,a ,gramm> (                ,free?\ght4 
,,by               ,,*apman ,,coh54     
7,issu$ by ! ,secul> ,society1 ,ltd47   
,,london3             ,,! ,,pione]      
,,press1         #fa ,,f>r+don ,,/reet1 
,e4,c4 #d4                     #aiba4   
,! ,publi%]s wi% to express _!          
obligation to ,mr4 ,h4 ,cutn] = ! v     
ta/eful design :i* adorns ! cov] ( ?is  
book4     ,,cont5ts4     ,,*apt]        
,,page        ,i4--,,outgr[+ ,,! ,,gods 
#i       ,,ii4--,,life ,,& ,,m9d        
#ah      ,,iii4--,,:at ,,is ,,free?\ght8
              #cg                       
,,iv4--,,rebellion ,,& ,,re=m           
#ea        ,v4--,,! ,,/ruggle ,,= ,,!   
,,*ild        #fa       ,,vi4--,,!      
,,nature ,,( ,,religion            #gb  
,,vii4--,,! ,,utility ,,( ,,religion    
#hh     ,,viii4--,,free?\ght ,,& ,,god  
#aja       ,,ix4--,,free?\ght ,,& ,,dea?
            #aaa        ,x4--,,?is ,,_w 
,,& ,,! ,,next          #abc            
,,xi4--,,evolution                      
#acd      ,,xii4--,,d>w9ism ,,& ,,design

             #adf     ,,xiii4--,,anci5t 
,,& ,,mod]n               #afb          
,,xiv4--,,morality ,,)\t ,,god4--,i4    
#agb       ,,xv4--,,morality ,,)\t      
,,god4--,,ii4       #ahb                
,,xvi4--,,*ri/ianity ,,& ,,morality     
#aic     ,,xvii4--,,religion ,,&        
,,p]secution         #bjd               
,,xviii4--,,:at ,,is ,,to ,,foll[       
,,religion8      #bbc     ,,preface4    
,x mu/ be left = ^? :o read ! foll[+    
pages to decide h[ f> ?is book lives up 
to its title4 ,t x leaves _m aspects (  
life unt\*$ is q cle>1 b !re mu/ be a   
limit to ev]y?+1 ev5 to ! size & scope (
 a book2 moreov]1 ! "w does n aim at be+
 an encyclopa$ia1 b only an outl9e ( :at
 may fairly be reg>d$ z ! ,free?\ght    
position4 ,free?\ght1 aga91 is too fluid
 a t]m to p]mit its tea*+s be+ summ>iz$ 
9 a set cre$1 b x does /& = a c]ta9     
def9ite attitude ( m9d 9 relation to ^? 
problems ( life ) :i* ?\ghtful m5 & wom5
 conc]n !mselves4 ,x is t m5tal attitude
 :i* ,i aim at depict+4  ,to ^? :o are n

 directly conc]n$ ) ! attack on         
sup]naturalism x may also be a matt] (  
regret t s mu* ( ?is "w is conc]n$ ) a  
criticism ( religi\s beliefs4 ,b t is an
 accid5t ( ! situation4 ,we h n yet     
rea*$ t /age 9 affairs :5 we c af=d to  
let religion alone1 & "o may readily be 
excus$ ! suspicion t ^? :o1 )\t believ+ 
9 x1 pr(ess to d s1 are m conc]n$ )     
avoid+ a difficult1 if n dang]\s1       
subject1 ?an !y are ) ! problem (       
develop+ sane & s\nd me?ods ( ?9k+4 ,&  
:ile "s :o /& =w>d z lead]s ( popul>    
?\ght fail to d _! "p 9 ! "w ( attack+  
sup]naturali/ic beliefs1 o!rs are p]=ce 
compell$ to devote m "t ?an !y w\ld     
o!rwise to ! task4 ,t1 9 brief1 is my   
apology = conc]n+ myself s l>gely )     
religi\s topics1 & leav+ almo/ unt\*$   
o!r fields :]e ! ,free?\ght attitude    
w\ld prove equally fruitful ( results4  
,aft] all1 x is ! m5tal attitude ) :i*  
"o approa*es a problem t really matt]s4 
,! man or woman :o has n le>n$ to set   
m]e au?ority on "o side 9 deal+ ) any "q

 w nev] be m ?an a m]e e*o1 & :at ! _w  
ne$s1 n[ z ev]1 is n e*oes b voices4    
,in=mation1 k1 is ess5tial to ! helpful 
consid]ation ( any subject2 b all ! k 9 
! _w w be ( v little real help if x is n
 "u ! control ( a "r me?od4 ,:at is     
call$ sci5tific k is1 to-day1 ! commone/
 ( acquisitions1 & :at mo/ p appe> to   
und]/& by t is ! accumulation ( a l>ge  
numb] ( positive facts :i* d1 inde$1 =m 
! raw mat]ial ( sci5ce4 ,b ! gett+ ( m]e
 facts is l ! gett+ ( money4 ,! value ( 
its accumulation dep5ds ^u ! use made   
!re(4 ,x is ! p[] ( g5]alization1 !     
p]ception & application ( pr9ciples t is
 all-important1 & to ?is ! grasp ( a "r 
me?od ( inve/igation1 ! exi/5ce ( a "r  
m5tal attitude1 is ess5tial4  ,! _w ne$s
 k1 b /ill m imp]atively x ne$s ! "r use
 ( ! k t is at its disposal4 ,= ?is     
reason ,i h be5 ma9ly conc]n$ 9 ^! pages
 ) indicat+ :at ,i consid] to be ! "r   
m5tal attitude ) :i* to approa* c]ta9   
fundam5tal que/ions4 ,=1 9 a _w s       
di/ract$ by conflict+ tea*+s z is ours1 

! value ( a "r me?od is almo/           
incalculable4 ,scepticism1 said ,buckle1
 is n ! result1 b ! condition (         
progress1 & ! same may be said (        
,free?\ght4 ,! condition ( social       
developm5t is ! realization t no        
in/itution & no tea*+ is beyond         
criticism4 ,criticism1 rejection &      
modification are ! means by :i* social  
progress is a*iev$4 ,x is by criticism (
 exi/+ ideas & in/itutions1 by !        
rejection ( :at is incapable (          
improvem5t1 & by ! modification ( :at   
p]mits ( bett]m5t1 t we %[ ourselves    
wor?y ( ! bett] traditions ( ! pa/1 &   
pr(itable s]vants ( ! pres5t & ! future4
    ,c4 ,c4     ,a ,,gramm> ,,(         
,,free?\ght4     ,,*apt] ,i4  ,,outgr[+ 
,,! ,,gods4   ,"o ( ! l>ge/ facts 9 !   
hi/ory ( man is religion4 ,if x 7       
o!rwise ! ju/ification = writ+ ! foll[+ 
pages1 & = attempt+ ! pro( t1 s f> z    
man's hi/ory is conc]n$ ) religion1 x is
 little bett] ?an a colossal blund]1    
w\ld n be ne>ly s complete4 ,moreov]1 x 

is a g5]alization ^u :i* religioni/s (  
all classes love to dwell1 or ev5 to    
p>ade z "o ( ! /ronge/ evid5ces 9 _!    
fav\r2 & x is always pleasant to be able
 to give y\r oppon5t all = :i* he       
asks--feel+1 mean:ile1 t y lose no?+ 9 !
 giv+4 ,univ]sality ( belief 9 religion 
really proves no m ?an ! univ]sality (  
tell+ lies4 ,all m5 are li>s is z true1 
or z false1 z ,all m5 are religi\s4 ,=  
"s m5 are n li>s1 & "s m5 are n         
religi\s4 ,all ! g5]alization means is t
 "s ( bo? are f\nd 9 e age & 9 e c\ntry1
 & t is true :e!r we are deal+ ) ! li>  
or ) ! religi\s p]son4  ,:at is ignor$  
is ! consid]ation t :ile at "o /age (   
culture religi\s belief is ! wide/ & mo/
 embrac+ ( all beliefs x subsequ5tly    
weak5s1 n q 9 direct proportion to !    
advance ( culture1 b yet 9 su* a way t  
"o c say !re is an actual relation      
betwe5 a prepond]ance ( ! "o & a weak5+ 
( ! o!r4 ,9 v primitive communities gods
 are born & fl\ri% ) all ! rank         
exub]ance ( a tropical vegetation4 ,9   

less primitive times _! numb] dim9i%es1 
& _! sph]e ( influ5ce becomes m & m     
%>ply def9$4 ,! gods are /ill cr$it$ ) !
 ability to d c]ta9 ?+s1 b !re are o!r  
?+s :i* d someh[ get done )\t !m4 ,h[ t 
discov]y & t division are made ne$ n    
deta9 u = ! mom5t1 b ! fact is pat5t4   
,advanc+ civilization sees ! process    
cont9u$ & quick5$1 nay1 t is            
civilization2 = until nature is rid ( h]
 haughty lords & man realizes t !re are 
at lea/ "s natural =ces t come )9 !     
control ( 8 intellig5ce1 civilization _c
 really be said to h comm5c$4 ,cont9u$  
advance sees ! gods s dim9i%$ 9 p[] & s 
weak5$ 9 numb]s t _! v impot5cy is apt  
to bre$ = !m ! k9d ( pity t "o feels = a
 millionaire :o becomes a paup]1 or = an
 autocratic mon>* r$uc$ to ! level ( a  
voteless citiz54  ,! tru? is t all !    
gods1 l _! human creators1 h 9 _! bir? !
 promise ( dea?4 ,! nature ( _! bir?    
gives !m life1 b _c promise !m          
immortality4 ,h[ev] mu* man comm5ces by 
wor%ipp+ gods1 he soon] or lat] turns 8 

back ^u !m4 ,l ! biblical deity he may  
look at 8 creation & decl>e x good1 b he
 also resembles ?is deity 9 pres5tly    
feel+ ! impulse to de/roy :at he has    
made4 ,to ! products ( 8 m9d man c no m 
give immortality ?an he c to ! "w ( 8   
h&s4 ,9 _m cases ! "w ( 8 h&s actually  
outlives t ( 8 m9d1 = we h to-day !     
rema9s ( /ructures t 7 built 9 ! hon\r (
 gods ^: v names are =gott54 ,& to bury 
8 gods is1 aft] all1 ! only real apology
 t man c (f] = hav+ creat$ !m4  ,?is    
outgr[+ ( religion is no new ?+ 9 human 
hi/ory4 ,?\ghtful obs]v]s h always be5  
/ruck by ! mortality among ! gods1      
al?\gh _! demise has usually be5        
*ronicl$ 9 t]ms ( exultation by rival   
wor%ipp]s4 ,b "h & !re a ke5] obs]v] has
 br\ght to be> on ! matt] a bread? (    
?\ght :i* robb$ ! ph5om5on ( its local  
"* & gave x a univ]sal application4     
,?us1 9 "o ( 8 wond]fully mod]n         
dialogues ,lucian depicts ! ,olympian   
deities discuss+1 mu* 9 ! _s ( a mod]n  
,*ur* ,congress1 ! preval5ce ( unbelief 

among m54 ,! gods are di/urb$ at f9d+ t 
m5 are rea*+ ! /age ( ei!r n believ+1 or
 n tr\bl+ ab\t !m4 ,!re is a great deal 
( talk1 & f9ally "o ( ! m9or deities    
treats !m to a little pla9 tru?--:i*    
appe>s to be z r>e1 & z unwelcome 9     
heav5 z on e>?4 ,he says--,i quote f    
,fr\de's translation3--       ,:at o!r  
conclusion c\ld !y arrive at :5 !y saw !
      confusion ar\nd !m8 ,good m5      
neglect$1 p]i%+ 9 p5ury &      slav]y1 &
 pr(ligate wret*es weal?y1 hon\r$ &     
p[]ful4      ,sacrilegi\s temple robb]s 
undiscov]$ & unpuni%$2 devotees      &  
sa9ts beat5 & crucifi$4 ,) su* ph5om5a  
be=e !m1      ( c\rse m5 h d\bt$ our    
exi/5ce4444 ,we affect surprise      t  
m5 :o are n fools decl9e to put _! fai? 
9 u4 ,we      ought r to be pleas$ t !re
 is a man left to say 8      pray]s4 ,we
 are among ourselves ) no /rang]s       
pres5t4 ,tell u1      !n1 ,zeus1 h y ev]
 really tak5 pa9s to di/+ui% betwe5     
good m5 & bad8 ,!seus1 n y1 de/roy$ !   
robb]s 9      ,attica4 ,z f> z          

,provid5ce 0 conc]n$1 ,sciron &         
,pity-,o-,campus might h murd]$ &       
plund]$ to ! end ( "t4      ,if         
,eury/heus _h n look$ into matt]s1 & s5t
 ,h]cules ^u      8 lab\rs little w\ld y
 h tr\bl$ y\rself ) ! ,hydras      &    
,c5taurs4 ,let u be c&id4 ,all t we h   
really c>$ =      has be5 a /eady alt>  
s]vice4 ,ev]y?+ else has be5 left to    
*ance4 ,& n[ m5 are op5+ _! eyes4 ,!y   
p]ceive t      :e!r !y pray or don't    
pray1 g to *ur* or don't g to      *ur*1
 makes no diff]5ce to !m4 ,& we are     
receiv+ our      des]ts4  ,! case c\ld  
h>dly be put m effectively4 ,x is !     
appeal to exp]i5ce ) a v5geance1 a =m ( 
argum5t ( :i* religioni/s 9 g5]al are v 
fond4 ,( c\rse1 ! argum5t does n t\* !  
"q ( ! m]e exi/5ce ( a god1 b x does set
 =? ! revolt ( awak5$ common s5se aga9/ 
! wor%ip ( a moral gov]nor ( ! univ]se4 
,we c say ( our day1 z ,lucian said ( 81
 t m5 are op5+ _! eyes1 & z a consequ5ce
 ! gods are receiv+ _! des]ts4  ,g5]ally
 speak+1 x is n difficult to see ! v>i\s

 /eps by :i* man outgrew ! conception ( 
! gov]nm5t ( ! _w by intellig5t =ces4 ,f
 :at we "k ( primitive ?\ght we may say 
t at fir/ ! gods dom9at$ all4 ,f ! fall 
( a ra9-drop to ! movem5t ( a planet all
 0 ! "w ( gods4 ,m]ely to "q _! p[] 0 ! 
wilde/ ( errors & ! grave/ ( crimes4    
,bit by bit ?is va/ t]ritory 0          
reclaim$--a task at ! side ( :i* !      
conque/ ( ! fev]-/rick5 tropics or !    
froz5 nor? is m]e *ild's play4 ,x is q  
ne$less to ent] into an elaborate       
speculation z to ! exact /eps by :i* ?is
 process ( dean?ropomorphization--to use
 a ^w ( ! late ,john ,fiske's--0        
accompli%$1 b "o c picture ! ma9 l9e by 
:at we see tak+ place at lat] /ages (   
developm5t4 ,& !re is no exception to ! 
rule t s soon z any gr\p ( ph5om5a is   
br\ght )9 ! conception ( law ! notion ( 
deity 9 connection ) ^? ph5om5a t5ds to 
die out4 ,& ! sum ( ! process is se5 9 !
 "w ( ! great law giv]s ( sci5ce1       
,cop]nicus1 ,galileo1 ,kepl]1 ,newton1  
,laplace1 ,lyell1 ,dalton1 ,d>w91 etc41 

:o betwe5 !m h pres5t$ u ) a univ]se 9  
:i* ! conception ( deity simply has no  
place4 ,apologies ap>t1 ! idea ( deity  
is =eign to ! _s & me?od ( mod]n sci5ce4
  ,9 ! region ( ! purely physical       
sci5ces ?is process may be reg>d$ z     
complete4 ,9 morals & sociology1 purely 
on acc\nt ( ! great] complexity ( !     
subjects1 my/ical & semi-sup]natural    
conceptions /ill l+]1 b x is only a "q (
 "t = ^! bran*es ( k to foll[ ! same    
c\rse z ! physical sci5ces4 ,9 morals we
 are able to trace1 m or less           
completely1 ! developm5t ( ! moral s5se 
f its fir/ beg9n+s 9 ! animal _w to its 
highe/ developm5ts 9 man4 ,:at is call$ 
! my/]y ( morality simply has no exi/5ce
 to anyone :o is n a my/]y-mong] by     
pr(ession or incl9ation4 ,& "h1 too1 !  
gods h be5 receiv+ _! des]ts4 ,= x is n[
 cle> t in/ead ( be+ a help to morals   
!re has be5 no great] ob/acle to a      
heal?y morality ?an ! play ( religi\s   
ideas4 ,9 ! "n ( ,god vices h be5 decl>$
 virtues & virtues br&$ z vices4 ,belief

 9 ,god has be5 an un5d+ s\rce ( moral  
p]v]sion1 & x lies ^u ! face ( hi/orical
 developm5t t an intellig5t morality1 "o
 t is capable ( adapt+ itself to ! *ang+
 circum/ances ( human nature1 has only  
become possible ) ! break+ d[n (        
religi\s au?ority4  ,exactly ! same     
ph5om5on faces u 9 connection ) social  
life4 ,we h to g back b a little way 9  
human hi/ory to come to a "t :5 !       
exi/5ce ( a ,/ate )\t a religion w\ld h 
seem$ to p impossible4 ,mu* z ,*ri/ians 
h qu>rell$ ab\t o!r ?+s1 !y h be5 9     
agreem5t on ?is po9t4 ,! hi/oric fight  
betwe5 ! e/abli%$ ,*ur* & ! ,noncon=mi/s
 has nev] really be5 = ! dise/abli%m5t (
 all religion1 & ! conf9+ ( ! ,/ate to !
 dis*>ge ( purely secul> functions1 b   
ma9ly z to :i* religion ! ,/ate %all    
uphold4 ,to-day1 ! c5tral issue is :e!r 
! ,/ate %all tea* any religion1 :e!r t  
does n lie "r outside its legitimate    
functions4 ,& ?is m>ks an enorm\s       
advance4 ,x is a pla9 recognition ( !   
tru? t ! gods h no?+ to contribute ( any

 value to ! developm5t ( our social     
life4 ,x m>ks ! beg9n+ ( ! end1 &       
regi/]s ! tru? t man mu/ be 8 own savi\r
 "h z else:]e4 ,z 9 ,lucian's day we are
 beg9n+ to realize t :e!r we pray or    
don't pray1 g to *ur* or don't g to     
*ur*1 believe 9 ! gods or don't believe 
9 !m1 makes no real or sub/antial       
diff]5ce to natural happ5+s4 ,n[ z !n we
 see good m5 puni%$ & bad ones rew>d$1 &
 !y :o are n fools & h ! c\rage to look 
facts 9 ! face1 decl9e to put _! fai? 9 
a deity :o is incapable ( do+ all ?+s "r
 or too c>eless to ex]t 8 p[]4  ,x is n 
t ! fight is ov]1 or t !re is to-day    
little ne$ to fight ! =ces ( sup]/ition4
 ,if t 7 s1 !re w\ld be no ne$ to write 
:at is "h writt54 ,mu* z has be5 done1  
!re is mu* yet to d4 ,! revolt aga9/    
specific beliefs only s]ves to illu/rate
 a fight t is ( mu* great] importance4  
,= !re is little real social ga9 if "o  
m]ely ex*anges "o sup]/ition = ano!r4   
,&1 un=tunately1 ! g5tleman :o decl>$ t 
he _h giv5 up ! errors ( ! ,*ur* ( ,rome

 9 ord] to embrace ^? ( ! ,*ur* ( ,engl&
 repres5ts a fairly common type4 ,x is !
 preval5ce ( a p>ticul> type ( m9d 9    
society t con/itutes a dang]1 & x is    
aga9/ ?is t our aim is ultimately       
direct$4 ,great z is ! am\nt ( organiz$ 
sup]/ition t exi/s1 ! am\nt ( unorganiz$
 sup]/ition is /ill great]1 & probably m
 dang]\s4 ,"o ( ! revelations ( ! late  
w> 0 ! evid5ce x pres5t$ ( ! trem5d\s   
am\nt ( raw cr$ulity1 ( ! l[ type (     
intellig5ce t 0 /ill curr5t1 & ! small  
am\nt ( critical ability ! mass ( p br+ 
to be> ^u life4 ,! leg5ds t ga9$        
curr5cy--! army ( ,russians cross+      
,engl&1 ! numb] ( mutilat$ ,belgian     
babies t 7 se51 ! /ory ( ! ,g]mans boil+
 d[n _! dead to extract ! fat1 a /ory t 
= obsc5e /upidity beats ev]y?+ else1 !  
,mons angels1 ! craze = mascots--all    
bore witness to ! preval5ce ( a frame ( 
m9d t bodes ill = progress4  ,! tru? is1
 z ,sir ,james ,fraz] rem9ds u1 t mod]n 
society is honeycomb$ ) sup]/itions t   
are n 9 !mselves a :it m intellectually 

respectable ?an ^? :i* dom9ate ! m9ds ( 
savages4 ,! smoo? surface ( cultur$     
society is sapp$ & m9$ by sup]/ition4   
,n[ & aga9 ^! hidd5 m9es explode        
noisily1 b ! sup]/ition is always !re1  
to be exploit$ by ^? :o h ! wit to use  
x4 ,f ?is po9t ( view ,*ri/ianity is no 
m ?an a symptom ( a s\rce ( great social
 weakness1 a manife/ation ( a weakness t
 may f9d expression 9 /range & unexpect$
 b always m or less dang]\s ways4 ,x is 
aga9/ ! preval5ce ( ?is type ( m9d t !  
,free?9k] is really fight+4 ,free?9k]s  
realize--app>5tly !y are ! only ones t d
 realize--t ! creation ( a bett] type ( 
society is f9ally dep5d5t ^u ! exi/5ce (
 a sanely educat$ intellig5ce1 & t w    
nev] exi/ :ile !re are l>ge bodies ( p  
:o c p]suade !mselves t human welf>e is 
9 "s way dep5d5t ^u1 or fur!r$ by1      
practices & beliefs t are n a bit m     
intellectually respectable ?an ^? ( !   
cave m54 ,if ,*ri/ianity1 z a m]e sy/em 
( beliefs1 7 de/roy$1 we %\ld only h    
cle>$ ! way = ! f9al fight4 ,?\s&s (    

g5]ations ( sup]/iti\s beliefs &        
practices t h embodi$ !mselves 9 our    
laws1 our cu/oms1 our language1 & our   
in/itutions1 are n to be easily de/roy$4
 ,x is comp>atively simple to de/roy a  
p>ticul> manife/ation ( ?is disa/r\s    
h]itage1 b ! type ( m9d to :i* x has    
giv5 bir? is n s easily remov$4  ,!     
fight is n ov]1 b x is be+ f\ght f a new
 vantage gr\nd1 & ) bett] weapons ?an h 
ev] be=e be5 employ$4 ,hi/ory1          
an?ropology1 & psy*ology h comb9$ to    
place 9 ! h&s ( ! mod]n ,free?9k] m     
deadly weapons ?an ^? ( previ\s         
g5]ations 7 able to employ4 ,be=e ^!    
weapons ! def5ces ( ! fai? crumble l    
wood5 =ts be=e mod]n artill]y4 ,x is no 
long] a "q ( debat+ :e!r religi\s       
beliefs are true4 ,s long z we give a   
/raight=w>d & hone/ mean+ to ^? beliefs 
we "k t !y are n true4 ,x is1 to-day1   
ma9ly a "q ( mak+ pla9 ! nature ( ! =ces
 :i* l$ m5 & wom5 to reg>d !m z be+     
true4 ,we "k t ! hi/ory ( religion is ! 
hi/ory ( a delusion1 & ! task ( ! /ud5t 

is to recov] ^? conditions :i* gave to  
?is delusion an appe>ance ( tru? &      
reality4 ,t is becom+ m & m evid5t to   
all s]i\s & in=m$ /ud5ts ( ! subject4   
,! *all5ge ( ,free?\ght to religion     
con/itutes "o ( ! olde/ /ruggles 9 human
 hi/ory4 ,x mu/ h _h its beg9n+ 9 ! fir/
 glimm] ( d\bt conc]n+ a tribal deity   
:i* cross$ ! m9d ( "s m ?an usually     
?\ghtful savage4 ,"u v>i\s =ms & 9 _m   
ways x has gone on ev] s9ce4 ,x has _h  
_m v>iations ( =tune1 (t5 app>5tly      
completely cru%$1 only to rise aga9     
/rong] & m d>+ ?an ev]4 ,to-day1        
,free?\ght is ! accept$ m5tal attitude (
 a gr[+ numb] ( m5 & wom5 ^: intellig5ce
 admits ( no "q4 ,x has tak5 a recogniz$
 place 9 ! intellectual _w1 & its hold  
on ! educat$ intellig5ce is rapidly     
increas+4 ,x may well be t 9 "o =m or   
ano!r ! antagonism betwe5 critical      
,free?\ght & accept$ tea*+1 :e!r secul> 
or religi\s1 w cont9ue z "o ( ! p]man5t 
aspects ( social conflict4 ,b s f> z    
sup]naturalism is conc]n$ ! f9al issue c

 be no long] 9 d\bt4 ,x is n by "o voice
 or by "o movem5t t sup]naturalism is   
condemn$4 ,its condemnation is writt5 9 
! be/ =ms ( art1 sci5ce & lit]ature4 ,& 
t is only ano!r way ( say+ t x is       
condemn$ by life4 ,free?\ght holds !    
future 9 fee1 & no?+ b an entire rev]sal
 ( ! ord] ( civilization c =ce x to =ego
 its claims4     ,,*apt] ,,ii4  ,,life  
,,& ,,m9d4   ,! out/&+ feature ( :at may
 be call$ ! natural hi/ory ( associat$  
life is ! way 9 :i* biologic processes  
are gradually dom9at$ by psy*ologic     
ones4 ,:atev] be ! nature ( m9d1 a "q t 
9 no way conc]ns u "h1 !re is no d5y+ ! 
importance ( ! ph5om5a t come )9 t      
category4 ,to speak ( ! fir/ beg9n+s (  
m9d is1 9 ?is connection1 idle language4
 ,9 sci5ce !re are no real beg9n+s4 ,?+s
 d n beg9 to be1 !y simply em]ge1 & _!  
em]g5ce is z imp]ceptible z !           
displacem5t ( night by day1 or !        
developm5t ( ! *ick5 f ! egg4 ,b :atev] 
! nature ( ! beg9n+ ( m9d1 its appe>ance
 9 ! evolution>y s]ies m>k$ an ev5t (   

pr(\nd & revolution>y importance4 ,life 
receiv$ a new impetus1 & ! /ruggle =    
exi/5ce a new significance1 ! importance
 ( :i* is n1 ev5 to-day1 g5]ally        
recogniz$4 ,! old =mulae might /ill be  
us$1 b !y _h giv5 to !m a new           
significance4 ,! race 0 /ill to ! swift 
& ! battle to ! /rong1 b swiftness &    
/r5g? 7 manife/$ 9 new ways & by new    
means4 ,cunn+ & intellig5ce began to d  
:at 0 =m]ly done )\t _! co-op]ation4 ,a 
new =ce _h appe>$1 aris+ out ( ! old]   
=ces z *emi/ry develops f physics &     
biology f bo?4 ,&1 z we %\ld expect f   
analogy1 we f9d ! new =ce dom9at+ ! old]
 ones1 & ev5 b5d+ !m to its ne$s4       
,associat$ life meets u v e>ly 9 ! /ory 
( animal exi/5ce1 & we may assume t x   
ranks z a g5u9e survival quality4 ,x    
enables "s animals to survive ! attacks 
( o!rs t are individually /rong]1 & x   
may ev5 be1 z has be5 sugge/$1 t        
associat$ life is ! normal =m1 & t      
solit>y animals repres5t a v>iation f ! 
normal1 or p]haps a case ( deg5]ation4  

,b "o result ( associat$ life is t x    
paves ! way = ! em]g5ce ( m9d z an      
active =ce 9 social evolution4 ,9 8     
sugge/ive & important "w on ,mutual     
,aid1 ,kropotk9 has well %[n h[ 9 !     
animal _w ! purely biologic =m ( !      
/ruggle = exi/5ce is *eck$ & trans=m$ by
 ! factors ( mutual aid1 association &  
protection4 ,8 illu/rations cov] a v    
wide field2 !y include a great v>iety ( 
animal =ms1 & he may fairly claim to h  
e/abli%$ ! proposition t an in/9ct has  
be5 sl[ly develop$ among animals & m5 9 
! c\rse ( an extremely long evolution   
444 :i* has taught animals & m5 alike ! 
=ce !y c borr[ f mutual aid & support1 &
 ! joys !y c f9d 9 social life4  ,b !re 
is1 on ! :ole1 a v %>p limit set to !   
developm5t ( m9d 9 ! animal _w4 ,"o     
cause ( ?is is ! abs5ce ( a true social 
m$ium1 to use ! admirable phrase ( t    
v]satile ?9k]1 ,george ,h5ry ,lewes4 ,9 
! case ( man1 spee* & writ+ enable him  
to give to 8 advances & discov]ies a    
cumulative =ce su* z c nev] exi/ 9 _!   

abs5ce4 ,on t subject m w be said lat]4 
,at pres5t we may note ano!r v important
 consequ5ce ( ! developm5t ( m9d 9      
evolution4 ,9 pre-human1 or sub-human   
society1 p]fection 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce
 takes ! =m ( ! creation or ! p]fect+ ( 
an organic tool4 ,tee? or claws become  
/rong] or l>g]1 a limb is modifi$1 sight
 becomes ke5]1 or !re is a new effect 9 
coloration4 ,! *anges "h1 x w be obs]v$1
 are all ( an organic k9d1 !y are a "p (
 ! animal & are insep>able f x1 & !y are
 only transmissible by biologic h]$ity4 
,& ! rate ( developm5t is1 ( necessity1 
sl[4  ,:5 we turn to man & note ! way 9 
:i* he ov]comes ! difficulties ( 8      
environm5t1 we f9d !m to be ma9ly ( a   
diff]5t ord]4 ,8 in/rum5ts are n        
p]sonal1 9 ! s5se ( be+ a "p ( 8 organic
 /ructure4 ,we may say !y d n belong to 
him s mu* z !y d to ! race2 :ile !y are 
c]ta9ly transmitt$ f g5]ation to        
g5]ation irrespective ( individuals4    
,in/ead ( a*iev+ conque/ ( 8 environm5t 
by develop+ an organic /ructure1 man    

creates an inorganic tool4 ,9 a s5se he 
subdues & m\lds ! environm5t to 8 ne$s1 
r ?an modifies 8 /ructure 9 ord] to cope
 ) ! environm5t4 ,aga9/ extremes (      
temp]ature he fa%ions clo?+ & builds    
habitations4 ,he discov]s fire1 probably
 ! mo/ important discov]y ev] made by   
mank9d4 ,he adds to 8 /r5g? 9 def5ce &  
attack by inv5t+ weapons4 ,he gu>ds     
himself f />vation by plant+ se$s1 & s  
h>nesses ! productive =ces ( nature to 8
 ne$s4 ,he tames animals & s secures    
liv+ eng9es ( lab\r4 ,lat]1 he          
comp5sates = 8 bodily weaknesses by     
inv5t+ in/rum5ts :i* aid sight1 he>+1   
etc4 ,inv5tions are multipli$1 me?ods ( 
locomotion & transportation are         
discov]$1 & ! difficulties ( space & "t 
are /eadily m9imiz$4 ,! net result ( all
 ?is is t z a m]e biologic ph5om5on     
man's evolution is *eck$4 ,! biologic   
modifications t /ill g on are (         
comp>atively small importance1 except1  
probably1 9 ! case ( evolution aga9/    
disease4 ,! developm5ts t take place are

 ma9ly m5tal 9 =m & are social 9 _!     
incid5ce4  ,n[ if ! sub/antial tru? (   
:at has be5 said be admitt$1 & ,i d n   
see h[ x c be successfully *all5g$1 !re 
arise "o or two consid]ations ( supreme 
importance4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is t social    
hi/ory becomes m & m a hi/ory ( social  
psy*ology4 ,9 social life we are wat*+ !
 play ( social m9d express$ ?r\gh !     
m$ium ( ! individual4 ,! /ory (         
civilization is ! record ( ! pil+ ( idea
 on idea1 & ! trans=m+ p[] ( ! :ole on !
 environm5t4 ,= tools1 f ! fl9t *ip (   
primitive man1 d[n to ! f9i%$ in/rum5t (
 ! mod]n me*anic1 are all s _m products 
( human m5tality4 ,f ! primitive dug-out
 to ! ,atlantic l9]1 f ! /one spe>-head 
to ! mod]n rifle1 9 all ! inv5tions (   
civiliz$ life we are obs]v+ !           
application ( m9d to ! conque/ ( "t1    
space1 & mat]ial conditions4 ,our art1  
our inv5tions1 our in/itutions1 are all 
s _m illu/rations ( ! p[] ( m9d 9       
trans=m+ ! environm5t4 ,a hi/ory (      
civilization1 z di/+ui%$ f a m]e record 

( biologic gr[?1 is necess>ily a hi/ory 
( ! gr[+ p[] ( m9d4 ,x is ! cumulative  
ideas ( ! pa/ express$ 9 inv5tions &    
in/itutions t =m ! driv+ p[] beh9d ! man
 ( to-day4 ,^! ideas =m ! mo/ valuable  
"p ( man's h]itage1 make him :at he is1 
& conta9 ! promise ( all t he may       
become4  ,s long z we conf9e ourselves  
to biologic evolution1 ! way 9 :i*      
qualities are transmitt$ is pla94 ,!re  
is no ne$ to g beyond ! organism itself4
 ,b ?is h]itage ( ideas1 peculi>ly human
 z x is1 requires a c>ri] ( an equally  
unique k9d4 ,x is at ?is po9t t !       
significance ( :at we h call$ ! social  
m$ium em]ges4 ,! full significance ( ?is
 0 fir/ se5 by ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes4#a ,writ+ 
s f> back z #ahgi he said3--       ,!   
di/+ui%+ "* ( human psy*ology is t to ! 
?ree great factors1 organism1 ext]nal   
m$ium1 & h]$ity2 x      adds a f\r?1    
namely1 ! relation to a social m$ium1 ) 
its      product1 ! g5]al m9d4444 ,:ile 
! m5tal functions are      products ( ! 
individual organism1 ! product1 m9d1 is 

m      ?an an individual product4 ,l its
 great in/rum5t language1 x      is at  
once individual & social4 ,ea* man      
speaks 9 virtue ( !      functions (    
vocal expression1 b also 9 virtue ( !   
social      ne$ ( communication4 ,!     
words spok5 are n 8 creation1 yet       
he1 too1 mu/ appropriate !m by :at may  
be call$ a creative      process be=e he
 c und]/& !m4 ,:at 8 tribe speaks he    
repeats2 b he does n simply e*o _!      
words1 he re?9ks !m4      ,9 ! same way 
he adopts _! exp]i5ces :5 he assimilates
      !m to 8 own4444 ,fur!r1 !         
exp]i5ces come & g2 !y      correct1    
enl>ge1 & de/roy "o ano!r1 leav+ beh9d  
!m a      c]ta9 residual /ore1 :i*      
cond5s$ 9 intuitions &      =mulat$ 9   
pr9ciples1 direct & modify all future   
exp]i5ces4444 ,m5 liv+ 9 gr\ps co-op]ate
 l ! organs 9      an organism4 ,_!     
actions h a common impulse to a common  
end4      ,_! desires & op9ions be> !   
common /amp ( an imp]sonal              
direction4 ,mu* ( _! life is common to  

all4 ,! roads1      m>ket-places &      
temples are = ea* & all4 ,cu/oms arise &
      are =mulat$ 9 laws1 ! re/ra9t (   
all4444 ,ea* g5]ation is      born 9 ?is
 social m$ium1 & has to adapt itself to 
!      e/abli%$ =ms4444 ,a nation1 a    
tribe1 a sect is ! m$ium (      !       
individual m9d1 z a sea1 a riv]1 or a   
pond1 is ! m$ium (      a fi%4#b  #a ,x 
w ease my feel+s if ,i am p]mitt$ to "h 
make a prote/ aga9/ ! %ameless way 9 :i*
 ?is sugge/ive writ] has be5 pillag$ by 
o!rs )\t ! slighte/ ackn[l$gem5t4 ,!y h 
f\nd him1 z ,lamb said ( "s o!r writ]s1 
damn$ good to /eal f4 ,8 s]ies (        
volumes1 ,problems ( ,life & ,m9d1 h be5
 borr[$ f :olesale )\t ! slighte/ ?anks 
or recognition4  #b ,/udy ( ,psy*ology1 
pp4 #aci1 #afa-e4 ,s aga91 a m rec5t    
writ] says3 ,x is n man himself :o ?9ks 
b 8 social community2 ! s\rce ( 8 ?\ghts
 is 9 ! social m$ium 9 :i* he lives1 !  
social atmosph]e :i* he brea!s4444 ,!   
influ5ce ( environm5t ^u ! human m9d has
 always be5 recogniz$ by psy*ologi/s &  

philosoph]s1 b x has be5 consid]$ a     
second>y factor4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! social
 m$ium :i* ! *ild ent]s at bir?1 9 :i*  
he lives1 moves & has 8 be+1 is         
fundam5tal4 ,t[>d ?is environm5t !      
individual f *ildhood to ripe/ old age  
is m or less receptive2 r>ely c !       
mature/ m9ds s f> succe$ 9 emancipat+   
!mselves f ?is m$ium s f> z to und]take 
indep5d5t reflection1 :ile complete     
emancipation is impossible1 = all !     
organs & modes ( ?\ght1 all ! organs =  
con/ruct+ ?\ghts h be5 m\ld$ or at lea/ 
?or\ghly imbu$ by x 7,l4 ,gumpl[icz1    
,outl9es ( ,sociology1 p4 #aeg74        
,biologically1 :at man inh]its is       
capacity = acquisition4 ,b :at he %all  
acquire1 ! direction 9 :i* 8 native     
capacity %all express itself1 is a matt]
 ov] :i* biologic =ces h no control4    
,?is is det]m9$ by society & social     
life4 ,giv5 q equal capacity 9 two      
individuals1 ! output w be v diff]5t if 
"o is br\ght up 9 a remote ,spani%      
village & ! o!r 9 ,p>is or ,london4     

,:e!r a man %\ts long live ,k+ ,george  
or long live ! ,kais] is ma9ly a "q (   
social surr\nd+s1 & b v little "o (     
diff]5ce 9 native capacity4 ,! *ild (   
p>5ts liv+ 9 ! highe/ civiliz$ society1 
if tak5 away :ile v "y & br\ght up amid 
a p 9 a v primitive /ate ( culture1     
w\ld1 on rea*+ maturity1 diff] b little 
f ! p ar\nd him4 ,he w\ld ?9k ! ?\ghts t
 7 common to ! society 9 :i* he 0 liv+ z
 he w\ld speak _! language & we> _!     
dress4 ,_h ,%akespe>e be5 born among    
savages he c\ld nev] h writt5 ,hamlet4  
,= ! "w ( ! g5ius1 z = t ( ! av]age man1
 society mu/ provide ! mat]ials 9 ! %ape
 ( language1 ideas1 in/itutions1 & !    
?\s& & "o o!r ?+s t g to make up ! life 
( a gr\p1 & :i* may be se5 reflect$ 9 ! 
life ( ! individual4 ,suppose1 says ,dr4
 ,mc,dougall3--       t ?r\gh\t ! p]iod 
( half a c5tury e *ild born to          
,engli% p>5ts 0 at once ex*ang$ 7by !   
p[] ( a magician's      w&7 = an infant 
( ! ,fr5*1 or o!r1 ,european nation4    
,soon      aft] ! close ( ?is p]iod !   

,engli% nation w\ld be compos$      (   
individuals ( ,fr5* extraction1 & !     
,fr5* ( individuals      ( ,engli%      
extraction4 ,x is1 ,i ?9k1 cle> t1 9    
spite ( ?is      complete ex*ange (     
innate *>act]s betwe5 ! two nations1    
!re w\ld be b little imm$iate *ange (   
national      *>act]i/ics4 ,! ,fr5* p   
w\ld /ill speak ,fr5*1 &      ! ,engli% 
w\ld speak ,engli%1 ) all ! local       
div]sities to      :i* we are accu/om$ &
 )\t p]ceptible *ange (                 
pronunciation4 ,! religion ( ! ,fr5*    
w\ld /ill be      pr$om9antly ,roman    
,ca?olic1 & ! ,engli% p w\ld /ill       
pres5t ! same div]sity ( ,prote/ant     
cre$s4 ,! c\rse (      political        
in/itutions w\ld h suff]$ no pr(\nd     
*ange1 !      cu/oms & habits ( ! two   
peoples w\ld exhibit only su*           
*anges z might be attribut$ to ! lapse (
 "t1 ?\gh an      acute obs]v] might    
notice an appreciable approximation ( ! 
two      peoples t[>ds "o ano!r 9 all ^!
 respects4 ,! inhabitant      ( ,france 

w\ld /ill be a ,fr5*man & ! inhabitant (
 ,engl&      an ,engli%man to all outw>d
 seem+1 save t ! physical      appe>ance
 ( ! two peoples w\ld be transpos$4 ,&  
we may g      ev5 fur!r & ass]t t ! same
 w\ld hold good if a simil>      ex*ange
 ( infants 7 effect$ betwe5 ! ,engli% & 
any o!r      less closely alli$ nation1 
say ! ,turks or ! ,japanese4#c  #c      
,social ,psy*ology1 pp4 #ccj-a4  ,!     
products ( human capacity are ! mat]ial 
( :i* civilization is built2 ^! products
 con/itute ! inh]itance :i* "o g5]ation 
receives f ano!r4 ,:e!r ?is inh]itance  
be l>ge or small1 simple or complex1 x  
is ! *ief det]m9ant :i* %apes !         
p]sonality ( ea* individual4 ,:at ea*   
has by biological h]$ity is a giv5      
/ructure1 t is1 capacity4 ,b ! direction
 ( t capacity1 ! comm& x enables "o to  
acquire ov] 8 environm5t1 is 9 turn     
det]m9$ by ! society into :i* he happ5s 
to be born4  ,x has already be5 said t !
 mat]ials ( civilization1 :e!r !y be    
tools1 or in/itutions1 or inv5tions1 or 

discov]ies1 or religi\s or e?ical       
tea*+s1 are facts t c be directly       
describ$ z psy*ological4 ,an            
in/itution--! ,*ur*1 ! ,cr[n1 !         
,magi/racy--is n transmitt$ z a build+  
or z s _m %eets ( pap]1 b z an idea or z
 a set ( ideas4 ,a piece ( ma*9]y is1 9 
! same way1 a m5tal fact1 & is a        
physical "o 9 only a subord9ate s5se4 ,&
 if ?is be admitt$1 we rea* ! fur!r tru?
 t ! environm5t to :i* man has to adapt 
himself is ess5tially1 s f> z x is a    
social environm5t1 psy*ological4 ,n     
alone are ! outw>d m>ks ( social life--!
 h\ses 9 :i* man lives1 ! ma*9es he uses
 to d 8 bidd+--products ( 8 m5tal       
activity1 b ! m important features ( 8  
environm5t1 to :i* he mu/ adapt himself1
 & :i* s l>gely %ape 8 "* & det]m9e 8   
conduct1 are ( a :olly psy*ological "*4 
,9 any society t is at all di/9ct f !   
animal1 !re exi/ a numb] ( beliefs1     
ideas & in/itutions1 traditions1 &1 9 a 
lat] /age1 a lit]ature :i* play a v     
important "p 9 det]m9+ ! direction (    

man's m9d4 ,) increas+ civilization1 & !
 developm5t ( bett] means ( int]c\rse1  
any s+le society f9ds itself br\ght into
 t\* & "u ! influ5ce ( o!r social gr\ps4
 ,! :ole ( ^! influ5ces con/itute a =ce 
:i*1 surr\nd+ an individual at bir?1    
inevitably %apes "* 9 ?is or t          
direction4 ,!y dom9ate ! physical aspect
 ( life1 & repres5t ! det]m9+ =ces (    
social gr[?4 ,elim9ate ! psy*ological   
=ces ( life & y elim9ate all t c be     
prop]ly call$ civilization4 ,x is :olly 
! trans=m+ p[] ( m9d on ! environm5t t  
creates civilization1 & x is only by a  
/eady grasp ( ?is fact t civilization c 
be prop]ly und]/ood4  ,i h po9t$ out a  
di/9ction betwe5 biological & social1 or
 psy*ological1 h]$ity4 ,b !re is "o     
in/ance 9 :i* ! two agree4 ,?is is t we 
c only und]/& a ?+ by its hi/ory4 ,we   
may catalogue ! exi/+ peculi>ities ( an 
animal =m ) no o!r mat]ial ?an t ( !    
organism be=e u1 b ?or\ghly to und]/& x 
we mu/ "k its hi/ory4 ,simil>ly1 exi/+  
in/itutions may h _! ju/ification 9 !   

pres5t1 b ! causes ( _! exi/5ce lie     
buri$ 9 ! pa/4 ,a k+ may to-day be      
hon\r$ on acc\nt ( 8 p]sonal wor?1 b !  
reason :y !re is a k+ to be hon\r$      
c>ries u back to t /ate ( culture 9 :i* 
! primitive prie/ & magic work] inspires
 fe> & awe4 ,:5 we r+ bells to call p to
 *ur* we p]petuate ! fact t our ance/ors
 rang !m to drive away evil spirits4 ,we
 we> black at a fun]al because our      
primitive ance/ors wi%$ to hide !mselves
 f ! dead man's gho/4 ,we /rew fl[]s on 
a grave because food & o!r ?+s 7 once   
buri$ ) ! dead s t _! spirits might     
accompany ! dead to ! next _w4 ,9 %ort1 
) all human cu/oms we are =c$1 if we wi%
 to "k ! reason = _! pres5t exi/5ce1 to 
seek x 9 ! ideas t h dom9at$ ! m9ds (   
previ\s g5]ations4#d  #d ,! tyranny     
ex]cis$ unconsci\sly on m5's m9ds is !  
only real tyranny1 because x _c be f\ght
 aga9/4 ,tib]ius1 ,gh5gis ,khan1 &      
,napoleon 7 assur$ly r$\btable tyrants1 
b f ! dep?s ( _! graves ,moses1 ,buddha1
 ,jesus1 & ,mahomet ex]t$ on ! human s\l

 a f> pr(\nd] tyranny4 ,a conspiracy may
 ov]?r[ a tyrant1 b :at c x avail aga9/ 
a firmly e/abli%$ belief8 ,9 its viol5t 
/ruggle ) ,roman ,ca?olicism x is !     
,fr5* ,revolution t has be5 vanqui%$1 & 
?is 9 spite ( ! fact t ! sympa?y ( !    
cr[d 0 app>5tly on its side1 & 9 spite (
 rec\rse to de/ructive measures z       
pitiless z ^? ( ! ,inquisition4 ,! only 
real tyrants t humanity has kn[n h      
always be5 ! memories ( its dead1 or !  
illusions x has =g$ = itself 7,gu/ave   
,le ,bon1 ,! ,cr[d1 p4 #aec74  ,no "o :o
 has /udi$1 9 ev5 a cursory mann]1 !    
developm5t ( our social in/itutions c   
avoid recognition ( ! pr(\nd influ5ce   
ex]t$ by ! primitive conceptions ( life1
 dea?1 & ( ! "* ( natural =ces4 ,e "o ( 
our social in/itutions 0 born 9 ! %ad[ (
 sup]/ition1 & sup]/ition acts z a      
p[]ful =ce 9 det]m9+ ! =m !y assume4    
,sir ,h5ry ,ma9e has %[n to :at a l>ge  
ext5t ! laws ( inh]itance are b\nd up ) 
ance/or wor%ip4#e ,sp5c] has done ! same
 s]vice = ne>ly all our in/itutions1#f &

 ,mr4 ,elton says t ! olde/ cu/oms (    
inh]itance 9 ,engl& & ,g]many 71 9 _!   
beg9n+s1 connect$ ) a dome/ic religion1 
& bas$ ^u a wor%ip ( ance/ral spirits ( 
:i* ! he>?place 0 ess5tially ! alt>4#g  
,! same tru? meets u 9 ! /udy ( almo/   
any in/itution4 ,9 fact1 x is n long    
be=e "o :o ?9ks evolution1 in/ead (     
m]ely kn[+ its =mulae1 beg9s to realize 
! tru? ( ! say+ by a ,g]man sociologi/ t
 9 deal+ ) social in/itutions we are    
conc]n$ ) ! m5tal creations (           
aggregates4 ,!y are dep5d5t ^u !        
p]si/5ce ( a set ( ideas1 & s long z ^! 
ideas are un%ak5 !y are sub/antially    
inde/ructible4 ,to remove !m ! ideas ^u 
:i* !y re/ mu/ be %ak5 & robb$ ( _!     
au?ority4 ,t is ! reason :y at all times
 ! fight = re=m s l>gely resolves itself
 into a conte/ ( ideas4 ,motives (      
self-int]e/ may ent] into ! def5ce ( an 
in/itution1 & 9 "s case may be          
responsible = ! attempt to plant an     
in/itution :]e x does n already exi/1 b 
9 ! ma9 in/itutions p]si/ because ( _!  

h>mony ) a frame ( m9d t is fav\rable to
 _! be+4  #e ,see ,e>ly ,hi/ory (       
,in/itutions1 & ,e>ly ,law & ,cu/om4  #f
 ,pr9ciples ( ,sociology1 ,vol4 ,i4  #g 
,orig9s ( ,engli% ,hi/ory1 p4 #bfa4  ,a 
great deal ( criticism has be5 direct$  
aga9/ ! conclusion ( ,buckle t          
improvem5t 9 ! /ate ( mank9d has *iefly 
result$ f an improvem5t 9 ! intellectual
 outlook4 ,& yet :5 /at$ ) ! necess>y   
qualifications ! g5]alization is z s\nd 
z x c well be4 ,c]ta9ly1 ! belief held 9
 "s qu>t]s1 & /at$ ) an air ( sci5tific 
precision1 t ! mat]ial environm5t is !  
active =ce :i* is ev] urg+ to new m5tal 
developm5t w n fit ! facts2 =1 z we h   
se51 ! environm5t to :i* human nature   
mu/ adapt itself is ma9ly m5tal 9 "*1 t 
is1 x is made up 9 an increas+ measure (
 ! products ( man's own m5tal activity4 
,! !ory ( ! s5tim5tal religioni/ t !    
evil 9 ! _w results f ! wick$ness ( man1
 or1 z he is fond ( putt+ x1 f ! h>dness
 ( man's he>t1 is grotesque 9 its       
ineffectiv5ess4 ,s(t heads h f> m to d )

 ! evil 9 ! _w ?an h h>d he>ts4 ,inde$1 
"o ( ! /&+ difficulties ( ! or?odox     
morali/ is1 n to expla9 ! de$s ( evil   
m51 :i* expla9 !mselves1 b to acc\nt = !
 h>m done by good m51 & (t5 z a         
consequ5ce ( _! goodness4 ,! moral mon/]
 is a r>ity1 & evil is r>ely ! outcome (
 a cle> p]ception ( its nature & a      
delib]ate resolve to pursue x4          
,p>adoxical z x may s\nd1 x dem&s a     
measure ( moral /r5g? to d wrong1       
consci\sly & delib]ately1 :i* ! av]age  
man or woman does n possess4 ,& ! _w has
 nev] f\nd x a matt] ( great difficulty 
to deal ) its bad *>act]s2 x is ! good  
ones t pres5t x ) a con/ant problem4  ,!
 po9t is wor? /ress+1 & we may d x f m  
?an "o po9t ( view4 ,we may take1 fir/ (
 all1 ! famili> illu/ration ( religi\s  
p]secution1 z exemplifi$ 9 ! qu>rels (  
,ca?olics & ,prote/ants4 ,on ! gr\nd (  
moral di/9ction no l9e c\ld be drawn    
betwe5 ! two p>ties4 ,ea* %udd]$ at !   
p]secution inflict$ by ! o!r1 & ea*     
reg>d$ ! tea*+s ( ! o!r ) ! same degree 

( moral av]sion4 ,& x has (t5 be5 not$ t
 ! m5 :o adm9i/]$ s infam\s an          
in/itution z ! ,inquisition 7 n1 9 ev5 !
 majority ( cases1 bad m54#h ,a few may 
h _h int]e/$ motives1 b x w\ld h be5    
impossible to h ma9ta9$ s brutal an     
in/itution 9 ! abs5ce ( a g5]al         
conviction ( its rightness4 ,9 private  
life ^? :o c\ld deliv] m51 wom51 & ev5  
*ildr5 ov] to torture 7 n worse husb&s  
or p>5ts ?an o!rs4 ,su* diff]5ces z     
exi/$ _c be attribut$ to a lack ( moral 
endeav\r1 or to a diff]5ce ( moral      
temp]am5t4 ,x 0 a diff]5ce (            
intellectual outlook1 & giv5 c]ta9      
religi\s convictions p]secution became a
 religi\s necessity4 ,! moral output 0  
poor because ! intellectual /&po9t 0 a  
wrong "o4  #h ,speak+ ( ! ,inquisition1 
,mr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,lea1 9 8 classic ,hi/ory (
 ! ,inquisition1 says1 ,!re is no d\bt t
 ! p 7 z eag] z _! pa/ors to s5d !      
h]etic to ! /ake4 ,!re is no d\bt t m5 (
 ! k9dlie/ temp]s1 ! pr(\nde/           
aspirations1 ! pure/ zeal =             

righte\sness1 pr(ess+ a religion f\nd$  
on love & *>ity1 7 ru?less :]e h]esy 0  
conc]n$1 & 7 ready to trample x out at  
any co/4 ,dom9ic & ,francis1 ,bonav5ture
 & ,?omas ,aqu9as1 ,innoc5t ,,iii4 & ,/4
 ,l\is1 7 types1 9 _! sev]al ways1 ( :i*
 humanity1 9 any age1 might feel pr\d1 &
 yet !y 7 z unsp>+ ( ! h]etic z ,ezzel9 
di ,romano 0 ( 8 enemies4 ,) su* m5 x 0 
n hope ( ga9 or lu/ ( blood or pride (  
op9ion or wanton ex]cise ( p[]1 b s5se (
 duty1 & !y b repres5t$ :at 0 univ]sal  
public op9ion f ! ?irte5? to ! sev5te5? 
c5tury4 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bcd4  ,if we c\ld
 once get ov] ! delusion ( ?9k+ ( human 
nature z be+ fundam5tally diff]5t five  
hundr$ ye>s ago f :at x is to-day1 we   
%\ld escape a great _m fallacies t are  
preval5t4 ,! *anges t h tak5 place 9    
human nature dur+ ! hi/oric p]iod are s 
slight z to be practically negligible4  
,! motives t animate m5 & wom5 to-day   
are ! motives t animat$ m5 & wom5 a ?\s&
 or two ?\s& ye>s ago4 ,! *ange is 9 !  
direction & =m ( _! manife/ation only1 &

 x is 9 ! light ( ! human nature ar\nd u
 t we mu/ /udy & int]pret ! human nature
 t has gone be=e u4 ,f t po9t ( view we 
may safely conclude t bad in/itutions 7 
kept 9 be+ 9 ! pa/ = ! same reason t !y 
are kept alive to-day4 ,! majority mu/  
be bl9d to _! badness2 & 9 any case x is
 a g5]al p]ception ( _! badness :i*     
leads to _! de/ruction4  ,! subject (   
crime illu/rates ! same po9t4 ,aga9/    
crime z su*1 society is z set z ev]4 ,b 
our attitude t[>d ! causation & cure (  
crime1 &1 above all1 to ! treatm5t ( !  
crim9al1 has und]gone a pr(\nd          
alt]ation4 ,& ! *ange t has tak5 place  
"h has be5 away f ! ,*ri/ian conception 
:i* brutaliz$ ! _w = s long1 t[>ds !    
po9t ( view tak5 up by ! anci5t ,greeks1
 t wrong do+ is ! outcome ( ignorance4  
,express$ 9 ! mod]n mann] we %\ld say t 
crime is ! result ( an undevelop$       
nature1 or ( a pa?ological "o1 or ( a   
rev]sion to an e>li] pr$atory type1 or !
 result ( any or all ( ^! factors 9     
comb9ation ) defective social           

conditions4 ,b ?is is only ano!r way (  
say+ t we h ex*ang$ ! old1 brutal1 &    
ineffective me?ods = m humane &         
effective ones because we look at !     
problem ( crime f a diff]5t intellectual
 angle4 ,a m exact k ( ! causation (    
crime has l$ u to a m s5sible & a m     
humane treatm5t ( ! crim9al4 ,& ?is1 n  
alone 9 8 own behalf1 b 9 ! int]e/s ( ! 
society 9 :i* he lives4 ,we may put x   
broadly t improvem5t comes f an         
enlight5$ way ( look+ at ?+s4 ,common   
obs]vation %[s t p w g on tol]at+ =ms ( 
brutality1 ye> aft] ye>1 )\t ! lea/ s5se
 ( _! wrongness4 ,famili>ity1 & ! abs5ce
 ( any impetus to exam9e curr5t practice
 f a new po9t ( view seem to acc\nt =   
?is4 ,9 ! sev5te5? c5tury ! same p :o   
c\ld wat*1 )\t any app>5t ho/ility1 !   
torture ( an old woman on ! fanta/ic    
*>ge ( int]c\rse ) ,satan1 _h _! feel+s 
outrag$ by he>+ a secul> song on        
,sunday4 ,imprisonm5t = blasphemy1 once 
reg>d$ z a duty1 has n[ become ridicul\s
 to all reasonable p4 ,at "o & ! same   

"t1 a little m ?an a hundr$ ye>s ago 9  
?is c\ntry1 ! same p :o c\ld d5\nce     
cock-fight+ on acc\nt ( its brutality1  
c\ld wat* unmov$ ! murd]+ ( little      
*ildr5 9 ! factories ( ,lanca%ire4 ,n s 
long ago m5 9 ?is c\ntry f\ght duels "u 
a s5se ( moral compulsion1 & ! practice 
0 only ab&on$ :5 a *ang$ po9t ( view    
made p realize ! absurdity ( try+ to    
settle ! ju/ice ( a cause by det]m9+ :i*
 ( two p 7 ! mo/ pr(ici5t ) sword or    
pi/ol4 ,we h a cont9uation ( ! same     
absurdity 9 ^? l>g] duels f\ght by      
nations :]e ! old v]bal absurdities /ill
 reta9 _! full =ce1 & :]e we actually   
add ano!r absurdity by reta9+ a numb] ( 
pr(essional duelli/s :o mu/ be ready to 
emb>k on a duel :e!r !y h any p]sonal   
feel+ 9 ! matt] or n4 ,& x seems fairly 
safe to say t :5 x is realiz$ t ! duel  
betwe5 nations z a means ( settl+       
diff]5ces is n a bit m intellectually   
respectable ?an 0 ! anci5t duello we    
%all n be f> remov$ f see+ ! end ( "o ( 
! greate/ dang]s to :i* mod]n society is

 expos$4  ,examples might be multipli$  
indef9itely1 b en\gh has be5 said to %[ 
:at small reason !re is = assum+ t      
*anges 9 in/itutions are br\ght ab\t by 
! op]ation ( "s occult moral s5se4 ,x is
 ! enlight5m5t ( ! moral s5se by ! gr[? 
( new ideas1 by ! impact ( new k lead+  
to a revaluation ( ?+s t is ma9ly       
responsible = ! *ange4 ,! "q ( :e!r a   
man %\ld or %\ld n be burn$ = a diff]5ce
 9 religi\s belief 0 nev] "o t c\ld be  
settl$ by weigh+ up ! moral qualities ( 
! two p>ties 9 ! dispute4 ,all ! moral  
judgm5t t has ev] exi/$1 ev5 if comb9$ 9
 ! p]son ( a s+le individual c\ld nev]  
decide t issue4 ,x 0 entirely a "q (    
acquir+ a new po9t ( view f :i* to      
exam9e ! subject4 ,until t 0 done ! :ole
 =ce ( ! moral s5se 0 on ! side ( !     
p]secutor4 ,to put ! matt] p>adoxically1
 ! bett] ! man ! worse p]secutor he     
became4 ,x 0 m5tal enlight5m5t t 0 ne$$1
 n moral en?usiasm4  ,! "q ( progress   
?us becomes1 9 all directions1 "o ( !   
impact ( new ideas1 9 an environm5t     

suitable to _! reception & gr[?4 ,a     
society %ut 9 on itself is always       
comp>atively unprogressive1 & b = !     
movem5t ( classes )9 x w\ld be          
completely s4 ,! m closely ! hi/ory (   
civilization is /udi$ ! m cle>ly does t 
fact em]ge4 ,civilization is a syn!tic  
movem5t1 & !re c be no syn!sis 9 !      
abs5ce ( dissolution & resolution4  ,a  
fight ( old ideas aga9/ new ones1 a     
conte/ ( cla%+ culture levels1 a /ruggle
 to get old ?+s look$ at f a new po9t ( 
view1 ^! are ! features t *>act]ize all 
ef=ts aft] re=m4 ,x 0 said by "s ( !    
eighte5? c5tury philosoph]s t society 0 
held toge!r by agreem5t 9 a bond4 ,t is 
n q correct4 ,! tru? is t society is    
held toge!r1 z is any phase ( social    
life1 by a bond ( agreem5t4 ,! agreem5t 
is n ( ! consci\s1 docum5t>y ord]1 b x  
is !re1 & x consi/s 9 %>+ a common life 
creat$ & ma9ta9$ by hav+ a common       
tradition1 & a common /ock ( ideas &    
ideals4 ,x is ?is t makes a man a memb] 
( "o social gr\p r ?an ( ano!r--,*9ese1 

,am]ican1 ,fr5*1 ,g]man1 or ,*octaw4    
,!re is no discrim9at+ feature 9 :at is 
call$ ! economic ne$s ( p4 ,! economic  
ne$s ( human be+s--food1 clo?+1 & %elt]1
 are ( ! same ord] ! _w ov]4 ,& c]ta9ly 
! fact ( a ,*9aman %>+ 9 ! economic life
 ( ,brita91 or an ,engli%man %>+ 9 !    
economic life ( ,*9a1 w\ld n entitle    
ei!r to be call$ g5u9e memb]s ( ! gr\p 9
 :i* he happ5$ to be liv+4 ,memb]%ip    
only beg9s to be :5 ^? belong+ to a gr\p
 %>e 9 a common m5tal outfit4 ,ev5 )9 a 
society1 & 9 relation to c]ta9 social   
gr\ps1 "o c see illu/rations ( ! same   
pr9ciple4 ,a man is n really a memb] ( a
 society ( arti/s1 lawy]s1 or doctors   
m]ely by paym5t ( an annual             
subscription4 ,he is t only :5 he       
becomes a p>ticipant 9 ! m5tal life ( ! 
gr\p4#i ,x is ?is common /ock ( m5tal   
facts :i* lies at ! root ( all          
collective ideas--an army1 a ,*ur*1 or a
 nation4 ,& ev] ! fight is by way (     
attack & def5ce ( ! psy*ologic fact4#aj 
#i ,?is seems to me to give ! real      

significance ( ,nationality4 ,x has be5 
argu$ by "s t nationality is a pure my?1
 z unreal z ! div9ity ( a k+4 ,!        
pr9cipal gr\nd = ?is d5ial ( nationality
 appe>s to be t s-call$ national        
*>act]i/ics are se5 to und]go dra/ic    
trans=mation :5 _! possessors are       
subject to a new set ( influ5ces4 ,?is  
may be q true1 b if nationality1 9 !    
s5se ( be+ a product ( biological       
h]$ity1 is rul$ out1 x does n foll[ t   
nationality is !reby de/roy$4 ,! fact   
may rema9 b x dem&s a diff]5t           
int]pretation4 ,& if :at has be5 said   
above be true1 x foll[s t nationality is
 n a p]sonal fact1 b an extra or        
sup]-p]sonal "o4 ,x belongs to ! gr\p r 
?an to ! individual1 & is creat$ by !   
possession ( a common spee*1 a common   
lit]ature1 & a common gr\p life4 ,& q   
naturally1 :5 ! individual is lift$ out 
( ?is special social influ5ce its p[]   
may well be weak5$1 & 9 ! case ( 8      
*ildr5 may be non-exi/5t1 or replac$ by 
! special *>act]i/ics ( ! new gr\p into 

