,transcriber's ,notes3 ,misspellings in the source text have been corrected4 ,the oe-ligature is indicated with in this text version4 ,missing page entries for 8,wooden shoes0 was assigned a page number by the transcriber4 ,index entry for 8,stamfield1 ,jas40 was removed since this name does not occur in the main text4 ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century ,,series ,,editor3 ,,justin ,mc,c,a,r,t,h,y4 ,,associate ,,editors3 ,,rev4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,withrow1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,c4 ,,charles ,g4 ,d4 ,,roberts1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,c4,i4 ,j4 ,,castell ,,hopkins1 ,f4,r4,s4,l4 ,t4 ,g4 ,,marquis1 ,b4,a4 ,,rev4 ,t4 ,s4 ,,linscott1 ,f4,r4,c4,i4 ,,inventions ,,in ,,the ,,century ,,by ,,william ,h4 ,,doolittle ,expert and ,patent ,solicitor1 ,ex-,examiner in the ,patent ,office and ,assistant ,commissioner of ,patents at ,washington1 ,writer of ,inventions1 ,etc4 ,,the ,,linscott ,,publishing ,,company ,,toronto ,,and ,,philadelphia ,w4 ,r4 ,,chambers1 ,limited ,,london ,,and ,,edinburgh #aijc ,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the ,year ,one ,thousand ,nine ,hundred and ,two1 by the ,bradley-,garretson ,co41 ,limited1 in the ,office of the ,librarian of ,congress1 at ,washington4 ,entered1 according to ,act of ,parliament of ,canada1 in the ,year ,one ,thousand ,nine ,hundred and ,two1 by the ,bradley-,garretson ,co41 ,limited1 in the ,office of the ,minister of ,agriculture4 ,all ,rights ,reserved4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,,inventions ,,and ,,discoveries4 ,inventions and ,discoveries4--,distinctions and ,contrast4--,the ,one1 ,useful ,contrivances of ,man2 the ,other1 ,new ,things ,found in ,nature4--,galileo and the ,telescope4--,newton and the ,law of ,gravitation4--,often ,united as ,soul and ,body4--,inventions and ,discoveries do not ,precede or ,succeed in ,order4--,inventions-- ,alphabetical ,writing2 ,arabic ,notation2 ,the ,mariner's ,compass2 ,the ,telescope2 ,the ,steam ,engine4--,discoveries2--,attraction of ,gravitation2 ,planetary ,motions2 ,circulation of ,blood2 ,velocity of ,light4--,nineteenth ,century ,inventions and ,discoveries4-- ,further ,definitions4--,law of ,development4--,contrivances1 not ,creations4--,man ,always an ,inventor4--,prof4 ,langley on ,slow ,growth of ,inventions4--,inventions of this ,century ,outgrowth of ,past ,ones4--,egyptian ,crooked ,stick1 ,precursor of ,modern ,plough4--,hero of ,alexandria and ,james ,watt4--,david's ,harp and the ,grand ,piano4--,electrical ,science in #afjj and the ,present ,day4--,evolution and ,interrelation of the ,arts4--,age of ,machine ,inventions4--,its ,beginning4--,the ,inducements to ,invention4-- ,necessity not ,always the ,mother4--,wants of ,various ,kinds4-- ,accident4--,governmental ,protection the ,greatest ,incentive4-- ,origin and ,growth of ,patent ,laws4--,influence of ,personal1 ,political and ,intellectual ,freedom and ,education4--,arts of ,civilization ,due to the ,inventor4--,macaulay's ,estimate4-- ,will ,inventions ,continue to ,increase or ,decrease4--,effect of ,economic1 ,industrial and ,social ,life upon ,inventions4--,what ,inventions have ,done for ,humanity4--,thread of the ,centuries4-- ,the ,roll of ,inventions too ,vast for ,enumeration4 #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,agriculture ,,and ,,its ,,implements4 ,the ,egyptians the ,earliest and ,greatest ,agriculturists4-- ,rome and ,farming4--,cato1 ,varro1 ,virgil4--,columella4--,pliny4-- ,palladius4--,the ,decline of ,agriculture4--,northern ,barbarism4-- ,lowest ,ebb in the ,middle ,ages4--,revival in the ,fifteenth and ,sixteenth ,centuries4--,with ,invention of ,printing4--,publications then1 ,concerning4--,growth in ,seventeenth and ,eighteenth ,centuries4--,jethro ,tull4--,arthur ,young4--,washington4-- ,jefferson4--,the ,art ,scientifically ,commenced with ,sir ,humphry ,davy's ,lectures on ,soils and ,plants1 #ahjb-ahab4--,societies4-- 8,book ,farming0 and ,prejudice of ,farmers4--,a ,revisit of ,ruth and ,cincinnatus at ,beginning of ,nineteenth ,century4--,their ,implements still the ,common ,ones in ,use4--,the ,plough and its ,history4--,its ,essential ,parts and their ,evolution to ,modern ,forms4--,originated in ,holland4--,growth in ,england and ,america4--,small1 ,jefferson1 ,newbold4--,lord ,kames' ,complaint4-- ,the ,american ,plough4--,cutting ,disks4--,steam ,ploughs3 ,implements for ,preparing the ,soil for ,planting4--,various ,forms of ,harrows4 #ac ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,agricultural ,,implements4 ,the ,sowing of ,grain4--,the ,sower of the ,parables4--,his ,art and its ,defects ,lasted until ,nineteenth ,century4--,the ,problems to be ,solved4--,assyrian and ,chinese ,seeding ,implements4--,india4-- ,italy ,first to ,introduce a ,grain ,sowing ,machine1 ,seventeenth ,century4--,zanon's ,work on ,agriculture1 #agfd4--;,austria and ,england4--,a ,spaniard's ,invention4--,don ,lescatello4--,the ,drill of ,jethro ,tull4--,a ,clergyman1 ,cooke's ,machine4--,washington and ,others4--,modern ,improvements in ,seeders and their ,operation and ,functions4--,force ,feed and ,gravity ,feed4--,graduated ,flow4-- ,divided ,feeds for ,separate ,grains and ,fertilizing ,material4-- ,garden ,ploughs and ,seeders4--,gangs of ,heavy ,ones4--,operated by ,steam4--,corn ,planters4--,walking and ,riding4--,objects of ,proper ,planting4--,how ,accomplished by ,machinery4--,variety of ,machines4--,potatoes and the ,finest ,seeds4--,transplanters4-- ,cultivators4--,their ,purposes and ,varieties4--,primitive and ,modern ,toilers4--,millet4--,tillers of the ,soil no ,longer 8,brothers of the ,ox40 #bc ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,agricultural ,,inventions4 ,harvesting in ,ancient ,times4--,the ,sickle4--,pliny's ,machine4-- ,now the ,clover ,header4--,palladius' ,description4--,improved in #aghf4--,scotchman's ,grain ,cradle in #agid4--,the ,seven ,ancient ,wonders and the ,seven ,modern ,wonders4--,the ,modern ,harvester and the ,cotton ,gin4--,requirements of the ,harvester4--,boyce4-- ,meares4--,plucknett4--,gladstone and the ,first ,front ,draft ,machine1 #ahjf4--,salonen introduced ,vibrating ,knives over ,stationary ,blades1 #ahjg4--,ogle and ,reciprocating ,knife ,bar1 #ahbb4--,rev4 ,patrick ,bell1 #ahbc1 ,cuts an ,acre of ,grain in an ,hour4--,mowers and ,reapers in ,america in #ahbj4--,reaper and ,thresher combined by ,lane1 of ,maine1 #ahbh4--,manning's ,harvester1 #ahca4--,schnebly4--,hussey4--,mc,cormic k1 #ahcc-cd4--;,harvesters and ,mowers at ,world's ,fair1 ,london1 #ahea4--;,automatic ,binders4--,wire and ,twine4--,advances ,shown at ,centennial ,exhibition1 #ahgf4-- ,inventions ,beyond the ,wildest ,dreams of ,former ,farmers4--,one ,invention ,generates ,another4--,lawn ,mowers4--,hay ,forks and ,stackers4--,corn1 ,cotton1 ,potato1 ,flax ,harvesters4--,threshing4-- ,the ,old ,flail4--,egyptian and ,roman ,methods4--,the ,first ,modern ,threshing ,machine4--,menzies1 ,leckie1 ,meikle4--,combined ,harvesters and ,threshers4--,flax ,threshers and ,brakes4--,cotton ,gins4--,eli ,whitney4--,enormous ,importance of this ,machine in ,cotton ,products4--,displacement of ,labour4 #cb ,,chapter ,v4 ,,agricultural ,,inventions 7continued74 ,harvest ,ended1 ,comes the ,preparation of ,grain and ,fruits for ,food4--,cleaning4--,separating4--,grind ing4--,fanning ,mills and ,sir ,walter ,scott4--,the ,rudimentary ,mills4--,egyptian4--,hebrew1 ,grecian1 and ,roman ,methods1 ,prevailed until ,middle of ,eighteenth ,century4--,the ,upper and ,nether ,mill ,stone in ,modern ,dress4-- ,modern ,mills ,invented at ,close of ,eighteenth ,century4--,oliver ,evans of ,america1 #agee-ahai4--;,evans' ,system ,prevailed for ,three ,quarters of a ,century4--,new ,system4--,middlings4--,low ,milling4-- ,high ,milling4--,roller ,mills4--,middlings ,separators4--,dust ,explosions and ,prevention4--,vegetable ,cutters4--,choppers4--,fruit ,parers and ,slicers4--,great ,range of ,mechanisms to ,treat the ,tenderest ,pods and ,smallest ,seeds4--,crushing ,sugar ,cane4-- ,pressing and ,baling4--,every ,product has its own ,proper ,machine for ,picking1 ,pressing1 ,packing1 or ,baling4--,cotton ,compress4-- ,extensive and ,enormous ,cotton ,crops of the ,world4--,cotton ,presses of ,various ,kinds4--,hay and its ,baling4--,bale ,ties4-- ,fruits and ,foods4--,machines for ,gathering1 ,packing1 ,preserving1 etc41 all ,modern4--,drying and ,evaporating4--,sealing4-- ,transporting4--,tobacco4--,its ,enormous ,production4--,the ,interdict of ,james ,i41 and of ,popes1 ,kings1 ,sultans1 etc4--,variety of ,machines for its ,treatment4 #de ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,chemistry1 ,,medicines1 ,,surgery1 ,,dentistry4 ,chemistry among the ,ancients4--,egyptians4--,phnicians4-- ,israelites4--,greeks and ,romans4--,chinese4--,became a ,science in the ,seventeenth and ,eighteenth ,centuries4--,libavius4--,van ,helmont4--,glauber--,tachenius4--,boyle 4--,lmery4--,becher4-- ,stahl4--,boerhaave4--,black4--,cavendis h4--,lavoisier4--,priestley4-- ,chemistry of ,nineteenth ,century a ,new ,world4--,atomic and ,molecular ,theories4--,light1 ,heat1 and ,electricity4--,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces4--,spectrum ,analysis4--,laws of ,chemical ,changes4--,john ,dalton4--,wollaston4--,gay4--,lussac4-- ,berzelius4--,huygens'and ,newton's ,discoveries in ,light in ,seventeenth ,century4--,unfolded and ,developed by ,fraunhofer1 ,kirchoff4--,bunsen in the ,nineteenth4--,young of ,america4-- ,combination of ,spectroscope and ,telescope4--,huggins of ,england1 ,spectrum ,analysis of the ,stars4--,heat and other ,forces4--,count ,rumford4--,davy4--,mayer4--,helmholtz4- -,colding4--,joule4--,grove4-- ,faraday4--,sir ,william ,thomson4--,le ,conte and ,martin4--,french ,revolution and ,agricultural ,chemistry4--,lavoisier1 ,berthollet4-- ,guyton4--,fourcroy4--,napoleon4--,sir ,humphry ,davy4--,liebig4-- ,fermentation4--,alcohol4--,yeast4--,mal t4--,wines4--,beer4--,huxley's ,lecture on ,yeast1 #ahga4--,protein4--,protoplasm4--,evolut ion from one all-pervading ,force4--,alcohol and ,pasteur4--,manufacture of ,liquors4--,carbonating4--,soils and ,fertilisers4--,liquids1 ,oils1 ,sugar and ,fats4--,bleaching and ,dyeing4--,aniline ,colours4-- ,perfumes4--,electro-,chemical ,methods4--,applied to the ,production of ,artificial ,light4--,abradants4--,disinfectants4--, pigments4-- ,mineral ,analysis4--,purification of ,water and ,sewage4-- ,electroplating ,metals4--,chemicals and the ,fine ,arts4--,redemption of ,waste ,materials4--,medicines and ,surgery4--,their ,growth from ,empiricism4--,ansthetics4--,davy4--,mor ton4--,jackson4--,innumerable ,medical ,compounds4--,antiseptic ,treatment of ,wounds4--,vast ,variety of ,surgical ,instruments ,invented4--,four ,thousand ,patents in ,united ,states ,alone4--,dentistry4--,its ,ancient ,origin4-- ,account of ,herodotus4--,revolution in1 during ,nineteenth ,century4--,instruments4--,artificial ,teeth4--,vast ,relief from ,pain4 #eh ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,steam ,,and ,,steam ,,engines4 ,prophecy of ,dr4 ,darwin in ,eighteenth ,century4--,review of the ,art from ,hero to ,james ,watt4--,pumping ,engines4--,road ,carriages4-- ,watt4--,cugnot4--,rumsey4--,fitch4--,ol iver ,evans4--,read4-- ,symington4--,trevithick4--,locomotives4 --,blenkinsop4--,griffith4-- ,bramah4--,horse ,engine4--,hancock4--,blackett4--,george ,stephenson4--,hackworth4--,braithwaite4 --,ericsson4--,huskisson ,first ,victim of ,railroad ,accident4--,seguin4--,john ,c4 ,stevens4-- ,horatio ,allen4--,peter ,cooper4--,symington4--,lord ,dundas4--,fulton and ,livingston4--,the ,first ,successful ,steamboat4--,transatlantic ,steam ,navigation4--,scarborough of ,georgia4--,bell of ,scotland4-- ,cunard ,line2 ,paddle ,wheels4--,screw ,propellers4--,the ,age of ,kinetic ,energy4--,professor ,thurston4--,variety of ,engines and ,boilers4--,corliss4--,bicycle and ,automobile ,engines4--,napoleon's ,stage ,trip and ,present ,locomotion4--,daniel ,webster's ,survey of the ,art4 #gc ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,transportation4 ,the ,duties of a ,civil ,engineer4--,great ,engineering of the ,past4--,the ,divisions4--,steam4--,mining4--,hydraul ic4-- ,electrical4--,marine4--,bridge ,making1 ,its ,development4--,first ,arched ,iron ,bridge4--,darby4--,telford4--,leading ,bridges of the ,century4--,suspension4--,tubular4--,tub ular ,arch4--,truss4-- ,cantilever4--,spider's ,web and ,suspension4--,sir ,samuel ,brown4-- ,the ,tweed4--,menai ,straits and ,telford4--,m4 ,chaley and ,fribourg4--,j4 ,k4 ,brunel and ,isle of ,bourbon4--,british ,america and the ,united ,states united in #ahee--,niagara4--,john ,a4 ,roebling4--,the ,brooklyn ,bridge4--,caissons and the ,caisson ,disease4--,tubular ,bridge at ,menai4--8,the ,grandest ,lift in ,engineering40--,robert ,stephenson4--,the ,tubular ,arch at ,washington4--,captain ,meigs and ,captain ,eads4--,st4 ,louis ,bridge4--,truss ,system and ,vast ,modern ,bridges4--,cantilever ,succeeded the ,suspension4--,new ,niagara and ,river ,forth4--,schneider4--,hayes4--,fowler and ,baker4--,milton's ,description4--,lighthouses4--,smeaton4- -,douglass4--,bartholdi4-- ,eiffel4--,excavating1 ,dredging1 ,draining4--,road-making4-- ,railroads4--,canals4--,tunnels4--,excav ating4--,desert ,lands ,reclaimed4--,holland and ,florida ,swamps4--,the ,tunnels of the ,alps4--,suez ,canal4--,engineering1 as seen from a ,pullman ,car4--,cable ,transportation4--,pneumatic ,lock ,system4--,grain ,elevators--,progress in ,civilisation4 #ic ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,electricity4 ,theories and ,definitions4--,franklin's and a ,modern ,one4-- ,varieties of the ,force4--,generation4--,dynamic ,energy4-- ,discoveries before the ,nineteenth ,century4--,magnetism and ,electricity4--,fathers of the ,science4--,doctor ,gilbert4--,otto von ,guericke4--,sir ,isaac ,newton4--,gray4--,dufay4--,professor ,muschenbroeck4--,cuneus4--,charles ,morrison4--,franklin and ,galvani4--,volta4--,the ,door to ,nineteenth ,century ,inventions then ,opened4--,fabroni4--,sir ,humphry ,davy1 ,wollaston1 ,nicholson1 and ,carlisle4--,ritter ,followed--,electrolysis4--,faraday and its ,laws4--,davy and the ,electric ,light4--,batteries4--,daniell4-- ,grove4--,bunsen4--,brilliant ,discoveries from #ahjj to #ahbj4-- ,oersted1 ,schweigger4--,magnetising ,helix4--,indicators4--,arago and ,davy4--,ampre's ,discoveries4--,sturgeon and the first ,electro-,magnet1 #ahbe4--,telegraphy4--,gauss1 ,weber1 ,schilling4-- ,professor ,barlow's ,demonstration that ,telegraphy was ,impracticable4--,joseph ,henry4--,powerful ,magnets4--,modern and ,ancient ,telegraphy of ,various ,kinds4--,the ,third ,decade4--,george ,simon ,ohm4--,steinheil4--,telegraph of ,morse1 ,vail1 ,dana1 ,gale4-- ,wheatstone4--,u4,s4 ,supreme ,court on ,morse ,system4--,his ,alphabet and ,submarine ,telegraph4--,michael ,faraday and ,science of ,magnets4--,steam and ,magneto-,dynamo ,machines4--,chemical ,affinity and ,electricity4--,helmholtz1 ,faraday1 ,henry1 and ,pixii4-- ,ruhmkorff ,coil4--,page4--,electrical ,light4--,decomposition of ,water4--,professor ,nollet4--,first ,practical ,electric ,light ,shone on the ,sea1 #aheh4--;,faraday and ,holmes4--,lighthouse ,illumination4--,dr4 ,w4 ,siemens4--,wilde's ,machine4--,other ,powerful ,magnetic ,machines4--,field ,magnets4--,z4 ,gramme4-- ,the ,various ,ways and ,means of ,developing ,electric ,light4-- ,geissler ,tubes4--,first ,house ,lighted in ,america4--,moses ,g4 ,farmer4--,jablochoff's ,candle4--,french ,regulators4--,outdoor and ,indoor ,illumination4--,siemens1 ,farmer1 ,brush1 ,maxim1 ,westinghouse1 ,edison1 ,swan1 ,lane--,fox and ,others4--,arc ,lamps of ,heffner von ,alteneck4--,ocean ,cables4--,cyrus ,w4 ,field4--,john ,bright's ,expression4--,weak ,currents4--,thomson's ,remedy4--,mirror ,galvanometer4--,centennial ,exhibition and the ,telephone4-- ,alexander ,graham ,bell1 #ahge4--,the ,telephone and ,helmholtz' ,theory of ,tone4--,scott's ,phonautograph4--,page's ,production of ,galvanic ,music and ,researches of ,reis4--,its ,slow ,growth4--,the ,ideas of ,faraday and ,henry still the ,basis of the ,great ,machines4--8,lines of ,force40--,electric ,railway4--,storage ,batteries4--,dynamos4--,first ,railway at ,berlin1 #ahgi4--,then ,saxony1 ,paris1 ,london1 ,new ,york4--,telpherage by ,professor ,jenkin4--,problems ,solved4--,electrical ,magicians4--,edison and ,tesla4--,recent ,improvements in ,telegraphy4--,the ,talks ,both ,ways at ,same ,time and ,multiplied4--,printing ,systems by ,types and ,otherwise4--,electrical ,elevators4--,microphone4--,ticks of a ,watch and the ,tread of a ,fly ,recorded4--,musical ,sounds from ,minerals and ,other ,substances4--,signalling and ,other ,appliances4--,the ,x ,rays4--,wireless ,telegraphy4 #aaa ,,chapter ,x4 ,,hoisting1 ,,conveying1 ,,and ,,storing4 ,drudgery of ,ancient ,times ,relieved by ,modern ,inventions4-- ,the ,labour of ,men and ,beasts now ,done by ,steam ,giants4-- ,labour-,saving ,appliances for ,transportation4--,tall ,buildings and ,elevators4--,evolution ,slow until #aith ,century4--,carrying of ,weights4--,the ,pyramids4--,modern ,methods4--,ship-,loading4-- ,the ,six ,ordinary ,powers ,alone ,used until the ,time of ,watt4-- ,elevator ,mills of ,oliver ,evans4--,the ,hydraulic ,press of ,bramah4--,the ,lifting of ,tubular ,bridge by ,robt4 ,stephenson4-- ,compressed ,air ,elevator of ,slade4--,counterbalance ,lifts of ,van ,elvean4--,modern ,elevator of ,otis1 #ahei4--,steam-,water4-- ,compressed ,air4--,electricity3 ,elevators1 how ,controlled4-- ,store ,service ,conveyors4--,pneumatic ,transmission3 ,dodge's ,air ,blast ,conveyor4--,mode of ,switching ,conveyors4--8,lazy ,tongs0 ,conveyors4--,buffers4--,endless ,cables4--,clutches1 ,safety4--,labour-,saving ,devices and ,derangement of ,labour4-- ,in ,one ,sense1 ,inventions ,labour-,increasing ,devices4 #aeb ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,hydraulics4 ,old as the ,thirst of ,man4--,prehistoric ,inventions4--,china4-- ,pliny's ,record4--,egyptian1 ,carthaginian1 ,greek and ,roman ,water ,works4--8,pneumatics of ,hero40--,overshot1 ,undershot1 and ,breast ,wheels1 ,ancient4--,screw of ,archimedes4--,frontinus1 a ,roman ,inspector4--#aeic1 ,servire ,invents the ,rotary ,pump4--#aehf1 ,stevinus of ,holland1 ,father of the ,elementary ,science4--,galileo1 ,torricelli1 ,pascal1 and ,sir ,isaac ,newton in the ,seventeenth ,century4--,bernoulli1 ,d',alembert1 ,euler1 ,abb ,bossut1 ,venturi1 and ,eylewein in the ,eighteenth4--,water ,distribution then ,originated4--,peter ,maurice and the ,london ,bridge ,pumps4--,la ,hire's ,double ,acting ,pump4--,dr4 ,john ,allen and ,david ,ramsey of ,england4--,franklin's ,force ,pump4--,water ,ram of ,whitehurst and ,montgolfier4--,nineteenth ,century ,opens with ,bramah's ,pumps4-- ,water and ,steam4--,pumps the ,strong ,hands of ,hydraulics4--,review of ,past ,inventions3 ,pascal's ,paradox4--,turbines of ,forneyron4-- ,power of ,niagara and ,turbines there4--,jonval's4--,euler's ,old ,centrifugal ,pumps ,revived4--,massachusetts and ,appold ,systems4-- ,lowlands of ,holland1 ,marshes of ,italy1 ,swamps of ,florida1 ,drained4--,injectors4--,giffard4--,inte nsifiers4--,hydraulicising4-- ,hydraulic ,jack and ,cleopatra's ,needle4--,flow of ,cold ,metal4-- ,lead ,pipe ,made1 and ,cold ,steel ,stretched by ,water ,pressure4-- ,cotton ,presses1 ,sir ,wm4 ,armstrong's ,inventions4--,tweddle and ,sir ,wm4 ,fairbairn4--,water ,motors4--,baths and ,closets4--,results of ,modern ,improvements4--,germ ,theory and ,filters4 #afd ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,pneumatics ,,and ,,pneumatic ,,machines4 ,the ,slow ,march of the ,human ,mind4--,burke4--,the ,age of ,mechanical ,inventions not until nearly ,watt's ,steam ,engine4--,review of 8,learning0 until that ,time4--,motor ,engines not ,produced until ,seventeenth ,century4--,suggested by the ,bellows and the ,cannon4--,huygens and ,papin4--,van ,helmont the ,author of the ,term 8,gas10 #aegg-afdd4--,robert ,boyle and the ,air ,pump4--,law of ,gases4--,mariotte4--,abb ,hauteville1 #afhb4--,the ,heart and a ,motor4--,sun ,burner4--,murdock1 #agih1 ,uses ,coal ,gas for ,illumination4--,john ,barber and ,carburetted ,hydrogen4-- ,street's ,heated ,gas4--#ahja1 ,lebon ,proposes ,coal ,gas ,motor4-- ,investigations of ,dalton and ,gay-,lussac1 #ahaj4--;,heat engines3 ,air1 ,gas1 ,steam1 ,vapor1 ,solar4--,explosive4--,temperature the ,tie that ,binds them as ,one ,family4--#ahbc-bf1 ,sir ,samuel ,brown4-- ,gunpowder and ,gas ,engine4--,davy and ,faraday4--,gas to a ,liquid ,state4--,wright1 #ahcc4--;,burdett's ,compressed ,air ,engine1 #ahch4-- ,lenoir's4--,hugon's4--,beau de ,rohes' ,investigations4--,oil ,wells of ,united ,states1 #ahfj4--,petroleum ,engines4--,brayton1 ,spiel4-- ,otto's ,gas ,engine and ,improvements4--,ammoniacal ,gas ,engines4-- ,nobels' ,inventions4--,storm's ,gunpowder ,engine4--,gas and ,vapour ,compared with ,steam4--,prof4 ,jenkins' ,prediction4--,gas to ,supplant ,steam4--,compressed ,air ,engines4--,innumerable ,applications of ,pneumatic ,machines4--,a ,number ,mentioned4-- ,their ,universal ,application to the ,useful and ,fine ,arts4 #ahb ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,art ,,of ,,heating1 ,,ventilating1 ,,cooking1 ,,refrigerating ,,and ,,lighting4 ,prometheus and the ,modern ,match4--#afhj1 ,godfrey ,hanckwitz ,invented ,first ,phosphorous ,match4--,other ,forms of ,matches4-- ,promethean ,matches in #ahbj4--;,john ,walker4--,lucifer4--,tons of ,chemicals1 ,hundreds of ,pine ,trees ,yearly ,made into ,matches4-- ,splints and ,machines4--,reuben ,partridge4--,poririer4--,pasteboard ,box4--,machines for ,assorting and ,dipping1 ,drying and ,boxing4-- ,cooking and ,heating ,stoves4--,history of1 from ,rome to ,ben ,franklin4--,the ,old-,fashioned ,fireplace4--,varieties of ,coal ,stoves4--,stove ,fireplace4--,ventilation4--,hot ,air ,furnaces4-- ,how ,heat is ,distributed1 ,retained1 and ,moistened4--,hot ,water ,circulation4--,incubators4--,baking ,ovens1 the ,dutch and the ,modern4--,vast ,number of ,stove and ,furnace ,foundries in ,united ,states4--,ventilation4--,parliament ,buildings and ,u4 ,s4 ,capitol4-- ,eminent ,scientific ,men who have ,made ,ventilation a ,study4--,best ,modes4--,its ,great ,importance4--,car ,heaters4--,grass and ,refuse ,burning ,stoves4--,oil1 ,vapour1 and ,gas ,stoves1 their ,construction and ,operation4--,sterilising4--,electric ,heating and ,cooking4-- ,refrigeration4--,messrs4 ,carr of ,france1 #ahgj4--;,artificial ,ice4--,sulphuric ,acid and ,ammonia ,processes4--,absorption and ,compression ,methods ,described4--,refrigerating ,cars4--,liquid ,air4 #aii ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,metallurgy4 ,the ,antiquity of the ,art4--,the 8,lost ,arts0 ,rediscovered4-- ,the ,earliest ,forms of ,smelting ,furnaces4--,ancient ,iron and ,steel4--,india and ,africa4--,early ,spain and the ,catalan ,furnace4--,the ,armour of ,don ,quixote4--,bell's ,history of the ,art4--,germany4--,cast ,iron ,made by ,ancients1 ,disused for #ae ,centuries4--,reinvented by ,page and ,baude in ,england1 #aedc4-- ,german ,furnaces4--,dud ,dudley1 the ,oxford ,graduate and his ,furnace1 #afai4--,origin of ,coke in ,england4--,use in ,united ,states4--,revival of ,cast ,iron4--,cast ,steel in ,england1 ,huntsman1 #agdj4--;,henry ,cort and ,puddling1 #aghd1 and its ,subsequent ,wonderful ,value4--,steam ,engine of ,watt and ,iron4--,refining of ,precious ,metals4--,amalgamating ,process4--,review of the #ahth ,century4--,herschel's ,distinction of ,empirical and ,scientific ,art4--,the ,nineteenth ,century1 ,scientific ,metallurgy4--,steam1 ,chemistry1 ,electricity4--,rogers' ,iron ,floor4--,neilson's ,hot ,air ,blast1 #ahbh1 ,patent ,sustained4--,anthracite ,coal4--,colossal ,furnaces4--,gas ,producers4--,bunsen's ,experiments4--,constituents of ,ores4--,squeezing ,process4--,burden's ,method4--,mechanical ,puddlers4--,rotary4--,henry ,bessemer's ,great ,process--#ahee-ahfj4-- ,steel from ,iron4--,holley's ,apparatus4--,effects of and ,changes in ,bessemer ,process4--,old ,methods and ,means ,revived and ,improved4-- ,eminent ,inventors4--,new ,metals and ,new ,processes ,discovered4-- ,harveyised ,steel4--,irresistible ,projectiles and ,impenetrable ,armour ,plate4--,krupp's ,works4--,immense ,manufactures in ,united ,states4--,treatment of ,gold1 ,silver1 ,copper1 ,lead1 etc42 ,mining ,operations1 ,separation1 ,reduction4--,chemical ,methods3 ,lixiviation or ,leaching4--,mac,arthur4--,forrest4--,si r ,humphry ,davy4--,scheele4--,chlorine and ,cyanide ,processes4--,alloys4-- ,babbitting4--,metallic ,lubricants4--,various ,alloys and ,uses4-- ,reduction of ,aluminium and other ,metals4--,electro-,metallurgy4-- ,diamonds to be ,made4--,all ,arts have ,waited on ,development of this ,art4 #bah ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,metal ,,working ,,processes ,,and ,,machines4--,,tube ,,making4--,,welding4--,,annealing ,,and ,,tempering4--,,coating ,,and ,,metal ,,founding4--,,metal ,,ware4--,,wire ,,working4 ,metal ,working ,tools ,one of the ,glories of #aith ,century4--,wood ,working and ,metal ,working4--,ancient and ,modern ,lathe4--,turning ,metal ,lathe4--,a ,lost ,art in ,use in ,egypt and in ,solomon's ,time4--,revived in ,sixteenth ,century4--,forgotten and ,revived again in ,eighteenth4--,sir ,samuel ,bentham and ,joseph ,bramah ,laid ,foundation of ,nineteenth ,century ,tools4--,the ,slide ,rest and ,henry ,maudsley4--,nasmyth's ,description4--,vast ,rolls1 and ,most ,delicate ,watch ,mechanisms1 cut by the ,lathe and its ,tools4--,metal ,planing4--,eminent ,inventors1 #ahaa-ahdj4-- ,many ,inventions and ,modifications ,resulting in a ,wonderful ,evolution4--,metal-,boring ,machines4--,modern ,vulcan's ,titanic ,work-,shop4--,screw ,making4--,demand ,impossible to ,supply under ,old ,method4--,great ,display at ,london ,exhibition1 #ahea1 and ,centennial1 ,philadelphia1 #ahgf4--;,j4 ,whitworth ,co41 of ,england1 ,sellers ,co41 of ,america1 and ,others4--,the ,great ,revelation4-- ,hoopes and ,townsend and the ,flow of ,cold1 ,solid ,metal4--,cold ,punching1 etc4--,machine-,made ,horse-,shoes4--,the ,blacksmith and ,modern ,inventions4--,making of ,great ,tubes4--,welding by ,electricity1 and ,tempering and ,annealing4--,how ,armour ,plate is ,hardened4--,metals ,coated4--,electro-,plating and ,casting4-- ,great ,domes ,gilded4--,moulds for ,metal ,founding4--,machines and ,methods4--,steel ,ingots4--,sheet ,metal and ,personal ,ware4-- ,great ,variety of ,machines for ,making4--,wire ,made ,articles4-- ,description of ,great ,modern ,work-,shop4 #bdj ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,ordnance1 ,,arms1 ,,ammunition1 ,,and ,,explosives4 ,this ,art ,slow in ,growth1 but no ,art ,progressed ,faster4--,the ,incentives to its ,development4--,the ,greatest ,instruments in the ,new ,civilisation4--,peace and its ,fruits ,established by them4--,its ,history4--,chinese ,cannon4--,india4--,the ,moors4-- ,arabs4--,cannon at ,cordova in #abhj4--,the ,spaniards and ,gibraltar1 #acji4--,the ,spread of ,artillery through ,europe4--,description of ,ancient ,guns4--,breech ,loaders and ,stone ,cannon ,balls4--,wrought ,iron ,cannon and ,shells in #aeth ,century4--,big ,cannon of the ,hindoos and ,russians4--,strange ,names4--,france under ,louis ,,xi4--,improvements of the ,sixteenth ,century4--,holland's ,mortar ,shells and ,grenades in the ,seventeenth4--,coehorn ,mortars and ,dutch ,howitzers4--,louis ,,xiv4--,french ,artillery ,conquers ,italy4-- ,eighteenth ,century4--8,queen ,ann's ,pocket ,piece40--,gribeauval the ,inventor of the ,greatest ,improvements in the ,eighteenth4-- ,his ,system ,used by ,bonaparte at ,toulon1 the ,french ,revolution1 and in ,italy4--,marengo1 #ahjj4--,small ,arms1 their ,history4--,from the ,arquebus to the ,modern ,rifle4--,rifle1 the ,weapon of the ,american ,settler1 and the ,revolution4--,puckle's ,celebrated ,breech-,loading ,cannon ,patent1 and ,christian and ,turk ,bullets4-- #ahjc1 ,percussion ,principle in ,fire-arms1 ,invented by a ,clergyman1 ,forsyth4--#ahjh1 ,genl4 ,shrapnel4--,bormann of ,belgium4--#ahad1 ,shaw and the ,cap4--,flint ,locks ,still in ,use1 #ahdg4--;,colt's ,revolvers1 #ahce-ahea4--;,history of ,cannon again ,reverted to4--,columbiads of ,bomford4--,paixhan in #ahbb4--,shells of the ,crimea4--,kearsarge and ,alabama4--,requirements of ,modern ,ordnance4--,rodman ,one of the ,pioneers4--,woodbridge's ,wire ,wound ,guns1 ,piezometer1 and ,shell ,sabot4--,sir ,william ,armstrong and ,sir ,jos4 ,whitworth4--,krupp's ,cannon and ,works4--,the ,latest ,improvements4--,compressed ,air ,ordnance4--,constructions of ,metals and ,explosives4--,the 8,range ,finder40--,small ,arms again ,considered4--,history of the ,breech ,loader and ,metallic ,cartridges4--,wooden ,walls and ,stone ,forts disappeared4--,monitor and ,merrimac4--,blanchard and ,hall4--,gill4--,springfield ,rifle4-- ,machine ,guns4--,electric ,battery4--,gatling's1 ,hotchkiss'4-- ,explosives4--,torpedoes4--,effect of ,modern ,weapons4 #beb ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,paper ,,and ,,printing1 ,,typewriting ,,and ,,the ,,linotype4 ,paper-making ,preceded the ,art of ,printing4--,the ,wasp ,preceded ,man4--,the ,chinese1 the ,hindoos1 ,egyptians1 and other ,orientals had ,invented ,both ,arts4--,history of ,papyrus4--,parchment4-- ,twelfth ,century ,documents ,written on ,linen ,paper still ,extant4--,water ,marks4--,wall ,paper1 ,substitute for ,tapestry1 #afdj4--;,holland in ,advance1 ,seventeenth ,century4--,rittenhouse of ,holland ,introduces ,paper-,making in ,america1 ,eighteenth ,century4--,paper a ,dear ,commodity4--,the ,revolution of the ,nineteenth ,century4--#djj ,different ,materials now ,used4-- ,nineteenth ,century ,opens with ,robert's ,paper-,making ,machine4-- ,messrs4 ,fourdrinier4--,immense ,growth of their ,system4--,modern ,discoveries of ,chemists4--,soda ,pulp and ,sulphite ,processes4-- ,paper ,mills4--,paper ,bag ,machines1 etc4--,printing4--,chinese ,invented ,both ,block and ,movable ,types4--,european ,inventors4-- ,the ,claims of ,different ,nations4--,from ,southern ,italy to ,sweden4--,spread of the ,art4--,printing ,press and the ,reformation4--,first ,printing ,press in ,new ,world ,set up in ,mexico1 #aecf4--,then in ,brazil4--,then in #afci in ,massachusetts4--,types and ,presses4--,english and ,american4-- ,ramage and ,franklin4--,blaew of ,amsterdam4--,nineteenth ,century ,opens with ,earl of ,stanhope's ,hand ,press4--,clymer of ,philadelphia1 #ahag4--,the ,first ,machine ,presses4--,nicholson in ,eighteenth4--,konig and ,bauer in ,nineteenth ,century1 #ahac4-- ,london ,times1 #ahad4--ahae1 ,cowper's ,electrotype plates4--#ahbb1 ,first ,power ,press in ,united ,states4--,treadwell4--,bruce's ,type ,casting ,machines4--,hoe's ,presses4--,john ,walter's4--,german and ,american ,presses4--,capacities of ,modern ,presses4--,mail ,marking4--,typewriting4--,suggested in ,eighteenth ,century4-- ,revived by ,french in #ahdj4--,leading ,features ,invented in ,u4 ,s41 #aheg4--;,electro-,magnet ,typewriters4--,cahill4-- ,book-binding4--,review of the ,art4--,linotype 8,most ,remarkable ,machine of ,century40--,merganthaler4--,rogers4--,p rogress and ,triumphs of the ,art4 #bgc ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,textiles4 ,the ,distaff and the ,spindle1 without a ,change from ,ancient ,days to ,middle of ,fourteenth ,century4--,ancient and ,modern ,cloth ,making4--,woman the ,natural ,goddess of the ,art4--,the ,ancient and ,isolated ,weavers of ,mexico4--,after #dj ,centuries of ,hand-,weaving ,comes ,john ,kay1 of ,england1 #agcc4--,the ,spinning ,machines of ,wyatt and ,hargreaves4--#agch-agfi1 ,richard ,arkwright4--,the 8,spinning ,jenny0 and the 8,throstle40--,the ,steam ,engine and ,weaving4--#aggf1 ,crompton and the 8,mule40--#aghe1 ,cartwright and ,power ,looms4--#agic1 ,eli ,whitney and the ,cotton ,gin4-- #agic-ahac1 ,samuel ,slater1 ,lowell1 and ,cotton ,factories of ,america4--,the ,dominion of the ,nineteenth ,century4--,what it ,comprises in the ,art of ,spinning and ,weaving4--,description of ,operations4--,bobbins of ,asa ,arnold and the ,ring ,frame of ,jenks4--,spooling ,machines4--,warping and ,dressing and other ,finishing ,operations4--,embroidery4--,cloth ,finishing4--,the ,celebrated ,jacquard ,loom4--,jacquard and ,napoleon4--,bonelli's ,electric ,loom4--,fancy ,woollen ,looms of ,george ,crompton4-- ,bigelow's ,carpet ,looms4--,figuring1 ,colouring1 ,embossing4-- ,cloth ,pressing and ,creasing4--,felting4--,ribbons4--,compa rison of ,penelopes of ,past and ,present4--,knitting ,days of our ,grandmothers and ,knitting ,machines4--,a ,mile of ,stockings4-- ,fancy ,stocking and ,embroidery ,machines4--,netting and ,turkish ,carpets4--,matting4--,spun ,glass1 etc4--,hand1 and the ,skilled ,labour of ,machinery4 #bib ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,garments4 8,man is a ,tool-using ,animal1 of which ,truth1 ,clothes are but one ,example40--,form of ,needle not ,changed until #agge4-- ,weisenthal4--,embroidery ,needle4--,saint's ,sewing ,machine1 #agij4--;,john ,duncan's ,tamboring ,machine1 #ahjd4--;,eye ,pointed ,needles for ,rope ,matting1 #ahjg4--,madersperger's ,sewing ,machine1 #ahad4--;,france and the ,thimonnier ,machine1 #ahcj-ahdh-ej1 ,made of ,wood4--,destroyed by ,mob4--,english ,embroidering ,machine1 #ahda4-- ,concurrent ,inventions in ,widely ,separated ,countries4--,thimonnier in ,france1 ,hunt in ,america1 #ahcb1 #ahcd4--;,elias ,howe1 #ahdf4-- ,description of ,howe's ,inventions4--,recital of his ,struggles and final ,triumphs4--,the ,test of ,priority4--,leather ,sewing ,machines of ,greenough and ,corliss1 #ahdb-dc4--;,bean's ,running ,stitch1 #ahdc4--,the ,decade of #ahdi-ahei1 ,greatest in ,century in ,sewing ,machine ,inventions4--,hood's 8,song of the ,shirt10 a ,dying ,drudgery4--,improvements after ,howe4--,blodgett and ,lerow's ,dip ,motion4--,wilson's ,four-,motion ,feed4--,singer's ,inventions1 their ,importance1 his ,rise from ,poverty to ,great ,wealth4--,the ,grover and ,baker4--,the ,display in #ahgf at the ,centennial4--,vast ,growth of the ,industry4--,extraordinary ,versatility of ,invention in ,sewing and ,reaping ,machines1 and ,breech-,loading ,fire-arms4-- ,commercial ,success due to ,division of ,labour and ,assembling of ,parts4--,innumerable ,additions to the ,art4--,seventy-five ,different ,stitches4--,passing of the ,quilting ,party4--,embroidery and ,button-hole ,machines4--,garment-cutting ,machines4--,bonnets and ,inventions of ,women4--,hat ,making4--,its ,history4--,bonjeau's ,improvements in ,plain ,cloths1 #ahcd4--;,effect of ,modern ,inventions on ,wearing ,apparel and ,condition of the ,poor4--,the ,epoch of ,good ,clothes4 #caj ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,industrial ,,machines4 ,inventions ,engender ,others4--,co-operative ,growth4--,broom ,making4--,crude ,condition until the ,modern ,lathe1 ,mandrel1 ,shuttle and ,sewing ,machine4--,broom ,sewing ,machines4--,effect on ,labour4--,the ,brush and ,brush ,machines4--,a ,hundred ,species of ,brushes1 each ,made by a ,special ,machine4--,first ,successful ,brush ,machine1 ,woodbury's1 #ahgj4--,wonderful ,operations4-- ,street-,sweeping ,machines1 #ahca4--,most ,effective ,form4--,abrading ,machines4--,application of ,sand ,blast4--,nature's ,machine ,patented by ,tilghman in #ahgj4--,things ,done by the ,sand ,blast and ,how4--,emery and ,corundum ,machines4--,vast ,application in ,cutting1 ,grinding1 ,polishing4--,washing and ,ironing ,machines4-- ,their ,contribution to ,cleanliness and ,comfort4--,laundry ,appliances4--,old and the ,new ,mangle4--,starch ,applying4--,steam ,laundry ,machinery4--,description of ,work done in a ,modern ,laundry4 #cbh ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,wood-,,working4 ,contrast of ,prehistoric ,labour and ,implements and ,modern ,tools4--,the ,ages of ,stone1 ,bronze1 ,iron1 and the ,age of ,wood4--,the ,slow ,growth of ,wood-working ,inventions4--,tools of the ,egyptians4--,saw of the ,greeks4--,known to ,hindoos and ,africans4--,accounts of ,pliny and ,ansonius as to ,planes and ,marble ,sawing4--,saw-mills of ,france1 ,germany1 ,norway1 ,sweden4--,holland #ajj ,years ahead of ,england1 and ,why4--,william ,penn ,found ,saw-mills in ,america in #afhb4--,what made ,americans ,inventors4--,progress ,unknown where ,saw-mills are not4--,steam and ,saw ,mills4--,splendid ,system and ,inventions of ,samuel ,bentham1 ,bramah and ,branch at ,close of ,eighteenth ,century4-- ,first ,decade of ,nineteenth ,century ,produces ,wonderful ,inventor1 ,thomas ,blanchard4--,his ,life and ,inventions4--,machines for ,turning ,irregular ,forms in ,wood and ,metal4--,the ,boring ,worm and ,boring ,machine4--,gun-making and ,mortising ,machines4-- ,complicated ,ornamental ,wood-cutting and ,carving ,machines4-- ,whatever ,made by ,hand can be ,better ,made by ,machinery4-- ,pattern-,cutting ,machines4--,xyloplasty4--,art of ,hand ,carving ,revived4--,bending of ,wood by ,fire and ,steam4--,the ,problems ,solved by ,wood-working ,inventors4--,great ,saws at the ,vienna ,exposition1 #ahgc4--;,boring ,tools1 ,augers1 ,planes1 ,lathes1 etc4 ,how ,improved and by ,whom4--8,the ,universal ,wood ,workers40-- ,flexible ,shafting4--,shingles and ,tiles4--,a ,great ,log1 how ,turned into ,bundles of ,shingles4--,veneering4--,what ,pliny ,thought of ,it4--,brunel's ,machines1 #ahje-ahjh4--;,homes ,made ,beautiful by ,modern ,wood-working4--,objects without and ,within a ,house1 ,made by ,such ,machinery4--,array of ,wood-working ,machinery at ,international ,expositions4--,the ,art of ,forestry4 #cci ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,furniture4--,,bottling1 ,,preserving1 ,,and ,,lamplighting4 ,universal ,supply of ,convenient and ,ornamental ,furniture ,due to ,modern ,inventions and ,machinery4--,the ,furniture of the ,egyptians1 ,greeks and ,romans4--,tables4--,modern ,improvements4-- ,combined ,tables1 ,desks1 and ,chairs4--,special ,forms of ,each4-- ,beds3 ,advance from the ,ponderous ,bedsteads of ,former ,times4-- ,modern1 ,ornamental1 ,healthful ,styles4--,iron1 ,brass1 ,springs1 ,surgical and ,invalid ,chairs and ,beds4--,kitchen ,utensils4--,vast ,amount of ,drudgery ,relieved4--,curtains1 ,shades1 and ,screens4-- ,great ,changes ,produced by ,steaming and ,bending ,wood4--,the ,bentwood ,ware ,factories of ,austria1 ,hungary1 ,moravia 7#ahgj-gc71 in ,vast ,beech ,forests ,followed in other ,countries4--,modern ,chairs of ,various ,kinds4--,the ,dentist and the ,theatre4--,bottle ,stoppers4--,enormous ,demand for ,cork ,exhausting the ,supply4-- ,modern ,substitutes4--,fruit ,jars1 etc4--,lamplighting1 ,ancient and ,modern4--,revolution ,produced by ,petroleum4--,wickless and ,electric ,lamps4 #ced ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,leather4 ,leather and ,prehistoric ,man4--,earliest ,implements and ,processes ,forerunners of ,modern ,inventions4--,modern ,leather ,unknown to the ,earliest ,races4--,tanning4--,leathers of ,different ,nations4-- ,hand ,tools and ,variety of ,operations4--,inventions of ,nineteenth ,century--,labour-,saving ,machinery and ,new ,processes4--,epoch of ,modern ,machinery4--#aghj1 ,john ,bull and his ,scraping ,machine1 ,hide-mill1 ,pioneer ,machine of ,century4--,fleshing ,machines4-- ,tanning ,apparatus4--,reel ,machines4--,tanning ,processes and the ,chemists4--,machines for ,different ,operations4--,pendulum ,lever ,machine4--,leather ,splitting1 and other ,remarkable ,machines4-- ,boots and ,shoes1 their ,character before ,modern ,inventions4-- ,randolph's ,riveting ,machine of #ahji4--;,great ,civil ,engineer1 ,j4 ,m4 ,brunel's ,machines4--#ahah1 ,walker ,invents the ,wooden ,peg4--,peg-making ,machines4--#aheh1 ,sturtevant's ,great ,improvement4--,fifty-five ,million ,pairs of ,boots and ,shoes then ,annually ,pegged4--,metal ,wire1 and ,screw ,pegs4--,last-turning ,machines of ,blanchard4--,mc,kay's ,shoe ,sewing ,machine4-- ,revolution in ,shoe ,making4--,special ,machines for ,making ,every ,part4--,one ,machine ,makes #cjj ,pairs a ,day4--,many ,millions made ,daily4--,vast ,increase of ,labourers as the ,art ,advances4-- ,illustrations of ,yankee ,enterprise4--,modern and ,ancient ,harnesses4--,embossed ,leather4--,book ,covers and the many ,useful and ,beautiful ,leather ,articles4--,the ,vast and ,important ,leather ,manufactures4 #cfa ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,minerals4--,,wells4 ,ancient ,tools and the ,art of ,building4--,the ,parthenon4-- ,aqueducts of ,rome4--,tombs of ,india4--,halls of ,alhambra4-- ,gothic ,cathedrals4--,steam ,first ,drew ,coal1 then ,sawed ,wood and then ,stone4--,stone-cutting ,machinery4--,carving4--,dressing4-- ,drilling4--,tunnels4--,wonderful ,work of ,stone-,boring ,machine on ,pillars of ,ohio ,state ,capitol4--,stone ,drills and ,compressed ,air4--,hell ,gate4--,crushing ,stones and ,ores4--,blake's ,crusher4-- 8,road ,metal40--,different ,form of ,crushers4--,assorting ,coal4-- ,steam and ,coal1 strong ,brothers4--,compressed ,air for ,mining ,machinery4--,mighty ,picks ,driven by ,air4--,electric ,motor4-- ,machines for ,screening1 ,loading1 and ,weighing4--,ore ,mills4-- ,separators4--,centrifugal ,action4--,ore ,washing4--,amalgamators3 ,electric1 ,lead1 ,mercury1 ,plate1 ,vacuum1 ,vapour1 etc4--,the ,revolution in ,mining4--,well ,boring an ,ancient ,art4--,artesian ,wells4--,coal ,oil and ,coal ,wells4--,preceded by ,discovery of ,paraffine and its ,uses4--,reichenbach1 ,young4--,petroleum ,discovery4--,new ,industry4--,col4 ,drake and ,first ,oil ,well4-- ,sudden ,riches of ,farmers4--,boring ,water ,wells4--,green's ,driven ,wells4--,the ,deserts ,made to ,bloom as the ,rose4 #cgc ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,horology ,,and ,,instruments ,,of ,,precision4 ,time ,measuring ,instruments of ,antiquity4--,sun-dial4--,clepsydra1 ,hour-glass1 ,graduated ,candle4--,plato's ,bell4--,the ,clepsydra of ,ctesibius4--,incense ,sticks of ,chinese4--,sun-dials of ,greeks and ,romans4--,candles of ,alfred the ,great4--,wonderful ,clocks of the ,middle ,ages4--,henry de ,vick of ,france1 #acgj4--,two ,hundred ,years without ,advance4--,astronomers1 ,brache and ,valherius4--#aebe1 ,zech's ,fusee4--,progenitors of ,modern ,watch1 #aejj4--aehb1 ,swinging ,lamp of ,galileo4--#afci1 ,galileo's ,book4--,huygens and the ,pendulum4--,dr4 ,hooke's and ,david ,ramsey's ,inventions4--,hair-,spring ,balances4--,george the ,third's ,small ,time-,piece4--,eighteenth ,century ,division of ,time ,pieces into ,hours1 ,minutes and ,seconds4--,stem ,winders4--,astronomical ,discoveries and ,chronometers4--,dutch1 ,leading ,clockmakers2 ,germany1 ,switzerland4--,systems ,followed in these ,countries4-- ,minute ,sub-divisions of ,labour4--,watch and ,clock ,making in the ,united ,states4--,american ,system4--,wonderful ,machines for every ,part4--,watch factories4--,pope's ,simile4--,revolution in ,nineteenth ,century4--,electric ,system4--#djjj ,patents in ,u4,s4 since #ahjj4--,registering ,devices4--8,a ,mechanical ,conscience40-- ,cash ,registers4--,voting ,machines4--,electrical ,recorders4-- ,cyclometers4--,speed ,indicators4--,weighing ,scales and ,machines1 ,history of4--,the ,fairbanks of ,vermont1 #ahca4--,platform and other ,scales4--,spring ,weighing4--,automatic ,recorders of ,weight and ,prices4--,testing ,machines1 ,english1 ,german1 ,american4--,the ,emery ,scales4--,gages1 ,dynamometers4--,hydraulic ,testing4--,delicate ,operations4--,strength of a ,horse-hair and ,great ,steel ,beam1 ,tested by ,same ,machine4--,effect on ,public ,works4 #chd ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,music1 ,,acoustics1 ,,optics1 ,,photography1 ,,fine ,,arts4 ,musical ,instruments ,old as ,religion4--,abounded before the ,lyre of ,apollo or the ,harp of ,orpheus4--,their ,evolution4--,to ,meet ,wants and ,growing ,tastes4--,nineteenth ,century and the ,laws of ,helmholtz4--,the ,story of the ,piano1 the ,queen1 ,involves whole ,history of the ,art of ,music4--,ancient ,harp and ,growth4-- ,psaltery and ,dulcimer of ,assyrians and ,hebrews4--,no ,inventions by ,greeks and ,romans in this ,art4--,fifteenth ,century and the ,clavicitherium4--,sixteenth ,century1 the ,virginal and the ,spinet4--,seventeenth ,century1 the ,clavichord and ,harpsichord4-- ,italian ,cembello4--,bach1 ,mozart1 ,handel1 ,haydn4--,cristofori of ,florence1 ,schreiber of ,germany and ,modern ,piano4--,eighteenth ,century1 ,pianos of ,broadwood and ,clementi of ,london1 ,erard of ,strasburg1 ,petzold of ,paris and ,others4--,two ,thousand ,years ,taken to ,ripen the ,modern ,piano4--,description of ,piano ,parts4-- ,helmholtz's ,great ,work1 #ahfb4--;,effect on ,system of ,music and ,musical ,instruments4--,the ,organ1 ,king in the ,realm of ,music4-- ,history of1 from ,earliest ,times4--,improvements of the ,nineteenth ,century4--,the ,auto-harp4--,self-playing ,instruments4--,the ,science of ,acoustics and ,practical ,applications4--,auricular ,tubes4-- ,telephone1 ,phonograph1 ,graphophone1 ,gramophone4--,their ,evolution and their ,inventors4--,optical ,instruments4--,their ,growth4--,lippersheim1 ,galileo1 ,lieberkulm1 ,john ,dolland4--,the ,improvements and ,inventors of the ,nineteenth ,century4--,brewster and the ,kaleidoscope1 ,stereoscope4--,lenticular ,lenses4-- ,lighthouse ,illumination4--,faraday and ,tyndall4--,abb ,moigno's ,troubles4--,ophthalmoscope4--,spectrosc ope4--,making of ,great ,lenses4--,solarmeter4--,measuring the ,position and ,distances of ,unseen ,objects4--,light ,converted into ,music4--,daguerre and ,photography4--,history and ,development4--,colour ,reproduction4-- ,pencils4--,painting4--,air ,brushes4--,telegraphic ,photographs4 #djj ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,safes ,,and ,,locks4 ,safes1 how ,constructed before this ,century4--,classification4-- ,century ,starts out to ,make ,safes ,fireproof4--,scott in #ahja4-- ,marr1 #ahcd4--,result of ,great ,fire in ,new ,york1 #ahce4--,wilder's and ,herring's ,safes4--,burglar-proof ,safes1 #ahce4--;,chubb1 ,newton1 ,thompson1 ,hall1 ,marvin and ,others4--,electricity4--,seal ,locks from #ahae4--,locks of ,various ,kinds in ,ancient ,days4--,of ,ponderous ,size4--,key of the ,house of ,david4--,lock of ,penelope's ,house4--,locks of the ,middle ,ages4--,letter ,locks of the ,dutch1 #afej4--;,carew's ,verse4--,eighteenth ,century ,locks4--,tumblers4-- ,joseph ,bramah's ,locks4--,combination1 ,permutation and ,time ,locks4--,yale ,locks4--,modern ,locks ,invented for ,special ,uses4-- ,master or ,secondary ,key ,locks4--,value of ,simple1 ,cheap1 ,effective ,locks4--,mail ,locks and ,others4--,greater ,general ,security for ,property of all ,kinds now ,obtained4 #dbj ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,carriages ,,and ,,carrying ,,machines ,,generally4 ,review of ,conveyances from ,time of ,ptolemy's ,great ,procession1 #bgj ,b4 ,c41 until ,nineteenth ,century4--,the ,old ,stage ,coaches4-- ,coaches of the ,rich1 the ,middle ,classes and the ,poor4--,the ,past ,art ,compared with the ,art as ,exhibited at ,centennial ,exhibition in #ahgf at ,philadelphia4--,the ,varieties of ,different ,vehicles there ,displayed by ,different ,nations4--,velocipedes and ,bicycles4--#ahjj to #ahfi4--;,french1 ,german1 ,english1 ,scotch4-- ,the 8,draisine0 of ,von ,drais1 #ahaf4--;,johnson's 8,curricle10 #ahah4--;,gompertz's 8,dandy0 and 8,hobby ,horse10 #ahba4--,michaux's1 #ahfc4--,lallement's of ,france1 #ahff1 ,crank and ,pedal4--,america and ,europe ,adopts it1 #ahff1 #ahfi4--,pneumatic ,rubber ,tire ,invented by ,thomson1 #ahde4--,sleeps ,forty ,years4--,improvements since #ahfi4--,motor ,vehicles and ,automobiles4--,traction ,engines4--,brakes1 ,railway1 ,air and ,electric4--,automatic ,couplers1 ,buffers1 and ,vestibule ,trains4 #dbh ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,ships ,,and ,,ship ,,building4 8,ships are but ,boards40--8,the ,great ,harry40--,noah's ,ark the ,prototype of the ,modern 8,whale-back40--,phnicians4-- ,northmen4--,dutch1 ,french1 ,english1 and ,american ,types4-- ,nineteenth ,century1 the ,yankee ,clippers4--,donald ,mc,kay4-- 8,great ,republic40--,steam as ,motive ,power in ,ships the ,leading ,event in the ,art4--,lord ,dundas and ,steam ,canal ,boats4--,iron ,ships in ,place of ,wood1 #ahbi-cj4--;,john ,laird of ,birkenhead4-- ,sir ,william ,fairbairn4--,clyde ,works4--,comparison of ,wood and ,iron4--#ahdd1 the ,great ,britain4--,john ,ericsson4--,monitor and ,merrimac4--,composite ,style of ,vessels4--,marine ,propulsion4-- ,paddle ,wheels4--,screws4--#ahjd1 ,john ,stevens4--#ahjg1 ,fulton4-- ,screw ,propeller of ,ericsson4--,the ,ogden1 the ,stockton and the ,princeton1 the ,first ,naval ,warship of its ,kind4--,the ,two ,revolutions ,produced by ,ericsson4--,pneumatic ,propellers4-- ,description of a ,warship4--,the ,deutschland4--,torpedo ,boats4-- ,franklin and ,oil on the ,waves4--,air ,ships4--,count ,zeppelin's ,boat4--,other ,plans of ,air ,navigation4--,the ,problems to be ,solved4 #dch ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,illuminating ,,gas4 ,what ,artificial ,light has done for ,man4--,its ,condition before the ,nineteenth ,century4--,experiments of ,dr4 ,clayton1 ,hon4 ,r4 ,boyle1 ,dr4 ,hales1 ,bishop ,watson1 ,lord ,dundonald1 ,dr4 ,rickel1 and ,william ,murdock in ,eighteenth ,century4--#ahja1 ,le ,bon ,makes ,gas1 ,proposes to ,light ,paris4--#ahjc1 ,english ,periodicals ,discuss the ,subject4--#ahjf1 ,melville of ,newport1 ,u4 ,s41 ,lights ,house and ,street4--#ahag1 ,first ,lighthouse ,lit by ,gas4--,the ,beaver ,tail on ,atlantic ,coast4--,parliament in #ahac1 ,london ,streets ,lit in #ahae1 ,paris1 #ahbj1 ,american ,cities #ahaf-be4-- ,gas ,processes4--,chemistry4--,priestley and ,dalton4--,berthollet1 ,graham1 and ,others4--,clegg of ,england and his ,gas ,machines4-- ,art ,revolutionised by ,invention of ,water ,gas1 #ahbc-ahdg4-- ,donovan1 ,lowe1 ,white4--,t4 ,s4 ,c4 ,lowe1 ,anthracite ,process1 #ahgc4--;,competition with ,electricity4--,siemens' ,regenerative ,system4--,the ,generators1 ,carburetors1 ,retorts1 ,mixers1 ,purifiers1 ,meters1 ,scrubbers1 ,holders1 ,condensers1 ,governors1 ,indicators1 ,registers1 ,chargers1 ,pressure ,regulators1 etc4-- ,portable ,gas ,apparatus4--,argand ,burners4--,acetylene ,gas4-- ,calcium ,carbide4--,magnesium4--,bunsen ,burner and ,welsbach ,mantle4 #dej ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,pottery1 ,,plastics1 ,,porcelains1 ,,stoneware1 ,,glass1 ,,rubber1 ,,celluloid4 ,brickmaking from the ,earliest ,ages to ,nineteenth ,century4-- ,pottery1 its ,origin ,unknown4--,its ,evolution4--,women the ,first ,inventors in ,ceramic and ,textile ,arts4--,progress of ,man ,traced in ,pottery4--,review of ,pottery from ,time of ,homer to the ,wedgwood ,ware of ,eighteenth ,century4--,labour-,saving ,devices of ,nineteenth4--,operations in ,brickmaking and ,machinery4--,the ,celebrated ,pug ,mill1 the ,pioneer4--,moulding and ,pressing4-- ,drying and ,burning4--,the ,slow ,growth of ,methods4--,useful ,contrivances never wholly ,supplanted4--,modern ,heat ,distributors4--,hoffman's ,kilns4--,wedgwood's ,pottery in ,eighteenth4--,siemens' ,regenerators in ,nineteenth1 and other ,kilns4--,susan ,frackelton's4--,the ,filter ,press4--,chinese and ,french ,porcelains--,battam's ,imitations of ,marbles and ,plaster ,moulds4--,faience4--,porcelain ,moulding and ,colours4--,atomisers and ,backgrounds4--,rookwood ,pottery and ,miss ,fry4--,enamelled ,ware4--,artificial ,stone4--,modern ,cements4--,glass the ,sister of ,pottery4--,the ,inventors of ,blowing1 ,cutting1 ,trimming by ,shears and ,diamond ,cutting1 ,ancient and ,unknown4--,glass ,windows and ,mirrors ,unknown to the ,poor ,prior to ,eighteenth ,century4-- ,the ,nineteenth ,century the ,scientific ,age of ,glass4--,its ,commercial ,development4--,crystal ,palace of #ahea4--;,description of ,modern ,discoveries4--,materials4--,colours and ,faraday's ,discovery in #ahbd4--;,gaffield's ,extensive ,experiments in ,producing ,colours4--,the ,german ,glass ,works at ,jena of ,abbe and ,schott4--,methods ,followed for ,different ,varieties4-- ,machines for ,different ,purposes4--,cut ,glass and other ,beautiful ,ware4--,cameo ,cutting4--,porcelain ,electroplating4-- ,rubber1 ,history of1 in ,seventeenth1 ,eighteenth and ,nineteenth ,centuries4--,sketch of ,goodyear4--,his ,inventions and ,present ,state of the ,art4--,glass ,wool of ,volcano of ,kilauea and ,krupp's ,blast ,furnaces4 #deg ,,inventions ,,in ,,the ,,century4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory--,,inventions ,,and ,,discoveries--,,their ,,development4 ,in treating of the subject of ,inventions it is proper to distinguish them from their scientific kindred--,discoveries4 ,the history of inventions is the history of new and useful contrivances made by man for practical purposes4 ,the history of scientific discoveries is the record of new things found in ,nature1 its laws1 forces1 or materials1 and brought to light1 as they exist1 either singly1 or in relation1 or in combination4 ,thus ,galileo invented the telescope1 and ,newton discovered the law of gravitation4 ,the practical use of the invention when turned to the heavenly bodies served to confirm the truth of the discovery4 ,discovery and invention may be1 and often are1 united as the soul is to the body4 ,the union of the two produces one or more inventions4 ,thus the invented electro-telegraph consists of the combination of discoveries of certain laws of electricity with an apparatus1 by which signs are communicated to distances by electrical influence4 ,inventions and discoveries do not precede or follow each other in order4 ,the instrument may be made before the laws which govern its operation are discovered4 ,the discovery may long precede its adaptation in physical form1 and both the discovery and adaptation may occur together4 ,among the great inventions of the past are alphabetical writing1 ,arabic notation1 the mariner's compass1 the telescope1 the printing-press1 and the steam-engine4 ,among the great discoveries of the past are the attraction of gravitation1 the laws of planetary motion1 the circulation of the blood1 and velocity of light4 ,among the great inventions of the nineteenth century are the spectroscope1 the electric telegraph1 the telephone1 the phonograph1 the railways1 and the steam-ships4 ,among the great discoveries of this century are the correlation and conservation of forces1 ansthetics1 laws of electrical energy1 the germ theory of disease1 the molecular theory of gases1 the periodic law of ,mendeljeff in chemistry1 antiseptic surgery1 and the vortex theory of matter4 ,this short enumeration will serve to indicate the different roads along which inventions and the discoveries of science progress4 ,by many it is thought that the inventions and discoveries of the nineteenth century exceed in number and importance all the achievements of the kind in all the ages of the past4 ,so marvellous have been these developments of this century that1 not content with sober definitions1 men have defined invent1 even when speaking only of mechanical productions1 as 8creating what had not before existed20 and this period has been described as an age of new creations4 ,the far-off cry of the ,royal ,preacher1 8,there is no new thing under the sun3 ,is there anything whereof it may be said1 see this is new1 it hath been already of old time which was before us10 is regarded as a cry of satiety and despair1 finding no responsive echo in the array of inventions of this bright age4 ,but in one sense the ,preacher's words are ever profoundly true4 ,the forces and materials of ,nature always exist1 awaiting man's discovery1 and at best he can but vary their relations1 re-direct their course1 or change their forms4 ,in a still narrower sense the truth of the ,preacher's declaration is apparent3-- ,in an address before the ,anthropological ,society of ,washington in #ahhe1 the late ,prof4 ,f4 ,a4 ,seely1 of the ,united ,states ,patent ,office1 set forth that it was one of the established laws of ,invention1 that1 8,every human invention has sprung from some prior invention1 or from some prior known expedient40 ,inventions1 he said1 do not1 like their protectress1 ,pallas ,athene1 spring forth full grown from the heads of their authors2 that both as to modern inventions and as to those whose history is unrecorded1 each exhibits in itself the evidence of a similar sub-structure2 and that1 8in the process of elimination we go back and back and find no resting place till we reach the rude set of expedients1 the original endowment of men and brutes alike40 ,inventions1 then1 are not creations1 but the evolution of man-made contrivances4 ,it may be remarked1 however1 as was once said by ,william ,h4 ,seward3 8,the exercise of the inventive faculty is the nearest akin to that of the ,creator of any faculty possessed by the human mind2 for while it does not create in the same sense that the ,creator did1 yet it is the nearest approach to it of anything known to man40 ,there is no history1 rock-record1 or other evidence of his existence as man1 which discloses a period when he was not an inventor4 ,invention is that divine spark which drove1 and still drives him to the production of means to meet his wants1 while it illuminates his way4 ,from that inward spark must have soon followed the invention of that outer fire to warm and cheer him1 and to melt and mould the earth to his desires4 ,formed for society1 the necessity of communication with his fellows developed the power of speech4 ,speech developed written characters and alphabets4 ,common communication developed concert of action1 and from concert of action sprung the arts of society4 ,but the evolution of invention has not been uniform4 ,long periods of slowness and stagnation have alternated with shorter or longer periods of prolific growth1 and these with seasons of slumber and repression4 ,thus1 ,prof4 ,langley has said that man was thousands of years1 and possibly millions1 in evolving a cutting edge by rubbing one stone on another2 but only a few thousand years to next develop bronze tools1 and a still shorter period tools of iron4 ,we cannot say how long the period was from the age of iron tools to the building of the pyramids1 but we know that before those stupendous structures arose1 the six elementary mechanical powers1 the lever1 the wheel1 the pulley1 the inclined plane1 the wedge and the screw1 were invented4 ,and without those powers1 what mechanical tool or machine has since been developed8 ,the age of inventions in the times of the ancients rested mainly upon simple applications of these mechanical powers4 ,the middle ages slumbered1 but on the coming of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 the inventions of the ancients were revived1 new ones added1 and their growth and development extended with ever-increasing speed to the present time4 ,the inventions of the nineteenth century1 wonderful and innumerable as they are1 and marvellous in results produced1 are but the fruit of the seed sown in the past1 and the blossom of the buds grown upon the stalks of former generations4 ,the early crude stone hatchet has become the keen finished metal implement of to-day1 and the latter involves in itself the culmination of a long series of processes for converting the rough ore into the hard and glistening steel4 ,the crooked and pointed stick with which the ,egyptian turned the sands of the ,nile has slowly grown to be the finished plough that is now driven through the sod by steam4 ,the steam-operated toys of ,hero of ,alexandria were revived in principle and incorporated in the engines of ,papin and the ,marquis of ,worcester in the seventeenth century2 and the better engines of ,savery1 ,newcomen1 and more especially of ,james ,watt in the eighteenth century1 left the improvements in steam-engines of the nineteenth century--great as they are--inventions only in matter of detail4 ,it has been said that electrical science began with the labours of ,dr4 ,gilbert1 published in #afjj4 ,these1 with the electrical discoveries and inventions of ,gray1 ,franklin1 ,galvani1 and others in the next century1 terminating with the invention of his battery by ,volta in #ahjj1 constituted the framework on which was built that world of flashing light and earth-circling messages in which we now live4 ,the study of inventions in any one or all eras cannot proceed intelligently unless account is taken not only of their mode of construction1 and of their evolution one from another1 but of the evolution of distinct arts1 their relation1 their interdependence in growth1 and their mutual progress4 ,the principles adopted by the ancients in weaving and spinning by hand are those still in force2 but so great was the advance of inventions from hand-operated mechanisms to machines in these and other arts1 and especially in steam1 in the last half of the eighteenth century1 that it has been claimed that the age of machine production or invention then for the first time really began4 ,when the humble lift became the completed elevator of to-day1 the 8sky-scraper0 buildings appeared2 but these buildings waited upon the invention of their steel skeletons1 and the steel was the child of the ,bessemer process4 ,the harp with which ,david stirred the dead soul of ,saul was the prototype of the sweet clavichord1 the romantic virginal1 the tinkling harpsichord1 and the grand piano4 ,the thrumming of the chords by the fingers was succeeded by the striking keys2 and the more perfect rendition of tones awaited the application of new discoveries in the realm of musical sounds4 ,the keys and the levers in the art of musical instruments were transferred to the art of printing1 and are found to-day striking a more homely music on the type-writer and on those other and more wonderful printing instruments that mould1 and set1 and distribute the type4 ,but these results of later days did not reach their perfected operations and forms until many other arts had been discovered and developed1 by which to treat and improve the wood1 and the wire1 and all the other materials of which those early instruments were composed1 and by which the underlying principles of their operations became known4 ,admitting that man possesses the faculty of invention1 what are the motives that induce its exercise8 ,why so prolific in inventions now8 ,and will they continue to increase in number and importance1 or decrease8 ,an interesting treatise of bulky dimensions might be written in answer to these queries1 and the answers might not then be wholly satisfactory4 ,space permits the submission of but a few observations and suggestions on these points3---- ,necessity is still the mother of inventions1 but not of all of them4 ,the pressing needs of man in fighting nakedness and hunger1 wild beasts and storms1 may have driven him to the production of most of his early contrivances2 but as time went on and his wants of every kind multiplied1 other factors than mere necessity entered into the problem1 and now it is required to account for the multiplicity of inventions under the general head of ,wants4 ,to-day it is the want of the luxuries1 as well as of the necessities of life1 the want of riches1 distinction1 power1 and place1 the wants of philanthropy and the wants of selfishness1 and that restless1 inherent1 unsatisfied1 indescribable want which is ever pushing man onward on the road of progress1 that must be regarded as the springs of invention4 ,accident is thought to be the fruitful source of great inventions4 ,it is a factor that cannot be ignored4 ,but accidents are only occasional helps1 rarely occurring1--flashes of light suddenly revealing the end of the path along which the inventor has been painfully toiling1 and unnoticed except by him alone4 ,they are sudden discoveries which for the most part simply shorten his journey4 ,the rare complete contrivance revealed by accident is not an invention at all1 but a discovery4 ,the greatest incentive in modern times to the production of inventions is governmental protection4 ,when governments began to recognize the right of property in inventions1 and to devise and enforce means by which their author should hold and enjoy the same1 as he holds his land1 his house1 or his horse1 then inventions sprung forth as from a great unsealed fountain4 ,this principle first found recognition in ,england in #afbc1 when parliament1 stung by the abuse of the royal prerogative in the grant of exclusive personal privileges that served to crush the growth of inventions and not to multiply them1 by its celebrated ,statute of ,monopolies1 abolished all such privileges1 but excepted from its provisions the grant of patents 8for the sole working or making of any manner of new manufactures within this realm to the true and first inventor0 thereof4 ,this statute had little force1 however1 in encouraging and protecting inventors until the next century1 and until after the great inventions of ,arkwright in spinning and ,james ,watt in steam-engines had been invaded1 and the attention of the courts called more seriously thereby to the property rights of inventors1 and to the necessity of a liberal exposition of the law and its proper enforcement4 ,then followed in #aghi the incorporation of that famous provision in the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 declaring that ,congress shall have the power 8,to promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries40 ,in #agia followed the law of the ,national ,assembly of ,france for the protection of new inventions1 setting forth in the preamble1 among other things1 8that not to regard an industrial invention as the property of its author would be to attack the essential rights of man40 ,these fundamental principles have since been adopted and incorporated in their laws by all the nations of the earth4 ,inventions in their nature being for the good of all men and for all time1 it has been deemed wise by all nations in their legislation not to permit the inventor to lock up his property in secret1 or confine it to his own use2 and hence the universal practice is to enact laws giving him1 his heirs1 and assigns1 exclusive ownership to this species of his property for a limited time only1 adjudged sufficient to reward him for his efforts in its production1 and to encourage others in like productions2 while he1 in consideration for this protection1 is to fully make known his invention1 so that the public may be enabled to freely make and use it after its exclusive ownership shall have expired4 ,in addition to the motives and incentives mentioned inducing this modern mighty outflow of inventions1 regard must be had to the conditions of personal1 political and intellectual freedom1 and of education4 ,there is no class of inventors where the mass of men are slaves2 and when dense ignorance abounds1 invention sleeps4 ,in the days of the greatest intellectual freedom of ,greece1 ,archimedes1 ,euclid1 and ,hero1 its great inventors1 flourished2 but when its political status had reduced the mass of citizens to slaves1 when the work of the artisan and the inventor was not appreciated beyond the gift of an occasional crown of laurel1 when manual labour and the labourer were scorned1 inventions were not born1 or1 if born1 found no nourishment to prolong their lives4 ,in ,rome1 the labourer found little respect beyond the beasts of burden whose burdens he shared1 and the inventor found no provision of fostering care or protection in her mighty jurisprudence4 ,the middle ages carefully repressed the minds of men1 and hid away in dark recesses the instruments of learning4 ,when men at length awoke to claim their birthright of freedom1 they invented the printing-press and rediscovered gunpowder1 with which to destroy the tyranny of both priests and kings4 ,then arose the modern inventor1 and with him came the freedom and the arts of civilisation which we now enjoy4 ,what the exercise of free and protected invention has brought to this century is thus summarised by ,macaulay3 8,it has lengthened life2 it has mitigated pain2 has extinguished diseases2 has increased the fertility of the soil2 given new security to the mariner2 furnished new arms to the warrior2 spanned great rivers and estuaries with bridges of form unknown to our fathers2 it has guided the thunderbolt innocuously from heaven to earth2 it has lighted up the night with splendour of the day2 it has extended the range of human vision2 it has multiplied the power of the human muscles2 it has accelerated motion2 it has annihilated distance2 it has facilitated intercourse1 correspondence1 all friendly offices1 all despatch of business2 it has enabled man to descend to the depths of the sea1 to soar into the air1 to penetrate securely into the noxious recesses of the earth2 to traverse the land in carts which whirl along without horses2 to cross the ocean in ships which run many knots an hour against the wind4 ,those are but a part of its fruits1 and of its first fruits1 for it is a philosophy which never rests1 which is never perfect4 ,its law is progress4 ,a point which yesterday was invisible is its goal to-day1 and will be its starting point to-morrow40 ,the onward flow of inventions may be interrupted1 if not materially stayed1 by the cessation of some of the causes and incentives which now give them life4 ,when comfort for all and rest for all1 and a suitable division of labour1 and an equal distribution of its fruits are reached1 in that state of society which is pictured in the visions of the social philosopher1 or as fast as such conditions are reached1 so soon will cease the pricking of those spurs of invention1--individual rewards1 the glorious strife of competition1 the harrowing necessities1 and the ambitions for place and power4 ,if all are to co-operate and share alike1 what need of exclusive protection and fierce and individual struggle8 ,why not sit down now and break the loaf and share it1 and pour the wine1 and enjoy things as they are1 without a thought for the morrow8 ,the same results as to inventions may be reached in different but less pleasant ways3 ,when all the industries are absorbed by huge combinations of capital the strife of competition among individuals1 and the making of individual inventions to meet such competition1 will greatly disappear4 ,or1 the same results may be effected by stringent laws of labour organisations1 in restricting or repressing all individual independent effort1 prescribing what shall be done or what shall not be done along certain lines of manufacture or employment4 ,so that the progress of future inventions depends on the outcome of the great economic1 industrial1 and social battles which are now looming on the pathway of the future4 ,but what the inventions of the nineteenth century were and what they have done for ,humanity1 is a chapter that must be read by all those now living or to come who wish to learn the history of their race4 ,it is a story which gathers up all the threads of previous centuries and weaves them into a fabric which must be used in all the coming ages in the attainment of their comforts1 their adornments1 and their civilisations4 ,to enumerate all the inventions of the century would be like calling up a vast army of men and proclaiming the name of each4 ,the best that can be done is to divide the wide field into chapters1 and in these chapters give as best one may an idea of the leading inventions that have produced the greatest industries of the ,world4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,agriculture ,,and ,,its ,,implements4 ,the ,egyptians were the earliest and greatest agriculturists1 and from them the art was learned by the ,greeks4 ,greece in the days of her glory greatly improved the art1 and some of her ablest men wrote valuable treatises on its different topics4 ,its farmers thoroughly ploughed and fertilised the soil1 used various implements for its cultivation1 paid great attention to the raising of fruits1--the apple1 pear1 cherry1 plum1 quince1 peach1 lemon1 fig and many other varieties suitable to their climate1 and improved the breeds of cattle1 horse and sheep4 ,when1 however1 social pride and luxurious city life became the dominant passions1 agriculture was left to menials1 and the art gradually faded with the ,state4 ,rome in her best days placed farming in high regard4 ,her best writers wrote voluminously on agricultural subjects1 a tract of land was allotted to every citizen1 which was carefully cultivated1 and these citizen farmers were her worthiest and most honoured sons4 ,the condition and needs of the soil were studied1 its strength replenished by careful fertilisation1 and it was worked with care4 ,there were ploughs which were made heavy or light as the different soils required1 and there were a variety of farm implements1 such as spades1 hoes1 harrows and rakes4 ,grains1 such as wheat1 barley1 rye and oats1 were raised1 a variety of fruits and vegetables1 and great attention paid to the breeding of stock4 ,cato and ,varro1 ,virgil and ,columella1 ,pliny and ,palladius delighted to instruct the farmer and praise his occupation4 ,but as the ,roman ,empire grew1 its armies absorbed its intelligent farmers1 the tilling of the soil was left to the menial and the slave1 and the ,empire and agriculture declined together4 ,then came the hordes of northern barbarians pouring in waves over the southern countries and burying from sight their arts and civilisation4 ,the gloom of the middle ages then closed down upon the ,european world4 ,whatever good may have been accomplished in other directions by the crusades1 agriculture reached its lowest ebb1 save in those instances where the culture of the soil received attention from monastic institutions4 ,the sixteenth century has been fixed upon as the time when ,europe awoke from its long slumber4 ,then it was after the invention of the printing press had become well established that publications on agriculture began to appear4 ,the ,boke of ,husbandrie1 in #aebc1 by ,sir ,anthony ,fitzherbert2 ,thomas ,tusser's ,five ,hundred ,points of ,good ,husbandry2 ,barnaby ,googe's ,the ,whole ,art of ,husbandry2 ,the ,jewel ,house of ,art and ,nature1 by ,sir ,hugh ,platt2 the ,english ,improver of ,walter ,blithe1 and the writings of ,sir ,richard ,weston on the husbandry of ,brabant and ,flanders1 were the principal torches by which the light on this subject was handed down through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,further awakening was had in the eighteenth century1 the chief part of which was given by ,jethro ,tull1 an ,english agriculturist1 who lived1 and wrote1 and laboured in the cause between #afhj and #agdj4 ,tull's leading idea was the thorough pulverisation of the soil1 his doctrines being that plants derived their nourishment from minute particles of soil1 hence the need of its pulverisation4 ,he invented and introduced a horse hoe1 a grain drill1 and a threshing machine4 ,next appeared ,arthur ,young1 of ,england1 born in #agda1 whose life was extended into the #aith century1 and to whom the world was greatly indebted for the spread of agricultural knowledge4 ,he devoted frequent and long journeys to obtaining information on agricultural subjects1 and his writings attracted the attention and assistance of the learned everywhere4 ,his chief work was the making known widely of the beneficial effects of ammonia and ammoniacal compounds on vegetation4 ,many other useful branches of the subject1 clearly treated by him1 are found in his ,annals of ,agriculture4 ,it was this same ,arthur ,young with whom ,washington corresponded from his quiet retreat at ,mount ,vernon4 ,after the close of the ,war of ,independence in #aghc and before the adoption of the ,constitution in #aghi and his elevation to the ,presidency in that year1 ,washington devoted very much of his time to the cultivation of his large estate in ,virginia4 ,he took great interest in every improvement in agriculture and its implements4 ,he invented a plough and a rotary seed drill1 improved his harrows and mills1 and made many inquiries relative to the efficacy of ploughs and threshing machines made in ,england and other parts of ,europe4 ,it was during this period that he opened an interesting correspondence with ,young on improvements in agriculture1 which was carried on even while he was ,president1 and he availed himself of the proffer of ,young's services to fill an order for seeds and two ploughs from a ,london merchant4 ,he also wrote to ,robert ,cary ,co41 merchants in ,london1 concerning an engine he had heard of as being constructed in ,switzerland1 for pulling up trees and their stumps by the roots1 and ordered one to be sent him if the machine were efficient4 ,jefferson1 ,washington's great contemporaneous statesman and ,virginia planter1 and to whom has been ascribed the chief glory of the ,american patent system1 himself also an inventor1 enriched his country by the full scientific knowledge he had gained from all ,europe of agricultural pursuits and improvements4 ,the progress of the art1 in a fundamental sense1 that is in a knowledge of the constituents1 properties1 and needs of the soil1 commenced with the investigations of ,sir ,humphry ,davy at the close of the #ahth century1 resulting in his celebrated lectures before the ,board of ,agriculture from #ahjb to #ahab1 and his practical experiments in the growth of plants and the nature of fertilisers4 ,agricultural societies and boards were a characteristic product of the eighteenth century in ,europe and ,america4 ,but this birth1 or revival of agricultural studies1 the enthusiastic interest taken therein by its great and learned men1 and all its valuable publications and discoveries1 bore comparatively little fruit in that century4 ,the ignorance and prejudice of the great mass of farmers led to a determined1 and in many instances violent resistance to the introduction of labour-saving machinery and the practical application of what they called 8book-farming40 ,a fear of driving people out of employment led them to make war upon new agricultural machines and their inventors1 as they had upon weaving and spinning inventions4 ,this war was more marked in ,england than elsewhere1 because there more of the new machines were first introduced1 and the number of labourers in those fields was the greatest4 ,in ,america the ignorance took the milder shape of contempt and prejudice4 ,farmers refused1 for instance1 to use cast-iron ploughs as it was feared they would poison the soil4 ,so slow was the invention and introduction of new devices1 that if ,ruth had revisited the earth at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 she might have seen again in the fields of the husbandmen everywhere the sickle of the reapers behind whom she gleaned in the fields of ,boaz1 heard again the beating on the threshing floor1 and felt the old familiar rush of the winnowing wind4 ,cincinnatus returning then would have recognised the plough in common use as about the same in form as that which he once abandoned on his farm beyond the ,tiber4 ,but with the spread of publications1 the extension of learning1 the protection now at last obtained and enforced for inventions1 and with the foundations laid and the guide-posts erected in nearly every art and science by previous discoverers1 inventors and writers1 the century was now ready to start on that career of inventions which has rendered it so glorious4 ,as the turning over and loosening of the sod and the soil for the reception of seed was1 and still is the first step in the art of agriculture1 the plough is the first implement to be considered in this review4 ,a plough possesses five essential features1--a frame or beam to which the horses are attached and which is provided with handles by which the operator guides the plough1 a share to sever the bottom of a slice of land--the furrow--from the land beneath1 a mould board following the share to turn the furrow over to one side1 and a landside1 the side opposite the mould board and which presses against the unploughed ground and steadies the plough4 ,to these have been commonly added a device called the coulter1 which is a knife or sharp disk fastened to the frame in advance of the share and adapted to cut the sod or soil so that the furrow may be more easily turned1 an adjustable gauge wheel secured to the beam in advance of the coulter1 and which runs upon the surface of the soil to determine by the distance between the perimeter of the wheel at the bottom and the bottom of the plough share the depth of the furrow1 and a clevis1 which is an adjustable metal strap attached to the end of the beam to which the draught is secured1 and by which the pitch of the beam and the depth and width of the furrow are regulated4 ,the general features1 the beam1 handles1 and share1 have existed in ploughs from the earliest ages in history4 ,a plough with a metal share was referred to by the prophecy of ,isaiah seven centuries before ,christ1 8,they shall beat their swords into plough-shares20 and such a plough with the coulter and gauge wheel added is found in the ,caylus collection of ,greek antiquities4 ,the inventions of centuries in ploughs have proceeded along the lines of the elements above enumerated4 ,the leading features of the modern plough with a share and mould board constructed to run in a certain track and turn its furrows one over against the other1 appear to have originated in ,holland in the #ahth century1 and from there were made known to ,england4 ,james ,small of ,scotland wrote of and made ploughs having a cast-iron mould board and cast and wrought iron shares in #aghd-he4 ,in ,america1 about the same time1 ,thos4 ,jefferson studied and wrote upon the proper shape to be given to the mould board4 ,charles ,newbold in #agig took out the first patent in the ,united ,states for a plough--all parts cast in one piece of solid iron except the beam and handles4 ,it is a favourite idea with some writers and with more talkers1 that when the necessity really arises for an invention the natural inventive genius of man will at once supply it4 ,nothing was more needed and sought after for thirty centuries among tillers of the soil than a good plough1 and what finally supplied it was not necessity alone1 but improved brains4 ,long were the continued efforts1 stimulated no doubt in part by necessity1 but stimulated also by other motives1 to which allusion has already been made1 and among which are the love of progress1 the hope of gain1 and legislative protection in the possession of inventive property4 ,the best plans of writers and inventors of the eighteenth century were not fully developed until the nineteenth1 and it can be safely said that within the last one hundred years a better plough has been produced than in all of the thousands of years before4 ,the defects which the nineteenth century's improvements in ploughs were designed to remedy can best be understood by first realising what was the condition of ploughs in common use when the century opened4 ,different parts of the plough1 such as the share and coulter1 were constructed of iron1 but the general practice among farmers was to make the beam and frame1 handles and mould board of strong and heavy timber4 ,the beam was straight1 long1 and heavy1 and that and the mould generally hewed from a tree4 ,the mould board on both sides to prevent its wearing out too rapidly was covered with more or less thick plates of iron4 ,the handles were made from crooked branches of trees4 8,the beam10 it is said1 8was set at any pitch that fancy might dictate1 with the handles fastened on almost at right angles with it1 thus leaving the ploughman little control over his implement which did its work in a very slow and imperfect manner40 ,it was some such plough that ,lord ,kames complained about in the ,gentleman ,farmer in #agfh1 as being used in ,scotland--two horses and two oxen were necessary to pull it1 8the ridges in the fields were high and broad1 in fact enormous masses of accumulated earth1 that could not admit of cross ploughing or cultivation2 shallow ploughing universal2 ribbing1 by which half the land was left untilled1 a general practice over the greater part of ,scotland2 a continual struggle between the corn and weeds for superiority40 ,as late as #ahbj an ,american writer was making the same complaint4 8,your furrows10 he said1 8stand up like the ribs of a lean horse in the month of ,march4 ,a lazy ploughman may sit on the beam and count every bout of his day's work2 besides the greatest objection to all these ploughs is that they do not perform the work well and the expense is enormous for blacksmith work40 ,it was complained by another that it took eight or ten oxen to draw it1 a man to ride upon the beam to keep it on the ground1 and a man followed the plough with a heavy iron hoe to dig up the 8baulks40 ,the improvements made in the plough during the century have had for their object to lessen the great friction between the wide1 heavy1 ill-formed share and mould board1 and the ground1 which has been accomplished by giving to the share a sharp clean tapering form1 and to the mould board a shape best calculated to turn the furrow slice2 to improve the line of draught so that the pull of the team may be most advantageously employed1 which has been effected after long trials1 study and experiment in the arrangement of beam1 clevis and draft rod1 setting the coulter at a proper angle and giving the landside a plane and parallel surface2 to increase the wear and lessen the weight of the parts1 which has been accomplished by ingenious processes in treating the metal of which the parts are composed1 and lessening the number of parts2 to render the plough easily repairable by casting the parts in sets and numbering them1 by which any part may be replaced by the manufacturer without resort to the blacksmith4 ,in short there is no part of the plough but what has received the most careful attention of the inventor4 ,this has been evidenced by the fact that in the ,united ,states alone nearly eleven thousand patents on ploughs were issued during the nineteenth century4 ,when it is considered that all the applications for these patents were examined as to their novelty1 before the grant of the patent1 the enormous amount of study and invention expended on this article can be appreciated4 ,among the century's improvements in this line is the use of disks in place of the old shovel blades to penetrate the earth and revolve in contact therewith4 ,cutting disks are harnessed to steam motors and are adapted to break up at one operation a wide strip of ground4 ,the long-studied problem of employing a gang of ploughs to plough back and forth and successfully operated by steam has been solved1 and electricity is now being introduced as a motor in place of steam4 ,thus millions of broad acres which never would have been otherwise turned are now cultivated4 ,the tired muscle-strained ploughman who homeward plodded his weary way at night may now comfortably ride at his ease upon the plough1 while at the same time the beasts that pull it have a lighter load than ever before4 ,next to the plough among the implements for breaking1 clearing and otherwise preparing the soil for the reception of seed1 comes the harrow4 ,from time immemorial it has been customary to arm some sort of a frame with wooden or iron spikes to scratch the earth after the ploughing4 ,but this century has greatly improved the old constructions4 ,harrows are now found everywhere made in sections to give flexibility to the frame2 collected in gangs to increase the extent of operation2 made with disks instead of spikes1 with which to cut the roots of weeds and separate the soil1 instead of merely scratching them4 ,a still later invention1 curved spring teeth1 has been found far superior to spikes or disks in throwing up1 separating and pulverising the soil4 ,a harrow comprising two ranks of oppositely curved trailing teeth is especially popular in some countries4 ,these three distinct classes of harrows1 the disk type1 the curved spring tooth type1 and gangs of sections of concavo-convex disks1 particularly distinguish this class of implements from the old forms of previous ages4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,agricultural ,,implements4 ,it is wonderful for how many generations men were contented to throw grain into the air as the ,parable relates3 8,behold1 a sower went forth to sow1 and when he sowed some seeds fell by the way side1 and the fowls came and devoured them up3 some fell on stony places where they had not much earth1 and forthwith they sprung up1 because they had no deepness of earth2 and when the sun was up they were scorched2 and because they had no root they withered away4 ,and some fell among thorns and the thorns sprung up and choked them4 ,but others fell into good ground and brought forth fruit1 some a hundredfold1 some sixtyfold1 and some thirtyfold40 ,here are indicated the defects in depositing the seed that only the inventions of the century have fully corrected4 ,the equal distribution of the seed and not its wide scattering1 its sowing in regular drills or planting at intervals1 at certain and uniform depths1 the adaptation of devices to meet the variations in the land to be planted1 and in short the substitution of quick1 certain1 positive mechanisms for the slow1 uncertain1 variable hand of man4 ,not only has the increase an hundredfold been obtained1 but with the machines of to-day the sowing and planting of a hundredfold more land has been made possible1 the employment of armies of men where idleness would have reigned1 and the feeding of millions of people among whom hunger would otherwise have prevailed4 ,not only did this machinery not exist at the beginning of the century1 but the agricultural machines and devices in this line of the character existing fifty years ago are now discarded as useless and worthless4 ,it is true that1 as in the case of the ploughs1 attempts had been made through the centuries to invent and improve seeding implements4 ,the ,assyrians #ejj years ,b4 ,c4 had in use a rude plough in which behind the sharp wooden plough point was fixed a bowl-shaped hopper through which seed was dropped into the furrow1 and was covered by the falling back of the furrow upon it4 ,the ,chinese1 probably before that time1 had a wheelbarrow arrangement with a seed hopper and separate seed spouts4 ,in ,india a drilling hopper had been attached to a plough4 ,italy claims the honour among ,european nations of first introducing a machine for sowing grain4 ,it was invented about the beginning of the seventeenth century and is described by ,zanon in his ,work on ,agriculture printed at ,venice in #agfd4 ,it was a machine mounted on two wheels1 that had a seed box in the bottom of which was a series of holes opening into a corresponding number of metal tubes or funnels4 ,at their front these tubes at their lower ends were sharpened to make small furrows into which the seed dropped4 ,similar single machines were in the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries devised in ,austria and ,england4 ,the one in ,austria was invented by a ,spaniard1 one ,don ,joseph de ,lescatello1 tested in ,luxembourg in #affb4 ,the inventor was rewarded by the ,emperor1 recommended to the ,king of ,spain1 and in #affc and #affd his machines were made and sold at ,madrid4 ,the knowledge of this ,spaniard's invention was made known in ,england in #afii by the ,earl of ,sandwich and ,john ,evelyn4 ,jethro ,tull in ,england shortly after invented and introduced a combined system of drilling1 ploughing and cultivating4 ,he sowed different seeds from the same machine1 and arranged that they might be covered at different depths4 ,tull's machines were much improved by ,james ,cooke1 a clergyman of ,lancashire1 ,england2 and also in the last decade of the eighteenth century by ,baldwin and ,wells of ,norfolk1 ,england4 ,washington and others in ,america had also commenced to invent and experiment with seeding machines4 ,but as before intimated1 the nineteenth century found the great mass of farmers everywhere sowing their wheat and other grains by throwing them into the air by hand1 to be met by the gusts of wind and blown into hollows and on ridges1 on stones and thorny places1--requiring often a second and third repetition of the same tedious process4 ,in #ahgh ,mr4 ,coffin1 a distinguished journalist of ,boston1 in an address before the ,patent ,committee of the ,u4 ,s4 ,senate1 set forth the advantages obtained by the modern improvements in seeders as follows3 8,the seeder covers the soil to a uniform depth4 ,it sows evenly1 and sows a specific quantity4 ,you may graduate it so that1 after a little experience1 you can determine the amount per acre even to a quart of wheat4 ,they sow all kinds of grain1--wheat1 clover1 and superphosphate1 if need be1 at once4 ,they harrow at the same time4 ,they make the crop more certain4 ,it is the united testimony of manufacturers and farmers alike that the crop is increased from one-eighth to one-fourth1 especially in the winter wheat4 ,winter wheat1 you are aware1 in the freezing and thawing season1 is apt to heave out4 ,it is desirable to bury the seed a uniform and proper depth and to throw over the young plant such an amount of soil that it shall not heave with the freezing and thawing4 ,of the #cfj1jjj1jjj bushels of wheat raised last year ,i suppose more than #cjj1jjj1jjj was winter wheat4 ,one-eighth of this is #cg1gjj1jjj bushels40 ,it would seem to many that after the adoption of a seed hopper1 and spouts with sharpened ends that cut the drill rows in the furrows and deposited the seed therein1 that little was left to be done in this class of inventions2 but a great many improvements were necessary4 ,gravity alone could not be depended upon for feeding the seed4 ,means had to be devised for a continuous and regular discharge from each grain tube2 for varying the quantity of the seed fed by varying the escape openings1 or by positive mechanical movements variable in speed2 for fixing accurately the quantity of seed discharged2 for changing the apparatus to feed coarse or fine seed2 and for rendering the apparatus efficient on different surfaces--steep hillsides1 level plains1 irregular lands4 ,an important step was the substitution of what is called the 8force feed0 for the gravity feed4 ,there is a variety of devices for this purpose1 the principle of one of them being a revolving feed wheel located beneath the hopper1 and above each spout1 the two casings between which the feed wheel revolves forming the outer walls of a complete measuring channel1 or throat1 through which the grain is carried by the rotary motion of the wheel1 thus providing the means of measuring the seed with as much accuracy as could be done by a small measure4 ,the quantity sown per acre is governed by simply increasing or diminishing the speed of the feed wheel4 ,in one form of device this change of speed is altered by a system of cone gearing4 ,a graduated flow of the seed has also been effected by the employment of a cylinder having a smooth and fluted part working in a cup beneath the hopper with provision for adjustment of the smooth part towards and from the fluted part to cut off or increase the flow4 ,to avoid the use of a separate apparatus for separate sizes of grain and other seed1 the seed holder has been divided into parts--one part for containing wheat1 barley and other medium-sized grains1 and another for corn1 peas and the larger seeds4 ,and as these parts are used on separate occasions1 the respective apertures are opened or closed by a sliding bottom and by a single movement of the hand4 ,rubber tubes for conducting the seed through the hollow holes were introduced in place of the metal spouts that answered both as a spout and a hoe4 ,in place of the common hoe drill of a form used in the early part of the century1 the hoes being forced into the soil by the use of levers and weights1 what are known as 8shoe drills0 have largely succeeded4 ,a series of shoes are pivoted to the frame1 extend beneath the seed box1 and are provided with springs for depressing or raising them4 ,all kinds of seeds and fertilisers1 separately or together1 may be now sown1 and the broadcast sowing of a larger area than that covered by the throw of the hand can now be given by machinery4 ,corn and cotton seed are thus also planted1 mixed or unmixed with the fertilising material4 ,not only have light ploughs been combined with small seed boxes and one or more seed tubes1 for easy work in gardens1 but the arrangements varied and graded for different uses until is reached that great machine run by steam power1 in which is assembled a gang of heavy harrows in front to loosen and pulverise the soil1 then the seed and fertilising drill of capacious width for sowing the grain in rows1 followed by a lighter broad harrow to cover the seed1 and all so arranged that the steam lifts the heavy frames on turning1 and all controlled easily by the man who rides upon the machine4 ,in planting at intervals or in hills1 as corn and potatoes1 and other like larger seeds1 no longer is the farmer required to trudge across the wide field carrying a heavy load in bag or box1 or compel his boys or women folk to drop the seed while he follows on laboriously with the hoe4 ,he may now ride1 if he so choose1 and the machine which carries him furnishes the motive power for operating the supply and cut-off of the grain at intervals4 ,the object of the farmer in planting corn is to plant it in straight lines about four feet apart each way1 putting from three to five grains into each spot in a scattered and not huddled condition4 ,these objects are together nicely accomplished by a variety of modern machines4 ,the planting of great fields of potatoes has been greatly facilitated by machinery that first slices them and then sows the slices continuously in a row1 or drops them in separate spots or hills1 as may be desired4 ,the finest seeds1 such as grass and clover1 onion and turnip seed1 and delicate seed like rice1 are handled and sown by machines without crushing or bruising1 and with the utmost exactness4 ,just what seed is necessary to be supplied to the machine for a given area is decided upon1 and the machine distributes the same with the same nicety that a doctor distributes the proper dose of pellets upon the palm of his patient4 ,transplanters as well as planters have been devised4 ,these transplanters will dig the plant trench1 distribute the fertiliser1 set the plant1 pack the earth and water the plant1 automatically4 ,the class of machines known as cultivators are those only1 properly speaking1 which are employed to cultivate the plant after the crop is above the ground4 ,the duties which they perform are to loosen the earth1 destroy the weeds1 and throw the loosened earth around the growing plant4 ,here again the laborious hoe has been succeeded by the labour-saving machine4 ,cultivators have names which indicate their construction and the crop with which they are adapted to be used4 ,thus there are 8corn cultivators10 8cotton cultivators10 8sugar-cane cultivators10 etc4 ,riding cultivators are known as 8sulky cultivators0 where they are provided with two wheels and a seat for the driver4 ,if worked between two rows they are termed single1 and when between three rows1 double cultivators4 ,a riding cultivator adapted to work three rows has an arched axle to pass over the rows of the growing plants and cultivate both sides of the plants in each row4 ,double cultivators are constructed so that their outside teeth may be adjusted in and out from the centre of the machine to meet the width of the rows between which they operate4 ,a 8walking cultivator0 is when the operator walks and guides the machine with the hands as with ploughs4 ,ordinary ploughs are converted into cultivators by supplying them with double adjustable mould boards4 ,ingenious arrangements generally exist for widening or narrowing the cultivator and for throwing the soil from the centre of the furrow to opposite sides and against the plant4 ,the depth to which the shares or cultivator blades work in the ground may be adjusted by a gauge wheel upon the draught beam1 or a roller on the back of the frame4 ,disk cultivators are those in which disk blades instead of ploughs are used with which to disturb the soil already broken4 ,as with ploughs1 so with cultivators1 steam-engines are employed to draw a gang of cultivating teeth or blades1 their framework1 and the operator seated thereon1 to and fro across the field between two or more rows1 turning and running the machine at the end of the rows4 ,millet's recent celebrated painting represents a brutal1 primitive type of a man leaning heavily on a hoe as ancient and woful in character as the man himself4 ,it is a picture of hopeless drudgery and blank ignorance4 ,markham1 the poet1 has seized upon this picture1 dwelt eloquently on its horrors1 and apostrophised it as if it were a condition now existing4 ,he exclaims1 8,o masters1 lords and rulers in all lands ,how will the future reckon with this man80 ,the present has already reckoned with him1 and he and his awkward implement of drudgery nowhere exist1 except as left-over specimens of ancient and pre-historic misery occasionally found in some benighted region of the world4 ,the plough and the hoe are the chief implements with which man has subdued the earth4 ,their use has not been confined to the drudge and the slave1 but men1 the leaders and ornaments of their race1 have stood behind them adding to themselves graces1 and crowning labor with dignity4 ,cincinnatus is only one of a long line of public men in ancient and modern times who have served their country in the ploughfield as well as on the field of battle and in the halls of ,legislation4 ,we hear the song of the poet rising with that of the lark as he turns the sod4 ,burns1 lamenting that his share uptears the bed of the 8wee modest crimson-tipped flower0 and sorrowing that he has turned the 8,mousie0 from its 8bit o' leaves and stibble0 by the cruel coulter4 ,the finest natures1 tuned too fine to meet the rude blasts of the world1 have shrunk like ,cowper to rural scenes1 and sought with the hoe among flowers and plants for that balm and strength unfound in crowded marts4 ,but the dignity imparted to the profession of ,agriculture by a few has now by the genius of invention become the heritage of all4 ,while prophets have lamented1 and artists have painted1 and poets sorrowed over the drudgeries of the tillers of the soil1 the tillers have steadily and quietly and with infinite patience and toil worked out their own salvation4 ,they no longer find themselves 8plundered and profaned and disinherited10 but they have yoked the forces of nature to their service1 and the cultivation of the earth1 the sowing of the seed1 the nourishment of the plant1 have become to them things of pleasurable labour4 ,with the aid of these inventions which have been turned into their hands by the prolific developments of the century they are1 so far as the soil is concerned1 no longer 8brothers of the ox10 but king of kings and lord of lords4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,agricultural ,,inventions4 ,if the farmer1 toward the close of the #ahth century1 tired with the sickle and the scythe for cutting his grass and grain1 had looked about for more expeditious means1 he would have found nothing better for cutting his grass2 and for harvesting his grain he would have been referred to a machine that had existed since the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,this machine was described by ,pliny1 writing about ,a4 ,d4 #fj1 who says that it was used on the plains of ,rhtia4 ,the same machine was described by ,palladius in the fourth century4 ,that machine is substantially the machine that is used to-day for cutting and gathering clover heads to obtain the seed4 ,it is now called a header4 ,a machine that has been in use for eighteen centuries deserves to be described1 and its inventor remembered2 but the name of the inventor has been lost in oblivion4 ,the description of ,palladius is as follows3 8,in the plains of ,gaul1 they use this quick way of reaping1 and without reapers cut large fields with an ox in one day4 ,for this purpose a machine is made carried upon two wheels2 the square surface has boards erected at the side1 which1 sloping outward1 make a wider space above4 ,the board on the fore part is lower than the others4 ,upon it there are a great many small teeth1 wide set in a row1 answering to the height of the ears of corn 7wheat71 and turned upward at the ends4 ,on the back part of the machine two short shafts are fixed like the poles of a litter2 to these an ox is yoked1 with his head to the machine1 and the yoke and traces likewise turned the contrary way4 ,when the machine is pushed through the standing corn all the ears are comprehended by the teeth and cut off by them from the straw and drop into the machine4 ,the driver sets it higher or lower as he finds it necessary4 ,by a few goings and returnings the whole field is reaped4 ,this machine does very well in plain and smooth fields40 ,as late as #aghf improvements were being attempted in ,england on this old ,gallic machine4 ,at that time ,pitt1 in that country1 arranged a cylinder with combs or ripples which tore off the heads of the grain-stalks and discharged them into a box on the machine4 ,from that date until #ahjj followed attempts to make a cutting apparatus consisting of blades on a revolving cylinder rotated by the rotary motion of the wheels on which the machine was carried4 ,in #agid1 a ,scotchman invented the grain cradle4 ,above the blade of a scythe were arranged a set of fingers projecting from a post in the scythe snath4 ,this was considered a wonderful implement4 ,a report of a ,scottish ,highland ,agricultural ,society about that time said of this new machine3 8,with a common sickle1 seven men in ten hours reaped one and one-half acres of wheat1--about one-quarter of an acre each4 ,with the new machine a man can cut one and one-half acres in ten hours1 to be raked1 bound1 and stacked by two others40 ,it was with such crude and imperfect inventions that the farmers faced the grain and grass fields of the nineteenth century4 ,the ,seven ,wonders of the ancient world have often been compared with the wonders of invention of this present day4 ,senator ,platt in an address at the ,patent ,centennial ,celebration in ,washington1 in #ahia1 made such a contrast3 8,the old wonders of the world were the ,pyramids1 the ,hanging ,gardens of ,babylon1 the ,phidian statue of ,jupiter1 the ,mausoleum1 the ,temple of ,diana at ,ephesus1 the ,colossus of ,rhodes1 and the ,pharos of ,alexandria4 ,two were tombs of kings1 one was the playground of a petted queen1 one was the habitat of the world's darkest superstition1 one the shrine of a heathen god1 another was a crude attempt to produce a work of art solely to excite wonder1 and one only1 the lighthouse at ,alexandria1 was of the slightest benefit to mankind4 ,they were created mainly by tyrants2 most of them by the unrequited toil of degraded and enslaved labourers4 ,in them was neither improvement nor advancement for the people40 ,with some excess of patriotic pride1 he contrasts these with what he calls 8the seven wonders of ,american invention40 ,they were the cotton-gin2 the adaptation of steam to methods of transportation2 the application of electricity to business pursuits2 the harvester2 the modern printing-press2 the ocean cable2 and the sewing machine4 8,how wonderful10 he adds1 8in conception1 in construction1 in purpose1 these great inventions are2 how they dwarf the ,pyramids and all the wonders of antiquity2 what a train of blessings each brought with its entrance into social life2 how wide1 direct and far-reaching their benefits4 ,each was the herald of a social revolution2 each was a human benefactor2 each was a new ,goddess of ,liberty2 each was a great ,emancipator of man from the bondage of labour2 each was a new teacher come upon earth2 each was a moral force40 ,of these seven wonders1 the harvester and the cotton-gin will only be described in this chapter4 8,harvester0 has sometimes been used as a broad term to cover both mowers and reapers4 ,in a recent and more restricted sense1 it is applied to a machine that cuts grain1 separates it into gavels1 and binds it4 ,the difficulty that confronted the invention of mowers was the construction1 location and operation of the cutting part4 ,to convert the scythe or the sickle1 or some other sharp blade into a fast reciprocating cutter1 to hang such cutter low so that it would cut near the ground1 to protect it from contact with stones by a proper guard1 to actuate it by the wheels of the vehicle1 to hinge the cutter-bar to the frame so that its outer end might be raised1 and to arrange a seat on the machine so that the driver could control the operating parts by means of a lever1 or handles1 were the main problems to be solved4 ,in #agii1 ,boyce1 of ,england1 had a vertical shaft with six rotating scythes beneath the frame of the implement4 ,this died with the century4 ,in #ahjj1 ,meares1 his countryman1 tried to adapt shears4 ,he was followed there1 in #ahje1 by ,plucknett1 who introduced a horizontal1 rotating1 circular blade4 ,others1 subsequently1 adopted this idea1 both in ,england and ,america4 ,it had been customary1 as in olden times1 to push the apparatus forward by a horse or horses hitched behind4 ,but1 in #ahjf1 ,gladstone had patented a front draft machine1 with a revolving wheel armed with knife-blades cutting at one side of the machine and a segment-bar with fingers which gathered the grain and held the straw while the knife cut it4 ,then1 in #ahjg1 ,salonen introduced vibrating knifes over stationary blades1 fingers to gather grain to the cutters1 and a rake to carry the grain off to one side4 ,in #ahbb1 ,ogle1 also of ,england1 was the first to invent the reciprocating knife-bar4 ,this is the movement that has been given in all the successful machines since4 ,ogle's was a crude machine1 but it furnished the ideas of projecting the cutter-bar at the side of a reel to gather the grain to the cutter and of a grain platform which was tilted to drop the sheaf4 ,the world is indebted also to the ,rev4 ,patrick ,bell1 of ,scotland1 who had invented and built as early as #ahbc-bf1 a machine which would cut an acre of grain in an hour1 and is thus described by ,knight3 8,the machine had a square frame on two wheels which ran loose on the axle1 except when clutched thereto to give motion to the cutters4 ,the cutter-bar had fixed triangular cutters between each of which was a movable vibrating cutter1 which made a shear cut against the edge of the stationary cutter1 on each side4 ,it had a reel with twelve vanes to press the grain toward the cutters1 and cause it to fall upon a travelling apron which carried away cut grain and deposited it at the side of the machine4 ,the reel was driven by bevel-gearing40 ,it was used but a few years and then revived again at the ,world's ,fair in ,london1 in #ahea4 ,in the ,united ,states1 inventions in mowers and reapers began to make their appearance about #ahbj4 ,in #ahbb1 ,bailey was the first to patent a mowing machine4 ,it was a circular revolving scythe on a vertical axis1 rotated by gearing from the main axle1 and so that the scythe was self-sharpened by passing under a whet-stone fixed on an axis and revolving with the scythe and was pulled by a horse in front4 ,in #ahbh1 ,lane1 of ,maine1 combined the reaper and thresher4 ,in #ahca1 ,manning had a row of fingers and a reciprocating knife1 and in #ahcc1 ,schnebly introduced the idea of a horizontal endless apron on which the grain fell1 constructed to travel intermittently so as to divide the grain into separate parts or gavels1 and deliver the gavels at one side4 ,hussey1 of ,maryland1 in #ahcc1 produced the most useful harvester up to that time4 ,it had open guard fingers1 a knife made of triangular sections1 reciprocating in the guard1 and a cutter-bar on a hinged frame4 ,then came the celebrated reaper of ,mc,cormick1 of ,virginia1 in #ahcd1 and his improvements of #ahde-ahdg1 and by #ahej he had built hundreds of his machines4 ,other inventors1 too numerous to mention1 from that time pushed forward with their improvements4 ,then came many public trials and contests between rival manufacturers and inventors4 ,one of the earliest and most notable was the contest at the ,world's ,fair1 in ,london1 in #ahea4 ,this exhibition1 the first of the kind the world had seen1 giving to the nations taking part such an astonishing revelation of each other's productions1 and stimulating in each such a surprising growth in all the industrial and fine arts1 revealed nothing more gratifying to the lover of his kind than those inventions of the preceding half-century that had so greatly lifted the farm labourer from his furrow of drudgery4 ,among the most conspicuous of such inventions were the harvesters4 ,bell's machine1 previously described1 and ,hussey's and ,mc,cormick's were the principal contesting machines4 ,they were set to work in fields of grain1 and to ,mc,cormick was finally awarded the medal of honour4 ,this contest also opened the eyes of the world to the fact that vast tracts of idle land1 exceeding in extent the areas of many states and countries1 could now be sown and reaped--a fact impossible with the scythe and the sickle4 ,it was the herald of the admission into the family of nations of new territories and states1 which1 without these machines1 would unto this day be still wild wildernesses and trackless deserts4 ,this great trial also was followed by many others1 ,state and ,international4 ,in #aheb1 there was in the ,united ,states a general trial of reapers and mowers at ,geneva1 ,new ,york2 in #ahee1 at the ,french ,exposition1 at ,paris1 where again ,mc,cormick met with a triumph2 in #aheg1 at ,syracuse1 ,new ,york1 and subsequently at all the great ,state and ,international ,expositions4 ,these contests served to bring out the failures1 and the still-existing wants in this line of machinery4 ,the earlier machines were clumsy4 ,they were generally one-wheeled machines1 lacked flexibility of parts and were costly4 ,they cut1 indeed1 vast tracts of grain and grass1 but the machines had to be followed by an army of men to bind and gather the fallen grain4 ,this army demanded high wages and materially increased the cost of reaping the crop1 and sadly diminished the profits4 ,when the ,vienna ,exposition1 in #ahgc1 was held1 a great advance was shown in this and all other classes of agricultural machinery4 ,reapers and mowers were lighter in construction1 and far less in cost1 and stronger and more effective in every way4 ,the old original machines of ,mc,cormick on which he had worked for twenty years prior to the #ahea triumph1 had been succeeded by another of his machines1 on which an additional twenty years of study1 experiment and improvement had been expended4 ,an endless number of inventors had in the meantime entered the lists4 ,the frame1 the motive gearing1 the hinged cutter-bar and knives1 the driver's seat1 the reel1 the divider1 for separating the swath of grain to be cut from the uncut1 the raising and depressing lever1 the self-raker1 and the material of which all the parts were composed had all received the greatest attention1 and now was awaiting the coming of a perfect mechanical binder that would roll the grain on the machine into a bundle1 automatically bind it1 and drop the bound bundles on the ground4 ,the latter addition came in an incomplete shape to ,vienna4 ,the best form was a crude wire binder4 ,in #ahgf at the ,centennial ,exhibition at ,philadelphia1 the mowers and reapers blossomed still more fully1 but not into full fruition2 for it was not until two or three years thereafter that the celebrated twine binders1 which superseded the wire1 were fully developed4 ,think of the almost miraculous exercise of invention in making a machine to automatically cut the grain1 elevate it to a platform1 separate and roll it into sheaves1 seize a stout cord from a reel1 wrap it about the sheaf1 tie a knot that no sailor could untie1 cut the cord1 and throw the bound sheaf to one side upon the ground6 ,so great became the demand for this binders' twine that great corporations engaged in its manufacture1 and they in turn formed a great trust to control the world's supply4 ,this one item of twine1 alone1 amounted to millions of dollars every year1 and from its manufacture arose economic questions considered by legislators1 and serious litigation requiring the attention of the courts4 ,at this ,centennial ,exhibition1 besides twenty or more great manufacturing firms of the ,united ,states who exhibited reapers and mowers1 ,canada1 far-away ,australia1 and ,russia brought each a fine machine of this wonderful class4 ,and not only these countries1 but nearly all of ,europe sent agricultural machines and implements in such numbers and superior construction that they surpassed the wildest dreams of the farmer of a quarter of a century before4 ,up to this time1 about eleven thousand patents have been granted in the ,united ,states1 all presumably on separate improvements in mowers and reapers alone4 ,this number includes1 of course1 many patents issued to inventors of other countries4 ,before leaving this branch of the subject the lawn-mower should not be overlooked1 with its spiral blades on a revolving cylinder1 a hand lever by which it can be pushed over a lawn and the grass cut as smooth as the green rug upon a lady's chamber4 ,it is the law of inventions that one invention necessitates and generates another4 ,thus the vastly increased facilities for cutting grass necessitated new means for taking care of it when cut4 ,and these new means were the hay tedder to stir it1 the horse hay-rake1 the great hay-forks to load1 and the hay-stackers4 ,harvesters for grass and grain have been supplemented by ,corn1 ,cotton1 ,potato and ,flax ,harvesters4 ,the threshing-floor still resounds to the flail as the grain is beaten from the heads of the stalks4 ,men and horses still tread it out1 the wooden drag and the heavy wain with its gang of wheels1 and all the old methods of threshing familiar to the ,egyptians and later among the ,romans may still be found in use in different portions of the world4 ,menzies of ,scotland1 about the middle of the eighteenth century1 was the first to invent a threshing machine4 ,it was unsuccessful4 ,then came ,leckie1 of ,stirlingshire1 who improved it4 ,but the type of the modern threshing machine was the invention of a ,scotchman1 one ,meikle1 of ,tyningham1 ,east ,lothian1 in #aghf4 ,meikle threw the grain on to an inclined board1 from whence it was fed between two fluted rollers to a cylinder armed with blades which beat it1 thence to a second beating cylinder operating over a concave grating through which the loosened grain fell to a receptacle beneath2 thence the straw was carried over a third beating cylinder which loosened the straw and shook out the remaining grain to the same receptacle1 and the beaten straw was then carried out of the machine4 ,meikle added many improvements1 among which was a fan-mill by which the grain was separated and cleaned from both straw and chaff4 ,this machine1 completed and perfected about the year #ahjj1 has seen no departure in principle in ,england1 and in the ,united ,states the principal change has been the substitution of a spiked drum running at a higher speed for ,meikle's beater drum armed with blades4 ,in countries like ,california1 says the ,u4,s4 ,commissioner of ,patents in his report for #ahie1 8,where the climate is dry and the grain is ready for threshing as soon as it is cut1 there is in general use a type of machine known as a combined harvester and thresher in which a thresher and a harvester machine of the header type are mounted on a single platform1 and the heads of grain are carried directly from the harvester by elevators into the threshing machine1 from which the threshed grain is delivered into bags and is then ready for shipment4 ,some of these machines are drawn by horses and some have a portable engine mounted on the same truck with the harvester propelling the machine1 while furnishing power to drive the mechanism at the same time4 ,combined harvesters and threshers have been known since #ahcf1 but they have been much improved and are now built on a much larger scale40 ,flax-threshers for beating the grain from the bolls of the cured flax plant1 removing the bolls1 releasing and cleaning the seed1 are also a modern invention4 ,flax and ,hemp ,brakes1 machines by which the woody and cellular portion of the flax is separated from the fibrous portion1 produced in practical shape in the century1 and flanked by the improved pullers1 cutters1 threshers1 scutchers1 hackles1 carders1 and rovers1 have supplanted ,egyptian methods of #c1jjj years' standing1 for preparing the flax for spinning1 as well as the crude improvements of the #ahth century4 ,after the foundation of cotton manufacture had been laid 8as one of the greatest of the world's industries10 in the #ahth century by those five great ,english inventors1 ,kay1 who invented the fly-shuttle1 ,hargreaves1 the 8,spinning ,jenny10 ,arkwright1 the water-frame1 ,crompton1 the spinning-mule1 and ,cartwright1 the power-loom1 came ,eli ,whitney in #agic1 a young school teacher from ,massachusetts located in ,georgia1 who invented the cotton-gin4 ,his crude machine1 worked by a single person1 could clean more cotton in a single day than could be done by a man in several months1 by hand4 ,the enormous importance of such a machine began to be appreciated at the beginning of the century1 and it set cotton up as a ,king whose dominion has extended across the seas4 ,prior to #ahga1 inventions in this art were mainly directed to perfecting the structure of this primary gin4 ,by that machine only the long staple fibre was secured1 leaving the cotton seed covered with a short fibre1 which with the seed was regarded as a waste product4 ,to reclaim this short fibre and secure the seed in condition for use1 have been the endeavours of many inventors during the last twenty years4 ,these objects have been attained by a machine known as the delinter1 one of the first practical forms of which appeared about #ahhc4 ,in a bulletin published by the ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture in #ahie1 entitled1 8,production and ,price of ,cotton for ,one ,hundred ,years10 the period commences with the introduction of ,whitney's saw gin1 and ends with the year mentioned and with the production in that year of the largest crop the world had ever seen4 ,no other agricultural crop commands such universal attention4 ,millions of people are employed in its production and manufacture4 ,how insignificant compared with the wonder wrought by this one machine seems indeed any of the old seven wonders of the world6 ,although the displacement of labour occasioned by the introduction of the cotton-gin was not severely felt1 as it was slave labour1 yet that invention affords a good illustration of the fact that labour-saving machines increase the supply of the article1 the increased supply lowers its price1 the lower price increases the demand1 the increased demand gives rise to more machines and develops other inventions and arts1 all of which results in the employment of ten thousand people to every one thousand at work on the product originally4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,agricultural ,,inventions 7continued74 ,when the harvest is ended and the golden stores of grains and fruits are gathered1 then the question arises what shall be next done to prepare them for food and for shipment to the distant consumer4 ,if the cleaning of the grain and separating it from the chaff and dirt are not had in the threshing process1 separate machines are employed for fanning and screening4 ,it was only during the #ahth century that fanning mills were introduced2 and it is related by ,sir ,walter ,scott in one of his novels that some of his countrymen considered it their religious duty to wait for a natural wind to separate the chaff from the wheat2 that they were greatly shocked by an invention which would raise a whirlwind in calm weather1 and that they looked upon the use of such a machine as rebellion against ,god4 ,as to the grinding of the grain1 the rudimentary means still exist1 and are still used by rudimentary peoples1 and to meet exceptional necessities2 these are the primeval hollowed stone and mortar and pestle1 and they too were 8the mills of the ,gods0 in ,egyptian1 ,hebrew and ,early ,greek days3 the quern--that is1 the upper running stone and the lower stationary grooved one--was a later ,roman invention and can be found described only a century or two before the ,christian era4 ,crude as these means were they were the chief ones used in milling until within a century and a quarter ago4 ,in a very recent bright work published in ,london1 by ,richard ,bennett and ,john ,elton1 on ,corn ,mills1 etc41 they say on this point3 8,the mill of the last century1 that1 by which1 despite its imperfections1 the production of flour rose from one of the smallest to one of the greatest and most valuable industries of the world1 was essentially a structure of few parts1 whether driven by water or wind1 and its processes were exceedingly simple4 ,the wheat was cleaned by a rude machine consisting of a couple of cylinders and screens1 and an air blast passed through a pair of mill-stones1 running very close together1 in order that the greatest amount of flour might be produced at one grinding4 ,the meal was then bolted1 and the tailings1 consisting of bran1 middlings and adherent flour1 again sifted and re-ground4 ,it seems probable that the miller of the time had a fair notion of the high grade of flour ground from middlings1 but no systematic method of procedure for its production was adopted40 ,the upper and the nether mill-stone is still a most useful device4 ,the 8dress10 which consists of the grooves which are formed in the meeting faces of the stones1 has been changed in many ways to meet the requirements in producing flour in varying degrees of fineness4 ,machines have been invented to make such grooves4 ,a ,swiss machine for this purpose consists of two disks carrying diamonds in their peripheries1 which1 being put in rapid revolution1 cut parallel grooves in the face of the stone4 ,a great advance in milling was made both in ,america and ,europe by the inventions of ,oliver ,evans4 ,evans was born in the ,state of ,delaware1 ,u4,s41 in #agee1 and died in #ahai4 ,he was a poor boy and an apprentice to a wheelwright1 and while thus engaged his inventive powers were developed4 ,he had an idea of a land carriage propelled without animal power4 ,at the age of #bb he invented a machine for making card teeth1 which superseded the old method of making them by hand4 ,later he invented steam-engines and steam-boats1 to which attention will hereafter be called4 ,entering into business with his brothers within the period extending from #aghe to #ahjj1 he produced those inventions in milling which by the opening of the #aith century had revolutionised the art4 ,a description of the most important of these inventions was published by him in #agie in a book entitled ,the ,young ,millwright and ,miller's ,grist4 ,patents were granted ,evans by the ,states of ,delaware1 ,maryland and ,pennsylvania in #aghg1 and by the ,u4,s4 ,government in #agij and #ahjh4 ,as these inventions formed the basis of the most important subsequent devices of the century1 a brief statement of his system is proper3 ,from the time the grain was emptied from the waggon to the final production of the finest flour at the close of the process1 all manual labour was dispensed with4 ,the grain was first emptied into a box hung on a scale beam where it was weighed1 then run into an elevator which raised it to a chamber over cleaning machines through which it was passed1 and reclaimed by the same means if desired2 then it was run down into a chamber over the hoppers of the mill-stones2 when ground it fell from the mill-stones into conveyors and as carried along subjected to the heated air of a kiln drier2 then carried into a meal elevator to be raised and dropped on to a cooling floor where it was met by what is called a hopper boy1 consisting of a central round upright shaft revolving on a pivot1 and provided with horizontal arms and sweeps adapted to be raised and lowered and turned1 by which means the meal was continually stirred around1 lifted and turned on the floor and then gathered on to the bolting hoppers1 the bolts being cylindrical sieves of varying degrees of fineness to separate the flour from its coarser impurities1 and when not bolted sufficiently1 carried by a conveyor called a drill to an elevator to be dumped again into the bolting hoppers and be re-bolted4 ,when not sufficiently ground the same drill was used to carry the meal to the grind stones4 ,it was the design of the process to keep the meal in constant motion from first to last so as to thoroughly dry and cool it1 to heat it further in the meantime1 and to run the machines so slowly as to prevent the rise and waste of the flour in the form of dust4 ,the ,evans system1 with minor modifications and improvements1 was the prevailing one for three-quarters of a century4 ,new mills1 when erected1 were provided with this system1 and many mills in their quiet retreats everywhere awoke from their drowsy methods and were equipped with the new one4 ,but the whole system of milling has undergone another great change within the last thirty years3 ,during that time it has been learned that the coarser portion or kernel of wheat which lies next to the skin of the berry and between the skin and the heart is the most valuable and nutritious part1 as it consists largely of gluten1 while the interior consists of starch1 which when dry becomes a pearly powder4 ,under the old systems this coarser part1 known as middlings1 was eliminated1 and ground for feed for cattle1 or into what was regarded as an inferior grade of flour from which to make coarse bread4 ,it was customary1 therefore1 under the old method to set the grinding surfaces very close with keen sharp burrs1 so that this coarser part was cut off and mixed with the small particles of bran1 fine fuzz and other foreign substances1 which was separated from the finer part of the kernel by the bolting4 ,the new process consists of removing the outer skin and adherent impurities from the middlings1 then separating the middlings from the central finer part and then regrinding the middlings into flour4 ,this middlings flour being superior1 as stated1 to what was called straight grade1 it became desirable to obtain as much middlings as possible1 and to this end it was necessary to set the grinding surfaces further apart so as to grind high1 hence the high milling process as distinguished from low milling4 ,for the better performance of the high rolling process1 roller mills were invented4 ,it was found that the cracking process by which the kernel could be cracked and the gluten middlings separated from the starchy heart could best be had by the employment of rollers or cylinders in place of face stones1 and at the same time the heating of the product1 which injures it1 be avoided4 ,the rollers operate in sets1 and successive crackings are obtained by passing and repassing1 if necessary1 the grain through these rollers1 set at different distances apart4 ,the operation on grains of different qualities1 whether hard or soft1 or containing more or less of the gluten middlings1 or starchy parts1 and their minute and graded separation1 thus are obtained with the greatest nicety4 ,the ,hungarians1 the ,germans1 the ,austrians1 the ,swiss1 the ,english and the ,americans have all invented useful forms of these rollers4 ,this process was accompanied by the invention of new forms of middlings separators and purifiers1 in which upward drafts of air are made to pass up through flat1 graded shaking bolts1 in an enclosed case1 by which the bran specks and fuzz are lifted and conveyed away from the shaken material4 ,in some countries1 such as the great wheat state of ,minnesota1 ,u4,s41 where the wheat had before been of inferior market value owing to the poorer grade of flour obtained by the old processes1 that same wheat was made to produce the most superior flour under the new processes1 thus increasing the yearly value of the crops by many millions of dollars4 ,disastrous flour dust explosions in some of the great mills at ,minneapolis1 in #ahgg-gh1 developed the invention of dust collectors1 by which the suspended particles of flour dust are withdrawn from the machinery and the mill1 and the air is cleared for respiration and for the production of the finest flour1 while the mill is kept closed and comfortable in cold seasons4 ,one of the latest forms of such a collector has for its essential principle the vertical or rotatory air current1 which it is claimed moves and precipitates the finest particles4 ,the inventions in the class of mills have so multiplied in these latter days1 that nearly every known article that needs to be cleaned and hulled1 or ground1 or cracked or pulverized1 has its own specially designed machine4 ,wind and water as motive powers have been supplanted by steam and electricity4 ,it would be impossible in one volume to describe this great variety4 ,knight1 in his ,mechanical ,dictionary1 gives a list under 8,mills10 of more than a hundred distinct machines and processes relating to grinding1 hulling1 crushing1 pulverising and mixing products4 ,vegetable ,cutters4--,modern ingenuity has not neglected those more humble devices which save the drudgery of hand work in the preparation of vegetables and roots for food for man and beasts1 and for use especially when large quantities are to be prepared4 ,thus1 we find machines armed with blades and worked by springs and a lever1 for chopping1 others for cutting stalks1 other machines for paring and slicing1 such as apple and potato parers and slicers1 others for grating and pulping1 others for seeding fruits1 such as cherries and raisins1 and an entire range of mechanisms1 from those which handle delicately the tenderest pod and smallest seed1 to the ponderous machines for cutting and crushing the cane in sugar making4 ,pressing and ,baling4--,the want of pressing loose materials and packing bulky ones1 like hay1 wool1 cotton1 hops1 etc1 and other coarser products1 into small1 compact bales and bodies1 to facilitate their transportation1 was immediately felt on the great increase of such products in the century4 ,from this arose pressing and baling machines of a great variety1 until nearly every agricultural product that can be pressed1 packed or baled has its special machine for that operation4 ,besides those above indicated relating to agricultural products1 we have cane presses1 cheese presses1 butter presses1 cigar and tobacco presses1 cork presses1 and flour packers1 fruit and lard presses1 peat presses1 sugar presses and others4 ,leading mechanical principles in presses are also indicated by name1 as screw presses1 toggle presses1 beater press1 revolving press1 hydraulic press1 rack and pinion press1 and rolling pressure press and so on4 ,there are the presses also that are used in compressing cotton4 ,when it is remembered that cotton is raised in about twenty different countries1 and that the cotton crop of the ,united ,states of #ahig-ih was #aj1hig1heg bales1 of about #ejj lbs4 each2 of ,india1 7estimated7 for the same period1 #b1hdd1jjj1 of #djj lbs each2 of ,china about #a1cbj1jjj1 of #ejj lbs each1 and between two and three million bales in the other countries1 it is interesting to consider how the world's production of this enormous mass of elastic fibre1 amounting to seventeen or eighteen million bales1 of four and five hundred pounds each1 is compressed and bound4 ,the screw press was the earliest form of machine used1 and then came the hydraulic press4 ,later it has been customary to press the cotton by screw presses or small hydraulic presses at the plantation1 bind it with ropes or metal bands and then transport it to some central or seaboard station where an immense establishment exists1 provided with a great steam-operated press1 in which the bale from the country is placed and reduced to one-fourth or one-third its size1 and while under pressure new metallic bands applied1 when the bale is ready for shipment4 ,this was a gain of a remarkable amount of room on shipboard and on cars1 and solved a commercial problem4 ,but now this process1 and the commercial rectangular bale1 seem destined to be supplanted by roller presses set up near the plantations themselves1 into which the cotton is fed directly from the gin1 rolled upon itself between the rollers and compressed into round bales of greater density than the square bale1 thus saving a great amount of cost in dispensing with the steam and hydraulic plants1 with great additional advantages in convenience of handling and cost of transportation4 ,it is so arranged also that the cotton may be rolled into clean1 uniform dense layers1 so that the same may be unwound at the mill and directly applied to the machines for its manufacture into fabrics1 without the usual tedious and expensive preliminary operations of combing and re-rolling4 ,it has also remained for the developed machine of the century to convert hay into an export commodity to distant countries by the baling process4 ,bale ties themselves have received great attention from inventors1 and the most successful have won fortunes for their owners4 ,most ingenious machines have been devised for picking cotton in the fields1 but none have yet reached that stage of perfection sufficient to supplant the human fingers4 ,fruits and ,foods4--,to prepare and transport fruits in their natural state to far distant points1 while preserving them from decay for long times1 is1 in the large way demanded by the world's great appetites1 altogether a success of modern invention4 ,to gather the fruit without bruising by mechanical pickers1 and then to place the fruit1 oranges for instance1 in the hands of an intelligent machine which will automatically1 but delicately and effectually1 wrap the same in a paper covering1 and discharge them without harm1 are among the recent inventive wonders4 ,in the ,united ,states alone #fg patents had been granted up to #ahie for fruit wrapping machines4 ,inventions relating to drying and evaporating fruit1 and having for their main object to preserve as much as possible the natural taste and colour of the fruit1 have been numerous4 ,spreading the fruit in the air and letting the sun and air do the rest is now a crude process4 ,these are the general types of drying and evaporating machines3 ,first1 those in which trays of fruit are placed upon stationary ledges within a heated chamber2 second1 those in which the trays are raised and lowered by mechanical means toward or farther from the source of heat as the drying progresses2 third1 those in which the fruit is placed in imperforate steam jacketed pans4 ,many improvements1 of course1 have been made in detail of form1 in ventilation1 the supplying and regulating of heat and the moving of trays4 ,the hermetically sealed glass or earthenware fruit jar1 the lids of which can be screwed or locked down upon a rubber band1 after the jar is filled and the small remainder of air drawn out by a convenient steam heater1 now used by the million1 is an illustration of the many useful modern contrivances in this line4 ,sterilisation4--,in preserving1 the desirability of preventing disease and keeping foods in a pure state has developed in the last quarter of a century many devices by which the food is subjected to a steam heat in chambers1 and1 by devices operated from the outside1 the cans or bottles are opened and shut while still within the steam-filled chamber4 ,diastase4--,by heating starchy matters with substances containing diastase1 a partial transformation is effected1 which will materially shorten and aid its digestion1 and this fact has been largely made use of in the preparation of soluble foods1 especially those designed for infants and invalids1 such as malted milk and lactated food4 ,milkers4--,invention has not only been exercised in the preservation and transportation of milk1 but in the task of milking itself4 ,since #ahfj inventors have been seeking patents for milkers1 some having tubes operated by air-pumps1 others on the same principle in which the vacuum is made to increase and decrease or pulsate1 and others for machines in which the tubes are mechanically contracted by pressure plates4 ,slaughtering4--,great improvements have been made in the slaughtering of animals1 by which a great amount of its repulsiveness and the unhealthfulness of its surroundings have been removed4 ,these improvements relate to the construction of proper buildings and appliances for the handling of the animals1 the means for slaughtering1 and modes of taking care of the meat and transporting the same4 ,villages1 towns1 and even many cities1 are now relieved of the formerly unsavoury slaughter-houses1 and the work is done from great centres of supply1 where meats in every shape are prepared for food and shipment4 ,it would be impossible in a bulky volume1 much less in a single chapter1 to satisfactorily enumerate those thousands of inventions which1 taking hold of the food products of the earth1 have spread them as a feast before the tribes of men4 ,tobacco4--,some of the best inventive genius of the century has been exercised in providing for man's comfort1 not a food1 but what he believes to be a solace4 8,sublime ,tobacco6 which from ,east to ,west ,cheers the tar's labour or the ,turkman's rest40 ,in the ,united ,states alone1 in the year #ahhe1 there were #geb1ebj acres of land devoted to the production of tobacco1 the amount in pounds grown being #efb1gcf1jjj1 and the value of which was estimated as #dc1bfe1eih4 ,these amounts have been somewhat less in years since then1 but the appetite continues1 and any deficiency in the supply is made up by enormous importation4 ,thus1 in #ahif1 there were imported into the ,united ,states1 #cb1ibd1iff pounds of tobacco1 of various kinds1 valued at #af1ejc1acj4 ,there are no reliable statistics showing that1 man for man1 the people of that country are greater lovers of the weed than the people of other countries1 but the annual value of tobacco raised and imported by them being thus about #fj1jjj1jjj1 it indicates the strength of the habit and the interest in the nurture of the plant throughout the world4 ,neither the 8,counterblaste to ,tobacco0 of ,king ,james ,i41 and the condemnations of kings1 popes1 priests and sultans1 that followed its early introduction into ,europe1 served to choke the weed in its infancy or check its after growth4 ,now it is attended from the day of its planting until it reaches the lips of the consumer by contrivances of consummate skill to fit it for its destined purpose4 ,besides the ploughs1 the cultivators and the weeders of especial forms used to cultivate the plant1 there are1 after the grown plant is cut in the field1 houses of various designs for drying it1 machines for rolling the leaves out smoothly in sheets2 machines for removing the stems from the leaves and for crushing the stem2 machines for pressing it into shape1 and for pressing it1 whether solid or in granular form1 into boxes1 tubs and bags2 machines for granulating it and for grinding it into snuff2 machines for twisting it into cords2 machines for flavouring the leaf with saccharine and other matters2 machines for making cigars1 and machines of a great variety and of the most ingenious construction for making cigarettes and putting them in packages4 ,samples of pipes made by different ages and by different peoples would form a collection of wonderful art and ingenuity1 second only to an exhibition of the means and methods of making them4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,chemistry4 ,chemistry1 having for its field the properties and changes of matter1 has excited more or less attention ever since men had the power to observe1 to think1 and to experiment4 ,some knowledge of chemistry must have existed among the ancients to have enabled the ,egyptians to smelt ores and work metals1 to dye their cloths1 to make glass1 and to preserve their dead from decomposition2 so1 too1 to this extent among the ,phnicians1 the ,israelites1 the ,greeks and the ,romans2 and perhaps to a greater extent among the ,chinese1 who added powder to the above named and other chemical products4 ,aristotle speculated1 and the alchemists of the middle ages busied themselves in magic and guess-work4 ,it reached the dignity of a science in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 by the labours of such men1 in the former century1 as ,libavius1 ,van ,helmont1 ,glauber1 ,tachenius1 ,boyle1 ,lmery and ,becher2 ,stahl1 ,boerhaave and ,hamberg in both2 and of ,black1 ,cavendish1 ,lavoisier1 ,priestley and others in the eighteenth4 ,but so great have been the discoveries and inventions in this science during the nineteenth century that any chemist of any previous age1 if permitted to look forward upon them1 would have felt 8,like some watcher of the skies ,when a new planet swims into his ken40 ,indeed1 the chemistry of this century is a new world1 of which all the previous discoveries in that line were but floating nebul4 ,so vast and astonishingly fast has been the growth and development of this science that before the century was two-thirds through its course ,watts published his ,dictionary of ,chemistry in five volumes1 averaging a thousand closely printed pages1 followed soon by a thousand-page supplement2 and it would have required such a volume every year since to adequately report the progress of the science4 ,nomenclatures1 formulas1 apparatuses and processes have all changed4 ,it was deemed necessary to publish works on ,the ,new ,chemistry1 and ,professor ,j4 ,p4 ,cooke is the author of an admirable volume under that title4 ,we can1 therefore1 in this chapter only step from one to another of some of the peaks that rise above the vast surrounding country1 and note some of the lesser objects as they appear in the vales below4 ,the leading discoveries of the century which have done so much to aid ,chemistry in its giant strides are the atomic and molecular theories1 the mechanics of light1 heat1 and electricity1 the correlation and conservation of forces1 their invariable quantity1 and their indestructibility1 spectrum analysis and the laws of chemical changes4 ,john ,dalton1 that humble child of ,english north-country ,quaker stock1 self-taught and a teacher all his life1 in #ahjc gave to the world his atomic theory of chemistry1 whereby the existence of matter in ultimate atoms was removed from the region of the speculation of certain ancient philosophers1 and established on a sure foundation4 ,the question asked and answered by ,dalton was1 what is the relative weight of the atoms composing the elementary bodies8 ,he discovered that one chemical element or compound can combine with another chemical element1 to form a new compound1 in two different proportions by weight1 which stand to each other in the simple ratio of one to two2 and at the same time he published a table of the ,relative weight of the ultimate particles of ,gaseous and other ,bodies4 ,although the details of this table have since been changed1 the principles of his discovery remain unchanged4 ,says ,professor ,roscoe3 8,chemistry could hardly be said to exist as a science before the establishment of the laws of combination in multiple proportions1 and the subsequent progress of chemical science materially depended upon the determination of these combined proportions or atomic weights of the elements first set up by ,dalton4 ,so that among the founders of our science1 next to the name of the great ,french ,philosopher1 ,lavoisier1 will stand in future ages the name of ,john ,dalton1 of ,manchester40 ,less conspicuous but still eminently useful were his discoveries and labours in other directions1 in the expansion of gases1 evaporation1 steam1 etc4 ,wollaston and ,gay-,lussac1 both great chemists1 applied ,dalton's discovery to wide and most important fields in the chemical arts4 ,also contemporaneous with ,dalton was the great ,german chemist1 ,berzelius1 who confirmed and extended the discoveries of ,dalton4 ,more than this1 it has been said of ,berzelius3 8,in him were united all the different impulses which have advanced the science since the beginning of the present epoch4 ,the fruit of his labors is scattered throughout the entire domain of the science4 ,hardly a substance exists to the knowledge of which he has not in some way contributed4 ,a direct descendant of the school of his countryman1 ,bergman1 he was especially renowned as an analyst4 ,no chemist has determined by direct experiment the composition of a greater number of substances4 ,no one has exerted a greater influence in extending the field of analytical chemistry40 ,as to light1 the great ,huygens1 the astronomer and mathematician1 the improver of differential calculus and of telescopes1 the inventor of the pendulum clock1 chronometers1 and the balance wheel to the watch1 and discoverer of the laws of the double refraction of light and of polarisation1 had in the #agth century clearly advanced the idea that light was propagated from luminous bodies1 not as a stream of particles through the air but in waves or vibrations of ether1 which is a universal medium extending through all space and into all bodies4 ,this fundamental principle now enters into the explanation of all the phenomena of light4 ,newton in the next century1 with the prism1 decomposed light1 and in a darkened chamber reproduced all the colours and tints of the rainbow4 ,but there were dark lines in that beam of broken sunlight which ,newton did not notice4 ,it was left to ,joseph von ,fraunhofer1 a ,german optician1 and to the #aith century1 and nearly one hundred years after ,newton's experiments with the prism1 to discover1 with finer prisms that he had made1 some #eij of these black lines crossing the solar spectrum4 ,what they were he did not know1 but conjectured that they were caused by something which existed in the sun and stars and not in our air4 ,but from that time they were called ,fraunhofer's dark lines4 ,from the vantage ground of these developments we are now enabled to step to that mountain peak of discovery from which the sun and stars were looked into1 their elements portrayed1 their very motions determined1 and their brotherhood with the earth1 in substance1 ascertained4 ,the great discovery of the cause of ,fraunhofer's dark bands in the broken sunlight was made by ,gustave ,robert ,kirchoff1 a ,german physician1 in his laboratory in ,heidelberg1 in #ahfj1 in conjunction with his fellow worker1 ,robert ,bunsen4 ,kirchoff happened to let a solar ray pass through a flame coloured with sodium1 and through a prism1 so that the spectrum of the sun and the flame fell one upon another4 ,it was expected that the well known yellow line of sodium would come out in the solar spectrum1 but it was just the opposite that took place4 ,where the bright yellow line should have fallen appeared a dark line4 ,with this observation was coupled the reflection that heat passes from a body of a higher temperature to one of a lower1 and not inversely4 ,experiments followed3 iron1 sodium1 copper1 etc41 were heated to incandescence and their colours prismatically separated4 ,these were transversed with the same colours of other heated bodies1 and the latter were absorbed and rendered black4 ,kirchoff then announced his law that all bodies absorb chiefly those colours which they themselves emit4 ,therefore these vapours of the sun which were rendered in black lines were so produced by crossing terrestrial vapors of the same nature4 ,thus by the prism and the blowpipe were the same substances found in the sun1 the stars1 and the earth4 ,the elements of every substance submitted to the process were analysed1 and many secrets in the universe of matter were revealed4 ,young1 of ,america1 invented a splendid combination of spectroscope and telescope1 and ,huggins of ,england was the first to establish by spectrum analysis the approach and retreat of the stars4 ,it was prior to this time that those wonderful discoveries and labours were made which developed the true nature of heat1 which demonstrated the kinship and correlation of the forces of ,nature1 their conservation1 or property of being converted one into another1 and the indestructibility of matter1 of which force is but another name4 ,the first demonstrations as to the nature of heat were given by the ,american ,count ,rumford1 and then by ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 just at the close of the #ahth century1 and then followed in this the brilliant labours and discoveries of ,mayer and ,helmholtz of ,germany1 ,colding of ,denmark1 and ,joule1 ,grove1 ,faraday1 ,sir ,william ,thomson of ,england1 of ,henry1 ,le ,conte and ,martin of ,america1 as to the correlation and convertibility of all the forces4 ,the ,french revolution1 and the ,napoleonic wars1 isolating ,france and exhausting its resources1 its chemists were appealed to devote their genius and researches to practical things2 to the munitions of war1 the rejuvenation of the soil1 the growing of new crops1 like the sugar beet1 and new manufacturing products4 ,lavoisier had laid deep and broad in ,france the foundations of chemistry1 and given the science nomenclature that lasted a century4 ,so that the succeeding great teachers1 ,berthollet1 ,guyton1 ,fourcroy and their associates1 and the institutions of instruction in the sciences fostered by them1 and inspired in that direction by ,napoleon1 bent their energies in material directions1 and a tremendous impulse was thus given to the practical application of chemistry to the arts and manufactures of the century4 ,the same spirit1 to a less extent1 however1 manifested itself in ,england1 and as early as #ahjb we find ,sir ,humphry ,davy beginning his celebrated lectures on the ,elements of ,agricultural ,chemistry before a board of agriculture1 a work that has passed through many editions in almost every modern language4 ,when the fact is recalled that agricultural chemistry embraces the entire natural science of vegetable and animal production1 and includes1 besides1 much of physics1 meteorology and geology1 the extent and importance of the subject may be appreciated2 and yet such appreciation was not manifested in a practical manner until the #aith century4 ,it was only toward the end of the #ahth century that the vague and ancient notions that air1 water1 oil and salt formed the nutrition of plants1 began to be modified4 ,davy recognized and explained the beneficial fertilizing effects of ammonia1 and analysed and explained numerous fertilizers1 including guano4 ,it is due to his discoveries and publications1 combined with those of the eminent men on the continent1 above referred to1 that agricultural chemistry arose to the dignity of a science4 ,the most brilliant1 eloquent and devoted apostle of that science who followed ,davy was ,justus von ,liebig of ,germany1 who was born in ,darmstadt in #ahjc1 the year after ,davy commenced his lectures in ,england4 ,it was in response to the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science that he gave to the world his great publications on ,chemistry in its application to ,agriculture1 ,commerce1 ,physiology1 and ,pathology1 from which great practical good resulted the world over4 ,one of his favorite subjects was that of fermentation1 and this calls up the exceedingly interesting discoveries in the nature of alcohol1 yeast1 mould--aging malt1 wines and beer--and their accompanying beneficial results4 ,in one of ,huxley's charming lectures--such as he delighted to give before a popular audience--delivered in #ahga1 at ,manchester1 on the subject of 8,yeast10 he tells how any liquid containing sugar1 such as a mixture of honey and water1 if left to itself undergoes the peculiar change we know as fermentation1 and in the process the scum1 or thicker muddy part that forms on top1 becomes yeast1 carbonic acid gas escapes in bubbles from the liquid1 and the liquid itself becomes spirits of wine or alcohol4 8,alcohol0 was a term used until the #agth century to designate a very fine subtle powder1 and then became the name of the subtle spirit arising from fermentation4 ,it was ,leeuwenhoek of ,holland who1 two hundred years ago1 by the use of a fine microscope he invented1 first discovered that the muddy scum was a substance made up of an enormous multitude of very minute grains floating separately1 and in lumps and in heaps1 in the liquid4 ,then1 in the next century the ,frenchman1 ,cagniard de la ,tour1 discovered that these bodies grew to a certain size and then budded1 and from the buds the plant multiplied2 and thus that this yeast was a mass of living plants1 which received in science the name of 8torula10 that the yeast plant was a kind of fungus or mould1 growing and multiplying4 ,then came ,fabroni1 the ,french chemist1 at the end of the #ahth century1 who discovered that the yeast plant was of bag-like form1 or a cell of woody matter1 and that the cell contained a substance composed of carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen and nitrogen4 ,this was a vegeto-animal substance1 having peculiarities of 8animal products40 ,then came the great chemists of the #aith century1 with their delicate methods of analysis1 and decided that this plant in its chief part was identical with that element which forms the chief part of our own blood4 ,that it was protein1 a substance which forms the foundation of every animal organism4 ,all agreed that it was the yeast plant that fermented or broke up the sugar element1 and produced the alcohol4 ,helmholtz demonstrated that it was the minute particles of the solid part of the plant that produced the fermentation1 and that such particles must be growing or alive1 to produce it4 ,from whence sprang this wonderful plant--part vegetable1 part animal8 ,by a long series of experiments it was found that if substances which could be fermented were kept entirely closed to the outer air1 no plant would form and no fermentation take place4 ,it was concluded then1 and so ascertained1 that the torulae in the plant proceeded from the torulae in the atmosphere1 from 8gay motes that people the sunbeams40 ,concerning just how the torulae broke up or fermented the sugar1 great chemists have differed4 ,after the discovery that the yeast was a plant having cells formed of the pure matter of wood1 and containing a semi-fluid mass identical with the composition which constitutes the flesh of animals1 came the further discovery that all plants1 high and low1 are made up of the same kind of cells1 and their contents4 ,then this remarkable result came out1 that however much a plant may otherwise differ from an animal1 yet1 in essential constituents the cellular constructure of animal and plant is the same4 ,to this substance of energy and life1 common in the minute plant cell and the animal cell1 the ,german botanist1 ,hugo von ,mohl1 about fifty years ago gave the name 8protoplasm40 ,then came this astounding conclusion1 that this protoplasm being common to both plant and animal life1 the essential difference consisted only in the manner in which the cells are built up and are modified in the building4 ,and from that part of these great discoveries which revealed the fact that the sugary element was infected1 as it were1 from the germs of the air1 producing fermentation and its results1 arose that remarkable theory of many diseases known as the 8germ theory40 ,and1 as it was found in the yeast plant that only the solid part or particle of the plant germinated fermentation and reaction1 so1 too1 it has been found by the germ theory that only the solid particle of the contagious matter can germinate or grow the disease4 ,in this unfolding of the wonders of chemistry in the nineteenth century1 the old empirical walls between forces and organisms1 and organic and inorganic chemistry1 are breaking down1 and celestial and terrestrial bodies and vapours1 living beings1 and growing plants are discovered to be the evolution of one all-pervading essence and force4 ,one is reminded of the lines of ,tennyson3 8,large elements in order brought ,and tracts of calm from tempest made1 ,and world fluctuation swayed ,in vassal tides that followed thought4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one ,god1 one law1 one element1 ,and one far-off divine event ,to which the whole creation moves40 ,in the class of alcohol and in the field of yeast1 the work of ,pasteur1 begun in ,france1 has been followed by improvements in methods for selecting proper ferments and excluding improper ones1 and in improved processes for aging and preserving alcoholic liquors by destroying deleterious ferments4 ,takamine1 in using as ferment1 koji1 motu and moyashi1 different forms of mould1 and proposing to do entirely away with malt in the manufacture of beer and whiskey1 has made a noteworthy departure4 ,manufacturing of malt by the pneumatic process1 and stirring malt during germination1 are among the improvements4 ,carbonating4--,the injecting of carbonic acid gas into various waters to render them wholesome1 and also into beers and wines during fermentation1 and to save delay and prevent impurities1 are decided improvements4 ,the immense improvements and discoveries in the character of soils and fertilisers have already been alluded to4 ,hundreds of instruments have been invented for measuring1 analysing1 weighing1 separating1 volatilising and otherwise applying chemical processes to practical purposes4 ,to the chemistry of the century the world is indebted for those devices and processes for the utilisation and manufacture of many useful products from the liquids and oils1 sugar from cane and beets1 revivifying bone-black1 centrifugal machinery for refining sugar1 in defecating it by chemicals and heat1 in evaporating it in pans1 in separating starch and converting it into glucose1 etc4 ,oils and ,fats4--,up to within this century the vast amount of cotton seed produced with that crop was a waste4 ,then by the process1 first of steaming the seed and expressing the oil1 now by the process of extraction by the aid of volatile solvents1 and casting off the solvents by distillation1 an immensely valuable product has been obtained4 ,the utilising of oils in the manufacture of oilcloth and linoleum and rubber1 has become of great commercial value4 ,formerly sulphur was the vulcanising agent1 now chloride of sulphur has been substituted for pure sulphur4 ,steam and the distillation processes have been applied with great success to the making of glycerine from fat and from soap underlye and in extracting fat from various waste products4 ,bleaching and ,dyeing4--,of course these arts are very old1 but the old methods would not be recognised in the modern processes2 and those who lived before the century knew nothing of the magnificent colours1 and certain essences1 and sweet savours that can be obtained from the black1 hand-soiling pieces of coal4 ,in the making of illuminating gas1 itself a finished chemical product of the century1 a vast amount of once wasted products1 especially coal tar1 are now extensively used2 and from coal tar and the residuum of petroleum oils1 now come those splendid aniline dyes which have produced such a revolution in the world of colours4 ,the saturation of sand by a dye and its application to fabrics by an air blast2 the circulation of the fluid colors1 or of fluids for bleaching or drying1 or oxidising1 through perforated cylinders or cops on which the cloths are wound2 devices for the running of skeins through dyes1 the great improvements in carbon dyes and kindred colours1 the processes of making the colours on the fibre1 and the perfumes made by the synthetic processes1 are among the inventions in this field4 ,the space that a list of the new chemical products of this age and their description would fill1 has already been indicated by reference to the great dictionary of ,watts4 ,some of the electro-chemical products will be hereinafter referred to in the ,chapter on ,electricity1 and the chemistry of ,metallurgy will be treated under the latter topic4 ,electro-chemical ,methods4--,space will only permit it to be said that these methods are now employed in the production of a large number of elements1 by means of which very many of them which were before mere laboratory specimens1 have now become cheap and useful servants of mankind in a hundred different ways2 such as aluminium1 that light and non-corrosive metal1 reduced from many dollars an ounce a generation ago1 to #cj and #dj cents a pound now2 carborundum1 largely superseding emery and diamond dust as an abradant2 artificial diamonds2 calcium carbide1 from which the new illuminating acetylene gas is made2 disinfectants of many kinds2 pigments1 chromium1 manganese1 and chlorates by the thousand tons4 ,the most useful new chemical processes are those used in purifying water sewage and milk1 in electroplating metals and other substances1 in the application of chemicals to the fine arts1 in extracting grease from wool1 and the making of many useful products from the waste materials of the dumps and garbage banks4 ,medicines and ,surgery4--,one hundred years ago1 the practice of medicine was1 in the main1 empirical4 ,certain effects were known to usually follow the giving of certain drugs1 or the application of certain measures1 but why or how these effects were produced1 was unknown4 ,the great steps forward have been made upon the true scientific foundation established by the discoveries and inventions in the fields of physics1 chemistry and biology4 ,the discovery of anaesthetics and their application in surgery and the practice of medicine1 no doubt constitutes the leading invention of the century in this field4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy suggested it in #ahjj1 and ,dr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,morton was the first to apply an anaesthetic to relieve pain in a surgical operation1 which he did in a hospital in ,boston in #ahdf4 ,both its original suggestion and application were also claimed by others4 ,not only relief from intense pain to the patient during the operation1 but immense advantages are gained by the long and careful examination afforded of injured or diseased parts1 otherwise difficult or impossible in a conscious patient4 ,the exquisite pain and suffering endured previous to the use of anaesthetics often caused death by exhaustion4 ,many delicate operations can now be performed for the relief of long-continued diseases which before would have been hazardous or impossible4 ,how many before suffered unto death long-drawn-out pain and disease rather than submit to the torture of the knife6 ,how many lives have been saved1 and how far advanced has become the knowledge of the human body and its painful diseases1 by this beneficent remedy6 ,inventions in the field of medicine consist chiefly in those innumerable compositions and compounds which have resulted from chemical discoveries4 ,gelatine capsules used to conceal unpalatable remedies may be mentioned as a most acceptable modern invention in this class4 ,inventions and discoveries in the field of surgery relate not only to instrumentalities but processes4 ,the antiseptic treatment of wounds1 by which the long and exhausting suppuration is avoided1 is among the most notable of the latter4 ,in instruments vast improvements have been made2 special forms adapted for operation in every form of injury2 in syringes1 especially hypodermic1 those used for subcutaneous injections of liquid remedies2 inhalers for applying medicated vapours and devices for applying volatile anaesthetics1 and devices for atomising and spraying liquids4 ,in the ,united ,states alone about four thousand patents have been granted for inventions in surgical instruments4 ,dentistry4--,this art has been revolutionised during the century4 ,even in the time of ,herodotus1 one special set of physicians had the treatment of teeth2 and artificial teeth have been known and used for many ages1 but all seems crude and barbarous until these later days4 ,in addition to the use of anaesthetics1 improvements have been made in nearly every form of dental instruments1 such as forceps1 dental engines1 pluggers1 drills1 hammers1 etc41 and in the means and materials for making teeth4 ,later leading inventions have reference to utilising the roots of destroyed teeth as supports on which to form bridges to which artificial teeth are secured1 and to crowns for decayed teeth that still have a solid base4 ,there exists no longer the dread of the dentist's chair unless the patient has neglected too long the visit4 ,pain cannot be all avoided1 but it is ameliorated2 and the new results in workmanship in the saving and in the making of teeth are vast improvements over the former methods4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,steam ,,and ,,steam ,,engines4 8,soon shall thy arm1 unconquered steam6 afar ,drag the slow barge1 or drive the rapid car2 ,or in wide waving wings expanded bear ,the flying chariot through the field of air40 ,thus sang the poet prophet1 the good ,dr4 ,darwin of ,lichfield1 in the eighteenth century4 ,newcomen and ,watt had not then demonstrated that steam was not unconquerable1 but the hitching it to the slow barge and the rapid car was yet to come4 ,it has come1 and although the prophecy is yet to be rounded into fulfilment by the driving of the 8flying chariot through the field of air10 that too is to come4 ,the prophecy of the doctor poet was as suggestive of the practical means of carrying it into effect as were all the means proposed during the first seventeen centuries of the ,christian ,era for conquering steam and harnessing it as a useful servant to man4 ,toys1 speculations1 dreams1 observations1 startling experiments1 these often constitute the framework on which is hung the title of ,inventor2 but the nineteenth century has demanded a better support for that proud title4 ,he alone who first transforms his ideas into actual work and useful service in some field of man's labor1 or clearly teaches others to do so1 is now recognised as the true inventor4 ,tested by this rule there was scarcely an inventor in the field of steam in all the long stretches of time preceding the seventeenth century4 ,and if there were1 they had no recording scribes to embalm their efforts in history4 ,we shall never know how early man learned the wonderful power of the spirit that springs from heated water4 ,it was doubtless from some sad experience in ignorantly attempting to put fetters on it4 ,the history of steam as a motor generally commences with reference to that toy called the aeolipile1 described by ,hero of ,alexandria in a treatise on pneumatics about two centuries before ,christ1 and which was the invention of either himself or ,ctesibius1 his teacher4 ,this toy consisted of a globe pivoted on two supports1 one of which was a communicating pipe leading into a heated cauldron of water beneath4 ,the globe was provided with two escape pipes on diametrically opposite sides and bent so as to discharge in opposite directions4 ,steam admitted into the globe from the cauldron escaped through the side pipes1 and its pressure on these pipes caused the globe to rotate4 ,hero thus demonstrated that water can be converted into steam and steam into work4 ,since that ancient day ,hero's apparatus has been frequently reinvented by men ignorant of the early effort1 and the principle of the invention as well as substantially the same form have been put into many practical uses4 ,hero in his celebrated treatise described other devices1 curious siphons and pumps4 ,many of them are supposed to have been used in the performance of some of the startling religious rites at the altars of the ,greek priests4 ,from ,hero's day the record drops down to the middle ages1 and still it finds progress in this art confined to a few observations and speculations4 ,william of ,malmesbury in #aaej wrote something on the subject and called attention to some crude experiments he had heard of in ,germany4 ,passing from the slumber of the middle ages1 we are assured by some ,spanish historians that one ,blasco de ,garay1 in #aedc1 propelled a ship having paddle wheels by steam at ,barcelona4 ,but the publication was long after the alleged event1 and is regarded as apocryphal4 ,observations became more acute in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 experiments more frequent1 and publications more full and numerous4 ,cardan ,ramelli and ,leonardo da ,vinci1 learned ,italians1 and the accomplished ,prof4 ,jacob ,besson of ,orleans1 ,france1 all did much by their writings to make known theoretically the wonderful powers of steam1 and to suggest modes of its practical operation1 in the latter part of the sixteenth century4 ,giambattista della ,porta1 a gentleman of ,naples1 possessing high and varied accomplishments in all the sciences as they were known at that day1 #afja1 and who invented the magic-lantern and camera obscura1 in a work called ,spiritalia1 described how steam pressure could be employed to raise a column of water1 how a vacuum was produced by the condensation of steam in a closed vessel1 and how the condensing vessel should be separated from the boiler4 ,revault in ,france showed in #afje how a bombshell might be exploded by steam4 ,salomon de ,caus1 engineer and architect to ,louis ,,xiii1 in #afae described how water might be raised by the expansion of steam4 ,in #afbi the ,italian1 ,branco1 published at ,rome an account of the application of a steam jet upon the vanes of a small wheel to run it1 and told how in other ways ,hero's engine might be employed for useful purposes4 ,the first ,english publication describing a way of applying steam appeared in #afcj in a patent granted to ,david ,ramseye1 for a mode of raising water thereby4 ,this was followed by patents to ,grant in #afcb and to one ,ford in #afdj4 ,during that century these crude machines were called 8fire engines40 ,it seems to have been common in some parts of ,europe during the seventeenth century to use a blast of steam to improve the draft of chimneys and of blast furnaces4 ,this application of steam to smoke and smelting has been frequently revived by modern inventors with much flourish of originality4 ,it is with a certain feeling of delight and relief1 after a prolonged search through the centuries for some evidence of harnessing this mighty agent to man's use1 that we come to the efforts of the good ,marquis of ,worcester--,edward ,somerset4 ,he it was who in #afee wrote of the ,inventions of the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,he afterwards amplified this title by calling his book ,a ,century of ,names and ,scantlings of such ,inventions as at present ,i call to mind to have tried and perfected1 etc4 ,there are about one hundred of these 8,scantlings10 and his descriptions of them are very brief but interesting4 ,some1 if revived now and put to use1 would throw proposed flying machines into the background1 as they involved perpetual motion4 ,but to his honor be it said that he was the first steam-engine builder4 ,a patent was issued to him in #affc4 ,it was about #affh that he built and put in successful operation at ,raglan ,castle at ,vauxhall1 near ,london1 a steam engine to force water upward4 ,he made separate boilers1 which he worked alternately1 and conveyed the steam from them to a vessel in which its pressure operated to force the water up4 ,unfortunately he did not leave a description of his inventions sufficiently full to enable later mechanics to make and use them4 ,he strove in vain to get capital interested and a company formed to manufacture his engines4 ,the age of fear and speculation as to steam ceased when the ,marquis set his engine to pumping water1 and from that time inventors went on to put the arm of steam to work4 ,in #afhc ,sir ,samuel ,morland commenced the construction of the ,worcester engines for use and sale2 ,hautefeuille of ,france taught the use of gas1 described how gas as well as steam engines might be constructed1 and was the first to propose the use of the piston4 ,the learned writings of the great ,dutch scientist and inventor1 ,huygens1 on heat and light steam and gas1 also then came forth1 and his assistant1 the ,french physicist and doctor1 ,denis ,papin1 in #afij1 proposed steam as a universal motive power1 invented a steam engine having a piston and a safety valve1 and even a crude paddle steamer1 which it is said was tried in #agjg on the river ,fulda4 ,then in #afih came ,thomas ,savery1 who patented a steam engine that was used in draining mines4 ,the eighteenth century thus commenced with a practical knowledge of the power of steam and of means for controlling and working it4 ,then followed the combined invention of ,newcomen1 ,cawley and ,savery1 in #agje1 of the most successful pumping engine up to that time4 ,in this engine a cylinder was employed for receiving the steam from a separate boiler4 ,there was a piston in the cylinder driven up by the steam admitted below it1 aided by a counterpoise at one end of an engine beam4 ,the steam was then cut off from the boiler and condensed by the introduction beneath the piston of a jet of water1 and the condensed steam and water drawn off by a pipe4 ,atmospheric pressure forced the piston down4 ,the piston and pump rods were connected to the opposite ends of a working beam of a pumping engine1 as in some modern engines4 ,gauge cocks to indicate the height of water1 and a safety valve to regulate the pressure of steam1 were employed4 ,then came the ingenious improvement of the boy ,humphrey ,potter1 connecting the valve gear with the engine beam by cords1 so as to do automatically what he was set to do by hand1 and the improvement on that of the ,beighton plug rod4 ,still further improved by others1 the ,newcomen engine came into use through out ,europe4 ,jonathan ,hulls patented in ,england in #agcf a marine steam engine1 and in #agcg published a description of a ,newcomen engine applied to his system for towing ships4 ,william ,henry1 of ,pennsylvania1 tried a model steamboat on the ,conestoga river in #agfc4 ,this was practically the state of the art1 in #agfc1 when ,james ,watt entered the field4 ,his brilliant inventions harnessed steam to more than pumping engines1 made it a universal servant in manifold industries1 and started it on a career which has revolutionized the trade and manufactures of the world4 ,to understand what the nineteenth century has done in steam motive power we must first know what ,watt did in the eighteenth century1 as he then laid the foundation on which the later inventions have all been built4 ,taking up the crude but successful working engine of ,newcomen1 a model of which had been sent to him for repairs1 he began an exhaustive study of the properties of steam and of the means for producing and controlling it4 ,he found it necessary to devise a new system4 ,watt saw that the alternate heating and cooling of the cylinder made the engine work slowly and caused an excessive consumption of steam4 ,he concluded that 8the cylinder should always be as hot as the steam that entered it40 ,he therefore closed the cylinder and provided a separate condensing vessel into which the steam was led after it raised the piston4 ,he provided an air-tight jacket for the cylinder1 to maintain its heat4 ,he added a tight packing in the cylinder-head for the piston-rod to move through1 and a steam-tight stuffing-box on the top of the cylinder4 ,he caused the steam to alternately enter below and above the piston and be alternately condensed to drive the piston down as well as up1 and this made the engine double-acting1 increasing its power and speed4 ,he converted the reciprocating motion of the piston into a rotary motion by the adoption of the crank1 and introduced the well-known parallel motion1 and many other improvements4 ,in short1 he demonstrated for the first time by a practical and efficient engine that the expansive force of steam could be used to drive all ordinary machinery4 ,he then secured his inventions by patents against piracy1 and sustained them successfully in many a hard-fought battle4 ,it had taken him the last quarter of the #ahth century to do all these things4 ,watt was the proper precursor of the nineteenth century inventions1 as in him were combined the power and attainments of a great scientist and the genius of a great mechanic4 ,the last eighteen years of his life were passed in the #aith century1 and he was thus enabled to see his inventions brought within its threshold and applied to those arts which have made this age so glorious in mechanical achievements4 ,watt so fitly represents the class of modern great inventors in his character and attainments that the description of him by ,sir ,walter ,scott is here pertinent as a tribute to that class1 and as a delineation of the general character of those benefactors of his race of which he was so conspicuous an example3-- ,says ,sir ,walter3-- 8,amidst this company stood ,mr4 ,watt1 the man whose genius discovered the means of multiplying our national resources to a degree1 perhaps1 even beyond his own stupendous powers of calculation and combination2 bringing the treasures of the abyss to the summit of the earth--giving to the feeble arm of man the momentum of an ,afrite--commanding manufactures to rise--affording means of dispensing with that time and tide which wait for no man--and of sailing without that wind which defied the commands and threats of ,xerxes himself4 ,this potent commander of the elements--this abridger of time and space--this magician1 whose cloudy machinery has produced a change in the world1 the effects of which1 extraordinary as they are1 are perhaps only beginning to be felt--was not only the most profound man of science1 the most successful combiner of powers and calculator of numbers1 as adapted to practical purposes1 was not only one of the most generally well-informed1 but one of the best and kindest of human beings40 ,the first practical application of steam as a working force was to pumping1 as has been stated4 ,after ,watt's system was devised1 suggestions and experiments as to road locomotives and carriages were made1 and other applications came thick and fast4 ,a ,french officer1 ,cugnot1 in #agfi and #aggj1 was the first to try the road carriage engine4 ,other prominent ,frenchmen made encouraging experiments on small steamboats--followed in #aghd-hf by ,james ,rumsey and ,john ,fitch in ,america in the same line4 ,watt patented a road engine in #aghd4 ,about the same time his assistant1 ,murdock1 completed and tried a model locomotive driven by a 8grasshopper0 engine4 ,oliver ,evans1 the great ,american contemporary of ,watt1 had in #aggi devised a high-pressure non-condensing steam engine in a form still used4 ,in #aghf-g he obtained in ,pennsylvania and ,maryland patents for applying steam to driving flour mills and propelling waggons4 ,also about this time1 ,symington1 the ,scotchman1 constructed a working model of a steam carriage1 which is still preserved in the museum at ,south ,kensington1 ,london4 ,symington and his fellow ,scotchmen1 ,miller and ,taylor1 in #aghh-hi also constructed working steamboats4 ,in #agif ,richard ,trevithick1 a ,cornish marine captain1 was producing a road locomotive4 ,the century thus opened with activity in steam motive power4 ,the 8scantlings0 of the ,marquis of ,worcester were now being converted into complete structures4 ,and so great was the activity and the number of inventors that he is a daring man who would now decide priority between them4 ,the earliest applications in this century of steam power were in the line of road engines4 ,on ,christmas eve of #ahja1 ,trevithick made the initial trip with the first successful steam road locomotive through the streets of ,camborne in ,cornwall1 carrying passengers4 ,in one of his trips he passed into the country roads and came to a tollgate through which a frightened keeper hastily passed him without toll1 hailing him as the devil4 ,persistent efforts continued to be made to introduce a practical steam road carriage in ,england until #ahbg4 ,after ,trevithick followed ,blenkinsop1 who made a locomotive which ran ten miles an hour4 ,then came ,julius ,griffith1 in #ahba1 of ,brompton1 who patented a steam carriage which was built by ,joseph ,bramah1 one of the ablest mechanics of his time4 ,gordon1 ,brunton and ,gurney attempted a curious and amusing steam carriage1 resembling a horse in action--having jointed legs and feet1 but this animal was not successful4 ,walter ,hancock1 in #ahbg1 was one of the most persistent and successful inventors in this line2 but bad roads and an unsympathetic public discouraged inventors in their efforts to introduce steam road carriages1 and their attention was turned to the locomotive to run on rails or tracks especially prepared for them4 ,wooden and iron rails had been introduced a century before for heavy cars and wagons in pulling loads from mines and elsewhere1 but when at the beginning of the century it had been found that the engines of ,watt could be used to drag such loads1 it was deemed necessary to make a rail having its top surface roughened with ridges and the wheels of the engine and cars provided with teeth or cogs to prevent anticipated slipping4 ,in ,england1 ,blackett and ,george ,stephenson discovered that the adhesion of smooth wheels to smooth rails was sufficient4 ,without overlooking the fact that ,william ,hendley built and operated a locomotive called the ,puffing ,billy in #ahjc1 and ,hackworth one a little later1 yet to the genius of ,stephenson is due chiefly the successful introduction of the modern locomotive4 ,his labours and inventions continued from #ahab for twenty years1 and culminated at two great trials3 the first one on the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway in #ahbi1 when he competed with ,hackworth and ,braithwaite and ,ericsson1 and with the ,rocket won the race2 and the second at the opening of the same road in #ahcj1 when with the ,northumbrian1 at the head of seven other locomotives and a long train of twenty-eight carriages1 in which were seated six hundred passengers1 he ran the train successfully between the two towns4 ,on this occasion ,mr4 ,huskisson1 ,home ,secretary in the ,british ,cabinet1 while the cars were stopping to water the engines1 and he was out on the track talking with the ,duke of ,wellington1 was knocked down by one of the engines and had one of his legs crushed4 ,placed on board of the ,northumbrian1 it was driven at the rate of thirty-six miles an hour by ,stephenson to ,eccles4 ,mr4 ,huskisson died there that night4 ,this was its first victim1 and the greatest speed yet attained by a locomotive4 ,the year #ahbi therefore can be regarded as the commencement of the life of the locomotive for transportation of passengers4 ,the steam blast thrown into the smokestack by ,hackworth1 the tubular boiler of ,seguin and the link motion of ,stephenson were then1 as they now are1 the essential features of locomotives4 ,in the meantime ,america had not been idle4 ,the ,james ,watt of ,america1 ,oliver ,evans1 in #ahjd completed a flat-bottomed boat to be used in dredging at the ,philadelphia docks1 and mounting it on wheels drove it by its own steam engine through the streets to the river bank4 ,launching the craft1 he propelled it down the river by using the same engine to drive the paddle wheels4 ,he gave to this engine the strange name of ,oruktor ,amphibolos4 ,john ,c4 ,stevens of ,new ,jersey was1 in #ahab1 urging the legislature of the ,state of ,new ,york to build railways1 and asserting that he could see nothing to hinder a steam carriage from moving with a velocity of one hundred miles an hour4 ,in #ahbi ,george ,stephenson in ,england had made for ,american parties a locomotive called ,the ,stourbridge ,lion1 which in that year was brought to ,america and used on the ,delaware and ,hudson ,r4 ,r4 by ,horatio ,allen4 ,peter ,cooper in the same year constructed a locomotive for short curves1 for the ,baltimore and ,ohio ,railroad4 ,returning now to steam navigation3--,symington again entered the field in #ahja-b and constructed for ,lord ,dundas a steamboat1 named after his wife1 the ,charlotte ,dundas1 for towing on a canal1 which was successfully operated4 ,robert ,fulton1 an ,american artist1 and subsequently a civil engineer1 built a steamboat on the ,seine in #ahjc1 assisted by ,r4 ,livingston1 then ,american ,minister to ,france4 ,then in #ahjf ,fulton1 having returned to the ,united ,states1 commenced to build another steamboat1 in which he was again assisted by ,livingston1 and in which he placed machinery made by ,boulton and ,watt in ,england4 ,this steamboat1 named the ,clermont1 was #acj ft4 long1 #ah ft4 beam1 #g ft4 depth and #afj tons burden4 ,it made its first trip on the ,hudson1 from ,new ,york to ,albany and return1 in ,august1 #ahjg1 and subsequently made regular trips4 ,it was the first commercially successful steamboat ever made1 as ,george ,stephenson's was the first commercially successful locomotive4 ,in the meantime ,col4 ,john ,stevens of ,new ,jersey was also at work on a steamboat1 and had in #ahjd built such a boat at his shops1 having a screw propeller and a flue boiler4 ,almost simultaneously with ,fulton he brought out the ,phnix1 a side-wheel steamer having hollow water lines and provided with feathering paddle wheels1 and as ,fulton and ,livingston had a monopoly of the ,hudson1 ,stevens took his boat by sea from ,new ,york around to ,delaware bay and up the ,delaware river4 ,this was in #ahjh1 and was the first sea voyage ever made by a steam vessel4 ,transatlantic steamship navigation was started in #ahai4 ,a ,mr4 ,scarborough of ,savannah1 ,ga41 in #ahah purchased a ship of about three hundred and fifty tons burden1 which was named the ,savannah4 ,equipped with engine and machinery it steamed out of ,new ,york ,harbour on the #bgth day of ,march1 #ahai1 and successfully reached ,savannah1 ,georgia4 ,on the #bjth of ,may in the same year she left ,savannah for ,liverpool1 making the trip in #bb days4 ,from ,liverpool she went to ,copenhagen1 ,stockholm1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,cronstadt and ,arundel1 and from the latter port returned to ,savannah1 making the passage in twenty-five days4 ,but ,scottish waters1 and the waters around other coasts of the ,british ,islands1 had been traversed by steamboats before this celebrated trip of the ,savannah4 ,bell's steamboat between ,glasgow and ,greenock in #ahab was followed by five others in #ahad2 and seven steamboats plied on the ,thames in #ahag4 ,so the locomotives and the steamboats and steamships continued to multiply1 and when the first forty years of the century had been reached the ,iron ,horse was fairly installed on the fields of ,europe and ,america1 and the rivers and the oceans were ploughed by its sisters1 the steam vessels4 ,it was in #ahdj that the famous ,cunard line of transatlantic steamers was established1 soon followed by the ,collins line and others4 ,a few years before1 ,john ,c4 ,stevens in ,america and ,john ,ericsson in ,england had brought forward the screw propeller2 and ,ericsson was the first to couple the engine to the propeller shaft4 ,it succeeded the successful paddle wheels of ,fulton in ,america and ,bell in ,england4 ,the nineteenth century is the age of kinetic energy3 the energy of either solid1 liquid1 gaseous or electrical matter transformed into useful work4 ,it has been stated by that eminent specialist in steam engineering1 ,prof4 ,r4 ,h4 ,thurston1 that 8the steam engine is a machine which is especially designed to transform energy originally dormant or potential into active and useful available kinetic energy20 and that the great problem in this branch of science is 8to construct a machine which shall in the most perfect manner possible convert the kinetic energy of heat into mechanical power1 the heat being derived from the combustion of fuel1 and steam being the receiver and conveyor of that heat40 ,watt and his contemporaries regarded heat as a material substance called 8,phlogiston40 ,the modern kinetic theory of heat was a subsequent discovery1 as elsewhere explained4 ,the inventors of the last part of the eighteenth century and of the nineteenth century have directed their best labours to construct an engine as above defined by ,thurston4 ,first as to the boiler3 ,efforts were made first to get away from the little old spherical boiler of ,hero4 ,in the #ahth century ,smeaton devised the horizontal lengthened cylindrical boiler traversed by a flue4 ,oliver ,evans followed with two longitudinal flues4 ,nathan ,read of ,salem1 ,massachusetts1 in #agia1 invented a tubular boiler in which the flues and gases are conducted through tubes passing through the boiler into the smokestack4 ,such boilers are adapted for portable stationary engines1 locomotives1 fire and marine engines1 and the fire is built within the boiler frame4 ,then in the #aith century came the use of sectional boilers--a combination of small vessels instead of a large common one1 increasing the strength while diminishing capacity--to obtain high pressure of steam4 ,then came improved weighted and other safety valves to regulate and control this pressure4 ,the compound or double cylinder high-pressure engine of ,hornblower of ,england1 in #agha1 and the high-pressure non-condensing steam engine devised by ,evans in #aggi1 were reconstructed and improved in the early part of the century4 ,to give perfect motion and the slightest friction to the piston2 to regulate the supply of steam to the engine by proper valves2 to determine such supply by many varieties of governors and thus control the speed2 to devise valve gear which distributes the steam through its cycles of motion by which to admit the steam alternately to each end of the steam cylinder as the piston moves backward and forward1 and exhaust valves to open and close the parts through which the steam escapes2 to automatically operate such valves2 to condense the escaping steam and to remove the water of condensation2 to devise powerful steam brakes--these are some of the important details on which inventors have exercised their keenest wits4 ,then again the extensive inventions of the century have given rise to a great classification to designate their forms or their uses3 condensing and non-condensing1 high-pressure or low-pressure--the former term being applied to engines supplied with steam of #ej lbs4 pressure to the square inch and upward1 and the latter to engines working under #dj lbs4 pressure--and the low pressure are nearly always the condensing and the high pressure the non-condensing2 reciprocating and rotary--the latter having a piston attached to a shaft and revolving within a cylinder of which the axis is parallel with the axis of rotation of the piston4 ,direct acting1 where the piston rod acts directly upon the connecting rod and through it upon the crank1 without the intervention of a beam or lever2 oscillating1 in which the piston rods are attached directly to the crank pin and as the crank revolves the cylinder oscillates upon trunnions1 one on each side of it1 through which the steam enters and leaves the steam chest4 ,then as to their use1 engines are known as stationary1 pumping1 portable1 locomotive or marine4 ,the best-known engine of the stationary kind is the ,corliss1 which is very extensively used in the ,united ,states and ,europe4 ,among other later improvements is the duplex pumping engine1 in which one engine controls the valve of the other2 compensating devices for steam pumping1 by which power is accumulated by making the first half of the stroke of the steam piston assist in moving the piston the other half of the stroke during the expansion of steam2 steam or air hand hammers on which the piston is the hammer and strikes a tool projecting through the head into the cylinder2 rock drilling1 in which the movement of the valves is operated by the piston at any portion of its stroke2 shaft governors1 in which the eccentric for operating the engine valves is moved around or across the main or auxiliary shaft2 multiple cylinders1 in which several cylinders1 either single or double1 are arranged to co-operate with a common shaft2 impact rotary1 known as steam turbines1 a revival in some respects of ,hero's engine4 ,and then1 finally1 the delicate and ingenious bicycle and automobile steam engines4 ,then there are steam sanding devices for locomotives by which sand is automatically fed to the rails at the same time the air brake is applied4 ,starting valves used for starting compound locomotives on ascending steep grades1 in which both low and high pressure cylinders are supplied with live steam1 and when the steam1 exhausted from either high or low pressure cylinders into the receivers1 has reached a predetermined pressure1 the engine works on the compound principle4 ,single acting compound engines1 in which two or more cylinders are arranged tandem1 the steam acting only in one direction1 and the exhaust steam of one acting upon the piston in the cylinder next of the series1 are arranged in pairs1 so that while one is acting downward the other is acting upward4 ,throttle valves automatically closed upon the bursting of a pipe1 or the breaking of machinery1 are operated by electricity1 automatically1 or by hand at a distance4 ,napoleon1 upon his disastrous retreat from ,moscow1 anxious to reach ,paris as soon as possible1 left his army on the way1 provided himself with a travelling and sleeping carriage1 and with relays of fresh horses at different points managed1 by extraordinary strenuous efforts day and night1 to travel from ,smorgoni to ,paris1 a distance of #ajjj miles1 between the #eth and #ajth of ,december1 #ahab4 ,this was at the average rate of about two hundred miles a day1 or eight or nine miles an hour4 ,it was a most remarkable ride for any age by horse conveyance4 ,within the span of a man's life after that event any one could take a trip of that distance in twenty-four hours1 with great ease and comfort1 eating and sleeping on the car1 and with convenient telegraph and telephone stations along the route by which to comunicate by pen1 or word of mouth1 with distant friends at either end of the journey4 ,if ,napoleon had deemed it best to have continued his journey across the ,atlantic to ,america he would have been compelled to pass several weeks on an uncomfortable sailing vessel4 ,now1 a floating palace would await him which would carry him across in less than six days4 ,should mankind be seized with a sudden desire to replace all the locomotives in the world by horse power it would be utterly impossible to do it4 ,it was recently estimated that there were one hundred and fifty thousand locomotives in use on the railroads of the world2 and as a fair average would give them five hundred horse power each1 it will be seen that they are the equivalent of seventy-five million horses4 ,space and time will not admit of minute descriptions1 or hardly a mention1 of the almost innumerable improvements of the century in steam4 ,having seen the principles on which these inventions have been constructed1 enumerated the leading ones and glanced at the most prominent facts in their history1 we must refer the seeker for more particulars to those publications of modern patent offices1 in which each regiment and company of this vast army is embalmed in its own especial and ponderous volume4 ,a survey of the field will call to mind1 however1 the eloquent words of ,daniel ,webster3-- 8,and1 last of all1 with inimitable power1 and with a #8whirlwind sound' comes the potent agency of steam4 ,in comparison with the past1 what centuries of improvement has this single agent compressed in the short compass of fifty years6 ,everywhere practicable1 everywhere efficient1 it has an arm a thousand times stronger than that of ,hercules1 and to which human ingenuity is capable of fitting a thousand times as many hands as belonged to ,briareus4 ,steam is found triumphant in operation on the seas2 and under the influence of its strong propulsion1 the gallant ship1 #8,against the wind1 against the tide ,still steadies with an upright keel4' ,it is on the rivers1 and the boatman may repose upon his oars2 it is on highways1 and exerts itself along the courses of land conveyances2 it is at the bottom of mines1 a thousand feet below the earth's surface2 it is in the mills and in the workshops of the trades4 ,it rows1 it pumps1 it excavates1 it carries1 it draws1 it lifts1 it hammers1 it spins1 it weaves1 it prints4 ,it seems to say to men1 at least to the class of artisans3 #8,leave off your manual labour1 give up your bodily toil2 bestow but your skill and reason to the directing of my power and ,i will bear the toil1 with no muscle to grow weary1 no nerve to relax1 no breast to feel faintness6' ,what further improvement may still be made in the use of this astonishing power it is impossible to know1 and it were vain to conjecture4 ,what we do know is that it has most essentially altered the face of affairs1 and that no visible limit yet appears beyond which its progress is seen to be impossible40 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,transportation4 ,the field of service of a civil engineer has thus been eloquently stated by a recent writer in ,chambers's ,journal3 8,his duties call upon him to devise the means for surmounting obstacles of the most formidable kind4 ,he has to work in the water1 over the water1 and under the water2 to cause streams to flow2 to check them from overflowing2 to raise water to a great height2 to build docks and walls that will bear the dashing of waves2 to convert dry land into harbours1 and low water shores into dry land2 to construct lighthouses on lonely rocks2 to build lofty aqueducts for the conveyance of water1 and viaducts1 for the conveyance of railway trains2 to burrow into the bowels of the earth with tunnels1 shafts1 pits and mines2 to span torrents and ravines with bridges2 to construct chimneys that rival the loftiest spires and pyramids in height2 to climb mountains with roads and railways2 to sink wells to vast depths in search of water4 ,by untiring patience1 skill1 energy and invention1 he produces in these several ways works which certainly rank among the marvels of human power40 ,the pyramids of ,egypt1 the roads1 bridges and aqueducts built by the ,chinese and by ,rome2 the great bridges of the ,middle ,ages1 and especially those built by that strange fraternal order known as the 8,brothers of the ,bridge02 the ocean-defying lighthouses of a later period--these1 and more than these1 attest the fact that there were great engineers before the nineteenth century4 ,but the engineering of to-day is the hand-maid of all the ,sciences2 and as they each have advanced during the century beyond all that was imagined1 or dreamed of as possible in former times1 so have the labours of engineering correspondingly multiplied4 ,no longer are such labours classified and grouped in one field1 called ,civil ,engineering1 but they have been necessarily divided into great additional new and independent fields1 known as ,steam ,engineering1 ,mining ,engineering1 ,hydraulic ,engineering1 ,electrical ,engineering and ,marine ,engineering4 ,within each of these fields are assembled innumerable appliances which are the offspring of the inventive genius of the century just closed4 ,we have seen how one discovery1 or the development of a certain art1 brings in its train and often necessitates other inventions and discoveries4 ,the development and dedication of the steam engine to the transportation of goods and men called for improvements in the roads and rails on which the engine and its load were to travel1 and this demand brought forth those modern railway bridges which are the finest examples in the art of bridge making that the world has ever seen4 ,the greatest bridges of former ages were built of stone and solid masonry4 ,now iron and steel have been substituted1 and these light but substantial frameworks span wide rivers and deep ravines with almost the same speed and gracefulness that the spider spins his silken web from limb to limb4 ,these1 too1 waited for their construction on that next turn in the wheel of evolution1 which brought better processes in the making of iron and steel1 and better tools and appliances for working metals1 and in handling vast and heavy bodies4 ,the first arched iron bridge was over the ,severn at ,coalbrookdale1 ,england1 erected by ,abraham ,darby in #aggg4 ,in #agic one was erected by ,telford at ,buildwas1 and in the same year ,burden completed an arch across the weir at ,sunderland4 ,the most prominent classes of bridges in which the highest inventive and constructive genius of the engineers of the century are illustrated are known as the suspension1 the tubular and the tubular arch1 the truss and cantilever4 ,suspension bridges consisting of twisted vines1 of iron chains1 or of bamboo1 or cane1 or of ropes1 have been known in different parts of the world from time immemorial1 but they bear only a primitive and suggestive resemblance to the great iron cable bridges of the nineteenth century4 ,the first notable structure of this kind was constructed by ,sir ,samuel ,brown1 across the ,tweed at ,berwick1 ,england1 in #ahai4 ,brown was born in ,london in #aggf and died in #aheb4 ,he entered the navy at the age of #ah1 was made commander in #ahaa1 and retired as captain in #ahdb4 ,we have alluded to the spider's web1 and ,smiles1 in his ,self ,help1 relates as an example of intelligent observation that while ,capt ,brown was occupied in studying the character of bridges with the view of constructing one of a cheap description to be thrown across the ,tweed1 near which he lived1 he was walking in his garden one dewy autumn morning when he saw a tiny spider's web suspended across his path4 ,the idea immediately occurred to him of a bridge of iron wires4 ,in #ahbi ,brown also was the engineer for suspension bridges built over the ,esk at ,montrose and over the ,thames at ,hammersmith4 ,before that time1 a span in a bridge of #ajj feet was considered remarkably long4 ,suspension bridges are best adapted for long spans1 and have been constructed with spans more than twice as long as any other form4 ,sir ,samuel ,brown's bridge had a span of #ddi feet4 ,this class of bridges is usually constructed with chains or cables passing over towers1 with the roadway suspended beneath4 ,the ends of the chains or cables are securely anchored4 ,the cables are then passed over towers1 on which they are supported in movable saddles1 so that the towers are not overthrown by the strain on the cables4 ,nice calculations have to be made as to the tension to be placed on the cables1 the allowance for deflection1 and the equal distribution of weight4 ,the floor-way in the earlier bridges of this type was supported by means of a series of equidistant vertical rods1 and was lacking stiffness1 but this was remedied by trussing the road bed1 using inclined stays extending from the towers and partially supporting the roadway for some distance out from the tower4 ,the next finest suspension bridge was constructed by ,thomas ,telford and finished in #ahbf1 across the ,menai ,strait to connect the island of ,anglesea with the mainland of ,wales4 ,telford was born in ,dumfriesshire1 ,scotland1 in #ageg1 and died in ,westminster in #ahcd4 ,beginning life as a stone mason1 he rose by his own industry to be a master among architects and a prince among builders of iron bridges1 aqueducts1 canals1 tunnels1 harbours and docks4 ,the ,menai bridge was composed of chains or wire ropes1 each nearly a third of a mile in length1 and which descended #fj feet into sloping pits or drifts1 where they were screwed to cast-iron frames embedded in the rocks4 ,the span of the suspended central arch was #efj feet1 and the platform was #ajj feet above high water4 ,seven stone arches of #eb feet span make up the rest of the bridge4 ,but a suspension bridge was completed in #ahcd by ,m4 ,challey of ,lyon over the ,saane at ,fribourg1 ,switzerland1 which greatly surpassed the ,menai bridge4 ,the span is #hhj feet from pier to pier1 and the roadway is #afg feet above the river4 ,it is supported by four iron wire cables1 each consisting of #ajef wires4 ,it was tested by placing #ae pieces of artillery1 drawn by #ej horses and accompanied by #cjj men crowded together as closely as possible1 first at the centre1 and then at each extreme1 causing a depression of #ci inches1 but no sensible oscillation was experienced4 ,isambard ,k4 ,brunel was another great engineer1 who constructed a suspension bridge at the ,isle of ,bourbon in #ahbc1 and the ,charing ,cross over the ,thames at ,hungerford in #ahde1 which was a footbridge1 having a span of #fge feet1 the longest span of any bridge in ,england4 ,then followed finer and larger suspension bridges in other parts of the world4 ,it was across the ,niagara in front of the great falls that in #ahee ,british ,america and the ,united ,states were joined by a magnificent suspension bridge1 one of the finest in the world1 and the two ,english speaking countries were then physically and commercially united4 ,at the opening of the bridge1 one portion of which was for a railway1 the shriek of the locomotive and the roar of the train mingled with the roar of the wild torrent #bej feet below4 ,the bridge1 #hjj feet long1 is a single span1 supported by four enormous cables of wire stretching from the ,canadian cliff to the opposite ,united ,states cliff4 ,the cables pass over the tops of lofty stone towers arising from these cliffs1 and each cable consists of no less than #d1jjj distinct wires4 ,the roadway hangs from these cables1 suspended by #fbd vertical rods4 ,the engineer of this bridge was ,john ,a4 ,roebling1 a native of ,prussia1 born there in #ahjf1 and who died in ,new ,york in #ahfi4 ,he was educated at the ,polytechnic ,school in ,berlin1 and emigrated to ,america at the age of #be4 ,his labors were first as a canal and railway engineer1 then he became the inventor and manufacturer of a new form of wire rope1 and then turned his attention to the construction of aqueducts and suspension bridges4 ,after the ,niagara bridge1 above described1 he commenced another bridge of greater dimensions over the same river1 which was finished within two or three years4 ,his next work was the splendid suspension bridge at ,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 which has a clear span of #ajeg feet4 ,in #ahfi1 in connection with his son1 ,washington ,a4 ,roebling1 he commenced that magnificent suspension bridge to unite the great cities of ,new ,york and ,brooklyn1 and which1 by its completion1 resulted in the consolidation of those cities as ,greater ,new ,york4 ,the ,roeblings1 father and son1 were to the engineering of ,america what ,george ,stephenson and his son ,robert were to the locomotive and railway and bridge engineering of ,great ,britain4 ,the ,brooklyn bridge1 known also as the ,east ,river bridge1 was formally opened to the public on the #bdth of ,may #ahhc4 ,most enormous and unexpected technical difficulties were met and overcome in its construction4 ,its total length is nearly #f1jjj feet4 ,the length of the suspended structure from anchorage to anchorage is #c1ded feet4 ,a statement of the general features of this bridge indicates the nature of the construction of such bridges as a class1 and distinguishes them from the comparatively simple forms of past ages4 ,this structure is supported by two enormous towers1 having a height of #bgf feet above the surface of the water1 carrying at their tops the saddles which support the cables1 and having a span between them of #a1eie feet4 ,the towers are each pierced by two archways1 #ca feet wide1 and #abj feet high1 through which openings passes the floor of the bridge at the height of #aah feet above high water mark4 ,there are four supporting cables1 each #af inches in diameter1 and each composed of about #e1jjj single wires4 ,the wire is one-eighth size2 #bgh single wires are grouped into a rope1 and #ai ropes bunched to form a cable4 ,the iron saddles at the top of the lofty towers1 and on which the cables rest1 are made movable to permit its expansion and compression--and they glide through minute distances on iron rollers in saddle plates embedded and anchored in the towers1 in response to strains and changes of temperature4 ,the enormous cables pass from the towers shoreward to their anchorages #icj feet away1 and which are solid masses of masonry1 each #acb x #aai feet at base and top1 #hi feet high1 and weighing #fj1jjj tons4 ,the bridge is divided into five avenues3 one central one for foot passengers1 two outer ones for vehicles1 and the others for the street cars4 ,the cost of the bridge was nearly #ae1jjj1jjj4 ,twenty fatal and many disabling accidents occurred during the construction of the bridge4 ,the great engineer ,roebling was the first victim to an accident4 ,he had his foot crushed while laying the foundation of one of the stone piers1 and died of lockjaw4 ,it was necessary to build up the great piers by the aid of caissons1 which are water-tight casings built of timber and metal and sunk to the river bed and sometimes far below it1 within which are built the foundations of piers or towers1 and into which air is pumped for the workmen4 ,a fire in one of the caissons1 which necessitated its flooding by water1 and to which the son1 ,washington ,roebling1 was exposed1 resulted in prostrating him with a peculiar form of caisson disease1 which destroyed the nerves of motion without impairing his intellectual faculties4 ,but1 although disabled from active work1 ,mr4 ,roebling continued to superintend the vast project through the constant mediation of his wife4 ,tubular ,bridges4--,these are bridges formed by a great tube or hollow beam through the center of which a roadway or railway passes4 ,the name would indicate that the bridge was cylindrical in form1 and this was the first idea4 ,but it was concluded after experiment that a rectangular form was the best1 as it is more rigid than either a cylindrical or elliptical tube4 ,the adoption of this form was due to ,fairbairn1 the celebrated ,english inventor and engineer of iron structures4 ,the ,menai tubular railway bridge1 adjacent to the suspension bridge of ,telford across the same strait1 and already described1 was the first example of this type of bridge4 ,robert ,stephenson was the engineer of this great structure1 aided by the suggestions of ,fairbairn and other eminent engineers4 ,this bridge was opened for railway traffic in ,march1 #ahej4 ,it was built on three towers and shore abutments4 ,the width of the strait is divided by these towers into four spans--two of #dfj feet each1 and two of #bcj feet4 ,in appearance1 the bridge looked like one huge1 long1 narrow iron box1 but it consisted really of four bridges1 each made of a pair of rectangular tubes1 and through one set of tubes the trains passed in going in one direction1 and through the other set in going the opposite direction4 ,these ponderous tubes were composed of wrought-iron plates1 from three-eighths to three-fourths of an inch thick1 the largest #ab feet in length1 riveted together and stiffened by angle irons4 ,they varied in height--the central ones being the highest and those nearest the shore the lowest4 ,the central ones are #cj feet high1 and the inner ones about #bb feet4 ,their width was about #ad feet4 ,they were built upon platforms on the ,caernarvon shore1 and the great problem was how to lift them and put them in place1 especially the central ones1 which were #dfj feet in length4 ,each tube weighed #a1hjj pounds1 and they were to be raised #aib feet4 ,this operation has been described as 8the grandest lift ever effected in engineering40 ,it was accomplished by means of powerful hydraulic presses4 ,another and still grander example of this style of bridge is the ,victoria at ,montreal1 ,canada4 ,this also was designed by ,robert ,stephenson and built under his direction by ,james ,hodges of ,montreal4 ,work was commenced in #ahed and it was completed in ,december1 #ahei1 and opened for travel in #ahfj4 ,it consists of #bd piers1 #bdb feet apart1 except the centre one1 from which the span is #ccj feet4 ,the tube is in sections and quadrangular in form4 ,every plate and piece of iron was made and punched in ,england and brought across the ,atlantic4 ,in ,canada little remained to be done but to put the parts together and in position4 ,this1 however1 was in itself a ,herculean task4 ,the enormous structure was to be placed sixty feet above the swift current of the broad ,st4 ,lawrence1 and wherein huge masses of ice1 each block from three to five feet in thickness1 accumulated every winter4 ,the work was accomplished by the erection of a vast rigid stage of timber1 on which the tubes were built up plate by plate4 ,when all was completed the great staging was removed1 and the mighty tube rested alone and secure upon its massive wedge-faced piers rising from the bedrock of the flood below4 ,the ,tubular ,arch ,bridge4--,this differs from the tubular bridge proper1 in that the former consists of a bridge the body of which is supported by a tubular archway of iron and steel1 whereas in the latter the body of the bridge itself is a tube4 ,the tubular arch is also properly classed as a girder bridge because the great tube which covers the span is simply an immense beam or girder1 which supports the superstructure on which the floor of the bridge is laid4 ,a fine illustration of this style of bridge is seen in what is known as the aqueduct bridge over ,rock ,creek at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 in which the arch consists of two cast-iron jointed pipes1 supporting a double carriage and a double street car way1 and through which pipes all the water for the supply of the ,city of ,washington passes4 ,general ,m4 ,c4 ,meigs was the engineer4 ,another far grander illustration of such a structure1 in combination with the truss system1 is that of the ,illinois and ,st4 ,louis bridge1 across the ,mississippi1 of which ,captain ,james ,b4 ,eads was the engineer4 ,there are three great spans1 the central one of which has a length of about #ebj feet1 and the others a few feet less4 ,four arches form each span1 each arch consisting of an upper and lower curved member or rib1 extending from pier to pier1 