,,astronomy ,,with ,,an ,,opera-,,glass ,a ,,popular ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,starry ,,heavens ,,with ,,the ,,simplest ,,of ,,optical ,,instruments ,,with ,,maps ,,and ,,directions ,,to ,,facilitate ,,the ,,recognition ,,of ,,the ,,constellations ,,and ,,the ,,principal ,,stars ,,visible ,,to ,,the ,,naked ,,eye ,,by ,,garrett ,p4 ,,serviss ,known are their laws2 in harmony unroll ,the nineteen-orbed cycles of the ,moon4 ,and all the signs through which ,night whirls her car ,from belted ,orion back to ,orion and his dauntless ,hound1 ,and all ,poseidon's1 all high ,zeus' stars ,bear on their beams true messages to man4 ,,poste',s ,,aratus4 ,,third ,,edition ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company ,,london3 ,,caxton ,,house1 ,,paternoster ,,square #ahij ,,copyright1 #ahhh1 ,,by ,d ,,appleton ,,and ,,company4 ,,to ,,the ,,reader ,in the pages that follow1 the author has endeavored to encourage the study of the heavenly bodies by pointing out some of the interesting and marvelous phenomena of the universe that are visible with little or no assistance from optical instruments1 and indicating means of becoming acquainted with the constellations and the planets4 ,knowing that an opera-glass is capable of revealing some of the most beautiful sights in the starry dome1 and believing that many persons would be glad to learn the fact1 he set to work with such an instrument and surveyed all the constellations visible in the latitude of ,new ,york1 carefully noting everything that it seemed might interest amateur star-gazers4 ,all the objects thus observed have not been included in this book1 lest the multiplicity of details should deter or discourage the very readers for whom it was specially written4 ,on the other hand1 there is nothing described as visible with an opera-glass or a field-glass which the author has not seen with an instrument of that description1 and which any person possessing eye-sight of average quality and a competent glass should not be able to discern4 ,but1 in order to lend due interest to the subject1 and place it before the reader in a proper light and true perspective1 many facts have been stated concerning the objects described1 the ascertainment of which has required the aid of powerful telescopes1 and to observers with such instruments is reserved the noble pleasure of confirming with their own eyes those wonderful discoveries which the looker with an opera-glass can not hope to behold unless1 happily1 he should be spurred on to the possession of a telescope4 ,yet even to glimpse dimly these distant wonders1 knowing what a closer view would reveal1 is a source of no mean satisfaction1 while the celestial phenomena that lie easily within reach of an opera-glass are sufficient to furnish delight and instruction for many an evening4 ,it should be said that the division of the stars used in this book into the ,stars of ,spring1 ,stars of ,summer1 ,stars of ,autumn1 and ,stars of ,winter1 is purely arbitrary1 and intended only to indicate the seasons when certain constellations are best situated for observation or most conspicuous4 ,the greater part of the matter composing this volume appeared originally in a series of articles contributed by the author to ,the ,popular ,science ,monthly in #ahhg-'hh4 ,the reception that those articles met with encouraged him to revise and enlarge them for publication in the more permanent form of a book4 ,g4 ,p4 ,s4 ,,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y41 ,september1 #ahhh4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,introduction #a ,popular interest in the phenomena of the heavens4 ,the opera-glass as an instrument of observation for beginners in star-study4 ,testing an opera-glass4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,stars ,,of ,,spring #g ,description of the ,constellations--,auriga1 the ,charioteer2 ,berenice's ,hair2 ,cancer1 the ,crab the ,manger2 ,canis ,minor1 the ,lesser ,dog2 ,corvus1 the ,crow2 ,crateris1 the ,cup2 ,gemini1 the ,twins2 ,hydra1 the ,water-,serpent2 ,leo1 the ,lion2 ,ursa ,major1 the ,greater ,bear the ,great ,dipper2 ,ursa ,minor1 the ,lesser ,bear the ,pole-,star4 ,a circular index-map1 maps on a larger scale1 of the constellations described1 and pictures of remarkable objects4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,stars ,,of ,,summer #cj ,description of the ,constellations--,aquila1 the ,eagle2 ,booetes1 the ,herdsman1 or ,bear-,diver2 ,canes ,venatici1 the ,hunting-,dogs2 ,cygnus1 the ,swan the ,northern ,cross2 ,delphinus1 the ,dolphin2 ,draco1 the ,dragon2 ,hercules the ,great ,sun-,swarm1 #ac ,m2 ,libra1 the ,balance2 ,lyra1 the ,harp2 the ,northern ,crown2 ,ophiuchus et ,serpens1 the ,serpent-bearer and the ,serpent2 ,sagitta1 the ,arrow2 ,sagittarius1 the ,archer2 ,scorpio1 the ,scorpion2 ,sobieski's ,shield2 ,taurus ,poniatowskii1 ,poniatowsky's ,bull2 ,virgo1 the ,virgin the ,field of the ,nebulae2 ,vulpecula1 the ,little ,fox4 ,a circular index-map1 maps1 on a larger scale1 of the constellations described1 and pictures of remarkable objects4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,stars ,,of ,,autumn #fj ,description of the ,constellations--,andromeda the ,great ,nebula2 ,aquarius1 the ,water-,bearer2 ,aries1 the ,ram2 ,capricornus1 the ,goat2 ,cassiopeia2 ,cepheus2 ,cetus1 the ,whale ,mira1 the wonderful variable star2 ,pegasus1 the ,winged ,horse4 ,perseus ,algol1 the ,demon-,star2 ,pisces1 the ,fishes2 ,piscis ,australis1 the ,southern ,fish2 the ,triangles4 ,a circular index-map1 maps on a larger scale1 of the constellations described1 and pictures of remarkable objects4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,stars ,,of ,,winter #hi ,description of the ,constellations--,argo1 ,jason's ,ship2 ,canis ,major1 the ,great ,dog ,sirius2 ,eridanus1 the river ,po2 ,lepus1 the ,hare2 ,monoceros1 the ,unicorn2 ,orion the ,great ,nebula2 ,taurus1 the ,bull the ,pleiades and ,hyades4 ,a circular index-map1 maps on a larger scale1 of the constellations described1 and pictures of remarkable objects4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,moon1 ,,the ,,planets1 ,,and ,,the ,,sun #aah ,description of lunar seas1 mountains1 and craters1 with a map of the moon1 and cuts showing its appearance with a field-glass4 ,opera-glass observation of--,the sun 7one cut71 ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter and his satellites 7one cut71 ,saturn1 ,uranus 7three cuts74 ,,astronomy ,,with ,,an ,,opera-,,glass4 ,,introduction4 ,star-gazing was never more popular than it is now4 ,in every civilized country many excellent telescopes are owned and used1 often to very good purpose1 by persons who are not practical astronomers1 but who wish to see for themselves the marvels of the sky1 and who occasionally stumble upon something that is new even to professional star-gazers4 ,yet1 notwithstanding this activity in the cultivation of astronomical studies1 it is probably safe to assert that hardly one person in a hundred knows the chief stars by name1 or can even recognize the principal constellations1 much less distinguish the planets from the fixed stars4 ,and of course they know nothing of the intellectual pleasure that accompanies a knowledge of the stars4 ,modern astronomy is so rapidly and wonderfully linking the earth and the sun together1 with all the orbs of space1 in the bonds of close physical relationship1 that a person of education and general intelligence can offer no valid excuse for not knowing where to look for ,sirius or ,aldebaran1 or the ,orion nebula1 or the planet ,jupiter4 ,as ,australia and ,new ,zealand and the islands of the sea are made a part of the civilized world through the expanding influence of commerce and cultivation1 so the suns and planets around us are1 in a certain sense1 falling under the dominion of the restless and resistless mind of man4 ,we have come to possess vested intellectual interests in ,mars and ,saturn1 and in the sun and all his multitude of fellows1 which nobody can afford to ignore4 ,a singular proof of popular ignorance of the starry heavens1 as well as of popular curiosity concerning any uncommon celestial phenomenon1 is furnished by the curious notions prevailing about the planet ,venus4 ,when ,venus began to attract general attention in the western sky in the early evenings of the spring of #ahhg1 speculation quickly became rife about it1 particularly on the great ,brooklyn ,bridge4 ,as the planet hung dazzlingly bright over the ,new ,jersey horizon1 some people appeared to think it was the light of ,liberty's torch1 mistaking the bronze goddess's real flambeau for a part of the electric-light system of the metropolis4 ,finally 7to judge from the letters written to the newspapers1 and the questions asked of individuals supposed to know something about the secrets of the sky71 the conviction seems to have become pretty widely distributed that the strange light in the west was no less than an electrically illuminated balloon1 nightly sent skyward by ,mr4 ,edison1 for no other conceivable reason than a wizardly desire to mystify his fellow-men4 ,i have positive information that this ridiculous notion has been actually entertained by more than one person of intelligence4 ,and as ,venus glowed with increasing splendor in the serene evenings of ,june1 she continued to be mistaken for some petty artificial light instead of the magnificent world that she was1 sparkling out there in the sunshine like a globe of burnished silver4 ,yet ,venus as an evening star is not so rare a phenomenon that people of intelligence should be surprised at it4 ,once in every #ehd days she reappears at the same place in the sunset sky-- ,gem of the crimson-colored even1 ,companion of retiring day4 ,no eye can fail to note her1 and as the nearest and most beautiful of the ,earth's sisters it would seem that everybody should be as familiar with her appearance as with the face of a friend4 ,but the popular ignorance of ,venus1 and the other members of the planetary family to which our mother1 the ,earth1 belongs1 is only an index of the denser ignorance concerning the stars--the brothers of our great father1 the ,sun4 ,i believe this ignorance is largely due to mere indifference1 which1 in its turn1 arises from a false and pedantic method of presenting astronomy as a creature of mathematical formulae1 and a humble handmaiden of the art of navigation4 ,i do not1 of course1 mean to cast doubt upon the scientific value of technical work in astronomy4 ,the science could not exist without it4 ,those who have made the spectroscope reveal the composition of the sun and stars1 and who are now making photography picture the heavens as they are1 and even reveal phenomena which lie beyond the range of human vision1 are the men who have taken astronomy out of its swaddling-clothes1 and set it on its feet as a progressive science4 ,but when one sees the depressing and repellent effect that has evidently been produced upon the popular mind by the ordinary methods of presenting astronomy1 one can not resist the temptation to utter a vigorous protest1 and to declare that this glorious science is not the grinning mathematical skeleton that it has been represented to be4 ,perhaps one reason why the average educated man or woman knows so little of the starry heavens is because it is popularly supposed that only the most powerful telescopes and costly instruments of the observatory are capable of dealing with them4 ,no greater mistake could be made4 ,it does not require an optical instrument of any kind1 nor much labor1 as compared with that expended in the acquirement of some polished accomplishments regarded as indispensable1 to give one an acquaintance with the stars and planets which will be not only pleasurable but useful4 ,and with the aid of an opera-glass most interesting1 gratifying1 and1 in some instances1 scientifically valuable observations may be made in the heavens4 ,i have more than once heard persons who knew nothing about the stars1 and probably cared less1 utter exclamations of surprise and delight when persuaded to look at certain parts of the sky with a good glass1 and thereafter manifest an interest in astronomy of which they would formerly have believed themselves incapable4 ,being convinced that whoever will survey the heavens with a good opera-glass will feel repaid many fold for his time and labor1 ,i have undertaken to point out some of the objects most worthy of attention1 and some of the means of making acquaintance with the stars4 ,first1 a word about the instrument to be used4 ,galileo made his famous discoveries with what was1 in principle of construction1 simply an opera-glass4 ,this form of telescope was afterward abandoned because very high magnifying powers could not be employed with it1 and the field of view was restricted4 ,but1 on account of its brilliant illumination of objects looked at1 and its convenience of form1 the opera-glass is still a valuable and1 in some respects1 unrivaled instrument of observation4 ,in choosing an opera-glass1 see first that the object-glasses are achromatic1 although this caution is hardly necessary1 for all modern opera-glasses1 worthy of the name1 are made with achromatic objectives4 ,but there are great differences in the quality of the work4 ,if a glass shows a colored fringe around a bright object1 reject it4 ,let the diameter of the object-glasses1 which are the large lenses in the end farthest from the eye1 be not less than an inch and a half4 ,the magnifying power should be at least three or four diameters4 ,a familiar way of estimating the magnifying power is by looking at a brick wall through one barrel of the opera-glass with one eye1 while the other eye sees the wall without the intervention of the glass4 ,then notice how many bricks seen by the naked eye are required to equal in thickness one brick seen through the glass4 ,that number represents the magnifying power4 ,the instrument used by the writer in making most of the observations for this book has object-glasses #a4f inch in diameter1 and a magnifying power of about #c4f times4 ,see that the fields of view given by the two barrels of the opera-glass coincide1 or blend perfectly together4 ,if one appears to partially overlap the other when looking at a distant object1 the effect is very annoying4 ,this fault arises from the barrels of the opera-glass being placed too far apart1 so that their optical centers do not coincide with the centers of the observer's eyes4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,very ,,bad ,,field4 ,occasionally1 on account of faulty centering of the lenses1 a double image is given of objects looked at1 as illustrated in the accompanying cut4 ,in such a case the glass is worthless2 but if the effect is simply the addition of a small1 crescent-shaped extension on one side of the field of view without any reduplication1 the fault may be overlooked1 though it is far better to select a glass that gives a perfectly round field4 ,some glasses have an arrangement for adjusting the distance between the barrels to suit the eyes of different persons1 and it would be well if all were made adjustable in the same way4 ,don't buy a cheap glass1 but don't waste your money on fancy mountings4 ,what the ,rev4 ,t4 ,w4 ,webb says of telescopes is equally true of opera-glasses3 ,inferior articles may be showily got up1 and the outside must go for nothing4 ,there are a few makers whose names1 stamped upon the instrument1 may generally be regarded as a guarantee of excellence4 ,but the best test is that of actual performance4 ,i have a field-glass which ,i found in a pawn-shop1 that has no maker's name upon it1 but in some respects is quite capable of bearing comparison with the work of the best advertised opticians4 ,and this leads me to say that1 by the exercise of good judgment1 one may occasionally purchase superior glasses at very reasonable prices in the pawn-shops4 ,ask to be shown the old and well-tried articles2 you may find among them a second-hand glass of fine optical properties4 ,if the lenses are not injured1 one need not trouble one's self about the worn appearance of the outside of the instrument2 so much the more evidence that somebody has found it well worth using4 ,a good field or marine glass is in some respects better than an opera-glass for celestial observations4 ,it possesses a much higher magnifying power1 and this gives sometimes a decided advantage4 ,but1 on the other hand1 its field of view is smaller1 rendering it more difficult to find and hold objects4 ,besides1 it does not present as brilliant views of scattered star-clusters as an opera-glass does4 ,for the benefit of those who possess field-glasses1 however1 ,i have included in this brief survey certain objects that lie just beyond the reach of opera-glasses1 but can be seen with the larger instruments4 ,i have thought it advisable in the descriptions of the constellations which follow to give some account of their mythological origin1 both because of the historical interest which attaches to it1 and because1 while astronomers have long since banished the constellation figures from their maps1 the names which the constellations continue to bear require some explanation1 and they possess a literary and romantic interest which can not be altogether disregarded in a work that is not intended for purely scientific readers4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,stars ,,of ,,spring4 ,having selected your glass1 the next thing is to find the stars4 ,of course1 one could sweep over the heavens at random on a starry night and see many interesting things1 but he would soon tire of such aimless occupation4 ,the observer must know what he is looking at in order to derive any real pleasure or satisfaction from the sight4 ,it really makes no difference at what time of the year such observations are begun1 but for convenience ,i will suppose that they are begun in the spring4 ,we can then follow the revolution of the heavens through a year1 at the end of which the diligent observer will have acquired a competent knowledge of the constellations4 ,the circular map1 ,no4 #a1 represents the appearance of the heavens at midnight on the #ast of ,march1 at eleven o'clock on the #aeth of ,march1 at ten o'clock on the #ast of ,april1 at nine o'clock on the #aeth of ,april1 and at eight o'clock on the #ast of ,may4 ,the reason why a single map can thus be made to show the places of the stars at different hours in different months will be plain upon a little reflection4 ,in consequence of the earth's annual journey around the sun1 the whole heavens make one apparent revolution in a year4 ,this revolution1 it is clear1 must be at the rate of #cj deg4 in a month1 since the complete circuit comprises #cfj deg44 ,but1 in addition to the annual revolution1 there is a diurnal revolution of the heavens which is caused by the earth's daily rotation upon its axis1 and this revolution must1 for a similar reason1 be performed at the rate of #ae deg4 for each of the twenty-four hours4 ,it follows that in two hours of the daily revolution the stars will change their places to the same extent as in one month of the annual revolution4 ,it follows also that1 if one could watch the heavens throughout the whole twenty-four hours1 and not be interrupted by daylight1 he would behold the complete circuit of the stars just as he would do if1 for a year1 he should look at the heavens at a particular hour every night4 ,suppose that at nine o'clock on the #ast of ,june we see the star ,spica on the meridian2 in consequence of the rotation of the earth1 two hours later1 or at eleven o'clock1 ,spica will be #cj deg4 west of the meridian4 ,but that is just the position which ,spica would occupy at nine o'clock on the #ast of ,july1 for in one month 7supposing a month to be accurately the twelfth part of a year7 the stars shift their places #cj deg4 toward the west4 ,if1 then1 we should make a map of the stars for nine o'clock on the #ast of ,july1 it would answer just as well for eleven o'clock on the #ast of ,june1 or for seven o'clock on the #ast of ,august4 ,illustration3 ,,map #a4 ,the center of the map is the zenith1 or point overhead4 ,the reader must now exercise his imagination a little1 for it is impossible to represent the true appearance of the concave of the heavens on flat paper4 ,holding the map over your head1 with the points marked ,east1 ,west1 ,north1 and ,south in their proper places1 conceive of it as shaped like the inside of an open umbrella1 the edge all around extending clear down to the horizon4 ,suppose you are facing the south1 then you will see1 up near the zenith1 the constellation of ,leo1 which can be readily recognized on the map by six stars that mark out the figure of a sickle standing upright on its handle4 ,the large star in the bottom of the handle is ,regulus4 ,having fixed the appearance and situation of this constellation in your mind1 go out-of-doors1 face the south1 and try to find the constellation in the sky4 ,with a little application you will be sure to succeed4 ,using ,leo as a basis of operations1 your conquest of the sky will now proceed more rapidly4 ,by reference to the map you will be able to recognize the twin stars of ,gemini1 southwest of the zenith and high up2 the brilliant lone star1 ,procyon1 south of ,gemini2 the dazzling ,sirius1 flashing low down in the southwest2 ,orion1 with all his brilliants1 blazing in the west2 red ,aldebaran and the ,pleiades off to his right2 and ,capella1 bright as a diamond1 high up above ,orion1 toward the north4 ,in the southeast you will recognize the quadrilateral of ,corvus1 with the remarkably white star ,spica glittering east of it4 ,next face the north4 ,if you are not just sure where north is1 try a pocket-compass4 ,this advice is by no means unnecessary1 for there are many intelligent persons who are unable to indicate true north within many degrees1 though standing on their own doorstep4 ,having found the north point as near as you can1 look upward about forty degrees from the horizon1 and you will see the lone twinkler called the north or pole star4 ,forty degrees is a little less than half-way from the horizon to the zenith4 ,by the aid of the map1 again1 you will be able to find1 high up in the northeast1 near the zenith1 the large dipper-shaped figure in ,ursa ,major1 and1 when you have once noticed that the two stars in the outer edge of the bowl of the ,dipper point almost directly to the pole-star1 you will have an unfailing means of picking out the latter star hereafter1 when in doubt4,a ,continuing the curve of the ,dipper-handle1 in the northeast1 your eye will be led to a bright reddish star1 which is ,arcturus1 in the constellation ,booetes4 ,a ,let the reader remember that the distance between the two stars in the brim of the bowl of the ,dipper is about ten degrees1 and he will have a measuring-stick that he can apply in estimating other distances in the heavens4 ,in the same way you will be able to find the constellations ,cassiopeia1 ,cepheus1 ,draco1 and ,perseus4 ,don't expect to accomplish it all in an hour4 ,you may have to devote two or three evenings to such observation1 and make many trips indoors to consult the map1 before you have mastered the subject2 but when you have done it you will feel amply repaid for your exertions1 and you will have made for yourself silent friends in the heavens that will beam kindly upon you1 like old neighbors1 on whatever side of the world you may wander4 ,having fixed the general outlines and location of the constellations in your mind1 and learned to recognize the chief stars1 take your opera-glass and begin with the constellation ,leo and the star ,regulus4 ,contrive to have some convenient rest for your arms in holding the glass1 and thus obtain not only comfort but steadiness of vision4 ,a lazy-back chair makes a capital observing-seat4 ,be very particular1 too1 to get a sharp focus4 ,remember that no two persons' eyes are alike1 and that even the eyes of the same observer occasionally require a change4 ,in looking for a difficult object1 ,i have sometimes suddenly brought the sought-for phenomenon into view by a slight turn of the focusing-screw4 ,you will at once be gratified by the increased brilliancy of the star as seen by the glass4 ,if the night is clear1 it will glow like a diamond4 ,yet ,regulus1 although ranked as a first-magnitude star1 and of great repute among the ancient astrologers1 is far inferior in brilliancy to such stars as ,capella and ,arcturus1 to say nothing of ,sirius4 ,by consulting map ,no4 #b you will next be able to find the celebrated star bearing the name of the ,greek letter ,gamma 7gamma74 ,if you had a telescope1 you would see this star as a close and beautiful double1 of contrasted colors4 ,but it is optically double1 even with an opera-glass4 ,you can not fail to see a small star near it1 looking quite close if the magnifying power of your glass is less than three times4 ,you will be struck by the surprising change of color in turning from ,regulus to ,gamma--the former is white and the latter deep yellow4 ,it will be well to look first at one and then at the other1 several times1 for this is a good instance of what you will meet with many times in your future surveys of the heavens--a striking contrast of color in neighboring stars4 ,one can thus comprehend that there is more than one sense in which to understand the ,scriptural declaration that one star differeth from another in glory4 ,the radiant point of the famous ,november meteors1 which1 in #ahcc and #ahff1 filled the sky with fiery showers1 is near ,gamma4 ,turn next to the star in ,leo marked ,zeta 7zeta74 ,if your glass is a pretty large and good one1 and your eye keen1 you will easily see three minute companion stars keeping company with ,zeta1 two on the southeast1 and one1 much closer1 toward the north4 ,the nearest of the two on the south is faint1 being only between the eighth and ninth magnitude1 and will probably severely test your powers of vision4 ,next look at ,epsilon 7epsilon71 and you will find near it two seventh-magnitude companions1 making a beautiful little triangle4 ,illustration3 ,,map #b4 ,away at the eastern end of the constellation1 in the tail of the imaginary ,lion1 upon whose breast shines ,regulus1 is the star ,beta 7beta7 ,leonis1 also called ,denebola4 ,it is almost as bright as its leader1 ,regulus1 and you will probably be able to catch a tinge of blue in its rays4 ,south of ,denebola1 at a distance of nineteen minutes of arc1 or somewhat more than half the apparent diameter of the moon1 you will see a little star of the sixth magnitude1 which is one of the several companions for which ,denebola is celebrated4 ,there is another star of the eighth magnitude in the same direction from ,denebola1 but at a distance of less than five minutes1 and this you may be able to glimpse with a powerful field-glass1 under favorable conditions4 ,i have seen it well with a field-glass of #a4f-;inch aperture1 and a magnifying power of seven times4 ,but it requires an experienced eye and steady vision to catch this shy twinkler4 ,when looking for a faint and difficult object1 the plan pursued by telescopists is to avert the eye from the precise point upon which the attention is fixed1 in order to bring a more sensitive part of the retina into play than that usually employed4 ,look toward the edge of the field of view1 while the object you are seeking is in the center1 and then1 if it can be seen at all with your glass1 you will catch sight of it1 as it were1 out of the corner of your eye4 ,the effect of seeing a faint star in this way1 in the neighborhood of a large one1 whose rays hide it from direct vision1 is sometimes very amusing4 ,the little star seems to dart out into view as through a curtain1 perfectly distinct1 though as immeasurably minute as the point of a needle4 ,but the instant you direct your eyes straight at it1 presto6 it is gone4 ,and so it will dodge in and out of sight as often as you turn your eyes4 ,if you will sweep carefully over the whole extent of ,leo1 whose chief stars are marked with their ,greek-letter names on our little map1 you will be impressed with the power of your glass to bring into sight many faint stars in regions that seem barren to the naked eye4 ,an opera-glass of #a4e aperture will show ten times as many stars as the naked eye can see4 ,a word about the ,lion which this constellation is supposed to represent4 ,it requires a vivid imagination to perceive the outlines of the celestial king of beasts among the stars1 and yet somebody taught the people of ancient ,india and the old ,egyptians to see him there1 and there he has remained since the dawn of history4 ,modern astronomers strike him out of their charts1 together with all the picturesque multitude of beasts and birds and men and women that bear him company1 but they can not altogether banish him1 or any of his congeners1 for the old names1 and1 practically1 the old outlines of the constellations are retained1 and always will be retained4 ,the ,lion is the most conspicuous figure in the celebrated zodiac of ,dendera2 and1 indeed1 there is evidence that before the story of ,hercules and his labors was told this lion was already imagined shining among the stars4 ,it was characteristic of the ,greeks that they seized him for their own1 and tried to rob him of his real antiquity by pretending that ,jupiter had placed him among the stars in commemoration of ,hercules's victory over the ,nemaean lion4 ,in the ,hebrew zodiac ,leo represented the ,lion of ,judah4 ,it was thus always a lion that the ancients thought they saw in this constellation4 ,in the old star-maps the ,lion is represented as in the act of springing upon his prey4 ,his face is to the west1 and the star ,regulus is in his heart4 ,the sickle-shaped figure covers his breast and head1 ,gamma being in the shoulder1 ,zeta in the mane of the neck1 ,mu and ,epsilon in the cheek1 and ,lambda in the jaws4 ,the fore-paws are drawn up to the breast and represented by the stars ,zi and ,omicron4 ,denebola is in the tuft of the tail4 ,the hind-legs are extended downward at full length1 in the act of springing4 ,starting from the star ,delta in the hip1 the row consisting of ,theta1 ,iota1 ,tau1 and ,upsilon1 shows the line of the hind-legs4 ,leo had an unsavory reputation among the ancients because of his supposed influence upon the weather4 ,the greatest heat of summer was felt when the sun was in this constellation3 ,most scorching is the chariot of the ,sun1 ,and waving spikes no longer hide the furrows ,when he begins to travel with the ,lion4 ,looking now westwardly from the ,sickle of ,leo1 at a distance about equal to twice the length of the ,sickle1 your eye will be caught by a small silvery spot in the sky lying nearly between two rather faint stars4 ,this is the famous ,praesepe1 or ,manger1 in the center of the constellation ,cancer4 ,the two stars on either side of it are called the ,aselli1 or the ,ass's ,colts1 and the imagination of the ancients pictured them feeding from their silver manger4 ,turn your glass upon the ,manger and you will see that it consists of a crowd of little stars1 so small and numerous that you will probably not undertake to count them1 unless you are using a large field-glass4 ,galileo has left a delightful description of his surprise and gratification when he aimed his telescope at this curious cluster and other similar aggregations of stars and discovered what they really were4 ,using his best instrument1 he was able to count thirty-six stars in the ,manger4 ,the ,manger was a famous weather-sign in olden times1 and ,aratus1 in his ,diosemia1 advises his readers to-- 444 watch the ,manger3 like a little mist ,far north in ,cancer's territory it floats4 ,its confines are two faintly glimmering stars2 ,these are two asses that a manger parts1 ,which suddenly1 when all the sky is clear1 ,sometimes quite vanishes1 and the two stars ,seem to have closer moved their sundered orbs4 ,no feeble tempest then will soak the leas2 ,a murky manger with both stars ,shining unaltered is a sign of rain4 ,like other old weather-saws1 this probably possesses a gleam of sense1 for it is only when the atmosphere is perfectly transparent that the ,manger can be clearly seen2 when the air is thick with mist1 the harbinger of coming storm1 it fades from sight4 ,the constellation ,cancer1 or the ,crab1 was represented by the ,egyptians under the figure of a scarabaeus4 ,the observer will probably think that it is as easy to see a beetle as a crab there4 ,cancer1 like ,leo1 is one of the twelve constellations of the ,zodiac1 the name applied to the imaginary zone #af deg4 degrees wide and extending completely around the heavens1 the center of which is the ecliptic or annual path of the sun4 ,the names of these zodiacal constellations1 in their order1 beginning at the west and counting round the circle1 are3 ,aries1 ,taurus1 ,gemini1 ,cancer1 ,leo1 ,virgo1 ,libra1 ,scorpio1 ,sagittarius1 ,capricornus1 ,aquarius1 and ,pisces4 ,cancer has given its name to the circle called the ,tropic of ,cancer1 which indicates the greatest northerly declination of the sun in summer1 and which he attains on the #bast or #bb;d of ,june4 ,but1 in consequence of the precession of the equinoxes1 all of the zodiacal constellations are continually shifting toward the east1 and ,cancer has passed away from the place of the summer solstice1 which is now to be found in ,gemini4 ,below the ,manger1 a little way toward the south1 your eye will be caught by a group of four or five stars of about the same brightness as the ,aselli4 ,this marks the head of ,hydra1 and the glass will show a striking and beautiful geometrical arrangement of the stars composing it4 ,hydra is a very long constellation1 and trending southward and eastward from the head it passes underneath ,leo1 and1 sweeping pretty close down to the horizon1 winds away under ,corvus1 the tail reaching to the eastern horizon4 ,the length of this skyey serpent is about #ajj deg44 ,its stars are all faint1 except ,alphard1 or the ,hydra's ,heart1 a second-magnitude star1 remarkable for its lonely situation1 southwest of ,regulus4 ,a line from ,gamma ,leonis through ,regulus points it out4 ,it is worth looking at with the glass on account of its rich orange-tint4 ,hydra is fabled to be the hundred-headed monster that was slain by ,hercules4 ,it must be confessed that there is nothing very monstrous about it now except its length4 ,the most