
diff]5t f ! pleasure ( dwell+ ^u !      
suff]+s ( ! di/urb]4 ,! practical       

diff]5ce is t1 :ile we reg>d !          
infliction ( suff]+ z necess>y1 we admit
 x to be a necess>y evil1 & are ke5ly   
alive to ! inability ( keep+ x )9 !     
limits fix$ by ! g5]al necessities ( !  
law4     ,,luxury4   ,pr(essor ,sidgwick
 has be5 discuss+ ! e?ics ( luxury1 &1  
accord+ to 8 wont1 has be5 giv+ fre%    
int]e/ to a well-worn topic4 ,i d n wi% 
to dispute any?+ t he has said1 nor d ,i
 hope to cle> up problems :i* he        
pr(ess$ly left unsolv$4 ,9 "o s5se1 !y  
obvi\sly _c be solv$ precisely4 ,luxury 
is a relative t]m1 :i* _c be def9$ 9    
absolute t]ms4 ,a luxury1 9 ! fir/      
place1 is di/+ui%$ f a necess>y4 ,b1 !n1
 "o man's necess>y may be ano!r man's   
luxury4 ,my v exi/5ce dep5ds ^u         
conditions ) :i* ano!r man c disp5se4   
,if1 aga91 we admit t !re are _m ?+s    
:i*1 ?\gh n absolutely necess>y1 may    
rightly be us$1 if !y c be us$ )\t      
injur+ o!rs1 we see t we mu/ also take  
into acc\nt ! v>y+ social conditions4   
,if we use luxury1 9 :at ,b5?am call$ ! 

dyslogi/ic s5se1 we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5  
necess>ies & sup]fluities1 & !n divide  
sup]fluities into com=ts :i* may be     
rightfully enjoy$1 & luxuries :i* _c be 
enjoy$ )\t incurr+ "s degree ( moral    
c5sure4 ,b ! divid+ l9es are always     
%ift+4 ,scott tells some:]e ( a ,highl&]
 sleep+ on ! op5 moor 9 a w9t] night4   
,:5 he tri$ to roll ! sn[ into a pill[ 8
 companion kick$ x away1 z a pro( (     
disgraceful effem9acy4 ,mo/ ( u w\ld    
come to a spe$y end if we liv$ 9 a      
social /ate :]e su* a /&>d ( h>d9ess 0  
rigidly en=c$4 ,we admit t "s k9d (     
pill[ may be p]mitt$1 if n z absolutely 
necess>y1 z1 at lea/1 a p>donable com=t4
 ,we %all probably agree1 also1 t nobody
 is to be blam$ = us+ clean %eets &     
secur+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( w>m? & s(tness--z
 mu*1 at lea/1 z is desirable = sanit>y 
reasons4 ,b if we endeav\r to prescribe 
precisely h[ mu* may be all[$ 9 excess (
 ! necess>y1 h[ (t5 we are to s5d our   
%eets to ! wa%1 :e!r x is "r to h lace  
^u our pill[s1 & s =?1 we get into      

problems :]e any attempt at precision is
 obvi\sly illusory4 ,we are ! m p]plex$ 
by ! "q1 :e!r ! provision ( a b$ =      
ourselves causes o!r p to g )\t a b$1 &1
 p]haps1 )\t supp]1 or h[ f> we are b\nd
 to take su* consequ5ces into acc\nt4   
,)\t aim+1 !re=e1 at an impossible      
precision1 ,i %all try to consid]--n :at
 objects %\ld be call$ luxuries1 or     
com=ts1 or necess>ies1 b :at are !      
really relevant consid]ations by :i* we 
%\ld endeav\r to guide our judgm5ts4    
,luxury is1 z ,i h said1 a well-worn    
topic4 ,sa9ts & philosoph]s 9 all ages1 
h d5\nc$ ! excessive love ( mat]ial     
enjoym5ts1 & set examples ( a m or less 
?or\gh-go+ asceticism4 ,x 0--to g no    
fur!r back--"o ( ! fav\rite topics ( our
 ance/ors1 9 su* pap]s z ! ,spectator & 
! ,rambl]4 ,addison1 9 8 ,cato1 describ$
 ! simple ,numidian1 ^: /&>d appe>s to h
 resembl$ t ( ,scott's ,highl&]4 ,!     
,numidian1 he says1 re/s 8 head ^u a    
rock at night1 &1 if next day he *ances 
to f9d a new repa/ or an unta/$ spr+1   

blesses 8 />s & calls x luxury4 ,g5]al  
,ogle?orpe quot$ ?is passage1 9 an      
argum5t ab\t luxury1 to ,johnson1 &     
add$1 let u h t k9d ( luxury1 sir1 if y 
w4 ,johnson himself put d[n all ?is     
declamation z "p ( ! cant f :i* we ought
 to cle> our m9ds4 ,no nation1 he said  
to ,goldsmi?1 0 ev] hurt by luxury4 ,let
 u take a walk f ,*>+ ,cross to         
,:ite*apel1 ?r\gh ! greate/ s]ies ( %ops
 9 ! _w3 :at is !re 9 any ( ^! %ops 7if 
y except g9-%ops7 t c d any human be+   
any h>m8 ,i accept y\r *all5ge1 said    
,goldsmi?4 ,! next %op to ,nor?umb]l&   
,h\se is a pickle-%op4 ,to :i* !        
excell5t ,johnson repli$1 fir/1 t five  
pickle-%ops c\ld s]ve ! :ole k+dom2     
secondly1 t no h>m 0 done to anybody    
ei!r by mak+ pickles or by eat+ pickles4
 ,i w n g into ! e?ics ( pickles4 ,i    
only quote ?is to rem9d y t ?is 0 "o ( !
 /ock que/ions ( ! p]iod2 & n )\t       
reason4 ,! d5unciation ( luxury 01 9    
fact1 ! m>k ( a v significant t5d5cy4   
,goldsmi? _h express$ ! preval5t s5tim5t

 9 ! ,des]t$ ,village1 z 9 ! famili>    
passage beg9n+3--        ,ill f>es ! l&1
 to ha/5+ ills a prey1      ,:]e weal?  
accumulates & m5 decay4   ,& ,goldsmi?1 
l _m contempor>ies1 0 only v]sify+ !    
s5tim5ts utt]$ mo/ p[]fully by ,r\sseau 
9 8 fam\s exaltation ( ! ideal man (    
nature above ! man ( a corrupt          
civilisation4 ,! !ory has "s aff9ity to 
! anci5t doctr9e already exp\nd$ by     
classical writ]s1 accord+ to :i* ea* =m 
( gov]nm5t includes a pr9ciple ( decay z
 well z ( life4 ,"o /age 9 ! process (  
corruption ( ,plato's ideal republic is 
m>k$ by ! appe>ance ( ! drones1 p :o    
take a surfeit ( unnecess>y pleasures1  
&1 to obta9 satisfaction1 associate     
!mselves ) ! fi]ce & rapaci\s4 ,9       
,r\sseau's "t1 ?is view became connect$ 
) ! gr[+ belief 9 progress &            
p]fectibility4 ,x 0 a symptom ( w>n+ to 
! drones ( 8 day4 ,x %[$ t ! ?\ghtful   
classes 7 becom+ dimly s5sible t some?+ 
0 wrong 9 ! social organisation2 & t a  
selfi% & indol5t ari/ocracy %\ld be     

call$ ^u to put its h\se 9 ord]4 ,!     
d5unciation ( luxury meant1 9 %ort1 t ! 
ri* & p[]ful 7 accus$ ( indulg5ce 9     
pleasures :i* !y _h n e>n$ by s]vices1 b
 by ! rigid en=cem5t ( class privileges4
 ,consid]$ f ?is po9t ( view1 z ! mutt]+
 ( a com+ /orm1 z ! expression ( a vague
 =ebod+ t ! _w 0 someh[ out ( jo9t1 we  
may see m mean+ ?an appe>s at fir/      
sight1 9 ! old-fa%ion$ commonplaces (   
our great-gr&fa!rs4 ,! language has     
*ang$ its =m2 b ! discont5t at ! misuse 
( weal? 9 v>i\s =ms has c]ta9ly n       
dim9i%$ s9ce t "t4  ,obvi\sly1 !n1 ! "q 
( luxury is connect$ ) v wide & deep    
problems z to :at is ! prop] use (      
weal?1 & might lead u into ultimate     
que/ions z to ! ju/ification ( ! "r to  
private prop]ty at all4 ,i %all try1    
h[ev]1 to keep z closely z may be to !  
p>ticul> aspect ( su* problems1 :i* is  
imm$iately relevant to ?is p>ticul> "q4 
,& = ?is purpose1 ,i ?9k x w be conv5i5t
 to take two po9ts sep>ately4 ,!        
objections to luxury may be /at$ ei!r ) 

ref]5ce to ! individual or ) ref]5ce to 
! society4 ,t is to say1 t if we consid]
 a man by himself1 we may ask )         
,johnson1 :e!r exp5diture ^u pickles is 
injuri\s to ! con/itution1 or at :at    
po9t x becomes injuri\s4 ,&1 9 ! next   
place1 we may ask :e!r1 if we see our   
way to decide t pickles are :olesome z  
well z agreeable1 "s ( u may n be gett+ 
m ?an our fair %>e ( pickles1 & s       
dim9i%+ ! total sum ( pleasure1 by      
inord9ate consumption4 ,fir/1 !n1 ,i    
disc>d1 = ! mom5t1 all social           
consid]ations4 ,i take = grant$1 = !    
sake ( argum5t1 t my indulg5ce does no  
h>m to any "o else2 t ,i am n depriv+   
o!rs ( a means ( enjoym5t1 b simply add+
 to my own2 or1 at any rate1 t ,i am n1 
= ! mom5t1 to take into acc\nt t set (  
consequ5ces4 ,h[ f>1 on ?is hypo!sis1   
or1 say1 sett+ aside all "q ( duty to my
 neighb\r1 %\ld ,i be prud5t 9          
accumulat+ weal?8 ,i sometimes amuse    
myself ) ! problem1 ,h[ ri* %\ld ,i l to
 be1 suppos+ t ,i 7 p]fectly wise 9 t   

s5se 9 :i* wisdom is compatible )       
?or\gh-go+ egoism1 or ) :at is call$    
enlight5$ self-int]e/8 ,! obvi\s answ]  
is t1 9 t case1 !re w\ld be no limits to
 my desires4 ,an imag9ative ,am]ican1 we
 are told1 def9$ compet5ce z a million a
 m9ute & all y\r exp5ses paid4 ,!       
sugge/ion is fasc9at+1 b n1 to my m9d1 q
 satisfactory4 ,x recalls a doctr9e :i* 
us$ to be put =w>d by ! old political   
economi/s4 ,!y _h to meet ! !ory--a     
prepo/]\s !ory en\gh--( ! dang] ( a     
univ]sal glut2 ! dang]1 t is1 t a nation
 might produce s mu* t no?+ w\ld h any  
value1 &1 !re=e1 t we %\ld all be ru9$  
by all becom+ enorm\sly ri*4 ,to meet   
?is1 x 0 (t5 urg$--along ) m            
satisfactory argum5ts--t human desires 7
 illimitable2 &1 !re=e1 t h[ev] ri* a   
man might become he w\ld always wi% to  
become a little ri*]4  ,accord+ to ?is  
doctr9e1 ! desire = weal? _c be satiat$4
 ,! millionaire w\ld /ill *oose an extra
 half-cr[n r ?an refuse x1 al?\gh !     
half-cr[n br+s him incomp>ably less     

additional pleasure ?an x br\ght him :5 
8 pockets 7 empty4 ,b x is also true t  
long be=e we 7 millionaires1 ! pleasure 
obta9able by additional weal? may be    
inf9itesimal1 or absolutely non-exi/5t4 
,! simple desires may be easily         
saturat$4 ,pope asks1 ,:at ri*es give u1
 let u !n inquire4 ,& he replies1 ,meat1
 fire1 & clo!s--:at m8 ,meat1 clo!s1 &  
fire4 ,?is is1 9 fact1 a pi?y summ>y (  
our mo/ elem5t>y & necess>y wants4 ,n[1 
our dem& = meat is obvi\sly /rictly     
limit$4 ,z soon z we h eat51 say1 a p\nd
 ( beef/eak1 we d n want m2 by ! "t we h
 eat51 say1 ?ree p\nds we d n only n    
want m1 we loa! ! v ?\ght ( eat+4 ,s1 :5
 we are clo!d suffici5tly = com=t &     
dec5cy1 m clo?+ is simply a burd52 & we 
wi% only = s mu* fire z w keep our      
!rmomet] )9 c]ta9 limits2 a heat above  
or bel[ w\ld mean dea? ei!r by burn+ or 
by freez+4 ,our ultimate aim1 !re=e1 9  
reg>d to desires ( ?is class1 is n to   
increase ! /imulus indef9itely1 b to    
pres]ve a c]ta9 balance or equilibrium4 

,if we want m food aft] our appetites   
are satisfi$1 x mu/ ei!r be ) a view to 
our future consumption1 :i* is /ill     
/rictly f9ite1 or else ) a view to      
ex*ang+ ! food = some?+ else1 9 :i* case
 x is desir$1 n z food1 b z ! means (   
satisfy+ "s o!r desire4 ,if1 !n1 ,pope's
 doctr9e 7 really s\nd1 :i* actually    
am\nts to say+1 if our desires 7 really 
limit$ to ! physical conditions necess>y
 to life1 we %\ld v soon rea* ! /ate 9  
:i* !y w\ld be completely glutt$ or     
saturat$4 ,x may be wor? :ile to note ! 
circum/ance :i* r obscures our          
recognition ( ?is fact4 ,we may di/+ui% 
betwe5 ! weal? :i* a man actually uses &
 t :i* rema9s1 z ,i may say1 only       
pot5tial4 ,a man may desire an indef9ite
 quantity ( weal?1 because he may wi% to
 h rights :i* he may yet nev] turn to   
actual acc\nt4 ,!re is a c]ta9          
satisfaction1 no d\bt1 9 kn[+ t ,i h a  
va/ balance at my bank]'s1 ?\gh ,i h no 
desire to use x4 ,i may want x "s "t or 
o!r2 &1 ev5 if ,i nev] want x1 ,i may   

enjoy ! s5se ( hav+ a disproportionate  
b>ri] ( money-bags pil$ up betwe5 me & !
 yawn+ gulf ( actual pov]ty4 ,!re=e1    
?\gh a v limit$ am\nt may be en\gh to   
satiate all our exi/+ desires1 we may l 
to "k t !re is m at our disposal4 ,if   
possession c>ri$ ) x ! necessity ( us+  
our prop]ty1 if we c\ld n h pot5tial z  
di/+ui%$ f actual weal?1 we %\ld be s f>
 f desir+ an indef9ite increase ( weal? 
t we %\ld reg>d ! increase beyond a     
c]ta9 limit z only "o ( two intol]able  
alt]natives4  ,! "q1 !re=e1 ,h[ ri* %\ld
 ,i wi% to be8 requires an answ] to !   
previ\s "q1 ,h[ ri* c ,i be8 ,a man1 ev5
 if on ! intellectual level ( a savage1 
c be indef9itely ri* 9 pot5tial weal?3  
he may1 t is1 h a "r to millions ( p\nds
 or be ! own] ( ?\s&s ( acres2 b 9 ord] 
to use !m he mu/ h c]ta9 capacities &   
s5sibilities4 ,x is a curi\s "q1 =      
example1 h[ mu* ( ! weal? ( a c\ntry    
w\ld cease to be weal? at all if !      
intellig5ce ( ! possessors 7 l[]$ c]ta9 
degrees 9 ! scale8 ,a l>ge "p ( ! weal? 

( ,engl& consi/s1 ,i suppose1 ( ma*9]y4 
,if nobody knew m ( ma*9es ?an ,i d--&  
my :ole notion ( a ma*9e is t x is      
some?+ t goes r\nd someh[ if y happ5 to 
turn ! "r h&le--all ?is weal? w\ld      
become z useless z an electric telegraph
 9 ! possession ( a hairy ,a9u4 ,& if   
nobody _h any bett] arti/ic p]ception   
?an m9e1 & we 7 !re=e unable to see !   
diff]5ce betwe5 a ,raphael & ! daub 9 an
 adv]tis+ plac>d1 ! pictures 9 !        
,national ,gall]y w\ld h an av]age      
value1 say1 ( eighte5-p5ce4 ,a man1     
!re=e1 :o is at ! l[] levels (          
intellig5ce is simply unable to be      
actually ri*1 beyond a n>r[ limit4 ,!   
fact is occasionally =c$ ^u u by /rik+  
examples4 ,i he>d ! o!r day a /ory--,i  
am afraid we all he> su* /ories too     
(t5--( a man :o _h become enorm\sly ri* 
by a freak ( =tune4 ,8 only idea (      
enjoym5t happ5$ to be g94 ,he c\ld1     
!re=e1 only use 8 weal? by dr9k+ himself
 to dea?2 a proce$+ :i* he accord+ly    
felt to be only a prop] tribute to 8    

improv$ social position4 ,a simil>      
result happ5s :5ev] a sudd5 rise ( wages
 to an insuffici5tly civilis$ class     
leads to ! enri*m5t ( publicans1 in/ead 
( increas$ indulg5ce 9 ref9$ & innoc5t  
pleasures4 ,! man1 9 %ort1 ^: idea (    
pleasure is simply ! gratification ( !  
physical appetites 9 _! co>s] =ms is    
incapable ( becom+ actually ri*1 because
 a small am\nt ( weal? w enable him to  
saturate 8 desires by provid+ a         
sup]fluity ( ! mat]ial means (          
gratification4 ,x is1 p]haps1 "h t we   
may take into acc\nt ! rem>k s (t5 made 
by morali/s1 by ,adam ,smi? among o!rs1 
z ,pr(essor ,sidgwick rem9ds u1 t       
happ9ess is m ev5ly di/ribut$ among     
diff]5t classes ?an we suppose4 ,! k+1  
accord+ to ,%akespe>e1 _c--             
,) all ! tide ( pomp      ,t beats ^u ! 
high %ore ( ?is _w 444      ,sleep s    
s\ndly z ! wret*$ slave      ,:o ) a    
body fill$ & vacant m9d      ,gets him  
to re/1 cramm'd ) di/ressful bread4   ,!
 body fill$ & ! vacant m9d make up = !  

di/ressful bread4 ,x is z well1 t is1 to
 h no wants except ! want ( m]e physical
 com=t1 z to h high] wants & ! means (  
gratify+ !m1 & yet to be saddl$ ) !     
anxieties & responsibilities :i* ! high]
 position involves4 ,! doctr9e1 ,i am n 
really bett] (f ?an y1 is1 inde$1 n a v 
graceful "o f ^? :o are actually bett]  
(f4 ,!re 0 "s excuse = ! fox :o said !  
grapes 7 s\r :5 he c\ld n get !m2 x     
argu$ a judici\s desire to make ! be/ ( 
?+s3 b if he made ! rem>k :ile he 0     
com=tably *ew+ !m1 by way ( pacify+ !   
grapeless foxes1 we %\ld h ?\ght him a m
 objectionable hypocrite4 ,! paup] may  
fairly reply1 ,if y really mean t y\r   
weal? br+s no happ9ess1 :y don't y *ange
 places ) me8 ,i w1 !re=e1 n def5d !    
/atem5t1 consid]$ z an exhortation to   
cont5t2 b ,i accept x z a recognition ( 
! obvi\s fact1 t if happ9ess means a    
satisfaction ( all our desires1 a man ( 
small means may be z happy z ! man ( !  
greate/ means1 if 8 desires are limit$ 9
 proportion4 ,b is x = our happ9ess to  

increase !m8  ,does our pr9ciple hold :5
 we suppose a man to h ! necess>y       
s5sibilities = ! actual enjoym5t (      
weal?8 ,if he acquires ! ta/es :i* imply
 great] intellectual cultivation1 a p[]1
 !re=e1 ( tak+ into acc\nt s\rces (     
pleasure m complex & m di/ant 9 "t &    
space1 does x !n become true t 8 p[] (  
us+ weal? w be indef9ite8 ,i %\ld reply1
 9 ! fir/ place1 t we mu/ /ill admit !  
same psy*ological tru?4 ,any desire     
:atev]1 t is1 is capable ( yield+ only a
 /rictly f9ite am\nt ( enjoym5t2 !      
pleasure :i* we c d]ive f x mu/ be      
limit$ bo? by ! necessity ( gratify+ o!r
 desires & by ! fact t no desire :atev] 
is capable ( an indef9ite increase by   
increas$ /imulation4 ,aft] a c]ta9 po9t 
( excitem5t is rea*$1 we _c get m       
pleasure by any accumulation ( int]nal  
conditions4 ,we assume = ! pres5t t our 
aim is simply to extract ! greate/      
possible am\nt ( gratification out (    
life4 ,we mu/ !n take = our data our    
actual con/itution1 capacities1         

s5sibilities1 & s =?1 & calculate h[ mu*
 weal? c\ld be actually appli$ 9 ord] to
 keep u mov+ always along ! l9e (       
maximum enjoym5t4 ,?is w\ld be to /udy !
 art ( life on purely h$oni/ic          
pr9ciples4 ,we %\ld ask1 :at c>e] w on !
 :ole be fulle/ ( enjoym5t8 & !n1 :at   
mat]ial conditions c enable u to foll[ t
 c>e]8 ,i imag9e t ! am\nt requisite    
w\ld v>y indef9itely accord+ to our     
*>act]s4 ,suppose1 = example1 t a man   
has /rong intellectual ta/es1 a love (  
art or sci5ce or lit]ature4 ,he w       
require1 ( c\rse1 en\gh weal? to enable 
him to devote himself )\t anxiety to 8  
fav\rite pursuits1 & en\gh1 moreov]1 to 
tra9 himself 9 all requisite k4 ,b      
grant+ ?is1 ! mat]ial conditions (      
happ9ess w be suffici5tly fulfill$4 ,i  
?9k x 0 ,agassiz :o obs]v$ :5 he 0      
devot+ himself to sci5ce t he _h n "t to
 get ri*4 ,weal? to him w\ld h be5 r an 
imp$im5t ?an an advantage4 ,a man l     
,f>aday1 :o plac$ 8 :ole happ9ess 9 !   
ext5sion ( sci5tific k1 & :o 0 n less   

hon\r$ because he liv$ ^u a mode/       
income1 w\ld n h _h a great] am\nt ( t  
k9d ( happ9ess _h he possess$ ! weal? ( 
a ,ro?s*ild4 ,a man ^: pleasure is 9    
read+ books1 or contemplat+ works ( art1
 or li/5+ to music1 c obta9 ! highe/    
enjoym5t at a v mod]ate price1 & c\ld   
get v little m if he _h ! mo/ unb\nd$   
weal? at 8 disposal4 ,if we inquir$ :at 
m5 possess+ su* ta/es _h d]iv$ f !m !   
greate/ happ9ess1 we %\ld1 ,i fancy1 f9d
 ourselves m5tion+ m5 comp>atively poor1
 ^: enjoym5ts 7 ev5 comp>atively ke51   
because !y _h to devote a c]ta9 am\nt ( 
c>e & contrivance to obta9+ full play = 
_! capacities4 ,*>les ,lamb1 plott+ &   
contriv+ to get an old volume f a       
book/all1 possibly got m pleasure f 8   
ta/e ?an if he _h be5 ! possessor ( a   
gigantic libr>y4 ,! sociable man1 aga91 
! man ^: pleasure 9 society is ! g5u9e  
delight 9 a real int]*ange ( ?\ght &    
sympa?y1 :o does n desire magnific5t    
ent]ta9m5t1 b ! /imulus ( intimate      
association ) cong5ial fri5ds1 w\ld     

probably f9d ! highe/ pleasure 9        
comp>atively simple social /rata1 :]e ! 
display ( weal? 0 no object1 & m5 met1 z
 ,johnson met 8 fri5ds at ! club1 to put
 m9d fairly to m9d1 & to /imulate       
intellectual activity1 in/ead ( consum+ 
! maximum ( luxury4 ,milton's sonnet to 
,lawr5ce gives p]haps a r sev]e b a v   
fasc9at+ ideal ( ref9$ luxury3--        
,:at neat repa/ %all fea/ u1 light &    
*oice1      ,( ,attic ta/e ) w9e1 :5ce  
we may rise      ,to he> ! lute well    
t\*$1 or artful voice      ,w>ble       
immortal notes & ,tuscan air8      ,he  
:o ( ^! delights c judge1 & sp>e        
,to int]pose !m (t1 is n unwise4   ,nor 
ne$ we be accus$ ( inord9ate boa/+ if we
 %\ld say t we w\ld r h made a ?ird at  
su* a fea/ ?an h jo9$ a doz5 r[dy       
c\rti]s at ! table ( ,*>les ,,ii4  ,!re 
are1 h[ev]1 pleasures :i* und\bt$ly     
suppose an indef9ite capacity = us+     
weal?4 ,!re is1 = example1 su* a ?+ z ! 
pure love ( spl5d\r1 :i* is repres5t$ s 
curi\sly 9 "s ( ,disraeli's novels4 ,"o 

( 8 h]oes1 if ,i rememb] rightly1       
propos$ to foll[ ! prec$5t actually set 
by ,beck=d1 :o built at ,fon?ill a t[]  
#cjj feet high--n because x 0 want$ =   
any o!r purpose1 b simply = ! sake (    
build+ a t[]4 ,( c\rse1 if "o has a ta/e
 = t[]s #cjj feet high1 !re is no       
p>ticul> limit to ! quantity ( weal? :i*
 may be f\nd conv5i5t4 ,"o ( ! g5tle/ & 
mo/ delicate satiri/s ( mod]n society1  
,mr4 ,du ,mauri]1 has giv5 u admirable  
illu/rations ( a m vulg> =m ( ! same    
t5d5cy 9 8 portraits ( ,sir ,gorgius    
,midas4 ,:5 t wor?y d5\nces 8 s]vants   
because !re are only ?ree footm5 sitt+  
up till two o'clock to save him ! tr\ble
 ( us+ a lat*-key1 we may admit t 8     
pleasures1 su* z !y 71 7 capable ( f9d+ 
gratification 9 any quantity (          
exp5diture4 ,x might be a "q1 inde$1 if 
we _h "t to ask x1 :e!r ! pleasure d]iv$
 f su* exp5ses by ! millionaire be      
really s great z ! pleasure :i* he _h :5
 he fir/ turn$ ! prov]bial half-cr[n1 ) 
:i* he mu/ h come to ,london1 into 8    

fir/ five %ill+s2 & x is c]ta9ly also a 
"q :e!r 8 exp5diture 0 e?ically "r4 ,b  
at pres5t we are only consid]+ facts1 & 
we may admit t !re w\ld be no fill+ su* 
a gulf ( desire by any dribble (        
bullion2 &1 fur!r1 t !re are            
pleasures--n1 on ! face ( !m1 immoral--9
 procur+ :i* any quantity ( money may be
 sp5t4 ,if a man is simply desir\s (    
obta9+ influ5ce1 or1 9 "s cases1        
political p[]2 or if he decides to      
muddle away 8 money ^u *>ity1 !re are no
 limits to ! sums he may sp5d1          
especially if he has no objection to    
corrupt+ 8 neighb\rs4  ,be=e say+ any?+ 
^u ?is1 h[ev]1 ,i mu/ pause to d$uce a  
conclusion4 ,keep+ /ill to ! purely     
h$oni/ic po9t ( view1 ,i ask1 ,at :at   
po9t does exp5diture become luxuri\s 9 a
 culpable s5se8 mean+ by culpable n     
morally culpable1 b simply injudici\s f 
! po9t ( view ( enlight5$ self-int]e/4  
,to ?is ,i ?9k t "o answ] is already    
sugge/$1 t is to say1 t s9ce1 on ! "o   
h&1 a c]ta9 f9ite quantity ( weal? w    

enable u to keep to ! happie/ or mo/    
philosophic c>e]2 & s9ce1 on ! o!r h&1 a
 man may possess a quantity ( sup]flu\s 
weal? :i* he c only use on p5alty (     
deviat+ f t c>e]1 he becomes fooli%1 if 
n immoral--^u :i* ,i say no?+--:5 he    
tries to use m4 ,t p frequ5tly commit   
?is folly is und5iable4 ,weal? ought to 
be 7,i mean w\ld be by a judici\sly     
selfi% p]son7 reg>d$ z a means (        
enjoym5t4 ,!re=e ! sup]flu\s weal? %\ld 
be left 9 ! pot5tial /age--z a balance  
at 8 bank]'s or accumulat+ 9 ! funds4 ,b
 ?\gh ! possession does n imply a       
necessity ( us+1 x does g5]ally imply a 
sort ( tacit feel+ (                    
responsibility--responsibility1 t is1 to
 a man's self4 ,i h got s mu* money2    
surely x is a duty to myself to use x = 
my pleasure4 ,s f> z a man yields to su*
 an argum5t1 he becomes ! slave in/ead (
 ! ma/] ( 8 weal?4 ,:at ought to be     
ma*9]y = fur!r+ an end1 becomes an end 9
 itself3 &1 at t po9t ( conduct1 ,i ?9k 
t we are dispos$ to call a man's life   

luxuri\s 9 a di/9ctly bad s5se4 ,!      
error1 z ,i h sugge/$1 is p]haps at     
bottom mu* ! same z t :i* leads a poor  
man to sp5d an increase ( wages at a    
g9-%op4 ,b we d n call ! g9-dr9k]       
luxuri\s1 b simply vici\s4 ,= luxury    
seems to apply less to conduct :i* we c 
di/9ctly call bad 9 itself1 ?an to      
conduct :i* only becomes bad or fooli% z
 imply+ a disproportion betwe5 ! end    
atta9$ & ! exp5se ( atta9+ x4 ,x applies
 :5 a man has1 z we say1 s mu* money t  
he does n "k :at to d ) x4 ,we speak (  
luxuries 9 ! case ( ,sir ,gorgius1 :]e !
 prom95t fact is t ! man has be5 gorg$ )
 excessive weal?1 & is yet too dull to  
use x 9 any mann] :i* w\ld increase !   
happ9ess ( a reasonable or ref9$ be+4 ,s
 x is g5]ally reg>d$ z *>act]i/ic r ( ! 
up/>t or newly-made millionaire ?an ( ! 
man born to high] position1 ^: life is  
p]haps z selfi% & h>dly sup]ior morally4
 ,b ! nobleman by bir? has inh]it$ a    
c]ta9 art ( life2 he has acquir$        
traditional modes ( arrang+ 8 pleasures1

 :i* give him ! appe>ance1 at lea/1 (   
possess+ m judici\s & ref9$ ta/es2 & we 
are less %ock$ ?an by ! man :o has      
obvi\sly weal? :i* he kn[s n h[ to use1 
& :i* he1 !re=e1 delib]ately devotes to 
co>se & vulg> o/5tation4 ,! up/>t may n 
be m selfi% at bottom2 b he da%es 9 y\r 
face ! evid5ce ( 8 selfi%ness1 & appeals
 = admiration on ! simple gr\nd t he has
 a l>g] income ?an 8 neighb\rs4 ,luxury 
means1 on ?is %[+1 all su* exp5diture z 
is objectionable1 n because ! pleasure  
obta9$ is intr9sically bad1 b because we
 are sp5d+ = ! sake ( sp5d+1 & c\ld get 
m real enjoym5t at a l[] sum4 ,i ne$ n  
dwell ^u ! fact t m5 ( mod]ate means may
 fall into ! same error4 ,! fault (     
exagg]at+ ! importance ( ma*9]y is n    
conf9$ to ^? :om we call ri*4 ,?ack]ay's
 disc\rses ^u ,snobs are full           
expositions ( ! same weakness 9 ! middle
 classes4 ,:5 we read1 = example1 (     
,colonel ,ponto be+ mis]able because he 
tries to make an income ( a ?\s& a ye>  
support ! pomp accessible to p]sons ) t5