and each member composed of two parallel steel tubes4 ,truss and truss arched bridges4--,these1 for the most part1 are those quite modern forms of iron or wooden bridges in which a supplementary frame work1 consisting of iron rods placed obliquely1 vertically or diagonally1 and cemented together1 and with the main horizontal beams either above or below the same1 to produce a stiff and rigid structure1 calculated to resist strain from all directions4 ,previous to the #aith century1 the greatest bridges being constructed mostly of solid masonry piers and arches1 no demand for a bridge of this kind existed2 but after the use of wrought iron and steel became extensive in bridge making1 and as these apparently light and airy frames may be extended1 piece by piece across the widest rivers1 straits1 and arms of the sea1 a substitute for the great1 expensive1 and frequent supporting piers became a want1 and was supplied by the system of trusses and truss arches4 ,the truss system has also been applied to the construction of vast modern bridges in places where timber is accessible and cheap4 ,each different system invented bears the name of its inventor4 ,thus1 we have the ,rider1 the ,fink1 the ,bollman1 the ,whipple1 the ,howe1 the ,jones1 the ,linville1 the ,mc,callum1 ,towne's lattice and other systems4 ,what is called the cantilever system has of late years to a great extent superseded the suspension construction4 ,this consists of beams or girders extending out from the opposite piers at an upward diagonal angle1 and meeting at the centre over the span1 and there solidly connected together1 or to horizontal girders1 in such manner that the compression load is thrown on to the supporting piers1 upward strains received at the centre1 and side deflections provided against4 ,it is supposed that greater rigidity is obtained by this means than by the suspension1 and1 like the suspension1 great widths may be spanned without an under supporting frame work4 ,two fine examples of this type are found1 one in a bridge across the ,niagara adjacent to the suspension bridge above described and one across the river ,forth at ,queens ,ferry in ,scotland4 ,the ,niagara ,bridge is a combination of cast steel and iron4 ,it was designed by ,c4 ,c4 ,schneider and ,edmund ,hayes4 ,it was built for a double-track railroad4 ,the total length of the bridge is #iaj feet between the centres of the anchorage piers4 ,the cantilevers rest on two gigantic steel towers1 standing on massive stone piers #ci feet high4 ,the clear span between the towers is #dgj feet1 and the height of the bridge1 from the mad rush of waters to the car track is #bci feet4 ,messrs ,fowler and ,baker were the engineers of the ,forth railway bridge4 ,it was begun in #ahhc and finished in #ahij4 ,it is built nearly all of steel1 and is one of the most stupendous works of the kind4 ,it crosses two channels formed by the island of ,inchgarvie1 and each of the channel spans is #agaj feet in the clear and a clear headway of #aej feet under the bridge4 ,three balanced cantilevers are employed1 poised on four gigantic steel tube legs supported on four huge masonry piers4 ,the height of the bridge above the piers is #ccj feet4 ,the cantilever portion has the appearance of a vast elongated diamond4 ,steel lattice work of girders1 forms the upper side of the cantilever1 while the under side consists of a hollow curve approaching in form a quadrant of a circle drawn from the base of the legs or struts to the ends of the cantilever4 ,such is the growth of these great bridges with their tremendous spans across which man is spinning his iron webs1 that when seen at night with a fiery engine pulling its thundering train across in the darkness1 one is reminded of ,milton's description1 8over the dark abyss whose boiling gulf tamely endured a bridge of wondrous length1 from ,hell continued1 reaching the utmost orb of this frail world40 ,the lighthouses of the century1 in masonry1 do not greatly excel in general principles those of preceding ones1 as at ,eddystone1 designed by ,smeaton4 ,nicholas ,douglass1 however1 invented a new system of dovetailing1 and great improvements have been made in the system of illuminating4 ,lighthouses are also distinguished from those of preceding centuries by the substitution of iron and cast steel for masonry4 ,the first cast-iron lighthouse was put up at ,point ,morant1 ,jamaica1 in #ahdb4 ,since then they have taken the form of iron skeleton towers4 ,one of the latest and most picturesque of lighthouses is that of ,bartholdi's statue of ,liberty enlightening the world1 the gift of the ,french government to the ,united ,states1 framed by ,m4 ,eiffel1 the great ,french engineer1 and set up by the ,united ,states at ,bedloe's ,island in ,new ,york harbor4 ,it consists of copper plates on a network of iron4 ,although the statue is larger than any in the world of such composite construction1 its success as a lighthouse is not as notable as many farther seaward4 ,in excavating1 dredging and draining1 the inventions of the century have been very numerous1 but1 like numerous advances in the arts1 such inventions1 so far as great works are concerned1 have developed from and are closely related to steam engineering4 ,the making of roads1 railroads1 canals and tunnels has called forth thousands of ingenious mechanisms for their accomplishment4 ,a half dozen men with a steam-power excavator or dredger can in one day perform a greater extent of work than could a thousand men and a thousand horses in a single day a few generations ago4 ,an excavating machine consisting of steel knives to cut the earth1 iron scoops1 buckets and dippers to scoop it up1 endless chains or cranes to lift them1 actuated by steam1 and operated by a single engineer1 will excavate cubic yards of earth by the minute and at a cost of but a few dollars a day4 ,dredging machines of a great variety have been constructed4 ,drags and scoops for elevating1 and buckets1 scrapers and shovels1 and rotating knives to first loosen the earth1 suction pumps and pipes1 which will suck great quantities of the loosened earth through pipes to places to be filled--these and kindred devices are now constantly employed to dig and excavate1 to deepen and widen rivers1 to drain lands1 to dig canals1 to make harbours1 to fill up the waste places and to make courses for water in desert lands4 ,inventions for the excavating of clay1 piling and burning it in a crude state for ballast for railways1 are important1 especially for those railways which traverse areas where clay is plentiful1 and stones and gravel are lacking4 ,sinking shafts through quicksands by artificially freezing the sand1 so as to form a firm frozen wall immediately around the area where the shaft is to be sunk1 is a recent new idea4 ,modern countries especially are waking up to the necessity of good roads1 not only as a necessary means of transportation1 but as a pre-requisite to decent civilisation in all respects4 ,and1 therefore1 great activity has been had in the last third of a century in invention of machines for finishing and repairing roads4 ,in the matter of sewer construction1 regarded now so necessary in all civilised cities and thickly-settled communities as one of the means of proper sanitation1 great improvements have been made in deep sewerage1 in which the work is largely performed below the surface and with little obstruction to street traffic4 ,in connection with excavating and dredging machines1 mention should be made of those great works in the construction of which they bore such important parts1 as drainage and land reclamation1 such as is seen in the modern extensions of land reclamation in ,holland1 in the ,haarlem lake district in the ,north part of ,england1 the swamps of ,florida and the drainage of the ,london district2 in modern tunnels such as the ,hoosac in ,america and the three great ones through the ,alps3 the ,mont ,cenis1 ,st4 ,gothard1 and ,arlberg1 the work in which developed an entirely new system of engineering1 by the application of newly-discovered explosives for blasting1 new rock-drilling machinery1 new air-compressing machines for driving the drill machines and ventilating the works1 and new hydraulic and pumping machinery for sinking shafts and pumping out the water4 ,the great canals1 especially the ,suez1 developed a new system of canal engineering4 ,thus by modern inventions of devices for digging and blasting1 dredging and draining and attendant operations1 some of the greatest works of man on earth have been produced1 and evinced the exercise of his highest inventive genius4 ,if one wishes an ocular demonstration of the wonders wrought in the #aith century in the several domains of engineering1 let him take a ,pullman train across the continent from ,new ,york to ,san ,francisco4 ,the distance is #c1jjj miles and the time is four days and four nights4 ,the car in which the passenger finds himself is a marvel of woodwork and upholstery--a description of the machinery and processes for producing which belongs to other arts4 ,the railroad tracks upon which the vehicle moves are in themselves the results of many inventions4 ,there is the width of the track1 and it was only after a long and expensive contest that countries and corporations settled upon a uniform gauge4 ,the common gauge of the leading countries and roads is now #d feet #h inches4 ,a greater width is known as a broad gauge1 a less width as a narrow gauge4 ,then as to the rail3 first the wooden1 then the iron and now the steel1 and all of many shapes and weights4 ,the ,t-rail invented by ,birkensaw in #ahbj1 having two flanges at the top to form a wide berth for the wheels of the rolling stock1 the vertical portion gripped by chairs which are spiked to the ties1 is the best known4 ,then the frogs1 a ,v-shaped device by which the wheels are guided from one line of rails to another1 when they form angles with each other2 the car wheel made with a flange or flanges to fit the rail1 and the railway gates1 ingenious contrivances that guard railway crossings and are operated automatically by the passing trains1 but more commonly by watchmen4 ,the car may be lighted with electricity1 and as the train dashes along at the rate of #cj to #hj miles an hour1 it may be stopped in less than a minute by the touch of the engineer on an air brake4 ,is it midwinter and are mountains of snow encountered8 ,they disappear before the railway snow-plough more quickly than they came4 ,it passes over bridges1 through tunnels1 across viaducts1 around the edges of mountain peaks1 every mile revealing the wondrous work of man's inventive genius for encompassing the earth with speed1 safety and comfort4 ,over one-half million miles of these railway tracks are on the earth's surface to-day6 ,not only has the railway superseded horse power in the matter of transportation to a vast extent1 but other modes of transportation are taking the place of that useful animal4 ,the old-fashioned stage coach1 and then the omnibus1 were successively succeeded by the street car drawn by horses1 and then about twenty years ago the horse began to be withdrawn from that work and the cable substituted4 ,cable transportation developed from the art of making iron wire and steel wire ropes or cables4 ,and endless cables placed underground1 conveyed over rollers and supported on suitable yokes1 and driven from a great central power house1 came into use1 and to which the cars were connected by ingeniously contrived lever grips--operated by the driver on the car4 ,these great cable constructions1 expensive as they were1 were found more economical than horse power4 ,in fact1 there is no modernly discovered practical motive power but what has been found less expensive both as to time and money than horse power4 ,but the cable for this purpose is now in turn everywhere yielding to electricity1 the great motor next to steam4 ,the overhead cable system for the transportation of materials of various descriptions in carriers1 also run by a central motor1 is still very extensively used4 ,the cable plan has also been tried with some success in the propelling of canal boats4 ,canals1 themselves1 although finding a most serious and in some localities an entirely destructive rival in the railroad1 have grown in size and importance1 and in appliances that have been substituted for the old-style locks4 ,the latest form of this device is what is known as the pneumatic balance lock system4 ,it has been said by ,octave ,chanute that 8,progress in civilisation may fairly be said to be dependent upon the facilities for men to get about1 upon their intercourse with other men and nations1 not only in order to supply their mutual needs cheaply1 but to learn from each other their wants1 their discoveries and their inventions40 ,next to the power and means for moving people1 come the immense and wonderful inventions for lifting and loading1 such as cranes and derricks1 means for coaling ships and steamers1 for handling and storing the great agricultural products1 grain and hay1 and that modern wonder1 the grain elevator1 that dots the coasts of rivers1 lakes and seas1 receives the vast stores of golden grain from thousands of steam cars that come to it laden from distant plains and discharges it swiftly in mountain loads into vessels and steamers to be carried to the multitudes across the seas1 and to satisfy that ever-continuing cry1 8,give us this day our daily bread40 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,electricity4 ,in #aijj the real nature of electricity appears to be as unknown as it was in #ahjj4 ,franklin in the eighteenth century defined electricity as consisting of particles of matter incomparably more subtle than air1 and which pervaded all bodies4 ,at the close of the nineteenth century electricity defined as 8simply a form of energy which imparts to material substances a peculiar state or condition1 and that all such substances partake more or less of this condition40 ,these theories and the late discovery of ,hertz that electrical energy manifests itself in the form of waves1 oscillations or vibrations1 similar to light1 but not so rapid as the vibrations of light1 constitute about all that is known about the nature of this force4 ,franklin believed it was a single fluid1 but others taught that there were two kinds of electricity1 positive and negative1 that the like kinds were repulsive and the unlike kinds attractive1 and that when generated it flowed in currents4 ,such terms are not now regarded as representing actual varieties of this force1 but are retained as convenient modes of expression1 for want of better ones1 as expressing the conditions or states of electricity when produced4 ,electricity produced by friction1 that is1 developed upon the surface of a body by rubbing it with a dissimilar body1 and called frictional or static electricity1 was the only kind produced artificially in the days of ,franklin4 ,what is known as galvanism1 or animal electricity1 also takes its date in the #ahth century1 to which further reference will be made4 ,since #agii there have been discovered additional sources1 among which are voltaic electricity1 or electricity produced by chemical action1 such as is manifested when two dissimilar metals are brought near each other or together1 and electrical manifestations produced by a decomposing action1 one upon the other through a suitable medium2 inductive electricity1 or electricity developed or induced in one body by its proximity to another body through which a current is flowing2 magnetic electricity1 the conversion of the power of a magnet into electric force1 and the reverse of this1 the production of magnetic force by a current of electricity2 and thermal electricity1 or that generated by heat4 ,electricity developed by these1 or other means in contra-distinction to that produced by friction1 has been called dynamic2 but all electric force is now regarded as dynamic1 in the sense that forces are always in motion and never at rest4 ,many of the manifestations and experiments in later day fields which1 by reason of their production by different means1 have been given the names of discovery and invention1 had become known to ,franklin and others1 by means of the old methods in frictional electricity4 ,they are all1 however1 but different routes leading to the same goal4 ,in the midst of the brilliant discoveries of modern times confronting us on every side we should not forget the honourable efforts of the fathers of the science4 ,we need not dwell on what the ancients produced in this line4 ,it was a single fact only3--,the ,greeks discovered that amber1 a resinous substance1 when rubbed would attract lighter bodies to it4 ,in #afjj appeared the father of modern electricity--,dr4 ,gilbert of ,colchester1 physician to ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,he revived the one experiment of antiquity1 and added to it the further fact that many substances besides amber1 when rubbed1 would manifest the same electric condition1 such as sulphur1 sapphire1 wax1 glass and other bodies4 ,and thus he opened the field of electrodes4 ,he was the first to use the terms1 electricity1 electric and electrode1 which he derived from the word elektron1 the ,greek name for amber4 ,he observed the actions of magnets1 and conjectured the fundamental identity of magnetism and electricity4 ,he arranged an electrometer1 consisting of an iron needle poised on a pivot1 by which to note the action of the magnet4 ,this was about the time that ,otto von ,guericke of ,magdeburg1 ,germany1 was born4 ,he became a 8natural0 philosopher1 and for thirty-five years was burgomaster of his native town4 ,he invented the air-pump1 and he it was who illustrated the force of atmospheric pressure by fitting together two hollow brass hemispheres which1 after the air within them had been exhausted1 could not be pulled apart4 ,he also invented a barometer1 and as an astronomer suggested that the return of comets might be calculated4 ,he invented and constructed the first machine for generating electricity4 ,it consisted of a ball of sulphur rotated on an axis1 and which was electrified by friction of the hand1 the ball receiving negative electricity while the positive flowed through the person to the earth4 ,with this machine 8he heard the first sound and saw the first light in artificially excited electricity40 ,the machine was improved by ,sir ,isaac ,newton and others1 and before the close of that century was put into substantially its present form of a round glass plate rotated between insulated leather cushions coated with an amalgam of tin and zinc1 the positive or vitreous electricity thus developed being accumulated on two large hollow brass cylinders with globular ends1 supported on glass pillars4 ,gray in #agbi discovered the conductive power of certain substances1 and that the electrical influence could be conveyed to a distance by means of an insulated wire4 ,this was the first step towards the electric telegraph4 ,dufay1 the ,french philosopher and author1 who in #agcc-agcg wrote the ,memoirs of the ,french ,academy1 was1 it seems1 the first to observe electrical attractions and repulsions2 that electrified resinous substances repelled like substances while they attracted bodies electrified by contact with glass2 and he1 therefore1 to the latter applied the term vitreous electricity and to the former the term resinous electricity4 ,in #agde ,prof4 ,muschenbroeck of ,leyden ,university developed the celebrated ,leyden jar4 ,this is a glass jar coated both inside and outside with tinfoil for about four-fifths of its height4 ,its mouth is closed with a cork through which is passed a metallic rod1 terminating above in a knob and connected below with the inner coating by a chain or a piece of tinfoil4 ,if the inner coating be connected with an electrical machine and the outer coating with the earth1 a current of electricity is established1 and the inner coating receives what is called a positive and the outer coating a negative charge4 ,on connecting the two surfaces by means of a metallic discharger having a non-conducting handle a spark is obtained4 ,thus the ,leyden jar is both a collector and a condenser of electricity4 ,on arranging a series of such jars and joining their outer and inner surfaces1 and connecting the series with an electrical machine1 a battery is obtained of greater or less power according to the number of jars employed and the extent of supply from the machine4 ,the principle of the ,leyden jar was discovered by accident4 ,cuneus1 a pupil of ,muschenbroeck1 was one day trying to charge some water in a glass bottle with electricity by connecting it with a chain to the sparking knob of an electrical machine4 ,holding the bottle in one hand he arranged the chain with the other1 and received a violent shock4 ,his teacher then tried the experiment himself1 with a still livelier and more convincing result1 whereupon he declared that he would not repeat the trial for the whole ,kingdom of ,france4 ,when the science of static electricity was thus far developed1 with a machine for generating it and a collector to receive it1 many experiments followed4 ,charles ,morrison in #agec1 in the ,scots ,magazine1 proposed a telegraph system of insulated wires with a corresponding number of characters to be signalled between two stations4 ,other schemes were proposed at different times down to the close of the century4 ,franklin records among several other experiments with frictional electricity accumulated by the ,leyden jar battery the following results1 produced chiefly by himself3 ,the existence of an attractive and a repulsive action of electricity2 the restoration of the equilibrium of electrical force between electrified and non-electrified bodies1 or between bodies differently supplied with the force2 the electroscope1 a body charged with electricity and used to indicate the presence and condition of electricity in another body2 the production of work1 as the turning of wheels1 by which it was proposed a spit for roasting meat might be formed1 and the ringing of chimes by a wheel1 which was done2 the firing of gunpowder1 the firing of wood1 resin and spirits2 the drawing off a charge from electrified bodies at a near distance by pointed rods2 the heating and melting of metals2 the production of light2 the magnetising of needles and of bars of iron1 giving rise to the analogy of magnetism and electricity4 ,franklin1 who had gone thus far1 and who also had drawn the lightning from the clouds1 identified it as electricity1 and taught the mode of its subjection1 felt chagrined that more had not been done with this subtle agent in the service of man4 ,he believed1 however1 that the day-spring of science was opening1 and he seemed to have caught some reflection of its coming light4 ,observing the return to life and activity of some flies long imprisoned in a bottle of ,madeira wine and which he restored by exposure to the sun and air1 he wrote that he should like to be immersed at death with a few friends in a cask of ,madeira1 to be recalled to life a hundred years thence to observe the state of his country4 ,it would not have been necessary for him to have been embalmed that length of time to have witnessed some great developments of his favorite science4 ,he died in #agij1 and it has been said that there was more real progress in this science in the first decade of the nineteenth century than in all previous centuries put together4 ,before opening the door of the #aith century1 let us glance at one more experiment in the #ahth3 ,while the aged ,franklin was dying1 ,dr4 ,luigi ,galvani of ,bologna1 an ,italian physician1 medical lecturer1 and learned author1 was preparing for publication his celebrated work1 ,de viribus ,electricitatis in ,motu ,musculari ,commentarius1 in which he described his discovery made a few years before of the action of the electric current on the legs and spinal column of a frog hung on a copper nail4 ,this discovery at once excited the attention of scientists1 but in the absence of any immediate practical results the multitude dubbed him the 8frog philosopher40 ,he proceeded with his experiments on animals and animal matter1 and developed the doctrine and theories of what is known as animal or galvanic electricity4 ,his fellow countryman and contemporary1 ,prof4 ,volta of ,pavia1 took decided issue with ,galvani and maintained that the pretended animal electricity was nothing but electricity developed by the contact of two different metals4 ,subsequent investigations and discoveries have established the fact that both theories have truth for their basis1 and that electricity is developed both by muscular and nervous energy as well as by chemical action4 ,in #agii ,volta invented his celebrated pile1 consisting of alternate disks of copper and zinc separated by a cloth moistened with a dilute acid2 and soon after an arrangement of cups--each containing a dilute acid and a copper and a zinc plate placed a little distance apart1 and thus dispensing with the cloth4 ,in both instances he connected the end plate of one kind with the opposite end plate of the other kind by a wire1 and in both arrangements produced a current of electricity4 ,to the discoveries1 experiments1 and disputes of ,galvani and ,volta and to those of their respective adherents1 the way was opened to the splendid electrical inventions of the century1 and the discovery of a new world of light1 heat1 speech and power4 ,the discoveries of ,galvani and ,volta at once set leading scientists at work4 ,fabroni of ,florence1 and ,sir ,humphry ,davy and ,wollaston of ,england1 commenced interesting experiments1 showing that rapid oxidation and chemical decomposition of the metals took place in the voltaic pile4 ,by the discoveries of ,galvani the physicians and physiologists were greatly excited1 and believed that by this new vital power the nature of all kinds of nervous diseases could be explored and the remedy applied4 ,volta's discovery excited the chemists4 ,if two dissimilar metals could be decomposed and power at the same time produced they contended that practical work might be done with the force4 ,in #ahjj ,nicholson and ,carlisle decomposed water by passing the electric current through the same2 ,ritter decomposed copper sulphate1 and ,davy decomposed the alkalies1 potash and soda4 ,thus the art of electrolysis--the decomposition of substances by the galvanic current1 was established4 ,later ,faraday laid down its laws4 ,naturally inventions sprung up in new forms of batteries4 ,the pile and cup battery of ,volta had been succeeded by the trough battery--a long box filled with separated plates set in dilute acid4 ,the trough battery was used by ,sir ,humphry ,davy in his series of great experiments--#ahjf-ahjh--;in which he isolated the metallic bases1 calcium1 sodium1 potassium1 etc4 ,it consisted of #bjjj double plates of copper and zinc1 each having a surface of #cb square inches4 ,with this same trough battery ,davy in #ahab produced the first electric carbon light1 the bright herald of later glories4 ,among the most noted new batteries were ,daniell's1 ,grove's and ,bunsen's4 ,they are called the 8two fluid batteries10 because in place of a single acidulated bath in which the dissimilar metals were before placed1 two different liquid solutions were employed4 ,john ,frederick ,daniell of ,london1 noted for his great work1 ,meteorological ,essays1 and other scientific publications1 and as ,professor of ,chemistry in ,king's ,college1 in #ahcf1 described how a powerful and constant current of electricity may be continued for an unlimited period by a battery composed of zinc standing in an acid solution and a sheet of copper in a solution of sulphate of copper4 ,sir ,william ,robert ,grove1 first an ,english physician1 then an eminent lawyer1 and then a professor of natural philosophy1 and the first to announce the great theory of the ,correlation of ,physical ,forces1 in #ahci produced his battery1 much more powerful than any previous one1 and still in general use4 ,in it zinc and platinum are the metals used--the zinc bent into cylindrical form and placed in a glass jar containing a weak solution of sulphuric acid1 while the platinum stands in a porous jar holding strong nitric acid and surrounded by the zinc4 ,among the electrical discoveries of ,grove were the decomposition by electricity of water into free oxygen and hydrogen1 the electricity of the flame of the blow-pipe1 electrical action produced by proximity1 without contact1 of dissimilar metals1 molecular movements induced in metals by the electric current1 and the conversion of electricity into mechanical force4 ,robert ,wilhelm ,bunsen1 a ,german chemist and philosopher and scientific writer1 who invented some of the most important aids to scientific research of the century1 who constructed the best working chemical laboratory on the continent and founded the most celebrated schools of chemistry in ,europe1 invented a battery1 sometimes called the carbon battery1 in which the expensive pole of platinum in the ,grove battery is replaced by one of carbon4 ,it was found that this combination gave a greater current than that of zinc and platinum4 ,a great variety of useful voltaic batteries have since been devised by others1 too numerous to be mentioned here4 ,there is another form of battery having for its object the storing of energy by electrolysis1 and liberating it when desired1 in the form of an electric current1 and known as an accumulator1 or secondary1 polarization1 or storage battery4 ,prof4 ,ritter had noticed that the two plates of metal which furnished the electric current1 when placed in the acid liquid and united1 could in themselves furnish a current1 and the inventing of storage batteries was thus produced4 ,the principal ones of this class are ,gustave ,plant's of #ahfj and ,m4 ,camille ,faure's of #ahhj4 ,these have still further been improved4 ,still another form are the thermo-electric batteries1 in which the electro-motive force is produced by the joining of two different metals1 connecting them by a wire and heating their junctions4 ,thus1 an electric current is obtained directly from heat1 without going through the intermediate processes of boiling water to produce steam1 using this steam to drive an engine1 and using this engine to turn a dynamo machine to produce power4 ,but let us retrace our steps3--,as previously stated1 ,franklin had experimented with frictional electricity on needles1 and had magnetised and polarised them and noticed their deflection2 and ,lesage had established an experimental telegraph at ,geneva by the same kind of electricity more than a hundred years ago4 ,but frictional electricity could not be transmitted with power over long distances1 and was for practical purposes uncontrollable by reason of its great diffusion over surfaces1 while voltaic electricity was found to be more intense and could be developed with great power along a wire for any distance4 ,fine wires had been heated and even melted by ,franklin by frictional electricity1 and now ,ritter1 ,pfaff and others observed the same effect produced on the conducting wires by a voltaic current2 and ,curtet1 on closing the passage with a piece of charcoal1 produced a brilliant light1 which was followed by ,davy's light already mentioned4 ,as early as #ahjb an ,italian savant1 ,gian ,d4 ,romagnosi of ,trent1 learning of ,volta's discovery1 observed and announced in a public print the deflection of the magnetic needle when placed near a parallel conductor of the galvanic current4 ,in the years #ahai and #ahbj so many brilliant discoveries and inventions were made by eminent men1 independently and together1 and at such near and distant places1 that it is hard telling who and which was first4 ,it was in #ahai that the celebrated ,danish physicist1 ,oersted of ,copenhagen1 rediscovered the phenomena that the voltaic current would deflect a magnetic needle1 and that the needle would turn at right angles to the wire4 ,in #ahbj ,prof4 ,s4 ,c4 ,schweigger of ,halle discovered that this deflecting force was increased when the wire was wound several times round the needle1 and thus he invented the magnetising helix4 ,he also then invented a galvano-magnetic indicator 7a single-wire circuit7 by giving the insulated wire a number of turns around an elongated frame longitudinally enclosing the compass needle1 thus multiplying the effect of the current upon the sensitive needle1 and converting it into a practical measuring instrument--known as the galvanometer1 and used to observe the strength of currents4 ,in the same year ,arago found that iron filings were attracted by a voltaic charged wire2 and ,arago and ,davy that a piece of soft iron surrounded spirally by a wire through which such a current was passed would become magnetic1 attract to it other metals while in that condition1 immediately drop them the instant the current ceased1 and that such current would permanently magnetise a steel bar4 ,the elements of the electro-magnet had thus been produced4 ,it was in that year that ,ampre discovered that magnetism is the circulation of currents of electricity at right angles to the axis of the needle or bar joining the two poles of the magnet4 ,he then laid down the laws of interaction between magnets and electrical currents1 and in this same year he proposed an electric-magneto telegraph consisting of the combination of a voltaic battery1 conducting wires1 and magnetic needles1 one needle for each letter of the alphabet4 ,the discoveries of ,ampre as to the laws of electricity have been likened to the discovery of ,newton of the law of gravitation4 ,still no practical result1 that is1 no useful machine1 had been produced by the electro-magnet4 ,in #ahbe ,sturgeon of ,england bent a piece of wire into the shape of a horse-shoe1 insulated it with a coating of sealing wax1 wound a fine copper wire around it1 thus making a helix1 passed a galvanic current through the helix1 and thus invented the first practical electro-magnet4 ,but ,sturgeon's magnet was weak1 and could not transmit power for more than fifty feet4 ,already1 however1 it had been urged that ,sturgeon's magnet could be used for telegraphic purposes1 and a futile trial was made4 ,in the field during this decade also labored the ,german professors ,gauss and ,weber1 and ,baron ,schilling of ,russia4 ,in #ahbi ,prof4 ,barlow of ,england published an article in which he summarised what had been done1 and scientifically demonstrated to his own satisfaction that an electro-magnetic telegraph was impracticable1 and his conclusion was accepted by the scientific world as a fact4 ,this was1 however1 not the first nor the last time that scientific men had predicted impracticabilities with electricity which afterwards blossomed into full success4 ,but even before ,prof4 ,barlow was thus arriving at his discouraging conclusion1 ,prof4 ,joseph ,henry at the ,albany ,institute in the ,state of ,new ,york had commenced experiments which resulted in the complete and successful demonstration of the power of electro-magnetism for not only telegraph purposes but for almost every advancement that has since been had in this branch of physics4 ,in ,march #ahbi he exhibited at his ,institute the magnetic 8spool0 or 8bobbin10 that form of coil composed of tightly-wound1 silk-covered wire which he had constructed1 and which since has been universally employed for nearly every application of electro-magnetism1 of induction1 or of magneto-electrics4 ,and in the same year and in #ahcj he produced those powerful magnets through which the energy of a galvanic battery was used to lift hundreds of tons of weight4 ,in view of all the facts now historically established1 there can be no doubt that previous to ,henry's experiments the means for developing magnetism in soft iron were imperfectly understood1 and that1 as found by ,prof4 ,barlow1 the electro-magnet which then existed was inapplicable and impracticable for the transmission of power to a distance4 ,prof4 ,henry was the first to prove that a galvanic battery of 8intensity0 must be employed to project the current through a long conductor1 and that a magnet of one long wire must be used to receive this current2 the first to magnetise a piece of soft iron at a distance and call attention to its applicability to the telegraph2 the first to actually sound a bell at a distance by means of the electro-magnet2 and the first to show that the principles he developed were applicable and necessary to the practical operation of an effective telegraph system4 ,sturgeon1 the parent of the electro-magnet1 on learning of ,henry's discoveries and inventions1 wrote3 8,professor ,henry has been enabled to produce a magnetic force which totally eclipses every other in the whole annals of magnetism2 and no parallel is to be found since the miraculous suspension of the celebrated oriental impostor in his iron coffin40 7,philosophical ,magazine and ,annals1 #ahcb47 ,the third decade was now prepared for the development of the telegraph4 ,as to the telegraph in its broadest sense1 as a means for conveying intelligence to a distance quickly and without a messenger1 successful experiments of that kind have existed from the earliest times3--from the signal fires of the ancients2 from the flag signals between ships at sea1 introduced in the seventeenth century by the ,duke of ,york1 then ,admiral of the ,english fleet1 and afterwards ,james ,,ii of ,england2 from the semaphore telegraph of ,m4 ,chappe1 adopted by the ,french government in #agid1 consisting of bars pivoted to an upright stationary post1 and made to swing vertically or horizontally to indicate certain signals2 and from many other forms of earlier and later days4 ,as to electricity as an agent for the transmission of signals1 the idea dates1 as already stated1 from the discovery of ,stephen ,gray in #agbi1 that the electrical influence could be conveyed to a distance by the means of an insulated wire4 ,this was followed by the practical suggestions of ,franklin and others4 ,but when1 as we have seen1 voltaic electricity entered the field1 electricity became a more powerful and tractable servant1 and distant intelligent signals became one of its first labors4 ,the second decade was also made notable by the discovery and establishment by ,george ,simon ,ohm1 a ,german professor of ,physics1 of the fundamental mathematical law of electricity3 ,it has been expressed in the following terms3 7a7 the current strength is equal to the electro-motive force divided by the resistance2 7b7 the force is equal to the current strength multiplied by the resistance2 7c7 the resistance is equal to the force divided by the current strength4 ,the historical development and evolution of the telegraph may be now summarized3-- #a4 ,the discovery of galvanic electricity by ,galvani--#aghf-agij4 #b4 ,the galvanic or voltaic battery by ,volta in #ahjj4 #c4 ,the galvanic influence on a magnetic needle by ,romagnosi 7#ahjb7 ,oersted 7#ahbj74 #d4 ,the galvanometer of ,schweigger1 #ahbj--the parent of the needle system4 #e4 ,the electro-magnet by ,arago and ,sturgeon--#ahbj-ahbe--the parent of the magnet system4 ,then followed in the third decade the important series of steps in the evolution1 consisting of3-- ,first1 and most vital1 ,henry's discovery in #ahbi and #ahcj of the 8intensity0 or spool-wound magnet1 and its intimate relation to the 8intensity0 battery1 and the subordinate use of an armature as the signalling device4 ,second1 ,gauss's improvement in #ahcc 7or probably ,schilling's considerably earlier7 of reducing the electric conductors to a single circuit by the ingenious use of a dual sign so combined as to produce a true alphabet4 ,third1 ,weber's discovery in #ahcc that the conducting wires of an electric telegraph could be efficiently carried through the air without any insulation except at their points of support4 ,fourth1 ,daniell's invention of a 8constant0 galvanic battery in #ahcf4 ,fifth1 ,steinheil's remarkable discovery in #ahcg that the earth may form the returning half of a closed galvanic circuit1 so that a single conducting wire is sufficient for all telegraphic purposes4 ,sixth1 ,morse's adaptation of the armature and electro-magnet of ,henry as a recording instrument in #ahcg in connection with his improvement in #ahch on the ,schilling1 ,gauss and ,steinheil alphabets by employing the simple 8dot and dash0 alphabet in a single line4 ,he was also assisted by the suggestions of ,profs4 ,dana and ,gale4 ,to which must be added his adoption of ,alfred ,vail's improved alphabet1 and ,vail's practical suggestions in respect to the recording and other instrumentalities4 ,to these should be added the efforts in ,england1 made almost simultaneously with those of ,morse1 of ,wheatstone and ,cook and ,davy1 who were reaching the same goal by somewhat different routes4 ,morse in #ahcg commenced to put the results of his experiments and investigations in the form of caveats1 applications and letters patent in the ,united ,states and in ,europe4 ,he struggled hard against indifference and poverty to introduce his invention to the world4 ,it was not until #ahdd that he reduced it to a commercial practical success4 ,he then laid a telegraph from ,washington to ,baltimore under the auspices of the ,united ,states ,government1 which after long hesitation appropriated #cj1jjj for the purpose4 ,it was on the #bdth day of ,may1 #ahdd1 that the first formal message was transmitted on this line between the two cities and recorded by the electro-magnet in the dot and dash alphabet1 and this was immediately followed by other messages on the same line4 ,morse gathered freely from all sources of which he could avail himself knowledge of what had gone before4 ,he was not a scientific discoverer1 but an inventor1 who1 adding a few ideas of his own to what had before been discovered1 was the first to combine them in a practical useful device4 ,what he did as an inventor1 and what anyone may do to constitute himself an inventor1 by giving to the world a device which is useful in the daily work of mankind1 as distinguished from the scientific discoverer who stops short of successful industrial work1 is thus stated by the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court in an opinion sustaining the validity of his patents1 after all the previous art had been produced before it3-- 8,neither can the inquiries he made nor the information or advice he received from men of science in the course of his researches impair his right to the character of an inventor4 ,no invention can possibly be made1 consisting of a combination of different elements of power1 without a thorough knowledge of the properties of each of them1 and the mode in which they operate on each other4 ,and it can make no difference in this respect1 whether he derives his information from books1 or from conversation with men skilled in the science4 ,if it were otherwise1 no patent in which a combination of different elements is used would ever be obtained1 for no man ever made such an invention without having first obtained this information1 unless it was discovered by some fortunate accident4 ,and it is evident that such an invention as the electro-magnetic telegraph could never have been brought into action without it2 for a very high degree of scientific knowledge and the nicest skill in the mechanic arts are combined in it1 and were both necessary to bring it into successful operation4 ,the fact that ,morse sought and obtained the necessary information and counsel from the best sources1 and acted upon it1 neither impairs his rights as an inventor nor detracts from his merits40--,o',reilly vs4 ,morse1 #e ,howard4 ,the combination constituting ,morse's invention comprised a main wire circuit to transmit the current through its whole length whenever closed2 a main galvanic battery to supply the current2 operating keys to break and close the main circuit2 office circuits2 a circuit of conductors and batteries at each office to record the message there2 receiving spring lever magnets to close an office circuit when a current passes through the main circuit2 adjusting screws to vary the force of the main current2 marking apparatus1 consisting of pointed pieces of wire1 to indent dots and lines upon paper2 clockwork to move the paper indented2 and magnet sounders to develop the power of the pointer and of the armatures to produce audible distinguishable sounds4 ,it was soon learned by operators how to distinguish the signs or letters sent by the length of the 8click0 of the armature1 and by thus reading by sound the reading of the signs on paper was dispensed with1 and the device became an electric-magnetic acoustic telegraph4 ,what is known as the ,morse system has been improved1 but its fundamental principles remain1 and their world-wide use constitute still the daily evidence of the immense value of the invention to mankind4 ,before the #ahdd reduction to practice1 ,morse had originated and laid the first submarine telegraph4 ,this was in ,new ,york harbour in #ahdb4 ,in a letter to the ,secretary of the ,united ,states ,treasury1 ,august #aj1 #ahdc1 he also suggested the project of an ,atlantic telegraph4 ,while ,henry was busy with his great magnets and ,morse struggling to introduce his telegraph1 ,michael ,faraday was making those investigations and discoveries which were to result in the application of electricity to the service of man in still wider and grander fields4 ,faraday was a chemist1 and ,davy's most brilliant pupil and efficient assistant4 ,his earliest experiments were in the line of electrolysis4 ,this was about #ahbb1 but it was not until #ahca that he began to devote his brilliant talents as an experimentalist and lecturer wholly to electrical researches1 and for a quarter of a century his patient1 wonderful labours and discoveries continued4 ,it has been said that 8although ,oersted was the discoverer of electro-magnetism and ,ampre its expounder1 ,faraday made the science of magnets electrically what it is at the present day40 ,great magnetic power having been developed by passing a galvanic current around a bar of soft iron1 ,faraday concluded that it was reasonable to suppose that as mechanical action is accompanied by an equal amount of reaction1 electricity ought to be evolved from magnetism4 8,it was in #ahca that ,faraday demonstrated before the ,royal ,society that if a magnetized bar of steel be introduced into the centre of a helix of insulated wire1 there is at the moment of introduction of the magnet a current of electricity set up in a certain direction in the insulated wire forming the helix1 while on the withdrawal of the magnet from the helix a current in an opposite direction takes place4 8,he also discovered that the same phenomenon was to be observed if for the magnet was substituted a coil of insulated wire1 through which the current from a voltaic element was passing2 and further that when an insulated coil of wire was made to revolve before the poles of a permanent magnet1 electric currents were induced in the wires of the coil40--,journal of the ,society of ,arts4 ,on these discoveries were based the action of all magneto-dynamo electric machines--machines that have enabled the world to convert the energy of a steam engine in its stall1 or a distant waterfall1 into electric energy for the performance of the herculean labours of lighting a great city1 or an ocean-bound lighthouse1 or transporting quickly heavy loads of people or freight up and down and to and fro upon the earth4 ,as before stated1 ,faraday was also the first to proclaim the laws of electrolysis1 or electro-chemical decomposition4 ,he expressed conviction that the forces termed chemical affinity and electricity are one and the same4 ,subsequently the great ,helmholtz1 having proved by experiment that in the phenomena of electrolysis no other force acts but the mutual attractions of the atomic electric charges1 came to the conclusion1 8that the very mightiest among the chemical forces are of electric origin40 ,faraday having demonstrated by his experiments that chemical decomposition1 electricity1 magnetism1 heat and light1 are all inter-convertible and correlated forces1 the inventors of the age were now ready to step forward and put these theories at work in machines in the service of man4 ,faraday was a leader in the field of discovery4 ,he left to inventors the practical application of his discoveries4 ,prof4 ,henry in ,america was1 contemporaneously with ,faraday1 developing electricity by means of magnetic induction4 ,in #ahcb1 ,pixii1 a philosophical instrument-maker of ,paris1 and ,joseph ,saxton1 an ,american then residing in ,london1 invented and constructed magneto-machines on ,faraday's principle of rendering magnetic a core of soft iron surrounded with insulated wire from a permanent magnet1 and rapidly reversing its polarity1 which machines were used to produce sparks1 decompose liquids and metals1 and fire combustible bodies4 ,saxton's machine was the well-known electric shock machine operated by turning a crank4 ,a similar device is now used for ringing telephone call bells4 ,prof4 ,c4 ,g4 ,page of ,washington and ,ruhmkorff of ,paris each made a machine1 well known as the ,ruhmkorff coil1 by which intense electro-magnetic currents by induction were produced4 ,the production of electrical illumination was now talked of more than ever4 ,scientists and inventors now had two forms of electrical machines to produce light3 the voltaic battery and the magneto-electric apparatus4 ,but a period of comparative rest took place in this line until #ahej1 when ,prof4 ,nollet of ,brussels made an effort to produce a powerful magneto-electric machine for decomposing water into its elements of hydrogen and oxygen1 which gases were then to be used in producing the lime light2 and a company known as 8,the ,alliance0 was organized at ,paris to make large machines for the production of light4 ,we have seen that ,davy produced a brilliant electric light with two pieces of charcoal in the electric circuit of a voltaic battery4 ,greener and ,staite revived this idea in a patent in #ahde4 ,shortly after ,nollet's machine1 ,f4 ,h4 ,holmes of ,england improved it and applied the current directly to the production of electric light between carbon points4 ,and ,holmes and ,faraday in #aheg prepared this machine for use4 ,on the evening of ,december #h1 #aheh1 the first practical electric light1 the work of ,faraday and ,holmes1 flashed over the troubled sea from the ,south ,foreland ,lighthouse4 ,on ,june #f1 #ahfb1 this light was also introduced into the lighthouse at ,dungeness1 ,england4 ,the same light was introduced in ,french lighthouses in ,december1 #ahfc1 and also in the work on the docks of ,cherbourg4 ,at this time ,germany was also awake to the importance of this invention1 and ,dr4 ,werner ,siemens of ,berlin was at work developing a machine for the purpose into one of less cost and of greater use4 ,inventors were not yet satisfied with the power developed from either the voltaic battery or the magneto-electric machine1 and continued to improve the latter4 ,in #ahfg1 the same year that ,faraday died1 and too late for him to witness its glory1 came out the most powerful magneto-electric machine that had yet been produced4 ,it was invented by ,wilde of ,london1 and consisted of very large electro-magnets1 or field magnets1 receiving their electric power from the 8lines of force0 discovered by ,faraday1 radiating from the poles of a soft iron magnet1 combined with a small magneto-electric machine having permanent magnets1 and by which the current developed in the smaller machine was sent through the coils of the larger magnets4 ,by this method the magnetic force was vastly multiplied1 and electricity was produced in such abundance as to fuse thick iron wire fifteen inches long and one-fourth of an inch in diameter1 and to develop a magnificent arc light4 ,quickly succeeding the ,wilde machine came independent inventions in the same direction from ,messrs4 ,g4 ,farmer of ,salem1 ,mass41 ,alfred ,yarley and ,prof4 ,charles ,wheatstone of ,england1 and ,dr4 ,siemens of ,berlin1 and ,ladd of ,america4 ,these inventors conceived and put in practice the great idea of employing the current from an electro-magnetic machine to excite its own electric magnet4 ,they were thus termed 8self-exciting40 ,the idea was that the commutator 7an instrument to change the direction1 strength or circuit of the current7 should be so connected with the coils of the field magnets that all or a part of the current developed in the armature would flow through these coils1 so that all permanent magnets might be dispensed with1 and the machine used to excite itself or charge its own field magnets without the aid of any outside charging or feeding mechanism4 ,mr4 ,z4 ,gramme1 of ,france1 a little later than ,wilde made a great improvement4 ,previously1 machines furnished only momentary currents of varying strength and polarity2 and these intermittent currents were hard to control without loss in the strength of current and the frequent production of sparks4 ,gramme produced a machine in which1 although as in other machines the magnetic field of force was created by a powerful magnet1 yet the armature was a ring made of soft iron rods1 and surrounded by an endless coil of wire1 and made to revolve between the poles of the magnet with great rapidity1 producing a constant current in one direction4 ,by ,faraday's discovery1 when the coil of the closed circuit was moved before the poles of the magnet1 the current was carried half the time in one direction and half in the other1 constituting what is called an alternating current4 ,gramme employed the commutator to make the current direct instead of alternating4 ,dynamo-electric machines for practical work of many kinds had now been born and grown to strength4 ,in addition to these and many other electrical machines this century has discovered several ways by which the electricity developed by such machines may be converted into light4 ,i4 ,by means of two carbon conductors between which passes a series of intensely brilliant sparks which form a species of flame known as the voltaic arc1 and the heat of which is more intense than that from any other known artificial source4 ,,ii4 ,by means of a rod of carbon or kaolin1 strip of platinum or iridium1 a carbon filament1 or other substance placed between two conductors1 the resistance opposed by such rod1 strip1 or filament to the passage of the current being so great as to develop heat to the point of incandescence1 and produce a steady white and pure light4 ,attempts also have been made to produce illumination by what is called stratified light produced by the electric discharge passing through tubes containing various gases4 ,these tubes are known as ,geissler tubes1 from their inventor4 ,still another method is the production of a continuous light from a vibratory movement of carbon electrodes to and from each other1 producing a bright flash at each separation1 and maintaining the separations at such a rate that the effect of the light produced is continuous4 ,but these additional methods do not appear as yet to be commercially successful4 ,it must not be overlooked that before dynamo-magneto-electric machines were used practically in the production of the electric light for the purposes of illumination1 the voltaic battery was used for the same purpose1 but not economically4 ,the first private dwelling house ever lighted in ,america1 or doubtless anywhere else1 by electricity1 was that of ,moses ,g4 ,farmer1 in ,salem1 ,massachusetts1 in the year #ahei4 ,a voltaic battery furnished the current to conducting wires which led to two electric lamps on the mantel-piece of the drawing-room1 and in which strips of platinum constituted the resisting and lighting medium4 ,a soft1 mild1 agreeable light was produced1 which was more delightful to read or sew by than any artificial light ever before known4 ,either or both lamps could be lighted by turning a button1 and they were maintained for several weeks1 but were discontinued for the reason that the cost of maintaining them was much greater than of gas light4 ,it was in connection with the effective dynamo-electric apparatus of ,m4 ,gramme above referred to that the electric candle invented by ,m4 ,paul ,jablochoff became soon thereafter extensively employed for electric lighting in ,paris1 and elsewhere in ,europe4 ,this invention1 like the great majority of useful inventions1 is noted for its simplicity4 ,it consists of two carbon pencils placed side by side and insulated from each other by means of a thin plate of some refractory material which is a non-conductor at ordinary temperatures1 but which becomes a conductor1 and consequently a light1 when fused by the action of a powerful current4 ,plaster of ,paris was found to be the most suitable material for this purpose1 and the light produced was soft1 mellow1 slightly rose-coloured1 and quite agreeable to the eye4 ,it having been found that carbon was better adapted for lighting purposes than platinum or other metals1 by reason of its greater radiating power for equal temperatures1 and still greater infusibility at high temperatures1 inventors turned their attention to the production of the best carbon lamp4 ,the two pointed pieces of hard conducting carbon used for the separated terminals constitute the voltaic arc light--a light only excelled in intense brilliancy by the sun itself4 ,it is necessary in order to make such a light successful that it should be continuous4 ,but as it is found that both carbons waste away under the consuming action of the intense heat engendered by their resistance to the electric current1 and that one electrode1 the positive1 wastes away twice as fast as the opposite negative electrode1 the distance between the points soon becomes too great for the current longer to leap over it1 and the light is then extinguished4 ,many ingenious contrivances have been devised for correcting this trouble1 and maintaining a continuously uniform distance between the carbons by giving to them a self-adjusting automatic action4 ,such an apparatus is called a regulator1 and the variety of regulators is very great4 ,the ,french were among the first to contrive such regulators1--,duboscq1 ,foucault1 ,serrin1 ,houdin1 and ,lontin invented most useful forms of such apparatus4 ,other early inventors were ,hart of ,scotland1 ,siemens of ,germany1 ,thompson and ,houston of ,england1 and ,farmer1 ,brush1 ,wallace1 ,maxim1 and ,weston and ,westinghouse of ,america4 ,gramme made his armature of iron rods to prevent its destruction by heat4 ,weston in #ahhb improved this method by making the armature of separate and insulated sheets of iron around which the coil is wound4 ,the arc light is adapted for streets and great buildings1 etc42 but for indoor illumination1 when a milder1 softer light is desirable1 the incandescent light was invented1 and this consists of a curved filament of carbon about the size of a coarse horsehair1 seated in a bulb of glass from which the air has been exhausted4 ,in exhausted air carbon rods or filaments are not consumed1 and so great ingenuity was exercised on that line4 ,among the early noted inventors of incandescent carbon filament lamps were ,edison and ,maxim of ,new ,york1 ,swan1 and ,lane-,fox of ,england4 ,another problem to be solved arose in the proposed use of arc lamps upon an extended scale1 or in series1 as in street lighting1 wherein the current to all lamps was supplied by a single wire1 and where it was found that owing to the unequal consumption of the carbons some were burning well1 some poorly1 and some going out4 ,it was essential1 therefore1 to make each lamp independent of the resistance of the main circuit and of the action of the other lamps1 and to have its regulating mechanism governed entirely by the resistance of its own arc4 ,the solution of this difficult problem was the invention by ,heffner von ,alteneck of ,germany1 and his device came into use wherever throughout the world arc lamps were operated4 ,westinghouse also improved the direct alternating system of lighting by one wire by the introduction of two conducting wires parallel to each other1 and passing an interrupted or alternating current through one1 thereby inducing a similar and always an alternating current through the other4 ,brush adopted a three-wire system2 and both obtained a uniform consumption of the carbons4 ,in a volume like this1 room exists for mention only of those inventions which burn as beacon lights on the tallest hills--and so we must now pass on to others4 ,just as ,faraday was bringing his long series of experimental researches to a close in #ahef-ei1 and introducing the fruits of his labours into the lighthouses of ,england1 ,cyrus ,w4 ,field of ,new ,york had commenced his trials in the great scheme of an ocean cable to 8moor the new world alongside the old10 as ,john ,bright expressed it4 ,after crossing the ocean from ,new ,york to ,england fifty times1 and baffled often by the ocean1 which broke his cables1 and by the incredulous public of both hemispheres1 who laughed at him1 and by electricity1 which refused to do his bidding1 he at last overcame all obstacles1 and in #ahff the cable two thousand miles in length had been successfully stretched and communication perfected4 ,to employ currents of great power1 the cable insulation would have been disintegrated and finally destroyed by heat4 ,therefore only feeble currents could be used4 ,but across that long distance these currents for many reasons grew still weaker4 ,the inventor1 ,sir ,william ,thomson1 was at hand to provide the remedy4 ,first1 by his mirror galvanometer4 ,a needle in the shape of a small magnet and connected to the current wires1 is attached to the back of a small concave mirror having a hole in its centre2 opposite the mirror is placed a graduated scale board1 having slits through it1 and a lighted lamp behind it4 ,the light is thrown through the slits across to the hole at the center of the mirror and upon the needle4 ,the feeblest imaginable current suffices to deflect the needle in one direction1 which throws back the little beam of light upon it to the graduated front of the scale4 ,when the current is reversed the needle and its shadow are deflected in the other direction1 and so by a combination of right and left motions1 and pauses1 of the spots of light to represent letters1 the message is spelled out4 ,second1 a more expeditious instrument called the syphon recorder4 ,in this the galvanometer needle is connected to a fine glass syphon tube conducting ink from a reservoir on to a strip of paper which is drawn under the point of the tube with a uniform motion4 ,the irregular movements given the galvanometer needle by the varying current are clearly delineated on the paper4 ,or in writing very long cables the point of the syphon may not touch the paper1 but the ink by electrical attraction from the paper is ejected from the syphon upon the paper in a succession of fine dots4 ,the irregular lines of dots and dashes were translated into words in accordance with the principles of the ,morse telegraph4 ,an instrument was exhibited at the ,centennial ,international ,exhibition at ,philadelphia in #ahgf1 which was considered by the judges 8the greatest marvel hitherto achieved by the electric telegraph40 ,such was the language used both by ,prof4 ,joseph ,henry and ,sir ,wm4 ,thomson1 and concurred in by the other eminent judges from ,america1 ,germany1 ,france1 ,austria and ,switzerland4 ,this instrument was the ,telephone4 ,it embodied1 for the practical purpose of transmitting articulate speech to distances1 the union of the two great forces1--sound and electricity4 ,it consisted of a method and an apparatus4 ,the apparatus or means consisted of an electric battery circuit1 a transmitting cone placed at one end of the line into which speech and other vocal sounds were uttered1 a diaphragm against which the sounds were projected1 an armature secured to or forming a part of the diaphragm1 an electro-magnet loosely connected to the armature1 a wire connecting this magnet with another precisely similar arrangement of magnet1 armature1 diaphragm1 and cone1 at the receiving end4 ,when speech was uttered in the transmitter the sound vibrations were received on the diaphragm1 communicated to the electricised armature1 from thence by induction to the magnet and the connecting wire current1 which1 undulating with precisely the same form of sound vibrations1 carried them in exactly the same form to the receiving magnet4 ,they were then carried through the receiving armature and reproduced on the receiving diaphragm1 with all the same characteristics of pitch1 loudness and quality4 ,the inventor was ,alexander ,graham ,bell1 by nativity a ,scotchman1 then a resident of ,canada1 and finally a citizen of the ,united ,states4 ,his father was a teacher of vocal physiology at ,edinburgh1 and he himself became a teacher of deaf mutes4 ,this occupation naturally led him to a thorough investigation of the laws of sound4 ,he acknowledged the aid he received from the great work of ,helmholtz on the ,theory of ,tone4 ,his attention was called to sounds transmitted and reproduced by the electric current1 especially by the ease with which telegraph operators read their messages by the duration of the 8click0 of their instruments4 ,he knew of the old device of a tightly-stretched string or wire between two little boxes4 ,he had read the publication of ,prof4 ,c4 ,g4 ,page1 of ,america1 in #ahcg1 on the ,production of ,galvanic ,music1 in which was described how musical notes were transmitted and reproduced by an interrupted magnetic circuit4 ,he became acquainted with the experimental musical telephonic and acoustic researches of ,reis1 and others of ,germany1 and those of celebrated scientists in ,france1 especially the phonautograph of ,scott1 a delicate instrument having a cone membrane and pointer1 and used to reproduce on smoked glass the waves of sound4 ,he commenced his experiments with magneto instruments in #ahgd1 continued them in #ahge1 when he succeeded in reproducing speech1 but poorly1 owing to his imperfect instruments1 and then made out his application1 and obtained a patent in the ,united ,states in ,july1 #ahgf4 ,like all the other remarkable inventions recorded in these pages1 this 8marvel0 did not spring forth as a sudden creation1 but was a slow growth of a plant derived from old ideas1 although it blossomed out suddenly one day when audible sounds were accidentally produced upon an apparatus with which he was experimenting4 ,it is impossible here to narrate the tremendous conflict that ,bell now encountered to establish his title as first inventor1 or to enumerate the multitude of improvements and changes made which go to make up the successful telephone of to-day4 ,the messages of the voice are carried on the wings of electricity wherever any messages are carried1 except under the widest seas1 and this difficulty inventors are now seeking to overcome4 ,the story of the marvellous inventions of the century in electricity is a fascinating one1 but in length and details it is also marvellous1 and we must hasten unwillingly to a close4 ,numerous applications of it will be mentioned in chapters relating to other arts4 ,in the generation of this mighty force improvements have been made1 but those of greatest power still involve the principles discovered by ,faraday and ,henry seventy years ago4 ,the ideas of ,faraday of the 8lines of force0--the magnetic power streaming from the poles of the magnet somewhat as the rays of heat issue on all sides from a hot body1 forming the magnetic field--and that a magnet behaves like an electric current1 producing an electric wave by its approach to or recession from a coil of wire1 joined with ,henry's idea of increasing the magnetising effect by increasing the number of coils around the magnet1 enter into all powerful dynamo electric machines of to-day4 ,in them the lines of force must flow around the frame and across the path of the armature2 and there must be a set of conductors to cut the lines of force twice in every revolution of the cylinder carrying the armature from which the current is taken4 ,when machines had been produced for generating with some economy powerful currents of electricity1 their use for the world's business purposes rapidly increased4 ,among such applications1 and following closely the electric lighting1 came the electric railway4 ,a substitute for the slow animal1 horse1 and for the dangerous1 noisy steam horse and its lumbering locomotive and train1 was hailed with delight4 ,inventors came forward with adaptations of all the old systems they could think of for the purpose1 and with many new ones4 ,one plan was to adapt the storage battery--that silent chemical monster which carries its own power and its own machine--and place one on each car to actuate a motor connected to the driving wheels4 ,another plan was to conduct the current from the dynamo machine at its station along the rails on one side of the track to the motor on the car and the return current on the opposite track2 another was to carry the current to the car on a third rail between the track1 using both the other rails for the return2 another to use an overhead wire for the current from the dynamo1 and connect it with the car by a rod1 one end of which had a little wheel or trolley running on the overhead wire1 to take up the current1 the other end being connected by a wire to the car motor2 another plan to have a trench made leading from the central station underneath the track the whole length of the line1 and put into this trench conducting wires from the dynamo1 to one of which the car motor should be connected by a trolley rod or 8brush10 extending down through a central slot between the rails of the track to carry the electric supply into the motor4 ,in all these cases a lever was supplied to cut off communication between the conducting wire and the motor1 and a brake lever to stop the car4 ,all of these plans have been tried1 and some of them are still being tried with many improvements in detail1 but not in principle4 ,the first electrical railway was constructed and operated at ,berlin in #ahgi1 by ,messrs ,siemens and ,halske4 ,it was two thousand seven hundred feet long and built on the third rail system4 ,this was an experiment but a successful one4 ,it was followed very soon by another line near ,berlin for actual traffic2 then still another in ,saxony4 ,at the ,paris ,exposition in #ahha1 ,sir ,wm4 ,siemens had in operation a road about one thousand six hundred feet in length1 on which it is estimated ninety-five thousand passengers were conveyed in seven weeks4 ,then in the next year in ,london2 and then in the following year one in the ,united ,states near ,new ,york1 constructed by ,edison4 ,and thus they spread1 until every important town and city in the world seems to have its electric plant1 and its electric car system1 and of course its lighting1 telephone and telegraph systems4 ,in #ahhb ,prof4 ,fleeming ,jenkin of ,england invented and has put to use a system called ,telpherage1 by which cars are suspended on an overhead wire which is both the track and electrical conductor4 ,it has been found to be advantageous in the transportation of freight from mines and other places to central stations4 ,with the coming of the electric railway1 the slow1 much-abused horse1 the puffing steam engine blowing off smoke and cinders through the streets1 the great heavy cars1 rails and roadbeds1 the dangerous collisions and accidents1 have disappeared4 ,the great problems to solve have related to generation1 form1 distribution and division of the electric current at the dynamos at the central stations for the purposes of running the distant motors and for furnishing independent supplies of light1 heat1 sound and power4 ,these problems have received the attention of the keenest inventors and electrical engineers and have been solved4 ,the description of the inventions made by such electrical magicians as ,thomas ,edison and ,nikola ,tesla would fill volumes4 ,the original plan of sending but one message over a wire at a time has also been improved2 and duplex1 quadruplex and multiplex systems have been invented 7by ,stearns1 ,farmer1 ,edison and others7 and applied1 which have multiplied the capacity of the telegraphs1 and by which even the alleged all-talk-at-the-same-time habit of certain members of the great human family can be carried on in opposite directions on the same wire at the same time between their gatherings in different cities and without a break4 ,to understand the manner of multiplying messages or signals on the same line1 and using apparently the same electric current to perform different operations1 the mind must revert to the theory already referred to1 that a current of electricity does not consist of a stream of matter flowing like water through a conductor in one direction1 but of particles of subtle ether1 vibrating or oscillating in waves from and around the conductor which excites them2 that the vibration of this line of waves proceeds at the rate of many thousand miles per second1 almost with the velocity of waves of light1 with which they are so closely related2 that this wave current is susceptible of being varied in direction and in strength1 according to the impulse given by the initial pressure of the transmitting and exciting instrument2 and that some wave currents have power by reason of their form or strength to penetrate or pass others coming from an opposite direction4 ,so that in the multiplex process1 for instance1 each transmission having a certain direction or strength and its own set of transmitting and receiving instruments1 will have power to give its own peculiar and independent signal or message4 ,apparently there is but one continuous current1 but in reality each transmission is separated from the others by an almost inconceivably short interval of time4 ,among the inventions in the class of ,telegraphy should also be mentioned the dial and the printing systems4 ,ever since the electric telegraph was invented1 attempts have been made to use the electric influence to operate either a pointer to point out the letters of the message sent on a dial1 or to print them on a moving strip of paper2 and also to automatically reproduce on paper the handwriting of the sender or writer of the message4 ,the earliest efforts were by ,cooke and ,prof4 ,wheatstone of ,london1 in #ahcf-cg2 but it was not until #ahci1 after ,prof4 ,henry had succeeded in perfecting the electromagnet1 that dial and printing telegraphs were successfully produced4 ,dial telegraphs consist of the combination with magnets1 armatures and printed dial plate of a clock-work and a pointer1 means to set the pointer at the communicating end 7which in some instances has been a piano keyboard7 to any letter1 the current operating automatically to indicate the same letters at the receiving end4 ,these instruments have been modified and improved by ,brequet and ,froment of ,france1 ,dr4 ,siemens and ,kramer1 and ,siemens and ,halske of ,germany1 ,prof4 ,wheatstone of ,england1 ,chester and ,hamblet of ,america1 and others4 ,they have been used extensively upon private and municipal lines both in ,europe and the ,united ,states4 ,the type-printing telegraph was coeval with the dial1 and originated with ,morse and ,vail as early as #ahcg4 ,the printing of the characters is effected in various ways2 sometimes by clockwork mechanism and sometimes by the direct action of an electromagnet4 ,wheatstone exhibited one in #ahda4 ,house of ,vermont invented in #ahde-ahdf the first printing telegraph that was brought into any extensive use in the ,united ,states4 ,then followed that of ,david ,e4 ,hughes of ,kentucky in #ahee1 aided by his co-inventor ,george ,m4 ,phelps of ,troy1 ,new ,york1 and which was subsequently adopted by the ,french government1 by the ,united ,kingdom ,telegraph ,co4 of ,great ,britain1 and by the ,american ,telegraph ,co in the ,united ,states4 ,the system was subsequently greatly improved by ,hughes and others4 ,alexander ,bain of ,edinburgh in #ahde-df originated the modern automatic chemical telegraph4 ,in this system a kind of punch was used to perforate two rows of holes grouped to represent letters on a strip of paper conducted over a metal cylinder and arranged so as to permit spring levers to drop through the perforations and touch the cylinder1 thus forming an electrical contact2 and a recording apparatus consisting of a strip of paper carried through a chemical solution of an acid and potash and over a metal roller1 and underneath one or two styles1 or pens1 which pens were connected by live wires with the poles of two batteries at the sending station4 ,the operation is such that colored marks upon the paper were made by the pens corresponding precisely to the perforations in the strip at the sending station4 ,siemens1 ,wheatstone and others also improved this system2 but none of these systems have as yet replaced or equalled in extensive use the ,morse key and sounder system1 and its great acoustic advantage of reading the messages by the click of the instrument4 ,the type-printing system1 however1 has been recently greatly improved by the inventions of ,howe1 ,c4 ,l4 ,buckingham1 ,fiske and others in the ,united ,states4 ,special contrivances and adaptations of the telegraph for printing stock reports and for transmitting fire alarm1 police1 and emergency calls1 have been invented4 ,the erection of tall office and other buildings1 some to the height of more than twenty stories1 made practicable by the invention of the elevator system1 has in turn brought out most ingenious devices for operating and controlling the elevators to insure safety and at the same time produce economy in the motive power4 ,the utility of the telephone has been greatly increased by the inventions of ,hughes and ,edison of the microphone4 ,this consists1 in one form1 of pieces of carbon in loose contact placed in the circuit of a telephone4 ,the very slightest vibrations communicated to the wood are heard distinctly in the telephone4 ,by these inventions and certain improvements not only every sound and note of an opera or concert has been carried to distant places1 but the slightest whispers1 the minute movements of a watch1 even the tread of a fly1 and the pressure of a finger1 have been rendered audible4 ,by the aid of the electric current certain rays of light directed upon the mineral selenium1 and some other substances1 have been discovered to emit musical sounds4 ,so wonderful and mysterious appear these communications along the electric wire that each and every force in the universe seems to have a voice awaiting utterance to man4 ,the hope is indulged that by some such means we may indeed yet receive the 8touch of a vanished hand and the sound of a voice that is still40 ,in #ahgi that eminent ,english scientist1 ,prof4 ,wm4 ,crookes1 published his extensive researches in electrical discharges as manifested in glass tubes from which the air had been exhausted4 ,these same tubes have already been referred to as ,geissler tubes1 from the name of a young artist of ,bonn who invented them4 ,in these tubes are inclosed various gases through which the sparks from an induction coil can be passed by means of platinum electrodes fused into the glass1 and on the passage of the current a soft and delicately-tinted light is produced which streams through the tube from pole to pole4 ,in #ahie1 ,wm4 ,konrad ,roentgen1 professor of ,physics in the ,royal ,university of ,wrzburg1 while experimenting with these ,crookes and ,geissler tubes1 discovered with one of them1 which he had covered with a sort of black cardboard1 that the rays emanating from the same and impinging on certain objects would render them self-luminous1 or fluorescent2 and on further investigation that such rays1 unlike the rays of sunlight1 were not deflected1 refracted or condensed2 but that they proceeded in straight lines from the point at which they were produced1 and penetrated various articles1 such as flesh1 blood1 and muscle1 and thicknesses of paper1 cloth and leather1 and other substances which are opaque to ordinary light2 and that thus while penetrating such objects and rendering them luminous1 if a portion of the same were of a character too dense to admit of the penetration1 the dark shadow of such obstacle would appear in the otherwise luminous mass4 ,unable to explain the nature or cause of this wonderful revelation1 ,roentgen gave to the light an algebraic name for the unknown--the ,x rays4 ,this wonderful discovery1 at first regarded as a figment of scientific magic1 soon attracted profound attention4 ,at first the experiments were confined to the gratification of curiosity--the interior of the hand was explored1 and on one occasion the little mummified hand of an ,egyptian princess folded in death three or four thousand years ago1 was held up to this light1 and the bones1 dried blood1 and muscle of the ancient ,pharaohs exhibited to the startled eyes of the present generation4 ,but soon surgery and medicine took advantage of the unknown rays for practical purposes4 ,the location of previously unreachable bullets1 and the condition of internal injuries1 were determined2 the cause of concealed disease was traced1 the living brain explored1 and the pulsations of the living heart were witnessed4 ,retardation of the strength of the electric current by the inductive influence of neighboring wires and earth currents1 together with the theory that the electric energy pervades all space and matter1 gave rise to the idea that if the energy once established could be set in motion at such point above the ordinary surface of the earth as would free this upper current from all inductive disturbance1 impulses of such power might be conveyed from one high point and communicated to another as to produce signals without the use of a conducting wire1 retaining only the usual batteries and the earth connection4 ,on ,july #cjth1 #ahgb1 ,mahlen ,loomis of ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 took out a patent for 8the utilization of natural electricity from elevated points0 for telegraphic purposes1 based on the principle mentioned1 and made successful experiments on the ,blue ,ridge mountains in ,virginia near ,washington1 accounts of which were published in ,washington papers at the time2 but being poor and receiving no aid or encouragement he was compelled to give it up4 ,marconi of ,italy has been more successful in this direction1 and has sent electric messages and signals from high stations over the ,english ,channel from the shores of ,france to ,england4 ,so that now wireless telegraphy is an established fact4 ,it is certainly thrilling to realize that there is a mysterious1 silent1 invisible and powerful mechanical agent on every side of us1 waiting to do our bidding1 and to lend a hand in every field of human labour1 and yet unable to be so used without excitement to action and direction in its course by some master1 intermediate between itself and man4 ,the principal masters for this purpose are steam and water power4 ,a small portion of the power of the resistless ,niagara has been taken1 diverted to turn the machinery which excites electricity to action1 and this energy in turn employed to operate a multitude of the most powerful motors and machines of many descriptions4 ,so great is the might of this willing agent that at a single turn of the hand of man it rushes forth to do work for him far exceeding in wonder and extent any labour of the gods of mythological renown4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,hoisting1 ,,conveying ,,and ,,storing4 ,allusion has been made to the stupendous buildings and works of the ancients and of the middle ages2 the immense multitude of workers and great extent of time and labour employed in their construction2 and how the awful drudgery involved in such undertakings was relieved by the invention of modern engineering devices--the cranes1 the derricks1 and the steam giants to operate them1 so that vast loads which required large numbers of men and beasts to move1 and long periods of time in which to move them1 can now be lifted with ease and carried to great heights and distances in a few minutes by the hands of one or of a few men4 ,but outside of the line of such undertakings there is an immense field of labor-saving appliances adapted for use in transportation of smaller loads from place to place1 within and without buildings1 and for carrying people and freight from the lower to the upper stories of tall structures4 ,in fact the tall buildings which we see now in almost every great city towering cloudward from the ground to the height of fifteen1 twenty and twenty-five stories1 would have been extravagant and useless had not the invention of the modern elevator rendered their highest parts as easy of access as their lowest1 and at the same time given to the air space above the city lot as great a commercial value in feet and inches as the stretch of earth itself4 ,many of the 8sky-scrapers0 so called1 are splendid monuments of the latest inventions of the century4 ,it is by means of the modern elevator that the business of a whole town may be transacted under a single roof4 ,in the multiplicity of modern human contrivances by which the sweat and drudgery of life are saved1 and time economised for worthier objects1 we are apt to overlook the painful and laborious steps by which they were reached1 and to regard with impatience1 or at least with indifference1 the story of their evolution2 and yet no correct or profound knowledge of the growth of humanity to its higher planes can be obtained without noting to what extent the minor inventions1 as well as the startling ones1 have aided the upward progress4 ,for instance1 consider how few and comparatively awkward were the mechanical means before this century4 ,the innumerable army of men when men were slaves1 and when blood and muscle and brain were cheap1 who1 labouring with the beast1 toiled upward for years on inclined ways to lay the stones of the stupendous pyramids1 still had their counterpart centuries later in the stream of men carrying on their shoulders the loads of grain and other freight and burdens from the shore to the holds of vessels1 from vessels to the shore1 from the ground to high buildings and from one part of great warehouses to another4 ,now look at a vessel moved to a wharf1 capable of holding fifty thousand or one hundred thousand bushels of grain and having that amount poured into it in three hours from the spouts of an elevator1 to which the grain has been carried in a myriad buckets on a chain by steam power in about the same time2 or to those arrangements of carriers1 travelling on ropes1 cords1 wires1 or cables1 by which materials are quickly conveyed from one part of some structure or place to another1 as hay and grain in barns or mows1 ores from mines to cars1 merchandise of all kinds from one part of a great store to another2 or shot through pipes underground from one section of a city or town to their destination by a current of air4 ,true1 as it has before been stated1 the ancients and later generations had the wedge1 the pulley1 the inclined plane1 the screw and the windlass1 and by these powers1 modified in form and increased in size as the occasion demanded1 in the form of cranes1 derricks1 and operated by animal power1 materials were lifted and transported2 but down to the time of the practical and successful application of steam by ,watt in the latter part of the #ahth century1 and until a much later period in most places in the world1 these simple means actuated alone by men or animals were the best means employed for elevating and conveying loads1 and even they were employed to a comparatively limited extent4 ,the century was well started before it was common to employ cups on elevator bands in mills1 invented by ,oliver ,evans in #aghj1 to carry grain to the top of the mill1 from whence it was to fall by gravity to the grinding and flouring apparatus below4 ,it was not until #agie that that powerful modern apparatus--the hydraulic1 or hydrostatic1 press was patented by ,bramah in ,england4 ,the model he then made is now in the museum of the ,commissioner of ,patents1 ,london4 ,in this a reservoir for water is provided1 on which is placed a pump having a piston rod worked by a hand lever4 ,the water is conveyed from the reservoir to a cylinder by a pipe1 and this cylinder is provided with a piston carrying at its top a table1 which rises between guides4 ,the load to be carried is placed on this table1 and as the machine was at first designed to compress materials the load is pressed by the rising table against an upper stationary plate4 ,the elevation of the table is proportionate to the quantity of water injected1 and the power proportionate to the receptive areas of the pump and the cylinder4 ,the first great application of machines built on this principle was by ,robert ,stephenson in the elevation of the gigantic tubes for the tubular bridge across the ,menai straits1 already described in the chapter on ,civil ,engineering4 ,the century was half through with before it was proposed to use water and steam for passenger elevators4 ,in #aheb ,j4 ,t4 ,slade in ,england patented a device consisting of a drum to be actuated by steam1 water1 or compressed air1 around which drum ropes were wound1 and to which ropes were attached separate cages in separate wells1 to counterbalance each other1 the cages moving in guides1 and provided with brakes and levers to stop and control the cages and the movement of the drum4 ,louis ,t4 ,van ,elvean1 also of ,england1 in #aheh invented counterbalance weights for such lifts4 ,otis1 an ,american1 invented and patented in ,america and ,england in #ahei the first approach to the modern passenger elevator for hotels1 warehouses1 and other structures4 ,the motive power was preferably a steam engine2 and the elevating means was a large screw placed vertically and made to revolve by suitable gearing1 and a cylinder to which the car was attached1 having projections to work in the threads of the screw4 ,means were provided to start and to stop the car1 and to retard its otherwise sudden fall and stoppage4 ,elevators1 which are now so largely used to raise passengers and freight from the lower to the upper stories of high edifices1 have for their motive power steam1 water1 compressed air1 and electricity4 ,with steam a drum is rotated over which a hoisting wire-rope is wound1 to which the elevator car is attached4 ,the car for passengers may be a small but elegantly furnished room1 which is carried on guide blocks1 and the stationary guides are provided with ratchet teeth with which pawls on the car are adapted to engage should the hoisting rope give way4 ,to the hoisting rope is attached a counterbalance weight to partly meet the weight of the car in order to prevent the car from sticking fast on its passage1 and also to prevent a sudden dropping of the car should the rope become slack4 ,a hand rope for the operator is provided1 which at its lower end is connected with a starting lever controlling the valves of the cylinders into which steam is admitted to start the piston shaft1 which in turn actuates the gear wheels1 by which movement the ropes are wound around the drums4 ,in another form of steam elevator the drums are turned in opposite directions1 by right and left worms driven by a belt4 ,in the hydraulic form of elevator1 a motor worked by water is employed to lift the car1 although steam power is also employed to raise the water4 ,the car is connected to wire cables passing over large sheaves at the top of the well room to a counterbalancing bucket4 ,this bucket fits closely in a water-tight upright tube1 or stand-pipe1 about two feet in diameter1 extending from the basement to the upper story4 ,near this stand-pipe in the upper story is placed a water supply tank4 ,a pipe discharges the water from the tank into the bucket1 which moves up and down in the stand pipe4 ,there is a valve in the tank which is opened by stepping on a treadle in the car1 and this action admits to the bucket just enough weight of water to overbalance the load on the car4 ,as soon as the bucket is heavier than the car it descends1 and of course draws the car upward1 thus using the minimum power required to raise each load1 rather than1 when steam is employed1 the full power of the engine each and every time4 ,the speed is controlled by means of brakes or clamps that firmly clasp wrought-iron slides secured to posts on each side of the well room1 the operator having control of these brakes by a lever on the car4 ,when the car has ascended as far as desired1 the operator steps upon another treadle in the car connected with a valve in the bottom of the bucket and thus discharges the water into the receiving tank below until the car is heavier than the bucket1 when it then of course descends4 ,the water is thus taken from the upper tank into the bucket1 discharged through the stand-pipe into the receiving tank under the floor of the basement and then pumped back again to the upper tank1 so that it is used over and over again without loss4 ,various modifications have been made in the hydraulic forms4 ,in place of steam1 electricity was introduced to control the hydraulic operation4 ,again1 an electric motor has been invented to be placed on the car itself1 with connected gearing engaging rack bars in the well4 ,elevators have been contrived automatically controlled by switch mechanisms on the landings2 and in connection with the electric motor safety devices are used to break the motor circuit and thus stop the car the moment the elevator door is opened2 and there are devices to break the circuit and stop the car at once1 should an obstruction1 the foot for instance1 be accidentally thrust out into the path of the car frame4 ,columns of water and of air have been so arranged that should the car fall the fall will be broken by the water or air cushion made to yield gradually to the pressure4 ,so many safety devices have been invented that there is now no excuse for accidents4 ,they result by a criminal neglect of builders or engineers to provide themselves with such devices1 or by a most ignorant or careless management and operation of simple actuating mechanisms4 ,between #ahhj and #ahij there was great activity in the invention of what is known as store service conveyors4 ,one of the earliest forms1 and one which had been partly selected from other arts1 was to suspend from a rigid frame work connected to the floor1 roof1 or side of the building1 a long platform in the direction through the building it was desired the road to run1 giving this platform a slight inclination4 ,on this platform were placed tracks1 and from the tracks were suspended trucks1 baskets1 or other merchandise receptacles1 having wheels resting on and adapted to roll on the tracks4 ,double or single tracks could be provided as desired4 ,the cars ran on these tracks by gravity1 and considerable ingenuity was displayed in the feature alone of providing the out-going and returning inclined tracks2 in hand straps and levers for raising and lowering the carriage1 part or all of it1 to or from the tracks1 and in buffers to break the force of the blow of the carriages when arriving at their stopping places4 ,then about #ahhb-hc it was found by some inventors if moderately fine wires were stretched level1 and as tight as possible1 they would afford such little friction and resistance to light and nicely balanced wheels1 that no inclination of the tracks was necessary1 and that the carriages mounted on such wheels and tracks would run the entire length of a long building and turn corners not too sharp by a single initial push of the hand4 ,in other arrangements a carrier is self-propelled by means of a coiled spring on the carrier1 which begins its operation as soon as the carrier is given a start2 and to meet the exhausted strength of such spring1 coiled springs at different points on the line are arranged to engage and give the carrier an additional push4 ,before the carrier is stopped its action is such as to automatically rewind its spring4 ,a system of pneumatic transmission was invented1 by which a carrier is caused to travel through a tube by the agency of an air current1 created therein by an air compressor1 blower1 or similar device4 ,the device is so arranged that the air current is caused to take either direction through the tube2 and in some instances gravity may be used to assist a vacuum formed behind the carrier4 ,the tube is controlled at each end by one or more sliding gates or valves1 and the carrier is made to actuate the gates1 and close the one behind it1 so that the carrier may be discharged without permitting the escape of the air and consequent reduction of pressure4 ,an interesting invention has been made by ,james ,m4 ,dodge of ,philadelphia in the line of conveyors1 whereby pea coal and other quite heavy materials introduced by a hopper into a trough are subjected to a powerful air blast which pushes the material forward2 and as the trough is provided with a series of frequently occurring slots or perforations open to the outer air and inclined opposite the direction of travel1 the powerful current from the blower in escaping through such outlets tends to lift or buoy the material and carry it forward in the air current1 thereby greatly reducing frictional contact and increasing the impelling operation4 ,the inventor claims that with such an apparatus many tons of material per hour may be conveyed with a comparatively small working air pressure4 ,in order that a conveyor carriage may be automatically switched off at a certain place or station on the line1 one mode adopted was to arrange at a gate or station a sort of pin or projection or other deflector to engage some recess or corresponding feature on the carriage1 so as to arrest and turn the carriage in its new direction at that point4 ,another mode was the adoption of electro-magnets1 which would operate at a certain place to arrest or divert the carriage2 and in either case the carriage was so constructed that its engaging features would operate automatically only in conjunction with certain features at a particular place on the line4 ,signals have been also adopted1 in some cases operated by an electric current1 by which the operator can determine whether or not the controlling devices have operated to stop the carrier at the desired place4 ,by electric or mechanical means it is also provided that one or more loop branches may be connected with or disconnected from the main circuit4 ,the 8lazy tongs0 principle has been introduced1 by which a long lazy-tongs is shot forth through a tube or box to carry forward the carriage2 and the same principle is employed in fire-escapes to throw up a cage to a great height to a window or other point1 which cage is lowered gently and safely by the same means to the ground4 ,buffers of all kinds have been devised to effect the stoppage of the carrier without injury thereto under the different degrees of force with which it is moved upon its way1 to prevent rebounding1 and to enable the carrier to be discharged with facility at the end of its route4 ,among the early mechanical means of transporting the carriage was an endless cable moved continuously by an engine1 and this adoption of cable principle in store service was co-eval with its adoption for running street cars4 ,also the system of switching the cars from the main line to a branch1 and in different parts of a city1 at the same time that all lines are receiving their motive power from the main line1 corresponds to the manner of conveying cash to all parts of a building at the same time from many points4 ,to the great department store or monstrous building wherein1 as we have said1 the whole business of a town may be transacted1 the assemblage and conjoint use of elevators and conveyors seem to be actually necessary4 ,a very useful and important line of inventions consists in means for forming connections between rotary shafts and their pulleys and mechanisms to be operated thereby1 by which such mechanism can be started or stopped at once1 or their motion reversed or retarded2 or by which an actuating shaft may be automatically stopped4 ,these means are known as clutches4 ,they are designed often to afford a yielding connection between the shaft and a machine which shall prevent excessive strain and wear upon starting of the shaft4 ,they are also often provided with a spring connection1 which1 in the rotation of the shaft in either direction1 will operate to relieve the strain upon the shaft1 or shafts1 and its driving motor4 ,safety clutches are numerous1 by which the machine is quickly and automatically stopped by the action of electro-magnets should a workman or other obstruction be caught in the machinery4 ,electric auxiliary mechanism has also been devised to start or stop the main machine slowly1 and thus prevent injury to small or delicate parts of complicated machines1 like printing presses for instance4 ,clutches are arranged sometimes in the form of weights1 resembling the action of the weights in steam governors1 whereby centrifugal action is relied upon for swinging the weights outward to effect a clutching and coupling of the shaft1 or other mechanism1 so that two lines of shafting are coupled1 or the machine started1 or speeded1 at a certain time during the operation4 ,in order to avoid the great mischief arising sometimes from undue strain upon and the breaking of a shaft1 a weak coupling composed of a link is sometimes employed between the shaft and the driven machine1 whereby1 should the force become suddenly too great1 the link of weaker metal is broken1 and the connection between the shaft thereby destroyed and the machine stopped4 ,to this class of inventions1 as well as to many others1 the phrase1 8labour-saving01 is applied as a descriptive term1 and as it is a correct one in most instances1 since they save the labour of many human hands1 they are regarded by many as detrimental to a great extent1 as they result in throwing out of employment a large number of persons4 ,this derangement does sometimes occur1 but the curtailment of the number of labourers is but temporary after all4 ,the increased production of materials1 resulting from cheaper and better processes1 and from the reduced cost of handling them1 necessitates the employment of a larger number of persons to take care of1 in many ways1 the greater output caused by the increased demand2 the new machinery demands the labour of additional numbers in its manufacture2 the increase in the size and heights of buildings involves new modes of construction and a greater number of artisans in their erection2 new forms of industry springing from every practical invention which produces a new product or results in a new mode of operation1 complicates the systems of labour1 and creates a demand for a large number of employers and employees in new fields4 ,hence1 it is only necessary to resort to comparative1 statistics 7too extensive to cite here7 to show that the number of unemployed people in proportion to the populations1 is less in the present age than in any previous one4 ,in this sense1 therefore1 inventions should be classed as labour-increasing devices4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,hydraulics4 ,the science of ,hydraulics appears to be as old as the thirst of man4 ,when prehistoric men had only stone implements1 with which to do their work1 they built aqueducts1 reservoirs and deep wells which rival in extent many great similar works that are the boast of their modern descendants4 ,modern inventors have also produced with a flourish nice instrumentalities for raising water1 agencies which are covered with the moss of untold centuries in ,china4 ,it was more than an ancient observation that came down to ,pliny's time for record1 that water would rise to a level with its source4 ,the observation1 however1 was put into practical use in his time and long before without a knowledge of its philosophical cause4 ,nothing in ,egyptian sculpture portraying the arts in vogue around the cradle of the human race is older than the long lever rocking upon a cleft stick1 one arm of the lever carrying a bracket and the other arm used to raise a bucket from a well4 ,forty centuries and more have not rendered this device obsolete4 ,among other machines of the ,egyptians1 the ,carthaginians1 the ,greeks1 and the ,romans for raising water was the tympanum1 a drum-shape wheel divided into radial partitions1 chambers1 or pockets1 which were open to a short depth on the periphery of the wheel1 and inclined toward the axis1 and which was driven by animal or manual power4 ,these pockets scooped up the water from the stream or pond in which the wheel was located as the wheel revolved1 and directed it toward the axis of the wheel1 where it ran out into troughs1 pipes1 or gutters4 ,the ,noria1 a chain of pots1 and the screw of ,archimedes were other forms of ancient pumps4 ,the bucket pumps with some modifications are known in modern times as scoop wheels1 and have been used extensively in the drainage of lands1 especially by the ,dutch1 who at first drove them by windmills and later by steam4 ,the division of water-wheels into overshot1 undershot and breast wheels is not a modern system4 ,in the ,pneumatics of ,hero1 which compilation of inventions appeared in #bbe ,b4 ,c41 seventy-nine illustrations are given and described of simple machines1 between sixty and seventy of which are hydraulic devices4 ,among these1 are siphon pumps1 the force pump of ,ctesibius1 a 8fire-pump10 having two cylinders1 and two pistons1 valves1 and levers4 ,we have in a previous chapter referred to ,hero's steam engine4 ,the fact that a vacuum may be created in a pump into which water will rise by atmospheric pressure appears to have been availed of but not explained or understood4 ,the employment of the rope1 pulley and windlass to raise water was known to ,hero and his countrymen as well as by the ,chinese before them4 ,the chain pump and other pumps of simple form have only been improved since ,hero's day in matters of detail4 ,the screw of ,archimedes has been extended in application as a carrier of water1 and converted into a conveyor of many other materials4 ,thus1 aqueducts1 reservoirs1 water-wheels 7used for grinding grain71 simple forms of pumps1 fountains1 hydraulic organs1 and a few other hydraulic devices1 were known to ancient peoples1 but their limited knowledge of the laws of pneumatics and their little mechanical skill prevented much general progress or extensive general use of such inventions4 ,it is said that ,frontinus1 a ,roman ,consul1 and inspector of public fountains and aqueducts in the reigns of ,nerva and ,trajan1 and who wrote a book1 ,de ,aquaeductibus ,urbis ,romae ,commentarius1 describing the great aqueducts of ,rome1 was the first and the last of the ancients to attempt a scientific investigation of the motions of liquids4 ,in #aeic ,serviere1 a ,frenchman1 born in ,lyons1 invented the rotary pump4 ,in this the pistons consisted of two cog wheels1 their leaves intermeshing1 and rotated in an elliptical shaped chamber4 ,the water entered the chamber from a lower pipe1 and the action of the wheels was such as to carry the water around the chamber and force it out through an opposite upper pipe4 ,subsequent changes involved the rotating of the cylinder instead of the wheels and many modifications in the form of the wheels4 ,the same principle was subsequently adopted in rotary steam engines4 ,in #aehf1 a few years before this invention of ,serviere1 ,stevinus1 the great engineer of the dikes of ,holland1 wrote learnedly on the ,principles of ,statics and ,hydrostatics1 and ,whewell states that his treatment of the subject embraces most of the elementary science of hydraulics and hydrostatics of the present day4 ,this was followed by the investigations and treatises of ,galileo1 his pupil ,torricelli1 who discovered the law of air pressure1 the great ,french genius1 ,pascal1 and ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 in the #agth century2 and ,daniel ,bernoulli1 d',alembert1 ,euler1 the great ,german mathematician and inventor of the centrifugal pump1 the ,abb ,bossut1 ,venturi1 ,eylewein1 and others in the #ahth century4 ,it was not until the #agth and #ahth centuries that mankind departed much from the practice of supplying their towns and cities with water from distant springs1 rivers and lakes1 by pipes and aqueducts1 and resorted to water distribution systems from towers and elevated reservoirs4 ,certain cities in ,germany and ,france were the first to do this1 followed in the #ahth century by ,england4 ,this seems strange1 as to ,england1 as in #aehb one ,peter ,maurice1 a ,dutch engineer1 erected at ,london1 on the old arched bridge across the ,thames1 a series of forcing pumps worked by undershot wheels placed in the current of the river1 by which he forced a supply of water to the uppermost rooms of lofty buildings adjacent to the bridge4 ,before the inventions of ,newcomen and ,watt in the latter part of the #ahth century of steam pumps1 the lift and force pumps were operated by wheels in currents1 by horses1 and sometimes by the force of currents of common sewers4 ,when the waters of rivers adjacent to towns and cities thus began to be pumped for drinking purposes1 strainers and filters of various kinds were invented of