,,anarchism ,,by ,,dr4 ,,paul ,,eltzbacher ,gerichtsassessor and ,privatdozent in ,halle an der ,saale ,translated by ,,steven ,t4 ,,byington ,je ne propose rien1 je ne suppose rien1 j'expose ,illustration ,,new ,,york3 ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker4 ,,london3 ,a4 ,c4 ,,fifield4 #aijh4 ,copyright1 #aijg1 by ,benjamin ,r4 ,tucker ,gratefully dedicated to the memory of my father ,,dr4 ,,salomon ,,eltzbacher #ahcb-ahhi ,,contents ,,page ,,translator',s ,,preface vii ,,books ,,referred ,,to xvii ,,introduction #c ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,problem #a4 ,general #f #b4 ,the ,starting-point #aj #c4 ,the ,goal #ac #d4 ,the ,way to the ,goal #ae ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,law1 ,,the ,,state1 ,,property #a4 ,general #ah #b4 ,law #bd #c4 ,the ,state #ca #d4 ,property #cf ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,godwin',s ,,teaching #a4 ,general #dj #b4 ,basis #da #c4 ,law #db #d4 ,the ,state #de #e4 ,property #ec #f4 ,realization #eh ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,proudhon',s ,,teaching #a4 ,general #fe #b4 ,basis #fg #c4 ,law #fi #d4 ,the ,state #gb #e4 ,property #hj #f4 ,realization #hf ,,chapter ,v4 ,,stirner',s ,,teaching #a4 ,general #ic #b4 ,basis #if #c4 ,law #ig #d4 ,the ,state #ajj #e4 ,property #ajf #f4 ,realization #aji ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,bakunin',s ,,teaching #a4 ,general #aae #b4 ,basis #aag #c4 ,law #aai #d4 ,the ,state #aba #e4 ,property #abg #f4 ,realization #acb ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,kropotkin',s ,,teaching #a4 ,general #aci #b4 ,basis #ada #c4 ,law #ade #d4 ,the ,state #adi #e4 ,property #aei #f4 ,realization #aga ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,tucker',s ,,teaching #a4 ,general #ahb #b4 ,basis #ahc #c4 ,law #ahg #d4 ,the ,state #aij #e4 ,property #bja #f4 ,realization #bji ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,tolstoi',s ,,teaching #a4 ,general #bai #b4 ,basis #bbj #c4 ,law #bcj #d4 ,the ,state #bcd #e4 ,property #bdi #f4 ,realization #bfj ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,anarchistic ,,teachings #a4 ,general #bgj #b4 ,basis #bgj #c4 ,law #bgb #d4 ,the ,state #bgf #e4 ,property #bhj #f4 ,realization #bhd ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,anarchism ,,and ,,its ,,species #a4 ,errors about ,anarchism and its ,species #bhh #b4 ,the ,concepts of ,anarchism and its ,species #bib ,,conclusion #cjc ,,translator',s ,,preface ,every person who examines this book at all will speedily divide its contents into ,eltzbacher's own discussion and his seven chapters of classified quotations from ,anarchist leaders2 and1 if he buys the book1 he will buy it for the sake of the quotations4 ,i do not mean that the book might not have a sale if it consisted exclusively of ,eltzbacher's own words1 but simply that among ten thousand people who may value ,eltzbacher's discussion there will not be found ten who will not value still more highly the conveniently-arranged reprint of what the ,anarchists themselves have said on the cardinal points of ,anarchistic thought4 ,nor do ,i feel that ,i am saying anything uncomplimentary to ,eltzbacher when ,i say that the part of his work to which he has devoted most of his space is the part that the public will value most4 ,and yet there is much to be valued in the chapters that are of ,eltzbacher's own writing1--even if one is reminded of ,sir ,arthur ,helps's satirical description of ,english lawyers as a class of men1 found in a certain island1 who make it their business to write highly important documents in closely-crowded lines on such excessively wide pages that the eye is bound to skip a line now and then1 but who make up for this by invariably repeating in another part of the document whatever they have said1 so that whatever the reader may miss in one place he will certainly catch in another4 ,the fact is that ,eltzbacher's work is an admirable model of what should be the mental processes of an investigator trying to determine the definition of a term which he finds to be confusedly conceived4 ,not only is his method for determining the definition of ,anarchism flawless1 but his subsidiary investigation of the definitions of law1 the ,state1 and property is conducted as such things ought to be1 and 7a good test of clearness of thought7 his illustrations are always so exactly pertinent that they go far to redeem his style from dullness1 if one is reading for the sense and therefore cares for pertinence4 ,the only weak point in this part of the book is that he thinks it necessary to repeat in print his previous statements wherever it is necessary to the investigation that the previous statement be mentally renewed4 ,but1 however tiresome this may be1 one gets a steady progress of thought1 and the introductory part of the book is not very long at worst4 ,the collection of quotations1 which form three-fourths of the book both in bulk and in importance1 is as much the best part as it is the biggest4 ,here the prime necessity is impartiality1 and ,eltzbacher has attained this as perfectly as can be expected of any man4 ,positively1 one comes to the end of all this without feeling sure whether ,eltzbacher is himself an ,anarchist or not2 it is not until we come to the last dozen pages of the book that he lets his opposition to ,anarchism become evident4 ,to be sure1 one feels that he is more journalistic than scientific in selecting for special mention the more sensational points of the schemes proposed 7the journalistic temper certainly shows itself in his habit of picking out for his ,german public the references to ,germany in ,anarchist writers74 ,yet it is hard to deny that there is legitimate scientific importance in ascertaining how much of the sensational is involved in ,anarchism2 and1 on the other hand1 ,eltzbacher recognizes his duty to present the strongest points of the ,anarchist side1 and does this so faithfully that one often wonders if the man can repeat these words without feeling their cogency4 ,so far as any bias is really felt in this part of the book it is the bias of over-methodicalness2 now and then a quotation is made to go into the classification at a place where it will not go in without forcing1 and perspective is distorted when some obiter dictum that had never seemed to its author to be worth repeating a second time is made to serve as illuminant now for this division of the teaching1 now for that1 till it seems to the reader like a favorite topic of the ,anarchist4 ,however1 the bias of methodicalness is as nearly non-partisan as any bias can be1 and its effect is to put the matter into a most convenient form for consultation and comparison4 ,next to impartiality1 if not even before it1 we need intelligence in our compiler2 and we have it4 ,few men1 even inside the movement1 would have been more successful than ,eltzbacher in picking out the important parts of the ,anarchist doctrines1 and the quotations that will show these important parts as they are4 ,i do not mean that this accuracy has not exceptions--many exceptions1 if you count such things as the failure to give due weight to some clause which might restrict or modify the application of the words used2 a few serious exceptions1 of which we reap the fruit in his final summary4 ,but in admitting these errors ,i do not retract my statement that ,eltzbacher has made his compilation as accurate as any man could be expected to4 ,more than this1 it may well be said that he has1 except in three or four points1 made it as accurate as is even useful for ordinary reading2 he has overlooked nothing but what his readers would have been sure to overlook if he had presented it4 ,as a gun is advertised to shoot as straight as any man can hold1 so ,eltzbacher has1 with three or four exceptions1 told his story as straight as any man with ordinary attention can read4 ,the net result is that we have here1 without doubt1 the most complete and accurate presentation of ,anarchism that ever has been given or ever will be given in so short a space4 ,if any one wants a fuller and more trustworthy account1 he will positively have to go direct to the writings of the ,anarchists themselves2 nowhere else can he find anything so good as ,eltzbacher4 ,withal1 this main part of the book is decidedly readable4 ,eltzbacher's repetitiousness has no opportunity to become prominent here1 and the man is not at all dull in choosing and translating his quotations4 ,on the contrary1 his fondness for apt illustrations is a great help toward making the compilation constantly readable1 as well as toward making the reader's impressions of the ,anarchistic teachings vivid and definite4 ,i do not mean to say that this book can take the place of a consultation of the original sources4 ,for instance1 the ,bakunin chapter follows next after the ,stirner chapter2 but the exquisite contrariness of almost every word of ,bakunin to ,stirner's teaching can be appreciated only by those who have read ,stirner's book--,eltzbacher's quotations are on a different aspect of ,stirner's teaching from that which applies against ,bakunin4 7,stirner and ,bakunin1 it will be noted1 are the only ,anarchist leaders against whom ,eltzbacher permits himself a disrespectful word before he has presented their doctrines47 ,it is to be hoped that many who read this book will go on to examine the sources themselves4 ,meanwhile1 here is an excellent introduction1 and the chronological arrangement makes it easy to watch the historical development and see whether the later schools of ,anarchism assail the ,state more effectively than the earlier4 ,i have not reserved any expressions of praise for the small part of the book which comes after the compiled chapters1 because it calls for none4 ,all ,eltzbacher's weak points come out in this concluding summary2 the best that can be said for it is that it deserves careful attention1 and that the author continues to be oftener right than wrong4 ,but now that he has gathered all his knowledge he wants it to amount to omniscience1 and most imprudently shuts his eyes to the places where there is nothing under his feet4 ,he charges men with error for not using in his sense a term whose definition he has not undertaken to determine4 ,he accepts all too unquestioningly such statements as fit most conveniently into his scheme of method4 ,his most glaring offence in this direction is his classification of the ,anarchist-,communist doctrines as mere prediction and not the expression of a will or demand or approval or disapproval of anything1 simply because the fashionableness of evolutionism and of fatalism has led the leaders of that school to prefer to state their doctrine in terms of prediction4 ,eltzbacher has forgotten to compare his judgment with the actions of the men he judges2 solvitur ambulando2 if ,kropotkin's proposition were merely predictive and not pragmatic1 it would have less trouble with the police than it has4 ,again1 he does one of the most indiscreet things that are possible to a votary of strict method when he asserts repeatedly that he has listed not merely all that is to be found but all that could possibly exist under a certain category4 ,for instance1 he declares that every possible affirmative doctrine of property must be either private property1 or common property in the wherewithal for production and private property in the wherewithal for consumption1 or common property4 ,why should not a scheme of common property in the things that are wanted by all men and private property in the things that are wanted only by some men have as high a rank in the classification as has ,eltzbacher's second class8 ,a look at the quotations from ,kropotkin will show that ,i have not drawn much on my own ingenuity in conceiving such a scheme as supposable4 ,he claims to have listed all the standpoints from which ,anarchism has been or can be propounded or judged1 yet he has omitted legitimism1 the doctrine that a political authority which is to claim our respect and obedience must appear to have originated by a legitimate foundation and not by usurpation4 ,the great part that legitimism has played in history is notorious2 and it lends itself very readily to the ,anarchist's purpose1 since some governments are so well known to have originated in usurpation and others are so easily suspected of it4 ,nay1 legitimism is in fact a potent factor in shaping the most up-to-date ,anarchism of our time2 for it is largely concerned in ,lysander ,spooner's doctrine of juries1 of which some slight account is given in ,eltzbacher's quotations from ,tucker4 ,and he claims to have recited all the important arguments that sustain ,anarchism3 where has he mentioned the argument from the evil that the ,state does in interfering with social and economic experimentation8 or the argument from the fact that reforms in the ,state are necessarily in a democracy1 and ordinarily in a monarchy1 very slow in coming to pass1 and when they do come to pass they necessarily come with all-disturbing suddenness8 or the argument from the evil of separating people by the boundary lines which the ,state involves8 or the fact that war would be almost inconceivable if the ,states were replaced by voluntary and non-monopolistic organizations1 since such organizations could have no jurisdiction or control of territory to fight for1 and war for any other cause has long been unknown among civilized nations8 ,by these and other such unwarranted claims of absolute completeness1 and by the conclusions based on these pasteboard premises1 ,eltzbacher makes it necessary to read his final chapters with all possible independence of judgment4 ,it remains for me to say something of my own work on this book4 ,i have consulted the originals of some of the works cited--such as circumstances have permitted--and given the quotations not by translation from ,eltzbacher's ,german but direct from the originals4 ,the particulars are as follows3 ,of ,godwin's ,political ,justice ,i used an ,american reprint of the second ,british edition4 ,this second edition is greatly revised and altered from the first1 which ,eltzbacher used4 ,godwin calls our attention to this1 and especially informs us that the first edition did not in some important respects represent the views which he held at the time of its publication1 since the earlier pages were printed before the later were written1 and during the writing of the book he changed his mind about some of the principles he had asserted in the earlier chapters4 ,in the second edition1 he says1 the views presented in the first part of the book have been made consistent with those in the last part1 and all parts have been thoroughly revised4 ,it will astonish nobody1 therefore1 that ,i found it now and then impossible to identify in my copy the passages translated by ,eltzbacher from the first edition4 ,in particular1 ,i got the impression that what ,eltzbacher quotes about promises1 from the first part of the book1 is one of those sections which ,godwin says he retracts and no longer believed in even at the time he wrote the later chapters of the first edition4 ,if so1 a bit of the foundation for ,eltzbacher's ultimate classification disappears4 ,besides giving the pages of the first edition as in ,eltzbacher1 ,i have added in brackets the page numbers of the copy ,i used1 wherever ,i could identify them4 ,throughout the book brackets distinguish footnotes added by me from ,eltzbacher's own1 and in a few places ,i have used them in the text to indicate ,eltzbacher's deviations from the wording of his original1 of which matter ,i will speak again in a moment4 ,the passages from ,proudhon's works ,i translated from the original ,french as given in the collected edition of his ,o,euvres completes4 ,in this edition some of the works differ only in pagination from the editions which ,eltzbacher used1 while others have been extensively revised4 ,i know of no changes of essential doctrine4 ,since in ,stirner's case ,german is the original language1 ,i have accepted as my original the quotations given by ,eltzbacher4 ,it is probable that they are occasionally condensed2 but a fairly faithful memory1 and the fact that it is less than a year since ,i was reading the proofs of my translation of ,stirner's book1 enable me to be confident that there is no change amounting to distortion4 ,i have here made no use of that translation of mine#a except from memory1 because ,i well knew that in dealing with ,stirner there is no assurance that the best possible translation of the continuous whole will be made up of the best possible translations of the individual parts4 ,neither have ,i used the extant ,english translations of ,bakunin's ,god and the ,state1 ,kropotkin's ,conquest of ,bread1 ,tolstoi's works1 or any of the other books cited4 ,i have not had at hand any originals of ,bakunin or ,tolstoi1 nor any of ,kropotkin except ,anarchist ,communism4 ,of this ,i had the first edition1 and ,eltzbacher1 contrary to his habit1 the second2 but ,i judge that the two are from the same plates1 for all the page-numbers cited agree4 ,toward the ,tucker chapter ,i have taken a special attitude4 ,i am myself one of ,tucker's followers and collaborators2 ,i may claim to be an authority on the exposition of his doctrine-- ,nennt man die besten ,namen1 ,so wird auch der meine genannt-- and ,i have tried to have an eye to the precise correctness of everything in that chapter4 ,that ,i used the original of ,instead of a ,book is a matter of course2 and ,i have not only taken ,tucker's words where ,eltzbacher had translated the whole1 but have had an eye to all points where ,eltzbacher had condensed anything in a way that could affect the sense1 and have restored the words that made the passage mean something a little bit different from what ,eltzbacher made it mean4 7,i did about the same in this respect with ,kropotkin's ,anarchist ,communism2 and indeed something of the kind is inevitable if one is to consult originals at all47 ,on the other hand1 ,i have not1 in general1 drawn attention to passages where ,eltzbacher makes merely formal changes for the purpose of inserting in a sentence of a certain grammatical structure what ,tucker had said in a sentence of different structure4 ,the renderings of ,tolstoi's biblical quotations are taken from the ,corrected ,english ,new ,testament1 a conservative version which is now spoken of as the best ,english ,new ,testament extant4 ,it fits well into ,tolstoi1 at least so far as the present quotations go4 ,i have spoken above of ,eltzbacher's qualities as compiler2 it here becomes necessary to say something of his work as translator4 ,his translation is that of a very intelligent man1 trusting to his intelligence to justify him in translating quite freely4 ,he is confident that he knows what the idea to be presented is1 and his main concern is to express that in the language best suited to the purpose4 ,he even avows1 as will be seen1 that he has cautiously revised other people's translations from the ,russian1 without himself claiming to be familiar with the ,russian language4 ,i would as soon entrust this extremely delicate task to ,eltzbacher as to anybody ,i know1 for he is in general remarkably correct in his re-wordings4 ,the justification of his confidence in his knowledge of the author's thought may be seen in the fact that in passages which happen not to affect the main thought he makes a few such slips as zahlen mit ihrer ,vergiftung for pay to be poisoned1 ,willkuer for arbitrament1 and even eine blutige ,revolution ruecksichtslos niederwuerfe for would do anything in his power to precipitate a bloody revolution 7can he have been misled by the chemist's use of precipitate871 but in passages where these blunders would do real harm he keeps clear of them1 being safeguarded by his knowledge of the sense4 ,but it makes a difference whom you translate in this way4 ,tucker is a man who uses language with especial precision3 every phrase in a sentence of his may be presumed to contribute something definite to the thought2 and ,eltzbacher treats him as if the less conspicuous phrases were merely ornamental work which might safely be omitted or amended when they seemed not to be advantageous for ornamental purposes4 ,i must confess that ,i have little faith in the ,eltzbacher method of translation for the rendering of any author2 but it works especially ill with an author like ,tucker4 ,of course all defects of translation are cured1 silently1 by substituting the original ,english4 ,therefore1 at the expense of slightly increasing the bulk of the ,tucker chapter1 this edition gives ,american readers a much more accurate presentation of the utterances of the ,american champion of ,anarchism than can be had in ,eltzbacher's ,german2 and1 since ,i have the same advantage as regards ,godwin1 ,i think ,i may claim in general terms that mine is the best edition of ,eltzbacher for those who read both ,english and ,german4 ,besides looking out for the accurate presentation of the passages quoted from ,tucker1 ,i have kept watch of the correctness of the subject-matter4 ,whatever seemed to me to represent ,tucker's book unfairly1 either by misrepresenting his doctrine or by misapplying the quotations1 has been corrected by a note4 ,this will be useful to the reader not only by giving him a better ,tucker1 but also by giving a sample from which he may judge what amount of fault the followers of ,kropotkin or ,tolstoi or the rest would be likely to find with the chapters devoted to them4 ,the merely popular reader will probably get the impression that ,eltzbacher is really a rather unreliable man4 ,the competent student1 who knows what must be looked out for in all work of this sort1 will have his confidence in ,eltzbacher increased by seeing how little of serious fault appears in such a search4 ,the index is compiled independently for this translation4 ,omitting such entries as merely duplicate the utility of the table of contents1 and making an effort to head every entry with the word under which the reader will actually seek it1 ,i hope ,i have bettered ,eltzbacher's index2 and ,i hope the index will be not only a place-finder but a help toward the appreciation of the ,anarchistic teachings4 ,i have not in general undertaken to criticise those features of the book which embody ,eltzbacher's own opinions4 ,whether it was in fact right to select these seven men as the touchstone of ,anarchism1--whether ,eltzbacher is right in discussing the definition of the ,state as he does1 or whether he might better simply have taken as authoritative that definition which has legal force in international law1--whether he ought to have added any other feature to his book1--are points on which the reader does not care for my judgment1 nor am ,i eager to express a judgment4 ,having had to work over the book very carefully in detail1 ,i have felt entitled to express an opinion as to how well ,eltzbacher has done the work that he did choose to do2 ,i have also told what work ,i as translator claim to have done2 and it is time this preface ended4 ,,steven ,t4 ,,byington4 ,ballardvale1 ,mass41 ,august #bh1 #aijg4 ,,books ,,referred ,,to ,,by ,,abbreviated ,,titles ,adler1 ,handwoerterbuch ,,georg ,,adler1 ,anarchismus1 in ,handwoerterbuch der ,staatswissenschaften1 #b;d ed4 7,jena #ahih71 vol4 #a pp4 #bif-cbg4 ,adler1 ,nord und ,sued ,,georg ,,adler1 ,die ,lehren der ,anarchisten1 in ,nord und ,sued 7,breslau7 vol4 #cb 7#ahhe7 pp4 #cga-hc4 ,ba4 ,articles ,articles ecrits par ,bakounine dans l',egalite de #ahfi1 in ,memoire presente par la federation jurassienne de l',association internationale des travailleurs a toutes les federations de l',internationale 7,sonvillier1 n4 d471 ,pieces justificatives pp4 #fh-aad4 ,ba4 ,briefe ,briefe ,bakunins1 in ,dragomanoff 7see below7 pp4 #a-bgb4 ,ba4 ,dieu ,,michel ,,bakounine1 ,dieu et l',etat1 #b;d ed4 7,paris #ahib74 ,ba4 ,dieu ,o,euvres ,dieu et l',etat1 in ,,michel ,,bakounine1 ,o,euvres1 #c;d ed4 7,paris #ahie71 pp4 #bfa-cbf4 ,ba4 ,discours ,discours de ,bakounine au congres de ,berne1 in ,memoire presente par la federation jurassienne de l',association internationale des travailleurs a toutes les federations de l',internationale 7,sonvillier1 n4 d471 ,pieces justificatives pp4 #bj-ch4 ,ba4 ,programme ,,bakounine1 ,programme de la section slave a ,zurich1 in ,dragomanoff 7see below7 pp4 #cha-c4 ,ba4 ,proposition ,federalisme1 socialisme et antitheologisme4 ,proposition motivee au ,comite central de la ,ligue de la paix et de la liberte1 in ,,michel ,,bakounine1 ,o,euvres1 #c;d ed4 7,paris #ahie71 pp4 #a-bje4 ,ba4 ,statuts ,statuts secrets de l',alliance and ,programme et reglement de l',alliance publique1 in ,l',alliance 7see below7 pp4 #aah-ce4 ,ba4 ,volkssache ,m4 ,,bakunin1 ,die ,volkssache4 ,romanow1 ,pugatschew oder ,pestel8 in ,dragomanoff 7see below7 pp4 #cjc-i4 ,bernatzik ,,bernatzik1 ,der ,anarchismus1 in ,jahrbuch fuer ,gesetzgebung1 ,verwaltung und ,volkswirtschaft im ,deutschen ,reich 7,leipzig7 vol4 #ai 7#ahie7 pp4 #a-bj4 ,bernstein ,,eduard ,,bernstein1 ,die soziale ,doktrin des ,anarchismus1 in ,die ,neue ,zeit 7,stuttgart7 year #aj 7#ahia-b7 vol4 #a pp4 #ceh-fe1 #dba-h2 vol4 #b pp4 #ehi-if1 #fah-bf1 #feg-ff1 #ggb-h1 #hac-ai4 ,crispi ,,francesco ,,crispi1 ,the ,antidote for ,anarchy1 in ,daily ,mail 7,london7 no4 #hjg 7#ahih7 p4 #d4 ,der ,anarchismus und seine ,traeger ,der ,anarchismus und seine ,traeger4 ,enthuellungen aus dem ,lager der ,anarchisten von 9999symbol3 circle in triangle1 ,verfasser der ,londoner ,briefe in der ,koelnischen ,zeitung 7,berlin #ahhg74 ,die historische ,entwickelung des ,anarchismus ,die historische ,entwickelung des ,anarchismus 7,new ,york #ahid74 ,diehl ,,karl ,,diehl1 ,p4-,j4 ,proudhon4 ,seine ,lehre und sein ,leben4 7#c vol41 ,jena #ahhh-if47 ,dragomanoff ,,michail ,,dragomanow1 ,michail ,bakunins sozial-politischer ,briefwechsel mit ,alexander ,iw4 ,herzen und ,ogarjow1 deutsch von ,boris ,minzes 7,stuttgart #ahie74 ,dubois ,,felix ,,dubois1 ,le ,peril anarchiste 7,paris #ahid74 ,ferri ,discours de ,,ferri in ,congres international d'anthropologie criminelle1 compte rendu des travaux de la quatrieme session1 tenue a ,geneve du #bd au #bi aout #ahif 7,geneve #ahig7 pp4 #bed-g4 ,garraud ,r4 ,,garraud1 ,l',anarchie et la ,repression 7,paris #ahie74 ,godwin ,,william ,,godwin1 ,an ,enquiry concerning ,political ,justice and its ,influence on ,general ,virtue and ,happiness 7#b vol41 ,london #agic74 ,bracketed references are to the ,first ,american from the second ,london edition1 corrected1 ,philadelphia1 #agif4 ,hintermaenner ,die ,hintermaenner der ,sozialdemokratie4 ,von einem ,eingeweihten 7,berlin #ahij74 ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism ,,peter ,,kropotkine1 ,anarchist ,communism3 its ,basis and ,principles1 #b;d ed4 7,london #ahie74 ,reprinted from the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,kr4 ,conquete ,,pierre ,,kropotkine1 ,la ,conquete du pain1 #eth ed4 7,paris #ahie74 ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste ,,pierre ,,kropotkine1 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste 7,paris #ahib74 ,kr4 ,l',anarchie4 ,sa philosophie--son ideal ,,pierre ,,kropotkine1 ,l',anarchie4 ,sa philosophie--son ideal 7,paris #ahif74 ,kr4 ,morale ,,pierre ,,kropotkine1 ,la ,morale anarchiste 7,paris #ahia74 ,kr4 ,paroles ,,pierre ,,kropotkine1 ,paroles d'un revolte1 ouvrage publie par ,elisee ,reclus1 nouv4 ed4 7,paris1 n4 d47 ,kr4 ,prisons ,,pierre ,,kropotkine1 ,les ,prisons 7,paris #ahij74 ,kr4 ,siecle ,,pierre ,,kropotkine1 ,un siecle d'attente4 #aghi-ahhi 7,paris #ahic74 ,kr4 ,studies ,revolutionary ,studies1 translated from ,la ,revolte and reprinted from ,the ,commonweal 7,london #ahib74 ,kr4 ,temps nouveaux ,,pierre ,,kropotkine1 ,les ,temps nouveaux 7conference faite a ,londres7 7,paris #ahid74 ,l',alliance ,l',alliance de la democratie socialiste et l',association internationale des travailleurs 7,londres et ,hambourg #ahgc74 ,lenz ,,adolf ,,lenz1 ,der ,anarchismus und das ,strafrecht4 ,sonderabdruck aus der ,zeitschrift fuer die gesamte ,strafrechtswissenschaft1 ,bd4 #af1 ,heft #a 7,berlin1 n4 d474 ,lombroso ,c4 ,,lombroso1 ,gli ,anarchici1 #b;d ed4 7,torino #ahie74 ,mackay1 ,anarchisten ,,john ,,henry ,,mackay1 ,die ,anarchisten4 ,kulturgemaelde aus dem ,ende des #ai4 ,jahrhunderts4 ,volksausgabe 7,berlin #ahic74 ,mackay1 ,magazin ,,john ,,henry ,,mackay1 ,der individualistische ,anarchismus3 ein ,gegner der ,propaganda der ,that1 in ,das ,magazin fuer ,litteratur 7,berlin und ,weimar7 vol4 #fg 7#ahih7 pp4 #iac-ae4 ,mackay1 ,stirner ,,john ,,henry ,,mackay1 ,max ,stirner4 ,sein ,leben und sein ,werk 7,berlin #ahih74 ,merlino ,f4 ,s4 ,,merlino1 ,l',individualismo nell'anarchismo 7,roma #ahie74 ,pfau ,proudhon und die ,franzosen1 in ,,ludwig ,,pfau1 ,kunst und ,kritik1 vol4 #f of ,aesthetische ,schriften1 #b;d ed4 7,stuttgart1 ,leipzig1 ,berlin1 #ahhh71 pp4 #ahc-bcf4 ,plechanow ,,georg ,,plechanow1 ,anarchismus und ,sozialismus 7,berlin #ahid74 ,pr4 ,banque ,p4-,j4 ,,proudhon1 ,banque du peuple1 suivie du rapport de la commission des delegues du ,luxembourg 7,paris #ahdi74 7,in ,proudhon's ,o,euvres completes1 ,paris #ahff-hc1 this forms part of the volume ,solution47 ,pr4 ,contradictions ,p4-,j4 ,,proudhon1 ,systeme des contradictions economiques1 ou philosophie de la misere 7#b vol41 ,paris #ahdf74 ,pr4 ,confessions ,p4-,j4 ,,proudhon1 ,les ,confessions d'un revolutionnaire1 pour servir a l'histoire de la revolution de fevrier 7,paris #ahdi74 ,pr4 ,droit ,p4-,j4 ,,proudhon1 ,le ,droit au travail et le ,droit de propriete 7,paris #ahdh74 7,in the ,o,euvres this forms part of the volume ,la ,revolution sociale47 ,pr4 ,idee ,p4-,j4 ,,proudhon1 ,idee generate de la revolution au ,x,i,xe siecle 7choix d'etudes sur la pratique revolutionnaire et industrielle7 7,paris #ahea74 ,pr4 ,justice ,p4-,j4 ,,proudhon1 ,de la justice dans la revolution et dans l',eglise4 ,nouveaux principes de philosophie pratique 7#c vol41 ,paris #aheh74 ,pr4 ,organisation ,p4-,j4 ,,proudhon1 ,organisation du credit et de la circulation1 et solution du probleme social 7,paris #ahdh74 7,in the ,o,euvres this forms part of the volume ,solution47 ,pr4 ,principe ,p4-,j4 ,,proudhon1 ,du principe federatif et de la necessite de reconstituer le parti de la revolution 7,paris #ahfc74 ,pr4 ,propriete ,p4-,j4 ,,proudhon1 ,qu'est-ce que la propriete8 ou recherches sur le principe du droit et du gouvernement4 ,premier memoire 7,paris #ahda74 ,pr4 ,solution ,p4-,j4 ,,proudhon1 ,solution du probleme social 7,paris #ahdh74 ,proal ,,louis ,,proal1 ,la ,criminalite politique 7,paris #ahie74 ,reichesberg ,,naum ,,reichesberg1 ,sozialismus und ,anarchismus 7,bern und ,leipzig #ahie74 ,rienzi ,,rienzi1 ,l',anarchisme1 traduit du neerlandais par ,august ,dewinne 7,bruxelles #ahic74 ,sernicoli ,e4 ,,sernicoli1 ,l',anarchia e gli ,anarchici4 ,studio storico e politico di ,e4 ,sernicoli 7#b vol41 ,milano #ahid74 ,shaw ,,george ,,bernard ,,shaw1 ,the ,impossibilities of ,anarchism 7,london #ahie74 ,silio ,,cesar ,,silio1 ,el ,anarquismo y la ,defensa ,social1 in ,la ,espana ,moderna 7,madrid7 vol4 #fa 7#ahid7 pp4 #ada-h4 ,stammler ,,rudolf ,,stammler1 ,die ,theorie des ,anarchismus 7,berlin #ahid74 ,stirner ,,max ,,stirner1 ,der ,einzige und sein ,eigentum 7,leipzig #ahde74 ,stirner ,vierteljahrsschrift ,m4 ,st41 ,rezensenten ,stirners1 in ,wigands ,vierteljahrsschrift 7,leipzig7 vol4 #c 7#ahde7 pp4 #adg-id4 ,to4 ,confession ,,graf ,,leo ,,tolstoj1 ,bekenntnisse4 ,was sollen wir denn thun8 deutsch von ,h4 von ,samson-,himmelstjerna 7,leipzig #ahhf71 pp4 #a-ajb4 ,to4 ,gospel ,,graf ,,leo ,n4 ,,tolstoj1 ,kurze ,darlegung des ,evangeliums1 deutsch von ,paul ,lauterbach 7,leipzig1 n4 d474 ,to4 ,kernel ,das ,korn1 in ,,graf ,,leo ,n4 ,,tolstoj1 ,volkserzaehlungen1 deutsch von ,wilhelm ,goldschmidt 7,leipzig1 n4 d471 pp4 #hg-i4 ,to4 ,kingdom ,,leo ,n4 ,,tolstoj1 ,das ,reich ,gottes ist in euch1 oder das ,christentum als eine neue ,lebensauffassung1 nicht als mystische ,lehre1 deutsch von ,r4 ,loewenfeld 7,stuttgart1 ,leipzig1 ,berlin1 ,wien1 #ahid74 ,to4 ,linen-,measurer ,leinwandmesser4 ,die ,geschichte eines ,pferdes1 in ,leo ,n4 ,tolstoj1 ,gesammelte ,werke1 deutsch herausgegeben von ,raphael ,loewenfeld1 vol4 #c 7,berlin #ahic7 pp4 #egc-fca4 ,to4 ,money ,,graf ,,leo ,,tolstoj1 ,geld6 ,soziale ,betrachtungen1 deutsch von ,august ,scholz 7,berlin #ahia74 ,to4 ,morning ,der ,morgen des ,gutsherrn1 in ,,leo ,n4 ,,tolstoj1 ,gesammelte ,werke1 deutsch herausgegeben von ,raphael ,loewenfeld1 vol4 #b1 #b;d ed4 7,leipzig1 n4 d471 pp4 #a-ha4 ,to4 ,on ,life ,,graf ,,leo ,,tolstoj1 ,ueber das ,leben1 deutsch von ,sophie ,behr 7,leipzig #ahhi74 ,to4 ,patriotism ,,graf ,,leo ,n4 ,,tolstoj1 ,christentum und ,vaterlandsliebe1 deutsch von ,l4 ,a4 ,hauff 7,berlin n4 d474 ,to4 ,persecutions ,russische ,christenverfolgungen im ,kaukasus4 ,mit einem ,vor- und ,nachwort von ,leo ,tolstoj 7,dresden und ,leipzig #ahif7 pp4 #g-h1 #ch-dh4 ,to4 ,reason and ,dogma ,,graf ,,leo ,n4 ,,tolstoj1 ,vernunft und ,dogma4 ,eine ,kritik der ,glaubenslehre1 deutsch von ,l4 ,a4 ,hauff 7,berlin n4 d474 ,to4 ,religion and ,morality ,,graf ,,leo ,,tolstoj1 ,religion und ,moral4 ,antwort auf eine in der ,ethischen ,kultur gestellte ,frage1 deutsch von ,sophie ,behr 7,berlin #ahid74 ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe ,,graf ,,leo ,,tolstoj1 ,worin besteht mein ,glaube8 ,eine ,studie1 deutsch von ,sophie ,behr 7,leipzig #ahhe74 ,to4 ,what ,shall ,we ,do ,,graf ,,leo ,,tolstoj1 ,was sollen wir also thun8 deutsch von ,august ,scholz 7,berlin #ahia74 ,tripels ,discours de ,tripels1 in ,congres international d'anthropologie criminelle1 compte rendu des travaux de la quatrieme session1 tenue a ,geneve du #bd au #bi aout #ahif 7,geneve #ahig7 pp4 #bec-d4 ,tucker ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,instead of a ,book4 ,by a ,man ,too ,busy to ,write ,one4 ,a fragmentary exposition of philosophical ,anarchism 7,new ,york #ahic74 ,van ,hamel ,,van ,,hamel1 ,l',anarchisme et le ,combat contre l'anarchisme au point de vue de l'anthropologie criminelle1 in ,congres international d'anthropologie criminelle1 compte rendu des travaux de la quatrieme session1 tenue a ,geneve du #bd au #bi aout #ahif 7,geneve #ahig7 pp4 #bed-g4 ,zenker ,e4 ,v4 ,,zenker1 ,der ,anarchismus4 ,kritische ,geschichte der anarchistischen ,theorie 7,jena #ahie74 ,,footnote3 #a ,entitled ,the ,ego and ,his ,own4 ,n4 ,y41 ,benj4 ,r4 ,tucker1 #aijg4 ,,introduction #a4 ,we want to know ,anarchism scientifically1 for reasons both personal and external4 ,we wish to penetrate the essence of a movement that dares to question what is undoubted and to deny what is venerable1 and nevertheless takes hold of wider and wider circles4 ,besides1 we wish to make up our minds whether it is not necessary to meet such a movement with force1 to protect the established order or at least its quiet progressive development1 and1 by ruthless measures1 to guard against greater evils4 #b4 ,at present there is the greatest lack of clear ideas about ,anarchism1 and that not only among the masses but among scholars and statesmen4 ,now it is a historic law of evolution#b that is described as the supreme law of ,anarchism1 now it is the happiness of the individual1#c now justice4#d ,now they say that ,anarchism culminates in the negation of every programme1#e that it has only a negative aim2#f now1 again1 that its negating and destroying side is balanced by a side that is affirmative and creative2#g now1 to conclude1 that what is original in ,anarchism is to be found exclusively in its utterances about the ideal society1#h that its real1 true essence consists in its positive efforts4#i ,now it is said that ,anarchism rejects law1#aj now that it rejects society1#aa now that it rejects only the ,state4#ab ,now it is declared that in the future society of ,anarchism there is no tie of contract binding persons together2#ac now1 again1 that ,anarchism aims to have all public affairs arranged for by contracts between federally constituted communes and societies4#ad ,now it is said in general that ,anarchism rejects property1#ae or at least private property2#af now a distinction is made between ,communistic and ,individualistic1#ag or even between ,communistic1 ,collectivistic1 and ,individualistic ,anarchism4#ah ,now it is asserted that ,anarchism conceives of its realization as taking place through crime1#ai especially through a violent revolution#bj and by the help of the propaganda of deed2#ba now1 again1 that ,anarchism rejects violent tactics and the propaganda of deed1#bb or that these are at least not necessary constituents of ,anarchism4#bc #c4 ,two demands must be made of everybody who undertakes to produce a scientific work on ,anarchism4 ,first1 he must be acquainted with the most important ,anarchistic writings4 ,here1 to be sure1 one meets great difficulties4 ,anarchistic writings are very scantily represented in our public libraries4 ,they are in part so rare that it is extremely difficult for an individual to acquire even the most prominent of them4 ,so it is not strange that of all works on ,anarchism only one is based on a comprehensive knowledge of the sources4 ,this is a pamphlet which appeared anonymously in ,new ,york in #ahid1 ,die historische ,entwickelung des ,anarchismus which in sixteen pages gives a concise presentation that attests an astonishing acquaintance with the most various ,anarchistic writings4 ,the two large works1 ,l'anarchia e gli anarchici1 studio storico e politico di ,e4 ,sernicoli #b vol41 ,milano1 #ahid1 and ,der ,anarchismus1 kritische ,geschichte der anarchistischen ,theorie von ,e4 ,v4 ,zenker1 ,jena1 #ahie1 are at least in part founded on a knowledge of ,anarchistic writings4 ,second1 he who would produce a scientific work on ,anarchism must be equally at home in jurisprudence1 in economics1 and in philosophy4 ,anarchism judges juridical institutions with reference to their economic effects1 and from the standpoint of some philosophy or other4 ,therefore1 to penetrate its essence and not fall a victim to all possible misunderstandings1 one must be familiar with those concepts of philosophy1 jurisprudence1 and economics which it applies or has a relation to4 ,this demand is best met1 among all works on ,anarchism1 by ,rudolf ,stammler's pamphlet1 ,die ,theorie des ,anarchismus1 ,berlin1 #ahid4 ,,footnotes3 #b ,der ,anarchismus und seine ,traeger pp4 #abd1 #abe1 #abg2 ,reichesberg p4 #bg4 #c ,lenz p4 #c4 #d ,bernatzik pp4 #b1 #c4 #e ,lenz p4 #e4 #f ,crispi4 #g ,van ,hamel p4 #aab4 #h ,adler p4 #cba4 #i ,reichesberg p4 #ac4 #aj ,stammler pp4 #b1 #d1 #cd1 #cf2 ,lenz pp4 #a1 #d4 #aa ,silio p4 #ade2 ,garraud p4 #ab2 ,reichesberg p4 #af2 ,tripels p4 #bec4 #ab ,bernstein p4 #cei2 ,bernatzik p4 #c4 #ac ,reichesberg p4 #cj4 #ad ,lombroso p4 #ca4 #ae ,silio p4 #ade2 ,dubois p4 #bac4 #af ,lombroso p4 #ca2 ,proal p4 #ej4 #ag ,rienzi p4 #i2 ,stammler pp4 #bh-ca2 ,merlino pp4 #ah1 #bg2 ,shaw p4 #bc4 #ah ,die historische ,entwickelung des ,anarchismus p4 #af2 ,zenker p4 #afa4 #ai ,garraud p4 #f2 ,lenz p4 #e4 #bj ,sernicoli vol4 #b p4 #aaf2 ,garraud p4 #b2 ,reichesberg p4 #ch2 ,van ,hamel p4 #aac4 #ba ,garraud pp4 #aj1 #aa2 ,lombroso p4 #cd2 ,ferri p4 #beg4 #bb ,mackay ,magazin pp4 #iac-iae2 ,anarchisten pp4 #bci-bdc4 #bc ,zenker pp4 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,problem #a4--;,,general ,the problem for our study is1 to get determinate concepts of ,anarchism and its species4 ,as soon as such determinate concepts are attained1 ,anarchism is scientifically known4 ,for their determination is not only conditioned on a comprehensive view of all the individual phenomena of ,anarchism2 it also brings together the results of this comprehensive view1 and assigns to them a place in the totality of our knowledge4 ,the problem of getting determinate concepts of ,anarchism and its species seems at a first glance perfectly clear4 ,but the apparent clearness vanishes on closer examination4 ,for there rises first the question1 what shall be the starting-point of our study8 ,the answer will be given1 ,anarchistic teachings4 ,but there is by no means an agreement as to what teachings are ,anarchistic2 one man designates as ,anarchistic these teachings1 another those2 and of the teachings themselves a part designate themselves as ,anarchistic1 a part do not4 ,how can one take any of them as ,anarchistic teachings for a starting-point1 without applying that very concept of ,anarchism which he has yet to determine8 ,then rises the further question1 what is the goal of the study8 ,the answer will be given1 the concepts of ,anarchism and its species4 ,but we see daily that different men define in quite different ways the concept of an object which they yet conceive in the same way4 ,one says that law is the general will2 another1 that it is a mass of precepts which limit a man's natural liberty for other men's sake2 a third1 that it is the ordering of the life of the nation 7or of the community of nations7 to maintain ,god's order of the world4 ,they all know that a definition should state the proximate genus and the distinctive marks of the species1 but this knowledge does them little good4 ,so it seems that the goal of the study does still require elucidation4 ,lastly rises the question1 what is the way to this goal8 ,any one who has ever observed the conflict of opinions in the intellectual sciences knows well1 on the one hand1 how utterly we lack a recognized method for the solution of problems2 and1 on the other hand1 how necessary it is in any study to get clearly in mind the method that is to be used4 #b4 ,our study can come to a more precise specification of its problem4 ,the problem is to put concepts in the place of non-conceptual notions of ,anarchism and its species4 ,every concept-determining study faces the problem of comprehending conceptually an object that was first comprehended non-conceptually1 and therefore of putting a concept in the place of non-conceptual notions of an object4 ,this problem finds a specially clear expression in the concept-determining judgment 7the definition71 which puts in immediate juxtaposition1 in its subject some non-conceptual notion of an object1 and in its predicate a conceptual notion of the same object4 ,accordingly1 the study that is to determine the concepts of ,anarchism and its species has for its problem to comprehend conceptually objects that are first comprehended in non-conceptual notions of ,anarchism and its species2 and therefore1 to put concepts in the place of these non-conceptual notions4 #c4 ,but our study may specify its problem still more precisely1 though at first only on the negative side4 ,the problem is not to put concepts in the place of all notions that appear as non-conceptual notions of ,anarchism and its species4 ,any concept can comprehend conceptually only one object1 not another object together with this4 ,the concept of health cannot be at the same time the concept of life1 nor the concept of the horse that of the mammal4 ,but in the non-conceptual notions that appear as notions of ,anarchism and its species there are comprehended very different objects4 ,to be sure1 the object of all these notions is on the one hand a genus that is formed by the common qualities of certain teachings1 and on the other hand the species of this genus1 which are formed by the addition of sundry peculiarities to these common qualities4 ,but still these notions have in view very different groups of teachings with their common and special qualities1 some perhaps only the teachings of ,kropotkin and ,most1 others only the teachings of ,stirner1 ,tucker1 and ,mackay1 others again the teachings of both sets of authors4 ,if one proposed to put concepts in the place of all the non-conceptual notions which appear as notions of ,anarchism and its species1 