,,the ,,cradle ,,of ,,the ,,christ4     
,a ,,study ,,in ,,primitive             
,,christianity4                  ,,by   
,,octavius ,,brooks ,,frothingham4      
,,new ,,york3     ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s   
,,sons4     #ahb ,,fifth ,,avenue4      
#ahgg4      ,,copyright1     ,g4 ,p4    
,,putnam',s ,,sons4     #ahgg4          
,,preface4   ,the literary intention of 
this volume is sufficiently declared in 
the opening paragraph1 and need not be  
foreshadowed in a preface2 but as the   
author's deeper motive may be called in 
question1 he takes the liberty to say a 
word or two in more particular          
explanation4 ,the thought has occurred  
to him on reading over what he has      
written1 as a casual reader might1 that1
 in his solicitude to make his positions
 perfectly clear1 and to state his      
points concisely1 he may have laid      
himself open to the charge of carrying  
on a controversy under the pretence of  
explaining a literature4 ,such a        
reproach1 his heart tells him1 would be 

undeserved4 ,he disclaims all purpose   
and desire to weaken the moral supports 
of any form of religion2 as little      
purpose or desire to undermine          
,christianity1 as to revive ,judaism4   
,it is his honest belief that no genuine
 interests of religion are compromised  
by scientific or literary studies2 that 
religion is independent of history1 that
 ,christianity is independent of the    
,new ,testament4 ,he is cordially       
persuaded that the admission of every   
one of his conclusions would leave the  
institutions of the church precisely1 in
 every spiritual respect1 as they are2  
and in thus declaring he has no mental  
reserve1 no misty philosophical meaning 
that preserves expressions while        
destroying ideas2 he uses candid1       
intelligible speech4 ,the lily's perfect
 charm suffers no abatement from the    
chemist's analysis of the slime into    
which it strikes its slender root2 the  
grape of the ,johannisberg vineyards is 
no less luscious from the fact that the 

soil has been subjected to the          
microscope2 the fine qualities of the   
human being1 man or woman1 are the same 
on any theory1 the bible theory of the  
perfect ,adam1 or ,darwin's of the      
anthropoid ape4 ,the hero is hero still1
 and the saint saint1 whatever his      
ancestry4 ,we reject the inference of   
writers like ,godfrey ,higgins1 ,thomas 
,inman1 and ,jules ,soury1 who would    
persuade us that ,christianity must be a
 form of nature-worship1 because        
nature-worship was a large constituent  
element in the faiths from which it     
sprung2 why should we not reject the    
inference of those who would persuade us
 that ,christianity is doomed because   
the four gospels are pronounced         
ungenuine8 ,christianity is a historical
 fact2 an institution2 it stands upon   
its merits1 and must justify its merits 
by its performances2 first demonstrating
 its power1 afterward pressing its      
claim2 vindicating its title to exist by
 its capacity to meet the actual        

conditions of existence1 and then asking
 respect the ground of good service4    
,the church that arrogates for itself   
the right to control the spiritual      
concerns of the modern world must not   
plead in justification of its pretension
 that it satisfied the requirements of  
devout people of another hemisphere1 two
 thousand years ago4 ,the religion that 
fails to represent the religious        
sentiments of living men will not       
support itself by demonstrating the     
genuineness of the ,new ,testament1 the 
supernatural birth of ,jesus1 or the    
inspiration of ,paul4 ,other questions  
than these are asked now4 ,when a       
serious man wishes to know what         
,christianity has to say in regard to   
the position of woman in modern society1
 a quotation from a letter to the       
christians in the ,greek city of        
,corinth1 is not a satisfactory reply4  
,christianity must prove its adaptation 
to the hour that now is2 its adaptation 
to days gone by1 is not to the purpose4 

,the church of ,rome had a glimpse of   
this1 and revealed it when it took the  
ground that the ,new ,testament did not 
contain the whole revelation2 that the  
source of inspiration lay behind that1  
used that as one of its manifestations1 
and constantly supplied new suggestions 
as they were needed4 ,cardinal ,wiseman 
did not hesitate to admit that the      
doctrine of trinity was not stated in   
the ,new ,testament1 though undoubtedly 
a belief of the church4 ,it would have  
been but a step further in the same     
direction1 if ,dr4 ,newman should       
declare that the critics might have     
their way with the early records of the 
religion1 which1 however curious as     
literary remains1 were not essential to 
the constitution or the work of the     
church4 ,strauss and ,renan may         
speculate and welcome2 the mission of   
the church being to bless mankind1 their
 labors are innocent4 ,a church that    
does not bless mankind cannot be saved  
by ,auguste ,nicolas2 a church that does

 bless mankind cannot be injured by     
,ernest ,renan4  ,leading protestant    
minds1 without making so much concession
 as the church of ,rome1 have           
practically accepted the position here  
maintained4 ,it is becoming less common1
 every day1 to base the claims of       
,christianity on the ,new ,testament4   
,the most learned1 earnest1 and         
intelligent commend their faith on its  
reasonableness1 confronting modern      
problems in a modern way4 ,st4 ,george  
,mivart quotes no scripture against the 
doctrine of evolution4 ,no one reading  
,dr4 ,mc,cosh on the development        
hypothesis1 would suppose him to be a   
believer in the inspiration of the      
bible4 ,he reasons like a reasonable    
man1 meeting argument with argument1    
feeling disposed to confront facts with 
something harder than texts4 ,the well  
instructed christian1 if he enters the  
arena of scientific discussion at all1  
uses scientific weapons1 and follows the
 rules of scientific warfare4 ,the      

problems laid before the modern world   
are new2 scarcely one of them was       
propounded during the first two         
centuries of our era2 not one was       
propounded in modern terms4 ,the most   
universal of them1 like poverty1 vice1  
the relations of the strong and the     
weak1 present an aspect which neither   
church1 ,father1 nor ,apostle would     
recognize4 ,whatever bearing            
,christianity has on these questions    
must be timely if it is to be           
efficacious4  ,the doctrine of christian
 development1 as it is held now by      
distinguished teachers of the christian 
church1 implying as it does             
incompleteness and therefore defect in  
the antecedent stages of progress points
 clearly to the apostolic and post      
apostolic times as ages of rudimental   
experience1 tentative and crude4 ,why   
should not the entertainers of this     
doctrine calmly surrender the records   
and remains of the preparatory          
generations to antiquarian scholars who 

are willing to investigate their        
character8 ,no discovery they can make  
will alter the results which the        
centuries have matured4 ,they will      
simply more clearly exhibit the process 
whereby the results have been reached4  
,we may go further than this1 and       
maintain that the unreserved abandonment
 to criticism of the literature and men 
of the early epochs would be a positive 
advantage to ,christianity1 for thereby 
the religion would be relieved from a   
serious embarrassment4 ,the duty1       
assumed by christians1 of vindicating   
the truth of whatever is found in the   
,new ,testament imposes grave           
difficulties4 ,it is safe to say that a 
very large part of the disbelief in     
,christianity proceeds from doubts      
raised by ,strauss1 ,renan1 and others  
who have cast discredit on some portions
 of this literature4 ,christians have   
their faith shaken by those authors2 and
 doubtless some who are not christians  
are prejudiced against the religion by  

books of rational criticism4 ,the       
romanist1 failing to establish by the   
,new ,testament1 or by the history of   
the first two centuries1 the primacy of 
,peter1 the supremacy of ,rome1 the     
validity of the sacraments1 the divine  
sanction of the episcopacy1 loses the   
convert whom the majestic order of the  
papacy might attract4 ,the protestant1  
failing to prove by apostolic texts his 
cardinal dogmas1 pre-destination1       
atonement1 election1 must see depart    
unsatisfied1 the inquirer whom a        
philosophical exposition might have won4
 ,the necessity of justifying the       
account of the miraculous birth of      
,jesus repels the doubter whom a purely 
intellectual conception of incarnation  
might have fascinated2 and the          
obligation to believe the story of a    
physical resurrection is an added       
obstacle to the reception of a spiritual
 faith in immortality4 ,scholarship has 
so effectually shown the impossibility  
of bringing apostolical guarantee for   

the creed of christendom1 that the creed
 cannot get even common justice done it 
while it compromises itself with the    
beliefs of the primitive church4 ,the   
inspiration of the ,new ,testament is an
 article that unsettles4 ,naturally it  
is the first point of attack1 and its   
extreme vulnerability raises a suspicion
 of weakness in the whole system4 ,the  
protestant theology1 as held by the more
 enlightened minds1 is capable of       
philosophical statement and defence2 but
 it cannot be stated in ,new ,testament 
language1 or defended on apostolical    
authority4 ,the creed really has not a  
fair chance to be appreciated4 ,its     
power to uphold spiritual ideas1 and    
develop spiritual truths2 its           
speculative resources as an antagonist  
of scientific materialism1 animal       
fatalism1 and sensualism1 are rendered  
all but useless4 ,powerful minds are    
fettered1 and good scholarship is wasted
 in the attempt to identify beginnings  
with results1 roots with fruits4  ,this 

is a consideration of much weight4 ,when
 we remember how much time and concern  
are given to the study of the ,new      
,testament for controversial or         
apologetic purposes1 to establish its   
genuineness1 maintain its authority1    
justify its miracles1 explain away its  
difficulties1 reconcile its             
contradictions1 harmonize its           
differences1 read into its texts the    
thoughts of later generations1 and then 
reflect on the lack of mind bestowed on 
the important task of recommending      
religious ideas to a world that is      
spending enormous sums of intellectual  
force on the problems of physical       
science and the arts of material        
civilization1 the close association of  
the latest with the earliest faith seems
 a deplorable misfortune4 ,if there ever
 was a time when the purely spiritual   
elements in the religion of the foremost
 races of mankind should be developed   
and pressed1 the time is now2 and to    
miss the opportunity by misplacing the  

energy that would redeem it is anything 
but consoling to earnest minds4  ,thus  
might reason a full believer in the     
creed of christendom1 a devoted member  
of the church2 ,greek1 ,roman1 ,german1 
,english4 ,the man of letters viewing   
the situation from his own point1 will1 
of course1 feel less intensely the      
mischiefs entailed by the error2 but the
 error will be to him no less evident4  
,it is sometimes1 in war1 an advantage  
to lose outworks that cannot be defended
 without fatally weakening the line1    
drawing the strength of the garrison    
away from vulnerable points1 and        
exposing the centre to formidable       
assault4 ,the present writer1 though no 
friend to the christian system1 believes
 himself to be a friend of spiritual    
beliefs1 and would gladly feel that he  
is1 by his essay1 rather strengthening  
than weakening the cause of faith1 by   
whatever class of men maintained4       
,,contents4   ,i4 ,,false ,,position    
,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament4  ,,ii4    

,,the ,,messiah4  ,,iii4 ,,the ,,sects4 
,,iv4 ,,the ,,messiah ,,in ,,the ,,new  
,,testament4  ,v4 ,,the ,,first         
,,christians4  ,,vi4 ,,paul',s ,,new    
,,departure4  ,,vii4 ,,the ,,last       
,,gospel4  ,,viii4 ,,the ,,western      
,,church4  ,,ix4 ,,jesus4               
,,authorities4     ,i4  ,,false         
,,position ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament4
   ,the original purpose of this little 
volume was to indicate the place of the 
,new ,testament in the literature of the
 ,hebrew people1 to show in fact how it 
is comprehended in the scope of that    
literature4 ,the plan has been widened  
to satisfy the demands of a larger class
 of readers1 and to record more fully   
the work of its leading idea4 ,still the
 consideration of the ,new ,testament   
literature is of primary importance4    
,the writer submits that the ,new       
,testament is to be received as a       
natural product of the ,hebrew genius1  
its contents attesting the creative     
power of the ,jewish mind4 ,he hopes to 

make it seem probable to unprejudiced   
people1 that its different books merely 
carry to the last point of attenuation1 
and finally exhaust the capacity of     
ideas that exerted a controlling        
influence on the development of that    
branch of the human family4 ,to         
profundity of research1 or originality  
of conclusion1 he makes no claim4 ,he   
simply records in compact and summary   
form1 the results of reading and        
reflection1 gathered in the course of   
many years1 kept in note books1 revised 
year by year1 tested by use in oral     
instruction1 and reduced to system by   
often repeated manipulation4 ,the       
resemblance of his views1 in certain    
particulars1 to those set forth by      
,german critics of the school of        
,strauss or of ,baur1 he is at no pains 
to conceal4 ,his deep indebtedness to   
them1 he delights to confess4 ,at the   
same time he can honestly say that he is
 a disciple of no special school1 writes
 in the interest of no theory or group  

of theories1 but simply desires to      
establish a point of literary           
consequence4 ,all polemic or dogmatical 
intention he disavows1 all disposition  
to lower the dignity1 impair the        
validity1 or weaken the spiritual       
supports of ,christianity4 ,his aim1    
truly and soberly speaking1 is to set   
certain literary facts in their just    
relation to one another4  ,it has not   
been customary1 nor is it now customary 
to assign to the ,new ,testament a place
 among the literary productions of the  
human mind4 ,the collection of books    
bearing that name has been1 and still is
 regarded by advocates of one or another
 theory of inspiration1 as of           
exceptional origin1 in that they express
 the divine1 not the human mind2 being  
writings super-human in substance if not
 in form1 containing thoughts that could
 not have occurred to the unaided       
intelligence of man1 neither are        
amenable to the judgment of uninspired  
reason4 ,to read this volume as other   

volumes are read is forbidden2 to apply 
to it ordinary critical methods is held 
to be an impertinence2 to detect errors 
or flaws in it1 as in ,homer1 ,plato1   
,thucydides1 is pronounced an           
unpardonable arrogance4 ,a book that    
contains revelations of the supreme     
wisdom and will must be accepted and    
revered1 must not be arraigned4         
,criticism has therefore1 among         
believers chiefly we may almost say     
solely1 been occupied with the task of  
establishing the genuineness and        
authenticity of the writings1           
harmonizing their teachings1 arranging  
their contents1 explaining texts in     
accordance with the preconceived theory 
of a divine origin1 vindicating doubtful
 passages against the objections of     
skeptics1 and extracting from chapter   
and verse the sense required by the     
creed4 ,literature has been permitted to
 illustrate or confirm points1 but has  
not been called in to correct1 for that 
would be to judge the infinite by the   

finite mind4  ,in accordance with this  
accepted view of the ,new ,testament as 
a miraculous book1 students of it have  
fallen into the way of surveying it as a
 detached field1 unconnected by organic 
elements with the surrounding territory 
of mind2 have examined it as if it made 
no part of an extensive geological      
formation1 as men formerly took up an   
aerolite or measured a boulder4 ,the    
materials of knowledge respecting the   
book have been sought within the volume 
itself1 neither ,greek1 ,roman1 ,german 
nor ,englishman presuming to think that 
a beam from the outside world could     
illumine a book      ,which gives a     
light to every age1     ,which gives1   
but borrows none4  ,the rationalists it 
is needless to say1 avoided this error1 
but they betrayed a sense of the peril  
arising from it1 in the polemical spirit
 that characterized much of their       
writing4 ,in ,germany1 the tone of      
rationalism was more sober and          
scientific than elsewhere1 because      

biblical questions were there discussed 
in the scholastic seclusion of the      
,university1 in lectures delivered by   
learned professors to students engaged  
in pursuits purely intellectual4 ,the   
lectures were not addressed to an       
excitable multitude1 as such discourses 
are1 to a certain extent1 in ,france or 
,england1 and particularly in ,america1 
and consequently stirred no religious   
passions4 ,the books published were read
 by a small class of specialists who    
studied them as they would treatises in 
any other department of ancient         
literature4 ,nearly half a century ago  
the disbelief in miracles1 portents1 and
 supernatural interventions1 was        
entertained and published by ,german    
university professors2 stories of       
prodigies were discredited on the       
general ground of their incredibility1  
and the books that reported them were   
set down as untrustworthy1 whatever     
might be the evidence of their          
genuineness4 ,a miraculous narrative was

 on the face of it unauthentic4 ,efforts
 were accordingly made to bring the ,new
 ,testament writings within the         
categories of literature4 ,criticism    
began the task by applying rules of     
natural interpretation to the legendary 
portions1 thus abolishing the           
supernatural peculiarity and leaving the
 merely human parts to justify          
themselves4 ,the method was the best    
that offered1 but it was unscientific2  
unnaturally natural2 confused from the  
necessity of supplementing knowledge by 
conjecture1 and faulty through the      
amount of arbitrary supposition that had
 to be introduced4 ,attention was       
directed to the historical or           
biographical aspect of the books1 and   
only incidentally to their literary     
character1 as productions of their age4 
,the method pursued by ,strauss was     
strictly scientific and literary1 though
 on the surface it seemed to be         
concerned with biographical details4 ,by
 treating the narratives of miracles as 

mythical rather than as legendary1 as   
intellectual and dogmatic rather than as
 fanciful or imaginary creations1 and by
 tracing their origin to the            
traditionary beliefs of the ,old        
,testament1 he ran both literatures     
together as one1 showing the new to be a
 continuation or reproduction of the    
old4 ,the construction1 otherwise1 of   
the ,new ,testament literature concerned
 him but incidentally4 ,the first ,life 
of ,jesus1 published in part in #ahce1  
was devoted to the discussion of the    
gospels as books of history4 ,the       
second--a revision--was published in    
#ahfd1 contained a much larger          
proportion of literary matter in the    
form of documentary discussion1 made    
frequent references to ,baur1 and other 
writers of the ,tuebingen ,school1 and  
attached great weight to their          
conclusions4 ,in the ,old and the ,new  
,faith1 published nearly ten years      
later1 the main conclusions of ,baur are
 adopted as the legitimate issue of     

literary criticism1 though without      
attempt at formal reconciliation with   
his own original view4  ,baur's method  
was original with himself4 ,he finds the
 key to the secret of the composition of
 the first three ,gospels1 the ,acts of 
the ,apostles and portions of other     
books1 in the quarrel between ,paul and 
,peter feelingly described in the second
 chapter of the letter to the           
,galatians4 ,the synoptical ,gospels1 he
 contends1 and with singular ingenuity  
argues1 are the results of that         
controversy between the broad and the   
narrow churches2 are not1 therefore1    
writings of historical value or         
biographical moment1 but books of a     
doctrinal character1 not controversial  
or polemical1--mediatorial and          
conciliatory rather than                
aggressive1--but written in a           
controversial interest1 and intelligible
 only when read by a controversial      
light4 ,baur called his the historical  
method1 as distinguished from the       

dogmatical1 the textual1 the negative2  
because his starting point was a        
historical fact1 namely1 the actual     
dispute recorded1 in language of        
passionate earnestness1 by one of the   
parties to it1 and distinctly confessed 
in the attitude of the other4 ,but      
,baur's method has a still better title 
to be called literary1 for it is        
concerned with the literary composition 
of the ,new ,testament writings1 and    
with the dispute as accounting for their
 existence and form4 ,his studies on the
 fourth ,gospel1 and on the life and    
writings of the ,apostle ,paul1 are     
admirable examples of the unprejudiced  
literary method2 by far the most        
intelligent1 comprehensive and          
consistent ever made2 simply invaluable 
in their kind4 ,they contain all that is
 necessary for a complete rationale of  
the ,new ,testament literature4 ,these1 
taken in connection with his ,history of
 the ,first ,three ,centuries1 his      
,origin of the ,episcopate1 his         

,dogmengeschichte1 put the patient and  
attentive student in possession of the  
full case4 ,but ,baur lacked            
constructive talent of a high order1 and
 has been less successful than inferior 
men in embracing details in a wide      
generalization4  ,renan adopts the      
method of the early rationalists1 but   
applies it with a freedom and facility  
of which they were incapable4 ,he takes 
up the ,gospels as history1 and sifts   
the literature in order to get at the   
history4 ,he claims to possess the      
historical sense1 by virtue of which he 
is able to separate the genuine from the
 ungenuine portions of the ,gospels4 ,it
 is a point with him to show how the    
character of ,jesus was moulded by the  
spirit of his age1 and by the literature
 on which he was nurtured2 but his      
treatment of the evangelical narratives 
as a mass of biographical notes         
reflecting1 with more or less           
correctness1 the personality of ,jesus1 
is not quite compatible with a rational 

or even a literary treatment of them as 
a continuation of the traditions of the 
,hebrew people4 ,the constructive force 
being centred in ,jesus himself1 the    
full recognition of the creative genius 
of the ,hebrew mind1 which was          
illustrated in ,jesus and his age1 was  
precluded4 ,renan is in a measure       
compelled to make ,jesus a prodigy--an  
exceptional person1 who baffles ordinary
 standards of judgment2 and in so doing 
distorts the connection between him1 the
 generations that went before1 and the  
generations that came after4 ,strauss   
does more justice to the ,new ,testament
 literature1 in attempting only its     
partial explanation4 ,baur does more    
justice to it in seeking a literary     
explanation of the writings as they are4
 ,renan picks and chooses according to  
our arbitrary criterion1 which          
capriciously disports itself over a     
field covered with promiscuous          
treasures4  ,lord ,amberley's more      
recent attempt reveals the weakness of  

the common procedure4 ,without the      
learning of ,strauss1 the perspicacity  
of ,baur1 or the brilliant audacity of  
,renan1 he strays over the field1 making
 suggestions neither profound nor       
original1 and rather obliterating the   
distinct impressions his predecessors   
have made than making new ones of his   
own4 ,his chapter on ,jesus will        
illustrate the confusion that must issue
 from a false method1 which does not    
deserve to be called a method at all4   
,books have been written about the ,new 
,testament by the thousand--libraries of
 books2 but they merely supplant and    
refute one another4 ,each is entitled to
 as much consideration as the rest1 and 
to no more4 ,the old materials are      
turned over and over2 the texts are     
subjected to new cross-examinations2 the
 chapters and incidents are shuffled    
about with fresh ingenuity2 new         
suppositions are started2 new           
combinations are made2 but all with no  
satisfactory result4 ,whether it be     

,auguste ,nicolas1 who reconstructs the 
,gospels to justify the predispositions 
of ,romanism2 or ,edmond de ,pressense1 
who does the same service for liberal   
,protestantism2 or ,henry ,ward         
,beecher1 who constructs a ,christ out  
of the elements of an exuberant fancy2  
or ,william ,henry ,furness1 who is     
certain that naturalness furnishes the  
touchstone of historical truth2 the     
conclusion is about equally             
inconclusive4  ,the literary method     
avoids the dogmatical embarrassments    
incident to the supernatural theory2    
offers easy solutions of difficult      
problems2 connects incidents with their 
antecedents2 interprets dark sayings by 
the light of association2 and places    
fragments in the places where they      
belong4 ,an exhaustive application of   
this treatment would probably explain   
every passage in the ,new ,testament    
writings4 ,a partial application of it  
like the present will indicate at least 
some of the capacities of the method4   

,the literary treatment differs from the
 dogmatical represented by the older    
theologians who used the ,new ,testament
 as a text book of doctrine2 from the   
purely exegetical or critical1 which    
consisted in the impartial examination  
of its separate parts2 from the         
destructive or decomposing treatment    
pursued by the so-called rationalism2   
and from the historical1 as employed by 
,baur and the ,tuebingen school4 ,it is 
in some respects more comprehensive and 
positive than either of these1 while in 
special points it adopts all but the    
first4 ,every other method presents a   
controversial face1 and is something    
less than scientific1 by being to a     
certain degree inhospitable4 ,this      
consults only the laws which preside    
over the literary expression given to   
human thoughts4  ,it has been customary 
with christians to widen as much as     
possible the gulf between the ,old and  
the ,new ,testaments1 in order that     
,christianity might appear in the light 

of a fresh and transcendent revelation1 
supplementing the ancient1 but          
supplanting it4 ,the most favorable view
 of the ,old ,testament regards it as a 
porch to the new edifice1 a collection  
of types and foregleams of a grandeur   
about to follow4 ,the ,old ,testament   
has been and still is held to be        
preparatory to the ,new2 ,moses is the  
schoolmaster to bring men to ,christ4   
,the contrast of ,law with ,gospel1     
,commandment with ,beatitude1 ,justice  
with ,love1 has been presented in every 
form4 ,christian teachers have delighted
 to exhibit the essential superiority of
 ,christianity to ,judaism1 have quoted 
with triumph the maxims that fell from  
the lips of ,jesus1 and which1 they     
surmised1 could not be paralleled in the
 elder ,scriptures1 and have put the    
least favorable construction on such    
passages in the ancient books as seemed 
to contain the thoughts of evangelists  
and apostles4 ,a more ingenuous study of
 the ,hebrew ,law1 according to the     

oldest traditions1 as well as its later 
interpretations by the prophets1 reduces
 these differences materially by        
bringing into relief sentiments and     
precepts whereof the ,new ,testament    
morality is but an echo4 ,there are     
passages in ,exodus1 ,leviticus1        
,deuteronomy1 even tenderer in their    
humanity than anything in the gospels4  
,the preacher from the ,mount1 the      
prophet of the ,beatitudes1 does but    
repeat with persuasive lips what the    
law-givers of his race proclaimed in    
mighty tones of command4 ,such an       
acquaintance with the later literature  
of the ,jews as is readily obtained now 
from popular sources1 will convince the 
ordinarily fair mind that the           
originality of the ,new ,testament has  
been greatly over-estimated4 ,even a    
hasty reading of easily accessible      
books1 makes it clear that ,jesus and   
his disciples were ,jews in mind and    
character as well as by country and     
race2 and will render it at least       

doubtful whether they ever outgrew the  
traditions of their birth4 ,paul's claim
 to be a ,hebrew of the ,hebrews1 a     
,pharisee of the ,pharisees1 circumcised
 the eighth day1 of the stock of        
,israel1 of the tribe of ,benjamin1 is  
found to be more than justified by his  
writings2 and even ,john's exalted      
spirituality proves to be an aroma from 
a literature which ,christianity        
disavows4 ,the phrases ,redemption1     
,grace1 ,faith1 ,baptism1 ,salvation1   
,regeneration1 ,son of ,man1 ,son of    
,god1 ,kingdom of ,heaven1 are native to
 this literature1 and as familiar there 
as in gospel or epistle4 ,the symbolism 
of the ,apocalypse1 ,jewish throughout1 
with its ,new ,jerusalem1 its           
consecration of the number              
twelve1--twelve foundations1 twelve     
gates1 twelve stars1 twelve             
angels1--points to deeper               
correspondences that do not meet the    
eye1 but occur to reflection4 ,we       
remember that the ,new ,testament       

constantly refers to the ,old2 that     
great stress is laid on the fulfilment  
of ancient prophecies2 that ,jesus      
explicitly declares1 at the opening of  
his ministry1 that he came not to       
destroy the law or the prophets1 but to 
reaffirm and complete them1 saying with 
earnest force till heaven and earth     
pass1 not one jot or tittle shall in any
 wise pass from the law until all be    
fulfilled4 ,we discover that his        
criticisms bore hard on the casuists who
 corrupted the law by their glosses1 but
 were made in the interest of the       
original commandment1 which had been    
caricatured4 ,in a word1 so completely  
is the space between the old            
dispensation and the new bridged over1  
that the most delicate and fragile      
fancies1 the lightest imagery1 the      
daintiest fabrics of the intellectual   
world are transported without rent or   
fracture1 across the gulf opened by the 
captivity1 and the deserts caused by the
 desolating quarrels that attended the  

new attempts at reconstruction1 while   
the massive ideas that lie at the       
foundation of ,hebraic thought1 wherever
 found1 are landed without risk or      
confusion in the new territory4 ,between
 the ,jewish and the ,christian         
scriptures there is not so much as a    
blank leaf4  ,if this can be made       
apparent without over-stating the facts1
 everything in the ,new ,testament1 from
 the character of ,jesus1 and the       
constitution of the primitive church1 to
 the later development by ,paul1 and the
 latest by ,john1 must be subjected to a
 revision1 which though fatal to        
,christianity's claim to be a special   
revelation1 will restore dignity to the 
,semitic character1 and consistency to  
the development of historic truth4      
,better still1 it will heal the breach  
between two great religions1 and will   
contribute to that disarmament of faiths
 from which good hearts anticipate most 
important results4 ,of all this hints   
only can be given in a short essay like 

this2 but if the hints are suggestive in
 themselves or from their arrangement1 a
 service will be rendered to the cause  
of truth that may deserve recognition4  
,,ii4  ,,the ,,messiah4   ,the period of
 the captivity in ,babylon1 which is    
commonly regarded as a period of sadness
 and desolation1 a blank space of       
interruption in the nation's life1 was1 
in reality1 a period of intense mental  
activity2 probably the highest spiritual
 moment in the history of the people4   
,dispossessed of their own territory1   
relieved of the burden and freed from   
the distraction of politics1 their      
disintegrating tribal feuds terminated  
by foreign conquest1 living1 as         
unoppressed exiles1 in one of the       
world's greatest cities1 with           
opportunities for observation and       
reflection never enjoyed before1 having 
unbroken leisure in the midst of        
material and intellectual opulence1 the 
true children of ,israel devoted        
themselves to the task of rebuilding    

spiritually the state that had been     
politically overthrown4 ,the writings   
that reflect this period1 particularly  
the later portions of ,isaiah1 exhibit  
the soul of the nation in proud         
resistance against the unbelief1 the    
disloyalty1 the worldliness1 that were  
demoralizing the less noble part of     
their countrymen4 ,the duty was laid on 
them to support the national character1 
revive the national faith1 restore the  
national courage1 and rebuild the       
national purpose4 ,to this end they     
collected the traditions of past glory1 
gathered up the fragments of legend and 
song1 reanimated the souls of their     
heroes and saints1 developed ideas that 
existed only in germ1 arranged          
narratives and legislation1 and         
constructed an ideal state4 ,there is   
reason to believe that the real genius  
of the people was first called into full
 exercise1 and put on its career of     
development at this time2 that ,babylon 
was a forcing nursery1 not a prison     

cell2 creating instead of stifling a    
nation4 ,the astonishing outburst of    
intellectual and moral energy that      
accompanied the return from the         
,babylonish captivity attests the       
spiritual activity of that mysterious   
and momentous time4 ,when the hour of   
deliverance struck1 the company of      
defeated1 disheartened1 crushed1 to all 
seeming1 reckless1 lawless1 godless     
exiles came forth transformed into a    
band of puritans4 ,the books that remain
 from those generations1 ,daniel1 the   
,maccabees1 ,esdras1 are charged with an
 impetuous eloquence and a frenzied     
zeal4  ,the ,talmud1 that vast treasury 
of speculation on divine things1 had its
 origin about this period4 ,recent      
researches into that wilderness of      
thought reveal wonders and beauties that
 were never till recently divulged4 ,the
 deepest insights1 the most bewildering 
fancies1 exist there side by side4 ,the 
intellectual powers of a race exhausted 
themselves in efforts to penetrate the  

mysteries of faith4 ,the fragments of   
national literature that had been       
rescued from oblivion1 were pondered    
over1 scrutinized1 arranged1 classified1
 with a superstitious veneration that   
would not be satisfied till all the     
possibilities of interpretation had been
 tried4 ,the command to search the      
scriptures for in them were the words of
 eternal life1 was accepted and         
faithfully obeyed4 ,the ,talmud says    
,emanuel ,deutsch1 is more than a book  
of laws1 it is a microcosm1 embracing1  
even as does the ,bible1 heaven and     
earth4 ,it is as if all the prose and   
poetry1 the science1 the faith and      
speculation of the old world were1      
though only in faint reflections1 bound 
up in it in nuce4 ,the theme of         
discussion1 conjecture1 speculation1    
allegory was1 from first to last1 the   
same1--the relation between ,jehovah and
 his people1 the nature and conditions  
of salvation1 the purport of the law1   
the bearing of the promises4 ,the entire

 field of investigation was open1       
reaching all the way from the number of 
words in the ,bible to the secret of    
infinite being4 ,no passage was left    
unexposed with all the keenness that    
faith aided by culture could supply2 and
 when reason reached the end of its     
tether1 fancy took up the work and      
threaded with unwearied industry the    
mazes of allegory4  ,among the problems 
that challenged solution was the one    
touching the ,messiah1 his attributes   
and offices1 his nature and his kingdom4
 ,this theme had inexhaustible          
capacities and infinite attraction1 for 
it was but another form of the theme of 
national deliverance which was uppermost
 in the ,hebrew mind4  ,the history of  
the ,messianic idea is involved in the  
obscurity that clouds the early history 
of ,israel2 and this again is           
embarrassed with the extreme difficulty 
of deciding the antiquity of the ,hebrew
 scriptures4 ,at what moment was ,israel
 fully persuaded of its providential    

destiny8 ,that is the question4 ,for the
 germs of the ,messianic idea were      
contained in the bosom of that          
persuasion4 ,that the idea was slow in  
forming must be conceded under any      
estimate of its antiquity2 for its      
development depended on the experiences 
of the nation1 and these experiences    
underwent in history numerous and       
violent fluctuations4 ,the hope of a    
deliverer came with the felt need of    
deliverance1 and the consciousness of   
this need grew with the soreness of the 
calamity under which the nation groaned1
 as the character of it was determined  
by the character of the calamity4 ,the  
national expectation was necessarily    
vague at first4 ,it rested originally on
 the tradition of a general promise     
given to ,abraham that his descendants  
should be a great and happy nation1     
blessing and redeeming the nations of   
the earth2 that their power should be   
world-wide1 their wealth inexhaustible1 
their peace undisturbed1 their moral    

supremacy gladly acknowledged4 ,the     
,lord shall cause thine enemies that    
rise up against thee to be smitten      
before thy face2 they shall come out    
against thee one way1 and flee before   
thee seven ways4 ,the ,lord shall       
command the blessing upon thee in thy   
storehouses1 and in all that thou       
settest thy hand unto2 and he shall     
bless thee in the land which the ,lord  
thy ,god giveth thee4 ,the ,lord shall  
establish thee an holy people unto      
himself1 as he hath sworn unto thee1 if 
thou shalt keep the commandments of the 
,lord1 and walk in his ways2 and all    
people of the earth shall see that thou 
art called by the name of the ,lord4    
,as a promise made by ,jehovah must be  
kept1 the anticipation of its fulfilment
 became strong as the prospect of it    
grew dim4 ,the days of disaster were the
 days of expectation4 ,the prophets laid
 stress on the condition1 charged the   
delay upon lukewarmness1 and urged the  
necessity of stricter conformity with   

the divine will2 but the people1        
oblivious of duty1 held to the pledge   
and cherished the anticipation4 ,when   
the national hope assumed the concrete  
form of faith in the advent of an       
individual1 when the conception of the  
individual became clothed in            
supernatural attributes1 is uncertain4  
,probably the looked-for deliverer was  
from the first regarded as more than    
human4 ,it could hardly be otherwise1 as
 he was to be the representative and    
agent of ,jehovah1 an incarnation of his
 truth and righteousness4 ,the ,hebrews 
easily confounding the human with the   
super-human1 were always tempted to     
ascribe supernatural qualities to their 
political and spiritual leaders1        
believing that they were divinely       
commissioned1 attested and furthered2   
and the person who was to accomplish    
what none of them had so much as        
hopefully undertaken1 would naturally be
 clothed by an enthusiastic imagination1
 with attributes more than mortal4 ,the 

poets depicted the stories of the future
 restoration in language of             
extraordinary splendor4 ,joel1 some say 
eight hundred years before ,jesus1 two  
hundred years before the first          
captivity1 foreshadows the restoration1 
but without any portraiture of the      
victorious ,prince4 ,a century and a    
half later we will suppose1 the first   
,isaiah speaks of the providential child
 of the nation1 on whose shoulder the   
government shall rest1 whose name shall 
be called ,wonderful ,counsellor1       
,mighty ,potentate1 ,everlasting        
,father1 ,prince of ,peace2 whose       
dominion shall be great1 who shall fix  
and establish the throne and kingdom of 
,david1 through justice and equity for  
ever1 and in peace without end2 a lineal
 descendant from ,david1 a sprout from  
his root4      ,the spirit of ,jehovah  
shall rest upon him1     ,the spirit of 
wisdom and understanding1     ,the      
spirit of counsel and might1     ,the   
spirit of knowledge and fear of         

,jehovah4     ,righteousness shall be   
the girdle of his loins1     ,and       
faithfulness the girdle of his reins2   
,to him shall the nation repair1        
,and his dwelling place shall be        
glorious4  ,the second ,isaiah1 supposed
 to have written during the exile and   
not long before its termination1        
associates the hope of restoration and  
return with king ,cyrus1 on whose       
clemency the ,jews built great          
expectations1 intimating even that he   
might be the promised deliverer4 ,he    
saith of ,cyrus3 ',he is my shepherd2 he
 shall perform all my pleasure4' ,he    
saith of ,jerusalem3 ',she shall be     
built2' and of the temple3 ',her        
foundation shall be laid4'  ,in the book
 of ,daniel1 by some supposed to have   
been written during the captivity1 by   
others as late as ,antiochus ,epiphanes 
7,b4 ,c41 #age71 the restoration is     
described in tremendous language1 and   
the ,messiah is portrayed as a          
supernatural personage1 in close        

relation with ,jehovah himself4 ,he is  
spoken of as a man1 yet with such       
epithets as only a ,jewish imagination  
could use in describing a human being4  
,heinrich ,ewald1 in the fifth volume of
 his history of the people of ,israel1  
devotes twenty-three pages to an account
 of the development of the national     
expectation of a ,messiah1 which he     
calls the second preparatory condition  
of the consummation in ,jesus4 ,after   
alluding to ,joel's fervent             
anticipation1 and ,isaiah's description 
of the glory that was to come through   
the ,king1 in whom the spirit of pure   
divinity penetrated1 animated and       
glorified everything1 so that his human 
nature was exalted to the ,god-like     
power1 whose actions1 speech1 breath    
even attested deity1 he says3 ,it is not
 to be questioned that this most exalted
 form of the conception of the          
anticipated ,messiah appeared in the    
midst of the latter period of this      
history1 when before the great victory  

of the ,maccabees1 the eternal hopes of 
,israel were disturbed in their         
foundations along with its political    
prospects1 and the advent of a ,king of 
,david's line seemed wholly impossible4 
,at this time the deathless hope became 
more interior and imperishable in this  
new1 glorious1 celestial idea1 and the  
,messiah presented himself before       
prophetic vision as existing from all   
eternity1 along with the indestructible 
prerogatives of ,israel1 which were     
thought of as existing in an ideal      
realm1 ready to manifest themselves     
visibly when the hour of destiny should 
come4 ,and we are able1 on historical   
grounds1 to assume that the deep-souled 
author of the book of ,daniel1 was the  
man who first sketched the splendid     
shape of the ,messiah1 and the superb   
outline of his kingdom1 in his          
far-reaching1 keen1 suggestive1 luminous
 phrases2 while immediately after him   
the first composer of our book of ,enoch
 developed the traits furnished him1    

with an equal warmth of language and a  
spiritual insight1 not deeper perhaps1  
but quieter and more comprehensive4     
,ewald supposes the book of ,enoch to   
have been written at various intervals  
between #add and #abj 7,b4 ,c47 and to  
have been completed in its present form 
in the first half of the century that   
preceeded the coming of ,christ4 ,the   
book was regarded as of authority by    
,tertullian1 though ,origen and         
,augustine classed it with apocryphal   
writings4 ,in it the figure of the      
,messiah is invested with super-human   
attributes4 ,he is called ,the ,son of  
,god1 whose name was spoken before the  
sun was made2 who existed from the      
beginning in the presence of ,god1 that 
is1 was pre-existent4 ,at the same time 
his human characteristics are insisted  
on4 ,he is called ,son of ,man1 even    
,son of ,woman1 ,the ,anointed1 ,the    
,elect1 ,the ,righteous ,one1 after the 
style of earlier ,hebrew anticipation4  
,the doctrines of angelic orders and    

administrations1 of ,satan and his      
legions1 of resurrection and the final  
judgment1 though definitely shaped1     
perhaps by association with ,persian    
mythologies1 lay concealed in           
possibility within the original thought 
of ultimate supremacy which worked so   
long and so actively1 though so         
obscurely1 in the mind of the ,jewish   
race4  ,the books of ,maccabees1        
belonging1 according to ,ewald1 to the  
last half century before ,christ1       
contain significant hints of the future 
beliefs of ,israel4 ,in the second      
chapter of ,,ii4 ,maccabees1 verses     
#d-i1 we read3 ,it is also found in the 
records that ,jeremy the prophet1 being 
warned of ,god1 commanded the tabernacle
 and the ark to go with him1 as he went 
forth into the mountain where ,moses    
climbed up and saw the heritage of ,god4
 ,and when ,jeremy came thither he found
 a hollow cave wherein he laid the      
tabernacle and the ark and the altar of 
incense1 and then stopped the door4 ,and

 some of those that followed him came to
 mark the way1 but they could not find  
it2 which1 when ,jeremy perceived1 he   
blamed them1 saying3 ,as for that place 
it shall be unknown until the time that 
,god gather his people again together1  
and receive them unto mercy4 ,then shall
 the ,lord show them these things1 and  
the glory of the ,lord shall appear1 and
 the cloud also1 as it was showed unto  
,moses4 ,is it a stretch of conjecture  
on the tenuous thread of fancy to find  
this reappearance described in          
,revelations ,,xi41 #ai1 in these words3
 ,and the temple of ,god was opened in  
heaven1 and there was seen in the temple
 the ark of his covenant2 and there were
 lightnings1 and voices1 and            
thunderings1 and an earthquake1 and     
great hail8 ,in the twenty-first chapter
 the seer describes himself as carried  
away in the spirit to a great and high  
mountain and shown that great city the  
,holy ,jerusalem1 descending out of     
heaven1 from ,god4 ,and he heard a great

 voice out of heaven1 saying3 ,behold1  
the tabernacle of ,god is with men2 ,he 
will dwell with them1 and they shall be 
,his people1 and ,god himself shall be  
with them1 their ,god4 ,the heavenly    
,jerusalem that came from the clouds is 
the heavenly city1 the germ whereof was 
carried up and hidden in the cloud by   
,jeremy1 the prophet4 ,the apocryphal   
books of the ,old ,testament lodge the  
ancient ,hebraic idea in the very heart 
of the ,new4  ,the earliest phases of   
the ,messianic hope were the most       
exalted in spirituality4 ,as the        
fortunes of the people became entangled 
with those of other states1 and the     
heavy hand of foreign oppression was    
laid upon them1 the anticipation lost   
its religious and assumed a political   
character4 ,the ,messiah assumed the    
aspect of a temporal prince1 no other   
conception of him meeting the           
requirements of the time4 ,the dark days
 had come again1 and were more          
threatening than ever4 ,sixty-three     

years before the birth of ,jesus1       
,pompey the ,great1 returning from the  
,east1 flushed with victory1 approached 
,jerusalem4 ,the city shut its gates    
against him1 but the resistance1 though 
stubborn1 was overcome at last1 and     
,judaea was1 with the rest of the world1
 swept into the mass of the ,roman      
empire4 ,the conqueror1 proud but       
magnanimous1 spared the people the last 
humiliation4 ,he respected no national  
scruples1 perhaps made a point of       
disregarding them2 he even penetrated   
into the ,holy of ,holies1 a piece of   
sacrilegious audacity that no ,gentile  
had ventured on before him2 but he was  
considerate of the national spirit in   
other respects1 and left the ,state1 in 
semblance at least1 existing4 ,he       
quelled the factions that distracted the
 country1 repaired the ruin caused in   
the city by the siege1 restored the     
injured temple1 and departed leaving the
 country in the hands of native rulers1 
the ,empire being thrown into the       

background4 ,in the background1 however1
 it lurked1 a vast power1 holding       
,judaea dependent and tributary4 ,the   
,jewish state was closely bounded and   
sharply defined2 a portion of its wealth
 was absorbed in taxes4 ,an iron arm    
repressed the insurgent fanaticism that 
ever and anon broke out in zeal for     
,jehovah4 ,the loyalty that was kept    
alive by religious traditions and was   
only another name for religious         
enthusiasm1 was not allowed expression4 
,still the even pressure of imperial    
power was not cruelly felt1 and by the  
better portion of the people was        
preferred to ceaseless discord and      
anarchy4 ,the lower orders1 easily      
roused to fanaticism1 provoked the      
,roman rule to more evident and         
stringent dominion4 ,julius ,caesar1    
passing by on his way to ,egypt1 paused1
 saw the situation1 and increased the   
authority of ,antipater1 his            
representative1 whom he raised to the   
dignity of ,procurator of ,judaea4 ,the 

rule of ,antipater was1 in the main1    
just1 and commended itself to the       
rational friends of the ,jewish ,state4 
,he rebuilt the wall which the assaults 
of war had thrown down1 pacified the    
country1 and earned by his general      
moderation the praise of the patriotic4 
,but ,antipater1 besides being the      
representative of a ,gentile despotism1 
was of foreign race1 an ,idumaean1 of   
the abhorred stock of ,edom4 ,spiritual 
acquiescence in the rule of such a      
prince was not to be expected4          
,antipater was the founder of the       
,herodian dynasty4 ,whatever may have   
been the ulterior designs which the     
princes of this dynasty had at heart1   
whether they meditated an ,eastern      
,empire centering in ,palestine1        
,jerusalem being the great metropolis1 a
 purpose kept secret in their breasts   
till such time as events might justify  
them in throwing off the dominion of    
,rome which they had used as an         
assistance in their period of weakness2 

or whether they hoped to combine ,church
 and ,state in ,judaea in such a way    
that each might support the other2 or   
whether1 in their passion for splendor1 
they plotted the subversion of religion 
by the pomp of pagan civilization2 the  
practical result of their dominion was  
the exasperation of the ,hebrew spirit4 
,herod1 the son of ,antipater1 deserved1
 on several accounts1 the title of      
,great that history has bestowed on him4
 ,he was great as a soldier1 great as a 
diplomatist1 great as an administrator4 
,made king in his youth2 established in 
his power by the ,roman senate2         
confirmed in his state by ,augustus2    
entrusted with all but unlimited powers2
 absolved from the duty to pay tribute  
to the empire2 his long reign of more   
than forty years was of great moment to 
the ,jewish state4 ,internally he       
corrupted it1 but externally he         
beautified it4 ,the superb temple1 one  
of the wonders and ornaments of the     
,eastern world1 was of his building1 and

 so delicately as well as munificently  
was it done1 that the shock of removing 
the old edifice to make room for the new
 was quite avoided4 ,he adorned the city
 besides1 with sumptuous monuments and  
structures4 ,his palaces1 theatres1     
tombs were of unexampled magnificence4  
,nor was his attention confined to the  
city of ,jerusalem2 ,caesarea was       
enriched with marble docks and palaces2 
,joppa was made handsome2 ,antonia was  
fortified4 ,games and feasts relieved   
the monotony of ,eastern life1 and      
gratified the ,greek taste for splendid 
gaiety4 ,but this was all in the        
interest of paganism4 ,if he rebuilt the
 temple at ,jerusalem1 he rebuilt also  
the temple at ,samaria4 ,if he made     
superb the worship of ,jehovah in the   
holy city1 he encouraged heathen worship
 in the new city of ,caesarea4 ,this    
introduction of ,roman customs deeply   
offended the religious sense of the     
nation4 ,outside the city walls he had  
an amphitheatre for barbarous games4    

