,archive_/,american ,libraries47        
,,triumphs ,,of ,,invention ,,and       
,,discovery ,,in ,,art ,,and ,,science4 
,illustration3 ,,george ,,stephenson',s 
,,home4 ,page #abj4         ,,triumphs  
,,of     ,,invention ,,and ,,discovery  
,,in ,,art ,,and ,,science4      ,,by   
,j4 ,,hamilton ,,fyfe4       ,,peace    
,,hath ,,her ,,victories ,,no ,,less    
,,than ,,war4       ,,london3     ,t4   
,,nelson ,,and ,,sons1 ,,paternoster    
,,row2     ,,edinburgh2 ,,and ,,new     
,,york4      #ahga4     ,preface4       
,peace hath her victories1 no less      
renowned than war4--,,milton4   ,it is  
not difficult to account for the        
pre-eminence1 generally assigned to the 
victories of war over the victories of  
peace in popular history4 ,the noise and
 ostentation which attend the former1   
the air of romance which surrounds      
them1--lay firm hold of the imagination1
 while the directness and rapidity with 
which1 in such transactions1 the effect 
follows the cause1 invest them with a   

peculiar charm for simple and           
superficial observers4 ,as ,schiller    
says1--                        ,straight
 forward goes     ,the lightning's path1
 and straight the fearful path     ,of  
the cannon ball4 ,direct it flies1 and  
rapid1     ,shattering that it may      
reach1 and shattering what it reaches4  
,my son6 the road the human being       
travels1     ,that on which blessing    
comes and goes1 doth follow     ,the    
river's course1 the valley's playful    
windings3     ,curves round the         
corn-field and the hill of vines1       
,honouring the holy bounds of property6 
,and thus secure1 though late1 leads to 
its end4  ,the path of peace is long and
 devious1 now dwindling into a mere     
foot-track1 now lost to sight in some   
dense thicket2 and the heroes who pursue
 it are often mocked at by the crowd as 
poor1 half-witted souls1 wandering      
either aimlessly or in foolish chase of 
some ,jack o' lantern that ever recedes 
before them4 ,the goal they aim at seems

 to the common eye so visionary1 and    
their progress towards it so            
imperceptible1--and even when reached1  
it takes so long before the benefits of 
their achievement are generally         
recognised1--that it is perhaps no      
wonder we should be more attracted by   
the stirring narratives of war1 than by 
the sad1 simple histories of the great  
pioneers of industry and science4       
,picturesque and imposing as deeds of   
arms appear1 the victories of peace--the
 development of great discoveries and   
inventions1 the performance of serene   
acts of beneficence1 the achievements of
 social reform--possess a deeper        
interest and a truer romance for the    
seeing eye and the understanding heart4 
,wounds and death have to be encountered
 in the struggles of peace as well as in
 the contests of war2 and peace has her 
martyrs as well as her heroes4 ,the     
story of the cotton-spinning invention  
is at once as tragic and romantic as the
 story of the ,peninsular war4 ,there   

were forlorn hopes of brave men in both2
 but in the one case they were cheered  
by sympathy and association1 in the     
other the desperate pioneers had to face
 a world of foes1 alone1 unfriended1    
solitary1 slow4  ,the following pages   
contain sketches of some of the more    
momentous victories of peace1 and the   
heroes who took part in them4 ,the      
reader need hardly be reminded that this
 brief list does not exhaust the        
catalogue either of such events or      
persons1 and that only a few of a       
representative character are here       
selected4  ,in the present edition the  
different sections have been carefully  
revised1 and the details brought down to
 the latest possible date4              
,j4 ,h4 ,f4     ,contents4   ,,the ,,art
 ,,of ,,printing--     #a4 ,john        
,gutenberg1                             
#ac     #b4 ,william ,caxton1           
#bh     #c4 ,the ,printing ,machine1    
#cb  ,,the ,,steam ,,engine--     #a4   
,the ,marquis of ,worcester1 and his    

,successors1      #ec     #b4 ,james    
,watt1                                  
#fc  ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,cotton--
     #a4 ,kay and ,hargreaves1          
#gg     #b4 ,sir ,richard ,arkwright1   
#ha     #c4 ,samuel ,crompton1          
#ij     #d4 ,dr4 ,cartwright1           
#ih     #e4 ,sir ,robert ,peel1         
#ajd  ,,the ,,railway ,,and ,,the       
,,locomotive--     #a4 ,the ,flying     
,coach1                                 
#aaa     #b4 ,the ,stephensons3 ,father 
and ,son1                  #aaf     #c4 
,the ,growth of ,railways1              
#acc  ,,the ,,lighthouse--     #a4 ,the 
,eddystone1                             
#ada     #b4 ,the ,bell ,rock1          
#aec     #c4 ,the ,skerryvore1          
#afj  ,,steam ,,navigation--     #a4    
,james ,symington1                      
#aga     #b4 ,robert ,fulton1           
#agf     #c4 ,henry ,bell1              
#ahc     #d4 ,ocean ,steamers1          
#ahf  ,,iron ,,manufacture--     ,henry 
,cort1                                  

#aic  ,,the ,,electric ,,telegraph--    
#a4 ,mr4 ,cooke1                        
#bja     #b4 ,professor ,wheatstone1    
#bjd     #c4 ,the ,submarine ,telegraph1
                          #bji  ,,the   
,,silk ,,manufacture--     #a4 ,john    
,lombe1                                 
#bba     #b4 ,william ,lee1             
#bbe     #c4 ,joseph ,marie ,jacquard1  
#bbg  ,,the ,,potter',s ,,art--     #a4 
,luca ,della ,robbia1                   
#bcg     #b4 ,bernard ,palissy1         
#bda     #c4 ,josiah ,wedgwood1         
#bej  ,,the ,,miner',s ,,safety ,,lamp--
     #a4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1          
#bfc     #b4 ,george ,stephenson's      
,lamp1                         #bge     
,,penny ,,postage--     #a4 ,sir        
,rowland ,hill1                         
#bgi     #b4 ,new ,departments of the   
,postal ,system1             #bib  ,,the
 ,,overland ,,route--     #a4           
,lieutenant ,waghorn1                   
#bii     #b4 ,the ,suez ,canal1         
#cji     ,the ,art of ,printing4        

,i4--,,john ,,gutenberg4                
,,ii4--,,william ,,caxton4 ,,iii4--,,the
 ,,printing ,,machine4     ,the ,art of 
,printing4      ,a creature he called to
 wait on his will1     ,half iron1 half 
vapour--a dread to behold--     ,which  
evermore panted1 and evermore rolled1   
,and uttered his words a millionfold4   
,forth sprung they in air1 down raining 
in dew1     ,and men fed upon them1 and 
mighty they grew4                       
,,leigh ,,hunt1 ,sword and ,pen4        
,i4--,,john ,,gutenberg4   ,some ,dutch 
writers1 inspired by a not unnatural    
feeling of patriotism1 have endeavoured 
to claim the honour of inventing the    
,art of ,printing for a countryman of   
their own1 ,laurence ,coster of         
,haarlem4 ,their sole reliance1 however1
 is upon the statements of one ,hadrian 
,junius1 who was born at ,horn1 in      
,north ,holland1 in #aeaa4 ,about #aege 
he wrote a work1 entitled ,batavia1 in  
which the account of ,coster first      
appeared4 ,and1 as an unimpeachable     

authority has remarked1 almost every    
succeeding advocate of ,coster's        
pretensions has taken the liberty of    
altering1 amplifying1 or contradicting  
the account of ,junius1 according as it 
might suit his own line of argument2 but
 not one of them has succeeded in       
producing a solitary fact in            
confirmation of it4 ,the accounts which 
are given of ,coster's discovery by     
,junius and his successors present many 
contradictory features4 ,thus ,junius   
says3 ,walking in a neighbouring wood1  
as citizens are accustomed to do after  
dinner and on holidays1 he began to cut 
letters of beech-bark1 with which1 for  
amusement--the letters being inverted as
 on a seal--he impressed short sentences
 on paper for the children of his       
son-in-law4 ,a later writer1            
,scriverius1 is more imaginative3       
,coster1 he says1 walking in the wood1  
picked up a small bough of a beech1 or  
rather of an oak-tree1 blown off by the 
wind2 and after amusing himself with    

cutting some letters on it1 wrapped it  
up in paper1 and afterwards laid himself
 down to sleep4 ,when he awoke1 he      
perceived that the paper1 by a shower of
 rain or some accident having got moist1
 had received an impression from these  
letters2 which induced him to pursue the
 accidental discovery4  ,not only are   
these accounts evidently deficient in   
authenticity1 but it should be remarked 
that the earliest of them was not put   
before the world until ,laurence ,coster
 had been nearly a hundred and fifty    
years in his grave4 ,the presumed writer
 of the narrative which first did       
justice to his memory had been also     
twelve years dead when his book was     
published4 ,his information1 or rather  
the information brought forward under   
cover of his name1 was derived from an  
old man who1 when a boy1 had heard it   
from another old man who lived with     
,coster at the time of the robbery1 and 
who had heard the account of the        
invention from his master4 ,for1 to     

explain the fact of the early appearance
 of typography in ,germany1 the ,dutch  
writers are forced to the hypothesis    
that an apprentice of ,coster's stole   
all his master's types and utensils1    
fleeing with them first to ,amsterdam1  
second to ,cologne1 and lastly to       
,mentz6 ,the whole story is too         
improbable to be accepted by any        
impartial inquirer2 and the best        
authorities are agreed in dismissing the
 ,dutch fiction with the contempt it    
deserves1 and in ascribing to ,,john    
,,gutenberg1 of ,mentz1 the honour to   
which he is justly entitled4         99 
99       99       99       99  ,of the  
career of ,gutenberg we shall speak     
presently1 but let us first point out   
that the invention of typography1 like  
all great inventions1 was no sudden     
conception of genius--not the birth of  
some singularly felicitous moment of    
inspiration--but the result of what may 
be called a gradual series of causes4   
,printing with movable types was the    

natural outcome of printing with blocks4
 ,we must go back1 therefore1 a few     
years1 to examine into the origin of    
block books4  ,mr4 ,jackson observes    
that there cannot be a doubt that the   
principle on which wood engraving is    
founded--that of taking impressions on  
paper or parchment1 with ink1 from      
prominent lines--was known and practised
 in attesting documents in the          
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries4    
,towards the end of the fourteenth1 or  
about the beginning of the fifteenth    
century1 he says1 there seems reason to 
believe that this principle was adopted 
by the ,german card-makers for the      
purpose of marking the outlines of the  
figures on their cards1 which they      
afterwards coloured by the practice     
called stencilling4  ,it was the        
,germans who first practised card-making
 as a trade1 and as early as #adah the  
name of a kartenmacher1 or card-maker1  
occurs in the burgess-books of          
,augsburg4 ,in the town-books of        

,nuremburg1 the designation             
formschneider1 or figure-cutter1 is     
found in #addi2 and we may presume that 
block books--that is1 books each page of
 which was cut on a single block--were  
introduced about this time4 ,these books
 were on religious subjects1 and were   
intended1 perhaps1 by the monks as a    
kind of counterbalance against the      
playing-cards2 thus endeavouring to     
supply a remedy for the evil1 and       
extracting from the serpent a cure for  
his bite4  ,the earliest woodcut        
known--one of ,st4 ,christopher--bears  
the date of #adcb1 and was found in a   
convent situated within about fifty     
miles of the city of ,augsburg--the     
convent of ,buxheim1 near ,memmingen4   
,it was pasted on the inside of the     
right hand cover of a manuscript        
entitled ,laus ,virginis1 and measures  
eleven and a quarter inches in height1  
by eight and one-eighth inches in width4
  ,the following description of it by   
,jackson is interesting3--  ,to the left

 of the engraving the artist has        
introduced1 with a noble disregard of   
perspective1 what ,bewick would have    
called a 'bit of nature4' ,in the       
foreground a figure is seen driving an  
ass loaded with a sack towards a        
water-mill2 while by a steep path a     
figure1 perhaps intended for the miller1
 is seen carrying a full sack from the  
back-door of the mill towards a cottage4
 ,to the right is seen a hermit--known  
by the bell over the entrance to his    
dwelling--holding a large lantern to    
direct ,st4 ,christopher as he crosses  
the stream4 ,the couplet at the foot of 
the cut1--      ',cristofori faciem die 
quacunque tueris1     ,illa nempe die   
morte mala non morieris1'  may be       
translated as follows1--      ,each day 
that thou the image of ,st4 ,christopher
 shall see1     ,that day no frightful  
form of death shall chance to fall on   
thee4  ,these lines allude to a         
superstition1 once popular in all       
,catholic countries1 that on the day    

they saw a figure or image of ,st4      
,christopher1 they would be safe from a 
violent death1 or from death unabsolved 
and unconfessed4  ,passing over some    
other woodcuts of great antiquity1 in   
all of which the figures are accompanied
 by engraved letters1 we come to the    
block books proper4 ,of these1 the most 
famous are called1 the ,apocalypsis1 seu
 ,historia ,sancti ,johannis 7the       
,apocalypse1 or ,history of ,st4 ,john72
 the ,historia ,virginis ex ,cantico    
,canticorum 7,story of the ,virgin1 from
 the ,song of ,songs72 and the ,biblia  
,pauperum 7,bible of the ,poor74 ,the   
first is a history1 pictorial and       
literal1 of the life and revelations of 
,st4 ,john the ,evangelist1 partly      
derived from the book of ,revelation1   
and partly from ecclesiastical          
tradition4 ,the second is a similar     
biography of the ,virgin ,mary1 as it is
 supposed to be typified in the ,song of
 ,solomon2 and the third consists of    
subjects representing many of the most  

important passages in the ,old and ,new 
,testaments1 with texts to illustrate   
the subject1 or clinch the lesson of    
duty it may shadow forth4  ,with respect
 to the engraving1 we are told that the 
cuts are executed in the simplest       
manner1 as there is not the least       
attempt at shading1 by means of cross   
lines or hatchings1 to be detected in   
any one of the designs4 ,the most       
difficult part of the engraver's task1  
says ,jackson1 supposing the drawing to 
have been made by another person1 would 
be the cutting of the letters1 which1 in
 several of the subjects1 must have     
occupied a considerable portion of time1
 and have demanded no small degree of   
perseverance1 care1 and skill4  ,these  
block books were followed by others in  
which no illustrations appeared1 but in 
which the entire page was occupied with 
text4 ,the ,grammatical ,primer1 called 
the ,donatus1 from the name of its      
supposed compiler1 was thus printed1 or 
engraved1 enabling copies of it to be   

multiplied at a much cheaper rate than  
they could be produced in manuscript4   
,and thus we see that the art of        
printing--or1 more correctly speaking1  
engraving on wood--has advanced from the
 production of a single figure1 with    
merely a few words beneath it1 to the   
impression of whole pages of text4      
,next1 for the engraved page were to be 
substituted movable letters of metal1   
wedged together within an iron frame2   
and impressions1 instead of being       
obtained by the slow and tedious process
 of friction1 were to be secured by the 
swift and powerful action of the press4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,about the year #adjj1 ,john            
,gaensfleisch1 or ,gutenberg1 was born  
at ,mentz4 ,he sprung from an honourable
 family1 and it is said that he himself 
was by birth a knight4 ,he seems to have
 been a person of some property4  ,about
 #adcd we find him living in ,strasburg1
 and1 in partnership with a certain     
,andrew ,drytzcher1 endeavouring to     

perfect the art of typography4 ,how he  
was induced to direct his attention     
towards this object1 and under what     
circumstances he began his experiments1 
it is impossible to say2 but there can  
be no doubt that he was the first person
 who conceived the idea of movable      
types--an idea which is the very        
foundation of the art of printing4  ,an 
old ,german chronicler furnishes the    
following account of the early stages of
 the great printer's discovery3--  ,at  
this time 7about #adch71 in the city of 
,mentz1 on the ,rhine1 in ,germany1 and 
not in ,italy as some persons have      
erroneously written1 that wonderful and 
then unheard-of art of printing and     
characterizing books was invented and   
devised by ,john ,gutenberger1 citizen  
of ,mentz1 who1 having expended most of 
his property in the invention of this   
art1 on account of the difficulties     
which he experienced on all sides1 was  
about to abandon it altogether2 when1 by
 the advice and through the means of    

,john ,fust1 likewise a citizen of      
,mentz1 he succeeded in bringing it to  
perfection4 ,at first they formed or    
engraved the characters or letters in   
written order on blocks of wood1 and in 
this manner they printed the vocabulary 
called a ',catholicon4' ,but with these 
forms or blocks they could print nothing
 else1 because the characters could not 
be transposed in these tablets1 but were
 engraved thereon1 as we have said4 ,to 
this invention succeeded a more subtle  
one1 for they found out the means of    
cutting the forms of all the letters of 
the alphabet1 which they called         
matrices1 from which again they cast    
characters of copper or tin of          
sufficient hardness to resist the       
necessary pressure1 which they had      
before engraved by hand4  ,this is a    
very brief and summary account of a     
great invention4 ,by comparison of other
 authorities we are enabled to bring    
together a far greater number of        
details1 though we must acknowledge that

 many of these have little foundation   
but in tradition or romance4  ,let us1  
therefore1 take a peep at the first     
printer1 working in seclusion and       
solitude in the old historic city of    
,strasburg1 and endeavouring to         
elaborate in practice the grand idea    
which has been conceived and matured by 
his energetic brain4 ,doubtlessly he    
knew not the full importance of this    
idea1 or of how great a social and      
religious revolution it was to be the   
seed1 and yet we cannot believe that he 
was altogether unconscious of its value 
to future generations4  ,shutting       
himself up in his own room1 seeing no   
one1 rarely crossing the threshold1     
allowing himself hardly any repose1 he  
set himself to work out the plan he had 
formed4 ,with a knife and some pieces of
 wood he constructed a set of movable   
types1 on one face of each of which a   
letter of the alphabet was carved in    
relief1 and which were strung together1 
in the order of words and sentences1    

upon a piece of wire4 ,by means of these
 he succeeded in producing upon         
parchment a very satisfactory           
impression4  ,to be out of the way of   
prying eyes1 he took up his quarters in 
the ruins of the old monastery of ,st4  
,arbogaste1 outside the town1 which had 
long been abandoned by the monks to the 
rats and beggars of the neighbourhood2  
and the better to mask his designs1 as  
well as to procure the funds necessary  
for his experiments1 he set up as a sort
 of artificer in jewellery and          
metal-work1 setting and polishing       
precious stones1 and preparing ,venetian
 glass for mirrors1 which he afterwards 
mounted in frames of metal and carved   
wood4 ,these avowed labours he openly   
practised1 along with a couple of       
assistants1 in a public part of the     
monastery2 but in the depths of the     
cloisters1 in a dark secluded spot1 he  
fitted up a little cell as the atelier  
of his secret operations2 and there1    
secured by bolts and bars1 and a thick  

oaken door1 against the intrusion of any
 one who might penetrate so far into the
 interior of the ruins1 he applied      
himself to his great work4 ,he quickly  
perceived1 as a man of his inventiveness
 was sure to perceive1 the superiority  
of letters of metal over those of wood4 
,he invented various coloured inks1 at  
once oily and dry1 for printing with2   
brushes and rollers for transferring the
 ink to the face of the types2 forms1 or
 cases1 for keeping together the types  
arranged in pages2 and a press for      
bringing the inked types and the paper  
in contact4  ,illustration3 ,,gutenberg 
,,in ,,the ,,old ,,monastery4 ,page #bb4
  ,day and night1 whenever he could     
spare an instant from his professed     
occupations1 he devoted himself to the  
development of his great design4 ,at    
night he could hardly sleep for thinking
 of it1 and his hasty snatches of       
slumber were disturbed by agitating     
dreams4 ,tradition has preserved the    
story of one of these for us as he      

afterwards told it to his friends4 ,he  
dreamt that1 as he sat feasting his eyes
 upon the impression of his first page  
of type1 he heard two voices whispering 
at his ear--the one soft and musical1   
the other harsh1 dull1 and bitter in its
 tones4 ,the one bade him rejoice at the
 great work he had achieved2 unveiled   
the future1 and showed the men of       
different generations1 the peoples of   
distant lands1 holding high converse by 
means of his invention2 and cheered him 
with the hope of an immortal fame4 ,ay1 
put in the other voice1 immortal he     
might be1 but at what a price6 ,man1    
more often perverse and wicked than wise
 and good1 would profane the new faculty
 this art created1 and the ages1 instead
 of blessing1 would have cause to curse 
the man who gave it to the world4       
,therefore let him regard his invention 
as a seductive but fatal dream1 which1  
if fulfilled1 would place in the hands  
of man1 sinful and erring as he was1    
only another instrument of evil4        

,gutenberg1 whom the first voice had    
thrown into an ecstasy of delight1 now  
shuddered at the thought of the fearful 
power to corrupt and to debase his art  
would give to wicked men1 and awoke in  
an agony of doubt4 ,he seized his       
mallet1 and had almost broken up his    
types and press1 when he paused to      
reflect that1 after all1 ,god's gifts1  
although sometimes perilous and capable 
of abuse1 were never evil in themselves1
 and that to give another means of      
utterance to the piety and reason of    
mankind was to promote the spread of    
virtue and intelligence1 which were both
 divine4 ,so he closed his ears to the  
suggestions of the tempter1 and         
persisted in his work4  ,gutenberg had  
scarcely completed his printing machine1
 and got it into working order1 when the
 jealousy and distrust of his associates
 in the nominal business he carried on1 
brought him into trouble with the       
authorities of ,strasburg4 ,he could    
have saved himself by the disclosure of 

all the secrets of his invention2 but   
this he refused to do4 ,his goods were  
confiscated2 and he returned penniless1 
with a heavy heart1 to his native town  
,mentz4 ,there1 in partnership with a   
wealthy goldsmith named ,john ,fust1 and
 his son-in-law ,schoeffer1 he started a
 printing office2 from which he sent out
 many works1 mostly of a religious      
character4 ,the enterprise throve2 but  
misfortune was ever dogging ,gutenberg's
 steps1 and he had but a brief taste of 
prosperity4 ,the priests looked with    
suspicion upon the new art1 which       
enabled people to read for themselves   
what before they had to take on trust   
from them4 ,the transcribers of         
books1--a large and influential         
guild1--were also hostile to the        
invention1 which threatened to deprive  
them of their livelihood4 ,these two    
bodies formed a league against the      
printers2 and upon the head of poor     
,gutenberg were emptied all the vials of
 their wrath4 ,fust and ,schoeffer1 with

 crafty adroitness1 managed to          
conciliate their opponents1 and to offer
 up their partner as a sacrifice for    
themselves4 ,by the zeal of his enemies1
 and the treachery of his friends1      
,gutenberg was driven out of ,mentz4    
,after wandering about for some time in 
poverty and neglect1 ,adolphus1 the     
,elector of ,nassau1 became his patron2 
and at his court ,gutenberg set up a    
press1 and printed a number of works    
with his own hands4 ,though poor1 his   
last years were spent in peace2 and when
 he died1 he had only a few copies of   
the productions of his press to leave to
 his sister4  ,meanwhile1 at ,strasburg1
 some of his former associates pieced   
together the revelations that had fallen
 from him1 while at the old monastery1  
as to his invention2 and not only worked
 it with success1 but claimed all the   
credit of its origin4 ,in the same way1 
,fust and ,schoeffer1 at ,mentz1 grew   
rich through the invention of the man   
they had betrayed1 and tried to rob of  

his fame4  ,there is a curious1 but not 
very well authenticated story about a   
visit ,fust made to ,paris to push the  
sale of his ,bibles4 ,the tradition of  
the ,devil and ,dr4 ,faustus1 writes    
,d',israeli in the ,curiosities of      
,literature1 was said to have been      
derived from the odd circumstances in   
which the ,bibles of the first printer1 
,fust1 appeared to the world4 ,when     
,fust had discovered this new art1 and  
printed off a considerable number of    
copies of the ,bible to imitate those   
which were commonly sold as ,,mss41 he  
undertook the sale of them at ,paris4   
,it was his interest to conceal this    
discovery and to pass off his printed   
copies for ,,mss4 ,but1 enabled to sell 
his ,bibles at sixty crowns1 while the  
other scribes demanded five hundred1    
this raised universal astonishment2 and 
still more when he produced copies as   
fast as they were wanted1 and even      
lowered his price4 ,the uniformity of   
the copies increased the wonder4        

,informations were given in to the      
magistrates against him as a magician2  
and on searching his lodgings1 a great  
number of copies were found4 ,the red   
ink1 and ,fust's red ink is peculiarly  
brilliant1 which embellished his copies1
 was said to be his blood2 and it was   
solemnly adjudged that he was in league 
with the ,infernal4 ,fust at length was 
obliged1 to save himself from a bonfire1
 to reveal his art to the ,parliament of
 ,paris1 who discharged him from all    
prosecution in consideration of the     
wonderful invention4  ,the edition of   
the ,bible1 which was one of the very   
first productions of ,gutenberg and     
,fust's press1 is called the ,mazarin1  
in consequence of the first known copy  
having been discovered in the famous    
library formed by ,cardinal ,mazarin4   
,it seems to have been printed as early 
as ,august #adef1 and is a truly        
admirable specimen of typography2 the   
characters being very clear and         
distinct1 and the uniformity of the     

printing perfectly remarkable4 ,a copy  
in the ,royal ,library at ,paris is     
bound in two volumes1 and every complete
 page consists of two columns1 each     
containing forty-two lines4 ,the reader 
will recognize the appropriateness of   
the fact that from the first printing   
press the first important work produced 
should be a copy of ,god's ,word4 ,it   
sanctified the new art which was to be  
so fruitful of good and evil            
results--the good superabounding1 and   
clearly visible--the evil little1 and   
destined1 perhaps1 to be directed       
eventually to good--for successive      
generations of mankind4 ,it was a       
fitting forerunner of the long          
generation of books which have since    
issued so ceaselessly from the printing 
press2 books1 of the majority of which  
we may say1 with ,milton1 that they     
contain a potency of life in them to be 
as active as those souls were whose     
progeny they are2 to preserve1 as in a  
vial1 the purest efficacy and extraction

 of the living intellects that feed     
them4  ,gutenberg's career was dashed   
with many lights and shadows1 but it    
closed in peace4 ,in #adfe1 the         
,archbishop-elector of ,mentz appointed 
him one of his courtiers1 with the same 
allowance of clothing as the remainder  
of the nobles attending his court1 and  
all other privileges and exemptions4 ,it
 is probable that from this time he     
abandoned the practice of his new       
invention4 ,the date of his death is    
uncertain2 but there is documentary     
evidence extant which proves that it    
occurred before ,february #bd1 #adfh4   
,he was interred in the church of the   
,recollets at ,mentz1 and the following 
epitaph was composed by his kinsman     
,adam ,gelthaus3--      ,d4 ,o4 ,m4 ,s4 
,joanni ,gesnyfleisch1 artis            
impressoriae repertori1 de omni         
natione et lingua optime merito1 in     
nominis sui memoriam     immortalem     
,adam ,gelthaus posuit4 ,ossa ejus in   
ecclesia ,d4     ,francisci ,moguntina  

feliciter cubant4     ,,ii4--,,william  
,,caxton4   ,during the last thirty or  
forty years of the fifteenth century1   
while printing was becoming gradually   
more and more practised on the          
,continent1 and the presses of ,mentz1  
,bamberg1 ,cologne1 ,strasburg1         
,augsburg1 ,rome1 ,venice1 and ,milan1  
were sending forth numbers of ,bibles1  
and various learned and theological     
works1 chiefly in ,latin1 an ,english   
merchant1 a man of substance and of no  
little note in ,chepe1 appeared at the  
court of the ,duke of ,burgundy at      
,bruges1 to negotiate a commercial      
treaty between that sovereign and the   
king of ,england2 which accomplished1   
the worthy ambassador seems to have     
liked the place and the people so well1 
and to have been so much liked in       
return1 that for some years afterwards  
he took up his residence there1 holding 
some honourable1 easy appointment in the
 household of the ,duchess of ,burgundy4
 ,this was ,william ,caxton1 who here   

ripened1 if he did not acquire1 his love
 of literature and scholarship1 and     
began1 from hatred of idleness1 to take 
pen in hand himself4  ,when ,i remember1
 says he1 in his preface to his first   
work1 a translation of a fanciful       
,recueil des ,histoires de ,troye1 that 
every man is bounden by the commandment 
and counsel of the wise man to eschew   
sloth and idleness1 which is mother and 
nourisher of vices1 and ought to put    
himself into virtuous occupation and    
business1 then ,i1 having no great      
charge or occupation1 following the said
 counsel1 took a ,french book1 and read 
therein many strange marvellous         
histories4 ,and for so much as this book
 was new and late made1 and drawn into  
,french1 and never seen in our ,english 
tongue1 ,i thought in myself1 it should 
be a good business to translate it into 
our ,english1 to the end that it might  
be had as well in the royaume of        
,england as in other lands1 and also to 
pass therewith the time2 and thus       

concluded in myself to begin this said  
work1 and forthwith took pen and ink1   
and began boldly to run forth1 as blind 
,bayard1 in this present work4  ,while  
at work upon this translation1 ,caxton  
found leisure to visit several of the   
,german towns where printing presses    
were established1 and to get an insight 
into the mysteries of the art1 so that  
by the time he had finished the volume1 
he was able to print it4 ,at the close  
of the third book of the ,recuyell1 he  
says3 ,thus end ,i this book which ,i   
have translated after mine author1 as   
nigh as ,god hath given me cunning1 to  
whom be given the laud and praise4 ,and 
for as much as in the writing of the    
same my pen is worn1 mine hand weary and
 not steadfast1 mine eyen dimmed with   
overmuch looking on the white paper1 and
 my courage not so prone and ready to   
labour as it hath been1 and that age    
creepeth on me daily1 and feebleth all  
the body2 and also because ,i have      
promised to divers gentlemen and to my  

friends1 to address to them as hastily  
as ,i might1 this said book1 therefore  
,i have practised and learned1 at my    
great charge and dispense1 to ordain    
this said book in print1 after the      
manner and form you may here see2 and is
 not written with pen and ink as other  
books are1 to the end that every man may
 have them at once4 ,for all the books  
of this story1 named the ',recuyell of  
the ,historyes of ,troye1' thus         
imprinted as ye here see1 were begun in 
one day1 and also finished in one day   
7that is1 in the same space of time74   
,by the year #adgg1 ,caxton had returned
 to ,london1 and set up a printing      
establishment within the precincts of   
,westminster ,abbey2 had given to the   
world the three first books ever printed
 in ,england1--,the ,game and ,play of  
the ,chesse 7,march #adgd72 ,a boke of  
the hoole ,lyf of ,jason 7#adge72 and   
,the ,dictes and ,notable ,wyse         
,sayenges of the ,phylosophers          
7#adgg71--;and was fairly started in the

 great work of supplying printed books  
to his countrymen1 which1 as a placard  
in his largest type sets forth1 if any  
one wanted1 emprynted after the forme of
 this present lettre whiche ben well and
 truly correct1 late hym come to        
,westmonster1 in to the ,almonesrye1 at 
the reed pale1 and he shal have them    
good chepe4 ,from the situation of the  
first printing office1 the term chapel  
is applied to such establishments to    
this day4  ,illustration3 ,,william     
,,caxton4 ,page #cj4  ,caxton published 
between sixty and seventy different     
works during the seventeen years of his 
career as a printer1 all of them in what
 is called black letter1 and the bulk of
 them in ,english4 ,he had always a view
 to the improvement of the people in the
 works he published1 and though many of 
his productions may seem to us to be of 
an unprofitable kind1 it is clear that  
in the issue of chivalrous narratives1  
and of ,chaucer's poems 7to whom1 says  
the old printer1 ought to be given great

 laud and praising for his noble making 
and writing71 he was aiming at the      
diffusion of a nobler spirit1 and a     
higher taste than then prevailed4  ,in  
#adij1 ,caxton1 an old1 worn man1       
verging on fourscore years of age1      
wrote1 ,every man ought to intend in    
such wise to live in this world1 by     
keeping the commandments of ,god1 that  
he may come to a good end2 and then1 out
 of this world full of wretchedness and 
tribulation1 he may go to heaven1 unto  
,god and his saints1 unto joy           
perdurable2 and passed away1 still      
labouring at his post4 ,he died while   
writing1 ,the most virtuous history of  
the devout and right renouned ,lives of 
,holy ,fathers living in the desert1    
worthy of remembrance to all            
well-disposed persons4  ,wynkyne de     
,worde filled his master's place in the 
almonry of ,westminster2 and the guild  
of printers gradually waxed strong in   
numbers and influence4 ,in ,germany they
 were privileged to wear robes trimmed  

with gold and silver1 such as the nobles
 themselves appeared in2 and to display 
on their escutcheon1 an eagle with wings
 outstretched over the globe1--a symbol 
of the flight of thought and words      
throughout the world4 ,in our own       
country1 the printers were men of       
erudition and literary acquirements2 and
 were honoured as became their mission4 
,,iii4--,,the ,,printing ,,machine4     
,between the rude screw-press of        
,gutenberg or ,caxton1 slow and laboured
 in its working1 to the first-class     
printing machine of our own day1        
throwing off its fifteen or eighteen    
thousand copies of a large four-page    
journal in an hour1 what a stride has   
been taken in the noble art6 ,step by   
step1 slowly but surely1 has the advance
 been made1--one improvement suggested  
after another at long intervals1 and by 
various minds4 ,with the perfection of  
the printing press1 the name of ,earl   
,stanhope is chiefly associated2 but1   
although when he had put the finishing  

touches to its construction1 immensely  
superior to all former machines1 it was 
unavailable for rapid printing4 ,in     
relation to the demand for literature   
and the means of supplying it1 the world
 had1 half a century ago1 reached much  
the same deadlock as in the days when   
the production of books depended solely 
on the swiftness of the transcriber's   
pen1 and when the printing press existed
 only in the fervid brain and quick     
imagination of a young ,german student4 
,not only the growth1 but the spread of 
literature1 was restricted by the       
labour1 expense1 and delay incident to  
the multiplication of copies2 and the   
popular appetite for reading was in that
 transition state when an increased     
supply would develop it beyond all      
bounds or calculation1 while a          
continuance of the starvation supply    
would in all likelihood throw it into a 
decline from want of exercise4  ,such   
was the state of things when a          
revolution in the art of printing was   

effected which1 in importance1 can be   
compared only to the original discovery 
of printing4 ,in fact1 since the days of
 ,gutenberg to the present hour1 there  
has been only one great revolution in   
the art1 and that was the introduction  
of steam printing in #ahad4 ,the neat   
and elegant1 but slow-moving ,stanhope  
press1 was after all but little in      
advance of its rude prototype of the    
fifteenth century1 the chief features of
 which it preserved almost without      
alteration4 ,the steam printing machine 
took a leap ahead that placed it at such
 a distance from the printing press1    
that they are hardly to be recognised as
 the offspring of the same common stock4
 ,all family resemblance has died out1  
although the printing machine is        
certainly a development of the little   
screw press4  ,of the revolution of     
#ahad1 which placed the printing machine
 in the seat of power1 vice the press   
given over to subordinate employment1   
,mr4 ,john ,walter of the ,times was the

 prominent and leading agent4 ,but for  
his foresight1 enterprise1 and          
perseverance1 the steam machine might   
have been even now in earliest infancy1 
if not unborn4  ,familiar as the        
invention of the steam printing machine 
is now1 in the beginning of the present 
century it shared the ridicule which was
 thrown upon the project of sailing     
steam ships upon the sea1 and driving   
steam carriages upon land4 ,it seemed as
 mad and preposterous an idea to print  
off #ejjj impressions of a paper like   
the ,times in one hour1 as1 in the same 
time1 to paddle a ship fifteen miles    
against wind and tide1 or to propel a   
heavily laden train of carriages fifty  
miles4 ,mr4 ,walter1 however1 was       
convinced that the thing could be done1 
and lost no time in attempting it4 ,some
 notion of the difficulties he had to   
overcome1 and the disappointments he had
 to endure1 while engaged in this       
enterprise1 may be gathered from the    
following extracts from the biography of

 ,mr4 ,walter1 which appeared in the    
,times at the time of his death in ,july
 #ahdg3--  ,as early as the year #ahjd1 
an ingenious compositor1 named ,thomas  
,martyn1 had invented a self-acting     
machine for working the press1 and had  
produced a model which satisfied ,mr4   
,walter of the feasibility of the       
scheme4 ,being assisted by ,mr4 ,walter 
with the necessary funds1 he made       
considerable progress towards the       
completion of his work1 in the course of
 which he was exposed to much personal  
danger from the hostility of the        
pressmen1 who vowed vengeance against   
the man whose inventions threatened     
destruction to their craft4 ,to such a  
length was their opposition carried1    
that it was found necessary to introduce
 the various pieces of the machine into 
the premises with the utmost possible   
secresy1 while ,martyn himself was      
obliged to shelter himself under various
 disguises in order to escape their     
fury4 ,mr4 ,walter1 however1 was not yet

 permitted to reap the fruits of his    
enterprise4 ,on the very eve of success 
he was doomed to bitter disappointment4 
,he had exhausted his own funds in the  
attempt1 and his father1 who had        
hitherto assisted him1 became           
disheartened1 and refused him any       
further aid4 ,the project was1          
therefore1 for the time abandoned4  ,mr4
 ,walter1 however1 was not the man to be
 deterred from what he had once resolved
 to do4 ,he gave his mind incessantly to
 the subject1 and courted aid from all  
quarters1 with his usual munificence4   
,in the year #ahad he was induced by a  
clerical friend1 in whose judgment he   
confided1 to make a fresh experiment2   
and1 accordingly1 the machinery of the  
amiable and ingenious ,koenig1 assisted 
by his young friend ,bower1 was         
introduced--not1 indeed1 at first into  
the ,times office1 but into the         
adjoining premises1 such caution being  
thought necessary upon the threatened   
violence of the pressmen4 ,here the work

 advanced1 under the frequent inspection
 and advice of the friend alluded to4   
,at one period these two able mechanics 
suspended their anxious toil1 and left  
the premises in disgust4 ,after the     
lapse1 however1 of about three days1 the
 same gentleman discovered their        
retreat1 induced them to return1 showed 
them1 to their surprise1 their          
difficulty conquered1 and the work still
 in progress4 ,the night on which this  
curious machine was first brought into  
use in its new abode was one of great   
anxiety1 and even alarm4 ,the suspicious
 pressmen had threatened destruction to 
any one whose inventions might suspend  
their employment4 ',destruction to him  
and his traps4' ,they were directed to  
wait for expected news from the         
,continent4 ,it was about six o'clock in
 the morning when ,mr4 ,walter went into
 the press-room1 and astonished its     
occupants by telling them that ',the    
,times was already printed by steam6    
,that if they attempted violence1 there 

was a force ready to suppress it2 but   
that if they were peaceable1 their wages
 should be continued to every one of    
them till similar employment could be   
procured1'--a promise which was1 no     
doubt1 faithfully performed2 and having 
so said1 he distributed several copies  
among them4 ,thus was this most         
hazardous enterprise undertaken and     
successfully carried through1 and       
printing by steam on an almost gigantic 
scale given to the world4  ,on that     
memorable day1 the #bith of ,november   
#ahad1 appeared the following           
announcement1--,our journal of this day 
presents to the public the practical    
result of the greatest improvement      
connected with printing since the       
discovery of the art itself4 ,the reader
 now holds in his hands one of the many 
thousand impressions of the ,times      
newspaper which were taken off last     
night by a mechanical apparatus4 ,that  
the magnitude of the invention may be   
justly appreciated by its effects1 we   

shall inform the public that after the  
letters are placed by the compositors1  
and enclosed in what is called a form1  
little more remains for man to do than  
to attend and watch this unconscious    
agent in its operations4 ,the machine is
 then merely supplied with paper2 itself
 places the form1 inks it1 adjusts the  
paper to the form newly inked1 stamps   
the sheet1 and gives it forth to the    
hands of the attendant1 at the same time
 withdrawing the form for a fresh coat  
of ink1 which itself again distributes1 
to meet the ensuing sheet1 now advancing
 for impression2 and the whole of these 
complicated acts is performed with such 
a velocity and simultaneousness of      
movement1 that no less than #aajj sheets
 are impressed in one hour4  ,koenig's  
machine was1 however1 very complicated1 
and before long1 it was supplanted by   
that of ,applegath and ,cowper1 which   
was much simpler in construction1 and   
required only two boys to attend it--one
 to lay on1 and the other to take off   

the sheets4 ,the vertical machine which 
,mr4 ,applegath subsequently invented1  
far excelled his former achievement2 but
 it has in turn been superseded by the  
machine of ,messrs4 ,hoe of ,new ,york4 
,all these machines were first brought  
into use in the ,times' printing office2
 and to the encouragement the           
proprietors of that establishment have  
always afforded to inventive talent1 the
 readiness with which they have given a 
trial to new machines1 and the princely 
liberality with which they have rewarded
 improvements1 is greatly due the       
present advanced state of the noble     
craft and mystery4  ,the printing-house 
of the ,times1 near ,blackfriars        
,bridge1 forms a companion picture to   
,gutenberg's printing-room in the old   
abbey at ,strasburg1 and illustrates not
 only the development of the art1 but   
the progress of the world during the    
intervening centuries4 ,visit           
,printing-,house ,square in the         
day-time1 and you find it a quiet1      

sleepy place1 with hardly any signs of  
life or movement about it1 except in the
 advertisement office in the corner1    
where people are continually going out  
and in1 and the clerks have a busy time 
of it1 shovelling money into the till   
all day long4 ,but come back in the     
evening1 and the place will wear a very 
different aspect4 ,all signs of         
drowsiness have disappeared1 and the    
office is all lighted up1 and instinct  
with bustle and activity4 ,messengers   
are rushing out and in1 telegraph boys1 
railway porters1 and devils of all sorts
 and sizes4 ,cabs are driving up every  
few minutes1 and depositing reporters1  
hot from the gallery of the ,house of   
,commons or the ,house of ,lords1 each  
with his budget of short-hand notes to  
decipher and transcribe4 ,up stairs in  
his sanctum the editor and his deputies 
are busy preparing or selecting the     
articles and reports which are to appear
 in the next day's paper4 ,in another   
part of the building the compositors are

 hard at work1 picking up types1 and    
arranging them in stick-fulls1 which    
being emptied out into galleys1 are     
firmly fixed therein by little wedges of
 wood1 in order that proofs may be taken
 of them4 ,the proofs pass into the     
hands of the various sets of readers1   
who compare them with the copy from     
which they were set up1 and mark any    
errors on the margin of the slips1 which
 then find their way back to the        
compositors1 who correct the types      
according to the marks4 ,the galleys are
 next seized by the persons charged with
 the making-up of the paper1 who divide 
them into columns of equal length4 ,an  
ordinary ,times newspaper1 with a single
 inside sheet of advertisements1        
contains seventy-two columns1 or #ag1ejj
 lines1 made up of upwards of a million 
pieces of types1 of which matter about  
two-fifths are often written1 composed1 
and corrected after seven o'clock in the
 evening4 ,if the advertisement sheet be
 double1 as it frequently is1 the paper 

will contain ninety-six columns4 ,the   
types set up by the compositors are not 
sent to the machine4 ,a mould is taken  
of them in a composition of brown paper1
 by means of which a stereotype is cast 
in metal1 and from this the paper is    
printed4 ,the advertisement sheet1      
single or double1 as the case may be1 is
 generally ready for the press between  
seven or eight o'clock at night4 ,the   
rest of the paper is divided into two   
forms1--that is1 columns arranged in    
pages and bound together by an iron     
frame1 one for each side of the sheet4  
,into the first of these the person who 
makes up the paper endeavours to place  
all the early news1 and it is ready for 
press usually about four o'clock4 ,the  
other form is reserved for the leading  
articles1 telegrams1 and all the latest 
intelligence1 and does not reach the    
press till near five o'clock4  ,the     
first sight of ,hoe's machine1 by       
several of which the ,times is now      
printed1 fills the beholder with        

bewilderment and awe4 ,you see before   
you a huge pile of iron cylinders1      
wheels1 cranks1 and levers1 whirling    
away at a rate that makes you giddy to  
look at1 and with a grinding and        
gnashing of teeth that almost drives you
 deaf to listen to4 ,with insatiable    
appetite the furious monster devours    
ream after ream of snowy sheets of      
paper1 placed in its many gaping jaws by
 the slaves who wait on it1 but seems to
 find none to its taste or suitable to  
its digestion1 for back come all the    
sheets again1 each with the mark of this
 strange beast printed on one side4 ,its
 hunger never is appeased1--it is always
 swallowing and always disgorging1 and  
it is as much as the little devils who  
wait on it can do1 to put the paper     
between its lips and take it out again4 
,but a bell rings suddenly1 the monster 
gives a gasp1 and is straightway still1 
and dead to all appearance4 ,upon a     
closer inspection1 now that it is at    
rest1 and with some explanation from the

 foreman you begin to have some idea of 
the process that has been going on      
before your astonished eyes4  ,the core 
of the machine consists of a large drum1
 turning on a horizontal axis1 round    
which revolve ten smaller cylinders1    
also on horizontal axes1 in close       
proximity to the drum4 ,the stereotyped 
matter is bound1 like a malefactor on   
the wheel1 to the central drum1 and     
round each cylinder a sheet of paper is 
constantly being passed4 ,it is obvious1
 therefore1 that if the type be inked1  
and each of the cylinders be kept       
properly supplied with a sheet of paper1
 a single revolution of the drum will   
cause the ten cylinders to revolve      
likewise1 and produce an impression on  
one side of each of the sheets of paper4
 ,for this purpose it is necessary to   
have the type inked ten times during    
every revolution of the drum2 and this  
is managed by a very ingenious          
contrivance1 which1 however1 is too     
complicated for description here4 ,the  

feeding of the cylinders is provided for
 in this way4 ,over each cylinder is a  
sloping desk1 upon which rests a heap of
 sheets of white paper4 ,a lad--the     
layer-on--stands by the side of the desk
 and pushes forward the paper1 a sheet  
at a time1 towards the tape fingers of  
the machine1 which1 clutching hold of   
it1 drag it into the interior1 where it 
is passed round the cylinders1 and      
printed on the outer side by pressure   
against the types on the drum4 ,the     
sheet is then laid hold of by another   
set of tapes1 carried to the other end  
of the machine from that at which it    
entered1 and there laid down on a desk  
by a projecting flapper of lath-work4   
,another lad--the taker-off--is in      
attendance to remove the printed sheets1
 at certain intervals4 ,the drum        
revolves in less than two seconds2 and  
in that time therefore ten sheets--for  
the same operation is performed         
simultaneously by the ten cylinders--are
 sucked in at one end and disgorged at  

the other printed on one side1 thus     
giving about #bj1jjj impressions in an  
hour4  ,such is the latest marvel of the
 noble craft and mystery of printing2   
but it is not to be supposed that the   
limits of production have even now been 
reached4 ,the greater the supply the    
greater has grown the demand2 the more  
people read1 the more they want to read2
 and past experience assures us that    
ingenuity and enterprise will not fail  
to expand and multiply the powers of the
 press1 so that the increasing appetite 
for literature may be fully met4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,we have briefly alluded to             
stereotyping2 but some fuller notice    
seems requisite of a process so valuable
 and important1 without which1 indeed1  
the rapid multiplication of copies of a 
newspaper1 even by a ,hoe's six-cylinder
 machine1 would be impossible4 ,if      
stereotyping had not been invented1 the 
printer would require to set up as many 
forms of type as there are cylinders in 

the machine he uses2 an expensive and   
time-consuming operation which is now   
dispensed with1 because he can resort to
 casts4 ,there is yet another advantage 
gained by the process2 casts of the     
different sheets of a book can be       
preserved for any length of time2 and   
when additional copies or new editions  
are needed1 these casts can at once be  
sent to the machine1 and the publisher  
is saved the great expense of           
re-setting4  ,the reader is well aware  
that while many books disappear with the
 day which called them forth1 so there  
are others for which the demand is      
constant4 ,this was found to be the case
 soon after the invention of printing1  
and the plan then adopted was the       
expensive and cumbrous one of setting up
 the whole of the book in request1 and  
to keep the type standing for future    
editions4 ,the disadvantages of this    
plan were obvious--a large outlay for   
type1 the amount of space occupied by a 
constantly increasing number of forms1  

and the liability to injury from the    
falling out of letters1 from blows1 and 
other accidents4 ,as early as the       
eighteenth century attempts seem to have
 been made to remedy these              
inconveniences by cementing the types   
together at the bottom with lead or     
solder to effect their greater          
preservation4 ,canius1 a ,french        
historian of printing1 states that in   
,june #ahja he received a letter from   
certain booksellers of ,leyden1 with a  
copy of their stereotype ,bible1 the    
plates for which were formed by         
soldering together the bottom of common 
types with some melted substance to the 
thickness of about three quires of      
writing-paper2 and1 it is added1 ,these 
plates were made about the beginning of 
the last century by an artist named ,van
 du ,mey4  ,this1 however1 was not true 
stereotyping2 whose leading principle is
 to dispense with the movable types--to 
set them again1 as it were1 at          
liberty--by making up perfect           

fac-similes in type-metal of the various
 combinations into which they may have  
entered4 ,these fac-similes being made1 
the type is set free1 and may be        
distributed1 and used for making up     
fresh pages2 which may once more        
furnish1 so to speak1 the punches to the
 mould into which the type-metal is     
poured for the purpose of effecting the 
fac-simile4  ,the inventor of this      
ingenious process of casting plates from
 pages of type was ,william ,ged1 a     
goldsmith of ,edinburgh1 in #agce4 ,not 
possessing sufficient capital to carry  
out his invention1 he visited ,london1  
and sought the assistance of the ,london
 stationers2 from whom he received the  
most encouraging words1 but no pecuniary
 assistance4 ,but ,ged was a man not    
readily discomfited1 and applying at    
length to the ,universities and the     
,king's printer1 he obtained the        
effective patronage he needed4 ,he      
stereotyped some ,bibles and            
,prayer-books1 and the sheets worked off

 from his plates were admitted equal in 
point of appearance and accuracy to     
those printed from the type itself4     
,but every benefactor of his kind is    
doomed to meet with the opposition of   
the envious1 the ignorant1 or the       
prejudiced4 ,the argument used by the   
idol-makers of old1 ',sirs1 ye know that
 by this craft we have our wealth1' and1
 ',this our craft is in danger to be set
 at nought1' was1 as is usual in such   
cases1 urged against this most useful   
and important invention4 ,the           
compositors refused to set up works for 
stereotyping1 and even those which were 
set up1 however carefully read and      
corrected1 were found to be full of     
gross errors4 ,the fact was1 that when  
the pages were sent to be cast1 the     
compositors or pressmen1 bribed1 it is  
said1 by a typefounder1 disturbed the   
type1 and introduced false letters and  
words4 ,poor ,ged died1 and left the    
dangerous secret of his art 7which he   
did not disclose during his life-time7  

to his son1 who1 after many struggles   
for success1 failed as his father had   
done before him4 ,there is a tradition  
current1 however1 that he joined the    
,jacobite rebellion1 was arrested1      
imprisoned1 tried1 and sentenced1 but   
was eventually spared in consideration  
of the value of his father's admirable  
invention4  ,that invention1 after being
 forgotten for nearly half a century1   
was revived by a ,dr4 ,tilloch1 and     
taken up1 improved1 and extended by the 
ingenious ,earl ,stanhope4 ,it is now   
practised in the following manner3--    
,the type employed differs slightly from
 that in common use4 ,the letter should 
have no shoulder1 but should rise in a  
straight line from the foot2 the spaces1
 leads1 and quadrats are of the same    
height as the stem of the letter2 the   
object being to diminish the number and 
depth of the cavities in the page1 and  
thus lessen the chances of the mould    
breaking off and remaining in the form4 
,each page is corrected with the utmost 

care1 and imposed in a small chase with 
metal furniture 7or frame-work71 which  
rises to a level with the type4 ,of     
course the number of pages in the form  
will vary according to the size of the  
book2 a sheet being folded into sixteen 
leaves1 twelve1 eight1 four1 or two for 
#afmo1 #abmo1 #hvo1 quarto1 or folio4   
,having our pages of type in complete   
order1 we now proceed to rub the surface
 with a soft brush which has been       
lightly dipped into a very thin oil4    
,plumbago is sometimes preferred4 ,a    
brass rectangular frame of three sides1 
with bevelled borders adapted to the    
size of the pages1 is placed upon the   
chase so as to enclose three sides of   
the type1 the fourth side being formed  
by a single brass edge1 having the same 
inward sloping level as the other three 
sides4 ,the use of this frame is to     
determine the size and thickness of the 
cast1 which is next taken in            
plaster-of-paris--two kinds of the said 
plaster being used2 the finer is mixed1 

poured over the surface of the type1 and
 gently worked in with a brush so as to 
insure its close adhesion to the        
exclusion of bubbles of air2 the        
coarser1 after being mixed with water1  
is simply poured and spread over the    
previous and finer stratum4  ,the       
superfluous plaster is next cleared     
away2 the mould soon sets2 the frame is 
raised2 and the mould comes off from the
 surface of the type1 on which it has   
been prevented from encrusting itself by
 the thin film of oil or plumbago4  ,the
 next step is to dress and smoothen the 
plaster-mould1 and set it on its edge in
 one of the compartments of a sheet-iron
 rack contained in an oven1 and exposed1
 until perfectly dry1 to a temperature  
of about #djj deg44 ,this occupies about
 two hours4 ,a good workman1 it is said1
 will mould ten octavo sheets1 or one   
hundred and sixty pages in a day3 each  
mould generally contains a couple of    
octavo pages4  ,illustration  ,in the   
state to which it is now brought1 the   

mould is exceedingly friable1 and       
requires to be handled with becoming    
care4 ,with the face downwards it is    
placed upon the flat cast-iron          
floating-plate1 which1 in its turn1 is  
set at the bottom of a square cast-iron 
tray1 with upright edges sloping        
outwards1 called the dipping pan4 ,it   
has a cast-iron lid1 secured by a screw 
and shackles1 not unlike a copying      
machine4 ,this pan having been heated to
 #djj deg41 it is plunged into an iron  
pot containing the melted alloy1 which  
hangs over a furnace1 the pan being     
slightly inclined so as to permit the   
escape of the air4 ,a small space is    
left between the back or upper surface  
of the mould1 and the lid of the        
dipping-pan1 and the fluid metal on     
entering into the pan through the corner
 openings1 floats up the plaster        
together with the iron plate 7hence     
called the floating-plate7 on which the 
mould is set1 with this effect1 that the
 metal flows through the notches cut in 

the edge of the mould1 and fills up     
every part of it1 forming a layer of    
metal on its face corresponding to the  
depth of the border1 while on the back  
is left merely a thin metallic film4    
,the dipping-pan1 says ,tomlinson1 is   
suspended1 plunged in the metal1 and    
removed by means of a crane2 and when   
taken out1 is set in a cistern of water 
upon supports so arranged that only the 
bottom of the pan comes in contact with 
the surface of the water4 ,the metal    
thus sets1 or solidifies1 from below1   
and containing fluid above1 maintains a 
fluid pressure during the contraction   
which accompanies the cooling4  ,as it  
thus shrinks in dimensions1 molten metal
 is poured into the corners of the pan  
for the purpose of maintaining the fluid
 pressure on the mould1 and thus        
securing a good and solid cast4 ,for if 
the pan were allowed to cool more       
slowly1 the thin metallic film at the   
back of the inverted plaster mould would
 probably solidify first1 and thus      

prevent the fluid pressure which is     
necessary for filling up all the lines  
of the mould4  ,tomlinson concludes his 
description of these interesting        
processes by informing us that an       
experienced and skilled workman will    
make five dips1 each containing two     
octavo pages1 in the course of an hour1 
or1 as already stated1 at the rate of   
nearly ten octavo sheets a day4  ,when  
the pan is opened1 the cake of metal and
 plaster is removed1 and beaten upon its
 edges with a mallet1 to clear away all 
superfluous metal4 ,the stereotype plate
 is then taken by the picker1 who planes
 its edges square1 turns its back flat  
upon a lathe until the proper thickness 
is obtained1 and removes any minute     
imperfections arising from specks of    
dirt and air-bubbles left among the     
letters in casting the mould4 ,damaged  
letters are cut out1 and separate types 
soldered in as substitutes4 ,after all  
this anxious care to obtain perfection1 
the plate is pronounced ready for       

working1 and when made up with the other
 plates into the proper form1 it may be 
worked either at the hand-press or by   
machine4  ,other modes of stereotyping  
have been introduced1 but not one has   
attained to the popularity of the method
 we have just described4     ,the ,steam
 ,engine4    ,i4--,,the ,,marquis ,,of  
,,worcester4 ,,ii4--,,james ,,watt4     
,the ,steam ,engine4      ,it is said   
that ideas produce revolutions and truly
 they     do--not spiritual ideas only1 
but even mechanical4--,,carlyle4        
,i4--,,the ,,marquis ,,of ,,worcester4  
,as the last century was drawing to its 
close1 two great revolutions were in    
progress1 both of which were destined to
 exercise a mighty influence upon the   
years to come1--the one calm1 silent1   
peaceful1 the other full of sound and   
fury1 bathed in blood1 and crowned with 
thorns1--the one the fruit of long years
 of patient thought and work1 the other 
the outcome of long years of oppression1
 suffering1 and sin1--the one was       