necessity4 ,the first ones of which there is any printed record made their appearance in #aggf4 ,after the principles of hydraulics had thus been reviewed and discussed by the philosophers of the #agth and #ahth centuries and applied1 to the extent indicated1 further application of them was made1 and especially for the propelling of vessels4 ,in #agah ,la ,hire revived and improved the double-acting pump of ,ctesibius1 but to what extent he put it into use does not appear4 ,however1 it was the double-acting pump having two chambers and two valves1 and in which the piston acted to throw the water out at each stroke4 ,in #agcj ,dr4 ,john ,allen of ,england designed a vessel having a tunnel or pipe open at the stern thereof through which water was to be pumped into the air or sea--the reaction thus occasioned driving the vessel forward4 ,he put such a vessel at work in a canal1 working the pumps by manual labor1 and suggested the employment of a steam engine4 ,a vessel of this kind was patented by ,david ,ramsey of ,england in #agch4 ,rumsey of ,america in #aghb also invented a similar vessel1 built one #ej feet long1 and ran it experimentally on the ,potomac river4 ,dr4 ,franklin also planned a boat of this kind in #aghe and illustrated the same by sketches4 ,his plan has since been tried on the ,scheldt1 but two turbines were substituted for his simple force pump4 ,further mention will be made later on of a few more elaborate inventions of this kind4 ,it also having been discovered that the fall of a column of water in a tube would cause a portion of it to rise higher than its source by reason of the force of momentum1 a machine was devised by which successive impulses of this force were used1 in combination with atmospheric pressure1 to raise a portion of the water at each impulse4 ,this was the well-known ram1 and the first inventor of such a machine was ,john ,whitehurst of ,cheapside1 ,england1 who constructed one in #aggb4 ,from a reservoir1 spring1 or cistern of water1 the water was discharged downward into a long pipe of small diameter1 and from thence into a shorter pipe governed by a stop-cock4 ,on the opening of the stop-cock the water was given a quick momentum1 and on closing the cock water was forced by the continuing momentum through another pipe into an air chamber4 ,a valve in the latter-mentioned pipe opened into the air chamber4 ,the air pressure served to overcome the momentum and to close the chamber and at the same time forced the water received into the air chamber up an adjacent pipe4 ,another impulse was obtained and another injection of water into the chamber by again opening the stop-cock1 and thus by successive impulses water was forced into the chamber and pressed by the air up through the discharge pipe and thence through a building or other receptacle4 ,but the fact that the stop-valve had to be opened and closed by hand to obtain the desired number of lifts rendered the machine ineffective4 ,in #agif ,montgolfier1 a ,frenchman and one of the inventors of the balloon1 substituted for the stop-cock of the ,whitehurst machine a loose impulse valve in the waste pipe1 whereby the valve was raised by the rush of the water1 made to set itself1 check the outflow and turn the current into the air chamber4 ,this simple alteration changed the character of the machine entirely1 rendered it automatic in action and converted it into a highly successful water-raising machine4 ,for this invention ,montgolfier obtained a ,gold ,medal from the ,french ,exposition of #ahjb4 ,where a head can be had from four to six feet1 water can be raised to the height of #cj feet4 ,bodies of water greater in amount than is desired to be raised can thus be utilised1 and this simple machine has come into very extensive use during the present century4 ,allusion was made in the last chapter to the powerful hydraulic press of ,joseph ,bramah invented in #agie-ahjj1 its practical introduction in this century and improvements therein of others4 ,after the great improvements in the steam engine made by ,watt1 water1 steam and air pressure joined their forces on the threshold of this century to lift and move the world1 as it had never been moved before4 ,the strong hands of hydraulics are pumps4 ,they are divided into classes by names indicating their purpose and mode of operation1 such as single1 double-acting1 lift or force1 reciprocating or rotary1 etc4 ,knight1 in his celebrated ,mechanical ,dictionary1 enumerates #ajj differently constructed pumps connected with the various arts4 ,in a broader enumeration1 under the head of ,hydraulic ,engineering and ,engineering ,devices1 he gives a list of over #fjj species4 ,the number has since increased4 ,about nine-tenths of these contrivances have been invented during the #aith century1 although the philosophical principles of the operation of most of them had been previously discovered4 ,the important epochs in the invention of pumps1 ending with the #ahth century1 were thus the single-acting pump of ,ctesibius1 #bbe ,b4 ,c41 the double-acting of ,la ,hire in #agah1 the hydraulic ram of ,whitehurst1 #aggb1 and the hydraulic press of ,bramah of #agie-ahjb4 ,bramah's press illustrates how the theories of one age often lie dormant1 but if true become the practices of a succeeding age4 ,pascal1 #aej years before ,bramah's time1 had written this seeming hydraulic paradox3 8,if a vessel closed on all sides has two openings1 the one a hundred times as large as the other1 and if each be supplied with a piston which fits it exactly1 then a man pushing the small piston will equilibrate that of #ajj men pushing the piston which is #ajj times as large1 and will overcome the other #ii40 ,this is the law of the hydraulic press1 that intensity of pressure is everywhere the same4 ,the next important epoch was the invention of ,forneyron in #ahbc1 of the water-wheel known as the ,turbine and also as the ,vortex ,wheel4 ,if we will return a moment to the little steam engine of the ancient ,hero of ,alexandria1 called the ,eolipile1 it will be remembered that the steam admitted into a pivoted vessel and out of it through little opposite pipes1 having bent exits turned in contrary directions1 caused the vessel to rotate by reason of the reaction of the steam against the pipes4 ,in what is called ,barker's mill1 brought out in the #ahth century1 substantially the same form of engine is seen with water substituted for the steam4 ,a turbine is a wheel usually placed horizontally to the water4 ,the wheel is provided with curved internal buckets against which the water is led by outer curved passages1 the guides and the buckets both curved in such manner that the water shall enter the wheel as nearly as possible without shock1 and leave it with the least possible velocity1 thereby utilising the greatest possible amount of energy4 ,in the chapter on ,electrical inventions reference is made to the mighty power of ,niagara used to actuate a great number of electrical and other machines of vast power4 ,this utilisation had long been the dream of engineers4 ,sir ,william ,siemens had said that the power of all the coal raised in the world would barely represent the power of ,niagara4 ,the dream has been realised1 and the turbine is the apparatus through which the power of the harnessed giant is transmitted4 ,a canal is dug from the river a mile above the falls4 ,it conducts water to a power house near the falls4 ,at the power house the canal is furnished with a gate1 and with cribs to keep back the obstructions1 such as sticks4 ,at the gate is placed a vertical iron tube called a penstock1 #g feet in diameter and #afj feet deep4 ,at the bottom of the penstock is placed a turbine wheel fixed on a shaft1 and to which shaft is connected an electric generator or other power machine4 ,on opening the gate a mass of water #g feet in diameter falls upon the turbine wheel #afj feet below4 ,the water rushing through the wheel turns it and its shaft many hundred revolutions a minute4 ,all the machinery is of enormous power and dimensions4 ,one electric generator there is #aa feet #g inches in diameter and spins around at the rate of #bej revolutions a minute4 ,means are provided by which the speed of each wheel is regulated automatically4 ,each turbine in a penstock represents the power of #e1jjj horses1 and there are now ten or more employed4 ,after the water has done its work on the wheels it falls into a tunnel and is carried back to the river below the falls4 ,not only are the manufactures of various kinds of a large town at the falls thus supplied with power1 but electric power is transmitted to distant towns and cities4 ,turbine pumps of the ,forneyron type have an outward flow2 but another form1 invented also by a ,frenchman1 ,jonval1 has a downward discharge1 and others are oblique1 double1 combined turbine1 rotary1 and centrifugal1 embodying similar principles4 ,the term rotary1 broadly speaking1 includes turbine and centrifugal pumps4 ,the centrifugal pump1 invented by ,euler in #aged1 was taken up in the nineteenth century and greatly improved4 ,in the centrifugal pump of the ordinary form the water is received at the centre of the wheel and diverted and carried out in an upward direction1 but in most of its modern forms derived from the turbine1 the principle is adopted of so shaping the vanes that the water1 striking them in the curved direction1 shall not have its line of curvature suddenly changed4 ,among modern inventions of this class of pumps was the 8,massachusetts0 of #ahah and ,mc,carty's1 in #ahcj1 of ,america1 that of some contemporary ,french engineers1 and subsequently in ,france the ,appold system1 which latter was brought into prominent notice at the ,london ,exposition of #ahea4 ,improvements of great value were also made by ,prof4 ,james ,thompson of ,england4 ,centrifugal pumps have been used with great success in lifting large bodies of water to a moderate height1 and for draining marshes and other low lands4 ,holland1 ,germany1 ,france1 ,england and ,america have1 through some of their ablest hydraulic engineers and inventors1 produced most remarkable results in these various forms of pumps4 ,we have noted what has been done at ,niagara with the turbines2 and the drainage of the marshes of ,italy1 the lowlands of ,holland1 the fens of ,england and the swamps of ,florida bear evidence of the value of kindred inventions4 ,that modern form of pump known as the injector1 has many uses in the arts and manufactures4 ,one of its most useful functions is to automatically supply steam boilers with water1 and regulate the supply4 ,it was the invention of ,giffard1 patented in ,england in #aheh1 and consists of a steam pipe leading from the boiler and having its nozzle projecting into an annular space which communicates with a feed pipe from a water supply4 ,a jet of steam is discharged with force into this space1 producing a vacuum1 into which the water from the feed pipe rushes1 and the condensed steam and water are driven by the momentum of the jet into a pipe leading into the boiler4 ,this exceedingly useful apparatus has been improved and universally used wherever steam boilers are found4 ,this idea of injecting a stream of steam or water to create or increase the flow of another stream has been applied in intensifiers1 to increase the pressure of water in hydraulic mains1 pipes1 and machines1 by additional pressure energy4 ,thus the water from an ordinary main may be given such an increased pressure that a jet from a hydrant may be carried to the tops of high houses4 ,in connection with pumping it may be said that a great deal has been discovered and invented during this century concerning the force and utilisation of jets of water and the force of water flowing through orifices4 ,in the art of mining1 a new system called hydraulicising has been introduced1 by which jets of water at high pressure have been directed against banks and hills1 which have crumbled1 been washed away1 and made to reveal any precious ore they have concealed4 ,to assist this operation flexible nozzles have been invented which permit the stream to be easily turned in any desired direction4 ,returning to the idea of raising weights by hydraulic pressure1 mention must be made of the recent invention of the hydraulic jack1 a portable machine for raising loads1 and which has displaced the older and less efficient screw jack4 ,as an example of the practical utility of the hydraulic jack1 about a half century ago it required the aid of #dhj men working at capstans to raise the ,luxor ,obelisk in ,paris1 whilst within #cj years thereafter ,cleopatra's ,needle1 a heavier monument1 was raised to its present position on the ,thames embankment by four men each working one hydraulic jack4 ,by the high pressures1 or stresses given by the hydraulic press it was learned that cold metals have plasticity and can be moulded or stretched like other plastic bodies4 ,thus in one modification a machine is had for making lead pipes3--,a 8container0 is filled with molten lead and then allowed to cool4 ,the container is then forced by the pump against an elongated die of the size of the pipe required4 ,a pressure from one to two tons per square inch is exerted1 the lead is forced up through the die1 and the pipe comes out completed4 ,wrought iron and cold steel can be forced like wax into different forms1 and a rod of steel may be drawn through a die to form a piano wire4 ,by another modification of the hydraulic press pipes and cables are covered with a coating of lead to prevent deterioration from rust and other causes4 ,not only are cotton and other bulky materials pressed into small compass by hydraulic machines1 but very valuable oils are pressed from cotton seed and from other materials--the seed being first softened1 then made into cakes1 and the cakes pressed4 ,if it is desired to line tunnels or other channels with a metal lining1 shield or casing1 large segments of iron to compose the casing are put in position1 and as fast as the tunnel is excavated the casing is pressed forward1 and when the digging is done the cast-iron tunnel is complete4 ,if the iron hoops on great casks are to be tightened the cask is set on the plate of a hydraulic press1 the hoops connected to a series of steel arms projecting from an overhanging support1 and the cask is pressed upward until the proper degree of tightness is secured4 ,in the application of hydraulic power to machine tools great advances have been made4 ,it has become a system1 in which ,tweddle of ,england was a pioneer4 ,the great force of water pressure combined with comparatively slow motion constitutes the basis of the system4 ,sir ,william ,fairbairn had done with steam what ,tweddle and others accomplished with water4 ,thus the enormous force of men and the fearful clatter formerly displayed in these huge works where the riveting of boilers was carried on can now be dispensed with1 and in place of the noisy hammer with its ceaseless blows has come the steam or the hydraulic riveting machine1 which noiselessly drives the rivet through any thickness of metal1 clinches the same1 and smooths the jointed plate4 ,the forging and the rolling of the plates are performed by the same means4 ,william ,george ,armstrong of ,england1 afterward ,sir ,william1 first a lawyer1 but with the strongest bearing toward mechanical subjects1 performed a great work in the advancement of hydraulic engineering4 ,it is claimed that he did for hydraulic machinery1 in the storage and transmission of power thereby1 what ,watt did for the steam engine and ,bessemer did for steel4 ,in #ahch he produced his first invention1 an important improvement in the hydraulic engine4 ,in #ahdj1 in a letter to the ,mechanics' ,magazine1 he calls attention to the advantages of water as a mechanical agent and a reservoir of power1 and showed how water pumped to an elevated reservoir by a steam engine might have the potential energy thus stored utilised in many advantageous ways4 ,how1 for instance1 a small engine pumping continuously could thus supply many large engines working intermittently4 ,in illustration of this idea he invented a crane1 which was erected on ,newcastle quay in #ahdf2 another was constructed on the ,albert dock at ,liverpool1 and others at other places4 ,these cranes1 adapted for the lifting and carrying of enormous loads1 were worked by hydraulic pressure obtained from elevated tanks or reservoirs1 as above indicated4 ,but as a substitute for such tanks or reservoirs he invented the ,accumulator4 ,this consists of a large cast-iron cylinder fitted with a plunger1 which is made to work water-tight therein by means of suitable packing4 ,to this plunger is attached a weighted case filled with one or many tons of metal or other coarse material4 ,water is pumped into the cylinder until the plunger is raised to its full height within the cylinder1 when the supply of water is cut off by the automatic operation of a valve4 ,when the cranes or other apparatus to be worked thereby are in operation1 water is passed from the cylinder through a small pipe which actuates the crane through hydraulic pressure4 ,this pressure of course depends upon the weight of the plunger4 ,thus a pressure of from #ejj to #a1jjj pounds per square inch may be obtained4 ,the descending plunger maintains a constant pressure upon the water1 and the water is only pumped into the cylinder when it is required to be filled4 ,with sensitive accumulators of this character hydraulic machinery is much used on board ships for steering them1 and for loading1 discharging and storing cargoes4 ,water ,pressure ,engines or ,water ,motors of a great variety as to useful details have been invented to take advantage of a natural head of water from falls wherever it exists1 or from artificial accumulators or from street mains4 ,they resemble steam engines1 in that the water under pressure drives a piston in a cylinder somewhat in the manner of steam4 ,the underlying principle of this class of machinery is the admission of water under pressure to a cylinder which moves the piston and is allowed to escape on the completion of the stroke4 ,they are divided into two great classes1 single and double acting engines1 accordingly as the water is admitted to one side of the piston only1 or to both sides alternately4 ,both kinds are provided with a regulator in the form of a turn-cock1 weight1 or spring valve to regulate and control the flow of water and to make it continuous4 ,they are used for furnishing a limited amount of power for working small printing presses1 dental engines1 organs1 sewing machines1 and for many other purposes where a light motor is desired4 ,the nineteenth century has seen a revolution in baths and accompanying closets4 ,however useful1 luxurious1 and magnificent may have been the patrician baths of ancient ,rome1 that system1 which modern investigators have found to be so complete to a certain extent1 was not nor ever has been in the possession of the poor4 ,it is within the memory of many now living everywhere how wretched was the sanitary accommodations in every populous place a generation or two ago4 ,now1 with the modern water distribution systems and cheap bathing apparatuses which can be brought to the homes of all1 with plunger1 valved siphon and valved and washout closets1 air valve1 liquid seal1 pipe inlet1 and valve seal traps1 and with the flushing and other hydraulic cleaning systems for drains and cesspools1 little excuse can be had for want of proper sanitary regulations in any intelligent community4 ,the result of the adoption of these modern improvements in this direction on the health of the people has been to banish plagues1 curtail epidemics1 and prolong for years the average duration of human life4 ,how multiplied are the uses to which water is put1 and how completely it is being subjected to the use of man6 ,rivers and pipes have their metres1 so that now the velocity and volume of rivers and streams are measured and controlled1 and floods prevented4 ,the supplies for cities and for families are estimated1 measured and recorded as easily as are the supplies of illuminating gas1 or the flow of food from elevators4 ,among the minor1 but very useful inventions1 are water scoops for picking up water for a train while in motion1 consisting of a curved open pipe on a car1 the mouth of which strikes a current of water in an open trough between the tracks and picks up and deposits in a minute a car load of water for the engine4 ,nozzles to emit jets of great velocity1 and ball nozzles terminating in a cup in which a ball is loosely seated1 and which has the effect1 as it is lifted by the jet1 to spread it into an umbrella-shaped spray1 are of great value at fires in quenching flame and smoke4 ,next to pure air to breathe we need pure water to drink1 and modern discoveries and inventions have done and are doing much to help us to both4 ,pasteur and others have discovered and explained the germ theory of disease and to what extent it is due to impure water4 ,inventors have produced filters1 and there is a large class of that character which render the water pure as it enters the dwelling1 and fit for all domestic purposes4 ,a specimen of the latter class is one which is attached to the main service pipe as it enters from the street4 ,the water is first led into a cylinder stored with coarse filtering material which clears the water of mud1 sediment and coarser impurities1 and then is conducted into a second cylinder provided with a mass of fine grained or powdered charcoal1 or some other material which has the quality of not only arresting all remaining injurious ingredients1 but destroys organisms1 neutralises ammonia and other deleterious matter4 ,from thence the water is returned to the service pipe and distributed through the house4 ,the filter may be thoroughly cleansed by reversing the movement of the water1 and carrying it off through a drain pipe until it runs clear and sweet1 whereupon the water is turned in its normal course through the filter and house4 ,in a very recent report of ,general ,j4 ,m4 ,wilson1 ,chief of ,engineers1 ,u4,s4,a41 the subject of filtration of water1 and especially of public water supplies in ,england1 the ,united ,states1 and on the ,continent1 is very thoroughly treated1 and the conclusion arrived at there is that the system termed 8the ,american10 or mechanical system1 is the most successful one4 ,this consists1 first1 in leading the water into one or more reservoirs1 then coagulating suspended matter in the water by the use of the sulphate of alumina1 and then allowing the water to flow through a body of coarse sand1 by which the coagulated aluminated matter is caught and held in the interstices of the sand1 and the bacteria arrested4 ,all objectionable matter is thus arrested by the surface portion of the sand body1 which portion is from time to time scraped off1 and the whole sand mass occasionally washed out by upward currents of water forced through the same4 ,by this system great rapidity of filtration is obtained1 the rate being #abj1jjj1jjj gallons a day per acre4 ,the ,english system consists more in the use of extended and successive reservoirs or beds of sand alone1 or aided by the use of the sulphate4 ,this also is extensively used in many large cities4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,pneumatics ,,and ,,pneumatic ,,machines4 8,the march of the human mind is slow10 exclaimed ,burke in his great speech on 8,conciliation with the ,colonies40 ,it was at the beginning of the last quarter of the #ahth century that he was speaking1 and he was referring to the slow discovery of the eternal laws of ,providence as applied in the field of political administration to distant colonies4 ,the same could then have been said of the march of the human mind in the realms of ,nature4 ,how slow had been the apprehension of the forces of that kind but silent ,mother whose strong arms are ever ready to lift and carry the burdens of men whenever her aid is diligently sought6 ,the voice of ,burke was1 however1 hardly silent when the human mind suddenly awoke1 and its march in the realms of government and of natural science since then cannot be regarded as slow4 ,more than fifteen centuries before ,burke spoke1 not only had ,greece discovered the principles of political freedom for its citizens and its colonies1 but the power of steam had been discovered1 and experimental work been done with it4 ,yet when the famous orator made his speech the ,grecian experiment was a toy of ,kings1 and the steam engine had just developed from this toy into a mighty engine in the hands of ,watt4 ,the age of mechanical inventions had just commenced with the production of machines for spinning and weaving4 ,and yet1 in view of the rise of learning1 and the appearance from time to time of mighty intellects in the highest walks of science1 the growth of the mind in the line of useful machinery had indeed been strangely slow4 8,learning0 had revived in ,italy in the #abth and #acth centuries and spread westward in the #adth4 ,in the #aeth1 gunpowder and printing had been discovered1 and ,scaliger1 the famous scholar of ,italy1 and ,erasmus1 the celebrated ,dutch philosopher1 were the leading restorers of ancient literature4 ,science then also revived1 and ,copernicus1 the ,pole1 gave us the true theory of the solar system4 ,the #afth century produced the great mathematicians and astronomers ,tycho ,brahe1 the ,dane1 ,cardan and ,galileo1 the illustrious ,italians1 and ,kepler1 the ,german astronomer1 whose discovery of the laws of planetary motion supplemented the works of ,copernicus and ,galileo and illuminated the early years of the #agth century4 ,in the #agth century appeared ,torricelli1 the inventor of the barometer2 ,guericke1 the ,german1 inventor of the air pump2 ,fahrenheit1 the inventor of the mercurial thermometer bearing his name2 ,leibnitz1 eminent in every department of science and philosophy2 ,huygens1 the great ,dutch astronomer and philosopher2 ,pascal of ,france and ,sir ,isaac ,newton of ,england1 the worthy successors of ,kepler1 ,galileo and ,copernicus2 and yet1 with the exception of philosophical discoveries and a few experiments1 the field of invention in the way of motor engines still remained practically closed4 ,but slight as had been the discoveries and experiments referred to1 they were the mine from which the inventions of subsequent times were quarried4 ,one of the earliest1 if not the first of pneumatic machines1 was the bellows4 ,its invention followed the discovery of fire and of metals4 ,the bladders of animals suggested it1 and their skins were substituted for the bladders4 ,the ,egyptians have left a record of its use1 thirty-four centuries ago1 and its use has been continuous ever since4 ,mention has been made of the cannon4 ,it was probably the earliest attempt to obtain motive power from heat4 ,the ball was driven out of an iron cylinder by the inflammatory power of powder4 ,let a piston be substituted for the cannon ball1 as was suggested by ,huygens in #afhj and by ,papin in #afij1 and the charge of powder so reduced that when it is exploded the piston will not be thrown entirely out of the cylinder1 another small explosive charge introduced on the other side of the piston to force it back1 or let the cylinder be vertical and the piston be driven back by gravity1 means provided to permit the escape of the gas after it has done its work1 and means to keep the cylinder cool1 and we have the prototype of the modern heat engines4 ,the gunpowder experiments of ,huygens and ,papin were not successful1 but they were the progenitors of similar inventions made two centuries thereafter4 ,jan ,baptista van ,helmont1 a ,flemish physician 7#aegg-afdd71 was the first to apply the term1 gas to the elastic fluids which resemble air in physical properties4 ,robert ,boyle1 the celebrated ,irish scholar and scientist1 and improver of the air pump1 and ,edwin ,mariotte1 the ,french physicist who was first to show that a feather and a coin will drop the same distance at the same time in a reservoir exhausted of air1 were the independent discoverers of ,boyle's and ,mariotte's law of gases7#afej-afgf74 ,this was that at any given temperature of a gas which is at rest its volume varies inversely with the pressure put upon it4 ,it follows from this law that the density and tension1 and therefore the expansive force of a gas1 are proportional to the compressing force to which it is subjected4 ,it is said that ,abb ,hauteville1 the son of a baker of ,orleans1 about #afgh proposed to raise water by a powder motor2 and that in #afhb he described a machine based on the principle of the circulation of the blood1 produced by the alternate expansion and contraction of the heart4 ,the production of heat by concentrating the rays of the sun1 and for burning objects had been known from the time of ,archimedes1 and been repeated from time to time4 ,thus stood this art at the close of the #agth century1 and thus it remained until near the close of the #ahth4 ,in ,england ,murdock1 the ,cornish ,steam ,engineer1 was the first to make and use coal gas for illuminating purposes1 which he did in #agib and #agih4 ,its utilisation for other practical purposes was then suggested4 ,gas engines as motive powers were first described in the ,english patent to ,john ,barber1 in #agia1 and then in one issued to ,robert ,street in #agid4 ,barber proposed to introduce a stream of carbonated hydrogen gas through one port1 and a quantity of air at another1 and explode them against the piston4 ,street proposed to drive up the piston by the expansive force of a heated gas1 and anticipated many modern ideas4 ,phillipe ,lebon1 a ,french engineer1 in #agii and in #ahja anticipated in a theoretical way many ideas since successfully reduced to practice4 ,he proposed to use coal gas to drive a piston1 which in turn should move the shaft that worked the pumps which forced in the gas and air1 and thus make the machine double-acting2 to introduce a charge of inflammable gas mixed with sufficient air to ignite it2 to compress the air and gas before they entered the motor cylinder2 to introduce the charge alternately on each side of the piston2 and he also suggested the use of the electric spark to fire the mixture4 ,but ,lebon was assassinated and did not live to work out his ideas4 ,at the very beginning of the #aith century ,john ,dalton in ,england1 #ahja-ahjg1 and ,gay-,lussac in ,france began their investigations of gases and vapours4 ,dalton was not only the author of the atomic theory1 but the discoverer of the leading ideas in the 8,constitution of ,mixed ,gases40 ,these features were the diffusion of gases1 the action of gases on each other in vacuum--the influence of different temperatures upon them1 their chemical constituents and their relative specific gravity4 ,gay-,lussac1 continuing his investigations as to expansion of air and gases under increased temperatures1 in #ahjg-aj1 established the law that when free from moisture they all dilate uniformly and to equal amounts for all equal increments of temperature4 ,he also showed that the gases combine1 as to volume1 in simple proportions1 and that several of them on being compounded contracted always in such simple proportions as one-half1 one-third1 or one-quarter1 of their joint bulk4 ,by these laws all forms of engines which were made to work through the agency of heat are classed as heat engines--so that under this head are included steam engines1 air engines1 gas engines1 vapour engines and solar engines4 ,the tie that binds these engines into one great family is temperature4 ,it is the heat that does the work4 ,whether it is a cannon1 the power of which is manifested in a flash1 or the slower moving steam engine1 whose throbbing heart beats not until water is turned to steam1 or the sun1 the parent of them all1 whose rays are grasped and used direct1 the question in all cases is1 what is the amount of heat produced and how can it be controlled8 ,it1 then1 can make no difference what the agent is that is employed1 whether air1 or gas1 or steam1 or the sun1 or gunpowder explosion1 but what is the temperature to be attained in the cylinder or vessel in which they work4 ,power is the measure of work done in a given time4 ,horse power is the unit of such measurement1 and it consists of the amount of power that is required to raise one pound through a vertical distance of one foot4 ,this power is pressure and the pressure is heat4 ,the unit of heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a pound of distilled water one degree--from #ci degrees to #dj degrees ,f4 ,its amount or measurement is determined in any instance by a dynamometer4 ,these were the discoveries with which ,philosophy opened the nineteenth century so brilliantly in the field of ,pneumatics4 ,before that time it seemed impossible that explosive gases would ever be harnessed as steam had been and made to do continual successful work in a cylinder and behind a piston4 ,as yet means were to be found to make the engine efficient as a double-acting one--to start the untamed steed at the proper moment and to stop him at the moment he had done his work4 ,as ,newcomen had been the first in the previous century to apply the steam engine to practical work--pumping water from mines--so ,samuel ,brown of ,england was the first in this century to invent and use a gas engine upon the water4 ,brown took out patents in #ahbc and #ahbf4 ,he proposed to use gunpowder gas as the motive power4 ,his engine was also described in the ,mechanics' ,magazine published in ,london at that time4 ,in the making of his engine he followed the idea of a steam engine1 but used the flame of an ignited gas jet to create a vacuum within the cylinder instead of steam4 ,he fitted up an experimental boat with such an engine1 and means upon the boat to generate the gas4 ,the boat was then operated upon the ,thames4 ,he also succeeded experimentally in adapting his engine to a road carriage4 ,but ,brown's machines were cumbrous1 complicated1 and difficult to work1 and therefore did not come into public use4 ,about this time 7#ahbc71 ,davy and ,faraday reawakened interest in gas engines by their discovery that a number of gases could be reduced to a liquid state1 some by great pressure1 and others by cold1 and that upon the release of the pressure the gases would return to their original volume4 ,in the condensation heat was developed1 and in re-expansion it was rendered latent4 ,then ,wright in #ahcc obtained a patent in which he expounded and illustrated the principles of expansion and compression of gas and air1 performed in separate cylinders1 the production of a vacuum by the explosion and the use of a water jacket around the cylinder for cooling it4 ,for ,william ,burdett1 in #ahch1 is claimed the honour of having been the first to invent the means of compressing the gas and air previous to the explosion1 substantially the same as adopted in gas engines of the present day4 ,the defects found in gas engines thus far were want of proper preliminary compression1 then in complete expansion1 and finally loss of heat through the walls4 ,some years later1 ,lenoir1 a ,frenchman1 invented a gas engine of a successful type1 of which three hundred in #ahfb were in use in ,france4 ,it showed what could be accomplished by an engine in which the fuel was introduced and fired directly in the piston cylinder4 ,its essential features were a cylinder into which a mixture of gas and air was admitted at atmospheric pressure1 which was maintained until the piston made half its stroke1 when the gas was exploded by an electric spark4 ,a wheel of great weight was hung upon a shaft which was connected to the piston1 and which weight absorbed the force suddenly developed by the explosion1 and so moderated the speed4 ,another object of the use of the heavy wheel was to carry the machine over the one-half of the period in which the driving power was absent4 ,hugon1 another eminent ,french engineer1 invented and constructed a gas engine on the same principle as ,lenair's4 ,about this time 7#ahej-fj7 ,m4 ,beau de ,rohes1 a ,french engineer1 thoroughly investigated the reasons of the uneconomical working of gas motors1 and found that it was due to want of sufficient compression of the gas and air previous to explosion1 incomplete expansion and loss of heat through the walls of the cylinder1 and he was the first to formulate a 8cycle0 of operations necessary to be followed in order to render a gas engine efficient4 ,they related to the size and dimensions of the cylinder2 the maximum speed of the piston2 the greatest possible expansion1 and the highest pressure obtainable at the beginning of the act of expansion4 ,the study and application of these conditions created great advancements in gas engines4 ,with the discovery and development of the oil wells in the ,united ,states about #ahfj a new fuel was found in the crude petroleum1 as well as a source of light4 ,the application of petroleum to engines1 either to produce furnace heat1 or as introduced directly into the piston cylinder mixed with inflammable gas to produce flame heat and expansion1 has given a wonderful impetus to the utilisation of gas engines4 ,g4 ,h4 ,brayton of the ,united ,states in #ahgc invented a very efficient engine in which the vapour of petroleum mixed with air constituted the fuel4 ,adolf ,spiel of ,berlin has also recently invented a petroleum engine4 ,principal among those to whom the world is indebted for the revolution in the construction of gas engines and its establishment as a successful rival to the steam engine is ,nicolaus ,a4 ,otto of ,deutz on the ,rhine4 ,in the ,lenair and ,hugon system the expansive force of the exploded gas was used directly upon the piston1 and through this upon the other moving parts4 ,a great noise was produced by these constant explosions4 ,in the ,otto system the explosion is used indirectly and only to produce a vacuum below the piston1 when atmospheric pressure is used to give the return stroke of the piston and produce the effective work4 ,the ,otto engine is noiseless4 ,this is accomplished by his method of mixing and admitting the gases4 ,he employs two different mixtures1 one a 8feebly explosive mixture10 and the other 8a strongly explosive mixture10 used to operate on the piston and thus prolong the explosions4 ,the mode of operation of one of ,otto's most successful engines is as follows3 ,the large fly wheel is started by hand or other means1 and as the piston moves forward it draws into the cylinder a light charge of mixed coal gas and air1 and the gas inlet is then cut off4 ,as the piston returns it compresses this mixture4 ,at the moment the down stroke is completed the compressed mixture is ignited1 and1 expanding1 drives the piston before it4 ,in the second return stroke the burnt gases are expelled from the cylinder and the whole made ready to start afresh4 ,work is actually done in the piston only during one-quarter of the time it is in motion4 ,the fly-wheel carries forward the work at the outset and the gearing the rest of the time4 ,otto was associated with ,langen in producing his first machine1 and its introduction at the ,centennial ,exposition at ,philadelphia in #ahgf excited great attention4 ,otto and ,e4 ,w4 and ,w4 ,j4 ,crossley jointly1 and then ,otto singly1 subsequently patented notable improvements4 ,simon ,bischof and ,clark1 ,hurd and ,clayton in ,england2 ,daimler of ,deutz on the ,rhine1 ,riker and ,wiegand of the ,united ,states1 and others1 have made improvements in the ,otto system4 ,ammoniacal gas engines have been successfully invented4 ,aqua ammonia is placed in a generator in which it is heated4 ,the heat separates the ammonia gas from the water1 and the gas is then used to operate a suitable engine4 ,the exhaust gas is cooled1 passed into the previously weakened solution1 reabsorbed and returned to the generator4 ,in #ahij ,charles ,tellier of ,france patented an ammoniacal engine1 also means for utilising solar heat and exhaust steam for the same purpose2 and in the same year ,de ,susini1 also of ,france1 patented an engine operated by the vapour of ether2 ,a4 ,nobel1 another ,frenchman1 in #ahid1 patented a machine for propelling torpedoes and other explosive missiles1 and for controlling the course of balloons1 the motive power of which is a gas developed in a closed reservoir by the chemical reaction of metallic sodium or potassium in a solution of ammonia4 ,these vapour engines are used for vapour launches1 bicycles and automobiles4 ,in #ahea the ideas of ,huygens and ,papin of two hundred years before were revived by ,w4 ,m4 ,storm1 who in that year took out a gunpowder engine patent in the ,united ,states1 in which the air was compressed by the explosions of small charges of gunpowder4 ,about fifteen other patents have been taken out in ,america since that time for such engines4 ,in some the engines are fed by cartridges which are exploded by pulling a trigger4 ,as to gas and vapor engines generally1 it may now be said1 in comparison with steam1 that although the steam engine is now regarded as almost perfect in operation1 and that it can be started and stopped and otherwise controlled quietly1 smoothly1 instantaneously1 and in the most uniform and satisfactory manner1 yet there is the comparatively long delay in generating the steam in the boiler1 and the loss of heat and power as it is conducted in pipes to the working cylinder1 resulting in the utilisation of only ten per cent of the actual power generated1 whereas gas and vapour engines utilise twenty-five per cent of the power generated1 and the flame and explosions are now as easily and noiselessly controlled as the flow of oil or water4 ,the world is coming to agree with ,prof4 ,fleeming ,jenkins that 8,gas engines will ultimately supplant the steam40 ,the smoke and cinder nuisance with them has been solved4 ,the sister invention of the gas engine is the air engine4 ,there can be no doubt about the success of this busy body1 as it is now a swift and successful motor in a thousand different fields4 ,machines in which air1 either hot or cold1 is used in place of steam as the moving power to drive a piston1 or to be driven by a piston1 are known generally as air1 caloric1 or hot-air engines1 air compressors1 or compressed air engines1 and are also classed as pneumatic machines1 air brakes1 or pumps4 ,they are now specifically known by the name of the purpose to which they are applied1 as air ship1 ventilator1 air brake1 fan blower1 air pistol1 air spring1 etc4 ,the attention of inventors was directed towards compressed and heated air as a motor as soon as steam became a known and efficient servant2 but the most important and the only successful air machine existing prior to this century was the air pump1 invented by ,guericke in #afej1 and subsequently perfected by ,robert ,boyle and others4 ,the original pump and the ,magdeburg hemispheres are still preserved4 ,it is recorded that ,amontons of ,france1 in #afii1 had an atmospheric fire wheel or air engine in which a heated column of air was made to drive a wheel4 ,it has already been noted what ,papin 7#afhj-afij7 proposed and did in steam4 ,his last published work was a ,latin essay upon a new system for raising water by the action of fire1 published in #agjg4 ,the action of confined and compressed steam and gases1 and air1 is so nearly the same in the machines in which they constitute the motive power that the history1 development1 construction1 and operation of the machines of one class are closely interwoven with those of the others4 ,taking advantage of what had been taught them by ,watt and others as to steam and steam engines1 and of the principles and laws of gases as expounded by ,boyle1 ,mariotte1 ,dalton1 and ,gay-,lussac1 that many of the gases1 such as air1 preserve a permanent expansive gaseous form under all degrees of temperature and compression to which they had as yet been subjected1 that when compressed and released they will expand1 and exert a pressure in the contrary direction until the gas and outside atmospheric pressure are in equilibrium1 that this compressed gas pressure is equal1 and transmitted equally in all directions1 and that the weight of a column of air resting on every horizontal square inch at the sea level is very nearly #ad4f pounds1 the inventors of the nineteenth century were enabled by this supreme illumination to enter with confidence into that work of mechanical contrivances which has rendered the age so marvellous4 ,it was natural that in the first development of mechanical appliances they should be devoted to those pursuits in which men had the greatest practical interest4 ,thus as to steam it was first applied to the raising of water from mines and then to road vehicles4 ,and so in #ahjj ,thos4 ,parkinson of ,england invented and patented an 8hydrostatic engine or machine for the purpose of drawing beer or any other liquid out of a cellar or vault in a public house1 which is likewise intended to be applied for raising water out of mines1 ships or wells40 ,by the use of a sort of an air pump he maintained an air pressure on the beer in an air-tight cask situated in the cellar1 which was connected with pipes having air-tight valves1 with the upper floor4 ,the liquid was forced from the cellar by the air pressure1 and when turned off1 the air pressure was resumed in the cask1 which 8preserved the beer from being thrown into a state of flatness40 ,substantially the same device in principle has been reinvented and incorporated in patents numerous times since4 ,in the innumerable applications of the pneumatic machines and air tools of the century1 especially of air-compressing devices1 to the daily uses of life1 we may1 by turning first to our home1 find its inner and outer walls painted by a pneumatic paint-spraying machine1 for such have been made that will coat forty-six thousand square feet of surface in six hours2 and it is said that paint can be thus applied not only more quickly1 but more thoroughly and durably than by the old process4 ,the periodical and fascinating practice of house cleaning is now greatly facilitated by an air brush having a pipe with a thin wide end in which are numerous perforations1 and through which the air is forced by a little pump1 and with which apparatus a far more efficient cleaning effect upon carpets1 mattresses1 curtains1 clothes1 and furniture can be obtained than by the time-honoured broom and duster4 ,is the home uncomfortable by reason of heat and summer insects8 ,a compressor having tanks or cisterns in the cellar filled with cool or cold air may be set to work to reduce the temperature of the house and fan the inmates with a refreshing breeze4 ,air engines have been invented which can be used to either heat or cool the air1 or do one or the other automatically4 ,the heating when wanted is by fuel in a furnace forced up by a working cylinder1 and the cooling by the circulation of water around small1 thin copper tubes through which the air passes to the cylinder4 ,do the chimes of the distant church bells lead one to the house of worship8 ,the worshipper goes with the comforting assurance that the chimes which send forth such sweet harmonies are operated not by toiling1 sweating men at ropes1 but by a musician who plays as upon an organ1 and works the keys1 valves and stops by the aid of compressed air1 and sometimes by the additional help of electricity4 ,mention has already been made of office and other elevators1 in which compressed air is an important factor in operating the same and for preventing accidents4 ,if a waterfall is convenient1 air is compressed by the body of descending water1 and used to ventilate tunnels1 and deep shafts and mines1 or drive the drills or other tools4 ,the pneumatic mail tube despatch system1 by which letters1 parcels1 etc41 are sent from place to place by the force of atmospheric pressure in an air-exhausted tube1 is a decidedly modern invention1 unknown in use even by those who are still children4 ,tubes as large as eight inches in diameter are now in use in which cartridge boxes are placed1 each holding six hundred or more letters1 and when the air is exhausted the cartridge is forced through the tubes to the distance sometimes of three miles and more in a few minutes4 ,in travelling by rail the train is now guided in starting or in stopping on to the right track1 which may be one out of forty or fifty1 by a pneumatic switch1 the switches for the whole number of tracks being under the control of a single operator4 ,the fast-moving train is stopped by an air brake1 and the locomotive bell is rung by touching an air cylinder4 ,the 8baggage smashing10 a custom more honoured in the breach than in the observance1 is prevented by a pneumatic baggage arrangement consisting of an air-containing cylinder1 and an arm on which to place the baggage1 and which arm is then quickly raised by the cylinder piston and is automatically swung around by a cam action carrying the baggage out of or into the car4 ,bridge building has been so facilitated by the use of pneumatic machines for raising heavy loads of stone and iron1 and for riveting and hammering1 and other air tools1 aided by the development in the art of quick transportation1 that a firm of bridge builders in ,america can build a splendid bridge in ,africa within a hundred days after the contract has been entered upon4 ,ship building is hastened by these same air drilling and riveting machines4 ,the propelling of cars1 road vehicles1 boats1 balloons1 and even ships1 by explosive gases and compressed air is an extensive art in itself1 yet still in its infancy1 and will be more fully described in the chapter on carrying machines4 ,the realm of ,art has received a notable advancement by the use of a little blow-pipe or atomiser by which the pigments forming the background on beautiful vases are blown with just that graduated force desired by the operator to produce the most exquisitely smooth and blended effects1 while the varying colours are made to melt imperceptibly into one another as delicately as the mingled shade and coloured sunlight fall on a forest brook4 ,but to enumerate the industrial arts to which air and other pneumatic machines have been adapted would be to catalogue them all4 ,mention is made of others in chapters in which those special arts are treated4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,art ,,of ,,heating1 ,,ventilating1 ,,cooking1 ,,refrigeration ,,and ,,lighting4 ,that ,prometheus stole fire from heaven to give it to man is perhaps as authentic an account of the invention of fire as has been given4 ,it is also reported that he brought it to earth in a hollow tube4 ,if a small stick or twig had then been dipped into the divine fire the suggestion of the modern match may be supposed to have been made4 ,but men went on to reproduce the fire in the old way by rubbing pieces of wood together1 or using the flint1 the steel and the tinder until #afhj1 when ,godfrey ,hanckwitz of ,london1 learning of the recent discovery of phosphorus and its nature1 and inspired by the ,promethean idea1 wrapped the phosphorus in folds of brown paper1 rubbed it until it took fire1 and then ignited thereat one end of a stick which he had dipped in sulphur2 and this is commonly known as the first invented match4 ,there followed the production of a somewhat different form of match1 sticks first dipped in sulphur1 and then in a composition of chlorate potash1 sulphur1 colophony1 gum of sugar1 and cinnabar for coloring4 ,these were arranged in boxes1 and were accompanied by a vial containing sulphuric acid1 into which the match was dipped and thereby instantly ignited4 ,these were called chemical matches and were sold at first for the high price of fifteen shillings a box4 ,they were too costly for common use1 and so our fathers went on to the nineteenth century using the flint1 the steel and the tinder1 and depending on the coal kept alive upon their own or their neighbour's hearth4 ,prometheus1 however1 did reappear about #ahbj-be1 when a match bearing the name 8,promethean0 was invented4 ,it consisted of a roll of paper treated with sugar and chlorate of potash and a small cell containing sulphuric acid4 ,this cell was broken by a pair of pliers and the acid ignited the composition by contact therewith4 ,it was not until #ahbg-bi that ,john ,walker1 chemist1 at ,stockton-upon-,tees1 improved upon the idea of ,prometheus and ,hanckwitz of giving fire to men in a hollow tube4 ,he used folded sanded paper--it may have been a tube--and through this he drew a stick coated with chlorate of potash and phosphorus4 ,this successful match was named 8,lucifer10 whose other name was ,phosphor1 the ,morning ,star1 and the ,king of the ,western ,land4 ,faraday1 to whom also was given ,promethean inspiration1 procured some of ,walker's matches and brought them to public notice4 ,in many respects the mode of their manufacture has been improved1 but in principle of composition and ignition they remain the same as ,walker's to-day4 ,in #ahde1 ,schrotter of ,vienna discovered amorphous or allotropic phosphorus1 which rendered the manufacture of matches less dangerous to health and property4 ,tons of chemicals and hundreds of pine trees are used yearly in the making of matches1 and many hundreds of millions of them are daily consumed4 ,but this vast number of matches could not be supplied had it not been for the invention of machines for making and packing them4 ,thus in #ahdb ,reuben ,partridge of ,america patented a machine for making splints4 ,others for making splints and the matches separately1 quickly followed4 ,together with these came match dipping and match box machines4 ,the splint machines were for slitting a block of wood of the proper height downward nearly the whole way into match splints1 leaving their butts in the solid wood4 ,these were square and known as block matches4 ,other mechanisms cut and divided the block into strips1 which were then dipped at one end1 dried and tied in bundles4 ,by other means1 a swing blade1 for instance1 the matches were all severed from the block4 ,matches are made round by one machine by pressing the block against a plate having circular perforations1 and the interspaces are beveled so as to form cutting edges4 ,poririer1 a ,frenchman1 invented a machine for making match boxes of pasteboard4 ,suitable sized rectangular pieces of pasteboard rounded at the angles for making the body of the box are first cut1 then these pieces are introduced into the machine1 where by the single blow of a plunger they are forced into a matrix or die and pressed1 and receive by this single motion their complete and final shape4 ,the lid is made in the same way4 ,by one modern invention matches after they are cut are fed into a machine at the rate of one hundred thousand an hour1 on to a horizontal table1 each match separated from the other by a thin partition4 ,they are thus laid in rows1 one row over another1 and while being laid1 the matches are pushed out a little way beyond the edge of the table1 a distance far enough to expose their ends and to permit them to be dipped4 ,when a number of these rows are completed they are clamped together in a bundle and then dipped--first1 into a vessel of hot sulphur1 and then into one of phosphorus1 or other equivalent ingredients may be used or added4 ,after the dipping they are subjected to a drying process and then boxed4 ,processes differ1 but all are performed by machinery4 ,in many factories where phosphorus is used without great care workmen have been greatly affected thereby4 ,the fumes of the phosphorus attack the teeth1 especially when decayed1 and penetrate to the jaw1 causing its gradual destruction1 but this has been avoided by proper precautions4 ,the greatly-increased facility of kindling a fire by matches gave an impetus to the invention of cooking and heating stoves4 ,of course stoves1 generically speaking1 are not a production of the nineteenth century4 ,the ,romans had their laconicum or heating stove1 which from its name was an invention from ,laconia4 ,it probably was made in most cases of brick or marble1 but might have been of beaten iron1 was cylindrical in shape1 with an open cupola at the top1 and was heated by the flames of the hypocaust beneath4 ,the hypocaust was a hot-air furnace built in the basement or cellar of the house and from which the heat was conducted by flues to the bath rooms and other apartments4 ,the ,chinese ages ago heated their hollow tiled floors by underground furnace fires4 ,we know of the athanor of the alchemists of the middle ages4 ,knight calls it the 8original base-burning furnace40 ,a furnace of iron or earthenware was provided on one side with an open stack or tower which opened at the bottom into the furnace1 and which stack was kept filled with charcoal1 or other fuel1 which fed itself automatically into the furnace as the fuel on the bed thereof burned away4 ,watt introduced an arrangement on the same principle in his steam boiler furnace in #agfg1 and thousands of stoves are now constructed within ,england and the ,united ,states also embodying the same principle4 ,the earthenware and soapstone stoves of continental ,europe were used long before the present century4 ,in ,ben ,franklin's time in the ,american ,colonies there was not much of a demand for stoves outside of the largest cities1 where wood was getting a little scarce and high1 but the philosopher not only deemed it proper to invent an improvement in chimneys to prevent their smoking and to better heat the room1 but also devised an improved form of stove1 and both inventions have been in constant use unto this day4 ,franklin invented and introduced his celebrated stove1 which he called the ,pennsylvania ,fire ,place1 in #agde1 having all the advantages of a cheerful open fireplace1 and a heat producer2 and which consisted of an iron stove with an open front set well into the room1 in which front part the fire was kindled1 and the products of combustion conducted up a flue1 and thence under a false back and up the chimney4 ,open heat spaces were left between the two flues4 ,air inlets and dampers were provided4 ,in his description of this stove at that time ,franklin also referred to the iron box stoves used by the ,dutch1 the iron plates extending from the hearths and sides1 etc41 chimneys making a double fireplace used by the ,french1 and the ,german stove of iron plates1 and so made that the fuel had to be put into it from another room or from the outside of the house4 ,he dwells upon the pleasure of an open fire1 and the destruction of this pleasure by the use of the closed stoves4 ,he also describes the discomforts of the fireplace in cold weather--of the 8cold draught nipping one's back and heels0--8scorched before and frozen behind0--the sharp draughts of cold from crevices from which many catch cold and from 8whence proceed coughs1 catarrhs1 toothaches1 fevers1 pleurisies and many other diseases40 ,added to the pleasure of seeing the crackling flames1 feeling the genial warmth1 and the diffusion of a spirit of sociability and hospitality1 is the fact of increased purity of the air by reason of the fireplace as a first-class ventilator4 ,hence it will never be discarded by those who can afford its use2 but it alone is inadequate for heating and cooking purposes4 ,it is modernly used as a luxury by those who are able to combine with it other means for heating4 ,the great question for solution in this art at all times has been how to produce through dwelling houses and larger buildings in cold and damp weather a uniform distribution and circulation of pure heated air4 ,the solution of this question has of course been greatly helped in modern times by a better knowledge of the nature of air and other gases1 and the laws which govern their motions and combinations at different temperatures4 ,the most successful form of heating coal stove of the century has been one that combined in itself the features of base-burning3 that is1 a covered magazine at the centre or back of the stove open at or near the top of the stove into which the coal is placed1 and which then feeds to the bottom of the fire pot as fast as the coal is consumed1 a heavy open fire pot placed as low as possible1 an ash grate connected with the bottom of the pot which can be shaken and dumped to an ash box beneath without opening the stove1 thus preventing the escape of the dust1 an illuminating chamber nearly or entirely surrounding the fire pot1 provided with mica windows1 through which the fire is reflected and the heat radiated1 a chamber above the fire pot and surrounding the fuel chamber and into which the heat and hot gases arise1 producing additional radiating surface and permitting the gases to escape through a flue in the chimney1 or1 leading them first through another chamber to the base of the stove and thence out1 and dampers to control and regulate the supply of air to the fuel1 and to cut off the escape or control the course of the products of combustion4 ,the cheerful stove fireplace and stove of ,franklin and the ,french were revived1 combined and improved some years ago by ,capt4 ,douglas ,galton of the ,english army for use in barracks1 but this stove is also admirably adapted for houses4 ,it consists of an open stove or grate set in or at the front of the fireplace with an air inlet from without1 the throat of the fireplace closed and a pipe extending through it from the stove into the chimney4 ,although a steady flow of heat1 desirable regulation of temperature and great economy in the consumption of fuel1 by reason of the utilisation of so much of the heat produced1 were obtained by the modern stove1 yet the necessity of having a stove in nearly every room1 the ill-ventilation due to the non-supply of pure outer air to the room1 the occasional diffusion of ash dust and noxious gases from the stove1 and inability to heat the air along the floor1 gave rise to a revival of the hot-air furnace1 placed under the floor in the basement or cellar1 and many modern and radical improvements therein4 ,the heat obtained from stoves is effected by radiation--the throwing outward of the waves of heat from its source1 while the heat obtained from a hot-air furnace is effected by convection--the moving of a body of air to be heated to the source of heat1 and then when heated bodily conveyed to the room to be warmed4 ,hence in stoves and fireplaces only such obstruction is placed between the fire and the room as will serve to convey away the obnoxious smoke and gases1 and the greatest facility is offered for radiation1 while in hot-air furnaces1 although provision is also made to carry away the smoke and impure gases1 yet the radiation is confined as closely as possible to chambers around the fire space1 which chambers are protected by impervious linings from the outer air1 and into which fresh outdoor air is introduced1 then heated and conveyed to different apartments by suitable pipes or flues1 and admitted or excluded1 as desired1 by registers operated by hand levers4 ,there are stationary furnaces and portable furnaces2 the former class enclose the heating apparatus in walls of brick or other masonry1 while in the latter the outer casing and the inner parts are metal structures1 separable and removable4 ,in both classes an outer current of pure air is made to course around the fire chamber and around among other flues and chambers through which the products of combustion are carried1 so that all heat possible is utilised4 ,vessels of water are supplied at the most convenient place in one of the hot-air chambers to moisten and temper the air1 and dampers are placed in the pipes to regulate and guide the supply of heat to the rooms above4 ,after ,watt had invented his improvements on the steam engine the idea occurred to him of using steam for heating purposes4 ,accordingly1 in #aghd1 he made a hollow sheet-iron box of plates1 and supplied it with steam from the boiler of the establishment4 ,it had an air-escape cock1 and condensed-water-escape pipe2 and in #agii ,boulton and ,watt constructed a heating apparatus in ,lee's factory1 ,manchester1 in which the steam was conducted through cast-iron pipes1 which also served as supports to the floor4 ,patents were also taken out by others in ,england for steam-heating apparatuses during the latter part of the #ahth century4 ,heating by the circulation of hot water through pipes was also originated or revived during the #ahth century1 and a short time before ,watt's circulation of steam4 ,it is said that ,bonnemain of ,england1 in #aggg1 desiring to improve the ancient methods of hatching poultry by artificial heat--practised by both ancient and modern ,egyptians ages before it became a latter day wonder1 and taught the ,egyptians by the ostriches--conceived the idea of constructing quite a large incubator building with shelves for the eggs1 coops for holding the chickens1 and a tube for circulating hot water leading from a boiler below and above each shelf1 and through the coops1 and back to the boiler4 ,this incubator contains the germs of modern water heaters4 ,in both the steam and water heating systems the band or collection of pipes in each room may be covered with ornamental radiating plates1 or otherwise treated or arranged to render them sightly and effective4 ,in one form of the hot-water system1 however1 the collection of a mass of pipes in the rooms is dispensed with1 and the pipes are massed in an air chamber over or adjacent to the furnace1 where they are employed to heat a current of air introduced from the outside1 and which heated pure air is conveyed through the house by flues and registers as in the hot-air furnace system4 ,the hanging of the crane1 the turning of the spit1 the roasting in ashes and on hot stones1 the heating of and the baking in the big 8,dutch0 ovens1 and some other forms of cooking by our forefathers had their pleasures and advantages1 and still are appreciated under certain circumstances1 and for certain purposes1 but are chiefly honoured in memory alone and reverenced by disuse2 while the modern cooking stove with its roasting and hot water chambers1 its numerous seats over the fire for pots1 pans1 and kettles1 its easy means of controlling and directing the heat1 its rotating grate1 and1 when desired1 its rotating fire chamber1 for turning the hot fire on top to the bottom1 and the cold choked fire to the top1 its cleanliness and thorough heat1 its economy in the use of fuel1 is adopted everywhere1 and all the glowing names with which its makers and users christen it fail to exaggerate its qualities when rightly made and used4 ,it would appear that the field of labour and the number of labourers1 chiefly those who toiled with brick and mortar1 were greatly reduced when those huge fireplaces were so widely discarded4 ,this must have seemed so especially in those regions where the houses were built up to meet the yearning wants of an outside chimney1 but armies of men are engaged in civilised countries in making stoves and furnaces1 where three-quarters of a century ago very few were so employed4 ,as in every industrial art old things pass away1 but the new things come in greater numbers1 demand a greater number of workers1 develop new wants1 new fields of labour1 and the new and increasing supply of consumers refuse to be satisfied with old contrivances4 ,in the ,united ,states alone there are between four and five hundred stove and furnace foundries1 in which about ten thousand people are employed1 and more than three million stoves and furnaces produced annually1 which require nearly a million tons of iron to make1 and the value of which is estimated as at least #ajj1jjj1jjj4 ,the matter of ventilation is such a material part of heating that it cannot escape attention4 ,there can be no successful heating without a circulation of air currents1 and fortunately for man in his house no good fire can be had without an outflow of heat and an inflow of cooler air4 ,the more this circulation is prevented the worse the fire and the ventilation4 ,it seems to many such a simple thing1 this change of air--only to keep open the window a little--to have a fireplace1 and convenient door4 ,and yet some of the brightest intellects of the century have been engaged in devising means to accomplish the result1 and all are not yet agreed as to which is the best way4 ,how to remove the heated1 vitiated air and to supply fresh air while maintaining the same uniform temperature is a problem of long standing4 ,the history of the attempts to heat and ventilate the ,houses of ,parliament since ,wren undertook it in #affj has justly been said to be history of the ,art of ,ventilation since that time1 as the most eminent scientific authorities in the world have been engaged or consulted in it1 and the most exhaustive reports on the subject have been rendered by such men as ,gay-,lussac1 ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 ,faraday and ,dr4 ,arnott of ,england and ,gen4 ,morin of ,france4 ,the same may be said in regard to the ,houses of ,congress in the ,united ,states ,capitol for the past thirty-five years4 ,prof4 ,henry1 ,dr4 ,billings1 the architect1 ,clark1 of that country1 and many other bright inventors and men of ability have given the subject devoted attention4 ,among the means for creating ventilation are underground tunnels leading to the outer air1 with fans in them to force the fresh air in or draw the poor air out1 holes in the ceiling1 fire places1 openings over the doors1 openings under the eaves1 openings in the window frames1 shafts from the floor or basement with fires or gas jets to create an upward draught1 floors with screened openings to the outer air1 steam engines to work a suction pipe in one place and a blow pipe in another1 air boxes communicating with the outer air1 screens1 hoods1 and deflectors at these various openings1--all these1 separately or in combination1 have been used for the purpose of drawing the vitiated air out and letting the pure air in without creating draughts to chill the sensitive1 or overheating to excite the nervous4 ,there seems to have been as many devices invented to keep a house or building closed up tight while highly heating it1 as to ventilate the same and preserve an even1 moderate temperature4 ,the most approved system of ventilation recognises the fact that air is of the same weight and is possessed of the same constituents in one part of a room as at another1 and to create a perfect ventilation a complete change and circulation must take place4 ,it therefore creates a draught1 arising from the production of a vacuum by a current of heat or by mechanical means1 or by some other way1 which draws out of a room the used up1 vitiated air through outlets at different places1 while pure outer air is admitted naturally1 or forced in if need be1 through numerous small inlets1 such outlets and inlets so located and distributed and protected as not to give rise to sensible draughts on the occupants4 ,the best system also recognises the fact that all parts of a house1 its cellars and attic1 its parlours and kitchens1 its closets1 bathrooms and chambers1 should be alike clean and well ventilated1 and that if one room is infected all are infected4 ,the laurels bestowed on inventors are no more worthily bestowed than on those who have invented devices which give to our homes1 offices1 churches and places of amusement a pure and comfortable atmosphere4 ,car ,heaters4--,the passing away of the good old portable foot stove for warming the feet1 especially when away from home1 and while travelling1 is not to be regretted1 although in some instances it was not at first succeeded by superior devices4 ,for a long time after the introduction of steam1 railroad cars and carriages1 in which any heat at all was used1 were heated by a stove in each car--generally kept full of red hot coal or wood--an exceedingly dangerous companion in case of accident4 ,since #ahga systems have been invented and introduced1 the most successful of which consists of utilising the heat of the steam from the locomotive for producing a hot-water circulation through pipes along the floor of each car1 and in providing an emergency heater in each car for heating the water when steam from the locomotive is not available4 ,grass-burning ,stoves4--,there are many places in this world where neither wood nor coal abound1 or where the same are very scarce1 but where waste grass and weeds1 waste hay and straw1 and similar combustible refuse are found in great abundance4 ,stoves have been invented especially designed for the economical consumption of such fuel4 ,one requisite is that such light material should be held in a compressed state while in the stove to prevent a too rapid combustion4 ,means for so holding the material under compression appear to have been first invented and patented by ,hamilton of ,america in #ahgd4 ,some means besides the sickle and scythe1 hoe and plough1 were wanted to destroy obnoxious standing grass and weeds4 ,a weed like the ,russian thistle1 for instance1 will defy all usual means for its extermination4 ,a fire chamber has been invented which when drawn over the ground will burn a swath as it advances1 and it is provided with means1 such as a wide flange on the end of the chamber1 which extinguishes the fire and prevents its spreading beyond the path4 ,a similar stove with jets of flame from vapour burners has been used to soften hard asphalt pavement when it is desired to take it up4 ,the art of heating and cooking by oil1 vapour and gas stoves is one that has arisen during the latter half of this century1 and has become the subject of a vast number of inventions and extensive industries4 ,stoves of this character are as efficient and economical as coal stoves1 and are in great demand1 especially where coal and wood are scarce and high-priced4 ,oil stoves as first invented consisted of almost the ordinary lamp1 without the glass shade set in the stove and were similar to gas stoves4 ,but these were objectionable on account of the fumes emitted4 ,by later inventions the lamp has been greatly improved4 ,the wick is arranged within tubular sliding cylinders so as to be separated from the other parts of the stove when it is not lit1 and better regulating devices adopted1 whereby the oil is prevented from spreading from the wick on to the other parts of the stove1 which give rise to obnoxious fumes by evaporation and heating4 ,some recent inventors have dispensed with the wick altogether and the oil is burned practically like vapour4 ,gasoline1 and other heavy oily vapours are in many stoves first vapourised by a preliminary heating in a chamber before the gas is ignited for use4 ,these vapours are then conducted by separate jets to different points in the stove where the heat is to be applied4 ,the danger and unpleasant flame and smoke arising from this vapourising in the stove have been obviated by inventions which vapourise the fuel by other means1 as by carbonating1 or loading the air with the vapour in an elevated chamber and conducting the saturated air to the burners2 or by agitation1 by means of a quick-acting1 small1 but powerful fan4 ,sterilising4--,the recent scientific discoveries and investigations of injurious bacteria rendered it desirable to purify water by other means than filtering1 especially for the treatment of disease-infected localities2 and this gave rise to the invention of a system of heat sterilising and filtering the water1 in one process1 and out of contact with the germ-laden air1 thus destroying the bacteria and delivering the water in as pure and wholesome condition as possible4 ,west in #ahib patented such a system4 ,electric ,heating and ,cooking4--,reference has already been made in the ,chapter on ,electricity to the use of that agent in heating and cooking4 ,the use of the electric current for these purposes has been found to be perfectly practical1 and for heating cars especially1 where electricity is the motive power1 a portion of the current is economically employed4 ,the art of heating and cooking naturally suggests the other end of the line of temperature--,refrigeration4 ,a refrigeration by which ordinary ice is artificially produced1 perishable food of all kinds preserved for long times1 and transported for great distances1 which has proved an immense advantage to mankind everywhere and is still daily practised to the gratification and comfort of millions of men1 must receive at least a passing notice4 ,the ,messrs4 ,e4 and ,f4 ,carr of ,france invented successful machines about #ahgj for making ice by the rapid absorption and evaporation of heat by the ammonia process4 ,the discoveries and inventions of others in the artificial production of cold by means of volatile liquids1 whether for the making of ice or other purposes1 constituted a great step in the art of refrigeration4 ,vaporisation1 absorption1 compression or reduction of atmospheric pressure are the principal methods of producing cold4 ,by vaporisation1 water1 ether1 sulphuric acid1 ammonia1 etc41 in assuming the vaporous form change sensible heat to latent heat and produce a degree of cold which freezes an adjacent body of water4 ,the principle of making ice by evaporation and absorption may be illustrated by two examples of the ,carr methods3--,it is well known what a great attraction sulphuric acid has for water4 ,water to be frozen is placed in a vessel connected by a pipe to a reservoir containing sulphuric acid4 ,a vacuum is produced in this reservoir by the use of an air pump1 while the acid is being constantly stirred4 ,lessening of the atmospheric pressure upon water causes its evaporation1 and as the vapour is quietly absorbed by the sulphuric acid the water is quickly congealed4 ,it is known that ammonia can be condensed into liquid form by pressure or cold1 and is absorbed by and soluble in water to an extraordinary degree4 ,a generator containing a strong solution of ammonia is connected by a pipe to an empty receiver immersed in cold water4 ,the ammonia generator is then heated1 its vapour driven off and conducted to a jacket around the centre of the receiver and is there condensed by pressure of an air pump4 ,the central cylindrical space in the receiver is now filled with water1 and the operation is reversed4 ,the generator is immersed in cold water and pressure on the liquid ammonia removed4 ,the liquid ammonia now passes into the gaseous state1 and is conducted to and reabsorbed by the water in the generator4 ,but in this evaporation great cold is produced and the water in the receiver is soon frozen4 ,twining's inventions in the ,united ,states in #ahec and #ahfb of the compression machine1 followed by ,pictet of ,france1 and a number of improvements elsewhere have bid fair to displace the absorption method4 ,in dispensing with absorption these machines proceed on the now well-established theory that air and many other gases become heated when compressed2 that this heat can then be drawn away1 and that when the gas is allowed to re-expand it will absorb a large amount of heat from any solid or fluid with which it is brought in contact1 and so freeze it4 ,accordingly such machines are so constructed that by the operation of a piston1 or pistons1 in a cylinder1 and actuated by steam or other motive power1 the air or gas is compressed to the desired temperature1 the heat led off and the cold vapour conducted through pipes and around chambers where water is placed and where it is frozen4 ,by the best machines from five hundred to one thousand pounds of ice an hour are produced4 ,the art of refrigeration and of modern transportation have brought the fruits of the tropics in great abundance to the doors of the dwellers of the north1 and from the shores of the ,pacific to the ,atlantic and across the ,atlantic to ,europe4 ,a train of refrigerator cars in ,california laden with delicious assorted fruits1 and provided with fan blowers driven by the car axles to force the air through ice chambers1 from whence it is distributed by perforated pipes through the fruit chambers1 and wherein the temperature is maintained at about #dj ,fah41 can be landed in ,new ,york four days after starting on its journey of #c1jjj miles1 with the fruits in perfect condition4 ,but the public is still excited and wondering over the new king of refrigeration--liquid air4 ,as has been stated1 the compression of air to produce cold is a modern discovery applied to practical uses1 and prominent among the inventors and discoverers in this line have been ,prof4 ,dewar and ,charles ,e4 ,tripler4 ,air may be compressed and heat generated in the process withdrawn until the temperature of the air is reduced to #cab below zero1 at which point the air is visible and to a certain extent assumes a peculiar material form1 in which form it can be confined in suitable vessels and used as a refrigerant and as a motor of great power when permitted to re-expand4 ,it is said that it was not so long ago when ,prof4 ,dewar produced the first ounce of liquid air at a cost of #c1jjj1 but that now ,mr4 ,tripler claims that he can produce it by his apparatus for five cents a gallon4 ,refrigeration is at present its most natural and obvious use1 and it is claimed that eleven gallons of the material when gradually expanded has the refrigerating power of one ton of ice4 ,its use of course for all purposes for which cold can be used is thus assured4 ,it is also to be used as a motor in the running of various kinds of engines4 ,it is to be used as a great alleviator of human suffering in lowering and regulating the temperature of hospitals in hot weather1 and in surgical operations as a substitute for ansthetics and cauterising agents4 ,it was one of the marvellous attractions at the great ,paris ,exposition of #aijj4 ,lighting is closely allied to the various subjects herein considered1 but consideration of the various modes and kinds of lamps for lighting will be reserved for the ,chapter on ,furniture for ,houses1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,metallurgy4 8,nigh on the plain1 in many cells prepared1 ,that underneath had veins of liquid fire ,sluiced from the lake1 a second multitude ,with wondrous art founded the massy ore2 ,severing each kind1 and scumm'd the bullion dross2 ,a third as soon had formed within the ground ,a various mould1 and from the boiling cells ,by strange conveyance fill'd each hollow nook2 ,as in an organ1 from one blast of wind1 ,to many a row of pipes the sound board breathes40 --,paradise ,lost4 ,ever since those perished races of men who left no other record but that engraven in rude emblems on the rocks1 or no other signs of their existence but in the broken tools found buried deep among the solid leaves of the crusted earth1 ever since ,tubal ,cain became 8an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron10 the art of smelting has been known4 ,the stone age flourished with implements furnished ready-made by nature1 or needing little shaping for their use1 but the ages of metal which followed required the aid of fire directed by the hand of man to provide the tool of iron or bronze4 ,the ,greeks claimed that the discovery of iron was theirs1 and was made at the burning of a forest on the mountains of ,ida in ,crete1 about #aejj ,b4 ,c41 when the ore contained in the rocks or soil on which the forest stood was melted1 cleansed of its impurities1 and then collected and hammered4 ,archeologists have deprived the ,greeks of this gift1 and carried back its origin to remoter ages and localities4 ,man first discovered by observation or accident that certain stones were melted or softened by fire1 and that the product could be hammered and shaped4 ,they learned by experience that the melting could be done more effectually when the fuel and the ore were mixed and enclosed by a wall of stone2 that the fire and heat could be alone started and maintained by blowing air into the fuel--and they constructed a rude bellows for this purpose4 ,finding that the melted metal sank through the mass of consumed fuel1 they constructed a stone hearth on which to receive it4 ,thus were the first crude furnace and hearth invented4 ,as to gold1 silver and lead1 they doubtless were found first in their native state and mixed with other ores and were hammered into the desired shapes with the hardest stone implements4 ,that copper and tin combined would make bronze was a more complex proceeding and probably followed instead of preceding1 as has sometimes been alleged1 the making of iron tools4 ,that bronze relics were found apparently of anterior manufacture to any made of iron1 was doubtless due to the destruction of the iron by that great consumer--oxygen4 ,what was very anciently called 8brass0 was no doubt gold-coloured copper2 for what is modernly known as brass was not made until after the discovery of zinc in the #afth century and its combination with copper4 ,among the 8lost arts0 re-discovered in later ages are those which supplied the earliest cities with ornamented vessels of gold and copper1 swords of steel that bent and sprung like whalebones1 castings that had known no tool to shape their contour and embellishments1 and monuments and tablets of steel and brass which excite the wonder and admiration of the best 8artificers in brass and iron0 of the present day4 ,to understand and appreciate the advancements that have been made in metallurgy in the nineteenth century1 it is necessary to know1 in outline at least1 what before had been developed4 ,the earliest form of a smelting furnace of historic days1 such as used by the ancient ,egyptians1 ,hebrews1 and probably by the ,hindoos and other ancient peoples1 and still used in ,asia1 is thus described by ,dr4 ,ure3 8,the furnace or bloomary in which the ore is smelted is from #d to #e feet high2 it is somewhat pear-shaped1 being about #e feet wide at bottom and #a at top4 ,it is built entirely of clay4 ,there is an opening in front about a foot or more in height which is filled with clay at the commencement1 and broken down at the end of each smelting operation4 ,the bellows are usually made of two goatskins with bamboo nozzles1 which are inserted into tubes of clay that pass into the furnace4 ,the furnace is filled with charcoal1 and a lighted coal being introduced before the nozzle1 the mass in the interior is soon kindled4 ,as soon as this is accomplished1 a small portion of the ore previously moistened with water to prevent it from running through the charcoal1 but without any flux whatever1 is laid on top of the coals1 and covered with charcoal to fill up the furnace4 ,in this manner ore and fuel are supplied and the bellows urged for three or four hours4 ,when the process is stopped and the temporary wall in front broken down the bloom is removed with a pair of tongs from the bottom of the furnace40 ,this smelting was then followed by hammering to further separate the slag1 and probably after a reheating to increase the malleability4 ,it will be noticed that in this earliest process pure carbon was used as a fuel1 and a blast of air to keep the fire at a great heat was employed4 ,to what extent this carbon and air blast1 and the mixing and remixing with other ingredients1 and reheating and rehammering1 may have been employed in various instances to modify the conditions and render the metal malleable and more or less like modern steel1 is not known1 but that an excellent quality of iron resembling modern steel was often produced by this simple mode of manufacture by different peoples1 is undoubtedly the fact4 ,steel after all is iron with a little more carbon in it than in the usual iron in the smelting furnace1 to render it harder1 and a little less carbon than in cast or moulded iron to render it malleable1 and in both conditions was produced from time immemorial1 either by accident or design4 ,it was with such a furnace probably that ,india produced her keen-edged weapons that would cut a web of gossamer1 and ,damascus its flashing blades--the synonym of elastic strength4 ,africa1 when its most barbarous tribes were first discovered1 was making various useful articles of iron4 ,its earliest modes of manufacture were doubtless still followed when ,dr4 ,livingstone explored the interior1 as they now also are4 ,he thus describes their furnaces and iron3 8,at every third or fourth village 7in the regions near ,lake ,nyassa7 we saw a kiln-looking structure1 about #f feet high and #b feet in diameter4 ,it is a clay fire-hardened furnace for smelting iron4 ,no flux is used1 whether with specular iron1 the yellow hematite1 or magnetic ore1 and yet capital metal is produced4 ,native manufactured iron is so good that the natives declare ,english iron 8rotten0 in comparison1 and specimens of ,african hoes were pronounced at ,birmingham nearly equal to the best ,swedish iron40 ,the natives of ,india1 the ,hottentots1 the early ,britons1 the ,chinese1 the savages of ,north and ,south ,america1 as discovery or research brought their labours to light1 or uncovered the monuments of their earliest life1 were shown to be acquainted with similar simple forms of smelting furnaces4 ,early ,spain produced a furnace which was adopted by the whole of ,europe as fast as it became known4 ,it was the ,catalan furnace1 so named from the province of ,catalonia1 where it probably first originated1 and it is still so known and extensively used4 8,it consists of a four-sided cavity or hearth1 which is always placed within a building and separated from the main wall thereof by a thinner interior wall1 which in part constitutes one side of the furnace4 ,the blast pipe comes through the wall1 and enters the fire through a flue which slants downward4 ,the bottom is formed of a refractory stone1 which is renewable4 ,the furnace has no chimneys4 ,the blast is produced by means of a fall of water usually from #bb to #bg feet high1 through a rectangular tube1 into a rectangular cistern below1 to whose upper part the blast pipe is connected1 the water escaping through a pipe below4 ,this apparatus is exterior to the building1 and is said to afford a continuous blast of great regularity2 the air1 when it passes into the furnace1 is1 however1 saturated with moisture40--,knight4 ,no doubt in such a heat was formed the metal from which was shaped the armour of ,don ,quixote and his prototypes4 ,bell in his history of ,metallurgy tells us that the manufacture of malleable iron must have fallen into decadence in ,england1 especially before the reign of ,elizabeth and ,charles ,i41 as no furnaces equal even to the ,catalan had for a long time been in use2 and the architectural iron column found in ancient ,delhi1 #af inches in diameter1 about #dh feet long and calculated to weigh about #ag tons1 could not have been formed by any means known in ,england in the sixteenth century4 ,this decadence was in part due to the severe laws enacted against the destruction of forests1 and most of the iron was then brought to ,england from ,germany and other countries4 ,from time immemorial the manufacture of iron and steel has been followed in ,germany1 and that country yet retains pre-eminence in this art both as to mechanical and chemical processes4 ,it was in the eighteenth century that the celebrated ,freiberg ,mining ,academy was founded1 the oldest of all existing mining schools2 and based on developing mining and metallurgy on scientific lines1 it has stood always on the battle line in the fight of progress4 ,the early smelting furnaces of ,germany resembled the ,catalan1 and were called the 8,stckofen10 and in ,sweden were known as the 8,osmund40 ,in these very pure iron was made4 ,the art of making cast iron1 which differs from the ordinary smelted iron in the fact that it is melted and then run into moulds1 although known among the ancients more than forty centuries ago1 as shown by the castings of bronze and brass described by their writers and recovered from their ruins1 appears to have been forgotten long before the darkness of the middle ages gathered4 ,there is no record of its practice from the time the elder ,pliny described its former use 7#dj-gi ,a4 ,d471 to the sixteenth century4 ,it is stated that then the lost art was re-invented by ,ralph ,page and ,peter ,baude of ,england in #aedc--who in that year made cast-iron in ,sussex4 ,the 8,stckofen0 furnace above referred to was succeeded in ,germany by higher ones called the 8,flossofen10 and these were followed by still higher and larger ones called 8,blauofen10 so that by the middle of the eighteenth century the furnaces were very capacious1 the blast was good1 and it had been learned how to supply the furnaces with ore1 coal and lime-stone broken into small fragments4 ,the lime was added as a flux1 and acted to unite with itself the sand1 clay and other impurities to form a slag or scoria4 ,the melted purified iron falling to the bottom was drawn off through a hole tapped in the furnace1 and the molten metal ran into channels in a bed of sand called the 8,sow and pigs40 ,hence the name1 8pig iron40 ,the smelting of ore by charcoal in those places where carried on extensively required the use of a vast amount of wood1 and denuded the surrounding lands of forests4 ,so great was this loss felt that it gave rise to the prohibitory laws and the decadence in ,england of the manufacture of iron1 already alluded to4 ,this turned the attention of iron smelters to coal as a substitute4 ,patents were granted in ,england for its use to several unsuccessful inventors4 ,finally in #afai ,dud ,dudley1 a graduate of ,oxford ,university1 and to whom succeeded his father's iron furnaces in ,worcestershire1 obtained a patent and succeeded in producing several tons of iron per week by the use of the pitcoal in a small blast furnace4 ,this success inflamed the wood owners and the charcoal burners and they destroyed ,dudley's works4 ,he met with other disasters common to worthy inventors and discontinued his efforts to improve the art4 ,it is said that in #affd ,sir ,john ,winter of ,england made coke by burning sea coal in closed pots4 ,but this was not followed up1 and the use of charcoal and the destruction of the forests went on until #agce1 when ,abraham ,darby of the ,coalbrookdale ,iron ,works at ,shropshire1 ,england1 commenced to treat the soft pit coal in the same way as wood is treated in producing charcoal4 ,he proposed to burn the coal in a smouldering fire1 to expel the sulphur and other impurities existing in the form of phosphorus1 hydrogen and oxygen1 etc4 while saving the carbon4 ,the attempt was successful1 and thus coke was made4 ,it was found cheaper and superior to either coal or charcoal1 and produced a quicker fire and a greater heat4 ,this was a wonderful discovery1 and was preserved as a trade secret for a long time4 ,it was referred to as a curiosity in the ,philosophical ,transactions in #agdg4 ,in fact it was not introduced in ,america until a century later1 when in #ahda the soft coal abounding around ,pittsburgh in ,pennsylvania and in the neighbouring regions of ,ohio was thus treated4 ,even its use then was experimental1 and did not become a practical art in the ,united ,states until about #ahfj4 ,with the invention of coke came also the revival of cast iron4 ,the process of making cast steel was reinvented in ,england by ,benjamin ,huntsman of ,attercliff1 near ,sheffield1 about #agdj4 ,between that time and #aggj he practised melting small pieces of 8blistered0 steel 7iron bars which had been carbonised by smelting in charcoal7 in closed clay crucibles4 ,in #aghd ,henry ,cort of ,england introduced the puddling process and grooved rolls4 ,puddling had been invented1 but not successfully used before4 ,the term 8puddling0 originated in the covering of the hearth of stones at the bottom of the furnace with clay1 which was made plastic by mixing the clay in a puddle of water2 and on which hearth the ore when melted is received4 ,when in this melted condition ,cort and others found that the metal was greatly improved by stirring it with a long iron bar called a 8rabble10 and which was introduced through an opening in the furnace4 ,this stirring admitted air to the mass and the oxygen consumed and expelled the carbon1 silicon1 and other impurities4 ,the process was subsequently aided by the introduction of pig iron broken into pieces and mixed with hammer-slag1 cinder1 and ore4 ,the mass is stirred from side to side of the furnace until it comes to a boiling point1 when the stirring is increased in quickness and violence until a pasty round mass is collected by the puddler4 ,as showing the value of ,cort's discovery and the hard experience inventors sometimes have1 ,fairbairn states that ,cort 8expended a fortune of upward of #bj1jjj in perfecting his invention for puddling iron and rolling it into bars and plates2 that he was robbed of the fruits of his discoveries by the villainy of officials in a high department of the government2 and that he was ultimately left to starve by the apathy and selfishness of an ungrateful country4 ,his inventions conferred an amount of wealth on the country equivalent to #fjj1jjj1jjj1 and have given employment to #fjj1jjj of the working population of our land for the last three or four generations40 ,this process of puddling lasted for about an hour and a half and entailed extremely severe labour on the workman4 ,the invention of mechanical puddlers1 hereinafter referred to1 consisting chiefly of rotating furnaces1 were among the beneficent developments of the nineteenth century4 ,prior to ,cort's time the plastic lump or ball of metal taken from the furnace was generally beaten by hammers1 but ,cort's grooved rollers pressed out the mass into sheets4 ,the improvements of the steam engine by ,watt greatly extended the manufacture of iron toward the close of the #ahth century1 as powerful air blasts were obtained by the use of such engines in place of the blowers worked by man1 the horse1 or the ox4 ,so far as the art of refining the precious metals is concerned1 as well as copper1 tin and iron1 it had not1 previous to this century1 proceeded much beyond the methods described in the most ancient writings2 and these included the refining in furnaces1 pots1 and covered crucibles1 and alloying1 or the mixture and fusion with other metals4 ,furnaces to hold the crucibles1 and made of iron cylinders lined with fire brick1 whereby the crucibles were subjected to greater heat1 were also known4 ,the amalgamating process was also known to the ancients1 and ,vitruvius 7,b4 ,c4 #bg7 and ,pliny 7,a4 ,d4 #gi71 describe how mercury was used for separating gold from its impurities4 ,its use at gold and silver mines was renewed extensively in the sixteenth century4 ,thus we find that the eighteenth century closed with the knowledge of the smelting furnaces of various kinds1 of coke as a fuel in place of charcoal1 of furious air blasts driven by steam and other power1 of cast iron and cast steel1 and of refining1 amalgamating1 and compounding processes4 ,looking back1 now1 from the threshold of the nineteenth century over the path we have thus traced1 it will be seen that what had been accomplished in metallurgy was the result of the use of ready means tested by prolonged trials1 of experiments more or less lucky in fields in which men were groping1 of inventions without the knowledge of the real properties of the materials with which inventors were working or of the unvarying laws which govern their operations4 ,they had accomplished much1 but it was the work mainly of empirics4 ,the art preceding the nineteenth century compared with what followed is the difference between experience simply1 and experience when combined with hard thinking1 which is thus stated by ,herschel3 8,art is the application of knowledge to a practical end4 ,if the knowledge be merely accumulated experience the art is empirical2 but if it is experience reasoned upon and brought under general principles it assumes a higher character and becomes a scientific art40 ,with the developments1 discoveries and inventions in the lines of steam1 chemistry and electricity1 as elsewhere told1 the impetus they gave to the exercise of brain force in every field of nature at the outset of the century1 and with their practical aid1 the art of metallurgy soon began to expand to greater usefulness1 and finally to its present wonderful domain4 ,the subject of metallurgy in this century soon became scientifically treated and its operations classified4 ,thus the physical character and metallic constituents of ores received the first consideration2 then the proper treatment to which the ores were to be subjected for the purpose of extracting the metal--which are either mechanical or chemical4 ,the mechanical processes designed to separate the ore from its enclosing rock or other superfluous earthy matter called gangue became known as ore dressing and ore concentrating4 ,these included mills with rollers1 and stamps operated by gravity1 or steam1 for breaking up the ore rocks2 abrasion apparatus for comminuting the ore by rubbing the pieces of ore under pressure2 and smelting1 or an equivalent process1 for melting the ore and driving off the impurities by heat1 etc4 ,the chemical processes are those by which the metal1 whatever it may be1 is either dissolved or separated from other constituents by either the application to the ore of certain metallic solutions of certain acids1 or by the fusion of different ores or metals in substantially the old styles of furnaces2 or its precipitation by amalgamating1 or by electrolysis--the art of decomposing metals by electricity4 ,in the early decades of the century1 by the help of chemistry and physics1 the nature of heat1 carbon1 and oxygen1 and the great affinity iron has for oxygen1 became better known2 and particularly how in the making of iron its behaviour is influenced by the presence of carbon and other foreign constituents2 also how necessary to its perfect separation was the proper elimination of the oxygen and carbon4 ,the use of manganese and other highly oxidisable metals for this purpose was discovered4 ,among the earliest most notable inventions in the century1 in the manufacture of iron1 was that of ,samuel ,b4 ,rogers of ,glamorganshire1 ,wales1 who invented the iron floor for furnaces with a refractory lining--a great improvement on ,cort's sand floor1 which gave too much silicon to the iron2 and the hot air blast by ,neilson of ,glasgow1 ,scotland1 patented in #ahbh4 ,the latter consisted in the use of heated air as the blast instead of cold air--whereby ignition of the fuel was quickened1 intensity of the heat and the expulsion of oxygen and carbon from the iron increased1 and the operation shortened and improved in every way4 ,the patent was infringed and assailed1 but finally sustained by the highest courts of ,england4 ,it produced an immense forward stride in the amount and quality of iron manufactured4 ,by the introduction of the hot air blast it became practicable to use the hard anthracite coal as a fuel where such coal abounded2 and to use pig iron1 scrap iron1 and refractory ore and metals with the fuel to produce particular results4 ,furnaces were enlarged to colossal dimensions1 some being a hundred feet high and capable of yielding #hj or #ajj tons of metal per day4 ,the forms of furnaces and means for lining and cooling the hearth and adjacent parts have received great attention4 ,the discovery that the flame escaping from the throat of the blast furnace was nothing else than burning carbon led ,faber du ,faur at ,wasseralfugen in #ahcg to invent the successful and highly valuable method of utilising the unburnt gas from the blast furnace for heating purposes1 and to heat the blast itself1 and drive the steam engine that blew the blast into the furnace1 without the consumption of additional fuel4 ,this also led to the invention of separate gas producers4 ,bunsen in #ahch made his first experiments at ,hesse in collecting the gases from various parts of the furnace1 revealing their composition and showing their adaptability for various purposes4 ,thus1 from a scientific knowledge of the constituents of ores and of furnace gases1 calculations could be made in advance as to the materials required to make pig iron1 cast iron1 and steel of particular qualities4 ,in the process of puddling difficulty had been experienced in handling the bloom or ball after it was formed in the furnace4 ,a sort of squeezing apparatus1 or tongs1 called the alligator1 had been employed4 ,in #ahdj ,henry ,burden of ,america invented and patented a method and means for treating these balls1 whereby the same were taken directly from the furnace and passed between two plain converging metal surfaces1 by which the balls were gradually but quickly pressed and squeezed into a cylindrical form1 while a large portion of the cinders and other foreign impurities were pressed out4 ,we have described how by ,cort's puddling process tremendous labour was imposed on the workmen in stirring the molten metal by hand with 8rabbles40 ,a number of mechanical puddlers were invented to take the place of these hand means1 but the most important invention in this direction was the revolving puddlers of ,beadlestone1 patented in #aheg in ,england1 and of ,heaton1 ,allen and ,yates1 in #ahfg-fh4 ,the most successful1 however1 was that of ,danks of the ,united ,states in #ahfh-fi4 ,the ,danks rotary puddler is a barrel-shaped1 refractory lined vessel1 having a chamber and fire grate and rotated by steam1 into which pig iron formed by the ordinary blast furnaces1 and then pulverised1 is placed1 with the fuel4 ,molten metal from the furnace is then run in1 which together with the fuel is then subjected to a strong blast4 ,successive charges may be made1 and at the proper time the puddler is rotated1 slowly at some stages and faster at others1 until the operation is completed4 ,a much more thorough and satisfactory result in the production of a pure malleable iron is thus obtained than is possible by hand puddling4 ,but the greatest improvements in puddling1 and in the production of steel from iron1 and which have produced greater commercial results than any other inventions of the century relating to metallurgy1 were the inventions of ,henry ,bessemer of ,hertfordshire1 ,england1 from #ahee to #ahfj4 ,in place of the puddling 8rabbles0 to stir the molten metal1 or matte1 as it is called1 while the air blast enters to oxidise it1 he first introduced the molten metal from the furnace into an immense egg-shaped vessel lined with quartzose1 and hung in an inclined position on trunnions1 or melted the metal in such vessel1 and then dividing the air blast into streams forced with great pressure each separate stream through an opening in the bottom of the vessel into the molten mass1 thus making each stream of driven air a rabble2 and they together blew and lifted the white mass into a huge1 surging1 sun-bright fountain4 ,the effect of this was to burn out the impurities1 silicon1 carbon1 sulphur1 and phosphorus1 leaving the mass a pure soft iron4 ,if steel was wanted a small amount of carbon1 usually in the form of spiegeleisen1 was introduced into the converter before the process was complete4 ,a4 ,l4 ,holley of the ,united ,states improved the ,bessemer apparatus by enabling a greater number of charges to be converted into steel within a given time4 ,sir ,henry ,bessemer has lived to gain great fortunes by his inventions1 to see them afford new fields of labour for armies of men1 and to increase the riches of nations1 from whom he has received deserved honours4 ,the ,bessemer process led to renewed investigations and discoveries as to heat and its utilisation1 the constituents of different metals and their decomposition1 and as to the parts played by carbon1 silicon1 and phosphorus4 ,the carbon introduced by the charge of pig iron in the ,bessemer process was at first supposed to be necessary to produce the greatest heat1 but this was found to be a mistake2 and phosphorus1 which had been regarded as a great enemy of iron1 to be eliminated in every way1 was found to be a valuable constituent1 and was retained or added to make phosphorus steel4 ,the ,bessemer process has been modified in various ways3 by changing the mode of introducing the blast from the bottom of the converter to the sides thereof1 and admitting the blast more slowly at certain stages2 by changing the character of the pig iron and fuel to be treated2 and by changing the shape and operation of the converters1 making them cylindrical and rotary1 for instance4 ,the ,bessemer process is now largely used in treating copper4 ,by this method the blowing through the molten metal of a blast of air largely removes sulphur and other impurities4 ,the principles of reduction by the old style furnaces and methods we have described have been revived and combined with improvements4 ,for instance1 the old ,catalan style of furnace has been retained to smelt the iron1 but in one method the iron is withdrawn before it is reduced completely and introduced into another furnace1 where1 mixed with further reducing ingredients1 a better result by far is produced with less labour4 ,it would be a long list that would name the modern discoverers and inventors of the century in the manufacture of iron and steel4 ,but eminent in the list1 in addition to ,davy and ,bessemer1 and others already mentioned1 are ,mushet1 ,sir ,l4 ,bell1 ,percy1 ,blomfield1 ,beasley1 ,giers and ,snellus of ,england2 ,martin1 ,chennot1 ,du ,motay1 ,pernot and ,gruner of ,france2 ,lohage1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,l4 ,siemens and ,hpfer of ,germany2 ,prof ,sarnstrom and ,akerman of ,sweden2 ,turner of ,austria2 and ,holley1 ,slade1 ,blair1 ,jones1 ,sellers1 ,clapp1 ,griffiths and ,eames of the ,united ,states4 ,some of the new metals discovered in the last century have in this century been combined with iron to make harder steel4 ,thus we have nickel1 chromium1 and tungsten steel4 ,processes for hardening steel1 as the 8,harveyized0 steel1 have given rise to a contest between 8irresistible0 projectiles and 8impenetrable0 armour plate4 ,if there are some who regard modern discoveries and inventions in iron and steel as lessening the number of workmen and cheapening the product too much1 thus causing trouble due to labour-saving machinery1 let them glance1 among other great works in the world1 at ,krupp's at ,essen1 where on ,january #ast1 #ahii1 #da1gej persons were employed1 and at which works during the previous year #a1aii1faj tons of coal and coke were consumed1 or about #djjj tons daily4 ,workers in iron will not be out of employment in the ,united ,states1 where #af1jjj1jjj tons of coke are produced annually1 #aif1dje1iec tons of coal mined1 #aa1jjj1jjj tons of pig iron and about #i1jjj1jjj tons of steel made4 ,the increase of population within the last hundred years bears no comparison with this enormous increase in iron and fuel4 ,it shows that as inventions multiply1 so does the demand for their better and cheaper products increase4 ,as the other metals1 gold1 silver1 copper and lead often occur together1 and in the same deposits with iron1 the same general modes of treatment to extract them are often applied4 ,these are known as the dry and the wet methods1 and electro-reduction4 ,ever since ,mammon bowed his head in search for gold1 every means that the mind of man could suggest to obtain it have been tried1 but the devices of this century have been more numerous and more successful than any before4 ,the ancient methods of simply melting and 8skimming the bullion dross0 have been superseded4 ,modern methods may be divided into two general classes1 the mechanical and the chemical4 ,of the former methods1 when gold was found loose in sand or gravel1 washing was the earliest and most universally practised1 and was called panning4 ,in this method mercury is often used to take up and secure the fine gold4 ,rockers like a child's cradle1 into which the dirt is shovelled and washed over retaining riffles1 were used2 coarse-haired blankets and hides2 sluices and separators1 with or without quicksilver linings to catch the gold2 and powerful streams of water worked by compressed air to tear down the banks4 ,where water could not be obtained the ore and soil were pulverised and dried1 and then thrown against the wind or a blast of air1 and the heavier gold1 falling before the lighter dust1 was caught on hides or blankets4 ,for the crushing of the quartz in which gold was found1 innumerable inventions in stamp mills1 rollers1 crushers1 abraders1 pulverisers and amalgamators have been invented2 and so with roasters1 and furnaces1 and crucibles to melt the precious metal1 separate the remaining impurities and convert it to use4 ,as to chemical methods for the precious metals1 the process of lixiviation1 or leaching1 by which the ore is washed out by a solution of potash1 or with dilute sulphuric acid1 or boiling with concentrated sulphuric acid1 is quite modern4 ,about #ahhi came out the great cyanide process1 also known as the ,mac,arthur-,forrest process 7they being the first to obtain patents and introduce the invention71 consisting of the use of cyanide potassium in solution1 which dissolves the gold1 and which is then precipitated by the employment of zinc4 ,this process is best adapted to what are known as free milling or porous ores1 where the gold is free and very fine and is attracted readily by mercury4 ,in #ahjg1 ,sir ,humphry ,davy discovered the metal potassium by subjecting moistened potash to the action of a powerful voltaic battery2 the positive pole gave off oxygen and the metallic globules of pure potassium appeared at the negative pole4 ,it is never found uncombined in nature4 ,now if potassium is heated in cyanogen gas 7a gas procured by heating mercury7 or obtained on a large scale by the decomposition of yellow prussiate of potash1 a white crystalline body very soluble in water1 and exceedingly poisonous1 is obtained4 ,when gold1 for instance1 obtained by pulverising the ore1 or found free in sand1 is treated to such a solution it is dissolved from its surrounding constituents and precipitated by the zinc1 as before stated4 ,chlorine is another metal discovered by ,scheele in #aggd1 but not known as an elementary element until so established by ,davy's investigations in #ahaj1 when he gave it the name it now bears1 from the ,greek chloras1 yellowish green4 ,it is found abundantly in the mineral world in combination with common salt4 ,now it was found that chlorine is one of the most energetic of bodies1 surpassing even oxygen under some circumstances1 and that a chlorine solution will readily dissolve gold4 ,these1 the cyanide and chlorination processes1 have almost entirely superseded the old washing and amalgamating methods of treating free gold--and the cyanide seems to be now taking the lead4 ,alloys4--,the art of fusing different metals to make new compounds1 although always practised1 has been greatly advanced by the discoverers and inventors of the century4 ,as we have seen1 amalgamating to extract gold and silver1 and the making of bronze from tin and copper were very early followed4 ,one of the most notable and useful of modern inventions or improvements of the kind was that of ,isaac ,babbitt of ,boston in #ahci1 who in that year obtained patents for what ever since has been known as 8babbitting40 ,the great and undesirable friction produced by the rubbing of the ends of journals and shafts in their bearings of the same metal1 cast or wrought iron1 amounting to one-fifth of the amount of power exerted to turn them1 had long been experienced4 ,lubricants of all kinds had been and are used2 but ,babbitt's invention was an anti-friction metal4 ,it is composed of tin1 antimony1 and copper1 and although the proportions and ingredients have since been varied1 the whole art is still known as babbitting4 ,other successful alloys have been made for gun metal1 sheathing of ships1 horseshoes1 organ pipes1 plough shares1 roofing1 eyelets1 projectiles1 faucets1 and many and various articles of hardware1 ornamental ware1 and jewelry4 ,valuable metals1 such as were not always rare or scarce1 but very hard to reduce1 have been rendered far less in cost of production and more extensive in use by modern processes4 ,thus1 aluminium1 an abundant element in rocks and clay1 discovered by the ,german chemist ,whler1 in #ahbg1 a precious metal1 so light1 bright1 and tough1 non-oxidizing1 harder than zinc1 more sonorous than silver1 malleable and ductile as iron1 and more tenacious1 has been brought to the front from an expensive and mere laboratory production to common and useful purposes in all the arts by the processes commencing in #ahed with that of ,st4 ,clair ,deoville1 of ,france1 followed by those of ,h4 ,rose1 ,morin1 ,castner1 ,tissier1 ,hall1 and others4 ,electro-metallurgy1 so far1 has chiefly to do with the decomposition of metals by the electric current1 and the production of very high temperatures for furnaces1 by which the most refractory ores1 metals1 and other substances may be melted1 and results produced not obtainable in any other way4 ,by placing certain mixtures of carbon and sand1 or of carbon and clay1 between the terminals of a powerful current1 a material resembling diamonds1 but harder1 has been produced4 ,it has been named carbonundrum4 ,the production of diamonds themselves is looked for4 ,steel wire is now tempered and annealed by electricity1 as well as welding done1 of which mention further on will be made4 ,thus we have seen how the birth of ideas of former generations has given rise in the present age to children of a larger growth4 ,arts have grown only as machinery for the accomplishment of their objects has developed1 and machinery has waited on the development of the metals composing it4 ,the civilisation of to-day would not have been possible if the successors of ,tubal ,cain had not been like him1 instructors 8of every artificer in brass and iron40 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,metal ,,working4 ,we referred in the last chapter to the fact that metal when it came from the melting and puddling furnace was formerly rolled into sheets2 but1 when the manufacturers and consumers got these sheets then came the severe1 laborious work by hand of cutting1 hammering1 boring1 shaping and fitting the parts for use and securing them in place4 ,it is one of the glories of this century that metal-working tools and machinery have been invented that take the metal from its inception1 mould and adapt it to man's will in every situation with an infinite saving of time and labour1 and with a perfection and uniformity of operation entirely impossible by hand4 ,although the tools for boring holes in wood1 such as the gimlet1 auger1 and the lathe to hold1 turn and guide the article to be operated on by the tool1 are common in some respects with those for drilling and turning metal1 yet1 the adaptation to use with metal constitutes a class of metal-working appliances distinct in themselves1 and with some exceptions not interchangeable with wood-working utensils4 ,the metal-working tools and machines forming the subject of this chapter are not those which from time immemorial have been used to pierce1 hammer1 cut1 and shape metals1 directed by the eye and hand of man1 but rather those invented to take the place of the hand and eye and be operated by other powers4 ,it needs other than manual power to subdue the metals to the present wants of man1 and until those modern motor powers1 such as steam1 compressed air1 gas and electricity1 and modern hydraulic machinery1 were developed1 automatic machine tools to any extent were not invented4 ,so1 too1 the tools that are designed to operate on hard metal should themselves be of the best metal1 and until modern inventors rediscovered the art of making cast steel such tools were not obtainable4 ,the monuments and records of ancient and departed races show that it was known by them how to bore holes in wood1 stone and glass by some sharp instruments turned by hand1 or it may be by leather cords1 as a top is turned4 ,the lathe1 a machine to hold an object1 and at the same time revolve it while it is formed by the hand1 or cut by a tool1 is as old as the art of pottery1 and is illustrated in the oldest ,egyptian monuments1 in which the god ,ptah is shown in the act of moulding man upon the throwing wheel4 ,it is a device as necessary to the industrial growth of man as the axe or the spade4 ,its use by the ,egyptians appears to have been confined to pottery1 but the ancient ,greeks1 ,chinese1 ,africans1 and ,hindoos used lathes1 for wood working in which the work was suspended on horizontal supports1 and adapted to be rotated by means of a rope and treadle and a spring bar1 impelled by the operator as he held the cutting tool on the object4 ,joseph ,holtzapffel in his learned work on ,turning and ,mechanical ,manipulation1 gives a list of old publications describing lathes for turning both wood and metal4 ,among these is ,hartman ,schapper's book published at ,frankfort1 in #aedh4 ,a lathe on which was formed wood screws is described in a work of ,jacques ,besson1 published at ,lyons1 ,france1 in #aehb4 ,it is stated that there is on exhibition in the ,abbott museum of the ,historical ,society1 ,new ,york1 a bronze drinking vessel1 five inches in diameter1 that was exhumed from an ancient tomb in ,thebes1 and which bears evidence of having been turned on a lathe4 ,it is thought by those skilled in the art that it was not possible to have constructed the works of metal in ,solomon's ,temple without a turning lathe4 ,one of the earliest published descriptions of a metal turning lathe in its leading features is that found in a book published in ,london1 in #afgg-hc1 by ,joseph ,moxon1 8hydographer0 to ,king ,charles ,,ii41 entitled1 ,mechanical ,exercises1 or the ,doctrine of ,handy ,works4 ,he therein also described a machine for planing metal4 ,although there is some evidence that these inventions of the learned gentleman were made and put to some use1 yet they were soon forgotten and were not revived until a century later1 when1 as before intimated1 the steam engine had been invented and furnished the power for working them4 ,wood-working implements in which the cutting tool was carried by a sliding block were described in the ,english patents of ,general ,sir ,samuel ,bentham and ,joseph ,bramah1 in #agic-id4 ,but until this century1 and fairly within its borders1 man was content generally to use the metal lathe simply as a holding and turning support1 while he with such skill and strength as he could command1 and with an expenditure of time1 labour and patience truly marvellous1 held and guided with his hands the cutting tool with which the required form was made upon or from the slowly turning object before him4 ,the contrivance which was to take the place of the hand and eye of man in holding1 applying1 directing and impelling a cutting tool to the surface of the metal work was the slide-rest4 ,in its modern successful automatic form ,henry ,maudsley1 an engineer in ,london1 is claimed to be the first inventor1 in the early part of the century4 ,the leading feature of his form of this device consists of an iron block which constitutes the rest1 cut with grooves so as to adapt it to slide upon its iron supports1 means to secure the cutting tool solidly to this block1 and two screw handles1 one to adjust the tool towards and against the object to be cut in the lathe1 and the other to slide the rest and tool lengthwise as the work progresses1 which latter motion may be given by the hand1 or effected automatically by a connection of the screw handle of the slide and the rotating object on the lathe4 ,a vast variety of inventions and operations have been effected by changes in these main features4 ,of the value of this invention1 ,nasmyth1 a devoted pupil of ,maudsley and himself an eminent engineer and inventor1 thus writes3--8,it was this holding of a tool by means of an iron hand1 and constraining it to move along the surface of the work in so certain a manner1 and with such definite and precise motion1 which formed the great era in the history of mechanics1 inasmuch as we thenceforward became possessed1 by its means1 of the power of operating alike on the most ponderous or delicate pieces of machinery with a degree of minute precision1 of which language cannot convey an adequate idea2 and in many cases we have1 through its agency1 equal facility in carrying on the most perfect workmanship in the interior parts of certain machines where neither the hand nor the eye can reach1 and nevertheless we can give to these parts their required form with a degree of accuracy as if we had the power of transforming our-selves into pigmy workmen1 and so apply our labour to the innermost holes and corners of our machinery40 ,the scope of the lathe1 slide-rest and operating tool1 by its adaptation to cut out from a vast roll of steel a ponderous gun1 or by a change in the size of parts to operate in cutting or drilling the most delicate portions of that most delicate of all mechanisms1 a watch1 reminds one of that other marvel of mechanical adaptation1 the steam hammer1 which makes the earth tremble with its mighty blows upon a heated mass of iron1 or lightly taps and cracks the soft-shelled nut without the slightest touch of violence upon its enclosed and fragile fruit4 ,the adaptation of the lathe and slide to wood-working tools will be referred to in the chapter relating to wood-working4 ,following the invention of the lathe and the slide-rest1 came the metal-planing machines4 ,it is stated in ,buchanan's ,practical ,essays1 published in #ahda1 that a ,french engineer in #agea1 in constructing the ,marly ,water ,works on the ,seine in ,france1 employed a machine for planing out the wrought iron pump-barrels used in that work1 and this is thought to be the first instance in which iron was reduced to a plane surface without chipping or filing4 ,but it needed the invention of the slide-rest and its application to metal-turning lathes to suggest and render successful metal-planing machines4 ,these were supplied in ,england from #ahaa to #ahdj by the genius of ,bramah1 ,clement1 ,fox1 ,roberts1 ,rennie1 ,whitworth1 ,fletcher1 and a few others4 ,when it is considered how many different forms are essential to the completion of metal machines of every description1 the usefulness of machinery that will produce them with the greatest accuracy and despatch can be imagined4 ,the many modifications of the planing machine have names that indicate to the workman the purpose for which they are adapted--as the jack1 a small portable machine1 quick and handy2 the jim crow1 a machine for planing both ways by reversal of the movement of the bed1 and it gets its name because it can 8wheel about and turn about and do just so02 the key groove machine1 the milling machine with a serrated-faced cutter bar1 shaping machine and shaping bar1 slotting machine1 crank planer1 screw cutting1 car-wheel turning1 bolt and nut screwing1 etc4 ,as to the mutual evolution and important results of these combined inventions1 the slide-rest and the planer1 we again quote ,nasmyth3-- 8,the first planing machine enabled us to produce the second still better1 and that a better still1 and then slide rests of the most perfect kind came streaming forth from them1 and they again assisted in making better still1 so that in a very short time a most important branch of engineering business1 namely1 tool-making1 arose1 which had its existence not merely owing to the pre-existing demand for such tools1 but in fact raised a demand of its own creating4 ,one has only to go into any of these vast establishments which have sprung up in the last thirty years to find that nine-tenths of all the fine mechanisms in use and in process of production are through the agency1 more or less direct1 of the slide rest and planing machine40 ,springing out of these inventions1 as from a fruitful soil1 came the metal-boring machines1 one class for turning the outside of cylinders to make them true1 and another class for boring and drilling holes through solid metal plates4 ,the principle of the lathe was applied to those machines in which the shaft carrying the cutting or boring tool was held either in a vertical or in a horizontal position4 ,now flowed forth1 as from some ,vulcan's titanic workshop1 machines for making bolts1 nuts1 rivets1 screws1 chains1 staples1 car wheels1 shafts1 etc41 and other machines for applying them to the objects with which they were to be used4 ,the progress of screw-making had been such that in #ahdj1 by the machines then in use for cutting1 slotting1 shaving1 threading1 and heading1 twenty men and boys were enabled to manufacture #bj1jjj screws in a day4 ,thirty-five years later two girls tending two machines were enabled to manufacture #bdj1jjj screws a day4 ,since then the process has proceeded at even a greater rate4 ,so great is the consumption of screws that it would be utterly impossible to supply the demand by the processes in vogue sixty years ago4 ,in ,england's first great ,international ,fair1 in #ahea1 a new world of metallurgical products1 implements1 processes1 and metal-working tools1 were among the grand results of the half century's inventions which were exhibited to the assembled nations4 ,the leading exhibitor in the line of self-acting lathes1 planing1 slotting1 drilling and boring machines was ,j4 ,whitworth ,co41 of ,manchester1 ,england4 ,here were for the first time revealed in a compact form those machines which shaped metal as wood alone had been previously shaped4 ,but another quarter of a century brought still grander results1 which were displayed at the ,centennial ,exhibition at ,philadelphia1 in #ahgf4 ,as ,j4 ,whitworth ,co4 were the leading exhibitors at ,london in #ahea1 so were ,william ,sellers ,co41 of ,philadelphia1 the leading exhibitors in the #ahgf exhibition4 ,as showing the progress of the century1 the official report1 made in this class by citizens of other countries than ,america1 set forth that this exhibit of the latter company1 8in extent and value1 in extraordinary variety and originality1 was probably without parallel in the past history of international exhibitions40 ,language seemed to be inadequate to enable the committee to describe satisfactorily the extreme refinement in every detail1 the superior quality of material and workmanship1 the mathematical accuracy1 the beautiful outlines1 the perfection in strength and form1 and the scientific skill displayed in the remarkable assemblage of this class of machinery at that exhibition4 ,an exhibit on that occasion made by ,messrs4 ,hoopes ,townsend of ,philadelphia attracted great attention by the fact that the doctrine of the flow of solid metal1 so well expounded by that eminent ,french scientist1 ,m4 ,tresca1 was therein well illustrated4 ,it consisted of a large collection of bolts and screws which had been cold-punched1 as well as of elevator and carrier chains1 the links of which had been so punched4 ,this punching of the cold metal without cutting1 boring1 drilling1 hammering1 or otherwise shaping the metal1 was indeed a revelation4 ,so also at this ,exhibition was a finer collection of machine-made horseshoes than had ever previously been presented to the world4 ,a better and more intelligent and refined treatment of that noble animal1 the horse1 and especially in the care of his feet1 had sprung up during the last half century1 conspicuously advocated by ,mr4 ,fleming in ,england1 and followed promptly in ,america and elsewhere4 ,within the last forty years nearly two hundred patents have been taken out in the ,united ,states alone for machines for making horseshoes4 ,prejudices1 jealousies and objections of all kinds were raised at first against the machine-made horseshoe1 as well as the horseshoe nail1 but the horses have won1 and the blacksmiths have been benefited despite their early objections4 ,the smiths make larger incomes in buying and applying the machine-made shoes4 ,the shoes are not only hammered into shape on the machine1 but there are machines for stamping them out from metal at a single blow2 for compressing several thicknesses of raw hide and moulding them in a steel mould1 producing a light1 elastic shoe1 and without calks2 furnishing shoes for defective hoofs1 flexible shoes for the relief and cure of contracted or flat feet1 shoes formed with a joint at the toe1 and light1 hard shoes made of aluminium4 ,tube ,making4--,instead of heating strips of metal and welding the edges together1 tubes may now be made seamless by rolling the heated metal around a solid heated rod2 or by placing a hot ingot in a die and forcing a mandrel through the ingot4 ,and as to tube and metal bending1 there are wonderful machines which bend sheets of metal into great tubes1 funnels1 ship masts and cylinders4 ,welding4--,as to welding--the seams1 instead of being hammered1 are now formed by melting and condensing the edges1 or adjoining parts1 by the electric current4 ,annealing and ,tempering4--,steel wire and plates are now tempered and annealed by electricity4 ,it is found that they can be heated to a high temperature more quickly and evenly by the electric current passed through them than by combustion1 and the process is much used in making clock and watch springs4 ,one way of hardening plates1 especially armour plates1 by what is called the ,harveyized process1 is by embedding the face of the plate in carbon1 protecting the back and sides with sand1 heating to about the melting point of cast iron1 and then hardening the face by chilling1 or otherwise4 ,coating with ,metal4--,although covering metal with metal has been practised from the earliest times1 accomplished by heating and hammering1 it was not until this century that electro-plating1 and plating by chemical processes1 as by dipping the metal into certain chemical solutions1 and by the use of automatic machinery1 were adopted4 ,it was in the early part of the century that ,volta discovered that in the voltaic battery certain metallic salts were reduced to their elements and deposited at the negative pole2 and that ,wollaston demonstrated how a silver plate in bath of sulphate of copper through which a current was passed became covered with copper4 ,then in #ahch1 ,spencer applied these principles in making casts1 and ,jacobi in ,russia shortly after electro-gilded a dome of a cathedral in ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,space will not permit the enumeration of the vast variety of processes and machines for coating and gilding that have since followed4 ,metal ,founding4--,the treatment of metal after it flows from the furnaces1 or is poured from the crucibles into moulds1 by the operations of facing1 drying1 covering1 casting and stripping1 has given rise to a multitude of machines and methods for casting a great variety of objects4 ,the most interesting inventions in this class have for their object the chilling1 or chill hardening1 of the outer surfaces of articles which are subject to the most and hardest wear1 as axle boxes1 hammers1 anvils1 etc41 which is effected by exposing the red-hot metal to a blast of cold air1 or by introducing a piece of iron into a mould containing the molten metal4 ,in casting steel ingots1 in order to produce a uniform compact structure1 ,giers of ,england invented 8soaking pits of sand0 into which the ingot from the mould is placed and then covered1 so that the heat radiating outward re-heats the exterior1 and the ingot is then rolled without re-heating4 ,sheet ,metal ,ware4--,important improvements have been made in this line4 ,wonderful machines have been made which1 receiving within them a piece of flat metal1 will1 by a single blow of a plunger in a die1 stamp out a metal can or box with tightly closed seams1 and all ready for the cover1 which is made in another similar machine2 or by which an endless chain of cans are carried into a machine and there automatically soldered at their seams2 and another which solders the heads on filled cans as fast as they can be fed into the machine4 ,metal ,personal ,ware4--,buckles1 clasps1 hooks and eyelets1 shanked buttons1 and similar objects are now stamped up and out1 without more manual labour than is necessary to supply the machines with the metal1 and to take care of the completed articles4 ,wire ,working4--,not only unsightly but useful barbed wire fences1 and the most ornamental wire work and netting for many purposes1 such as fences1 screens1 cages1 etc41 are now made by ingenious machines1 and not by hand tools4 ,in stepping into some one of the great modern works where varied industries are carried on under one general management1 one cannot help realising the vast difference between old systems and the new4 ,in one portion of the establishment the crude ores are received and smelted and treated1 with a small force and with ease1 until the polished metal is complete and ready for manipulation in the manufacture of a hundred different objects4 ,in another part ponderous or smaller lathes and planing machines are turning forth many varied forms2 in quiet corners the boring1 drilling1 and riveting machines are doing their work without the clang of hammers2 in another1 an apparently young student is conducting the scientific operation of coating or gilding metals2 in another1 girls may be seen with light machines1 stamping1 or burnishing1 or assembling the different parts of finished metal ware2 and the motive power of all this is the silent but all-powerful electric current received from the smooth-running dynamo giant who works with vast but unseen energy in a den by himself1 not a smoky or a dingy den1 but light1 clean1 polished1 and beautiful as the workshop of a god4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,ordnance1 ,,arms ,,and ,,explosives4 ,although the progress in the invention of fire-arms of all descriptions seems slow during the ages preceding the #aith century1 yet it will be found on investigation that no art progressed faster4 ,no other art was spurred to activity by such strong incentives1 and none received the same encouragement and reward for its development4 ,the art of war was the trade of kings and princes1 and princely was the reward to the subject who was the first to invent the most destructive weapon4 ,under such high patronage most of the ideas and principles of ordnance now prevailing were discovered or suggested1 but were embodied for the most part in rude and inefficient contrivances4 ,the art waited for its success on the development of other arts1 and on the mental expansion and freedom giving rise to scientific investigation and results4 ,the cannon and musket themselves became the greatest instruments for the advancement of the new civilisation1 however much it was intended otherwise by their kingly proprietors1 and the new civilisation returned the compliment through its trained intellects by giving to war its present destructive efficiency4 ,to this efficiency1 great as the paradox may seem1 ,peace holds what quiet fields it has1 or will have1 until most men learn to love peace and hate the arts of war4 ,as to the ,chinese is given the credit for the invention of gunpowder1 so they must also be regarded as the first to throw projectiles by its means4 ,but their inventions in these directions may be classed as fireworks1 and have no material bearing on the modern art of ,ordnance4 ,it is supposed that the word 8cannon10 is derived from the same root as 8cane10 originally signifying a hollow reed2 and that these hollow reeds or similar tubes closed at one end were used to fire rockets by powder4 ,it is also stated that the practice existed among the ,chinese as early as #ifi ,a4 ,d4 of tying rockets to their arrows to propel them to greater distances1 as well as for incendiary purposes4 ,this basic idea had percolated from ,china through ,india to the ,moors and ,arabs1 and in the course of a few centuries had developed into a crude artillery used by the ,moors in the siege of ,cordova in #abhj4 ,the ,spaniards1 thus learning the use of the cannon1 turned the lesson upon their instructors1 when under ,ferdinand ,,iv4 they took ,gibraltar from the ,moors in #acji4 ,then the knowledge of artillery soon spread throughout ,europe4 ,the ,french used it at the siege of ,puy ,guillaume in #acch1 and the ,english had three small guns at ,crecy in #acdf4 ,these antique guns were made by welding longitudinal bars of iron together and binding them by iron rings shrunk on while hot4 ,being shaped internally and externally like an apothecary's mortar1 they were called mortars or bombards4 ,some were breech-loaders1 having a removable chamber at the breech into which the charge of powder was inserted behind the ball4 ,the balls were stone4 ,these early cannon1 bombards1 and mortars were mounted on heavy solid wooden frames and moved with great difficulty from place to place4 ,then in the fifteenth century they commenced to make wrought-iron cannon1 and hollow projectiles1 containing a bursting charge of powder to be exploded by a fuse lit before the shell was fired4 ,in the next century cannon were cast4 ,the ,hindoos1 when their acquaintance was made by the ,europeans1 were as far advanced as the latter in cannon and fire-arms4 ,one cannon was found at ,bejapoor1 in ,india1 cast of bronze1 bearing date #aedh1 and called the 8,master of the ,field10 which weighed #hi1fjj pounds1 and others of similar size of later dates4 ,great cast bronze guns of about the same weight as the ,hindoo guns were also produced at ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,russia1 in the sixteenth century4 ,many and strange were the names given by ,europeans to their cannon in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries to denote their size and the weight of the ball they carried3 such as the ,assick1 the ,bombard1 the ,basilisk1 the cannon ,royal1 or ,carthoun1 the ,culverin1 ,demi-culverin1 ,falcon1 ,siren1 ,serpentine1 etc4 ,the bombards in the fifteenth century were made so large and heavy1 especially in ,france1 that they could not be moved without being taken apart4 ,when the heavy1 unwieldy bombards with stone balls were used1 artillery was mostly confined to castles1 towns1 forts1 and ships4 ,when used in the field they were dragged about by many yokes of oxen4 ,but in the latter part of the fifteenth century1 when ,france under ,louis ,,xi4 had learned to cast lighter brass cannon1 to mount them on carriages that could be drawn by four or six horses1 and which carriages had trunnions in which the cannon were swung so as to be elevated or depressed1 and cast-iron projectiles were used instead of stones1 field artillery took its rise1 and by its use the maps of the world were changed4 ,thus with their artillery the ,french under ,charles ,,viii41 the successor of ,louis ,,xi41 conquered ,italy4 ,in the sixteenth century ,europe was busy in adopting these and other changes4 ,cannon were made of all sizes and calibres1 but were not arranged in battle with much precision4 ,case shot were invented in ,germany but not brought into general use4 ,shells were invented by the ,italians and fired from mortars1 but their mode of construction was preserved in great secrecy4 ,the early breech-loaders had been discarded1 as it was not known how to make the breech gas-tight1 and the explosions rendered the guns more dangerous to their users than to the enemy4 ,in the seventeenth century ,holland began to make useful mortar shells and hand grenades4 ,maurice and ,henry ,frederick of ,nassau1 and ,gustave ,adolphus1 made many improvements in the sizes and construction of cannon4 ,in #afgd1 ,coehorn1 an officer in the service of the ,prince of ,orange1 invented the celebrated mortar which bears his name1 and the use of which has continued to the present time4 ,the ,dutch also invented the howitzer1 a short gun in which the projectiles could be introduced by hand4 ,about the same time ,comminges of ,france invented mortars which threw projectiles weighing #eej pounds4 ,in this part of that century also great improvements were made under ,louis ,,xiv4 ,limbers1 by which the front part of the gun carriage was made separable from the cannon part and provided with the ammunition chest2 the prolonge1 a cord and hook by which the gun part could be moved around by hand2 and the elevating screw1 by which the muzzle of the gun could be raised or depressed1--were invented4 ,in the early part of the eighteenth century it was thought by artillerists in ,england that the longer the gun the farther it would carry4 ,one1 called 8,queen ,ann's ,pocket ,piece0 still preserved at ,dover1 is twenty-five feet long and carries a ball only twenty-five pounds in weight4 ,it was only after repeated experiments that it was learned that the shorter guns carried the projectile the greatest distance4 ,the greatest improvements in the eighteenth century were made by ,gribeauval1 the celebrated ,french artillerist1 about #agfe4 ,he had guns made of such material and of such size as to adapt them to the different services to which they were to be put1 as field1 siege1 garrison1 and sea coast4 ,he gave greater mobility to the system by introducing six-pound howitzers1 and making gun carriages lighter2 he introduced the system of fixed ammunition1 separate compartments in the gun carriages for the projectiles1 and the charges of powder in paper or cloth bags or cylinders2 improved the construction of the elevating screw1 adapted the tangent scale1 formed the artillery into horse batteries1 and devised new equipments and a new system of tactics4 ,it was with ,gribeauval's improved system that 8,citizen ,bonaparte1 young artillery officer10 took ,toulon2 with which the same young 8bronze artillery officer0 let go his great guns in the ,cul-de-,sac ,dauphin against the church of ,st4 ,roch2 on the ,port ,royal2 at the ,theatre de la ,republique2 8and the thing we specifically call ,french ,revolution is blown into space by it1 and became a thing that was40 ,it was with this system that this same young officer won his first brilliant victories in ,italy4 ,when the fruit of these victories had been lost during his absence he reappeared with his favorite artillery1 and on the threshold of the century1 in ,may #ahjj1 as 8,first ,consul of the ,republic0 re-achieved at ,marengo the supremacy of ,france over ,austria4 ,as to small arms1 as before suggested1 they doubtless had their origin in the practice of the ,chinese in throwing fire balls from bamboo barrels by the explosion of light charges of powder1 as illustrated to this day in what are known as 8,roman ,candles40 ,fire-crackers and grenades were also known to the ,chinese and the ,greeks4 ,among ancient fire-arms the principal ones were the arquebus1 also bombardelle1 and the blunderbuss4 ,they were invented in the fourteenth century but were not much used until the fifteenth century4 ,these guns for the most part were so heavy that they had to be rested on some object to be fired4 ,the soldiers carried a sort of tripod for this purpose4 ,the gun was fired by a slow-burning cord1 a live coal1 a lit stick1 or a long rod heated at one end1 and called a match4 ,the blunderbuss was invented in ,holland4 ,it was a large1 short1 funnel-shaped muzzle-loader1 and loaded with nails1 slugs1 etc4 ,the injuries and hardships suffered by the men who used it1 rather than by the enemy1 rendered its name significant4 ,among the earliest fire-arms of this period one was invented which was a breech-loader and revolver4 ,the breech had four chambers and was rotated by hand on an arbour parallel to the barrel4 ,the extent of its use is not learned4 ,to ignite the powder the 8wheel-lock0 and 8snap-haunce0 were invented by the ,germans in the sixteenth century4 ,the wheel lock consisted of a furrowed wheel and was turned by the trigger and chain against a fixed piece of iron on the stock to excite sparks which fell on to the priming4 ,the snap-haunce1 a straight piece of furrowed steel1 superseded the wheel-lock4 ,the sixteenth century had got well started before the ,english could be induced to give up the cross-bow and arrow1 and adopt the musket4 ,after they had introduced the musket with the snap-haunce and wooden ramrod1 it became known1 in the time of ,queen ,elizabeth1 as the 8,brown ,bess40 ,the 8old flint-lock0 was quite a modern invention1 not appearing until the seventeenth century4 ,it was a bright idea to fix a piece of flint into the cock and arrange it to strike a steel cap on the priming pan when the trigger was fired2 and it superseded the old match1 wheel-lock1 and snap-haunce4 ,the flint-lock was used by armies well into the nineteenth century1 and is still in private use in remote localities4 ,as the arquebus succeeded the bow and arrow1 so the musket1 a smooth and single-barrel muzzle-loader with a flint-lock and a wooden ramrod1 succeeded the arquebus4 ,rifles1 which were the old flint-lock muskets with their barrels provided with spiral grooves to give the bullet a rotary motion and cause it to keep one point constantly in front during its flight1 is claimed as the invention of ,augustin ,kutler of ,germany in #aebj1 and also of ,koster of ,birmingham1 ,england1 about #afbj4 ,muskets with straight grooves are said to have been used in the fifteenth century4 ,the rifle with a long barrel and its flint-lock was a favourite weapon of the ,american settler4 ,it was made in ,america1 and he fought the ,indian wars and the war of the ,revolution with it4 ,it would not do to conclude this sketch of antique cannon and fire-arms without referring to ,puckle's celebrated ,english patent ,no4 #dah1 of ,may #ae1 #agah1 for 8,a ,defence40 ,the patent starts out with the motto3 8,defending ,king ,george1 your ,country1 and ,lawes1 ,is defending ,yourselves and ,protestant ,cause40 ,it proceeds to describe a 8,portable ,gun or ,machine0 having a single barrel1 with a set of removable chambers which are charged with bullets before they are placed in the gun1 a handle to turn the chambers to bring each chamber in line with the barrel1 a tripod on which the gun is mounted and on which it is to be turned1 a screw for elevating and turning the gun in different directions1 a set of square chambers 8for shooting square bullets against ,turks10 a set of round chambers 8for shooting round bullets against the ,christians20 and separate drawings show the square bullets for the ,turks and the round bullets for the ,christians4 ,history is silent as to whether ,mr4 ,puckle's patent was put in practice1 but it contained the germs of some modern inventions4 ,among the first inventions of the century was a very important one made by a clergyman1 the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,forsyth1 a ,scotchman1 who in #ahjc invented the percussion principle in fire-arms4 ,in #ahjg he patented in ,england detonating powder and pellets which were used for artillery4 ,about #ahjh ,general ,shrapnel of the ,english army invented the celebrated shell known by his name4 ,it then consisted of a comparatively thin shell filled with bullets1 having a fuse lit by the firing of the gun1 and adapted to explode the shell in front of the object fired at4 ,this fuse was superseded by one invented by ,general ,bormann of ,belgium1 which greatly added to the value of case shot4 ,in #ahad ,joshua ,shaw of ,england invented the percussion cap4 ,thus1 by the invention of the percussion principle by ,forsyth1 and that little copper cylinder of ,shaw1 having a flake of fulminating powder inside and adapted to fit the nipple of a gun and be exploded by the fall of the hammer1 was sounded the death knell of the old flint-locks with which the greatest battles of the world had been and were at that time being fought4 ,the advantages gained by the cap were the certain and instantaneous fire1 the saving in time1 power1 and powder obtained by making smaller the orifice through which the ignition was introduced1 and the protection from moisture given by the covering cap4 ,and yet so slow is the growth of inventions sometimes that all ,europe continued to make the flint-locks for many years after the percussion cap was invented2 and ,general ,scott1 in the war between the ,united ,states and ,mexico in #ahdg1 declined to give the army the percussion cap musket4 ,the cap suggested the necessity and invention of machines for making them quickly and in great quantities4 ,the celebrated 8,colt's0 revolver was invented by ,colonel ,samuel ,colt of the ,united ,states1 in #ahce4 ,he continued to improve it1 and in #ahea exhibited it at the ,world's ,fair1 ,london1 where it excited great surprise and attention4 ,since then the revolver has become a great weapon in both private and public warfare4 ,the next great inventions in small arms were the readoption and improvement of the breech-loader1 the making of metallic cartridges1 the magazine gun1 smokeless powder and other explosives1 to which further reference will be made4 ,to return to cannons3--,in #ahab ,colonel ,bomford1 an ,american officer1 invented what is called the 8,columbiad10 a kind of cannon best adapted for sea-coast purposes4 ,they are long-chambered pieces1 combining certain qualities of the gun1 howitzer and mortar1 and capable of projecting shells and solid shot with heavy charges of powder at high angles of elevation1 and peculiarly adapted to defend narrow channels and sea-coast defences4 ,a similar gun was invented by ,general ,paixhans of the ,french army in #ahbb4 ,the adoption of the ,paixhans long-chambered guns1 designed to throw heavy shells horizontally as well as at a slight elevation and as easily as solid shot1 was attended with great results4 ,used by the ,french in #ahcb1 in the quick victorious siege of ,antwerp1 by the allies at ,sebastopol1 where the whole ,russian fleet was destroyed in about an hour1 and in the fight of the ,kearsarge and the doomed ,alabama off ,cherbourg in the ,american civil war1 it forced inventors in the different countries to devise new and better armour for the defence of ships4 ,this was followed by guns of still greater penetrative power4 ,then as another result effected by these greater guns came the passing away of the old-fashioned brick and stone forts as a means of defence4 ,in an interesting address by ,major ,clarence ,e4 ,dutton of the ,ordnance ,department1 ,u4,s4,a41 at the ,centennial ,patent ,congress at ,washington in #ahia1 he thus stated what the fundamental improvements were that have characterised the modern ordnance during the century3 #a4 ,the regulation and control of the action of gunpowder in such a manner as to exert less strain upon the gun1 and to impart more energy to the projectile4 #b4 ,to so construct the gun as to transfer a portion of the strain from the interior parts of the walls which had borne too much of it1 to the exterior parts which had borne too little1 thus nearly equalising the strain throughout the entire thickness of the walls4 #c4 ,to provide a metal which should be at once stronger and safer than any which had been used before4 ,in the ,united ,states ,general ,rodman1 8one of the pioneers of armed science10 commenced about #ahdg a series of investigations and experiments on the power and action of gunpowder and the strains received by every part of the gun by the exploding gases1 of very great importance2 and in this matter he was assisted greatly by ,dr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,woodbridge1 who invented an ingenious apparatus termed a 8piezometer10 or a pressure measurer1 by which the pressure of the gases at the various parts of the gun was determined with mathematical certainty4 ,dr4 ,woodbridge also added greatly to the success of rifled cannon4 ,the success in rifling small arms1 by which an elongated ball is made to retain the same end foremost during its flight1 led again to the attempts of rifling cannon for the same purpose1 which were finally successful4 ,but this success was due not to the spiral grooves in the cannon bore1 but in attachments to the ball compelling it to follow the course of the grooves and giving it the proper initial movement4 ,the trouble with these attachments was that they were either stripped off1 or stripped away1 by the gun spirals4 ,woodbridge in #ahej overcame the difficulty by inventing an improved sabot1 consisting of a ring composed of metal softer than the projectile or cannon1 fixed on the inner end of the projectile and grooved at its rear end1 so that when the gun is fired and the ball driven forward these grooves expand1 acting valvularly to fill the grooves in the gun1 thus preventing the escape of the gases1 while the ring at the same time is forced forward on to the shell so tightly and forcibly that the projectile is invariably given a rotary motion and made to advance strictly in the line of axis of the bore1 and in the same line during the course of its flight4 ,this invention in principle has been followed ever since1 although other forms have been given the sabot1 and it is due to this invention that modern rifled cannon have been so wonderfully accurate in range and efficient in the penetrating and destructive power both on sea and land4 ,woodbridge also invented the wire-wound cannon1 and a machine for winding the wire upon the gun1 thus giving the breach part1 especially1 immense strength4 ,in ,england1 among the first notable and greater inventors in ordnance during the latter half of the century1 a period which embraces the reduction to practice of the most wonderful and successful inventions in weapons of war which the world had up to that time seen1 are ,lancaster1 who invented the elliptical bore2 ,sir ,william ,armstrong1 who1 commencing in #ahhe1 constructed a gun built of wrought-iron bars twisted into coils and applied over a steel core and bound by one or more wrought-iron rings1 all applied at white heat and shrunk on by contraction due to cooling1 by which method smooth-bore1 muzzle-loading cannon of immense calibre1 one weighing one hundred tons1 were made4 ,they were followed by ,armstrong1 inventor of breech-loaders2 ,blakely1 inventor of cannon made of steel tubes and an outer jacket of cast iron2 and ,sir ,joseph ,whitworth1 inventor of most powerful steel cannon and compressed steel projectiles4 ,in ,germany1 ,friedrich ,krupp at ,essen1 ,prussia1 invented and introduced such improvements in breech-loading cannon as revolutionised the manufacture of that species of ordnance1 and established the foundation of the greatest ordnance works in the world4 ,the first of his great breech-loading steel guns was exhibited at the ,paris ,exhibition in #ahfg4 ,a ,krupp gun finished at ,essen in the #gj's was then the largest steel gun the world had ever seen4 ,it weighed seventy-two tons1 and was thirty-two feet long4 ,the charge consisted of #che pounds of powder1 the shell weighed #a1ffj pounds1 having a bursting charge of powder of #bb pounds1 and a velocity of #a1fdj feet per second4 ,it was estimated that if the gun were fired at an angle of #dc the shell would be carried a distance of fifteen miles4 ,it was in the ,krupp guns1 and also in the ,armstrong breech-loaders1 that a simple feature was for the first time introduced which proved of immense importance in giving great additional expansive force to the explosion of the powder4 ,this was an increase in the size of the powder chamber so as to allow a vacant space in it unfilled with powder4 ,in the ,united ,states1 ,rodman1 commencing in #ahdg1 and ,dahlgren in #ahej1 and ,parrott in #ahfj1 invented and introduced some noticeable improvements in cast-iron1 smooth-bore1 and rifled cannon4 ,in ,france ,general ,paixhans and ,colonel ,treuille de ,beaulieu improved the shells and ordnance4 ,the latest improvements in cannon indicate that the old smooth-bore muzzle-loader guns are to be entirely superseded by breech-loaders1 just as in small arms the muzzle-loading musket has given way to the breech-loading rifle4 ,a single lever is now employed1 a single turn of which will close or open the breech1 and when opened expel the shell by the same movement4 ,formerly breech-loaders were confined to the heaviest ordnance2 now they are a part of the lightest field pieces4 ,as to the operation of those immense guns above referred to1 which constitute principally sea-coast defences and the heavy armament for forts1 gun carriages have been invented whereby the huge guns are quickly raised from behind immense embrasures by pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders1 quickly fired 7the range having been before accurately ascertained7 and then as quickly lowered out of sight1 the latter movement being aided by the recoil action of the gun4 ,it is essential that the full force of the gases of explosion shall be exerted against the base of the projectile1 and therefore all escape of such gases be prevented4 ,to this end valuable improvements in gas checks have been made1--one kind consisting of an annular canvas sack containing asbestos and tallow placed between the front face of the breech block and a mushroom-shaped piece1 against which the explosion impinges4 ,as among projectiles and shells for cannon those have been invented which are loaded with dynamite or other high explosive1 a new class of ,compressed air ordnance has been started1 in which air or gas is used for the propelling power in place of powder1 whereby the chances of exploding such shells in the bore of the gun are greatly lessened4 ,the construction of metals1 both for cannon to resist most intense explosives and for plates to resist the penetration of the best projectiles1 have received great attention4 ,they are matters pertaining to metallurgy1 and are treated of under that head4 ,the strife still continues between impenetrable armour plate and irresistible projectiles4 ,within the last decade or so shells have been invented with the design simply to shatter or fracture the plate by which the way is broken for subsequent shots4 ,other shells have been invented carrying a high explosive and capable of penetrating armour plates of great thickness1 and exploding after such penetration has taken place4 ,a great accompaniment to artillery is 8,the ,range ,finder10 a telescopic apparatus for ascertaining accurately the location and distance of objects to be fired at4 ,returning to small arms1--at the time percussion caps were invented in ,england1 #ahjc-ahad1 ,john ,h4 ,hall of the ,united ,states invented a breech-loading rifle4 ,it was in substance an ordinary musket cut in two at the breech1 with the rear piece connected by a hinge and trunnion to the front piece1 the bore of the two pieces being in line when clamped1 and the ball and cartridge inserted when the chamber was thrown up4 ,a large number were at once manufactured and used in the ,u4,s4 ,army4 ,a smaller size1 called carbines1 were used by the mounted troops4 ,after about twenty years' use these guns began to be regarded as dangerous in some respects1 and their manufacture and use stopped1 although the carbines continued in use to some extent in the cavalry4 ,a breech-loading rifle was also invented by ,colonel ,pauly of ,france in #ahab1 and improved by ,dreyse in #ahce2 also in ,norway in #ahch1 and in a few years adopted by ,sweden as superior to all muzzle-loading arms4 ,about #ahda the celebrated 8,needle ,gun0 was invented in ,prussia1 and its superiority over all muzzle-loaders was demonstrated in #ahdh in the first ,schleswig-,holstein war4 ,cartridges1 in which the ball and powder were secured together in one package1 were old in artillery1 as has been shown1 but their use for small arms is a later invention4 ,metallic cartridges1 made of sheet metal with a fulminate cap in one end and a rim on the end of the shell by which it could be extracted after the explosion1 were invented by numerous persons in ,europe and ,america during the evolution of the breech-loader4 ,combined metal case and paper patented in ,england in #ahaf1 and numerous wholly metallic cartridge shells were patented in ,england1 ,france1 and ,united ,states between #ahdj and #ahfj4 ,m4 ,lefaucheux of ,france1 in the later period1 devised a metal gas check cartridge which was a great advance4 ,a number of inventors in the ,united ,states besides ,hall had produced breech-loading small arms before the ,civil ,war of #ahfa1 but with the exception of ,colt's revolver and ,sharp's carbine1 the latter used by the cavalry to a small extent1 none were first adopted in that great conflict4 ,later1 the ,henry or ,winchester breech-loading rifle and the ,spencer magazine gun were introduced and did good service4 ,but the whole known system of breech-loading small arms was officially condemned by the ,u4,s4 ,military authorities previous to that war4 ,the absence of machines to make a suitable cartridge in large quantities and vast immediate necessities compelled the authorities to ignore the tested ,prussian and ,swedish breech-loaders and those of their own countrymen and to ransack ,europe for muskets of ancient pattern4 ,these were worked by the soldiers under the ancient tactics1 of load1 ram1 charge and fire1 until a stray bullet struck the ramrod1 or the discharge of a few rammed cartridges so over-heated the musket as to thereby dispense with the soldier and his gun for further service in that field4 ,however1 private individuals and companies continued to invent and improve1 and the civil war in ,america revolutionised the systems of warfare and its weapons4 ,the wooden walls of the navies disappeared as a defence after the conflict between the ,monitor and the ,merrimac1 and muzzle-loading muskets became things of the past4 ,torpedoes1 both stationary and movable1 then became a successful weapon of warfare4 ,soon after that war1 and when the ,united ,states had adopted the ,springfield breech-loading rifle1 the works at ,springfield were equipped with nearly forty different machines1 each for making a separate part of a gun in great quantities4 ,many of these had been invented by ,thomas ,blanchard forty years before4 ,that great inventor of labour-saving machinery had then designed machines for the shaping and making of gun stocks and for forming the accompanying parts4 ,blanchard was a contemporary of ,hall1 and ,hall1 to perfect his breech-loader1 was the first to invent machines for making its various parts4 ,his was the first interchangeable system in the making of small arms4 ,army officers had come to regard 8the gun as only the casket while the cartridge is the jewel20 and to this end ,j4 ,g4 ,gill at the ,u4,s4 ,arsenal at ,frankford1 ,philadelphia1 devised a series of cartridge-making machines which ranked among the highest triumphs of ,american invention4 ,the single breech-loader is now being succeeded by the magazine gun1 by which a supply of cartridges in a chamber is automatically fed into the barrel4 ,the ,springfield1 has been remodelled as a magazine loader4 ,among later types of repeating rifles1 known from the names of their inventors1 are the 8,krag-,jorgensen10 and the 8,mauser10 and the crack of these is heard around the world4 ,modern rifles are rendered more deadly by the fact that they can be loaded and fired in a recumbent position1 and with smokeless powder1 by which the soldier and his location remain concealed from his foe4 ,the recoil of the gun in both large and small arms is now utilised to expel the fired cartridge shell1 and to withdraw a fresh one from its magazine and place it in position in the chamber4 ,compressed air and explosive gases have been used for the same purpose4 ,a small electric battery has been placed in the stock to explode the cartridge when the trigger is pulled4 ,sporting guns have kept pace with other small arms in improvements1 and among modern forms are those which discharge in alternative succession the two barrels by a single trigger4 ,revolvers have been improved and the ,smith and ,wesson is known throughout the world4 ,the idea of ,machine ,guns1 or ,mitrailleuses1 was not a new one1 as we have seen from ,puckle's celebrated patent of #agah4 ,also history mentions a gun composed of four breech-loading tubes of small calibre1 placed on a two-wheeled cart used in ,flanders as early as #acdg1 and of four-tubed guns used by the ,scotch during the civil war in #afdd4 ,the machine gun invented by ,dr4 ,gatling of the ,united ,states during the ,civil ,war and subsequently perfected1 has become a part of the armament of every civilised nation4 ,the object of the gun is to combine in one piece the destructive effect of a great many1 and to throw a continuous hail of projectiles4 ,the gun is mounted on a tripod2 the cartridges are contained in a hopper mounted on the breech of the gun and are fed from locks into the barrels 7which are usually five or ten in number7 as the locks and barrels are revolved by a hand crank4 ,as the handle is turned the cartridges are first given a forward motion1 which thrusts them into the barrels1 closes the breech and fires the cartridges in succession1 and then a backward motion which extracts the empty shells4 ,the gun weighs one hundred pounds and firing may be kept up with a ten-barreled gun at one thousand shots a minute4 ,the ,hotchkiss revolving cannon is another celebrated ,american production named from its inventor1 and constructed to throw heavier projectiles than the ,gatling4 ,it also has revolving barrels and great solidity in the breech mechanism4 ,it has been found to be of great service in resisting the attacks of torpedo boats4 ,it is adapted to fire long-range shells with great rapidity and powerful effect1 and is exceedingly efficient in defence of ditches and entrenchments4 ,explosives4--,the desire to make the most effective explosives for gunnery led to their invention not only for that purpose but for the more peaceful pursuit of blasting4 ,gun ,cotton1 that mixture of nitric acid and cotton1 made by ,schnbein in #ahdf1 and experimented with for a long time as a substitute for gunpowder in cannon and small arms and finally discarded for that purpose1 is now being again revived1 but used chiefly for blasting4 ,this was followed by the discovery of nitro-glycerine1 a still more powerful explosive agent--too powerful and uncontrollable for guns as originally made4 ,they did not supersede gunpowder1 but smokeless powders have come1 containing nitro-cellulose1 or nitro-glycerine rendered plastic1 coherent and homogeneous1 and converted into rods or grains of free running powder1 to aid the breech-loaders and magazine guns1 while the high explosives1 gun-cotton1 nitro-glycerine1 dynamite1 dualine1 etc41 have become the favorite agencies for those fearful offensive and defensive weapons1 the ,torpedoes4 ,from about the time of the discovery of gunpowder1 stationary and floating chambers and mines of powder1 to be discharged in early times by fuses 7later by percussion or electricity71 have existed1 but modern inventions have rendered them of more fearful importance than was ever dreamed of before this century4 ,the latest invention in this class is the submarine torpedo boat1 which1 moving rapidly towards an enemy's vessel1 suddenly disappears from sight beneath the water1 and strikes the vessel at its lowest or most vulnerable point4 ,to the inquiry as to whether all this vast array of modern implements of destruction is to lessen the destruction of human life1 shorten war1 mitigate its horrors and tend toward peace1 there can be but one answer4 ,all these desirable results have been accomplished whenever the new inventions of importance have been used4 8,warlike ,tribes0 have been put to flight so easily by civilised armies in modern times that such tribes have been doubted as possessing their boasted or even natural courage4 ,nations with a glorious past as to bravery but with a poor armament have gone down suddenly before smaller forces armed with modern ordnance4 ,the results would have been reversed1 and the derision would have proceeded from the other side1 if the conditions had been reversed1 and those tribes and brave peoples been armed with the best weapons and the knowledge of their use4 ,the courage of the majority of men on the battle-field is begot of confidence and enthusiasm1 but this confidence and enthusiasm1 however great the cause1 soon fail1 and discretion becomes the better part of valour1 if men find that their weapons are weak and useless against vastly superior arms of the enemy4 ,the slaughter and destruction in a few hours with modern weapons may not be more terrible than could be inflicted with the old arms by far greater forces at close quarters in a greater length of time in the past1 but the end comes sooner2 and the prolongation of the struggle with renewed sacrifices of life1 and the long continued and exhausting campaigns1 giving rise to diseases more destructive than shot or shell1 are thereby greatly lessened1 if not altogether avoided4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,paper ,,and ,,printing4 ,paper-making4--8,the art preservative of all arts0--itself must have means of preservation1 and hence the art of paper-making precedes the art of printing4 ,it was ,pliny who wrote1 at the beginning of the ,christian era1 that 8,all the usages of civilised life depend in a remarkable degree upon the employment of paper4 ,at all events the remembrance of past events40 ,naturally to the ,chinese1 the ,hindoo1 and the ,egyptian1 we go with inquiries as to origin1 and find that as to both arts they were making the most delicate paper from wood and vegetable fibres and printing with great nicety1 long before ,europeans had even learned to use papyrus or parchment1 or had conceived the idea of type4 ,so far as we know the wasp alone preceded the ancient ,orientals in the making of paper4 ,its gray shingled house made in layers1 worked up into paper by a master hand from decayed wood1 pulped1 and glutinised1 waterproofed1 with internal tiers of chambers1 a fortress1 a home1 and an airy habitation1 is still beyond the power of human invention to reproduce4 ,papyrus--the paper of the ,egyptians3 ,not only their paper1 but its pith one of their articles of food1 and its outer portions material for paper1 boxes1 baskets1 boats1 mats1 medicines1 cloths and other articles of merchandise4 ,once one of the fruits of the ,nile1 now no longer growing there4 ,on its fragile leaves were recorded and preserved the ancient literatures--the records of dynasties--the songs of the ,hebrew prophets--the early annals of ,greece and ,rome--the vast1 lost tomes of ,alexandria4 ,those which were fortunately preserved and transferred to more enduring forms now constitute the greater part of all we have of the writings of those departed ages4 ,in making paper from papyrus1 the inner portion next to the pith was separated into thin leaves2 these were laid in two or more layers1 moistened and pressed together to form a leaf2 two or more leaves united at their edges if desired1 or end to end1 beaten smooth with a mallet1 polished with a piece of iron or shell1 the ends1 or sides1 or both1 of the sheet sometimes neatly ornamented1 and then rolled on a wooden cylinder4 ,the ,romans and other ancient nations imported most of their papyrus from ,egypt1 although raising it to considerable extent in their own swamps4 ,in the seventh century1 the ,saracens conquered ,egypt and carried back therefrom1 papyrus1 and the knowledge of how to make paper from it to ,europe4 ,parchment manufactured from the skins of young calves1 kids1 lambs1 sheep1 and goats1 was an early rival of papyrus1 and was known and used in ,europe before papyrus was there introduced4 ,the softening of vegetable and woody fibre of various kinds1 flax and raw cotton and rags1 and reducing it into pulp1 drying1 beating1 and rolling it into paper1 seem to have been suggested to ,europe by the introduction of papyrus1 for we learn of the first appearance of such paper by the ,arabians1 ,saracens1 ,spaniards and the ,french along through the eighth1 ninth1 and tenth and eleventh centuries4 ,papyrus does not1 however1 appear to have been superseded until the twelfth century4 ,public documents are still extant written in the twelfth century on paper made from flax and rags2 and paper mills began to put in an appearance in ,germany in the fourteenth century1 in which the fibre was reduced to pulp by stampers4 ,england began to make paper in the next century4 ,pulping the fibre by softening it in water and beating the same had then been practised for four centuries4 ,rollers in the mills for rolling the pulp into sheets were introduced in the fifteenth century1 and paper makers began to distinguish their goods from those made by others by water marks impressed in the pulp sheets4 ,the jug and the pot was one favourite water mark in that century1 succeeded by a fool's cap1 which name has since adhered to paper of a certain size1 with or without the cap4 ,so far was the making of paper advanced in ,europe that about #afdj wall paper began to be made as a substitute for tapestry2 although as to this fashion the ,chinese were still ahead some indefinite number of centuries4 ,holland was far advanced in paper-making in the seventeenth century4 ,the revolution of #afhh having seriously interrupted the art in ,england1 that country imported paper from ,holland during that period amounting to #ajj1jjj4 ,it was a native of ,holland1 ,rittenhouse1 who introduced paper-making in ,america and erected a mill near ,philadelphia in the early years of the eighteenth century1 and there made paper from linen rags4 ,the ,dutch also had substituted cylinders armed with blades in place of stampers and used their windmills to run them4 ,the ,germans and ,french experimented with wood and straw4 ,in the latter part of the eighteenth century some manufacturers in ,europe had learned to make white paper from white rags1 and as good in quality1 and some think better1 than is made at the present day4 ,the essentials of paper making by hand from rags and raw vegetable fibres1 the soaking of fibres in water and boiling them in lyes1 the beating1 rolling1 smoothing1 sizing and polishing of the paper1 were then known and practised4 ,but the best paper was then a dear commodity4 ,the art of bleaching coloured stock was unknown1 and white paper was made alone from stock that came white into the mill4 ,the processes were nearly all hand operations4 8,beating0 was pounding in a mortar4 ,the pulp was laid by hand upon moulds made of parallel strands of coarse brass wire2 and the making of the pulp by grinding wood and treating it chemically to soften it was experimental4 ,the nineteenth century produced a revolution4 ,it introduced the use of modern machinery1 and modern chemical processes1 by which all known varieties and sizes of paper1 of all colours1 as well as paper vessels1 are made daily in immense quantities in all civilised countries1 from all sorts of fibrous materials4 ,knight1 in his ,mechanical ,dictionary1 gives a list of nearly #djj different materials for paper making that had been used or suggested1 for the most part within the century and up to twenty years ago1 and the number has since increased4 ,the modern revolution commenced in #agii1 when ,louis ,robert1 an employee of ,franois ,didot of ,essones1 ,france1 invented and patented the first machine for making paper in a long1 wide1 continuous web4 ,the ,french government in #ahjj granted him a reward of #h1jjj francs4 ,the machine was then exhibited in ,england and there tested with success4 ,it was there that ,messrs4 ,fourdrinier1 a wealthy stationery firm1 purchased the patents1 expended #fj1jjj for improvements on the machine1 and first gave to the world its practical benefits4 ,this expenditure bankrupted them1 as the machines were not at once remunerative1 and parliament refused to grant them pecuniary assistance4 ,gamble1 ,donkin1 ,koops1 the ,fourdriniers1 ,dickenson1 and ,wilkes1 were the first inventors to improve the ,robert machine1 and to give it that form which in many essential features remains to-day4 ,they1 together with later inventors1 gave to the world a new system of paper making4 ,by #ahgb two hundred and ninety-nine ,fourdrinier machines were running in the ,united ,states alone4 ,in the improved ,fourdrinier machine or system1 rags1 or wood1 or straw are ground or otherwise reduced to pulp1 and then the pulp1 when properly soaked and drained1 is dumped into a regulating box1 passing under a copper gate to regulate the amount and depth of feed1 then carried along through strainers1 screeners or dressers1 to free the mass from clots and reduce it to the proper fineness1 over an endless wire apron1 spread evenly over this apron by a shaking motion1 subjected to the action of a suction box by which the water is drawn off by air-suction pumps1 carried between cloth-covered rollers which press and cohere it1 carried on to a moving long felt blanket to further free it from moisture1 and which continues to hold the sheet of pulp in form2 then with the blanket through press rolls adjustable to a desired pressure and provided with means to remove therefrom adhering pulp and to arrest the progress of the paper if necessary2 then through another set of compression rollers1 when the condensed and matted pulp1 now paper1 is carried on to a second blanket1 passed through a series of steam cylinders1 where the web is partially dried1 and again compressed1 thence through another series of rollers and drying cylinders1 which still further dry and stretch it1 and now1 finally completed1 the sheet is wound on a receiving cylinder4 ,the number of rollers and cylinders and the position and the length of the process to fully dry1 compact1 stretch and finish the sheet1 may be1 and are1 varied greatly4 ,if it is desired to impress on or into the paper water marks1 letters1 words1 or ornamental matter1 the paper in its moist stage1 after it passes through the suction boxes1 is passed under a 8dandy0 or fancy scrolled roll provided on its surface with the desired design4 ,when it is desired to give it a smooth1 glossy surface1 the paper1 after its completion1 is passed through animal sizing material1 and then between drying and smoothing rollers4 ,or this sizing may be applied to the pulp at the outset of the operation4 ,colouring material1 when desired1 is applied to the pulp1 before pressing4 ,by the use of machines under this system1 a vast amount of material1 cast-off rags1 etc41 before regarded as waste1 was utilised for paper making4 ,the modern discoveries of the chemists of the century as to the nature of fibres1 best modes and materials for reducing them to pulp1 and bleaching processes1 have brought the art of paper making from wood and other fibrous materials to its present high and prosperous condition4 ,what are known as the soda-pulp and the sulphite processes are examples of this4 ,the latter and other acid processes were not successful until cement-lined digesters were invented to withstand their corroding action4 ,but now it is only necessary to have a convenient forest of almost any kind of wood to justify the establishment of a paper mill4 ,it was the scarcity of rags1 especially of linen rags1 that forced inventors to find other paper-producing materials4 ,it would be impossible and uninteresting in a work of this character to enumerate the mechanical details constituting the improvements of the century in paper-making machinery of all kinds4 ,thousands of patents have been granted for such inventions4 ,with one modern ,fourdrinier machine1 and a few beating engines1 a small paper mill will now turn out daily as much paper as could be made by twelve mills a hundred years ago4 ,in moulding pulp into articles of manufacture1 satisfactory machines have been invented1 not only for the mere forming them into shape1 but for water-proofing and indurating the same4 ,from the making of a ponderous paper car wheel to a lady's delicate work basket1 success has been attained4 ,paper bag machines1 machines for making paper boxes1 applying and staying corners of such boxes1 for making cell cases used in packing eggs and fruit1 and for wrapping fruit2 machines for affixing various forms of labels and addresses1 are among the wonders of modern inventions relating to paper4 ,it is wonderful how art and ingenuity united about thirty years ago to produce attractive wall papers4 ,previous to that time they were dull and conventional in appearance4 ,now beautiful designs are rolled out from machines4 ,printing4--,we have already seen how paper making and printing grew up together an indefinite number of centuries ago in the ,far ,east4 ,both block printing and movable types were the production of the ,chinese1 with which on their little pages of many-coloured paper they printed myriads of volumes of their strange literature in stranger characters during centuries when ,europeans were painfully inscribing their thoughts with the stylus and crude pens upon papyrus and the dried skins of animals4 ,but the ,european and his descendants delight to honour most the early inventors of their own countries4 ,italy refers with pride to the printing from blocks practised by the ,venetians1 and at ,ravenna1 from #abhj to #acjj2 from type at ,subiaco in the ,roman territory in #adfe1 and to the first ,roman book printed in #adgj2 the ,dutch to ,laurens ,coster1 whom they allege invented movable type in #adbc4 ,some of the ,dutch have doubted this1 and pin their faith on ,jacob ,bellaert1 as the first printer1 and ,gerard ,leeu1 his workman1 who made the types at ,haarlem1 in #adhc4 ,the ,germans rely with confidence on ,john ,guttenberg1 who at ,strasburg1 as early as #adcf1 had wooden blocks1 and wooden movable types1 and who1 two or three years after1 printed several works2 on the partnership of ,faust and ,guttenberg in #adej at ,mentz1 and their ,bible in ,latin printed in #adef on vellum with types imitating manuscript in form1 and illustrated by hand2 and1 finally1 on ,peter ,schoeffer of ,gernsheim1 who then made matrices in which were cast the letters singly1 and who thereby so pleased his master1 ,faust1 that the latter gave him his daughter1 ,christina1 in marriage4 ,from ,germany the art spread to ,paris and thence to ,england4 ,about #adgd ,caxton was printing his black-letter books in ,england4 ,spain followed1 and it is stated that in #aejj there were two hundred printing offices in ,europe4 ,the religious and political turmoils in ,germany in the sixteenth century gave an immense impetus to printing there4 ,the printing press was the handmaid of the ,reformation4 ,in ,america the first printing press was set up in ,mexico in #aecf1 and in ,lima1 ,brazil1 in #aehf4 ,in #afci1 nineteen years after the landing of the ,pilgrims on the bleak rock at ,plymouth1 they set up a printing press at ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,the art of printing soon resolved itself into two classes3 first1 composition1 the arranging of the type in the proper order into words and pages2 and second1 press work2 the taking of impressions from the types1 or from casts of types in plates--being a facsimile of a type bed4 ,this was stereotyping--the invention of ,william ,ged1 of ,edinburgh1 in #agca4 ,types soon came to be made everywhere of uniform height2 that of ,england and ,america being #ib-ajj of an inch1 and became universally classified by names according to their sizes1 as pica1 small pica1 long primer1 minion1 nonpareil1 etc4 ,after movable types came the invention of ,presses4 ,the earliest were composed of a wooden frame on which were placed the simple screw and a lever to force a plate down upon a sheet of paper placed on the bed of type which had been set in the press1 with a spring to automatically raise the screw and plate after the delivery of the impression4 ,this was invented by ,blaew of ,amsterdam in #afbj4 ,such1 also1 was the ,ramage press1 and on such a one ,benjamin ,franklin worked at his trade as a printer1 both in ,america and in ,london4 ,his ,london press1 on which he worked in #agbe1 was carried to the ,united ,states1 and is now on exhibition in ,washington4 ,this was substantially the state of the art at the beginning of the century4 ,then ,earl ,stanhope in ,england invented a press entirely of iron1 and the power consisted of the combination of a toggle joint and lever4 ,the first ,american improvement was invented by ,george ,clymer1 of ,philadelphia1 in #ahag1 the power being an improved lever consisting of three simple levers of the second order4 ,this was superseded by the 8,washington0 press invented by ,samuel ,rust in #ahbi4 ,it has as essential parts the toggle joint and lever1 and in the frame work1 as in the ,stanhope1 type bed1 rails on which the bed was moved in and out1 means to move the bed1 the platen1 the tympan on which the sheet is placed1 the frisket1 a perforated sheet of paper1 to preserve the printed sheet1 an inking roller and frame4 ,in this was subsequently introduced an automatic device for inking the roller1 as it was moved back from over the bed of type on to an inking table4 ,this1 substantially1 has been the hand press ever since4 ,with one of these hand-presses and the aid of two men about two hundred and fifty sheets an hour could be printed on one side4 ,the increase in the circulation of newspapers before the opening of the #aith century demanded greater rapidity of production and turned the attention of inventors to the construction of power or machine presses4 ,like the paper-making machine1 the power press was conceived in the last decade of the eighteenth century1 and like that art was also not developed until the nineteenth century4 ,william ,nicholson of ,england is believed to have been the first inventor of a machine printing press4 ,he obtained an ,english patent for it in #agbj4 ,the type were to be placed on the face of one cylinder1 which was designed to be in gear1 revolved with1 and press upon another cylinder covered with soft leather1 the type cylinder to be inked by a third cylinder to which the inking apparatus1 was applied1 and the paper to be printed by being passed between the type and the impression cylinder4 ,these ideas were incorporated into the best printing machines that have since been made4 ,but the first successful machine printing press was the invention of two ,saxons1 ,knig and ,bauer1 in #ahac1 who introduced their ideas from ,germany1 constructed the machine in ,london1 and on which on the #bhth of ,november1 #ahad1 an issue of the ,london ,times was printed4 ,the ,times announced to its readers that day that they were for the first time perusing a paper printed upon a machine driven by steam power4 ,what a union of mighty forces was heralded in this simple announcement6 ,the union of the steam engine1 the printing press1 and a great and powerful journal6 ,an ,archimedean lever had been found at last with which to move the world4 ,the production of printed sheets per hour over the hand-press was at once quadrupled1 and very shortly #ahjj sheets per hour were printed4 ,this machine was of that class known as cylinder presses4 ,in this machine ordinary type was used1 and the type-form was flat and passed beneath a large impression cylinder on which the paper was held by tapes4 ,the type-form was reciprocated beneath an inking apparatus and the paper cylinder alternately4 ,the inking apparatus consisted of a series of rollers1 to the first of which the ink was ejected from a trough and distributed to the others4 ,in #ahae ,cowper patented in ,england electrotype plates to be affixed to a cylinder4 ,applegath and ,cowper improved the ,knig machine in the matter of the ink distributing rollers1 and in the adaptation of four printing cylinders to the reciprocating type bed1 whereby1 with some other minor changes1 #ejjj impressions on one side were produced per hour4 ,again ,applegath greatly changed the arrangement of cylinders and multiplied their number1 and the number of the other parts1 so that in #ahdh the sheets printed on one side were first #hjjj and then #ab1jjj an hour4 ,in the ,united ,states1 ,daniel ,treadwell of ,boston invented the first power printing machine in #ahbb4 ,two of these machines were at that time set up in ,new ,york city4 ,it was a flat bed press and was long used in ,washington in printing for the government4 ,david ,bruce of ,new ,york1 in #ahch1 invented the first successful type-casting machine1 which1 when shortly afterward it was perfected1 became the model for type-casting machines for ,europe and ,america4 ,previous to that time type were generally made by casting them in hand-moulds--the metal being poured in with a spoon4 ,robert ,hoe1 an ,english inventor1 went to ,new ,york in #ahjc1 and turned his attention to the making of printing presses4 ,his son1 ,richard ,march ,hoe1 inherited his father's inventive genius4 ,while in ,england in #ahcg-ahdj1 obtaining a patent on and introducing a circular saw1 he became interested in the printing presses of the ,london ,times4 ,returning home1 he invented and perfected a rotary machine which received the name of the 8,lightning ,press40 ,it first had four and then ten cylinders arranged in a circle4 ,as finally completed1 it printed from a continuous roll of paper several miles in length1 and on both sides at the same time1 cutting off and folding ready for delivery1 #ae1jjj to #bj1jjj newspapers an hour1 the paper being drawn through the press at the rate of #a1jjj feet in a minute4 ,before it was in this final1 completed shape1 it was adopted by the ,london ,times4 ,john ,walter of ,london in the meantime invented a machine of a similar class4 ,he also used a sheet of paper miles long4 ,it was first damped1 passed through blotting rolls1 and then to the printing cylinders4 ,it gave out #aa1jjj perfected sheets1 or #bb1jjj impressions an hour1 and as each sheet was printed1 it was cut by a knife on the cylinder1 and the sheets piled on the paper boards4 ,it was adopted by the ,london ,times and the ,new ,york ,times4 ,a ,german press at ,augsburg1 and the ,campbell presses of the ,united ,states1 have also become celebrated as web perfecting presses1 in which the web is printed1 the sheets cut1 associated1 folded1 and delivered at high speed4 ,one of the latest quadruple stereotype perfecting presses made by ,hoe ,co4 of ,new ,york has a running capacity of #dh1jjj papers per hour4 ,on another1 a ,new ,york paper has turned off nearly six hundred thousand copies in a single day1 requiring for their printing ninety-four tons of paper4 ,among other celebrated inventors of printing presses in the ,united ,states were ,isaac ,adams1 ,taylor1 ,gordon1 ,potter1 ,hawkins1 ,bullock1 ,cottrell1 ,campbell1 ,babcock1 and ,firm4 ,mail-marking ,machines1 in which provision is made for holding the printing mechanism out of operative position in case a letter is not in position to be stamped2 address-printing machines1 including machines for printing addresses by means of a stencil2 machines for automatically setting and distributing the type1 including those in which the individual types are caused to enter the proper receptacle by means of nicks in the type1 which engage corresponding projections on a stationary guard plate1 and automatic type justifying machines4 ,all such have been invented1 developed1 and perfected in the last half century4 ,another invention which has added wonderfully to push the century along1 is the ,typewriter4 ,it has long been said that 8,the pen is mightier than the sword10 but from present indications1 it is proper to add that the typewriter is mightier than the pen4 ,a machine in which movable types are caused to yield impressions on paper to form letters by means of key levers operated by hand1 has been one of slow growth from its conception to its present practical and successful form4 ,some one suggested the idea in ,england in a patent in #agad4 ,the idea rested until #ahdj1 when a ,french inventor revived it in a patent4 ,at the same time patents began to come out in ,england and the ,united ,states2 and about forty patents in each of these two countries were granted from that time until #ahge4 ,since that date about #adjj patents more have been issued in the ,united ,states1 and a large number in other countries4 ,it was1 however1 only that year and before #ahhj1 that the first popular commercially successful machines were made and introduced4 ,the leading generic idea of all subsequent successful devices of this kind was clearly set forth in the patent of ,s4 ,w4 ,francis of the ,united ,states in #aheg4 ,this feature is the arranging of a row of hammers in a circle so that when put in motion they will all strike the same place1 which is the centre of that circle4 ,the arrangement of a row of pivoted hammers or type levers1 each operated by a separate key lever to strike an inked ribbon in front of a sheet of paper1 means to automatically move the carriage carrying the paper roll from right to left as the letters are successfully printed1 leaving a space between each letter and word1 and sounding a signal when the end of a line is reached1 so that the carriage may be returned to its former position--all these and some other minor but necessary operations may seem simple enough when stated1 but their accomplishment required the careful study of many inventors for years4 ,one of the most modern of typewriters has a single electro-magnet to actuate all the type bars of a set1 and to throw each type from its normal position to the printing centre4 ,by an extremely light touch given to each key lever the circuit is closed and causes the lever to strike without the necessity of pressing the key down its whole extent and releasing it before the next key strikes4 ,by this device1 the operator is relieved of fatigue1 as his fingers may glide quickly from one key to another1 the printing is made uniform1 and far greater speed attained by reason of the quick and delicate action4 ,mr4 ,thaddeus ,cahill of ,washington appears to be the first to have invented the most successful of this type of machines4 ,book-binding ,machinery is another new production of the century4 ,it may be that the old hand methods would give to a book a stronger binding than is found on most books to-day1 but the modern public demands and has obtained machinery that will take the loose sheets and bind them ready for delivery1 at the rate of ten or fifteen thousand volumes a day4 ,the 8quaint and curious volumes of forgotten lore10 the ,latin folios in oak or ivory boards with brass clasps1 or bound in velvet1 or in crimson satin1 ornamented with finest needlework or precious stones1 or the more humble beech boards1 and calf and sheep skins with metal edges and iron clasps1 in all of which the sheets were stoutly sewed together and glued1 when glue was known1 to the covers1 are now but relics of the past4 ,machinery came to the front quite rapidly after #ahbe1 at which time cloth had been introduced as cheaper than leather1 and as cheap and a more enduring binder than paper4 ,the processes in book-binding are enumerated as follows2 and for each process a machine has been invented within the last sixty years to do the work3 ,folding the sheets2 ,gathering the consecutive sheets2 ,rolling the backs of folded sheets2 ,saw cutting the backs for the combs2 ,sewing2 ,rounding the back of the sewed sheets4 ,edge cutting2 ,binding1 securing the books to the sides1 covering with muslin1 leather or paper4 ,tooling and lettering4 ,edge gilting4 ,one of the best modern illustrations of human thought and complicated manual operations contained in automatic machinery is the ,linotype4 ,it is a great step from the humble invention of ,schoeffer five hundred and fifty years ago of cast movable type to that of another ,german1 ,mergenthaler1 in #ahij-ib4 ,the ,linotype 7a line of type7 was pronounced by the ,london ,engineering 8as the most remarkable machine of this century40 ,it was the outcome of twelve years of continuous experiment and invention1 and the expenditure of more than a million dollars4 ,a brief description of this invention is given in the report of the ,united ,states commissioner of patents for #ahie as follows3 8,in the present ,mergenthaler construction there is a magazine containing a series of tubes for the letter or character moulds1 each of which moulds is provided with a single character4 ,there are a number of duplicates of each character1 and the moulds containing the same character are all arranged in one tube4 ,the machine is provided with a series of finger keys1 which1 when pressed like the keys of a typewriter1 cause the letter moulds to assemble in a line in their proper order for print4 ,a line mould and a melting pot are then brought into proper relation to the assembled line of letter moulds and a cast is taken1 called the linotype1 which represents the entire line1 a column wide1 of the matter to be printed4 ,the letter moulds are then automatically returned to their proper magazine tube4 ,the ,mergenthaler machine is largely in use in the principal newspaper offices1 with the result that a single operator does at least the work of four average compositors40 ,mr ,rogers obtained a ,united ,states patent1 ,september #bc1 #ahij1 for a machine for casting lines of type1 the principal feature of which is that the letter moulds are strung on wires secured on a hinged frame4 8,when the frame is in one position1 the letter moulds are released by the keys1 slide down the wires by gravity and are assembled in line at the casting point4 ,after the cast is taken1 the lower ends of the guide wires are elevated1 which causes the letter moulds to slide back on the wires to their original position1 when the operation is repeated for the next line40 ,operated by a single person1 the ,mergenthaler produces and assembles linotypes ready for the press or stereotyping table at the rate of from #c1fjj to #g1jjj ems 7type characters7 per hour4 ,it permits the face or style of type to be changed at will and it permits the operator to read and correct his matter as he proceeds4 ,to the aid of the ordinary printing press came electrotyping1 stenographic colour printing1 engraving1 and smaller job and card presses1 all entirely new creations within the century1 and of infinite variety1 each in itself forming a new class in typographic art1 and a valuable addition to the marvellous transformation4 ,the introduction of the linotype and other modern machines into printing offices has without doubt many times reduced and displaced manual labour1 and caused at those times at least temporary suffering among employees4 ,but statistics do not show that as a whole there are fewer printers in the land4 ,on the contrary1 the force seems to increase1 just as the number of printing establishments increase1 with the multiplication of new inventions4 ,as in other arts1 the distress caused by the displacement of hand-labour by machinery is local and temporary4 ,the whole art rests for its development on the demand for reading matter1 and the demand never seems to let up4 ,it increases as fast as the means of the consumers increase for procuring it4 ,one hundred years ago a decent private library1 consisting of a hundred or so volumes1 one or two weekly newspapers1 and an occasional periodical1 was the badge and possession alone of the wealthy few4 ,now nearly every reading citizen of every village has piled up in some corner of his house a better supply than that1 of bound or unbound literature1 and of a far superior quality4 ,besides the tons of reading matter of all kinds turned out daily by the city presses1 every village wants its own paper and its town library1 and every one of its business men has recourse to the typewriter and the printer for his letters1 his cards1 and his advertisements4 ,to supply the present demand for printed matter with the implements of a hundred years ago1 it would be necessary to draw upon and exhaust the supply of labourers in nearly every other occupation4 ,printing would become the one universal profession4 ,the roar of the guns at ,waterloo and the click of the first power printing press in ,london were nearly simultaneous4 ,the military ,colossus then tumbled1 and the ,press began to lead mankind4 ,wars still continue1 and will1 until men are civilised2 but the vanguard of civilisation are the printers1 and not the warriors4 ,the marvellous glory of the nineteenth century has proceeded from the intelligence of the people1 awakened1 stimulated1 and guided by the press4 ,but the press itself1 and its servitors and messengers1 speeding on the wings of electricity1 are the children of the inventors4 ,these inventions have made the book and the newspaper the poor man's ,university4 ,they are mirrors which throw into his humble home reflections of the scenes of busy life everywhere4 ,by them knowledge is spread1 thought aroused1 and universal education established4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,textiles4 ,spinning3--,a bunch of combed fibre fixed in the forked end of a stick called a distaff1 held under the left arm1 while with the right forefinger and thumb the housewife or maiden deftly drew out and twisted a thread of yarn of the fibre and wound it upon a stick called a spindle1 was the art of spinning that came down to ,europe from ,ancient ,egypt or ,india without a change through all the centuries to at least the middle of the fourteenth century1 and in ,england to the time of ,henry ,,viii4 ,then the spinning wheel was introduced1 which is said to have also been long in use in ,india4 ,by the use of the wheel the spindle was no longer held in the hand1 but1 set upon a frame and connected by a cord or belt to the wheel1 was made to whirl by turning the wheel by hand1 or by a treadle4 ,the spindle was connected to the bunch of cotton by a cord1 or by a single roving of cotton or wool attached to the spindle1 which was held between the finger and thumb1 and as the spindle revolved the thread was drawn out and twisted and wound by the spindle upon itself4 ,in the cloth of the ancient ,east the warp and weft were both of cotton4 ,in ,england the warp was linen and the weft was cotton4 ,the warp was made by the cloth and linen manufacturers1 and the weft yarns furnished by the woman spinsters throughout the country4 ,by both these methods only a single thread at a time was spun4 ,the principle of the spinning operation1 the drawing out and twisting a thread or cord from a bunch or roll of fibre1 has remained the same through all time4 ,the light and delicate work1 the pure and soft material1 and the beauty and usefulness of raiments produced1 have all through time made woman the natural goddess1 the priestess1 the patroness1 and the votary of this art4 ,the object of all modern machinery1 however complicated or wonderful1 has simply been to increase the speed and efficiency of the ancient mode of operation and to multiply its results4 ,the loom1 that antique frame on which the threads were laid in one direction to form the warp1 and crossed by the yarns in the opposite direction1 carried through the warp by the shuttle thrown by hand1 to form the woof1 or weft1 comprised a device as old as1 if not older than1 the distaff and spindle4 ,the ancient and isolated races of ,mexico had also learned the art of spinning and weaving4 ,when the ,spaniards first entered that country they found the natives clothed in cotton1 woven plain1 or in many colours4 ,after forty centuries of unchanged life1 it occurred to ,john ,kay of ,bury1 ,england1 that the weaving process might be improved4 ,in #agcc he had succeeded in inventing the picker motion1 8picker peg10 or 8fly40 ,this consisted of mechanical means for throwing the shuttle across the web by a sudden jerk of a bar--one at each side--operated by pulling a cord4 ,he could thus throw the shuttle farther and quicker than by hand--make wider cloth1 and do as much work in the same time as two men had done before4 ,this improvement put weaving ahead of spinning1 and the weavers were continually calling on the spindlers for more weft yarns4 ,this set the wits of inventors at work to better the spinning means4 ,at the same time that ,kay was struggling with his invention of the flying shuttle1 another poor man1 but with less success1 had conceived another idea1 as to spinning4 ,john ,wyatt of ,lichfield thought it would be a good thing to draw out the sliver of cotton or wool between two sets of rollers1 one end of the sliver being held and fed by one set of rollers1 while the opposite end was being drawn by the other set of rollers moving at a greater speed4 ,his invention1 although not then used1 was patented in #agch by ,lewis ,paul1 who in time won a fortune by it1 while ,wyatt died poor1 and it was claimed that ,paul and not ,wyatt was the true inventor4 ,about #agfd a little accident occurring in the home of ,james ,hargreaves1 an ,english weaver of ,blackburn1 suggested to that observant person an invention that was as important as that of ,kay4 ,he was studying hard how to get up a machine to meet the weavers' demands for cotton yarns4 ,one day while ,hargreaves was spinning1 surrounded by his children1 one of them upset the spinning wheel1 probably in a children's frolic1 and after it fell and while lying in a horizontal position1 with the spindle in a vertical position1 and the wheel and the spindle still running1 the idea flashed into ,hargreaves' mind that a number of spindles might be placed upright and run from the same power4 ,thus prompted he commenced work1 working in secret and at odd hours1 and finally1 after two or three years1 completed a crude machine1 which he called the spinning jenny1 some say after his wife1 and others that the name came from 8gin10 the common abbreviated name of an engine4 ,this machine had eight or ten spindles driven by cords or belts from the same wheel1 and operated by hand or foot4 ,the rovings at one end were attached to the spindles and their opposite portions held together and drawn out by a clasp held in the hand4 ,when the thread yarn was drawn out sufficiently it was wound upon the spindles by a reverse movement of the wheel4 ,thus finally were means provided to supply the demand for the weft yarns4 ,one person with one of ,hargreaves' machines could in the same time spin as much as twenty or thirty persons with their wheels4 ,but those who were to be most benefited by the invention were the most alarmed1 for fear of the destruction of their business1 and they arose in their wrath1 and demolished ,hargreaves' labours4 ,it was a hard time for inventors4 ,the law of ,england then was that patents were invalid if the invention was made known before the patent was applied for1 and part of the public insisted on demolishing the invention if it was so made known1 so that to avoid the law and the lawless the harassed inventors kept and worked their inventions in secret as long as they could4 ,hargreaves fled to ,nottingham1 where works were soon started with his spinning jennys4 ,the ideas of ,kay1 ,wyatt and ,hargreaves are said to have been anticipated in ,italy4 ,there were makers of cloths at ,florence1 and also in ,spain and the ,netherlands1 who were far in advance of the ,english and ,french in this art1 but the descriptions of machinery employed by them are too vague and scanty to sustain the allegation4 ,and now the long ice age of hand working was breaking up1 and the age of machine production was fast setting in4 ,hargreaves was in the midst of his troubles and his early triumphs1 in #agfe-agfi1 when ,richard ,arkwright entered the field4 ,arkwright1 first a barber1 and then a travelling buyer of hair1 and finally a knight1 learned1 as he travelled through ,lancashire1 ,lichfield1 ,blackburn and ,nottingham1 of the inventions and labours of ,wyatt1 ,kay and ,hargreaves4 ,possessed as he was of some mechanical skill and inventive genius1 and realising that the harvest was ripe and the labourers few1 entered the field of inventions1 and with the help of ,kay1 revived the old ideas of ,john ,wyatt and ,lewis ,paul of spinning by rollers1 which had now slumbered for thirty years4 ,kay and ,arkwright constructed a working model1 and on this ,arkwright by hard pushing and hard work obtained capital1 and improved1 completed and patented his machine4 ,the machine was first used by him in a mill erected at ,nottingham and worked by horses2 then at ,cromford1 and in this mill the power used to drive the spinning machine was a water wheel4 ,his invention was therefore given the name of the water frame1 which it retained long after steam had been substituted for water as the driving power4 ,it was also named the throstle1 from the fact that it gave a humming or singing sound while at work2 but it is commonly known as the drawing frame4 ,arkwright patented useful improvements4 ,he had to contend with mobs and with the courts1 which combined to destroy his machines and his patent1 but he finally succeeded in establishing mills1 and in earning from the ,government1 manufacturers1 and the public a great and well-merited munificence4 ,it is a remarkable coincidence that ,watt's steam engine patent and ,arkwright's first patent for his spinning machine were issued in the same year--#agfi4 ,the new era of invention was dawning fast4 ,then1 in #aggf1 came ,samuel ,crompton of ,bolton1 who invented a combination of the jenny of ,hargreaves and the roller water frame of ,arkwright1 and to distinguish his invention from the others he named it the 8mule40 ,the mule was a carriage on wheels to which the spindles were attached4 ,when the mule was drawn out one way on its frame the rovings were drawn from bobbins through rollers on a stationary frame1 stretched and twisted into threads1 and then as the mule was run back the spun threads were wound on spools on the spindles4 ,the mule entirely superseded the use of the jenny4 ,notwithstanding the advantage in names the mule did more delicate work than the jenny4 ,it avoided the continuous stretch on the thread of the jenny by first completing the thread and then winding it4 ,crompton's mule was moved back and forth by hand4 ,roberts subsequently made it self-acting4 ,next1 followed in ,england the ,rev4 ,edward ,cartwright1 who1 turning his attention to looms1 invented the first loom run by machinery1 the first power loom1 #aghd-he4 ,then the rioters turned on him1 and he experienced the same attentions received by ,hargreaves and ,arkwright4 ,the ignorance of ages died in this branch of human progress1 as it often dies in others1 with a violent wrench4 ,but the age of steam had at last come1 and with it the spinning machine1 the power loom1 the printing press1 and the discovery among men of the powers of the mind1 their freedom to exercise such powers1 and their right to possess the fruits of their labours4 ,the completed inventions of ,arkwright and others1 combined with ,watt's steam engine1 revolutionised trade1 and resulted in the establishment of mills and factories4 ,a thousand spindles whirled where one hummed before4 ,the factory life which drew the women and girls from their country homes to heated1 and closely occupied1 ill ventilated buildings within town limits1 was1 however1 not regarded as an improvement in the matter of health2 and it was a long time before mills were constructed and operated with the view to the correction of this evil4 ,the great increase in demand for cotton produced by these machine inventions could not have been met had it not been for ,eli ,whitney's invention of the saw gin in ,america in #agic4 ,the cleaning of the seed from the cotton accomplished by this machine produced as great a revolution in the culture of cotton in ,america as the inventions of ,arkwright and others accomplished in spinning and weaving in ,england4 ,america had also learned of ,arkwright's machinery4 ,samuel ,slater1 a former employee of ,arkwright1 introduced it to ,rhode ,island in #aghi1 and built a great cotton mill there in #agic4 ,others followed in ,massachusetts4 ,within twenty years after the introduction of ,arkwright's machines in the ,united ,states there were a hundred mills there with a hundred thousand spindles4 ,as has been said1 it was customary for weavers to make the warp on their looms at one place1 and the spinners to furnish the yarns for the weft from their homes1 and even after the spinning machines were invented the spinning and weaving were done at separate places4 ,it remained for ,francis ,c4 ,lowell of ,boston1 who had been studying the art of spinning and weaving in ,england and ,scotland and the inventions of ,arkwright and ,crompton1 to establish in #ahac at ,waltham1 ,mass41 with the aid of ,paul ,moody1 machinist1 the first factory in the world wherein were combined under one roof all the processes for converting cotton into cloth4 ,the task of the century in this art has been to greatly extend the dominion of machinery in the treatment of cotton and wool in all stages1 from the reception of the raw material at the door of the factory to its final completion in the form of the choicest cloth1 and to increase the capacity of machines sufficiently to meet an ever-increasing and enormous consumption4 ,there are from twenty to forty separate and distinct operations performed both in spinning and weaving and the completion of a piece of cloth from cotton or wool1 and nearly all of these operations are accomplished by machinery4 ,the century's improvements and inventions in machines for treating and spinning cotton comprise machines for first opening and tearing the matted mass apart as it is taken from the bales1 then cleaning1 carding1 drawing1 roving1 stretching1 spinning1 winding1 doubling1 dressing1 warping1 weaving1 etc4 ,formerly1 the opening machines were simply cylinders armed with spikes1 to which the cotton was led through nipping rollers1 and then delivered in a loose1 fluffy condition4 ,when such a machine was associated with a blowing machine to blow out the dust and cleanse the fibre1 the loose and scattered condition in which the cotton was left gave rise to a great danger from fire1 and destructive fires often occurred4 ,the object of the later opening machinery is to confine the cotton within a casing in its passage through the machine1 during which passage it is thoroughly stretched1 beaten and blown and then rolled into a continuous sheet or lap4 ,at the same time1 by nice devices1 it is evened1 that is1 freed from all knots1 and made of uniform thickness1 while a certain quantity only of cotton of known weight is allowed to pass through to constitute the required lap4 ,finally the lap is wound upon a roller1 which when filled is removed to the carder4 ,although the cotton is now a white1 soft1 clean1 downy sheet1 still the fibres cross each other in every direction1 and they require to be straightened and laid parallel before the spinning4 ,this is done by carding4 ,paul1 ,hargreaves1 ,robert ,peel1 and ,arkwright had worked in constructing a machine to take the place of hand carding1 and it was finally reduced by ,arkwright1 towards the close of the #ahth century1 to its present form and principle4 ,but to make those narrow1 ribbon-like1 clean1 long lines of rolled cotton1 known as slivers1 by machinery with greater precision and uniformity than is possible by hand1 and with a thousand times greater rapidity1 has been the work of many inventors at different times and in different countries4 ,the machine