,inside1 he had a theatre for ,greek    
plays and dances4 ,the castle1 ,antonia1
 well garrisoned1 a castle and a palace 
combined1 commanded the temple square4  
,the ,roman eagle1 fixed upon the front 
of the temple1 was an affront that no   
magnificence or munificence could atone 
for4 ,his private life was not          
calculated to win the favor of a        
severely puritanical people1 or persuade
 them of the advantage of being under   
imperial dominion4 ,the ,greek legends  
on his coins1 his ostentatious          
encouragement of foreign usages and     
people1 his rude treatment of ,hebrew   
prejudices1 and his haughty bearing     
towards the first families added        
bitterness to the misery of foreign     
sway4  ,yet the situation became worse  
at his death4 ,for his successors had   
his audacity without his prudence1 and  
were disposed1 as he was1 to be         
oppressive1 without being1 as he was1   
magnificent4 ,he did keep the nation at 
peace by his tyranny1 if by his cruelty 

he undermined security and provoked the 
disaffection that made peace impossible 
after him4 ,the last acts ascribed to   
him1 the order that the most eminent men
 of the nation should be put to death at
 his decease1 and that the infants of   
,bethlehem1 the city of ,david1 should  
be massacred1 attest more than the      
vulgar belief in his cruelty2 they bear 
witness to a conviction that the spirit 
of the people was not dead1 that the    
despotism of ,rome had failed to crush  
the hope of ,israel4 ,the death of      
,herod1 which occurred when ,jesus was a
 little child1 was followed by frightful
 social and political convulsions4 ,for 
two or three years all the elements of  
disorder were afoot4 ,between pretenders
 to the vacant throne of ,herod1 and    
aspirants to the ,messianic throne of   
,david1 ,judaea was torn and devastated4
 ,revolt assumed the wildest form1 the  
higher enthusiasm of faith yielded to   
the lower fury of fanaticism2 the       
celestial visions of a kingdom of heaven

 were completely banished by the smoke  
and flame of political hate4 ,claimant  
after claimant of the dangerous         
supremacy of the ,messiah appeared1     
pitched a camp in the wilderness1 raised
 the banner1 gathered a force1 was      
attacked1 defeated1 banished or         
crucified2 but the frenzy did not abate4
 ,conservative ,jews1 in their despair1 
sent an embassy to ,rome1 praying for   
tranquility under the equitable reign of
 law4 ,they wanted no king like ,herod1 
or of ,herod's line2 they prayed to be  
delivered from all kings who were not   
themselves subject to imperial          
responsibility4 ,the governor of ,syria 
they would acknowledge4 ,the petition   
was not granted4 ,herod's three sons1   
,archelaus1 ,antipas and ,philip divided
 their father's dominion between them2  
,judaea was made a ,roman province1     
subject to taxation like any other4     
,the best of the three kings was        
,philip1 who received as his portion the
 ,north ,eastern division1 the most     

remote from the centre of disturbance4  
,he was a quiet1 well-disposed man1 who 
staid at home1 attended to his own      
business1 developed the resources of his
 dominion1 and showed himself a father  
to his people4 ,caesarea ,philippi was  
built by him2 ,bethsaida was rebuilt4   
,antipas1 called also ,herod1 was       
appointed ruler over ,galilee and       
,peraea2 a cunning1 unprincipled man1   
nicknamed the fox2 despotic and wilful1 
like his father1 and like his father1   
fond of display4 ,he built ,dio         
,caesarea1 as it was afterwards called1 
and ,tiberias1 on the sea of ,galilee4  
,he too was a good deal of a pagan1 and 
deeply outraged the ,hebrew conscience  
by repudiating his wife1 the daughter of
 ,aretas1 an ,arabian king1 and marrying
 the wife of his half-brother1 ,philip4 
,he was an oriental despot1             
superstitious1 luxurious1 sensual1      
wilful and weak2 quite destitute of the 
statesmanship required in the ruler of a
 turbulent province1 where special care 

and skill were necessary to reconcile   
the order of civil government with the  
aspiration after theocratic supremacy4  
,the spiritual fear1 which compelled him
 to stand in awe of religious           
enthusiasm1 put him on more than half   
earnest quest of prophetic messengers1  
made him curious about miracles and     
signs1 and anxious not to offend        
needlessly the higher powers1 was       
incessantly at war with the             
self-regarding policy which resented the
 smallest encroachment on his own       
authority4 ,to maintain his ducal state1
 and meet the cost of his public and    
private extravagance1 he imposed heavy  
taxes1 and collected them in an         
unscrupulous fashion1 which made him and
 the empire he represented extremely    
unpopular4 ,jealous of his prerogative1 
and ambitious of regal rank1 he brought 
himself into disagreeable collision with
 the aspirations of the people he       
governed4 ,his immediate neighborhood to
 the centres of ,jewish enthusiasm1--he 

lived in the very heart of it1 for      
,galilee was the seat and head-quarters 
of ,hebrew radicalism--made his every   
movement felt4 ,in him the spirit of the
 ,roman empire was1 in the belief of the
 people1 incarnate4  ,the oldest        
brother1 ,archelaus1 held the chief     
position1 bore the highest title1       
received the largest tribute1 more than 
a million of dollars1 and resided in    
,judaea1 nearer the political centre of 
the country4 ,his reign was short4 ,his 
cruelty and lawlessness1 his disregard  
of private and public decencies raised  
his subjects against him4 ,augustus1 on 
an appeal to ,rome for redress1 summoned
 him to his presence1 listened to the   
charges and the defence1 and banished   
him to ,gaul4 ,this was in the year #f  
of our era1 only three years after the  
death of ,herod4 ,the reign of his      
brothers1 ,philip and ,antipas1 covered 
the period of the life of ,jesus4  ,the 
taxing which excited the wildest uproar 
against the ,roman power1 took place at 

this period1--,a4 ,d4 #g1--under        
,cyrenius or ,quirinus1 governor of     
,syria2 it was the first general tax    
laid directly by the imperial           
government1 and it raised a furious     
storm of opposition4 ,the ,hebrew spirit
 was stung into exasperation2 the       
puritans of the nation1 the enthusiasts1
 fanatics1 the zealots of the law1 the  
literal constructionists of prophecy1   
appealed to the national temper1 revived
 the national faith1 and fanned into    
flame the combustible elements that     
smouldered in the bosom of the race4 ,a 
native ,hebrew party was formed1 on the 
idea that ,judaea was for the ,jews2    
that the rule of the ,gentile was       
ungodly2 that all support given to it   
was disloyalty to ,jehovah4 ,the popular
 feeling broke out in open rebellion2   
the fanaticism of the zealots affected  
the whole nation4 ,whoever had the      
courage to draw the sword in the name of
 the ,messiah was sure of a following1  
though there was no chance that the     

uprising would end in anything but blood
 and worse oppression4 ,the most        
extravagant expectations were cherished 
of miraculous furtherance and           
super-human aid4 ,the popular           
imagination1 inflamed by rhetoric taken 
from ,daniel1 ,enoch1 and other         
apocryphal books1 went beyond all sober 
limits4 ,the primary conditions of      
divine assistance1 sanctity1 fidelity1  
patience1 meekness of trust1 reverence  
for the ,lord's will1 were neglected and
 forgotten2 the promise alone was kept  
in view2 the word of ,jehovah was alone 
remembered2 his command was disregarded4
 ,but the ,lord's promise was not kept4 
,every new uprising was followed by     
fresh impositions2 the detestable       
dominion was fastened upon the people   
more hopelessly than ever4 ,the temper  
of the domination became bitter and     
contemptuous1 as it had not been before4
 ,the name of ,jew was synonymous to    
,roman ears with vulgar fanaticism4  ,in
 place of ,archelaus1 ,augustus sent    

procurators1 as they were called1       
,coponius1 ,marcus ,ambivius1 ,annius   
,rufus4 ,the country was generally      
tranquil under their short              
administrations2 but the internal feuds 
were not pacified4 ,the enthusiasm of   
the ,jews provoked the malignity of the 
,samaritans1 who1 having been longer    
wonted to foreign rule1 less resented   
it1 and were not unwilling to put       
themselves in league with the despot to 
crush an ancient foe4 ,it is related    
that during the administration of       
,coponius1 some evil-minded ,samaritans1
 stole into the open temple of          
,jerusalem1 on the passover night1 and  
threw human bones into the holy place4  
,the building was desecrated for the    
season and must be purified by special  
sacrifices before it could be used      
again4 ,the dastardly act was           
associated1 in the minds of the people1 
with the insulting degradations of the  
,gentile power1 and the spirit of       
rebellion was exasperated4  ,augustus   

died ,a4 ,d4 #ad1 and was succeeded by  
,tiberius1 whose policy towards ,judaea1
 was not oppressive so much as          
contemptuous4 ,he was too merciful to   
the sick man to drive away the carrion  
flies that were already surfeited1 and  
let in a fresh swarm of blood-suckers4  
,his viceroys enjoyed a long term of    
office and plundered at leisure4        
,pontius ,pilate was appointed to this  
position in the year #bf1 about four    
years before the public appearance of   
,jesus1 and was kept there till the year
 #cg4 ,he was1 in many respects1 a good 
administrator3 overbearing1 of course1  
for he was a ,roman2 his subjects were  
by nature1 irritating1 and by           
reputation1 factious4 ,he was greedy of 
gain1 though not rapacious or           
extortionate2 not a man of high         
principle2 not a sympathetic or         
sentimental man1 cold1 indifferent1     
apathetic rather2 still1 moderate1 and1 
on the whole1 just2 liable to mistakes  
through stubbornness and imprudence1 but

 neither cruel1 jealous1 nor vindictive4
 ,the reputation of being all these was 
easily earned by a man in his position2 
for the ,jews were sensitive1 not easily
 satisfied1 and disposed to construe    
unfavorably any acts of a foreign ruler4
 ,as viceroys went1 ,pilate was not a   
bad man1 nor was he a bad specimen of   
his class4 ,the smallest imprudence     
might precipitate riot in ,jerusalem4   
,on one occasion1 the troops from       
,samaria1 coming to winter at           
,jerusalem1 were allowed to carry1      
emblazoned on their banner1 the image of
 the emperor1 to which the ,roman       
soldiers attached a sacred character4   
,the sight of the idolatrous standard on
 the morning of its first exhibition    
created great excitement4 ,a riot broke 
forth at once2 a deputation waited on   
the governor at ,caesarea1 to protest   
against the outrage and demand the      
removal of the sacrilege4 ,pilate firmly
 withstood the supplicants1 thinking the
 honor of the emperor at stake4 ,five   

days and five nights the petitioners    
stayed1 pressing their demand4 ,on the  
sixth day1 the governor1 wearied by     
their importunity and resolved to put an
 end to the annoyance1 had his          
judgment-seat placed on the race-course1
 ordered troops to lie concealed in the 
near neighborhood1 and awaited the visit
 of the ,jews4 ,the deputation came as  
usual with their complaint2 at a signal1
 the soldiers appeared and surrounded   
the suppliants1 while the procurator    
threatened them with instant death1 if  
they did not at once retire to their    
homes4 ,the stern puritans1 nothing     
daunted1 threw themselves at his feet1  
stretched out their necks1 and cried3   
',it were better to die than to submit  
to insult to our holy laws4' ,the       
astonished governor yielded1 and the    
insignia were removed4  ,on another     
occasion ,pilate was made sensible of   
the inflammable character of the people 
with whom he had to deal4 ,he had       
allowed the construction1 perhaps only  

the restoration1 of a costly aqueduct to
 supply the city1 but more especially   
the temple buildings1 with pure water4  
,it was built at the instance of the    
,sanhedrim and the priests1 to whom an  
abundance of water was a prime          
necessity4 ,in consideration of this    
fact1 as well as of the circumstance    
that the benefit of the improvement     
accrued wholly to the ,jewish people1 it
 seemed to ,pilate no more than just    
that the expense should be defrayed from
 moneys in the temple treasury that were
 set apart for such purposes4 ,there is 
no evidence that his action was         
unreasonable or his method of pursuing  
it offensive2 but clamors at once arose 
against his project1 and on occasion of 
his coming to ,jerusalem a tumultuous   
crowd pressed on him1 and insulting     
epithets were flung at him from the     
rabble4 ,to still and scatter them      
soldiers were sent1 in ordinary dress1  
with clubs in their hands1 their weapons
 being concealed1 to overawe the        

malcontents4 ,this failing1 and the     
tumult increasing1 the signal of attack 
was given2 the soldiers fell to with a  
will2 blood was shed2 innocent and      
guilty suffered alike4 ,as this occurred
 on a feast day1 near the ,praetorium1  
and not far from the temple itself1 it  
is quite possible that the sacred       
precincts were disturbed by the uproar1 
and that the stain of blood touched     
consecrated pavement4 ,the popular mind1
 excited and maddened1 seized on the    
occurrence1 represented it as a         
deliberate affront on the part of the   
governor1 and charged him with mingling 
the blood of innocent people with the   
sacrifices they were offering to        
,jehovah4 ,it is not unlikely that the  
tower of ,siloam which fell1 crushing   
eighteen citizens1 was a part of this   
very aqueduct wall1 and its fall may    
have been and probably was1 regarded as 
a judgment on the work and on all who   
countenanced it4 ,that it made a        
profound impression on the popular      

imagination appears in the gospel       
narratives written many years           
afterwards4 ,ewald supposes that this   
accident happened at an early stage of  
the work1 and was a leading cause of the
 fanatical outbreak that expressed the  
popular discontent4  ,philo tells a     
story of ,pilate's administration1 so   
characteristic that it deserves         
repeating1 although1 as ,ewald remarks1 
it may be another version of the        
incident of the standards4 ,ewald1      
however1 is inclined to think it a      
distinct occurrence4 ,according to this 
narrative1 ,pilate1 in honor of the     
emperor1 and in accordance with a custom
 prevalent throughout the empire1       
especially in the ,east1 caused to be   
set up in a conspicuous place in        
,jerusalem1 two votive shields of gold1 
one bearing the name of ,tiberius1 the  
other his own4 ,the shields had nothing 
on them but the names2 no image1 no     
inscription1 no idolatrous emblem1      
simply the two names4 ,but even this was

 resented by the fiery populace who     
could not endure the lightest intimation
 of their subjection to a ,gentile      
power4 ,the indignation reached the     
aristocracy2 at least1 the force of the 
movement did2 and the sons of ,herod1   
all four of them1 accompanied by members
 of the first families and city         
officials1 formally waited on ,pilate to
 demand the removal of the tablets1 and 
on his refusal went to ,rome to lay the 
matter before ,tiberius1 who granted1 on
 his part1 the request4 ,be the incident
 as recorded true or not1 the record of 
it by so near a contemporary and so     
clear a judge as ,philo1 throws a strong
 light on the situation1 brings the two 
parties into bold relief1 as they       
confront one another1 and affords a     
glimpse into the secret workings of     
,hebrew political motives4  ,the        
pressure of the ,roman authority was    
incessant and severe1 though the        
apparatus of it was kept in the         
background4 ,the governor held his court

 and head-quarters at ,caesarea1 a      
seaport town on the ,mediterranean1     
about mid-way between ,joppa on the     
south1 and the promontory of ,carmel on 
the north1 admirably situated with      
regard to ,rome1 on the one side1 and   
,palestine on the other4 ,for strategic 
purposes the place was well chosen4 ,the
 military force in the country was not  
large--about a thousand men--but it was 
effectively disposed4 ,the castle of    
,antonia1 in the city of ,jerusalem1    
contained a garrison judiciously small1 
but sufficient for an exigency4 ,the    
viceroy was present in the ,holy ,city  
on public days when great assemblages of
 people1 gathered together under        
circumstances provocative of            
insurrection1 required closer watch than
 usual4 ,he had a residence there1 and a
 judgment-seat on a marble balcony in   
front of the palace2 he exercised regal 
powers1 held the issues of life and     
death1 could depose priests of any      
order2 in short1 ruled the subject      

people with as much consideration as the
 peculiar circumstances of the case     
demanded1 but no more4 ,the people were 
never permitted to forget their subject 
condition4 ,the hated tax-gatherer went 
his rounds1 exacting tribute to the     
empire4 ,the evolutions of soldiers gave
 an aspect of omnipresence to the       
foreign dominion4 ,the hope of          
deliverance lost its spiritual          
character1 and took on decidedly a      
political shape4 ,the anticipation of   
the ,messiah became less ideal1 but more
 intense4 ,the armed figure of king     
,david haunted the dreams of fanatics2  
even the angels that hovered before the 
imagination of gentler enthusiasts wore 
breast-plates and had swords in their   
hands4 ,the kingdom looked for was no   
reign of truth1 mercy1 and kindness1 but
 a reign of force1 for force alone could
 meet force4     ,,iii4  ,,the ,,sects4 
,the popular aspect of the ,messianic   
hope was political1 not religious or    
moral4 ,the name ,messiah1 was          

synonymous with ,king of the ,jews2 it  
suggested political designs and         
aspirations4 ,the assumption of that    
character by any individual drew on him 
the vigilance of the police4 ,in this   
condition of affairs the public         
sentiment was divided between the       
,conservatives and the ,radicals4 ,the  
first party comprised the wealthy1      
settled1 permanent1 cautious people     
whose patriotism was tinged with prudent
 reflection4 ,they saw the hopelessness 
of revolt1 its inevitable failure1 and  
the worse tyranny that would follow its 
bloody suppression2 they put generous   
interpretations on the acts and         
intentions of the imperial power1 did   
justice and a little more than literal  
justice to acts of clemency or          
forbearance1 appreciated the value of   
the ,roman supremacy in preserving      
internal quiet and keeping other        
plunderers at a distance2 and had       
confidence that patience and diplomacy  
would accomplish what force could not   

undertake4 ,they were careful1          
therefore1 to maintain a good           
understanding with the powers that were1
 and frowned on all attempts to revive  
the national spirit4  ,the conservatives
 were of all shades of opinion1 and of  
all parties2 the radicals were1 as is   
usually the case1 confined mostly to    
those who had little to lose1 either of 
wealth1 reputation1 or social position4 
,the supremacy of ,israel1 the          
restoration of the ,jewish              
,commonwealth1 the overthrow of the     
wealthy and powerful1 the reinstatement 
of the poor1 the unlettered1 the weak1  
the suffering1 the downtrodden children 
of ,abraham1 composed the group of ideas
 which made up the sum of their         
intellectual life4 ,the ,roman dominion 
was abhorred not because it was cruel1  
but because it was sacrilegious4        
,diplomacy1 with these1 was another word
 for time-serving2 policy another phrase
 for cowardice2 they detested prudence  
as ignoble2 they distrusted conciliation

 as apostacy2 they put the worst        
construction on the fairest seeming     
deeds1 dreading nothing so much as      
agreement between the chief men of      
,israel and the minions of the empire4  
,the educated and responsible classes   
were chiefly conservative4 ,no sect was 
so entirely1 for no sect comprised all  
of these classes2 but some sects were   
naturally more conservative than others4
 ,the ,sadducees were1 on the whole1 the
 most so2 not by reason of their creed  
particularly1 but through the influence 
of their historical antecedents4 ,after 
the capture of ,jerusalem by ,ptolemy1  
#cbj ,b4 ,c41 some hundred thousand     
,jews went to ,egypt and attained       
consequence there2 had their own        
religious rites and temple4 ,contact    
with ,greek thought and life there      
enlarged their minds4 ,their            
old-fashioned ,hebraism seemed strait   
and prim by the side of the splendid    
exuberance of ,gentile life in          
,alexandria4 ,jerusalem looked1 in the  

distance1 like a provincial town2 the   
wealth of pagan literature dwarfed their
 ,scriptures to the dimensions of a     
single deep but narrow tradition4 ,they 
were ,jews still1 but bigoted ,jews no  
longer4 ,how unreasonable seemed now the
 prejudices of exclusive race6 how      
unwise the attempts to maintain         
peculiarities of custom6 how fanatical  
the efforts to impose them upon others6 
,the world was large and various3 the   
order of the world followed the track of
 no one law-giver1 prophet or saint4    
,the sect of ,sadducees is supposed to  
have risen from this pagan soil4 ,it was
 a sect of rationalists1 free-thinkers1 
skeptics1 eclectics2 ,jews1 but not     
dogmatists of any school4 ,they believed
 in culture and general progress1 and   
had the characteristic traits of men so 
believing4 ,they were cool1             
unimpassioned1 scientific2              
sentimentalism they abjured2 enthusiasm 
to them was folly4 ,they were glad to   
graft ,greek culture on ,hebrew thought1

 and would not have been sorry to see   
the small ,hebrew state absorbed by some
 world-wide civilization4 ,moses they   
revered1 and his law2 but the           
aftergrowth1 priestly and prophetic1    
they discarded4 ,no doubt they thought  
the priests superstitious1 the prophets 
mad1 the restorationists a set of fools1
 the vision of ,israel's future         
supremacy the mischievous nightmare of  
distempered minds4 ,as a literary class 
the ,sadducees were few and select2     
aristocratic in taste1 supercilious in  
manners4 ,they were in favor with the   
governors placed over the people by     
,roman authority1 on account of their   
cultured moderation2 and in return for  
social and political support1 received  
offices in the ,state1 and even in the  
,church4 ,caiaphas1 the high priest in  
the time of ,jesus1 was a ,sadducee1 and
 was raised to that dignity by ,valerius
 ,gratus1 ,pilate's predecessor in      
office4  ,the ,sadducee was a man of the
 world2 not in the bad sense1 but in the

 strict sense of the term4 ,disbelieving
 in immortality1 he confined his view to
 the possibilities of the time2         
disbelieving in angels and special      
providences1 he put confidence in       
temporal powers2 disbelieving the       
doctrine of divine decrees and manifest 
destiny1 he pursued the calculations of 
policy and held himself within the      
reasonable compass of human motives4    
,compromisers on principle1 the         
,sadducees were unpopular in a community
 of earnest ,jews4 ,they bore bad names1
 were called epicureans1 sensualists1   
materialists1 cold-blooded aristocrats1 
allies of despotism2 but they deserved  
these abusive appellations no more than 
men of the same description in modern   
states deserve them4 ,the abusive       
epithet was one of the penalties they   
had to pay for the intellectual and     
social consequence they enjoyed4  ,the  
,pharisees were more numerous1 more     
commonplace and more popular4 ,they     
were1 in fact1 the great popular sect4  

,they were of more recent origin than   
the ,sadducees1 their history going back
 only about a century and a half before 
the time of ,jesus4 ,their name1 which  
means exclusive or elect1 set apart1    
sufficiently indicates their character4 
,they were the strait sect2 ,hebrews of 
the ,hebrews2 ,puritans of the          
,puritans2 the quintessence of          
theocratic fervor and patriotic faith2  
the true ,israel4 ,strict               
constructionists they were2 friends to  
the law and the testimony2 worshippers  
of the letter and the form2 painstaking 
preservers of every iota of the written 
word2 firm believers in the destiny of  
,israel1 in the special providence that 
could accomplish it1 in the angelic     
powers whose agency might be needed to  
fulfil it1 in the future life when it   
was to be fulfilled4 ,they held to the  
law1 and they held to the prophets1     
major and minor2 they could divide the  
word of the ,lord to a hair4  ,the      
,pharisees have usually been called a   

sect2 they were not so much a sect as a 
party4 ,church and ,state being one in  
the conception of a theocracy1 or       
government of ,god1 the devotee and the 
politician were the same person2 the    
dogmatist was the democrat2 the man of  
narrowest creed was the man of widest   
sympathies2 the most exclusive          
theologian was the most popular         
partisan4 ,to keep ,israel true to the  
faith1 and1 in consequence of that to   
save it from political decline1 was1    
from the first1 the ,pharisee's mission4
 ,he never lost it from his view4 ,his  
eye was steadily fixed on the issues of 
the day1 as they involved the destinies 
of the future4 ,in order that he might  
be a patriot1 he was anxious to preserve
 unimpaired his puritanism2 and in order
 that he might preserve his puritanism  
unimpaired1 he attended diligently to   
the duties of patriotism4  ,the         
,pharisee cherished the ,messianic hope4
 ,it was part of his faith in the       
destiny of ,israel1 and the great       

practical justification of his belief in
 the resurrection of the dead2 he       
believed in personal immortality1       
because he believed in the ,christ who  
would come to bestow it4 ,it was an     
article of the patriot's creed2 the joy 
of the ,messianic felicity being the    
reward for fidelity to ,israel4 ,the    
hope presented to him its political     
aspect1 that being the aspect really    
fascinating to patriotic contemplation4 
,the moral and spiritual aspects were   
incidental to this4 ,in fact the moral  
and spiritual aspects were scarcely     
thought of4 ,it was reserved for        
,christianity to develop these when the 
literal doctrine had lost its interest1 
and the heavenly kingdom had been       
transported from the earth to the skies4
 ,a thousand and a half of years have   
not spiritualized the belief with the   
multitude4 ,still the ,pharisaic        
doctrine is the accepted faith2 a purely
 rational human faith in immortality is 
entertained by the philosophical few4   

,the ,pharisees constituted a sort of   
,young ,men's ,hebrew ,association1     
loosely organized for the maintenance of
 the faith and the fulfilment of the    
destiny of ,israel4  ,but while all     
,pharisees shared the same general      
beliefs1 all were not of the same mind  
on questions of immediate policy4 ,they 
were divided into conservative and      
radical wings4 ,the conservatives1      
whether from temperament1 position1     
conviction1 or selfish interest1        
deprecated sudden or violent measures   
which would defeat their own ends and   
make a bad state of things worse4 ,they 
counselled moderation1 patience1        
acquiescence in the actual and          
inevitable4 ,they discountenanced the   
open expressions of discontent1 advised 
submission to law1 and preached the duty
 of strict religious observance as the  
proper preparation1 on their part1 for  
the providential advent of the ,son of  
,man4 ,no doubt this policy was prompted
 in many cases by timidity1 and in many 

cases by time-serving craft2 but no     
doubt it was in many cases suggested by 
sober statesmanship4 ,the conservative  
,pharisee was even less popular than the
 ,sadducee2 for the ,sadducee pretended 
to no belief in ,israel's providential  
destiny1 and to no sympathy with        
,israel's ,messianic hope2 while the    
,pharisee made conspicuous protestation 
of orthodox zeal4 ,evidence of the      
popular dislike of the conservative     
,pharisee abounds4 ,he was looked upon  
as a renegade4 ,he was called pretender 
and hypocrite1 wolf in sheep's clothing1
 a whited sepulchre4 ,he was ridiculed  
and lampooned4 ,all manner of           
heartlessness was charged against him1  
as being a monster of inhumanity4 ,the  
,talmud1 says ,deutsch1 inveighs even   
more bitterly and caustically than the  
,new ,testament1 against what it calls  
'the plague of ,pharisaism2' 'the dyed  
ones1' 'who do evil deeds1 like ,zimri1 
and require a goodly reward1 like       
,phinehas2' 'who preach beautifully1 but

 behave unbeautifully4' ,their          
artificial interpretations1 their       
divisions and sub-divisions1 their      
attitudes and posturings were parodied  
and caricatured4 ,the conventional      
,pharisee was classed under one of six  
categories3 he did the will of ,god1 but
 from interested motives2 he was forever
 doing the will of ,god1 but never      
accomplishing it2 he performed absurd   
penances to avoid imaginary sins2 he    
accepted office in the character of     
saint2 he sanctimoniously begged his    
neighbor to mention some duty he had    
inadvertently omitted1 his design being 
to seem faithful in all things when he  
was faithful in nothing2 or1 if         
sincerely devout1 he was devout from    
fear4 ,he had no credit given him for   
his virtues1 and more than due discredit
 for his vices4 ,in time of peril the   
conservatives out-numbered the radicals1
 for radicalism was dangerous2 and the  
feeling between the two classes was the 
bitterer on this account2 the           

conservatives hating the radicals whom  
they could not disown1 the radicals     
despising the conservatives who were    
their brothers in faith4 ,each party    
compromised the other precisely where   
misapprehension was most exasperating4  
,for the radicalism of the time was     
exclusively1 we may say1 pharisaic4     
,there was no other of any considerable 
account4 ,none but believers in the     
restoration of ,israel1 in the          
triumphant vindication of her faith in a
 new and complete social order and in   
absolute political independence2 none   
but believers in divine interposition1  
and a personal resurrection of the      
faithful for the enjoyment of felicity  
in the ,messianic kingdom2 none but     
devout students of the scripture1       
recipients of the whole tradition1      
visionaries of the literal or spiritual 
order1 could entertain so audacious a   
hope2 and all these were ,pharisees4    
,the ,essenes1 a mystical and secluded  
sect1 dwelt apart1 took no interest in  

public affairs1 and exerted no influence
 on public opinion4 ,peculiar in their  
usages1 secret in their proceedings1    
contemplative in their habits1 quietists
 and dreamers1 they so transfigured and 
sublimated the views which they shared  
with their compatriots1 that no point of
 practical contact was visible4 ,from   
them no prophet or reformer came4 ,the  
soul of the ,hebrew faith was all they  
recognized2 the body of it they were    
indifferent to4 ,that in many respects  
their doctrines1 precepts1 social usages
 and religious practices corresponded   
with those held by conscientious ,jews1 
need not be questioned4 ,it does not    
follow that they originated or          
communicated them4 ,such opinions were  
simply adopted as a common inheritance4 
,the ,essenes rather withdrew than      
imparted their belief4 ,all the         
ingenuity of ,de,quincey is unavailing  
to establish a practical relation       
between the ,essenes and any popular    
movement in ,judaea4 ,these movements   

were led by the more enthusiastic of the
 ,pharisees1 and followed by the        
multitude that shared their ideas4  ,the
 lawyers and scribes1 ,pharisees for the
 most part by profession1 were in       
consequence of their profession1        
conservative4 ,men of learning1 well    
balanced in mind1 carefully educated1   
good linguists1 masters often in        
theology1 philosophy1 moral science1    
familiar as any were with natural       
history1 the mathematics1 botany1       
engaged in the study and exposition of  
the sacred books1 they were from the    
scholastic nature of their pursuits1    
disinclined to take part in popular     
reforms4 ,there were no zealots among   
them2 they were men of moderate opinions
 and calm tempers1 capable of stubborn  
resistance to the elements of agitation1
 but incapable of vehement sympathies   
with enthusiasm4  ,the ,herodians1 were 
a limited and never a popular party1 who
 hoped that1 in some way1 the           
deliverance of ,israel might come       

through the family of ,herod1 as being  
,jews but not bigots1 of foreign        
extraction but of oriental genius1 whose
 dynasty had been1 and might again be1  
independent of ,rome4 ,these men were   
interested in public affairs1 watched   
narrowly the signs of the times in      
politics1 but were as jealous on the one
 side1 of popular outbreaks1 as they    
were on the other1 of imperial          
domination4 ,deliverance1 in their      
judgment1 was to come by diplomacy1 not 
by enthusiasm4 ,they had no religious   
creed that distinguished them as a      
party4 ,some may have been ,sadducees2  
more1 probably were ,pharisees2 but     
whether ,pharisees or ,sadducees1 they  
were in no danger of being demagogues or
 the dupes of demagogues4 ,the party was
 in existence at the period of ,jesus2  
but it could not have been strong4 ,its 
influence1 if it ever had any1 was      
declining with the decreasing           
significance of the ,herodian line4 ,we 
hear little of them in the literature of

 the time2 with the final and absolute  
supremacy of ,rome1 they disappeared4   
,the casual mention of them1 once in    
,matthew and once in ,mark1 on the same 
occasion1 and in connection with the    
,pharisees1 is evidence that they were  
still in existence late in the first    
century4 ,that is their last appearance4
     ,,iv4  ,,the ,,messiah ,,in ,,the  
,,new ,,testament4   ,the earliest      
writings of the ,new ,testament1 the    
genuine letters of ,paul1 written not   
far from the year #fj1 thirty years more
 or less after the received date of the 
crucifixion of ,jesus1 take up and      
continue the line of ,jewish tradition4 
,no traces exist of literature produced 
between the opening of the century and  
the epistolary activity of the apostle  
of the ,gentiles4 ,the times were       
unfavorable to the production and the   
preservation of literary work4 ,the     
earliest gospels1 even granting their   
genuineness and authenticity1 cannot be 
assigned to so early a period1 cannot be

 crowded back beyond the year #gj1 and  
must probably be placed later by ten1   
fifteen1 twenty years4 ,they bear       
evidently on their pages the impress of 
ideas which ,paul made current4 ,their  
authors1 when not disciples of his      
school1 respected it and had regard to  
its claim4 ,the gospel of ,luke betrays1
 in its whole structure the shaping hand
 of a ,pauline adherent4 ,its           
catholicity1 its anti-,judaic spirit1   
its frequent and approving mention of   
,samaritans1 its doctrine of demons and 
powers of the infernal world1 its       
constant recognition in precept and     
parable of the claims of the heathen on 
the salvation of the ,christ1 are a few 
of the plain marks of a genius foreign  
to that of ,palestine4 ,the gospel of   
,mark is similarly though not so        
eminently or so minutely characterized4 
,even the gospel of ,matthew contains   
deposits from this formation4 ,the      
language of one verse in the eleventh   
chapter1--,all things are delivered unto

 me of ,my ,father2 and no man knoweth  
the ,son1 but the ,father1 neither      
knoweth any man the ,father1 save the   
,son1 and he to whom the ,son will      
reveal him1 confesses in every word1 its
 ,pauline origin4 ,the passage lies like
 a boulder on a common4  ,though        
concerned with a period anterior to the 
apostle's conversion1 with events       
whereof he had no knowledge1 and with a 
life from which he professed to derive  
only his impulse1 the gospels are       
written1 not in the style of chronicles 
or memoirs1 but in the style of         
disquisitions rather4 ,far from being   
the artless1 guileless1 unstudied       
compositions they have passed for1 they 
are imbued with an atmosphere of        
reflection1 are ingeniously elaborate   
and1 in parts painfully studied4 ,they  
are meditated biographies1 in which the 
biographical material is selected and   
qualified by speculative motives4       
,nevertheless1 these are the only       
fragments presumably of historical      

character that we possess4 ,the period  
that ,paul's ministry supposes must be  
searched for in these after-minded      
books4 ,hence arise grave literary      
difficulties4 ,several points must be   
borne in mind2 the absence of any       
contemporaneous account of the ministry 
of ,jesus2 the utter dearth of early    
memoranda2 the advanced age of the      
evangelists at the time they wrote1 even
 on the common reckoning1 and the effect
 of age in weakening recollection1      
suggesting fancies1 raising queries1    
inflaming imaginations1 making the mind 
receptive of theories and marvels2 the  
influence on the disciples and on the   
intellectual world of a man so powerful 
as ,paul1 and the altered speculative   
climate of the later apostolic age4 ,the
 literary laws forbid under these       
circumstances our reading the gospel    
narratives as authentic                 
histories--constrain us in fact to read 
them1 in some sort1 as disquisitions1   
making allowance as we go along1 for the

 infusion of doctrinal elements4  ,the  
actual ,jesus is1 thus understood1      
inaccessible to scientific research4    
,his image cannot be recovered4 ,he left
 no memorial in writing of himself2 his 
followers were illiterate2 the mind of  
his age was confused4 ,paul received    
only traditions of him1 how definite we 
have no means of knowing1 apparently not
 significant enough to be treasured1 nor
 consistent enough to oppose a barrier  
to his own speculations4 ,the character 
of ,jesus is a fair subject for         
discussion and conjecture2 but at this  
stage in a literary study such          
discussion and conjecture would be out  
of place4 ,we have at present simply to 
inquire into the character of the       
,messianic hope as it was illustrated in
 the ante-,pauline period4 ,this task is
 less difficult1 and may be accomplished
 without detriment to moral or spiritual
 qualities which ,jesus may have        
possessed4  ,the earliest phase of the  
,messianic hope in the ,new ,testament  

must have corresponded with prevalent   
expectations of ,israel in the early    
period of our first century4 ,what that 
was has been described4 ,the ,son of    
,man of ,matthew1 ,mark and ,luke1 their
 ,pauline elements being eliminated1    
meets the requirements in every respect1
 and in no particular transcends them4  
,he is a radical ,pharisee who has at   
heart the enfranchisement of his people4
 ,he is represented as being a native of
 ,galilee1 the insurgent district of the
 country2 nurtured1 if not born in      
,nazareth1 one of its chief cities2     
reared as a youth amid traditions of    
patriotic devotion1 and amid scenes     
associated with heroic dreams and       
endeavors4 ,the ,galileans were         
restless1 excitable people1 beyond the  
reach of conventionalities1 remote from 
the centre of power ecclesiastical and  
secular1 simple in their lives1 bold of 
speech1 independent in thought1         
thorough-going in the sort of radicalism
 that is common among people who live   