these concepts would have to comprehend at once the common and special qualities of quite different groups of teachings1 of which groups one might embrace only the teachings of ,kropotkin and ,most1 another only those of ,stirner1 ,tucker1 and ,mackay1 a third both4 ,but this is impossible3 the concepts of ,anarchism and its species can comprehend only the common and special qualities of a single group of teachings2 therefore our study cannot put concepts in the place of all the notions that appear as notions of ,anarchism and its species4 #d4 ,by completing on the affirmative side this negative specification of its problem1 our study can arrive at a still more precise specification of this problem4 ,the problem is to put concepts in the place of those non-conceptual notions of ,anarchism and its species1 having in view one and the same group of teachings1 which are most widely diffused among the men who at present are scientifically concerned with ,anarchism4 ,because the only possible problem for our study is to put concepts in the place of part of the notions that appear as non-conceptual notions of ,anarchism and its species1--to wit1 only in the place of such notions as have in view one and the same group of teachings with its common and special qualities1--therefore we must divide into classes1 according to the groups of teachings that they severally have in view1 the notions that appear as notions of ,anarchism and its species1 and we must choose the class whose notions are to be replaced by concepts4 ,the choice of the class must depend on the kind of men for whom the study is meant4 ,for the study of a concept is of value only for those who non-conceptually apprehend the object of the concept1 since the concept takes the place of their notions only4 ,for those who form a non-conceptual notion of space1 the concept of morality is so far meaningless2 and just as meaningless1 for those who mean by ,anarchism what the teachings of ,proudhon and ,stirner have in common1 is the concept of what is common to the teachings of ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 ,bakunin1 and ,kropotkin4 ,but the men for whom this study is meant are those who at present are scientifically concerned with ,anarchism4 ,if all these1 in their notions of ,anarchism and its species1 had in view one and the same group of teachings1 then the problem for our study would be to put concepts in the place of this set of notions4 ,since this is not the case1 the only possible problem for our study is to put concepts in the place of that set of notions which has in view a group of teachings that the greatest possible number of the men at present scientifically concerned with ,anarchism have in view in their non-conceptual notions of ,anarchism and its species4 #b4--,,the ,,starting-,,point ,in accordance with what has been said1 the starting-point of our study must be those non-conceptual notions of ,anarchism and its species1 having in view one and the same group of teachings1 which are most widely diffused among the men who at present are scientifically concerned with ,anarchism4 #a4 ,how can it be known what group of teachings the non-conceptual notions of ,anarchism and its species most widely diffused among the men at present scientifically concerned with ,anarchism have in view8 ,first and foremost1 this may be seen from utterances regarding particular ,anarchistic teachings1 and from lists and descriptions of such teachings4 ,we may assume that a man regards as ,anarchistic those teachings which he designates as ,anarchistic1 and1 further1 those teachings which are likewise characterized by the common qualities of these4 ,we may further assume that a man does not regard as ,anarchistic those teachings which he in any form contrasts with the ,anarchistic teachings1 nor1 if he undertakes to catalogue or describe the whole body of ,anarchistic teachings1 those teachings unknown to him which are not characterized by the common qualities of the teachings he catalogues or describes4 ,what group of teachings those non-conceptual notions of ,anarchism and its species which are most widely diffused among the men at present scientifically concerned with ,anarchism have in view1 may be seen secondly from the definitions of ,anarchism and from other utterances about it4 ,we may doubtingly assume that a man regards as ,anarchistic those teachings which come under his definition of ,anarchism1 or for which his utterances about ,anarchism hold good2 and1 on the contrary1 that he does not regard as ,anarchistic those teachings which do not come under that definition1 or for which these utterances do not hold good4 ,when these two means of knowledge lead to contradictions1 the former must be decisive4 ,for1 if a man so defines ,anarchism1 or so speaks of ,anarchism1 that on this basis teachings which he declares non-,anarchistic manifest themselves to be ,anarchistic1--and perhaps other teachings1 which he counts among the ,anarchistic1 to be non-,anarchistic1--this can be due only to his not being conscious of the scope of his general pronouncements2 therefore it is only from his treatment of the individual teachings that one can find out his opinion of these4 #b4 ,these means of knowledge inform us what group of teachings the non-conceptual notions of ,anarchism and its species most widely diffused among the men at present scientifically concerned with ,anarchism have in view4 ,we learn1 first1 that the teachings of certain particular men are recognized as ,anarchistic teachings by the greater part of those who at present are scientifically concerned with ,anarchism4 ,we learn1 second1 that by the greater part of those who at present are scientifically concerned with ,anarchism the teachings of these men are recognized as ,anarchistic teachings only in so far as they relate to law1 the ,state1 and property2 but not in so far as they may be concerned with the law1 ,state1 or property of a particular legal system or a particular group of legal systems1 nor in so far as they regard other objects1 such as religion1 the family1 art4 ,among the recognized ,anarchistic teachings seven are particularly prominent3 to wit1 the teachings of ,godwin1 ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 ,tucker1 and ,tolstoi4 ,they all manifest themselves to be ,anarchistic teachings according to the greater part of the definitions of ,anarchism1 and of other scientific utterances about it4 ,they all display the qualities that are common to the doctrines treated of in most descriptions of ,anarchism4 ,some of them1 be it one or another1 are put in the foreground in almost every work on ,anarchism4 ,of no one of them is it denied1 to an extent worth mentioning1 that it is an ,anarchistic teaching4 #c4--,,the ,,goal ,in accordance with what has been said1 the goal of our study must be to determine1 first1 the concept of the genus which is constituted by the common qualities of those teachings which the greater part of the men at present scientifically concerned with ,anarchism recognize as ,anarchistic teachings2 second1 the concepts of the species of this genus1 which are formed by the accession of any specialties to those common qualities4 #a4 ,the first thing toward a concept is that an object be apprehended as clearly and purely as possible4 ,in non-conceptual notions an object is not apprehended with all possible clearness4 ,in our non-conceptual notions of gold we most commonly make clear to ourselves only a few qualities of gold2 one of us1 perhaps1 thinks mainly of the color and the lustre1 another of the color and malleability1 a third of some other qualities4 ,but in the concept of gold color1 lustre1 malleability1 hardness1 solubility1 fusibility1 specific gravity1 atomic weight1 and all other qualities of gold1 must be apprehended as clearly as possible4 ,nor is an object apprehended in all possible purity in our non-conceptual notions4 ,we introduce into our non-conceptual notions of gold many things that do not belong among the qualities of gold2 one1 perhaps1 thinks of the present value of gold1 another of golden dishes1 a third of some sort of gold coin4 ,but all these alien adjuncts must be kept away from the concept of gold4 ,so the first goal of our study is to describe as clearly as possible on the one side1 and as purely as possible on the other1 the common qualities of those teachings which the greater part of the men at present scientifically concerned with ,anarchism recognize as ,anarchistic teachings1 and the specialties of all the teachings which display these common qualities4 #b4 ,it is further requisite for a concept that an object should have its place assigned as well as possible in the total realm of our experience1--that is1 in a system of species and genera which embraces our total experience4 ,in non-conceptual notions an object does not have its place assigned in the total realm of our experience1 but arbitrarily in one of the many genera in which it can be placed according to its various qualities4 ,one of us1 perhaps1 thinks of gold as a species of the genus yellow bodies1 another as a species of the genus malleable bodies1 a third as a species of some other genus4 ,but the concept of gold must assign it a place in a system of species and genera that embraces our whole experience1--a place in the genus metals4 ,so a further goal of our study is to assign a place as well as possible in the total realm of our experience 7that is1 in a system of species and genera which embraces our total experience7 for the common qualities of those teachings which the greater part of the men at present scientifically concerned with ,anarchism recognize as ,anarchistic teachings1 and for the specialties of all the teachings that display these common qualities4 #d4--,,the ,,way ,,to ,,the ,,goal ,in accordance with what has been said1 the way that our study must take to go from its starting-point to its goal will be in three parts4 ,first1 the concepts of law1 the ,state1 and property must be determined4 ,next1 it must be ascertained what the ,anarchistic teachings assert about law1 the ,state1 and property4 ,finally1 after removing some errors1 we must get determinate concepts of ,anarchism and its species4 #a4 ,first1 we must get determinate concepts of law1 the ,state1 and property2 and this must be of law1 the ,state1 and property in general1 not of the law1 ,state1 or property of a particular legal system or a particular family of legal systems4 ,law1 the ,state1 and property1 in this sense1 are the objects about which the doctrines which are to be examined in their common and special qualities make assertions4 ,before the fact of any assertions about an object can be ascertained1--not to say1 before the common and special qualities of these assertions can be brought out and assigned to a place in the total realm of our experience1--we must get a determinate concept of this object itself4 ,hence the first thing that must be done is to determine the concepts of law1 the ,state1 and property 7chapter ,,ii74 #b4 ,next1 it must be ascertained what the ,anarchistic teachings assert about law1 the ,state1 and property2--that is1 the recognized ,anarchistic teachings1 and also those teachings which likewise display the qualities common to these4 ,what the recognized ,anarchistic teachings say1 must be ascertained in order to determine the concept of ,anarchism4 ,what all the teachings that display the common qualities of the recognized ,anarchistic teachings say1 must be ascertained in order that we may get determinate concepts of the species of ,anarchism4 ,so each of these teachings must be questioned regarding its relation to law1 the ,state1 and property4 ,these questions must be preceded by the question on what foundation the teaching rests1 and must be followed by the question how it conceives the process of its realization4 ,it is impossible to present here all recognized ,anarchistic teachings1 not to say all ,anarchistic teachings4 ,therefore our study limits itself to the presentation of seven especially prominent teachings 7chapters ,,iii to ,,ix71 and then1 from this standpoint1 seeks to get a view of the totality of recognized ,anarchistic teachings and of all ,anarchistic teachings 7chapter ,x74 ,the teachings presented are presented in their own words1#bd but according to a uniform system3 the first1 for security against the importation of alien thoughts2 the second1 to avoid the uncomparable juxtaposition of fundamentally different courses of thought4 ,they have been compelled to give definite replies to definite questions2 it was indeed necessary in many cases to bring the answers together in tiny fragments from the most various writings1 to sift them so far as they contradicted each other1 and to explain them so far as they deviated from ordinary language4 ,thus ,tolstoi's strictly logical structure of thought and ,bakunin's confused talk1 ,kropotkin's discussions full of glowing philanthropy and ,stirner's self-pleasing smartness1 come before our eyes directly and yet in comparable form4 #c4 ,finally1 after removing widely diffused errors1 we are to get determinate concepts of ,anarchism and its species4 ,we must1 therefore1 on the basis of that knowledge of the ,anarchistic teachings which we have acquired1 clear away the most important errors about ,anarchism and its species2 and then we must determine what the ,anarchistic teachings have in common1 and what specialties are represented among them1 and assign to both a place in the total realm of our experience4 ,then we have the concepts of ,anarchism and its species 7chapter ,,xi74 ,,footnote3 #bd ,russian writings are cited from translations1 which are cautiously revised where they seem too harsh4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,law1 ,,the ,,state1 ,,property #a4--;,,general ,in this discussion we are to get determinate concepts of law1 the ,state1 and property in general1 not of the law1 ,state1 and property of a particular legal system or of a particular family of legal systems4 ,the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property are therefore to be determined as concepts of general jurisprudence1 not as concepts of any particular jurisprudence4 #a4 ,by the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property one may understand1 first1 the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property in the science of a particular legal system4 ,these concepts of law1 ,state1 and property contain all the characteristics that belong to the substance of a particular legal system4 ,they embrace only the substance of this system4 ,they may1 therefore1 be called concepts of the science of this system4 ,for we may designate as the science of a particular legal system that part of jurisprudence which concerns itself exclusively with the norms of a particular legal system4 ,the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property in the science of a legal system are distinguished from the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property in the sciences of other legal systems by this characteristic1--that they are concepts of norms of this particular system4 ,from this characteristic we may deduce all the characteristics that result from the special substance of this system of law in contrast to other such systems4 ,the concepts of property in the present laws of the ,german empire1 of ,france1 and of ,england are distinguished by the fact that they are concepts of norms of these three different legal systems4 ,consequently they are as different as are the norms of the present imperial-,german1 ,french1 and ,english law on the subject of property4 ,the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property in different legal systems are to each other as species-concepts which are subordinate to one and the same generic concept4 #b4 ,second1 one may understand by the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property in the science of a particular family of laws4 ,these concepts of law1 ,state1 and property contain all the characteristics that belong to the common substance of the different legal systems of this family4 ,they embrace only the common substance of the different systems of this family4 ,they may1 therefore1 be called concepts of the science of this family of laws4 ,for we may designate as the science of a particular family of laws that part of jurisprudence which deals exclusively with the norms of a particular family of legal systems1 so far as these are not already dealt with by the sciences of the particular legal systems of this family4 ,the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property in the science of a family of laws are distinguished from the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property in the sciences of the legal systems that form the family by lacking the characteristic of being concepts of norms of these systems1 and consequently lacking also all the characteristics which may be deduced from this characteristic according to the special substance of one or another legal system4 ,the concept of the ,state in the science of present ,european law is distinguished from the concepts of the ,state in the sciences of present ,german1 ,russian1 and ,belgian law by not being a concept of norms of any one of these systems1 and consequently by lacking all the characteristics that result from the special substance of the constitutional norms in force in ,germany1 ,russia1 and ,belgium4 ,its relation to the concepts of the ,state in the science of these systems is that of a generic concept to subordinate species-concepts4 ,the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property in the science of a family of laws are distinguished from the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property in the sciences of other such families by this characteristic1--that they are concepts of norms of this particular family4 ,from this characteristic we may deduce all the characteristics that are peculiar to the common substance of the different legal systems of this family in contrast to the common substance of the different legal systems of other families4 ,the concept of the ,state in the science of present ,european law and the concept of the ,state in the science of ,european law in the year #ajjj are distinguished by the fact that the one is a concept of constitutional norms that are in force in ,europe to-day1 the other of such as were in force in ,europe then2 consequently they are different in the same way as what the constitutional norms in force in ,europe to-day have in common is different from what was common to the constitutional norms in force in ,europe then4 ,these concepts are to each other as species-concepts which are subordinate to one and the same generic concept4 #c4 ,third1 one may understand by the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property in general jurisprudence4 ,these concepts of law1 ,state1 and property contain all the characteristics that belong to the common substance of the most different systems and families of laws4 ,they embrace only what the norms of the most different systems and families of laws have in common4 ,they may1 therefore1 be called concepts of general jurisprudence4 ,for that part of jurisprudence which treats of legal norms without limitation to any particular system or family of laws1 so far as these norms are not already treated by the sciences of the particular systems and families1 may be designated as general jurisprudence4 ,the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property in general jurisprudence are distinguished from the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property in the particular jurisprudences by lacking the characteristic of being concepts of norms of one of these systems or at least one of these families of systems1 and consequently lacking also all the characteristics which may be deduced from this characteristic according to the special substance of some system or family of laws4 ,the concept of law per se is distinguished from the concept of law in present ,european law and from the concept of law in the present law of the ,german empire by not being a concept of norms of that family of laws1 not to say that particular system1 and consequently by lacking all the characteristics that might belong to any peculiarities which might be common to all legal norms at present in force in ,europe or in ,germany4 ,its relation to the concepts of law in these particular jurisprudences is that of a generic concept to subordinate species-concepts4 #d4 ,in which of the senses here distinguished the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property should be defined in a particular case1 and what matters should accordingly be taken into consideration in defining them1 depends on the purpose of one's study4 ,if1 for example1 the point is to describe scientifically the constitutional norms of the present law of the ,german empire1 then the concept of the ,state as defined on this occasion must be a concept of the science of this particular legal system4 ,for scientific work on the norms of a particular legal system requires that concepts be formed of the norms of just this system4 ,consequently the material to be taken into consideration will be only the constitutional norms of the present law of the ,german empire4--,that the concepts defined in the scientific description of a system of law are in fact concepts of the science of this system may indeed seem obscure4 ,for every concept of the science of any particular system of law may be defined as the concept of a species under the corresponding generic concept of general jurisprudence4 ,we define this generic concept1 say the concept of the ,state in general jurisprudence1 and add the distinctive characteristic of the species-concept1 that it is a concept of norms of this particular system of law1 say of the present law of the ,german empire4 ,and then we often leave this additional characteristic unexpressed1 where we think we may assume 7as is the case in the scientific description of the norms of any particular system of law7 that everybody will regard it as tacitly added4 ,the consequence is that the definition given in the scientific description of a particular system of law looks1 at a superficial glance1 like the definition of a concept of general jurisprudence4 ,or1 if the point is to compare scientifically the norms of present ,european law regarding property1 the concept of property as defined on this occasion must be a concept of the science of this particular family of laws4 ,for the scientific comparison of norms of different legal systems demands that concepts of the sciences of these different legal systems be subordinately arranged under the corresponding concept of the science of the family of laws which is made up of these systems4 ,consequently the material to be taken into consideration will be only the norms of this family of laws4--,here again1 indeed1 it may seem obscure that the concepts defined are really concepts of the science of this family of laws4 ,for the concepts that belong to the science of a family of laws may likewise be defined by defining the corresponding concepts of general jurisprudence and tacitly adding the characteristic of being concepts of norms of this particular family of laws4 ,finally1 if it comes to pass that the point is to compare scientifically what the norms of the most diverse systems of law have in common1 the concept of law as defined on this occasion must be a concept of general jurisprudence4 ,for the scientific comparison of norms of the most diverse systems and families of laws demands that concepts which belong to the sciences of the most diverse systems and families of laws be subordinately arranged under the corresponding concept of general jurisprudence4 ,consequently the material to be taken into consideration will be the norms of the most diverse systems and families of laws4 ,here1--where the point is to take the first step toward a scientific comprehension of teachings which pass judgment on law1 the ,state1 and property in general1 not only on the law1 ,state1 or property of a particular system or family of laws1--the concepts of law1 ,state1 and property must necessarily be defined as concepts of general jurisprudence4 ,for a scientific comprehension of teachings which deal with the common substance of the most diverse systems and families of laws demands that concepts of this common substance--consequently concepts belonging to general jurisprudence--be formed4 ,therefore we have to take into consideration1 as our material1 the norms 7especially regarding the ,state and property7 of the most diverse systems and families of laws4 #b4--,,law ,law is the body of legal norms4 ,a legal norm is a norm which is based on the fact that men have the will to see a certain procedure generally observed within a circle which includes themselves4 #a4 ,a legal norm is a norm4 ,a norm is the idea of a correct procedure4 ,a correct procedure means one that corresponds either to the final purpose of all human procedure 7unconditionally correct procedure1--for instance1 respect for another's life71 or at any rate to some accidental purpose 7conditionally correct procedure1--for instance1 the skilled handling of a picklock74 ,and the idea of a correct procedure means that the unconditionally or conditionally correct procedure is to be thought of not as a fact but as a task1 not as something real but as something to be realized2 it does not mean that ,i shall in fact spare my enemy's life1 but that ,i am to spare it--not how the thief really did use the picklock1 but how he should have used it4 ,the idea of a correct procedure is what we designate as an ought3 when ,i think of an ought1 ,i think of what has to be done in order to realize either the final purpose of all human procedure or some accidental personal purpose4 ,all passing of judgment on past procedure is conditioned upon the idea of a correct procedure--only with regard to this idea can past procedure be described as good or bad1 expedient or inexpedient2 and so is all deliberation on future procedure--only with regard to this idea does one inquire whether it will be right1 or at any rate expedient1 to proceed in a given manner4 ,every legal norm represents a procedure as correct1 declares that it corresponds to a particular purpose4 ,and it represents this correct procedure as an idea1 designates it not as a fact but as a task1 does not say that any one does proceed so but that one is to proceed so4 ,hence a legal norm is a norm4 #b4 ,a legal norm is a norm based on a human will4 ,a norm based on a human will is a norm by virtue of which one must proceed in a certain way in order that he may not put himself in opposition to the will of some particular men1 and so be apprehended by the power which is at the service of these men4 ,such a norm1 therefore1 represents a procedure only as conditionally correct2 to wit1 as a means to the end 7which we are perhaps pursuing or perhaps despising7 of remaining in harmony with the will of certain men1 and so being spared by the power which serves this will4 ,every legal norm tells us that we must proceed in a certain way in order that we may not contravene the will of some particular men and then suffer under their power4 ,therefore it represents a procedure only as conditionally correct1 and instructs us not as to what is good but only as to what is prescribed4 ,hence a legal norm is a norm based on a human will4 #c4 ,a legal norm is a norm based on the fact that men will to have a certain procedure for themselves and others4 ,a norm is based on the fact that men will to have a certain procedure for themselves and others when the will on which the norm is based has reference not only to others who do not will1 but also1 at the same time1 to the willers themselves also2 when1 therefore1 these not only will that others be subject to the norm but also will to be subject to it themselves4 ,every legal norm1 and of all norms only the legal norm1 has the characteristic that the will on which it is based reaches beyond those whose will it is1 and yet embraces them too4 ,the rule1 ,whoever takes from another a movable thing that is not his own1 with the intent to appropriate it illegally1 is punished with imprisonment for theft1 is not only based on the will of men1 but each of these men is also conscious that1 while on the one hand the rule applies to other men1 on the other hand it applies to himself4 ,here it might be alleged that1 after all1 the mere fact of men's will to have a certain procedure for themselves and others does not always establish law2 for example1 the efforts of the ,bonapartists do not establish the empire in ,france4 ,but it is not when this bare will exists that law is established1 but only when a norm is based on this will2 that is1 when it has in its service so great a power that it is competent to affect the behavior of the men to whom it relates4 ,as soon as ,bonapartism spreads so widely and in such circles that this takes place1 the republic will fall and the empire will indeed become law in ,france4 ,one might further appeal to the fact that in unlimited monarchies 7in ,russia1 for instance7 the law is based solely on the will of one man1 who is not himself subject to it4 ,but ,russian law is not based on the czar's will at all2 the czar is a weak individual man1 and his will in itself is totally unqualified to affect many millions of ,russians in their procedure4 ,russian law is based rather on the will of all those ,russians--peasants1 soldiers1 officials--who1 for the most various reasons--patriotism1 self-interest1 superstition--will that what the czar wills shall be law in ,russia4 ,their will is qualified to affect the procedure of the ,russians2 and1 if they should ever grow so few that it would no longer have this qualification1 then the czar's will would no longer be law in ,russia1 as the history of revolutions proves4 #d4 ,it has been asserted that legal norms have still other qualities4 ,it has been said1 first1 that it belongs to the essence of a legal norm to be enforceable1 or even to be enforceable in a particular way1 by judicial procedure1 governmental force4 ,if by this we are to understand that conformity can always be enforced1 we are met at once by the great number of cases in which this cannot be done4 ,when a debtor is insolvent1 or a murder has been committed1 conformity to the violated legal norms cannot now be enforced after the fact1 but their validity is not impaired by this4 ,if by enforceability we mean that conformity to a legal norm must be insured by other legal norms providing for the case of its violation1 we need only go on from the insured to the insuring norms for a while1 to come to norms for which conformity is not insured by any further legal norms4 ,if one refuses to recognize these norms as legal norms1 then neither can the norms which are insured by them rank as legal norms1 and so1 going back along the series1 one has at last no legal norms left4 ,only if one would understand by the enforceability of the legal norm that a will must have at its disposal a certain power in order that a legal norm may be based on it1 one might certainly say in this sense that enforceability belongs to the essence of a legal norm4 ,but this quality of the legal norm would be only such a quality as would be derivable from its quality of being a norm1 and would therefore have no claim to be added as a further quality4 ,again1 it has been named an essential quality of a legal norm that it should be based on the will of a ,state4 ,but even where we cannot speak of a ,state at all1 among nomads for instance1 there are yet legal norms4 ,besides1 every ,state is itself a legal relation1 established by legal norms1 which consequently cannot be based on its will4 ,and lastly1 the norms of international law1 which are intended to bind the will of ,states1 cannot be based on the will of a ,state4 ,finally1 it has been asserted that it was essential to a legal norm that it should correspond to the moral law4 ,if this were so1 then among the different legal norms which to-day are in force one directly after the other in the same territory1 or at the same time in different territories under the same circumstances1 only one could in each case be regarded as a legal norm2 for under the same circumstances there is only one moral right4 ,nor could one speak then of unrighteous legal norms1 for if they were unrighteous they would not be legal norms4 ,but in reality1 even when legal norms determine conduct quite differently under the same circumstances1 they are all nevertheless recognized as legal norms2 nor is it doubted that there are bad legal norms as well as good4 #e4 ,as a norm based on the fact that men have the will to see a certain procedure generally observed within a circle which includes themselves1 the legal norm is distinguished from all other objects1 even from those that most resemble it4 ,by being based on the will of men it is distinguished from the moral law 7the commandment of morality72 this is not based on men's willing a certain procedure1 but on the fact that this procedure corresponds to the final purpose of all human procedure4 ,the maxim1 ,love your enemies1 bless those who curse you1 do good to those who hate you1 pray for those who abuse and persecute you1 is a moral law2 so is the maxim1 ,act so that the maxims of your will might at all times serve as the principles of a general legislation4 ,for the correctness of such a procedure is not founded on the fact that other men will have it1 but on the fact that it corresponds to the final purpose of all human procedure4 ,by being based on the will of men the legal norm is distinguished also from good manners2 these are not based on the fact that men will a certain procedure1 but on the fact that they themselves proceed in a certain way4 ,it is manners that one goes to a ball in a dress coat and white gloves1 uses his knife at table only for cutting1 begs the daughter of the house for a dance or at least one round1 takes leave of the master and mistress of the house1 and lastly presses a tip into the servant's hand2 for the correctness of such a behavior is not based on the fact that other men ask this of us1--to those who start a new fashion it is often actually unpleasant to find that the fashion is spreading to more extensive circles1--but solely on the fact that other men themselves behave so1 and that we want not to be peculiar1 not to make ourselves conspicuous1 to do like the rest1 etc4 ,by being based on a will which relates at once to those whose will it is and to others whose will it is not1 it is distinguished on the one hand from an arbitrary command1 in which one's will applies only to others1 and on the other from a resolution1 in which it applies only to himself4 ,it is an arbitrary command when ,cortes with his ,spaniards commands the ,mexicans to bring out their gold1 or when a band of robbers forbids a frightened peasantry to betray their hiding-place2 here a human will decides1 indeed1 but a will that relates only to other men1 and not at the same time to those whose will it is4 ,a resolution is presented when ,i have decided to get up at six every morning1 or to leave off smoking1 or to finish a piece of work within a specified time--here a human will is indeed the standard1 but it relates only to him whose will it is1 not at all to others4 #f4 ,what is briefly summed up in the definition of the legal norm may1 if one takes into account the explanations which have been given with this definition1 be expanded as follows3 ,men will that a given procedure be generally observed within a circle which includes themselves1 and their power is so great that their will is competent to affect the men of this circle in their procedure4 ,when such is the condition of things1 a legal norm exists4 #c4--,,the ,,state ,the ,state is a legal relation by virtue of which a supreme authority exists in a certain territory4 #a4 ,the ,state is a legal relation4 ,a legal relation is the relation1 determined by legal norms1 of an obligated party1 one to whom a procedure is prescribed1 to an entitled party1 one for whose sake it is prescribed4 ,thus1 for instance1 the legal relation of a loan is a relation of the borrower1 who is bound by the legal norms concerning loans1 to the lender1 for whose sake he is bound4 ,the ,state is the legal relation of all the men who by legal norms are subjected to a supreme territorial authority1 to all those for whose sake they are subjected to it4 ,here the circle of the entitled and the obligated is one and the same2 the ,state is a bond upon all in favor of all4 ,to this it might perhaps be objected that the ,state is not a legal relation but a person4 ,but the two propositions1 that an association of men is a person in the legal sense and that it is a legal relation1 are quite compatible2 nay1 its attribute of personality is based mainly on its attribute of being a legal relation of a particular kind2 law1 in viewing the association in its outward relationships as a person1 starts from the fact that men are bound together by a particular legal relation4 ,a joint-stock corporation is a person not although1 but because1 it is a legal relation of a peculiar kind4 ,and similarly1 the fact that the ,state is a person is not only reconcilable with its being a legal relation1 but is founded on its being a peculiar legal relation4 #b4 ,as to the conditions of its existence1 this legal relation is involuntary4 ,a voluntary legal relation exists when legal norms make entrance into the relation conditional on actions of the obligated party1 of which actions the purpose is to bring about the legal relation2 for instance1 entrance into the relation of tenancy is conditioned on agreeing to a lease4 ,per contra1 an involuntary legal relation exists when legal norms do not make entrance into the relation conditional on any such actions of the obligated party1 as1 for instance1 a patent is not conditioned on any action of those who are bound by it1 and the sentence of a criminal is at least not conditioned on any action whereby he intended to bring it about4 ,if the ,state were a voluntary legal relation1 a supreme authority could exist only for those inhabitants of a territory who had acknowledged it4 ,but the supreme authority exists for all inhabitants of the territory1 whether they have acknowledged it or not2 the legal relation is therefore involuntary4 #c4 ,the substance of this legal relation is1 that a supreme authority exists in a territory4 ,an authority exists in a territory by virtue of a legal relation when1 according to the legal norms which found the relation1 the will of some men--or even merely of a man--is regulative for the inhabitants of this territory4 ,a supreme authority exists in a territory by virtue of a legal relation when according to those norms the will of some men is finally regulative for the inhabitants of the territory1--that is1 is decisive when authorities disagree4 ,what we here designate as a supreme authority1 therefore1 is not the men on whose will the legal norms in force in a territory are based1 but rather their highest agents1 whose will they would have finally regulative within the territory4 ,what men it is whose will is finally regulative for the inhabitants of a territory by virtue of a legal relation--for instance1 members of a royal family according to a certain order of inheritance1 or persons elected according to a certain election law--depends on the legal norms by which the legal relation is determined4 ,on these legal norms1 too1 depends the question within what limits the will of these men is regulative4 ,but this limited nature of the authority does not stand in the way of its being a supreme authority2 the highest agent need not be an agent with unrestricted powers4 ,here one might perhaps object that in federal ,states1 in the ,german empire for instance1 the individual ,states have not supreme authority4 ,but in reality they have it4 ,for1 even if there are a multitude of subjects in reference to which the highest authority of the individual ,states of the ,german empire has to bow to the imperial authority1 yet there are also subjects enough about which the highest authority of the individual ,states gives a final decision4 ,as long as there are such subjects1 a supreme authority exists in the individual ,states2 if some day there should no longer be such1 one could no longer speak of individual ,states4 #d4 ,as a legal relation1 by virtue of which a supreme authority exists in a territory1 the ,state is distinguished from all other objects1 even from those that most resemble it4 ,by being a legal relation it is distinguished on the one hand from institutions such as would exist in a conceivable kingdom of ,god or of reason1 on the basis of the moral law1 and on the other hand from the dominion of a conqueror in the conquered country1 which can never be anything but an arbitrary dominion4 ,being an involuntary legal relation1 the ,state is distinguished from a conceivable association of men who should set up a supreme authority among themselves by an agreement1 as well as from leagues under international law1 in which a supreme authority exists on the basis of an agreement4 ,the fact that by virtue of a legal relation an authority over a territory is given distinguishes the ,state from the tribal community of nomads and from the ,church2 for in the former there is given an authority over people of a certain descent1 in the latter over people of a certain faith1 but in neither over people of a certain territory4 ,and finally1 in the fact that this territorial authority is a supreme authority lies the difference between the ,state and towns1 counties1 or provinces2 in the latter there is indeed a territorial authority instituted1 but one that by the very intent of its institution must bow to a higher authority4 #e4 ,what is briefly summed up in the definition of the ,state may be expanded as follows1 if one takes into consideration on the one hand the previous definition of a legal norm and on the other hand the above explanations of the definition of the ,state3 ,some inhabitants of a territory are so powerful that their will is competent to affect the inhabitants of this territory in their procedure1 and these men will have it that for all the inhabitants of the territory1 for themselves as well as for the rest1 the will of men picked out in a certain way shall within certain limits be finally regulative4 ,when such is the condition of things1 a ,state exists4 #d4--,,property ,property is a legal relation1 by virtue of which some one has1 within a certain group of men1 the exclusive privilege of ultimately disposing of a thing4 #a4 ,property is a legal relation4 ,as has already been stated1 a legal relation is the relation of an obligated party1 one to whom a procedure is prescribed by legal norms1 to an entitled party1 one for whose sake it is prescribed4 ,property is the legal relation of all the members of a group of men who by legal norms are excluded from ultimately disposing of a thing1 to him--or to those--for whose sake they are excluded from it4 ,here the circle of the obligated is much broader than that of the entitled2 the former embraces1 say1 all the inhabitants of a territory or all who belong to a tribe1 the latter only those among them in whom certain further conditions 7for instance1 transfer1 prescription1 appropriation7 are fulfilled4 #b4 ,as to the conditions of its existence1 this legal relation is involuntary4 ,as discussion has already shown1 a voluntary legal relation exists when legal norms make entrance into the relation conditional on actions of the obligated party1 of which actions the purpose is to bring about the legal relation2 per contra1 an involuntary