,watt's invention of the steam engine1  
the other the great popular revolt in   
,france4 ,these are the two great events
 which set their mark upon our century1 
gave form and colour to its character1  
and direction to its aims and           
aspirations4 ,in the pages of           
conventional history1 of course1 the    
,french revolution1 with its wild       
phantasmagoria of retribution1 its      
massacres and martyrdoms1 will no doubt 
have assigned to it the foremost rank as
 the great feature of the era1--        
,for ever since historians writ1        
,and ever since a bard could sing1      
,doth each exalt with all his wit       
,the noble art of murdering4  ,but those
 who can look below the mere surface of 
events1 and whose fancy is not          
captivated by the melo-drama of         
rebellion1 and the pageantry of war1    
will find that ,watt's steam machine    
worked the greatest revolution of modern
 times1 and exercised the deepest1 as   
well as widest and most permanent       

influence over the whole civilized      
world4  ,like all great discoveries1    
that of the motive power of steam1 and  
the important uses to which it might be 
applied1 was the work1 not of any one   
mind1 but of several minds1 each        
borrowing something from its            
predecessor1 until at last the first    
vague and uncertain ,idea was developed 
into a practical ,reality4 ,known dimly 
to the ancients1 and probably employed  
by the priests in their juggleries and  
pretended miracles1 it was not till     
within the last three centuries that any
 systematic attempt was made to turn it 
to useful account4  ,but before we turn 
our attention to the persons who made1  
and1 after many failures and            
discouragements1 successfully made this 
attempt1 it will be advisable we should 
say something as to the principle on    
which their invention is founded4  ,the 
reader knows that gases and vapours1    
when imprisoned within a narrow space1  
do struggle as resolutely to escape as  

did ,sterne's starling from his cage4   
,their force of pressure is enormous1   
and if confined in a closed vessel1 they
 would speedily rend it into fragments4 
,let some water boil in a pipkin whose  
lid fits very tightly2 in a few minutes 
the vapour or steam arising from the    
boiling water1 overcoming the resistance
 of the lid1 raises it1 and rushes forth
 into the atmosphere4  ,take a small    
quantity of water1 and pour it into the 
hollow of a ball of metal4 ,then with   
the aid of a cork1 worked by a metallic 
screw1 close the opening of the ball    
hermetically1 and place the ball in the 
heart of a glowing fire4 ,the steam     
formed by the boiling water in the      
inside of the metallic bomb1 finding no 
channel of escape1 will burst through   
the bonds that sought to confine it1 and
 hurl afar the fragments with a loud and
 dangerous explosion4  ,these well-known
 facts we adduce simply as a proof of   
the immense mechanical power possessed  
by steam when enclosed within a limited 

area4 ,now1 the questions must have     
occurred to many1 though they were      
themselves unable to answer them1--,why 
should all this force be wasted8 ,can it
 not be directed to the service and uses
 of man8 ,in the course of time1        
however1 human intelligence did discover
 a sufficient reply1 and did contrive to
 utilize this astonishing power by means
 of the machine now so famous as the    
,steam ,engine4  ,let us take a boiler  
full of water1 and bring it up to       
boiling point by means of a furnace4    
,attach to this boiler a tube1 which    
guides the steam of the boiler into a   
hollow metallic cylinder1 traversed by a
 piston rising and sinking in its       
interior4 ,it is evident that the steam 
rushing through the tube into the lower 
part of the cylinder1 and underneath the
 piston1 will force the piston1 by its  
pressure1 to rise to the top of the     
cylinder4 ,now let us check for a moment
 the influx of the steam below the      
piston1 and turning the stopcock1 allow 

the steam which fills that space to     
escape outside2 and1 at the same time1  
by opening a second tube1 let in a      
supply of steam above the piston3 the   
pressure of the steam1 now exercised in 
a downward direction1 will force the    
piston to the bottom of its course1     
because there will exist beneath it no  
resistance capable of opposing the      
pressure of the steam4 ,if we constantly
 keep up this alternating motion1 the   
piston now rising and now falling1 we   
are in a position to profit by the force
 of steam4 ,for if the lever1 attached  
to the rod of the piston at its lower   
end1 is fixed by its upper to a crank of
 the rotating axle of a workshop or     
factory1 is it not clear that the       
continuous action of the steam will give
 this axle a continuous rotatory        
movement8 ,and this movement may be     
transmitted1 by means of bands and      
pulleys1 to a number of different       
machines or engines all kept at work by 
the power of a solitary engine4  ,this1 

then1 is the principle on which the     
inventions of ,papin1 the ,marquis of   
,worcester1 ,newcomen1 and ,james ,watt 
have been based4  ,the great astronomer 
,huyghens conceived the idea of creating
 a motive machine by exploding a charge 
of gunpowder under a cylinder traversed 
by a piston3 the air contained in this  
cylinder1 dilated by the heat resulting 
from the combustion of the powder1      
escaped into the outer air through a    
valve1 whereupon a partial void existed 
beneath the piston1 or1 rather1 the air 
considerably rarified2 and from this    
moment the pressure of the atmospheric  
air falling on the upper part of the    
piston1 and being but imperfectly       
counterpoised by the rarified air       
beneath the piston1 precipitated this   
piston to the bottom of the cylinder4   
,consequently1 said ,huyghens1 if to the
 said piston were attached a chain or   
cord coiling around a pulley1 one might 
raise up the weights placed at the      
extremity of the cord1 and so produce a 

genuine mechanical effect4              
,illustration3 ,,general ,,principle    
,,of ,,the ,,steam ,,engine4  ,but      
,experiment1 the touchstone of ,physical
 ,truth1 soon revealed the deficiencies 
of an apparatus such as ,huyghens had   
suggested4 ,the air beneath the piston  
was not sufficiently rarified2 the void 
produced was too imperfect4 ,evidently  
gunpowder was not the right agent4 ,what
 was8 ,denis ,papin answered1 ,steam4   
,and the first ,steam ,engine ever      
invented was invented by this ingenious 
,frenchman4  ,papin was born at ,blois  
on the #bbnd of ,august #afde4 ,he died 
about #agad1 but neither the exact date 
nor the place of his death is known4    
,the lives of most men of genius are    
heavy with shadows1 but ,papin's career 
was more than ordinarily characterized  
by the incessant pursuit of the evil    
spirits of adversity and persecution4 ,a
 ,protestant1 and devoutly loyal to his 
creed1 he fled from ,france with        
thousands of his co-religionists1 when  

,louis ,,xiv4 unwisely and unrighteously
 revoked the ,edict of ,nantes1 which   
permitted the ,huguenots to worship ,god
 after their own fashion4 ,and it was   
abroad1 in ,england1 ,italy1 and        
,germany1 that he realized the majority 
of his inventions1 among which that of  
the ,steam ,engine is the most          
conspicuous4  ,in #agjg ,papin          
constructed a steam engine on the       
principle we have already described1 and
 placed it on board a boat provided with
 wheels4 ,embarking at ,cassel on the   
river ,fulda1 he made his way to        
,muenden in ,hanover1 with the design of
 entering the waters of the ,weser1 and 
thence repairing to ,england1 to make   
known his discovery1 and test its       
capabilities before the public4 ,but the
 harsh and ignorant boatmen of the      
,weser would not permit him to enter the
 river2 and when he indignantly         
complained1 they had the barbarity to   
break his boat in pieces4 ,this was the 
crowning misfortune of ,papin's life4   

,thenceforward he seems to have lost all
 heart and hope4 ,he contrived to reach 
,london1 where the ,royal ,society1 of  
which he was a member1 allowed him a    
small pittance4  ,in #afij this         
ingenious man had devised an engine in  
which atmospheric vapour instead of     
steam was the motive agent4 ,at a later 
period1 ,newcomen1 a native of          
,dartmouth in ,devonshire1 conceived the
 idea of employing the same source of   
power4  ,but1 previously1 the value of  
steam1 if employed in this direction1   
had occurred to the ,marquis of         
,worcester1 a nobleman of great ability 
and a quick imagination1 who1 for his   
loyalty to the cause of ,charles ,i41   
had been confined in the ,tower of      
,london as a prisoner4 ,on one occasion1
 while sitting in his solitary chamber1 
the tight cover of a kettle full of     
boiling water was blown off before his  
eyes2 for mere amusement's sake he set  
it on again1 saw it again blown off1 and
 then began to reflect on the           

capabilities of power thus accidentally 
revealed to him1 and to speculate on its
 application to mechanical ends4 ,being 
of a quick1 ingenious turn of mind1 he  
was not long in discovering how it could
 be directed and controlled4 ,when he   
published his project--,an ,admirable   
and ,most ,forcible ,way to ,drive up   
,water by ,fire--he was abused and      
laughed at as being either a madman or  
an impostor4 ,he persevered1 however1   
and actually had a little engine of some
 two horse power at work raising water  
from the ,thames at ,vauxhall2 by means 
of which1 he writes1 a child's force    
bringeth up a hundred feet high an      
incredible quantity of water1 and ,i may
 boldly call it the most stupendous work
 in the whole world4 ,there is a fervent
 ,ejaculatory and ,extemporary          
,thanksgiving ,prayer of his extant1    
composed when first with his corporeal  
eyes he did see finished a perfect trial
 of his water-commanding engine1        
delightful and useful to whomsoever hath

 in recommendation either knowledge1    
profit1 or pleasure4 ,this and the rest 
of his wonderful ,centenary of          
,inventions1 only emptied instead of    
replenishing his purse4 ,he was reduced 
to borrow paltry sums from his          
creditors1 and received neither respect 
for his genius nor sympathy for his     
misfortunes4 ,he was before his age1 and
 suffered accordingly4         99       
99       99       99       99  ,in #afih
 his work was taken up by ,thomas       
,savery1 a miner1 who1 through assiduous
 labour and well-directed study1 had    
become a skilful engineer4 ,he succeeded
 in constructing an engine on the       
principle of the pressure of aqueous    
vapour1 and this engine he employed     
successfully in pumping water out of    
coal mines4 ,we owe to ,savery the      
invention of a vacuum1 which was        
suggested to him1 it is said1 in a      
curious manner3 he happened to throw a  
wine-flask1 which he had just drained1  
upon the fire2 a few drops of liquor at 

the bottom of the flask soon filled it  
with steam1 and1 taking it off the fire1
 he plunged it1 mouth downwards1 into a 
basin of cold water that was standing on
 the table1 when1 a vacuum being        
produced1 the water immediately rushed  
up into the flask4  ,in tracing this    
lineage of inventive genius1 we next    
come to ,thomas ,newcomen1 a blacksmith1
 who carried out the principle of the   
piston in his ,atmospheric ,engine1 for 
which he took out a patent in #agje4 ,it
 is but just to recognize that this     
engine was the first which proved       
practically and widely useful1 and was1 
in truth1 the actual progenitor of the  
present steam engine4 ,it was chiefly   
used for working pumps4 ,to one end of a
 beam moving on a central axis was      
attached the rod of the pump to be      
worked2 to the other1 the rod of the    
piston moving in the cylinder below4    
,underneath this cylinder was a boiler1 
and the two were connected by a pipe    
provided with a stop-cock to regulate   

the supply of steam4 ,when the pump-rod 
was depressed1 and the piston raised to 
the top of the cylinder1 which was      
effected by weights hanging to the      
pump-end of the beam1 the stop-cock was 
used to cut off the steam1 and a supply 
of cold water injected into the cylinder
 through a water-pipe connected with the
 tank or cistern4 ,the steam in the     
cylinder was immediately condensed2 a   
vacuum created below the piston2 the    
latter was then forced down by          
atmospheric pressure1 bringing with it  
the end of the beam to which it was     
attached1 and raising the other along   
with the pump-rod4 ,a fresh supply of   
steam was admitted below the piston1    
which was raised by the counterpoise2   
and thus the motion was constantly      
renewed4 ,the opening and shutting of   
the stop-cocks was at first managed by  
an attendant2 but a boy named ,potter1  
who was employed for this purpose1 being
 fonder of play than work1 contrived to 
save himself all trouble in the matter  

by fastening the handles with pieces of 
string to some of the cranks and levers4
 ,subsequently1 ,beighton1 an engineer1 
improved on this idea by substituting   
levers1 acted on by pins in a rod       
suspended from the beam4  ,properly     
speaking1 ,newcomen's engine was not a  
steam1 but an atmospheric engine2 for   
though steam was employed1 it formed no 
essential feature of the contrivance1   
and might have been replaced by an      
air-pump4 ,all the use that was made of 
steam was to produce a vacuum underneath
 the piston1 which was pressed down by  
the weight of the atmosphere1 and raised
 by the counterpoise of the buckets at  
the other end of the beam4 ,watt1 in    
bringing the expansive force of steam to
 bear upon the working of the piston1   
may be said to have really invented the 
steam engine4 ,half a century before the
 little model came into ,watt's hands1  
,newcomen's engine had been made as     
complete as its capabilities admitted   
of2 and ,watt struck into an entirely   

new line1 and invented an entirely new  
machine1 when he produced his           
,condensing ,engine4     ,,ii4--,,james 
,,watt4   ,there are few places in our  
country where human enterprise has      
effected such vast and marvellous       
changes within the century as the       
country traversed by the river ,clyde4  
,where ,glasgow now stretches far and   
wide1 with its miles of swarming        
streets1 its countless mills1 and       
warehouses1 and foundries1 its busy     
ship-building yards1 its harbour        
thronged with vessels of every size and 
clime1 and its large and wealthy        
population1 there was to be seen1 a     
hundred years ago1 only an insignificant
 little burgh1 as dull and quiet as any 
rural market-town of our own day4 ,there
 was a little quay at the ,broomielaw1  
seldom used1 and partly overgrown with  
broom4 ,no boat over six tons' burden   
could get so high up the river1 and the 
appearance of a masted vessel was almost
 an event4 ,tobacco was the chief trade 

of the town2 and the tobacco merchants  
might be seen strutting about at the    
,cross in their scarlet cloaks1 and     
looking down on the rest of the         
inhabitants1 who got their livelihood1  
for the most part1 by dealing in        
grindstones1 coals1 and fish--,glasgow  
magistrates1 as herrings are popularly  
called1 being in as great repute then as
 now4 ,there were but scanty means of   
intercourse with other places1 and what 
did exist were little used1 except for  
goods1 which were conveyed on the backs 
of pack-horses4 ,the caravan then took  
two days to go to ,edinburgh--you can   
run through now between the two cities  
in little more than an hour4 ,there is  
hardly any trade that ,glasgow does not 
prosecute vigorously and successfully4  
,you may see any day you walk down to   
the ,broomielaw1 vessels of a thousand  
tons' burden at anchor there1 and the   
custom duties which were in #agif little
 over ,l#ajj1 have now reached an amount
 exceeding one million6  ,glasgow is    

indebted1 in a great part1 for the      
gigantic strides which it has made1 to  
the genius1 patience1 and perseverance  
of a man who1 in his boyhood1 rather    
more than a hundred years ago1 used to  
be scolded by his aunt for wasting his  
time1 taking off the lid of the kettle1 
putting it on again1 holding now a cup1 
now a silver spoon over the steam as it 
rose from the spout1 and catching and   
counting the drops of water it fell     
into4 ,james ,watt was then taking his  
first elementary lessons in that        
science1 his practical application of   
which in after life was to revolutionize
 the whole system of mechanical         
movement1 and place an almost unlimited 
power at the disposal of the industrial 
classes4  ,when a boy1 ,james ,watt was 
delicate and sickly1 and so shy and     
sensitive that his school-days were a   
misery to him1 and he profited but      
little by his attendance4 ,at home1     
though1 he was a great reader1 and      
picked up a great deal of knowledge for 

himself1 rarely possessed by those of   
his years4 ,one day a friend was urging 
his father to send ,james to school1 and
 not allow him to trifle away his time  
at home4 ,look how the boy is occupied1 
said his father1 before you condemn him4
 ,though only six years old1 he was     
trying to solve a geometrical problem on
 the floor with a bit of chalk4 ,as he  
grew older he took to the study of      
optics and astronomy1 his curiosity     
being excited by the quadrants and other
 instruments in his father's shop4 ,by  
the age of fifteen he had twice gone    
through ,de ,gravesande's ,elements of  
,natural ,philosophy1 and he was also   
well versed in physiology1 botany1      
mineralogy1 and antiquarian lore4 ,he   
was further an expert hand in using the 
tools in his father's workshop1 and     
could do both carpentry and metal work4 
,after a brief stay with an old mechanic
 in ,glasgow1 who1 though he dignified  
himself with the name of optician1 never
 rose beyond mending spectacles1 tuning 

spinets1 and making fiddles and fishing 
tackle1 ,watt went at the age of        
eighteen to ,london1 where he worked so 
hard1 and lived so sparingly in order to
 relieve his father from the burden of  
maintaining him1 that his health        
suffered1 and he had to recruit it by a 
return to his native air4 ,during the   
year spent in the metropolis1 however1  
he managed to learn nearly all that the 
members of the trade there could teach1 
and soon showed himself a quick and     
skilful workman4  ,in #ageg we find the 
sign of ,james ,watt1 ,mathematical     
,instrument ,maker to the ,college1     
stuck up over the entrance to one of the
 stairs in the quadrangle of ,glasgow   
,college4 ,but though under the         
patronage of the ,university1 his trade 
was so poor1 that thrifty and frugal as 
he was1 he had a hard struggle to live  
by it4 ,he was ready1 however1 for any  
work that came to hand1 and would never 
let a job go past him4 ,to execute an   
order for an organ which he accepted1 he

 studied harmonics diligently1 and      
though without any ear for music1 turned
 out a capital instrument1 with several 
improvements of his own in its action2  
and he also undertook the manufacture of
 guitars1 violins1 and flutes4 ,all this
 while he was laying up vast stores of  
knowledge on all sorts of subjects1     
civil and military engineering1 natural 
history1 languages1 literature1 and art2
 and among the professors and students  
who dropped into his little shop to have
 a chat with him1 he soon came to be    
regarded as one of the ablest men about 
the college1 while his modesty1 candour1
 and obliging disposition gained him    
many good friends4  ,illustration3      
,,james ,,watt4 ,page #fg4  ,among his  
multifarious pursuits1 ,watt had        
experimented a little in the powers of  
steam2 but it was not till the winter of
 #agfc-d1 when a model of ,newcomen's   
engine was put into his hands for       
repair1 that he took up the matter in   
earnest4 ,newcomen's engine was then    

about the most complete invention of its
 kind2 but its only value was its power 
of producing a ready vacuum1 by rapid   
condensation on the application of cold2
 and for practical purposes was neither 
cheaper nor quicker than animal power4  
,watt1 having repaired the model1 found1
 on setting it agoing1 that it would not
 work satisfactorily4 ,had it been only 
a little less clumsy and imperfect1     
,watt might never have regarded it as   
more than the fine plaything1 for which 
he at first took it2 but now the        
difficulties of the task roused him to  
further efforts4 ,he consulted all the  
books he could get on the subject1 to   
ascertain how the defects could be      
remedied2 and that source of information
 exhausted1 he commenced a series of    
experiments1 and resolved to work out   
the problem for himself4 ,among other   
experiments1 he constructed a boiler    
which showed by inspection the quantity 
of water evaporated in a given time1 and
 thereby ascertained the quantity of    

steam used in every stroke of the       
engine4 ,he found1 to his astonishment1 
that a small quantity of water in the   
form of steam heated a large quantity of
 water injected into the cylinder for   
the purpose of cooling it2 and upon     
further examination1 he ascertained the 
steam heated six times its weight of    
well water up to the temperature of the 
steam itself 7#bab deg474 ,after various
 ineffectual schemes1 ,watt was forced  
to the conclusion that1 to make a       
perfect steam engine1 two apparently    
incompatible conditions must be         
fulfilled--the cylinder must always be  
as hot as the steam that came rushing   
into it1 and yet1 at each descent of the
 piston1 the cylinder must become       
sufficiently cold to condense the steam4
 ,he was at his wit's end how to        
accomplish this task1 when1 as he was   
taking a walk one afternoon1 the idea   
flashed across his mind that1 as steam  
was an elastic vapour1 it would expand  
and rush into a previously exhausted    

place2 and that1 therefore1 all he had  
to do to meet the conditions he had laid
 down1 was to produce a vacuum in a     
separate vessel1 and open a             
communication between this vessel and   
the cylinder of the steam-engine at the 
moment when the piston was required to  
descend1 and the steam would disseminate
 itself and become divided between the  
cylinder and the adjoining vessel4 ,but 
as this vessel would be kept cold by an 
injection of water1 the steam would be  
annihilated as fast as it entered1 which
 would cause a fresh outflow of the     
remaining steam in the cylinder1 till   
nearly the whole of it was condensed1   
without the cylinder itself being       
chilled in the operation4 ,here was the 
great key to the problem2 and when once 
the idea of separate condensation was   
started1 many other subordinate         
improvements1 as he said himself1       
followed as corollaries in rapid        
succession1 so that in the course of one
 or two days the invention was thus far 

complete in his mind4  ,it cost him ten 
long weary years of patient speculation 
and experiment1 to carry out the idea1  
with little hope to buoy him up1 for to 
the last he used to say his fear was    
always equal to his hope1--and with all 
the cares and embarrassments of his     
precarious trade to perplex and burden  
him4 ,even when he had his working model
 fairly completed1 his worst            
difficulties--the difficulties which    
most distressed and harassed the shy1   
sensitive1 and retiring ,watt--seemed   
only to have commenced4 ,to give the    
invention a fair practical trial        
required an outlay of at least ,l#ajjj2 
and one capitalist1 who had agreed to   
join him in the undertaking1 had to give
 it up through some business losses4    
,still ,watt toiled on1 always keeping  
the great object in view1--earning bread
 for his family 7for he was married by  
this time71 by adding land-surveying to 
his mechanical labours1 and1 in short1  
turning his willing hand to any honest  

job that offered4  ,he got a patent in  
#agfi1 and began building a large       
engine2 but the workmen were new to the 
task1 and when completed1 its action was
 spasmodic and unsatisfactory4 ,it is a 
sad thing1 he then wrote1 for a man to  
have his all hanging by a single string4
 ,if ,i had wherewithal to pay for the  
loss1 ,i don't think ,i should so much  
fear a failure2 but ,i cannot bear the  
thought of other people becoming losers 
by my scheme1 and ,i have the happy     
disposition of always painting the      
worst4 ,and just then1 to make matters  
still more gloomy1 he learned that some 
rascally linen-draper in ,london was    
plagiarizing the great invention he had 
brought forth in such sore and          
protracted travail4 ,of all things in   
the world1 cried poor ,watt1 sick with  
hope deferred1 and pressed with little  
carking cares on every side1 there is   
nothing so foolish as inventing4  ,when 
nearly giving way to despair1 and on the
 point of abandoning his invention1     

,watt was fortunate enough to fall in   
with ,matthew ,boulton1 one of the great
 manufacturing potentates of            
,birmingham1 an energetic1 far-seeing   
man1 who threw himself into the         
enterprise with all his spirit2 and the 
fortune of the invention was made4 ,an  
engine1 on the new principle1 was set up
 at ,soho2 and there ,boulton and ,watt 
sold1 as the former said to ,boswell1   
what all the world desires to have1     
,,power2--the infinite power that       
animates those mighty engines1 which--  
,england's arms of conquest are1        
,the trophies of her bloodless war3     
,brave weapons these4     ,victorious   
over wave and soil1     ,with these she 
sails1 she weaves1 she tills1           
,pierces the everlasting hills1         
,and spans the seas4  ,watt's engine1   
once fairly started1 was not long in    
making its way into general use4 ,the   
first steam-engine used in ,manchester  
was erected in #agij2 and now it is     
estimated that in that district1 within 

a radius of ten miles1 there are in     
constant work more than fifty thousand  
boilers1 giving a total power of upwards
 of one million horses4 ,and the united 
steam power of ,great ,britain is       
considered equal to the manual labour of
 upwards of four hundred millions of    
men1 or more than double the number of  
males on the face of the earth4 ,from   
the factory at ,soho1 ,watt's improved  
engines were dispersed all over the     
country1 especially in ,cornwall--the   
firm receiving the value of a third part
 of the coal saved by the use of the new
 machine4 ,in one mine1 where there were
 three pumps at work1 the proprietors   
thought it worth while1 it is said1 to  
purchase the rights of the inventors1 at
 the price of ,l#bejj yearly for each   
engine4 ,the saving1 therefore1 on the  
three engines1 in fuel alone1 must have 
been at least ,l#gejj a year4  ,in the  
first year of the present century1 ,watt
 withdrew himself entirely from         
business2 but though he lived in        

retirement1 he did not let his busy mind
 get rusty or sluggish for want of      
exercise4 ,at one time he took it into  
his head that his faculties were        
declining1 and though upwards of seventy
 years of age1 he resolved to test his  
mental powers by taking up some new     
subject of study4 ,it was no easy matter
 to find one quite new to him1 so wide  
and comprehensive had been his range of 
study2 but at length the ,anglo-,saxon  
tongue occurred to him1 and he          
immediately applied himself to master   
it1 the facility with which he did so1  
dispelling all doubt as to the failing  
of his stupendous intellect4 ,he thus   
busied himself in various useful and    
entertaining pursuits1 till close upon  
his death1 which took place in #ahai4   
,extraordinary as was ,watt's inventive 
genius1 his wide range of knowledge1    
theoretic and practical1 was equally so4
 ,great as is the idea with which his   
name is chiefly associated1 he was not a
 man of one idea1 but of a thousand4    

,there was hardly a subject which came  
under his notice which he did not       
master2 and1 as was said of him1 it     
seemed as if every subject casually     
started by him had been that he had been
 occupied in studying4 ,he had no doubt 
a rapid faculty of acquiring knowledge2 
but he owed the versatility and         
copiousness of his attainments above all
 to his unwearied industry4 ,he was     
always at work on something or other1   
and he may truly be called one of those 
who--              ,could ,time's       
hour-glass fall1     ,would1 as for seed
 of stars1 stoop for the sand1     ,and 
by incessant labour gather all4  ,in a  
recent volume of memoirs by ,mrs4       
,schimmel ,pennick1 we find the         
following graphic sketch of this        
extraordinary man3--,he was one of the  
most complete specimens of the          
melancholic temperament4 ,his head was  
generally bent forward or leaning on his
 hand in meditation1 his shoulders      
stooping1 and his chest falling in1 his 

limbs lank and unmuscular1 and his      
complexion sallow4 ,his utterance was   
slow and impassioned1 deep and low in   
tone1 with a broad ,scotch accent2 his  
manners gentle1 modest1 and unassuming4 
,in a company where he was not known1   
unless spoken to1 he might have         
tranquilly passed the whole time in     
pursuing his own meditations4 ,when he  
entered the room1 men of letters1 men of
 science1 many military men1 artists1   
ladies1 and even little children1       
thronged around him4 ,i remember a      
celebrated ,swedish artist being        
instructed by him that rat's whiskers   
made the most pliant painting-brushes2  
ladies would appeal to him on the best  
modes of devising grates1 curing smoking
 chimneys1 warming their houses1 and    
obtaining fast colours4  ,his reading   
was singularly extensive and            
diversified4 ,he perused almost every   
work that came in his way1 and used to  
say that he never opened a book1 no     
matter what its subject or worth1       

without learning something from it4 ,he 
had a vivid imagination1 was            
passionately fond of fiction1 and was a 
very gifted story-teller himself4 ,when 
a boy1 staying with his aunt in         
,glasgow1 he used every night to enthral
 the attention of the little circle with
 some exciting narrative1 which they    
would not go to bed till they had heard 
the end of2 and kept them in such a     
state of tremor and excitement1 that his
 aunt used to threaten to send him away4
  ,since ,watt's time1 innumerable      
patents have been taken out for         
improvements in the steam engine2 but   
his great invention forms the basis of  
nearly all of them1 and the alterations 
refer rather to details than principles 
of action4 ,the application of steam to 
locomotive purposes1 however1 led to the
 construction of the high pressure      
engine1 in which the cumbrous condensing
 apparatus is dispensed with1 and motion
 imparted to the piston by the elastic  
power of the steam being greater than   

that of the atmosphere4     ,the        
,manufacture of ,cotton4     ,i4--,,kay 
,,and ,,hargreaves4  ,,ii4--,,sir       
,,richard ,,arkwright4 ,,iii4--,,samuel 
,,crompton4  ,,iv4--,,dr4 ,,cartwright4 
,v4--,,sir ,,robert ,,peel4     ,the    
,manufacture of ,cotton4      ,are not  
our greatest men as good as lost8 ,the  
men who walk     daily among us1        
clothing us1 warming us1 feeding us1    
walk     shrouded in darkness1 mere     
mythic men4--,,carlyle4     ,i4--,,kay  
,,and ,,hargreaves4   ,on the #c;d of   
,may #agcd1 there was a hanging at ,cork
 which made a good deal more noise than 
such a very ordinary event generally did
 in those days4 ,there was nothing      
remarkable about the malefactor1 or the 
crime he had committed4 ,he was a very  
commonplace ruffian1 and had earned his 
elevation to the gallows by a vulgar    
felony4 ,what was remarkable about the  
affair was1 that the woollen weavers of 
,cork1 being then in a state of great   
distress from want of work1 dressed up  

the convict in cotton garments1 and that
 the poor wretch1 having once been a    
weaver himself1 employed the last       
occasion he was ever to have of         
addressing his fellow creatures1 by     
assuring them that all his misdeeds and 
misfortunes were to be traced to the    
pernicious practice of wearing cottons4 
,therefore1 good ,christians1 he        
continued1 consider that if you go on to
 suppress your own goods1 by wearing    
such cottons as ,i am now clothed in1   
you will bring your country into misery1
 which will consequently swarm with such
 unhappy malefactors as your present    
,object is2 and the blood of every      
miserable felon that will hang after    
this warning from the gallows will lie  
at your doors4  ,all which sayings were 
no doubt greatly applauded by the       
disheartened weavers on the spot1 and   
much taken to heart by the citizens and 
gentry to whom they were addressed4     
,this is only one out of the many       
illustrations which might be drawn from 

the chronicles of those days1 of the    
prejudice and discouragement cotton had 
to contend against on its first         
appearance in this country4 ,prohibited 
over and over again1 laid under         
penalties and high duties1 treated with 
every sort of contumely and oppression1 
it had long to struggle desperately for 
the barest tolerance2 yet it ended by   
overcoming all obstacles1 and distancing
 its favoured rival wool4 ,returning    
good for evil1 cotton now sustains      
one-sixth of our fellow-countrymen1 and 
is an important mainstay of our commerce
 and manufactures4  ,first imported into
 ,great ,britain towards the middle of  
the seventeenth century1 cotton was but 
little used for purposes of manufacture 
till the middle of the eighteenth4 ,the 
settlement of some ,flemish emigrants in
 ,lancashire led to that district       
becoming the principal seat of the      
cotton manufacture2 and probably the    
ungenerous nature of its soil induced   
the people to resort to spinning and    

weaving to make up for the              
unprofitableness of their agricultural  
labours4  ,a nobler monument of human   
skill1 enterprise1 and perseverance1    
than the invention of cotton-spinning   
machinery is hardly to be met with2 but 
it must also be owned that its history1 
encouraging as it is in one aspect1 is  
in another sad and humiliating to the   
last degree4 ,it is difficult at first  
to credit the uniform ingratitude and   
treachery which the various inventors   
met with from the very men whom their   
contrivances enriched4 ,there is        
nothing1 said ,james ,watt in the crisis
 of his fortunes1 worn with care1 and   
sick with hope deferred--there is       
nothing so foolish as inventing2 and    
with far more reason the inventors of   
cotton-spinning machines could echo the 
mournful cry4 ,it is sad to think that  
so proud a chapter of our history should
 bear so dark a stain4  ,in #agcc the   
primitive method still prevailed of     
spinning between the finger and thumb1  

only one thread at a time2 and weaving  
up the yarn in a loom1 the shuttle of   
which had to be thrown from right to    
left and left to right by both hands    
alternately4 ,in that year1 however1 the
 first step was made in advance1 by the 
invention of the fly-shuttle1 which1 by 
means of a handle and spring1 could be  
jerked from side to side with one hand4 
,this contrivance was due to the        
ingenuity of ,john ,kay1 a loom-maker at
 ,colchester1 and proved his ruin4 ,the 
weavers did their best to prevent the   
use of the shuttle1--the masters to get 
it used1 and to cheat the inventor out  
of his reward4 ,poor ,kay was soon      
brought low in the world by costly      
law-suits1 and being not yet tired of   
inventing1 devised a rude power-loom4   
,in revenge a mob of weavers broke into 
his house1 smashed all his machines1 and
 would have smashed him too1 had they   
laid hands on him4 ,he escaped from     
their clutches1 to find his way to      
,paris1 and to die there in misery not  

long afterwards4 ,kay was the first of  
the martyrs in this branch of invention4
 ,james ,hargreaves was the next4  ,the 
use of the fly-shuttle greatly expedited
 the process of weaving1 and the        
spinning of cotton soon fell behind4    
,the weavers were often brought to a    
stand-still for want of weft to go on   
with1 and had to spend their mornings   
going about in search of it1 sometimes  
without getting as much as kept them    
busy for the rest of the day4 ,the      
scarcity of yarn was a constant         
complaint2 and many a busy brain was at 
work trying to devise some improvement  
on the common hand-wheel4 ,amongst      
others1 ,james ,hargreaves1 an ingenious
 weaver at ,standhill1 near ,blackburn1 
who had already improved the mode of    
cleaning and unravelling the cotton     
before spinning1 took the subject into  
consideration4 ,one day1 when brooding  
over it in his cottage1 idle for want of
 weft1 the accidental overturning of his
 wife's wheel suggested to him the      

principle of the spinning-jenny4 ,lying 
on its side1 the wheel still continued  
in motion--the spindle being thrown from
 a horizontal into an upright position2 
and it occurred to him that all he had  
got to do was to place a number of      
spindles side by side4 ,this was in     
#agfd1 and three years afterwards       
,hargreaves had worked out the idea1 and
 constructed a spinning frame1 with     
eight spindles and a horizontal wheel1  
which he christened after his wife      
,jenny1 whose wheel had first put him in
 the right track4 ,directly the spinners
 of the locality got knowledge of this  
machine that was to do eight times as   
much as any one of them1 they broke into
 the inventor's cottage1 destroyed the  
jenny1 and compelled him to fly for the 
safety of his life to ,nottingham4 ,he  
took out a patent1 but the manufacturers
 leagued themselves against them4 ,sole1
 friendless1 penniless1 he could make no
 head against their numbers and         
influence1 relinquished his invention1  

and died in obscurity and distress ten  
years after he had the misfortune to    
contrive the spinning-jenny4  ,the      
history of the cotton manufacture now   
becomes identified with the lives of    
,arkwright1 ,crompton1 and              
,cartwright--the inventors of the       
water-frame1 the mule1 and the          
power-loom4     ,,ii4--,,sir ,,richard  
,,arkwright4   ,somewhere about the year
 #ageb1 any one passing along a certain 
obscure alley in ,preston1 then a mere  
village compared with the prosperous    
town into which it has since expanded1  
might have observed projecting from the 
entrance to the underground flat of one 
of the houses1 a blue and white pole1   
with a battered tin plate dangling at   
the end of it1 the object of which was  
to indicate that if he wanted his hair  
cut or his chin shaved1 he had only to  
step down stairs1 and the owner of the  
sign would be delighted to accommodate  
him4 ,but either people in that quarter 
had little or no superfluous hair to get

 rid of1 or they had it taken off       
elsewhere2 for ,dicky ,arkwright1 the   
barber in the cellar1 for whom the pole 
and plate stood sponsor in the upper    
world1 had few opportunities of         
displaying his talents1 and spent most  
of his time whetting his razors on a    
long piece of leather1 one end of which 
was nailed to the wall1 while the other 
was drawn towards him1 and keeping the  
hot water and the soap ready for the    
customers who seldom or never came4     
,this sort of thing did not suit ,dick's
 notions at all2 for he was of an active
 temperament1 and besides feeling very  
dull at being so much by himself all    
day1 he pulled rather a long face when  
he counted out the scanty array of      
coppers in the till after shutting up   
shop for the night4 ,as he sat one      
night1 before tumbling into his truckle 
bed that stood in a recess in one corner
 of the dingy little room1 meditating on
 the hardness of the times1 a bright    
idea struck him2 and the next morning   

the attractions of the sign-pole were   
enhanced by a staring placard1 bearing  
the urgent invitation3--      ,,come    
,,to ,,the     ,,subterraneous ,,barber6
     ,,he ,,shaves ,,for ,a ,,penny66   
,now twopence1 as we believe all those  
who have investigated the subject are   
agreed1 was the standard charge for a   
clean shave at that period2 and as soon 
as this innovation got wind1 we can     
fancy how indignant the fraternity were 
at the unprincipled conduct of one of   
their number2 how they denounced the    
reprobate1 and prophesied his speedy    
ruin1 over their pipes and beer in the  
parlour of the ,duke of ,marlborough1   
which they patronized out of respect for
 that hero's enormous periwig1--in their
 eyes his chief title to immortality1   
and a bright example for the degenerate 
age1 when people had not only taken to  
wearing their own hair1 but were even   
beginning to leave off dusting it with  
flour6 ,and to make matters worse1 here 
was a low fellow offering to shave for a

 penny4 ,a number of people1 tickled    
with the originality of the placard1 and
 not unmindful of the penny saved1 began
 to patronize the ,subterraneous barber1
 and he soon drew so many customers away
 from the higher-priced shops1 that they
 were obliged to come down1 after a     
while1 to a penny as well4 ,not to be   
outdone1 ,arkwright lowered his charge  
to a halfpenny1 and still retained his  
rank as the cheapest barber in the      
place4  ,arkwright's parents had been   
very poor people2 and as he was the     
youngest of a family of thirteen1 it may
 be readily supposed that all the school
 learning he got was of the most meagre 
kind1--if1 indeed1 he ever was at school
 at all1 which is very doubtful4 ,he was
 of a very ardent1 enterprising         
temperament1 however1 and when once he  
took a thing in hand1 stubbornly        
persevered in carrying it through to the
 end4 ,about the year #agfj1 being then 
about thirty years of age1 ,arkwright   
got tired of the shaving1 which brought 

him but a very scanty and precarious    
livelihood1 and resolved to try his luck
 in a business where there was more     
scope for his enterprise and activity4  
,he therefore began business as an      
itinerant dealer in hair1 travelling up 
and down the country to collect it1     
dressing it himself1 and then disposing 
of it in a prepared state to the        
wig-makers4 ,as he was very quick in    
detecting any improvements that might be
 made in the process of dressing1 he    
soon acquired the reputation amongst the
 wig-makers of supplying a better       
article than any of his rivals1 and     
drove a very good trade4 ,he had also   
picked up or discovered for himself the 
secret of dyeing the hair in a          
particular way1 by which he not only    
augmented his profits1 but enlarged the 
circle of his customers4 ,he throve so  
well1 that he was able to lay by a      
little money and to marry4 ,he was very 
fond of spending what leisure time he   
had in making experiments in mechanics2 

and for a while was very much taken up  
with an attempt to solve the attractive 
problem of perpetual motion4 ,no doubt  
he soon saw the hopelessness of the     
effort2 but although he left the        
question unsolved1 the bent thus given  
to his thoughts was fruitful of most    
valuable consequences4  ,living in the  
midst of a manufacturing population1    
,arkwright was accustomed to hear daily 
complaints of the continual difficulty  
of procuring sufficient weft to keep the
 looms employed2 while the exportation  
of cotton goods gave rise to a growing  
demand for the manufactured article4    
,the weavers generally had the weft they
 used spun for them by their wives or   
daughters2 and those whose families     
could not supply the necessary quantity1
 had their spinning done by their       
neighbours2 and even by paying1 as they 
had to do1 more for the spinning than   
the price allowed by their masters1 very
 few could procure weft enough to keep  
themselves constantly at work4 ,it was  

no uncommon thing1 we learn1 for a      
weaver to walk three or four miles in a 
morning1 and call on five or six        
spinners1 before he could collect weft  
to serve him for the rest of the day4   
,arkwright must have been constantly    
hearing of this difficulty1 and of the  
restrictions it placed on the           
manufacture of cotton goods2 and being a
 mechanical genius1 was led to think how
 it might be lessened1 if not got rid of
 altogether4 ,the idea of having an     
automaton spinner1 instead of one of    
flesh and blood1 had occurred before    
then to more than one speculator2 but   
the thing had never answered1 and no    
models or descriptions of the machines  
proposed were preserved4 ,one inventor  
had1 indeed1 destroyed his own machine1 
after having constructed it and found it
 to work1 for fear that if it came into 
use it would deprive the poor spinners  
of their livelihood1--in reality its    
effect would have been to provide       
employment and food for thousands more  

than at that time got a miserable living
 from their spinning-wheels4  ,while    
,arkwright was intent on the discovery  
of perpetual motion1 he fell in with a  
clockmaker of the name of ,kay1 who     
assisted him in making wheels and       
springs for the contrivance he was      
trying to complete4 ,this led to an     
intimate connection between them2 and   
when ,arkwright had given up the        
perpetual motion affair1 and applied his
 thoughts to the invention of some      
machine for producing cotton weft more  
rapidly than by the simple wheel1 ,kay  
continued to help him in making models4 
,arkwright soon became so engrossed in  
his new task1 and so confident of       
ultimate success1 that he began to      
neglect his regular business4 ,all his  
thoughts1 and nearly all his time1 were 
given up to the great work he had taken 
in hand4 ,his trade fell off2 he spent  
all his savings in purchasing materials 
for models1 and getting them put        
together1 and he fell into very         

distressed circumstances4 ,his wife     
remonstrated with him1 but in vain2 and 
one day1 in a rage at what she          
considered the cause of all their       
privations1 she smashed some of his     
models on the floor4 ,such an outrage   
was more than ,arkwright could bear1 and
 they separated4  ,in #agfh1 ,arkwright1
 having completed the model of a machine
 for spinning cotton thread1 removed to 
,preston1 taking ,kay with him4 ,at this
 time he had hardly a penny in the      
world1 and was almost in rags4 ,his     
poverty1 indeed1 was such1 that soon    
after his arrival in ,preston1 a        
contested election for a member of      
,parliament having taken place1 he was  
so tattered and miserable in his        
appearance1 that the party with whom he 
voted had to give him a decent suit of  
clothes before he could be seen at the  
polling-booth4 ,he had got leave to set 
up his machine in the dwelling-house    
attached to the ,free ,grammar ,school2 
but1 afraid of suffering from the       

hostility of the spinners1 as the       
unfortunate ,hargreaves had done some   
time before1 he and ,kay thought it best
 to leave ,lancashire1 and try their    
fortune in ,nottingham4  ,poor and      
friendless1 it may easily be supposed   
that ,arkwright found it a hard matter  
to get any one to back him in a         
speculation which people then regarded  
as hazardous1 if not illusory4 ,he got a
 few pounds from one of the bankers in  
the town2 but that was soon spent1 and  
further advances were refused4 ,nothing 
daunted1 ,arkwright tried elsewhere for 
help1 and at length succeeded in        
convincing ,messrs4 ,need and ,strutt1,a
 large stocking-weavers in the place1 of
 the value of his invention1 and        
inducing them to enter into partnership 
with him4 ,in #agfi he took out a patent
 for the machine1 as its inventor1 and a
 mill1 worked by horse-power1 was       
erected for spinning cotton by the new  
machine4 ,two years after1 he and his   
partner set up another mill in          