:i* he is born4 ,! discussion (         
nationality ought n1 !re=e1 to move     
along ! l9es ( acceptance or rejection (
 ! conception ( nationality1 b ( h[ f>  
specific national *>act]i/ics admit (   
modification "u ! pressure ( new        
conditions4  #aj ,x w\ld take too long  
to elaborate1 b x may be "h not$ t 9 !  
human gr\p ! impell+ =ce is n s mu* ne$s
 z desires1 & t fact raises ! :ole issue
 f ! level ( biology to t ( psy*ology4  
,s long z life is at a c]ta9 level man  
%>es ) ! animal ! m]e ne$ = food4 ,b at 
ano!r level !re arises n m]ely ! ne$ =  
food1 b a desire = c]ta9 k9d ( food1    
cook$ 9 a p>ticul> mann]1 & s]v$ 9 a    
special /yle4 ,& provid$ t we d n by    
hung] r$uce man to ! level ( ! bea/     
aga91 ! desire w be p>am\nt & w det]m9e 
:e!r food %all be eat5 or n4 ,s1 aga91 )
 ! fact ( sex & m>riage4 ,at ! animal   
level we h ! crude fact ( sex1 & ?is is1
 inde$1 inescapable at any /age4 ,b !   
gr[? ( civilization br+s ab\t ! fact t !
 ne$ = ! gratification ( ! sexual       

appetite is regulat$ by ! second>y      
qualities ( grace ( =m1 or (            
disposition1 :i* are ! imm$iate         
det]m9ants ( :e!r a p>ticul> man %all   
m>ry a p>ticul> woman or n4 ,aga91 x is 
! desire = p[] & di/9ction1 n ! ne$ =   
money t impels m5 to sp5d _! lives 9    
build+ up huge =tunes4 ,&1 f9ally1 we h 
! fact t a great _m ( our pres5t ne$s   
are trans=m$ desires4 ,! work+ man (    
to-day c\nts z ne$s1 z d we all m or    
less1 a numb] ( ?+s t began z pure      
desires4 ,we say we ne$ books1 pictures1
 music1 etc4 ,b none ( ^! ?+s c be      
really br\ght "u ! category ( ?+s       
necess>y to life4 ,!y are ! creation (  
man's m5tal crav+s4 ,)\t !m we say life 
w\ld n be wor? liv+1 & x is well t we   
%\ld all feel s4 ,pr(essor ,m>%all      
rightly dwells ^u ?is po9t by say+3     
,al?\gh x is man's wants 9 ! e>ly /ages 
( developm5t t give rise to 8           
activities1 yet aft]w>ds ea* new /ep is 
to be reg>d$ z ! developm5t ( new       
activities giv+ rise to new wants1 r ?an

 ( new wants giv+ rise to new           
activities4--7,pr9ciples ( ,economics1  
,vol4 ,i41 p4 #afd47  ,to d ! ,*ur*es & 
o!r ve/$ int]e/s ju/ice1 !y h nev] lo/  
sight ( ?is tru?1 & x w\ld h be5 bett] =
 ! race _h o!rs be5 equally alive to its
 importance4 ,! ,*ur*es h nev] ceas$ to 
fight = ! control ( ^? public organs t  
make = ! =mation ( op9ion4 ,_! /ruggle  
to control ! press1 ! plat=m1 & ! s*ool 
means j ?is4 ,:atev] !y may h taught1   
self-int]e/ =c$ ^u !m recognition ( !   
tru? t x 0 :at m5 ?\ght ab\t ?+s t      
matt]$4 ,!y h always oppos$ !           
introduction ( new ideas1 & h f\ght = ! 
ret5tion ( old ones4 ,x 0 a necessity ( 
_! exi/5ce4 ,x 0 also an admission ( !  
tru? t 9 ord] = re=m to become a fact ! 
p[] ( traditional ideas mu/ be brok54   
,man is :at he ?9ks1 is f> ne>] ! tru?  
?an ! once fam\s say+1 ,man is :at he   
eats4 ,z a memb] ( a social gr\p man is 
dom9at$ by 8 ideas ( ?+s1 & any movem5t 
( re=m mu/ take cognisance ( t fact if x
 is to *]i% reasonable hopes ( success4 

,,*apt] ,,iii4  ,,:at ,,is ,,free?\ght8 
,fre$om ( ?\ght & fre$om ( spee* /& to  
ea* o!r z ! two halves ( a pair (       
scissors4 ,)\t fre$om ( spee* fre$om (  
?\ght is robb$ ( ! bett] "p ( its       
utility1 ev5 if its exi/5ce is n        
?reat5$4 ,! "o reacts on ! o!r4 ,z ?\ght
 provides ! mat]ial = spee*1 s1 9 turn1 
x det]iorates :5 x is d5i$ expression4  
,spee* is1 9 fact1 "o ( ! great factors 
9 human progress4 ,x is t :i* enables "o
 g5]ation to h& on to ano!r ! discov]ies
 made1 ! inv5tions produc$1 ! ?\ghts    
a*iev$1 & s gives a degree ( fixity to !
 progress atta9$4 ,= progress1 :ile     
express$ ?r\gh ! individual1 is a*iev$  
by ! race4 ,individually1 ! man ( to-day
 is n /rik+ly sup]ior 9 =m or capacity  
to ! man ( five or t5 ?\s& ye>s ago4 ,b 
he kn[s m1 c a*ieve m1 & is 9 t s5se    
/rong] ?an 0 8 ance/ors4 ,he is ! heir (
 ! ages1 n z a figure ( spee*1 b z ! mo/
 sob] ( facts4 ,he inh]its :at previ\s  
g5]ations h acquir$2 ! s*oolboy ( to-day
 />ts ) a capital ( inh]it$ k t w\ld h  

be5 an outfit = a philosoph] a few ?\s& 
ye>s ago4  ,x is ?is t makes spee* ( s  
great importance to ! fact ( progress4  
,)\t spee*1 writt5 or v]bal1 x w\ld be  
impossible to cons]ve ! products ( human
 a*ievem5t4 ,ea* g5]ation w\ld h to />t 
:]e its pr$ecessor comm5c$1 & x w\ld    
f9i% at ab\t ! same po9t4 ,x w\ld be !  
fable ( ,sisyphus illu/rat$ 9 ! pass+ ( 
ea* g5]ation ( human be+s4  ,b spee*    
implies communication4 ,!re is n v mu*  
pleasure 9 speak+ to oneself4 ,ev5 ! man
 :o apologis$ = ! practice on ! gr\nd t 
he lik$ to address a s5sible assembly   
w\ld soon gr[ tir$ ( s re/rict$ an      
audi5ce4 ,! function ( spee* is to      
transmit ideas1 & x foll[s1 !re=e1 t e  
emb>go on ! free ex*ange ( ideas1 e     
ob/acle to complete fre$om ( spee*1 is a
 direct ?reat to ! well-be+ (           
civilisation4 ,z ,milton c\ld say t a   
good book is ! preci\s life-blood ( a   
ma/] _s1 embalm$ & treasur$ up to a life
 beyond life1 & t he :o de/roys a good  
book kills reason itself1 s we may say t

 he :o /rikes at fre$om ( ?\ght & spee* 
is aim+ a bl[ at ! v he>t ( human       
bett]m5t4  ,9 !ory1 ! tru? ( :at has be5
 said w\ld be readily admitt$1 b 9      
practice x has met1 & /ill meets1 ) a   
vigor\s opposition4 ,gov]nm5ts h exhau/$
 _! p[]s to prev5t fre$om ( int]c\rse   
betwe5 peoples1 & e ,*ur* & *apel has   
us$ its be/ endeav\rs to ! same end4    
,ev5 to-day1 :5 all are ready to pay    
lip-homage to fre$om ( ?\ght1 ! ob/acles
 9 ! way ( a g5u9e fre$om are /ill v    
great4 ,"u ! be/ possible conditions !re
 w probably always be "s co]cion (      
op9ion1 if only ( t unconsci\s k9d :i*  
society z a :ole ex]ts ^u its individual
 memb]s4 ,b to ?is we h to add ! co]cion
 t is consci\sly ex]t$ to secure !      
=mation ( p>ticul> op9ions1 & :i* has ! 
dual effect ( induc+ dissimulation 9 "s 
& impot5cy 9 o!rs4 ,q ignorantly p>5ts  
comm5ce ! "w :5 !y =ce ^u *ildr5 _! own 
views ( religion & inculcate an         
exagg]at$ respect = au?ority4 ,!y create
 an initial bias t is 9 only too _m     

cases fatal to real indep5d5ce ( ?\ght4 
,social pressure cont9ues :at a mi/ak5  
e>ly tra9+ has comm5c$4 ,:5 op9ions are 
made ! te/ ( good =m1 & "o's social /&+ 
p>tly det]m9$ by ! k9d ( op9ions t "o   
holds1 !re is develop$ on ! "o side     
hypocrisy1 & on ! o!r1 because c]ta9    
op9ions are bann$1 ?\ght 9 g5]al is     
unheal?ily fre$ f ! sob]+ influ5ce (    
enlight5$ criticism4#aa  #aa ,x is a    
curi\s ?+1 z ,philip ,gilb]t ,ham]ton   
po9ts out 9 "o ( 8 essays1 t 9 ,engl&   
religi\s fre$om appe>s to exi/ 9 inv]se 
proportion to rank4 ,! k+ has no fre$om 
:atev] 9 a *oice ( religion4 ,8 religion
 is "p ( ! position4 ,an ,engli%        
nobleman1 speak+ g5]ally1 has two       
religions f :i* to *oose4 ,he may be    
ei!r a memb] ( ! e/abli%$ ,*ur* or ( !  
,roman ,ca?olic4 ,9 ! middle classes !re
 is ! *oice ( all sorts ( religi\s      
sects1 s long z !y are ,*ri/ian4        
,religi\s diss5t is p]mitt$ s long z x  
does n travel beyond ! limits ( ! *apel4
 ,& :5 we come to ! bett] class work+   

man1 he has ! greate/ fre$om ( all4 ,8  
social position does n dep5d ^u 8       
belong+ to ?is or t ,*ur*1 & he may1 to 
borr[ a phrase f ,he9e1 g to hell 9 8   
own fa%ion4  ,to-day ! legal prohibition
 ( religi\s diss5t is practically       
ineffective1 & is c]ta9ly f> less       
demoraliz+ ?an ! pressure t is ex]t$    
socially & un(ficially4 ,9 all          
probability ?is has always be5 ! case4  
,= legal p]secution mu/ be op54 ,"p (   
its purpose is publicity1 & t 9 itself  
is apt to r\se ho/ility4 ,aga9/ op51    
legal p]secution a man w make a /&1 or  
if he gives way to ! =ce array$ aga9/   
him may d s ) no feel+ ( p]sonal        
degradation4 ,b ! con=mity t is secur$  
by a ?reat ( social boycott1 ! fre$om ( 
spee* t is prev5t$ by *ok+ ! av5ues (   
intellectual int]c\rse1 is f> m deadly 9
 its consequ5ces1 & f> m demoraliz+ 9   
its influ5ce on "*4 ,to give way1 z     
?\s&s d1 n to ! op5 application ( =ce1  
:i* c>ries no great] p]sonal reflection 
?an does ! soldi]'s surr5d] to sup]ior  

numb]s1 b to ! dread ( f9ancial loss1 to
 ! fe> ( los+ a social /atus1 t "o may  
inw>dly despise ev5 :ile 9 ! act (      
secur+ x1 or f fe> ( (f5d+ ^? :om we may
 feel are n wor?y ( our respect1 ^! are 
! ?+s t _c be done )\t eat+ into "o's   
s5se ( self-respect1 & inflict+ ^u "o's 
"* an irrep>able injury4  ,on ?is matt] 
m w be said lat]4 ,= ! pres5t ,i am     
conc]n$ ) ! s5se 9 :i* we are us+ ! ^w  
,free?\ght4 ,=tunately1 little "t ne$ be
 wa/$ 9 discuss+ ! once popul> retort to
 ! ,free?9k] t if ! pr9ciple ( det]m9ism
 be accept$ free ?\ght is impossible4 ,x
 is surpris+ t su* an argum5t %\ld ev] h
 secur$ a vogue1 & is only n[ int]e/+ z 
an indication ( ! m5tality ( ! def5d] ( 
or?odox religion4 ,c]ta9ly no "o :o     
prop]ly und]/&s ! mean+ ( ! ^w w\ld use 
su* an argum5t4 ,at be/ x is tak+ a ^w f
 sociology1 a sph]e 9 :i* ! mean+ is q  
cle> & intelligible1 & apply+ x 9 !     
region ( physical sci5ce :]e x has n1 & 
is n int5d$ to h1 any mean+ at all4 ,9  
physical sci5ce a ?+ is :at x does1 & ! 

bus9ess ( sci5ce is to note ! do+s (    
=ces & masses1 _! actions & reactions1 &
 express !m 9 t]ms ( natural law4 ,f !  
po9t ( view ( physical sci5ce a ?+ is   
nei!r free nor unfree1 & to discuss     
natural happ5+s 9 t]ms ( fre$om or      
bondage is equal to discuss+ smell 9    
t]ms ( sight or col\r 9 t]ms ( smell4 ,b
 appli$ 9 a legitimate way ! ^w free is 
n only ju/ifiable1 x is indisp5sible4 ,!
 confusion arises :5 we take a ^w f a   
dep>tm5t 9 :i* its mean+ is q cle> &    
apply x 9 a region :]e x has no         
application :atev]4  ,appli$ to op9ion  
,free has ! same orig9 & ! same         
application z ! expressions a free man1 
or a free ,/ate1 or a free p4 ,tak+ ei!r
 ( ^! expressions x is pla9 t !y c\ld h 
orig9at$ only 9 a /ate ( affairs :]e "s 
p are free1 & "s are liv+ 9 a /ate (    
bondage or re/ra9t4 ,!re is no ne$ to   
trace ! hi/ory ( ?is s9ce s mu* is      
impli$ 9 ! ^w itself4 ,a free ,/ate is  
"o 9 :i* ^? belong+ to x det]m9e _! own 
laws )\t be+ co]c$ by an outside p[]4 ,a

 free man is "o :o is p]mitt$ to act z 8
 own nature prompts4 ,! ^w free implies 
no?+ z to ! nature ( moral or m5tal     
causation1 t is a "q ( a :olly diff]5t  
ord]4 ,! free man exi/s ov] aga9/ ! "o  
:o is n free1 ! free ,/ate ov] aga9/ "o 
t is held 9 "s degree ( subjection to   
ano!r ,/ate4 ,!re is no o!r mean+ to !  
^w1 & t mean+ is q cle> & def9ite4  ,n[ 
,free?\ght has a precisely simil>       
significance4 ,x says no?+ z to ! nature
 ( ?\ght1 ! orig9 ( ?\ght1 or ! laws (  
?\ght4 ,) none ( ^! que/ions is x       
vitally conc]n$4 ,x simply ass]ts t !re 
are conditions "u :i* ?\ght is n free1 t
 is1 :]e x is co]c$ to a =egone         
conclusion1 & t ^! conditions are fatal 
to ?\ght 9 its high] & m valuable       
aspects4 ,free?\ght is t =m ( ?9k+ t    
proce$s along l9es ( its own det]m9+1 r 
?an along l9es t are laid d[n by        
au?ority4 ,9 actual practice x is       
imm$iately conc]n$ ) ! expression (     
op9ion r ?an ) its =mation1 s9ce no     
au?ority c prev5t ! =mation ( op9ion 9  

any m9d t is at all indep5d5t 9 its     
movem5ts & =ms op9ions on ! basis (     
obs]v$ facts & adequate reason+4 ,b its 
*ief & prim>y significance lies 9 its   
repudiation ( ! "r ( au?ority to say :at
 =m ! expression ( op9ion %all take4 ,& 
x is also cle> t su* a t]m z ,free?\ght 
c\ld only h come into g5]al use &       
prom95ce 9 a society 9 :i* ! free       
circulation ( op9ion 0 m or less imp$$4 
,x ?us becomes specially significant t1 
m]ely z a matt] ( hi/ory1 ! fir/ active 
manife/ation ( ,free?\ght %\ld h occurr$
 9 connection ) a revolt aga9/ religi\s 
tea*+ & au?ority4 ,?is 0 no accid5t1 b 0
 r a case ( necessity4 ,=1 9 ! fir/     
place1 !re is no o!r subject 9 :i* pure 
au?ority plays s l>ge a "p z x does 9   
religion4 ,all *ur*es & all prie/hoods1 
anci5t & mod]n1 fall back ^u ! pr9ciple 
( pure au?ority z a f9al me?od ( en=c+  
_! hold ^u ! p4 ,t1 x may be not$ 9     
pass+1 is "o ( ! *ief reasons :y 9 all  
ages gov]nm5ts h f\nd religion "o ( !   
mo/ s]viceable ag5cies 9 ma9ta9+ _!     

sway4 ,secondly1 !re seems to h be5 f ! 
v e>lie/ times a radically diff]5t frame
 ( m9d 9 ! approa* to secul> & religi\s 
matt]s4 ,s f> z "o c see !re appe>s to  
be1 ev5 9 primitive societies1 no v     
/rong opposition to ! free discussion ( 
matt]s t are ( a purely secul> nature4  
,que/ions ( ways & means conc]n+ ^! are 
freely debat$ among savage tribes1 & 9  
all discussion diff]5ces ( op9ion mu/ be
 tak5 = grant$4 ,x is :5 we approa*     
religi\s subjects t a diff]5ce is se54  
,"h ! ma9 conc]n is to det]m9e ! w ( !  
gods1 & all reason+ is ?us out ( place1 
if n a positive dang]4 ,! only ?+ is to 
discov] ,god's w1 & :5 we h 81 or 8 w   
giv5 9 sacr$ books ! emb>go on free ?9k+
 is complete4 ,?is feature cont9ues to !
 end4 ,we d n ev5 to-day discuss        
religi\s matt]s 9 ! same op5 _s 9 :i*   
secul> matt]s are debat$4 ,!re is a bat$
 brea?1 a timidity ( criticism 9        
discuss+ religi\s subjects t does n     
appe> :5 we are discuss+ secul> topics4 
,) ! ?or\ghly religi\s man x is solely a

 "q ( :at ,god wi%es him to d4 ,9       
religion ?is af=ds ! only latitude =    
discussion1 & ev5 t disappe>s l>gely :5 
! w ( ,god is plac$ be=e ! p 9 ! %ape ( 
reveal$ writ+s4 ,=tunately = ! _w       
inspir$ writ+s h nev] be5 s cle>ly p5n$ 
z to leave no room = d\bt z to :at !y   
actually meant4 ,cl>ity ( mean+ has nev]
 be5 "o ( ! qualities ( div9e au?or%ip4 
,9 ?is connection x is significant t !  
fir/ =m ( democratic gov]nm5t ( :i* we h
 any cle> record %\ld h be5 9 free?9k+1 
sceptical ,greece4 ,equally notable is x
 t 9 bo? ,rome & ,greece ! measure (    
m5tal tol]ation 0 great] ?an x has ev]  
be5 9 o!r c\ntries be=e or s9ce4 ,9     
,rome to ! v end ( ! ,pagan dom9ation   
!re exi/$ no legislation aga9/ op9ions1 
z su*4 ,! hold]s ( c]ta9 op9ions might  
f9d !mselves 9 uncom=table positions n[ 
& !n1 b action aga9/ !m _h to re/ on "s 
gr\nd o!r ?an t :i* 0 aft]w>ds kn[n z   
h]esy4 ,!re exi/$ no law 9 ! ,roman     
,empire aga9/ fre$om ( op9ion1 & ^? :o  
are famili> ) ,mr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,lea's       

classic1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,inquisition1 w    
recall 8 acc\nt ( ! v>i\s tactics adopt$
 by ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* to introduce       
measures t w\ld accu/om ! public m9d to 
legislation :i* %\ld e/abli% ! pr9ciple 
( p]secution = op9ion4#ab ,9 ! end !    
,*ur* succe$$ 9 effect+ ?is1 & its      
success 0 regi/]$ 9 ! almo/ unbelievable
 degradation ( ! human intellect :i* 0  
exhibit$ 9 ! ,*ri/ian _w = c5turies4 ,s 
complete 0 ?is demoralization t m ?an a 
?\s& ye>s lat] we f9d m5 ann\nc+ z a mo/
 d>+ pr9ciple a dem& = fre$om (         
discussion :i* 9 old ,greece & ,rome 0  
nev] (ficially que/ion$4 ,*ri/ianity n  
m]ely kill$ fre$om :]ev] x e/abli%$     
itself1 b x came v ne> kill+ ev5 !      
memory ( x4  #ab ,see specially ,vol4   
,i41 *apt]s #f1 #g1 & #h4 ,"o is sorely 
tempt$ to engage 9 :at w\ld be a r l5g?y
 aside on ! m5tal fre$om enjoy$ by ! p (
 anci5t ,greece1 b consid]ations (      
cog5cy advise a %ort] comm5t 9 ?is =m4  
,9 ! fir/ place we h to note t nei!r !  
,greeks nor ! ,romans possess$ any?+ 9 !

 %ape ( sacr$ books4 ,t1 z ! hi/ory (   
,mohamm$anism & ,*ri/ianity %[s1 is "o (
 ! mo/ disa/r\s ?+s t c happ5 to any p4 
,b ap>t f ?is !re 7 sev]al circum/ances 
connect$ ) ! developm5t ( ! ,greek      
peoples t made = fre$om ( op9ion4 ,!re 0
 no uni=m !ology to comm5ce )1 & !      
configuration ( ! c\ntry1 :ile en\gh to 
ma9ta9 local indep5d5ce1 0 n en\gh to   
prev5t a c]ta9 am\nt ( int]c\rse4 ,& x  
w\ld c]ta9ly seem t no p 7 ev] s devoid 
( intol]ance z 7 ! anci5t ,greeks4 ,x is
 true t ! hi/ory ( ,greece 0 n )\t its  
examples ( intol]ance1 b ^! 7           
comp>atively few1 &1 z ,pr(essor ,bury  
says1 p]secution 0 nev] organiz$4 ,!    
gods 7 criticiz$ 9 bo? spee*es & plays4 
,!ories ( ,mat]ialism & ,a!ism 7 op5ly  
taught & 7 made ! topic ( public        
discussion4 ,!re 01 inde$1 a passion = !
 discussion ( all sorts ( subjects1 & to
 discussion no?+ is sacr$4 ,! be/ ?\ght 
( ,rome ow$ its impetus to ,greece1 & at
 a lat] date x 0 ! recov]$ ?\ght (      
,greece :i* gave ! impetus to ,mohamm$an

 ,spa9 9 its cultivation ( sci5ce &     
philosophy1 & s l$ to ! p>tial recov]y (
 ,europe f ! disa/r\s control ( !       
,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 ,nor ne$ x be assum$ t !
 "w ( ,greece 0 due to ! possession ( a 
sup]ior bra9 p[]4 ,( t !re is n !       
slighte/ ve/ige ( pro(4 ,x is simply t !
 anci5t ,greek liv$ 9 a fre] m5tal      
atmosph]e4 ,! m9d _h less to hamp] x 9  
its op]ations2 x _h no organiz$ & p[]ful
 ,*ur* t f ! cradle to ! grave pursu$   
its "w ( prev5t+ free criticism & ! play
 ( enlight5$ op9ion4 ,= sev]al c5turies 
! _w has be5 seek+ to recov] "s ( its   
lo/ lib]ties ) only a v mod]ate success4
 ,b if "o ?9ks ( :at ! ,greeks 71 & if  
"o adds to :at !y _h a*iev$ a possible  
two ?\s& ye>s ( developm5t1 he w !n h "s
 notion ( :at ! triumph ( ! ,*ri/ian    
,*ur* meant to ! _w4  ,x 01 !re=e1      
inevitable t 9 ! we/]n _w ,free?\ght    
%\ld come into prom95ce 9 relation to ! 
,*ri/ian religion & its claims4 ,9 !    
,*ri/ian ,*ur* !re exi/$ an organization
 :i* n alone work$ ) ! av[$ int5tion (  

det]m9+ :at m5 %\ld ?9k1 b f9ally       
proce$$ to :at 01 p]haps1 ! logical     
conclusion1 to say :at !y %\ld n ?9k4   
,no great] tyranny ?an ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* 
has ev] exi/$4 ,& ?is applies1 n to !   
,roman ,*ur* alone1 b to e ,*ur* )9 !   
limit ( its opportunities4 ,9 ! "n & 9 !
 int]e/s ( religion ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*    
took "s ( ! wor/ passions ( m5 &        
consecrat$ !m4 ,! kill+ ( h]etics became
 "o ( ! mo/ solemn duties & x 0 urg$ ^u 
secul> rul]s z su*4 ,! greate/ in/rum5t 
( oppression ev] =m$1 ! ,inquisition1 0 
fa%ion$ = no o!r purpose ?an to root out
 op9ions t 7 obnoxi\s to ! ,*ur*4 ,x    
w\ld h be5 bad en\gh _h ! attempts ( !  
,*ur* to control op9ion be5 limit$ to   
religion4 ,b t 0 n ! case4 ,x aim$ at   
tak+ "u its control all sorts ( tea*+ on
 all sorts ( subjects4 ,no?+ w\ld h     
surpris$ an inhabitant ( anci5t ,rome m1
 c\ld he h revisit$ ! e>? "s doz5       
c5turies aft] ! e/abli%m5t (            
,*ri/ianity1 ?an to h f\nd m5 be+ puni%$
 = criticis+ doctr9es t 7 9 8 day op5ly 

laugh$ at4 ,& no?+ c\ld h giv5 an anci5t
 ,a!nian great] cause = wond] ?an to h  
f\nd m5 be+ imprison$ & burn$ = tea*+   
cosmical !ories t 7 be+ debat$ 9 !      
s*ools ( ,a!ns two ?\s& ye>s be=e4 ,well
 might !y h wond]$ :at _h happ5$ to !   
_w1 & well might !y h come to !         
conclusion t x _h be5 ov]tak5 by an     
attack ( univ]sal insanity4 ,& !        
explanation w\ld n h be5 s v wide ( !   
tru?4  ,9 ?is matt] ( suppression (     
fre$om ( ?9k+ !re 0 little to *oose     
betwe5 ! ,*ur*es4 ,ea* aim$ at controll+
 ! ?\ght ( mank9d1 ea* 0 equally        
intol]ant ( any v>iation f ! set l9e1 & 
ea* employ$ ! same weapon ( co]cion s f>
 z circum/ances p]mitt$4 ,at mo/ !      
,prote/ant ,*ur*es sub/itut$ a dead book
 = a liv+ ,*ur*1 & 9 ! end x may be     
que/ion$1 :5 all all[ance is made = !   
*ang$ circum/ances 9 :i* ,prote/antism  
op]at$1 :e!r ! rule ( ! new ,*ur* 0 n m 
disa/r\s ?an ! old] "o4 ,x _h c]ta9ly   
less excuse = its intol]ance4 ,! ,roman 
,ca?olic ,*ur* might urge t x nev]      

claim$ to /& = fre$om ( op9ion1 & :atev]
 its s9s x 0 s f> free f ! (f5ce (      
hypocrisy4 ,b ! ,prote/ant ,*ur*es c\ld 
set up no su* plea2 !y pr(ess$ to /& on 
fre$om ( consci5ce4 ,& !y ?us add$ !    
quality ( inconsi/5cy & hypocrisy to an 
(f5ce t 0 already grave en\gh 9 itself4 
,b :atev] op9ion "o may h on t po9t1 x  
is c]ta9 t 9 practice ! ,prote/ant      
lead]s 7 z oppos$ to fre$om ( ?\ght z 7 
! ,roman ,ca?olics4 ,& ,prote/ant       
bigotry left a m>k on ,european hi/ory t
 des]ves special recognition4 ,= ! fir/ 
"t x made ! pr(ession ( ,*ri/ianity a   
def9ite "p ( ! law ( ! secul> ,/ate4#ac 
,hi!rto !re _h be5 no law 9 any ( !     
,european ,/ates :i* made a pr(ession ( 
,*ri/ianity necess>y4 ,!re _h be5 pl5ty 
( p]secutions ( non-,*ri/ians1 & !      
consequ5ces ( a rejection ( ,*ri/ianity1
 if "o liv$ 9 a ,*ri/ian ,/ate1 7 s]i\s 
en\gh4 ,b :5 ! secul> ,/ate puni%$ !    
h]etic x 0 a manife/ation ( good w t[>ds
 ! ,*ur* & n ! expression ( a legal     
enactm5t4 ,x 0 ! direct influ5ce ( !    

,*ur* on ! ,/ate4 ,*ur* & ,/ate 7       
legally di/9ct dur+ ! m$iaeval p]iod1   
h[ev] closely !y may h be5 alli$ 9      
practice4 ,) ! arrival ( ,prote/antism &
 ! back+ ( ! re=m$ religion giv5 by     
c]ta9 ( ! ,pr9ces1 ! ma*9]y (           
intol]ance1 s to speak1 0 tak5 ov] by ! 
,/ate & became "o ( its functions4 ,x   
became z mu* ! duty ( ! secul> (ficials 
to extirpate h]esy1 to secure uni=mity (
 religi\s belief z x 0 to ! int]e/ ( !  
,*ur* to see t x 0 de/roy$4 ,up to t "t 
x 0 ! aim ( ! ,*ur* to make ! ,/ate "o (
 its dep>tm5ts4 ,x _h nev] legally      
succe$$ 9 do+ ?is1 b x 0 n = ! ,roman   
,*ur* to s9k to ! subord9ate position ( 
becom+ a dep>tm5t ( ! ,/ate4 ,x 0 left =
 ,prote/antism to make ! ,*ur* a bran* (
 ! ,/ate & to give religi\s bigotry !   
full sanction ( secul> law4  #ac ,see on
 ?is po9t ,he]5's ,hi/orical ,treatises1
 #ahcf1 pp4 #fa-gj4  ,nei!r ) ,ca?olic  
nor ,prote/ant c\ld !re be1 !re=e1 any  
relaxation 9 ! opposition (f]$ to       
indep5d5t ?9k+4 ,t /ill rema9$ ! c>d9al 

(f5ce to ! religi\s m9d4 ,9 ! "n (      
religion ,prote/ants oppos$ ! physics ( 
,newton z bitt]ly z ,ca?olics oppos$ !  
physics ( ,galileo4 ,! geology ( ,hutton
 & ,lyell1 ! *emi/ry ( ,boyle & ,dalton1
 ! biology ( ,von ,ba]1 ,lam>ck & ,d>w91
 ) almo/ any o!r bran* ( sci5ce t "o    
c>es to select1 tell ! same tale4 ,& :5 
! desire = re=m took a social turn !re 0
 ! same influ5ce to be f\ght4 ,= :ile ! 
,roman ,ca?olic laid ! *ief insi/5ce on 
ob$i5ce to ! ,*ur*1 ! ,prote/ant laid z 
/rong insi/5ce on ob$i5ce to ! ,/ate1 & 
made disob$i5ce to its ord]s a matt] (  
almo/ religi\s revolt4 ,! :ole =ce (    
religion 0 ?us us$ to induce cont5tm5t )
 ! exi/+ ord]1 in/ead ( to ! creation ( 
an intellig5t discont5t :i* w\ld lead to
 cont9u\s improvem5t4 ,9 view ( ^!      
circum/ances x is n surpris+ t ! ^w     
,free?\ght %\ld h lo/ 9 actual use its m
 g5]al significance ( a d5ial ( ! place 
( m]e au?ority 9 matt]s ( op9ion1 & h   
acquir$ a m def9ite & precise           
connotation4 ,x c\ld n1 ( c\rse1 lose   

its g5]al mean+1 b x ga9$ a special     
application & became prop]ly associat$ )
 a def9itely anti-!ological attitude4 ,!
 gr[? 9 ?is direction 0 gradual b       
inevitable4 ,:5 ! t]m fir/ came into    
g5]al use1 ab\t ! end ( ! sev5te5?      
c5tury1 x 0 ma9ly us$ ) ref]5ce to ^?   
dei/s :o 7 !n attack+ ,*ri/ianity4 ,9 t 
s5se x cont9u$ to be us$ = "s "t4 ,b z  
,deism lo/ gr\nd1 ?anks p>tly to !      
,*ri/ian attack1 ! cle> & logical issue 
betwe5 ,!ism & ,a!ism became app>5t1 ) !
 result t ! def9ite anti-religi\s "* (  
,free?\ght became firmly e/abli%$4 ,&   
to-day x is m]e affectation or timidity 
to pret5d t ! ^w has any o!r vital      
significance4 ,to say t a man is a      
,free?9k] is to give1 to n9ety-n9e p out
 ( a hundr$1 ! impression t he is       
anti-religi\s4 ,& 9 ?is direction !     
popul> s5se ( ! ^w discloses :at has be5
 its important hi/oric function4        
,hi/orically1 ! *ief /ronghold ( m]e    
au?ority has be5 religion4 ,9 sci5ce & 9
 sociology1 z well z 9 connection )     

sup]naturalism prop]1 e movem5t 9 !     
direction ( ! free ex]cise ( ! intellect
 has met ) ! unceas+ opposition (       
religion4 ,t has always be5 at once !   
symbol & ! in/rum5t ( oppression4 ,to   
attack religion has be5 to attack !     
enemy 9 8 capital4 ,all else has be5    
matt] ( outpo/ skirmi%+4  ,i h app>5tly 
gone a long way r\nd to get at ! mean+ (
 ! ^w ,free?\ght1 b x 0 necess>y4 ,= x  
is ( v little use1 9 ! case ( an        
important ^w t has /ood & /&s = ! "n ( a
 movem5t1 to g to a diction>y1 or to    
appeal to etymology4 ,! latt] has (t5 a 
m]e antiqu>ian int]e/1 & ! =m] m]ely    
regi/]s curr5t mean+s1 x does n make !m4
 ,! use ( a ^w mu/ ultimately be det]m9$
 by ! ideas x conveys to ^? :o he> x4 ,&
 f :at has be5 said ! mean+ ( ?is       
p>ticul> ^w %\ld be fairly cle>4 ,:ile  
/&+ hi/orically = a reason$ prote/ aga9/
 ! imposition ( op9ion by au?ority1 &1  
negatively1 aga9/ su* artificial        
conditions z prev5t ! free circulation (
 op9ion1 x to-day /&s actually = a      

def9itely anti-religi\s m5tal attitude4 
,& ?is is :at "o w\ld naturally expect4 
,prote/s1 aft] all1 are prote/s aga9/   
some?+ 9 ! concrete1 ev5 ?\gh !y may    
embody ! affirmation ( an ab/ract       
pr9ciple4 ,& n[adays ! pr9ciple ( pure  
au?ority has s few def5d]s t x w\ld be  
%e] wa/e ( "t1 unless ! prote/ embodi$ a
 def9ite attitude ) reg>d to specific   
que/ions4 ,we may1 !n1 put x t to u     
,free?\ght /&s = a reason$ & def9ite    
opposition to all =ms ( sup]naturalism1 
x claims ! "r to subject all religi\s   
beliefs to ! te/ ( reason1 & fur!r      
claims t :5 s te/$ !y break d[n         
hopelessly4 ,x is f ?is po9t ( view t ^!
 pages are writt51 & ! w>ranty = s def9+
 x %\ld be app>5t f :at has be5 said 9  
?is & ! prec$+ *apt]4     ,,*apt] ,,iv4 
,,rebellion ,,& ,,re=m4   ,rebellion &  
re=m are n exactly tw9s1 b !y are v     
closely relat$4 ,= :ile all rebellion is
 n re=m1 yet 9 ! wide/ s5se ( ! ^w1 !re 
is no re=m )\t rebellion4 ,to fight =   
re=m is to rebel aga9/ ! exi/+ ord] & is

 "p ( ! et]nal & fundam5tally heal?ful  
/ruggle ( ! new aga9/ ! old1 & ( ! liv+ 
pres5t aga9/ ! dead pa/4 ,! rebel is ?us
 at once a public dang] & a b5efactor4  
,he ?reat5s ! exi/+ ord]1 b x is 9 ! "n 
( a l>g] & bett] social life4 ,& because
 ( ?is x is 8 usual lot to be crucifi$  
:5 liv+ & deifi$ :5 dead4 ,s x has      
always be51 s 9 its ma9 features w x    
always be4 ,if contempor>ies 7 to       
recognize ! re=m] z su*1 !y w\ld de/roy 
8 ess5tial function by mak+ x useless4  
,improvem5t w\ld become an automatic    
process t w\ld p]fect itself )\t        
opposition4 ,z x is1 ! function ( !     
rebel is to act z an explosive =ce1 & no
 society ( av]age human be+s likes      
explosions4 ,!y are noisy1 & !y are     
dang]\s4 ,= ! re=m] to compla9 at n be+ 
hail$ z a deliv]] is = him to mi/ake 8  
"p & place 9 social evolution4  ,! rebel
 & ! re=m] is1 aga91 always 9 m9ority4  
,t foll[s f :at has already be5 said4 ,x
 foll[s1 too1 f :at we "k ( developm5t 9
 g5]al4 ,d>w9ism re/s on ! supreme      

importance ( ! m9ority4 ,x is an odd    
v>iation "h & !re t acts z ! />t+ po9t =
 a new species--& x has aga9/ x ! swamp+
 influ5ce ( ! re/ ( its k9d t treads !  
old biological l9e4 ,nature's *oice/    
v>iations are ( necessity ) ! few1 & :5 
t v>iation has e/abli%$ itself & become 
normal ano!r has to appe> be=e a new />t
 c be made4  ,:e!r we take biology or   
psy*ology ! same condition appe>s4 ,a   
new idea occurs to an individual & x is 
z /rictly a v>iation f ! normal z any?+ 
t occurs 9 ! animal _w4 ,! idea may =m !
 />t+ po9t ( a new !ory1 or p]haps ( a  
new social ord]4 ,b to e/abli% itself1  
to become ! *>act]i/ic prop]ty ( ! gr\p1
 x mu/ run ! gamut ( p]secution & ! risk
 ( suppression4 ,& suppress$ x (t5 is--=
 a "t4 ,x is an idle maxim :i* tea*es t 
tru? always conqu]s1 if by t is impli$ t
 x does s at once4 ,t is n ! tru?4 ,lies
 h be5 victori\s ov] & ov] aga94 ,!     
,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur*1 "o ( ! greate/   
lies 9 ! hi/ory ( ! human race1 /ood !  
conqu]or = _m c5turies4 ,! tea*+ ( !    

rotundity ( ! e>? & its revolution r\nd 
! sun 0 suppress$ = hundr$s ( ye>s until
 x 0 reviv$ 9 ! #af? c5tury4 ,9 ! long  
run tru? does em]ge1 b a lie may h a    
t]ribly l5g?y inn+s4 ,= ! lie is accept$
 by ! _m1 :ile ! tru? is se5 only by !  
few4 ,b x is ! few to :om we turn :5 we 
look ov] ! names ( ^? :o h made ! _w :at
 is x4 ,all ! b5efits to society come f 
! few1 & society crucifies !m to %[ its 
gratitude4 ,"o may put x t society lives
 on ! usual1 b fl\ri%es on acc\nt ( !   
exception4  ,n[ !re is some?+ extremely 
significant 9 ! ,*ri/ian religion trac+ 
all ! disa/]s ( mank9d to a primal act (
 disob$i5ce4 ,x is a fact :i* discloses 
9 a fla% ! *ief social function (       
religion 9 g5]al & ( ,*ri/ianity 9      
p>ticul>4 ,man's duty is summ$ up 9 ! "o
 ^w ob$i5ce1 & ! function ( !           
7religi\sly7 good man is to obey !      
comm&s ( ,god1 z t ( ! good citiz5 is to
 obey ! comm&s ( gov]nm5t4 ,! two comm&s
 meet & supplem5t ea* o!r ) ! mutual    
advantage :i* results f ! adju/m5t ( !  

upp] & l[] jaws ( a hy5a4 ,& x expla9s  
:y ! p[]s t be h always fav\r$ ! claims 
( religion4 ,x enabl$ !m to rally to _! 
aid ! trem5d\s & /upefy+ aid ( religion 
& to place rebellion to _! ord]s on !   
same level z rebellion aga9/ ,god4 ,9   
,*ri/ian !ology ,satan is ! ar*-rebel2  
hell is full ( rebelli\s angels &       
disob$i5t m5 & wom54 ,heav5 is res]v$ = 
! timid1 ! tame1 ! ob$i5t1 ! %eep-l4 ,:5
 ! ,*ri/ ( ! ,gospels divides ! p into  
goats & %eep1 x is ! =m] t g to hell1 & 
! latt] to heav54 ,! ,*ur* has n a rebel
 9 its cal5d>1 al?\gh x has n a few     
rogues & _m fools4 ,to ! ,*ur* rebellion
 is always a s91 save on ^? r>e         
occasions :5 revolt is ord]$ 9 ! int]e/s
 ( ! ,*ur* itself4 ,9 ,greek my?ology   
,prome!us /eals fire f heav5 = ! b5efit 
( man & suff]s 9 consequ5ce4 ,! my?     
symbolizes ! fact4 ,always ! man has _h 
to w9 k & happ9ess 9 ! tee? ( opposition
 f ! gods4 ,always ! race has ow$ its   
progress to ! d>+ ( ! rebel or ( !      
rebelli\s few4  ,(t5 ! ,free?9k] is     

d5\nc$ because he is de/ructive or      
dang]\s4 ,:at o!r is he expect$ to be8  
,& w\ld he be ( mu* use if he 7         
o!rwise88 ,i w\ld g fur!r & say t he is 
! mo/ de/ructive ( all ag5cies because  
he is s intimately conc]n$ ) ! h&l+ ( ! 
mo/ de/ructive ( weapons--ideas4 ,we    
wa/e a good deal ( "t 9 d5\nc+ c]ta9 p z
 dang]\s :5 !y are 9 reality            
comp>atively h>mless4 ,a man ?r[s a     
bomb1 or breaks into a h\se1 or robs "o 
( a purse1 & a judge solemnly d5\nces   
him z a mo/ dang]\s memb] ( society4 ,x 
is all wrong4 ,^! are comp>atively      
h>mless individuals4 ,"o man ?r[s a     
bomb1 kills a few p1 damages "s prop]ty1
 & !re ! matt] ends4 ,ano!r man comes   
along & drops in/ead ( a bomb a few     
ideas1 & ! :ole c\ntry is 9 a /ate (    
eruption4 ,*>les ,peace pursues a c>e] (
 piety & crime1 gets himself com=tably &
 religi\sly hang$1 & society            
congratulates itself on hav+ got rid ( a
 dang]\s p]son1 & !n =gets all ab\t x4  
,k>l ,m>x visits ,engl&1 pr[ls r\nd     

,london /udy+ ! life ( ri* & poor1 &    
drops ,das ,kapital on u4 ,a quiet &    
outw>dly in(f5sive individual1 "o :o    
nev] gave ! police a mom5t's anxiety1   
sp5ds ye>s /udy+ e>?worms1 & fl[]s1 &   
horses & cats1 & all sorts ( mov+ ?+s & 
pres5ts society ) ,! ,orig9 ( ,species4 
,organiz$ society f\nd itself able to   
easily gu>d itself aga9/ ! attacks ( m5 
su* z ,*>les ,peace1 x may ) impunity   
ext5d its hospitality to ! ?r[] ( bombs1
 or robb] ( h\ses1 b by :at means c x   
protect itself aga9/ ! peaceful ,m>x or 
! h>mless ,d>w98 ,no society c af=d to  
ignore 9 its mid/ a score ( orig9al or  
indep5d5t ?9k]s1 or if society does     
ignore !m !y w n = long ignore society4 
,! ?9k] is really de/ructive4 ,he       
de/roys because he creates2 he creates  
because he de/roys4 ,! "o is ! obv]se ( 
! o!r4  ,i am n mak+ idle play ) ! ^w   
de/ruction4 ,x is lit]ally true t 9     
human society ! mo/ de/ructive & ! mo/  
co]cive =ces at "w are ideas4 ,!y /rike 
at e/abli%$ in/itutions & dem& ei!r _!  

modification or _! removal4 ,t is :y !  
em]g5ce ( a new idea is always an ev5t (
 social significance4 ,:e!r x be a good 
idea or a bad "o w n affect ! tru? ( ?is
 /atem5t4 ,= ov] f\r ye>s our political 
m$iocrities & muddle head$ milit>i/s 7  
act+ z ?\gh ! real problem be=e !m 0 to 
e/abli% ! sup]iority ( "o arm$ gr\p ( m5
 ov] ano!r gr\p4 ,t 0 really a simple   
matt]4 ,! important issue :i* society _h
 to face 0 ! ideas t ! %ock ( ! w> mu/  
give rise to4 ,?9k]s saw ?is2 b ?9k]s d 
n get ! public e> ei!r z politicians or 
milit>i/s4 ,& n[ ev5ts are driv+ home ! 
lesson4 ,! ideas ( ,bol%evism & ,s9n    
,fe9ism prov$ f> m dang]\s ?an ! ,g]man 
armies4 ,! ,alli$ =ces c\ld h&le ! "o1 b
 !y 7 p[]less be=e ! o!r4 ,x is n a "q (
 :e!r ^! p>ticul> ideas are good or bad1
 or :e!r we approve or disapprove ( !m1 
b entirely "o t1 be+ ideas1 !y repres5t 
a f> m de/ructive p[] ?an ei!r bomb or  
gun4 ,!y are at once ! =ces t act z !   
cem5t ( society & ^? t may hurl x into  
*aotic fragm5ts4  ,:e!r an idea w       

survive or n mu/1 9 ! end1 be det]m9$ by
 circum/ances1 b 9 itself a new idea may
 be tak5 z ! m5tal analogue ( ! v>iation
 :i* takes place 9 physical /ructures1 &
 :i* =ms ! raw mat]ial ( natural        
selection4 ,& if t is s1 x is evid5t t  
any attempt to prev5t ! play ( new ideas
 on old in/itutions is /rik+ at ! v fact
 ( progress4 ,= if we are to enc\rage   
v>iation we mu/ p]mit x 9 all           
directions1 up z well z d[n1 = evil z   
well z = good4 ,y _c *eck v>iation 9 "o 
direction )\t *eck+ x 9 all4 ,y _c      
prev5t ! appe>ance ( a new idea t y d n 
want )\t ?reat5+ ! appe>ance ( a numb] (
 ideas t y w\ld eag]ly welcome4 ,x is1  
!re=e1 always bett] to enc\rage !       
appe>ance ( a bad idea ?an x is to risk 
! suppression ( a good "o4 ,besides1 x  
is n always t =ce appli$ to !           
suppression ( ideas succe$s 9 its       
object4 ,:at x (t5 does is to cause !   
p]secut$ idea to assume a m viol5t =m1  
to ensure a m abrupt break ) ! pa/ ?an  
w\ld o!rwise occur1 ) ! risk ( a p]iod (

 reaction be=e ord]ly progress is       
resum$4 ,! only way to sil5ce an idea is
 to answ] x4 ,y _c reply to a belief )  
bullets1 or bayonet a !ory into sil5ce4 
,hi/ory conta9s _m lessons1 b none t is 
pla9] ?an ?is "o1 & none t religi\s &   
secul> tyrannies le>n ) great]          
reluctance4  ,! ,*ur*es admit by _!     
practice ! tru? ( :at has be5 said4 ,!y 
h always und]/ood t ! "r way to keep    
society 9 a /ation>y position is to     
prev5t ! introduction ( new ideas4 ,x is
 ?\ght aga9/ :i* !y h w>r$1 ! ?9k] aga9/
 :om !y h direct$ _! deadlie/ weapons4  
,! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* has be5 tol]ant t[>ds 
! crim9al1 & has always be5 intol]ant   
t[>ds ! h]etic & ! ,free?9k]4 ,= ! latt]
 ! nam+ auto da fe1 = ! =m] ! mod]ate   
p5ance & ! g1 & s9 no m4 ,! wor/ ( its  
tortures 7 nei!r creat$ = nor appli$ to 
! ?ief & ! assass91 b 7 specially       
design$ = ! unbeliev]4 ,9 ?is ! ,*ur*   
act$ ) a sure in/9ct4 ,! ?ief ?reat5s no
 in/itution1 n ev5 t ( private prop]ty4 
,?\ %alt n /eal is z mu* ! law ( a      

?ieves' kit*5 z x is ( ,mayfair4 ,b     
,cop]nicus1 ,galileo1 ,newton1 ,lyell1  
,d>w91 ^! are ! m5 :o convey a ?reat 9  
all !y write1 :o de/roy & create ) a    
spl5d\r t smacks ( ! p[] ) :i* ,*ri/ians
 h end[$ _! my?ical deity4 ,no          
aggregation ( crim9als has ev] ?reat5$ !
 security ( ! ,*ur*1 or ev5 di/urb$ its 
s]5ity4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! worse1 morally1
 ! "t1 ! great] ! influ5ce (            
,*ri/ianity4 ,x fl\ri%es on human       
weakness & social vice z ! bacilli (    
tub]culosis d 9 d>kness & dirt4 ,x is :5
 weakness gives place to /r5g?1 &       
d>kness to light t ! ,*ur* f9ds its p[] 
weak5+4 ,! ,*ur* c\ld =give ! m5 :o     
in/itut$ ! black slave trade1 %e c\ld   
=give ^? :o 7 responsible = ! horrors ( 
! ,engli% factory sy/em1 b %e c\ld nev] 
=give ! writ] ( ! ,age ( ,reason4 ,%e   
has always kn[n h[ to di/+ui% h] fri5ds 
f h] foes4  ,"r or wrong1 !n1 ! h]etic1 
! ,free?9k]1 repres5ts a figure (       
consid]able social significance4 ,8     
social value does n lie :olly 9 ! fact (

 8 op9ions be+ s\nd or 8 judgm5t        
impeccable4 ,m]e revolt or h]esy c nev] 
c>ry t assurance ) x4 ,! important ?+   
ab\t ! rebel is t he repres5ts a _s1 a  
temp]1 9 ! abs5ce ( :i* society w\ld    
/agnate4 ,x is bad :5 p revolt )\t      
cause1 b x is inf9itely bett] t a p %\ld
 revolt )\t cause ?an t !y %\ld h cause 
= rebellion )\t possess+ ! c\rage ( a   
kick4 ,t man %\ld h ! c\rage to revolt  
aga9/ ! ?+ :i* he believes to be wrong  
is ( inf9itely great] consequ5ce ?an t  
he %\ld be "r 9 condemn+ ! ?+ aga9/ :i* 
he revolts4 ,:e!r ! rebel is "r or wrong
 "t & consequ5ce alone c tell1 b no?+ c 
make good ! evil ( a community r$uc$ to 
%eep-l acquiesc5ce 9 :atev] may be      
impos$ ^u !m4 ,! ,_!'s n to reason :y   
attitude1 h[ev] admirable 9 an army1 is 
intol]able & dang]\s 9 social life4     
,reply+ to ^? :o %riek$ ab\t ! horrors (
 ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 & :o prea*$ !     
virtue ( patriotic ob$i5ce to e/abli%$  
au?ority1 ,c>lyle1 ) an eye on ,irel&1  
s>ca/ically admitt$ t ! horrors 7 v bad 

inde$1 b he add$3--       ,:at if hi/ory
 some:]e on ?is planet 7 to he> ( a     
nation1      ! ?ird s\l ( :om _h n =    
?irty weeks ( ea* ye> z      _m         
?ird-rate potatoes z w\ld su/a9 him8    
,hi/ory 9 t      case1 feels b\nd to    
consid] t />vation is />vation2 t       
/>vation presupposes mu*2 hi/ory v5tures
 to ass]t t !      ,fr5* ,sansculotte ( 
,n9e-?ree1 :o r\s$ f a long dea?        
sleep1 c\ld ru% at once to ! fronti]s & 
die fight+ = an      immortal hope &    
fai? ( deliv]ance = him & 81 0 b !      
second mis]able/ ( m54  ,& t same       
hi/ory1 look+ back ?r\gh ! ages1 is b\nd
 to confess t x is to ! great rebels1 f 
,satan onw>d1 t ! _w ma9ly owes :atev] (
 greatness or happ9ess x has a*iev$4    
,"o o!r quality ( ! rebel rema9s to be  
not$4 ,9 8 revolt aga9/ e/abli%$        
au?ority1 9 8 det]m9ation to wreck *]i%$
 in/itutions = ! realization ( an ideal1
 ! rebel is n ! repres5tative ( an      
anti-social idea or ( an anti-social    
=ce4 ,he is ! true repres5tative ( !    

/ronge/ ( social influ5ces4 ,! v revolt 
aga9/ ! social in/itutions t exi/ is 9 !
 "n & = ! realization ( a l>g] & a bett]
 social ord] t he hopes to create4 ,a   
man :o is ready to sacrifice 8 life 9 ! 
pursuit ( an ideal _c1 :atev] else he   
may be accus$ (1 be reasonably accus$ ( 
selfi%ness or ( a want ( social         
consci\sness4 ,he is a vital expression 
( ! c5turies ( social life :i* h gone   
be=e & :i* h made u all :at we are4 ,7 8
 social s5se weak] he w\ld risk less4 ,7
 he selfi% he w\ld n tr\ble ab\t !      
conv]sion ( 8 fell[s4 ,! _s ( revolt    
repres5ts an important factor 9 !       
process ( social developm5t1 & !y :o are
 mo/ /r5u\s 9 _! d5unciation ( social   
control1 are (t51 ev5 ?\gh unconsci\sly1
 ! /ronge/ evid5ce ( its ov]p[]+        
influ5ce4  ,f$ z we are ) ! m5tal food  
prep>$ by our ,*ur*es & gov]nm5ts1 to ^:
 int]e/s x is t ! rebel & ! ,free?9k]   
%\ld be decri$ & d5\nc$1 we are all too 
apt to ov]look ! significance ( ! rebel4
 ,yet he is inv>iably ! "o :o voices :at

 ! _m are afraid or unable to express4  
,! masses suff] dumbly1 & ! p]si/5ce (  
_! suff]+ bre$s a s5se ( its            
inevitability4 ,x is only :5 ^! dumb    
masses f9d a voice t !y ?reat5 !        
e/abli%$ ord]1 & = ?is ! man ( ideas is 
ess5tial4 ,t is :y all ve/$ int]e/s1    
religi\s & social1 hate him s he>tily4  
,!y recognize t ( all ! =ces ) :i* !y   
deal an idea is ! greate/ & ! mo/       
untamable4 ,once 9 be+ x is ! mo/       
difficult to suppress4 ,x is m explosive
 ?an dynamite & m %att]+ 9 its effects4 
,physical =ce may de/roy a mon>*1 b x is
 only ! =ce ( an idea t c de/roy a      
mon>*y4 ,y may de/roy a *ur* ) cannon1 b
 cannon are p[]less aga9/ ,*ur*         
doctr9es4 ,an idea comes z ne> realiz+ !
 quality ( inde/ructibility z any?+ we  
"k4 ,y may quiet any?+ 9 ! _w ) great]  
ease ?an y may r$uce a /rong ?9k] to    
sil5ce1 or subdue any?+ ) great]        
facility ?an y may subdue ! idea t is   
born ( /r5u\s ?\ght4 ,fire may be       
ext+ui%$ & /rife made to cease1 ambition

 may be kill$ & ! lu/ = p[] gr[ fa9t4 ,!
 "o ?+ t defies all & t f9ally conqu]s  
is ! tru? :i* /rong m5 see & = :i* brave
 m5 fight4  ,x is ?us left = !          
philosophy ( ,free?\ght1 compreh5sive "h
 z else:]e1 to f9d a place = ! rebel &  
to recognize ! "p he plays 9 ! evolution
 ( ! race4 ,= rebellion roots itself    
ultimately 9 ! _s ( m5tal indep5d5ce4 ,&
 t :e!r a p>ticul> act ( revolt may be  
ju/ifiable or n4 ,x is br$ ( ! pa/1 b x 
looks =w>d hopefully & fe>lessly to !   
future1 & x sees 9 ! pres5t ! mat]ial   
out ( :i* t bett] future may be c>v$4 ,t
 ! mass ( p f9d 9 ! rebel someone :om x 
is mov$ to suppress is 9 no wise        
surpris+4 ,new ?+s are n at fir/ always 
pleasant1 ev5 ?\gh !y may be necess>y4  
,b ! temp] ( m9d f :i* rebellion spr+s  
is "o t society c only suppress at its  
p]il4     ,,*apt] ,v4  ,,! ,,/ruggle ,,=
 ,,! ,,*ild4   ,if ! tru? ( :at has be5 
said above be admitt$1 x foll[s t       
civilization has two fundam5tal aspects4
 ,on ! "o side !re is ! environm5t1 made

 up--s f> z civiliz$ humanity is        
conc]n$--( ! ideas1 ! beliefs1 ! cu/oms1
 & ! /or$ up k ( prec$+ g5]ations1 & on 
! o!r side we h an organism :i* 9 virtue
 ( its education responds to !          
environm5tal /imuli 9 a giv5 mann]4     
,betwe5 ! man ( to-day & ! man ( an     
e>li] g5]ation ! vital di/9ction is n t 
! pres5t day "o is1 z an organism1      
bett]1 t he has ke5] sight1 or /rong]   
muscles1 or a bra9 ( great] capacity1 b 
t he has a tru] p]ception ( ?+s1 & 9    
virtue ( 8 enl>g$ k is able to m\ld     
natural =ces1 includ+ ! impulses ( 8 own
 nature1 9 a m desirable mann]4 ,& he c 
d ?is because1 z ,i h already said1 he  
inh]its :at previ\s g5]ations h acquir$1
 & s reaps ! b5efits ( :at !y h done4   
,we may illu/rate ?is 9 a v simple      
mann]4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ diff]5ces      
betwe5 ! man ( to-day & ! man ( ! pa/ is
 ! attitude ( ! two 9 relation to       
natural ph5om5a4 ,to ! p ( n s _m       
g5]ations ago an eclipse 0 a v s]i\s ?+1
 fraught ) ! promise ( disa/] to mank9d4

 ,! appe>ance ( a comet 0 no less om9\s4
 ,john ,knox saw 9 comets an indication 
( ! wra? ( heav51 & 9 all c\ntries !    
,*ur*es f\ght ) all _! might aga9/ !    
gr[? ( ! sci5tific view4 ,away back 9   
antiquity we meet ) ! same view4 ,!re   
is1 = example1 ! classic case ( ! ,greek
 g5]al ,nikias1 :o1 :5 ab\t to extricate
 8 army f a dang]\s position be=e       
,syracuse1 0 told t an eclipse ( ! sun  
indicat$ t ! gods wi%$ him to /ay :]e he
 0 = ?ree times n9e days4 ,nikias obey$ 
! oracles ) ! result t 8 army 0 captur$4
 ,n[ x is c]ta9 t no g5]al to-day w\ld  
act 9 t mann]1 & if he did x is equally 
c]ta9 t he w\ld be c\rt-m>tiall$4       
,equally cle> is x t comets & eclipses h
 ceas$ to infect ! mod]n m9d ) t]ror1 & 
are n[ only objects ( /udy to ! le>n$1 &
 ( curiosity to ! unle>n$4 ,b ! diff]5ce
 "h is entirely "o ( k4 ,our ance/ors   
react$ to ! appe>ance ( a comet or an   
eclipse 9 a p>ticul> mann] because _! k 
( ^! ?+s 0 ( a c]ta9 k9d4 ,x 0 n at all 
a case ( feel+1 or ( degree ( feel+1 or 

( hav+ a bett] bra91 b simply a matt] ( 
react+ to an environm5tal influ5ce 9    
t]ms ( an und]/&+ ( c]ta9 ?+s4 ,_h we ! 
same conception ( ^! ?+s t our ance/ors 
_h we %\ld react 9 ! same mann]4 ,we act
 diff]5tly because our und]/&+ ( ?+s is 
diff]5t4 ,we may put x briefly t ! k9d (
 reaction :i* we make to ! ?+s ar\nd u  
is ma9ly det]m9$ by our k conc]n+ _!    
nature4  ,!re is "o o!r fact t br+s into
 prom95ce ! importance ( ! k9d (        
reaction :i* we make to environm5tal    
/imuli4 ,put briefly1 we may say t an   
important di/9ction betwe5 ! animal &   
man is t ! animal passes its exi/5ce 9 a
 comp>atively simple environm5t :]e !   
exp]i5ces are few 9 k9d & (t5 repeat$1  
:]eas ) man ! environm5t is v complex1 !
 exp]i5ces are v>i$ 9 "*1 & may be only 
repeat$ aft] long int]vals4 ,!          
consequ5ce is t 9 ord] to get ?r\gh life
 an animal ne$s a few simple in/9cts :i*
 automatically respond to frequ5tly     
repeat$ exp]i5ces1 :ile on ! o!r h& !re 
mu/ be ) man opportunity = ! k9d (      

response :i* goes "u ! "n ( intellig5t  
action4 ,x is ?is :i* gives u ! reason1 
or ! explanation1 :y ( all animals !    
human be+ is born ! mo/ helpless1 & :y  
he rema9s helpless = a long] p]iod ?an  
does any o!r4 ,! prolong$ infancy is !  
opportunity giv5 to ! human be+ to      
acquire ! b5efits ( education & s to    
reap ! full advantage ( t social h]itage
 :i*1 z we h %[n1 raises him s f> above 
! level ( pa/ g5]ations4 ,or we may     
express ! matt] ) ! late ,pr(essor      
,fiske1 :o 0 ! fir/1 ,i ?9k1 to dwell at
 l5g? ^u ?is ph5om5on1 t ! di/9ction    
betwe5 man & ! animal _w is t 9 ! "o    
case we h develop$ in/9cts ) small      
capacity = education1 9 ! o!r few       
in/9cts ) great capacity = education4   
,x is (t5 said t ! ,*ur*es h fail$ to   
pay att5tion to education1 or h n tak5 x
 s]i\sly4 ,t is q wrong4 ,x may1 inde$1 
be said t !y h nev] fail$ to att5d to   
education1 & h always tak5 x s]i\sly--) 
disa/r\s results to education & to      
social life4 ,ev] s9ce ! bir? ( ! mod]n 

movem5t = education ! ,*ur* has f\ght   
h>d to ma9ta9 its control ( s*ools1 &   
!re is e reason :y ?is %\ld be s4       
,survival 9 ! animal _w may be secur$ 9 
two ways4 ,on ! "o side we may h a      
cont9uance ( a special sort ( environm5t
 to :i* a giv5 /ructure is prop]ly      
adapt$2 on ! o!r !re may be a           
modification ( ! animal to meet ! dem&s 
( a *ang+ environm5t4  ,apply+ ?is      
pr9ciple to ! "q ( ! ,*ur*es & education
 ! moral is cle>4 ,! human environm5t   
*anges m ?an t ( any o!r animal4 ,! m]e 
amass+ ( exp]i5ce & its expression 9 !  
=m ( new in/itutions or 9 ! modification
 ( already exi/+ ones1 is en\gh to      
effect a *ange 9 ! environm5t (         
successive g5]ations4 ,! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*1
 or = ! matt] ( t1 any =m ( religion1   
has be=e x two possible c\rses4 ,ei!r x 
mu/ ma9ta9 an environm5t t is z little z
 possible un*ang$1 or x mu/ modify its  
body ( tea*+ to meet ! *ang$ surr\nd+s4 
,z a m]e matt] ( fact bo? processes g on
 side by side1 b consci\sly ! ,*ur*es h 

usually foll[$ ! c\rse ( try+ to ma9ta9 
an un*ang$ environm5t4 ,?is is ! real   
significance ( ! attempt ( ! m or?odox  
to boycott new1 or h]etical lit]ature1  
or lectures1 or to produce a religi\s   
atmosph]e r\nd ! *ild4 ,x is an attempt 
to create an environm5t to :i* ! *ild's 
m9d w respond 9 a mann] t is fav\rable  
to ! claims & tea*+s ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4
 ,! ,*ur* d>e n op5ly & pla9ly ?r[      
ov]bo>d its body ( doctr9es to meet !   
ne$s ( ! mod]n m9d2 & ! only ?+ rema9+  
is to keep ! mod]n m9d z backw>d z      
possible 9 ord] t x may re/ cont5t ) a  
tea*+ t is rem9isc5t ( a pa/ /age (     
civilization4  ,9 ?is connection x is   
int]e/+ to note t ! /ruggle = ! *ild is 
ess5tially a mod]n phrase4 ,s long z !  
tea*+ ( religion is 91 at lea/1 a work+ 
h>mony ) curr5t k & ! g5]al body ( !    
social =ces ! "q ( religi\s in/ruction  
does n em]ge4 ,life itself--social life 
t is--to a v consid]able ext5t en=ces   
religi\s tea*+4 ,at all ev5ts x does n  
viol5tly contradict x4 ,b z1 ow+ to !   

accumulation ( k1 views ( ! _w & ( man  
develop t are n 9 h>mony ) accept$      
religi\s tea*+1 ! ,*ur*es are =c$ to    
attempt ! ma9t5ance ( an environm5t ( a 
special religi\s k9d to :i* _! tea*+ is 
adapt$4 ,h5ce ! gr[+ prom95ce ( !       
division ( secul> & sacr$ z ?+s t h to d
 ) religion & ?+s t h n4 ,h5ce1 too1 !  
importance to ! ,*ur*es ( acquir+ p[]   
ov] ! *ild's m9d be=e x is br\ght       
completely "u ! influ5ce ( an environm5t
 9 :i* or?odox tea*+s c only pres5t     
!mselves z a gross ana*ronism4  ,?us1 "o
 may say ) absolute confid5ce t if 9 a  
mod]n environm5t a *ild 0 left free )   
reg>d to mod]n influ5ces !re is no?+ t  
w\ld lead to an acceptance ( religion4  
,our ance/ors grew up famili> ) ! idea (
 ! miracul\s & ! sup]natural g5]ally    
because !re 0 no?+ 9 ! exi/+ k ( ! _w t 
contradict$ x4 ,b :at "p is !re 9 !     
g5]al education ( ! *ild 9 mod]n society
 t w\ld lead to t end8 ,s f> z x is     
taught any?+ ab\t ! _w x le>ns to reg>d 
x 9 t]ms ( causation & ( positive k4 ,x 

f9ds itself surr\nd$ ) ma*9]y1 &        
inv5tions1 & ) a ?\s& & "o me*anical &  
o!r inv5tions :i* d n 9 ! v remote/     
degree sugge/ ! sup]natural4 ,9 o!r     
words1 ! response ( a mod]n *ild 9 a    
mod]n environm5t is ( a /rictly         
non-religi\s k9d4 ,left alone x w\ld no 
m become religi\s 9 ! s5se ( believ+ 9 !
 religi\s tea*+s ( any ( ! ,*ur*es ?an x
 w\ld pass ?r\gh life look+ = miracles  
or accept+ fairy tales z sob] /atem5ts (
 hi/oric fact4 ,x w\ld no m express     
itself 9 t]ms ( religion ?an x w\ld     
describe an eclipse 9 ! language ( our  
ance/ors ( five hundr$ ye>s ago4  ,9    
self def5ce ! ,*ur*es are ?us b\nd to   
make a fight = ! possession ( ! *ild4   
,!y _c wait1 because t means all[+ !    
*ild to gr[ to maturity & !n deal+ ) x  
:5 x is able to exam9e religion ) "s    
reg>d to its hi/oric evolution1 & ) a   
due appreciation ( ! hopelessly         
unsci5tific "* ( ! conception ( !       
sup]natural4 ,!y mu/1 s f> z !y c1      
protect ! gr[+ *ild f ! influ5ce ( all  

^? environm5tal =ces t make = !         
dis9tegration ( religi\s beliefs4 ,!    
only way 9 :i* ! ,*ur*es c at all make  
sure ( a supply ( recruits is by        
impress+ !m be=e !y are old en\gh to    
resi/4 ,z ! ,g]many ( ! ,kais] is said  
to h milit>iz$ ! nation by comm5c+ ) !  
s*ools1 s ! ,*ur*es hope to keep !      
nations religi\s by comm5c+ ) ! *ildr54 
,ap>t f ^! consid]ations !re is no      
reason :y religion c\ld n wait1 z o!r   
subjects wait1 till ! *ild is old en\gh 
to und]/& & appreciate x4 ,b ) ! ,*ur*es
 x is lit]ally ! *ild or no?+4  ,f !    
po9t ( view ( citiz5%ip ! ret5tion (    
religion 9 ,/ate s*ools is a manife/    
inju/ice4 ,if ev] religi\s in/ruction   
c\ld be ju/ifi$ 9 any circum/ances x is 
:5 ! religion taught repres5ts at lea/ !
 pr(ess$ beliefs ( ! :ole ( ! p4 ,b t is
 cle>ly n ! case to-day4 ,only a section
 ( ! p c be call$1 ev5 =mally1 ,*ri/ian4
 ,l>ge numb]s are q oppos$ to           
,*ri/ianity1 & l>ge numb]s delib]ately  
reject all religion4 ,h[1 !n1 c ! ,/ate 

und]take ! tea*+ ( a religion )\t at !  
same "t r\s+ res5tm5t 9 & inflict+ an   
inju/ice on a l>ge numb] ( its memb]s8  
,x _c be done1 & ! cr[n+ absurdity is t 
! ,/ate ackn[l$ges ! non-ess5tial "* (  
religion by p]mitt+ all :o w to g )\t4  
,9 secul> subjects x p]mits no su*      
option4 ,x says t all *ildr5 %all       
receive c]ta9 tuition 9 c]ta9 subjects =
 a giv5 p]iod4 ,x makes in/ruction 9 ^! 
subjects compulsory on ! def9ite &      
intelligible gr\nd t ! education giv5 is
 necess>y to ! intellig5t dis*>ge ( !   
duties ( citiz5%ip4 ,x does n d t 9 !   
case ( religion1 & x d>e n d t4 ,no     
gov]nm5t to-day w\ld h ! impud5ce to say
 t dis*>ge ( ! duties ( citiz5%ip is    
dep5d5t ^u acceptance ( ! ,a?anasian    
,cre$1 or ^u ! belief 9 ! ,bible1 or 9  
an aft] life4 ,& n be+ able to say ?is x
 is driv5 to ! absurd position (1 on !  
"o h& say+ to ! p1 t religion %all be   
taught 9 ! ,/ate s*ools1 & on ! o!r1 if 
"o doesn't c>e to h x he may leave x    
alone )\t suff]+ ! slighte/             

disqualification4  ,inde$1 x is         
impossible = in/ruction 9 religion to be
 g5u9ely call$ education at all4 ,if ,i 
may be all[$ to repeat :at ,i h said    
else:]e on ?is subject1 "o may well     
ask3--       ,:at is x t ! g5u9e        
educationali/ aims at8 ,! imp>t+      ( 
k is1 ( c\rse1 ess5tial4 ,b1 9 ! ma91   
education      consi/s 9 a :olesome     
tra9+ ( m9d & body1 9 =m+      habits ( 
cleanl9ess1 tru?fulness1 hone/y1        
k9dness1 !      developm5t ( a s5se (   
duty & ( ju/ice4 ,c x be said 9         
tru? t :at is call$ religi\s in/ruction 
does ^! ?+s1      or t in/ruction 9 !m  
is actually insep>able f religion8      
,does ! creation ( a religi\s atmosph]e1
 ! tell+ (      /ories ( ,god or ,jesus 
or angels or devils--,i omit hell--h any
      influ5ce 9 ! direction ( cultivat+
 a s\nd m9d 9 a s\nd      body8 ,w      
anyone cont5d t ! *ild has ev5 a pass+  
und]/&+ ( subjects ov] :i* all adults   
are m or less      my/ifi$8 ,to confuse 
is n to in/ruct1 to my/ify is n to      

enlight51 ! repetition ( mean+less      
phrases c leave beh9d      no heal?y    
residuum 9 ! m9d4 ,x is ! developm5t (  
capacity      along "r l9es t is        
important1 n ! m]e cramm+ (      v]bal  
=mulae4 ,above all1 x is ! function ( ! 
true tea*]      to make 8 pupil         
indep5d5t ( him4 ,! aim ( ! prie/ is to 
keep "o et]nally dep5d5t ^u 8           
m9i/rations4 ,! f9al &      fatal       
criticism ^u religi\s in/ruction is t x 
is n      education at all4       ,x may
 be argu$ t a policy ( creat+ s5tim5ts 9
 fav\r (      c]ta9 ?+s n :olly und]/ood
 by ! *ild is foll[$ 9      connection )
 matt]s o!r ?an religion4 ,we d n wait  
until a      *ild is old en\gh to       
appreciate ! intellectual ju/ification (
      e?ics to tra9 x 9 morals4 ,& 9 _m 
directions we seek to      develop "s   
t5d5cies & to suppress o!rs 9 accordance
 )      an accept$ /&>d4 ,all ?is may be
 admitt$ z q true1 b      x may be said 
9 reply t ^! are ?+s = :i* an adequate  
reason c be giv51 & we are sure ( !     