legal relation exists when legal norms do not make entrance into the relation conditional on any such actions of the obligated party4 ,if property were a voluntary legal relation1 then there could be excluded from ultimately disposing of a thing only those members of a group of men who had consented to this exclusion4 ,but all members of the group--for instance1 all the inhabitants of a territory1 all who belong to a tribe--are excluded1 whether they have consented or not4 #c4 ,the substance of this legal relation consists in some one's having1 within a certain group of men1 the exclusive privilege of ultimately disposing of a thing4 ,some one's having1 within a certain group of men1 the exclusive privilege of ultimately disposing of a thing means that this group is excluded from the thing in his favor2 that is1 they must not hinder him from dealing with the thing according to his will1 nor may they themselves deal with it against his will4 ,now1 the exclusive disposition of a thing within a certain group of men may by virtue of a legal relation belong to several1 part by part1 in this way3 that some--or one--of them have it in this or that particular respect 7for instance1 as to the usufruct71 and one--or some--in all other respects which are not individually alienated4 ,whoever thus has1 within a group of men1 the exclusive disposition of a thing in all those respects which are not individually alienated1 to him belongs1 within that group1 the exclusive privilege of ultimately disposing of the thing4 ,to whom this belongs by virtue of the legal relation--whether1 for instance1 it belongs among others to him who by labor has made a thing into some new thing--depends on the legal norms by which the legal relation is determined4 ,on them also depends the question1 within what limits this belongs to him3 the dispository authority of him to whom the exclusive disposition of a thing within a group of men ultimately belongs is limited not only by the dispository authority of those to whom the exclusive disposition within the group proximately belongs1 but also by the limits within which such dispository authority is at all allowed to anybody in the group4 ,especially1 it depends on these legal norms whether a privilege of exclusive ultimate disposition belongs to individuals as well as to corporations1 or only to corporations1 and whether it applies to every kind of things or only to one kind or another4 #d4 ,as a legal relation by virtue of which some one has1 within a certain group of men1 the exclusive privilege of ultimately disposing of a thing1 property is distinguished from all other objects1 even from those which most resemble it4 ,by being a legal relation it is distinguished from all the relations in which one has the exclusive ultimate disposition of a thing guaranteed to him solely by the reasonableness of the men who surround him1 or solely by his own might1 as might be the case in a conceivable kingdom of ,god or of reason1 and as is often the case in a conquered country4 ,being an involuntary legal relation1 it is distinguished from those legal relations by virtue of which the exclusive privilege of ultimately disposing of a thing belongs to some one solely on the ground of a contract1 and solely as against the other contracting parties4 ,that by virtue of this legal relation some one has1 within a group of men1 the exclusive privilege of ultimately disposing of a thing1 distinguishes property from copyright1 by virtue of which some one has exclusively1 within a group of men1 not the disposition of a thing1 but somewhat else2 and furthermore from rights in the property of others1 by virtue of which some one has1 within a group of men1 the exclusive privilege of disposing of a thing1 but not of ultimately disposing of it4 #e4 ,what is briefly summed up in the definition of property may be expanded as follows1 if one takes into consideration on the one hand the previously given definition of a legal norm1 and on the other the above explanations of the definition of property4 ,some men are so powerful that their will is able to affect in its procedure a group of men which embraces them1 and these men will have it that no member of this group shall1 within certain limits1 hinder a member picked out in a certain way from dealing with a thing according to his will1 nor1 within these limits1 himself deal with the thing against the will of that member1 so far as the will of another member is not already in particular respects regulative with respect to that thing equally with the will of that member4 ,when such is the condition of things1 property exists4 99 99 99 99 99 ,distinguishing the ,state from arbitrary dominion as he here does 7p4 #cd71 and then saying that ,anarchism consists solely in the negation of the ,state1 ,eltzbacher implies the unsound conclusion that ,anarchism does not involve the negation of arbitrary dominion4 ,this is because he incautiously takes the word of the learned public that the only cardinal points of ,anarchism are law1 the ,state1 and property1 without making sure that those who say this are using the term ,state in the precise sense defined by him4 ,but are not many of his arbitrary commands law and ,state by his definitions8 ,every robber in his band 7p4 #ca7 is as much required to keep the secret as are the peasantry1 and under the same penalties4 ,in restraining a subject population ,i restrict my liberty of emigration or investment1 and forbid myself to be an accomplice in certain things4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,godwin',s ,,teaching #a4--;,,general #a4 ,william ,godwin was born in #agef at ,wisbeach1 ,cambridgeshire4 ,he studied theology at ,hoxton1 beginning in #aggc4 ,in #aggh he became preacher at ,ware1 ,hertfordshire2 in #aghj1 preacher at ,stowmarket1 ,suffolk4 ,in #aghb he gave up this position4 ,from this time on he lived in ,london as an author4 ,he died there in #ahcf4 ,godwin published numerous works in the departments of philosophy1 economics1 and history2 also stories1 tragedies1 and juvenile books4 #b4 ,godwin's teaching about law1 the ,state1 and property is contained mainly in the two-volume work ,an ,enquiry ,concerning ,political ,justice and its ,influence on ,general ,virtue and ,happiness 7#agic74 ,the printing of this treatise1 says ,godwin himself1 was commenced long before the composition was finished4 ,the ideas of the author became more perspicuous and digested as his inquiries advanced4 ,this circumstance has led him into some inaccuracies of language and reasoning1 particularly in the earlier part of the work4 ,he did not enter upon the subject without being aware that government by its very nature counteracts the improvement of individual intellect2 but he understood the proposition more completely as he proceeded1 and saw more distinctly into the nature of the remedy4#be ,godwin's teaching is here presented exclusively in the developed form which it shows in the second part of the work4 #c4 ,godwin does not call his teaching about law1 the ,state1 and property ,anarchism4 ,yet this word causes him no terror4 ,anarchy is a horrible calamity1 but it is less horrible than despotism4 ,where anarchy has slain its hundreds1 despotism has sacrificed millions upon millions1 with this only effect1 to perpetuate the ignorance1 the vices1 and the misery of mankind4 ,anarchy is a short-lived mischief1 while despotism is all but immortal4 ,it is unquestionably a dreadful remedy1 for the people to yield to all their furious passions1 till the spectacle of their effects gives strength to recovering reason3 but1 though it be a dreadful remedy1 it is a sure one4#bf #b4--;,,basis ,according to ,godwin1 our supreme law is the general welfare4 ,what is the general welfare8 ,its nature is defined by the nature of mind4#bg ,it is unchangeable2 as long as men are men it remains the same4#bh ,that will most contribute to it which expands the understanding1 supplies incitements to virtue1 fills us with a generous consciousness of our independence1 and carefully removes whatever can impede our exertions4#bi ,the general welfare is our supreme law4 ,duty is that mode of action on the part of the individual1 which constitutes the best possible application of his capacity to the general benefit4#cj ,justice is the sum of all moral duty2#ca if there be such a thing1 ,i am bound to do for the general weal everything in my power4#cb ,virtue is a desire to promote the benefit of intelligent beings in general1 the quantity of virtue being as the quantity of desire2#cc the last perfection of this feeling consists in that state of mind which bids us rejoice as fully in the good that is done by others1 as if it were done by ourselves4#cd ,the truly wise man#ce strives only for the welfare of the whole4 ,he is actuated neither by interest nor ambition1 the love of honor nor the love of fame4 ,he knows no jealousy4 ,he is not disquieted by the comparison of what he has attained with what others have attained1 but by the comparison with what ought to be attained4 ,he has a duty indeed obliging him to seek the good of the whole2 but that good is his only object4 ,if that good be effected by another hand1 he feels no disappointment4 ,all men are his fellow laborers1 but he is the rival of no man4#cf #c4--,,law ,i4 ,looking to the general good1 ,godwin rejects law1 not only for particular local and temporary conditions1 but altogether4 ,law is an institution of the most pernicious tendency4#cg ,the institution once begun1 can never be brought to a close4 ,no action of any man was ever the same as any other action1 had ever the same degree of utility or injury4 ,as new cases occur1 the law is perpetually found deficient4 ,it is therefore perpetually necessary to make new laws4 ,the volume in which justice records her prescriptions is for ever increasing1 and the world would not contain the books that might be written4#ch ,the consequence of the infinitude of law is its uncertainty4 ,law was made that a plain man might know what he had to expect1 and yet the most skilful practitioners differ about the event of my suit4#ci ,a farther consideration is that it is of the nature of prophecy4 ,its task is to describe what will be the actions of mankind1 and to dictate decisions respecting them4#dj ,law we sometimes call the wisdom of our ancestors4 ,but this is a strange imposition4 ,it was as frequently the dictate of their passion1 of timidity1 jealousy1 a monopolizing spirit1 and a lust of power that knew no bounds4 ,are we not obliged perpetually to revise and remodel this misnamed wisdom of our ancestors8 to correct it by a detection of their ignorance1 and a censure of their intolerance8#da ,legislation1 as it has been usually understood1 is not an affair of human competence4 ,reason is our sole legislator1 and her decrees are unchangeable and everywhere the same4#db ,men cannot do more than declare and interpret law2 nor can there be an authority so paramount1 as to have the prerogative of making that to be law1 which abstract and immutable justice had not made to be law previously to that interposition4#dc ,to be sure1 it must be admitted that we are imperfect1 ignorant1 and slaves of appearances4#dd ,but whatever inconveniences may arise from the passions of men1 the introduction of fixed laws cannot be the genuine remedy4#de ,as long as a man is held in the trammels of obedience1 and habituated to look to some foreign guidance for the direction of his conduct1 his understanding and the vigor of his mind will sleep4 ,do ,i desire to raise him to the energy of which he is capable8 ,i must teach him to feel himself1 to bow to no authority1 to examine the principles he entertains1 and render to his mind the reason of his conduct4#df ,,ii4 ,the general welfare requires that in future it itself should be men's rule of action in place of the law4 ,if every shilling of our property1 every hour of our time1 and every faculty of our mind1 have received their destination from the principles of unalterable justice1#dg that is1 of the general good1#dh then no other decree can any longer control it4 ,the true principle which ought to be substituted in the room of law1 is that of reason exercising an uncontrolled jurisdiction upon the circumstances of the case4#di ,to this principle no objection can arise on the score of wisdom4 ,it is not to be supposed that there are not men now existing1 whose intellectual accomplishments rise to the level of law4 ,but1 if men can be found among us whose wisdom is equal to the wisdom of law1 it will scarcely be maintained1 that the truths they have to communicate will be the worse for having no authority1 but that which they derive from the reasons that support them4#ej ,the juridical decisions that were made immediately after the abolition of law1 would differ little from those during its empire4 ,they would be the decisions of prejudice and habit4 ,but habit1 having lost the centre about which it revolved1 would diminish in the regularity of its operations4 ,those to whom the arbitration of any question was entrusted would frequently recollect that the whole case was committed to their deliberation1 and they could not fail occasionally to examine themselves1 respecting the reason of those principles which had hitherto passed uncontroverted4 ,their understandings would grow enlarged1 in proportion as they felt the importance of their trust1 and the unbounded freedom of their investigation4 ,here then would commence an auspicious order of things1 of which no understanding man at present in existence can foretell the result1 the dethronement of implicit faith1 and the inauguration of unclouded justice4#ea #d4--,,the ,,state ,i4 ,since ,godwin unconditionally rejects law1 he necessarily has to reject the ,state as unconditionally4 ,nay1 he regards it as a legal institution peculiarly repugnant to the general welfare4 ,some base the ,state on force1 others on divine right1 others on contract4#eb ,but the hypothesis of force appears to proceed upon the total negation of abstract and immutable justice1 affirming every government to be right1 that is possessed of power sufficient to enforce its decrees4 ,it puts a violent termination upon all political science1 and is calculated for nothing farther than to persuade men1 to sit down quietly under their present disadvantages1 whatever they may be1 and not exert themselves to discover a remedy for the evils they suffer4 ,the second hypothesis is of an equivocal nature4 ,it either coincides with the first1 and affirms all existing power to be alike of divine derivation2 or it must remain totally useless1 till a criterion can be found1 to distinguish those governments which are approved by ,god1 from those which cannot lay claim to that sanction4#ec ,the third hypothesis would mean that one should make over to another the control of his conscience and the judging of his duties4#ed ,but we cannot renounce our moral independence2 it is a property that we can neither sell nor give away2 and consequently no government can derive its authority from an original contract4#ee ,all government corresponds in a certain degree to what the ,greeks denominated a tyranny4 ,the difference is1 that in despotic countries mind is depressed by a uniform usurpation2 while in republics it preserves a greater portion of its activity1 and the usurpation more easily conforms itself to the fluctuations of opinion4#ef ,by its very nature positive institution has a tendency to suspend the elasticity and progress of mind4#eg ,we should not forget that government is1 abstractedly taken1 an evil1 a usurpation upon the private judgment and individual conscience of mankind4#eh ,,ii4 ,the general welfare demands that a social human life based solely on its precepts should take the place of the ,state4 #a4 ,men are to live together in society even after the abolition of the ,state4 ,a fundamental distinction exists between society and government4 ,men associated at first for the sake of mutual assistance4#ei ,it was not till later that restraint appeared in these associations1 in consequence of the errors and perverseness of a few4 ,society and government are different in themselves1 and have different origins4 ,society is produced by our wants1 and government by our wickedness4 ,society is in every state a blessing2 government even in its best state but a necessary evil4#fj ,but what is to hold men together in society without government8#fa ,not a promise1#fb at any rate4 ,no promise can bind me2 for either what ,i have promised is good1 then ,i must do it even if there had been no promise2 or it is bad1 then not even the promise can make it my duty4#fc ,the fact that ,i have committed an error does not oblige me to make myself guilty of a second also4#fd ,suppose ,i had promised a sum of money for a good and worthy object4 ,in the interval between the promise and its fulfilment a greater and nobler object presents itself to me1 and imperiously demands my co-operation4 ,to which shall ,i give the preference8 ,to the one that deserves it4 ,my promise can make no difference4 ,i must be guided by the value of things1 not by an external and alien point of view4 ,but the value of things is not affected by my having taken upon me an obligation4#fe ,common deliberation regarding the general good#ff is to hold men together in societies hereafter4 ,this is highly in harmony with the general welfare4 ,that a nation should exercise undiminished its function of common deliberation1 is a step gained1 and a step that inevitably leads to an improvement of the character of individuals4 ,that men should agree in the assertion of truth1 is no unpleasing evidence of their virtue4 ,lastly1 that an individual1 however great may be his imaginary elevation1 should be obliged to yield his personal pretensions to the sense of the community1 at least bears the appearance of a practical confirmation of the great principle1 that all private considerations must yield to the general good4#fg #b4 ,the societies are to be small1 and to have as little intercourse with each other as possible4 ,small territories are everywhere to administer their affairs independently4#fh ,no association of men1 so long as they adhered to the principles of reason1 could possibly have any interest in extending their territory4#fi ,whatever evils are included in the abstract idea of government1 are all of them extremely aggravated by the extensiveness of its jurisdiction1 and softened under circumstances of an opposite species4 ,ambition1 which may be no less formidable than a pestilence in the former1 has no room to unfold itself in the latter4 ,popular commotion is like the waves of the sea1 capable where the surface is large of producing the most tragical effects1 but mild and innocuous when confined within the circuit of a humble lake4 ,sobriety and equity are the obvious characteristics of a limited circle4#gj--,the desire to gain a more extensive territory1 to conquer or to hold in awe our neighboring ,states1 to surpass them in arts or arms1 is a desire founded in prejudice and error4 ,power is not happiness4 ,security and peace are more to be desired than a name at which nations tremble4 ,mankind are brethren4 ,we associate in a particular district or under a particular climate1 because association is necessary to our internal tranquillity1 or to defend us against the wanton attacks of a common enemy4 ,but the rivalship of nations is a creature of the imagination4#ga ,the little independently-administered territories are to have as little to do with each other as possible4 ,individuals cannot have too frequent or unlimited intercourse with each other2 but societies of men have no interests to explain and adjust1 except so far as error and violence may render explanation necessary4 ,this consideration annihilates at once the principal objects of that mysterious and crooked policy which has hitherto occupied the attention of governments4 ,before this principle officers of the army and the navy1 ambassadors and negotiators1 and all the train of artifices that has been invented to hold other nations at bay1 to penetrate their secrets1 to traverse their machinations1 to form alliances and counter-alliances1 sink into nothing4#gb #c4 ,but how are the functions that the ,state performs at present to be performed in the future societies8 ,government can have no more than two legitimate purposes1 the suppression of injustice against individuals within the community 7which includes the settling of controversies between different districts#gc71 and the common defence against external invasion4#gd ,the first of these purposes1 which alone can have an uninterrupted claim upon us1 is sufficiently answered by an association of such an extent as to afford room for the institution of a jury1 to decide upon the offences of individuals within the community1 and upon the questions and controversies respecting property which may chance to arise4#ge ,this jury would decide not according to any system of law1 but according to reason4#gf--;,it might be easy indeed for an offender to escape from the limits of so petty a jurisdiction2 and it might seem necessary at first that the neighboring parishes or jurisdictions should be governed in a similar manner1 or at least should be willing1 whatever was their form of government1 to co-operate with us in the removal or reformation of an offender whose present habits were alike injurious to us and to them4 ,but there will be no need of any express compact1 and still less of any common centre of authority1 for this purpose4 ,general justice and mutual interest are found more capable of binding men than signatures and seals4#gg ,the second function would present itself to us only from time to time4 ,however irrational might be the controversy of parish with parish in such a state of society1 it would not be the less possible4 ,such emergencies can only be provided against by the concert of several districts1 declaring and1 if needful1 enforcing the dictates of justice4#gh ,foreign invasions too would make such a concert necessary1 and would to this extent resemble those controversies4#gi ,therefore it would be necessary upon certain occasions to have recourse to national assemblies1 or in other words assemblies instituted for the joint purpose of adjusting the differences between district and district1 and of consulting respecting the best mode of repelling foreign invasion4#hj--;,but they ought to be employed as sparingly as the nature of the case will admit4#ha ,for1 in the first place1 the decision is given by the number of votes1 and is determined1 at best1 by the weakest heads in the assembly1 but1 as it not less frequently happens1 by the most corrupt and dishonorable intentions4#hb ,in the second place1 as a rule the members are guided in their decisions by all sorts of external reasons1 and not solely by the results of their free reflection4#hc ,in the third place1 they are forced to waste their strength on petty matters1 while they cannot possibly let themselves be quietly influenced by argument4#hd ,therefore national assemblies should either never be elected but upon extraordinary emergencies1 like the dictator of the ancient ,romans1 or else sit periodically1 one day for example in a year1 with a power of continuing their sessions within a certain limit4 ,the former is greatly to be preferred4#he ,but what would be the authority of these national assemblies and those juries8 ,mankind is so corrupted by present institutions that at first the issuing of commands1 and some degree of coercion1 would be necessary2 but later it would be sufficient for juries to recommend a certain mode of adjusting controversies1 and for national assemblies to invite their constituencies to co-operate for the common advantage4#hf ,if juries might at length cease to decide and be contented to invite1 if force might gradually be withdrawn and reason trusted alone1 shall we not one day find that juries themselves1 and every other species of public institution1 may be laid aside as unnecessary8 ,will not the reasonings of one wise man be as effectual as those of twelve8 ,will not the competence of one individual to instruct his neighbors be a matter of sufficient notoriety1 without the formality of an election8 ,will there be many vices to correct and much obstinacy to conquer8 ,this is one of the most memorable stages of human improvement4 ,with what delight must every well-informed friend of mankind look forward to the auspicious period1 the dissolution of political government1 of that brute engine1 which has been the only perennial cause of the vices of mankind1 and which has mischiefs of various sorts incorporated with its substance1 and no otherwise to be removed than by its utter annihilation6#hg #e4--,,property ,i4 ,in consequence of his unconditional rejection of law1 ,godwin necessarily has to reject property also without any limitation4 ,nay1 property1 or1 as he expresses himself1 the present system of property1#hh--that is1 the distribution of wealth at present established by law1--appears to him to be a legal institution that is peculiarly injurious to the general welfare4 ,the wisdom of law-makers and parliaments has been applied to creating the most wretched and senseless distribution of property1 which mocks alike at human nature and at the principles of justice4#hi ,the present system of property distributes commodities in the most unequal and most arbitrary way4 ,on account of the accident of birth1 it piles upon a single man enormous wealth4 ,if one who has been a beggar becomes a well-to-do man1 we usually know that he has not precisely his honesty or usefulness to thank for this change4 ,it is often hard enough for the most diligent and industrious member of society to preserve his family from starvation4#ij ,and if ,i receive the reward of my work1 they give me a hundred times more food than ,i can eat1 and a hundred times more clothes than ,i can wear4 ,where is the justice in this8 ,if ,i am the greatest benefactor of the human race1 is that a reason for giving me what ,i do not need1 especially when my superfluity might be of the greatest use to thousands8#ia ,this unequal distribution of commodities is altogether opposed to the general welfare4 ,it hampers intellectual progress4 ,accumulated property treads the powers of thought in the dust1 extinguishes the sparks of genius1 and reduces the great mass of mankind to be immersed in sordid cares1 beside depriving the rich of the most salubrious and effectual motives to activity4#ib ,and the rich man can buy with his superfluity nothing but glitter and envy1 nothing but the dismal pleasure of restoring to the poor man as alms that to which reason gives him an undeniable right4#ic ,but the unequal distribution of commodities is also a hindrance to moral perfection4 ,in the rich it produces ambition1 vanity1 and ostentation2 in the poor1 oppression1 servility1 and fraud1 and1 in consequence of these1 envy1 malice1 and revenge4#id ,the rich man stands forward as the principal object of general esteem and deference4 ,in vain are sobriety1 integrity1 and industry1 in vain the sublimest powers of mind and the most ardent benevolence1 if their possessor be narrowed in his circumstances4 ,to acquire wealth and to display it1 is therefore the universal passion4#ie ,force would have died away as reason and civilization advanced1 but accumulated property has fixed its empire4#if ,the fruitful source of crimes consists in this circumstance1 one man's possessing in abundance that of which another man is destitute4#ig ,,ii4 ,the general welfare demands that a distribution of commodities based solely on its precepts should take the place of property4 ,when ,godwin uses the expression property for that portion of commodities which is assigned to an individual by these precepts1 he does so only in a transferred sense2 only a portion assigned by law can be designated as property in the strict sense4 ,now1 according to the decrees of the general welfare1 every man should have the means for a good life4 #a4 ,how is it to be decided whether an object that may be used for the benefit of man shall be my property or yours8 ,there is only one answer2 according to justice4#ih ,the laws of different countries dispose of property in a thousand different ways2 but only one of them can be most consonant with justice4#ii ,justice demands in the first place that every man have the means for life4 ,our animal needs1 it is well known1 consist in food1 clothing1 and shelter4 ,if justice means anything1 nothing can be more unjust than that any man lacks these and at the same time another has too much of them4 ,but justice does not stop here4 ,so far as the general stock of commodities holds out1 every one has a claim not only to the means for life1 but to the means for a good life4 ,it is unjust that a man works to the point of destroying his health or his life1 while another riots in superfluity4 ,it is unjust that a man has not leisure to cultivate his mind1 while another does not move a finger for the general welfare4#ajj #b4 ,such a state of equality#aja would advance the general welfare in the highest degree4 ,in it labor would become so light1 as rather to assume the appearance of agreeable relaxation1 and gentle exercise4#ajb ,every man would have a frugal1 yet wholesome diet2 every man would go forth to that moderate exercise of his corporal functions that would give hilarity to the spirits2 none would be made torpid with fatigue1 but all would have leisure to cultivate the kindly and philanthropical affections1 and to let loose his faculties in the search of intellectual improvement4#ajc ,how rapid would be the advances of intellect1 if all men were admitted into the field of knowledge6 ,it is to be presumed that the inequality of mind would in a certain degree be permanent2 but it is reasonable to believe that the geniuses of such an age would far surpass the greatest exertions of intellect that are at present known4#ajd ,and the moral progress would be as great as the intellectual4 ,the vices which are inseparably joined to the present system of property would inevitably expire in a state of society where men lived in the midst of plenty1 and where all shared alike the bounties of nature4 ,the narrow principle of selfishness would vanish4 ,no man being obliged to guard his little store1 or provide with anxiety and pain for his restless wants1 each would lose his individual existence in the thought of the general good4 ,no man would be an enemy to his neighbor1 for they would have no subject of contention2 and of consequence philanthropy would resume the empire which reason assigns her4#aje #c4 ,but how could such a distribution of commodities be effected in a particular case8 ,as soon as law was abolished1 men would begin to inquire after equity4 ,in this situation let us suppose a litigated succession brought before them1 to which there were five heirs1 and that the sentence of their old legislation had directed the division of this property into five equal shares4 ,they would begin to inquire into the wants and situation of the claimants4 ,the first we will suppose to have a fair character and be prosperous in the world3 he is a respectable member of society1 but farther wealth would add little either to his usefulness or his enjoyments4 ,the second is a miserable object1 perishing with want1 and overwhelmed with calamity4 ,the third1 though poor1 is yet tranquil2 but there is a situation to which his virtue leads him to aspire and in which he may be of uncommon service1 but which he cannot with propriety accept1 without a capital equal to two-fifths of the whole succession4 ,one of the claimants is an unmarried woman past the age of child-bearing4 ,another is a widow1 unprovided1 and with a numerous family depending on her succor4 ,the first question that would suggest itself to unprejudiced persons having the allotment of this succession referred to their unlimited decision1 would be1 what justice is there in the indiscriminate partition which has hitherto prevailed8#ajf ,and their answer could not be doubtful4 #f4--,,realization4 ,the change which is called for by the general welfare should1 according to ,godwin1 be effected by those who have recognized the truth persuading others how necessary the change is for the general welfare1 so that law1 the ,state1 and property would spontaneously disappear and the new condition would take their place4 ,i4 ,the sole requirement is to convince men that the general welfare demands the change4 #a4 ,every other way is to be rejected4 ,our judgment will always suspect those weapons that can be used with equal prospect of success on both sides4 ,therefore we should regard all force with aversion4 ,when we enter the lists of battle1 we quit the sure domain of truth and leave the decision to the caprice of chance4 ,the phalanx of reason is invulnerable2 it moves forward with calm1 sure step1 and nothing can withstand it4 ,but1 when we lay aside arguments1 and have recourse to the sword1 the case is altered4 ,amidst the clamorous din of civil war1 who shall tell whether the event will be prosperous or adverse8 ,we must therefore distinguish carefully between instructing the people and exciting them4 ,we must refuse indignation1 rage1 and passion1 and desire only sober reflection1 clear judgment1 and fearless discussion4#ajg #b4 ,the point is to convince men as generally as possible4 ,only when this is accomplished can acts of violence be avoided4 ,why did the revolution in ,france and ,america find all sorts and conditions of men almost unanimous1 while the resistance to ,charles the ,first divided our nation into two equal parties8 ,because the latter occurred in the seventeenth century1 the former at the end of the eighteenth4 ,because at the time of the revolutions in ,france and ,america philosophy had already developed some of the great truths of political science1 and under the influence of ,sydney and ,locke1 of ,montesquieu and ,rousseau1 a number of strong and thoughtful minds had perceived what an evil force is4 ,if these revolutions had taken place still later1 not a drop of civic blood would have been shed by civic hands1 not in a single case would force have been used against persons or things4#ajh #c4 ,the means to convince men as generally as possible of the necessity of a change consist in proof and persuasion4 ,the best warrant of a happy outcome lies in free1 unrestricted discussion4 ,in this arena truth must always be victor4 ,if1 therefore1 we would improve the social institutions of mankind1 we must seek to convince by spoken and written words4 ,this activity has no limits2 this endeavor admits of no interruption4 ,every means must be used1 not so much to draw men's attention and bring them over to our opinion by persuasion1 as rather to remove every barrier to thought and to open to everybody the temple of science and the field of study4#aji ,therefore the man who has at heart the regeneration of his species should always bear in mind two principles1 to regard hourly progress in the discovery and dissemination of truth as essential1 and calmly to let years pass before he urges the carrying into effect of his teaching4 ,with all his prudence1 it may be that the boisterous multitude will hurry ahead of the calm1 quiet progress of reason2 then he will not condemn the revolution that takes place some years before the time set by wisdom4 ,but if he is ruled by strict prudence he can without doubt frustrate many over-hasty attempts1 and considerably prolong the general quietness4#aaj ,this does not mean1 as one might think1 that the changing of our conditions lies at an immeasurable distance4 ,it is the nature of human affairs that great alterations take place suddenly1 and great discoveries are made unexpectedly1 as it were accidentally4 ,when ,i cultivate a young person's mind1 when ,i exert myself to influence that of an older person1 it will long seem as if ,i had accomplished little1 and the fruits will show themselves when ,i least expect them4 ,the kingdom of truth comes quietly4 ,the seed of virtue may spring up when it was fancied to be lost4#aaa ,if the true philanthropist but tirelessly proclaims the truth and vigilantly opposes all that hinders its progress1 he may look forward1 with heart at rest1 to a speedy and favorable outcome4#aab ,,ii4 ,as soon as the conviction that the general welfare demands a change in our condition has made itself generally felt1 law1 the ,state1 and property will disappear spontaneously and give way to the new condition4 ,reform1 under this meaning of the term1 can scarcely be considered as of the nature of action4 ,it is a general enlightenment4 ,men feel their situation2 and the restraints that shackled them before1 vanish like a deception4 ,when such a crisis has arrived1 not a sword will need to be drawn1 not a finger to be lifted up in purposes of violence4 ,the adversaries will be too few and too feeble1 to be able to entertain a serious thought of resistance against the universal sense of mankind4#aac ,in what way may the change of our conditions take place8 #a4 ,the opinion most popular in ,france at the time that the national convention entered upon its functions1 was that the business of the convention extended only to the presenting a draft of a constitution1 to be submitted in the sequel to the approbation of the districts1 and then only to be considered as law4#aad ,the first idea that suggests itself respecting this opinion is1 that1 if constitutional laws ought to be subjected to the revision of the districts1 then all laws ought to undergo the same process4 ,but if the approbation of the districts to any declarations is not to be delusive1 the discussion of these declarations in the districts must be unlimited4 ,then a transaction will be begun to which it is not easy to foresee a termination4 ,some districts will object to certain articles2 and1 if these articles be modeled to obtain their approbation1 it is possible that the very alteration introduced to please one part of the community may render the code less acceptable to another4#aae ,this principle of a consent of districts has an immediate tendency1 by a salutary gradation perhaps1 to lead to the dissolution of all government4#aaf ,it is indeed desirable that the most important acts of the national representatives should be subject to the approbation or rejection of the districts whose representatives they are1 for exactly the same reason as it is desirable that the acts of the districts themselves should1 as speedily as practicability will admit1 be in force only so far as relates to the individuals by whom those acts are approved4#aag #b4 ,this system would have the effect1 first1 that the constitution would be very short4 ,the impracticability of obtaining the free approbation of a great number of districts to an extensive code would speedily manifest itself2 and the whole constitution might consist of a scheme for the division of the country into parts equal in their population1 and the fixing of stated periods for the election of a national assembly1 not to say that the latter of these articles may very probably be dispensed with4#aah ,a second effect would be1 that it would soon be found a proceeding unnecessarily circuitous to send laws to the districts for their revision1 unless in cases essential to the general safety1 and that in as many instances as possible the districts would be suffered to make laws for themselves4 ,thus1 that which was at first a great empire with legislative unity would speedily be transformed into a confederacy of lesser republics1 with a general congress or ,amphictyonic council1 answering the purpose of a point of co-operation upon extraordinary occasions4#aai ,a third effect would consist in the gradual cessation of legislation4 ,a great assembly collected from the different provinces of an extensive territory1 and constituted the sole legislator of those by whom the territory is inhabited1 immediately conjures up to itself an idea of the vast multitude of laws that are necessary4 ,a large city1 impelled by the principles of commercial jealousy1 is not slow to digest the volume of its by-laws and exclusive privileges4 ,but the inhabitants of a small parish1 living with some degree of that simplicity which best corresponds with nature1 would soon be led to suspect that general laws were unnecessary1 and would adjudge the causes that came before them1 not according to certain axioms previously written1 but according to the circumstances and demands of each particular cause4#abj ,a fourth effect would be that the abrogation of property would be favored4 ,all equalization of rank and station strongly tends toward an equalization of possessions4#aba ,so not only the lower orders1 but also the higher1 would see the injustice of the present distribution of property4#abb ,the rich and great are far from callous to views of general felicity1 when such views are brought before them with that evidence and attraction of which they are susceptible4#abc ,but even so far as they might think only of their own emolument and ease1 it would not be difficult to show them that it is in vain to fight against truth1 and dangerous to bring upon themselves the hatred of the people1 and that it might be to their own interest to make up their minds to concessions at least4#abd ,,footnotes3 #be ,godwin pp4 ,,ix-,x #a4 ,,vi-,,vii4 #bf ,ib4 pp4 #edh-i #b4 #acb-c4 #bg ,ib4 p4 #ij #a1 #abj4 #bh ,ib4 p4 #aej #a1 #afd4 #bi ,ib4 p4 #ij #a1 #abj-ba4 #cj ,godwin p4 #aja #a4 #acd4 #ca ,ib4 pp4 #aej1 #hj #a4 #abj1 #aab4 #cb ,ib4 p4 #ha #a4 #aag-ah84 #cc ,ib4 p4 #bed #a4 #bec4 #cd ,ib4 pp4 #cfj-fa #a4 8#db4 #ce ,ib4 p4 #cfa4 ,not in ed4 #b4 #cf ,ib4 p4 #cfa #a4 #cdb2 bracketed words omitted in ed4 #b #cg ,ib4 p4 #gga #b4 #bid4 #ch ,godwin pp4 #gff-g #b4 #bij-ia4 #ci ,ib4 p4 #gfh #b4 #bia4 #dj ,ib4 p4 #gfi #b4 #bib4 #da ,ib4 p4 #ggc #b4 #bie4 #db ,ib4 p4 #aff #a4 #ahb1 except bracketed words4 #dc ,ib4 p4 #cha #b4 #c #dd ,godwin p4 #ggd #b4 #bif4 #de ,ib4 p4 #gge #b4 #bif4 #df ,ib4 p4 #ggf #b4 #big4 #dg ,ib4 p4 #aea #a4 #afe1 except bracketed words4 #dh ,ib4 pp4 #aba1 #ha #a4 #ade1 #aah4 #di ,ib4 p4 #ggc #b4 #bie4 #ej ,godwin pp4 #ggc-d #b4 #bie4 #ea ,ib4 p4 #ggh #b4 #bih-i4 #eb ,ib4 p4 #adj-a #a4 #aef4 #ec ,godwin p4 #ada #b4 #aef #ed ,ib4 p4 #adh4 ,not in ed4 #b4 #ee ,ib4 p4 #adi4 ,not in ed4 #b4 #ef ,ib4 p4 #egb #b4 #adi-ej4 #eg ,ib4 p4 #ahe #a4 #bjj4 #eh ,godwin p4 #chj #b4 #b4 #ei ,ib4 p4 #gi #a4 #aaa4 #fj ,ib4 p4 #gi #a4 #aaa2 credited to ,paine's ,common ,sense1 p4 #a4 #fa ,ib4 p4 #ghh #b4 #cje4 #fb ,ib4 p4 #afc #a4 #agd-f8 #ahj84 #fc ,ib4 p4 #aea #a4 #afd-e2 but see per contra p4 #agj4 #fd ,ib4 p4 #aef4 ,not in ed4 #b4 #fe ,godwin p4 #aea4 ,not in ed4 #b4 #ff ,ib4 pp4 #afa-b #a4 #agi4 #fg ,ib4 #afd-e #a4 #aha4 #fh ,ib4 p4 #efa #b4 #adb4 #fi ,ib4 #eff #b4 #ade4 #gj ,godwin p4 #efb #b4 #adb4 #ga ,ib4 #eei #b4 #adj4 #gb ,godwin p4 #efa #b4 #ada4 ,obviously ,eltzbacher has misunderstood this passage4 ,his ,german translation shows that he mistook interests for interest in the sense of incentive4 ,note also that ,godwin expressly restricts the application of this paragraph1 even in its right sense1 on pp4 #aaa1 #ade4 #gc ,ib4 p4 #eff #b4 #ade4 #gd ,ib4 p4 #efd #b4 #add4 #ge ,ib4 p4 #efd-e #b4 #add4 #gf ,ib4 pp4 #ggc1 #ggh1 #ggi-hj #b4 #bie1 #bih-cjj #gg ,godwin p4 #efe #b4 #add4 #gh ,ib4 p4 #eff #b4 #ade4 #gi ,ib4 p4 #eff #b4 #ade4 #hj ,ib4 pp4 #egc-d #b4 #aej-ea4 #ha ,ib4 pp4 #egc-d #b4 #aej-ea4 #hb ,ib4 pp4 #efh-i1 #ega-b #b4 #adf1 #adi4 #hc ,godwin pp4 #efi-gj #b4 #adh4 #hd ,ib4 pp4 #egj-ga #b4 #adh-di4 #he ,ib4 p4 #egd #b4 #aea #hf ,ib4 pp4 #egf-h #b4 #aeb-c4 #hg ,godwin pp4 #egh-i #b4 #aed #hh ,ib4 p4 #gid #b4 #cbf4 #hi ,ib4 p4 #hjc4 ,not in ed4 #b4 #ij ,ib4 p4 #gid4 ,not in ed4 #b4 #ia ,godwin p4 #gie4 ,not in ed4 #b2 cf4 #b4 #cab4 #ib ,ib4 p4 #hjf #b4 #cce4 #ic ,ib4 p4 #gie4 ,not in ed4 #b4 #id ,ib4 pp4 #haa1 #haj #b4 #cci1 #cch--;but the words in the poor seem to be added out of ,eltzbacher's head4 #ie ,godwin p4 #hjb #b4 #ccb4 #if ,ib4 p4 #hji #b4 #cch #ig ,ib4 p4 #hji #b4 #ccg #ih ,ib4 p4 #ghi4 ,not in ed4 #b2 cf4 #b4 #cjf-g4 #ii ,ib4 p4 #gij4 ,not in ed4 #b4 #ajj ,godwin pp4 #gij-ia4 ,not in ed4 #b4 #aja ,ib4 p4 #hba #b4 #cea4 #ajb ,ib4 p4 #hba #b4 #ceb #ajc ,ib4 p4 #hjf #b4 #cce4 #ajd ,ib4 p4 #hjg #b4 #ccf4 #aje ,godwin p4 #haj #b4 #cch4 #ajf ,godwin pp4 #ggi-hj #b4 #bii-cjj4 #ajg ,godwin p4 #bjc #a1 #bbc1 only the two sentences beginning at ,but4 #ajh ,ib4 pp4 #bjc-d4 ,not in ed4 #b4 #aji ,godwin pp4 #bjb-c4 ,not in ed4 #b4 #aaj ,ib4 p4 #bjd4 ,not in ed4 #b4 #aaa ,ib4 p4 #bbc4 ,not in ed4 #b2 cf4 #a4 #bbf4 #aab ,godwin p4 #bbe4 ,not in ed4 #b4 #aac ,ib4 pp4 #bbb-c #a4 #bbb1 except bracketed words4 #aad ,ib4 pp4 #feg-h #b4 #baj4 #aae ,godwin pp4 #feh-i #b4 #baa-ab2 bracketed words a paraphrase4 #aaf ,ib4 pp4 #fei-fj #b4 #bab4 #aag ,ib4 p4 #ffj #b4 #bab4 #aah ,ib4 pp4 #ffj-fa #b4 #bab-ac4 #aai ,godwin pp4 #ffa-b #b4 #bac-ad4 #abj ,ib4 p4 #ffb #b4 #bad4 #aba ,godwin p4 #hhh cf4 #b4 #cif4 #abb ,ib4 pp4 #hhh-i #b4 #cif4 #abc ,ib4 pp4 #hhb-c #b4 #cib4 #abd ,ib4 pp4 #hhc-hd #b4 #cic4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,proudhon',s ,,teaching #a4--;,,general #a4 ,pierre-,joseph ,proudhon was born at ,besancon in #ahji4 ,at first he followed the occupation of a printer there and in other cities4 ,in #ahch a stipend of the ,academy of ,besancon enabled him to go to ,paris for scientific studies4 ,in #ahdc he took a mercantile position at ,lyons4 ,in #ahdg he gave it up and moved to ,paris4 ,here1 in the years from #ahdh to #ahej1 ,proudhon published several periodicals1 one after the other4 ,in #ahdh he became a member of the ,national ,assembly4 ,in #ahdi he founded a ,people's ,bank4 ,soon after this he was condemned to three years' imprisonment for an offence against the press laws1 and served his time without having to interrupt his activity as an author4 ,in #aheb ,proudhon was released from prison4 ,he remained in ,paris till1 in #aheh1 he was again condemned to three years' imprisonment for an offence against the press laws4 ,he fled and settled in ,brussels4 ,in #ahfj he was pardoned1 and returned to ,france4 ,thenceforth he lived at ,passy4 ,he died there in #ahfe4 ,proudhon published many books and other writings1 especially in the fields of jurisprudence1 political economy1 and politics4 #b4 ,of special importance for ,proudhon's teaching about law1 the ,state1 and property are1 among the writings before #ahdh1 the book ,qu'est-ce que la propriete8 ou recherches sur le principe du droit et du gouvernement 7#ahdj7 and the two-volume work ,systeme des contradictions economiques1 ou philosophie de la misere 7#ahdf72 among the writings from #ahdh to #ahea the ,confessions d'un revolutionnaire 7#ahdi7 and the ,idee generale de la revolution au ,x,i,xe siecle 7#ahea72 and lastly1 among the writings after #ahea1 the three-volume work ,de la justice dans la revolution et dans l',eglise1 nouveaux principes de philosophie pratique 7#aheh7 and the book ,du principe federatif et de la necessite de reconstituer le parti de la revolution 7#ahfc74abe ,proudhon's teaching regarding law1 the ,state1 and property underwent changes in minor points1 but remained the same in its essentials2 the opinion that it changed also in essentials is caused by ,proudhon's arbitrary and varying use of language4 ,since no history of the evolution of ,proudhon's teaching can be given here1 ,i shall present1 so far as concerns such minor points1 only the teaching of #ahdh-ea1 in which years ,proudhon developed his views with especial clearness and did especially forcible work for them4 #c4 ,proudhon calls his teaching about law1 the ,state1 and property ,anarchism4 ',what form of government shall we prefer8' ',can you ask8' replies one of my younger readers without doubt2 'you are a ,republican4' ',republican1 yes2 but this word makes nothing definite4 ,res publica is the public thing2 now1 whoever wants the public thing1 under whatever form of government1 may call himself a ,republican4 ,even kings are ,republicans4' ',well1 you are a ,democrat4' ',no4' ',what8 can you be a ,monarchist8' ',no4' ',a ,constitutionalist8' ',i should hope not4' ',you are an ,aristocrat then8' ',not a bit4' ',you want a mixed government1 then8' ',still less4' ',what are you then8' ',i am an ,anarchist4'#abf #b4--;,,basis ,according to ,proudhon the supreme law for us is justice4 ,what is justice8 ,justice is respect1 spontaneously felt and mutually guaranteed1 for human dignity1 in whatever person and under whatever circumstances we find it compromised1 and to whatever risk its defence may expose us4#abg ,i ought to respect my neighbor1 and make others respect him1 as myself2 such is the law of my conscience4 ,in consideration of what do ,i owe him this respect8 ,in consideration of his strength1 his talent1 his wealth8 ,no1 what chance gives is not what makes the human person worthy of respect4 ,in consideration of the respect which he in turn pays to me8 ,no1 justice assumes reciprocity of respect1 but does not wait for it4 ,it asserts and wills respect for human dignity even in an enemy1 which causes the existence of laws of war2 even in the murderer whom we kill as having fallen from his manhood1 which causes the existence of penal laws4 ,it is not the gifts of nature or the advantages of fortune that make me respect my neighbor2 it is not his ox1 his ass1 or his maid-servant1 as the decalogue says2 it is not even the welfare that he owes to me as ,i owe mine to him2 it is his manhood4#abh ,justice is at once a reality and an idea4#abi ,justice is a faculty of the soul1 the foremost of all1 that which constitutes a social being4 ,but it is more than a faculty2 it is an idea1 it indicates a relation1 an equation4 ,as a faculty it may be developed2 this development is what constitutes the education of humanity4 ,as an equation it presents nothing antinomic2 it is absolute and immutable like every law1 and1 like every law1 very intelligible4#acj ,justice is for us the supreme law4 ,justice is the inviolable yardstick of all human actions4#aca ,by it the facts of social life1 by nature indeterminate and contradictory1 become susceptible of definition and arrangement4#acb ,justice is the central star which governs societies1 the pole about which the political world revolves1 the principle and rule of all transactions4 ,nothing is done among men that is not in the name of right2 nothing without invoking justice4 ,justice is not the work of the law2 on the contrary1 the law is never anything but a declaration and application of what is just4#acb ,suppose a society where justice is outranked1 however little1 by another principle1 say religion2 or in which certain individuals are regarded more highly1 by however little1 than others2 ,i say that1 justice being virtually annulled1 it is inevitable that the society will perish sooner or later4#acc ,it is the privilege of justice that the faith which it inspires is unshakable1 and that it cannot be dogmatically denied or rejected4 ,all peoples invoke it2 reasons of ,state1 even while they violate it1 profess to be based on it2 religion exists only for it2 skepticism dissembles before it2 irony has power only in its name2 crime and hypocrisy do it homage4 ,if liberty is not an empty phrase1 it acts only in the service of right2 even when it rebels against right1 at bottom it does not curse it4#acd ,all the most rational teachings of human wisdom about justice are summed up in this famous adage3 ,do to others what you would have done to you2 ,do not to others what you would not have done to you4#ace #c4--,,law ,i4 ,in the name of justice ,proudhon rejects1 not law indeed1 but almost all individual legal norms1 and the ,state laws in particular4 ,the ,state makes laws1 and as many laws as the interests which it meets with2 and1 since interests are innumerable1 the legislation-machine must work uninterruptedly4 ,laws and ordinances fall like hail on the poor populace4 ,after a while the political soil will be covered with a layer of paper1 and all the geologists will have to do will be to list it1 under the name of papyraceous formation1 among the epochs of the earth's history4 ,the ,convention1 in three years one month and four days1 issued eleven thousand six hundred laws and decrees2 the ,constituent and ,legislative ,assemblies had produced hardly less2 the empire and the later governments have wrought as industriously4 ,at present the ',bulletin des ,lois' contains1 they say1 more than fifty thousand2 if our representatives did their duty this enormous figure would soon be doubled4 ,do you believe that the populace1 or the government itself1 can keep its sanity in this labyrinth8#acf ,but what am ,i saying8 ,laws for him who thinks for himself1 and is responsible only for his own acts6 laws for him who would be free1 and feels himself destined to become free6 ,i am ready to make terms1 but ,i will have no laws2 ,i acknowledge none2 ,i protest against every order which an ostensibly necessary authority shall please to impose on my free will4 ,laws6 we know what they are and what they are worth4 ,cobwebs for the powerful and the rich1 chains which no steel can break for the little and the poor1 fishers' nets in the hands of the government4#acg ,you say they shall make few laws1 make them simple1 make them good4 ,but it is impossible4 ,must not government adjust all interests1 decide all disputes8 ,now interests are by the nature of society innumerable1 relationships infinitely variable and mobile2 how is it possible that only a few laws should be made8 how can they be simple8 how can the best law escape soon being detestable8#ach ,,ii4 ,justice requires that only one legal norm be in force3 to wit1 the norm that contracts must be lived up to4 ,what do we mean by a contract8 ,a contract1 says the civil code1 art4 #aaja1 is an agreement whereby one or more persons bind themselves to one or more others to do or not to do something4#aci ,that ,i may remain free1 that ,i may be subjected to no law but my own1 and that ,i may govern myself1 the edifice of society must be rebuilt upon the idea of ,,contract4#adj ,we must start with the idea of contract as the dominant idea of politics4#ada ,this norm1 that contracts must be lived up to1 is to be based not only on its justice1 but at the same time on the fact that among men who live together there prevails a will to enforce the keeping of contracts1 if necessary1 with violence2#adb so it is to be not only a commandment of morality1 but also a legal norm4 ,several of your fellow-men have agreed to treat each other with good faith and fair play1--that is1 to respect those rules of action which the nature of things points out to them as being alone capable of assuring to them1 in the fullest measure1 prosperity1 safety1 and peace4 ,are you willing to join their league8 to form a part of their society8 ,do you promise to respect the honor1 the liberty1 the goods1 of your brothers8 ,do you promise never to appropriate to yourself1 neither by violence1 by fraud1 by usury1 nor by speculation1 another's product or possession8 ,do you promise never to lie and deceive1 neither in court1 in trade1 nor in any of your dealings8 ,you are free to accept or to refuse4 ,if you refuse1 you form a part of the society of savages4 ,having left the fellowship of the human race1 you come under suspicion4 ,nothing protects you4 ,at the least insult anybody you meet may knock you down1 without incurring any other charge than that of cruelty to animals4 ,if you swear to the league1 on the contrary1 you form a part of the society of free men4 ,all your brothers enter into an engagement with you1 promising you fidelity1 friendship1 help1 service1 commerce4 ,in case of infraction on their part or on yours1 through negligence1 hot blood1 or evil intent1 you are responsible to one another1 for the damage and also for the scandal and insecurity which you have caused2 this responsibility may extend1 according to the seriousness of the perjury or the repetition of the crime1 as far as to excommunication and death4#adc #d4--,,the ,,state ,i4 ,since ,proudhon approves only the single legal norm that contracts must be lived up to1 he can sanction only a single legal relation1 that of parties to a contract4 ,hence he must necessarily reject the ,state2 for it is established by particular legal norms1 and1 as an involuntary legal relation1 it binds even those who have not entered into any contract at all4 ,proudhon does accordingly reject the ,state absolutely1 without any spatial or temporal limitation2 he even regards it as a legal relation which offends against justice to an unusual degree4 ,the government of man by man is slavery4#add ,whoever lays his hand on me to govern me is a usurper and a tyrant2 ,i declare him my enemy4#ade ,in a given society the authority of man over man is in inverse ratio to the intellectual development which this society has attained1 and the probable duration of this authority may be calculated from the more or less general desire for a true--that is1 a scientific--government4#adf ,royalty is never legitimate4 ,neither heredity1 election1 universal suffrage1 the excellence of the sovereign1 nor the consecration of religion and time1 makes royalty legitimate4 ,in whatever form it may appear1 monarchical1 oligarchic1 democratic1--royalty1 or the government of man by man1 is illegal and absurd4#adg ,democracy in particular is nothing but a constitutional arbitrary power succeeding another constitutional arbitrary power2 it has no scientific value1 and we must see in it only a preparation for the ,,republic1 one and indivisible4#adh ,authority was no sooner begun on earth than it became the object of universal competition4 ,authority1 ,government1 ,power1 ,state1--these words all denote the same thing1--each man sees in it the means of oppressing and exploiting his fellows4 ,absolutists1 doctrinaires1 demagogues1 and socialists1 turned their eyes incessantly to authority as their sole cynosure4#adi ,all parties without exception1 in so far as they seek for power1 are varieties of absolutism2 and there will be no liberty for citizens1 no order for societies1 no union among workingmen1 till in the political catechism the renunciation of authority shall have replaced faith in authority4 ,no more parties1 no more authority1 absolute liberty of man and citizen1--there1 in three words1 is my political and social confession of faith4#aej ,,ii4 ,justice demands1 in place of the ,state1 a social human life on the basis of the legal norm that contracts must be lived up to4 ,proudhon calls this social life anarchy#aea and later federation#aeb also4 #a4 ,after the abrogation of the ,state1 men are still to live together in society4 ,as early as #ahda ,proudhon says that the point is to discover a system of absolute equality1 in which all present institutions1 minus property or the sum of the abuses of property1 might not only find a place1 but be themselves means to equality2 individual liberty1 the division of powers1 the cabinet1 the jury1 the administrative and judiciary organization4#aec ,but men are not to be kept together in society by any supreme authority1 but only by the legally binding force of contract4 ,when ,i bargain for any object with one or more of my fellow-citizens1 it is clear that then my will alone is my law2 it is ,i myself who1 in fulfilling my obligation1 am my government4 ,if then ,i could make that contract with all1 which ,i do make with some2 if all could renew it with each other2 if every group of citizens1 commune1 canton1 department1 corporation1 company1 etc41 formed by such a contract and considered as a moral person1 could then1 always on the same terms1 treat with each of the other groups and with all1 it would be exactly as if my will was repeated ad infinitum4 ,i should be sure that the law thus made on all points that concern the republic1 on the various motions of millions of persons1 would never be anything but my law2 and1 if this new order of things was called government1 that this government would be mine4 ,the regime of contracts1 substituted for the regime of laws1 would constitute the true government of man and of the citizen1 the true sovereignty of the people1 the ,,republic4#aed ,the ,republic is the organization by which1 all opinions and all activities remaining free1 the ,people1 by the very divergence of opinions and of wills1 thinks and acts as a single man4 ,in the ,republic every citizen1 in doing what he wishes and nothing but what he wishes1 participates directly in legislation and government1 just as he participates in the production and circulation of wealth4 ,there every citizen is king2 for he has plenary power1 he reigns and governs4 ,the ,republic is a positive anarchy4 ,it is neither liberty subjected ,,to order1 as in the constitutional monarchy1 nor liberty imprisoned ,,in order1 as the provisional government would have it4 ,it is liberty delivered from all its hobbles1 superstition1 prejudice1 sophism1 speculation1 authority2 it is mutual liberty1 not self-limiting liberty2 liberty1 not the daughter but the ,,mother of order4#aee #b4 ,anarchy may easily seem to us the acme of disorder and the expression of chaos4 ,they say that when a ,parisian burgher of the seventeenth century once heard that in ,venice there was no king1 the good man could not get over his astonishment1 and thought he should die of laughing4 ,such is our prejudice4#aef ,as against this1 ,proudhon draws a picture of how men's life in society under anarchy might perhaps shape itself in detail1 to execute the functions now belonging to the ,state4 ,he begins with an example4 ,for many centuries the spiritual power has been separated1 within traditional limits1 from the temporal power4 ,but there has never been a complete separation1 and therefore1 to the great detriment of the church's authority and of believers1 centralization has never been sufficient4 ,there would be a complete separation if the temporal power not only did not concern itself with the celebration of mysteries1 the administration of sacraments1 the government of parishes1 etc41 but did not intervene in the nomination of bishops either4 ,there would ensue a greater centralization1 and consequently a more regular government1 if in each parish the people had the right to choose for themselves their vicars and curates1 or to have none at all2 if in each diocese the priests elected their bishop2 if the assembly of bishops1 or a primate of the ,gauls1 had sole charge of the regulation of religious affairs1 theological instruction1 and worship4 ,by this separation the clergy would cease to be1 in the hands of political power1 an instrument of tyranny over the people2 and by this application of universal suffrage the ecclesiastical government1 centralized in itself1 receiving its inspirations from the people and not from the government or the pope1 would be in constant harmony with the needs of society and with the moral and intellectual condition of the citizens4 ,we must1 then1 in order to return to truth1 organic1 political1 economic1 or social 7for here all these are one71 first1 abolish the constitutional cumulation by taking from the ,state the nomination of the bishops1 and definitively separating the spiritual from the temporal2 second1 centralize the church in itself by a system of graded elections2 third1 give to the ecclesiastical power1 as we do to all the other powers in the ,state1 the vote of the citizens as a basis4 ,by this system what to-day is ,,government will no longer be anything but administration2 all ,france is centralized1 so far as concerns ecclesiastical functions2 the country1 by the mere fact of its electoral initiative1 governs itself in matters of eternal life as well as in those of this world4 ,and one may already see that if it were possible to organize the entire country in temporal matters on the same bases1 the most perfect order and the most vigorous centralization would exist without there being anything of what we to-day call constituted authority or government4#aeg ,proudhon gives a second example in judicial authority4 ,the judicial functions1 by their different specialties1 their hierarchy1 their permanent tenure of office1 their convergence under a single departmental head1 show an unequivocal tendency to separation and centralization4 ,but they are in no way dependent on those who are under their jurisdiction2 they are all at the disposal of the executive power1 which is appointed by the people once in four years with authority that cannot be diminished2 they are subordinated not to the country by election1 but to the government1 president or prince1 by appointment4 ,it follows that those who are under the jurisdiction of a court are given over to their 'natural' judges just as are parishioners to their vicars2 that the people belong to the magistrate like an inheritance2 that the litigant is the judge's1 not the judge the litigant's4 ,apply universal suffrage and graded election to the judicial as well as the ecclesiastical functions2 suppress the permanent tenure of office1 which is an alienation of the electoral right2 take away from the ,state all action1 all influence1 on the judicial body2 let this body1 separately centralized in itself1 no longer depend on any but the people1--and1 in the first place1 you will have deprived power of its mightiest instrument of tyranny2 you will have made justice a principle of liberty as well as of order4 ,and1 unless you suppose that the people1 from whom all powers should spring by universal suffrage1 is in contradiction with itself1--that what it wants in religion it does not want in justice1--you are assured that the separation of powers can beget no conflict2 you may boldly lay it down as a principle that separation and equilibrium are henceforth synonymous4#aeh ,then ,proudhon goes on to the army1 the customhouses1 the public departments of agriculture and commerce1 public works1 public education1 and finance2 for each of these administrations he demands independence and centralization on the basis of general suffrage4#aei ,that a nation may manifest itself in its unity1 it must be centralized in its religion1 centralized in its justice1 centralized in its army1 centralized in its agriculture1 industry1 and commerce1 centralized in its finances1--in a word1 centralized in all its functions and faculties2 the centralization must work from the bottom to the top1 from the circumference to the centre2 all the functions must be independent and severally self-governing4 ,would you then make this invisible unity perceptible by a special organ1 preserve the image of the old government8 ,group these different administrations by their heads2 you have your cabinet1 your executive1 which can then very well do without a ,council of ,state4 ,set up above all this a grand jury1 legislature1 or national assembly1 appointed directly by the whole country1 and charged not with appointing the cabinet officers1--they have their investiture from their particular constituents1--but with auditing the accounts1 making the laws1 settling the budget1 deciding controversies between the administrations1 all after having heard the reports of the ,public ,department1 or ,department of the ,interior1 to which the whole government will thenceforth be reduced2 and you will have a centralization the stronger the more you multiply its foci1 a responsibility the more real the more clear-cut is the separation between the powers2 you have a constitution at once political and social4#afj #e4--,,property ,i4 ,since ,proudhon sanctions only the one legal norm that contracts must be kept1 he can approve only one legal relation1 that between contracting parties4 ,hence he must necessarily reject property as well as the ,state1 since it is established by particular legal norms1 and1 as an involuntary legal relation1 binds even such as have in no way entered into a contract4 ,and he does reject property#afa absolutely1 without any spatial or temporal limitation2 nay1 it even appears to him to be a legal relation which is particularly repugnant to justice4 ,according to its definition1 property is the right of using and abusing2 that is to say1 it is the absolute1 irresponsible domain of man over his person and his goods4 ,if property ceased to be the right to abuse1 it would cease to be property4 ,has not the proprietor the right to give his goods to whomever he will1 to let his neighbor burn without crying fire1 to oppose the public good1 to squander his patrimony1 to exploit the laborer and hold him to ransom1 to produce bad goods and sell them badly8 ,can he be judicially constrained to use his property well8 can he be disturbed in the abuse of it8 ,what am ,i saying8 ,is not property1 precisely because it is full of abuse1 the most sacred thing in the world for the legislator8 ,can one conceive of a property whose use the police power should determine1 whose abuse it should repress8 ,is it not clear1 in fine1 that if one undertook to introduce justice into property1 one would destroy property1 just as the law1 by introducing propriety into concubinage1 destroyed concubinage8#afb ,men steal3 first1 by violence on the highway2 second1 alone or in a band2 third1 by burglary2 fourth1 by embezzlement2 fifth1 by fraudulent bankruptcy2 sixth1 by forgery2 seventh1 by counterfeiting4 ,eighth1 by pocket-picking2 ninth1 by swindling2 tenth1 by breach of trust2 eleventh1 by gambling and lotteries4--,twelfth1 by usury4 ,thirteenth1 by rent-taking4--,fourteenth1 by commerce1 when the profits are more than fair wages for the trader's work4--,fifteenth1 by selling one's own product at a profit1 and by accepting a sinecure or a fat salary4#afc ,in theft such as the laws forbid1 force and fraud are employed alone and openly2 in authorized theft they are disguised under a produced utility1 which they use as a device for plundering their victim4 ,the direct use of violence and force was early and unanimously rejected2 no nation has yet reached the point of delivering itself from theft when united with talent1 labor1 and possession4#afd ,in this sense property is theft1#afe the exploitation of the weak by the strong1#aff contrary to right1#afg the suicide of society4#afh ,,ii4 ,justice demands1 in place of property1 a distribution of goods based on the legal norm that contracts must be lived up to4 ,proudhon calls that portion of goods which is assigned to the individual by contract1 property4 ,in #ahdj he had demanded that individual possession be substituted for property2 with this one change evil would disappear from the earth4#afi ,but in #ahda he is already explaining that by property he means only its abuses2#agj nay1 he even then describes as necessary the creation of an immediately applicable social system in which the rights of barter and sale1 of direct and collateral inheritance1 of primogeniture and bequest1 should find their place4#aga ,in #ahdf he says1 ,some day transformed property will be an idea positive1 complete1 social1 and true2 a property which will abolish the old property and will become equally effective and beneficent for all4#agb ,in #ahdh he is declaring that property1 as to its principle or substance1 which is human personality1 must never perish2 it must remain in man's heart as a perpetual stimulus to labor1 as the antagonist whose absence would cause labor to fall into idleness and death4#agc ,and in #ahej he announces3 ,what ,i sought for as far back as #ahdj1 in defining property1 what ,i am wanting now1 is not a destruction2 ,i have said it till ,i am tired4 ,that would have been to fall with ,rousseau1 ,plato1 ,louis ,blanc himself1 and all the adversaries of property1 into ,communism1 against which ,i protest with all my might2 what ,i ask for property is a ,,balance1#agd--that is1 justice4#age ,in all these pronouncements property means nothing else than that portion of goods which falls to the individual on the basis of contracts1 on which society is to be built up4#agf ,the property which ,proudhon sanctions cannot be a special legal relation1 but only a possible part of the substance of the one legal relation which he approves1 the relation of contract4 ,it can afford no protection against a group of men whose extent is determined by legal norms1 but only against a group of men who have mutually secured a certain portion of goods to each other by contract4 ,proudhon1 therefore1 is here using the word property in an inexact sense2 in the strict sense it can denote only a portion of goods set apart in an involuntary legal relation by particular legal norms4 ,accordingly1 when in the name of justice ,proudhon demands a certain distribution of property1 this means nothing more than that the contracts on which society is to be built should make a certain sort of provision with respect to the distribution of goods4 ,and the way in which they should determine it is this3 that every man is to have the product of his labor4 ,let us conceive of wealth as a mass whose elements are held together permanently by a chemical force1 and into which new elements incessantly enter and combine in different proportions1 but according to a definite law3 value is the proportion 7the measure7 in which each of these elements forms a part of the whole4#agg ,i suppose1 therefore1 a force which combines the elements of wealth in definite proportions and makes of them a homogeneous whole4#agh ,this force is ,,labor4 ,it is labor1 labor alone1 that produces all the elements of wealth and combines them1 to the last molecule1 according to a variable but definite law of proportionality4#agi ,every product is a representative sign of labor4#ahj ,every product can consequently be exchanged for another4#aha ,if then the tailor1 in return for furnishing the value of one day of his work1 consumes ten times the weaver's day1 it is as if the weaver gave ten days of his life for one day of the tailor's4 ,this is precisely what occurs when a peasant pays a lawyer twelve francs for a document that it costs one hour to draw up2 and this inequality1 this iniquity in exchange1 is the mightiest cause of poverty4 ,every error in commutative justice is an immolation of the laborer1 a transfusion of a man's blood into another man's body4#ahb ,what ,i demand with respect to property is a ,,balance4 ,it is not for nothing that the genius of nations has equipped ,justice with this instrument of precision4 ,justice applied to economy is in fact nothing but a perpetual balance2 or1 to express myself still more precisely1 justice as regards the distribution of goods is nothing but the obligation which rests upon every citizen and every ,state1 in their business relations1 to conform to that law of equilibrium which manifests itself everywhere in economy1 and whose violation1 accidental or voluntary1 is the fundamental principle of poverty4#ahc #b4 ,that every man should enjoy the product of his labor is possible only through reciprocity1 according to ,proudhon2 therefore he calls his doctrine the theory of mutuality or of the mutuum4#ahd ,,reciprocity is expressed in the precept1 ',do to others what you would have done to you1' a precept which political economy has translated into its celebrated formula1 ',products exchange for products4' ,now the evil which is devouring us results from the fact that the law of reciprocity is unrecognized1 violated4 ,the remedy consists altogether in the promulgation of this law4 ,the organization of our mutual and reciprocal relations is the whole of social science4#ahe ,and so ,proudhon1 in the solemn declaration which he prefixed to the constitution of the ,people's ,bank when he first published it1 gives the following assurance3 ,i protest that in criticising property1 or rather the whole body of institutions of which property is the pivot1 ,i never meant either to attack the individual rights recognized by previous laws1 or to dispute the legitimacy of acquired possessions1 or to instigate an arbitrary distribution of goods1 or to put an obstacle in the way of the free and regular acquisition of properties by bargain and sale2 or even to prohibit or suppress by sovereign decree land-rent and interest on capital4 ,i think that all these manifestations of human activity should remain free and optional for all2 ,i would admit no other modifications1 restrictions1 or suppressions of them than naturally and necessarily result from the universalization of the principle of reciprocity and of the law of synthesis which ,i propound4 ,this is my last will and testament4 ,i allow only him to suspect its sincerity1 who could tell a lie in the moment of death4#ahf #f4--,,realization ,the change which justice calls for is to come about in this way1 that those men who have recognized the truth are to convince others how necessary the change is for the sake of justice1 and that hereby1 spontaneously1 law is to transform itself1 the ,state and property to drop away1 and the new condition to appear4 ,the new condition will appear as soon as the idea is popularized2#ahg that it may appear1 we must popularize the idea4#ahh ,i4 ,nothing is requisite but to convince men that justice commands the change4 #a4 ,proudhon rejects all other methods4 ,his doctrine is in accord with the constitution and the laws4#ahi ,accomplish the ,revolution1 they say1 and after this everything will be cleared up4 ,as if the ,revolution itself could be accomplished without a leading idea6#aij ,to secure justice to one's self by bloodshed is an extremity to which the ,californians1 gathered since yesterday to seek for gold1 may be reduced2 but may the luck of ,france preserve us from it6#aia ,despite the violence which we witness1 ,i do not believe that hereafter liberty will need to use force to claim its rights and avenge its wrongs4 ,reason will serve us better2 and patience1 like the ,revolution1 is invincible4#aib #b4 ,but how shall we convince men1 how popularize the idea1 if the bourgeoisie remains hostile2 if the populace1 brutalized by servitude1 full of prejudices and bad instincts1 remains plunged in indifference2 if the professors1 the academicians1 the press1 are calumniating you2 if the courts are truculent2 if the powers that be muffle your voice8 ,don't worry4 ,just as the lack of ideas makes one lose the most promising games1 war against ideas can only push forward the ,revolution4 ,do you not see already that the regime of authority1 of inequality1 of predestination1 of eternal salvation1 and of reasons of ,state1 is daily becoming still more intolerable for the well-to-do classes1 whose conscience and reason it tortures1 than for the mass1 whose stomach cries out against it8#aic #c4 ,the most effective means for convincing men1 according to ,proudhon1 is to present to the people1 within the ,state and without violating its law1 an example of centralization spontaneous1 independent1 and social1 thus applying even now the principles of the future constitution of society4#aid ,rouse that collective action without which the condition of the people will forever be unhappy and its efforts powerless4 ,teach it to produce wealth and order with its own hands1 without the help of the authorities4#aie ,proudhon sought to give such an example by the founding of the ,people's ,bank4#aif ,the ,people's ,bank was to insure work and prosperity to all producers by organizing them as beginning and end of production with regard to one another1--that is1 as capitalists and as consumers4#aig ,the ,people's ,bank was to be the property of all the citizens who accepted its services1 who for this purpose furnished money to it if they thought that it could not yet for some time do without a metallic basis1 and who1 in every case1 promised it their preference in discounting paper1 and received its notes as cash4 ,accordingly the ,people's ,bank1 working for the profit of its customers themselves1 had no occasion to take interest for its loans nor to charge a discount on commercial paper2 it had only to take a very slight allowance to cover salaries and expenses4 ,so credit was ,,gratuitous6--,the principle being realized1 the consequences unfolded themselves ad infinitum4#aih ,so the ,people's ,bank1 giving an example of popular initiative alike in government and in public economy1 which thenceforth were to be identified in a single synthesis1 was becoming for the proletariat at once the principle and the instrument of their emancipation2 it was creating political and industrial liberty4 ,and1 as every philosophy and every religion is the metaphysical or symbolic expression of social economy1 the ,people's ,bank1 changing the material basis of society1 was ushering in the revolution of philosophy and religion2 it was thus1 at least1 that its founders had conceived of it4#aii ,all this can best be made clear by reproducing some provisions from the constitution of the ,people's ,bank4 ,art4 #a4 ,by these presents a commercial company is founded under the name of ,societe de la ,banque du ,peuple1 consisting of ,citizen ,proudhon1 here present1 and the persons who shall give their assent to this constitution by becoming stockholders4 ,art4 #c4444 ,for the present the company will exist as a partnership in which ,citizen ,proudhon shall be general partner1 and the other parties concerned shall be limited partners who shall in no case be responsible for more than the value of their shares4 ,art4 #e4444 ,the firm name shall be ,p4 ,j4 ,proudhon ,co4 ,art4 #f4 ,besides the members of the company proper1 every citizen is invited to form a part of the ,people's ,bank as a co-operator4 ,for this it suffices to assent to the bank's constitution and to accept its paper4 ,art4 #g4 ,the ,people's ,bank ,company being capable of indefinite extension1 its virtual duration is endless4 ,however1 to conform to the requirements of the law1 it fixes its duration at ninety-nine years1 which shall commence on the day of its definitive organization4 ,art4 #i4444 ,the ,people's ,bank1 having as its basis the essential gratuitousness of credit and exchange1 as its object the circulation1 not the production1 of values1 and as its means the mutual consent of producers and consumers1 can and should work without capital4 ,this end will be reached when the entire mass of producers and consumers shall have assented to the constitution of the company4 ,till then the ,people's ,bank ,company1 having to conform to established custom and the requirements of law1 and especially in order more effectively to invite citizens to join it1 will provide itself with capital4 ,art4 #aj4 ,the capital of the ,people's ,bank shall be five million francs1 divided into shares of five francs each4 444 ,the company shall be definitively organized1 and its business shall begin1 when ten thousand shares are taken4 ,art4 #ab4 ,stock shall be issued only at par4 ,it shall bear no interest4 ,art4 #ae4 ,the principal businesses of the ,people's ,bank are1 #a1 to increase its cash on hand by issuing notes2 #b1 discounting endorsed commercial paper2 #c1 discounting accepted orders 7commandes7 and bills 7factures72 #d1 loans on personal property2 #e1 loans on personal security2 #f1 advances on annuities and collateral security2 #g1 payments and collections2 #h1 advances to productive and industrial enterprises 7la commande74 ,to these departments the ,people's ,bank will add3 #i1 the functions of a savings bank and endowment insurance2 #aj1 insurance2 #aa1 safe deposit vaults2 #ab1 the service of the budget4#bjj ,art4 #ah4 ,in distinction from ordinary bank notes1 payable in specie to some one's order1 the paper of the ,people's ,bank is an order for goods1 vested with a social character1 rendered perpetual1 and is payable at sight by every stockholder and co-operator in the products or services of his industry or profession4 ,art4 #ba4 ,every co-operator agrees to trade by preference1 for all goods which the company can offer him1 with the co-operators of the bank1 and to reserve his orders exclusively for his fellow stockholders and fellow co-operators4 ,in return1 every producer or tradesman co-operating with the bank agrees to furnish his goods to the other co-operators at a reduced price4 ,art4 #fb4 ,the ,people's ,bank has its headquarters in ,paris4 ,its aim is1 in the course of time1 to establish a branch in every arrondissement and a correspondent in every commune4 ,art4 #fc4 ,as soon as circumstances permit1 the present company shall be converted into a corporation1 since this form allows us to realize1 according to the wish of the founders1 the threefold principle1 first1 of election2 second1 of the separation and the independence of the branches of work2 third1 of the personal responsibility of every employee4#bja ,,ii4 ,if once men are convinced that justice commands the change1 then will despotism fall of itself by its very uselessness4#bjb ,the ,state and property disappear1 law is transformed1 and the new condition of things begins4 ,the ,revolution does not act after the fashion of the old governmental1 aristocratic1 or dynastic principle4 ,it is ,right1 the balance of forces1 equality4 ,it has no conquests to pursue1 no nations to reduce to servitude1 no frontiers to defend1 no fortresses to build1 no armies to feed1 no laurels to pluck1 no preponderance to maintain4 ,the might of its economic institutions1 the gratuitousness of its credit1 the brilliancy of its thought1 are its sufficient means for converting the universe4#bjc ,the ,revolution has for allies all who suffer oppression and exploitation2 let it appear1 and the universe stretches its arms to it4#bjd ,i want the peaceable revolution4 ,i want you to make the very institutions which ,i charge you to abolish1 and the principles of law which you will have to complete1 serve toward the realization of my wishes1 so that the new society shall appear as the spontaneous1 natural1 and necessary development of the old1 and that the ,revolution1 while abrogating the old order of things1 shall nevertheless be the progress of that order4#bje ,when the people1 once enlightened regarding its true interests1 declares its will not to reform the government but to revolutionize society1#bjf then the dissolution of government in the economic organism#bjg will follow in a way about which one can at present only make guesses4#bjh ,,footnotes3 #abe ,not 7as stated by ,diehl vol4 #b p4 #aaf1 ,zenker p4 #fa7 #aheb4 #abf ,proudhon ,propriete p4 #bie #bab4 ,bracketed references under ,proudhon are to the collected edition of his ,o,euvres completes1 ,paris1 #ahff-hc4--,the passage quoted above is probably the first case in history where anybody called himself an ,anarchist1 though the word had long been in use as a term of reproach for enemies4 #abg ,pr4 ,justice #a4 #ahb-c #a4 #bbd-e4 #abh ,pr4 ,justice #a4 #ahd-e #a4 #bbg4 #abi ,ib4 #a4 #gc #acb8 but there he says must be1 not is4 #acj ,ib4 #a4 #ahe #a4 #bbh4 #aca ,ib4 #a4 #aie #a4 #bce4 #acb ,ib4 #a4 #ahe #a4 #bbh4 #acc ,pr4 ,justice #a4 #aie #a4 #bce4 #acd ,ib4 #c4 #de #c4 #bgf1 but with the bracketed sentence much abridged4 ,for the phrase rebel against right1 remember that in ,french right and common law are one and the same word4 #ace ,pr4 ,propriete p4 #ah #bd-e4 #acf ,pr4 ,idee #adg-h #acf-g #acg ,ib4 #adi #ach4 #ach ,pr4 ,idee pp4 #adi-ej #ach4 #aci ,pr4 ,principe p4 #fd #dd4 #adj ,pr4 ,idee p4 #bce #bae4 #ada ,pr4 ,principe p4 #fd #dd4 #adb ,pr4 ,idee p4 #cdc #cab4 #adc ,pr4 ,idee pp4 #cdb-c #caa-ab4 #add ,pr4 ,confessions p4 #h #bi4 #ade ,ib4 p4 #f #bc4 #adf ,pr4 ,propriete p4 #cja #baf4 #adg ,ib4 pp4 #bih-i #bad4 #adh ,pr4 ,solution p4 #ed #ci4 #adi ,pr4 ,confessions p4 #g #bd4 #aej ,ib4 p4 #g #be-f4 #aea ,pr4 ,propriete p4 #cja #baf1 ,confessions p4 #fh #aib1 ,solution p4 #aai #hg4 #aeb ,pr4 ,principe p4 #fg #df4--,proudhon's teaching