out of the world1 who have leisure to   
discuss the exciting topics of the day1 
but too little knowledge1 culture1 or   
sense of social responsibility to       
discuss them soundly4 ,their mental     
discontent and moral intractability were
 proverbial4 ,they were belligerents4   
,the ,romans had more trouble with them 
than with the natives of any other      
province4 ,the ,messiahs all started out
 from ,galilee1 and never failed to     
collect followers round their standard4 
,the ,galileans more than others1 lived 
in the anticipation of the ,deliverer4  
,the reference of the ,messiah to       
,galilee is therefore already an        
indication of the character he is to    
assume4  ,another indication1 equally   
pointed1 is the brief association with  
,bethlehem1 the city of ,david1 and the 
pains taken to connect the ,messiah with
 the royal line4 ,the early traditions  
go out of their way to prove this4 ,a   
labored genealogy is invented to show   
the path of his descent4 ,prophecy and  

song are called in to ratify his        
lineage4 ,inspired lips repeat ancient  
psalms announcing the glory that is to  
come to the ,house of ,david4 ,an angel 
promises ,mary that her son shall have  
given unto him the throne of his father1
 ,david1 and shall reign over the house 
of ,jacob for ever4 ,the ,messiah is    
called the ,son of ,david2 an           
appellation that carried the idea of    
temporal dominion and no other4 ,the    
legends respecting the massacre of the  
children in ,bethlehem and the flight   
into ,egypt1 belong to the same circle  
of prediction4  ,another indication to  
the same purpose is the patient effort  
to represent the ,messiah as fulfilling 
,old ,testament anticipations4 ,that the
 scripture might be fulfilled is the    
reiterated explanation of his ordinary  
actions4 ,the earliest records miss no  
occasion for declaring the ,messiah's   
fidelity to the law of ,moses4 ,among   
the first words put into his mouth is   
the earnest protestation3 ,think not    

that ,i am come to destroy the law and  
the prophets2 ,i am not come to destroy 
but to establish2 and this statement is 
followed by a detailed contrast between 
the literal and the spiritual           
interpretation of the law1 precisely in 
the vein of the prophets who held       
themselves to be the true friends of the
 code which the priests and formalists  
perverted4 ,there is nothing in this    
criticism disrespectful to the          
commandments1 or beyond the mark of     
orthodox scripture4  ,the visit to the  
,baptist1 who1 entertaining the popular 
notion of the ,messiah1 and believing in
 his speedy advent1 welcomed ,jesus to  
the vacant position2 ,jesus' response to
 the call1 and acceptance of the role1  
are in the same vein4 ,let it not be    
forgotten that the later misgivings of  
the ,baptist were raised by the apparent
 failure of the ,messiah to justify     
expectation2 that ,john1 from his       
prison1 sends a sharp message1 and that 
the ,messiah1 instead of correcting the 

precursor's crude idea1 simply bids him 
be patient and construe the signs in    
faith4  ,the story of the ,temptation in
 the ,wilderness1 closely patterned     
after incidents in the career of ,moses1
 is calculated to join the two closely  
by similarity of experience4 ,that the  
,messiah should be tempted is quite     
within the circle of later ,jewish      
conceptions1 as the literature of the   
,talmud proves4  ,the story of the      
,transfiguration derives its point from 
the circumstance that the spirits with  
whom the chosen one held communion were 
,moses and ,elias1 the law-giver and the
 prophet of the old dispensation4  ,the 
phrase ,kingdom of ,heaven1 so frequent 
on the ,messiah's lips1 had but one     
meaning1 which was universally          
understood4 ,it described a temporal    
rule1 the reign of a prince of ,david's 
line4 ,no class of people accepted the  
phrase in any different sense4 ,the     
,christ nowhere corrects the vulgar     
opinion1 or places his own in opposition

 to it4 ,the evangelist intends to      
convey the idea that he is in full      
accord with the general feeling4  ,the  
questions put to the ,messiah and the   
answers given to them are additional    
evidence of this assent2 the question1  
for example1 concerning the obligation  
to pay tribute to the ,roman government1
 a test question touching the very heart
 of ,jewish patriotism1 and the cautious
 reply1 calculated to evade the peril of
 a categorical declaration which was    
felt to be called for1 and to be due4   
,the rejoinder of the ,christ is        
designed to satisfy the popular         
expectation without raising popular     
uproar4 ,it is the answer of a patriot1 
but not of a zealot4 ,had the ,messiah  
not corresponded to the image in the    
,jewish imagination1 the inquiry might  
have been summarily dismissed4 ,its     
evasion proves not that the ,christ     
transcended the average expectation1 but
 that he shared it4 ,the version of the 
incident given in ,matthew ,,xvii1      

confirms this judgment2 for according to
 that account the ,messiah privately    
admits the exemption from tribute1 and  
then provides miraculously for its      
payment1 lest we should give offence4   
,the nature of the excitement caused by 
the ,messiah is another evidence of the 
spirit in which he wrought4 ,everywhere 
he is greeted as the ,messiah1 the son  
of ,david2 everywhere the multitudes    
flock to him1 as to the expected king4  
,his intimate friends are never         
disabused of the notion that they1 if   
they continue firm in their allegiance1 
will hold places of honor at his right  
hand4 ,he reminds them of the stringency
 of the conditions1 but does not condemn
 the idea4 ,an ambitious mother presents
 her two sons as candidates for         
preferment1 asking for them seats at his
 right and left hand1 on his coming to  
glory4 ,he rebukes the selfishness of   
the ambition1 says that seats of honor  
are for those that earn them1 not for   
those that desire them1 adding that he  

has no authority to assign places even  
to the worthiest2 but he does not       
discountenance the notion that he shall 
sit in glory1 that there will be places 
of honor on either side of him1 or that 
the faithful servants will occupy them4 
,indeed1 his reply confirms that        
anticipation4  ,the multitude1 impressed
 by his claim1 desire to make him a     
king4 ,he removes himself2 not because  
he repudiates all right to the office1  
he nowhere hints that1 and in places he 
more than hints the contrary1--but      
because he is not prepared to avow his  
pretension4 ,the time is not ripe for a 
manifesto4  ,the writers about this     
period take especial pains to limit the 
conception of the ,messiah within the   
boundaries of the average patriotic     
ideal4 ,they make him declare to the    
twelve disciples1 as he sends them      
forth1 that before they shall have      
carried their message to the cities of  
,israel the ,son of ,man would announce 
himself4 ,on a later occasion he is made

 to say3 ,there are some here who will  
not taste of death till they see the    
,son of ,man coming in his glory4       
,declarations like these are pointedly  
inconsistent with an intellectual or    
moral idea of the kingdom4 ,the notion  
of progress1 instruction1 regenerating  
influence1 gradual elevation through the
 power of character1 is precluded4 ,the 
kingdom is to come in time1 suddenly1   
unexpectedly1 by a shock of supernatural
 agency1 at the instant the ,lord wills2
 the ,son of ,man himself knows not     
when1 for it is not dependent on his    
activity as a reformer1 his success as a
 teacher1 or his influence as a person1 
but on the decree of ,jehovah4  ,the    
attempt on the popular feeling in       
,jerusalem1 strangely called the        
triumphal entrance of the ,messiah into 
the holy city1 is unintelligible except 
as a political demonstration2 whether   
projected by the ,christ or by his      
followers1 or by the ,christ urged by   
the importunate expectations of his     

followers1 whether undertaken hopefully 
or in desperation1 it nowhere appears   
that it was made in any moral or        
spiritual interest4 ,all the incidents  
of the narrative point to a political   
end1 the public assertion of the        
,christ's ,messianic claim4 ,the ass1   
used instead of the chariot or the horse
 by royalty on state occasions1 and     
especially alluded to by the prophet    
,zechariah in connexion with the coming 
of ,zion's ,king2 the palm branches and 
hosannahs1 emblems of sacred majesty2   
the cries of the attendant throng loudly
 proclaiming the ,messiah2 the          
,galileaan composition of the crowd1    
marking the revolutionary temper of it2 
the blank reception of the pageant by   
the citizens who were too wary to commit
 themselves to the chances of collision 
with the ,roman authorities2 the        
complete failure of the demonstration in
 the heart of conservative ,judaea2 the 
bearing of the ,christ himself as of one
 conscious of a sublime but perilous    

mission2 all these things find ready    
explanation by the popular conception of
 the ,messiah1 as a national deliverer1 
but are unintelligible on any other     
theory4  ,the unspiritual character of  
the ,messiah's attitude is made yet more
 apparent as the history draws to a     
close4 ,the violent purging of the      
temple can only by great vigor of       
interpretation be made to bear any save 
a national complexion4 ,it was the      
assertion of ,jehovah's right to his own
 domain2 an indignant1 passionate       
assertion2 the declaration of a zealot  
whose zeal overrode considerations of   
wisdom4  ,the ,christ's bearing before  
his ,roman judge is of the same strain2 
the proud silence of the arraigned      
prince2 the bold assertion of           
kingliness1 when challenged2 the stately
 defiance of the pagan's wrath2 the     
appeal to supernatural support2 the     
prediction of angelic succor in the hour
 of need1 in strict accordance with the 
apocalyptic expressions thrown out at   

the last supper1 and reverberated in    
tremendous rhetoric on the ,mount of    
,olives and in the palace of the high   
priest1 expressions in full and literal 
harmony with the ,jewish conceptions of 
the ,christ's relations with the angelic
 world1 wholly in the spirit of ,daniel1
 ,enoch1 and other apocryphal writings1 
leave no doubt on the mind that this    
personage moved within the limits of the
 common ,messianic conception4 ,pilate  
condemns him reluctantly1 feeling that  
he is a harmless visionary1 but is      
obliged to condemn him as one who       
persistently claimed to be the ,king of 
the ,jews1 an enemy of ,caesar1 an      
insurgent against the empire1 a         
pretender to the throne1 a bold inciter 
to rebellion4 ,the death he undergoes is
 the death of the traitor and mutineer1 
the death that would have been decreed  
to ,judas the ,gaulonite1 had he been   
captured instead of slain in battle1 and
 that was inflicted on thousands of his 
deluded followers4 ,the bitter cry of   

the crucified as he hung on the cross1  
,my ,god1 my ,god1 why hast thou        
forsaken me8 disclosed the hope of      
deliverance that till the last moment   
sustained his heart1 and betrayed the   
anguish felt when the hope was blighted2
 the sneers and hootings of the rabble  
expressed their conviction that he had  
pretended to be what he was not4  ,the  
miracles ascribed to the ,christ1 so far
 from being inconsistent with the       
ordinary conception of the ,messianic   
office1 were necessary to complete that 
conception4 ,it was expected that the   
,messiah would work miracles4 ,this was 
one of his prerogatives2 a certificate  
of his commission from ,jehovah1 and an 
instrument of great service in carrying 
out his designs4 ,to the ,jew of that1  
as of preceding periods1 to the crude   
theist of all periods1 the belief in    
miracles was and is easy4 ,in such      
judgment1 the will of ,god is absolute1 
and when should that will be exerted if 
not at providential crises of need1 or  

in furtherance of his servants' work8   
,the special miracles attributed to the 
,christ of the earliest ,new ,testament 
literature are1 as ,strauss conclusively
 shows1 patterned after performances    
which met satisfactorily the demands of 
the ,jewish imagination2 being either   
repetitions of ancient marvels1 or      
concrete expressions of ideal faith4    
,the miracles of this ,christ are       
precisely adjusted to the exigencies of 
his calling1 in no respect transcending 
or falling short of that standard4  ,the
 moral precepts put into the ,messiah's 
mouth are also what he might be expected
 to utter4 ,the teachings of the sermon 
on the ,mount are echoes1 and not       
altogether awakening or inspiring       
echoes1 of ancient ethical law4 ,the    
beatitudes do not exceed in beauty of   
sentiment or felicity of phrase1 lovely 
passages that gem the pages of prophet1 
psalmist and sage4 ,portions of the     
morality are harsh1 ungracious1         
intemperate1 almost inhuman as compared 

with the mellow grandeur of the older   
law4 ,several of the parables1 if taken 
in an ethical sense1 contain moral      
injunctions or insinuations that are    
quite unjustifiable2 the parable1 for   
example1 of the laborers in the         
vineyard1 the last of whom1 though they 
have worked but one hour1 receive the   
same compensation as the early comers1  
who had borne the burden and heat of the
 day2--the parable of the steward1      
which1 literally construed1 palliates   
abuse of trusts2--the parable of ,dives 
and ,lazarus1 which teaches the evil    
lesson that felicity or infelicity      
hereafter is consequent on fortune or   
misfortune here4 ,these and other       
parables are deprived of their dangerous
 moral tendency by being removed from   
the ethical category1 and made to convey
 lessons of a different kind4 ,read the 
story of the laborers in the vineyard as
 intended to justify ,jehovah in        
granting the same spiritual favors to   
the newly called ,gentiles as to the    

descendants of ,abraham who1 from the   
first1 answered to the call addressed to
 them3--read the story of the steward as
 conveying an explanation of the        
,pauline policy in making capital with  
the ,gentiles by offering to them on    
easy terms the promises that the ,jews  
showed themselves unworthy of1 and      
rejected3--read the story of ,dives and 
,lazarus as containing the idea that the
 poor in spirit1 the outcast1 to whom   
the mansions of the ,lord's house1 the  
patrimony of ,abraham had never been    
opened1 the people who had nothing but  
faith1--whom even pagan dogs            
commiserated1--should enjoy the         
blessedness of the ,messiah's kingdom   
rather than those who claimed a         
prescriptive right to it on the ground  
of descent or privilege1--and the       
difficulty of reconciling them with     
moral principle is avoided4 ,these      
parables and others of like tenor1 do   
not belong to the first layer of        
,messianic tradition1 but to the second 

deposit made by the ,apostle ,paul4  ,to
 the same period belong other parables  
that contain larger ideas than the      
,jewish ,messiah of the first generation
 could entertain4 ,such are the story of
 the net cast into the sea and gathering
 in of every kind1 that is1 ,greeks and 
,romans1 barbarians1 ,scythians1 bond   
and free1 not ,hebrews only1--the       
miscellaneous haul being impartially    
examined--sweetness of quality1 not     
forms of scale being made the condition 
of acceptance2--the story of the good   
,samaritan1 designed to place people    
reckoned idolators and miscreants on a  
higher spiritual level than anointed    
priests of whatever order1 who postponed
 mercy to sacrifice4 ,could the ,jewish 
,messiah attribute to ,samaritans a     
grace that was the highest adornment of 
faithful ,jews8 ,the story of the       
prodigal son belongs to the same        
category4 ,the elder brother1 who has   
always been at home1 dutiful but        
ungracious niggardly and covetous1 is   

the ,jew who has never left the         
homestead of faith1 but has stayed      
there1 confidently expecting the        
,messianic inheritance as the reward of 
his conventional orthodoxy4 ,the younger
 brother is the ,gentile1 the infidel1  
the pagan apostate1 who throws off the  
parental authority and reduces himself  
to spiritual beggary4 ,he spends all2 he
 contents himself with refuse2 is more  
heathenish than the heathen themselves2 
swinish in his habits4 ,yet this        
spiritual reprobate1 by his unseemly    
behavior1 forfeits no privilege4 ,the   
mansion of the ,father's house is still 
open to him when he shall choose to     
return4 ,the ,god of ,abraham1 ,isaac   
and ,jacob waits and watches for the    
penitent2 sees him a great way off2 runs
 to meet him2 throws his arms about his 
neck2 reinstates him in his place2      
celebrates his arrival by feasting1 and 
puts him above the elder brother who had
 been working in the field while the    
prodigal had been rioting in the city4  

,such a lesson from the lips of the     
,jewish ,messiah would have been        
astonishing indeed4 ,it would have gone 
far towards overturning his claim4 ,we  
know that some years later the lesson   
was inculcated as a cardinal doctrine by
 ,paul and regarded as a heresy by the  
,christ's personal disciples1 and it is 
in accordance with literary laws to     
refer to this later period the ideas    
that were native to it4  ,the religious 
beliefs imputed to the ,messiah we are  
sketching1 are the ordinary beliefs of  
his age and people4 ,his faith is the   
faith of the ,pharisees4 ,his idea of   
,god is the national idea softened1 as  
it always had been1 by a gentle mind4   
,it thinks as his countrymen thought    
about ,providence1 fate and freedom1    
good and evil1 destiny1 the past and the
 future of his race4 ,he believes in the
 resurrection and the judgment1 the     
blessedness that is in store for the    
faithful ,israelite1 the misery that    
awaits the unworthy children of         

,abraham4 ,his moral classifications are
 the technical classifications of the   
enthusiastic patriot1 who confounded    
national with rational principles of    
judgment4 ,he believes in good and bad  
angels1 in guardian spirits and         
demoniacal possession4 ,a ,pharisee of  
the narrow literal school he is not4    
,his allegiance to the ,mosaic law is   
spiritual1 not slavish2 his faith in the
 perpetuity of the temple worship is    
unencumbered with formalism2 he         
discriminates between the priestly      
office and the priestly character1      
between the form and the essence of     
sacrifice2 yet is he capable of lurid   
feelings and bitter thoughts towards the
 ,pharisees of another school2 he cannot
 enter into the mind of the ,sadducee2  
and the scribe is a person he cannot    
respect4 ,on this side his intolerance  
occasionally breaks forth with          
inconsiderate heat4 ,he calls his       
opponents blind guides1 hypocrites1     
whited sepulchres1 and threatens them   

with the wrath of the ,eternal4  ,the   
,messiah's essential conception of his  
office does not differ materially from  
that of his countrymen4 ,he is no       
military leader2 he puts no confidence  
in the sword2 he incites to no revolt4  
,but he does not trust to intellectual  
methods for his success2 the success    
that he anticipates is not such as      
follows the promulgation of ideas1 or   
the establishment of moral convictions4 
,he looks for demonstrations of power1  
not human but super-human4 ,the hosts   
that surround him1 and are reckoned on  
to sustain him1 are the hosts of heaven1
 marshalled under the ,lord and prepared
 to sweep down upon the ,lord's foes    
when the hour of conflict shall strike4 
,he will not draw the sword himself1 or 
allow his followers to gird on weapons  
of war2 but he is more than willing to  
avail himself of legions irresistible in
 might4 ,james ,martineau has touched   
this point with a master hand3 ,the     
non-resistant principle meant no more in

 the early church than that the         
disciples were not to anticipate the    
hour fast approaching of the ,messiah's 
descent to claim his throne4 ,but when  
that hour struck there was to be no want
 of 'physical force' no shrinking from  
retribution as either unjust or         
undivine4 ,the 'flaming fire1' the      
'sudden destruction1' the 'mighty       
angels1' the 'tribulation and anguish1' 
were to form the retinue of ,christ1 and
 the pioneers of the kingdom of ,god4   
,the new reign was to come with force1  
and on nothing else in the last resort  
was there any reliance2 only the army   
was to arrive from heaven before the    
earthly recruits were taken up4 ',my    
kingdom1' said ,jesus1 'is not of this  
world1 else would my servants fight2' an
 expression which implies that no       
kingdom of this world can dispense with 
arms1 and that he himself1 were he the  
head of a human polity1 would not forbid
 the sword3 but while 'legions of       
angels' stood ready for his word1 and   

only waited till the ,scripture was     
fulfilled1 and the hour of darkness was 
passed1 to obey the signal of heavenly  
invasion1 the weapon of earthly temper  
might remain in its sheath4  ,it is not 
affirmed here that the actual ,jesus    
corresponded to this ,messianic         
representation2 that he filled it and no
 more2 that it correctly and adequately 
reported him4 ,it may possibly present  
only so much of him as the average of   
his contemporaries could appreciate4    
,they may be right who are of opinion   
that the fourth evangelist comes nearer 
to the historical truth than the first4 
,that the earliest ,new ,testament      
conception of the ,messiah has been     
correctly portrayed in the preceding    
sketch may be granted without prejudice 
to the historical ,jesus4 ,they only who
 assume the identity of this ,hebrew    
,messiah with the man of ,nazareth1 need
 place him in the niche that is here    
made for the ,messiah4 ,there are others
 more noble4 ,let each decide for       

himself1 on the evidence1 to which he   
belongs4 ,some will decide that the     
first account of a wonderful person     
must1 from the nature of the case1 be   
the falsest2 others will decide that in 
the nature of things it must be the     
truest4 ,whichever be the decision the  
literary image remains unimpaired4      
,whether time should be judged requisite
 to emancipate the living character from
 the associations of its environment1   
and bring it into full view2 or whether 
on the other hand time should be        
regarded as darkening and confusing the 
image1 for the reason that it allows the
 growth of legends and distorting       
theory1 is a question that will be      
touched by-and-by4 ,for the present it  
suffices to show what the earliest      
representation was1 and to trace its    
descent from the traditions of the race4
 ,the materials are adequate for this1  
whether for more or not4 ,the form of   
,jesus may be lost1 but the form of the 
,messiah is distinct4     ,v4  ,,the    

,,first ,,christians4   ,the death of   
the ,messiah did not discourage his     
followers1 as it might have done had he 
presented the coarser type of the       
anticipation illustrated by ,judas of   
,galilee whose insurrection had been    
extinguished in blood some years before1
 yet the movement of ,judas did not     
cease at his death1 but troubled the    
state for sixty years4 ,his two sons1   
,james and ,john1 raised the ,messianic 
standard fifteen years or thereabouts   
after the crucifixion of ,jesus1 and    
were themselves crucified4 ,their       
younger brother1 ,menahem1 renewed the  
attempt twenty years later1 and so far  
succeeded that he cut his way to the    
throne1 assumed the part of a king1 went
 in royal state to the temple1 and but  
for the fury of his fanaticism might    
have re-erected temporarily the throne  
of ,david4 ,but this kind of ,messiah1  
besides being savage1 was monotonous4   
,his appeal was to the lower passions2  
the thoughtful1 imaginative1            

contemplative1 poetic1 were not drawn to
 him4 ,his followers1 adherents not     
disciples1--might1 at the best1 have    
founded a dynasty1 they could not have  
planted a church4 ,the pure enthusiasm  
of the ,christ1 his entire singleness of
 heart1 the absence in him of private   
ambition or self-seeking1 his confidence
 in the heavenly character of his       
mission1 his reliance on super-human    
aid1 his sincere persuasion that the    
purpose of his calling would not be     
thwarted by death1 insured his hold on  
those who had trusted him4 ,they did not
 lose their conviction that he was the  
,messiah2 they anticipated his return1  
in glory1 to complete his work2 in that 
anticipation they waited1 watched and   
prayed4 ,the name ,christians was1 we   
are told1 given1 in derision1 to the    
believers in ,antioch4 ,but if they had 
chosen a name for themselves1 they could
 not have hit on a more precisely       
descriptive one4 ,christians they were2 
believers that the ,christ had come1    

that the crucified was the ,christ1 that
 he would reappear and vindicate his    
claim4 ,this was their single           
controlling thought1 the only thought   
that distinguished them from their      
countrymen who rejected the ,messiahship
 of their friend4 ,they were ,jews1 in  
every respect2 ,jews of ,jews1          
enthusiastic1 devout1 pharisaic ,jews1  
the firmest of adherents to the ,law of 
,moses1 unqualified receivers of        
tradition1 diligent students of the     
scriptures1 constant attendants at the  
temple worship1 urgent in supplication1 
literal in creed1 and punctual in       
observance2 acquiescent in the claims of
 the priesthood1 scrupulous in all      
,hebrew etiquette4 ,they were determined
 that the ,master1 at his coming1 should
 find them ready4  ,james1 the ,lord's  
brother1 set an example of sanctity     
worthy of a high-priest4 ,in fact1 he   
assumed the position of a priest1 and   
filled it with such austerity that he   
was called the righteous4 ,he tasted1   

says ,hegesippus1 neither wine nor      
strong drink2 he ate nothing that had   
life2 his hair was never shorn2 his body
 was never anointed with oil1 or bathed 
in water2 his garments were of linen1   
never of wool2 so perfect was he in all 
righteousness that1 though no           
consecrated priest1 he was permitted to 
enter the holy place behind the veil of 
the temple1 and there he spent hours in 
intercession for the people1 his knees  
becoming as hard as a camel's from      
contact with the stone pavement4 ,to    
those who asked him the way to life1 he 
replied3 ,believe that ,jesus is the    
,christ4 ,when some dissenters protested
 against this declaration and asked him 
to retract it1 he repeated it with      
stronger emphasis2 when the malcontents 
who revered him1 but would have none of 
his ,messiah1 raised a tumult and tried 
to intimidate him1 he reiterated the    
statement1 adding3 ,he sits in heaven1  
at the right hand of the ,supreme power1
 and will come in clouds4 ,for this     

testimony1 says tradition1 he laid down 
his life4  ,the fellow-believers of     
,james imitated him as closely as they  
could4 ,they were proud of their descent
 from ,abraham2 they were tenacious of  
the privileges granted to the twelve    
tribes2 they kept up their relation with
 the synagogue2 they had faith in forms 
of observance2 they revered the         
,sabbath2 their trust in the literal    
efficacy of prayer was implicit2 they   
were excessively jealous of intellectual
 activity outside of their narrow       
communion2 their anticipations were     
confined to the restoration of ,israel1 
and never wandered into the region of   
social improvement or moral progress2 in
 general ethical and social culture they
 were not interested4  ,they had no     
ecclesiastical establishment apart from 
the ,jewish ,church2 no separate        
priesthood1 no sacraments1 no cultus1 no
 rubric1 no calendar1 no liturgy4 ,the  
validity of sacrifice they maintained1  
the doctrine of sacrifice possessing a  

deeper significance for them from the   
growing faith that their ,lord was      
himself the paschal lamb1 the shedding  
of whose blood purchased the remission  
of sins4 ,hence a special encouragement 
of the sacerdotal spirit1 an exaggerated
 sense of the efficacy of blood1 a      
theory of atonement more searching and  
absolute than had prevailed in the      
ancient church4 ,the later doctrine of  
atonement in the christian church may   
have grown from this small but vital    
germ4  ,they had no dogma peculiar to   
themselves1 the doctrines of the old    
,church being all they needed2 they had 
no trinity or beginning of trinity2 no  
christology2 no doctrine of ,fall2 no   
theory of first and second ,adam2 no    
metaphysic2 no philosophy of sin and    
salvation2 no interior mystery of       
experience4 ,whatever newness of creed  
they avowed1 was owing to their         
acknowledgment of the ,christ1 and      
consisted in a few very simple          
inferences from this tenet4 ,of course  

even slow-minded1 literal1 external men 
could not entertain a belief like that1 
and not be pushed by it to certain      
practical conclusions4 ,the expectation 
of the ,christ's coming would           
necessarily raise questions respecting  
the conditions of acceptance with him1  
the character of his dominion1 the      
duration of it1 the social changes      
incidental to it2 but it does not appear
 that speculation on these subjects was 
carried far4 ,a crude millenarianism    
developed itself early2 a cloudy theory 
of atonement found favor2 for the rest1 
conjecture1 it was little more1 dwelt   
contentedly within the confines of      
rabbinical lore4  ,there was nothing    
peculiar in their moral precepts or     
usages1 nothing that should effect a    
change in the received ethics of the    
nation4 ,their essential creed involved 
no practical innovation on private or   
social moralities4 ,the mosaic code was 
familiar to them from childhood4 ,the   
popular commentaries on it were         

promulgated from week to week in the    
synagogues1 and their validity was no   
more questioned by the ,christians than 
by the most orthodox of ,jews4  ,the    
daily existence of these people was     
retired and simple4 ,they had frequent  
meetings for talk1 song1 mutual cheer   
and confirmation2 full of expectation   
and excitement they must have been2 wild
 with memories and hopes4 ,for the      
believers lived out of themselves1 in an
 ideal1 a supernatural sphere2 their    
hearts were in heaven with their        
,master1 whose form filled their vision1
 whose voice they seemed to hear1 from  
whom came1 as they fancied1 impressions1
 intimations1 influences1 unspoken but  
breathed messages interpreted by the    
soul4 ,they were visionaries4 ,their    
life was illusion4 ,they were           
transported beyond themselves at times1 
by the prospect of the ,lord's nearness4
 ,their minds were dazed2 their feelings
 raised to ecstasy2 in vision they saw  
the heavens open and fiery tongues      

descend4 ,their small upper chamber     
seemed to tremble and dilate in sympathy
 with their feelings2 the ceiling       
appeared to lift2 they were moved by an 
impulse which they could not account    
for1 and regarded themselves as         
inspired4  ,in these circumstances1 it  
is not to be wondered at that they lived
 in communities by themselves1          
preferring the society of their fellows2
 that they had a common purse1 a common 
table2 that they were ascetic and       
celibate2 that they withdrew from public
 affairs and from private business1 and 
approached nearly to the ,essenes1 with 
whom they had much in common1           
perpetuating the habit of monasticism1  
which became afterwards so prominent a  
feature in the ,eastern church4  ,nor is
 it surprising that they regarded the   
intimate friends of their ,christ with a
 peculiar veneration1 and ascribed to   
them extraordinary gifts4 ,the basis of 
the future hierarchy was laid in the    
honor paid to these few men4 ,they were 

credited with supernatural insight1 and 
with the possession of miraculous power4
 ,their touch was healing2 their mere   
shadow comforted2 their approval was    
blessing2 their displeasure cursed4     
,what they ratified was fixed2 what they
 permitted was decreed4 ,their word was 
law2 it was for them to admit and to    
exclude4 ,the penalty of excommunication
 was in their hands1 to be inflicted at 
their discretion4 ,superstition went so 
far as to concede to them the           
alternatives of life and death4 ,the    
legend of ,ananias and ,sapphira is     
evidence of a credulity that set not    
reason only1 but conscience at defiance4
 ,in their infatuation they believed    
that the ,christ above communicated a   
saving spiritual grace to such as the   
apostles touched with their fingers4    
,very singular1 but very consistent and 
logical were the views of death         
entertained by the brotherhood in       
,christ4 ,as their ,lord delayed his    
coming1 the elders grew old and fell    

asleep4 ,there was a brotherhood of the 
dead as well as of the living2 the      
living became few2 the dead many4       
,questions arose respecting the         
destination of those departed4 ,that    
they had perished was not to be thought 
of2 as little to be thought of was the  
possibility of their forfeiting their   
privilege of sharing the believers'     
triumph4 ,the resurrection the disciples
 had always believed in4 ,that1 at the  
coming of the ,messiah there would be a 
general resurrection of the faithful    
,israelites from their graves1 in field 
or rock1 was part of their ancestral    
faith4 ,but now1 the matter was brought 
home to them with painful reality4 ,the 
,christ might come at any moment2 the   
dead were their own immediate kindred1  
their parents and brethren4 ,the problem
 presented no difficulties to their     
minds however agitating it might be to  
their hearts4 ,the ,lord would come2 of 
that there could be no doubt2 the dead  
would rise1 that was certain2 but in    

what form8 ,in what order8 ,would the   
living have precedence of them8 ,where  
would the meeting take place8 ,how would
 the dead know that the time of         
resurrection had arrived8 ,the answer   
came promptly as the question4 ,the     
trumpet of the angels would proclaim the
 event to all creatures1 visible and    
invisible4 ,the elect would respond to  
the summons2 the gates of ,hades would  
burst asunder4 ,in etherial forms1      
lighter than air1 more radiant than the 
morning1 the faithful who had died in   
the ,lord1 would ascend2 the living     
would exchange their terrestrial bodies 
for bodies celestial1 and thus changed1 
in a moment1 in the twinkling of an eye1
 would mount upward to join them1 and   
all together would meet the ,lord in the
 air4 ,for the believers the grave had  
no victory and death no sting4  ,in all 
this the ,christians were strictly      
within the circle of ,jewish thought4   
,the belief in the resurrection wore    
different aspects in different minds2   

the vision of the hereafter floated     
many-hued before the imaginations of    
men4 ,the fiery zealots who took the    
kingdom of heaven by violence1 dreamed  
of the resurrection of the body1 and of 
tangible privileges of dominion in the  
terrestrial millennium4 ,the milder     
enthusiasts1 who could not believe that 
flesh and blood could inherit the       
kingdom of ,god1 were constrained to    
invent a spiritual world for the        
accommodation of spiritual bodies4 ,some
 conjectured that the etherial forms    
would mount to their native seat1 only  
at the termination of the thousand years
 reign2 the spiritual world being       
brought in at the end1 as a device of   
eschatology to dispose finally of the   
saints who could neither die nor remain 
longer on earth4 ,others surmised that  
the spiritual world would claim its own 
at once1 there being no place on earth  
where the risen could live and no       
occupations in which they could engage4 
,the cruder faith was the earlier4  ,the

 fanatics1 as described in the second   
,book of ,maccabees1 an apocryphal      
writing of the second century before    
,christ1 hoped for a corporeal          
resurrection and a visible supremacy4   
,of seven sons1 who1 with their mother1 
were barbarously executed because they  
refused to deny their religion by eating
 swines' flesh1 one declares3 ,the ,king
 of the world shall raise us up who have
 died for his laws1 into everlasting    
life2 another1 holding forth his hands  
7to be cut off71 said courageously1     
,these ,i had from heaven1 and for his  
laws ,i despise them1 and from him ,i   
hope to receive them again4 ,the next   
shouts3 ,it is good being put to death  
by men1 to look for hope from ,god1 to  
be raised up again by him2 as for thee1 
thou shalt have no resurrection to life4
 ,finally1 when all the seven have died 
heroically1 with words of similar import
 on their lips1 the mother is put to    
death1 having exhorted her youngest born
 to faithfulness with the exhortation3  

,doubtless the ,creator of the world who
 formed the generation of man1 and found
 out the beginning of all things1 will  
also1 of his own mercy1 give you breath 
and life again1 as ye now regard not    
your own selves for his laws' sake4 ,the
 same book records the suicide of       
,razis3 ,one of the elders of           
,jerusalem1 a lover of his countrymen1  
and a man of very good report1 who for  
his kindness was called a ,father of the
 ,jews1 for in former times he had been 
accused of ,judaism1 and did boldly     
jeopard his body and life with all      
vehemency for the religion of the ,jews2
 choosing rather to die manfully than to
 come into the hands of the wicked1 to  
be abused otherwise than beseemed his   
noble birth1 he fell on his sword4      
,nevertheless1 while there was yet      
breath within him1 being inflamed with  
anger1 he rose up1 and though his blood 
gushed out like spouts of water1 and his
 wounds were grievous1 yet he ran       
through the midst of the throng1 and1   

standing upon a steep rock1 when as his 
blood was now quite gone1 he plucked out
 his bowels1 and taking them in both his
 hands1 he cast them upon the throng1   
and calling upon the ,lord of life and  
spirit to restore him those again1 he   
thus died4  ,the angel of the book of   
,daniel calls up a fairer vision3 ,many 
of them that sleep in the dust of the   
earth shall awake1 some to everlasting  
life1 and some to shame and everlasting 
contempt4 ,and they that be wise shall  
shine as the brightness of the          
firmament2 and they that turn many to   
righteousness1 as the stars for ever and
 ever4  ,something like this1 perhaps1  
was the anticipation of the ,christ     
sketched in the last chapter4 ,the      
personal conception is shadowy4 ,there  
is nothing to indicate positively that  
he departed from the usual opinion of a 
physical resurrection and a kingdom of  
heaven on earth1 a period of terrestrial
 happiness under the rule of ,jehovah4  
,the declaration to the thief on the    

cross3 ,this day thou shalt be with me  
in ,paradise1 belongs to a later        
tradition1 corresponding to the ideas of
 ,paul4 ,the parable of ,dives and      
,lazarus must be assigned to the same   
circle of doctrine4 ,the saying         
respecting children1 ,their angels      
always behold the face of my father in  
heaven1 conveys no more than the belief 
in guardian spirits4 ,the angels are not
 departed children1 but the watchers    
over the lives of living ones4 ,the     
reply given to the ,sadducees1 in ,matt4
 ,,xxii41 ,in the resurrection they     
neither marry1 nor are given in         
marriage1 but are as the angels of ,god 
in heaven1 implies that the temporal    
condition of the ,messiah's subjects    
will differ in important respects from  
their present social estate1 but does   
not suggest a celestial locality for its
 organization2 and the declaration that 
follows3 ,god is not the ,god of the    
dead1 but of the living1 affirms merely 
that ,abraham1 ,isaac and ,jacob are not

 annihilated1 that they are1 or will be1
 alive2 but how1 where1 or when1 is left
 undecided4 ,the expression1 ,thy       
kingdom come1 in the paternoster1 so    
different from the latter petition3 ,may
 we come into thy kingdom1 looks towards
 an earthly paradise4 ,the succeeding   
phrase1 ,thy will be done on earth as it
 is in heaven1 points in the same       
direction4 ,it is probable that the     
,christ1 living and expecting to live1  
contemplated the establishment of his   
,messianic dominion in ,palestine4      
,after his death and disappearance1 the 
thoughts of his friends turned          
elsewhither1 and with an increasing     
steadiness1 as his return was delayed1  
and the probabilities of their going to 
him outweighed the probabilities of his 
coming to them4 ,the change of          
expectation was1 it is likely1 a        
gradual1 silent1 and unperceived one1   
effected slowly1 and not completed till 
a new conception of the ,christ         
supplanted the old one1 and transformed 

every feature of the ,messianic belief4 
,in less than twenty-five years after   
the death of ,jesus1 this change was so 
far effected that it was capable of full
 literary expression4 ,the writings that
 publish it1 are the genuine letters of 
,paul1 and other scriptures produced    
under the inspiration of his idea4      
,,vi4  ,,paul',s ,,new ,,departure4     
,there is reason to think1 as we have   
said1 that the first ,messianic impulse 
would have spent itself ineffectually in
 a few years1 had not a fresh impulse   
been given by a new conception of the   
,messiah4 ,the ,christ outlined in the  
earliest literature of the ,new         
,testament would hardly have founded a  
permanent church1 or given his name to a
 distinct religion4 ,a new conception   
came1 in due time1 from an unexpected   
quarter1 through a man who was both ,jew
 and ,greek2 ,jew by parentage1 nurture1
 training and genius2 ,greek by         
birth-place1 residence and association2 
a man well versed in scripture1 a pupil 

of approved rabbis1 familiar with the   
talmud1 and deeply interested in        
talmudical speculation2 a ,pharisee of  
the straitest sect2 an enthusiast--yes1 
a fanatic by temperament2 on the other  
hand1 a mind somewhat expanded by       
intercourse with the people and the     
literature of other nations4 ,paul's    
feeling on the ,christ question was     
always intense4 ,he made it a personal  
matter1 even in his comparative youth2  
distinguishing himself by his zeal in   
behalf of correct opinion on the        
subject4 ,he appears1 first1 a young    
man1 as a persecutor of the ,jews who   
believed that the ,christ had actually  
come1 and who were waiting for his      
return in clouds4 ,that idea seemed to  
him visionary and dangerous2 he made it 
his business to exterminate it by       
violence1 if necessary4 ,but the fury of
 his demonstration proved his interest  
in the general idea4 ,he was at heart a 
,messianic believer1 though not in that 
style4 ,a ,messianic believer he        

continued to be1 but to the end as      
little as at first1 in that style4 ,to  
the ordinary belief he never was        
converted2 his repudiation of it was    
perhaps at no time less vehement than it
 was at the beginning2 as his own       
thought matured1 his rejection of the   
faith he persecuted in his youth1 became
 it seems more deliberate1 if less      
violent4  ,as he pursued one phase of   
the ,messianic expectation1 another     
aspect of it burst upon him with the    
splendor of a revelation1 and determined
 his career4 ,the man who had breathed  
fury against one type1 became the       
apostle of another4 ,the same fiery zeal
 that blasted the one1 warmed the other 
into life4 ,in the book of the ,acts of 
the ,apostles1 the first martyr at whose
 stoning ,paul assisted1 bore the ,greek
 name ,stephen1 whence1 as well as from 
other indications1 it has been surmised 
by ,baur and others that he was a       
precursor of the future ,gentile party1 
pursued and slain by the orthodox on    

account of his infidelity to the cause  
of ,hebrew national exclusiveness4 ,if  
this conjecture be admitted1 the deed   
,paul had abetted1 may have been the    
immediate cause of his own moral        
revulsion of feeling4 ,the slain        
over-came the slayer4 ,the dying hand   
committed to the fierce bystander the   
torch it could carry no further4 ,the   
murdered ,greek raised up the apostle to
 the ,greeks1 thus avenging himself by  
sending his adversary to martyrdom in   
the same cause for which he himself     
bled4 ,in religious fervors such        
reactions have been frequent4  ,for     
,paul was1 from first to last1 the same 
person1 in no natural feature of mind or
 character changed4 ,his religious      
belief remained essentially1 even       
incidentally unaltered4 ,a ,pharisee he 
was born1 and a ,pharisee he continued4 
,the pharisaic doctrine of the          
resurrection was the corner stone of his
 system1 the beginning1 middle and end  
of his faith1 the starting point of his 

creed4 ,his conception of ,god was the  
ordinary conception1 unqualified1       
unmitigated1 uncompromised4 ,the divine 
sovereignty never suffered weakening at 
his hands4 ,one can hardly open the     
epistle to the ,jewish ,christians in   
,rome1 without coming across some       
tremendous assertion of the absolute    
supremacy of ,god4 ,read the passage in 
the first chapter1 #bj-bf verses2 in the
 second chapter1 #f-ab verses2 in the   
ninth chapter1 #ad-bc verses2 in the    
eleventh chapter1 first verse and       
onward4 ,read #a ,corin41 fifteenth     
chapter1 #bd-bi verses4 ,the old        
fashioned ,jewish conception is         
expressed in language simply revolting  
in its bald inhumanity4 ,the views of   
,divine ,providence set forth in some of
 these sentences are anthropomorphitic  
to a degree that is amazing in an       
intellectual man of his age and race4   
,his discussions of fate and free-will  
betoken the sternness of a dogmatic1    
rather than the discernment of a        

philosophic1 mind4 ,his notion of       
history has the narrowness of the       
national character4 ,his ethics are     
taken from the law of ,moses1 and not   
from the more benignant versions of it4 
,the grandest ethical chapter he ever   
wrote1 the twelfth chapter of ,romans1  
contains no less than three instances of
 grave infidelity to the highest        
standard of morality in his own         
scriptures4 ,rabbi ,hillel said3 ,love  
peace1 and pursue peace2 love mankind1  
and bring them near the law4 ,the moral 
condition of the world depends on three 
things1--,truth1 ,justice1 and ,peace4  
,paul says3 ,if it be possible1 so much 
as lyeth in you1 live peaceably with all
 men1 implying clearly that it might not
 always be possible1 and in such cases  
was not to be expected4 ,the tacit      
proviso in the phrase so much as lyeth  
in you1 discharges the obligation of its
 imperative character2 as if conscious  
that the duty might prove too much for  
the moral power1 he will not impose it4 