,derbyshire1 worked by a water-wheel2   
and in #agge he took out another patent 
for some improvements on his original   
scheme4  ,the machinery which he        
patented consisted of a number of       
different contrivances2 but the chief of
 these1 and the one which he            
particularly claimed entirely as his own
 invention 7for he frankly admitted that
 some of the other parts were only      
developments of other inventors71 was   
what is called the water-frame throstle 
for drawing out the cotton from a coarse
 to a finer and harder twisted thread1  
and so rendering it fit to be used for  
the warp1 or longitudinal threads of the
 cloth1 which were formed of linen1 as  
well as the weft4 ,this apparatus was a 
combination of the carding and spinning 
machinery2 and the principle of having  
two pairs of rollers1 one revolving     
faster than the other1 was now for the  
first time applied to machinery4  ,in a 
year or two the success of ,arkwright's 
inventions was fairly established4 ,the 

manufacturers were fully alive to its   
importance2 and ,arkwright now reaped   
the reward of all the toil and danger he
 had undergone in the shape of a        
diligent and persistent attempt to rob  
him of his monopoly1 which was carried  
on for a number of years1 and was at    
length successful4 ,some of the         
manufacturers1 who were greedy to profit
 by the new machinery without paying the
 inventor1 got hold of ,kay1 who had    
quarrelled with ,arkwright some time    
before1 and found him a willing         
instrument in their hands4 ,it would    
take too long to go over all the law    
processes which ,arkwright had now to   
engage in to defend his rights4 ,kay got
 up a story that the real inventor was a
 poor reed maker named ,highs1 who had  
once employed him to make a model1 the  
secret of which he had imparted to      
,arkwright2 and this was a capital      
excuse for using the new machinery in   
defiance of the patent1 although the    
evidence at the various trials is now   

held completely to vindicate            
,arkwright's title as inventor4 ,one law
 plea was lost to him1 on account of    
some technical omission in the          
specifications2 another restored to him 
the enjoyment of his monopoly2 and a    
third trial destroyed the patent1 which 
,arkwright never took any steps to      
recover4  ,besides trying to defraud    
,arkwright of his patent-rights1 the    
rival manufacturers1 with jealous       
inconsistency1 did their best to        
discountenance the use of the yarns he  
made1 although much superior in quality 
to what was then in use4 ,but ,arkwright
 not only surmounted this obstacle1 but 
turned it to good account1 for it set   
him to manufacturing the yarn into      
stockings and calicoes1 the duty on     
which being soon after lowered1 in spite
 of the strenuous opposition of the     
manufacturers1 turned out a very        
profitable speculation4  ,for the first 
five years ,arkwright's mills yielded   
little or no profit2 but after that1 the

 adverse tide against which he had      
struggled so bravely changed1 and he    
followed a prosperous and honourable    
career till his death1 which happened in
 #agib4 ,he was knighted1 not for being1
 as he was1 a benefactor to his country1
 but because1 in his capacity of high   
sheriff1 he chanced to read some        
trumpery address to the king4 ,he left  
behind a fortune of about half a million
 sterling4  ,,footnotes3  ,a ,the       
founder of the family of ,strutt of     
,belper1 afterwards ennobled4           
,,iii4--,,samuel ,,crompton4            
,excellent as was the yarn produced by  
the spinning-jenny and the water-frame1 
compared with the old hand-spun stuff1  
it was coarse and full of knots2 and    
when a demand arose for imitations of   
the fine ,india muslins1 the weavers    
found they could produce but a very poor
 piece of work with such rough          
materials4  ,among those who were       
inconvenienced for want of a better sort
 of yarn was young ,samuel ,crompton1   

who lived with his widowed mother and   
two sisters in an old country house     
called ,hall-in-the-,wood1 near what was
 then the little rural town of ,bolton  
in the ,moors4 ,when ,samuel was only   
five years old his father died1 and left
 his widow with the three children on   
her hands1 to struggle through the world
 as best she could4 ,a hard-working1    
energetic1 ,god-fearing woman1 she      
buckled to the fight with a stout heart 
and a resolute will4 ,her husband had   
been both farmer and weaver1 like most  
of the men in that quarter2 and she did 
her best to fill his place1 looking     
after the little farm and the three     
cows1 and working at the loom1 the yarn 
for which she taught the bairns to spin4
 ,whatever she took in hand she did with
 might and main1 and the result was1 her
 webs were the best woven1 her butter   
the richest1 her honey the purest1 her  
home-made wines the finest flavoured of 
any in the district4 ,small as her means
 were1 she gave her boy the best        

education that could be got in          
,bolton--first at a day-school1 and     
afterwards1 when he was old enough to   
take his place by day between the       
treadles1 at a night-school4 ,rigid in  
her sense of duty1 and resolute to do   
her own share of the work1 she exacted  
the same from others1 and kept her lad  
tightly to the loom4 ,every day he had  
to do a certain quantity of work2 and   
there was no looking her in the face    
unless each evening saw it done1 and    
well done too4 ,anxious to satisfy his  
mother1 and yet get time for his        
favourite amusement of fiddle-making and
 fiddle-playing1 ,sam grew quickly      
sensitive of the imperfections of the   
machinery he had to work with4 ,he was  
plagued to deeath1 he used to say1 wi'  
mendin' the broken threeads2 and could  
not help thinking many a time whether   
the jenny could not be improved so as to
 spin more quickly1 and produce a better
 thread4 ,by the time he came to man's  
estate1 in #aggd1 his thoughts had      

settled so far into a track1 that he was
 able to begin making a contrivance of  
his own1 which he hoped would accomplish
 the object he had in view4 ,he had a   
few common tools which had belonged to  
his father1 but his own clasp-knife     
served nearly every purpose in his ready
 hands4 ,he had his bits of things filed
 at the smithy1 and to get money for    
materials1 he fiddled at the theatre for
 #as4 #f;d4 a night4 ,every minute he   
could spare from the task-work of the   
day was spent in his little room over   
the porch of the hall in forwarding his 
invention4 ,as it advanced1 he grew more
 and more engrossed with it1 and often  
the dawn found him still at work on it4 
,the good folks down in ,bolton were    
sorely puzzled to think what light it   
was that was so often seen glimmering at
 uncanny hours up at the old hall4 ,the 
story went abroad that the place was    
haunted1 and that the ghost of some     
former resident1 uneasy from the sorrows
 or the sins of his past life1 kept     

watch and ward till cock crow1 with a   
spectral lamp4 ,the mystery was cleared 
up at last4 ,it was discovered that the 
ghost was only ,sam ,crompton fashing   
himself over bits of wood and iron2 and 
,sam was pointed out as a conjuror--the 
cant term for inventor--when he walked  
through the town4  ,the five years of   
labour and anxiety bore fruit in #aggi1 
when the mule-jenny with its spindle    
carriage was finished and set to work4  
,as its name indicates1 it was an       
ingenious cross between the jenny and   
the water-frame1 combining the best     
features of both with several novel     
ones1 which rendered it a very valuable 
machine4  ,just as ,crompton had put the
 finishing touches to his mule1 the     
weavers and spinners broke out in open  
riot at ,blackburn1 and scoured the     
country with the cry1 ,men1 not         
machines2 breaking every machine they   
could lay hands on4 ,to keep himself out
 of trouble and save his mule1 ,crompton
 took it to pieces1 and hid it in the   

roof of the hall4 ,when the storm had   
swept past1 he brought it out1 put it   
together1 and began to use it in his    
daily work4 ,the fine yarn he turned out
 made quite a sensation1 and the fame of
 his invention spread far and wide4     
,people came from all quarters to get a 
sight of it2 and when denied admittance1
 brought ladders and harrows1 and       
climbed up to the window of the room    
where it stood4 ,one pertinacious fellow
 actually ensconced himself for several 
days in the cockloft1 from which he     
watched ,crompton at work in the room   
below1 through a gimlet hole he bored in
 the ceiling4 ,crompton lost all        
patience with this constant espionage4  
,why couldn't folk let him enjoy his    
machine by himself8 he asked4 ,a friend1
 whose advice he asked1 urged him not to
 think of taking out a patent1 but to   
make a present of his invention to the  
community at large4 ,save me from my    
friends1 ,crompton might well have      
cried4 ,simple1 guileless fellow that he

 was1 he acted on his friend's advice1  
and on a number of manufacturers putting
 down their names for subscriptions     
varying from a guinea to a crown1 threw 
open the invention to the world4 ,when  
the time came for the subscriptions to  
be called in1 some of the manufacturers 
actually were base enough to refuse     
payment of the paltry sums they had     
promised1 and overwhelmed with abuse the
 man by the fruit of whose brain they   
were making their fortunes4 ,when all   
the money was collected1 it amounted to 
only ,l#fj1 just as much as built       
,crompton a new machine1 with no more   
than four spindles4  ,shy1 simple1      
confiding1 innocent of the cunning ways 
of the world1 sadly backward in the     
study of mankind1 and perhaps somewhat  
ungenial and unpractised to boot1       
,crompton1 from the time when one would 
have thought he had set his foot on the 
first round of the ladder of fortune1   
went stumbling on from one misfortune to
 another1 ill-used on every side1 and   

unsuccessful in every effort to get on  
in the world4 ,wheedled out of his      
patent rights1 cheated of the money     
promised him1 his workmen lured away    
from him as soon as he had taught them  
the construction of the mule1 he grew   
morbid and distrustful of everyone4 ,he 
would have no more workmen2 and as the  
production of his machines was thus     
restricted to the labours of his own    
hands1 he could not compete with the    
large factories1 who drew all the       
customers away from him4 ,peel1 the     
father of the statesman1 offered him    
first a lucrative place of trust1 and   
afterwards a partnership2 but he would  
not listen to him4 ,he grew more        
wretched and discouraged every day4 ,in 
despair he cut up his spinning machines1
 and hacked to pieces with an axe a     
carding machine he had invented1        
exclaiming bitterly1 ,they shall not    
have this too4  ,he then retired into   
comparative obscurity at ,oldham1 where 
he drudged away at weaving1 farming1    

cow-keeping1 and overseeing the poor1   
and found it no easy matter withal to   
support his family1 for he had married  
some years before4 ,afterwards he       
re-appeared at ,bolton as a small       
manufacturer2 and there was a brief     
interval of sunshine4 ,the muslin trade 
was very brisk1 and the weavers walked  
about with five-pound notes stuck in    
their hats1 and dressed out in ruffled  
shirts and top boots1 like fine         
gentlemen4 ,while this lasted ,crompton 
found abundant sale for his superior    
yarn4 ,but trade grew depressed1 and the
 gloom settled over ,crompton's life to 
its close4  ,the idea was started of    
getting ,parliament to do something for 
him2 but he was too independent to      
supplicate government officials in      
person4 ,spencer ,perceval1 the         
,chancellor of the ,exchequer1 was      
willing to befriend him2 but ,crompton's
 ill luck was at his heels4 ,on the     
#aath of ,may #ahab1 ,crompton was      
talking with ,peel and another gentleman

 in the lobby of the ,house of ,commons1
 when ,perceval walked up to them1      
saying1 ,you will be glad to know we    
mean to propose ,l#bj1jjj for ,crompton4
 ,do you think it will be satisfactory8 
,crompton walked away out of delicacy   
not to hear the answer4 ,an instant     
afterwards there was a great shout1 and 
a rush of people in alarm4 ,perceval lay
 bathed in his own blood1 slain by the  
bullet of the assassin ,bellingham4     
,crompton had lost his friend4  ,when   
the subject of a grant to the inventor  
of the spinning-mule was brought up in  
the ,house a few days afterwards by     
,lord ,stanley 7now ,lord ,derby71 only 
,l#ejjj was proposed4 ,no one thought of
 increasing it4 ,let's give the man a   
,l#ajj a-year1 said an honourable       
member2 it's as much as he can drink4   
,so the vote was agreed to2 though at   
that very time the duty accruing to the 
revenue from the cotton wool imported to
 be spun upon the mule was ,l#cjj1jjj   
a-year1 or more than ,l#ajjj a working  

day4 ,the impulse which this invention  
gave to the cotton manufactures of      
,great ,britain1 and the commercial     
prosperity to which it led1 enabled the 
country to bear the heavy drain of the  
war taxes2 and it has been said1 with no
 little truth1 that ,crompton           
contributed as much as ,wellington to   
the downfall of ,napoleon4 ,as soon as  
it became known1 the mule-spindle took  
the lead in cotton-spinning machines4   
,in #ahaa above #d1fjj1jjj              
mule-spindles1 made by his pattern1 were
 in use4 ,at the present time it is     
calculated that there are upwards of    
#cj1jjj1jjj in use in ,great ,britain2  
and the increase goes on at the rate of 
above #a1jjj1jjj a-year4 ,in ,france    
there were in #ahej about #c1jjj1jjj    
spindles on ,crompton's principle2 and  
one firm of mule makers 7,hibbert1      
,platt1 and ,company1 of ,oldham71 make 
mules at the rate of #ejj1jjj spindles  
a-year4 ,the immense impetus given to   
trade1 money1 civilization1 and comfort 

by this invention is almost             
incalculable4  ,the grant of ,l#ejjj was
 soon swallowed up in the payment of his
 debts1 and in meeting the losses of his
 business4 ,nothing more was ever done  
for him4 ,the king1 who was fond of     
patronizing merit1 took no notice of    
him2 his eldest son was promised a      
commission1 which he did not get2 and   
some time after1 when struggling through
 life on only ,l#ajj a-year1 the post of
 sub-inspector of the factories in      
,bolton became vacant2 though he applied
 for the office1 for which he was       
eminently qualified1 he was passed over 
in favour of the natural son of one of  
the ex-secretaries of state--a man who  
did not know a mule from a              
spinning-jenny4,b  ,crompton spent his  
last days in poverty and privation1 and 
died at the age of seventy-four1 in     
#ahbg4  ,,footnotes3  ,b ,athenaeum4    
,,iv4--,,dr4 ,,cartwright4   ,in the    
summer of #aghd a number of gentlemen   
were chatting1 after dinner1 in a       

country house at ,matlock in            
,derbyshire4 ,some extensive            
cotton-mills had recently been set up in
 the neighbourhood1 and the conversation
 turned upon the wonderful inventions   
which had been introduced for spinning  
cotton4 ,there were one or two gentlemen
 present connected with the             
manufacturing interest1 who were very   
bitter against ,arkwright and his       
schemes4  ,it's all very well1 said one 
of the grumblers1 but what will all this
 rapid production of yarn lead to8      
,putting aside the ruin of the poor     
spinners1 who will be starved because   
they haven't as many arms as these      
terrible machines1 you'll find that it  
will end in a great deal more yarn being
 spun than can be woven into cloth1 and 
in large quantities of yarn being       
exported to the ,continent1 where it    
will be worked up by foreign weavers1 to
 the injury of our home manufacture4    
,that will be the short and the long of 
it1 mark my words4  ,well1 but1 sir1    

remarked a grave1 portly1 middle-aged   
gentleman of clerical appearance1 after 
a few minutes' reflection1 when you talk
 of the impossibility of the weaving    
keeping up with the spinning1 you forget
 that machinery may yet be applied to   
the former as well as the latter4 ,why  
may there not be a loom contrived for   
working up yarn as fast as the spindle  
produces it4 ,that long-headed fellow   
,arkwright must just set about inventing
 a weaving machine4  ,stuff and         
nonsense1 returned the practical man    
pettishly1 as though it were hardly     
worth while noticing the remarks of such
 a dreamer4 ,you might as well bid      
,arkwright grow the cloth ready made4   
,weaving by machinery is utterly        
impossible4 ,you must remember how much 
more complex a process it is than       
spinning1 and what a variety of         
movements it involves4 ,weaving by      
machinery is a mere idle vision1 my dear
 sir1 and shows you know nothing about  
the operation4  ,well1 ,i must confess  

my ignorance on the subject of weaving1 
replied the clergyman2 but surely it    
can't be a more complex matter than     
moving the pieces in a game of chess4   
,now1 there's an automaton figure now   
exhibiting in ,london1 which handles the
 chess men1 and places them on the      
proper squares of the board1 and makes  
the most intricate moves1 for all the   
world as if it were alive4 ,if that can 
be done1 ,i don't see why weaving should
 baffle a clever mechanist4 ,a few years
 ago we should have laughed at the      
notion of doing what ,arkwright has     
done2 and ,i'm certain that before many 
years are over1 we shall have 'weaving  
,johnnies1' as well as 'spinning        
,jennies4'  ,dr4 ,cartwright1 for that  
was the clergyman's name1 confidently as
 he foretold that machine-weaving would 
be devised before long1 little dreamt at
 that moment that he was himself to     
bring about the fulfilment of his own   
prediction4 ,a quiet1 country clergyman1
 of literary tastes1 a scholar1 and     

poetaster1 he had spent his life        
hitherto in the discharge of his        
ministerial duties1 writing articles and
 verses1 and had never given the        
slightest attention to mechanics1       
theoretical or practical4 ,he had never 
so much as seen a loom at work1 and had 
not the remotest notion of the principle
 or mode of its construction4 ,but the  
chance conversation at the ,matlock     
dinner table suddenly roused his        
interest in the subject4 ,he walked home
 meditating on what sort of a process   
weaving must be2 brooded over the       
subject for days and weeks1--was often  
observed by his family striding up and  
down the room in a fit of abstraction1  
throwing his arms from side to side like
 a weaver jerking the shuttles1--and at 
last succeeded in evolving1 as the      
,germans would say1 from the depths of  
his moral consciousness1 the idea of a  
power-loom4 ,with the help of a smith   
and a carpenter1 he set about the       
construction of a number of experimental

 machines1 and at length1 after five or 
six months' application1 turned out a   
rude1 clumsy piece of work1 which was   
the basis of his invention4  ,the warp1 
he says1 was laid perpendicularly1 the  
reed fell with the force of at least    
half a hundredweight1 and the springs   
which threw the shuttle were strong     
enough to have thrown a ,congreve       
rocket4 ,in short1 it required the      
strength of two powerful men to work the
 machine at a slow rate1 and only for a 
short time4 ,this being done1 ,i then   
condescended to see how other people    
wove2 and you will guess my astonishment
 when ,i compared their easy modes of   
operation with mine4 ,availing myself of
 what ,i then saw1 ,i made a loom in its
 general principles nearly as they are  
now made4 ,but it was not till the year 
#aghg that ,i completed my invention4   
,having given himself to the contrivance
 of a loom that should be able to keep  
pace in the working up of the yarn with 
the jenny which produced it1 solely from

 motives of philanthropy1 he felt bound1
 now that he had devised the machine1 to
 prove its utility1 and bring it into   
use4 ,to have stopped with the work of  
invention1 would1 he conceived1 have    
been to leave the work half undone2 and1
 therefore1 at no slight sacrifice of   
personal inclination1 and to the rupture
 of all old ties1 associations1 and ways
 of life1 he quitted the ease and       
seclusion of his parsonage1 abandoned   
the pursuits which had formerly been his
 delight1 and devoted himself to the    
promotion of his invention4 ,he set up  
weaving and spinning factories at       
,doncaster1 and1 bent on the welfare of 
his race1 began the weary1 painful      
struggle that was to be his ruin1 and to
 end only with his life4 ,i have the    
worst mechanical conception any man can 
have1 wrote his friend ,crabbe1 but you 
have my best wishes4 ,may you weave webs
 of gold4 ,alas6 the good man wove for  
himself rather a web of dismal          
sack-cloth1 sore and grievous to his    

peace1 like the harsh shirts of hair old
 devotees used to vex their flesh with  
for their sins4 ,the golden webs were   
for other folk's wear1--for those who   
toiled not with their brain as he had   
done1 but who reaped what they had not  
sown4  ,he had invented a machine that  
was to promote industry1 and save the   
,english weavers from being driven from 
the field1 as was beginning to be the   
case1 by foreign weavers2 and masters   
and men were up in arms against him as  
soon as his design was known4 ,his goods
 were maliciously damaged1--his workmen 
were spirited away from him1--his patent
 right was infringed4 ,calumny and      
hatred dogged his steps4 ,after a       
succession of disasters1 his prospects  
assumed a brighter aspect1 when a large 
,manchester firm contracted for the use 
of four hundred looms4 ,a few days after
 they were at work1 the mill that had   
been built to receive them stood a heap 
of blackened ruins4  ,still1 he would   
not give up till all his resources were 

exhausted1--and surely and not slowly   
that event drew nigh4 ,the fortune of   
,l#cj1jjj with which he started in the  
enterprise melted rapidly away2 and at  
length the day came when1 with an empty 
purse1 a frame shattered with anxiety   
and toil1 but with a brave1 stout heart 
still beating in his breast1 ,cartwright
 turned his back upon his mills1 and    
went off to ,london to gain a living by 
his pen4 ,as he turned from the scene of
 his misfortunes1 he exclaimed1--       
,with firm1 unshaken mind1 that wreck ,i
 see1     ,nor think the doom of man    
should be reversed for me4  ,the lion   
that has once eaten a man has ever      
after1 it is said1 a wild craving after 
human blood4 ,and it would seem that the
 faculty of invention1 once aroused1 its
 appetite for exercise is constant and  
insatiable4 ,cartwright having          
discovered his dormant powers1 could no 
more cease to use them than to eat4 ,a  
return to his quiet literary ways1 fond 
as he still was of such pursuits1 was   

impossible4 ,an inventor he was1 and an 
inventor he must continue till his eye  
was glazed1 and his brain numbed in     
death4 ,when a clergyman he set himself 
to study medicine1 and acquired great   
skill and knowledge in the science1     
solely for the benefit of the poor      
parishioners1 and now he gave himself up
 to the labours of invention with the   
same benevolent motives4 ,gain had not  
tempted him to enter the                
arena1--discouragement and ruin were not
 to drive him from it4 ,the resources of
 his ingenuity seemed inexhaustible1 and
 there was no limit to its range of     
objects4 ,wool-combing machines1 bread  
and biscuit baking machines1 rope-making
 machines1 ploughs1 and wheel carriages1
 fire-preventatives1 were in turn       
invented or improved by him4 ,he        
predicted the use of steam-ships1 and   
steam-carriages1--and himself devised a 
model of the former 7with clock-work    
instead of a steam-engine71 which a     
little boy used to play with on the     

ponds at ,woburn1 that was to grow up   
into an eminent statesman--,lord ,john  
,russell4 ,to the very last hour of his 
life his brain was teeming with new     
designs4 ,he went down to ,dover in his 
eightieth year for warm sea-bathing1 and
 suggested to his bathman a way of      
pumping up the water that saved him the 
wages of two men2 and almost the day    
before his death1 he wrote an elaborate 
statement of a new mode he had          
discovered of working the steam-engine4 
,moved by an irresistible impulse to    
promote the public weal1 he truly       
fulfilled the resolution he expressed in
 verse1--      ,with mind unwearied1    
still will ,i engage1     ,in spite of  
failing vigour and of age1     ,nor quit
 the combat till ,i quit the stage4  ,in
 #ahjh he was rewarded by ,parliament   
for his invention of the power-loom1 and
 the losses it brought upon him1 by a   
grant of ,l#aj1jjj4 ,he died in ,october
 #ahbc4     ,v4--,,sir ,,robert ,,peel4 
,cartwright's power-loom was afterwards 

taken in hand and greatly improved by   
other ingenious persons--mechanics and  
weavers4 ,the names of many clever      
mechanics1 says a writer in the         
,quarterly ,review1 who contributed to  
advance it1 step by step1 through       
failure and disappointment1 have long   
been forgotten4 ,some broke their hearts
 over their projects when apparently on 
the eve of success4 ,no one was more    
indefatigable in his endeavours to      
overcome the difficulties of the        
contrivance than ,william ,radcliffe1 a 
manufacturer at ,mellor1 near           
,manchester1 whose invention of the     
dressing-machine was an important step  
in advance4 ,with the assistance of an  
ingenious young weaver in his           
employment1 named ,johnson1 he also     
brought out the dandy-loom1 which       
effects almost all that can be done for 
the hand-loom as to motion4 ,radcliffe  
was not1 however1 successful as a       
manufacturer2 he exhausted his means in 
experiments1 of which his contemporaries

 and successors were to derive the      
benefit2 and after expending immense    
labour1 and a considerable fortune in   
his improvements1 he died in poverty in 
,manchester only a few years ago4  ,to  
the ,peel family the cotton manufacture 
is greatly indebted for its progress4   
,robert ,peel1 the founder of the       
family1 developed the plan of printing  
calico1 and his successors perfected it 
in a variety of ways4 ,while occupied as
 a small farmer near ,blackburn1 he gave
 a great deal of attention to the       
subject1 and made a great many          
experiments4 ,one day1 when sketching a 
pattern on the back of a pewter         
dinner-plate1 the idea occurred to him1 
that if colour were rubbed upon the     
design an impression might be printed   
off it upon calico4 ,he tested the plan 
at once4 ,filling in the pattern with   
colour on the back of the plate1 and    
placing a piece of calico over it1 he   
passed it through a mangle1 and was     
delighted with seeing the calico come   

out duly printed4 ,this was his first   
essay in calico-printing2 and he soon   
worked out the idea1 patented it1 and   
starting as a calico-printer1 succeeded 
so well1 that he gave up the farm and   
devoted himself entirely to that        
business4 ,his sons succeeded him2 and  
the ,peel family1 divided into numerous 
firms1 became one of the chief pillars  
of the cotton manufacture4  ,to such    
perfection has calico-printing now been 
brought1 that a mile of calico can be   
printed in an hour1 or three cotton     
dresses in a minute2 and so extensive is
 the production of that article1 that   
one firm alone--that of ,hoyle--turns   
out in a year more than #aj1jjj miles of
 it1 or more than sufficient to measure 
the diameter of our planet4  ,it was a  
favourite saying of old ,sir ,robert    
,peel1 in regard to the importance of   
commercial wealth in a national point of
 view1 that the gains of individuals    
were small compared with the national   
gains arising from trade2 and there can 

be no doubt that the success of the     
cotton trade has contributed essentially
 to the present affluence and prosperity
 of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,it has placed
 cheap and comfortable clothing within  
the reach of all1 and provided well-paid
 employment for multitudes of people2   
and the growth of population to which it
 has led1 and consequent increase in the
 consumption of the various necessaries 
and luxuries of life1 have given a      
stimulus to all the other branches of   
industry and commerce4 ,from one of the 
most miserable provinces in the land1   
,lancashire has grown to be one of the  
most prosperous4 ,within a hundred and  
fifty years the population has increased
 tenfold1 and land has risen to fifty   
times its value for agricultural1 and   
seventy times for manufacturing         
purposes4 ,from an insignificant country
 town and a little fishing village have 
sprung ,manchester and ,liverpool2 and  
many other towns throughout the country 
owe their existence to the same source4 

,these are the great monuments to the   
achievements of ,arkwright1 ,crompton1  
,peel1 and the other captains of        
industry who wrought this mighty change1
 and the best trophies of their genius  
and enterprise4     ,the ,railway and   
the ,locomotive4     ,i4--,,the ,,flying
 ,,coach4  ,,ii4--,,the ,,stephensons3  
,,father ,,and ,,son4 ,,iii4--,,the     
,,growth ,,of ,,railways4     ,the      
,railway and the ,locomotive            
,i4--,,the ,,flying ,,coach4   ,it is   
the grey dawn of a fine spring morning  
in the year #affi1 and early though it  
be1 there are many folks astir and      
gathering in clusters before the        
ancient1 weather-stained front of ,all  
,souls' ,college1 ,oxford4 ,the ,flying 
,coach which has been so much talked    
about1 and which has been solemnly      
considered and sanctioned by the heads  
of the ,university1 is to make its first
 journey to the metropolis to-day1 and  
to accomplish it between sunrise and    
sunset4 ,hitherto the journey has       

occupied two days1 the travellers       
sleeping a night on the road2 and the   
new undertaking is regarded as very bold
 and hazardous4 ,a buzz rises from the  
knots of people as they discuss its     
prospects1--some very sanguine1 some    
very doubtful1 not a few very angry at  
the presumption of the enterprise4 ,but 
six o'clock is on the strike--all the   
passengers are seated1 some of them     
rather wishful to be safe on the        
pavement again--the driver has got the  
reins in his hand--the guard sounds his 
bugle1 and off goes the ,flying ,coach  
at a rattling pace1 amidst the cheering 
of the crowd and the benedictions of the
 university ,dons1 who have come down to
 honour the event with their presence4  
,learned1 liberal-minded men these ,dons
 are for the times they live in2 but    
only fancy what they would think if some
 old seer1 whose meditation and research
 had      ,pierced the future1 far as   
human eye could see1     ,seen the      
vision of the world1 and all the wonders

 that would be1  were to come forth and 
tell them1 that before two centuries    
were over men would think far less of   
travelling from ,oxford to ,london in   
one hour than they then did of doing so 
in a day1 by means of a machine of iron1
 mounted upon wheels1 which should rush 
along the ground1 and drag a load1 which
 a hundred horses could not move1 as    
though it were a feather4 ,roger ,bacon 
had prophesied as much four centuries   
before2 the ,marquis of ,worcester was  
propounding the same theory at that very
 day1 and yet who can blame them if they
 treated the notion as the falsehood of 
an impostor1 or the hallucination of a  
lunatic8  ,in these days when railways  
traverse the country in every direction1
 and are still multiplying rapidly1 when
 no two towns of the least size and     
consideration are unprovided with this  
mode of mutual communication--when we   
step into a railway carriage as readily 
as into an omnibus1 and breakfasting    
comfortably in ,london1 are whisked off 

to ,edinburgh1 almost in time for the   
fashionable dinner hour1--it requires no
 little effort to realize the           
incredulity and contempt with which the 
idea of superseding the stage-coach by  
the steam locomotive1 and having lines  
of iron railways instead of the common  
highways1 was regarded for many years   
after the beginning of the present      
century4 ,even after the practicability 
of the project had been proved1 and     
steam-engines had been seen puffing     
along the rails1 with a train of        
carriages attached1 even so late as     
#ahbe1 we find one of the leading       
periodicals--the ,quarterly             
,review--denouncing the gross           
exaggeration of the powers of the       
locomotive which its promoters were     
guilty of1 and predicting that though it
 might delude for a time1 it must end in
 the mortification of all concerned4    
,the fact was1 said the writer1 that    
people would as soon suffer themselves  
to be fired off like a ,congreve rocket1

 as trust themselves to the mercy of    
such a machine1 going at such a         
rate--the rate of eighteen miles an     
hour1 which people now-a-days1          
accustomed to dash along in express     
trains at two or three times that speed1
 would deem a perfect snail-pace4  ,the 
railway had the start of the locomotive 
by a couple of centuries1 and derives   
its parentage from the clumsy wooden    
way-leaves or tram-roads which were laid
 down to lessen the labour of dragging  
the coal-waggons to and from the place  
of shipment in the ,newcastle colleries4
 ,these were in use from the beginning  
of the seventeenth century1 but it was  
not till the beginning of the nineteenth
 that the locomotive steam-engine made  
its appearance4 ,watt himself took out a
 patent for a locomotive in #aghd1 but  
nothing came of it2 and the honour of   
having first proved the practicability  
of applying steam to the purposes of    
locomotion is due to a ,cornishman named
 ,trevithick1 who devised a             

high-pressure engine of very ingenious  
construction1 and actually set it to    
work on one of the roads in ,south      
,wales4 ,at first1 therefore1 there was 
no alliance between the engine and the  
rail2 and though afterwards ,trevithick 
adapted it to run on a tram-way1        
something went wrong with it1 and the   
idea was for the time abandoned4 ,there 
was a long-headed engine-man in one of  
the ,newcastle collieries about this    
time1 in whose mind the true solution of
 the problem was rapidly developing1 but
 ,trevithick had nearly forestalled him4
 ,the stories of these two men afford a 
most instructive lesson4 ,a man of      
undoubted talent and ingenuity1 with    
influential friends both in ,cornwall   
and ,london1 ,trevithick had a fair     
start in life1 and every opportunity of 
distinguishing himself4 ,but he lacked  
steadiness and perseverance1 and nothing
 prospered with him4 ,he had no sooner  
applied himself to one scheme than he   
threw it up1 and became engrossed in    

another1 to be abandoned in turn for    
some new favourite4 ,he was always      
beginning some novelty1 and never ending
 what he had begun1 and the consequence 
was an almost constant succession of    
failures4 ,he was always unhappy and    
unsuccessful4 ,if now and then a gleam  
of success did brighten on his path1 it 
was but temporary1 and was speedily     
absorbed in the gloom of failure4 ,he   
found a man of capital to take up his   
high-pressure engine1 got his locomotive
 built and set to work1 brought his     
ballast engine into use1 and stood in no
 want of praise and encouragement2 and  
yet1 one after another his schemes went 
wrong4 ,not one of them did well1       
because he never stuck to any of them   
long enough4 ,the world always went     
wrong with him1 he said himself4 ,he    
always went wrong with the world1 said  
more truly those who knew him4 ,his     
haste1 impatience1 and want of          
perseverance ruined him4 ,after actually
 witnessing his steam engine at work in 

,wales1 dragging a train of heavy       
waggons at the rate of five miles an    
hour1 he lost conceit of his invention1 
went away to the ,west ,indies1 and did 
not return to ,england till ,stephenson 
had solved the difficulty of steam      
locomotion1 and was laying out the      
,stockton and ,darlington ,railway4 ,the
 humble engine-man1 without education1  
without friends1 without money1 with    
countless obstacles in his way1 and not 
a single advantage1 save his native     
genius and resolution1 had won the day1 
and distanced his more favoured and     
accomplished rival4 ,it was reserved for
 ,,george ,,stephenson to bring about   
the alliance of the locomotive and the  
railroad--man and wife1 as he used to   
call them--whose union1 like that of    
heaven and earth in the old mythology1  
was to bear an offspring of ,titanic    
might--the modern railway4              
,,ii4--,,the ,,stephensons3 ,,father    
,,and ,,son4   ,towards the close of the
 last century1 a bare-legged            

herd-laddie1 about eight years old1     
might have been seen1 in a field at     
,dewley ,burn1 a little village not far 
from ,newcastle1 amusing himself by     
making clay-engines1 with bits of       
hemlock-stalk for imaginary pipes4 ,the 
child is father of the man2 and in after
 years that little fellow became the    
inventor of the passenger locomotive1   
and as the founder of the gigantic      
railway system which now spreads its    
fibres over the length and breadth1 not 
only of our own country1 but of the     
civilized world1 the true hero of the   
half-century4  ,the second son of a     
fireman to one of the colliery engines1 
who had six children and a wife to      
support on an income of twelve shillings
 a-week1 ,george ,stephenson had to     
begin work while quite a child4 ,at     
first he was set to look after a        
neighbour's cows1 and keep them from    
straying2 and afterwards he was promoted
 to the work of leading horses at the   
plough1 hoeing turnips1 and such like1  

at a salary of fourpence a-day4 ,the lad
 had always been fond of poking about in
 his father's engine house2 and his     
great ambition at this time was to      
become a fireman like his father4 ,and  
at length1 after being employed in      
various ways about the colliery1 he was1
 at the age of fourteen1 appointed his  
father's assistant at a shilling a-day4 
,the next year he got a situation as    
fireman on his own account2 and now1    
said he1 when his wages were advanced to
 twelve shillings a-week--now ,i'm a    
made man for life4  ,the next step he   
took was to get the place of plugman to 
the same engine that his father attended
 as fireman1 the former post being      
rather the higher of the two4 ,the      
business of the plugman1 the uninitiated
 may be informed1 is to watch the       
engine1 and see that it works           
properly--the name being derived from   
the duty of plugging the tube at the    
bottom of the shaft1 so that the action 
of the pump should not be interfered    

with by the exposure of the             
suction-holes4 ,george now devoted      
himself enthusiastically to the study of
 the engine under his care4 ,it became a
 sort of pet with him2 and he was never 
weary of taking it to pieces1 cleaning  
it1 putting it together again1 and      
inspecting its various parts with       
admiration and delight1 so that he soon 
made himself thoroughly master of its   
method of working and construction4     
,eighteen years old by this time1       
,george ,stephenson was wholly          
uneducated4 ,his father's small         
earnings1 and the large family he had to
 feed1 at a time when provisions were   
scarce and at war prices1 prevented his 
having any schooling in his early years2
 and he now set himself to repair his   
deficiencies in that respect4 ,his      
duties occupied him twelve hours a-day1 
so that he had but little leisure to    
himself2 but he was bent on improving   
himself1 and after the duties of the day
 were over1 went to a night-school kept 

by a poor teacher in the village of     
,water-row1 where he was now situated1  
on three nights during the week1 to take
 lessons in reading and spelling1 and   
afterwards in the science of pot-hooks  
and hangers as well2 so that by the time
 he was nineteen he was able to read    
clearly1 and to write his own name4     
,then he took to arithmetic1 for which  
he showed a strong predilection4 ,he had
 always a sum or two by him to work out 
while at the engine side1 and soon made 
great progress4  ,the next year he was  
appointed brakesman at ,black ,collerton
 ,colliery1 with six shillings added to 
his wages1 which were now nearly a pound
 a-week1 and he was always making a few 
shillings extra by mending his          
fellow-workmen's shoes1 a job at which  
he was rather expert4 ,busy as he was   
with his various tasks1 he found time to
 fall in love4 ,pretty ,fanny           
,henderson1 a servant at a neighbouring 
farm1 caught his fancy2 and getting her 
shoes to mend1 it cost him a great      

effort to return them to the comely     
owner after they were patched up4 ,he   
carried them about with him in his      
pocket for some time1 and would pull    
them out1 and then gaze fondly at them  
with as much emotion as the old story   
tells us the sight of the dainty glass  
slipper1 which ,cinderella dropped at   
the ball1 excited in the breast of the  
young prince4 ,bent upon taking up house
 for himself1 with ,fanny as presiding  
genius1 ,stephenson now began to save   
up1 and declared himself a rich man when
 he put his first guinea in the box4    
,instead of spending the ,saturday      
afternoon with his fellow-workmen in the
 public-house1 ,stephenson employed     
himself in taking the engine to pieces1 
and cleaning it2 but besides his        
attention to work1 he was also          
remarkable for his skill at putting and 
wrestling1 in which he beat most of his 
comrades4 ,and he was not without pluck 
either1 as he let a great hulking       
fellow1 who was the bully of the        

village1 know to his cost1 by giving him
 such a drubbing as made him a sadder   
and wiser man for some time afterwards4 
,he still continued his attendance at   
the night-school1 till he had got out of
 the master as much instruction in      
arithmetic as he was able to supply4    
,by the time he was of age he had saved 
up enough to take a little cottage and  
furnish it comfortably1 though1 of      
course1 very humbly2 and in the winter  
of #ahjb1 ,fanny1 now ,mrs4 ,george     
,stephenson1 rode home from church on   
horseback1 seated on a pillion behind   
her husband1 with her arms round his    
waist2 and very proud and happy1 we may 
be sure1 he was that day1 as the        
neighbours came to their doors to wish  
him ,god speed in his new mode of life4 
,having learned all he could from the   
village teacher1 ,george ,stephenson now
 began to study mensuration and         
mathematics at home by himself2 but he  
also found time to make a number of     
experiments in the hope of finding out  

the secret of perpetual motion1 and to  
make shoe-lasts and shoes1 as well as   
mend them4 ,at the end of #ahjc his only
 son1 ,robert1 was born2 and soon after 
the family removed to ,killingworth1    
seven miles from ,newcastle1 where      
,george got the place of brakesman4     
,they had not been settled long here    
when ,fanny died--a loss which affected 
,george deeply1 and attached him all the
 more intensely to the offspring of     
their union4 ,at this time everything   
seemed to go wrong with him4 ,as if his 
wife's death was not grief enough1 his  
father met with an accident which       
deprived him of his eye-sight1 and      
shattered his frame2 ,george himself was
 drawn for the militia1 and had to pay a
 heavy sum of money for a substitute2   
and with his father1 and mother1 and his
 own boy to support1 at a time when     
taxes were excessive and food dear1 he  
had only a salary of ,l#ej or ,l#fj     
a-year to meet all claims4 ,he was on   
the verge of despair1 and would have    

emigrated to ,america1 if1 fortunately  
for our country1 he had not been unable 
to raise sufficient money for his       
passage4 ,so he had to stay in the old  
country1 where a bright and glorious    
future awaited him1 dark and desperate  
as the prospect then appeared4  ,he     
still went on making models and         
experiments1 and perfecting his         
knowledge of his own engine4 ,to add to 
his earnings he also took to            
clock-cleaning1 with the view of saving 
up enough to give his boy the best      
education it was in his power to bestow4
 ,in the earlier period of my career1 he
 used afterwards to say1 when ,robert   
was a little boy1 ,i saw how deficient  
,i was in education1 and ,i made up my  
mind that he should not labour under the
 same defect1 but that ,i would put him 
to a good school1 and give him a liberal
 training4 ,i was1 however1 a poor man1 
and how do you think ,i managed8 ,i     
betook myself to mending my neighbours' 
clocks and watches at nights1 after my  

daily labour was done1 and thus ,i      
procured the means of educating my son4 
,george began by teaching his son to    
work with him2 and when the little chap 
could not reach so high as to put a     
clock-hand on1 would set him on a chair 
for the purpose1 and very proud ,robert 
was whenever he could help father in any
 of his jobs4  ,about this time a new   
pit having been sunk in the district    
where he worked1 the engine fixed for   
the purpose of pumping the water out of 
the shaft was found a failure4 ,this    
soon reached ,george's ears4 ,he walked 
over to the pit1 carefully examined the 
various parts of the machinery1 and     
turned the matter over in his mind4 ,one
 day when he was looking at it1 and     
almost convinced that he had discovered 
the cause of the failure1 one of the    
workmen came up1 and asked him if he    
could tell what was wrong4  ,yes1 said  
,george2 and ,i think ,i could alter it1
 and in a week's time send you to the   
bottom4  ,george offered his services to

 the engineer4 ,every expedient had been
 tried to repair the engine1 and all had
 failed4 ,there could be no harm1 if no 
good1 in ,stephenson trying his hand at 
it4 ,so he got leave1 and set to work4  
,he took the engine entirely to pieces1 
and in four days had repaired it        
thoroughly1 so that the workmen could   
get to the bottom and proceed with their
 labours4 ,george ,stephenson's skill as
 an engine-doctor began to be noised    
abroad1 and secured him the post of     
engine-wright at ,killingworth1 with a  
salary of ,l#ajj a-year4 ,robert was now
 old enough to go to school1 and was    
sent to one in ,newcastle1 to which1    
dressed in a suit of coarse grey stuff  
cut out by his father1 he rode every day
 upon a donkey4 ,robert spent much of   
his spare time in the ,literary and     
,philosophical ,institute of ,newcastle2
 and would sometimes take home a volume 
from the library1 which father and son  
would eagerly peruse together4          
,occasionally they tried chemical       

experiments together2 and now and then  
,robert would try his hand by himself4  
,on one occasion he electrified the cows
 in an adjacent enclosure by means of an
 electric kite1 making the bewildered   
animals dash madly about the field1 with
 their tails erect on end2 and another  
time he administered a severe electric  
shock to his father's ,galloway pony1   
which nearly knocked it over1 and drew  
down upon him the affected wrath of his 
father1 who1 coming out at the instant1 
shook his whip at him and called him a  
mischievous scoundrel1 though pleased   
all the while at the lad's ingenuity and
 enterprise4 ,as an early proof of the  
former1 there still stands over the     
cottage door at ,killingworth a         
sun-dial1 constructed by ,robert when he
 was thirteen years old1 with some      
little help from his father4  ,the idea 
of constructing a steam-engine to run on
 the colliery tram-roads leading to the 
shipping-place was now receiving        
considerable attention from the         

engineering community4 ,several schemes 
had been propounded1 and engines        
actually made2 but none of them had been
 brought into use4 ,a mistaken notion   
prevailed that the plain round wheels of
 an engine would slip round without     
catching hold of the rails1 and that    
thus no progress would be made2 but     
,george ,stephenson soon became         
convinced that the weight of the engine 
would of itself be sufficient to press  
the wheels to the rails1 so that they   
could not fail to bite4 ,he turned the  
subject over and over in his mind1      
tested his conceptions by countless     
experiments1 and at length completed his
 scheme4 ,money for the construction of 
a locomotive engine on his plan having  
been supplied by ,lord ,ravensworth1 one
 was made after many difficulties1 and  
placed upon the tram-road at            
,killingworth1 where it drew a load of  
#cj tons up a somewhat steep gradient at
 the rate of four miles an hour4 ,still 
there was very little saving in cost1   

and little advance in speed as compared 
with horse-power2 but in a second one1  
which ,stephenson quickly set about     
constructing1 he turned the waste steam 
into the chimney to increase the        
draught1 and thus puff the fuel into a  
brisker flame1 and create a larger      
volume of steam to propel the           
locomotive4 ,the fundamental principles 
of the engine thus formed remain in     
operation to this day2 and it may in    
truth be termed the progenitor of the   
great locomotive family4  ,in #ahba     
,george ,stephenson got the appointment 
of engineer1 with ,l#cjj of salary1 to  
the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway  
,company1 in the ,act of ,parliament for
 which power was given to use locomotive
 engines1 if needful1 either for the    
conveyance of goods or passengers4 ,when
 the line was opened1 it was worked     
partly by horses and partly by          
locomotive and stationary engines4 ,this
 led to a partnership between ,mr4      
,edward ,pease of ,darlington1 the chief

 projector of the line1 and ,stephenson1
 in a locomotive manufactory in         
,newcastle1--for many years the only one
 of the kind in existence4  ,meanwhile1 
young ,robert ,stephenson1 having spent 
a year or two in gaining a practical    
acquaintance with the machinery and     
working of a colliery1 went to the      
,university of ,edinburgh1 where he     
spent a session in attending the courses
 of lectures on chemistry1 natural      
philosophy1 and geology4 ,he made the   
best of his opportunities2 and that he  
might profit to the utmost by the       
lectures1 he studied short-hand1 and    
took them all down verbatim1            
transcribing his notes every evening    
before he went to bed4 ,robert brought  
home the prize for mathematics1 and     
showed he had made so much progress at  
college that1 though the ,l#hj which the
 session cost was a large sum to his    
father at that time1 ,george never      
failed1 then or afterwards1 to declare  
that it was one of the best investments 

he had ever made4  ,after a year or two 
in his father's locomotive factory1     
,robert spent two or three years in     
charge of the machinery of a mining     
company in ,columbia1 and returned to   
,england at the close of #ahbg1 to find 
the great question1 ,whether locomotives
 can be successfully and profitably     
applied to passenger traffic8 hotly     
agitated1 his father1 almost alone1     
taking the side of the travelling1      
against that of the fixed engines1 and  
insisting that the wheel and the rail   
were clearly and closely part of one    
system4  ,the success of the ,darlington
 line induced the ,liverpool merchants  
to project a line between that town and 
,manchester2 and ,george ,stephenson was
 almost unanimously chosen engineer1    
though it was still undetermined whether
 the new line should be worked by steam 
or horse power4 ,but1 apart from that   
question1 a great1 and1 as it appeared  
to most of the engineers of the time1 an
 insurmountable difficulty existed in   

the quagmire of ,chat ,moss1--an        
enormous mass of watery pulp1 which rose
 in height in wet1 and sank in dry      
weather like a sponge1 and over whose   
treacherous depths it was pronounced    
impossible to form a firm road4 ,it was 
perfect madness to think of such a      
thing1 said the engineers1 and none of  
them would support ,stephenson's scheme2
 but he resolved to see what could be   
done4 ,truck-load after truck-load of   
stuff was emptied into the moss1 and    
still the insatiable bog kept gaping as 
though it had not had half a feed4 ,the 
directors1 alarmed1 would have abandoned
 the project1 had they not been so      
deeply involved that they were obliged  
to let ,stephenson continue4 ,but he    
never doubted himself--not for a moment4
 ,he only pushed on the works more      
vigorously2 and1 before six months were 
over1 the directors found themselves    
whirling along over the very bog they   
expected all their capital was to be    
fruitlessly sunk to the bottom of4      

,still1 no decision had been come to as 
to whether locomotive or fixed engines  
were to be adopted2 and the ,stephensons
 were still battling bravely in favour  
of the locomotive against a host of     
opponents4 ,robert did his father good  
service by the able and pithy pamphlets 
which he wrote on the subject2 and at   
length their perseverance was rewarded  
by the directors consenting to employ a 
locomotive1 if they could get one that  
would run at the rate of ten miles an   
hour1 and not weigh more than six tons1 
including tender2 and offering a reward 
of ,l#ejj for the best engine fulfilling
 these conditions4 ,george ,stephenson  
and his son set to work immediately1 and
 the product of their united skill and  
ingenuity was the celebrated ,rocket1   
which carried off the prize1 and        
attained a speed of twenty-nine miles on
 the opening day4 ,the practicability   
and success of the locomotive was now   
beyond a doubt2 from that day forward   
public opinion began to turn4 ,of       

course1 for many a long year afterwards 
there were not wanting numbers of       
bigoted men of the old school who cried 
down the new-fangled system1 and would  
hear of no means of transit but the     
stage-coach and the canal-boat4 ,but    
shrewd folk1 like the old ,duke of      
,bridgewater1 whose faculties were      
sharpened by their pockets being in     
danger1 could not help crying out1      
,there's mischief in these tram-ways6 ,i
 wish the canals mayn't suffer2 and1    
within ten years of the day when the    
,rocket went puffing triumphantly along 
the ,liverpool and ,manchester line1    
most sensible people had become         
convinced of the importance of the      
locomotive railway1 and scarcely a      
principal town in the country but was   
supplied with a line4  ,the ,stephensons
 had fought a hard fight for their      
protege1 rail and wheel1 and now they   
were to reap the fruits of their        
enterprise and foresight4 ,to nearly all
 the most important of the new lines    