was not1 as asserted by ,diehl vol4 #b p4 #aaf1 vol4 #c pp4 #aff-g1 and ,zenker p4 #fa1 ,anarchism till #aheb and ,federalism thenceforward2 his ,anarchism was ,federalism from the start1 only he later gave it the additional name of ,federalism4 #aec ,pr4 ,propriete pp4 ,,xix-,,xx #aj-aa4 #aed ,pr4 ,idee pp4 #bce-f #bae-af4 #aee ,pr4 ,solution p4 #aai #hg4 #aef ,pr4 ,propriete pp4 #cja-b #baf4 #aeg ,pr4 ,confessions p4 #fe #ahj-c2 bracketed words a paraphrase4 #aeh ,pr4 ,confessions pp4 #fe-f #ahc-d1 except bracketed words4 #aei ,ib4 pp4 #ff-h #ahe-i4 #afj ,pr4 ,confessions p4 #fh #aia-b4 #afa ,pfau pp4 #bbg-ca1 ,adler p4 #cgb1 ,zenker pp4 #bf1 #da1 fail to see this1 being influenced by the improper sense in which ,proudhon uses the word property for a contractually guaranteed share of goods4 ,eltzbacher's statement1 on the other hand1 is not so much drawn from ,proudhon himself as deduced from a comparison of ,eltzbacher's definition of property with the statement that ,proudhon admits no law but the law of contract4 ,i do not think this last statement is correct2 ,i think ,proudhon would have his voluntary contractual associations protect their members in certain definable respects--among others1 in the possession of goods--against those who stood outside the contract as well as against those within4 ,then this would be1 by ,eltzbacher's definitions1 both law and property4 #afb ,pr4 ,contradictions #b4 #cjc-d #b4 #bcg-h4 #afc ,pr4 ,propriete pp4 #bhe-ij #bje-i4 #afd ,pr4 ,propriete p4 #bic #baa4 #afe ,ib4 pp4 #a-b #ac4 #aff ,ib4 p4 #bhc #bjd4 #afg ,ib4 p4 #caa #bbc4 #afh ,ib4 p4 #caa #bbc4 #afi ,ib4 p4 #caa #bbc4 #agj ,ib4 pp4 ,,xviii-,,xix #aj2 consult the passage4 #aga ,ib4 pp4 ,,xix-,,xx #aa4 #agb ,pr4 ,contradictions #b4 #bcd-e #b4 #ahd4 #agc ,pr4 ,droit p4 #ej #bcj4 #agd ,pr4 ,justice #a4 #cjb-c #a4 #cbd-e4 #age ,ib4 #cjc #a4 #cbe4 #agf ,pr4 ,idee p4 #bce #bae2 ,principe p4 #fd #dd4 #agg ,pr4 ,contradictions #a4 #ea #a4 #gd4 #agh ,ib4 #a4 #ec #a4 #ge4 #agi ,ib4 #a4 #ee4 #a4 #gf-g4 #ahj ,ib4 #a4 #fh #a4 #hg4 #aha ,ib4 #a4 #fh #a4 #hg4 #ahb ,ib4 #a4 #hc #a4 #ih-i4 #ahc ,pr4 ,justice #a4 #cjb-c #a4 #cbe4 #ahd ,pr4 ,contradictions #b4 #ebh #b4 #dad4 #ahe ,pr4 ,organisation p4 #e #ic4 #ahf ,pr4 ,banque pp4 #c-d #bfj4 #ahg ,pr4 ,justice #a4 #eae #b4 #acc4 #ahh ,ib4 #a4 #eae #b4 #acc4 #ahi ,pr4 ,confessions p4 #ga #bja4 #aij ,pr4 ,justice #a1 #eae #b1 #acc4 ,eltzbacher finds the sense all will be enlightened where ,i translate everything will be cleared up4 ,eltzbacher's view of the sense--that to those who say ,enlightenment must come by the ,revolution ,proudhon replies1 ,no1 the ,revolution must come by enlightenment--correctly gives the thought brought out in the context4 #aia ,pr4 ,justice #a4 #dff #b4 #ij4 #aib ,ib4 #a4 #dgj-ga #b4 #id4 #aic ,ib4 #a4 #eae #b4 #acc-d4 #aid ,pr4 ,confessions p4 #fi #aif4 #aie ,ib4 p4 #gb #bjc4 #aif ,ib4 p4 #fi #aif4 #aig ,ib4 p4 #fi #aif4 #aih ,ib4 pp4 #fi-gj #aig4 #aii ,pr4 ,confessions p4 #gj #aig-h4 #bjj ,french dictionaries leave us somewhat in the lurch as to commercial usages which differ from the ,english4 ,eltzbacher translates #h1 investment as silent partner2 #ab1 balancing accounts4 #bja ,pr4 ,banque pp4 #e-bj #bfa-gg4 #bjb ,pr4 ,confessions p4 #gb #bjb-c4 #bjc ,pr4 ,justice #a4 #eji #b4 #abh-i4 #bjd ,ib4 #a4 #eaj #b4 #abi4 #bje ,pr4 ,idee pp4 #aif-g #aha4 #bjf ,ib4 p4 #aig #aha4 #bjg ,ib4 p4 #bgg #bec4 #bjh ,ib4 pp4 #aie1 #aig #ahj-ha4 ,,chapter ,v ,,stirner',s ,,teaching #a4--;,,general #a4 ,johann ,kaspar ,schmidt was born in #ahjf1 at ,bayreuth in ,bavaria4 ,he studied philosophy and theology at ,berlin from #ahbf to #ahbh1 at ,erlangen from #ahbh to #ahbi4 ,in #ahbi he interrupted his studies1 made a prolonged tour through ,germany1 and then lived alternately at ,koenigsberg and ,kulm till #ahcb4 ,from #ahcb to #ahcd he studied at ,berlin again2 in #ahce he passed his tests there as ,gymnasiallehrer4 ,he received no government appointment1 however1 and in #ahci became teacher in a young ladies' seminary in ,berlin4 ,he gave up this place in #ahdd1 but continued to live in ,berlin1 and died there in #ahef4 ,in part under the pseudonym ,max ,stirner1 in part anonymously1 ,schmidt published a small number of works1 mostly of a philosophical nature4 #b4 ,stirner's teaching about law1 the ,state1 and property is contained chiefly in his book ,der ,einzige und sein ,eigentum 7#ahde74 --,but here arises the question1 ,can we speak of such a thing as a teaching of ,stirner's8 ,stirner recognizes no ought4 ,men are such as they should be--can be4 ,what should they be8 ,surely not more than they can be6 ,and what can they be8 ,not more1 again1 than they--can1 i4 e4 than they have the ability1 the strength1 to be4#bji ,a man is 'called' to nothing1 and has no 'proper business1' no 'function1' as little as a plant or beast has a 'vocation4' ,he has not a vocation2 but he has powers1 which express themselves where they are1 because their being consists only in their expression1 and which can remain idle as little as life1 which would no longer be life if it 'stood still' but for a second4 ,now one might cry to man1 ',use your power4' ,but this imperative would be given the meaning that it was man's proper business to use his power4 ,it is not so4 ,rather1 every one really does use his power1 without first regarding this as his vocation2 every one uses in every moment as much power as he possesses4#baj ,nay1 ,stirner acknowledges no such thing as truth4 ,truths are phrases1 ways of speaking1 words 7logos72 brought into connection1 or arranged by ranks and files1 they form logic1 science1 philosophy4#baa ,nor is there a truth1--not right1 not liberty1 humanity1 etc41--which could subsist before me1 and to which ,i would submit4#bab ,if there is a single truth to which man must consecrate his life and his powers because he is man1 then he is subjected to a rule1 dominion1 law1 etc42 he is a man in service4#bac ,as long as you believe in truth1 you do not believe in yourself2 you are a--servant1 a--religious man4 ,you alone are truth2 or rather1 you are more than truth1 which is nothing at all before you4#bad ,if one chose to draw the extreme inference from this1 ,stirner's book would be only a self-avowal1 an expression of thoughts without any claim to general validity2 in it ,stirner would not be informing us what he thinks to be true1 or what in his opinion we ought to do1 but only giving us an opportunity to observe the play of his ideas4 ,stirner did not draw this inference1#bae and one should not let the style of the book1 which speaks mostly of ,stirner's ,i1 lead him to think that ,stirner did draw it4 ,he calls that man blinded1 who wants to be only ',man'4#baf ,he takes the floor against the erroneous consciousness of not being able to entitle myself to as much as ,i want4#bag ,he mocks at our grandmothers' belief in ghosts4#bah ,he declares that penalty must make room for satisfaction1#bai that man should defend himself against man4#bbj ,and he asserts that over the door of our time stands not ,apollo's ',know thyself1' but a ',turn yourself to account6'#bba ,so ,stirner intends not only to give us information about his inward condition at the time he composed his book1 but to tell us what he thinks to be true and what we ought to do2 his book is not a mere self-avowal1 but a scientific teaching4 #c4 ,stirner does not call his teaching about law1 the ,state1 and property ,anarchism4 ,he prefers to use the epithet anarchic to designate political liberalism1 which he combats4#bbb #b4--;,,basis ,according to ,stirner the supreme law for each one of us is his own welfare4 ,what does one's own welfare mean8 ,let us seek out the enjoyment of life6#bbc ,henceforth the question is not how one can acquire life1 but how he can expend it1 enjoy it2 not how one is to produce in himself the true ego1 but how he is to dissolve himself1 to live himself out4#bbd ,if the enjoyment of life is to triumph over the longing or hope for life1 it must overcome it in its double significance which ,schiller brings out in ',the ,ideal and ,life'2 it must crush spiritual and temporal poverty1 abolish the ideal and--the want of daily bread4 ,he who must lay out his life in prolonging life cannot enjoy it1 and he who is still seeking his life does not have it1 and can as little enjoy it2 both are poor4#bbe ,our own welfare is our supreme law4 ,stirner recognizes no duty4#bbf ,whether what ,i think and do is ,christian1 what do ,i care8 ,whether it is human1 humane1 liberal1 or unhuman1 inhumane1 illiberal1 what do ,i ask about that8 ,if only it aims at what ,i would have1 if only ,i satisfy myself in it1 then fit it with predicates as you like2 it is all one to me4#bbg ,so then my relation to the world is this3 ,i no longer do anything for it 'for ,god's sake'1 ,i do nothing 'for man's sake'1 but what ,i do ,i do 'for my sake'4#bbh ,where the world comes in my way--and it comes in my way everywhere--,i devour it to appease the hunger of my egoism4 ,you are to me nothing but--my food1 just as ,i also am fed upon and used up by you4 ,we have only one relation to each other1 that of utility1 of usableness1 of use4#bbi ,i too love men1 not merely individuals1 but every one4 ,but ,i love them with the consciousness of egoism2 ,i love them because love makes me happy1 ,i love because love is natural to me1 because it pleases me4 ,i know no 'commandment of love'4#bcj #c4--,,law ,i4 ,looking to each one's own welfare1 ,stirner rejects law1 and that without any limitation to particular spatial or temporal conditions4 ,law#bca exists not by the individual's recognizing it as favorable to his interests1 but by his holding it sacred4 ,who can ask about 'right' if he is not occupying the religious standpoint just like other people8 ,is not 'right' a religious concept1 i4 e4 something sacred8#bcb ,when the ,revolution stamped liberty as a 'right' it took refuge in the religious sphere1 in the region of the sacred1 the ideal4#bcc ,i am to revere the sultanic law in a sultanate1 the popular law in republics1 the canon law in ,catholic communities1 etc4 ,i am to subordinate myself to these laws1 ,i am to count them sacred4#bcd ,the law is sacred1 and he who outrages it is a criminal4#bce ,there are no criminals except against something sacred2#bcf crime falls when the sacred disappears4#bcg ,punishment has a meaning only in relation to something sacred4#bch ,what does the priest who admonishes the criminal do8 ,he sets forth to him the great wrong of having by his act desecrated that which was hallowed by the ,state1 its property 7in which1 you will see1 the lives of those who belong to the ,state must be included74#bci ,but law is no more sacred than it is favorable to the individual's welfare4 ,right--is a delusion1 bestowed by a ghost4#bdj ,men have not recovered the mastery over the thought of 'right1' which they themselves created2 their creature is running away with them4#bda ,let the individual man claim ever so many rights2 what do ,i care for his right and his claim8#bdb ,i do not respect them4--,what you have the might to be you have the right to be4 ,i deduce all right and all entitlement from myself2 ,i am entitled to everything that ,i have might over4 ,i am entitled to overthrow ,zeus1 ,jehovah1 ,god1 etc41 if ,i can2 if ,i cannot1 then these gods will always remain in the right and in the might as against me4#bdc ,right crumbles into its nothingness when it is swallowed up by force1#bdd but with the concept the word too loses its meaning4#bde ,the people will perhaps be against the blasphemer2 hence a law against blasphemy4 ,shall ,i therefore not blaspheme8 ,is this law to be more to me than an order8#bdf ,he who has might 'stands above the law'4#bdg ,the earth belongs to him who knows how to take it1 or who does not let it be taken from him1 does not let himself be deprived of it4 ,if he appropriates it1 then not merely the earth1 but also the right to it1 belongs to him4 ,this is egoistic right2 i4 e41 it suits me1 therefore it is right4#bdh ,,ii4 ,self-welfare commands that in future it itself should be men's rule of action in place of the law4 ,each of us is unique1#bdi a world's history for himself1#bej and1 when he knows himself as unique1#bea he is a self-owner4#beb ,god and mankind have made nothing their object1 nothing but themselves4 ,let me then likewise make myself my object1 who am1 as well as ,god1 the nothing of all else1 who am my all1 who am the ,unique4#bec ,away then with every business that is not altogether my business6 ,you think at least the 'good cause' must be my business8 ,what good1 what bad8 ,why1 ,i myself am my business1 and ,i am neither good nor bad4 ,neither has meaning for me4 ,what is divine is ,god's business1 what is human ',man's4' ,my business is neither what is divine nor what is human1 it is not what is true1 good1 right1 free1 etc41 but only what is mine2 and it is no general business1 but is--unique1 as ,i am unique4 ,nothing is more to me than myself6#bed ,what a difference between freedom and self-ownership6 ,i am free from what ,i am rid of2 ,i am owner of what ,i have in my power4#bee ,my freedom becomes complete only when it is my--might2 but by this ,i cease to be a mere freeman and become a self-owner4#bef ,each must say to himself1 ,i am all to myself and ,i do all for my sake4 ,if it ever became clear to you that ,god1 the commandments1 etc41 do you only harm1 that they encroach on you and ruin you1 you would certainly cast them from you just as the ,christians once condemned ,apollo or ,minerva or heathen morality4#beg ,how one acts only from himself1 and asks no questions about anything further1 the ,christians have made concrete in the idea of ',god4' ,he acts 'as pleases him'4#beh ,might is a fine thing and useful for many things2 for 'one gets farther with a handful of might than with a bagful of right4' ,you long for freedom8 ,you fools6 ,if you took might1 freedom would come of itself4 ,see1 he who has might 'stands above the law4' ,how does this prospect taste to you1 you 'law-abiding' people8 ,but you have no taste6#bei #d4--,,the ,,state ,i4 ,together with law ,stirner necessarily has to reject also1 just as unconditionally1 the legal institution which is called ,state4 ,without law the ,state is not possible4 ',respect for the statutes6' ,by this cement the whole fabric of the ,state is held together4#bfj ,the ,state as well as the law1 then1 exists1 not by the individual's recognizing it as favorable to his welfare1 but rather by his counting it sacred1 by our being entangled in the error that it is an ,i1 as which it applies to itself the name of a 'moral1 mystical1 or political person4' ,i1 who really am ,i1 must pull off this lion's skin of the ,i from the parading thistle-eater4#bfa ,the same holds good of the ,state as of the family4 ,if each one who belongs to the family is to recognize and maintain that family in its permanent existence1 then to each the tie of blood must be sacred1 and his feeling for it must be that of family piety1 of respect for the ties of blood1 whereby every blood-relative becomes hallowed to him4 ,so1 also1 to every member of the ,state-community this community must be sacred1 and the concept which is supreme to the ,state must be supreme to him too4#bfb ,the ,state is not only entitled1 but compelled1 to demand this4#bfc ,but the ,state is not sacred4 ,the ,state's behavior is violence1 and it calls its violence 'law'1 but that of the individual 'crime'4#bfd ,if ,i do not do what it wishes1 then the ,state turns against me with all the force of its lion-paws and eagle-talons2 for it is the king of beasts1 it is lion and eagle4#bfe ,even if you do overpower your opponent as a power1 it does not follow that you are to him a hallowed authority1 unless he is a degenerate4 ,he does not owe you respect1 and reverence1 even if he will be wary of your might4#bff ,nor is the ,state favorable to the individual's welfare4 ,i am the mortal enemy of the ,state4#bfg ,the general welfare as such is not my welfare1 but only the extremity of self-denial4 ,the general welfare may exult aloud while ,i must lie like a hushed dog2 the ,state may be in splendor while ,i starve4#bfh ,every ,state is a despotism1 whether the despot be one or many1 or whether1 as people usually conceive to be the case in a republic1 all are masters1 i4 e4 each tyrannizes over the others4#bfi ,doubtless the ,state leaves the individuals as free play as possible1 only they must not turn the play to earnest1 must not forget it4 ,the ,state has never any object but to limit the individual1 to tame him1 to subordinate him1 to subject him to something general2 it lasts only so long as the individual is not all in all1 and is only the clear-cut limitation of me1 my limitedness1 my slavery4#bgj ,a ,state never aims to bring about the free activity of individuals1 but only that activity which is bound to the ,state's purpose4#bga ,the ,state seeks to hinder every free activity by its censorship1 its oversight1 its police1 and counts this hindering as its duty1 because it is in truth a duty of self-preservation4#bgb ,i am not allowed to do all the work ,i can1 but only so much as the ,state permits2 ,i must not turn my thoughts to account1 nor my work1 nor1 in general1 anything that is mine4#bgc ,pauperism is the valuelessness of ,me1 the phenomenon of my being unable to turn myself to account4 ,therefore ,state and pauperism are one and the same4 ,the ,state does not let me attain my value1 and exists only by my valuelessness2 its goal is always to get some benefit out of me1 i4 e4 to exploit me1 to use me up1 even if this using consisted only in my providing a proles 7proletariat72 it wants me to be 'its creature'4#bgd ,the ,state cannot brook man's standing in a direct relation to man2 it must come between as a--mediator1 it must--intervene4 ,it tears man from man1 to put itself as 'spirit' in the middle4 ,the laborers who demand a higher wage are treated as criminals so soon as they want to get it by compulsion4 ,what are they to do8 ,without compulsion they don't get it1 and in compulsion the ,state sees a self-help1 a price fixed by the ego1 a real1 free turning to account of one's property1 which it cannot permit4#bge ,,ii4 ,every man's own welfare demands that a social human life solely on the basis of its precepts should take the place of the ,state4 ,stirner calls this sort of social life the union of egoists4#bgf #a4 ,even after the ,state is abolished men are to live together in society4 ,self-owners will fight for the unity which is their own will1 for union4#bgg ,but what is to keep men together in the union8 ,not a promise1 at any rate1 ,if ,i were bound to-day and hereafter to my will of yesterday1 my will would be benumbed4 ,my creature1 viz41 a particular expression of will1 would have become my dominator4 ,because ,i was a fool yesterday ,i must remain such all my life4#bgh ,the union is my own creation1 my creature1 not sacred1 not a spiritual power above my spirit1 as little as any association of whatever sort4 ,as ,i am not willing to be a slave to my maxims1 but lay them bare to my constant criticism without any warrant1 and admit no bail whatever for their continuance1 so still less do ,i pledge myself to the union for my future and swear away my soul to it as men are said to do with the devil1 and as is really the case with the ,state and all intellectual authority2 but ,i am and remain more to myself than ,state1 ,church1 ,god1 and the like1 and1 consequently1 also infinitely more than the union4#bgi ,rather1 men are to be held together in the union by the advantage which each individual has from the union at every moment4 ,if ,i can use my fellow-men1 then ,i am likely to come to an understanding and unite myself with them1 in order to strengthen my power by the agreement1 and to do more by joint force than individual force could accomplish4 ,in this joinder ,i see nothing at all else than a multiplication of my strength1 and only so long as it is my multiplied strength do ,i retain it4#bhj ,hence the union is something quite different from that society which ,communism means to found4#bha ,you bring into the union your whole power1 your ability1 and assert yourself2 in society you with your labor-strength are spent4 ,in the former you live egoistically1 in the latter humanly1 i4 e4 religiously1 as a 'member in the body of this ,lord'4 ,you owe to society what you have1 and are in duty bound to it1 are--possessed by 'social duties'2 you utilize the union1 and1 undutiful and unfaithful1 give it up when you are no longer able to get any use out of it4 ,if society is more than you1 then it is of more consequence to you than yourself2 the union is only your tool1 or the sword with which you sharpen and enlarge your natural strength2 the union exists for you and by you1 society contrariwise claims you for itself and exists even without you2 in short1 society is sacred1 the union is your own2 society uses you up1 you use up the union4#bhb #b4 ,but what form may such a social life take in detail8 ,in reply to his critic1 ,moses ,hess1 ,stirner gives some examples of unions that already exist4 ,perhaps at this moment children are running together under his window for a comradeship of play2 let him look at them1 and he will espy merry egoistic unions4 ,perhaps ,hess has a friend or a sweetheart2 then he may know how heart joins itself to heart1 how two of them unite egoistically in order to have the enjoyment of each other1 and how neither 'gets the worst of the bargain4' ,perhaps he meets a few pleasant acquaintances on the street and is invited to accompany them into a wine-shop2 does he go with them in order to do an act of kindness to them1 or does he 'unite' with them because he promises himself enjoyment from it8 ,do they have to give him their best thanks for his 'self-sacrifice' or do they know that for an hour they formed an 'egoistic union' together8#bhc ,stirner even thinks of a ,german ,union4#bhd #e4--,,property ,i4 ,together with law ,stirner necessarily has to reject also1 and just as unconditionally1 the legal institution of property4 ,this lives by grace of the law4 ,it has its guarantee only in the law2 it is not a fact1 but a fiction1 a thought4 ,this is law-property1 legal property1 warranted property4 ,it is mine not by me1 but by--law4#bhe ,property in this sense1 as well as the law and the ,state1 is based not on the individual's recognizing it as favorable to his welfare1 but on his counting it sacred4 ,property in the civil sense means sacred property1 in such a way that ,i must respect your property4 ',have respect for property6' ,therefore the political liberals would like every one to have his bit of property1 and have in part brought about an incredible parcellation by their efforts in this direction4 ,every one must have his bone1 on which he may find something to bite4#bhf ,but property is not sacred4 ,i do not step timidly back from your property1 be you one or many1 but look upon it always as my property1 in which ,i have no need to 'respect' anything4 ,now do the like with what you call my property6#bhg ,nor is property favorable to the individual's welfare4 ,property1 as the civic liberals understand it1 is untenable1 because the civic proprietor is really nothing but a propertyless man1 a man everywhere excluded4 ,instead of the world's belonging to him1 as it might1 there belongs to him not even the paltry point on which he turns around4#bhh ,,ii4 ,every one's own welfare commands that a distribution of commodities based solely on its precepts should take the place of property4 ,when ,stirner designates as property the share of commodities assigned to the individual by these precepts1 it is in the improper sense in which he constantly uses the word property3 in the proper sense only a share of commodities assigned by law can be called property4#bhi ,now1 according to the decrees of his own welfare1 every man should have all that he is powerful enough to obtain4 ,what they are not competent to tear from me the power over1 that remains my property3 all right1 then let power decide about property1 and ,i will expect everything from my power6 ,alien power1 power that ,i leave to another1 makes me a slave2 then let own power make me an owner4#bij ,to what property am ,i entitled8 ,to any to which ,i--empower myself4 ,i give myself the right of property in taking property to myself1 or giving myself the proprietor's power1 plenary power1 empowerment4#bia ,what ,i am competent to have is my 'competence4'#bib ,the sick1 children1 the aged1 are still competent for a great deal2 e4 g4 to receive their living instead of taking it4 ,if they are competent to control you to the extent of having you desire their continued existence1 then they have a power over you4#bic ,what competence the child possesses in its smile1 its play1 its crying1--in short1 in its mere existence6 ,are you capable of resisting its demand8 or do you not hold out to it1 as a mother1 your breast1--as a father1 so much of your belongings as it needs8 ,it puts you under constraint1 and therefore possesses what you call yours4#bid ,property1 therefore1 should not and cannot be done away with2 rather1 it must be torn from ghostly hands and become my property2 then will the erroneous consciousness that ,i cannot entitle myself to as much as ,i want vanish4--',but what cannot a man want8' ,well1 he who wants much1 and knows how to get it1 has in all times taken it to him1 as ,napoleon did the continent1 and the ,french ,algeria4 ,therefore the only point is just that the respectful 'lower classes' should at length learn to take to themselves what they want4 ,if they reach their hands too far for you1 why1 defend yourselves4#bie ,what 'man' wants does not by any means furnish a scale for me and my needs2 for ,i may have a use for more1 or for less4 ,rather1 ,i must have as much as ,i am competent to appropriate to myself4#bif #b4 ,in this matter1 as well as in others1 unions will multiply the individual's means and make secure his assailed property4#big ,when it is our will no longer to leave the land to the land-owners1 but to appropriate it to ourselves1 we unite ourselves for this purpose2 we form a union1 a societe1 which makes itself owner2 if we are successful1 they cease to be land-owners4 ,and1 as we chase them out from land and soil1 so we can also from many another property1 to make it our own1 the property of the--conquerors4 ,the conquerors form a society1 which one may conceive of as so great that by degrees it embraces all mankind2 but so-called mankind is also1 as such1 only a thought 7ghost72 its reality is the individuals4 ,and these individuals as a collective mass will deal not less arbitrarily with land and soil than does an isolated individual4#bih ,what all want to have a share in will be withdrawn from that individual who wants to have it for himself alone2 it is made a common possession4 ,as a common possession every one has a share in it1 and this share is his property4 ,just so1 even in our old relations1 a house which belongs to five heirs is their common possession2 but the fifth part of the proceeds is each one's property4 ,the property which for the present is still withheld from us can be better made use of when it is in the hands of us all4 ,let us therefore associate ourselves for the purpose of this robbery4#bii #f4--,,realization ,according to ,stirner the change which every one's own welfare requires is to come about in this way1--that men in sufficient number first undergo an inward change and recognize their own welfare as their highest law1 and that these men then bring to pass by force the outward change also3 to wit1 the abrogation of law1 ,state1 and property1 and the introduction of the new condition4 ,i4 ,the first and most important thing is the inward change of men4 ,revolution and insurrection must not be regarded as synonymous4 ,the former consists in an overturning of conditions1 of the existing condition or state1 the ,state or society1 and so is a political or social act2 the latter has indeed a transformation of conditions as its inevitable consequence1 but starts not from this but from men's discontent with themselves1 is not a lifting of shields but a lifting of individuals1 a coming up1 without regard to the arrangements that spring from it4 ,the ,revolution aimed at new arrangements3 the ,insurrection leads to no longer having ourselves arranged but arranging ourselves1 and sets no brilliant hope on 'institutions4' ,it is not a fight against the existing order1 since1 if it prospers1 the existing order collapses of itself2 it is only a working my way out of the existing order4 ,if ,i leave the existing order1 it is dead and passes into decay4 ,now1 since my purpose is not the upsetting of an existing order but the lifting of myself above it1 my aim and act are not political or social1 but1 as directed upon myself and my ownness alone1 egoistic4#cjj ,why was the founder of ,christianity not a revolutionist1 not a demagogue as the ,jews would have liked to see him2 why was he not a ,liberal8 ,because he expected no salvation from a change of conditions1 and this whole business was indifferent to him4 ,he was not a revolutionist1 like ,caesar for instance1 but an insurgent2 not an overturner of the ,state1 but one who straightened himself up4 ,he waged no ,liberal or political war against the existing authorities1 but wanted to go his own way regardless of these authorities and undisturbed by them4#cja ,everything sacred is a bond1 a fetter4 ,everything sacred will be1 must be1 perverted by perverters of law2 therefore our present time has such perverters by the quantity in all spheres4 ,they are preparing for the break of the law1 for lawlessness4#cjb ,regard yourself as more powerful than they allege you to be1 and you have more power2 regard yourself as more1 and you are more4#cjc ,the poor become free and proprietors only when they--'rise'4#cjd ,only from egoism can the lower classes get help1 and this help they must give to themselves and--will give to themselves4 ,if they do not let themselves be constrained into fear1 they are a power4#cje ,,ii4 ,furthermore1 in order to bring about the transformation of conditions#cjf and put the new condition in the place of law1 ,state1 and property1 violent insurrection against the condition that has hitherto existed is requisite4 #a4 ,the ,state can be overcome only by a violent arbitrariness4#cjg ,the individual's violence ,gewalt is called crime ,verbrechen1 and only by crime does he break brechen the ,state's authority ,gewalt when he opines that the ,state is not above him1 but he above the ,state4#cjh ,here too the result is that the thinkers' combat against the government is wrong1 viz4 in impotence1 so far as it cannot bring into the field anything but thoughts against a personal power 7the egoistic power stops the mouths of the thinkers74 ,the theoretical combat cannot complete the victory1 and the sacred power of thought succumbs to the might of egoism4 ,it is only the egoistic combat1 the combat of egoists on both sides1 that clears up everything4#cji ,the property question cannot be solved so gently as the ,socialists1 even the ,communists1 dream4 ,it is solved only by the war of all against all4#caj ,let me then retract the might which ,i have conceded to others out of ignorance regarding the strength of my own might6 ,let me say to myself1 ',whatever my might reaches to is my property1' and then claim as property all that ,i feel myself strong enough to attain2 and let me make my real property extend as far as ,i entitle 7i4 e4 empower7 myself to take4#caa ,in order to extirpate the unpossessing rabble1 egoism does not say1 ',wait and see what the ,board of ,equity will--donate to you in the name of the collectivity'1 but ',put your hand to it and take what you need6'#cab ,in this combat ,stirner agrees to all methods4 ,i will not draw back with a shudder from any act because there dwells in it a spirit of godlessness1 immorality1 wrongfulness1 as little as ,st4 ,boniface was disposed to abstain from chopping down the heathens' sacred oak on account of religious scruples4#cac ,the power over life and death1 which ,church and ,state reserved to themselves1 this too ,i call--mine4#cad ,the life of the individual man ,i rate only at what it is worth4 ,his goods1 the material and the spiritual alike1 are mine1 and ,i dispose of them as proprietor to the extent of my--might4#cae #b4 ,stirner depicts for us a single event in this violent transformation of conditions4 ,he assumes that certain men come to realize that they occupy a disproportionately unfavorable position in the ,state as compared with others who receive the preference4 ,those who are in the unfavorable position take courage to ask the question1 ',by what1 then1 is your property secure1 you favored ones8' and give themselves the answer1 ',by our refraining from interference6 ,by our protection1 therefore6 ,and what do you give us for it8 ,kicks and contempt you give the common people2 police oversight1 and a catechism with the chief sentence ,respect what is not yours1 what belongs to others6 respect others1 and especially superiors6 ,but we reply1 ,if you want our respect1 buy it for a price that shall be acceptable to us4 ,we will leave you your property1 if you pay duly for this leaving4 ,with what1 indeed1 does the general in time of peace pay for the many thousands of his yearly income8 or ,another for the sheer hundred-thousands and millions8 ,with what do you pay us for chewing potatoes and looking quietly on while you swallow oysters8 ,only buy the oysters from us as dear as we have to buy the potatoes from you1 and you may go on eating them4 ,or do you suppose the oysters do not belong to us as much as to you8 ,you will make an outcry about violence if we take hold and help eat them1 and you are right4 ,without violence we do not get them1 as you no less have them by doing violence to us4 ',but take the oysters and done with it1 and let us come to what is in a closer way our property 7for this other is only possession7--to labor4 ,we toil twelve hours in the sweat of our foreheads1 and you offer us a few groschen for it4 ,then take the like for your labor too4 ,we will come to terms all right if only we have first agreed on the point that neither any longer needs to--donate anything to the other4 ,for centuries we have offered you alms in our kindly--stupidity1 have given the mite of the poor and rendered to the masters what is--not the masters'2 now just open your bags1 for henceforth there is a tremendous rise in the price of our ware4 ,we will take nothing away from you1 nothing at all1 only you shall pay better for what you want to have4 ,what have you then8 ,i have an estate of a thousand acres4 ,and ,i am your plowman1 and will hereafter do your plowing only for a thaler a day wages4 ,then ,i'll get another4 ,you will not find one1 for we plowmen are no longer doing anything different1 and if one presents himself who takes less1 let him beware of us4'#caf ,,footnotes3 #bji ,stirner p4 #dci4 ,the page-numbers of ,stirner's first edition1 here cited1 agree almost exactly with those of the ,english translation under the title ,the ,ego and ,his ,own4 ,any passage quoted here will in general be found in the ,english translation either on the page whose number is given or on the preceding page2 for the early pages1 subtract two or three from the number4 #baj ,ib4 pp4 #dce-f4 #baa ,ib4 p4 #dfe4 #bab ,ib4 p4 #dfd4 #bac ,ib4 p4 #dff4 #bad ,stirner p4 #dgc4 #bae ,no more do his adherents1 e4 g4 ,mackay1 ,stirner pp4 #afd-e4 #baf ,stirner p4 #cbb4 #bag ,ib4 p4 #cdc4 #bah ,ib4 p4 #de4 #bai ,ib4 p4 #cah4 #bbj ,ib4 p4 #cah4 #bba ,ib4 p4 #dbj4 #bbb ,ib4 pp4 #ahi-ij4 #bbc ,stirner p4 #dbg4 #bbd ,ib4 p4 #dbh4 #bbe ,ib4 p4 #dbi4 #bbf ,ib4 p4 #beh4 #bbg ,ib4 p4 #dgh4 #bbh ,ib4 p4 #dbf4 #bbi ,stirner p4 #cie4 #bcj ,ib4 p4 #chg4 #bca ,to understand some of the following citations it is necessary to remember that in ,german law 7in the sense of common law1 or including this7 and right are one and the same word4--,while it is probably not fair to say that these assaults of ,stirner are directed only against some laws1 it does seem fair to say that they deny to the laws only some sorts of validity4 ,we have very little material for compiling the constructive side of ,stirner's teaching1 for he avoided specifying what things the ,egoists or their unions were to do in his future social order2 he said explicitly that the only way to know what a slave will do when he breaks his fetters is to wait and see4 ,but1 while he may nowhere have stated a law which is to obtain in the good time coming1 neither has he said anything which authorizes us to declare that none of his unions will ever make laws on such a basis as 7for instance7 the rules of the ,stock ,exchange4 ,on page #aad below is quoted a passage where he distinctly and approvingly contemplates the possibility that a union of his followers may fix a minimum wage1 and may threaten violence to any person who consents to work below the scale4 ,this would be law1 and might easily be the germ of a ,state4 ,on pages #ajh and #aji are quoted passages which strongly suggest that the ,egoistic union would undertake to defend its member against all interference with his possession of certain goods2 this would be both law and property4 #bcb ,stirner p4 #bdg4 #bcc ,stirner p4 #bdh4 #bcd ,ib4 p4 #bdf4 #bce ,ib4 p4 #cad4 #bcf ,ib4 p4 #bfh4 #bcg ,ib4 p4 #cag4 #bch ,ib4 pp4 #cag1 #caf4 #bci ,ib4 pp4 #bfe-f4 #bdj ,ib4 p4 #bgf4 #bda ,ib4 p4 #bgj4 #bdb ,ib4 pp4 #cbf-g4 #bdc ,ib4 pp4 #bdh-i4 #bdd ,stirner p4 #bge4 #bde ,ib4 p4 #bge4 #bdf ,ib4 pp4 #bei1 #bef4 #bdg ,ib4 p4 #bbj4 #bdh ,ib4 p4 #bea4 ,the ,german idiom for it suits me is it is right to me4 #bdi ,ib4 p4 #h4 #bej ,ib4 p4 #dij4 #bea ,ib4 p4 #dia4 #beb ,ib4 p4 #dia4 #bec ,ib4 p4 #g4 #bed ,stirner p4 #h4 #bee ,ib4 p4 #bjg4 #bef ,ib4 p4 #bai4 #beg ,ib4 p4 #bad4 #beh ,ib4 p4 #bab4 #bei ,ib4 p4 #bbj4 #bfj ,stirner p4 #cad4 #bfa ,ib4 p4 #bie4 #bfb ,ib4 pp4 #bca-b4 #bfc ,ib4 p4 #bca4 #bfd ,ib4 p4 #bei4 #bfe ,ib4 p4 #ccg4 #bff ,stirner p4 #beh4 #bfg ,ib4 p4 #cci4 #bfh ,ib4 p4 #bhj4 #bfi ,ib4 p4 #beg4 #bgj ,ib4 p4 #bih4 #bga ,ib4 p4 #bih4 #bgb ,ib4 p4 #bii4 #bgc ,stirner p4 #bih4 #bgd ,ib4 p4 #ccf4 #bge ,ib4 pp4 #ccg-h4 #bgf ,ib4 p4 #bce2 ,stirner ,vierteljahrsschrift p4 #aib4 #bgg ,stirner p4 #cjd4 #bgh ,stirner p4 #beh4 #bgi ,ib4 p #daa4 #bhj ,ib4 p4 #daf4 #bha ,ib4 p4 #daa4 #bhb ,stirner pp4 #dag-ah4 #bhc ,stirner ,vierteljahrsschrift pp4 #aic-d4 #bhd ,stirner p4 #cje4 #bhe ,ib4 p4 #ccb4 #bhf ,ib4 pp4 #cbg-h4 #bhg ,ib4 pp4 #cbh1 #cbf4 #bhh ,stirner pp4 #cbh-i4 #bhi ,zenker fails to recognize this when he asserts 7p4 #hj7 that ,stirner demands property based on the right of occupation #bij ,stirner p4 #cdj4 #bia ,ib4 p4 #cci4 #bib ,ib4 p4 #cea4 #bic ,stirner p4 #cea4 #bid ,ib4 pp4 #cea-b4 #bie ,ib4 pp4 #cdc-d4 #bif ,ib4 p4 #cdi4 #big ,ib4 p4 #cdb4 #bih ,stirner pp4 #cbi-cj4 ,see footnote on page #ig4 #bii ,ib4 p4 #ccj4 #cjj ,stirner pp4 #dba-b4 #cja ,stirner p4 #dbc4 #cjb ,ib4 p4 #bhd4 #cjc ,ib4 p4 #dhc4 #cjd ,ib4 p4 #cdd4 #cje ,ib4 p4 #cdc4 #cjf ,ib4 p4 #dbb4 #cjg ,ib4 p4 #aii4 #cjh ,ib4 #bei4 #cji ,stirner pp4 #aih-i4 #caj ,ib4 p4 #cdd4 ,but ,stirner does not mean that all are to fight against all2 they are merely to declare themselves no longer bound by the obligations of peace1 and then those who are able to agree with each other can at once make terms to suit themselves4 #caa ,ib4 p4 #cdj4 #cab ,ib4 p4 #cda4 #cac ,stirner p4 #dgi4 #cad ,ib4 p4 #dbd4 #cae ,ib4 pp4 #cbf-g4 #caf ,stirner pp4 #cei-fj4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,bakunin',s ,,teaching #a4--;,,general #a4 ,mikhail ,alexandrovitch ,bakunin was born in #ahad at ,pryamukhino1 district of ,torshok1 government of ,tver4 ,in #ahcd he entered the ,artillery ,school at ,st4 ,petersburg2 in #ahce he became an officer1 but resigned his commission in the same year4 ,he then lived alternately in ,pryamukhino and in ,moscow4 ,in #ahdj ,bakunin left ,russia4 ,in the following years revolutionary plans took him now to this part of ,europe1 now to that2 in ,paris he associated much with ,proudhon4 ,in #ahdi he was condemned to death in ,saxony1 but was pardoned2 in #ahej he was handed over to ,austria and was condemned to death there also2 in #ahea he was handed over to ,russia and was there kept a prisoner first at ,st4 ,petersburg1 then at ,schluesselburg2 in #aheg he was sent to ,siberia4 ,from ,siberia ,bakunin escaped to ,london in #ahfe1 by way of ,japan and ,california4 ,he took up his revolutionary activities again at once1 and thereafter lived by turns in the most various parts of ,europe4 ,in #ahfh he became a member of the ,association internationale des travailleurs1 and soon afterward he founded the ,alliance internationale de la democratie socialiste4 ,in #ahfi he came into intimate relations with the fanatic ,nechayeff1 but broke away from him in the next year4 ,in #ahgb he was expelled from the ,association internationale des travailleurs on the ground that his aims were different from those of the ,association4 ,he died at ,berne in #ahgf4 ,bakunin wrote a number of works of a philosophical and political nature4 #b4 ,bakunin's teaching about law1 the ,state1 and property finds its expression especially in the ,proposition motivee au comite central de la ,ligue de la paix et de la liberte#cag offered by him in #ahfh2 in the principles#cah of the ,alliance internationale de la democratie socialiste1 drawn up by him in #ahfh2 and in his work ,dieu et l',etat#cai 7#ahga74 ,writings which cannot with certainty be assigned to ,bakunin are here disregarded4 ,among such we may name especially the two works ,the ,principles of the ,revolution#cbj and ,catechism of the ,revolution1#cba in which ,nechayeff's views are set forth4 ,they are indeed ascribed to ,bakunin by some1#cbb but their matter is in contradiction to his other utterances as well as to his deeds2 he even used vehement language on several occasions against ,nechayeff's ,machiavellianism and ,jesuitism4#cbc ,even on the assumption that they are by ,bakunin1 they would at any rate express only a very insignificant chapter in his development4 #c4 ,bakunin designates his teaching about law1 the ,state1 and property as ,anarchism4 ,in a word1 we reject all legislation1 all authority1 all privileged1 chartered1 official1 and legal influence1--even if it were created by universal suffrage1--in the conviction that such things can but redound always to the advantage of a ruling minority of exploiters and to the disadvantage of the vast enslaved majority4 ,in this sense we are in truth ,anarchists4#cbd #b4--;,,basis ,bakunin regards the evolutionary law of the progress of mankind from a less perfect existence to the most perfect possible existence as the law which has supreme validity for man4 ,science has no other task than the careful intellectual reproduction1 in the most systematic form possible1 of the natural laws of corporeal1 mental1 and moral life1 alike in the physical and in the social world1 which two worlds constitute in fact only a single natural world4#cbe ,now science--that is1 true1 unselfish science#cbf--teaches us the following3 ,every evolution signifies the negation of its starting-point4 ,since according to the materialists the basis or starting-point is material1 the negation must necessarily be ideal4#cbg ,that is1 everything that lives makes the effort to perfect itself as fully as possible4#cbh ,thus1 according to the conception of materialists1 man's historical evolution also moves in a constantly ascending line4#cbi ,it is an altogether natural movement from the simple to the compound1 from down to up1 from the lower to the higher4#ccj ,history consists in the progressive negation of man's original bestiality by the evolution of his humanity4#cca ,man is originally a