*ild's approbation      :5 x is old     
en\gh to appreciate :at has be5 done4 ,b
 9 !      case ( religion ! situation is
 altoge!r diff]5t4 ,we are "h      =c+  
^u ! *ild z true1 z ( ! same admitt$    
value z      ord9>y e?ical tea*+1 c]ta9 
religi\s doctr9es ab\t :i*      adults  
!mselves dispute ) ! greate/ acrimony4  
,& !re is      cle>ly a wide & vital    
di/9ction betwe5 cultivat+ 9 a *ild     
s5tim5ts ! validity ( :i* may at any "t 
be demon/rat$1      or tea*+s ^u ! tru? 
( :i* practically all adults are        
agre$1 & impress+ ^u x tea*+s :i* all   
agree may be      false4 ,we are        
exploit+ ! *ild 9 ! int]e/s ( a ,*ur*4  
,p>5ts are all[+ !mselves to be made !  
catspaws ( prie/s2      & x is n ! lea/ 
=midable ( ! c\nts aga9/ !      ,*ur*'s 
influ5ce t x conv]ts into active enemies
 ( *ildr5      ^? :o %\ld /& z _! *ief  
protectors4 ,x is religion      :i*     
makes x true t a *ild's foes %all be ^? 
( 8      own h\sehold4#ad  #ad ,religion
 & ! ,*ild1 ,pione] ,press4  ,:]e !     

claim to =ce religion ^u ! *ild breaks  
d[n on su* gr\nds z ^? outl9$ above x is
 q c]ta9 t x _c be made good ^u any o!r 
gr\nd4 ,hi/orically1 x is also cle> t we
 d n f9d t conduct 0 bett] 9 ^? ages :5 
! ,*ri/ian religion 0 held mo/          
unque/ion+ly1 b r ! rev]se4 ,!          
moralization ( ! _w has1 z a matt] (    
hi/oric fact1 kept pace ) ! secul>iz+ ( 
life4 ,?is is true bo? z reg>ds !ory &  
fact4 ,! application ( sci5tific me?ods 
to e?ical problems has taught u m ( !   
nature ( morality 9 ! %ort space ( ?ree 
or f\r g5]ations ?an ,*ri/ian tea*+ did 
9 a ?\s& ye>s4 ,& x is n ) an expansion 
( ! p[] & influ5ce ( religion t conduct 
has und]gone an improvem5t1 b ) ! br++ (
 p toge!r 9 t]ms ( secul> relation%ips &
 r$uc+ _! religi\s beliefs to ! level ( 
speculative ideas :i* m5 may hold or    
reject z !y ?9k fit1 s long z !y d n    
all[ !m to influ5ce _! relations to "o  
ano!r4  ,on all gr\nds x is urg5t t !   
*ild %\ld be rescu$ f ! clut*es ( !     
prie/4 ,x is unfair to ! *ild to s take 

advantage ( its tru/1 its innoc5ce1 &   
its ignorance1 & to =ce ^u x z true     
tea*+s t :i* we mu/ all admit may be    
false1 & :i*1 9 a gr[+ numb] ( cases1 ! 
*ild :5 x gr[s up ei!r rejects          
absolutely or consid]ably modifies4 ,x  
is unju/ to ! pr9ciple ^u :i* ! mod]n   
,/ate re/s1 because x is tea*+ !        
speculative beliefs ( a few ) money     
rais$ f ! taxation ( all4 ,! :ole t5d5cy
 ( life 9 ! mod]n ,/ate is 9 ! direction
 ( secul>ization--conf9+ ! duties &     
activities ( ! ,/ate to ^? actions :i* h
 _! mean+ & application to ?is life4 ,e 
argum5t t is valid aga9/ ! ,/ate =c+    
religion ^u ! adult is valid also aga9/ 
! ,/ate =c+ religion ^u ! *ild4 ,&1 on !
 o!r h&1 x is really absurd to say t    
religion mu/ be =c$ ^u ! *ild1 b we are 
outrag+ ! rights ( ! individual &       
p]petuat+ an intol]able wrong if we =ce 
x ^u ! adult4 ,surely ! dawn+ & develop+
 individuality ( ! *ild has claims on ! 
community t are n less urg5t ?an ^? ( ! 
adult4  ,f9ally1 ! resolve to rescue !  

*ild f ! clut*es ( ! prie/ is 9 ! int]e/
 ( civilization itself4 ,all human      
exp]i5ce %[s t a civilization t is "u ! 
control ( a prie/hood is doom$4 ,f !    
days ( anci5t ,egypt !re is no exception
 to ?is rule4 ,& soon] or lat] a p1 if  
!y are to progress1 are compell$ to     
attempt to limit ! control ( ! prie/ ov]
 life4 ,! :ole ( ! /ruggle ( !          
,re=mation 0 fundam5tally = ! control ( 
! secul> p[]--:e!r life %\ld or %\ld n  
be "u ! control ( ! ,*ur*4 ,9 t conte/1 
ov] a l>ge "p ( ,europe1 ! ,roman ,*ur* 
lo/4 ,b ! victory 0 only a v p>tial "o4 
,x 0 nev] complete4 ,! old prie/ 0 driv5
 out1 b ! new ,presbyt] rema9$1 & he 0 b
 ! old tyrant 9 ano!r =m4 ,ev] s9ce !n !
 fight has gone on1 & ev] s9ce1 !       
,prote/ant m9i/]1 equally ) ! ,ca?olic  
prie/1 has /riv5 = ! control ( education
 & s to dom9ate ! m9d ( ! ris+ g5]ation4
 ,! fight = ! lib]ation ( ! *ild is ?us 
a fight = ! control or ! direct+ (      
civilization4 ,x is a "q ( :e!r we are  
to p]mit ! prie/ to hold ! future to    

ransom by p]mitt+ ?is control ( ! *ild1 
or :e!r we are to leave religi\s        
beliefs1 z we leave o!r beliefs ( a     
speculative "*1 to su* a "t z ! *ild is 
old en\gh to und]/& !m4 ,x is a fight = 
! future ( civilization4     ,,*apt]    
,,vi4  ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,religion4   ,x
 is no m]e p>adox to say t religion is  
mo/ int]e/+ to ^? :o h ceas$ to believe 
9 x4 ,! reason = ?is is n f> to seek4   
,religi\s beliefs play s l>ge a "p 9 !  
e>ly hi/ory ( society1 & are s          
influ5tial 9 social hi/ory g5]ally1 t x 
is impossible to leave religion alone   
)\t =feit+ an adequate compreh5sion ( a 
l>ge "p ( social evolution4 ,human      
developm5t =ms a cont9u\s record2 our   
in/itutions1 :atev] be _! nature1 h _!  
roots 9 ! f> pa/1 & (t51 ev5 :5 modifi$ 
9 =m1 reta9 _! ess5tial *>act]i/ics4 ,no
 /ud5t ( social hi/ory c travel f> or   
dig deeply )\t f9d+ himself 9 contact ) 
religion 9 "s =m4 ,& ! mass ( mank9d are
 n yet s f> remov$ f primitive humanity 
z to give to ! /udy ( religion an       

exclusively ar*aeological int]e/4  ,:]e 
s mu* is discord x is well1 if x be     
possible1 to />t ) a basis ( agreem5t4  
,& on "o po9t1 at lea/1 !re is          
sub/antial unity among critics4 ,!re is 
a g5]al agreem5t among /ud5ts ( folk    
lore1 comp>ative my?ology1 &            
an?ropology1 t religi\s ideas re/       
ultimately ^u an int]pretation ( nature 
t is n[ g5]ally disc>d$4 ,diff]+ z !y d 
on details1 !re is cons5t ^u ?is po9t4  
,x is ! _w ( ! savage t orig9ates !     
religion ( ! savage1 & ^u t re/s !      
religions ( civiliz$ man z surely z 8   
physical /ructure goes back to ! animal 
_w = its beg9n+4 ,& 9 giv+ bir? to a    
religi\s explanation ( 8 _w ! savage 0  
only pursu+ ! normal pa? ( human        
developm5t4 ,mank9d progresses ?r\gh    
trial & error2 d\btful & errone\s !ories
 are fram$ be=e m reliable ones are     
e/abli%$1 & :ile tru? may cr[n our      
endeav\rs x seldom meets u at ! outset4 
,religi\s beliefs ?us =m man's e>lie/   
int]pretation ( nature4 ,on ?is !re is1 

z ,i h said1 g5]al agreem5t1 & x is z   
well n to p]mit ourselves to lose sight 
( t 9 ! discussion ( ! v>i\s !ories t   
are put =w>d z to ! exact nature ( !    
/ages ( religi\s developm5t4  ,9 _m     
directions ! less accurate !ories ( ?+s 
are replac$ gradually & smoo?ly by m    
reliable explanations4 ,b 9 religion ?is
 is n s4 ,= _m reasons1 ) :i* we are n  
n[ imm$iately conc]n$1 religi\s beliefs 
are n outgr[n )\t consid]able gr[+ pa9s4
 ,& a long "t aft] ! po9t ( view f :i*  
religi\s beliefs sprang has be5 giv5 up1
 ! conclusions t 7 bas$ on t po9t ( view
 are held to mo/ t5aci\sly4 ,& yet if "o
 accepts ! sci5tific /ory ( ! orig9s (  
religi\s ideas !re seems no ju/ification
 :atev] = ?is4 ,religion _c transc5d its
 orig94 ,multiply no?+ to inf9ity & !   
result is /ill no?+4 ,illusion c beget  
no?+ b illusion1 ev5 ?\gh 9 its pursuit 
we may /umble on reality4 ,& no am\nt ( 
+5uity c extract tru? f falsehood4      
,"o's surprise at ! p]petuation ( ?is   
p>ticul> delusion is dim9i%$ by !       

reflection t ! p]iod dur+ :i* we h      
possess$ any?+ l an exact k ( ! "* &    
op]ations ( natural =ces is1 aft] all1 b
 an inf9itesimal portion ( ! "t ! race  
has be5 9 exi/5ce4 ,?ree or f\r c5turies
 at mo/ cov] ! p]iod dur+ :i* su* k has 
be5 at our comm&1 & small z ?is is 9    
relation to ! ?\s&s ( g5]ations :]e9    
sup]/ition has reign$ un*all5g$1 a k ( !
 laws ( m5tal life belongs only to !    
latt] portion4 ,& ev5 !n ! k available  
has be5 till rec5tly ! possession ( a   
class1 :ile to-day1 l>ge masses ( !     
population are "u ! dom9ation ( ! crude/
 ( sup]/itions4 ,! belief t ?irte5 is an
 unlucky numb]1 t a horse-%oe br+s luck1
 ! ext5t to :i* palmi/ry & a/rology     
fl\ri%es1 ! cases ( wit*craft t crop up 
e n[ & aga91 all be> te/imony to ! va/  
mass ( sup]/ition t is /ill ) u4 ,!     
primitive m9d is /ill alive & active1   
disguis$ ?\gh x may be by a v5e] (      
civilization & a t]ribly sup]ficial     
education4 ,& :5 "o reflects ^u all !   
facts !re is cause = a/oni%m5t t 9 !    

face ( s great a dead weight ( cu/om &  
tradition aga9/ a rational int]pretation
 ( ! univ]se s mu* has be5 done & 9 s   
%ort a "t4  ,9 discuss+ religion v mu*  
turns ^u ! mean+ ( ! ^w1 & un=tunately  
religion is to-day us$ 9 s _m diff]+ &  
conflict+ s5ses t )\t ! mo/ c>eful      
def9ition no "o is q sure :at is meant  
by x4 ,! curi\s dis9cl9ation ( s _m to  
av[ !mselves z be+ )\t a religion mu/   
also be not$4 ,to be )\t a religion1 or 
r to be kn[n z "o :o is )\t a religion1 
w\ld seem to m>k "o (f z ap>t f ! re/ ( 
"o's k9d1 & to infr+e all ! tribal      
taboos at "o sweep4 ,& v few seem to h !
 c\rage to /& alone4 ,mr4 ,augu/9e      
,birrell once said1 9 introduc+ to !    
,h\se ( ,commons an ,education ,bill1 t 
*ildr5 w\ld r be wick$ ?an s+ul>4 ,t is 
q true1 & x is almo/ z true ( adults z x
 is ( *ildr54 ,!re is no great objection
 to hav+ a religion diff]5t f t ( o!r p1
 because ! religions ( ! _w are already 
( s v>i$ a "* t !re is always           
companion%ip 9 diff]5ce4 ,b to be )\t a 

religion altoge!r is a degree (         
isolation t few c /&4 ,! consequ5ce is t
 al?\gh va/ numb]s h giv5 up ev]y?+ t is
 really religi\s !y /ill cl+ to ! "n4   
,!y h left ! s]vice1 b !y %[ a curi\s   
atta*m5t to ! uni=m4 ,?us x happ5s t we 
h a religion ( ,socialism1 a religion ( 
,e?ics1 etc41 & ,i %\ld n be surpris$ to
 f9d "o day a religion ( ,a!ism--if t   
has n already appe>$4  ,b all ?is is a  
mi/ake1 & a v s]i\s mi/ake4 ,!          
,free?9k]1 or ,sociali/1 :o calls 8 !ory
 ( life a religion is n caus+ !         
religioni/ to ?9k m highly ( him1 he is 
mak+ 8 oppon5t ?9k m highly ( 8 own     
op9ions4 ,imitation becomes 9 su* a case
 n alone flatt]y1 b confirmation4 ,!    
,goddite does n ?9k m highly (          
,free?\ght because x is labell$         
religion1 he m]ely becomes ! m conv9c$ (
 ! supreme value ( 8 own fai?1 & /ill   
hopes = ! ,free?9k]'s return to ! fold4 
,if ,free?9k]s are to comm& ! respect ( 
! religi\s _w !y mu/ %[ n only t !y c   
get along )\t religion1 b t !y c disp5se

 ) ! "n also4 ,if /r5g? does n comm&    
respect weakness w c]ta9ly fail to      
secure x4 ,& ^? ( u :o are g5u9ely      
anxi\s t ! _w %\ld be done ) false ideas
 & mis*iev\s frames ( m9d ought to at   
lea/ take c>e t our own spee* & ?\ght   
are z free f ambiguity z is possible4   
,!re is ano!r & deep] aspect ( ! matt]4 
,z ,i h already said1 language n alone  
expresses ?\ght1 x also gov]ns & directs
 x4 ,locke express$ ?is tru? :5 he said1
 ,x is impossible t m5 %\ld ev] truly   
seek1 or c]ta9ly discov]1 ! disagreem5t 
( ideas !mselves :il/ _! ?\ghts flutt]  
ab\t1 or /ick only on s\nds ( d\btful & 
unc]ta9 significance4 ,q a numb] (      
!ological & metaphysical conundrums w\ld
 lose _! significance if x 7 only       
realiz$ t ! words us$ are n alone (     
d\btful & unc]ta9 significance1 b (t5 ( 
no possible significance :atev]4 ,!y are
 l c\nt]feit co9s1 :i* reta9 _! value   
only s long z !y are n te/$ by a prop]  
/&>d4 ,& ! evil ( ^! c\nt]feits is t !y 
deceive bo? ^? :o t5d] & ^? :o accept   

!m4 ,= ev5 ?\gh slov5l9ess ( spee* is n 
always ! product ( slov5ly ?\ght1 9 !   
long run x t5ds to induce x1 & ^? :o    
realize ?is ne$ to be specially on _!   
gu>d aga9/ us+ language :i* c only fur!r
 confuse an already suffici5tly confus$ 
public op9ion1 & /r5g!n sup]/itions t   
are already suffici5tly /rong )\t our   
cl&e/9e or un9t5d$ assi/ance4#ae  #ae ,(
 ! evil ( an incauti\s use ( curr5t     
words we h an example 9 ! case ( ,d>w94 
,nei!r 8 expressions ( regret at hav+   
truckl$ to public op9ion at hav+ us$ !  
t]m creator1 nor 8 explicit decl>ation t
 ! ^w 0 to him only a synonym (         
ignorance1 prev5t$ religi\s apologi/s f 
cit+ him z a believ] 9 deity on ! /r5g? 
( 8 hav+ us$ ! ^w4  ,un=tunately1 x     
rema9s a fav\rite policy ) _m writ]s to 
use & def9e ! ^w religion1 n 9          
accordance ) a compreh5sive survey (    
facts1 b 9 a way t w h>monize ) exi/+   
pre-possessions4 ,to ?is class belongs  
,mat!w ,arnold's fam\s def9ition (      
religion z ,morality t\*$ ) emotion1    

,pr(essor ,seeley's /atem5t t we are    
entitl$ to call religion any habitual & 
p]man5t admiration1 or ! common         
description ( religion z consi/+ 9      
devotion to an ideal4 ,all su*          
def9itions may be set on "o side z      
hi/orically wor?less1 & z n h>moniz+ ) !
 facts4 ,arnold's def9ition is 9 !      
highe/ degree sup]ficial1 s9ce !re exi/s
 no morality t is n t\*$ ) emotion1 & on
 ! o!r h& !re exi/ phases ( religion t h
 n any connection ) morality1 h[ev]     
slight4 ,pr(essor ,leuba prop]ly rules  
def9itions ( ?is class out ( ord] 9 !   
comm5t t1 z x is ! function ( words to  
delimitate1 "o defeats ! purpose (      
language by /ret*+ ! mean+ ( a ^w until 
x has lo/ all precision & unity (       
mean+4#af ,a def9ition t includes ev]y?+
 may z well1 = all ! use x is1 n cov]   
any?+4  #af ,! ,psy*ological ,orig9 &   
,nature ( ,religion1 p4 #ib4  ,equally  
faulty are ^? def9itions t are bas$ ^u  
an assum$ consci\s ef=t to expla9 !     
my/]ies ( exi/5ce4 ,no /rang] lapse ev] 

ov]took a great ?9k] ?an occurr$ to     
,h]b]t ,sp5c] :5 he describ$ religion z 
consi/+ 9 a wor%ip ( ! unkn[able1 & z   
due to ! desire to expla9 a my/]y ev]   
press+ = int]pretation4 ,grant+ !       
exi/5ce ( an ,unkn[able1 ! s5se ( its   
pres5ce belongs to ! lat] /ages ( m5tal 
evolution1 n to ! e>li] ones4           
,metaphysical & my/ical !ories (        
religion are indications ( its          
dis9tegration1 n ( its beg9n+s4         
,primitive man began to believe 9 gho/s 
& gods = ! same reasons t he believ$ 9  
o!r ?+s2 he wor%ipp$ 8 gods = v concrete
 consid]ations4 ,ev5 ! di/9ction betwe5 
spiritual & mat]ial exi/5ce is q =eign  
to 8 m9d4 ,su* di/9ctions arise         
gradually ) ! progress ( k & its        
dis9tegrat+ influ5ce on inh]it$ beliefs4
 ,if primitive man may be cr$it$ ) a    
philosophy1 & if "o may use ! ^w 9 a    
purely conv5i5t s5se1 !n "o may say t he
 is nei!r a duali/1 nor a plurali/1 b a 
moni/4 ,! s\l or d\ble he believes 9 is 
simil> to ! body he sees2 ! unse5 =ces  

he cr$its ) v>i\s activities are ( !    
same k9d z ^? ) :i* he is acqua9t$4 ,to 
read our conceptions into ! m9d (       
primitive man because we use our words  
to expla9 8 ?\ghts is a proc$ure t is   
b\nd to end 9 confusion4 ,man's e>lie/  
conception ( ?+s is vague & indef9ite4  
,lat]1 he di/+ui%es diff]5ces1          
qualitative & quantitative1 8 conception
 ( ?+s becomes m def9ite1 & di/9ctions  
are set up t lay ! f\ndations ( sci5ce &
 philosophy1 & :i* m>k _! sep>ation f   
religion4  ,s f> z "o c see !re are only
 two causes :y p %\ld cont9ue to use !  
^w religion aft] giv+ up all = :i* x    
prop]ly /&s4 ,"o is %e] cons]vatism4    
,:51 = in/ance1 ,?omas ,pa9e said1 ,to d
 good is my religion1 he _h at lea/ !   
ju/ification ( believ+ 9 a deity1 b ap>t
 f ?is ! only cause = 8 call+ ! desire  
to d good a religion is t !re _h gr[n up
 ! fa%ion ( call+ "o's rule ( life a    
religion4 ,! o!r cause is ! ill-repute t
 has be5 atta*$ to ^? :o av[ !mselves z 
be+ )\t religion4 ,or?odoxy saw to x t  

!y 7 treat$ z p>iahs )\t social /atus1  
&1 9 _m cases1 legal rights4 ,once ^u a 
"t x 0 useless unless "o believ$ 9 ! "r 
religion4 ,n[adays1 any religion w d1 or
 any?+ t "o c>es to call a religion4 ,b 
n to h any religion at all /ill puts "o 
outside ! pale ( respectability1 & !re  
seem to be few :o c /& t4 ,& sup]natural
 religion--! only g5u9e article--be+    
impossible ) _m1 ^! may /ill1 if !y c>e 
to1 save _! face by pr(ess+ to use ! "n1
 ev5 if !y h n ! ?+4 ,or?odoxy is v     
accommodat+ n[adays4  ,leav+ = a "t ! "q
 ( h[ religion actually does arise1 we  
may turn to ^? writ]s :o def9e religion 
9 t]ms ( e?ics4 ,x may be admitt$ t s f>
 z ! lat] /ages ( religion are conc]n$  
consid]able emphasis is laid ^u e?ics4  
,b we c only make religion a "p ( e?ics 
by exp&+ ! t]m morality s z to include  
ev]y?+1 or by contract+ x s z to exclude
 all ! l[] =ms ( religi\s belief4 ,& any
 def9ition ( religion t does n embrace  
all its =ms is obvi\sly inaccurate4 ,x  
is n at all a "q ( def9+ ! high] 9 t]ms 

( ! l[]1 or ! l[] 9 t]ms ( ! high]1 x is
 simply ! ne$ ( s def9+ religion t our  
def9ition w cov] all religions1 high &  
l[1 & ?us deal ) _! ess5tial            
*>act]i/ics4  ,! only s5se 9 :i* e?ics  
may be said to be includ$ 9 religion    
lies 9 ! fact t 9 primitive times       
religion includes ev]y?+4 ,! fe> ( unse5
 intellig5ces is "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful      
factors ( :i* e>ly humanity is consci\s1
 & ! necessity = conciliat+ !m is always
 pres5t4 ,! religi\s c]emonies connect$ 
) eat+ & dr9k+1 ) ly+ d[n & ris+ up1 )  
s[+ & reap+1 ) disease1 hunt+1 & almo/ e
 circum/ance ( primitive life prove ?is4
 ,diff]5tiation & discrim9ation arise v 
sl[ly1 b "o aft] ano!r ! v>i\s dep>tm5ts
 ( life d %ake (f ! controll+ influ5ce (
 religion4 ,e?ics may1 !re=e1 be said to
 orig9ate 9 ! %ad[ ( religion--z d mo/  
o!r ?+s--b 9 no s5se c morality be said 
to owe its orig9 to religion4 ,its orig9
 is deep] & m fundam5tal ?an religion4  
,z a matt] ( practice morality is       
indep5d5t ( religi\s belief & moral     

!ory1 & z a matt] ( !ory ! =mulation (  
def9ite moral rules is sub/antially     
indep5d5t ( religion & is an ass]tion ( 
its indep5d5ce4 ,inde$1 ! conflict      
betwe5 a gr[+ moral s5se & religion is  
almo/ z l>ge a fact 9 ! social sph]e z !
 conflict betwe5 religion & sci5ce is 9 
! intellectual "o4  ,9 all its e>li]    
/ages religion is at be/ non-moral4 ,x  
becomes o!rwise lat] only because ( !   
reaction ( a socializ$ morality on      
religi\s beliefs4 ,e>ly religion is nev]
 conc]n$ ) ! morality ( its tea*+1 nor  
are ! wor%ipp]s conc]n$ ) ! morality (  
_! gods4 ,! sole "q is :at ! gods desire
 & h[ be/ to satisfy !m4 ,we _c ev5     
conceive man ascrib+ e?ical qualities to
 8 gods until he has fir/ ( all conceiv$
 !m 9 reg>d to 8 fell[ m54 ,! savage has
 no moral rev]5ce = 8 gods2 !y are      
magnifi$ m51 b n p]fect ones4 ,he       
wor%ips n because he admires1 b because 
he fe>s4 ,fe> is1 inde$1 "o ( ! root    
causes ( religi\s belief4 ,pr(essor     
,leuba q admits ! orig9 ( religion is   

fe>1 b he res]ves ! possibility ( man   
be+ occasionally plac$ "u su* fav\rable 
conditions t fe> may be abs5t4 ,we admit
 ! possibility1 b at pres5t x rema9s a  
possibility only4 ,at pres5t all !      
evid5ce goes to prove ! words ( ,ribot  
t1 ,! religi\s s5tim5t is compos$ fir/ (
 all ( ! emotion ( fe> 9 its diff]5t    
degrees1 f pr(\nd t]ror to vague        
uneas9ess1 due to fai? 9 an unkn[n      
my/]i\s & impalpable p[]4 ,& if t be    
admitt$1 we c sc>cely f9d "h ! orig9 (  
morality4  ,:at is "h ov]look$ is !     
important fact t :ile religion1 z su*1  
comm5ces 9 a reason$ process1 morality  
is firmly e/abli%$ be=e mank9d is ev5   
aw>e ( its exi/5ce4 ,a =mulat$ religion 
is ess5tially ( ! nature ( a !ory set =?
 to expla9 or to deal ) c]ta9 exp]i5ces4
 ,morality1 on ! o!r h&1 takes its rise 
9 ^? feel+s & in/9cts t are develop$ 9  
animal & human societies "u ! pressure (
 natural selection4 ,! affection ( !    
animal = its "y1 ( ! human "m = its     
*ild1 ! attraction ( male & female1 !   

sympa!tic feel+s t b9d memb]s ( ! same  
species toge!r1 ^! d n dep5d ^u !ory1 or
 ev5 ^u an intellectual p]ception ( _!  
value4 ,!ory tries to acc\nt = _!       
exi/5ce1 & reason ju/ifies _! be+1 b !y 
are fundam5tally ! product ( associat$  
life4 ,& x is precisely because morality
 is ! inevitable condition ( associat$  
life t x has ^u religion ! effect (     
modify+ x until x is at lea/ n too great
 an outrage ^u ! conditions ( social    
well-be+4 ,all along we c1 if we w1 see 
h[ ! develop+ moral s5se =ces a *ange 9 
religi\s tea*+4 ,at "o "t !re is no?+   
revolt+ 9 ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( election 
:i* dooms "o to heav5 & ano!r to hell   
)\t ! slighte/ reg>d to p]sonal m]it4   
,at ano!r ! doctr9e ( et]nal damnation  
is reject$ z a matt] ( c\rse4 ,h]esy    
hunt+ & h]etic burn+1 practis$ z a matt]
 ( c\rse by "o g5]ation become highly   
repulsive to ano!r4 ,9 e direction we   
see religi\s beliefs und]go+ a          
modification "u ! influ5ce ( moral &    
social gr[?4 ,x is always man :o        

moralizes 8 gods2 nev] by any *ance is x
 ! gods :o moralize man4  ,if we are to 
arrive at a prop] und]/&+ ( religion we 
c1 !re=e1 no m assume morals to be an   
integral "p ( religion ?an we c assume  
m$ic9e or any ( ! special arts1 all (   
:i* may be associat$ ) religion4 ,x w n 
ev5 d to def9e religion ) ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4  
,mallock#ag z a belief t ! _w has be5   
made & is su/a9$ by an intellig5ce      
ext]nal to & ess5tially indep5d5t ( x4  
,t may pass z a def9ition ( ,!ism1 b    
,!ism is only "o ( ! phases ( religion1 
& ! idea ( a creator indep5d5t ( !      
univ]se is "o t is q ali5 to ! e>li]    
/ages ( religion4 ,& to d5y ! "n (      
religion to primitive beliefs is to put 
oneself on ! level ( ! type ( ,*ri/ian  
:o decl9es to call any sup]/ition b 8   
own religion4 ,x is = ?is reason        
impossible to agree ) ,pr(essor ,leuba  
:5 he says t ! idea ( a creator mu/ take
 prec$5ce ( gho/s & nature be+s 9 ! mak+
 ( a religion4 ,if by prec$5ce ! ord] ( 
importance1 f ! /&po9t ( lat] &         

comp>atively mod]n =ms ( religion1 is   
int5d$1 ! /atem5t may pass4 ,b if !     
prec$5ce claim$ is a "t ord]1 ! reply is
 t1 in/ead ( ! idea ( a creator tak+    
prec$5ce ( gho/s & nature be+s1 x is f  
^! t ! idea ( a creator is evolv$4 ,x is
 q true ,pr(essor ,leuba holds t belief 
9 ! exi/5ce ( unse5 an?ropopa?ic be+s is
 n religion4 ,x is only :5 man ent]s    
into relation ) !m t religion comes into
 exi/5ce1 b s soon z man believes 9 !   
exi/5ce ( !m he believes himself to be 9
 relation ) !m1 & a l>ge "p ( 8 ef=ts is
 exp5d$ 9 mak+ ^! relations ( an        
amicable & pr(itable "*4  #ag ,religion 
z a ,cr$ible ,doctr9e1 p4 #aa4  ,a fur!r
 def9ition ( religion1 fir/ giv51 ,i    
?9k1 by ! late ,pr(essor ,fiske1 b s9ce 
widely us$1 z a crav+ = fulness ( life1 
mu/ be dismiss$ z equally faulty4 ,= if 
by fulness ( life is meant ! desire to  
make x morally & intellectually ri*]1 ! 
answ] is t ?is desire is pla9ly !       
product ( a progressive social life1 (  
:i* mu* t n[ passes = religion is !     

adult]at$ expression4 ,apologetically1 x
 is an attempt s to /ate religion t x   
may evade criticism ( its ess5tial "*4  
,f "o po9t ( view ?is may be gratify+   
en\gh1 b x is no help to an und]/&+ ( ! 
nature ( religion4 ,& h[ little religion
 does help to a full] life w be se5 by  
anyone :o kn[s ! "p play$ by organiz$   
religion 9 m5tal developm5t & h[ bl9dly 
ob/ructive x is to new ideas 9 all      
dep>tm5ts ( life4 ,all ^! attempts to   
def9e religion 9 t]ms ( e?ics1 (        
metaphysics1 or z ! crav+ aft] an ideal 
are :olly mislead+4 ,x is read+ hi/ory  
backw>ds1 & attribut+ to primitive human
 nature feel+s & conceptions :i* x does 
n & _c possess4  ,9 ano!r "w#ah ,i h    
trac$ ! orig9 ( ! belief 9 ,god to !    
m5tal /ate ( primitive mank9d1 & !re is 
no ne$ to g ov] ! same gr\nd "h at any  
l5g?4 ,comm5c+ ) ! indisputable fact t  
religion is some?+ t is acquir$1 an     
exam9ation ( ! /ate ( m9d 9 :i*         
primitive mank9d fac$1 & /ill faces1 !  
_w1 l$ to ! conclusion t ! idea ( god   

beg9s 9 ! p]sonification ( natural =ces 
by ! savage4 ,! gr[? ( ! idea ( ,god 0  
!re trac$ back to ! gho/1 n to !        
exclusion ( o!r me?ods ( god mak+1 b    
c]ta9ly z "o ( its prom95t causes4 ,i   
mu/ ref] read]s to t "w :o desire a m   
ext5d$ treatm5t ( ! god-idea4  #ah ,!ism
 or ,a!ism1 ,*apt] #b4  ,:at rema9s to  
be trac$ "h1 9 ord] to und]/& ! o!r     
factor t is common to religions1 is !   
belief 9 a cont9u$ /ate ( exi/5ce aft]  
dea?1 or at lea/ ( a s\l4  ,x has be5   
%[n to ! po9t ( demon/ration by writ]s  
su* z ,sp5c]1 ,tylor1 & ,fraz]1 t ! idea
 ( a d\ble is sugge/$ to man by 8       
exp]i5ce ( dreams1 swoons1 & alli$      
normal & abnormal exp]i5ces4 ,ev5 9 !   
abs5ce ( evid5ce com+ to u f ! beliefs (
 exi/+ tribes ( savages1 ! fact t ! gho/
 is always depict$ z id5tical 9         
appe>ance ) ! liv+ p]son w\ld be en\gh  
to sugge/ its dream orig94 ,b !re are   
o!r consid]ations t c>ry ! pro( fur!r4  
,! savage sees 9 8 dreams ! figures (   
dead m5 & assumes t !re is a d\ble t c  

get out ( ! body dur+ sleep4 ,b he also 
dreams ( dead m51 & ?is is also pro( t !
 dead man /ill exi/s4 ,dea? does n1 !n1 
involve ! dea? ( ! gho/1 b only its     
removal to "s o!r sph]e ( exi/5ce4      
,fur!r1 ! lik5ess ( sleep itself to dea?
 is s obvi\s & s /rik+ t x has =m$ "o ( 
! mo/ insi/5t features ( human ?\ght &  
spee*4 ,) primitive man x is f> m ?an a 
figure ( spee*4 ,! ,melanesians put ?is 
po9t ( view :5 !y say1 ! s\l goes out ( 
! body 9 "s dreams1 & if = "s reason x  
does n come back ! man is f\nd dead 9 ! 
morn+4 ,dea? & dream+ h1 !re=e1 ?is 9   
common1 !y are bo? due to ! )drawal ( ! 
d\ble4 ,h5ce we f9d a :ole s]ies (      
c]emonies design$ to av]t dea? or to    
facilitate ! return ( ! d\ble4 ,! l+]+ (
 ?is practice is well illu/rat$ by ,sir 
,fr$]ick ,treves 9 8 book1 ,! ,o!r ,side
 ( ! ,lant]n4 ,he !re tells h[ he saw a 
,*9ese "m1 ) ! te>s /ream+ d[n h] face1 
wav+ at ! door ( ! h\se ! clo?+ ( a     
rec5tly deceas$ *ild 9 ord] to br+ back 
! dep>t$ _s4  ,dea? is ?us ! sep>ation (

 ! d\ble f ! body2 b if x may return1   
its return is n always a matt] (        
rejoic+1 = we f9d cu/oms t are pla9ly   
int5d$ to prev5t ! gho/ recogniz+ ! liv+
 or to f9d its way back to its old      
haunts4 ,?us ,fraz] has %[n t ! we>+ (  
black is really a =m ( disguise4 ,x is a
 me?od tak5 to disguise ! liv+ f !      
att5tions ( ! dead4 ,x is 9 ord] to     
avoid recognition by spirits :o wi% to  
injure !m t ! ,tongans *ange _! w>      
co/ume at e battle4 ,! ,*9ese call _!   
be/ belov$ *ildr5 by wor?less names 9   
ord] to delude evil spirits4 ,9 ,egypt1 
too1 ! *ildr5 :o 7 mo/ ?\ght ( 7 ! wor/ 
clad4 ,9 "s places ! corpse is nev]     
c>ri$ out ?r\gh ! door1 b by a hole 9 ! 
side ( ! hut1 :i* is aft]w>ds clos$ s t 
! gho/ may n f9d its way back4  ,! gho/ 
be+ conceiv$ z at all po9ts id5tical )  
liv+ be+s1 x dem&s att5tion aft] dea?4  
,x ne$s food1 weapons1 s]vants1 wives4  
,9 ?is way !re orig9ates a :ole gr\p (  
burial cu/oms1 p]=m$ p>tly f fe> ( :at !
 gho/ may d if its wants are neglect$4  

,! cu/om ( bury+ food & weapons ) ! dead
 ?us receives a simple explanation4 ,^! 
?+s are buri$ ) ! dead man 9 ord] t _!  
_s may accompany 8 to ! next _w & s]ve !
 same uses !re t !y did "h4 ,! mod]n    
cu/om ( scatt]+ fl[]s ov] a grave is    
unque/ionably a survival ( ?is primitive
 belief4 ,! kill+ ( a wife on ! husb&'s 
grave has ! same orig94 ,h] _s goes to  
att5d ! husb& 9 ! gho/-l&4 ,9 ! case ( a
 *ief we h ! kill+ ( s]vants = ! same   
reason4 ,:5 ,leonidas says1 ,bury me on 
my %ield1 ,i w ent] ev5 ,hades z a      
,lac$aemonian1 he 0 exhibit+ ! p]si/5ce 
( ?is belief 9 classical times4 ,!      
,*9ese (f] a fur!r example by mak+      
little pap] h\ses1 fill+ !m ) pap]      
models ( ! ?+s us$ by ! dead p]son1 &   
burn+ !m on ! grave4 ,all ov] ! _w we h 
! same class ( cu/oms develop+ f ! same 
beliefs1 & ! same beliefs project$ by ! 
human m9d :5 br\ght face to face ) !    
same class ( ph5om5a4  ,z ! gho/ is     
pictur$ z l ! physical man1 s ! next _w 
is m or less a replica ( ?is4 ,! *ief   

di/9ction is t !re is a great] abundance
 ( desirable ?+s4 ,hunt+ tribes h       
elysiums :]e !re is an abundance ( game4
 ,! old ,norse heav5 0 a place :]e !re 0
 unlimit$ fight+4 ,! gold & diamonds &  
rubies ( ! ,*ri/ian heav5 repres5t a    
/age ( civilization :]e ^! ?+s _h       
acquir$ a special value4 ,social        
di/9ctions1 too1 are (t5 ma9ta9$4 ,!    
,c>ibs believe t e "t !y secure an      
enemy's head !y h ga9$ a s]vant 9 ! next
 _w4 ,& all "k ! /ory ( ! ,fr5*         
ari/ocrat :o1 :5 ?reat5$ ) hell1 repli$1
 ,god w ?9k twice be=e damn+ a p]son (  
my quality4  ,sev]al o!r consequ5ces (  
?is s]vice paid to ! dead may be not$4  
,! gho/ be+ drawn to ! place :]e ! body 
is buri$1 ! desire to pres]ve ! corpse  
probably l$ to ! practice ( embalm+4 ,! 
grave becomes a place ( sanctity1 (     
pilgrimage1 & ( religi\s obs]vance1 & x 
has be5 ma9ta9$ by _m writ]s1 notably by
 ,mr4 ,w4 ,simpson 9 8 ,wor%ip ( ,dea?1 
t ! s]vice r\nd ! grave gives u ! beg9n+
 ( all temple wor%ip4  ,b f ?is brief   

view ( ! beg9n+s ( religion we are able 
to see h[ completely fallaci\s are all  
^? ef=ts to d]ive religion f an attempt 
to a*ieve an ideal1 f a desire to solve 
c]ta9 philosophical problems1 or f any (
 ! o!r s\rces t are p>ad$ by mod]n      
apologi/s4 ,! orig9 & nature ( religion 
is comp>atively simple to und]/&1 once  
we h cle>$ our m9ds ( all ^! fallacies &
 c>efully exam9e ! facts4 ,religion is  
no m ?an ! explanation :i* ! primitive  
m9d gives ( ! exp]i5ces :i* x has ( !   
_w4 ,&1 !re=e1 ! only def9ition t cov]s 
all ! facts1 & :i* /resses ! ess5ce (   
all religions1 high & l[1 savage &      
civiliz$1 is t giv5 by ,tylor1 namely1 !
 belief 9 sup]natural be+s4 ,x is ! "o  
def9ition t expresses ! feature common  
to all religions1 & ) t def9ition be=e u
 we are able to use language ) a        
precision t is impossible s long z we   
attempt to read into religion some?+ t  
is abs5t f all its e>li] =ms1 & :i* is  
only introduc$ :5 advanc$ ?\ght makes ! 
belief 9 ! sup]natural m & m difficult  

to reta9 its hold ov] ! human m9d4      
,,*apt] ,,vii4  ,,! ,,utility ,,(       
,,religion4   ,! real nature ( religion 
be+ z /at$1 x hav+ orig9at$ 9 an utt]ly 
errone\s view ( ?+s1 x w\ld seem t no?+ 
m c be ne$$ to ju/ify its rejection4 ,b 
! conclusion w\ld n be correct1 at lea/ 
s f> z ! mass ( believ]s or             
quasi-believ]s are conc]n$4 ,"h !       
conviction /ill obta9s t religion1 no   
matt] :at its orig91 /ill wields an     
enorm\s influ5ce = good4 ,! curi\s ?+ is
 t :5 "o enquires :at religion is x t   
has ex]t$ ?is b5efic5t influ5ce8 !      
replies effectually cancel "o ano!r4    
,ea* means by religion 8 own religion1 &
 ea* accuses ! religion ( ! o!r man (   
all ! faults ) :i* ! ,free?9k] accuses !
 :ole4 ,! av[$ object ( our widespread  
mission>y activity is to save ! hea!n f 
! evil effects ( _! religion2 & !re is n
 ! lea/ d\bt t if ! hea!n _h ! brute =ce
 at _! comm&1 & ! impud5ce t we h1 !y   
w\ld cordially reciprocate4 ,& ! ef=ts (
 ! v>i\s ,*ri/ian sects to conv]t ea*   

o!r is too well kn[n to ne$ m5tion4 ,s t
 ! only logical inf]5ce f all ?is is t1 
:ile all religions are1 :5 tak5 s+ly1   
injuri\s1 tak5 9 ! bulk !y are s\rces ( 
pr(\nd b5efit4  ,x is n alone ! common  
or g>d5 ord] ( religioni/ :o takes up   
?is curi\s position1 nor is x ev5 !     
bett] educat$ believ]2 x is n uncommon  
to f9d ^? :o h reject$ all ! =mal       
religions ( ! _w yet seek+ to discov] "s
 good t religion has done or is do+4 ,z 
an illu/ration ( ?is we may cite an     
example f ,sir ,james ,fraz]1 ?an :om no
 "o has done m to br+ home to /ud5ts a k
 ( ! real nature ( religi\s beliefs4 ,x 
is ! m surpris+ to f9d him putt+ 9 a    
plea = ! good done by religion1 n 9 !   
pres5t1 b 9 ! pa/4 ,& su* an in/ance1 if
 x does no?+ else1 may at lea/ s]ve to  
mitigate our f]ocity t[>ds ! common type
 ( religioni/4  ,9 an address deliv]$ 9 
#aiji1 entitl$ ,psy*e's ,task3 ,a       
disc\rse conc]n+ ! influ5ce ( sup]/ition
 on ! gr[? ( ,in/itutions1 he puts 9 a  
plea = ! consid]ation ( sup]/ition      

7religion7 at v>i\s /ages ( culture4 ,( 
its effects g5]ally1 he says3--       ,t
 x has done mu* h>m 9 ! _w _c be d5i$4  
,x has      sacrific$ c\ntless lives1   
wa/$ untold treasures1 embroil$         
nations1 sev]$ fri5ds1 p>t$ husb&s &    
wives1 p>5ts &      *ildr51 putt+ swords
 & worse ?an swords betwe5 !m2 x has    
fill$ gaols & madh\ses ) its delud$     
victims2 x has brok5      _m he>ts1     
embitt]$ ! :ole ( _m a life1 & n cont5t 
) p]secut+ ! liv+ x has pursu$ ! dead   
into ! grave      & beyond x1 gloat+ ov]
 ! horrors :i* its f\l imag9ation       
has conjur$ up to appal & torture !     
survivors4 ,x has done all      ?is & m4
  ,n[ ?is is a sev]e indictm5t1 & "o is 
a little surpris$ to f9d foll[+ t a plea
 on behalf ( ?is same sup]/ition to !   
effect t x has among c]ta9 races & at   
c]ta9 times /r5g!n$ ! respect =         
gov]nm5t1 prop]ty1 m>riage1 & human     
life4 ,9 support ( ?is proposition he   
cites a l>ge numb] ( in/ances f v>i\s   
races ( p1 all ( :i* prove1 n :at ,sir  

,james sets out to prove1 b only t      
religi\s obs]vances & beliefs h be5     
connect$ ) c]ta9 in/itutions t are 9    
!mselves admirable en\gh4 ,& on ?is po9t
 !re is n1 nor c !re be1 any s]i\s      
dispute4 ,"o c f9d _m simil> in/ances   
among ourselves to-day4 ,b ! real "q at 
issue is a deep] "o ?an t4 ,x is n en\gh
 = ! religioni/ to %[ t religion has (t5
 be5 associat$ ) good ?+s & has giv5 !m 
its sanction4 ,! reply to ?is w\ld be t 
if x _h be5 o!rwise religion w\ld long  
s9ce h disappe>$4 ,! ess5tial "q "h is1 
,h ! in/itutions nam$ a basis 9 secul> &
 social life1 & w\ld !y h develop$ 9 !  
abs5ce ( sup]/ition z !y h develop$ )   
sup]/ition 9 ! field8  ,n[ ,i d n see t 
,sir ,james ,fraz] proves ei!r t ^!     
in/itutions h n a suffici5t basis 9     
secul> life--he w\ld1 ,i imag9e1 admit t
 !y h2 or t !y w\ld n h develop$ z well 
9 ! abs5ce ( sup]/ition z !y h done ) x4
 ,9 fact1 ! :ole plea t good has be5    
done by sup]/ition seems to be de/roy$ 9
 ! /atem5ts t al?\gh c]ta9 in/itutions h

 be5 bas$ p>tly on sup]/itions1 x by no 
means foll[s t ev5 among ^! races !y h  
nev] be5 bas$ on any?+ else1 & t :5ev]  
in/itutions h prov$ !mselves /able &    
p]man5t !re is a /rong presumption t !y 
re/ on some?+ m solid ?an sup]/ition4 ,s
 t1 aft] all1 x may well be t sup]/ition
 is all ! "t tak+ cr$it = ! work+ ( =ces
 t are n ( its k9d or nature4  ,let u   
take ! example giv5 ( ! respect = human 
life z a crucial te/4 ,admitt+ t        
religions h taught t to take life 0 a   
s9ful act1 "o might well int]pose ) !   
qu]y z to :e!r x 0 ev] necess>y to tea* 
man t homicide )9 c]ta9 limits 0 a wrong
 ?+4 ,pre-evolution>y sociology1 :i*    
sometimes taught t man orig9ally l$ an  
exi/5ce 9 :i* 8 h& 0 aga9/ e o!r man1 & 
:o1 !re=e1 f\ght ! battle ( life /rictly
 (f 8 own bat1 may h fav\r$ t           
assumption4 ,b t we n[ "k is q wrong4   
,we "k t man sl[ly em]g$ f a pre-human  
greg>i\s /age1 & t 9 all gr\p life !re  
is an organic re/ra9t on mutual         
slaught]4 ,! ess5tial condition ( gr\p  

life is t ! nature ( ! individual %all  
be normally devoid ( ! desire = !       
indiscrim9ate slaught] ( 8 fell[s4 ,& if
 t is true ( animals1 x is c]ta9ly true 
( man4 ,primitive human society does n &
 _c repres5t a gr\p ( be+s ea* ( :om mu/
 be re/ra9$ by direct co]cion f murd]+ !
 o!r4  ,9 ?is case1 !re=e1 we h to      
reckon ) bo? biological & sociological  
=ces1 & ,i d n see t x ne$s m ?an ?is to
 expla9 all !re is to expla94 ,human    
life is always associat$ life1 & ?is    
means n alone a basis ( mutual =be>ance 
& co-op]ation1 b a developm5t ( !       
sympa!tic feel+s :i* t5ds to increase z 
society develops1 !y be+1 z a matt] (   
fact1 ! conditions ( its gr[?4 ,& :atev]
 competition exi/$ betwe5 tribes w\ld   
/ill fur!r emphasize ! value ( ^? feel+s
 t l$ to effective co-op]ation4  ,! "q1 
!n1 :e!r ! anti-homicidal feel+ is at   
all dep5d5t ^u religion is answ]$ 9 !   
negative by ! fact t x ante-dates :at we
 may t]m ! era ( consci\s social        
organization4 ,t ( :e!r religion /r5g!ns

 ?is feel+ /ill rema9s1 al?\gh ev5 t has
 be5 answ]$ by implication4 ,& ! fir/ ?+
 to be not$ "h is t :atev] may be !     
value ( ! sup]/iti\s safegu>d aga9/     
homicide x c]ta9ly has no value z aga9/ 
p outside ! tribe4 ,9 fact1 :5 a savage 
desires to kill an enemy he f9ds 9      
sup]/ition a fanci$ s\rce ( /r5g?1 & (t5
 ( enc\ragem5t4 ,we/]m>ck po9ts out t   
savages c>efully di/+ui% betwe5 an act (
 homicide committ$ 9 _! own community & 
"o :]e ! victim is a /rang]4 ,:il/ ! =m]
 is "u ord9>y circum/ances disapprov$ (1
 ! latt] is 9 mo/ cases all[$ & (t5     
reg>d$ z praisewor?y4 ,& ,fraz] himself 
po9ts out t ! belief 9 immortality plays
 no small "p 9 enc\rag+ w> among        
primitive peoples1#ai :ile if we add !  
facts ( ! kill+ ( *ildr51 ( old m5 &    
wom51 & wives1 toge!r ) ! practice (    
human sacrifice1 we %all see little     
cause to attribute ! developm5t ( !     
feel+ aga9/ homicide to religi\s        
beliefs4  #ai ,! /ate ( w> :i* normally 
exi/s betwe5 _m1 if n mo/1 neighb\r+    

savage tribes1 spr+s 9 l>ge measure     
directly f _! belief 9 immortality2 s9ce
 "o ( ! commone/ motives to ho/ility is 
a desire to appease ! angry gho/s (     
fri5ds :o are suppos$ to h p]i%$ by     
baleful arts ( sorc]]s 9 ano!r tribe1 & 
:o1 if v5geance is n inflict$ on _! real
 or imag9>y murd]]s1 w wreak _! fury on 
_! undutiful fell[-tribesm54--,! ,belief
 9 ,immortality1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #dfh4  ,9
 "o passage 9 8 address ,sir ,james does
 %[ himself q alive to ! evil influ5ce (
 ! belief 9 immortality4 ,he says3--    
,x might ) "s %[ ( reason be ma9ta9$ t  
no belief has      done s mu* to ret>d !
 economic & !reby ! social progress     
( mank9d z ! belief 9 ! immortality ( ! 
s\l2 = ?is      belief has l$ race aft] 
race1 g5]ation aft] g5]ation1 to        
sacrifice ! real wants ( ! liv+ to !    
imag9>y wants (      ! dead4 ,! wa/e &  
de/ruction ( life & prop]ty :i*      ?is
 fai? has entail$ has be5 enorm\s &     
incalculable4 ,b ,i      am n "h conc]n$
 ) ! disa/r\s & deplorable              

consequ5ces1 ! unspeakable follies &    
crimes & mis]ies :i*      h fl[$ 9      
practice f ! !ory ( a future life4 ,my  
bus9ess at pres5t is ) ! m *e]ful side (
 a gloomy      subject4  ,e au?or has1 (
 c\rse1 ! fulle/ "r to select :i*ev]    
aspect ( a subject he ?9ks des]ves      
treatm5t1 b all ! same "o may po9t out t
 x is ?is dwell+ on ! *e]ful side ( ^!  
beliefs t enc\rages ! religioni/ to put 
=w>d claims on behalf ( pres5t day      
religion t ,sir ,james himself w\ld be !
 fir/ to *all5ge4 ,!re is surely great] 
ne$ to emphasize ! d>k] side ( a cre$ t 
has ?\s&s ( paid advocates pres5t+ an   
imag9>y bright side to ! public gaze4   
,b :at has be5 said ( ! relation ( !    
feel+ aga9/ homicide applies ) no m ?an 
a v>iation ( t]ms to ! o!r in/ances giv5
 by ,sir ,james ,fraz]4 ,ei!r ^!        
in/itutions h a basis 9 utility or !y h 
n4 ,if !y h n1 !n religion c claim no   
social cr$it = _! pres]vation4 ,if !y h 
a basis 9 utility1 !n ! reason = _!     
pres]vation is to be f\nd 9 social      

selection1 al?\gh ! precise local =m 9  
:i* an in/itution appe>s may be det]m9$ 
by o!r circum/ances4 ,& :5 ,sir ,james  
says t ! task ( gov]nm5t has be5        
facilitat$ by ! sup]/ition t ! gov]nors 
belong$ to a sup]ior class ( be+s1 "o   
may safely assume t ! /atem5t holds good
 only ( individual gov]nors1 or (       
p>ticul> =ms ( gov]nm5t4 ,x may well be 
t :5 a p are l$ to believe t a c]ta9    
individual possesses sup]natural p[]s1  
or t a p>ticul> gov]nm5t enjoys ! fav\r 
( sup]natural be+s1 !re w be less       
incl9ation to res5tm5t aga9/ ord]s ?an  
!re w\ld be o!rwise4 ,b gov]nm5t &      
gov]nors1 9 o!r words1 a g5]al body (   
rules = ! gov]nm5t ( ! tribe1 & !       
admitt$ lead]%ip ( c]ta9 fav\r$         
individuals1 w\ld rema9 natural facts 9 
! abs5ce ( sup]/ition1 & _! developm5t  
or suppression w\ld rema9 subject to !  
op]ation ( social or natural selection4 
,s1 aga91 ) ! desire = private prop]ty4 
,! desire to reta9 c]ta9 ?+s z belong+  
to oneself is n altoge!r unnoticeable   

among animals4 ,a dog w fight = its     
bone1 monkeys secrete ?+s :i* !y desire 
to reta9 = _! own use1 etc41 & s f> z ! 
cu/om possesses advantages1 we may      
c]ta9ly cr$it savages ) en\gh           
common-s5se to be aw>e ( ! fact4 ,b !   
curi\s ?+ is t ! in/itution ( private   
prop]ty is n ne>ly s p[]ful among       
primitive peoples z x is among ^? m     
advanc$4 ,s t we are fac$ ) ?is curi\s  
comm5t ^u ,sir ,james's !sis4 ,grant+ t 
! in/itution ( private prop]ty has be5  
/r5g!n$ by sup]/ition we h ! /range     
circum/ance t t in/itution is weake/ :]e
 sup]/ition is /ronge/ & /ronge/ :]e    
sup]/ition is weake/4  ,! tru? is t ,sir
 ,james ,fraz] seems "h to h fall5 into 
! same error z ! late ,walt] ,bagehot1 &
 to h =m$ ! belief t primitive man      
requir$ break+ 9 to ! social yoke4 ,!   
tru? is t ! great ne$ ( primitive mank9d
 is n to be brok5 9 b to acquire !      
c\rage & det]m9ation to break out4 ,?is 
error may h orig9at$ 9 ! dis9cl9ation ( 
! savage to obey our rules1 or x may h  

be5 a h]itage f ! eighte5? c5tury       
philosophy ( ! exi/5ce ( an idyllic     
primitive social /ate4 ,! tru? is1      
h[ev]1 t !re is no "o s fett]$ by cu/om 
z is ! savage4 ,! re/rictions set by a  
savage society on its memb]s w\ld be    
positively intol]able to civiliz$ be+s4 
,& if x be said t ^! cu/oms requir$     
=mation1 ! reply is t inh]it+ !         
imitability ( ! pre-human greg>i\s      
animal1 ?is w\ld =m ! basis on :i* !    
tyranniz+ cu/om ( primitive life is     
built4  ,!re 01 h[ev]1 ano!r            
g5]alization ( ,bagehot's t 0           
unque/ionably s\nd4 ,assum+ t ! fir/ /ep
 necess>y to primitive mank9d 0 to frame
 a cu/om z ! means ( 8 be+ brok5 91 !   
next /ep 9 progress 0 to break x1 & t 0 
a f> m difficult matt]4 ,progress 0     
impossible until ?is 0 done1 & h[       
difficult x is to get ?is /ep tak5      
obs]vation ( ! p liv+ 9 civiliz$        
c\ntries w %[4 ,b x is 9 relation to ?is
 second & all important /ep t "o c      
cle>ly trace ! influ5ce ( religion4 ,&  

its influ5ce is completely ! rev]se (   
be+ helpful4 ,= ( all ! h9drances to a  
*ange ( cu/om !re is none t act ) su*   
=ce z does religion4 ,?is is ! case ) ^?
 cu/oms ) :i* ve/$ int]e/ has no direct 
connection1 b x op]ates ) t5fold =ce :]e
 ?is exi/s4 ,once a cu/om is e/abli%$ 9 
a primitive community ! conditions (    
social life surr\nd x ) religi\s        
beliefs1 & !reaft] to break x means a   
brea* 9 ! wall ( religi\s obs]vances )  
:i* ! savage is surr\nd$4 ,& s soon z we
 rea* ! /age ( ! e/abli%m5t ( a regul>  
prie/hood1 we h to reckon ) ! op]ation (
 a ve/$ int]e/ t has always be5 ke5ly   
alive to any?+ :i* affect$ its pr(it or 
pre/ige4  ,x w\ld n be "r to dismiss !  
discussion ( a subject connect$ ) s     
well-respect$ a "n z t ( ,sir ,james    
,fraz] & leave ! read] ) ! impression t 
he is putt+ 9 a plea = curr5t religion4 
,he is n4 ,he h9ts pretty pla9ly t 8    
argum5t t religion has be5 ( "s use to !
 race applies to savage times only4 ,we 
see ?is 9 su* s5t5ces z ! foll[+3 ,m &  

m1 z "t goes on1 morality %ifts its     
gr\nds f ! s&s ( sup]/ition to ! rock ( 
reason1 f ! imag9>y to ! real1 f !      
sup]natural to ! natural4444 ,! ,/ate   
has f\nd a bett] reason ?an ^! old      
wives' fables = gu>d+ ) ! flam+ sword ( 
ju/ice ! approa* to ! tree ( life1 &    
also 9 say+ t1 ,if x c be prov$ t 9     
c]ta9 races & at c]ta9 times !          
in/itutions 9 "q h be5 bas$ p>tly on    
sup]/ition1 x by no means foll[s t ev5  
among ^! races !y h nev] be5 bas$ on    
any?+ else4 ,on ! contr>y 444 !re is a  
/rong presumption t !y re/ ma9ly on     
some?+ mu* m solid ?an sup]/ition4 ,9   
mod]n times no su* argum5t z ! "o ,i h  
be5 discuss+ has ! lea/ claim to logical
 =ce4 ,b t1 z we all "k1 does n prev5t  
its be+ us$ by full-bl[n religioni/s1 & 
by ^? ^: m9ds are only p>tly lib]at$ f a
 great hi/oric sup]/ition4  ,x w be     
obs]v$ t ! plea ( ,fraz]'s we h be5     
exam9+ argues t ! function ( religion 9 
social life is ( a cons]vative "*4 ,& s 
f> he is correct1 he is only wrong 9    

assum+ x to h be5 ( a b5eficial nature4 
,! ma9 function ( religion 9 sociology  
is cons]vative1 n ! wise cons]vatism :i*
 supports an in/itution or a cu/om      
because ( its approv$ value1 b ( ! k9d t
 sees 9 an e/abli%$ cu/om a reason = its
 cont9uance4 ,urg$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 by
 ! belief t innum]able spirits are =ev] 
on ! wat*1 puni%+ ! slighte/ infraction 
( _! wi%es1 opposition to re=m or to new
 ideas receives def9ite %ape & increas$ 
/r5g? by ! rise ( a prie/hood4 ,h5ce=?  
economic int]e/ goes h& 9 h& )          
sup]/iti\s fe>s4 ,:i*ev] way man turns  
he f9ds artificial ob/acles erect$4 ,e  
deviation f ! prescrib$ pa? is ?reat5$ )
 p5alties 9 ?is _w & ! next4 ,! hi/ory (
 e race & ( e sci5ce tells ! same /ory1 
& ! am\nt ( "t & en]gy t mank9d has sp5t
 9 fight+ ^! gho/s ( its own savage pa/ 
is ! measure ( ! degree to :i* religion 
has kept ! race 9 a /ate ( relative     
b>b>ism4  ,?is function ( unreason+     
cons]vatism is n1 x mu/ be rememb]$1    
accid5tal4 ,x belongs to ! v nature (   

religion4 ,dep5d5t ^u ! ma9t5ance (     
c]ta9 primitive conceptions ( ! _w & (  
man1 religion d>e n enc\rage new ideas  
le/ x sap its own f\ndations4 ,sp5c] has
 rem9d$ u t religion is1 "u ! conditions
 ( its orig91 p]fectly rational4 ,t is q
 true4#bj ,religion meets sci5ce1 :5 !  
/age ( conflict arises1 z an oppos+     
int]pretation ( c]ta9 classes ( facts4  
,! "o int]pretation c only gr[ at !     
exp5se ( ! o!r4 ,:ile religion is       
committ$ to ! explanation ( ! _w 9 t]ms 
( vital =ce1 sci5ce is committ$ to t (  
non-consci\s me*anism4 ,opposition is   
?us pres5t at ! outset1 & x mu/ cont9ue 
to ! end4 ,! old _c be ma9ta9$ )\t      
ana!matiz+ ! new2 ! new _c be e/abli%$  
)\t displac+ ! old4 ,! conflict is      
inevitable2 ! antagonism is             
irreconcilable4  #bj ,x may ) equal tru?
 be said t all beliefs are ) a simil>   
qualification q rational4 ,! attempt to 
divide p into ,rationali/s &            
,irrationali/s is q fallaci\s & is      
philosophically absurd4 ,reason is us$ 9