 ?\s&1 we see t he has z false a view z 
,sir ,gorgius ( ! true ends ( life4 ,&  
,i ref] to ! same great satiri/ =       
abundant illu/rations ( ! weaknesses :i*
 too (t5 make society a ma*9]y = wa/+   
money on display1 & entirely oblivi\s t 
x %\ld be a ma*9]y = ! promotion (      
intellectual & ref9$ pleasures4  ,n[1 if
 ,i h giv5 a fair acc\nt ( luxury z     
consid]$ simply f ! po9t ( view ( an    
enlight5$ selfi%ness1 ,i may proce$ to !
 e?ical "q4 ,s f>1 ,i h only ask$1 9    
sub/ance1 at :at po9t our exp5diture ^u 
pickles becomes fooli%4 ,b1 ( c\rse1 ! m
 important "q arises1 at :at po9t x     
becomes selfi%4 ,a man may be silly =   
sp5d+ money ^u erect+ t[]s2 b if he does
 no h>m to 8 neighb\rs we h>dly call him
 wick$4 ,we _c say t x is               
unconditionally wrong to build a t[]4   
,we mu/ inquire1 !re=e1 h[ f> luxury    
necess>ily involves a wrong to o!rs4 ,"h
 we mu/ beg9 by li/5+ to all !          
philosoph]s & div9es ( :om ,i spoke at  
/>t+4 ,any numb] ( wise & good m5 w tell

 u1 9 v>i\s dialects1 t pleasure is 9   
itself bad1 or1 at lea/1 t all !        
pleasures obta9able by weal? are bad1   
or1 at any rate1 b5ea? ! notice ( !     
high] spirits4 ,!re are ! ?or\gh-go+    
ascetics1 :o /rive1 n to regulate1 b to 
suppress all except ! absolutely        
necess>y physical in/9cts1 & ?9k t ev5  
^? desires sav\r ( evil2 :o consid] !   
be/ man to be ! man :o lives ^u bread & 
wat]1 &1 if possible1 ^u m\ldy bread &  
dit*-wat]4 ,!re are1 aga91              
spiritually-m9d$ p1 :o consid] all      
happ9ess to be wor?less1 except su*     
happ9ess z results f aspirations to     
ano!r _w2 :o reg>d all ri*es z *a9s b9d+
 ! s\l to e>?2 :o take ! words ,bless$  
are ! poor 9 ! mo/ lit]al s5se1 z def9+ 
! true aim ( life4 ,we %\ld seek1 !y    
say1 = happ9ess else:]e ?an 9 ?is       
transitory /age ( exi/5ce1 rememb] t !  
_w is a m]e scre5 hid+ ! awful realities
 ( heav5 & hell2 & despise ev5 su*      
pleasures z are g5]ally call$           
intellectual pleasures1 ! pleasures1 =  

example1 ( art or sci5ce1 = !y1 too1    
belong really to ! sph]e ( illusion1 &  
are simply m subtle temptations ?an ^? (
 ! fle%4 ,&1 besides ^!1 we h !         
philosoph]s1 :o w\ld h u live 9 ! _w (  
pure intellect1 & tell u t ! true moral 
( life is to make ourselves indep5d5t ( 
ext]nal circum/ances by suppress+ all ! 
correspond+ desires4 ,r5unciation1      
!re=e1 is ! fir/ lesson to be le>n$ by !
 wise man2 & ! practical rule1 z has be5
 said1 is t we %\ld endeav\r n to       
increase our num]ator b to less5 our    
d5om9ator4 ,i _c n[ discuss su*         
doctr9es4 ,i am cont5t to say t ,i reg>d
 !m n z simply false1 b z di/ort$ views 
( tru?4 ,= my "p1 ,i am cont5t to say t1
 ev5 z a morali/1 ,i wi% to see p z     
happy z possible2 t be+1 aft] all1 a    
poor utilit>ian aft] my own fa%ion1 ,i  
desire--h[ev] errone\sly--! greate/     
happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb]2 &1 9        
p>ticul>1 t ,i %\ld l to see1 n a       
feebl]1 b a mu* ke5] appreciation ( all 
! pleasures d]ivable f art1 or sci5ce1  

or lit]ature1 or rational society1 ev51 
if ,i may say s1 f good cook]y & a?letic
 sports4 ,briefly1 ! ideal society seems
 to me to be "o 9 :i* ev5 our l[]       
in/9cts %\ld n be suppress$1 b regulat$2
 & ! typical man ( ! future to be "o ^: 
:ole faculties & _! correspond+         
s5sibilities %\ld be cultivat$ to !     
utmo/ possible degree4 ,:at is !        
application ( ?is to our special "q8 ,i 
d n "k t ,i c d bett] ?an ref] to !     
writ+s ( ,b]n>d ,m&eville1 :o 9 8 ,fable
 ( ! ,bees--"o ( ! clev]e/ books 9 !    
language--succe$$ by ! help ( mu*       
p>adox1 & "u a cloak ( cynicism1 9 /at+ 
! problem ) s+ul> vivacity4 ,private    
vices1 t 0 8 way ( putt+ x1 are public  
b5efits4 ,8 mean+1 put less             
p>adoxically1 0 ?is3 accept1 on ! "o h&1
 ! ascetic doctr9e t pursuit ( pleasure 
is intr9sically vici\s1 & y condemn all 
! impulses by :i* ! /ructure ( society1 
especially ! indu/rial /ructure1 has be5
 built up4 ,accept1 on ! o!r h&1 !      
doctr9e t civilisation is1 on ! :ole1 a 

good ?+1 & y admit t ! in/9cts1 :i*1 ^u 
?is hypo!sis1 correspond to private     
vices1 are ! only means ( produc+ a     
public b5efit4 ,9 o!r words1 if we took 
! language ( !ologians 9 its natural    
s5se1 & really reg>d$ ! _w z wor?less1  
we %\ld h no indu/ry1 no trade or       
comm]ce1 & be /ill liv+ 9 swamps & =e/s1
 digg+ up roots ) our nails1 liv+ ^u    
acorns & %ell-fi%1 & sc>cely ev5 pa9t+  
ourselves blue1 = to ! savage blue pa9t 
0 a luxury4 ,n[1 ap>t f any "q z to !   
fairness ( ?is v]sion ( !ological       
doctr9e1 we may ask1 ,:at is ! real     
und]ly+ difficulty--or t aspect ( x :i* 
is /ill wor? consid]+8 ,we may grant1 9 
! fir/ place1 to ,m&eville1 t1 9 po9t ( 
fact1 ! con/ruction ( a civilis$ society
 presupposes ! developm5t ( num]\s      
desires1 _m ( :i* are m or less condemn$
 by sev]e morali/s4 ,if ! savage comes  
to value blue pa9t1 he may take to      
plant+ some?+ to ex*ange = x1 in/ead (  
simply ly+ on 8 back to dige/ 8 la/     
h&ful ( acorns2 &1 9 s do+1 he makes !  

fir/ /ep t[>ds ! developm5t ( an        
indu/rial sy/em4 ,! desire = weal? is1 (
 c\rse1 impli$ 9 all /ages ( progress if
 m5 are to create weal?2 & we c p>tly   
answ] ,m&eville's p>adox by ?r[+ ov] !  
ascetic & decl>+ t a desire = good meat1
 & fire1 & clo!s1 ev5 = pictures1 &     
books1 & music1 or = su* com=ts z mo/ ( 
u enjoy1 is n 9 itself immoral2 & t1 on 
! contr>y1 ! m !re is ( su* enjoym5t !  
bett] = m5's bodies & m9ds1 & !re=e1 on 
! :ole1 ! bett] = _! morality4 ,b !     
moral difficulty returns 9 a new %ape4  
,! desire = weal?1 let u say1 is n 9    
itself bad2 x is simply natural--x is a 
desire = "o ess5tial condition ( a      
tol]ably happy life4 ,b is x n bad1 9 s 
f> z x is selfi%8 ,d n ! desires :i* h  
be5 ! ma9spr+ ( all mod]n developm5t    
imply a desire ( ea* man to get ri* at !
 exp5se ( o!rs8 ,h !y n be5 ! s\rce (   
all t division betwe5 ri* & poor :i*    
makes "o side luxuri\s & ! o!r mis]able8
 ,has n ,dives become ri* & bloat$ by   
=ce ( ! v same process :i* has made     

,laz>us a mass ( sores & mis]y8         
,suppress ! desire = weal?1 & we %\ld   
/ill be savages runn+ wild 9 woods4 ,b 0
 n ev5 ! noble savage bett] ?an ! paup] 
:o n[ hangs on to ! fr+es ( society8 &  
is 8 exi/5ce comp5sat$ by ! exi/5ce (   
o!r classes :o h m weal? ?an !y c use8  
,& s ! old problem comes back2 & we h1 z
 ( old1 ! mo/ contradictory answ]s to ! 
problem4  ,i am1 ,i confess x1 "o ( ^?  
old-fa%ion$ p :o believe 9 progress1 &  
hold t _! own c5tury is di/9ctly bett]  
?an any :i* prec$$ x2 :o w\ld on no     
acc\nt g back1 if !y c\ld1 to ! days ( !
 noble savages or ev5 to ! brutalities &
 sup]/itions ( ! ages ( fai?4 ,b ,i d n 
?9k t ,i ne$ argue t "q = our pres5t    
purpose4 ,we h got to ?is c5tury someh[1
 & we c only get out ( x by liv+ till ! 
tw5tie?4 ,mean:ile1 we %\ld make ! be/ (
 ! int]val4 ,i w1 !re=e1 only p]mit     
myself "o rem>k4 ,if we suppose1 )      
,m&eville1 t ! in/9cts :i* h develop$   
mod]n society h be51 to a great ext5t1  
selfi% desires1 t is1 = ! p]sonal com=t 

( ! ag5t1 irrespectively ( consequ5ces  
to o!rs1 x does n foll[ t ! correspond+ 
developm5t has be5 mis*iev\s4 ,good     
commonplace morali/s h be5 mu* 9 ! habit
 ( condemn+ ! selfi% passions ( k+s &   
conqu]ors4 ,:at c be an easi] m>k =     
d5unciation ?an su* a man1 = example1 z 
,l\is ,,xi4 ( ,france1 & ! wily & cruel 
rul]s ( pa/ ages1 ^: only aim 0 to      
enl>ge _! own p[]s & weal?8 ,& yet1 if  
we consid] ! matt] hi/orically1 we mu/  
admit t su* m5 h r5d]$ enorm\s s]vices  
to mank9d4 ,a rul]1 let u say1 _h = 8   
only object ! ext5sion & conc5tration ( 
8 own au?ority4 ,/ill1 x 0 by !         
conflicts ( rul]s t ! great nations h   
be5 =m$ out ( a *aos ( /ruggl+ clans2 t 
peace & ord]1 !re=e1 h be5 sub/itut$ =  
viol5ce1 ?r\gh\t broad t]ritories2 t law
 has tak5 ! place ( private w>2 moreov]1
 t ! privileges ( selfi% ord]s h be5    
suppress$ ?r\gh ! developm5t ( a l>g] & 
m civilis$ national organisation2 & t1  
al?\gh ! imm$iate victory 0 won by !    
selfi% rul]1 ! ultimate b5efit has      

accru$ to ! p ^u :om he 0 =c$ to rely = 
support aga9/ ! oppressive subord9ate   
p[]s4 ,! rul]1 p]haps1 did n look beyond
 8 own int]e/s2 b 8 own int]e/ =c$ him  
to f9d allies among ! mass ( !          
population1 & s gradually l$ to !       
=mation ( c5tral organs1 repres5t+ n !  
p]sonal int]e/ ( ! k+1 b ! int]e/ ( !   
:ole nation 9 :i* !y _h aris54 ,we may  
make a simil> rem>k ^u indu/rial        
developm5t4 ,! great m]*ant & capitali/ 
& inv5tor ( new me?ods & ma*9]y has n   
look$1 x may be1 beyond 8 own int]e/2 b1
 int5tionally or n1 he 0 help+ to       
con/ruct a va/ organisation1 :i*1 :e!r x
 has1 on ! :ole1 improv$ ! _w or n1 has1
 at lea/1 made x enorm\sly ri*]4 ,p]haps
 ,watt1 :5 he 0 improv+ ! /eam-eng9e1   
?\ght only ( ! pr(its to be d]iv$ f 8   
inv5tion4 ,b ! pr(it :i* he ga9$ aft] a 
labori\s life 0 b an inf9itesimal       
fraction ( ! enorm\s increase (         
effici5cy :i* result$ to ! national     
indu/ry4 ,we _c d\bt t ! :ole gigantic  
sy/em :i* at lea/ ma9ta9s a population  

sev]al times multipli$1 :i* ma9ta9s "p (
 x 9 weal? & a l>ge proportion 9        
reasonable com=t1 has be5 due to !      
lab\rs ( _m m51 ea* work+ = 8 own int]e/
 & animat$ *iefly by ! desire ( weal?4  
,s mu* rema9s true ( ! economi/'s       
doctr9e ( ! natural h>mony betwe5       
individual & public int]e/4 ,9 ?is case1
 z 9 ! case ( gov]nm5ts1 we may1 p]haps1
 say t m5 act$ f motives :i* mu/ be     
call$ selfi%1 9 ?is s5se at lea/1 t !y  
?\ght ( little b _! own int]e/s2 b t1 at
 ! same "t1 _! own int]e/s compell$ !m  
to "w 9 a direction :i* promot$1 m or   
less1 ! int]e/s ( o!rs4 ,i add1 briefly1
 t ^! are only in/ances ( :at we may    
call ! g5]al rule3 namely1 t morality   
beg9s f an ext]nal or unrecognis$       
con=mity ( int]e/s1 & ends by recognis+ 
& adopt+1 z motives1 ! consequ5ces :i*1 
9 ! e>li] /age1 seem$ to be int]nal or  
accid5tal consequ5ces4 ,i beg9 by help+ 
a man because circum/ances make x useful
 to myself1 & ,i end--& only become     
truly moral :5 ,i end--by do+ :at is    

useful to him1 because x is useful to   
him4 ,:51 inde$1 ,i h rea*$ t po9t1 my  
end itself is pr(\ndly modifi$2 x       
becomes mu* wid]1 & yet only regulates &
 directs to new *annels a great deal ( !
 correspond+ conduct4  ,! consid]ation (
 ?is modification--( ! *ange :i* %\ld   
take place :5 a man n only pursues su*  
conduct z is b5eficial on ! :ole to a   
c\ntry1 b pursues x ) a view to !       
b5eficial consequ5ces--br+s u back to ! 
"q ( luxury4 ,! b>e pursuit ( weal? z ! 
end ( exi/5ce implies1 ( c\rse1         
indiff]5ce to ! means by :i* x is       
produc$2 an equal read9ess1 = example1  
to gr[ ri* by *eat+ my neighb\r1 or by  
actually produc+ a great] quantity (    
useful produce4 ,x is consi/5t ) a      
simple desire to enl>ge my bus9ess )\t  
ref]5ce to ! effect ^u ! p]sons ,i      
employ1 z :5 manufactur]s enri*$        
!mselves by cruel exploitation ( ! lab\r
 ( infants4 ,b if we hope = a /ate ( ?+s
 9 :i* an employ] %\ld consid] himself z
 ess5tially "p ( ! national organism1 z 

increas+ 8 own weal? only by su* means z
 w\ld be also advantage\s to ! com=t ( !
 nation g5]ally1 ! pursuit ( weal? w\ld 
become moralis$4  ,"h1 9 fact1 we mu/   
once m consid] ,m&eville's p>adox4      
,desire = weal?1 he sub/antially says1  
mu/ be good because x /imulates indu/ry4
 ,:5 y\r lazy b>b>ian1 :o has no        
pleasure b gorg+ himself ) food1 comes  
also to desire f9e clo!s1 he is n only a
 degree m ref9$ 9 8 ta/es1 b 8 increas$ 
indu/ry leads him to produce en\gh food 
to support 8 tailor1 & provision is made
 = two m5 in/ead ( "o4 ,b desire =      
weal?1 x is repli$1 is bad1 because x   
leads our b>b>ian n only to consume !   
product ( 8 own lab\r1 b to consume t ( 
somebody else4 ,m&eville ga9$ piquancy =
 8 argum5t by confus+ ! two cases4 ,s9ce
 ! desire is good1 all its manife/ations
 mu/ be good4 ,extravagance1 = example1 
is good1 &1 z he put x1 ! fire ( ,london
 0 a b5efit to indu/ry because x set up 
a great] dem& = ! s]vices ( c>p5t]s &   
bricklay]s4 ,i ne$ n say h[ frequ5tly an

 argum5t sub/antially ! same has be5    
adopt$ by good writ]s1 & simple         
extravagance be5 prais$ because x 0     
suppos$ to be good = trade4 ,political  
economi/s h be5 =c$ to lab\r ! po9t t   
extravagant consumption does n increase 
weal?2 b ! only curi\s ?+ is t su* a    
po9t %\ld ev] h requir$ demon/ration4 ,!
 conclusion1 :i* is suffici5t = our     
purpose1 is simply t an absolute        
d5unciation or an absolute exaltation ( 
! desire = weal? is equally impossible2 
= ! desire may h contr>y effects4 ,9 "o 
%ape x may /imulate to enjoym5ts :i*    
actually dim9i% weal? 9 g5]al1 or1 at   
any rate1 to ^? :i* lead to ! actual    
exploitation ( ! _m = ! b5efit ( ! few2 
&1 on ! o!r h&1 to d5\nce x1 simply w\ld
 be to d5\nce all ! spr+s ( action :i*  
raise m5 above ! b>b>\s /ate ( society4 
,:5 we look at ! contra/s betwe5 ! ri* &
 ! poor1 we mu/ rightfully desire a     
great] equality ( di/ribution2 b we may 
be tempt$ to approve too easily any     
means :i* may lead to su* equality4 ,x  

is1 inde$1 obvi\s t if all ! national   
res\rces :i* are n[ appli$ to produc+   
sup]fluities c\ld be turn$ to !         
production ( necess>ies1 we c\ld support
 ! same population 9 a great] com=t1 or 
support a mu* great] population at a    
po9t j above />vation level4 ,b x does n
 at all foll[ t a society 9 :i* e man's 
lab\r 0 devot$ entirely to ! task (     
provid+ necess>ies w\ld 9 fact be ei!r m
 com=table or m num]\s4 ,hi/orically    
speak+1 ! fact is ! v rev]se4 ,! only   
societies 9 :i* !re is su* an equality  
are societies 9 :i* ! level is "o (     
uni=m mis]y1 & ^: total indu/rial       
effici5cy is incomp>ably small] ?an t ( 
! m civilis$ races4 ,x has be5 only 9 s 
f> z a nation has be5 able to support   
classes ) suffici5t means to devote     
!mselves to sci5ce & art1 & !           
cultivation ( ! high] faculties g5]ally1
 t x has acquir$ ! va/ p[]s ( production
 :i* enable "s to be disproportionately 
ri*1 b :i* also enable num]\s masses to 
support !mselves 9 tol]able com=t :]e   

!re 7 once a few w&]+ b>b>ians4 ,t ! m  
cultivat$ classes h s\ght only _! own   
advantage in/ead ( ! g5]al b5efit1 may  
be too true2 b ! conclusion is1 n t !y  
%\ld cease to h ! desires :i* entitle a 
man to be call$ a civilis$ be+1 b t ^!  
desires %\ld be s regulat$ & moralis$ z 
to subs]ve directly & necess>ily ! ends 
:i* !y h only promot$ indirectly &      
accid5tally4 ,a society :i* has gr[n ri*
 by me*anical discov]ies & indu/ri\s    
organisation has acquir$ ! p[] ( greatly
 rais+ ! av]age level ( com=t4 ,if1 9   
po9t ( fact1 its p[] has be5 greatly    
misus$1 if a great developm5t ( pov]ty  
has tak5 place side by side ) a great   
developm5t ( indu/rial effici5cy1 !     
prop] inf]5ce is n t we %\ld d5\nce !   
desires f :i* ! effici5cy is d]iv$1 b t 
we %\ld direct !m into su* *annels z may
 lead to ! m univ]sal di/ribution ( !   
advantages :i* !y create4  ,x is1 ,i    
?9k1 f ?is po9t ( view t we c be/ judge 
( ! moral objection to luxury4 ,=1 z ,i 
previ\sly sugge/$1 luxury beg9s :5 a man

 becomes ! slave in/ead ( ! ma/] ( 8    
weal?2 :5 t :i* ought to be a m]e ma*9]y
 becomes an end 9 itself2 & :51 !re=e1  
!re is a t5d5cy to cultivate & /imulate 
to excess ^? l[] passions :i*1 ?\gh     
necess>y )9 limits1 may beyond ^? limits
 di/ort & l[] ! :ole "*1 & make !       
pursuit ( wor?y objects impossible4 ,we 
"k t ! k+ :o _h ! reputation ( be+ !    
wise/ ( mank9d1 aft] build+ a spl5did   
temple & a gorge\s palace1 & fill+ !m ) 
vessels ( gold1 & import+ ivory & apes &
 peacocks1 c\ld f9d no?+ bett] to d ) ! 
re/ ?an to take #gjj wives & #cjj       
concub9es--a measure :i* h>dly increas$ 
8 dome/ic felicity1 b no d\bt got rid ( 
a good deal ( money4 ,al?\gh few m5 h   
,solomon's opportunities ( af=d+ a      
typical in/ance ( luxury1 _m ( u %[     
ourselves capable ( weakness simil> at  
lea/ 9 k9d4 ,i ne$ n multiply examples4 
,! great my/]y ( fa%ion is p]haps a     
trifl+ b a significant example4 ,:5 p1  
in/ead ( consid]+ dress z a means (     
display+ ! beauty ( ! human frame1      

consid] _! bodies z m]e pegs ^u :i* to  
display clo!s1 & are ready to di/ort _! 
own =ms to fill arbitr>y %apes1 *ang$ at
 %ort int]vals to increase ! co/1 !y are
 cle>ly exemplify+ ! confusion betwe5   
means & ends4 ,:5 a "y g5tleman sp5ds a 
=tune ^u ! turf1 or ^u gambl+1 he %[s t 
he has no m conception ?an ! poor boy :o
 plays pit*-&-toss ) halfp5ce ( ! ways 9
 :i* weal? might be made conducive to   
und]tak+s wor?y ( absorb+ human en]gy4  
,:51 on pret5ce ( cultivat+ society1 we 
inv5t a :ole cumbr\s social app>atus :i*
 makes all rational conv]sation         
impossible1 we "k t ! display ( weal?   
has become an end to :i* we are ready to
 sacrifice our o/5sible purpose4 ,n[1 ,i
 sugge/ t su* luxury1 su* exaltation ( !
 ma*9]y above ! ultimate good1          
corresponds pretty ne>ly to ! di/9ction 
betwe5 ! desires :i* lead to ! rightful 
use & ^? :i* lead to ! %ameful misuse ( 
weal? 9 a social s5se4 ,human nature1   
inde$1 is s+ul>ly complex1 & x is       
impossible to d5y t ! hope ( acquir+ su*

 luxuries may incid5tally lead to t     
increase ( indu/ry & developm5t (       
national res\rces :i*1 z we h se51 is ! 
gr\nd ^u :i* x is def5d$4 ,! indu/ri\s  
appr5tice may h be5 /imulat$ to become  
,"l ,mayor by ! od\rs f 8 ma/]'s        
turtle-s\p2 ,arkwright1 p]haps1 0 induc$
 to inv5t ! ma*9]y :i* revolutionis$ !  
cotton manufactures by ! hope ( becom+  
,sir ,ri*>d1 & rivall+ ! co>se luxury ( 
"s /upid ,squire ,we/]n4 ,b we _c d\bt t
 ^u a l>ge scale ! love ( ! gross]      
indulg5ces is bad1 ev5 f its purely     
economical po9t ( view4 ,if1            
incid5tally1 x enc\rages indu/ry1 x f> m
 directly & necess>ily enc\rages wa/eful
 exp5diture4 ,if a ri* man c only sp5d 8
 ?\s&s at a gambl+-table1 ! poor] man _c
 be blam$ = gambl+ ) a ?imble-rigg]4 ,:5
 ,solomon set up 8 dome/ic e/abli%m5t1 e
 %opkeep] 9 ,j]usalem might be enc\rag$ 
to m>ry an extra wife4 ,if a ri* man1 :o
 has en\gh to saturate a heal?y         
appetite1 tries h[ mu* money he c sp5d1 
l ! old classical epicures1 ^u new di%es

 ( night+ales' tongues1 y c h>dly expect
 ! poor] man to refra9 f an extra glass 
( g94 ,briefly1 s f> z ! res\rces ( a   
nation are sp5t ^u ! m]e o/5tation--:i* 
we call vulg>1 to imply t x is sp5d+ = !
 sake ( exp5se1 fooli%ly try+ to get m  
pleasure = an appetite already gorg$ to 
excess1 by simply increas+ ! /imulus--x 
is enc\rag+ all ! =ces :i* make r = wa/e
 ?an increas$ productiv5ess1 & ju/ify+ !
 natural jeal\sy ( ! poor]4 ,s f>1 t is1
 z a desire = weal? means a desire to   
consume z mu* z possible on sup]saturat+
 ! l[] appetites1 ! commone/ argum5t    
aga9/ private prop]ty 9 g5]al is n only 
plausible b ju/ifi$4 ,i %\ld say1 !n1 t 
luxury 9 a bad s5se beg9s :]ev] 9       
exp5diture x indicates an insuffici5t   
s5se ( ! responsibility :i* atta*es to  
all weal?4 ,?is does n condemn an       
exp5diture :i* may seem1 f "s po9ts (   
view1 luxuri\s2 ?\gh1 z ,i h said1 ,i _c
 pr(ess to draw any di/9ct l9e 9 :at is 
ess5tially a "q ( degree & ( actual     
possibilities1 ,i c only sugge/ 9 g5]al 

t a man is prima facie ju/ifi$ 9 all su*
 exp5diture z t5ds to ! highe/ possible 
cultivation ( 8 faculties & ( !         
faculties ( ^? dep5d5t ^u him4 ,i hold x
 to be a matt] ( ! highe/ importance t  
!re %\ld be a ?or\ghly civilis$ class--a
 class capable ( all intellectual       
pleasures2 lov+ ! beauties ( art &      
nature2 /udy+ e possible dep>tm5t ( k1  
sci5tific & hi/orical2 ma9ta9+ all su*  
modes ( recreation & social enjoym5t z  
are naturally appropriate to su* a      
class4 ,& ,i d n call any man luxuri\s =
 ma9ta9+ 8 position 9 su* a sph]e1 or = 
enabl+ 8 *ildr5 to foll[ 9 8 /eps4 ,i   
believe t1 z ?+s are1 ! exi/5ce ( su* a 
class is a necess>y condition ( national
 welf>e & ( ! pres]vation & ext5sion ( !
 :ole body ( cultivation :i* we h       
receiv$ f our ance/ors4 ,:at is         
requisite is1 t ! class %\ld be n only  
capable ( ref9$ enjoym5t1 b ( dis*>g+   
its functions relatively to ! nation at 
l>ge1 & spread+ a high] /&>d ( enjoym5t 
?r\gh ! :ole community4 ,s f> z ! ri*]  

class ma9ta9s c]ta9 traditions1 moral & 
intellectual--traditions ( p]sonal hon\r
 & public _s1 ( arti/ic & lit]>y        
cultivation--x may be dis*>g+ an        
invaluable function1 & its exi/5ce may  
be a necess>y means ( diffus+ a high]   
civilisation ?r\gh ! masses :o h n !    
same advantage4 ,:atev] employm5ts (    
weal? contribute to make a man m        
effici5t z an individual memb] (        
society1 to /r5g!n 8 und]/&+ & 8        
p]ceptions1 to wid5 8 intellectual      
horizon & int]e/ 8 sympa?ies1 & !       
enjoym5ts :i* correspond to !m1 are n to
 be condemn$ z luxuri\s4 ,!y are1 at    
pres5t1 only )9 ! rea* ( ! ri*] classes1
 ard5tly z we may hope t ! p[] ( p>tak+ 
!m may be ext5d$ z rapidly & widely z   
possible4 ,b ! gr[? ( luxury1 9 ! bad   
s5se1 is ! indication t ! class :i* %\ld
 act z ! bra9 ( ! social organism is    
ceas+ to dis*>ge its functions1 & becom+
 :at we call a survival4 ,x is a k9d (  
moral g\t--an ari/ocratic disease1 %[+ t
 ! secretions are becom+ disord]$ = want

 ( a prop] application ( ! en]gies4 ,x 0
 9 t s5se1 z ,i said be=e1 t our        
gr&fa!rs d5\nc$ ! luxury :i* prov$ t !  
rul+ classes1 especially 9 ,france1 _h  
reta9$ _! privileges :ile ab&on+ !      
correspond+ duties4 ,if 9 ,engl& we     
escap$ s viol5t a cata/rophe1 x 0       
because1 ) all _! luxuries & levities & 
%ortsight$ness1 ! ari/ocratic classes 7 
/ill play+ an active "p1 &1 if n gov]n+ 
well1 do+ :atev] 0 done 9 ! way (       
gov]n+4 ,b e class1 & e memb] ( a class1
 %\ld always rememb] t he may be ask$   
:e!r1 on ! :ole1 he & 8 l c give any    
suffici5t reason = 8 or _! exi/5ce1 & t 
he ought to be prep>$ ) a satisfactory  
answ]4 ,:5 he has to admit t 8          
indulg5ces are 9 ! ma9 :at may be call$ 
luxuries 9 ! bad s5se1 he may consid] t 
he is receiv+ notice to quit4  ,?is may 
sugge/ ! la/ rem>k t ,i ne$ make4 ,x is 
impossible1 ,i h said1 to say def9itely 
?is is1 & t is n1 a luxury3 &1 9 g5]al1 
t is n ! way 9 :i* ! "q pres5ts itself4 
,we h r to decide ^u our g5]al /&>d (   

life1 & to adopt a c]ta9 scale ( liv+ m 
or less fix$ = u by our social          
surr\nd+s4 ,we c all d some?+ t[>ds     
rationalis+ ! habitual modes (          
exp5diture1 & adapt+ ! ma*9]y to su*    
ends z are wor?y ( intellig5t &         
cultivat$ be+s4 ,s f> z incl9ation is 9 
! direction ( vulg>ity1 ( o/5tati\s     
habits1 ( multiply+ idle c]emonies &    
cumbr\s pomposities1 we c prote/ by our 
own conduct1 at lea/1 9 fav\r ( pla9    
liv+ & high ?9k+4 ,b s f> z social life 
is really adapt$ to ! advancem5t (      
intellect1 ! humanis+ & ref9em5t ( our  
sympa?ies1 x promotes an improvem5t :i* 
_c b spread beyond ! imm$iate circle4   
,ev5 su* pursuits1 x is true1 may       
incid5tally become provocative ( an     
objectionable luxury4 ,a man :o is a    
lov] ( art1 = example1 occasionally %uts
 himself out all ! m f ! av]age         
sympa?ies1 & indulges 9 pleasures1 less 
gross b1 p]haps1 ev5 m en]vat+ ?an "s   
:i* we %\ld call di/9ctly s5sual4 ,!    
art1 :e!r lit]>y or pla/ic1 :i* is only 

appreciable by ! connoisseur1 is an art 
:i* is luxuri\s because x is on ! way to
 corruption4 ,no?+ is cle>] 9 ! vague   
set ( guesses :i* pass = ae/hetic !ory1 
?an ?is3 t to be heal?y & vigor\s1 art  
mu/ spread beyond cliques & /udios1 &   
express ! /ronge/ in/9cts & emotions ( !
 society 9 :i* x is develop$4 ,?is1 ,i  
?9k1 is significant ( a g5]al pr9ciple4 
,luxury is *>act]i/ic ( a class ) n>r[  
outlook1 & devot$ to su* enjoym5ts z    
are1 by _! nature1 incapable (          
communication4 ,:5ev] ! enjoym5ts are   
su* z h an intr9sic t5d5cy to raise !   
g5]al /&>d1 z well z to height5 !       
pleasure ( a few1 !y _c be simply       
/igmatis$ z luxuri\s4 ,! old view ( !   
responsibilities ( weal? 0 *iefly conf9$
 to ! doctr9e t ! ri* man %\ld give away
 z _m ( 8 sup]fluities z possible1 to be
 scrambl$ = by ! poor1 9 ord] to appease
 ! ,fates4 ,we h come to see t *>ity1   
?\gh at pres5t a necess>y1 %\ld be      
reg>d$ z a degrad+ necessity2 &1 !re=e1 
n 9 ! long run a possible alt]native to 

luxury4 ,too (t5 x is itself a k9d (    
luxury z mis*iev\s z selfi% disreg>d to 
! natural consequ5ces ( our exp5diture4 
,! true direction ( our wi%es %\ld r be 
to direct social en]gies into su*       
*annels z h a natural aff9ity to public 
_s4 ,a man :o really loves art because  
he has a ke5 s5se ( beauty1 n because he
 wi%es to h ! reputation ( a skilful    
collector1 w\ld surely try to beautify !
 _w 9 :i* we all live1 to get rid ( !   
hide\s de=mities :i* meet u at e turn1 &
 n simply to make a little corn] into   
:i* he may retire = simple              
self-indulg5ce4 ,a lov] ( tru? %\ld n be
 cont5t1 z "s philosoph]s 7 =c$ to be   
cont5t1 ) discussion 9 an esot]ic       
circle1 b %\ld endeav\r1 n[ t ?\ght is  
free1 to /imulate ! intellectual        
activity ( all m51 confid5t t ! great] !
 numb] ( inve/igators1 ! m rapid w be ! 
advance ( tru?4 ,i d n v5ture to sugge/ 
:at special direction %\ld be tak5 by ^?
 :o h ! privileges & responsibilities ( 
great weal?4 ,i h nev] _h to consid] t  

problem 9 any practical ref]5ce4 ,/ill1 
consid]+ h[ va/ a "p !y actually play 9 
social developm5t1 h[ great is _!       
influ5ce1 & h[ _m p & ent]prises seem to
 be 9 want ( a little money1 ,i _c help 
fancy+ t a ri* man may f9d modes (      
exp5diture o!r ?an reckless *>ity or    
elaborate pamp]+ ( 8 p]sonal wants1 :i* 
w\ld be n only m useful to ! _w1 b m    
int]e/+ to himself ?an _m ( ! ord9>y =ms
 ( indulg5ce4 ,b ,i am only speak+ (    
g5]al t5d5cies1 & h disav[$ any capacity
 = lay+ d[n precise regulations4 ,if ,i 
h /at$ rightly :at is ! evil prop]ly    
attack$ :5 we speak ( luxury z vici\s1 x
 w1 ,i ?9k1 come ma9ly to ?is3 t !      
direction 9 :i* we %\ld look =          
improvem5t is n s mu* 9 directly        
prescrib+ any ,sp>tan or ascetic sy/em (
 life1 z 9 cultivat+ 9 e "o :o possesses
 sup]fluities1 ! s5se ( 8 implicit      
responsibility to 8 fell[s1 :i* %\ld g )
 e increase ( weal?1 & ! conviction1 n t
 he %\ld reg>d pleasure z 9 itself bad1 
b t he %\ld tra9 himself to f9d         

pleasures 9 su* conduct z makes him a m 
effici5t memb] ( ! body corporate (     
,society4 ,if1 inde$1 !re %\ld be any   
man :o feels t he has no "r to          
sup]fluities at all1 :ile s _m are want+
 necess>ies1 & %\ld resolve to devote   
himself to ! improvem5t ( _! elevation1 
,i %\ld say1 9 ! fir/ place1 ,i fully & 
he>tily recognise him to be "o ( ! v    
l>ge class :i* ,i reg>d z my sup]iors 9 
morality2 al?\gh1 9 ! next place1 ,i    
%\ld ins9uate t he is "o ( ^? h]oes :o1 
:ile !y des]ve all hon\r1 _c be tak5 z  
models = univ]sal imitation1 inasmu* z  
,i _c help ?9k+ t ! ultimate end is n ! 
r5unciation b ! multiplication ( all    
innoc5t happ9ess4     ,,! ,,duties ,,(  
,,au?ors4   ,i propose to speak to y    
to-day ^u a subject :i*1 ?\gh ,i may    
p]haps be tempt$ to exagg]ate its       
importance1 possesses "s real           
importance4 ,i h und]tak5 to speak ^u ! 
duties ( ! class to :i* ,i belong4 ,i   
make1 h[ev]1 no claims to ! position (  
c5sor4 ,i h no su* claim1 except1 inde$1