,george ,stephenson acted as engineer2  
and thus1 in the course of two years1   
above #cba miles of railway were        
constructed under his superintendence1  
at a cost of ,l#aa1jjj1jjj sterling4    
,robert at first left his father to     
attend to the laying out of railways1   
and directed his attention to the       
improvement of the locomotive in all its
 details1 experimenting incessantly1 and
 trying now one new device1 now another4
 ,it was astonishing1 says ,mr4 ,smiles1
 to observe the rapidity of the         
improvements effected1--every engine    
turned out of ,stephenson's workshops   
exhibiting an advance upon its          
predecessor in point of speed1 power1   
and working efficiency4  ,by this time  
,george had taken up his residence at   
,tapton ,house1 near ,chesterfield1     
where he continued to reside for the    
remainder of his life4 ,close by were   
some extensive coal-pits1 which he had  
taken in lease1 and from which he       
supplied ,london with the first coals   

sent by railway4 ,he was now a man of   
wealth and fame1 known and honoured     
throughout his own country1 and in many 
foreign ones1 and blessed with many a   
staunch1 true friend4 ,more than once he
 was offered knighthood by ,sir ,robert 
,peel1 but declined the honour4 ,as he  
grew up in years1 he gradually abandoned
 his railway business to the charge of  
his son1 and settled down into a quiet  
country gentleman of agricultural       
tastes4 ,he was very fond of gardening  
and farming1 and spent many a long day  
superintending the operations in the    
fields4 ,when a boy1 he had always been 
very fond of taming birds and rabbits1  
and had once had flocks of robins1      
which1 in the hard winter1 used to come 
hopping round his feet for crumbs4 ,and 
now1 in his old age1 he had special pets
 among his dogs and horses1 and was     
proud of his superior breed of rabbits4 
,there was scarcely a nest on his estate
 that he was not acquainted with2 and he
 used to go round from day to day to    

look at them1 and see that they were    
kept uninjured4  ,the year before his   
death he visited ,sir ,robert ,peel at  
,drayton ,manor4 ,dr4 ,buckland1 the    
geologist1 was of the party4 ,one       
,sunday1 as they were returning from    
church1 they observed a train speeding  
along the valley in the distance4  ,now1
 ,buckland1 said ,mr4 ,stephenson1 ,i   
have a poser for you4 ,can you tell me  
what is the power that is driving that  
train8  ,well1 said the other1 ,i       
suppose it is one of your big engines4  
,but what drives the engine8  ,oh1 very 
likely a canny ,newcastle driver4  ,what
 do you say to the light of the sun8    
,how can that be8 asked the professor4  
,it is nothing else1 said the engineer4 
,it is light bottled up in the earth for
 tens of thousands of years--light1     
absorbed by plants and vegetables1 being
 necessary for the condensation of      
carbon during the process of their      
growth1 if it be not carbon in another  
form2 and now1 after being buried in the

 earth for long ages in fields of coal1 
that latent light is again brought forth
 and liberated1 made to work as in that 
locomotive1 for great human purposes4   
,on the #abth of ,august #ahdh1 this    
great1 good man--one of the truest      
heroes that ever lived1 and one of the  
greatest benefactors of our             
country--passed from among us1 leaving  
his son1 ,robert1 to develop and extend 
the great work of which he had laid the 
foundation4  ,among one of the first    
railways of any extent of which ,robert 
,stephenson had the laying out1 was the 
,london and ,birmingham2 and it is      
related1 as an illustration of his      
conscientious perseverance in executing 
the task1 that in the course of the     
examination of the country he walked    
over the whole of the intervening       
districts upwards of twenty times4 ,many
 other lines1 in ,england and abroad1   
were executed by him in rapid           
succession2 and it was stated a few     
years ago1 that the lines of railway    

constructed under his superintendence   
had involved an outlay of ,l#gj1jjj1jjj 
sterling4  ,the three great works1      
however1 with which his name will always
 be most intimately associated1 and     
which are the grandest monuments of his 
genius1 are the ,high ,level ,bridge at 
,newcastle1 the ,britannia ,bridge      
across the ,menai ,straits1 and the     
,victoria ,bridge across the ,st4       
,lawrence at ,montreal4 ,the first two  
are sufficiently well known--the one    
springing across the valley of the      
,tyne1 between the busy towns of        
,newcastle and ,gateshead2 the other    
spanning1 in mid air1 a wide arm of the 
sea1 at such a height that vessels of   
large burden in full sail can pass      
beneath4 ,the third great effort of     
,robert ,stephenson's prolific brain he 
did not live to see the completion of4  
,the ,victoria ,bridge at ,montreal is  
constructed on the same principle as the
 ,britannia ,bridge1 but on a much      
larger scale4 ,the ,victoria ,bridge1   

says ,mr4 ,smiles1 with its approaches1 
is only sixty yards short of two miles  
in length4 ,in its gigantic strength and
 majestic proportions1 there is no      
structure to compare with it in ancient 
or modern times4 ,it consists of not    
less than twenty-five immense tubular   
bridges joined into one2 the great      
central span being #ccb feet1 the       
others1 #bdb feet in length4 ,the weight
 of the wrought iron on the bridge is   
about #aj1jjj tons1 and the piers are of
 massive stone1 containing some #hjjj   
tons each of solid masonry4  ,after the 
completion of the ,britannia ,bridge1   
and again after the opening of the ,high
 ,level ,bridge1 ,robert ,stephenson was
 offered the honour of knighthood1      
which1 like his father before him1 he   
respectfully declined4 ,in #aheg he     
received the title of ,d4,c4,l4 from the
 ,university of ,oxford2 and for many   
years before his death he represented   
,whitby in ,parliament4 ,he was         
passionately fond of yachting1 and      

almost immediately after a trip to      
,norway in the summer of #ahei1 he was  
seized with a mortal illness1 and died  
in the beginning of ,october4 ,on the   
#adth ,october he was buried in         
,westminster1 amongst the illustrious   
dead of ,england4  ,no man could be more
 beloved than ,robert ,stephenson was by
 a wide circle of friends1 and none     
better deserved it4 ,in society1 writes 
one who had opportunities of intercourse
 with him1 he was simply charming and   
fascinating in the highest degree1 from 
his natural goodness of heart and the   
genial zest with which he relished life 
himself and participated its enjoyment  
with others4 ,he was generous and even  
princely in his expenditure--not upon   
himself1 but on his friends4 ,on board  
the ,titania1 or at his house in        
,gloucester ,square1 his frequent and   
numerous guests found his splendid      
resources at all times converted to     
their gratification with a grace of     
hospitality which1 although sedulous1   

was never oppressive4 ,there was nothing
 of the patron in his manner1 or of the 
,olympic condescension which is         
sometimes affected by much lesser men4  
,a friend 7and how many friends he had67
 was at once his equal1 and treated with
 republican freedom1 yet with the most  
high-bred courtesy and happy            
considerateness4444 ,his payment of half
 the debt of ,l#fjjj1 which weighed like
 an incubus on an institution at        
,newcastle1 is generally known2 but his 
private charities were as boundless as  
his nature was generous1 and as quietly 
performed as that nature was            
unostentatious4 ,such1 then1 was ,robert
 ,stephenson1 as complete a character in
 the multifarious relations of life as  
probably any man has met or will meet in
 the course of his experience4 ,not     
unlike1 or rather exceedingly like1 his 
father in some respects1 especially in  
the easy1 unimposing manner in which he 
went about his life's work1 he was      
hardly to be accounted his father's     

inferior1 except perhaps in the heroic  
quality of combativeness4 ,father and   
son1 independently of each other1 and   
both in conjunction1 have left grand and
 beneficent results to posterity1 and   
both recall to us ,monckton ,milnes's   
men of old1 who      ',went about their 
gravest tasks     ,like noble boys at   
play4'     ,,iii4--,,the ,,growth ,,of  
,,railways4   ,it was about the year    
#ahah that ,thomas ,gray of ,nottingham1
 travelling in the north of ,england1   
happened to visit one of the collieries4
 ,as he stood watching a train of loaded
 waggons being propelled by steam along 
the tram-road which led from the mouth  
of the pit to the wharf where the coals 
were shipped1 the idea flashed through  
his mind that the same system was       
applicable to the ordinary purposes of  
locomotion4  ,why6 he exclaimed to the  
engineer who was showing him over the   
place1--why are there not tram-roads    
laid down all over ,england so as to    
supersede our common roads1 and steam   

engines employed to drag waggons full of
 goods1 and carriages full of passengers
 along them1 instead of horse-power8    
,propose that to the nation1 replied his
 companion1 and see what you will get by
 it4 ,why1 sir1 you would be worried to 
death for your pains4  ,gray was not to 
be balked1 however4 ,the idea took firm 
possession of his mind1 and became the  
one great subject of his thoughts and   
conversation4 ,he talked about it to    
everybody whom he met1 and who had      
patience to listen to him1 wrote letters
 and memorials to public men1 and       
afterwards appealed to the people at    
large4 ,he was laughed at as a          
whimsical1 crochetty fellow1 and no one 
gave any serious attention to his views4
 ,mr4 ,jones of ,gromford ,manor1 and   
,mr4 ,pease of ,darlington1 also        
distinguished themselves by their       
agitation in favour of railways1 at a   
time when they were regarded with       
suspicion and alarm4 ,the growing trade 
of ,liverpool and ,manchester1 and other

 large towns1 however1 spoke more       
imperatively and forcibly in favour of  
the new project than any amount of      
individual agitation4 ,the means of     
communication between the various       
manufacturing towns had fallen far      
behind their wants2 and it was at length
 felt that some new system must be      
adopted4 ,the railroad and the          
locomotive got a trial2 and before long 
the carriers' carts and the stage       
coaches were driven off the road for    
want of custom1 although the conveyance 
of goods and passengers throughout the  
country went on multiplying an          
hundred-fold4 ,one can fancy the        
astonishment and awe with which the     
country-folk watched the progress of the
 first railway train through their      
peaceful acres1--how old and young left 
their work and rushed out to see the    
marvellous spectacle1--how the oldest   
inhabitants shook their heads1 and      
muttered about changed times1--how the  
horses in the field trembled with fear1 

and threw up their heels at their iron  
rival as it went snorting past--a       
strange1 iron monster1 the handicraft of
 man1 able to drag the heaviest burdens1
 and yet outstrip ,flying ,childers or  
,eclipse1 as fresh at the end of a      
journey as at the beginning1 and never  
to be tired out by any toil1 if only    
kept in meat and drink4 ,just as in the 
days of ,charles the ,first1 honest1    
short-sighted folk prophesied the ruin  
of the empire and a judgment upon the   
use of coaches1 and bewailed the        
misfortunes of the hundreds of          
able-bodied men who would be thrown out 
of employment2 so in the early days of  
the railroad1 great fears were          
entertained that the horses' occupation 
would be gone1 and that the noble breed 
would quickly become extinct4 ,there was
 no measure to the lamentations over the
 ruin of that great institution of      
,english life--the stage-coach1 with its
 gallant driver and guard1 and spanking 
team4  ,the extension of the railway    

system is one of the wonders of our     
time4 ,the few score miles of railroad  
planted in #ahbe have put forth         
offshoots and branches1 till now a      
mighty net-work of some ten thousand    
miles in all1 is spread over the three  
kingdoms1 with many fresh shoots in bud4
 ,up to the end of #ahcd1 when not a    
hundred miles of railway were open1 the 
annual average of travellers by coach   
was some six millions a year2 ten years 
afterwards there were more than four    
times that number1 and to-day the annual
 average is more than a hundred         
millions6 ,the number of persons        
employed upon the working railroads of  
the ,united ,kingdom amount to about one
 hundred and thirty thousand1 while     
nearly half as many find employment in  
the construction of new lines4  ,a few  
facts1 stated by the late ,mr4 ,robert  
,stephenson1 illustrate in a very       
striking manner the gigantic proportion 
of the railway system of ,great         
,britain3--,the railway has pierced the 

earth with tunnels to the extent of more
 than fifty miles1 and there are about  
twelve miles of viaducts in the vicinity
 of ,london alone4 ,the earthworks which
 have been thrown up would measure      
#eej1jjj1jjj cubic yards1 beside which  
,st4 ,paul's would shrink to a pigmy1   
for it would form a pyramid a mile and a
 half high1 with a base larger than the 
whole of ,st4 ,james's ,park4 ,every    
moment four tons of coal flashes into   
steam twenty tons of water--as much     
water as would suffice to supply the    
domestic and other wants of a town the  
size of ,liverpool1 and as much coal as 
equals half the consumption of the      
metropolis4 ,the wear and tear is so    
great that twenty thousand tons of iron 
have to be replaced annually1 and three 
hundred thousand trees1 or as much as   
five thousand acres could produce1 have 
to be felled for sleepers4  ,when       
,george ,stephenson was planning the    
,liverpool and ,manchester line1 the    
directors entreated him1 when they went 

to ,parliament1 not to talk of going at 
a faster rate than ten miles an hour1 or
 he would put a cross on the concern4   
,george was sanguine1 however1 and spoke
 of fifteen miles an hour1 to the       
astonishment of the committee1 who began
 to think him crazy4 ,the average speed 
is now twenty-five miles an hour1 and a 
mile a minute can be done1 if need be4  
,the wind is hard pushed to keep ahead  
of a good engine at its fullest speed4,c
 ,the express trains on the broad gauge 
of the ,great ,western travel at the    
rate of fifty-one miles an hour1 or     
forty-three1 including stoppages4 ,to   
attain this rate1 a speed of sixty miles
 an hour is adopted midway between some 
of the stations1 and even seventy miles 
an hour have been reached in certain    
experimental trips4 ,the engines on this
 line can draw a passenger-train        
weighing one hundred and twenty tons at 
a speed of sixty miles an hour1 the     
engine and tender themselves weighing an
 additional fifty-two tons4 ,the        

ordinary luggage-trains weigh some six  
hundred tons each4 ,the locomotive1     
however1 goes on the principle that the 
labourer is worthy of his hire2 if it   
works hard1 it eats voraciously4 ,at    
ordinary mail speed the engine consumes 
about twenty lbs4 of coke per mile2 so  
that1 costing ,l#bejj to begin with1 and
 spending an allowance of ,l#bjjj a     
year--as much as an under-secretary of  
state--the locomotive is rather an      
extravagant customer--only1 it works    
very hard for the money1 and earns it   
over and over again4 ,with all its      
strength and size1 the locomotive is a  
much more delicate concern than would be
 supposed2 the #edaf different pieces of
 which it is composed must be put       
together as carefully as a watch1 and1  
though guaranteed to go two years       
without a doctor1 exacts the most       
devoted attention from its guardians to 
keep it in order4  ,it would fill a     
volume of huge dimensions to dilate on  
all the phases of the social revolution 

which the modern railway has wrought in 
our own and other countries2 how it is  
daily annihilating time and space1 and  
making the ,land's ,end and ,john       
o',groat's ,house next door neighbours2 
rubbing down old prejudices and         
jealousies1 both national and           
provincial1 promoting commerce1         
developing manufacture1 transforming    
poor little villages into flourishing   
towns1 and industrious towns into mighty
 cities2 carrying civilization into the 
heart of the jungle and the desert1 and1
 with its twin-brother1 the steam-ship1 
joining hands and hearts in peace and   
amity all the world over4 ,after the    
wonders of the last thirty years1 who   
can doubt that our children1 at the     
close of the century1 will regard us as 
little less backward than we now do our 
fathers at its dawn8  ,,footnotes3  ,c  
,the wind is calculated to travel at the
 rate of eighty-two feet in a second2   
the pace of a steam-engine1 at the rate 
of sixty miles an hour1 would be rather 

more4     ,the ,lighthouse4             
,i4--,,the ,,eddystone4  ,,ii4--,,the   
,,bell ,,rock4 ,,iii4--,,the            
,,skerryvore4     ,the ,lighthouse4     
,far in the bosom of the deep1     ,o'er
 these wild shelves my watch ,i keep3   
,a ruddy gleam of changeful light1      
,bound on the dusky brow of night2      
,the seaman bids my lustre hail1        
,and scorns to strike his timorous      
sail4--,,scott4     ,i4--,,the          
,,eddystone4   ,when worthy ,mr4        
,phillips1 the ,liverpool ,quaker1      
taking thought in what way he could best
 benefit his fellow-creatures1 built the
 beacon on the ,smalls ,rock in #aggb1  
he could hardly have made a happier     
selection of a great good to serve and  
save humanity4 ,there are few           
enterprises more heroic or beneficent   
than those connected with the           
construction and management of          
lighthouses4 ,from first to last1 from  
the rearing of the column on the rock to
 the monotonous1 nightly vigil in       

attendance on the lamps--from the       
setting to the rising of the sun--the   
valour1 intrepidity1 and endurance1 of  
all concerned are called into play1 and 
the wild perils and stirring adventures 
they experience impart to the story of  
their labours a thrilling and romantic  
interest4 ,in the case of the ,smalls   
,lighthouse1 for instance1 ,whiteside1  
the self-taught engineer1 and his party 
of ,cornish miners had no sooner landed1
 and got a long iron shaft worked a few 
feet into the rock1 than a storm arose  
that drove away their cutter1 and kept  
them clinging with the tenacity of      
despair to the half-fastened rod for    
three days and two nights1 when the wind
 fell and the sea calmed1 and they were 
rescued1 rather dead than alive1 numbed 
from their long immersion in the water1 
which rose almost to their necks1 and   
exhausted from want of food4 ,and after 
the lighthouse had been erected1 the    
engineer and some of his men again found
 themselves1 as a paper in a bottle they

 had cast into the sea revealed to those
 on shore1 in a most dangerous and      
distressed condition on the ,smalls1 cut
 off from the mainland by the stormy    
weather1 without fuel1 and almost at the
 end of their stock of food and         
water--in which alarming situation they 
had to remain some time before their    
friends could get out to their relief4  
,most sea-girt beacons have their own   
legends of similar perils and fortitude2
 and the narratives of the erection of  
the three great lighthouses of          
,eddystone1 ,inchcape1 and ,skerryvore1 
which may be selected as the types of   
the rest1 are full of incidents as      
exciting as any hair breadth 'scapes i' 
the imminent deadly breach4  ,about     
fourteen miles south from ,plymouth1 and
 ten from the ,ram's ,head1 on the      
,cornish coast1 lies a perilous reef of 
rocks1 against which the long rolling   
swell of the ,atlantic waves dashes with
 appalling force1 and breaks up into    
those swirling eddies from which the    

reef is named--the ,eddystone4 ,upon    
these treacherous crags many a gallant  
vessel has foundered and gone down      
within sight of the shore it had        
scarcely quitted or was just about to   
reach2 and situated in the midst of a   
much frequented track1 the rapid        
succession of calamities at the         
,eddystone was not long in awakening    
men's minds to the necessity of some    
warning light4 ,the exposure of the reef
 to the wild fury of the ,atlantic1 and 
the small extent of the surface of the  
chief rock1 however1 rendered the       
construction of a lighthouse in such a  
situation a work of great and 7as it was
 long considered7 insuperable           
difficulty4 ,the project was long talked
 of before any one was found daring     
enough to attempt the task2 and when at 
length in #afif ,henry ,winstanley      
stepped forward to undertake it1 he     
might have been thought of all others   
the very last from whose brain so       
serious a conception would have         

emanated4 ,the great hobby of his life  
had been to fill his house at           
,littlebury1 in ,essex1 with mechanical 
devices of the most absurd and fantastic
 kind4 ,if a visitor1 retiring to his   
bedroom1 kicked aside an old slipper on 
the floor1 purposely thrown in his way1 
up started a ghost of hideous form4 ,if1
 startled at the sight1 he fell back    
into an arm chair placed temptingly at  
hand1 a pair of gigantic arms would     
instantly spring forth and clasp him a  
prisoner in their rude embrace4 ,tired  
of these disagreeable surprises1 the    
astonished guest perhaps took refuge in 
the garden1 and sought repose in a      
pleasant arbour by the side of a canal2 
but he had scarcely seated himself1 when
 he found himself suddenly set adrift on
 the water1 where he floated about till 
his whimsical host came to his relief4  
,such was the man who now entered upon  
one of the most formidable engineering  
enterprises in the world4  ,although    
,winstanley's lighthouse was but a      

slight affair compared with its         
successors1 it occupied six years in the
 erection--the frequent rising of the   
sea over the rock1 and the difficulty   
and danger of passing to and from it    
greatly retarding the operations1 and   
rendering them practicable only during a
 short summer season4 ,for ten or       
fourteen days after a storm had passed1 
and when all was calm elsewhere1 the    
ground-swell from the ,atlantic was     
often so heavy among these rocks that   
the waves sprang two hundred feet1 and  
more1 in the air1 burying the works from
 sight4 ,the first summer was spent in  
boring twelve holes in the rock1 and    
fixing therein twelve large irons as a  
holdfast for the works that were to be  
reared4 ,the next season saw the        
commencement of a round pillar1 which   
was to form the steeple of the tower1 as
 well as afford protection to the       
workmen while at their labours4 ,when   
,winstanley bade farewell to the rock   
for that year1 the tower had risen to   

the height of twelve feet2 and resuming 
operations next spring1 he built at it  
till it reached the height of eighty    
feet4 ,having got the apartments fit for
 occupation1 and the lantern set up1    
,winstanley determined to take up his   
abode there with his men1 in order that 
no time might be lost in going to and   
from the rock4 ,the first night they    
spent on the rock a great storm arose1  
and for eleven days it was impossible to
 hold any communication with the shore4 
,not being acquainted with the height of
 the sea's rising1 writes the architect1
 we were almost drowned with wet1 and   
our provisions in as bad a condition1   
though we worked night and day as much  
as possible to make shelter for         
ourselves4 ,the storm abating1 they went
 on shore for a little repose2 but soon 
returning1 set to work again with       
undiminished energy4  ,on the #adth     
,november of the same year 7#afih71     
,winstanley lighted his lantern for the 
first time4 ,a long spell of boisterous 

weather followed1 and it was not till   
three days before ,christmas that they  
were able to quit their desolate abode1 
being almost at the last extremity for  
want of provisions2 but by good         
,providence then two boats came with    
provisions and the family that was to   
take care of the light2 and so ended    
this year's work4  ,it was soon found   
that the sea rose to a much greater     
height than had been anticipated1 the   
lantern1 although sixty feet above the  
rock1 being often buried under water4   
,winstanley was1 therefore1 under the   
necessity of enlarging the tower and    
carrying it to a greater elevation4 ,the
 fourth season1 accordingly1 was spent  
in encasing the tower with fresh        
outworks1 and adding forty feet to its  
height4 ,this proved too high for its   
strength to bear2 and in the course of  
three years the winds and waves had made
 sad havoc in the unstable fabric4  ,in 
,november #agjc1 ,winstanley went out to
 the rock himself1 accompanied by his   

workmen1 to institute the repairs4 ,as  
he was putting off in the boat from     
,plymouth1 a friend who had for some    
time before been watching the condition 
of the lighthouse with much anxiety1    
mentioned to him his suspicion that it  
was in a bad way1 and could not last    
long4 ,winstanley1 full of faith in the 
stability of his work1 replied that he  
only wished to be there in the greatest 
storm that ever blew under the face of  
the heavens1 that he might see what     
effect it would have on his structure4  
,and with these words he shoved off from
 the beach1 and made for the rock4      
,with the last gleams of daylight1      
before the night fell and shrouded it   
from view1 the tower was seen rising    
proudly from the midst of the waters4   
,before the dawn it had disappeared for 
ever1 and the waves were lashing        
fiercely round the bare bleak ledge of  
the fatal rock4 ,poor ,winstanley had   
had his presumptuous wish only too fully
 realized4 ,the storm of the #bfth      

,november was one of the most fearful   
that ever ravaged our shores4 ,the whole
 coast suffered severely from its fury1 
and when the morning came1 not a sign   
remained of the lighthouse1 architect1  
or workmen1 save a fragment of          
chain-cable wedged firmly into a crevice
 of the rock4 ,the disappearance of the 
warning light was quickly followed by   
the wreck of a large homeward-bound     
man-of-war1 and the loss of nearly all  
her crew1 upon the rocks4  ,this first  
,eddystone lighthouse was a strange1    
fantastic looking structure1 deficient  
in every element of stability1 and the  
wonder was not that it fell in pieces as
 it did1 but that it was able to        
withstand so long the boisterous weather
 of the ,channel4 ,but if of little     
merit as an architect1 ,winstanley at   
least deserves respect1 as ,smeaton     
remarks1 for the heroism he displayed in
 undertaking a piece of work that before
 had been looked on as impossible4  ,for
 four years the ,eddystone remained bare

 and untenanted1 till1 in the summer of 
#agjf1 the erection of a new lighthouse 
was commenced under the superintendence 
of ,john ,rudyerd1 by profession a      
silk-mercer in ,ludgate ,hill1 but by   
natural genius an engineer of           
considerable merit4 ,with such skill and
 energy did he apply himself to the     
work1 that before two summers were over 
his tower was completed1 and its        
friendly light beamed over the troubled 
waters and sunken crags4 ,rudyerd's     
lighthouse was entirely of wood1        
weighted at the base by a few courses of
 mason work1 and #ib feet in height4 ,in
 form1 it was a smooth1 solid cone of   
elegant simplicity1 unbroken by any of  
those ornamental outworks1 which offered
 the wind and sea so many points to lay 
hold of1 in ,winstanley's whimsical     
pagoda4 ,smeaton speaks of ,rudyerd's   
tower as a masterly performance2 and had
 it not been destroyed by fire1         
forty-six years after its erection1     
there seems little reason to suppose it 

might not have been standing to this    
day1--although no doubt the ravages of  
the worm in the wood would have demanded
 frequent repairs4 ,on the #b;d         
,december #agee1 some fishermen who     
happened to be on the beach very early  
in the morning preparing their nets1    
were startled by the sight of volumes of
 smoke issuing from the lighthouse4     
,they instantly gave the alarm1 and a   
boat was quickly manned for the relief  
of the sufferers4 ,it did not reach the 
rock till about ten o'clock1 and the    
fire had then been raging for eight     
hours4 ,it was first discovered by the  
light-keeper upon watch who1 going into 
the lantern about two o'clock in the    
morning to snuff the candles1 found the 
place filled with smoke4 ,he opened the 
door of the lantern into the balcony1   
and a mass of flame immediately burst   
from the inside of the cupola4 ,he lost 
no time in seizing the buckets of water 
kept at hand1 and dashing them over the 
fire1 but without effect4 ,his two      

companions were asleep1 and it was some 
time before they heard his shouts for   
assistance4 ,when at length they did    
bestir themselves1 all the water in the 
house was exhausted4 ,the               
light-keeper--an old man in his         
ninety-fourth year--urged them to       
replenish the buckets from the sea2 but 
the difficulty of lowering the buckets  
to such a depth1 and their confusion and
 terror at the sudden catastrophe and   
their impending fate1 destroyed their   
presence of mind1 and rendered them     
quite powerless4 ,the old man did his   
best to prevent the advance of the      
flames2 but1 exhausted by the unavailing
 labour1 and severely injured by the    
melting lead from the roof1 he had to   
desist4 ,as the fire spread from point  
to point1 with rapid strides descending 
from the summit to the base1 the poor   
wretches fled before it1 retreating from
 room to room1 till at last they were   
driven to seek shelter from the blazing 
timbers and red hot bars1 in a cleft of 

the rock4 ,there they were found by     
their preservers1 crouching together    
half dead with suffering and fright4 ,it
 was with the greatest difficulty that  
they were got into the boat2 and they   
had no sooner reached the shore than one
 of them1 crazed by the terrors he had  
undergone1 ran away1 and was never heard
 of more4 ,the old man lingered on for a
 few days in great agony1 and died from 
the injuries he had received4  ,such was
 the fate of the second lighthouse on   
the ,eddystone1--one element revenging1 
as it were1 the conquest over another4  
,in spite of the fatality which seemed  
to attend these lighthouses1 the lessees
 of the ,eddystone--for it was then in  
private hands1 and did not come into the
 hands of the ,trinity ,house till many 
years after--resolved to make another   
attempt2 and this time they selected as 
the architect one of the ablest         
professional men of the day1 and with   
sagacious liberality1 adopted his advice
 to build it of stone and granite4      

,smeaton truly belonged to the class of 
heaven-born engineers4 ,from his        
earliest years the bent of his genius   
unmistakably revealed itself4 ,before he
 was six years old1 he one day terrified
 his parents by climbing to the top of a
 barn to fix up some contrivance he had 
put together1 after the fashion of a    
windmill2 and another time he           
constructed a pump that raised water1   
after watching some workmen sinking one4
 ,and as he grew older1 his efforts took
 a more ambitious range1 and were all   
equally remarkable for their originality
 and success4 ,his father destined him  
for the bar2 but his inclination for    
engineering was so irresistible1 that he
 allowed him to resign all chance of the
 woolsack1 and set up in business as a  
mathematical instrument maker4 ,he      
gradually advanced to the profession of 
civil engineering1--which he was the    
first man in ,england to pursue1 and    
which he may be said to have created4   
,it was in #agef he commenced the       

construction of the great work which may
 be regarded as the monument of his     
fame4 ,having decided that his          
lighthouse should be of stone1 the next 
point to be settled was its form4 ,his  
thoughts1 he tells us in his book1      
instinctively reverted to the analogy   
between a lighthouse shaft and the trunk
 of a stately oak4 ,he remarked the     
spreading roots taking a broad1 firm    
grip of the soil1 the rise of the       
swelling base1 gradually lessening in   
girth in a graceful curve1 till a       
preparation being required for the      
support of the spreading boughs1 a      
renewed swelling of diameter takes      
place2 and he held that cutting off the 
branches we have1 in the trunk of an    
oak1 a type of such a lighthouse column 
as is best adapted to resist the        
influence of the winds and waves4       
,whether or not ,smeaton arrived at the 
form of his lighthouse1 which has since 
become the model for all others1 from   
this fanciful analogy1 its appearance   

rising from the rock presents a strong  
resemblance to a noble tree stripped of 
its boughs and foliage4  ,smeaton       
commenced the undertaking by visiting   
the rock in the spring of #agef1        
accurately measuring its very irregular 
surface1 and in order to ensure         
exactness in his plans1 making a model  
of it4 ,in the summer of the same year  
he prepared the foundation by cutting   
the surface of the rock in regular steps
 or trenches1 into which the blocks of  
stone were to be dovetailed4 ,the first 
stone was laid in ,june #ageg1 and the  
last in ,august #agei4 ,of that period  
there were only #dca days when it was   
possible to stand on the rock1 and so   
small a portion even of these was       
available for carrying on the work1 that
 it is calculated the building in       
reality occupied but six weeks4 ,the    
whole was completed without the         
slightest accident to any one2 and so   
well were all the arrangements made1    
that not a minute was lost by confusion 

or delay amongst the workmen4  ,the     
tower measures #hf feet in height1 and  
#bf feet in diameter at the level of the
 first entire course1 the diameter under
 the cornice being only #ae feet4 ,the  
first twelve feet of the structure form 
a solid mass of masonry1--the blocks of 
stone being held together by means of   
stone joggles1 dovetailed joints1 and   
oaken tree-nails4 ,all the floors of the
 edifice are arched2 to counteract the  
possible outburst of which1 ,smeaton    
bound the courses of his stone work     
together by belts of iron chain1 which1 
being set in grooves while in a heated  
state1 by the application of hot lead1  
on cooling1 of course1 tightened their  
clasp on the tower4 ,throughout the     
whole work the greatest ingenuity is    
displayed in obtaining the greatest     
amount of resistance1 and combining the 
two great principles of strength and    
weight1--technically speaking1 cohesion 
and inertia4  ,on the #afth ,october    
#agei1 the warning light once more1     

after an interval of four years1 shone  
forth over the troubled waters from the 
dangerous rock2 but it was but a feeble 
illumination at the best1 for it came   
from only a group of tallow candles4 ,it
 was better than nothing1 certainly2 but
 the exhibition of a few glimmering     
candles was but a paltry conclusion to  
so stupendous an undertaking4 ,for many 
years1 however1 no stronger light       
gleamed from the tower1 till1 in #ahjg1 
when it passed from the hands of private
 proprietors into the charge of the     
,trinity ,house1 the mutton dips were   
supplanted by ,argand burners1 with     
silvered copper reflectors4  ,imperfect1
 however1 as used to be the lighting    
apparatus1 the ,eddystone ,beacon has   
always been a great boon to all those   
that go down to the sea in great ships1 
and has robbed these perilous waters of 
much of their terror4 ,we can readily   
sympathize with the exultation of the   
great engineer who reared it1 when      
standing on the ,hoe at ,plymouth1 he   

spent many an hour1 with his telescope1 
watching the great swollen waves1 in    
powerless fury1 dash against his tower1 
and fly up in a white column1 enwrapping
 it like a sheet1 rising at the least to
 double the height of the tower1 and    
totally intercepting it from sight4 ,it 
is now more than a hundred years since  
,smeaton's ,lighthouse first rose upon  
the ,eddystone2 but1 in spite of the    
many furious storms which have put its  
stability to rude and searching proof1  
it still lifts its head proudly over the
 waves1 and shows no signs of failing   
strength4     ,,ii4--,,the ,,bell       
,,rock4   ,the ,inch ,cape1 or ,bell    
,rock1 is a long1 narrow reef on the    
east coast of ,scotland1 at the mouth of
 the ,frith of ,tay1 and some dozen of  
miles from the nearest land4 ,at high   
water the whole ledge is buried out of  
sight2 and even at the ebb the highest  
part of it is only three or four feet   
out of the water4 ,in the days of old1  
as the tradition goes1 one of the abbots

 of ,arbroath1 among many good works1   
exhibited his piety and humanity by     
placing upon a float attached to the    
perilous reef a large bell1 so suspended
 as to be tolled by the rising and      
falling of the waves4      ,on a buoy1  
in the storm it floated and swung1      
,and over the waves its warning rung4   
,many a storm-tossed mariner heard the  
friendly knell that warned him of the   
nearness of the fatal rock1 and changed 
his course before it was too late1 with 
blessings on the good old monk who had  
hung up the bell2 but after some years1 
one of the pirates who infested the     
coast cut it down in wanton cruelty1 and
 was one of the first who suffered from 
the loss4 ,not long after1 he perished  
upon this very rock1 which a dense fog  
shrouded from sight1 and no bell gave   
timely warning of4      ,and even in his
 dying fear1     ,one dreadful sound did
 the rover hear2     ,a sound as if with
 the ,inch ,cape ,bell1     ,the devil  
below was ringing his knell4  ,after the

 lapse of many years1 two attempts were 
made to raise a beacon of spars upon the
 rock2 but one after the other they fell
 a prey to the angry waves1 and were    
hardly set up before they disappeared4  
,it was not till the beginning of the   
century that the ,commissioners of      
,northern ,lighthouses took up the idea 
of erecting a lighthouse on this reef1  
the most dangerous on all the coast4    
,several years elapsed before they got  
the sanction of ,parliament to the      
undertaking1 and #ahjg arrived before it
 was actually entered upon4  ,mr4       
,robert ,stevenson1 to whom the work was
 intrusted as engineer1 had from a very 
early age been employed in connection   
with lighthouses4 ,he went almost       
directly from school to the office of   
,mr4 ,thomas ,smith of ,edinburgh1 and  
when that gentleman was appointed       
engineer to the ,northern ,lighthouse   
,commissioners1 became his assistant1   
and afterwards successor4 ,when only    
nineteen1 ,mr4 ,stevenson superintended 

the construction of the lighthouse on   
the island of ,little ,cumbray2 and     
during the time he was engineer to the  
,commissioners1 which post he held till 
#ahdb1 he erected no fewer than         
forty-two lighthouses1 and introduced a 
great many valuable improvements into   
the system4 ,his reputation1 however1   
will be chiefly perpetuated as the      
architect of the ,bell ,rock            
,lighthouse4  ,on the #agth ,august     
#ahjg1 ,mr4 ,stevenson and his men      
landed on the rock1 to the astonishment 
and discomposure of the seals who had1  
from time immemorial1 been in           
undisturbed possession of it1 and now   
floundered off into the water on the    
approach of the usurpers4 ,the workmen  
at once set about preparing the rock for
 the erection of a temporary pyramid on 
which a barrack-house was to be placed  
for the reception of the workmen4 ,they 
could only work on the rock for a few   
hours at spring-tide4 ,as soon as the   
flood-tide began to rise around them1   

putting out the fire of the smith's     
forge1 and gradually covering the rock1 
they had to gather up their tools and   
retreat to a floating barrack moored at 
a considerable distance1 in order to    
reach which they had to row in small    
boats to the tender1 by which they were 
then conveyed to their quarters4 ,the   
operations of this first season were    
particularly trying to the men1 on      
account of their having to row backwards
 and forwards between the rock and the  
tender at every tide1 which in rough    
weather was a very heavy pull1 and      
having often after that to work on the  
rock knee deep in water1 only quitting  
it for the boats when absolutely        
compelled by the swelling waves4        
,sometimes the sea would be so fierce   
for days together that no boat could    
live in it1 and the men had1 therefore1 
to remain cooped up wearily on board the
 floating barrack4  ,one day in         
,september1 when the engineer and       
thirty-one men were on the rock1 the    

tender broke from its moorings1 and     
began to drift away from the rock1 just 
as the tide was rising4 ,mr4 ,stevenson1
 perched on an eminence above the rest1 
surveying them at their labours1 was the
 first1 and for a while1 the men being  
all intent on their work1 the only one1 
who observed what had happened4 ,he said
 nothing1 but went to the highest point 
of the rock1 and kept an anxious watch  
on the progress of the vessel and the   
rising of the sea4 ,first the men on the
 lower tier of the works1 then by       
degrees those above them1 struck work on
 the approach of the water4 ,they       
gathered up their tools and made towards
 the spot where the boats were moored1  
to get their jackets and stockings and  
prepare for quitting the rock4 ,what    
their feelings were when they found only
 a couple of boats there1 and the tender
 drifting off with the other in tow1 may
 be conceived4 ,all the peril of their  
situation must have flashed across their
 minds as they looked across the raging 

sea1 and saw the distance between the   
tender and the rock increasing every    
moment1 while all around them the water 
rose higher and higher4 ,in another     
hour1 the waves would be rolling twelve 
feet and more above the crag on which   
they stood1 and all hope of the tender  
being able to work round to them was    
being quickly dissipated4 ,they watched 
the fleeting vessel and the rising tide1
 and their hearts sank within them1 but 
not a word was uttered4 ,they stood     
silently counting their numbers and     
calculating the capacity of the boats2  
and then they turned their eyes upon    
their trusted leader1 as if their last  
hope lay in his counsel4 ,stevenson     
never forgot the appalling solemnity of 
the moment4 ,one chance1 and but a      
slender one1 of escape alone occurred to
 him4 ,it was that1 stripping themselves
 of their clothes1 and divesting the two
 boats1 as much as possible1 of         
everything that weighted and encumbered 
them1 so many men should take their     

seats in the boats1 while the others    
hung on by the gunwales2 and that they  
should then work their way1 as best they
 could1 towards either the tender or the
 floating barrack4 ,stevenson was about 
to explain this to his men1 but found   
that all power of speech had left him4  
,the anxiety of that dreadful moment had
 parched his throat1 and his tongue     
clave to the roof of his mouth4 ,he     
stooped to one of the little pools at   
his feet to moisten his fevered lips    
with the salt water4 ,suddenly a shout  
was raised1 ,a boat6 ,a boat6 and       
through the haze a large pilot boat     
could dimly be discerned making towards 
the rock4 ,the pilot had observed the   
,smeaton drifting off1 and1 guessing at 
once the critical position of the       
workmen on the rock1 had hastened to    
their relief4  ,next morning when the   
bell sounded on board the barrack for   
the return to the rock1 only eight out  
of the twenty-six workmen1 beside the   
foreman and seamen1 made their          

appearance on deck to accompany their   
leader4 ,mr4 ,stevenson saw it would be 
useless to argue with them then4 ,so he 
made no remark1 and proceeded with the  
eight willing workmen to the rock1 where
 they spent four hours at work4 ,on     
returning to the barrack1 the eighteen  
men who had remained on board appeared  
quite ashamed of their cowardice2 and   
without a word being said to them1 were 
the first to take their places in the   
boats when the bell rang again in the   
afternoon4  ,at length the barrack was  
completed1 and the men were then        
relieved from the toil of rowing        
backwards and forwards between the      
tender and the rock1 as well as from the
 constant sickness which tormented them 
on board the floating barrack4 ,they    
were now able to prolong their labours1 
when the tide permitted1 into the night4
 ,at such times the rock assumed a      
singularly picturesque and romantic     
aspect--its surface crowded with men in 
all variety of attitudes1 the two forges

 and numerous torches lighting up the   
scene1 and throwing a lurid gleam across
 the waters1 and the loud dong of the   
anvils mingling with the dashing of the 
breakers4  ,on the #ahth ,july #ahjh1   
the site having been properly excavated1
 the first stone of the lighthouse was  
laid by the ,duke of ,argyle2 and by the
 end of the second season some five or  
six feet of building had been erected1  
and were left to the mercy of the waves 
till the ensuing spring4 ,the third     
season's operations raised the masonry  
to a height of thirty feet above the    
sea1 and the fourth season saw the      
completion of the tower4 ,on the first  
night in ,february of the succeeding    
year 7#ahaa7 the lamp was lit1 and      
beamed forth across the waters4  ,the   
,bell ,rock ,tower is #ajj feet in      
height1 #db feet in diameter at the     
base1 and #ae feet at the top4 ,the door
 is #cj feet from the base1 and the     
ascent is by a massive bronze ladder4   
,the light is revolving1 and presents a 

white and red light alternately1 by     
means of shades of red glass arranged in
 a frame4 ,the machinery which causes   
the revolution of the lamp is also      
applied to the tolling of two large     
bells1 in order to give warning to the  
mariner of his approach to the rock in  
foggy weather1 thus reviving the        
traditional practice from which the rock
 takes its name4     ,,iii4--,,the      
,,skerryvore4   ,having crept upon deck 
about four in the morning1 ,i find we   
are beating to windward off the ,isle of
 ,tyree1 with the determination on the  
part of ,mr4 ,stevenson that his        
constituents should visit a reef of     
rocks called ,skerry ,vhor1 where he    
thought it would be essential to have a 
lighthouse4 ,loud remonstrances on the  
part of the commissioners1 who one and  
all declare they will subscribe to his  
opinion1 whatever it may be1 rather than
 continue this dreadful buffeting4      
,quiet perseverance on the part of ,mr4 
,stevenson1 and great kicking1 bouncing1

 and squabbling upon that of the yacht1 
who seems to like the idea of ,skerry   
,vhor as little as the commissioners4   
,at length1 by dint of exertion1 came in
 sight of this long range of rocks      
7chiefly under water71 on which the tide
 breaks in a most tremendous style4     
,there appear a few low broad rocks at  
one end of the reef which is about a    
mile in length4 ,these are never        
entirely under water1 though the surf   
dashes over them4 ,we took possession of
 it in the name of the commissioners1   
and generously bestowed our own great   
names on its crags and creeks4 ,the rock
 was carefully measured by ,mr4         
,stevenson4 ,it will be a most desolate 
position for a lighthouse--the ,bell    
,rock and ,eddystone a joke to it1 for  
the nearest land is the wild island of  
,tyree1 at #ad miles distance4  ,such is
 an entry in the diary of ,sir ,walter  
,scott's ,yacht ,tour1 on the #bgth     
,august #ahad2 but although the         
necessity of a lighthouse on the ,skerry

 ,vhor1 or1 as it is now generally      
called1 ,skerryvore1 was fully          
acknowledged by the authorities1 it was 
not till twenty-four years afterwards   
that the undertaking was actually       
commenced1 under the superintendence of 
,mr4 ,alan ,stevenson1 the son of the   
eminent engineer who erected the ,bell  
,rock ,lighthouse4  ,in the execution of
 this great work1 if the son had1 as    
compared with his father1 certain       
advantages in his favour1 he had also   
various disadvantages to contend with at
 ,skerryvore from which the engineer of 
the ,bell ,rock was free4 ,mr4 ,alan    
,stevenson had steam power at his       
command1 and the benefit of all the     
experience derived from the experiments 
of his predecessors in similar          
operations2 but at the same time1 the   
rock on which he had to work was at a   
greater distance from the land1 and     
separated from it by a more dangerous   
passage than that of either the ,bell or
 the ,eddystone2 and the geological     

formation of which the rock is composed1
 was much more difficult to work upon4  
,the ,skerryvore is distant from ,tyree1
 the nearest inhabited island1 about #aa
 miles2 even in fine weather the        
intervening passage is a trying one1 and
 in rough weather no ship can live in   
such a sea1 studded as it is with       
treacherous rocks4 ,the sandstone of the
 ,bell ,rock is worn into rugged        
inequalities1 which favoured the        
operations of the engineer2 but the     
action of the waves on the igneous      
formation of the ,skerryvore has given  
it all the smoothness and slippery      
polish of a mass of dark coloured glass4
 ,indeed1 the foreman of the masons1 on 
first visiting the rock1 not unjustly   
compared the operation of ascending it  
to that of climbing up the neck of a    
bottle4  ,the #gth ,august #ahch was the
 first day of entire work on the rock1  
and with succeeding ones was spent in   
the erection of a temporary barrack of  
wood1 for the men to lodge in on the    

rock4 ,it was completed before the      
season closed2 but one of the first     
heavy gales in ,november wrenched it    
from its holdings1 and swept it into the
 sea1 leaving nothing to mark the site  
but a few broken and twisted stanchions1
 attached to one of which was a portion 
of a great beam which had been shaken   
and rent1 by dashing against the rocks1 
into a bundle of ribands4 ,thus in one  
night were obliterated the results of a 
whole season's toil1 and with them1 the 
hopes the men cherished of having a     
dwelling on the rock1 instead of on     
board the brig1 where they suffered     
intensely from the miseries of constant 
sickness4  ,the excavation of the       
foundations occupied the whole of the   
summer season of #ahci1 from the #fth   
,may to the #c;d ,september4 ,the hard1 
nitrified rock held out stoutly against 
the assaults of both iron and gunpowder2
 and much time was spent in hollowing   
out the basin in which the lighthouse   
was to be fixed4 ,from the limited      

extent of the rock and the absence of   
any place of shelter1 the blasting was  
an operation of considerable danger1 as 
the men had no place to run to1 and it  
had to be managed with great caution4   
,only a small portion of the rock could 
be blown up at a time1 and care had to  
be taken to cover the part over with    
mats and nettings made of old rope to   
check the flight of the stones4 ,the    
excavation of the flinty mass occupied  
nearly two summers4  ,the operations of 
#ahdj included1 much to the delight of  
the workmen1 the reconstruction of the  
barrack1 to which they were glad to     
remove from the tossing vessel4 ,the    
second edifice was more substantial than
 the first1 and proved more enduring4   
,rude and narrow as it was1 it offered1 
after the discomforts of the vessel1    
almost a luxurious lodging to its hardy 
inmates4  ,packed #dj feet above the    
weather-beaten rock1 in this singular   
abode1 writes the engineer1 ,mr4 ,alan  
,stevenson1 with a goodly company of    

thirty men1 ,i have spent many a weary  
day and night1 at those times when the  
sea prevented any one going down to the 
rock1 anxiously looking for supplies    
from the shore1 and earnestly longing   
for a change of weather favourable to   
the recommencement of the works4 ,for   
miles around nothing could be seen but  
white foaming breakers1 and nothing     
heard but howling winds and lashing     
waves4 ,our slumbers1 too1 were at times
 fearfully interrupted by the sudden    
pouring of the sea over the roof1 the   
rocking of the house on its pillars1 and
 the spurting of water through the seams
 of the doors and windows2 symptoms     
which1 to one suddenly aroused from     
sound sleep1 recalled the appalling fate
 of the former barrack1 which had been  
engulphed in the foam not twenty yards  
from our dwelling1 and for a moment     
seemed to summon us to a similar fate4  
,on two occasions in particular1 these  
sensations were so vivid as to cause    
almost every one to spring out of bed2  

and some of the men fled from the       
barrack by a temporary gangway to the   
more stable1 but less comfortable       
shelter afforded by the bare walls of   
the lighthouse tower1 then unfinished1  
where they spent the remainder of the   
night in the darkness and the cold4  ,in
 spite of their anxiety to get on with  
the work1 and their intrepidity in      
availing themselves of every            
opportunity1 these gallant men were     
often forced by stress of weather into  
an inactivity which we may be sure they 
felt sadly irksome and against the      
grain4 ,at such seasons1 says ,mr4      
,stevenson1 much of our time was spent  
in bed1 for there alone we had effectual
 shelter from the winds and the spray   
which reached every cranny in the walls 
of our barrack4 ,on one occasion they   
were for fourteen days without          
communication with the shore1 and when  
at length the seas subsided1 and they   
were able to make the signal to ,tyree  
that a landing at the rock was          

practicable1 scarcely twenty-four hours'
 stock of provisions remained on the    
rock4 ,in spite of hardships and perils1
 however1 the engineer declares that    
life on the ,skerryvore ,rock was by no 
means destitute of its peculiar         
pleasures4 ,the grandeur of the ocean's 
rage--the deep murmur of the waves--the 
hoarse cry of the sea birds1 which      
wheeled continually over us1 especially 
at our meals--the low moaning of the    
wind--or the gorgeous brightness of a   
glossy sea and a cloudless sky--and the 
solemn stillness of a deep blue vault1  
studded with stars1 or cheered by the   
splendours of the full moon1--were the  
phases of external things that often    
arrested our thoughts in a situation    
where1 with all the bustle that         
sometimes prevailed1 there was          
necessarily so much time for reflection4
 ,those changes1 together with the      
continual succession of hopes and fears 
connected with the important work in    
which we were engaged1 and the oft      

recurring calls for advice or direction1
 as well as occasional hours devoted to 
reading and correspondence1 and the     
pleasures of news from home1 were more  
than sufficient to reconcile me to--nay1
 to make me really enjoy--an            
uninterrupted residence1 on one         
occasion1 of not less than five weeks on
 that desert rock4  ,the ,skerryvore    
,lighthouse was at length successfully  
completed4 ,the height of the tower is  
#ach feet #f inches1 of which the first 
#bf feet is solid4 ,it contains a mass  
of stone work of more than double the   
quantity of the ,bell ,rock1 and nearly 
five times that of the ,eddystone4 ,the 
entire cost1 including steam tug and the
 building of a small harbour at ,hynish 
for the reception of the little vessel  
that now attends the lighthouse1 was    
,l#hf1igg4 ,the light is revolving1 and 
reaches its brightest state once every  
minute4 ,it is produced by the          
revolution of eight great annular lenses
 around a central light1 with four      