 ! =mation ( religi\s z 9 ! =mation (   
non-religi\s beliefs4 ,! di/9ction      
betwe5 ! man :o is religi\s & "o :o is  
n1 or1 if x be pref]r$1 "o :o is        
sup]/iti\s & "o :o is n1 is n t ! "o    
reasons & ! o!r does n4 ,bo? reason4    
,inde$1 ! reason+ ( ! sup]/itioni/ is   
(t5 ( ! mo/ elaborate k9d4 ,! di/9ction 
is t ( "o hav+ false premises1 or draw+ 
unw>rantable conclusions f s\nd         
premises4 ,! only ultimate di/9ctions   
are ^? ( religioni/ & non-religioni/1   
sup]naturali/ & non-sup]naturali/1 ,!i/ 
or ,a!i/4 ,all else are m]e matt]s (    
compromise1 exhibitions ( timidity1 or  
illu/rations ( t confus$ ?9k+ :i* itself
 gives rise to religion 9 all its =ms4  
,x lies1 !re=e1 9 ! v nature ( ! case t 
religion1 z religion1 c give no real    
help to man 9 ! und]/&+ ( himself & !   
_w4 ,:atev] good religion may appe> to d
 is prop]ly to be attribut$ to !        
non-religi\s =ces ) :i* x is associat$4 
,b religion1 be+ prop]ly conc]n$ ) !    
relations betwe5 man & my?ical          

sup]natural be+s1 c ex]t no real        
influ5ce = good on human affairs4 ,f> f 
t be+ ! case1 x c easily be %[n to h _h 
q an opposite effect4 ,!re is n m]ely ! 
wa/e ( en]gy 9 ! direction above        
indicat$1 b 9 _m o!r ways4 ,if we conf9e
 ourselves to ,*ri/ianity "s conception 
( ! nature ( its influ5ce may be =m$ if 
we ?9k :at ! /ate ( ! _w might h be5    
to-day _h ! "w ( enlight5m5t cont9u$ f !
 po9t x _h rea*$ "u ! old ,greek &      
,roman civilizations4 ,bacon & ,galileo 
9 _! prisons1 ,bruno & ,van9i at ! /ake 
are illu/rations ( ! diss]vice t        
,*ri/ianity has done ! cause (          
civilization1 & ! ob/ruction x has (f]$ 
to human well-be+4  ,aga91 consid] !    
incubus plac$ on human progress by !    
in/itution ( a prie/hood devot$ to !    
s]vice ( sup]natural be+s4 ,9 ! fulle/ &
 true/ s5se ( ! ^w a prie/hood repres5ts
 a p>asitic gr[? on ! social body4 ,i am
 n ref]r+ to individual memb]s ( !      
prie/hood 9 _! capacity z private       
citiz5s1 b z prie/s1 z ag5ts or         

repres5tatives ( ! sup]natural4 ,& "h ! 
tru? is t ( all ! inv5tions & discov]ies
 t h help$ to build up civilization n "o
 ( !m is ow+ to ! prie/hood1 z su*4 ,"o 
may confid5tly say t if all ! en]gies ( 
all ! prie/s 9 ! :ole _w 7 conc5trat$ on
 a s+le community1 & all _! pray]s1     
=mulae1 & doctr9es devot$ to ! "o end1 !
 well-be+ ( t community w\ld n be       
advanc$ !reby a s+le iota4  ,f> & away1 
! prie/hood is ! greate/ p>asitic class 
! _w has kn[n4 ,all ov] ! _w1 9 bo?     
savage & civiliz$ times1 we see !       
prie/hoods ( ! _w en?ron$1 we see !m    
enjoy+ a subsi/5ce wrung f toil ?r\gh   
cr$ulity1 & f weal? ?r\gh self-int]e/4  
,f ! savage m$ic9e hut up to ! mod]n    
ca!dral we see ! e>? cov]$ ) useless    
edifices devot$ to ! fooli% s]vice (    
imag9>y deities4 ,we see ! prie/hood    
end[$ ) special privileges1 _! build+s  
reliev$ f ! taxes :i* all citiz5s are   
compell$ to pay1 & ev5 special taxes    
levi$ ^u ! public = _! ma9t5ance4 ,!    
gods may no long] dem& ! sacrifice ( !  

fir/ born1 b !y /ill dem& ! sacrifice ( 
"t1 en]gy1 & money t might well be      
appli$ else:]e4 ,& ! p 9 e c\ntry1 out (
 _! /upidity1 cont9ue to ma9ta9 a l>ge  
body ( m5 :o1 by _! :ole tra9+ & int]e/1
 are compell$ to act z ! enemies (      
lib]ty & progress4  ,x is useless argu+ 
t ! evils t foll[ religion are n produc$
 by x1 t !y are casual1 & w disappe> ) a
 tru] und]/&+ ( :at religion is4 ,x is n
 true1 & ! man :o argues 9 t way %[s t  
he does n yet und]/& :at religion is4 ,!
 evils t foll[ religion are deeply      
imb$d$ 9 ! nature ( religion itself4    
,all religion takes its rise 9 error1 & 
ve/$ error ?reat5$ ) de/ruction         
in/9ctively resorts to =ce1 fraud1 &    
impo/ure1 9 self def5ce4 ,! univ]sality 
( ! evils t accompany religion w\ld     
alone prove t !re is m ?an a m]e accid5t
 9 ! association4 ,! :ole hi/ory (      
religion is1 on ! purely intellectual   
side1 ! hi/ory ( a delusion4 ,happily   
?is delusion is los+ its hold on ! human
 m9d4 ,ye> by ye> its intellectual &    

moral wor?lessness is be+ m g5]ally     
recogniz$4 ,religion expla9s no?+1 & x  
does no?+ t is useful4 ,yet 9 its "n    
millions ( p\nds are annually squ&]$ &  
_m ?\s&s ( m5 )drawn f useful lab\r1 &  
saddl$ on ! re/ ( ! community =         
ma9t5ance4 ,b "h1 aga91 economic &      
intellectual =ces are comb9+ = !        
lib]ation ( ! race f its hi/oric        
incubus4 ,complete emancipation w n come
 9 a day1 b x w come1 & its arrival w   
m>k ! close ( ! greate/ revolution t has
 tak5 place 9 ! hi/ory ( ! race4        
,,*apt] ,,viii4  ,,free?\ght ,,& ,,god4 
,:y d p believe 9 ,god8 ,if "o turns to 
! pleas ( pr(essional !ologians !re is  
no lack ( answ]s to ! "q4 ,^! answ]s are
 bo? num]\s & elaborate1 & if quantity &
 repetition 7 en\gh1 ! ,free?9k] w\ld   
f9d himself hopelessly sn[$ "u4 ,b on   
exam9ation all ^! replies suff] f "o    
defect4 ,!y %\ld ante-date ! belief1    
:]eas !y po/-date x4 ,!y _c be ! cause (
 belief = ! reason t ! belief 0 "h long 
be=e ! argum5ts came into exi/5ce4      

,nei!r s+ly nor collectively d ^!       
s-call$ reasons correspond to ! causes t
 h ev] l$ a s+le p]son1 at any "t or at 
any place1 to believe 9 a ,god4 ,if !y  
already believ$1 ! argum5ts 7 en\gh to  
provide !m ) suffici5t ju/ification to g
 on believ+4 ,if !y did n already       
believe1 ! argum5ts 7 p[]less4 ,& nev]1 
by any *ance1 d !y describe ! causes t  
l$ to ! exi/5ce ( ! belief 9 ,god1 ei!r 
hi/orically or individually4 ,!y are1 9 
tru?1 no m ?an excuses = cont9u+ to     
believe4 ,!y are nev] ! causes ( belief4
  ,! evid5ce = ! tru? ( ?is is at h& 9 !
 p]son ( all :o believe4 ,let "o        
consid]1 on ! "o h&1 ! v>i\s argum5ts = 
! exi/5ce ( ,god--! argum5t f causation1
 f design1 f necess>y exi/5ce1 etc41 !n 
put on ! o!r side ! age at :i* m5 & wom5
 began to believe 9 deity1 & _! grasp ( 
argum5ts ( ! k9d m5tion$4 ,!re is cle>ly
 no relation betwe5 ! two4 ,leav+ on "o 
side ! "q ( culture1 x is at once app>5t
 t long be=e ! individual is old en\gh  
to appreciate 9 ! slighte/ degree !     

nature ( ! argum5ts advanc$ he is       
already a believ]4 ,& if he is n a      
believ] 9 8 e>ly ye>s1 he is nev] "o :5 
he rea*es maturity1 c]ta9ly n 9 a       
civiliz$ society4 ,& :5 we turn f !     
individual ,goddite to ,goddites 9 !    
mass1 ! assumption t !y owe _! belief to
 ! philosophical argum5ts advanc$       
becomes grotesque 9 its absurdity4 ,to  
assume t ! av]age ,!i/1 ^: philosophy is
 tak5 f ! daily newspap] & ! weekly     
s]mon1 d]ives 8 conviction f a s]ies (  
ab/ruse philosophical argum5ts is simply
 ridicul\s4 ,^? :o are hone/ to !mselves
 w admit t !y 7 taught ! belief long    
be=e !y 7 old en\gh to br+ any real     
criticism to be> ^u x4 ,x 0 ! product ( 
_! e>ly education1 impress$ ^u !m by _! 
p>5ts1 & all ! reasons t are aft]w>ds   
alleg$ 9 ju/ification are only pleas :y 
!y %\ld n be di/urb$ 9 _! belief4  ,are 
we 9 any bett] position if we turn f !  
individual to ! race8 ,is ! belief 9    
,god simil> to1 say1 ! belief 9         
gravitation1 :i*1 discov]$ by a g5ius1 &

 re/+ ^u consid]ations :i* ! ord9>y     
p]son f9ds too ab/ruse to ?or\ghly      
und]/&1 becomes a "p ( our education1 & 
is accept$ ^u well e/abli%$ au?ority8   
,aga91 ! facts are dead aga9/ su* an    
assumption4 ,x is ) ! race z ) !        
individual4 ,sci5ce & philosophy d n    
prec$e ! belief 9 ,god & provide !      
f\ndation = x1 !y succe$ x & lead to its
 modification & rejection4 ,we are1 9   
?is respect1 ^u v solid gr\nd4 ,9 "s =m 
or ano!r ! belief 9 ,god1 or gods1      
belongs to v e>ly /ates ( human society4
 ,savages h x long be=e !y h ! slighte/ 
inkl+ ( :at we mod]ns w\ld call a       
sci5tific conception ( ! _w4 ,& to      
assume t ! savage1 z we "k him1 began to
 believe 9 8 gods because ( a numb] (   
sci5tific reasons1 su* z ! belief 9     
univ]sal causation1 or any ( ! o!r      
pr(\nd speculations ) :i* ! mod]n       
!ologian becl\ds ! issue1 is z absurd z 
to attribute ! belief ( ! ,salvation    
,army prea*] to philosophical           
speculations4 ,add$ to :i* we may note t

 ! savage is a sev]ely practical p]son4 
,he is n at all int]e/$ 9 metaphysics1 &
 8 contributions to ! discussions ( a   
philosophical society w\ld be ( a v     
meagre "*4 ,8 problem is to deal ) !    
concrete difficulties ( 8 ev]yday life1 
& :5 he is able to d ?is he is cont5t4  
,b1 on ! o!r h&1 we "k t our own belief 
9 ,god is desc5d$ f 8 belief4 ,we "k t  
we c trace x back )\t a break ?r\gh     
g5]ations ( social culture1 until we    
rea* ! savage /age ( social exi/5ce4 ,x 
is he :o1 s to speak1 discov]s ,god1 he 
e/abli%es x z a "p ( ! social           
in/itutions t gov]n ! lives ( e memb] ( 
! gr\p2 we f9d x 9 our immaturity       
e/abli%$ z "o ( ^? _m ?\ght-=ms :i*     
det]m9e s p[]fully our intellectual     
developm5t4 ,! belief 9 ,god meets ea*  
newcom] into ! social ar5a4 ,x is       
impress$ ^u ea* 9 a ?\s& & "o diff]5t   
ways1 & x is only :5 ! belief is *all5g$
 by an oppos+ sy/em ( ?\ght t           
philosophical !ories are elaborat$ 9 its
 def5ce4  ,! possibility ( d]iv+ ! idea 

( ,god f sci5tific & philosophic ?\ght  
be+ rul$ out1 :at rema9s8 ,! enquiry f  
be+ philosophical becomes hi/orical4 ,t 
is1 in/ead ( discuss+ :e!r !re are      
suffici5t reasons = ju/ify+ ! belief 9  
,god1 we are left ) ! "q ( det]m9+ !    
causes t l$ p to ev] reg>d ! belief z   
be+ solidly bas$ ^u fact4 ,x is a "q (  
hi/ory1 or r1 "o may say1 ( an?ropology 
( ! m5tal hi/ory ( man4 ,:5 we read ( "s
 poor old woman :o has be5 p]secut$ =   
bewit*+ someone's cattle or *ildr5 we no
 long] settle d[n to discuss :e!r       
wit*craft re/s ^u fact or n2 we "k x    
does n1 & our sole conc]n is to discov] 
! conditions1 m5tal & social1 :i* enabl$
 s /range a belief to fl\ri%4 ,!        
exam9ation ( evid5ce--! legal           
aspect--?us gives place to ! hi/orical1 
& ! hi/orical f9ally resolves itself    
into ! psy*ological4 ,= :at we are      
really conc]n$ ) 9 an exam9ation ( !    
idea ( ,god is ! discov]y &             
recon/ruction ( ^? /ates ( m9d :i* gave 
! belief bir?4 ,& t se>* is f> easi] & !

 results f> m conclusive ?an _m imag9e4 
,9 outl9+ ?is evid5ce x w only be       
necess>y to pres5t its g5]al features4  
,?is = two reasons4 ,fir/1 because a    
multiplicity ( detail is apt to hide f !
 g5]al read] _m ( ! ess5tial features ( 
! tru?2 secondly1 ! fact ( a diff]5ce ( 
op9ion conc]n+ ! "t ord] ( c]ta9 /ages 9
 ! hi/ory ( ! god-idea is likely to     
obscure ! fact ( ! unanimity :i* exi/s  
among all ^? qualifi$ to express an     
au?oritative op9ion z to ! nature ( !   
conditions t h giv5 ! idea bir?4 ,!     
v>i\s !ories ( ! sequ5ce ( ! diff]5t    
phases ( ! religi\s idea %\ld no m bl9d 
u to ! fact t !re exi/s a sub/antial    
agreem5t t ! belief 9 gods has its roots
 9 ! fe> & ignorance ( unciviliz$       
mank9d1 ?an ! circum/ance t !re is go+  
on among biologi/s a discussion z to !  
ma*9]y ( evolution %\ld ov]%ad[ ! fact t
 evolution itself is a demon/rat$ tru?  
:i* no compet5t obs]v] que/ions4  ,9 an 
e>li] *apt] we h already indicat$ !     
ess5tial conditions :i* lead to ! orig9 

( religi\s beliefs1 & !re is no ne$ aga9
 to g ov] t gr\nd4 ,:at is necess>y at  
pres5t is to sket* z briefly z is       
consi/5t ) lucidity ^? frames ( m9d to  
:i* ! belief 9 ,god owes its exi/5ce4   
,to realize ?is no v recondite in/rum5t 
( rese>* is requir$4 ,we ne$ no?+ m     
elaborate ?an ! me?od by :i* we are     
h\rly 9 ! habit ( e/imat+ ea* o!r's     
?\ghts1 & ( gaug+ "o ano!r's motives4   
,:5 ,i see a man laugh ,i assume t he is
 pleas$2 :5 he fr[ns ,i assume t he is  
angry4 ,!re is "h only an application ( 
! g5]ally accept$ maxim t :5 we see     
id5tical results we are w>rant$ 9 assum+
 id5tical causes4 ,9 ?is way we c ei!r  
argue f causes to effects or f effects  
to causes4 ,a fur!r /atem5t ( ! same    
pr9ciple is t :5 we are deal+ )         
biological facts we may assume t        
id5tical /ructures imply id5tical       
functions4 ,! /ructure ( a dead animal w
 tell u :at its functions 7 :5 liv+ z   
c]ta9ly z ?\gh we _h ! liv+ animal 9    
front ( u4 ,we may relate function to   

/ructure or /ructure to function4 ,& 9  
?is we are us+ no?+ m uncommon ?an !    
accept$ pr9ciple ( univ]sal causation4  
,n[1 9 all ?9k+ !re are two factors4    
,!re is ! animal or human bra91 ! organ 
( ?\ght1 & !re is ! mat]ial = ?\ght z   
repres5t$ by ! exi/+ k ( ! _w4 ,if we _h
 an exact k ( ! k9d ( bra9 t function$1 
& ! exact quantity & quality ( ! k      
exi/+1 ! "q z to ! ideas :i* w\ld result
 w\ld be little m ?an a problem 9       
ma!matics4 ,we c\ld make ! calculation )
 ! same assurance t an a/ronom] c       
e/imate ! position ( a planet a c5tury  
h5ce4 ,9 ! case ( primitive mank9d we d 
n possess any?+ l ! exact k "o w\ld wi%1
 b we d "k en\gh to say 9 r m ?an a     
g5]al way ! k9d ( ?9k+ ( :i* our e>lie/ 
ance/ors 7 capable1 & :at 7 its         
products4 ,we c get at ! ma*9]y ( !     
primitive bra91 & c e/imate its actions1
 & t )\t go+ fur!r ?an we d :5 we assume
 t primitive man 0 hungry & ?ir/y1 0    
pleas$ & angry1 lov$ & fe>$4 ,&1 inde$1 
x 0 because he exp]i5c$ fe> & pleasure &

 love & hate t ! gods came into exi/5ce4
  ,( ! factors :i* det]m9e ! k9d ( ?9k+ 
"o does1 we "k en\gh to say t !re 7 two 
?+s c]ta9 ( e>ly mank9d4 ,we "k ! k9d ( 
?9k+ ( :i* he 0 capable1 & we h a g5]al 
notion ( ! mat]ial exi/+ = ?9k+4 ,speak+
 ( "o ( ^! e>ly ance/ors ( ours1        
,pr(essor ,ar?ur ,kei? says1 ,piltd[n   
man saw1 he>d1 felt1 ?\ght & dreamt mu* 
z we d1 t is1 !re 0 ! same k9d ( bra9 at
 "w t is at "w n[4 ,& t mu* we c\ld be  
sure ( by go+ no f>!r back ?an ! savages
 ( to-day4 ,b z size ( bra9 is n ev]y?+1
 we are w>rant$ 9 say+ t ! bra9 0 ( a   
relatively simple type1 :ile ! k ( ! _w 
:i* exi/$1 & :i* gives u ! mat]ial =    
?9k+1 0 ( a v imp]fect & elem5t>y "*4   
,!re 0 great ignorance1 & !re 0 great   
fe>4 ,f ^! two conditions1 ignorance &  
fe>1 sprang ! gods4 ,( t !re is no d\bt 
:atev]4 ,!re is sc>cely a "w :i* deals )
 ! life ( primitive peoples to-day t    
does n emphasize t fact4 ,consci\sly or 
unconsci\sly x _c avoid do+ s4 ,long ago
 a ,lat9 writ] hit on ?is tru? 9 !      

well-kn[n say+1 ,fe> made ! gods1 &     
,ari/otle express$ ! same ?+ 9 a m      
compreh5sive =m by say+ t fe> fir/ set  
man philosophiz+4 ,! undevelop$ m9d     
tr\bles little ab\t ?+s s long z !y are 
go+ smoo?ly & com=tably4 ,x is :5 some?+
 pa9ful happ5s t conc]n is awak5$4 ,&   
all ! gods ( primitive life be> ?is     
primal /amp ( fe>4 ,t is :y religion1 ) 
its p]si/5t h>k+ back to ! primitive1 ) 
its response to ! ,call ( ! ,wild /ill  
dwells ^u ! fe> ( ! ,"l z a means (     
ar\s+ a due s5se ( piety4 ,! gods fatt5 
on fe> z a usur] does ^u ! folly ( 8    
cli5ts1 & 9 bo? cases ! int]e/ dem&$ f> 
outweighs ! value ( ! s]vices r5d]$4 ,at
 a lat] /age man faces 8 gods 9 a       
diff]5t _s2 he loses 8 fe> & exam9es !m2
 & gods t are n fe>$ are b poor ?+s4 ,!y
 exi/ ma9ly z indisputable records ( _! 
own det]ioration4  ,n[ to primitive man1
 /ruggl+ along 9 a _w ( :i* he 0 s      
completely ignorant1 ! "o c]ta9 ?+ 0 t !
 _w 0 alive4 ,! w9d t ro>$1 ! ?und] t   
gr[l$1 ! disease t left him s my/]i\sly 

/rick51 7 all s _m liv+ ?+s4 ,! division
 ( ^! liv+ =ces into good & bad foll[$  
naturally f ?is fir/ conception ( _!    
nature4 ,& :atev] be ! /ages ( t process
 ! ma9 l9es admit ( no "q1 nor is !re   
any "q z to ! nature ( ! conditions t   
br\ght ! gods into exi/5ce4 ,on any     
sci5tific !ory ( religion ! gods        
repres5t no m ?an ! p]sonifi$ ignorance 
& fe> ( primitive humanity4 ,h[ev] mu*  
an?ropologi/s may diff] z to :e!r ! god 
always orig9ates f ! gho/ or n1 :e!r    
animism is fir/ & ! wor%ip ( ! gho/     
second>y or n1 !re is agreem5t on t     
po9t4 ,:i*ev] !ory we c>e to embrace1 ! 
broad fact is g5]ally admitt$ t ! gods  
are ! products ( ignorance & fe>4 ,man  
fe>s ! gods z *ildr5 & ev5 animals fe> !
 unkn[n & ! dang]\s4  ,& z ! gods are   
born ( conditions su* z ^? outl9$1 z man
 reads 8 own feel+s & passions & desires
 into nature1 s we f9d t ! e>ly gods are
 frankly1 obtrusively1 man-l4 ,! gods   
are copies ( _! wor%ipp]s1 fai?ful      
reflections ( ^? :o fe> !m4 ,?is1 inde$1

 rema9s true to ! end4 ,:5 ! /age is    
rea*$ t ! idea ( ,god z a physical      
c\nt]p>t ( man becomes repulsive1 x is  
/ill unable to %ake (f ?is              
an?ropomorphic elem5t4 ,to ! mod]n      
wor%ipp] ,god mu/ n possess a body1 b he
 mu/ h love1 & intellig5ce--z ?\gh !    
m5tal qualities ( man are less human ?an
 ! bodily ones6 ,!y are z human z arms  
or legs4 ,& e reason t w ju/ify !       
rejection ( ! conception ( ! univ]se be+
 rul$ ov] by a be+ :o is l man 9 8      
physical aspects is equally conclusive  
aga9/ believ+ ! univ]se to be rul$ ov]  
by a be+ :o resembles man 9 8 m5tal     
*>act]i/ics4 ,! "o belief is a survival 
( ! o!r2 & ! "o w\ld n n[ be accept$ _h 
n ! o!r be5 believ$ 9 be=eh&4  ,i h     
delib]ately refra9$ f discuss+ ! v>i\s  
argum5ts put =w>d to ju/ify ! belief 9  
,god 9 ord] t att5tion %\ld n be div]t$ 
f ! ma9 po9t1 :i* is t ! belief 9 deity 
owes its exi/5ce to ! ignorant          
int]pretation ( natural happ5+s by e>ly 
or unciviliz$ mank9d4 ,ev]y?+ "h turns  

logically on ! "q ( orig94 ,if ! belief 
9 ,god began 9 ! way ,i h outl9$1 ! "q (
 v]acity may be dismiss$4 ,! "q is "o ( 
orig9 only4 ,x is n a "q ( man fir/ see+
 a ?+ b dimly & !n gett+ a cle>] vision 
z 8 k becomes m ?or\gh4 ,x is a "q ( a  
radical misund]/&+ ( c]ta9 exp]i5ces1 ! 
vogue ( an altoge!r wrong int]pretation1
 & its displacem5t by an int]pretation (
 a q diff]5t nature4 ,! god ( ! savage 0
 9 ! nature ( an inf]5ce drawn f ! _w ( 
! savage4 ,!re 0 ! admitt$ premiss & !re
 0 ! obvi\s conclusion4 ,b ) u ! premiss
 no long] exi/s4 ,we delib]ately reject 
x z be+ altoge!r unw>rantable4 ,& we _c 
reject ! premiss :ile reta9+ !          
conclusion4 ,logically1 ! god ( ! savage
 goes ) ! _w ( ! savage2 x %\ld h no    
place 9 ! m9d ( ! really civiliz$ human 
be+4  ,x is = ?is reason t ,i am leav+  
on "o side all ^? semi-metaphysical &   
pseudo-philosophical argum5ts t are put 
=w>d to ju/ify ! belief 9 ,god4 ,z ,i h 
already said1 !y are m]ely excuses =    
cont9u+ a belief t has no real w>ranty 9

 fact4 ,no liv+ man or woman believes 9 
,god because ( any su* argum5t4 ,we h ! 
belief 9 ,god ) u to-day = ! same reason
 t we h 9 our bodies a numb] ( rudim5t>y
 /ructures4 ,z ! "o is rem9isc5t ( an   
e>li] /age ( exi/5ce s is ! o!r4 ,to use
 ! expressive phrase ( ,w9wood ,reade's1
 we h tail$ m9ds z well z tail$ bodies4 
,! belief 9 ,god meets ea* newcom] to ! 
social sph]e4 ,x is =c$ ^u !m be=e !y   
are old en\gh to (f] effective resi/ance
 9 ! %ape ( acquir$ k t w\ld r5d] its   
lodgem5t 9 ! m9d impossible4 ,aft]w>ds1 
! dice ( social p[] & pre/ige are load$ 
9 its fav\r1 :ile ! m5tal in]tia ( "s1 &
 ! self-int]e/ ( o!rs1 give =ce to !    
argum5ts :i* ,i h call$ m]e m5tal       
subt]fuges = p]petuat+ ! belief 9 ,god4 
,only "o o!r rem>k ne$ be made4 ,9 !    
beg9n+ ! gods exi/ z ! apo!osis (       
ignorance4 ,! reason ! savage _h =      
believ+ 9 ,god 0 t he did n "k ! real   
causes ( ! ph5om5a ar\nd him4 ,& t      
rema9s ! reason :y p believe 9 deity    
to-day4 ,"u :atev] guise ! belief is    

pres5t$1 analysis br+s x ultimately to  
t4 ,! :ole hi/ory ( ! human m9d1 9      
relation to ! idea ( ,god1 %[s t s soon 
z man discov]s ! natural causes ( any   
ph5om5on or gr\p ( ph5om5a ! idea ( ,god
 dies out 9 connection !re)4 ,god is    
only conceiv$ z a cause or z an         
explanation s long z no o!r cause or    
explanation is =?com+4 ,9 common spee* &
 9 ord9>y ?\ght we only br+ 9 ! "n (    
,god :]e unc]ta9ty exi/s1 nev] :]e k is 
obta9able4 ,we pray to ,god to cure a   
fev]1 b nev] to put on aga9 a sev]$     
limb4 ,we associate ,god ) ! production 
( a good h>ve/1 b n ) a bett] coal      
output4 ,we use ,god only kn[s z !      
equival5t ( our own ignorance1 & call on
 ,god = help only :]e our own           
helplessness is manife/4 ,! idea rema9s 
true to itself ?r\gh\t4 ,born 9         
ignorance & cradl$ 9 fe>1 x makes its   
appeal to ! same elem5ts to ! end4 ,& if
 x apes ! language ( philosophy1 x does 
s only z d ^? :o pur*ase a ready-made   
p$igree 9 ord] to hide ! obscurity ( _! 

orig94     ,,*apt] ,,ix4  ,,free?\ght   
,,& ,,dea?4   ,9 ! e>ly mon?s ( !       
,european w> a mortally w\nd$ ,briti%   
soldi] 0 pick$ up betwe5 ! l9es1 aft]   
ly+ !re unatt5d$ = two days4 ,he di$    
soon aft] he 0 br\ght 91 & "o ( 8 la/   
reque/s 0 t a copy ( ,rusk9's ,cr[n (   
,wild ,olive %\ld be buri$ ) him4 ,he   
said ! book _h be5 ) him all ! "t he _h 
be5 9 ,france1 x _h giv5 him great      
com=t1 & he wi%$ x to be buri$ ) him4   
,ne$less to say1 8 wi% 0 c>ri$ out1 &   
some:]e 9 ,france !re lies a soldi] ) a 
copy ( ! ,cr[n ( ,wild ,olive clasp$ to 
8 brea/4  ,!re is ano!r /ory1 ( a       
common] "*1 :i*1 al?\gh diff]5t 9 =m1 is
 :olly simil> 9 sub/ance4 ,?is tells ( !
 soldi] :o 9 8 la/ mom5ts asks to see a 
prie/1 accepts 8 m9i/rations )          
?ankfulness1 & dies com=t$ ) !          
repetition ( famili> =mulae & cu/om>y   
pray]s4 ,9 ! "o case a ,bible & a prie/2
 9 ! o!r a volume ( lectures by "o ( !  
ma/]s ( ,engli% prose4 ,! diff]5ce is1  
at fir/1 /rik+1 b !re is an und]ly+     

agreem5t1 & !y may be us$ toge!r to     
illu/rate a s+le psy*ological pr9ciple4 
,free?9k] & ,*ri/ian read ! record ( bo?
 cases1 b x is ! ,free?9k] alone ^:     
philosophy ( life is wide en\gh to      
expla9 bo?4 ,! ,free?9k] kn[s t ! feel+ 
( com=t & ! fact ( tru? are two di/9ct  
?+s4 ,!y may coalesce1 b !y may be z f> 
asund] z ! poles4 ,a delusion may be z  
consol+ z a reality provid$ x be accept$
 z g5u9e4 ,! soldi] ) 8 copy ( ,rusk9   
does n prove ! tru? ( ! tea*+s ( ! ,cr[n
 ( ,wild ,olive1 does n prove t ,rusk9  
said ! la/ ^w or ev5 ! true/ ^w on !    
subjects dealt ) !re94 ,nei!r does !    
consolation :i* religion gives "s p     
prove ! tru? ( its tea*+s4 ,! com=t :i* 
religion br+s is a product ( ! belief 9 
religion4 ,! consolation t comes f read+
 a volume ( essays is a product ( !     
conviction ( ! tru? ( ! message deliv]$1
 or a s5se ( ! beauty ( ! language 9 :i*
 ! book is writt54 ,bo? cases illu/rate 
! p[] ( belief1 & t no ,free?9k] 0 ev]  
/upid en\gh to "q4 ,! f9e/ lit]ature 9 !

 _w w\ld br+ small com=t to a man :o 0  
conv9c$ t he /ood 9 deadly ne$ ( a      
prie/1 & ! pres5ce ( a prie/ w\ld be q  
useless to a man :o believ$ t all !     
religions ( ! _w 7 s _m geographical    
absurdities4 ,com=t does n produce      
conviction1 x foll[s x4 ,! tru? & !     
social value ( convictions are q di/9ct 
que/ions4  ,!re is "h a confusion (     
values1 & = ?is we h to ?ank ! influ5ce 
( ! ,*ur*es4 ,because ! s]vice ( ! prie/
 is s\ght by "s we are ask$ to believe t
 x is necess>y to all4 ,b ! ess5tial    
value ( a ?+ is %[n1 n by ! numb] ( p :o
 get on ) x1 b by ! numb] t c get on )\t
 x4 ,! canon ( agreem5t & diff]5ce is   
applicable :e!r we are deal+ ) human    
nature or conduct+ an ord9>y sci5tific  
exp]im5t4 ,?us1 ! indisp5sability (     
meat-eat+ is n %[n by ! numb] ( p :o    
swe> t !y _c "w )\t x1 b by not+ h[ p   
f>e 9 its abs5ce4 ,! dr9k] does n       
conf\nd ! ab/a9]2 x is ! o!r way ab\t4  
,9 ! same way !re is no?+ ( evid5tial   
value 9 ! prote/s ( ^? :o say t human   

nature _c get along )\t religion4 ,we h 
to te/ ! /atem5t by ! cases :]e religion
 is abs5t4 ,& "h1 x is n ! ,*ri/ian t   
conf\nds ! ,free?9k]1 x is ! ,free?9k]  
:o conf\nds ! ,*ri/ian4 ,if ! religi\s  
view ( life is correct ! ,free?9k] %\ld 
be a v r>e bird inde$2 he %\ld be cle>ly
 recognizable z a dep>ture f ! normal   
type1 &1 9 fact1 he 0 always s repres5t$
 9 religi\s lit]ature until he disprov$ 
! leg5d by multiply+ himself ) confus+  
rapidity4 ,n[ x is ! ,free?9k] :o w n   
fit into ! ,*ri/ian s*eme ( ?+s4 ,x is  
puzzl+ to see :at c be done ) a man :o  
repudiates ! religi\s idea 9 !ory &     
fact1 root & bran*1 & yet appe>s to be  
gett+ on q well 9 its abs5ce4 ,t is !   
awkw>d fact t w n fit 9 ) ! religi\s    
!ory4 ,&1 o!r ?+s equal1 "o man )\t     
religion is great] evid5tial value ?an  
five hundr$ ) x4 ,all ! five hundr$     
prove at ! mo/ is t human nature c get  
on ) religion1 b ! "o case proves t     
human nature c get on )\t x1 & t        
*all5ges ! :ole religi\s position4 ,&   

unless we take up ! r absurd position t 
! non-religi\s man is a %e] abnormality1
 ?is consid]ation at once r$uces        
religion f a necessity to a luxury or a 
dissipation4  ,! be>+ ( ?is on our      
attitude t[>ds su* a fact z dea? %\ld be
 obvi\s4 ,dur+ ! ,european w> dea? f be+
 an ev]-pres5t fact became an obtrusive 
"o4 ,day aft] day we receiv$ news ( !   
dea? ( fri5d or relative1 & ^? :o escap$
 t degree ( intimacy ) ! unpleasant     
visitor1 met him 9 ! columns ( ! daily  
press4 ,& ! ,*ri/ian cl]gy w\ld h be5   
untrue to _! traditions & to _!         
int]e/s--& !re is no corporate body m   
al]t 9 ^! directions--if !y _h n tri$ to
 exploit ! situation to ! utmo/4 ,!re 0 
no?+ new 9 ! tactics employ$1 x 0 !     
special circum/ances t gave !m a little 
m =ce ?an 0 usual4 ,! foll[+1 = example1
 may be accept$ z typical3--       ,!   
weight ( our sorr[ is imm5sely light5$  
if we c feel sure      t "o :om we h    
lov$ & lo/ has b asc5d$ to sph]es (     
fur!r developm5t1 education1 s]vice1    

a*ievem5t1 :]e1 by &      by1 we %all   
rejo9 him4  ,q a common /atem5t1 & "o   
:i* by long usage has become almo/      
immune f criticism4 ,& yet x has ab\t z 
mu* relation to fact z h ! /ories (     
dea?-b$ conv]sions1 or ( p dy+ & %riek+ 
= ,jesus to save !m4 ,"o may1 inde$1    
apply a r\gh & ready te/ by an appeal to
 facts4 ,h[ _m cases has ! read] ( ^!   
l9es come across 9 :i* religion has made
 p calm] & m resign$ 9 ! pres5ce ( dea? 
?an o!rs h be5 :o 7 q de/itute ( belief 
9 religion8 ,( c\rse1 religi\s folk w   
repeat religi\s phrases1 !y w att5d     
*ur*1 !y w li/5 to ! m9i/rations ( _!   
fav\rite cl]gyman1 & !y w say t _!      
religion br+s !m com=t4 ,b if "o gets   
bel[ ! /]eotyp$ phraseology & puts on "o
 side also ! sophi/icat$ attitude 9     
relation to religion1 "o q fails to     
detect any respect 9 :i* ! ,free?9k+    
p>5t diff]s f ! ,*ri/ian "o4 ,does !    
religi\s p>5t grieve less8 ,does he be> 
! bl[ ) great] =titude8 ,is 8 grief (   
%ort] duration8 ,to anyone :o w op5 8   

eyes ! talk ( ! com=t ( religion w appe>
 to be l>gely cant4 ,!re are diff]5ces  
due to "*1 to temp]am5t1 to tra9+2 !re  
is a use ( traditional phrases 9 ! "o   
case t is abs5t 9 ! o!r1 b ! incid5ce ( 
a deep sorr[ only s]ves to %[ h[        
sup]ficial are ! vap\r+s ( religion to a
 civiliz$ m9d1 & h[ ea* "o ( u is ?r[n  
back ^u ^? deep] feel+s t are insep>able
 f a common humanity4 ,! ?\ght ( an only
 son :o is liv+ ) ! angels br+s no real 
solace to a p>5t's m9d4 ,:atev] g5u9e   
com=t is available mu/ come f ! ?\ght ( 
a life t has be5 well liv$1 f !         
sympa!tic pres5ce ( fri5ds1 f ! sil5t   
h&clasp1 :i* on su* occasions is s (t5 m
 eloqu5t ?an spee*--9 a ^w1 f ^? heal+  
curr5ts t are "p & p>cel ( ! life ( !   
race4 ,a ,free?9k] c easily appreciate !
 read9ess ( a cl]gyman to help a m9d t  
is suff]+ f a great sorr[1 b x is !     
delib]ate exploitation ( human grief 9 !
 "n & 9 ! int]e/s ( religion1 !         
manufactur+ ( cases ( dea?-b$           
consolation & rep5tance1 ! citation (   

evid5ce to :i* ! exp]i5ce ( all gives ! 
lie1 t fill "o ) a feel+ ak9 to disgu/4 
,! writ] f :om ,i h quot$ says3--       
,x is1 inde$1 possible = p :o are       
,agno/ic or unbeliev+      ) reg>d to   
immortality to give !mselves :olly to ! 
pursuit      ( tru? & to ! s]vice ( _!  
fell[m51 9 moral      e>ne/ness & h]oic 
endeav\r2 !y may endure pa9 & sorr[     
) calm resignation1 & toil on 9 pati5ce 
& p]sev]ance4      ,! be/ ( ! anci5t    
,/oics did s1 & _m a mod]n ,agno/ic     
is do+ s to-day4  ,! significance ( su* 
a /atem5t is 9 no wise dim9i%$ by !     
accompany+ qualification t ,free?9k]s   
are miss+ a joy :i* w\ld h be5 to !m a  
well-spr+ ( c\rage & /r5g?4 ,t is a pure
 assumption4 ,!y :o are )\t religi\s    
belief are consci\s ( no lack ( c\rage1 
& !y are oppress$ by no feel+ ( despair4
 ,on ?is _! own /atem5t mu/ be tak5 z   
f9al4 ,moreov]1 !y are speak+ z1 9 !    
ma91 ^? :o are fully acqua9t$ ) !       
,*ri/ian position1 hav+ once occupi$ x4 
,!y are able to measure ! relative value

 ( ! two positions4 ,! ,*ri/ian has no  
su* exp]i5ce to guide him4 ,9 ! crises (
 life ! behavi\r ( ! ,free?9k] is at    
lea/ z calm & z c\rage\s z t ( !        
,*ri/ian4 ,& x may c]ta9ly be argu$ t a 
s]5e resignation 9 ! pres5ce ( dea? is q
 z valuable z ! hectic emotionalism (   
cultivat$ religi\s belief4  ,:at1 aft]  
all1 is !re 9 ! fact ( natural dea? t   
%\ld bre$ irresolution1 rob u ( c\rage1 
or fill u ) fe>8 ,exp]i5ce proves !re   
are _m ?+s t p dread m ?an dea?1 & w ev5
 seek dea? r ?an face1 or1 aga91 !re are
 a hundr$ & "o ?+s to obta9 :i* m5 &    
wom5 w face dea? )\t fe>4 ,& ?is        
read9ess to face or seek dea? does n    
seem to be at all det]m9$ by religi\s   
belief4 ,! millions ( m5 :o fac$ dea?   
dur+ ! w> 7 n det]m9$ 9 _! attitude by  
_! fai? 9 religi\s dogmas4 ,if que/ion$ 
!y might1 9 ! majority ( cases1 say t !y
 believ$ 9 a future life1 & also t !y   
f\nd x a s\rce ( /r5g?1 b x w\ld ne$    
little reflection to assess ! reply at  
its true value4 ,& z a racial fact1 !   

fe> ( dea? is a negative quality4 ,!    
positive aspect is ! w to live1 & t may 
be se5 9 op]ation 9 ! animal _w z well z
 9 ! _w ( man4 ,b ?is has no ref]5ce1 n 
ev5 ! remote/1 to a belief 9 a future   
life4 ,!re are no ,intimations (        
,immortality "h4 ,!re is simply "o ( !  
conditions ( animal survival1 develop$ 9
 man to ! po9t at :i* its fur!r /r5g!n+ 
w\ld become a ?reat to ! welf>e ( !     
species4 ,! desire to live is "o ( !    
conditions t secures ! /ruggle to live1 
& a species ( animals 9 :i* ?is did n   
exi/ w\ld soon g "u be=e a m virile     
type4 ,& x is "o ( ! peculi>ities (     
religi\s reason+ t a w to live "h %\ld  
be tak5 z cle> pro( ( a desire to live  
some:]e else4  ,! fe> ( dea? c\ld nev]  
be a p[]ful factor 9 life2 exi/5ce w\ld 
be next to impossible if x 74 ,x w\ld   
rob ! organism ( its d>+1 its t5acity1 &
 ultimately dive/ life itself ( value4  
,aga9/ t dang] we h an effici5t gu>d 9 !
 op]ation ( natural selection4 ,9 !     
animal _w !re is no fe> ( dea?1 !re is1 

9 fact1 no reason to assume t !re exi/s 
ev5 a consci\sness ( dea?4 ,& ) man1 :5 
reflection & k give bir? to t           
consci\sness1 !re arises a /rong o!r    
reg>d+ in/9ct :i* effectively prev5ts x 
assum+ a too positive or a too dang]\s  
=m4 ,fe> ( dea? is1 9 brief1 "p ( !     
j>gon ( prie/craft4 ,! prie/ has taught 
x ! p because x 0 to 8 int]e/ to d s4 ,&
 ! j>gon reta9s a c]ta9 curr5cy because 
x is only ! m9ority t rise above !      
p>rot-l capacity to repeat curr5t       
phrases1 or :o ev] make an attempt to   
analyse _! mean+ & *all5ge _! v]acity4  
,! positive fe> ( dea? is l>gely an     
acquir$ m5tal attitude4 ,9 its orig9 x  
is l>gely motiv$ by religion4 ,g5]ally  
speak+ !re is no v great fe> ( dea?     
among savages1 & among ! pagans ( old   
,greece & ,rome !re 0 none ( t abject   
fe> ( dea? t became s common ) !        
e/abli%m5t ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,to ! pagan1  
dea? 0 a natural fact1 sad en\gh1 b n ( 
necessity t]rible4 ,( ! ,greek          
sculptures repres5t+ dea? ,pr(essor     

,mahaffy says3 ,!y are simple pictures (
 ! grief ( p>t+1 ( ! recollection (     
pleasant days ( love & fri5d%ip1 ( !    
gloom ( an unkn[n future4 ,b !re is no  
exagg]ation 9 ! picture4 ,?r\gh\t ,roman
 lit]ature also !re runs ! conception ( 
dea? z ! necess>y complem5t ( life4     
,pl9y puts ?is cle>ly 9 ! foll[+3 ,unto 
all1 ! /ate ( be+ aft] ! la/ day is !   
same z x 0 be=e ! fir/ day ( life2 nei!r
 is !re any m v>iation ( x 9 ei!r body  
or s\l aft] dea? ?an !re 0 be=e dea?4   
,among ! un$ucat$ !re does appe> to h   
be5 "s fe> ( dea?1 & "o may assume t )  
"s ( ev5 ( ! educat$ ?is 0 n altoge!r   
abs5t4 ,x may also be assum$ t x 0 to   
?is type ( m9d t ,*ri/ianity made its   
fir/ appeal1 & ^u :i* x re/$ its        
nightm>e-l conception ( dea? & !        
aft]-life4 ,on ?is matt] ! mod]n m9d c  
well appreciate ! attitude ( ,lucretius1
 :o saw ! great dang] 9 front ( ! race &
 s\ght to gu>d m5 aga9/ x by po9t+ out !
 artificiality ( ! fe> ( dea? & !       
cleans+ effect ( g5u9e k4      ,s %alt  

?\ fe$ on ,dea? :o fe$s on m51     ,&   
,dea? once dead !re's no m dy+ !n4  ,!  
policy ( ,*ri/ianity 0 ! belittl+ ( ?is 
life & an exagg]ation ( ! life aft]     
dea?1 ) a b\ndless exagg]ation ( !      
t]rors t await$ ! unw>y & ! unfai?ful4  
,! /ate ( k "u ,*ri/ian auspices made   
?is task easy en\gh4 ,( ! m$iaeval p]iod
 ,mr4 ,lionel ,cu/1 9 8 ,hi/ory (       
,engrav+ dur+ ! ,fifte5? ,c5tury1       
says3--       ,! keys ( k1 z (          
salvation1 7 entirely 9 ! h&s      ( !  
,*ur*1 & ! lay public1 bo? high & l[1 71
      g5]ally speak+1 ignorant &        
illit]ate4 ,"o ( ! secrets (      !     
great p[] ex]cis$ by ! ,*ur* lay 9 its  
ability to      repres5t ! life ( man z 
environ$ f ! outset by legions      (   
horrible & insidi\s demons1 :o beset 8  
pa? ?r\gh\t      life at e /age up to 8 
v la/ brea?1 & are em95tly      active &
 (t5 triumphant :5 man's =titude is     
und]m9$ by      sickness1 suff]+1 & !   
prospect ( dissolution4  ,f4 ,p>kes     
,web] also po9ts out t1 ,x 0 9 m$iaeval 

,europe1 "u ! auspices ( ! ,ca?olic     
,*ur*1 t descriptions ( hell began to   
take on _! mo/ horrible aspects4#ba ,s1 
aga91 we h ,sir ,james ,fraz] po9t+ out 
t ! fe> ( dea? is n common to ! l[]     
races1 & ,among ! causes :i* ?us t5d to 
make u c[>ds may be numb]$ ! spread (   
luxury & ! doctr9es ( a gloomy !ology1  
:i* by proclaim+ ! et]nal damnation &   
excruciat+ torm5ts ( ! va/ majority (   
mank9d has add$ incalculably to ! dread 
& horror ( dea?4#bb  #ba ,aspects (     
,dea? 9 ,art & ,epigram1 p4 #bh4  #bb   
,gold5 ,b\gh1 ,vol4 ,,iv41 p4 #acf4  ,no
 religion has emphasiz$ ! t]ror ( dea? z
 ,*ri/ianity has done1 & 9 ! true/ s5se1
 no religion has s s]v$ to make m5 su*  
c[>ds 9 its pres5ce4 ,^u t fe> a l>ge "p
 ( ! p[] ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* has be5     
built1 & m5 hav+ become s obsess$ ) !   
fe> ( dea? & :at lay beyond1 x is n     
surpris+ t !y %\ld turn to ! ,*ur* = "s 
measure ( relief4 ,! poison] ?us did a  
lucrative trade by sell+ a d\btful rem$y
 = 8 own toxic prep>ation4 ,m ?an any?+ 

else ! fe> ( dea? & hell laid !         
f\ndation ( ! weal? & p[] ( ! ,*ri/ian  
,*ur*4 ,if x drew its au?ority f ,god1 x
 d]iv$ its pr(it f ! devil4 ,! two tru?s
 t em]ge f a sob] & imp>tial /udy (     
,*ri/ian hi/ory are t ! p[] ( ! ,*ur* 0 
root$ 9 dea? & t x fl\ri%$ 9 di%on\r4   
,x 0 ,*ri/ianity1 & ,*ri/ianity alone t 
made dea? s abid+ a t]ror to ! ,european
 m9d4 ,& society once ,*ri/ianiz$1 !    
un$ucat$ c\ld f9d no adequate corrective
 f ! m educat$4 ,! bas] elem5ts :i*     
exi/$ 9 ! ,pagan _w 7 eag]ly seiz$ ^u by
 ! ,*ri/ian writ]s & develop$ to _!     
fulle/ ext5t4 ,"s ( ! ,pagan writ]s _h  
speculat$1 9 a m or less fanciful _s1 on
 a hell ( a ?\s& ye>s4 ,*ri/ianity      
/ret*$ x to et]nity4 ,pre-,*ri/ianity _h
 res]v$ ! mis]ies ( ! aft]-life =       
adults4 ,*ri/ian writ]s pav$ ! floor (  
hell ) infants1 sc>ce a span long4      
,plut>* & o!r ,pagan morali/s _h p\r$   
discr$it ^u ! popul> notions ( a future 
life4 ,*ri/ianity reaffirm$ !m ) all !  
exagg]ations ( a diseas$ imag9ation4 ,! 

,pagans held t dea? 0 z normal & z      
natural z life4 ,*ri/ianity return$ to !
 conception curr5t among savages &      
depict$ dea? z a p5al infliction4 ,!    
,pagan art ( liv+ 0 sup]s$$ by !        
,*ri/ian art ( dy+4 ,human +5uity       
exhau/$ itself 9 depict+ ! t]rors ( !   
future life1 & :5 "o rememb]s ! p[]s ( !
 ,*ur*1 & ! murd]\s mann] 9 :i* x       
ex]cis$ !m1 !re is small wond] t "u !   
auspices ( ! ,*ur* ! fe> ( dea? ga9$ a  
/r5g? x _h nev] be=e atta9$4  ,small    
wond]1 !n1 t we /ill h ) u ! talk ( !   
com=t t ,*ri/ianity br+s 9 ! face (     
dea?4 ,:]e ! belief 9 ! ,*ri/ian        
aft]-life really exi/s1 ! ret5tion ( a  
conviction ( ! sav+ p[] ( ,*ri/ianity is
 a condition ( sanity4 ,:]e ! belief    
does n really exi/1 we are front$ ) no?+
 b a p>rot-l repetition ( famili>       
phrases4 ,! ,*ri/ian talk ( com=t is    
?us1 on ei!r c\nt1 no m ?an a product ( 
,*ri/ian education4 ,*ri/ianity does n  
make m5 brave 9 ! pres5ce ( dea?1 t is  
no m ?an a popul> sup]/ition4 ,:at x    

does is to cov] a natural fact )        
sup]natural t]rors1 & !n exploit a frame
 ( m9d t x has creat$4 ,! com=t is only 
necess>y s long z ! special belief is   
pres5t4 ,remove t belief & dea? takes   
its place z "o ( ! inevitable facts (   
exi/5ce1 surr\nd$ ) all ! sadness ( a   
la/ f>ewell1 b rid ( all ! t]ror t has  
be5 creat$ by religion4  ,our dy+       
soldi]1 ask+ = a copy ( ! ,cr[n ( ,wild 
,olive to be buri$ ) him1 & ! o!r :o    
calls = prie/ly m9i/rations1 repres5t1  
ultimately1 two diff]5t educational     
results4 ,! "o is a product ( an        
educational process appli$ dur+ ! d>ke/ 
p]iods ( ,european hi/ory1 & p]petuat$  
by a tra9+ t has be5 ma9ly direct$ by ! 
self-int]e/ ( a class4 ,! o!r repres5ts 
an educational product :i* /&s z !      
triumph ( ! pressure ( life ov]         
artificial dogmas4 ,! ,free?9k]1 because
 he is a ,free?9k]1 ne$s none ( ^?      
artificial /imulants = :i* ! ,*ri/ian   
craves4 ,& he pays him ! complim5t--9   
spite ( 8 prote/s--( believ+ t )\t 8    

religion ! ,*ri/ian w\ld display z mu*  
manl9ess 9 ! face ( dea? z he does      
himself4 ,he believes !re is pl5ty (    
heal?y human nature 9 ! av]age ,*ri/ian1
 & ! ,free?9k] m]ely begs him to give x 
a *ance ( f9d+ expression4 ,9 ?is matt]1
 x mu/ be obs]v$1 ! ,free?9k] makes no  
claim to sup]iority ov] ! ,*ri/ian2 x is
 ! ,*ri/ian :o =ces t claim ^u him4 ,!  
,free?9k] does n assume t ! diff]5ce    
betwe5 himself & ! ,*ri/ian is ne>ly s  
great z ! latt] w\ld h him believe4 ,he 
believes t :at is disp5sable by ! "o1   
)\t loss1 is disp5sable by ! o!r4 ,if   
,free?9k]s c devote !mselves to !       
pursuit ( tru? & ! s]vice ( _! fell[ m51
 if !y c endure pa9 & sorr[ ) calm      
resignation1 if !y live ) hon\r & face  
dea? )\t fe>1 ,i see no reason :y !     
,*ri/ian %\ld n be able to rea* ! same  
level ( developm5t4 ,x is pay+ !        
,free?9k] a viol5t complim5t1 to use an 
expression ( ,john ,wesley's1 to place  
him ^u a level ( excell5ce t is app>5tly
 s f> above t ( ! av]age ,*ri/ian4 ,z a 

,free?9k]1 ,i decl9e to accept x4 ,i    
believe t :at ! ,free?9k] is1 ! ,*ri/ian
 may well become4 ,he1 too1 may le>n to 
d 8 duty )\t ! fe> ( hell or ! hope (   
heav54 ,all t is requir$ is t he %all   
give 8 heal?i] in/9cts an opportunity = 
expression4     ,,*apt] ,x4  ,,?is ,,_w 
,,& ,,! ,,next4   ,9 ! prec$+ *apt] ,i h
 only discuss$ ! fact ( dea? 9 relation 
to a c]ta9 attitude ( m9d4 ,! "q ( !    
survival ( ! human p]sonality aft] dea? 
is a di/9ct "q & calls = sep>ate        
treatm5t4 ,nor is ! pres5t "w "o 9 :i* t
 topic c be treat$ at adequate l5g?4 ,! 
mo/ t c n[ be attempt$ is a bird's eye  
view ( a l>ge field ( controv]sy1 al?\gh
 x may be possible 9 ! c\rse ( t survey 
to say some?+ on ! m important aspects (
 ! subject4  ,& fir/ we may notice !    
curi\s assumption t ! man :o argues =   
immortality is tak+ a l(ty view ( human 
nature1 :ile he :o argues aga9/ x is    
tak+ a l[ "o4 ,9 sob] tru? x is ! o!r   
way ab\t4 ,consid] ! position4 ,x is    
tacitly admitt$ t if human motive1      

consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ?is _w alone1 is  
adequate z an inc5tive to action1 & !   
consequ5ces ( actions1 aga9 consid]$ )  
ref]5ce to ?is _w1 are an adequate rew>d
 = endeav\r1 !n x is agre$ t ! ma9      
argum5t = ! belief 9 immortality breaks 
d[n4 ,to support or to e/abli% ! argum5t
 x is necess>y to %[ t life divorc$ f ! 
conception ( a future life c nev] rea* !
 highe/ possible level4 ,natural human  
society is p[]less 9 itself to realize  
its highe/ possibilities4 ,x rema9s b>r5
 ( :at x might be1 a ?+ t may frame     
ideals1 b c nev] realize !m4  ,n[ t is q
 an intelligible1 &1 !re=e1 an arguable 
proposition4 ,b :e!r true or n1 !re %\ld
 be no "q t x involves a l[] view (     
human nature ?an ! "o tak5 by !         
,free?9k]4 ,he does at lea/ pay human   
nature ! complim5t ( believ+ x capable1 
n alone ( fram+ high ideals1 b also (   
realiz+ !m4 ,he says t by itself x is   
capable ( realiz+ all t may be          
legitimately dem&$ f x4 ,he does n      
believe t sup]natural hopes or fe>s are 

necess>y to induce man to live cleanly1 
or die s]5ely1 or to c>ry out prop]ly 8 
duties to 8 fell[s4 ,! religioni/ d5ies 
?is1 & ass]ts t "s =m ( sup]naturalism  
is ess5tial to ! moral heal? ( m5 &     
wom54 ,if ! ,free?9k] is wrong1 x is    
pla9 t 8 fault consi/s 9 tak+ a too     
optimi/ic view ( human nature4 ,8 mi/ake
 consi/s 9 tak+ n a l[ view ( human     
nature1 b a l(ty "o4 ,sub/antially1 !   
diff]5ce betwe5 ! two positions is !    
diff]5ce betwe5 ! man :o is hone/ f a   
conviction ( ! value ( hone/y1 & ! "o :o
 refra9s f /eal+ because he feels c]ta9 
( detection1 or because he is afraid (  
los+ some?+ t he might o!rwise ga94     
,?us1 we are told by "o writ] t3--      
,if human life is b a by-product ( !    
unconsci\s play (      physical =ce1 l a
 c&le flame soon to be bl[n out or burnt
      out1 :at a paltry ?+ x is6  ,b !  
que/ions ( :]e human life came f1 or :]e
 x w end1 are q ap>t f ! "q ( ! value & 
capabilities ( human life n[4 ,t !re are
 imm5se possibilities 9 ?is life none b 

a fool w d5y4 ,! _w is full ( /range &  
curi\s ?+s1 & its pleasures und\bt$ly   
outweigh its pa9s 9 ! exp]i5ce ( normal 
man or woman4 ,b ! relations betwe5     
ourselves & o!rs rema9 completely       
unaffect$ by ! t]m9ation ( exi/5ce at ! 
grave1 or its cont9uation beyond4 ,x is 
q a def5sible proposition t life is n   
wor? liv+4 ,s is ! rev]se ( !           
proposition4 ,b x is nons5se to say t   
life is a paltry ?+ m]ely because x ends
 at ! grave4 ,x is unre/rict$ egotism   
manife/+ itself 9 ! =m ( religi\s       
conviction4 ,"o might z well argue t a  
sunset ceases to be beautiful because x 
does n cont9ue all night4  ,if ,i _c    
live = ev]1 !n is ! univ]se a failure6  
,t is really all t ! religi\s argum5t   
am\nts to4 ,& s to /ate x1 to r$uce x to
 pla9 t]ms1 & dive/ x ( its disguis+    
v]biage1 almo/ removes ! ne$ = fur!r    
refutation4 ,b x is seldom /at$ 9 s pla9
 & s unequivocal a mann]4 ,x is         
accompani$ ) mu* talk ( gr[?1 ( an      
evolution>y purpose1 ( ru9$ lives made  

good1 ?us3       ,see+ t man is ! goal  
t[>ds :i* ev]y?+ has t5d$      f !      
beg9n+1 see+ t ! same et]nal & inf9ite  
,en]gy has lab\r$ ?r\gh ! ages at !     
production ( man1 &      man is ! heir (
 ! ages1 no?+ conceivable seems too     
great or      glori\s to believe conc]n+
 8 de/9y4444 ,if !re is no limit      to
 human gr[? 9 k & wisdom1 9 love &      
con/ructive      p[]1 9 beauty & joy1 we
 are inve/$ ) a magnific5t wor?      &  
dignity4  ,s fallacy & folly run on4    
,:at1 = example1 does anyone mean by man
 z ! goal t[>ds :i* ev]y?+ has t5d$ s9ce
 ! beg9n+8 ,:atev] tru? !re is 9 !      
/atem5t applies to all ?+s )\t          
exception4 ,x is z true ( ! microbe z x 
is ( man4 ,if ! inf9ite & et]nal ,en]gy 
lab\r$ to produce man1 x lab\r$ also to 
produce ! microbe :i* de/roys him4 ,! "o
 is "h z well z ! o!r2 & "o c conceive a
 religi\s microbe ?ank+ an almighty "o =
 hav+ creat$ x1 & decl>+ t unless x is  
to live = ev] 9 "s microbic heav51 ) a  
prop] supply ( human be+s = its         

n\ri%m5t1 ! :ole s*eme ( creation is a  
failure4 ,x is q a "q ( ! po9t ( view4  
,z a matt] ( fact !re are no ends 9     
nature4 ,!re are only results1 & ea*    
result becomes a factor 9 "s fur!r      
result4 ,x is human folly & ignorance   
:i* makes an end ( a consequ5ce4  ,aft] 
all1 :at reason is !re = anyone assum+ t
 ! survival ( man beyond ! grave is ev5 
probably true8 ,we d n "k man z a s\l   
fir/ & a body aft]w>ds4 ,nei!r d we "k  
him z a deta*$ m9d :i* aft]w>ds takes   
possession ( a body4 ,our k ( man       
comm5ces ) him1 z does our k ( any      
animal1 z a body possess+ c]ta9 def9ite 
functions ( :i* we call "o gr\p m5tal4  
,& ! two ?+s are s indissolubly l9k$ t  
we _c ev5 ?9k ( !m z sep>ate4 ,if anyone
 d\bts ?is let him try & picture to     
himself :at a man is l 9 ! abs5ce ( a   
body4 ,he w f9d ! ?+ simply             
inconceivable4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( ! mat]ial  
organism1 to :i* ! m9d unque/ionably /&s
 9 ! relation ( function to organ1 :at  
rema9s is a m]e blank4 ,to ! in=m$ m9d1 

t is4 ,to ! intellig5ce ( ! savage1 :o  
is l$1 ow+ to 8 errone\s conception (   
?+s1 to ?9k ( some?+ inside ! body :i*  
leaves x dur+ sleep1 w&]s ab\t1 & !n    
returns on awak5+1 & :o because ( ?is   
affiliates sleep to dea?1 ! case may be 
diff]5t4 ,b to a mod]n m9d1 "o :i* is   
acqua9t$ ) some?+ ( :at sci5ce has to   
say on ! subject1 ! conception ( a m9d  
exi/+ ap>t f organization is simply     
un?9kable4 ,all our k is aga9/ x4 ,!    
developm5t ( m9d side by side ) !       
developm5t ( ! bra9 & ! n]v\s sy/em is  
"o ( ! commonplaces ( sci5tific k4 ,!   
treatm5t ( /ates ( m9d z functions ( !  
bra9 & ! n]v\s sy/em is a common-place (
 m$ical practice4 ,& ! fact t diet1     
temp]ature1 heal? & disease1 accid5ts & 
old age1 all h _! effects on m5tal      
manife/ations is matt] ( ev]yday        
obs]vation4 ,! :ole range ( positive    
sci5ce may safely be *all5g$ to produce 
a s+le indisputable fact 9 fav\r ( !    
assumption t !re exi/s any?+ ab\t man   
indep5d5t ( ! mat]ial organism4  ,all t 

c be urg$ 9 fav\r ( su* a belief is t   
!re are /ill _m obscure facts :i* we are
 n altoge!r able to expla9 on a purely  
me*ani/ic !ory4 ,b t is a confession (  
ignorance1 n an affirmation ( k4 ,at any
 rate1 !re does n exi/ a s+le fact aga9/
 ! functional !ory ( m9d4 ,all we "k is 
decid$ly 9 its fav\r1 & a !ory mu/ be   
te/$ by :at we "k & by :at x expla9s1 n 
by :at we d n "k or by :at x _c expla94 
,& !re is "h ! additional tru? t ! only 
gr\nd ^u :i* ! !ory c be oppos$ is ^u   
c]ta9 metaphysical assumptions :i* are  
made 9 ord] to bol/] up an already exi/+
 belief4 ,if ! belief 9 survival _h n   
be5 already 9 exi/5ce ^! assumptions    
w\ld nev] h be5 made4 ,!y are n sugge/$ 
by ! facts1 !y are inv5t$ to support an 
already e/abli%$ !ory1 :i* c no long]   
appeal to ! circum/ances :i* gave x     
bir?4  ,& ab\t ^? circum/ance !re is no 
long] ! slighte/ reason = ju/ifiable    
d\bt4 ,we c trace ! belief 9 survival   
aft] dea? until we see x comm5c+ 9 !    
savage belief 9 a d\ble t takes its     

orig9 9 ! ph5om5a ( dream+ & unusual    
m5tal /ates4 ,x is f t />t+ po9t t !    
belief 9 survival takes its place z an  
inv>iable elem5t 9 ! religions ( ! _w4  
,& z we trace ! evolution ( k we see e  
fact ^u :i* 0 built ! belief 9 a d\ble t
 surviv$ dea? gradually los+ its hold on
 ! human intellig5ce1 ow+ to ! fact t ! 
exp]i5ces t gave x bir? are int]pret$ 9 
a mann] :i* all[s no room = ! religi\s  
!ory4 ,! fatal fact ab\t ! belief 9     
survival is its hi/ory4 ,t hi/ory %[s u 
h[ x began1 z surely z ! c\rse ( its    
evolution indicates ! way 9 :i* x w end4
  ,s1 z ) ! idea ( ,god1 :at we h left 9
 mod]n times are n ! reasons :y su* a   
belief is held1 b only excuses :y ^? :o 
hold x %\ld n be di/urb$4 ,t & a numb] (
 argum5ts :i* only pres5t an air (      
plausibility because !y succe$ 9 jumbl+ 
toge!r ?+s t h no connection ) ea* o!r4 
,z an example ( ?is we may take !       
fav\rite mod]n plea t a future life is  
requir$ to p]mit ! gr[? & developm5t ( !
 individual4 ,we f9d ?is express$ 9 !   