 ! claim ( possess+ "s exp]i5ce4 ,!re   
are two ways1 ,i may obs]ve1 9 :i* a man
 may acquire a s5se ( ! importance ( any
 moral law4 ,"o is by keep+ ! law1 & !  
o!r is by break+ x4 ,9 "s ways1 p]haps1 
! sy/ematic (f5d] has acquir$ ! mo/     
valuable exp]i5ce4 ,no "o c speak m     
feel+ly ab\t ! evils ( intemp]ance ?an !
 re=m$ drunk>d1 unless x be ! drunk>d :o
 has n re=m$4 ,! sob] g5tleman :o has   
nev] exce$$ c realise nei!r ! =ce ( !   
temptation nor ! sev]ity ( ! p5alty4 ,on
 ! o!r h&1 ,i mu/ admit t "s writ]s ^u  
e?ical que/ions h be5 m5 ( fair moral   
"*4 ,i only make ! /atem5t by way (     
expla9+ t1 9 speak+ ( ! duties ( au?ors1
 ,i d n ass]t1 ev5 by ! mo/ indirect    
implication1 t ,i p]sonally h ei!r      
obs]v$ or disreg>d$ ! pr9ciples :i* ,i  
%all discuss4 ,:e!r ,i am a model =     
imitation or an example ( ! evils to be 
avoid$1 matt]s no?+ to ?is disc\rse2    
?\gh ! "q to :i* ( ^! classes ,i belong 
has a c]ta9 int]e/ = myself4  ,!re is "o
 o!r matt] :i* ,i c deal ) v briefly4 ,i

 h said t ! subject has a c]ta9         
importance4 ,^u t x is ne$less to       
dilate2 =1 9 ! fir/ place1 au?ors h be5 
engag$ = g5]ations1 & nev] m indu/ri\sly
 ?an 9 ?is g5]ation1 9 prea*+ ! va/     
importance ( au?ors to mank9d4 ,i c\ld n
 hope to add any?+ to _! eloqu5ce ^u a  
topic ) :i* !y are s famili>4 ,we may1  
h[ev]1 assume t ! enorm\s mass (        
lit]ature :i* is daily produc$1 :e!r its
 abundance be a matt] ( regret or       
exultation1 is at lea/ a pro( t a va/   
numb] ( p read some?+1 & are1 we may    
suppose1 m or less affect$ by :at !y    
read4 ,x _c be indiff]5t to inquire :at 
are ! duties ( ^? :o und]take to provide
 = ?is ev]-gr[+ dem&4  ,"o matt] has be5
 lately discuss$ :i* may s]ve z a       
/>t+-po9t = :at ,i h to say4 ,a ,fr5*   
au?or :o came ! o!r day to obs]ve our   
mann]s & cu/oms1 0 impress$ by ! fact t 
s mu* ( our writ+ is anonym\s4 ,!       
public1 t is1 reads )\t kn[+ :o are its 
in/ructors1 & ! in/ructors write )\t    
incurr+ any def9ite p]sonal             

responsibility4 ,! problem is naturally 
sugge/$1 :e!r su* a sy/em be n morally  
objectionable4 ,ought n a man :o        
und]takes to speak z an au?ority let u  
"k :o he is1 & !re=e ) :at au?ority he  
speaks8 ,! "q c\ld h>dly be answ]$      
satisfactorily )\t "s /udy ( ! facts2 & 
especially ( ! way 9 :i* ! sy/em has    
gr[n up4 ,i c only notice "o or two     
obvi\s reflections4 ,a c5tury ago we    
boa/$--& we _h reason to boa/--t !      
,engli% ,press 0 ! free/ 9 ,europe4 ,x 0
 already a v important factor 9         
political life4 ,b at t p]iod !         
pr(ession ( lett]s 0 /ill reg>d$ z m or 
less disreputable4 ,! great au?or--!    
poet1 div9e1 or hi/orian--0 inde$ fully 
z mu* respect$ z he is n[2 b to write = 
money or to write 9 p]iodicals 0 held to
 be n q wor?y ( a g5tleman4 ,byron1 =   
example1 refus$ to take money = 8       
poetry1 & taunt$ o!rs = tak+ money1     
until s mu* money 0 (f]$ to him t he    
swall[$ 8 scruples4 ,burns1 ?\gh z mu* 9
 ne$ ( money1 _h %ortly be=e refus$ to  

write = money2 & ,wordswor? held t 8    
high call+ impos$ ^u him ! duty ( r     
repell+ ?an seek+ ! popul>ity by :i*    
money is to be won4 ,we h *ang$ all ?is1
 & ! greate/ mod]n au?ors are less apt  
to disav[ a desire = pay1 ?an to compla9
 t _! pay is insuffici5t4 ,!            
employm5t--x c h>dly be call$ !         
pr(ession--( p]iodical writ+1 aga9--!   
only k9d ( writ+ :i* c\ld make lit]ature
 a s\rce ( a regul> income--0 long      
reg>d$ z a k9d ( poor relation ( !      
respectable or s-call$ le>n$ pr(essions1
 cl]ical1 legal1 & m$ical4 ,jeffrey1 ^: 
fame n[ re/s ^u 8 position z ! editor ( 
,! ,ed9burgh ,review1 0 = a long "t     
anxi\s to conceal 8 employm5t z n       
exactly cr$itable4 ,9 ! ye> #ahji !     
b5*]s ( ,l9coln's ,inn pass$ a          
resolution t no "o %\ld be call$ to !   
,b> :o _h writt5 = money 9 a newspap]4  
,writ]s 9 newspap]s s9ce t "t h         
frequ5tly ris5 to ! ,b5*1 & h be5 n !   
lea/ hon\r$ ( ,cab9et ,m9i/]s4 ,yet !   
s5tim5t :i* involv$ a c]ta9 /igma has   

only disappe>$ 9 ?is g5]ation4 ,& !     
hi/orical cause seems to be obvi\s4 ,!  
newspap] ,press _h gradually gr[n up 9  
spite ( au?ority4 ,x _h fir/ be5        
p]secut$1 & writ]s _h escap$ p]secution 
by cons5t+ to be spies or dep5dants ^u  
great m54 ,half ! hack-au?ors aspir$ to 
subsidies f ! secret-s]vice money1 & !  
o!r half 7 look+ = a rew>d :5 _! patrons
 %\ld h a turn 9 ! di/ribution ( good   
?+s4 ,! ,press 0 fre] ?an else:]e1 = !  
,engli% sy/em ( gov]nm5t gave importance
 to public discussion4 ,bo? ,m9i/]s &   
,opposition wi%$ to influ5ce vot]s ?r\gh
 ! pap]s4 ,b ! au?ors 7 9 ! position (  
dep5d5t auxili>ies1 prosecut$ = libel if
 !y w5t too f>1 & recomp5s$ by p5sions =
 ! risks !y _h to run2 !y 7 despis$1 ev5
 by ^? :o us$ !m1 z a set ( m]c5>y      
gu]illas1 employ$ to d dirty "w &       
ins9uate *>ges :i* c\ld n be made by    
responsible p1 & ready1 z 0 suppos$1 to 
s]ve on :i*ev] side w\ld pay !m be/4    
,accord+ to a well-kn[n anecdote1 two   
writ]s ( ! eighte5? c5tury decid$ by !  

toss ( a halfp5ny :i* %\ld write =      
,walpole & :i* %\ld write = 8 adv]s>y   
,pult5ey2 b ! *oice 0 g5]ally decid$ by 
less reputable motives4 ,n[1 s long z ! 
,press meant su* a class x 0 ( c\rse    
natural t ! trade %\ld be reg>d$ z      
discr$itable1 & %\ld be c>ri$ on by m5  
:o _h less c>e = _! "* ?an = _! pockets4
 ,9 ,engl&1 :]e our developm5t has be5  
cont9u\s & traditions l+] long1 !       
s5tim5t long surviv$2 & ! practice :i*  
correspond$ to x--! practice1 t is1 (   
anonymity--has itself surviv$ ! s5tim5t 
:i* gave x bir?4  ,i d n1 inde$1 mean to
 ins9uate t ! practice may n h bett]    
reasons ?an t :i* l$ to its fir/        
adoption4 ,! mask 0 =m]ly worn by m5 :o 
7 a%am$ ( _! employm5t1 & :o _h ! same  
reasons = anonymity z a ?ief or an      
an>*i/ may h = a disguise4 ,x may n[ be 
worn ev5 by m5 :o are pr\d ( _!         
pr(ession1 because ! mask has a diff]5t 
significance4 ,:5 a j\rnali/ calls      
himself we in/ead ( ,i1 ! ^w really     
repres5ts a fact3 ! fact t he speaks n  

simply z an individual1 b z ! m\?piece (
 a corporation1 :i* itself claims to be 
! organ ( a p>ty4 ,! plural cov]s :atev]
 additional weight may be due to ?is    
repres5tative "*4 ,to consid] ! value ( 
?is ju/ification w\ld take me too f>4 ,i
 h spok5 ( ?is hi/orical fact because ,i
 ?9k t x illu/rates a m g5]al problem4  
,=1 9 ! fir/ place1 ,i ?9k t !re 7 "s   
elem5ts 9 ! old] s5tim5t :i* des]v$     
respect4 ,:5 an au?or 0 z anxi\s to     
disav[ ! *>ge ( writ+ = money z an au?or
 at ! pres5t day is to claim 8 rew>d1 ,i
 _c1 = my "p1 simply set him d[n z      
silly4 ,my songs1 said ,burns1 are ei!r 
above price or bel[ price1 &1 !re=e1 ,i 
w accept no?+4 ,i respect 8 feel+s4 ,he 
may n h be5 q logical2 b he 0 surely "r 
9 ! belief t ! poet ^: inspiration %\ld 
come f 8 bree*es-pocket w\ld nev] write 
true songs or embody ! v _s ( a nation4 
,i d n d\bt t au?ors ought to be paid2 b
 ,i c]ta9ly agree t a money rew>d nev]  
ought to be ! *ief aim ( _! writ+4 ,& ,i
 confess t "s utt]ances ab\t copyrights 

9 ^! days h j>r$ ^u me1 because !y seem 
to imply t ! doctr9e is n disav[$ s     
unequivocally z x %\ld be by our lead]s4
 ,i am1 inde$1 happy to believe1 z ,i   
fully believe1 t !re has nev] be5 a "t  
at :i* m good "w has be5 done = pure    
love ( ! "w1 indep5d5tly1 & ev5 9       
defiance1 ( pecuni>y consid]ations4 ,b  
,i _c help ?9k+ t 9 _! desire to e/abli%
 a "r to ! pr(its ( _! "w1 au?ors h     
condesc5d$ at mom5ts to speak z if t    
rew>d con/itut$ _! sole motive to "w1   
in/ead ( be+ desir$--z x may mo/ prop]ly
 be desir$--simply z ! means ( enabl+ !m
 to "w4 ,! old contempt 0 ari/ocratic1 &
 9 ^! days we h come to use ari/ocratic 
z a t]m ( abuse4 ,my own impression is t
 we ought to be j ev5 to ari/ocrats2 & 9
 t contempt = all su* "w1 ,i ?9k t !re 0
 a g5u9e elem5t ( self-respect4 ,! noble
 despis$ ! poor scribe :o _h to get 8   
liv+ by 8 p54 ,we1 my lords1 z          
,*e/]field put x1 may ?ank ,provid5ce t 
we d n dep5d ^u our bra9s4 ,x is wrong1 
no d\bt1 to despise anybody2 &          

especially mean to despise a man =      
pov]ty4 ,b ! s5tim5t also includ$ !     
belief--surely n s wrong--t ! adv5tur]  
:o jo9$ ! ranks ( a p>ty = ! sake ( !   
pay 0 s f> contemptible1 & likely to jo9
 ! p>ty :i* paid be/4 ,! mis=tune1 no   
d\bt1 0 t ! political /ate involv$ su*  
dep5d5ce2 & ! desirable solution t e "o 
%\ld become indep5d5t4 ,till t solution 
0 m or less rea*$1 ! correspond+ s5tim5t
 0 inevitable1 & n )\t mean+4  ,well1 ! 
lit]>y class has _h its decl>ation (    
indep5d5ce4 ,an au?or has long ceas$ to 
ne$ a patron1 & he is 9 little dang] ( !
 law ( libel4 ,! "q occurs3 ,:at are !  
qualities by :i* we %\ld ju/ify our     
indep5d5ce8 ,h we n /ill a c]ta9 /oop ( 
! %\ld]s1 a k9d ( traditional           
%amefac$ness1 an awkw>dness ( mann]1 & a
 t5d5cy to blu% & /amm]1 :i* %[s t we   
are n q at ease 9 our new position8 ,or 
h we n--x is a m s]i\s "q--ex*ang$      
dep5d5ce ^u ! great = dep5d5ce ^u !     
public1 r ?an le>nt to /& ^u our own    
feet8 ,h we made ourselves1 &1 if we h  

n1 h[ c we make ourselves1 wor?y ( our  
position z free m58 ,we boa/ t ! ,press 
does "p ( :at us$ to be done by !       
prie/hood1 t we enlight5 & enc\rage &   
purify public op9ion4 ,!re is a :ole    
class :i* dep5ds ^u u = intellectual    
culture2 :i* reads no?+ t is n 9        
newspap]s & magaz9es4 ,d we give !m a   
:olesome tra9+1 provide !m ) s\nd k1 &  
/imulate !m to real ?\ght8 ,are we su* a
 prie/hood z is really rais+ ! /&>d (   
human life2 or su* a prie/hood z is cl++
 to p[] by e*o+ ! sup]/itions ( its     
congregations8 ,nature is rul$ by obey+ 
h]2 & :at is call$ rul+ public op9ion is
 too (t5 s]vilely foll[+ its dictates4  
,!re is an old /ory :i* tells h[ a c]ta9
 newspap] us$ to s5d out an emiss>y to  
discov] :at 0 ! common rem>k t e "o 0   
mak+ 9 omnibuses & club smok+-rooms1 &  
to fa%ion x into next morn+'s article = 
! in/ruction ( mank9d4 ,! e*o affect$ to
 set ! tune :i* x really repeat$4 ,n[1  
!re is no?+ m flatt]+ ?an an e*o4 ,?is  
mu/ be an inspir$ tea*]1 = he says      

exactly :at ,i ?\ght myself1 is a v     
common & effective argum5t4 ,to         
reproduce ! op9ions ( ! av]age read]2 to
 dress !m s skilfully t he w be pleas$  
to see :at ke5 intellig5ce is impli$ 9  
hold+ su* op9ions2 to say j :at ev]ybody
 wi%es to h said a little m neatly ?an  
ev]ybody c\ld say x1 or1 at ! outside1  
to say to-day :at e "o w be say+        
to-morr[1 is "o pa? to success 9        
j\rnalism4 ,!re is1 ,i am afraid1 mu*   
s-call$ education :i* t5ds to no?+ bett]
 ?an a developm5t ( ?is art4 ,i 0       
consult$ ! o!r day by a "y g5tleman :o 0
 propos+ to put himself "u a pr(essor ( 
j\rnalism4 ,s f> z ,i c\ld ga!r f 8     
acc\nt1 ! pr(essor did n sugge/ t !     
pupil %\ld /udy any bran* ( s]i\s k3 t  
he %\ld become1 = example1 a good       
political economi/1 or read anci5t or   
mod]n hi/ory1 or make himself famili> ) 
cont95tal affairs or bimetallism1 or o!r
 ?orny & complex subjects4 ,! aim 0     
precisely to enable him to disp5se ) all
 /udy1 & to sp9 words out ( absolute    

m5tal vacuity4 ,if su* an art c really  
be acquir$1 x is sc>cely an art to be   
recomm5d$ to +5u\s y\?4 ,& yet1 z ,i    
und]/&1 x is an art :i* is m or less    
c\nt5anc$ ev5 at our univ]sities4 ,a    
di/+ui%$ classman le>ns mu*1 b ! la/ ?+ 
he le>ns is ! dep? ( 8 own ignorance4   
,he is too (t5 practis$ 9 ! p[] ( beat+ 
out 8 gold or 8 t9sel to cov] ! l>ge/   
possible surface2 he becomes an adept 9 
adopt+ ! v la/ new fa%ion ( ?\ght2 he c 
pron\nce dogmatically ^u all previ\s    
?9k]s aft] read+ n _! own works1 b !    
summ>y giv5 9 ! la/ text-book4 ,success 
9 ! art ( pass+ exam9ations requires !  
same qualities :i* enable a man to write
 (f-h& a brilliant lead+ article ^u any 
side ( any subject4 ,i h (t5 he>d rem>ks
 ^u ! mod]n diffusion ( lit]>y skill4   
,t5 p1 x is said1 c write well n[ = "o  
:o c\ld write well fifty ye>s ago4 ,no  
d\bt ! dem& = facile writ+ has enorm\sly
 increas$ ! supply4 ,b ,i d n ?9k t     
fir/-rate writ+--! writ+ :i* speaks ( a 
full m9d & /rong convictions1 :i* is    

cle> because x is ?or\gh1 n because x is
 %all[--has increas$ 9 ! same           
proportion1 if1 inde$1 we c be sure t x 
has increas$ at all4 ,p]haps !re are t5 
times z _m p :o c put o!r m5's ?\ghts   
into flu5t phrases2 b are !re t5 times z
 _m1 are !re ev5 z _m1 :o ?9k = !mselves
 & speak at fir/ h&8 ,! practice (      
anonym\s writ+ af=ds1 ( c\rse1 obvi\s   
conv5i5ces to a sup]ficial omnisci5ce4  
,! "y g5tleman :o dogmatises s e>ly     
might blu% if he _h to sign 8 "n to 8   
audaci\s utt]ances4 ,8 tone (           
infallibility w\ld be absurd if we knew 
:o 0 ! pope t 0 promulgat+ dogmas4 ,!   
man 9 a mask pr(esses to detect at a    
glance ! absurd sophi/ries :i* impose ^u
 ! ke5e/ contempor>y intellects2 b if he
 d(f$ ! mask & appe>$ z "y ,mr4 ,smi?1  
or ,jones1 :o took 8 degree la/ ye>1 we 
might d\bt :e!r he _h a "r to assume s  
calmly t ! sophi/ry is all on ! o!r     
side4 ,i am1 h[ev]1 q aw>e t ?is is only
 "o side ( ! "q ( anonymity4 ,7 !       
practice aboli%$1 ! j\rnali/ :o 0 =c$ to

 appe> 9 8 own "* might ab&on n 8       
sup]ficiality1 b :atev] p[] ( blu%+ he  
reta9s4 ,! m flu5t phrase-mong] might   
take himself ev5 m s]i\sly ?an he n[    
does1 & might p]suade o!r p to take him 
s]i\sly too4 ,! *>latan1 9 %ort1 might h
 a bett] *ance1 & use 8 notoriety z a   
/epp+-/one to m mis*iev\s ambition4  ,i 
refra9 f discuss+ ?is "q3 ! r because x 
is obvi\s t su* *anges mu/ "w !mselves  
out gradually1 & t we may assume1 = !   
pres5t1 t ! position w n be mat]ially   
*ang$4 ,i am1 !re=e1 cont5t to inf] t ! 
j\rnali/ %\ld at lea/ be> 9 m9d "o      
obvi\s crit]ion4 ,he %\ld nev] say any?+
 anonym\sly to :i* he w\ld be a%am$ to  
sign 8 "n4 ,i d n mean m]ely t he %\ld n
 be libell\s or spiteful--,i hope &     
believe t ! und]h& assass9 (            
reputations1 :o at "o p]iod 0 common    
en\gh1 has almo/ ceas$ to exi/1--b r t  
he %\ld refra9 f t pomp\s assumption (  
omnisci5ce :i* w\ld he ludicr\s 9 a     
simple individual4 ,he %\ld say no?+ :5 
he speaks 9 ! plural :i* w\ld make him  

look silly if he us$ ! fir/ p]son s+ul>4
 ,n[1 ?is mode/ requirem5t involves1 ,i 
?9k1 a good deal4 ,i w try to say :at x 
involves by an example1 ( :i* ,i        
frequ5tly ?9k4 ,i rememb] a "y g5tleman1
 :o1 9 my he>+1 confess$1 9 answ] to a  
"q f ,c>lyle1 t he did a c]ta9 am\nt (  
j\rnali/ic "w4 ,! great man !reupon     
said1 ) 8 usual c&\r1 &1 ,i mu/ add1 )\t
 any p]sonal disc\rtesy1 t1 9 8 op9ion1 
! j\rnalism ( ! p]iod 0 j s mu*         
dit*-wat]4 ,:at %\ld be a well ( ,engli%
 undefil$ p\r$ =? /reams little bett]   
?an a public sew]4 ,! phrase1 l "s o!r  
prophetic utt]ances1 s\nd$ a trifle h>%1
 b 0 all ! m calculat$ to set me ?9k+4  
,my ?9k+ naturally l$ me to reflect ^u  
,c>lyle's own example4 ,i 0 invit$ "s "t
 aft]w>ds to sign a little te/imonial   
pres5t$ to him ^u 8 eightie? bir?day1 9 
imitation ( ! gift :i* he _h himself    
=w>d$ to ,goe!4 ,9 ?is x 0 said1 & said1
 ,i ?9k1 mo/ truly1 t ,c>lyle 0 himself 
an example ( ! h]oic life 9 lit]ature4  
,& :y8 ,a good _m epigrams h be5 levell$

 at ,c>lyle1 & he has m ?an once be5    
ridicul$ z ! philosoph] :o prea*$ !     
virtues ( sil5ce 9 ?irty volumes4 ,n[1  
,c>lyle's utt]ances ab\t sil5ce may n h 
be5 unimpea*able2 b ,i ?9k t1 /at$ 9 a  
commonplace way1 !y sub/antially come to
 ?is3 t idle talk1 a m]e sp9n+ (        
phrases1 is a v demoralis+ habit1 & "o  
great mis*ief ( ! pres5t day2 b t !     
s]i\s & c>eful utt]ance ( real ?\ght &  
g5u9e k mu/ be consid]$ r z a mode (    
action ?an ( talk1 & des]ves ! cordial  
welcome ( all m54 ,a ,goe! affects      
action z mu* z a ,napoleon4 ,c>lyle did 
n really mean to draw ! l9e betwe5 an   
active & a lit]>y life2 = he knew z well
 z any man t lit]ature may at once      
require ! mo/ /r5u\s activity1 & be !   
s\rce ( life & vig\r 9 active m52 b     
betwe5 frivolity & e>ne/ness1 betwe5 !  
m]e wa/e & dissipation ( en]gy & its    
conc5tration ^u "s wor?y purpose4 ,judg$
 by su* a /&>d1 ,c>lyle's words 7 also  
de$s4 ,he wrote a good deal1 = he liv$ a
 long "t1 & _h = _m ye>s to live by 8   

p54 ,i c\ld1 ,i ?9k1 m5tion sev]al      
pr(essional au?ors :o habitually provide
 z mu* copy 9 a mon? z ,c>lyle ev]      
a*iev$ 9 a ye>4 ,b1 luckily = !m1 _!    
works are n collect$4 ,c>lyle appe>s to 
be volum9\s because he nev] wrote any?+ 
:i* 0 n wor? pres]vation1 & t because he
 nev] wrote an essay )\t mak+ x z good z
 8 abilities p]mitt$4 ,he did s1 al?\gh 
he 0 till middle life h>d press$ =      
money1 & help+ to support 8 family out (
 8 n>r[ e>n+s4 ,he /uck indomitably to 8
 own ideal ( :at 0 be/1 ?\gh he _h sl[ly
 to =m a public :i* c\ld appreciate him4
 ,& ?r\gh long ye>s ( /ruggle & h>d%ip  
he nev] condesc5d$ to make easy ga9s at 
! price ( inf]ior workman%ip1 or to l[] 
8 /&>d ( excell5ce 9 ord] to meet !     
imm$iate dem&s ( editors4 ,9 t s5se1 if 
9 no o!r1 ,i call ,c>lyle a wor?y h]o ( 
lit]ature1 & ,i rev]5ce 8 example a     
great deal m1 ,i fe>1 ?an ,i h imitat$  
x4  ,p]haps1 inde$1 a man mu/ h an      
unusually1 ev5 unreasonably1 /rong      
conviction ( ! tru? & importance ( 8    

mission be=e he c make su* sacrifices 9 
ord] to dis*>ge x wor?ily4 ,to mo/ ( u !
 "q occurs :e!r x c possibly be wor?    
:ile to d s4 ,p]haps1 if ,i devot$      
myself exclusively to deliv]+ my message
 to mank9d z =cibly z ,i c\ld1 & to mak+
 all necess>y prep>ations1 x might be r 
m effective ?an ! second-h& twaddle :i* 
,i actually produce4 ,b w\ld ! game be  
wor? ! c&le8 ,i h1 x may be1 a family to
 support4 ,%\ld ,i n1 z an hone/ man1   
?9k fir/ ( my but*] & my bak] & ( pay+ !
 collector ( rates1 be=e ,i und]take to 
become an immortal au?or8 ,probably1 at 
! be/1 my immortality w\ld be a v %ort  
"o1 = !re is n "o au?or 9 a ?\s& :o c   
make 8 voice audible at ! di/ance ( a   
g5]ation4 ,is x n bett] & wis] to e>n an
 hone/ liv+ by innoc5t small talk1 ?an  
to aim at a great success & let my      
*ildr5 g b>efoot & lose _! s*ool+8 ,t l[
 man1 says ,br[n+'s ,gramm>ian--        
,t l[ man goes on add+ "o to "o1        
,8 hundr$'s soon hit3      ,?is high    
man1 aim+ at a million1        ,misses  

an unit4   ,is x n bett] to hit y\r     
hundr$ ?an to aim at y\r million & miss 
x8 ,t is a problem :i* ,i d n ?9k x     
possible to answ] by a g5]al rule4 ,we  
rightly hon\r ! ,c>lyle or ! ,wordswor? 
:o has =c$ ! public to admire him 9     
spite ( critical gibes & long obscurity2
 b we mu/ n =get t ev5 success does n   
necess>ily ju/ify ! audacity :i* has won
 x1 & t a good _m p :o fanci$ !mselves  
to be capable ( enlight5+ ! _w h be5    
empty-head$ impo/ors :o w\ld h done     
bett] to take ! critic's advice3 drop _!
 p5s & m9d _! gallipots4 ,devotion to an
 ideal1 l o!r high qualities1 may be    
misplac$ or c\nt]feit$ by m]e p]sonal   
vanity4 ,b leav+ ea* man to decide by ! 
concrete circum/ances ( 8 own case1 ,i  
/ill hold t at lea/ we %\ld try 9 ?is   
respect to act 9 ,c>lyle's _s4 ,i _c    
blame ! au?or :o1 "u c]ta9 conditions1  
feels t 8 fir/ duty is to pay 8 weekly  
bills1 s long1 ( c\rse1 z he does n e>n 
! money by p&]+ to ! bad passions ( 8   
read]s2 = !re are modes ( mak+ a        

livelihood by ! p5 to :i* />vation or ! 
workh\se w\ld be pref]r$ by any         
high-m9d$ man4 ,b we w n judge h>%ly ( !
 au?or :o lives by supply+ innoc5t1 if r
 insipid1 food = public amusem5t4 ,he   
might be capable ( bett] ?+s2 b1 !n1 he 
might c]ta9ly be do+ mu* worse4 ,yet 9  
any case1 ,i say t1 to h a tol]ably     
com=table consci5ce1 an au?or %\ld try  
to look a little f>!r ?an ?is4 ,! great 
mass ( mank9d has to devote mo/ ( its   
en]gies to employm5ts :i* require no?+ m
 ?an hone/ "w2 & yet ev5 ! humble/ c d  
some?+ to ma9ta9 & elevate ! moral /&>d 
( 8 surr\nd+s4 ,! au?or1 s f> z he is   
simply a j\rneyman1 a report] ( ord9>y  
ev5ts & spee*es1 = example1 does 8 duty 
s f> z he reports !m hone/ly2 & we h no 
m to say to him4 ,b ! au?or :o takes "p 
9 political & social or religi\s        
discussions has a responsibility :i*    
involves some?+ m4 ,probably he         
feels--,i am sure en\gh t ,i feel--t 8  
p]=mance makes rem>kably little diff]5ce
 to mank9d 9 g5]al2 & t he is play+ only

 an inf9itesimal "p 9 ! great processes 
by :i* ! huge _w blund]s along1 /ruggl+ 
into "s approximation to a m tol]able   
ord]4 ,he may comp>e himself to "o ( !  
myriads ( insects build+ up "o squ>e y>d
 on ! coral reef :i* /ret*es = hundr$s (
 leagues4 ,yet ev5 ! coral reef dep5ds  
on ! units1 & if ! insect's p[]s are    
small x conc]ns him to make ! be/ ( !m4 
,n[1 to make ! be/ ( !m implies "s g5u9e
 int]e/ 9 8 "w2 some?+ t makes ! read]  
p]ceive t he is be+ address$ by a human 
be+1 n a m]e ma*9e = vamp+ up old       
mat]ials4 ,i h be5 /ruck 9 read+        
newspap] articles1 ev5 my own1 by !     
curi\s loss ( individuality :i* a man   
seems to suff] z a writ]4 ,unconsci\sly 
! au?or takes ! col\r ( 8 organ2 he     
adopts n only its s5tim5t b its /yle1 & 
seems to become a m]e transmitt] (      
messages1 ) ^: sub/ance he has no m to d
 ?an ! wires ( ! electric telegraph :i* 
c>ries !m4 ,b n[ & !n we sudd5ly come   
across some?+ fre% & orig9al2 we "k by  
in/9ct t we are be+ address$ by ano!r   

man1 & are 9 a liv+ relation to a       
sep>ate human be+1 n to a m]e drill$    
*>act]less unit ( a discipl9$ army2 we  
f9d actually ?\ghts1 convictions1       
argum5ts1 :i*1 ?\gh all argum5ts are    
old1 h evid5tly /ruck ! writ]'s m9d1 & n
 m]ely be5 transmitt$ into 8 p52 & !n we
 may "k t we are 9 ! pres5ce ( a real   
=ce1 & meet+ ) a man :o is do+ 8 duty4  
,i refra9 f m5tion+1 ?\gh ,i easily c\ld
 m5tion1 liv+ mod]n in/ances4 ,b on     
look+ to ! hi/ory ( ! pa/1 x is curi\s  
to notice h[ r>e ! ph5om5on is1 & h[    
important x is :5 x occurs4 ,?9k = a    
mom5t1 = example1 ( old ,cobbett1       
agricultural lab\r] & soldi]1 ) no?+ to 
help him b 8 %rewd "m-wit & 8 burly     
,engli% /r5g?4 ,he wrote mu* t 0 poor & 
clumsy en\gh2 mu*1 too1 t 0 pure        
claptrap1 & mu* t 0 dictat$ by p]sonal  
motives & desire = notoriety4 ,b 9 spite
 ( ?is ! untaught peasant became "o ( ! 
great political =ces1 m effective ?an ! 
n9ety & n9e elegant ,ed9burgh & ,qu>t]ly
 review]s1 :o _h all ! advantages :i* he

 lack$4 ,:y8 ,p>tly1 no d\bt1 because he
 0 a really /rong man2 b also because he
 _h at lea/ "o g5u9e & deeply-root$     
conviction1 spr++ out ( 8 pr(\nd desire 
= ! welf>e ( ! class :i* 0 bo? ! l>ge/ &
 ! mo/ helpless ( ! ,engl& ( 8 day4 ,he 
is1 !re=e1 "o example1 & !re are _m     
o!rs1 ( ! s+ul> p[] :i* is ex]cis$ 9    
j\rnalism by a man1 "u :atev]           
disadvantages1 :o possesses1 or r :o is 
possess$ by1 "s ma/]-?\ght1 & utt]s x 9 
season & out ( season ) p]haps          
disproportionate int5sity1 b ) p]fect   
s9c]ity4 ,n[1 ?\gh ,cobbett w\ld be 9 "s
 respects a bad model1 ,i only ref] to  
him 9 ?is s5se4 ,:5 my "y fri5ds consult
 me z to ! conditions ( successful      
j\rnalism1 my fir/ bit ( advice comes to
 ?is3 "k some?+ really2 at any rate1 try
 to "k some?+2 be ! slaves ( "s g5u9e   
idea1 or y w be ! slaves ( a newspap]--a
 bit ( me*anism in/ead ( a man4 ,y c    
c>ry on ! bus9ess ) self-respect--:atev]
 y\r success--if x is also some?+ m ?an 
a bus9ess2 if1 = example1 y c hone/ly   

feel t y are help+ on ! propag&a ( s\nd 
pr9ciple1 d5\nc+ real grievances1 &     
speak+ f g5u9e belief4 ,no man has a "r 
to lay d[n ! law to /atesm5 z ?\gh he 7 
9 possession ( absolute k1 or z ?\gh he 
7 a man ( sci5ce talk+ to a class (     
ignorant s*oolboys4 ,b e man ought to   
believe t tru? is atta9able1 & to       
endeav\r ) all 8 p[] to atta9 x4 ,he    
%\ld /udy ! great problems ( ! day      
hi/orically3 = he mu/ "k h[ !y h aris52 
:at previ\s attempts h be5 made to solve
 !m2 h[ f> rec5t sugge/ions are m]e     
reproductions ( explod$ fallacies2 & s  
qualify himself to see ?+s 9 _! true    
relations z facts ( a great process (   
evolution4 ,he %\ld endeav\r to be      
philosophical 9 _s1 s f>1 at lea/1 z to 
seek to base 8 op9ions ^u g5]al         
pr9ciples1 & to look at ! ev5ts ( ! day 
f a high] po9t ( view ?an t ( p]sonal or
 p>ty exp$i5cy4 ,& he mu/1 ?\gh ^u ?is x
 is h>dly necess>y to insi/1 be famili> 
) ! affairs ( ! day3 = no "o c apply    
pr9ciples to politics effectively )\t a 

g5u9e fir/-h& k ( ! actual curr5ts (    
political life4 ,unless a man c take up 
8 call+ 9 "s su* _s1 he c be b a m]e    
retail] ( popul> commonplaces1 & mu/    
live f h& to m\? or ^u ! *ance utt]ances
 ( p z ?\ghtless z himself1 increas+ !  
volume ( m]e noise :i* ?reat5s to dr[n  
s5se4 ,b if he s]i\sly cultivates 8     
p[]s1 & enri*es 8 m9d1 he may feel sure 
t ev5 9 j\rnalism he may be dis*>g+ "o (
 ! mo/ important functions :i* a man c  
und]take4 ,he may be "r or wrong 9 !    
p>ticul> doctr9es :i* he supports4      
,inde$1 ! fir/ & mo/ obvi\s result ( any
 attempt to take wid] views ( politics  
is ! admission t wisdom 7& z c]ta9ly1   
nons5se7 is n ! exclusive possession (  
any p>ty 9 politics1 lit]ature1 or      
philosophy4 ,b some?+ is done :5ev] a   
man ( tra9$ intellect & g5u9e conviction
 lifts popul> discussion to a high]     
plane4 ,at su* times x rises above !    
region ( p]sonal invective or pure      
platitude1 & involves a consci\s ref]5ce
 to great pr9ciples & to ! remote       

conditions ( ! little bit ( hi/ory :i*  
we are actually transact+4 ,:5 ,john    
,/u>t ,mill became a memb] ( ! ,h\se (  
,commons1 & 0 accept$ z a philosoph]    
com+ among practical m51 he said mu* t  
displeas$ 8 he>]s2 b x 0 obs]v$ by      
compet5t judges at ! "t1 t ! tone (     
p>liam5t>y debates 0 p]ceptibly rais$4  
,memb]s ( ,p>liam5t 7 =c$ to reflect = !
 mom5t1 n only h[ _! spee*es w\ld tell 9
 next day's reports1 & :at traps !y 7   
sett+ = oppon5ts1 b also = a brief      
in/ant1 h[ _! argum5ts w\ld /& ! te/ (  
imp>tial logic4 ,mill tells a           
significant /ory 9 8 autobiography1 :i*1
 p]haps1 indicates "o s\rce ( 8         
influ5ce4 ,:5 he appe>$ ^u ! hu/+s he 0 
ask$ :e!r he _h n said t ! ,engli%      
work+-classes 7 g5]ally li>s4 ,he repli$
 simply1 ,i did1 & ! reply 01 he says1  
receiv$ ) vehem5t applause4 ,! incid5t1 
he adds1 conv9c$ him t ! work+-classes  
valu$ no?+ m ?an ?or\gh /raight=w>dness1
 & hon\r$ a man = d>+ to tell !m ( _!   
faults4 ,i hope t x is s3 ,i believe1 9 