wicks1 and can be seen from the deck of 
a vessel at the distance of #ah miles4  
,mr4 ,alan ,stevenson sums up his deeply
 interesting narrative in the following 
words3 ,in such a situation as the      
,skerryvore1 innumerable delays and     
disappointments were to be expected by  
those engaged in the work2 and the      
entire loss of the fruit of the first   
season's labour in the course of a few  
hours1 was a good lesson in the school  
of patience1 and of trust in something  
better than an arm of flesh4 ,during our
 progress1 also1 cranes and other       
materials were swept away by the waves2 
vessels were driven by sudden gales to  
seek shelter at a distance from the     
rocky shores of ,mull and ,tyree2 and   
the workmen were left on the rock       
desponding and idle1 and destitute of   
many of the comforts with which a more  
roomy and sheltered dwelling1 in the    
neighbourhood of friends1 is generally  
connected4 ,daily risks were run in     
landing on the rock in a heavy surf1 in 

blasting the splintery gneiss1 or by the
 falling of heavy bodies from the tower 
on a narrow space below1 to which so    
many persons were necessarily confined4 
,yet had we not any loss of either life 
or limb2 and although our labours were  
prolonged from dawn to night1 and our   
provisions were chiefly salt1 the health
 of the people1 with the exception of a 
few slight cases of dysentery1 was      
generally good throughout the six       
successive summers of our sojourn on the
 rock4 ,the close of the work was       
welcomed with thankfulness by all       
engaged in it2 and our remarkable       
preservation was viewed1 even by many of
 the most thoughtless1 as1 in a peculiar
 manner1 the gracious work of ,him by   
whom the very hairs of our heads are all
 numbered6     ,steam ,navigation4      
,i4--,,james ,,symington4               
,,ii4--,,robert ,,fulton4               
,,iii4--,,henry ,,bell4  ,,iv4--,,ocean 
,,steamers4     ,steam ,navigation4     
,i4--,,james ,,symington4   ,of the many

 triumphs of enterprise achieved by the 
agency of that tremendous power which   
,james ,watt tamed and put in harness   
for his race1 perhaps the greatest and  
most momentous is that which has        
reversed the old proverb1 that time and 
tide wait for no man1 given ten-fold    
meaning to the truth that seas but join 
the regions they divide1 and enabled our
 ships to dash across the trackless deep
 in spite of opposing elements1--       
,against wind1 against tide1            
,steadying with upright keel1  in a     
fraction of the time1 and with a        
fraction of the cost and peril of the   
old mode of naval locomotion4 ,how amply
 realized has been ,james ,bell's       
prediction more than half a century ago1
 ,i will venture to affirm that history 
does not afford an instance of such     
rapid improvement in commerce and       
civilization1 as that which will be     
effected by steam vessels6  ,towards the
 close of the last century1 a number of 
ingenious minds were in travail with the

 scheme of steam navigation4 ,the       
,marquis de ,jouffroy in ,france1 and   
,fitch and ,rumsey in ,america1 were    
successful in experiments of its        
feasibility2 but it is to the efforts of
 ,miller and ,symington in ,scotland1   
followed up by those of ,fulton and     
,bell1 that we are chiefly and more     
immediately indebted for the practical  
development of the project4  ,having a  
natural bent for mechanical             
contrivances1 and abundance of leisure  
and money to indulge his tastes1 ,mr4   
,miller of ,dalswinton1 in              
,dumfriesshire1 somewhere about the year
 #aghe1 was full of schemes for driving 
ships by means of paddle-wheels1--by no 
means a novel idea1 for it was known to 
the ,romans1 if not to the ,egyptians1  
and had often been tried before4  ,all  
he aimed at originally was1 to turn the 
wheels by the power of men or horses2   
and this he managed to do successfully  
enough4 ,single1 double1 and treble     
boats were often to be seen driving     

along ,dalswinton ,lake1 moved by       
paddle-wheels instead of oars4 ,on one  
occasion1 at ,leith1 one of the double  
boats1 sixty feet long1 propelled by two
 wheels1 each of which was turned by a  
couple of men1 was matched against a    
,custom-house boat1 which was reckoned a
 fast sailer4 ,the paddle-wheels did    
duty very well2 but the men were soon   
knocked up with turning them1 and the   
want of some other motive power was     
strongly felt4 ,a young man named       
,taylor1 who was tutor to ,mr4 ,miller's
 boys1 is said to have suggested the use
 of steam2 but whether this be so or    
not1 it was not till ,miller met with   
,james ,symington that the idea assumed 
a practical form4  ,in #aghf ,james     
,symington1 then joint-engineer with his
 brother ,george1 to the ,wanlockhead   
,mines1 was struck with the idea which1 
as we have seen1 several other ingenious
 minds were also busy with about the    
same time1--of rendering the            
steam-engine available for locomotion   

both on land and sea4 ,after much study 
and reflection1 he succeeded in         
embodying the idea in a working model4  
,it was supported on four wheels1 which 
were moved in any direction by means of 
a small steam-engine1 and could carry   
#af cwt41 besides coals1 water1 c4 ,it  
was exhibited in ,edinburgh in the      
summer of #aghf1 and made a considerable
 sensation4 ,mr4 ,miller1 fond of all   
such inventions1 did not fail to get a  
sight of ,symington's locomotive engine1
 the first time he was in town4 ,he was 
delighted with its ingenuity and        
completeness1 and procured an interview 
with the author4 ,of course1 ,miller was
 full of his own experiments1 and told  
,symington the whole story of his       
efforts to propel vessels by            
paddle-wheels1 and the want of some     
stronger1 and more constant power than  
that of men to turn the capstan1 upon   
which the motion of the wheels depended4
 ,symington at once expressed the       
opinion he had formed1--that steam was  

equally available for vessels as for    
carriages1 and showed him how the       
steam-engine which he had devised for   
his locomotive could be applied to the  
paddle-wheels4 ,miller was so much      
struck by his statements1 which he      
illustrated by reference to the model1  
that he determined to have an engine    
made on the same plan1 and fitted into  
one of his double boats4 ,accordingly1  
an engine was built under ,symington's  
directions and superintendence1 sent to 
,dalswinton1 and put together in        
,october #aghh4 ,the engine1 in a strong
 oak frame1 was placed in the one half  
of a double pleasure-boat1 the boiler   
occupying the other half1 and the       
paddle-wheels being fixed in the middle4
  ,the autumn was withering into winter1
 the yellow leaves were swirling to the 
ground with every little breath of wind1
 and the boughs were beginning to show  
forth bare and grim1 when the little    
boat was launched upon the bosom of     
,dalswinton ,loch4 ,at length all the   

preparations were finished1 and on the  
#adth ,november ,mr4 ,miller had the    
delight of seeing the vessel gliding    
over the mimic waves of the lake at the 
rate of five miles an hour4 ,the company
 on board the boat on that memorable    
occasion were--,mr4 ,miller himself1 of 
course1 nervous with pleasure and       
exultation2 ,taylor1 the tutor2         
,alexander ,nasmyth 7the well-known     
landscape painter1 and father of the man
 who1 in the next generation1 was to    
invent the wonderful steam-hammer1 that 
knocks masses of iron about like putty1 
and can yet so moderate its force as to 
crack a nut without bruising the        
kernel72 a brisk stripling with strongly
 marked features1 by name ,harry        
,brougham1 afterwards to be ,lord       
,chancellor of ,england1 and perhaps the
 most many-sided genius of his time2    
and--last and greatest of the           
group--there was one of ,mr4 ,miller's  
tenants1 the farmer of                  
,ellisland1--,robert ,burns1 the great  

bard of ,scotland1 enjoying to the full1
 no doubt1 the novelty of the           
expedition1 but1 we must suppose1       
unconscious of its import and grand     
future consequences1 since he has       
accorded it no commemorative verse4     
,many a time1 says ,mr4 ,james ,nasmyth1
 son of the distinguished painter1 ,i   
have heard my father describe the       
delight which this first and successful 
essay at steam navigation yielded the   
party in question4 ,i only wish ,burns  
had immortalized it in fit1 clinking    
rhyme1 for1 indeed1 it was a subject    
worthy of his highest muse4  ,the       
experiment was next tried on a large    
scale with a canal boat1 on the ,forth  
and ,clyde ,canal1 but one of the wheels
 broke4 ,not to be balked1 ,symington   
had stronger wheels made1 and the next  
time the steam was put on1 the vessel   
went off at the rate of seven miles an  
hour4 ,the experiment was several times 
repeated with success4 ,the vessel1     
however1 was so slight1 that many more  

trips would have knocked it to pieces2  
and it was therefore dismantled4 ,the   
fitting up of these vessels1 and the    
working of them1 formed a heavy drain   
upon ,mr4 ,miller's purse2 and having   
laid satisfactory proof before the world
 that the thing could be done1 he       
relinquished the enterprise1 and left it
 to be worked out by others4 ,just then1
 however1 no one came forward to fill   
his place2 and for some years the idea  
slumbered4  ,in #ahja ,symington could  
not afford to indulge in further efforts
 at his own expense1 but he found a     
patron in ,lord ,dundas1 who            
commissioned him to construct a         
steam-tug for dragging canal boats4 ,a  
stout1 serviceable tug was built2 and a 
series of experiments entered upon to   
test her efficiency1 which cost upwards 
of ,l#cjjj4 ,one bleak1 stormy          
spring-day in #ahjb1 the people on the  
banks of the ,forth and ,clyde ,canal   
might have been seen staring with       
wonder1 at the short1 stumpy little tug 

pushing gallantly on at the rate of     
three or four miles an hour1 with a     
strong wind right in her teeth1 that no 
other vessel could make head against1   
and two loaded vessels 7each of more    
than #gj tons burden7 in tow4 ,by       
itself1 the tug could do six miles an   
hour without any great strain4 ,the     
company made some objection1 however1   
about the banks of the canal being      
injured1 and the tug fell into disuse4  
,it served an important end1 though1 in 
giving both ,fulton and ,bell a basis   
for their operations1 and must be       
considered the parent of our modern     
steam-craft4     ,,ii4--,,robert        
,,fulton4   ,after ,dr4 ,cartwright1 the
 inventor of the power-loom1 had retired
 penniless from his manufacturing       
enterprises1 and had taken up his abode 
in ,london1 one of the constant visitors
 at his modest residence in ,marylebone 
,fields1 was a thin1 sharp-featured     
,american1 about twenty-eight years of  
age1 an artist by profession1 and       

formerly student of ,benjamin ,west1    
who1 however1 was now much more         
interested in the art of engineering    
than the art of painting4 ,from an early
 age he had shown a taste for mechanics1
 and was fond of spending his play-hours
 at school loitering about workshops and
 factories1 watching the men at their   
work1 and studying the machines and     
instruments they used4 ,this sojourn in 
,england had brought him into contact   
with the ,duke of ,bridgewater1 the     
great canal projector1 and ,lord        
,stanhope1 well known for his           
improvements in the printing press and  
other contrivances1 in whose company his
 boyish bent towards mechanics was      
revived1 and became quite a passion with
 him4 ,he threw aside his brushes and   
palette1 and applied himself to his     
favourite pursuit with heart and soul4  
,having formed the acquaintance of      
,cartwright1 he became a daily visitor  
at his house1 and the enthusiastic1     
good-natured doctor and he would sit    

debating for hours the great problem3   
,whether it were practicable to move    
vessels by steam8 ,fulton1 eager1       
restless1 vivacious1 with pencil in     
hand1 was perpetually sketching plans of
 paddle-wheels2 while the doctor1 calm1 
dignified1 and earnest1 equally         
engrossed in the subject1 was contriving
 various modes of bringing steam to act 
upon them4 ,neither of them had any     
doubt that the thing could be done1 but 
the how long baffled them2 and even     
though the doctor constructed the model 
of a boat1 which1 being wound up like a 
clock1 moved on the water in a highly   
satisfactory manner1 nothing practical  
came of their cogitations till some     
years after4  ,while on a visit to      
,paris1 ,fulton was struck with the     
injury which standing navies of         
men-of-war inflicted on the mercantile  
marine1 and gave his whole attention1 as
 he says1 to find out the means of      
destroying such engines of oppression1  
by some method which would put it out of

 the power of any nation to maintain    
such a system1 and compel every         
government to adopt the simple          
principles of education1 industry1 and a
 free circulation of its produce4 ,the  
means presented itself to his mind in   
the shape of an explosive shell1 called 
the torpedo1 by which any ship of war   
could be blown to pieces2 and for six or
 seven years he occupied himself in     
fruitless attempts to get first the     
government of ,france1 and then that of 
,england1 to take up his project4 ,he   
did not abandon his schemes with regard 
to steam-vessels1 however2 but1 under   
the auspices of ,mr4 ,livingstone1 the  
,american ambassador1 made several      
experiments4 ,one vessel of considerable
 size broke through the middle when the 
engines were placed on board1 but a     
second one was rather more successful1  
though but a slow rate of movement was  
attained4 ,his project came under the   
notice of ,napoleon1 then ,first        
,consul1 who did not fail to appreciate 

its value4 ,it was1 he said1 capable of 
changing the face of the world2 and he  
directed a commission to inquire into   
its merits4 ,nothing came of it1        
however4  ,shortly after1 ,fulton       
visited ,scotland1 and got an           
introduction to ,symington1 whom he     
pressed for a sight of his boat4        
,symington generously consented1 and    
gave him a short sail on board the      
steam-tug4 ,fulton made no concealment  
of his intention of starting steamboats 
in his own country1 whither he was about
 to return1 and asked ,symington to     
allow him to make a few notes of his    
observations on board4 ,symington had no
 objections2 and1 therefore1 he says1   
,fulton pulled out a memorandum book1   
and after putting several pointed       
questions respecting the general        
construction and effect of the machine1 
which ,i answered in a most explicit    
manner1 he jotted down particularly     
everything then described1 with his own 
remarks upon the boat while moving with 

him on board along the canal4 ,fulton   
was very liberal in his promises not to 
forget his assistance1 if he got        
steamboats established in ,america2 but 
,symington never heard anything more of 
him4  ,fulton was at ,new ,york in      
#ahjf1 and busy getting a steamboat put 
together4 ,it was a costly undertaking1 
and he had little spare cash of his own2
 so he offered shares in the concern to 
his friends1 but no one would have      
anything to do with so ridiculous a     
scheme1 as they thought4 ,my friends1   
says ,fulton1 were civil1 but shy4 ,they
 listened with patience to my           
explanations1 but with a settled cast of
 incredulity on their countenances4 ,i  
felt the full force of the lamentation  
of the poet1--      ',truths would you  
teach1 to save a sinking land1     ,all 
shun1 none aid you1 and few understand4'
  ,as ,i had occasion to pass daily to  
and from the building-yard while my boat
 was in progress1 ,i have often         
loitered1 unknown1 near the idle groups 

of strangers1 gathering in little       
circles1 and heard various inquiries as 
to the object of this new vehicle4 ,the 
language was uniformly that of scorn1   
sneer1 or ridicule4 ,the loud laugh rose
 at my expense1 the dry jest1 the wise  
calculation of losses and expenditure1  
the dull1 but endless repetition of 'the
 ,fulton ,folly4' ,never did a single   
encouraging remark1 a bright hope1 or a 
warm wish1 cross my path4  ,let them    
laugh that win4 ,the success which      
shortly attended ,fulton's scheme turned
 the tables upon those who had mocked at
 him4 ,the ,clermont was completed in   
,august #ahjg1 and the day arrived when 
the trial was to be made on the ,hudson 
river4 ,to me1 wrote ,fulton1 it was a  
most trying and interesting occasion4 ,i
 wanted some friends to go on board to  
witness the first successful trip4 ,many
 of them did me the favour to attend as 
a mark of personal respect2 but it was  
manifest they did it with reluctance1   
fearing to be partners of my            

mortification1 and not of my triumph4   
,the moment arrived in which the word   
was to be given for the vessel to move4 
,my friends were in groups on the deck4 
,there was anxiety mixed with fear among
 them4 ,they were silent1 sad1 and      
weary4 ,i read in their looks nothing   
but disaster1 and almost repented of my 
efforts4 ,the signal was given1 and the 
boat moved on a short distance1 and then
 stopped and became immovable4 ,to the  
silence of the preceding moment now     
succeeded murmurs of discontent and     
agitation1 and whispers and shrugs4 ,i  
could hear distinctly repeated--',i told
 you so2 it is a foolish scheme2 ,i wish
 we were well out of it4' ,i elevated   
myself on a platform1 and stated that ,i
 knew not what was the matter2 but if   
they would be quiet1 and indulge me for 
half an hour1 ,i would either go on or  
abandon the voyage4 ,i went below1 and  
discovered that a slight misadjustment  
was the cause4 ,it was obviated4 ,the   
boat went on2 we left ,new ,york2 we    

passed through the ,highlands2 we       
reached ,albany6 ,yet even their        
imagination superseded the force of     
fact4 ,it was doubted if it could be    
done again1 or if it could be made1 in  
any case1 of any great value4  ,the     
simple-minded country folk on the banks 
of the ,hudson were almost frightened   
out of their wits at the awful          
apparition which they saw gliding along 
the river1 and which1 especially when   
seen indistinctly looming through the   
night1 looked to their bewildered eyes1 
a monster moving on the water1 defying  
the winds and tide1 and breathing flames
 and smoke4 ,pine-wood was used for     
fuel1 and whenever the fire was stirred1
 a great burst of sparks issued from the
 chimney4 ,this uncommon light1 says    
,colden1 the biographer of ,fulton1     
first attracted the attention of the    
crews of other vessels4 ,notwithstanding
 the wind and tide were adverse to its  
approach1 they saw with astonishment    
that it was rapidly coming towards them2

 and when it came so near that the noise
 of the machinery and paddles were      
heard1 the crews in some instances      
shrunk beneath their decks from the     
terrific sight1 and others left their   
vessels to go on shore2 while others1   
again1 prostrated themselves1 and       
besought ,providence to protect them    
from the approach of the horrible       
monster which was marching on the tides1
 and lighting its path by the fires     
which it vomited4  ,with the novelty of 
the spectacle its terror died away1 and 
people soon got tired of rushing out to 
see the remarkable machine that had once
 seemed so miraculous to them4 ,the     
,clermont soon began to travel regularly
 as a passage-boat between ,albany and  
,new ,york1 other steam-vessels were    
constructed on its model1 and by degrees
 the steam marine of ,america grew into 
the host it is at present4 ,thirty years
 after the first experiment on the      
,hudson1 it was calculated #acjj        
steamboats had been built in the        

,states4  ,fulton did not live long to  
enjoy his triumphs4 ,he died in #ahae1  
having been actively engaged in         
promoting steam navigation to his last  
hours4     ,,iii4--,,henry ,,bell4      
,the honour which in ,america attached  
to ,fulton as the man who first brought 
the steamboat into use1 and to the      
,river ,hudson as being the scene of the
 experiment1 in our own country fell 7in
 a somewhat less degree1 being          
subsequent71 to ,henry ,bell1 and the   
,river ,clyde4  ,brought up as a        
millwright1 ,bell1 from want of funds to
 start in business1 was obliged for many
 years to gain his living as a common   
carpenter in ,glasgow1 where he was     
noted among the trade as being very fond
 of schemes1 and suspected on that      
account by narrow-minded folk of being  
not very reliable in the lower branches 
of his craft4 ,scheme after scheme      
issued from his fertile mind2 but he was
 rash and hasty in working them out1 and
 few proved of much worth4 ,steam       

navigation being one of the vexed       
problems of the time1 had every         
fascination for his peculiar genius2 and
 he seems to have been brooding over it 
as the last century was closing1 and the
 present opening upon the world4 ,when  
,fulton visited ,symington's invention1 
,bell appears to have accompanied him1  
and to have afterwards corresponded with
 him on the subject4 ,this1 he says1 led
 me to think of the absurdity of writing
 my opinions to other countries1 and not
 putting it in practice myself in my own
 country2 and from these considerations 
,i was roused to set on foot a          
steamboat1 for which ,i made a number of
 different models before ,i was         
satisfied4 ,having removed to the little
 village of ,helensburgh1 on the banks  
of the ,clyde1 and there established a  
hotel and bath-house1 which his wife    
managed1 he endeavoured to work the     
passage-boats by which visitors were    
brought to the place1 by means of       
paddle-wheels worked by the hand1       

instead of oars2 but the plan did not   
succeed very well1 for the same reason  
that led to ,mr4 ,miller's abandonment  
of it--the inefficiency of manual power1
 which could not be applied with        
sufficiently sustained and continuous   
force4 ,he therefore gave it up1 and    
turned his attention to the employment  
of steam power for the same purpose4 ,of
 course1 he was laughed at for his      
pains2 and ,henry ,bell's project for   
having steamers on the ,clyde became a  
standing joke among the frequenters of  
the watering-place4 ,even after the     
permanent success of ,fulton's scheme   
was known1 people would not moderate    
their incredulity2 but ,bell's faith1   
which had never wavered1 was now        
confirmed1 and he set about the work    
with redoubled energy4  ,in #ahaa1      
,bell1 having procured the necessary    
funds1 had a steam-boat built of        
twenty-five tons and four horse power4  
,he named it the ,comet1 because a comet
 had just then appeared in the          

north-west of ,scotland4 ,the ,comet    
began to run regularly between ,glasgow 
and ,helensburgh in ,january #ahab1 and 
continued to ply successfully during the
 summer of that year4 ,at first1        
however1 she brought rather loss than   
gain to her projector4 ,people were shy 
of trusting themselves on board1 and    
parties interested in the stage-coaches 
and sailing vessels1 spread all sorts of
 absurd reports about her4 ,it was not  
till she had gone for some time without 
accident1 that tourists began to think  
they might as well save their money and 
their time by patronizing the new mode  
of conveyance4 ,in the second year ,bell
 took the ,comet off the ,clyde1 and    
sent her on a tour round the open coasts
 of the three kingdoms4 ,before long the
 safety and utility of steam navigation 
was admitted on all hands1 and numerous 
rival enterprises were on foot4 ,in     
#ahbj the ,comet was lost between       
,glasgow and ,fort ,william2 and in the 
following year another of ,bell's       

vessels was burnt to the water-edge--two
 misfortunes that carried ,l#cjjj out of
 his pocket4 ,his rivals1 with abundant 
capital1 soon drove him out of the      
field1 and ,bell sank into poverty and  
neglect4 ,a small annuity from the      
,clyde trustees1 and a subscription     
among his friends1 to keep him from     
starving1 were all the rewards he ever  
received for his enterprise and         
perseverance4 ,he died in #ahcj in the  
sixty-fourth year of his age4           
,,iv4--,,ocean ,,steamers4   ,in the    
quarter of a century which elapsed      
between #ahab1 when the ,comet first    
began to churn the waters of the ,clyde1
 and #ahcg1 steam navigation progressed 
steadily and surely4 ,at first1 content 
with plying along rivers and quiet bays1
 steamers by-and-by ventured out upon   
the open sea4 ,we owe the regular       
establishment of deep-sea packets to the
 courage and enterprise of ,mr4 ,david  
,napier of ,glasgow1 who1 says ,mr4     
,scott ,russell1 has effected more for  

the improvement of steam navigation than
 any other man4 ,he was quick to        
appreciate the capabilities of          
steam-vessels1 and saw that they were   
fit for something more than mere inland 
voyages4 ,before starting one of them   
upon the open sea1 however1 he carefully
 estimated the danger to be encountered 
and the difficulties to be overcome4 ,he
 took passage at the worst season of the
 year in one of the sailing vessels     
which formerly plied between ,glasgow   
and ,belfast1 and which often required a
 week to perform a journey that is now  
done by steam in a few hours4           
,stationing himself on an elevated part 
of the deck1 he kept a close watch on   
the movements of the vessel1 observing  
the tossing to which she was subjected  
by the waves1 the extent of the dip when
 she sank into a trough1 the height of  
elevation when lifted on the summit of a
 wave1 and calculating in his mind how  
all this would tell on the              
paddle-wheels4 ,through the roughest of 

the storm1 when the vessel was pitching 
worst1 and the wind blowing at its      
fiercest1 he kept his place on deck1    
regardless of the drenching spray and   
the blast that almost carried him off   
his legs4 ,when at length he had        
satisfied himself by the observation of 
his own eyes and inquiries of the       
captain and crew1 that there was nothing
 in the voyage which a steamer could not
 encounter1 he retired contentedly to   
his cabin1 leaving everybody astonished 
at his strange curiosity respecting the 
effect of rough weather on the ship4    
,not long after ,david ,napier started  
the ,rob ,roy steam-packet between      
,greenock and ,belfast1 and afterwards  
between ,dover and ,calais4 ,in the     
course of two or three years more he had
 established steam communication between
 ,holyhead and ,dublin1 ,liverpool and  
,greenock1 and various other parts4 ,the
 length of each unbroken passage was    
then considered the great difficulty2   
but as steamers got improved both in    

form and machinery1 passages of greater 
length were successfully accomplished4  
,steamers traversed in all directions   
the ,german ,ocean1 the ,mediterranean1 
the ,baltic1 and1 in short1 all the     
waters on the eastern side of the       
,atlantic2 and were in use upon all the 
rivers and lakes of any size in ,europe4
  ,at length1 in #ahcf1 the startling   
project was set on foot of superseding  
the far-famed ,new ,york and ,liverpool 
packet ships by a fleet of steam-ships4 
,before this the ,savannah1 a steam     
vessel of #cjj tons1 had1 in #ahai1     
crossed from ,new ,york to ,liverpool in
 twenty-six days1 partly with sails and 
partly with steam2 and another steam    
vessel had1 in #ahbe1 made the voyage   
from ,england to ,calcutta2 but one     
swallow does not make a summer1 and many
 learned folks1 on both sides of the    
,atlantic1 shook their heads doubtfully 
at the daring scheme of regular steam   
communication across #ac1jjj miles of   
ocean4 ,the experiment was to be made1  

however2 and on the #dth ,april #ahch1  
the ,sirius1 of #gjj tons and #cbj horse
 power1 sailed from ,cork for the far   
,west4 ,four days after the ,great      
,western followed in her wake from      
,bristol4  ,great was the excitement in 
,new ,york as the time drew nigh when   
the ,sirius was considered due4 ,for    
days together the ,battery was crowded  
with anxious watchers1 from the first   
breaking of the cold1 grey dawn till    
night dropped its dark curtain on the   
scene4 ,at that time a telescope was a  
thing to be begged1 borrowed1 or        
stolen1--to be got1 somehow or other1 if
 only for a minute1--and a man who      
possessed one was to be looked up to1   
made much of1 and1 if possible1 coaxed  
out of the loan of it4 ,all day long a  
hundred telescopes swept the sea4 ,the  
ocean steamer was the great topic of the
 hour1 and any appearance of her8 the   
constant question when two people met4  
,on ,st4 ,george's day1 the #bc;d       
,april1 a dim1 dusky speck on the far   

horizon grew under the eye of the       
thousands of breathless watchers into a 
long train of smoke1 beneath which1 as  
the hours wore on1 appeared the black   
prow of a huge steam-boat4 ,there she   
was1 long looked for come at last2 and  
with the ,american colours at the fore1 
and the flag of ,old ,england rustling  
at the stern1 the ,sirius swept into the
 harbour amidst the cheers of the       
multitude1 the ringing of the city      
bells1 and the firing of salutes4 ,the  
excitement reached its climax1 and the  
shouting and firing grew deafening1     
when1 some few hours later on the same  
auspicious day1 the ,great ,western came
 to anchor alongside of her rival4      
,twenty-two years have passed since     
then1 and the marvel of #ahch has become
 a mere everyday affair4 ,there are some
 fourteen different lines of steamers1  
comprising more than fifty vessels1     
running between the ,united ,states and 
,europe1 to say nothing of the          
magnificent steam fleets of the         

,peninsular and ,oriental1 the ,royal   
,west ,india1 ,british and ,north       
,american1 ,pacific1 ,australian1 ,south
 ,western1 and other companies4  ,the   
employment of iron in the construction  
of ships1 thus securing at once         
lightness and strength1 and the         
invention of the screw propeller1 in    
#ahcf1 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,smith1 a farmer 
at ,hendon1 by means of which a vessel  
can combine all the qualities of a      
first-rate sailing ship with the use of 
steam power1 gave a great impulse to    
steam navigation1 which is still making 
steady and continuous progress4 ,from   
one steam vessel in #ahab the number in 
the kingdom has risen successively to   
#bj in #ahbj1 #hbd in #ahdj1 and over   
#bjjj in #ahfj4 ,during #aheh1 #aec     
steamers were built in the ,united      
,kingdom1 of which #aab were of iron4   
,it is interesting to observe the       
advance in size of the steam vessels    
from their first introduction on the    
,clyde4                                 

,length4     ,breadth4     #ahab4 ,comet
                                   #dj  
feet   #aj-a_/b feet4     #ahbe4        
,enterprise 7built expressly to go to   
,india1 coaling at intermediate         
stations7                               
#abb       #bg           #ahce4 ,tagus  
7for ,mediterranean7              #ahb  
#bh           #ahch4 ,great ,western    
7the first ship built                   
expressly for ,transatlantic service7   
#bcf       #ce-a_/b       #ahdd4 ,great 
,britain 7the first large screw         
ship1 and largest iron ship up to that  
time7                                   
#cbb       #ea           #ahec4         
,himalaya 7iron7                        
#cgj       #dc-a_/b       #ahef4 ,persia
 7do47                           #cij   
#de           #ahei4 ,great ,eastern    
7do47                    #fhj       #hc 
,in the interval between #ahab and #ahgj
 the number of steamers in the ,united  
,kingdom has increased from one to      
nearly three thousand2 and the          

ocean-going steamer of #ahgj is nearly  
six times the length of that of #ahbe1  
and seventeen times the length of the   
,comet1 while the difference in tonnage 
is still greater4 ,how ,fulton or ,bell 
would open their eyes at the sight of a 
vast moving city1 such as the ,big      
,ship1 an eighth of a mile in length1   
propelled by both paddle-wheels and     
screw1 each worked by four huge engines6
     ,iron ,manufacture4     ,,henry    
,,cort4     ,iron ,manufacture4         
,,henry ,,cort4   ,the multifarious use 
of iron in our day has given its name to
 the age4 ,we have got far beyond the   
primitive applications of that          
metal--every day it is supplanting some 
other substance1 and there is no saying 
where the wide-spread and varied service
 we exact from it will stop4 ,the       
invention of the steam-engine1 and the  
improvement of manufacturing machines1  
would be comparatively valueless1 unless
 we had at command a cheap and abundant 
supply of iron for their construction4  

,the land is covered with a net-work of 
iron rails1 traversed by iron           
steeds--gulfs and valleys are spanned by
 iron arches and iron tubes--huge ships 
of iron ride upon the deep4 ,even stones
 and bricks are being discarded for this
 all-useful substance1 and of iron we   
are building houses1 palaces1 theatres1 
churches1 and spacious domes4 ,there is 
no end to its uses4  ,and yet1 it is    
only between seventy and eighty years   
ago since ,britain1 the richest of all  
countries in native ore1 was dependent  
upon others for her supply of the       
manufactured metal4 ,we wanted but      
little iron in those days1 compared with
 the present demand1 and yet that little
 we could not furnish ourselves with4   
,as much as a million and a half a-year 
went out of our pockets to purchase     
wrought iron from ,sweden alone1 and we 
were good customers to ,russia as well4 
,all the iron that our country could    
then produce was some #ag1jjj tons4 ,the
 man who showed us how to turn our own  

ore to account1 who rendered us         
independent of all other countries for  
our supply1 and made us the great       
purveyors of wrought iron to the world1 
who opened up to us this great source of
 national wealth1 was ,henry ,cort of   
,gosport4  ,the great difficulty which  
he solved was how to get wrought iron   
out of the crude iron as it came from   
the smelting furnace1 without using     
charcoal4 ,with but a small tract of    
country1 densely peopled1 we had but a  
scant supply of wood at our command4    
,the great forests which once overspread
 the land were gradually vanishing1     
partly before the spread of population  
and the growth of towns1 and partly from
 the inroads made on them by the demand 
for timber4 ,formerly1 the first        
transformation of the ore into pig iron 
7the crude form of the manufactured     
metal7 was effected by means of wood2   
and the consumption was so great that an
 ,act was passed in #aeha restraining   
its use4 ,soon afterwards ,lord ,dudley 

discovered that coal would answer the   
purpose just as well1 and obtained a    
patent of monopoly4 ,he reaped but      
little profit from his invention1       
however1 for his iron-works were        
destroyed by a mob2 and it was not till 
a century afterwards1 when people got   
more alarmed at the growing scarcity of 
timber1 and the increased demand for it1
 that the plan was generally adopted4   
,this was one step in the right         
direction1 but another yet remained to  
be made1 for the manufacture was still  
hampered in our country by the want of  
wood for the second process--the        
conversion of crude into malleable iron1
 in which state alone it is fit for     
service4  ,about the year #aghe1 ,henry 
,cort1 iron-master1 of ,gosport1 after  
many years of patient and wearisome     
research1 of anxious thought1 and       
indefatigable experiment1 in which he   
spent a private fortune of some         
,l#bj1jjj1 perfected a couple of        
inventions of priceless value4 ,the     

first was the process of converting pig 
iron into wrought iron by the flame of  
pit coal in a puddling furnace1 thus    
dispensing with the use of              
charcoal1--the cost and scarcity of     
which had before formed such a dead     
weight on the trade1 and placed us at   
such a disadvantage compared with       
,sweden and ,russia4 ,the second was a  
further process for drawing the iron    
into bars by means of grooved rollers4  
,till then1 this operation had to be    
performed with hammer and anvil1 and was
 very tedious and laborious4 ,the new   
system not only reduced the cost and    
labour of producing iron to             
one-twentieth of what they were         
previously1 but greatly improved the    
quality of the article produced4  ,it is
 not easy to estimate all that ,henry   
,cort's inventions have done for this   
country4 ,without them we should have   
lost an overflowing and inexhaustible   
source of national wealth1 and1         
moreover1 large sums would have been    

taken out of the country in the purchase
 of wrought metal2 we should never have 
been able to give full scope to the     
great mechanical inventions brought     
forth towards the close of the last1 and
 the opening of the present century2 we 
should have been debarred from taking   
rank as the great engineers and         
engine-makers for the rest of the world4
 ,the direct gain to this country from  
the inventions of ,henry ,cort1 which   
enabled us to work up our own iron1 has 
been calculated as equal by this time to
 not less than a hundred millions2 and  
it is hardly possible to exaggerate the 
benefits which it has conferred4 ,lord  
,sheffield's prophecy1 that the adoption
 of these processes would be worth more 
to ,britain than a dozen colonies1 may  
be said to have been fulfilled4  ,like  
many another benefactor of his country1 
,cort got little good out of his        
invention for himself4 ,he took out a   
patent for his process1 and arranged    
with the leading iron-masters to accept 

a royalty of ten shillings a ton for the
 use of them4 ,with a large fortune in  
prospect1 his purse was just then       
exhausted by the expenses he had        
incurred in experiments and researches2 
and he had to look out for a capitalist 
to aid him in working the patent on his 
own account4 ,as ill luck would have it1
 he entered into partnership with a     
certain ,adam ,jellicoe1 then           
deputy-paymaster of the navy4 ,jellicoe 
was considered a man of substance1 and a
 thoroughly respectable character4 ,he  
was to advance the ready money1 and to  
receive in return half of the profits of
 the trade1 ,cort assigning to him1 by  
way of collateral security1 his patent  
rights4 ,for a year or two all went     
well4 ,the patent was everywhere        
adopted1 and ,cort's own iron works     
drove a lucrative and growing trade4 ,he
 seemed in a fair way of getting back   
the fortune he had spent in bringing out
 the inventions1 doubled or trebled1 as 
he well deserved4 ,the respectable      

,jellicoe was seized with a mortal      
sickness3 at his death his desk was     
filled by another1 his books were       
examined1 and it turned out that he had 
been robbing the government for many a  
year back1 and was a large defaulter4   
,cort1 of course1 had nothing to do with
 this villany1 but he had to pay the    
penalty of it4 ,as ,jellicoe's partner  
he was responsible1 in those days of    
unlimited liability1 for all ,jellicoe's
 debts2 but that was not the worst of   
it4 ,the treasurer of the navy was not  
content to exact only the payment of    
,jellicoe's defalcations1 as he had no  
doubt a right to do1 but confiscated the
 whole of ,cort's patent rights1        
business1 and property1 which would have
 paid the debt seven or eight times     
over1 had it been fairly valued4  ,this 
incident has never been properly cleared
 up1 but what glimpses of its secret    
passages have been obtained1 seem to    
indicate clearly enough that poor ,cort 
was the victim1 not of one1 but of two  

or more swindlers4 ,to the day of his   
death he never could obtain a distinct  
account of the proceedings2 and when1   
after his death1 a ,royal ,commission   
was appointed to inquire into the       
matter1 the treasurer of the navy and   
his deputy took care1 a week or two     
before the ,commission met1 to indemnify
 each other by a joint release1 and to  
burn their accounts for upwards of a    
million and a half of public money1 for 
the application of which they were      
responsible1 as well as all papers      
relating to ,cort's case4 ,when the     
,commission met1 and the treasurer and  
his deputy were called before it1 they  
refused to answer questions which would 
criminate themselves4  ,his connection  
with ,jellicoe was1 of course1 the ruin 
of ,henry ,cort4 ,he had no means of    
re-establishing himself in business2 he 
was robbed of all income from his       
patents2 and he died ruined and         
broken-hearted ten years after1 leaving 
a family of nine children1 without a    

sixpence in the world4 ,four of these   
children now survive--old1 infirm1 and  
indigent--only saved from being         
dependent upon parish bounty by         
pensions1 amounting in the aggregate to 
,l#ij per annum4 ,well may it be said1  
,there should be more gratitude in our  
,iron ,age to the children of ,,henry   
,,cort4     ,the ,electric ,telegraph4  
,i4--,,mr4 ,,cooke4  ,,ii4--,,professor 
,,wheatstone4 ,,iii4--,,the ,,submarine 
,,telegraph4     ,the ,electric         
,telegraph4      ,speak the word and    
think the thought1     ,quick 'tis as   
with lightning caught--     ,over1 under
 lands or seas1     ,to the far         
antipodes2     ,here again1 as soon as  
gone1     ,making all the earth as one2 
,moscow speaks at twelve o'clock1--     
,london reads ere noon the shock4       
,i4--,,mr4 ,,cooke4   ,of all the       
marvels of our time1 the most marvellous
 is the subjugation of the electric     
fluid1 that potent elemental            
force1--twin brother of the fatal       

lightning1--to be our submissive        
courier1 to bear our messages from land 
to land1 and put a girdle round about   
the earth in forty minutes4 ,the        
,prospero that tamed this ,ariel was no 
individual genius1 but two single       
gentlemen rolled into one4 ,the idea of 
employing the electric current for the  
conveyance of signals between distant   
points1 can be traced pretty far back in
 date2 but to ,mr4 ,cooke and ,professor
 ,wheatstone is undoubtedly due the     
credit of having made the electric      
telegraph an actual and accomplished    
fact1 and rendered it practicable for   
everyday uses4  ,having served for a    
number of years as an officer in our    
,indian army1 ,mr4 ,cooke came back to  
,europe to recruit his health in the    
beginning of #ahcf1 and took up his     
abode at ,heidelberg4 ,he found         
agreeable occupation for his leisure in 
the study of anatomy1 and in the        
construction of anatomical models for   
his father's museum at ,durham1 where he

 was a professor in the university4     
,entirely self-taught in this delicate  
art1 ,mr4 ,cooke applied himself to it  
with characteristic ardour1 and attained
 remarkable skill4 ,one day he happened 
to witness some experiments which were  
made by ,professor ,moencke1 to         
illustrate the feasibility of electric  
signalling4 ,a current of electricity   
was passed through a long wire1 and set 
a magnetic needle at the end quivering  
under its influence4 ,the experiment was
 a very simple one1 and not at all      
novel2 but ,cooke had never paid any    
attention to the subject before1 and was
 much struck with what he saw4 ,he      
became strongly impressed with the      
possibility of employing electricity in 
the transmission of telegraphic         
intelligence between distant places4    
,from the day he witnessed the          
experiments in ,professor ,moencke's    
classroom1 he forsook the dissecting    
knife1 threw aside his modelling tools1 
and applied himself to the realization  

of his conception4 ,with such ardour and
 devotion did he labour1 and such skill 
and ingenuity did he bring to the work1 
that within three weeks he had          
constructed a telegraph with six wires1 
forming three complete metallic         
currents1 and influencing three needles1
 by the varied inclination of which     
twenty-six different signals were       
designated4 ,in that short time he had  
also invented the detector1 by which    
injuries to the wires1 whether from     
water1 fracture1 or contact with        
substances capable of diverting the     
current1 were readily traced1 and the   
alarum1 by which notice is given at one 
end of the wire that a message is coming
 from the other4 ,both these            
contrivances were of the utmost         
value1--indeed1 without them electric   
telegraphy would be impracticable1--and 
are still in use4 ,possessing more of a 
mechanical than a scientific genius1    
,mr4 ,cooke bestowed more of his time   
and ingenuity on the perfection of a    

telegraph to be worked by clock         
mechanism1 set in action by the         
withdrawal of a detent by an electro    
magnet than in the completion of the    
electric telegraph pure and simple4     
,soon after having invented his         
telegraph1 he came over to ,london1 and 
spent the rest of the year in making a  
variety of instruments1 and in efforts  
to get his telegraph introduced on the  
,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway4 ,he
 found an obstacle to the complete      
success of his mechanical telegraph1 in 
the difficulty of transmitting to a     
distance sufficient electric power to   
work the electro magnet upon which its  
action depended4 ,a friend advised him  
to consult ,professor ,wheatstone1 then 
known to be deeply engaged in electrical
 experiments1 with a view to telegraphy2
 and accordingly1 an interview between  
them took place in ,february #ahcg4     
,,ii4--,,professor ,,wheatstone4   ,mr4 
,charles ,wheatstone1 ,f4,r4,s41 and    
,professor of ,experimental ,philosophy 

in ,king's ,college at the time of that 
interview1 had made considerable        
advances in the scientific part of the  
enterprise4 ,at the commencement of his 
career as a maker and seller of musical 
instruments in ,london1 he was led to   
investigate the science of sound2 and   
from his researches in that direction1  
he was led--much as ,herschel was       
led--to devote himself to optics1 and to
 study the philosophy of light4 ,he was 
the first to point out the peculiarity  
of binocular vision1 and to describe the
 stereoscope1 which has since become so 
popular an instrument4 ,gradually1      
however1 his thoughts and researches    
came to be steadfastly directed to the  
application of electricity to the       
communication of signals4 ,in           
determining the rate at which the       
electric current travels through a wire 
he had laid down1 he made an important  
stride towards the end in view4 ,he     
proved by a series of most ingenious    
experiments1 that one spark of          

electricity leaps on before another1 and
 that its progress is a question of     
time4 ,he found that electricity travels
 through a copper wire as fast as1 if   
not faster1 than light1 that is1 at the 
rate of #bjj1jjj miles in a second2 but 
through an iron wire1 electricity moves 
at the rate of only #ae1djj miles in a  
second4 ,in #ahcf ,mr4 ,wheatstone had  
begun experiments in the vaults of      
,king's ,college1 with four miles of    
wire1 properly insulated1 and was       
working out the details of a telegraph1 
the scientific principles of which he   
had already laid down4 ,he had          
discovered an original method of        
converting a few wires into a           
considerable number of circuits1 so that
 the greatest number of signals could be
 transmitted by a limited number of     
wires1 by the deflection of magnetic    
needles4 ,mr4 ,wheatstone1 however1 was 
somewhat backward in the mechanical     
parts of the scheme1 and the meeting    
between him and ,cooke was therefore of 

the greatest benefit to both1 and an    
admirable illustration of the old       
proverb1 that two heads are better than 
one4 ,had they never been brought       
together1--had they kept on working out 
their own ideas apart--each would1 no   
doubt1 have been able to produce an     
electric telegraph2 but a great deal of 
time would have been lost1 and their    
respective efforts less complete and    
valuable than the one they effected in  
conjunction4 ,cooke wanted sound1       
scientific knowledge2 ,wheatstone wanted
 mechanical ingenuity2 and their union  
supplied mutual deficiencies4 ,a        
partnership was immediately formed      
between them4 ,before their combined    
genius all difficulties vanished2 and in
 the ,june of the same year they were   
able to take out a patent for a         
telegraph with five wires and five      
needles4 ,their respective shares in its
 invention are clearly marked out by    
,sir ,j4 ,brunel and ,professor         
,daniell1 who1 as arbiters between the  

two upon that delicate question1 gave   
the following award in #ahda3--  ,whilst
 ,mr4 ,cooke is entitled to stand alone 
as the gentleman to whom this country is
 indebted for having practically        
introduced and carried out the electric 
telegraph as a useful undertaking1      
promising to be a work of national      
importance2 and ,professor ,wheatstone  
is acknowledged as the scientific man   
whose profound and successful researches
 had already prepared the public to     
receive it as a project capable of      
practical application1--it is to the    
united labours of two gentlemen so well 
qualified for mutual assistance1 that we
 must attribute the rapid progress which
 this important invention has made      
during the five years since they have   
been associated4  ,shortly after the    
taking out of a patent1 wires were laid 
down between ,euston ,square ,terminus  
and ,camden ,town ,station1 on the      
,north-,western ,railway2 and the new   
telegraph was subjected to trial4 ,late 

in the evening of the #beth ,july #ahcg1
 in a dingy little room in one of the   
,euston ,square offices1 ,professor     
,wheatstone sat alone1 with a hand on   
each handle of the signal instrument1   
and an anxious eye upon the dial1 with  
its needles as yet in motionless repose4
 ,in another little room at the ,camden 
,town ,station1 ,mr4 ,cooke was seated  
in a similar position before the        
instrument at the other end of the      
wires1 along with ,mr41 now ,sir        
,charles ,fox1 ,robert ,stephenson1 and 
some other gentlemen4 ,it was a trying1 
agitating moment for the two            
inventors1--how ,wheatstone's pulse must
 have throbbed1 and his heart beat1 as  
he jerked the handle1 broke the electric
 current1 and sent the needles quivering
 on the dial2 in what suspense he must  
have spent the next few minutes1 holding
 his breath as though to hear his       
fellow's voice1 and almost afraid to    
look at the dial lest no answer should  
be made2 with what a thrill of joy must 

each have seen the needles wag knowingly
 and spell out their precious           
message1--the ,all's well2 thank ,god1  
that flashed from heart to heart1 along 
the line of senseless wire4 ,never1 said
 ,wheatstone1 did ,i feel such a        
tumultuous sensation before1 as when all
 alone in the still room ,i heard the   
needles click2 and as ,i spelled the    
words1 ,i felt all the magnitude of the 
invention now proved to be practicable  
beyond cavil or dispute4  ,a few days   
before this trial of the telegraph in   
,london1 ,steinheil1 of ,munich1 is said
 to have had one of his own invention at
 work there2 and it is a difficult      
question to decide whether he or ,cooke 
and ,wheatstone were the first          
inventors4 ,it is1 however1 a question  
of no consequence1 as each worked       
independently4 ,since the first ,english
 electric telegraph was patented1 there 
have been a thousand and one other      
contrivances of a similar kind taken    
out2 but it may be doubted whether1 for 

practical purposes1 the original        
apparatus1 with the improvements which  
its own inventors have made on it1 is   
not still the best of them all4  ,from  
being used merely to carry railway      
messages1 the telegraph was brought into
 the service of the general public2 the 
advantages of such almost instantaneous 
communication were readily appreciated2 
and eight years after ,messrs4 ,cooke   
and ,wheatstone took out their patent1  
lines of telegraph to the extent of #ejj
 miles were in operation in ,england    
upon the original plan4 ,in #ahee       
telegraphic correspondence had become so
 general1 that the ,electric ,telegraph 
,company was started to supply the      
demand4 ,in that establishment the      
,needle ,telegraph of ,wheatstone and   
,cooke is the one generally used1 with  
the ,chemical ,recording ,telegraph of  
,bain for special occasions4 ,by means  
of the latter1 blue lines of various    
lengths1 according to an alphabet1 are  
drawn upon a ribbon of paper1 and as    

many as #bj1jjj words can be sent in an 
hour1 though the ordinary rate is #ajj  
per minute4 ,in the purchase of patent  
rights alone1 the ,company have spent   
,l#agj1jjj1 and they are every year     
adding to the length of their wires4 ,in
 ,june #ahej they had #fgcj miles of    
wires1 and despatched #bi1bde messages a
 year4 ,in ,december #ahec they had     
#bd1cdj miles of wires1 and despatched  
#bab1ddj messages a-year4 ,their lines  
now extend over a much larger mileage1  
and convey a greatly increased number of
 messages4 ,the ,magnetic ,telegraph    
,company have also a large extent of    
wires1 and do a considerable business4  
,,iii4--,,the ,,submarine ,,telegraph4  
,the land telegraph having had such     
success1 the next step was to carry the 
wires across the deep1 and link         
continent to continent1--an             
all-important step for an island kingdom
 such as ours1 with its legion of       
distant colonies4 ,the success of a     
submerged cable between ,gosport and    

,portsmouth1 and of one across the docks
 at ,hull1 proved the feasibility of a  
water telegraph1 at least on a small    
scale1 and it was not long before more  
ambitious attempts were made4 ,on the   
#bhth of ,august #ahej1 a cable1 #cj    
miles long1 in a gutta percha sheathing1
 was stretched at the bottom of the     
straits between ,dover and ,cape        
,grisnez1 near ,calais4 ,messages of    
congratulation sped along this wire     
between ,england and ,france2 and       
although a ridge of rocks filed the     
cable asunder on the ,french coast1 the 
suspension of communication was only    
temporary4 ,the link has once more been 
established1 and is in daily use4 ,the  
first news sent by the wire to ,england 
was of the celebrated coup d'etat of the
 #b;d ,december1 which cleared the way  
for ,louis ,napoleon's ascent of the    
throne4 ,numerous other cables have     
since been sunk beneath the waters2     
complete telegraphic communication has  
just been established between ,england  

and ,india1 and will1 no doubt1 before  
long be extended to ,australia4  ,the   
greatest enterprise of this kind1       
however1 still remains                  
unaccomplished--that is1 the laying of  
the ,atlantic cable4 ,a company was     
started in #ahef to carry out this great
 enterprise1 the governments of ,great  
,britain and the ,united ,states        
engaging to assist them1 not only with  
an annual subsidy of ,l#aj1jjj a-year   
for twenty-five years1 but to furnish   
the men and ships required for laying   
the cable from one side of the ,atlantic
 to the other4 ,the chief difficulty    
which engaged the attention of ,mr4     
,wildman ,whitehouse and the other      
agents of the notable enterprise was the
 enormous size of the cable which1 it   
was thought1 would be necessary4 ,the   
general belief at that time was1 that   
the greater the distance to be          
traversed1 the larger must be the wire  
along which the electric current was to 
pass1 and that the rate of speed would  

be in proportion to the size of the     
conductor4 ,mr4 ,whitehouse1 however1   
thought it would be as well to begin by 
making sure that this was really the    
case1 and that a monster cable was      
essential2 and after some three thousand
 separate observations and experiments1 
was delighted to find that the          
difficulty which stared them in the face
 was imaginary4 ,instead of a large     
cable transmitting the current faster   
than a small one1 he ascertained beyond 
a doubt1 that the bigger the wire1 the  
slower was the passage of the           
electricity4 ,it would be needful1      
therefore1 to make the cable only strong
 enough to stand the strain of its own  
weight1 and heavy enough to sink to the 
bottom4 ,a single wire would have been  
quite sufficient1 but a strand of seven 
wires of the finest copper was used for 
the cable1 so that the fracture of one  
of them might not interfere with the    
communication1--as long as one wire was 
left intact the current would proceed4  