,it is written in the ,talmud3 ,thou    
shalt love thy neighbor2 even if he be a
 criminal1 and has forfeited his life1  
practise charity towards him in the last
 moments4 ,paul drops far below this    
when he bids his disciples1 ,avenge not 
yourselves1 but rather give place unto  
wrath 7make room for wrath that is wrath
 indeed47 ,for it is written1 'vengeance
 is mine2 ,i will repay1 saith the      
,lord4' ,therefore 7because the ,lord's 
vengeance will be more terrible than    
yours71 if thine enemy hunger1 feed him3
 if he thirst1 give him drink2 for in so
 doing1 thou shalt heap coals of fire on
 his head4 ,that is1 by showing kindness
 you will inflict on him tenfold agony6 
,such a disciple would not adorn the    
membership of a modern ,peace ,society4 
,the language ascribed to him in        
,ephesians bristles with military       
metaphor2 ,fight the good fight of      
faith1 ,the helmet of salvation1 ,the   
sword of the ,spirit1 ,armor of light4  
,in the days of our own anti-slavery    

conflict1 his dictum1 ,slaves obey your 
masters1 in fear and trembling1 in      
singleness of heart1 was a tower of     
strength and a fountain of refreshment  
to many an upholder of the patriarchal  
system4 ,the later ,christians in the   
,west could safely justify their quiet  
toleration of the system of slavery in  
the ,roman ,empire by the precepts of   
the foremost apostle4 ,if the           
genuineness of the epistle to ,philemon 
could be maintained1 the case would wear
 a different look4 ,but it is much more 
than doubtful whether even that         
qualified humanity proceeded from his   
pen4  ,in our own generation the apostle
 is a serious stumbling block in the way
 of evangelical women who are friendly  
to the aspirations of their sex4 ,he    
showed the most stubborn ,hebrew        
principles on this subject4 ,wives1     
submit yourselves to your husbands2 ,let
 your women keep silence in the         
churches2 if they wish to learn         
anything1 let them ask their husbands at

 home2 for it is a shame for women to   
speak in the church4 ,it is permitted   
them to be under obedience4 ,the ,hindoo
 scripture spoke better3 ,where women   
are honored1 there the deities are      
pleased4 ,where they are dishonored     
there all religious acts become         
fruitless4  ,how can the most           
conservative ,republicans accept as     
teacher a man who counsels religious    
men1 in proportion as they are          
religious1 to surrender their full1     
unqualified1 sincere allegiance to      
established authorities because they are
 established1 however despotic1         
ferocious nay vile they may be2 even to 
such despotisms as that of              
,nero2--maintaining that resistance to  
such is equivalent to resisting the     
ordinance of ,god8--giving this not as  
the counsel of prudence1 but as the     
dictate of conscience1 thus proclaiming 
exemption from criticism or assault1 for
 inhuman tyrannies8 ,nothing short of   
this is inculcated by the sweeping      

declaration3 ,let every soul be subject 
to the higher powers3 for there is no   
power but of ,god2 the established      
powers are ordained of ,god4 ,no doubt  
the bidding was given in view of a      
turbulent or insurrectionary spirit     
among the ,israelites in ,rome1 but it  
is given without explanation or limit4  
,it ratifies the divine right of kings3 
sanctions the principle that might makes
 right4 ,paul was an enthusiast for     
ideas2 not a theologian1 not a social   
reformer1 but one whose zeal was spent  
on doctrines4 ,prevailingly             
intellectual1 his whole nature was fused
 by the electric touch of a new thought4
  ,paul's acquaintance with the ,talmud 
is evidenced by his writings4 ,his use  
of allegory1 his fanciful analogies1 his
 mystical interpretations1 his play on  
words1 his passion for types and        
symbols1 his ingenious speculations on  
history and eschatology1 betray his     
familiarity with that curious           
literature4 ,he found a mine of precious

 material in the mythical ,adam         
,caedmon1 the progenitor1 the prototype1
 the federal head of the race1 the man  
who was not a man but a microcosm1      
created by special act from sifted clay2
 a creature whose erected head touched  
the firmament1 whose extended body      
reached across the earth2 a being to    
whom all save ,satan did obeisance2 who1
 but for his transgression1 would have  
enjoyed an immortality on earth2 whose  
sin entailed on the human race all the  
evils1 material and moral1 that have    
cursed the world2 the primordial man1   
who contained in himself the germs of   
all mankind2 whose corruption tainted   
the nature of generations of            
descendants4 ,the ,talmud exhausts      
speculation on this prodigious          
personality4 ,the doctrine of the       
christian church for fifteen hundred    
years was not so much colored as shaped 
by the rabbis who exercised their       
subtlety on this tempting theme4 ,philo1
 a contemporary of ,paul1 is in no      

respect behind the most imaginative in  
his conjectures on this sublime legend4 
,that ,paul1 a student of the ,talmud1  
fell in with them1 should excite no     
surprise4 ,that he added nothing is due 
probably to the fact that there was     
nothing to add4  ,from the ,talmud1     
also1 and from other rabbinical         
writings1 ,paul derived a complete      
angelology1 a department of speculation 
in which the ,jewish literature after   
the captivity was exceedingly           
prolific--,metathron1 ,sandalphon1      
,akathriel1 ,suriel1 were familiar to   
his mind4 ,it is a bold suggestion made 
by ,dr4 ,isaac ,m4 ,wise1 the ,hebrew   
rabbi fresh from the ,talmud1#a that    
,metathron1--,greek3 meta thronon1 near 
the throne1 called by eminent titles1   
king of the angels1 prince of the       
countenance1 impressed ,paul's          
imagination and was the original of his 
,christ4 ,between this supreme angel1   
co-ordinate with deity and spiritually  
akin to him1 and the ,christ of ,paul's 

conception1 the correspondence seems to 
be too close to be accidental2 so close1
 indeed1 that some1 unable to deny or to
 confute it1 are driven to surmise that 
the first conception originated with the
 apostle4 ,it is more probable however1 
though not provable1 that the rabbinical
 idea was the earlier1 and that the     
apostle took that as well as the ,adam  
,caedmon from the rabbis4 ,the prince of
 angels precisely met his requirement as
 a counter-vailing power to ,adam1 and  
supplied a ground for his theory of the 
second ,adam1 the living spirit1 the    
,lord from ,heaven1 the primal man of a 
new creation1 the first born of a new   
progeny1 the originator of a law of life
 which should check and counteract the  
law of sin and death4 ,the second ,man  
was the counterpart of the first4       
,footnote #a3 ,origin of ,christianity1 
p4 #cce-cda4  ,he is a man1 yet is he no
 man2 his flesh is only the likeness of 
sinful flesh1 liable to death1 but not  
implicating the personality in dying4   

,he is the spiritual1 heavenly1 ideal   
man2 celestial1 glorious1 image of ,god1
 translucent1 sinless1 impeccable2      
pre-existent1 of course2 without father 
or mother2 an expression of divinity2 a 
creator of new worlds for the habitation
 of the ,sons of ,god4 ,his birth is an 
entrance into humanity from an abode of 
light4 ,the mission of this transcendent
 being is1 in a word1 to break the force
 of transmitted sin1 and reverse the    
destiny of the race4 ,he imparts the    
principle of life1 which is to restore  
all things4 ,a multitude of incidental  
points are involved in this fundamental 
one1 points of theology1 anthropology1  
history1 ethics1 metaphysics1 that      
present no difficulty to one who has    
this key4 ,the long disquisitions on the
 ,mosaic law1 the discussions on the    
privileges of the ,hebrew race and the  
rights of other races were necessary4   
,the familiar doctrine of the           
resurrection derived fresh interest from
 association with the general theory1   

inasmuch as it supplied a ground-work   
for the expectation that the glorified  
,one would reappear2 and the hypothesis 
of a spiritual body1 ventured and fully 
developed by the rabbis1 even           
illustrated by analogies of the corn of 
wheat which the apostle makes so much of
 in the fifteenth chapter of ,i4        
,corinthians1 supplied all else that was
 wanting to complete the scheme4 ,the   
,christ1 being sinless1 was held to be  
incorruptible2 death had no dominion    
over him1 was in fact in his case1 an   
excarnation1 the preparation for an     
ascent to the realm of light he came    
from1 and to his seat at the right hand 
of his ,father1 instead of being a      
descent into the region of darkness to  
which mortals are doomed4 ,the doctrine 
of last things follows from the doctrine
 of first things4 ,they who are one with
 ,christ through faith share his        
deathlessness4 ,if they die1 it is      
merely a temporary retirement1 in which 
they await the coming of their ,lord1   

who will in his own time call them out  
of their prison house4 ,the larger      
number1 however1 were not1 in the       
apostle's belief1 destined to die at    
all2 but might look as he did1 to be    
transfigured1 by the putting off of     
their vile bodies1 and the putting on of
 glorious bodies like that of the great 
forerunner4 ,in his amplifications on   
this theme1 ,paul shows little          
originality1 and adds nothing important 
to the material lying ready to his hand4
  ,the advantage his scheme gave him as 
a preacher to the ,gentiles is too      
obvious to be dwelt on4 ,as a ,greek by 
birth and culture1 he was interested in 
the fate of other nations besides the   
,jews4 ,a system of religion adapted to 
the traditions and satisfactory to the  
hopes of a peculiar people1--a national1
 exclusive religion in the benefits     
whereof none but ,jews might share1 and 
from whose grace no lineal descendant of
 ,abraham could be excluded1 did not    
commend itself to this man1 half ,jew1  

half ,greek4 ,the faith that obtained   
his allegiance1 and awoke his zeal must 
possess a human character by virtue of  
which its message could be carried to   
all mankind4 ,such a faith his new      
theory of the ,christ gave him4 ,he     
could say to his ,greek friends3 ,this  
religion that ,i bring you is no ,hebrew
 peculiarity4 ,its ,christ is no son of 
,david1 but a son of ,god2 its heaven is
 no ,messianic kingdom in ,judaea1 but a
 region of light above the skies2 its   
principle is faith1 not obedience to a  
ceremonial or legal code2 it dispenses  
entirely with the requirements of the   
law of ,moses2 makes no account of      
sacrifices or priests2 presumes on no   
acquaintance with ,hebrew scriptures1 or
 reverence for ,hebrew men2 questions of
 circumcision and uncircumcision are    
trivial and impertinent4 ,the religion  
of ,christ addresses you as men1 not as 
,jewish men2 it appeals to the universal
 sense of moral and spiritual infirmity1
 and offers a moral and spiritual1 not a

 technical deliverance2 instead of      
limiting1 it will enlarge you2 instead  
of binding1 it will emancipate you2 its 
genius is liberty1 through which you are
 set free from ceremonialism1 ritualism1
 dogmatism1 moralism1 and are made      
partakers of a new intellectual life4   
,not all at once did this scheme unfold 
itself before the apostle's vision4     
,gradually it came to him as he         
meditated alone1 or experimented with it
 on listeners in remote places4         
,naturally1 he avoided the associations 
of the people he had persecuted1 and the
 teachers they looked up to4 ,he had    
nothing to learn from them2 he          
understood their system and was         
dissatisfied with it1 in short1 rejected
 it4 ,their ,jewish ,messiah1 literal1  
national1 hebraic1 was not an attractive
 personage to his mind4 ,the promise of 
felicity in a ,jewish kingdom of heaven 
was not enchanting4 ,the daily life of  
the believers in ,jerusalem was formal1 
unnatural1 repulsive to one who had     

walked large in foreign cities and      
realms of thought4 ,the apostles1       
,peter1 ,james1 ,john1 had nothing      
important to tell him that he did not   
know already4 ,the earthly details of   
the life of ,jesus might have interested
 him1 but the interior character and the
 human significance of the ,christ were 
the main thing1 and these he may have   
thought himself more in the way of      
appreciating by a temporary retirement  
to the depths of his own consciousness4 
,having matured his thoughts1 he did put
 himself in communication with the      
original disciples1 with what result is 
frankly stated in his letter to the     
,galatians3 ,to those who seemed to be  
somewhat 7what they were is no concern  
of mine1 ,god accepteth no man's        
person71 but who in conference added    
nothing to me1 ,i did not give way1 in  
subjection1 no1 not for an hour4 ,so    
heated he becomes1 as he remembers this 
interview1 that he can scarcely write   
coherently about it4 ,the two           

conceptions of the ,christ and his      
office were so far apart1 that he did   
not1 to his dying day1 form intimate    
relations with the teachers of the      
primitive gospel4 ,they taught an       
uncongenial scheme4  ,from the first1   
,paul's sphere of action was the        
,gentile world to which his message was 
adapted4 ,if his first appeal was       
addressed to ,jews1 it was simply       
because ,christianity1 as he understood 
it1 being an outgrowth from ,jewish     
thought1 a development of ,jewish       
tradition1 should naturally be more     
intelligible and more welcome to them   
than to people who had no historical or 
literary preparation for it4 ,but he    
took the broad ground with them1 and    
addressed his word to outsiders the     
moment stubbornly dogmatical ,jews      
declined to receive it on his terms4    
,the attempt made by the author of the  
,acts of the ,apostles1 to show that    
,paul modified or qualified his scheme  
to bring it into harmony with the older 

scheme that he supplanted1 fails from   
the circumstance that the writer        
discerns no peculiarity in his theory of
 the ,christ1 and consequently misses   
completely the ground of any antagonism4
  ,this is written in the persuasion    
that the ,acts of the ,apostles is not  
trustworthy as history2 has in fact no  
historical intent1 but belongs to the   
class of writings that may be called    
conciliatory1 or mediatorial1 designed  
to bring opposing views together1 to    
heal divisions1 and smooth over rough   
places4 ,by pulling hard at both ends of
 the string1 dragging ,peter towards    
,paul1 and ,paul towards ,peter1        
ascribing to both the same opinions1    
imputing to both the same designs1 and  
passing both through the same           
experiences1 the author would make his  
readers believe that they stood on the  
same foundation4 ,the grounds of the    
opinion above stated cannot be given    
here2 but there are grounds for it1 and 
solid ones1 as any one may discover who 

will take the pains to look at ,edward  
,zeller's essay on the ,acts1 or any    
other argument from an unprejudiced     
point of view4 ,the conclusion may be   
arrived at1 however1 by a shorter       
process1 namely1 by taking ,paul's      
,christology as given by himself in his 
own letters1 and then considering how   
completely it is excluded from the book4
 ,it seems to the present writer nothing
 less than certain1 as plain as any     
point of literary criticism can be1 that
 the ,acts of the ,apostles is not to be
 relied on for information respecting   
the life and opinions of the apostle    
,paul4 ,in this opinion writers         
belonging to very different schools of  
religious philosophy1 ,mackay1 for      
example1 and ,martineau1 are cordially  
agreed4 ,this must henceforth be        
regarded as one of the points           
established4 ,the firmer the            
apprehension of ,paul's peculiarity1 the
 stronger is the conviction that the    
description of his conduct in the book  

of ,acts must be fanciful4 ,if he tells 
the truth1 as there is no reason to     
doubt1 the unknown author of the ,acts  
romances4  ,the necessity that ,paul was
 under of commending his christology to 
the ,jews1 a self-imposed necessity in  
part1 inasmuch as his own genius being  
,jewish1 imposed it on him1 embarrassed 
the movement of his mind to such a      
degree that he was never able to do     
perfect justice to his own theory4 ,much
 time was spent in explaining his       
conduct to orthodox ,jews1 or in        
answering questions raised by hebrew    
casuistry4 ,the epistle to the ,romans1 
the most labored of his compositions1 is
 a long argument addressed to his       
countrymen in ,rome1 with the design of 
persuading them that ,jehovah was quite 
justified in accepting ,gentiles who    
conformed to his requirements1 and in   
rejecting children of ,abraham who did  
not4 ,this is the burden of the letter4 
,the argument is lighted up by splendid 
bursts of eloquence1 and diversified by 

keen remarks on points of psychology4   
,but1 omitting two or three of the      
chapters and scattered passages in      
others1 the remainder is intellectually 
arid and devoid of human interest4 ,the 
same may be said of the letter to the   
,galatians4 ,the epistles to the        
,thessalonians1 and those to the        
,corinthians1 are occupied chiefly with 
matters of local and incidental concern4
 ,it is probable that ,paul's genius was
 disastrously circumscribed within      
hebrew limits after all2 that he never  
completely emancipated himself even from
 the old time traditions of his people2 
that the ,jewish half of the man was not
 the weaker half4 ,a philosopher he was 
not2 a theologian1 in the great sense1  
he was not2 a metaphysician he was not2 
a psychologist he was not4 ,he was an   
apostle1 a preacher4 ,the problems he   
discussed were formal rather than vital1
 and the spirit in which he discussed   
them was the temper of the dogmatist    
rather than that of the seer4 ,however  

this may be1 it may be affirmed that his
 system contained no strictly original  
ideas2 that his leading thoughts1 and   
even the phases of his thought1 were    
borrowed from the literature of his     
nation1 or1 at least1 may be found      
there4  ,it is a frequent remark that1  
but for ,st4 ,paul1 ,christianity might 
have had no life out of ,judaea2 which  
is tantamount to saying that it might   
have had no prolonged or extended life  
at all1 but would have perished as an   
incidental phase of ,judaism4 ,the      
remark is essentially just2 at the same 
time it must be remembered that the     
,christianity which ,paul devised and   
planted was a system quite unlike that  
of his predecessors1 though still       
another phase of ,judaism1 a divergent  
and cosmopolitan phase4  ,other pieces  
of literature1 ,ephesians1 ,colossians1 
,philippians1 ,hebrews1 which1 whether  
the compositions of ,paul or not1       
contain developments of his thought1 and
 may be called ,pauline1 carry further  

his central speculation and apply his   
principle to the new problems that      
presented themselves in the social life 
of the religion2 yet these do not go    
beyond the lines of ,jewish thought4    
,the significant passage in             
,philippians1 ,who1 although he was in  
the form of ,god1 thought not that an   
equality with ,god1 was a thing he ought
 greedily to grasp at1 suggests the     
,greek mythus of ,lucifer1 who fell     
because1 being already the brightest of 
beings1 he was discontented with a      
formal inferiority of rank4 ,his crime  
consisted in rapaciously grasping at a  
power which was1 in all but the name1   
his own4 ,the ,christ1 in contrast1 was 
satisfied with the substance2 he        
willingly resigned pretension to the    
position4 ,but the ,greek mythus was the
 reflection of a legend from the farther
 ,east1 and came to this author more    
naturally through ,judaism than through 
,paganism4 ,according to ,neander's     
classification the ,gnostics1 from whom 

this theosophic conception came1 were   
,judaistic4 ,gieseler's classification  
leads to the same inference1 for the    
,alexandrian ,gnosis was the product of 
,greek thought1 blended with ,jewish4   
,the classification of ,gieseler has    
regard to the source whence the         
speculation came2 that of ,neander to   
the tendency of the speculation4 ,in    
whichever aspect we view the myth1 its  
,jewish character is apparent4 ,the     
writer has pushed his speculations into 
new fields that yet lay within the      
ancestral domain4 ,he describes the     
,christ as being but the semblance of a 
man1 in fashion a man1 not in substance4
 ,the thought is a further development1 
yet a strictly logical one1 of ,paul's  
idea that the ,christ was made in the   
likeness of sinful flesh4 ,the two      
expressions are parallel1 in fact       
identical2 body1 in ,pauline phrase     
being1 from the nature of the case1     
sinful body4 ,the writer speaks of the  
dominion of the ,christ as extended over

 the three spheres1 heaven1 earth1 and  
the under-world2 scarcely thereby       
enlarging the scope of a previous       
thought1 for as much as these spheres   
were comprehended in the dominion of the
 ,christ who created the worlds1 the new
 worlds that constituted the new        
creation1 whereof he was ,lord4  ,the   
letter to the ,hebrews1 an exceedingly  
elaborate exposition of the close       
relation between the new faith and the  
old1 an argument and a plea for the new 
faith as containing in substance all    
that the old contained in form1 is      
,jewish in coloring throughout1 an      
exaggeration of ,jewish ideas4 ,the     
argument is that ,christianity excels   
,judaism in its own excellencies4 ,the  
,christ is called high priest1 perpetual
 priest1 possessing the power to confer 
endless life4 ,by the sacrifice of      
himself he has entered at once into the 
holy of holies4 ,he has tasted death for
 every man--another way of saying that  
he has deprived death for every man of  

its bitterness4 ,he has destroyed the   
devil who held the kingdom of death4 ,he
 has reconciled man with ,god by        
abolishing death1 and with death sin1   
which is the strength of death4 ,the    
,christ is represented as the author of 
salvation to all that obey him2 he lives
 forever to make intercession2 his blood
 purges men's consciences from reliance 
on dead works2 he1 once for all1 has    
devoted himself to bear the sins of     
many2 he will come again1 and bring     
salvation to such as wait for him2 all  
these are merely completed expressions  
of the idea enunciated by ,paul4  ,the  
,christ himself is described in this    
epistle as the appointed heir of all    
things2 the brightness of ,god's glory  
and the express image of ,his person2   
upholding all things by the word of ,his
 power2 the ,first ,begotten2 the object
 of adoration by the angels4 ,to support
 this view1 the ,old ,testament is      
ingeniously quoted and misapplied4 ,the 
influence of ,jewish thought appears    

also in the passages that describe the  
,christ as an agent1 appointed to his   
office2 an official1 sitting at the     
right hand of the ,majesty on ,high2 as 
fulfilling ,his mission and obtaining   
,his glory through suffering2 as        
subjected to human experiences of       
temptation2 as strictly sub-ordinate to 
,god4  ,the scriptures entitled         
,colossians and ,ephesians betray still 
greater familiarity with                
,alexandro-,jewish conceptions1 and a   
yet deeper sympathy with them4 ,the     
,christ is here the image of ,god1 the  
first-born of every creature4 ,it is    
declared that by ,him were all things   
created that are in heaven and on earth2
 things visible and invisible2 thrones1 
dominions1 principalities1 powers2 by   
,him and for ,him they were created4 ,he
 is far above all principality1 and     
power1 and might1 and dominion1 and     
every name that is named1 whether in    
this world or the world to come4 ,he is 
all in all4 ,he is the pleroma1 the     

fulness1 the abyss of possibility4 ,the 
fulness of the ,godhead dwells in ,him  
visibly4 ,he exhausts the divine        
capacity of expression4 ,he is the      
reality of ,god4 ,towards mankind he is 
the reconciler4 ,in him all things are  
gathered together in one4 ,by the blood 
of his cross he has made peace and      
reconciled all things to himself2 things
 on earth and things in heaven4 ,in a   
striking passage1 the writer of         
,ephesians describes the ,christ as     
first descending into the under world to
 release the captives bound in the      
chains of ,satan1 and thence ascending  
up on high and sending down gifts to    
men4  ,both of these compositions abound
 in ,gnostic phraesology4 ,the abstruse 
terms ,mystery1 ,wisdom1 ,a,eon1 ,prince
 of the ,powers recur again and again1  
and always with the cabalistic meaning4 
,the writers are caught in the meshes of
 ,oriental speculation1 and apparently  
make no effort to extricate themselves4 
,on the contrary1 they welcome their    

enthralment1 taking the binding cords to
 be guiding strings towards the truth4  
,so far1 again1 instead of escaping from
 the ,jewish tradition we are tethered  
to it more securely than before4 ,the   
literature of the ,new ,testament is    
seen to be still a continuation and     
completion of the literature of the     
,old4 ,the earliest form of the         
,messianic doctrine is completely       
distanced4 ,scarcely a trace of it      
remains4 ,of the throne of ,david not a 
word4 ,not a word of ,moses and the     
,prophets1 of the historical fulfilment 
of ancient prediction1 of the temple    
worship1 of the chosen people4          
,pharisees and ,sadducees are alike     
omitted4 ,the very word kingdom1 as     
denoting a visible ,messianic reign1 is 
dropped4 ,but the territory of ,judaism 
has not been abandoned4 ,galilee is     
deserted2 ,jerusalem is overthrown2 but 
the schools of the rabbins are open4    
,it will be remarked that the moral     
teaching is more vague and mystical than

 it was in the early time4 ,the         
theological spirit prevails over the    
human2 the ecclesiastical supersedes the
 ethical4 ,practical principle is       
postponed to theoretical doctrine4 ,the 
virtues prescribed are ghostly1         
technical2 the graces of a church1 not  
the qualities of a brotherhood4 ,the    
intellectual air is thinner and more    
difficult to inhale4 ,the spiritual     
atmosphere is not inspiring4            
,intelligence can make nothing of       
writing like this3 ,the husband is the  
head of the wife1 even as ,christ is the
 head of the ,church2 and ,he is the    
,saviour of the body4 ,therefore1 as the
 ,church is subject to ,christ1 so let  
wives be subject in all things to their 
husbands4 ,husbands love your wives1    
even as ,christ also loved the ,church1 
and gave ,himself for it1 that ,he might
 sanctify and cleanse it with the       
washing of water by the ,word2 that ,he 
might present it to ,himself a glorious 
,church1 not having spot or wrinkle1 or 

any such thing2 but that it should be   
holy and without blemish4 ,the absence  
of rational ground for duty in the most 
familiar relations of life could not be 
more explicitly declared than in a      
passage like this4 ,that such an age    
should have had a scientific system of  
morality cannot be expected2 but that   
the traditional system should have been 
lost1 and a fantastical one set up in   
its place1 is a testimony to the        
influence of the mystical spirit4 ,the  
fanciful morality of a small and        
enthusiastic body may be interesting to 
the members of the body and influential 
on their conduct2 but it is no evidence 
of health in the moral constitution of  
the generation4 ,the representation of  
the ,christian warfare as a conflict not
 against flesh and blood1--that is1     
against organized evil in society and   
the ,state1--but against principalities1
 against powers1 against the princes of 
darkness1 against wicked spirits that   
dwell in the air1 is another evidence   

that conscience had become visionary4   
,such reasoning is of a piece with the  
argument for there being four gospels   
and no more1 namely1 that there were    
four quarters of the heaven1 and four   
winds2 or with the argument for         
perpetual virginity1 that it supplied   
the ,church with vestals4 ,such         
theologising shows how far speculation  
may be separated from reality and yet be
 entertained by human minds4     ,,vii4 
,,the ,,last ,,gospel4   ,the author of 
the fourth ,gospel is unknown1 but it is
 incredible that this wonderful book1   
wonderful for finish of literary        
execution as well as for vigor of       
intellectual conception1 was written by 
a ,galilean fisherman2 a man of brooding
 and morbid disposition1 whose          
intemperate zeal earned for him the     
title son of thunder2 who1 according to 
,luke1 proposed to call down fire from  
heaven to consume certain ,samaritans   
that declined to receive the master2    
who1 according to the same authority1   

rebuked certain others that conjured by 
the ,christ's name1 but did not join his
 company2 who1 through his mother1 asked
 for one of the best seats in the       
kingdom2 a man who was most intimately  
associated with the ,james described in 
a former chapter2 a man who late in     
life1 had a reputation for intolerance  
which started a tradition of him to the 
effect that being in the public bath1   
and seeing enter the heretic ,cerinthus1
 he rushed out1 calling on all others to
 follow1 if they would not be           
overwhelmed by the ruin such a          
blasphemer would pull down on their     
heads4 ,all the traditions respecting   
,john are to the same purport2 his      
constant association with ,james and    
,peter1 both disciples of the narrowest 
creed2 his advocacy of chiliasm1 the    
doctrine of the millennial reign of a   
thousand years1 as testified to by      
,ephesian presbyters on the authority of
 ,irenaeus2 the description of him1     
reported by ,eusebius1 as a high priest 

wearing the mitre1 standing in the order
 of succession therefore as a hierarch  
of the ancient dispensation1 a churchman
 maintaining the ancient symbolical     
rites4  ,that such a composition as the 
fourth ,gospel was written by such a    
man1 in his old age too1 the laws of    
literary criticism cannot admit4 ,to the
 present writer the ungenuineness of the
 fourth ,gospel has for several years   
seemed as distinctly proved as any point
 in literary criticism can be4 ,to      
maintain the ,johannean origin of the   
book1 it must be assumed that the       
apostle lived to an extreme old age1    
nearly double the full three score years
 and ten allotted to mankind2 that his  
entire nature changed in the interval   
between his youth and his senility2     
that1 without studying in the schools1  
he became a profound adept in           
speculative philosophy2 and that by the 
same miraculous bestowment1 he acquired 
a skill in letters surpassing that of   
any in his generation1 far surpassing   

that of ,paul1 who was an educated man1 
and completely casting into the shade   
,philo1 the best scholar of a former    
era4 ,all this1 too1 must be assumed1   
for there is not a fragment of the      
evidence to support the bold presumption
 of authorship4  ,the book belongs      
nearer to the middle than the beginning 
of the second century1 and is the result
 of an attempt to present the ,christ as
 the incarnate ,word of ,god4 ,the      
author is not obliged to go far to find 
his materials2 they lie ready shaped to 
his hand in the writings of ,philo and  
the ,gnostics of his century4 ,the      
thread of ,hebrew tradition1 has1 by    
this time1 become exceedingly thin2     
vestiges of the popular ,jewish         
conception appear1 but faintly1 here and
 there4 ,nicodemus recognizes the divine
 character of the ,christ by his power  
to work miracles4 ,the ,christ respects 
the tradition which accorded special    
privileges to the genuine children of   
,abraham2 he declares to the woman of   

,samaria that salvation is of the ,jews2
 he announces that eternal life consists
 in the knowledge of ,god1 and the      
acceptance of his ,son4 ,moses is said  
to have written of the ,christ4 ,father 
,abraham rejoiced to see his day4       
,isaiah sang his glory1 and spake of    
him4 ,the brazen serpent is a type of   
his mission to deliver4  ,for the rest1 
the conceptions of deity1 of providence1
 of salvation1 of the eternal world1 are
 quite different from the recognized    
,hebrew conceptions--the title given to 
,god sixty times in the gospel1 while   
the word ,god1 occurs less than twenty1 
is ,father1 and this term is used1 not  
in the sense of ,matthew's ,our ,father 
in ,heaven1 which describes the ,old    
,testament ,jehovah under his more      
amiable aspect1 but rather as           
designating the abyss of potential      
being1 as the term is employed in the   
trinitarian formula1 in which the       
,godhead is broken up into three        
distinctions2 the declaration ,god is   

,spirit1 or1 as the language equally    
well permits1 ,spirit is ,god1 intimates
 that the individuality of ,god has     
disappeared1 that the idea of deity has 
become intellectual4 ,the one hundred   
and thirty-ninth psalm expresses perhaps
 as mystical an apprehension of ,god as 
the old ,hebrew thought admits of1 but  
that psalm retains the divine           
individuality2 the limits are nowhere   
transgressed2 it is a sympathetic1      
regardful eye that searches the secret  
place1 and an attentive mind that notes 
the unarticulated thought4 ,the         
intelligence loses no point of clearness
 in becoming penetrative4 ,but in the   
fourth ,gospel1 the individuality is    
gone altogether4 ,the ,father loveth1   
but with an abstract1 impersonal        
sympathy2 the ,father draweth1 but with 
an organic1 elemental attraction2 the   
,father hath life in himself1 and hath  
given the ,son to have life in himself2 
but neither the possession nor the      
communication of this power implies the 

bestowal of a concrete gift4 ,the       
,father judgeth no man1 but hath given  
all judgment to the ,son--a phrase      
intimating that he had gone into        
retirement1 had withdrawn from active   
interest in human concerns1 had sunk    
into the depths of the ,absolute4 ,the  
expression ,god is ,spirit1 taken alone1
 conveys no idea that is not contained  
in the ,hebrew conception of the        
formless ,jehovah2 but when taken in    
connection with other expressions1 it is
 seen to convey something more1 and     
something different4 ,the formless ,god 
may be strictly local2 the ,spirit is   
diffused4  ,in this book1 the ,christ   
takes the place of ,god1 as the revealed
 or manifest ,god2 he is the ,logos1 the
 incarnate word4 ,he was with ,god in   
the beginning4 ,all things were made by 
him4 ,in him was life1 and the life was 
the light of men4 ,he hath life in      
himself4 ,he is the only begotten son1  
who came down from heaven2 he is in     
heaven4 ,all judgment is committed to   

him2 in him the divine glory is         
manifest2 apart from him is no spiritual
 life2 he is the vine1 the door2 he is  
the intercessor through whom prayer must
 be transmitted in order to be made     
availing4  ,the divine presence is taken
 out of nature1 and transferred to the  
spiritual world2 ,god is made           
ecclesiastical and dogmatic4 ,men are   
saved1 not by natural piety and         
excellence1 but by faith in the ,christ 
as the ,logos4 ,the whole sum of        
,christianity is conveyed in this one   
position3 the manifestation of the      
,divine ,glory in the ,only ,begotten   
,son4 ,this manifestation is of itself1 
the coming of salvation1 the gift of    
,god's life to mankind4 ,by this1 the   
,christ overcomes the powers of darkness
 and evil4 ,he has come a light into the
 world2 by him come grace and truth2 to 
believe in him is a sign of ,god's      
working4 ,he that cometh to him shall   
never hunger2 he that believeth on him  
shall never thirst4 ,it is enough that  

blind men believe2 to die1 believing in 
him1 is to live2 to live1 believing in  
him1 is to be saved from the power of   
death1 and made immortal4 ,to believe in
 him is the same thing as to believe in 
the ,father4 ,not to believe in him1 is 
to be consigned to spiritual death with 
sinners2 to believe on the ,son is to   
have everlasting life4 ,this idea recurs
 with monotonous perseverance1 some     
sixty times4  ,that this conception of  
the ,christ is not original with our    
author has already been said many times4
 ,it had been in the world two hundred  
years before his day1 and had worked its
 way into the substance of the later    
,jewish thought4 ,the personification of
 the divine reason early occurred to the
 ,jews who had been touched with the    
passion for speculation in the city of  
,alexandria4 ,long ago attention was    
called by ,andrews ,norton1 among       
ourselves1 to bold personifications of  
wisdom and the divine reason1 in the    
,apocrypha of the ,old ,testament4 ,she 

is the breath of the power of ,god1 a   
pure influence proceeding from the glory
 of the ,almighty4 ,she is the          
brightness of the everlasting light1 the
 unspotted mirror of the power of ,god1 
and the image of his goodness4 ,chapters
 seven and eight of the ,book of ,wisdom
 contain an apotheosis of wisdom as the 
creative power4 ,in the eighteenth      
chapter the imagery grows much stronger4
 ,thine almighty word leaped down from  
heaven out of thy royal throne1 as a    
fierce man-of-war into the midst of a   
land of destruction4 ,the twenty-fourth 
chapter of ,ecclesiasticus is devoted to
 the same theme4 ,the ,word is described
 as a being3 the first born of ,god2 the
 active agent in creation2 having its   
dwelling-place in ,israel1 its seat in  
the ,law of ,moses4  ,philo pushes the  
speculation much further4 ,the ,logos is
 with him a most interesting subject of 
discourse1 tempting him to wonderful    
feats of imagination4 ,there is scarcely
 a personifying or exalting epithet that

 he does not bestow on the divine       
,reason4 ,he describes it as a distinct 
being2 calls it ,a ,rock1 ,the ,summit  
of the ,universe1 ,before ,all ,things1 
,first-begotten ,son of ,god1 ,eternal  
,bread from ,heaven1 ,fountain of       
,wisdom1 ,guide to ,god1 ,substitute for
 ,god1 ,image of ,god1 ,priest1 ,creator
 of the ,worlds1 ,second ,god1          
,interpreter of ,god1 ,ambassador of    
,god1 ,power of ,god1 ,king1 ,angel1    
,man1 ,mediator1 ,light1 ,the           
,beginning1 ,the ,east1 ,the ,name of   
,god1 ,intercessor4 ,the curious on this
 subject may consult ,luecke's          
,introduction to the ,fourth ,gospel1 or
 ,gfroerer's ,philo1 and he will be more
 than satisfied that the ,logos of the  
fourth ,gospel is the same as ,philo's1 
and has the same origin4  ,christian    
scholars who admit this have been       
anxious to break the force of the       
inference1 by allowing the similarity of
 the conception and then supposing the  
evangelist to have stated the doctrine  

that he might stamp it as heresy4 ,but  
he nowhere does stamp it as heresy4 ,he 
puts it boldly on the front of his      
exposition and constructs his whole work
 in conformity with it4 ,instead of     
refuting it or denouncing it1 he carries
 the idea out in all its applications1  
supplementing it with a completeness    
that ,philo never thought of4  ,the     
,logos becomes a man2 is made flesh2    
appears as an incarnation2 in order that
 the ,god whom no man has seen at any   
time1 may be manifested4 ,he has no     
parentage2 is not born1 even            
supernaturally2 he passes through no    
childish passages2 receives no nurture  
in a home2 has no experience of growth  
or development4 ,the incident of his    
baptism by ,john in the sacred river is 
carefully excluded1 that whole episode1 
so important in the earliest narratives1
 being dismissed in the phrase1 ,upon   
whom thou shalt see the spirit          
descending1 and remaining on him1 the   
same is he that baptizeth with the ,holy

 ,ghost4 ,john says of him3 ,this is he 
that1 coming after me1 is preferred     
before me1 for he existed before me4 ,i 
saw the spirit descending from heaven   
like a dove1 and it abode upon him4 ,i  
knew him not1 but came1 baptizing with  
water1 that he might be made manifest to
 ,israel4 ,i am a voice crying in the   
desert4 ,every word negatives the notion
 that the ,logos received consecration  
at the hands of a prophet of the old    
dispensation4 ,he is pre-existent2 he   
comes from heaven2 he is full of grace  
and truth2 of his fulness all have      
received1 grace upon grace4  ,the       
temptation is omitted for the same      
reason4 ,the divine word cannot1 even in
 form1 undergo the experience of moral  
discipline4 ,the bare suggestion of evil
 taint is foreign to him4 ,he must not  
come near enough to evil to repel it4 ,a
 dramatic scene in ,matthew represents  
the conflict between the ,messiah and   
the ,prince of the ,world2 a conflict   
inconceivable in the case of a divine   

being who is1 by nature1 ,lord of the   
entire spiritual universe1--whose mere  
appearance dispels the night4  ,even the
 story of the transfiguration1 which in 
some respects would seem admirably      
illustrative of the logos theory1 is    
omitted1 probably for the reason that   
,moses and ,elias are the prominent     
personages in it4  ,as a thing of       
course1 the agony in the garden of      
,gethsemane is unmentioned4 ,a          
suggestion of it occurs in a previous   
chapter1 7,,xii4 #bg71 but in another   
connection1 and for an opposite purpose1
 namely1 to extort a tribute to the     
glory of the ,logos4  ,the cross on     
which the ,word is suspended1 is        
transfigured into an elevation of honor4
 ,on it the ,son of ,god endures no     
mortal agony2 by it he is lifted up that
 he may draw all men unto him4 ,his     
crucifixion is a consummation1 a        
triumph4 ,he mounts1 shows himself1 and 
vanishes away4 ,the suffering is an     
appearance of suffering4 ,the shame is  

turned to glory4 ,the tormentors are    
agents in accomplishing a               
transformation4 ,the god passes1 without
 a groan or an expression of weakness2  
clear as ever in his perceptions1 seeing
 his mother and the beloved disciple    
standing together1 he says3 woman1      
behold thy son2 son1 behold thy mother4 
,knowing that all things were now       
accomplished1 that the scripture might  
be fulfilled1 he said ,i thirst2 having 
received the vinegar1 he remarked it is 
finished1 bowed his head1 and gave up   
the ghost4 ,from his dead form issue    
streams of water and blood1 a last sign1
 as the conversion of water into wine   
was the first1 that the dispensation of 
,law1 symbolized by ,john's water       
baptism1 and the dispensation of the    
spirit symbolized by wine and by blood1 
were both completed in him4  ,the       
resurrection of the ,christ is not      
described as the resurrection of a body1
 but as the apparition of a spiritual   
form4 ,it is not recognized by ,mary    

through any external resemblance to a   
former self1 but through a spiritual    
impression2 it stands suddenly before   
her1 forbids her touch1 is not palpable1
 and as suddenly disappears2 the ,logos 
ascends to the ,father2 returns1        
bringing the spirit that he had         
promised2 enters the chamber where the  
disciples are gathered1 the door being  
carefully closed from fear of the ,jews1
 enters without opening the door1 is    
visible for an instant1 and is no more  
seen2 re-enters for the purpose of      
giving palpable demonstration of his    
reality to the doubting ,thomas1 who1   
however does not accept it1 receives the
 skeptic's homage and again disappears4 
,these apparitions and occultations are 
frequent in the gospel1 the ,christ's   
outward form being only a facade1       
removable at pleasure4 ,the numerous    
comings and goings1 hidings1            
disclosures1 presences1 absences1 are   
accounted for on this supposition1      
better than on any other4 ,he goes up to

 the feast at ,jerusalem1 not openly1   
but as it were in secret1 veiled1       
disguised4 ,he comes before the crowd   
many of whom must have been familiar    
with his person1 but is unrecognized2 he
 discloses himself for a moment1 speaks 
exciting words that raise a tumult1 and 
then1 at the height of the turmoil1     
becomes invisible4 ,they sought to take 
him2 but no man laid hands on him1 for  
his hour was not yet come4 ,on a        
subsequent occasion his hearers1        
intensely aroused by his language1 took 
up stones to cast at him2 but he hid    
himself1 and went out of the temple1    
going through the midst of them1 and so 
passed by4 ,his enemies sought to take  
him1 but he escaped out of their hands4 
,having spoken1 he departs1 and hides   
himself2 but again1 without apparently  
changing his locality or absenting      
himself for any period1 he is again     
heard proclaiming his mission4  ,there  
is no history in this book4 ,the        
incarnate ,word can have no history4    