po9t ( fact1 t no quality is m he>tily  
hon\r$ ?an unfl9*+ political hone/y4 ,& 
,i confess t ,i h (t5 wond]$ :y x is t  
:]e ! rew>d is s cle>1 s few p take !   
pla9 road :i* leads to x4 ,x seems      
equally cle> t moral c\rage pays bett]  
?an any o!r quality 9 politics1 & t x is
 ! r>e/ ( all qualities ev5 to be       
simulat$4 ,we are all anxi\s to %[ h[   
pr(\nd is our affection = ! masses2 b h[
 _m c&idates = _! fav\r d>e to give ,mr4
 ,mill's pro( ( g5u9e respect8 ,no d\bt 
y mu/ make x cle> t y possess "s o!r    
qualities be=e y c hope to conciliate ! 
respect ( a class by accus+ x op5ly (   
habitual ly+4 ,inde$1 ?is might be tak5 
z a te/ ( g5u9e indep5d5ce4 ,till y c   
tell m5 ( _! faults )\t be+ suspect$ (  
spite or bad temp]--till y c praise !m  
)\t be+ suspect$ ( unwor?y flatt]y--y   
are n really 9 a position wor?y to be   
call$ indep5d5t4 ,h[ _m j\rnali/s--,i   
say no?+ ( /atesm5--/& firmly en\gh on  
_! own legs to speak out )\t giv+ (f5ce8
 ,we are (t5 told ( a great revolution (

 op9ion1 & especially ( ! ab&onm5t ( !  
old prejudice aga9/ gov]nm5t int]f]5ce4 
,t a great *ange has tak5 place 9 !     
op9ions :i* m5 pr(ess is und5iable2 ?\gh
 h[ f> t *ange has be5 due to unbiass$  
sci5tific reflection1 & h[ f> to a *ange
 9 ! conditions ( popul>ity1 is a v     
diff]5t "q4 ,i see1 = example1 a /atem5t
 by an hon\rable g5tleman t he approves 
( ! ,eight ,h\rs ,bill because !        
pr9ciple ( non-int]f]5ce ) adult lab\r  
is obsolete4 ,x is too late to av[ x4   
,if ! hon\rable g5tleman means to say t 
exp]i5ce has prov$ ! pr9ciple to be     
errone\s1 he is1 ( c\rse1 ju/ifi$ 9     
ab&on+ x4 ,b1 if 8 mean+ be simply t !  
pr9ciple has gone out ( fa%ion1 :at is  
?is b to admit t y w ab&on any doctr9e z
 soon z x ceases to be popul>8 ,d we    
really mean to ass]t t a fallaci\s      
doctr9e c nev] get ! upp] h&2 t !       
beliefs ( to-day are always bett] ?an ! 
beliefs ( ye/]day2 t e man :o has d>$ to
 /ick to an op9ion condemn$ by a        
majority mu/ necess>ily be a fool = 8   

pa9s8 ,t really seems to be a common    
op9ion4 ,we he> a great deal at ! pres5t
 day ab\t m&ates1 & a m&ate seems to be 
reg>d$ n simply z a decl>ation ( ! w ( a
 majority :i* mu/1 9 po9t ( fact1 be    
obey$1 b z ! (ficial utt]ance ( an      
infallible *ur* :i* _c 9 po9t ( logic be
 errone\s4 ,n[1 ,i confess t ,i h always
 _h a weakness = ! fai?ful ,abdiel4 ,i  
believe t a man is (t5 do+ invaluable   
s]vices :o resi/s ! dom9ant curr5t (    
op9ion1 :o d5\nces fallacies :5 !y are  
gr[+ & fl\ri%+1 & po9ts out t a         
revolution 9 belief1 ev5 ?\gh x be      
inevitable = ! "t1 & ev5 ?\gh x conta9  
an elem5t ( "r reason1 may yet conta9   
errors & ha/y judgm5ts & deviations f ! 
true l9e ( progress1 :i* require        
exposure ! m unsp>+ 9 proportion to _!  
tempor>y popul>ity4 ,is n ! ord9>y      
j\rnali/'s frame ( m9d s+ul>ly          
unfav\rable to 8 dis*>ge ( ?is function8
 & is x n inevitable t x %\ld be s z    
long z ! j\rnali/'s only aim is to ga9 a
 he>+ someh[8 ,x matt]s n :i* side he   

takes4 ,he d5\nces "s new doctr9e1 b    
only 9 ! "n ( ! curr5t prejudices :i* x 
happ5s to %ock4 ,he advocates x1 b only 
because x is ! la/ new fa%ion ( ! day4  
,9 ei!r case he falls into ! ord9>y p>ty
 vice ( imag9+ t 8 oppon5ts mu/ be fools
 or knaves1 t _! op9ions are directly   
inspir$ by ! devil or a judicial        
bl9dness inflict$ by ,provid5ce1 simply 
because he w n take ! tr\ble to und]/&  
!m4 ,! man :o w\ld try to raise himself 
above ! position ( ! m]e p&] to pass+   
antipa?ies mu/ wid5 8 intellectual      
horizon4 ,he mu/ qualify himself to take
 broad views2 he mu/ le>n t 8 little li/
 ( commonplaces does n repres5t real    
?\ght1 b is (t5 ! embodim5t ( m]e       
prejudice1 or p]haps ! deposit ( words  
left by ?9k]s ( pa/ g5]ations2 he mu/   
le>n to d m ?an m]ely di% !m up ) a new 
sauce2 he mu/ conc5trate 8 abilities ^u 
def9ite problems1 consid] h[ !y h aris51
 & :at is _! relation to ! pa/ & !      
future4 ,to d s requires "s             
dis9t]e/$ness3 "s love ( tru? = its own 

sake2 & a capacity = answ]+ y\r oppon5t 
by expla9+ him1 in/ead ( a m]e quickness
 = taunt+ him p]sonally4 ,x requires1 no
 d\bt1 s]i\s & prolong$ application4    
,ev5 su* a tra9+ w n enable a man to    
unlock all ! puzzles ( ! day2 b x may   
help t[>ds ! desirable consummation 9   
:i* a solution is at lea/ s\ght 9       
connection ) e/abli%$ pr9ciples1 & ) a  
con/ant ref]5ce to ! organis$ exp]i5ce  
:i* also c be a safe guide to m         
reasonable conclusions4 ,ev5 ! attempt  
to d s may /r5g!n a man aga9/ !         
temptation to take %ort cuts to         
notoriety1 & seek a mom5t>y s5sation at 
! sacrifice ( p]man5t effect4 ,we owe   
gratitude to all :o h act$ ^u su*       
pr9ciples & won ! influ5ce :i* comes at 
la/1 ?\gh x comes sl[ly1 to hone/ "w1   
be/[$ ev5 ^u su* %ift+ mat]ials z       
political & moral philosophy4  ,i h     
dwelt s f> *iefly ^u political          
j\rnalism1 because x is s *>act]i/ic a  
"p ( mod]n lit]ature1 & illu/rates s    
cle>ly "s obvi\s t5d5cies ( ! "t4 ,i mu/

 say some?+1 h[ev]1 ( ano!r dep>tm5t (  
lit]ature1 :i* is sometimes said to h   
no?+ at all to d ) morality4 ,! poet or 
! noveli/1 x is sugge/$1 has no duties  
except t duty :i* ,s*eh]azade dis*>g$ at
 ! risk ( h] neck1--! duty ( keep+ h]   
ma/] amus$4 ,if1 in/ead ( tell+ him     
/ories ab\t g5ii1 %e _h read him e morn+
 an or?odox s]mon or an e?ical disc\rse1
 ! "o ?\s& & "o nights w\ld h be5       
dim9i%$ by "o ?\s&4 ,am ,i to tell our  
mod]n ,s*eh]azades to =get ! ,arabian   
,nights1 & adopt = our use passages f ! 
homilies ( ,tillotson8 ,"s religi\s     
p]sons h tak5 t horn ( ! dilemma1 &     
p]haps ) "s plausibility4 ,:5 ! _w is   
heav+ ) ! ?roes ( a social e>?quake1 :at
 "r h y or ,i to be l\ng+ on s(as1 tell+
 silly /ories ab\t "y ladies' &         
g5tlem5's bill+s & coo+s8 ,p]haps !     
condemnation %\ld be ext5d$ to          
recreations less obvi\sly frivol\s4 ,y\r
 philosoph] :o tries to di/+ui% or to   
id5tify is & is n1 & to draw ! true l9e 
betwe5 object & subject1 has a v        

fasc9at+ play?+1 b is p]haps z f> f     
influ5c+ ! _w4 ,judg+ f ! hi/ory ( pa/  
philosophical cobwebs1 he might z well  
be fram+ conundrums1 or le>n+ h[ to ?r[ 
gra9 ?r\gh ! eye ( a ne$le4  ,i only    
ref] to ?is to say t ,i am n 9 fav\r (  
suppress+ ei!r art or philosophy4 ,i h a
 k9d ( hank]+ aft] !m 9 "s =ms myself4  
,i assume1 )\t fur!r argum5t1 t         
,%akespe>e1 & ,milton1 & ,wordswor?1 &  
,field+1 & ,scott1 & ,dick5s1 did well 9
 devot+ !mselves to lit]ature1 &        
probably did m to make ! _w happi] &    
bett] ?an if !y _h compos$ s]mons or    
sy/ems ( philosophy4 ,i mu/1 z ,i said1 
refra9 f pron\nc+ any set eulogy ^u !   
s]vices r5d]$ by au?ors4 ,?is only ,i   
take = grant$4 ,no "o1 ,i ?9k1 ( any    
intellectual capacity c rememb] ! e>ly  
days :5 8 faculties 7 rip5+1 :5 he w&]$1
 = ! pure delight ( w&]+1 9 ! en*ant$ _w
 ( ! great imag9ative writ]s1 saw ?r\gh 
_! eyes1 & unconsci\sly caught !        
contagion ( _! sympa?ies1 )\t feel+ a   
deep gratitude to ! m5 :o n only gave   

him s mu* innoc5t pleasure1 b :o        
incid5tally ref9$ 8 ta/e & r\s$ 8       
en?usiasm1 & quick5$ 8 p]ception (      
:atev] is beautiful1 or h]oic1 or       
pa!tic1 9 ! moral or ! natural _w4 ,!   
highe/ lit]ature embodies ! in/9cts by  
:i* a cultivat$ p diff]s f ! b>b>\s1 & !
 classes are 9 a true s5se civilis$1 :i*
 enjoy & appreciate ! ennobl+ z di/+ui%$
 f ! co>s] pleasures1 & rise above !    
m]ely brutal life4 ,"o :o aspires to be 
a lead]1 or to foll[ ! /eps ( ! lead]s1 
9 ?is b& ( crusad]s aga9/ b>b>ism1 mu/  
surely h "s correspond+ duties4 ,i am "h
 ^u ! edge ( c]ta9 tr\blesome           
controv]sies :i* ,i %all refra9 f       
discuss+ at l5g?4 ,?is only ,i ne$ say4 
,"s great au?ors explicitly accept !    
function ( prea*+4 ,milton1 &1 9 lat]   
days1 ,wordswor?1 id5tifi$ ! (fices ( ! 
prophet & ! poet1 & set !mselves        
delib]ately to exp\nd an ideal ( life1 &
 ju/ify ! ways ( ,god to man4 ,& ,milton
 gave ! pr9ciple 9 8 fam\s say+1 t he :o
 w\ld write well h]eaft] ( laudable ?+s 

mu/ be himself a true poem4 ,yet m5     
equally great h impress$ read]s by _!   
app>5t indiff]5ce to su* consid]ations4 
,!y accept ! new comm&m5t :i*1 z ,em]son
 tells u1 ! ,muse gave to h] d>l+ son1  
,?\ %alt n prea*4 ,%akespe>e & ,scott   
did n consci\sly & delib]ately write to 
set =? any ideal2 !y ev5 wrote1 m or    
less1 to make money2 !y 7 magnific5t    
opul5t g5iuses1 :o p\r$ out _!          
imag9ative weal? lib]ally &             
spontane\sly1 )\t a ?\ght ( any p>ticul>
 moral1 simply because _! m9ds 7 full to
 ov]fl[+ ( great ?\ghts & vivid images1 
:i* !y diffus$ z lib]ally z ! rose gives
 its sc5t4 ,are we to say t !y 7 wrong  
or morally inf]ior1 ev5 if arti/ically  
sup]ior1 to ^? :o wrote1 l ,milton or   
,dante1 ) a m def9ite aim8 ,mu/ ,i      
condemn ,scott because he did n write1 l
 ! excell5t ,miss ,edgewor?1 or ev5 l   
,dick5s 9 "s ( 8 /ories1 to prea*       
consci\sly t hone/y is ! be/ policy1 or 
t selfi%ness is a vice2 &1 if s1 mu/ ,i 
n condemn a man f :om ,i h n only       

receiv$ an incalculable am\nt ( innoc5t 
enjoym5t1 b imbib$--x is my own fault if
 ,i h n imbib$--_m ?\ghts t h /r5g!n$ & 
/imulat$ ! be/ elem5ts ( my nature8 ,if 
,i insi/ ^u ! moral influ5ces1 am ,i n  
conf\nd+ ! poet & ! prea*]1 & fall+ "u !
 la% ( ,i "k n h[ _m critical           
connoisseurs8 ,if ,i r5\nce ! prea*]s1  
,i am r5\nc+ "s ( ! greate/ arti/s1 &   
indirectly sanction+ ev5 su* art z is   
wor?y only ( ,holywell ,/reet1 & p&]s to
 ! wor/ passions4  ,i w say :at ,i ?9k4 
,great writ]s1 x seems to me1 may be    
great 9 two ways2 & ! greate/ is he :o  
comb9es !m mo/ ?or\ghly4 ,! fir/-rate   
writ]1 9 ! fir/ place1 mu/--to use a    
frequ5tly misappli$ ^w--be a ?or\gh     
reali/4 ,he is great 9 proportion to !  
wid? & dep? ( ! tru?s :i* he grasps1 &  
to :i* he gives ! mo/ p]fect expression4
 ,:5 we read ,%akespe>e at 8 be/1 :at   
/rikes u is t he has express$ once = all
 "s home-tru? ab\t human nature & ! _w1 
r\nd :i* all inf]ior writ]s seem to h   
be5 blund]+ )\t ev] a*iev+ a complete   

utt]ance4 ,m g5]ally1 e great p]iod (   
our lit]ature has be5 m>k$ 9 "o %ape or 
o!r by a fre% realism1 or :at is call$ !
 desire to return to ,nature3 to get rid
 ( ! phrases :i* h become conv5tional & 
unreal1 & express ! real liv+ ultimate  
tru?4 ,%akespe>e & ! great m5 ( 8 "t 7  
inspir$ by su* a passion2 !y 7 animat$  
by ! desire to hold ! mirror up to      
,nature & to portray real vivid human   
passion1 = !y _h bur/ ?r\gh ! old       
m$iaeval *a9s ( !ological dogma1 & 7    
ar\s$ to a sudd5 fre% p]ception ( !     
beauties :i* _h be5 unrecognis$ &       
misconceiv$ by ascetic monks4 ,! m5 (   
,pope's "t1 aga91 believ$ 9 :at !y1 too1
 call$ ! religion ( ,nature1 & tri$ to  
ha/5 ! day :5 enlight5$ reason %\ld     
f9ally cru% :at ,b]keley call$ ! p$antry
 ( c\rts & s*ools4 ,wordswor? & 8       
foll[]s inaugurat$ a new era by propos+ 
a return to ,nature1 because ! language1
 :i* ) ,pope express$ a real mean+1 _h  
aga9 become ! conv5tional language ( a  
n>r[ class ( critics & ! t[n4 ,x is 9   

all ages "o great function ( !          
imag9ative writ]s to get rid ( m]e      
survivals2 to =ego ! spectacles us$ by  
_! ance/ors z helps1 :i* h n[ become    
encumbrances2 to de/roy ! =mulas employ$
 only to save ! tr\ble ( ?9k+1 & make u 
see facts directly1 in/ead ( be+ befool$
 by words4 ,9 t s5se x is _! great      
s]vice t !y break up ! old fro/ ( dre>y 
commonplace1 & give life & p[]1 9 place 
( an acceptance ( m]e ossifi$ or        
fossilis$ remnants ( :at once 0 ?\ght4  
,briefly1 !y tea* u to see :at is be=e  
u4 ,s f> ! function ( ! poet resembles t
 ( ! sci5tific & philosophic obs]v]4 ,he
 diff]s radically 9 me?od1 because he   
proce$s by intuition in/ead ( analysis2 
%[s u ! type1 in/ead ( catalogu+ !      
attributes ( a class2 & gives u a real  
liv+ man--a ,fal/aff or a               
,hamlet--in/ead ( prop\nd+ a            
psy*ological !ory z to ! relations ( !  
w1 ! intellect1 & ! emotions4  ,i take  
x1 !re=e1 t realism 9 ?is s5se is "o    
ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( great imag9ative  

p[]4 ,i hold x to be m ?an ev] necess>y2
 m necess>y because sci5tific me?ods (  
?\ght are m develop$4 ,x is less        
possible = a s]i\s writ] to make use ( !
 m]ely fanciful symbols :i* 7 p]fectly  
legitimate z long z !y repres5t$ real   
beliefs1 b are n[ fitt] = only ! light] 
moods4 ,! greate/ writ]s h to disp5se ) 
fairies & fight+ gods & goddesses1 & !  
muses1 & to %[ u a direct portraiture ( 
! =ces by :i* society is actually mov$4 
,b ! functions ( ! great writ]1 ?\gh !y 
involve a p]ception ( tru?1 are n       
adequately def9$ by ! simple condition (
 tru?fulness4 ,he has to be--may ,i say 
x8--a prea*]2 he _c help x2 &1 s f> z he
 _c help x1 8 prea*+ w be elevat+ 9     
proportion z x is tru?ful4 ,he does n   
prea* 9 ! s5se 9 :i* a morali/ prea*es1 
by argu+ 9 fav\r ( ?is or t doctr9e1 or 
exp\nd+ ! consequ5ces ( op9ions4 ,x is n
 8 bus9ess to prove1 b to see1 & to make
 y see4 ,b1 9 ano!r s5se1 he _c help    
prea*+1 because 8 p[] ov] y is f\nd$ ^u 
sympa?y1 ^u 8 p]sonal *>ms1 ^u !        

cle>ness ) :i* he sees & ! vividness )  
:i* he portrays ! real nature ( !       
in/9cts :i* make m5 lovable or hateful4 
,:at are really ! mo/ fasc9at+ books 9 !
 language8 ,i 0 impress$ ! o!r day by   
discov]+ t p]haps ! mo/ popul> ( all    
,engli% books1 judg+ by ! numb] (       
editions1 is ,goldsmi?'s ,vic> (        
,wakefield4 ,to :at does x owe its      
popul>ity8 ,obvi\sly to ! exquisite     
ke5ness ( ,goldsmi?'s p]ception ( !     
moral beauty ( a simple "*1 :i* is      
always sav$ f ! *>ge ( be+ unctu\s or   
s5tim5tal by ! con/ant play ( g5tle &   
yet p5etrative hum\r4 ,d we n love      
,*>les ,lamb = a simil> reason8 ,:y1    
aga91 d we love ,scott1 z all m5 ought  
to love him8 ,is x n because 8 ,jeanie  
,deans & 8 ,d&ie ,d9mont1 & a hundr$ m  
*>act]s1 %[ ! g5iality1 ! manl9ess z    
well z ! %rewd common-s5se ( _! creator1
 & 8 vivid p]ception ( ! elem5ts :i*    
ennoble ! national "* :i* he lov$ s     
well8 ,:y does ! ,briti% public love    
,dick5s s well8 ,= 8 incomp>able fun1 no

 d\bt2 b also because ! fun is always   
associat$ ) a ke5 p]ception ( c]ta9     
moral qualities :i* !y reg>d )1 x may   
be1 excessive admiration4 ,b to give no 
m examples1 ,i am cont5t to say t !     
endur+ p[] ( e great writ] dep5ds n     
m]ely on 8 intellectual =ces1 b ^u ! *>m
 ( 8 "*--! cle> recognition ( :at x     
really is t makes life beautiful &      
desirable1 & ( :at are ! bas] elem5ts t 
fight aga9/ ! elevat+ =ces4 ,we are "u  
intellectual obligations to ! man (     
sci5ce :o w tell u1 = example1 h[ m\nta9
 *a9s h be5 rais$ & c>v$ into _! pres5t 
%ape4 ,b we are grateful to ! great     
poets & prose writ]s1 to ,wordswor? &   
,mr4 ,rusk91 = int]pret+ & /imulat+ !   
emotions :i* make ! vision ( ! great    
peaks a s\rce ( pure delight4 ,we may1 9
 ! same way1 ?ank ! psy*ologi/ :o c make
 m intelligible ! pr9ciple ( association
 ( ideas1 or trace ! developm5t ( !     
moral s5se or ! social affections4 ,b we
 love ! man :o1 l ,goldsmi?1 & ,lamb1 & 
,scott1 & ,wordswor?1 has reveal$ to u  

by actual portraits ( typical *>act]s1 !
 sweetness & t5d]ness & tru?fulness :i* 
may be embodi$ 9 humble *>act]s4 ,love1 
says ,wordswor?1 ( 8 %eph]d "l--        
,love _h he f\nd 9 huts :]e poor m5 lie1
        ,8 daily tea*]s _h be5 woods &  
rills2      ,! sil5ce t is 9 ! />ry sky1
        ,! sleep t is among ! comely    
hills4   ,! p[] ( discov]+ & ( mak+ u   
discov] su* ?\ghts 9 ! huts ( poor m5 & 
9 natural sc5]y is ! true pr]ogative ( !
 poet1 & x is to t p[] t he owes 8      
endur+ place 9 our he>ts4  ,i h said ?is
 mu* because ,i ?9k t x is 9 a p]v]sion 
( ^! pr9ciples t we %all f9d "s ( !     
temptations to :i* ! au?or is 9 ^! days 
mo/ liable4 ,i c only glance at !m      
briefly4 ,"o p]v]sion1 = example1 is    
indicat$ by ! common use ( ! phrase     
realism4 ,?is ^w has v>i\s mean+s2 b !  
commone/1 p]haps1 w\ld n be misrepres5t$
 by say+ t x involves a confusion betwe5
 ! functions ( ! man ( sci5ce & ! poet4 
,9 a sci5tific s5se1 x is a suffici5t   
reason = sett+ =? any !ory t y believe x

 to be true4 ,! facts :i* y describe may
 be hide\s & revolt+3 x is n ! less     
desirable t !y %\ld be accurately kn[n4 
,! poet & noveli/ may be equally ju/ifi$
 9 tak+ hide\s & revolt+ facts into     
acc\nt4 ,t1 = example1 is ! duty ( a    
satiri/2 & ,i am n at all conc]n$ to say
 t satire is illegitimate--,i ?9k x     
p]fectly legitimate4 ,i %\ld be ! la/ to
 ass]t t a writ] %\ld conf9e himself to 
su* facts z c be discuss$ ) dec5cy 9    
pres5ce ( a "y ladies' s*ool4 ,on !     
contr>y1 ,i ?9k t1 if n ! mo/ enviable  
privilege1 x is sometimes a duty ( !    
noveli/ to set =? vice & crime1 & ev51 x
 may be1 to set !m =? 9 impressive &    
/>tl+ %apes4 ,x is 8 duty to repres5t !m
 truly & to make !m intelligible2 to %[ 
h[ !y may be natural1 & n to misrepres5t
 ev5 a villa94 ,all ,i say is1 t he %\ld
 also recognise ! fact t !y are hide\s &
 revolt+4 ,&1 !re=e1 ?is is no excuse = 
! man :o really dwells ^u su* facts1 n  
because !y are facts1 b because he kn[s 
t su* descriptions are ! easie/ way (   

attract+ morbid ta/es2 & t he c get a   
readi] m>ket by be+ irrev]5t & indec5t  
?an by o!r exp$i5ts4 ,to def5d su* "w on
 ! excuse ( realism is simply to indulge
 9 a bit ( contemptible humbug1 too     
transp>5t to ne$ exposure4 ,! purpose ( 
an arti/1 y say1 is to give pleasure1 n 
to prea*4 ,t is p]fectly true2 b to give
 pleasure to :om8 ,if x is to give      
pleasure to ! pruri5t1 to ! cynical1 to 
! debau*ee1 to give ! k9d ( pleasure    
:i*1 to a pure-m9d$ man1 is pa91 & ( :i*
 ev5 ! blackgu>d is a%am$1 !n ,i w n    
qu>rel ov] words1 & ask :e!r x c be     
truly arti/ic1 b ,i w simply reply t ,i 
%\ld h a great] respect = a man :o liv$ 
by pick+ pockets4 ,b1 y reply1 x        
requires a great deal ( skill4 ,s does  
pick+ pockets1 & s d "s o!r k9ds ( human
 en]gy :i* ,i ne$ n p>ticul>ise4 ,if !  
e?ical judgm5t be really irrelevant     
ae/hetically1 ! ae/hetic judgm5t mu/ be 
irrelevant e?ically4 ,if t doctr9e be   
true1 we are1 !re=e1 q at lib]ty to say 
t a ?+ may be beautiful & at ! same "t  

blackgu>dly & bea/ly4 ,i w1 h[ev]1      
express my own conviction1 t :at is     
disgu/+ to a "r-m9d$ man _c be really   
beautiful1 & t ! s5tim5ts :i* x (f5ds _c
 be put out ( c\rt simply because !y are
 call$ moral4 ,!y h z good a "r to be   
consid]$ z any o!rs4  ,!re is a         
temptation ( ! opposite k9d3 !          
temptation to :at ,i may briefly call   
s5tim5talism4 ,! virtue ( idealism is z 
necess>y z ! virtue ( realism2 & e great
 writ] %[s 8 greatness by comb9+ ! two4 
,! contradictory ( ! real is n prop]ly !
 ideal1 b ! unreal--:i* is a v diff]5t  
?+4 ,= idealism means prop]ly1 z ,i take
 x1 t quality 9 virtue ( :i* a poem or a
 fiction does n repres5t m]ely !        
sci5tific or photographic reproduction (
 matt]s ( fact1 b inc>nates an idea &   
expresses a s5tim5t4 ,a great "w imp>ts 
to u ! impression made ^u a m9d (       
unusual p[]1 reflectiv5ess1 & emotional 
s5sibility by "s aspect ( ! _w 9 :i* we 
all live1 b :i* he c see m vividly ?an  
o!rs4 ,to be really impressive1 !re=e1 x

 mu/ correspond to facts & be ! g5u9e   
product ( exp]i5ce4 ,! errone\s idealism
 is t :i* p]v]ts ! tru? 9 ord] to ga9   
app>5t emphasis2 :i* deals 9 !          
impossible1 ! absurd1 & ! exagg]at$2 &  
supposes a _w :i* _c ev5 be bett] ?an ! 
actual1 because x _c exi/2 :i*1 !re=e1  
has ! defect ( be+ arbitr>y &           
inconceivable4 ,s political ,utopias are
 int]e/+ 9 proportion z !y sugge/ a     
legitimate con/ruction1 bas$ ^u actual  
facts & obs]v$ laws ( human nature4 ,z  
soon z we see t !y presuppose a _w (    
mon/rosities1 ( impossible comb9ations (
 incompatible qualities1 !y become m]e  
play?+s4 ,& ! same is true ( e "w (     
imag9ation2 z soon z x ceases to h a    
f\ndation 9 tru?--to be o!r ?an         
reali/ic--x loses its real hold ^u our  
sympa?ies4 ,y solve no problem :5 y call
 9 a god to cut ! knot4 ,?is is ! t5d5cy
 ( ! s5tim5tali/1 :o refuses to be b\nd 
by ! actual conditions4 ,8 creations are
 ephem]al because only plausible1 ev5 to
 ! imag9ation1 s long z ! illusions to  

:i* !y are cong5ial survive4 ,& he      
probably falls into ! fur!r error t !   
emotion :i* he utt]s becomes z factiti\s
 z ! laws :i* he inv5ts4 ,! man :o weeps
 because he is melt$ at ! sight ( mis]y1
 t\*es u2 b :5 he weeps because he f9ds 
x pleasant1 or because he wi%es to make 
a public exhibition ( 8 t5d]ness ( he>t1
 we f9d him out by degrees & call him a 
humbug & a s5tim5tali/4 ,%am feel+s &   
moral facts are ! /aple ( ! s5tim5tali/ 
& ! cause ( 8 inevitable decay4  ,^!    
rem>ks may s]ve to sugge/ ! temptations 
:i* mo/ beset ! au?or 9 our days1 ?\gh  
peculi> to our day only 9 ! degree 9 :i*
 au?or%ip has become m pr(essional4 ,= !
 ideal au?or is ! man :o1 hav+ discov]$ 
tru?1 desires to reveal x to 8 fell[s1  
or1 be+ full ( p]ceptions ( beauty1 _c  
resi/ ! impulse to embody !m 9 words or 
outw>d symbols4 ,b :5 he desires also to
 live by 8 p[]s1 he is at once 9 a      
position ( :i* all au?ors "k ! p]il4 ,he
 becomes self-consci\s2 = he has a      
p]petual p\ltice ( public fav\r or      

enmity appli$ to s(t5 8 fibres1 & to    
make him feel1 ev5 9 8 /udy1 t an eye is
 ^u him & t he mu/ s act z always to    
pres]ve att5tion4 ,he is tempt$ to      
produce s5sation at any co/--to %ock &  
/>tle by horrors if he _c move !        
sympa?ies by g5tle arts3 = a man :o _c  
comm& ! pa!tic1 c1 at lea/1 always be   
disgu/+4 ,he c turn our /oma*s if he _c 
move our he>ts4 ,he is tempt$1 at lea/1 
to c>icature--to %[ h[ ke5 is 8         
p]ception by crude & gl>+ col\rs1 & to  
indulge 9 ! grotesque z an easy         
sub/itute = ! really graphic2 he c      
affect a facile cynicism to %[ h[ pr(\nd
 is 8 p5etration1 & display t m>vell\s k
 ( ! _w & ! human he>t1 & t p[] (       
discov]+ ! empt9ess ( all app>5t virtues
 :i* is s common an end[m5t ( "y g5tlem5
 ^u _! fir/ initiation into real        
exp]i5ce ( life4 ,!re is no?+ :i* !     
au?or affects s easily at 8 fir/ />t z !
 _w we>9ess :i* comes f long exp]i5ce & 
ye>s ( disappo9t$ hope4 ,& :5 a man has 
once ga9$ applause = 8 s5tim5t1 he f9ds 

himself 8 own cov]t rival1 & is =c$ to  
sub/itute = ! fir/ sprightly runn+s a   
fanciful pump+ up ( ! la/ dregs ( 8 old 
feel+s4 ,no?+1 un=tunately1 is m common1
 or c\ld be m easily illu/rat$ by       
examples ( good writ]s1 ?an ! spectacle 
( ! vet]an try+ to reproduce 9 cold     
blood ! effects :i* he /ruck out        
spontane\sly & unconsci\sly 9 y\?4 ,&1  
!n1 at e in/ant ! poor au?or feels t he 
mu/ keep up ) ! fa%ion2 he lives 9 fe> (
 t v]dict :i* w come "s day1 t he is an 
old fogey1 & t he is transgress+ ^?     
et]nal pr9ciples :i* 7 discov]$ by "s   
+5u\s y\? a =tnight ago4  ,"s su* dang] 
is1 inde$1 %>$ by o!rs ?an ! au?or4 ,x  
is ! mis=tune ( 8 call+ t success ) him 
is intr9sically associat$ ) notoriety4  
,a man may d good "w 9 _m dep>tm5ts (   
life1 ( :i* no "o w ev] he> beyond a    
n>r[ circle4 ,i hold1 = my "p1 t !      
greate/ "p ( ! good "w :i* is done 9 !  
_w is actually ( t k9d1 & t ! be/ is    
done = ! pure love ( "w4 ,! _w kn[s no?+
 ( its greate/ m51 & z little1 p]haps1 (

 its be/4 ,b :at w\ld be ! good ( writ+ 
ev5 a ,hamlet or a ,div9e ,com$y if     
nobody 0 to read x8 ,"s great writ]s1 ,i
 "k1 h prid$ !mselves on f9d+ fit       
audi5ce & few2 & ,i fully agree t a man 
:o c\ld really influ5ce a few sem9al    
m9ds might be well cont5t ) su* a result
 ( 8 lab\rs4 ,b1 aft] all1 ! g5u9e aim (
 a great au?or mu/ be1 directly or      
indirectly1 to affect ! _w 9 :i* he     
lives1 :e!r by *ang+ its beliefs or     
/imulat+ its emotions4 ,&1 z a rule1 he 
_c d s )\t becom+ kn[n1 & ev5 kn[n to   
va/ numb]s ( read]s4 ,"s religi\s       
writ]s1 ! au?or1 = example1 ( !         
,imitation ( ,*ri/1 h influ5c$ _m       
g5]ations1 :ile absolutely conceal+ _!  
id5tity4 ,ev5 !y mu/1 at lea/1 h desir$ 
t _! works %\ld be kn[n2 & ! case is a  
r>e "o4 ,= ! au?or g5]ally1 success ( ! 
wor?ie/ k9d1 success 9 enlight5+1       
enc\rag+1 & /imulat+ 8 fell[-m51 is     
inextricably connect$ ) success ( a l[] 
k9d1 ! success measur$ by fame &        
popul>ity4 ,t1 ( c\rse1 is equally !    