,a triple coating of gutta percha1 to   
keep the sea from sucking out the       
electricity1 and a thick coating of iron
 wire1 to sink the cable to the bottom  
and give it strength1 were added to the 
copper rope1 and then the cable was     
complete4 ,no less than #cbe1jjj miles  
of iron and copper wire were woven into 
this great cable1--as much as might be  
wound thirteen times round the globe2   
and its weight was about a ton per mile4
 ,the length of the cable was #ah1idg   
miles--some #fjj miles being allowed to 
come and go upon1 in case of accidents4 
,the end of ,july #aheg was selected for
 the sailing of the ships that were to  
lay the cable1 as fogs and gales were   
then out of season1 and no icebergs to  
be met with4 ,on the #hth of ,august1   
the ,agamemnon 7,english7 and ,niagara  
7,american71 with four smaller steamers 
to attend them1 and each with half of   
the mighty cable in her hold1 got up    
their steam and left ,valentia ,harbour4
 ,one end of the cable was carried by a 

number of boats from the ,niagara on    
shore1 where the ,lord-,lieutenant was  
in waiting to receive it1 and place it  
in contact with the batteries1 which    
were arranged in a little tent upon the 
beach4 ,a slight accident to the cable  
for a little while delayed the departure
 of the ships2 but by the #ajth they had
 got #bjj miles out to sea1 and so far  
the cable had been laid successfully4   
,messages passed and repassed between   
the ships and the shore4 ,the next day  
the engineer discovering that too much  
cable was being paid out1 telegraphed to
 the people on board to put a greater   
grip on it2 the operation was clumsily  
managed1 and the cable snapped1 sinking 
to a depth of #ab1jjj feet4  ,not       
disheartened1 however1 the ,company     
replaced the lost portion of the cable2 
the ,government again furnished ships   
and men1 and the cable was actually laid
 at the bottom of the ,atlantic from    
,valentia ,bay to ,trinity ,harbour4    
,addresses of congratulation passed     

between the ,queen and the ,president of
 the ,states1 and numerous messages were
 transmitted4 ,but gradually the signals
 grew fainter and more faint1 till they 
ceased altogether4 ,the cable was       
stricken dumb4 ,a little to the north of
 the fiftieth parallel of latitude1 at  
the bottom of the ,atlantic1 where the  
plateau is unbroken by any great        
depression1 some #aejj miles of the     
disabled cable were lying1 on a soft bed
 of mud1 which was constantly           
thickening1 at a depth of from #aj1jjj  
to #ae1jjj feet4  ,the importance of    
telegraphic communication between       
,england and the ,united ,states was1   
however1 so obvious that its projectors 
were not to be daunted by the failure   
they had sustained4 ,nor was it         
altogether a failure4 ,they had proved  
that a cable could be laid1 and messages
 flashed through it4 ,what was wanted   
was evidently a stronger cable1 which   
should be less liable to injury1 and    
more perfect in its insulation of the   

telegraphic wires4  ,from #aheh to      
#ahfd1 the ,company were engaged in the 
difficult task of raising fresh funds1  
and in endeavouring to secure grants    
from the ,british and ,american         
,governments4 ,their men of science1    
meanwhile1 were devising improvements in
 the form of cable1 and contriving fresh
 apparatus to facilitate its submersion4
 ,eventually the ,telegraph             
,construction and ,maintenance ,company1
 an union of the ,gutta ,percha ,company
 with the celebrated firm of ,glass and 
,elliott1 constructed an entirely new   
cable1 which was not only costlier1 but 
thicker and stronger than the preceding 
one4 ,the conductor1 three hundred      
pounds per mile1 and one-seventh of an  
inch thick1 consisted of seven ,no4 #ah 
copper wires1 each one-twentieth of an  
inch in thickness4 ,the core or heart of
 the cable1 says a writer in ,chambers's
 ,encyclopaedia1 was formed of four     
layers of gutta percha alternating with 
four of ,chatterton's compound 7a       

solution of gutta percha in ,stockholm  
tar72 the wire and conductor being seven
 hundred pounds per mile1 and           
nine-twentieths of an inch thick4       
,outside this was a coating of hemp or  
jute yarn1 saturated with a preservative
 composition2 while the sheath consisted
 of ten iron wires1 each previously     
covered with five tarred ,manilla yarns4
 ,the whole cable was an inch and one   
eighth thick1 weighed thirty-five and   
three-quarter hundredweights per mile1  
and was strong enough to endure a       
breaking strain of seven tons and       
three-quarters4 ,during the various     
processes of manufacture1 the electrical
 quality of the cable was tested to an  
unusual extent4 ,the portions of        
finished core were tested by immersion  
in water at various temperatures2 next  
submitted to a pressure of six hundred  
pounds to the square inch1 to imitate   
the ocean pressure at so great depth2   
then the conducting power of the copper 
wire was tested by a galvanometer2 and  

various experiments were also made on   
the insulating property of the gutta    
percha4 ,the various pieces having been 
thus severely put to the proof1 they    
were spliced end to end1 and the joints 
or splicings tested4 ,in a word1 nothing
 was left undone that could insure the  
success or guarantee the stability of   
the new cable4  ,when completed1 the    
cable measured two thousand three       
hundred miles1 and weighed upwards of   
four thousand tons4 ,it was felt that   
such a burden could only be intrusted to
 ,brunel's big ship1 the ,great         
,eastern4 ,for this purpose three huge  
iron tanks were built1 in the fore1     
middle1 and aft holds of the vessel1    
each from fifty to sixty feet in        
diameter1 and each twenty and a half    
feet in depth2 and in these the cable   
was deposited in three vast coils4  ,on 
the #bcrd of ,july #ahfe1 the ,great    
,eastern left ,valentia1 the submarine  
cable being joined end to end to a more 
massive shore cable1 which was hauled up

 the cliff at ,foilhummerum ,bay1 to a  
telegraph-house at the top4 ,the        
electric condition of the cable was     
continually tested during the ship's    
voyage across the ,atlantic2 and more   
than once its efficiency was disturbed  
by fragments of wire piercing the gutta 
percha and destroying the insulation4   
,at length on ,august #bnd1 the cable   
snapped by overstraining1 and the end   
sank to the bottom in two thousand      
fathoms water1 at a distance of one     
thousand and sixty-four miles from the  
,irish coast4 ,attempts were made to    
recover it by dredging4 ,a five-armed   
grapnel1 suspended to the end of a stout
 iron-wire rope five miles long1 was    
flung overboard2 and when it reached the
 bottom1 the ,great ,eastern steamed to 
and fro in the direction where the lost 
cable was supposed to be lying2 but     
failure followed upon failure1 and the  
cable was never once hooked4 ,there     
remained nothing to be done but for the 
,great ,eastern to return to ,england   

with the news of her non-success1 and   
leaving 7including the failure of       
#aheg-h7 nearly four thousand tons of   
electric cable at the bottom of the     
ocean4  ,the promoters of ocean         
telegraphy1 however1 were determined to 
be resolute to the end4 ,a new ,company 
was formed1 new capital was raised1 and 
a third cable manufactured1 differing in
 some respects from the former4 ,the    
outside jacket was made of hemp instead 
of jute2 the iron wires of the sheath   
were galvanized1 and the ,manilla hemp  
which covered them was not tarred4      
,chiefly through the absence of the tar1
 the weight of the cable was diminished 
five hundred pounds per mile2 while its 
strength or breaking strain was         
increased4 ,a sufficient quantity of    
this improved cable was made to cross   
the ,atlantic1 with all due allowance   
for slack2 and also a sufficient        
quantity of the #ahfe cable to remedy   
the disaster of that year4  ,on ,july   
#acth1 #ahff1 the ,great ,eastern once  

more set forth on her interesting       
voyage1 accompanied by the steamers     
,terrible1 ,medway1 and ,albany1 to     
assist in the submersion of the cable1  
and to act as auxiliaries whenever      
needed4 ,the line of route chosen lay   
about midway between those of the #aheh 
and #ahfe cables1 but at no great       
distance from either4 ,the ,great       
,eastern exchanged telegrams almost     
continuously with ,valentia as she      
steamed towards the ,american continent2
 and great were the congratulations when
 she safely arrived in the harbour of   
,heart's ,content1 ,newfoundland1 on the
 #bgth4  ,operations were next commenced
 to recover the end of the #ahfe cable1 
and complete its submergence4 ,the      
,albany1 ,medway1 and ,terrible were    
despatched on the #ast of ,august1 to   
the point where1 deep down beneath the  
darkling waves1 the cable was supposed  
to be lying1 and on the #ith or #ajth   
they were joined by the ,great ,eastern1
 when grappling was commenced1 and      

carried on through the remainder of the 
month4 ,the cable was repeatedly caught1
 and raised to a greater or less height 
from the ocean bed2 but something or    
other snapped or slipped every time1 and
 down went the cable again4 ,at last1   
after much trial of patience1 the end of
 the cable was safely fished up on      
,september #ast2 and electric messages  
were at once sent through to ,valentia1 
just as well as if the cable had not had
 twelve months' soaking in the          
,atlantic4 ,an additional length having 
been spliced to it1 the laying          
recommenced2 and on the #hth the        
squadron entered ,heart's ,content1     
having thus succeeded in laying a second
 line of cable from ,ireland to         
,america4  ,the two cables1 the old and 
the new1 continued to work very smoothly
 during the winter of #ahff and #ahfg2  
but in ,may #ahfg1 the new cable was    
damaged by an iceberg1 which drifted    
across it at a distance of about three  
miles from the ,newfoundland shore4 ,the

 injury was soon repaired2 but again1 in
 ,july #ahfg1 the same cable broke at   
about fifty miles from ,newfoundland4   
,the earlier cable continued to work for
 several years1 but both cables gave way
 towards the close of the autumn of     
#ahgj4 ,no special inconvenience was    
felt1 however1 as two years ago a       
,french line of cable was laid down     
between ,europe and ,america2 the ,great
 ,eastern being again employed1 and the 
operations being conducted under the    
superintendence of ,english             
electricians4 ,the two ,british cables  
will probably be repaired in the spring 
of the present year 7#ahga74  ,submarine
 cables have multiplied recently1 and   
almost every ocean flows over the       
mysterious wires which flash            
intelligence beneath the rolling waters 
from point to point of the civilized    
world4 ,by a telegraph-cable1 which is  
partly submarine1 the ,india ,office in 
,westminster is united with the         
,governor-,general and his ,council at  

,calcutta4 ,there is also communication 
between ,singapore and ,australia1 and  
the network of ocean telegraphy is being
 so rapidly extended that1 before long1 
the ,british ,government in the         
metropolis will be enabled to convey its
 instructions in a few hours to the     
administrative authorities in every     
,british colony4 ,and thus the words    
which the poet puts into the mouth of   
,puck will be nearly realized in a sense
 the poet never dreamed of--,i'll put a 
girdle round about the world in forty   
minutes4     ,the ,silk ,manufacture4   
,i4--,,john ,,lombe4  ,,ii4--,,william  
,,lee4 ,,iii4--,,joseph ,,marie         
,,jacquard4     ,the ,silk ,manufacture4
     ,i4--,,john ,,lombe4   ,in the     
reign of the ,emperor ,justinian1 a     
couple of ,persian monks1 on a religious
 mission to ,china1 brought away with   
them a quantity of silkworms' eggs      
concealed in a piece of hollow cane1    
which they carried to ,constantinople4  
,there they hatched the eggs1 reared the

 worms1 and spun the silk1--for the     
first time introducing that manufacture 
into ,europe1 and destroying the close  
monopoly which ,china had hitherto      
enjoyed4 ,from ,constantinople the      
knowledge and the practice of the art   
gradually extended to ,greece1 thence to
 ,italy1 and next to ,spain4 ,each      
country1 as in turn it gained possession
 of the secret1 strove to preserve it   
with jealous care2 but to little        
purpose4 ,a secret that so many         
thousands already shared in common1     
could not long remain so1 although its  
passage to other countries might be for 
a time deferred4 ,france and ,england   
were behind most of the other states of 
,europe in obtaining a knowledge of the 
craft and mystery4 ,the manufacture of  
silk did not take root in ,france till  
the reign of ,francis ,i42 and was      
hardly known in ,england till the       
persecutions of the ,duke of ,parma in  
#aehe drove a great number of the       
manufacturers of ,antwerp to seek refuge

 in our land4 ,james ,i4 was very       
anxious to promote the breed of         
silkworms1 and the production of silken 
fabrics4 ,during his reign a great many 
mulberry-trees were planted in various  
parts of the country--among others1 that
 celebrated one in ,shakspeare's garden 
at ,stratford-on-,avon--and an attempt  
was made to rear the worm in our        
country1 which1 however1 the ungenial   
climate frustrated4 ,silk-throwsters1   
dyers1 and weavers were brought over    
from the ,continent2 and the manufacture
 made such progress that1 by #afbi1 the 
silk-throwsters of ,london were         
incorporated1 and thirty years after    
employed no fewer than #dj1jjj hands4   
,the emigration from ,france consequent 
on the revocation of the ,edict of      
,nantes 7#afhe7 added not only to the   
numbers engaged in the trade1 but to the
 taste1 skill1 and enterprise with which
 it was conducted4 ,it is not easy to   
estimate how deeply ,france wounded     
herself by the iniquitous persecution of

 the ,protestants1 or how largely the   
emigrants repaid by their industry the  
shelter which ,britain afforded them4   
,although the manufacture had now become
 fairly naturalized in ,england1 it was 
restricted by our ignorance of the first
 process to which the silk was          
subjected4 ,up till #agah1 the whole of 
the silk used in ,england1 for whatever 
purpose1 was imported thrown1 that is1  
formed into threads of various kinds and
 twists4 ,a young ,englishman named     
,john ,lombe1 impressed with the idea   
that our dependence on other countries  
for a supply of thrown silk prevented us
 from reaping the full benefit of the   
manufacture1 and from competing with    
foreign traders1 conceived the project  
of visiting ,italy1 and discovering the 
secret of the operation4 ,he accordingly
 went over to ,piedmont in #agae1 but   
found the difficulties greater than he  
had anticipated4 ,he applied for        
admittance at several factories1 but was
 told that an examination of the        

machinery was strictly prohibited4 ,not 
to be balked1 he resolved1 as a last    
resort1 to try if he could accomplish by
 stratagem what he had failed to do     
openly4 ,disguising himself in the dress
 of a common labourer1 he bribed a      
couple of the workmen connected with one
 of the factories1 and with their       
connivance obtained access in secret to 
the works4 ,his visits were few and     
short2 but he made the best use of his  
time4 ,he carefully examined the various
 parts of the machinery1 ascertained the
 principle of its operation1 and made   
himself completely master of the whole  
process of throwing4 ,each night before 
he went to bed he noted down everything 
he had seen1 and drew sketches of parts 
of the machinery4 ,this plot1 however1  
was discovered by the ,italians4 ,he and
 his accomplices had to fly for their   
lives1 and not without great difficulty 
escaped to a ship which conveyed them to
 ,england4  ,lombe had not forgotten to 
carry off with him his note-book1       

sketches1 and a chest full of machinery1
 and on his return home lost no time in 
practising the art of throwing silk4 ,on
 a swampy island in the river ,derwent1 
at ,derby1 he built a magnificent mill1 
yet standing1 called the ,old ,silk     
,mill4 ,its erection occupied four      
years1 and cost ,l#cj1jjj4 ,it was five 
storeys in height1 and an eighth of a   
mile in length4 ,the grand machine      
numbered no fewer than #ac1chd wheels4  
,it was said that it could produce      
#cah1ejd1ifj yards of organzine silk    
thread daily2 but the estimate is no    
doubt exaggerated4  ,while the mill was 
building1 ,lombe1 in order to save time 
and earn money to carry on the works1   
opened a manufactory in the ,town ,hall 
of ,derby4 ,his machinery more than     
fulfilled his expectations1 and enabled 
him to sell thrown silk at much lower   
prices than were charged by the         
,italians4 ,a thriving trade was thus   
established1 and ,england relieved from 
all dependence on other countries for   

thrown silk4  ,the ,italians conceived a
 bitter hatred against ,lombe for having
 broken in upon their monopoly and      
diminished their trade4 ,in revenge1    
therefore1 according to ,william        
,hutton1 the historian of ,derby1 they  
determined his destruction1 and hoped   
that of his works would follow4 ,an     
,italian woman was despatched to corrupt
 her two countrymen who assisted ,lombe 
in the management of the works4 ,she    
obtained employment in the factory1 and 
gained over one of the ,italians to her 
iniquitous design4 ,they prepared a slow
 poison1 and administered it in small   
doses to ,lombe1 who1 after lingering   
three or four years in agony1 died at   
the early age of twenty-nine4 ,the      
,italian fled2 the woman was seized and 
subjected to a close examination1 but no
 definite proof could be elicited that  
,lombe had been poisoned4 ,lombe was    
buried in great state1 as a mark of     
respect on the part of his townsmen4 ,he
 was1 says ,hutton1 a man of quiet      

deportment1 who had brought a beneficial
 manufactory into the place1 employed   
the poor1 and at advanced wages1--and   
thus could not fail to meet with        
respect2 and his melancholy end excited 
much sympathy4     ,,ii4--,,william     
,,lee4   ,in the ,stocking ,weavers'    
,hall1 in ,redcross ,street1 ,london1   
there used to hang a picture1           
representing a man in collegiate costume
 in the act of pointing to an iron      
stocking-frame1 and addressing a woman  
busily knitting with needles by hand4   
,underneath the picture appeared the    
following inscription3 ,in the year     
#aehi1 the ingenious ,william ,lee1     
,a4,m41 of ,st4 ,john's ,college1       
,cambridge1 devised this profitable art 
for stockings 7but1 being despised1 went
 to ,france71 yet of iron to himself1   
but to us and to others of gold2 in     
memory of whom this is here painted4 ,as
 to who this ,william ,lee was1 and the 
way in which he came to invent the      
stocking-frame1 there are conflicting   

stories1 but the one most generally     
received and best authenticated is as   
follows3--  ,william ,lee1 a native of  
,woodborough1 near ,nottingham1 was a   
fellow of one of the ,cambridge         
,colleges4 ,he fell in love with a young
 country lass1 married her1 and         
consequently forfeited his fellowship4  
,a poor scholar1 with much learning1 but
 without money or the knowledge of any  
trade1 he found himself in very         
embarrassed circumstances4 ,like many   
another poor scholar1 he might          
exclaim3--      ,all the arts ,i have   
skill in1             ,divine and       
humane2     ,yet all's not worth a      
shilling2     ,alas6 poor scholar1      
whither wilt thou go8  ,his wife1       
however1 was a very industrious woman1  
and by her knitting contributed to their
 joint support4 ,it is said--but the    
story lacks authentic confirmation--that
 when ,lee was courting her1 she always 
appeared so much more occupied with her 
knitting than with the soft speeches he 

was whispering in her ear1 that her     
lover thought of inventing a machine    
that would facilitate and forward the   
operation of knitting1 and so leave the 
object of his love more leisure to      
converse with him4 ,love1 indeed1 says  
,beckmann1 is fertile in invention1 and 
gave rise1 it is said1 to the art of    
painting2 but a machine so complex in   
its parts1 and so wonderful in its      
effects1 would seem to require longer   
and greater reflection1 more judgment1  
and more time and patience than could be
 expected of a lover4 ,but afterwards1  
when ,lee1 in his painfully enforced    
idleness1 sat many a long hour watching 
his wife's nimble fingers toiling to    
support him1 his mind again recurred to 
the idea of a machine that would give   
rest to her weary fingers4 ,his         
cogitations resulted in the contrivance 
of a stocking-frame1 which imitated the 
movements of the fingers in knitting4   
,illustration3 ,,william ,,lee1 ,,the   
,,inventor ,,of ,,the                   

,,stocking-,,frame4 ,page #bbf4         
,although the invention of this loom    
gave a great impulse to the manufacture 
of silk stockings in ,england1 and      
placed our productions in advance of    
those of other countries1 ,lee reaped   
but little profit from it4 ,he met with 
neglect both from ,queen ,elizabeth and 
,james ,i42 and1 not succeeding as a    
manufacturer on his own account1 went to
 ,france1 where he did very well until  
after the assassination of ,henri ,,iv41
 when he shared the persecutions of the 
,protestants1 and died in great distress
 in ,paris4     ,,iii4--,,joseph ,,marie
 ,,jacquard4   ,joseph ,marie ,jacquard1
 the inventor of the loom which bears   
his name1 and to whom the extent and    
prosperity of the silk manufacture of   
our time is mainly due1 was born at     
,lyons in #ageb1 of humble parents1 both
 of whom were weavers4 ,his father      
taught him to ply the shuttle2 but for  
education of any other sort1 he was left
 to his own devices4 ,he managed to pick

 up some knowledge of reading and       
writing for himself2 but his favourite  
occupation was the construction of      
little models of houses1 towers1        
articles of furniture1 and so on1 which 
he executed with much taste and         
accuracy4 ,on being apprenticed to a    
type-founder1 he exhibited his aptitude 
for mechanical contrivances by inventing
 a number of improved tools for the use 
of the workmen4 ,on his father's death  
he set up as a manufacturer of figured  
fabrics2 but although a skilful workman1
 he was a bad manager1 and the end of   
the undertaking was1 that he had to sell
 his looms to pay his debts4 ,he        
married1 but did not receive the dowry  
with his wife which he expected1 and to 
support his family had to sell the house
 his father had left him1--the last     
remnant of his little heritage4 ,the    
invention of numerous ingenious machines
 for weaving1 type-founding1 c41 proved 
the activity of his genius1 but produced
 not a farthing for the maintenance of  

his wife and child4 ,he took service    
with a lime-maker at ,brest1 while his  
wife made and sold straw hats in a      
little shop at ,lyons4 ,he solaced      
himself for the drudgery of his labours 
by spending his leisure in the study of 
machines for figure-weaving4 ,the idea  
of the beautiful apparatus which he     
afterwards perfected began to dawn on   
him1 but for the time it was driven out 
of his mind by the stirring transactions
 of the time4 ,the whirlwind of the     
,revolution was sweeping through the    
land4 ,jacquard ardently embraced the   
cause of the people1 took part in the   
gallant defence of ,lyons in #agic1 fled
 for his life on the reduction of the   
city1 and with his son--a lad of        
sixteen--joined the army of the ,rhine4 
,his boy fell by his side on the field  
of battle1 and ,jacquard1 destitute and 
broken-hearted1 returned to ,lyons4 ,his
 house had been burned down2 his wife   
was nowhere to be heard of4 ,at length  
he discovered her in a miserable garret1

 earning a bare subsistence by plaiting 
straw4 ,for want of other employment he 
shared her labours1 till ,lyons began to
 rise from its ruins1 to recover its    
scattered population1 and revive its    
industry4 ,jacquard applied himself with
 renewed energy to the completion of the
 machine of which he had1 before the    
,revolution1 conceived the idea2        
exhibited it at the ,national           
,exposition of the ,products of         
,industry in #ahja2 and obtained a      
bronze medal and a ten years' patent4   
,during the peace of ,amiens1 ,jacquard 
happened to take up a newspaper in a    
cabaret which he frequented1 and his eye
 fell on a translated extract from an   
,english journal1 stating that a prize  
was offered by a society in ,london for 
the construction of a machine for       
weaving nets4 ,as a mere amusement he   
turned his thoughts to the subject1     
contrived a number of models1 and at    
last solved the problem4 ,he made a     
machine and wove a little net with it4  

,one day he met a friend who had read   
the paragraph from the ,english paper4  
,jacquard drew the net from his pocket  
saying1 ,oh6 ,i've got over the         
difficulty6 see1 there is a net ,i've   
made4 ,after that he took no more       
thought about the matter1 and had quite 
forgotten it1 when he was startled by a 
summons to appear at the ,prefectal     
,palace4 ,the prefect received him very 
kindly1 and expressed his astonishment  
that his mechanical genius should so    
long have remained in obscurity4        
,jacquard could not imagine how the     
prefect had discovered his mechanical   
experiments1 and began vaguely to dread 
that he had got into some shocking      
scrape4 ,he stammered out a sort of     
apology4 ,the prefect was surprised he  
should deny his own talent1 and said he 
had been informed that he had invented a
 machine for weaving nets4 ,jacquard    
owned that he had4  ,well1 then1 you're 
the right man1 after all1 said the      
prefect4 ,i have orders from the emperor

 to send the machine to ,paris4  ,yes1  
but you must give me time to make it1   
replied ,jacquard4  ,in a week or two   
,jacquard again presented himself at the
 palace with his machine and a half     
manufactured net4 ,the prefect was eager
 to see how it worked4  ,count the      
number of loops in that net1 said       
,jacquard1 and then strike the bar with 
your foot4  ,the prefect did so1 and was
 surprised and delighted to see another 
loop added to the number4  ,capital6    
cried he4 ,i have his majesty's orders1 
,m4 ,jacquard1 to send you and your     
machine to ,paris4  ,to ,paris6 ,how can
 that be8 ,how can ,i leave my business 
here8  ,there is no help for it2 and not
 only must you go to ,paris1 but you    
must start at once1 without an hour's   
delay4  ,if it must be1 it must4 ,i will
 go home and pack up a little bundle1   
and tell my wife about my journey1 ,i   
shall be ready to start to-morrow4      
,to-morrow won't do2 you must go to-day4
 ,a carriage is waiting to take you to  

,paris2 and you must not go home4 ,i    
will send to your house for any things  
you want1 and convey any message to your
 wife4 ,i will provide you with money   
for the journey4  ,there was no help for
 it1 so ,jacquard got into the carriage1
 along with a gendarme who was to take  
charge of him1 and wondered1 all the way
 to ,paris1 what it all meant4 ,on      
reaching the capital he was taken before
 ,napoleon1 who received him in a very  
condescending manner4 ,carnot1 who was  
also present1 could not at first        
comprehend the machine1 and turning to  
the inventor1 exclaimed roughly1 ,what1 
do you pretend to do what is beyond the 
power of man8 ,can you tie a knot in a  
stretched string8 ,jacquard1 not at all 
disconcerted1 explained the construction
 of his machine so simply and clearly1  
as to convince the incredulous minister 
that it accomplished what he had        
hitherto deemed an impossibility4       
,jacquard was now employed in the       
,conservatory of ,arts and ,manufactures

 to repair and keep in order the models 
and machines4 ,at this time a           
magnificent shawl was being woven in one
 of the government works for the        
,empress ,josephine4 ,very costly and   
complicated machinery was employed1 and 
nearly ,l#ajjj had already been spent on
 it4 ,it appeared to ,jacquard that the 
shawl might be manufactured in a much   
simpler and less expensive manner4 ,he  
thought that the principle of a machine 
of ,vaucousin's might be applied to the 
operation1 but found it too complex and 
slow4 ,he brooded over the subject1 made
 a great many experiments1 and at last  
succeeded in contriving an improved     
apparatus4  ,he returned to ,lyons to   
superintend the introduction of his     
machine for figure-weaving and the      
manufacture of nets4 ,the former        
invention was purchased for the use of  
the people1 and was brought into use    
very slowly4 ,the weavers of ,lyons     
denounced ,jacquard as the enemy of the 
people1 who was striving to destroy     

their trade1 and starve themselves and  
families1 and used every effort to      
prevent the introduction of his machine4
 ,they wilfully spoiled their work in   
order to bring the new process into     
discredit4 ,the machine was ordered to  
be destroyed in one of the public       
squares4 ,it was broken to pieces1--the 
iron-work was sold for old metal1 and   
the wood-work for faggots4 ,jacquard    
himself had on one occasion to be       
rescued from the hands of a mob who were
 going to throw him into the ,rhone4    
,before ,jacquard's death in #ahce1 his 
apparatus had not only made its way into
 every manufactory in ,france1 but was  
used in ,england1 ,switzerland1         
,germany1 ,italy1 and ,america4 ,even   
the ,chinese condescended to avail      
themselves of this invention of a       
barbarian4  ,jacquard's apparatus is1   
strictly speaking1 not a loom1 but an   
appendage to one4 ,it is intended to    
elevate or depress1 by bars1 the warp   
threads for the reception of the        

shuttle1 the patterns being regulated by
 means of bands of punched cards acting 
on needles with loops and eyes4 ,at     
first applied to silk weaving only1 the 
use of this machine has since been      
extended to the bobbin net1 carpets1 and
 other fancy manufactures4 ,by its      
agency the richest and most complex     
designs1 which could formerly be        
achieved only by the most skilful       
labourers1 with a painful degree of     
labour1 and at an exorbitant cost1 are  
now produced with facility by the most  
ordinary workmen1 and at the most       
moderate price4  ,of late years the silk
 manufacture has greatly improved1 both 
in character and extent4 ,the products  
of ,british looms exhibited at the      
,great ,exhibition of #ahfb vied with   
those of the ,continent4 ,every year    
upwards of ,l#b1cjj1jjj worth of silk is
 brought to ,england2 and the silk      
manufacture engages some ,l#ee1jjj1jjj  
of capital1 and employs eleven to twelve
 hundred thousand of our population4    

,the ,potter's ,art4     ,i4--,,luca    
,,della ,,robbia4  ,,ii4--,,bernard     
,,palissy4 ,,iii4--,,josiah ,,wedgwood4 
,the ,potter's ,art4     ,i4--,,luca    
,,della ,,robbia4   ,there can be little
 doubt as to the antiquity of the       
pottery manufacture4 ,it probably had   
its origin in that of bricks1 which at a
 very early date men made for purposes  
of construction2 but it is not          
impossible that he had previously       
contrived to fabricate the commoner     
articles of domestic economy1 such as   
pans and dishes1 of sun-dried clay4     
,bricks1 as everybody knows1 are        
fashioned out of a coarse clay1 such as 
we meet with in very numerous           
localities4 ,after mixing up with water 
a kind of paste out of these clayey     
earths1 the moulder works up the paste  
into the shape of bricks1 and they are  
then exposed to the heat of the kiln4   
,sometimes it was thought sufficient to 
dry these bricks in the rays of a       
burning sun2 but1 so dried1 their       

solidity is very inconsiderable4 ,baked 
bricks owe their redness of colour to   
the oxide of iron which they contain4   
,they are either moulded with the hand  
or cast in rectangular frames of wood1  
dusted with sand4 ,to bake them1 they   
are piled up in huge stacks1 in which   
intervals are left for storing and      
kindling the fuel4 ,they are also baked 
in kilns4  ,the commoner pottery wares  
are manufactured with the coarse impure 
clays1 which are allowed to rot in      
trenches for several years to render    
them more plastic4 ,flower-pots1        
sugar-pans1 vases1 and other and more   
graceful articles1 are moulded on the   
potter's wheel4  ,now1 this potter's    
wheel is one of the most ancient        
instruments of human industry1 one of   
the earliest inventions by which man    
utilized and economized his labour4 ,it 
consists of a large disc of wood1 to    
which a rotatory motion is given by the 
workman's foot4 ,a second and smaller   
disc1 on which is placed the paste for  

working1 is fixed upon the upper        
extremity of the vertical axis to which 
the larger and inferior disc is         
attached4 ,seated on his bench1 the     
workman places in the centre of the disc
 a certain quantity of soft moist clay1 
and turning the wheel with his foot1    
moulds the said paste with both hands1  
until it assumes the desired shape4 ,you
 can imagine no prettier spectacle than 
that of a skilful potter causing the    
clay1 under his nimble fingers1 to      
assume the most varied forms4 ,it seems 
as if by miracle the vase was created   
suddenly1 and the rude clay sprang into 
a life and beauty of its own4  ,the     
,campanian potteries1 improperly but    
commonly called the ,etruscan1 and the  
ancient ,greek wares1 belong to the     
class of soft and lustrous potteries    
which are no longer manufactured4 ,the  
,etruscan vases are the most remarkable 
specimens of the ancient potter's art2  
pure1 simple1 and elegant in form1 they 
cannot be surpassed by any efforts of   

the modern potter4 ,the paste of which  
they are made is very fine and          
homogeneous1 coated with a peculiar     
glassy lustre1 which is thin but        
tenacious1 red or black1 and formed of  
silica rendered fusible by an alkali4   
,they were baked at a low temperature4  
,in this ware1 which was in vogue       
between #ejj and #cbj ,b4,c41 the       
,aretine and ,roman pottery originated4 
,the former was manufactured at ,arezzo 
or ,arretium4  ,the knowledge of glazes1
 which was acquired by the ,egyptians   
and ,assyrians1 seems to have been      
handed down to the ,persians1 ,moors1   
and ,arabs4 ,fayences1 and enamelled    
bricks and plaques1 were commonly used  
among them in the twelfth century1 and  
among the ,hindus in the fourteenth4    
,the celebrated glazed tiles1 or        
azulejos1 which contribute so much to   
the beauty of the ,alhambra1 were       
introduced into ,spain by the ,moors    
about #gaa ,a4,d4 ,in ,italy1 it is     
supposed1 they were made known as early 

as the conquest of ,majorca by the      
,pisans1 in #aaae ,a4,d4 ,but           
,brongniart places their introduction   
three centuries later1 or in #adae1 and 
says this peculiar kind of ware was     
called ,majolica1 from ,majorica or     
,majorca4 ,this1 however1 seems to have 
been the ,italian enamelled fayence1    
which was used for subjects in relief by
 the celebrated ,florentine sculptor1   
,luca della ,robbia4  ,robbia had been  
bred to the trade of a goldsmith--in    
those days a trade of great distinction 
and opulence--but his artistic tastes   
could not be controlled1 and he         
abandoned it to become a sculptor4 ,a   
man of a singularly enthusiastic and    
ardent nature1 he applied himself       
arduously to his new work4 ,he worked   
all day with his chisel1 and sat up1    
even through the night1 to study4       
,often1 says ,vasari1 when his feet were
 frozen with cold in the night time1 he 
kept them in a basket of shavings to    
warm them1 that he might not be         

compelled to discontinue his drawings4  
,such devotion could hardly fail to     
secure success4 ,luca was recognised as 
one of the first sculptors of the day1  
and executed a number of great works in 
bronze and marble4 ,on the conclusion of
 some important commissions1 he was     
struck with the disproportion between   
the payment he received and the time and
 labour he had expended2 and1 abandoning
 marble and bronze1 resolved to work in 
clay4 ,before he could do that1 however1
 it was necessary to discover some means
 of rendering durable the works which he
 executed in that material4 ,applying   
himself to the task with characteristic 
zeal and perseverance1 he at length     
succeeded in discovering a mode of      
protecting such productions from the    
injuries of time1 by means of a glaze or
 enamel1 which conferred not only an    
almost eternal durability1 but          
additional beauty on his works in terra 
cotta4 ,at first this enamel was of a   
pure white1 but he afterwards added the 

further invention of colouring it4 ,the 
fame of these productions spread over   
,europe1 and ,luca found abundant and   
profitable employment during the rest of
 his days1 the work being carried on1   
after his death1 by brothers and        
descendants4     ,,ii4--,,bernard       
,,palissy4   ,the next great master in  
the art was ,bernard ,palissy1--a man   
distinguished not only for his artistic 
genius1 but for his philosophical       
attainments1 his noble1 manly character1
 and zealous piety4 ,born of poor       
parents about the beginning of the      
sixteenth century1 ,bernard ,palissy was
 taken as apprentice by a land-surveyor1
 who had been much struck with the boy's
 quickness and ingenuity4               
,land-surveying1 of course1 involved    
some knowledge of drawing2 and thus a   
taste for painting was developed4 ,from 
drawing lines and diagrams he went on to
 copy from the great masters4 ,as this  
new talent became known he obtained     
employment in painting designs on glass4

 ,he received commissions in various    
parts of the country1 and in his travels
 employed his mind in the study of      
natural objects4 ,he examined the       
character of the soils and minerals upon
 his route1 and the better to grapple   
with the subject1 devoted his attention 
to chemistry4 ,at length he settled and 
married at ,staines1 and for a time     
lived thriftily as a painter4  ,one day 
he was shown an elegant cup of ,italian 
manufacture1 beautifully enamelled4 ,the
 art of enamelling was then entirely    
unknown in ,france1 and ,palissy was at 
once seized with the idea1 that if he   
could but discover the secret it would  
enable him to place his wife and family 
in greater comfort4 ,so1 therefore1 he  
writes1 regardless of the fact that ,i  
had no knowledge of clays1 ,i began to  
seek for these enamels as a man gropes  
in the dark4 ,i reflected that ,god had 
gifted me with some knowledge of        
drawing1 and ,i took courage in my      
heart1 and besought him to give me      

wisdom and skill4  ,illustration3       
,,palissy ,,the ,,potter4 ,page #bdb4   
,he lost no time in commencing his      
experiments4 ,he bought a quantity of   
earthen pots1 broke them into fragments1
 and covering them with various chemical
 compounds1 baked them in a little      
furnace of his own construction1 in the 
hope of discovering the white enamel1   
which he had been told was the key to   
all the rest4 ,again and again he varied
 the ingredients of the compositions1   
the proportions in which they were      
mixed1 the quality of the clay on which 
they were spread1 the heat of the       
furnace to which they were subjected2   
but the white enamel was still as great 
a mystery as ever4 ,instead of          
discouraging1 each new defeat seemed to 
confirm his hope of ultimate success and
 to increase his perseverance4 ,painting
 and surveying he no longer practised1  
except when sheer necessity compelled   
him to resort to them to provide bread  
for his family4 ,the discovery of the   

enamel had become the great mission of  
his life1 and to that all other         
occupations must be sacrificed4 ,thus   
having blundered several times at great 
expense and through much trouble1 with  
sorrows and sighs1 ,i was every day     
pounding and grinding new materials and 
constructing new furnaces1 which cost   
much money1 and consumed my wood and my 
time4 ,two years had passed now in      
fruitless effort4 ,food was becoming    
scarce in the little household1 his wife
 worn and shrewish1 the children thin   
and sickly4 ,but then came the thought  
to cheer him1--when the enamel was found
 his fortune would be made1 there would 
then be an end to all his privations1   
anxieties1 and domestic unhappiness1    
,lisette would live at ease1 and his    
children lack no comfort4 ,no1 the work 
must not be given up yet4 ,his own      
furnace was clumsy and                  
imperfect1--perhaps his compositions    
would turn out better in a regular kiln4
 ,so more pots were bought and broken   

into fragments1 which1 covered with     
chemical preparations1 were fired at a  
pottery in the neighbourhood4 ,batch    
after batch was prepared and despatched 
to the kiln1 but all proved             
disheartening failures4 ,still with     
great cost1 loss of time1 confusion1 and
 sorrow1 he persevered1 the wife growing
 more shrewish1 the children more       
pinched and haggard4 ,by good luck at   
this time came the royal commissioners  
to establish the gabelle or tax in the  
district of ,saintonge1 and ,palissy was
 employed to survey the salt marshes4   
,it was a very profitable job1 and      
,palissy's affairs began to look more   
flourishing4 ,but the work was no sooner
 concluded1 than the will o' the wisp1  
as his wife and neighbours held it1 was 
dancing again before his eyes1 and he   
was back1 with redoubled energy1 to his 
favourite occupation1 diving into the   
secret of enamels4  ,two years of       
unremitting1 anxious toil1 of grinding  
and mixing1 of innumerable visits to the

 kiln1 sanguine of success1 with ever   
new preparations2 of invariable journeys
 home again1 sad and weary1 for the     
moment utterly discouraged2 of domestic 
bickerings2 of mockery and censure among
 neighbours1 and still the enamel was a 
mystery1--still ,palissy1 seemingly as  
far from the end as ever1 was eager to  
prosecute the search4 ,he appeared to   
have an inward conviction that he would 
succeed2 but meanwhile the remonstrances
 of his wife1 the pale1 thin faces of   
his bairns1 warned him he must desist1  
and resume the employments that at least
 brought food and clothing4 ,there      
should be one more trial on a grand     
scale1--if that failed1 then there      
should be an end of his experiments4    
,god willed1 he says1 that when ,i had  
begun to lose my courage1 and was gone  
for the last time to a glass-furnace1   
having a man with me carrying more than 
three hundred pieces1 there was one     
among those pieces which was melted     
within four hours after it had been     

placed in the furnace1 which trial      
turned out white and polished1 in a way 
that caused me such joy as made me think
 ,i was become a new creature4 ,he      
rushed home1 burst into his wife's      
chamber1 shouting1 ,i have found it6    
,from that moment he was more           
enthusiastic than ever in his search4   
,he had discovered the white enamel4    
,the next thing to be done was to apply 
it4 ,he must now work at home and in    
secret4 ,he set about moulding vessels  
of clay after designs of his own1 and   
baked them in a furnace which he had    
built in imitation of the one at the    
pottery4 ,the grinding and compounding  
of the ingredients of the enamel cost   
him the labour1 day and night1 of       
another month4 ,then all was ready for  
the final process4  ,the vessels1 coated
 with the precious mixture1 are ranged  
in the furnace1 the fire is lit and     
blazes fiercely4 ,to stint the supply of
 fuel would be to cheat himself of a    
fortune for the sake of a few pence1 so 

he does not spare wood4 ,all that day he
 diligently feeds the fire1 nor lets it 
slacken through the night4 ,the         
excitement will not let him sleep even  
if he would4 ,the prize he has striven  
for through these weary years1 for which
 he has borne mockery and privation1 is 
now all but within his grasp2 in another
 hour or two he will have possessed it4 
,the grey dawn comes1 but still the     
enamel melts not4 ,his boy brings him a 
portion of the scanty family meal4      
,there shall soon be an end to that     
miserable fare6 ,more faggots are cast  
on the fire4 ,the night falls1 and the  
sun rises on the third day of his       
tending and watching at the furnace     
door1 but still the powder shows no     
signs of melting4 ,pale1 haggard1 sick  
at heart with anxiety and dread1 worn   
with watching1 parched and fevered with 
the heat of the fire1 through another1  
and yet another and another day and     
night1 through six days and six nights  
in all1 ,bernard ,palissy watches by the

 glaring furnace1 feeds it continually  
with wood1 and still the enamel is      
unmelted4 ,seeing it was not possible to
 make the said enamel melt1 ,i was like 
a man in desperation2 and although quite
 stupified with labour1 ,i counselled to
 myself that in my mixture there might  
be some fault4 ,therefore ,i began once 
more to pound and grind more materials1 
all the time without letting my furnace 
cool4 ,in this way ,i had double labour1
 to pound1 grind1 and maintain the fire4
 ,i was also forced to go again and     
purchase pots in order to prove the said
 compound1 seeing that ,i had lost all  
the vessels which ,i had made myself4   
,and having covered the new pieces with 
the said enamel1 ,i put them into the   
furnace1 keeping the fire still at its  
height4  ,by this time it was no easy   
matter to keep the fire at its height4  
,his stock of fuel was exhausted2 he had
 no money to buy any more1 and yet fuel 
must be had4 ,on the very eve of        
success--alas6 an eve that so seldom has

 a dawn--it would never do to lose it   
all for want of wood1 not while wood of 
any kind was procurable4 ,he rushed into
 the garden1 tore up the palings1 the   
trellis work that supported the vines1  
gathered every scrap of wood he could   
find1 and cast them on the fire4 ,but   
soon again the deep red glow of the     
furnace began to fade1 and still it had 
not done its work4 ,suddenly a crashing 
noise was heard2 his wife1 the children 
clinging to her gown1 rushed in4        
,palissy had seized the chairs and      
table1 had torn the door from its       
hinges1 wrenched the window frames from 
their sockets1 and broken them in pieces
 to serve as fuel for the all-devouring 
fire4 ,now he was busy breaking up the  
very flooring of the house4 ,and all in 
vain6 ,the composition would not melt4  
,i suffered an anguish that ,i cannot   
speak1 for ,i was quite exhausted and   
dried up by the heat of the furnace4    
,further to console me1 ,i was the      
object of mockery2 even those from whom 

solace was due1 ran1 crying through the 
town that ,i was burning my floors4 ,in 
this way my credit was taken from me1   
and ,i was regarded as a madman1 if not1
 as he tells us elsewhere1 as one       
seeking ill-gotten gains1 and sold to   
the evil one for filthy lucre4  ,he made
 another effort1 engaged a potter to    
assist him1 giving the clothes off his  
own back to pay him1 and afterwards     
receiving aid from a friendly neighbour1
 and this time proved that his mixture  
was of the right kind4 ,but the furnace 
having been built with mortar which was 
full of flints1 burst with the heat1 and
 the splinters adhered to the pottery4  
,sooner than allow such imperfect       
specimens of his art to go forth to the 
world1 ,palissy destroyed them1 although
 some would have bought them at a mean  
price4  ,better days1 however1 were at  
hand for himself and family4 ,his next  
efforts were successful4 ,an            
introduction to the ,duke of            
,montmorency procured him the patronage 

of that nobleman1 as well as of the     
king4 ,he now found profitable          
employment for himself and food for his 
family4 ,during the space of fifteen or 
sixteen years in all1 he said           
afterwards1 ,i have blundered on at my  
business4 ,when ,i had learned to guard 
against one danger1 there came another  
on which ,i had not reckoned4 ,all this 
caused me such labour and heaviness of  
spirit1 that before ,i could render my  
enamels fusible at the same degrees of  
heat1 ,i verily thought ,i should be at 
the door of my sepulchre4444 ,but ,i    
have found nothing better than to       
observe the counsel of ,god1 his edicts1
 statutes1 and ordinances2 and in regard
 to his will1 ,i have seen that he has  
commanded his followers to eat bread by 
the labour of their bodies1 and to      
multiply their talents which he has     
committed to them4  ,when the           
,reformation came1 ,palissy was an      
earnest reformer1 on ,sunday mornings   
assembling a number of simple1 unlearned

 men for religious worship1 and         
exhorting them to good works4 ,court    
favour exempted him from edicts against 
,protestants1 but could not shield him  
from popular prejudice4 ,his workshops  
at ,saintes were destroyed2 and to save 
his life and preserve the art he had    
invented1 the king called him to ,paris 
as a servant of his own4 ,thus he       
escaped the massacre of ,st4            
,bartholomew4 ,besides being a skilful  
potter1 ,palissy was a naturalist of no 
little eminence4 ,i have had no other   
book than heaven and earth1 which are   
open to all1 he used to say2 but he read
 the wondrous volume well1 while others 
knew it chiefly at second-hand1 and     
hence his superiority to most of the    
naturalists of the day4 ,he was in the  
habit of lecturing to the learned men of
 the capital on natural history and     
chemistry4 ,when more than eighty years 
of age he was accused of heresy1 and    
shut up in the ,bastille4 ,the king1    
visiting him in prison1 said1 ,my good  

man1 if you do not renounce your views  
upon religious matters1 ,i shall be     
constrained to leave you in the hands of
 my enemies4 ,sire1 replied ,palissy1   
those who constrain you1 a king1 can    
never have power over me1 because ,i    
know how to die4 ,palissy died in       
prison1 aged and exhausted1 in #aeij1 at
 the age of eighty4  ,before his death  
his wares had become famous1 and were   
greatly prized4 ,the enamel1 which he   
went through so much toil and suffering 
to discover1 was the foundation of a    
flourishing national manufacture4       
,,iii4--,,josiah ,,wedgwood4   ,josiah  
,wedgwood1 whose name in connection with
 pottery-ware has become a household    
word amongst us1 was the younger son of 
a potter at ,burslem1 in ,staffordshire1
 who had also a little patch of ground  
which he farmed4 ,when ,josiah was only 
eleven years old1 his father died1 and  
he was thus left dependent upon his     
elder brother1 who employed him as a    
thrower at his own wheel4 ,an attack of 

smallpox1 in its most malignant form1   
soon after endangered his life1 and he  
survived only by the sacrifice of his   
left leg1 in which the dregs of the     
disease had settled1 and which had to be
 cut off4 ,weak and disabled1 he was now
 thrown upon the world to seek his own  
fortune4 ,at first it was very uphill   
work with him1 and he found it no easy  
matter to provide even the most frugal  
fare4 ,he was gifted1 however1 with a   
very fine taste in devising patterns for
 articles of earthenware1 and found     
ready custom for plates1 knife-handles1 
and jugs of fanciful shape4 ,he worked  
away industriously himself1 and was able
 by degrees to employ assistance and    
enlarge his establishment4 ,the pottery 
manufactures of this country were then  
in a very primitive condition4 ,only the
 coarsest sort of articles were made1   
and any attempt to give elegance to the 
designs was very rare indeed4 ,all the  
more ornamental and finer class of goods
 came from the ,continent4 ,wedgwood saw

 no reason why we should not emulate    
foreigners in the beauty of the forms   
into which the clay was thrown1 and made
 a point of sending out of his own shop 
articles of as elegant a shape as       
possible4 ,this feature in his          
productions was not overlooked by       
customers1 and he found a growing demand
 for them4 ,the coarseness of the       
material was1 however1 a great drawback 
to the extension of the trade in native 
pottery2 and it seemed almost like      
throwing good designs away to apply them
 to such rude wares4 ,wedgwood saw      
clearly that if earthenware was ever to 
become a profitable ,english            
manufacture1 something must be done to  
improve the quality of the clay4 ,he    
brooded over the subject1 tested all the
 different sorts of earth in the        
district1 and at length discovered one1 
containing silica1 which1 black in      
colour before it went into the oven1    
came out of it a pure and beautiful     
white4 ,this fact ascertained1 he was   

not long in turning it to practical     
account1 by mixing flint powder with the
 red earth of the potteries1 and thus   
obtaining a material which became white 
when exposed to the heat of a furnace4  
,the next step was to cover this        
material with a transparent glaze2 and  
he could then turn out earthenware as   
pure in quality as that from the        
,continent4 ,this was the foundation not
 only of his own fortune1 but of a      
manufacture which has since provided    
profitable employment for thousands of  
his countrymen1 besides placing within  
the reach of even the humblest of them  
good serviceable earthenware for        
household use4  ,the success of his     
white stoneware was such1 that he was   
able to quit the little thatched house  
he had formerly occupied1 and open shop 
in larger and more imposing premises4   
,he increased the number of his hands1  
and drove an extensive and growing      
trade4 ,he was not content to halt after
 the discovery of the white stoneware4  