,his career being theological1 the      
events in it cannot be other than       
spectral4 ,he is not in the world of    
cause and effect4 ,his actions are      
phenomenal2 the passages of his life do 
not open into one another1 do not lead  
anywhere2 nothing follows anything else1
 nothing moves2 there is no progress    
towards development4 ,the biography is a
 succession of scenes1 a diorama4 ,there
 are no sequences or consequences4      
,stones are taken up1 but never thrown2 
hands are uplifted to strike1 but no    
blow is delivered4 ,the movement to     
arrest is never carried out4 ,the       
miracles are not deeds of power or      
mercy1 they are signs1 thrown out to    
attract popular attention1              
demonstrations of the divine presence2  
sometimes merely symbolical             
foreshadowings or interpretations of    
speculative ideas1 as in the case of the
 turning of water into wine at the      
marriage feast2 the opening of the blind
 man's eyes1 signifying that he was come

 a light into the world2 the            
resurrection of ,lazarus1 a scenic      
commentary on the text1 ,i am the       
resurrection and the life4 ,these are   
pictures not performances4 ,none of them
 are mentioned in the earlier           
traditions1 for the probable reason that
 they never occurred1 never were rumored
 to have occurred4 ,they were designed  
by the artist of the fourth ,gospel1 for
 his private gallery of illustrations4  
,the artist was a ,greek ,jew who took  
,hebrew ideals for his models1 but he   
was sometimes obliged to go far to find 
them4 ,the hint for the conversion of   
the water into wine1 may have come from 
the legends of ,israelite sojourn in    
,egypt1 where ,moses1 the first         
deliverer1 turned water into blood1 the 
mystical synonym of wine2 ,elisha may   
have furnished a study for the elaborate
 picture of the blind man's cure1 and   
,isaiah may have supplied the motive for
 it1 in his famous prophecy that the    
eyes of the blind shall be opened4 ,the 

studies for the grand cartoon of        
,lazarus were made possibly while the   
artist mused over the stories of ,elijah
 raising the son of the widow1 or of    
,elisha reviving one already dead by    
mere contact with his bones4  ,in the   
veins of the ,logos flows no passionate 
blood4 ,his language is vehement1 but   
suggests no corresponding emotion2 the  
words are not vascular4 ,certain        
superficial peculiarities of these      
discourses are noticeable at once1 their
 length1 their stateliness1 their       
absoluteness1 their loud-voiced1        
declamatory character1 their oracular   
tone4 ,but little scrutiny is required  
to discover that they are monotones2    
that their theme is always the same1    
namely1 the claims of the ,christ2 that 
they unfold no system of moral or       
spiritual teaching1 proceed in no       
rational order1 arrive at no            
conclusions2 that they contain no       
arguments1 answer no questions1 meet no 
inquiring states of mind2 that they     

resemble orations more than discourses  
of any other kind1 but are unlike       
orations1 in having neither beginning   
middle nor end1 in quite lacking point  
and application1 in proceeding no       
whither1 in simply standing still and   
reiterating the same sublime            
abstractions1 without regard to logical 
or rhetorical proprieties4  ,this being 
discovered1 the conclusion follows      
swiftly1 that the divine ,logos could   
not discourse otherwise4 ,his addresses1
 like his deeds1 are designed to be     
revelations of himself2 expressions1 not
 of his thoughts1 but of his being1 not 
of his character1 but of his nature4    
,they are the ,word made articulate1 as 
his wonders are the ,word made mighty1  
as his form is the ,word made visible4  
,a human being1 seeking to convince1    
persuade1 instruct mankind1 will from   
necessity pursue a different course from
 the divine ,reason presenting itself to
 the world4 ,its very audiences are     
impersonal1 consisting not of           

individuals or of parties1 but of       
abstractions labelled ,jews1 who come   
like shadows1 so depart4  ,so unhuman is
 the ,christ1 so entirely without near  
relations with mankind1 that when he has
 left the world1 a substitute may be    
provided for him1 in the shape of the   
,holy ,spirit1 another personality      
proceeding from him and his ,father1 and
 appointed to complete his work2 to     
reprove the world of sin1 of            
righteousness1 and of judgment2 to guide
 the disciples into all truth2 to bring 
to their remembrance all that had been  
said to them2 to comfort them1 and abide
 with them for ever4 ,the idea loses    
itself in vagueness at times1 now being 
identified with the ,christ1 now        
appearing as a ,spirit of ,truth1 now   
being an indwelling presence1 now an    
effluence from the ,logos4 ,but all the 
while something like an individual      
consciousness is preserved2 the spirit  
is as palpable as the ,logos himself    
was4 ,here is already the germ of a     

trinity maturing within the bosom of the
 ,hebrew monotheism4 ,the process has   
been simple2 the consecutive steps have 
been inevitable4 ,but in the process the
 solid ground of ,judaism has been left2
 the massive substance of the ancient   
faith has been melted into cloud4  ,how 
entirely nebulous it has become under   
the action of speculative mind is       
strikingly apparent on examination of   
the ethical characteristics of the      
fourth gospel4 ,the concrete virtues of 
the ancient race1 the honest human      
righteousness and charity have          
disappeared1 and in their place are     
certain spectral graces which have      
quality of a technical1 but little of a 
human sort4 ,that1 according to the     
,logos doctrine men are saved1 not by   
natural goodness or piety but by faith  
in the ,christ1 is written all over the 
book4 ,but this is not the point4 ,it is
 not enough that character has no saving
 power1 it is dispensed with2 and       
instead of it1 something is set up which

 possesses none of the elements of      
character4 ,the compact principles of   
human duty which hold so large a place  
in the ,old ,testament scriptures1 and  
are so essential in the earliest        
,messianic conception1 are not found    
here1 at all4 ,the sermon on the mount  
is omitted4 ,the beatitudes are         
unmentioned4 ,the parables are not      
remembered4 ,there is no chapter in the 
book that bears comparison in point of  
moral vigor or nobleness with the       
twelfth chapter of ,romans1 or the      
thirteenth chapter of ,corinthians4     
,humanity has shrunk to the dimensions  
of an incipient ,christendom4 ,the men  
and women whom the ,jesus of ,matthew   
addresses1 to whom ,paul makes appeal1  
are men and women no more2 not even     
,jews by race1 not even a knot of       
radical ,jews2 they are disciples1      
believers1 brethren4 ,christians1 not   
fellow men1 are to love one another4 ,so
 shall ye be my disciples1 if ye have   
love one for another4 ,by this shall all

 men know that ye are my disciples4 ,of 
the broad human love1 the recognition of
 brotherhood on the human ground1 duty  
to love those who are not disciples1    
there is not a word4 ,the common faith1 
not the common nature1 is the bond4 ,the
 promises in the fourteenth chapter1 the
 warnings in the fifteenth1 the counsel 
in the sixteenth1 the consecration in   
the seventeenth are all for the         
believers1 not for the doers2 for the   
doers only so far as they are believers1
 and within the limits of the believing 
community4 ,the tender word love shrinks
 to ecclesiastical proportions4 ,if a   
man love me he will keep my words2 and  
my ,father will love him1 and we will   
come to him1 and make our abode with    
him2 but the words are not words of     
exhortation to practical righteousness1 
they are words of admonition against    
unbelief4 ,if ye love me1 keep my       
commandments2 but the commandments are  
not the wholesome enactments of the     
,hebrew decalogue1 but a bidding to walk

 by the light while ye have the light1  
to do the will of ,him that sent me1    
which is to believe on him whom ,he hath
 sent4 ,he that believeth not is        
condemned already in his not believing  
in the only begotten ,son of ,god4      
,there is no sweeter word than love2    
there is no more comprehensive law than 
the law of love2 but when love is       
changed from a virtue to a sentiment1   
and when the duty of practising it is   
limited to members of a doctrinal       
communion1 the practical issue is more  
likely to be sectarian narrowness than  
human fellowship4  ,as the speculation  
rises the spectral character of the     
morality becomes more startling4 ,the   
so-called epistles of ,john carry the   
,logos idea considerably further than   
the gospel does4 ,the mission of the    
,logos is more sharply discriminated4   
,he is described as a sin offering4 ,he 
is the propitiation for our sins1 and   
not for ours only1 but also for the sins
 of the whole world4 ,the blood of      

,jesus ,christ cleanses us from all sin4
 ,he was manifested to take away our    
sins1 and in ,him is no sin4 ,the word  
manifested is the key to the doctrine4  
,the ,son of ,god was manifested that   
,he might destroy the works of the      
devil4 ,it is the same conception as in 
the gospel2 the ,prince of ,light       
confronting the ,prince of ,darkness1   
shaming him and attracting away his     
subjects4 ,the anti-,christ now comes   
into view2 the sin unto death is named2 
the second advent is announced1 though  
not according to the millennial         
anticipations of a former day4 ,he that 
denieth that ,jesus is the ,christ is a 
liar4 ,every spirit that confesses that 
,jesus ,christ is come in the flesh is  
of ,god4 ,every spirit which confesseth 
not that ,jesus ,christ is come in the  
flesh is not of ,god4 ,belief or        
unbelief in the incarnation of the      
,logos is made the test of one's        
spiritual relationship1 marking him as a
 candidate for eternal felicity in the  

realm of the blessed1 or as a victim of 
endless misery in the realm of ,satan4  
,thus the very heart of natural goodness
 is eaten out4 ,of virtue there remains 
small trace4 ,a great deal of very      
strong language is used about sin1 but  
sins are not particularized4 ,sin1 as an
 abstraction1 a principle1 a power1 a   
force1 a deep seated taint in the       
nature1 ineradicable except by the      
infusion of a new spirit of life1 is    
represented as the dreadful thing2 and  
,love1 another abstraction1 is raised to
 honor as a spiritual grace1 equally    
unconnected with the human will4        
,beloved1 let us love one another2 for  
love is of ,god1 and every one that     
loveth is born of ,god and knoweth ,god4
 ,he that loveth not knoweth not ,god1  
for ,god is ,love4 ,the words have a    
deep and tender sound4 ,but the         
consideration that the beloved are those
 only who confess that ,jesus ,christ is
 come in the flesh1 that all others are 
the reverse of beloved1 causes that     

neither the depth nor the sweetness     
remains4 ,the love does not mean        
compassion1 or pity1 or good-will1 or   
helpfulness2 it has no reference to the 
poor1 the needy1 the sick1 sorrowful1   
wicked2 it has no downward look1 is     
destitute of humility1 is as far as can 
well be from the love described by ,paul
 in his perfect lyric4 ,it is1 we may   
say1 the opposite of that1 being a      
quality that distinguishes the elect    
from the non-elect1 and makes their     
special election the more sure4  ,the   
literary character of the fourth gospel 
must be remarked on as a peculiar       
indication of the mental exhaustion that
 accompanies the last stages of an      
intellectual movement4 ,the literature  
of the century preceding ,jesus fairly  
throbs with personal vitality4 ,it is   
scarcely more than an expression of     
individual energies4 ,the earliest      
writings of the ,new ,testament1 the    
genuine letters of ,paul1 are animated  
in every line by his own vehement       

personality2 the speculative portions of
 them stir the blood1 so real are the   
issues presented1 so vital are the      
interests at stake4 ,shapeless1 and     
sometimes incoherent1 the thoughts      
tumble out of the writer's overcharged  
heart4 ,the ,christ is an ideal         
personage1 but his mission is           
tremendously real2 we are moved by a    
battle cry as the apostle's ideas burst 
upon us4  ,the literature of the        
succeeding period1 though more elaborate
 and self-conscious1 bearing traces of  
reflection1 and even artifice in        
composition1 is yet warm with the       
presence of a real purpose4 ,but the    
fourth gospel is a purely literary work2
 a composition1 the production of an    
artist in language4 ,its author1 perhaps
 because he was simply an artist in     
language1 is unknown4 ,trace of an      
historical ,jesus in it there is none4  
,no breath from the world of living men 
blows through it2 no stir of social     
existence1 no movement of human affairs 

ruffles its calm surface4 ,the people   
are not real people1 the issues are not 
real issues1 the conflict is not a real 
conflict4 ,we have a book1 not a gospel4
  ,the writer formally announces the    
subject of his spiritual drama1 and then
 proceeds to develop it1 according to   
approved rules of literary art4 ,first  
comes the prologue1 setting forth in a  
few sententious passages the cardinal   
idea of the piece4 ,this occupies       
eighteen verses of the first chapter1   
and is followed by the introduction of  
,john the ,baptist and his testimony4   
,this occupies eighteen verses more4    
,the manifestation of the ,logos to the 
first company of disciples is described 
with due circumstance in the remainder  
of the chapter4 ,the symbolical opening 
of the public ministry1 at ,cana1 the   
first open manifestation of the glory in
 the miracle of turning water into wine1
 by which is signified the calling to   
substitute a spiritual for a natural    
order1 occupies the first ten verses of 

the second chapter4 ,then the ministry  
of revelation begins1 with signs and    
demonstrations4 ,the city of ,jerusalem 
is chosen as the scene of it2 and the   
scene never changes for longer than a   
moment1 and then it changes without     
historical1 or biographical motive4 ,the
 cleansing of the temple is placed at   
the beginning1 with undisguised purpose 
to announce his claim1 and the          
dialectical contest is opened4          
,nicodemus1 a ruler of the ,jews1 seeks 
a nocturnal interview1 betrays the      
ignorance of the kingdom which          
characterizes all save the regenerate1  
even the wisest1 and gives occasion to  
the ,christ to declare the intrinsic    
superiority of the ,son of ,god1 and the
 conditions of salvation through him2   
,nicodemus furnishing the starting point
 for a lofty declamation which soars    
beyond him into the region of           
transcendental ideas4 ,the ,baptist1    
instead of doubting1 as in ,matthew1 and
 sending an embassy to the ,christ to   

ascertain the reasons of his not        
disclosing himself1 is himself          
questioned by skeptical disciples1 and  
re-assures them by words that are an    
echo of the ,christ's own4  ,the        
interview with the woman of ,samaria is 
introduced for the purpose of extracting
 another confession of the ,christ's    
supremacy from a different order of     
mind4 ,nicodemus represented ,judaism in
 its pride of authority and learning4   
,the woman of ,samaria represents the   
ignorant1 superstitious1 yet stubborn   
idolatry reckoned by the ,jews as no    
better than heathenism2 her five        
husbands are the five sects into which  
,judaism was divided4 ,she too is       
pictured to us as sitting by a well and 
drawing water4 ,the conversation begins 
with the ,christ's declaration of his   
power to create perennial springs of    
water in the heart1 and leads           
immediately up to the great disclosure  
of himself4 ,superstition1 like         
superciliousness1 listens and is        

persuaded4 ,the mention of ,galilee is  
necessary to account for the episode in 
,samaria1 but nothing occurs there4 ,the
 next scene is laid again in ,jerusalem4
 ,the water of ,bethesda is brought into
 competition with the quickening spirit 
of the ,christ2 the cure of the sick man
 introduces a mystical discourse on the 
spiritual sufficiency of the ,son of    
,god4  ,another scene is presented1 and 
once more in ,jerusalem4 ,another series
 of tableaux is arranged4 ,this time the
 ,christ is pictured as breaking bread  
and walking on water1 whence occasion is
 taken to descant on the bread of life4 
,for the purpose of making a fresh      
appearance in ,jerusalem1 and presenting
 his claim under a new aspect1 ,galilee 
is called into requisition again1 but as
 usual1 the drama is enacted in         
,jerusalem1 which is the centre of the  
opposition4 ,this time1 the ,christ1    
having declined to go up in his own     
character to meet his critics1 goes up  
in disguise1 incognito1 and amazes the  

congregated multitude by his superb     
assumptions of authority1 and his       
overwhelming denunciations of all who do
 not receive him2 denunciations so      
uncompromising1 that dissensions are    
created4 ,some would have taken him1 but
 none laid hands on him4 ,as always1 the
 demonstration results in bringing out  
his friends and enemies1 in showing who 
were and who were not his own1 which is 
the aim and end of every manifestation4 
,the ,logos presents himself1 makes his 
statement1 asserts his prerogative1     
offers the alternative of spiritual life
 or death1 and retires1 leaving the     
result to the spiritual laws4  ,the     
story of the woman taken in adultery    
which immediately follows this passage1 
probably made no part of the original   
gospel1 as it appears out of all        
connection4 ,it is pronounced by some of
 the best critics to be ungenuine4 ,the 
obvious improbability of its incidents1 
the locality of it1--the ,mount of      
,olives1--the ,christ's mysterious      

proceeding of writing on the ground1 and
 his unaccountable verdict1 deprive the 
tale of all but literary interest4 ,it  
is interesting in a literary point of   
view1 or would be if it were set in     
literary relations2 for it illustrates  
the ,christ's supremacy1 his            
supernatural power of rebuke and        
insight1 his authority to grant         
absolution on purely theological        
grounds4 ,the doctrine that none but the
 guiltless are entitled to pronounce    
sentence on guilt would put an end to   
censorship of every kind1 but is quite  
in accordance with the ethical tone of  
the book4 ,the author however1 turns the
 incident to no account1 but proceeds   
with new scenes in his speculative      
drama4 ,i am the light of the world2 he 
that followeth me shall not walk in     
darkness1 but shall have the light of   
life2 the ,christ enters once more into 
the old debate1 once more the claim is  
challenged1 once more the angry         
discussion flows on1 becoming1 at this  

juncture more violent than ever2        
terrible denunciations leap from the    
divine lips2 the adversaries are called 
a devil's brood1 liars1 murderers at    
heart4 ,at the close of the final       
outburst1 the unseen hands raise the    
visionary stones1 but ,jesus hid        
himself1 went out of the temple1 going  
through the midst of them1 and so passed
 by4  ,the speech however is continued2 
the main doctrine of it1 namely that the
 ,christ is the ,light of the ,world1   
being illustrated by the miracle of     
giving sight to a man blind from his    
birth1--the story being told at great   
length and with exceedingly minute      
detail1 so as to cover every point of   
circumstance4 ,this seems to be a       
critical moment in the development of   
the idea4 ,the vehemence subsides for a 
time1 and the light of the world shines 
gently as a shepherd's lantern showing  
wandering sheep the way to the true     
fold4 ,but the softest word stirs up    
anger2 the ,jews take up stones1 not to 

throw them1 but to exhibit temper1 and  
the act closes tranquilly like those    
that preceded it4  ,the resurrection of 
,lazarus prepares the way for the       
closing scenes4 ,that such a story1 so  
artificially constructed1 so evidently  
introduced for effect1 told by one      
writer and not as much as alluded to by 
the others1 told with so much           
circumstance and with so little regard  
for biographical probability1 told for a
 dogmatical purpose1 and fitted into the
 narrative at the precise juncture where
 a turning point was wanted1 should be  
accepted as history by any unfettered   
mind2 that a critic like ,renan1        
professing a profound reverence for the 
character of ,jesus1 should have        
admitted it as in some sense true1 and  
should have been driven in explanation  
of it to a theory utterly fatal to the  
moral character of the colossal man he  
celebrates1 thus sacrificing the moral  
greatness of ,jesus to a perverse sense 
of historical truth1 proves the         

obstinacy of traditional prejudice4 ,the
 narrative is too evidently a literary  
device1 one would think1 to deceive     
anybody of awakened discernment4 ,its   
manifest artifice is such that it alone 
would be enough to cast suspicion on all
 the miraculous narrations of the book4 
,from that day forth the ,jews took     
counsel together to put him to death4   
,the crisis has come1 and events hasten 
on towards the catastrophe1 which1 as   
has been said1 was no catastrophe1 but a
 consummation4 ,mary1 instead of sitting
 at his feet as a disciple1 anoints them
 with spikenard and wipes them with the 
hair of her head2 the holy woman        
performing the act elsewhere ascribed to
 a sinner1 the act itself being a       
ceremony of consecration1 instead of a  
mark of penitence4 ,the triumphal entry 
into ,jerusalem1 elsewhere described as 
the ,messiah's own project1 is converted
 into a spontaneous demonstration in his
 honor1 rendered by much people1 who had
 heard that ,jesus was coming to        

,jerusalem4 ,certain ,greeks present    
themselves and ask an introduction1 as  
to a royal personage4 ,they are the     
first fruits of the ,gentile world2     
their coming is welcomed as a sign of   
final victory4 ,the hour is come1 says  
,jesus1 on receiving them1 that the ,son
 of ,man should be glorified4 ,the      
heavens echo his exclamation2 an audible
 voice1 interpreted as the voice of an  
angel1 pronouncing the glorification    
certain and eternal4 ,the ,son of ,god  
adds his own interpretation1 confirming 
that of his friends2 prophesies the     
speedy judgment of the world and his own
 elevation to glory by means of the     
cross1 makes his last statement1 and the
 dialectical war is at an end4  ,the    
rest of the life is given to the        
disciples4 ,the last supper1 its agony  
and distress of mind omitted1 is an     
occasion for impressing on his own the  
lesson of mutual love4 ,the departure of
 ,judas on his errand is the signal for 
a burst of rapture4 ,words of           

consolation1 mingled with promises of   
the ,spirit of ,truth1 ,the ,comforter1 
words of blessing too follow1 intended  
to beget in his friends the feeling     
that1 though absent1 he will still be   
present with them4 ,they are bidden to  
remember him as the source of their     
life2 are admonished to keep unbroken   
the spiritual bond that unites them to  
him in vital sympathy2 are assured that 
the mission he came to earth to         
discharge will be fulfilled by the ,holy
 ,ghost2 and finally are solemnly       
consecrated by priestly supplication as 
the rescued children of ,god4  ,the     
story of the arrest is told in a strain 
equally suited to the idea on which the 
book is constructed4 ,in full           
consciousness of his position1 ,jesus   
steps forth out of the shadow of mystery
 to meet ,judas and his troop1 who have 
come1 expecting to find him in his      
garden retreat4 ,the soldiers1 over-awed
 by the apparition1 start backward and  
fall to the ground1 prostrate before the

 ,son of ,god4 ,the trial goes on before
 ,annas and ,caiaphas1 priests1 and     
,pilate1 ,roman viceroy4 ,the powers of 
,church and ,state pronounce on him2    
before the powers of ,church and ,state 
he announces himself and makes his royal
 claim4 ,in the presence of the ,high   
,priest1 who is scarcely more than a    
name in this proceeding1 introduced in  
order that ,judaism might have one more 
opportunity of rejecting the majesty of 
heaven1 ,jesus suffers an indignity at  
the hands of one of the prelate's       
officers2 but ,pilate1 the pagan1       
shudders before the awful personage who 
tells him that he could have no power at
 all except it were given him from      
above2 that he was but a tool of        
providence4 ,the guilt of the execution 
is thus transferred from his shoulders  
to destiny2 for the ,jews1 no less than 
the governor1 are fated4 ,the hour of   
glorification has come1 and the ,son of 
,man moves with stately step towards his
 ascension4  ,the process of withdrawal 

from the visible sphere has already been
 described4 ,it is not effected at once4
 ,as a lantern in the hand of one       
walking in a wood flashes out and again 
hides itself1 becoming dimmer and dimmer
 until finally it quite disappears1 so  
the ,son of ,god is many times visible  
and invisible before he vanishes        
altogether from sight4 ,no bodily       
ascension is necessary to bear away one 
whose coming and going are not          
conditioned by space or time4 ,his form 
has always been a translucent veil1     
which could at pleasure be removed4 ,his
 mission ended1 there is no more        
occasion for his self-revelation1 and he
 is unseen4 ,the unreality of a         
representation like this must be too    
apparent to be argued4  ,from this      
exposition it appears that the ,new     
,testament literature is1 in some sort1 
to the end1 a continuation of the       
literature of the ,old ,testament4 ,as  
the earliest phase of ,christianity was 
,judaism1 with a belief in the          

,messiah's advent superadded1 so the    
first literature of ,christianity is the
 literature of ,judaism1 written on the 
supposition that the ,christ has come4  
,judaism is ,christianity still         
expectant of a ,christ to come1 or1 as  
with the radical ,jews1 unexpectant of a
 personal ,messiah2 ,christianity is    
,judaism with the expectation fulfilled4
 ,the ,judaic element was not limited to
 the little knot of ,jerusalemites who  
hung about the holy city and waited     
there for the ,christ's coming2 it was  
conspicuous in the system of ,paul1 and 
so far from being absent from the later 
form1 known by the name of ,john1       
determines the cardinal idea of that1   
and shapes its bent4 ,whatever additions
 are made1 grow out of this cardinal    
idea1 as branches from its stem4 ,the   
strict monotheism of the ,hebrew faith  
is sacrificed to the ,messianic         
conception4 ,the ,christ in time becomes
 a twin ,deity1 a ,holy ,ghost being    
required to fill up the gulf between    

godhead and humanity4  ,but for the fury
 of the discord that arose and deepened 
between the ,jews who accepted the      
,christ and the ,jews who preferred     
still to wait for him1 the later1 as    
well as the earlier form of             
,christianity1 might possibly have been 
merged in ,judaism4 ,the believers in   
the ,messianic advent were radical to   
the point of fanaticism4 ,they were the 
restless advocates of change1 agitators1
 revolutionists4 ,their passionate zeal 
could not brook indifference or         
coolness4 ,nothing short of a fervid    
allegiance satisfied them4 ,the         
recusants had to bear hard names1 as the
 gospels attest4 ,the ill-fortune of the
 ,messiah1 the bitter opposition he     
encountered1 his untimely death1 were   
charged upon the faithlessness of the   
nation who would not confess him4       
,these1 and not the ,roman ,government  
that actually put him to death1 were    
held answerable for his crucifixion2    
thus a discord was planted1 which all   

the generations of ,christendom have    
failed to eradicate4 ,there has1 from   
that time to this1 been implacable      
hatred between ,christian and ,jew4     
,the separation1 which might have been  
healed or obliterated1 had this been the
 sole cause of it1 was widened by the   
subsequent breach between the christians
 themselves1 which drew attention off   
from the previous issue4 ,the position  
taken by ,paul1 that the mission of the 
,christ was extended to the ,gentiles   
and comprehended them on precisely the  
same conditions with the ,jews1 was     
exceedingly disagreeable and even       
shocking to the conservatives1 who held 
that the ,christ was sent to ,israel    
only1 and especially to that portion of 
,israel that clung tenaciously to the   
traditions of the law4 ,the necessary   
criticism of the ,law which ,paul's     
position required1 the apparent         
disrespect shown to ,moses and the      
prophets1 the disregard of the ancestral
 claim set up by the children of        

,abraham1 the substitution of an        
interior principle--faith--which any    
heathen might adopt1 for the old        
fashioned legal requirements to which   
none but orthodox ,jews could conform1  
was hardly less than blasphemous in     
their regard2 and a feud was begun1     
which in violence and rancor1 excelled  
the quarrel between the orthodox        
christians and the ,jews4 ,the traces of
 this controversy1 plainly marked in the
 writings of ,paul1 are visible on the  
literature of his own and of the        
succeeding period1 and disappear only in
 the events of greater significance     
incident to the fall of ,jerusalem1 the 
complete dispersion of the ,jews1 and   
the blending of parties in the ,western 
,empire4 ,ferdinand ,christian ,baur may
 have pushed too far in some directions1
 his theory that the entire gospel      
literature of the ,new ,testament was   
determined as to its form by the        
exigencies of this controversy1 the     
canonical books of ,matthew1 ,mark1     

,luke1 and the ,acts of the ,apostles   
all being written in the interest of    
reconciliation2 but his fundamental     
position1 as in the case of ,strauss1   
has never been carried1 or even shaken1 
by assault4 ,the extreme points in      
controversy are fixed with a good deal  
of certainty4 ,paul's own statement in  
the second chapter of ,galatians is     
fairly explicable only on the           
supposition of a violent collision1 the 
nature of which is there defined1 the   
bearings of which are indicated in that 
and in other undoubted writings of the  
apostle4 ,many passages therein are     
unintelligible on any other hypothesis4 
,the ,apocalypse and the ,epistle of    
,james1 as clearly set forth the        
opposite view1 in language and          
implication of the strongest kind1 and  
in a spirit of decided antagonism4 ,the 
,acts of the ,apostles is1 as elsewhere 
hinted1 prepared with a view of making  
it appear that no controversy existed2  
that ,peter carried the gospel to the   

,gentiles1 and that ,paul insisted on   
the validity of circumcision1 the mark  
of initiation into the ,jewish church4  
,the narrative is so forced1 the        
incidents so artificial1 the aim so     
evident1 the limitation of view so      
marked1 that the book betrays its own   
character4 ,to admit the genuineness of 
the ,acts is to throw into confusion the
 little history that we certainly know1 
and to unfix the continuity of events4  
,how far the three first gospels        
correspond in purpose with the ,acts1 is
 a nice question1 which need not be     
answered here1 which may be left        
unanswered without detriment to the     
soundness of the general theory4        
,whether or no the controversy was of   
such absorbing moment1 whether or no it 
lasted as long as ,baur believes1 or    
exerted as wide an influence on         
literature1 its effect in drawing the   
thoughts away from the earlier dispute  
between the ,messianic and the          
anti-,messianic ,jews1 and in detaching 

the christians from their original      
associations is unimpaired4 ,from the   
breaking out of that dispute1 which     
occurred within fifteen or twenty years 
of the crucifixion1 at the latest1      
,christianity followed its own law of   
development4  ,but1 though thus         
discarded1 disowned1 finally detested1  
the very name of ,jew1 as early as the  
fourth gospel1 being associated with a  
stiff-necked bigotry impenetrable to    
conviction1 the old religion maintained 
its sway over the child that had taken  
its portion of goods and gone away to   
make a home of its own4 ,the            
,palestinian and ,asiatic literature of 
the young faith bears the stamp of its  
,hebrew lineage1 as has been shown4 ,the
 ,christ sprung from its bosom1 was     
instructed in its schools1 was glorified
 through its imagination4 ,the          
resurrection was its prophecy2 the      
heaven to which he ascended was of its  
building and coloring2 the throne       
whereon he seated himself was of its    

construction2 the ,father at whose right
 hand he reigned was its own ancient    
deity4 ,his very name1 the name he      
continues to bear to this               
day1--,messiah--is the name whereby she 
loved to describe her own ideal man4 ,in
 the depth of his degradation1 in the   
heat of his persecution1 in the agony of
 his despair1 the ,jew could reflect    
that his relentless oppressor owed to   
him the very faith he was compelled to  
curse4 ,the victim was the conqueror4   
,the reflection may still have been     
bitter2 whatever sweetness it brought   
was flavored with vengeance1 except in  
the greatest souls who loved their      
religion better than their fame4        
,,viii4  ,,the ,,western ,,church4      
,our story is not yet told4 ,as regards 
the ,new ,testament books1 though the   
genius that produced them was ,eastern1 
the judgment that brought them together 
in a single collection was ,western4 ,no
 list of the ,new ,testament books      
pretending to carry weight was made     

until the year #cfj4 ,for two centuries 
and a half there was no ,christian      
bible4 ,the canon1 as it now stands1 was
 fixed by ,pope ,innocent ,i41 ,a4 ,d4  
#dje1 by a special decree4 ,why         
precisely these books were selected from
 the mass of literature then in         
existence and use1 is--except in two or 
three cases where the prevailing        
sentiment of the actual ,church threw   
out a book like ,enoch or kept in a book
 like the ,apocalypse--still open to    
conjecture4 ,in such a dilemma          
,schwegler's conjecture1 that the       
irenical or reconciling books were      
retained1 and the partisan writings     
dropped1 is as plausible as any1 perhaps
 more so4 ,the ,church of ,rome had two 
patron saints--,peter and ,paul2 it     
claimed to be founded by both ,apostles1
 and1 on this principle1 adopted its    
canon of scripture4 ,the ,new           
,testament1 by its arrangement1 was1 it 
is claimed1 an expression in literature 
of the ,catholic claim4  ,as regards the

 ,christ idea1 though formed in the     
,east1 the ,west gave it currency1 made 
it the central feature of a vast        
religious system1 crowned it and placed 
it on a throne4 ,had the creative       
thought of ,judaism been confined to the
 ,east1 our concern with it need have   
gone no further4 ,but the thought was   
not confined to the ,east1 even in the  
widest comprehension of that term4 ,the 
,jews were everywhere4 ,the repeated    
disasters which befel their country gave
 fresh impulse to their creed4 ,their   
ideas spread as their state diminished2 
and their ideas were so vital that they 
captured and engaged the floating       
speculations of the ,gentile world      
whenever they were encountered4 ,in     
,alexandria1 where ,jews had been for   
two hundred and fifty or three hundred  
years1 and whither they flocked by      
thousands after each fresh national     
disaster1 the faith1 instead of being   
extinguished by the flood of speculation
 in that busy centre of the world's     

thought1 revived1 drew in copious       
supplies of blood from the ,greek       
spirit1 and entered on a new career4 ,if
 it be true1 as is declared in ,smith's 
,dictionary of ,geography1 that when the
 city of ,alexandria was founded 7,b4   
,c4 #ccb7 it was laid out in three      
sections1 one of which was assigned to  
the ,jews1 their political and social   
influence must have corresponded to     
their numbers4 ,prof4 ,huidekoper       
revives and reaergues the belief1 that  
travelled men of letters from ,greece1  
preeminent among them1 ,plato1 who      
visited ,egypt1 borrowed from the ,jews 
the ideas which ennobled and beautified 
the ,greek philosophy4 ,the doctrines of
 the ,stoics1 ,greek and ,roman1 bear1  
in ,mr4 ,huidekoper's opinion1 evident  
marks of ,jewish origin4 ,this is going1
 we think1 beyond warrant of the facts4 
,we may claim much less and still place 
very high the intellectual sway of this 
remarkable people4 ,it may be           
confidently asserted1 that in portions  

of ,asia ,minor1 ,syria1 and ,northern  
,egypt1 their faith had largely         
displaced the ancient superstitions4    
,the splendid literature of the         
,apocrypha1 ,ecclesiasticus and ,wisdom1
 the rich fund of speculation in the    
,talmud1 the intellectual wealth of     
,philo1 the ,pauline and ,johannean     
,gnosis1 brilliantly attest their       
intellectual vigor4 ,the ,rev4 ,brooke  
,foss ,walcott1 in ,smith's ,dictionary 
of the ,bible1 declares1 that from the  
date of the destruction of ,jerusalem1  
in the year #gj1 the power of ,judaism  
as a present living force1 was stayed4  
,but such a statement can be accepted   
only in a much qualified sense4 ,the    
destruction of ,jerusalem put an end to 
the ,state more completely than the     
overthrow of any modern city could do2  
for the holy city was the home of the   
national life in a peculiar sense2 it   
was the seat of the national worship in 
which the national life centred4 ,with  
the temple fell the institutions that   

rested on the temple4 ,when the walls   
were thrown down and the grand buildings
 levelled1 it was like erasing the marks
 of history1 tearing up the roots of    
tradition and setting the seal of       
destiny on the nation's future4 ,the    
territory was small2 the power of the   
great city was felt in every part of it1
 and the quenching of its light left the
 land in darkness4 ,but the catastrophe 
which terminated the existence of the   
,state1 gave a new life to the religious
 idea and opened a new arena for its    
conquests4 ,it greatly increased the    
number of ,jews in the city of ,rome1   
the imperial city of the ,west1 the     
conquering metropolis2 raised the       
congregations already existing there to 
a position of considerable importance2  
served to unite1 by the sympathy of a   
common sorrow1 parties that had been    
divided2 had the effect in some measure 
to weaken antipathies1 harmonize        
opinions and inflame zeal2 in a word1   
transferred to ,italy the faith that1 in

 outward form1 had been crushed in      
,palestine4 ,thenceforth ,judaism1 which
 had been a blended worship and polity1 
ceased to be a polity1 and became more  
intensely than ever1 because more       
exclusively1 a worship4  ,the history of
 the settlement of ,jews in ,rome1 is   
naturally obscure4 ,being mainly of the 
mercantile and trading class their      
presence there might have been expected 
early4 ,they were restless1             
enterprising1 industrious1 eager and    
skilful in barter2 and ,rome attracted  
all such1 being the business centre of  
the western world4 ,political affairs at
 home were never long favorable to      
peaceful pursuits1 and were frequently  
in such confusion that the transactions 
of ordinary existence were precarious4  
,the numbers that were carried away to  
,babylon comprised it is probable the   
more eminent class4 ,as many1 if not    
more1 found their way to other cities1  
and of these ,rome received its share4  
,the earliest mention brings them before

 us as already of consequence from their
 wealth and intelligence4 ,sixty years  
before the christian era1 ,cicero       
commended ,lucius ,valerius ,flaccus1   
praetor of the district of ,asia ,minor1
 because he did not encourage an        
exorbitant expenditure of money on the  
construction of the temple1 by ,jews1   
the exportation of whose wealth from    
,rome was felt as an evil4 ,he states   
that under the directions of ,flaccus1  
one hundred pounds weight of gold       
7#be1jjj7 had been seized at ,apamea1 in
 ,asia ,minor2 twenty pounds at         
,laodicea4 ,the ,jews were rich4 ,their 
demonstrations of grief at the death of 
,julius ,caesar1 the conqueror of their 
conqueror1 ,pompey1 and the enlightened 
friend of the people1 argued by the     
number and loudness of the voices1 the  
presence of a multitude4 ,one may read  
in any book of ,jewish history that     
,josephus reckoned at eight thousand the
 ,jews who were present1 when at the    
death of king ,herod1 his son ,archelaus

 appeared before ,augustus2 that the    
poor among them were numerous enough to 
procure from ,augustus a decree         
authorizing them to receive their share 
of the bounty of corn on another day1   
when the day of general distribution    
fell on their ,sabbath2 that one emperor
 expelled them as a dangerous element in
 the city2 that another for the same    
reason laid special penalties and       
burdens on them2 that the aristocratic  
party was steadily hostile to them4     
,tacitus1 their enemy1 speaks of the    
deportation of four thousand young      
,israelites to ,sardinia4 ,josephus     
makes the astounding1 the fabulous      
statement that in the year #ff1 the     
,jews in ,rome required two hundred and 
fifty-six thousand lambs for their      
paschal commemoration4#b ,such a        
provision would imply a population of   
two million and a half at least4 ,that  
the ,jews were of some importance is    
attested by the comments made on them by
 ,roman writers2 by ,martial1 who       

alludes to their customs in his         
epigrams2 by ,ovid1 who criticises their
 observance of the ,sabbath as having   
the character of a debasing superstition
 and introduces a shirk who1 having     
exhausted all pretexts1 makes a pretext 
of respecting the ,sabbath in order not 
to incur the ill will of the ,jews2 by  
,persius1 who remarks satirically on the
 ,sabbath observances and the rite of   
circumcision2 by ,plutarch1 who minutely
 describes the ,mosaic system of laws4  
,satire betrays fear as well as dislike4
 ,the great writer disdains to          
caricature people who are inconspicuous4
 ,juvenal was a great writer1 and his   
envenomed raillery against the ,jews has
 become familiar by quotation4 ,it would
 seem1 from his invectives1 that ,jewish
 ideas and practices had crept into     
public approval1 and were exerting an   
influence on the education of ,roman    
youth4 ,he complains bitterly of parents
 who bring up their children to think   
more of the laws of ,moses than of the  

laws of their country4--,some there are1
 assigned by fortune to ,sabbath fearing
 fathers1 who adore nothing but the     
clouds and the genius of the sky2 who   
see no distinction between the swine's  
flesh as food and the flesh of man4     
,habitually despising the laws of ,rome1
 they study1 keep and revere the code of
 ,judaea1 a tradition given by ,moses in
 a dark volume4 ,the blame is with the  
father1 with whom every seventh day is  
devoted to idleness1 and withdrawn from 
the uses of life4 ,juvenal lived in the 
latter part of the first and the early  
part of the second century1 about a     
generation after the destruction of     
,jerusalem4 ,admitting the genuineness  
of the passage1 and the ground of the   
criticism1 neither of which is disputed1
 the influence of the ,jews was by no   
means contemptible4  ,footnote #b3      
,bellum ,judaicum1 ,,vii4 #ag4  ,milman 
conjectures that while the number of    
,jews in ,rome was much increased1 their
 respectability as well as their        

popularity were much diminished by the  
immense influx of the most destitute as 
well as of the most unruly of the race1 
who were swept into captivity by        
thousands after the fall of ,jerusalem4 
,this may be true4 ,there is reason to  
believe that the importation of so great
 a number of strangers was attended by  
poverty1 distress1 and squalor1 horrible
 to think of4 ,it could not have been   
otherwise4 ,that they should infest and 
infect whole districts of the city2 that
 they should pitch their vagabond tents 
on vacant plots of ground1 and should   
change fair districts1 gardens and      
groves into disreputable and foul       
precincts2 that they should resort to   
mean trades for support1 peddling1      
trafficking in old clothes1 rags1       
matches1 broken glass1 or should sink   
into mendicancy1 is simply in the nature
 of things1 ,but it is fair to suppose  
that the exiles from ,jerusalem would   
bring with them the memory of their     
sufferings during the unexampled horrors

 of that tremendous war2 would bring    
with them also a fiercer sense of       
loyalty to the faith for which such     
agonies had been borne1 such sacrifices 
had been made4 ,that they held their    
religion dear1 is certain4 ,their       
,sabbaths were observed1 their laws     
revered1 their synagogues frequented1   
their peculiarities of race cherished   
and perpetuated by tradition from father
 to son4 ,there is reason to think that 
they anticipated the ,christians in     
their practice of burying their dead in 
the catacombs1 which bore a strong      
resemblance to the rocky caverns where  
in the fatherland1 their ancestors were 
laid4 ,the catacombs in the neighborhood
 of the ,transtevere1 the district where
 the ,jews mostly lived1 are plainly    
associated with them4 ,the              
seven-branched candlestick appears on   
the wall1 and the inscriptions bear     
witness to the pious constancy of the   
race4#c ,they made proselytes among the 
pagans weary of their decrepit and      