timid can look upon it without suspecting its grisly origin4 ,coming back to the ,manger as a starting-point1 look well up to the north and west1 and at a distance somewhat less than that between ,regulus and the ,manger you will see a pair of first-magnitude stars1 which you will hardly need to be informed are the celebrated ,twins1 from which the constellation ,gemini takes its name4 ,the star marked alpha in the map is ,castor1 and the star marked beta is ,pollux4 ,no classical reader needs to be reminded of the romantic origin of these names4 ,a sharp contrast in the color of ,castor and ,pollux comes out as soon as the glass is turned upon them4 ,castor is white1 with occasionally1 perhaps1 a suspicion of a green ray in its light4 ,pollux is deep yellow4 ,castor is a celebrated double star1 but its components are far too close to be separated with an opera-glass1 or even the most powerful field-glass4 ,you will be at once interested by the singular cortege of small stars by which both ,castor and ,pollux are surrounded4 ,these little attendant stars1 for such they seem1 are arrayed in symmetrical groups--pairs1 triangles1 and other figures--which1 it seems difficult to believe1 could be unintentional1 although it would be still more difficult to suggest any reason why they should be arranged in that way4 ,illustration3 ,,map #c4 ,our map will show you the position of the principal stars of the constellation4 ,castor and ,pollux are in the heads of the ,twins1 while the row of stars shown in the map ,xi 7xi71 ,gamma 7gamma71 ,nu 7nu71 ,mu 7mu71 and ,eta 7eta71 marks their feet1 which are dipped in the edge of the ,milky-,way4 ,one can spend a profitable and pleasurable half-hour in exploring the wonders of ,gemini4 ,the whole constellation1 from head to foot1 is gemmed with stars which escape the naked eye1 but it sparkles like a bead-spangled garment when viewed with the glass4 ,owing to the presence of the ,milky-,way1 the spectacle around the feet of the ,twins is particularly magnificent4 ,and here the possessor of a good opera-glass can get a fine view of a celebrated star-cluster known in the catalogues as #ce ,m4 ,it is situated a little distance northwest of the star ,eta1 and is visible to the naked eye1 on a clear1 moonless night1 as a nebulous speck4 ,with a good glass you will see two wonderful streams of little stars starting1 one from ,eta and the other from ,mu1 and running parallel toward the northwest2 #ce ,m is situated between these star-streams4 ,the stars in the cluster are so closely aggregated that you will be able to clearly separate only the outlying ones4 ,the general aspect is like that of a piece of frosted silver over which a twinkling light is playing4 ,a field-glass brings out more of the component stars4 ,the splendor of this starry congregation1 viewed with a powerful telescope1 may be guessed at from ,admiral ,smyth's picturesque description3 ,it presents a gorgeous field of stars1 from the ninth to the sixteenth magnitude1 but with the center of the mass less rich than the rest4 ,from the small stars being inclined to form curves of three or four1 and often with a large one at the root of the curve1 it somewhat reminds one of the bursting of a sky-rocket4 ,and ,webb adds that there is an elegant festoon near the center1 starting with a reddish star4 ,no one can gaze upon this marvelous phenomenon1 even with the comparatively low powers of an opera-glass1 and reflect that all these swarming dots of light are really suns1 without a stunning sense of the immensity of the material universe4 ,it is an interesting fact that the summer solstice1 or the point which the sun occupies when it attains its greatest northerly declination1 on the longest day of the year1 is close by this great cluster in ,gemini4 ,in the glare of the sunshine those swarming stars are then concealed from our sight1 but with the mind's eye we can look past and beyond our sun1 across the incomprehensible chasm of space1 and behold them still shining1 their commingled rays making our great ,god of ,day seem but a lonely wanderer in the expanse of the universe4 ,it was only a short distance southwest of this cluster that one of the most celebrated discoveries in astronomy was made4 ,there1 on the evening of ,march #ac1 #agha1 ,william ,herschel observed a star whose singular aspect led him to put a higher magnifying power on his telescope4 ,the higher power showed that the object was not a star but a planet1 or a comet1 as ,herschel at first supposed4 ,it was the planet ,uranus1 whose discovery at one stroke doubled the breadth of the sun's dominions4 ,the constellation of ,gemini1 as the names of its two chief stars indicate1 had its origin in the classic story of the twin sons of ,jupiter and ,leda3 ,fair ,leda's twins1 in time to stars decreed1 ,one fought on foot1 one curbed the fiery steed4 ,castor and ,pollux were regarded by both the ,greeks and the ,romans as the patrons of navigation1 and this fact crops out very curiously in the adventures of ,st4 ,paul4 ,after his disastrous shipwreck on the island of ,melita he embarked again on a more prosperous voyage in a ship bearing the name of these very brothers4 ,and after three months1 writes the celebrated apostle 7,acts xxviii1 #aa7 we departed in a ship of ,alexandria1 which had wintered in the isle1 whose sign was ,castor and ,pollux4 ,we may be certain that ,paul was acquainted with the constellation of ,gemini1 not only because he was skilled in the learning of his times1 but because1 in his speech on ,mars ,hill1 he quoted a line from the opening stanzas of ,aratus's ,phenomena1 a poem in which the constellations are described4 ,the map will enable you next to find ,procyon1 or the ,little ,dog-,star1 more than twenty degrees south of ,castor and ,pollux1 and almost directly below the ,manger4 ,this star will interest you by its golden-yellow color and its brightness1 although it is far inferior in the latter respect to ,sirius1 or the ,great ,dog-,star1 which you will see flashing splendidly far down beneath ,procyon in the southwest4 ,about four degrees northwest of ,procyon is a third-magnitude star1 called ,gomelza1 and the glass will show you two small stars which make a right-angled triangle with it1 the nearer one being remarkable for its ruddy color4 ,procyon is especially interesting because it is attended by an invisible star1 which1 while it has escaped all efforts to detect it with powerful telescopes1 nevertheless reveals its presence by the effect of its attraction upon ,procyon4 ,it is a curious fact that both of the so-called ,dog-,stars are thus attended by obscure or dusky companion-stars1 which1 notwithstanding their lack of luminosity1 are of great magnitude4 ,in the case of ,sirius1 the improvement in telescopes has brought the mysterious attendant into view1 but ,procyon's mate remains hidden from our eyes4 ,but it can not escape the ken of the mathematician1 whose penetrating mental vision has1 in more than one instance1 outstripped the discoveries of the telescope4 ,almost half a century ago the famous ,bessel announced his conclusion--in the light of later developments it may well be called discovery--that both ,sirius and ,procyon were binary systems1 consisting each of a visible and an invisible star4 ,he calculated the probable period of revolution1 and found it to be1 in each case1 approximately fifty years4 ,sixteen years after ,bessel's death1 one of ,alvan ,clark's unrivaled telescopes at last revealed the strange companion of ,sirius1 a huge body1 half as massive as the giant ,dog-,star itself1 but ten thousand times less brilliant1 and more recent observations have shown that its period of revolution is within six or seven months of the fifty years assigned by ,bessel4 ,if some of the enormous telescopes that have been constructed in the past few years should succeed in rendering ,procyon's companion visible also1 it is highly probable that ,bessel's prediction would receive another substantial fulfillment4 ,the mythological history of ,canis ,minor is somewhat obscure4 ,according to various accounts it represents one of ,diana's hunting-dogs1 one of ,orion's hounds1 the ,egyptian dog-headed god ,anubis1 and one of the dogs that devoured their master ,actaeon after ,diana had turned him into a stag4 ,the mystical ,dr4 ,seiss leaves all the ancient myth-makers far in the rear1 and advances a very curious theory of his own about this constellation1 in his ,gospel in the ,stars1 which is worth quoting as an example of the grotesque fancies that even in our day sometimes possess the minds of men when they venture beyond the safe confines of this terraqueous globe4 ,after summarizing the various myths we have mentioned1 he proceeds to identify ,procyon1 putting the name of the chief star for the constellation1 as the starry symbol of those heavenly armies which came forth along with the ,king of kings and ,lord of lords to the battle of the great day of ,god ,almighty1 to make an end of misrule and usurpation on earth1 and clear it of all the wild beasts which have been devastating it for these many ages4 ,the reader will wonder all the more at this rhapsody after he has succeeded in picking out the modest ,little ,dog in the sky4 ,sirius1 ,orion1 ,aldebaran1 and the ,pleiades1 all of which you will perceive in the west and southwest1 are generally too much involved in the mists of the horizon to be seen to the best advantage at this season1 although it will pay you to take a look through the glass at ,sirius4 ,but the splendid star ,capella1 in the constellation ,auriga1 may claim a moment's attention4 ,you will find it high up in the northwest1 half-way between ,orion and the pole-star1 and to the right of the ,twins4 ,it has no rival near1 and its creamy-white light makes it one of the most beautiful as well as one of the most brilliant stars in the heavens4 ,its constitution1 as revealed by the spectroscope1 resembles that of our sun1 but the sun would make but a sorry figure if removed to the side of this giant star4 ,about seven and a half degrees above ,capella1 and a little to the left1 you will see a second-magnitude star called ,menkalina4 ,two and a half times as far to the left1 or south1 in the direction of ,orion1 is another star of equal brightness to ,menkalina4 ,this is ,el ,nath1 and marks the place where the foot of ,auriga1 or the ,charioteer1 rests upon the point of the horn of ,taurus4 ,capella1 ,menkalina1 and ,el ,nath make a long triangle which covers the central part of ,auriga4 ,the naked eye shows two or three misty-looking spots within this triangle1 one to the right of ,el ,nath1 one in the upper or eastern part of the constellation1 near the third-magnitude star ,theta 7theta71 and another on a line drawn from ,capella to ,el ,nath1 but much nearer to ,capella4 ,turn your glass upon these spots1 and you will be delighted by the beauty of the little stars to whose united rays they are due4 ,el ,nath has around it some very remarkable rows of small stars1 and the whole constellation of ,auriga1 like that of ,gemini1 glitters with star-dust1 for the ,milky-,way runs directly through it4 ,with a powerful field-glass you may try a glimpse at the rich star-clusters marked #ch ,m1 #cg ,m1 and #ccg4 ,illustration3 ,,map #d4 ,the mythology of ,auriga is not clear1 but the ancients seem to have been of one mind in regarding the constellation as representing the figure of a man carrying a goat and her two kids in his arms4 ,auriga was also looked upon as a beneficent constellation1 and the goat and kids were believed to be on the watch to rescue shipwrecked sailors4 ,as ,capella1 which represents the fabled goat1 shines nearly overhead in winter1 and would ordinarily be the first bright star to beam down through the breaking clouds of a storm at that season1 it is not difficult to imagine how it got its reputation as the seaman's friend4 ,dr4 ,seiss has so spirited a description of the imaginary figure contained in this constellation that ,i can not refrain from quoting it3 ,the figure itself is that of a mighty man seated on the ,milky-,way1 holding a band or ribbon in his right hand1 and with his left arm holding up on his shoulder a she-goat which clings to his neck and looks out in astonishment upon the terrible bull2 while in his lap are two frightened little kids which he supports with his great hand4 ,it is scarcely necessary to add that ,dr4 ,seiss insists that ,auriga1 as a constellation1 was invented long before the time of the ,greeks1 and was intended prophetically to represent that ,good ,shepherd who was to come and rescue the sinful world4 ,if any reader wishes to exercise his fancy by trying to trace the outlines of this figure1 he will find the head of ,auriga marked by the star ,delta 7delta7 and the little group near it4 ,capella1 in the heart of the ,goat1 is just below his left shoulder1 and ,menkalina marks his right shoulder4 ,el ,nath is in his right foot1 and ,iota 7iota7 in his left foot4 ,the stars ,epsilon 7epsilon71 ,zeta 7zeta71 ,eta 7eta71 and ,lambda 7lambda7 shine in the kids which lie in ,auriga's lap4 ,the faint stars scattered over the eastern part of the constellation are sometimes represented as forming a whip with many lashes1 which the giant flourishes with his right hand4 ,let us turn back to ,denebola in the ,lion's ,tail4 ,now glance from it down into the southeast1 and you will see a brilliant star flashing well above the horizon4 ,this is ,spica1 the chief twinkler of ,virgo1 and it is marked on our circular map4 ,then look into the northwest1 and at about the same distance from ,denebola1 but higher above the horizon than ,spica1 you will catch the sparkling of a large1 reddish star4 ,it is ,arcturus in ,booetes4 ,the three1 ,denebola1 ,spica1 and ,arcturus1 mark the corners of a great equilateral triangle4 ,nearly on a line between ,denebola and ,arcturus1 and somewhat nearer to the former1 you will perceive a curious twinkling1 as if gossamers spangled with dew-drops were entangled there4 ,one might think the old woman of the nursery rhyme who went to sweep the cobwebs out of the sky had skipped this corner1 or else that its delicate beauty had preserved it even from her housewifely instincts4 ,this is the little constellation called ,berenice's ,hair4 ,your opera-glass will enable you to count twenty or thirty of the largest stars composing this cluster1 which are arranged1 as so often happens1 with a striking appearance of geometrical design4 ,the constellation has a very romantic history4 ,it is related that the young ,queen ,berenice1 when her husband was called away to the wars1 vowed to sacrifice her beautiful tresses to ,venus if he returned victorious over his enemies4 ,he did return home in triumph1 and ,berenice1 true to her vow1 cut off her hair and bore it to the ,temple of ,venus4 ,but the same night it disappeared4 ,the king was furious1 and the queen wept bitterly over the loss4 ,there is no telling what might have happened to the guardians of the temple1 had not a celebrated astronomer named ,conon led the young king and queen aside in the evening and showed them the missing locks shining transfigured in the sky4 ,he assured them that ,venus had placed ,berenice's lustrous ringlets among the stars1 and1 as they were not skilled in celestial lore1 they were quite ready to believe that the silvery swarm they saw near ,arcturus had never been there before4 ,and so for centuries the world has recognized the constellation of ,berenice's ,hair4 ,look next at ,corvus and ,crater1 the ,crow and the ,cup1 two little constellations which you will discover on the circular map1 and of which we give a separate representation in ,map #e4 ,you will find that the stars ,delta 7delta7 and ,eta 7eta71 in the upper left-hand corner of the quadrilateral figure of ,corvus1 make a striking appearance4 ,the little star ,zeta 7zeta7 is a very pretty double for an opera-glass4 ,there is a very faint pair of stars close below and to the right of ,beta 7beta74 ,this forms a severe test4 ,only a good opera-glass will show these two stars as a single faint point of light4 ,a field-glass1 however1 will show both1 one being considerably fainter than the other4 ,crater is worth sweeping over for the pretty combinations of stars to be found in it4 ,you will observe that the interminable ,hydra extends his lengthening coils along under both of the constellations4 ,in fact1 both the ,cup and the ,crow are represented as standing upon the huge serpent4 ,the outlines of a cup are tolerably well indicated by the stars included under the name ,crater1 but the constellation of the ,crow might as well have borne any other name so far as any traceable likeness is concerned4 ,one of the legends concerning ,corvus avers that it is the daughter of the ,king of ,phocis1 who was transformed into a crow to escape the pursuit of ,neptune4 ,she is certainly safe in her present guise4 ,arcturus and ,spica1 and their companions1 may be left for observation to a more convenient season1 when1 having risen higher1 they can be studied to better advantage4 ,it will be well1 however1 to merely glance at them with the glass in order to note the great difference of color--,spica being brilliantly white and ,arcturus almost red4 ,illustration3 ,,map #e4 ,we will now turn to the north4 ,you have already been told how to find the pole-star4 ,look at it with your glass4 ,the pole-star is a famous double1 but its minute companion can only be seen with a telescope4 ,as so often happens1 however1 it has another companion for the opera-glass1 and this latter is sufficiently close and small to make an interesting test for an inexperienced observer armed with a glass of small power4 ,it must be looked for pretty close to the rays of the large star1 with such a glass4 ,it is of the seventh magnitude4 ,with a large field-glass several smaller companions may be seen1 and a very excellent glass may show an #h4e-magnitude star almost hidden in the rays of the seventh-magnitude companion4 ,with the aid of map ,no4 #f find in ,ursa ,minor1 which is the constellation to which the pole-star belongs1 the star ,beta 7beta71 which is also called ,kochab 7the star marked alpha in the map is the pole-star74 ,kochab has a pair of faint stars nearly north of it1 about one degree distant4 ,with a small glass these may appear as a single star1 but a stronger glass will show them separately4 ,illustration3 ,,map #f4 ,and now for ,ursa ,major and the ,great ,dipper--,draco1 ,cepheus1 ,cassiopeia1 and the other constellations represented on the circular map1 being rather too near the horizon for effective observation at this time of the year4 ,first1 as the easiest object1 look at the star in the middle of the handle of the ,dipper 7this handle forms the tail of ,ursa ,major71 and a little attention will show you1 without the aid of a glass1 if your eye-sight is good1 that the star is double4 ,a smaller star seems to be almost in contact with it4 ,the larger of these two stars is called ,mizar and the smaller ,alcor--the ,horse and his ,rider the ,arabs said4 ,your glass will1 of course1 greatly increase the distance between ,alcor and ,mizar1 and will also bring out a clear difference of color distinguishing them4 ,now1 if you have a very powerful glass1 you may be able to see the ,sidus ,ludovicianum1 a minute star which a ,german astronomer discovered more than a hundred and fifty years ago1 and1 strangely enough1 taking it for a planet1 named it after a ,german prince4 ,the position of the ,sidus ,ludovicianum1 with reference to ,mizar and ,alcor1 is represented in the accompanying sketch4 ,you must look very sharply if you expect to see it1 and your opera-glass will have to be a large and strong one4 ,a field-glass1 however1 can not fail to show it4 ,sweep along the whole length of the ,dipper's handle1 and you will discover many fine fields of stars4 ,then look at the star ,alpha 7alpha7 in the outer edge of the bowl nearest to the pole-star4 ,there is a faint star1 of about the eighth magnitude1 near it1 in the direction of ,beta 7beta74 ,this will prove a very difficult test4 ,you will have to try it with averted vision4 ,if you have a field-glass1 catch it first with that1 and1 having thus fixed its position in your mind1 try to find it with the opera-glass4 ,its distance is a little over half that between ,mizar and ,alcor4 ,it is of a reddish color4 ,you will notice nearly overhead three pairs of pretty bright stars in a long1 bending row1 about half-way between ,leo and the ,dipper4 ,these mark three of ,ursa ,major's feet1 and each of the pairs is well worth looking at with a glass1 as they are beautifully grouped with stars invisible to the naked eye4 ,the letters used to designate the stars forming these pairs will be found upon our map of ,ursa ,major4 ,the scattered group of faint stars beyond the bowl of the ,dipper forms the ,bear's head1 and you will find that also a field worth a few minutes' exploration4 ,illustration3 ,,mizar1 ,,alcor1 ,,and ,,the ,,sidus ,,ludovicianum4 ,the two bears1 ,ursa ,major and ,ursa ,minor1 swinging around the pole of the heavens1 have been conspicuous in the star-lore of all ages4 ,according to fable1 they represent the nymph ,calisto1 with whom ,jupiter was in love1 and her son ,arcas1 who were both turned into bears by ,juno1 whereupon ,jupiter1 being unable to restore their form1 did the next best thing he could by placing them among the stars4 ,ursa ,major is ,calisto1 or ,helica1 as the ,greeks called the constellation4 ,the ,greek name of ,ursa ,minor was ,cynosura4 ,the use of the pole-star in navigation dates back at least to the time of the ,phoenicians4 ,the observer will note the uncomfortable position of ,ursa ,minor1 attached to the pole by the end of its long tail4 ,but1 after all1 no one can expect to derive from such studies as these any genuine pleasure or satisfaction unless he is mindful of the real meaning of what he sees4 ,the actual truth seems almost too stupendous for belief4 ,the mind must be brought into an attitude of profound contemplation in order to appreciate it4 ,from this globe we can look out in every direction into the open and boundless universe4 ,blinded and dazzled during the day by the blaze of that star1 of which the earth is a near and humble dependent1 we are shut in as by a curtain4 ,but at night1 when our own star is hidden1 our vision ranges into the depths of creation1 and we behold them sparkling with a multitude of other suns4 ,with so simple an aid as that of an opera-glass we penetrate still deeper into the profundities of space1 and thousands more of these strange1 far-away suns come into sight4 ,they are arranged in pairs1 sets1 rows1 streams1 clusters--here they gleam alone in distant splendor1 there they glow and flash in mighty swarms4 ,this is a look into heaven more splendid than the imagination of ,bunyan pictured2 here is a celestial city whose temples are suns1 and whose streets are the pathways of light4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,stars ,,of ,,summer4 ,let us now suppose that the ,earth has advanced for three months in its orbit since we studied the stars of spring1 and that1 in consequence1 the heavens have made one quarter of an apparent revolution4 ,then we shall find that the stars which in spring shone above the western horizon have been carried down out of sight1 while the constellations that were then in the east have now climbed to the zenith1 or passed over to the west1 and a fresh set of stars has taken their place in the east4 ,in the present chapter we shall deal with what may be called the stars of summer2 and1 in order to furnish occupation for the observer with an opera-glass throughout the summer months1 ,i have endeavored to so choose the constellations in which our explorations will be made1 that some of them shall be favorably situated in each of the months of ,june1 ,july1 and ,august4 ,the circular map represents the heavens at midnight on the #ast of ,june2 at eleven o'clock1 on the #aeth of ,june2 at ten o'clock1 on the #ast of ,july2 at nine o'clock1 on the #aeth of ,july2 and at eight o'clock1 on the #ast of ,august4 ,remembering that the center of the map is the point over his head1 and that the edge of it represents the circle of the horizon1 the reader1 by a little attention and comparison with the sky1 will be able to fix in his mind the relative situation of the various constellations4 ,the maps that follow will show him these constellations on a larger scale1 and give him the names of their chief stars4 ,illustration3 ,,map #g4 ,the observer need not wait until midnight on the #ast of ,june in order to find some of the constellations included in our map4 ,earlier in the evening1 at about that date1 say at nine o'clock1 he will be able to see many of these constellations1 but he must look for them farther toward the east than they are represented in the map4 ,the bright stars in ,booetes and ,virgo1 for instance1 instead of being over in the southwest1 as in the map1 will be near the meridian2 while ,lyra1 instead of shining high overhead1 will be found climbing up out of the northeast4 ,it would be well to begin at nine o'clock1 about the #ast of ,june1 and watch the motions of the heavens for two or three hours4 ,at the commencement of the observations you will find the stars in ,booetes1 ,virgo1 and ,lyra in the positions ,i have just mentioned1 while half-way down the western sky will be seen the ,sickle of ,leo4 ,the brilliant ,procyon and ,capella will be found almost ready to set in the west and northwest1 respectively4 ,between ,procyon and ,capella1 and higher above the horizon1 shine the twin stars in ,gemini4 ,in an hour ,procyon1 ,capella1 and the ,twins will be setting1 and ,spica will be well past the meridian4 ,in another hour the observer will perceive that the constellations are approaching the places given to them in our map1 and at midnight he will find them all in their assigned positions4 ,a single evening spent in observations of this sort will teach him more about the places of the stars than he could learn from a dozen books4 ,taking1 now1 the largest opera-glass you can get 7,i have before said that the diameter of the object-glasses should not be less than #a4e inch1 and1 ,i may add1 the larger they are the better71 find the constellation ,scorpio1 and its chief star ,antares4 ,the map shows you where to look for it at midnight on the #ast of ,june4 ,if you prefer to begin at nine o'clock at that date1 then1 instead of looking directly in the south for ,scorpio1 you must expect to see it just rising in the southeast4 ,you will recognize ,antares by its fiery color1 as well as by the striking arrangement of its surrounding stars4 ,there are few constellations which bear so close a resemblance to the objects they are named after as ,scorpio4 ,it does not require a very violent exercise of the imagination to see in this long1 winding trail of stars a gigantic scorpion1 with its head to the west1 and flourishing its upraised sting that glitters with a pair of twin stars1 as if ready to strike4 ,readers of the old story of ,phaeton's disastrous attempt to drive the chariot of the ,sun for a day will remember it was the sight of this threatening monster that so terrified the ambitious youth as he dashed along the ,zodiac1 that he lost control of ,apollo's horses1 and came near burning the earth up by running the ,sun into it4 ,antares rather gains in redness when viewed with a glass4 ,its color is very remarkable1 and it is a curious circumstance that with powerful telescopes a small1 bright-green star is seen apparently almost touching it4 ,antares belongs to ,secchi's third type of suns1 that in which the spectroscopic appearances suggest the existence of a powerfully absorptive atmosphere1 and which are believed on various grounds to be1 as ,lockyer has said1 in the last visible stage of cooling2 in other words1 almost extinct4 ,this great1 red star probably in actual size exceeds our sun1 and no one can help feeling the sublime nature of those studies which give us reason to think that here we can actually behold almost the expiring throes of a giant brother of our giant sun4 ,only1 the lifetime of a sun is many millions of years1 and its gradual extinction1 even after it has reached a stage as advanced as that of ,antares is supposed to be1 may occupy a longer time than the whole duration of the human race4 ,a little close inspection with the naked eye will show three fifth- or sixth-magnitude stars above ,antares and ,sigma 7sigma71 which form1 with those stars1 the figure of an irregular pentagon4 ,an opera-glass shows this figure very plainly4 ,the nearest of these stars to ,antares1 the one directly above it1 is known by the number #bb1 and belongs to ,scorpio1 while the farthest away1 which marks the northernmost corner of the pentagon1 is ,rho in ,ophiuchus4 ,try a powerful field-glass upon the two stars just named4 ,take #bb first4 ,you will without much difficulty perceive that it has a little star under its wing1 below and to the right1 and more than twice as far away above it there is another faint star4 ,then turn to ,rho4 ,look sharp and you will catch sight of two companion stars1 one close to ,rho on the right and a little below1 and the other still closer and directly above ,rho4 ,the latter is quite difficult to be seen distinctly1 but the sight is a very pretty one4 ,the opera-glass will show a number of faint stars scattered around ,antares4 ,turn now to ,beta 7beta7 in ,scorpio1 with the glass4 ,a very pretty pair of stars will be seen hanging below beta4 ,sweeping downward from this point to the horizon you will find many beautiful star-fields4 ,the star marked ,nu 7nu7 is a double which you will be able to separate with a powerful field-glass1 the distance between its components being #dj4 ,illustration3 ,,map #h4 ,and next let us look at a star-cluster4 ,you will see on ,map ,no4 #h an object marked #d ,m1 near ,antares4 ,its designation means that it is ,no4 #d in ,messier's catalogue of nebulae4 ,it is not a true nebula1 but a closely compacted cluster of stars4 ,with the opera-glass1 if you are looking in a clear and moonless night1 you will see it as a curious nebulous speck4 ,with a field-glass its real nature is more apparent1 and it is seen to blaze brighter toward the center4 ,it is1 in fact1 one of those universes within the universe where thousands of suns are associated together by some unknown law of aggregation into assemblages of whose splendor the slight view that we can get gives us but the faintest conception4 ,the object above and to the right of ,antares1 marked in the map #hj ,m41 is a nebula1 and although the nebula itself is too small to be seen with an opera-glass 7a field-glass shows it as a mere wisp of light71 yet there is a pretty array of small stars in its neighborhood worth looking at4 ,besides1 this nebula is of special interest1 because in #ahfj a star suddenly took its place4 ,at least1 that is what seemed to have happened4 ,what really did occur1 probably1 was that a variable or temporary star1 situated between us and the nebula1 and ordinarily too faint to be perceived1 received a sudden and enormous accession of light1 and blazed up so brightly as to blot out of sight the faint nebula behind it4 ,if this star should make its appearance again1 it could easily be seen with an opera-glass1 and so it will not be useless for the reader to know where to look for it4 ,the quarter of the heavens with which we are now dealing is famous for these celestial conflagrations1 if so they may be called4 ,the first temporary star of which there is any record appeared in the constellation of the ,scorpion1 near the head1 #acd years before ,christ4 ,it must have been a most extraordinary phenomenon1 for it attracted attention all over the world1 and both ,greek and ,chinese annals contain descriptions of it4 ,in #cic ,a4 ,d4 a temporary star shone out in the tail of ,scorpio4 ,in #hbg ,a4 ,d4 ,arabian astronomers1 under the ,caliph ,al-,mamoun1 the son of ,haroun-al-,raschid1 who broke into the great pyramid1 observed a temporary star1 that shone for four months in the constellation of the ,scorpion4 ,in #abjc there was a temporary star1 of a bluish color1 in the tail of ,scorpio1 and in #aegh another in the head of the constellation4 ,besides these there are records of the appearance of four temporary stars in the neighboring constellation of ,ophiuchus1 one of which1 that of #afjd1 is very famous1 and will be described later on4 ,it is conceivable that these strange outbursts in and near ,scorpio may have had some effect in causing this constellation to be regarded by the ancients as malign in its influence4 ,we shall presently see some examples of star-clusters and nebulae with which the instruments we are using are better capable of dealing than with the one described above4 ,in the mean time1 let us follow the bending row of stars from ,antares toward the south and east4 ,when you reach the star ,mu 7mu71 you are not unlikely to stop with an exclamation of admiration1 for the glass will separate it into two stars that1 shining side by side1 seem trying to rival each other in brightness4 ,but the next star below mu1 marked ,zeta 7zeta71 is even more beautiful4 ,it also separates into two stars1 one being reddish and the other bluish in color4 ,the contrast in a clear night is very pleasing4 ,but this is not all4 ,above the two stars you will notice a curious nebulous speck4 ,now1 if you have a powerful field-glass1 here is an opportunity to view one of the prettiest sights in the heavens4 ,the field-glass not only makes the two stars appear brighter1 and their colors more pronounced1 but it shows a third1 fainter star below them1 making a small triangle1 and brings other still fainter stars into sight1 while the nebulous speck above turns into a charmingly beautiful little star-cluster1 whose components are so close that their rays are inextricably mingled in a maze of light4 ,this little cut is an attempt to represent the scene1 but no engraving can reproduce the life and sparkle of it4 ,illustration3 ,,zeta ,,scorpionis4 ,following the bend of the ,scorpion's tail upward1 we come to the pair of stars in the sting4 ,these1 of course1 are thrown wide apart by the opera-glass4 ,then let us sweep off to the eastward a little way and find the cluster known as #g ,m4 ,you will see it marked on the map4 ,above it1 and near enough to be included in the same field of view1 is #f ,m41 a smaller cluster4 ,both of these have a sparkling appearance with an opera-glass1 and by close attention some of the separate stars in #g ,m4 may be detected4 ,with a field-glass these clusters become much more striking and starry looking1 and the curious radiated structure of #g ,m4 comes out4 ,in looking at such objects we can not too often recall to our minds the significance of what we see--that these glimmering specks are the lights in the windows of the universe which carry to us1 across inconceivable tracts of space1 the assurance that we and our little system are not alone in the heavens2 that all around us1 and even on the very confines of immensity1 ,nature is busy1 as she is here1 and the laws of light1 heat1 gravitation 7and why not of life871 are in full activity4 ,the clusters we have just been looking at lie on the borders of ,scorpio and ,sagittarius4 ,let us cross over into the latter constellation1 which commemorates the centaur ,chiron4 ,we are now in another1 and even a richer1 region of wonders4 ,the ,milky-,way1 streaming down out of the northeast1 pours1 in a luminous flood1 through ,sagittarius1 inundating that whole region of the heavens with seeming deeps and shallows1 and finally bursting the barriers of the horizon disappears1 only to glow with redoubled splendor in the southern hemisphere4 ,the stars ,zeta 7zeta71 ,tau 7tau71 ,sigma 7sigma71 ,phi 7phi71 ,lambda 7lambda71 and ,mu 7mu7 indicate the outlines of a figure sometimes called the ,milk-,dipper1 which is very evident when the eye has once recognized it4 ,on either side of the upturned handle of this dipper-like figure lie some of the most interesting objects in the sky4 ,let us take the star mu for a starting-point4 ,sweep downward and to the right a little way1 and you will be startled by a most singular phenomenon that has suddenly made its appearance in the field of view of your glass4 ,you may1 perhaps1 be tempted to congratulate yourself on having got ahead of all the astronomers1 and discovered a comet4 ,it is really a combination of a star-cluster with a nebula1 and is known as #h ,m4 ,sir ,john ,herschel has described the nebulous folds and masses and dark oval gaps which he saw in this nebula with his large telescope at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,but no telescope is needed to make it appear a wonderful object2 an opera-glass suffices for that1 and a field-glass reveals still more of its marvelous structure4 ,the reader will recollect that we found the summer solstice close to a wonderful star-swarm in the feet of ,gemini4 ,singularly enough the winter solstice is also near a star-cluster4 ,it is to be found near a line drawn from #h ,m4 to the star mu ,sagittarii1 and about one third of the way from the cluster to the star4 ,there is another less conspicuous star-cluster still closer to the solstitial point here1 for this part of the heavens teems with such aggregations4 ,on the opposite side of the star mu--that is to say1 above and a little to the left--is an entirely different but almost equally attractive spectacle1 the swarm of stars called #bd ,m4 ,here1 again1 the field-glass easily shows its superiority over the opera-glass1 for magnifying power is needed to bring out the innumerable little twinklers of which the cluster is composed4 ,but1 whether you use an opera-glass or a field-glass1 do not fail to gaze long and steadily at this island of stars1 for much of its beauty becomes evident only after the eye has accustomed itself to disentangle the glimmering rays with which the whole field of view is filled4 ,try the method of averted vision1 and hundreds of the finest conceivable points of light will seem to spring into view out of the depths of the sky4 ,the necessity of a perfectly clear night1 and the absence of moonlight1 can not be too much insisted upon for observations such as these4 ,everybody knows how the moonlight blots out the smaller stars4 ,a slight haziness1 or smoke1 in the air produces a similar effect4 ,it is as important to the observer with an opera-glass to have a transparent atmosphere as it is to one who would use a telescope2 but1 fortunately1 the work of the former is not so much interfered with by currents of air4 ,always avoid the neighborhood of any bright light4 ,electric lights in particular are an abomination to star-gazers4 ,the cloud of stars we have just been looking at is in a very rich region of the ,milky-,way1 in the little modern constellation called ,sobieski's ,shield1 which we have not named upon our map4 ,sweeping slowly upward from #bd ,m4 a little way with the field-glass1 we will pass in succession over three nebulous-looking spots4 ,the second of these1 counting upward1 is the famous ,horseshoe nebula4 ,its wonders are beyond the reach of our instrument1 but its place may be recognized4 ,look carefully all around this region1 and you will perceive that the old gods1 who traveled this road 7the ,milky-,way was sometimes called the pathway of the gods71 trod upon golden sands4 ,off a little way to the east you will find the rich cluster called #be ,m4 ,but do not imagine the thousands of stars that your opera-glass or field-glass reveals comprise all the riches of this ,golconda of the heavens4 ,you might ply the powers of the greatest telescope in a vain attempt to exhaust its wealth4 ,as a hint of the wonders that lie hidden here1 let me quote ,father ,secchi's description of a starry spot in this same neighborhood1 viewed with the great telescope at ,rome4 ,after telling of beds of stars superposed upon one another1 and of the wonderful geometrical arrangement of the larger stars visible in the field1 he adds3 ,the greater number are arranged in spiral arcs1 in which one can count as many as ten or twelve stars of the ninth to the tenth magnitude following one another in a curve1 like beads upon a string4 ,sometimes they form rays which seem to diverge from a common focus1 and1 what is very singular1 one usually finds1 either at the center of the rays1 or at the beginning of the curve1 a more brilliant star of a red color1 which seems to lead the march4 ,it is impossible to believe that such an arrangement can be accidental4 ,the reader will recall the somewhat similar description that ,admiral ,smyth and ,mr4 ,webb have given of a star-cluster in ,gemini 7see ,chapter ,i74 ,the milky look of the background of the ,galaxy is1 of course1 caused by the intermingled radiations of inconceivably minute and inconceivably numerous stars1 thousands of which become separately visible1 the number thus distinguishable varying with the size of the instrument4 ,but the most powerful telescope yet placed in human hands can not sound these starry deeps to the bottom4 ,the evidence given by ,prof4 ,holden1 the ,director of the ,lick ,observatory1 on this point is very interesting4 ,speaking of the performance of the gigantic telescope on ,mount ,hamilton1 thirty-six inches in aperture1 he says3 ,the ,milky-,way is a wonderful sight1 and ,i have been much interested to see that there is1 even with our superlative power1 no final resolution of its finer parts into stars4 ,there is always the background of unresolved nebulosity on which hundreds and thousands of stars are studded--each a bright1 sharp1 separate point4 ,the groups of stars forming the eastern half of the constellation of ,sagittarius are worth sweeping over with the glass1 as a number of pretty pairs may be found there4 ,sagittarius stands in the old star-maps as a centaur1 half-horse-half-man1 facing the west1 with drawn bow1 and arrow pointed at the ,scorpion4 ,illustration3 ,,map #i4 ,next let us pass to the double constellation adjoining ,scorpio and ,sagittarius on the north--,ophiuchus and the ,serpent4 ,these constellations1 as our map shows1 are curiously intermixed4 ,the imagination of the old star-gazers1 who named them1 saw here the figure of a giant grasping a writhing serpent with his hands4 ,the head of the serpent is under the ,northern ,crown1 and its tail ends over the star-gemmed region that we have just described1 called ,sobieski's ,shield4 ,ophiuchus stands1 as figured in ,flamsteed's ,atlas1 upon the back of the ,scorpion1 holding the serpent with one hand below the neck1 this hand being indicated by the pair of stars marked ,epsilon 7epsilon7 and ,delta 7delta71 and with the other near the tail4 ,the stars ,tau 7tau7 and ,nu 7nu7 indicate the second hand4 ,the giant's face is toward the observer1 and the star ,alpha 7alpha71 also called ,ras ,alhague1 shines in his forehead1 while ,beta 7beta7 and ,gamma 7gamma7 mark his right shoulder4 ,ophiuchus has been held to represent the famous physician ,a,esculapius4 ,one may well repress the tendency to smile at these fanciful legends when he reflects upon their antiquity4 ,there is no doubt that this double constellation is at least three thousand years old--that is to say1 for thirty centuries the imagination of men has continued to shape these stars into the figures of a gigantic man struggling with a huge serpent4 ,if it possesses no other interest1 then it at least has that which attaches to all things ancient4 ,like many other of the constellations it has proved longer-lived than the mightiest nations4 ,while ,greece flourished and decayed1 while ,rome rose and fell1 while the scepter of civilization has passed from race to race1 these starry creations of fancy have shone on unchanged4 ,the mind that would ignore them now deserves compassion4 ,the reader will observe a little circle in the map1 and near it the figures #afjd4 ,this indicates the spot where one of the most famous temporary stars on record appeared in the year #afjd4 ,at first it was far brighter than any other star in the heavens2 but it quickly faded1 and in a little over a year disappeared4 ,it is particularly interesting1 because ,kepler--the quaintest1 and not far from the greatest1 figure in astronomical history--wrote a curious book about it4 ,some of the philosophers of the day argued that the sudden outburst of the wonderful star was caused by the chance meeting of atoms4 ,kepler's reply was characteristic1 as well as amusing3 ,i will tell those disputants1 my opponents1 not my own opinion1 but my wife's4 ,yesterday1 when ,i was weary with writing1 my mind being quite dusty with considering these atoms1 ,i was called to supper1 and a salad ,i had asked for was set before me4 ',it seems1 then1' said ,i1 aloud1 'that if pewter dishes1 leaves of lettuce1 grains of salt1 drops of water1 vinegar and oil1 and slices of egg1 had been flying about in the air from all eternity1 it might at last happen by chance that there would come a salad4' ',yes1' says my wife1 'but not so nice and well-dressed as this of mine is4' ,while there are no objects of special interest for the observer with an opera-glass in ,ophiuchus1 he will find it worth while to sweep over it for what he may pick up1 and1 in particular1 he should look at the group of stars southeast of beta and gamma4 ,these stars have been shaped into a little modern asterism called ,taurus ,poniatowskii1 and it will be noticed that five of them mark the outlines of a letter ,v1 resembling the well-known figure of the ,hyades4 ,also look at the stars in the head of ,serpens1 several of which form a figure like a letter ,x4 ,a little west of ,theta 7theta7 in the tail of ,serpens1 is a beautiful swarm of little stars1 upon which a field-glass may be used with advantage4 ,the star theta is itself a charming double1 just within the separating power of a very powerful field-glass under favorable circumstances1 the component stars being only about one third of a minute apart4 ,do not fail to notice the remarkable subdivisions of the ,milky-,way in this neighborhood4 ,its current seems divided into numerous channels and bays1 interspersed with gaps that might be likened to islands1 and the star theta appears to be situated upon one of these islands of the galaxy4 ,this complicated structure of the ,milky-,way extends downward to the horizon1 and upward through the constellation ,cygnus1 and of its phenomenal appearance in that region we shall have more to say further on4 ,directly north of ,ophiuchus is the constellation ,hercules1 interesting as occupying that part of the heavens toward which the proper motion of the sun is bearing the earth and its fellow-planets1 at the rate1 probably1 of not less than #afj1jjj1jjj miles in a year--a stupendous voyage through space1 of whose destination we are as ignorant as the crew of a ship sailing under sealed orders1 and1 like whom1 we must depend upon such inferences as we can draw from courses and distances1 for no other information comes to us from the flagship of our squadron4 ,illustration3 ,,map #aj4 ,in the accompanying map we have represented the beautiful constellations ,lyra and the ,northern ,crown1 lying on either side of ,hercules4 ,the reader should note that the point overhead in this map is not far from the star ,eta 7eta7 in ,hercules4 ,the bottom of the map is toward the south1 the right-hand side is west1 and the left-hand side east4 ,it is important to keep these directions in mind1 in comparing the map with the sky4 ,for instance1 the observer must not expect to look into the south and see ,hercules half-way up the sky1 with ,lyra a little east of it2 he must look for ,hercules nearly overhead1 and ,lyra a little east of the zenith4 ,the same precautions are not necessary in using the maps of ,scorpio1 ,sagittarius1 and ,ophiuchus1 because those constellations are nearer the horizon1 and so the observer does not have to imagine the map as being suspended over his head4 ,the name ,hercules sufficiently indicates the mythological origin of the constellation1 and yet the ,greeks did not know it by that name1 for ,aratus calls it the ,phantom whose name none can tell4 ,the ,northern ,crown1 according to fable1 was the celebrated crown of ,ariadne1 and ,lyra was the harp of ,orpheus himself1 with whose sweet music he charmed the hosts of ,hades1 and persuaded ,pluto to yield up to him his lost ,eurydice4 ,with the aid of the map you will be able to recognize the principal stars and star-groups in ,hercules1 and will find many interesting combinations of stars for yourself4 ,an object of special interest is the celebrated star-cluster #ac ,m4 ,you will find it on the map between the stars ,eta 7eta7 and ,zeta 7zeta74 ,while an opera-glass will only show it as a faint and minute speck1 lying nearly between two little stars1 it is nevertheless well worth looking for1 on account of the great renown of this wonderful congregation of stars4 ,sir ,william ,herschel computed the number of stars contained in it as about fourteen thousand4 ,it is roughly spherical in shape1 though there are many straggling stars around it evidently connected with the cluster4 ,in short1 it is a ball of suns4 ,the reader should not mistake what that implies1 however4 ,these suns1 though truly solar bodies1 are probably very much smaller than our sun4 ,mr4 ,gore has computed their average diameter to be forty-five thousand miles1 and the distance separating each from the next to be #i1jjj1jjj1jjj miles4 ,it may not be uninteresting to inquire what would be the appearance of the sky to dwellers within such a system of suns4 ,adopting ,mr4 ,gore's estimates1 and supposing #i1jjj1jjj1jjj miles to be very nearly the uniform distance apart of the stars in the cluster1 and forty-five thousand miles their uniform diameter1 then1 starting with a single star in the center1 their arrangement might be approximately in concentric spherical shells1 situated about #i1jjj1jjj1jjj miles apart4 ,the first shell1 counting outward from the center1 would contain a dozen stars1 each of which1 as seen by an observer stationed upon a planet at the center of the cluster1 would shine eleven hundred times as bright as ,sirius appears to us4 ,the number of the stars in each shell would increase as they receded from the center in proportion to the squares of the radii of the successive shells1 while their luminosity1 as seen from the center1 would vary inversely as those squares4 ,still1 the outermost stars--the total number being limited to fourteen or fifteen thousand--would appear to our observer at the center of the system about five times as brilliant as ,sirius4 ,it is clear1 then1 that he would be dwelling in a sort of perpetual daylight4 ,his planet might receive from the particular sun around which it revolved as brilliant a daylight as our sun gives to us1 but let us see what would be the illumination of its night side4 ,adopting ,zoellner's estimate of the light of the sun as #fah1jjj times as great as that of the full moon1 and choosing among the various estimates of the light of ,sirius as compared with the sun #a_/djjjjjjjjj as probably the nearest the truth1 we find that the moon sends us about sixty-five hundred times as much light as ,sirius does4 ,now1 since the dozen stars nearest the center of the cluster would each appear to our observer eleven hundred times as bright as ,sirius1 all of them together would give a little more than twice as much light as the full moon sheds upon the earth4 ,but as only half the stars in the cluster would be above the horizon at once we must diminish this estimate by one half1 in order to obtain the amount of light that our supposititious planet would receive on its night side from the nearest stars in the cluster4 ,and since the number of these stars increases with their distance from the center in the same ratio as their light diminishes1 it follows that the total light received from the cluster would exceed that received from the dozen nearest stars as many times as there were spherical shells in the cluster4 ,this would be about fifteen times1 and accordingly all the stars together would shed1 at the center1 some thirty times as much light as that of the moon4 ,dividing this again by two1 because only half of the stars could be seen at once1 we find that the night side of our observer's planet would be illuminated with fifteen times as much light as the full moon sheds upon the earth4 ,it is evident1 too1 that our observer would enjoy the spectacle of a starry firmament incomparably more splendid than that which we behold4 ,only about three thousand stars are visible to our unassisted eyes at once on any clear night1 and of those only a few are conspicuous1 and two thirds are so faint that they require some attention in order to be distinguished4 ,but the spectator at the center of the ,hercules cluster would behold some seven thousand stars at once1 the faintest of which would be five times as brilliant as the brightest star in our sky1 while the brighter ones would blaze like nearing suns4 ,one effect of this flood of starlight would be to shut out from our observer's eyes all the stars of the outside universe4 ,they would be effaced in the blaze of his sky1 and he would be1 in a manner1 shut up within his own little star-system1 knowing nothing of the greater universe beyond1 in which we behold his multitude of luminaries1 diminished and blended by distance into a faintly shining speck1 floating like a silvery mote in a sunbeam4 ,if our observer's planet1 instead of being situated in the center of the cluster1 circled around one of the stars at the outer edge of it1 the appearance of his sky would be1 in some respects1 still more wonderful1 the precise phenomena depending upon the position of the planet's orbit and the station of the observer4 ,less than half of his sky would be filled1 at any time1 by the stars of the cluster1 the other half opening upon outer space and appearing by comparison almost starless--a vast1 cavernous expanse1 with a few faint glimmerings out of its gloomy depths4 ,the plane of the orbit of his planet being supposed to pass through the center of the spherical system1 our observer would1 during his year1 behold the night at one season blazing with the splendors of the clustered suns1 and at another emptied of brilliant orbs and faintly lighted with the soft glow of the ,milky-,way and the feeble flickering of distant stars1 scattered over the dark vault4 ,the position of the orbit1 and the inclination of the planet's axis might be such that the glories of the cluster would not be visible from one of its hemispheres1 necessitating a journey to the other side of the globe to behold them4,b ,b ,a similar calculation of the internal appearances of the ,hercules cluster1 which ,i made1 was published in #ahhg in the ,new ,york ,sun4 ,of course1 it is not to be assumed that the arrangement of the stars in the cluster actually is exactly that which we have imagined4 ,still1 whatever the arrangement1 so long as the cluster is practically spherical1 and the stars composing it are of nearly uniform size and situated at nearly uniform distances1 the phenomena we have described would fairly represent the appearances presented to inhabitants of worlds situated in such a system4 ,as to the possibility of the existence of such worlds and inhabitants1 everybody must draw his own conclusions4 ,astronomy1 as a science1 is silent upon that question4 ,but there shine the congregated stars1 mingling their rays in a message of light1 that comes to us across the gulf1 proclaiming their brotherhood with our own glorious sun4 ,mathematicians can not unravel the interlocking intricacies of their orbits1 and some would1 perhaps a priori1 have said that such a system was impossible1 but the telescope has revealed them1 and there they are6 ,what purposes they subserve in the economy of the universe1 who shall declare8 ,if you have a field-glass1 by all means try it upon #ac ,m4 ,it will give you a more satisfactory view than an opera-glass is capable of doing1 and will magnify the cluster so that there can be no possibility of mistaking it for a star4 ,compare this compact cluster1 which only a powerful telescope can partially resolve into its component stars1 with #g ,m4 and #bd ,m41 described before1 in order to comprehend the wide variety in the structure of these aggregations of stars4 ,the ,northern ,crown1 although a strikingly beautiful constellation to the naked eye1 offers few attractions to the opera-glass4 ,let us turn1 then1 to ,lyra4 ,i have never been able to make up my mind which of three great stars is entitled to precedence--,vega1 the leading brilliant of ,lyra1 ,arcturus in ,booetes1 or ,capella in ,auriga4 ,they are the three leaders of the northern firmament1 but which of them should be called the chief1 is very hard to say4 ,at any rate1 ,vega would probably be generally regarded as the most beautiful1 on account of the delicate bluish tinge in its light1 especially when viewed with a glass4 ,there is no possibility of mistaking this star because of its surpassing brilliancy4 ,two faint stars close to ,vega on the east make a beautiful little triangle with it1 and thus form a further means of recognition1 if any were needed4 ,your opera-glass will show that the floor of heaven is powdered with stars1 fine as the dust of a diamond1 all around the neighborhood of ,vega1 and the longer you gaze the more of these diminutive twinklers you will discover4 ,illustration3 ,,map #aa4 ,now direct your glass to the northernmost of the two little stars near ,vega1 the one marked ,epsilon 7epsilon7 in the map4 ,you will perceive that it is composed of two stars of almost equal magnitude4 ,if you had a telescope of considerable power1 you would find that each of these stars is in turn double4 ,in other words1 this wonderful star which appears single to the unassisted eye1 is in reality quadruple1 and there is reason to think that the four stars composing it are connected in pairs1 the members of each pair revolving around their common center while the two pairs in turn circle around a center common to all4 ,with a field-glass you will be able to see that the other star near ,vega1 ,zeta 7zeta71 is also double1 the distance between its components being three quarters of a minute1 while the two stars in epsilon are a little less than #ca_/b' apart4 ,the star ,beta 7beta7 is remarkably variable in brightness4 ,you may watch these variations1 which run through a regular period of about #ab days1 #bac_/d hours1 for yourself4 ,between ,beta and ,gamma 7gamma7 lies the beautiful ,ring nebula1 but it is hopelessly beyond the reach of the optical means we are employing4 ,let us turn next to the stars in the west4 ,in consulting the accompanying map of ,virgo and ,booetes 7,map ,no4 #aa71 the observer is supposed to face the southwest1 at the hours and dates mentioned above as those to which the circular map corresponds4 ,he will then see the bright star ,spica in ,virgo not far above the horizon1 while ,arcturus will be half-way up the sky1 and the ,northern ,crown will be near the zenith4 ,the constellation ,virgo is an interesting one in mythological story4 ,aratus tells us that the ,virgin's home was once on earth1 where she bore the name of ,justice1 and in the golden age all men obeyed her4 ,in the silver age her visits to men became less frequent1 no longer finding the spirits of former days2 and1 finally1 when the brazen age came with the clangor of war3 ,justice1 loathing that race of men1 ,winged her flight to heaven2 and fixed ,her station in that region ,where still by night is seen ,the ,virgin goddess near to bright ,booetes4 ,the chief star of ,virgo1 ,spica1 is remarkable for its pure white light4 ,to my eye there is no conspicuous star in the sky equal to it in this respect1 and it gains in beauty when viewed with a glass4 ,with the aid of the map the reader will find the celebrated binary star ,gamma 7gamma7 ,virginis1 although he will not be able to separate its components without a telescope4 ,it is a curious fact that the star ,epsilon 7epsilon7 in ,virgo has for many ages been known as the ,grape-,gatherer4 ,it has borne this name in ,greek1 in ,latin1 in ,persian1 and in ,arabic1 the origin of the appellation undoubtedly being that it was observed to rise just before the sun in the season of the vintage4 ,it will be observed that the stars epsilon1 delta1 gamma1 eta1 and beta1 mark two sides of a quadrilateral figure of which the opposite corner is indicated by ,denebola in the tail of ,leo4 ,within this quadrilateral lies the marvelous ,field of the ,nebulae1 a region where with adequate optical power one may find hundreds of these strange objects thronging together1 a very storehouse of the germs of suns and worlds4 ,unfortunately1 these nebulae are far beyond the reach of an opera-glass1 but it is worth while to know where this curious region is1 even if we can not behold the wonders it contains4 ,the stars ,omicron 7omicron71 ,pi 7pi71 etc41 forming a little group1 mark the head of ,virgo4 ,the autumnal equinox1 or the place where the sun crosses the equator of the heavens on his southerly journey about the #bast of ,september1 is situated nearly between the stars eta and beta ,virginis1 a little below the line joining them1 and somewhat nearer to eta4 ,both eta and zeta ,virginis are almost exactly upon the equator of the heavens4 ,the constellation ,libra1 lying between ,virgo and ,scorpio1 does not contain much to attract our attention4 ,its two chief stars1 alpha and beta1 may be readily recognized west of and above the head of ,scorpio4 ,the upper one of the two1 beta1 has a singular greenish tint1 and the lower one1 alpha1 is a very pretty double for an opera-glass4 ,the constellation of ,libra appears to have been of later date than the other eleven members of the zodiacal circle4 ,its two chief stars at one time marked the extended claws of ,scorpio1 which were afterward cut off 7perhaps the monster proved too horrible even for its inventors7 to form ,libra4 ,as its name signifies1 ,libra represents a balance1 and this fact seems to refer the invention of the constellation back to at least three hundred years before ,christ1 when the autumnal equinox occurred at the moment when the sun was just crossing the western border of the constellation4 ,the equality of the days and nights at that season readily suggests the idea of a balance4 ,milton1 in ,paradise ,lost1 suggests another origin for the constellation of the ,balance in the account of ,gabriel's discovery of ,satan in paradise3 444 ,now dreadful deeds ,might have ensued1 nor only paradise ,in this commotion1 but the starry cope ,of heaven1 perhaps1 or all the elements ,at least had gone to wrack1 disturbed and torn ,with violence of this conflict1 had not soon ,the ,eternal1 to prevent such horrid fray1 ,hung forth in heaven his golden scales1 yet seen ,betwixt ,astrea and the ,scorpion sign4 ,just north of ,virgo's head will be seen the glimmering of ,berenice's ,hair4 ,this little constellation was included among those described in the chapter on ,the ,stars of ,spring1 but it is worth looking at again in the early summer1 on moonless nights1 when the singular arrangement of the brighter members of the cluster at once strikes the eye4 ,illustration3 ,,berenice',s ,,hair4 ,booetes1 whose leading brilliant1 ,arcturus1 occupies the center of our map1 also possesses a curious mythical history4 ,it is called by the ,greeks the ,bear-,driver1 because it seems continually to chase ,ursa ,major1 the ,great ,bear1 in his path around the pole4 ,the story is that ,booetes was the son of the nymph ,calisto1 whom ,juno1 in one of her customary fits of jealousy1 turned into a bear4 ,booetes1 who had become a famous hunter1 one day roused a bear from her lair1 and1 not knowing that it was his mother1 was about to kill her1 when ,jupiter came to the rescue and snatched them both up into the sky1 where they have shone ever since4 ,lucan refers to this story when1 describing ,brutus's visit to ,cato at night1 he fixes the time by the position of these constellations in the heavens3 ',twas when the solemn dead of night came on1 ,when bright ,calisto1 with her shining son1 ,now half the circle round the pole had run4 ,booetes is not specially interesting for our purposes1 except for the splendor of ,arcturus4 ,this star has possessed a peculiar charm for me ever since boyhood1 when1 having read a description of it in an old treatise on ,uranography1 ,i felt an eager desire to see it4 ,as my search for it chanced to begin at a season when ,arcturus did not rise till after a boy's bed-time1 ,i was for a long time disappointed1 and ,i shall never forget the start of surprise and almost of awe with which ,i finally caught sight of it1 one spring evening1 shooting its flaming rays through the boughs of an apple-orchard1 like a star on fire4 ,when near the horizon1 ,arcturus has a remarkably reddish color2 but1 after it has attained a high elevation in the sky1 it appears rather a deep yellow than red4 ,there is a scattered cluster of small stars surrounding ,arcturus1 forming an admirable spectacle with an opera-glass on a clear night4 ,to see these stars well1 the glass should be slowly moved about4 ,many of them are hidden by the glare of ,arcturus4 ,the little group of stars near the end of the handle of the ,great ,dipper1 or1 what is the same thing1 the tail of the ,great ,bear1 marks the upraised hand of ,booetes4 ,between ,berenice's ,hair and the tail of the ,bear you will see a small constellation called ,canes ,venatici1 the ,hunting-,dogs4 ,on the old star-maps ,booetes is represented as holding these dogs with a leash1 while they are straining in chase of the ,bear4 ,you will find some pretty groupings of stars in this constellation4 ,and now we will turn to the east4 ,our next map shows ,cygnus1 a constellation especially remarkable for the large and striking figure that it contains1 called the ,northern ,cross1 ,aquila the ,eagle1 the ,dolphin1 and the little asterisms ,sagitta and ,vulpecula4 ,in consulting the map1 the observer is supposed to face toward the east4 ,in ,aquila the curious arrangement of two stars on either side of the chief star of the constellation1 called ,altair1 at once attracts the eye4 ,within a circle including the two attendants of ,altair you will probably be able to see with the naked eye only two or three stars in addition to the three large ones4 ,now turn your glass upon the same spot1 and you will see eight or ten times as many stars1 and with a field-glass still more can be seen4 ,watch the star marked ,eta 7eta71 and you will find that its light is variable1 being sometimes more than twice as bright as at other times4 ,its changes are periodical1 and occupy a little over a week4 ,the ,eagle is fabled to have been the bird that ,jupiter kept beside his throne4 ,a constellation called ,antinous1 invented by ,tycho ,brahe1 is represented on some maps as occupying the lower portion of the space given to ,aquila4 ,the ,dolphin is an interesting little constellation1 and the ancients said it represented the very animal on whose back the famous musician ,arion rode through the sea after his escape from the sailors who tried to murder him4 ,but some modern has dubbed it with the less romantic name of ,job's ,coffin1 by which it is sometimes called4 ,it presents a very pretty sight to the opera-glass4 ,cygnus1 the swan1 is a constellation whose mythological history is not specially interesting1 although1 as remarked above1 it contains one of the most clearly marked figures to be found among the stars1 the famous ,northern ,cross4 ,the outlines of this cross are marked with great distinctness by the stars ,alpha 7alpha71 ,epsilon 7epsilon71 ,gamma 7gamma71 ,delta 7delta71 and ,beta 7beta71 together with some fainter stars lying along the main beam of the cross between beta and gamma4 ,the star beta1 also called ,albireo1 is one of the most beautiful double stars in the heavens4 ,the components are sharply contrasted in color1 the larger star being golden-yellow1 while the smaller one is a deep1 rich blue4 ,with a field-glass of #a4f-;inch aperture and magnifying seven times ,i have sometimes been able to divide this pair1 and to recognize the blue color of the smaller star4 ,it will be found a severe test for such a glass4 ,illustration3 ,,map #ab4 ,about half-way from ,albireo to the two stars zeta and epsilon in ,aquila is a very curious little group1 consisting of six or seven stars in a straight row1 with a garland of other stars hanging from the center4 ,to see it best1 take a field-glass1 although an opera-glass shows it4 ,i have indicated the place of the celebrated star #fa ,cygni in the map1 because of the interest attaching to it as the nearest to us1 so far as we know1 of all the stars in the northern hemisphere1 and with one exception the nearest star