,on the contrary1 the success he had    
already attained only impelled him to   
further efforts to improve the trade he 
had taken up1 and which now became quite
 a passion with him4 ,when he devoted   
himself to any particular effort in     
connection with it1 his first thought   
was always how to turn out the very best
 article that could be made--his last   
thought was whether it would pay him or 
not4 ,he stuck up for the honour of old 
,england1 and maintained that whatever  
enterprise could be achieved1 that      
,english skill and enterprise was       
competent to do4 ,although he had never 
had any education himself worth speaking
 of1 his natural shrewdness and keen    
faculty of observation supplied his     
deficiencies in that respect2 and when  
he applied himself1 as he now did1 to   
the study of chemistry1 with a view to  
the improvement of the pottery art1 he  
made rapid and substantial progress1 and
 passed muster creditably even in the   
company of men of science and learning4 

,he contributed many valuable           
communications to the ,royal ,society1  
and invented a thermometer for measuring
 the higher degrees of heat employed in 
the various arts of pottery4  ,again his
 premises proved too confined for his   
expanding trade1 and he removed to a    
larger establishment1 and there         
perfected that cream-coloured ware with 
which ,queen ,charlotte was so          
delighted1 that she ordered a whole     
service of it1 and commanding that it   
should be called after her--the ,queen's
 ,ware1 and that its inventor should    
receive the title of the ,royal ,potter4
  ,a royal potter ,wedgwood truly was2  
the very king of earthenware            
manufactures1 resolute in his           
determination to attain the highest     
degree of perfection in his productions1
 indefatigable in his labours1 and      
unstinting in his outlay to secure that 
end4 ,he invented altogether seven or   
eight different kinds of ware2 and      
succeeded in combining the greatest     

delicacy and purity of material1 and    
utmost elegance of design1 with         
strength1 durability1 and cheapness4    
,the effect of the improvements he      
successively introduced into the        
manufacture of earthenware is thus      
described by a foreign writer about this
 period3 ,its excellent workmanship1 its
 solidity1 the advantage which it       
possesses of sustaining the action of   
fire1 its fine glaze1 impenetrable to   
acids1 the beauty and convenience of its
 form1 and the cheapness of its price1  
have given rise to a commerce so active 
and so universal1 that in travelling    
from ,paris to ,petersburg1 from        
,amsterdam to the furthest port of      
,sweden1 and from ,dunkirk to the       
extremity of the south of ,france1 one  
is served at every inn with ,wedgwood   
ware4 ,spain1 ,portugal1 and ,italy are 
supplied with it1 and vessels are loaded
 with it for the ,east ,indies1 the     
,west ,indies1 and the continent of     
,america4 ,wedgwood himself1 when       

examined before a committee of the      
,house of ,commons in #aghe1 some thirty
 years after he had begun his           
operations1 stated that from providing  
only casual employment to a small number
 of inefficient and badly remunerated   
workmen1 the manufacture had increased  
to an extent that gave direct employment
 to about twenty thousand persons1      
without taking into account the         
increased numbers who earned a          
livelihood by digging coals for the use 
of the potteries1 by carrying the       
productions from one quarter to another1
 and in many other ways4  ,wedgwood did 
not confine himself to the manufacture  
of useful articles1 though such1 of     
course1 formed the bulk of his trade1   
but published beautiful imitations of   
,egyptian1 ,greek1 and ,etruscan vases1 
copies of cameos1 medallions1 tablets1  
and so on4 ,valuable sets of old        
porcelain were frequently intrusted to  
him for imitation1 in which he succeeded
 so well that it was difficult to tell  

the original from the counterfeit1      
except sometimes from the superior      
excellence and beauty of the latter4    
,when the celebrated ,barberini ,vase   
was for sale1 ,wedgwood1 bent upon      
making copies of it1 made heavy bids    
against the ,duchess of ,portland for   
it2 and was only induced to desist by   
the promise1 that he should have the    
loan of it in order that he might copy  
it4 ,accordingly1 the duchess had the   
vase knocked down to her at eighteen    
hundred guineas1 and ,wedgwood made     
fifty copies of it1 which he sold at    
fifty guineas each1 and was thus        
considerably out of pocket by the       
transaction4 ,he did it1 however1 not   
for the sake of profit1 but to show what
 an ,english pottery could accomplish4  
,besides copying from antique objects1  
,wedgwood tried to rival them in the    
taste and elegance of original          
productions4 ,he found out ,flaxman when
 he was an unknown student1 and employed
 him1 upon very liberal terms1 to design

 for him2 and thus the articles of      
earthenware which he manufactured proved
 of the greatest value in the art       
education of the people4 ,we owe not a  
little of the improved taste and popular
 appreciation and enjoyment of the fine 
arts in our own day to the generous     
enterprise of ,josiah ,wedgwood1 and his
 talented designs4  ,in order to secure 
every access from the potteries to the  
eastern and western coasts of the       
island1 ,wedgwood proposed1 and1 with   
the aid of others whom he induced to    
join him1 carried out the ,grand ,trunk 
,canal between the ,trent and the       
,mersey4 ,he himself constructed a      
turnpike road ten miles in length       
through the potteries1 and built a      
village for his work-people1 which he   
called ,etruria1 and where he           
established his works4 ,he died there in
 #agie1 at the age of sixty-five1       
leaving a large fortune and an honoured 
name1 which he had acquired by his own  
industry1 enterprise1 and generosity4   

,a remarkable memorial to the genius and
 artistic labours of ,wedgwood was      
erected in #ahfc1 and some reference to 
it should undoubtedly be made in these  
pages4  ,it is a twofold memorial3 a    
bronze statue at ,stoke-upon-,trent1 and
 a memorial institute1 erected close to 
the birth-place of the ,great ,potter at
 ,burslem4 ,the foundation-stone was    
laid on the #bfth of ,october by the    
,right ,hon4 ,w4 ,e4 ,gladstone1 ,m4,p41
 then ,chancellor of the ,exchequer1 in 
the presence of a very large and        
enthusiastic assemblage4 ,the           
,chancellor delivered a public address1 
which in eloquent terms did homage to   
,wedgwood's great mental qualities and  
his services to his country4  ,he       
described as his most signal and        
characteristic merit1 the firmness and  
fulness of his perception of the true   
law of what we term industrial art1 or1 
in other words1 of the application of   
the higher art to industry--the law     
which teaches us to aim first at giving 

to every object the greatest possible   
degree of fitness and convenience for   
its purpose1 and next at making it the  
article of the highest degree of beauty1
 which compatibly with that fitness and 
convenience it will bear--which does not
 substitute the secondary for the       
primary end1 but recognizes as part of  
the business the study to harmonize the 
two4  ,mr4 ,gladstone observed1 that to 
have a strong grasp of this principle1  
and to work it out to its results in the
 details of a vast and varied           
manufacture1 was a praise high enough   
for any man1 at any time and in any     
place4 ,but he thought it was higher and
 more peculiar in the case of ,wedgwood 
than it could be in almost any other    
case4 ,for that truth of art which he   
saw so clearly1 and which lies at the   
root of excellence1 is one of which     
,england1 his country1 has not usually  
had a perception at all corresponding in
 strength and fulness with her other    
rare endowments4 ,she has long taken a  

lead among the ,european nations for the
 cheapness of her manufactures1 not so  
for their beauty4 ,and if the day should
 arrive when she shall be as eminent for
 purity of taste as she is now for      
economy of production1 the result will  
probably be due to no other single man  
in so remarkable a degree as to ,josiah 
,wedgwood4         99       99       99 
99       99  ,we conclude with a lively 
extract from the ,chancellor's          
exhaustive and interesting address3--   
,wedgwood1 he says1 in his pursuit of   
beauty1 did not overlook exchangeable   
value or practical usefulness4 ,the     
first he could not overlook1 for he had 
to live by his trade2 and it was by the 
profit derived from the extended sale of
 his humbler productions that he was    
enabled to bear the risks and charges of
 his higher works4 ,commerce did for him
 what the ,king of ,france did for      
,sevres1 and the ,duke of ,cumberland   
for ,chelsea1 it found him in funds4    
,and ,i would venture to say that the   

lower works of ,wedgwood are every whit 
as much distinguished by the fineness   
and accuracy of their adaptation to     
their uses as his higher ones by their  
successful exhibition of the finest     
arts4 ,take1 for instance1 his common   
plates1 of the value of1 ,i know not how
 few1 but certainly of a very few pence 
each4 ,they fit one another as closely  
as cards in a pack4 ,at least1 ,i for   
one have never seen plates that fit like
 the plates of ,wedgwood1 and become one
 solid mass4 ,such accuracy of form     
must1 ,i apprehend1 render them much    
more safe in carriage4444  ,again1 take 
such a jug as he would manufacture for  
the wash-stand table of a garret4 ,i    
have seen these made apparently of the  
commonest material used in the trade4   
,but instead of being built up1 like the
 usual and much more fashionable jugs of
 modern manufacture1 in such a shape    
that a crane could not easily get his   
neck to bend into them1 and the water   
can hardly be poured out without risk of

 spraining the wrist1 they are          
constructed in a simple capacious form1 
of flowing curves1 broad at the top1 and
 so well poised that a slight and easy  
movement of the hand discharges the     
water4 ,a round cheese-holder or dish1  
again1 generally presents in its upper  
part a flat space surrounded by a curved
 rim2 but the cheese-holder of ,wedgwood
 will make itself known by this--that   
the flat is so dead a flat1 and the     
curve so marked and bold a curve2 thus  
at once furnishing the eye with a line  
agreeable and well-defined1 and         
affording the utmost available space for
 the cheese4 ,i feel persuaded that a   
,wiltshire cheese1 if it could speak1   
would declare itself more comfortable in
 a dish of ,wedgwood's than in any other
 dish4         99       99       99     
99       99  ,the worthiest successor to
 ,wedgwood whom ,england has known was  
the late ,herbert ,minton1 who was      
scarcely less distinguished than his    
predecessor for perseverance1 patient   

effort1 and artistic sentiment4 ,we owe 
to him in a great measure the revival of
 the elegant art of manufacturing       
encaustic tiles4  ,the principal        
varieties of ceramic ware now in use    
are3--#a4 ,porcelain1 which is composed1
 in ,england1 of sand1 calcined bones1  
china-clay1 and potash2 and1 at         
,dresden1 of kaolin1 felspar1 and broken
 biscuit-porcelain2 #b4 ,parian1 which  
is used in a liquid state1 and poured   
into plaster-of-paris moulds2 #c4       
,earthenware1 the ,fayence of the       
,italians1 and the ,delft of the ,dutch1
 made of various kinds of clay1 with a  
mixture of powdered calcined flint2 and1
 #d4 ,stoneware1 composed of several    
kinds of plastic clay1 mixed with       
felspar and sand1 and occasionally a    
little lime4  ,it is estimated that our 
,english potteries not only supply the  
demand of the ,united ,kingdom1 but     
export ware to the value of nearly a    
million and a half annually4 ,the       
establishments are about #aij in number2

 employ #ge1jjj to #hj1jjj operatives2  
and export #ij1jjj1jjj pieces4     ,the 
,miner's ,safety ,lamp4       ,,sir     
,,humphrey ,,davy4     ,the ,miner's    
,safety ,lamp4     ,,sir ,,humphrey     
,,davy4   ,what's that8 ,is the house   
coming down8 cried ,mr4 ,borlase1 the   
surgeon-apothecary of ,penzance1 jumping
 out of his cozy arm-chair1 as a        
tremendous explosion shook the house    
from top to bottom1 making a great      
jingle among the gallipots in the shop  
below1 and rousing him from a           
comfortable nap4  ,please1 sir1 said    
,betty1 the housemaid1 putting her head 
into the room1 here's that boy ,davy    
been a-blowing of hisself up agen4 ,drat
 him1 he's always up to some trick or   
other6 ,he'll be the death of all of us 
some day1 that boy will1 as sure as my  
name's ,betty4  ,bring him here         
directly1 replied her master1 knitting  
his brow1 and screwing his mild         
countenance into an elaborate imitation 
of that of a judge he once saw at the   

assizes1 with the black cap on1         
sentencing some poor wretch to be       
hanged4 ,really1 this sort of thing     
won't do at all4  ,only1 it must be     
owned1 ,mr4 ,borlase had said that many 
times before1 and put on the terrible   
judicial look too1 and yet that boy     
,davy was at his tricks again as much as
 ever4  ,i'll bring as much as ,i can   
find of him1 sir1 said ,betty1 gathering
 up her apron1 as if she fully expected 
to discover the object of her search in 
a fragmentary condition4  ,presently    
there was heard a shuffling in the      
passage1 and a somewhat ungainly youth1 
about sixteen years of age1 was thrust  
into the room1 with the due complement  
of legs1 arms1 and other members1 and   
only somewhat the grimier about the face
 for the explosion4 ,his fingers were   
all yellow with acids1 and his clothes  
plentifully variegated with stains from 
the same compounds4 ,at first sight he  
looked rather a dull1 loutish boy1 but  
his sharp1 clear eyes somewhat redeemed 

his expression on a second glance4      
,here he is1 sir1 cried ,betty          
triumphantly1 as though she really had  
found him in pieces1 and took credit for
 having put him cleverly together again4
  ,well1 ,humphrey1 said ,mr4 ,borlase1 
what have you been up to now8 ,you'll   
never rest1 ,i'm afraid1 till you have  
the house on fire4  ,oh6 if you please1 
sir1 ,i was only experimenting in the   
garret1 and there's no harm done4  ,no  
harm done6 echoed ,betty2 and if there  
isn't it's no fault of yours1 you nasty 
monkey4 ,i declare that blow up gave me 
such a turn you could ha' knocked me    
down with a feather1 and there's a smell
 all over the house enough to pison any 
one4  ,that'll do1 ,betty1 said her     
master1 finding the grim judicial       
countenance rather difficult to keep up1
 and anxious to pronounce sentence      
before it quite wore off4 ,i'll tell you
 what it is1 young ,davy1 this sort of  
thing won't do at all4 ,i must speak to 
,mr4 ,tonkine about you2 and if ,i catch

 you at it again1 you'll have to take   
yourself and your experiments somewhere 
else4 ,so ,i warn you4 ,you had much    
better attend to your work4 ,it was only
 the other day you gave old ,goody      
,jones a paperful of cayenne instead of 
cinnamon2 and there's ,joe ,grimsly1 the
 beadle1 been here half a dozen times   
this day for those pills ,i told you to 
make up1 and they're not ready yet4 ,so 
just you take yourself off1 mind your   
business1 and don't let me have any more
 nonsense1 or it'll be the worse for    
you4  ,and so the culprit gladly backed 
out of the room1 not a whit abashed by  
the reprimand1 for it was no novelty1 to
 begin his experiments again and again1 
and one day1 by way of compensation for 
keeping his master's household in       
constant terror of being blown up1 to   
make his name familiar as a household   
word1 by the invention of a little      
instrument that would save thousands and
 thousands from the fearful consequences
 of coal-pit explosions4  ,the ,mr4     

,tonkine that his master referred to was
 the self-constituted protector of the  
,davy family4 ,old ,davy had been a     
carver in the town1 and dying1 left his 
widow in very distressed circumstances1 
when this generous friend came forward  
and took upon himself the charge of the 
widow and her children4 ,young          
,humphrey1 on leaving school1 had been  
placed with ,mr4 ,borlase to be brought 
up as an apothecary2 but he was much    
fonder of rambling about the country1 or
 experimenting in the garret which he   
had constituted his laboratory1 than    
compounding drugs behind his master's   
counter4 ,as a boy he was not           
particularly smart1 although he was     
distinguished for the facility with     
which he gleaned the substance of any   
book that happened to take his fancy1   
and for an early predilection for       
poetry4 ,as he grew up1 the ardent1     
inquisitive turn of his mind displayed  
itself more strongly4 ,he was very fond 
of spending what leisure time he had in 

strolling along the rocky coast         
searching for sea-drift and minerals1 or
 reading some favourite book4           
,there along the beach he wandered1     
nourishing a youth sublime1     ,with   
the fairy-tales of science1 and the long
 result of time4  ,in after life he used
 often to tell how when tired he would  
sit down on the crags and exercise his  
fancy in anticipations of future renown1
 for already the ambition of            
distinguishing himself in his favourite 
science had seized him4 ,i have neither 
riches1 nor power1 nor birth1 he wrote  
in his memorandum-book1 to recommend me2
 yet if ,i live1 ,i trust ,i shall not  
be of less service to mankind and my    
friends than if ,i had been born with   
all these advantages4 ,he read a great  
deal1 and though without much method1   
managed1 in a wonderfully short time1 to
 master the rudiments of natural        
philosophy and chemistry1 to say nothing
 of considerable acquaintance with      
botany1 anatomy1 and geometry2 so that  

though the pestle and mortar might have 
a quieter time of it than suited his    
master's notions1 ,humphrey was busy    
enough in other ways4  ,illustration3   
,,humphrey',s ,,experiments ,,on ,,the  
,,diffusion ,,of ,,heat4 ,page #bfg4    
,in his walk along the beach1 the nature
 of the air contained in the bladders of
 sea-weed was a constant subject of     
speculation with him2 and he used to    
sigh over the limited laboratory at his 
command1 which prevented him from       
thoroughly investigating the matter4    
,but one day1 as good luck would have   
it1 the waves threw up a case of        
surgical instruments from some wrecked  
vessel1 somewhat rusty and sand clogged1
 but in ,davy's ingenious hands capable 
of being turned to good account4 ,out of
 an old syringe1 which was contained in 
the case1 he managed to construct a very
 tolerable air pump2 and with an old    
shade lamp1 and a couple of small metal 
tubes1 he set himself to work to        
discover the causes of the diffusion of 

heat4 ,at first sight the want of proper
 instruments for carrying on his        
researches might appear rather a        
hindrance to his progress in the paths  
of scientific discovery2 but1 in truth1 
his subsequent success as an            
experimentalist has been very properly  
attributed1 in no small degree1 to that 
necessity which is the parent of        
invention1 and which forced him to      
exercise his skill and ingenuity in     
making the most of the scanty materials 
at his command4 ,had he1 says one of his
 biographers1 in the commencement of his
 career been furnished with all those   
appliances which he enjoyed at a later  
period1 it is more than probable that he
 might never have acquired that         
wonderful tact of manipulation1 that    
ability of suggesting expedients1 and of
 contriving apparatus1 so as to meet and
 surmount the difficulties which must   
constantly arise during the progress of 
the philosopher through the unbeaten    
track and unexplored regions of science6

  ,while ,davy was thus busily engaged  
qualifying himself for the distinguished
 career that awaited him1 ,gregory      
,watt1 the son of the celebrated ,james 
,watt1 being in delicate health1 came to
 ,penzance for change of air1 and lodged
 with ,mrs4 ,davy4 ,at first he and     
,humphrey did not get on very well      
together1 for the latter had just been  
reading some metaphysical works1 and was
 very fond of indulging in crude and    
flippant speculations on such subjects1 
which rather displeased the shy invalid4
 ,but one day some chance remark of     
,davy's gave token of his extensive     
knowledge of natural history and        
chemistry1 and thenceforth a close      
intimacy sprang up between them1 greatly
 to the lad's advantage1 for ,watt's    
scientific knowledge set him in a more  
systematic groove of study1 and         
encouraged him to concentrate his       
energies on his favourite pursuit4      
,another useful friend ,davy also found 
in ,mr4 ,gilbert1 afterwards ,president 

of the ,royal ,society4 ,passing along  
one day1 ,mr4 ,gilbert observed a youth 
making strange contortions of face as he
 hung over the hutch gate of ,borlase's 
house2 and being told by a companion    
that he was the son of ,davy the carver1
 and very fond of making chemical       
experiments1 he had a talk with the lad1
 and discovering his talents1 was ever  
afterwards his staunch friend and       
patron4  ,through his two friends1 ,mr4 
,gilbert and ,mr4 ,watt1 ,davy formed   
the acquaintance of ,dr4 ,beddoes1 who  
was just setting up at ,bristol1 under  
the title of ,pneumatic ,institution1 an
 establishment for investigating the    
medical properties of different gases2  
and who1 appreciating his abilities1    
gave him the superintendence of the new 
institution4  ,although only twenty     
years of age at this time1 ,davy was    
well abreast of the science of the day1 
and soon applied his vigorous and       
searching intellect to several          
successful investigations4 ,his first   

scientific discovery was the detection  
of siliceous earth in the outer coating 
of reeds and grasses4 ,a child was      
rubbing two pieces of bonnet cane       
together1 and he noticed that a faint   
light was emitted2 and on striking them 
sharply together1 vivid sparks were     
produced just as if they had been flint 
and steel4 ,the fact that when the outer
 skin was peeled off this property was  
destroyed1 showed that it was confined  
to the skin1 and on subjecting it to    
analysis silex was obtained1 and still  
more in reeds and grasses4  ,as         
superintendent of ,dr4 ,beddoe's        
institution1 his attention was1 of      
course1 chiefly directed to the subject 
of gases1 and with the enthusiasm of    
youth1 he applied himself ardently to   
the investigation of their elements and 
effects1 attempting several very        
dangerous experiments in breathing      
gases1 and more than once nearly        
sacrificing his life4 ,in the course of 
these experiments he found out the      

peculiar properties of nitrous oxide1   
or1 as it has since been popularly      
called1 laughing gas1 which impels any  
one who inhales it to go through some   
characteristic action1--a droll fellow  
to laugh1 a dismal one to weep and sigh1
 a pugnacious man to fight and wrestle1 
or a musical one to sing4  ,at          
twenty-two years of age1 such was the   
reputation he had acquired1 that he got 
the appointment of lecturer at the      
,royal ,institution1 which was just then
 established1 and found himself in a    
little while not only a man of mark in  
the scientific1 but a lion in the       
fashionable world4 ,natural philosophy  
and chemistry had begun to attract a    
good deal of attention at that time2 and
 ,davy's enthusiasm1 his clear and vivid
 explanations of the mysteries of       
science1 and the poetry and imagination 
with which he invested the dry bones of 
scientific facts1 caught the popular    
taste exactly4 ,his lecture-room became 
a fashionable lounge1 and was crowded   

with all sorts of distinguished people4 
,the young lecturer became quite the    
rage1 and was petted and feted as the   
lion of the day4 ,it was only six years 
back that he was the druggist's boy in a
 little country town1 alarming and      
annoying the household with his         
indefatigable experiments4 ,he could    
hardly have imagined1 as one of his     
day-dreams at the sea-side1 that his    
fame would be acquired so quickly4  ,in 
spite of all the flatteries and         
attentions which were showered upon him1
 ,davy stuck manfully to his profession2
 and if his reputation was somewhat     
artificial and exaggerated at the       
commencement1 he amply earned and       
consolidated it by his valuable         
contributions to science during the rest
 of his career4  ,the name of ,humphrey 
,davy will always be best known from its
 association with the ingenious safety  
lamp which he invented1 and which well  
entitles him to rank as one of the      
benefactors of mankind4 ,it was in the  

year #ahae that ,davy first turned his  
attention to this subject4 ,of frequent 
occurrence from the very first          
commencement of coal-mining1 the number 
of accidents from fire-damp had been    
sadly multiplied by the increase of     
mining operations consequent on the     
introduction of the steam engine4 ,the  
dreadful character of some of the       
explosions which occurred about this    
time1 the appalling number of lives     
lost1 and the wide-spread desolation in 
some of the colliery districts which    
they had occasioned1 weighed heavily on 
the minds of all connected with such    
matters4 ,not merely were the feelings  
of humanity wounded by the terrible and 
constant danger to which the intrepid   
miners were exposed1 but it began to be 
gravely questioned whether the high rate
 of wage which the collier required to  
pay him not only for his labour1 but for
 the risk he ran1 would admit of the    
mines being profitably worked4 ,it was  
felt that some strenuous effort must be 

made to preserve the miners from their  
awful foe4 ,davy was then in the        
plenitude of his reputation1 and a      
committee of coal-owners besought him to
 investigate the subject1 and if        
possible provide some preventative      
against explosions4 ,davy at once went  
to the north of ,england1 visited a     
number of the principal pits1 obtained  
specimens of fire-damp1 analyzed them   
carefully1 and having discovered the    
peculiarities of this element of        
destruction1 after numerous experiments 
devised the safety-lamp as its          
antagonist4  ,the principles upon which 
this contrivance rests1 are the         
modification of the explosive tendencies
 of fire-damp 7the inflammable gas in   
mines7 when mixed with carbonic acid and
 nitrogen2 and the obstacle presented to
 the passage of an explosion1 if it     
should occur1 through a hole less than  
the seventh of an inch in diameter2 and 
accordingly1 while the small oil lamp in
 burning itself mixes the surrounding   

gas with carbonic acid and nitrogen1 the
 cylinder of wire-gauze which surrounds 
it prevents the escape of any explosion4
 ,it is curious that ,george            
,stephenson1 the celebrated engineer1   
about the same time1 hit on much the    
same expedient4  ,to control a power    
that in its tremendous effects seems to 
emulate the lightning and the           
earthquake1 and to enclose it in a net  
of the most slender texture1 was indeed 
a grand achievement2 and when we        
consider the many thousand lives which  
it has been the means of saving from a  
sudden and cruel death1 it must be      
acknowledged to be one of the noblest   
triumphs1 not only of science1 but of   
humanity1 which the world has ever seen4
 ,honours were showered upon ,davy1 from
 the miners and coal-owners1 from       
scientific associations1 from crowned   
heads2 but all must agree with ,playfair
 in thinking that it is little that the 
highest praise1 and that even the voice 
of national gratitude when most strongly

 expressed1 can add to the happiness of 
one who is conscious of having done such
 a service to his fellow-men4 ,davy     
himself said he valued it more than     
anything he ever did4 ,when urged by his
 friends to take out a patent for the   
invention1 he replied1--,no1 ,i never   
thought of such a thing4 ,my sole object
 was to serve the cause of humanity1 and
 if ,i have succeeded1 ,i am amply      
rewarded by the gratifying reflection of
 having done so4  ,the honours of       
knighthood and baronetage were          
successively conferred on ,davy as a    
reward for his scientific labours2 and  
the esteem of his professional brethren 
was shown in his election to the        
,president-ship of the ,royal           
,institution1 in which1 oddly enough1 he
 was succeeded by his old friend ,mr4   
,gilbert1 who had first taken him by the
 hand1 and whom he had got ahead of in  
the race of life4  ,davy died at ,geneva
 before he had completed his fifty-first
 year1 no doubt from over-exertion and  

the unhealthy character of the          
researches he prosecuted so recklessly4 
,assiduous as he was in his devotion to 
his favourite science1 he found time    
also to master several continental      
languages2 to keep himself well         
acquainted with1 and also to contribute 
to the literature of the day2 and to    
indulge his passion for fly-fishing1 at 
which he was a keen and practised adept4
  ,eminent as were the talents of ,sir  
,humphrey ,davy1 and valuable as his    
discovery of the safety-lamp has proved1
 it is but fair to own that his credit  
to the latter has been very openly      
denied4 ,two persons of scientific      
celebrity have been put forward as the  
real inventors of the                   
safety-lamp--namely1 ,dr4 ,reid ,clanny 
of ,newcastle1 and the great            
railway-engineer1 ,george ,stephenson4  
,of ,clanny's safety-lamp a description 
appeared in the ,philosophical          
,transactions in #ahac--that is1 ten    
years before ,sir ,humphrey made his    

communication to the ,royal ,society4   
,however1 it was a complicated affair1  
which required the whole attention of a 
boy to work it1 and was based on the    
principle of forcing in air through     
water by the agency of bellows4         
,stephenson's was a very different      
apparatus4 ,in its general principle it 
resembled ,davy's1 the chief difference 
being1 that he inserted a glass cylinder
 inside the wire-gauze cylinder1 and    
inside the top of the glass cylinder a  
perforated metallic chimney--the supply 
of air being kept up through a triple   
circle of small holes in the bottom4    
,stephenson's claim has1 of course1 been
 disputed by the friends and admirers of
 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy2 but ,mr4 ,smile  
has conclusively proved that his lamp1  
the ,geordy1 was in use at the          
,killingworth collieries at the very    
time that ,davy was conducting the      
experiments which led to his invention4 
,it is not to be inferred1 however1 that
 ,davy knew aught of what ,stephenson   

had accomplished4 ,it seems to be one of
 those rare cases in which two minds1   
working independently1 and unknown each 
to the other1 have both arrived         
simultaneously at the same result4      
,penny ,postage4       ,,sir ,,rowland  
,,hill4     ,penny ,postage4      ,he   
comes1 the herald of a noisy world1     
,news from all nations lumb'ring at his 
back1--     ,houses in ashes1 and the   
fall of stocks2     ,births1 deaths1 and
 marriages2 epistles wet     ,with tears
 that trickled down the writer's cheeks 
,fast as the periods of his fluent      
quill2     ,or charged with am'rous     
sighs of absent swains1     ,or nymphs  
responsive4                             
,,cowper4   ,the growth of the postal   
system is a sure measure of the progress
 of industry1 commerce1 education1 and  
all that goes to make up the sum of     
civilization2 and there is no more      
striking illustration to be found of the
 strides which our country has made in  
that direction since the century began  

than the introduction of a cheap and    
rapid delivery of letters1 and the      
craving which it has at once satisfied  
and augmented4 ,nothing gives us so     
forcible an idea of the difference      
between the ,britain of the present day 
and the ,britain of the ,stuart or even 
of the ,georgian period1 than the       
contrast between the postal             
communication of these times and of our 
own4 ,the itch of writing is now so     
strong in us1 we are so constantly      
writing or receiving letters1 our       
appetite for them is so ravenous1 that  
we wonder how people got on in the days 
when the postman was the exclusive      
messenger of the king1 and when even    
majesty was so badly served that1 as one
 old postmaster,d wrote in              
self-exculpation of some delay1 when    
placards are sent 7to order the         
immediate forwarding of some state      
despatches7 the constables many times be
 fayne to take the horses oute of plowes
 and cartes1 wherein1 he gravely adds1  

can be no extreme diligence4 ,it was a  
sure sign that the country was going    
ahead when ,cromwell 7#afef7 found it   
worth while to establish posts for the  
people at large1 and was able to farm   
out the post office for ,l#aj1jjj a     
year4 ,the profits of that establishment
 were doubled by the time the ,stuarts  
returned to the throne1 and more than   
doubled again before the close of the   
seventeenth century4 ,the country has   
kept on growing out of system after     
system1 like a lad out of his clothes1  
and at different times has had new ones 
made to its measure4 ,brian ,tuke's easy
 plan of borrowing farmers' horses on   
which to mount his emissaries1 gave     
place to regular relays of post-boys and
 post-horses2 and1 in course of time1   
when the robbery of the mails by sturdy 
highwaymen had become almost the rule1  
and their safe conveyance the exception1
 post-boys were in turn supplanted by a 
system of stage-coaches1 convoyed by an 
armed guard4 ,this was thought a great  

advance2 and so it was4 ,a pushing1     
zealous man named ,palmer originated the
 scheme4 ,amidst many other avocations1 
he found time to travel on the outside  
of stage-coaches1 for the sake of       
talking with the coachmen and observing 
the routes1 here1 there1 and everywhere 
all over ,england1 and thus matured all 
the details of his plan from personal   
experience4 ,none but an enthusiast1    
said ,sheridan in a rapture of          
admiration in the ,house of ,commons1   
could have conceived1 none but an       
enthusiast could have practically       
entertained1 none but an enthusiast     
could have carried out such a system4   
,still1 in spite of the exactitude with 
which ,palmer's scheme was declared to  
fit the wants of the country1 it soon   
began to be grown out of like the rest4 
,it became too short1 too tight1 too    
straitened every way1 and impeded the   
circulation of correspondence1--no      
unimportant artery of our national      
system4 ,the cost of postage was too    

high1 the mode of delivery too slow1 and
 the consequence was1 that people either
 repressed their desire to write        
letters1 or sent them through some      
cheaper and illegitimate channel4 ,sir  
,walter ,scott knew a man who           
recollected the mail from ,london       
reaching ,edinburgh with only a single  
letter4 ,of all the tens of thousands of
 the modern ,babylon1 only one solitary 
individual had got anything to say to   
anybody in the metropolis of the sister 
kingdom worth paying postage for4 ,we   
look back now1 writes ,miss ,martineau1 
with a sort of amazed compassion to the 
old crusading times1 when               
warrior-husbands and their wives1       
grey-headed parents and their brave     
sons1 parted with the knowledge that it 
must be months or years before they     
could hear of one another's existence4  
,we wonder how they bore the depth of   
silence6 ,and we feel the same now about
 the families of ,polar voyagers4 ,but1 
till a dozen years ago1 it did not occur

 to many of us how like this was the    
fate of the largest class in our own    
country4 ,the fact is1 there was no full
 and free epistolary intercourse in the 
country1 except between those who had   
the command of franks4 ,there were few  
families in the wide middle class who   
did not feel the cost of postage a heavy
 item in their expenditure2 and if the  
young people sent letters home only once
 a fortnight1 the amount at the year's  
end was a rather serious matter4 ,but it
 was the vast multitudes of the lower   
orders who suffered like the crusading  
families of old1 and the geographical   
discoverers of all times4 ,when once    
their families parted off from home it  
was a separation almost like that of    
death4 ,the hundreds of thousands of    
apprentices1 of shopmen1 of governesses1
 of domestic servants1 were cut off from
 family relations as if seas or deserts 
lay between them and home4 ,if the      
shilling for each letter could be saved 
by the economy of weeks or months at    

first1 the rarity of correspondence went
 on to increase the rarity2 new         
interests hastened the dying out of old 
ones2 and the ancient domestic          
affections were but too apt to wither   
away1 till the wish for intercourse was 
gone4 ,the young girl could not ease her
 heart by pouring out her cares and     
difficulties to her mother before she   
slept1 as she can now1 when the penny   
and the sheet of paper are the only     
condition of the correspondence4 ,the   
young lad felt that a letter home was a 
serious and formal matter1 when it must 
cost his parents more than any          
indulgence they ever thought of for     
themselves2 and the old fun and         
light-heartedness were dropped off from 
such domestic intercourse as there was4 
,the effect upon the morals of this kind
 of restraint is proved beyond a doubt  
by the evidence afforded in the army4   
,it was a well-known fact1 that in      
regiments where the commanding officer  
was kind and courteous about franking   

letters for the privates1 and encouraged
 them to write as often as they pleased1
 the soldiers were more sober and manly1
 more virtuous and domestic in their    
affections1 than where difficulty was   
made by the indolence or stiffness of   
the franking officer4  ,under the costly
 postal system1 the revenue of the post 
office did not1 as it had hitherto done1
 and should have continued to do1 keep  
pace with the progress of the country4  
,the appetite for communication between 
distant friends or men of business was  
evidently either decaying1 or finding   
vent in an unlawful way4 ,the latter was
 chiefly the case4 ,there were vast     
numbers of people separated from each   
other by long weary miles1 too many to  
permit of visits1 who could not resist  
writing to each other1--the doating     
parent to the child1 the lover to his   
mistress1 the merchant to his agents1   
the lawyer to his clients4 ,those who   
could not afford postage1 were the very 
class who could not get franks2 for the 

principle was1 that those who could best
 afford postage money should have plenty
 of franks1 which were1 of course1 quite
 out of the way of poor1 humble         
folks1--the fat sow had his ear well    
greased1 the lean1 starving one had to  
consume his own fat1 like the bear1 or  
go without4 ,the consequence was1 that  
those who were eager to write and could 
not get letters through the post1 found 
other means of forwarding them to the   
evasion of the law4 ,there was no limit 
to the exercise of ingenuity in this    
direction4 ,three or four letters were  
written on one piece of paper1 to be cut
 up and distributed separately by one of
 the recipients2 newspapers were turned 
into letters by underscoring or pricking
 with a pin the letters required to form
 the various words of the communication2
 some peculiarity in the style of       
address on the outside was arranged     
between correspondents1 the sight of    
which was enough to indicate a message1 
and the letter was then rejected1 having

 served its purpose2 and so on1 in a    
hundred other ways1 fraudulent means    
were found of evading the law4 ,some    
carriers had a large and profitable     
business in smuggling letters4 ,in many 
populous districts the number of letters
 conveyed by carriers at a penny each in
 an illegal way far exceeded those sent 
through the post4 ,in ,manchester1 for  
every letter that went by the postman1  
six went by the carrier2 and in ,glasgow
 the proportion was as one to ten4 ,all 
this was notorious4 ,the most honourable
 people saw no great harm in cheating   
the post to send a word of comfort or   
encouragement to an absent friend1--it  
was a vice that leaned to virtue's side4
 ,but it was a bad thing for the country
 that people should be driven to such   
devices1 in obeying a natural and proper
 impulse4 ,the man who began by         
smuggling letters1 might end by         
smuggling tobacco or brandy2 and the    
system was morally pernicious4 ,all felt
 the evil1 but remedy seemed impossible4

 ,as the urgency for a change grew to a 
head1 the man came to effect it1--a man 
of open heart1 who could enter into     
family impulses2 a man of philosophical 
ingenuity1 who could devise a remedial  
scheme2 a man of business1 who could    
fortify such a scheme with impregnable  
accuracy--that man was ,rowland ,hill4  
,when quite a young man1 on a pedestrian
 excursion through the lake district1   
,rowland ,hill1 passing a cottage door1 
observed the postman deliver a letter to
 a woman1 and overheard her1 after      
looking anxiously at the envelope1 and  
then returning it1 say she had no money 
to pay the postage4 ,the man was about  
to put it back in his wallet and pass   
on1 for it was an every-day thing for   
him to receive such a reply from the    
poor countryfolk1 when ,mr4 ,hill in his
 goodness of heart1 out of compassion   
for the woman1 stepped forward and paid 
the shilling1 regardless of many shakes 
of the head1 and hints of remonstrance  
from her1 which he interpreted as merely

 unwillingness to trespass on a         
stranger's bounty4 ,as soon as the      
postman was out of sight she broke the  
seal1 and showed him why she did not    
want him to pay for the letter4 ,the    
sheet was a blank1 and the envelope had 
served as a means of communication      
between her and her correspondent4 ,it  
appeared that she had arranged with her 
brother1 that as long as all went well  
with him he should send a blank sheet in
 that way once a quarter1 and thus she  
had tidings of him without paying the   
postage4  ,as he pursued his walk1 ,mr4 
,hill could not help meditating on the  
incident1 which had made a deep         
impression on his mind4 ,he could not   
blame the poor woman and her brother for
 the trick they had played upon the post
 office in order to correspond with each
 other2 and yet he felt there must be   
something wrong in a system which put it
 out of their reach1 and of others      
similarly circumstanced1 to do so in a  
lawful manner4 ,every country           

post-master had a budget of touching    
stories of poor folk who were tantalized
 with the sight of a letter from some   
dear one1 full1 perhaps1 of kind words  
and cheering news1 or asking sympathy   
and condolence in misfortune1 or        
transmitting money to help them in their
 straits2 as well as of countless little
 frauds of the sort described1 which    
they could not always harden themselves 
to circumvent and punish1 so piteously  
eager did the poor souls appear to be to
 get word of their friends4 ,and yet1 in
 spite of all sorts of frauds1 to people
 in humble life letters came like       
angels' visits1 few and far between4    
,mr4 ,hill asked himself whether there  
was no means of lessening the cost of   
postage1 whether the government could   
not afford to charge a lower rate1 or   
manage to get the work done more        
cheaply8 ,keeping his ears and eyes     
open1 always on the alert to pick up a  
fact as regarded the present1 or a hint 
for the future1 examining the mode of   

carriage and delivery1 the routes       
chosen1 and the time occupied1 ,mr4     
,hill1 after a while1 arrived at the    
conviction1 that the postage rates might
 not only be reduced1 but that the      
transmission of letters might be more   
quickly performed by a remodelling of   
the system4 ,he ascertained that the    
cost of mere transit incurred upon a    
letter sent from ,london to ,edinburgh1 
a distance of #djj miles1 was not more  
than a thirty-sixth part of a penny1 and
 that1 therefore1 there was a margin1   
under the existing charge1 of           
#aa-ce_/cf;d4 for extra expenses and    
profit4 ,he observed that the twopenny  
posts of ,london and other large towns  
were found to answer very well1 although
 people1 being within easy distances of 
each other1 did not need so much as in  
the country to correspond in writing1   
and that the carriers1 in spite of the  
illegality of the traffic1 had loads of 
letters to deliver at a penny each1 and 
that penny paid them for their trouble1 

as well as their risk of detection4 ,he 
therefore came to the conclusion1 that  
what was wanted1 and what it was quite  
possible to establish1 was a uniform    
penny postage rate over the whole of the
 ,united ,kingdom4 ,he calculated that  
if that were adopted1 the number of     
people then in the habit of writing     
letters would write a great many more   
than ever2 that others1 who had been    
precluded by the expense from           
corresponding1 would come into the      
field2 and that hundreds of letters     
forwarded illegally would now pass      
through the post1 so that the number of 
letters sent by post would be increased 
fourfold1 and the revenue1 at first1    
perhaps a trifle curtailed1 would soon  
mount up again4  ,the post-office       
authorities were greatly shocked and    
disgusted at so audacious and utopian a 
proposal4 ,but the public were greatly  
delighted with it1 only doubting whether
 it was not too good news to be true4   
,first by means of an anonymous         

pamphlet1 then by direct and personal   
application to the government1 ,mr4     
,hill endeavoured to get his plans taken
 into consideration--no easy matter1 for
 circumlocution officials had passed    
from contemptuous indifference to active
 hostility1 as they gradually discovered
 how formidable an antagonist in the    
truth and accuracy of his calculations1 
the sincerity and earnestness of his    
purpose1 they had to deal with4 ,it was 
a great national cause ,mr4 ,hill was   
fighting1 and he was not to be put down4
 ,the people took his side1 ,parliament 
granted an inquiry1 and the result was a
 report in favour of his scheme4 ,on the
 #agth of ,august #ahci--why is not the 
anniversary kept with rejoicings8--penny
 postage became the law of the land4    
,during the last weeks of the year a    
uniform fourpenny rate was charged by   
way of accustoming people to the cheap  
system1 and saving official feelings    
from the rude shock of a sudden descent 
from the respectable rate of a shilling1

 to the vulgar one of a penny4 ,on the  
#ajth ,january #ahdj the penny system   
came into force4 ,at first ,mr4 ,hill   
availed himself of a suggestion thrown  
out some years before by ,mr4 ,charles  
,knight1 that the best way of collecting
 the penny postage on newspapers would  
be to have stamped covers2 but          
subsequently stamped envelopes were done
 away with1 and queen's heads           
introduced4 ,the franking privilege1 of 
course1 died with the dear postage4     
,upon the adoption of the scheme1 ,mr4  
,hill received an appointment in the    
post office in order to superintend its 
working2 but he had an uneasy berth of  
it4 ,his plan was adopted only in       
part1--the postage rate was lowered1    
while the other compensating and        
essential features were thrown aside2   
official jealousy of reform showed      
itself in various attempts to thwart his
 efforts1 and to fulfil its prediction  
of failure to the scheme4 ,the          
consequence was1 that the immediate     

results were not so satisfactory as     
could have been wished4 ,the increase in
 the number of letters was certainly    
very great4 ,during the last month of   
the old system the total number of      
letters passing through the post office 
was little more than two millions and a 
half1 of which only a fifth were paid   
letters2 while a twelvemonth after the  
introduction of the new system the total
 number of letters had risen to nearly  
six millions per month1 of which the    
unpaid letters formed less than a       
twelfth part4 ,very heavy expenses1     
however1 not connected with the new     
plan1 had been incurred2 and the        
consequence was1 that the profits of the
 post office were only a fourth of what 
they had been4 ,advantage was taken of  
this to get ,mr4 ,hill ousted from his  
post2 but1 after he had transferred his 
services for some years to the          
management of the ,london and ,brighton 
,railway1 the authorities were glad to  
receive him back again1 to place the    

remodelling of the system in his hands1 
and to allow him to introduce the other 
parts of his scheme which had before    
been neglected4 ,in this work ,mr4 ,hill
 was busily engaged for a number of     
years1 and most of his plans were       
gradually carried out with great        
advantage to the public4 ,in #ahdf a    
public testimonial of ,l#ac1cfj was     
presented to ,mr4 ,hill in              
acknowledgment of his distinguished     
services to the country2 and at a later 
date he was made a ,knight of the ,bath4
  ,cheap postage has now been fairly    
tried1 and must be pronounced a grand   
success4 ,it has become part and parcel 
of our national life1 and has been found
 precious as the gift of a new faculty4 
,we should miss the loss of cheap and   
rapid correspondence with our friends   
and acquaintances almost as much as the 
loss of speech or the loss of sight4    
,the postman has now to find his way to 
the humblest1 poorest districts1 where  
twenty years back his knock was never   

heard2 and what was once a rare luxury1 
has now come to be considered a common  
necessary of life4 ,instead of only     
seventy-six millions of letters passing 
through the post in a year1 as in #ahch1
 the number has risen to between seven  
and eight hundred millions4 ,on the     
average every individual in ,england    
receives twenty-eight letters a-year 7in
 ,london the individual average is      
forty-six71 in ,scotland eighteen1 and  
in ,ireland nine4  ,the gross revenue   
derived from these sources is over four 
millions2 and some of the railway       
companies each make more money out of   
the conveyance of the mails in a year1  
than the annual revenue of the whole    
kingdom in the days of ,william and     
,mary4  ,the moral and social effects of
 the cheap postage are incalculable4 ,it
 has tended to strengthen and perpetuate
 domestic ties1 to bring the most       
scattered and distant members of a      
family under the benign influences of   
home1 and to foster feelings of         

friendship and sympathy between man and 
man4 ,upon the education and            
intelligence of the people1 too1 it has 
had1 concurrently with other causes1 a  
marked effect4 ,many who looked upon the
 art of writing as only a temptation to 
forgery1 were induced to take pen in    
hand and master the science of pot-hooks
 and hangers1 for the sake of           
corresponding with their friends1 and of
 being able to read the letters they    
received4 ,in #ahci a third of the men  
and half of the women who were married1 
according to the registrar's returns1   
could not sign their own names2 in #aheg
 that was the case with only a seventh  
of the men1 and a fifth of the women2   
and not a little of this advanced       
education may be attributed to the      
impulse given by the introduction of    
cheap postage4  ,nor have the advantages
 derived from the post office by the    
great body of the public ended here4 ,it
 has shown itself the most progressive  
department of the government1 and has   

undertaken many benevolent branches of  
work which were never contemplated by   
,sir ,rowland ,hill4 ,thus it carries on
 an extensive savings-bank system1      
worked out by ,mr4 ,frank ,ives         
,scudamore1 adopted by ,mr4 ,gladstone  
when ,chancellor of the ,exchequer1 and 
established by ,act of ,parliament in   
#ahfa4 ,this valuable department1 whose 
operations are now of a very extensive  
character1 keeps a separate account for 
every depositor1 acknowledges the       
receipt1 and1 on the requisite notice   
being furnished1 sends out warrants     
authorizing post-masters to pay such    
sums as depositors may wish to withdraw4
 ,the deposits are handed over to the   
,commissioners for the reduction of the 
,national ,debt1 and repaid to the      
depositors through the post office4 ,the
 rate of interest payable to depositors 
is two and a half per cent4 ,each       
depositor has his savings-bank book1    
which is sent to him yearly for         
examination1 and the increasing interest

 calculated and allowed4  ,the post     
office now acts1 too1 as a              
life-insurance society1 offering        
advantages to the operative which no    
other society can offer1 and which the  
public are beginning to appreciate4  ,in
 #ahfi the entire telegraphic system of 
the ,united ,kingdom passed into the    
hands of the post office1 whose         
administrators have shown themselves    
anxious to offer increased facilities to
 the public for the transaction of      
business4 ,the number of telegraphic    
stations has been greatly increased1 and
 the rate reduced at which messages are 
flashed from one part of the island to  
the other4  ,finally1 a recent          
innovation1 made entirely in the        
interest of the public weal1 is the     
introduction of ,halfpenny ,post ,cards4
 ,on one side of these missives the     
sender writes the name and address of   
his correspondent2 on the other1 the    
communication intended for him4 ,the    
card already bears a halfpenny stamp    

impressed1 and nothing more remains to  
be done but to deposit it in the nearest
 office or pillar-post4 ,we think1 then1
 it may fairly be said that the post    
office has shown itself anxious to keep 
abreast with the ever-increasing wants  
of the commercial classes of ,great     
,britain4         99       99       99  
99       99  ,while these pages are     
passing through the press1 the following
 particulars1 apparently issued under   
official direction1 have attracted our  
attention4 ,we append them here1 as they
 cannot fail to interest the            
reader3--,it appears that there are in  
the ,united ,kingdom #f miles #gab yards
 of pneumatic tubes in connection with  
the postal telegraphic system 7#ahga74  
,of these1 #d miles #fch yards exist in 
,london1 and #b miles #gd yards in the  
provinces--the latter being confined to 
,liverpool1 ,manchester1 ,birmingham1   
and ,glasgow4 ,of the total length of   
tubes now existing1 only #b miles #acbd 
yards existed prior to the transfer of  

the telegraphs to the post office2 so   
that no less than #c miles #aadh yards  
have been laid since that date2 or1 in  
other words1 the system has been        
considerably more than doubled in less  
than a year4 ,the total length of new   
tubes ordered and in progress exceeds #c
 miles1 and when these are completed1   
the system will be nearly #aj miles in  
length4 ,all of the tubes in the        
provinces1 and all but two of those in  
,london1 are worked on ,clark's system4 
,the two which form an exception are    
those between ,telegraph ,street and    
,st4 ,martin's-le-,grand1 which are     
worked on ,siemens' system4 ,the former 
are made of lead1 with a diameter       
varying from #a-a_/d to #b-a_/d         
inches--the more frequent size being    
#a-a_/b inches4 ,the latter are made of 
iron1 and have a diameter of #c inches4 
,the idea of iron tubes worked on       
,siemens' principle is derived1 we      
believe1 from ,berlin1 where the system 
is entirely of this description2 and of 

the new tubes in progress1 that from    
,st4 ,martin's-le-,grand to ,temple ,bar
 will be of this kind4 ,all of the tubes
 now in existence are worked in both    
directions by means of alternate        
pressure and vacuum2 the motive power1  
in the shape of a steam-engine1 being   
stationed at the central office1 with   
which the out-stations have             
communication by this means4 ,it is     
interesting to note the difference of   
time occupied by the different tubes in 
,london in passing the 'carriers'       
through from one end to the other--the  
speed being governed by the length and  
diameter of the tube1 and by the        
circumstance whether it is carried in a 
straight line1 or has to encounter sharp
 curves and bends on its way4 ,the great
 advantage of this means of             
communication1 for short distance1 over 
the electric is1 that the tubes are not 
liable to sudden blocks of work as the  
wires are1 and that a dozen or more     
messages may be sent through1 at one    

blow1 if desired4 ,for local telegraphs 
in great towns the pneumatic system is  
invaluable1 and is certain to be greatly
 extended under the postal              
administration4  ,,footnotes3  ,d ,brian
 ,tuke1 master of the post to ,king     
,henry ,,viii4     ,the ,overland       
,route4       ,,lieutenant ,,waghorn4   
,the ,overland ,route4     ,,lieutenant 
,,waghorn4   ,worthy to stand on a par  
with1 or at lowest1 in the very next    
rank to1 the men who originate great    
inventions1 are those whose foresight   
and energy discover the means of        
extending their utility2 and in         
shortening the journey between ,europe  
and ,india1 by the establishment of the 
overland route1 ,lieutenant ,waghorn    
practically achieved as great a triumph 
over time and space1 as if he had       
invented a machine for the purpose that 
would have traversed the old route in   
the same time4  ,it was in #ahbg that   
,thomas ,waghorn first promulgated the  
idea of steam communication between our 