moribund faiths1 and thus extended the  
religious ideas which they so           
tenaciously held4 ,among themselves     
there was close association1 partly from
 tradition and partly from race4 ,some  
semblance of their ancient institutions 
was kept up2 their general council2     
their tribunal of laws4 ,circumstances  
alone prevented them from maintaining   
their ancestral religion in its         
grandeur4 ,seneca1 about the middle of  
the first century1 represents ,jewish   
usages as having pervaded all nations2  
he is speaking of the ,sabbath4 ,paul   
found thriving synagogues1 wherever he  
went1 and wrote to some that he could   
not visit1 before the destruction of    
,jerusalem made the final dispersion4   
,footnote #c3 ,see ,milman's ,jews1     
,,ii4 p4 #dfa4  ,the ,messianic hope was
 strong in these people2 all the        
stronger on account of their political  
degradation4 ,born in sorrow1 the       
anticipation grew keen in bitter hours4 
,that ,jehovah would abandon them1 could

 not be believed4 ,the thought would be 
atheism4 ,the hope kept the eastern     
,jews in a perpetual state of           
insurrection4 ,the cry1 lo here1 lo     
there6 was incessant4 ,the last great   
insurrection1 that of ,bar-,cochab1     
revealed an astonishing frenzy of zeal4 
,it was purely a ,messianic uprising4   
,judaism had excited the fears of the   
,emperor ,hadrian1#d and induced him to 
inflict unusual severities on the       
people4 ,he had forbidden circumcision1 
the rite of initiation into their       
church2 he had prohibited the observance
 of the ,sabbath and the public reading 
of the law1 thus drying up the sources  
of the national faith4 ,he had even     
threatened to abolish the historical    
rallying point of the religion by       
planting a ,roman colony on the site of 
,jerusalem and building a shrine to     
,jupiter on the place where the temple  
had stood4 ,measures so violent and     
radical could hardly have been prompted 
by anything less alarming than the      

upspringing of that indomitable         
conviction which worked at the heart of 
the people4 ,the effect of the violence 
was to stimulate that conviction to     
fury4 ,the night of their despair was   
once more illumined by the star of the  
east4 ,the banner of the ,messiah was   
raised4 ,portents as of old were seen in
 the sky2 the clouds were watched for   
the glory that should appear4           
,bar-,cochab1 the son of the star1      
seemed to fill out the popular idea of  
the deliverer4 ,miracles were ascribed  
to him2 flames issued from his mouth4   
,the vulgar imagination made haste to   
transform the audacious fanatic into a  
child of ,david4 ,multitudes flocked to 
his standard4 ,the whole ,jewish race   
throughout the world1 says ,milman1 was 
in commotion2 those who dared not betray
 their interest in the common cause     
openly1 did so in secret1 and perhaps   
some of the wealthy ,jews in the remote 
provinces privately contributed from    
their resources4 ,native ,jews and      

strangers swelled his ranks4 ,it is     
probable that many of the fugitives from
 the insurgents in ,egypt and ,cyrene   
had found their way to ,palestine and   
lay hid in caves and fastnesses4 ,no    
doubt some from the ,mesopotamian       
provinces came to the aid of their      
brethren4 ,those who had denied or      
disguised their circumcision1 hastened  
to renew that distinguishing mark of    
their ,israelitish descent1 to entitle  
themselves to a share in the great      
redemption4 ,the insurrection gained    
head4 ,the heights about ,jerusalem were
 seized and occupied2 fortifications    
were erected2 caves were dug1 and       
subterranean passages cut between the   
garrisoned positions2 arms were         
collected2 nothing but the host of      
angels was needed to insure victory4    
,the angels did not appear2 the ,roman  
legions did4 ,the carnage1 during the   
three or four years of the war--for so  
long and possibly longer1 the war       
lasted--was frightful4 ,the ,messiah1   

not proving himself a conqueror1 was    
held to have proved himself an impostor1
 the son of a lie4 ,the holy city was   
once more destroyed1 this time          
completely4 ,a new city1 peopled by     
foreigners1 arose on its site4 ,the     
effect of the outbreak1 which was felt  
far and wide1 in time and space1 was    
disastrous to ,jewish influence in the  
empire4 ,from this time ,judaism lost   
its good name1 and at the same time its 
hold on the cultivated mind of ,europe4 
,fanaticism so wild and destructive was 
entitled to no respect4  ,footnote #d3  
,see ,huidekoper's ,judaism in ,rome1 p4
 #cbe-cbi4  ,the ,christians1 of course1
 took no part in the great rising1 and  
had no interest in it4 ,it was their    
faith that the ,messiah had already     
come2 and however confident their       
expectation of his reappearance to judge
 the nations and redeem his elect1 time 
had so far sobered the hopes of even the
 rudest among them1 that they no longer 
looked for a man of war1 no longer were 

attracted by banners in the hands of    
ruffians or trumpet blasts blown by     
human lips4 ,the feeling was gaining    
ground1 if it was not quite confirmed1  
that instead of waiting for the ,christ 
to come to them1 they were to go to him 
in his heaven4 ,hence1 ,jews1 though    
they might be in the essentials of their
 religious faith1 they were wholly      
alienated from those of their race who  
looked for a cosmical or political      
demonstration4 ,that this want of       
sympathy and failure to participate1    
widened the breach between them and the 
,jews who still expected a temporal     
deliverer1 there can be little question2
 that in times of great excitement1 the 
,christian ,jews were exposed to        
scoffing and persecution is equally     
undeniable4 ,bar-,cochab treated them   
with extreme cruelty4 ,it is even       
probable that in ,rome and the provinces
 of the empire a settled hatred of the  
,christians animated ,jews of the       
average stamp1 and found expression in  

the usual forms of popular malignity4   
,it is easy to believe that ,jews in    
,rome1 possessing influence in high     
quarters1 thrust ,christians between    
themselves and persecution4 ,this1      
indeed1 is extremely probable4#e ,but   
that1 in ordinary times1 an active      
animosity prevailed on the part of the  
,jews of the old school against ,jews of
 the new school1 is not clearly proved4 
,the latter were orthodox1 conservative 
,jews1 loyal to the national faith in   
every respect save one1 namely1 their   
persuasion that the ,christ was no      
longer to be looked for1 having already 
appeared4 ,to those ,jews1 who had      
abandoned the belief that he would      
appear1 or who had allowed that belief  
to sink into the background of their    
minds1 the belief of the ,christians    
would occasion no bitterness4 ,it is    
still a common impression that the      
persecution recorded in the book of ,the
 ,acts of the ,apostles1 to which       
,stephanos1 the ,greek convert1 fell a  

victim1 was directed by ,jews against   
,christians4 ,but it has been made to   
appear more than probable1--admitting   
the historical truth of the             
narrative--that the assault was made by 
the ,judaizing upon the anti-,judaizing 
,christians2 the ,jews who were not     
,christians at all1 taking no part in   
it4 ,the reasoning upon which this      
conclusion is based1 will be found in   
,zeller's book on the ,acts1 an         
exhaustive treatise which must be       
studied by anybody who would understand 
that curious composition4 ,the main     
positions may be apprehended by the     
intelligent reader on carefully perusing
 the story as written1 and noting the   
conspicuous fact1 that the quarrel is   
between radicals and conservatives2     
between the advocates of a broad policy1
 comprehending ,greeks and ,romans on   
the same terms with ,jews1 and the      
champions of a restricted policy1       
confining the benefits of the ,messiah's
 advent to the true ,israelites4        

,footnote #e3 ,see ,judaism in ,rome1 p4
 #bde4  ,the destruction of ,jerusalem  
was one of the causes that may have     
operated to close this gulf4 ,by        
breaking up the head-quarters of the    
,christian conservatism1 and dispersing 
the lingerers there among the           
inhabitants of ,gentile cities1 it      
weakened their ties1 widened their      
experience1 softened their prejudices1  
and prepared them to accept the larger  
interpretation of their faith4 ,the     
writings of the ,new ,testament1 all of 
them produced after the destruction of  
,jerusalem1 some of them fifty or sixty 
years after1 none of them less than ten 
or fifteen years1 bear traces of this   
enlargement4 ,the ,jewish christians    
living in ,greek and ,roman ,cities     
could hardly avoid the temptations to   
adopt that view of their faith which    
commended it to the communities whereof 
they were a part1 and this was the view 
presented by ,paul and his school1 the  
intellectual1 or1 as some prefer to call

 it1 the spiritual view4 ,according to  
this view1 also1 the new religion was   
grafted on the old1 ,judaism was the    
foundation2 the root from which sprung  
the branches1 however widely spreading4 
,paul1 as has been remarked1 addressed  
himself invariably to ,jews1 in the     
first instance1 and turned to the       
,gentiles only when the ,jews rejected  
him4 ,the essential beliefs of the      
religious ,jew he retained1 never       
exchanging them for the beliefs of      
,paganism1 or qualifying them with the  
speculations of heathen philosophy4 ,he 
labored in the interest of the faith of 
,israel1 broadly interpreted1 nor1 in   
respect of his fundamental conceptions1 
did he ever wander far from the religion
 of his fathers4 ,the spiritual distance
 between the school he founded1 and the 
school that in his life time he opposed1
 was not so wide that it might not in   
course of time1 be diminished1 until at 
length it disappeared entirely4 ,parties
 holding the same cardinal belief1 will 

not forever be separated by incidental  
barriers1 especially when1 as was the   
case with the destruction of ,jerusalem1
 providence moves the chief barriers    
away4  ,other inducements to a good     
understanding between the two parties of
 ,christian ,jews were at work4         
,heresies of all sorts were springing up
 within the churches1 which could be    
suppressed only by the moral power of a 
common persuasion in the minds of the   
chief bodies4 ,questions were raised    
which neither branch of the christian   
community could satisfactorily answer2  
controversies arose1 demanding something
 like an ecclesiastical authority to    
adjust4 ,unless the new religion was to 
split into petty sections and be        
pulverized to nothingness1 the          
restoration of old breaches was an      
absolute necessity4 ,the danger was of  
too sudden and artificial a compromise  
between the main divisions1 resulting in
 a compact organization that might      
arrest the movements of the spirit of   

liberty4 ,the church did eventually     
obtain supremacy in dogma and rite1     
through the imperative demand for unity 
that was urgently pressed early in the  
second century4  ,judaism contained in  
its bosom two elements1 one stationary1 
the other progressive2 one close1 the   
other expansive2 one centralizing in    
,judaea and waiting till it should      
attract the outer world to it1 the other
 forth reaching beyond ,palestine1 and  
seeking to commend the faith of ,israel 
to those who knew it not4 ,these two    
elements coexisted from early times1 and
 caused perpetual ferment by their      
struggles to overmaster each other4 ,the
 priest stood for the one principle1 the
 narrower1 the fixed1 the instituted2   
the prophet stood for the other1 the    
intellectual1 the expansive1 the        
progressive4 ,the priest stayed at home 
to administer the ordinances2 the       
prophet journeyed about1 to spread the  
salvation4 ,the priest was a fixture1   
the prophet was a missionary4  ,the two 

divisions of the earliest ,christian    
community represented these counter     
tendencies4 ,the school of ,peter1      
,james1 and ,john1 the hierarchal1      
conservative school1 maintained the     
attitude of expectation4 ,they waited   
and prayed1 exacted rigid compliance    
with ordinances2 clung to their         
associations with places and seasons2   
were tenacious of holy usages2 required 
punctuality and accuracy of posturing1  
were strict in conformity with legal    
prescriptions1 made a point of          
circumcision1 or other rites of         
initiation into the true church4 ,the   
school of ,paul and ,apollos took up the
 principle of universality1 dispensed   
with whatever hampered their movements  
and impeded their action1 and1 taking   
essential ideas only1 making themselves 
all things to all men1 if peradventure1 
they might win some1 preached the       
message freely1 to as many as would     
hear4 ,the two principles1 however      
discordant in operation1 demanded each  

other4 ,they could not long exist apart2
 the unity and the universality were    
mutually complementary4 ,unity alone1   
would bring isolation1 solitariness1 and
 ultimate death from diminution4        
,universality alone would lead to       
dissipation1 attenuation1 and           
disappearance4 ,it was therefore not    
long before the extremes drew together  
and met4  ,lecky1 the historian of      
,european morals1 assigns as a reason   
why the ,jews in ,rome were less        
vehemently persecuted than the          
,christians1 that the ,jewish religion  
was essentially conservative and        
unexpansive4 ,the ,christians1 on the   
other hand1 were ardent missionaries4   
,would it not be more exact to say that 
the ,jews of one school were essentially
 conservative and unexpansive2 that the 
,jews of another school were ardent     
missionaries8 ,that the one school      
should be persecuted1 while the other   
was left in peace1 was perfectly        
natural1 especially in communities where

 their essential identity was not       
understood4 ,there is no necessity for  
supposing that the two faiths were      
actually distinguished because one      
attracted attention and provoked attack1
 while the other did nothing of the     
kind4 ,not history only1 but common     
observation furnishes abundant examples 
of faiths fundamentally the same1       
meeting very different fortunes1        
according to the attitude which         
circumstances compelled them to assume4 
,the ,christians might have presented   
the aggressive front of ,judaism1 as    
,paul did1 and still not have forfeited 
their claim to be true children of      
,israel4  ,there is1 in fact1 no doubt  
that discerning persons perceived the   
substantial identity of the two         
religions4 ,it is conceded on all sides1
 by ,jewish and by ,christian           
writers1--,milman and ,salvador1 ,jost  
and ,merivale1 corroborating one        
another1--that ,jews were taken for     
,christians and ,christians for ,jews4  

,they were subjected to the same        
criticism2 they were exposed to the same
 contumely4 ,indeed it may be questioned
 whether the early persecutions that    
were inflicted on the ,christians were  
not really directed against the ,jews1  
whose reputation for restlessness and   
fanaticism1 for stiffness and           
intolerance1 was established in the     
minds of all classes of society4 ,the   
,jews were a mark for persecution before
 there was a ,christian in ,rome1 before
 the ,christian era began4 ,they were   
persecuted on precisely the same        
pretexts that were used in the case of  
the ,christians4 ,they had a recognized 
locality1 standing and character4 ,they 
were many in number and considerable in 
influence4 ,the lower orders disliked   
their austerity2 the higher orders      
dreaded their organization2 philosophers
 despised them as superstitious2        
politicians hated them as intractable2  
emperors used them when they wished to  
divert angry comment from their own     

acts4 ,they were fair game for imperial 
pursuit4 ,a raid on the ,jews was       
popular4 ,it is possible1 to say the    
least1 that the ,christians would have  
passed unmolested but for their         
association with the ,israelites4 ,this 
is no novel insinuation2 ,milman hinted 
at it more than a quarter of a century  
ago1 in his ,history of ,christianity4  
,when the public peace was disturbed by 
the dissensions among the ,jewish       
population of ,rome1 the summary        
sentence of ,claudius visited both ,jews
 and ,christians with the same          
indifferent severity4 ,so the ,neronian 
persecution was an accident arising out 
of the fire at ,rome2 no part of a      
systematic plan for the suppression of  
foreign religions4 ,it might have fallen
 on any other sect or body of men who   
might have been designated as victims to
 appease the popular resentment4        
,accustomed to the separate worship of  
the ,jews1 to the many1 ,christianity   
appeared at first only as a modification

 of that belief4#f ,the same conjecture 
is more boldly ventured in the ,history 
of ,latin ,christianity4 ,what caprice  
of cruelty directed the attention of    
,nero to the ,christians1 and made him  
suppose them victims important enough to
 glut the popular indignation at the    
burning of ,rome1 it is impossible to   
determine4 ,the cause and extent of the 
,domitian persecution is equally        
obscure4 ,the son of ,vespasian was not 
likely to be merciful to any connected  
with the fanatic ,jews4 ,at the         
commencement of the second century1     
under ,trajan1 persecution against the  
,christians is raging in the ,east4     
,that1 however1 7,i feel increased      
confidence in the opinion71 was a local1
 or rather ,asiatic persecution1 arising
 out of the vigilant and not groundless 
apprehension of the sullen and brooding 
preparation for insurrection among the  
whole ,jewish race 7with whom ,roman    
terror and hatred still confounded the  
,christians71 which broke out in the    

bloody massacres of ,cyrene and ,cyprus1
 and in the final rebellion1 during the 
reign of ,hadrian1 under ,bar-,cochab4#g
 ,if the ,christians made themselves    
particularly obnoxious1 they did so by  
their zeal for beliefs which they shared
 with the ,jews and derived from them2  
beliefs in the personality of ,god1 the 
immediateness of ,providence1 the law of
 moral retribution1 and the immortal    
destinies of the human soul4 ,their     
belief in the ascended and reigning     
,christ gave point to their zeal2 but   
the ,jews1 too1 clung to their hope of  
the ,christ1 and through the vitality of
 their hope were known4  ,footnote #f3  
,history of ,christianity1 ,,ii2 p4 #h4 
,footnote #g3 ,vol4 ,i42 p4 #ebh4  ,the 
importance ascribed to ,christianity as 
a special moral force working in the    
constitution of the heathen world1 is1  
by recent admission1 acknowledged to    
have been much exaggerated4 ,the chapter
 on ,the state of the world toward the  
middle of the first century in ,renan's 

,apostles1 sums up with singular        
calmness1 clearness and easy strength1  
the influences that were slowly         
transforming the social condition of the
 empire2 the nobler ideas1 the purer    
morals1 the amenities and humanities    
that were stealing in to temper the     
violence1 mitigate the ferocity1 soften 
the hardness and uplift the grossness of
 the western world4 ,samuel ,johnson's  
little essay on ,the ,worship of ,jesus 
is a subtle glance into the same facts1 
tracing the efficacy of powers that     
co-operated in producing the atmospheric
 change which was as summer succeeding  
winter over the civilized earth4 ,mr4   
,lecky1 with broader touch1 but         
accurately and conscientiously1 paints a
 noble picture on the same subject4 ,but
 other artists1 of a different school1  
make the same representation4 ,merivale1
 lecturing in #ahfd1 on the ,boyle      
foundation1 in the ,chapel ,royal1 at   
,whitehall1 on the ,conversion of the   
,roman ,empire1 in the interest of the  

christian ,church1 says1 the influence  
of ,grecian conquest was eminently      
soothing and civilizing2 it diffused    
ideas of humanity and moral culture1    
while the conquerors themselves imbibed 
on their side the highest of moral      
lessons1 lessons of liberality1 of      
toleration1 of sympathy with all ,god's 
human creation4 ,plutarch1 in a few     
rapid touches1 enforced by a vivid      
illustration which we may pass over1    
gives the picture of the new humane     
polity1 the new idea of human society   
flashed upon the imagination of mankind 
by the establishment of the ,macedonian 
,empire4 ,such1 at least1 it appeared to
 the mind of a writer five centuries    
later2 but there are traces preserved1  
even in the wrecks of ancient           
civilization1 of the moral effect which 
it actually produced on the feelings of 
society1 much more nearly               
contemporaneous4 ,the conqueror1 indeed1
 perished early1 but not prematurely4   
,the great empire was split into        

fragments1 but each long preserved a    
sense of the unity from which it was    
broken off4 ,all were leavened more or  
less with a common idea of civilization1
 and recognized man as one being in     
various stages of development1 to be    
trained under one guidance and elevated 
to one spiritual level4 ,in the two     
great kingdoms of ,egypt and ,syria1    
which sprang out of the ,macedonian1--in
 the two great cities of ,alexandria and
 ,antioch1 to which the true religion   
owes so deep a debt1--the unity of the  
human race was practically asserted and 
maintained4 ,after three centuries of   
national amalgamation1 the result of a  
widespread political revolution1 after  
the diffusion of ,grecian ideas among   
every people1 from the ,ionian to the   
,caspian or the ,red ,sea1 and the      
reception in return1 of manifold ideas1 
and in religious matters of much higher 
ideas1 from the ,persian1 the ,indian1  
the ,egyptian and the ,jew1 the people  
even of ,athens1 the very centre and eye

 of ,greece1 were prepared to admit the 
cardinal doctrine of ,paul's preaching4 
,the same writer cordially admits the   
moral grandeur and the moral power of   
the philosophers whose teaching had1 for
 several generations1 been leavening the
 thought and ennobling the humanity of  
the ,roman world4 ,the philosophy of the
 ,stoics1 the highest and holiest moral 
theory at the time of our ,lord's       
coming1--the theory which most worthily 
contended against the merely political  
religion of the day1 the theory which   
opposed the purest ideas and the        
loftiest aims to the grovelling         
principles of a narrow and selfish      
expediency on which the frame of the    
heathen ritual rested--was the direct   
creation of the sense of unity and      
equality disseminated among the choicer 
spirits of heathen society by the       
results of the ,macedonian conquest4    
,but for that conquest it could hardly  
have existed at all4 ,it was the        
philosophy of ,plato1 sublimed and      

harmonized by the political             
circumstances of the times4 ,it was what
 ,plato would have imagined1 had he been
 a subject of ,alexander4  ,it taught1  
nominally at least1 the equality of all 
,god's children--of ,greek and          
barbarian1 of bond and free4 ,it        
renounced the exclusive ideas of the    
commonwealth on which ,plato had made   
shipwreck of his consistency4 ,it       
declared that to the wise man all the   
world is his country4 ,it was thoroughly
 comprehensive and cosmopolitan4        
,instead of a political union it        
preached the moral union of all good    
men1--a city of true philosophers1 a    
community of religious sentiment1 a     
communion of saints1 to be developed    
partly here below1 but more consummately
 in the future state of a glorified     
hereafter4 ,it aspired1 at least1 to the
 doctrine of an immortal city of the    
soul1 a providence under which that     
immortality was to be gained1 a reward  
for the good1 possibly1 but even more   

dubiously1 a punishment of the wicked4  
,merivale1 it will be understood1       
writing in the interest of              
,christianity1 makes note of the        
limitations of the ,stoic ,philosophy1  
calls it vague1 unsatisfactory and      
aristocratic1 the peculiarity of a      
select class of minds2 and so it was1 to
 a degree2 but that it had a mighty     
influence throughout the intellectual   
world1 as much as any system of belief  
could have1 must be confessed4 ,so far  
as ideas went1 it comprehended the      
wisest and best there were4 ,as         
respected the authority by which the    
ideas were recommended and guaranteed1  
it was the authority of the intellectual
 lights of the world4 ,to say that the  
truths were limited1 is to say what may 
be said of every intellectual system    
under the sun1 including the beliefs of 
christian apostles which the christian  
,church has outgrown4 ,to say that they 
were not final1 is to say what will be  
affirmed of every intellectual system   

till the end of time4 ,there the beliefs
 were1 stated1 urged1 preached with     
earnestness by men of live minds1 fully 
awake to the needs of the society they  
adorned1 thinking and writing1 not for  
their own entertainment1 but for the    
improvement of mankind4 ,their books    
were not read by the multitude1 the     
multitude could not read3 scarcely can  
they read now4 ,but the men influenced  
the directors of opinion1 the makers of 
laws1 the builders of institutions1 the 
wealthy1 the instructed1 the high in    
place4  ,nor must it be forgotten that  
these ideas of philosophy did not remain
 cold speculations4 ,they bore          
characteristic fruits in humanity of    
every kind4 ,the brotherhood was not a  
sentiment1 it was a principle of wide   
beneficence4 ,the charities of this     
gospel attested the presence of a warm  
heart in the metropolis of the heathen  
world4 ,of this there can no longer be  
any doubt4 ,works like that of ,denis'  
,histoire des ,theories et des ,idees   

,morales dans l',antiquite1 reveal a    
condition of becoming in the ,roman     
,empire that might dispel the fears of  
the most skeptical in regard to the     
continuous moral progress of the race4  
,the immense popular distributions of   
corn which from being occasional had    
become habitual in ,rome1 were as a rule
 prompted by no humane feeling1 were not
 designed to mitigate suffering or      
express compassion4 ,they were in the   
main1 devices for gaining popularity4   
,caius ,gracchus1 who1 more than a      
century before ,christ1 carried a law   
making compulsory the sale of corn to   
the poor at a nominal price1 was perhaps
 actuated by a worthier motive2 but it  
is doubtful whether his successors were4
 ,cato of ,utica was not4 ,clodius      
,pulcher was not4 ,the emperors were    
obliged to purchase popularity by these 
enormous bribes4 ,it is said that       
,augustus caused the monthly            
distribution to be made to two hundred  
thousand people4 ,half a million claimed

 the bounty under the ,antonines4 ,the  
addition of a ration of oil to the corn2
 the substitution of bread for the corn2
 the supplementing of this by an        
allowance of pork2 a subsequent supply  
of the article of salt to the poor on   
similarly easy terms2 the distribution  
of portions of land2 the imperial       
legacies1 donations1 gratuities1        
mentioned as bestowed on occasion2 the  
public baths provided and thrown open to
 all at a trifling expense1 were also   
means of winning or retaining the good  
will of a fickle and turbulent populace4
 ,they neither expressed a humane       
sentiment nor produced a humane result4 
,they were suggested by ambition1 no    
better sometimes than that of the       
demagogue1 and they begot idleness1 and 
demoralization4 ,but some part of the   
beneficence must have sprung from a more
 generous motive4 ,the interest         
manifested by several emperors in public
 education1 and the appropriation made  
for the maintenance of the children of  

the poor1 five thousand of whom are     
said1 by ,pliny1 to have been supported 
by the government1 under ,trajan1 who   
presume never heard of                  
,christianity1--cannot fairly be        
ascribed to political motives4 ,the     
private charities of the younger ,pliny1
 who devoted a small patrimony to the   
maintenance of poor children in ,como1  
his native place2 of ,coelia ,macrina1  
who founded a charity for one hundred at
 ,terracina2 ,hadrian's1 bounties to    
poor women2 ,antonine's loans of money  
to the poor at reduced rates of         
interest2 the institutions dedicated to 
the support of girls by ,antoninus and  
,marcus ,aurelius2 the private          
infirmaries for slaves2 the military    
hospitals1 certainly owed their         
existence to a humane feeling4 ,pliny is
 responsible for the statement that both
 in ,greece and ,rome the poor had      
mutual insurance societies which        
provided for their sick and infirm      
members4 ,tacitus expatiates on the     

generosity of the rich1 who1 on occasion
 of a catastrophe near ,rome1 threw open
 their houses and taxed their resources 
to relieve the suffering4#h  ,footnote  
#h3 ,for references1 see ,lecky's       
,european ,morals1 ,,ii41 p4 #gi-ha4    
,such acts attest a genuine kindness4   
,the protests of the best citizens      
against the bloody gladiatorial         
shows1--a protest so eager and          
persistent that the trade of the        
gladiator was seriously injured--must   
have been in the highest degree         
unpopular1 for the populace found in    
these shows their favorite amusement4   
,the remonstrances of philanthropic men 
against the barbarities of the penal    
code2 the call for the abolishment of   
the death penalty2 the pity for the woes
 of neglected children2 the indignation 
at the crime of infanticide2 the earnest
 interest taken in the problems of      
prostitution and the most revolting     
aspects of pauperism were such as might 
have proceeded from nineteenth century  

people4#i ,stronger words were never    
spoken by ,american abolitionists than  
were uttered by pagan lips against the  
slavery that was pulling down the ,roman
 ,state4  ,footnote #i3 ,see ,denis1    
,,ii41 p4 #ee-bah4  ,that beneficence in
 the ,roman ,empire during the latter   
half of the first century and the first 
half of the second was fitful1 formal1  
limited1 and unimpassioned1 as compared 
with the charities of ,christians in    
their communities1 need not be said2 of 
course it was4 ,the ,christians         
succeeded to the legacies of kindness   
left by the pagans2 they were           
comparatively few in number1 and were   
bound to one another by peculiar ties2  
they were themselves of the great family
 of the poor2 they were obliged to help 
one another in the only way they could1 
by personal effort and sacrifice4 ,their
 traditions1 too1 of beneficence were   
oriental4 ,the difference in spirit     
between ,roman and ,christian charity   
cannot be fairly described as a         

difference between heathen charity and  
christian2 it is more just to call it a 
difference between ,eastern charity and 
,western4 ,the ,orientals1 including the
 ,jews1 made beneficence in its various 
forms1 an individual duty4 ,kindness to 
the sick1 the unfortunate1 the poor1    
compassion with the sorrowful1          
almsgiving to the destitute1 hospitality
 to the stranger1 are virtues           
characteristic of all eastern people4   
,the ,new ,testament chiefly echoes the 
sentiment of the ,old on this matter1   
and the ,old ,testament chimes in with  
the voices of eastern teachers4 ,in the 
,west1 government undertook             
responsibilities which in oriental      
lands1 were assumed by individuals2     
people were to a much greater degree    
massed in orders and classes2 the       
distance was wider between the governors
 and the governed1 and considerations of
 state more gravely affected the actions
 which elsewhere seemed to concern only 
the private conscience and heart4 ,the  

question of advantage between these two 
systems is still an open one4 ,in every 
generation there have been some1        
christians too1 who preferred the       
western method to the eastern1 as being 
less costly1 and more methodical2 the   
debate on the relative advantages and   
disadvantages of the personal and the   
impersonal methods still goes on in     
modern communities2 neither system      
prevails exclusively in any christian   
land2 the ,latin races still1 as a rule1
 prefer the ,roman way1 ,france for     
example1 where charity is a matter of   
public rather than of private concern4  
,the mischiefs of the oriental method   
were apparent before ,christianity      
appeared1 and its zealous adoption of   
them early awakened misgivings4 ,the    
indiscriminate almsgiving1 the elevation
 of poverty to the rank of a privilege1 
the glorification of                    
self-impoverishment1 the acceptance of  
feeling as a divine monitor1 and of     
emotion as a heavenly instinct1 the     

substitution of the worship of the heart
 for deference to reason1 the loose     
compassion1 the practical and professed 
communism--for some of the fathers      
maintained that all property was based  
on usurpation1 that all men had a common
 right in the earth1 and that none was  
entitled to hold wealth except as a     
trust for others--soon disclosed        
disastrous results4 ,against the evils  
that are fairly chargeable upon the     
wholesale measures of the imperial      
bounty1 must be offset the equally      
grave1 and in some respects1 not        
dissimilar evils incident to the        
unprincipled practice of loving kindness
 on the part of the bishops and their   
flocks1 the increase of the dependent1  
the encouragement of pauperism1 the     
waste of wealth1 the worse waste of     
humanity4 ,national philanthropy in     
,london and ,new ,york finds no more    
serious obstacle to its advance than the
 benevolence that is inculcated in the  
name of ,christ1 and by authority of the

 ,new ,testament4 ,it is the battle of  
science against sentiment4  ,the        
increased devoutness that showed itself 
in the empire1 about the beginning of   
the second century1 the pious passion   
that broke out1 is attributable to      
natural causes1 that have been mentioned
 by every author who has written on the 
subject4 ,it is familiar knowledge that 
the decay of institutions1 the          
disintegration of social bonds1 the     
general decline of positive religious   
faith1 a decline partly due1 possibly1  
to the tolerance which placed all faiths
 side by side1 was followed1 or we might
 say accompanied by a longing after     
divine things that was wild in the      
fervor of its impulse4 ,the complacent  
reign of skepticism was succeeded by a  
volcanic outbreak of superstition4 ,what
 has been called a storm of             
supernaturalism burst forth1 with the   
usual accompaniments of frenzy1 and took
 possession of all classes4 ,only       
general causes of this can be assigned4 

,that it was due to any special         
influence cannot be alleged4 ,that it   
was due to any supernatural             
interposition of heaven1 is an          
unnecessary supposition4 ,the cursory   
reader of the history of the empire1 as 
written by intelligent modern scholars1 
of whatever school1 sees plainly enough 
the pass that things had come to and how
 they came to it4 ,christianity came in 
on the wave of this movement1 felt its  
force1 struck into its channel1 was     
borne aloft on its bosom4 ,it is        
customary to speak of all this spiritual
 ferment as a preparation for           
,christianity2 it was such a preparation
 as left ,christianity little of a      
peculiar kind to do4 ,what new element  
it introduced1 it would be hard to say  
now1 however easy it seemed half a      
century ago4 ,the desert land of        
heathenism has been explored1 and the   
result is a discovery of fertile plains 
instead of barrenness4 ,the distinction 
between the ante-,christian and the     

post-christian eras is1 if not          
obliterated1 yet so far effaced1 that   
the transition from one to the other is 
natural and facile4  ,the longing for   
spiritual satisfaction that stirred in  
the heart of the empire1 found neither  
its source nor its gratification        
exclusively in the religion that        
afterwards became the professed faith of
 ,rome4 ,it slaked its thirst at older  
fountains4 ,such longings will1 at need1
 open fountains of living water for     
their own supply4 ,passing through the  
valley of ,baca they create a well1 the 
streams whereof fill the pools4 ,the    
smitten rock pours out its torrents4    
,the hungry soul creates its harvest as 
it goes along1 feeding itself by the way
 with food that seems to fall           
miraculously from the sky4 ,it makes a  
religion if there be none at hand4 ,a   
new heaven peopled with angels2 a new   
earth full of providences come into     
being at its call4 ,but in this         
emergency the religion was extant in the

 world1 already venerable1 already      
proved4 ,it was the religion of ,israel1
 with all that was necessary to attract 
attention and command reverence2 a holy 
,god1 an immediate providence1 a solemn 
history1 a glorious prophecy1 an        
inspiring hope1 traditions1             
institutions1 a temple1 a priesthood1   
sacrifices1 a code of laws1 ceremonial  
and moral1 poetry1 learning1 music1     
mystery1 stately forms of men and women1
 judges1 kings1 heroes1 martyrs1 saints1
 a superb literature1 legends of virtue1
 festivals of joy1 visions of           
resurrection and judgment1 precepts of  
righteousness1 promises of peace1 songs 
of victory and of sorrow1 dreams of a   
heavenly kingdom to be won by obedience 
to divine law1 tender lessons of        
charity1 stern lessons of denial1       
fascinating attractions and yet more    
fascinating fears1 gentle persuasions   
and awful menaces1 calculated to lay    
hold on every mood1 to thrill and to    
satisfy every human emotion4 ,the       

religion of ,israel lacked little but   
outward prestige of power and wealth to 
make it precisely what the time         
required2 and in times of real          
earnestness the prestige of power and   
wealth is readily dispensed with4 ,the  
unfashionable faith is the very one to  
attract worldly people on their first   
awakening to spiritual sensibility4 ,the
 show of worldliness is then1 to the    
worldly1 particularly offensive4 ,the   
lust of the flesh1 the lust of the eyes1
 the pride of life1 delight in abasing  
themselves before rags and filth1       
wishing to reach the opposite extreme4  
,the graces of the religious character1 
humility1 meekness1 self-accusation1    
contrition1 find in associations with   
the coarse1 the hard1 the repulsive1    
their fittest expression4 ,hence it was 
that ,judaism1 heretofore the faith of  
the despised1 became the faith of the   
despisers4 ,its very dogmatism1 its     
proud exclusiveness and intolerance1    
were in its favor4 ,its haughty reserve 

assisted it2 its superb disdain of other
 faiths1 its boast of antiquity1 its    
claim to a monopoly of the future of the
 race1 exerted a weird spell over the   
dazed and decrepit minds of the         
superstitious1 high and low4 ,its lofty 
belief in miracle and sign1 fairly      
constrained the skeptical to bow the    
head4  ,the interest felt in ,judaism1  
and its influence on society in its high
 places1 have already been alluded to1  
and need not be further insisted on4    
,the testimony of ,juvenal--the         
testimony of sarcasm and complaint--is  
enough to establish the fact that a     
curiosity amounting to infatuation had  
taken possession especially of the women
 of ,rome4  ,if it be asked why         
,judaism1 then1 was not made the        
religion of the empire1 instead of      
,christianity1 which it hated with all  
the fervor of close relationship1 the   
answer is at hand3 ,judaism laid no     
emphasis on its cosmopolitan features1  
and discouraged belief in the historical

 fulfilment of its own prophecy4 ,the   
charge that it was a national religion1 
the religion of a race1 it was at no    
pains to repel2 on the contrary1 it     
seems to have exaggerated this claim to 
distinction1 standing on its dignity1   
despising the arts of propagandism and  
demanding the submission of other       
creeds4 ,this attitude alone might have 
recommended the religion in some        
quarters1 and would not have seriously  
embarrassed it in any1 supposing it to  
have been loftily and worthily          
sustained4 ,a graver cause of its       
unpopularity was its failure to lay     
stress on its ,messianic idea4 ,it would
 abate nothing of its monotheistic      
grandeur4 ,its ,god was the everlasting1
 the infinite1 the formless1 the        
invisible4 ,the command to make of ,him 
no image whatever1 either animal or     
human1 to associate ,him with neither   
place nor time1 was obeyed to the       
letter4 ,among a people extremely       
sensitive to grace of form and beauty of

 color1 the ,jews had no art2 they set  
up no statue2 they painted no picture2  
they allowed no emblem that could be    
worshipped4 ,their ,holy ,spirit was an 
influence2 their ,messiah was a distant 
hope2 their kingdom of heaven was a     
dream4 ,the ,christians of both         
schools--the conservative and the       
liberal--thrust into the foreground the 
conceptions which their co-religionists 
kept in the shadow of anticipation4 ,in 
their belief1 prophecy was fulfilled4   
,the ,messiah had come2 he had taken on 
human shape2 he had passed through an   
earthly career2 he had ascended in      
visible form to the skies2 he sat there 
at the right hand of the ,majesty on    
high2 he was active in his care for his 
own1 suffering and sorrowing on earth2  
he sent the ,holy ,spirit1 the comforter
 and guide to his friends in their      
affliction2 he was the immediate ,god2  
he heard and answered prayer2 he        
pardoned sin2 he opened the gates of    
heaven to believers4 ,they did not      

scruple to make images of him2 to       
represent him in emblems2 to eke out    
their own rude art by adopting the art  
which the heathen had ceased to         
venerate1 and1 where they could1        
re-dedicating statues of ,apollo and    
,jupiter to their ,christ4 ,they were   
eager to have legendary portraits       
accepted as faithful likenesses of their
 ,lord4 ,fables were invented1 like that
 of ,veronica's napkin1 to give currency
 to certain heads as the ,christ's own  
image of himself miraculously imprinted 
on a cloth4 ,they claimed to have seen  
him1 in moments of ecstasy2 they        
ascribed to his prompting1 states of    
feeling1 purposes and courses of action4
 ,by every means they created and       
deepened the impression that the        
,divinity they worshipped was a real    
,god1 and no intellectual abstraction4  
,this was the very thing the pagan world
 wanted--a personal ,deity1 ,providence1
 ,saviour4 ,through their acquiescence  
in this demand1 other oriental faiths1  

without a tithe of ,israel's            
grandeur--mythological1 superstitious1  
sensual even--gained a popularity that  
,judaism could not attain4 ,the strange 
,egyptian divinities drew many to their 
shrines4 ,three emperors--,commodus1    
,caracalla and ,heliogabalus--are said  
to have been devoted to the mysteries of
 ,isis and ,serapis4 ,juvenal describes 
,roman women as breaking the ice on the 
frozen ,tiber1 at the dawn of day1 and  
plunging thrice into the stream of      
purification2 as painfully dragging     
themselves on bleeding knees around the 
field of ,tarquin2 as projecting        
pilgrimages to ,egypt1 expeditions in   
search of the holy water required at the
 shrine of the goddess4 ,the ,persian   
,mithras had his throngs of adoring     
devotees4 ,the prominence given at this 
period to the statues of ,mithras1 the  
existence of temples to ,isis and       
,serapis1 attest the power that these   
divinities exerted over the imagination 
of the ,italian people4 ,these people   

demanded deities human in shape and     
attributes4 ,so clamorous were they for 
images1 that they would consecrate them 
at any cost of decency4 ,the emperor    
,augustus was deified4 ,his statue on   
the public square1 his insignia on a    
banner1 his name on a shield excited    
veneration4 ,the noblest religion       
without a human centre was less prized  
than the ignoblest with one1 and the    
faith of ,israel was compelled to yield 
to the degrading fascinations of the    
,bona ,dea4  ,the ,christian ,jews1 with
 their ,messiah1 took the popular desire
 at its best1 and satisfied it4 ,the    
image they presented1 though to the     
mind's eye only1 was so much more       
gracious than the loveliest that eastern
 or western art furnished that its      
acceptance was assured4 ,early in the   
fourth century the impression made was  
too deep to be overlooked by the        
controllers of public opinion4 ,the     
politic ,constantine1 seeking a         
spiritual ally1 and finding none among  

the faiths of his own land1 called in   
the ,nazarene to aid him in establishing
 an empire over the souls of his        
subjects4 ,christ was king in fact      
before he was formally crowned4  ,but   
the true history of his reign began with
 the ceremony of his coronation2 the    
history of ,christianity as a distinct  
religion commences with the so-called   
conversion of ,constantine4 ,latin      
,christianity was the first1 some think 
the consummate1 in fact the only1       
,christianity4 ,the adoption of the     
religion as the ,state ,church1 was for 
it a new creation4 ,from that moment1   
began the efforts to complete its       
dogmatical system by a succession of    
councils1 the first one1 that of        
,nicaea1 being held ,a4 ,d4 #cbe1 about 
twelve years after the imperial         
conversion2 that of                     
,sardica--ecclesiastically of great     
importance--in #cdg1 and the councils of
 ,arles and of ,milan in #ceb4  ,once   
seated on a throne of power1 a crown on 

his head1 a sceptre in his hand1 clothed
 with authority1 protected by armies1   
girded with law1 instigator of policies1
 chief of ceremonies1 the ,christ in    
heaven rapidly completed the structure  
whereof ,constantine had placed the     
corner-stone4 ,the materials he gathered
 right and left1 wherever they were to  
be found4 ,right of supremacy made them 
his4 ,judaism gave temple1 and          
synagogue1 the organization of its      
priesthood1 the distinction between     
priest and layman1 its worship1 music1  
scripture1 litany1 sentiment and usage  
of prayer1 its ascetic spirit1 its      
doctrines of resurrection and judgment1 
its code of righteousness1 its altar    
forms1 its history1 and its prophecy4   
,paganism was laid under contribution   
for its military spirit4 ,the stations  
of the ,passion1 were copied from army  
usage1 so were its practical temper1 its
 regard for precedent law and policy1   
its rules of obedience1 its distrust of 
speculation1 its horror of schism1 its  

passion for unity1 its skill in         
diplomacy1 its solid respect for        
authority4 ,quietly1 without leave      
asked1 or apology offered1 the insignia 
of the old faiths were transferred to   
the new4 ,the title of ,sovereign       
,pontifex1 or bridgemaker--given        
originally to the chief of the guild of 
mechanics1 passed along from the period 
of the earliest kings through persons of
 consular dignity1 and finally bestowed 
on the ,roman emperors2 a title given at
 first1 in commemoration of the pons    
,janicularis1 which joined the city to  
the highest of the surrounding          
hills--was conferred on the bishops or  
popes whose office it was to bridge over
 the gulf between the earth and the     
celestial mountains4 ,the statues of    
,jupiter1 ,apollo1 ,mercury1 ,orpheus1  
did duty for the ,christ4 ,the ,thames  
river god officiates at the baptism of  
,jesus in the ,jordan4 ,peter holds the 
keys of ,janus4 ,moses wears the horns  
of ,jove4 ,ceres1 ,cybele1 ,demeter1    

assume new names as ,queen of ,heaven1  
,star of the ,sea1 ,maria ,illuminatrix2
 ,dionysius is ,st4 ,denis2 ,cosmos is  
,st4 ,cosmo2 ,pluto and ,proserpine     
resign their seats in the hall of final 
judgment1 to the ,christ and his mother4
 ,the ,parcae depute one of their       
number1 ,lachesis1 the disposer of lots1
 to set the stamp of destiny upon the   
deaths of ,christian believers4 ,the    
aura placida of the poets1 the gentle   
breeze1 is personified as ,aura and     
,placida4 ,the perpetua felicitas of the
 devotee becomes a lovely presence in   
the forms of ,st4 ,perpetua and ,st4    
,felicitas1 guardian angels of the pious
 soul4 ,no relic of ,paganism was       
permitted to remain in its casket4 ,the 
depositories were all ransacked4 ,the   
shadowy hands of ,egyptian priests      
placed the urn of holy water at the     
porch of the basilica1 which stood ready
 to be converted into a temple4 ,priests
 of the most ancient faiths of          
,palestine1 ,assyria1 ,babylon1 ,thebes1