in all the heavens4 ,yet it is very faint1 and the fact that so inconspicuous a star should be nearer than such brilliants as ,vega and ,arcturus shows how wide is the range of magnitude among the suns that light the universe4 ,the actual distance of #fa ,cygni is something like #fej1jjj times as great as the distance from the earth to the sun4 ,the star ,omicron 7omicron7 is very interesting with an opera-glass4 ,the naked eye sees a little star near it4 ,the glass throws them wide apart1 and divides omicron itself into two stars4 ,now1 a field-glass1 if of sufficient power1 will divide the larger of these stars again into two--a fine test4 ,sweep around alpha and gamma for the splendid star-fields that abound in this neighborhood2 also around the upper part of the figure of the cross4 ,we are here in one of the richest parts of the ,milky-,way4 ,between the stars alpha1 gamma1 epsilon1 is the strange dark gap in the galaxy called the ,coal-,sack1 a sort of hole in the starry heavens4 ,although it is not entirely empty of stars1 its blackness is striking in contrast with the brilliancy of the ,milky-,way in this neighborhood4 ,the divergent streams of the great river of light in this region present a very remarkable appearance4 ,illustration3 ,,map #ac4 ,finally1 we come to the great dragon of the sky4 ,in using the map of ,draco and the neighboring constellations1 the reader is supposed to face the north4 ,the center of the upper edge of the map is directly over the observer's head4 ,one of the stories told of this large constellation is that it represents a dragon that had the temerity to war against ,minerva4 ,the goddess seized it in her hand1 and hurled it1 twisted as it was1 into the heavens round the axis of the world1 before it had time to unwind its contortions4 ,others say it is the dragon that guarded the golden apples in the ,garden of the ,hesperides1 and that was slain by the redoubtable ,hercules4 ,at any rate1 it is plainly a monster of the first magnitude4 ,the stars beta1 gamma1 xi1 nu1 and mu represent its head1 while its body runs trailing along1 first sweeping in a long curve toward ,cepheus1 and then bending around and passing between the two bears4 ,try nu with your opera-glass1 and if you succeed in seeing it double you may congratulate yourself on your keen sight4 ,the distance between the stars is about #a'4 ,notice the contrasted colors of gamma and beta1 the former being a rich orange and the latter white4 ,as you sweep along the winding way that ,draco follows1 you will run across many striking fields of stars1 although the heavens are not as rich here as in the splendid regions that we have just left4 ,you will also find that ,cepheus1 although not an attractive constellation to the naked eye1 is worth some attention with an opera-glass4 ,the head and upper part of the body of ,cepheus are plunged in the stream of the ,milky ,way1 while his feet are directed toward the pole of the heavens1 upon which he is pictured as standing4 ,cepheus1 however1 sinks into insignificance in comparison with its neighbor ,cassiopeia1 but that constellation belongs rather to the autumn sky1 and we shall pass it by here4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,stars ,,of ,,autumn4 ,,in the ,fifth ,evening of that delightful1 old1 out-of-date book of ,fontenelle's1 on the ,plurality of ,worlds1 the ,astronomer and the ,marchioness1 who have been making a wonderful pilgrimage through the heavens during their evening strolls in the park1 come at last to the starry systems beyond the solar vortex1 and the ,marchioness experiences a lively impatience to know what the fixed stars will turn out to be1 for the ,astronomer has sharpened her appetite for marvels4 ,tell me1 says she1 eagerly1 are they1 too1 inhabited like the planets1 or are they not peopled8 ,in short1 what can we make of them8 ,the ,astronomer answers his charming questioner1 as we should do to-day1 that the fixed stars are so many suns4 ,and he adds to this information a great deal of entertaining talk about the planets that may be supposed to circle around these distant suns1 interspersing his conversation with explanations of vortexes1 and many quaint conceits1 in which he is helped out by the ready wit of the ,marchioness4 ,finally1 the impressionable mind of the lady is overwhelmed by the grandeur of the scenes that the ,astronomer opens to her view1 her head swims1 infinity oppresses her1 and she cries for mercy4 ,you show me1 she exclaims1 a perspective so interminably long that the eye can not see the end of it4 ,i see plainly the inhabitants of the earth2 then you cause me to perceive those of the moon and of the other planets belonging to our vortex 7system71 quite clearly1 yet not so distinctly as those of the earth4 ,after them come the inhabitants of planets in the other vortexes4 ,i confess1 they seem to me hidden deep in the background1 and1 however hard ,i try1 ,i can barely glimpse them at all4 ,in truth1 are they not almost annihilated by the very expression which you are obliged to use in speaking of them8 ,you have to call them inhabitants of one of the planets contained in one out of the infinity of vortexes4 ,surely we ourselves1 to whom the same expression applies1 are almost lost among so many millions of worlds4 ,for my part1 the earth begins to appear so frightfully little to me that henceforth ,i shall hardly consider any object worthy of eager pursuit4 ,assuredly1 people who seek so earnestly their own aggrandizement1 who lay schemes upon schemes1 and give themselves so much trouble1 know nothing of the vortexes6 ,i am sure my increase of knowledge will redound to the credit of my idleness1 and when people reproach me with indolence ,i shall reply3 ',ah6 if you but knew the history of the fixed stars6' ,it is certainly true that a contemplation of the unthinkable vastness of the universe1 in the midst of which we dwell upon a speck illuminated by a spark1 is calculated to make all terrestrial affairs appear contemptibly insignificant4 ,we can not wonder that men for ages regarded the earth as the center1 and the heavens with their lights as tributary to it1 for to have thought otherwise1 in those times1 would have been to see things from the point of view of a superior intelligence4 ,it has taken a vast amount of experience and knowledge to convince men of the parvitude of themselves and their belongings4 ,so1 in all ages they have applied a terrestrial measure to the universe1 and imagined they could behold human affairs reflected in the heavens and human interests setting the gods together by the ears4 ,illustration3 ,,map4 #ad4 ,this is clearly shown in the story of the constellations4 ,the tremendous truth that on a starry night we look1 in every direction1 into an almost endless vista of suns beyond suns and systems upon systems1 was too overwhelming for comprehension by the inventors of the constellations4 ,so they amused themselves1 like imaginative children1 as they were1 by tracing the outlines of men and beasts formed by those pretty lights1 the stars4 ,they turned the starry heavens into a scroll filled with pictured stories of mythology4 ,four of the constellations with which we are going to deal in this chapter are particularly interesting on this account4 ,they preserve in the stars1 more lasting than parchment or stone1 one of the oldest and most pleasing of all the romantic stories that have amused and inspired the minds of men--the story of ,perseus and ,andromeda--a better story than any that modern novelists have invented4 ,the four constellations to which ,i refer bear the names of ,andromeda1 ,perseus1 ,cassiopeia1 and ,cepheus1 and are sometimes called1 collectively1 the ,royal ,family4 ,in the autumn they occupy a conspicuous position in the sky1 forming a group that remains unrivaled until the rising of ,orion with his imperial cortege4 ,the reader will find them in ,map ,no4 #ad1 occupying the northeastern quarter of the heavens4 ,this map represents the visible heavens at about midnight on ,september #ast1 ten o'clock ,p4 ,m4 on ,october #ast1 and eight o'clock ,p4 ,m4 on ,november #ast4 ,at this time the constellations that were near the meridian in summer will be found sinking in the west1 ,hercules being low in the northwest1 with the brilliant ,lyra and the head of ,draco suspended above it2 ,aquila1 the eagle of the winds1 soars high in the southwest2 while the ,cross of ,cygnus is just west of the zenith2 and ,sagittarius1 with its wealth of star-dust1 is disappearing under the horizon in the southwest4 ,far down in the south the observer catches the gleam of a bright lone star of the first magnitude1 though not one of the largest of that class4 ,it is ,fomalhaut1 in the mouth of the ,southern ,fish1 ,piscis ,australis4 ,a slight reddish tint will be perceived in the light of this beautiful star1 whose brilliance is enhanced by the fact that it shines without a rival in that region of the sky4 ,fomalhaut is one of the important nautical stars1 and its position was long ago carefully computed for the benefit of mariners4 ,the constellation of ,piscis ,australis1 which will be found in our second map1 does not possess much to interest us except its splendid leading star4 ,in consulting ,map #ae1 the observer is supposed to be facing south1 or slightly west of south1 and he must remember that the upper part of the map reaches nearly to the zenith1 while at the bottom it extends down to the horizon4 ,illustration3 ,,map #ae4 ,to the right1 or west1 of ,fomalhaut1 and higher up1 is the constellation of ,capricornus1 very interesting on many accounts1 though by no means a striking constellation to the unassisted eye4 ,the stars ,alpha 7alpha71 called ,giedi1 and ,beta 7beta71 called ,dabih1 will be readily recognized1 and a keen eye will perceive that ,alpha really consists of two stars4 ,they are about six minutes of arc apart1 and are of the third and the fourth magnitude respectively4 ,these stars1 which to the naked eye appear almost blended into one1 really have no physical connection with each other1 and are slowly drifting apart4 ,the ancient astronomers make no mention of ,giedi being composed of two stars1 and the reason is plain1 when it is known that in the time of ,hipparchus1 as ,flammarion has pointed out1 their distance apart was not more than two thirds as great as it is at present1 so that the naked eye could not have detected the fact that there were two of them2 and it was not until the seventeenth century that they got far enough asunder to begin to be separated by eyes of unusual power4 ,with an ordinary opera-glass they are thrown well apart1 and present a very pretty sight4 ,considering the manner in which these stars are separating1 the fact that both of them have several faint companions1 which our powerful telescopes reveal1 becomes all the more interesting4 ,a suggestion of ,sir ,john ,herschel1 concerning one of these faint companions1 that it shines by reflected light1 adds to the interest1 for if the suggestion is well founded the little star must1 of course1 be actually a planet1 and granting that1 then some of the other faint points of light seen there are probably planets too4 ,it must be said that the probabilities are against ,herschel's suggestion4 ,the faint stars more likely shine with their own light4 ,even so1 however1 these two systems1 which apparently have met and are passing one another1 at a distance small as compared with the space that separates them from us1 possess a peculiar interest1 like two celestial fleets that have spoken one another in the midst of the ocean of space4 ,the star ,beta1 or ,dabih1 is also a double star4 ,the companion is of a beautiful blue color1 generally described as sky-blue4 ,it is of the seventh magnitude1 while the larger star is of magnitude three and a half4 ,the latter is golden-yellow4 ,the blue of the small star can be seen with either an opera- or a field-glass1 but it requires careful looking and a clear and steady atmosphere4 ,i recollect discovering the color of this star with a field-glass1 and exclaiming to myself1 ,why1 the little one is as blue as a bluebell6 before ,i knew that that was its hue as seen with a telescope4 ,trying my opera-glass upon it ,i found that the color was even more distinct1 although the small star was then more or less enveloped in the yellow rays of the large one4 ,the distance between the two stars in ,dabih is nearly the same as that between the components of epsilon ,lyrae1 and the comparative difficulty of separating them is an instructive example of the effect of a large star in concealing a small one close beside it4 ,the two stars in epsilon ,lyrae are of nearly equal brightness1 and are very easily separated and distinguished1 but in beta ,capricorni1 or ,dabih1 one star is about twenty times as bright as the other1 and consequently the fainter star is almost concealed in the glare of its more brilliant neighbor4 ,with the most powerful glass at your disposal1 sweep from the star ,zeta 7zeta7 eastward a distance somewhat greater than that separating ,alpha and ,beta1 and you will find a fifth-magnitude star beside a little nebulous spot4 ,this is the cluster known as #cj ,m1 one of those sun-swarms that overwhelm the mind of the contemplative observer with astonishment1 and especially remarkable in this case for the apparent vacancy of the heavens immediately surrounding the cluster1 as if all the stars in that neighborhood had been drawn into the great assemblage1 leaving a void around it4 ,of course1 with the instrument that our observer is supposed to be using1 merely the existence of this solar throng can be detected2 but1 if he sees that it is there1 he may be led to provide himself with a telescope capable of revealing its glories4 ,admiral ,smyth remarks that1 although ,capricorn is not a striking object1 it has been the very pet of all constellations with astrologers1 and he quotes from an old almanac of the year #achf1 that whoso is borne in ,capcorn schal be ryche and wel lufyd4 ,the mythological account of the constellation is that it represents the goat into which ,pan was turned in order to escape from the giant ,typhon1 who once on a time scared all the gods out of their wits1 and caused them to change themselves into animals1 even ,jupiter assuming the form of a ram4 ,according to some authorities1 ,piscis ,australis represents the fish into which ,venus changed herself on that interesting occasion4 ,directly above ,piscis ,australis1 and to the east or left of ,capricorn1 the map shows the constellation of ,aquarius1 or the ,water-,bearer4 ,some say this commemorates ,ganymede1 the cup-bearer of the gods4 ,it is represented in old star-maps by the figure of a young man pouring water from an urn4 ,the star ,alpha 7alpha7 marks his right shoulder1 and ,beta 7beta7 his left1 and ,gamma 7gamma71 ,zeta 7zeta71 ,eta 7eta71 and ,pi 7pi7 indicate his right hand and the urn4 ,from this group a current of small stars will be recognized1 sweeping downward with a curve toward the east1 and ending at ,fomalhaut2 this represents the water poured from the urn1 which the ,southern ,fish appears to be drinking4 ,in fact1 according to the pictures in the old maps1 the fish succeeds in swallowing the stream completely1 and it vanishes from the sky in the act of entering his distended mouth6 ,it is worthy of remark that in ,greek1 ,latin1 and ,arabic this constellation bears names all of which signify a man pouring water4 ,the ancient ,egyptians imagined that the setting of ,aquarius caused the rising of the ,nile1 as he sank his huge urn in the river to fill it4 ,alpha ,aquarii was called by the ,arabs ,sadalmelik1 which is interpreted to mean the king's lucky star1 but whether it proved itself a lucky star in war or in love1 and what particular king enjoyed its benign influence and recorded his gratitude in its name1 we are not informed4 ,thus1 at every step1 we find how shreds of history and bits of superstition are entangled among the stars4 ,surely1 humanity has been reflected in the heavens as lastingly as it has impressed itself upon the earth4 ,starting from the group of stars just described as forming the ,water-,bearer's urn1 follow with a glass the winding stream of small stars that represent the water4 ,several very pretty and striking assemblages of stars will be encountered in its course4 ,the star ,tau 7tau7 is double and presents a beautiful contrast of color1 one star being white and the other reddish-orange--two solar systems1 it may be1 apparently neighbors as seen from the earth1 in one of which daylight is white and in the other red6 ,point a good glass upon the star marked ,nu 7nu71 and you will see1 somewhat less than a degree and a half to the west of it1 what appears to be a faint star of between the seventh and eighth magnitudes4 ,you will have to look sharp to see it4 ,it is with your mind's eye that you must gaze1 in order to perceive the wonder here hidden in the depths of space4 ,that faint speck is a nebula1 unrivaled for interest by many of the larger and more conspicuous objects of that kind4 ,lord ,rosse's great telescope has shown that in form it resembles the planet ,saturn2 in other words1 that it consists apparently of a ball surrounded by a ring4 ,but the spectroscope proves that it is a gaseous mass1 and the micrometer--supposing its distance to be equal to that of the stars1 and we have no reason to think it less--that it must be large enough to fill the whole space included within the orbit of ,neptune6 ,here1 then1 as has been said1 we seem to behold a genesis in the heavens4 ,if ,laplace's nebular hypothesis1 or any of the modifications of that hypothesis1 represents the process of formation of a solar system1 then we may fairly conclude that such a process is now actually in operation in this nebula in ,aquarius1 where a vast ring of nebulous matter appears to have separated off from the spherical mass within it4 ,this may not be the true explanation of what we see there1 but1 whatever the explanation is1 there can be no question of the high significance of this nebula1 whose shape proclaims unmistakably the operation of great metamorphic forces there4 ,of course1 with his insignificant optical means1 our observer can see nothing of the strange form of this object1 the detection of which requires the aid of the most powerful telescopes1 but it is much to know where that unfinished creation lies1 and to see it1 even though diminished by distance to a mere speck of light4 ,turn your glass upon the star shown in the map just above ,mu 7mu7 and ,epsilon 7epsilon74 ,you will find an attractive arrangement of small stars in its neighborhood4 ,the star marked #ajd is double to the naked eye1 and the row of stars below it is well worth looking at4 ,the star ,delta 7delta7 indicates the place where1 in #agef1 ,tobias ,mayer narrowly escaped making a discovery that would have anticipated that which a quarter of a century later made the name of ,sir ,william ,herschel world-renowned4 ,the planet ,uranus passed near ,delta in #agef1 and ,tobias ,mayer saw it1 but it moved so slowly that he took it for a fixed star1 never suspecting that his eyes had rested upon a member of the solar system whose existence was1 up to that time1 unknown to the inhabitants of ,adam's planet4 ,above ,aquarius you will find the constellation ,pegasus4 ,it is conspicuously marked by four stars of about the second magnitude1 which shine at the corners of a large square1 called the ,great ,square of ,pegasus4 ,this figure is some fifteen degrees square1 and at once attracts the eye1 there being few stars visible within the quadrilateral1 and no large ones in the immediate neighborhood to distract attention from it4 ,one of the four stars1 however1 as will be seen by consulting ,map #ae1 does not belong to ,pegasus1 but to the constellation ,andromeda4 ,mythologically1 this constellation represents the celebrated winged horse of antiquity3 ,now heaven his further wandering flight confines1 ,where1 splendid with his numerous stars1 he shines4 ,the star ,alpha 7alpha7 is called ,markab2 ,beta 7beta7 is ,scheat1 and ,gamma 7gamma7 is ,algenib2 the fourth star in the square1 belonging to ,andromeda1 is called ,alpheratz4 ,although ,pegasus presents a striking appearance to the unassisted eye1 on account of its great square1 it contains little to attract the observer with an opera-glass4 ,it will prove interesting1 however1 to sweep with the glass carefully over the space within the square1 which is comparatively barren to the naked eye1 but in which many small stars will be revealed1 of whose existence the naked-eye observer would be unaware4 ,the star marked ,pi 7pi7 is an interesting double1 which can be separated by a good eye without artificial aid1 and which1 with an opera-glass1 presents a fine appearance4 ,and now we come to ,map ,no4 #af1 representing the constellations ,cetus1 ,pisces1 ,aries1 and the ,triangles4 ,in consulting it the observer is supposed to face the southeast4 ,cetus is a very large constellation1 and from the peculiar conformation of its principal stars it can be readily recognized4 ,the head is to the east1 the star ,alpha 7alpha71 called ,menkar1 being in the nose of this imaginary inhabitant of the sky-depths4 ,the constellation is supposed to represent the monster that1 according to fable1 was sent by ,neptune to devour the fair ,andromeda1 but whose bloodthirsty design was happily and gallantly frustrated by ,perseus1 as we shall learn from starry mythology further on4 ,although bearing the name ,cetus1 the ,whale1 the pictures of the constellation in the old maps do not present us with the form of a whale1 but that of a most extraordinary scaly creature with enormous jaws filled with large teeth1 a forked tongue1 fore-paws armed with gigantic claws1 and a long1 crooked1 and dangerous-looking tail4 ,indeed1 ,aratus does not call it a whale1 but a sea-monster1 and ,dr4 ,seiss would have us believe that it was intended to represent the leviathan1 whose terrible prowess is celebrated in the book of ,job4 ,illustration3 ,,map #af4 ,by far the most interesting object in ,cetus is the star ,mira4 ,this is a famous variable--a sun that sometimes shines a thousand-fold more brilliantly than at others6 ,it changes from the second magnitude to the ninth or tenth1 its period from maximum to maximum being about eleven months4 ,during about five months of that time it is completely invisible to the naked eye2 then it begins to appear again1 slowly increasing in brightness for some three months1 until it shines as a star of the second magnitude1 being then as bright as1 if not brighter than1 the most brilliant stars in the constellation4 ,it retains this brilliance for about two weeks1 and then begins to fade again1 and1 within three months1 once more disappears4 ,there are various irregularities in its changes1 which render its exact period somewhat uncertain1 and it does not always attain the same degree of brightness at its maximum4 ,for instance1 in #aggi1 ,mira was almost equal in brilliance to a first-magnitude star1 but frequently at its greatest brightness it is hardly equal to an ordinary star of the second magnitude4 ,by the aid of our little map you will readily be able to find it4 ,you will perceive that it has a slightly reddish tint4 ,watch it from one of its maxima1 and you will see it gradually fade from sight until1 at last1 only the blackness of the empty sky appears where1 a few months before1 a conspicuous star was visible4 ,keep watch of that spot1 and in due course you will perceive ,mira shining there again--a mere speck1 but slowly brightening--and in three months more the wonderful star will blaze again with renewed splendor4 ,knowing that our own sun is a variable star--though variable only to a slight degree1 its variability being due to the spots that appear upon its surface in a period of about eleven years--we possess some light that may be cast upon the mystery of ,mira's variations4 ,it seems not improbable that1 in the case of ,mira1 the surface of the star at the maximum of spottedness is covered to an enormously greater extent than occurs during our own sun-spot maxima1 so that the light of the star1 instead of being merely dimmed to an almost imperceptible extent1 as with our sun1 is almost blotted out4 ,when the star blazes with unwonted splendor1 as in #aggi1 we may fairly assume that the pent-up forces of this perishing sun have burst forth1 as in a desperate struggle against extinction4 ,but nothing can prevail against the slow1 remorseless1 unswerving progress of that obscuration1 which comes from the leaking away of the solar heat1 and which constitutes what we may call the death of a sun4 ,and that word seems peculiarly appropriate to describe the end of a body which1 during its period of visible existence1 not only presents the highest type of physical activity1 but is the parent and supporter of all forms of life upon the planets that surround it4 ,we might even go so far as to say that possibly ,mira presents to us an example of what our sun will be in the course of time1 as the dead and barren moon shows us1 as in a magician's glass1 the approaching fate of the earth4 ,fortunately1 human life is a mere span in comparison with the aeons of cosmic existence1 and so we need have no fear that either we or our descendants for thousands of generations shall have to play the tragic role of ,campbell's ,last ,man1 and endeavor to keep up a stout heart amid the crash of time by meanly boasting to the perishing sun1 whose rays have nurtured us1 that1 though his proud race is ended1 we have confident anticipations of immortality4 ,i trust that1 when man makes his exit from this terrestrial stage1 it will not be in the contemptible act of kicking a fallen benefactor4 ,there are several other variable stars in ,cetus1 but none possessing much interest for us4 ,the observer should look at the group of stars in the head1 where he will find some interesting combinations1 and also at ,chi1 which is the little star shown in the map near ,zeta 7zeta74 ,this is a double that will serve as a very good test of eye and instrument1 the smaller companion-star being of only seven and a half magnitude4 ,directly above ,cetus is the long1 straggling constellation of ,pisces1 the ,fishes4 ,the ,northern ,fish is represented by the group of stars near ,andromeda and the ,triangles4 ,a long band or ribbon1 supposed to bind the fish together1 trends thence first southeast and then west until it joins a group of stars under ,pegasus1 which represents the ,western ,fish1 not to be confounded with the ,southern ,fish described near the beginning of this chapter1 which is a separate constellation4 ,fable has1 however1 somewhat confounded these fishes2 for while1 as ,i have remarked above1 the ,southern ,fish is said to represent ,venus after she had turned herself into a fish to escape from the giant ,typhon1 the two fishes of the constellation we are now dealing with are also fabled to represent ,venus and her interesting son ,cupid under the same disguise assumed on precisely the same occasion4 ,if ,typhon1 however1 was so great a brute that even ,cupid's arrows were of no avail against him1 we should1 perhaps1 excuse mythology for duplicating the record of so wondrous an event4 ,you will find it very interesting to take your glass and1 beginning with the attractive little group in the ,northern ,fish1 follow the windings of the ribbon1 with its wealth of tiny stars1 to the ,western ,fish4 ,when you have arrived at that point1 sweep well over the sky in that neighborhood1 and particularly around and under the stars ,iota 7iota71 ,theta 7theta71 ,lambda 7lambda71 and ,kappa 7kappa74 ,if you are using a powerful glass1 you will be surprised and delighted by what you see4 ,below the star ,omega 7omega71 and to the left of ,lambda1 is the place which the sun occupies at the time of the spring equinox--in other words1 one of the two crossing-places of the equinoctial or the equator of the heavens1 and the ecliptic1 or the sun's path4 ,the prime meridian of the heavens passes through this point4 ,you can trace out this great circle1 from which astronomical longitudes are reckoned1 by drawing an imaginary line from the equinoctial point just indicated through alpha in ,andromeda and beta in ,cassiopeia to the pole-star4 ,to the left of ,pisces1 and above the head of ,cetus1 is the constellation ,aries1 or the ,ram4 ,two pretty bright stars1 four degrees apart1 one of which has a fainter star near it1 mark it out plainly to the eye4 ,these stars are in the head of the ,ram4 ,the brightest one1 ,alpha 7alpha71 is called ,hamal2 ,beta 7beta7 is named ,sheratan2 and its fainter neighbor is ,mesarthim4 ,according to fable1 this constellation represents the ram that wore the golden fleece1 which was the object of the celebrated expedition of the ,argonauts4 ,there is not much in the constellation to interest us1 except its historical importance1 as it was more than two thousand years ago the leading constellation of the zodiac1 and still stands first in the list of the zodiacal signs4 ,owing to the precession of the equinoxes1 however1 the vernal equinoctial point1 which was formerly in this constellation1 has now advanced into the constellation ,pisces1 as we saw above4 ,gamma 7gamma71 ,arietis1 is interesting as the first telescopic double star ever discovered4 ,its duplicity was detected by ,dr4 ,hooke while watching the passage of a comet near the star in #affd4 ,singularly enough1 the brightest star in the constellation1 now bearing the letter alpha1 originally did not belong to the constellation4 ,tycho ,brahe finally placed it in the head of ,aries4 ,the little constellation of the ,triangles1 just above ,aries1 is worth only a passing notice4 ,insignificant as it appears1 this little group is a very ancient constellation4 ,it received its name1 ,deltoton1 from the ,greek letter ,delta4 ,illustration3 ,,map #ag4 ,the reader must now be introduced to the ,royal ,family4 ,although the story of ,perseus and ,andromeda is1 of course1 well known to nearly all readers1 yet1 on account of the great beauty and brilliancy of the group of constellations that perpetuate the memory of it among the stars1 it is worth recalling here4 ,it will be remembered that1 as ,perseus was returning through the air from his conquest of the ,gorgon ,medusa1 he saw the beautiful ,andromeda chained to a rock on the sea-coast1 waiting to be devoured by a sea-monster4 ,the poor girl's only offense was that her mother1 ,cassiopeia1 had boasted for her that she was fairer than the sea-beauty1 ,atergatis1 and for this ,neptune had decreed that all the land of the ,ethiopians should be drowned and destroyed unless ,andromeda was delivered up as a sacrifice to the dreadful sea-monster4 ,when ,perseus1 dropping down to learn why this maiden was chained to the rocks1 heard from ,andromeda's lips the story of her woes1 he laughed with joy4 ,here was an adventure just to his liking1 and besides1 unlike his previous adventures1 it involved the fate of a beautiful woman with whom he was already in love4 ,could he save her8 ,well1 wouldn't he6 ,the sea-monster might frighten a kingdom full of ,ethiops1 but it could not shake the nerves of a hero from ,greece4 ,he whispered words of encouragement to ,andromeda1 who could scarce believe the good news that a champion had come to defend her after all her friends and royal relations had deserted her4 ,neither could she feel much confidence in her young champion's powers when suddenly her horrified gaze met the awful leviathan of the deep advancing to his feast6 ,but ,perseus1 with a warning to ,andromeda not to look at what he was about to do1 sprang with his winged sandals up into the air4 ,and then1 as ,charles ,kingsley has so beautifully told the story-- ,on came the great sea-monster1 coasting along like a huge black galley1 lazily breasting the ripple1 and stopping at times by creek or headland to watch for the laughter of girls at their bleaching1 or cattle pawing on the sand-hills1 or boys bathing on the beach4 ,his great sides were fringed with clustering shells and sea-weeds1 and the water gurgled in and out of his wide jaws as he rolled along1 dripping and glistening in the beams of the morning sun4 ,at last he saw ,andromeda1 and shot forward to take his prey1 while the waves foamed white behind him1 and before him the fish fled leaping4 ,then down from the height of the air fell ,perseus like a shooting-star--down to the crest of the waves1 while ,andromeda hid her face as he shouted4 ,and then there was silence for a while4 ,at last she looked up trembling1 and saw ,perseus springing toward her2 and1 instead of the monster1 a long1 black rock1 with the sea rippling quietly round it4 ,perseus had turned the monster into stone by holding the blood-freezing head of ,medusa before his eyes2 and it was fear lest ,andromeda herself might see the ,gorgon's head1 and suffer the fate of all who looked upon it1 that had led him to forbid her watching him when he attacked her enemy4 ,afterward he married her1 and ,cassiopeia1 ,andromeda's mother1 and ,cepheus1 her father1 gave their daughter's rescuer a royal welcome1 and all the ,ethiops rose up and blessed him for ridding the land of the monster4 ,and now1 if we choose1 we can1 any fair night1 see the principal characters of this old romance shining in starry garb in the sky4 ,aratus saw them there in his day1 more than two hundred years before ,christ1 and has left this description in his ,skies1 as translated by ,poste3 ,nor shall blank silence whelm the harassed house ,of ,cepheus2 the high heavens know their name1 ,for ,zeus is in their line at few removes4 ,cepheus himself by ,she-bear ,cynosure1 ,iasid king stands with uplifted arms4 ,from his belt thou castest not a glance ,to see the first spire of the mighty ,dragon4 ,eastward from him1 heaven-troubled queen1 with scanty stars ,but lustrous in the full-mooned night1 sits ,cassiopeia4 ,not numerous nor double-rowed ,the gems that deck her form1 ,but like a key which through an inward-fastened ,folding-door men thrust to knock aside the bolts1 ,they shine in single zigzag row4 ,she1 too1 o'er narrow shoulders stretching ,uplifted hands1 seems wailing for her child4 ,for there1 a woful statue-form1 is seen ,andromeda1 parted from her mother's side4 ,long ,i trow ,thou wilt not seek her in the nightly sky1 ,so bright her head1 so bright ,her shoulders1 feet1 and girdle4 ,yet even there she has her arms extended1 ,and