quotation above giv5 9 ! s5t5ce if !re  
is no limit to human gr[?1 etc41 !      
inf]5ce be+ t unless !re is a future    
life !re is a v %>p limit set to human  
gr[?1 & "o t makes ?is life a mock]y4   
,?is plea is pres5t$ 9 s _m =ms t x is  
wor? :ile analys+ x a little1 if only to
 br+ out m cle>ly ! di/9ction betwe5 !  
religi\s & ! ,free?\ght view ( life4    
,:at n[ is meant by !re be+ no limit to 
human gr[?8 ,if by x is meant individual
 gr[?1 ! reply is t !re is actually a v 
%>p limit set to gr[?1 mu* %>p] ?an !   
av]age p]son seems to be aw>e (4 ,x is q
 cle> t ! individual is n capable (     
unlimit$ gr[? 9 ?is _w4 ,!re are degrees
 ( capacity 9 diff]5t individuals :i* w 
det]m9e :at am\nt ( developm5t ea* is   
capable (4 ,capacity is n an acquir$ ?+1
 x is an end[m5t1 & ! *ild born ) ! bra9
 capacity ( a fool w rema9 a fool to !  
end1 h[ev] mu* 8 folly may be disguis$  
or lo/ amid ! folly ( o!rs4 ,& ) ea* "o1
 :e!r he be fool or g5ius1 acquisitions 
are made m easily & m rapidly 9 y\?1 !  

p[] ( m5tal adaptation is mu* great] 9  
e>ly ?an 9 lat] life1 :ile 9 old age !  
capacities ( adaptation & acquisition   
become negligible quantities4 ,& provid$
 "o lives long en\gh1 ! la/ /age sees1 n
 a promise ( fur!r progress if life 7   
cont9u$1 b a process ( degradation4 ,!  
old say+ t "o c't put a qu>t into a p9t 
pot is /rictly applicable "h4 ,gr[?     
assumes acquisition2 acquisition is     
det]m9$ by capacity1 & ?is :ile an      
indef9ite quantity 7indef9ite "h is     
/rictly ref]able to our ignorance1 n to 
! actual fact7 is c]ta9ly n an unlimit$ 
"o4 ,life1 !n1 s f> z ! individual is   
conc]n$1 does n po9t to unlimit$ gr[?4  
,x indicates1 s f> z x indicates any?+  
at all1 t !re is a limit to gr[? z to   
all o!r ?+s4  ,well1 b suppose we say t 
man is capable ( indef9ite gr[?1 :at d  
we mean8 ,let u also be> 9 m9d at ?is   
po9t t we are /rictly conc]n$ ) !       
individual4 ,= if man survives dea? he  
mu/ d x z an individual4 ,to m]ely      
survive z a "p ( ! *emical & o!r elem5ts

 ( ! _w1 or1 to foll[ "s my/ical        
!ologians1 z an indi/+ui%able "p ( a    
_w-s\l1 is n :at p mean :5 !y talk (    
liv+ beyond ! grave4 ,"h1 aga91 x w be  
f\nd t we h confus$ two q di/9ct ?+s1   
ev5 ?\gh ! "o ?+ borr[s its mean+ f !   
o!r4  ,:5 we comp>e ! individual1 z su*1
 ) ! individual ( ?ree or f\r ?\s& ye>s 
ago1 c we say ) tru? t ! man ( to-day is
 actually sup]ior to ! man ( ! e>li]    
date8 ,to te/ ! "q let u put x 9 ?is    
way4 ,does ! man ( to-day d any?+ or ?9k
 any?+ t is beyond ! capacity ( an      
anci5t ,egyptian or an anci5t ,greek1 if
 x 7 possible to sudd5ly revive "o & to 
enable him to pass ?r\gh ! same         
education t ea* "o ( u passes ?r\gh8 ,i 
d n ?9k t anyone w answ] t "q 9 !       
affirmative4 ,rev]se ! process4 ,suppose
 t a mod]n man1 ) exactly ! same        
capacity t he n[ has _h liv$ 9 ! days ( 
! anci5t ,egyptians or ! anci5t ,greeks1
 c we say t 8 capacity is s mu* great]  
?an !irs1 t he w\ld h done bett] ?an !y 
did8 ,i d n ?9k t anyone w answ] t "q 9 

! affirmative ei!r4 ,is ! soldi] (      
to-day a bett] soldi]1 or ! sailor a    
bett] sailor ?an ^? :o liv$ ?ree ?\s&   
ye>s ago8 ,once m ! answ] w n be 9 !    
affirmative4 ,& yet !re are c]ta9 ?+s t 
are obvi\s4 ,x is pla9 t we all "k m ?an
 did ! p ( long ago1 we c d m1 we und]/&
 ! pa/ bett]1 & we c see f>!r into !    
future4 ,a s*oolboy to-day c>ries 9 8   
head :at w\ld h be5 a philosoph]'s      
outfit once ^u a "t4 ,our soldi]s &     
sailors utilize1 s+le-h&$1 =ces great]  
?an a :ole army or navy wield$ 9 ! f>-(f
 days ( ! ,ptolemies4 ,we call ourselves
 great]1 we ?9k ourselves great]1 & 9 a 
s5se we are great] ?an ! p ( old4 ,:at1 
!n1 is ! explanation ( ! app>5t p>adox8 
,! explanation lies 9 ! simple fact t   
progress is n a ph5om5on ( individual   
life at all4 ,x is a ph5om5on ( social  
exi/5ce4 ,if ea* g5]ation _h to comm5ce 
at ! exact po9t at :i* its pr$ecessors  
/>t$ x w\ld get no f>!r ?an !y got4 ,x  
w\ld be an et]nal r\nd1 ) ea* g5]ation  
/>t+ f & rea*+ ! same po9t1 & progress  

w\ld be an inconceivable ?+4 ,b t we "k 
is n ! case4 ,in/ead ( ea* g5]ation />t+
 f precisely ! same po9t1 "o inh]its at 
lea/ some?+ ( ! lab\rs & discov]ies (   
its pr$ecessors4 ,a ?+ discov]$ by !    
individual is discov]$ = ! race4 ,a     
?\ght /ruck out by ! individual is a    
?\ght = ! race4 ,by language1 by        
tradition1 & by in/itutions ! advances (
 ea* g5]ation are cons]v$1 h&$ on1 &    
made "p ( our racial possessions4 ,!    
/r5g?1 ! k1 ( ! mod]n is ?us due n to   
any innate sup]iority ov] ! anci5t1 b   
because "o is mod]n & ! o!r anci5t4 ,if 
we c\ld h surr\nd$ ! anci5t ,assyrians )
 all ! inv5tions1 & giv5 !m all ! k t we
 possess1 !y w\ld h us$ t k & ^?        
inv5tions z wisely1 or z unwisely z we  
use !m4 ,progress is ?us n a fact (     
individual b ( racial life4 ,!          
individual inh]its m ?an he creates1 & x
 is 9 virtue ( ?is racial inh]itance t  
he is :at he is4  ,x is a m]e trick ( ! 
imag9ation t conv]ts ?is fact ( social  
gr[? into an ess5tial *>act]i/ic (      

individual life4 ,we speak ( man )\t    
cle>ly di/+ui%+ betwe5 man z a          
biological unit & man z a memb] ( a     
social gr\p develop+ 9 correspond5ce ) a
 true social m$ium4 ,b if t is s1 x     
foll[s t ?is capacity = gr[? is1 s to   
speak1 a function ( ! social m$ium4 ,x  
is condition$ by x1 x has relevance only
 9 relation to x4 ,our feel+s1 our      
s5tim5ts1 ev5 our desires1 h ref]5ce to 
?is life1 & 9 a f> deep] s5se ?an is    
usually imag9$4 ,& remov$ f its relation
 to ?is life human nature w\ld be )\t   
mean+ or value4  ,!re is no?+ 9 any ( ! 
functions ( man1 9 any ( 8 capacities1  
or 9 any ( 8 prop]ly und]/ood desires t 
has ! slighte/ ref]5ce to any life b    
?is4 ,x is un?9kable t !re %\ld be4 ,an 
organ or an organism develops 9 relation
 to a special m$ium1 n 9 relation to "o 
t--ev5 ?\gh x exi/s--is n also 9        
relation ) x4 ,?is is q an obvi\s tru? 9
 reg>d to /ructures1 b x is n always s  
cle>ly recogniz$1 or s c>efully borne 9 
m9d1 t x is equally true ( e feel+ &    

desire4 ,= ^! are develop$ 9 relation to
 _! special m$ium1 9 ?is case1 ! exi/5ce
 ( fell[ be+s ) _! actions & reactions  
on ea* o!r4 ,& man is n only a memb] ( a
 social gr\p1 t mu* is an obvi\s fact2 b
 he is a product ( ! gr\p 9 ! s5se t all
 8 *>act]i/ic human qualities h result$ 
f ! int]actions ( gr\p life4 ,take man  
out ( relation to t fact1 & he is an    
enigma1 pres5t+ fit opportunities = !   
wild !oriz+ ( religi\s philosoph]s4     
,take him 9 connection ) x1 & 8 :ole    
nature becomes susceptible ( und]/&+ 9  
relation to ! only exi/5ce he kn[s &    
desires4  ,! tw9 facts ( gr[? &         
progress1 ^u :i* s mu* ( ! argum5t = a  
future life turns n[adays1 h n !        
slighte/ possible ref]5ce to a life     
beyond ! grave4 ,!y are fundam5tally n  
ev5 p]sonal1 b social4 ,x is ! race t   
gr[s1 n ! individual1 he becomes m      
p[]ful precisely because ! products (   
racial acquisition are inh]it$ by him4  
,remove1 if only 9 ?\ght1 ! individual f
 all association ) 8 fell[s1 /rip him ( 

all t he inh]its f association ) !m1 &  
he loses all ! qualities we indicate :5 
we speak ( him z a civiliz$ be+4 ,remove
 him1 9 fact1 f t association1 z :5 a   
man is m>oon$ on a des]t isl&1 & ! m    
civiliz$ qualities ( 8 "* beg9 to weak5 
& 9 "t disappe>4 ,man1 z an individual1 
becomes m p[]ful ) ! pass+ ( ea*        
g5]ation1 precisely because he is ?us   
dep5d5t ^u ! life ( ! race4 ,! secret ( 
8 weakness is at ! same "t ! s\rce ( 8  
/r5g?4 ,we are :at we are because ( !   
g5]ations ( m5 & wom5 :o liv$ & toil$ & 
di$ be=e we 7 born4 ,we inh]it ! fruits 
( _! lab\rs1 z ^? :o come aft] u w      
inh]it ! fruits ( our /ruggles &        
conque/s4 ,x is ?us 9 ! life ( ! race t 
man a*ieves immortality4 ,none o!r is   
possible1 or conceivable4 ,& to ^? ^:   
m9ds are n di/ort$ by religi\s tea*+1 & 
:o h tak5 ! tr\ble to analyse & und]/&  
_! own m5tal /ates1 x may be said t none
 o!r is ev5 desirable4     ,,*apt] ,,xi4
  ,,evolution4   ,language1 we h said   
above1 is "o ( ! prime conditions (     

human greatness & progress4 ,x is !     
pr9cipal means by :i* man cons]ves 8    
victories ov] ! =ces ( 8 environm5t1 &  
transmits !m to 8 desc5dants4 ,b x is1  
nev]!less1 n )\t its dang]s1 & may ex]t 
an influ5ce fatal to exact ?\ght4 ,!re  
is a s5se 9 :i* language necess>ily lags
 beh9d ?\ght4 ,= words are co9$ to      
express ! ideas ( ^? :o fa%ion !m2 & z !
 k ( ! next g5]ation alt]s1 & "s        
modification ( exi/+ conceptions is f\nd
 necess>y1 !re is no?+ b ! exi/+ array (
 words 9 :i* to express !m4 ,!          
consequ5ce is t !re are ne>ly always    
subtle %ades ( mean+ 9 ! words us$      
diff]+ f ! exact mean+ :i* ! new ?\ght  
is try+ to express4 ,?\ght drives u to  
seek new or improv$ v]bal tools1 b until
 we get !m we mu/ g on us+ ! old ones1 )
 all _! old implications4 ,& by ! "t !  
new words arrive ?\ght has made a /ill  
fur!r advance1 & ! g5]al position       
rema9s4 ,x is an et]nal *ase 9 :i* !    
pursu$ is always be+ captur$1 b is nev] 
caught4  ,ano!r way 9 :i* language holds

 a dang] is t ) _m words1 especially :5 
!y assume ! "* ( a =mula1 !y t5d to     
usurp ! place ( ?9k+4 ,! old lady :o    
f\nd s mu* consolation 9 ! bless$ ^w    
,mesopotamia1 is n alone 9 us+ t me?od (
 consolation4 ,x does n meet u only 9   
connection ) religion1 x is enc\nt]$ ov]
 ! :ole field ( sociology1 & ev5 (      
sci5ce4 ,a conception 9 sci5ce or       
sociology is e/abli%$ aft] a h>d fight4 
,x is accept$ g5]ally1 & !reaft] takes  
its place z "o ( ! _m e/abli%$ tru?s4 ,&
 !n ! dang] %[s itself4 ,x is repeat$ z 
?\gh x _h "s magical virtue 9 itself2 x 
means no?+ to v _m ( ^? :o use x1 !y    
simply h& ov] _! m5tal difficulties to  
its c>e1 mu* z ! p5it5t 9 ! confessional
 h&s ov] 8 moral tr\bles to ! prie/1 &  
!re ! matt] ends4 ,b 9 su* cases ! words
 us$ d n express ?\ght1 !y simply bl9d p
 to its abs5ce4 ,& n only t1 b 9 ! "n ( 
^! sacr$ words1 any numb] ( fooli%      
inf]5ces are drawn & receive g5]al      
ass5t4  ,a /rik+ illu/ration ( ?is is to
 be f\nd 9 su* a ^w z ,evolution4 ,"o   

may say ( x t :ile x began z a =mula1 x 
cont9ues z a fiat4 ,"s invoke x ) all ! 
expectancy ( a m$iaeval magician comm&+ 
! att5dance ( 8 fav\rite spirits4 ,o!rs 
approa* x ) a hu%$ rev]5ce t is         
rem9isc5t ( a ,ca?olic devotee be=e 8   
fav\rite %r9e4 ,9 a little m ?an half a 
c5tury x has acquir$ ! *>act]i/ics ( !  
,kismet ( ! ,mohamm$an1 ! ,beelzebub ( !
 pi\s ,*ri/ian1 & ! p[] ( a phrase t    
gives inspiration to a born soldi]4 ,x  
is us$ z (t5 to dispel d\bt z x is to   
awak5 curiosity4 ,x may express         
compreh5sion or m]ely indicate vacuity4 
,decisions are pron\nc$ 9 its "n ) all !
 solemnity ( a ,?us sai? ! ,"l4 ,we are 
n sure t ev5 to talk ab\t evolution 9   
?is way may n be consid]$ wrong4 ,= !re 
are cr[ds ( folk :o _c di/+ui% pr(undity
 f solemnity1 & :o mi/ake a long face = 
! sure indication ( a well-/or$ bra94 ,!
 tru? "h is t :at a man und]/&s ?or\ghly
 he c deal ) easily2 & t he laughs at a 
difficulty is n necess>ily a sign t he  
fails to appreciate x1 he may laugh     

because he has tak5 its measure4 ,& :y p
 d n laugh at su* a ?+ z religion is    
p>tly because !y h n tak5 its measure1  
p>tly f a p]ception t religion _c /& x4 
,ev]y:]e ! prie/ ma9ta9s 8 hold z a     
consequ5ce ( ! n>cotiz+ influ5ce (      
ill-und]/ood phrases1 & 9 ?is he is     
mat*$ by ! pseudo-philosoph] ^: pomp\s  
use ( imp]fectly appreciat$ =mulae      
disguises f ! cr[d ! mi/9ess ( 8        
und]/&+4  ,a glance ov] ! v>i\s uses to 
:i* ! ^w ,evolution is put w well       
illu/rate ! tru? ( :at has be5 said4 ,^!
 make "o wond] :at1 9 ! op9ion ( "s p1  
evolution /&s =4 ,"o ( ^! uses (        
evolution is to give x a c]ta9 moral    
implication to :i* x has n ! slighte/   
claim4 ,a c]ta9 s*ool ( ,non-,!i/s are1 
9 ?is matt]1 if n ! greate/ (f5d]s1     
c]ta9ly ^? ) ! lea/ excuse = committ+ ! 
blund]4 ,by ^! evolution is id5tifi$ )  
progress1 or advancem5t1 or a gradual   
levell+ up ( society1 & is ev5 acclaim$ 
z pres5t+ a m moral view ( ! ,univ]se   
?an is ! ,!i/ic conception4 ,n[1        

prim>ily1 ?is ascription ( :at "o may   
call a moral elem5t to evolution is no m
 ?an a c>ry+ ov] into sci5ce ( a frame (
 m9d t prop]ly belongs to ,!ism4 ,q     
naturally ! ,!i/ 0 driv5 to try & f9d "s
 moral purpose 9 ! ,univ]se1 & to prove 
t its work+ did n grate on our moral    
s5se4 ,t 0 q und]/&able1 & ev5          
legitimate4 ,! _w1 f ! po9t ( view ( !  
,goddite1 0 ,god's _w1 he made x2 & we  
are ultimately compell$ to judge ! "* ( 
,god f 8 workman%ip4 ,an attack on !    
moral "* ( ! _w is1 !re=e1 an attack on 
! "* ( its mak]4 ,& ! ,!i/ proce$$ to   
f9d a moral ju/ification = all t ,god _h
 done4  ,s f> all is cle>4 ,b n[ comes a
 c]ta9 k9d ( ,non-,!i/4 ,& he1 always   
reject+ a =mal ,!ism & sub/itut+        
evolution1 proce$s to claim = 8 =mula   
all t ! ,!i/ claim$ = 84 ,he also /rives
 to %[ t ! idea ( cosmic evolution      
involves conceptions ( nobility1 ju/ice1
 morality1 etc4 ,!re is no wond] t "s   
,*ri/ians r\nd on him1 & tell him t he  
/ill believes 9 a god4 ,sub/antially he 

does4 ,t is1 he c>ries ov] into 8 new   
camp ! same an?ropomorphic conception ( 
! work+s ( nature1 & uses ! same        
pseudo-sci5tific reason+ t is *>act]i/ic
 ( ! ,!i/4 ,he has =mally giv5 up ,god1 
b he goes ab\t uncom=tably burd5$ ) 8   
gho/4  ,n[1 evolution is n a fiat1 b a  
=mula4 ,x has no?+ :atev] to d )        
progress1 z su*1 nor ) morality1 z su*1 
nor ) a levell+ up1 nor a levell+ d[n4  
,x is really no m ?an a special         
application ( ! pr9ciple ( causation1 & 
:e!r ! work+ out ( t pr9ciple has a good
 effect or a bad "o1 a moraliz+1 or a   
demoraliz+1 a progressive1 or a         
retrogressive consequ5ce is n giv5 9 !  
pr9ciple itself4 ,fundam5tally1 all     
cosmic ph5om5a pres5t u ) two           
aspects--diff]5ce & *ange--& t is s     
because x is ! fundam5tal condition (   
our kn[+ any?+ at all4 ,b ! law (       
evolution is no m1 is no?+ m s]i\s or m 
pr(\nd ?an an attempt to express ^?     
movem5ts ( *ange & diff]5ce 9 a m or    
less precise =mula4 ,x aims at do+ =    

ph5om5a 9 g5]al exactly :at a p>ticul>  
sci5tific law aims at do+ = "s special  
dep>tm5t4 ,b x has no m a moral         
implication1 or a progressive           
implication ?an has ! law ( gravitation 
or ( *emical aff9ity4 ,! sum ( ^? *anges
 t are express$ 9 ! law ( evolution may 
result 9 "o or ! o!r2 x has result$ 9 "o
 or ! o!r4 ,at "o "t we call its        
consequ5ces moral or progressive1 at    
ano!r "t we call !m immoral or          
retrogressive1 b ^! are "s ( !          
di/9ctions :i* ! human m9d creates = its
 own conv5i5ce1 !y h no validity 9 any  
o!r s5se4 ,& :5 we mi/ake ^! q          
legitimate di/9ctions1 made = our own   
conv5i5ce1 & argue z ?\gh !y _h an      
actual indep5d5t exi/5ce1 we are        
reproduc+ exactly ! same m5tal confusion
 t keeps ,!ism alive4  ,! two aspects t 
diff]5ce & *ange resolve !mselves into  
:5 express$ 9 an evolution>y =mula are1 
9 ! inorganic _w1 equilibrium1 &1 9 !   
organic _w1 adaptation4 ,( c\rse1       
equilibrium also applies to ! organic   

_w1 ,i m]ely put x ?is way = ! purpose (
 cl>ity4 ,n[1 if we conf9e our att5tion 
to ! _w ( animal =ms1 :at we h express$1
 prim>ily1 is ! fact ( adaptation4 ,if  
an animal is to live x mu/ be adapt$ to 
its surr\nd+s to at lea/ ! ext5t ( be+  
able to ov]come or to neutralize ! =ces 
t ?reat5 its exi/5ce4 ,t is q a         
common-place1 s9ce all x says is t to   
live an animal mu/ be fit to live1 b all
 great tru?s are common-places--:5 "o   
sees !m4 ,/ill1 if !re 7 only           
adaptations to consid]1 & if !          
environm5t to :i* adaptation is to be   
secur$1 rema9$ con/ant1 all we %\ld h   
w\ld be ! dea?s ( ^? n able to live1 ) !
 survival ( ^? m =tunately end[$4 ,!re  
w\ld be no?+ t we c\ld call1 ev5 to     
please ourselves1 ei!r progress or its  
rev]se4 ,movem5t up or d[n 7bo? human   
l&m>ks7 occurs because ! environm5t     
itself und]goes a *ange4 ,ei!r ! mat]ial
 conditions *ange1 or ! pressure (      
numb]s initiates a conte/ = survival1   
al?\gh m commonly "o may imag9e bo?     

causes 9 op]ation at ! same "t4 ,b !    
consequ5ce is ! introduction ( a new    
quality into ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,x    
becomes a "q ( a great] end[m5t ( !     
qualities t spell survival4 ,& t paves !
 way to progress--or ! rev]se4 ,b "o mu/
 be> 9 m9d t1 :e!r ! movem5t be 9 "o    
direction or ! o!r1 x is /ill ! same    
process t is at "w4 ,evolution levels   
nei!r up nor d[n4 ,up & d[n is z        
relative 9 biology z x is 9 a/ronomy4 ,9
 nature !re is nei!r bett] nor worse1   
nei!r high nor l[1 nei!r good nor bad1  
!re are only diff]5ces1 & if t _h be5   
prop]ly appreciat$ by all1 v few ( !    
apologies = ,!ism w\ld ev] h se5 !      
light4  ,!re is n ! slighte/ w>ranty =  
speak+ ( evolution z be+ a progressive  
=ce1 x is1 inde$1 n a =ce at all1 b only
 a descriptive t]m on all f\rs ) any o!r
 descriptive t]m z express$ 9 a natural 
law4 ,x nei!r1 ( necessity1 levels up   
nor levels d[n4 ,9 ! animal _w x        
illu/rates adaptation only1 b :e!r t    
adaptation involves :at we *oose to call

 progression or retrogression is a matt]
 ( indiff]5ce4 ,on ! "o h& we h aquatic 
life giv+ rise to mammalian life1 & on !
 o!r h&1 we h mammalian life rev]t+ to  
an aquatic =m ( exi/5ce4 ,9 "o place we 
h a l[] =m ( life giv+ place to a high] 
=m4 ,9 ano!r place we c see ! rev]se    
process tak+ place4 ,& ! l[] =ms are (t5
 m p]si/5t ?an ! high] ones1 :ile1 z !  
c\rse ( epidemical & o!r diseases %[s   
c]ta9 l[ly =ms ( life may make ! exi/5ce
 ( ! high] =ms impossible4 ,! ,!i/ic    
attempt to disprove ! me*ani/ic         
conception ( nature by insi/+ t         
evolution is a law ( progress1 t x      
implies an end1 & indicates a goal1 is  
:olly fallaci\s4 ,f a sci5tific po9t (  
view x is mean+less *att]4 ,sci5ce kn[s 
no?+ ( a plan1 or an end 9 nature1 or   
ev5 progress4 ,all ^! are conceptions   
:i* we humans create = our own          
conv5i5ce4 ,!y are s _m /&>ds (         
measurem5t1 ( exactly ! same nature z   
our agreem5t t a c]ta9 l5g? ( space %all
 be call$ a y>d1 or a c]ta9 quantity (  

liquid %all be call$ a p9t4 ,to ?9k     
o!rwise is pure an?ropomorphism4 ,x is !
 gho/ ( ,god import$ into sci5ce4  ,s   
f>1 !n1 x is cle> t ! univ]sal fact 9   
nature is *ange4 ,! mo/ g5]al aspect (  
nature :i* meets u is t express$ 9 ! law
 ( evolution4 ,& proce$+ f ! m g5]al to 
! less g5]al1 9 ! _w ( liv+ be+s ?is    
*ange meets u 9 ! =m ( adaptation to    
environm5t4 ,b :at con/itutes adaptation
 mu/ be det]m9$ by ! nature ( !         
environm5t4 ,t w det]m9e :at qualities  
are ( value 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 :i*  
is n necess>ily a /ruggle aga9/ o!r     
animals1 b may be no m ?an ! animal's   
own endeav\rs to p]si/ 9 be+4 ,x is1    
h[ev]1 9 relation to ! environm5t t we  
mu/ measure ! value ( qualities4 ,:atev]
 be ! nature ( ! environm5t t pr9ciple  
rema9s true4 ,ideally1 "o quality may be
 m desirable ?an ano!r1 b if x does n   
secure a great] degree ( adaptation to !
 environm5t x br+s no advantage to its  
possessor4 ,x may ev5 br+ a positive    
disadvantage4 ,9 a ?ieves' kit*5 ! hone/

 man is h&icapp$4 ,9 a circle ( upright 
m5 ! di%one/ man is at a disc\nt4 ,9 !  
exi/+ political _w a p]fectly tru?ful   
man w\ld be a p>liam5t>y failure4 ,9 !  
pulpit a prea*] :o knew ! tru? ab\t     
,*ri/ianity & prea*$ x w\ld soon be out 
( ! ,*ur*4 ,adaptation is n1 z su*1 a "q
 ( moral goodness or badness1 x is      
simply adaptation4  ,a precaution>y ^w  
ne$s be said on ! matt] ( environm5t4   
,if we conceive ! environm5t z made up  
only ( ! mat]ial surr\nd+s we %all n be 
long be=e we f9d ourselves fall+ into   
gross error4 ,= t conception (          
environm5t w only hold ( ! v l[e/       
organisms4 ,a little high]1 & ! nature (
 ! organism beg9s to h a modify+ effect 
on ! mat]ial environm5t1 & :5 we come to
 animals liv+ 9 gr\ps ! environm5t ( !  
individual animal becomes p>tly ! habits
 & in/9cts ( ! o!r animals ) :i* x      
lives4 ,f9ally1 :5 we rea* man ?is      
trans=mation ( ! nature ( ! environm5t  
becomes greate/4 ,"h x is n m]ely !     
exi/5ce ( o!r memb]s ( ! same species1 )

 all _! develop$ feel+s & ideas to :i*  
ea* mu/ become adapt$ to live1 b 9      
virtue ( :at we h describ$ above z !    
social m$ium1 c]ta9 ?\ght =ms su* z     
in/itutions1 conceptions ( "r & wrong1  
ideals ( duty1 loyalty1 ! relation ( "o 
human gr\p to o!r human gr\ps1 n m]ely  
^? t are n[ liv+1 b also ^? t are dead1 
are all "p ( ! environm5t to :i*        
adju/m5t mu/ be made4 ,& 9 ! high] /ages
 ( social life ^! aspects ( ! environm5t
 become ( ev5 great] consequ5ce ?an !   
facts ( a climatic1 geographic1 or      
geologic nature4 ,9 o!r words1 !        
environm5t :i* ex]ts a pr$om9at+        
influ5ce on civiliz$ mank9d is an       
environm5t t has be5 v l>gely creat$ by 
social life & gr[?4  ,if we keep ^! two 
consid]ations firmly 9 m9d we %all be   
well gu>d$ aga9/ a :ole ho/ ( fallacies 
& false analogies t are plac$ be=e u z  
?\gh !y 7 unque/ion$ & unque/ionable    
tru?s4 ,!re is1 = in/ance1 ! misread+ ( 
evolution :i* ass]ts t inasmu* z :at is 
call$ moral progress takes place1 !re=e 

evolution involves a moral purpose4 ,we 
f9d ?is view put =w>d n only by av[$    
,!i/s1 b by ^? :o1 :ile =mally disav[+  
,!ism1 appe> to h import$ into e?ics all
 ! false s5tim5t & fallaci\s reason+ t  
=m]ly did duty 9 bol/]+ up ! idea (     
,god4 ,evolution1 z su*1 is no m conc]n$
 ) an ideal morality ?an x is conc]n$ ) 
! developm5t ( an ideal apple dumpl+4 ,9
 ! univ]sal process morality is no m ?an
 a special illu/ration ( ! pr9ciple (   
adaptation4 ,! morality ( man is a      
summ>y ( ! relations betwe5 human be+s t
 mu/ be ma9ta9$ if ! two-fold end (     
racial pres]vation & individual         
developm5t are to be secur$4            
,fundam5tally morality is ! =mulation 9 
ei!r !ory or practice ( rules or actions
 t make gr\p-life possible4 ,& ! man :o 
sees 9 ! exi/5ce or gr[? ( morality pro(
 ( a plan or an end is on all f\rs ) !  
m5tality ( ! curate :o saw ! h& (       
,provid5ce 9 ! fact t dea? came at ! end
 ( life in/ead ( 9 ! middle ( x4 ,:at we
 are deal+ ) "h is ! fact ( adaptation1 

al?\gh 9 ! case ( ! human gr\p !        
traditions & cu/oms & ideals ( ! gr\p =m
 a v important "p ( ! environm5t to :i* 
adaptation mu/ be made & h1 !re=e1 a    
di/9ct survival value4 ,! moral         
my/]y-mong] is only a %ade less         
objectionable ?an ! religi\s            
my/]y-mong]1 ( :om he is ! e?ical       
equival5t4  ,a "r conception ( ! nature 
( environm5t & ! mean+ ( evolution w    
also protect u aga9/ a fallacy t is met 
) 9 connection ) social gr[?4 ,human    
nature1 we are (t5 told1 is always !    
same4 ,to secure a desir$ re=m1 we are  
assur$1 y mu/ fir/ ( all *ange human    
nature1 & ! assumption is t z human     
nature _c be *ang$ ! propos$ re=m is q  
impossible4  ,n[ !re is a s5se 9 :i*    
human nature is ! same1 g5]ation aft]   
g5]ation4 ,b !re is ano!r s5se 9 :i*    
human nature is und]go+ con/ant         
alt]ation1 &1 inde$1 x is "o ( ! out/&+ 
features ( social life t x %\ld be s4 ,s
 f> z c be se5 !re exi/s no diff]5ce    
betwe5 ! fundam5tal capacities possess$ 

by man dur+ at lea/ ! hi/oric p]iod4    
,!re are diff]5ces 9 p betwe5 ! relative
 /r5g?s ( ! v>i\s capacities1 b t is    
all4 ,an anci5t ,assyrian possess$ all !
 capacities ( a mod]n ,engli%man1 & 9 ! 
ma9 "o w\ld feel incl9$ to say ! same ( 
!m 9 _! quantitative aspect z well z 9  
_! qualitative "o4 ,= :5 "o looks at !  
matt] closely x is se5 t ! ma9 diff]5ce 
betwe5 ! anci5t & ! mod]n man is 9      
expression4 ,civilization does n s mu*  
*ange ! man s mu* z x gives a new       
direction to ! exi/+ qualities4 ,:e!r   
p>ticul> qualities are express$ 9 an    
ideally good direction or ! rev]se      
dep5ds ^u ! environm5t to :i* !y react4 
,to take an example4 ,! fundam5tal evil 
( w> 9 a mod]n /ate is t x exp5ds en]gy 
9 a h>mful direction4 ,b w> itself1 !   
expression ( ! w>-l "*1 is ! outcome (  
pugnacity & ! love ( adv5ture )\t :i*   
human nature w\ld be decid$ly ! poor]1 &
 w\ld be comp>atively ineffective4 ,x is
 fundam5tally an expression ( ^!        
qualities t lead to ! q heal?y ta/e =   

exploration1 discov]y1 & 9 intellectual 
pursuits to t conte/ ( ideas :i* lies at
 ! root ( mo/ ( our progress4 ,& :at w> 
means 9 ! mod]n ,/ate is t ! love (     
competition & adv5ture1 ! pugnacity :i* 
leads a man to fight 9 def5ce ( a "r or 
to r$ress a wrong1 & )\t :i* human      
nature w\ld be a poor ?+1 are exp5d$ 9 !
 way ( %e] de/ruction in/ead ( ?r\gh    
*annels ( adv5ture & heal?y intellectual
 conte/4 ,sympa?ies are n>r[$ in/ead (  
wid5$1 & hatr$ ( ! /rang] & ! outsid]1 (
 :i* a gr[+ numb] ( p 9 a civiliz$      
c\ntry are becom+ a%am$1 assumes ! rank 
( a virtue4 ,9 o!r words1 a /ate ( w>   
creates an environm5t--=tunately = only 
a brief p]iod--:i* gives a survival     
value to su* expressions ( human        
capacity z indicate a rev]sion to a l[] 
/ate ( culture4  ,we may put ! matt]    
?us4 ,:ile conduct is a function ( !    
organism1 & :ile ! k9d ( reaction is    
det]m9$ by /ructure1 ! =m tak5 by !     
reaction is a matt] ( response to       
environm5tal influ5ces4 ,x is ?is fact  

:i* expla9s :y ! capacities ( man rema9 
fairly con/ant1 :ile !re is a cont9u\s  
r$irect+ ( ^! capacities into new       
*annels suitable to a develop+ social   
life4  ,we are only outl9+ "h a view (  
evolution t w\ld require a volume to    
discuss & illu/rate adequately1 b en\gh 
has be5 said to indicate ! enorm\s      
importance ( ! educative p[] ( !        
environm5t4 ,we _c alt] ! capacities ( !
 individual = !y are a natural end[m5t4 
,b we c1 9 virtue ( an increas$         
emphasis1 det]m9e :e!r !y %all be       
express$ 9 ?is or t direction4 ,! love (
 adv5ture may1 = example1 be exhau/$ 9 !
 pursuit ( "s piratical ent]prise1 or x 
may be guid$ into *annels ( "s useful =m
 ( social ef=t4 ,x lies ) society itself
 to see t ! environm5t is su* z to      
ex]cise a det]m9+ influ5ce ) reg>d to   
expressions ( activity t are b5eficial  
to ! :ole ( ! gr\p4  ,to sum up4        
,evolution is no m ?an a =mula t        
expresses ! way 9 :i* a mov+ balance (  
=ces is br\ght ab\t by purely me*anical 

means4 ,s f> z animal life is conc]n$   
?is balance is express$ by ! phrase     
adaptation to environm5t4 ,b 9 human    
society ! environm5t is 9 a gr[+ measure
 made up ( ideas1 cu/oms1 traditions1   
ideals1 & beliefs2 9 a ^w1 ( factors :i*
 are !mselves products ( human          
activities4 ,& x is = ?is reason t !    
game ( civilization is v l>gely 9 our   
own h&s4 ,if we ma9ta9 an environm5t 9  
:i* x is ei!r co/ly or dang]\s to be    
hone/ & fe>less 9 ! expression ( op9ion1
 we %all be do+ our be/ to develop m5tal
 c[>dice & hypocrisy4 ,if we br+ up ! "y
 ) ! successful soldi] or money-mak]    
be=e !m z examples1 :ile we cont9ue to  
treat ! sci5ti/ z a crank1 & ! re=m] z a
 dang]\s crim9al1 we %all be cont9u+ !  
policy ( =c+ ! expression ( human       
capacity on a l[] level ?an w\ld o!rwise
 be ! case4 ,if we enc\rage ! dom9ance (
 a religion :i* :ile mak+ a pr(ession ( 
dis9t]e/$ l(t9ess cont9ues to irradiate 
a n>r[ egotism & a pessimi/ic view (    
life1 we are do+ our be/ to p]petuate an

 environm5t :i* emphasizes only ! poor] 
aspects ( human motive4 ,two c5turies ( 
ceaseless sci5tific activity h taught u 
some?+ ( ! rules ( ! game :i* we are all
 play+ ) nature :e!r we w or no4 ,to-day
 we h a good _m ( ! w9n+ c>ds 9 our h&s1
 if we w only le>n to play !m wisely4 ,x
 is n correct to say t evolution        
necess>ily involves progress1 b x does  
indicate t wisdom & =esight may s       
control ! social =ces z to turn t       
ceaseless *ange :i* is indicat$ by ! law
 ( evolution into *annels t make =      
happ9ess & prosp]ity4     ,,*apt] ,,xii4
  ,,d>w9ism ,,& ,,design4   ,! influ5ce 
( ! hypo!sis ( evolution on religion 0 n
 long 9 mak+ itself felt4 ,pr(essor     
,huxley expla9$ ! rapid success (       
,d>w9ism by say+ t ! sci5tific _w 0     
ready = x4 ,& mu* ! same ?+ may be said 
( ! bett] repres5tatives ( !            
intellectual _w ) reg>d to ! be>+ (     
evolution on religion4 ,9 _m directions 
! cultivat$ m9d _h = m ?an half a c5tury
 be5 gett+ famili> ) ! g5]al conception 

( gr[? 9 human life & ?\ght4 ,:]e e>li] 
g5]ations _h se5 no m ?an a patt]n to   
unravel !re _h develop$ a conviction t  
!re 0 a hi/ory to trace & to und]/&4    
,di/ant p>ts ( ! _w _h be5 br\ght toge!r
 dur+ ! sev5te5? & ! eighte5? c5turies1 
read]s & /ud5ts 7 gett+ famili>iz$ ) !  
mass ( cu/oms & religi\s ideas t 7      
possess$ by ^! peoples1 & x 0 p]ceiv$ t 
b5ea? ! bewild]+ v>iety ( man's m5tal   
output !re 7 c]ta9 features :i* !y _h 9 
common1 & :i* might hold 9 solution "s  
common pr9ciple or pr9ciples4  ,?is     
common pr9ciple 0 f\nd 9 ! conception ( 
evolution4 ,x 0 ! "o ?+ :i*1 if true1 & 
ap>t f ! impossible idea ( a revelation1
 nicely graduat$ to ! capacities (      
diff]5t races1 (f]$ an explanation ( !  
religions ( ! _w 9 t]ms m satisfactory  
?an ^? ( delib]ate inv5tion or impo/ure4
 ,once x 0 accept$1 if only z an        
in/rum5t ( inve/igation1 its use 0 soon 
ju/ifi$4 ,& ! ?or\gh-go+ nature ( !     
conque/ a*iev$ is 9 no wise m cle>ly    
manife/$ ?an 9 ! fact t ! conception (  

gr[? is1 to-day1 n m]ely an accept$     
pr9ciple ) sci5tific inve/igators1 x has
 sunk deeply into all our lit]ature &   
=ms an unconsci\s "p ( popul> ?\ght4    
,"o aspect ( ! influ5ce ( evolution on  
religi\s ideas has already be5 not$4 ,x 
made ! religi\s idea b "o ( ! _m =ms t 7
 assum$ by man's attempt to r$uce 8     
exp]i5ce ( ! _w to some?+ l an ord]ly   
!ory4 ,b t c>ri$ ) x1 = religion1 !     
dang] ( r$uc+ x to no m ?an "o ( ! _m   
!ories ( ?+s :i* man =ms1 ) ! prospect (
 its rejection z a bett] k ( ! _w       
develops4 ,evolution c]ta9ly dive/$     
religion ( any au?ority save su* z x    
might conta9 9 itself1 & t is a position
 a religi\s m9d c nev] contemplate )    
equanimity4  ,b s f> z ! !ory ( ,d>w9ism
 is conc]n$ x ex]t$ a m>k$ & rapid      
influ5ce on ! popul> religi\s !ory (    
design 9 nature4 ,?is is "o ( ! olde/   
argum5ts 9 fav\r ( a reason$ belief 9   
,god1 & x is ! "o :i* 01 & is /ill 9 "o 
=m or ano!r1 held 9 ! greate/ popul>    
e/eem4 ,to ! popul> m9d--& religion 9 a 

civiliz$ c\ntry is n s]i\sly conc]n$    
ab\t its fail+ grip on ! cultur$        
intellig5ce s long z x keeps control ( !
 ord9>y man & woman--to ! popul> m9d !  
argum5t f design appeal$ ) peculi> =ce4 
,anyone is capable ( admir+ ! wond]s (  
nature1 & 9 ! e>li] developm5ts ( popul>
 sci5ce ! m>vels ( plant & animal       
/ructures s]v$ only to deep5 ! ,!i/'s   
admiration ( ! div9e wisdom4 ,! examples
 ( complexity ( /ructure1 ( !           
int]dep5d5ce ( p>ts1 & ( ! ?\s& & "o    
cunn+ devices by :i* animal life ma9ta9s
 itself 9 ! face ( a ho/ile environm5t 7
 !re = all to see & admire4 ,& :5 man   
comp>$ ^! ) 8 own consci\s attempts to  
adapt means to ends1 !re seem$ z /rong  
pro( "h z any:]e ( "s s*em+ intellig5ce 
beh9d ! natural process4  ,b ! /r5g? ( !
 case 0 m app>5t ?an real4 ,x 0 weake/  
at ! v po9t :]e x %\ld h be5 /ronge/4 ,9
 ! case ( a human product we "k !       
purpose & c measure ! ext5t ( its       
realization 9 ! nature ( ! result4 ,9 ! 
case ( a natural product we h no means (

 kn[+ :at ! purpose 01 or ev5 if any    
purpose at all lies beh9d ! product4 ,! 
important elem5t 9 ! argum5t f design--t
 ( purpose--is ?us pure assumption4 ,9 !
 case ( human productions we argue f    
purpose to production4 ,9 ! case ( a    
natural object we are argu+ f production
 to an assum$ purpose4 ,! analogy breaks
 d[n j :]e x %\ld be /ronge/ & cle>e/4  
,n[ x is und5iable t to a v l>ge numb] (
 ! m ?\ghtful ! old =m ( ! argum5t f    
design receiv$ its dea? bl[ f ! ,d>w9ian
 doctr9e ( natural selection4 ,9 ! light
 ( ?is !ory !re 0 no great] ne$ to argue
 t intellig5ce 0 necess>y to produce    
animal adaptations ?an !re 0 to assume  
intellig5ce = ! sift+ ( s& by ! w9d4 ,z 
! light] gra9s are c>ri$ f>!/ because !y
 are lighte/1 s natural selection1      
op]at+ ^u organic v>iations1 fav\r$ !   
bett] adapt$ specim5s by kill+ (f ! less
 fav\r$ ones4 ,! fitte/ is n creat$1 x  
survives4 ,! _w is n :at x is because ! 
animal is :at x is1 ! animal is :at x is
 because ! _w is z x is4 ,x _c be any   

diff]5t & live--a tru? demon/rat$ by !  
de/ruction ( myriads ( animal =ms1 & by 
! disappe>ance ( :ole species4 ,! case 0
 s pla91 ! evid5ce s conclusive1 t !    
cle>] head$ religioni/s dropp$ ! old =m 
( ! argum5t f design z no long] t5able4 
,b ! g5tleman :o ex*ang$ ! errors ( !   
,*ur* ( ,rome = ^? ( ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& is
 always ) u4 ,& ! believ] 9 deity hav+  
dropp$ ! argum5t f design 9 "o =m       
imm$iately proce$$ to revive x 9 ano!r4 
,?is 01 p]haps1 inevitable4 ,aft] all1  
man lives 9 ?is _w1 & if pro( ( !       
exi/5ce ( deity is to be ga!r$ f 8      
works1 x mu/ be d]iv$ f ! _w we "k4 ,s  
design mu/ be f\nd some:]e1 & x mu/ be  
f\nd "h4 ,only "o *ance 0 left4 ,! g5]al
 hypo!sis ( evolution--ei!r ,d>w9ism    
alone1 or ,d>w9ism plus o!r             
factors--expla9$ ! developm5t ( animal  
life4 ,b t 0 )9 ! natural process4 ,:at1
 !n1 ( ! process z a :ole8 ,if ! h& (   
,god c\ld n be se5 9 ! p>ticul>         
adaptations ( animal life1 might x n be 
t ! :ole ( ! process1 9 virtue ( :i* ^! 

p>ticul> adaptations occurr$1 might be !
 expression ( ! div9e intellig5ce8 ,god 
did n create ! p>ticul> p>ts directly1 b
 may he n h creat$ ! :ole1 leav+ x = !  
=ces he _h set 9 motion to "w out 8     
plan4 ,! sugge/ion 0 attractive4 ,x     
reliev$ religion f re/+ its case 9 a    
region :]e pro( & dispro( are possible1 
& remov$ x to a region :]e !y are       
difficult1 if n impossible4 ,s1 z x 0 n 
possible to uphold ! old teleology1 "o  
began to he> a great deal ( ! wid]      
teleology1 :i* meant t ! ,!i/ 0 ?9k+    
vaguely :5 he imag9$ he 0 ?9k+          
compreh5sively1 & t1 because he _h rea*$
 a region :]e ! laws ( logic c\ld n be  
appli$1 he conclud$ t he _h a*iev$      
demon/ration4 ,&1 inde$1 :5 "o gets     
outside ! region ( v]ification !re is   
no?+ to /op "o !oriz+--save a dose (    
common-s5se & a graci\s gift ( hum\r4   
,9 ano!r "w 7,!ism or ,a!ism7 ,i h dealt
 at l5g? ) ! argum5t f design4 ,at      
pres5t my aim is to take ! pres5tation (
 ?is wid] teleology z giv5 by a         

well-kn[n writ] on philosophical        
subjects1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,s4 ,s*ill]1 9 a 
volume publi%$ a few ye>s ago entitl$   
,humanism3 ,philosophical ,essays4 ,& 9 
do+ s1 x is c]ta9 t ! !ologian w lose   
no?+ by leav+ himself 9 ! h&s ( s able a
 repres5tative4  ,mr4 ,s*ill] naturally 
accepts ,d>w9ism z at lea/ an important 
factor 9 organic evolution1 b he does n 
believe t x excludes design1 & he does  
believe t our attitude t[>ds life w be v
 diff]5t1 accord+ z we believe x to be  
inspir$ & guid$ by intellig5ce or hold x
 to be ! =tuit\s product ( bl9d         
me*anisms1 ^: work+ our helpless human  
intellig5ce c obs]ve1 b _c control4  ,n[
 )9 its scope ,d>w9ism c]ta9ly does     
exclude design1 & ev5 ?\gh ! =ces       
repres5t$ by natural selection may be   
direct$ t[>ds ! end produc$1 yet s f> z 
! play ( ^! =ces is conc]n$ !y are      
really self-direct+1 or self-conta9$4 ,!
 argum5t really seems to be j m]e !ology
 masqu]ad+ z philosophy4 ,!ories d play 
"s "p 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! individual    

attitude t[>ds life1 b !y d n play !    
important "p t ,mr4 ,s*ill] assumes !y  
play4 ,x is easily obs]vable t ! same   
!ory ( life held by a ,*ri/ian 9 ,engl& 
& by ano!r ,*ri/ian 9 ,asia ,m9or has1 s
 f> z x affects conduct1 diff]5t        
results4 ,& if x be said t ev5 ?\gh !   
results be diff]5t !y are /ill !re1 !   
reply is t !y diff] because ! facts (   
life compel an adju/m5t 9 t]ms ( ! g5]al
 environm5t4 ,mr4 ,s*ill] admits t !    
preval5t conduct & t adapt$ to !        
conditions ( life mu/ co9cide1 & !      
admission is fatal to 8 position4 ,!    
tru? ( ! matt] is t ! conditions ( life 
be+ :at !y are1 & ! consequ5ces (       
conduct be+ also :at !y are1 speculative
 !ories ( life _c1 9 ! nature ( ! case1 
affect life beyond a c]ta9 po9t2 t is1  
if life is to cont9ue4 ,t is :y 9 !     
hi/ory ( belief religi\s tea*+s h soon] 
or lat] to accommodate !mselves to      
p]si/5t facts4  ,mr4 ,s*ill] br+s =w>d  
two argum5ts 9 fav\r ( reconcil+        
,d>w9ism & ,design1 bo? ( !m +5i\s1 b   

nei!r ( !m conclusive4 ,) bo? ( ^! ,i w 
deal lat]2 b x is fir/ necess>y to      
notice "o or two ( 8 argum5ts aga9/ a   
non-,!i/ic ,d>w9ism4 ,! d5ial ( !       
argum5t f design1 he says1 leads f>!r   
?an mo/ p imag9e3--       ,a complete   
d5ial ( design 9 nature mu/ d5y !       
efficacy ( all      intellig5ce z su*4  
,a consi/5tly me*anical view has to     
reg>d      all intellig5ce z otiose1 z  
an epi-ph5om5al by-product or      fif? 
:eel to ! c>t1 9 ! abs5ce ( :i* ! giv5  
results      w\ld no less h occurr$4 ,& 
s1 if ?is view 7 ! tru?1      we %\ld h 
to r5\nce all ef=t to direct our fat$ & 
ill-fat$ c\rse d[n ! /ream ( "t4 ,our   
consci\sness w\ld      be an unmean+    
accid5t4  ,a complete reply to ?is w\ld 
involve an exam9ation ( ! mean+ t is &  
ought to be atta*$ to intellig5ce1 & t  
is too l5g?y an enquiry to be attempt$  
"h4 ,x is1 p]haps1 en\gh to po9t out t  
,mr4 ,s*ill]'s argum5t cle>ly moves on !
 assumption t intellig5ce is a ?+ or a  
quality :i* exi/s1 s to speak1 9 its own

 "r & :i* int]f]es ) ! c\rse ( ev5ts z  
some?+ f )\t4 ,x is q probable t he w\ld
 repudiate ?is con/ruction be+ plac$ on 
8 words1 b if he does n mean t1 !n ,i   
fail to see :at he does mean1 or :at =ce
 !re is 9 8 argum5t4 ,& x is en\gh = my 
purpose to po9t out t intellig5ce or m9d
 is n a ?+1 b a relation4 ,x ass]ts ( a 
c]ta9 class ( actions exactly :at       
gravitation ass]ts ( a c]ta9 class (    
motion1 & ?+ness is no m ass]t$ 9 ! "o  
case ?an x is 9 ! o!r4  ,intellig5ce1 z 
a "n giv5 to a special class ( facts or 
actions1 rema9s1 :atev] view we take (  
its nature1 & x is puzzl+ to see :y !   
d5ial ( extra natural intellig5ce--t is1
 intellig5ce sep>at$ f all ! conditions 
"u :i* we "k ! ph5om5on (               
intellig5ce--%\ld be tak5 z involv+ !   
d5ial ( ! exi/5ce ( intellig5ce z we "k 
x4 ,intellig5ce z connot+ purposive     
action rema9s z mu* a fact z gravity or 
*emical attraction1 & cont9ues valid    
conc]n+ ! ph5om5a x is int5d$ to cov]4  
,all t ! evolutioni/ is committ$ to is !

 /atem5t t x is z mu* a product (       
evolution z is ! %ape or col\r+ (       
animals4 ,x is n at all a "q (          
self-dep5d5ce4 ,e =ce 9 nature mu/ be   
tak5 = :at x is wor?1 intellig5ce among 
!m4 ,:y1 !n1 does ! view t intellig5ce  
is bo? a product ( evolution & a cause (
 ano!r phase ( evolution l& u 9         
self-contradiction1 or make ! exi/5ce ( 
itself mean+less8 ,! tru? is t          
intellig5ce det]m9es results exactly z e
 o!r =ce 9 nature det]m9es results1 by  
act+ z a l9k 9 an un5d+ sequ5tial *a94  
,& ! "q z to :at intellig5ce is p] se is
 z mean+less z :at gravitation is p] se4
 ,^! are names :i* we give to gr\ps (   
ph5om5a display+ p>ticul> & diff]5tial  
*>act]i/ics1 & _! purpose is s]v$ :5 !y 
enable u to cognize & recognize ^!      
ph5om5a & to give !m _! place & describe
 _! function 9 ! s]ies ( *anges t make  
up our _w4  ,mr4 ,s*ill]'s reply to ?is 
l9e ( criticism is ! famili> "o t x     
r$uces human be+s to automata4 ,he      
says3--       ,! ease ) :i* ! ,d>w9ian  

argum5t disp5ses )      intellig5ce z a 
factor 9 survival excites suspicion4 ,x 
is      prov+ too mu* to %[ t adaptation
 might equally well h      aris5 9      
automata4 ,= we ourselves are /rongly   
p]suad$ t we      are n automata & /rive
 h>d to adapt ourselves4 ,9 u at        
lea/1 !re=e1 intellig5ce is a s\rce (   
adaptation4444      ,intellig5ce !re=e  
is a v]a causa z a s\rce ( adaptations  
at lea/ co-ord9ate ) ,natural           
,selection1 & ?is c be d5i$      only if
 x is decl>$ inefficaci\s ev]y:]e2 if   
all liv+      be+s1 includ+ ourselves1  
are decl>$ to be automata4  ,"o is      
compell$ aga9 to po9t out t ,d>w9ism    
does n disp5se ) intellig5ce z a factor 
9 survival1 except s f> z ! intellig5ce 
:i* det]m9es survival is decl>$ to be   
op]at+ ap>t f ! organisms :i* survive4  
,! conduct ( "o ( ! l[] animals :i*     
reacts only to ! imm$iate prompt+s ( its
 environm5t is ( "o ord]1 b ! response (
 ano!r animal n m]ely to ! imm$iate     
prompt+s ( ! environm5t1 b to remote    

conditions1 z 9 ! selection ( food or ! 
build+ ( a home ( "s sort1 or to !      
fa%ion+ ( a tool1 does obvi\sly give to 
! intellig5ce display$ a di/9ct survival
 value4 ,& t effectively replies to !   
triumphant conclusion1 ,if intellig5ce  
has no efficacy 9 promot+ adaptations1  
i4e41 if x has no survival value1 h[    
comes x to be develop$ at all8  ,d>w9ism
 w\ld nev] h be5 able to disp5se )      
intellig5ce 9 ! way x did b = ! fact t !
 opposite !ory nev] /ood = m ?an a m]e  
collection ( words4 ,t species are or 7 
produc$ by ! op]ations ( ,div9e         
,intellig5ce is m]ely a gr&iloqu5t way (
 say+ no?+ at all4 ,x is absurd to      
pret5d t su* a =mula ev] _h any         
sci5tific value4 ,x expla9s no?+4 ,& x  
is q obvi\s t "s adaptations d1 s f> z  
we "k1 arise )\t intellig5ce1 & are1    
!re=e1 to use ,mr4 ,s*ill]'s expression1
 automata4 7,i d n l ! ^w1 s9ce x       
conveys too mu* ! notion ( someone beh9d
 ! sc5es pull+ /r+s47 ,& x is on 8 !ory 
t animals actually are automata4 ,= if  

!re be a ,div9e m9d :i* /&s z ! active  
cause ( ! adaptations t meet u 9 !      
animal _w1 & :o arranges =ces s t !y    
%all "w to _! pre-de/9$ end1 :at is t b 
conv]t+ ! :ole ( ! animal _w into s _m  
automata4 ,"o does n escape det]m9ism 9 
?is way2 x is only gett+ rid ( x 9 "o   
direction 9 ord] to re9troduce x 9      
ano!r4  ,& "o w\ld l to "k :at our      
conviction t we are n automata has to d 
) x4 ,:e!r ! mo/ rigid det]m9ism is true
 or n is a matt] to be settl$ by an     
exam9ation ( ! facts & a c>eful         
reflection z to _! real significance4   
,no "o que/ions t !re is a p]suasion to 
! contr>y2 if !re 7 n !re w\ld be no?+  
ar\nd :i* controv]sy c\ld ga!r4 ,b x is 
! conviction t is *all5g$1 & x is idle  
to reply to ! *all5ge by ass]t+ a       
conviction to ! contr>y4 ,! :ole hi/ory 
( human ?\ght is ! record ( a *all5ge & 
a rev]sal ( su* convictions4 ,!re nev] 0
 a conviction :i* 0 held m /r5u\sly ?an 
t ! e>? 0 flat4 ,! exp]i5ce ( all m5 9 e
 h\r ( _! lives seem$ to prove x4 ,& yet

 to-day no "o believes x4 ,! affirmation
 t we are free re/s1 z ,sp9oza said1    
ultimately on ! fact t all m5 "k _!     
actions & b few "k ! causes !re(4 ,a    
fea!r end[$ ) consci\sness1 fall+ to !  
gr\nd 9 a zigzag mann]1 might be equally
 conv9c$ t x det]m9$ ! exact spot on :i*
 x w\ld re/1 yet its p]suasion w\ld be (
 no m value ?an ! vulg> conviction t we 
indep5d5tly adapt ourselves to our      
environm5t4  ,mr4 ,s*ill]'s positive    
argum5ts 9 fav\r ( reconcil+ ,d>w9ism ) 
design--"o ( !m is really negative2--are
 conc]n$ ) 7#a7 ! "q ( v>iation1 & 7#b7 
) ! exi/5ce ( progress4 ,on ! fir/ "q x 
is po9t$ out t :ile ,natural ,selection 
op]ates by way ( fav\r+ c]ta9 v>iations1
 ! orig9 or cause ( ^! v>iations rema9s 
unkn[n4 ,& al?\gh ,mr4 ,s*ill] does n   
say s 9 z _m words1 !re is !            
implication1 if ,i rightly disc]n 8     
drift1 t !re is room "h = a direct+     
intellig5ce1 inasmu* z sci5ce is at     
pres5t q unable to fully expla9 ! causes
 ( v>iations4 ,we are told t ,d>w9      

assum$ = ! purpose ( 8 !ory t v>iations 
7 indef9ite bo? z to "* & ext5t1 & x is 
^u ^! v>iations t ,natural ,selection   
dep5ds4 ,?is indef9ite v>iation ,mr4    
,s*ill] ass]ts to be a me?odological    
device1 t is1 x is some?+ assum$ z !    
gr\ndwork ( a !ory1 b )\t any subsequ5t 
v]ification1 & x is 9 virtue ( ?is      
assumption t intellig5ce is rul$ out (  
evolution4 ,& inasmu* z ,mr4 ,s*ill]    
sees no reason = believ+ t v>iations are
 ( ?is indef9ite "*1 he ass]ts t !re is 
9 evolution room = a teleological       
factor1 9 o!r words1 a purposive        
direction ( v>iations4  ,n[ x h>dly ne$s
 po9t+ out to /ud5ts ( ,d>w9ism t       
indef9ite v>iation is ! equival5t ( a   
v>iation to :i* no exact limits c be    
plac$1 & 9 ?is s5se ! assumption is a   
p]fectly s\nd "o4 ,f "o po9t ( view !   
v>iations mu/ be def9ite1 t is1 !y c    
only occur )9 c]ta9 limits4 ,an elephant
 w n v>y 9 ! direction ( w+s1 nor w a   
bird 9 ! direction ( a rose bu%4 ,b s   
long z we _c fix ! exact limits (       

v>iation we are q w>rant$ 9 speak+ ( !m 
z indef9ite4 ,t ?is is a me?odological  
device no "o d5ies1 b s are mo/ ( ! o!r 
di/9ctions t we frame4 ,sci5tific       
g5]alizations consi/ ( ab/ractions1 &   
,mr4 ,s*ill] himself ( necessity employs
 ! same device4  ,mr4 ,s*ill] argues1 q 
prop]ly1 t :ile ,natural ,selection     
/ates ! conditions "u :i* animal life   
evolves1 x does n /ate any reason :y x  
%\ld evolve4 ,selection may keep a      
species /ation>y or x may ev5 cause x to
 deg5]ate4 ,bo? are fairly common       
ph5om5a 9 ! animal & plant _w4 ,moreov]1
 if !re are an indef9ite numb] (        
v>iations1 & if !y t5d 9 an indef9ite   
numb] ( directions1 !n ! v>iation 9 any 
"o direction c nev] be m ?an an         
inf9itesimal portion ( ! :ole1 & t ?is  
"o %\ld p]si/ supplies a /ill fur!r     
reason = belief 9 a purposive direction 
( v>iations4 ,mr4 ,s*ill] ov]looks an   
important po9t "h1 b a v simple "o4 ,x  
is true t any "o v>iation is small 9    
relation to ! :ole ( ! possible or      

actual numb] ( v>iations4 ,b x is n 9   
relation to quantity b quality t        
survival takes place1 & 9 proportion to 
! ke5ness ( ! /ruggle ! v>iation t gives
 its possessor an advantage ne$ only be 
( ! small] k9d4 ,9 a /ruggle ( endurance
 betwe5 two a?letes x is ! "o capable ( 
hold+ out = an extra m9ute :o c>ries (f 
! prize4  ,fur!r1 z ,mr4 ,s*ill]        
aft]w>ds admits1 ! v smallness ( ! numb]
 ( successful v>iations makes aga9/     
intellig5ce r ?an = x1 & he practically 
surr5d]s 8 position 9 ! /atem5t1 !      
teleological & anti-teleological        
int]pretation ( ev5ts w ev] decide _!   
conflict by appeal+ to ! facts2 = 9 !   
facts ea* f9ds :at x wills & comes      
prep>$ to see4 ,aft] ?is lame conclusion
 x is difficult to see :at value !re is 
9 ,mr4 ,s*ill]'s own exam9ation ( !     
facts4 ,n t x is /rictly correct to say 
t ! facts be> ea* view out equally4 ,!y 
d n1 & ,mr4 ,s*ill] only ju/ifies 8     
/atem5t by conv]t+ ! ,d>w9ian position1 
:i* is teleologically negative1 into an 

affirmative4 ,! ,d>w9ian1 he says1 d5ies
 intellig5ce z a cause ( evolution4 ,:at
 ! ,d>w9ian does is to d5y ! validity ( 
! evid5ce :i* ! teleologi/ br+s to prove
 8 case4 ,! ,!i/ ass]ts m9d z a cause ( 
evolution4 ,! ,d>w9ian simply po9ts out 
t ! facts may be expla9$ 9 q ano!r way &
 )\t ! appeal to a q unkn[n factor4  ,& 
"h "o might reasonably ask1 :y1 if !re  
is a directive m9d at "w1 are !re       
v>iations at all8 ,:y %\ld ! directive  
intellig5ce n get e>li] to "w1 & in/ead 
( wait+ until a l>ge numb] ( specim5s h 
be5 produc$ & !n look+ !m ov] ) a view  
to direct+ ! pres]vation ( ! bett]      
specim5s1 :y %\ld x n set to "w at !    
beg9n+ & see t only ! desirable ones    
make _! appe>ance8 ,c]ta9ly t is :at a  
m]e human intellig5ce w\ld d if x c\ld4 
,b x is *>act]i/ic ( ! ,div9e           
,intellig5ce ( ! ,!i/ t x nev] seems to 
op]ate ) a t5? "p ( ! intellig5ce ( an  
ord9>y human be+4  ,moreov]1 ,mr4       
,s*ill] writes q ignor+ ! fact t !      
directive intellig5ce does n direct !   