case ) /atesman%ip3 a /atesman has to   
appeal to cr[ds1 & is too apt to be     
fasc9at$ by ?und]s ( applause2 public   
oratory1 ev5 9 ! pulpit1 is a t]rible   
/imulant to unwor?y vanity4 ,! au?or    
only diff]s 9 ?is1 t 8 v function       
presupposes a temp]am5t ( m ?an av]age  
s5sibility2 t he does n get t case-h>d5+
 :i* is adm9i/]$ to ! /atesman by !     
opposition orator2 & t publicity has a  
specially intoxicat+ effect ^u ! man ^: 
prop] home is 9 8 /udy1 & :o1 p]haps1   
leaves x only to mix ) a circle ( rev]5t
 admir]s4  ,i h tri$ to indicate "s ( ! 
obvi\s temptations ( au?ors1 especially 
s f> z !y are /r5g!n$ by ! practice (   
au?or%ip z a pr(ession4 ,!y may be summ$
 up by say+ t !y t5d to degrade !       
pr(ession into a trade1 & a trade :i*   
has z _m tricks z ! lea/ elevat+ k9d (  
bus9ess4 ,x w\ld be1 p]haps1 desirable  
to end by d$uc+ "s def9ite moral4 ,b1 9 
! fir/ place1 ,i ?9k t any su* moral z  
,i c\ld give is suffici5tly indicat$ by 
! /atem5t ( ! dang]s4 ,&1 9 ! second    

place1 ,i d n ?9k t !re is any moral t c
 be reg>d$ z peculi> to au?ors4 ,= an   
au?or1 aft] all1 is a man1 &1 z all m5  
ought to be1 a workman4 ,8 p[] comes to 
?is1 t he is a man ) a special capacity 
= excit+ sympa?y4 ,t he %\ld be a good  
workman1 !re=e1 goes )\t say+2 & x      
foll[s t he %\ld h a s5se (             
responsibility 9 :atev] dep>tm5t he     
und]takes2 t he %\ld n be/[ 8 advice ^u 
u )\t qualify+ himself to be a compet5t 
advis]2 nor write philosophical         
speculation )\t s]i\s /udy ( philosophy2
 nor1 if possible1 produce poetry or ev5
 fiction )\t fill+ 8 m9d by obs]vation  
or tra9+ x by sympa?y ) ! great movem5ts
 ( ?\ght :i* are %ap+ ! _w 9 :i* we     
live4 ,x is a sort ( p>adox :i* _c be   
avoid$1 t we mu/ w>n a man t "o         
condition ( all good "w is t x %\ld be  
spontane\s1 & yet tell him t x %\ld be  
direct$ to make m5 bett] & happi]4 ,x   
seems to be say+ t ! consci\s pursuit ( 
a giv5 end w\ld be inconsi/5t ) !       
atta9m5t ( ! end4 ,yet ,i believe t ?is 

is a p>adox :i* c be a*iev$ 9 practice  
on ! simple condition ( a reasonable    
mode/y4 ,! au?or1 t is1 %\ld n li/5 to  
^? :o w\ld exagg]ate ! importance ( 8   
"w4 ,! _w c get on v well )\t x2 & ev5 !
 greate/ m5 are f> m ! product ?an !    
produc]s ( ! intellectual surr\nd+s4 ,! 
acceptance ( t tru?--,i hold x to be a  
tru?--w help to keep 9 *eck ! exagg]at$ 
e/imate ( ! importance ( mak+ a noise 9 
! _w1 :i* is our besett+ s91 & help to  
make a regulat+ pr9ciple ( :at is a     
!oretical belief1 t a man :o is do+     
hone/ly good "w 9 any dep>tm5t1 :e!r "u 
! eyes ( a multitude or ( a few1 w be   
happie/ if he c le>n to take pleasure 9 
do+ x ?or\ghly r ?an 9 adv]tis+ x       
widely4 ,&1 f9ally1 ) t conviction we   
%all be less liable to ! common error ( 
an au?or :o grumbles at 8 want (        
success1 & becomes morbid & irritable & 
incl9$ to l[] 8 /&>d1 :5 9 reality he   
ought to rememb] t he is z unreasonable 
z a m>ksman :o %\ld compla9 ( ! t>get = 
keep+ out ( ! l9e ( fire4 ,x is my own  

fault is (t5 a bitt] reflection1 b a    
bitt] may be a v :olesome tonic4     ,,!
 ,,vanity ,,( ,,philosophis+4   ,:5 !   
,prea*] exclaim$1 ,vanity ( vanities1   
all is vanity1 he did n exclude 8 own   
wisdom4 ,i commun$ ) my own he>t1 say+1 
,lo1 ,i am come to great e/ate1 & h     
gott5 m wisdom ?an all t h gone be=e me 
9 ,j]usalem3 yea1 my he>t ha? great     
exp]i5ce ( wisdom & k4 ,& ,i gave my    
he>t to "k wisdom & to "k madness &     
folly3 ,i p]ceiv$ t ?is also is vexation
 ( _s4 ,= 9 mu* wisdom is mu* grief3 &  
he t increase? k increase? sorr[4 ,!    
,prea*]1 :oev] he may h be51 has utt]$  
?\ghts ^u :i* _m eloqu5t foll[]s h      
expatiat$4 ,m ?an two ?\s& ye>s h pass$ 
s9ce ! words 7 writt52 philosophies h   
ris5 & spread & decay$2 & yet1 9 ?is ye>
 #ahie1 c we say t !y h br\ght m ?an a  
multiplication ( d\bt8 ,has ! increase (
 k z yet dim9i%$ sorr[1 or e/abli%$ any 
firm /&+ gr\nd f :i* we may look ^u !   
univ]se & say t ! et]nal riddle is1 ,i w
 n say solv$1 b br\ght a /ep ne>] to    

solution8 ,a great poet--,i c't tell    
:e!r he liv$ 9 ! twelf? or ! n9ete5?    
c5tury1 = ! phrase is equally *>act]i/ic
 ( ei!r ,om> ,khayyam or ,edw>d         
,fitzg]ald--gives ! same ?\ght3--       
,myself1 :5 "y1 did eag]ly frequ5t      
,doctor & sa9t1 & he>d great argum5t    
,ab\t x & ab\t3 b ev]more      ,came out
 by ! same door z 9 ,i w5t4   ,:at1     
inde$1 are eight or tw5ty c5turies 9 !  
life ev5 ( ?is planet8 ,!re are mom5ts  
at :i* we all h sudd5ly felt by fla%es !
 s5sation ( be+ susp5d$ 9 va/ abysses ( 
space & "t3 :5 we see1 = example1 a *>t 
( ! heav5s :i* has be5 rec5tly reveal$  
to u by a/ronom]s1 & f9d t spaces betwe5
 ! />s %[n to u by ord9>y eyesight are  
fill$ 9 e direction ) _w beyond _w1 va/ 
sy/ems ( worlds1 worlds 9 e /age (      
evolution1 gr[+ out ( nebul\s vap\r or  
s9k+ into et]nal coldness3 :ile !       
imag9ation is /agg]$ & bewild]$ by !    
inconceivable va/ness ( ! spaces        
indicat$1 & its own inf9itesimal        
pett9ess4 ,if we /roll into a museum &  

look at ! petrifi$ bones ( "s grotesque 
mon/]1 & aft] rejoic+1 p]haps1 t !re is 
an end ( him1 we are /ruck by ! ?\ght ( 
! va/ lapse ( ages dur+ :i* he 0 be+    
sl[ly hamm]$ out ( "s m]e primitive =m1 
& !n sl[ly decay$1 & 0 gradually elb[$  
out ( exi/5ce by mon/]s a degree less   
prepo/]\s ?an himself1 & ga9 a new      
measure ( ! port5t\s lapse ( "t4 ,!     
greate/ ( poets has summ$ up !          
impression 9 ! phrase :i* ,c>lyle 0 fond
 ( quot+3 we are su* /uff z dreams are  
made (3 & our little speck ( exi/5ce a  
vani%+ quantity 9 comp>ison ( ! inf9ite 
above & bel[ & ar\nd u1 :i* we dimly    
inf] ?\gh we _c di/9ctly realise x4 ,if 
9 su* a mood1 common at times to all :o 
c ?9k or feel1 we take up "s            
philosophical "w1 & f9d ! writ]         
complac5tly sett+ =? a cosmogony or a   
!ory ( ! ,univ]se2 expla9+ h[ ?+s came  
into be+2 :at is ! reason :y !y are n   
bett] or worse2 :at is ! end ( ! :ole   
drama3 are we n ju/ifi$ 9 exclaim+ )    
,c>lyle3--        ,! build] ( ?is       

,univ]se 0 wise1      ,he plann$ all    
s\ls1 all sy/ems1 planets1 p>ticles3    
,! plan he %ap$ all worlds & aeons by   
,0--,heav5s6--0 ?y small n9e-&-?irty    
articles6   ,c>lyle has be51 to "s ( u1 
! mo/ /imulat+ ( writ]s1 j because he   
succe$$ 9 express+1 ) unsurpass$ p[]1 ! 
emotion :i* ,i mu/ be cont5t )          
indicat+--! emotion :i* is r\s$ by sudd5
 revelations ( ! inf9itudes1 ! sil5ces &
 et]nities t surr\nd u4 ,we _c keep x   
p]man5tly be=e u2 ! pres5t absorbs u1 & 
its little int]e/s seem to be all t is  
important4 ,x is only at mom5ts :51 =   
example1 we reflect t our action ( a    
m9ute ago is already a "p ( ! my/]i\s   
pa/1 s9k+ d[nw>ds1 & rapidly becom+     
invisible 9 ! dep?s ( ! inf9ite ocean1 t
 we are />tl$ by a mom5t>y pang1 & feel 
z ?\gh to live ) a con/ant s5se ( our   
insignificance w\ld be to risk !        
p>alysis ( all our p[]s ( ?\ght &       
action4 ,t way1 we are incl9$ to say1   
lies madness4 ,we %all lose our heads if
 we gaze too long into su* trem5d\s     

dep?s4 ,possibly we may re/ore our      
equilibrium by m$itat+ ^u !             
inf9itesimal1 ?\gh possibly too we may r
 feel t su* m$itations only reveal ano!r
 inf9ite4 ,i int5d$ to make a few       
reflections sugge/$ by su* ?\ghts1 :5 ,i
 f\nd a guide1 &1 to a great ext5t1 an  
ally1 9 a writ] :o has lately tak5 up ! 
anci5t p>able4 ,mr4 ,balf\r1 9 a book r 
qua9tly entitl$ ,f\ndations ( ,belief   
has dwelt ^u ! vanity ( all kn[n        
philosophy1 & has %[n1 or appe>s to "s (
 8 read]s to h endeav\r$ to %[1 t x is  
hopeless to lay any s\nd f\ndations on !
 little film ( k b5ea? :i* lie ! great  
unkn[n abysses4 ,he tries to indicate "s
 o!r basis1 ?\gh1 s f> z ,i c und]/&    
him1 ! f\ndations ( 8 edifice are       
+5i\sly support$ by ! sup]/ructure2 & t 
is a k9d ( ar*itecture :i*1 to my m9d1  
lacks /ability4 ,?r\gh a l>ge "p ( 8    
argum5t1 h[ev]1 ,i f9d myself 9 !       
pleasant] position ( an ally4 ,he       
ass]ts1 & ,i d\bt :e!r any compet5t ?9k]
 w\ld mat]ially diff] f him1 t !re does 

n1 z a matt] ( fact1 exi/ any e/abli%$  
sy/em ( philosophic tru?--any sy/em ^u  
:i* we c rely1 z we d1 9 fact1 rightly  
or wrongly rely1 ^u c]ta9 sci5tific     
doctr9es4 ,we no m d\bt ! tru? ( !      
,newtonian sy/em ( a/ronomy ?an we d\bt 
t fire burns or t bread n\ri%es4 ,b !   
briefe/ glance at ! old sy/ems (        
philosophy %[s u1 z ,mr4 ,balf\r says1  
no?+ b imp]i%able ru9s--imp]i%able      
ae/hetically--b1 logically1 m]e crumbl+ 
fragm5ts4 ,we c /ill read ,plato )      
delight2 b ! delight is due to ! beauty 
( /yle & exposition1 n1 c]ta9ly1 to !   
conviction produc$ by 8 reason+4        
,ari/otle's philosophy is a m>vel--= 8  
"t3 b 8 !ory ( ! ,univ]se is no m t5able
 ?an 8 ,natural ,sci5ce4 ,! luxuriant   
gr[?s ( lat] ,greek philosophy are      
int]e/+ only to ! curi\s inve/igators ( 
! pa?ology ( ! human intellect4 ,! va/  
developm5t ( s*ola/ic philosophy 9 !    
middle ages %[$ only h[ f> unlimit$     
+5uity & subtlety may lead 9 ! wrong    
direction1 if x />ts ) mi/ak5 pr9ciples4

 ,x end$ by upsett+ ! doctr9es :i* x    
attempt$ to prove1 & _h f9ally to commit
 suicide1 or fall be=e ! insurrection ( 
liv+ ?\ght4 ,! great m5 :o revolt$ aga9/
 its tyranny 9 its lat] /ages con/ruct$ 
new sy/ems1 :i*1 to !m1 seem$           
demon/rable1 b :i*1 to u1 are already   
unt5able4 ,we _c accept ,desc>tes1 or   
,sp9oza1 or ,leibnitz1 or ,bacon1 or    
,hobbes1 or ,locke1 z giv+ satisfactory 
or ev5 coh]5t sy/ems1 or z hav+ done m  
?an lead to ! ?or\gh scepticism ( ,hume4
 ,if ,kant pres5t$ "o solution ( !      
difficulties 9 :i* philosophy 0 l&$1 we 
h /ill to ask :at precisely ,kant meant2
 :e!r 8 criticism 0 simply              
all-de/ructive1 or really left any?+    
/&+1 &1 if s1 :at x left /&+2 & :o      
repres5ts ! prop] l9e ( developm5t4     
,%all we1 ) ,s*op5hau]1 pron\nce ,hegel 
to be a ?or\gh impo/or8 &1 if s1 c we   
s]i\sly accept ,s*op5hau]'s own sy/em8  
,if1 "h & !re1 "s p accept 8 !ories =   
lit]>y purposes1 nobody w ma9ta9 t !y   
re/ ^u any p]man5tly settl$ f\ndation4  

,if1 aga91 we believe 9 ,hegel1 we h to 
make out :at we mean by believ+ 9       
,hegel1 & to :i* s*ool ( 8 foll[]s we   
are to atta* ourselves4 ,i ne$ n consid]
 ! polemic :i* ,mr4 ,balf\r has direct$ 
aga9/ ! writ]s :o h giv5 a v]sion (     
,hegelian pr9ciples 9 ,engl&4           
,p]sonally1 ,i agree ) 8 criticisms 9 a 
g5]al way2 b ,i fancy t ev5 ! adh]5ts ( 
^? pr9ciples w\ld def5d !mselves ma9ly  
by decl>+ t !y d n make su* pret5sions z
 he ascribes to !m4 ,!y try1 at mo/1 to 
indicate a way ( approa*+1 n ( solv+ !  
problems4 ,b1 at lea/1 !y w\ld claim to 
h done "o ?+3 namely1 to h prov$ !      
inadequacy ( ! rival sy/em ( empirical  
philosophy1 accept$ by ! ,engli% foll[]s
 ( ,locke1 & n[ ma9ly repres5t$ = u by  
,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]4 ,i only add to ?is1 
t x is n a "q ( ! convictions ( any     
individual ?9k]1 h[ev] em95t4           
,philosophies ( e diff]5t v>iety h be5 n
 m]ely accept$ by ^? :o fir/ devis$ !m1 
b h be5 tak5 up 9 good fai? by :ole     
s*ools ( disciples2 !y h be5 te/$1 on a 

l>ge scale1 by sy/ematic application to 
all relevant que/ions1 & "o aft] ! o!r  
has become bankrupt2 has lo/ its hold on
 ! _w1 & confess$ t x leaves ! riddle z 
d>k z x 0 be=e4 ,all t c be claim$ = !  
greate/ philosoph]s is1 t !y h1 at lea/1
 prov$ t c]ta9 pa?s :i* seem$ to lead   
?r\gh ! labyr9?1 end 9 a deadlock2 t !y 
h expos$ c]ta9 fallacies by ! process ( 
provisionally believ+ 9 !m2 & t !y h    
buoy$ c]ta9 %oals1 & demon/rat$ t no    
*annel leads 9 :at seem$ to be a promis+
 direction4 ,is !re any *annel op58     
,once m1 ,i might foll[--,i might ev51  
if ,i _h "t1 exp& ,mr4 ,balf\r's argum5t
 9 ano!r direction4 ,he has po9t$ out--n
 = ! fir/ "t c]ta9ly--h[ m5's beliefs   
are due n to reason+1 b to c\ntless     
causes :i* prev5t !m f reason+4 ,!      
argum5t is too famili>1 inde$1 to       
require mu* emphasis4 ,"s "o1 argu+ 9 ! 
days ( ! old or?odoxy ^u ! necessity ( !
 true fai? to salvation1 put ! case ( a 
c\ple ( infants des]t$ by _! p>5ts4 ,"o 
( !m is c>ri$ (f by a ,mohamm$an & ! o!r

 by a ,*ri/ian4 ,ea* w1 ( c\rse1 adopt !
 fai? ( ! p>ty into ^: h&s x has fall52 
& ! problem 01 :e!r ! infant seiz$ by ! 
,mohamm$an w\ld be et]nally damn$1 & !  
"o tak5 by ! ,*ri/ian g /raight to      
heav52 & :e!r1 on ! :ole1 t w\ld satisfy
 our s5se ( ju/ice4 ,! argum5t implies !
 inevitabl5ess ( error4 ,m5 n only d1 b 
ought to hold1 contradictory op9ions4   
,take a ,scotti% ,davie ,deans1 br\ght  
up 9 ! %ad[ ( ,john ,knox's pulpit2 a   
,tyrolese peasant1 educat$ 9 ! ,ca?olic 
,*ur*2 & a ,mohamm$an1 liv+ at ,mecca2  
&1 ( c\rse1 x is pla91 n only t ea* w   
accept ! cre$ :i* p]vades :at is = him !
 :ole _w kn[n to him1 b t z a reason+   
be+ ea* is probably 9 ! "r4 ,t is to    
say1 ! accessible evid5ce is 9 ea* case 
ov]:elm+ly 9 fav\r ( ! doctr9e1 inasmu* 
z ! suppos$ reason] is entirely unaw>e (
 ! evid5ce :i* might be produc$ on ! o!r
 side4 ,b :at is true ( ! peasant is    
true ( ! philosoph]4 ,measur$ on a      
suffici5t scale1 ! diff]5ce vani%es4    
,?is intellectual horizon is j z mu*    

limit$1 ?\gh n s n>r[ly limit$4 ,no "o b
 a bigot w\ld d5y t a m$iaeval          
philosoph] might accept on p]fectly     
reasonable gr\nds ! dogmas ( ! ,ca?olic 
,*ur*4 ,! hi/orical difficulties _h n   
ev5 be5 pres5t$ to 8 m9d4 ,he _h no     
reason = d\bt+ innum]able assumptions z 
to fact :i* h s9ce turn$ out to be      
errone\s2 & if ! me?od ( 8 reason+ 0    
itself fundam5tally vici\s1 ! fact only 
came to light gradually 9 ! process (   
work+ out ! results4 ,we--includ+ 9 ! we
 ! philosoph]s--h to approa* tru? by !  
help ( assumptions1 & by try+ h[ 9 po9t 
( fact !y w "w2 x is s h>d to rememb] t 
!y are only assumptions t we g5]ally    
call !m self-evid5t tru?s4 ,consid]+ h[ 
_m assumptions are involv$ ev5 9 ! v    
/ructure ( language itself2 h[ we are l$
 into all k9ds ( difficulties by !      
ess5tial in/rum5t ( ?\ght1 :i* has be5  
fa%ion$ by ! unconsci\s logic ( our     
ance/ors2 x is n /range t ! be/ t c be  
said ( philosophies is1 t !y repres5t   
conv5i5t work+ hypo!ses4 ,t1 at lea/1   

seems to be a lib]al view ( _! logical  
value4 ,9 ano!r s5se !y are really to be
 consid]$ z poetry1 r ?an z logic4 ,!y  
are modes ( pres5t+ c]ta9 conceptions ( 
! _w by app>5tly logical =mulae1 in/ead 
( by concrete imag]y2 b1 sub/antially1  
!y repres5t ! emotions ) :i* m5 reg>d _!
 dwell+ place1 & are radically imp]fect 
if we insi/ ^u consid]+ !m z provid+ u )
 correct plans & draw+s ( its v>i\s     
arrangem5ts4  ,let u look = a mom5t at  
ano!r set ( reflections ^u :i* ,mr4     
,balf\r t\*es4 ,:at has be5 ! influ5ce (
 ^! sy/ems ^u m5's lives8 ,h ^!         
provisional con/ructions1 ^! fluctuat+1 
conflict+1 un/able comb9ations (        
pret5ti\s =mulae1 really decid$ or      
direct$ ! c\rse ( human hi/ory8 ,x w\ld 
seem s1 if y read c]ta9 hi/ories (      
philosophy4 ,!y seem to sugge/ t ! h+e  
^u :i* all ! c\rse ( human affairs      
ultimately turns is ! gr[? ( c]ta9      
metaphysical conceptions4 ,!re is a     
prelim9>y difficulty 9 see+ h[ su*      
pret5sions c be e/abli%$4 ,! philosoph] 

9 8 /udy or 8 lecture room discusses    
problems 9 :i* ! enorm\sly prepond]at+  
majority ( ! race has s little int]e/1 t
 x is n ev5 aw>e t !re are any su*      
problems to be discuss$4 ,he lays d[n   
dogmas s vague & unsatisfactory t half 8
 he>]s give up ! attempt to und]/&1 or  
und]/& !m 9 a s5se :i* ! m intellig5t   
half w\ld utt]ly repudiate2 & t         
intellig5t half is itself divid$ into   
diff]5t s*ools1 int]pret+ ! dogmas 9    
radically contradictory ways4 ,is x n   
h>d to believe t speculation leads to   
va/ results1 :5 = n9ety-n9e m5 out ( a  
hundr$ x is practically non-exi/5t1 & ) 
! small m9ority x am\nts to provid+ new 
weapons = endless controv]sy8 ,we mu/1 (
 c\rse1 admit t m5's conduct is 9 "s    
s5se det]m9$ by _! ?\ghts4 ,*ange !     
radical beliefs1 & y w c]ta9ly *ange !  
:ole con/itution ( society4 ,&1 aga91 x 
is obvi\s t 9 "o sph]e ( ?\ght !        
progress ( inquiry is ( va/ importance4 
,nobody c d5y t sci5tific & me*anical   
discov]ies h1 = good or evil1 mat]ially 

affect$ our lives4 ,! great inv5tions ( 
mod]n times1 f gunp[d] & pr9t+ to !     
/eam-eng9e & electricity1 h *ang$ ?+s z 
mu* z if !y _h alt]$ ! physical         
con/itution ( ! _w4 ,!y h inde$ alt]$ x 
= u1 = !y h giv5 u ! means ( apply+ =ces
 previ\sly dormant1 & !re=e = practical 
purposes non-exi/5t4 ,su* beliefs h an  
imm$iate be>+ ^u ! practices ( ord9>y   
human be+s4 ,b if we are to set d[n all 
philosophies z at once unt5able & z     
absolutely unkn[n to ! enorm\s majority 
( mank9d1 x becomes difficult to und]/& 
by :at process !y come to influ5ce1 or  
app>5tly to influ5ce1 ! position ( !    
race4 ,a philosoph] frames 8 s*eme ( !  
univ]se to 8 own satisfaction2 b y & ,i 
he> no?+ ab\t x1 & d n tr\ble ourselves 
to und]/& x1 & g on work+ ) our good old
 common-s5se conceptions ( ?+s1 leav+ x 
to ! philosoph] to con/ruct or de/roy ! 
fanciful sy/em :i* he someh[ supposes to
 lie b5ea? !m4 ,"o answ] is ( c\rse     
obvi\s4 ,religi\s & e?ical sy/ems1 x is 
said1 presuppose a philosophy3 no "o    

d5ies t m5 are pr(\ndly affect$ by !    
gods :om !y wor%ip & ! rules ( conduct  
:i* !y adopt2 & !re=e ! sceptic :o is   
burr[+ at ! base may be ru9+ ! :ole     
sup]/ructure1 al?\gh 8 op]ations are no 
m obvi\s ^u ! surface ?an ^? ( "s m9ute 
p>asite4 ,accord+ly1 we are (t5 told t  
revolutions are ultimately produc$ by   
speculation2 & t old sy/ems fall ) a    
cra% because "s %rewd witness has be5   
bor+ into ! f\ndations ^u :i* !y really 
repose4 ,! ,fr5* ,revolution1 accord+ to
 "o famili> /atem5t1 0 due to !         
free?9k]s :o _h set ab\t pry+ into !    
ultimate gr\nds ( ! old fai?1 & _h      
succe$$ 9 %ak+ ! convictions necess>y to
 social welf>e4  ,t ?is argum5t         
expresses a tru? is :at ,i am s f> f    
d5y+ t ,i %\ld be mo/ anxi\s to give x  
emphasis4 ,b :at is precisely ! tru?    
express$8 ,de/roy ! belief 9 a *ur* z a 
social sy/em1 & ! organisation w        
crumble4 ,b :at is ! real cause ( ! loss
 ( belief8 ,is x ! logical argum5t t is 
effective8 ,does ! philosophical        

revolution und]lie ! political or       
religi\s revolution1 or is t to inv]t   
cause & effect8 ,let me take an example 
to illu/rate my mean+4 ,! doctr9e ( !   
rights ( man1 proclaim$ by ! :ole       
revolution>y s*ool1 01 x is said1 !     
cause ( ! revolution4 ,! de/ruction ( ! 
old ord] 0 caus$ by ! sudd5 conviction  
:i* spread ?r\gh ,europe ( ! tru? ( ?is 
!ory1 & ! consequ5t decay ( ! old       
au?ority4 ,n[ we may proce$1 if we      
please1 to trace ! orig9 ( ?is doctr9e  
back ?r\gh c]ta9 speculations to ! days 
( ! ,roman juri/s1 !mselves influ5c$ by 
! ,/oical philosophy4 ,! view sugge/$ is
 t ! doctr9e 0 a k9d ( g]m1 a some?+ :i*
 pres]v$ its vitality ?r\gh c5turies1 l 
! bact]ia ( mod]n physiologi/s1 & :i*1  
someh[1 develop$ a baleful or a         
b5eficial activity ab\t a c5tury ago1 & 
*ang$ all ! conditions ( social         
equilibrium4 ,b1 if ?is be true1 we     
naturally rem>k t ! pot5cy ( ! doctr9e  
mu/ h be5 due1 n to ! doctr9e itself1   
:i* lay dormant s long1 b to !          

conditions :i* sudd5ly made x effective4
 ,! doctr9e1 inde$1 is s obvi\s1 9 a    
s5se1 t x is n to be d\bt$ t anybody :o 
once began to philosophise ab\t laws &  
political con/itutions1 aft] !y _h rea*$
 a c]ta9 /age1 w\ld hit ^u x 9 "o %ape  
or ano!r4 ,x is n comp>able to ^?       
sci5tific discov]ies :i* require pati5t 
?\ght & a dext]\s comb9ation ( argum5ts3
 b "o ( ! prim>y axioms :i* pres5t      
!mselves on ! v ?re%old ( inquiry4 ,!   
m$iaeval peasant :o put ! "q3--         
,:5 ,adam delv$1 & ,eve span1      ,:o 0
 !n ! g5tleman8   01 probably1 no great 
philosoph]2 b he 0 giv+ ! ess5tial pi? (
 ! doctr9e ( lib]ty1 frat]nity1 &       
equality4 ,x may be reg>d$ z an obvi\s  
logical canon1 conv]t$ by an            
illegitimate process into a /atem5t (   
fact4 ,if ,i make any g5]al /atem5t     
:atev] ab\t m5 or bea/s or /ones1 ,i1 ( 
c\rse1 assume t !re is a correspond+    
class ( ?+s 9 respect ( ea* ( :i* !     
proposition is equally true4 ,z soon z  
,i say any?+1 !re=e1 ab\t morality or   

politics1 :i* is int5d$ to be true ( m5 
9 g5]al1 ,i assume1 9 ?is s5se1 t m5 are
 s f> equal t some?+ may be pr$icat$1   
indiff]5tly1 ( e memb] ( ! class man4 ,x
 is v natural & easy to conv]t ?is into 
! proposition t ! concrete m5 ( :om ,i  
am speak+ are1 9 "s s5se1 actually      
equal4 ,9 do+ s1 h[ev]1 ,i am ei!r mak+ 
a false /atem5t1 or begg+ ! "q4 ,z a    
matt] ( fact1 m5 are1 9 _m respects1 z  
f> z possible f be+ equal4 ,! real "q1  
!re=e1 is :e!r ! inequalities :i*       
und\bt$ly exi/ are or are n relevant to 
! political inequalities :i* ,i h to    
consid]4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 !           
inequalities :i* 7 *all5g$ by !         
revolution>y writ]s 71 z ,i ?9k1 & z mo/
 ( u ?9k1 entirely unju/ifiable4 ,at any
 rate1 !y _h1 z a matt] ( fact1 produc$ 
widespread discont5t & bitt] antipa?ies 
betwe5 classes4 ,x 0 ! exi/5ce ( ^!     
antipa?ies to :i* ! outbreak 0 due4 ,!  
peasant1 = example1 felt t he 0 =c$ to  
give up ! fruit ( 8 lab\r to ! noble1 & 
t ! noble 0 dis*>g+ no duty to ju/ify 8 

dem&s4 ,! peasant1 probably1 c\ld n     
read2 he 0 unaw>e t ,r\sseau or         
,voltaire 0 lay+ d[n pr9ciples :i* w\ld 
cov] 8 case2 he _h nev] ev5 he>d (      
philosoph] or philosophy2 only1 :5 ! "t 
0 ripe1 :5 ! upp] ord]s _h become       
useless1 & ! l[] classes _h accumulat$ a
 suffici5t quantity ( passion1 (        
indignant or v9dictive feel+1 an outrag$
 s5se ( ju/ice1 ! cra% came1 & any =mula
 :i* w\ld cov] ! p>ticul> case 0        
acceptable4 ,! doctr9e !n made its      
=tune2 n because x 0 true1 or because x 
0 demon/rable1 b because x gave ! %orte/
 & simple/ expression to ! prevail+     
s5tim5t4 ,! philosophical dogma1 :i* _h 
be5 ly+ idle = g5]ations1 do+ no        
p>ticul> h>m or good1 01 sudd5ly1       
conv]t$ into a w>-cry1 ! m effective    
because ! real vagu5ess & unc]ta9ty (   
its application enabl$ ^? :o us$ x to   
save !mselves ! tr\ble ( ?9k+ or argu+4 
,in/ead ( sub/itut+ p>ticul> grievances1
 & %[+ t ?is or t inequality 9 g5]al 0  
useless & objectionable1 !y c\ld1 9 half

 a doz5 words1 d5\nce all inequality1 & 
be p]fectly satisfi$ ) a =mula :i* 0    
impos+ = its g5]ality1 ?\gh true only 9 
its p>ticul> application4  ,i take ?is  
famili> case1 n only z famili>1 b       
because x seems to me to be typical4    
,simil> g5]al rem>ks might1 ,i fancy1 be
 made ab\t any ( ! great religi\s       
movem5ts :i* h1 und\bt$ly1 mo/ pr(\ndly 
affect$ human society4 ,!y are n due to 
! philosoph]s2 to ! ab/ract m$itations (
 ref9$ ?9k]s ^u ultimate pr9ciples2 b to
 great und]ly+ social *anges4 ,our      
,*ri/ian apologi/s ( ! la/ c5tury held !
 qua9t belief t a new cre$ 0 caus$ by ! 
occurr5ce ( c]ta9 miracul\s facts1      
susceptible ( legal pro(4 ,x is         
suffici5tly obvi\s to u t ?is is to     
inv]t ! process4 ,giv5 ! fai?1 & !re is 
nev] any difficulty 9 supply+ !         
miracles4 ,no quantity ( ass]tions z to 
miracul\s ev5ts w\ld h ! slighte/       
effect1 unless !re 7 a pr$isposition to 
accept !m4 ,! same answ] applies to !   
!ory t a new religion owes its success  

to ! discov]y ( new moral tru?s4 ,9 !   
fir/ place1 !re are1 prop]ly speak+1 no 
sudd5 discov]ies 9 morality2 & 9 ! next 
place1 ! m]e /atem5t ( a moral doctr9e1 
& ev5 ! pres5tation ( a l(ty moral type1
 c h little importance unless ! soil is 
already prep>$1 & ! doctr9e is b ! ov]t 
utt]ance ( ! s5tim5ts :i* are seek+ =   
expression4 ,! only explanation t we c  
give ( su* ev5ts is ! social            
explanation4 ,!re are p]iods1 t is 9    
hi/ory1 :5 ! old ord] is out ( jo9t2 :5 
society has outgr[n ! in/itutions :i* 7 
adequate at a previ\s /age1 & :51 !re=e1
 ! beliefs associat$ ) !m become        
oppressive1 & c no long] pass )\t       
*all5ge2 :5 diff]5t races & nations h   
be5 br\ght into collision or comb9ation1
 & cru%$ toge!r into new =ms by conque/ 
& comm]ce2 :51 !re=e1 ! sev]al cre$s are
 no long] support$ by ! patriotism :i*  
has ceas$ to h a mean+2 :5 a va/ amalgam
 ( diff]5t fai?s & modes ( life has be5 
=m$ out ( _m het]og5e\s elem5ts2 & ?us a
 ne$ is creat$ = "s wid] & m            

compreh5sive sy/em ( belief correspond+ 
to ! g5]al ne$s ( society4 ,9 t case !  
influ5ce ( ! philosoph] may be ( "s     
importance1 because he c d some?+ t[>ds 
sugge/+ ! mo/ workable compromise1 & (  
expos+ sup]/itions :i* h lo/ _! old     
support1 & ! in/9ctive loyalty ( _!     
adh]5ts4 ,ev5 !n 8 voice w n be         
pr$om9ant4 ,! cre$ w survive :i* is mo/ 
suit$ to ! /ate ( ! av]age intellect2 x 
w include a l>ge elem5t ( ! anci5t modes
 ( ?\ght1 :i* /ill insi/ ^u f9d+ "s     
satisfaction1 & :i*1 inde$1 h a /range  
vitality b5ea? ! surface1 ev5 :5        
explicitly disav[$ by ! (ficial         
int]pret]s ( ! fai?4  ,n[1 if ?is be    
accept$ z a r\gh sket* ( ! actual c\rse 
( ! developm5t ( belief1 :at is !       
conclusion z to ! philosoph]'s function8
 ,does x g to sugge/ t philosophy is b a
 vanity & vexation ( _s1 & does x r$uce 
! philosoph] to a humbl] position ?an is
 sometimes claim$ = him8 ,my answ] w\ld 
be1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! case aga9/      
philosophy w\ld h to be frankly admitt$ 

if ! crit]ion sometimes tacitly sugge/$ 
be ! true "o4 ,no?+ c\ld be m hopeless  
?an ! claim ( any philosophy :atev] to h
 laid d[n a def9itively satisfactory    
plan ( ?+s 9 g5]al4 ,:5 ,mr4 ,balf\r    
obs]ves t an ,ari/otle or ,aqu9as or    
,desc>tes has n laid d[n a t5able !ory (
 ! univ]se1 ,i c only add t ! v         
phrase--!ory ( ! univ]se--conveys a     
suffici5t refutation4 ,x is idle1 or    
worse ?an idle1 to imag9e t we c lay    
d[n1 or ev5 hope to lay d[n1 any?+ ( !  
k9d4 ,x ne$s only "o ( ^? glances into !
 surr\nd+ inf9ities :i* ,i h sugge/$1 or
 ! briefe/ survey ( ! hi/ory (          
philosophy1 to reveal ! %e]             
impossibility ( ! attempt4 ,no "o1      
p]haps1 ev] q imag9$ t 8 speculation    
c\ld really lay b>e ! ultimate gr\nd    
plan ( ?+s 9 g5]al4 ,b1 c]ta9ly1        
philosoph]s h1 at times1 ?\ght1 or spok5
 z if !y ?\ght1 t !y c\ld con/ruct a    
body ( fir/ pr9ciples :i* %\ld be to k 9
 g5]al :at a sci5ce is to "s p>ticul>   
application1--! g5]al !ory ( physics1 = 

example1 to a/ronomy4 ,philosophy w\ld  
!n be a sy/em ( su* ultimate pr9ciples4 
,! day = su* sy/ems has1 ,i ?9k1 pass$4 
,we h le>nt t x is = ev] impossible to  
sp9 real k out ( pure logic4 ,:at !     
univ]se1 or ! little bit ( x t we "k1   
actually is1 c only be le>nt by         
exp]i5ce2 & if exp]i5ce presupposes     
categories or =ms ( intuition1 /ill1 )\t
 exp]i5ce1 !y rema9 empty2 z incapable (
 produc+ tru? z a mill ( gr9d+ fl\r )\t 
corn4 ,philosoph]s mu/ admit t on su*   
t]ms we get only bra9 cobwebs2 +5i\s    
feats ( intellectual leg]dema91 :]e !   
op]ator %[s 8 skill by dext]\sly hid+   
away 8 assumptions1 & br++ !m out at !  
end z triumphantly demon/rat$           
conclusions4 ,! m mode/ ideal1 :i* is n[
 pres5t$ to u1 is :at is call$ !        
unification ( k4 ,t means1 no d\bt1 t we
 h to br+ our !ories into h>mony &      
consi/5cy2 to get rid ( ! hypo!tical &  
conjectural elem5ts :i* h intrud$       
!mselves f e>li] & crud] speculation2 & 
s to analyse ! prim>y factors ( ?\ght & 