shackled even in heaven2 uplifted1 ,outspread eternally are those fair hands4 ,her feet point to her bridegroom ,perseus1 on whose shoulder they rest4 ,he in the north-wind stands gigantic1 ,his right hand stretched toward the throne ,where sits the mother of his bride4 ,as one bent on some high deed1 ,dust-stained he strides over the floor of heaven4 ,the makers of old star-maps seem to have vied in the effort to represent with effect the figures of ,andromeda1 ,perseus1 and ,cassiopeia among the stars1 and it must be admitted that some of them succeeded in giving no small degree of life and spirit to their sketches4 ,the starry riches of these constellations are well matched with their high mythological repute4 ,lying in and near the ,milky-,way1 they are particularly interesting to the observer with an opera-glass4 ,besides1 they include several of the most celebrated wonders of the firmament4 ,in consulting ,map ,no4 #ag1 the observer is supposed to face the east and northeast4 ,we will begin our survey with ,andromeda4 ,the three chief stars of this constellation are of the second magnitude1 and lie in a long1 bending row1 beginning with ,alpha 7alpha71 or ,alpheratz1 in the head1 which1 as we have seen1 marks one corner of the great ,square of ,pegasus4 ,beta 7beta71 or ,mirach1 with the smaller stars ,mu 7mu7 and ,nu 7nu71 form the girdle4 ,the third of the chief stars is ,gamma 7gamma71 or ,almaach1 situated in the left foot4 ,the little group of stars designated ,lambda 7lambda71 ,kappa 7kappa71 and ,iota 7iota71 mark the extended right hand chained to the rock1 and ,zeta 7zeta7 and some smaller stars southwest of it show the left arm and hand1 also stretched forth and shackled4 ,in searching for picturesque objects in ,andromeda1 begin with ,alpheratz and the groups forming the hands4 ,below the girdle will be seen a rather remarkable arrangement of small stars in the mouth of the ,northern ,fish4 ,now follow up the line of the girdle to the star ,nu 7nu74 ,if your glass has a pretty wide field1 your eye will immediately catch the glimmer of the ,great ,nebula of ,andromeda in the same field with the star4 ,this is the oldest or earliest discovered of the nebulae1 and1 with the exception of that in ,orion1 is the grandest visible in this hemisphere4 ,of course1 not much can be expected of an opera-glass in viewing such an object2 and yet a good glass1 in clear weather and the absence of the moon1 makes a very attractive spectacle of it4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,andromeda ,,nebula4 ,by turning the eyes aside1 the nebula can be seen1 extended as a faint1 wispy light1 much elongated on either side of the brighter nucleus4 ,the cut here given shows1 approximately1 the appearance of the nebula1 together with some of the small stars in its neighborhood1 as seen with a field-glass4 ,with large telescopes it appears both larger and broader1 expanding to a truly enormous extent1 and in ,bond's celebrated picture of it we behold gigantic rifts running lengthwise1 while the whole field of sky in which it is contained appears sprinkled over with minute stars apparently between us and the nebula4 ,it was in1 or1 probably more properly speaking1 in line with1 this nebula that a new star suddenly shone out in #ahhe1 and1 after flickering and fading for a few months1 disappeared4 ,that the outburst of light in this star had any real connection with the nebula is exceedingly improbable4 ,although it appeared to be close beside the bright nucleus of the nebula1 it is likely that it was really hundreds or thousands of millions of miles either this side or the other side of it4 ,why it should suddenly have blazed into visibility1 and then in so short a time have disappeared1 is a question as difficult as it is interesting4 ,the easiest way to account for it1 if not the most satisfactory1 is to assume that it is a variable star of long period1 and possessing a very wide range of variability4 ,one significant fact that would seem to point to some connection between star and the nebula1 after all1 is that a similar occurrence was noticed in the constellation ,scorpio in #ahfj1 and to which ,i have previously referred 7see ,chapter ,,ii74 ,in that case a faint star projected against the background of a nebula1 suddenly flamed into comparatively great brilliance1 and then faded again4 ,the chances against the accidental superposition of a variable star of such extreme variability upon a known nebula occurring twice are so great that1 for that reason alone1 we might be justified in thinking some mysterious causal relation must in each case exist between the nebula and the star4 ,the temptation to indulge in speculation is very great here1 but it is better to wait for more light1 and confess that for the present these things are inexplicable4 ,it will be found very interesting to sweep with the glass slowly from side to side over ,andromeda1 gradually approaching toward ,cassiopeia or ,perseus4 ,the increase in the richness of the stratum of faint stars that apparently forms the background of the sky will be clearly discernible as you approach the ,milky-,way1 which passes directly through ,cassiopeia and ,perseus4 ,it may be remarked that the ,milky-,way itself1 in that splendidly rich region about ,sagittarius 7described in the ,stars of ,summer71 is not nearly so effective an object with an opera-glass as it is above ,cygnus and in the region with which we are now dealing4 ,this seems to be owing to the smaller magnitude of its component stars in the southern part of the stream4 ,there the background appears more truly milky1 while in the northern region the little stars shine distinct1 like diamond-specks1 on a black background4 ,the star ,nu1 which serves as a pointer to the ,great ,nebula1 is itself worth some attention with a pretty strong glass on account of a pair of small stars near it4 ,the star ,gamma 7gamma7 is interesting1 not only as one of the most beautiful triples in the heavens 7an opera-glass is far too feeble an instrument to reveal its companions71 but because it serves to indicate the radiant point of the ,biela meteors4 ,there was once a comet well known to astronomers by the name of its discoverer1 ,biela4 ,it repeated its visits to the neighborhood of the sun once in every six or seven years4 ,in #ahdf this comet astonished all observers by splitting into two comets1 which continued to run side by side1 like two equal racers1 in their course around the sun4 ,each developed a tail of its own4 ,in #aheb1 when the twin comets were due again1 the astronomical world was on the qui vive1 and they did not disappoint expectation1 for back they came out of the depths of space1 still racing1 but much farther apart than they had been before1 alternating in brightness as if the long struggle had nearly exhausted them1 and finally1 like spent runners1 growing faint and disappearing4 ,they have never been seen since4 ,in #ahgb1 when the comets should have been visible1 if they still existed1 a very startling thing happened4 ,out of the northern heavens1 along the track of the missing comets1 where the earth crossed it1 on the night of the #bgth of ,november came glistening and dashing the fiery spray of a storm of meteors4 ,it was the dust and fragments of the lost comet of ,biela1 which1 after being split in two in #aheb1 had evidently continued the process of disintegration until its cometary character was completely lost4 ,it seems to have made a truly ghostly exit1 for right after the meteor swarm of #ahgb a mysterious cometary body was seen1 which was supposed at the time to be the missing comet itself1 and which1 it is not altogether improbable1 may have been a fragment of it4 ,three days after the meteors burst over ,europe1 it occurred to ,professor ,klinkerfues1 of ,berlin1 that if they came from ,biela's comet the comet itself ought to be seen in the southern hemisphere retreating from its encounter with the earth4 ,on ,november #cjth he sent his now historical telegram to ,mr4 ,pogson1 an astronomer at ,madras2 ,biela touched earth ,november #bgth4 ,search near ,theta ,centauri4 ,for thirty-six hours after the receipt of this extraordinary request ,mr4 ,pogson was prevented by clouds from scanning the heavens with his telescope4 ,when the sky cleared at last1 behold there was a comet in the place indicated in the telegram6 ,it was glimpsed again the next night1 and then clouds intervened1 and not a trace of it was ever seen afterward4 ,but every year1 on the #bgth of ,november1 when the earth crosses the orbit of the lost comet1 meteoric fragments come plunging into our atmosphere1 burning as they fly4 ,ordinarily their number is small1 but when1 as in #ahgb1 a swarm of the meteors is in that part of their orbit which the earth crosses1 there is a brilliant spectacle4 ,in #ahhe this occurred1 and the world was treated to one of the most splendid meteoric displays on record4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,attendants ,,of ,,alpha ,,persei4 ,next let us turn to ,perseus4 ,the bending row of stars marking the center of this constellation is very striking and brilliant4 ,the brightest star in the constellation is ,alpha1 or ,algenib1 in the center of the row4 ,the head of ,perseus is toward ,cassiopeia1 and in his left hand he grasps the head of ,medusa1 which hangs down in such a way that its principal star ,beta1 or ,algol1 forms a right angle with ,algenib and ,almaach in ,andromeda4 ,this star ,algol1 or the ,demon1 as the ,arabs call it1 is in some respects the most wonderful and interesting in all the heavens4 ,it is as famous for the variability of its light as ,mira1 but it differs widely from that star both in its period1 which is very short1 and in the extent of the changes it undergoes4 ,during about two days and a half1 ,algol is equal in brilliance to ,algenib1 which is a second-magnitude star2 then it begins to fade1 and in the course of about four and a half hours it sinks to the fourth magnitude1 being then about equal to the faint stars near it4 ,it remains thus obscured for only a few minutes1 and then begins to brighten again1 and in about four and a half hours more resumes its former brilliance4 ,this phenomenon is very easily observed1 for1 as will be seen by consulting our little map1 ,algol can be readily found1 and its changes are so rapid that under favorable circumstances it can be seen in the course of a single night to run through the whole gamut4 ,of course1 no optical instrument whatever is needed to enable one to see these changes of ,algol1 for it is plainly visible to the naked eye throughout1 but it will be found interesting to watch the star with an opera-glass4 ,its periodic time from minimum to minimum is two days1 twenty hours1 and forty-nine minutes1 lacking a few seconds4 ,any one can calculate future minima for himself by adding the periodic time above given to the time of any observed minimum4 ,while spots upon its surface may be the cause of the variations in the light of ,mira1 it is believed that the more rapid changes of ,algol may be due to another cause2 namely1 the existence of a huge1 dark body revolving swiftly around it at close quarters in an orbit whose plane is directed edgewise toward the earth1 so that at regular intervals this dark body causes a partial eclipse of ,algol4 ,notwithstanding the attacks that have been made upon this theory1 it seems to hold its ground1 and it will probably continue to find favor as a working hypothesis until some fresh light is cast upon the problem4 ,it hardly needs to be said that the dark body in question1 if it exists1 must be of enormous size1 bearing no such insignificant proportion to the size of ,algol as the earth does to the sun1 but being rather the rival in bulk of its shining brother--a blind companion1 an extinguished sun4 ,there was certainly great fitness in the selection of the little group of stars of which this mysterious ,algol forms the most conspicuous member1 to represent the awful head of the ,gorgon carried by the victorious ,perseus for the confusion of his enemies4 ,in a darker age than ours the winking of this demon-star must have seemed a prodigy of sinister import4 ,turn now to the bright star ,algenib1 or ,alpha ,persei4 ,you will find with the glass an exceedingly attractive spectacle there4 ,in my note-book ,i find this entry1 made while sweeping over ,perseus for materials for this chapter3 ,the field about ,alpha is one of the finest in the sky for an opera-glass4 ,stars conspicuously ranged in curving lines and streams4 ,a host follows ,alpha from the east and south4 ,the picture on page #hd will give the reader some notion of the exceeding beauty of this field of stars1 and of the singular manner in which they are grouped1 as it were1 behind their leader4 ,a field-glass increases the beauty of the scene4 ,the reader will find a starry cluster marked on ,map #ag as the ,great ,cluster4 ,this object can be easily detected by the naked eye1 resembling a wisp of luminous cloud4 ,it marks the hand in which ,perseus clasps his diamond sword1 and1 with a telescope of medium power1 it is one of the most marvelously beautiful objects in the sky--a double swarm of stars1 bright enough to be clearly distinguished from one another1 and yet so numerous as to dazzle the eye with their lively beams4 ,an opera-glass does not possess sufficient power to resolve this cluster1 but it gives a startling suggestion of its half-hidden magnificence1 and the observer will be likely to turn to it again and again with increasing admiration4 ,sweep from this to ,alpha ,persei and beyond to get an idea of the procession of suns in the ,milky-,way4 ,the nebulous-looking cluster marked #cd ,m appears with an opera-glass like a faint comet4 ,about a thousand years ago the theologians undertook to reconstruct the constellation figures1 and to give them a religious significance4 ,they divided the zodiac up among the twelve apostles1 ,st4 ,peter taking the place of ,aries1 with the ,triangles for his mitre4 ,in this reconstruction ,perseus was transmogrified into ,st4 ,paul1 armed with a sword in one hand and a book in the other2 ,cassiopeia became ,mary ,magdalene2 while poor ,andromeda1 stripped of all her beauty and romance1 was turned into a sepulchre6 ,next look at ,cassiopeia1 which is distinctly marked out by the zigzag row of stars so well described by ,aratus4 ,here the ,milky-,way is so rich that the observer hardly needs any guidance2 he is sure to stumble upon interesting sights for himself4 ,the five brightest stars are generally represented as indicating the outlines of the chair or throne in which the queen sits1 the star ,zeta 7zeta7 being in her head4 ,look at ,zeta with a good field-glass1 and you will see a singular and brilliant array of stars near it in a broken half-circle1 which may suggest the notion of a crown4 ,near the little star ,kappa 7kappa7 in the map will be seen a small circle and the figures #aegb4 ,this shows the spot where the famous temporary star1 which has of late been frequently referred to as the ,star of ,bethlehem1 appeared4 ,it was seen in #aegb1 and carefully observed by the famous astronomer ,tycho ,brahe4 ,it seems to have suddenly burst forth with a brilliance that outshone every other star in the heavens1 not excepting ,sirius itself4 ,but its supremacy was short-lived4 ,in a few months it had sunk to the second magnitude4 ,it continued to grow fainter1 exhibiting some remarkable changes of color in the mean time1 and in less than a year and a half it disappeared4 ,it has never been seen since4 ,but in #abfd1 and again in #ide1 a star is said to have suddenly blazed out near that point in the heavens4 ,there is no certainty about these earlier apparitions1 but1 assuming that they are not apocryphal1 they might possibly indicate that the star seen by ,tycho was a periodical one1 its period considerably exceeding three hundred years4 ,carrying this supposed period back1 it was found that an apparition of this star might have occurred about the time of the birth of ,christ4 ,it did not require a very prolific imagination to suggest its identity with the so-called star of the ,magi1 and hence the legend of the ,star of ,bethlehem and its impending reappearance1 of which we have heard so much of late4 ,it will be observed1 from the dates given above1 that1 even supposing them to be correct1 no definite period is indicated for the reappearance of the star4 ,in one case the interval is three hundred and eight years1 and in the other three hundred and nineteen years4 ,in short1 there are too many suppositions and assumptions involved to allow of any credence being given to the theory of the periodicity of ,tycho's wonderful star4 ,at the same time1 nobody can say it is impossible that the star should appear again1 and so it may be interesting for the reader to know where to look for it4 ,many of the most beautiful sights of this splendid constellation are beyond the reach of an opera-glass1 and reserved for the grander powers of the telescope4 ,we will pause but briefly with ,cepheus1 for the old king's constellation is comparatively dim in the heavens1 as his part in the dramatic story of ,andromeda was contemptible1 and he seems to have got among the stars only by virtue of his relationship to more interesting persons4 ,he does possess one gem of singular beauty--the star ,mu1 which may be found about two and a half degrees south of the star ,nu 7nu74 ,it is the so-called ,garnet ,star1 thus named by ,william ,herschel1 who advises the observer1 in order to appreciate its color1 to glance from it to ,alpha ,cephei1 which is a white star4 ,mu is variable1 changing from the fourth to the sixth magnitude in a long period of five or six years4 ,its color is changeable1 like its light4 ,sometimes it is of a deep garnet hue1 and at other times it is orange-colored4 ,upon the whole1 it appears of a deeper red than any other star visible to the naked eye4 ,if you have a good field-glass1 try its powers upon the star ,delta 7delta7 ,cephei4 ,this is a double star1 the components being about forty-one seconds of arc apart1 the larger of four and one half magnitude1 and the smaller of the seventh magnitude4 ,the latter is of a beautiful blue color1 while the larger star is yellow or orange4 ,with a good eye1 a steady hand1 and a clear glass1 magnifying not less than six diameters1 you can separate them1 and catch the contrasted tints of their light4 ,besides being a double star1 ,delta is variable4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,stars ,,of ,,winter4 ,i have never beheld the first indications of the rising of ,orion without a peculiar feeling of awakened expectation1 like that of one who sees the curtain rise upon a drama of absorbing interest4 ,and certainly the magnificent company of the winter constellations1 of which ,orion is the chief1 make their entrance upon the scene in a manner that may be described as almost dramatic4 ,first in the east come the world-renowned ,pleiades4 ,at about the same time ,capella1 one of the most beautiful of stars1 is seen flashing above the northeastern horizon4 ,these are the sparkling ushers to the coming spectacle4 ,in an hour the fiery gleam of ,aldebaran appears at the edge of the dome below the ,pleiades1 a star noticeable among a thousand for its color alone1 besides being one of the brightest of the heavenly host4 ,the observer familiar with the constellations knows1 when he sees this red star which marks the eye of the angry bull1 ,taurus1 that just behind the horizon stands ,orion with starry shield and upraised club to meet the charge of his gigantic enemy4 ,with ,aldebaran rises the beautiful ,v-shaped group of the ,hyades4 ,presently the star-streams of ,eridanus begin to appear in the east and southeast1 the immediate precursors of the rising of ,orion3 ,and now the river-flood's first winding reach ,the becalmed mariner may see in heaven1 ,as he watches for ,orion to espy if he hath aught to say ,of the night's measure or the slumbering winds4 ,the first glimpse we get of the hero of the sky is the long bending row of little stars that glitter in the lion's skin which1 according to mythology1 serves him for a shield4 ,the great constellation then advances majestically into sight4 ,first of its principal stars appears ,bellatrix in the left shoulder2 then the little group forming the head1 followed closely by the splendid ,betelgeuse1 the martial star1 flashing like a decoration upon the hero's right shoulder4 ,then come into view the equally beautiful ,rigel in the left foot1 and the striking row of three bright stars forming the ,belt4 ,below these hangs another starry pendant marking the famous sword of ,orion1 and last of all appears ,saiph in the right knee4 ,there is no other constellation containing so many bright stars4 ,it has two of the first magnitude1 ,betelgeuse and ,rigel2 the three stars in the ,belt1 and ,bellatrix in the left shoulder1 are all of the second magnitude2 and besides these there are three stars of the third magnitude1 more than a dozen of the fourth1 and innumerable twinklers of smaller magnitudes1 whose commingled scintillations form a celestial illumination of singular splendor4 ,thus graced and armed he leads the starry host4 ,by the time ,orion has chased the ,bull half-way up the eastern slope of the firmament1 the peerless ,dog-,star1 ,sirius1 is flaming at the edge of the horizon1 while farther north glitters ,procyon1 the little ,dog-,star1 and still higher are seen the twin stars in ,gemini4 ,when these constellations have advanced well toward the meridian1 as shown in our circular map1 their united radiance forms a scene never to be forgotten4 ,counting one of the stars in ,gemini as of the first rank1 there are no less than seven first-magnitude stars ranged around one another in a way that can not fail to attract the attention and the admiration of the most careless observer4 ,aldebaran1 ,capella1 the ,twins1 ,procyon1 ,sirius1 and ,rigel mark the angles of a huge hexagon1 while ,betelgeuse shines with ruddy beauty not far from the center of the figure4 ,the heavens contain no other naked-eye view comparable with this great array1 not even the glorious celestial region where the ,southern ,cross shines supreme1 being equal to it in splendor4 ,as an offset to the discomforts of winter observations of the stars1 the observer finds that the softer skies of summer have no such marvelous brilliants to dazzle his eyes as those that illumine the hyemal heavens4 ,to comprehend the real glories of the celestial sphere in the depth of winter one should spend a few clear nights in the rural districts of ,new ,york or ,new ,england1 when the hills1 clad with sparkling blankets of crusted snow1 reflect the glitter of the living sky4 ,in the pure frosty air the stars seem splintered and multiplied indefinitely1 and the brighter ones shine with a splendor of light and color unknown to the denizen of the smoky city1 whose eyes are dulled and blinded by the glare of streetlights4 ,there one may detect the delicate shade of green that lurks in the imperial blaze of ,sirius1 the beautiful rose-red light of ,aldebaran1 the rich orange hue of ,betelgeuse1 the blue-white radiance of ,rigel1 and the pearly luster of ,capella4 ,if you have never seen the starry heavens except as they appear from city streets and squares1 then1 ,i had almost said1 you have never seen them at all1 and especially in the winter is this true4 ,i wish ,i could describe to you the impression that they can make upon the opening mind of a country boy1 who1 knowing as yet nothing of the little great world around him1 stands in the yawning silence of night and beholds the illimitably great world above him1 looking deeper than thought can go into the shining vistas of the universe1 and overwhelmed with the wonder of those marshaled suns4 ,illustration3 ,,map4 #ah4 ,looking now at ,map #ah1 we see the heavens as they appear at midnight on the #ast of ,december1 at #aj o'clock ,p4 ,m4 on the #ast of ,january1 and at #h o'clock ,p4 ,m4 on the #ast of ,february4 ,in the western half of the sky we recognize ,andromeda1 ,pegasus1 ,pisces1 ,cetus1 ,aries1 ,cassiopeia1 and other constellations that we studied in the ,stars of ,autumn4 ,far over in the east we see rising ,leo1 ,cancer1 and ,hydra1 which we included among the ,stars of ,spring4 ,occupying most of the southern and eastern heavens are the constellations which we are now to describe under the name of the ,stars of ,winter1 because in that season they are seen under the most favorable circumstances4 ,i have already referred to the admirable way in which the principal stars of some of these constellations are ranged round one another4 ,by the aid of the map the observer can perceive the relative position of the different constellations1 and1 having fixed this in his mind1 he will be prepared to study them in detail4 ,illustration3 ,,map #ai4 ,let us now begin with ,map ,no4 #ai1 which shows us the constellations of ,eridanus1 ,lepus1 ,orion1 and ,taurus4 ,eridanus is a large though not very conspicuous constellation1 which is generally supposed to represent the celebrated river now known as the ,po4 ,it has had different names among different peoples1 but the idea of a river1 suggested by its long1 winding streams of stars1 has always been preserved4 ,according to fable1 it is the river into which ,phaeton fell after his disastrous attempt to drive the chariot of the sun for his father ,phoebus1 and in which hare-brained adventure he narrowly missed burning the world up4 ,the imaginary river starts from the brilliant star ,rigel1 in the left foot of ,orion1 and flows in a broad upward bend toward the west2 then it turns in a southerly direction until it reaches the bright star ,gamma 7gamma71 where it bends sharply to the north1 and then quickly sweeps off to the west once more1 until it meets the group of stars marking the head of ,cetus4 ,thence it runs south1 gradually turning eastward1 until it flows back more than half-way to ,orion4 ,finally it curves south again and disappears beneath the horizon4 ,throughout the whole distance of more than #ajj deg4 the course of the stream is marked by rows of stars1 and can be recognized without difficulty by the amateur observer4 ,the first thing to do with your opera-glass1 after you have fixed the general outlines of the constellation in your mind by naked-eye observations1 is to sweep slowly over the whole course of the stream1 beginning at ,rigel1 and following its various wanderings4 ,eridanus ends in the southern hemisphere near a first-magnitude star called ,achernar1 which is situated in the stream1 but can not be seen from our latitudes4 ,along the stream you will find many interesting groupings of the stars4 ,in the map see the pair of stars below and to the right of ,nu 7nu74 ,these are the two ,omicrons1 the upper one being omicron and the lower one omicron squared4 ,the latter is of an orange hue1 and is remarkable for the speed with which it is flying through space4 ,there are only one or two stars whose proper motion1 as it is called1 is more rapid than that of omicron squared in ,eridanus4 ,it changes its place nearly seven minutes of arc in a century4 ,the records of the earliest observations we possess show that near the beginning of the ,christian era it was about half-way between omicron and nu4 ,its companion omicron1 on the contrary1 seems to be almost stationary1 so that omicron squared will gradually draw away from it1 passing on toward the southwest until1 in the course of centuries1 it will become invisible from our latitudes4 ,this flying star is accompanied by two minute companions1 which in themselves form a close and very delicate double star4 ,these two little stars1 of only #i4e and #aj4e magnitude1 respectively1 are1 of course beyond the ken of the observer with an opera-glass4 ,the system of which they form a part1 however1 is intensely interesting1 since the appearances indicate that they belong1 in the manner of satellites1 to omicron squared1 and are fellow-voyagers of that wonderful star4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,golden ,,horns ,,of ,,taurus4 ,having admired the star-groups of ,eridanus1 one of the prettiest of which is to be seen around ,beta 7beta71 let us turn next to ,taurus1 just above or north of ,eridanus4 ,two remarkable clusters at once attract the eye1 the ,hyades1 which are shaped somewhat like the letter ,v1 with ,aldebaran in the upper end of the left-hand branch1 and the ,pleiades1 whose silvery glittering has made them celebrated in all ages4 ,the ,pleiades are in the shoulder and the ,hyades in the face of ,taurus1 ,aldebaran most appropriately representing one of his blazing eyes as he hurls himself against ,orion4 ,the constellation-makers did not trouble themselves to make a complete ,bull1 and only the head and fore-quarters of the animal are represented4 ,if ,taurus had been completed on the scale on which he was begun1 there would have been no room in the sky for ,aries2 one of the ,fishes would have had to abandon his celestial swimming-place1 and even the fair ,andromeda would have found herself uncomfortably situated4 ,but1 as if to make amends for neglecting to furnish their heavenly ,bull with hind-quarters1 the ancients gave him a most prodigious and beautiful pair of horns1 which make the beholder feel alarm for the safety of ,orion4 ,starting out of the head above the ,hyades1 as illustrated in our cut1 the horns curve upward and to the east1 each being tipped by a bright star4 ,along and between the horns runs a scattered and broken stream of minute stars which seem to be gathered into knots just beyond the end of the horns1 where they dip into the edge of the ,milky-,way4 ,many of these stars can be seen1 on a dark night1 with an ordinary opera-glass1 but1 to see them well1 one should use as large a field-glass as he can obtain4 ,with such a glass their appearance almost makes one suspect that ,virgil had a poetic prevision of the wonders yet to be revealed by the telescope when he wrote1 as rendered by ,dryden1 of the season-- ,when with his golden horns in full career ,the ,bull beats down the barriers of the year4 ,below the tips of the horns1 and over ,orion's head1 there are also rich clusters of stars1 as if the ,bull were flaunting shreds of sparkling raiment torn from some celestial victim of his fury4 ,with an ordinary glass1 however1 the observer will not find this star-sprinkled region around the horns of ,taurus as brilliant a spectacle as that presented by the ,hyades and the group of stars just above them in the ,bull's ear4 ,the two stars in the tips of the horns are both interesting1 each in a different way4 ,the upper and brighter one of the two1 marked ,beta 7beta7 in ,map ,no4 #ai1 is called ,el ,nath4 ,it is common to the left horn of ,taurus and the right foot of ,auriga1 who is represented standing just above4 ,it is a singularly white star4 ,this quality of its light becomes conspicuous when it is looked at with a glass4 ,the most inexperienced observer will hardly fail to be impressed by the pure whiteness of ,el ,nath1 in comparison with which he will find that many of the stars he had supposed to be white show a decided tinge of color4 ,the star in the tip of the right or southern horn1 ,zeta 7zeta71 is remarkable1 not on its own account1 but because it serves as a pointer to a famous nebula1 the discovery of which led ,messier to form his catalogue of nebulae4 ,this is sometimes called the ,crab ,nebula1 from the long sprays of nebulous matter which were seen surrounding it with ,lord ,rosse's great telescope4 ,our little sketch is simply intended to enable the observer to locate this strange object4 ,if he wishes to study its appearance1 he must use a powerful telescope4 ,but with a first-rate field-glass he can see it as a speck of light in the position shown in the cut1 where the large star is ,zeta and the smaller ones are faint stars1 the relative position of which will enable the observer to find the nebula1 if he keeps in mind that the top of the cut is toward the north4 ,it is noteworthy that this nebula for a time deceived several of the watchers who were on the lookout for the predicted return of ,halley's comet in #ahce4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,crab ,,nebula4 ,and now let us look at the ,hyades1 an assemblage of stars not less beautiful than their more celebrated sisters the ,pleiades4 ,the leader of the ,hyades is ,aldebaran1 or ,alpha ,tauri1 and his followers are worthy of their leader4 ,the inexperienced observer is certain to be surprised by the display of stars which an opera-glass brings to view in the ,hyades4 ,our illustration will give some notion of their appearance with a large field-glass4 ,the brackish poet1 of whose rhymes ,admiral ,smyth was so fond1 thus describes the ,hyades3 ,in lustrous dignity aloft see ,alpha ,tauri shine1 ,the splendid zone he decorates attests the ,power divine3 ,for mark around what glitt'ring orbs attract the wandering eye1 ,you'll soon confess no other star has such attendants nigh4 ,the redness of the light of ,aldebaran is a very interesting phenomenon4 ,careful observation detects a decided difference between its color and that of ,betelgeuse1 or ,alpha ,orionis1 which is also a red star4 ,it differs1 too1 from the brilliant red star of summer1 ,antares4 ,aldebaran has a trace of rose-color in its light1 while ,betelgeuse is of a very deep orange1 and ,antares may be described as fire-red4 ,these shades of color can easily be detected by the naked eye after a little practice4 ,first compare ,aldebaran and ,betelgeuse1 and glance from each to the brilliant white1 or bluish-white1 star ,rigel in ,orion's foot4 ,upon turning the eye back from ,rigel to ,aldebaran the peculiar color of the latter is readily perceived4 ,spectroscopic analysis has revealed the presence in ,aldebaran of hydrogen1 sodium1 magnesium1 calcium1 iron1 bismuth1 tellurium1 antimony1 and mercury4 ,and so modern discoveries1 while they have pushed back the stars to distances of which the ancients could not conceive1 have1 at the same time1 and equally1 widened the recognized boundaries of the physical universe and abolished forever the ancient distinction between the heavens and the earth4 ,it is a plain road from the earth to the stars1 though mortal feet can not tread it4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,hyades4 ,keeping in mind that in our little picture of the ,hyades the top is