pres]vation ( ! bett] specim5s4 ,:at x  
does1 if x does any?+ at all1 is to kill
 (f ! less fav\r$ ones4 ,natural        
,selection--! po9t is g5]ally ov]look$  
by ! ,!i/ic s5tim5tality ( mo/ ( our    
writ]s--does n pres]ve any?+4 ,its      
positive action is n to keep alive b to 
kill4 ,x does n take ! bett] ones 9 h& &
 help !m4 ,x seizes on all x c & kills  
!m4 ,x is ! diff]5ce betwe5 a local     
c\ncil t tri$ to raise ! /&>d ( heal? by
 a g5]al improvem5t ( ! conditions (    
life1 & "o t aim$ at ! same end by kill+
 (f all *ildr5 t fail$ to come up to a  
c]ta9 /&>d4 ,! actual pres]vation ( a   
bett] type is1 s f> z ,natural          
,selection is conc]n$1 q accid5tal4 ,s  
f> z ,natural ,selection op]ates x does 
s by elim9ation1 n by pres]vation4  ,mr4
 ,s*ill]'s o!r plea 9 fav\r ( ,design is
 conc]n$ ) ! conception ( progress4 ,he 
po9ts out t :ile deg5]ation & /agnation 
bo? occur 9 nature1 yet--       life has
 be5 on ! :ole progressive2 b progress &
      retrogression h bo? be5 effect$ "u

 ! same law ( ,natural      ,selection4 
,h[1 !n1 c ! cr$it ( t result be ascrib$
 to      ,natural ,selection8 ,natural  
,selection is equally ready to br+      
ab\t deg5]ation or to leave ?+s un*ang$4
 ,h[1 !n1 c x      be t :i* det]m9es :i*
 ( ! ?ree possible 7& actual7      cases
 %all be realiz$8444 ,x _c be ,natural  
,selection t      causes "o species to  
rema9 /ation>y1 ano!r to deg5]ate1 a    
?ird to develop into a high] =m4444 ,"s 
v>iable factor mu/      be add$ to      
,natural ,selection4  ,b :y8 ,evolution1
 z we h po9t$ out 9 a previ\s *apt]1    
makes = adaptation 9 t]ms ( animal      
pres]vation4 ,if ! adaptation ( an      
animal to its environm5t is secur$ by   
deg5]at+ or develop+ or by rema9+       
/ation>y1 x w d "o ( ! ?ree4 ,t is !    
normal consequ5ce ( ,natural ,selection1
 & x is surpris+ t ,mr4 ,s*ill] does n  
see ?is4 ,he is actually accus+ ,natural
 ,selection ( n be+ able to d :at x does
 on 8 own %[+4 ,! pro( he himself gives 
( ?is op]ation ( ,natural ,selection 9 !

 examples he cites ( its ineffectiv5ess4
 ,if ,natural ,selection c\ld n make =  
deg5]ation or developm5t1 9 :at way w\ld
 x be able to e/abli% an equilibrium    
betwe5 an animal & its surr\nd+s8       
,really1 !re is no?+ t s /r5g!ns "o's   
conviction ( ! tru? ( ! ,free?\ght      
position s mu* z a /udy ( ! argum5ts t  
are br\ght aga9/ x4  ,mr4 ,s*ill] is    
really misl$1 & s misleads 8 read]s by  
an unju/ifiable use ( ! ^w progress4 ,he
 says t evolution has be51 on ! :ole1   
progressive1 & appeals to progress z    
?\gh x 7 "s objective fact4 ,b t is n ! 
case4 ,!re is no progress 9 ! animal _w1
 !re is only *ange4 ,we h dealt ) ?is 9 
a previ\s *apt]1 & !re is no ne$ to aga9
 lab\r ! po9t4 ,progress is a conception
 :i* we ourselves frame1 & we measure a 
movem5t t[>ds or away f ?is arbitr>y    
/&>d ( ours 9 t]ms ( bett] or worse1    
high] or l[]4 ,b nature kn[s no?+ ( a   
high] or a l[]1 x kn[s only ( *ang+ =ms 
m or less fitt$ to live 9 ! exi/+       
environm5t4 ,sci5tifically1 life has n  

progress$1 x has p]si/$1 & a s9e qua non
 ( its p]si/5ce has be5 adaptation to   
environm5t4  ,progress1 !n1 is n a      
natural fact1 b a me?odological "o4 ,x  
is a useful ^w & a valuable ideal4 ,i am
 n prote/+ aga9/ its use1 only aga9/ its
 misuse4 ,x is "o ( ! _m ab/ractions    
creat$ by ?9k]s1 & !n wor%ipp$ z a      
reality by ^? :o =get ! orig9 & purpose 
( its exi/5ce4 ,& 9 ?is we c see "o ( ! 
fatal legacies we h inh]it$ f ,!i/ic    
me?ods ( ?9k+4 ,! belief t ?+s are      
design$ to be z !y are comes to u f ^?  
primitive me?ods ( ?9k+ :i* p]sonify &  
vitalize all natural ph5om5a4 ,we h     
outgr[n ! crude frame ( m9d :i* saw     
direct volitional action 9 a /orm or 9 !
 movem5ts ( natural =ces4 ,! developm5t 
( civiliz$ & sci5tific ?9k+ has remov$  
^! conceptions f ! m9ds ( educat$ m5 &  
wom51 b x has left beh9d x z a residuum 
! habit ( look+ = purpose :]e none      
exi/s1 & ( read+ into nature z objective
 facts our own g5]alizations &          
ab/ractions4 ,& s long z we h n outgr[n 

t habit we are reta9+ a fatal b> to     
exact sci5tific ?9k+4  ,f9ally1 & ?is   
consid]ation is fatal to any !ory (     
design su* z ,mr4 ,s*ill] *ampions1     
adaptation is n a special quality ( "o  
=m ( exi/5ce1 b a univ]sal quality (    
all4 ,!re is n a great] degree (        
adaptation "h & a less degree !re1 b !  
same degree 9 e case4 ,!re is no o!r    
mean+ to adaptation except t ( adju/m5t 
to surr\nd+s4 ,b :e!r an animal lives or
 dies1 :e!r x is high] or l[]1 de=m$ or 
p]fect1 ! adju/m5t is ! same4 ,t is1 e  
=m ( exi/5ce repres5ts ! product ( =ces 
t h made x :at x is1 & ! same =ces c\ld 
n h produc$ any?+ diff]5t4 ,e body 9    
exi/5ce1 organic or inorganic1          
con/itutes 9 ultimate analysis a balance
 ( ! =ces repres5t$ by x4 ,x is n       
possible1 !re=e1 = ! ,!i/ to say t      
design is evid5c$ by adaptation 9 "o    
case & its abs5ce 9 ano!r4 ,!re is      
adaptation 9 e case1 ev5 ?\gh x may n be
 ! adaptation we %\ld l to see4 ,x is n 
possible = ! ,!i/ to say t ! degree (   

adaptation is great] 9 ! "o case ?an 9 !
 o!r1 = t is ! same 9 e case4 ,:at ne$s 
to be done if design is to be e/abli%$  
is to prove t ! =ces we see at "w c\ld n
 h produc$ ! results t em]ge )\t !      
introduction ( a factor n already giv5 9
 our exp]i5ce4 ,any?+ else is m]e wa/e (
 "t4     ,,*apt] ,,xiii4  ,,anci5t ,,&  
,,mod]n4   ,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s we h1 )\t 
say+ x 9 s _m words1 be5 emphasiz+ !    
mod]n z aga9/ ! anci5t po9t ( view4 ,!  
di/9ction may n at fir/ glance appe> to 
be ( great mom5t1 & yet reflection w    
prove x to be ( vital significance4 ,x  
expresses1 9 a s5t5ce1 ! ess5ce ( !     
di/9ction betwe5 ! ,free?9k] & !        
religioni/4 ,objectively1 ! _w 9 :i* we 
are liv+ is ! same z t 9 :i* our        
ance/ors liv$4 ,! same />s t look$ d[n  
^u !m look d[n ^u u4 ,natural =ces      
affect$ !m z !y affect u4 ,ev5 ! play ( 
human passion & desire 0 ! same ) !m z )
 u4 ,hung] & ?ir/1 love & hatr$1 c[>dice
 & c\rage1 g5]osity & gre$ op]ate n[ z  
always4 ,! _w rema9s ! same 9 all its   

ess5tial features2 :at alt]s is our     
conception ( x--9 o!r words1 ! po9t (   
view4  ,! "q ?us resolves itself into "o
 ( int]pretation4 ,free?9k] & religioni/
 are ea* liv+ 9 ! same _w1 !y are ea* f$
 ) ! same foods & kill$ ) ! same        
poisons4 ,! same feel+s move bo? & !    
same problems face bo?4 ,_! diff]5ces   
are con/itut$ by ! canon ( int]pretation
 appli$4 ,x is on ?is issue t ! conflict
 betwe5 religion & sci5ce arises4 ,=    
religion is n1 z "s h argu$1 some?+ t is
 supplem5t>y or complem5t>y to sci5ce1  
nor does x deal ) matt]s on :i* sci5ce  
is incompet5t to express an op9ion4     
,religion & sci5ce face ea* o!r z rival 
int]pretations ( ! same set ( facts1    
precisely z ! ,cop]nican & ! ,ptolemaic 
sy/ems once fac$ ea* o!r z rival        
int]pretations ( a/ronomical ph5om5a4   
,if ! "o is true ! o!r is false4 ,y may 
reject ! religi\s or ! sci5tific        
explanation ( ph5om5a1 b y _c logically 
accept bo?4 ,z ,dr4 ,johnson said1 ,two 
contradictory ideas may inh]e 9 ! same  

m9d1 b !y _c bo? be correct4  ,n[ :ile x
 is true t 9 ord] to und]/& ! pres5t we 
mu/ "k ! pa/1 & t because ! pres5t is a 
product ( ! pa/1 x is also true t a     
condition ( und]/&+ is to int]pret ! pa/
 by ! pres5t4 ,9 ord9>y affairs ?is is n
 que/ion$4 ,:5 geologi/s set out to     
expla9 ! causes ( *anges 9 ! e>?'s      
surface1 !y utilize ! pres5t-day k (    
exi/+ =ces1 & by prolong+ _! action     
backw>d expla9 ! features ( ! p]iod !y  
are /udy+4 ,:5 hi/orians seek to expla9 
! conduct (1 say ,h5ry ! ,eigh?1 !y take
 _! k ( ! motives animat+ exi/+ human   
nature1 & by plac+ t 9 a sixte5? c5tury 
sett+ manage to pres5t u ) a picture ( !
 p]iod4 ,s1 aga91 :5 ! ?irte5? c5tury   
monki% hi/orian gravely in=ms u t a     
p>ticul> epidemic 0 due to ! ang] ( ,god
 aga9/ ! wick$ness ( ! p1 we put t      
int]pretation on "o side & use our own k
 to f9d 9 defective social & sanit>y    
conditions ! cause ( :at occurr$4       
,illu/rations to ! same end may be f\nd 
9 e direction4 ,x is1 inde$1 n some?+ t 

"o may accept or reject z "o may take or
 leave a political !ory1 x is an        
indisp5sible condition ( rational ?9k+  
on any subject :atsoev]4  ,accept$      
ev]y:]e else1 x is 9 connection )       
religion t "o f9ds ?is pr9ciple1 n op5ly
 *all5g$1 = !re are degrees ( absurdity 
to :i* ev5 ! mo/ ard5t religioni/ d>e n 
g1 b x is quietly set on "o side & a    
me?od adopt$ :i* is its practical       
negation4 ,ei!r ! proc$ure is inv]t$ & !
 pres5t is int]pret$ by ! pa/1 z :5 x is
 assum$ t because ,god did c]ta9 ?+s 9 !
 pa/ !re=e he w cont9ue to d ! same ?+s 
9 ! pres5t1 or x is assum$ t ! pa/ 0    
unlike ! pres5t1 &1 !re=e1 ! same me?od 
( int]pretation _c be appli$ to bo?     
cases4 ,bo? plans h ! effect ( l&+ u1 if
 n 9 lunacy1 at lea/ well on ! way to x4
  ,x is indisp5sible to ! religioni/ to 
ignore ! pr9ciple above laid d[n4 ,= if 
x is admitt$ t human nature is always & 
ev]y:]e ! same1 & t natural =ces always 
& ev]y:]e act 9 ! same mann]1 religi\s  
beliefs are br\ght to ! te/ ( _!        

con=mity ) pres5t day k ( ?+s & all     
claim to objective validity mu/ be      
ab&on$4 ,yet ! pr9ciple is q cle>4 ,!   
claim ( ! prophets ( old to be inspir$  
mu/ be te/$ by :at we "k ( ! conditions 
( inspiration to-day1 & n by :at        
un5light5$ p ?\ght ( its nature c5turies
 ago4 ,:e!r ! /ory ( ! ,virg9 ,bir? is  
cr$ible or n mu/ be settl$ by an appeal 
to :at we "k ( ! nature ( animal        
procreation1 & n by :e!r our fai? urges 
u to accept ! /atem5t z true4 ,to act   
o!rwise is to raise an altoge!r false   
issue1 ! "q ( evid5ce is argu$ :5 :at is
 really at issue is t ( cr$ibility4 ,x  
is n at all a matt] ( :e!r !re is       
evid5ce en\gh to e/abli% ! reality ( a  
p>ticul> record$ ev5t1 b :e!r our actual
 k ( natural happ5+s is n en\gh = u to  
rule x out z objectively untrue1 & to   
describe ! conditions :i* l$ to its be+ 
accept$ z true4  ,let u take z an       
illu/ration ( ?is ! g5]al "q ( miracles4
 ,! ,ox=d ,diction>y def9es a miracle z 
,a m>vell\s ev5t occurr+ )9 human       

exp]i5ce :i* _c h be5 br\ght ab\t by    
human p[] or by ! op]ation ( any natural
 ag5cy1 & mu/1 !re=e1 be ascrib$ to !   
special int]v5tion ( ! deity or "s      
sup]natural be+4 ,t is a good en\gh     
def9ition1 & is c]ta9ly :at p h _h 9 m9d
 :5 !y h pr(ess$ a belief 9 miracles4 ,a
 miracle mu/ be some?+ m>vell\s1 t is1 x
 mu/ be unusual1 & x mu/ n be ev5       
conceivably expla9able 9 t]ms ( !       
op]ation ( natural =ces4 ,if x is       
admitt$ t :at is claim$ z a miracle     
might be expla9$ z ! result ( natural   
=ces provid$ our k 0 ext5sive en\gh &   
exact en\gh1 x is confess$ t miracle &  
ignorance are conv]tible t]ms4 ,& :ile t
 may be true en\gh z a matt] ( fact1 x  
w\ld nev] suit ! religi\s case to admit 
x 9 s _m words4  ,nor w\ld x make ! case
 any bett] to argue t ! alleg$ miracle  
has be5 br\ght ab\t by "s sup]ior be+ ) 
a mu* great] k ( nature ?an man         
possesses1 b :i* ! latt] may "o day     
acquire4 ,t is plac+ a miracle on ! same
 level z a p]=mance giv5 by a clev]     

conjuror1 :i* puzzles ! onlook] because 
he lacks ! te*nical k requisite to      
und]/& ! me?ods employ$4 ,a miracle to  
be a miracle mu/ n be 9 accordance )    
natural laws1 kn[n or unkn[n1 x mu/     
contrav5e !m or susp5d _! op]ation4  ,on
 ! o!r h&1 ! dem& made by "s critics ( !
 miracul\s1 namely1 t ! alleg$ miracle  
%all be p]=m$ "u te/ conditions1 is     
absurd1 & %[s t !y h n grasp$ ! ess5tial
 po9t at issue4 ,! believ]'s reply to   
su* a dem& is pla9 & obvi\s4 ,he says1 a
 miracle is by its nature a r>e ev5t1 x 
is p]=m$ "u special circum/ances to s]ve
 a special purpose4 ,:]e1 !n1 is !      
reason 9 ask+ t ?is miracle %all be     
re-p]=m$ 9 ord] to conv9ce c]ta9 p t x  
has already occurr$8 ,to arrange = !    
p]=mance ( a miracle is an absurdity4 ,=
 x to become common is to de/roy bo? its
 "* z a miracle & ! ju/ification = its  
exi/5ce4 ,a miracle mu/ c>ry its own    
evid5ce or x fails ( its purpose &      
ceases to be a miracle at all4          
,discussion on ^! l9es ends1 at be/1 9 a

 /alemate4  ,x is j z wide ( ! m>k to   
discuss miracles z ?\gh x 7 a "q (      
evid5ce4 ,:at possible evid5ce c\ld !re 
be1 = example1 t ,jesus f$ five ?\s& p )
 a few loaves & fi%es1 & _h basketfuls  
left at ! end ( ! repa/8 ,suppose x 7   
possible to produce ! sworn te/imony ( !
 five ?\s& !mselves t !y _h be5 s f$4   
,w\ld t produce conviction8 ,w\ld x d   
any m ?an prove t !y believ$ ! food _h  
be5 s exp&$ or multipli$ t x 0 en\gh =  
!m all8 ,x w\ld be conv9c+1 p]haps1 z   
pro( ( an act ( belief4 ,b w\ld x prove 
any m ?an t8 ,w\ld x prove t ^! five    
?\s& 7 n ! victims ( "s act ( deception 
or ( "s delusion8 ,a belief 9 a miracle1
 :e!r ! belief dates f two ?\s& ye>s    
s9ce or f la/ week1 proves only--belief4
 ,& ! te/imony ( a ,salvation ,army     
conv]t z to ! tru? ( ! resurrection (   
,jesus ,*ri/ is z good1 z evid5ce1 z    
?\gh we _h ! sworn te/imony ( ! twelve  
apo/les1 ) t ( ! grave-digg]s ?r[n 94   
,! tru? is t ! "q ( belief 9 ! miracul\s
 has no?+ :atev] to d ) evid5ce4        

,miracles are nev] e/abli%$ by evid5ce1 
nor are !y disprov$ by evid5ce1 t is1 s 
long z we use ! t]m evid5ce ) any reg>d 
to its judicial significance4 ,:at am\nt
 or :at k9d ( evid5ce did ! e>ly        
,*ri/ians require to prove ! miracles ( 
,*ri/ianity8 ,or :at evid5ce did our    
ance/ors require to prove to !m t old   
wom5 flew ?r\gh ! air on broom/icks1 or 
bewit*$ c[s1 or rais$ /orms8 ,te/imony 9
 volumes 0 =?com+1 & !re is n ! slighte/
 reason = d\bt+ its g5u95ess4 ,b :at    
am\nt or k9d ( evid5ce 0 requir$ to     
e/abli% ! belief8 ,0 x evid5ce to :i*   
anyone to-day w\ld pay ! slighte/ reg>d8
 ,! slighte/ /udy ( ! available records 
is en\gh to %[ t ! "q ( evid5ce _h no?+ 
:atev] to d ) ! production ( ! belief4  
,&1 on ! o!r h&1 h[ _m p h giv5 up !    
belief 9 miracles z a result ( a c>eful 
/udy ( ! evid5ce aga9/ !m8 ,i h nev]    
he>d ( any su* case1 al?\gh once a man  
disbelieves 9 miracles he may be ready  
en\gh to produce reasons to ju/ify 8    
disbelief 9 !m4 ,! man :o beg9s to weigh

 evid5ce = & aga9/ miracles has already 
begun to disbelieve !m4  ,! attitude (  
*ildr5 9 relation to ! belief 9 fairies 
may well be tak5 to illu/rate ! attitude
 ( ! adult m9d 9 face ( ! miracul\s4 ,no
 evid5ce is produc$ to induce ! belief 9
 fairies1 & none is ev] br\ght =w>d to  
induce !m to give x up4 ,at "o /age (   
life x is !re1 at ano!r x is gone4 ,x is
 n reason$ out or evid5c$ out1 x is     
simply outgr[n4 ,9 infancy ! *ild's     
conception ( life is s in*oate t !re is 
room = all k9ds ( fanta/ic beliefs4 ,9 m
 mature ye>s c]ta9 beliefs are          
automatically rul$ out by ! gr[? ( a    
conception ( ?+s :i* leaves no room =   
beliefs t dur+ *ildhood seem$ p]fectly  
reasonable4  ,n[ ?is is q on all-f\rs ) 
! "q ( miracles4 ,! issue is ess5tially 
"o ( psy*ology4 ,belief or disbelief is 
"h ma9ly det]m9$ by ! psy*ological m$ium
 9 :i* "o lives & moves4 ,giv5 a        
psy*ological m$ium :i* is1              
sci5tifically1 at its l[e/1 & ! belief 9
 ! miracul\s fl\ri%es4 ,at ! o!r extreme

 miracles langui% & decay4 ,tell a      
savage t ! air is alive ) good & bad    
spirits & he w readily believe y4 ,tell 
x to a man ) a g5u9e sci5tific m9d & he 
w laugh at y4 ,tell a peasant 9 "s p>ts 
( ! c\ntry t someone is a wit* & he w at
 once believe x4 ,tell x to a city      
dwell] & x w provide only occasion =    
ridicule4 ,p :o accept miracles believe 
!m be=e !y happ54 ,! express$ belief    
m]ely regi/]s ! fact4 ,miracles nev]    
happ5 to ^? :o d n believe 9 !m2 z has  
be5 said1 !y nev] occur to a critic4 ,^?
 :o reject miracles d s because _!      
acceptance w\ld conflict ) _! :ole      
conception ( nature4 ,t is ! sum &      
sub/ance ( ! matt]4  ,a fur!r           
illu/ration may be (f]$ 9 ! case ( !    
once mu* debat$ "q ( ! au!nticity ( !   
books ( ! ,new ,te/am5t & ! hi/oricity (
 ! figure ( ,jesus4 ,x appe>s to h be5  
assum$ t if x c\ld be %[n t ! books ( ! 
,new ,te/am5t 7 n contempor>y records ! 
case aga9/ ! div9ity ( ,jesus 0 /r5g!n$4
 ,on ! o!r h& x 0 assum$ t if ^! writ+s 

repres5t$ ! n>ratives ( contempor>ies ! 
case = ! tru? ( ! n>ratives 0           
practically prov54 ,9 reality ?is 0 n ! 
vital issue at all4 ,x w\ld be1 ( c\rse1
 int]e/+ if x c\ld be %[n t !re once    
exi/$ an actual p]sonage ar\nd :om ^!   
/ories ga!r$1 b x w\ld make z little    
diff]5ce to ! real "q at issue z !      
demon/ration ( ! ,baconian au?or%ip (   
,hamlet w\ld make 9 ! psy*ological value
 ( ! play4  ,suppose !n x 7 prov5 t a   
p]son nam$ ,jesus actually exi/$ at a   
c]ta9 date 9 ,judea1 & t ?is p]son is ! 
,jesus ( ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,suppose x be 
fur!r prov51 or admitt$1 t ! foll[]s :om
 ?is p]son ga!r$ ar\nd him believ$ t he 
0 born ( a virg91 p]=m$ a numb] (       
miracles1 0 crucifi$1 & !n rose f !     
dead1 & t ! ,new ,te/am5t repres5ts _!  
writt5 memoirs4 ,suppose all ?is to be  
prov5 or grant$1 :at has be5 e/abli%$8  
,simply ?is4 ,t a numb] ( p believ$ ^!  
?+s ( someone :om !y _h kn[n4 ,b no     
,free?9k] ne$ s]i\sly conc]n himself to 
disprove ?is4 ,he may1 inde$1 take x z !

 data ( ! problem :i* he sets out to    
solve4 ,! sci5tific enquir] is n really 
conc]n$ ) ! ,new ,te/am5t z a n>rative (
 fact any m ?an he is conc]n$ ) ,cotton 
,ma!r's ,invisible ,_w ,display$ z a    
n>rative ( actual fact4 ,:at he is      
conc]n$ ) is ! frame ( m9d to :i* ^!    
/ories seem$ true1 & ! social m$ium :i* 
gave su* a frame ( m9d a vogue4 ,x is n 
at all a "q ( hi/orical evid5ce1 b (    
hi/orical psy*ology4 ,x is n a "q ( !   
hone/y ( ! witnesses1 b ( _! ability1 n 
:e!r !y wi%$ to tell ! tru?1 or int5d$  
to tell ! tru?1 b :e!r !y 7 9 a position
 to "k :at ! tru? 04 ,we h n to discuss 
:e!r ^! ev5ts occurr$1 su* a proposition
 is an insult to a civiliz$ intellig5ce1
 ! matt] = discussion is ! conditions t 
br+ su* beliefs into exi/5ce & !        
conditions t p]petuate !m4  ,!          
developm5t ( social life & ( education  
?us %ifts ! po9t ( view f ! pa/ to !    
pres5t4 ,to und]/& ! pa/ we d n ask :at 
0 x t p believ$ conc]n+ ! ev5ts ar\nd   
!m1 b :at d we "k ( ! causes :i* produce

 beliefs ( a c]ta9 k9d4 ,?us1 we d n    
really reject ! /ory ( ,jesus turn+ wat]
 into w9e because we are )\t legal      
evid5ce t he ev] did any?+ ( ! k9d1 b   
because1 kn[+ ! *emical con/itu5ts ( bo?
 wat] & w9e we "k t su* a ?+ is         
impossible4 ,x is only possible to an   
un9/ruct$ m9d to :i* wat] & w9e diff]   
only 9 ta/e or appe>ance4 ,we d n reject
 ! /ory ( ! demoniacs 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t 
because we h no evid5ce t ^! m5 7       
possess$ ( devils1 or t ,jesus ca/ !m   
out1 b because we h exactly ! same      
ph5om5a ) u to-day & "k t x comes )9 !  
prov9ce ( ! physician & n ( ! miracle   
work]4 ,x is n a matt] ( evid5ce :e!r a 
man rose f ! dead or n1 or :e!r he 0    
born ( a virg9 or n1 b solely a "q (    
exam9+ ^! & simil> /ories 9 ! light (   
pres5t day k4 ,! evid5ce (f]$ is pro(   
only ( belief1 & no "o ev] que/ion$ !   
exi/5ce ( t4 ,& if ! pro( ( belief is   
requir$ !re is no ne$ to g back a c\ple 
( ?\s& ye>s or to consult anci5t        
records4 ,! te/imony ( a pres5t day     

believ]1 & ! acc\nt ( a revival meet+   
su* z "o may f9d 9 any religi\s newspap]
 w s]ve equally well4 ,z is s (t5 !     
case1 ! evid5ce (f]$ is n m]ely         
inadequate1 x is absolutely irrelevant4 
,pa/ ev5ts mu/ be judg$ 9 ! light (     
pres5t k4 ,t is ! gold5 rule ( guidance 
9 judg+ ! _w's religi\s leg5ds4 ,& t    
canon is fatal to _! pret5sions4 ,on !  
"o h& we see 9 ! life ( contempor>y     
savages & 9 t ( semi-civiliz$ peoples   
all ! conditions & ! beliefs t meet u 9 
! ,bible & among ! e>ly ,*ri/ians4 ,& ) 
our wid] & m exact k we are able to take
 exactly ! same ph5om5a t impress$ ^? ( 
an e>li] g5]ation & expla9 !m )\t !     
slighte/ ref]5ce to sup]natural p[]s or 
be+s4 ,! mod]n m9d is really n look+    
r\nd = evid5ce to disprove ! tru? (     
,*ri/ian leg5ds4 ,x kn[s !y are n true4 
,!re is no great] ne$ to prove t !      
miracles ( ,*ri/ianity nev] occurr$1 ?an
 !re is to prove t an old woman nev]    
rais$ a /orm to wreck "o ( ! k+s (      
,engl&4 ,! issue has be5 *ang$ f "o (   

hi/ory to "o ( psy*ology4 ,x is ! pres5t
 t ( necessity sits 9 judgm5t on ! pa/1 
& x is 9 ! light ( ! k ( ! pres5t t !   
religions ( ! pa/ /& condemn$4          
,,*apt] ,,xiv4  ,,morality ,,)\t ,,god4 
,! my/]y-mong] fl\ri%es almo/ z well 9  
e?ics z he does 9 !ology4 ,inde$1 9 "s  
respects he seems to h =sak5 "o field ( 
ex]cise only to f9d r5ew$ scope 9 ! o!r4
 ,he approa*es ! consid]ation ( moral   
que/ions ) ! same hu%$ voice & rev]5tial
 air t is s usual 9 !ology1 & talks ( ! 
my/]y ( morality ) ! same facility t he 
once talk$ ab\t ! my/]y ( godl9ess--& ) 
ab\t an equal am\nt ( enlight5m5t to 8  
he>]s or read]s4  ,b ! my/]y ( morality 
is ne>ly all ( our own mak+4 ,ess5tially
 !re is no m my/]y 9 morality ?an !re is
 9 any o!r "q t may engage ! att5tion ( 
mank9d4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 problems 9 ! 
moral _w z !re are 9 ! physical "o1 & he
 w\ld be a fool :o pret5d$ to ! ability 
to satisfactorily solve !m all4 ,!      
nature ( morality1 ! causes t l$ to !   
developm5t ( moral laws1 & /ill m to !  

developm5t ( a s5se ( morality1 all ^!  
are que/ions ^u :i* !re is ample room = 
rese>* & speculation4 ,b ! talk ( a     
my/]y is mislead+ & my/ify+4 ,x is !    
*att] ( ! *>latan1 or ( ! !ologian1 or (
 ! p>tly lib]at$ m9d t is /ill "u !     
?raldom ( !ology4 ,9 e?ics we h exactly 
! same k9d ( problem t meets u 9 any ( !
 sci5ces4 ,we h a fact1 or a s]ies (    
facts1 & we seek "s explanation ( !m4   
,we may fail 9 our se>*1 b t is n       
evid5ce ( a my/]y1 x is pro( only (     
inadequate k1 ( limitations t we may    
hope ! future w enable u to ov]come4  ,=
 ! sake ( cl>ity x w be bett] to let !  
mean+ ( morality em]ge f ! discussion r 
?an to comm5ce ) x4 ,& "o ( ! fir/ ?+s  
to help to cle> ! m9d ( confusion is to 
get rid ( ! notion t !re is any su* ?+ z
 moral laws :i* correspond 9 _! nature  
to law z ! t]m is us$ 9 sci5ce4 ,9 "o   
s5se morality is n "p ( physical nature 
at all4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( t "p ( nature
 :i* is cov]$ by ! human--at mo/ by !   
high] animal--_w4 ,nature c only1 !re=e1

 be said to be moral 9 ! s5se t ! t]m   
,nature includes all t is4 ,9 any o!r   
s5se nature is non-moral4 ,! s5se (     
values1 :i* is1 z we %all see1 ( !      
ess5ce ( ! conception ( morality1 nature
 kn[s no?+ (4 ,to speak ( nature puni%+ 
u = bad actions or rew>d+ u = good ones 
is absurd4 ,nature nei!r puni%es nor    
rew>ds4 ,%e meets actions ) consequ5ces1
 & is q indiff]5t to any moral          
consid]ation4 ,if ,i am weakly1 & g out 
on a cold1 wet night to help someone 9  
di/ress1 nature does n act diff]5tly ?an
 x w\ld if ,i _h gone out to commit a   
murd]4 ,i /& exactly ! same *ances 9    
ei!r case ( contract+ a deadly *ill4 ,x 
is n ! moral value ( an action ) :i*    
natural =ces are conc]n$1 b m]ely ) !   
action1 & 9 t respect nature nev]       
discrim9ates betwe5 ! good man & ! bad1 
betwe5 ! s9n] & ! sa9t4  ,!re is ano!r  
s5se 9 :i* moral laws diff] f natural   
laws4 ,we c break ! =m] b n ! latt]4 ,! 
expression s (t5 us$1 ,he broke a law ( 
nature1 is absurd4 ,y _c break a law (  

nature4 ,y d n break ! law ( gravitation
 :5 y prev5t a /one fall+ to ! gr\nd2 ! 
=ce requir$ to hold x 9 ! air is an     
illu/ration ( ! law4 ,x is1 inde$1 "o ( 
! pro(s t our g5]alization does repres5t
 a law ( nature t x _c be brok54 ,=     
brok5 is "h only ano!r ^w = inop]ative1 
& a law ( nature t is inop]ative is     
non-exi/5t4 ,b 9 ! moral sph]e we are 9 
a diff]5t _w4 ,we n only c break moral  
laws1 we d break !m2 t is "o ( !        
problems ) :i* our tea*]s & moralis]s h 
con/antly to deal4 ,e "t we /eal we     
break ! law ,?\ %alt n /eal4 ,e "t we   
murd] we break ! law ,?\ %alt n kill4   
,we may keep moral laws1 we ought to    
keep !m1 b we c1 q cle>ly1 break !m4    
,betwe5 a moral law & a law ( nature !re
 is pla9ly a v radical di/9ction4 ,!    
discov]y ( t di/9ction w1 ,i ?9k1 br+ u 
to ! he>t ( ! subject4  ,consid]+ man z 
m]ely a natural object1 or z a m]e      
animal1 !re is only "o quality t nature 
dem&s ( him4 ,?is is effici5cy4         
,nature's sole law is "h ,be ,/rong4 ,h[

 t /r5g? & effici5cy is secur$ & ma9ta9$
 is ( no consequ5ce :atev]4 ,! heat he  
requires1 ! food he ne$s may be /ol5 f  
o!rs1 b x w s]ve4 ,! food w n n\ri% !   
less1 ! fire w n w>m ! less4 ,s long z  
effici5cy is acquir$ x is a matt] (     
absolute indiff]5ce h[ x is secur$4     
,consid]$ z a m]e animal object x is    
difficult to see t morality has any     
mean+ at all = man4 ,x is :5 we come to 
reg>d him 9 8 relation to o!rs t we beg9
 to see ! mean+ & significance (        
morality em]ge4  ,n[ "o ( ! fir/ ?+s t  
/rike u 9 connection ) moral laws or    
rules is t !y are all /atem5ts (        
relation4 ,su* moral comm&s z ,?\ %alt n
 /eal1 ,?\ %alt n kill1 ! comm&s to be  
tru?ful1 k9d1 dutiful1 etc41 all imply a
 relation to o!rs4 ,ap>t f ?is relation 
moral rules h simply no mean+ :atev]4   
,by himself a man c\ld nei!r /eal1 nor  
lie1 nor d any ( ! ?+s t we habitually  
*>act]ize z immoral4 ,a man liv+ by     
himself on "s isl& w\ld be absolv$ f all
 moral law2 x w\ld h no mean+ :atev] =  

him4 ,he w\ld be nei!r moral nor        
immoral1 he w\ld simply be )\t !        
conditions t make morality possible4 ,b 
once br+ him into relations ) 8 k9d & 8 
behavi\r beg9s to h a new & peculi>     
significance1 n alone to ^! o!rs1 b also
 to himself4 ,:at he does affects !m1 & 
also affects himself s f> z !y det]m9e !
 "* ( 8 relations to ^! o!rs4 ,he mu/1 =
 example1 ei!r "w ) !m or ap>t f !m4 ,he
 mu/ ei!r be on 8 gu>d aga9/ _! secur+  
_! own effici5cy at 8 exp5se1 or re/    
cont5t t a mutual =be>ance & tru/ w     
gov]n _! association4 ,to ignore !m is  
an impossibility4 ,he mu/ reckon ) ^!   
o!rs 9 a ?\s& & "o diff]5t ways1 & ?is  
reckon+ w h its effect on ! m\ld+ ( 8   
nature & ^u !irs4  ,morality1 !n1 :atev]
 else x may be1 is prim>ily ! expression
 ( a relation4 ,& ! laws ( morality are1
 consequ5tly1 a summ>y or description ( 
^? relations4 ,f ?is po9t ( view !y /&  
^u exactly ! same level z any ( ! arts  
or sci5ces4 ,moral actions are ! subject
 matt] ( obs]vation1 & ! det]m9ation (  

_! ess5tial quality or "* is by ! same  
me?ods z we det]m9e ! ess5tial quality (
 ! facts 9 *emi/ry or biology4 ,! task  
be=e ! sci5tific enquir] is1 !re=e1 to  
det]m9e ! conditions :i* give to moral  
rules or laws _! mean+ & validity4  ,"o 
( ! conditions ( a moral action has     
already be5 po9t$ out4 ,?is is t all    
moral rules imply a relation to be+s ( a
 simil> nature4 ,a second feature is t  
conduct repres5ts a =m ( effici5cy1 x is
 a special feature ( ! univ]sal         
biological fact ( adaptation4 ,& ! "q ( 
:y man has a moral s5se is really on all
 f\rs )1 & pres5ts no great] my/]y ?an  
is involv$ 91 ! "q ( :y man has dige/ive
 organs1 & pref]s "s k9ds ( food to     
o!rs4 ,sub/antially1 ! "q ( :y man %\ld 
pref] a diet ( meat & potatoes to "o (  
prussic acid is exactly ! "q ( :y       
society %\ld disc\rage c]ta9 actions &  
enc\rage o!rs1 or :y man's moral ta/e   
%\ld pref] "s =ms ( conduct to o!r =ms4 
,! answ] to bo? que/ions1 :ile diff]+ 9 
=m1 is ! same 9 sub/ance4  ,man z we "k 

him is always f\nd z a memb] ( a gr\p1 &
 8 capacities1 8 feel+s1 & ta/es mu/    
always be consid]$ 9 relation to t fact4
 ,b consid]+ man m]ely z an animal1 & 8 
conduct z m]ely a =m ( adaptation to    
environm5t1 ! pla9 consid]ation :i*     
em]ges is t ev5 z an individual organism
 he is compell$1 9 ord] to live1 to     
avoid c]ta9 actions & to p]=m o!rs1 to  
develop c]ta9 ta/es & to =m c]ta9       
di/a/es4 ,to take our previ\s           
illu/ration x w\ld be impossible = man  
to develop a lik+ = life-de/roy+ foods4 
,x is "o ( ! conditions ( liv+ t he %all
 eat only t food :i* su/a9s life1 or t  
he %all ab/a9 f eat+ sub/ances :i*      
de/roy x4 ,b conduct at t /age is n ( ! 
k9d :i* consid]s ! reasons = act+2      
inde$1 life _c be bas$ ^u consid]$      
action1 h[ev] mu* reason may ju/ify !   
actions tak54 ,fur!r1 z all consci\s    
action is prompt$ by ! impulse to d :at 
is pleasant & to avoid :at is           
unpleasant1 x foll[s1 z ,sp5c] po9t$    
out1 t ! c\rse ( evolution sets up a    

close relation betwe5 actions t are     
pleasurable 9 ! p]=mance & actions t are
 life pres]v+4 ,x is "o ( ! conditions (
 ! ma9t5ance ( life t ! pleasurable & ! 
b5eficial %all 9 ! long run co9cide4    
,:5 we take man z a memb] ( a gr\p we h 
! same pr9ciple 9 op]ation1 ev5 ?\gh !  
=m ( its expression und]goes alt]ation4 
,to beg9 )1 ! m]e fact ( liv+ 9 a gr\p  
implies ! gr[? ( a c]ta9 re/ra9t 9 "o's 
relations to1 & ( reciprocity 9 deal+ )1
 o!rs4 ,m5 c no m live toge!r )\t "s    
am\nt ( tru/ & confid5ce 9 ea* o!r1 or  
)\t a crude s5se ( ju/ice 9 _! deal+s ) 
ea* o!r1 ?an an individual man c ma9ta9 
8 life by eat+ deadly poisons4 ,!re mu/ 
be a respect = ! rights ( o!rs1 ( ju/ice
 9 deal+ ) o!rs1 & ( confid5ce 9        
associat+ ) o!rs1 at lea/ to ! ext5t ( n
 ?reat5+ ! possibility ( gr\p life4 ,!re
 are rules 9 ! game ( social life t mu/ 
be obs]v$1 & 9 its own def5ce society is
 b\nd to suppress ^? ( its memb]s :o    
exhibit /rong anti-social t5d5cies4 ,no 
society c1 = example1 tol]ate homicide z

 an admitt$ practice4 ,!re is1 ?us1 f ! 
e>lie/ times1 a c]ta9 =m ( elim9ation ( 
! anti-social "* :i* results 9 ! gradual
 =mation ( an emotional & m5tal         
disposition t habitually & in/9ctively  
falls into l9e ) ! requirem5ts ( !      
social :ole4  ,to use an expression (   
,sir ,leslie ,/eph5's1 man z a memb] ( !
 gr\p becomes a cell 9 ! social tissue1 
& 8 fitness to survive is dep5d5t ^u1   
positively1 8 read9ess to p]=m su*      
actions z ! welf>e ( ! gr\p require1 &1 
negatively1 ^u 8 refra9+ f do+ ^? ?+s t 
are inimical to social welf>e4#bc       
,moreov]1 !re is ! additional fact t !  
gr\p itself is1 z a :ole1 br\ght into   
contact ) o!r gr\ps1 & ! survival ( "o  
gr\p z aga9/ ano!r is det]m9$ by !      
quality & ! degree ( cohesion ( its     
units4 ,f ?is po9t ( view1 p>ticipation 
9 ! life ( ! gr\p means m ?an refra9+ f 
acts t are injuri\s to ! gr\p1 x        
involves "s degree ( positive           
contribution to social welf>e4  #bc ,!  
"q ( :at are ! ?+s t are ess5tial to !  

welf>e ( ! gr\p1 & ! fact t individuals 
are (t5 suppress$ = do+ :at !y believe  
is b5eficial to ! gr\p1 ) ! k9dr$ fact t
 !re may exi/ grave diff]5ces ( op9ion  
on ! matt]1 does n alt] ! ess5tial po9t1
 :i* is t !re mu/ exi/ suffici5t        
con=mity betwe5 conduct & gr\p welf>e to
 secure survival4  ,b ! ma9 ?+ to note  
is t f ! v dawn ( animal life ! organism
 is m or less "u ! pressure ( a c]ta9   
discipl9e t t5ds to e/abli% an id5tity  
betwe5 actions :i* !re is a t5d5cy to   
p]=m & ^? t are b5eficial to ! organism4
 ,9 ! social /ate we simply h ?is       
pr9ciple express$ 9 ano!r way1 & x gives
 a degree ( consci\s adaptation t is    
abs5t f ! pre-social or ev5 ! l[] =ms ( 
! social /ate4 ,x is 9 ! truly social   
/ate also t we get ! full influ5ce ( :at
 may be call$ ! *>act]i/ically human    
environm5t1 t is1 ! op]ation ( ideas &  
ideals4 ,! importance ( ?is psy*ological
 factor 9 ! life ( man has be5 /ress$ 9 
an e>li] *apt]4 ,x is en\gh n[ to po9t  
out t f ! e>lie/ mom5t ! "y human be+   

is1 by a process ( tra9+1 imbu$ ) c]ta9 
ideals ( tru?fulness1 loyalty1 duty1    
etc41 all ( :i* play _! "p 9 ! m\ld+ ( 8
 "*4 ,h[ev] mu* ^! ideals may v>y 9     
diff]5t societies1 ! fact ( ! "p play$  
by !m 9 m\ld+ "* is pla94 ,!y are !     
dom9ant =ces 9 m\ld+ ! individual to !  
social /ate1 ev5 :ile ! expressions ( ! 
social life may be 9 turn *eck$ by !    
fact t social conduct _c p]si/ if x     
?reat5s ^? conditions ^u :i* ! p]si/5ce 
( life ultimately dep5ds4  ,!re is "o   
o!r consid]ation t mu/ be not$4 ,"o v   
pregnant fact 9 life is t nature seldom 
creates a new organ4 ,:at x usually does
 is to refa%ion an old "o1 or to devote 
an old "o to new uses4 ,?is pr9ciple may
 be se5 cle>ly 9 op]ation 9 connection )
 moral evolution4 ,on ! "o h& ! v>i\s   
=ces t play ^u human nature drive !     
moral feel+s deep] into x4 ,on ! o!r h& 
x develops !m by _! /eady expansion ov] 
a wid] area4 ,:e!r x is an actual fact  
or n--,i d n /ress x because ! po9t is !
 subject ( discussion--x is at lea/     

possible t ! e>lie/ human gr\p is !     
family4 ,& s long z t 0 ! case su*      
feel+s ( "r & wrong z !n exi/$ w h be5  
conf9$ to ! family4 ,b :5 a gr\p (      
families comb9e & =m ! tribe1 all ^?    
feel+s ( confid5ce1 ju/ice1 etc41 :i* 7 
=m]ly *>act]i/ic ( ! small] gr\p are    
exp&$ to cov] ! l>g] "o4 ,) ! expansion 
( ! tribe to ! nation we h a fur!r      
developm5t ( ! same ph5om5on4 ,!re is no
 new creation1 !re is no?+ m ?an        
expansion & developm5t4  ,! process does
 n & _c1 obvi\sly1 /op "h4 ,f ! tribe to
 ! nation1 f ! nation to ! collection ( 
nations :i* we call an empire1 & f !    
empire to ! :ole ( humanity4 ,t seems ! 
inevitable direction ( ! process1 & !re 
does n require pr(\nd insight to see x  
already on ! way4 ,developm5t ( national
 life involves a gr[+ int]dep5d5ce ( !  
_w ( humank9d4 ,( h>dly any nation c x  
be said to-day t x is self-support+ or  
self-conta9$ or indep5d5t4 ,!re is no?+ 
national or sect>ian 9 sci5ce1 & x is to
 sci5ce t we h to look = our pr9cipal   

help4 ,all ov] ! _w we utilize ea* o!r's
 discov]ies & pr(it by ea* o!r's k4 ,ev5
 economic int]dep5d5ce c>ries ) x ! same
 lesson4 ,! human environm5t gets       
gradually broad] & wid]1 & ! feel+s t h 
hi!rto be5 exp&$ ov] ! n>r[] area h n[  
to be exp&$ ov] ! wid] "o4 ,x is !      
gradual developm5t ( a human nature t is
 becom+ adapt$ to a conception ( mank9d 
z an organic unit4 ,naturally1 9 !      
process ( adaptation !re is conflict    
betwe5 ! n>r[] ideals1 cons]v$ 9 our    
educational influ5ces1 & ! wid] ones4   
,!re are /ill l>ge numb]s ( ^? :o1      
unable to picture ! true nature ( !     
evolution>y process ow+ to _! own       
defective education1 yet ?9k ( ! _w 9   
t]ms ( a few c5turies ago1 & /ill wave !
 flag ( a political nationalism z ?\gh t
 7 ! end ( social gr[?1 in/ead ( its be+
 an e>ly & transi5t expression ( x4 ,b  
?is conflict is inevitable1 & ! p]si/5ce
 ( t type c no m ensure its p]man5t     
dom9ation ?an ! p]si/5ce ( ! m$ic9e man 
9 ! p]son ( ! exi/+ cl]gyman c give     

p]man5ce to ! religi\s idea4  ,!re is1  
!n1 no my/]y ab\t ! fact ( morality4 ,x 
is no m ( a my/]y ?an is ! compilation (
 ! multiplication table1 & x has no     
great] ne$ ( a sup]natural sanction ?an 
has ! law ( gravitation4 ,morality is a 
natural fact1 & its en=cem5t & gr[? are 
br\ght ab\t by natural means4 ,9 its l[]
 =m1 morality is no m ?an an expression 
( ^? conditions "u :i* social life is   
possible1 & 9 its high] "o1 an          
expression ( ^? ideal conditions "u :i* 
corporate life is desirable4 ,9 /udy+   
morality we are really /udy+ !          
physiology ( associat$ life1 & t /udy   
aims at ! det]m9ation ( ! conditions "u 
:i* ! be/ =m ( liv+ is possible4 ,x is  
?us t "h1 z else:]e1 man is ?r[n back ^u
 himself = enlight5m5t & help4 ,& if !  
process is a sl[ "o we may at lea/      
console ourselves ) ! reflection t !    
lab\rs ( ea* g5]ation are mak+ ! weapons
 :i* we br+ to ! fight ke5] & bett] able
 to d _! "w4     ,,*apt] ,,xv4          
,,morality ,,)\t ,,god4  7,cont9u$47    

,9 ! prec$+ *apt] ,i h be5 conc]n$ )    
provid+ ! mo/ meagre ( skeleton outl9es 
( ! way 9 :i* our moral laws & our moral
 s5se h come into exi/5ce4 ,to make ?is 
z cle> z possible ! *apt] 0 re/rict$ to 
exposition4 ,controv]sial po9ts 7       
avoid$4 ,& z a matt] ( fact !re are _m  
religioni/s :o might conc$e ! tru? ( :at
 has be5 said conc]n+ ! way 9 :i*       
morality has aris51 & ! nature ( ! =ces 
t h assi/$ 9 its developm5t4 ,b !y w\ld 
proce$ to argue1 z m5 l ,mr4 ,balf\r &  
,mr4 ,b5jam9 ,kidd1 ) o!rs ( ! l1 h     
argu$1 t a natural morality lacks all   
co]cive p[]4 ,! ,free?\ght explanation (
 morality1 !y say1 is plausible en\gh1 &
 may be correct1 b 9 conduct we h to    
deal n m]ely ) ! correctness ( ?+s b )  
sanctions & motives t ex]cise a         
compulsive influ5ce on m5 & wom54 ,!    
religioni/1 x is argu$1 has su* a       
compulsive =ce 9 ! belief 9 ,god & 9 !  
effect on our future life ( our ob$i5ce 
or disob$i5ce to 8 comm&s4 ,b :at k9d ( 
co]cion c a purely naturali/ic sy/em (  

morals ex]t8 ,if a man is cont5t to obey
 ! naturali/ic comm& to practise c]ta9  
virtues & to ab/a9 f c]ta9 vices1 well &
 good4 ,b suppose he *ooses to disreg>d 
x4 ,:at !n8 ,above all1 on :at          
compulsion is a man to disreg>d 8 own   
incl9ations to act z seems desirable to 
himself1 & n 9 con=mity ) ! g5]al       
welf>e8 ,we disreg>d ! religi\s appeal z
 pure s5tim5talism1 or worse1 & we at   
once in/itute an e?ical s5tim5talism :i*
 is1 9 practice1 =$oom$ to failure4  ,or
 to put ! same po9t 9 ano!r way4 ,ea*   
individual1 we say1 %\ld s act z to     
promote ! g5]al welf>e4 ,free?9k] &     
religioni/ are 9 agreem5t "h4 ,& s long 
z "o's incl9ations jump ) ! advice no   
difficulty pres5ts itself4 ,b suppose a 
man's incl9ations d n run 9 ! desir$    
direction8 ,y tell him t he mu/ act s z 
to promote ! g5]al well-be+1 & he       
replies t he is n conc]n$ ) ! promotion 
( ! public welf>e4 ,y say t he ought to 
act diff]5tly1 & he replies1 ,my        
happ9ess mu/ consi/ 9 :at ,i reg>d z    

su*1 n 9 o!r p's conception ( :at x %\ld
 be4 ,y proce$ to po9t out t by p]si/+ 9
 8 pres5t l9e ( conduct he is lay+ up   
tr\ble = ! future1 & he retorts1 ,i am  
will+ to take ! risk4 ,:at is to be done
 ) him8 ,c naturalism %[ t 9 act+ 9 t   
way a man is behav+ unreasonably1 t is1 
9 ! s5se t he c be %[n to be really act+
 aga9/ 8 own int]e/s1 & t if he knew    
bett] he w\ld act diff]5tly8  ,n[ be=e  
attempt+ a reply to ?is x is wor? :ile  
po9t+ out t :atev] /r5g? !re may be 9   
?is criticism :5 direct$ aga9/          
naturalism1 x is equally /rong :5       
direct$ aga9/ sup]naturalism4 ,we c see 
?is at once if we m]ely v>y ! t]ms4 ,y  
tell a man to act 9 ?is or t way 9 ! "n 
( ,god4 ,he replies1 ,i d n believe 9   
,god1 & y\r injunction loses all =ce4   
,or1 if he believes 9 ,god1 & y ?reat5  
him ) ! pa9s & p5alties ( a future life1
 he may reply1 ,i am q will+ to risk a  
probable puni%m5t h]eaft] = a c]ta9     
pleasure "h4 ,& x is c]ta9 t _m d take !
 risk1 :e!r !y express _! det]m9ation to

 d s 9 z _m words or n4  ,:at is a      
sup]naturali/ compell$ to d 9 ?is case8 
,8 me?od ( proc$ure is b\nd to be some?+
 l ! foll[+4 ,fir/ ( all he w seek to   
create ass5t to a p>ticul> proposition  
su* z ,god exi/s1 & also t a belief 9 8 
exi/5ce creates an obligation to act 9  
?is or t mann] 9 accordance ) :at is    
believ$ to be 8 w4 ,t proposition once  
e/abli%$1 8 next bus9ess w be to br+ !  
subject's incl9ations into l9e ) a      
prescrib$ c\rse ( action4 ,he is ?us    
act+ 9 precisely ! same mann] z is !    
naturali/ :o />ts f an altoge!r diff]5t 
set ( premises4 ,& bo? are re/+ _! tea*+
 ( morals ^u an intellectual proposition
 to :i* ass5t is ei!r impli$ or         
express$4 ,& t lies at ! basis ( all    
e?ical tea*+--n e?ical practice1 be x   
obs]v$1 b tea*+4 ,! precise =m 9 :i* ?is
 intellectual proposition is ca/ matt]s 
little4 ,x may be ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 or x
 may be a p>ticul> view ( human nature  
or ( human evolution1 b x is !re1 & 9   
ei!r case ! au?oritative "* ( moral     

precepts exi/s = su* z accept x1 & =    
none o!r4 ,moral practice is root$ 9    
life1 b moral !ory is a diff]5t matt]4  
,s f>1 !n1 x is cle> t ! compla9t t     
,free?\ght e?ics has no?+ ab\t x ( a    
compulsive or au?oritative "* is ei!r a 
begg+ ( ! "q or x is absurd4            
,naturali/ic e?ics really ass]t ?ree    
?+s4 ,! fir/ is t ! cont9uance ( life   
ensures ! p]=mance ( a c]ta9 level (    
conduct1 conduct be+ m]ely "o ( ! means 
by :i* human be+s react to ! necessities
 ( _! environm5t4 ,second1 x ass]ts t a 
prop] und]/&+ ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce w
 9 ! normally con/itut$ m9d /r5g!n !    
developm5t ( a feel+ ( obligation to act
 9 su* & su* a mann]2 & t :ile all      
non-reasonable conduct is n immoral1 all
 immoral conduct is fundam5tally        
irrational4 ,?ird1 !re is ! fur!r       
assumption t at bottom individual &     
g5]al welf>e are n contradictory1 b two 
aspects ( ! same ?+4  ,conc]n+ ! second 
po9t1 ,sir ,leslie ,/eph5 w>ns u        
7,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1 p4 #dcg7 t e attempt 

s to /ate ! e?ical pr9ciple t disob$i5ce
 w be unreasonable is doom$ to failure 9
 a _w :i* is n made up ( work+          
syllogisms4 ,& = ! o!r two po9ts        
,pr(essor ,sorley 7,e?ics ( ,naturalism1
 p4 #db7 tells u t ,x is difficult 444  
to (f] any consid]ation fitt$ to conv9ce
 ! individual t x is reasonable = him to
 seek ! happ9ess ( ! community r ?an 8  
own2 :ile ,mr4 ,b5jam9 ,kidd ass]ts t ! 
int]e/s ( ! individual & ^? ( ! social  
organism are n ei!r id5tical or capable 
( be+ reconcil$1 z has be5 necess>ily   
assum$ 9 all ^? sy/ems ( e?ics :i* h    
s\ght to e/abli% a naturali/ic basis (  
conduct4 ,! two are fundam5tally &      
inh]5tly irreconcilable1 & a l>ge       
proportion ( ! exi/+ individuals at any 
"t h 444 no p]sonal int]e/ :atev] 9 !   
progress ( ! race1 or 9 ! social        
developm5t we are und]go+4  ,x has      
already be5 said t h[ev] difficult x may
 be to e/abli% ! precise relation%ip    
betwe5 reason & e?ical comm&s1 su* a    
connection mu/ be assum$1 :e!r we base  

our e?ics on naturali/ic or             
sup]naturali/ic consid]ations4 ,& x _c  
be d5i$ by anyone to-day t a causal     
relation mu/ exi/ betwe5 actions & _!   
consequ5ces1 :e!r ^? causal consequ5ces 
be ( ! natural & non-moral k9d1 or ( ! m
 def9itely moral ord] su* z exi/s 9 !   
%ape ( social approval & disapproval4 ,&
 if we once grant t1 !n x seems q       
all[able to assume t provid$ a man      
p]ceives ! reason und]ly+ moral         
judgm5ts1 & also ! ju/ification = ! s5se
 ( approval & disapproval express$1 we h
 z mu* reason = call+ 8 conduct         
reasonable or unreasonable z we h =     
apply+ ! same t]ms to a man's behavi\r 9
 dress+ 9 view ( ! v>iations ( !        
temp]ature4  ,consequ5tly1 :ile ,i agree
 t 9 ! pres5t /ate ( k x is impossible 9
 all cases to demon/rate t immoral      
conduct is irrational 9 ! s5se t x w\ld 
be unreasonable to refuse ass5t to a    
ma!matical proposition1 !re seems no    
ju/ification = reg>d+ su* a /ate ( ?+s z
 ( necessity p]man5t4 ,if a sci5tific   

sy/em ( e?ics consi/s 9 =mulat+ rules = 
! pr(itable guidance ( life1 n only does
 _! =mulation presuppose a c]ta9        
con/ancy 9 ! laws ( human nature & ( !  
_w 9 g5]al1 b ! assumption is also      
involv$ t "o day x may be possible to   
give to moral laws ! same precision t n[
 is atta*$ to physiological laws & to   
label dep>ture f !m z unreasonable 9 a v
 real s5se ( ! ^w4  ,! o!r objection t x
 is impossible to e/abli% a reasonable  
relation betwe5 individual & social     
well-be+ arises f a dual confusion z to 
:at is ! prop] sph]e ( e?ics1 & ( !     
mutual relation ( ! individual &        
society4 ,to take an individual & ask1  
,:y %\ld he act s z to promote ! g5]al  
welf>e8 is to imply t e?ical rules may h
 an application to man out ( relation ) 
8 fell[s4 ,t1 we h already se51 is q    
wrong1 s9ce moral rules fail to be      
intelligible once we sep>ate man f 8    
fell[s4 ,discuss+ e?ics :ile leav+ out  
social life is l discuss+ ! functions ( 
! lungs & leav+ out ( acc\nt ! exi/5ce (

 an atmosph]e4  ,if1 !n1 in/ead ( treat+
 ! individual & society z two di/9ct    
?+s1 ei!r ( :i* may pr(it at ! exp5se ( 
! o!r1 we treat !m z two sides ( ! same 
?+1 ea* an ab/raction :5 treat$ alone1 !
 problem is simplifi$1 & ! solution     
becomes appreciably easi]4 ,= ! ess5tial
 tru? "h is t j z !re is no su* ?+ z a  
society 9 ! abs5ce ( ! individuals      
compos+ x1 s ! individual1 z we "k him1 
disappe>s :5 we /rip him ( all t he is 9
 virtue ( 8 be+ a "p ( ! social         
/ructure4 ,e "o ( ! *>act]i/ic human    
qualities has be5 develop$ 9 response to
 ! requirem5ts ( ! social m$ium4 ,x is 9
 virtue ( ?is t morality has any?+ ( an 
imp]ative nature connect$ ) x1 = if man 
is1 to use ,sir ,leslie ,/eph5's phrase1
 a cell 9 ! social tissue1 receiv+      
injury z ! body social is injur$1 &     
b5efitt+ z x is b5efitt$1 !n ! refusal (
 a man to act s t he may promote ! g5]al
 welf>e c be %[n to be unreasonable1 &  
also unpr(itable to ! individual        
himself4 ,9 o!r words1 our effici5cy z  

an individual mu/ be measur$ 9 t]ms (   
our fitness to =m "p ( ! social         
/ructure1 & consequ5tly ! anti!sis      
betwe5 social & p]sonal well-be+ is only
 on ! surface4 ,deep] k & a m exact     
und]/&+ reveals !m z two sides ( ! same 
fact4  ,x may be grant$ to ,mr4 ,kidd t 
a l>ge proportion ( ! exi/+ individuals 
at any "t h no consci\s int]e/ 9 !      
progress ( ! race or 9 ! developm5t we  
are und]go+1 & t is only :at "o w\ld    
expect1 b x w\ld be absurd to !re=e come
 to ! conclusion t no su* id5tity (     
int]e/ exi/s4 ,moli]e's "*1 :o all 8    
life _h be5 talk+ prose )\t kn[+ x1 is  
only a type ( ! majority ( folk :o all  
_! lives are act+ 9 accordance )        
pr9ciples ( :i* !y are ignorant1 & :i*  
!y may ev5 repudiate :5 !y are expla9$  
to !m4 ,f "o po9t ( view ! :ole object (
 a sci5tific morality is to awak5 a     
consci\s recognition ( ! pr9ciples      
und]ly+ conduct1 & by ?is means to      
/r5g!n ! disposition to "r action4 ,we  
make explicit 9 language :at has hi!rto 

be5 implicit 9 action1 & ?us br+        
consci\s ef=t to ! aid ( non-consci\s or
 semi-consci\s behavi\r4  ,9 ! light ( !
 above consid]ation ! long & wordy      
conte/ t has be5 wag$ betwe5 ,altrui/s &
 ,egoi/s is se5 to be v l>gely a wa/e ( 
"t & a splutt] ( words4 ,if x c be %[n  
on ! "o h& t all m5 are n animat$ by !  
desire to b5efit self1 x is z easy to   
demon/rate t s long z human nature is   
human nature1 all conduct mu/ be an     
expression ( individual "*1 & t ev5 !   
morality ( self-sacrifice is self-reg>d+
 view$ f ! p]sonal feel+s ( ! ag5t4 ,& x
 be+ cle> t ! position ( ,egoi/ &       
,altrui/1 :ile ea* express+ a tru?1 is  
nei!r express+ ! :ole tru?1 & t ea* does
 9 fact embody a def9ite error1 x seems 
probable t "h1 z 9 s _m o!r cases1 !    
tru? lies betwe5 ! two extremes1 & t a  
reconciliation may be effect$ along ^!  
l9es4  ,tak+ animal life z a :ole x is  
at lea/ cle> t :at are call$ !          
self-reg>d+ feel+s mu/ come fir/ 9 ord] 
( developm5t4 ,ev5 ) ! l[] races ( human

 be+s !re is less conc]n %[n ) ! feel+s 
& welf>e ( o!rs ?an is ! case ) ! high] 
races ( m54 ,or1 aga91 ) *ildr5 we h ^! 
feel+s /ronge/ 9 *ildhood & und]go+ a   
gradual expansion z maturity is rea*$4  
,?is is br\ght ab\t1 z 0 %[n 9 ! la/    
*apt]1 n by ! de/ruction ( exi/+ feel+s1
 b by _! ext5sion to an ev] wid5+ area4 
,!re is a trans=mation1 or an           
elaboration ( exi/+ feel+s "u ! pressure
 ( social gr[?4 ,"o may say t e?ical    
developm5t does n proce$ by ! de/ruction
 ( ! feel+ ( self-int]e/1 s mu* z by its
 ext5sion to a wid] field4 ,e?ical gr[? 
is ?us on all f\rs ) biological gr[?4 ,9
 biology we are all famili> ) ! tru? t  
ma9t5ance ( life is dep5d5t ^u ! exi/5ce
 ( h>moni\s relations betwe5 an organism
 & its environm5t4 ,yet x is n always   
recogniz$ t ?is pr9ciple is z true ( !  
moral self z x is ( ! physical /ructure1
 nor t 9 human evolution ! exi/5ce (    
o!rs becomes ( increas+ importance &    
significance4 ,= n only d ,i h to adapt 
myself1 m5tally & morally1 to ! society 

n[ exi/+1 b also to societies t h long  
s9ce pass$ away & h left _! contribution
 to ! build+ up ( my environm5t 9 ! %ape
 ( in/itutions & beliefs & lit]ature4   
,we h 9 ?is "o m illu/ration t :ile !   
environm5t ( ! animal is ov]:elm+ly     
physical 9 "*1 t ( man t5ds to become   
ov]:elm+ly social or psy*ological4      
,desires are creat$ t c only be gratifi$
 by ! pres5ce & ! lab\r ( o!rs4 ,feel+s 
arise t h direct ref]5ce to o!rs1 & 9   
num]\s ways a body ( altrui/ic feel+ is 
creat$4 ,s by social gr[? fir/1 &       
aft]w>ds by reflection1 man is taught t 
! only life t is enjoyable to himself is
 "o t is liv$ 9 ! companion%ip & by !   
co-op]ation ( o!rs4 ,z ,pr(essor ,ziegl]
 well puts ! process3--       ,n only on
 ! "o h& does x conc]n ! int]e/s ( !    
g5]al welf>e t e individual %\ld take   
c>e ( himself      outw>dly & inw>dly2  
ma9ta9 8 heal?2 cultivate 8             
faculties & p[]s2 su/a9 8 position1     
hon\r1 & wor?1 &      s 8 own welf>e be+
 secur$1 diffuse ar\nd him happ9ess &   

com=t2 b also1 on ! o!r h&1 x conc]ns ! 
p]sonal1      well und]/ood int]e/s ( ! 
individual himself t he %\ld            
promote ! int]e/s ( o!rs1 contribute to 
_! happ9ess1      s]ve _! int]e/s1 & ev5
 make sacrifices = !m4 ,j z      "o     
=goes a mom5t>y pleasure 9 ord] to      
secure a la/+ &      great] enjoym5t1 s 
! individual will+ly sacrifices 8       
p]sonal welf>e & com=t = ! sake (       
society 9 ord] to      %>e 9 ! welf>e ( 
?is society2 he buries 8 individual     
well-be+ 9 ord] t he may see x rise 9   
ri*] & full]      abundance 9 ! welf>e &
 happ9ess ( ! :ole community            
7,social ,e?ics1 pp4 #ei-fj74  ,^!      
motives are n ( necessity consci\s ones4
 ,no "o imag9es t be=e p]=m+ a social   
action ea* "o sits d[n & goes ?r\gh a m 
or less elaborate calculation4 ,all t   
has be5 writt5 on ?is head conc]n+ a    
,utilit>ian calculus is poor fun & q    
beside ! m>k4 ,9 ?is matt]1 z 9 s _m    
o!rs1 x is ! evolution>y process :i*    
dem&s consid]ation1 & g5]ations ( social