wild beast1 a cousin of the gorilla4 ,but he has already come out of the deep night of bestial impulses to make his way to the light of the mind4 ,this explains all his former missteps in the most natural way1 and comforts us somewhat with regard to his present aberrations4 ,he has turned his back on bestial slavery1 and is now moving toward freedom through the realm of slavery to ,god1 which lies between his bestial and his human existence4 ,behind us1 therefore1 lies our bestial existence1 before us our human2 the light of humanity1 which alone can light us and warm us1 deliver us and exalt us1 make us free1 happy1 and brothers1 stands never at the beginning of history1 but always only at its end4#ccb ,this historical negation of the past takes place now slowly1 sluggishly1 sleepily1 but now again passionately and violently4#ccc ,it always takes place with the inevitable certainty of natural law3 we believe in the final triumph of humanity on earth4,g ,we yearn for the coming of this triumph1 and seek to hasten it with united effort2#ccd we must never look back1 always forward alone2 before us is our sun1 before us our bliss4#cce #c4--,,law ,i4 ,in the progress of mankind from its bestial existence to a human existence1 one of the next steps1 according to ,bakunin1 will be the disappearance--not indeed of law1 but--of enacted law4 ,enacted law belongs to a low stage of evolution4 ,a political legislation1 whether it is based on a ruler's will or on the votes of representatives chosen by universal suffrage1 can never correspond to the laws of nature1 and is always baleful1 hostile to the liberty of the masses1 if only because it forces upon them a system of external and consequently despotic laws4#ccf ,no legislation has ever had another aim than that of confirming1 and exalting into a system1 the exploitation of the laboring populace by the ruling classes4#ccg ,thus every legislation has for its consequence at once the enslavement of society and the depravation of the legislators4#cch ,but mankind will soon leave behind it the stage of evolution to which law belongs4 ,enacted law is indissolubly connected with the ,state3 the ,state is a historically necessary evil1#cci a transitory form of society2#cdj with the ,state1 law in the jurists' sense1 the so-called legal regulation of popular life from above downward by legislation1 must necessarily fall4#cda ,everybody feels already that this moment is approaching1#cdb the transformation is at hand1#cdc it is to be expected within the nineteenth century4#cdd ,,ii4 ,in the next stage of evolution1 which mankind must speedily reach1 there will be no enacted law to be sure1 but there will be law even there4 ,what ,bakunin predicts with regard to this next stage of evolution enables us to perceive that according to his expectation norms will then prevail which are based on a general will1#cde and which even secure obedience by forcible compulsion if necessary1#cdf so that they are legal norms4 ,among such legal norms of our next stage of evolution ,bakunin mentions that by virtue of which there exists a right to independence4#cdg ,for me as an individual this means that ,i as a man am entitled to obey no other man1 and to act only in accordance with my own judgment4#cdh ,but1 furthermore1 every nation1 every province1 and every commune has the unlimited right to complete independence1 provided that its internal constitution does not threaten the independence and liberty of the adjoining territories4#cdi ,likewise ,bakunin regards it as a legal norm of the next stage of evolution that contracts must be lived up to4 ,to be sure1 the obligation of contracts has its limits4 ,human justice cannot recognize anything as creating an obligation in perpetuity4 ,all rights and duties are founded on liberty4 ,the right of freely uniting and separating is the first and most important of all political rights4#cej ,another legal norm mentioned by ,bakunin as belonging to the next stage of evolution is that by virtue of which the land1 the instruments of labor1 and all other capital1 as the collective property of the whole of society1 will exclusively serve for the use of the agricultural and industrial associations4#cea #d4--,,the ,,state ,i4 ,in the progress of mankind from its bestial existence to a human existence the ,state will shortly1 according to ,bakunin1 disappear4 ,the ,state is a historically temporary arrangement1 a transitory form of society4#ceb #a4 ,the ,state belongs to a low stage of evolution4 ,man takes the first step from his bestial existence to a human existence by religion2 but so long as he remains religious he will never reach his goal2 for every religion condemns him to absurdity1 guides him into a wrong course1 and makes him seek the divine in place of the human4#cec ,all religions1 with their gods1 demigods1 and prophets1 their ,messiahs and saints1 are products of the credulous fancy of men who had not yet come to the full development and entire possession of their intellectual powers4#ced ,this holds good also1 and particularly1 of ,christianity3 it is the complete inversion of common-sense and reason4#cee ,the ,state is a product of religion4 ,in all lands it is born of a marriage of violence1 robbery1 spoliation1--in short1 of war and conquest1--with the gods whom the religious enthusiasm of the nations had gradually created4#cef ,he who speaks of revelation speaks thereby of revealers enlightened by ,god1 of ,messiahs1 prophets1 priests1 and lawgivers2 and1 if once these are recognized on earth as representatives of the ,deity1 as sacred teachers of mankind chosen by ,god himself1 then of course they have unlimited authority4 ,all men owe them blind obedience2 for no human reason1 no human justice1 is valid against the divine reason and justice4 ,as slaves of ,god1 men must be also slaves of the ,church1 and of the ,state so far as the ,church hallows the ,state4#ceg ,no ,state is without religion1 and none can be without religion4 ,take the freest ,states in the world1--for instance1 the ,united ,states of ,america or the ,swiss ,confederacy1--and see what an important part divine providence plays in all public utterances there4#ceh ,it is not without good reason that governments hold the belief in ,god to be an essential condition of their power4#cei ,there is a class of people who1 even if they do not believe1 must necessarily act as if they believed4 ,this class embraces all mankind's tormentors1 oppressors1 and exploiters4 ,priests1 monarchs1 statesmen1 soldiers1 financiers1 office-holders of all sorts2 policemen1 gendarmes1 jailers1 and executioners2 capitalists1 usurers1 heads of business1 and house-owners2 lawyers1 economists1 politicians of all shades1--all of them1 down to the smallest grocer1 will always repeat in chorus the words of ,voltaire1 that1 if there were no ,god1 it would be necessary to invent him2 'for must not the populace have its religion8' ,it is the very safety-valve4#cfj #b4 ,the characteristics of the ,state correspond to the low stage of evolution to which it belongs4 ,the ,state enslaves the governed4 ,the ,state is force2 nay1 it is the silly parading of force4 ,it does not propose to win love or to make converts2 if it puts its finger into anything1 it does so only in an unfriendly way2 for its essence consists not in persuasion1 but in command and compulsion4 ,however much pains it may take1 it cannot conceal the fact that it is the legal maimer of our will1 the constant negation of our liberty4 ,even when it commands the good1 it makes this valueless by commanding it2 for every command slaps liberty in the face2 as soon as the good is commanded1 it is transformed into the evil in the eyes of true 7that is1 human1 by no means divine7 morality1 of the dignity of man1 of liberty2 for man's liberty1 morality1 and dignity consist precisely in doing the good not because he is commanded to but because he recognizes it1 wills it1 and loves it4#cfa ,at the same time the ,state depraves those who govern4 ,it is characteristic of privilege1 and of every privileged position1 that they poison the minds and hearts of men4 ,he who is politically or economically privileged has his mind and heart depraved4 ,this is a law of social life1 which admits of no exceptions and is applicable to entire nations as well as to classes1 corporations1 and individuals4 ,it is the law of equality1 the foremost of the conditions of liberty and humanity4#cfb ,powerful ,states can maintain themselves only by crime1 little ,states are virtuous only from weakness4#cfc ,we abhor monarchy with all our hearts2 but at the same time we are convinced that a great republic too1 with army1 bureaucracy1 and political centralization1 will make a business of conquest without and oppression within1 and will be incapable of guaranteeing happiness and liberty to its subjects even if it calls them citizens4#cfd ,even in the purest democracies1 such as the ,united ,states and ,switzerland1 a privileged minority faces the vast enslaved majority4#cfe #c4 ,but the stage of mankind's evolution to which the ,state belongs will soon be left behind4 ,from the beginning of historic society to this day1 there has always been oppression of the nations by the ,state4 ,is it to be inferred that this oppression is inseparably connected with the existence of human society8#cff ,certainly not6 ,the great1 true goal of history1 the only one for which there is justification1 is our humanization and deliverance1 the genuine liberty and prosperity of all socially-living men4#cfg ,in the triumph of humanity is at the same time the goal and the essential meaning of history1 and this triumph can be brought about only by liberty4#cfh ,as in the past the ,state was historically necessary evil1 it must just as necessarily1 sooner or later1 disappear altogether4#cfi ,everybody feels already that this moment is approaching1#cgj the transformation is at hand1#cga it is to be expected within the nineteenth century4#cgb ,,ii4 ,in the next stage of evolution1 which mankind must speedily reach1 the place of the ,state will be taken by a social human life on the basis of the legal norm that contracts must be lived up to4 #a4 ,even after the ,state is done away1 men will live together socially4 ,the goal of human evolution1 complete humanity1#cgc can be attained only in a society4 ,man becomes man1 and his humanity becomes conscious and real1 only in society and by the joint activity of society4 ,he frees himself from the yoke of external nature only by joint--that is1 societary--labor3 it alone is capable of making the surface of the earth fit for the evolution of mankind2 but without such external liberation neither intellectual nor moral liberation is possible4 ,furthermore1 man gets free from the yoke of his own nature only by education and instruction3 they alone make it possible for him to subordinate the impulses and motions of his body to the guidance of his more and more developed mind2 but education and instruction are of an exclusively societary nature4 ,outside of society man would have remained forever a wild beast1 or1 what comes to about the same thing1 a saint4 ,finally1 in his isolation man cannot have the consciousness of liberty4 ,what liberty means for man is that he is recognized as free1 and treated as free1 by those who surround him2 liberty is not a matter of isolation1 therefore1 but of mutuality--not of separateness1 but of combination2 for every man it is only the mirroring of his humanity 7that is1 of his human rights7 in the consciousness of his brothers4#cgd ,but men will be held together in society no longer by a supreme authority1 but by the legally binding force of contract4 ,complete humanity can be attained only in a free society4 ,my liberty1 or1 what means the same1 my human dignity1 consists in my being entitled1 as man1 to obey no other man and to act only on my own judgment4#cge ,i myself am a free man only so far as ,i recognize the humanity and liberty of all the men who surround me4 ,in respecting their humanity ,i respect my own4 ,a cannibal1 who treats his prisoner as a wild beast and eats him1 is himself not a man1 but a beast4 ,a slaveholder is not a man1 but a master4#cgf ,the more free men surround me1 and the deeper and broader their freedom is1 so much deeper1 broader1 and more powerful is my freedom too4 ,on the other hand1 every enslavement of men is at the same time a limitation of my freedom1 or1 what is the same thing1 a negation of my human existence by its bestial existence4#cgg ,but a free society cannot be held together by authority1#cgh but only by contract4#cgi #b4 ,how will the future society shape itself in detail8 ,unity is the goal toward which mankind ceaselessly moves4#chj ,therefore men will unite with the utmost amplitude4 ,but the place of the old organization1 built from above downward upon force and authority1 will be taken by a new one which has no other basis than the natural needs1 inclinations1 and endeavors of men4#cha ,thus we come to a free union of individuals into communes1 of communes into provinces1 of provinces into nations1 and finally of nations into the ,united ,states of ,europe and later of the whole world4#chb ,every nation1--be it great or small1 strong or weak1--every province1 and every commune has the unlimited right to complete independence1 provided that its internal constitution does not threaten the independence and liberty of the adjoining territories4#chc ,all of what are known as the historic rights of nations are totally done away2 all questions regarding natural1 political1 strategic1 and economic boundaries are henceforth to be classed as ancient history and resolutely disallowed4#chd ,by the fact that a territory has once belonged to a ,state1 even by a voluntary adhesion1 it is in no wise bound to remain always united with this ,state4 ,human justice1 the only justice that means anything to us1 cannot recognize anything as creating an obligation in perpetuity4 ,all rights and duties are founded on liberty4 ,the right of freely uniting and separating is the first and most important of all political rights4 ,without this right the ,league would be merely a concealed centralization still4#che #e4--,,property ,i4 ,in the progress of mankind from its bestial existence to a human existence1 according to ,bakunin1 we must shortly come to the disappearance--not indeed of property1 but--of property's present form1 unlimited private property4 #a4 ,private property1 so far as it fastens upon all things without distinction1 belongs to the same low stage of evolution as the ,state4 ,private property is at once the consequence and the basis of the ,state4#chf ,every government is necessarily based on exploitation on the one hand1 and on the other hand has exploitation for its goal and bestows upon exploitation protection and legality4#chg ,in every ,state there exist two kinds of relationship1--to wit1 government and exploitation4 ,if really governing means sacrificing one's self for the good of the governed1 then indeed the second relationship is in direct contradiction to the first4 ,but let us only understand our point rightly6 ,from the ideal standpoint1 be it theological or metaphysical1 the good of the masses can of course not mean their temporal welfare3 what are a few decades of earthly life in comparison to eternity8 ,hence one must govern the masses with regard not to this coarse earthly happiness1 but to their eternal good4 ,outward sufferings and privations may even be welcomed from the educator's standpoint1 since an excess of sensual enjoyment kills the immortal soul4 ,but now the contradiction disappears4 ,exploiting and governing mean the same2 the one completes the other1 and serves as its means and its end4#chh #b4 ,private property1 when it exists in all things without distinction1 has such characteristics as correspond to the low stage of evolution to which it belongs4 ,on the privileged representatives of head-work 7who at present are called to be the representatives of society1 not because they have more sense1 but only because they were born in the privileged class7 such property bestows all the blessings and also all the debasement of our civilization3 wealth1 luxury1 profuse expenditure1 comfort1 the pleasures of family life1 the exclusive enjoyment of political liberty1 and hence the possibility of exploiting millions of laborers and governing them at discretion in one's own interest4 ,what is there left for the representatives of handwork1 these numberless millions of proletarians or of small farmers8 ,hopeless misery1 not even the joys of the family 7for the family soon becomes a burden to the poor man71 ignorance1 barbarism1 an almost bestial existence1 and this for consolation with it all1 that they are serving as pedestal for the culture1 liberty1 and depravity of a minority4#chi ,the freer and more highly developed trade and industry are in any place1 the more complete is the demoralization of the privileged few on the one hand1 and the greater are the misery1 the complaints1 and the just indignation of the laboring masses on the other4 ,england1 ,belgium1 ,france1 ,germany1 are certainly the countries of ,europe in which trade and industry enjoy greatest freedom and have made most progress4 ,in these very countries the most cruel pauperism prevails1 the gulf between capitalists and landlords on the one hand and the laboring class on the other is greater than in any other country4 ,in ,russia1 in the ,scandinavian countries1 in ,italy1 in ,spain1 where trade and industry are still embryonic1 people but seldom die of hunger except on extraordinary occasions4 ,in ,england starvation is an every-day thing4 ,and not only individuals starve1 but thousands1 tens of thousands1 hundreds of thousands4#cij #c4 ,but mankind will soon have passed the low stage of evolution to which private property belongs4 ,as there has at all times been oppression of the nations by the ,state1 so has there also always been exploitation of the masses of slaves1 serfs1 wage-workers1 by a ruling minority4#cia ,but this exploitation is no more inseparably united with the existence of human society#cib than is that oppression4 ,by the force of things themselves#cic unlimited private property will be done away4 ,everybody feels already that this moment is approaching1#cid the transformation is already at hand1#cie it is to be expected within the nineteenth century4#cif ,,ii4 ,in the next stage of evolution1 which mankind must speedily reach1 property will be so constituted that there will indeed be private property in the objects of consumption1 but in land1 instruments of labor1 and all other capital1 there will be only social property4 ,the future society will be collectivist4 ,in this way every laborer has the product of his labor guaranteed to him4 #a4 ,justice must serve as basis for the new world3 without it1 no liberty1 no living together1 no prosperity1 no peace4#cig ,justice1 not that of jurists1 nor yet that of theologians1 nor yet that of metaphysicians1 but simple human justice1 commands#cih that in future every man's enjoyment corresponds to the quantity of goods produced by him4#cii ,the thing is1 then1 to find a means which makes it impossible for any one1 whoever he may be1 to exploit the labor of another1 and permits each to share in the enjoyment of society's stock of goods 7which is solely a product of labor7 only so far as he has1 by his labor1 directly contributed to the production of this stock of goods4#djj ,this means consists in the principle that the land1 the instruments of labor1 and all other capital1 as the collective property of the whole of society1 shall exclusively serve for the use of the laborers1--that is1 of their agricultural and industrial associations4#dja ,i am not a ,communist1 but a ,collectivist4#djb #b4 ,the collectivism of the future society by no means demands the setting up of any supreme authority4 ,in the name of liberty1 on which alone an economic or a political organization can be founded1 we shall always protest against everything that looks even remotely similar to ,communism or ,state ,socialism4#djc ,i would have the organization of society1 and of the collective or social property1 from below upward by the voice of free union1 not from above downward by means of any authority4#djd #f4--,,realization ,the change that is promptly to be expected in the course of mankind's progress from its bestial existence to a human existence1--the disappearance of the ,state1 the transformation of law and property1 and the appearance of the new condition1--will come to pass1 according to ,bakunin1 by a social revolution2 that is1 by a violent subversion of the old order1 which will be automatically brought about by the power of things1 but which those who foresee the course of evolution have the task of hastening and facilitating4 ,i4 ,to escape its wretched lot the populace has three ways1 two imaginary and one real4 ,the two first are the rum-shop and the church1 the third is the social revolution4#dje ,a cure is possible only through the social revolution1#djf--that is1 through the destruction of all institutions of inequality1 and the establishment of economic and social equality4#djg ,the revolution will not be made by anybody4 ,revolutions are never made1 neither by individuals nor yet by secret societies4 ,they come about automatically1 in a measure2 the power of things1 the current of events and facts1 produces them4 ,they are long preparing in the depth of the obscure consciousness of the masses--then they break out suddenly1 not seldom on apparently slight occasion4#djh ,the revolution is already at hand to-day2#dji everybody feels its approach2#daj we are to expect it within the nineteenth century4#daa #a4 ,by the revolution we understand the unchaining of everything that is to-day called 'evil passions1' and the destruction of everything that in the same language is called 'public order'4#dab ,the revolution will rage not against men1 but against relations and things4#dac ,bloody revolutions are often necessary1 thanks to human stupidity2 yet they are always an evil1 a monstrous evil and a great disaster1 not only with regard to the victims1 but also for the sake of the purity and perfection of the purpose in whose name they take place4#dad ,one must not wonder if in the first moment of their uprising the people kill many oppressors and exploiters--this misfortune1 which is of no more importance anyhow than the damage done by a thunderstorm1 can perhaps not be avoided4 ,but this natural fact will be neither moral nor even useful4 ,political massacres have never killed parties2 particularly have they always shown themselves impotent against the privileged classes2 for authority is vested far less in men than in the position which the privileged acquire by any institutions1 particularly by the ,state and private property4 ,if one would make a thorough revolution1 therefore1 one must attack things and relationships1 destroy property and the ,state3 then there is no need of destroying men and exposing one's self to the inevitable reaction which the slaughtering of men always has provoked and always will provoke in every society4 ,but1 in order to have the right to deal humanely with men without danger to the revolution1 one must be inexorable toward things and relationships1 destroy everything1 and first and foremost property and its inevitable consequence the ,state4 ,this is the whole secret of the revolution4#dae ,the revolution1 as the power of things to-day necessarily presents it before us1 will not be national1 but international1--that is1 universal4 ,in view of the threatened league of all privileged interests and all reactionary powers in ,europe1 in view of the terrible instrumentalities that a shrewd organization puts at their disposal1 in view of the deep chasm that to-day yawns between the bourgeoisie and the laborers everywhere1 no revolution can count on success if it does not speedily extend itself beyond the individual nation to all other nations4 ,but the revolution can never cross the frontiers and become general unless it has in it the foundations for this generality2 that is1 unless it is pronouncedly socialistic1 and1 by equality and justice1 destroys the ,state and establishes liberty4 ,for nothing can better inspire and uplift the sole true power of the century1 the laborers1 than the complete liberation of labor and the shattering of all institutions for the protection of hereditary property and of capital4#daf ,a political and national revolution cannot win1 therefore1 unless the political revolution becomes social1 and the national revolution1 by the very fact of its fundamentally socialistic and ,state-destroying character1 becomes a universal revolution4#dag #b4 ,the revolution1 as we understand it1 must on its very first day completely and fundamentally destroy the ,state and all ,state institutions4 ,this destruction will have the following natural and necessary effects4 7a7 ,the bankruptcy of the ,state4 7b7 ,the cessation of ,state collection of private debts1 whose payment is thenceforth left to the debtor's pleasure4 7c7 ,the cessation of the payment of taxes1 and of the levying of direct or indirect imposts4 7d7 ,the dissolution of the army1 the courts1 the corps of office-holders1 the police1 and the clergy4 7e7 ,the stoppage of the official administration of justice1 the abolition of all that is called juristic law and of its exercise4 ,hence1 the valuelessness1 and the consignment to an auto-da-fe1 of all titles to property1 testamentary dispositions1 bills of sale1 deeds of gift1 judgments of courts--in short1 of the whole mass of papers relating to private law4 ,everywhere1 and in regard to everything1 the revolutionary fact in place of the law created and guaranteed by the ,state4 7f7 ,the confiscation of all productive capital and instruments of labor in favor of the associations of laborers1 which will use them for collective production4 7g7 ,the confiscation of all ,church and ,state property1 as well as of the bullion in private hands1 for the benefit of the commune formed by the league of the associations of laborers4 ,in return for the confiscated goods1 those who are affected by the confiscation receive from the commune their absolute necessities2 they are free to acquire more afterward by their labor4#dah ,the destruction will be followed by the reshaping4 ,hence1 7h7 ,the organization of the commune by the permanent association of the barricades and by its organ1 the council of the revolutionary commune1 to which every barricade1 every street1 every quarter1 sends one or two responsible and revocable representatives with binding instructions4 ,the council of the commune can appoint executive committees out of its membership for the various branches of the revolutionary administration4 7i7 ,the declaration of the capital1 insurgent and organized as a commune1 that1 after the righteous destruction of the ,state of authority and guardianship1 it renounces the right 7or rather the usurpation7 of governing the provinces and setting a standard for them4 7k7 ,the summons to all provinces1 communities1 and associations1 to follow the example given by the capital1 first to organize themselves in revolutionary form1 then to send to a specified meeting-place responsible and revocable representatives with binding instructions1 and so to constitute the league of the insurgent associations1 communities1 and provinces1 and to organize a revolutionary power capable of defeating the reaction4 ,the sending1 not of official commissioners of the revolution with some sort of badges1 but of agitators for the revolution1 to all the provinces and communities--especially to the peasants1 who cannot be revolutionized by scientific principles nor yet by the edicts of any dictatorship1 but only by the revolutionary fact itself3 that is1 by the inevitable effects of the complete cessation of official ,state activity in all the communities4 ,the abolition of the national ,state1 not only in other senses1 but in this1--that all foreign countries1 provinces1 communities1 associations1 nay1 all individuals who have risen in the name of the same principles1 without regard to the present ,state boundaries1 are accepted as part of the new political system and nationality2 and that1 on the other hand1 it shall exclude from membership those provinces1 communities1 associations1 or personages1 of the same country1 who take the side of the reaction4 ,thus must the universal revolution1 by the very fact of its binding the insurgent countries together for joint defence1 march on unchecked over the abolished boundaries and the ruins of the formerly existing ,states to its triumph4#dai ,,ii4 ,to serve1 to organize1 and to hasten#dbj the revolution1 which must everywhere be the work of the people#dba--this alone is the task of those who foresee the course of evolution4 ,we have to perform midwife's services#dbb for the new time1 to help on the birth of the revolution4#dbc ,to this end we must1 first1 spread among the masses thoughts that correspond to the instincts of the masses4#dbd ,what keeps the salvation-bringing thought from going through the laboring masses with a rush8 ,their ignorance2 and particularly the political and religious prejudices which1 thanks to the exertions of the ruling classes1 to this day obscure the laborer's natural thought and healthy feelings4#dbe ,hence the aim must consist in making him completely conscious of what he wants1 evoking in him the thought that corresponds to his impulses4 ,if once the thoughts of the laboring masses have mounted to the level of their impulses1 then will their will be soon determined and their power irresistible4#dbf ,furthermore1 we must form1 not indeed the army of the revolution1--the army can never be anything but the people1--but yet a sort of staff for the revolutionary army4 ,these must be devoted1 energetic1 talented men1 who1 above all1 love the people without ambition and vanity1 and who have the faculty of mediating between the revolutionary thought and the instincts of the people4 ,no very great number of such men is requisite4 ,a hundred revolutionists firmly and seriously bound together are enough for the international organization of all ,europe4 ,two or three hundred revolutionists are enough for the organization of the largest country4#dbg ,here1 especially1 is the field for the activity of secret societies4#dbh ,in order to serve1 organize1 and hasten the general revolution#dbi ,bakunin founded the ,alliance internationale de la democratie socialiste4 ,it was to pursue a double purpose3 7a7 ,the spreading of correct views about politics1 economics1 and philosophical questions of every kind1 among the masses in all countries2 an active propaganda by newspapers1 pamphlets1 and books1 as well as by the founding of public associations4 7b7 ,the winning of all wise1 energetic1 silent1 well-disposed men who are sincerely devoted to the idea2 the covering of ,europe1 and ,america too so far as possible1 with a network of self-sacrificing revolutionists1 strong by unity4#dcj ,,footnotes3 #cag ,printed in ,o,euvres de ,michel ,bakounine 7#ahie7 pp4 #a-bje1 under the title ,federalisme1 socialisme et antitheologisme4 #cah ,printed in ,l',alliance de la democratie socialiste et l',association internationale des travailleurs 7#ahgc7 pp4 #aah-ce4 #cai ,only fragments have been printed3 one under the title ,l',empire knoutogermanique et la ,revolution sociale 7#ahga71 a second under the title ,dieu et l',etat 7#ahhb71 a third under the same title in ,o,euvres de ,michel ,bakounine 7#ahie7 pp4 #bfa-cbf4 #cbj ,printed in ,dragomanoff1 ,michail ,bakunins sozial-politischer ,briefwechsel mit ,alexander ,iw4 ,herzen und ,ogarjow1 ,german translation by ,minzes 7#ahie7 pp4 #ceh-fd4 #cba ,a part is printed in ,french translation1 in ,l',alliance de la democratie socialiste et l',association internationale des travailleurs 7#ahgc7 pp4 #ij-ie1 the rest in ,dragomanoff pp4 #cga-hc4 #cbb ,l',alliance de la democratie socialiste et l',association internationale des travailleurs p4 #hi2 ,dragomanoff p4 ,,ix4 #cbc ,ba4 ,briefe pp4 #bbc1 #bcc1 #bff1 #bgb4 #cbd ,ba4 ,dieu p4 #cd4 #cbe ,ib4 p4 #cc4 #cbf ,ib4 p4 #c4 #cbg ,ib4 p4 #eb4 #cbh ,ba4 ,proposition p4 #ajd4 #cbi ,ba4 ,dieu p4 #eb4 #ccj ,ib4 p4 #g4 #cca ,ib4 p4 #af4 #ccb ,ib4 p4 #af4 #ccc ,ib4 p4 #af4 #ccd ,ba4 ,proposition p4 #aee4 #cce ,ba4 ,dieu p4 #af4 #ccf ,ib4 pp4 #bg-h4 #ccg ,ba4 ,programme p4 #chb4 #cch ,ba4 ,dieu p4 #cj4 #cci ,ba4 ,dieu ,o,euvres p4 #bhg4 #cdj ,ib4 p4 #bhe4 #cda ,ba4 ,programme p4 #chb4 #cdb ,ba4 ,articles p4 #aac4 #cdc ,ba4 ,statuts p4 #abe4 #cdd ,ib4 p4 #abe4 #cde ,ba4 ,dieu ,o,euvres p4 #bha4 #cdf ,ba4 ,statuts pp4 #abi-ca4 #cdg ,ba4 ,proposition pp4 #ag-ah4 #cdh ,ba4 ,dieu ,o,euvres p4 #bha4 #cdi ,ba4 ,proposition pp4 #ag-ah4 #cej ,ba4 ,proposition p4 #ah4 #cea ,ba4 ,statuts p4 #acc4 #ceb ,ba4 ,dieu ,o,euvres p4 #bhe4 #cec ,ba4 ,proposition p4 #acd4 #ced ,ba4 ,dieu p4 #ai4 #cee ,ib4 p4 #hg4 #cef ,ba4 ,dieu ,o,euvres p4 #bhg4 #ceg ,ba4 ,dieu p4 #bj4 #ceh ,ib4 p4 #ig4 #cei ,ib4 p4 #i4 #cfj ,ib4 p4 #aa4 #cfa ,ba4 ,dieu ,o,euvres p4 #bhh4 #cfb ,ba4 ,dieu pp4 #bi-cj4 #cfc ,ba4 ,proposition p4 #aed #cfd ,ib4 p4 #aj4 #cfe ,ba4 ,dieu ,o,euvres pp4 #bhg-h4 #cff ,ba4 ,dieu p4 #ad4 #cfg ,ib4 p4 #fe4 #cfh ,ib4 p4 #ec #cfi ,ba4 ,dieu ,o,euvres p4 #bhg4 #cgj ,ba4 ,articles p4 #aac4 #cga ,ba4 ,statuts p4 #abe4 #cgb ,ba4 ,statuts p4 #abe4 #cgc ,ba4 ,dieu p4 #aa4 #cgd ,ba4 ,dieu ,o,euvres pp4 #bgg-h4 #cge ,ib4 p4 #bha4 #cgf ,ib4 p4 #bgi4 #cgg ,ib4 p4 #bha4 #cgh ,ib4 p4 #bhc4 #cgi ,ba4 ,proposition pp4 #af-ah4 #chj ,ib4 p4 #bj4 #cha ,ba4 ,proposition p4 #af4 #chb ,ib4 pp4 #af-ag4 #chc ,ib4 pp4 #ag-ah4 #chd ,ib4 p4 #ag4 #che ,ib4 p4 #ah4 #chf ,ba4 ,statuts p4 #abh4 #chg ,ba4 ,dieu ,o,euvres p4 #cbd4 #chh ,ib4 pp4 #cbc-d4 #chi ,ba4 ,proposition pp4 #cb-c4 #cij ,ba4 ,proposition pp4 #bf-g4 #cia ,ba4 ,dieu p4 #ad4 #cib ,ib4 p4 #ad4 #cic ,ba4 ,programme p4 #chb4 #cid ,ba4 ,articles p4 #aac4 #cie ,ba4 ,statuts p4 #abe4 #cif ,ib4 p4 #abe4 #cig ,ba4 ,proposition pp4 #ed-e4 #cih ,ib4 p4 #ei4 #cii ,ba4 ,statuts p4 #acc4 #djj ,ba4 ,proposition p4 #ee4 #dja ,ba4 ,statuts p4 #acc4 #djb ,ba4 ,discours p4 #bg4 #djc ,ba4 ,proposition p4 #ef4 #djd ,ba4 ,discours p4 #bh4 #dje ,ba4 ,dieu p4 #aj4 #djf ,ib4 p4 #ah4 #djg ,ib4 p4 #de4 #djh ,ba4 ,statuts p4 #acb4 #dji ,ib4 p4 #abe4 #daj ,ba4 ,articles p4 #aac4 #daa ,ba4 ,statuts p4 #abe4 #dab ,ba4 ,statuts p4 #abi4 #dac ,ib4 p4 #abf4 #dad ,ba4 ,volkssache p4 #cji4 #dae ,ba4 ,statuts pp4 #abg-h4 #daf ,ib4 p4 #abe4 #dag ,ib4 p4 #aca4 #dah ,ba4 ,statuts pp4 #abi-cj4 ,bakunin is writing in a world where the ,church is everywhere part of the ,state machine4 ,would his words about ,church property apply equally1 according to him1 in the ,united ,states1 where the ,church property is in general made up of the free gifts of individual believers8 ,perhaps2 for he would have no love for the ,church even here1 and he is obviously hostile to anything in the nature of mortmain4 ,if so1 how about college property8 #dai ,ba4 ,statuts pp4 #acj-ca4 #dbj ,ib4 p4 #abe4 #dba ,ib4 p4 #aca4 #dbb ,ba4 ,volkssache p4 #cji4 #dbc ,ba4 ,statuts p4 #acb4 #dbd ,ib4 p4 #acb4 #dbe ,ba4 ,articles p4 #ajc4 #dbf ,ba4 ,articles p4 #ajc4 #dbg ,ba4 ,statuts p4 #acb4 #dbh ,ib4 p4 #acb4 #dbi ,ib4 p4 #abe4 #dcj ,ib4 pp4 #abe-f4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,vii ,,kropotkin',s ,,teaching #a4--;,,general #a4 ,prince ,peter ,alexeyevitch ,kropotkin was born at ,moscow in #ahdb4 ,from #ahfb to #ahfg he was an officer of the ,cossacks of the ,amur2 during this time he traveled over a great part of ,siberia and ,manchuria4 ,from #ahfg to #ahga he studied mathematics at ,st4 ,petersburg2 at this time he was also secretary of the ,geographical ,society2 under its commission he explored the glaciers of ,finland and ,sweden in #ahga4 ,in #ahgb ,kropotkin visited ,belgium and ,switzerland1 where he joined the ,association internationale des travailleurs4 ,in the same year he returned to ,st4 ,petersburg and became a prominent member of the ,tchaikoffski secret society4 ,this was found out in #ahgd4 ,he was arrested and kept in prison until in #ahgf he succeeded in escaping to ,england4 ,from ,england ,kropotkin went to ,switzerland in #ahgg1 but was expelled from that country in #ahha4 ,thenceforth he resided alternately in ,england and ,france4 ,in ,france1 in #ahhc1 he was condemned to five years' imprisonment for membership in a prohibited association2 he was kept in prison till #ahhf1 and then pardoned4 ,since then he has lived in ,england4 ,kropotkin has published geographical works and accounts of travel1 and also writings in the spheres of economics1 politics1 and the philosophy of law4 #b4 ,for ,kropotkin's teaching about law1 the ,state1 and property1 the most important sources are his many short works1 newspaper articles1 and lectures4 ,the articles that he published from #ahgi to #ahhb in ,le ,revolte of ,geneva1 appeared in #ahhe as a book under the title ,paroles d'un revolte4 ,the only large work in which he develops his teaching is ,la conquete du pain 7#ahib74 #c4 ,kropotkin calls his teaching ,anarchism4 ,when in the bosom of the ,international there was formed a party which no more acknowledged an authority inside that association than any other authority1 this party called itself at first federalist1 then anti-authoritarian or hostile to the ,state4 ,at that time it avoided describing itself as ,anarchistic4 ,the word an-archie 7it was so written at that time7 seemed to identify the party too much with the adherents of ,proudhon1 whose reform ideas the ,international was opposing4 ,but for this very reason its opponents delighted in using this designation in order to produce confusion2 besides1 the name made the assertion possible that from the very name of the ,anarchists it was evident that they aimed merely at disorder and chaos1 without thinking any farther4 ,the ,anarchistic party was not slow to adopt the designation that was given to it4 ,at first it still insisted on the hyphen between an and archie1 with the explanation that in this form the word an-archie1 being of ,greek origin1 denoted absence of dominion and not 'disorder'2 but it soon decided to spare the proof-reader his useless trouble and the reader his lesson in ,greek1 and used the name as it stood4#dca ,and in fact the word anarchie1 which negates the whole of this so-called order and reminds us of the fairest moments in the lives of the nations1 is well chosen for a party that looks forward to conquering a better future4#dcb #b4--;,,basis ,according to ,kropotkin1 the law which has supreme validity for man is the evolutionary law of the progress of mankind from a less happy existence to an existence as happy as possible2 from this law he derives the commandment of justice and the commandment of energy4 #a4 ,the supreme law for man is the evolutionary law of the progress of mankind from a less happy existence to an existence as happy as possible4 ,there is only one scientific method1 the method of the natural sciences1#dcc and we apply this method also in the sciences that relate to man1#dcd particularly in the science of society4#dce ,now1 a mighty revolution is at present taking place#dcf in the entire realm of science2 it is the result of the philosophy of evolution4#dcg ,the idea hitherto prevalent1 that everything in nature stands fast1 is fallen1 destroyed1 annihilated4 ,everything in nature changes2 nothing remains3 neither the rock which appears to us to be immovable and the continent which we call terra firma1 nor the inhabitants1 their customs1 habits1 and thoughts4 ,all that we see about us is a transitory phenomenon1 and must change1 because motionlessness would be death4#dch ,in the case of organisms this evolution is progress1 in consequence of their admirable adaptivity to their conditions of life4 ,they develop such faculties as render more complete both the adaptations of the aggregates to their surroundings and those of each of the constituent parts of the aggregate to the needs of free co-operation4#dci ,this is the 'struggle for existence1' which1 therefore1 must not be conceived merely in its restricted sense of a struggle between individuals for the means of subsistence4#ddj ,evolution never advances so slowly and evenly as has been asserted4 ,evolution and revolution alternate1 and the revolutions--that is1 the times of accelerated evolution--belong to the unity of nature just as much as do the times in which evolution takes place more slowly4#dda ,order is the free equilibrium of all forces that operate upon the same point2 if any of these forces are interfered with in their operation by a human will1 they operate none the less1 but their effects accumulate till some day they break the artificial dam and provoke a revolution4#ddb ,kropotkin applies these general propositions to the social life of men4#ddc ,a society is an aggregation of organisms trying to combine the wants of the individual with those of co-operation for the welfare of the species2#ddd it is a whole which serves toward the purpose of attaining the largest possible amount of happiness at the least possible expense of human force4#dde ,now human societies evolve1#ddf and one may try to determine the direction of this evolution4#ddg ,societies advance from lower to higher forms of organization2#ddh but the goal of this evolution--that is1 the point towards which it directs itself--consists in establishing the best conditions for realizing the greatest happiness of humanity4#ddi ,what we call progress is the right path to this goal2#dej humanity may for the time err from this path1 but will always be brought back to it at last4#dea ,but not even here does evolution take place without revolutions4 ,what is true of a man's views1 of the climate of a country1 of the characteristics of a species1 is true also of societies3 they evolve slowly1 but there are also times of the quickest transformation4#deb ,for circumstances of many kinds may oppose themselves to the effort of human associations to attain to the greatest possible measure of happiness4#dec ,new thoughts germinate everywhere1 try to get to the light1 try to get themselves applied in life2 but they are kept back by the inertia of those who have an interest in keeping up the old conditions1 they are stifled under long-established prejudices and traditions4#ded ,political1 economic1 and social institutions fall in ruins1 and the building which has become uninhabitable hinders the development of what is sprouting in its crevices and around it4#dee ,then there is need of great events which rudely break the thread of history and hurl mankind out of its ruts into new roads2#def the ,revolution becomes a peremptory necessity4#deg--,man has recognized his place in nature2 he has recognized that his institutions are his work and can be refashioned by him alone4#deh ,what has not the engineer's art dared1 and what do not literature1 painting1 music1 the drama dare to-day8#dei ,thus must we also1 where any institutions hinder the progress of society1 dare the fight1 to make a rich and overflowing life possible to all4#dfj #b4 ,from the evolutionary law of the progress of mankind from a less happy existence to the happiest existence possible ,kropotkin derives the commandment of justice and the commandment of energy4 ,in the struggle for existence human societies evolve toward a condition in which there are given the best conditions for the attainment of the greatest happiness of mankind4#dfa ,when we describe anything as good1 we mean by this that it favors the attainment of the goal2 that is1 it is beneficial to the society in which we live2 and we call that evil which in our opinion hinders the attainment of the goal1 that is1 is harmful to the society we live in4#dfb ,now1 men's views as to what favors and what hinders the establishment of the best