cards are cylinders clothed with leather and provided with separate sets of slender1 sharp1 bent fingers4 ,the different cards are arranged to move past each other in opposite directions1 so as to catch and disentangle the fibres4 ,flat1 overhead stationary cards are also used through which the cotton is carried4 ,as one operation of carding is not sufficient for most purposes the cotton is subjected to one or more successive cardings4 ,so ingenious is the structure in some of its parts that as the stream of cotton passes on1 any existing knots do not fail to excite the attention of the machine1 which at once arrests them and holds them until disentangled4 ,in connection with the cards1 combers and strippers are used to assist in further cleaning and straightening the fibre1 which is finally removed from the cards and the combs by the doffer4 ,the cotton is stripped from the doffer by the doffer knife and in the form of delicate1 flat narrow ribbons1 which are drawn through a small funnel to consolidate them1 and finally delivered in a coiled form into a tall tin can4 ,the material is then carried to a drawing frame1 which takes the spongy slivers1 and1 carrying them through successive sets of rollers moving at increased speed1 elongates1 equalises1 straightens and 8doubles0 them1 and finally condenses them into two or more rolls by passing the same through a trumpet-shaped funnel4 ,as the yarns still need to be twisted1 they are passed through a roving frame similar to a drawing frame4 ,an ingenious device connected with the winding of the roving yarns upon bobbins may be here noted4 ,formerly the bobbins on which the yarns were wound increased in speed as they were filled1 thus endangering and often breaking the thread1 and at all times increasing the tension4 ,in #ahbc ,asa ,arnold of ,rhode ,island invented 8a differential motion0 by which the velocity of the bobbin is kept uniform4 ,the roving having been reduced to proper size for the intended number of yarns1 now goes to the spinning machine1 to still further draw out the threads and give to them a more uniform twist and tenuity4 ,the spinning machine is simply an improved form of ,crompton's mule1 already described4 ,great as have been the improvements in many matters in spindle structure1 the drawing1 the stretching and the twisting still remain fundamentally the same in principle as in the singing throstle of ,arkwright and the steady mule of ,crompton4 ,and yet so great and rapid has been the advancement of inventions as to details and to meet the great demand1 that the machinery of half a century ago has been almost entirely discarded and supplanted by different types4 ,a great improvement on the spinning frame of the #ahth century is the ring frame invented by ,jenks4 ,in this the spindles1 arranged vertically in the frame1 are driven by bands from a central cylinder1 and project through apertures in a horizontal bar4 ,a flanged ridge around each aperture forms a ring and affords a track for a little steel hoop called a traveller1 which is sprung over the ring4 ,the traveller guides the thread on to the spool4 ,as the spindles revolve1 the thread passing through the traveller revolves it rapidly1 and the horizontal bar rising and falling has the effect of winding the yarn alternately and regularly upon the spools4 ,the bobbins of the spindle frame were found not large enough to contain a sufficient amount of yarn to permit of a long continuous operation when the warp came to be applied1 and besides there were occasional defects in the thread which could not be detected until it broke1 if the yarn was used directly from the bobbins4 ,so to save much time and trouble spooling machines were invented which wind the yarn from the bobbins holding #abjj to #ahjj yards1 to large spools1 each holding #ah1jjj to #bj1jjj yards2 and then by passing the yarn through fine slots in guides which lead to the spool1 lumps or weak places1 which would break the yarns at the guide1 could at once be discovered and the yarn retied firmly1 so that there would be no further breaking in the warper4 ,after the yarn is finally spooled it is found that its surface is still rough and covered with fuzz4 ,it is desirable1 therefore1 that it shall be smoothed out and be given somewhat of a lustre before weaving4 ,these final operations are performed by the warping and dressing machines4 ,in the warping machine the threads are drawn between rollers1 the tension of which can be regulated1 and then through a 8reed10 a comb-shaped device which separates the threads1 and then finally wound upon a large cylinder4 ,in this machine a device is also arranged which operates to stop the machine at once if any thread is broken4 ,when the cylinder is filled it is then taken to the dresser1 which in its modern and useful form is known as the 8slusher10 by which the yarns are drawn through hot starch1 the superfluous starch squeezed out1 and the yarns1 kept separated all the time1 dried by passing them around large drying cylinders1 or through a closed box heated by steam pipes1 and then wound upon the loom beam or cylinder4 ,in weaving1 as in spinning1 however advanced1 complicated and improved the means may be beyond the hand methods and simple looms of past ages1 the general principles in the process are still the same4 ,these means1 generally and broadly speaking1 consist of a frame for two sets of threads1 a roller1 called the warp beam1 for receiving and holding the threads which form the warp1 a cloth beam upon which the cloth is wound as it is woven1 the warp threads1 being first laid parallel1 carried from the warp beam and attached to the cloth beam2 means called heddles1 which with their moving frames constitute 8a harness10 consisting of a set of vertical strings or rods having central loops through which the threads are passed1 two or more sets of which receive alternate threads1 and by the reciprocation of which the threads are separated into sets1 decussated1 forming between them what is called a shed through which the shuttle is thrown2 means for throwing the shuttle2 and means1 called the batten1 lay or lathe1 for forcing or packing the weft tight into the angle formed by the opened warp and so rendering the fabric tight and compact1 and then the motive power for turning the cloth beam and winding the cloth as fast as completed4 ,it is along these lines that the inventors have wrought their marvellous changes from hand to power looms4 ,prior to #ahjj1 in the weaving of figures into cloths1 it was customary to employ boys to pull the cords in the loom harness in order to arrange the coloured threads in their relative positions4 ,in that year appeared at the front ,joseph ,marie ,jacquard1 a ,french mechanician and native of ,lyons1 whose parents were weavers1 a prolific inventor in his youth1 a wayward wanderer after fortune and a wife1 a soldier in the ,revolution1 losing a son fighting by his side1 eking out a poor living with his wife's help at straw weaving1 finally employed by a silk manufacturer1 and while thus engaged1 producing that loom which has ever since been known by his name4 ,this loom was personally inspected by ,napoleon1 who rewarded the inventor with honours and a pension4 ,it was then demolished by a mob and its inventor reviled1 but it afterward became the pride of ,lyons and the means of its renown and wealth in the weaving of silks of rich designs4 ,the leading feature of the ,jacquard loom consists of a chain of perforated pattern cards made to pass over a drum1 through which cards certain needles pass1 causing certain threads of the warp to rise and fall1 according to the holes in the cards1 and thus admitting at certain places in the warp coloured weft threads thrown by the shuttle1 and reproducing the pattern which is perforated in the cards4 ,the ,jacquard device could be applied to any loom1 and it worked a revolution in the manufacture of figured goods4 ,the complexity and expensiveness of ,jacquard's loom were greatly reduced by subsequent improvements4 ,in #ahed ,m4 ,bonelli constructed an electric loom in which the cards of the ,jacquard apparatus are superseded by an endless band of tin-foiled paper1 which serves as an electrical conductor to operate the warp thread needles1 which before had each been actuated by a spiral spring4 ,the ,jacquard loom was also greatly improved by the ,english inventors1 ,barlow1 ,taylor1 ,martain and others4 ,radcliffe and ,johnson1 also of ,england1 had invented and introduced the machines for dressing the yarns in one operation before the weaving2 ,horrocks and ,marsland of ,stockport greatly improved the adaptation of steam to the driving of looms1 and ,roberts of ,manchester made striking advances in their mechanical parts and in bringing them to their present state of wonderful efficiency4 ,in ,america1 in #ahcf1 ,george ,crompton of ,taunton1 ,massachusetts1 commenced a series of inventions in power looms for the manufacture of fancy woollen goods1 and in the details of such looms generally1 particularly in increasing the speed of the shuttle1 which vastly increased the production of such goods and gave to his looms a world-wide reputation4 ,e4 ,b4 ,bigelow of ,massachusetts in #ahdh invented a power loom1 which was exhibited at the ,exhibition at ,london in #ahea1 and astonished the world by his exhibition of carpets superior to any woven by hand4 ,by the later improvements1 and the aid of steam power1 a single ,american ,bigelow carpet loom can turn out now one hundred yards of ,brussels carpet in a day1 far superior in quality to any carpet which could possibly be made by hand1 when a man toiled painfully to produce five yards a day4 ,mr4 ,bigelow was also a pioneer inventor of power machines for weaving coach lace1 and cotton checks and ginghams4 ,james ,lyall of ,new ,york invented a power loom applicable either to the weaving of very wide and heavy fabrics1 such as jute canvas for the foundation of floor oil cloth1 or to fabrics made of the finest and most delicate yarns4 ,it would be interesting1 if space permitted1 to describe the great variety of machines that have been invented for dressing1 finishing and treating cloths after they are woven3 ,the teasling machine1 by which the nap of woollen cloth is raised2 the cloth drying machine1 with heated rollers1 over which the cloth is passed to drive off the moisture acquired in dyeing1 washing1 etc41 the cloth printing1 figuring1 colouring and embossing machines1 with engraved cylinders2 cloth pressing and creasing machines1 and the cloth cutting machines for cutting the cloth into strips of all lengths1 or for cutting piles of cloth in a single operation into parts of garments corresponding to the prearranged pattern2 machines for making felt cloth1 and stamping or moulding different articles of apparel from felt1 etc41 etc4 ,for the making of ribbons and other kind of narrow ware1 the needle power loom has been invented1 in which the fine weft thread is carried through the web by a needle instead of a shuttle4 ,this adaptation of the needle to looms has placed ribbons within the reach of the poor as well as the rich girl4 ,what a comparison between the work of the virtuous ,penelopes and the weavers of a century ago and to-day6 ,then with her wheel1 and by walking to and from it as the yarn was drawn out1 and wound up1 a maiden could spin twelve skeins of thread in ten hours1 producing a thread a little more than three miles in length1 while the length of her walk to and fro was about five miles4 ,now one ,penelope can attend to six or eight hundred spindles1 each of which spins five thousand yards of thread a day1 or1 with the eight hundred spindles1 four million yards1 or nearly twenty-one hundred miles of thread in a day1 while she need not walk at all4 ,it was when the weaver threw the shuttle through the warp by hand that ,job's exclamation1 8,my days are like a weaver's shuttle0 was an appropriate text on the brevity of human life4 ,it may be just as appropriate now1 but far more striking1 when it is realised that machines now throw the shuttle one hundred and eighty times a minute1 or three times a second4 ,flying as fast as it does1 when the shuttle becomes exhausted of yarn a late invention presents a new bobbin and a new supply of yarn to the shuttle without stopping the machine4 ,as to knitting1 the century has seen the day pass when all hosiery was knit by hand4 ,first1 machines were invented for knitting the leg or the foot of the stocking1 which were then joined by hand1 and then came machines that made the stocking complete4 ,the social industry so quietly but slowly followed by the good women in their chimney corners with their knitting needles1 by which a woman might possibly knit a pair a day1 was succeeded a quarter of a century ago by machines1 twelve of which could be attended to by a boy1 which would knit and complete five thousand pairs a week4 ,such a machine commences with the stocking at the top1 knits down1 widening and narrowing1 changes the stitch as it goes on to the heel1 shapes the heel1 and finishes at the end of the toe1 all one thread1 and then it recommences the operation and goes on with another and another4 ,fancy stockings1 with numerous colours blended1 are so knit1 and if the yarn holds out a mile of stockings may be thus knit1 without a break and without an attendant4 ,by these machines the astounding result was reached of making the stockings at the cost of one-sixth of a mill per pair4 ,the wonderful reduction in the cost of all kinds of textile fabrics due to the perfection of spinning and loom mechanisms1 and its power to meet the resulting enormous increase in demand1 has enabled the poor of to-day to be clad better and with a far greater variety of apparel than it was possible for the rich a hundred years ago2 and the increased consumption and demand have brought into these fields of labour1 and into other fields of labour created by these1 great armies of men and women1 notwithstanding the labour-saving devices4 ,the wants of the world can no longer be supplied by skilled hand labour4 ,and it is better that machines do the skilled labour1 if the product is increased while made better and cheaper1 and the number of labourers in the end increased by the development and demands of the art4 ,among the recent devices is one which dispenses with the expensive and skilful work by hand of drawing the warp threads into the eyes of the heddles and through the reed of the loom4 ,cane-backed and bottomed chairs and lounges only a few years ago were a luxury of the rich and made slowly by hand4 ,now the open mesh cane fabric1 having diagonal strands1 and other varieties1 are made rapidly by machinery4 ,turkish carpets are woven1 and floors the world over are carpeted with those rich materials the sight of which would have astonished the ordinary beholder a half century ago4 ,matting is woven2 wire1 cane1 straw1 spun glass2 in fact1 everything that can be woven by hand into useful articles now finds its especially constructed machine for weaving it4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,garments4 8,man is a tool-using animal4 ,weak in himself1 and of small stature1 he stands on a basis1 at most for the flattest-soled1 of some half square foot1 insecurely enough2 has to straddle out his legs lest the very wind supplant him4 ,feeblest of bipeds6 ,three quintals are a crushing load for him2 the steer of the meadow tosses him aloft1 like a waste rag4 ,nevertheless he can use tools1 can devise tools2 with these the granite mountain melts into light dust before him2 he kneads glowing iron as if it were paste2 seas are his smooth highway1 winds and fire his unwearying steeds4 ,nowhere do you find him without tools2 without tools he is nothing1 with tools he is all4444 ,man is a tool-using animal1 of which truth1 clothes are but one example40--,sartor ,resartus4 ,in looking through the records of man's achievements to find the beginnings of inventions1 we discover the glimmering of a change in the form of the immemorial needle1 in an ,english patent granted to ,charles ,f4 ,weisenthal1 ,june #bd1 #agge4 ,it was a needle with a centrally located eye1 and with both ends pointed1 designed for embroidery work by hand1 and the object of the two points was to prevent the turning of the needle end for end after its passage through the cloth4 ,but it was not until the #aith century that the idea was reduced to practice in sewing machines4 ,to ,thomas ,saint1 a cabinet maker by trade1 of ,greenhills ,rents1 in the ,parish of ,st4 ,sepulchre1 ,middlesex ,county1 ,england1 the world is indebted for the first clear conception of a sewing machine4 ,saint's attention was attracted to the slow way of sewing boots and shoes and other leather work1 so he determined to improve the method4 ,he took out a patent ,september #ag1 #agij1 and although the germs of some of the leading parts of the modern sewing machine are there described1 it does not appear that his patent was applied to practice4 ,in fact1 it slumbered in the archives of the ,british patent office for two generations1 and after the leading sewing machines of the century had been invented and introduced1 before it was rediscovered1 and its contents appreciated in the light of more recent developments4 ,probably ,saint's machine1 if constructed in accordance with his plans1 would not have done much good work1 certainly not with woven cloth1 as he proposed to employ a hooked needle to carry a loop through the material1 which would have been snarled by the cloth threads2 but from his drawings and description it is clearly established that he was first to conceive of a vertically reciprocating needle for forming a seam from a continuous thread drawn from a spool2 a seam in which each loop is locked1 or enchained with a subsequent loop1 to form what is known as the chain1 or single thread stitch2 and a horizontal sliding plate1 to support the material to be sewed1 and by which the material was also moved sideways after each stitch4 ,may #cj1 #ahjd1 ,john ,duncan received an ,english patent for 8tamboring on cloth40 ,he proposed to employ a series of hooked needles attached in a straight line to a horizontal bar1 which1 when threaded1 were first thrust forward and their hooked ends carried through the cloth1 where each needle hook was supplied with a thread by a thread carrier4 ,then the motion of the bar was reversed1 which drew the thread back through the cloth in the form of loops1 and through the loops first formed1 thus producing a chain stitch4 ,the cloth was automatically shifted to correspond to the pattern to be produced1 and thus was chain stitch embroidery first manufactured4 ,from this point of time successful embroidery machines were made4 ,in #ahjg another ,englishman patented a machine for making a sort of rope matting1 in which he describes two eye-pointed1 thread-carrying1 perforating needles1 each held in a reciprocating needle bar1 and designed to unite several small ropes laid parallel1 by a reciprocating movement4 ,a ,german publication1 the ,kunst and ,generbe ,blatt1 for #ahag1 and ,karmarsch's ,history of ,technology1 made mention of a sewing machine invented by one ,mr4 ,joseph ,madersperger of ,vienna1 formerly from ,kuefstein in the ,tyrol1 and for which he received royal letters patent in #ahad4 ,from these descriptions it appears ,madersperger used a needle pointed at both ends1 and the eye in the centre1 invented many years before by ,weisenthal1 as above stated1 which was moved vertically up and down1 piercing alternately the top and bottom of the stuff1 and which carried a short thread1 enough to make about one hundred and thirty stitches1 which machine was driven by a crank and handle1 on which sewing was made of many different shaped forms1 by slight changes1 and which sewed with far greater accuracy and rapidity than hand work4 ,the inventor was striving to simplify the machine1 but to what extent it had been used or had been improved1 or what finally became of it1 does not appear4 ,yet it is a bit of evidence showing that ,germany came next to ,england in the earlier ideas1 conceptions of1 and struggles after a sewing machine4 ,france then entered the list1 and it was in #ahcj that ,barthelmy ,thimonnier there produced and patented a sewing machine1 which he continued to improve and to further patent in #ahdh and in #ahej in ,france1 ,england1 and the ,united ,states4 ,the ,thimonnier resembled in some prominent respects the machine that had been described in the ,saint patent1 but unlike ,saint's1 it was reduced to successful practice1 and possessed some points in common with more modern machines4 ,these were the flat cloth plate1 vertical post1 overhung arm1 vertically reciprocating needle1 and continuous thread4 ,the crochet or barbed needle was worked by a treadle1 and upon pushing the needle down through the cloth1 it there caught a thread from a carrier1 carried the loop to and laid it upon the upper surface of the cloth4 ,again descending1 it brought up another loop1 enchained it with the one last made1 making a chain stitch1 consisting of a series of loops on the upper side4 ,thimonnier made quite a large number of machines1 constructed mostly of wood1 and which were used to make army clothing at ,paris4 ,they were best adapted to work on leather and in embroidering4 ,they were so far successful as to arouse the jealousy and fear of the workmen and working women1 and1 as in the case of ,hargreaves1 ,jacquard1 and others1 a mob broke into his shop1 destroyed his machines1 ruined his business1 and he died penniless in #aheg4 ,in the meantime an ,english patent1 ,no4 #hidh1 of ,may #d1 #ahda1 had been issued to ,newton and ,archbold for a machine for embroidering the backs of gloves1 having an eye-pointed needle1 worked by a vibrating lever1 and adapted to carry a thread through the back of the glove1 held on a frame--the frame and glove moving together after each stitch4 ,the germs of inventions often develop and fructify simultaneously in distant places1 without1 so far as any one can ascertain1 the slightest mutual knowledge or co-operation on the part of the separate inventors4 ,between #ahcb and #ahcd1 while ,thimonnier was in the midst of his early struggles in ,paris1 ,walter ,hunt was inventing a sewing machine in ,new ,york1 which he completed at that time and on which he sewed one or two garments4 ,but as it was experimental in form1 and ,hunt was full of other inventions and schemes1 he put it aside1 and it probably would never have been heard of had not ,elias ,howe of ,massachusetts1 ten years after ,hunt had abandoned his invention1 but without knowledge of ,hunt's efforts1 made the first practical successful sewing machine for commercial purposes the world had ever seen1 obtained his patent1 and made claims therein which covered not only his special form of improvements1 but ,hunt's old device as well4 ,howe's patent was issued ,september #aj1 #ahdf4 ,in that he claimed to be the first and original inventor of 8,a sewing machine1 constructed and operated to form a seam1 substantially as described40 ,also 8,the combination of a needle and a shuttle1 or equivalent1 and holding surfaces1 constructed and operating substantially as described40 ,also 8,the combination of holding surfaces with a baster plate or equivalent1 constructed and operating substantially as described40 ,also 8,a grooved and eye-pointed needle1 constructed and adapted for rapid machine sewing substantially as described40 ,when the machine commenced to be a practical success this patent was infringed1 and when ,howe sued upon it a few years after its issue1 it woke up ,hunt and all other alleged prior inventors2 and all prior patents and publications the world over1 relating to sewing machines1 were raked up to defeat ,howe's claims4 ,but the courts1 after long deliberation1 held that although1 so far as ,hunt was concerned he had without doubt made a machine in many respects like ,howe's machine1 that it had a curved1 eye-pointed needle similar to ,howe's operated by a vibrating arm and going through the cloth1 a shuttle carrying the thread that passed through the loop made by the needle thread1 thus making a lock stitch by drawing it up to one side of the cloth1 and that this machine did1 to a certain extent1 sew1 yet that it ended in an experiment1 was laid aside1 destroyed1 and never perfected nor used so as to give to the public the knowledge and benefit of a completed invention1 and was not therefore an anticipation in the eye of the law of ,howe's completed1 more successful and patented machine4 ,public successful use is the fact in many cases which alone establishes the title of an inventor1 when all other tests fail4 ,and this is right in one sense1 as the laws of all countries in respect to protection by patents for inventions are based upon the primary condition of benefit to society4 ,this benefit is not derived from the inventor who hides his completed invention for years in his closet1 or throws it on a dust heap4 ,as to previous patents and publications1 some were not published before ,howe's inventions were made1 and others were insufficient in showing substantially the same machine and mode of operation4 ,and as to prior use abroad1 it was not regarded under the law of his country as competent evidence4 ,seldom have the lives of great inventors presented a more striking example of the vicissitudes1 the despair1 and the final triumphs of fortune1 which are commonly their lot1 than is shown in the case of ,howe4 ,a machinist with a wife and children to support1 his health too feeble to earn hardly a scanty living1 he watches his faithful wife ply her constant needle1 and wonders why a machine cannot be made to do the work4 ,the idea cannot be put aside1 and with such poor aids as he can command he commences his task4 ,at last1 amid the trials of bitter poverty1 he brings his invention to that stage in which he induces a friend to advance some money1 by the promise of a share in the future patent1 and thereby gains a temporary home for his family and a garret for his workshop4 ,day after day and night after night he labours1 and finally1 in ,april1 #ahde1 the rather crude machine is completed1 and two woollen suits of clothing are sewed thereon1 one for a friend1 and one for himself4 ,then came the effort to make more machines and place them on the market4 ,people admired the machines as a curiosity1 but none were induced to buy them or help him pecuniarily4 ,finally1 in ,september1 #ahdf1 he obtained his patent1 but by that time his best friends had become discouraged1 and he was compelled to return with his family to his father's house in ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,to earn his bread he sought and found employment on a railway locomotive4 ,by some means his brother sold one of his machines to ,mr4 ,william ,thomas1 a corset maker of ,london1 and ,howe was induced to go there to make stays1 and his machines4 ,he took his wife and children with him4 ,the arrangement made with his employer was not such as to enable him to keep his family there1 and he soon sent them home4 ,unable to sell his machines1 he was soon reduced to want4 ,he pawned his patent and his last machine1 and procured money to return to ,new ,york1 where he arrived penniless in #ahdi4 ,he then learned that his wife was dying of consumption at ,cambridge4 ,he was compelled to wait until money could be sent him to pay his passage home1 and reached there just before his wife's death4 ,he then learned that during his absence his patent and machine had attracted attention1 that others had taken the matter up1 added their improvements to his machines1 and that many in various places were being made and sold which were infringements of his patent4 ,a great demand for sewing machines had sprung up4 ,he induced friends to again help him4 ,suits were commenced which1 although bitterly fought for six years1 were finally successful4 ,now fortune turned her smiling face upon him4 ,medals and diplomas1 the ,cross of the ,legion of ,honour1 and millions of money became his4 ,when the great civil war broke out in #ahfa1 he entered the army as a private soldier1 and advanced the money to pay the regiment to which he belonged1 when the ,government paymaster had been long delayed4 ,his life was saddened by the fact that his wife had not lived to share his fortune4 ,he died in ,brooklyn1 ,new ,york1 ,october #c1 #ahfg1 in the midst of life1 riches1 and honour1 at the comparatively early age of forty-eight4 ,in referring to the early inventors of sewing machines in ,america who entered the field about the same time with ,howe1 mention should be made of ,j4 ,j4 ,greenough and ,george ,corliss1 who had machines patented respectively in #ahdb and #ahdc1 for sewing leather1 with double pointed needles2 and the running stitch sewing machine used for basting1 made and patented by ,b4 ,w4 ,bean in #ahdc4 ,about this time1 both in ,england and ,america1 machines had been devised for sewing lengths of calico and other cloths together1 previous to bleaching1 dyeing or printing4 ,the edges of the cloths were first crimped or fluted and then sewed by a running stitch4 ,the decade of #ahdi-ahei1 immediately following the development of the ,howe machine1 was the greatest in the century for producing those successful sewing machines which were the foundation of the art1 established a new industrial epoch1 and converted ,hood's 8,song of the ,shirt0 into a lament commemorative of the miseries of a slavish but dying industry4 ,it was during that decade that1 in the ,united ,states1 ,batcheller invented the perpetual feed for moving the cloth horizontally under and past the needle4 ,in ,howe's the cloth could be sewed but a certain distance at a time1 and then the machine must be readjusted for a new length4 ,then ,blodgett and ,lerow imparted to the eye-pointed needle what is called the 8dip motion10--the needle being made to descend completely through the material1 then to rise a little to form a loop2 the shuttle then entered the loop1 the needle descended again a short distance1 while the shuttle passed through the loop of the needle thread1 and then the needle was raised above the cloth4 ,it was then that ,allen ,b4 ,wilson invented the still more famous 8four-motion feed0 for feeding the cloth forward4 ,he employed a bar having saw like teeth on one edge which projected up through a slotted plate and engaged the cloth4 ,he then first moved the bar forward carrying the cloth2 second1 dropped the bar2 third1 moved it back under the plate2 and fourth1 raised it to its first position to again engage the cloth4 ,these motions were so timed with the movement of the needle and so quickly done that the cloth was carried forward while the needle was raised1 the passage and quick action of the needle was not interfered with1 and the feeding and the sewing seem to be simultaneous4 ,the intermittent grasp and feed of the cloth were hardly perceptible1 and yet it permitted the cloth to be turned to make a curved seam4 ,wilson also invented the rotating hook which catches the loop of the upper thread1 and drops a disk bobbin through it to form the stitch4 ,the shuttle was thus dispensed with1 and an entirely new departure was made in the art4 ,these with other improvements made up the celebrated 8,wheeler and ,wilson0 machine4 ,now also appeared 8the ,singer10 consisting chiefly of the invention of ,t4 ,m4 ,singer4 ,he improved the operation of the needle bar1 devised a roughened feed wheel1 as a substitute for ,wilson's serrated bar1 introduced a spring presser foot1 alongside the needle1 to hold the work down in proper position while permitting it to be moved forward or in any other direction4 ,a 8friction pad0 was also placed between the cloth seam and the spool1 to prevent the thread from kinking or twisting under the point of the descending needle4 ,he was the first to give the shuttle an additional forward movement after it had once stopped1 to draw the stitch tight1--such operation being taken while the feed moved the cloth in the reverse direction1 and while1 the needle completed its upward motion1 so that the two threads were simultaneously drawn1 and finally a spring guide upon the shuttle to control the slack of the thread1 and prevent its catching by the needle4 ,by reason of these improvements it is thought by many that ,singer was the first to furnish the people with a successful operating and practical sewing machine4 ,at any rate1 the world at last so highly appreciated his machines1 that it lifted him from poverty to an estate which was valued at between eight and ten millions of dollars at the time of his death in #ahge4 ,singer was also the first to invent the 8ruffler10 a machine for ruffling or gathering cloth1 and a device which laid an embroidering thread upon the surface of the cloth under the needle thread4 ,the 8,grover and ,baker0 another celebrated ,american machine1 was invented by ,william ,o4 ,grover and ,william ,e4 ,baker in #ahea4 ,by certain changes they made in the thread carrier and connections1 they were enabled to make a double looped stitch4 ,this required more thread1 but the stitch made was unexcelled in strength4 ,and so the work went on1 from step to step1 and from the completion of one machine after another1 until when the ,centennial ,exhibition came to be held in ,philadelphia in #ahgf1 a fine array of excellent sewing machines was had1 from the ,united ,states1 principally1 but also those of inventors and manufacturers in ,great ,britain1 ,canada1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,belgium1 ,sweden and ,denmark4 ,up to that time about twenty-two hundred patents had been granted in the ,united ,states1 all of which1 with the exception of a very few1 were for inventions made within the preceding quarter of a century4 ,and during the last quarter of the century about five thousand more ,united ,states patents have been issued for devices in this art4 ,this number includes many1 of course1 to inventors of other countries4 ,when it is remembered that these patents were issued only after an examination in each case as to its novelty1 and although slight as may have been the changes or additions1 yet substantially different they must have been in nearly all respects1 it may to some extent be realized how great and incessant has been the exercise of invention in this useful class of machines4 ,on this point of the exercise of invention in sewing machines1 as well as on some others growing out of the subject1 ,knight1 writing in his ,mechanical ,dictionary1 about twenty years ago1 remarks3 8,if required to name the three subjects on which the most extraordinary versatility of invention has been expended1 the answer would be without hesitation1 the sewing machine1 reaping machine and breech-loading firearm4 ,each of these has thousands of patents1 and although each is the growth of the last forty years1 it is only during the last twenty-five years that they have filled any notable place in the world4 ,it was then only by a combination of talents that any of these three important inventions was enabled to achieve remarkable success4 ,the sewing machine previous to #ahea1 made without the admirable division of labour which is a feature in all well conducted factories1 was hard to make1 and comparatively hard to run4 ,the system of assembling1 first introduced in the artillery service of ,france by ,general ,gribeauval in #agfe and brought to proximate perfection by ,colonel ,colt in the manufacture of the revolver at ,hartford1 ,connecticut1 has economised material and time1 improved the quality as well as cheapened the product4 ,there is to-day1 and in fact has been for some years1 more actual invention in the special machines for making sewing machines than in the machines themselves4 ,the assembling system1 that is1 making the component parts of an article in distinct pieces of pattern1 so as to be interchangeable1 and the putting them together1 is the only system of order4 ,how else should the ,providence ,tool ,company execute their order for #fjj1jjj rifles for the ,turkish ,government8 ,how otherwise could the ,champion ,harvesting ,machine ,company of ,springfield1 ,ohio1 turn out an equipped machine every four minutes each working day of ten hours8 ,or1 to draw the illustration from the subject in hand1 how by any other than the nicest arrangement of detail can the ,singer ,sewing ,machine ,company make #f1jjj machines per week at ,elizabethport1 ,new ,jersey80 ,when sewing machines were so far completed as to be easily run by a hand crank1 or treadle1 the application of power to run them singly1 or in series1 and to run machines of a larger and more powerful description1 soon naturally followed--so that garment-making factories of all kinds1 whether of cloth or leather1 have been established in many countries--in which steam or electric power is utilised as the motor1 and thus human strain and labour saved1 while the amount of production is increased4 ,no radical changes in the principle or mode of operation of sewing machines have been made in the last twenty-five years2 but the efforts of inventors have been directed to improve the previously established types1 and to devise attachments of all kinds1 by the aid of which anything that can be sewed1 can be sewed upon a machine4 ,tucking1 ruffling1 braiding1 cording1 hemming1 turning1 plaiting1 gaging1 and other attachment devices are numerous4 ,inventors have rivalled one another in originating new forms of stitches4 ,about seventy-five distinct stitches have been devised1 each of which must of course be produced by a change in mechanism4 ,when sewing machines were in their infancy1 and confined to sewing straight seams and other plain sewing1 it was predicted that it was not possible to take from the hands of women the making of fine embroidery from intricate patterns1 or the working of button-holes1 and the destruction of the quilting party was not apprehended4 ,nor was it expected that human hands could be dispensed with in the cutting out of garments4 ,and yet these things have followed4 ,machines1 by a beautiful but complex system of needles1 working to some extent on the ,jacquard system of perforated card boards1 and by the help of pneumatic or electrical power1 will work out on most delicate cloths embroidery of exquisite patterns4 ,the button-hole machines will take the garment1 cut the button-hole at the desired point1 and either1 as in one class of machines1 by moving the fabric about the stitch-forming mechanism1 or1 as in another class1 moving the stitch-forming mechanism about the button-hole1 complete the delicate task in the nicest and most effective manner4 ,quilting machines have their own bees1 consisting of a guide which regulates the spaces between the seams1 and adjusts them to any width1 and a single needle1 or gang of needles1 the latter under the control of cams which force the needles to quilt certain desired patterns4 ,and as to cutting1 it is only necessary to place the number of pieces of fabric desired to be cut in cutting dies1 or upon a table1 and over them an 8over-board0 cutter1 which comprises a reciprocating band-saw1 or a rotary knife1 all quick1 keen and delicate1 in an apparatus guided by hand1 in order to produce in the operation a great pile of the parts formerly so slowly produced1 one at a time1 by scissors or shears4 ,if men were contented with that single useful garment of some savages1 a blanket with a slit cut in it for the passage of the head and neck1 not only would a vast portion of the joys and sorrows of social philosophy have been avoided1 but an immense strain and trouble on the part of inventors of the century would have been obviated4 ,but man's propensity for wearing clothes has led to the invention of every variety of tools for making them faster1 cheaper1 and better4 ,no machine has yet been invented that will take the place of the deft fingers of women in certain lines of ornamentation1 as in final completion and trimming of their hats4 ,the airy and erratic demands of fashion are too nimble to be supplied by the slow processes of machinery1 although the crude ground-work1 the frame1 has been shaped1 moulded and sewed by machines2 and women themselves have invented and patented bonnet frames and patterns4 ,but no such difficulty in invention has occurred in hat-making for men4 ,from the treating and cutting of the raw material1 from the outer bound edge1 and the band about the body1 to the tip of the crown1 a machine may be found for performing each separate step4 ,especially is this the case with the hard felt and the high silk hats4 ,seventy-five years ago the making of hats was by hand processes4 ,now in all hat factories machines are employed1 and the ingenuity displayed in the construction of some of them is marvellous4 ,it is exceedingly difficult to find many of the old hand implements existing even as relics4 ,wool and fur each has its special machines for turning it into a hat4 ,the operations of cleaning and preparing the material1 felting the fur1 when fur is used1 shaping the hat body1 and then the brim1 washing1 dying1 hardening and stiffening it1 stretching1 smoothing1 finishing1 sizing1 lining1 trimming1 all are now done by machines devised for each special purpose4 ,a description of these processes would be interesting1 but even in an abbreviated form would fill a book4 ,the wonderful things done in the manufacture of boots and shoes and rubber goods will be referred to in subsequent chapters4 ,although it was old from time immemorial to colour cotton goods1 and the calico power printing cylinder was invented and introduced into ,england in the latter part of the #ahth century and began to turn out at once immense quantities of decorated calicoes and chintz1 yet figured woven goods were a novelty sixty years ago4 ,in #ahcd1 ,mr4 ,bonjeau1 a prominent wool manufacturer in ,sedan1 ,france1 and an lve of the ,polytechnic ,school1 conceived the idea of modifying the plain cloths1 universally made1 by the union of different tints and patterns4 ,this he was enabled to do by the ,jacquard loom4 ,the manufacture of fancy woven cloths1 cassimeres1 worsted coatings1 etc41 of great beauty1 combined with strength of fabrication1 followed in all civilised countries1 but their universal adoption as wearing apparel was due in part to the lessening of the expense in the making them into garments by the sewing machine4 ,as to the effect of modern inventions on wearing apparel1 it is not apparent that they were necessary to supply the wardrobes of the rich4 ,the ,solomons and the ,queen of ,sheba of ancient days1 and all their small and great successors in the halls of ,fortune1 have had their rich robes1 their purple and their fine linen1 whether made in one way or another2 but modern inventions have banished the day when the poor man's hard labour of a long day will not suffice to bring his wife a yard of cheapest cloth4 ,toil1 then1 as hard as he and his poor wife and children might1 their united labours would hardly suffice to clothe them in more than the poorly-dressed skins of animals and the coarsest of homespun wool4 ,now1 cottons and calicoes are made and sold at a profit for three cents a yard2 and the poorest woman in the land may appear in neat1 comfortable and tasteful dress1 the entire cost of material and labor of which need not exceed fifty cents4 ,the comfort1 respectability and dignity of a large family1 which depend so much on clothes1 may be ensured at the cost of a few dollars4 ,and as to the condition of the sewing woman1 trying and poor as it is in many instances1 yet she can earn more money with less physical exhaustion than under the old system4 ,the epoch of good clothes for the people1 with all that it means in the fight upward from degradation1 began in this century1 and it was due to the inventions which have been above outlined4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,industrial ,,machines4 ,one invention engenders another1 or co-operates with another4 ,none lives1 or stands1 or dies1 alone4 ,so1 in the humble but extensive art of broom-making1 men and women worked along through ages binding with their hands the supple twigs of trees or bushes1 or of corn1 by thongs1 or cords1 or wire1 upon the rudely-formed collar of a hand-smoothed stick1 until the modern lathe and hollow mandrel armed with cutters1 the power-driven shuttle1 and the sewing machine1 were invented4 ,the lathe and mandrel to hold the stick while it was cut was used before1 but it was long within the century that a hollow mandrel was first invented1 which was provided internally with cutting bevelled knives1 and into which the stick was placed1 carried through longitudinally1 and during its passage cut smooth and finished4 ,as broom corn became the chief product from which brooms are made1 it became desirable to have a machine1 after the corn had been scraped of its seed1 to size and prepare the stems in regular lengths for the various sizes of brooms1 and accordingly such a machine was invented4 ,then a machine was needed and invented to wind the corn-brush with the cord or wire and tie it in a round bunch1 preparatory to flattening and sewing it4 ,then followed different forms of broom-sewing machines4 ,among the pioneers was one which received the round bunch between two compressing jaws1 and pressed it flat4 ,while so held a needle with its coarse thread was forced through the broom above the binding and the cord twined around it4 ,then a shuttle1 also carrying a stout thread1 was thrown over the cord1 the needle receded and was then forced through the broom again under the binding cord4 ,thus in conjunction with the shuttle the stitches were formed alternately above and below the binding twine1 the holding jaws being raised intermittently for that purpose4 ,as each stitch was formed the machine fed the broom along laterally and intermittently4 ,by another ingenious device the cord was tied and cut1 when the sewing was completed4 ,it is only by such machines which treat the entire article from the first to the last step1 that the immense number of brooms now necessary to supply the market are made4 ,true it is that at first labour was displaced4 ,at one time seventeen skilled workmen would manufacture five hundred dozen brooms per week4 ,they had reduced the force of earlier times by making larger quantities by better processes4 ,then when the broom-sewing machines and other inventions got fairly to work1 nine men would turn out twelve hundred dozen brooms per week4 ,thus1 while the force was reduced nearly one-half1 the quantity of product was more than doubled4 ,but as the cost of labour decreased and the product increased1 the product became more plentiful and cheaper1 the demand and use became greater1 more broom-corn was raised1 more broom-factories started1 and soon the temporary displacement of labour was succeeded by a permanent increase in manufacture and in labourers1 an increase in their wages1 and an improvement in their condition4 ,useful and extensive as is its use1 the broom does not compare in variety and wide application to the brush4 ,the human body1 cloth1 leather1 metals1 wood and grains1 everything that needs rubbing1 cleaning1 painting and polishing1 meets the acquaintance of the brush4 ,nearly a hundred species of brushes might be enumerated1 each having an especial construction for a particular use4 ,although the majority of brushes are still made by hand1 yet a few most ingenious machines have been made which greatly facilitate and speed the operation1 and many mechanical appliances have been invented in aid of hand-work4 ,these machines and appliances1 together with those which cut1 turn1 bore1 smooth1 and polish the handles and backs1 to which the brush part is secured1 have greatly changed and improved the art of brush-making during the last fifty years4 ,the first machine which attracted general attention was invented by ,oscar ,d4 and ,e4 ,c4 ,woodbury of ,new ,york1 and patented in #ahgj4 ,as in hand-making and before subjected to the action of the machine1 the bristles are sorted as to length and color4 ,a brush-back1 bored with holes by a gang of bits1 which holes do not extend1 however1 all the way through the back1 is placed in the machine under a cone-jointed plunger1 adapted to enter the hole in the brush-back4 ,a comb-shaped slitted plate in the machine has then each slit filled with bristles1 sufficient in number to form a single tuft4 ,when the machine is started1 the bristles in a slit are forced out therefrom through a twisted guideway1 which forms them into a round tuft1 and which is laid horizontally beneath a plunger1 which1 descending1 first doubles the tuft1 and as the plunger continues to descend1 forces the double end down into the hole4 ,the plunger is supplied with a wire from a reel1 turns as it descends1 and twists the wire around the lower end of the tuft1 the wire being directed in that way by a spiral groove within the plunger4 ,the continuing action of the plunger is such as to screw the wire into the back4 ,the wire is cut when the rotary plunger commences its descent1 and when the tuft is thus secured the plunger ascends1 the block is moved for another hole1 and another set of bristles is presented for manipulation4 ,brushes with #gj holes can be turned out by this machine at the rate of one a minute4 ,another most ingenious machine for this purpose is that of ,kennedy1 ,diss1 and ,cannan1 patented in the ,united ,states in #ahib4 ,in this1 brush blocks of varying sizes1 but of the same pattern1 are bored by the same machine which receives the bristles1 and the tufts are inserted as fast as the holes are bored4 ,both machines are automatic in operation4 ,street-sweeping machines began to appear about #ahca in ,england1 shortly after in ,france1 and then in cities in other countries4 ,the simplest form and most effective sweeper comprises a large cylinder armed with spiral rows of splints and hung diagonally on the under side and across a frame having two or four wheels4 ,this cylinder is connected by bevelled gearing with the wheels1 and in revolving throws the dirt from the street into a ridge on one side thereof1 where it is swept into heaps by hand sweepers1 and is then carted off4 ,king of the ,united ,states was the inventor4 ,a more recent improvement consists in the use of pneumatic means for removing the dust that is caused by the use of revolving brooms or brushes1 such removal being effected by means of a hood that covers the area of the street beneath the body of the machine1 and incloses an air exhaust1 the sweepings being drawn through the exhaust mechanism and deposited in a receptacle for the purpose1 or in some instances deposited in a furnace carried by the machine and there burned4 ,in cities having hard1 smooth1 paved streets and sufficient municipal funds1 the most effective1 but most expensive way1 has been found to keep a large force of men constantly at work with hoes1 shovels1 brooms1 bags and carts1 removing the dirt as fast as it accumulates4 ,abrading ,machines4 ,one of the most striking inventions of the century is the application of the sand-blast to industrial and artistic purposes4 ,for ages the sands of the desert and wild mountain plains1 lifted and driven by the whirling winds1 had sheared and polished the edges and faces of rocks1 and cut them into fantastic shapes1 and the sands of the shore1 tossed by the winds of the sea1 had long scratched and bleared the windows of the fisherman's hut1 before it occurred to the mind of man that here were a force and an agent which could be harnessed into his service4 ,it was due finally to the inventive genius of ,b4 ,f4 ,tilghman of ,philadelphia1 ,pa41 who1 in #ahgj1 patented a process by which common sand1 powdered quartz1 emery1 or other comminuted sharp cutting material1 may be blown or driven with such force upon the surface of the hardest materials1 as to cut1 clean1 engrave1 and otherwise abrade them1 in the most wonderful and satisfactory manner4 ,diamonds are abraded2 glass depolished1 or engraved1 or bored2 metal castings cleaned2 lithographic zinc plates grained2 silverware frosted2 stone and glass for jewelry shaped and figured2 the inscriptions and ornaments of monuments and tombstones cut thereon2 engravings and photographs copied2 steel files cleaned and sharpened1 and stones and marble carved into forms of beauty with more exactness and in far less time than by the chisel of the artisan4 ,the gist of the process is the employment of a jet of sand or other hard abrading material1 driven at a high velocity by a blast of air or steam1 under a certain pressure1 in accordance with the character of the work to be done4 ,the sand is placed in a box-like receptacle into which the air or steam is forced1 and the sand flowing into the same chamber is driven through a narrow slit or slits in the form of a thin sheet1 directly on to the object to be abraded4 ,by one method the surface of the object is first coated with tinfoil on which the artist traces his design1 and this is then coated with melted transparent wax4 ,then when the wax is hardened it is cut away along the lines already indicated1 and seen through the wax4 ,the object now is subjected to the blast1 and as the sand will not penetrate a softened material sufficient to abrade a surface beneath1 the exposed portions alone will be cut away4 ,the sand after it strikes is carried off by a blast to some receptacle1 from which it is returned to its former place for further use4 ,other means may be used in the place of a slitted box1 as a small or larger blow-pipe2 but the driving of the sand1 or similar abrading material1 with great force by the steam or air blast1 is the essential feature of the process4 ,emery1 that variety of the mineral corundum1 consisting of crystalline alumina1 resembling in appearance dark1 fine-grained iron ore1 ranking next to the diamond in hardness1 and a sister of the sapphire and the ruby1 has long been used as an abradant4 ,the ,eastern nations have used corundum for this purpose for ages4 ,turkey and ,greece once had a monopoly of it4 ,knight says3 8,the corundum stone used by the ,hindoos and ,chinese is composed of corundum powdered1 two parts2 lac resin1 one part4 ,the two are intimately mixed in an earthen vessel1 kneaded and flattened1 shaped and polished4 ,a hole in the stone for the axis is made by a heated copper rod40 ,however ancient the use of artificial stones for grinding and polishing1 nevertheless it is true that the solid emery wheel in the form that has made it generally useful1 in machines known as emery grinders1 is a modern invention1 and of ,american origin4 ,in the manufacture of such machines great attention and the highest scientific skill has been paid1 first1 to the material composing the wheel1 and to the cementing substances by which the emery is compacted and bound in the strongest manner1 to prevent bursting when driven at great speed2 secondly1 to the construction of machines and wheels of a composition varying from the finest to the coarsest2 and thirdly1 to the proper balancing of the wheels in the machines1 an operation of great nicety1 in order that the wheel may be used on delicate tools1 when driven at high speed1 without producing uneven work1 marking the objects1 or endangering the breaking1 or bursting of the wheel4 ,such machines1 when properly constructed1 although not adapted to take the place of the file1 other steel-cutting tools1 and the grindstone for many purposes1 yet have very extensively displaced those tools for cutting edges1 and the grinding and polishing of hardened metals1 by reason chiefly of their greater convenience1 speed1 and general adaptability4 ,not only tools of all sizes are ground and polished1 but ploughshares1 stove and wrought-iron plates1 iron castings1 the inner surfaces of hollow ironware1 the bearings of spindles1 arbours1 and the surfaces of steel1 chilled or cast-iron rolls1 etc4 ,in the great class of ,industrial ,mechanics1 no machines of the century have contributed more to the comfort and cleanliness of mankind than those by which wearing apparel in its vast quantities is washed and ironed more thoroughly1 speedily1 and satisfactorily in every way than is possible by the old hand systems4 ,when it is remembered how under the old system such a large part of humanity1 and this the weaker part1 devoted such immense time and labour to the universal washing and ironing days1 the invention of these machines and appliances must be regarded as among the great labour-saving blessings of the century4 ,true1 the individual washerwoman and washerman1 and ironers1 have by no means disappeared1 and are still in evidence everywhere1 yet the universal and general devotion of one-half the human race to the wash-tub and ironing-table for two or more days in the week is no longer necessary4 ,and even for the individual worker1 the convenient appliances and helps that have been invented have greatly relieved the occupation of pain and drudgery4 ,among modern devices in the laundry1 worked by hand1 is1 first1 the washing-machine1 in which the principle is adapted of rolling over or kneading the clothes4 ,by moving a lever by hand up and down1 the clothes are thoroughly rubbed1 squeezed and lifted at each stroke4 ,then comes the wringer1 a common form of which consists of two parallel rolls of vulcanized and otherwise specially treated rubber1 fitted to shafts which1 by an arrangement of cog-wheels1 gearing and springs in the framework at the ends of rolls1 and a crank handle1 are made to roll on each other4 ,the clothes are passed between the rollers1 the springs permit the rollers to yield and part more or less1 according to the thickness of the clothes4 ,then the old-fashioned1 or the new-fashioned mangle is brought into play4 ,the old-style mangle had a box1 weighted with stone1 which was reciprocated on rollers1 and was run back and forth upon the clothes spread upon a polished table beneath4 ,one of the more modern styles is on the principle of the wringer above described1 or a series of rollers arranged around a central drum1 and each having a rubber spring attached1 by which means the clothes are not subjected to undue pressure at one or two points1 as in the first mentioned kind4 ,starch is also applied by a similar machine4 ,the cloth is dipped into a body of starch1 or the same is applied by hand1 and then the superfluous starch squeezed out as the clothes are passed through the rollers4 ,but for hotels and other large institutions washing is now done by steam-power machinery4 ,it is an attractive sight to step into a modern laundry1 operated with the latest machinery on the largest scale4 ,the first thing necessary in many localities is to clarify the water4 ,this is done by attaching to the service pipe tanks filled with filtering material1 through which the water flows before reaching the boiler4 ,the driving engine and shafting are compactly placed at one end or side of the room1 with boilers and kettles conveniently adjacent4 ,the water and clothes are supplied to the washing-machine1 and operated by the engine4 ,steam may be used in addition to the engine to keep it boiling hot1 or steam may be substituted entirely for the water4 ,the machine may be one of several types selected especially for the particular class of goods to be washed4 ,there is the dash-wheel1 constructed on the principle of the cylinder churn2 the outer case being stationary and the revolving dash-wheel water-tight1 or perforated1 which is the preferred form for collars and cuffs4 ,in place of the dash-wheel cylinders are sometimes used1 having from sixty to seventy revolutions a minute4 ,another form has vibrating arms or beaters1 giving between four hundred and five hundred strokes a minute1 and by which the clothes are squeezed between rubbing corrugated boards4 ,the rubbing boards also roll the clothes over and over until they are thoroughly washed4 ,in another form a rotating cylinder for the clothes is provided with an arrangement of pipes by which either steam1 water or blueing can be introduced as desired1 into the cylinder1 through its hollow journals1 so that the clothes can be washed1 rinsed1 and blued without removal from the machine4 ,another type has perforated1 reciprocating pistons1 between which the clothes are alternately squeezed and released1 a supply of fresh water being constantly introduced through one of the hollow cylinder journals1 while the used water is discharged through the opposite journal2 and in still another the clothes are placed in a perforated cylinder within an outer casing1 and propeller blades1 assisted by other spiral blades1 force a continuous current of water through the clothes4 ,in ironing1 hollow polishing rolls of various sizes are used1 heated either by steam or gas4 ,the articles to be ironed are placed in proper position upon a table and carried under and in contact with the rolls4 ,or the goods are ironed between a heated cylinder and a revolving drum covered with felting1 and the polishing effected by the cylinder revolving faster than the drum4 ,ingenious forms of hand-operated ironing machines for turning over and ironing the edges of collars1 and other articles1 are in successful use4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,wood-,,working4 ,in surveying the wonderful road along which have travelled the toiling inventors1 until the splendid fields of the present century have been reached1 the mind indulges in contrasts and reverts to the far gone period of man's deprivations1 when man1 the animal1 was fighting for food and shelter4 8,poor naked wretches1 wheresoe'er you are1 ,that bide the pelting of this pitiless storm1 ,how shall your houseless heads and unfed sides1 ,your loop'd and window'd raggedness1 defend you ,from seasons such as these80 --,king ,lear ,,iii1 ,,iv4 ,when the implements of labour and the weapons of war were chiefly made of stone1 or bronze1 or iron1 such periods became the 8age0 of stone1 or bronze1 or iron2 and we sometimes hear of the ages of steam1 steel and electricity4 ,but the age of wood has always existed1 wherever forests abounded4 ,it was1 doubtless1 the earliest 8age0 in the industries of man1 but is not likely to be the latest1 as the class of inventions we are about to consider1 although giving complete dominion to man over the forests1 are hastening their destruction4 ,as in every other class of inventions1 there had been inventions in the class of wood-working through the ages preceding this century1 in tools1 implements and machines2 but not until near the close of the eighteenth century had there been much of a break in the universal toil by hand4 ,the implements produced were1 for the most part1 the result of the slow growth of experience and mechanical skill1 rather than the product of inventive genius4 ,true1 the turning-lathe1 the axe1 the hammer1 the chisel1 the saw1 the auger1 the plane1 the screw1 and cutting and other wood-shaping instruments in simple forms existed in abundance4 ,the ,egyptians used their saws of bronze4 ,the ,greeks deified their supposed inventor of the saw1 ,talus1 or ,perdix1 and they claimed ,theodore of ,lamos as the inventor of the turning-lathe2 although the main idea of pivoting an object between two supports1 so that it could be turned while the hands were free to apply a tool to its shaping1 was old in the potter's wheel of the ,egyptians1 which was turned while the vessel resting upon it was shaped and ornamented by the hand and tools4 ,it appears also to have been known by the ,hindoos and the ,africans4 ,pliny refers to the curled chips raised by the plane1 and ,ansonius refers to mills driven by the waters of the ,moselle for sawing marble into slabs4 ,early records mention saw-mills run by water-power in the thirteenth century in ,france1 ,germany and ,norway2 and ,sweden had them in the next century4 ,holland had them one hundred years at least before they were introduced into ,england4 ,fearful of the entire destruction of the forests by the wood used in the manufacture of iron1 and incited by the opposition and jealousy of hand sawyers1 ,england passed some rigid laws on the subject in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 which1 although preserving the forests1 gave for a long time the almost exclusive manufacture of iron and lumber to ,germany and ,holland4 ,even as late as #agfh1 a saw-mill1 built at ,limehouse1 under the encouragement of the ,society of ,arts1 by ,james ,stansfield1 was destroyed by a mob4 ,saw-mills designed to be run by water-power had been introduced into the ,american colonies by the ,dutch more than a century before they made their appearance in ,england4 ,william ,penn found that they had long been at work on the ,delaware when he reached its shores in #afhb4 ,it was nothing indigenous to the climate or race that rendered the ,americans inventors4 ,the early colonists1 drawn from the most civilised countries of ,europe1 carried to the new world knowledge of the latest and best appliances known to their respective countries in the various arts4 ,with three thousand miles of water between them and the source of such appliances1 and between them and the source of arbitrary power and laws to hamper efforts and enterprise1 with stern necessity on every hand prompting them to avail themselves of every means to meet their daily wants1 all known inventions were put to use1 and brains were constantly exercised in devising new means to aid1 or take the place of1 manual labour1 which was scarce4 ,surrounded1 too1 by vast forests1 from which their houses1 their churches and their schools must be constructed1 these pioneers naturally turned their thoughts toward wood-working machinery4 ,the attention to this art necessarily created interest in and developed other arts4 ,thus constant devotion to pursuits strenuously demanding labour-saving devices evolved a race of keen inventors and mechanics4 ,so that when ,watt had developed his wonderful application of steam to industrial purposes1 ,america was ready to substitute steam for water-power in the running of saw-mills4 ,steam saw-mills commenced to buzz with the opening of the century4 ,as to the relation of that humble machine1 the saw-mill1 to the progress of civilisation1 it was once said3 8,the axe produces the log hut1 but not until the saw-mill is introduced do framed dwellings and villages arise2 it is civilisation's pioneer machine2 the precursor of the carpenter1 wheelwright and turner1 the painter1 the joiner1 and legions of other professions4 ,progress is unknown where it is not4 ,its comparative absence in the ,southern ,american continent was not the least cause of the trifling advancement made there during three centuries and a half4 ,surrounded by forests of the most valuable and variegated timber1 with water-power in mountain streams1 equally neglected1 the masses of the people lived in shanties and mud hovels1 not more commodious than those of the aborigines1 nor more durable than the annual structures of birds4 ,wherever man has not fixed and comfortable homes1 he is1 as regards civilisation1 stationary2 improvement under such circumstances has never taken place1 nor can it40 ,miller1 in ,england1 in #aggg1 had described in his patent a circular saw1 and ,hatton1 in #aggf1 had vaguely described a planing machine2 but the inception of the marvellous growth in wood-working machinery in the nineteenth century occurred in ,england during the last decade of the eighteenth4 ,it was due to the splendid efforts of ,general ,samuel ,bentham1 and of ,bramah and ,branch1 both as to metal-working and wood-working machinery4 ,general ,bentham1 a brother of the celebrated jurist1 ,jeremy ,bentham1 had his attention drawn to the slow1 laborious1 and crude methods of working in wood1 while making a tour of ,europe1 and especially in ,russia1 and engaged in inspecting the art of ship-building in those countries1 in behalf of the ,british ,admiralty4 ,on his return1 #agia-agib1 he converted his home into a shop for making wood-working machines4 ,these included 8,planing1 moulding1 rabbeting1 grooving1 mortising1 and sawing1 both in coarse and fine work1 in curved1 winding1 and transverse directions1 and shaping wood in complicated forms40 ,of the amount of bills presented to and paid for by the ,admiralty for these machines1 ,general ,bentham received about #bj1jjj4 ,these machines were developed and in use just as the new century approached4 ,thus1 with the exception of the saw-mill1 it may be again said that prior to this century the means mankind had to aid them in their work in metals and in wood were confined to hand tools1 and these were for the most part of a simple and crude description4 ,the ground-work now being laid1 the century advanced into a region of invention in tools and machinery for wood-working of every description1 far beyond the wildest dreams of all former carpenters and joiners4 ,not only were the machines themselves invented1 but they gave rise in turn to a host of inventions in metal-working for making them4 ,in the same line of inventions there appeared in the first decade of the century one of the most ingenious of men1 and a most fitting type of that great class of ,yankee inventors who have carved their way to renown with all implements1 from the jack-knife to the electrically-driven universal shaping machine4 ,thomas ,blanchard1 born in ,massachusetts in #aghh1 while a boy1 was accustomed to astonish his companions by the miniature wind-wheels and water-wheels that he whittled out with his knife4 ,while attending the parties of young people who gathered on winter evenings at different homes in the country to pare apples1 the idea of a paring machine occurred to him1 and when only thirteen years of age1 he invented and made the first apple-paring machine1 with which more apples could be pared in a given time than any twelve of his girl acquaintances could pare with a knife4 ,at eighteen1 while working in a shop1 driving the heads down on tacks1 on an anvil1 with a hammer1 he invented the first tack-forming machine1 which1 when perfected by him1 made five hundred tacks a minute1 and which has never since been improved in principle4 ,he improved the steam engine1 and invented one of the first envelope machines4 ,he made the first metal lathe for cutting out the butts of gun-barrels4 ,but his greatest triumphs were in wood-working machinery4 ,challenged to make a machine that would make a gun stock1 always before that time regarded an impossible task1 its every part being so irregular in form1 he secluded himself in his workshop for six months1 and after constant labour and experiments he at the end of that time had produced a machine that more than astonished the entire world1 and which worked a revolution in the making of all irregular forms from wood4 ,this was in #ahai4 ,this machine would not only make a perfect gun-stock1 but shoe lasts1 and ships' tackle-blocks1 axe-handles1 and a multitude of irregular-shaped blocks which before had always required the most expert hand operatives to produce4 ,this machine became the subject of parliamentary inquiry on the part of ,england1 and so great were the doubts concerning it1 that successive commissions were appointed to examine and report upon it4 ,finally the ,english government ordered eight or ten of such machines for the making of gun-stocks for its army1 and paid ,blanchard about #dj1jjj for them4 ,he was once jestingly asked at the navy department at ,washington if he could turn a seventy-four8 ,he at once replied1 8,yes1 if you will furnish me the block40 ,of course infringers appeared1 but he maintained his rights and title as first and original inventor after the most searching trials in court4 ,the generic idea of ,blanchard's lathe for turning irregular forms consists in the use of a pattern of the device which is to be shaped from the rough material1 placing such pattern in a lathe1 alongside of the rough block1 and having a guide wheel which has an arm having cutters1 and which guide follows all the lines of the pattern1 and which cutters1 extending to the rough material1 chip it away to the depth and in the direction imparted by the pattern lines to the guide1 thus producing from the rough block a perfect representation of the pattern4 ,in the midst of his studies in the construction of his inventions ,blanchard's attention was drawn to the operations of a boring worm upon an old oak log4 ,closely examining and watching the same by the aid of a microscope1 he gained valuable ideas from the work of his humble teacher1 which he incorporated into his new cutting and boring machines4 ,his series of machines in gun-making were designed to make and shape automatically every part of the gun1 whether of wood or metal4 ,his machines1 and subsequent improvements by others1 for boring1 mortising and turning1 display wonderful ingenuity4 ,a modern mortising machine1 for instance1 is adapted to quickly and accurately cut a square or oblong hole to any desired depth1 width1 and length by cutting blades2 to automatically reciprocate the cutters both vertically and horizontally in order to cut the mortise1 both as to length and depth1 at one time1 and to automatically withdraw the cutters when they have finished cutting the mortise4 ,they are provided with simple means for setting and feeding the cutters to do this work1 and while giving the cutters a positive action1 ample clearance is provided for the removal of the chips as fast as they are cut4 ,from what such inventions will produce in the way of complicated and ornamental workmanship we may conclude that it is a law of invention that whatever can be made by hand may be made by a machine1 and made better4 ,carving ,machines made their appearance early in the century4 ,in #ahjj a ,mr4 ,watt of ,london produced one1 on which he carved medallions and figures in ivory and ebony4 ,also subsequently1 ,john ,hawkins of the same city1 and a ,mr4 ,cheverton1 invented machines for the same purpose4 ,another ,englishman1 ,braithwaite1 in #ahdj1 invented a most attractive carving process in which1 instead of cutting tools1 he employed burning as his agent4 ,heated casts of previously carved models were pressed into or on to wet wood1 and the charcoal surfaces then brushed off with hard brushes4 ,after ,blanchard's turning-lathes and boring apparatus1 appeared machines in which a series of cutters were employed1 guided by a tracing lever attached to a carved model1 and actuating the cutter to reproduce on material placed upon an adjusting table a copy of the model4 ,machines have been invented which consist of hard iron or steel rollers on the surface of which are cut beautiful patterns1 and between which wood previously softened by steam is passed1 and designs thus impressed thereon4 ,a similar process of embossing1 was devised in ,paris and called ,xyloplasty1 by which steam-softened wood is compressed in carved moulds1 which give it bas-relief impressions4 ,but in the carving of wood by hand1 a beautiful art1 which has been revived within the past generation1 there are touches of sentiment1 taste and human toil1 which1 like the touches of the painter and the master of music1 appeal to cultivated minds in a higher than mechanical sense4 ,the mills of the modern gods1 the inventors1 grind with exceeding and exact fineness1 but the work of a human hand upon a manufactured article still appeals to human sympathy4 ,the bending of wood when heated by fire or steam had been known and practised to a limited extent1 but ,blanchard invented a clamping machine1 to which improvements have been added1 and by which ship timbers1 furniture1 ploughs1 piano frames1 carriage bows1 stair and house banisters and balusters1 wheel rims1 staves1 etc41 etc41 are bent to the desired forms1 and without breaking4 ,bending to a certain extent does not weaken wood1 but stretching the same has been found to impair and destroy its strength4 ,the principal problems which the inventors of the century have solved in the class of wood-working have been the adaptation to rapid-working machinery of the saw and other blades1 to sever2 the plane to smooth1 the auger1 the bit and the gimlet to bore1 the hammer to drive1 and a combination of all or a part of these to shape and finish the completed article4 ,it was a great step from the reciprocating hand saw1 worked painfully by one or two men1 to the band saw1 invented by a ,london mechanic1 ,william ,newbury1 in #ahjh4 ,this was an endless steel belt serrated on one edge1 mounted on pulleys1 and driven continuously by the power of steam through the hardest and the heaviest work4 ,pliable1 to conform to the faces of the wheels over which it is carried1 it will bend with all the sinuosities of long timber1 no time is lost in its operation1 and no labour of human hands is necessary to guide it or the object on which it works4 ,at the ,vienna ,exposition in #ahgc1 the first mammoth saw of this description was exhibited4 ,the saw itself was made by the celebrated firm of ,perin ,co41 of ,paris1 upon machinery the drawings of which were made by ,mr4 ,van ,pelt of ,new ,york1 and constructed by ,richards1 ,loudon and ,kelly of ,philadelphia4 ,the saw was fifty-five feet long1 and sawed planks from a pine log three feet thick1 at the rate of sixty superficial feet per minute4 ,the difficulty of securing a perfectly reliable weld in the endless steel band was overcome by ,m4 ,perin1 who received at the ,paris ,exhibition in #ahfg the ,grand ,cross of the ,legion of ,honour4 ,now gangs of such saws may be found in ,america and elsewhere1 and circular saws have also been added4 ,saws that both cut1 form1 and plane the boards at the same time are now known4 ,boring tools1 both for hand and machinery1 demanded improvement4 ,formerly augers and similar boring tools had merely a curved sharpened end and a concavity to hold the chips1 and the whole tool had to be withdrawn to empty the chips4 ,it was known as a pod auger4 ,in #ahji1 ,l',hommedieu1 a ,frenchman1 invented an auger with two pods and cutting lips1 a central screw and a twisted shank4 ,about the same time ,lilley of ,connecticut made a twisted auger1 and these screw-form1 twisted1 cutting tools of various kinds1 with their cutting lips1 and by which the shavings or chips were withdrawn continuously from the hole as the cutting proceeded1 became so improved in the ,united ,states that they were known as the ,american augers and bits4 ,the planing machines of ,general ,bentham were improved by ,bramah1 and he and ,maudsley also greatly improved other wood-working machines and tools in ,england--#ahjb-ahaj4 ,we have before1 in the chapter on metal-working1 shown the importance of the slide-rest1 planer and lathe1 when combined1 and which also are extensively adapted to wood-working4 ,in ,bramah's machine1 a vertical spindle carried at its lower extremity a horizontal wheel having twenty-eight cutter blades1 followed by a plane also attached to a wheel4 ,a board was by these means perfectly trimmed and smoothed from end to end1 as it was carried against the cutters by suitable moving means4 ,william ,woodworth of ,new ,york1 in #ahbh1 patented a celebrated planing machine which became so popular and its use was regarded so necessary in the wood-working trades1 that the patent was looked upon as an odious monopoly4 ,it consisted of a combination of rollers armed with cutters1 attached to a horizontal shaft revolving at a great speed1 and of means for feeding the boards to the cutters4 ,with ,bentham's1 ,bramah's1 ,blanchard's1 and ,woodworth's ideas for a basis1 those innumerable improvements have been made in machinery1 by which wood is converted with almost lightning rapidity into all the forms in which we see it1 whether ornamental or useful1 in modern homes and other structures4 ,some machines are known as 8,universal ,wood ,workers40 ,in these a single machine is provided with various tools1 and adapted to perform a great variety of work by shifting the position of the material and the tools4 ,the following operations can be performed on such a machine3--,planing1 bevelling1 tapering1 tenoning1 tongueing and grooving 7grooves straight1 circular or angular71 making of joints1 twisting and a number of other operations4 ,the later invention by ,stow of ,philadelphia of a flexible shaft1 made up of a series of coils of steel wire1 given a leather covering1 and to which can be attached augers1 bits1 or metal drills1 the tool applied to its work from any direction1 and its direction varied while at work1 has excited great attention4 ,shingles are as old in the art as the framework of buildings4 ,rome was roofed with shingles for centuries1 made of oak or pine4 ,tiles1 plain and fancy1 and slates1 have to a certain extent superseded wood shingling1 but the wood will always be used where it can be found in plenty1 as machines will now turn them out complete faster than they can be hauled away4 ,a shingle is a thin piece of wood1 thicker at one end than at the other1 having parallel sides1 about three times as long as it is wide1 having generally smooth surfaces and edges4 ,all these features are now given to the shingle by modern machines4 ,a great log is rolled into a mill at one end and soon comes out at the other in bundles of shingles2 the logs sawed into blocks1 the blocks split or sawed again into shingle sizes1 tapered1 planed in the direction of the grain of the wood1 the complete shingles collected and bound in bundles1 each operation by a special machine1 or by a series of mechanisms4 ,veneering1 that art of covering cheap or ordinary wood with a thin covering of more ornamental and valuable wood1 known from the days of the ,egyptians1 has been vastly extended by modern machinery4 ,the practice1 however1 so emphatically denounced centuries ago by ,pliny1 as 8the monstrous invention of paint and dyes applied to the woods or veneers1 to imitate other woods10 has yet its practitioners and admirers4 ,t4 ,m4 ,brunel1 in #ahje-ahjh1 devised a set of circular saws run by a steam engine1 which cut sheets of rosewood and mahogany1 one-fourteenth of an inch thick1 with great speed and accuracy4 ,since that day the veneer planing machine1 for delicately smoothing the sheets1 the straightening machine1 for straightening scrolls that have been cut from logs1 the polishing machines for giving the sheets their bright and glossy appearance1 the pressing machine for applying them to the surfaces to which they are to be attached1 the hammering machine for forcing out superfluous glue from between a veneer and the piece to which it is applied2 all of these and numerous modifications of the same have been invented1 and resulted in placing in the homes everywhere many beautiful ornamental articles of furniture1 which before the very rich only could afford to have4 ,special forms of machinery for making various articles of wood are about as numerous as the articles themselves4 ,we appear before the house and know before entering that its doors and sills1 clapboards and window frames1 its sashes and blinds1 its cornices1 its embrasures and pillars1 and shingles1 each or all have had a special machine invented for its manufacture4 ,we enter the house and find it is so with objects within--the flooring may be adorned with the beautiful art of marquetry and parquetry1 wood mosaic work1 the wainscoting and the frescoes and ceilings1 the stairs and staircases1 its carved and ornamental supporting frames and balusters1 the charming mantel frames around the hospitable fireplaces1 and every article of furniture we see in which wood is a part4 ,so1 too1 it is with every useful wooden implement and article within and without the house1--the trays1 the buckets1 the barrels1 the tubs1 the clothes-pins1 the broom-handles1 the mops1 the ironing and bread boards2 and outside the house1 the fences1 railings and posts--many of these objects entirely unknown to the poor of former generations1 uncommon with the rich1 and the machinery for making them unknown to all4 ,it was a noble array of woodwork and machinery with which the nations surprised and greeted the world1 at each of its notable international ,expositions during the century4 ,each occasion surpassed its predecessor in the beauty of construction of the machines displayed and efficiency of their work4 ,the names of the members of this array were hard and uncouth1 such as the axe1 the adze1 and the bit1 the auger1 bark-cutting and grinding machines1 blind-slat boring1 and tenoning1 dovetail1 mortising1 matching and planing1 wood splitting1 turning1 wheeling and planing1 wood-bending1 rim-boring dowelling1 felly-jointing1 etc41 etc4 ,these names and the clamour of the machines were painful to the ear1 but to the thoughtful1 they were converted into sweeter music1 when reflection brought to mind the hard toil of human hands they had saved1 the before unknown comforts and blessings of civilisation they had brought and were bringing to the human race1 and the enduring forms of beauty they had produced4 ,to the invention of wood-working machinery we are also indebted for the awakening of interest in the qualities of wood for a vast number of artistic purposes4 ,it was a revelation1 at the great ,philadelphia ,exposition of #ahgf1 to behold the specimens of different woods from all the forests of the earth1 selected and assembled to display their wonderful grain and other qualities1 and showing how well nature was storing up for us in its silent shades those growths which were waiting the genius of invention to convert into forms of use and beauty for every home4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,furniture4 ,so far as machinery is concerned for converting wood into furniture1 the same has been anticipated in the previous chapter1 but much remains to be said about the articles of furniture themselves4 ,although from ancient days the most ancient countries provided by hand elaborate and beautiful articles of furniture of many descriptions1 yet it has been left for modern advances in machinery and kindred arts to yield that universal supply of convenient and ornamental furniture which now prevails4 ,the ,egyptians used chairs and tables of a more modern form than the ,greeks or ,romans1 who lolled about on couches even at their meals2 but the ,egyptians did not have the convenient section tables built in sliding sections1 which permit the table to be enlarged to accommodate an increased number of guests4 ,and now recently this modern form of table has been improved1 by arranging the sections and leaves so that when the sections are slid out the leaves are automatically raised and placed in position1 which is done either by lazy-tongs mechanism1 or by a series of parallel links3 ,tables constructed with folding detachable and adjustable legs1 tables constructed for special purposes as sewing machines1 and typewriting machine tables1 by which the machine head may be dropped beneath the table top when not in use2 tables combined with desks wherein the table part may be slid into the desk part when not in use and the sliding cover pulled down to cover and lock from sight both the table and desk2 surgical tables1 adapted to be raised or lowered at either end or at either side and to be extended2 8knock down0 tables1 adapted to be taken all apart for shipment or storage2 tables combined with chairs to be folded down by the side of the chair when not in use2 and many other useful forms have been added to the list4 ,much ingenuity has been displayed in the construction of desks1 to save and economise space4 ,mention has been made of a combined folding desk and extensible table4 ,another form is an arrangement of desk drawers1 whereby when one drawer is locked or unlocked all the rest are locked or unlocked automatically4 ,whatever shape or function anyone desires in a desk may be met1 except1 perhaps1 the performance of the actual work of the occupant4 ,in the matter of beds1 the principal developments have been due to the advancement of wood-working machinery1 and the manufacture of iron1 steel1 and brass4 ,the old-fashioned ponderous bedsteads1 put together by heavy screws1 have given way to those mortised and tenoned1 joined and matched1 and by which they can easily be put up and taken down2 and to iron and brass bedsteads1 which are both ornamental and more healthful4 ,no bed may be without an inexpensive steel spring frame or mattress for the support of the bedding4 ,folding beds made to economise space1 and when folded upright become an ornamental bureau2 and invalid bedsteads1 designed for shifting the position of the invalid1 are among the many modern improvements4 ,kitchen ,utensils4--,a vast amount of drudgery in the kitchen has been relieved by the convenient inventions in labor-saving appliances3 coffee and spice mills1 can-openers1 stationary washtubs1 stopper extractors1 superseding the old style of hand-corkscrews where large numbers of bottles are to be uncorked2 refrigerators and provision safes1 attaching and lifting devices and convenient culinary dishes and utensils of great variety4 ,curtains1 shades and screens have been wonderfully improved and their use made widely possible by modern inventions and new adaptation of old methods4 ,wood1 cotton1 silk1 paper1 combined or uncombined with other materials1 in many novel ways unknown to our ancestors1 have rendered these articles available in thousands of homes where their use was unknown and impossible a century ago4 ,among the most convenient attachments to shades is the spring roller1 invented by ,hartshorn of ,america1 in #ahfd1 whereby the shade is automatically rolled upon its stick to raise or lower it4 ,window screens for the purpose of excluding flies1 mosquitoes1 and other insects1 while freely admitting the air1 are now made extensible and adjustable in different ways to fit different sizes of windows4 ,curtains and shades are provided with neat and most attractive supporting rods1 to which they are attached by brass or wooden rings1 and provided with easily manipulated devices to raise and securely hold them in any desired position4 ,the art of steaming wood and bending it1 by iron pattern forms adjustable to the forms desired1 as particularly devised in principle by ,blanchard in ,america in #ahbh-ahdj1 referred to in ,wood-working1 has produced great changes in the art of furniture making1 especially in chairs4 ,a particularly interesting illustration of the results of this art occurred in ,austria4 ,about forty years ago the manufacture in ,germany and ,austria of furniture by machinery1 especially of bent wood-ware1 became well established there2 and by the time of the ,vienna ,exposition in #ahgc1 factories on a most extensive scale for the construction of bed furniture were in operation among the vast mountain beech forests of ,moravia and ,hungary4 ,the greatest of these works were located in ,great ,urgroez1 ,hungary1 and ,bisritz1 ,moravia1 with twenty or more auxiliary establishments4 ,between five and six thousand work people were employed1 the greater part of whom were females1 and it was necessary to use steam and water motors1 to the extent of many hundred horse power4 ,the forests were felled1 and the tree-tops removed and made into charcoal for use in the glass works of ,bohemia4 ,the trunks were hauled to the mills and sawed into planks of suitable thickness by gang-saws4 ,the planks in turn were cut with circular saws into square pieces for turning1 and then the pieces turned and cut on lathes1 to give them the size required and the rounded shape2 the pieces then steamed while in their green state for twenty-four hours in suitable boilers1 then taken out and bent to the desired shape on a cast-iron frame by hand1 then subjected1 with the desired pattern1 to the pattern-turning table1 and cut2 then kept locked in the pattern's iron embrace until the pieces were dried and permanently set in shape1 then clamped to a bench1 filed1 rasped1 stained1 and ,french polished by the deft hands of the women2 then assembled in proper position in frames of the form of the chair or other article to be made1 their contact surface sawed to fit at the joints1 and then finally the parts glued together and further secured by the addition of a few screws or balls4 ,chairs1 lounges and lighter furniture were thus made from bent pieces of wood with very few joints1 having a neat and attractive appearance1 and possessing great strength4 ,the art has spread to other forests and other countries1 and the turned1 bent1 highly polished and beautiful furniture of this generation would have been but a dream of beauty to the householder of a century ago4 ,children's chairs are made so that the seat may be raised or lowered1 or the chair converted into a perambulator4 ,dentist's chairs have been developed until it is only necessary for the operator to turn a valve governing a fluid1 generally oil1 under pressure to raise or lower the chair and the patient4 ,in the more agreeable situation at the theatre or concert one may hang his hat on the bottom of the chair1 upturned to afford access to it through a crowded row1 and turning down the chair1 sit with pleasure1 as the curtain is rolled up by compressed air1 or electricity1 at the touch of a button4 ,to the unthinking and unobserving1 the subject of bottle stoppers is not entrancing1 but those acquainted with the art know with what long1 continuous1 earnest efforts1 thousands of inventors have sought for the best and cheapest bottle stopper to take the place of corks--the enormous demand for which was exhausting the supply and rendering their price almost prohibitive4 ,one of the most successful types is a stopper of rubber combined with a metal disk1 and hung by a wire on the neck of the bottle1 so that the stopper can be used over and over again2 another form composed of glass1 or porcelain1 and cork2 another is a thin disk of cork placed in a thin metal cap which is crimped over a shoulder on the neck of the bottle1 and still another is a thin disk of pasteboard adapted for milk bottles and pressed tightly within a rim on the inside of the neck of the bottle4 ,in this connection should be mentioned that self-sealing fruit jar1 known from its inventor as 8,mason's fruit jar10 which came into such universal use--that combination of screw cap1 screw-threaded jar-neck and the rubber ring1 or gasket1 on which the cap was screwed so tightly as to seal the jar hermetically4 ,in lamplighting1 what a wonderful change from the old oil lamps of former ages6 ,the modern lamp may be said to be an improved means of grace1 as it will hold out much longer1 and shed a far more attractive light for the sinner1 whose return1 by its genial light1 is1 even to the end1 so greatly desired4 ,the discovery of petroleum and its introduction as a light produced a revolution in the construction of lamps4 ,wicks were not discarded1 but changed in shape from round to flat1 and owing to the coarseness and disagreeable odour of coal oil1 especially in its early unrefined days1 devices first had for their object the easy feeding of the wick1 and perfect combustion4 ,to this end the burner portion through which the wick passed was perforated at its base to create a proper draft1 and later the cap over the base was also perforated4 ,but with refined oil the disagreeable odour continued4 ,it was found that this was mainly due to the fact that both in lamps and stoves the oil would ooze out of the wick on to the adjacent parts of the lamps or stove1 and when the wick was lit the heat would burn or heat the oil and thus produce the odour4 ,inventors therefore contrived to separate the oil reservoir and wick part when the lamp or stove were not in use2 and finally1 in stoves1 to dispense with the wick altogether4 ,as wickless oil stoves are now in successful use the wickless lamp may be expected to follow4 ,the lamp1 however1 that throws all others into the shade is that odourless1 heatless1 magic1 mellow1 tempered light of electricity1 that springs out from the little filament1 in its hermetically sealed glass cage1 and shines with unsurpassed loveliness on all those fortunate enough to possess it4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,leather4 ,it is interesting to speculate how prehistoric man came to use the skin of the beasts of the field for warmth and shelter4 ,originally no doubt1 and for untold centuries1 the use was confined to the hairy1 undressed1 fresh1 or dried skins1 known as pelts4 ,then came the use of better tools4 ,the garments have perished1 but the tools of stone and of bronze survived1 which1 when compared with those employed among the earliest historic tribes of men1 were found to be adapted to cut and strip the hairy covering from the bodies of animals1 and clean1 pound1 scrape and otherwise adapt them to use4 ,and ever since the story of man began to be preserved in lasting records from farthest ,oriental to the northernmost limits of ,europe and ,america1 memorials of the early implements of labour in the preparation of hides for human wear have been found4 ,the aborigines knew how to sharpen bones of the animals they killed to scrape1 clean1 soften or roughen their skins4 ,they knew how to sweat1 dry1 and smoke the skins1 and this crude seasoning process was the forerunner of modern tanning4 ,but leather as we know it now1 that soft1 flexible1 insoluble combination of the gelatine and fibrine of the skin with tannic acid1 producing a durable and imputrescible article1 that will withstand decay from the joint attack of moisture1 warmth and air1 was unknown to the earlier races of men1 for its production was due to thorough tanning1 and thorough tanning was a later art4 ,when men were skin-dressed animals they knew little or nothing of tanning4 ,tannic acid is found in nearly every plant that grows1 and its combination with the fresh skins spread or thrown thereon1 may have given rise to the observation of the beneficial result and subsequent practice4 ,but whether discovered by chance1 accident or experience1 or invented from necessity1 the art of tanning should have rendered the name of the discoverer immortal4 ,the earliest records1 however1 describe the art1 but not the inventor4 ,from the time the ,hebrews covered the altars of their tabernacles with rams' skins dyed red1 as recorded in ,exodus2 when they and the ,egyptians worked their leather1 currying and stretching it with their knives1 awls1 stones1 and other implements1 making leather water buckets1 resembling very much those now made by machinery1 covering their harps and shields with leather1 ornamental and embossed2 from the days of the early ,africans1 famous for their yellow1 red and black morocco2 from the days of the old national dress of the ,persians with their leather trousers1 aprons1 helmets1 belts and shirts2 from the time that the ancient ,scythians utilised the skins of their enemies1 and ,herodotus described the beauty and other good qualities of the human hide2 from the early days of that peculiar fine and agreeable leather of the ,russians1 fragrant with the oil of the birch2 from the days of the white leather of the ,hungarians1 the olive-tanned leather of the ,saracens2 from the time of the celebrated ,cordovan leather of the ,spaniards2 from the ancient cold periods of the ,esquimaux and the ,scandinavians1 who1 clad in the warm skins of the ,arctic bears1 stretched tough-tanned sealskin over the frame work of their boats2 from the time of the introduction of the art of the leather worker to the naked ,briton1 down to almost the nineteenth century1 substantially the same hand tools1 hard hand labour1 and the old elbow lubricant were known and practised4 ,hand tools have improved1 of course1 as other arts in wood and iron making have developed1 but the operations are about the same4 ,there were and must be fleshing knives to scrape from off the hide the adherent flesh and lime1--for this the hide is placed over the convex edge of an inclined beam and the work is called beaming2 the curriers' knife for removing the hair2 skiving1 or the cutting off the rough edges and fleshy parts on the border of the hide2 shaving and flattening2 the cutting away of the inequalities left after skiving2 stoning1 the rubbing of the leather by a scouring stone to render it smooth2 slicking1 to remove the water and grease2 or to smooth and polish1 by a rectangular sharpened stone1 steel or glass tool2 whitening1 to shave off thin strips of the flesh1 leaving the leather thinner1 whiter and more pliable2 stuffing1 to soften the scraped and pounded hides and make them porous2 graining1 the giving to the hair or grain side a granular appearance by rubbing with a grooved or roughened piece of wood2 bruising or boarding to make the leather supple and pliable by bringing the two flesh sides together and rubbing with a graining board2 scouring1 by aid of a stream of water to whiten the leather by rubbing with a slicking stone or steel4 ,the inventions of the century consist in labour-saving machinery for these purposes1 new tanning and dressing processes1 and innumerable machines for making special articles of leather4 ,as before stated1 the epoch of modern machinery commenced with the practical application of water power to other than grinding mills1 and of steam in place of water1 contemporaneously with the invention of spinning and weaving machinery in the last half of the eighteenth century4 ,these got fairly to work at the beginning of the century1 and the uses of machinery spread to the treatment of leather4 ,john ,bull was the appropriate name of the man who first patented a scraping machine in ,england1 about #aghj1 and ,joseph ,weeks the next one1 some years later4 ,one of the earliest machines of the century was the hide mill1 which1 after the hand tools had scraped and stoned1 shaved and hardened the hides1 was used to rub and dub them1 and soften and swell them for tanning4 ,pegged rollers were the earliest form for this purpose1 and later corrugated rollers and power-worked hammers were employed4 ,hundreds of hides could be softened daily by these means4 ,then came ingenious machines to take the place of the previous operations of the hand tools1--the fleshing machine1 in one form of which the hides are placed on a curved bed1 and the fleshy parts scraped off or removed by revolving glass blades1 or by curved teeth of steel and wood in a roller under which a table is given a to-and-fro movement2 tanning apparatus of a great variety1 by which hides1 after they are thoroughly washed and softened1 and the pores opened by swelling1 are subjected to movements in the tanning liquor vats1 such as rocking or oscillating1 rotary1 or vertical2 or treated by an air exhaust1 known as the vacuum process2 in all of which the object is to thoroughly impregnate in the shortest time all the interstices and pores of the skin with the tannic acid1 by which the fibrous and gelatinous matter is made to combine to form leather1 and by which process1 also1 the hide is greatly increased in weight4 ,reel machines are then employed to transfer the hides from one vat to another1 thus subjecting them to liquors of increasing strength4 ,soaking in vats formerly occupied twelve or eighteen months1 but under the new methods the time has been greatly reduced4 ,and now since #ahhj1 the chemists are pushing aside the vegetable processes1 and substituting mineral processes1 by which tanning is still further shortened and cheapened4 ,the new processes depend chiefly on the use of chromium compounds4 ,then came scouring machines1 in which a rapidly revolving stiff brush is used to scour the grain or hair side1 removing the superfluous colouring matter1 called the bloom1 and softening and cleansing the hide2 the slicking or polishing machines to clean1 stretch and smooth the leather by glass1 stone1 or copper blades on a rapidly-moving belt carried over pulleys2 whitening1 buffing1 skiving1 fleshing and shaving machines1 all for cutting off certain portions and inequalities of the leather1 and reducing its thickness4 ,in one form of this class of machines an oscillating pendulum lever is employed1 carrying at its end a revolving cylinder having thirty or more spiral blades4 ,the pendulum swings to and fro at the rate of ninety movements a minute1 while the cylinder rolls over the leather at the rate of #bghj revolutions per minute4 ,scarfing1 skiving1 chamfering1 bevelling1 feather-edging1 appear to be synonymous terms for a variety of machines for cutting the edges of leather obliquely1 for the purpose chiefly of making lap seams1 scarf-joints1 and reducing the thickness and stiffness of leather at those and certain other points4 ,then there are leather-splitting machines1 consisting of one or more rollers and a pressure bar1 which draw and press the leather against a horizontally arranged and adjustable knife1 which nicely splits the leather in two parts1 and thus doubles the quantity4 ,this thin split leather is much used in making a cheap quality of boots and shoes and other articles4 ,there are also corrugating1 creasing1 fluting1 pebbling1 piercing and punching machines2 machines for grinding the bark and also for grinding the leather2 machines for gluing sections of leather together1 and machines for sewing them2 machines for rounding flat strips of leather1 for the making of whips and tubes2 machines for scalloping the edges2 and a very ingenious machine for assorting leather strips or strings according to their size or thickness4 ,the most important improvements of the century in leather working relate to the manufacture of boots and shoes4 ,it could well be said of boots and shoes1 especially those made for the great mass of humanity1 before the modern improvements in means and processes had been invented3 8,their feet through faithless leather met the dirt40 ,it is true that in the eighteenth century1 both in ,europe and ,america1 the art of leather and boot and shoe making had so far advanced that good durable foot wear was produced by long and tedious processes of tanning1 and by careful making up of the leather into boots and shoes by hand2 the knife1 the awl1 the waxed thread1 the nails and hammer and other hand tools of the character above referred to being employed4 ,but the process was a tedious and costly one and the articles produced were beyond the limits of the poor man's purse4 ,hence the wooden shoes1 and those made of coarse hide and dressed and undressed skins1 and of coarse cloth1 mixed or unmixed with leather4 ,in #ahji1 ,david ,mead ,randolph of ,england patented machinery for riveting soles and heels to the uppers instead of sewing them together4 ,the celebrated civil engineer1 ,isambard ,m4 ,brunel1 shortly thereafter added several machines of his own invention to ,randolph's method1 and he established a large manufactory for the making chiefly of army shoes4 ,the various separate processes performed by his machines involved the cutting out of the leather1 hardening it by rolling1 securing the welt on to the inner sole by small nails1 and studding the outer sole with larger nails4 ,divisions of men were employed to work each separate step1 and the shoes were passed from one process to another until complete4 ,large quantities of shoes were made at reduced prices1 but complaints were made as to the nails penetrating into the shoe and hurting the feet4 ,the demand for army shoes fell off1 and the system was abandoned2 but it had incited invention in the direction of machine-made shoes and the day of exclusive hand labour was doomed4 ,about #ahah ,joseph ,walker of ,hopkinston1 ,massachusetts invented the wooden peg4 ,making and applying pegs by hand was too slow work1 and machines were at once contrived for making them4 ,as one invention necessitates and begets others1 so special forms of machines for sawing and working up wood into pegs were devised4 ,such machinery was for first sawing the selected log of wood into slices across the grain a little thicker than the length of a peg and cutting out knots in the wood2 then planing the head of the block smooth2 grooving the block with a ,v-shaped cutting tool2 splitting the pegs apart1 and then bleaching1 drying1 polishing and winnowing them4 ,it took forty or fifty years to perfect these and kindred machines1 but at the end of that time there was a factory at ,burlington1 ,vermont1 which from four cords of wood1 made every day four hundred bushels of shoe pegs4 ,about #aheh ,b4 ,f4 ,sturtevant of ,massachusetts made a great improvement in this line4 ,he was a very poor man1 getting a living by pegging on the soles of a few pair of shoes each day4 ,he devised a pegging machine1 and out of his scanty earnings and at odd hours1 with much pain and labour1 and by borrowing money1 he finally completed it4 ,the machine made what was called 8peg wood10 a long ribbon strip of seasoned wood1 sharpened on one edge and designed to be fed into the machine for pegging shoes4 ,the shoes were punctured by awls driven by machinery1 and then as the peg strip was carried to it the machine severed the strip into chisel-edged pegs1 and peg-driving mechanism drove them into the holes4 ,nine hundred pegs a minute were driven4 ,it soon almost supplanted all other peg-driving machines1 and after the machines were quite generally introduced1 there were made in one year alone in ,new ,england fifty-five million pairs of boots and shoes pegged by the ,sturtevant machines4 ,other forms of pegs followed1 such as the metal screw pegs1 and machines to cut them off from a continuous spiral wire from which they were made4 ,lasts on which the shoes were made had been manufactured by the hundred thousand on the wood-turning lathes invented by ,blanchard1 described