,eastern possessions and the mother     
country4 ,he was then twenty-seven years
 of age1 and had just returned to       
,calcutta from rough and arduous service
 in the ,arracan war4 ,when a midshipman
 of barely seventeen1 he had passed the 
navigation examination for              
lieutenant1--the youngest1 it appears1  
who ever did so2 but although1          
consequently1 eligible for that rank1 he
 had never reached it up to this time1  
in spite of the distinction he had      
acquired in various actions4 ,his health
 had been so much shattered by a fever  
caught in ,arracan1 that he had to      
return to ,england2 but he did not leave
 ,calcutta without communicating his    
design to the government there1 and     
obtaining a letter of credence from     
,lord ,combermere 7then vice-president  
in council7 to the ,east ,india         
,company1 recommending him1 in          
consequence of his meritorious conduct  
in the recent war1 as a fit and proper  
person to open steam navigation with    

,india1 via the ,cape of ,good ,hope4   
,the idea1 however1 was just then in    
advance of the time1 and all ,waghorn's 
agitation in its favour proved of no    
avail4 ,in the meantime1 the idea of    
saving the time spent in doubling the   
,cape1 by means of a route through the  
,mediterranean1 across the ,isthmus of  
,suez1 and down the ,red ,sea1 had      
occurred to him2 and in #ahbi he        
procured a commission from the ,east    
,india ,directory to report on the      
probability of ,red ,sea navigation1 and
 at the same time to convey certain     
despatches to ,sir ,john ,malcolm1      
,governor of ,bombay4  ,he got notice of
 this mission on the #bdth ,october1 and
 was desired to be at ,suez by the #hth 
,december1 in order to catch the steamer
 ,enterprise1 and proceed in her to     
,india4 ,he took only four days to make 
ready for the journey1 and on the #bhth 
left ,london on the top of the ,eagle   
stage-coach from ,gracechurch ,street4  
,circumstances were anything but        

propitious all through this expedition  
of his2 and yet he defied and           
disregarded them all4 ,bridges broke    
down at central points1 falling         
avalanches had to be kept clear of1 an  
accident disabled the steamer1 and he   
had to go some hundred and thirty miles 
out of his way in consequence4 ,in spite
 of all that1 he dashed through five    
kingdoms1 and reached ,trieste in nine  
days1 or little more than half the time 
occupied by the post-office mails on the
 same journey4 ,impatient of delay1 he  
learned that an ,austrian brig had left 
for ,alexandria the night before1 but   
the breeze had fallen1 and she was still
 to be caught a glimpse of from the     
hill-tops4 ,a fresh posting carriage was
 got out1 and off he went in chase of   
the vessel1 hoping to make up to her at 
,pesano1 twenty miles down the ,gulf of 
,venice4 ,the calm still prevailed2 and 
as he went dashing along he could catch 
sight1 now and then1 as the carriage    
passed some open part of the road and   

disclosed the sea1 of the brig creeping 
lazily along4 ,every hour he gained on  
her2 instead of a dull1 black speck upon
 the horizon1 he began to make out her  
hull1 her sails1 and rigging4 ,he urged 
the post-boys with redoubled            
vehemence--kept them going at a furious 
pace4 ,he was within three miles of the 
vessel--it was crawling1 he was         
flying--another half hour would see him 
safe on board1 and then heigh for       
,india4 ,but stay1 surely that was the  
wind among the trees2 could the breeze  
have risen8 ,it had indeed4 ,a strong   
northerly wind sprang up2 gradually the 
sails of the brig swelled out before it1
 and poor ,waghorn1 with his panting1   
jaded horses1 was left far behind4 ,the 
chase was hopeless now--so he went back 
mournfully to ,trieste--exhausted in    
body with fatigue1 and racked by        
disappointment after the previous       
excitement4  ,the next ship1 a ,spanish 
one1 was not to sail for three days4    
,that was more than ,waghorn could      

endure2 he went to the captain1 urged   
him1 bribed him with fifty dollars to   
make it two days1 instead of three1 and 
succeeded4 ,in eight and forty hours he 
was somewhat consoled for his former    
discouragement1 to find himself at      
length at sea4 ,in sixteen days he was  
at ,alexandria1 and after a rest of only
 five hours there1 hired donkeys and was
 off to ,rosetta4 ,the donkeys were in  
the conspiracy against him1 as well as  
the wind and the avalanches4 ,the first 
day they trotted and walked along as    
brisk as may be1 and our indefatigable  
traveller worked them well4 ,it is well 
known that the donkey of the east is a  
paragon of wisdom1 compared with his    
dunce of a brother in ,europe2 and upon 
a night's reflection1 ,mr4 ,waghorn's   
donkeys seem to have clearly perceived  
that he had no notion of easy stages1   
and was bent on keeping them going as   
fast as he could1 and as long as        
daylight suffered4 ,so the second day   
they managed to stumble1 and limp1 and  

fall down intentionally four or five    
times1 and to put on a pitiful          
affectation of fatigue and weariness1--a
 common dodge1 the drivers said1 of     
those knowing animals4  ,fortunately he 
was soon able to dispense with the      
deceitful donkeys2 and embarking on the 
,nile1 undertook to navigate the boat   
himself1 in order to take soundings and 
make observations in regard to the      
route4 ,after brief repose at ,rosetta1 
he set out for ,cairo on a cange1 a sort
 of boat of fifteen tons burthen1 with  
two large latteen sails4 ,the captain   
undertook to land him at ,cairo in three
 days and four nights2 but the boat went
 aground on a shoal1 and after tacking  
for five days and nights1 ,waghorn lost 
all patience1 and proceeded to his      
destination upon donkeys4 ,he crossed   
the desert from ,cairo to ,suez in four 
days1 on two of which he travelled      
seventy-four miles4 ,he was thus able to
 keep his appointment and be at ,suez by
 the #hth ,december1 but there was no   

sign of the steamer4 ,the wind was      
blowing right in her teeth2 so after    
waiting two days1 with feverish         
impatience1 ,mr4 ,waghorn determined to 
sail down the centre of the ,red ,sea1  
in an open boat1 in the hope of meeting 
the steamer somewhere above ,cossier4   
,all the seamen of the locality held up 
their hands at the proposal of the mad  
,englishman1 and tried to dissuade him4 
,it was the opinion1 he knew1 of        
nautical authorities at the time1 that  
the ,red ,sea was not navigable4 ,but he
 could not rest quiet at ,suez2 he had  
important despatches to deliver2 he was 
commissioned to inquire into the        
navigability of these waters2 and out he
 would go in an open boat1 let folk say 
what they would1 and so he did4  ,he    
embarked1 says the narrator of his ,life
 and ,labours1 in ,household ,words1,e  
in an open boat1 and without having any 
personal knowledge of the navigation of 
this sea1 without chart1 without        
compass1 or even the encouragement of a 

single precedent for such an            
enterprise--his only guide the sun by   
day1 and the north star by night--he    
sailed down the centre of the ,red ,sea4
 ,of this most interesting and          
unprecedented voyage ,mr4 ,waghorn gives
 no detailed account4 ,all intermediate 
things are abruptly cut off with these  
very characteristic words3 ',suffice it 
to say1 ,i arrived at ,juddah1 #fbj     
miles in six and a half days1 in that   
boat6' ,you get nothing more than the   
sum total4 ,he kept a sailor's          
log-journal2 but it is only meant for   
sailors to read1 though now and then you
 obtain a glimpse of the sort of work he
 went through4 ,thus3 ',sunday1         
#acth--,strong1 ,n4,w4 wind1 half a     
gale1 but scudding under storm-sail4    
,sunset1 anchored for the night4        
,jaffateen ,islands out of sight to the 
,n4 ,lost two anchors during the night1'
 c4 ,the rest is equally nautical and   
technical4 ,in one of the many scattered
 papers collected since the death of    

,mr4 ,waghorn1 we find a very slight    
passing allusion to toils1 perils1 and  
privations1 which1 however1 he calmly   
says1 were 'inseparable from such a     
voyage under such circumstances1'--but  
not one touch of description from first 
to last4 ,a more extraordinary instance 
of great practical experience and       
knowledge1 resolutely and fully carrying
 out a project which must of necessity  
have appeared little short of madness to
 almost everybody else1 was never       
recorded4 ,he was perfectly successful1 
so far as the navigation was concerned1 
and in the course he adopted1           
notwithstanding that his crew of six    
,arabs mutinied4 ,it appears 7for he    
tells us only the bare fact7 they were  
only subdued on the principle known to  
philosophers in theory1 and to          
high-couraged men1 accustomed to        
command1 by experience1--namely1 that   
the one man who is braver1 stronger1 and
 firmer than any individual of ten or   
twenty men1 is more than a match for the

 ten or twenty put together4 ,he touched
 at ,cossier on the #adth1 not having   
fallen in with the ,enterprise4 ,there  
he was told by the governor that the    
steamer was expected every hour4 ,mr4   
,waghorn was in no state of mind to wait
 very long2 so1 finding she did not     
arrive1 he again put to sea in his open 
boat1 resolved1 if he did not fall in   
with her1 to proceed the entire distance
 to ,juddah--a distance of #djj miles   
further4 ,of this further voyage he does
 not leave any record1 even in his log1 
beyond the simple declaration that he   
'embarked for ,juddah--ran the distance 
in three days and twenty-one hours and a
 quarter--and on the #bc;d anchored his 
boat close to one of the ,east ,india   
,company's cruisers1 the ,benares4' ,but
 now comes the most trying part of his  
whole undertaking--the part which a man 
of his vigorously constituted impulses  
was least able to bear as the climax of 
his prolonged and arduous efforts1      
privations1 anxieties1 and fatigue4     

,repairing on board the ,benares to     
learn the news1 the captain informed him
 that1 in consequence of being found in 
a defective state on her arrival at     
,bombay1 'the ,enterprise was not coming
 at all4' ,this intelligence seems to   
have felled him like a blow1 and he was 
immediately seized with a delirious     
fever4 ,the captain and officers of the 
,benares felt great sympathy and        
interest in this sad result of so many  
extraordinary efforts1 and detaining him
 on board1 bestowed every attention on  
his malady4  ,it was six weeks before he
 could proceed by sailing vessel to     
,bombay1 where he arrived on the #bast  
,march1 having1 in spite of all the     
drawbacks in his way1 accomplished the  
journey in four months and twenty-one   
days--quite an extraordinary rapidity at
 that time4 ,had he escaped the fever at
 ,juddah1 and fallen in with the        
,enterprise at the right time1 nearly   
two months might have been saved4  ,he  
had proved the practicability of the    

overland route1 and he now devoted      
himself to its establishment4 ,in an    
address to the ,home ,government and the
 ,east ,india ,company1 he thus         
expresses his views3--  ,of myself1 ,i  
trust ,i may be excused when ,i say1    
that the highest object of my ambition  
has ever been an extensive usefulness2  
and my line of life--my turn of mind--my
 disposition1 long ago impelled me to   
give all my leisure1 and all my         
opportunities of observation1 to the    
introduction of steam-vessels1 and      
permanently establishing them as the    
means of communication between ,india   
and ,england including all the colonies 
on the route4 ,the vast importance of   
three months' earlier information to his
 ,majesty's government1 and to the      
,honourable ,company1--whether relative 
to a war or a peace--to abundant or to  
short crops--to the sickness or         
convalescence of a colony or district1  
and oftentimes even of an individual2   
the advantages to the merchant1 by      

enabling him to regulate his supplies   
and orders according to circumstances   
and demands2 the anxieties of the       
thousands of my countrymen in ,india for
 accounts1 and further accounts1 of     
their parents1 children1 and friends at 
home2 the corresponding anxieties of    
those relatives and friends in this     
country2--in a word1 the speediest      
possible transit of letters to the tens 
of thousands who at all times in        
solicitude await them1 was1 to my mind1 
a service of the greatest general       
importance2 and it shall not be my fault
 if ,i do not1 and for ever establish   
it4  ,the scheme which he thus          
resolutely and enthusiastically declared
 his adoption of1 he lived to carry out1
 but at the cost of years of weary      
advocacy1 agitation for help1 desperate 
attempts on his own account1 or in      
conjunction with a few enterprising     
associates1 in the teeth of constant    
discouragement1 official indifference1  
jealousy1 and disguised hostility4 ,the 

,east ,india ,company told him there was
 no need of steam navigation to the     
,east at all1 ordered him to mind his   
own business and return to field        
service1 circulated reports of his      
insanity through their agents in ,egypt 
when ,waghorn went there to enlist the  
,pasha in his cause4 ,the overland      
route1 however1 was no theory1 but an   
undoubted fact4 ,waghorn never for a    
moment relaxed his grasp of it1 or      
doubted its value2 and in the end1 after
 unheard of difficulties1               
disappointments1 and opposition1 into   
the long1 painful story of which we need
 not enter1 succeeded in establishing   
the overland route4 ,when he left ,egypt
 in #ahda1 he had provided ,english     
carriages1 vans1 and horses1 for the    
conveyance of passengers across the     
desert1 placed small steamers on the    
,nile and ,alexandrian ,canal1 and built
 the eight halting-places on the desert 
between ,cairo and ,suez4 ,he also set  
up the three hotels in the same quarter 

in which every comfort1 and even some   
luxuries1 were provided and stored for  
the passing traveller1--among which     
should be mentioned iron tanks with good
 water1 ranged in cellars beneath2--and 
all this in a region which was          
previously a waste of arid sands and    
scorching gravel1 beset with wandering  
robbers and their camels4 ,these        
wandering robbers he converted into     
faithful guides1 as they are now found  
to be by every traveller2 and even      
ladies with their infants are enabled to
 cross and re-cross the desert with as  
much security as if they were in        
,europe4  ,in acknowledgment of his     
services1 ,mr4 ,waghorn received the    
rank of lieutenant in the ,royal ,navy1 
a grant of ,l#aejj1 and an annuity of   
,l#bjj a-year from ,government1 and     
another annuity of ,l#bjj from the ,east
 ,india ,company2 but he did not live   
long to enjoy his well-earned rewards4  
,the care1 and anxiety1 and fatigue he  
had undergone had shattered his         

constitution4 ,through some             
misunderstanding or mismanagement on the
 part of the ,east ,india ,company1     
rivals were allowed to step in and carry
 off the chief profits of the overland  
system1 and his last years were         
embittered by various disputes with the 
authorities4 ,he died in the end of     
#ahdi1 by years only in the prime of    
life2 but old1 and worn by his labours  
before his time4 ,such was the career of
 the pioneer of the ,overland ,route4   
,but in connection with ,england's route
 to ,india1 the name of ,monsieur de    
,lesseps must never be forgotten1 nor   
the great enterprise which1 at so much  
cost1 and in spite of so many obstacles1
 he successfully carried out--the ,suez 
,canal4 ,when he first projected it he  
met with most of the obstacles which are
 thrown in the way of great inventions4 
,england1 jealous of a scheme which     
seemed likely to throw into the hands of
 a foreign power the nearest route to   
her beloved ,india1 stood sullenly      

aloof1 and refused to contribute moral  
or pecuniary support2 while some of the 
most eminent ,english and foreign       
engineers openly declared that it could 
never be carried out4 ,m4 de ,lesseps1  
however1 was one of those men who1 when 
they have seized a great idea1 can never
 be thrown off it4 ,it had taken full   
possession of his imagination1 judgment1
 and intellect6 he felt that it could1  
and he determined that it should be     
realized4 ,he conquered every           
difficulty3 he raised funds2 he secured 
the support of his own government2 and  
in #ahef he obtained from the ,pasha of 
,egypt the exclusive privilege of       
constructing a ship-canal from ,tyneh1  
near the ruins of the ancient ,pelusium1
 to ,suez4  ,m4 de ,lesseps determined  
that his canal should be cut in a       
straight line1 with an average width of 
#ccj feet1 and at an uniform depth of   
#bj feet under low-water mark1 while at 
each end was to be constructed a        
sluice-lock1 #ccj feet long by #gj wide4

 ,further1 at each end he proposed to   
execute a magnificent harbour2 that at  
the ,mediterranean end was to be        
extended five miles into the sea1 so as 
to obtain a permanent depth of water for
 a ship drawing twenty-three feet1 on   
account of the enormous quantity of mud 
annually silted up by the ,nile2 that at
 the ,red ,sea end was to be three miles
 long4  ,in #ahfe the great canal was   
begun4 ,the ,mediterranean entrance is  
at ,port ,said1 about the middle of the 
narrow neck of land between ,lake       
,menzaleh and the sea1 in the eastern   
part of the ,delta4 ,thence it is       
carried for about twenty miles across   
,menzaleh ,lake1 being #aab yards wide  
at the surface1 #bf yards at the bottom1
 and #bf feet deep4 ,on each side an    
artificial bank rises some #ae feet     
high4 ,the distance thence to ,abu      
,ballah ,lake is #aa miles1 through     
ground which varies from #ae to #cj feet
 above the level of the sea4 ,this lake 
being traversed1 there is land again--a 

troublesome and shifty soil--to ,timsah 
,lake1 the canal being cut at a depth   
below the sea-level of #ej to #ajj feet4
 ,on the shore of ,timsah ,lake has     
risen a new and busy town1 the central  
point of the canal1 and named ,ismailia1
 in honour of the present ,pasha of     
,egypt4  ,a space of eight miles        
intervenes between the ,timsah ,lake and
 the ,bitter ,lakes1 and in this space  
the cuttings are very deep and          
difficult4 ,the soil being almost purely
 sand1 the constant labour of powerful  
dredging machines is constantly         
required1 to prevent the channel from   
filling up4 ,the deepest cutting occurs 
at ,el ,guisr1 or ,girsch1 and is no    
less than #he feet below the surface3 at
 the water-level it is #aab yards wide1 
at the summit-level #agc yards4 ,in     
traversing the ,bitter ,lakes the course
 of the canal is marked by embankments4 
,from the southern end of these lakes to
 ,suez1 a distance of about thirteen    
miles1 the cuttings are heavy and deep4 

,after many discouraging failures1 ,m4  
de ,lesseps' great work was completed   
last year1 and the formal opening of the
 canal took place in the presence of the
 ,prince and ,princess of ,wales1 and a 
goodly number of princes1 potentates1   
and distinguished personages4 ,it is now
 open to navigation from end to end1 and
 ships of considerable tonnage have     
successfully accomplished the passage4  
,whether the canal is a commercial      
success may still be doubted4 ,the cost 
of further deepening and enlarging it1  
and of maintaining its banks and        
harbours1 amounts to a sum which1 as    
yet1 the traffic charges are not at all 
likely to defray4 ,but1 in an           
engineering sense1 the ,suez ,canal is  
one of the wonders of this wonderful    
nineteenth century4  ,,footnotes3  ,e   
,august #ag1 #ahej4            99       
99       99       99       99           
,beautifully ,illustrated ,works4       
,,earth ,,and ,,sea4 ,from the ,french  
of ,,louis ,,figuier4 ,translated1      

,edited1 and ,enlarged by ,w4 ,h4       
,,davenport ,,adams1 ,illustrated with  
,two ,hundred and ,fifty ,engravings by 
,,freeman1 ,,giacomelli1 ,,yan          
,d',,argent1 ,,prior1 ,,foulquier1      
,,riou1 ,,laplante1 and other ,artists4 
,imperial #hvo4 ,handsomely bound in    
cloth and gold4 ,price #aes4  ,this     
volume is founded upon ,m4 ,figuier's   
,la ,terre et ,les ,mers1 but so many   
additions have been made to the         
original1 and its aim and scope have    
been so largely extended1 that it may   
almost be called a new work4 ,these     
additions and this extension were deemed
 necessary by the ,editor1 in order to  
render it more suitable for the ,british
 public1 and in order to bring it up to 
the standard of geographical knowledge4 
,,the ,,desert ,,world4 ,from the       
,french of ,,arthur ,,mangin4           
,translated1 ,edited1 and ,enlarged by  
the ,translator of ,the ,bird1 by       
,michelet4 ,with ,one ,hundred and      
,sixty ,illustrations by ,w4 ,,freeman1 

,,foulquier1 and ,,yan ,d',,argent4     
,imperial #hvo1 full gilt side and gilt 
edges4 ,price #abs4 #f;d4               
,,saturday ,,review4--,the illustrations
 are numerous1 and     extremely well   
cut4 ,two handsomer and more readable   
volumes than     this and ',the         
,mysteries of the ,ocean' it would be   
difficult to     produce4   ,,the       
,,mysteries ,,of ,,the ,,ocean4 ,from   
the ,french of ,,arthur ,,mangin4 ,by   
the ,translator of ,the ,bird4 ,with    
,one ,hundred and ,thirty ,illustrations
 by ,w4 ,,freeman and ,j4 ,,noel4       
,imperial #hvo1 full gilt side and gilt 
edges4 ,price #ajs4 #f;d4      ,,pall   
,,mall ,,gazette4--,science walks to-day
 in her silver     slippers4 ,we have   
here another sumptuously produced       
popular     manual from ,france4 ,it is 
an account1 complete in extent and      
tolerably full in detail1 of the ,sea4  
,it is eminently     readable4444 ,the  
illustrations are altogether excellent2 
and the     production of such a book   

proves at least that there are very     
many persons who can be calculated on   
for desiring to know     something of   
physical science4   ,,the ,,bird4 ,by   
,,jules ,,michelet1 ,author of ,history 
of ,france1 c4 ,illustrated by ,two     
,hundred and ,ten ,exquisite ,engravings
 by ,,giacomelli4 ,imperial #hvo1 full  
gilt side and gilt edges4 ,price #ajs4  
#f;d4      ,,westminster                
,,review4--,this work consists of an    
exposition of     various ornithological
 matters from points of view which could
     hardly be thought of1 except by a  
writer of ,michelet's peculiar          
genius4 ,with his argument in favour of 
the preservation of our     small birds 
we heartily concur4 ,the translation    
seems to be     generally well executed2
 and in the matter of paper and         
printing1 the book is almost an ouvrage 
de luxe4 ,the     illustrations are     
generally very beautiful4      ,,the    
,,art ,,journal4--,it is a charming book
 to read1 and a most     valuable volume

 to think over4444 ,it was a wise1 and  
we cannot     doubt it will be a        
profitable1 duty to publish it here1    
where it     must take a place second   
only to that it occupies in the         
language in which it was written4444    
,certainly natural history     has      
never1 in our opinion1 been more        
exquisitely illustrated by              
wood-engraving than in the whole of     
these designs by ,m4     ,giacomelli1   
who has treated the subject with rare   
delicacy of     pencil and the most     
charming poetical feeling--a feeling    
perfectly in harmony with the written   
descriptions of ,m4     ,michelet       
himself4     ,,the                      
,s,c,h,oe,n,b,e,r,g-,,cotta ,,series    
,,of ,,books4  ,in ,cloth ,binding1 #fs4
 #f;d4 each2 in ,morocco1 #abs4 each4   
,,chronicles ,,of ,,the                 
,s,c,h,oe,n,b,e,r,g-,,cotta ,,family4   
,,the ,,times4--,we are confident that  
most women will read it with     keen   
pleasure1 and that those men who take it

 up will not easily     lay it down     
without confessing that they have gained
 some pure     and ennobling thoughts   
from the perusal4   ,,diary ,,of ,,mrs4 
,,kitty ,,trevylyan3 ,a ,story of the   
,times of ,whitefield and the ,wesleys4 
,,glasgow ,,citizen4--,the various      
characters are well     discriminated1  
and the story flows on naturally and    
pleasantly     to the end4   ,,the      
,,draytons ,,and ,,the ,,davenants3 ,a  
,story of the ,civil ,wars4      ,,daily
 ,,review4--,it is the most interesting 
of all the     authoress' productions4  
,,on ,,both ,,sides ,,of ,,the ,,sea3 ,a
 ,story of the ,commonwealth and the    
,restoration4      ,,athenaeum4--,a good
 deal of ingenuity has been employed for
 the     purpose of grouping together   
many of the well-known characters     of
 that day2 and in spite of the general  
gravity of the     narrative1 there is  
evidence of a considerable sense of     
quiet     humour both in the characters 
and in the language employed4           

,,winifred ,,bertram1 ,,and ,,the       
,,world ,,she ,,lived ,,in4             
,,eclectic4--,very acceptable to many   
thousands1 and only needing     to be   
mentioned to be sought for and read4    
,,the ,,martyrs ,,of ,,spain ,,and ,,the
 ,,liberators ,,of ,,holland2 or1 ,the  
,story of the ,sisters ,dolores and     
,costanza ,cazalla4   ,,sketches ,,of   
,,christian ,,life ,,in ,,england ,,in  
,,the ,,olden ,,time4   ,,diary ,,of    
,,brother ,,bartholomew1 ,,with ,,other 
,,tales ,,and ,,sketches ,,of           
,,christian ,,life ,,in ,,different     
,,lands ,,and ,,ages4   ,,wanderings    
,,over ,,bible ,,lands ,,and ,,seas4    
,with a ,photograph1 and other          
,illustrations4   ,,watchwords ,,for    
,,the ,,warfare ,,of ,,life 7,from the  
,writings of ,luther74 ,translated and  
,arranged by the ,author of ,the        
,schoenberg-,cotta ,family4   ,,poems4  
,by the ,author of ,chronicles of the   
,schoenberg-,cotta ,family4             
,,contents3--,the ,women of the         

,gospels--,the ,three ,wakings--,songs  
and ,hymns--,memorial ,verses4 ,crown   
#hvo1 gilt edges4     ,,valuable        
,,works4   ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,j4 ,c4    
,,ryle1 ,b4,a4  ,,the ,,christian       
,,leaders ,,of ,,the ,,last ,,century2  
or1 ,england a ,hundred ,years ,ago4 ,by
 the ,rev4 ,j4 ,c4 ,,ryle1 ,b4,a41      
,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 ,author of    
,expository ,thoughts1 c4 ,crown #hvo1  
cloth4 ,price #gs4 #f;d4      ,,pall    
,,mall ,,gazette4--,mr4 ,ryle has       
evidently a complete     acquaintance   
with his subject1 such as a mere        
critical historian     would never be   
likely to acquire2 and we believe there 
is no     book existing which contains  
nearly the same amount of               
information upon it4   ,,by ,,the ,,rev4
 ,,william ,,arnot4  ,,laws ,,from      
,,heaven ,,for ,,life ,,on              
,,earth--,,illustrations ,,of ,,the     
,,book ,,of ,,proverbs4 ,new ,edition4  
,complete in ,one ,volume4 ,crown #hvo1 
cloth4 ,price #gs4 #f;d4      ,,family  

,,treasury4--,a noble volume by one of  
the freshest and     most vigorous      
writers of the present day4  ,,the      
,,parables ,,of ,,our ,,lord4 ,crown    
#hvo1 cloth antique4 ,price #gs4 #f;d4  
,,rev4 ,,james ,,hamilton1 ,d4,d4--,the 
best family book on the     ,parables4  
,,spurgeon4--,mr4 ,arnot is the fittest 
man living to expound the     ,parables1
 for he is himself a great master of    
metaphorical     teaching4 ,in the      
valuable work before us there is1 as is 
usual     with the author1 much striking
 originality1 and much unparaded        
learning4 ,the first will make it       
popular1 the second will     commend it 
to the thoughtful4 ,many writers have   
done well upon     this subject1 but in 
some respects1 as far as space would    
permit     him1 our friend excels them  
all4 ',the ,parables' will be a fit     
companion to ',the ,proverbs1' and both 
books will be immortal4   ,,by ,,the    
,,rev4 ,a4 ,a4 ,,hodge1 ,d4,d4          
,,outlines ,,of ,,theology4 ,edited by  

the ,rev4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,goold1 ,d4,d41      
,professor of ,biblical ,literature and 
,church ,history1 ,edinburgh4 ,crown    
#hvo4 ,price #fs4 #f;d4                 
,,spurgeon4--,we can best show our      
appreciation of this able ,body     of  
,divinity by mentioning that we have    
used it in our college     with much    
satisfaction both to tutor and students4
 ,we intend to     make it a class-book1
 and urge all young men who are anxious 
to     become good theologians to master
 it thoroughly4 ,of course we do     not
 endorse the chapter on baptism4 ,to a  
few of the ,doctor's     opinions in    
other parts we might object1 but as a   
,hand-book of     ,theology1 in our     
judgment1 it is like ,goliath's         
sword--'there is     none like it4'     
,,the ,,atonement4 ,edited by the ,rev4 
,w4 ,h4 ,goold1 ,d4,d41 ,crown #hvo4    
,price #es4      ,,extract ,,from       
,,letter ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,to ,,the 
,,editor ,,of ,,this                    
,,edition4--,this work has been written 

with a view to meet the                 
rationalistic speculations of the       
present day as to the nature     of sin1
 the extent of human depravity and moral
 ability1 the     nature of our         
connection with ,adam1 the nature and   
extent of the     ,atonement1 c4 c4 ,so 
much has been written that is positively
     false1 or fatally defective1 by    
,maurice1 ,jowett1 ,bushnell1 and       
others1 that it appeared high time that 
those who love the truth     should     
rouse themselves to do what they can to 
defend and exalt     it4   ,,by ,,the   
,,rev4 ,,islay ,,burns1 ,d4,d4          
,,history ,,of ,,the ,,church ,,of      
,,christ3 ,with a ,special ,view to the 
,delineation of ,christian ,faith and   
,life4 ,with ,notes1 ,chronological     
,tables1 ,lists of ,councils1           
,examination ,questions1 and other      
,illustrative ,matter4 7,from ,a4,d4 #a 
to ,a4,d4 #cac47 ,crown #hvo1 cloth     
antique4 ,price #es4     ,beautifully   
,illustrated ,books for the ,young4     

,,the ,,swiss ,,family ,,robinson2 or1  
,adventures of a ,shipwrecked ,family on
 a ,desolate ,island4 ,a ,new and       
,unabridged ,translation4 ,with an      
,introduction from the ,french of       
,,charles ,,nodier4 ,illustrated with   
upwards of ,three ,hundred ,engravings4 
,crown #hvo1 cloth extra4 ,price #fs4   
,this is a new and unabridged           
translation of a work which has acquired
 a great and well-merited popularity    
from its happy combination of           
instruction and amusement1 of the       
interest of romance with the discoveries
 of science4   ,,paul ,,and ,,virginia4 
,from the ,french of ,,bernardin ,,de   
,,saint-,,pierre4 ,an ,entirely ,new    
,translation1 with ,botanical ,notes1   
and upwards of ,ninety ,engravings4     
,crown #hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt edges4   
,price #ds4   ,,the ,,world ,,at ,,home3
 ,pictures and ,scenes from ,far-off    
,lands4 ,by ,,mary and ,,elizabeth      
,,kirby4 ,with upwards of ,one ,hundred 
and ,thirty ,illustrations4 ,square     

#hvo4 ,cloth1 richly gilt4 ,price #fs4  
,,the ,,times4--,an admirable collection
 of adventures and     incidents in     
foreign lands1 gleaned largely from     
foreign     sources1 and excellently    
illustrated4      ,,british ,,quarterly 
,,review4--,a very charming book2 one of
 the     best popular wonder-books for  
young people that we have seen4 ,in     
language of singular simplicity1 and    
with a very profuse use of     very     
effective woodcuts1 the distinctive     
features of far-off     lands--their    
natural history1 the manners and customs
 of their     inhabitants1 their        
physical phenomena1 c4--are brought home
 to     the fireside in a way to        
entrance alike the children of five or  
six years old1 and the older folk who   
instruct them4 ,no better     book has  
appeared this season4   ,,book ,,for    
,,boys--,,illustrated ,,by ,,gustave    
,,dore4  ,,geoffrey ,,the ,,knight4 ,a  
,tale of ,chivalry of the ,days of ,king
 ,arthur4 ,with ,twenty ,full-page      

,engravings by ,,gustave ,,dore4 ,post  
#hvo1 cloth extra1 gilt edges4 ,price   
#ds4      ,,the ,,scotsman4--',geoffrey 
the ,knight' appears now in perhaps     
the most attractive form it has yet     
assumed4 ,printed in the best     style1
 it is still further enriched by a      
number of admirable     engravings by   
,gustave ,dore1 illustrating all the    
most thrilling     adventures related4  
,,cats ,,and ,,dogs2 or1 ,notes and     
,anecdotes of ,two ,great ,families of  
the ,animal ,kingdom4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,hugh  
,,miller4 ,new ,edition4 ,with upwards  
of ,forty ,engravings4 ,crown #hvo1     
cloth extra1 gilt edges4 ,price #cs4    
#f;d4      ,,the ,,times4--,a full and  
well-written account of both the feline 
and the canine species4 ,it is filled   
with spirited engravings1     many of   
which1 giving pictures of tiger and lion
 hunting1 will     have special         
attractions for the ,gordon ,cummings   
and ,gerrards     and ,livingstones of  
the future1 who are now in our          

school-rooms4   ,,new ,,gift-,,book     
,,for ,,boys4  ,,the ,,playground ,,and 
,,the ,,parlour4 ,a ,hand-,book of      
,boys' ,games1 ,sports1 and ,amusements4
 ,by ,,alfred ,,elliott4 ,with ,one     
,hundred ,illustrations4 ,post #hvo4    
,price #cs4 #f;d4      ,,illustrated    
,,times4--,we have not for some time    
seen any ,book of     ,sports better got
 up or more carefully compiled than     
this4     ,,books ,,for ,,boys4   ,,the 
,,forest1 ,,the ,,jungle1 ,,and ,,the   
,,prairie2 or1 ,scenes with the ,trapper
 and the ,hunter in ,many ,lands4 ,by   
,,alfred ,,elliott4 ,with ,thirty       
,engravings4 ,post #hvo1 cloth extra1   
gilt edges4 ,price #es4      ,,daily    
,,news4--,an excellent volume1 in which 
lessons in zoology     are communicated 
whilst the reader accompanies the hunter
 in the     jungles of ,india1 the lairs
 of ,africa1 the prairies of ,america1  
and the plains of ,ceylon4   ,,by ,r4   
,m4 ,,ballantyne4  ,new and ,cheaper    
,editions4  ,,the ,,young               

,,fur-,,traders3 ,a ,tale of the ,far   
,north4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,post     
#hvo1 cloth4 ,price #cs4  ,,ungava3 ,a  
,tale of ,esquimaux ,land4 ,with        
,illustrations4 ,post #hvo1 cloth4      
,price #cs4  ,,the ,,coral ,,island3 ,a 
,tale of the ,pacific4 ,with            
,illustrations4 ,post #hvo1 cloth4      
,price #cs4  ,,martin ,,rattler2 or1 ,a 
,boy's ,adventures in the ,forests of   
,brazil4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,post    
#hvo1 cloth4 ,price #cs4  ,,the ,,dog   
,,crusoe ,,and ,,his ,,master3 ,a ,tale 
of the ,western ,prairies4 ,with        
,illustrations4 ,post #hvo1 cloth4      
,price #cs4  ,,the ,,gorilla ,,hunters3 
,a ,tale of ,western ,africa4 ,with     
,illustrations4 ,post #hvo1 cloth4      
,price #cs4  ,,the ,,world ,,of ,,ice2  
or1 ,adventures in the ,polar ,regions4 
,with ,engravings4 ,post #hvo1 cloth4   
,price #cs4   ,,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,fyfe4      
,,merchant ,,enterprise2 or1 the        
,history of ,commerce from the ,earliest
 ,times4 ,caravans of ,old--,the        

,phoenicians--,marts of the             
,mediterranean1 c4 ,with ,eight         
,illustrations from designs by ,,clark  
,,stanton1 ,esq41 ,r4,s4,a4 ,post #hvo1 
cloth extra4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4          
,,british ,,enterprise ,,beyond ,,the   
,,seas2 or1 ,the ,planting of our       
,colonies4 ,illustrated4 ,post #hvo1    
cloth4 ,price #cs4  ,,triumphs ,,of     
,,invention ,,and ,,discovery4          
,illustrated4 ,post #hvo1 cloth extra4  
,price #bs4 #f;d4   ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,g4    
,,kingston4  ,new ,editions1            
,illustrated4  ,,round ,,the ,,world3 ,a
 ,tale for ,boys4 ,with ,fifty-two      
,engravings4 ,post #hvo1 cloth extra4   
,price #es4  ,,old ,,jack3 ,a ,sea      
,tale4 ,with ,sixty ,engravings4 ,post  
#hvo1 cloth extra4 ,price #es4  ,,my    
,,first ,,voyage ,,to ,,southern ,,seas4
 ,with ,forty-two ,engravings4 ,post    
#hvo1 cloth extra4 ,price #es4          
,,books ,,for ,,the ,,young4     ,,art  
,,journal4--,among the best ,publishers 
of ,books for the ,young    we must rank

 the names of the ,messrs4 ,nelson4     
,,afar ,,in ,,the ,,forest2 or1         
,pictures of ,life and ,scenery in the  
,wilds of ,canada4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,traill1  
,author of the ,canadian ,crusoes1 c4   
,illustrated4 ,foolscap #hvo1 cloth4    
,price #bs4  ,,faithful ,,and ,,true2   
or1 ,the ,evans ,family4 ,by the ,author
 of ,tony ,starr's ,legacy1 c4 ,post    
#hvo1 cloth4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4  ,,things
 ,,in ,,the ,,forest4 ,by ,,mary ,,and  
,,elizabeth ,,kirby4 ,foolscap #hvo1    
cloth4 ,price #as4 #f;d4  ,,the         
,,history ,,of ,a ,,pin4 ,by ,f4 ,m4 ,s4
 ,illustrated4 ,foolscap #hvo1 cloth4   
,price #as4 #f;d4  ,,old ,,robin ,,and  
,,his ,,proverb4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,henry ,f4  
,,brock4 ,foolscap #hvo1 cloth4 ,price  
#as4 #f;d4  ,,truth ,,is ,,always       
,,best2 or1 ,a ,fault ,confessed is     
,half ,redressed4 ,by ,,mary ,,and      
,,elizabeth ,,kirby4 ,foolscap #hvo1    
cloth4 ,price #as4 #f;d4  ,,truths ,,and
 ,,fancies ,,from ,,fairy ,,land2 or    
,fairy ,stories with a ,purpose4 ,with  

,four ,steel ,plates4 ,foolscap #hvo1   
cloth4 ,price #as4 #f;d4  ,,scenes ,,of 
,,the ,,olden ,,time4 ,by the ,author of
 ,records of ,noble ,lives1 ,the ,boy   
,makes the ,man1 c4 ,with ,four ,steel  
,plates4 ,foolscap #hvo1 cloth4 ,price  
#as4 #f;d4  ,,alice ,,stanley1 and other
 ,stories4 ,by ,mrs4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,hall4    
,with ,four ,steel ,engravings4         
,foolscap #hvo1 cloth4 ,price #as4 #f;d4
  ,,the ,,playfellow1 and other         
,stories4 ,by ,mrs4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,hall4     
,with ,four ,steel ,engravings4         
,foolscap #hvo1 cloth4 ,price #as4 #f;d4
  ,,the ,,way ,,of ,,the ,,world1 and   
other ,tales4 ,by ,mrs4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,hall4 
,with ,four ,steel ,engravings4         
,foolscap #hvo1 cloth4 ,price #as4 #f;d4
  ,,stories ,,from ,,greek ,,mythology4 
,by the ,rev4 ,,james ,,wood4 ,with     
,four ,steel ,plates4 ,foolscap #hvo1   
cloth4 ,price #as4 #f;d4   ,new         
,illustrated ,edition4  ,,paul ,,and    
,,virginia4 ,with ,seventy ,cuts4 ,royal
 #cbmo1 cloth1 gilt edges4 ,price #as4  

,,books ,,for ,,the ,,young4            
,,isabel',s ,,secret2 or1 ,a ,sister's  
,love4 ,by the ,author of ,the ,story of
 a ,happy ,little ,girl4 ,post #hvo1    
cloth4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4  ,,anna ,,lee3 
,the ,maiden--,the ,wife--,the ,mother4 
,by ,t4 ,s4 ,,arthur4 ,post #hvo1 cloth4
 ,price #bs4 #f;d4  ,,true ,,riches2 or1
 ,wealth without ,wings4 ,by ,t4 ,s4    
,,arthur4 ,with ,five ,engravings4 ,post
 #hvo1 cloth4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4         
,,woodleigh ,,house2 or1 ,the ,happy    
,holidays4 ,with ,eight ,engravings4    
,post #hvo1 cloth4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4    
,,missionary ,,evenings ,,at ,,home4 ,by
 ,h4 ,l4 ,l4 ,post #hvo1 cloth extra1   
gilt edges4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4  ,,the    
,,golden ,,missionary ,,penny1 and other
 ,addresses to the ,young4 ,by the late 
,rev4 ,,james ,,bolton1 ,kilburn4       
,foolscap #hvo1 cloth4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4
  ,,marion',s ,,sundays2 or1 ,stories on
 the ,commandments4 ,with ,engravings4  
,foolscap #hvo1 cloth4 ,price #bs4      
,,annals ,,of ,,the ,,poor4 ,with       

,memoir of the ,author4 ,with ,eight    
,plates printed in ,colours4 ,foolscap  
#hvo1 cloth4 ,price #bs42 or1 cloth     
extra1 gilt edges1 price #cs4  ,,nelly  
,,nowlan',s ,,experience1 and other     
,stories4 ,by ,mrs4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,hall4     
,illustrated4 ,foolscap #hvo1 cloth4    
,price #bs4  ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the   
,,white-,,rock ,,cove4 ,a ,tale for the 
,young4 ,with ,six ,engravings4 ,post   
#hvo1 cloth extra4 ,price #cs4  ,,far   
,,and ,,near2 or1 ,stories of a         
,christmas ,tree4 ,by ,,ita4 ,with      
,coloured ,frontispiece4 ,foolscap #hvo1
 cloth4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4  ,,the        
,,flower ,,of ,,the ,,family3 ,a ,tale  
of ,domestic ,life4 ,foolscap #hvo1     
cloth4 ,price #bs4  ,,the ,,world',s    
,,birthday4 ,by the ,rev4 ,professor ,l4
 ,,gaussen4 ,with ,plates4 ,foolscap    
#hvo1 cloth4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4          
,,woodruff2 or1 ,sweetest when ,crushed4
 ,a ,tale4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,veitch4 ,foolscap
 #hvo1 cloth4 ,price #bs4  ,,the        
,,regular ,,service2 or1 the ,story of  

,reuben ,inch4 ,by the ,author of       
,village ,missionaries1 ,under the      
,microscope1 c4 ,illustrated4 ,post     
#hvo1 cloth4 ,price #as4 #f;d4     ,,the
 ,a4 ,l4 ,o4 ,e4 ,,series ,,of ,,books  
,,for ,,young ,,people4  ,,beautifully  
,,illustrated ,,and ,,elegantly ,,bound4
      ,,church ,,of ,,england           
,,sunday-,,school ,,magazine4--,with ,a4
 ,l4 ,o4 ,e4's     well-known powers of 
description and imagination1            
circumstances     are described and     
characters sketched1 which we believe   
many     readers will recognize as their
 own4   ,post #hvo1 ,cloth4  ,,claudia4 
,a ,tale4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4  ,,hebrew   
,,heroes4 ,a ,tale founded on ,jewish   
,history4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4  ,,on ,,the 
,,way2 or ,places ,passed by ,pilgrims4 
,illustrated4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4  ,,the  
,,triumph ,,over ,,midian4 ,illustrated4
 ,price #cs4 #f;d4  ,,house ,,beautiful2
 or1 ,the ,bible ,museum4 ,illustrated4 
,price #cs4 #f;d4  ,,rescued ,,from     
,,egypt4 ,illustrated4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4

  ,,pride ,,and ,,his ,,prisoners4      
,price #cs4 #f;d4  ,,the ,,golden       
,,fleece4 ,illustrated4 ,price #bs4     
#f;d4  ,,the ,,roby ,,family4 ,with     
,seven ,illustrations4 ,gilt edges4     
,price #cs4 #f;d4  ,,the ,,robbers'     
,,cave3 ,a ,story of ,italy4 ,with      
,seven ,illustrations4 ,gilt edges1 with
 beautifully illuminated side4 ,price   
#cs4 #f;d4  ,,old ,,friends ,,with ,,new
 ,,faces4 ,vignette ,title4 ,gilt edges4
 ,price #bs4 #f;d4  ,,story ,,of ,a     
,,needle4 ,with ,seven ,illustrations4  
,gilt edges1 with beautifully           
illuminated side4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4     
,,my ,,neighbour',s ,,shoes2 or1        
,feeling for ,others4 ,illustrated4     
,gilt edges1 with beautifully           
illuminated side4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4     
,foolscap #hvo1 ,cloth4  ,,idols ,,in   
,,the ,,heart4 ,a ,tale4 ,price #cs4    
#f;d4  ,,the ,,silver ,,casket2 or1     
,love not the ,world4 ,a ,tale4         
,illustrated4 ,price #cs4  ,,war ,,and  
,,peace4 ,a ,tale of the ,retreat from  

,cabul4 ,illustrated4 ,price #cs4  ,,the
 ,,holiday ,,chaplet4 ,illustrated4     
,cloth extra1 gilt edges4 ,price #cs4   
,,the ,,sunday ,,chaplet4 ,illustrated4 
,cloth extra1 gilt edges4 ,price #cs4   
,,miracles ,,of ,,heavenly ,,love ,,in  
,,daily ,,life4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4       
,,whispering ,,unseen2 or1 ,be ye ,doers
 of the ,word1 and not ,hearers ,only4  
,illustrated4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4         
,,parliament ,,in ,,the ,,play-,,room4  
,illustrated4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4  ,,the  
,,mine2 or1 ,darkness and ,light4       
,illustrated4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4         
,,flora2 or1 ,self-,deception4          
,illustrated4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4  ,,the  
,,crown ,,of ,,success2 or1 ,four ,heads
 to ,furnish4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4         
,,zaida',s ,,nursery ,,note-,,book4 ,a  
,book for ,mothers4 ,price #bs4  ,,poems
 ,,and ,,hymns4 ,price #as4 #f;d4       
,,rambles ,,of ,a ,,rat4 ,illustrated4  
,price #bs4  ,,stories ,,from ,,the     
,,history ,,of ,,the ,,jews4            
,illustrated4 ,price #as4 #f;d4  ,,wings

 ,,and ,,stings4 #ahmo ,edition4        
,illustrated4 ,price #as4   ,new        
,editions1 ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo1   
,cloth ,extra4  ,,the ,,young ,,pilgrim4
 ,a ,tale ,illustrating the ,pilgrim's  
,progress4 ,with ,twenty-,seven         
,engravings4 ,price #ds4  ,,the         
,,shepherd ,,of ,,bethlehem4 ,with      
,forty ,engravings4 ,price #es4         
,,exiles ,,in ,,babylon2 or1 ,children  
of ,light4 ,thirty-four ,cuts4 ,price   
#es4  ,,precepts ,,in ,,practice4 ,with 
,forty ,engravings4 ,price #ds4  ,,the  
,,giant-,,killer4 ,with ,forty          
,engravings4 ,price #ds4  ,,fairy       
,,know-,a-,,bit4 ,with ,thirty-four     
,illustrations4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,t4 ,,nelson ,,and ,,sons1 ,,london1    
,,edinburgh1 ,,and ,,new ,,york4        
,transcriber's ,note3  ,ligature        
occurrences of oe have been represented 
as two separate letters1 such as in     
,koenig and ,phoenicians4  ,the         
following alterations have been made to 

the text as originally printed3    ,page
 #cj3 ,changed quotes from double to    
single3 ',recuyell of the               
,historyes of ,troye1'    ,page #fd3    
reader4 changed to reader1    ,page #fe3
 home1 changed to home4    ,page #abh3  
,added closing quote3 444 and working   
efficiency4    ,page #aca3 ,added       
closing quote3 444 of solid masonry4    
,page #acf3 porportion changed to       
proportion    ,page #aff3 better then an
 arm changed to better than an arm      
,page #ahg3 paddle-wheels ,through      
changed to paddle-wheels4 ,through      
,page #aig3 a mortal sickness3 changed  
to a mortal sickness2    ,page #bdi3    
own1 ,thus changed to own4 ,thus        
,page #bej3 condition ,only changed to  
condition4 ,only    ,page #bie3 ,changed
 double quotes to single quotes3 passing
 the              'carriers' through    
,page #bie3 ,added closing quote3 444   
under the postal                        
administration4    ,page #cae3 ,added   
closing quote3 444 present day4    ,page

 #caf3 ,dore changed to ,dore