conditions for the attainment of mankind's greatest happiness1 and hence as to what is beneficial or harmful to society1 may certainly change4#dfc ,but one fundamental requisite for the attainment of the goal will always have to be recognized as such1 whatever the diversity of opinions4 ,it may be summed up in the sentence ',do to others as you would have it done to you in the like case'4#dfd ,but this sentence is nothing else than the principle of equality2#dfe and equality1 in turn1 means the same as equity1#dff solidarity1#dfg justice4#dfh ,but there is indisputably yet another fundamental requisite for the attainment of the goal4 ,this is something greater1 finer1 and mightier than mere equality2#dfi it may be expressed in the sentence ,be strong2 overflow with the passion of thought and action3 so shall your understanding1 your love1 your energy1 pour itself into others4#dgj #c4--,,law ,i4 ,in mankind's progress from a less happy existence to an existence as happy as possible1 one of the next steps1 according to ,kropotkin1 will be the disappearance--not indeed of law1 but--of enacted law4 #a4 ,enacted law has become a hindrance to mankind's progress toward an existence as happy as possible4 ,for thousands of years those who govern have been repeating again and again1 ',respect the law6'2#dga in the ,states of to-day a new law is regarded as the cure for all evils4#dgb ,but the law has no claim to men's respect4#dgc ,it is an adroit mixture of such customs as are beneficial to society1 and would be observed even without a law1 with others which are to the advantage only of a ruling minority1 but are harmful to the masses and can be upheld only by terror4#dgd ,the law1 which first made its appearance as a collection of customs which serve for the maintenance of society1 is now merely an instrument to keep up the exploitation and domination of the industrious masses by wealthy idlers4 ,it has now no longer any civilizing mission2 its only mission is to protect exploitation4#dge ,it puts rigid immobility in the place of progressive development1#dgf it seeks to confirm permanently the customs that are advantageous to the ruling minority4#dgg ,if one looks over the millions of laws which mankind obeys1 one can distinguish three great classes3 protection of property1 protection of government1 protection of persons4 ,but in examining these three classes one comes in every case to the necessary conclusion that the law is valueless and harmful4 ,what the protection of property is worth1 the ,socialists know only too well4 ,the laws about property do not exist to secure to individuals or to society the product of their labor4 ,on the contrary1 they exist to rob the producer of a part of his product1 and to protect a few in the enjoyment of what they have stolen from the producer or from the whole of society4#dgh ,and as regards the laws for the protection of government1 we know well that all governments1 without exception1 have it for their mission to uphold by force the privileges of the propertied classes--the nobility1 the clergy1 and the bourgeoisie4 ,a man has only to examine all these laws1 only to observe their every-day working1 and he will be convinced that not one is worth keeping4#dgi ,equally superfluous and harmful1 finally1 are the laws for the protection of persons1 for the punishment and prevention of 'crimes'4 ,the fear of punishment never yet restrained a murderer4 ,he who would kill his neighbor1 for revenge or for necessity1 does not beat his brains about the consequences2 and every murderer hitherto has had the firm conviction that he would escape prosecution4 ,if murder were declared not punishable1 the number of murders would not increase even by one2 rather it would decrease to the extent that murders are at present committed by habitual criminals who have been corrupted in prison4#dhj #b4 ,the stage of evolution to which enacted law belongs will soon be left behind by man4 ,the law is a comparatively young formation4 ,mankind lived for ages without any written law4 ,at that time the relations of men to each other were regulated by mere habits1 by customs and usages1 which age made venerable1 and which every one learned from his childhood in the same way as he learned hunting1 cattle-raising1 or agriculture4#dha ,but when society came to be more and more split into two hostile classes1 of which the one wanted to rule and the other to escape from rule1 the victor of the moment sought to give permanence to the accomplished fact and to hallow it by all that was venerable to the defeated4 ,consecrated by the priest and protected by the strong hand of the warrior1 law appeared4#dhb ,but its days are already numbered4 ,everywhere we find insurgents who will no longer obey the law till they know where it comes from1 what it is good for1 by what right it demands obedience1 and for what reason it is held in honor4 ,they bring under their criticism everything that has until now been respected as the foundation of society1 but first and foremost the fetish1 law4#dhc ,the moment of its disappearance1 for the hastening of which we must fight1#dhd is close at hand1#dhe perhaps even at the end of the nineteenth century4#dhf ,,ii4 ,in the next stage of evolution1 which1 as has been shown1 mankind must soon reach1 there will indeed be no enacted law1 but there will be law even there4 ,the laws will be totally abrogated2#dhg unwritten customs1#dhh 'customary law1' as jurists say1#dhi will suffice to maintain a good understanding4#dij ,these norms of the next stage of evolution will be based on a general will2#dia and conformity to them will be adequately assured by the necessity1 which every one feels1 of finding co-operation1 support1 and sympathy#dib and by the fear of expulsion from the fellowship1#dic but also1 if necessary1 by the intervention of the individual citizen#did or of the masses2#die they will therefore be legal norms4 ,of legal norms of the next stage of evolution ,kropotkin mentions in the first place this1--that contracts must be lived up to4#dif ,furthermore1 according to ,kropotkin there will obtain in the next stage of evolution a legal norm by virtue of which not only the means of production1 but all things1 are common property4#dig ,an additional legal norm in the next stage of evolution will1 according to ,kropotkin1 be that by virtue of which every one who co-operates in production to a certain extent has1 for one thing1 the right to live2 for another1 the right to live comfortably4#dih #d4--,,the ,,state ,i4 ,according to ,kropotkin1 in mankind's progress from a less happy existence to an existence as happy as possible the ,state will shortly disappear4 #a4 ,the ,state has become a hindrance to mankind's evolution toward a happiness as great as possible4 ,what does this monstrous engine serve for1 that we call ',state'8 ,for preventing the exploitation of the laborer by the capitalist1 of the peasant by the landlord8 or for assuring us of work8 for providing us food when the mother has nothing but water left for her child8 ,no1 a thousand times no4#dii ,but instead of this the ,state meddles in all our affairs1 pinions us from cradle to grave4 ,it prescribes all our actions1 it piles up mountains of laws and ordinances that bewilder the shrewdest lawyer4 ,it creates an army of office-holders who sit like spiders in their webs and have never seen the world except through the dingy panes of their office-window4 ,the immense and ever-increasing sums that the ,state collects from the people are never sufficient3 it lives at the expense of future generations1 and steers with all its might toward bankruptcy4 ',state' is tantamount to 'war'2 one ,state seeks to weaken and ruin another in order to force upon the latter its law1 its policy1 its commercial treaties1 and to enrich itself at its expense2 war is to-day the usual condition in ,europe1 there is a thirty years' supply of causes of war on hand4 ,and civil war rages at the same time with foreign war2 the ,state1 which was originally to be a protection for all and especially for the weak1 has to-day become a weapon of the rich against the exploited1 of the propertied against the propertyless4#ejj ,in these respects there is no distinction to be made between the different forms of the ,state4 ,toward the end of the last century the ,french people overthrew the monarchy1 and the last absolute king expiated on the scaffold his own crimes and those of his predecessors4#eja ,later all the countries of the ,continent went through the same evolution3 they overthrew their absolute monarchies and flung themselves into the arms of parliamentarism4#ejb ,now it is being perceived that parliamentarism1 which was entered upon with such great hopes1 has everywhere become a tool for intrigue and personal enrichment1 for efforts hostile to the people and to evolution4#ejc ,precisely like any despot1 the body of representatives of the people--be it called ,parliament1 ,convention1 or anything else2 be it appointed by the prefects of a ,bonaparte or elected with all conceivable freedom by an insurgent city--will always try to enlarge its competence1 to strengthen its power by all sorts of meddling1 and to displace the activity of the individual and the group by the law4#ejd ,it was only a forty years' movement1 which occasionally even set fire to grain-fields1 that could bring the ,english ,parliament to secure to the tenant the value of the improvements made by him4 ,but if it is a question of protecting the capitalist's interest1 threatened by a disturbance or even by agitation1--ah1 then every representative of the people is on hand1 then it acts with more recklessness and cowardice than any despot4 ,the six-hundred-headed beast without a name has outdone ,louis ,,ix and ,ivan ,,iv4#eje ,parliamentarism is nauseating to any one who has seen it near at hand4#ejf ,the dominion of men1 which calls itself 'government1' is incompatible with a morality founded on solidarity4#ejg ,this is best shown by the so-called civil rights1 whose value and importance the bourgeois press is daily praising to us in every key4#ejh ,are they made for those who alone need them8 ,certainly not4 ,universal suffrage may under some circumstances afford to the bourgeoisie a certain protection against encroachments by the central authority1 it may establish a balance between two authorities without its being necessary for the rivals to draw the knife on each other as formerly2 but it is valueless when the object is to overthrow authority or even to set bounds to it4 ,for the rulers it is an excellent means of deciding their disputes2 but of what use is it to the ruled8 ,just so with the freedom of the press4 ,to the mind of the bourgeoisie1 what is the best thing that has been alleged in its favor8 ,its impotence4 ',look at ,england1 ,switzerland1 the ,united ,states1' they say4 ',there the press is free and yet the dominion of capital is more assured than in any other country4' ,just so they think about the right of association4 ',why should we not grant full right of association8' says the bourgeoisie4 ',it will not impair our privileges4 ,what we have to fear is secret societies2 public unions are the best means to cripple them4' ',the inviolability of the home8 ,yes1 this we must proclaim aloud1 this we must inscribe in the statute-books1' say the sly bourgeois1 'the police certainly must not be looking into our pots and kettles4 ,if things go wrong some day1 we will snap our fingers at a man's right to his own house1 rummage everything1 and1 if necessary1 arrest people in their beds4' ',the secrecy of letters8 ,yes1 just proclaim its inviolability aloud everywhere1 our little privacies certainly must not come to the light4 ,if we scent a plot against our privileges1 we shall not stand much on ceremony4 ,and if anybody objects1 we shall say what an ,english minister lately said among the applause of ,parliament3 ,yes1 gentlemen1 it is with a heavy heart and with the deepest reluctance that we are having letters opened1 but the country 7that is1 the aristocracy and bourgeoisie7 is in danger6' ,that is what political rights are4 ,freedom of the press and freedom of association1 the inviolability of the home1 and all the rest1 are respected only so long as the people make no use of them against the privileged classes4 ,but on the day when the people begin to use them for the undermining of privileges all these 'rights' are thrown overboard4#eji #b4 ,the stage of evolution to which the ,state belongs will soon be left behind by man4 ,the ,state is doomed4#eaj ,it is of a relatively modern origin4#eaa ,the ,state is a historic formation which1 in the life of all nations1 has at a certain time gradually taken the place of free associations4 ,church1 law1 military power1 and wealth acquired by plunder1 have for centuries made common cause1 have in slow labor piled stone on stone1 encroachment on encroachment1 and thus created the monstrous institution which has finally fixed itself in every corner of social life--nay1 in the brains and hearts of men--and which we call the ,state4#eab ,it has now begun to decompose4 ,the peoples--especially those of the ,latin races--are bent on destroying its authority1 which merely hampers their free development2 they want the independence of provinces1 communes1 and groups of laborers2 they want not to submit to any dominion1 but to league themselves together freely4#eac ,the dissolution of the ,states is advancing at frightful speed4 ,they have become decrepit graybeards1 with wrinkled skins and tottering feet1 gnawed by internal diseases and without understanding for the new thoughts2 they are squandering the little strength that they still had left1 living at the expense of their numbered years1 and hastening their end by falling foul of each other like old women4#ead ,the moment of the ,state's disappearance is therefore close at hand4#eae ,kropotkin says now that it will come in a few years1#eaf now that it will come at the end of the nineteenth century4#eag ,,ii4 ,in the next stage of evolution1 which1 as has been shown1 mankind must soon reach1 the place of the ,state will be taken by a social human life on the basis of the legal norm that contracts must be lived up to4 ,anarchism is the inevitable#eah next phase1#eai higher form1#ebj of society4 #a4 ,even after the ,state is done away men will live together socially2 but they will no longer be held together in society by a governmental authority1 but by the legally binding force of contract4 ,free expansion of individuals into groups and of groups into associations1 free organization from the simple to the complex as need and inclination are felt1#eba will be the future form of society4 ,we can at present perceive a growing ,anarchistic movement2 that is1 a movement towards limiting more and more the sphere of action of government4 ,after having tried all kinds of government1 humanity is trying now to free itself from the bonds of any government whatever1 and to respond to its needs of organization by the free understanding between individuals prosecuting the same common aims4#ebb ,free associations are beginning to take to themselves the entire field of human activity4#ebc ,the large organizations resulting merely and simply from free agreement have grown recently4 ,the railway net of ,europe--a confederation of so many scores of separate societies--is an instance2 the ,dutch ,beurden1 or associations of ship and boat owners1 are extending now their organizations over the rivers of ,germany1 and even to the shipping trade of the ,baltic2 the numberless amalgamated manufacturers' associations1 and the syndicats of ,france1 are so many instances in point4 ,but there also is no lack of free organizations for nobler pursuits3 the ,lifeboat ,association1 the ,hospitals ,association1 and hundreds of like organizations4 ,one of the most remarkable societies which has#ebd recently arisen is the ,red ,cross ,society4 ,to slaughter men on the battle-fields1 that remains the duty of the ,state2 but these very ,states recognize their inability to take care of their own wounded2 they abandon the task1 to a great extent1 to private initiative4#ebe ,these endeavors will attain to free play1 will find a new and vast field for their application1 and will form the foundation of the future society4#ebf ,the agreement between the hundreds of companies to which the ,european railroads belong has been entered into directly1 without the meddling of any central authority that prescribed laws to the several companies4 ,it has been kept up by conventions at which delegates met to consult together and then to lay before their principals plans1 not laws4 ,this is a new procedure1 utterly different from any government whether monarchical or republican1 absolute or constitutional4 ,it is an innovation which at first makes its way into ,european manners only by hesitating steps1 but to which the future belongs4#ebg #b4 ,to rack our brains to-day about the details of the form which public life shall take in the future society1 would be silly4 ,yet we must come to an agreement now about the main outlines4#ebh ,we must not forget that perhaps in a year or two we shall be called on to decide all questions of the organization of society4#ebi ,communes will continue to exist2 but these communes are not agglomerations of men in a territory1 and know neither walls nor boundaries2 the commune is a clustering of like-minded persons1 not a closed integer4 ,the various groups in one commune will feel themselves drawn to similar groups in other communes2 they will unite themselves with these as firmly as with their fellow-citizens2 and thus there will come about communities of interest whose members are scattered over a thousand cities and villages4#ecj ,men will join themselves together by contracts#eca to form such communes4 ,they will take upon themselves duties to society1#ecb which on its part engages to do certain things for them4#ecc ,it will not be necessary to compel the fulfilment of these contracts1#ecd there will be no need of penalties and judges4#ece ,fulfilment will be sufficiently assured by the necessity1 which every one feels1 of finding co-operation1 support1 and sympathy among his neighbors2#ecf he who does not live up to his obligations can of course be expelled from fellowship4#ecg ,in the commune every one will do what is necessary himself1 without waiting for a government's orders4#ech ,the commune will not first destroy the ,state and then set it up again4#eci ,people will see that they are freest and happiest when they have no plenipotentiary agents and depend as little on the wisdom of representatives as on that of ,providence4#edj ,nor will there be prisons or other penal institutions2#eda for the few anti-social acts that may still take place the best remedy will consist in loving treatment1 moral influence1 and liberty4#edb ,the communes on their part will join themselves together by contracts#edc quite in the same way as do the members of the individual communes4 ,the commune will recognize nothing above it except the interests of the league that it has of its own accord made with other communes4#edd ,owing to the multiplicity of our needs1 a single league will soon not be enough2 the commune will feel the necessity of entering into other connections also1 joining this or that other league4 ,for the purpose of obtaining food it is already a member of one group2 now it must join a second in order to obtain other objects that it needs1--metal1 for instance1--and then a third and fourth too1 that will supply it with cloth and works of art4 ,if one takes up an economic atlas of any country1 one sees that there are no economic boundaries3 the areas of production and exchange for the different objects are blended1 interlaced1 superimposed4 ,thus the combinations of the communes also1 if they followed their natural development1 would soon intertwine in the same way and form an infinitely denser network and a far more consummate 'unity' than the ,states1 whose individual parts1 after all1 only lie side by side like the rods around the lictor's axe4#ede #c4 ,the future society will be able easily to accomplish the tasks that the ,state accomplishes at present4 ,suppose there is need of a street4 ,well1 then let the inhabitants of the neighboring communes come to an understanding about it1 and they will do their business better than the ,minister of ,public ,works would do it4 ,or a railroad is needed4 ,here too the communes that are concerned will produce something very different from the work of the promoters who only build bad pieces of track and make millions by it4 ,or schools are required4 ,people can fit them up for themselves at least as well as the gentlemen at ,paris4 ,or the enemy invades the country4 ,then we defend ourselves instead of relying on generals who would merely betray us4 ,or the farmer must have tools and machines4 ,then he comes to an understanding with the city workingmen1 these supply him with them at cost in return for his products1 and the middleman1 who now robs both the farmer and the workingman1 is superfluous4#edf ,or there comes up a little dispute1 or a stronger man tries to push down a weaker4 ,in the first case the people will know enough to create a court of arbitration1 and in the second every citizen will regard it as his duty to interfere himself and not wait for the police2 there will be as little need of constables as of judges and turnkeys4#edg #e4--,,property ,i4 ,according to ,kropotkin1 the progress of mankind from a less happy existence to an existence as happy as possible will shortly bring us to the disappearance not indeed of property1 but of its present form1 private property4 #a4 ,private property has become a hindrance to the evolution of mankind toward a happiness as great as possible4 ,what are the effects of private property to-day8 ,the crisis1 which was formerly acute1 has become chronic2 the crisis in the cotton trade1 the crisis in the production of metals1 the crisis in watchmaking1 all the crises1 rage concurrently now and do not come to an end4 ,the unemployed in ,europe to-day are estimated at several million2 those who beg their way from city to city1 or gather in mobs to demand 'work or bread' with threats1 are estimated at tens of thousands4 ,great branches of industry are destroyed2 great cities1 like ,sheffield1 forsaken4 ,everything is at a standstill1 want and misery prevail everywhere3 the children are pale1 the wife has grown five years older in one winter1 disease and death are rife among the workingmen--and people talk of over-production6#edh ,one might reply that in peasant ownership of land1 at least1 private property has good effects4#edi ,but the golden age is over for the small farmer4 ,to-day he hardly knows how to make both ends meet4 ,he gets into debt1 becomes a victim of the cattle-dealer1 the real-estate jobber1 the usurer2 notes and mortgages ruin whole villages1 even more than the frightful taxes imposed by ,state and commune4 ,small proprietorship is in a desperate condition2 and even if the small farmer is still owner in name1 he is in fact nothing more than a tenant paying rent to money-dealers and usurers4#eej ,but private property has still more sweeping indirect effects4 ,so long as we have a caste of idlers who have us feed them under the pretext that they must lead us1 so long these idlers will always be a focus of pestilence to general morality4 ,he who lives his life in dull laziness1 who is always bent merely on getting new pleasures1 who by the very basis of his existence can know no solidarity1 and who by his course of life cultivates the vilest self-seeking1--he will always pursue the coarsest sensual pleasures and debase everything around him4 ,with his bag full of dollars and his bestial impulses he will go and dishonor women and children1 degrade art1 the drama1 the press1 sell his country and its defenders1 and1 because he is too cowardly to murder with his own hands1 will have his proxies murder the choicest of his nation when1 some day1 he is afraid for his darling money-bag4#eea ,year by year thousands of children grow up in the physical and moral filth of our great cities1 among a population corrupted by the struggle for daily bread1 and at the same time they daily see the immorality1 idleness1 prodigality1 and ostentation of which these same cities are full4#eeb ,thus society is incessantly bringing forth beings who are incapable of an honorable and industrious life1 and who are full of anti-social feelings4 ,it does homage to them when success crowns their crimes1 and sends them to the penitentiary when they are unlucky4#eec ,private property offends against justice4 ,the labor of all has produced the entire accumulated mass of wealth1 that of the present generation as well as that of all that went before4 ,the house in which we happen to be together has value only by its being in ,paris1 this glorious city in which the labor of twenty generations is piled layer upon layer4 ,if it were removed to the snow-fields of ,siberia1 it would be worth substantially nothing4 ,this machine1 invented and patented by you1 has in it the labor of five or six generations2 it has a value only as a part of the vast whole that we call nineteenth-century industry4 ,take your lace-making machine to the ,papuans in ,new ,guinea1 and it is valueless4#eed ,science and industry2 theory and practice2 the invention and the putting the invention in operation1 which leads to new inventions again2 head work and hand work1--all is connected4 ,every discovery1 every progress1 every increase in our wealth1 has its origin in the total bodily and mental activity of the past and present4 ,then by what right can any one appropriate to himself the smallest fraction of this vast total and say 'this belongs to me and not to you'8#eee--;,but this unjust appropriation of what belongs to all has nevertheless taken place4 ,among the changes of time a few have taken possession of all that is made possible to man by the production of goods and the increase of his productive power4 ,to-day the land1 though it owes its value to the needs of a ceaselessly increasing population1 belongs to a minority which can hinder the people from cultivating it1 and which does so--or at least does not permit the people to cultivate it in a manner accordant with modern needs4 ,the mines1 which represent the toil of centuries1 and whose value is based solely on the needs of industry and the necessities of population1 belong likewise to a few1 and these few limit the mining of coal1 or entirely forbid it when they find a better investment for their money4 ,the machines1 too1 are the property of a handful of men2 and1 even if a machine has indubitably been brought to its present perfection by three generations of workers1 it nevertheless belongs to a few givers of work4 ,the roads1 which would be scrap-iron but for ,europe's dense population1 industry1 trade1 and travel1 are in the possession of a few shareholders who perhaps do not even know the location of the lines from which they draw princely incomes4#eef #b4 ,mankind will soon have passed the stage of evolution to which private property belongs4 ,private property is doomed4#eeg ,private property is a historic formation3 it has developed parasitically amidst the free institutions of our earliest ancestors1#eeh and this in the closest connection with the ,state4 ,the political constitution of a society is always the expression1 and at the same time the consecration1 of its economic constitution4#eei ,the origin of the ,state1 and its reason for existence1 lie in the fact that it interferes in favor of the propertied and to the disadvantage of the propertyless4#efj ,the omnipotence of the ,state constitutes the foundation of the strength of the bourgeoisie4#efa ,but private property is already on the way to dissolution4 ,the economic chaos can last no longer4 ,the people are tired of the crises which the greed of the ruling classes provokes4 ,they want to work and live1 not first drudge a few years for scanty wages and then become for many years victims of want and objects of charity4 ,the workingman sees the incapacity of the ruling classes3 he sees how unable they are either to understand his efforts or to manage the production and exchange of goods4#efb ,hence one of the leading features of our century is the growth of ,socialism and the rapid spreading of ,socialist views among the working classes4#efc ,the moment when private property is to disappear is near1 therefore3 be it in a few years1#efd be it at the end of the nineteenth century1#efe in any case it will come soon4#eff ,,ii4 ,in mankind's next stage of evolution1 which1 as has been shown1 must soon be attained1 property will take such form that only property of society shall exist4 ,the next phase of evolution1#efg higher form of social organization1#efh will inevitably#efi be not only ,anarchism1 but ,anarchistic ,communism4#egj ,the tendencies towards economical and political freedom are two different manifestations of the very same need of equality which constitutes the very essence of all struggles mentioned by history2#ega these two powerful currents of thought characterize our century4#egb ,in this way a comfortable life will be guaranteed to every person who co-operates in production to a certain extent4 #a4 ,mankind's next stage of evolution will no longer know any but the property of society4 ,in our century the ,communist tendency is continually reasserting itself4 ,the penny bridge disappears before the public bridge2 and the turnpike road before the free road4 ,the same spirit pervades thousands of other institutions4 ,museums1 free libraries1 and free public schools2 parks and pleasure grounds2 paved and lighted streets1 free for everybody's use2 water supplied to private dwellings1 with a growing tendency towards disregarding the exact amount of it used by the individual2 tramways and railways which have already begun to introduce the season ticket or the uniform tax1 and will surely go much further on this line when they are no longer private property3 all these are tokens showing in what direction further progress is to be expected4#egc ,so will the future society be ,communistic4 ,the first act of the nineteenth-century commune will consist in laying hands on the entire capital accumulated in its bosom4#egd ,this applies to the materials for consumption as well as to those for production4#ege ,people have tried to make a distinction between the capital that serves for the production of goods and that which satisfies the wants of life1 and have said that machines1 factories1 raw materials1 the means of transportation1 and the land are destined to become the property of the community2 while dwellings1 finished products1 clothing1 and provisions will remain private property4 ,this distinction is erroneous and impracticable4 ,the house that shelters us1 the coal and gas that we burn1 the nutriment that our body burns up1 the clothing that covers us1 and the book from which we draw instruction1 are all essential to our existence and are just as necessary for successful production and for the further development of mankind as are machines1 factories1 raw materials1 and other factors of production4 ,with private property in the former goods1 there would still remain inequality1 oppression1 and exploitation2 a half-way abolition of private property would have its effectiveness crippled in advance4#egf ,there is no fear that the ,communistic communes will isolate themselves4#egg ,if to-day a great city transforms itself into a ,communistic commune1 and introduces community of the materials for both work and enjoyment1 then in a very few days1 if it is not shut in by hostile armies1 trains of wagons will appear in its markets1 and raw materials will arrive from distant ports2 and the city's industrial products1 when once the wants of the population are satisfied1 will go to the ends of the earth seeking purchasers2 throngs of strangers will stream in from near and far1 and will afterward tell at home of the marvelous life of the free city where everybody works1 where there are neither poor nor oppressed1 where every one enjoys the fruit of his toil1 and no one interferes with another's doing so4#egh #b4 ,the ,communism of the future society will not be the ,communism of the convent or the barrack1 such as was formerly preached1 but a free ,communism which puts the joint products at the disposal of all while leaving to every one the liberty of using them at home4#egi ,to get an entirely clear idea of every detail of it1 indeed1 is not as yet possible2 nevertheless we must come to an agreement about the fundamental features at least4#ehj ,what form will production take8 ,that must first be produced which is requisite for the satisfaction of man's most urgent wants4#eha ,for this it suffices that all adults1 with the exception of those women who are occupied with the education of children1 engage to do five hours a day1 from the age of twenty or twenty-two to the age of forty-five or fifty1 of any one 7at their option7 of the labors that are regarded as necessary4#ehb ,for instance1 a society would enter into the following contract with each of its members3 ',we will guarantee to you the enjoyment of our houses1 stores of goods1 streets1 conveyances1 schools1 museums1 etc41 on condition that from your twentieth year to your forty-fifth or fiftieth you apply five hours every day to one of the labors necessary to life4 ,every moment you will have your choice of the groups you will join1 or you may found a new one provided that it proposes to do necessary service4 ,for the rest of your time you may associate yourself with whom you like for the purpose of scientific or artistic recreation at your pleasure4 ,we ask of you1 therefore1 nothing but twelve or fifteen hundred hours' work annually in one of the groups which produce food1 clothing1 and shelter1 or which care for health1 transportation1 etc42 and in return we insure to you all that these groups produce or have produced'4#ehc ,there will be time enough1 therefore1 to produce what is requisite for the satisfaction of less urgent wants4 ,when one has done in the field or the factory the work that he is under obligation to do for society1 he can devote the other half of his day1 his week1 or his year1 to the satisfaction of artistic or scientific wants4#ehd ,the lover of music who wishes a piano will enter the association of instrument-makers2 he will devote part of his half-days1 and will soon possess the longed-for piano4 ,or the enthusiast in astronomy will join the astronomers' association with its philosophers1 observers1 calculators1 and opticians1 its scholars and amateurs2 and he will obtain the telescope he wishes1 if only he dedicates some work to the common cause--for there is a deal of rough work necessary for an observatory1 masons' work1 carpenters' work1 founders' work1 machinists' work--the final polish1 to be sure1 can be given to the instrument of precision by none but the artist4 ,in a word1 the five to seven hours that every one has left1 after he has first devoted some hours to the production of the necessary1 are quite sufficient to render possible for him every kind of luxury4#ehe ,the separation of agriculture from manufactures will pass away4 ,the factory workmen will be at the same time field workmen4#ehf ,as an eminently periodic industry1 which at certain times 7and even more in the making of improvements than in harvest7 needs a large additional force1 agriculture will form the link between village and city4#ehg ,and the separation of mental from bodily labor will come to an end#ehh too4 ,poets and scientists will no longer find poor devils who will sell their energies to them for a plate of soup2 they will have to get together and print their writings themselves4 ,then the authors1 and their admirers of both sexes1 will soon acquire the art of handling the type-case and composing-stick2 they will learn the pleasure of producing jointly1 with their own hands1 a work that they value4#ehi ,every labor will be agreeable4#eij ,if there is still work which is really disagreeable in itself1 it is only because our scientific men have never cared to consider the means of rendering it less so3 they have always known that there were plenty of starving men who would do it for a few pence a day4#eia ,factories1 smelters1 mines1 can be as sanitary and as splendid as the best laboratories of our universities2 and the more perfectly they are fitted up the more they will produce4#eib ,and the product of such labor will be infinitely better1 and considerably greater1 than the mass of goods hitherto produced under the goad of slavery1 serfdom1 and wage-slavery4#eic ,how will distribution take place8 ,every one who contributes his part to production will also have his share in the product4 ,but it must not be assumed that this share in the product will correspond to that share in the production4 ,each according to his powers2 to each according to his wants4#eid ,need will be put above service2 it will be recognized that every one who co-operates in production to a certain extent has in the first place the right to live1 and in the second place the right to live comfortably4#eie ,every one1 no matter how strong or weak1 how competent or incompetent he may be1 will have the right to live1#eif and to have a comfortable life2 he will furthermore have the right to decide for himself what belongs to a comfortable life4#eig ,society's stock of goods will quite permit this4 ,if one considers on the one hand the rapidity with which the productive power of civilized nations is increasing1 and on the other hand the limits that are directly or indirectly set to its production by present conditions1 one comes to the conclusion that even a moderately sensible economic constitution would permit the civilized nations to heap up in a few years so many useful things that we should have to cry out ',enough6 enough coal6 enough bread6 enough clothes6 ,let us rest1 take recreation1 put our strength to a better use1 spend our time in a better way6'#eih ,however1 what if the stock should in fact not suffice for all wants8 ,the solution is--free taking of everything that exists in superfluity1 and rations of that in which there is a possibility of dearth3 rations according to needs1 with preference to children1 the aged1 and the weak in general4 ,that is what is done even now in the country4 ,what commune thinks of limiting the use of the meadows so long as there are enough of them8 what commune1 so long as there are chestnuts and brushwood enough1 hinders those who belong to it from taking as much as they please8 ,and what does the peasant introduce when there is a prospect that firewood will give out8 ,rationing4#eii #f4--,,realization ,the change that is promptly to be expected in the course of mankind's progress from a less happy existence to an existence as happy as possible1--the disappearance of the ,state1 the transformation of law and property1 and the appearance of the new condition1--will be accomplished1 according to ,kropotkin1 by a social revolution2 that is1 by a violent subversion of the old order1 which will come to pass of itself1 but for which it is the function of those who foresee the course of evolution to prepare men's minds4 ,i4 ,we know that we shall not reach the future condition without intense perturbations4#fjj ,that justice may be victorious1 and the new thoughts become reality1 there is need of a frightful storm to sweep away all this rottenness1 to vivify torpid souls with its breath1 and to restore self-sacrifice1 self-denial1 and heroism to our senile1 decrepit1 crumbling society4#fja ,there is need of social revolution3 that is1 the people's taking possession of society's total stock of goods1 and the abolition of all authorities4#fjb ,the social revolution is at the door1#fjc it stands before us at the end of this century1#fjd it will be here in a few years4#fje ,it is the task which history sets for us1#fjf but whether we will or not1 it will be accomplished independently of our will4#fjg #a4 ,the social revolution will be no uprising of a few days3 we shall have to go through a period of three1 four1 or five years of revolution1 till the transformation of the social and economic situation is completed4#fjh ,during this time what we have sown to-day will be coming up and bearing fruit2 and he who now is yet indifferent will become a convinced adherent of the new doctrine4#fji ,nor will the social revolution be limited to a narrow area4 ,we must not assume1 to be sure1 that it will break out in all ,europe at once4#faj ,germany is nearer the revolution than people think2#faa but whether it start from ,france1 ,germany1 ,spain1 or ,russia1 it will anyhow be a ,european revolution in the end4 ,it will spread as rapidly as that of our predecessors the heroes of #ahdh1 and set ,europe afire4#fab #b4 ,the first act of the social revolution will be a work of destruction4#fac ,the impulse to destruction1 which is so natural and justifiable because it is at the same time an impulse to renovation1 will find its full satisfaction4 ,how much old trash there is to clear away6 ,does not everything have to be transformed1 the houses1 the cities1 the businesses of manufacturing and farming1--in short1 all the arrangements of society8#fad ,everything that it is necessary to abolish should be destroyed without delay3 the penitentiaries and prisons1 the forts that threaten cities1 the slums whose disease-laden air people have breathed so long4#fae ,yet the social revolution will not be a reign of terror4 ,naturally the fight will demand victims4 ,one can understand how it was that the people of ,paris1 before they hurried to the frontiers1 killed the aristocrats in the prisons1 who had planned with the enemy for the annihilation of the revolution4 ,he who would blame the people for this should be asked1 ',have you suffered with them and like them8 if not1 blush and be still4'#faf ,but yet the people will never1 like the kings and czars1 exalt terror into a system4 ,they have sympathy for the victims2 they are too good-hearted not to feel a speedy repugnance at cruelty4 ,the public prosecutor1 the corpse-cart1 the guillotine1 speedily become repulsive4 ,after a little while it is recognized that such a reign of terror is merely preparing the way for a dictatorship1 and the guillotine is abolished4#fag ,the government will be overthrown first4 ,there is no need of fearing its strength4 ,governments only seem terrible2 the first collision with the insurgent people lays them prostrate2 many have collapsed in a few hours before now4#fah ,the people rise1 and the ,state machine is already at a standstill2 the officials are in confusion and know not what to do2 the army has lost confidence in its leaders4#fai ,but it cannot stop with this4 ,on the day when the people has swept away the governments1 it will also1 without waiting for any directions from above1 abolish private property by forcible expropriation4#fbj ,the peasants will drive out the great landlords and declare their estates common property2 they will annul the mortgages and proclaim general release from debt2#fba and in the cities the people will seize on the entire wealth accumulated there1 turn out the factory-owners1 and undertake the management themselves4#fbb ,the expropriation will be general2 nothing but an expropriation of the broadest kind can initiate the re-shaping of society--expropriation on a small scale would appear like ordinary plunder4#fbc ,it will extend not only to the materials of production1 but also to those of consumption3 the first thing that the people do after the overthrow of the governments will be to provide itself with sanitary dwellings and with sufficient food and clothing4#fbd--,yet expropriation will have its limits4#fbe ,suppose by