! mo/ g5]al conceptions1 t we may n h to
 assume 9 "o relation :at we dispute 9  
ano!r4 ,ev5 ?is process is1 no d\bt1    
exce$+ly difficult2 x is difficult p>tly
 because ! human m9d has1 g5]ally       
speak+1 to beg9 at ! wrong end2 to      
proce$ ^u po/ulates :i* break d[n "h &  
!re & leave inconv5i5t fragm5ts rema9+  
else:]e2 p>tly because "s philosoph]s   
are /ill op5 to ! *>ge t !y raise a du/ 
& !n compla9 t !y _c see2 &1 briefly1   
because1 9 "o way or o!r1 :at ) !       
dulness ( ! ord9>y m9d & :at ) !        
ov]-subtlety ( ! acute1 our ?\ghts &    
beliefs h got into intricate tangles1   
:i* w require enorm\s pati5ce & judgm5t 
to w9d (f & weave into a satisfactory   
tissue4 ,g5u9e philosoph]s1 d\btless1 w 
le>n 9 "t h[ to set ab\t ! "w4 ,x w     
probably /rike !m t in/ead ( evolv+     
pret5ti\s sy/ems ( !ology1 & e?ics1 &   
politics1 & art1 ea* purport+ to give an
 exhau/ive !ory ( ! subject1 & ea* de/9$
 to melt away1 leav+ "s inf9itesimal    
residuum ( real sugge/ion1 !y w h to    

foll[ a sl[] me?od ( gradual & t5tative 
inve/igation4 ,if s1 we mu/ und\bt$ly   
assign to philosophy a m mode/ position 
?an has sometimes be5 claim$ = x4 ,x mu/
 resign its claim to a vision (         
transc5d5tal realities1 to a k ( ?+s 9  
!mselves1 & ( ! ultimate gr\ndwork ( !  
univ]se4 ,x has n1 ,i hold1 a           
subject-matt] peculi> to itself2 x      
reveals no pr9ciples belong+ to a       
sep>ate sph]e ( ?\ght2 x corresponds    
simply to ! attempt to correct &        
h>monise ! crud] ?\ghts ( ! av]age human
 be+1 & to /ate explicitly 9 _! purity !
 pr9ciples :i* h be5 all along          
implicitly involv$ 9 8 ord9>y           
obs]vations4 ,x is1 !re=e1 n a          
sub/antive1 b an adjective2 philosophy  
is n a di/9ct dep>tm5t ( ?\ght1 & _c be 
def9$ by itself4 ,all we c say is1 t we 
?9k philosophically 9 s f> z we ?9k     
rightly4 ,:5 our mode ( conceiv+ ! _w   
includes no het]og5e\s or conflict+     
elem5t1 we %all be philosoph]s2 b we    
%all n1 9 t capacity1 h a sep>ate       

dom9ion ( our own4  ,n[1 x w probably d 
no h>m to philosoph]s m ?an to o!r m51  
to be impress$ ) a s5se ( mode/y & a "r 
appreciation ( ! necess>y limitations ( 
_! ent]prise4 ,y h be5 try+ to so>      
beyond ! atmosph]e1 & y w make ! bett]  
use ( y\r w+s :5 y le>n t !y won't      
support y 9 a vacuum4 ,y\r failure is n 
due to ! want ( aquil9e p[]s ( flight1 b
 to ! melan*oly tru? t ev5 an eagle c't 
d mu* 9 an air-pump4 ,is n t a r consol+
 reflection8 ,b "h ! philosoph] beg9s to
 be recalcitrant4 ,y are n l[]+ my      
pret5sions1 he says1 b attack+ ! p[] (  
man to atta9 tru? ^u any t]ms4 ,all t is
 giv5 to u 9 exp]i5ce is ! effect (     
und]ly+ causes2 if ! causes v>y !       
effects w\ld v>y2 &1 unless1 !re=e1 y c 
get back to ! cause1 y\r k mu/ rema9    
empirical & radically unc]ta94 ,de/roy  
all transc5d5tal tru?s1 & ! ph5om5al _w 
itself becomes a m]e %ift+              
phantasmagoria1 on :i* we c trace only  
co9cid5ces & sequ5ces1 b are entirely   
unable to say t !y w ev] recur aga94 ,! 

argum5t1 ( c\rse1 raises ! recollection 
( libr>y ^u libr>y ( controv]sy4 ,i c   
only t\* "o po9t4 ,practically1 we d n  
tr\ble ourselves ab\t ?is difficulty4   
,we are q conv9c$ t we "k a great _m    
?+s3 we are sure t ! sun w rise & set   
to-morr[2 we h no d\bt z to ! prop]ties 
( ! ord9>y objects1 ( trees & /ones &   
/eam-eng9es2 e action ( our lives       
implies a c]ta9 confid5ce 9 :at is call$
 ! uni=mity ( nature2 & x is pla9 en\gh 
t ev5 if our k be1 9 "s s5se1 only a k (
 probabilities1 yet1 f its effect ^u    
conduct1 x may be exactly ! same z a k (
 c]ta9ties4 ,!re may be an indef9ite    
di/ance betwe5 ! necess>y tru? t two &  
two make f\r & ! empirical tru? t a /one
 w fall2 b if all ! evid5ce atta9able   
goes to prove t ! /one w fall1 ,i %\ld  
be z fooli% n to act ^u t hypo!sis z n  
to assume ! tru? ( ! ari?metical =mula4 
,n[1 x is1 ( c\rse1 ! gr[? )9 rec5t     
g5]ations ( va/ sy/ems ( su* tru?s :i*  
has al>m$ ! philosoph]4 ,he contra/s 8  
own fluctuat+ & conflict+ dogmas ) !    

/eady gr[? & assur$ results & mutual    
confirmation ( ! e/abli%$ physical      
sci5ces4 ,he fe>s t !y w obta9 a pre/ige
 :i* w enable !m to cru% him & sweep 8  
pret5d$ k into ! limbo ( al*emy &       
a/rology & s*ola/ic logoma*y4 ,"h comes 
9 ! argum5t :i* is really ! key/one (   
,mr4 ,balf\r's :ole !ory2 &1 z ,i _c    
accept x1 ,i mu/ dwell ^u its true      
nature4 ,x looks1 at fir/ sight1 l a    
retort ^u ! m5 ( sci5ce4 ,y\r k1 he     
seems to say1 is z va9 z y\r            
antagoni/'s4 ,y\r physics1 & a/ronomy1 &
 *emi/ry1 & physiology are m]e empty    
%[s1 l ! metaphysical !ories t h gone to
 _! long home 9 hi/ories ( philosophy4  
,b to say ?is w\ld be to accept complete
 scepticism1 & a k9d ( scepticism :i*   
,mr4 ,balf\r w\ld1 ,i am sure1 disav[4  
,he believes1 ( c\rse1 j z /rongly z any
 "o ( u believes1 9 ! a/ronomical !ories
 ( ,newton & ,laplace2 or 9 ! ma!matical
 !ories ( ! great physical sci5ces4 ,t 9
 :i* he disbelieves is a k9d ( ba/>d    
sci5ce call$ naturalism1 :i*1 z he tells

 u1 leads to contradictory or incoh]5t  
results4 ,! naturali/1 x appe>s1        
proposes to conf9e himself to ! evid5ce 
( ! s5ses1 & ends by accept+ a view ( ! 
_w entirely inconsi/5t ) ! s5sible      
p]ceptions4 ,i see a gre5 field3 an     
object :i* has visual & o!r prop]ties   
recognis$ by my organs ( s5se4 ,no1 says
 ?is misguid$ naturali/1 y d n see :at y
 suppose2 :at really happ5s is1 t !re is
 a va/ :irlpool ( atoms imp++ ^u ea* o!r
 & sett+ up vibrations1 ! la/ set ( :i* 
is communicat$ to ano!r set ( atoms1    
call$ my optic n]ve4 ,^! atoms1 by _! v 
nature imp]ceptible to ! s5ses1 are !   
only realities4 ,we ?us />t f ! s5ses & 
we get a _w beyond ! s5ses1 a _w :i* is 
a m]e dance ( inf9ite multitudes ( bits 
( matt] p]=m+ all mann] ( extraord9>y   
gyrations & evolutions4 ,! s5sible      
impressions ( col\r1 s\nd1 & s =?1 are  
m]e illusions1 someh[ aris+ 9 a figm5t  
call$ ! m9d4 ,?is m9d is a m]e          
phantom--an unreal spectator ( ?+s &    
ev5ts1 among :i* x has no place1 & ^u   

:i* x ex]cises no influ5ce4  ,n[1 let me
 say fir/ t ,i agree ) ,mr4 ,balf\r t ! 
doctr9e ?us imput$ to ! naturali/ is    
absurd4 ,i d n believe1 = ,i _c believe1
 t ,i am only a dance ( atoms4 ,i _c    
believe1 ,i say1 = ! words are to me    
mean+less4 ,my s5sations & emotions are 
to me ! typical realities4 ,i _c d\bt ! 
real exi/5ce ( pa9 & pleasure1 grief &  
joy1 :atev] else ,i may d\bt4 ,i        
believe1 = example1 t my too?a*e is a   
reality2 & nobody w ev] p]suade me t x  
is m]ely a set ( molecul> *anges 9 my   
too?4 ,t x1 9 "s way1 is dep5d5t ^u su* 
*anges ,i fully believe2 b t is q a     
diff]5t /atem5t4 ,&1 secondly1 ,i agree 
) ,mr4 ,balf\r 7or ) :at ,i take to be  
,mr4 ,balf\r's belief7 t ! sci5tific    
doctr9es :i* are rea*$ by help ( ^!     
atoms are e/abli%$ tru?s4 ,i believe ^? 
doctr9es1 n because ,i am conv9c$ by !  
argum5ts1 :i* ,i may n h exam9$ or be   
capable ( exam9+2 nor simply because ,i 
tru/1 ?\gh ,i d tru/1 9 ! ability & !   
c&\r ( ! sci5tific reason]s2 b because !

 doctr9es c be & h be5 indep5d5tly      
v]ifi$4 ,i believe1 t is1 9 mod]n       
a/ronomy because x has enabl$ mod]n     
a/ronom]s to pr$ict eclipses1 & enabl$  
,adams & ,lev]ri] to discov] ,neptune4  
,t is ! conclusive pro(2 = x is         
impossible to suppose t ! p[] (         
pr$iction %\ld be a result ( errone\s   
belief1 & su* pro(s are v]ifiable by    
anybody :o c obs]ve ! ph5om5a4  ,"h1 !n1
 we h ! difficulty1 ! difficulty ^u :i* 
! :ole ( ,mr4 ,balf\r's argum5t dep5ds4 
,solve x1 & ! :ole sceptical argum5t    
crumbles4 ,! naturali/ic !ory1 we bo?   
say1 is incr$ible4 ,! sci5tific doctr9es
 bas$ ^u x are1 z we bo? admit1         
unassailable4 ,h[ is ?is8 ,i reply1     
fir/1 because ! atoms repres5t no?+ m   
?an a logical scaffold+ :i* enables u to
 inf] "o set ( s5sible ph5om5a f ano!r4 
,we />t f ph5om5a & we end ) ph5om5a4   
,:5 we h discov]$ ! s-call$ law--!      
connect+ =mula--we c remove ! hypo!sis z
 ! eng9e] c remove ! provisional        
supports :5 he has once got ! key/one   

into 8 ar*4 ,t ?is is s appe>s1 ,i ?9k1 
f ! :ole sci5tific proc$ure4 ,h[ is !   
atomic !ory obta9$8 ,n by any direct    
obs]vation ( atoms !mselves4 ,!y are1 z 
,mr4 ,balf\r says1 n only n objects (   
obs]vation1 b incapable by _! nature (  
ev] be+ directly obs]v$4 ,! man ( sci5ce
 beg9s by say+1 if ! ph5om5a ( light    
correspond 9 "s way to a vibration (    
atoms1 ! atoms mu/ vibrate 9 su* & su*  
ways4 ,he f9ds1 aga91 t ! laws s        
discov]$ w give ! law ( o!r ph5om5a (   
light2 & he argues q correctly t 8      
hypo!sis is = 8 purpose v]ifi$4 ,t is1 x
 has enabl$ him to discov] a v]ifiable &
 v]ifi$ =mula4 ,9 ord] to d ?is he has  
assum$ f ! v fir/ ! !ory :i* ( c\rse    
appe>s 9 8 conclusions4 ,all physical   
sci5ce consi/s ultimately 9 giv+ def9ite
 =mulae 9 t]ms ( space & "t4 ,x is !re=e
 assum$ t ! atoms are to h no qualities 
except ^? :i* are def9able 9 t]ms (     
space4 ,we exclude any o!r quality      
because our :ole purpose is to obta9    
purely geometrical measurem5ts4 ,we h   

ask$ h[ ^? atoms1 inf9itesimal bits1 s  
to speak1 ( solid space1 arrang$ 9 c]ta9
 positions1 mu/ move 9 ord] to          
correspond to ! law giv5 by obs]vation1 
& we h !re=e1 ( c\rse1 pr$et]m9$ t our  
answ] mu/ come out 9 t]ms ( atoms4  ,b1 
n[1 :at is ! error ( ! naturali/8       
,simply t he has conv]t$ ! sci5tific    
doctr9e into an ontological doctr9e4 ,he
 really kn[s no?+1 & _c possibly "k     
any?+1 ab\t 8 atoms1 except j ?is1 t !y 
give ! law ( ! ph5om5a4 ,he has no?+    
:atev] to say to !m 9 any o!r relation4 
,if he proce$s1 z ,mr4 ,balf\r says t he
 proce$s1 to decl>e t no?+ exi/s except 
atoms1 t !y are ! ultimate realities1 t 
!y are ?+s 9 !mselves1 or objects       
indep5d5t ( any subject1 he is go+      
beyond 8 te!r1 pass+ f sci5ce to        
transc5d5tal metaphysics1 & gett+ into  
hopeless confusion4 ,9 fact1 aft] he has
 done 8 wor/ we may /ill foll[ ,b]keley 
& d5y ! exi/5ce ( matt]1 or decl>e )    
,clif=d t atoms are only bits ( m9d/uff1
 or adopt any o!r metaphysical !ory we  

please4 ,! atoms at mo/ are ?+s :i* we  
judge f ! analogy ( ! s5ses2 & x is a   
pure illusion to suppose t !y c ev] take
 u into an extra-s5sible _w4 ,!y        
repres5t n only a conv5i5t b an         
indisp5sable contrivance = enabl+ u to  
=mulate sci5tific laws1 su* z ^? ( light
 & heat2 b !y take u no fur!r4  ,9 a    
rem>kable passage1 ,mr4 ,balf\r sket*es 
an analogy1 :i* gives ! application (   
?is to philosophical or !ological       
que/ions2 & ,i w v5ture to give my own  
int]pretation ( ! argum5t because x     
seems to lead to ! real po9t4 ,we       
believe1 he says1 9 a sci5tific !ory (  
heat1 al?\gh our view ( ! realities has 
*ang$4 ,p once ?\ght t heat 0 a         
sub/ance4 ,!y n[ hold x to be a mode (  
motion4 ,yet our sci5tific fai? 7our    
fai?1 ,i suppose1 t ?+s are hot1 & t _! 
heat v>ies accord+ to c]ta9 assign$     
laws7 rema9s unaffect$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he
 says1 if we cease to believe 9 !       
,*ri/ian doctr9e ( ! atonem5t1 we cease 
also to h t s5se ( reconciliation betwe5

 ,god & man :i* ! doctr9e 0 int5d$ to   
expla94 ,?is he seems to reg>d z a k9d (
 melan*oly p>adox4 ,:y is ! scepticism  
h>mless 9 sci5ce & fatal 9 !ology8      
,fir/1 :at are ! admitt$ facts8 ,a man (
 sci5ce prop\nds a !ory ( heat4 ,if 8   
!ory does n give u ! obs]v$ laws1 we    
reject x & adopt a m successful !ory4 ,9
 any case1 we1 ( c\rse1 cont9ue to      
believe 9 heat4 ,we may "k facts )\t    
kn[+ _! causes2 z1 = example1 ! fact (  
gravitation1 :i* is n ! less c]ta9      
because x is at pres5t an ultimate fact4
 ,o!rwise our k w\ld be limit$ inde$2 = 
ev5 if ! cause 79 ! sci5tific s5se7 7   
giv51 we %\ld /ill h to ask1 :at is !   
cause ( t cause8 ,if heat is due to     
c]ta9 sy/ems ( atoms1 we might /ill     
inquire h[ ! atoms came to occupy _!    
places1 & possess ! prop]ties :i* !y    
actually h4 ,an effect dep5ds ^u a      
cause1 z we naturally say2 b x does n   
foll[ t ! k ( ! effect dep5ds ^u ! k ( !
 cause4 ,n[1 :at are ! facts :i*        
correspond to ! facts ( heat 9 ! !ory ( 

! atonem5t8 ,if we believe 9 a c]ta9    
be+1 an an?ropomorphic deity1 :o w puni%
 u or rew>d u1 x is1 ( c\rse1 obvi\s t  
if we cease to believe 9 him we %all    
cease to desire to be reconcil$ to him4 
,s if ,i believ$ t ! w>m? ( my h\se     
dep5d$ ^u a fire next door1 & !n        
discov]$ t no su* fire exi/$1 ,i %\ld ( 
c\rse cease to c>e ab\t light+ x4 ,9 ?is
 !re is no?+ :i* wants explanation4 ,i  
suppose1 !re=e1 t :at ,mr4 ,balf\r means
 is1 t if m5 h c]ta9 emotions1--remorse1
 = example1 or :at is call$ a conviction
 ( s91--& !n le>n to reject ! !ory by   
:i* ^! emotions 7 expla9$1 !y cease also
 to feel ! emotions4 ,9 fact1 he        
emphatically accepts ! view t1 if we    
cease to accept !ology1 we %all cease to
 be moral4 ,! p]v]sity ( a few wret*$   
naturali/s 9 cont9u+ to be moral is     
expla9$ z a case ( survival2 ! moral    
naturali/ is ! p>asite :o draws 8       
su/5ance f ! organism :i* he infe/s4    
,let u consid] ! sci5tific analogy4 ,i  
believe 9 heat1 & ,i accept a sci5tific 

!ory j z f> z x gives me v]ifi$ laws (  
heat4 ,i believe1 too1 9 ! exi/5ce (    
consci5ce2 t is1 ,i believe t p h real  
emotions1 su* z remorse & %ame1 :i*     
correspond to ! "n4 ,i hold t to be a   
fact ( exp]i5ce4 ,x w\ld h to be        
expla9$1 aga91 s f> z explanation is    
possible1 by psy*ology 9 ! fir/ in/ance1
 z heat mu/ be expla9$ by sci5tific     
!ories4 ,remorse is a fact1 z heat is a 
fact2 & an explanation w\ld consi/ 9    
giv+ accurately its place 9 ! moral     
organism & ! laws ( its op]ation4 ,!    
explanation furni%$ by any giv5         
psy*ology1 by association1 = example1   
mu/ be accept$ or reject$ 9 s f> z x    
expla9s or fails to expla9 ! facts4 ,if 
"s !ory ab\t spiritual monads enabl$ u  
to %[ :at ! consci5ce is1 & h[ x is1 9  
fact1 /imulat$ or suppress$1 we %\ld    
accept x 9 ! same way z we accept !     
physical !ory ( heat4 ,z yet1 ,i ne$    
h>dly say1 no su* result has be5 a*iev$2
 & psy*ology is /ill f> too vague to (f]
 any def9ite laws ( ! emotional nature4 

,b 9 any case1 h[ c a !ory ab\t facts   
make ! facts !mselves vani%8 ,w\ld n    
grief be real j z pa9 w\ld be real if we
 c\ld cle>ly expla9 h[ & :y x occurr$8  
,:y %\ld ! s5se ( reconciliation vani%  
because we %[ ! conditions ( its        
exi/5ce8 ,! reason ( ,mr4 ,balf\r's     
difficulty1 ,i ?9k1 appe>s f :at ,i h   
said4 ,9 ! physical !ory we c draw ! l9e
 cle>ly betwe5 ! sci5tific & !          
philosophical sph]es4 ,mr4 ,balf\r c    
accept ! sci5tific tru?1 ?\gh he does n 
accept ! doctr9e :i* results f translat+
 x into ontology4 ,b ! b\nd>y betwe5    
psy*ology & philosophy is f> less       
di/9ct4 ,we con/antly conf\nd que/ions  
ab\t ! con/itution ( man1 z kn[n to u by
 exp]i5ce1 ) que/ions ab\t suppos$      
intuitions ( ultimate tru?4 ,! fact t s9
 causes remorse is int]pret$ z mean+ t  
remorse actually is a k ( an av5g+      
deity2 & :5 ! emotion is ?us id5tifi$ ) 
! belief1 x becomes easy to suppose t to
 de/roy ! belief is also to de/roy !    
emotion4 ,i ?9k1 inde$1 t fallacies ( t 

k9d are among ! commone/ 9 philosophical
 writ+s4 ,n[1 ( c\rse1 psy*ology has    
some?+ to say 9 ?is matt]4 ,x may help1 
& ,i ?9k t x has help$ u to expla9 h[ m5
 come to believe 9 an?ropomorphic       
deities1 & to inve/ !m ) ! attributes ( 
human rul]s4 ,b 9 t way x t5ds to %[ n t
 ! consci5ce is caus$ by ! belief1 b to 
%[ h[1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 x has giv5  
rise to a belief by o!r ?an logical     
gr\nds4 ,x sugge/s no probability t !   
consci5ce w disappe> ) ! fallacy1 b only
 t x w act diff]5tly :5 enlight5$ by a  
diff]5t logic4 ,consci5ce disappe>s no m
 ?an heat disappe>s1 :5 bo? are expla9$2
 ?\gh ! conduct :i* ! emotions or !     
s5sations det]m9e w1 ( c\rse1 be        
affect$4  ,& n[1 ,i c say :at ,i take to
 be ! difficulty1 & ! escape4 ,mr4      
,balf\r draws a k9d ( p>allel betwe5 !  
sci5tific cre$1 :i* is1 z he w\ld put x1
 bas$ ^u a metaphysical doctr9e1 & !    
!ological cre$1 :i* has a simil>        
f\ndation4 ,if ! metaphysical f\ndation 
is s unc]ta9 9 bo? cases1 mu/ n !       

sci5tific be z unc]ta9 z ! !ological8   
,if we "k no?+ ab\t atoms1 or1 on ! o!r 
h&1 ab\t s\ls1 we mu/ be ei!r sceptical 
9 bo? cases1 or cr$ul\s 9 bo?4 ,!re are 
! same und]ly+ difficulties1 & if we    
manage to ov]look !m 9 ! case ( sci5ce1 
:y n ov]look !m 9 ! case ( !ology8      
,conv]sely1 if we elect to be sceptics 9
 !ology1 h[ c we escape f scepticism 9  
sci5ce8 ,&1 z a ?or\gh-go+ scepticism   
is1 d\btless1 an impossible /ate ( m9d 9
 practice1 ! conclusion ( _m p w be to  
accept belief 9 spite ( c]ta9 gaps 9 our
 logical f\ndations4 ,?is1 no d\bt1 is  
em95tly conv5i5t = ! con/ructive process
 adumbrat$ by ,mr4 ,balf\r1 :i* ,i      
c]ta9ly reg>d z extra-logical4 ,b is any
 su* dilemma really (f]$ to u8 ,! obvi\s
 answ] is1 t sci5tific tru?1 z ,mr4     
,balf\r admits1 is n bas$ ^u            
metaphysical !ory4 ,! a/ronomical       
doctr9e ( a ,newton rema9s equally      
valid1 :atev] is ! ultimate nature (    
space or laws or atoms2 :e!r we are     
mat]iali/s or empirici/s or ideali/s4 ,!

 philosophical basis is n really a set (
 tru?s :i* we mu/ "k be=e we c "k !     
a/ronomical !ory2 b simply a set (      
hypo!ses :i* h to con=m to ! tru?s giv5 
by exp]i5ce4 ,! unassailable tru?s are j
 ! facts :i* we obs]ve1 & :i* sci5ce    
enables u to describe accurately & /ate 
sy/ematically4 ,if a metaphysical       
doctr9e has any be>+ ^u ^! facts1 :i*   
seems to be d\btful1 x mu/ con=m to !   
facts1 & n ! facts to x4 ,s long z no   
su* !ory is prov$1 we c af=d to rema9   
metaphysically sceptical )\t los+ our   
hold ^u ! sci5tific tru?4 ,n[1 ,i %\ld  
say1 :at is true ( ! physical sci5ces is
 true ( all our k4 ,we may /udy ! moral 
sci5ces z we c /udy ! physical sci5ces4 
,we c obs]ve & colligate ! facts (      
emotion & volition1 z we c obs]ve !     
position ( ! />s & ! laws ( heat4       
,!re=e1 9 s f> z !ology is an attempt to
 give a !ory ( ! univ]se 9 g5]al1 we mu/
 accept or d5y ! doctr9es j 9 s f> z !y 
s]ve to expla9 or fail to expla9 !      
facts4 ,b1 9 any case1 ! facts w rema9  

unalt]$1 & w n vani% because we may be  
unable to und]/& !m4 ,b !ology          
corresponds1 also1 n to ! sci5tific     
me?od1 b to ! ontological inquiries :i* 
are repres5t$ by ,mr4 ,balf\r's         
naturalism4 ,bo? doctr9es1 z ,i %\ld    
say1 lead to incoh]5ce1 to              
contradictions cov]$ by ambigu\s        
language1 & to hopeless difficulties1   
:i*1 9 !ology1 are describ$ z           
inscrutable my/]ies4 ,i am1 !re=e1 q    
ready1 ) ,mr4 ,balf\r1 to reject        
naturalism1 b1 on ! same gr\nds1 ,i also
 reject ! transc5d5tal !ology4          
,atta9able tru? is equally indep5d5t (  
all su* !ories2 & 7 x o!rwise1 we %\ld  
be doom$ to hopeless scepticism4 ,mr4   
,balf\r's analogy1 !re=e1 app>5tly      
upsets 8 conclusion4 ,i believe 9 heat1 
& ,i believe 9 ! consci5ce4 ,i reject ! 
atoms1 & ,i reject ! doctr9e ( atonem5t4
 ,i reject x1 if x be meant = sci5ce1   
because1 s f> f expla9+ ! facts1 ! facts
 expla9 h[ ! false doctr9e 0 g5]at$4 ,i 
reject x1 if x is meant = philosophy1   

because1 l o!r transc5d5tal !ories1 x   
leads to hopeless controv]sies1 & appe>s
 to me to be incr$ible z soon z any su* 
!ology z is t5able by a philosoph] is   
sub/itut$ = ! crude !ology ( a savage4  
,we are driv5 to scepticism1 !n1 if we  
fir/ decl>e t sci5tific k dep5ds ^u     
metaphysical !ory2 & !n t all           
metaphysical !ory is moon%9e4 ,i d n    
accept ! fir/ pr9ciple2 & ,i hold t !   
dang] to morals f metaphysical          
difficulties is pretty mu* ! same z !   
dang] t ! />s w leave _! c\rses if we   
adopt a wrong !ory ( an a/ronomy4 ,we   
fancy t :5 we are expla9+ facts1 we are1
 someh[1 creat+ !m2 z ! meteorologi/ 9  
,rasselas obs]v$ ! cl\ds till he came to
 ?9k t he caus$ ! ra94 ,! facts ^u :i*  
morality dep5ds are ! facts t m5 h c]ta9
 emotions2 t mo!rs love _! *ildr52 t !re
 are su* ?+s z pity1 & sympa?y1 & public
 _s2 & t !re are social in/9cts ^u !    
gr[? ( :i* dep5ds ! vitality ( ! race4  
,we may1 ( c\rse1 ask h[ m precisely ^! 
emotions act1 & :at functions !y        

dis*>ge4 ,we may make hi/orical &       
psy*ological & metaphysical inquiries2 &
 we may end1 if ev] we rea* su* a       
consummation1 by e/abli%+ :at we may    
call a sci5ce ( e?ics4 ,b ! facts d n   
dep5d ^u ! explanation4 ,! illusion ( _!
 dep5d5ce is easily produc$4 ,y make y\r
 !ory ( morality1 & !n y def9e morality 
z a belief 9 ! object requir$ by y\r    
!ory4 ,x foll[s1 ( c\rse1 t morality w  
disappe> ) ! belief--or else t y\r !ory 
is wrong4 ,morality1 said "s p1 is a    
belief 9 future rew>ds & puni%m5ts4 ,if 
t belief disappe>s1 morality--t is1 _!  
morality--mu/ disappe> too4 ,b t        
morality--tak5 z ! actual s5tim5t :i* !y
 h errone\sly def9$--%\ld disappe> also1
 no m foll[s ?an x foll[s t heat w      
disappe> :5 we discov] t !re is no su*  
?+ z ! old imag9>y sub/ance ( heat4 ,!  
doctr9e is n[ m g5]ally urg$ 9 a diff]5t
 =m4 ,!ology1 x is said1 is ess5tial to 
morality4 ,su* bold ass]tions may be be/
 met by a dogmatic ass]tion ( ! inv]se  
case4 ,!ology1 z ,i hold1 is n ! s\rce (

 ! moral in/9cts1 b1 "u c]ta9           
conditions1 d]ives its real p[] f !m4   
,!ology1 9 ! fir/ place1 is a ^w includ+
 n only het]og5e\s b contradictory      
mean+s1--,baal & ,jehovah1 !            
,mumbo-jumbo ( ! negro & ,sp9oza's ens  
absolute inf9itum4 ,to ! enorm\s        
majority ( ! human race1 ! m            
metaphysical conception is hopelessly   
un9telligible4 ,:5 a savage expresses 8 
crude s5se ( duties to ! tribe "u ! =m (
 belief 9 an ance/ral gho/1 is !        
morality made by ! belief1 or ! belief  
g5]at$ by ! incipi5t moral emotion8     
,does he believe 9 ,god or really 9 a   
man l himself1 & respect$ precisely     
because he is l himself8 ,is n ! tru?   
tacitly ackn[l$g$ by ! m philosophical  
religions8 ,_! adh]5ts admit t ! ,god ( 
philosophy is too ab/ract a ,be+ to     
excite any emotion2 he fades into       
,nature or ! ,unkn[able1 & x is         
impossible to love "o :om1 by 8 v       
def9ition1 y c nei!r b5efit nor injure &
 ^: omnipot5ce makes ev5 ju/ice a       

mock]y4 ,!re=e1 !y make a ,god out ( a  
man1 & by boldly comb9+ 9 words two     
contradictory sets ( attributes1 make   
:at 9 !ology is call$ a my/]y1 & 9      
common s5se call$ by a diff]5t "n4 ,does
 n t am\nt to confess+ t ! true s\rce ( 
morality is 9 ! human affections ( l =  
l1 & n 9 t s5tim5t t[>ds a transc5d5tal 
object ( :i* y h *os5 to make y\r       
def9ition8 ,&1 f9ally1 if we ask :at is 
! relation ( !ology to morality1 f a    
hi/orical po9t ( view1 we see ! same    
result4 ,und\bt$ly1 !ology has be5 a    
bulw>k ( morality 9 "o way4 ,x has      
express$ ! v5]ation ( mank9d = ! mo/    
deeply-seat$ cu/oms ( ! race4 ,x has be5
 ! =m ?r\gh :i*1 ?\gh n ! cause ow+ to  
:i*1 m5 h express$ ! importance ( adh]+ 
to c]ta9 e/abli%$ in/itutions ( ! highe/
 importance to mank9d4 ,briefly1 !re=e1 
x repres5ts ! cons]vative in/9cts4 ,b1 =
 t reason1 x has naturally lagg$ beh9d  
an advanc+ morality4 ,! new] religions h
 be5 precisely prote/s aga9/ !          
objectionable conduct ( ! old-fa%ion$   

deities :o reta9$ ! mann]s & cu/oms ( a 
m b>b>\s p]iod2 & h1 !re=e1 be5 reg>d$  
by ! old] fai?1 sometimes ) ju/ice1 z   
a!i/ic4 ,)\t ref]r+ to ! famili> cases1 
,i am cont5t to appeal to ! pres5t day4 
,:at are ! relative positions ( !       
!ologian & 8 oppon5t dur+ ! mod]n phase 
( evolution8 ,! !ologian has1 9 ! ma91  
ma9ta9$ ! sanctity ( old in/itutions &  
cu/oms2 & ,i d n d\bt t he has r5d]$ a  
useful s]vice4 ,b ! dem& = ju/ice1 = !  
abolition ( slav]y1 ( ! h>d%ips ( ! poor
 & oppress$1 ! desire to con/ruct       
society ^u a :olesom] ideal1 has be5    
g5]at$1 n by !ological speculation1 b by
 ! new relations into :i* m5 h be5      
br\ght & ! new s5tim5ts develop$4 ,x has
 be5 accept$ mo/ fully by m5 ho/ile to  
all !ology1 by ! free-?9k]1 ! a!i/1 & ! 
mat]iali/1 :om ! or?odox d5\nces z      
crim9al4 ,d\btless ! d5\nc] has excuses3
 ! re=m] may err 9 ! direction (        
excessive demolition2 b ! v survival ( !
 old] cre$s dep5ds1 z we all see1 ^u _! 
capacity = assimilat+ & f9d+ utt]ance = 