 /ruggle1 by we$+ out individuals ^:    
incl9ations 7 ( a pron\nc$ anti-social  
k9d1 & tribes 9 :i* ! cohesion betwe5   
its memb]s 0 weak1 h result$ 9 br++ ab\t
 m or less ( an id5tification betwe5    
individual desires & ! g5]al welf>e4 ,x 
is n a "q ( consci\s evolution s mu* z (
 our becom+ consci\s ( an evolution t is
 tak+ place1 & 9 discuss+ ! nature (    
morals "o is b\nd to g beyond ! express$
 reasons = conduct--m (t5 wrong ?an     
"r--& discov] ! deep] & tru] causes (   
in/9cts & actions4 ,:5 ?is is done x w  
be f\nd t :ile x is absolutely          
impossible to de/roy ! connection betwe5
 conduct & self-reg>d+ actions1 !re is  
proce$+ a gr[+ id5tity betwe5 !         
gratification ( desire & ! well-be+ ( ! 
:ole4 ,?is w be1 n because ( "s         
fanta/ical or ascetic tea*+ (           
self-sacrifice1 b because man be+ an    
expression ( social life is b\nd to f9d 
9 activities t h a social ref]5ce !     
beg9n+ & end ( 8 conduct4  ,! fe>s ( a  
morality )\t ,god are1 !re=e1 q unf\nd$4

 ,if :at has be5 said be grant$1 x      
foll[s t all e?ical rules are prim>ily  
on ! same level z a g5]alization 9 any (
 ! sci5ces4 ,j z ! laws ( a/ronomy or ( 
biology r$uce to ord] ! app>5tly *aotic 
ph5om5a ( _! respective dep>tm5ts1 s    
e?ical laws seek to r$uce to an         
intelligible ord] ! conditions (        
individual & social bett]m5t4 ,!re c be 
no ultimate anti!sis betwe5 individual  
reason & ! highe/ =m ( social conduct1  
al?\gh !re may exi/ an app>5t conflict  
betwe5 ! two1 *iefly ow+ to ! fact t we 
are (t5 unable to trace ! remote effects
 ( conduct on self & society4 ,nor c !re
 be an ultimate or p]man5t conflict     
betwe5 ! true int]e/s ( ! individual & (
 society at l>ge4 ,t su* an opposition  
does exi/ 9 ! m9ds ( _m is true1 b x is 
"h wor?y ( note t ! cle>e/ & mo/ pr(\nd 
?9k]s h always f\nd 9 ! field ( social  
ef=t ! be/ sph]e = ! gratification ( _! 
desires4 ,& "h aga9 we may confid5tly   
hope t an increas$ & m accurate         
appreciation ( ! causes t det]m9e human 

welf>e w d mu* to dim9i% ?is antagonism4
 ,at any rate x is cle> t human nature  
has be5 m\ld$ 9 accordance ) ! reactions
 ( self & society 9 su* a way t ev5 !   
self has become an expression ( social  
life1 & ) ?is dual aspect be=e u !re is 
no reason :y emphasis %\ld be laid on "o
 factor r ?an on ! o!r4  ,to sum up4    
,elim9at+ ! =m ( co]cion t is repres5t$ 
by a policeman1 e>?ly or o!rwise1 we may
 safely say t a naturali/ic e?ics has   
all ! co]cive =ce t c be possess$ by any
 sy/em4 ,& x has ?is advantage ov] !    
co]cive =ce ( ! sup]naturali/1 t :ile ! 
latt] t5ds to weak5 ) ! advance (       
intellig5ce1 ! =m] ga9s /r5g? z m5 &    
wom5 beg9 to m cle>ly appreciate ! true 
conditions ( social life & developm5t4  
,x is 9 ?is way t !re is f9ally e/abli%$
 a connection betwe5 :at is reasonable &
 :at is "r4 ,9 ?is case x is ! function 
( reason to discov] ! =ces t h made = ! 
moralization--really ! socialization--( 
man1 & s /r5g!n man's moral nature by   
demon/rat+ ! fundam5tal id5tity betwe5 8

 own welf>e & t ( ! gr\p to :i* he      
belongs4 ,t ! co]cion may 9 "s cases be 
q ineffective mu/ be admitt$4 ,!re w    
always1 "o fancies1 be cases :]e !      
p]sonal "* refuses to adapt itself to ! 
curr5t social /ate4 ,t is a =m (        
mal-adaptation :i* society w always h to
 face1 exactly z x has to face cases (  
atavism 9 o!r directions4 ,b ! socializ+
 & moraliz+ process cont9ues4 ,& h[ev]  
mu* ?is may be1 9 its e>li] /ages1      
entangl$ ) conceptions ( ! sup]natural1 
x is c]ta9 t gr[? w involve !           
disappe>ance ( t factor "h z x has done 
else:]e4     ,,*apt] ,,xvi4             
,,*ri/ianity ,,& ,,morality4   ,!       
association ( religion ) morality is a v
 anci5t "o4 ,?is is n because ! "o is   
impossible )\t ! o!r1 we h already %[n t
 ?is is n ! case4 ,! reason is t unless 
religi\s beliefs are associat$ ) c]ta9  
ess5tial social activities _! cont9uance
 is almo/ impossible4 ,?us x happ5s 9 ! 
c\rse ( social evolution t j 9          
proportion z man le>ns to rely ^u !     

purely social activities to t ext5t     
religion is driv5 to dwell m ^u !m & to 
claim k9%ip ) !m4  ,:ile ?is is true (  
religions 9 g5]al1 x applies ) peculi>  
=ce to ,*ri/ianity4 ,& 9 ! la/ two or   
?ree c5turies we h se5 ! emphasis       
gradually %ift$ f a set ( doctr9es1 ^u !
 acceptance ( :i* man's et]nal salvation
 dep5ds1 to a numb] ( e?ical & social   
tea*+s ) :i* ,*ri/ianity1 z su*1 has no 
vital conc]n4 ,! pres5t g5]ation (      
,*ri/ian believ]s has _h :at is call$ ! 
moral aspect ( ,*ri/ianity s con/antly  
impress$ ^u !m1 & ! ess5tial & doctr9al 
aspect s slurr$ ov]1 t _m ( !m h come to
 accept ! moral tea*+ associat$ )       
,*ri/ianity z its mo/ important aspect4 
,m ?an t1 !y h come to reg>d ! imm5se   
sup]iority ( ,*ri/ianity z "o ( ^?      
/atem5ts ! tru? ( :i* c be d\bt$ by none
 b ! mo/ obtuse4 ,to h ?is alleg$       
sup]iority ( ,*ri/ian e?ical tea*+      
que/ion$ appe>s to !m pro( ( "s lack (  
moral developm5t on ! "p ( ! que/ion]4  
,to ?is type ( believ] x w come ) some?+

 ( a %ock to be told q pla9ly & )\t ei!r
 circumlocution or apology t 8 religion 
is ( an int5sely selfi% & egoi/ic "*1 & 
t its e?ical influ5ce is ( a k9d t is f>
 f admirable4 ,x w %ock him because he  
has = s long be5 told t 8 religion is ! 
v qu9tess5ce ( unselfi%ness1 he has = s 
long be5 tell+ x to o!rs1 & he has be5  
able = s _m g5]ations to make x         
uncom=table = all ^? :o took an opposite
 view1 t he has cam\flag$ bo? ! nature (
 8 own motives & ! t5d5cy ( 8 religion4 
,f "o po9t ( view ?is is "p ( ! g5]al   
s*eme 9 virtue ( :i* ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*   
has giv5 curr5cy to ! leg5d t ! doctr9es
 taught by x repres5t$ a trem5d\s       
advance 9 ! developm5t ( ! race4 ,9 sob]
 tru? x repres5t$ no?+ ( ! k9d4 ,t !    
elem5ts ( ,*ri/ian religi\s tea*+ exi/$ 
long be=e ,*ri/ianity z a religi\s sy/em
 0 kn[n to ! _w is n[ a commonplace )   
all /ud5ts ( comp>ative religions1 & is 
admitt$ by mo/ ,*ri/ian writ]s ( repute4
 ,ev5 9 =m ! ,*ri/ian doctr9es repres5t$
 b a small advance ^u _! pagan          

prototypes1 b x is only :5 "o be>s 9 m9d
 ! fact t ! be/ m9ds ( antiquity 7      
rapidly ?r[+ (f ^! sup]/itions & lead+ !
 _w to a m enlight5$ view ( ?+s1 we     
realize t 9 ! ma9 ,*ri/ianity repres5t$ 
a /ep backw>d 9 ! intellectual evolution
 ( ! race4 ,:at we !n see is ,*ri/ianity
 reaffirm+ & re-e/abli%+ mo/ ( ! old    
sup]/itions 9 =ms 9 :i* only ! m        
ignorant classes ( antiquity accept$ !m4
 ,we h an ass]tion ( demonism 9 its     
crude/ =ms1 an affirmation ( ! miracul\s
 t ! educat$ 9 ! ,roman _w _h le>n$ to  
laugh at1 & :i* is to-day f\nd among !  
savage p ( ! e>?1 :ile e =m ( sci5tific 
?\ght 0 look$ ^u z an act ( impiety4 ,! 
sci5tific eclipse t ov]took ! old pagan 
civilization 0 "o ( ! inevitable        
consequ5ces ( ! triumph ( ,*ri/ianity4  
,f ! po9t ( view ( g5]al culture !      
retrogressive nature ( ,*ri/ianity is   
unmi/akable4 ,x has yet to be recogniz$ 
t ! same /atem5t holds good 9 relation  
ev5 to religion4 ,"o day ! _w w         
appreciate ! fact t no great] disa/] ev]

 ov]took ! _w ?an ! triumph ( ! ,*ri/ian
 ,*ur*4  ,= ! mom5t1 h[ev]1 we are only 
conc]n$ ) ! relation ( ,*ri/ianity to   
morality4 ,& "h my !sis is t ,*ri/ianity
 is an ess5tially selfi% cre$ mask+ its 
egoi/ic impulses "u a cov] (            
unselfi%ness & self-sacrifice4 ,to t x w
 probably be said t ! *>ge breaks d[n on
 ! fact t ,*ri/ian tea*+ is full ( !    
exhortation t ?is _w is ( no mom5t1 t we
 ga9 salvation by le>n+ to ignore its   
temptations & to =go its pleasures1 & t 
x is1 above all o!r fai?s1 ! religion ( 
p]sonal sacrifice4 ,& t ?is tea*+ is !re
 x w\ld be /upid to d5y4 ,b ?is does n  
disprove :at has be5 said1 inde$1       
analysis only s]ves to make ! tru? /ill 
pla9]4 ,t _m ,*ri/ians h giv5 up !      
prizes ( ! _w is too pla9 to be d5i$2 t 
!y h =sak5 all t _m /ruggle to possess  
is also pla94 ,b :5 ?is has be5 admitt$ 
!re /ill rema9s ! tru? t !re is a vital 
di/9ction 9 ! consid]ation ( :e!r a man 
gives up ! _w 9 ord] to save 8 own s\l1 
or :e!r he saves 8 s\l z a consequ5ce ( 

los+ ! _w4 ,9 ?is matt] x is ! aim t is 
important1 n only to ! outsid] :o may be
 pass+ judgm5t1 b m importantly to !    
ag5t himself4 ,x is ! effect ( ! motive 
on "* ) its subsequ5t fl[]+ 9 social    
life t mu/ be consid]$4  ,! fir/ c\nt 9 
! indictm5t "h is t ! ,*ri/ian appeal is
 ess5tially a selfi% "o4 ,! aim is n !  
sav+ ( o!rs b ( "o's self4 ,if o!r p mu/
 be sav$ x is because _! salvation is   
believ$ to be ess5tial to ! sav+ ( "o's 
own s\l4 ,t ?is involves1 or may        
involve1 a surr5d] ( "o's worldly       
possessions or com=t1 is ( no mom5t4 ,m5
 w =go _m pleasures & give up mu* :5 !y 
h :at !y believe to be a great] purpose 
9 view4 ,we see ?is 9 directions q      
unconnect$ ) religion4 ,politics w %[ u 
examples ( m5 :o h =sak5 _m ( :at are to
 o!rs ! com=ts ( life 9 ! hopes ( ga9+  
p[] & fame4 ,o!rs w d5y !mselves _m     
pleasures 9 ! prospect ( a*iev+ "s end  
:i* to !m is ( f> great] value ?an ! ?+s
 !y are r5\nc+4 ,& x is ! same pr9ciple 
t op]ates 9 ! case ( religi\s devotees4 

,!re is no reason to d\bt b t :5 a "y   
woman =sakes ! _w & goes into a cloi/]  
%e is surr5d]+ mu* t has consid]able    
attractions = h]4 ,b :at %e gives is to 
h] ( small importance to :at %e ga9s 9  
return4 ,& if "o believ$ 9 ,*ri/ianity1 
9 immortal damnation1 ) ! int5sity ( !  
great ,*ri/ian types ( "*1 x w\ld be    
fooli% n to surr5d] ?+s ( s little value
 = o!rs ( s great & transc5d5t          
importance4  ,to d ,*ri/ians ju/ice !y h
 n usually made a secret ( _! aim4 ,"r  
?r\gh ,*ri/ian lit]ature !re runs !     
tea*+ t x is ! desire ( p]sonal &       
immortal salvation t inspires !m1 & !y h
 affirm$ ov] & ov] aga9 t b = ! prospect
 ( be+ paid back ) trem5d\s int]e/ 9 !  
next _w !y c\ld see no reason = be+ good
 9 ?is "o4 ,t is emphatically ! tea*+ ( 
! ,new ,te/am5t & ( ! greate/ ( ,*ri/ian
 *>act]s4 ,y are to give 9 secret t y   
may be rew>d$ op5ly1 to ca/ y\r bread ^u
 ! wat]s t x may be return$ to y1 &     
,paul's c\nsel is t if !re be no        
resurrection f ! dead !n we may eat1    

dr9k1 & be m]ry = dea? only is be=e u4  
,?us1 :at y d is 9 ! nature ( a         
delib]ate & consci\s inve/m5t on :i* y w
 receive a h&some divid5d 9 ! next _w4  
,& y\r read9ess to inve/ w be exactly   
proportionate to y\r conviction ( !     
s\ndness ( ! security4 ,b !re is 9 all  
?is no p]ception ( ! truly e?ical basis 
( conduct1 no indication ( ! inevitable 
consequ5ces ( conduct on "*4 ,:at is    
good is det]m9$ by :at x is believ$ w   
save "o's own s\l & increase ! divid5d 9
 ! next _w4 ,:at is bad is any?+ t w    
imp]il ! security4 ,x is ess5tially an  
appeal to :at is grasp+ & selfi% 9 human
 nature1 & :ile y may hide ! true "* ( a
 ?+ by ! lavi% use ( attractive phrases1
 y _c h9d] x work+ out its consequ5ces 9
 actual life4 ,& ! consequ5ce ( ?is has 
be5 t :ile ,*ri/ian tea*+ has be5 lavi% 
9 ! use ( attractive phrases its actual 
result has be5 to create a type ( "* t  
has be5 n s mu* immoral z amoral4 ,& ) t
 type ! good t has be5 done on ! "o side
 has be5 m ?an c\nt]balanc$ by ! evil   

done on ! o!r4  ,:at ! typical ,*ri/ian 
"* _h 9 m9d 9 all t he did 0 nei!r !    
removal ( suff]+ nor ( inju/ice1 b !    
salvation ( 8 own s\l4 ,t ju/ifi$ ev]y?+
 s long z x 0 believ$ to contribute to t
 end4 ,! social consequ5ces ( :at 0 done
 simply did n c\nt4 ,& if1 in/ead ( tak+
 m]e phrases f ! pr9cipal ,*ri/ian      
writ]s1 we c>efully exam9e _! mean+ we  
%all see t !y 7 /rangely devoid ( :at is
 n[ und]/ood by ! expression moral      
inc5tive4 ,! m impressive ! outbreak (  
,*ri/ian piety ! cle>] does ?is become4 
,no "o c\ld h illu/rat$ ! ,*ri/ian ideal
 ( self-sacrifice bett] ?an did ! sa9ts 
& monks ( ! e>li] ,*ri/ian c5turies4    
,su* a "* z ! fam\s ,/4 ,simon ,/ylites1
 liv+ = ye>s on 8 pill>1 fil?y & v]m9\s1
 & yet ! admir$ ( ,*ri/5dom1 ) ! lives (
 num]\s o!r sa9ts1 ^: sole claim to be  
rememb]$ is t !y liv$ ! lives ( worse   
?an animals 9 ! selfi% endeav\rs to save
 _! %runk5 s\ls1 w well illu/rate ?is   
po9t4 ,if x ent]$ ! diseas$ imag9ation (
 ^! m5 t ! road to salvation lay ?r\gh  

att5d+ to ! sick & ! ne$y1 !y 7 q ready 
to lab\r 9 t direction2 b ( any desire  
to remove ! horrible social conditions t
 prevail$1 or to rem$y ! inju/ice ( :i* 
_! cli5ts 7 ! victims1 !re is seldom a  
trace4 ,&1 on ! o!r h&1 if !y believ$ t 
_! salvation involv$ gett+ away f human 
society altoge!r & lead+ ! life ( a     
h]mit1 !y 7 z ready to d t4 ,if x meant 
! =sak+ ( husb& or wife or p>5t or *ild1
 ^! 7 left )\t compunction1 & _!        
des]tion 0 c\nt$ z pro( ( righte\sness4 
,! lives ( ! sa9ts are full (           
illu/rations ( ?is4 ,pr(essor ,william  
,james well rem>ks1 9 8 ,v>ieties (     
,religi\s ,exp]i5ce1 t ,9 g5tle *>act]s1
 :]e dev\tness is int5se & ! intellect  
feeble1 we h an imag9ative absorption 9 
! love ( ,god to ! exclusion ( all      
practical human int]e/s4444 ,:5 ! love (
 ,god takes possession ( su* a m9d x    
expels all human loves & human uses4 ,( 
! ,bless$ ,/4 ,m>y ,alacoque1 h]        
biograph] po9ts out t z %e became       
absorb$ 9 ! love ( ,*ri/ %e became      

increas+ly useless to ! practical life (
 ! conv5t4 ,( ,/4 ,t]esa1 ,james rem>ks 
t al?\gh a woman ( /rong intellect 8    
impression ( h] 0 a feel+ ( pity t s mu*
 vitality ( s\l %\ld h f\nd su* poor    
employm5t4 ,& ( s fam\s a "* z ,/4      
,augu/9e a ,*ri/ian writ]1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,c4 
,b5son1 rem>ks3--       ,i 0 mu* int]e/$
 9 read+ ,/4 ,augu/9e's ,confessions    
lately to recognize h[ small a "p1 aft] 
8 conv]sion1 any      aspirations = !   
welf>e ( humanity seem to play 9 8 m9d  
comp>$ ) ! consci\sness ( 8 own p]sonal 
relations )      ,god4 ,x 0 ?is :i* gave
 him 8 exub]ant s5se ( joy &      peace1
 & 8 impulse 0 r ! impulse ( %>+ a      
wond]ful & beautiful secret ) o!rs ?an  
an imm$iate desire      = _! welf>e1 =c$
 out ( him1 s to speak1 by 8 own        
exultation r ?an drawn out ( him by     
compassion = ! ne$s      ( o!rs4  ,t is 
"o ( ! mo/ con/ant features :i* em]ges f
 a c>eful /udy ( ! "* ( ,*ri/ian types4 
,/4 ,francis comm5c$ 8 c>e] by leav+ 8  
p>5ts4 ,john ,fox did ! same4 ,9 t      

,puritan classic1 ,! ,pilgrim's         
,progress1 "o ( ! out/&+ features is !  
/rik+ abs5ce ( emphasis on ! value ( !  
social & dome/ic virtues1 & ! ,rev4     
,pr9cipal ,donaldson notes ?is z "o ( ! 
features ( e>ly ,*ri/ian lit]ature 9    
g5]al4 ,*ri/ian prea*+ 0 = c5turies full
 ( contemptu\s ref]5ces to fil?y rags ( 
righte\sness1 m]e morality1 etc4 ,! aim 
( ! sa9ts 0 a purely selfi% & p]sonal   
"o4 ,x 0 n ev5 a ref9$ or a metaphysical
 selfi%ness4 ,x 0 a simple tea*+ t ! "o 
?+ ess5tial 0 to save "o's own s\l1 & t 
! ma9 reason = do+ good 9 ?is _w 0 to   
reap a b5efit f x 9 ! _w to come4 ,if x 
c prop]ly be call$ morality1 x 0 conduct
 plac$ out at ! highe/ rate ( int]e/4   
,*ri/ianity may (t5 h us$ a naturally   
l(ty "*1 x 0 next to impossible = x to  
create "o4  ,if "o exam9es ! attack made
 by ,*ri/ians ^u ,free?\ght morality1 x 
is surpris+ h[ (t5 ! tru? ( :at has be5 
said is impli$4 ,= ! compla9t "h is1 9 !
 ma91 n t naturalism fails to give an   
adequate acc\nt ( ! nature & developm5t 

( morality1 b t x w n satisfy mank9d1 & 
s fails to act z an adequate motive to  
"r conduct4 ,:5 we enquire precisely :at
 is meant by ?is1 we le>n t if !re is no
 belief 9 ,god1 & if !re is no          
expectation ( a future /ate 9 :i* rew>ds
 & puni%m5ts w be disp5s$1 !re rema9s no
 inducem5t to ! av]age man or woman to d
 "r4 ,x is ! moral tea*+ ( ,/4 ,paul ov]
 aga94 ,we are 9 ! region ( morality z a
 delib]ate inve/m5t1 & we h ! ?reat t if
 ! int]e/ is n high en\gh or c]ta9 en\gh
 to satisfy ! divid5d hunt+ appetite ( !
 true believ]1 !n ! inve/m5t w be       
)drawn4 ,really ?is is a compla9t1 n t !
 morality :i* ignores ,*ri/ianity is too
 l[ b t x is too high4 ,x is d\bt$ :e!r 
human nature1 p>ticul>ly ,*ri/ian human 
nature1 c rise to su* a level1 & :e!r1  
unless y c gu>antee a ,*ri/ian a        
suitable rew>d = n />v+ 8 family or = n 
robb+ 8 neighb\r1 he w cont9ue to place 
any value on dec5cy or hone/y4  ,s to   
/ate ! case makes ! absurdity ( !       
argum5t app>5t1 b unless t is :at is    

meant x is difficult to make x          
intelligible4 ,to reply t ,*ri/ians d n 
require ^! inducem5ts to behave ) a     
tol]able am\nt ( dec5cy is n a /atem5t t
 ,i %\ld dispute2 on ! contr>y1 ,i w\ld 
affirm x4 ,x is ! ,*ri/ian def5d] :o    
makes himself & 8 fell[ believ]s worse  
?an ! ,free?9k] believes !m to be4 ,= x 
is "p ( ! case ( ! ,free?9k] t !        
morality ( ! ,*ri/ian has really no     
connection ) 8 religion1 & t ! net      
influ5ce ( 8 cre$ is to confuse & di/ort
 8 moral s5se in/ead ( develop+ x4 ,x is
 ! argum5t ( ! ,*ri/ian t makes !       
,free?9k] sup]ior to ! ,*ri/ian2 x is ! 
,free?9k] :o decl9es ! complim5t & :o   
ass]ts t ! social =ces are adequate to  
gu>antee ! cont9uance ( morality 9 !    
complete abs5ce ( religi\s belief4  ,h[ 
little ! ,*ri/ian religion appreciates !
 nature ( morality is se5 by ! fav\rite 
expression ( ,*ri/ian apologi/s t !     
t5d5cy ( non-religion is to remove all  
moral re/ra9ts4 ,! use ( ! ^w is        
illum9at+4 ,to ! ,*ri/ian morality is no

 m ?an a sy/em ( re/ra9ts :i* aim at    
prev5t+ a man gratify+ 8 appetite 9     
c]ta9 directions4 ,x =bids him c]ta9    
enjoym5ts "h1 & promises him z a rew>d =
 8 ab/5tion a great] b5efit h]eaft]4 ,& 
on t assumption he argues1 q naturally1 
t if !re be no aft] life !n !re seems no
 reason :y man %\ld und]go ! re/ra9ts   
:i* moral rules impose4 ,on ?is s*eme   
man is a born crim9al & ,god an almighty
 policeman4 ,t is ! sum ( or?odox       
,*ri/ian morality4 ,to assume t ?is     
conception ( conduct c h a really       
elevat+ effect on life is to misund]/& !
 nature ( ! :ole ( ! e?ical & social    
problem4  ,:at has be5 said may g "s    
di/ance t[>ds sugge/+ an answ] to ! "q s
 (t5 ask$ z to ! reason = ! moral       
failure ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,= t x has be5 a 
moral failure no "o c d\bt4 ,nay1 x is  
an ass]tion made v g5]ally by ,*ri/ians 
!mselves4 ,"r f ,new ,te/am5t times !   
compla9t t ! conduct ( believ]s has     
fall5 f> %ort ( :at x %\ld h be5 is     
con/antly met )4 ,& !re is n a s+le     

direction 9 :i* ,*ri/ians c claim a     
moral sup]iority ov] o!r & non-,*ri/ian 
peoples4 ,!y are nei!r k9d]1 m tol]ant1 
m sob]1 m *a/e1 nor m tru?ful ?an are   
non-,*ri/ian p4 ,nor is x q )\t         
significance t ^? nations t pride       
!mselves mo/ ^u _! ,*ri/ianity are :at  
!y are4 ,_! /ate reflects ! e?ical _s ,i
 h be5 try+ to describe4 ,= :5 we wipe  
out ! disguis+ phrases :i* we use to    
deceive ourselves--& x is almo/         
impossible to cont9ually deceive o!rs   
unless we d manage to deceive           
ourselves--:5 we put on "o side !       
rationaliz+ phrases ab\t ,imp]ial races1
 c>ry+ civilization to ! d>k places ( ! 
e>?1 be>+ ! :ite man's burd51 peopl+ !  
wa/e places ( ! e>?1 etc41 we may well  
ask :at = c5turies h ! ,*ri/ian nations 
( ! _w be5 b s _m gangs ( freeboot]s    
engag$ 9 _w-wide piracy8 ,all ov] ! _w  
!y h gone1 fight+1 /eal+1 kill+1 ly+1   
annex+1 9 a /eadily ris+ cresc5do4 ,to  
be possess$ ( natural weal?1 )\t ! means
 ( resi/+ aggression1 has = f\r c5turies

 be5 to invite ! depr$ations ( "s "o or 
m ( ! ,*ri/ian p[]s4 ,x is ! ,*ri/ian   
p[]s t h milit>iz$ ! _w 9 ! "n ( !      
,pr9ce ( ,peace1 & made piracy a        
national occupation 9 ! "n (            
civilization4 ,ev]y:]e !y h done ^! ?+s 
"u ! %elt] ( _! religion & ) ! sanction 
( _! cre$4 ,*ri/ianity has (f]$ no      
effective *eck to ! cupidity ( man1 its 
*ief "w has be5 to f9d an outlet = x 9 a
 disguis$ =m4 ,to borr[ a t]m f !       
psy*o-analy/s1 ! task ( ,*ri/ianity has 
be5 to rationalize c]ta9 ugly impulses1 
& s provide ! opportunity = _! cont9u\s 
expression4 ,! _w ( to-day is beg9n+ to 
recognize ! intellectual weakness (     
,*ri/ianity2 :at x has next to le>n is t
 its moral bankruptcy is no less assur$4
  ,"o ( ! great ob/acles 9 ! way ( ?is  
is ! s5tim5talism ( _m :o h giv5 up all 
intellectual adh]5ce to ! ,*ri/ian cre$4
 ,! p[] ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* has be5 s    
great1 x has = s long _h control ( !    
ma*9]y ( public education & in=mation1 t
 _m f9d x almo/ impossible to conclude t

 ! e?ical _s ( ,*ri/ianity is z ali5 to 
real progress z are its cosmical tea*+s4
 ,! v hug5ess ( ?is c5tury-old impo/ure 
bl9ds _m to its inh]5t defects4 ,& yet !
 cont9u\s & _w-wide moral failure (     
,*ri/ianity c only be acc\nt$ = on !    
gr\nd t x _h a fatal moral defect f !   
/>t4 ,i h sugge/$ above :at is ! nature 
( t defect4 ,x has nev] reg>d$ morality 
z a natural social gr[?1 b only z some?+
 impos$ ^u man f )\t4 ,x has _h no o!r  
reason = its exi/5ce ?an ! fe> (        
puni%m5t & ! hope ( rew>d4 ,*ri/ian     
morality is ! morality ( ! /ock ex*ange 
plus ! intellectual outlook ( ! savage4 
,& ) t 9 control ( national de/9ies our 
surprise %\ld be1 n t ?+s are z !y are1 
b r t ) s great a h&icap ! _w has       
contriv$ to rea* its pres5t mod]ate     
degree ( developm5t4     ,,*apt] ,,xvii4
  ,,religion ,,& ,,p]secution4          
,intol]ance is "o ( ! mo/ g5]al ( :at we
 may call ! m5tal vices4 ,x is s g5]al t
 few p seem to look ^u x z a fault1 & n 
a few are prep>$ to def5d x z a virtue4 

,:5 x assumes an extreme =m1 & its      
consequ5ces are unpleasantly obvi\s1 x  
may meet ) condemnation1 b usually its  
nature is disguis$ "u a %[ ( e>ne/ness &
 s9c]e conviction4 ,&1 inde$1 no "o ne$ 
feel call$ ^u to dispute ! s9c]ity & !  
e>ne/ness ( ! bigot4 ,z we h already    
po9t$ out1 t may easily be se5 &        
admitt$4 ,all t "o ne$ rem>k is t       
s9c]ity is no gu>antee ( accuracy1 &    
e>ne/ness naturally goes ) a conviction 
/rongly held1 :e!r ! conviction be      
gr\nd$ on fact or fancy4 ,! ess5tial "q 
is n :e!r a man holds an op9ion /rongly1
 b :e!r he has tak5 suffici5t tr\ble to 
say t he has a "r to h t op9ion4 ,has he
 tak5 ! tr\ble to acqua9t himself ) !   
facts ^u :i* ! express$ op9ion is       
pr(ess$ly bas$8 ,has he made a due      
all[ance = possible error1 & = !        
possibility ( o!rs see+ ! matt] f ano!r 
& a diff]5t po9t ( view8 ,if ^! que/ions
 7 frankly & tru?fully answ]$1 x w\ld be
 f\nd t :at we h to face 9 ! _w is n s  
mu* op9ion z prejudice4  ,"s advance 9  

human affairs is indicat$ :5 x is f\nd  
necess>y to apologise = p]secution1 & a 
/ill great] "o :5 m5 & wom5 feel a%am$ (
 x4 ,x is "s ( ^! apologies at :i* we h 
n[ to glance1 & also to det]m9e1 if     
possible1 ! probable causes ( ! *ange 9 
op9ion t has occurr$ 9 relation to !    
subject ( p]secution4  ,a fav\rite      
argum5t ) ! mod]n religioni/ is t !     
elem5t ( p]secution1 :i* x is admitt$1  
has hi!rto be5 f\nd 9 association )     
religion1 is n due to religion z su*1 b 
results f its connection ) ! secul> p[]4
 ,(t51 x is argu$1 ! ,/ate = its own    
purposes has se5 fit to ally itself ) ! 
,*ur*1 & :5 t has tak5 place !          
repres5tatives ( ! fav\r$ ,*ur* h n be5 
/rong en\gh to )/& ! temptation to use  
physical =ce 9 ! ma9t5ance ( _!         
position4 ,h5ce ! g5]alization t a ,/ate
 ,*ur* is always a p]secut+ ,*ur*1 ) !  
coroll>y t a ,*ur*1 z su*1 has no?+ to d
 ) s secul> a ?+ z p]secution4  ,!      
g5]alization has all ! attractiv5ess :i*
 appeals to ^? :o are n 9 ! habit (     

look+ b5ea? ! surface1 & 9 p>ticul> to  
^? ^: m9ds are /ill 9 ?raldom to        
religi\s beliefs4 ,x is q true t ,/ate  
,*ur*es h always p]secut$1 & x is       
equally true t p]secution on a g5]al    
scale c\ld n h be5 c>ri$ on )\t !       
assi/ance ( ! ,/ate4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is 
j z true t all ,*ur*es h p]secut$ )9 !  
limits ( _! opportunity4 ,!re is no     
exception to ?is rule 9 any age or      
c\ntry4 ,on a wid] survey x is also cle>
 t all =ms ( religi\s belief c>ry ) !m a
 t5d5cy to p]secution m or less m>k$4 ,a
 close exam9ation ( ! facts w %[ t x is 
! t5d5cy to tol]ation t is develop$ by !
 secul> p[]1 & ! opposite t5d5cy        
manife/$ by religion4  ,x is also argu$ 
t intol]ance is n a special quality (   
religion2 x is r a fault ( human nature4
 ,!re is m tru? 9 ?is ?an 9 ! previ\s   
plea1 b x slurs ov] ! indictm5t r ?an   
meets x4 ,at any rate1 x is ! same human
 nature t meets u 9 religion t fronts u 
9 o!r matt]s1 & !re is no mi/ak+ ! fact 
t intol]ance is f> m pron\nc$ 9 relation

 to religion ?an to any o!r subject4 ,9 
secul> matt]s--politics1 sci5ce1        
lit]ature1 or art--op9ions may diff]1   
feel+s run high1 & a degree ( intol]ance
 be exhibit$1 b ! "r to diff] rema9s    
unque/ion$4 ,moreov]1 ! settlem5t (     
op9ion by discussion is recogniz$4 ,9   
religion x is ! v "r ( diff]5ce t is    
*all5g$1 x is ! "r ( discussion t is    
d5i$4 ,& x is 9 connection ) religion   
alone t intol]ance is rais$ to ! level (
 a virtue4 ,refusal to discuss !        
validity ( a religi\s op9ion w be tak5 z
 ! sign ( a highly develop$ spiritual   
nature1 & a tol]ance ( div]g+ op9ions z 
an indication ( unbelief4 ,if a         
political lead] refus$ to /& ^u ! same  
plat=m ) political oppon5ts1 on         
non-political que/ions1 ne>ly ev]yone   
w\ld say t su* conduct 0 intol]able4 ,b 
h[ _m religi\s p are !re :o w\ld see    
any?+ wrong 9 ! ,ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury  
refus+ to /& ^u ! same plat=m z a       
well-kn[n ,a!i/8  ,we are "h approa*+ ! 
v he>t ( ! subject1 & 9 :at foll[s ,i   

hope to make cle> ! tru? ( ! foll[+     
propositions3 7#a7 ,t ! great culture   
gr\nd ( intol]ance is religion2 7#b7 ,t 
! natural t5d5cy ( secul> affairs is to 
bre$ tol]ance2 7#c7 ,t ! alliance (     
religion ) ! ,/ate has fo/]$ p]secution 
by ! ,/ate1 ! re/ra9+ influ5ces com+ f !
 secul> half ( ! p>tn]%ip2 7#d7 ,t !    
decl9e ( p]secution is due to causes t  
are q unconnect$ ) religi\s beliefs4  ,!
 fir/ ?ree po9ts c really be tak5       
toge!r4 ,s f> z c be se5 !re is no      
dis9cl9ation among primitive peoples to 
discuss ! pros & cons ( matt]s t are    
unconnect$ ) religi\s beliefs4 ,s soon z
 we get p at a culture /age :]e ! c\rse 
( ev5ts is se5 to be decid$ by human    
action1 !re goes on a tol]ance (        
conflict+ op9ions t is 9 /rik+ contra/ )
 :at occurs ) su* matt]s z are believ$  
to directly involve ! action ( deity4   
,"o c\ld n expect ?+s to be o!rwise4 ,9 
! c>ry+ on ( w>f>e1 z ) _m o!r tribal   
activities1 s _m ( ! circum/ances are ( 
a det]m9able "*1 & are cle>ly to be     

settl$ by an appeal to judgm5t &        
exp]i5ce1 t v e>ly 9 social hi/ory !y   
mu/ h pres5t$ !mselves z a legitimate   
field = discussion1 & to discussion1 z  
,bagehot says1 no?+ is sacr$4 ,& z a    
matt] ( fact we h a survival ( ?is      
to-day4 ,h[ev] intol]ant ! "*1 s long z 
we are deal+ ) secul> matt]s x is       
admitt$ t diff]5ces ( op9ion mu/ be     
tol]at$1 & are1 inde$1 necess>y if we   
are to arrive at ! wise/ conclusion4 ,! 
mo/ autocratic ( mon>*s w call ^u 8     
advis]s & take _! diss5sion f 8 own     
views z a matt] ( c\rse4 ,b :5 we get to
 ! field ( religion1 x is no long] a "q 
( ! legitimacy ( diff]5ce1 b ( its      
wrongness4 ,= a religi\s man to admit a 
discussion z to :e!r 8 religi\s belief  
is f\nd$ on fact or n is to imply a     
d\bt1 & no ?or\ghly religi\s man ev]    
enc\rages t4 ,:at we h is pray]s to be  
sav$ f d\bt1 & delib]ate ef=ts to keep  
away f su* conditions & circum/ances z  
may sugge/ ! possibility ( wrong4 ,!    
ideal religi\s "* is ! "o :o nev] d\bts4

  ,x may also be not$1 9 pass+1 t 9     
connection ) religion !re is no?+ to    
*eck intol]ance at any /age4 ,9 relation
 to secul> matt]s an op9ion is av[$ly   
bas$ ^u v]ifiable facts & has no value  
ap>t f ^? facts4 ,! facts are common    
prop]ty1 op5 to all1 & may be exam9$ by 
all4 ,9 religion facts ( a common &     
v]ifiable k9d are almo/ want+4 ,! facts 
( ! religi\s life are ma9ly ( an esot]ic
 "*--visions1 intuitions1 etc4 ,& :ile  
on ! secul> side discussion is ju/ifi$  
because ( ! agreem5t :i* results f x1 on
 ! religi\s side ! value ( discussion is
 disc\nt$ because x nev] does lead to   
agreem5t4 ,! m p discuss religion ! m   
pron\nc$ ! disagreem5t4 ,t is "o reason 
:y ! _w ov] ! only me?od by :i* p h be5 
br\ght to a /ate ( agreem5t 9 religi\s  
doctr9es is by exclud+ all :o disagre$4 
,x is h>mony 9 isolation4  ,n[ if we    
turn to religion we c see t f ! v beg9n+
 ! :ole t5d5cy "h 0 to /ifle diff]5ce ( 
op9ion1 & s e/abli% intol]ance z a      
religi\s duty4 ,! ,biblical /ory (      

,jonah is a case t well illu/rates !    
po9t4 ,god 0 n angry ) ! re/ ( ! %ip's  
inhabitants1 x 0 ,jonah only :o _h giv5 
(f5ce4 ,b to puni% ,jonah a /orm 0 s5t &
 ! :ole crew 0 9 dang] ( %ipwreck4 ,9 _!
 own def5ce ! sailors 7 driv5 to ?r[    
,jonah ov]bo>d4 ,jonah's disob$i5ce 0 n1
 !re=e1 8 conc]n alone4 ,all ) him 7    
involv$2 ,god 0 ready to puni% ! :ole = 
! (f5ce ( "o4  ,n[ if = ! %ip we take a 
primitive tribe1 & = ,jonah a primitive 
h]etic1 or "o :o = "s reason or o!r has 
omitt$ a s]vice to ! gods1 we h an exact
 picture ( :at actually takes place4 ,9 
primitive societies rights are n s mu*  
individual z !y are social4 ,e memb] ( !
 tribe is responsible to ! memb]s ( o!r 
tribes = any injury t may h be5 done4 ,&
 z ) ! memb]s ( ano!r tribe1 s ) !      
relation ( ! tribe to ! gods4 ,if an    
individual (f5ds !m ! :ole ( ! tribe may
 suff]4 ,!re is a spl5did imp>tiality   
ab\t ! :ole arrangem5t1 al?\gh x lacks  
all t we mod]ns und]/& by ,ju/ice4 ,b ! 
po9t "h is t x makes ! h]etic n m]ely a 

mi/ak5 p]son1 b a dang]\s "*4 ,8 h]esy  
involves treason to ! tribe1 & 9 its own
 def5ce x is felt t ! h]etic mu/ be     
suppress$4 ,h[ ?is feel+ l+]s 9 relation
 to religion is well se5 9 ! fact t !re 
are /ill ) u l>ge numb]s ( v pi\s p :o  
are ready to see 9 a bad h>ve/1 a w>1 or
 an epidemic1 a judgm5t ( ,god on ! :ole
 ( ! p = ! s9s ( a few4 ,x is ?is elem5t
 t has always giv5 to religi\s          
p]secutions ! air ( a solemn duty4 ,to  
suppress ! h]etic is some?+ t is done 9 
! int]e/s ( ! :ole ( ! p4 ,p]secution   
becomes bo? a religi\s & a social duty4 
,! p$igree ( religi\s p]secution is ?us 
cle>4 ,x is inh]5t 9 religi\s belief1 & 
to :atev] ext5t human nature is prone to
 intol]ance1 ! t5d5cy has be5 fo/]$ &   
rais$ to ! /atus ( a virtue by religi\s 
tea*+ & practice4 ,religion has s]v$ to 
confuse man's s5se ( "r "h z else:]e4   
,we h ?us two curr5ts at "w4 ,on ! "o   
h&1 !re is ! influ5ce ( ! secul> side ( 
life1 :i* makes normally = a great]     
tol]ance ( op9ion1 on ! o!r side !re is 

religion :i* c only tol]ate a diff]5ce (
 op9ion to ! ext5t t religi\s doctr9es  
assume a position ( comp>ative          
unimportance4 ,in/ead ( x be+ ! case t !
 ,*ur* has be5 enc\rag$ to p]secute by !
 ,/ate1 ! tru? is ! o!r way ab\t4 ,i "k 
all t may be said z to ! p]secutions t h
 be5 set on foot by ve/$ int]e/s & by   
gov]nm5ts1 b putt+ on "o side !         
consid]ation t ?is begs ! "q ( h[ f> x  
has be5 ! consequ5ce ( ! e>ly influ5ce (
 religion1 !re are obvi\s limits beyond 
:i* a secul> p]secution _c g4 ,a        
gov]nm5t _c de/roy its subjects1 or if x
 does ! gov]nm5t itself disappe>s4 ,& ! 
mo/ ?or\gh s*eme ( exploitation mu/     
leave its victims en\gh on :i* to live4 
,!re are num]\s consid]ations :i* weigh 
) a secul> gov]nm5t & :i* h little      
weight ) a ,*ur*4  ,x may safely be     
said1 = example1 t no gov]nm5t 9 ! _w1 9
 ! abs5ce ( religi\s consid]ations w\ld 
h committ$ ! suicidal act :i* drove !   
,moors & ! ,jews f ,spa94#bd ,z a matt] 
( fact1 ! l&$ ari/ocracy ( ,spa9 resi/$ 

sugge/ions = expulsions = ne>ly a c5tury
 because ( ! f9ancial ru9 !y saw w\ld   
foll[4 ,x 0 ! driv+ p[] ( religi\s      
belief t f9ally br\ght ab\t ! expulsion4
 ,religion alone c\ld prea* t x 0 bett] 
= ! mon>* to reign ov] a wild]ness ?an  
ov] a nation ( ,jews & unbeliev]s4 ,!   
same ?+ 0 repeat$ a c5tury lat] 9 ! case
 ( ! expulsion ( ! ,hugu5ots f ,france4 
,"h aga9 ! cr[n resi/$ ! sugge/ions ( ! 
,*ur*1 & = ! same reason4 ,& x is       
significant t :5 gov]nm5ts h desir$ to  
p]secute 9 _! own int]e/s !y h ne>ly    
always f\nd x advantage\s to d s "u !   
guise ( religion4 ,s f>1 & 9 ^!         
in/ances1 x may be true t ! ,/ate has   
us$ religion = its own purpose (        
p]secution1 b ?is does n t\* ! important
 fact t1 giv5 ! sanction ( religion1    
intol]ance & p]secution assume ! /atus (
 virtues4 ,& to ! cr$it ( ! ,/ate x mu/ 
be po9t$ out t x has ov] & ov] aga9 _h  
to ex]t a re/ra9+ influ5ce 9 ! qu>rels (
 sects4 ,x w be que/ion$ by few t if !  
regulative influ5ce ( ! ,/ate _h n be5  

ex]t$ ! qu>rels ( ! sects w\ld h made a 
settl$ & ord]ly life next to impossible4
  #bd ,= ?is1 z well z = ! g5]al        
consequ5ces ( p]secution on racial      
welf>e1 see my pamphlet ,cre$ & ,"*4  ,s
 f> z ,*ri/ianity is conc]n$ x w\ld     
puzzle ! mo/ zeal\s ( its def5d]s to    
indicate a s+le direction 9 :i* x did   
any?+ to enc\rage ! slighte/            
modification ( ! _s ( intol]ance4       
,mohamm$ans c at lea/ po9t to a "t :51  
:ile _! religion 0 dom9ant1 a           
consid]able am\nt ( religi\s fre$om 0   
all[$ to ^? liv+ "u its control4 ,9 !   
palmy days ( ! ,mohamm$an rule 9 ,spa9  
bo? ,jews & ,*ri/ians 7 all[$ to        
practise _! religion ) only trifl+      
inconv5i5ces1 c]ta9ly )\t be+ expos$ to 
! fi5di% puni%m5ts t *>act]iz$          
,*ri/ianity all ov] ! _w4 ,moreov]1 x   
mu/ nev] be ov]look$ t 9 ,europe all    
laws aga9/ h]esy are ( ,*ri/ian orig94  
,9 ! old ,roman ,empire lib]ty ( wor%ip 
0 univ]sal4 ,s long z ! ,/ate religion 0
 treat$ ) a mod]ate am\nt ( respect "o  

might wor%ip :atev] god "o pleas$1 & !  
numb] 0 suffici5t to provide = ! mo/    
v>i$ ta/es4 ,:5 ,*ri/ians 7 proce$$     
aga9/ x 0 "u laws t did n aim prim>ily  
to %ackle lib]ty ( wor%ip or ( op9ion4  
,! proc$ure 0 9 e case =mal1 ! trial    
public1 "t 0 giv5 = ! prep>ation ( !    
def5ce1 & _m ( ! judges %[$ _! dislike  
to ! prosecutions4#be ,b ) ! ,*ri/ians1 
in/ead ( p]secution be+ spasmodic x 0   
p]si/5t4 ,x 0 n tak5 up by ! au?orities 
) reluctance1 b ) eag]ness1 & x 0 c\nt$ 
z ! mo/ sacr$ ( duties4 ,nor 0 x direct$
 aga9/ a sect>ian movem5t t ?reat5$ !   
welf>e ( ! ,/ate4 ,! wor/ p]iods (      
,*ri/ian p]secution 7 ^? :5 ! ,/ate _h !
 lea/ to fe> f int]nal diss5sion4 ,!    
p]secut$ 7 n ^? :o 7 guilty ( neglect ( 
social duty4 ,on ! contr>y !y 7 s]v+ !  
,/ate by ! enc\ragem5t ( lit]ature1     
sci5ce1 philosophy1 & comm]ce4 ,"o ( !  
,pagan ,emp]ors1 ! great ,trajan1 _h    
advis$ ! magi/rates n to se>* =         
,*ri/ians1 & to treat anonym\s          
accusations ) contempt4 ,*ri/ians c>ri$ 

! se>* = h]esy into a man's own         
h\sehold4 ,x us$ ! *ild to obta9 evid5ce
 aga9/ its own p>5ts1 ! wife to secure  
evid5ce aga9/ ! husb&2 x tortur$ to     
provide dictat$ confessions1 & plac$    
boxes at *ur* doors to receive anonym\s 
accusations4 ,x e/abli%$ an index (     
=bidd5 books1 an in/itution absolutely  
unkn[n to ! pagan _w4 ,! ,roman trial 0 
op51 ! accus$ c\ld he> ! *>ge & cite    
witnesses = ! def5ce4 ,! ,*ri/ian trial 
0 9 secret2 special =ms 7 us$ & no      
witnesses = ! def5ce 7 p]mitt$4         
,p]secution 0 rais$ to a f9e art4 ,"u   
,*ri/ian auspices x assum$ ! mo/        
damnable =m kn[n 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w4 ,!re
 are no wild bea/s s f]oci\s z ,*ri/ians
 0 ! amaz$ comm5t ( ! ,pagans on !      
behavi\r ( ,*ri/ians t[>ds ea* o!r1 & ! 
subsequ5t hi/ory ( ,*ri/ianity %[$ t !  
,pagans 7 b amateurs 9 ! art ( puni%+ = 
a diff]5ce ( op9ion4  #be ,i am tak+ !  
/ory ( ! p]secutions ( ! e>ly ,*ri/ians 
= grant$1 al?\gh ! :ole "q is surr\nd$ )
 ! greate/ suspicion4 ,z a matt] ( fact 

! acc\nts are grossly exagg]at$1 & "s ( 
! alleg$ p]secutions nev] occurr$4 ,!   
/ory ( ! p]secutions is s =eign to !    
temp] ( ! ,roman gov]nm5t z to ?r[ d\bt 
on ! :ole acc\nt4 ,! /ory ( !re be+ t5  
p]secutions is cle>ly false1 ! numb] be+
 av[$ly bas$ ^u ! leg5d ( ! t5 plagues (
 ,egypt4  ,up to a comp>atively rec5t "t
 !re exi/$ a practically unanim\s op9ion
 among ,*ri/ians z to ! desirability (  
=cibly suppress+ h]etical op9ions4      
,:atev] ! =tunes ( ,*ri/ianity1 & :atev]
 ! diff]5ces ( op9ion t gradually       
develop$ among ,*ri/ians !re 0 complete 
unanimity on ?is po9t4 ,:atev] *anges ! 
,prote/ant ,re=mation effect$ x left ?is
 matt] unt\*$4 ,9 8 ,hi/ory (           
,rationalism ,lecky has br\ght =w>d a   
mass ( evid5ce 9 support ( ?is1 & ,i mu/
 ref] to t "w read]s :o are n already   
acqua9t$ ) ! details4 ,lu!r1 9 ! v act (
 plead+ = tol]ation1 except$ su* z d5y !
 common pr9ciples ( ! ,*ri/ian religion1
 & advis$ t ! ,jews %\ld be conf9$ z    
madm51 _! synagogues burn$ & _! books   

de/roy$4 ,! intol]ance ( ,calv9 has     
became a byword2 8 v apology = ! burn+ (
 ,s]vetus1 entitl$ ,a ,def5ce ( !       
,or?odox ,fai?1 bore ^u its title page !
 significant s5t5ce ,9 :i* x is prov$ t 
h]etics may ju/ly be co]c$ ) ! sword4 ,8
 foll[]1 ,knox1 0 only c>ry+ out ! tea*+
 ( ! ma/] 9 decl>+ t provok+ ! p to     
idolatry ought n to be exempt f ! p5alty
 ( dea?1 & t magi/rates & p are b\nd to 
d s 7inflict ! dea? p5alty7 unless !y w 
provoke ! wra? ( ,god aga9/ !mselves4 ,9
 e ,prote/ant c\ntry laws aga9/ h]esy 7 
enact$4 ,9 ,switz]l&1 ,g5eva1 ,sw$51    
,engl&1 ,g]many1 ,scotl&1 n[h]e c\ld "o 
diff] f ! e/abli%$ fai? )\t runn+ ! risk
 ( torture & dea?4 ,ev5 9 ,am]ica1 ) !  
exception ( ,m>yl&1#bf ! same /ate ( ?+s
 prevail$4 ,9 "s ,/ates ,ca?olic prie/s 
7 subject to imprisonm5t = life1 ,quak] 
wom5 7 :ipp$ ?r\gh ! /reets at ! c>t's  
tail1 old m5 ( ! same d5om9ation 7      
press$ to dea? betwe5 /ones4 ,at a lat] 
date 7ab\t #aggj7 laws aga9/ h]esy 7    
g5]al4 ,anyone1 says ,fiske1--       :o 

%\ld d>e to speculate too freely ab\t ! 
nature ( ,*ri/1      or ! philosophy ( !
 plan ( salvation1 or to express a d\bt 
z to ! pl5>y inspiration ( e ^w betwe5 !
 two cov]s      ( ! ,bible1 0 subject to
 f9e & imprisonm5t4 ,! ti?+ man         
/ill arre/$ ! ,sabba?-break]s1 & %ut !m 
up 9 ! t[n      cage 9 ! m>ket-place2 he
 /opp$ all unnecess>y rid+ or      driv+
 on ,sunday1 & hal$ p (f to ! meet+-h\se
      :e!r !y w\ld or no4#bg  #bf ,!    
case ( ,m>yl& is peculi>4 ,b ! reason = 
! tol]ation !re seems to h be5 due to ! 
desire to give ,ca?olics a measure (    
fre$om !y c\ld n h else:]e 9 ,prote/ant 
c\ntries4  #bg ,= a good sket* ( !      
,puritan ,sunday 9 ,new ,engl& see ,!   
,sabba? 9 ,puritan ,new ,engl&1 by      
,alice ,morse ,e>le4 ,= an acc\nt (     
religi\s intol]ance see ! acc\nt ( !    
,blue ,laws ( ,connecticut z conta9$ 9  
,h>t's ,am]ican ,hi/ory told by         
,contempor>ies1 ,vol4 ,i4  ,& we h to   
rememb] t ! intol]ance %[n 9 ,am]ica 0  
manife/$ by m5 :o _h left _! own c\ntry 

on ! o/5sible gr\nd ( fre$om (          
consci5ce4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 9 ,*ri/ian
 society g5u9e fre$om ( consci5ce 0     
practically unkn[n4 ,:at 0 meant by !   
expression 0 ! "r to express "o's own   
religi\s op9ions1 ) ! privilege (       
oppress+ all ) :om "o happ5$ to         
disagree4 ,! majority ( ,*ri/ians w\ld h
 z indignantly repudiat$ ! ass]tion t !y
 desir$ to tol]ate non-,*ri/ian or      
anti-,*ri/ian op9ions z !y w\ld ! *>ge (
 !mselves hold+ ,a!i/ic ones4  ,h[      
deeply +ra9$ 0 ! pr9ciple t ! e/abli%$  
religion 0 ju/ifi$ 9 suppress+ all o!rs 
may be se5 f a read+ ( su* works z      
,locke's ,lett]s on ,tol]ation1 &       
,milton's ,areopagitica1 :i* /& 9 !     
=efront ( ! _w's writ+s 9 fav\r ( lib]ty
 ( ?\ght & spee*4 ,yet ,locke 0 ( op9ion
 t ,^? are n at all to be tol]at$ :o d5y
 ! be+ ( a ,god4 ,promises1 cov5ants1 & 
oa?s1 :i* are ! bonds ( human society1 c
 h no hold ^u an ,a!i/4 ,! tak+ away (  
,god1 ?\gh b ev5 9 ?\ght1 dissolves all4
 ,& ,milton1 :ile hold+ t x 0 m prud5t &

 :olesome t _m be tol]at$ r ?an all     
compell$1 yet ha/5$ to add ,i mean n    
tol]at$ pop]y & op5 sup]/ition1 :i* z x 
extirpates all religi\s & civil         
supremacies s %\ld itself be extirpat$4 
,9 %ort1 intol]ance _h become s e/abli%$
 a "p ( a society saturat$ 9 religion t 
n ev5 ! mo/ lib]al c\ld conceive a /ate 
( be+ 9 :i* all op9ions %\ld be plac$ ^u
 an equal foot+4  ,yet a *ange 0 all !  
"t tak+ place 9 m5's op9ions on ?is     
matt]1 a *ange :i* has 9 rec5t ye>s     
culm9at$ 9 ! affirmation ( ! pr9ciple t 
! co]cion ( op9ion is ( all ?+s ! lea/  
desirable & ! lea/ b5eficial to society 
at l>ge4 ,& z 9 s _m o!r cases1 x 0 n ! 
gradual matur+ ( t pr9ciple t attract$  
att5tion s mu* z its /atem5t 9 some?+ l 
a complete & logical =m4 ,! trac+ ( !   
conditions :i* h l$ to ?is trem5d\s     
revolution 9 public op9ion w complete   
our survey ( ! subject4  ,x has already 
be5 po9t$ out t 9 primitive societies a 
v important fact is t ! relation ( !    
individual to ! community is ( a diff]5t

 nature f t :i* exi/s 9 a lat] /age (   
culture4 ,! :ole is responsible = ! "p 9
 a v lit]al s5se1 & especially s 9 reg>d
 to religi\s beliefs4 ,individual rights
 & responsibilities h b a prec>i\s      
exi/5ce at be/4 ,! individual exi/s f> m
 = ! b5efit ( ! tribe ?an ! tribe c be  
said to exi/ = ! b5efit ( ! individual4 
,! s5se ( corporate responsibility is   
/rong1 & ev5 9 secul> affairs we see ?is
 con/antly manife/$4 ,:5 a memb] ( "o   
tribe inflicts an injury ^u a memb] (   
ano!r tribe1 retaliation on any "o ( !  
gr\p to :i* ! (f5d+ p]son belongs w     
suffice4 ,we see ! remnants ( ?is       
primitive view ( life 9 ! feuds (       
s*oolboys1 & x is also manife/$ 9 !     
relations ( nations1 :i* move ^u a l[]  
e?ical level ?an d individuals4 ,mo/ w>s
 are o/5sibly wag$ because 9 "s obscure 
way ! nation is held responsible = !    
(f5ces ( "o or m individuals4 ,& an     
in/ance ( ! same feel+ is se5 9 ! n[    
obsolete practice ( puni%+ ! memb]s ( a 
man's family :5 ! p>5ts happ5 to h      

committ$ c]ta9 (f5ces4  ,9 religion1 z  
we h already po9t$ out1 ! s5se (        
corporate responsibility completely     
gov]ns primitive man's s5se ( 8 relation
 to ! tribal gods4 ,9 ! developm5t ( !  
tribal *ief into ! tribal god ! gho/ is 
cr$it$ ) mu* ! same p[]s z ! man1 ) !   
add$ t]ror ( hav+ m subtle & t]rible    
ways ( inflict+ puni%m5t4 ,! man :o     
(f5ds ! gho/ or ! god is a /&+ dang] to 
! :ole ( ! tribe4 ,! :ole ( ! tribe     
becomes responsible = ! (f5ce committ$1 
& ! tribe 9 self protection mu/ n alone 
take measures to puni% ! (f5d]1 b mu/   
also gu>d itself aga9/ ev5 ! possibility
 ( ! (f5ce be+ p]petrat$4 ,! consequ5ce 
is t !re is n a religion 9 :i* "o c fail
 to trace ! pres5ce ( ?is primitive     
conception ( p]sonal & social           
responsibility1 & consequ5tly1 :]e we _c
 f9d p]secution1 m or less sev]e1 & also
 m or less organiz$1 9 ! int]e/ ( :at is
 believ$ to be social welf>e4 ,9 ! case 
( ! failure ( ! ,spani% ,armada to      
effect ! conque/ ( ,engl&1 ! ,spani%    

mon>* 0 conv9c$ t its non-success 0     
p>tly due to 8 n hav+ we$$ out ! h]etics
 f 8 own dom9ion be=e tr\bl+ ab\t !     
h]etics abroad4 ,& "r d[n to our own day
 !re has n be5 a national calamity !    
cause ( :i* has n be5 f\nd by numb]s (  
religi\s p to lie 9 ! fact t "s memb]s (
 ! suff]+ nation h (f5d$ ,god4 ,! h]etic
 becomes1 z we h already said1 a social 
dang] ( ! grave/ description4 ,society  
mu/ be gu>d$ aga9/ 8 pres5ce j z we le>n
 to-day to protect ourselves aga9/ !    
pres5ce ( a dea?-deal+ g]m4 ,!          
suppression ( h]esy ?us becomes a social
 duty1 because x protects society f !   
ang] ( ! gods4 ,! de/ruction ( ! h]etic 
is sub/antially an act ( social         
sanitation4 ,giv5 ! primitive conception
 ( religion1 affiliat$ to ! exi/+       
conception ( corporate responsibility1 &
 p]secution becomes "o ( ! mo/ important
 ( social duties4  ,?is1 ,i believe1 is 
n alone ! root ( p]secution1 b x s]ves  
to expla9 z no?+ else c its p]si/5ce 9  
social life & ! fact ( its hav+ became  

almo/ a g5]al m5tal *>act]i/ic4 ,to     
realize ?is "o ne$ only be> 9 m9d !     
ov]p[]+ "p play$ by religi\s conceptions
 9 e>ly communities4 ,!re is no?+ done t
 is n m or less "u ! assum$ control (   
sup]natural ag5cies4 ,fe> is ! dom9ant  
emotion 9 relation to ! gods1 & exp]i5ce
 daily proves t !re is no?+ t c make m5 
s brutal & s call\s to ! suff]+s ( o!rs 
z c religi\s belief4 ,& :ile !re has all
 along be5 a gr[+ lib]ation ( ! m9d f ! 
control ( religion1 ! process has be5 s 
sl[ t ?is p>ticul> product ( religi\s   
rule has _h "t to root itself v deeply 9
 human nature4 ,& x is 9 accordance )   
all t we "k ( ! ord] ( developm5t t !   
special qualities eng5d]$ by a p>ticul> 
set ( conditions %\ld p]si/ long aft] ! 
conditions !mselves h pass$ away4  ,!   
conditions t co-op]ate 9 ! f9al break+  
d[n ( ! conviction ( ! morality (       
p]secution are _m & v>i\s4 ,prim>ily1   
!re is ! *ange f ! social /ate 9 :i* !  
conception ( corporate responsibility is
 dom9ant to "o 9 :i* !re is a m or less 

cle>ly m>k$ l9e betwe5 :at conc]ns !    
individual alone & :at conc]ns society z
 a :ole4 ,?is is illu/rat$ 9 ! gr[? f   
:at ,sp5c] call$ ! milit>y type (       
society to an indu/rial "o4 ,9 ! case ( 
a militant type ( society1 to :i* !     
religi\s organization is s closely      
affiliat$1 a ,/ate is m self conta9$1 & 
! gov]n+ pr9ciple is1 to use a          
g5]alization ( ,sir ,h5ry ,ma9e's1 /atus
 r ?an contract4 ,) ! gr[? ( comm]ce &  
indu/rialism !re is develop$ a great]   
am\nt ( individual initiative1 a gr[+   
consid]ation = p]sonal responsibility1 &
 also ! developm5t ( a s5se (           
int]dep5d5ce betwe5 societies4 ,& !     
social developm5ts t g on tea* p1 ev5   
?\gh ! lesson may be unconsci\sly le>n$1
 to value ea* o!r 9 t]ms ( social       
utility r ?an 9 t]ms ( belief 9 express$
 dogmas4 ,!y are br\ght daily into      
contact ) m5 ( widely diff]+ =ms (      
op9ion2 !y f9d !mselves work+ 9 ! same  
movem5ts1 & p>ticipat+ 9 ! same triumphs
 or %>+ ! same defeats4 ,ins5sibly !    