north1 the right hand west1 and the left hand east1 the reader will be able to identify the principal stars in the group4 ,aldebaran is readily recognized1 because it is the largest of all4 ,the bright star near the upper edge of the picture is ,epsilon ,tauri1 and its sister star1 forming the point of the ,v1 is ,gamma ,tauri4 ,the three brightest stars between ,epsilon and ,gamma1 forming a little group1 are the ,deltas1 while the pair of stars surrounded by many smaller ones1 half-way between ,aldebaran and ,gamma1 are the ,thetas4 ,these stars present a very pretty appearance1 viewed with a good glass1 the effect being heightened by a contrast of color in the two ,thetas4 ,the little pair southeast of ,aldebaran1 called the ,sigmas1 is also a beautiful object4 ,the distance apart of these stars is about seven minutes of arc1 while the distance between the two ,thetas is about five and a half minutes of arc4 ,these measures may be useful to the reader in estimating the distances between other stars that he may observe4 ,it will also be found an interesting test of the eye-sight to endeavor to see these stars as doubles without the aid of a glass4 ,persons having keen eyes will be able to accomplish this4 ,north of the star ,epsilon will be seen a little group in the ear of the ,bull 7see cut1 ,the ,golden ,horns of ,taurus71 which presents a brilliant appearance with a small glass4 ,the southernmost pair in the group are the ,kappas1 whose distance apart is very nearly the same as that of the ,thetas1 described above2 but ,i think it improbable that anybody could separate them with the naked eye1 as there is a full magnitude between them in brightness1 and the smaller star is only of magnitude #f4e1 while sixth-magnitude stars are generally reckoned as the smallest that can be seen by the naked eye4 ,above the ,kappas1 and in the same group in the ear1 are the two ,upsilons1 forming a wider pair4 ,next we come to the ,pleiades3 ,though small their size and pale their light1 wide is their fame4 ,in every age and in every country the ,pleiades have been watched1 admired1 and wondered at1 for they are visible from every inhabited land on the globe4 ,to many they are popularly known as the ,seven ,stars1 although few persons can see more than six stars in the group with the unaided eye4 ,it is a singular fact that many of the earliest writers declare that only six ,pleiades can be seen1 although they all assert that they are seven in number4 ,these seven were the fabled daughters of ,atlas1 or the ,atlantides1 whose names were ,merope1 ,alcyone1 ,celaeno1 ,electra1 ,taygeta1 ,asterope1 and ,maia4 ,one of the stories connected with them is that ,merope married a mortal1 whereupon her star grew dim among her sisters4 ,another fable assures us that ,electra1 unable to endure the sight of the burning of ,troy1 hid her face in her hands1 and so blotted her star from the sky4 ,while we may smile at these stories1 we can not entirely disregard them1 for they are intermingled with some of the richest literary treasures of the world1 and they come to us1 like some old keepsake1 perfumed with the memory of a past age4 ,the mythological history of the ,pleiades is intensely interesting1 too1 because it is world-wide4 ,they have impressed their mark1 in one way or another1 upon the habits1 customs1 traditions1 language1 and history of probably every nation4 ,this is true of savage tribes as well as of great empires4 ,the ,pleiades furnish one of the principal links that appear to connect the beginnings of human history with that wonderful prehistoric past1 where1 as through a gulf of mist1 we seem to perceive faintly the glow of a golden age beyond4 ,the connection of the ,pleiades with traditions of the ,flood is most remarkable4 ,in almost every part of the world1 and in various ages1 the celebration of a feast or festival of the dead1 dimly connected by traditions with some great calamity to the human race in the past1 has been found to be directly related to the ,pleiades4 ,this festival or rite1 which has been discovered in various forms among the ancient ,hindoos1 ,egyptians1 ,persians1 ,peruvians1 ,mexicans1 ,druids1 etc41 occurs always in the month of ,november1 and is regulated by the culmination of the ,pleiades4 ,the ,egyptians directly connected this celebration with a deluge1 and the ,mexicans1 at the time of the ,spanish conquest1 had a tradition that the world had once been destroyed at the time of the midnight culmination of the ,pleiades4 ,among the savages inhabiting ,australia and the ,pacific island groups a similar rite has been discovered4 ,it has also been suggested that the ,japanese feast of lanterns is not improbably related to this world-wide observance of the ,pleiades1 as commemorating some calamitous event in the far past which involved the whole race of man in its effects4 ,the ,pleiades also have a supposed connection with that mystery of mysteries1 the great ,pyramid of ,cheops4 ,it has been found that about the year #bagj ,b4 ,c41 when the beginning of spring coincided with the culmination of the ,pleiades at midnight1 that wonderful group of stars was visible1 just at midnight1 through the mysterious southward-pointing passage of the ,pyramid4 ,at the same date the then pole-star1 ,alpha ,draconis1 was visible through the northward-pointing passage of the ,pyramid4 ,another curious myth involving the ,pleiades as a part of the constellation ,taurus is that which represents this constellation as the ,bull into which ,jupiter changed himself when he carried the fair ,europa away from ,phoenicia to the continent that now bears her name4 ,in this story the fact that only the head and fore-quarters of the ,bull are visible in the sky is accounted for on the ground that the remainder of his body is beneath the water through which he is swimming4 ,here1 then1 is another apparent link with the legends of the ,flood1 with which the ,pleiades have been so strangely connected1 as by common consent among many nations1 and in the most widely separated parts of the earth4 ,with the most powerful field-glass you may be able to see all of the stars represented in our picture of the ,pleiades4 ,with an ordinary opera-glass the fainter ones will not be visible2 yet even with such a glass the scene is a remarkable one4 ,not only all of the ,seven ,sisters1 but many other stars1 can be seen twinkling among them4 ,the superiority of ,alcyone to the others1 which is not so clear to the naked eye1 becomes very apparent4 ,alcyone is the large star below the middle of the picture with a triangle of little stars beside it4 ,to the left or east of ,alcyone the two most conspicuous stars are ,atlas and ,pleione4 ,the latter--which is the uppermost one--is represented too large in the picture4 ,it requires a sharp eye to see ,pleione without a glass1 while ,atlas is plainly visible to the unaided vision1 and is always counted among the naked-eye ,pleiades1 although it does not bear the name of one of the mythological sisters1 but that of their father4 ,the bright star below and to the right of ,alcyone is ,merope2 the one near the right-hand edge of the picture1 about on a level with ,alcyone1 is ,electra4 ,above1 or to the north of ,electra1 are two bright stars lying in a line pointing toward ,alcyone2 the upper one of these1 or the one farthest from ,alcyone1 is ,taygeta1 and the other is ,maia4 ,above ,taygeta and ,maia1 and forming a little triangle with them1 is a pair of stars which bears the name of ,asterope4 ,about half-way between ,taygeta and ,electra1 and directly above the latter1 is ,celaeno4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pleiades4 ,the naked-eye observer will probably find it difficult to decide which he can detect the more easily1 ,celaeno or ,pleione1 while he will discover that ,asterope1 although composed of two stars1 as seen with a glass1 is so faint as to be much more difficult than either ,celaeno or ,pleione4 ,unless1 as is not improbable1 the names have become interchanged in the course of centuries1 the brightness of these stars would seem to have undergone remarkable changes4 ,the star of ,merope1 it will be remembered1 was said to have become indistinct1 or disappeared1 because she married a mortal4 ,at present ,merope is one of those that can be plainly seen with the naked-eye1 while the star of ,asterope1 who was said to have had the god ,mars for her spouse1 has faded away until only a glass can show it4 ,it would appear1 then1 that notwithstanding an occasional temporary eclipse1 it is1 in the long run1 better to marry a plain mortal than a god4 ,electra1 too1 who hid her eyes at the sight of burning ,troy1 seems to have recovered from her fright1 and is at present1 next to ,alcyone1 the brightest star in the cluster4 ,but1 however we may regard those changes in the brightness of the ,pleiades which are based upon tradition1 there is no doubt that well-attested changes have taken place in the comparative brilliancy of stars in this cluster since astronomy became an exact science4 ,observations of the proper motions of the ,pleiades have shown that there is an actual physical connection between them2 that they are1 literally speaking1 a flight of suns4 ,their common motion is toward the southwest1 under the impulse of forces that remain as yet beyond the grasp of human knowledge4 ,alcyone was selected by ,maedler as the central sun around which the whole starry system revolved1 but later investigations have shown that his speculation was not well founded1 and that1 so far as we can determine1 the proper motions of the stars are not such as to indicate the existence of any common center4 ,they appear to be flying with different velocities in every direction1 although--as in the case of the ,pleiades--we often find groups of them associated together in a common direction of flight4 ,still another curious fact about the ,pleiades is the existence of some rather mysterious nebulous masses in the cluster4 ,in #ahei ,temple discovered an extensive nebula1 of a broad oval form1 with the star ,merope immersed in one end of it4 ,subsequent observations showed that this strange phenomenon was variable4 ,sometimes it could not be seen2 at other times it was very plain and large4 ,in ,jeaurat's chart of the ,pleiades1 made in #aggi1 a vast nebulous mass is represented near the stars ,atlas and ,pleione4 ,this has since been identified by ,goldschmidt as part of a huge1 ill-defined nebula1 which he thought he could perceive enveloping the whole group of the ,pleiades4 ,many observers1 however1 could never see these nebulous masses1 and were inclined to doubt their actual existence4 ,within the past few years astronomical photography1 having made astonishing progress1 has thrown new light upon this mysterious subject4 ,the sensitized plate of the camera1 when applied at the focus of a properly constructed telescope1 has proved more effective than the human retina1 and has1 so to speak1 enabled us to see beyond the reach of vision by means of the pictures it makes of objects which escape the eye4 ,in ,november1 #ahhe1 ,paul and ,prosper ,henry turned their great photographing telescope upon the ,pleiades1 and with it discovered a nebula apparently attached to the star ,maia4 ,the most powerful telescopes in the world had never revealed this to the eye4 ,yet of its actual existence there can be no question4 ,their photograph also showed the ,merope nebula1 although much smaller1 and of a different form from that represented by its discoverer and others4 ,there evidently yet remains much to be discovered in this singular group1 and the mingling of nebulous matter with its stars makes ,tennyson's picturesque description of the ,pleiades appear all the more life-like3 ,many a night ,i saw the ,pleiads1 rising through the mellow shade1 ,glitter like a swarm of fire-flies tangled in a silver braid4 ,the reader should not expect to be able to see the nebulae in the ,pleiades with an opera-glass4 ,i have thought it proper to mention these singular objects only in order that he might be in possession of the principal and most curious facts about those interesting stars4,c ,footnote ,c3 ,the ,henry ,brothers have continued the photographic work described above1 and their later achievements are even more interesting and wonderful4 ,they have found that there are many nebulous masses involved in the group of the ,pleiades1 and have photographed them4 ,one of the most amazing phenomena in their great photograph of the ,pleiades is a long wisp or streak of nebulous matter1 along which eight or nine stars are strung in a manner which irresistibly suggests an intimate connection between the stars and the nebula4 ,this recalls the recent 7,august1 #ahhh7 discovery made by ,prof4 ,holden1 with the great ,lick telescope1 concerning the structure of the celebrated ring nebula in ,lyra1 which1 it appears1 is composed of concentric ovals of stars and nebulous stuff1 so arranged that we must believe they are intimately associated in a most wonderful community4 ,orion will next command our attention4 ,you will find the constellation in ,map ,no4 #ai3 ,eastward beyond the region of the ,bull ,stands great ,orion2 whoso kens not him in cloudless night ,gleaming aloft1 shall cast his eyes in vain ,to find a brighter sign in all the heaven4 ,to the naked eye1 to the opera-glass1 and to the telescope1 ,orion is alike a mine of wonders4 ,this great constellation embraces almost every variety of interesting phenomena that the heavens contain4 ,here we have the grandest of the nebulae1 some of the largest and most beautifully colored stars1 star-streams1 star-clusters1 nebulous stars1 variable stars4 ,i have already mentioned the positions of the principal stars in the imaginary figure of the great hunter4 ,i may add that his upraised arm and club are represented by the stars seen in the map above ,alpha 7alpha7 or ,betelgeuse1 one of which is marked ,nu 7nu71 and another1 in the knob of the club1 ,chi 7chi74 ,i have also1 in speaking of ,aldebaran1 described the contrast in the colors of ,betelgeuse and ,beta 7beta7 or ,rigel4 ,betelgeuse1 it may be remarked1 is slightly variable4 ,sometimes it appears brighter than ,rigel1 and sometimes less brilliant4 ,it is interesting to note that1 according to ,secchi's division of the stars into types1 based upon their spectra1 ,betelgeuse falls into the third order1 which seems to represent a type of suns in which the process of cooling1 and the formation of an absorptive envelope or shell1 have gone on so far that we may regard them as approaching the point of extinction4 ,rigel1 on the other hand1 belongs to the first order or type which represents suns that are probably both hotter and younger in the order of development4 ,so1 then1 we may look upon the two chief stars of this great constellation as representing two stages of cosmical existence4 ,betelgeuse shows us a sun that has almost run its course1 that has passed into its decline1 and that already begins to faint and flicker and grow dim before the on-coming and inevitable fate of extinction2 but in ,rigel we see a sun blazing with the fires of youth1 splendid in the first glow of its solar energies1 and holding the promise of the future yet before it4 ,rigel belongs to a new generation of the universe2 ,betelgeuse to the universe that is passing4 ,we may pursue this comparison one step farther back and see in the great nebula1 which glows dimly in the middle of the constellation1 between ,rigel triumphant and ,betelgeuse languishing1 a still earlier cosmical condition--the germ of suns whose infant rays may illuminate space when ,rigel itself is growing dim4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,sword ,,of ,,orion ,,and ,,the ,,great ,,nebula4 ,turn your glass upon the three stars forming the ,belt4 ,you will not be likely to undertake to count all the twinkling lights that you will see1 especially as many of them appear and disappear as you turn your attention to different parts of the field4 ,sweep all around the ,belt and also between the ,belt and ,gamma 7gamma7 or ,bellatrix4 ,according to the old astrologers1 women born under the influence of the star ,bellatrix were lucky1 and provided with good tongues4 ,of course1 this was fortunate for their husbands too6 ,below the ,belt will be seen a short row of stars hanging downward and representing the sword4 ,in the middle of this row is the great ,orion nebula4 ,the star ,theta 7theta7 involved in the nebula is multiple1 and the position of this little cluster of suns is such that1 as has been said1 they seem to be feeding upon the substance of the nebula surrounding them4 ,other stars are seen scattered in different parts of the nebula4 ,this phenomenon can be plainly seen with an opera-glass4 ,our picture of the ,sword of ,orion shows its appearance with a good field-glass4 ,with such a glass several fine test-objects will be found in the ,sword4 ,one of the best of these is formed by the two five-pointed stars seen in the picture close together above the nebula4 ,no difficulty will be encountered in separating these stars with a field-glass1 but it will require a little sharp watching to detect the small star between the two and just above the line joining them4 ,so1 the bending row of faint stars above and to the right of the group just described will be found rather elusive as individuals1 though easily glimpsed as a whole4 ,of the great nebula itself not much detail can be seen4 ,yet by averting the eyes the extension of the nebulous light in every direction from the center can be detected and traced1 under favorable circumstances1 to a considerable distance4 ,the changes that this nebula certainly has undergone in the brilliancy1 if not in the form1 of different parts of it1 are perhaps indications of the operation of forces1 which we know must prevail there1 and whose tendency can only be in the direction of condensation1 and the ultimate formation of future suns and worlds4 ,yet1 as the appearance of the nebula in great telescopes shows1 we can not expect that the processes of creation will here produce a homologue of our solar system4 ,the curdled appearance of the nebula indicates the formation of various centers of condensation1 the final result of which will doubtless be a group of stars like some of those which we see in the heavens1 and whose common motion shows that they are bound together in the chains of reciprocal gravitation4 ,the ,pleiades are an example of such a group4 ,do not fail to look for a little star just west of ,rigel1 which1 with a good opera-glass1 appears to be almost hidden in the flashing rays of its brilliant companion4 ,if you have also a field-glass1 after you have detected this shy little twinkler with your opera-glass1 try the larger glass upon it4 ,you will find then that the little star originally seen is not the only one there4 ,a still smaller star1 which had before been completely hidden1 will now be perceived4 ,i may add that1 with telescopes1 ,rigel is one of the most beautiful double stars in the sky1 having a little blue companion close under its wing4 ,run your glass along the line of little stars forming the lion's skin or shield that ,orion opposes to the onset of ,taurus4 ,here you will find some interesting combinations1 and the star marked on the map pi#f will especially attract your eye1 because it is accompanied1 about fifteen minutes to the northwest1 by a seventh-magnitude star of a rich orange hue4 ,look next at the little group of three stars forming the head of ,orion4 ,although there is no nebula here1 yet these stars1 as seen with the naked eye1 have a remarkably nebulous look1 and ,ptolemy regarded the group as a nebulous star4 ,the largest star is called ,lambda 7lambda72 the others are ,phi 7phi7 one and two4 ,an opera-glass will show another star above 7lambda71 and a fifth star below phi#b which is the farthest of the two ,phis from ,lambda4 ,it will also reveal a faint twinkling between lambda and phi#a4 ,a field-glass shows that this twinkling is produced by a pretty little row of three stars of the eighth and ninth magnitudes4 ,in fact1 ,orion is such a striking object in the sky that more than one attempt has been made to steal away its name and substitute that of some modern hero4 ,the ,university of ,leipsic1 in #ahjg1 formally resolved that the stars forming the ,belt and ,sword of ,orion should henceforth be known as the constellation of ,napoleon4 ,as if to offset this1 an ,englishman proposed to rename ,orion for the ,british naval bull-dog ,nelson4 ,but ,orion armed has successfully maintained his name and place against all comers4 ,as becomes the splendor of his constellation1 ,orion is a tremendous hero of antiquity1 although it must be confessed that his history is somewhat shadowy and uncertain1 even for a mythological story4 ,all accounts agree1 however1 that he was the mightiest hunter ever known1 and the ,hebrews claimed that he was no less a person than ,nimrod himself4 ,illustration3 ,,map #bj4 ,the little constellations of ,lepus and ,columba1 below ,orion1 need not detain us long4 ,you will find in them some pretty combinations of stars4 ,in ,lepus is the celebrated ,crimson ,star1 which has been described as resembling a drop of blood in color--a truly marvelous hue for a sun--but1 as it is never brighter than the sixth magnitude1 and from that varies down to the ninth1 we could hardly hope to see its color well with an opera-glass4 ,besides1 the observer would have difficulty in finding it4 ,we will now turn to the constellation of ,canis ,major1 represented in ,map ,no4 #bj4 ,although1 as a constellation1 it is not to be compared with the brilliant ,orion1 yet1 on account of the unrivaled magnificence of its chief star1 ,canis ,major presents almost as attractive a scene as its more extensive rival4 ,everybody has heard of ,sirius1 or the ,dog-,star1 and everybody must have seen it flashing and scintillating so splendidly in the winter heavens1 that to call it a first-magnitude star does it injustice1 since no other star of that magnitude is at all comparable with it4 ,sirius1 in fact1 stands in a class by itself as the brightest star in the sky4 ,its light is white1 with a shade of green1 which requires close watching to be detected4 ,when it is near the horizon1 or when the atmosphere is very unsteady1 ,sirius flashes prismatic colors like a great diamond4 ,the question has been much discussed1 as to whether ,sirius was formerly a red star4 ,it is described as red by several ancient authors1 but it seems to be pretty well established that these descriptions are most of them due to a blunder made by ,cicero in his translation of the astronomical poem of ,aratus4 ,it is not impossible1 though it is highly improbable1 that ,sirius has changed color4 ,so intimately was ,sirius connected in the minds of the ancient ,egyptians with the annual rising of the ,nile1 that it was called the ,nile-star4 ,when it appeared in the morning sky1 just before sunrise1 the season of the overflowing of the great river was about to begin1 and so the appearance of this star was regarded as foretelling the coming of the floods4 ,the dog-days got their name from ,sirius1 as they occur at the time when that star rises with the sun4 ,your eyes will be fairly dazzled when you turn your glass upon this splendid star4 ,by close attention you will be able to perceive a number of faint stars1 mere points by comparison1 in the immediate neighborhood of ,sirius4 ,there are many interesting objects in the constellation4 ,the star marked ,nu 7nu7 in the map is really triple1 as the smallest glass will show4 ,look next at the star-group #da ,m4 ,the cloud of minute stars of which it is composed can be very well seen with a field-glass or a powerful opera-glass4 ,the star #bb is of a very ruddy color that contrasts beautifully with the light of ,epsilon 7epsilon71 which can be seen in the same field of view with an opera-glass4 ,between the stars ,delta 7delta7 and omicron and omicron squared there is a remarkable array of minute stars1 as shown in the accompanying cut4 ,one never sees stars arranged in streams or rows1 like these1 without an irresistible impression that the arrangement can not be accidental2 that some law must have been in operation which associated them together in the forms which we see4 ,yet1 when we reflect that these are all suns1 how far do we seem to be from understanding the meaning of the universe6 ,illustration3 ,,delta ,,canis ,,majoris ,,and ,,its ,,neighbors4 ,the extraordinary size and brilliancy of ,sirius might naturally enough lead one to suppose that it is the nearest of the stars1 and such it was once believed to be4 ,observations of stellar parallax1 however1 show that this was a mistake4 ,the distance of ,sirius is so great that no satisfactory determination of it has yet been made4 ,we may safely say1 though1 that that distance is1 at the least calculation1 #ej1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj miles4 ,in other words1 ,sirius is about #ecg1jjj times as far from the earth as the sun is4 ,then1 since light diminishes as the square of the distance increases1 the sun1 if placed as far from us as ,sirius is1 would send us1 in round numbers1 #bhh1jjj1jjj1jjj times less light than we now receive from it4 ,but ,sirius actually sends us only about #d1jjj1jjj1jjj times less light than the sun does2 consequently ,sirius must shine #bhh1jjj1jjj1jjj_/d1jjj1jjj1jjj #gb times as brilliantly as the sun4 ,if we adopt ,wollaston's estimate of the light of ,sirius1 as compared with that of the sun1 viz41 #a_/bj1jjj1jjj1jjj1 we shall still find that the actual brilliancy of that grand star is more than fourteen times as great as that of our sun4 ,but as observations on the companion of ,sirius show that ,sirius's mass is fully twenty times the sun's1 and since the character of ,sirius's spectrum indicates that its intrinsic brightness1 surface for surface1 is much superior to the sun's1 it is probable that our estimate of the star's actual brilliancy1 as compared with what the sun would possess at the same distance1 viz41 seventy-two times1 is much nearer the truth4 ,it is evident that life would be insupportable upon the earth if it were placed as near to ,sirius as it is to the sun4 ,if the earth were a planet belonging to the system of ,sirius1 in order to enjoy the same amount of heat and light it now receives1 it would have to be removed to a distance of nearly #hjj1jjj1jjj miles1 or eight and a half times its distance from the sun4 ,its time of revolution around ,sirius would then be nearly five and a half years1 or1 in other words1 the year would be lengthened five and a half times4 ,but1 as ,i have said1 the estimate of ,sirius's distance used in these calculations is the smallest that can be accepted4 ,good authorities regard the distance as being not less than #ajj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj miles2 in which case the star's brilliancy must be as much as #bbh times greater than that of the sun6 ,and yet even ,sirius is probably not the greatest sun belonging to the visible universe4 ,there can be little doubt that ,canopus1 in the southern hemisphere1 is a grander sun than ,sirius4 ,to our eyes1 ,canopus is only about half as bright as ,sirius1 and it ranks as the second star in the heavens in the order of brightness4 ,but while ,sirius's distance is measurable1 that of ,canopus is so unthinkably immense that astronomers can get no grip upon it4 ,if it were only twice as remote as ,sirius1 it would be equal to two of the latter1 but in all probability its distance is much greater than that4 ,and possibly even ,canopus is not the greatest gem in the coronet of creation4 ,sirius1 as we saw when talking of ,procyon 7see ,chapter ,i71 is a double star4 ,for many years after ,bessel had declared his belief that the ,dog-,star was subjected to the attraction of an invisible companion1 telescopes failed to reveal the accompanying star4,d ,finally1 in #ahfb1 a new telescope that ,alvan ,clark had just finished and was testing1 brought the hidden star into view4 ,the suggestion that it may shine by reflected light from ,sirius has been made4 ,in that case it must1 of course1 be a planet1 but a planet of such stupendous magnitude that the imagination can scarcely grasp it2 a planet probably as large as our sun1 perhaps larger2 a planet equal in size to more than a million earths6 ,but1 as was remarked of the faint stars in ,alpha ,capricornis1 it is probable that the hypothesis of reflected light is not the true one4 ,more probably the companion of ,sirius shines with light of its own1 though its excessive faintness in comparison with its bulk indicates that its condition must be very different from that of an ordinary star4 ,d ,the following extract from a letter by ,bessel to ,humboldt1 written in #ahdd 7see ,cosmos1 vol4 iii1 p4 #ahf71 is interesting1 in view of the discoveries made since then3 ,at all events ,i continue in the belief that ,procyon and ,sirius are true double stars1 consisting of a visible and an invisible star4 ,no reason exists for considering luminosity an essential property of these bodies4 ,the fact that numberless stars are visible is evidently no proof against the existence of an equally incalculable number of invisible ones4 ,the physical difficulty of a change in the proper motion is satisfactorily set aside by the hypothesis of dark stars4 ,readers of ,voltaire will remember that the hero of his extraordinary story of ,micromegas came from an imaginary planet circling around ,sirius4 ,inasmuch as ,voltaire1 together with ,dean ,swift1 ascribed two moons to ,mars many years before they were discovered 7probably suggested by a curiously mistaken interpretation by ,kepler of an anagram in which ,galileo had concealed his discovery of the ring of ,saturn71 it is all the more interesting that the great infidel should have imagined an enormous planet circling around the ,dog-,star4 ,but ,voltaire went far astray when he ascribed a gigantic stature to his ,sirian4 ,he makes ,micromegas1 whose world was #ba1fjj1jjj times larger in circumference than the earth1 more than twenty miles tall1 so that when he visited our little planet he was able to wade through the oceans and step over the mountains without inconvenience1 and1 when he had scooped up some of the inhabitants on his thumb-nail1 was obliged to use a powerful microscope in order to see them4 ,voltaire should rather have gone to some of the most minute of the asteroids for his giant1 for under the tremendous gravitation of such a world as he has described ,micromegas himself would have been a fit subject for microscopic examination4 ,but1 however much we may doubt the stature of ,voltaire's visitor from ,sirius1 we can not doubt the soundness of the conclusion at which he arrived1 after having1 by an ingenious arrangement1 succeeded in holding a conversation with some earthly philosophers under his microscope1 namely1 that these infinitely little creatures possessed a pride that was almost infinitely great4 ,east and south of ,canis ,major1 which1 by-the-way1 is said to represent one of ,orion's hounds1 is part of the constellation ,argo1 which stands for the ship in which ,jason sailed in search of the golden fleece4 ,the observer will find many objects of interest here1 although some of them are so close to the horizon in our latitudes that much of their brilliancy is lost4 ,note the two stars zeta and pi near the lower edge of the map1 then sweep slowly over the space lying between them4 ,about half-way your attention will be arrested by a remarkable stellar arrangement1 in which a beautiful half-circle of small stars curving above a larger star1 which is reddish in color1 is conspicuous4 ,this neighborhood will be found rich in stars that the naked eye can not see4 ,just below the star eta1 in ,canis ,major1 is another fine group4 ,the star pi1 which is deep yellow or orange1 has three little stars above it1 two of which form a pretty pair4 ,the star xi has a companion1 which forms a fine test for an opera-glass1 and is well worth looking for4 ,look also at the cluster #ic ,m1 just above and to the west of xi4 ,the stars mu and kappa are seen double with an opera-glass4 ,the two neighboring clusters1 #df ,m and #chh1 are very interesting objects4 ,to see them well1 use a powerful field-glass4 ,a fiery fifth-magnitude star1 as ,webb calls it1 can be seen in the field at the same time4 ,the presence of the ,milky-,way is manifest by the sprinkling of stars all about this region4 ,in fact1 the attentive observer will before this have noticed that the majority of the most brilliant constellations lie either in the ,milky-,way or along its borders4 ,cassiopeia1 as we saw1 sits athwart the galaxy whose silvery current winds in and out among the stars of her chair2 ,perseus is aglow with its sheen as it wraps him about like a mantle of stars2 ,taurus has the tips of his horns dipped in the great stream2 it flows between the shining feet of ,gemini and the head and shoulders of ,orion as between starry banks2 the peerless ,sirius hangs like a gem pendent from the celestial girdle4 ,in the southern hemisphere we should find the beautiful constellation of the ship ,argo1 containing ,canopus1 sailing along the ,milky-,way1 blown by the breath of old romance on an endless voyage2 the ,southern ,cross glitters in the very center of the galaxy2 and the bright stars of the ,centaur might be likened to the heads of golden nails pinning this wondrous scarf1 woven of the beams of millions of tiny stars1 against the dome of the sky4 ,passing back into the northern hemisphere we find ,scorpio1 ,sagittarius1 ,aquila1 the ,dolphin1 ,cygnus1 and resplendent ,lyra1 all strung along the course of the ,milky-,way4 ,turning now to the constellation ,monoceros1 we shall find a few objects worthy of attention4 ,this constellation is of comparatively modern origin1 having been formed by ,bartschius1 whose chief title to distinction is that he married the daughter of ,john ,kepler4 ,the region around the stars #h1 #ac1 and #ag will be found particularly rich1 and the cluster #bg shows well with a strong glass4 ,look also at the cluster #ej ,m1 and compare its appearance with that of the clusters in ,argo4 ,with these constellations we finish our review of the stellar wonders that lie within the reach of so humble an instrument as an opera-or field-glass4 ,we have made the circuit of the sky1 and the hosts that illumine the vernal heavens are now seen advancing from the