! moral convictions :i* h aris5 outside 
( _! limits1 &1 g5]ally1 9 defiance ( _!
 au?ority4 ,to say1 !re=e1 t ! morality 
dep5ds ^u ! survival ( ! metaphysical   
!ory1 seems to me to be inv]t+ ! true   
relation4  ,i end by sugge/+ :at is to  
my m9d ! true moral ( ^! speculations4  
,! vanity ( philosophis+ means ! vanity 
( c]ta9 philosophical pret5sions2 ( !   
*im]ical belief t ! philosoph] lays d[n 
! fir/ pr9ciples ( belief 9 e?ics or 9  
o!r dep>tm5ts ( life1 9 su* a s5se t !  
de/9ies ( ! race or ( k dep5d ^u accept+
 & apply+ 8 pr9ciples4 ,8 function is a 
humbl] "o1 ?\gh "o ( va/ importance4 ,! 
great philosophical sy/ems h vani%$1    
?\gh !y h cle>$ ! air4 ,!y 7 primitive  
attempts at con/ruction2 results ( !    
fact t we h to act be=e we c ?9k2 & to  
assume po/ulates :i* c only be v]ifi$ or
 falsifi$ by ! sl[ exp]i5ce ( ages4 ,b !
 process by :i* tru? is advanc$ is n    
conf9$ to ! philosoph]2 or p]haps we    
%\ld r say t "s sort ( crude philosophy 
is emb$d$ ev5 9 ! feeble/ & e>lie/      

speculations ( mank9d4 ,our ?\ghts are  
guid$ by an implicit logic long be=e we 
h ev5 a conception ( logic 9 ! ab/ract1 
or h ! lea/ ?\ght ( codify+ & tabulat+  
its =mulae4 ,s e savage :o beg9s to make
 a tool is exemplify+ "s me*anical      
pr9ciple :i* w n be put into accurate & 
ab/ract language till c\ntless g5]ations
 h pass$4 ,e "o at ! pres5t day :o is   
us+ 8 wits is philosophis+ aft] a       
fa%ion1 & is contribut+ t[>ds !         
advancem5t ( philosophy4 ,he is increas+
 ! mass ( /ill m or less *aotic k1 !    
:ole ( :i* is to t philosoph] :at !     
p>ticul> set ( facts is to ! /ud5t (    
physical sci5ce4 ,! philosoph] has n to 
evolve fir/ pr9ciples out ( himself1 s  
mu* z to discov] :at are ! pr9ciples :i*
 h be5 unconsci\sly appli$2 to elim9ate 
! obsolete elem5ts2 to br+ ! new into   
h>mony2 to v]ify !m1 or describe h[ !y  
may be v]ifi$2 & s to "w t[>ds !        
unification & sy/ematisation ( k 9      
g5]al4 ,probably he w make a great _m   
blund]s 9 8 task2 b x may be "s com=t to

 reflect t ev5 blund]s are (t5 useful1 &
 t he is n 9 ! t]ribly responsible      
position ( really fram+ laws = ! univ]se
 or = man1 b only ( cle>+ up or codify+ 
! laws :i* are already 9 op]ation4      
,,=gott5 ,,b5efactors4   ,i 0 read+ n   
long ago "s rem>ks,a :i* impress$ me at 
! "t1 & ^u :i*1 z x came to pass1 ,i h  
_h reason to reflect m s]i\sly4 ,! writ]
 dwelt ^u ! va/ s]vices :i* h be5 r5d]$ 
to ! race by m5 ( :om all memory has    
long s9ce fad$ away4 ,comp>e1 he said1 !
 ,engl& ( ,alfr$ ) ! ,engl& ( ,victoria2
 ?9k ( ! enorm\s diff]5ces :i* h be5    
br\ght ab\t 9 ?irty g5]ations2 & !n try 
to e/imate h[ l>ge a %>e ( all t has be5
 done 9 ! int]val %\ld be put to ! cr$it
 ( ?\s&s :o h long sunk into oblivion1 &
 ^: a*ievem5ts1 by ! v necessity ( !    
case1 c nev] be prop]ly e/imat$4 ,a few 
great names m>k e p]iod2 ! great        
/atesm51 ! great *ur*m5 & w>riors1 are  
commemorat$ 9 our (ficial hi/ories2 !y  
are plac$ ^u exalt$ p$e/als2 & to !m is 
attribut$ ev]y?+ t 0 done 9 _! "t1 ?\gh1

 b = ! co-op]ation ( innum]able nameless
 fell[-lab\r]s1 !y w\ld n h be5 provid$ 
ev5 ) ! f\ndations ^u :i* _! "w 0       
necess>ily bas$4  ,?is rem>k recalls !  
famili> discussion ab\t ! importance ( !
 individual4 ,is ! h]o :om we are invit$
 to wor%ip ev]y?+1 or is he next to     
no?+8 ,is x true1 z "s writ]s put x1 t  
_h ,cleopatra brok5 h] nose1 or _h a    
cannon ball gone a hair's bread? fur!r  
to ! "r or left :5 ,napoleon 0 direct+ !
 siege ( ,t\lon1 ! :ole c\rse ( hi/ory  
w\ld h be5 *ang$8 ,or is x r true t1 z  
"s philosoph]s w\ld say1 no man is      
indisp5sable1 nor ev5 any man v         
important3 t1 if any ev5 ( ! greate/ (  
m5 _h di$ ( ! measles 9 8 infancy1 we   
%\ld h c>v$ a diff]5t set ( lett]s ^u ! 
p$e/als ( our /atues1 b ! c\rse (       
affairs w\ld h run 9 mu* ! same *annel8 
,i w n seek to discuss t old !me1 to :i*
 x is evid5t t no v precise answ] c be  
giv54 ,x is cle>ly a "q ( degree4       
,nobody c d5y t a great man has an      
influ5ce 9 ! sph]es ( action & ( ?\ght2 

b to attempt to say h[ great an influ5ce
 he has1 h[ f> he dep5ds ^u o!rs or c\ld
 be replac$ by o!rs1 involves           
consid]ations ly+ 9 ! unpr(itable region
 ( vague conjecture4 ,?is only ,i wi% to
 note4 ,x seems (t5 to be sugge/$ t !re 
is some?+ degrad+ or ung5]\s 9 tak+ a   
side aga9/ ! importance ( ! h]o4 ,x     
raises a suspicion t y are a valet1     
capable ( suppos+ t m5 are di/+ui%$ by !
 quantity ( lace on _! coats1 & n by !  
int5sity ( ! fire 9 _! s\ls4 ,&1        
moreov]1 ! view is fatali/ic3 x supposes
 t ! de/9ies ( ! race are det]m9$ by :at
 are d5\nc$ z bl9d laws1 & n by !       
passions & aspirations :i* guide _!     
en]gies4 ,to me x seems t x w\ld be easy
 en\gh to retort ^! imputations4 ,i _c  
feel t a man ( g5]\s sympa?ies %\ld be  
!re=e incl9$ to a doctr9e :i* w\ld t5d  
to make ! future ( ! race a matt] (     
*ance4 ,! m y believe 9 ! importance ( !
 great m51 ! m y h to admit t our       
progress dep5ds ^u ! innum]able accid5ts
 :i* may /ifle ! greate/ z easily z !   

smalle/ c>e]4 ,if "s great social *ange 
0 s absolutely dep5d5t ^u ! lead] :o    
fir/ put into words ! dem& ^u :i* x is  
bas$1 or :o l$ ! fir/ =lorn hope :i*    
made victory possible1 t 8 loss w\ld h  
be5 ! loss ( 8 cause1 x foll[s t ! cause
 might h be5 lo/ if a cru/ ( bread _h   
gone ! wrong way4 ,x ought surely to be 
pleasant] if we are entitl$ to hold t we
 h a /rong] gr\nd ( confid5ce2 t ! great
 victories ( ?\ght & action prove !     
diffusion ( en?usiasm & c\rage ?r\gh a  
wide circle2 & t ! fall ( ! *ief is sure
 to make room = a wor?y successor4 ,!   
wid] & deep] ! causes ( progress1 ! m   
confid5tly we c d]ive hope f ! pa/1 &   
accept ) comp>ative equanimity ev5 ! mo/
 pa9ful cata/rophes4  ,nor c ,i agree t 
su* a view implies any want (           
susceptibility to ! claims ( ! h]o4 ,i d
 n ?9k t we c pay homage too *e]fully to
 ! great m5 :o =m l&m>ks 9 hi/ory4 ,i   
admit1 mo/ gladly1 t ! admiration :i* we
 feel = su* m52 ! ?rill :i* /irs u 9    
read+ ( ! great patriots & m>tyrs ( !   

pa/2 ! rev]5ce :i* we are n[ & !n able  
to pay to a contempor>y--to a ,l9coln1  
prov+ t political action may repres5t   
real fai?s1 n p>ty =mulae2 to a ,gordon1
 imp]sonat+ ! s5se ( duty2 or a ,fa!r   
,dami51 sacrific+ 8 life = ! lep]s--is  
"o ( ! invaluable elem5ts ( moral       
cultivation4 ,b ,i d n see ! connection 
betwe5 ?is & ! desire to exalt ! glory (
 ! great man by ignor+ ! unkn[n :o      
foll[$ 9 8 /eps1 & (t5 made !m possible4
 ,i h n s f> atta9$ to ! cosmopolitan   
po9t ( view t my blood is n /irr$ by ! v
 "n ( ,nelson4 ,nay1 h[ev] cosmopolitan 
,i might become1 ,i hope t my sympa?ies 
w\ld nev] bl9d me to ! greatness ( !    
qualities impli$ 9 8 patriotic devotion4
 ,my cosmopolitanism w\ld r1 ,i hope1   
lead me to appreciate m g5]\sly ! simil>
 qualities 9 8 antagoni/s1 &1 also1 !   
simil> qualities 9 ! b& ( bro!rs :om he 
0 pr\d to lead4 ,i %\ld be sorry s to   
admire ,nelson z to =get ! /urdy old    
race ( sea dogs :o did _! duty1 & help$ 
him to d 8 9 a memorable way1 "s n9ety  

ye>s ago4 ,i w\ld r believe ?an n t1 _h 
,nelson be5 kill$ at ! ,nile1 !re 7 _m  
among 8 foll[]s :o1 _h ! *ance come to  
!m1 w\ld h l$ ! ,victory at ,trafalg>1 &
 h made ,engl& impregnable4 ,i tru/ we h
 )9 ?is realm five hundr$ good z he is  
surely ! m h]oic tone4 ,b1 to drop !    
old-fa%ion$ appeal to patriotic _s1 is x
 n true t1 9 e dep>tm5t ( life1 x is m  
cong5ial to our g5]\s feel+s to rememb] 
! exi/5ce & ! importance ( ^? :o h nev] 
won a g5]al reputation8 ,?is has come to
 be a commonplace 9 ! sph]e ( sci5tific 
discov]y4 ,we f9d1 ov] & ov] aga91 t !  
great discov]] has be5 all b anticipat$ 
by 8 rivals2 t 8 fame1 if n 8 real      
greatness1 dep5ds ^u ! circum/ance t he 
has j anticipat$ by a ye>1 or1 p]haps1 9
 extreme cases1 by a g5]ation1 results  
to :i* a comp>atively second-rate ?9k]  
w\ld h be5 compet5t a few ye>s lat]4 ,! 
w9n] ( ! race is apt to monopolise !    
glory1 ?\gh he w9s only by a hair's     
bread?4 ,! famili> in/ance ( ,d>w9 &    
,mr4 ,wallace is rem>kable1 n because ! 

relation ( ! two ?9k]s 0 unique1 b      
because1 un=tunately1 ! g5]osity ) :i*  
ea* ackn[l$g$ ! m]it ( ! o!r 0          
exceptional4 ,a great discov]y is made  
:5 ! f]tile ?\ght is already go+ ?r\gh !
 process ( incubation 9 a :ole circle ( 
intellig5t m9ds2 & t 9 :i* x fir/ comes 
to ! bir?1 claims1 or1 at lea/1         
receives1 ! :ole m]it1 by a "r (        
intellectual primog5iture n mu* m       
ju/ifiable ?an ! legal "r4 ,admitt+1    
aga91 9 ! fulle/ s5se1 ! value & !      
difficulty ( t la/ /ep :i* has to be    
made 9 ord] to rea* ! cr[n+ triumph1 x  
w\ld surely be ung5]\s to =get ! long   
s]ies ( previ\s explorations by :i*     
alone x 0 made possible4 ,!re mu/ h be5 
c\ntless =gott5 ,newtons & ,desc>tes'1  
:o1 9 _! day1 _h to ex]t equal p[]s 9   
ord] to discov] :at are n[ ! mo/ famili>
 tru?s2 to inv5t ! simple/ sy/ems (     
ari?metical notation1 or solve ! e>lie/ 
geometrical problems1 )\t :i* nei!r a   
,newton nor a ,desc>tes w\ld h be5      
possible4 ,& :at is true 9 sci5ce is1   

surely1 equally true ( activities :i*   
t\* mo/ ( u m ne>ly4 ,( all und5iable   
claims to greatness ,i suppose ! mo/    
und5iable to be ! claim ( ! f\nd]s (    
religions4 ,_! disciples are s mu*      
impress$ by _! greatness t !y reg>d !m z
 sup]natural be+s1 or1 9 o!r words1 z   
be+s :o are ! sole & indisp5sable causes
 ( all ! consequ5ces attribut$ to !     
preval5ce ( _! doctr9es4 ,we are told1  
con/antly1 & (t5 z ?\gh x 7 too obvi\s  
to ne$ pro(1 t e moral improvem5t :i*   
has tak5 place 9 ! _w s9ce ! orig9 (    
,*ri/ianity1 is due to ,*ri/ianity1 & t 
,*ri/ianity itself is entirely due to   
its f\nd]4 ,human nature 0 utt]ly       
corrupt until ! ,deity became inc>nate 9
 ! =m ( a ,jewi% peasant2 & e social or 
moral /ep :i* has s9ce be5 made 9       
advance--& n "o ( ! un=tunate backslid+s
 by :i* ! advance has s9ce be5          
trammell$--is a direct consequ5ce ( t   
/up5d\s ev5t4 ,?is is ! !ory ( !        
importance ( ! individual1 rais$1 s to  
speak1 to its v highe/ pot5ce4 ,we n    

only attribute ! mo/ important &        
f>-rea*+ ( all *anges to a s+le ag5t1 b 
decl>e t t ag5t _c h be5 human1 & inde$ 
_c h be5 less ?an ! fir/ cause ( all    
*anges4 ,i %all n1 ( c\rse1 discuss !   
plausibility ( a doctr9e :i*1 if        
accept$1 breaks ! :ole *a9 ( cause &    
effect1 & makes ! lat] hi/ory ( ! _w n  
an evolution ( previ\sly op]ative       
process1 b ! result ( an abrupt1 my/]i\s
 int]f]5ce f )\t1 incomm5surable ) any  
o!r set ( spiritual =ces4 ,i am cont5t  
to say t to my m9d ! doctr9e becomes    
daily m impossible to any "o :o ?9ks    
s]i\sly & tries to picture to himself   
di/9ctly ! true nature ( ! great _w     
processes4 ,:at is to my purpose is1 t x
 seems to me to be n only inf9itely m   
cr$ible1 b also m satisfactory & m      
g5]\s--if !re be prop]ly a "q (         
g5]osity--to d ju/ice to ! disciples z  
well z to ! ma/]--to believe t ! cre$ 0 
f]m5t+ 9 ! he>ts & m9ds ( millions (    
human be+s2 & t1 al?\gh ! imp]fect &    
sup]/iti\s elem5ts by :i* x 0 alloy$ 7  

due to ! m$ium 9 :i* x 0 propagat$1 yet1
 on ! o!r h&1 x succe$$ s f> z x        
correspond$ to ! bett] in/9cts ( great  
masses ( m51 /ruggl+ bl9dly & ?r\gh _m  
errors to discov] rules ( conduct &     
modes ( conceiv+ ! univ]se m cong5ial   
?an ! old to _! bett] nature1 & prep>$  
to =m a society by cry/allis+ r\nd !    
nucleus :i* be/ correspond$ to _!       
aspirations4 ,:5 s reg>d$1 x seems to   
me1 & only :5 s reg>d$1 we c see 9 !    
ph5om5on some?+ :i* may give u solid    
gr\nd = hopes ( humanity1 & enable u to 
d ju/ice to c\ntless obscure b5efactors4
 ,! corruption ( human nature1 z        
!ologians sometimes tell u1 expresses a 
simple fact4 ,und\bt$ly1 x expresses a  
fact :i* nobody1 s f> z ,i "k1 ev] ?\ght
 ( d5y+--! fact t !re are bad in/9cts 9 
human nature2 t _m m5 are cruel1 s5sual1
 & false2 & t e man is m or less liable 
to succumb to temptation4 ,b ! ess5tial 
mean+ ( ! old !ological dogma 01 ,i take
 x1 some?+ diff]5t4 ,x meant t man 0 s  
corrupt t he c\ld only be made good by a

 miracle2 t ev5 8 app>5t virtues are    
spl5did s9s unless !y come f div9e      
grace2 &1 9 %ort1 t m5 _c be really     
elevat$ )\t sup]natural int]f]5ce4 ,if  
all t is good 9 m5 comes f _! religions1
 & if religions are only explicable z   
inspirations f )\t1 t1 no d\bt1         
logically foll[s4 ,i pref]1 myself1 to  
believe t1 ?\gh all m5 are weak1 & a    
good _m utt] sc\ndrels2 yet human nature
 does conta9 good pr9ciples2 t ^?       
pr9ciples t5d1 h[ev] sl[ & imp]fect may 
be ! process1 gradually to obta9 !      
ma/]y2 & t ! great religions ( ! races1 
:ile indicat+ ! intellectual & moral    
%ortcom+s ( mank9d1 indicate also !     
gradual advance ( e?ical ideals1 work$  
out by ! natural & ess5tial t5d5cies ( !
 race4 ,& ?us1 z x seems to me1 ?is     
conception ( ! mode ( gr[? ( religions &
 ( morality1 :i* ga!rs /r5g? z we come  
to take a m reasonable view ( ! _w's    
hi/ory1 is closely connect$ ) ! doctr9e 
t1 in/ead ( ascrib+ all good a*ievem5t  
to ! h]o :o drops f heav51 or spr+s     

spontane\sly f ! e>?1 we %\ld /eadily   
rememb] t he is only possible1 & 8 "w c 
only be successfully secur$1 by ! tacit 
co-op]ation ( ! innum]able unkn[n p]sons
 9 ^: he>ts 8 words f9d an e*o because  
!y are already feel+ aft] ! same ideal  
:i* is 9 him m completely embodi$4  ,9  
our judgm5t ( su* cases !re is1 !n1 an  
inju/ice s f> z we make a false e/imate 
( ! "r di/ribution ( praise & gratitude4
 ,x w\ld be an inju/ice1 9 a /rict]     
s5se1 to ! p]sons ignor$1 if we reg>d$  
su* gratitude z ! appropriate & ma9     
rew>d ( a noble life4 ,i ne$ n repeat ! 
commonplaces ( morali/s z to ! real     
value ( po/hum\s fame1 nor inquire :e!r 
x implies an illusion1 nor h[ f> !      
desire = su* fame is1 9 po9t ( fact1 a  
/rong motive ) _m p4 ,?is only ,i w     
note--t obscurity is a condition1 & by  
no means an altoge!r unpleasant         
condition1 ( mu* ( ! v be/ "w t is done4
 ,! g5]al or ! /atesman is conspicu\s 9 
connection ) successful ent]prise 9 :i* 
8 subord9ates necess>ily d a great "p ( 

! lab\r4 ,x is impossible = ! outside _w
 to =m a correct judgm5t 9 su* cases2 &1
 !re=e1 !re is no h>d%ip to ! p>ticul>  
p]sons conc]n$1 if !y are simply ignor$ 
:]e !y w\ld1 c]ta9ly1 be misjudg$2 & if 
!y1 !re=e1 "w 9 obscurity1 cont5t ) !   
approval ( ! v few :o c e/imate _!      
m]its4 ,!re is a comp5sation1 z we see1 
:5 we reflect ^u ! moral disadvantages (
 conspicu\s /ation4 ,lit]>y p1 =        
example1 mu/ be v unobs]vant if !y d n  
notice h[ demoralis+ is ! influ5ce (    
public applause1 & ! con/ant inducem5t  
to c\rt notoriety4 ,x is un:olesome to  
live 9 an atmosph]e :i* con/antly       
/imulates & incites ! weaknesses to :i* 
we are mo/ liable4 ,& _m ( our fir/     
writ]s mu/1 ,i %\ld fancy1 feel pangs ( 
self-humiliation :5 !y contra/ ! cr$it  
:i* !y h got = popul> "w ) ! v scanty   
recognition :i* comes to _m :o h appli$ 
equal tal5ts to ! dis*>ge ( duties (t5  
f> m b5eficial to mank9d1 b1 f _!       
nature1 p]=m$ 9 ! %ade4 ,i1 su* a man1  
,i fancy1 mu/ sometimes say to himself1 

am quot$ 9 e newspap]2 ,i am puff$1 &   
prais$1 & d5\nc$2 n to "k me is to write
 y\rself d[n a dunce2 &1 yet1 h ,i done 
z mu* = ! good ( my k9d z ?is or t      
humble fri5d1 :o w\ld be a/oni%$ 7 8 "n 
ev] to be utt]$ 9 public8 ,"s su* ?\ght1
 = example1 is inspir$ by ,johnson's mo/
 pa!tic v]ses1 :5 ! great lexicograph]1 
! ackn[l$g$ dictator ( ,engli%          
lit]ature1 ?\ght ( ! poor dep5dant1 !   
little humble quack doctor1 ,levett1 :o 
0 cont5t1 lit]ally1 to be f$ ) ! crumbs 
f 8 tables4 ,b ! obscure dep5dant1 z !  
patron felt1 _h done all t he c\ld to   
alleviate ! sum ( human mis]y4        ,8
 virtues walk$ _! n>r[ r\nd1        ,nor
 made a pause1 nor left a void2      ,&1
 sure1 ! ,et]nal ,ma/] f\nd        ,!   
s+le tal5t well employ$4   ,h ,i n1     
,johnson seems to h felt1 really done   
less to soo! mis]y by my ,diction>y & my
 ,rambl]s ?an ?is obscure lab\r] 9 !    
back lanes ( ,london1 ( :om1 b = my     
v]ses1 no "o w\ld h he>d ev5 ! "n8  ,a  
full answ] to que/ions sugge/$ by ^!    

?\ghts w\ld1 p]haps1 require an e/imate 
( ! relative value ( diff]5t aims &     
diff]5t functions 9 life2 &1 = su* an   
e/imate1 !re are no adequate gr\nds4 ,9 
"o ( ,br[n+'s noble/ poems1 ,rabbi ,b5  
,ezra--( :om ,i mu/ say t he /rikes me z
 be+ a little too self-complac5t--puts a
 relevant "q4 ,:o1 he asks1 %all        
arbitrate8          ,t5 m5 love :at ,i  
hate2      ,%un :at ,i foll[1 slight :at
 ,i receive2        ,t5 :o1 9 e>s &     
eyes1        ,mat* me2 we all surmise1  
,!y ?is ?+ & ,i t3 :om %all my s\l      
believe8   ,& he answ]s or sugge/s "o   
condition ( a satisfactory answ]1 by    
say+ t we are n to take ! co>se judgm5t 
( ! _w1 :i* goes by ! "w a*iev$4 ,we mu/
 rememb]--          ,all in/9cts        
immature1        ,all purposes unsure1  
,t1 weigh$ n z 8 "w1 yet swell$ ! man's 
acc\nt2        ,?\ghts h>dly to be pack$
        ,into a n>r[ act2      ,fancies 
t broke ?r\gh language & escap$2        
,all ,i w\ld nev] be1        ,all m5    
ignor$ 9 me1      ,t ,i 0 wor? to ,god1 

^: :eel ! pit*] %ap$4   ,if x 7 prop] to
 treat a poetical utt]ance ( ?is k9d l a
 delib]ate philosophical !ory1 ,i might 
wi% to argue ! po9t a little ) ! rabbi4 
,b1 at any rate1 he po9ts to            
consid]ations :i* %[ h[ little any "o c 
judge ( m]it by any tangible & g5]ally  
accessible te/4 ,i am cont5t to say t   
?is s5tim5t gives "o--& a v             
impressive--answ] to a problem :i*      
presses ^u u ! m z we gr[ old]4 ,x is   
natural = a man :o feels t he has done  
mo/ ( 8 "w1 t ! night is com+1 &1 z x   
seems1 com+ ) accel]at$ spe$2 :o feels1 
too1 t :atev] he has done or may d1 he c
 no long] h ! approval ( ^? ^: approval 
0 de> to him z 8 brea?2--x is natural = 
su* a man to look back1 to take /ock m  
or less ( 8 own p]=mances p]haps1 & at  
any rate to endeav\r to e/imate at _!   
true wor? ! s]vices :i* he has receiv$ f
 o!rs4 ,:at1 he may ask1 has he done ) 8
 tal5ts8 :at little fragm5t has he      
a*iev$ ( :at might once h be5 9 8 p[]8  
,! answ] is pretty sure to h a v        

melan*oly side to x2 & x w lead to ! "q1
 :at "p ( t fragm5t 0 really wor? do+8  
,:at 7 ! few really solid s]vices :i* he
 may set (f z "s satisfaction to 8      
self-e/eem1 aga9/ 8 c\ntless errors & 8 
w&]+s 9 wrong directions1 & 8 attempts  
to a*ieve ! impossible1 & ! wa/e ( en]gy
 ^u ! trifl+ & ! wor?less 9 :i* he is   
pretty sure to h sp5t a v l>ge          
proportion ( 8 "t8 ,:5 we try to return 
a v]dict ^u su* issues1 we feel pa9fully
 to h[ _m illusions we are subject4 ,:5 
we are "y we naturally accept !         
commonplaces1 & d n "q ! ideals amid :i*
 we happ5 to h gr[n up2 we are n        
consci\s ( ! movem5t :i* we %>e4 ,z long
 z we are float+ ) ! curr5t1 we are n   
ev5 aw>e t any curr5t exi/s4 ,we take   
our own little _w to be ! fix$ base1 q  
unconsci\s t x is all ! "t :irl+ & sp9n+
 along a mo/ complex c\rse4 ,& s x is   
difficult1 ev5 if ! ?\ght ( mak+ !      
attempt ev] occurs to u1 to try to      
occupy ! position ( a by/&] look+ on at 
life f outside1 & endeav\r+ to pron\nce 

"s g5]al op9ion z to its m]its or       
defects--its happ9ess or mis]y z a :ole4
 ,:at a que] place ?is is6 ,i rememb] a 
man once say+ to me abruptly2 & ,i ?\ght
 t he 0 ref]r+ to ! /eamboat on :i* we 7
 fell[-pass5g]s4 ,i f\nd t he _h be5    
sudd5ly /ruck by ! oddity ( ! univ]se 9 
g5]al2 & x seem$ to me t !re 0 a great  
deal to be said = a rem>k :i* seldom    
occurs to ^? p :o take ?+s = grant$4 ,we
 are r\s$ sometimes by a philosoph] :o  
pr(esses pessimism or optimism1 to ask &
 to try to answ] su* que/ions4 ,!       
answ]s1 we "k1 are apt to be pa9fully   
discordant4 ,is ! _w on ! :ole a sc5e ( 
mis]y1 ( re/less desires1 prov+ t we are
 mis]able n[1 & doom$ nev] to obta9     
satisfaction8 is x our only wisdom to   
give up ! w to live2 to hope t all ?is  
visible & tangible sc5]y is s mu*       
illusion1 & to aspire to s9k into       
,nirvana8 ,%all we try to conqu] all    
e>?ly appetites by a ?or\gh-go+         
asceticism1 & cultivate ^? spiritual    
emotions :i* c only f9d full            

satisfaction 9 ano!r & a bett] _w8 ,or  
%all we agree t1 aft] all1 ! love ( !   
true & ! beautiful1 or1 x may be1 !     
physically pleasurable1 gives a real    
solid com=t = ! "t1 :i* x w\ld be idle  
to drop = a %ad[8 ,is ! _w a sc5e (     
probation1 9 :i* we are to be fitt$ =   
high] sph]es beyond human k5 by ! he>ty 
& /r5u\s ex]tion ( e faculty t we       
possess8 or %all we say t su* action is 
a good 9 itself1 :i* requires to be     
supplem5t$ by no vision ( any ult]ior   
end8 ,%all we say t ?is is ! be/ ( all  
possible worlds because ! fitte/ always 
t5ds to prevail1 or t x is ! wor/       
because ev5 ! greate/ wret*$ness :i* is 
compatible ) b>e exi/5ce c /ill survive8
  ,philosoph]s1 no d\bt1 contradict ea* 
o!r1 because ev5 philosoph]s are n      
exempt f ! univ]sal weakness4 ,!        
explanation t pessimism means a disord]$
 liv]1 & ! c\nt] rem>k t optimism means 
a cold he>t & a good dige/ion1 are too  
famili> to ne$ exposition4 ,ea* man's   
macrocosm is apt to be relat$ to 8      

microcosm1 z ! convex to ! concave ( a  
curve4 ,to say ! _w is disagreeable1    
means t ,i f9d x disagreeable2 & t may  
be ei!r my own fault or ! _w's4 ,nor is 
x easy to correct ! p]sonal error by    
obs]vation1 = ! obs]v] c>ries himself & 
8 illusions ) him4 ,has su*-&-su* a life
 be5 a happy "o8 ,h[ are we to decide8  
,we are (t5 subject to :at may be call$ 
! dramatic illusion4 ,we judge by !     
cata/rophe1 by ! success or failure ( ! 
assum$ end4 ,we see a noble "y man /ruck
 d[n by "s accid5t1 & we ?9k ( 8 c>e]   
sadly1 because ! promise has n be5      
fulfill$4 ,is x n equally reasonable to 
say t ! promise 0 itself a bless+8 t !  
man we regret _h 8 tw5ty or ?irty ye>s (
 hopefulness1 confid5ce1 & happ9ess1 & t
 t 0 a cle> ga9 ev5 if we lose ! result 
:i* we might h anticipat$8 ,or we are   
impress$ by ! m excit+ incid5ts ( a     
life1 ! bl[s :i* cru%$ a man at         
int]vals2 & we =get all ! monoton\s ye>s
 ( tranquil happ9ess :i*1 if we apply an
 ari?metical te/1 may h occupi$ by f> ! 

great] "p ( 8 exi/5ce4 ,s\!y1 = example1
 argues t al?\gh we rememb] ,c[p] *iefly
 = 8 t]rible m5tal suff]+1 we %all f9d1 
if we add up ! mom5ts ( happ9ess &      
mis]y1 t he probably _h1 on ! balance1 a
 life ( mu* m enjoym5t ?an torture4 ,s1 
:5 we speak ( ! mis]y ( a nation at ! "t
 ( "s great tr\ble--! ,fr5* ,revolution1
 = example--x is difficult to rememb] h[
 small 0 ! proportion ( actual suff]]s2 
h[ _m ?\s&s or millions ( *ildr5 7      
enjoy+ _! little sports1 utt]ly ignorant
 ( ! di/ant /orm2 h[ _m mo!rs 7 absorb$ 
9 wat*+ _! *ildr52 & h[ _m quiet        
commonplace p 7 go+ ab\t _! daily       
peaceful lab\r1 pretty mu* z usual1 & ) 
only a vague--& possibly                
pleasurable--excitem5t at ! news1 :i*   
occasionally drift$ to !m1 ( !          
cata/rophes 9 a diff]5t sph]e4 ,c>lyle1 
9 "o ( 8 mo/ vivid & fam\s passages1 has
 incid5tally drawn ! contra/4 ,or1 if we
 try to =m an e/imate ( ! balance (     
happ9ess & mis]y ?r\gh any portion ( !  
race1 & appeal to exp]i5ce = an answ]1  

we mu/ c]ta9ly rememb] h[ limit$ is !   
field ( obs]vation1 ev5 ( ! be/ in=m$1 &
 ! mo/ imp>tial2 h[ rigidly !y are      
conf9$ = _! direct k to "o little       
section ( "o "p ( ! race2 & h[ ! va/    
majority--! ?\s& millions or s :o are   
altoge!r beyond _! k5--are kn[n to !m   
only by /ati/ical tables or ! casual    
reports ( sup]ficial obs]v]s4  ,z !re   
are s _m difficulties 9 =m+ an e/imate1 
z we are n agre$ z to ! true ends (     
human life1 nor z to ! degrees 9 :i* ^? 
ends are actually atta9$1 nor z to !    
efficacy ( ! v>i\s causes :i* det]m9e ! 
success or failure ( ! means employ$1 x 
becomes any "o to put =w>d 8 own op9ion 
^u ! topics to :i* su* consid]ations    
apply1 ) all mode/y4 ,&1 yet1 ,i ?9k t  
,i may dwell ^u "s tru?s :i* may be     
admitt$ by ^? :o diff] ^u ^! difficult  
problems1 &1 z ,i fancy1 des]ve m weight
 ?an !y g5]ally receive1 ev5 ?\gh !y h  
become commonplaces4 ,! ma9 condition ( 
human happ9ess1 say "s p1 is physical   
heal?4 ,a man ^: organs are all work+   

satisfactorily _c fail to be happy "u   
any b v abnormal conditions2 z1         
conv]sely1 a gra9 ( s& 9 ! wrong place w
 make any life a burd54 ,no "o w dispute
 ! tru? conta9$ 9 su* dicta2 &1 p]haps1 
z we realise m di/9ctly ! importance (  
s\nd heal? to our neighb\rs & to our    
desc5dants1 z well z to ourselves1 we   
%all lay great] /ress ^u ! conduct :i*  
is conducive to its pres]vation4 ,we    
%all see t :at is1 app>5tly1 a m]e      
dictate ( p]sonal prud5ce1 has1 also1   
its e?ical aspect4 ,b1 )\t dwell+ ^u ?is
 view1 we may apply ! analogy to        
society4 ,:atev] morality precisely     
means1 & :atev] happ9ess means1 x cle>ly
 indicates :at we call--& ,i ?9k t x is 
no m]e metaphor--a heal?y /ate (        
society4 ,?is1 aga91 implies1 fir/ (    
all1 ! heal? ( ^? dome/ic relations :i* 
are z ! ultimate molecul> =ces :i* b9d  
toge!r ! social tissue4 ,! society1 we  
may say )\t hesitation1 9 :i* !         
reciprocal duties ( husb&s & wives1     
p>5ts & *ildr51 are in/9ctively         

recognis$ & habitually obs]v$1 has1 s   
f>1 secur$ ! mo/ deeply-seat$ & ess5tial
 condition ( happ9ess & virtue2 !       
society 9 :i* ! union ( m>ri$ p normally
 produces h>mony1 & ! absolute id5tity (
 int]e/s & affections1 9 :i* *ildr5 are 
br\ght up 9 a pure home atmosph]e1 ) an 
embodim5t ( ! beauty ( dome/ic love     
always be=e _! eyes1 imbib+ unconsci\sly
 ! tradition ( a high moral /&>d1 & s   
prep>$ to repay1 9 due "t1 to o!rs !    
s]vices lavi%ly & ungrudg+ly be/[$ ^u !m
 by _! eld]s1--s f> repres5ts p]fectly  
s\nd heal?4 ,! degree 9 :i* any e?ical  
!ory recognises & reveals ! ess5tial    
importance ( ! family relation is1 ,i   
?9k1 ! be/ te/ ( its approximation to ! 
tru?4 ,an unwor?y view ( dome/ic        
happ9ess may lead to ! ascetic view :i* 
sets up a %am & ,quixotic ideal2 or to !
 cynical view :i* reg>ds x z a m]e case 
( selfi% indulg5ce4 ,i d n d5y t !      
relation1 l all o!r human relations1 may
 require modification z circum/ances    
*ange4 ,difficulties arise1 z :5 we     