/&>d ( judgm5t alt]s2 ! /r5g? ( ! purely
 social feel+s ov]p[]s ! consci\sness ( 
!ological diff]5ces1 & ?us s]ves to     
weak5 ! frame ( m9d f :i* p]secution    
spr+s4  ,! gr[+ complexity ( life leads 
to ! same end4 ,:]e ! conditions ( life 
are simple1 & ! exp]i5ces ?r\gh :i* p   
pass are (t5 repeat$1 & :]e1 moreov]1 ! 
am\nt ( positive k curr5t is small1     
conclusions are rea*$ rapidly1 & ! feel+
 ( confid5ce 9 "o's own op9ions is n    
*eck$ by see+ o!rs draw diff]5t         
conclusions f ! same premises4 ,"u su*  
conditions an op9ion once =m$ is n      
easily or quickly *ang$4 ,exp]i5ce :i*  
makes = wid] k makes also = great]      
caution 9 =m+ op9ions & a great]        
read9ess to tol]ate conclusions ( an    
opposite "* at :i* o!rs may h arriv$4   
,f9ally1 on ! purely intellectual side  
"o mu/ reckon ) ! gr[? ( new ideas1 & ( 
k t is 9 itself q inconsi/5t ) !        
e/abli%$ cre$4 ,if ! prim>y reason =    
kill+ ! h]etic is t he is a social      
dang]1 "o :o w draw d[n on ! tribe !    

v5geance ( ! gods1 ! /r5g? ( t feel+    
aga9/ ! h]etic mu/ be weak5$ by e *ange 
t less5s m5's belief 9 ! p[] ( _! deity4
 ,& "o mu/ assume t e "t a fre% piece ( 
def9ite k 0 acquir$ t[>ds ! spl5did     
/ructure t n[ meets u 9 ! %ape ( mod]n  
sci5ce !re 0 accompli%$ some?+ t involv$
 an ultimate weak5+ ( ! belief 9 !      
supremacy ( ! gods4 ,! effect is        
cumulative1 & 9 "t x is b\nd to make    
itself felt4 ,religi\s op9ion aft]      
religi\s op9ion f9ds itself attack$ &   
its p[] weak5$4 ,?+s t 7 ?\ght to be    
solely due to ! action ( ! gods are f\nd
 to occur )\t _! be+ invok$1 :ile       
invocation does n make ! slighte/       
diff]5ce to ! production ( giv5 results4
 ,sci5tific g5]alizations 9 a/ronomy1 9 
physics1 9 biology1 etc41 foll[ "o      
ano!r1 ea* help+ to en=ce ! lesson t x  
really does n matt] :at op9ions a man   
may hold ab\t ! gods provid$ 8 op9ions  
ab\t ! _w 9 :i* he is liv+ & ! =ces )   
:i* he mu/ deal are s\nd & solidly bas$4
 ,9 a _w :]e op9ion is 9 a heal?y /ate (

 flux x is impossible = ev5 religion to 
rema9 altoge!r un*ang$4 ,s we h fir/ a  
*ange 9 ! rigidity ( religi\s           
conceptions1 !n a great] read9ess to    
admit ! possibility ( error1 &1 f9ally1 
! impossibility ( prev5t+ ! gr[? &      
expression ( def9itely non-religi\s &   
anti-religi\s op9ions 9 a community :]e 
all sorts ( op9ions _c b arise4  ,) !   
social consequ5ces ( religi\s           
p]secution1 & p>ticul>ly ( ,*ri/ian     
p]secution1 ,i h dealt else:]e1 & !re is
 no ne$ to repeat ! /ory "h4 ,i h be5 "h
 conc]n$ ) mak+ pla9 ! fact t p]secution
 does n arise ) a misund]/&+ ( religion1
 or ) a decl9e ( :at is vaguely call$   
true religion1 nor does x orig9ate 9 !  
alliance ( "s ,*ur* ) ! secul> ,/ate4 ,x
 lies imb$d$ 9 ! v nature ( religion    
itself4 ,) poly!ism !re is a c]ta9      
measure ( tol]ation to gods outside !   
tribe1 because "h ! admitt$ exi/5ce ( a 
numb] ( gods is "p ( ! ord] ( ?+s4 ,b   
?is t5d5cy to tol]ation disappe>s :5 we 
come to ! mono!i/ic /age :i* inevitably 

treats ! claim to exi/5ce ( o!r gods 9 !
 same _s z an ard5t royali/ treats !    
appe>ance ( a pret5d] to ! ?rone4 ,to   
tol]ate su* is a crime aga9/ !          
legitimate rul]4 ,& :5 we get ! ,*ri/ian
 doctr9e ( et]nal damnation & salvation 
tack$ on to ! religi\s idea we h all !  
mat]ial necess>y to give ! p]secutor !  
feel+ ( moral obligation1 & to make him 
feel t he is play+ ! "p ( a real savi\r 
to society4  ,at bottom t is "o ( ! *ief
 injuries t a religion su* z ,*ri/ianity
 inflicts on ! race2 x ?r[s human feel+ 
into "s ( ! mo/ objectionable =ms1 &    
provides a religi\s & moral ju/ification
 = _! expression4 ,! v desire to b5efit 
"o's fell[s1 normally & naturally       
heal?y1 ?us becomes "u ,*ri/ian         
influ5ces an in/rum5t ( oppression &    
racial degradation4 ,! ,*ri/ian         
p]secutor does n see himself = :at he   
is1 he pictures himself z a savi\r (    
m5's s\ls by suppress+ ! unbeliev] :o   
w\ld corrupt !m4 ,& if ,*ri/ianity be   
true he is correct 9 ?9k+ himself su*4  

,i h no hesitation 9 say+ t if          
,*ri/ianity be true p]secution becomes !
 mo/ important ( duties4 ,a community t 
is ?or\ghly ,*ri/ian is b\nd to         
p]secute1 & z a m]e matt] ( hi/oric fact
 e :olly ,*ri/ian community has         
p]secut$4 ,! community :i* says t a man 
may take any religion he pleases1 or g  
)\t "o altoge!r if he s *ooses1         
proclaims its disbelief 9 ! importance (
 religion4 ,! measure ( religi\s fre$om 
is also ! measure ( religi\s indiff]5ce4
  ,!re are "s exp]i5ces ?r\gh :i* a     
human be+ may pass ! effects ( :i* he   
nev] completely outgr[s4 ,usually he may
 appe> to h put !m q out ( 8 m9d1 b !re 
are times :5 he is lift$ a little out ( 
! normal1 & !n ! recollection ( :at he  
has pass$ ?r\gh comes back ) t]rify+    
=ce4 ,& acute obs]v]s may also be able  
to p]ceive t ev5 9 normal circum/ances  
:at he has pass$ ?r\gh manife/s itself =
 ! worse 9 8 ev]yday behavi\r4 ,s )     
religion & ! life hi/ory ( ! race4 ,=   
?\s&s ( g5]ations ! race has be5 "u !   

influ5ce ( a tea*+ t social welf>e      
dep5d$ ^u a "r belief ab\t ! gods4 ,!   
consequ5ce ( ?is has be5 t p]secution   
became deeply +ra9$ 9 human nature & 9 !
 social traditions :i* play s l>ge a "p 
9 ! "* build+ ( ea* new g5]ation4 ,we h 
z yet h>dly got beyond ! tradition t    
lack ( religion robs a man ( social     
rights & disp5ses ) ! necessity =       
c\rte\s & consid]$ treatm5t4 ,& !re is1 
!re=e1 small cause = wond] t ! elem5t ( 
intol]ance %\ld /ill manife/ itself 9   
connection ) non-religi\s aspects (     
life4 ,b ! c]ta9 ?+ is t ?r\gh\t ! :ole 
( our social hi/ory x is religion t has 
be5 responsible = ! ma9t5ance (         
p]secution z a social duty4 ,some?+ has 
be5 done 9 m rec5t times to weak5 its   
=ce1 ! gr[? ( sci5ce1 ! rationaliz+ ( "o
 in/itution aft] ano!r--9 a ^w1 !       
secul>iz+ ( life--is sl[ly creat+ m     
tol]ant relations betwe5 p4 ,b ! poison 
is deep 9 ! blood1 & w n be eradicat$ 9 
a g5]ation4 ,religion is /ill "h1 & s   
long z x rema9s x w nev] cease--"u !    

guise ( an appeal to ! high] s5tim5ts ( 
man--to make its mo/ effective appeals  
to passions ( :i* ! be/ among u are mo/ 
he>tily a%am$4     ,,*apt] ,,xviii4     
,,:at ,,is ,,to ,,foll[ ,,religion8     
,books on ! future ( religion are       
num]\s1 & to "o bless$ ) a s5se ( hum\r1
 full ( ent]ta9m5t4 ,!y are also n )\t  
in/ruction ( a psy*ological k9d4        
,reliable in=mation z to :at ! future w 
be l !y c]ta9ly d n give1 b !y d unlock 
! inn]mo/ desires ( ! writ]s !re(4 ,!y  
express :at ! writ]s ( ! prophecies w\ld
 l ! future to be4 ,& !y create ! future
 /ate on e>? exactly z dev\t believ]s h 
built up ! "* ( _! heav5 beyond ! cl\ds4
 ,e =m ( fai? :i* !y disagree ) is      
reject$ z n possess+ ! elem5t (         
vitality1 ) ! result t !re is only _!   
own =m left4 ,& t1 !y triumphantly      
proclaim1 is ! religion ( ! future4  ,b 
! future has an old-fa%ion$ & disconc]t+
 habit ( disappo9t+ expectations4 ,!    
factors t gov]n human nature are s _m & 
s complex1 _! transmutations &          

comb9ations are s num]\s1 t x is z well 
to tread cauti\sly1 & to a v consid]able
 ext5t leave ! future to take c>e (     
itself4 ,at ! utmo/ all t we c d )      
safety is to detect t5d5cies1 & to ha/5 
or ret>d _! developm5t z we ?9k !m good 
or bad4 ,! factors t make up a sci5ce ( 
human nature are n to-day s well-kn[n & 
s well und]/ood t we c depict ! /ate (  
society a c5tury h5ce ) ! same c]ta9ty t
 we c =etell ! position ( ! planet ,v5us
 9 ! ye> #bjjj4  ,my aim 9 ?is *apt] is1
 !re=e1 n to describe precisely :at w be
 ! /ate ( society :5 religi\s belief has
 ceas$ to exi/4 ,x is r to (f] a g5]al  
reply to ^? gloomy individuals :o decl>e
 t :5 ! aims ( ! ,free?9k] are fully    
realiz$ we %all f9d t 9 de/roy+ religion
 we h de/roy$ pretty mu* all t makes    
human life wor? liv+4 ,we h manag$ to   
empty ! baby out ) ! ba?4  ,! mo/ g5]al 
=m ( ?is fe> is express$ 9 call+        
,free?\ght a cre$ ( negation1 or a      
policy ( de/ruction1 & assur+ ! _w t    
mank9d c nev] re/ cont5t ) su* ?+s4 ,t  

may be q true1 b we fail to see 9 :at   
way x t\*es ,free?\ght4 ,a ,free?\ght t 
is :olly de/ructive1 t is a m]e         
negation1 is a creation ( ! pulpit1 &   
belongs to ! same class ( imag9ative    
ef=ts z ! pieti/ic outbur/s ( fam\s     
unbeliev]s on _! dea?-b$s4 ,t su* ?+s   
c\ld h obta9$ s wide a curr5cy1 & be    
look$ ^u z q natural occurr5ces1 (f]s   
demon/rative evid5ce ( ! p>alyz+ p[] (  
,*ri/ian belief on ! human m9d4  ,z a   
matt] ( fact1 nei!r re=m]s 9 g5]al nor  
,free?9k]s 9 p>ticul> des]ve ! *>ge (   
be+ m]e de/ructioni/s4 ,!y are bo? f> m 
int]e/$ 9 build+ up ?an !y are 9 pull+  
d[n1 & x is %e] lack ( und]/&+ t fixes !
 eyes ( s _m on "o aspect ( ! re=m]'s   
task & s /eadily ignores ! o!r "o4 ,(   
c\rse1 ! ph5om5on is n an unusual "o4 ,9
 a revolution x is ! noise1 ! /reet     
fight+1 ! break+ ( old rules & ! %att]+ 
( e/abli%$ in/itutions t attract ! mo/  
att5tion4 ,! deep] aims ( !             
revolutioni/s1 ! hidd5 social =ces ( :i*
 ! revolution is ! expression1 ! "w (   

recon/ruction t is attempt$1 escape     
notice4 ,! old ord] %rieks its l\de/ at 
! ?reat ( dissolution1 ! new c h>dly    
make its voice he>d4 ,c>lyle's division 
( ! p into ! %riek+ ?\s&s & ! dumb      
millions is et]nally true4 ,& ev5 !     
millions are impress$ ) ! importance ( !
 ?\s&s because ( ! noise !y are able to 
make4  ,actually ! *>ge to :i* re=m]s 9 
g5]al are op5 is t ( a too great zeal = 
recon/ruction1 a belittl+ ( !           
difficulties t /& 9 ! way ( a radical   
*ange4 ,!y are apt to make too small an 
all[ance = ! occurr5ce ( ! unexpect$ & !
 incalculable1 bo? ( :i* are likely to  
int]f]e ) ! fruition ( ! mo/ logical (  
s*emes4 ,& !y are s obsess$ )           
recon/ruction t de/ruction seems no m   
?an an incid5t by ! way4 ,a little less 
eag]ness = recon/ruction might easily   
result 9 a great] conc]n = :at is be+   
pull$ d[n4 ,! two greate/ de/ructive    
movem5ts ( mod]n times--! ,fr5*         
revolution ( #aghi & ! ,russian         
revolution--bo? illu/rate ?is po9t4 ,9  

bo? movem5ts ! lead+ figures 7 m5 :o 7  
obsess$ ) ! idea ( build+ a new _w4 ,!y 
saw ?is new _w s cle>ly t ! old "o 0    
almo/ ignor$4 ,& ?is is equally true ( !
 lit]ature t prec$es & is ! m\?piece (  
su* movem5ts4 ,! lead+ appeal is always 
to :at is to be1 :at exi/$ is only us$ z
 a means ( en=c+ ! desirability ( ! new 
ord]4 ,x is1 9 %ort1 ! mania =          
recon/ruction t is *iefly responsible = 
! de/ruction :i* s horrifies ^? ^:      
vision c nev] see any?+ b ! _w to :i* !y
 h become accu/om$4  ,9 p>5!sis x may be
 rem>k$ t x is a tactical blund] to make
 "o's attack ^u an exi/+ in/itution or  
idea dep5d ^u ! attractiv5ess ( ! ideal 
/ate depict$4 ,x enables critics to fix 
att5tion on ! precise value ( ! propos$ 
rem$y in/ead ( discuss+ :e!r ! sugge/$  
re=m is necess>y4 ,! attack] is ?us     
plac$ 9 ! position ( ! def5d] & ! po9t  
at issue obscur$4 ,?is is1 t a c]ta9    
in/itution or idea has outgr[n its      
usefulness & its removal is necess>y to 
heal?y gr[?4 ,& x may well be t its     

removal is all t is requir$ to enable ! 
social organism to function naturally & 
heal?ily4 ,! outworn in/itution is (t5 !
 grit 9 ! ma*9e t prev5ts x runn+       
smoo?ly4  ,?is by ! way4 ,! fact rema9s 
t "s ( our be/ tea*]s h %[n !mselves apt
 to /umble 9 ! matt]4 ,)\t belief 9     
religion !y h too (t5 assum$ t its      
removal w\ld leave a s]i\s gap 9 life1 &
 s w\ld necessitate ! creation ( a numb]
 ( sub/itutes to take ! place (         
religion4 ,?us1 no less pr(\nd a ?9k]   
?an ,h]b]t ,sp5c] rem>ks 9 ! preface to 
8 ,data ( ,e?ics3--       ,few ?+s c    
happ5 m disa/r\s ?an ! dea? & decay ( a 
regulative sy/em no long] fit1 be=e     
ano!r & a bett]      regulative sy/em   
has gr[n up to replace x4 ,mo/ ( ^? :o  
reject ! curr5t cre$ appe> to assume t !
 controll+      ag5cy furni%$ by x may  
safely be ?r[n aside1 & ! vacancy       
left unfill$ by any o!r controll+ ag5cy4
  ,_h ,sp5c] fir/ ( all set himself to  
answ] ! "q1 ,:at is x t ! ,free?9k] sets
 himself to remove8 or ev5 ! "q1 ,:at is

 ! actual control ex]t$ by religion8 "o 
imag9es t ! passage above giv5 w\ld ei!r
 nev] h be5 writt5 or w\ld h be5        
diff]5tly word$4 ,& :5 a man su* z      
,sp5c] p]mits himself to put ! matt] 9  
?is =m "o ne$ n be surpris$ at ! ord9>y 
believ] assum+ t he has put an          
unansw]able "q to ! ,free?9k] :5 he asks
 :at x is t we propose to put 9 ! place 
( religion1 ) ! assumption t ! "q is on 
all f\rs ) ! enquiry z to :at sub/itutes
 we h = soap & coal if we de/roy all    
/ocks ( ^! articles4  ,! "q assumes m   
?an any sci5tific ,free?9k] w\ld ev]    
grant4 ,x takes = grant$ ! /atem5t t    
religion does at pres5t p]=m "s useful  
function 9 ! ,/ate4 ,& t is ! v /atem5t 
t is *all5g$4 ,nor does ! ,free?9k] d5y 
t "s controll+ ag5cy is desirable4 ,:at 
he does say is t 9 ! mod]n ,/ate1 at    
lea/1 religion ex]ts no control = good1 
t its activities make = /agnation or    
retrogression1 t its removal w make = ! 
heal?i] op]ation ( o!r ag5cies1 & t to  
^! o!r & non-religi\s ag5cies belongs ! 

cr$it :i* is at pres5t giv5 to religion4
  ,moreov]1 ,sp5c] %\ld n h ne$$ rem9d+ 
t sy/ems ( ?\ght :ile !y h any vital    
relation to life w successfully defy all
 attempts at eradication4 ,! ma9 cause (
 ! decay ( religion is n ! attack made  
^u x by ! =ces ( reason$ unbelief4 ,t   
attack is l>gely ! consci\s expression (
 a revolt aga9/ a sy/em t has long lo/  
all t\* ) reality1 & s has ceas$ to     
d]ive support f curr5t life & ?\ght4 ,f 
?is po9t ( view ! re=m] is :at he is    
because he is alive to ! drift ( ev5ts1 
susceptible to ^? social influ5ces :i*  
affect all m or less1 & 8 /r5g? is d]iv$
 f ! ?\s& & "o subtle influ5ces t ext5d 
f g5]ation to g5]ation & express        
!mselves 9 :at we are pleas$ to call !  
/ory ( civilization4  ,b ! quotation    
giv5 does repres5t a fairly common po9t 
( view1 & x is put 9 a =m t is mo/      
fav\rable to religi\s pret5sions4 ,= x  
assumes t religion does really 9 our    
mod]n lives p]=m a function s useful t x
 w\ld be ! height ( folly to remove x   

be=e we _h some?+ equally useful to take
 its place4 ,b some?+ 9 ! place (       
religion is a ?+ t no sci5tific         
,free?9k] desires4 ,x is n a new        
religion1 or ano!r religion t ! _w ne$s1
 b ! removal ( religion f ! control (   
life1 & a re/atem5t ( ^? social         
qualities t h hi!rto be5 express$ 9 a   
religi\s =m s t _! real nature w be     
app>5t to all4 ,!n we %all at la/ beg9  
to make progress ) small *ance ( gett+ a
 s]i\s set-back4  ,?is does n1 ( c\rse1 
d5y t !re are _m ?+s associat$ )        
religion = ! abs5ce ( :i* society w\ld h
 cause = regret4 ,x is "p ( ! ,free?\ght
 case t ?is is s4 ,& x may also be      
admitt$ t l>ge numb]s ( p hone/ly       
believe t _! religi\s beliefs s]ve z    
motives to ! expression ( _! bett]      
qualities4 ,t1 aga91 is "p ( ! delusion 
we are fight+4 ,we _c agree t religion1 
z su*1 conta9s any?+ t is ess5tially    
useful to ! race4 ,x has ma9ta9$ its p[]
 *iefly because ( its association )     
s]viceable social qualities1 & x is "p (

 ! "w ( ,free?\ght to di/+ui% betwe5 :at
 prop]ly belongs to religion & :at has  
become associat$ ) x dur+ its long      
hi/ory4 ,at pres5t ! confusion exi/s & !
 fact ne$ cause no surprise4 ,at be/ !  
in/9cts ( man are deep-laid1 ! motives  
to conduct are mo/ly ( an obscure k9d1 &
 x w\ld be cause = surprise if1 see+ h[ 
closely religion is associat$ ) e phase 
( primitive life1 & h[ p]si/5t are      
primitive modes ( ?9k+1 !re 7 n ?is     
confusion betwe5 ! actual "p play$ by   
religion 9 life & ! "p assign$ x by     
tradition4  ,at any rate1 x is idle to  
argue z ?\gh human conduct 0 gov]n$ by a
 s+le idea--t ( religion4 ,at ! mo/     
religi\s beliefs repres5t no m ?an a "p 
( ! va/ mass ( influ5ces t det]m9e human
 ef=t4 ,& :5 we see h[ l>gely religi\s  
beliefs are dep5d5t ^u con/ant          
/imulation & protection = _! exi/5ce1 x 
seems extremely unlikely t !y c hold a v
 vital relation to life4 ,! impot5cy (  
religion 9 matt]s ( conduct is1 too1    
decisively %[n 9 ! fact t x is q        

impossible to arrange m5 & wom5 9 a     
scale ( values t %all correspond ) ! k9d
 or ! f]v5cy ( _! religi\s beliefs4 ,a  
religi\s p]son may be a useful memb] (  
society or he may be a q useless "o4 ,a 
pr(\nd religi\s conviction may be       
accompani$ by ! l(tie/ ( ideals or by ! 
meane/ ( aims4 ,! unbeliev] may be1 &   
(t5 is1 a bett] man ?an ! believ]4 ,no  
bus9ess man w\ld ev] ?9k ( mak+ a man's 
religion ! condition ( tak+ "o into 8   
s]vice1 or if he did ! g5]al op9ion w\ld
 be t x indicat$ bigotry & n %rewdness4 
,we f9d x q impossible to det]m9e !     
nature ( religi\s belief by wat*+ ! way 
p behave4 ,9 no /age ( social life does 
religion provide u ) any?+ 9 ! nature ( 
a diff]5tiat+ factor4  ,x 0 argu$ by !  
late ,sir ,james ,fitzjames ,/eph51     
himself a ,free?9k]1 t z m5 h = a long  
"t be5 9 ! habit ( associat+ moral      
feel+s ) ! belief 9 ,god1 a sev]ance ( !
 two may entail moral disa/]4 ,x is1 (  
c\rse1 h>d to say :at may n happ5 9     
c]ta9 cases1 b x is q c]ta9 t su* a     

consequ5ce c\ld n foll[ on any g5]al    
scale4 ,"o has only to br+ a /atem5t (  
?is k9d d[n f ! region ( m]e !ory to t (
 def9ite fact to see h[ idle ! fe> is4  
,if1 in/ead ( ass]t+ 9 a vague way t !  
moral life is 9 "s way b\nd up )        
religi\s beliefs we ask :at moral action
 or moral disposition is s connect$1 we 
realize ! absurdity ( ! /atem5t4        
,pr(essor ,leuba well says3--       ,our
 alleg$ ess5tial dep5d5ce ^u            
transc5d5tal beliefs is      beli$ by ! 
mo/ common exp]i5ces ( daily life4 ,:o  
does n      feel ! absurdity ( ! op9ion 
t ! lavi% c>e = a sick      *ild by a "m
 is giv5 because ( a belief 9 ,god &    
immortality8 ,are love ( fa!r & "m on ! 
"p ( *ildr51      affection &           
s]viceabl5ess betwe5 bro!rs & si/]s1    
/raight=w>dness & tru?fulness betwe5    
bus9ess m5      ess5tially dep5d5t ^u ^!
 beliefs8 ,:at sort ( p]son w\ld      be
 ! fa!r :o w\ld ann\nce div9e puni%m5t  
or rew>d 9      ord] to obta9 ! love &  
respect ( 8 *ildr58 ,& if !re      are  

bus9ess m5 pres]v$ f unrighte\sness by !
 fe> (      future puni%m5t1 !y are f> m
 num]\s :o are det]r$ by      ! ?reat ( 
human law4 ,mo/ ( !m w\ld take _! *ances
 )      heav5 a hundr$ times be=e !y    
w\ld once ) society1 or      p]*ance ) !
 imp]ative voice ( humanity he>d 9 !    
consci5ce 7,! ,belief 9 ,god &          
,immortality1 p4 #cbc74  ,& 9 :atev]    
degree ! fe> may be ju/ifi$ 9 special   
cases1 x applies to any attempt :atev] t
 may be made to di/urb exi/+ conv5tions4
 ,lu!r compla9$ t "s ( 8 own conv]ts 7  
behav+ worse z ,prote/ants ?an !y behav$
 z ,ca?olics1 & ev5 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t we
 h ! same unfav\rable comp>ison made (  
_m ( ,*ri/'s foll[]s :5 comp>$ ) !      
,pagans ar\nd !m4 ,a transf]5ce (       
allegiance may easily result 9 c]ta9    
ill-balanc$ m9ds kick+ ov] ! traces1 b 9
 ! long run1 & ) ! mass1 ! deep] social 
ne$s are p>am\nt4 ,!re 0 ! same fe>     
express$ conc]n+ man's political &      
social duties :5 ! relations ( ,*ur* &  
,/ate 7 fir/ *all5g$4 ,yet ! connection 

betwe5 ! two has be5 q sev]$ 9 "s       
c\ntries1 & v mu* weak5$ 9 _m m1 )\t    
society 9 ! lea/ suff]+ f ! *ange4 ,on !
 contr>y1 "o may say t man's duties     
t[>ds ! ,/ate h be5 m intellig5tly      
p]ceiv$ & m effici5tly dis*>g$ 9        
proportion z ^? religi\s consid]ations t
 once rul$ h be5 set on "o side4  ,!    
reply ( ! ,free?9k] to ! "q ( ,:at is to
 foll[ religion8 may1 !re=e1 easily be  
se54 ,9 effect x is1 ,no?+ at all4 ,9   
any /udy ( social evolution ! prop]ly   
equipp$ /ud5t comm5ces 8 task ) ! full  
conviction t :atev] ! future may be l   
its g]ms are already ) u4 ,if nature    
does n abhor a vacuum x has at lea/ an  
int5se dislike to absolute beg9n+s4 ,!  
future w be an elaboration ( ! pres5t z 
! pres5t is an elaboration ( ! pa/4 ,=  
good or evil t pr9ciple rema9s          
unimpea*able4  ,! ess5tial "q is n1 ,:at
 is to foll[ religion8 b r :at w !      
disappe>ance ( religion affect t is (   
real value to ! _w4 ,! mom5t ! "q is    
rais$ 9 ?is unambigu\s mann] ! answ]    

sugge/s itself4 ,= assume t by "s /range
 & unexpect$ happ5+ !re set 9 a rag+    
epidemic ( common s5se4 ,assume t z a   
consequ5ce ( ?is ! _w 0 to awake ) its  
m9d completely cle>$ ( all belief 9     
religion4 ,:at w\ld be ! effect ( !     
trans=mation8 ,x is q cle> t x w\ld n   
affect any ( ! fundam5tal processes (   
life4 ,! tragi-com$y ( life w\ld /ill be
 p]=m$1 x w\ld run ?r\gh ! same numb] ( 
acts1 & x w\ld end 9 ! same happy or    
unhappy mann]4 ,human be+s w\ld /ill get
 born1 !y w\ld gr[ up1 !y w\ld fall 9   
love1 !y w\ld m>ry1 !y w\ld beget _!    
k9d1 & !y w\ld 9 turn pass away to make 
room = ano!r g5]ation4 ,bir? & dea?1 )  
all _! accompany+ feel+s1 w\ld rema94   
,human society w\ld cont9ue1 all !      
glories ( art1 ! greatness ( sci5ce1 all
 ! m>vels & wond]s ( ! univ]se w\ld be  
!re :e!r we believ$ 9 a ,god or n4 ,!   
only diff]5ce w\ld be t we %\ld no long]
 associate ^! ?+s ) ! exi/5ce ( a ,god4 
,& 9 t respect we %\ld be foll[+ ! same 
c\rse ( developm5t t has be5 foll[$ 9 _m

 o!r dep>tm5ts ( life4 ,we d n n[adays  
associate ! exi/5ce ( spirits ) a good  
or a bad h>ve/1 ! ang] ( ,god ) an      
epidemic1 or ! good-w ( deity ) a spell 
( f9e wea!r4 ,yet 9 ea* case !re 0 once 
! same assum$ association betwe5 ^! ?+s1
 & ! same fe>s ( :at w\ld happ5 if t    
association 0 disc>d$4 ,we are only     
c>ry+ ! process a /ep fur!r2 all t is   
requir$ is a little c\rage to take !    
/ep4 ,9 %ort1 !re is n a s+le useful or 
wor?y quality1 intellectual or moral1 t 
c possibly suff] f ! disappe>ance (     
religion4  ,on ?is po9t we may aga9     
quote f ,pr(essor ,leuba3--       ,!    
h]oism ( religi\s m>tyrs is (t5 flaunt$ 
z m>vell\s      in/ances ( ! unique     
su/a9+ /r5g? d]iv$ f ! belief      9 a  
p]sonal ,god & ! anticipation ( heav54  
,& yet =      e m>tyr ( ?is sort !re has
 be5 "o or m h]oes :o has      risk$ 8  
life = a noble cause1 )\t ! com=t :i*   
transc5d5tal beliefs may br+4 ,! v      
pres5t (f]s almo/      c\ntless in/ances
 ( m>tyrs to ! cause ( humanity1 :o are 

/rang]s to ! idea ( ,god & immortality4 
,h[ _m m5 &      wom5 9 ! pa/ decade    
gladly (f]$ & n infrequ5tly lo/      _! 
lives 9 ! cause ( fre$om1 or ju/ice1 or 
sci5ce8 ,9 !      mon/r\s w> we are n[  
witness+1 is !re a less h]oic def5ce    
( home & nation1 & less consci\s        
self-r5unciation among !                
non-believ]s ?an among ! pr(ess$        
,*ri/ians8 ,h mod]n      nations %[n a m
 int5se or a pur] patriotism ?an anci5t 
,greece & ,rome1 :]e m5 did n pret5d to 
d]ive inspiration      = _! de$s (      
devotion 9 ! ?\ghts ( _! gods4444 ,!    
fruitful de$s ( h]oism are at bottom    
inspir$ n by ! ?\ght      ( ,god or a   
future life1 b by innate t5d5cies or    
prompt+s      t h ref]5ce to humanity4  
,self sacrifice1 g5]osity1 is      root$
 9 no?+ less sup]ficial & accid5tal ?an 
social      in/9cts old] ?an ! human    
race1 = !y are already pres5t      9 a  
rudim5t>y =m 9 ! high] animals4  ,^! are
 q famili> /atem5ts to all ,free?9k]s1 b
 to a great _m ,*ri/ians !y may come )  

all ! =ce ( a new revelation4  ,9 !     
e>li] pages ( ?is "w ,i h giv5 :at ,i   
conceive solid reasons = believ+ t e "o 
( ! social & individual virtues is born 
( human int]c\rse & c nev] be s]i\sly   
d]ang$ = any l5g? ( "t1 s long z human  
society endures4 ,! scale ( values may  
well und]go a *ange ) ! decay (         
religion1 b t is some?+ :i* is tak+     
place all ! "t1 provid$ society is n 9 a
 /ate ( absolute /agnation4 ,!re is n   
any *ange t takes place 9 society t does
 n affect our view ( ! relative value ( 
p>ticul> qualities4 ,! value we place ^u
 p]sonal loyalty to a k+ is n :at x once
 04 ,at "o /age a man is ready to place 
! :ole ( 8 =tune at ! disposal ( a mon>*
 m]ely because he happ5s to be 8 ano9t$ 
k+4 ,to-day1 ! man :o _h no bett] reason
 = do+ t w\ld be look$ ^u z an idiot4   
,unque/ion+ ob$i5ce to e/abli%$         
au?ority1 :i* once play$ s high a "p 9 !
 education ( *ildr51 is n[ rank$ v l[ by
 all :o und]/& :at g5u9e education      
means4 ,f g5]ation to g5]ation we g on  

revis+ our e/imate ( ! value ( p>ticul> 
qualities1 & ! _w is ! bett] = !        
revision4 ,& t is :at we may assume w   
occur ) ! decay ( religi\s belief4 ,we  
%all place a high] value ^u c]ta9       
qualities ?an we d at pres5t & a l[]    
value ^u o!rs4 ,b !re w be no disc>d+ ! 
old qualities & creation ( new ones4    
,human nature w be ! same !n z n[1 z x  
has be5 = ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,! nature (     
human qualities w be m directly conceiv$
 & m intellig5tly appli$1 & t w be an   
undesirable developm5t only = ^? :o live
 by exploit+ ! ignorance & ! folly (    
mank9d4  ,?us1 if "o may v5ture ^u a    
prophecy ) reg>d to ! non-religi\s      
society ( ! future x may be said )      
confid5ce t :at are kn[n z ! ascetic    
qualities are n likely to increase 9    
value4 ,! cant ( ,*ri/ianity has always 
plac$ an excessive value ^u :at is call$
 self-sacrifice4 ,b !re is no value 9   
self-sacrifice1 z su*4 ,at be/ x is only
 ( value 9 exceptional circum/ances1 z  
an end x is worse ?an useless1 & x may  

easily deg5]ate f a virtue to a vice4 ,x
 assum$ high rank ) ,*ri/ian tea*]s =   
v>i\s reasons4 ,fir/1 x 0 an expression 
( t asceticism :i* lies at ! root (     
,*ri/ianity1 second1 because ,*ri/ianity
 pictur$ ?is _w z no m ?an a prep>ation 
= ano!r1 & taught t ! deprivations &    
suff]+s ( ! pres5t life w\ld be plac$ to
 a cr$it acc\nt 9 ! next "o1 & ?ird1    
because x help$ m5 & wom5 to tol]ate    
inju/ice 9 ?is _w & s help$ ! political 
game t gov]nm5ts & ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* h   
toge!r play$4 ,a really enlight5$       
society w\ld rank comp>atively l[ !     
virtue ( asceticism4 ,its pr9ciple w\ld 
be n self-sacrifice b self-developm5t4  
,:at mu/ result f ?is is an enl>gem5t ( 
our conception ( ju/ice & also ( social 
re=m4 ,bo? ( ^! ?+s occupy a v l[ place 
9 ! ,*ri/ian scale ( virtues4 ,social   
re=m x has nev] bo!r$ s]i\sly ab\t1 & 9 
its e>li] ye>s simply ignor$4 ,a p :o 7 
look+ = ! end ( ! _w1 ^: tea*+ 0 t x 0 =
 man's spiritual good to suff]1 & :o    
look$ = all help to sup]natural         

int]v5tion1 c\ld nev] h _h s]i\sly 9 _! 
m9ds :at we und]/& by social re=m4 ,& s 
) ! conception ( ,ju/ice4 ,!re is mu* ( 
?is 9 pre-,*ri/ian lit]ature1 & its     
entrance into ! life & ?\ght ( mod]n    
,europe c be trac$ directly back to     
,greek & ,roman s\rces4 ,b ! "w ( !     
,*ri/ian1 :ile x may h be5 to heal      
w\nds1 0 n to prev5t _! infliction4 ,x 0
 to m9i/] to pov]ty1 n to remove ^?     
conditions t made pov]ty inevitable4  ,a
 ,spani% writ] has put ?is po9t s well t
 ,i _c d bett] ?an quote him4 ,he       
says3--       ,! notion ( ju/ice is z   
entirely =eign to ! _s (                
,*ri/ianity z is t ( intellectual       
hone/y4 ,x lies :olly      outside !    
field ( its e?ical vision4              
,*ri/ianity--,i am n      ref]r+ to     
int]pretations disclaim$ z corruptions  
or      applications :i* may be set d[n 
to frailty & error1 b to !      mo/     
idealiz$ conceptions ( its sub/ance & ! 
mo/ exalt$      manife/ations ( its     
_s--,*ri/ianity has (f]$ consolation    

& com=t to m5 :o suff]$ "u inju/ice1 b (
 t      inju/ice itself x has rema9$    
absolutely incognizant4 ,x has          
call$ ^u ! we>y & heavy lad51 ^u !      
suff]+ & !      afflict$1 x has         
proclaim$ to !m ! law ( love1 ! duty (  
m]cy & =giv5ess1 ! ,fa!rhood ( ,god2 b 9
 t torm5t      ( religi\s & e?ical      
emotion :i* has impress$ m5 z !         
summit ( ! sublime1 & be5 held to       
transc5d all o!r e?ical      ideals1    
common ju/ice1 common hone/y h no place4
 ,! ideal      ,*ri/ian is se5 9 ! sa9t 
:o is se5 desc5d+ l an angel      f     
heav5 amid ! welt] ( human mis]y1 among 
! victims (      ru?less oppression &   
inju/ice 444 b ! cause ( t mis]y        
lies :olly outside ! range ( 8          
consci\sness2 no glimm] (      "r or    
wrong ent]s into 8 view ( x4 ,x is !    
e/abli%$      ord] ( ?+s1 ! div9ely     
appo9t$ gov]nm5t ( ! _w1      ! trial   
laid ^u s9n]s by div9e ord9ance4 ,/4    
,v9c5t de      ,paul visits ! hell ( !  
,fr5* galleys2 he proclaims !           

message ( love & calls s9n]s to         
rep5tance2 b to !      iniquity :i*     
creates & ma9ta9s t hell he rema9s      
absolutely indiff]5t4 ,he is appo9t$    
,gr& ,almon] to 8 ,mo/      ,*ri/ian    
,maje/y4 ,! _w might groan 9 mis]y "u ! 
despotism ( oppressors1 m5's lives &    
m5's m9ds might be      enslav$1 cru%$ &
 blight$2 ! _s ( ,*ri/ianity w\ld g     
=? & com=t !m1 b x w\ld nev] occur to x 
to r$ress      a s+le "o ( ^? wrongs4 ,x
 has rema9$ unconsci\s ( !m4      ,to ^?
 wrongs1 to m5's "r to be deliv]$ f !m1 
x 0      by nature completely bl9d4 ,9  
respect to ju/ice1 to "r &      wrong1 !
 _s ( ,*ri/ianity is n s mu* immoral z  
amoral4      ,! notion 0 z ali5 to x z !
 notion ( tru?4 ,includ$ 9      its code
 01 x might be controv]sially alleg$1 an
 old =mula1      ! gold5 rule1 a        
commonplace ( mo/ lit]ature1 :i* 0      
popul> 9 ! ,ea/ f ,*9a to ,asia ,m9or2 b
 t isolat$      precept 0 nev] int]pret$
 9 ! s5se ( ju/ice4 ,x meant            
=giv5ess1 =be>+1 k9dness1 b nev] m]e    

ju/ice1 common      equity2 ^? virtues 7
 f> too unemotional 9 aspect to appeal  
to ! religi\s en?usia/4 ,! r5unciation (
 life & all its      vanities1 ! ca/+   
ov]bo>d ( all sordid c>es = its         
ma9t5ance1 ! suppression ( desire1      
prodigal almsgiv+1 !      consecration (
 a life1 ! value ( :i* _h disappe>$ 9 8 
eyes1 to *>ity & love1 non-resi/ance1   
passive ob$i5ce1 !      turn+ ( ! o!r   
*eek to an enemy1 ! :ole riot ( ^!      
hyp]bolic e?ical emotions c\ld fire !   
,*ri/ian consci\sness1      :ile x      
rema9$ utt]ly unmov$ by e =m ( wrong1   
iniquity      & inju/ice 7,dr4 ,falta de
 ,gracia4 ,cit$ by ,dr4 ,r4 ,briffault1 
,!      ,mak+ ( ,humanity1 pp4 #ccd-e47 
,t1 we may assume1 w be "o ( ! mo/ /rik+
 consequ5ces ( ! displacem5t (          
,*ri/ianity 9 ! social economy4 ,!re w  
be less "t wa/$ on :at is call$         
philan?ropic "w--:i* is (t5 ! mo/ h>mful
 ( all social lab\rs--& m att5tion to ! 
removal ( ^? conditions t h made !      
display ( philan?ropy necess>y4 ,!re w n

 be less feel+ = ! di/ress$ or !        
un=tunate1 b x w be emotion "u !        
guidance ( ! intellect1 & ! dom9ant     
feel+ w be t ( indignation aga9/ !      
conditions t make human suff]+ &        
degradation inevitable1 r ?an a m]e     
gratification ( purely egoi/ic feel+ :i*
 leaves ! s\rce ( ! evil unt\*$4  ,t w  
mean a rise 9 ! scale ( values ( :at "o 
may call ! intellectual virtues--! duty 
( tru?seek+ & tru? speak+4 ,hi!rto !    
type ( "* held up = admiration by       
,*ri/ianity has be5 t ( ! bl9d believ]  
:o all[$ no?+ to /& 9 ! way ( 8 belief1 
:o requir$ no pro(s ( its tru? & all[$  
no dispro(s to ent] 8 m9d4 ,a society 9 
:i* religion does n hold a controll+    
place is n likely to place a v high     
value ^u su* precepts z ,bless$ are ^?  
:o h n se5 & yet h believ$1 or ,?\gh he 
slay me yet w ,i tru/ him4 ,b a v high  
value w be plac$ ^u ! duty (            
inve/igation & ! "r ( criticism4 ,& "o  
_c easily ov]-e/imate ! consequ5ces ( a 
g5]ation or two br\ght up 9 an atmosph]e

 :]e su* tea*+s obta94 ,x w\ld mean a   
receptiv5ess to new ideas1 a read9ess to
 ov]haul old in/itutions1 a tol]ation ( 
criticism su* z w\ld rapidly trans=m !  
:ole m5tal atmosph]e & ) x enorm\sly    
acc5tuate ! capacity =1 & ! rapidity (1 
social progress4  ,!re is also to be    
borne 9 m9d ! effect ( ! lib]ation ( !  
enorm\s am\nt ( en]gy at pres5t exp5d$ 9
 ! s]vice ( religion4 ,/upid religi\s   
controv]siali/s (t5 assume t x is "p ( !
 ,free?9k]'s case t religion enli/s 9   
its s]vice bad m51 & mu* "t is sp5t 9   
prov+ t religi\s p are mo/ly wor?y ones4
 ,t c\ld h>dly be o!rwise 9 a society   
:]e ! ov]:elm+ majority ( m5 & wom5     
pr(ess a religion ( "s sort4 ,b t is1   
inde$1 n ! ,free?9k]'s case at all1 & if
 ! badness ( "s religi\s p is cit$ x is 
only 9 answ] to ! fooli% argum5t t      
religioni/s are bett] ?an o!rs4 ,! real 
compla9t aga9/ religion is ( a diff]5t  
k9d altoge!r4 ,j z ! wor/ ?+ t "o c say 
ab\t a cl]gyman intellectually is1 n t  
he does n believe 9 :at he prea*es1 b t 

he does1 s ! mo/ s]i\s indictm5t (      
curr5t religion is n t x enli/s 9 its   
s]vice bad *>act]s1 b t x dissipates !  
en]gy ( good m5 & wom5 9 a p]fectly     
useless mann]4 ,! dissipation ( ,*ri/ian
 belief means ! lib]at+ ( a /ore ( en]gy
 = s]vice t is at pres5t be+ exp5d$ on  
ends t are )\t ! lea/ social value4 ,a  
_w )\t religion w\ld ?us be a _w 9 :i* !
 sole ends ( endeav\r w\ld be ^? ( human
 bett]m5t or human enlight5m5t1 &       
probably 9 ! end ! two are "o4 ,= !re is
 no real bett]m5t )\t enlight5m5t1 ev5  
?\gh !re may come = a "t enlight5m5t )\t
 bett]m5t4 ,x w\ld leave ! _w ) all !   
means ( intellectual & ae/hetic & social
 enjoym5t t exi/ n[1 & "o may reasonably
 hope t x w lead to _! cultivation &    
diffusion ov] ! :ole ( society4         
,pr9t$ & ,publi%$ by   ,,! ,,pione]     
,,press   7,g4 ,w4 ,,foote  ,,co41      
,,ltd471   #fa ,f>r+don ,/reet1 ,london1
 ,e4,c4 #d4     ,,ann\ncem5ts4   ,,!    
,,secul> ,,society1 ,limit$4  ,regi/]$  
,(fice3 #fb ,f>r+don ,/reet1 ,london1   

,e4,c4 #d4  ,secret>y3 ,miss ,e4 ,m4    
,,vance4  ,! ,memor&um ( ,association   
sets =? t ! ,society's ,objects         
are3--,to promote ! pr9ciple t human    
conduct %\ld be bas$ ^u natural k1 & n  
^u sup]natural belief1 & t human welf>e 
9 ?is _w is ! prop] end ( all ?\ght &   
action4 ,to promote fre$om ( inquiry4   
,to promote univ]sal ,secul> ,education4
 ,to promote ! complete secul>ization ( 
! ,/ate1 etc4 ,& to d all su* lawful ?+s
 z are conducive to su* objects4 ,also  
to h1 hold1 receive1 & reta9 any sums ( 
money paid1 giv51 devis$1 or bequea!d by
 any p]son1 & to employ ! same = any ( !
 purposes ( ! ,society4  ,memb]s pay an 
entrance fee ( t5 %ill+s1 & a subsequ5t 
ye>ly subscription ( five %ill+s4 ,!    
liability ( memb]s is limit$ to ,l#a1 9 
case ! ,society %\ld ev] be w\nd up4  ,!
 ,society's affairs are manag$ by an    
elect$ ,bo>d ( ,directors1 "o-?ird ( :om
 retire 7by ballot71 ea* ye>1 b are     
eligible = re-election4  ,fri5ds desir+ 
to b5efit ! ,society are invit$ to make 

donations1 or to ins]t a beque/ 9 !     
,society's fav\r 9 _! wills4 ,! n[      
hi/oric decision ( ! ,h\se ( ,lords 9 re
 ,b[man & ,o!rs v4 ! ,secul> ,society1  
,limit$1 9 #aiag1 a v]batim report ( :i*
 may be obta9$ f its publi%]s1 ! ,pione]
 ,press1 or f ! ,secret>y1 makes x q    
impossible to set aside su* beque/s4  ,a
 ,=m ( ,beque/4--,! foll[+ is a         
suffici5t =m ( beque/ = ins]tion 9 !    
wills ( te/ators3--       ,i give &     
bequea? to ! ,secul> ,society1 ,limit$1 
! sum (      ,l---- free f ,legacy      
,duty1 & ,i direct t a receipt sign$ by 
two memb]s ( ! ,bo>d ( ! said ,society &
 ! ,secret>y      !re( %all be a good   
dis*>ge to my ,executors = ! said       
,legacy4  ,x is advisable1 b n necess>y1
 t ! ,secret>y %\ld be =mally notifi$ ( 
su* beque/s1 z wills sometimes get lo/  
or mislaid4 ,a =m ( memb]%ip1 ) full    
p>ticul>s1 w be s5t on application to ! 
,secret>y1 #fb ,f>r+don ,/reet1 ,london1
 ,e4,c4 #d4   ,,national ,,secul>       
,,society4  ,presid5t3 ,,*apman ,,coh54 

,secret>y3 ,,miss ,e4 ,m4 ,,vance4 #fb  
,,f>r+don ,,/reet1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 #d4 
,,pr9ciples ,,& ,,objects4  ,secul>ism  
tea*es t conduct %\ld be bas$ on reason 
& k4 ,x kn[s no?+ ( div9e guidance or   
int]f]5ce2 x excludes sup]natural hopes 
& fe>s2 x reg>ds happ9ess z man's prop] 
aim1 & utility z 8 moral guide4         
,secul>ism affirms t ,progress is only  
possible ?r\gh ,lib]ty1 :i* is at once a
 "r & a duty1 & !re=e seeks to remove e 
b>ri] to ! fulle/ equal fre$om ( ?\ght1 
action1 & spee*4  ,secul>ism decl>es t  
!ology is condemn$ by reason z          
sup]/iti\s1 & by exp]i5ce z mis*iev\s1 &
 assails x z ! hi/oric enemy (          
,progress4  ,secul>ism accord+ly seeks  
to dispel sup]/ition2 to spread         
education2 to dise/abli% religion2 to   
rationalize morality2 to promote peace2 
to dignify lab\r2 to ext5d mat]ial      
well-be+2 & to realize ! self-gov]nm5t (
 ! p4  ,p4,s4--,beyond a m9imum ( ,two  
,%ill+s p] ye>1 e memb] is left to fix 8
 own subscription accord+ to 8 means &  

int]e/ 9 ! cause4  ,all applications =  
,memb]%ip to be made to ! ,secret>y z   
above4   ,,pione] ,,press ,,publications
  ,by ,,*apman ,,coh54    ,,!ism ,,or   
,,a!ism8 ,! ,great ,alt]native4 ,b\nd 9 
,full ,clo?1 ,gilt      ,lett]$4 ,price 
#es41 po/age #c;d4      ,,cont5ts3 ,,"p 
,i4--,,an ,,exam9ation ,,(              
,,!ism4--,*apt] ,i4--,:at is     ,god8  
,*apt] ,,ii4--,! ,orig9 ( ! ,idea (     
,god4 ,*apt] ,,iii4--,h     we a        
,religi\s ,s5se8 ,*apt] ,,iv4--,!       
,argum5t f ,exi/5ce4     ,*apt] ,v4--,! 
,argum5t f ,causation4 ,*apt] ,,vi4--,! 
,argum5t     f ,design4 ,*apt]          
,,vii4--,! ,di%>monies ( ,nature4 ,*apt]
     ,,viii4--,god & ,evolution4 ,*apt] 
,,ix4--,! ,problem ( ,pa94 ,,"p         
,,ii4--,,sub/itutes ,,= ,,a!ism4--,*apt]
 ,x4--,a ,"q ( ,prejudice4     ,*apt]   
,,xi4--,:at is ,a!ism8 ,*apt]           
,,xii4--,sp5c] & !     ,unkn[able4      
,*apt] ,,xiii4--,agno/icism4 ,*apt]     
,,xiv4--,a!ism &     ,morals4 ,*apt]    
,,xv4--,a!ism ,inevitable4    ,,religion

 ,,& ,,sex4 ,/udies 9 ! ,pa?ology (     
,religi\s ,developm5t4      ,price #fs41
 po/age #i;d4      ,a ,sy/ematic &      
,compreh5sive ,survey ( ! relations     
betwe5 !     sexual in/9ct & morbid &   
abnormal m5tal /ates & ! s5se     (     
religi\s exaltation & illum9ation4 ,!   
gr\nd cov]$ ranges     f ! primitive    
culture /age to pres5t-day revivalism & 
my/icism4 ,x is a "w t %\ld be 9 ! h&s (
 all     int]e/$ 9 ,sociology1 ,religion
 or ,psy*ology4    ,,cre$ ,,& ,,"*4 ,!  
,influ5ce ( ,religion on ,racial ,life4 
,price      #g;d41 po/age #a-a_/b;d4    
,,cont5ts3 ,*apt] ,i4--,religion & ,race
 ,survival4 ,*apt]                      
,,ii4--,*ri/ianity & ,social ,life4     
,*apt] ,,iii4--,! ,case ( !     ,jew4   
,*apt] ,,iv4--,a ,lesson f ,spa94       
,,det]m9ism ,,or ,,free-,,w8 ,9 ,pap]   
,cov]1 #as4 #i;d41 po/age #b;d4         
,half-,clo?1 #bs4 #f;d41 po/age #c;d4   
,,cont5ts3 ,*apt] ,i4--,! ,"q ,/at$4    
,*apt] ,,ii4--,fre$om     & ,w4 ,*apt]  
,,iii4--,consci\sness1 ,delib]ation1 &  

,*oice4     ,*apt] ,,iv4--,"s ,alleg$   
,consequ5ces ( ,det]m9ism4 ,*apt]       
,v4--,pr(essor ,james on ! ,dilemma (   
,det]m9ism4 ,*apt]     ,,vi4--,! ,nature
 & ,implication ( ,responsibility4      
,*apt]     ,,vii4--,det]m9ism & ,"*4    
,*apt] ,,viii4--,a ,problem 9           
,det]m9ism4 ,*apt] ,,ix4--,environm5t4  
,,*ri/ianity ,,& ,,slav]y4 ,) a ,*apt]  
on ! ,relation (      ,*ri/ianity to !  
,lab\r ,movem5t4 ,fully ,docum5t$ ) ,two
      ,plates & ,portrait4 ,price #as41 
po/age #a-a_/b;d4      ,,cont5ts3 ,*apt]
 ,i4--,slav]y & ! ,bible4 ,*apt]        
,,ii4--,paganism     & ,slav]y4 ,*apt]  
,,iii4--,slav]y 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,ages4     
,*apt]     ,,iv4--,! ,engli% ,slave     
,trade4 ,*apt] ,v4--,am]ican ,slav]y4   
,*apt]     ,,vi4--,*ri/ianity & ,lab\r4 
,*apt] ,,vii4--,black & ,:ite4          
,,woman ,,& ,,*ri/ianity4 ,! ,subjection
 & ,exploitation ( a ,sex4 ,an          
,an?ropological & ,hi/orical ,inquiry4  
,fully ,docum5t$4 ,price      #as41     
po/age #a-a_/b;d4      ,,cont5ts3 ,*apt]

 ,i4--,*ri/ianity & ,morality4 ,*apt]   
,,ii4--,woman     & ,primitive ,religi\s
 ,beliefs4 ,*apt] ,,iii4--,woman 9      
,pre-,*ri/ian ,civilization4 ,*apt]     
,,iv4--,woman & ! ,bible4     ,*apt]    
,v4--,woman ,"u ,*ri/ianity4 ,*apt]     
,,vi4--,*ri/ianity &     ! ,home4 ,*apt]
 ,,vii4--,madonna-,wor%ip & ,*ivalry4   
,*apt]     ,,viii4--,religion & ,woman4 
,,does ,,man ,,survive ,,dea?8 ,is !    
,belief ,reasonable8 ,v]batim ,report ( 
a ,discussion betwe5 ,horace ,leaf &    
,*apman ,coh54 ,price #g;d41      po/age
 #a;d4    ,,deity ,,& ,,design4 ,price  
#a;d41 po/age #a_/b;d4    ,,! ,,p>son   
,,& ,,! ,,a!i/4 ,a ,fri5dly ,discussion 
on ,religion & ,life      betwe5 ,rev4 !
 ,hon4 ,edw>d ,lyttelton1 ,d4,d41 &     
,*apman ,coh54      ,price #as4 #f;d41  
po/age #b;d4    ,,god ,,& ,,man4 ,an    
,essay 9 ,common ,s5se & ,natural       
,morality4 ,price #c;d41      po/age    
#a;d4    ,,w> ,,& ,,civilization4 ,price
 #a;d41 po/age #a_/b;d4    ,,socialism  
,,& ,,! ,,*ur*es4 ,price #c;d41 po/age  

#c;d4    ,,religion ,,& ,,! ,,*ild4 ,a  
,plea = ,fair ,play to ! ,*ild4 ,price  
#a;d41      po/age #a_/b;d4    ,,mod]n  
,,mat]ialism4 ,a ,c&id ,exam9ation4 ,by 
,,walt] ,,mann4 ,pap]      ,cov]1 #bs42 
,clo? #cs4 #f;d41 po/age #b;d4          
,,cont5ts3 ,*apt] ,i4--,mod]n           
,mat]ialism4 ,*apt] ,,ii4--,d>w9ian     
,evolution4 ,*apt] ,,iii4--,augu/e      
,comte & ,positivism4 ,*apt]            
,,iv4--,h]b]t ,sp5c] & ! ,syn!tic       
,philosophy4 ,*apt] ,v4--,!             
,contribution ( ,kant4 ,*apt]           
,,vi4--,huxley1 ,tyndall1 & ,clif=d     
op5 ! ,campaign4 ,*apt]                 
,,vii4--,bue*n]'s ,=ce & ,matt]4        
,*apt] ,,viii4--,atoms & ! ,e!r4 ,*apt] 
,,ix4--,! ,orig9 ( ,life4     ,*apt]    
,x4--,a!ism & ,agno/icism4 ,*apt]       
,,xi4--,! ,fr5*     ,revolution & !     
,great ,w>4 ,*apt] ,,xii4--,! ,advance (
     ,mat]ialism4      ,a c>eful &      
exhau/ive exam9ation ( ! mean+ (        
,mat]ialism     & its pres5t /&+1 toge!r
 ) its be>+ on v>i\s     aspects ( life4

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,/udy 9 ,*ri/ianity & ,cannibalism4 ,by 
,j4 ,t4 ,,lloyd4      ,9 ,col\r$        
,wrapp]4 ,price #f;d41 po/age #a-a_/b;d4
    ,,! ,,ru9s4 ,a ,survey ( !          
,revolutions ( ,empires4 ,to :i* is add$
      ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,nature4 ,by ,c4   
,f4 ,,volney4 ,a ,new ,edition1 be+ a   
,revis$      ,translation )             
,introduction by ,,george ,,und]wood1   
,portrait1      ,a/ronomical ,*>ts1 &   
,arti/ic ,cov] ,design by ,h4 ,,cutn]4  
,price      #es41 po/age #c;d4    ,,!   
,,life-,,wor%ip ,,( ,,ri*>d ,,jeff]ies4 
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,,ar?ur ,f4 ,,?orn4 ,price #as41 po/age 
#a-a_/b;d4    ,,! ,,bible ,,h&book4 ,=  
,free?9k]s & ,inquir+ ,*ri/ians4 ,by ,g4
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#f;d41      po/age #c;d4      ,,cont5ts3
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,,ii4--,bible     ,absurdities4 ,"p     
,,iii4--,bible ,atrocities4 ,"p         
,,iv4--,bible     ,immoralities1        

,indec5cies1 ,obsc5ities1 ,brok5        
,promises1 &     ,unfulfill$            
,prophecies4      7,issu$ by ! ,secul>  
,society1 ,limit$47    ,,jesus ,,*ri/3  
,man1 ,god1 or ,my?8 ,) a ,*apt] on ,0  
,jesus a      ,sociali/8 ,by ,,george   
,,:itehead4 ,pap] ,cov]1 #bs41 po/age   
#b;d42      ,clo?1 #cs4 #f;d41 po/age   
#c;d4    ,,! ,,hi/orical ,,jesus ,,&    
,,my?ical ,,*ri/4 ,by ,,g]ald ,,massey4 
,a      ,demon/ration ( ! ,egyptian     
,orig9 ( ! ,*ri/ian ,my?4 ,%\ld      be 
9 ! h&s ( e ,free?9k]4 ,) ,introduction 
by ,,*apman      ,,coh54 ,price #f;d41  
po/age #a-a_/b;d4    ,,! ,,philosophy   
,,( ,,secul>ism4 ,by ,g4 ,w4 ,,foote4   
,price #b;d41 po/age #a_/b;d4    ,,h]esy
 ,,9 ,,art4 ,! ,religi\s ,op9ions (     
,fam\s ,arti/s & ,musicians4      ,by   
,h4 ,g4 ,,f>m]4 ,price #c;d41 po/age    
#a_/b;d4    ,,pray]3 ,its ,orig91       
,hi/ory1 & ,futility4 ,by ,j4 ,t4       
,,lloyd4 ,price #b;d41      po/age #a;d4
    ,,pagan ,,& ,,*ri/ian ,,morality4   
,by ,,walt] ,,mann4 ,price #b;d41 po/age

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a ,*apt] on ,infidel ,dea?-,b$s4 ,by    
,,walt]      ,,mann4 ,price #g;d41      
po/age #a-a_/b;d4    ,,society ,,&      
,,sup]/ition4 ,by ,,rob]t ,,ar*4 ,price 
#f;d41 po/age #a;d4    ,,free?\ght ,,&  
,,lit]ature4 ,by ,,mimn]mus4 ,price     
#a;d41 po/age #a_/b;d4    ,,! ,,robes   
,,( ,,pan4 ,& o!r ,prose ,fantasies4 ,by
 ,a4 ,,mill>4 ,price #as41      po/age  
#a-a_/b;d4    ,,! ,,m\rn]3 ,a ,play ( ! 
,imag9ation4 ,by ,g4 ,h4 ,,murphy4      
,price #as41      po/age #a;d4          
,,mi/akes ,,( ,,moses4 ,by ,,colonel    
,,+]soll4 ,price #b;d41 po/age #a_/b;d4 
,,is ,,suicide ,a ,,s98 ,,& ,,la/       
,,words ,,on ,,suicide4 ,by ,,colonel   
,,+]soll4      ,price #b;d41 po/age     
#a_/b;d4    ,,essay ,,on ,,suicide4 ,by 
,d4 ,,hume4 ,price #a;d41 po/age        
#a_/b;d4    ,a ,,fight ,,= ,,"r4 ,a     
,v]batim ,report ( ! ,decision 9 ! ,h\se
 (      ,lords 9 re ,b[man & o!rs v4 ,! 
,secul> ,society1 ,limit$4      ,)      
,introduction by ,,*apman ,,coh54 ,price

 #as41 po/age #a-a_/b;d4      7,issu$ by
 ! ,secul> ,society1 ,limit$47          
,,rob]t ,g4 ,,+]soll4 ,by ,c4 ,t4       
,,gorham4 ,a ,biographical ,sket* (     
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 ,) ,f\r ,plates4 ,9      ,pap] ,cov]s1 
#bs41 po/age #b;d4 ,clo? ,b\nd1 #cs4    
#f;d41 po/age #b-a_/b;d4    ,,*>les     
,,bradlaugh4 ,by ,! ,"r ,hon4 ,j4 ,m4   
,,rob]tson4 ,an ,au?oritative      ,life
 ( "o ( ! greate/ ,re=m]s ( ! ,n9ete5?  
,c5tury1      & ! only "o n[ obta9able4 
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,cov]s1 #bs41 po/age #b;d4 ,clo? ,b\nd1 
#cs4 #f;d41 po/age #b-a_/b;d4    ,,!    
,,jewi% ,,life ,,( ,,*ri/4 ,be+ ! ,seph]
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,g5]ation ( ,jesus4 ,) an ,hi/orical    
,preface & ,volum9\s      ,notes4 ,by   
,g4 ,w4 ,,foote & ,j4 ,m4 ,,:eel]4      
,price #f;d41 po/age #a;d4              
,,voltaire',s ,,philosophical           
,,diction>y4 ,vol4 ,i41 #abh pp41 ) ,f9e
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,,*apman ,,coh54 ,price #as4 #c;d41     

po/age      #a-a_/b;d4    ,,! ,,m>tyrdom
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on ! ,ru9s (      ,anci5t ,civilization4
 ,by ,m4 ,m4 ,,mangas>ian4 ,price #a;d41
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,,( ,,jesus8 ,by ,g4 ,w4 ,,foote4 ,price
 #a;d41 po/age #a_/b;d4    ,,man ,,& ,,8
 ,,gods4 ,by ,,george ,,:itehead4 ,price
 #b;d41 po/age #a;d4    ,,! ,,sup]man2  
,essays 9 ,social ,idealism4 ,by        
,,george ,,:itehead4 ,price      #b;d41 
po/age #a;d4    ,,! ,,sociali/          
,,sunday-,,s*ool ,,movem5t4 ,by ,,george
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#a;d4   ,,pione] ,,leaflets4    ,,:at   
,,w ,,y ,,put ,,9 ,,its ,,place8 ,by    
,,*apman ,,coh54 ,price #as4 #f;d4 p]   
#ajj1 po/age #c;d4    ,,dy+ ,,free?9k]s4
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p] #ajj1 po/age      #c;d4    ,,!       
,,beliefs ,,( ,,unbeliev]s4 ,by ,,*apman
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po/age #c;d4    ,,are ,,*ri/ians        
,,inf]ior ,,to ,,free?9k]s8 ,by ,,*apman
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#ajj1 po/age #c;d4    ,,does ,,man      
,,desire ,,god8 ,by ,,*apman ,,coh54    
,price #as4 #f;d4 p] #ajj1 po/age       
#c;d4  ,,! ,,pione] ,,press1 #fa        
,f>r+don ,/reet1 ,e4,c4 #d4     ,,read  
,,! ,,free?9k]    ,,edit$ ,,by          
,,*apman ,,coh54    ,brilliant ,articles
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,lit]ature1 & ,life4    ,"o ( !         
,livelie/ & ,mo/ ,outspok5   ,j\rnals 9 
,great ,brita94    ,,publi%$ ,,e        
,,?ursday4    ,,price ,,?reep5ce4    ,( 
all ,newsag5ts1 or direct f ! ,publi%+  
,(fice1   #fa ,,f>r+don ,,/reet1        
,,london1 ,e4,c4 #d4    ,,specim5 ,,copy
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upside d[n h be5 correct$ )\t note4     
,inconsi/5t hyph5ation 7e4g4            
common-place vs4 commonplace7 has be5   
reta9$4 ,v>iant & unusual spell+s us$   
consi/5tly 7e4g4 indisp5sible7 h also   
be5 kept4  ,! foll[+ corrections &      
*anges 7 made to ! text3  p4 #fe3       
kn[lelge to k 7accumulation ( k7  p4    

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#ajb3 extra to remov$ 7owe _! belief to 
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#acb3 developes to develops 7organ or an
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7,aft] ?is lame conclusion x is         
difficult7  p4 #ahf3 p]cieves to        
p]ceives 7provid$ a man p]ceives7  p4   
#aij3 ,zeigl] to ,ziegl] 7,pr(essor     
,ziegl]7  p4 #bae3 mayority to majority 
7majority ( ,*ri/ians7  p4 #baf3        
prec>i\t to prec>i\s 7prec>i\s exi/5ce  
at be/7  ,adv]tisem5ts3 entrace to      
entrance 7an entrance fee ( t5 %ill+s7