east1 and pressing close upon the brighter squadrons of winter4 ,their familiar figures resemble the faces of old friends whom we are glad to welcome4 ,these starry acquaintances never grow wearisome4 ,their interest for us is as fathomless as the deeps of space in which they shine4 ,the man never yet lived whose mind could comprehend the full meaning of the wondrous messages that they flash to us upon the wings of light4 ,as we watch them in their courses1 the true music of the spheres comes to our listening ears1 the chorus of creation--faint with distance1 for it is by slow approaches that man draws near to it--chanting the grandest of epics1 the ,poem of the ,universe2 and the theme that runs through it all is the reign of law4 ,do not be afraid to become a star-gazer4 ,the human mind can find no higher exercise4 ,he who studies the stars will discover-- ,an endless fountain of immortal drink ,pouring unto us from heaven's brink4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,moon1 ,,the ,,planets1 ,,and ,,the ,,sun4 ,it is a most beautiful and delightful sight1 exclaims ,galileo1 in describing the discoveries he had made with his telescope1 to behold the body of the moon1 which is distant from us nearly sixty semi-diameters of the earth1 as near as if it was at a distance of only two of the same measures4444 ,and1 consequently1 any one may know with the certainty that is due to the use of our senses that the moon assuredly does not possess a smooth and polished surface1 but one rough and uneven1 and1 just like the face of the earth itself1 is everywhere full of vast protuberances1 deep chasms1 and sinuosities4 ,there was1 perhaps1 nothing in the long series of discoveries with which ,galileo astonished the world after he had constructed his telescope1 which1 as he expresses it1 was devised by me through ,god's grace first enlightening my mind1 that had a greater charm for him than his lunar observations4 ,certainly there was nothing which he has described with greater enthusiasm and eloquence4 ,and this could hardly have been otherwise1 for the moon was the first celestial object to which ,galileo turned his telescope1 and then for the first time human eyes may be said to have actually looked into another world than the earth1 though his discoveries and those of his successors have not realized all the poetic fancies about the moon contained in the verses that are ascribed to ,orpheus3 ,and he another wandering world has made ,which gods ,selene name1 and men the moon4 ,it mountains1 cities has1 and temples grand4 ,yet ,galileo's observations at once upset the theory1 for which ,apollonius was responsible1 and which seems to have been widely prevalent up to his time1 that the moon was a smooth body1 polished like a mirror1 and presenting in its light and dark spots reflections of the continents and oceans of the earth4 ,he also demonstrated that its surface was covered with plains and mountains1 but the cities and temples of the moon have remained to our time only within the ken of romance4 ,galileo's telescope1 as ,i have before remarked1 was1 in the principle of its construction1 simply an opera-glass of one tube4 ,he succeeded in making a glass of this kind that magnified thirty diameters1 a very much higher power than is given to the opera-and field-glasses of to-day4 ,yet he had to contend with the disadvantages of single lenses1 achromatic combinations of glass for optical purposes not being contrived until nearly a hundred years after his death1 and so his telescope did not possess quite as decided a superiority over a modern field-glass as the difference in magnifying power would imply4 ,in fact1 if the reader will view the moon with a first-rate field-glass1 he will perceive that the true nature of the surface of the lunar globe can be readily discerned with such an instrument4 ,even a small opera-glass will reveal much to the attentive observer of the moon2 but for these observations the reader should1 if possible1 make use of a field-glass1 and the higher its power the better4 ,the illustrations accompanying this chapter were made by the author with the aid of a glass magnifying seven diameters4 ,of course1 the first thing the observer will wish to see will be the mountains of the moon1 for everybody has heard of them1 and the most sluggish imagination is stirred by the thought that one can look off into the sky and behold the eternal hills of another planet as solid and substantial as our own4 ,but the chances are that1 if left to their own guidance1 ninety-nine persons out of a hundred would choose exactly the wrong time to see these mountains4 ,at any rate1 that is my experience with people who have come to look at the moon through my telescope4 ,unless warned beforehand1 they invariably wait until full moon1 when the flood of sunshine poured perpendicularly upon the face of our satellite conceals its rugged features as effectually as if a veil had been drawn over them4 ,begin your observations with the appearance of the narrowest crescent of the new moon1 and follow it as it gradually fills1 and then you will see how beautifully the advancing line of lunar sunrise reveals the mountains1 over whose slopes and peaks it is climbing1 by its ragged and sinuous outline4 ,the observer must keep in mind the fact that he is looking straight down upon the tops of the lunar mountains4 ,it is like a view from a balloon1 only at a vastly greater height than any balloon has ever attained4 ,even with a powerful telescope the observer sees the moon at an apparent distance of several hundred miles1 while with a field-glass1 magnifying seven diameters1 the moon appears as if thirty-five thousand miles off4 ,the apparent distance with ,galileo's telescope was eight thousand miles4 ,recollect how when seen from a great height the rugosities of the earth's surface flatten out and disappear1 and then try to imagine how the highest mountains on the earth would look if you were suspended thirty-five thousand miles above them1 and you will1 perhaps1 rather wonder at the fact that the moon's mountains can be seen at all4 ,it is the contrast of lights and shadows that not only reveals them to us1 but enables us to measure their height4 ,on the moon shadows are very much darker than upon the earth1 because of the extreme rarity of the moon's atmosphere1 if indeed it has any atmosphere at all4 ,by stepping around the corner of a rock there1 one might pass abruptly from dazzling noonday into the blackness of midnight4 ,the surface of the moon is extraordinarily rough and uneven4 ,it possesses broad plains1 which are probably the bottoms of ancient seas that have now dried up1 but these cover only about two fifths of the surface visible to us1 and most of the remaining three fifths are exceedingly rugged and mountainous4 ,many of the mountains of the moon are1 foot for foot1 as lofty as the highest mountains on the earth1 while all of them1 in proportion to the size of the moon's globe1 are much larger than the earth's mountains4 ,it is obvious1 then1 that the sunshine1 as it creeps over these ,alpine landscapes in the moon1 casting the black shadows of the peaks and craters many miles across the plains1 and capping the summits of lofty mountains with light1 while the lower regions far around them are yet buried in night1 must clearly reveal the character of the lunar surface4 ,mountains that can not be seen at all when the light falls perpendicularly upon them1 or1 at the most1 appear then merely as shining points1 picture themselves by their shadows in startling silhouettes when illuminated laterally by the rising sun4 ,but at full moon1 while the mountains hide themselves in light1 the old sea-beds are seen spread out among the shining table-lands with great distinctness4 ,even the naked eye readily detects these as ill-defined1 dark patches upon the face of the moon1 and to their presence are due the popular notions that have prevailed in all quarters of the world about the ,man in the ,moon1 the ,woman in the ,moon1 ,jacob in the ,moon1 the ,hare in the ,moon1 the ,toad in the ,moon1 and so on4 ,but1 however clearly one may imagine that he discerns a man in the moon while recalling the nursery-rhymes about him1 an opera-glass instantly puts the specter to flight1 and shows the round lunar disk diversified and shaded like a map4,e ,e ,i should1 perhaps1 qualify the statement in the text slightly in favor of a lunar lady to whom ,mr4 ,henry ,m4 ,parkhurst first called my attention4 ,about nine days after new moon a rather pretty and decidedly feminine face appears on the western half of the disk4 ,it is formed by the mountains and table-lands embraced by the ,sea of ,serenity1 the ,sea of ,tranquillity1 the ,sea of ,vapors1 etc41 and is best seen with the aid of an opera-glass of low power4 ,the face is readily distinguishable on ,rutherfurd's celebrated photograph of the full moon4 ,it is necessary for this purpose to turn the photograph upside down1 since it is a telescopic picture1 and consequently reversed4 ,the crater ,tycho forms a breastpin for the lady1 and ,menelaus glitters like a diamond ornament in her hair1 while the range of the ,apennines resembles a sort of coronet resting on her forehead4 ,this same woman in the moon1 it appears1 was described by ,dr4 ,james ,thompson years ago1 and1 for aught ,i know1 she may be the ,diana to whom ,herrick sang3 ,queen and huntress chaste and fair1 ,seated in thy silver chair1 ,now the ,sun is laid to sleep1 ,state in wonted manner keep4 ,hesperus entreats thy light1 ,goddess excellently bright4 ,a feature of the full moon's surface that instantly attracts attention is the remarkable brightness of the southern part of the disk1 and the brilliant streaks radiating from a bright point near the lower edge4 ,the same simile almost invariably comes to the lips of every person who sees this phenomenon for the first time--,it looks like a peeled orange4 ,the bright point1 which is the great crater-mountain ,tycho1 looks exactly like the pip of the orange1 and the light-streaks radiating from it in all directions bear an equally striking resemblance to the streaks that one sees upon an orange after the outer rind has been removed4 ,i shall have something more to say about these curious streaks further on2 in the mean time1 let us glance at our little sketch-map of the moon4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,moon4 ,the so-called seas are marked on the map1 for the purpose of reference1 by the letters which they ordinarily bear in lunar maps4 ,the numerals indicate craters1 or ring-plains1 and mountain-ranges4 ,the following key-list will enable the reader to identify all the objects that are lettered or numbered upon the map4 ,i have given ,english translations of the ,latin names which the old astronomers bestowed upon the seas3 ,seas1 ,gulfs1 and ,marshes4 ,a4 ,the ,crisian ,sea4 ,b4 ,humboldt ,sea4 ,c4 ,the ,sea of ,cold4 ,d4 ,the ,lake of ,death4 ,e4 ,the ,lake of ,dreams4 ,f4 ,the ,marsh of ,sleep4 ,g4 ,the ,sea of ,tranquillity4 ,h4 ,the ,sea of ,serenity4 ,i4 ,the ,marsh of ,mists4 ,k4 ,the ,marsh of ,putrefaction4 ,l4 ,the ,sea of ,vapors4 ,m4 ,the ,central ,gulf4 ,n4 ,the ,gulf of ,heats4 ,o4 ,the ,sea of ,showers4 ,p4 ,the ,bay of ,rainbows4 ,q4 ,the ,ocean of ,storms4 ,r4 ,the ,bay of ,dew4 ,s4 ,the ,sea of ,clouds4 ,t4 ,the ,sea of ,humors4 ,v4 ,the ,sea of ,nectar4 ,x4 ,the ,sea of ,fertility4 ,z4 ,the ,south ,sea4 ,mountains and ,crater ,rings4 #a4 ,grimaldi4 #b4 ,letronne4 #c4 ,gassendi4 #d4 ,euclides4 #e4 ,bullialdus4 #f4 ,pitatus4 #g4 ,schickhard4 #h4 ,longomontanus4 #i4 ,tycho4 #aj4 ,maginus4 #aa4 ,clavius4 #ab4 ,newton4 #ac4 ,maurolycus4 #ad4 ,stoefler4 #ae4 ,walter4 #af4 ,regiomontanus4 #ag4 ,purbach4 #ah4 ,arzachel4 #ai4 ,alphonsus4 #bj4 ,ptolemaus4 #ba4 ,hipparchus4 #bb4 ,albategnius4 #bc4 ,theophilus4 #bd4 ,cyrillus4 #be4 ,catharina4 #bf4 ,the ,altai ,mts4 #bg4 ,piccolomini4 #bh4 ,petavius4 #bi4 ,langrenus4 #hj4 ,proclus4 #ca4 ,cleomedes4 #cb4 ,atlas4 #cc4 ,hercules4 #cd4 ,posidonius4 #ce4 ,plinius4 #cf4 ,menelaus4 #cg4 ,manilius4 #ch4 ,the ,caucasus ,mts4 #ci4 ,eudoxus4 #dj4 ,aristotle4 #da4 ,the ,alps4 #db4 ,plato4 #dc4 ,archimedes4 #dd4 ,the ,apennines4 #de4 ,eratosthenes4 #df4 ,copernicus4 #dg4 ,the ,carpathian ,mts4 #dh4 ,timocharis4 #di4 ,lambert4 #ej4 ,euler4 #ea4 ,aristarchus4 #eb4 ,kepler4 #ec4 ,flamsteed4 ,the early selenographers certainly must have been men of vivid imagination1 and the romantic names they gave to the lunar landscapes1 and particularly to the seas1 add a charm of their own to the study of the moon4 ,who would not wish to see the ,bay of ,rainbows1 or the ,lake of ,dreams1 or the ,sea of ,tranquillity1 if for no other reason than a curiosity to know what could have induced men to give to these regions in the moon such captivating titles8 ,or who would not desire to visit them if he could8 though no doubt we should find them1 like the ,delectable ,mountains in the ,pilgrim's ,progress1 most charming when seen from afar4 ,the limited scale of our map1 of course1 renders it impossible to represent upon it more than a comparatively small number of the lunar mountains that have received names4 ,in selecting those to be put in the map ,i have endeavored to choose such as1 on account of their size1 their situation1 or some striking peculiarity1 would be most likely to attract the attention of a novice4 ,the observer must not expect to see them all at once1 however4 ,the lunar features change their appearance to a surprising extent1 in accordance with the direction of their illumination4 ,some great mountain-masses and ring-plains1 or craters1 which present scenes of magnificence when the sun is rising or setting upon them1 disappear under a perpendicular light1 such as they receive at full moon4 ,the great crater-plain1 known as ,maginus1 numbered #aj in our map1 is one of these4 ,the broken mountain-wall surrounding this vast depressed plain rises in some places to a height of over fourteen thousand feet above the valley within1 and the spectacle of sunrise upon ,maginus1 seen with a powerful telescope1 is a most impressive sight1 and even with a field-glass is very interesting4 ,yet1 a few days later1 ,maginus vanishes1 as if it had been swallowed up1 and as ,beer and ,maedler have expressed it1 the full moon knows no ,maginus4 ,the still grander formation of mountain1 plain1 and crater1 called ,clavius 7#aa in the map71 disappears almost as completely as ,maginus at full moon1 yet1 under the proper illumination1 it presents a splendid pageant of light and shadow4 ,on the other hand1 some of the lunar mountains shine vividly at full moon1 and can be well seen then1 though1 of course1 only as light spots1 since at that time they cast no shadows4 ,menelaus 7#cf in the map71 ,aristarchus 7#ea71 ,proclus 7#cj71 ,copernicus 7#df71 and ,kepler 7#eb71 are among these shining mountains4 ,aristarchus is the most celebrated of them all1 being the brightest point on the moon4 ,it can even be seen glimmering on the dark side of the moon--that is to say1 when no light reaches it except that which is reflected from the earth4 ,with a large telescope1 ,aristarchus is so dazzlingly bright under a high sun1 that the eye is partly blinded in gazing at it4 ,it consists of a mountain-ring surrounding a circular valley1 about twenty-eight miles in diameter4 ,the flanks of these mountains1 especially on their inner slopes1 and the floor of the valley within1 are very bright1 while a peak in the center of the valley1 about as high as ,storm-,king ,mountain on the ,hudson1 shines with piercing brilliancy4 ,sir ,william ,herschel mistook it for a volcano in action4 ,it certainly is not an active volcano1 but just what makes it so dazzling no one knows4 ,the material of which this mountain is formed would seem to possess a higher reflective power than that of any other portion of the moon's surface4 ,one is irresistibly reminded of the crystallized mountains described in the celebrated ,moon ,hoax of ,richard ,adams ,locke4 ,with an opera-glass you can readily recognize ,aristarchus as a bright point at full moon4 ,with a field-glass it is better seen1 and some of the short1 light rays surrounding it are perceived1 while1 when the sun is rising upon it1 about four days after first quarter1 its crateriform shape can be detected with such a glass4 ,the visibility of ,aristarchus on the dark side of the moon leads us to a brief consideration of the illumination by the earth of that portion of the moon's surface which is not touched directly by sunlight at new and old moon4 ,this phenomenon is shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,not only can the outlines of the dark part of the moon be seen under such circumstances1 but even the distinction in color between the dusky seas and the more brilliant table-lands and mountain-regions can be perceived1 and with powerful telescopes many minor features come into sight4 ,a little consideration must convince any one1 as it convinced ,galileo more than two hundred and seventy-five years ago1 that the light reflected from the earth upon the moon is sufficient to produce this faint illumination of the lunar landscapes4 ,we have only to recall the splendors of a night that is lighted by a full moon1 and then to recollect that at new or old moon the earth is full as seen from our satellite1 and that a full earth must give some fourteen times as much light as a full moon1 in order to realize the brilliancy of an earth-lit night upon the moon4 ,as the moon waxes to us1 the earth wanes to the moon1 and vice versa1 and so the phenomenon of earth-shine on the lunar surface must be looked for before the first quarter and after the last quarter of the moon4 ,illustration3 ,,sunrise ,,on ,,the ,,sea ,,of ,,serenity1 ,,and ,,theophilus ,,and ,,other ,,craters4 ,the reader will find it an attractive occupation to identify1 by means of the map1 the various seas1 lakes1 and marshes1 for not only are they interesting on account of the singularity of their names1 but they present many remarkable differences of appearance1 which may be perceived with the instrument he is supposed to be using4 ,the oval form of the ,crisian ,sea 7,a71 which is the first of the seas to come into sight at new moon1 makes it a very striking object4 ,with good telescopes1 and under favorable illumination1 a decidedly green tint is perceived in the ,crisian ,sea4 ,it measures about two hundred and eighty by three hundred and fifty-five miles in extent1 and is1 perhaps1 the deepest of all the old sea-beds visible on the moon4 ,it is surrounded by mountains1 which can be readily seen when the sun strikes athwart them a few days after new or full moon4 ,on the southwestern border a stupendous mountain-promontory1 called ,cape ,agarum1 projects into the ,crisian ,sea fifty or sixty miles1 the highest part rising precipitously eleven thousand feet above the floor of the sea4 ,i have seen ,cape ,agarum very clearly defined with a field-glass4 ,near the eastern border is the crater-mountain ,proclus1 which ,i have already mentioned as possessing great brilliancy under a high sun1 being in this respect second only to ,aristarchus4 ,from the foot of ,proclus spreads away the somewhat triangular region called the ,marsh of ,sleep 7,f74 ,the term golden-brown1 which has been applied to it1 perhaps describes its hue well enough4 ,with a telescope it is a most interesting region1 but with less powerful instruments one must be content with recognizing its outline and color4 ,the broad1 dark-gray expanse of the ,sea of ,tranquillity 7,g7 will be readily recognized by the observer1 and he will be interested in the mottled aspect which it presents in certain regions1 caused by ridges and elevations1 which1 when this sea-bottom was covered with water1 may have formed shoals and islands4 ,the ,sea of ,fertility 7,x7 is remarkable for its irregular surface1 and the long1 crooked bays into which its southern extremity is divided4 ,the ,sea of ,nectar 7,v7 is connected with the ,sea of ,tranquillity by a broad strait 7one would naturally anticipate from their names that there must be some connection between them71 while between it and the ,sea of ,fertility runs the range of the ,pyrenees ,mountains1 twelve thousand feet high1 flanked by many huge volcanic mountain-rings4 ,the ,sea of ,serenity 7,h71 lying northeast of the ,sea of ,tranquillity1 is about four hundred and twenty miles broad by four hundred and thirty miles long1 being very nearly of the same area as our ,caspian ,sea4 ,it is deeper than the ,sea of ,tranquillity1 and a greenish hue is sometimes detected in its central parts4 ,it deepens toward the middle4 ,three quarters of its shore-line are bordered by high mountains1 and many isolated elevations and peaks are scattered over its surface4 ,in looking at these dried-up seas of the moon1 one is forcibly reminded of the undulating and in some places mountainous character of terrestrial sea-bottoms1 as shown by soundings and the existence of small islands in the deep sea1 like the ,bermudas1 the ,azores and ,st4 ,helena4 ,the ,sea of ,serenity is divided nearly through the center by a narrow1 bright streak1 apparently starting from the crater-mountain ,menelaus 7#cf in the map71 but really taking its rise at ,tycho far in the south4 ,this curious streak can be readily detected even with a small opera-glass4 ,just what it is no one is prepared to say1 and so the author of the ,moon ,hoax was fairly entitled to take advantage of the romancer's license1 and declare that its edge throughout its whole length of three hundred and forty miles is an acute angle of solid quartz-crystal1 brilliant as a piece of ,derbyshire spar just brought from the mine1 and containing scarcely a fracture or a chasm from end to end6 ,along the southern shore1 on either side of ,menelaus1 extends the high range of the ,haemus ,mountains4 ,south and southeast of the ,sea of ,serenity are the ,sea of ,vapors 7,l71 the ,central ,gulf 7,m71 and the ,gulf of ,heats 7,n74 ,the observer will notice at full moon three or four curious dark spots in the region occupied by these flat expanses4 ,on the north and northwest of the ,sea of ,serenity are the ,lake of ,death 7,d71 and the ,lake of ,dreams 7,e71 chiefly remarkable for their names4 ,the ,sea of ,showers 7,o7 is a very interesting region1 not only in itself1 but on account of its surroundings4 ,its level is very much broken by low1 winding ridges1 and it is variegated by numerous light-streaks4 ,at its western end it blends into the ,marsh of ,mists 7,i7 and the ,marsh of ,putrefaction 7,k74 ,on its northeast border is the celebrated ,sinus ,iridum1 or ,bay of ,rainbows 7,p71 upon which selenographers have exhausted the adjectives of admiration4 ,the bay is semicircular in form1 one hundred and thirty-five miles long and eighty-four miles broad4 ,its surface is dark and level4 ,at either end a splendid cape extends into the ,sea of ,showers1 the eastern one being called ,cape ,heraclides1 and the western ,cape ,laplace4 ,they are both crowned by high peaks4 ,along the whole shore of the bay runs a chain of gigantic mountains1 forming the southern border of a wild and lofty plateau1 called the ,sinus ,iridum ,highlands4 ,of course1 a telescope is required to see the details of this most magnificent of all lunar landscapes1 and yet much can be done with a good field-glass4 ,with such an instrument ,i have seen the capes at the ends of the bay projecting boldly into the dark1 level expanse surrounding them1 and the high lights of the bordering mountains sharply contrasted with the dusky semicircle at their feet1 and have been able to detect the presence of the low ridges that cross the front of the bay like shoals1 separating it from the sea outside4 ,two or three days after first quarter1 the shadows of the peaks about the ,bay of ,rainbows may be seen4 ,the ,bay of ,dew 7,r7 above the ,bay of ,rainbows1 and the ,sea of ,cold 7,c71 are the northernmost of the dark levels visible4 ,it was in keeping with the supposed character of this region of the ,moon that ,riccioli named two portions of it the ,land of ,hoar ,frost and the ,land of ,drought4 ,extending along the eastern side of the disk is the great ,ocean of ,storms 7,q71 while between the ,ocean of ,storms and the middle of the moon lies the ,sea of ,clouds 7,s74 ,both of these are very irregular in outline1 and much broken by ridges and mountains4 ,the ,sea of ,humors 7,t71 although comparatively small1 is one of the most easily seen of all the lunar plains4 ,to the naked eye it looks like a dark1 oval patch on the moon4 ,with a telescope it is seen1 under favorable conditions1 to possess a decided green tint4 ,humboldt ,sea 7,b7 and the ,south ,sea 7,z7 belong principally to that part of the moon which is always turned away from the earth1 and only their edges project into the visible hemisphere1 although1 under favorable librations1 their farther borders1 lined as usual with mountain-peaks1 may be detected4 ,for our purposes they possess little interest4 ,let us now glance at some of the mountains and craters4 ,the dark oval called ,grimaldi 7#a7 can be detected by the naked eye1 or at least it has been thus seen1 although it requires a sharp eye2 and perhaps a shade or a pair of eye-glasses of ,london smoke-glass1 to take off the glare of the moon1 should be used in looking for it4,f ,it is simply a plain1 containing some fourteen thousand square miles1 remarkable for its dark color1 and surrounded by mountains4 ,schickhard 7#g7 is another similar plain1 nearly as large1 but not possessing the same dark tint in the interior4 ,the huge mountains around ,schickhard make a fine spectacle when the sun is rising upon them shortly before full moon4 ,f ,there are other uses to which such eye-glasses may be put by sky-gazers4 ,i habitually carry a pair for studying clouds4 ,it is wonderful how much the effect of great cloud-masses is heightened by them1 especially when seen in a bright light4 ,delicate curls and striae of cirrus1 which escape the uncovered eye in the glare of sunlight1 can be readily detected and studied by the use of neutral-tinted eye-glasses or spectacles4 ,tycho 7#i7 is the most famous of the crater-mountains1 though not the largest4 ,it is about fifty-four miles across and three miles deep4 ,in its center is a peak five or six thousand feet high4 ,tycho is the radial point of the great light-streaks that1 as ,i have already remarked1 cause the southern half of the moon to be likened to a peeled orange4 ,it is a tough problem in selenography to account for these streaks4 ,they are best seen at full moon4 ,they can not be seen at all until the sun has risen to a certain elevation above them1 #be deg4 according to ,neison2 but1 when they once become visible1 they dominate everything4 ,they turn aside for neither mountains nor plains1 but pass straight on their courses over the ruggedest regions of the moon1 retaining their brilliancy undiminished1 and pouring back such a flood of reflected light that they completely conceal some of the most stupendous mountain-masses across which they lie4 ,they clearly consist of different material from that of which the most of the moon's surface is composed--a material possessing a higher reflective power4 ,in this respect they resemble ,aristarchus and other lunar craters that are remarkable for their brilliancy under a high illumination4 ,tycho itself1 the center or hub1 from which these streaks radiate like spokes1 is very brilliant in the full moon4 ,but immediately around ,tycho there is a dark rim some twenty-five miles broad4 ,beyond this rim the surface becomes bright1 and the bright region extends about ninety miles farther4 ,out of it spring the great rays or streaks1 which vary from ten to twenty miles in width1 and many of which are several hundred miles long--one1 which we have already mentioned as extending across the ,sea of ,serenity1 being upward of two thousand miles in length4 ,it has been truly said that we have nothing like these streaks upon the earth1 and so there is no analogy to go by in trying to determine their nature4 ,it has been suggested that if the moon had been split or shattered from within by some tremendous force1 and molten matter from the interior had been thrust up into the cracks thus formed1 and had cooled there into broad seams of rock1 possessing a higher reflective power than the surrounding surface of the moon1 then the appearances presented would not be unlike what we actually see4 ,but there are serious objections to such a view1 which we have not space to discuss here4 ,it is enough to say that the nature of these streaks is still a question awaiting solution1 and here is an opportunity for an important discovery1 but not one to be achieved with an opera-glass4 ,i may add an interesting suggestion as to the nature of these streaks made by the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,grensted4 ,he holds that the air and water of the moon were chemically1 and not mechanically1 absorbed in the process of oxidation which went on at the time when her surface temperature was above a red heat4 ,having a much larger surface in proportion to her bulk than the earth1 the oxidation of the moon has1 he thinks1 extended much deeper than that of the earth1 and her atmosphere and oceans have been exhausted in the process4 ,both the earth and the moon1 he maintains1 have metallic nuclei1 and the streaks about ,tycho and ,copernicus1 and some other lunar craters1 may be dikes of pure and shining metal1 which have escaped oxidation owing to the comparatively small supply of lunar oxygen4 ,upon this theory ,aristarchus must be a metallic mountain4 ,illustration3 ,,sunrise ,,on ,,clavius1 ,,tycho1 ,,plato1 ,,etc4 ,clavius 7#aa7 is one of the most impressive of all the lunar formations4 ,there probably does not exist anywhere upon the earth so wild a scene upon a corresponding scale of grandeur4 ,of course1 its details are far beyond the reach of the instrument we are supposed to be using1 and yet1 even with a field-glass1 or a powerful opera-glass1 some of its main features are visible4 ,it is represented in our picture of the half-moon1 being the lowest and largest of the ring-like forms seen at the inner edge of the illuminated half of the disk2 the rays of the rising sun touching the summits of some of the peaks in its interior have brought them into sight as a point of light1 and at the same time1 reaching across the gulf within1 have lighted up the higher slopes of the great mountain-wall on the farther or eastern side of the crater-valley1 making it resemble a semicircle of light projecting into the blackness of the still unilluminated plains around it4 ,i should advise every reader to take advantage of any opportunity that may be presented to him to see ,clavius with a powerful telescope when the sun is either rising or setting upon it4 ,neison has given a spirited description of the scene1 as follows3 ,the sunrise on ,clavius commences with the illumination of a few peaks on the western wall1 but soon rapidly extends along the whole wall of ,clavius1 which then presents the appearance of a great double bay of the dark night-side of the moon penetrating so deep into the illuminated portion as to perceptibly blunt the southern horn to the naked eye4 ,within the dark bay some small1 bright points soon appear--the summits of the great ring-plains within--followed shortly by similar light-points near the center1 due to peaks on the walls of the smaller ring-plains1 these light-islands gradually widening and forming delicate rings of light in the dark mass of shadow still enveloping the floor of ,clavius4 ,far in the east then dimly appear a few scarcely perceptible points1 rapidly widening into a thin bright line1 the crest of the great southeastern wall of ,clavius1 the end being still lost far within the night-side of the moon4 ,by the period the extreme summit of the lofty wall of ,clavius on the east becomes distinct1 fine streaks of light begin to extend across the dark mass of shadow on the interior of ,clavius1 from the light breaking through some of the passes on the west wall and illuminating the interior2 and these streaks widen near the center and form illuminated spots on the floor1 when both east and west it still lies deeply immersed in shadow1 strongly contrasting with the now brightly illuminated crest of the lofty east wall and the great circular broad rings of light formed by the small ring-plains within ,clavius4 ,the illumination of the interior of ,clavius now proceeds rapidly1 and forms a magnificent spectacle3 the great1 brightly illuminated ring-plains on the interior1 with their floors still totally immersed in shadow2 the immense steep line of cliffs on the east and southeast are now brilliantly illuminated1 though the entire surface at their base is still immersed in the shades of night2 and the great peaks on the west towering above the floor are thrown strongly into relief against the dark shadow beyond them4 ,newton 7#ab7 is the deepest of the great crateriform chasms on the moon4 ,some of the peaks on its walls rise twenty-four thousand feet above the interior gulf4 ,its shadow1 and those of its gigantic neighbors--for the moon is here crowded with colossal walls1 peaks1 and craters--may be seen breaking the line of sunlight below ,clavius1 in our illustration4 ,i have just spoken of these great lunar formations as chasms4 ,the word describes very well the appearance which some of them present when the line separating day and night on the moon falls across them1 but the reader should not be led by it into an erroneous idea of their real character4 ,such formations as ,newton1 which is one hundred and forty miles long by seventy broad1 may more accurately be described as vast depressed plains1 generally containing peaks and craters1 which are surrounded by a ring of steep mountains1 or mountain-walls1 that rise by successive ridges and terraces to a stupendous height4 ,the double chain of great crater-plains reaching half across the center of the moon contains some of the grandest of these strange configurations of conjoined mountain1 plain1 and crater4 ,the names of the principal ones can be learned from the map1 and the reader will find it very interesting to watch them coming into sight about first quarter1 and passing out of sight about third quarter4 ,at such times1 with a field-glass1 some of them look like enormous round holes in the inner edge of the illuminated half of the moon4 ,theophilus 7#bc71 ,cyrillus 7#bd71 and ,catharina 