notice ! great social *anges :i* h brok5
 up anci5t ties1 & h t5d$ to weak5 !    
family bond by facilitat+ des]tion1 &   
increas+ ! float+ population4 ,& _m     
sociali/ s*emes appe> at fir/ sight to  
be1 & sometimes are1 consci\sly design$ 
to weak5 ! s5se ( responsibility (      
p>5ts4 ,i1 ( c\rse1 _c n[ discuss a po9t
 :i* is1 und\bt$ly1 ( ! highe/          
importance2 b ,i am c]ta9ly conv9c$ t ! 
m]its ( any *ange mu/ be te/$ by its    
t5d5cy to pres]ve1 &1 if possible1      
int5sify ! /r5g? ( ?is und]ly+ bond ^u  
:i* ! welf>e ( society dep5ds f> m      
intimately ?an ^u any o!r human         
relation4  ,if ?is be true1 x foll[s    
also t to ^? activities :i* knit        
families toge!r1 :i* help to enl>ge !   
highe/ ideal ( dome/ic life1 we owe a   
great] debt ?an to any o!r k9d (        
conduct4 ,& to ?is ,i add t1 z ,i       
believe1 ! highe/ s]vices ( ?is k9d are 
r5d]$ by p]sons condemn$1 or p]haps ,i  
%\ld say privileg$1 to live 9 obscurity2
 ^: v names w soon be =gott51 & :o are  

entirely eclips$ by p ^: s]vices1 ?\gh n
 equally valuable1 are by _! nature m   
public4 ,to prove su* an ass]tion is1 ( 
c\rse1 impossible4 ,i give x only z my  
p]sonal impression--= :at x is wor?1    
aft] any d$uctions y may please to make 
^u ! score ( ! great fallibility ( su*  
impressions2 & only because1 correct or 
o!rwise1 x may s]ve to br+ out aspects (
 ! tru? :i* we are apt to neglect4 ,i h 
liv$ long en\gh to h _h opportunities ( 
see+ _m em95t m5 & wom54 ,i h ins5sibly 
=m$ "s k9d ( e/imate ( ! s]vices :i* !y 
h r5d]$ to me & my l2 & ,i record1 z f> 
z ,i c1 ! result ^u my own convictions4 
,i w put aside = ! mom5t ! half-doz5 m5 
( really fir/-rate em95ce1--! m5 ^:     
names are writt5 ^u all ! great         
intellectual & social movem5ts ( !      
c5tury4 ,i w ?9k = ! pres5t only ( ^? :o
 may be plac$ 9 ! second rank2 ( ^? :o d
 n pr(ess to h orig9at$1 b only to h    
diffus$1 important ?\ghts2 :o h act$ z  
lieut5ants to ! great lead]s1 & become  
kn[n to _! contempor>ies1 ) little      

prospect ( fill+ any important place 9 !
 memory ( _! successors4 ,yet ev5 su* m5
 bulk f> m l>gely 9 our eyes ?an        
multitudes ( m5 & wom5 ^: names w nev]  
be kn[n outside _! own little p>i%1 or  
ev5 _! family circles4 ,& !n ,i ask     
myself1 h[ f> ! e/imate ?us =m$         
corresponds to ! real value ( ! s]vices 
p]=m$4 ,i ?9k t ,i c speak mo/ easily by
 des]t+ ! l9e ( ab/ract argum5t1 &      
endeav\r+ to draw a portrait or two1 :i*
 y ne$ n assume to correspond too       
closely to p>ticul> facts4 ,i mean to   
sugge/ reflections :i* w really apply 9 
_m repres5tative cases1 & to ref] to    
typical in/ances ( g5]al tru?s4 ,i w    
fir/ m5tion "o su* case :i* happ5$ to   
/rike me =cibly at ! "t1 & :i* no "o "h1
 ,i am q c]ta91 w be able to id5tify4   
,long ye>s ago ,i knew a "y man at      
college2 he 0 s f> f be+ intellectually 
em95t t he _h great difficulty 9 pass+ 8
 exam9ations2 he di$ f ! effects ( an   
accid5t )9 a v %ort "t aft] leav+ !     
univ]sity1 & h>dly any "o w\ld n[       

rememb] 8 "n4 ,he _h n ! smalle/        
impression t !re 0 any?+ rem>kable ab\t 
himself1 & look$ up to 8 tea*]s & 8 m   
brilliant companions ) a loyal          
admiration :i* w\ld h made him wond] t  
!y %\ld ev] take notice ( him4 ,& yet ,i
 (t5 ?\ght !n1 & ,i believe1 9 look+    
back1 t ,i ?\ght rightly1 t he 0 ( m    
real use to 8 contempor>ies ?an any "o (
 ! p]sons to ^: influ5ce !y w\ld mo/    
naturally ref] z hav+ affect$ _!        
developm5t4 ,! secret 0 a v simple "o4  
,)\t any special intellectual capacity1 
he someh[ repres5t$ ) s+ul> complet5ess 
a beautiful moral type4 ,he possess$ !  
simple fai? miscall$ simplicity1 & 0 s  
absolutely unselfi%1 s conspicu\sly pure
 9 8 :ole life & conduct1 s unsuspici\s 
( evil 9 o!rs1 s sweet & loyal 9 8      
nature1 t to "k him 0 to h be=e "o's    
eyes an embodim5t ( "s ( ! mo/ lovable &
 really admirable qualities t a human   
be+ c possess4 ,he 0 a liv+             
exemplification ( ! tru? :i* "s great   
humori/s h embodi$ 9 _! writ+s1 ! tru? t

 simplicity at :i* fools laugh may be   
v5]able to wise obs]v]s4 ,"y m5 7 n     
always immaculate 9 ^? days3 ,i don't "k
 t !y are n[2 "s ( !m probably 7 vici\s 
9 conduct1 & might be cynical 9 ! views 
:i* !y op5ly express$4 ,b :atev] might  
be _! fail+s1 !y 7 at ! age :5 all b !  
deprav$--t is1 ,i hope & fully believe1 
all b a v small m9ority--7 capable ( be+
 deeply impress$ by ?is concrete        
example4 ,!y might affect to ridicule1 b
 x 0 impossible t ev5 ! ridicule %\ld n 
be ( ! k9dly sort2 bl5d$ & temp]$ )     
some?+ t 0 m l awe--pr(\nd respect1 at  
lea/1 = ! beauty ( s\l t und]lay !      
humble ext]ior4 ,! direct moral         
addresses :i* took ! =m ( eloqu5t s]mons
 or ( good advice naturally ga9$ an     
incomp>ably high] reputation = ^? :o    
utt]$ !m4 ,b1 consid]+ ! facility ) :i* 
! impressions s made evaporate f ! m9ds 
( ! he>]s1 ,i (t5 ?\ght t ?is obscure   
influ5ce1 ! m impressive :5 "o felt x   
because ( its entire unconsci\sness1    
probably did f> m to /imulate good      

feel+s & high] aspirations among 8      
companions ?an all ! (ficial            
exhortations to :i* !y ev] li/5$4 ,he   
w\ld h be5 unfeign$ly surpris$ to he>1  
:at ,i mo/ s9c]ely believe to be ! tru?1
 t 8 tutor ow$ incomp>ably m to 8 liv+  
exemplification ( :at is meant by a "* (
 unblemi%$ purity & simplicity1 ?an he  
ow$ to ! tutor ^: respectable platitudes
 he receiv$ ) unaffect$ humility4  ,!   
case--= v>i\s reasons--impress$ me      
deeply2 & ,i h (t5 ?\ght ( x & ( !      
pr9ciple :i* x illu/rates 9 lat] ye>s4  
,i once knew1 = example1 a woman ^: :ole
 life 0 devot$ to dome/ic duties1 & :o  
confess$ to me t %e _h sometimes felt a 
t\* ( humiliation :5 %e ?\ght h[ n>r[ 0 
h] own sph]e ( action1 :ile h] husb& 0  
daily decid+ ^u great que/ions ( high   
political importance4 ,"s wom5 w\ld h   
drawn ! conclusion1 t ! exclusion ( wom5
 f political activity 0 a grievance to  
be abat$2 & su* p might receive ) scorn 
! sugge/ion t ! dis*>ge ( ! dome/ic duty
 might possibly be z important z !      

dis*>ge ( ! m conspicu\s function4 ,!   
argum5t ab\t ! prop] sph]e ( wom5 is n[ 
g5]ally treat$ ) contempt2 & ,i am      
p]fectly ready to admit t x begs ! "q1 &
 is (t5 a m]e utt]ance ( bl9d prejudice4
 ,no "o1 ,i hope1 c\ld ass]t m will+ly  
?an ,i1 t ! faculties ( wom5 %\ld be    
cultivat$ z fully z possible1 & t e     
sph]e 9 :i* _! faculties c be           
effectively appli$ %\ld be ?r[n op5 to  
!m4 ,b ! doctr9e sometimes tacitly      
conf\nd$ ) ?is1 t ! sph]e g5]ally       
assign$ to wom5 is necess>ily l[] or    
less important ?an o!rs1 is n to be     
admitt$1 because ! contradictory may be 
misappli$4 ,! dome/ic influ5ce is1 no   
d\bt1 conf9$ )9 n>r[] limits2 b !n1 )9  
^? limits x is incomp>ably /rong] & m   
c]ta9 ( effect4 ,! man or woman c really
 m\ld ! "* ( a little circle1 & det]m9e 
! :ole life ( "o little section ( ! next
 g5]ation2 :5 x may be v difficult to   
say :e!r ! influ5ce :i* !y c br+ to be> 
^u a class or a nation is really        
p]ceptible at all1 or does n ev5 op]ate 

9 ! direction opposite to t int5d$4 ,&  
,i c\ld n help ?9k+ t a woman :o 0 br++ 
up sons & daught]s ready to quit        
!mselves l brave m5 & wom5 9 ! great    
/ruggle ( life1 might be do+ some?+ m   
really important ?an h] conspicu\s      
husb&1 :o 01 aft] all1 only "p ( a va/ &
 complicat$ ma*9]y1 nom9ally direct$ by 
him1 b1 9 reality1 controll+ all 8      
en]gy1 &1 n impossibly1 work+ out ! v   
results :i* he mo/ disapprov$4  ,x is1  
!re=e1 ) no ref]5ce to any ( ! political
 !ories ( wom5's rights1 & s =?1 t ,i   
v5ture to insi/ ^u ?is topic4 ,i ?9k t  
we habitually "u-e/imate ! enorm\s value
 ( ! s]vices1 :e!r ( man or woman1 done 
9 ! %ade1 & conf9$ )9 a v limit$ area4  
,let me attempt1 aga91 to draw a        
portrait1 n all imag9>y1 :i* may expla91
 at lea/1 :at ,i (t5 feel--! contra/    
betwe5 ! real wor? ( su* lives & !      
recognition :i* !y c ev] receive4       
,wordswor?1 9 "o ( ^? poems :i* %[ be/  
h[ true & t5d] 7 8 moral in/9cts1 has   
describ$ "o :o 0--        ,a p]fect     

woman1 nobly plann$      ,to w>n1 to    
com=t1 & comm&2      ,& yet a _s too1 & 
bright      ,) some?+ ( an angel light4 
,! words h (t5 come to me ( late1 till  
,i fancy t ,i c\ld supply a comm5t>y4 ,!
 woman ( :om ,wordswor? speaks 01 :5 he 
fir/ saw h]1 a phantom ( delight1 an    
embodim5t ( fem99e beauty1 &1 z su*1    
possess+ a *>act]i/ic p]haps sup]flu\s f
 a moral po9t ( view4 ,i h kn[n & "k    
wom51 n exactly beautiful1 be=e :om ,i  
w\ld gladly b[ z deeply z ,i w\ld if !y 
7 beautiful z ,hel5 ( ,troy4 ,b a poet  
mu/ be all[$ to take pleasure 9 beauty1 
& we may grant to x a c]ta9 place t x   
des]ves among high] qualities4 ,= x does
 s :5 ! possessor is absolutely--n      
unaw>e ( ! fact1 = t is h>dly possible1 
nor1 p]haps1 desirable--b absolutely    
unt\*$ by any vanity or                 
self-consci\sness4 ,! beauty1 "o may    
say1 gives1 at lea/1 an opportunity =   
display+ a quality :i* o!rwise w\ld n h 
s good an occasion ( manife/ation4 ,&1  
moreov]1 !re is a beauty ( ! r>e/ & mo/ 

exquisite1 :i*1 if n ! product1 is1 or  
at lea/ seems to be1 ! spontane\s       
accompanim5t ( nobility ( m9d & "*4 ,"s 
p]sons1 by a s+ul> felicity1 possess    
beauty z "o ( _! ess5tial attributes2 x 
seems to be n an accid5t or an addition1
 b a "p ( _! ess5ce1 :i* mu/ m\ld e     
detail1 :i* %9es ?r\gh body z well z    
s\l1 & is b ! outw>d & visible sign (   
all t is sweet & elevat$4 ,wordswor?'s  
ideal woman is--        ,n too bright or
 good      ,= human nature's daily food1
      ,= transi5t sorr[s1 simple wiles1 
,praise1 blame1 love1 kisses1 te>s &    
smiles3   & yet displays equally--      
,! reason firm1 ! temp]ate w1           
,endurance1 =esight1 /r5g?1 & skill4    
,we _c1 ev5 9 our ?\ghts1 sep>ate !     
arti/ic homage :i* we pay to ! ext]nal  
appe>ance1 & t :i* we pay to ! inn]     
qualities1 ( :i* !y are app>5tly !      
inevitable & pr$e/9$ symbol4 ,we h be=e 
u ! ideal--! type :i* reconciles all !  
conditions ( human life1 physical &     
moral--! p]fect woman1 :o is also !     

fitt+ vehicle ( ! angel light4  ,b x is1
 ( c\rse1 ^u ! qualities symbolis$ & n  
^u ! outw>d symbols t we mu/ insi/4 ,i  
w1 !re=e1 say1 t ! inw>d beauty1 :e!r   
fully repres5t$ or n by ! outw>d =m1    
implies1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! abs5ce ( all 
^? qualities :i* t5d to l[] & vulg>ise  
life4 ,:at we call ! worldly view1 =    
example1 ( love & m>riage1 is simply    
un9telligible to su* a nature4 ,love    
means1 to x1 an absolute self-surr5d]1 &
 ! complete fusion ( its own life ) !   
life ( ! belov$ object4 ,x c only be    
grant$ 9 return = a reciprocal surr5d]2 
& becomes ! mutual passion by :i* fe> & 
di/ru/ are utt]ly ca/ out2 & ! int5sity 
proves n liability to weak illusions1 b 
! sure insight ( ! l(ty in/9cts :i* _c  
fail to recognise correspond+ in/9cts 9 
o!rs4 ,to ! l[] m9d1 su* a "* appe>s to 
be too highly /rung1 too impassion$1    
romantic1 & c>eless ( ! solid advantages
 :i* secure at lea/ com=t4 ,to ^? ( m or
 less cong5ial s5tim5t1 x w r appe> to  
imply a _s :i*1 because x brea!s a high]

 elem5t ?an t at :i* m5 habitually live1
 p]ceives also m di/9ctly :at are !     
true/ & deepe/ s\rces ( all t des]ves to
 be call$ real happ9ess4 ,to live 9 an  
atmosph]e ( ! /ronge/ & mo/ unqualifi$  
affection1 to h ! v sub/ance ( life wov5
 out ( ! unres]v$ love ( a wor?y object1
 is its ideal2 & t ideal repres5ts1 ,i  
am conv9c$1 ! highe/ & pure/ happ9ess t 
c be enjoy$ 9 ?is _w4  ,suppose1 n[1 t  
"o s end[$ is /ruck by "o ( ^? t]rible  
bl[s :i* %iv] ! v f\ndations ( life2 :i*
 make ! outside _w a m]e discordant     
nightm>e1 & seem to leave = ! only      
reality a p]petual & gnaw+ pa91 :i*     
lulls = an in/ant only to be reviv$ by e
 contact ) facts4 ,sorr[ becomes !      
elem5t 9 :i* "o lives & moves4          
,consolation1 accord+ to ! famili>      
phrase1 is idle2 = ! vulg> notion (     
consol+ is t :i* ,sir ,walt] ,scott     
attributes to "o ( 8 *>act]s3 x is to   
try to prove t ! v ?+ = :i* we (f]      
consolation has n happ5$--9 o!r words1  
to und]take an ent]prise :i* is obvi\sly

 hopeless & illusory4 ,yet ! greate/ te/
 ( true nobility ( "* is its p[] ( turn+
 ev5 ! bitt]e/ grief to acc\nt4 ,! l(ty 
& simple nature sorr[s2 x does n attempt
 to %ut its eyes to ! full ext5t ( !    
calamity1 nor seek to di/ract itself by 
a =getfulness :i* might obscure its mo/ 
sacr$ visions ( ! pa/2 nor1 on ! o!r h&1
 to make a p>ade ( its s5sibility1 or   
try to fo/] or /imulate en]vat+         
emotions4 ,x kn[s in/9ctively t grief1  
t]rible z x is1 is yet1 9 ano!r s5se1 an
 invaluable possession4 ,! suff]] :o has
 eat5 8 bread ) h]bs le>ns1 z ! poet    
puts x1 to "k ! heav5ly p[]s4 ,= he or  
%e acquires a deep] & ke5] sympa?y ) all
 :o are desolate & afflict$2 & ! natural
 affections become bl5d$1 if ) a c]ta9  
melan*oly1 yet ) t quick & delicate     
p]ception ( ! suff]+ ( o!rs :i* gives ! 
only consolation wor?y ( ! "n--! s5se ( 
some?+ soo?+ & s(t5+ & inspir+ 9 ! mid/ 
( ! bitt]e/ agony4 ,grief1 s tak51 may  
be /unn+ & dead5+ = ! "t2 x may make    
life a heavy burd51 f :i* hope & eag]   

int]e/ h disappe>$3 we>y1 /ale1 flat1 & 
unpr(itable2 b by sl[ degrees x und]goes
 a transmutation into m /eady & pr(\nd  
love ( :atsoev] may /ill be left4 ,!    
brok5 & mangl$ fibres imp]ceptibly f9d  
new atta*m5ts2 & ! only solution ( !    
t]rible dilemma is rea*$ :5 "t1 :i*     
heals ! actual lac]ation1 enables !     
suff]] to feel t ! new ties d n imply   
infidelity to ! objects /ill belov$1 b  
are a cont9u\s developm5t ( ! indelible 
emotions1 & t ! lat] activities are b a 
c>ry+ on ( ! old duties1 made m sacr$ & 
solemn by ! old grief & its             
associations4  ,a l(ty nature :i* has   
pr(it$ by pass+ ?r\gh ! furnace acquires
 claims n only ^u our love b ^u our     
rev]5ce4 ,x becomes p]haps )9 ! little  
circle ) :i* x is famili> ! obvi\s &    
imm$iate resort :5ev] "s bl[ ( sorr[ or 
sickness has fall5 ^u "o ( its fell[s4  
,! figure :i* ,i attempt truly to       
describe is happily n unfamili>4 ,we h  
all1 ,i hope1 kn[n "s "o :o is          
in/9ctively call$ to m9d :5ev] !re is   

ne$ ( ! lov+ k9dness :i* seems s obvi\s 
& spontane\s t x does n ev5 occur to !  
be/[] to connect ! conduct )            
self-sacrifice4 ,su* p]sons appe> to be 
=m$ by nature = m9i/]+ angels1 & move   
among u unconsci\s ( _! claims to our   
devotion1 & br++ light into d>kness by  
_! simple pres5ce ) z little ?\ght t !y 
des]ve our gratitude z t !y ought to    
em]ge f obscurity4 ,happ9ess1 peaceful &
 cont5t$ at lea/1 if n ! old bright &   
confid5t happ9ess1 may come 9 "t2 & new 
sph]es be b\nd toge!r by ! attractive   
=ce ( a "* :i*1 if x is n m intr9sically
 lovable1 has ga9$ a m pa!tic *>m f its 
exp]i5ce4 ,! desire to relieve suff]+   
has become a settl$ in/9ct2 &1 ev5 :5   
!re is no special appeal to x1 is       
incessantly ov]fl[+ 9 ^? little1        
nameless1 unrememb]$ acts ( k9dness & ( 
love :i*1 accord+ to ,wordswor? aga91   
are ! be/ portion ( a good man's life4  
,:e!r t be q true ,i "k n2 b 9 s f> z   
su* acts seem to te/ify mo/             
unequivocally to ! con/ant fl[ ( a      

curr5t ( sympa!tic t5d]ness1 always     
ready to seize ^u e occasion ( giv+     
happ9ess1 on a *ild's bir?day z on !    
p>5t's dea?b$1 !y p]haps speak to u mo/ 
conv9c+ly ( an all-p]vad+ sweetness (   
"*4 ,an assidu\s & wat*ful desire to %[ 
k9dness1 :i* makes a p]petual succession
 ( su* little att5tions a "p ( !        
practical religion ( ! do]1 may g5]ate a
 correspond+ love ev5 m =cibly ?an !    
sacrifices made 9 ob$i5ce to a m        
conspicu\s appeal = help4  ,! value (   
su* a life z ,i h tri$ imp]fectly to    
indicate is n to be e/imat$ by ! numb] (
 good actions p]=m$1 or by any def9ite  
li/ ( ! p>ticul> consequ5ces a*iev$4 ,x 
may be h>d to say h[ _m pangs h be5     
soo!d1 h[ mu* happ9ess has be5 add$ 9   
special cases1 by "o :o goes ?r\gh life 
absorb$ 9 su* activities4 ,b above &    
beyond all ! sep>ate in/ances1 su* a    
p]son1--! object only to a few1 p]haps1 
( love & rev]5ce1 b to ^? few ! object (
 ^? feel+s 9 ! mo/ unres]v$ &           
unequivocal =m1--is some?+ f> m ?an a   

s\rce ( any numb] ( p>ticul> b5efits4   
,to reckon up & e/imate ! value ( su*   
b5efits is a conceivable und]tak+2 b we 
_c attempt to calculate ! value ( a     
spiritual =ce :i* has m\ld$ our lives1  
:i* has help$ by a simple consci\sness (
 its exi/5ce to make u g5tl]1 nobl]1 &  
pur] 9 our ?\ghts ( ! _w2 :i* has       
con/antly set be=e u a l(ti] ideal ?an  
we c\ld frame = ourselves2 :i* has be/[$
 ^u u an ev]-pres5t crit]ion ( !        
goodness or badness ( our own motives by
 our p]ception ( ! light 9 :i* !y appe> 
to a simple & elevat$ "*2 :i* has made e
 c[>dly & worldly ?\ght %r9k away aba%$ 
9 ! pres5ce ( noble in/9cts2 :i* has    
giv5 u a sympa?y s close & con/ant t1 z 
) ! light ( ! sun1 we are apt to be     
unconsci\s ( its ess5tial importance to 
u until "s accid5t makes u realise !    
effect ( its eclipse2 & :i*1 !re=e1 has 
9 "s s5se become a "p ( ourselves1 a    
re/ra9+ & elevat+ & s(t5+ impulse1 to   
:i* we cl+ z to ! wor?ie/ & mo/         
indisp5sable ( our possessions4  ,i am n

 speak+ f imag9ation4 ,i am try+ to utt]
 convictions spr++ f my p]sonal         
exp]i5ce1 & :i* ,i feel--mo/ pa9fully--t
 ,i _c adequately express4 ,i c\ld n say
 m1 ev5 if by say+ m ,i c\ld express    
myself adequately1 )\t a s5se ( a k9d ( 
pr(anity = utt]+ :at %\ld be kept = a   
few4 ,b ?\gh ,i speak = myself1 ,i hope 
& ,i entirely believe t ,i am !re=e     
speak+ = _m o!rs also4 ,!re are few :o h
 ! eyes to see :o h n recognis$ "s su*  
light %9+ ^u _! lives1 & z "o ma9 s\rce 
( :at !y h done or said if lea/ unwor?y4
 ,i fancy t ! ?\ght :i* naturally occurs
 to u :5 we reflect ^u su* an influ5ce w
 be3 0 ,i1 c\ld ,i1 be wor?y ( x8 :at am
 ,i t su* goodness %\ld h come to me8   
or1 :at1 if any?+1 h ,i done to transmit
 to o!rs ! bless+s conf]r$ ^u me8 ,su*  
que/ions h v>i\s aspects1 & ,i d n q see
 h[ !y c\ld be r$uc$ to a =m admitt+ ( a
 b>e logical answ]4 ,x n[ seems to me   
almo/ unbecom+ to dwell ^u ! comp>ison  
:i* ,i contemplat$ at />t+4 ,i imag9$ a 
man :o has made "s su* impression ^u !  

_w z is recognis$ by public reputation1 
to comp>e 8 own a*ievem5t ) su*         
a*ievem5ts z ^!1 :i* are absolutely     
private1 & nei!r seek nor desire any    
public rew>d4 ,9 tru?1 ! two ?+s are1   
p]haps1 /rictly incomm5surable4 ,!y mu/ 
be measur$ by diff]5t /&>ds1 & are (    
importance 9 diff]5t sph]es4 ,& yet ,i  
mu/ try to say ?is mu*4 ,! a*ievem5ts to
 :i* ,i h ref]r$ z 9 _! nature public & 
recognisable1 %\ld c]ta9ly be consid]$ )
 gratitude4 ,yet1 :5 we attempt to      
e/imate _! wor? we are s5sible ( t]rible
 drawbacks4 ,i h pass$1 let u say1 a    
measure admirably useful1 or writt5 a   
book :i* has made a m>k4 ,c]ta9ly ,i h  
done a good action4 ,b :at if ,i _h n   
done x8 ,7 !re n hundr$s ( p :o w\ld h  
be5 only too glad to take my place8 ,i h
 be5 successful because ,i happ5 to h   
be5 9 ! front rank1 :i* 0 impell$ by    
?\s&s ( eag] support]s4 ,i h said j a   
little bett] ?an my rivals :at !y 7 all 
/riv+ to say2 & my highe/ rew>d w be t  
my "n w be atta*$ 9 my own g5]ation1 &  

possibly ev5 9 ! next1 to "s p>ticul>   
op9ion :i* yet w\ld h come to ! bir? )\t
 me4 ,i h made a c]ta9 commotion on !   
surface = a mom5t or two1 b ! ripple w  
die away 9 a few ye>s2 &1 important z ,i
 may seem to myself1 ,i h only to look  
back = a g5]ation to recognise ! pla9   
fact t !re h n be5 at any p]iod m ?an "o
 or two conspicu\s work]s ! products (  
^: activity c be di/9ctly recognis$ at !
 pres5t day4 ,ev5 9 reg>d to !m1 x is   
(t5 d\btful :e!r !y did m h>m or good2  
:e!r !y did n direct human en]gy along !
 wrong pa?s1 & d z mu* 9 giv+ curr5cy to
 fallacies z 9 ext5d+ p]man5t tru?s4    
,n[1 aft] mak+ su* d$uctions1 :i* to me1
 at lea/1 seem to be ess5tially         
necess>y1 we c1 ,i ?9k1 d ju/ice to !   
tru? :i* is conta9$ 9 ,br[n+'s poem4 ,y 
are n1 he seems to say1 to measure !    
wor? ( life by ! am\nt ( "w done 9 x1 by
 ! tangible & obvi\s results :i* c be   
te/$ by ! _w's co>se f+] & ?umb4 ,r1 he 
sugge/s1 ! value dep5ds ^u ! excell5ce (
 ! s\l :i* is fa%ion$ into heav5's      

consummate cup by ! /ress ( ! pott]'s   
:eel2 by ! joys & sorr[s1 ! trials &    
triumphs1 :i* h affect$ x 9 its passage 
?r\gh life4 ,i %\ld pref] to say t ! k9d
 ( dilemma s sugge/$ is n really to !   
purpose4 ,! rabbi may seem to speak1 z  
,i said1 ) a little too mu* complac5cy1 
if he be int]pret$ z %>+ ! feel+ :i* is 
(t51 h[ev] unju/ly1 attribut$ to        
,goe!--t 8 supreme end 0 ! cultivation (
 8 own nature1 & t he reg>d$ himself z a
 "w ( art1 to be elaborat$ = its own    
sake1 & enri*$ by exp]i5ce ev5 at ! co/ 
( o!rs4 ,b 9 a bett] int]pretation ?is  
does n apply3 = ! v process by :i* !    
noble nature is develop$ & cultivat$1   
implies ! close/ & mo/ active sympa?y ) 
suff]+1 & an inv>iable ref]5ce to !     
highe/ aims ( life4 ,x becomes p]fect1 t
 is1 by con/antly r5d]+ invaluable      
s]vices to o!rs2 & !re is1 !re=e1 no    
mean+ 9 draw+ a di/9ction betwe5 !      
s]vices & ! influ5ce ^u ! s\l itself4   
,!y are p>ts ( ! same indivisible       
process4 ,:at is true & noble1 z ,i ?9k1

 9 ! rabbi's doctr9e1 is t :i* ,i h     
already tri$ to indicate3 namely1 t !   
wor? ( su* a life is n exhau/$ by a     
catalogue ( ! good de$s done1 b t1      
beyond & above all !m1 rema9s !         
ine/imable value )9 its own circle ( ! v
 exi/5ce ( a natural symbol ( ! good &  
holy--by ! holy ,i und]/& t :i* is n    
only moral1 b beautiful by reason ( its 
morality--& ! incalculable b5efits to x 
( ! pure f\nta9 ( all good influ5ces :i*
 desc5d ^u all )9 its rea*4 ,! /imulus  
:i* is giv5 to ! behold]s ( su* a       
life--by ! cle> p]ception t morality    
does n mean a /r+ ( judici\s            
commonplaces1 b c be embodi$ z ! spr+ ( 
a h>moni\s life1 & reveal itself z a    
concrete fle%-&-blood human be+--is     
some?+ :i* transc5ds 9 value all !      
p>ticul> results :i* we c tabulate &    
reckon up4 ,we mu/ ?9k ( x1 n z ! cause 
( s _m ext]nal b5efits1 b z !           
manife/ation ( a spiritual =ce :i*      
modifies & raises ! *>act]s ( all its   
surr\nd+s4 ,if ! sph]e )9 :i* x di/9ctly

 op]ates is f> n>r[] ?an t ( political  
or lit]>y a*ievem5t1 x is also          
incomp>ably pur]1 & works )\t a s+le    
drawback4 ,e religion has its sa9ts1 &  
hon\rs !m 9 v>i\s ways1 n always        
altoge!r edify+4 ,b t man is un=tunate  
:o has n a sa9t ( 8 own--"s "o 9 ^:     
pres5ce1 or 9 ! v ?\ght ( :om1 he does n
 recognise a sup]ior1 be=e :om x becomes
 him to b[ ) rev]5ce & gratitude1 & :o  
has purifi$ ! atmosph]e & /r5g!n$ !     
affections 9 a little circle f :i* !    
influ5ce may be transmitt$ to o!rs4 ,!  
sa9t w be =gott5 all too soon--long be=e
 less valuable1 b accid5tally m         
conspicu\s1 s]vices h pass$ out ( m9d--b
 ! moral elevation1 ev5 ( a small       
circle1 is a b5efit :i* may be propagat$
 indef9itely4  ,if we _c hope to pres]ve
 ! "n1 we c try to c>ry on ! good "w2 to
 ma9ta9 ! ties :i* h be5 =m$ & propagate
 ! goodwill ?r\gh wid5+ circles4 ,t1 ,i 
?9k1 is :at e "o feels "u ! /ress ( !   
mo/ t]rible trials ( life4 ,we are %ock$
 by ! s5se ( ! inevitable oblivion t w  

hide all t we lov$ s well4 ,!re is1     
accord+ to my exp]i5ce1 only "o ?\ght   
:i* is inspir+1 &--if n 9 ! vulg> s5se  
consol+1 = x admits ! exi/5ce ( an      
unspeakable calamity--po9ts1 at lea/1 to
 ! direction 9 :i* we may gradually     
a*ieve some?+ l peace & hopefulness )\t 
! slighte/ disloyalty to ! objects ( our
 love4 ,x is ! ?\ght :i* ,i c only      
express by say+ t we may le>n to feel z 
if ^? :o _h left u _h yet become "p (   
ourselves2 t we h become s p]meat$ by _!
 influ5ce1 t we c /ill ?9k ( _! approval
 & sympa?y z a /imulat+ & elevat+ p[]1 &
 be consci\s t we are m or less c>ry+ on
 _! "w1 9 _! _s4 ,we f9d1 z ,l[ell says 
9 8 noble ode--        ,we f9d 9 our    
dull road _! %9+ track2          ,9 e   
nobl] mood      ,we feel ! ori5t ( _! _s
 gl[1      ,"p ( our life's unalt]able  
good1      ,( all our sa9tli]           
aspiration2          ,!y come           
transfigur$ back1      ,secure f *ange 9
 _! high-he>t$ ways1      ,beautiful    
ev]more1 & ) ! rays      ,( morn on _!  

:ite %ields ( expectation4   ,alas1 he  
adds1 ev5 ! be/ de$s w be hidd5 be=e    
long by ! ?\ghtless drift ( ! decidu\s  
ye>s4 ,yes2 !y w be =gott5 be=e long1 z 
we too %all be =gott5--! incalculable   
majority )9 a g5]ation or two4 ,! ?\ght 
may be pa9ful1 b ! reasonable conclusion
 is1 ,i ?9k1 n t we %\ld fret ov] !     
inevitable2 r t we %\ld purify our m9ds 
f ?is z f o!r illusions1 & feel a%am$ ( 
! selfi% desire t our own names %\ld be 
pres]v$ :5 we "k t s _m :o 7 f> bett] & 
nobl] ?an ourselves w inevitably be     
=gott51 & 7 bett] & nobl] )\t ! /imulus 
( any su* paltry desire4 ,gratitude to !
 obscure is1 9 ?is s5se1 ,i take x1 a   
duty1 :i* we _c practise )\t a          
proportional moral b5efit4 ,x enables u 
to rise above ! con/ant temptation to   
seek = notoriety at any price1 & to make
 our ultimate aim ! a*ievem5t ( good "w1
 n ! *orus ( popul> applause :i* may be 
ar\s$4 ,?or\ghly to conqu] t temptation 
is1 ,i take x1 "o ( ! objects :i* e man 
%\ld set be=e himself4 ,& no?+1 ,i ?9k1 

helps "o m ?an a vivid & endur+         
consci\sness ( ! enorm\s debt :i* we owe
 to m5 & wom5 :o liv$ 9 obscurity1 :o   
nev] _h a ?\ght ( em]g+ out ( obscurity1
 & ^: ennobl+ influ5ce has yet become a 
"p ( e high] pr9ciple ( action 9        
ourselves4 ,i may or ,i may n h =m$ too 
l[ an e/imate ( ! s]vices ( ! few h]oes 
:o /& conspicu\sly above ! ord9>y level2
 b ,i am c]ta9 t no?+ t ,i c say w\ld   
exagg]ate ! importance ( _m :o h no     
claims to su* a position4 ,to *]i% &    
pres]ve t influ5ce by e faculty we      
possess seems to me to be our pla9e/    
duty2 & we may com=t ourselves1 if com=t
 be ne$$1 by ! reflection t1 ?\gh !     
memory may be transitory1 ! good done by
 a noble life & "* may la/ f> beyond any
 horizon :i* c be realis$ by our        
imag9ations4   ,,! ,,end4  ,,footnote3  
,a ,see ! ,weal? ( ,nature1 9 ,essays by
 a ,b>ri/] ,sir ,james ,fitzjames       
,/eph54  ,,ab]de5 ,,univ]sity ,,press4