in the chapter on ,wood-,working4 ,in #aheh also1 about the same time the ,sturtevant pegging machine was introduced1 the shoe-sewing machine was developed4 ,the ,mc,kay ,shoe-,sewing ,machine ,co4 of ,massachusetts after an expenditure of #acj1jjj1 and three years' time in experiments1 were enabled to put their machines in practical operation4 ,the pegging machines and sewing machines worked a revolution in shoemaking4 ,a revolution in the art of shoemaking thus started was followed up by wondrous machines invented to meet every part of the manufacture4 ,lasting machines for drawing and fitting the leather over lasts1 in which the outer edges of the leather are drawn over the bottom of the last and tacked thereto by the hands and fingers of the machine instead of those of the human hand1 were invented4 ,indenting machines3--,the welt is known as that strip of leather around the shoe between the upper and the sole1 and machines were invented for cutting and placing this1 indenting it for the purpose of rendering it flexible and separating the stitches1 all a work until recently entirely done by hand4 ,machines for twining the seams in the uppers1 and forming the scallops2 machines especially adapted to the making of the heel1 as heel trimming and compressing1 rounding and polishing1 and for nailing the finished heel to the boot or shoe2 machines for treating the sole in every way1 rolling it1 in place of the good old way of pounding it on a lap stone2 trimming1 rounding1 smoothing1 and polishing it2 machines for cutting out gores2 machines for marking the uppers so that at one operation every shoe will be stamped by its size1 number1 name of manufacture1 number of case1 and any other convenient symbols2 machines for setting the buttons and eyelets2 all these are simply members in the long line of inventions in this art4 ,the old style of boot has given way to the modern shoe and gaiter1 but for the benefit of those who still wear them1 special machines for shaping the leg1 called boot trees1 have been contrived4 ,so far had the art advanced that twenty years ago one workingman with much of this improved machinery combined in one machine called the 8bootmaker10 could make three hundred pairs of boots or shoes a day4 ,upward of three thousand such machines were then at work throughout the world2 and one hundred and fifty million pairs of boots were then being made annually thereon4 ,now the number of machines and pairs of boots and shoes has been quadrupled4 ,and the world is having its feet clothed far more extensively1 better and at less cost than was ever possible by the hand system4 ,the number of workers in the art1 both men and women1 has vastly increased instead of being diminished1 while their wages have greatly advanced over the old rates4 ,as an illustration of how rapidly modern enterprise and invention proceeds in ,yankeeland1 it has been related that some years ago in ,massachusetts1 after many of these shoe-making machines had got into use1 a factory which was turning out #bdjj pairs of shoes every day was completely destroyed by fire on a ,wednesday night4 ,on ,thursday the manufacturer hired a neighbouring building and set carpenters at work fitting it up4 ,on ,friday he ordered a new and complete outfit of machinery from ,boston2 on ,saturday the machinery arrived and the men set it up2 on ,monday work was started1 and on ,tuesday the manufacturer was filling his orders to the full number of #bdjj pairs a day4 ,there are very many people in the world who still prefer the hand-made shoe1 and there is nothing to prevent the world generally from going back to that system if they choose2 but ,st4 ,crispin's gentle art has blossomed into a vaster field of blessings for mankind under the fruitful impetus of invention than if left to vegetate under the simple processes of primitive man4 ,horses1 no less than man1 have shared in the improvement in leather manufacture4 ,the harnesses of the farmer's and labouring man's horses a century ago1 when they were fortunate enough to own horses1 were of the crudest description4 ,ropes1 cords1 coarse bands of leather were the common provisions4 ,now the strength and cheapness of harnesses enable the poor man to equip his horse with a working suit impossible to have been produced a hundred years ago4 ,to the beautiful effects produced by the use of modern embossing machines on paper and wood have been added many charming patterns in embossed leather4 ,books and leather cases1 saddlery and household ornamentation of various descriptions have been either moulded into forms of beauty1 or stamped or rolled by cameo and intaglio designs cut into the surface of fast-moving cylinders4 ,the leather manufactures have become so vastly important and valuable in some countries1 especially in the ,united ,states--second1 almost to agricultural products--that it would be very interesting to extend the description to many processes and machines1 and to facts displaying the enormous traffic in leather1 now necessarily omitted for want of space4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,minerals--,,wells4 ,dost thou hear the hammer of ,thor1 ,wielded in his gloves of iron8 ,as with leather1 so with stone1 the hand tools and hard labour have not changed in principle since the ancient days4 ,the hammer for breaking1 the lever for lifting1 the saw for cutting1 rubbing-stones and irons for smoothing and polishing1 sand and water for the same purpose1 the mallet and chisel1 and other implements for ornamenting1 the square1 the level1 and the plumb for their respective purposes1 all are as old as the art of building4 ,and as for buildings and sculpture of stone and marble made by hand tools1 we have yet to excel the pyramids1 the ,parthenon of ,athens1 which 8,earth proudly wears as the best gem upon her zone10 the palaces1 coliseums1 and aqueducts of ,rome1 the grand and polished tombs of ,india1 the exquisite halls of the ,alhambra1 and the ,gothic cathedrals4 ,but the time came when human blood and toil became too dear to be the possession solely of the rulers and the wealthy1 and to be used alone to perpetuate and commemorate riches1 power and glory4 ,close on the expansion of men's minds came the expansion of steam and the development of modern inventions4 ,the first application of the steam engine in fields of human labour was the drawing of water from the coal mines of ,england2 then in drawing the coal itself4 ,it was only a step for the steam engine into a new field of labour when ,general ,bentham introduced his system of wood-sawing machinery in #ahjj2 and from sawing wood to sawing stone was only one more step4 ,we find that taken in #ahjc in ,pennsylvania1 when ,oliver ,evans of ,philadelphia drove with a high-pressure steam engine1 8twelve saws in heavy frames1 sawing at the rate of one hundred feet of marble in twelve hours40 ,how long would it have taken hand sawyers of marble at ancient ,paros and ,naxos to have done the same8 ,stone-cutting machines of other forms than sawing then followed4 ,it was desired to divide large blocks generally at the quarries to facilitate transportation4 ,machines for this purpose are called stone-channelling machines4 ,they consist of a gang of chisels bound together and set on a framework which travels on a track adjacent to the stone to be cut1 and so arranged that the cutters may be set to the stone at desired angles1 moved automatically forward and back in the grooves they are cutting1 be fed in or out1 raised or lowered1 detached1 and otherwise manipulated in the operation4 ,other stone-cutting machines had for their objects the cutting and moulding the edges of tables1 mantels and slabs2 and the cutting of circular and other curved work4 ,in the later style of machine the cutter fixed on the end of a spindle is guided in the desired directions on the surface of the stone by a pointer1 which1 attached to the cutter spindle1 moves in the grooves of a pattern also connected to the rotating support carrying the cutter4 ,other forms of most ingenious stone-dressing and carving machines have been devised for cutting mouldings1 and ornamental figures and devices1 in accordance with a model or pattern fixed to the under side of the table which carries the stone or marble to be dressed2 and in which1 by means of a guide moving in the pattern1 the diamond cutter or cutters1 carried in a circular frame above the work and adjusted to its surface1 are moved in the varying directions determined by the pattern4 ,a stream of water is directed on the stone to clear it of the dust during the operations4 ,the carving of stone by machinery is now a sister branch of wood carving4 ,monuments1 ornamentation1 and intricate forms of figures and characters are wrought with great accuracy by cutting and dressing tools guided by the patterns1 or directed by the hand of the operator4 ,for the dressing of the faces of grindstones1 special forms of cutting machines have been devised4 ,it was a slow and tedious task to drill holes through stone by hand tools2 and it was indeed a revolution in this branch of the art when steam engines were employed to rotate a rod armed at its end with diamond or other cutters against the hardest stone4 ,this mode of drilling also effected a revolution in the art of blasting4 ,then1 neither height1 nor depth1 nor thickness of the stone could prevent the progress of the drill rod4 ,tunnels through mountain walls1 and wells through solid quartz are cut to the depth of thousands of feet4 ,one instance is related of the wonderful efficiency on a smaller scale of such a machine3 ,the immense columns of the ,state ,capitol at ,columbus1 ,ohio1 were considered too heavy for the foundation on which they rested4 ,the ,american ,diamond ,rock ,boring ,company of ,providence1 ,rhode ,island1 bored out a twenty-four inch core from each of the great pillars1 and thus relieved the danger4 ,in the most economical and successful stone drills compressed air is employed as the motive power to drive the drills1 which may be used singly or in gangs1 and which may be adjusted against the rock or quarry in any direction4 ,when in position and ready for work a few moments will suffice to bore the holes1 apply the explosive and blast the ledge4 ,the cleaning away of submarine ledges in harbours1 such as the great work at ,hell ,gate in the harbour of ,new ,york1 has thus been effected4 ,crushing3--,among the most useful inventions relating to stone working are machines for crushing stones and ores1 and assorting them4 ,the old way of hammering by hand was first succeeded by powerful stamp hammers worked by steam4 ,both methods of course are still followed1 but they demand too great an expenditure of force and time4 ,about a third of a century ago1 ,eli ,whitney ,blake of ,new ,haven1 ,connecticut1 was a pioneer inventor of a new and most successful type of stone breaking machine1 which ever since has been known as the 8,blake ,crusher40 ,this crusher consists of two ponderous upright jaws1 one fixed and the other movable1 between which the stones or ores to be crushed are fed4 ,each of the jaws is lined with the hardest kind of chilled steel4 ,the movable jaw is inclined from its lower end from the fixed jaw and at its upper end is pivoted to swing on a heavy round iron bar4 ,the movable jaw is forced toward the fixed jaw by two opposite toggle levers set1 in one form of the crusher1 at their inner ends in steel bearings of a vertical vibrating1 rocking lever1 one of the toggles bearing at its outer end against the movable jaw and the outer toggle against a solid frame-work4 ,the rocking lever is operated through a crank by a steam engine1 and as it is vibrated1 the toggle joint forces the lever end of the movable jaw towards the fixed jaw with immense force1 breaking the hardest stone like an eggshell4 ,the setting of the movable jaw at an incline enables the large stone to be first cracked1 the movable jaw then opens1 and as the stone falls lower between the more contracted jaws1 it is broken finer1 until it is finally crushed or pulverized and falls through at the bottom4 ,the movable jaw is adjustable and can be set to crush stones to a certain size4 ,as the rock drill made a revolution in blasting and tunnelling1 so the ,blake crusher revolutionised the art of road making4 8,road metal10 as the supply of broken stones for roads is now called1 is the fruit of the crusher4 ,hundreds of tons of stone per day can be crushed to just the size desired1 and the machine may be moved from place to place where most convenient to use4 ,other crushers have been invented1 formed on the principle of abrasion4 ,the stones1 or ore1 fall between two great revolving disks1 having corrugated steel faces1 which are set the desired distance apart1 and between which the stones are crushed by the rubbing action4 ,in this style of machine the principle of a gradual breaking from a coarse to a finer grade1 is maintained by setting the disks farther apart at the centre where the stone enters1 and nearer together at their peripheries where the broken stone is discharged4 ,large smooth or corrugated rollers1 conical disks1 concentric rollers armed with teeth of varying sizes1 and yet so arranged as to preserve the feature of the narrowing throat at the bottom or place of discharge1 have also been devised and extensively used4 ,a long line of inventions has appeared especially adapted to break up and separate coal into different sizes4 ,to view the various monstrous heaps of assorted coals at the mouth of a coal mine creates an impression that some great witch had imposed on a poor victim the gigantic and seemingly impossible task of breaking and assorting a vast heap of coal into these separate piles within a certain time--a task which also seems to have been miraculously and successfully performed within such an exceedingly short time as to either satisfy or confuse the presiding evil genius4 ,modern civilisation has been developed mostly from steam and coal1 and they have been to each other as strong brothers1 growing more and more mutually dependent to meet the demands made upon them4 ,the mining of coal1 and its subsequent treatment for burning1 before the invention of the steam engine1 were long1 painful1 and laborious tasks1 and the steam engine could never have had its modern wants supplied if its power had not been used to supplement1 with a hundredfold increased effect1 the labour of human hands4 ,it being impracticable to carry steam or the steam engine to the bottom of the mine for work there1 compressed air is there employed1 which is compressed by a steam engine up at the mouth4 ,by this compressed air operated in a cylinder to drive a piston1 and a connecting rod and a pick1 a massive steel pick attached to the rod may be driven in any direction against the wall of coal at the rate of from ninety to one hundred and twenty blows per minute2 and at the same time the discharged compressed1 cold1 pure1 fresh air flows into and through the mine1 affording ventilation when and where most needed4 ,in addition to these great drills1 more recent inventors have brought out small machines for single operators1 worked by the electric motor4 ,after the coal is lifted out1 broken and assorted1 it needs to be washed free of the adhering dust and dirt2 and for this purpose machines are provided1 as well as for screening1 loading and weighing4 ,the operations of breaking1 assorting and washing are often combined in one machine1 while an intermediate hand process for separating the pieces of slate from the coal may be employed2 but additional automatic means for separating the coal and slate are provided1 consisting in forcing with great power water through the coal as it falls into a chamber1 which carries the lighter slate to the top of the chamber1 where it is at once drawn off4 ,the chief of machines with ores is the ore mill1 which not only breaks up the ore but grinds or pulverises it4 ,some chemical and other processes for reducing ores have been referred to in the ,chapter on ,metallurgy4 ,other mechanical processes consist of separators of various descriptions--a prominent one of which acts on the principal of centrifugal force4 ,the crushed material from a spout being led to the centre of a rapidly rotating disk is thrown off by centrifugal force2 and as the lighter portions are thrown farther from the disk1 and the heavier portions nearer to the same1 the material is automatically assorted as to size and weight4 ,as the disk revolves these assorted portions fall through properly graded apertures into separate channels of a circular trough1 from whence they are swept out by brushes secured to a support revolving with the disk4 ,many forms of ore washing machines have been invented to treat the ore after it has been reduced to powder4 ,these are known by various names1 as jiggers1 rifflers1 concentrators1 washing frames1 etc4 ,a stream of water is directed on1 into1 and through the mass of pulverised ore and dirt1 the dirt and kindred materials1 lighter than the ore1 are raised and floated towards the top of the receptacle and carried away1 while the ore settles4 ,this operation is frequently carried on in connection with amalgamated surfaces over which the metal is passed to still further attract and concentrate the ore4 ,an endless apron travelling over cylinders is sometimes employed1 composed of slats the surface of each of which is coated with an amalgam1 and on this belt the powdered ore is spread thinly and carried forward4 ,the vibrations of the belt tend to shake and distribute the ore particles1 the amalgam attracts them1 the refuse is thrown off as the belt passes down over the cylinder1 while the ore particles are retained and brushed off into a proper receptacle4 ,amalgamators themselves form a large class of inventions4 ,they are known as electric1 lead1 mercury1 plate1 vacuum1 vapour1 etc4 ,by the help of these and a vast number of other kindred inventions1 the business of mining in all its branches has been revolutionised and transformed1 even within the last half century4 ,with the vast increase in the output of coal1 and of ores1 and the incalculable saving of hand labour1 the number of operators has been increased in the same proportion1 their wages increased1 their hours of labour shortened1 and their comforts multiplied in variety and quantity1 with a diminished cost4 ,the whole business of mining has been raised from ceaseless darkness and drudgery to light and dignity4 ,opportunity has been created for miners to become men of standing in the community in which they live2 and means provided for educating their children and for obtaining comfortable homes adorned with the refinements of civilisation4 ,well boring is an ancient art--known to the ,egyptians and the ,chinese4 ,wells were coeval with ,abraham when his servant had the celebrated interview with ,rebecca4 8,jacob's well at ,sychar--the ancient ,shechim--has been visited by travellers in all ages and has been minutely described4 ,it is nine feet in diameter and one hundred and five feet deep1 made entirely through rock4 ,when visited by ,maundrel it contained fifteen feet of water40--,knight4 ,some kind of a drill must have been used to have cut so great a depth through rock4 ,the ,chinese method of boring wells from time immemorial has been by the use of a sharp chisel-like piece of hard iron on the end of a heavy iron and wood frame weighing four or five hundred pounds1 lifted by a lever and turned by a rattan cord operated by hand1 and by which wells from fifteen hundred to eighteen hundred feet in depth and five or six inches in diameter have been bored4 ,this method has lately been improved by attaching the chisel part1 which is made very heavy1 to a rope of peculiar manufacture1 which gives the chisel a turn as it strikes1 combined with an air pump to suck up from the hole the accumulating dirt and water4 ,artesian wells appear to have first been known in ,europe in the province of ,artois1 ,france1 in the thirteenth century4 ,hence their name4 ,the previous state of the art in ,egypt1 ,china and elsewhere was not then known4 ,other modern inventions in well-making machinery have consisted in innumerable devices to supplant manual labour and to meet new conditions4 ,coal ,oil3--,reichenbach1 the ,german chemist1 discovered paraffine4 ,young1 soon after1 in #ahej1 patented paraffine oil made from coal4 ,these discoveries1 added to the long observed fact of coal oil floating on streams in ,pennsylvania and elsewhere1 led to the search for its natural source4 ,the discovery of the reservoirs of petroleum in ,pennsylvania in #ahee-ahfj1 and subsequently of gas1 which nature had concealed for so long a time1 gave a great impetus to inventions to obtain and control these riches4 ,with earth-augurs1 drills1 and drill cleaning and clearing and 8fishing0 apparatus1 and devices for creating a new flow of oil1 and tubing1 new forms of packing1 etc41 inventors created a new industry4 ,colonel ,e4 ,drake sank the first oil well in ,pennsylvania in #ahei4 ,since then1 #abe1jjj oil wells have been drilled in that and neighbouring localities4 ,the world has seldom seen such excitement1 except in ,california on the discovery of gold1 as attended the coal oil discovery4 ,the first wells sunk gushed thousands of barrels a day4 ,farmers and other labouring men went to bed poor and woke up rich4 ,rocky wildernesses and barren fields suddenly became ,eldorados4 ,the burning rivers of oil were a reflection of the golden treasures which flowed into the hands and pockets of thousands as from a perpetual fountain touched by some great magician's wand4 ,old methods of boring wells were too slow1 and although the underlying principle was the same1 the new methods and means invented enabled wells to be bored with one-tenth the labour1 in one-tenth the time1 and at one-tenth the cost4 ,many great cities and plains and deserts have been provided with these wells owing to the ease with which they can now be sunk4 ,another ingenious method of sinking wells was invented by ,colonel ,n4 ,w4 ,greene at ,cortland1 ,new ,york1 in #ahfb4 ,it became known as the 8driven well10 and consisted of a pointed tube provided with holes above the pointed end1 and an inclosed tube to prevent the passage of sand or gravel through the holes in the outer tube4 ,when the pointed tube was driven until water was reached the inner tube was withdrawn and a pump mechanism inserted4 ,this well1 so simple1 so cheap and effective1 has been used in all countries by thousands of farmers on dry plains and by soldiers in many desert lands4 ,with these and modern forms of artesian wells the deserts have literally been made to blossom as the rose4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,horology ,,and ,,instruments ,,of ,,precision4 8,time measures all things1 but ,i measure it40 ,so far as we at present know there were four forms of time-measuring instruments known to antiquity--the sun-dial1 the clepsydra or water clock1 the hour-glass1 and the graduated candle4 ,the sun-dial1 by which time was measured by the shadow cast from a pin1 rod or pillar upon a graduated horizontal plate--the graduations consisting of twelve equal parts1 in which the hours of the day were divided1 were1 both as to the instrument and the division of the day into hours1 invented by the ,babylonians or other ,oriental race1 set up on the plains of ,chaldea1 constructed by the ,chinese and ,hindoos--put into various forms by these nations1 and adapted1 but unimproved1 by the learned ,greeks and conquering ,romans4 ,it appears to have been unknown to the ,assyrians and ,egyptians1 or if known1 its knowledge confined to their wise men1 as it does not appear in any of their monuments4 ,the clepsydra1 an instrument by which in its earliest form a portion of time was measured by the escape of water from a small orifice in the bottom of a shell or vase1 or by which the empty vase1 placed in another vessel filled with water1 was gradually filled through the orifice and which sank within a certain time1 is supposed by many to have preceded the invention of the sun-dial4 ,at any rate they were used contemporaneously by the same peoples4 ,in its later form1 when the day and night were each divided into twelve hours1 the vessel was correspondingly graduated1 and a float raised by the inflowing water impelled a pointer attached to the float against the graduations4 ,plato1 it is said1 contrived a bell so connected with the pointer that it was struck at each hour of the night4 ,but the best of ancient clepsydras was invented by ,ctesibius of ,alexandria about the middle of the third century ,b4 ,c4 ,he was the pupil of ,archimedes1 and adopting his master's idea of geared wheels1 he mounted a toothed wheel on a shaft extending through the vessel and carrying at one end outside of the vessel a pointer adapted to move around the face of a dial graduated with the #bd hours4 ,the vertical toothed rod or rack1 adapted to be raised or lowered by a float in a vessel gradually filled with water1 engaged a pinion fixed on another horizontal shaft1 which pinion in turn engaged the larger wheel4 ,it was not difficult to proportion the parts and control the supply of water to make the point complete its circuit regularly4 ,then the same inventor dispensed with the wheel1 rack1 and pinion1 and substituted a cord to which a float was attached1 passing the cord over a grooved pulley and securing a weight at its other end4 ,the pulley was fixed on the shaft which carried the hour hand4 ,the float was a counterbalance to the weight1 and as it was lifted by the water the weight stretched the cord and turned the pulley1 which caused the pointer to move on the dial and indicate the hour4 ,the water thus acted as an escapement to control the motive power4 ,in one form the water dropped on wheels which had their motion communicated to a small statue that gradually rose and pointed with a rod to the hour upon the dial4 ,thus the essential parts of a clock--an escapement1 which is a device to control the power in a clock or watch so that it shall act intermittently on the time index1 a motive power1 which was then water or a weight1 a dial to display the hours1 and an index to point them out--were invented at this early age4 ,but the art advanced practically no further for many centuries4 ,the hour-glass is too familiar to need description4 ,the incense sticks of the ,chinese1 the combustion of which proceeded so slowly and regularly as to render them available for time measures1 were the precursors of the graduated candles4 ,with the ungraduated sun-dial the ,greeks fixed their times for bathing and eating4 ,when the shadow was six feet long it was time to bathe1 when twice that length it was time to sup4 ,the clepsydra became in ,greece a useful instrument to enforce the law in restricting loquacious orators and lawyers to reasonable limits in their addresses4 ,and in ,rome the sun-dials1 the clepsydras and the hour-glass were used for the same purpose1 and more generally than in ,greece1 to regulate the hours of business and pleasure4 ,the graduated candles are chiefly notable as to their use1 if not invention1 by ,alfred the ,great in about #hhc4 ,they were #ab inches long1 divided into #ab parts1 of which three would burn in one hour4 ,in use they were shielded from the wind by thin pieces of horn1 and thus the 8horn lantern0 originated4 ,with them he divided the day into three equal parts1 one for religion1 one for public affairs1 and one for rest and recreation4 ,useful clocks of wondrous make were described in the annals of the middle ages1 especially in ,germany1 made by monks and others for ,kings1 monasteries and churches4 ,the old ,saxon and ,teutonic words cligga1 and glocke1 signifying the striking of a bell1 and from which the name clock is derived1 indicates the early combination of striking and time-keeping mechanism4 ,the records are scant as to the particulars of inventions in horology during the middle ages and down to the sixteenth century1 but we know that weights1 and trains of wheels and springs1 and some say pendulums1 were used in clockwork1 and that the tones of hourly bells floated forth from the dim religious light of old cathedrals4 ,they all appear to have involved in different forms the principle of the old clepsydra1 using either weights or water as the motive power to drive a set of wheels and to move a pointer over the face of a dial4 ,henry de ,vick of ,france about #acgj constructed a celebrated clock for ,charles ,v41 the first nearest approach to modern weight clocks4 ,the weight was used to unwind a cord from a barrel4 ,the barrel was connected to a ratchet and there were combined therewith a train of toothed wheels and pinions1 an escapement consisting of a crown wheel controlled by two pallets1 which in turn were operated alternately by two weights on a balanced rod4 ,an hour hand was carried by a shaft of the great wheel1 and a dial plate divided into hours4 ,this was a great advance1 as a more accurate division of time was had by improving the isochronous properties of the vibrating escapement4 ,but the world was still wanting a time-keeper to record smaller portions of the day than the hour and a more accurate machine than ,vick's4 ,two hundred years1 nearly1 elapsed before the next important advance in horology4 ,by this time great astronomers like ,tycho ,brahe and ,valherius had divided the time-recording dials into minutes and seconds4 ,about #aebe ,jacob ,zech of ,prague invented the fusee1 which was re-invented and improved by the celebrated ,dr4 ,hooke1 #abe years later4 ,small portable clocks1 the progenitors of the modern watch1 commenced to appear about #aejj4 ,it was then that ,peter ,hele of ,nuremberg substituted for weights as the motive power a ribbon of steel1 which he wound around a central spindle1 connecting one end to a train of wheels to which it gave motion as it unwound4 ,then followed the famous observation of the swinging lamp by the then young ,galileo1 about #aehb1 while lounging in the cathedral of ,pisa4 ,the isochronism of the vibrations of the pendulum inferred from this observation was not published or put to practical application in clocks for nearly sixty years afterward4 ,in #afci ,galileo1 then old and blind1 dictated to his son one of his books in which he discussed the isochronal properties of oscillating bodies1 and their adaptation as time measures4 ,he and others had used the pendulum for dividing time1 but moved it by hand and counted its vibrations4 ,but ,huygens1 the great ,dutch scientist1 about #aeef was the first to explain the principles and properties of the pendulum as a time measurer and to apply it most successfully to clocks4 ,his application of it was to the old clock of ,vick's4 ,the seventeenth century thus opened up a new era in clock and watch making4 ,the investigations1 discoveries1 and inventions of ,huygens and other ,dutch clock-makers1 of ,dr4 ,hooke and ,david ,ramsey of ,england1 ,hautefeuille of ,france1 and a few others placed the art of clock and watch making on the scientific basis on which it has ever since rested4 ,the pendulum and watch-springs needed to have their movements controlled and balanced by better escapements4 ,huygens thought that the pendulum should be long and swing in a cycloidal course1 but ,dr4 ,hooke found the better way to produce perfect isochronous movements was to cause the pendulum to swing in short arcs1 which he accomplished by his invention of the anchor escapement4 ,the fusee which ,dr4 ,hooke re-invented consists of a conical spirally-grooved pulley1 around which a chain is wound1 and which is connected at one end to a barrel1 in which the main actuating spring is tightly coiled4 ,the fusee is thus interposed between the wheel train and the spring to equalise the power of the latter4 ,to ,dr4 ,hooke must also be credited the invention of that delicate but efficient device1 the hair-spring balance for watches4 ,his inventions in this line were directed to the best means of utilising and controlling the force of springs1 his motto being 8ut tensio sic vis10 7as the tension is so is the force47 ,repeating watches to strike the hours1 half-hours and quarters1 made their appearance in the seventeenth century4 ,in the next century ,arnold made one for ,george ,,iii41 as small as an ,english sixpence4 ,this repeated the hours1 halves and quarters1 and in it for the first time in the art a jewel was used as a bearing for the arbors1 and this particular one was a ruby made into a minute cylinder4 ,after the discovery and practical application of weights1 springs1 wheels1 levers and escapements to time mechanisms1 subsequent inventions1 numerous as they have been1 have consisted chiefly1 not in the discovery of new principles1 but in new methods in the application of old ones4 ,prior to the eighteenth century1 however1 clocks were cumbrous and expensive1 and the watches rightly regarded as costly toys2 and as to their accuracy in time-measuring1 the cheaper ones were hardly as satisfactory as the ancient sun-dials4 ,with the coming of the machine inventions and the new industrial and social ideas of the eighteenth century came an almost sudden new appreciation of the value of time4 ,hours1 minutes and seconds began to be carefully prized1 both by the trades and professions1 and the demand from the common people for accurate time records became great4 ,this demand it has been the office of the nineteenth century to supply1 and to place clocks and watches within the reach of the poor as well as the rich4 ,while thus lessening the cost of time-keepers their value has been enhanced by increasing their accuracy and durability4 ,among the other ideas for which the eighteenth century was famous in watch-making was that of dispensing with the key for winding1 thus saving the losing of keys and preventing access of dust1 an idea which1 however1 was perfected only in the last half of the nineteenth century4 ,the eighteenth century was chiefly distinguished by its scientific improvements in time-keepers1 to adapt them for astronomical observations and for use at sea1 in not only accurately determining the time1 but the degrees of longitude4 ,chronometers were invented1 distinguished from watches and clocks1 by means by which the fluctuation of the parts caused by the variations in temperature are obviated or compensated4 ,in clocks what are known as the mercurial and gridiron pendulums were invented respectively toward the close of the eighteenth century by ,graham and ,harrison1 and the latter also subsequently invented the expanding and contracting balance wheel for watches4 ,the principle in these appliances is the employment of two different metals which expand unequally1 and thus maintain an uniformity of operation4 ,the ,dutch1 with ,huygens in the lead1 were long among the leading clock-makers4 ,germany ranked next4 ,it was in the seventeenth century that a wonderful industry in clock-making there commenced1 which lasted for two centuries4 ,the ,black ,forest region of ,south ,germany became a famous locality for the manufacture of cheap wooden clocks4 ,the system adopted was a minute division of labour4 ,from fourteen to twenty thousand hands twenty years ago were employed in the ,schwarzwald district4 ,labour-saving machines were ignored almost entirely4 ,the annual production finally reached nearly two million clocks1 of the value of about five million dollars4 ,switzerland in watch-making followed precisely the example of ,germany in clock-making4 ,it commenced there in the seventeenth and culminated in the nineteenth century4 ,many thousands of its population were engaged in the business and it flourished under the fostering care of the government--by the establishment of astronomical observations for testing the adjustment of the best watches1 the giving of prizes1 and the establishment and encouragement of schools of horology conducted on thorough scientific methods4 ,a quarter of a century ago it was estimated that in ,switzerland #dj1jjj persons out of a population of #aej1jjj were engaged in watch-making1 and that the annual production sometimes reached #a1fjj1jjj completed movements4 ,the whole world was their market4 ,the ,united ,states alone was in #ahge importing #acd1jjj watches annually from that country4 ,as in ,germany1 so one characteristic of the ,swiss system was a minute sub-division of the labour4 ,individuals and entire families had certain parts only to make4 ,it is said that the ,swiss watch passed through the hands of one hundred and thirty different workmen before it was put upon the market4 ,the use of machines was also1 as in ,germany1 ignored4 ,by this national devotion to a single trade and its sub-division of labour1 the successful production of complicated watches became great and their prices comparatively low4 ,the ,united ,states in the commencement of its career and at the opening of the century had no clocks or watches of its own manufacture4 ,but it soon followed the example of ,germany and ,switzerland and established cheap clock manufactories1 first of wood1 and then of metal1 which became famous and of world-wide use4 ,but it could make no headway against the cheap labour of ,europe in watch-making1 and the country was flooded with watches of all qualities1 principally from ,switzerland and ,england4 ,finally1 at the half-way mark in the century1 the inquiry arose among ,americans1 why could not the system of the minute sub-division of human labour followed in watch-making countries so cheaply and profitably1 be accomplished by machinery8 ,the field was open1 the prize was great1 and the government stood ready to grant exclusive patents to every inventor who would devise a new and useful machine4 ,the problem was great1 as the fields abroad had been filled for generations by skilled artisans who had reduced the complicated mechanism of watch-making to a fine art4 ,fortunately the habit had been established in ,america in several of the leading industries1 principally in that of fire-arms1 of fabricating separate machinery for the independent making of numerous parts of the same implement1 whereby uniformity and interchangeability were established4 ,under such a practice1 which was known as the ,american system1 a duplicate of the smallest part of a complicated machine1 lost or worn out thousands of miles from the factory1 could soon be furnished by simply sending the number or name of such required part to the manufacturer1 or to the nearest dealer in such machines4 ,with such encouragement and example the scheme of watch-making was commenced4 ,soon large factories were built1 and by the time of the ,centennial ,exhibition in #ahgf1 the ,american ,watch ,company of ,waltham1 ,massachusetts1 were enabled to present an exhibit of watch movements made by machinery1 which astonished the world4 ,other great companies in different parts of the country soon followed with the same general system4 ,machines1 working with the apparent intelligence and facility of human minds and hands1 and with greater mathematical accuracy than was possible with the hands1 appeared3--for cutting out the finest teeth from blank wheels stamped out from steel or brass2 for making and cutting the smallest1 finest threaded screws by the thousands per hour and with greatest uniformity and accuracy2 for jewel-making2 for cutting and polishing by diamonds1 or sapphire-armed tools1 the rough1 unpolished diamond and ruby1 crysolite1 garnet1 or aqua-marine1 and for boring1 finishing and setting the same2 for the formation of the most delicate pins or arbors2 for the making of the escapements1 including forks1 pallets1 rollers1 and scape wheels2 for making springs and balances1 including the main-springs and hair-springs2 for making and setting the stem-winding parts2 for making the cases1 and engraving the same1 etc4 ,the list would be too long to simply name all the ingenious machines there exhibited and subsequently invented for every important operation4 ,it was the aim of these manufacturers to locate every great factory in some quiet and attractive spot1 free from the dust of town1 and city1 and divide it into many departments1 from the blacksmithing to the packing and transportation of the completed article2 and to conduct every department with the best mechanical and mathematical skill that money and brains could provide4 ,the same system was followed with equal success in producing the first-class pocket-chronometer for the nicest work to which chronometers can be put4 ,thus with every watch and its every part made the exact duplicate of its fellow1 uniformity in time-keeping has been established2 and the simile of ,pope is no longer so correct1 8',tis with our judgments as our watches1 none go just alike1 yet each believes his own40 ,a simple statement of this system illustrates with greater force than an entire volume the revolution the nineteenth century has produced in the useful art of horology4 ,and yet the story should not omit reference to the application of the electric system to clocks1 whereby clocks at distant points of a city or country are connected1 automatically corrected and set to standard time from a central observatory or other time station4 ,great as were the advances in horology during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 the number of inventions that have been made in the nineteenth century is evidenced by the fact that in the ,united ,states alone about #d1jjj patents have been granted since #ahjj1 which1 however1 represent not only ,american inventors but very many of other countries4 ,registering ,devices4--,devices for recording fares and money have employed the keenest wits of many inventors and is an art of quite recent origin4 ,attention was first directed to fare registers in public vehicles1 the object of which is to accurately report to the proper office of the company at the end of a trip1 or of the day1 the number of passengers carried and the fares received4 ,portable registers1 to be carried by the conductor and operated in front of the passenger have been almost universally succeeded by stationary ones set up at one end of the vehicle in open view of all the passengers and operated by a strap and lever by the conductor4 ,these fare registers have been called 8,a mechanical conscience for street car conductors40 ,cash ,registers1 intended to compel honesty on the part of retail salesmen1 are required to be operated by them1 and when the proper lever1 or levers1 or it may be a crank handle1 is or are touched1 the machine automatically records the amount of the sale1 the amount of change given1 and the total amount of all the sales and money received and paid out4 ,voting ,machines--designed to overcome the difficulties1 expenditure of time1 and the commission of errors and frauds experienced in the reading and counting of votes--have received great attention from inventors1 and are not yet in a satisfactory condition4 ,the problem involves the dispensing of printing the ballots1 the prevention of fraudulent deposition of ballots1 the automatic correct counting of the same1 and a display of the result as soon as the balloting is closed4 ,successful electrical devices have been made for recording the votes of a great number of persons in a large assembly by the touch of an 8aye0 or 8nay0 button at the seat of the voter and the recording of the same on paper at a central desk4 ,the invention and extensive use of bicycles1 automobiles1 etc41 have given rise to the invention of cyclometers1 which are small devices connected to some part of the vehicle to indicate to the rider or driver the rate at which he is riding1 and the number of miles ridden4 ,speed ,indicators4--,many municipalities having adopted ordinances limiting the rate of speed for street and steam cars1 bicycles1 automobiles1 and other vehicles1 a want was created1 which has been met1 for devices to indicate to the passengers1 drivers or conductors the rate at which the vehicle is travelling1 and to sound an alarm in case of excess of speed1 so that brakes can be applied and the speed reduced4 ,or to relieve persons of anxiety and trouble in this respect1 ingenious devices have been contrived which automatically reduce the speed when the prescribed limit has been exceeded4 ,weighing ,scales and ,machines4--8,just balances and just weights0 have been required from the day of the declaration1 8a false weight is an abomination unto the ,lord40 ,and therefore strict accuracy must always be the measure of merit of a weighing machine4 ,to this standard the inventions of the century in weighing scales have come4 ,until this century the ordinary balance with equal even arms suspended from a central point1 and each carrying means for suspending articles to be weighed1 or compared in weights1 and the later steelyard with its unequal arms1 with its graduated long arms and a sliding weight and holding pan1 were the principal forms of weighing machines4 ,platform scales were described in an ,english patent to one ,salman in #agif1 but their use is not recorded4 ,the compound lever scale on the principle of the steelyard1 but arranged to be used with a platform1 was invented and came into use in the ,united ,states about #ahca4 ,thaddeus and ,erastus ,fairbanks of ,st4 ,johnsbury1 ,vermont1 were the inventors1 and it was found to meet the want of farmers in weighing hemp1 hay1 etc41 by more convenient means than the ordinary steelyard4 ,they converted the steelyard into platform scales4 ,the leading characteristics of such machines are1 first1 a convenient platform nicely balanced on knife edges of steel levers1 and second1 a graduated horizontal beam1 a sliding weight thereon connected by an upright rod at one end to the beam1 and at its opposite end to the balance frame beneath the platform4 ,the modification in size and adaptation of this machine for the weighing of different commodities amounted to some #djj different varieties--running from the delicately-constructed apparatus for weighing the fraction of a grain1 to the ponderous machines for weighing and recording the loaded freight car of fifty or sixty tons1 or the canal-boat or other vessel with its load of five or six hundred tons4 ,the adaptation of a balance platform on which to place a light load1 or to drive thereon with heavy loads1 whether of horses1 steam1 or water vehicles1 was a great blessing to mankind4 ,no wonder that they were soon sold all over the world1 and that monarchs and people hastened to heap honors on the inventors4 ,spring weighing scales have recently been invented1 which will accurately and automatically show not only the weight but the total price of the goods weighed1 the price per unit being known and fixed4 ,in the weighing of large masses of coarse material1 such as grain1 coal1 cotton seed1 and the like1 machines have been constructed which automatically weigh such materials and at the same time register the weight4 ,previous to this century no method was known1 except the exercise of good judgment in the light of experience1 of accurately testing the strength of materials4 ,wood and metals were used in unnecessarily cumbrous forms for the purpose to which they were put1 in order to ensure safety1 or else the strength of the parts failed where it was most needed4 ,the idea of testing the tensile1 transverse1 and cubical resisting strength of materials has been applied to many other objects than beams and bars of wood and metals2 to belts1 cloths1 cables1 wires1 fibres1 paper1 twine1 yarn1 cement1 and to liquids4 ,kiraldy1 ,kennedy1 and others of ,england1 ,thomasset of ,france1 ,riehle of ,germany1 and ,fairbanks1 ,thurston and ,emery of the ,united ,states1 are among the noted inventors of such machines4 ,in the ,emery system of machines1 consisting of scales1 gages1 and dynamometers1 the power exerted on the material tested is transmitted from the load to an indicating device by means of liquid acting on diaphragms4 ,the same principle is employed in his weighing machines4 ,by one of these hydraulic testing machines the tensile strength of forged links has been ascertained by the exertion of a power amounting to over #gjj1jjj pounds before breaking a link1 the chain breaking with a loud report4 ,the most delicate materials are tested by the same machine--the tensile strength of a horsehair1 some of which are found to stand the strain of one and two pounds4 ,eggs and nuts are cracked without being crushed1 and the power exerted and the strain endured automatically recorded4 ,steel beams and rods have been subjected to a strain of a million pounds before breaking4 ,governments1 municipalities1 and the people generally are thus provided with means by which they can proceed with the greatest confidence in the safe and economical construction and completion of their buildings and public works4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,music1 ,,acoustics1 ,,optics1 ,,fine ,,arts4 ,neither the historic nor prehistoric records find man without musical instruments of some sort4 ,they are as old as religion1 and have been found wherever evidence of religious rites of any description have been found1 as they constituted part of the instrumentalities of such rites4 ,they are found as relics of worship and the dance1 ages after the worshippers and the dancers have become part of the earth's strata4 ,they have been found wherever the earliest civilisations have been discovered2 and they appear to have been regarded as desirable and necessary as the weapons and the labour implements of those civilisations4 ,they abounded in ,china1 in ,india1 and in ,egypt before the lyre of ,apollo was invented1 or the charming harp of ,orpheus was conceived4 ,there was little melody according to modern standards1 but the musical instruments1 like all other inventions1 the fruit of the brain of man1 were slowly evolved as he wanted them1 and to meet the conditions surrounding him4 ,there were the conch shell trumpet1 the stone1 bone1 wood and metal dance rattles1 the beaks of birds1 and the horns and teeth of beasts1 for the same rattling purpose4 ,the simple reed pipes1 the hollow wooden drums1 the skin drum-heads1 the stretched strings of fibre and of tendons1 the flutes1 the harps1 the guitars1 the psalteries1 and hundreds of other forms of musical instruments1 varied as the skill and fancy of man varied1 and in accordance with their taste and wants1 along the entire gamut of noises and rude melodies4 ,the ancient races had the instruments1 but their voices1 except as they existed in the traditions of their gods1 were not harmonious4 ,as modern wants and tastes developed and music became a science the demands of the nineteenth century were met by a ,helmholtz1 who discovered and explained the laws of harmony1 and by many ingenious manufacturers1 who so revolutionised the pianoforte action1 and the action of musical instruments constructed on these principles1 that their predecessors would hardly be recognised as prototypes4 ,the story of the piano1 that queen of musical instruments1 involves the whole history of the art of music4 ,its evolution from the ancient harp1 gleaned by man from the wind1 8that grand old harper1 who smote his thunder harp of pines10 is too long a story to here recite in detail4 ,it must suffice to say1 it started with the harp1 in its simplest form1 composed of a frame with animal tendons stretched tight thereon and twanged by the fingers4 ,then followed strings of varied length1 size1 and tension1 to obtain different tones1 soon accompanied by an instrument called the plectrum--a bone or ivory stick with which to vibrate the strings1 to save the fingers4 ,this was the harp of the ,egyptians1 and of ,jubal1 8the father of all such as handle the harp and the organ10 and half-brother of ,tubal ,cain1 the great teacher 8of every artificer in brass and iron40 ,then the harp was laid prostrate1 its strings stretched over a sounding board1 and each held and adapted to be tightened by pegs1 and played upon by little hammers having soft pellets or corks at their ends4 ,this was the psaltery and the dulcimer of the ,assyrians and the ,hebrews4 ,the ,greeks derived their musical instruments from the ,egyptians1 and the ,romans borrowed theirs from the ,greeks1 but neither the ,greeks nor the ,romans invented any4 ,then1 after fourteen or fifteen centuries1 we find the harp1 both in a horizontal and an upright position1 with its strings played upon by keys4 ,this was the clavicitherium4 ,in the sixteenth century came the virginal1 and the spinet1 those soft1 tinkling instruments favoured by ,queen ,elizabeth and ,queen ,mary1 and which1 recently brought from obscurity1 have been made to revive the ancient ,elizabethan melodies1 to the delight of modern hearers4 ,these were followed in the seventeenth century by the clavichord1 the favourite instrument of ,bach4 ,then appeared the harpsichord1 a still nearer approach to the piano1 having a hand or knee-worked pedal1 and on which ,mozart and ,handel and ,haydn brought out their grand productions4 ,the ancient ,italian cembello was another spinet4 ,thus1 through the centuries these instruments had slowly grown4 ,by #agaa in ,italy1 under the inventive genius of ,bartolommeo ,cristofori of ,florence1 they had culminated in the modern piano4 ,the piano as devised by him differed from the instruments preceding it chiefly in this1 that in the latter the strings were vibrated by striking and pulling on them by pieces of quills attached to levers and operated by keys1 whereas1 in the piano there were applied hammers in place of quills4 ,in the #ahgf exhibition at ,philadelphia1 a piano was displayed which had been made by ,johannes ,christian ,schreiber of ,germany in #agda4 ,then in the latter part of the eighteenth century ,broadwood and ,clementi of ,london and ,erard of ,strasburg and ,petzold of ,paris commenced the manufacture of their fine instruments4 ,erard particularly made many improvements in that and in the nineteenth century in the piano1 its hammers and keys1 and ,southwell of ,dublin in the dampers4 ,by them and the ,collards of ,london1 ,bechstein of ,berlin1 and ,chickering1 ,steinway1 ,weber1 ,schomacher1 ,decker and ,knabe of ,america1 was the piano 8ripened after the lapse of more than #b1jjj years into the perfectness of the magnificent instruments of modern times1 with their better materials1 more exact appliances1 finer adjustments1 greater strength of parts1 increase of compass and power1 elastic responsiveness of touch1 enlarged sonority1 satisfying delicacy1 and singing character in tone40 ,a piano comprises five principal parts3 first1 the framing2 second1 the sounding board2 third1 the stringing2 fourth1 the key mechanism1 or action1 and fifth1 the ornamental case4 ,to supply these several parts separate classes of skilled artisans have arisen1 the forests have been ransacked for their choicest woods1 the mines have been made to yield their choicest stores1 and the forge to weld its finest work4 ,science has given to music the ardent devotion of a lover1 and resolved a confused mass of more or less pleasant noises into liquid harmonies4 ,in #ahfb appeared ,helmholtz's great work on the 8,law and ,tones and the ,theory of ,music40 ,he it was who invented the method of analysing sound4 ,by the use of hollow bodies called resonators he found that every sound as it generally occurs in nature and as it is produced by most of our musical instruments1 or the human voice1 is not a single simple sound1 but a compound of several tones of different intensity and pitch2 all of which different tones combined are heard as one2 and that the difference of quality or timbre of the sounds of different musical instruments resides in the different composition of these sounds2 that different compound sounds contain the same fundamental tone but differently mixed with other tones4 ,he explained how these fundamental and compound tones might be fully developed to produce either harmonious or dissonant sensations4 ,his researches were carried farther and added to by ,prof4 ,mayer of ,new ,jersey4 ,these theories were practically applied in the pianos produced by the celebrated firm of ,steinway and ,sons of ,new ,york2 and their inventions and improvements in the iron framing1 in laying of strings in relation to the centre of the sounding-board1 in 8resonators0 in upright frames1 and in other features1 from #ahff to #ahgf1 produced a revolution in the art of piano making4 ,if the piano is properly the queen of musical instruments1 the organ may be rightly regarded1 as it has been named1 8,king in the realm of music40 ,it is an instrument1 the notes of which are produced by the rush of air through pipes of different lengths1 the air being supplied by bellows or other means1 and controlled by valves which are operated by keys1 and by which the supply of air is admitted or cut off4 ,the earliest description appears to be that in the 8,spiritalia0 of ,hero of ,alexandria 7#aej-bjj ,b4 ,c47 and ,ctesibius of ,alexandria was the inventor4 ,a series of pipes of varying lengths were filled by an air-pump which was operated by a wind-mill4 ,organs were again originated in the early ,christian centuries2 and a ,greek epigram of the fourth century refers to one as provided with 8reeds of a new species agitated by blasts of wind that rush from a leathern cavern beneath their roots1 while a robust mortal1 running with swift fingers over the concordant keys1 makes them smoothly dance and emit harmonious sounds40 ,the same in principle to-day1 but more complicated in structure1 8yet of easy control under the hands of experts1 fertile in varied symphonious effects1 giving with equal and satisfying success the gentlest and most sympathetic tones as well as complete and sublimely full utterances of musical inspiration40 ,the improvements of the century have consisted in adding a great variety of stops2 in connections and couplers of the great keyboard and pipes2 in the pedal part2 in the construction of the pipes and wind chests2 and principally in the adaptation of steam1 water1 air1 and electricity1 in place of the muscles of men1 as powers in furnishing the supply of air4 ,some of the great organs of the century1 having three or four thousand pipes1 with all the modern improvements1 and combining great power with the utmost brilliancy and delicacy of utterance1 and with a blended effect which is grand1 solemn and most impressive1 render indeed this noble instrument the 8king0 in the realm of music4 ,in the report of #ahie of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of patents it is stated that 8the autoharp has been developed within the past few years1 having bars arranged transversely across the strings and provided with dampers which1 when depressed1 silence all the strings except those producing the desired chords4 8,an ingenious musical instrument of the class having keyboards like the piano or organ has been recently invented4 ,all keyboard instruments in ordinary use produce tones that are only approximately correct in pitch1 because these must be limited in number to twelve1 to the octave1 while the tones of the violin are absolute or untempered4 ,the improved instrument produces untempered tones without requiring extraordinary variations from the usual arrangement of the keys40 ,self-playing musical instruments have been known for more than forty years1 but it is within the past twenty-five years that devices have been invented for controlling tones by pneumatic or electrical appliances to produce expressions4 ,examples of the later of these three kinds of musical instruments may be found in the ,united ,states patents of ,zimmermann in #ahhb1 ,tanaka1 #ahij1 and ,gally1 #ahgi4 ,the science of acoustics and its practical applications have greatly advanced1 chiefly due to the researches of ,helmholtz1 referred to above4 ,when the nature and laws of the waves of sound became fully known a great field of inventions was opened4 ,then came the telephone1 phonograph1 graphophone and gramophone4 ,the telephone depends upon a combination of electricity and the waves of the human voice4 ,the phonograph and its modifications depend alone on sound waves--the recording of the waves from one vibrating membrane and their exact reproduction on another vibrating membrane4 ,the acoustic properties of churches and other buildings were improved by the adaptation of banks of fine wires to prevent the re-echoing of sounds4 ,auricular tubes adapted to be applied to the ears and concealed by the hair1 and other forms of aural instruments1 were devised4 ,the ,megaphone of ,edison appeared1 consisting of two large funnels having elastic conducting tubes from their apices to the aural orifice4 ,conversation in moderate tones has been heard and understood by their use at a distance of one and a half miles4 ,the megaphone has been found very useful in speaking to large outdoor crowds4 ,but let us go back a little3 ,in #ahde1 ,chas4 ,bourseuil of ,france published the idea that the vibrations of speech uttered against a diaphragm might break or make an electric contact1 and the electric pulsations thereby produced might set another diaphragm vibrating which should produce the transmitted sound waves4 ,in #aheg1 another ,frenchman1 ,leon ,scott1 patented in ,france his ,phonautograph--an instrument consisting of a large barrel-like mouth-piece into which words were spoken1 a membrane therein against which the voice vibrations were received1 a stylus attached to this vibrating membrane1 and a rotating cylinder covered with blackened paper1 against which the stylus bore and on which it recorded the sound waves in exact form received on the vibrating diaphragm4 ,then came the researches and publications of ,helmholtz and ,knig on acoustic science1 #ahfb-ahff4 ,then young ,philip ,reis of ,frankfort1 ,germany1 attempted to put all these theories into an apparatus to reproduce speech1 but did not quite succeed4 ,then in #ahgd-ahge1 ,bell took up the matter1 and at the ,philadelphia exhibition1 #ahgf1 astonished the world by the revelations of the telephone4 ,in ,april1 #ahgg1 ,charles ,cros1 a ,frenchman1 in a communication to the ,academy of ,sciences in ,paris1 after describing an apparatus like the ,scott phonautograph1 set forth how traced undulating lines of voice vibrations might be reproduced in intaglio or in relief1 and reproduced upon a vibrating membrane by a pointed stylus attached thereto and following the line of the original pulsations4 ,the communication seems to have been pigeon-holed1 and not read in open session until ,december1 #ahgg1 and until after ,thomas ,a4 ,edison had actually completed and used his phonograph in the ,united ,states4 ,cros rested on the suggestion4 ,edison1 without knowing of ,cros' suggestion1 was first to make and actually use the same invention4 ,edison's cylinder1 on which the sounds were recorded and from which they were reproduced1 was covered by tin foil4 ,a great advance was made by ,dr4 ,chichester ,a4 ,bell and ,mr4 ,c4 ,s4 ,tainter1 who in #ahhf patented in the ,united ,states means of cutting or engraving the sound waves in a solid body4 ,the solid body they employed was a thin pasteboard cylinder covered with wax4 ,this apparatus they called the graphophone4 ,two years thereafter1 ,mr4 ,emile ,berliner of ,washington had invented the gramophone1 which consists in etching on a metallic plate the record of voice waves4 ,he has termed his invention1 8the art of etching the human voice40 ,he prepares a polished metal plate1 generally zinc1 with an extremely thin coating of film or fatty milk1 which dries upon and adheres to the plate4 ,the stylus penetrates this film1 meeting from it the slightest possible resistance1 and traces thereon the message4 ,the record plate is then subjected to a particularly constituted acid bath1 which1 entering the groove or grooves formed by the stylus1 cuts or etches the same into the plate4 ,the groove thus formed may be deepened by another acid solution4 ,when thus produced1 as many copies of the record as desired may be made by the electrotyper or print plater4 ,the public is now familiar with the different forms of this wonderful instrument1 and like the telephone1 they no longer seem marvellous4 ,yet it is only within the age of a youth or a maiden when the allegations or predictions that the human voice would soon be carried over the land1 and reproduced across a continent1 or be preserved or engraven on tablets and reproduced at pleasure anywhere1 in this or any subsequent generation1 were themselves regarded as strange messages of dreamers and madmen4 ,optical ,instruments4--,there were practical inventions in optical instruments long before this century4 ,achromatic and other lenses were known1 and the microscope1 the telescope and spectacles4 ,the inventive genius of this century in the field of optics has not eclipsed the telescope and microscope of former ages4 ,they were the fruits of the efforts of many ages and of many minds1 although ,hans ,lippersheim of ,holland in #afjh appears to have made the first successful instrument 8for seeing things at a distance40 ,galileo soon thereafter greatly improved and increased its capacity1 and was the first to direct it towards the heavens4 ,and as to the microscope1 ,dr4 ,lieberkulm1 of ,berlin1 in #agdj1 made the first successful solar microscope4 ,as well known1 it consisted essentially of two lenses and a mirror1 by which the sun's rays are reflected on the first lens1 concentrated on the object and further magnified by the second lens4 ,the depths of the stars and the minutest mote that floats in the sun beam reflect the glory of those inventions4 ,the invention of ,john ,dolland of ,london1 about #ageh1 of the achromatic lens should be borne in mind in connection with telescopes1 microscopes1 etc4 ,he it was who invented the combination of two lenses1 one concave and the other convex1 one of flint glass and the other of crown glass1 which1 refracting in contrary ways1 neutralised the dispersion of colour rays and produced a clear1 colourless light4 ,many improvements and discoveries in optics and optical instruments have been made during the century1 due to the researches of such scientists as ,arago1 ,brewster1 ,young1 ,fresnel1 ,airy1 ,hamilton1 ,lloyd1 ,cauchy and others1 and of the labours of the army of skilled experts and mechanicians who have followed their lead4 ,sir ,david ,brewster1 born in ,scotland in #agha1 made 7#ahaj-ahdj7 many improvements in the construction of the microscope and telescope1 invented the kaleidoscope1 introduced in the stereoscope the principles and leading features which those beautiful instruments still embody1 and rendered it popular among scientists and artists4 ,it is said that ,prof4 ,eliot of ,edinburgh in #ahcd was the first to conceive of the idea of a stereoscope1 by which two different pictures of the same object1 taken by photography1 to correspond to the two different positions of an object as viewed by the two eyes1 are combined into one view by two reflecting mirrors set at an angle of about #de1 and conveying to the eyes a single reflection of the object as a solid body4 ,but ,sir ,charles ,wheaton in #ahch constructed the first instrument1 and in #ahdi ,brewster introduced the present form of lenticular lenses4 ,brewster also demonstrated the utility of dioptric lenses1 and zones in lighthouse illumination2 and in which field ,faraday and ,tyndall also subsequently worked with the addition of electrical appliances4 ,the labours of these three men have illuminated the wildest waters of the sea and preserved a thousand fleets of commerce and of war from awful shipwreck4 ,as illustrating the difficulties sometimes encountered in introducing an invention into use1 the ,american ,journal of ,chemistry some years ago related that the ,abb ,moigno1 in introducing the stereoscope to the savants of ,france1 first took it to ,arago1 but ,arago had a defect of vision which made him see double1 and he could only see in it a medley of four pictures2 then the ,abb went to ,savart1 but unfortunately ,savart had but one eye and was quite incapable of appreciating the thing4 ,then ,becquerel was next visited1 but he was nearly blind and could see nothing in the new optical toy4 ,not discouraged1 the ,abb then called upon ,puillet of the ,conservatoire des ,arts et ,metiers4 ,puillet was much interested1 but he was troubled with a squint which presented to his anxious gaze but a blurred mixture of images4 ,lastly ,brot was tried4 ,brot believed in the corpuscular theory of light1 and was opposed to the undulatory theory1 and the good ,abb not being able to assure him that the instrument did not contradict his theory1 ,brot refused to have anything to do with it4 ,in spite1 however1 of the physical disabilities of scientists1 the stereoscope finally made its way in ,france4 ,besides increasing the power of the eye to discover the secrets and beauties of nature1 modern invention has turned upon the eye itself and displayed the wonders existing there1 behind its dark glass doors4 ,it was ,helmholtz who in #ahea described his ,ophthalmoscope4 ,he arranged a candle so that its rays of light1 falling on an inclined reflector1 were thrown through the pupil of the patient's eye1 whose retina reflected the image received on the retina back to the mirror where it could be viewed by the observer4 ,this image was the background of the eye1 and its delicate blood vessels and tissues could thus be observed4 ,this instrument was improved and it gave rise to the contrivance of many delicate surgical instruments for operating on the eye4 ,the ,spectroscope is an instrument by which the colours of the solar rays are separated and viewed1 as well as those of other incandescent bodies4 ,by it1 not only the elements of the heavenly bodies have been determined1 but remarkable results have been had in analysing well-known metals and discovering new ones4 ,its powers and its principles have been so developed during the century by the discoveries1 inventions and investigations of ,herschel1 ,wollaston1 ,fraunhofer1 ,bronsen and ,kirchoff1 ,steinheil1 ,tyndall1 ,huggins1 ,draper and others1 that spectrum analysis has grown from the separation of light into its colours by the prism of ,newton1 to what ,dr4 ,huggins has aptly termed 8a new sense40 ,we have further referred to this wonderful discovery in the ,chapter on ,chemistry4 ,the inventions and improvements in optical instruments gave rise to great advances in the making of lenses1 based on scientific principles1 and not resting alone on hard work and experience4 ,alvan ,clark a son of ,america1 and ,prof4 ,ernst ,abbe of ,germany1 have within the last third of the century produced a revolution in the manufacture of lenses1 and thereby extended the realms of knowledge to new worlds of matter in the heavens and on earth4 ,solarmeter4--,in #ahie a ,united ,states patent was granted to ,mr4 ,bechler for an instrument called a solarmeter4 ,it is designed for taking observations of heavenly bodies and recording mechanically the parts of the astronomical triangle used in navigation and like work4 ,its chief purpose is to determine the position of the compass error of a ship at sea independently of the visibility of the sea horizon4 ,if the horizon is clouded1 and the sun or a known star is visible1 a ship's position can still be determined by the solarmeter4 ,instruments for ,measuring the ,position and ,distances of ,unseen ,objects4--,some of the latest of such instruments will enable one to see and shoot at an object around a corner1 or at least out of sight4 ,thus a ,united ,states patent was granted to ,fiske in #ahhi1 wherein it is set forth that by stationing observers at points distant from a gun1 which points are at the extremities of a known base line1 and which command a view of the area within the range of the gun1 the observers discover the position and range of the object by triangulation and set certain pointers4 ,by means of electrical connection between those pointers and pointers at the gun station based on the system of the ,wheatstone bridge1 the latter pointers1 or the guns themselves serving as pointers1 may be placed in position to indicate the line of fire4 ,by a nice arrangement of mirror and lenses attached to a firearm the same object may be accomplished4 ,similar apparatuses in which the reflectory surfaces of mirrors mounted on an elevated frame-work1 and known as ,polemoscopes and ,altiscopes and ,range-,finders1 have also been invented1 and used with artillery4 ,but such devices may be profitably used for more peaceful and amusing purposes4 ,born with the ear attuned to music and the eye to observe beauty1 the hand of ,art was to trace and make permanent the fleeting forms which melody and the eye impressed upon the soul of man4 ,in fact modern science has demonstrated that tones and colours are inseparable4 ,bell and ,tainter with their photophone have converted the undulatory waves of light into the sweetest music4 ,reversing the process1 beautiful flashes of light have been produced from musical vibrations by the phonophote of ,m4 ,coulon and the phonoscope of ,henry ,edmunds4 ,entrancing as the story is1 we can only here allude to a few of those discoveries and inventions that have become the handmaidens of the art which guided the chisel of ,phidias and inspired the brush of ,raphael4 ,photography4--,the art of producing permanent images of the 8human face divine10 natural scenes1 and other objects1 by the agency of light1 is due more to the discoveries of the chemist than to the inventions of the mechanic2 and to the chemists of this century4 ,at the same time a mechanical invention of old times became a necessary appliance in the reduction of the theories of the chemists to practice3--,the ,camera ,obscura1 that dark box in which a mirror is placed1 provided also with a piece of ground glass or white cardboard paper1 and having a projecting part at one end in which a lens is placed1 whereby when the lens part is directed to an object an image of the same is thrown by the rays of light focused by the lens upon the mirror1 and reflected by the mirror to the glass or paper board1 was invented by ,roger ,bacon about #abig1 or by ,alberta in #adcg1 described by ,leonardo da ,vinci in #aejj as an imitation of the structure of the eye1 again by ,baptista ,porta in #aehi1 and remodelled by ,sir ,isaac ,newton in #agjj4 ,until the #aith century it was used only in the taking of sketches and scenes on or from the card or glass on which the reflection was thrown4 ,celebrated chemists such as ,sheele of the #ahth century1 and ,ritter1 ,wollaston1 ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 ,young1 ,gay-,lussac1 ,thenard1 and others in the early part of the #aith century1 began to turn their attention to the chemical and molecular changes which the sunlight and its separate rays effected in certain substances1 and especially upon certain compounds of silver4 ,in sensitising the receiving paper1 glass1 or metal with such a compound it must necessarily be protected from exposure to sunlight1 and this fact1 together with the desire to sensitise the image produced by the camera1 not only suggested but seemed to render that instrument indispensable to photography4 ,nevertheless the experiments of chemists fell short of the high mark1 and it was reserved for an artist to unite the efforts of the sun and the chemists in a successful instrument4 ,it was ,louis ,jacques ,mand ,daguerre1 born at ,corneilles1 ,france1 in #aghi1 and who died in #ahea1 who was the first to reduce to practice the invention called after his name4 ,he was a brilliant scene painter1 and especially successful in painting panoramas4 ,in #ahbb1 assisted by ,bouton1 he had invented the diorama1 by which coloured lights representing the various changes of the day and season were thrown upon the canvasses in his beautiful panoramas of ,rome1 ,london1 ,naples and other great cities4 ,several years previous to #ahci he and ,joseph ,n4 ,niepce1 learning of the efforts of chemists in that line1 began independently1 and then together1 to develop the art of obtaining permanent copies of objects produced by the chemical action of the sun4 ,niepce died while they were thus engaged4 ,daguerre prosecuted his researches alone1 and toward the close of #ahch his success was such that he made known his invention to ,arago1 and ,arago announced it in an eloquent and enthusiastic address to the ,french ,academy of ,sciences in ,january #ahci4 ,it at once excited great attention1 which was heightened by the pictures produced by the new process4 ,the ,french ,government1 in consideration of the details of the invention and its improvements being made public and on request of ,daguerre1 granted him an annuity and one also to ,niepce's son4 ,at first only pictures of natural objects were taken2 but in learning of ,daguerre's process ,dr4 ,john ,william ,draper of ,new ,york1 a native of ,england and adopted son of ,america1 the brilliant author of ,the ,intellectual ,development of ,europe1 and other great works1 in the same year1 #ahci1 took portraits of persons by photography1 and he was the first to do this4 ,draper was also the first in ,america to reveal the wonders of the spectroscope2 and he was first to show that each colour of the spectrum had its own peculiar chemical effect4 ,this was in #ahdg4 ,the sun was now fairly harnessed in the service of man in the new great art of ,photography4 ,natural philosophers1 chemists1 inventors1 mechanics1 all now pressed forward1 and still press forward to improve the art1 to establish new growths from the old art1 and extend its domains4 ,those domains have the generic term of ,photo-,processes4 ,daguerreotypy1 while the father of them all1 is now hardly practised as ,daguerre practised it1 and has become a small subordinate sub-division of the great class4 ,yet more faithful likenesses are not yet produced than by this now old process4 ,among the children of the ,photo-,process family are the ,calotype1 ,ambrotype1 ,ferreotype1 ,collodion and ,silver ,printing1 ,carbon ,printing1 ,heliotype1 ,heliogravure1 ,photoengraving 7relief intaglio-,woodburytype71 ,photolithography2 ,alberttype2 ,photozincograph1 ,photogelatine-printing2 ,photomicrography 7to depict microscopic objects71 ,kinetographs1 and ,photosculpture4 ,a world of mechanical contrivances have been invented3--,octnometers1 ,baths1 ,burnishing tools1 ,cameras and ,camera stands1 ,magazine and ,roll holders2 ,dark rooms and ,focussing devices1 ,heaters and ,driers2 ,exposure ,meters1 etc4 etc4 ,the ,kinetograph1 for taking a series of pictures of rapidly moving objects1 and by which the living object1 person or persons1 are made to appear moving before us as they moved when the picture was taken1 is a marvellous invention2 and yet simple when the process is understood4 ,photography and printing have combined to revolutionise the art of illustration4 ,exact copies of an original1 whether of a painting or a photograph1 are now produced on paper with all the original shades and colours4 ,the long-sought-for problem of photographing in colours has in a measure been solved4 ,the 8three colour processes0 is the name given to the new offspring of the inventors which reproduces by the camera the natural colours of objects4 ,the scientists ,maxwell ,young and ,helmholtz established the theory that the three colours1 red1 green1 and blue1 were the primary colours1 and from a mixture of these1 secondary colours are produced4 ,henry ,collen in #ahfe laid down the lines on which the practical reduction should take place2 and within the last decade ,f4 ,e4 ,ives of ,philadelphia has invented the ,photochromoscope for producing pictures in their natural colours4 ,the process consists in blending in one picture the separate photographic views taken on separate negative plates1 each sensitised to receive one of the primary colours1 which are then exposed and blended simultaneously in a triple camera4 ,plates and films and many other articles and processes have helped to establish the ,art of ,photography on its new basis4 ,among the minor inventions relating to ,art1 mention may be made of that very useful article the lead pencil1 which all have employed so much time in sharpening to the detriment of time and clean hands4 ,within a decade1 pencils in which the lead or crayon is covered instead of with wood1 with slitted1 perforated or creased paper1 spirally rolled thereon1 and on which by unrolling a portion at a time a new point is exposed2 or that other style in which a number of short1 sharpened marking leads1 or crayons1 are arranged in series and adapted to be projected one after the other as fast as worn away4 ,in ,painting modern inventions and discoveries have simply added to the instrumentalities of genius but have created no royal road to the art made glorious by ,titian and ,raphael4 ,it has given to the artists1 through its chemists1 a world of new colours1 and through its mechanics new and convenient appliances4 ,air ,brushes have proved a great help by which the paint or other colouring matter is sprayed in heavy1 light1 or almost invisible showers to produce backgrounds by the force of air blown upon the pigments held in drops at the end of a fine spraying tube4 ,made of larger proportions1 this brush has been used for fresco painting1 and for painting large objects1 such as buildings1 which it admits of doing with great rapidity4 ,a description of modern methods of applying colours to porcelain and pottery is given in the chapter treating of those subjects4 ,telegraphic pictures3--,perhaps it is appropriate in closing this chapter that reference be made to that process by which the likeness of the distant reader may be taken telegraphically4 ,a picture in relief is first made by the swelled gelatine or other process2 a tracing point is then moved in the lines across the undulating surface of the pictures1 and the movements of this tracer are imparted by suitable electrical apparatus to a cutter or engraving tool at the opposite end of the line and there reproduced upon a suitable substance4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,safes ,,and ,,locks4 ,prior to the century safes were not constructed to withstand the test of intense heat4 ,efforts were numerous1 however1 to render them safe against the entrance of thieves1 but the ingenuity of the thieves advanced more rapidly than the ingenuity of safe-makers4 ,and the race between these two classes of inventors still continues4 ,for with the exercise of a vast amount of ingenuity in intricate locks1 aided by all the advancement of science as to the nature of metals1 their tough manufacture and their resistance to explosives1 thieves still manage to break in and steal4 ,the only sure protection against burglars at the close of the nineteenth century appears to consist of what it was at the close of any previous century--the preponderance of physical force and the best weapons4 ,among the latest inventions are electrical connections with the safe1 whereby tampering therewith alarms one or more watchmen at a near station4 ,a classification of safes embraces1 ,fire-proof1 ,burglar-proof1 ,safe ,bolt ,works1 ,express and ,deposit ,safes and ,boxes1 ,circular ,doors1 ,pressure ,mechanism1 and ,water and ,air ,protective ,devices4 ,the attention of the earliest inventors of the century were directed toward making safes fire-proof4 ,in ,england the first patent granted for a fire-proof safe was to ,richard ,scott in #ahja4 ,it had two casings1 an inner and outer one1 including the door1 and the interspace was filled in with charcoal1 or wood1 and treated with a solution of alkaline salt4 ,this idea of interspacing filled in with non-combustible material has been generally followed ever since4 ,the particular inventions in that line consist in the discovery and appliance of new lining materials1 variations in the form of the interspacing1 and new methods in the construction of the casings1 and the selection of the best metals for such construction4 ,in #ahcd ,william ,marr of ,england patented a lining for a double metallic chest1 filled with non-combustible materials such as mica1 or talc clay1 lime1 and graphite4 ,asbestos commenced to be used about the same time4 ,the great fire in ,new ,york ,city in #ahce1 destroying hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of property of every description1 gave a great impetus to the invention of fire-proof safes in ,america4 ,b4 ,g4 ,wilder there patented in #ahdc his celebrated safe1 now extensively used throughout the world4 ,it consisted of a double box of wrought-iron plates strengthened at the edges with bar iron1 with a bar across the middle2 and as a filling for the interspaces he used hydrated gypsum1 hydraulic cement1 plaster of paris1 steatite1 alum1 and the dried residuum of soda water4 ,herring was another ,american who invented celebrated safes1 made with a boiler-iron exterior1 a hardened steel inner safe1 with the interior filled with a casting of franklinite around rods of soft steel4 ,thus the earth1 air and water were ransacked for lining materials1 in some cases more for the purpose of obtaining a patent than to accomplish any real advance in the art4 ,water itself was introduced as a lining1 made to flow through the safes1 sometimes from the city mains1 and so retained that when the temperature in case of fire reached #bab ,f4 it became steam2 and an arrangement for introducing steam in place of water was contrived4 ,among other lining materials found suitable were soapstone1 alumina1 ammonia1 copperas1 starch1 ,epsom salts1 and gypsum1 paper1 pulp1 and alum1 and a mixture of various other materials4 ,after safes were produced that would come out of fiery furnaces where they had been buried for days without even the smell of fire or smoke upon their contents1 inventors commenced to direct their attention to burglar-proof safes4 ,chubb1 in #ahce1 patented a process of rendering wooden safes burglar proof by lining them with steel1 or case-hardened iron plate4 ,newton in #ahec produced one made of an outer shell of cast iron1 an interior network of wrought iron rods1 and fluid iron poured between these1 so that a compound mass was formed of different degrees of resistance to turn aside the burglar's tools4 ,chubb again1 in #aheg1 and in subsequent years1 and ,chartwood1 ,glocker1 and ,thompson and ,tann and others in ,england invented new forms to prevent the insertion of wedges and the drilling by tools4 ,hall and ,marvin of the ,united ,states also invented safes for the same purpose4 ,hall had thick steel plates dovetailed together2 and angle irons tenoned at the corners4 ,marvin's safe was globeshaped1 to present no salient points for the action of tools1 made of chrome steel1 mounted in this shape on a platform1 or enclosed in a fire-proof safe4 ,herring also invented a safe in which he hinged and grooved the doors with double casings1 and which he hung with a lever-hinge1 provided the doors with separate locks and packed all the joints with rubber to prevent the operation of the air pump--which had become a dangerous device of burglars with which to introduce explosives to blow open the doors4 ,still later and more elaborate means have been used to frustrate the burglars4 ,electricity has been converted into an automatic warder to guard the castle and the safe and to give an alarm to convenient stations when the locks or doors are meddled with and the proper manipulation not used4 ,express safes for railroad cars have been made of parts telescoped or crowded together by hydraulic power1 requiring heavy machinery for locking and unlocking1 and this machinery is located in machine shops along the route and not accessible to burglars4 ,about #ahae inventors commenced to produce devices to show with certainty if a lock had been tampered with4 ,the keyhole was closed by a revolving metallic curtain1 and paper was secured over the keyhole4 ,as a further means of detection photographs of some irregular object are made1 one of which is placed over the keyhole and the other is retained4 ,this prevents the substitution of one piece of paper for another piece without detection4 ,a large number of patents have been taken out on glass coverings for locks which have to be broken before the lock can be turned4 ,these are called seal locks4 ,locks of various kinds1 consisting at least of the two general features of a bolt and a key to move the bolt1 have existed from very ancient days4 ,the ,egyptians1 the ,hebrews and the ,chinese1 and ,oriental nations generally had locks and keys of ponderous size4 ,isaiah speaks of the key of the house of ,david2 and ,homer writes sonorously of the lock in the house of ,penelope with its brazen key1 the respondent wards1 the flying bars and valves which1 8,loud as a bull makes hills and valley ring1 ,so roared the lock when it released the spring40 ,the castles1 churches and convents of the middle ages had their often highly ornamental locks and their warders to guard and open them4 ,later1 locks were invented with complex wards4 ,these are carved pieces of metal in the lock which fit into clefts or grooves in the key and prevent the lock from being opened except by its own proper key4 ,as early as #afej the ,dutch had invented the ,letter lock1 the progenitor of the modern permutation lock1 consisting of a lock the bolt of which is surrounded by several rings on which were cut the letters of the alphabet1 which by a prearrangement on the part of the owner were made to spell a certain word or number of words before the lock could be opened4 ,carew1 in verses written in #afba1 refers to one of these locks as follows3-- 8,as doth a lock that goes with letters2 for1 till every one be known1 ,the lock's as fast as though you had found none40 ,the art had also advanced in the eighteenth century to the use of tumblers in locks1 the lever or latch or plate which falls into a notch of the bolt and prevents it from being shot until it has been raised or released by the action of the key4 ,barron in ,england in #aggh obtained a patent for such a lock4 ,joseph ,bramah1 who has before been referred to in connection with the hydraulic press he invented1 also in #aghd invented and patented in ,england a lock which obtained a world-wide reputation and a century's extensive use4 ,it was the first1 or among the first of locks which troubled modern burglars' picks4 ,its leading features were a key with longitudinal slots1 a barrel enclosing a spring1 plates1 called sliders1 notched unequally and resting against the spring1 a plate with a central perforation and slits leading therefrom to engage the notches of the slides simultaneously and allow the frame to be turned by the key so as to actuate the bolt4 ,chubb and ,hobbs of ,england made important improvements in tumbler locks1 which for a long time were regarded as unpickable4 ,most important advances have been made during the century in ,combination or ,permutation ,locks and ,time ,locks4 ,for a long time permutation or combination locks consisted of modifications of one general principle1 and that was the ,dutch letter lock already referred to1 or the wheel lock1 composed of a series of disks with letters around their edges4 ,the interior arrangement is such as to prevent the bolt being shot until a series of letters were in line1 forming a combination known only to the operator4 ,time locks are constructed on the principle of clockwork1 so that they cannot be opened even with the proper key until a regulated interval of time has elapsed4 ,among the most celebrated combination and time locks of the century are those known as the ,yale locks1 chiefly the inventions of ,louis ,yale1 ,jr41 of ,philadelphia4 ,the ,yale double dial lock is a double combination bank or safe lock having two dials1 each operating its own set of tumblers and bolts1 so that two persons1 each in possession of his own combination1 must be present at a certain time in order to unlock it4 ,if this double security is not desired1 one person alone may be possessed of both combinations1 or the combinations may be set as one4 ,in their time locks a safe can be set so as to not only render it impossible to unlock except at a predetermined time each day1 but the arrangement is such that on intervening ,sundays the time mechanism will entirely prevent the operation of the lock or the opening of the door on that day4 ,another feature of the lock is the thin1 flat keys with bevel-edged notchings1 or with longitudinal sinuous corrugations to fit a narrow slit of a cylinder lock4 ,to make locks for use with the corrugated keys machines of as great ingenuity as the locks were devised4 ,in such a lock the keyhole1 which is a little very narrow slit1 is formed sinuously to correspond to the sinuosities of the key4 ,no other key will fit it1 nor can it be picked by a tool1 as the tool must be an exact duplicate of the key in order to enter and move in the keyhole4 ,of late years numerous locks have been invented for the special uses to which they are to be applied4 ,thus1 one type of lock is that for safety deposit vaults and boxes1 in which a primary key in the keeping of a janitor operates alone the tumblers or guard mechanism to set the lock1 while the box owner may use a secondary key to completely unlock the box or vault4 ,master1 or secondary key locks1 are now in common use in hotels and apartment-houses1 by which the key of the door held by a guest will unlock only his door1 but the master key held by the manager or janitor will unlock all the doors4 ,this saves the duplication and multiplicity of a vast number of extra keys4 ,the value of a simple1 cheap1 safe1 effective lock in a place where its advantages are appreciated by all classes of people everywhere is illustrated in the application of the modern rotary registering lock to the single article of mail bags4 ,formerly it was not unusual that losses by theft of mail matter were due in part to the extraction of a portion of the mail matter by unlocking or removing the lock and then restoring it in place4 ,the ,united ,states1 with its #gf1jjj1jjj of people1 found it necessary to use in its mail service hundreds of thousands of mail pouches1 having locks for securing packages of valuable matter4 ,but these locks are of such character that it is impossible for anyone to break into the bag and conceal the evidence of his crime4 ,the unfortunate thief is reduced to the necessity of stealing the whole pouch4 ,losses under this system have grown so small 8as to be almost incapable of mathematical calculation40 ,safe and convenient locks for so very many purposes are now so common1 even to prevent the unauthorised use of an umbrella1 or the unfriendly taking away of a bicycle or other vehicle1 that notwithstanding the nineteenth century dynamite with which burglars still continue to blow open the best constructed safes and vaults1 still a universal sense of greater security in such matters is beginning to manifest itself2 and not only the loss of valuables by fire and theft is becoming the exception1 but the temptation to steal is being gradually removed4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,carrying ,,machines4 ,the reflecting observer delights occasionally to shift the scenes of the present stage and bring to the front the processions of the past4 ,that famous triumphal one1 for instance1 of ,ptolemy of ,philadelphus1 at ,alexandria1 about #bgj ,b4 ,c41 then in the midst of his power and glory1 in which there were chariots and cumbrous wagons drawn by elephants and goats1 antelopes1 oryxes1 buffaloes1 ostriches1 gnus and zebras2 then a tribe of the ,scythians1 when with many scores of oxen they were shifting their light1 big round houses1 made of felt cloth and mounted on road carts1 to a new camping place2 next a wild1 mad dash of the ,roman charioteers around the amphitheatre1 or a triumphal march with chariots of carved ivory bearing aloft the ensigns of victory2 and now an army of the ancient ,britons driving through these same charioteers of ,csar with their own rude chariots1 having sharp hooks and crooked iron blades extending from their axles2 now a 8,lady's ,chair0 of the fourteenth century--the state carriage of the time--with a long1 wooden-roofed and windowed body1 having a door at each end1 resting on a cumbrous frame without springs1 and the axles united rigidly to a long reach2 next comes a line of imposing clumsy state coaches of the sixteenth century1 with bodies provided with pillars to support the roof1 and adorned with curtains of cloth and leather1 but still destitute of springs2 and here in stately approach comes a line of more curious and more comfortable 8royal coaches0 of the seventeenth century1 when springs were for the first time introduced2 and now rumbles forward a line of those famous old ,english stage coaches originated in the seventeenth century1 which were two days flying from ,oxford to ,london1 a distance of fifty-five miles2 but a scene in the next century shows these ponderous vehicles greatly improved1 and the modern ,english stage mail-coaches of ,palmer in line4 ,referring to ,palmer's coaches1 ,knight says3 8,palmer1 according to ,de ,quincey1 was twice as great a man as ,galileo1 because he not only invented mail-coaches 7of more general practical utility than ,jupiter's satellites71 but married the daughter of a duke1 and succeeded in getting the post-office to use them4 ,this revolutionised the whole business40 ,the coaches were built with steel springs1 windows of great strength and lightness combined1 boots for the baggage1 seats for a few outside passengers1 and a guard with a grand uniform1 to protect the mail and stand for the dignity of his majesty's government4 ,by the system of changing horses frequently great speed was attained1 and the distance from ,edinburgh to ,london1 #djj miles1 was made in #dj hours4 ,other lines of coaches1 arranged to carry double the number of passengers outside than in1 fourteen to six1 were made heavier1 and took the road more leisurely4 ,the carts and conveyances of the poor were cumbrous1 heavy contrivances1 without springs1 mostly two-wheel1 heavy carts4 ,the middle classes at that time were not seen riding in coaches of their own1 but generally on horseback1 as the coaches of the rich were too expensive1 and the conveyances of the poor were too rude in construction1 and too painful in operation4 ,let the observer now pass to the largest and most varied exhibition of the best types of modern vehicles of every description that the world had ever seen1 the ,international ,exhibition at ,philadelphia in #ahgf1 and behold what wonderful changes art1 science1 invention1 and mechanical skill had wrought in this domain4 ,here were the carriages of the rich1 constructed of the finest and most appropriate woods that science and experience had found best adapted for the various parts1 requiring the combination of strength and lightness1 the best steel for the springs1 embodying in themselves a world of invention and discovery1 and splendid finish and polish in all parts unknown to former generations4 ,here1 too1 were found vehicles of a great variety for the comfort and convenience of every family1 from the smallest to the largest means4 ,the farmer and the truckman were especially provided for4 ,one establishment making an exhibition at that time1 employed some six hundred or seven hundred hands1 four hundred horse-power of steam1 turning out sixty wagons a day1 or one in every ten minutes of each working day in the year4 ,here ,england showed her victoria1 her broughams1 landaus1 phtons1 sporting-carts1 wagonettes1 drays and dog-carts2 ,canada her splendid sleighs2 ,france her superb barouches1 carriages1 double-top sociables1 the celebrated ,collinge patent axle-trees and springs2 ,germany the best carriage axles1 springs and gears2 ,russia its famous low-wheeled fast-running carriages2 ,norway its carryalls1 or sulkies1 and sleighs strongly built1 and made of wood from those vast forests that ever abound in strength and beauty4 ,one ancient sleigh there was1 demurely standing by its modern companions1 said to have been built in #afbe1 and it was still good4 ,america stood foremost in carriage wheels of best materials and beautiful workmanship1 bent rims1 turned and finished spokes1 mortised hubs1 steel tires1 business and farm wagons1 carts and baby carriages4 ,each trade and field of labour had its own especially adapted complete and finished vehicle4 ,there were hay wagons and hearses2 beer wagons and ice carts2 doctors' buggies1 express wagons1 drays1 package delivery wagons2 peddlers' wagons with all the shelves and compartments of a miniature store1 skeleton wagons1 and sportsmen's1 and light and graceful two and four 8wheelers40 ,beautiful displays of bent and polished woods1 a splendid array of artistic1 elegant1 and useful harnesses1 and all the traps that go to make modern means of conveyance by animal power so cheap1 convenient1 strong and attractive that civilisation seemed to have reached a stop in principles of construction of vehicles and in their materials1 and since contents itself in improving details4 ,to this century is due the development of that class of carriages1 the generic term for which is ,velocipedes--a word which would imply a vehicle propelled by the feet1 although it has been applied to vehicles propelled by the hands and steered by the feet4 ,this name originated with the ,french1 and several ,frenchmen patented velocipedes from #ahjj to #ahba4 ,tricycles having three wheels1 propelled by the hands and steered with the feet1 were also invented in the early part of the century4 ,the term ,bicycle does not appear to have been used until about #ahfi4 ,although such structures had been referred to in publications before1 yet the modern bicycle appears to have been first practically constructed in ,germany4 ,in #ahaf ,baron von ,drais of ,manheim made a vehicle consisting of two wheels arranged one before the other1 and connected by a bar1 the forward wheel axled in a fork which was swiveled to the front end of the bar and had handles to guide the machine1 with a seat on the bar midway between the two wheels1 and arranged so that the driver should bestride the bar4 ,but there was no support for the rider's feet1 and the vehicle was propelled by thrusting his feet alternately against the ground4 ,this machine was called the 8,draisine0 and undoubtedly was the progenitor of the modern bicycle4 ,denis ,johnson patented in ,england in #ahah a similar vehicle which he named the 8,pedestrian ,curricle40 ,another style was called the 8,dandy ,horse40 ,another form was that of ,gompertz in ,england in #ahba1 who contrived a segmental rack connected with a frame over the front wheel and engaging a pinion on the wheel axle4 ,with some improvements added by others1 the vehicle came into quite extensive and popular use in some of the cities in ,europe and ,america4 ,it was also named the 8,dandy0 and the 8,hobby ,horse40 ,treadles were subsequently applied1 but after a time the machine fell into disuse and was apparently forgotten4 ,in #ahfc1 however1 the idea was revived by a ,frenchman1 ,michaux1 who added the crank to the front wheel axle of the 8,draisine0 7also called the 8clrifr407 ,in #ahff ,pierre ,lallement of ,france1 having adapted the idea of the crank and pedal movement and obtained a patent1 went to ,america1 where after two years of public indifference the machine suddenly sprung into favour4 ,in #ahfi a popular wave in its favour also spread over part of ,europe1 and all classes of people were riding it4 ,but the wheels had hard tires1 the roads and many of the streets were not smooth1 the vehicle got the name of the 8bone-breaker0 and its use ceased4 ,during the few years following some new styles of frames were invented4 ,thus some very high wheels1 with a small wheel in front1 or one behind1 wheels with levers in addition to the crank1 etc41 and then for a time the art rested again4 ,some one then recalled the fact that ,mc,millan1 a ,scotchman1 about #ahch-ahda1 had used two low wheels like the 8,draisine0 with a driving gear1 and that ,dalzell1 also of ,scotland1 had in #ahde made a similar machine4 ,parts of these old machines were found and the wheel reconstructed4 ,then in the seventies the entire field was thrown open to women by the invention in ,england of the 8drop frame10 which removed completely the difficulty as to arrangement of the skirts and thus doubled the interest in and desire for a comfortable riding machine4 ,but they were still1 to a great degree1 8bone-breakers40 ,then ,j4 ,b4 ,dunlop1 a veterinary surgeon of ,belfast1 ,ireland1 in order to meet the complaints of his son that the wheel was too hard1 thought of the pneumatic rubber tire1 and applied it with great success4 ,this was a very notable and original re-invention4 ,a re-invention1 because a man 8born before his time0 had invented and patented the pneumatic tire more than forty years before4 ,it was not wanted then and everybody had forgotten it4 ,this man was ,robert ,william ,thomson1 a civil engineer of ,adelphi1 ,middlesex county1 ,england4 ,in #ahde he obtained a patent in ,england1 and shortly after in the ,united ,states4 ,in both patents he describes how he proposed to make a tire for all kinds of vehicles consisting of a hollow rubber tube1 with an inner mixed canvas and rubber lining1 a tube and a screw cup by which to inflate it1 and several ways for preventing punctures4 ,to obviate the bad results of punctures he proposed also to make his tire in sectional compartments1 so that if one compartment was punctured the others would still hold good4 ,he also proposed to use vulcanised rubber1 thus utilising the then very recent discovery of ,goodyear of mixing sulphur with soft rubber1 and to apply the same to the canvas lining4 ,and1 now1 when the last decade of the century had been reached1 and after a century's hard work by the inventors1 the present wonderful vehicle1 known as the 8safety bicycle10 had obtained a successful and permanent foothold among the vehicles of mankind4 ,proper proportions1 low wheels1 chain-gearing1 treadles1 pedals and cranks1 cushion and pneumatic tires1 drop frames1 steel spokes like a spider's web1 ball-bearings for the crank and axle parts1 a spring-supported cushioned seat which could be raised or lowered1 adjustable handles1 and the clearest-brained scientific mechanics to construct all parts from the best materials and with mathematical exactness--all this has been done4 ,to these accomplishments have been added a great variety of tires to prevent wear and puncturing1 among which are self-healing tires1 having a lining of viscous or plastic rubber to close up automatically the air holes4 ,many ways of clamping the tire to the rim have been contrived4 ,so have brakes of various descriptions1 some consisting of disks on the driving shaft1 brought into frictional contact by a touch of the toe on the pedal1 as a substitute for those applied to the surface of the tire1 known as 8spoon brakes02 saddles1 speed-gearings1 men's machines in which by the removal of the upper bar the machine is converted into one for the use of women2 the substitution of the direct action1 consisting of beveled gearing for the sprocket chain1 etc41 etc4 ,the ideas of ,william ,thomson as to pneumatic and cushioned tires are now1 after a lapse of fifty years1 generally adopted4 ,even sportsmen were glad to seize upon them1 and wheels of sulkies1 provided with the pneumatic tires1 have enabled them to lower the record of trotting horses4 ,their use on many other vehicles has accomplished his objects1 8of lessening the power required to draw carriages1 rendering the motion easier1 and diminishing the noise40 ,it is impossible to overlook the fact in connection with this subject that the processes and machinery especially invented to make the various parts of a bicycle are as wonderful as the wheel itself4 ,counting the spokes there are1 it is estimated1 more than #cjj different parts in such a wheel4 ,the best and latest inventions and discoveries in the making of metals1 wood1 rubber and leather have been drawn upon in supplying these useful carriers4 ,and what a revolution they have produced in the making of good roads1 the saving of time1 the dispatch of business1 and more than all else1 in the increase of the pleasure1 the health and the amusement of mankind6 ,it was quite natural that when the rubber cushion and pneumatic tires rounded the pleasure of easy and noiseless riding in vehicles that ,motor vehicles should be revived and improved4 ,so we have the ,automobiles in great variety4 ,invention has been and is still being greatly exercised as to the best motive power1 in the adaption of electric motors1 oil and gasoline or vapour engines1 springs and air pumps1 in attempts to reduce the number of complicated parts1 and to render less strenuous the mental and muscular strain of the operator4 ,traction ,engines4--,the old road engines that antedated the locomotives are being revived1 and new ideas springing from other arts are being incorporated in these useful machines to render them more available than in former generations4 ,many of the principles and features of motor vehicles1 but on a heavier scale1 are being introduced to adapt them to the drawing of far heavier loads4 ,late devices comprise a spring link between the power and the traction wheel to prevent too sudden a start1 and permit a yielding motion2 steering devices by which the power of the engine is used to steer the machine2 and application of convenient and easily-worked brakes4 ,an example of a modern traction