 ,persia1 were permitted to erect the   
altar at the point where the transverse 
beam of the cross meets the main stem4  
,the hands that constructed the temple  
in cruciform shape had long become too  
attenuated to cast the faintest shadow4 
,there ,devaki with the infant ,crishna1
 ,maya with the babe ,boodha1 ,juno with
 the child ,mars1 represent ,mary with  
,jesus in her arms4 ,coarse emblems are 
not rejected2 the ,assyrian dove is a   
tender symbol of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,the 
rag bags and toy boxes were explored4 ,a
 bauble which the ,roman school-boy had 
thrown away was picked up and called an 
agnus dei4 ,the musty wardrobes of      
forgotten hierarchies furnished costumes
 for the officers of the new prince4    
,alb and chasuble recalled the fashions 
of ,numa's day4 ,the cast off purple    
habits and shoes of pagan emperors      
beautified the august persons of        
christian ,popes4 ,the cardinal must be 
contented with the robes once worn by   
senators4 ,zoroaster bound about the    

monks the girdle he invented as a       
protection against evil spirits1 and    
clothed them in the frocks he had found 
convenient for his ritual4 ,the ,pope   
thrust out his foot to be kissed1 as    
,caligula1 ,heliogabalus1 and ,julius   
,caesar had thrust out theirs4 ,nothing 
came amiss to the faith that was to     
discharge henceforth the offices of     
spiritual impression4 ,stoles1 veils1   
croziers1 were all in requisition       
without too close scrutiny of their     
antecedents4 ,a complete investigation  
of this subject will probably reveal the
 fact that ,christianity owes its entire
 wardrobe1 ecclesiastical1 symbolical1  
dogmatical1 to the religions that       
preceded it4 ,the point of difficulty to
 decide is in what respect ,christianity
 differs from the elder faiths4 ,this is
 the next task its apologists have to   
perform4  ,but this question does not   
concern us here4 ,having indicated the  
source whence the religion proceeded1   
and the process by which the successive 

stages in its development were reached1 
we have done all that was purposed4 ,we 
have tried to make it clear that the    
,messianic conception from which it     
started1 and from which its life was    
derived at each period of its growth1   
presided over its destiny in the western
 world1 and introduced it to the place  
of honor it was afterwards called to    
fill4  ,what that place was and how the 
,church filled it has been told in a    
multitude of historical books4 ,the     
history of ,christianity is not the     
story of a developing idea1 but a record
 of the achievements of an idea         
developed1 organized1 instituted4 ,from 
the date of the established religion1   
the writings of the ,new ,testament     
became the literature of the earliest   
period4 ,in the western world the mind  
of ,christendom expanded to deeper and  
wider thoughts1 a new literature was    
originated of great richness1 affluence 
and beauty1 and gave expression to ideas
 which1 in the primitive period could   

not have been formed4 ,the ,greek and   
,latin ,fathers1 the schoolmen1 the     
catholic theologians1 ,italian1         
,spanish1 ,french1 the ,german mystical 
writers1 the ,protestant divines and    
preachers1 have produced writings       
unsurpassed in intellectual strength and
 spiritual discernment4 ,the            
possibilities of speculation have been  
exhausted2 the abysses of reflection    
have been sounded2 the heights of       
meditation have been scaled4 ,the       
christian idea of salvation has been    
applied to every phase of human         
experience1 and to every problem of     
social life4 ,the rudimental conceptions
 have been distanced2 the original      
limitations have been overpassed4 ,rites
 have been charged with new             
significance1 symbols loaded with new   
meanings1 doctrines interpreted in new  
senses4 ,christianity as the modern     
world knows it1 is a new creation4 ,the 
name of ,messiah is spoken1 but with    
feelings unknown to the ,jews of the    

first and second century4 ,the ,new     
,testament is regarded as a store house 
of germs1 a magazine of texts to be     
interpreted by the light of the full    
orbed spirit1 and unfolded to meet the  
needs of an older world4 ,the cord which
 connected the religion with the mother 
faith of ,israel was broken and the     
faith entered on an independent         
existence4 ,to the cradle succeeds the  
cathedral4     ,,ix4  ,,jesus4   ,it    
will be remarked that in the foregoing  
chapters no account is given of ,jesus1 
and no account made of him4 ,his name   
has not been written except where the   
common usage of speech made it          
necessary4 ,the writer has carefully    
avoided occasion for expressing an      
opinion in regard to his character1 his 
performance1 or his claim2 has carefully
 avoided so doing2 the omission has been
 intentional4 ,the purpose of his essay 
is to give the history of an idea1 not  
the history of a person1 to trace the   
development of a thought1 not the       

influence of a life1 letting it be      
inferred whether the life were          
necessary1 and if necessary1 wherein and
 how far necessary to the shaping of the
 thought4 ,but this task will not be    
judged to have been fairly discharged   
unless he declares the nature of the    
inference he himself draws4 ,the        
question ,what think ye of the ,christ8 
meaning ,what think ye of ,jesus8 may be
 fairly put to him1 and should be       
frankly answered4 ,that there are two   
distinct questions here proposed1 need  
not at the close of this essay be said4 
,jesus is the name of a man2 ,christ1 or
 rather ,the ,christ1 is the name of an 
idea4 ,the history of ,jesus is the     
history of an individual2 the history of
 the ,christ is the history of a        
doctrine4 ,an essay on the ,christ-idea 
touches the person of ,jesus1 only as he
 is associated with the ,christ-idea or 
is made a representative of it4 ,had he 
not been associated with that idea1     
either through his own design or in the 

belief of his countrymen1 the omission  
of all mention of his name would provoke
 no criticism4 ,the common opinion that 
he was in some sense the ,christ2 that  
but for him the ,christ-idea would not  
have been made conspicuous in the way   
and at the time it was2 that the        
existence of the ,christian ,church1 the
 conversion of ,paul1 the composition of
 the ,new ,testament1 the course of     
religious thought in the eastern and    
western world was directed by his mind2 
that the social life1--the morals and   
manners1 the heart1 conscience1 feeling1
 soul--of mankind1 in the earlier and   
later centuries of his era was          
determined by his character1 renders    
necessary a word of comment on the      
validity of his individual claim4  ,if  
either of the four gospels is to be     
accepted as biography it must be the    
first1 as being the earliest in date1   
and as containing less than either of   
the others of speculative admixture4    
,the first gospel rests1 according to an

 ancient tradition1 on memoranda or     
notes taken by a companion of ,jesus and
 afterwards written out1 in the popular 
language of the country1 for the use of 
the disciples and others in ,judaea and 
,galilee4 ,the disappearance of all save
 a few fragments of this book1 and of   
any writing answering in description to 
it1 the impossibility of identifying it 
with the present ,gospel of ,matthew1 or
 of proving that the existing ,gospel of
 ,matthew rests upon it2#aj the         
comparatively late date to which our    
,greek ,matthew must be assigned--thirty
 years at least1 probably fifty or sixty
 after ,jesus' death1 and the absolute  
failure of all attempts to trace its    
records to an eye witness of any sort1  
7say nothing of a competent eye witness1
 clear of head1 tenacious of memory1    
veracious in speech17 all conspire to   
stamp with imprudence the conjecture    
that the ,christ of ,matthew and the    
,jesus of history were one and the same4
 ,this would be the case were the       

picture harmoniously proportioned1 as it
 is not4  ,footnote #aj3 ,the character 
and influence of the ,gospel of the     
,hebrews and of other books of the same 
kind is considered in full by ,mr4 ,s4  
,baring-,gould in ,the ,lost and        
,hostile ,gospels4 ,mr4 ,baring-,gould  
argues that while neither of our present
 ,gospels is entitled to be called      
genuine in the ordinary sense1 they     
contain authentic biographical          
materials4 ,it is his opinion that at   
the close of the first century almost   
every ,church had its own ,gospel1 with 
which alone it was acquainted4 ,but it  
does not follow that these ,gospels were
 not as trustworthy as the four which we
 now alone recognize4 7p4 #bc47 ,mr4    
,baring-,gould's argument is not strong4
 ,the first mention of the ,gospel of   
the ,hebrews is no earlier than the     
middle of the second century2 the       
remaining fragments of it are too few   
and too undecisive to be of weight2 and 
it was1 by all confession1 written in   

the interest of the ,nazarene or        
,judaizing ,christians4 ,mr4            
,baring-,gould himself classes it with  
the ,clementine writings and calls them 
,the ,lost ,petrine ,gospels4  ,the     
fourth ,gospel is usually accepted as   
the work of a disciple1 the loved       
disciple1 the bosom friend1 whose       
apprehension of the spiritual character 
of ,jesus was much keener and truer than
 that of any business man1 any mere     
follower1 any commonplace1 inconspicuous
 person like ,matthew4 ,but the fourth  
,gospel1 allowing that it was written by
 ,john the disciple1 must1 to insist on 
a former remark1 have been written in   
his extreme old age1 and after a mental 
and spiritual transformation so complete
 as to leave no trace of the ,galilean  
youth whom ,jesus took to his heart4    
,the zealot has become a mystic2 the    
,palestinian ,jew has become an ,asiatic
 ,greek3 the son of thunder is a        
philosopher2 the fisherman is a         
cultivated writer1 acquainted with the  

subtlest forms of speculation4 ,is it   
conceivable that such a man should have 
retained his impressions of biographical
 incidents and personal traits1 or that 
retaining them he should have allowed   
them their due prominence in his record8
 can his picture be accepted as a       
portrait8  ,certainly1 some are         
impatient to say1 and for this very     
reason2 as the perfect1 the only        
portrait2 the picture of the very man1  
the biography of his soul2 we accept it 
as we accept ,plato's portrait of       
,socrates4 ,but do we accept ,plato's   
portrait of ,socrates1 as a piece done  
to the life8 ,plato was a great artist1 
as all the world knows from his         
authentic works4 ,but even in his case1 
we do not know whether he1 in depicting 
,socrates1 meant to paint the man as he 
really was1 or an ideal head1 conceived 
according to the ,socratic type4 ,to    
compare ,john's portrait of ,jesus with 
,plato's portrait of ,socrates1 is      
besides1 a proceeding quite illogical2  

for we must assume1 in the first place1 
that ,john painted this portrait of     
,jesus1 and in the next place that the  
portrait must be a good one because he  
painted it1--this being the only piece  
of his ever on exhibition4  ,to say with
 ,renan and others that the idealized   
likeness must from the nature of the    
case be the correct one1 because such a 
person as ,jesus was1 is best seen at a 
distance and by poetic gaze1 is again to
 beg the question4 ,how do we know that 
,jesus was such a person8 ,how do we    
know that the most spiritual            
apprehension of him1 was the truest2    
that they judged him most justly1 who   
judged him from the highest point2 that 
the glorifying imaginations alone       
presented his full stature and          
proportions1 that the ordinary minds    
immediately about him necessarily       
misconstrued and misrepresented him8 ,in
 the order of experience1 historical and
 biographical truth is discovered by    
stripping off layer after layer of      

exaggeration and going back to the      
statements of contemporaries4 ,as a     
rule1 figures are reduced1 not enlarged1
 by criticism4 ,the influence of        
admiration is recognized as distorting  
and falsifying1 while exalting4 ,the    
process of legend-making begins         
immediately1 goes on rapidly and with   
accelerating speed1 and must be         
liberally allowed for by the seeker     
after truth4 ,in scores of instances the
 historical individual turns out to be  
very much smaller than he was painted by
 his terrified or loving worshippers4   
,in no single case has it been          
established that he was greater1 or as  
great4 ,it is no doubt1 conceivable that
 such a case should occur1 but it never 
has occurred1 in known instances1 and   
cannot be presumed to have occurred in  
any particular instance4 ,the           
presumptions are against the correctness
 of the glorified image4 ,the           
disposition to exaggerate is so much    
stronger than the disposition to        

underrate1 that even really great men   
are placed higher than they belong      
oftener than lower4 ,the historical     
method works backwards4 ,knowledge      
shrinks the man4 ,eminent examples that 
jump to recollection instantly confirm  
this view4  ,the case of ,mahomet is in 
point4 ,here1 the critical procedure was
 twofold2 first to rescue a figure from 
the depths of infamy and then to recover
 the same figure from the cloudland of  
fancy4 ,under the pressure of christian 
hate the fame of ,mahomet sank to the   
lowest point4 ,he was impostor1 liar1   
cheat1 name for all shamefulness4 ,from 
this muck heap he has been plucked by   
valiant hands1 and placed on the list of
 heroes4 ,now another process is        
beginning1 to find precisely what kind  
of hero he was2 and it is safe to say   
that under this process the dimensions  
of the hero shrink4 ,the arabian        
estimate of the prophet will not bear   
close examination4 ,the glamor of pious 
enthusiasm being dispelled1 the traits  

of nationality show themselves2 the     
ecstasy is seen to be complicated with  
epilepsy2 the revelations partake of the
 general oriental character2 the truths 
are the cardinal truths of the semitic  
religions2 the personal qualities are of
 the same cast that distinguishes the   
arabian mind4 ,the detestation and the  
homage are both unjustifiable4  ,another
 example in point is ,buddha2 a name    
covered by ages of fable1 and so thickly
 that his historical existence was long 
doubted4 ,it was questioned whether he  
was anything more substantial than a    
vision4 ,the mist of legend has already 
been so far dispersed that a grand form 
is discerned moving up and down in      
,india4 ,presently it will be measured  
and outlined4 ,it is safe to predict    
intellectual and moral shrinkage of the 
person under the operation of this      
scrutiny4 ,just now the impression of   
his greatness is somewhat overpowering4 
,he looks morally gigantic as compared  
with teachers who are better known4 ,we 

quote his sayings with unbounded        
admiration2 we commend his life as an   
illustration of whatever most exalts    
humanity4 ,but if the time ever comes   
when his lineaments are fully revealed  
to sight1 he will be found neither much 
greater nor much better than his        
generation justified4  ,the critics of  
,strauss' ,life of ,jesus insisted on   
the necessity of a historical foundation
 for his character4 ,such a person they 
declared must have lived2 he could not  
have been invented4 ,strange position to
 take1 in view of the fact that         
idealization is one of the commonest    
feats of mankind2 that the human        
imagination is continually constructing 
heroes out of poltroons1 and transmuting
 lead into gold6 ,some idealization     
there is1 by the general confession of  
unprejudiced men4 ,the whole cannot be  
received as literal fact4 ,there is here
 and there a bit of color put on to     
heighten the effect4 ,who shall decide  
how much8 ,if the figure is glorified a 

little1 why not a great deal8 ,if a     
great deal1 why not altogether8 ,the    
materials for constructing the person   
being given1 as they are1 in the hebrew 
genius1 and the plastic power being     
provided as it is1 by the hebrew        
enthusiasm1 the result might have been  
predicted1 a good way in advance of     
history4 ,the argument against ,strauss'
 method proves too much4  ,the critics  
of ,baur urged with ceaseless iteration 
the absurdity of accounting for the ,new
 ,testament1 and explaining the         
developments of the first century1 by   
means of bodiless ideas1 substituting   
phantoms of thought for persons1        
intellectual issues for the interactions
 of living men4 ,life1 it was said1     
presupposes life2 life alone generates  
life4 ,to create a ,new ,testament out  
of rabbinical fancies is preposterous4  
,true enough4 ,history is not spectral2 
but neither are ideas spectral4 ,ideas  
imply living minds1 and living minds are
 persons4 ,but the persons are not of   

necessity single individuals4 ,they may 
be multitudes2 they may be generations2 
they probably are a nation4 ,the        
individuals that loom up conspicuously  
represent multitudes1 an epoch1 of which
 they are mouth pieces and agents4 ,do  
no individuals whatever loom up8 ,none  
the less creative is the epoch2 none the
 less vital are the ideas4 ,the great   
events of the world depend not on       
individuals1 but on the cumulative force
 and providential meeting of wide social
 tendencies that have been gathering    
head for ages and pointing in certain   
directions4 ,mahomet1 a sensitive1      
receptive1 responsive spirit1 gave a    
name to the arabian movement2 he neither
 originated it1 nor finally shaped it4  
,luther1 brave1 self-poised1 independent
 soul1 was not the author of the        
,reformation1 though he gave character  
to it4 ,others had gone before him1 and 
broken a way4 ,the time for reformation 
had come1 thousands were watching for   
the light which ,luther descried1 and   

eagerly aided in its diffusion4         
,innumerable sparks burst into flame4   
,he was child1 not father of the        
movement2 so it may have been with      
,jesus1 with ,peter1 with ,paul4 ,they  
presupposed the ideas of their age1 and 
the agency of living men4 ,the          
literature of the ,new ,testament1 which
 is all that ,baur concerned himself    
with1 stands for what it is1 a          
literature2 a product of intellectual   
activity in the age that created it4    
,the popular notion that ,scripture was 
penned by men whose minds were full of  
thoughts not their own1 but ,god's1     
contains a rational truth4 ,all great   
literature1 all literature that is not  
occasional1 incidental1 ephemeral1 is   
inspired in this sense4 ,the writers    
held the pen while the spirit of their  
age1 of many ages1 of all ages at       
length1 rolled through them4 ,it is true
 of all representative1 of all national 
books4 ,it is true of the ,iliad of     
,homer1 of ,dante's ,divina ,commedia1  

of the ,book of ,job1 the ,koran1 the   
,three ,kings1 the ,ramayana1 the       
,mahabharata1 the ,dhammapada1 the elder
 ,edda4 ,such books as express the mind 
of an epoch are productions of an era1  
not of a man4 ,the productive force is  
in the time4 ,the man is of moment but  
incidentally4 ,in discussing such works1
 all consideration of the man may be    
dispensed with4 ,strauss and ,baur were 
,hegelians1 who regarded the            
world-movements described in literatures
 and events1 as moments in the          
experience of ,god4 ,nothing to them1   
therefore1 was spectral4 ,in tracing the
 pedigree of ideas1 they felt themselves
 to be tracing the footprints of ,deity4
  ,the difficulty of constructing one   
harmonious character from the four      
gospels of the ,new ,testament need not 
be expatiated on here4 ,it is a         
difficulty that never has been overcome1
 and that increases in dimensions with  
our knowledge of the book4 ,it is1 of   
course possible1 not easy1 but possible1

 for one standing at either extreme to  
drag the opposite extreme into apparent 
accord4 ,the believer in the divinity of
 the ,christ planting himself on the    
doctrine of the ,logos1 reads his theory
 into the earlier gospels1 loads the    
language with meaning it was never meant
 to bear1 stretches the homely incidents
 on the rack of his hypothesis1 and     
painfully excavates the figure he has   
already laid there4 ,the believer in the
 humanity of the ,christ1 pursuing the  
opposite method1 belittles the          
,johannean conception till it comes     
within the compass of his argument1     
dilutes the statements1 expurgates and  
attenuates the thought1 till nothing    
remains but sentimentalism4 ,each       
vindicates one view by sacrificing the  
other4 ,to one who would preserve both  
representations1 the task of combination
 is desperate4 ,they are the centres of 
two opposite systems4 ,one is a human   
being1 a man2 the other is a demi-god4  
,one is a teacher of moral and religious

 truth2 the other is an incarnation of  
the truth4 ,one indicates the way2 the  
other is the way4 ,one invites to life2 
the other is the life4 ,one talks about 
,god and immortality2 the other         
manifests ,god1 and is immortality4 ,one
 points to heaven2 the other is in      
heaven4 ,one is a helpful human friend2 
the other is a divine ,saviour4 ,one    
claims allegiance on the ground of his  
providential calling2 the other demands 
spiritual surrender on the ground of his
 transcendent nature4 ,one collects a   
body of disciples2 the other forms and  
consecrates a church1 and puts it in    
charge of a ,holy ,spirit1 that shall   
save it from error and evil4 ,after what
 has been said in previous chapters it  
is unnecessary to enlarge4 ,let whoever 
will take ,furness' portrait of ,jesus  
on one hand1 and ,pressense's on the    
other2 let him place them side by side2 
let him subject them to close scrutiny1 
comparing each with the original        
sketches2 and he will rise from the     

contemplation satisfied that the two    
pictures cannot represent the same      
person4  ,scarcely less is the          
difficulty of constructing a harmonious 
character from the first gospel alone4  
,renan brought to this experiment rare  
powers of mind1 and a singular skill in 
letters4 ,an orientalist1 well versed in
 the productions of eastern genius2 an  
accomplished literary investigator1     
practised in discerning between the     
genuine and the spurious2 without       
dogmatic prejudice or predilection1     
neither christian nor anti-christian2   
enthusiastic1 yet critical2 approaching 
the subject from the historical         
direction2 preparing himself laboriously
 for his task1 and devoting to it all   
the capacity there was in him1 ,renan   
yet signally failed to construct a      
morally harmonious figure4 ,though      
conceiving ,jesus as simply a man1 he   
was obliged to resort to most obnoxious 
extravagances to make the narratives    
cohere4 ,the ,vie de ,jesus is a        

standing refutation of the theory that  
the elements of a harmonious biography  
are to be found in the first gospel4 ,it
 is the ,christ of the first gospel who 
curses unbelieving and inhospitable     
cities2 who threatens to deny in heaven 
those that deny him on earth2 who speaks
 of the unpardonable sin1 that shall not
 be forgiven1 either in this world1 or  
in the world to come2 who will have none
 called ,master but himself2 who        
condemns to everlasting fire1 prepared  
for the devil and his angels those who  
have not assisted these my brethren2 who
 bids his friends regard as no better   
than a heathen man and a publican1 the  
offender who will not listen to the     
,church2 who launches indiscriminate    
invective against scribes and pharisees2
 who anticipates sitting on a throne1 a 
judge of all nations1 with his chosen   
followers sitting on twelve thrones of  
authority in the same kingdom4 ,these   
statements must be qualified1           
allegorized1 spiritualized a good deal1 

before they can be made congenial with  
the attributes of meekness1 humility1   
gentleness1 patience1 loving-kindness1  
human sympathy1 benevolence1 justice1   
that adorn the image of a human ,jesus4 
,one set of qualities or the other1 must
 be disavowed1 unless we would incur the
 reproach that has fallen on ,renan1 of 
transforming ,jesus into a terribly     
magnificent1 and superbly unlovely      
person4 ,of this there is no necessity1 
for there is no necessity for           
constructing a harmonious character1 on 
any hypothesis4 ,we are not called on to
 construct a character at all4 ,we may  
frankly own that the materials for      
constructing a character are not        
furnished4 ,the first gospels exhibit   
stages in the development of the ,christ
 idea2 they do not give a portraiture of
 the man ,jesus4  ,the hypothesis of    
mental and sentimental development in   
the experience of ,jesus comes to the   
aid of the believers4 ,signs of such an 
interior progress do certainly appear1  

or can be made to appear by force of    
enthusiastic exegesis4 ,the teacher who 
admonishes his disciples not to cast    
their pearls before swine1 relates1 with
 approval1 the parable of the sower who 
flung his seed right and left1 heedless 
that some fell on thorns that grew up   
and choked them1 and some on stony      
ground1 where having no root1 they      
withered away4 ,the man who twice       
frigidly repulsed the ,canaanite woman  
who begged on her knees the boon of his 
compassion1 telling her that he was not 
sent1 save to the lost sheep of the     
house of ,israel1 adding1 it is not meet
 to take the children's bread and cast  
it to the dogs1 not only extends his    
effectual sympathy to her in her        
immediate need1 but is found afterward1 
seeking and saving these very lost1     
going into the wilderness to find them  
that had gone astray1 visiting the      
country of the pagan ,gergesenes1 and   
opening the blind eyes of ,samaritans4  
,the twelve disciples called and sent to

 the twelve tribes of ,israel1 one to   
each tribe1 none to spare for the people
 beyond the borders of ,palestine1      
became later seventy apostles           
commissioned to carry the message of the
 kingdom to all the tribes of the earth4
 ,the exorciser of evil spirits begins  
by casting devils into the herd of      
swine1 thus spoiling the pig-market of a
 village1 herein showing himself a true 
,jew1 and ends by sitting at meat with  
publicans and sinners4 ,by ingenious    
piecing1 light skipping over dates and  
discrepancies careless of sequence and  
consequence1 with resolute purpose to   
extract from the documents1 by all or   
any means1 a consistent human character1
 the development theory may be pushed a 
little way4 ,but it soon comes against  
an insurmountable difficulty2 the stream
 narrows just where it ought to widen1  
namely1 as it approaches the ocean4 ,it 
is towards the end of his career that   
the fanaticism discloses itself4 ,the   
terrible outbreaks of anger1 the        

invectives1 the diatribes1 the superb   
claims of authority1 the horrid         
descriptions of the day of judgment1 the
 discouragement and despair1 come at the
 last4 ,the serenity disappears2 the    
sunlight pales2 the day closes in mist4 
,the man shrinks1 instead of expanding1 
as he grows4  ,this is ,renan's account 
of it2 an account more deeply colored   
with gloom than need be2 for that the   
baffled1 tortured ,jesus1 lost his moral
 poise1 and became a deliberate         
impostor1 is not fairly deducible from  
any text2 but the account is still      
essentially close and natural4          
,starting1 as ,renan does1 from the     
position that the four gospels contain  
materials for an intelligible           
portraiture of ,jesus2 that those       
materials may be discovered1 sifted1 and
 arranged so as to produce a well       
proportioned figure2 and that the       
principle of this human construction1   
must1 on the supposition1 be the        
principle according to which the        

characters of men are and must be       
constructed1 namely1 by tracing the     
actions and reactions between them and  
the circumstances of their time and     
place2 starting1 we say1 from this      
position1 it is difficult to avoid the  
inferences that he draws in regard to   
the disastrous effect that skepticism   
and opposition had on the mental and    
moral character of the hero4 ,that he   
made no concession to necessity2 that he
 boldly declared war against nature1 a  
complete rupture with kindred2 that he  
exacted from his associates an utter    
abandonment of terrestrial              
satisfactions1 an absolute consecration 
to his work1 is no more than the plain  
texts imply4 ,renan does not strain     
language when he says3 ,in his excess of
 rigor1 he went so far as to suppress   
natural desire4 ,his requirements knew  
no bounds4 ,scorning the wholesome      
limitations of human nature1 he would   
have people live for him only1 love him 
alone4 ,something preternatural and     

strange mingled with his discourse2 as  
if a fire was consuming the roots of his
 life1 and reducing the whole to a      
frightful desert4 ,the sentiment of     
disgust towards the world1 gloomy and   
bitter1 of excessive abnegation which   
characterizes christian perfection1 had 
for its author1 not the sensitive joyous
 moralist of the earlier time1 but the  
sombre titan1 whom a vast and appalling 
presentiment carried further and further
 away from humanity4 ,it looks as       
though1 in these moments of conflict    
with the most legitimate desires of the 
heart1 he forgot the pleasure of living 
and loving1 of seeing and feeling4 ,it  
is easy to believe that from the view of
 ,jesus1 at this epoch of his life1     
every thought save for the kingdom of   
,god1 had wholly disappeared4 ,he was1  
so to speak1 entirely out of nature2    
family1 friends1 country had no meaning 
to him4 ,a strange passion for suffering
 and persecution possessed him4 ,his    
blood seemed the water of a second      

baptism he must be bathed in1 and he had
 the air of one driven by a singular    
impulse to anticipate this baptism which
 alone could quench his thirst4 ,at     
times his reason seemed disturbed4 ,he  
experienced inward agitations and       
agonies4 ,the tremendous vision of the  
kingdom of ,god1 ceaselessly flaming    
before his eyes1 made him giddy4 ,his   
friends thought him1 at moments1 beside 
himself4 ,his enemies declared him      
possessed by a devil4 ,his passionate   
temperament1 carried him1 in an instant1
 over the borders of human nature4 99 99
 99 ,urgent1 imperious1 he brooked no   
opposition4 ,his native gentleness left 
him2 he was at times rude and           
fantastical4 99 99 99 ,at times his ill 
humor against all opposition pushed him 
to actions unaccountable and            
preposterous4 ,it was not that his      
virtue sank2 his struggle against       
reality in the name of the ideal became 
insupportable4 ,he hurled himself in    
angry revolt against the world4 99 99 99

 ,the tone he had assumed could not be  
sustained more than a few months4 ,it   
was time for death to put an end to a   
situation strained to excess1 to snatch 
him from the embarrassments of a path   
that had no issue1 and1 delivered from a
 trial too protracted1 to introduce him1
 stainless1 into the serenity of his    
heaven4  ,this is strong language1 even 
shocking to minds accustomed to worship 
a character of ideal perfection4 ,but it
 is scarcely bolder than the case       
warrants4 ,the privilege to pick and    
choose material has its limits4 ,we have
 no right to take what pleases us and   
leave the rest4 ,statements that rest on
 equal evidence deserve equal           
acceptance4 ,if the result be not       
agreeable1 the responsibility is not    
with the critic4  ,the only wonder is   
that such a person as the literal record
 justifies1 should be accepted as the   
founder of a religion4 ,how can ,renan  
stand before his portrait of ,jesus1 and
 say1 the man here delineated merits a  

place at the summit of human grandeur2  
this is the supreme man2 a sublime      
personage2 every day he presides over   
the destiny of the world2 to call him   
divine is no exaggeration2 amid the     
columns that1 in vulgar uniformity crowd
 the plain1 there are some that point to
 the skies and attest a nobler destiny  
for man2 ,jesus is the loftiest of      
these2 in him is concentred all that is 
highest and best in human nature4 ,such 
a conclusion is not justified by the    
premises4 ,the homage is not warranted  
by the facts4 ,it will not do to make   
out a catalogue of human weaknesses1 and
 then urge those very weaknesses as a   
chief title to glory4  ,in the opinion  
of some it is wiser and kinder to       
confess at once that the image of ,jesus
 has been irrecoverably lost4 ,in the   
judgment of these1 it is unphilosophical
 to set up an ideal where none is       
required4 ,no doubt every effect must   
have a cause1 but to assume the cause1  
or to insist on the validity of any     

single or special cause1 is             
unscientific4 ,each event has many      
causes1 a complexity of causes4 ,renan  
himself says3 ,it is undeniable that    
circumstances told for much1 in the     
success of this wonderful revolution4   
,each stage in the development of       
humanity has its privileged epoch1 in   
which it reaches perfection without     
effort1 by a sort of spontaneous        
instinct4 ,the ,jewish state offered the
 most remarkable intellectual and moral 
conditions that the human race ever     
presented4 ,it was one of those divine  
moments when a thousand hidden forces   
conspire to produce grand results1 when 
fine spirits are supported by floods of 
admiration and sympathy4  ,in truth1 was
 such a person as ,jesus is presumed to 
have been1 necessary to account for the 
existence of the religion afterwards    
called ,christian8 ,as an impelling     
force he was not required1 for his age  
was throbbing and bursting with         
suppressed energy4 ,the pressure of the 

,roman empire was required to keep it   
down4 ,the ,messianic hope had such     
vitality that it condensed into moments 
the moral results of ages4 ,the common  
people were watching to see the heavens 
open1 interpreted peals of thunder as   
angel voices1 and saw divine portents in
 the flight of birds4 ,mothers dreamed  
that their boys would be ,messiah4 ,the 
wildest preacher drew a crowd4 ,the     
heart of the nation swelled big with the
 conviction that the hour of destiny was
 about to strike1 that the kingdom of   
heaven was at hand4 ,the crown was ready
 for any kingly head that might dare to 
assume it4 ,that in such a state of     
things anticipation should fulfil       
itself1 the dream become real1 the      
vision become solid1 is not surprising4 
,it was not the first time faith has    
become fact4 ,the first generation of   
our era exhibited no phenomena that     
preceding generations had not prepared  
for and could not produce4 ,no          
surprising original force need have been

 manifested4 ,the spirit was the native 
spirit of the old vine growing in the   
old vineyard4  ,jesus is not necessary  
to account for the ethics of the ,new   
,testament4 ,they were as has been said1
 the native ethics of ,judaism1         
unqualified4 ,the breadth and the       
limitation1 the ideal beauty and the    
practical point were alike ,jewish4 ,the
 gorgeous abstractions1 gathered up in  
one discourse1 look like fresh          
revelations of ,god2 as autumn leaves   
plucked and set in a vase seem more     
luminous than do myriads of the same    
leaves covering the mountains and the   
meadows1 their crimson and gold blending
 with the brown of the soil and the     
infinite blue of the sky4 ,the ethics of
 the ,new ,testament1 like the ethics of
 the ,old1 have their root in the faith 
that ,israel was a chosen people2 in the
 expectation of a king in whom the faith
 should be crowned2 in the anticipation 
of a judgment day1 a national           
restoration1 a celestial sun-burst1 a   

final felicity for the faithful of      
,israel4 ,the enthusiasm1 the           
extravagance1 the fanaticism1 the       
passive trust1 the active intolerance1  
the asceticism1 the arbitrariness1      
bespeak in the one case as in the other1
 the presence of an intense but narrow  
spirit4 ,they are not the ethics of this
 world4 ,they are not temporal4 ,the    
power of an original1 creative soul     
should be attested by some modification 
of the popular code1 rather than by an  
exaggeration of it4 ,we should look for 
something new1 not for a more emphatic  
repetition of the old4 ,but nothing new 
appears4 ,the exaggerations are         
exaggerated2 the precepts suggested by  
the distant prospect of the kingdom are 
simply reiterated in view of its speedy 
establishment4 ,trust in ,providence and
 faith in the ,messiah are all in all2  
the virtues of common existence are less
 and less4 ,the inhumanities that ,renan
 ascribes to an access of fanaticism in 
,jesus are the humanities of an unreal  

,utopia4  ,the prodigious manifestation 
of mental and spiritual force that broke
 out in ,paul requires no explanation   
apart from his own genius4 ,he never saw
 ,jesus and apparently was incurious    
about him4 ,his originality was         
intellectual1 and his system bears no   
trace of a foreign personality4 ,as     
,renan says3 ,the ,christ who           
communicates private revelations to him 
is a phantom of his own making2 ,it is  
himself he listens to1 while fancying   
that he hears ,jesus4 ,if ever man was  
self-motived1 self-impelled1            
self-actuated1 it was he4 ,he needed no 
prompter4 ,hot of brain and heart1 he   
was only too swift to move4 ,whether1 as
 some think1 driven by over-mastering   
ambition to lead a new movement1 or1 as 
others contend1 constrained by inward   
urgency to attempt a moral reform on a  
speculative basis1 or1 according to yet 
a third supposition1 eager to bear the  
glad tidings of the gospel to the       
gentile world1 his own genius was from  

first to last1 his guide and            
inspiration4 ,there is no evidence to   
prove that his conversion added anything
 new to the mass of his moral nature1 or
 changed the quality of ruling          
attributes1 or determined the bent of   
his will to unpremeditated issues4 ,he  
was converted to the ,christ1 not to    
,jesus2 and his conversion to the       
,christ1 was nothing absolutely         
unprepared for4 ,his zeal for ,israel   
blazed furiously against the disciples  
who claimed that the ,christ had come1  
and to the end of his stormy days it    
still continued to burn against         
disciples of the narrow school who would
 not believe he had come to any but     
,jews4 ,his zeal for ,israel1 sent him  
away by himself to meditate a grander   
,christ4 ,the ,christ1 not ,jesus1 was  
his watch-cry4 ,a man of ideas1         
intensely interested in speculative     
questions1 keenly alive to the joy of   
controversy and the ecstasy of          
propagandism1 he filled his boiler with 

water as he rushed along1 leaving ,peter
 and the rest to fill theirs at the     
nazarene spring4 ,so little is ,jesus to
 be credited with ,paul's achievement1  
that it is the fashion to call his a    
distinct movement4 ,enthusiastic        
admirers of his genius1 call him the    
real founder of ,christianity4 ,severe  
critics of his claim accuse him of      
corrupting the religion of ,jesus in its
 spirit1 and diverting it from its      
purpose4 ,on either supposition1 he was 
not a disciple4  ,the worship of ,jesus1
 it has been said1 is the redeeming     
feature of ,christianity4 ,this         
evidently is the opinion of ,john       
,stuart ,mill1 who writes1 confounding1 
as is usual1 ,jesus with the ,christ3   
,the most valuable part of the effect on
 the character which ,christianity has  
produced by holding up in a divine      
person a standard of excellence and a   
model for imitation1 is available even  
to the absolute unbeliever1 and can     
nevermore be lost to humanity4 ,for it  

is ,christ rather than ,god whom        
,christianity has held up to believers  
as the pattern of perfection for        
humanity4 ,it is the ,god incarnate1    
more than the ,god of the ,jews or of   
nature1 who being idealized has taken so
 great and salutary a hold on the modern
 mind2 and more to the same effect1 in  
the essay on ,theism4 ,before ,mr4      
,mill's intellectual eccentricities were
 as well understood as they are now1    
this testimony to the humanizing        
influence of christian1 as distinct from
 philosophical theism1 would have       
possessed great weight4 ,as it is1 it   
only excites our wonder that so keen and
 inexorable a thinker should so         
completely lose sight of facts4 ,that   
,christendom has worshipped the ,christ 
is true4 ,is it true that it has        
worshipped ,jesus8 ,again we might say3 
,yes2--the ,jesus who demanded faith in 
himself as the condition of salvation2  
the ,jesus who depicted the ,son of     
,man1 sitting on a throne of judgment1  

summoning before him all nations1 and   
placing the sheep on his right hand1 the
 goats on his left2 the ,jesus who      
threatened everlasting fire1 and spoke  
of the devil and his angels2 the ,jesus 
who made the church umpire in matters of
 faith and works2 the ,jesus who bade   
his friends forsake father and mother1  
brother and sister for his sake4 ,but   
did ,christendom ever deify the man of  
the ,beatitudes1 the relator of the     
parables of the ,good ,samaritan and the
 ,prodigal ,son1 the friend of publicans
 and sinners8 ,is ,jesus the central    
figure in the ,nicene1 or the           
,athanasian creed8 ,is he the ,god of   
,calvin1 or of ,luther1 of ,augustine1  
even of ,borromeo1 or ,fenelon8 ,long   
before the dogmatical or ecclesiastical 
system of ,christendom was formed1 the  
image of ,jesus had faded away from the 
minds of christians1 if it ever was     
stamped there4 ,that it was ever stamped
 there is not quite apparent4 ,in the   
east there exists no trace of it after  

the apostolic age1 or beyond the circle 
of his personal friends4 ,in the west   
the personal influence is not distinctly
 visible at any distance4 ,from the     
reported heroism of the early christian 
centuries no solid conclusion can be    
drawn1 for the reason that the reports  
come from panegyrists like ,tertullian1 
and from a period when the apostolic age
 had become a tradition4 ,writers like  
,neander make the most of a few recorded
 instances of devotion which            
distinguished the christians from the   
pagans about them2 and ,james ,martineau
 uses them as evidence of an original   
spiritual genius in the young religion4 
,they are indeed beautiful1 but they do 
not refer back so far as the historical 
,jesus for their source of inspiration4 
,that in a community composed1 with     
scarcely an exception1 of poor people1  
the ordinary social distinctions should 
be unobserved2 that slaves1 among whom  
in early times many converts were made1 
should have been acknowledged as        

brethren in ,christ2 should have        
appeared in public religious meetings as
 equal with the rest before the ,lord2  
should have partaken of the communion on
 the same terms1 taking their place     
among the believers1 and receiving the  
passionless kiss of brotherhood and of  
sisterhood1 is not surprising1          
especially when it is considered that   
these slaves belonged to hardy1 white   
races1 that they discharged1 some of    
them at least1 the most honorable       
offices of labor1 and were1 except for  
the mere accident of their condition1   
physically as well as morally1 peers of 
the best4  ,it is simply in the course  
of nature that poor people1 grouped in  
communities1 sharing a common and a     
painful lot1 should help each other in  
times of trouble4 ,the christians did   
so4 ,at every weekly or monthly service 
collections were made for the relief of 
the poor1 the sick1 the infirm1 the     
aged1 widows1 prisoners1 and toilers in 
the mines4 ,these contributions were    