7#be71 are three of the finest walled plains on the moon--,theophilus1 in particular1 being a splendid specimen of such formations4 ,this chain of craters may be seen rapidly coming into sunlight at the edge of the ,sea of ,nectar1 in our picture of ,sunrise on the ,sea of ,serenity1 etc4 ,the ,altai ,mountains 7#bf7 are a line of lofty cliffs1 two hundred and eighty miles in length1 surmounting a high table-land4 ,the ,caucasus ,mountains 7#ch7 are a mass of highlands and peaks1 which introduce us to a series of formations resembling those of the mountainous regions of the earth4 ,the highest peak in this range is about nineteen thousand feet4 ,between the ,caucasus and the ,apennines 7#dd7 lies a level pass1 or strait1 connecting the ,sea of ,serenity with the ,sea of ,showers4 ,the ,apennines are the greatest of the lunar mountain-chains1 extending some four hundred and sixty miles in length1 and containing one peak twenty-one thousand feet high1 and many varying from twelve thousand to nearly twenty thousand4 ,it will thus be seen that the ,apennines of the earth sink into insignificance in comparison with their gigantic namesakes on the moon4 ,as this range runs at a considerable angle to the line of sunrise1 its high peaks are seen tipped with sunlight for a long distance beyond the generally illuminated edge about the time of first quarter4 ,even with the naked eye the sun-touched summits of the lunar ,apennines may at that time be detected as a tongue of light projecting into the dark side of the moon4 ,the ,alps 7#da7 are another mountain-mass of great elevation1 whose highest peak is a good match for the ,mont ,blanc of the earth1 after which it has been named4 ,plato 7#db7 is a very celebrated dark and level plain1 surrounded by a mountain-ring1 and presenting in its interior many puzzling and apparently changeable phenomena which have given rise to much speculation1 but which1 of course1 lie far beyond the reach of opera-glasses4 ,plato is seen in the picture of ,sunrise on ,clavius1 etc41 on page #acc1 being the second ring from the top4 ,if ,ariosto had had a telescope1 we might have suspected that it was this curious plain that he had in mind when he described that strange valley in the moon1 in which was to be found everything that was lost from the earth1 including lost wits2 and where the redoubtable knight ,astolpho1 having been sent in search of the missing wit of the great ,orlando1 was astonished to find what he sought carefully preserved in a vial along with other similar vials belonging to many supposedly wise people of the earth1 whom nobody suspected of keeping a good part of their sapience in the moon4 ,copernicus 7#df7 is the last of the lunar formations that we shall describe4 ,it bears a general resemblance to ,tycho1 and is slightly greater in diameter2 it is1 however1 not quite so deep4 ,it has a cluster of peaks in the center1 whose tops may be detected with a field-glass1 as a speck of light when the rays of the morning sun1 slanting across the valley1 illuminate them while their environs are yet buried in night4 ,copernicus is the center of a system of light-streaks somewhat resembling those of ,tycho1 but very much shorter4 ,we must not dismiss the moon without a few words as to its probable condition4 ,it was but natural1 after men had seen the surface of the moon diversified with hills and valleys like another earth1 that the opinion should find ready acceptance that beings not unlike ourselves might dwell upon it4 ,nothing could possibly have been more interesting than the realization of such a fancy by the actual discovery of the lunar inhabitants1 or at least of unmistakable evidence of their existence4 ,the moon is so near to the earth1 as astronomical distances go1 and the earth and the moon are so intimately connected in the companionship of their yearly journey around the sun1 and their greater journey together with the sun and all his family1 through the realms of space1 that we should have looked upon the lunar inhabitants1 if any had existed1 as our neighbors over the way--dwelling1 to be sure1 upon a somewhat more restricted domain than ours1 vassals of the earth in one sense1 yet upon the whole very respectable and interesting people1 with whom one would be glad to have a closer acquaintance4 ,but1 alas6 as the powers of the telescope increased1 the vision of a moon crowded with life faded1 until at last the cold fact struck home that the moon is1 in all probability1 a frozen and dried-up globe1 a mere planetary skeleton1 which could no more support life than the ,humboldt glacier could grow roses4 ,and yet this opinion may go too far4 ,there is reason for thinking that the moon is not absolutely airless1 and1 while it has no visible bodies of water1 its soil may1 after all1 not be entirely arid and desiccated4 ,there are observations which hint at visible changes in certain spots that could possibly be caused by vegetation1 and there are other observations which suggest the display of electric luminosity in a rarefied atmosphere covering the moon4 ,to declare that no possible form of life can exist under the conditions prevailing upon the lunar surface would be saying too much1 for human intelligence can not set bounds to creative power4 ,yet1 within the limits of life1 such as we know them1 it is probably safe to assert that the moon is a dead and deserted world4 ,in other words1 if a race of beings resembling ourselves1 or resembling any of our contemporaries in terrestrial life1 ever existed upon the moon1 they must long since have perished4 ,that such beings may have existed1 is possible1 particularly if it be true1 as generally believed1 that the moon once had a comparatively dense atmosphere and water upon its surface1 which have now1 in the process of cooling of the lunar globe1 been withdrawn into its interior4 ,it certainly does not detract from the interest with which we study the rugged and beautiful scenery of the moon to reflect that if we could visit those ancient sea-bottoms1 or explore those glittering mountains1 we might1 perchance1 find there some remains or mementos of a race that flourished1 and perhaps was all gathered again to its fathers1 before man appeared upon the earth4 ,that slight physical changes1 such as the downfall of mountain-walls or crater-cones1 still occasionally occur upon the moon1 is an opinion entertained by some selenographers1 and apparently justified by observation4 ,the enormous changes of temperature1 from burning heat under a cloudless sun to the freezing cold of space at night with no atmospheric blanket to retain heat 7which has generally been assumed to be the condition of things on the moon71 would naturally exert a disintegrating effect upon the lunar rocks4 ,but the question is now in dispute whether the surface of the moon ever rises above the freezing-point of water1 even under a midday sun4 ,mankind has always been a little piqued by the impossibility of seeing the other side of the moon1 and all sorts of odd fancies have been indulged in regard to it4 ,among the most curious is the ancient belief that the souls of the good who die on earth are transported to that side of the moon which is turned away from the earth2 while the souls of the wicked sojourn on this side1 in full view of the scene of their evil deeds4 ,the visible side of the moon--with its tremendous craters1 its yawning chasms1 its frightful contrasts of burning sunshine and ,cimmerian darkness1 its airless and arid plains and dried-up sea-bottoms exposed to the pitiless cold of open space1 and heated1 if heated at all1 by scorching sunbeams as fierce as naked flame--would certainly appear to be in a proper condition to serve as a purgatory4 ,but we have no reason to think that the other side is any better off in these respects4 ,in fact1 the glimpses that we get of it around the corners1 so to speak1 indicate that the whole round globe of the moon is as ragged1 barren1 and terrible as that portion of it which is turned to our view4 ,,the ,,planets4--,in attempting to view the planets with an opera-glass1 too much must not be expected2 and yet interesting views can sometimes be obtained4 ,the features of their surfaces1 of course1 can not be detected even with a powerful field-glass1 but the difference between the appearance of a large planet and that of the stars will at once strike the observer4 ,mercury1 which1 on account of its nearness to the sun and its rapid changes of place1 comparatively few persons ever see1 can perhaps hardly be called an interesting object for an opera-glass1 and yet the beauty of the planet is greatly increased when viewed with such aid4 ,mercury is brilliant enough to be readily distinguishable1 even while the twilight is still pretty bright2 and ,i have had most charming views of the shy planet1 glittering like a globule of shining metal through the fading curtain of a winter sunset4 ,venus is1 under favorable circumstances1 a very interesting planet for opera-glass observations4 ,the crescent phase can be seen with a powerful glass near inferior conjunction1 and1 even when the form of the planet can not be discerned1 its exceeding brilliancy makes it an attractive object4 ,the flood of light which ,venus pours forth1 and which is so dazzling that it baffles the best telescopes1 to a greater or less extent1 in any effort to descry the features of that resplendent disk1 is evidently reflected from a cloud-burdened atmosphere4 ,while these clouds render the planet surprisingly lustrous to our eyes1 they must1 of course1 keep the globe beneath them most of the time in shadow4 ,it is a source of keen regret that the surface of ,venus can not be seen as clearly as that of ,mars1 for1 a priori1 there is rather more reason to regard ,venus as possibly an inhabited world than any other of the ,earth's sister planets1 not excepting ,mars4 ,still1 even if we could plainly make out the presence of oceans and continents on ,venus1 that fact would hardly be any better indication of the possibility of life there than is furnished by the phenomena of its atmosphere4 ,it is an interesting reflection that in admiring the brilliancy of this splendid planet the light that produces so striking an effect upon our eyes has but a few minutes before traversed the atmosphere of a distant world1 which1 like our own air1 may furnish the breath of life to millions of intelligent creatures1 and vibrate with the music of tongues speaking languages as expressive as those of the earth4 ,mars1 being both more distant and smaller than ,venus1 does not present so splendid a scene1 and yet when it is at or near opposition it is a superb object even for an opera-glass1 its deep reddish-yellow color presenting a fine contrast to that of most of the stars4 ,it can often be seen in conjunction with1 or near to1 the moon and stars1 and the beauty of these phenomena is in some cases greatly enhanced by the use of a glass4 ,to find ,mars 7and the same remark applies to the other planets71 take its right ascension and declination for the required date from the ,nautical ,almanac1 and then mark its place upon a planisphere or any good star-map4 ,this planet is at the present time 7#ahhh7 slowly drawing nearer to the earth at each opposition1 and in #ahib it will be closer to us than at any time since #ahgg1 when its two minute satellites were discovered4 ,it will consequently grow brighter every year until then4 ,how splendidly it shines when at its nearest approach to the earth may be inferred from the fact that in #agai it was so brilliant as actually to cause a panic4 ,this was doubtless owing to its peculiar redness4 ,i well remember the almost startling appearance which the planet presented in the autumn of #ahgg4 ,mars is especially interesting because of the apparently growing belief that it may be an inhabited world1 and because of certain curious markings on its surface that can only be seen under favorable conditions4 ,the recent completion of the great ,lick telescope and other large glasses1 and the approach of the planet to a favorable opposition1 give reason to hope that within the next few years a great deal of light will be cast upon some of the enigmatical features of ,mars's surface4 ,illustration3 ,,jupiter ,,and ,,his ,,moons4 7,,seen ,,with ,a ,,field-,,glass2 ,,seven ,,diameters47 ,jupiter1 although much more distant than ,mars1 is ordinarily a far more conspicuous phenomenon in the sky on account of his vast bulk4 ,his interest to observers with an opera-glass depends mainly upon his four moons1 which1 as they circle about him1 present a miniature of the solar system4 ,with a strong opera-glass one or two of ,jupiter's little family of moons may occasionally be caught sight of as excessively minute dots of light half-hidden in the glare of the planet4 ,if you succeed under favorable circumstances in seeing one of these moons with your glass1 you will be all the more astonished to learn that there are several apparently well-authenticated instances of one of the moons of ,jupiter having been seen with the naked eye4 ,with a field-glass1 however1 you will have no difficulty in seeing all of the moons when they are properly situated4 ,if you miss one or more of them1 you may know that it is either between you and the planet1 or behind the planet1 or buried in the planet's shadow1 or else so close to the planet as to be concealed by its radiance4 ,it will be best for the observer to take out of the ,nautical ,almanac the configurations of ,jupiter's satellites for the evenings on which he intends to make his observations1 recollecting that the position of the whole system1 as there given1 is reversed1 or presented as seen with an astronomical telescope1 which inverts objects looked at1 as an opera-glass does not4 ,in order to bring the satellites into the positions in which he will see them1 our observer has only to turn the page in the ,nautical ,almanac showing their configurations upside down4 ,of course1 since the motions of the satellites1 particularly of the inner ones1 are very rapid1 their positions are continually changing1 and their configurations are different every night4 ,if the observer has any doubt about his identification of them1 or thinks they may be little stars1 he has only to carefully note their position and then look at them again the next evening4 ,he may even notice their motion in the course of a single evening1 if he begins early and follows them for three or four hours4 ,it is impossible to describe the peculiar attractions of the scene presented by the great planet and his four little moons on a serene evening to an observer armed with a powerful glass4 ,probably much of the impressiveness of the spectacle is owing to the knowledge that those little points of light1 shining now in a row and now in a cluster1 are actually1 at every instant1 under the government of their giant neighbor and master1 and that as we look upon them1 obediently making their circuits about him1 never venturing beyond a certain distance away1 we behold a type of that gravitational mastery to which our own little planet is subject as it revolves around its still greater ruler1 the sun1 to whose control even ,jupiter in his turn must submit4 ,the beautiful planet ,saturn requires for the observation of its rings magnifying powers far beyond those of the instruments with which our readers are supposed to be armed4 ,it would be well1 however1 for the observer to trace its slow motion among the stars with the aid of the ,nautical ,almanac1 and he should be able with a good field-glass to see1 under favorable circumstances1 the largest of its eight moons1 ,titan4 ,this is equal in brilliancy to an #h4e magnitude star4 ,its position with respect to ,saturn on any given date can be learned from the ,ephemeris4 ,it may appear somewhat presumptuous to place ,uranus1 a planet which it required the telescope and the eye of a ,herschel to discover1 in a list of objects for the opera-glass4 ,but it must not be forgotten that ,uranus was seen certainly several1 and probably many1 times before ,herschel's discovery1 being simply mistaken1 on account of the slowness of its motion1 for a fixed star4 ,when near opposition1 ,uranus looks as bright as a sixth-magnitude star1 and can be easily detected with the naked eye when its position is known4 ,with an opera-glass 7and still more readily with a field-glass7 this distant planet can be watched as it moves deliberately onward in its gigantic orbit4 ,its passage by neighboring stars is an exceedingly interesting phenomenon1 and it is in this way that you may recognize the planet4 ,on the evening of ,may #bi1 #ahhh1 ,i knew1 from the co-ordinates given in the ,nautical ,almanac1 that ,uranus was to be found a short distance east of ,mars1 which was then only a few degrees from the well-known star ,gamma ,virginis4 ,accordingly1 ,i turned my opera-glass upon ,mars1 and at once saw a star in the expected position1 which ,i knew was ,uranus4 ,but there were other small stars in the field1 and1 supposing ,i had not been certain which was ,uranus1 how could ,i have recognized it8 ,the answer is plain3 simply by watching for a night or two to see which star moved4 ,that star would1 of course1 be ,uranus4 ,the accompanying cuts will show the motions of ,mars and ,uranus with respect to neighboring stars at that time1 and will serve as an example of the method of distinguishing a planet from the fixed stars by its change of place4 ,in the first cut we have the two planets and three neighboring stars as they appeared on ,may #bith4 ,these stars were best seen with a field-glass1 although an opera-glass readily showed them4 ,illustration3 ,,mars ,,and ,,uranus1 ,,may #bi1 #ahhh4 ,illustration3 ,,mars ,,and ,,uranus1 ,,june #a1 #ahhh4 ,illustration3 ,,mars ,,and ,,uranus1 ,,june #f1 #ahhh4 ,on ,june #ast the relative positions of the planets and stars were as shown in the second cut4 ,a glance suffices to show that not only ,mars but ,uranus also has shifted its position with respect to the three immovable stars4 ,this change of place alone would have sufficed to indicate the identity of ,uranus4 ,to make sure1 the inexperienced observer had only to continue his observations a few nights longer4 ,on ,june #fth ,mars and ,uranus were in conjunction1 and their position1 as well as that of the same set of three stars1 is shown in the third cut4 ,it will be seen that while ,mars had changed its place very much more than ,uranus1 yet that the latter planet had now moved so far from its original position on ,may #bith1 that there could be no possibility that the merest tyro in star-gazing would fail to notice the change4 ,whenever the observer sees an object which he suspects to be a planet1 he can satisfy himself of its identity by making a series of little sketches like the above1 showing the position of the suspected object on successive evenings1 with respect to neighboring stars4 ,the same plan suffices to identify the larger planets1 in the case of which no glass is necessary4 ,the observer can simply make a careful estimate by the naked eye of the supposed planet's distance and bearing from large stars near it1 and compare them with similar observations made on subsequent evenings4 ,,the ,,sun4--,that spots upon the sun may be seen with no greater optical aid than that of an opera-glass is perhaps well known to many of my readers1 for during the past ten years public attention has been drawn to sun-spots in an especial manner1 on account of their supposed connection with meteorology1 and in that time there have been many spots upon the solar disk which could not only be seen with an opera-glass1 but even with the unassisted eye4 ,at present 7#ahhh7 we are near a minimum period of sun-spots1 and the number to be seen even with a telescope is comparatively very small1 yet only a few days before this page was written there was a spot on the sun large enough to be conspicuous with the aid of a field-glass4 ,during the time of a spot-maximum the sun is occasionally a wonderful object1 no matter how small the power of the instrument used in viewing it may be4 ,strings of spots of every variety of shape sometimes extend completely across the disk4 ,our illustration shows the appearance of the sun1 as drawn by the author on the #ast of ,september1 #ahhc4 ,every one of the spots and spot-groups there represented could be seen with a good field-glass1 and nearly all of them with an opera-glass4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,sun1 ,,september #a1 #ahhc4 ,as in all such cases1 our interest in the phenomena increases in proportion to our understanding of their significance and their true scale of magnitude4 ,in glancing from side to side of the sun's disk1 the eye ranges over a distance of more than #hfj1jjj miles--not a mere ideal distance1 or an expanse of empty space1 but a distance filled by an actual and1 so to speak1 tangible body1 whose diameter is of that stupendous magnitude4 ,one sees at a glance1 then1 the enormous scale on which these spots are formed4 ,the earth placed beside them would be but a speck1 and yet they are mere pits in the surface of the sun1 filled perhaps with partially cooled metallic vapors1 which have been cast up from the interior1 and are settling back again4 ,it is worth anybody's while to get a glimpse at a sun-spot if he can1 for1 although he may see it merely as a black dot on the shining disk1 yet it represents the play of physical forces whose might and power are there exercised on a scale really beyond human comprehension4 ,the imagination of ,milton or ,dante would have beheld the mouth of hell yawning in a sun-spot4 ,in order to view the sun it is1 of course1 necessary to contrive some protection for the eyes4 ,this may be constructed by taking two strips of glass four or five inches long and an inch wide1 and smoking one of them until you can without discomfort look at the sun through it4 ,then place the two strips together1 with the smoked surface inside--taking care to separate them slightly by pieces of cardboard placed between the ends--and fasten the edges together with strips of paper gummed on4 ,then1 by means of a rubber band1 fasten the dark glass thus prepared over the eye-end of your opera-glass in such a way that both of the lenses are completely covered by it4 ,it will require a little practice to enable you to get the sun into the field of view and keep it there1 and for this purpose you should assume a posture--sitting1 if possible--which will enable you to hold the glass very steady4 ,then point the glass nearly in the direction of the sun1 and move it slowly about until the disk comes in sight4 ,it is best to carefully focus your instrument on some distant object before trying to look at the sun with it4 ,as there is some danger of the shade-glass being cracked by the heat1 especially if the object-glasses of the instrument are pretty large1 it would be well to get the strips of glass for the shade large enough to cover the object-end of the instrument instead of the eye-end4 ,at a little expense an optician will furnish you with strips of glass of complementary tints1 which1 when fastened together1 give a very pleasing view of the sun without discoloring the disk4 ,dark red with dark blue or green answer very well2 but the color must be very deep4 ,the same arrangement1 of course1 will serve for viewing an eclipse of the sun4 ,a word1 finally1 about the messenger which brings to us all the knowledge we possess of the contents and marvels of space--light4 ,without the all-pervading luminiferous ether1 narrow indeed would be our acquaintance with the physical creation4 ,this is a sympathetic bond by which we may conceive that intelligent creatures throughout the universe are united4 ,light tells us of the existence of suns and systems so remote that the mind shrinks from the attempt to conceive their distance2 and light bears back again to them a similar message in the feeble glimmering of our own sun4 ,and can any one believe that there are no eyes out yonder to receive1 and no intelligence to interpret that message8 ,sir ,humphry ,davy has beautifully expressed a similar thought in one of his philosophical romances3 ,in ,jupiter you would see creatures similar to those in ,saturn1 but with different powers of locomotion2 in ,mars and ,venus you would find races of created forms more analogous to those belonging to the ,earth2 but in every part of the planetary system you would find one character peculiar to all intelligent natures1 a sense of receiving impressions from light by various organs of vision1 and toward this result you can not but perceive that all the arrangements and motions of the planetary bodies1 their satellites and atmospheres1 are subservient4 ,the spiritual natures1 therefore1 that pass from system to system in progression toward power and knowledge preserve at least this one invariable character1 and their intellectual life may be said to depend more or less upon the influence of light4,g ,g ,see ,consolations in ,travel1 or1 the ,last ,days of a ,philosopher2 ,dialogue ,i4 ,light is a result1 and an expression1 of the energy of cosmical life4 ,the universe lives while light exists4 ,but when the throbbing energies of all the suns are exhausted1 and space is filled with universal gloom1 the light of intelligence must vanish too4 ,one can not read the wonderful messages of light--one can not study the sun1 the moon1 and the stars in any manner--without perceiving that the physical universe is enormously greater than he had thought1 and that the creation1 of which the ,earth is an infinitesimal part1 is almost infinitely more magnificent in actual magnitude than the imaginary domain which men of old times pictured as the dwelling-place of the all-controlling gods2 without feeling that he has risen to a higher plane1 and that his intellectual life has taken a nobler aim and a broader scope4 ,,index4 ,achernar1 #id4 ,albireo 7beta ,cygni71 #ee4 ,alcor1 #bg4 ,alcyone1 #ajb4 ,maedler's ,central ,sun1 #ajd4 ,aldebaran1 #bb1 #hi1 #ia1 #id1 #ie1 #ih4 ,algenib 7alpha ,persei71 #hd1 #he4 ,algol1 the ,demon-,star1 #hc4 probable cause of variation of1 #he4 ,al-,mamoun1 the ,caliph1 observation of a temporary star1 #ce4 ,almaach 7gamma ,andromedae71 #gi1 #hb4 ,alphard1 #af4 ,alpha ,andromedae1 #gi4 ,agnarii 7,sadalmelik71 #fg4 ,arietis 7,hamal71 #gd4 ,capricorni 7,giedi71 #fe4 ,ceti 7,menkar71 #gj4 ,draconis1 formerly the pole-star1 #ajb4 ,librae1 #eb4 ,ophiuchi 7,ras ,alhague71 #db4 ,orionis 7,betelgeuse71 #ia1 #ih1 #ajf4 ,pegasi 7,markab71 #gj4 ,ursae ,majoris1 #bh4 ,alpheratz 7alpha ,andromedae71 #gi4 ,alps1 the lunar1 #ace4 ,altai ,mountains1 #ace4 ,altair1 #ee4 ,andromedae1 map of1 #gf4 mythology of1 #ge4 ,antares1 #cb1 #cc1 #ih4 ,antinous1 #ee4 ,apennines1 the lunar1 #ace4 ,apollonius1 regarded the moon as a mirror1 #aai4 ,aquarius1 map of1 #fd4 mythology of1 #fg4 ,aquila1 map of1 #ef4 mythology of1 #ee4 ,aratus1 description of the ,manger1 #ae4 the ,diosemia of1 #ae4 the ,phenomena of1 #bj4 story of ,virgo1 #ea4 description of the ,royal ,family1 #gh4 description of ,cetus1 #gj4 ,arcturus1 #aj1 #bd1 #bf1 #di1 #ef4 ,argo1 map of1 #aaj4 mythology of1 #aae4 ,aries1 map of1 #ga4 mythology of1 #ge4 ,ariosto1 story of a trip to the moon1 #acf4 ,aristarchus1 the shining mountain1 #abe4 ,aselli1 #ae4 ,asterope1 #ajc4 ,atlas1 #ajb4 ,auriga1 map of1 #bc4 mythology of1 #bc4 star swarms in1 #bb4 ,autumn1 map of the ,stars of1 #fb4 ,bartschius invents ,monoceros1 #aag4 ,bay of ,dew1 #abi4 ,bay of ,rainbows1 #abi4 ,bear's head1 stars forming the1 #bh4 ,bellatrix1 #ij1 #ajg4 ,belt1 ,orion's1 #ij1 #ajg4 ,berenice's ,hair1 the constellation of1 #bd4 picture of1 #ec4 ,bessel1 studies of ,sirius and ,procyon1 #bj4 letter about dark stars1 #aad4 ,beta ,andromedae 7,mirach71 #gi4 ,arietis 7,sheratan71 #ge4 ,capricorni 7,dabih71 #fe4 ,cassiopeia1 #gd4 ,beta ,corvi1 #be4 ,cygni 7,albireo71 #ee4 ,librae1 #eb4 ,leonis 7,denebola71 #ab4 ,lyrae1 #ej4 ,pegasi1 #gj4 ,scorpionis1 #cd4 ,ursae ,minoris 7,kochab71 #bg4 ,betelgeuse 7alpha ,orionis71 #ia1 #ih1 #ajf4 ,bethlehem1 the so-called ,star of1 #hg4 ,biela's comet1 it breaks up1 #hb4 ,biela meteors1 radiant point of the1 #hb4 ,booetes1 map of1 #ej4 mythology of1 #ec4 ,calisto1 another name of ,ursa ,major1 #bi4 ,cancer1 map of1 #ah4 mythology of1 #ae4 ,canes ,venatici1 #ed4 ,canis ,major1 map of1 #aaj4 mythology of1 #aae4 ,canis ,minor1 map of1 #ah4 mythology of1 #ba4 ,canopus1 #aad4 ,capella1 #i1 #bb1 #di1 #hi1 #ia4 ,cape ,heraclides1 #abi4 ,laplace1 #abi4 ,capricornus1 map of1 #fd4 mythology of1 #fg4 ,cassiopeia1 map of1 #gf4 mythology of1 #ge4 ,castor1 #ag4 ,catharina1 #ace4 ,caucasus ,mountains1 #ace4 ,celaeno1 #ajc4 ,central ,gulf1 #abi4 ,central ,sun1 ,maedler's ideas about a1 #ajd4 ,cepheus1 map of1 #eh1 #gf4 ,cetus1 map of1 #ga4 mythology of1 #gj4 ,chi ,ceti1 #gc4 ,clavius1 #abd1 #acb1 #acc4 ,coal-,sack1 #eg4 ,comet1 ,biela's1 #hb4 ,comet1 ,halley's1 the ,crab ,nebula mistaken for1 #ig4 ,constellations1 origin of1 #f1 #db1 #fa4 along the ,milky-,way1 #aaf4 the zodiacal1 #af4 ,constellations1 ,st4 ,paul's knowledge of1 #ai4 ,copernicus1 #acf4 ,corvus1 map of1 #bf4 mythology of1 #be4 ,crimson ,star1 #aaj4 ,crisian ,sea1 #abg4 ,cynosura1 a name of ,ursa ,minor1 #bi4 ,cygnus1 map of1 #ef4 ,cyrillus1 #ace4 ,dabih 7beta ,capricorni71 #fe4 ,dark ,stars1 ,bessel's suggestion about1 #aad4 ,davy1 ,humphry1 on life in other worlds1 #adg4 ,delta ,canis ,majoris1 #aab4 ,cephei1 #hh4 ,tauri1 #ii4 ,deltoton1 #ge4 ,denebola 7beta ,leonis71 #ab1 #ad1 #bd4 ,dipper1 the ,great1 #aj1 #bg4 ,dog-,days1 origin of the1 #aaa4 ,dog-,star1 #aaa4 ,dolphin1 map of the1 #ef4 mythology of the1 #ee4 ,draco1 map of1 #eh4 mythology of1 #eg4 ,el ,nath1 #bb1 #ig4 ,epsilon ,leonis1 #ab4 ,lyrae1 #di4 ,tauri1 #ii4 ,virginis1 #ea4 ,equinox1 autumnal1 #eb4 vernal1 #gd4 ,eridanus1 map of1 #ic4 ,eta ,aquilae1 #ee4 ,field-glass1 #f4 ,field of the ,nebulae1 #ea4 ,flammarion1 on alpha ,capricorni1 #fe4 ,flood traditions connected with the ,pleiades1 #aja1 #ajb4 ,focus1 importance of a sharp1 #aa4 ,fomalhaut1 #fc4 ,fontenelle1 ,plurality of ,worlds1 #fj4 ,galileo1 his telescope an opera-glass1 #d4 his description of ,praesepe1 #ae4 his description of the moon1 #aah4 power of his telescope1 #aai4 ,gamma ,andromedae1 #gi1 #hb4 ,leonis1 #aa4 ,pegasi1 #gj4 ,tauri1 #ii4 ,virginis1 #ea4 ,garnet ,star 7,mu ,cephei71 #hh4 ,gemini1 map of1 #ah4 mythology of1 #ai4 ,genesis1 a celestial1 #fh4 ,giedi 7alpha ,capricorni71 #fe4 ,glass1 use of smoked or colored1 #acj1 #adf4 ,goldschmidt sees a nebula in the ,pleiades1 #ajd4 ,gomelza1 #bj4 ,gore1 estimate of the stars in #ac ,m1 #de4 ,grape-,gatherer 7epsilon ,virginis71 #ea4 ,grensted1 ,rev4 ,mr41 suggestion about lunar rays1 #acb4 ,grimaldi1 #acj4 ,halley's comet and ,crab ,nebula1 #ig4 ,hamal 7alpha ,arietis71 #gd4 ,haemus ,mountains1 #abh4 ,henry1 ,paul and ,prosper1 photographs of the ,pleiades1 #aje4 ,hercules1 map of1 #dd4 mythology of1 #de4 motion of solar system toward1 #dc4 ,herschel1 ,william1 discovers ,uranus1 #ai4 computation of stars in #ac ,m1 #de4 advice about seeing star-colors1 #hh4 thinks he sees lunar volcano1 #abe4 ,john1 description of #h ,m1 #cd4 suggestion about alpha ,capricorni1 #fe4 ,holden1 ,prof41 on the ,milky-,way1 #dj4 structure of ,ring ,nebula1 #aje4 ,hooke1 discovers first telescopic double star1 #ge4 ,hyades1 #hi1 #ie1 #ih1 #ii4 ,hydra1 map of part of1 #bf4 mythology of1 #af4 ,hydra's ,heart 7,alphard71 #af4 ,humboldt ,sea1 #acj4 ,jeaurat1 chart of the ,pleiades1 #ajd4 ,job's coffin1 #ee4 ,jupiter1 #ada4 satellites of1 #adb4 ,kappa ,argus1 #aaf4 ,tauri1 #ajj4 ,kepler observes the star of #afjd1 #db4 ,kingsley1 story of ,andromeda1 #gg4 ,king's lucky star1 #fg4 ,kochab 7,beta ,ursae ,minoris71 #bg4 ,lake of ,death1 #abi4 of ,dreams1 #abi4 ,land of ,drought1 #acj4 of ,hoar ,frost1 #acj4 ,leo1 map of1 #ab4 mythology of1 #ac4 sickle-shaped figure in1 #i1 #ad4 ,lepus1 map of1 #ic4 ,lick telescope1 views of ,milky-,way1 #dj4 views of ,ring ,nebula1 #aje4 ,light1 the messenger of the universe1 #adg4 in a star-cluster1 #de4 ,libra1 description and mythology of1 #eb4 ,life1 does it exist beyond the earth8 #cg1 #dh1 #acg1 #aci1 #adj1 #adg4 ,locke1 ,richard ,adams1 author of the ,moon ,hoax1 #abe4 ,lyra1 map of1 #dd4 mythology of1 #de4 ,maedler1 on the ,central ,sun1 #ajd4 ,maginus1 #abd4 ,maia1 #ajc1 #aje4 ,man in the ,moon1 #aba4 ,manger 7,praesepe71 #ae4 ,marine glass1 #f4 ,markab 7alpha ,pegasi71 #gj4 ,marsh of ,mists1 #abi4 of ,putrefaction1 #abi4 of ,sleep1 #abg4 ,mars1 #adj4 ,medusa1 the head of1 #hc4 ,menelaus1 #abh4 ,menkalina1 #bb4 ,menkar 7alpha ,ceti71 #gj4 ,mercury1 #aci4 ,merope1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,mesarthim1 #ge4 ,meteors1 radiant point of ,november1 #aa4 radiant point of ,biela1 #hb4 ,micromegas1 the story of1 #aae4 ,milk-,dipper1 #cd4 ,milky-,way1 #ag1 #cd1 #ci1 #dj1 #dc1 #eg1 #ha1 #hf1 #aaf4 ,mira 7omicron ,ceti71 #ga4 probable cause of its variations1 #gb4 ,milton1 account of ,libra1 #eb4 ,mirach 7beta ,andromedae71 #gi4 ,mizar1 #bg4 ,moon1 mountains of the1 #abj4 shadows on the1 #abj4 map of the1 #abc4 list of mountains1 seas1 etc41 #abc4 inhabitableness of the1 #acf4 the other side of the1 #ach4 ,moon ,hoax1 #abe1 #abh4 ,monoceros1 map of1 #aaj4 ,mu ,argus1 #aaf4 ,scorpionis1 #cf4 ,nebulae 7and ,star-,clusters73 #d ,m1 #cd4 #f ,m1 #cg4 #g ,m1 #cg4 #h ,m1 #ch4 #ac ,m1 #de4 #bd ,m1 #ch4 #be ,m1 #ci4 #cj ,m1 #ff4 #cd ,m1 #hf4 #ce ,m1 #ah4 #cg ,m1 #bc4 #ch ,m1 #bc4 #da ,m1 #aab4 #df ,m1 #aaf4 #ej ,m1 #aag4 #hj ,m1 #ce4 #ic ,m1 #aaf4 #bg1 #aag4 #ccg1 #bc4 #chh1 #aaf4 ,andromeda1 ,great ,nebula in1 #gi1 #hj4 ,aquarius1 ,nebula in1 #fh4 ,crab ,nebula1 #ig1 #ih4 ,field of the ,nebulae1 #ea4 ,horseshoe ,nebula1 #ci4 ,orion1 ,great ,nebula in1 #ajg4 ,perseus1 ,great ,cluster in1 #hf4 ,pleiades1 nebulae in the1 #ajd4 ,ring ,nebula in ,lyra1 #ej4 ,nebular hypothesis1 #fh4 ,neison1 description of sunrise on ,clavius1 #acc4 ,newton1 #acd4 ,nile-,star1 #aaa4 ,northern ,cross1 #ed1 #ee4 ,northern ,crown1 map of the1 #dd4 ,northern ,fish1 #gc1 #gi4 ,nu ,andromedae1 #gi1 #hb4 ,aquarii1 a pointer to a nebula1 #fh4 ,canis ,majoris1 #aab4 ,draconis1 #eh4 ,scorpionis1 #cd4 ,ocean of ,storms1 #acj4 ,omicron ,ceti 7,mira71 #ga1 #gb4 ,cygni1 #eg4 ,omicron two ,eridani1 a flying-star1 #ie4 ,opera-glass1 views of the stars with1 #c4 how to choose a good1 #d4 magnifying power of1 #d4 defects of1 #e4 ,ophiuchus and ,serpens1 map of1 #da4 mythology of1 #da4 ,orion1 map of1 #ic4 mythology of1 #aji4 great 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