engine may be found attached to one or more heavy cars adapted for street work1 and on which may be found apparatus for making the mixed materials of which the roadbed is to be constructed1 and all of which is moved along as the road or street surface is completed4 ,when these fine roads become the possession of a country light traction engines for passenger traffic will be found largely supplanting the horse and the steam railroad engines4 ,brakes1 railway and electric1 have already been referred to in the proper chapters4 ,in the latest system of railroading greater attention has been paid to the lives and limbs of those employed as workmen on the trains1 especially to those of brakemen4 ,and if corporations have been slow to adopt such merciful devices1 legislatures have stepped in to help the matter4 ,one great source of accidents in this respect has been due to the necessity of the brakemen entering between the cars while they are in motion to couple them by hand4 ,this is now being abolished by automatic couplers1 by which1 when the locking means have been withdrawn from connection or thrown up1 they will be so held until the cars meet again1 when the locking parts on the respective cars will be automatically thrown and locked1 as easily and on the same principle as the hand of one man may clasp the hand of another4 ,the comfort of passengers and the safety of freight have also been greatly increased by the invention of ,buffers on railroad cars and trains to prevent sudden and violent concussion4 ,fluid pressure car buffers1 in which a constant supply of fluid under pressure is provided by a pump or train pipe connected to the engine is one of a great variety4 ,another notable improvement in this line is the splendid vestibule trains1 in which the cars are connected to one another by enclosed passages and which at their meeting ends are provided with yieldingly supported door-like frames engaging one another by frictional contact1 usually1 whereby the shock and rocking of cars are prevented in starting and stopping1 and their oscillation reduced to a minimum4 ,as collisions and accidents cannot always be prevented1 car frames are now built in which the frames are trussed1 and made of rolled steel plates1 angles1 and channels1 whereby a car body of great resistance to telescoping or crushing is obtained4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,ships ,,and ,,ship-,,building4 8,far as the breeze can bear1 the billows foam1 ,survey our empire1 and behold our home40 8,ships are but boards10 soliloquised the crafty ,shylock1 and were this still true1 yet this present period has seen wonderful changes in construction4 ,the high castellated bows and sterns and long prows of ,the ,great ,harry1 of the seventeenth century1 and its successors in the eighteenth1 with some moderation of cumbersome matter1 gave way to lighter1 speedier forms1 first appearing in the quick-gliding ,yankee clippers1 during the first decade of the nineteenth century4 ,eminent naval architects have regarded the proportions of ,noah's ark1 #cjj cubits long1 #ej cubits broad and #cj cubits high1 in which the length was six times the breadth1 and the depth three-fifths of the breadth1 as the best combination of the elements of strength1 capacity and stability4 ,even that most modern mercantile vessel known as the 8whale-back0 with its nearly flat bottom1 vertical sides1 arched top or deck1 skegged or spoon-shaped at bow and stern1 straight deck lines1 the upper deck cabins and steering gear raised on hollow turrets1 with machinery and cargo in the main hull1 has not departed much from the safe rule of proportions of its ancient prototype4 ,but in other respects the ideas of ,noah and of the ,phnicians1 the best of ancient ship-builders1 as well as the ,northmen1 the ,dutch1 the ,french1 and the ,english1 the best ship-builders of later centuries1 were decidedly improved upon by the ,americans1 who1 as above intimated1 were revolutionizing the art and building the finest vessels in the early part of the century1 and these rivalled in speed the steam vessels for some years after steamships were ploughing the rivers and the ocean4 ,discarding the lofty decks fore and aft and ponderous topsides1 the principal characteristics of the ,american 8clippers0 were their fine sharp lines1 built long and low1 broad of beam before the centre1 sharp above the water1 and deep aft4 ,a typical vessel of this sort was the clipper ship ,great ,republic1 built by ,donald ,mc,kay of ,boston during the first half of the century4 ,she was #cbe feet long1 #ec feet wide1 #cg feet deep1 with a capacity of about #djjj tons4 ,she had four masts1 each provided with a lightning rod4 ,a single suit of her sails consisted of #ae1efc yards of canvas4 ,her keel rose for #fj feet forward1 gradually curved into the arc of a circle as it blended with the stern4 ,vessels of her type ran seventeen and eighteen miles an hour at a time when steam vessels were making only twelve or fourteen miles an hour1 the latter speed being one which it was predicted by naval engineers could not with safety be exceeded with ocean steamships4 ,these vessels directed the attention of ship-builders to two prominent features1 the shape of the bow and the length of the vessel4 ,for the old convex form of bow and stern1 the principal of an elongated wedge was substituted1 the wedge slightly hollowed on its face1 by which the waters were more easily parted and thrown aside4 ,a departure was early made in the matter of strengthening the 8ribs of oak0 to better meet the strains from the rough seas4 ,in #ahaj ,sir ,robert ,seppings1 surveyor of the ,english navy1 devised and introduced the system of diagonal bracing4 ,this was an arrangement of timbers crossing the ribs on the inside of the ship at angles of about #de1 and braced by diagonals and struts4 ,of course the great and leading event of the nineteenth century in the matter of inventions relating to ships was the introduction of steam as the motive power4 ,of this we have treated in the chapter on steam engineering4 ,the giant1 steam1 demanded and received the obeisance of every art before devoting his inexhaustible strength to their service4 ,systems of wood-working and metal manufacture must be revolutionised to give him room to work1 and to withstand the strokes of his mighty arm4 ,lord ,dundas at the beginning of the century had an iron boat built for the ,forth and ,clyde ,canal1 which was propelled by steam4 ,but the departure from the adage that 8ships are but boards0 did not take place1 however1 until about #ahbi-cj1 when the substitution of iron for wood in the construction of vessels had passed beyond the experimental stage4 ,in those years the firm of ,john ,laird of ,birkenhead began the building of practical iron vessels1 and he was followed soon by ,sir ,william ,fairbairn at ,manchester1 and ,randolph1 ,elder ,co41 and the ,fairfield ,works on the ,clyde4 ,the advantage of iron over wood in strength1 and in power to withstand tremendous shocks1 was early illustrated in the ,great ,britain built about #ahdd1 the first large1 successful1 seagoing vessel constructed4 ,not long thereafter this same vessel lay helpless upon the coast of ,ireland1 driven there by a great storm1 and beaten by the tremendous waves of the ,atlantic with a force that would have in a few hours or days broken up and pulverised a 8ship of boards10 and yet the ,great ,britain lay there several weeks1 was finally brought off1 and again restored to successful service4 ,wood and iron both have their peculiar advantages and disadvantages4 ,wood is not only lighter1 but easily procured and worked1 and cheaper1 in many small and private ship-yards where an iron frame and parts would be difficult and expensive to produce4 ,it is thought that as to the fouling of ships' bottoms a wooden hull covered with copper fouls less1 and consequently impedes the speed less2 that the damage done by shocks or the penetration of shot is not so great or difficult to repair1 and that the danger of variation of the compass by reason of local attraction of the metal is less4 ,but the advantages of iron and steel far outnumber those of wood4 ,its strength1 its adaptability for all sizes and forms and lines1 its increased cheapness1 its resistance to shot penetration1 its durability1 and now its easy procurement1 constitute qualities which have established iron ship-building as a great new and modern art4 ,in this modern revolution in iron-clad ships1 their adaptation to naval warfare was due to the genius of ,john ,ericsson1 and dates practically from the celebrated battle between the iron-clads the ,merrimac and the ,monitor in ,hampton ,roads on the ,virginia coast in the ,civil war in ,america in ,april1 #ahfb4 ,although the tendency at first in building iron and steel vessels1 especially for the navy1 was towards an entire metal structure1 later experience resulted in a more composite style1 using wood in some parts1 where found best adapted by its capacity of lightness1 non-absorption of heat and less electrical conductivity1 etc41 and at the same time protecting such interior portions by an iron shell or frame-work4 ,one great improvement in ship-building1 whether in wood or metal1 thought of and practised to some extent in former times1 but after all a child of this century1 is the building of the hull and hold in compartments1 water-tight1 and sometimes fire-proof1 so that in case of a leakage or a fire in one or more compartments1 the fire or water may be confined there and the extension of the danger to the entire ship prevented4 ,in the matter of ,marine ,propulsion1 when the steam engine was made a practical and useful servant by ,watt1 and men began to think of driving boats and ships with it1 the problem was how to adapt it to use with propelling means already known4 ,paddle-wheels and other wheels to move boats in place of oars had been suggested1 and to some extent used from time to time1 since the days of the ,romans2 and they were among the first devices used in steam vessels4 ,their whirl may still be heard on many waters4 ,learned men saw no reason why the screw of ,archimedes should not be used for the same purpose1 and the idea was occasionally advocated by ,french and ,english philosophers from at least #afhj1 by ,franklin and ,watt less than a century later1 and finally1 in #agid1 ,lyttleton of ,england obtained a patent for his 8aquatic propeller10 consisting of threads formed on a cylinder and revolving in a frame at the head1 stern1 or side of a vessel4 ,other means had been also suggested prior to #ahjj1 and by the same set of philosophers1 and experimentally used by practical builders1 such as steam-pumps for receiving the water forward1 or amidships1 and forcing it out astern1 thus creating a propulsive movement4 ,the latter part of the eighteenth century teemed with these suggestions and experiments1 but it remained for the nineteenth to see their embodiment and adaptation to successful commercial use4 ,the earliest1 most successful demonstrations of screw propellers and paddle wheels in steam vessels in the century were the construction and use of a boat with twin screws by ,col4 ,john ,stevens of ,hoboken1 ,n4 ,j41 in #ahjd and the paddle-wheel steamboat trial of ,fulton on the ,hudson in #ahjg4 ,but it was left to ,john ,ericsson1 that great ,swedish inventor1 going to ,england in #ahbf with his brain full of ideas as to steam and solar engines1 to first perfect the screw-propeller4 ,he there patented in #ahcf his celebrated propeller1 consisting of several blades or segments of a screw1 and based on such correct principles of twist that they were at once adopted and applied to steam vessels4 ,in #ahcg-ahci the knowledge of his inventions had preceded him to ,america1 where his propeller was at once introduced and used in the vessels ,frances ,b4 ,ogden and the ,robert ,e4 ,stockton 7the latter built by the ,lairds of ,birkenhead and launched in #ahcg74 ,in #ahci or #ahdj ,ericsson went to ,america1 and in #ahda he was engaged in the construction of the ,u4,s4 ship of war ,princeton1 the first naval screw warship built having propelling machinery under the water line and out of reach of shot4 ,the idea that steamships could not be safely run at a greater speed than ten or twelve miles an hour was now abandoned4 ,twice ,ericsson revolutionised the naval construction of the world by his inventions in ,america3 first by the introduction of his screw-propeller in the ,princeton2 and second1 by building the iron-clad ,monitor4 ,since ,ericsson's day other inventors have made themselves also famous by giving new twists to the tail of this famous fish and new forms to its iron-ribbed body4 ,pneumatic ,propellers operated by the expulsion of air or gas against the surrounding body of water1 and chain-propellers1 consisting of a revolving chain provided with paddles or floats1 have also been invented and tested1 with more or less successful results4 ,a great warship as she lies in some one of the vast modern ship-yards of the world1 resting securely on her long steel backbone1 from which great ribs of steel rise and curve on either side and far overhead1 like a monstrous skeleton of some huge animal that the sea alone can produce1 clothed with a skin1 also of steel2 her huge interior1 lined at bottom with an armoured deck that stretches across the entire breadth of the vessel1 and built upon this deck1 capacious steel compartments enclosing the engines and boilers1 the coal1 the magazines1 the electric plant for supplying power to various motors for lighting the ship and for furnishing the current to powerful search-lights2 having compartments for the sick1 the apothecary shop1 and the surgeon's hospital1 the men's and the officers' quarters2 above these the conning tower and the armoured pilot-house1 then the great guns interspersed among these various parts1 looking like the sunken eyes1 or protruding like the bony prominences of some awful sea monster1 is a structure that gives one an idea of the immense departure which has occurred during the last half century1 not only from the wooden walls of the navies of all the past1 but from all its mechanical arts4 ,what a great ocean liner contains and what the contributions are to modern ship-building from other modern arts is set forth in the following extract from ,mc,clure's ,magazine for ,september1 #aijj1 in describing the ,deutschland4 8,the ,deutschland1 for instance has a complete refrigerating plant1 four hospitals1 a safety deposit vault for the immense quantities of gold and silver which pass between the banks of ,europe and ,america1 eight kitchens1 a complete post-office with ,german and ,american clerks1 thirty electrical motors1 thirty-six pumps1 most of them of ,american and ,english make1 no fewer than seventy-two steam engines1 a complete drug store1 a complete fire department1 with pumps1 hose and other fire-fighting machinery1 a library1 #bfjj electric lights1 two barber shops1 room for an orchestra and brass band1 a telegraph system1 a telephone system1 a complete printing establishment1 a photographic dark room1 a cigar store1 an electric fire-alarm system1 and a special refrigerator for flowers40 ,we have seen1 in treating of safes and locks1 how burglars keep pace with the latest inventions to protect property by the use of dynamite and nitro-glycerine explosions4 ,the reverse of this practice prevails when those policemen of the seas1 the torpedo boats1 guard the treasures of the shore4 ,it is there the defenders are armed with the irresistible explosives4 ,these explosives are either planted in harbours and discharged by electricity from the shore1 or carried by very swift armoured boats1 or by boats capable of being submerged1 directed1 and propelled by mechanisms contained there and controlled from the shore1 or from another vessel2 or by boats containing all instrumentalities1 crew1 and commander1 and capable of submerging and raising itself1 and of attacking and exploding the torpedo when and where desired4 ,the latter are now considered as the most formidable and efficient class of destroyers4 ,no matter how staunch1 sound and grand in dimensions man may build his ships1 old ,neptune can still toss them4 ,but ,franklin1 a century and a half ago1 called attention to his experiments of oiling his locks when in a tempestuous mood1 and thus rendering the temper of the ,old ,man of the ,sea as placid as a summer pond4 ,ships that had become unmanageable were thus enabled1 by spreading oil on the waves from the windward side1 to be brought under control1 and dangerous surfs subdued1 so that boats could land4 ,franklin's idea of pouring oil on the troubled waters has been revived during the last quarter of the century and various means for doing it vigorously patented4 ,the means have varied in many instances1 but chiefly consist of bags and other receptacles to hold and distribute the oil upon the surrounding water with economy and uniformity4 ,at the close of the century the world was still waiting for the successful ,air-ship4 ,a few successful experiments in balloon navigation by the aid of small engines of different forms have been made since #ahee4 ,some believe that ,count ,zeppelin1 an officer of the ,german army has solved the great problem1 especially since the ascent of his ship made on ,july #b1 #aijj1 at ,lake ,constance4 ,it has been asserted that no vessel has yet been made to successfully fly unless made on the balloon principle1 and ,count ,zeppelin's boat is on that principle4 ,according to the description of ,eugen ,wolf1 an aeronaut who took part in the ascent referred to and who published an account of the same in the ,november number of ,mc,clure's1 #aijj1 it is not composed of one balloon1 but of a row of them1 and these are not exposed when inflated to every breeze that blows1 but enclosed and combined in an enormous cylindrical shell1 #dbj feet in length1 about #ch feet in diameter1 with a volume of #ad1ghj cubic yards and with ends pointed like a cigar4 ,this shell is a framework made up of aluminium trellis work1 and divided into seventeen compartments1 each having its own gas bag4 ,the frame is further strengthened and the balloons stayed by a network of aluminium wire1 and the entire frame covered with a soft ramie fibre4 ,over this is placed a water-tight covering of pegamoid1 and the lower part covered with light silk4 ,an air space of two feet is left between the cover and the balloons4 ,beneath the balloons extends a walking bridge #bbf feet long1 and from this bridge is suspended two aluminium cars1 at front and rear of the centre1 adapted to hold all the operative machinery and the operator and other passengers4 ,the balloons1 provided with proper valves1 served to lift the structure2 large four-winged screws1 one on each side of the ship1 their shafts mounted on a light framework extending from the body of the ship1 and driven backward and forward by two light benzine engines1 one on each car1 constituted the propelling force4 ,dirigibility 7steering7 was provided for by an apparatus consisting of a double pair of rudders1 one pair forward and one aft1 reaching out like great fins1 and controlled by light metal cords from the cars4 ,a ballast of water was carried in a compartment under each car4 ,to give the ship an upward or a downward movement the plane on which the ship rests was provided with a weight adapted to slip back and forth on a cable underneath the balloon shell4 ,when the weight was far aft the tip of the ship was upward and the movement was upward1 when at the forward end the movement was downward1 and when at the centre the ship was poised and travelled in a horizontal plane4 ,the trip was made over the lake on a quiet evening4 ,a distance of three and three-quarter miles1 at a height of #acjj feet1 was made in seventeen minutes4 ,evolutions from a straight course were accomplished4 ,the ship was lowered to the lake1 on which it settled easily and rode smoothly4 ,the other great plan of air navigation receiving the attention of scientists and aeronauts is the aeroplane system4 ,although the cohesive force of the air is so exceedingly small that it cannot be relied upon as a sufficient resisting medium through which propulsion may be accomplished alone by a counter-resisting agent like propeller blades1 yet it is known what weight the air has and it has been ascertained what expanse of a thin plane is necessary without other means to support the weight of a man in the air4 ,to this idea must be added the means of flight1 of starting and maintaining a stable flight and of directing its course4 ,careful observation of the manner of the flight of large heavy birds1 especially in starting1 has led to some successful experiments4 ,they do not rise at once1 but require an initiative force for soaring which they obtain by running on the ground before spreading their wings4 ,the action of the wings in folding and unfolding for maintaining the flight and controlling its direction1 is then to be noted4 ,it is along these lines that inventions in this system are now working4 ,an initiative mechanism to start the ship along the earth or water1 to raise it at an angle1 to spread planes of sufficient extent to support the weight of the machine and its operators on the body of the air column1 light engines to give the wing-planes an opening and closing action1 rudders to steer by1 means for maintaining equilibrium1 and means when landing to float upon the water or roll upon the land1 these are the principal problems that navigators of the great seas above us are now at work upon4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,illuminating ,,gas4 8,how wonderful that sunbeams absorbed by vegetation in the primordial ages of the earth and buried in its depths as vegetable fossils through immeasurable eras of time1 until system upon system of slowly formed rocks have been piled above1 should come forth at last1 at the disenchanting touch of science1 and turn the light of civilised man into day40--,prof4 ,e4 ,l4 ,youmans4 8,the invention of artificial light has extended the available term of human life1 by giving the night to man's use2 it has1 by the social intercourse it encourages1 polished his manners and refined his tastes1 and perhaps as much as anything else1 has aided his intellectual progress40--,draper4 ,if one desires to know what the condition of cities1 towns and peoples was before the nineteenth century had lightened and enlightened them1 let him step into some poor country town in some out-of-the-way region 7and such may yet be found7 at night1 pick his way along rough pavements1 and no pavements1 by the light of a smoky lamp placed here and there at corners1 and of weeping lamps and limp candles in the windows of shops and houses1 and meet people armed with tin lanterns throwing a dubious light across the pathways4 ,let him be prepared to be assailed by the odours of undrained gutters1 ditches1 and roads called streets1 and escape1 if he can1 stumbling and falling into them4 ,let him take care also that he avoid in the darkness the drippings from the overhanging eaves or windows1 and falling upon the slippery steps of the dim doorway he may be about to enter4 ,within1 let him overlook1 if he can1 in the hospitable reception1 the dim and smoky atmosphere1 and observe that the brightest and best as well as the most cheerful illuminant flashes from the wide open fireplace4 ,occasionally a glowing grate might be met4 ,the eighteenth century did have its glowing grates1 and its still more glowing furnaces of coal in which the ore was melted and by the light of which the castings were made4 ,it is very strange that year after year for successive generations men saw the hard black coal break under the influence of heat and burst into flames which lit up every corner1 without learning1 beyond sundry accidents and experiments1 that this gast1 or geest1 or spirit1 or vapour1 or gas1 as it was variously called1 could be led away from its source1 ignited at a distance1 and made to give light and heat at other places than just where it was generated4 ,thus ,dr4 ,clayton1 ,dean of ,kildare1 ,ireland1 in #afhh distilled gas from coal and lit and burned it1 and told his learned friend1 the ,hon4 ,robert ,boyle1 about it1 who announced it with interest to the ,royal ,society1 and again it finds mention in the ,philosophical ,transactions fifty years later4 ,then1 in #agbf1 ,dr4 ,hales told how many cubic inches of gas a certain number of grains of coal would produce4 ,then ,bishop ,watson in #agej passed some gas through water and carried it in pipes from one place to another2 and then ,lord ,dundonald in #aghf built some ovens1 distilled coal and tar1 burned the gas1 and got a patent4 ,in the same year1 ,dr4 ,rickel of ,wrzburg lighted his laboratory with gas made by the dry distillation of bones2 but all these were experiments4 ,finally1 ,william ,murdock1 the owner of large workshops at ,redruth1 in ,cornwall1 a practical man and mechanic1 and a keen observer1 using soft coal to a large extent in his shops1 tried with success in #agib to collect the escaping gas and with it lit up the shops4 ,whether he continued steadily to so use the gas or only at intervals1 at any rate it seems to have been experimental and failed to attract attention4 ,it appears that he repeated the experiment at the celebrated steam engine works of ,boulton and ,watt at ,soho1 near ,birmingham1 in #agih1 and again illuminated the works in #ahjb1 on occasion of a peace jubilee4 ,in the meantime1 in #ahja1 ,le ,bon1 a ,frenchman at ,paris1 had succeeded in making illuminating gas from wood1 lit his house therewith1 and proposed to light the whole city of ,paris4 ,thus it may be said that illuminating gas and the new century were born together--the former preceding the latter a little and lighting the way4 ,then in #ahjc the ,english periodicals began to take the matter up and discuss the whole subject4 ,one magazine objected to its use in houses on the ground that the curtains and furniture would be ruined by the saturation produced by the oxygen and hydrogen1 and that the curtains would have to be wrung out the next morning after the illumination4 ,there doubtless was good cause for objection to the smoky1 unpleasant smelling light then produced4 ,in ,america in #ahjf ,david ,melville of ,newport1 ,rhode ,island1 lighted with gas his own house and the street in front of it4 ,in #ahac he took out a patent and lighted several factories4 ,in #ahag his process was applied to ,beaver ,tail ,lighthouse on the ,atlantic coast--the first use of illuminating gas in lighthouses4 ,coal oil and electricity have since been found better illuminants for this purpose4 ,murdoch1 ,winser1 ,clegg and others continued to illuminate the public works and buildings of ,england4 ,westminster ,bridge and the ,houses of ,parliament were lighted in #ahac1 and the streets of ,london in #ahae4 ,paris was lighted in #ahbj1 and the largest ,american cities from #ahaf to #ahbe4 ,but it required the work of the chemists as well as the mechanics to produce the best gas4 ,the rod of ,science had touched the rock again and from the earth had sprung another servant with power to serve mankind1 and waited the skilled brain and hand to direct its course4 ,produced almost entirely from bituminous coal1 it was found to be composed chiefly of carbon1 oxygen and hydrogen2 but various other gases were mixed therewith4 ,to determine the proper proportions of these gases1 to know which should be increased or wholly or partly eliminated1 required the careful labours of patient chemists4 ,they taught also how the gas should be distilled1 condensed1 cleaned1 scrubbed1 confined in retorts1 and its flow measured and controlled4 ,fortunately the latter part of the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth had produced chemists whose investigations and discoveries paved the way for success in this revolution in the world of light4 ,priestley had discovered oxygen4 ,dalton had divided matter into atoms1 and shown that in its every form1 whether solid1 liquid1 or gaseous1 these atoms had their own independent1 characteristic1 unalterable weight1 and that gases diffused themselves in certain proportions4 ,berthollet1 ,graham1 and a host of others in ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany1 advanced the art4 ,the highest skilled mechanics1 like ,clegg of ,england1 supplied the apparatus4 ,he it was who invented a gas purifier1 liquid gas meter1 and other useful contrivances4 ,as the character of the gas as an illuminator depends on the quantity of hydro-carbon1 or olefiant elements it contains1 great efforts were made to invent processes and means of carbureting it4 ,the manufacture of gas was revolutionised by the invention of water gas4 ,the main principle of this process is the mixture of hydrogen with the vapour of some hydro-carbon3 ,hydrogen burns with very little light and the purpose of the hydro-carbon is to increase the brilliancy of the flame4 ,the hydrogen gas is so obtained by the decomposition of water1 effected by passing steam through highly heated coals4 ,patents began to be taken out in this line in ,england in #ahbc-bd2 by ,donovan in #ahcj2 ,geo4 ,lowe in #ahcb1 and ,white in #ahdg4 ,but in ,england water gas could not compete with coal gas in cheapness4 ,on the contrary1 in ,america1 especially after the petroleum wells were opened up1 and nature supplied the hydro-carbon in roaring wells and fountains1 water gas came to the front4 ,the leading invention there in this line was that of ,t4 ,s4 ,c4 ,lowe of ,morristown1 ,pennsylvania1 in #ahgc4 ,in ,lowe's process anthracite coal might be used1 which was raised in a suitable retort to a great heat1 then superheated steam admitted over this hot bed and decomposed into hydrogen and carbonic oxide2 then a small stream of naphtha or crude petroleum was thrown upon the surface of the burning coal1 and from these decompositions and mixtures a rich olefiant product and other light-giving gases were produced4 ,the ,franklin ,institute of ,philadelphia in #ahhf awarded ,lowe1 or his representatives1 a grand medal of honour1 his being the invention exhibited that year which in their opinion contributed most to the welfare of mankind4 ,a number of inventors have followed in the direction set by ,lowe4 ,the largest part of gas manufacture1 which has become so extensive1 embodies the basic idea of the ,lowe process4 ,the competition set up by the electricians1 especially in the production of the beautiful incandescent light for indoor illumination1 has spurred inventors of gas processes to renewed efforts--much to the benefit of that great multitude who sit in darkness until corporations furnish them with light4 ,it was found by ,siemens1 the great ,german inventor of modern gas regenerative furnace systems1 that the quality of the gas was much improved1 and a greater intensity of light obtained1 by heating the gases and air before combustion--a plan particularly adapted in lighting large spaces4 ,to describe in detail the large number of inventions relating to the manufacture of gas would require a huge volume--the generators1 carburetors1 retorts1 mixers1 purifiers1 metres1 scrubbers1 holders1 condensers1 governors1 indicators1 registers1 chargers1 pressure regulators1 etc41 etc4 ,it was a great convenience outside of towns and cities1 where gas mains could not be laid1 to have domestic plants and portable gas apparatus1 worked on the same principles1 but in miniature form1 adapted to a single house1 but the exercise of great ingenuity was required to render such adaptation successful4 ,in the use of liquid illuminants1 which need a wick to feed them1 the ,argand burner--that arrangement of concentric tubes between which the wick is confined--although invented by ,argand in #aghd1 yet has occupied a vast field of usefulness in connection with the lamps of the nineteenth century4 ,a dangerous but very extensively used illuminating liquid before coal oil was discovered was camphene1 distilled from turpentine4 ,it gave a good light but was not a safe domestic companion4 ,great attention has recently been paid to the production of acetylene gas1 produced by the reaction between calcium carbide and water4 ,the making of the calcium carbide by the decomposition of mixed pulverised lime and coal by the use of a powerful electric battery1 is a preliminary step in the production of this gas1 and was a subsequent discovery4 ,the electric light1 acetylene1 magnesium1 and other modern sources of light1 although they may be more brilliant and intense than coal gas1 cannot compete in cheapness of production with the latter4 ,thus far illuminating coal gas is still the queen of artificial lights4 ,after gas was fairly started in lighting streets and buildings its adaptation to lamps followed2 and among the most noted of gas lamps is that of ,von ,welsbach1 who combined a bunsen gas flame and a glass chimney with a 8mantle0 located therein4 ,this mantle is a gauze-like structure made of refractory quartz1 or of certain oxides1 which when heated by the gas flame produce an incandescent glow of intense brilliancy1 with a reduced consumption of gas4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,brick1 ,,pottery1 ,,glass1 ,,plastics4 ,when the nineteenth century dawned1 men were making brick in the same way for the most part that they were fifty centuries before4 ,it is recorded in the eleventh chapter of ,genesis that when 8the whole earth was of one language and one speech1 it came to pass as they journeyed from the east that they found a plain in the land of ,shinar2 and they dwelt there1 and they said to one another1 ,go to1 let us make brick and burn them thoroughly1 ,and they had brick for stone1 and slime had they for mortar40 ,then commenced the building of ,babel4 ,who taught the trade to the brick-makers of ,shinar8 ,the journey from the east continued1 and with it went brick making to ,greece and ,rome1 across the continent of ,europe1 across the ,english channel1 until the brick work of ,csar1 stamped by the trade mark of his legions1 was found on the banks of the ,thames1 and through the fields of ,caerleon and ,york4 ,alfred the ,great encouraged the trade1 and the manufacture flourished finely under ,henry ,,viii41 ,elizabeth and ,charles ,i4 ,as to ,pottery3--,could we only know who among the peoples of the earth first discovered1 used1 or invented fire1 we might know who were the first makers of baked earthenware4 ,doubtless the art of pottery arose before men learned to bake the plastic clay1 in that groping time when men1 kneading the soft clay with their fingers1 or imprinting their footsteps in the yielding surface and learning that the sun's heat stiffened and dried those forms into durability1 applied the discovery to the making of crude vessels1 as children unto this day make dishes from the tenacious mud4 ,but the artificial burning of the vessels was no doubt a later imitation of ,nature4 ,alongside the rudest and earliest chipped stone implements have been found the hollow clay dish for holding fire1 or food1 or water4 8,as the fragment of a speech or song1 a waking or a sleeping vision1 the dream of a vanished hand1 a draught of water from a familiar spring1 the almost perished fragrance of a pressed flower call back the singer1 the loved and lost1 the loved and won1 the home of childhood1 or the parting hour1 so in the same manner there linger in this crowning decade of the crowning century bits of ancient ingenuity which recall to a whole people the fragrance and beauty of its past40 ,prof4 ,o4 ,t4 ,mason4 ,the same gifted writer1 adds3 8,who has not read1 with almost breaking heart1 the story of ,palissy1 the ,huguenot potter8 ,but what have our witnesses to say of that long line of humble creatures that conjured out of prophetic clay1 without wheels or furnace1 forms and decorations of imperishable beauty1 which are now being copied in glorified material in the best factories of the world8 ,in ceramic as well as textile art the first inventors were women4 ,they quarried the clay1 manipulated it1 constructed and decorated the ware1 burned it in a rude furnace and wore it out in a hundred uses40 ,from the early dawn of human history to its present noonday civilisation the progress of man may be traced in his pottery4 ,before printing was an art1 he inscribed on it his literature4 ,poets and painters have adorned it2 and in its manufacture have been embodied through all ages the choicest discoveries of the chemist1 the inventor and the mechanic4 ,it would be pleasant to trace the history of pottery from at least the time of ,homer1 who draws a metaphor from the potter seated before his wheel and twirling it with both hands1 as he shapes the plastic clay upon it2 to dwell upon the clay tablets and many-coloured vases1 covered with ,egyptian scenes and history2 to re-excite wonder over the arts of ,china1 in her porcelain1 the production of its delicacy and bright colours wrapped in such mystery1 and stagnant for so many ages1 but revived and rejuvenated in ,japan2 to recall to mind the styles and composition of the ,phnician vases with mythological legends burned immortally therein2 the splendid work of the ,greek potteries2 to lift the ,samian enwreathed bowl1 8filled with ,samian wine02 to look upon the ,roman pottery1 statues and statuettes of ,rome's earlier and better days2 the celebrated ,faience 7enamelled pottery7 at its home in ,faenza1 ,italy1 and from the hands of its master1 ,luca della ,robia2 to trace the history of the rare ,italian majolica2 to tread with light steps the bright tiles of the ,saracens2 to rehearse the story of ,bernard ,palissy1 the father of the beautiful ,french enamelled ware2 to bring to view the splendid old ware of ,nuremberg1 the raised white figures on the deep blue plaques of ,florence1 the honest ,delft ware of ,holland2 and finally to relate the revolution in the production of pottery throughout all ,europe caused by the discoveries and inventions of ,wedgwood of ,england in the eighteenth century4 ,all this would be interesting1 but we must hasten on to the equally splendid and more practical works of the busy nineteenth century1 in which many toilsome methods of the past have been superseded by labour-saving contrivances4 ,the application of machinery to the manufacture of brick began to receive attention during the latter part of the eighteenth century1 after ,watt had harnessed steam1 and a few patents were issued in ,england and ,america at that time for such machinery of that character1 but little was practically done4 ,the operations in brickmaking1 to the accomplishment of which by machines the inventors of the nineteenth century have devoted great talent1 relate3 ,first1 to the preparation of the clay4--,in ancient ,egypt1 in places where water abounded1 it appears that the clay was lifted from the bottoms of ponds and lakes on the end of poles1 was formed into bricks1 then sun-dried1 modernly called adobes4 ,the clay for making these required a stiffening material4 ,for this straw was used1 mixed with the clay2 and stubble was also used in the different courses4 ,hence the old metaphor of worthlessness of 8bricks without straw10 but of course in burning1 and in modern processes of pressing unburnt bricks1 straw is no longer used4 ,sand should abound in the clay in a certain proportion1 or be mixed therewith1 otherwise the clay1 whether burned or unburned1 will crumble4 ,stones1 gravel and sticks must be removed1 otherwise the contraction of the clay and expansion of the stones on burning1 produce a weak and crumbling structure4 ,brick clay generally is coloured by the oxide of iron1 and in proportion as this abounds the burned brick is of a lighter or a deeper red4 ,it may be desired to add colouring matter or mix different forms of clay1 or add sand or other ingredients4 ,clay treated by hand was for ages kneaded as dough is kneaded1 by the hand or feet1 and the clay was often long subjected1 sometimes for years1 to exposure to the air1 frost and sun to disintegrate and ripen it4 ,as the clay must be first disintegrated1 ground or pulverised1 as grain is first ground to flour to make and mould the bread1 so the use of a grinding mill was long ago suggested4 ,the first machine used to do all this work goes by the humble name of pug mill4 ,many ages ago the ,chilians of ,south ,america hung two ponderous solid wood or stone wheels on an axis turned by a vertical shaft and operated by animal power2 the wheels were made to run round on a deep basin in which ores1 or stones1 or grain were placed to be crushed4 ,this ,chilian mill1 in principle1 was adopted a century or so ago in ,europe to the grinding of clay4 ,the pug mill has assumed many different forms in this age2 and separate preliminary mills1 consisting of rollers of different forms for grinding1 alone are often used before the mixing operation4 ,in one modern form the pug mill consists of an inverted conical-shaped cylinder provided with a set of interior revolving blades arranged horizontally1 and below this a spiral arrangement of blades on a vertical axis1 by which the clay is thoroughly cut up and crushed against the surrounding walls of the mill1 in the meantime softened with water or steam if desired1 and mixed with sand if necessary1 and when thus ground and tempered is finally pressed down through the lower opening of the cylinder and directly into suitable brick moulds beneath4 ,second4--,the next operation is for moulding and pressing the brick4 ,to take the place of that ancient and still used mode of filling a mould of a certain size by the hands with a lump of soft clay1 scraping off the surplus1 and then dumping the mould upon a drying floor1 a great variety of machines have been invented4 ,in some the pug mill is arranged horizontally to feed out the clay in the form of a long horizontal slab1 which is cut up into proper lengths to form the bricks4 ,some machines are in the form of a large horizontal revolving wheel1 having the moulds arranged in its top face1 each mould charged with clay as the wheel presents it under the discharging spout of the grinding mill1 and then the clay is pressed by pistons or plungers worked by a rocking beam1 and adapted to descend and fit into the mould at stated intervals2 or the moulds1 carried in a circular direction1 may have movable bottom plates1 which may be pressed upwards successively by pistons attached to them and raised by inclines on which they travel1 forcing the clay against a large circular top plate1 and in the last part of the movement carrying the pressed brick through an aperture to the top of the plate1 where it is met by and carried away on an endless apron4 ,in some machines two great wheels mesh together1 one carrying the moulds in its face1 and the other the presser plate plungers1 working in the former1 the bricks being finally forced out on to a moving belt by the action of cam followers1 or by other means4 ,in others the moulds are passed1 each beneath a gravity-descending or cam-forced plunger1 the clay being thus stamped by impact into form2 or in other forms the clay in the moulds may be subjected to successive pressure from the cam-operated pistons arranged horizontally and on a line with the discharging belt4 ,third1 the drying and burning of the brick4--,the old methods were painfully slow and tedious4 ,a long time was occupied in seasoning the clay1 and then after the bricks were moulded1 another long time was necessary to dry them1 and a final lengthy period was employed to burn them in crude kilns4 ,these old methods were too slow for modern wants4 ,but they still are in vogue alongside of modern inventions1 as in all ages the use of old arts and implements have continued along by the side of later inventions and discoveries4 ,no useful contrivances are suddenly or apparently ever entirely supplanted4 ,the implements of the stone age are still found in use by some whose environment has deprived them of the knowledge of or desire to use better tools4 ,the single ox pulling the crooked stick plough1 or other similar ancient earth stirrer1 and ,ruth with her sickle and sheaves1 may be found not far from the steam plough and the automatic binder4 ,but the use of antiquated machinery is not followed by those who lead the procession in this industrial age4 ,consequently other means than the slow processes of nature to dry brick and other ceramics1 and the crude kilns are giving way to modern heat distributing structures4 ,air and heat are driven by fans through chambers1 in which the brick are openly piled on cars1 the surplus heat and steam from an engine-room being often used for this purpose1 and the cars so laden are slowly pushed on the tracks through heated chambers4 ,passages and pipes and chimneys for heat and air controlled by valves are provided1 and the waste moisture drawn off through bottom drains or up chimneys1 the draft of which is increased by a hot blast1 or blasts of heated air are driven in one direction through a chamber while the brick are moved through in the opposite direction1 or a series of drying chambers are separated from each other by iron folding-doors1 the temperature increasing as cars are moved on tracks from one chamber to another4 ,dr4 ,hoffmann of ,berlin invented different forms of drying and burning chambers which attracted great attention4 ,in his kiln the bricks are stacked in an annular chamber1 and the fire made to progress from one section of the chamber to another1 burning the brick as the heat advances2 and as fast as one section of green brick is dried1 or burned1 it is withdrawn1 and a green section presented4 ,austria introduced most successful and thorough systems of drying brick about #ahgj4 ,in some great kilns fires are never allowed to cease4 ,one kiln had been kept thus heated for fifteen years4 ,thus great quantities of green brick can at any time be pushed into the kiln on tracks1 and when burned pushed out1 and thus the process may go on continuously day and night4 ,to return to pottery3 ,as before stated1 ,wedgwood of ,england revolutionised the art of pottery in the eighteenth century4 ,he was aided by ,flaxman4 ,before their time all earthenware pottery was what is now called 8soft pottery40 ,that is1 it was unglazed1 simply baked clay2 lustrous or semi-glazed and enamelled having a harder surface4 ,wedgwood invented the hard porcelain surface1 and very many beautiful designs4 ,to improve such earthenware and to best decorate it1 are the objects around which modern inventions have mostly clustered4 ,the 8regenerative0 principle of heating above referred to employed in some kilns1 and so successfully incorporated in the regenerators invented since #ahej by ,siemens1 ,frank1 ,boetius1 ,bicheroux1 ,pousard and others1 consisting in using the intensely hot wasted gases from laboratories or combustion chambers to heat the incoming air1 and carrying the mingled products of combustion into chambers and passages to heat1 dry or burn materials placed therein1 has been of great service in the production of modern pottery2 not only in a great saving in the amount of fuel1 but in reduction in loss of pieces of ware spoiled in the firing4 ,the old method of burning wood1 or soft coal1 or charcoal at the bottom of a small old-fashioned cylindrical fire brick kiln attended to by hand1 and heating the articles of pottery arranged on shelves in the chamber above1 is done away with to a great extent in large manufactories for the making of stone and earthenware--although still followed in many porcelain kilns4 ,inventions in the line of pottery kilns have received the aid of woman4 ,susan ,frackelton of the ,united ,states invented a portable kiln for firing pottery and porcelain1 for which she obtained a patent in #ahhf4 ,as in drying clay for brick1 so in drying clay for porcelain and pottery generally1 great improvements have been made in the drying of the clay1 and other materials to be mixed therewith4 ,a great step was taken to aid drying by the invention of the filter press1 in which the materials1 after they are mixed and while still wet1 are subjected to such pressure that all surplus water is removed and all air squeezed out1 by which the inclosure of air bubbles in the clay is prevented4 ,despairing of excelling the ,china porcelain1 although ,french investigators having alleged their discovery of such methods1 modern inventors have contented themselves in inventing new methods and compositions4 ,charles ,aoisseau1 the potter of ,tours1 born in #agif1 rediscovered and revived the art of ,palissy4 ,about #ahdb1 ,thomas ,battam of ,england invented the method of imitating marble and other statuary by a composition of silica1 alumina1 soda1 and traces of lime1 magnesia1 and iron1 reducing it to liquid form and pouring it into plaster moulds1 forming the figure or group4 ,his plaster casts soon became famous4 ,in the use of materials the aid of chemists was had in finding the proper ingredients to fuse with sand to produce the best forms of common and fine ,faience4 ,porcelain ,moulding1 and its accompanying ornamentation and the use of apparatus for moulding by compression and by exhaustion of the air has become since that time a great industry4 ,porcelain ,colours4--,chemists also aided in discovering what metallic ingredients could best be used when mixed with the clay and sand to produce the desired colours4 ,as soon as a new metal was discovered1 it was tested to find1 among other things1 what vitrifiable colour it would produce4 ,in the production of metallic glazes1 the oxides generally are employed4 ,the colours are usually applied to ware when it is in its unglazed or biscuit form4 ,in the biscuit or bisque form pottery is bibulous1 the prepared glaze sinks into its pores and when burned forms a vitreous coating4 ,the application of oil colours and designs to ware before baking by the 8bat0 system of printing originated in the eighteenth and was perfected in the nineteenth century4 ,it consists of impressing oil pictures on a bat of glue and then pressing the bat on to the porous unbaked clay or porcelain which transferred the colours4 ,this was another revolution in the art4 ,one manner for ages of applying colours to ware is first to reduce the mixture to a liquid form1 called 8slip10 and then1 if the ,chinese method is followed1 to dip the colour up on the end of a hollow bamboo rod1 which end is covered with wire gauze1 then by blowing through the rod the colour was sprayed or deposited on the ware4 ,another method is the use of a brush and comb4 ,the brush being dipped into the coloured matter1 the comb is passed over the brush in such manner as to cause the paint to spatter the object with fine drops or particles4 ,a very recent method1 by which the beautiful background and blended colours of the celebrated ,rookwood pottery of ,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 have become distinguished1 consists in laying the colour upon the ware in a cloud or sheet of almost imperceptible mist by the use of an air atomiser blown by the operator4 ,by the use of this simple instrument1 the laying on a single colour1 or the delicate blending and shadings of two or more colours in very beautiful effects is easily produced4 ,this use of the atomiser commenced in #ahhd1 and was claimed as the invention of a lady1 ,miss ,laura ,fry1 who obtained a patent for thus blowing the atomised spray colouring matter on pottery in #ahhi2 but it was held by the courts that she was anticipated by experiments of others1 and by descriptions in previous patents of the spraying of paint on other objects by compressed air apparatus known as the air brush4 ,however1 this introduction of the use of the atomiser caused quite a revolution in the art of applying colours to pottery in the forming of backgrounds4 ,enamelled ware is no longer confined to pottery4 ,about #ahgh ,niedringhaus in the ,united ,states began to enamel sheet iron by the application of glaze and iron oxide1 giving such articles a granite appearance2 and since then metallic cooking vessels1 bath tubs1 etc41 have been converted in appearance into the finest earthenware and porcelain1 and far more durable1 beautiful and useful than the plain metal alone for such purposes4 ,when we remember that for many centuries1 wood and pewter1 and to some extent crude earthenware1 were the materials from which the dishes of the great bulk of the human family were made1 as well as their table and mantel ornaments1 and compare them in character and plenteousness with the table and other ware of even the poorest character of to-day1 we can appreciate how much has been done in this direction to help the human family by modern inventions4 ,artificial ,stone4--,the world as yet has not so far exhausted its supply of stone and marble as to compel a resort to artificial productions on a great scale1 and yet to meet the demands of those localities wherein the natural supplies of good building stones and marble are very scarce1 necessitating when used a long and expensive transportation1 methods have been adopted by which1 at comparatively small cost1 fine imitations of the best stones and marbles have been produced1 having all the durable and artistic qualities of the originals1 as for the most part1 they are composed of the same materials as the stone and marbles themselves4 ,the characteristic backgrounds1 the veins and shadowings1 and the soft colours of various marbles have been quite successfully imitated by treating dehydrated gypsum with various colouring solutions4 ,sand stones have been moulded or pressed from the same ingredients1 and with either smooth or undressed faces4 ,when necessary the mixture is coloured1 to resemble precisely the original stones4 ,one of the improvements in the manufacture and use of modern cements and artificial stones consists in their application to the making of streets and sidewalks4 ,neat1 smooth1 hard1 beautiful pavements are now taking the place everywhere of the unsatisfactory gravel1 wood1 and brick pavements of former days4 ,we know that the ,romans and other ancient peoples had their hydraulic cements1 and the plaster on some of their walls stands to-day to attest its good quality4 ,modern inventors have turned their attention in recent years to the production of machines to grind1 crush1 mix and set the materials1 and to apply them to large wall surfaces1 in place of hand labour4 ,ready-made plaster of a fine quality is now manufactured in great quantities4 ,it needs only the addition of a little water to reduce it to a condition for use2 and a machine operated by compressed air may be had for spreading it quickly over the lath work of wood or sheet metal1 slats1 or over rough cement ceilings and walls4 ,glass4--,the ,sister of ,pottery is ,glass4 ,it may have been an accidental discovery1 occurring when men made fire upon a sandy knoll or beach1 that fire could melt and fuse sand and ashes1 or sand and lime1 or sand and soda or some other alkali1 and with which may also have been mixed some particles of iron1 or lead1 or manganese1 or alumina to produce that hard1 lustrous1 vitreous1 brittle article that we call glass4 ,but who invented the method of blowing the viscid mass into form on the end of a hollow tube8 ,who invented the scissors and shears for cutting and trimming it when soft8 ,or the use of the diamond1 or its dust1 for polishing it when hard8 ,history is silent on these points4 ,the tablets of the most ancient days of ,egypt1 yet recovered1 show glass blowers at work at their trade--and the names of the first and original inventors are buried in oblivion4 ,each age has handed down to us from many countries specimens of glass ware which will compare favourably in beauty and finish with any that can be made to-day4 ,yet with the knowledge of making glass of the finest description existing for centuries1 it is strange that its manufacture was not extended to supply the wants of mankind1 to which its use now seems so indispensable4 ,and yet as late as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries glass windows were found only in the houses of the wealthy1 in the churches and palaces1 and glass mirrors were unknown except to the rich1 as curiosities1 and as aids to the scientists in the early days of telescopy4 ,poor people used oiled paper1 isinglass1 thinly shaved leather1 resembling parchment1 and thin sheets of soft pale crystalised stone known as talc1 and soapstone4 ,the nineteenth century has been characterised as the scientific century of glass1 and the term commercial1 may well be added to that designation4 ,its commercial importance and the advancement in its manufacture during the first half of the century is illustrated in the fact that the ,crystal ,palace of the ,london ,industrial ,exhibition of #ahea1 although containing nearly #ijj1jjj square feet of glass1 was furnished by a single firm1 ,messrs4 ,chance ,co4 of ,london1 without materially delaying their other orders4 ,in addition to scientific discoveries1 the manufacture of glass in ,england received a great impetus by the removal of onerous excise duties which had been imposed on its manufacture4 ,the principal improvements in the art of glass-making effected during the nineteenth century may be summarised as follows3 ,first1 ,materials4--,by the investigations of chemists and practical trials it was learned what particular effect was produced by the old ingredients employed1 and it was found that the colours and qualities of glass1 such as clearness1 strength1 tenacity1 purity1 etc41 could be greatly modified and improved by the addition to the sand of certain new ingredients4 ,by analysis it was learned what different metallic oxides should be employed to produce different colours4 ,this knowledge before was either preserved in secrecy1 or accidentally or empirically practised1 or unknown4 ,thus it was learned and established that lime hardens the glass and adds to its lustre2 that the use of ordinary ingredients1 the silicates of lime1 magnesia1 iron1 soda and potash1 in their impure form1 will produce the coarser kinds of glass1 such as that of which green bottles are made2 that silicates of soda and lime give the common window glass and ,french plate2 that the beautiful varieties of ,bohemian glass are chiefly a silicate of potash and lime2 that crystal or flint glass1 so called because formerly pulverised flints were used in making it1 can be made of a suitable combination of potassia plumbic silicate2 that the plumbic oxide greatly increases its transparency1 brilliancy1 and refractive power2 that paste--that form of glass from which imitations of diamonds are cut1 may be produced by adding a large proportion of the oxide of lead2 that by the addition of a trace of ferric oxide or uranic acid the yellow topaz can be had2 that by substituting cobaltic oxide the brilliant blue sapphire is produced2 that cuperic oxide will give the emerald1 gold oxide the ruby1 manganic oxide the royal purple1 and a mixture of cobaltic and manganic oxides the rich black onyx4 ,professor ,faraday as early as #ahbd had noticed a change in colour gradually produced in glass containing oxide of manganese by exposure to the rays of the sun4 ,this observation induced an ,american gentleman1 ,mr4 ,thomas ,gaffield1 a merchant of ,boston1 to further experiment in this direction4 ,his experiments commenced in #ahfc1 and he subjected eighty different kinds of glass1 coloured and uncoloured1 and manufactured in many different countries1 to this exposure of the sun's rays4 ,he found that not only glass having manganese as an element1 but nearly every species of glass1 was so affected1 some in shorter and some in longer times2 that this discoloration was not due to the heat rays of the sun1 but to its actinic rays2 and that the original colour of the glass could be reproduced by reheating the same4 ,mr4 ,gaffield also extended his experiments to ascertain the power of different coloured glasses to transmit the actinic or chemical rays1 and found that blue would transmit the most and red and orange the least4 ,others proceeded on lines of investigation in ascertaining the best materials to be employed in glass-making in producing the clearest and most permanent uncoloured light2 the best coloured lights for desired purposes2 glasses having the best effects on the growth of plants2 and the best class for refracting1 dispersing and transmitting both natural lights and those great modern artificial lights1 gas and electricity4 ,another illustration of modern scientific investigation and success in glass-making materials is seen at the celebrated ,german glass works at ,jena under the management of ,professors ,ernst ,abbe and ,dr4 ,schott1 commenced in #ahha4 ,they1 too1 found that many substances had each its own peculiar effect in the refraction and dispersion of light1 and introduced no fewer than twenty-eight new substances in glass making4 ,their special work was the production of glass for the finest scientific and optical purposes1 and the highest grades of commercial glass4 ,they have originated over one hundred new kinds of glass4 ,their lenses for telescopes and microscopes and photographic cameras1 and glass and prisms1 and for all chemical and other scientific work1 have a worldwide reputation4 ,so that in materials of composition the old days in which there were substantially but two varieties of glass--the old-fashioned standard crown1 and flint glass--have passed away4 ,methods4--,the revolution in the production of glass has been greatly aided also by new methods of treatment of the old as well as the new materials4 ,for instance1 the application of the ,siemens regenerative furnace1 already alluded to in referring to pottery1 in place of old-fashioned kilns1 and by which the amount of smoke is greatly diminished1 fuel saved1 and the colour of the glass improved4 ,pots are used containing the materials to be melted and not heated in the presence of the burning fuel1 but by the heated gases in separate compartments4 ,another process is that of ,m4 de la ,bastie1 added to by others1 of toughening glass by plunging it while hot and pasty and after it has been shaped1 annealed1 and reheated1 into a bath of grease1 whereby the rapid cooling and the grease changes its molecular condition so that it is less dense1 resists breaking to a greater degree1 and presents no sharp edges when broken4 ,another process is that of making plate glass by the cylinder process--rolling it into large sheets4 ,other processes are those for producing hollow ware by pressing in moulds2 for decorating2 for surface enamelling of sheet glass whereby beautiful lace patterns are transferred from the woven or netted fabric itself by using it as a stencil to distribute upon the surface the pulverised enamel1 which is afterwards burned on2 of producing iridescent glass in which is exhibited the lights and shadows of delicate soap bubble colours by the throwing against the surface of hydrochloric acid under pressure1 or the fumes of other materials volatilised in a reheating furnace4 ,then there is ,dode's process for platinising glass1 by which a reflecting mirror is produced without silvering or otherwise coating its back1 by first applying a thin coating of platinic choride mixed with an oil to the surface of the glass and heating the same1 by which the mirror reflects from its front face4 ,the platinum film is so thin that the pencil and hand of a draughtsman may be seen through it1 the object to be copied being seen by reflection4 ,again there is the process of making glass wool or silk--which is glass drawn out into such extremely fine threads that it may be used for all purposes of silk threads in the making of fabrics for decorative purposes and in some more useful purposes1 such as the filtration of water and other liquids4 ,we have already had occasion to refer to ,tilghman's sand blast in describing pneumatic apparatus4 ,in glass manufacture the process is used in etching on glass designs of every kind1 both simple and intricate4 ,the sand forced by steam1 or by compressed air on the exposed portions of the glass on which the design rests1 will cut the same deeply1 or most delicately1 as the hand and eye of the operator may direct4 ,machines4--,in addition to the new styles of furnaces1 moulds and melting1 and rolling mills to which we have alluded1 mention may be made of annealing and cooling ovens1 by which latter the glass is greatly improved by being allowed to gradually cool4 ,a large number of instruments have been invented for special purposes1 such as for making the beautiful expensive cut glass1 which is flint glass ground by wheels of iron1 stone1 and emery into the desired designs1 while water is being applied1 and then polished by wheels of wood1 and pumice1 or rottenstone2 for grinding and polishing glass for lenses2 and for polishing and finishing plate glass2 for applying glass lining to metal pipes1 tubes1 etc42 for the delicate engraving of glass by small revolving copper disks1 varying in size from the diameter of a cent down to one-fifteenth of an inch1 cutting the finest blade of grass1 a tiny bud1 the downy wing of an insect1 or the faint shadow of an exquisite eyebrow4 ,cameo cutting and incrustation2 porcelain electroplating and moulding apparatus1 and apparatus for making porcelain plates before drying and burning1 may be added to the list4 ,it would be a much longer list to enumerate the various objects made of glass unknown or not in common use in former generations4 ,the reader must call to mind or imagine any article which he thinks desirable to be made from or covered with this lustrous indestructible material1 or any practicable form of instrument for the transmission of light1 and it is quite likely he will find it already at hand in shops or instruments in factories ready for its making4 ,rubber--,goodyear4 ,the rubber tree1 whether in ,india with its immense trunk towering above all its fellows and wearing a lofty crown1 hundreds of feet in circumference1 of mixed green and yellow blossoms2 or in ,south ,america1 more slender and shorter but still beautiful in clustered leaves and flowers on its long1 loosely pendent branches2 or in ,africa1 still more slender and growing as a giant creeper upon the highest trees along the water courses1 hiding its struggling support and festooning the whole forest with its glossy dark green leaves1 sweetly scented1 pure white1 star-like flowers1 and its orange-like fruit--yields from its veins a milk which man has converted into one of the most useful articles of the century4 ,the modes of treating this milky juice varies among the natives of the several countries where the trees abound4 ,in ,africa they cut or strip the bark1 and as the milk oozes out the natives catch and smear it thickly over their limbs and bodies1 and when it dries pull it off and cut it into blocks for transportation4 ,in ,brazil the juice is collected in clay vessels and smoked and dried in a smouldering fire of palm nuts1 which gives the material its dark brown appearance4 ,they mould the softened rubber over clay patterns in the form of shoes1 jars1 vases1 tubes1 etc41 and as they are sticky they carry them separated on poles to the large towns and sea ports and sell them in this condition4 ,it was some such articles that first attracted the attention of ,europeans1 who during the eighteenth century called the attention of their countrymen to them4 ,it was in #agcf that ,la ,condamine described rubber to the ,french ,academy4 ,he afterward resided in the valley of the ,amazon ten years1 and then he and ,,mm4 ,herissent1 ,macquer1 and ,grossat1 again by their writings and experiments interested the scientific and commercial world in the matter4 ,in #aggj ,dr4 ,priestley published the fact that this rubber had become notable for rubbing out pencil marks1 bits of it being sold for a high price for that purpose4 ,about #agig1 some ,englishman began to make water-proof varnish from it1 and to take out patents for the same4 ,this was as far as the art had advanced in caoutchouc1 or rubber1 in the eighteenth century4 ,in #ahai ,mr4 ,mackintosh1 of ,glasgow1 began experimenting with the oil of naphtha obtained from gas works as a solvent for ,india rubber2 and so successfully that he made a water-proof varnish which was applied to fabrics1 took out his patent in ,england in #ahbc1 and thus was started the celebrated 8,mackintoshes40 ,in #ahbe ,thomas ,c4 ,wales1 a merchant of ,boston1 conceived the idea of sending ,american boot and shoe lasts to ,brazil for use in place of their clay models4 ,this soon resulted in sending great quantities of rubber overshoes to ,europe and ,america4 ,the importation of rubber and the manufacture of water-proof garments and articles therefrom now rapidly increased in those countries4 ,but nothing that could be done would prevent the rubber from getting soft in summer and hard and brittle in the winter4 ,something was needed to render the rubber insensible to the changes of temperature4 ,for fifty years1 ever since the manufacturers and inventors of ,europe and ,america had learned of the water-proof character of rubber1 they had been striving to find something to overcome this difficulty4 ,finally it became the lot of one man to supply the want4 ,his name was ,charles ,goodyear4 ,born with the century1 in ,new ,haven1 ,connecticut1 and receiving but a public school education1 he engaged with his father in the hardware business in ,philadelphia4 ,this proving a failure1 he1 in #ahcj1 turned his attention to the improvement of rubber goods4 ,he became almost a fanatic on the subject--going from place to place clad in rubber fabrics1 talking about it to merchants1 mechanics1 scientists1 chemists1 anybody that would listen1 making his experiments constantly2 deeply in debt on account of his own and his father's business failures1 thrown into jail for debt for months1 continuing his experiments there with philosophical1 good-natured persistence2 out of jail steeped to his lips in poverty2 his family suffering for the necessaries of life2 selling the school books of his children for material to continue his work1 and taking a patent in #ahce for a rubber cement1 which did not help him much4 ,finding that nitric acid improved the quality of the rubber by removing its adhesiveness1 he introduced this process1 which met with great favour1 was applied generally to the manufacture of overshoes1 and helped his condition4 ,but his trials and troubles continued4 ,finally one ,nathaniel ,haywood suggested the use of sulphurous acid gas1 and this was found an improvement2 but still the rubber would get hard in winter1 and although not so soft in summer1 yet the odour was offensive4 ,yet by the use of this improvement he was enabled to raise more money to get ,haywood a patent for it1 while he became its owner4 ,in the midst of his further troubles1 and while experimenting with the sulphur mixed with rubber he found by accidental burning or partly melting of the two together on a stove1 that the part in which the sulphur was embedded was hard and inelastic1 and that the part least impregnated with the sulphur was proportionately softer and more elastic4 ,at last the great secret was discovered6 ,and now at this later day1 when #ej1jjj1jjj worth of rubber goods are made annually in the ,united ,states alone1 the whole immense business is still divided into but two classes--hard and soft--hard or vulcanized like that called 8ebonite10 or soft1 it may be1 as a delicate wafer4 ,and these qualities depend on and vary as a greater or less amount of sulphur is used1 as described in the patents of ,goodyear1 commencing with his ,french patent of #ahdd4 ,then of course the pirates began their attacks1 and he was kept poor in defending his patents1 and died comparatively so in #ahfj2 but happy in his great discovery4 ,he had received1 however1 the whole world's honours--the great council medal at the ,nations ,fair in ,london in #ahea the ,cross of the ,legion of ,honour by ,napoleon ,,iii41 and lesser tributes from other nations4 ,it can be imagined the riches that flowed into the laps of ,goodyear's successors2 the wide field opened for new inventions in machines and processes2 and the vast added comforts to mankind resulting from ,goodyear's introduction of a new and useful material to man4--,a material which1 takes its place and stands in line with wood1 and leather1 and glass1 and iron1 and steel6 ,but rubber and steel as we now know them are not the only new fabrics given to mankind by the inventors of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,the work of the silk worm has been rivalled2 and a wool as white and soft as that clipped from the cleanest lamb has been drawn by the hands of these magicians from the hot and furious slag that bursts from a blast furnace4 ,the silk referred to is made from a solution of that inflammable material of tremendous force known as gun-cotton1 or pyroxylin4 ,dr4 ,chardonnet was the inventor of the leading form of the article1 which he introduced and patented about #ahhh4 ,the solution made is of a viscous character1 allowed to escape from a vessel through small orifices in fine streams2 and as the solvent part evaporates rapidly these fine streams become hard1 flexible fibres1 which glisten with a beautiful lustre and can be used as a substitute for some purposes for the fine threads spun by that mysterious master of his craft--the silk worm4 ,the gusts of wind that drove against the molten lava thrown from the crater of ,kilauea1 producing as it did1 a fall of white1 metallic1 hairy-like material resembling wool1 suggested to man an industrial application of the same method4 ,and at the great works of ,krupp at ,essen1 ,prussia1 for instance1 may be witnessed a fine stream of molten slag flowing from an iron furnace1 and as it falls is met by a strong blast of cold air which transforms it into a silky mass as white and fine as cotton4 ,,index4 ,abbe1 ,prof4 ,ernst1 #dab1 #dgc4 ,abbott ,museum1 ,n4,y41 #bdb4 ,abrading machines1 #ccb4 ,acetylene1 #gj1 #def4 ,accumulators1 #agg4 ,achromatic lens1 #daj4 ,acoustics1 #djf4 ,addressing machines1 #bhe4 ,aeolipile1 #gd4 ,affixers1 #bhe4 ,african inventions1 #cdj1 #dgf4 ,agriculture1 ,chap4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,agricultural chemistry1 #fd4 ,agricultural societies1 #af4 ,aeronautics4 7,see ,air ,ships and ,balloons1 #afi1 #dde1 #ddh47 ,air ,atomizers1 #dfg4 ,air brakes1 #hi1 #ajh1 #aic4 ,air ,brushes1 #aie1 #dah4 ,air ,compressors and propellers1 #aie4 ,air ,drills1 #aid4 ,air ,engines1 #hi1 #aic1 #aid4 ,air propellers4 7,see ,pneumatics47 ,air ,pumps1 #ee1 #aac1 #aid1 #aie1 #aif1 #aig1 #djd4 ,air ,ships1 #ddf1 #ddi4 ,airy1 #daj4 8,alabama10 ,the1 #bfa4 ,alarm ,locks4 7,see ,locks47 ,alchemistry and alchemists4 7,see ,chemistry47 ,alcohol1 #fe4 ,alfred the ,great1 #chf1 #deg4 ,alembert1 ,d41 #afg4 ,alhambra1 #cgc4 ,allen1 ,horatio1 #hc4 ,allen1 ,dr4 ,john1 #afh4 ,allotropic phosphorus4 7,see ,matches47 ,allen and ,yates4 7,see ,puddling47 ,alloys1 #bcg1 #bch4 ,altiscope1 #dac4 ,aluminium1 #bch4 ,amalgamators1 #chj4 ,american ,inventions1 #cda4 ,ammonia1 #aia1 #bae4 ,ammoniacal gas engines1 #aia4 ,ampre1 #abb1 #acj4 ,amontons air engines1 #aic4 ,ancient smelting4 7,see ,metallurgy47 ,ansthetics1 #b1 #ga4 ,aniline dyes1 #fi4 ,annealing and tempering1 #bdh4 ,antiseptics1 #b1 #gb4 ,antwerp1 ,siege of1 #bfa4 7,see ,ordnance47 ,aoisseau1 ,chas41 #dff4 ,apollo1 #djj4 ,applegath1 #bhc1 #bhd4 ,aqueducts1 #ic1 #aff1 #afg4 ,arabs1 #bec1 #bgd4 ,arabic notation1 #b4 ,arago1 #abb1 #daj1 #daa1 #daf4 ,arc ,lamps1 #acg4 ,archimedes1 #i1 #afe1 #ahe1 #ddb4 ,aristotle1 #eh4 ,argand burner1 #def4 ,arkwright1 ,richard1 #db1 #bif1 #bih1 #cja4 ,arlberg tunnel1 #ajg4 ,armor1 plate1 #bfb1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bff4 ,arnold1 ,asa1 #cja4 ,arnold1 watchmaker1 #chi4 ,armstrong1 ,sir ,william ,g41 #agf1 #bfc1 #bfd4 ,arquebus4 7,see ,ordnance47 ,artesian ,wells1 #ch4 ,artificial ,stone4 7,see ,pottery47 ,artificial ,silk4 7,see ,glass47 ,arts1 ,fine1 #aig1 #cdg1 #cec1 #cga1 #djj1 #dad1 #dah4 ,art1 ,scientific1 #bbh4 ,artificial ,teeth4 7,see ,dentistry47 ,artillery4 7,see ,ordnance47 ,asbestos1 #dba4 ,assembling machines and system4 7,see ,sewing machines1 ,watch1 and ,ordnance47 ,assyrians1 #bd4 ,astronomical inventions1 #cij4 7,see ,horology and ,optics47 ,athens4 7,see ,greece47 ,athanor1 ,alchemist's stone4 7,see ,chemistry47 ,atmospheric and ,gas pressure1 #aid4 ,atoms--atomic theory1 #ei1 #fj1 #dec4 ,atomizer1 #aig1 #dfg4 ,attraction of ,gravitation1 #b4 ,augurs1 #cdh1 #cdi4 ,auricular instruments1 #djf4 ,australia1 #dj4 ,austria1 #bd1 #ej1 #ceh4 ,autoharps1 #dje4 ,automobiles1 #hi1 #dce4 ,axes1 #cdj4 ,b4 ,babbitt1 ,isaac1 metal1 #bcg4 ,babylonians1 #chd4 ,bach4 7,see ,pianos47 ,bacon1 ,roger1 #bad4 ,bacteria1 #bac4 ,bailey1 #ahbb2 #cg4 ,bain1 ,alex41 #adg4 ,baling and ,bale ties1 #ea1 #eb1 #ec4 ,balloons1 #afi1 #ddf4 ,band ,saw1 #cdh4 ,barber1 ,john1 #ahe4 ,barker's ,mill1 #aga4 ,barlow looms1 #cje4 ,barlow1 ,prof41 #abc4 ,barrel making4 7,see ,wood ,working47 ,bartholdi1 #aje4 ,bastie1 #dgc4 ,batcheller1 #cah4 ,baths--closets1 #agh4 ,bath system1 ,porcelain1 #dff4 ,battam1 ,thomas1 artificial marble1 #dff4 ,baude1 ,peter1 #bbd4 ,beadlestone1 metallurgist1 #bca4 ,bean1 ,b4 ,w41 #cah4 ,beaulieu1 ,col4 7,ordnance71 #bfd4 ,beating engines4 7,see ,paper47 ,becher1 #eh4 ,bechler1 #dac4 ,becquerel1 #dd4 ,beds1 #cee4 ,bed--printing1 #bhb4 ,beer4 7,see ,chemistry47 ,bellaert1 ,jacob1 #bhj4 ,bell1 ,alex4 ,graham1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #djg1 #dad4 ,bell1 ,c4 ,a41 #djh4 ,bell1 ,sir ,l41 metallurgy1 #bbc4 ,bell's history of metallurgy1 #bbc4 ,bell1 ,rev4 ,patrick1 #cf1 #ch4 ,bells and ,bell making--,metallurgy4 ,bending wood1 #cdi1 #ceg4 7,see ,woodworking47 ,bennett1 ,richard1 #df4 ,bentham1 ,sir ,sam'l1 #bdb1 #cdb1 #cdi1 #cgd4 ,bergman1 #fa4 ,berliner1 ,emile1 #djh4 ,bernoulli1 ,d41 #afg4 ,berthollet1 #fd1 #ded4 ,berzelius1 #fj4 ,bessemer1 ,henry1 and process1 #agf1 #bcb1 #bcc4 ,besson1 ,prof4 ,j41 #ge1 #bdb4 ,bicheroux1 potter1 #dfe4 ,bicycles1 #dca4 ,bigelow1 ,e4 ,b41 #cje4 ,billings1 ,dr41 #baj4 ,binding books4 7,see ,printing47 ,binders1 grain and twine1 #ci4 ,bicycles1 #dca to #dce4 ,bischof1 ,simon1 #aia4 ,blacksmithing4 7,see ,metallurgy47 ,blaew of ,amsterdam1 #bha4 ,black1 chemist1 #eh4 ,blair1 iron and steel1 #bcd4 ,blakely ,gun4 7,see ,ordnance47 ,blake1 ,eli4 ,w41 ,blake crusher1 #cgf1 #cgg4 ,blanchard1 ,thos41 #bfh1 #cdc1 #cdd1 #cej1 #cef1 #cfi4 ,blasting1 #ajg4 ,blast1 steel4 7,see ,bessemer47 ,blauofen furnace4 7,see ,metallurgy47 ,bleaching and ,dyeing1 #fi4 ,blenkinsop1 #hb4 ,blithe1 ,walter1 #ad4 ,block ,printing4 7,see ,printing47 ,blodgett ,lerow1 sewing machines1 #cah4 ,bloomaries4 7,see ,metallurgy47 ,blunderbuss1 #beg4 ,bobbins--spinning1 #cjb4 ,boerhaave1 #eh4 ,boetius1 #cfe4 ,bohemia1 #ceg4 ,boilers4 7,see ,steam ,engineering47 8,boke of ,husbandry10 #aebc1 #ad4 ,bollman bridge1 #ajc4 ,bolting4 7,see ,milling47 ,bolt making4 7,see ,metal ,working47 ,bombards1 #bed4 ,bombs4 7,see ,ordnance47 ,bomford1 ,col41 #bfj4 ,bonaparte1 #hi1 #ij1 #bef4 ,bonnets and ladies' hats1 #cbd4 ,bonjeau1 ,m41 #cbe4 ,bonelli1 ,m41 #cje4 ,book making and binding1 #bhg1 #bhh4 ,boots and shoes1 #cff to #cga4 ,boring machines1 #cde1 #cdh4 ,boring square holes1 #cdf4 ,bormann1 ,genl41 #bei4 ,bottle stoppers1 #ceh4 ,boulton and ,watt1 #hd1 #deb4 ,bouton1 #dae4 ,bourseuil1 ,chas41 #djg4 ,boyce1 #agii1 #ce4 ,boyle1 ,robert1 #eh1 #ahd1 #aic1 #aid4 ,box making4 7,see ,woodworking ,machinery47 ,braiding4 7,see ,sewing ,machines47 ,braithwaite1 #hc4 ,brakes1 bicycle1 #dcc-dcf4 ,brakes1 steam1 ,railway and ,electric1 #hg1 #dcf4 ,brakes and gins1 #big4 ,bramah1 ,jos41 #hb1 #aed1 #agj1 #bdb1 #bdd1 #cdb1 #cdi1 #dbd4 ,branch1 #cdb4 ,branco1 #ge4 ,brahe1 ,tycho1 #ahc1 #chh4 ,brass1 #bai4 ,brayton1 ,g4 ,h41 #aij4 ,brazil1 #bha1 #dgf1 #dgg4 ,breech-loaders1 #beg1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bfi47,see ,ordnance47 ,brewster1 ,sir ,david1 #daj4 ,brickmaking machines1 kilns and processes1 #deg1 #dfd4 ,bridges and ,bridge ,building1 #ic to #ajd1 #aig4 ,bright1 ,john1 #ach4 ,broadwood piano1 #djc4 ,bronsen1 #dab4 ,broom-making1 #cbh1 #cbi4 ,brot1 #daa4 ,brothers of the ,bridge1 #id4 ,bronze1 #bah1 #bai4 ,brooklyn bridge1 #ih1 #ii4 ,brown1 ,sir ,saml41 #ie1 #ahg1 #ahh4 8,brown ,bess10 #beh4 ,bruce1 ,david1 #bhd4 ,brunel1 ,i4 ,k41 #ig4 ,brunel1 ,i4 ,m41 #cea1 #cfg4 ,brunton1 #hb4 ,brush--,brush light1 #acg4 ,brushes and ,brush making1 #ccj4 ,buchanan's ,practical ,essays1 #bdd4 ,buckingham1 ,c4 ,l41 #adh4 ,buffing machines1 #cfe4 ,builders' hardware1 #bej4 ,buildings1 tall1 #aeb1 #aec4 ,buffers1 #dcg4 7,see ,railways1 ,elevator1 etc41 #afj1 #afa47 ,bunsen1 ,robt4 ,w41 #aai1 #abj1 #bcj4 ,bunsen light1 #def4 ,burden1 ,henry1 #ie4 ,burdett1 ,wm41 #ahh4 ,burke1 ,edmund1 #ahb4 ,burns1 ,robert1 #ca4 ,butter1 #ed1 #ee4 ,button-hole machines1 #cbc4 ,bunsen4 7,see ,chemistry47 ,c4 ,cable transportation1 #aji4 ,csar1 #deg4 ,cahill1 ,thaddeus1 #bhg4 ,caissons1 #ajj4 ,calcium-carbide1 #gj1 #def4 ,calico making and printing1 #cbe1 #cbf4 ,california1 #chb4 ,cameo cutting1 #dge4 ,camera obscura1 #dad4 ,campbell printing press1 #bhe4 ,canada1 #dj1 #dcj4 ,canals1 and boats for1 #hd1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aji1 #aaj1 #ddj4 ,canal locks1 #aaj4 ,cane woven goods1 #cjh4 ,cannons and firearms1 #beb-bgb4 ,cantilever bridges1 #ajc1 #ajd4 ,caoutchouc4 7,see ,rubber1 #dgf47 ,caps1--gun1 #bei4 ,car heating1 #baa4 ,cars1 sleeping1 #dca4 7,see ,railways47 ,car tracks1 #ajh4 ,car rails1 #ajh4 ,car wheels1 #ajh4 ,carbines1 #bff4 7,see ,ordnance47 ,carbon--chemistry4 ,carbonating1 #fh4 ,carborundum1 #gj4 ,cardan1 #ahc4 ,carding1 #bih1 #cjj4 ,cardova4 7,see ,leather47 ,carlyle1 #caj4 ,carnot4 7,see ,ordnance47 ,carpentry1 #cci1 #ceb4 ,carpets and ,looms1 #cje4 ,carr ,brothers1 #bad4 ,carriages and carrying machines1 #hb1 #dbh-dcg4 ,carthagenians1 #afd4 ,carts4 7,see ,coaches and ,waggons47 ,cartridges1 #bfg4 ,cartwright1 ,rev4 ,edwd41 #big4 ,carving machinery1 #cdf4 ,case-shot4 7,see ,ordnance47 ,cash registers1 #cie4 ,cast iron1 #bbc4 ,catalan furnace1 #bbb4 7,see ,metallurgy47 ,cauchy1 #daj4 ,caus1 ,salomon de1 #ge4 ,cavendish1 #eh4 ,caxton1 #bhj4 ,centennial ,exhibition4 #ahgf2 #ch1 #ci1 #dj1 #adj1 #bdf1 #cbj1 #ceb1 #cec1 #cic1 #djb1 #dcj4 ,centrifugal machines 7pumps71 #agb1 #agc4 ,charcoal4 7,see ,metallurgy47 ,chairs4 7,see ,furniture47 ,chaff separator4 7,see ,milling47 ,chain wheels--hydraulics1 #aef4 ,chairs1 tables1 desks1 etc4 7,see ,furniture1 #cea1 #ceh47 ,challey1 ,m41 #ig4 8,champion harvesters0--,harvesters4 ,chance ,co41 ,glass makers1 #dgj4 ,channelling shoes4 7,see ,leather47 ,chanute1 ,octave1 #aaj4 ,chappe1 ,m41 #abe4 ,charles ,i4 7,see ,ordnance2 ,charles ,,ii41 #bdb2 ,charles ,v41 #chg2 ,charles ,,viii41 #bfe47 ,chemistry1 #eh1 #gj4 ,chemical ,telegraph4 7,see ,telegraphy47 ,chester-dial telegraph1 #adf4 ,chili1 #dfa4 ,chill hardening1 #bej4 ,chickering pianos1 #djc4 ,chimes1 #aif4 ,china and ,chinese inventions1 #bd1 #eb1 #afe1 #bbb1 #bda1 #bec1 #beg1 #bgc1 #bge1 #bhj1 #chd1 #chf1 #djj1 #dbc1 #dfe4 ,chlorates1 #gj4 ,chlorine1 #bcg4 ,chlorination1 #bcg4 ,chromium1 #gj4 ,chronometers1 #cij1 #cid4 ,chubb-safes1 #dbb1 #dbe4 ,cigar and cigarette machines1 #ef1 #eg4 ,cincinnati ,bridge4 7,see ,engineering47 ,cincinnatus1 #ag1 #ca4 ,circulation of blood1 #b4 ,civil ,engineering1 #ic-aaj4 ,clark1 ,alvan1 #dab4 ,clavichord1 #djb4 ,clayton1 ,dr41 #afhh1 #dea4 ,clay1 ,treatment of4 7,see ,brick and ,pottery making47 ,cleaning grain1 etc4 7,see ,mills47 ,clement1 metal worker1 #bdd4 ,clementi1 pianist1 #djc4 ,clepsydra1 #chd1 #che1 #chf4 8,clermont40 7,see ,steam ,ships47 ,clippers1 ,ships1 #dci4 ,clocks1 #chd4 7,see ,horology47 ,clocks1 ,essential parts of1 #chf4 ,closets4 7,see ,baths47 ,cloth1 ,making1 ,finishing1 #cjf2 ,drying1 #cjf2 ,printing1 #cjf2 ,creasing and pressing1 #cjf2 ,cutting1 #cjf-cbd2 ,fancy woven1 #bje-cjf4 ,clothes4 7,see ,garments47 ,clover ,header1 #cb4 ,clutches1 #afa-afb4 ,clymer1 of ,philadelphia1 press1 #bhb4 ,coaches1 stages1 mail1 etc41 #dbh-dca4 ,coach lace1 #cjf4 ,coal1 #bbe1 #cgh1 #chj2 ,coal breakers and cleaners1 #cgh-chj4 ,coal gas1 #dej2 ,coal tar colors4 7,see ,chemistry47 ,coal mining4 7,see ,ores47 ,coaling ,ships1 #aaj4 ,coehorn1 shell1 #bee4 ,coffin1 journalist1 #be4 ,coke4 7,see ,metallurgy47 ,cold metal punching1 working and rolling1 #bdf-bdg4 ,colding of ,denmark1 #fc4 ,collards1 pianos1 #djc4 ,collen1 ,henry1 #dag4 ,collins line4 7,see ,steam ,ships47 ,collinge1 #dcj4 ,coloring cloth1 #cbe4 ,colors and coloring1 #dfd-dfg4 ,color process4 7,see ,photography1 #dag1 ,printing1 #bij47 ,colt1 revolvers1 #bfj1 #bfg1 #cbb4 ,columbiad1 #bfa4 ,colossus of ,rhodes1 #cd4 ,comminges of ,france1 #bee4 ,comminuting machines4 7,see ,grinding47 ,compartment vessels1 #ddb4 ,compass1 #b4 ,compensating devices1 #cia4 ,compound engines1 #hg-hi4 ,compressed air drills1 #cgf4 ,compressed air and steam1 #aic1 #aid1 #cgh4 ,compressed air ordnance1 #bfe1 #bfi4 ,condensers1 #hg4 ,condamine1 #dgg4 ,conservation of forces1 #b4 ,constitution1 ,u4,s41 #h4 ,convertibility of forces1 #b4 ,containers1 #age4 ,conveyors1 transportation1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aed1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj4 ,cook1 ,telegraphy1 #abg1 #adf4 ,cooke1 ,prof4 ,j4 ,p41 #ei4 ,cooke1 ,james1 #be4 ,cooking4 7,see ,stoves47 ,cooper1 ,peter1 #hd4 ,coopering4 7,see ,wood ,working47 ,copernicus1 #ahc4 ,copper1 #bah1 #bai1 etc4 ,corliss1 #hh4 ,corn3 ,cultivators1 #bi-cj2 ,mills1 #df2 ,planters1 #bh4 ,correlation of forces1 #b4 ,cort1 ,henry1 #bbf-bca4 ,corundum1 #gj1 #ccd4 ,coster1 #bhj4 ,cotton1 #db1 #dc2 ,gin1 #db1 #dc1 #big2 ,harvester1 #dj4 ,cotton seed oil1 #fi4 ,cotton and wool machinery1 #bih4 7,see ,textiles47 8,counterblast to ,tobacco10 #aee4 ,couplers1 #dcg4 ,cowper1 #ca4 ,cowper1 printer1 #bhc4 ,cowley1 #gg4 ,cradle1 grain1 #cc4 ,cranes and derricks1 #aaj1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aga4 ,crecy1 7#acdf74 7,see ,ordnance47 ,cristofori1 pianist1 #djb4 ,crompton1 ,saml41 #db1 #big1 #bih1 #cja4 ,crompton1 ,george1 #cje4 ,crookes1 ,prof4 ,wm41 #adi4 ,crooke tubes1 #adi4 ,cros1 ,charles1 #djg4 ,crushers1 stone and ore1 #cgf4 ,crystal ,palace1 #dgj4 ,ctesibius1 #gd1 #afe1 #afh1 #che4 ,cultivators1 #bi1 #cj4 ,curtet1 #aba4 ,cugnot1 #agfi1 #ha4 ,culverin4 7,see ,cannon47 ,cunard line1 #hf4 ,cuneus1 #aae4 ,curtains ,shades and ,screens1 #cef4 ,cyanide4 ,cyanide process1 #bcf4 ,cyclometers1 #cif4 ,d4 ,daguerre1 #dae-daf4 ,daguerreotype1 #dae4 ,dahlgren1 ,cannon1 #bfd4 ,danks1 ,rotary puddler1 #bca4 ,dalton1 ,john1 #ei-fj1 #ahf1 #aid1 #dec4 ,damascus ,steel1 #bba4 7,see ,metallurgy47 ,dana1 ,prof41 #abf4 ,daniell's battery1 #aai1 #abf4 ,darby1 ,abraham1 #aggg1 #ie1 #bbe4 ,darwin1 ,dr41 #ahth cent41 #gc4 ,davy1 ,humphry1 ,sir1 #af1 #fc1 #fd1 #gj1 #aah1 #abb1 #abe1 #ahh1 #bji1 #bcf1 #dae4 ,david's harp1 #f4 ,decker1 piano1 #djc4 ,delinter1 #dc4 ,dentistry1 #gb4 ,dental ,chairs1 #gb1 #ceh2 ,drills1 #gb2 ,engines1 #gb2 ,hammers1 #gb2 ,pluggers1 #gb4 ,deoville1 ,st4 ,clair1 #bch4 ,derricks1 #aaj4 8,deutschland10 ,the1 #dde4 ,desks1 #cee4 ,de ,susine1 #aib4 ,dewar1 ,prof41 #baf4 ,dial ,telegraphs4 7,see ,telegraphy47 ,diamonds4 7,see ,milling2 ,polishing2 ,artificial1 #gj47 ,diamond ,drill1 #cge4 ,diana1 ,temple of1 #cd4 ,diastase1 #ed4 ,didot1 ,francois1 #ahjj1 #bgf4 ,dickenson1 #bgg4 ,digesters4 7,see ,chemistry47 ,differential motion1 #cja4 ,dioptric ,lens1 #daj4 ,diorama1 #dae4 ,direct ,acting ,engines1 #hh4 ,direct ,feed ,engines1 #hh4 ,discoveries1 distinct from inventions1 #a1 #b4 ,disk ,plows1 #ba1 #cj4 ,distaff and ,spindle4 7,see ,textiles1 #bib47 ,dodge1 ,james ,m41 #aei4 ,doffers1 #cja4 ,dog ,carts4 7,see ,carriages47 ,dollond1 ,john1 #daj4 ,donkin1 #bgg4 ,donovan1 #ded4 ,don ,quixote1 #bbb4 ,douglass1 ,nicholas1 #aje4 ,draining1 #aje1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,drags and ,drays4 7,see ,waggons1 #dcj-dca47 ,drais1 ,baron ,von1 #dcb4 ,drake1 ,e4 ,s41 ,col41 #chb4 ,draper1 ,j4 ,w41 ,prof41 #dab1 #daf1 #dej4 ,drawing ,machines1 ,spinning1 #bif1 #bih1 #cja4 ,dredging1 #aje1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,dressing2 of thread and cloths1 #bii1 #cjb2 of skins4 7,see ,leather47 ,drills1 seeders1 #bj1 #bg4 ,drills1 stone ore and iron1 #cge1 #cgh4 ,drying apparatus4 7,see ,kilns47 ,dreyse1 #bff4 ,dualine1 #bgj4 ,duboscq1 #acg4 ,dudley1 ,dud1 #bbd4 ,duncan1 ,john1 #caa4 ,dundas1 ,charlotte1 #hd4 ,dundonald1 ,lord1 #dea4 ,dundas1 ,lord1 #hc1 #ddj4 ,dunlop1 ,j4 ,b41 ,bicycles1 #dcc4 ,duplex ,engines1 #hh4 ,dulcimer4 7,see ,music47 ,dust ,explosions and ,collectors1 #ej4 ,dutch ,paper1 #bgg2 ,printing1 #bhj4 ,dutch ,canals1 #ajg4 ,dutch ,clocks1 #chh1 #cia4 ,dutch ,furnaces and ,stoves1 #bjc4 ,dutch ,locks1 #dbd4 ,dutch ,ships1 #dci4 ,dutch ,ware1 #dei4 ,dutton1 ,maj4 ,c4 ,e41 #bfa4 ,dynamometer1 #ahg1 #cih4 ,dynamite1 #bgj4 ,dynamo ,electric ,machines1 #acj1 #acd1 #bea4 ,e4 ,eads1 ,james ,b41 #ajb4 ,eames of ,u4 ,s41 #bcd4 ,east ,river ,bridge1 #ih1 #ii4 ,eddystone ,lighthouse1 #aje4 ,edison1 #acg1 #add1 #ade1 #adh1 #djg1 #djh4 ,egyptian agriculture1 arts and inventions1 #e1 #ac1 #db1 #de1 #eh1 #afd1 #ahd1 #bbj1 #bda1 #bgc1 #bib1 #cdj1 #ced1 #djj1 #djb1 #dbc1 #deg1 #dfj1 #dgj4 ,eiffel1 ,m41 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#dfh1 #dfi4 ,marine propulsion1 #ddb4 ,marconi1 #aea4 ,mariotte's law of gases1 #ahd1 #aid4 ,markers and cutters1 #cbd4 ,markham1 #cj4 ,marsland1 looms1 #cja4 ,marr1 ,wm41 #dba4 ,martin1 ,prof41 #fc4 ,marvin's safes1 #dba4 ,mc,clure's ,magazine1 #dde1 #ddg4 ,mc,cormick reaper1 #cg1 #ch4 ,mc,callum bridge1 #ajc4 ,mc,kay1 ships1 #dci4 ,mc,kay1 shoe machines1 #cfi4 ,mc,millan bicycle1 #dcc4 ,mary1 ,queen1 #djb4 ,mason1 ,prof4 ,o4 ,t41 #deh4 ,massachusetts1 mills1 #bih1 #cfi4 ,massachusetts1 shoe making1 #cgj4 ,master locks1 #dbc1 #dbf4 ,matches1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bja4 ,matting1 #cji1 #cab4 ,maudsley1 ,henry1 #bdc1 #cdi4 ,maurice of ,nassau1 #bee4 ,maurice1 ,peter1 #afg4 ,mauser rifle1 #bfi4 ,mausoleum1 #cd4 ,maxim electric light1 #acg4 ,maxwell1 #dag4 ,mayer1 ,prof41 #djd4 ,meares1 #ahjj1 #ce4 ,meat1 ,preparation of1 #ee4 ,mechanical powers1 #d4 ,medicine and surgery1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb4 ,meigs1 ,general ,m4 ,c41 #ajb4 ,meikle1 #aghf1 #da4 ,megaphone1 #djg4 ,melville1 ,david1 #deb4 ,menai ,straits bridges1 #if4 ,mendeljeff1 #b4 ,menzies of ,scotland1 #da4 ,mergenthaler1 #bhh4 ,merrimac and ,monitor1 #bfh1 #dda4 ,metals and ,metallurgy1 #bah-bci4 ,metal founding1 #bdi4 ,metal working and turning1 #bdj2 boring1 planing1 #bea2 hammering1 shaping1 #bdj2 modern metal working plant1 #bej4 ,metal1 personal ware1 buckles1 clasps1 hooks1 buttons1 etc41 #bej4 ,meters1 gas and water1 #agh4 ,mexico1 #bha1 #bib4 ,microphone1 #adh4 ,microscope1 #dji4 ,middlings purifier1 #di1 #ej4 ,milk1 milkers1 #ed1 #ee4 ,millet1 #cj4 ,mills1 #de to #ea4 ,milling1 high1 low1 #di4 ,miller1 wood working1 #cdb4 ,miller and ,taylor1 #ha4 ,millwright1 ,the ,young1 #dg4 ,milton1 #aje1 #bah4 ,mineral wool1 minerals and mining1 #cgc-chc4 ,minneapolis mills1 #ej4 ,mitrailleuses1 #bfi4 ,modern machinery1 its commencement1 #cfd4 ,mohl1 von1 ,hugo1 #fg4 ,moigno1 ,abb1 #daa4 ,mold1 aging4 7,see ,chemistry47 ,moulding4 7,see ,wood-working and ,glass making47 ,monks1 #chg4 8,monitor10 ,the1 #bfh1 #dda4 ,montgolfier1 #afi4 ,moody1 ,paul1 #bih4 ,moors1 #bec4 ,morin1 ,genl41 #bji1 #bch4 ,morland1 ,sir ,sam'l1 #gg4 ,morrison1 ,chas41 #aae4 ,morse1 ,s4 ,b4 ,f41 #abf1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi4 ,mortars1 #bec4 ,mortise making1 #cde4 ,morton1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,g41 #ga4 ,motor vehicles1 #dce4 ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel1 #ajg4 ,mowers1 #cb1 #cc1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #ci4 ,moxon1 ,jos41 #bdb4 ,mozart1 #djb4 ,murdock1 ,wm41 #ahe1 #deb4 ,music1 #djj-djf4 ,musical instruments1 #f1 #djj4 ,musical electrical apparatus1 #djf4 ,muschenbroeck1 ,prof41 #agde1 #aad1 #aae4 ,mushet1 iron and steel1 #bcd4 ,muskets4 7,see ,ordnance47 ,muzzle loaders1 #bfc1 #bfd4 ,n4 ,national ,assembly1 ,france1 #i4 ,napoleon4 7,see ,bonaparte47 ,naphtha1 #ded4 ,nasmyth1 #bdc1 #bde4 ,needle1 #caj1 #cac4 ,needle gun1 #bff4 ,niedringhaus1 #dfh4 ,netting4 7,see ,spinning47 ,newcomen1 #e1 #gg1 #gh1 #gi1 #afg1 #ahg4 ,newbold1 ,chas41 #ai4 ,newbury1 ,wm41 #cdh4 ,newton1 ,sir ,isaac1 #i1 #aa1 #fa1 #aad1 #afg1 #ahc1 #dad4 ,niagara bridges1 #ig1 #ih1 #ajd4 ,niagara power1 #aga1 #agb4 ,nicholson and ,carlisle1 #aah4 ,nicholson1 ,wm41 of ,england1 #bhb4 ,nickel4 7,see ,metallurgy47 ,niepce1 ,jas4 ,n41 #dae4 ,nitro-glycerine1 #bgj4 ,noah's ,ark1 #dch4 ,nobel1 ,a41 #aib4 ,nollet1 ,prof41 #acb4 ,noria1 ,the1 #afe4 ,norway1 #bff1 #dcj1 #dci4 ,nozzles1 flexible1 #agd2 water1 #agi4 ,o4 ,oersted1 #aba1 #acj4 ,ogle1 #ahbb1 #cf4 ,ohm1 ,g4 ,s41 #abe4 ,oils and fats1 #fi4 ,oil cloth1 #cjf4 ,oil lamps1 #cei4 ,oil stoves and furnaces1 #aij1 #bab4 ,oiling waves1 #ddf4 ,oil wells1 #aij1 #chb4 ,omnibus4 7,see ,stages and ,carriers47 ,opening and blowing machines1 cotton1 #bii4 ,opthalmoscope1 #daa4 ,optical instruments1 #dji-dab4 ,ordnance1 arms1 explosives1 #beb to #bgb4 ,ores1 treatment of1 #bbi1 #bej1 #bea1 #cgc to #chj4 ,ore separators1 #cgi4 7,see ,metallurgy47 ,organs1 #djd4 ,ornamental iron work4 7,see ,metal ,working47 ,ornamental wood work4 7,see ,wood ,working47 ,oscillating engines4 7,see ,steam47 ,osmund furnaces4 7,see ,metallurgy47 ,otis elevators1 #aee4 ,otto1 ,nicolaus ,a41 ,otto engine1 #aij1 #aia4 ,oxygen1 #eh1 #dec4 7,see ,priestley47 ,p4 ,paddle wheels and vessels1 #ddc4 ,paints1 #dff4 ,painting1 #dah1 #dai1 #dei4 ,painting machines1 #aic1 #dah1 #dfg4 ,paixhans1 ,genl41 #bfa1 #bfd4 ,page1 ,prof4 ,c4 ,g41 #acb1 #ada4 ,page1 ,ralph1 #bbd4 ,palissy1 ,bernard1 #deh4 ,palmer1 stage-coaches1 #dbi4 ,palladius1 #cb4 ,panoramas1 #dae4 ,paper and printing1 #bgc-bia4 ,paper bag machinery1 #bgi4 ,papin1 #e1 #gg1 #ahd1 #aib1 #aic4 ,papyrus1 #bgc1 #bgd4 ,paraffine4 7,see ,oils47 ,parchment1 #bgd4 ,parkinson1 ,thos41 #aid4 ,parliament1 ,house of1 #bji4 ,parquetry4 7,see ,wood-working47 ,parrott1 gun1 #bfd4 ,parthenon1 #cgc4 ,partridge1 ,reuben1 matches1 #bjj4 ,pascal1 #aff1 #afh1 #agj1 #ahc4 ,pasteur1 #fh4 ,patents1 their origin and purpose1 #h1 #ba4 ,pattern making4 7,see ,wood1 ,metal1 and ,textiles47 ,pauley1 ,col41 #bff4 ,pegs1 #cfg1 #cfh4 ,pencils1 #dah4 ,pendulum4 7,see ,horology47 ,pendulum machines1 #cfe4 ,penelope1 #cjf4 ,pennsylvania fireplace1 #bjc4 ,percussion caps1 #bei1 #bfj4 ,percy4 7,see ,metallurgy47 ,permutation locks1 #dbe4 ,pernot1 #bcd4 ,perin ,co41 saws1 #cdh4 ,persians1 #cfb4 ,petroleum1 #cei1 #chb4 ,petzold1 #djc4 ,pfaff1 #aba4 ,pharos of ,alexandria1 #cd4 ,phelps1 ,g4 ,m41 #adg4 ,phnicians1 #dci1 #dei4 8,phnix10 ,the4 7,see ,ships47 ,phonautograph1 #ada1 #djg4 ,phonograph1 #b1 #djf4 ,phonophone1 #dad4 ,phonoscope1 #dad4 ,photophone1 #dad4 ,phosphorus matches1 #bjj4 ,photochromoscope1 #dag4 ,photography1 #daj1 #dad1 #daf1 #dah4 ,photo-processes1 #dag4 ,piano1 #f1 #dja-djd4 ,picking machine1 #bih1 #bii4 ,picker-motion1 looms1 #big4 ,piezometer1 #bfb4 ,pigments1 #gj4 ,pitt1 inventor1 #aghf1 #cc4 ,pixii1 #aca4 ,planes1 #cdj1 #cej4 7,see ,wood-working47 ,planing machines1 #bde1 #cdi1 #cej4 7,see ,wood-working47 ,plant1 ,g41 #abj4 ,planters4 7,see ,chap4 ,,iii47 ,plaster1 #dfi4 ,plato1 #che4 ,platt1 ,sir ,hugh1 #ad4 ,platt1 ,senator1 #ce4 ,pliny1 #cb1 #afd1 #bbc1 #bbg1 #bgc1 #cdj4 ,ploughs1 #e1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bd1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj4 ,plucknett1 #ahjh1 #ce4 ,pneumatics1 #afe1 #ahb to #aih4 ,pneumatic machines1 #aie1 #aig1 #aih4 ,pneumatic propellers1 #ddd4 ,pneumatic tires1 #dcc4 ,pneumatic tubes and transmission1 #aei1 #aif4 ,polemoscope1 #dac4 ,polishing glass1 #dge4 ,pope1 ,alexander1 #cid4 ,porcelain1 #dfe1 #dff4 ,poririer 7match machine71 #bja4 ,porta ,baptista1 #dad4 ,porta ,g4 della1 #ge4 ,portable engines1 #hh4 ,potato planters1 #bh4 ,potassium1 #bcf4 ,potter1 ,humphrey1 #gh4 ,pottery1 #deg-dfi4 ,pousard1 #dfe4 ,powder1 #bec4 ,power1 measure of1 #ahg4 ,prehistoric inventions4 7,see beginning of each ,chapter47 ,pressing machines1 #ea1 #eb1 #ec4 ,priestley1 #eh1 #dec1 #dgg4 8,princeton10 ,the1 #ddc4 ,printing press1 #b1 #f1 #bgc-bia4 ,prince of ,orange1 #bee4 ,projectiles1 #bec-bgj4 ,prometheus1 #aii1 #bjj4 ,protoplasm1 #fg4 ,prussia1 #bff4 ,providence1 ,r4 ,i41 ,tool ,co41 #cbb4 ,psalteries1 #dja4 ,ptah1 #bda4 ,puckle's patent breech loader1 #beh1 #bei4 ,puddling1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bca4 ,pug mills1 #dfa4 ,pullman car1 #ajg4 ,pulp1 #bge-bgi4 ,pumps1 #ahg4 ,ptolemy1 #dbh4 ,puillet1 #daa4 ,puy ,guillaume1 battle of1 #acch1 #bec4 ,pyramids1 #cd1 #ic4 ,q4 ,quadruplex telegraphy4 7,see ,telegraphy47 8,queen ,ann's ,pocket ,piece10 #bef4 ,queen of ,sheba1 #cbf4 ,quern1 #de4 ,quilting machine1 #cbd4 ,r4 ,radcliffe1 #cje4 ,radiation and radiators1 #bje1 #bjf4 ,railways1 rails and tracks1 #ajf1 #ajh2 cars1 #ajh1 #aji2 frogs1 #ajh4 ,railway cars1 #dcf1 #dcg4 ,rakes4 7,see ,agriculture47 ,ramage ,press1 #bha4 ,ramseye1 ,david1 #afcj1 #gf4 ,ramelli1 ,cardan1 #ge4 ,ramsey1 ,david1 #agch1 #afh1 #chi4 ,ram1 water4 7,see ,pumps47 ,randolph1 ,david ,m41 #cfg4 ,randolph1 ,elder and ,co41 #ddj4 ,ranges4 7,see ,stoves47 ,range finder1 #dac4 ,raphael1 #dah4 ,rawhides4 7,see ,leather47 ,read1 ,nathan1 #agia1 #hg4 ,reapers4 7,see ,harvesters1 #cb1 #cc1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch47 ,reichenbach1 #chb4 ,reis1 ,prof41 #ada1 #djg4 ,refining metals1 #bbg4 ,refrigeration1 #bac1 #bad1 #baf4 ,regenerators1 #dfe4 ,regenerative furnace4 7,see ,metallurgy1 also1 #dfd47 ,registers1 #cie4 ,regulators1 ,electric1 #acg2 time1 #acg4 ,rennie1 #bdd4 ,repeating watches1 #chi4 ,reservoirs1 #aff1 #ahj4 ,resonators1 #djd4 ,revault1 #afje1 #ge4 ,revolvers4 7,see ,fire ,arms47 ,rhode ,island1 #bih4 ,ribbon making1 #cjf4 ,rickel1 ,dr41 #dea4 ,rider bridge1 #ajc4 ,riehle1 testing mach41 #cih4 ,rifles1 #beh1 #bei1 #bfj4 ,rifled cannon1 #bfb1 #bfc4 ,ring frame-spinning1 #cjb4 ,ritter1 #aah1 #aba4 ,riveting1 #agf4 ,road carriage1 steam1 #hc4 ,roads1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,road making1 #ajf4 ,robia1 ,luca della1 #dei4 ,robert1 ,louis1 #bgf4 ,roberts1 #bdd4 ,rock drilling1 #ajg4 ,rockers1 ore1 #bce4 ,rockets1 #bec4 ,rodman1 ,general1 gun1 #bfd4 ,roebling1 ,john ,a41 engineer1 #ih1 #ii4 ,roebling1 ,washington1 #ih1 #ajj4 ,roentgen1 ,x rays1 #adi4 ,rohes1 ,m4 ,beau de1 #ahi4 ,rogers1 ,saml4 ,b41 metallurgist1 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,rogers1 type maker1 #bhi4 ,roller press1 #bhc1 #bhd4 ,roman arts1 inventions1 etc41 #aj1 #ac1 #ad1 #de1 #ic1 #afd1 #aff1 #agh1 #bjb1 #bgd1 #deg1 #dei4 ,rookwood pottery1 #dfg4 ,romagnosi1 ,g4 ,d41 #aba4 ,roscoe1 ,prof4 7,see ,chemistry47 ,rose1 ,h41 #bch4 ,rotary engines4 7,see ,steam47 ,rotary printing press1 #bhd4 7,see ,printing47 ,rotary pumps4 7,see ,water and ,steam ,eng47 ,roving1 spinning1 #bih1 #bii4 ,rubber1 #fi1 #dcd4 ,ruhmkorff coil1 #acb4 ,rumford1 ,count1 #fc4 ,rumsey1 ,james1 #ha1 #afh4 ,russia1 #dj1 #bed1 #dcj4 ,russian leather1 #cfb4 ,rust1 ,saml41 #bhb4 ,ruth1 #af4 ,s4 ,sabot1 projectiles1 #bfb1 #bfc4 ,safes and locks1 #dbj-dbg4 ,safety valves1 #hg4 ,saint1 ,thomas1 sewing machine1 #caa4 ,salman1 scales maker1 #cif4 ,salonen1 #ahjg1 mower1 #cf4 ,samians and ,samos1 #dei4 ,sand blast1 #ccb1 #ccd1 #dge4 ,sand filters4 7,see ,filters47 ,sandwich1 ,earl1 #afii1 #be4 ,saracens1 #bgd4 ,sarnstrom1 ,prof41 #bcd4 ,savery1 ,thos41 #e1 #gg4 ,saws1 #cdj1 #cda1 #cdb1 #cdh1 #cea4 ,saw mills1 #cda1 #cdb4 ,saxton1 ,jos41 #aca4 ,scales1 #cie4 ,scaliger1 #ahc4 ,scandinavians1 #cfc4 ,scarborough1 #he4 ,schilling1 ,baron1 #abf4 ,schnbein1 #bgj4 ,schapper1 ,hartman1 #bda4 ,schoeffer1 ,peter1 #bgj4 ,schreiber1 #djc4 ,schrotter 7matches71 #bjj4 ,schweigger1 ,s4 ,c41 #abf4 ,scoops1 #agh4 ,scotland1 #ai1 #bj1 #cc4 ,scott1 phonautograph1 #ada1 #djg4 ,scott1 ,sir ,walter1 #de1 #hj4 ,scott1 ,gen4 ,w41 #bfj4 ,scott1 ,rich'd1 #dbj4 ,scouring machines4 7,see ,leather and ,cloth1 and ,grain47 ,screw1 ,archimedean4 7,see ,ships and ,propeller47 ,screw1 press1 #eb4 ,screw propeller1 #he1 #ddc4 ,screw making1 #bde1 #bdf4 ,scythians1 #cfb1 #dbh4 ,scythes1 #cb1 #cc1 #ce4 ,seed drills1 #bd1 #be1 #bf1 #bg4 ,seely1 ,f4 ,a41 #c4 ,self-playing ,instruments1 #djf4 ,seguin1 #hc4 ,sellers1 ,wm41 #bcd1 #bdg4 ,separators1 ,grain1 #dh1 #di2 milk1 #ed2 ore1 #cgi4 7,see ,mills47 ,seppings1 ,sir ,robert1 #ddj4 ,serrin1 #acg4 ,serviere1 #aff4 ,seward1 ,wm4 ,h41 #c4 ,seven ,wonders1 ,the1 #cd1 #ce4 ,sewing machines1 #caa-cbc4 ,sewer construction1 #ajg4 ,shades and screens1 #cef4 ,shaping machines1 #bde4 ,sharp's carbine1 #bfg4 ,shaw1 ,joshua1 #bfj4 ,sheele1 #dae4 ,sheet metal ware1 #bej4 ,shells1 #bfd4 ,shingle making1 #cej4 ,shinar1 ,brick making in1 #deg4 ,ships1 war1 and others1 #bfa1 #cdc1 #dch-ddi4 ,shoes and machinery1 #cfe-cga4 ,sholes1 inventor1 type writing1 #bhf4 ,shrapnel1 #bei4 ,shuttles1 #bic4 7,see ,textiles47 ,sickle1 #cb1 #cc4 ,side wheel steamboats1 #he4 ,siemens1 ,dr4 ,werner1 #acc4 ,siemens1 ,wm41 ,sir41 #add1 #aga4 ,siemens and ,halske1 #add1 #adf4 ,siemens1 ,c4 ,l41 #adg1 #bcd1 #dfe4 ,silk making4 7,see ,spinning47 ,silk1 artificial4 7,see ,glass47 ,silver1 #bai4 ,singer1 sewing machine1 #cai1 #cbj4 ,sinking shafts1 ,mode of1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,skiving4 7,see ,leather47 ,slade1 ,j4 ,t41 #aee4 ,slater1 ,thomas1 #bih4 ,slaughtering1 #ee4 ,sleighs1 #dcj1 #dca4 ,slide1 rest1 #bdc1 #cdi4 ,slotting machines1 #bde4 ,small arms1 #bff4 7,see ,ordnance47 ,small1 ,jas41 #aghd1 #ah4 ,smeaton1 #hg1 #aje4 ,smelting1 #bbj4 7,see ,metallurgy47 ,smiles1 ,self ,help1 #ie4 ,smith ,wesson1 revolvers1 #bfi4 ,snellus1 #bcd4 ,snow ploughs1 #aji4 ,soda1 pulp1 #bgh4 ,solarmeter1 #dac4 ,solomon's temple1 #bdb4 ,somerset1 ,marquis of ,worcester4 7,see ,steam47 ,sound1 #djf4 7,see ,acoustics47 ,sowing1 #bc4 ,spanish inventions1 #be1 #ge1 #bec1 #bgd1 #bhj1 #bib4 ,spectacles4 7,see ,optics47 ,spectrum1 analysis1 #fj1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #dab4 ,spectroscope1 #b1 #dab4 ,speed ,indicators1 #cif4 ,spencer1 gun1 #bfg4 ,spencer1 metal coating1 #bdi4 ,spinet1 #djb4 ,spinning1 #f1 #bib1 #bif1 #cjj4 7,see ,textiles47 8,spinning ,jenny10 #big4 ,spinning ,mule1 #big1 #cjj4 8,spiritalia10 #djd4 ,splitting1 leather1 #cff4 ,spooling1 #cjb4 ,springfield musket1 #bfh4 ,spun glass4 7,see ,spinning and #dgd47 ,stamp mills and metal working1 #bcf1 #bej4 ,standard time1 #cid4 ,stanhope1 ,earl1 #bhb4 ,st4 ,gothard tunnel1 #ajg4 ,st4 ,louis bridge1 #ajb4 ,steam engines1 #b1 #e1 #gc to #ie2 boilers1 #hf2 heating1 #bjg2 pumps1 #gi1 #ha1 #hh4 ,steam ships1 #b1 #hd1 #he1 #ddj4 ,stearns1 #ade4 ,steel1 manufacture of4 7,see ,metallurgy47 ,steinheil1 #abf1 #dab4 ,steinway1 pianos1 #djc4 ,stenographing1 #bij4 ,stereoscope1 #daj1 #daa4 ,stereotyping1 #bha4 ,sterilisation1 #ed1 #bac4 ,stephenson1 ,geo41 #hb1 #hc1 #hd1 #he1 #ih4 ,stephenson1 ,robert1 #ih1 #ajj1 #aja1 #aee4 ,stevens1 ,john ,c41 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #ddc4 ,stevinus1 #aff4 ,stitching machines4 7,see ,sewing47 ,stocking making1 #cjg4 ,stone cutting1 carving and dressing1 #cgd1 #cge4 ,stone crushing1 #cgf4 ,stone1 artificial1 #dfh4 ,storage battery1 #abj4 ,storm1 ,w4 ,m4 7,gunpowder ,engine17 #aib4 ,store service1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aeh1 #aei4 ,stoves1 #bjj-bjf4 ,street1 ,robert1 #ahe4 ,street sweeping1 #cca4 ,stow1 #cej4 ,stckofen1 metallurgy1 #bbd4 ,sturgeon1 inventor1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd4 ,sturtevant1 ,b4 ,f4 7shoes71 #cfh4 ,submarine blasting1 etc41 #ajg4 ,suez canal1 #ajg4 ,sugar1 #fi4 ,sun-dial1 #chd4 ,subdivision of labor1 #cib4 7,see ,ordnance and ,sewing ,machines47 ,surgery and instruments1 #gj4 ,suspension bridges1 #ie1 #if-ajj4 ,swan1 light1 #acg4 ,sweden1 #bff4 ,sweeping machines1 #cca4 ,swiss manufactures1 7,see ,watches1 etc47 ,switzerland1 #af1 #df1 #cia4 ,symington1 #ha1 #hc1 #he4 ,syphon recorder1 #aci4 ,t4 ,t-rail1 #ajh4 ,tables1 #ced4 7,see ,furniture47 ,tachenius1 #eh4 ,tack making1 #cdd4 ,tainter1 ,c4 ,s41 #djh1 #dad4 ,takamine1 #fh4 ,talus1 or ,perdix1 saw inventor1 #cdj4 ,tanning4 7,see ,leather47 ,tapestry1 #bge4 ,teasling1 #cjf4 ,tedders1 #dj4 ,telegraph1 #abd-abh1 #aci1 #adj4 ,telegraphic pictures1 #dai4 ,telephone1 #b1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #djf4 ,telescope1 #b1 #dji4 ,telpherage1 #add4 ,telford1 #ie1 #if4 ,tennyson1 #fg4 ,tesla1 #ade4 ,testing machines1 #cih4 ,textiles1 #bib-cji4 ,thermo-electricity1 #aab1 #abj4 ,theodore of ,samos1 #cdj4 ,thimonnier1 #cac4 ,thomson1 ,sir ,wm41 #fc1 #aci4 ,thompson1 ,robt4 ,wm41 #dcc1 #dce4 ,thompson ,houston1 #acg4 8,three color process10 #dag4 ,thread making4 7,see ,spinning47 ,threshing machines1 #dj1 #da4 ,throstle1 #bif4 ,thurston1 ,prof4 ,r4 ,h41 #hf4 ,tiles1 #cej4 ,tilghman1 ,b4 ,f41 sand blast1 #ccb1 #dge4 ,time locks1 #dbe4 ,time measuring of the ancients1 #chd4 ,tissier1 #bch4 ,tobacco and machinery1 #ee1 #ef1 #eg4 ,tools1 primitive1 #caj1 #cbh1 #cci4 ,torpedo vessels1 #bga1 #dde4 ,torpedoes1 #bga4 ,torricelli1 #aff1 #ahc4 ,tour1 ,cagniard de la1 #fe4 ,towne's lattice bridge1 #ajc4 ,traction railways and engines1 #dcf4 ,transplanters1 #bi4 ,transportation1 #ajg1 #aji4 ,treadwell1 ,daniel1 #bhd4 ,tresca1 ,m41 #bdg4 ,trevithick1 ,richard1 #ha1 #hb4 ,tripler1 ,c4 ,e41 liquid air1 #baf4 ,trolley lines4 7,see ,electric1 etc47 ,trough batteries4 7,see ,electricity47 ,truss bridges1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,tubal ,cain1 #bah1 #bci4 ,tubes and tubing1 making1 #bdh4 ,tubular bridges1 #ajj1 #ajb4 ,tull1 ,jethro1 #afhj-agdj1 #ad1 #be4 ,tungsten4 7,see ,metals47 ,tunnels1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,turbines1 #hi1 #afh1 #aga1 #agb4 ,turning1 ,art of1 #bdb1 #cci1 #cdd4 ,tusser1 ,thomas1 #ad4 ,tweddle1 #agf4 ,twine binders4 7,see ,harvesters47 ,twinings 7inventor1 refrigerator71 #bae4 ,tympanum1 #afd4 ,tyndall1 ,john1 #daa1 #dab4 ,type1 #bhj1 #bha4 ,type ,distributor1 #bgi4 ,type setter1 #bgh1 #bgi4 ,type writers1 #f1 #bhf4 ,v4 ,vail1 ,alfred1 #abf4 ,valerius1 #chh4 ,valves1 valve gear1 #hg1 #hi4 ,vapor engines1 #aij-aib4 ,vapor stoves1 #bjj-bjf1 #bab4 ,varley1 ,alfred1 #acc4 ,varro1 #cb4 ,vegetable cutters1 #ea4 ,velocipedes1 #dca4 ,venetians1 #bhj4 ,ventilation1 #bji4 ,veneering1 #cea4 ,vestibule cars1 #dcg4 ,vick1 ,henry de1 clockmaker1 #chg4 ,victoria bridge4 7,see ,bridges47 ,vienna1 #ch4 ,vienna exposition1 #cdh4 ,vince1 ,leonardo de1 #ge4 ,virgil1 #cb4 ,virginal1 #f1 #djb4 ,vitruvius1 #bbg4 ,volta1 voltaic electricity1 #aab1 #aag1 #aah1 #aab to #abj1 #abe1 #acc1 #acd1 #bdi4 ,von ,alteneck1 ,h41 #ach4 ,von ,drais1 #dcb4 ,vortex theory1 #b2 ,vortex wheel1 #aga4 ,voting machines1 #cie4 ,vulcan1 #bdf4 ,vulcanisation4 7,see ,rubber47 ,w4 ,waggons1 #dca4 ,walker1 ,john 7matches71 #bjj4 ,walker1 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,jacob1 #chh4 ,zeppelin1 ,count1 #ddf4 ,zimmermann1 self-playing pianos1 #djf4 ,zinc1 #bcf4 ,zinc batteries4 7,see ,electricity47 ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century ,,series4 ,price #es4 each net4 ,religious ,progress in the ,century4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,withrow1 ,m4 ,a41 ,d4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,c4 ,literature of the ,century4 ,by ,professor ,a4 ,b4 de ,mille1 ,m4 ,a4 ,progress of ,south ,africa in the ,century4 ,by ,george ,mc,call ,theal1 ,d4 ,lit41 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,medicine1 ,surgery1 and ,hygiene in the ,century4 ,by ,ezra ,hurlburt ,stafford1 ,m4 ,d4 ,progress of ,india1 ,japan1 and ,china in the ,century4 ,by ,sir ,richard ,temple1 ,bart41 ,,ll4 ,d41 c4 ,progress of the ,united ,states of ,america in the ,century4 ,by ,prof4 ,wm4 ,peterfield ,trent1 ,m4 ,a41 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,continental ,rulers in the ,century4 ,by ,percy ,m4 ,thornton1 ,,ll4 ,b41 ,m4 ,p4 ,british ,sovereigns in the ,century4 ,by ,t4 ,h4 ,s4 ,escott1 ,m4 ,a4 ,progress of ,british ,empire in the ,century4 ,by ,james ,stanley ,little4 ,progress of ,canada in the ,century4 ,by ,j4 ,castell ,hopkins1 ,f4 ,s4 ,s4 ,progress of ,australasia in the ,century4 ,by ,t4 ,a4 ,coghlan1 ,f4 ,s4 ,s41 and ,thomas ,t4 ,ewing4 ,progress of ,new ,zealand in the ,century4 ,by ,r4 ,f4 ,irvine1 ,m4 ,a41 and ,o4 ,t4 ,j4 ,alpers1 ,m4 ,a4 ,political ,progress of the ,century4 ,by ,thomas ,macknight4 ,discoveries and ,explorations of the ,century4 ,by ,professor ,c4 ,g4 ,d4 ,roberts1 ,m4 ,a4 ,economic and ,industrial ,progress of the ,century4 ,by ,h4 de ,beltgens ,gibbins1 ,d4 ,lit41 ,m4 ,a41 ,f4 ,r4 ,g4 ,s4 ,inventions of the ,century4 ,by ,william ,h4 ,doolittle4 ,wars of the ,century1 and the ,development of ,military ,science4 ,by ,professor ,oscar ,browning1 ,m4 ,a4 ,naval ,battles of the ,century4 ,by ,rear-,admiral ,francis ,john ,higginson4 ,naval ,development of the ,century4 ,by ,sir ,nathaniel ,barnaby1 ,k4 ,c4 ,b4 ,presidents of the ,united ,states in the ,century 7from ,jefferson to ,fillmore74 ,by ,francis ,bellamy4 ,presidents of the ,united ,states in the ,century 7from ,pierce to ,mc,kinley74 ,francis ,knowles4 ,the ,fine ,arts in the ,century4 ,by ,william ,sharp4 ,progress of ,education in the ,century4 ,by ,james ,laughlin ,hughes and ,louis ,r4 ,klemm1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,temperance and ,social ,progress of the ,century4 ,by the ,hon4 ,john ,g4 ,woolley1 ,m4 ,a4 ,progress of ,science in the ,century4 ,by ,professor ,j4 ,arthur ,thomson1 ,m4 ,a4 ,edinburgh3 ,printed by ,w4 ,r4 ,chambers1 ,limited4