sent to the points of greatest need1    
converging on occasion from many        
directions at centres of extreme        
necessity4 ,it is recorded that about   
the middle of the third century several 
members of the church in ,numidia1 men  
and women1 were carried off captive by  
barbarians4 ,the ,numidian churches     
being poor applied to the ,metropolitan 
church at ,carthage4 ,cyprian1 the      
bishop there1 collected more than four  
thousand dollars in his diocese and sent
 the money as ransom1 with a letter full
 of sentiments of kindness4 ,on another 
occasion a portion of the sacred vessels
 of the sanctuary were sold to raise    
funds for a similar purpose4 ,in this   
there was nothing strange4 ,the acts    
were done in strict conformity with a   
long established usage4  ,a more        
remarkable example often cited in       
evidence that the spirit of ,jesus was  
alive still in the societies that       
worshipped him as ,lord1 occurred in the
 year #bed1 shortly after the ,decian   

persecution1 the most general and the   
most hideous to which the church had    
been exposed4 ,in consequence of this   
persecution1 which was attended with    
such slaughter that the unburied bodies 
poisoned the air1 a fearful pestilence  
broke out in the city of ,alexandria4   
,unhappily for the literalness of the   
truth1 it is ,lactantius who tells the  
story4 ,the plague1 he says1 made its   
appearance with tremendous violence and 
desolated the city1 so that1 as         
,dionysius1 the ,christian bishop       
writes1 there were not so many          
inhabitants left1 of all ages1 as       
heretofore could be numbered between    
forty and seventy4 ,in this emergency   
the persecuted christians forgot all but
 their ,lord's precept1 and were        
unwearied in their attendance on the    
sick1 many perishing in the performance 
of this duty by taking the infection4   
',in this way1' says the bishop with    
touching simplicity1 'the best of the   
brethren departed this life1 some       

ministers1 and some deacons1' the       
heathen having abandoned their friends  
and relations to the care of the very   
persons whom they had been accustomed to
 call men-haters4 ,a like noble         
self-devotion was shown at ,carthage1   
when the pestilence which had desolated 
,alexandria made its appearance in that 
city1 and1 ,i quote the words of a      
contemporary1 'all fled in horror from  
the contagion1 abandoning their         
relations and friends1 as if they       
thought that by avoiding the plague1 any
 one might also exclude death           
altogether4 ,meanwhile the city was     
strewed with the bodies or rather       
carcasses of the dead1 which seemed to  
call for pity from the passers by1 who  
might themselves so soon share the same 
fate2 but no one cared for anything but 
miserable pelf2 no one trembled at the  
consideration of what might so soon     
befall him in his turn2 no one did for  
another what he would have wished others
 to do for him4 ,the bishop hereupon    

called together his flock1 and1 setting 
before them the example and teaching of 
their ,lord1 called on them to act up to
 it4 ,he said that if they took care    
only of their own people1 they did but  
what the commonest feeling would        
dictate2 the servant of ,christ must do 
more1 he must love his enemies1 and pray
 for his persecutors2 for ,god made his 
sun to rise and his rain to fall on all 
alike1 and he who would be the child of 
,god must imitate his ,father4' ,the    
people responded to his appeal2 they    
formed themselves into classes1 and they
 whose poverty prevented them from doing
 more gave their personal attendance    
while those who had property aided yet  
further4 ,no one quitted his post but   
with his life4 ,the example shows the   
more gloriously against the dark        
background of horror that stood so near4
 ,yet1 to the misery of the persecution 
by which the people were educated in    
sympathy1 patience1 fortitude1 and      
willingness to resign life1 the         

benignant heroism must1 in part1 have   
been due4 ,previous to the persecution  
the spirit of consecration had departed 
from the church4 ,christianity had      
become a social and class affair4       
,luxury had crept in1 and eaten up the  
heart of conviction4 ,the alliance of   
church and state had been especially    
disastrous to the church1 the mingling  
of secular ambition with spiritual      
aspiration operating fatally on the     
finer qualities of faith4 ,few could    
have suspected then that the spirit of  
,jesus had ever been with the church4   
,the persecution purged the christian   
communities with fire4 ,the surface was 
burned over1 and only the roots and     
seeds were left in the ground4 ,the     
persecution ended1 tranquillity being   
restored1 the roots burgeoned1 the seeds
 sprung up1 all the heroism of the two  
dreadful years1 all the patience and    
fortitude turned to gentleness2 and a   
copious rain of mercy1 blessing every   
body1 even the persecutors1 was the     

result of the battle's thunder and      
flame4 ,the suffering that had been     
endured softened the heart towards all  
suffering4 ,the persecutors no longer   
active or hateful1 their passive        
forbearance seemed1 in contrast with    
their recent fury1 a species of mercy   
calling for positive gratitude4 ,not to 
be hated was felt to be identical with  
being loved2 not to kill was by sudden  
revulsion of emotion1 accepted as a     
kindly saving of life4 ,to be kind to   
those who had desisted from hurting was 
natural4 ,besides1 the persecution was  
incited and pressed by the government in
 ,rome4 ,the populace even there were   
not responsible for it1 and in the      
distant provinces simply followed the   
metropolitan precedent4 ,their          
infatuation had therefore its pitiable  
as well as its outrageous aspect4 ,they 
too were victims of the imperial policy1
 were perishing of the contagion which  
that policy caused1 and thus were paying
 a terrible penalty for their own       

unwitting crime4 ,it is unnecessary to  
suppose that any personal contagion from
 the character of ,jesus1 stealing      
through the murky ages of eastern and   
western life1 communicated its saving   
grace to the ,carthaginian brotherhood4 
,uninspired human nature is sufficient  
to explain the beneficent display4  ,the
 conclusion is that no clearly defined  
traces of the personal ,jesus remain on 
the surface or beneath the surface of   
,christendom4 ,the silence of ,josephus 
and other secular historians may be     
accounted for without falling back on a 
theory of hostility or contempt4 ,the   
,christ-idea cannot be spared from      
,christian development1 but the personal
 ,jesus1 in some measure1 can be4  ,in  
some measure1 not wholly2 the earliest  
period of the church does require his   
presence2 the first1 the original1 the  
only disciples lived under the influence
 of a great personalty1 and were moulded
 by it4 ,their attachment to a          
commanding friend is avowed in the      

apparently authentic parts of the ,new  
,testament4 ,if we know anything about  
those men1 it is that they lived1 moved 
and had their being in the memory of a  
great friend4 ,their attachment to him  
took hold of their heart-strings4 ,they 
were haunted by him4 ,this appears in   
their frequent meetings for the         
expression and confirmation of their    
feelings1 in their communion suppers1   
memorial occasions purely and always1   
without a trace of mysticism or a shade 
of awe2 in their attachment to the      
places he had consecrated by his        
presence2 in their affection for each   
other4 ,ignorant they were1             
unintellectual1 unspiritual in the moral
 sense of the word1 rather impervious to
 ideas1 dull1 common place1             
simple-hearted4 ,they were not soaring  
spirits1 audacious1 independent like    
,paul1 but exactly the reverse1 timid1  
self-distrustful1 pusillanimous by      
constitution4 ,their ambition flew low1 
fluttering round sparkling jewels on the

 ,messianic crown4 ,their master was not
 such an one as they would have chosen1 
had they been allowed to select4 ,he met
 none of their expectations1 he         
fulfilled none of their hopes4 ,his     
rebuke was more frequent and more       
cordial than his praise4 ,their         
stupidity annoyed him1 their selfishness
 grieved his heart4 ,instead of         
justifying their confidence in him as   
the ,christ1 he utterly overthrew one   
form of it by allowing himself to be    
captured1 convicted and put to death4   
,still they clung to his memory4 ,true1 
they clung to him in the conviction that
 he was the ,christ and would have      
confessed themselves dupes had that     
conviction been dispelled4 ,but why was 
it not dispelled8 ,why did they believe1
 in the face of the crushing            
demonstration of the cross8 ,they       
anticipated his return1 because he had  
told them he should reappear in clouds4 
,but why did they believe him8 ,why did 
they believe1 when month after month1   

year after year1 went by and still he   
did not return8 ,it was because they    
loved him1 and trusted him in spite of  
evidence4 ,when he did not return1 they 
thought he meant to try their faith2    
still they met together2 still they     
prayed and waited1 imagining themselves 
to be in intimate communion with him in 
his skies4  ,that these men1 with their 
unworthy conceptions of the kingdom1    
accepted him as their ,christ1 proves   
not only that his power over them was   
very great1 but that he himself lived on
 the highest level of hebrew thought1   
and illustrated the highest type of     
hebrew character2 that he was a genuine 
prophet and saint2 all the more so1     
perhaps1 for the completeness of his    
self-abnegation4 ,had he raised the     
standard of revolt1 and appealed to     
arms1 his name might have been more     
conspicuous in secular history4 ,he     
sacrificed himself wholly2 kept no shred
 of preeminence for his own behoof4     
,hence1 the person of ,jesus1 though it 

may have been immense1 is indistinct4   
,that a great character was there may be
 conceded2 but precisely wherein the    
character was great1 is left to our     
conjecture4 ,of the eminent persons who 
have swayed the spiritual destinies of  
mankind1 none has more completely       
disappeared from the critical view4 ,the
 ideal image which christians have1 for 
nearly two thousand years worshipped    
under the name of ,jesus1 has no        
authentic1 distinctly visible           
counterpart in history4  ,this          
conclusion will be distressing to those 
who have accorded to ,jesus1 by virtue  
of a perfect humanity a certain primacy 
over the human race1 and even to those  
who1 regarding him as the complete      
fulfilment and perfect type of human    
character have looked to him as the     
beacon star guiding the nations1 groping
 on their way4 ,it will be welcome only 
to the few calm minds who feel the force
 of ideas1 the regenerating power of    
principles4 ,these will rejoice to be   

relieved of the last thin shadow of a   
supernatural authority in the past1 and 
committed without reserve to the support
 and solace of simple humanity trained  
in the humble observance of             
uninterrupted law4 ,their gratitude for 
the human influence of the person is    
unqualified by distrust of the claims of
 the individual4  ,the ,christ of the   
fourth ,gospel--the incarnate ,word--who
 has been asserting absolute spiritual  
creatorship over his disciples1 calling 
himself the vine whereof they were      
branches1 the door by which they must   
enter1 the light by which they must     
walk1 the way their steps must          
tread1--says to them at the critical    
hour3 ,it is expedient for you that ,i  
go away2 if ,i go not away the          
,comforter cannot come to you4 ,there   
was danger in his personal continuance4 
,they were to live not in dependence on 
him1 but in communion with the ,spirit  
of ,truth1 which1 as proceeding from him
 and from the ,father also1 was to bring

 freshly home to them what he had said1 
and to guide them further on to all     
truth4 ,how many times must those words 
be repeated1 with new applications in   
the new exigencies of faith6 ,how little
 disposition do we find in his followers
 to heed them6 ,they have gone on with  
the process of idealization1 placing him
 higher and higher2 making his personal 
existence more and more essential2      
insisting more and more urgently on the 
necessity of private intercourse with   
him2 letting the ,father subside into   
the background as an effluence1 and the 
,holy ,ghost lapse from individual      
identity into impersonal influence1 in  
order that he might be all in all as    
regenerator and saviour4 ,from age to   
age the personal ,jesus has been made   
the object of an extreme adoration1 till
 now1 faith in the living ,christ is the
 heart of the gospel2 philosophy1       
science1 culture1 humanity are thrust   
resolutely aside1 and the great teachers
 of the race are extinguished in order  

that his light may shine4  ,yet from age
 to age the warning has been given      
again1 the vain farewell has been       
spoken1 it is expedient for you that ,i 
go away4 ,perhaps he went1 in one form2 
but he quickly re-appeared in another2  
and each new presentation had its own   
special kind of evil effect4 ,the       
,christ of ,peter1 ,james and ,john     
retired to make room for ,paul's ,lord  
from heaven4 ,he withdrew in favor of   
the incarnate ,word4 ,the incarnate     
,word loses itself in the ,second       
,person of the ,trinity4 ,the           
imagination of man1 unable to invent    
further transformations rested here3    
,christendom for fifteen hundred years  
has knelt in awe before the divine image
 it projected on the clouds of heaven4  
,but the work of disenchantment began   
early4 ,the sublimated ideal slowly came
 down from the skies4 ,the glorified    
,christ assumed the lineaments of a     
human being1 from ,deity became         
archangel1 chief of all the celestial   

hierarchy2 from archangel slipped down  
through the ranks of spirits1 till he   
occupied the place of ,son of ,god1     
preexistent1 and in attributes1         
super-human2 thence he declined a step  
to the position of premiership over the 
human family1 the inaugurator of a new  
type of man1 virgin-born as indicating  
that he was not the natural product of  
the generations but was introduced into 
nature by an original law2 a further    
lapse from the supreme dignity brought  
him to the plane of humanity1 but       
reported him as miraculously endowed    
with gifts from the ,holy ,spirit1      
supernaturally graced with attributes of
 power and wisdom1 sent on a special    
mission to found a church and declare a 
law1 raised from the dead to demonstrate
 immortality1 and lifted to the skies to
 establish the presence of a living     
,deity4 ,to this eminent station he bids
 farewell to stand as the perfect man1  
teacher1 reformer1 saint1 before the    
enthusiastic gaze of humanitarians1 who 

made amends for the spoliation of his   
celestial wardrobe by the splendor with 
which they endowed his human soul4 ,here
 the idealists place him1 still claiming
 for him no exceptional birth1 no       
super-human origin1 no preexistence1 no 
miraculous powers over nature1 no       
superiority of wit or wisdom1 no        
immunity from errors of opinion or      
mistakes of judgment1 no fated sanctity 
of will1 no moral impeccability1 but    
ascribing to him an unerringness of     
spiritual insight1 an even loftiness of 
soul1 an incorruptibility of conscience1
 a depth and comprehensiveness of       
humanity which raise him far above the  
plane of history1 and tempt them to look
 longingly backward1 instead of         
directing a steady gaze forward4 ,but   
this figure is now seen to be an ideal1 
like the rest unjustified by chronicle  
or by fact4 ,the comforter1 which is the
 spirit of truth1 requires that he      
should go away1 following his           
predecessors into the realm of majestic 

and beneficent illusion4 ,the ,christ in
 every guise disappears and there remain
 only the uneven and incomplete         
footprints of a son of man from which we
 can conclude only that a regal person  
at one time passed that way4  ,all these
 transformations1 it will be observed1  
came in the order of mental development1
 each timely and beneficent in its      
place4 ,the crowning and the            
dis-crowning were alike inevitable and  
good4 ,the glorification and the        
disappearance were both justified4 ,the 
final change comes neither too late nor 
too soon2 not too late1 for still the   
immense majority of mankind live in     
sentiment and imagination1 worship ideal
 shapes1 being quite incapable of       
appreciating knowledge1 loving truth1 or
 obeying principles4 ,it will be        
generations yet1 before any save the    
comparatively few think they can live   
without this great friend at their side4
 ,sentiment is conservative4 ,the poetic
 feeling detains in picturesque form the

 ideas which if exposed to the action of
 clear intelligence would be rejected as
 unsubstantial4 ,the imagination like   
the ivy loves to beautify ruins1 making 
even robber castles and deserted palaces
 attractive to tourists4 ,wordsworth1   
the poet of ,nature expresses the       
feeling that will at times come over    
powerful and cultivated minds1 in moods 
of sentiment--      ,the world is too   
much with us2 late and soon1            
,getting and spending we lay waste our  
powers4     ,little we see in ,nature   
that is ours2     ,we have given our    
hearts away1 a sordid boon6     ,this   
,sea that bares her bosom to the ,moon1 
,the winds that will be howling at all  
hours1     ,and are up-gathered now like
 sleeping flowers1     ,for this1 for   
everything1 we are out of tune1     ,it 
moves us not2--,great ,god6 ,i'd rather 
be     ,a ,pagan suckled in a creed     
outworn2     ,so might ,i1 standing on  
this pleasant lea1     ,have glimpses   
that would make me less forlorn1        

,have sight of ,proteus rising from the 
sea1     ,or hear old ,triton blow his  
wreathed horn4  ,this is pure sentiment4
 ,the sea was as lovely to ,wordsworth1 
is as lovely to ,tyndall1 as it was to  
the superstitious ,greeks4 ,the winds   
awaken similar emotions in the sensitive
 being4 ,why then1 should ,wordsworth1  
having all that is or ever was to be    
had1 beauty of form1 movement1 color1   
regret the superstition that peopled the
 sea with fanciful beings and animated  
the winds with supernatural spirits8    
,why not be content with the facts1 and 
the more content1 because the fancies   
are gone that disguised them8 ,is it not
 a weakness to love dreams better than  
realities8 ,mr4 ,leslie ,stephen1 in his
 admirable ,history of ,english ,thought
 in the ,,xviii century explains this   
mood of mind by saying that for the     
expression of feeling symbols are       
necessary1 and superstition supplies all
 the symbols there are4 ,the bare truth 
may awaken emotions1 but it gives them  

no voice1 and emotion unuttered1 becomes
 feeble2 in all but sensitive natures it
 dies4 ,in time1 says ,mr4 ,stephen1 the
 loss may be replaced1 the new language 
may be learnt2 we may be content with   
direct vision1 instead of mixing facts  
with dreams2 but the process is slow2   
and till it is completed1 the new belief
 will not have the old power over the   
mind4 ,the symbols which have been      
associated with the hopes and fears1    
with the loftiest aspirations and       
warmest affections of so many           
generations may be proved to be only    
symbols2 but they long retain their     
power over the imagination4 ,it is not  
wise1 therefore1 to be impatient with   
sentiment that has so valid an excuse2  
nor is it magnanimous to stigmatize as  
weak and childish the romantic          
attachment to the symbol which is all   
that remains1 which1 with the           
unthinking1 unadventurous multitude is  
so large a part of what abides of the   
mind's spiritual endowment4 ,we must be 

patient with the conservatism that is   
born1 not of fear1 but of feeling1      
sympathizing when we can1 with those    
that grieve when the idols lose their   
sanctity1 and rejoicing that sentiment  
has the power to break the shock caused 
by the sudden dispelling of illusions4  
,at the same time1 it must be remembered
 that intellect is the propelling force 
in the intellectual world2 that the     
acute1 unimaginative1 determined minds1 
impatient of the mists1 however         
beautiful1 that conceal knowledge1 clear
 a way for the homes and gardens of the 
new generations2 that the love of truth1
 simple and unadorned1 is the mother at 
last of real beauty4  ,the disappearance
 of the resplendent figure of the       
,christ from the heaven of our          
philosophy has not1 therefore1 come too 
soon2 for thinking1 clear-sighted1 brave
 and resolute minds there are4          
,discerning eyes1 bright and gentle1    
look out and see the fields1 sown with  
new seed1 whitening for a new harvest4  

,to such as these ,jesus is no longer   
necessary for faith in humanity1 for    
enthusiasm and constancy in humanity's  
service4 ,heroic men and saintly women  
exist in such numbers and in such       
variety that they sit in judgment on the
 judges1 and call the censors to        
account4 ,the education of mankind in   
the qualities that knit and adorn       
society has gone so far that these      
virtues require no longer a super-human 
representative to give them honor4      
,knowledge of every kind has so         
abundantly increased that the aid of    
revelation to throw light on important  
subjects is not demanded4 ,philosophy1  
literature1 science have taken          
possession of the fields once occupied  
by the surmise of faith1 and are        
carefully mapping out the departments of
 speculation4 ,the problems that remain 
dark1--and they are the many1--we are   
content should remain so till light     
comes from the proper sources4 ,the     
darkest of them1 no darker than they    

have always been1 are no longer         
complicated by the difficulties of      
revelation which added enigmas where    
there were enough before1 but lie open  
to all the light that can be thrown upon
 them4 ,the confusion introduced into   
the orderly sequence of the world's     
development by the exceptionally        
providential man subsides1 and the      
cumulative power of history is brought  
to bear on the necessities of the hour4 
,relieved from the sacred duty of       
turning backward for the form of the    
perfect man1 thereby overlooking the    
present and suspecting the future1 we   
are permitted to estimate fairly the    
conditions of the present existence1 and
 to prepare for the future with         
unprejudiced1 rational minds4 ,the      
standard of moral attainment and the    
quality of moral character set up as    
authoritative by any single race1       
however distinguished1 by any one era1  
however brilliant1 abuses and injures   
the standards of other races1 and casts 

suspicion on the attributes of other    
generations4 ,the belief that at some   
time humanity has already come to full  
flower1 discourages the laborers in the 
human garden4 ,humanity is still        
a-making2 its perfection is prophecy not
 history4  ,the lesson of the hour is   
self-dependence1 or rather1 if we       
prefer1 dependence on the laws of       
reason4 ,it will be a gain for truth    
when true thoughts shall be welcomed    
because they are true1 not because they 
are spoken by a particular sage2 when   
erroneous thoughts shall be judged by   
their demerits1 without fear of casting 
affront on the character of a saint4    
,james ,martineau's tender wisdom gains 
nothing in charm by being attributed to 
his beautiful fiction of a ,christ1 and 
,mr4 ,moody's painful caricatures of    
,providence have an unfair advantage in 
being sheltered behind the authority of 
the ,hebrew ,messiah4 ,the holy beauty  
of ,mr4 ,martineau's ideal person is    
more than offset by the awful grandeur  

of the evangelical ,avenger1 equally a  
creature of imagination4 ,in the realm  
of fancy the lurid conception outlasts  
and overwhelms the radiant one4 ,safety 
lies in withdrawal from the realm of    
fancy1 and domestication in the humbler 
realm of fact4 ,the lesson can be now   
safely taught4 ,let men learn it as soon
 as they will4 ,dependence on individual
 personalities has been the rule        
hitherto2 dependence on general ideas   
and organic laws1 dependence on         
discovered fact and intelligent         
conclusion1 will be the reliance        
hereafter4 ,as for the demands of the   
heart1 which must have persons to cling 
to1 they will adjust themselves to the  
new science and will satisfy themselves 
in the future as they have done in the  
past4 ,are all the fine personalities   
dead8 ,then the sooner we give them a   
chance to revive by removing the        
prodigious personality whose shadow has 
blighted them1 the better for us4 ,are  
there none to love with enthusiastic    

ardor8 ,who have made us think so1 if   
not they by whom all amiable and        
adorable attributes have been claimed   
before8 ,are there no feet it is an     
honor to sit at1 no heads it is a       
privilege to anoint1 no hands it is a   
dignity to kiss8 ,whose fault can this  
be1 if not theirs who challenged the    
adoration of men and women and          
pronounced it consecrated because       
rendered to him for one8 ,are there no  
leaders worth following1 no causes worth
 espousing8 ,they that think so must be 
listening to the voice that bade men    
follow in ,galilee1 and sighing because 
they cannot take up the cross that was  
imposed on the faithful in the cities of
 ,judaea4  ,the imagination of man has  
not lost its power or forgotten its     
function since it performed the         
prodigious task of enthroning its hope  
by the side of the godhead4 ,it is      
adequate to new and healthier           
performance4 ,a world of fresh materials
 lies before it2 new heavens display    

their glories2 a new earth offers       
opportunity and prospect2 a new humanity
 presents its varieties of good and     
evil4 ,new beauties gladden the open    
vision2 new glories fascinate the       
kindling hope4 ,the regions of          
possibility1 so far from being          
exhausted1 have but begun to disclose   
their treasures4 ,the realities of      
to-day surpass the ideals of yesterday4 
,art has a new birth4 ,poetry has a new 
birth4 ,philosophy teems with new       
births4 ,these all look forward with    
confident expectation4 ,why should      
religion1 which has built up more       
grandeurs than any of them1 turn her    
back to the new day1 confess her        
creative power exhausted1 and creep back
 to the images of her own idolatry8 ,the
 ,christ-idea1 become human1 will       
surpass its old triumphs4               
,,authorities4   ,to meet the wishes of 
such as may desire to know on what      
grounds his opinions are founded1 or to 
pursue them further1 the author gives   

the titles of a few books that may be   
profitably consulted4 ,it were easy to  
make a long list of erudite works2 much 
easier than to make a short list of     
accessible and suggestive volumes4 ,in  
an essay prepared for the intelligent   
and thoughtful1 not for the learned or  
scholarly class1 reference to stores of 
erudition would be out of place4 ,for   
this reason1 the pages are left         
unencumbered with notes1 and the books  
cited are purposely such as come within 
easy reach of general readers4 ,the     
better known book is preferred before   
the less known1 the conservative when it
 will answer the purpose1 before the    
destructive4 ,if the whole case were    
presentable in ,english1 none but       
,english authorities would be mentioned4
 ,unfortunately for the general reader1 
the best literature is in ,german or    
,french1 much of which is still         
untranslated4 ,to indicate these is a   
necessity for those who are acquainted  
with those languages1 while those who   

are not1 will1 it is believed1 find     
enough in ,english writings reasonably  
to satisfy their need4  ,the titles of  
the books indicate sufficiently the     
points on which they throw light4 ,the  
classical references1 which are         
numerous1 are most copious in ,denis and
 ,huidekoper1 though ,lecky1 ,renan1    
,johnson and others cite all the most   
important4      ,allen1 ,j4 ,h4         
,hebrew ,men and ,times4      ,baur1 ,f4
 ,c4           ,kanonische ,evangelien4 
,paulus1--7,translated47                
,drei ,ersten ,jahrhunderte4            
,socrates und ,christus4                
,die ,tuebinger ,schule4                
,ursprung des ,episcopaets4             
,baring-,gould1 ,s4      ,lost and      
,hostile ,gospels4      ,buddha4        
,romantic ,history of4      ,cohen4     
,les ,deicides1 7,translated47          
,coquerel1 ,a4          ,histoire du    
,credo4                           ,les  
premieres ,transformations              
,historiques du ,christianisme4         

,des ,beaux ,arts en ,italie4           
,cowper1 ,b4 ,harris4    ,the           
,apocryphal ,gospels4      ,deutsch1 ,e4
           ,the ,talmud4      ,didron4  
,iconographie ,chretienne1              
7,translated47       ,ewald1 ,heinrich4 
,history of the ,people ,israel4        
,prophets of the ,old ,testament4       
,drei ,ersten ,evangelien4              
,english ,life of ,jesus4               
,fontane's4            ,le              
,christianisme ,moderne4      ,furness1 
,w4 ,h4        ,life of ,jesus4         
,jesus and his ,biographers4            
,gingsburg1            ,the ,essenes    
,geiger4               ,judenthum und   
,seine ,geschichte4      ,greg1 ,w4 ,r4 
,the ,creed of ,christendom4      ,huet1
 ,f4              ,la ,revolution       
,religieuse4      ,huidekoper1 ,f4      
,judaism at ,rome4      ,hennell1 ,c4   
,c4        ,origin of ,christianity4    
,christian ,theism4      ,hennell1 ,s4  
,s4        ,christianity and            
,infidelity4                            

,present ,religion4      ,holyoake4     
,christianity and ,secularism4          
,johnson1 ,s4           ,the ,worship of
 ,jesus4      ,jost4                    
,geschichte des ,judenthum4             
,knight1 ,richd4 ,payne4 ,the           
,symbolical ,language of                
,ancient ,art and ,mythology4           
,lecky1 ,w4 ,e4 ,h4       ,history of   
,european ,morals      ,lundy1 ,j4 ,p4  
,monumental ,christianity4              
,martineau1 ,james4     ,studies of     
,christianity4      ,merivale1 ,charles4
    ,conversion of the ,roman ,empire4  
,milman1 ,h4 ,h4         ,history of the
 ,jews4                                 
,history of ,christianity4              
,history of ,latin ,christianity4       
,maury1 ,alfred4        ,les ,legendes  
,pieuses du ,moyen ,age4                
,la ,magie et l'astrologie dans         
l'antiquite                             
et au ,moyen ,age4      ,neander1 ,a4   
,life of ,jesus4                        
,planting and ,training of the ,church4 

,newman1 ,f4 ,w4         ,history of the
 ,hebrew ,monarchy4                     
,phases of ,faith4     ,catholic ,union4
      ,nicolas1 ,michel4      ,des      
,doctrines ,religieuses des ,juifs4     
,essais de ,philos4 et d'histoire       
religieuse4                             
,etudes ,critiques sur la ,bible4       
,les ,evangiles ,apocryphes4            
,le ,symbole des ,apotres4              
,philippson4           ,developpement de
 l'idee religieuse4      ,parker1       
,theodore4     ,discourse of ,religion4 
,pressense1 ,ed4 ,de4    ,jesus ,christ1
 son temps1 sa vie1 son oeuvre4         
,renan1 ,ernest4        ,life of ,jesus4
                           ,the         
,apostles4                              
,st4 ,paul4                             
,l',antichrist4                         
,etudes d',histoire religieuse4         
,reville1 ,a4           ,histoire du    
,dogme de la ,divinite de ,jesus        
,christ4                                
,essais de ,critique religieuse4        

,etudes ,critiques sur l'evangile selon 
,st4                                    
,matthieu4                              
,quatre ,conferences sur le             
,christianisme4                         
,la vie de ,jesus de ,m4 ,renan4        
,theodore ,parker4                      
,l'enseignement de ,jesus ,christ       
comparee a celui                        
de ses ,disciples4      ,reuss1 ,ed4    
,histoire du ,canon dans l'eglise       
,chretienne4                            
,the ,apostolic ,age4 7,translated47    
,rodrigues4            ,origin du       
,sermon de la ,montagne4      ,schenkel4
             ,character of ,jesus 7tr4  
by ,furness74      ,schwegler1 ,a4      
,das ,nachapostolische ,zeitalter4      
,strauss4              ,leben ,jesu4    
7,translated47                          
,leben ,jesu fur das ,deutsche ,volk4   
,christliche ,glaubenslehre4            
,the ,old ,faith and the ,new4          
,supernatural ,religion4                
,schlesinger1 ,m4       ,the ,historical

 ,jesus of ,nazareth4      ,salvador4   
,jesus ,christ et sa ,doctrine4         
,tayler1 ,j4 ,j4         ,the ,fourth   
,gospel4      ,thierry1 ,a4             
,tableau de l'empire ,romain4           
,vacherot ,etienne4     ,la ,religion4  
,weber1 ,c4 ,f4          ,neue          
,untersuchung ueber das ,alter          
und ,ansehen des ,ev4 der ,hebraeer4    
,wise1 ,isaac ,m4        ,the ,origin of
 ,christianity4      ,zeller1 ,ed4      
,acts of the ,apostles4 7,translated47  
,strauss und ,renan4 7,translated47     
99       99       99       99       99  
,,washington ,,irving',s ,,works4  ,the 
delight of childhood1 the chivalric     
companion of refined womanhood1 the     
solace of life at every period1 his     
writings are an imperishable legacy of  
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,bracebridge ,hall4     ,wolfert's      
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,alhambra4     ,columbus1 #c vols4      

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     ,spanish ,papers4     ,washington1 
#e vols4     ,life and ,letters1 #c     
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,by ,,richard ,,irving ,,dodge1 ,colonel
 in the ,u4,s4 ,army4 #a large octavo   
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,colonel ,dodge has1 during many years1 
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they live1 and the record of his        
experiences and observations will be    

found not only most fascinating reading1
 but a trustworthy and authoritative    
guide on the subjects of which it       
treats4  ,,van ,,laun4 ,,the ,,history  
,,of ,,french ,,literature4  ,by ,,henri
 ,,van ,,laun4 ,translator of ,taine's  
,history of ,english ,literature1 the   
,works of ,moliere1 etc41 etc4  ,vol4   
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,,renaissance4 #hvo1 cloth extra1 #c4jj4
  ,we have to deal with a people        
essentially spirited and intellectual1  
whose spirit and intellect have been    
invariably the wonder and admiration1 if
 not the model and mould1 of            
contemporary thought1 and whose literary
 triumphs remain to this day among the  
most notable landmarks of modern        
literature4 99 99 99 ,extract from      
,author's ,preface4   ,,stephens4       
,,english ,,thought ,,in ,,the          
,,eighteenth ,,century4  ,by ,,leslie   
,,stephens1 author of ,hours in a       
,library1 etc41 etc4 #b volumes1 large  
octavo1 cloth extra1 #h4jj4       99 99 

99 ,thus the progress of the intellect  
necessarily involves a      conflict4   
,it implies destruction1 as correlative 
to growth4 ,the      history of thought 
is1 in great part1 a history of the     
gradual      emancipation of the mind   
from the errors spontaneously           
generated by its first childlike        
attempts at speculative      doctrines  
which once appeared to be simply        
expressions of      immediate           
observation1 have contained a           
hypothetical element1      gradually    
dissolved by contact with               
facts4--,extract from      ,author's    
,preface4        ,,the ,,select         
,,british ,,essayists4 ,a series planned
 to consist of      half a dozen        
volumes1 comprising the ,representative 
,papers of      ,the ,spectator1        
,tatler1 ,guardian1 ,rambler1 ,lounger1 
,mirror1 ,looker-,on1 etc41 etc4        
,edited1 with ,introduction and         
,biographical ,sketches of the ,authors1
 by ,,john ,,habberton4       ,vol4     

,i4--,,the ,,spectator4 ,by ,,addison   
and ,,steele4 ,square #afmo1            
beautifully printed1 and tastefully     
bound in cloth extra1 #a4be       ,this 
series has been planned to preserve1 and
 to present in a      form at once      
attractive and economical1 the          
permanently      valuable portions of   
those standard productions of the       
,essayists1 which1 as well for the      
perfection of their ,english      style1
 as for the sterling worth of their     
matter are deservedly      perennial4   
,vol4 #b4 ,,sir ,,roger ,,de ,,coverly  
,,papers4 ,from ,the ,spectator ,one    
volume1 #afmo1 #a4jj4       ,mr4        
,habberton has given us a truly readable
 and delightful      selection from a   
series of volumes that ought possibly   
never to      go out of fashion1 but    
which by the reason of their length and 
slightly antiquated form there is danger
 of our      overlooking4--,liberal     
,christian4          ,a ,,selection     
,,from ,,standard ,,publications        

,,by ,,john ,,bascom1     ,president of 
the ,university of ,wisconsin4    ,i4   
,the ,principles of ,psychology4        
#abmo1 ,cloth1 #a4ge4       ,to the few 
who think and investigate1 this book    
will be a rare      delight4--,san      
,francisco ,bulletin4   ,,ii4 ,science1 
,philosophy1 and ,religion4       #abmo1
 ,cloth1 #a4ge4       ,vigorous1        
thoughtful1 sometimes brilliant1 and    
uncommonly      refreshing              
reading4--,boston ,commonwealth4  ,,iii4
 ,the ,philosophy of ,religion4         
,large #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b4jj4   ,,iv4    
,the ,philosophy of ,english            
,literature4       #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a4ge4
       ,a knowledge of forces as well as
 of facts is essential to our           
comprehension of any phenomenon4 ,it is 
this which the author      helps us to  
gain4--,chicago ,tribune4       ,by ,p4 
,a4 ,,chadbourne1     ,president of     
,williams ,college4      ,i4 ,natural   
,theology2 or1 ,nature and the ,bible4  
,from the same ,author4        #abmo1   

,cloth1 #a4ej4       ,once taken up     
cannot be laid down unread4--,washington
      ,republic4   ,,ii4 ,instinct--,its
 ,office in the ,animal ,kingdom1 and   
,its ,relation to the       ,higher     
,powers in ,man4       #abmo1 ,cloth1   
#a4ge4       ,by ,,john ,j4 ,,elmendorf1
     ,professor of ,mental ,science in  
,racine ,college4   ,the ,outlines of   
the ,history of ,philosophy4            
#abmo1 ,cloth4       ,a succinct        
,chronological ,record and ,analysis of 
,systems of      ,philosophy from the   
earliest times to the present day1      
prepared      as a guide to the ,student
 and to the general reader4   ,by       
,,james ,,martineau1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d4   
,i4 ,religion as ,affected by ,modern   
,materialism4        #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ge 
cents4    ,,ii4 ,the ,attitude of       
,materialism ,towards ,theology4        
#abmo1 ,cloth1 #a4jj4       ,the ablest 
analyses of ,tyndall and his school of  
thought that      have yet              
appeared4--,london ,spectator4          

,,valuable ,,books  ,,published ,,by    
,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons1  ,new ,york4
   ,i4 ,tent ,life in ,siberia4         
,,adventures ,,among ,,the ,,koraks     
,,and ,,other ,,tribes ,,in ,,kamchatka 
,,and ,,northern ,,asia4 ,fifth         
,edition4 #abmo1 cloth extra #b #jj     
,we strongly recommend this book as one 
of the most      entertaining volumes of
 travel that have appeared for some     
years4--,london ,athenaeum4  ,,ii4      
,travels in ,portugal4 ,by ,,john       
,,latouche4 ,with ,photographic         
,illustrations4 ,octavo1 cloth extra #c 
#ej       ,a delightfully written book1 
at fair as it is pleasant4 99 99 99     
,entertaining1 fresh1 and as full of wit
 as of valuable                         
information4--,london ,spectator4       
,,iii4 ,the ,abode of ,snow4 ,a ,,tour  
,,through ,,chinese ,,tibet1 ,,the      
,,indian ,,caucasus1 ,,and ,,the ,,upper
 ,,valleys ,,of ,,the ,,himalaya4 ,by   
,,andrew ,,wilson4 ,square octavo1 cloth
 extra1 with map #b #be       ,there is 

not a page in this volume which will not
 repay      perusal4 99 99 99 ,the      
author describes all he meets with on   
his      way with inimitable            
spirit4--,london ,athenaeum4  ,,iv4 ,the
 ,life and ,journals of ,john ,j4       
,audubon1 the ,naturalist4 ,comprising  
,narratives of his ,expeditions in the  
,american ,forests1 c4 #abmo1 cloth     
extra1 with ,portrait #b #be       ,it  
is a grand story of a grand life2 more  
instructive than a      sermon2 more    
romantic than a romance4--,harpers'     
,magazine4  ,v4 ,notes on ,england and  
,italy4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,nathaniel           
,,hawthorne 7wife of the ,novelist74    
,third edition4 #abmo1 cloth #b #jj     
,illustrated ,edition1 with #ab ,steel  
,plates4 ,octavo1 cloth extra1 gilt     
edges #e #jj       ,one of the most     
delightful books of travel that have    
come      under our notice4--,worcester 
,spy4       ,the grace and tenderness of
 the author of the ',scarlet ,letter'   
is discernable in its pages4--,london   

,saturday ,review4  ,,vi4 ,recollections
 of a ,tour ,made in ,scotland in #ahjc4
 ,by ,,dorothy ,,wordsworth 7,sister of 
the ,poet74 ,edited by ,,principal      
,,shairp1 ,,ll4,d4 #abmo1 cloth extra #b
 #ej       ,the volume glistens with    
charming passages1 showing how rich     
in ',wordsworthian' fancy was this      
modest sister4--,london      ,athenaeum4
  ,,vii4 ,bayard ,taylor's ,travel4     
,complete in #aj ,vols4 ,containing     
works upon ,africa2 ,egypt2 ,iceland2   
,california and ,mexico2 ,greece and    
,russia2 ,india1 ,china and ,japan2     
,palestine1 ,asia ,minor1 ,sicily and   
,spain2 ,sweden1 ,denmark and ,lapland2 
,europe1 c41 c4 ,per volume #a #ej  ,or1
 #aa ,volumes1 neatly put up in box #af 
#ej       ,there is no romance to us    
quite equal to one of ,bayard           
,taylor's books of travel4--,hartford   
,republican4  ,,putnam',s ,,new         
,,catalogue will be forwarded to any    
address on receipt of stamp4   ,,books  
,,by ,,octavius ,b4 ,,frothingham4      

,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,humanity4 ,,an  
,,essay4  ,third ,edition--,revised4    
,price1 #a4ej4       ,nobody can peruse 
this book without respect for the       
learning1      mental honesty and skill 
in the statement of his convictions1    
possessed by the author1 and for the    
essential integrity and                 
philanthropic tendency of his           
spirit4--,springfield      ,republican4 
,a profoundly sincere book1 the work of 
one who has read      largely1 studied  
thoroughly1 reflected patiently4 99 99  
99 ,it is a      model of scholarly     
culture and of finished and vigorous    
style4--,boston ,globe4       ,a marked 
book1 forming a most important          
contribution to our      religious      
literature4--,boston ,register4   ,,the 
,,child',s ,,book ,,of ,,religion4  ,for
 ,sunday-,schools and ,homes4 ,price1   
#a4jj4   ,,the ,,safest ,,creed1 ,,and  
,,other ,,discourses4  #abmo1 ,cloth1   
#a4ej4       ,we commend these          
discourses1 not as food for babes1 but  

as      full of suggestion for earnest  
and thoughtful men4   ,,stories ,,from  
,,the ,,lips ,,of ,,the ,,teacher4      
,with ,frontispiece4 ,cloth1 #a4jj4     
,the ,parables are so re-told as to     
absorb the attention of the      reader1
 and to fasten upon the mind what the   
writer believes to      have been the   
impression the ,saviour meant to convey4
 ,it is in      style and thought a     
superior book1 and will interest alike  
young and old4--,zion's ,herald         
7,methodist47   ,,stories ,,of ,,the    
,,patriarchs4  ,with ,frontispiece4     
,cloth1 #a4jj4       ,a work of culture 
and taste2 it will be welcome to all    
ages1      and gives the sublimest      
lessons of manhood in the simple        
language of a child4--,springfield      
,republican4   ,,beliefs ,,of ,,the     
,,unbelievers4 ,a ,,lecture4  #abmo1    
,paper1 #be cents4   ,,transcendentalism
 ,,in ,,new ,,england4 ,a ,,history4    
,with sketches and studies of ,emerson1 
,alcott1 ,parker1 ,margaret ,fuller1 the

 ,brook-,farm ,community1 etc4  #hvo1   
,cloth extra1 with steel portrait of the
 author1 #b4ej4   ,,the ,,life ,,of     
,,theodore ,,parker4  #hvo4 ,with       
,portrait1 #c4jj4