pinching1 a poor devil has got himself a house that will hold him and his family4 ,will he be thrown on the street8 ,certainly not6 ,if the house is just big enough for him and his family1 he shall keep it1 and he shall also continue to work the garden under his window4 ,our young men will even lend him a hand in case of need4 ,but1 if he has rented a room to somebody else1 the people will say to this one1 ',you know1 friend1 don't you1 that you no longer owe the old fellow anything8 ,keep your room gratis2 you need no longer fear the officer of the court1 we have the new society6#fbf ,expropriation will extend just to that which makes it possible for any one to exploit another's labor4#fbg #c4 ,the work of destruction will be followed by a work of re-shaping4#fbh ,most people conceive of revolution as with a 'revolutionary government'#fbi--this in two ways4 ,some understand by this an elective government4 ,it is proposed to summon the people to elections1 to elect a government as quickly as possible1 and entrust to it the work which each of us ought to be doing of his own accord4#fcj ,but any government which an insurgent people attains by elections must necessarily be a leaden weight on its feet1 especially in so immense an economic1 political1 and moral reorganization as the social revolution4#fca ,this is perceived by others2 therefore they give up the thought of a 'legal' government1 at least for the time of insurrection against all laws1 and preach the 'revolutionary dictatorship4' ',the party which has overthrown the government1' say they1 'will forcibly put itself in the government's place4 ,it will seize the authority and adopt a revolutionary procedure4 ,for every one who does not recognize it--the guillotine2 for every one who refuses obedience to it--the guillotine likewise4' ,so talk the little ,robespierres4 ,but we ,anarchists know that this thought is nothing but an unwholesome fruit of government fetishism1 and that any dictatorship1 even the best disposed1 is the death of the revolution4#fcb ,we will do what is needful ourselves1 without waiting for the orders of a government4#fcc ,if the dissolution of the ,state is once started1 if once the oppression-machine begins to give out1 free associations will be formed quite automatically4 ,just remember the voluntary combinations of the armed bourgeoisie during the great ,revolution4 ,remember the societies which were voluntarily formed in ,spain1 and which defended the independence of the country1 when the ,state was shaken to its foundations by ,napoleon's armies4 ,as soon as the ,state no longer compels any co-operation1 natural wants bring about a voluntary co-operation quite automatically4 ,if the ,state be but overthrown1 free society will rise up at once on its ruins4#fcd ,the reorganization of production will not be possible in a few days1#fce especially as the revolution will presumably not break out in all ,europe at a time4#fcf ,the people will consequently have to take temporary measures to assure themselves1 first of all1 of food1 clothing1 and shelter4 ,first the populace of the insurgent cities will take possession of the dealers' stocks of food1 and of the grain warehouses and the slaughter-houses4 ,volunteers make an inventory of the provisions found1 and distribute printed tabular statements by the million4 ,henceforth free taking of all that is present in abundance2 rations of what has to be measured out1 with preference to the sick and the weak2 a supply for deficiencies by importation from the country 7which will come in plenty if we produce things that the farmer needs and put them at his disposal7 and also by the inhabitants of the city entering upon the cultivation of the royal parks and meadows in the vicinity4#fcg ,the people will take possession of the dwelling-houses in like manner4 ,again volunteers make lists of the available dwellings and distribute them4 ,people come together by streets1 quarters1 districts1 and agree about the allotment of the dwellings4 ,but the evils that will at first still have to be borne are soon to be done away3 the artisans of the building trades need only work a few hours a day1 and soon the over-spacious dwellings that were on hand will be sensibly altered1 and model houses1 entirely new1 will be built4#fch ,the same procedure will be followed with regard to clothing4 ,the people take possession of the great clothiers' establishments1 and volunteers list the stocks4 ,people take freely what is on hand in abundance1 in rations what is limited in quantity4 ,what is lacking is supplied in the shortest of time by the factories with their perfected machines4#fci ,,ii4 ,to prepare men's minds#fdj for the approaching revolution is the task of those who foresee the course of evolution4 ,this is especially the task of the secret societies and revolutionary organizations4#fda ,it is the task of the ,anarchist party4#fdb ,the ,anarchists are to-day as yet a minority1 but their number is daily growing1 will grow more and more1 and will on the eve of the revolution become a majority4#fdc ,what a dismal sight ,france presented a few years before the great ,revolution1 and how weak was the minority of those who thought of the abolition of royalty and feudalism2 but what a change three or four years later6 the minority had begun the revolution and had carried the masses with it4#fdd--;,but how are men's minds to be prepared for the revolution8 #a4 ,first and foremost1 the aim of the revolution is to be made generally known4 ,it is to be proclaimed by word and deed till it is thoroughly popularized1 so that on the day of the rising it is in everybody's mouth4 ,this task is greater and more serious than is generally assumed2 for1 if some few do have the aim clearly before their eyes1 it is quite otherwise with the masses1 constantly worked upon as they are by the bourgeois press4#fde ,but this does not suffice4 ,the spirit of insurrection must be aroused2 the sense of independence and the wild boldness without which no revolution comes about must awake4#fdf ,between the peaceable discussion of evils and tumult1 insurrection1 lies a chasm--the same chasm that in the greater part of mankind separates reflection from act1 thought from will4#fdg #b4 ,the way to obtain these two results is action--constant1 incessant action by minorities4 ,courage1 devotion1 self-sacrifice are as contagious as cowardice1 servility1 and apprehension4#fdh ,what forms is the propaganda to take8 ,every form that is prescribed by the situation1 by opportunity1 and propensity4 ,it may be now serious1 now jocular2 but it must always be bold4 ,it must never leave a means unused1 never leave a fact of public life unobserved1 to keep minds alert1 to give aliment and expression to discontent1 to stir hate against exploiters1 to make the government ridiculous1 and to demonstrate its impotence4 ,but above all1 to arouse boldness and the spirit of insurrection1 it must continually preach by example4#fdi ,men of courage1 willing not only to speak but to act2 pure characters who prefer prison1 exile1 and death to a life that contradicts their principles2 bold natures who know that in order to win one must dare1--these are the advance-guard who open the fight long before the masses are ripe to lift the banner of insurrection openly and to seek their rights arms in hand4 ,in the midst of the complaining1 talking1 discussing1 comes a mutinous deed by one or more persons1 which incarnates the longings of all4#fej ,perhaps at first the masses remain indifferent and believe the wise ones who regard the act as 'crazy'1 but soon they are privately applauding the crazy and imitating them4 ,while the first of them are filling the penitentiaries1 others are already continuing their work4 ,the declarations of war against present-day society1 the mutinous deeds1 the acts of revenge1 multiply4 ,general attention is aroused2 the new thought makes its way into men's heads and wins their hearts4 ,a single deed makes more propaganda in a few days than a thousand pamphlets4 ,the government defends itself1 it rages pitilessly2 but by this it only causes further deeds to be committed by one or more persons1 and drives the insurgents to heroism4 ,one deed brings forth another2 opponents join the mutiny2 the government splits into factions2 harshness intensifies the conflict2 concessions come too late2 the revolution breaks out4#fea #c4 ,to make still clearer the means by which the aim of the revolution is to be made generally known and the spirit of insurrection is to be aroused1 ,kropotkin tells some of the history of what preceded the ,revolution of #aghi4 ,he tells how at that time thousands of lampoons acquainted the people with the vices of the court1 and how a multitude of satirical songs flagellated crowned heads and stirred hatred against the nobility and clergy4 ,he sets before us how in placards the king1 the queen1 the farmers-general1 were threatened1 reviled1 and jeered at2 how enemies of the people were hanged or burned or quartered in effigy4 ,he describes to us the way in which the insurrectionists got the people used to the streets and taught them to defy the police1 the military1 the cavalry4 ,we learn how in the villages secret organizations1 the jacques1 set fire to the barns of the lord of the manor1 destroyed his crops or his game1 murdered him himself1 threatened the collection or payment of rent with death4 ,he sets forth to us how then1 one day1 the storehouses were broken into1 the trains of wagons were stopped on the highway1 the toll-gates were burned and the officials killed1 the tax-lists and the account-books and the city archives went up in flames1 and the revolution broke out on all sides4#feb ,what conclusions are to be drawn from this#fec ,kropotkin does not think it necessary to explain4 ,he contents himself with characterizing as a precious instruction for us#fed the facts which he reports4 ,,footnotes3 #dca ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #ii4 #dcb ,ib4 p4 #ajd4 #dcc ,kr4 ,temps nouveaux p4 #ci4 #dcd ,ib4 p4 #ci4 #dce ,ib4 pp4 #h1 #ci4 #dcf ,ib4 p4 #e4 #dcg ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #d4 #dch ,kr4 ,studies p4 #i4 #dci ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism pp4 #h-i4 #ddj ,ib4 p4 #i4 #dda ,kr4 ,temps nouveaux p4 #ac4 #ddb ,ib4 p4 #ab4 #ddc ,ib4 p4 #g4 #ddd ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #d4 #dde ,kr4 ,studies p4 #bd4 #ddf ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #g4 #ddg ,ib4 p4 #d4 #ddh ,ib4 p4 #g4 #ddi ,ib4 p4 #d4 #dej ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste p4 #bh4 #dea ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #ag4 #deb ,kr4 ,temps nouveaux p4 #ei4 #dec ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #d4 #ded ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #bge-f4 #dee ,ib4 pp4 #bgg-h4 #def ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #ag4 #deg ,ib4 p4 #bge4 #deh ,kr4 ,studies p4 #i4 #dei ,ib4 p4 #aj4 #dfj ,kr4 ,morale p4 #gd4 #dfa ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #d4 #dfb ,kr4 ,morale pp4 #bd1 #ca4 #dfc ,ib4 p4 #cj4 #dfd ,kr4 ,morale pp4 #cj-ca4 #dfe ,ib4 p4 #da4 #dff ,ib4 p4 #db4 #dfg ,ib4 p4 #ch2 ,kr4 ,conquete p4 #bif4 #dfh ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #cdb1 #abi4 #dfi ,kr4 ,morale p4 #eg4 #dgj ,ib4 pp4 #fa-b4 #dga ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #bae4 ,in ,eltzbacher's general discussions1 and his summaries of the different writers' views on law1 the word translated law is everywhere ,recht1 ,french droit1 ,latin jus1 law as a body of rights and duties4 ,but in the quotations from ,kropotkin under the heading ,law the word is everywhere 7with the single exception of the phrase customary law7 ,gesetz1 ,french loi1 ,latin lex1 a law as an enacted formula to describe men's actions2 and the same is the word translated law in ,eltzbacher's summaries under the heading ,basis in the different chapters4 #dgb ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #bad4 #dgc ,ib4 p4 #bbg4 #dgd ,ib4 p4 #bbg4 #dge ,ib4 p4 #bce4 #dgf ,ib4 p4 #bai4 #dgg ,ib4 p4 #bbf4 #dgh ,ib4 p4 #bcf4 #dgi ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #bci4 #dhj ,ib4 pp4 #bdj-db4 #dha ,ib4 p4 #bba4 #dhb ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #bbf4 #dhc ,ib4 pp4 #bah-ai4 #dhd ,kr4 ,morale p4 #gd4 #dhe ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #bfd-e4 #dhf ,ib4 p4 #bce2 ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste pp4 #bh-i4 #dhg ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #bbg1 #bce4 #dhh ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #bi4 #dhi ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #bba4 #dij ,ib4 p4 #bba4 #dia ,kr4 ,conquete pp4 #bbi1 #aji4 #dib ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #bd4 #dic ,kr4 ,conquete p4 #bjb4 #did ,kr4 ,studies p4 #cj4 #die ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #aaj1 #acd-e1 ,conquete p4 #aji4 #dif ,kr4 ,conquete pp4 #afi1 #abh-i1 #bjc-e4 #dig ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #acf-g4 #dih ,kr4 ,conquete p4 #bbi4 #dii ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #ad4 #ejj ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #aa-ad4 #eja ,ib4 p4 #agb4 #ejb ,ib4 p4 #agc4 #ejc ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #age4 #ejd ,ib4 pp4 #aha-b4 #eje ,ib4 pp4 #ahc-d4 #ejf ,ib4 p4 #aij4 #ejg ,ib4 p4 #ai4 #ejh ,ib4 p4 #cc4 #eji ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #ce-i4 #eaj ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste p4 #cj4 #eaa ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #g4 #eab ,kr4 ,temps nouveaux pp4 #di-ej4 #eac ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #aj4 #ead ,ib4 pp #i-aj4 #eae ,ib4 pp4 #bfd-e4 #eaf ,ib4 p4 #aci4 #eag ,ib4 p4 #bce2 ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste pp4 #bh-i4 #eah ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste p4 #cj4 #eai ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #d4 #ebj ,ib4 p4 #g4 #eba ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste p4 #bf4 #ebb ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #bc4 #ebc ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #aag-ah4 #ebd ,sic1 edition of #ahia4 #ebe ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism pp4 #be-g4 #ebf ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #aah4 #ebg ,kr4 ,conquete p4 #agd4 #ebh ,kr4 ,studies p4 #be4 #ebi ,ib4 p4 #bf4 #ecj ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #aag4 #eca ,kr4 ,conquete pp4 #afi1 #bjc4 #ecb ,ib4 pp4 #ade1 #acf1 #abh-i4 #ecc ,ib4 pp4 #bjc-e4 #ecd ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism pp4 #bi-cj1 ,conquete p4 #ahh4 #ece ,kr4 ,prisons p4 #di4 #ecf ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #bd4 ,kropotkin prefixes his own social habits and4 #ecg ,kr4 ,conquete p4 #bjb4 #ech ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #aci4 #eci ,ib4 p4 #aaa4 #edj ,ib4 p4 #age4 #eda ,kr4 ,prisons p4 #di4 #edb ,ib4 pp4 #eh-i4 #edc ,kr4 ,conquete pp4 #dd-e4 #edd ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #ajh4 #ede ,ib4 pp4 #aae-af4 #edf ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #aff4 #edg ,kr4 ,studies p4 #cj4 #edh ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #e-f4 #edi ,ib4 pp4 #cbb-c4 #eej ,ib4 p4 #cbf4 #eea ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #bd4 #eeb ,kr4 ,prisons p4 #dg4 #eec ,ib4 p4 #di4 #eed ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste p4 #aj4 #eee ,kr4 ,conquete pp4 #h-i4 #eef ,kr4 ,conquete pp4 #i-aj4 #eeg ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste p4 #cj4 #eeh ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #aa4 #eei ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #afi4 #efj ,kr4 ,temps nouveaux p4 #de4 #efa ,kr4 ,studies p4 #ag4 #efb ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #g-h4 #efc ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #d4 #efd ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #aci1 ,l',anarchie--sa philosophie son ideal p4 #be4 #efe ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #bce1 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste pp4 #bh-i4 #eff ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #bfd-e4 #efg ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #d4 #efh ,ib4 p4 #g4 #efi ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste p4 #cj4 #egj ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #hh1 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste p4 #cj4 #ega ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #h4 #egb ,ib4 p4 #h4 #egc ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #ba4 #egd ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #aaj4 #ege ,ib4 p4 #acg4 #egf ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #acf4 #egg ,ib4 p4 #aad4 #egh ,ib4 pp4 #aac-ad4 #egi ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste p4 #ab4 #ehj ,kr4 ,studies p4 #be4 #eha ,kr4 ,conquete p4 #bci4 #ehb ,ib4 pp4 #abh-i4 #ehc ,ib4 pp4 #bjc-d4 #ehd ,kr4 ,conquete p4 #acf4 #ehe ,ib4 pp4 #aej-ea4 #ehf ,ib4 p4 #if4 #ehg ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #ccj-a4 #ehh ,kr4 ,conquete pp4 #aie-f4 #ehi ,kr4 ,conquete p4 #acg4 #eij ,ib4 p4 #aec4 #eia ,kr4 ,anarchist ,communism p4 #ca4 #eib ,kr4 ,conquete p4 #aef4 #eic ,ib4 p4 #aic4 #eid ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste p4 #ab4 #eie ,kr4 ,conquete p4 #bbi4 #eif ,ib4 p4 #bf4 #eig ,ib4 p4 #bh4 #eih ,ib4 p4 #bj4 #eii ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste p4 #ac4 #fjj ,ib4 p4 #bh4 #fja ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #bhj4 #fjb ,ib4 p4 #bfa4 #fjc ,kr4 ,conquete p4 #bb4 #fjd ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste p4 #bh4 ,the nineteenth century1 of course1 is meant4 #fje ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #aci4 #fjf ,kr4 ,siecle p4 #cb4 #fjg ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste p4 #bi4 #fjh ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #ij1 ,studies p4 #bc4 #fji ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #ij-ia4 #faj ,kr4 ,conquete p4 #he4 #faa ,kr4 ,l',anarchie4 ,sa philosophie--son ideal p4 #bf4 #fab ,kr4 ,l',anarchie dans l'evolution socialiste pp4 #bh-i4 #fac ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #bfc4 #fad ,ib4 p4 #cdb4 #fae ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #cdb4 #faf ,kr4 ,prisons p4 #eg4 #fag ,kr4 ,studies p4 #af4 #fah ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #aff4 #fai ,ib4 p4 #bdf4 #fbj ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #acd-e4 #fba ,ib4 p4 #afg4 #fbb ,ib4 p4 #ace4 #fbc ,ib4 p4 #ccg4 #fbd ,kr4 ,conquete pp4 #fc4 #fbe ,ib4 p4 #ef4 #fbf ,ib4 p4 #aji4 #fbg ,kr4 ,conquete p4 #ef4 #fbh ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #bfc4 #fbi ,ib4 p4 #bdf4 #fcj ,ib4 pp4 #bdh-i4 #fca ,ib4 p4 #bec4 #fcb ,ib4 pp4 #bec-e4 #fcc ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #aci4 #fcd ,ib4 pp4 #aaf-ag4 #fce ,kr4 ,conquete p4 #ge4 #fcf ,ib4 p4 #he4 #fcg ,kr4 ,conquete pp4 #gf-if4 #fch ,ib4 pp4 #ajd-g4 #fci ,ib4 pp4 #aad-af4 #fdj ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #bfj4 #fda ,ib4 p4 #bfj4 #fdb ,ib4 pp4 #ii1 #bed2 ,kr4 ,temps nouveaux p4 #ed4 #fdc ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #ij4 #fdd ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #ib-e4 #fde ,ib4 p4 #cab4 #fdf ,ib4 p4 #bhe4 #fdg ,ib4 p4 #bhc4 #fdh ,ib4 p4 #bhd4 #fdi ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #bhd4 #fej ,ib4 p4 #bhe4 #fea ,kr4 ,paroles pp4 #bhe-h4 #feb ,ib4 pp4 #bic-cjd4 #fec ,ib4 p4 #bib4 #fed ,kr4 ,paroles p4 #cjd4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,tucker',s ,,teaching #a4--;,,general ,benjamin ,r4 ,tucker was born in #ahed at ,south ,dartmouth1 near ,new ,bedford1 ,massachusetts4 ,from #ahgj to #ahgb he studied technology in ,boston2 there he made the acquaintance of ,josiah ,warren#fee in #ahgb4 ,in #ahgd he traveled in ,england1 ,france1 and ,italy4 ,in #ahgg ,tucker took the temporary editorship of the ,word1 published at ,princeton1 ,massachusetts4 ,in #ahgh he published the quarterly ,the ,radical ,review in ,new ,bedford2 but only four numbers appeared4 ,in #ahha1 in ,boston1 he founded the semi-monthly paper ,liberty1 of which there also appeared for a short time a ,german edition under the title ,libertas2 in ,boston1 also1 he was for ten years one of the editorial staff of the ,globe4 ,since #ahib he has lived in ,new ,york1 and ,liberty has appeared there as a weekly4#fef #b4 ,tucker's teaching about law1 the ,state1 and property is contained mainly in his articles in ,liberty4 ,he has published a collection#feg of these articles under the title ,instead of a ,book4 ,by a ,man ,too ,busy to ,write ,one4 ,a fragmentary exposition of philosophical ,anarchism 7#ahic74 ,illustration #c4 ,tucker calls his teaching ,anarchism4 ,circumstances have combined to make me somewhat conspicuous as an exponent of the theory of ,modern ,anarchism4#feh ,anarchy does not mean simply opposed to the archos1 or political leader4 ,it means opposed to arche4 ,now1 arche1 in the first instance1 means beginning1 origin4 ,from this it comes to mean a first principle1 an element2 then first place1 supreme power1 sovereignty1 dominion1 command1 authority2 and finally a sovereignty1 an empire1 a realm1 a magistracy1 a governmental office4 ,etymologically1 then1 the word anarchy may have several meanings4 ,but the word ,anarchy as a philosophical term and the word ,anarchist as the name of a philosophical sect were first appropriated in the sense of opposition to dominion1 to authority1 and are so held by right of occupancy1 which fact makes any other philosophical use of them improper and confusing4#fei #b4--;,,basis ,tucker considers that the law which has supreme validity for every one of us is self-interest2 and from this he derives the law of equal liberty4 #a4 ,for every man self-interest is the supreme law4 ,the ,anarchists are not only utilitarians1 but egoists in the farthest and fullest sense4#ffj ,what does self-interest mean8 ,my interest is everything that serves my purposes4#ffa ,it takes in not only the lowest but also the higher forms of selfishness4#ffb ,thus1 in particular1 the interest of society is at the same time that of every individual3 its life is inseparable from the lives of individuals2 it is impossible to destroy one without destroying the other4#ffc ,self-interest is the supreme law for man4 ,the ,anarchists totally discard the idea of moral obligation1 of inherent rights and duties4#ffd ,so far as inherent right is concerned1 might is its only measure4 ,any man1 be his name ,bill ,sykes or ,alexander ,romanoff1 and any set of men1 whether the ,chinese highbinders or the ,congress of the ,united ,states1 have the right1 if they have the power1 to kill or coerce other men and to make the entire world subservient to their ends4#ffe ,the ,anarchism of to-day affirms the right of society to coerce the individual and of the individual to coerce society so far as either has the requisite power4#fff #b4 ,from this supreme law ,tucker derives the law of equal liberty4#ffg ,the law of equal liberty is based on every individual's self-interest4 ,for liberty is the chief essential to man's happiness1 and therefore the most important thing in the world1 and ,i want as much of it as ,i can get4#ffh ,on the other hand1 human equality is a necessity of stable society1#ffi and the life of society is inseparable from the lives of individuals4#fgj ,consequently every individual's self-interest demands the equal liberty of all4 ,equal liberty means the largest amount of liberty compatible with equality and mutuality of respect1 on the part of individuals living in society1 for their respective spheres of action4#fga ',mind your own business' is the only moral law of the ,anarchistic scheme4#fgb ,it is our duty to respect others' rights1 assuming the word 'right' to be used in the sense of the limit which the principle of equal liberty logically places upon might4#fgc--,on the law of equal liberty is founded the distinction between invasion and resistance1 between government and defence4 ,this distinction is vital3 without it there can be no valid philosophy of politics4#fgd ,by 'invasion' ,i mean the invasion of the individual sphere1 which is bounded by the line inside of which liberty of action does not conflict with others' liberty of action4#fge ,this boundary-line is in part unmistakable2 for instance1 a threat is not an invasion if the threatened act is not an invasion1 a man has a right to threaten what he has a right to execute4#fgf ,but the boundary-line may also be dubious2 for instance1 we cannot clearly identify the maltreatment of child by parent as either invasive or non-invasive of the liberty of third parties4#fgg ,additional experience is continually sharpening our sense of what constitutes invasion4 ,though we still draw the line by rule of thumb1 we are drawing it more clearly every day4#fgh ,the nature of such invasion is not changed1 whether it is made by one man upon another man1 after the manner of the ordinary criminal1 or by one man upon all other men1 after the manner of an absolute monarch1 or by all other men upon one man1 after the manner of a modern democracy4#fgi ,on the other hand1 he who resists another's attempt to control is not an aggressor1 an invader1 a governor1 but simply a defender1 a protector4#fhj ,the individual has the right to repel invasion of his sphere of action4#fha ,anarchism justifies the application of force to invasive men1#fhb violence is advisable when it will accomplish the desired end and inadvisable when it will not4#fhc ,and defensive associations acting on the ,anarchistic principle would not only demand redress for1 but would prohibit1 all clearly invasive acts4 ,they would not1 however1 prohibit non-invasive acts1 even though these acts create additional opportunity for invasive persons to act invasively3 for instance1 the selling of liquor4#fhd ,and the nature of such resistance is not changed whether it be offered by one man to another man1 as when one repels a criminal's onslaught1 or by one man to all other men1 as when one declines to obey an oppressive law1 or by all other men to one man1 as when a subject people rises against a despot1 or as when the members of a community voluntarily unite to restrain a criminal4#fhe #c4--,,law ,according to ,tucker1 from the standpoint of every one's self-interest and the equal liberty of all there is no objection to law4 ,legal norms are to obtain3 that is1 norms that are based on a general will#fhf and to which obedience is enforced1 if necessary1 by every means1#fhg even by prison1 torture1 and capital punishment4#fhh ,but the law is to be so flexible that it will shape itself to every emergency and need no alteration4 ,and it will then be regarded as just in proportion to its flexibility1 instead of as now in proportion to its rigidity4#fhi ,the means to this end is that juries will judge not only the facts1 but the law2#fij machinery for altering the law is then unnecessary4#fia--;,in particular1 there are to be recognized the following legal norms1 whose correctness ,tucker tries to deduce from the law of equal liberty3 ,first1 a legal norm by which the person is secured against hurt4 ,we are the sternest enemies of invasion of the person1 and1 although chiefly busy in destroying the causes thereof1 have no scruples against such heroic treatment of its immediate manifestations as circumstances and wisdom may dictate4#fib ,capital punishment is quite compatible with the protection of the person against hurt1 for its essence is not that of an act of hurting1 but of an act of defence4#fic ,next1 there is to be recognized a legal norm by virtue of which ownership on a basis of labor#fid exists4 ,this form of property secures each in the possession of his own products1 or of such products of others as he may have obtained unconditionally without the use of fraud or force4#fie ,it will be seen from this definition that ,anarchistic property concerns only products4 ,but anything is a product upon which human labor has been expended4 ,it should be stated1 however1 that in the case of land1 or of any other material the supply of which is so limited that all cannot hold it in unlimited quantities1 ,anarchism undertakes to protect no titles except such as are based on actual occupancy and use4#fif ,against injury to property1 as well as against injury to the person1 ,anarchism has no scruples against such heroic treatment as circumstances and wisdom may dictate4#fig ,furthermore1 there is to be recognized the legal norm that contracts must be lived up to4 ,obligation comes into existence when obligations are consciously and voluntarily assumed2#fih and the other party thus acquires a right4#fii ,to be sure1 the obligatory force of contract is not without bounds4 ,contract is a very serviceable and most important tool1 but its usefulness has its limits2 no man can employ it for the abdication of his manhood2#gjj therefore the constituting of an association in which each member waives the right of secession would be a mere form4#gja ,furthermore1 no one can employ it for the invasion of third parties2 therefore a promise whose fulfilment would invade third parties#gjb would be invalid4--,i deem the keeping of promises such an important matter that only in the extremest cases would ,i approve their violation4 ,it is of such vital consequence that associates should be able to rely upon each other that it is better never to do anything to weaken this confidence except when it can be maintained only at the expense of some consideration of even greater importance4#gjc ,the man who has received a promise is defrauded by its non-fulfilment1 invaded1 deprived of a portion of his liberty against his will4#gjd ,i have no doubt of the right of any man to whom1 for a consideration1 a promise has been made1 to insist1 even by force1 upon the fulfilment of that promise1 provided the promise be not one whose fulfilment would invade third parties4 ,and1 if the promisee has a right to use force himself for such a purpose1 he has a right to secure such co-operative force from others as they are willing to extend4 ,these others1 in turn1 have a right to decide what sort of promises1 if any1 they will help him to enforce4 ,when it comes to the determination of this point1 the question is one of policy solely2 and very likely it will be found that the best way to secure the fulfilment of promises is to have it understood in advance that the fulfilment is not to be enforced4#gje #d4--,,the ,,state ,i4 ,with regard to every man's self-interest1 especially on the basis of the law of equal liberty1 ,tucker rejects the ,state2 and that universally1 not merely for special circumstances determined by place and time4 ,for the ,state is the embodiment of the principle of invasion4#gjf #a4 ,two elements are common to all the institutions to which the name ',state' has been applied3 first1 aggression4#gjg ,aggression1 invasion1 government1 are interconvertible terms4#gjh ,this is the ,anarchistic definition of government3 the subjection of the non-invasive individual to an external will4#gji ,and second1 the assumption of authority over a given area and all within it1 exercised generally for the double purpose of more complete oppression of its subjects and extension of its boundaries4#gaj ,therefore this is the ,anarchistic definition of the ,state3 the embodiment of the principle of invasion in an individual1 or a band of individuals1 assuming to act as representatives or masters of the entire people within a given area4#gaa ,rule is evil1 and it is none the better for being majority rule4#gab ,the theocratic despotism of kings or the democratic despotism of majorities#gac are alike condemnable4 ,what is the ballot8 ,it is neither more nor less than a paper representative of the bayonet1 the billy1 and the bullet4 ,it is a labor-saving device for ascertaining on which side force lies and bowing to the inevitable4 ,the voice of the majority saves bloodshed1 but it is no less the arbitrament of force than is the decree of the most absolute of despots backed by the most powerful of armies4#gad #b4 ,in the first place1 all the acts of governments are indirectly invasive1 because dependent upon the primary invasion called taxation4#gae ,the very first act of the ,state1 the compulsory assessment and collection of taxes1 is itself an aggression1 a violation of equal liberty1 and1 as such1 vitiates every subsequent act1 even those acts which would be purely defensive if paid for out of a treasury filled by voluntary contributions4 ,how is it possible to sanction1 under the law of equal liberty1 the confiscation of a man's earnings to pay for protection which he has not sought and does not desire8#gaf ,and1 if this is an outrage1 what name shall we give to such confiscation when the victim is given1 instead of bread1 a stone1 instead of protection1 oppression8 ,to force a man to pay for the violation of his own liberty is indeed an addition of insult to injury4 ,but that is exactly what the ,state is doing4#gag ,for in the second place1 by far the greater number of their acts are directly invasive1 because directed1 not to the restraint of invaders1 but to the denial of freedom to the people in their industrial1 commercial1 social1 domestic1 and individual lives4#gah ,how thoughtless1 then1 to assert that the existing political order is of a purely defensive character6#gai ,defence is a service1 like any other service4 ,it is labor both useful and desired1 and therefore an economic commodity subject to the law of supply and demand4 ,in a free market this commodity would be furnished at the cost of production4 ,the production and sale of this commodity are now monopolized by the ,state4 ,the ,state1 like almost all monopolists1 charges exorbitant prices4 ,like almost all monopolists1 it supplies a worthless1 or nearly worthless1 article4 ,just as the monopolist of a food product often furnishes poison instead of nutriment1 so the ,state takes advantage of its monopoly of defence to furnish invasion instead of protection4 ,just as the patrons of the one pay to be poisoned1 so the patrons of the other pay to be enslaved4 ,and the ,state exceeds all its fellow-monopolists in the extent of its villany because it enjoys the unique privilege of compelling all people to buy its product whether they want it or not4#gbj #c4 ,it cannot be alleged in favor of the ,state that it is necessary as a means for combating crime4#gba ,the ,state is itself the most gigantic criminal extant4 ,it manufactures criminals much faster than it punishes them4#gbb ,our prisons are filled with criminals which our virtuous ,state has made what they are by its iniquitous laws1 its grinding monopolies1 and the horrible social conditions that result from them4 ,we enact many laws that manufacture criminals1 and then a few that punish them4#gbc ,no more can the ,state be defended on the ground that it is wanted for the relief of suffering4 ,the ,state is rendering assistance to the suffering and starving victims of the ,mississippi inundation4 ,well1 such work is better than forging new chains to keep the people in subjection1 we allow2 but is not worth the price that is paid for it4 ,the people cannot afford to be enslaved for the sake of being insured4 ,if there were no other alternative1 they would do better1 on the whole1 to take ,nature's risks and pay her penalties as best they might4 ,but ,liberty supplies another alternative1 and furnishes better insurance at cheaper rates4 ,mutual insurance1 by the organization of risk1 will do the utmost that can be done to mitigate and equalize the suffering arising from the accidental destruction of wealth4#gbd ,,ii4 ,every man's self-interest1 and equal liberty particularly1 demands1 in place of the ,state1 a social human life on the basis of the legal norm that contracts must be lived up to4 ,the voluntary association of contracting individuals#gbe is to take the place of the ,state4 #a4 ,the ,anarchists have no intention or desire to abolish society4 ,they know that its life is inseparable from the lives of individuals2 that it is impossible to destroy one without destroying the other4#gbf ,society has come to be man's dearest possession4 ,pure air is good1 but no one wants to breathe it long alone4 ,independence is good1 but isolation is too heavy a price to pay for it4#gbg ,but men are not to be held together in society by a concrete supreme authority1 but solely by the legally binding force of contract4#gbh ,the form of society is to be voluntary association1#gbi whose constitution#gcj is nothing but a contract4 #b4 ,but what is to be the nature of the voluntary association in detail8 ,in the first place1 it cannot bind its members for life4 ,the constituting of an association in which each member waives the right of secession would be a mere form1 which every decent man who was a party to it would hasten to violate and tread under foot as soon as he appreciated the enormity of his folly4 ,to indefinitely waive one's right of secession is to make one's self a slave4 ,now1 no man can make himself so much a slave as to forfeit the right to issue his own emancipation proclamation4#gca ,in the next place1 the voluntary association1 as such1 can have no dominion over a territory4 ,certainly such voluntary association would be entitled to enforce whatever regulations the contracting parties might agree upon within the limits of whatever territory1 or divisions of territory1 had been brought into the association by these parties as individual occupiers thereof1 and no non-contracting party would have a right to enter or remain in this domain except upon such terms as the association might impose4 ,but if1 somewhere between these divisions of territory1 had lived1 prior to the formation of the association1 some individual on his homestead1 who for any reason1 wise or foolish1 had declined to join in forming the association1 the contracting parties would have had no right to evict him1 compel him to join1 make him pay for any incidental benefits that he might derive from proximity to their association1 or restrict him in the exercise of any previously-enjoyed right to prevent him from reaping these benefits4 ,now1 voluntary association necessarily involving the right of secession1 any seceding member would naturally fall back into the position and upon the rights of the individual above described1 who refused to join at all4 ,so much1 then1 for the attitude of the individual toward any voluntary association surrounding him1 his support thereof evidently depending upon his approval or disapproval of its objects1 his view of its efficiency in attaining them1 and his estimate of the advantages and disadvantages involved in joining1 seceding1 or abstaining4#gcb ,for the members of the voluntary association numerous obligations arise from their membership4 ,the association may require1 as a condition of membership1 the agreement to perform certain services1--for instance1 jury service4#gcc ,and inasmuch as ,anarchistic associations recognize the right of secession1 they may utilize the ballot1 if they see fit to do so4 ,if the question decided by ballot is so vital that the minority thinks it more important to carry out its own views than to preserve common action1 the minority can withdraw4 ,in no case can a minority1 however small1 be governed without its consent4#gcd ,the voluntary association is entitled to compel its members to live up to their obligations4 ,if a man makes an agreement with men1 the latter may combine to hold him to his agreement2#gce therefore a voluntary association is entitled to enforce whatever regulations the contracting parties may agree upon4#gcf ,to be sure1 one must bear in mind that very likely the best way to secure the fulfilment of promises is to have it understood in advance that the fulfilment is not to be enforced4#gcg ,of especial importance among the obligations of the members of a voluntary association is the duty of paying taxes2 but the tax is voluntary by virtue of the fact that it is based on contract4#gch ,voluntary taxation1 far from impairing the association's credit1 would strengthen it2#gci for1 in the first place1 because of the simplicity of its functions1 the association seldom or never has to borrow2 in the second place1 it cannot1 like the present ,state upon its basis of compulsory taxation1 repudiate its debts and still continue business2 and1 in the third place1 it will necessarily be more intent on maintaining its credit by paying its debts than is the ,state which enforces taxation4#gdj ,and furthermore1 the voluntariness of the tax has this advantage1 that the defensive institution will be steadily deterred from becoming an invasive institution through fear that the voluntary contributions will fall off2 it will have this constant motive to keep itself trimmed down to the popular demand4#gda ,ireland's true order3 the wonderful ,land ,league1 the nearest approach1 on a large scale1 to perfect ,anarchistic organization that the world has yet seen4 ,an immense number of local groups1 scattered over large sections of two continents separated by three thousand miles of ocean2 each group autonomous1 each free2 each composed of varying numbers of individuals of all ages1 sexes1 races1 equally autonomous and free2 each inspired by a common1 central purpose2 each supported entirely by voluntary contributions2 each obeying its own judgment2 each guided in the formation of its judgment and the choice of its conduct by the advice of a central council of picked men1 having no power to enforce its orders except that inherent in the convincing logic of the reasons on which the orders are based2 all co-ordinated and federated1 with a minimum of machinery and without sacrifice of spontaneity1 into a vast working unit1 whose unparalleled power makes tyrants tremble and armies of no avail4#gdb #c4 ,among the prominent associations of the new society are mutual insurance societies and mutual banks1#gdc and1 especially1 defensive associations4 ,the abolition of the ,state will leave in existence a defensive association#gdd which will give protection against those who violate the social law by invading their neighbors4#gde ,to be sure1 this need will be only transitory4 ,we look forward to the ultimate disappearance of the necessity of force even for the purpose of repressing crime4#gdf ,the necessity for defence against individual invaders is largely and perhaps1 in the end1 wholly due to the oppressions of the invasive ,state4 ,when the ,state falls1 criminals will begin to disappear4#gdg ,a number of defensive associations may exist side by side4 ,there are many more than five or six insurance companies in ,england1 and it is by no means uncommon for members of the same family to insure their lives and goods against accident or fire in different companies4 ,why should there not be a considerable number of defensive associations in ,england1 in which people1 even members of the same family1 might insure their lives and goods against murderers or thieves8 ,defence is a service1 like any other service4#gdh ,under the influence of competition the best and cheapest protector1 like the best and cheapest tailor1 would doubtless get the greater part of the business4 ,it is conceivable even that he might get the whole of it4 ,but1 if he should1 it would be by his virtue as a protector1 not by his power as a tyrant4 ,he would be kept at his best by the possibility of competition and the fear of it2 and the source of power would always remain1 not with him1 but with his patrons1 who would exercise it1 not by voting him down or by forcibly putting another in his place1 but by withdrawing their patronage4#gdi ,but1 if invader and invaded belong to different defensive associations1 will not a conflict of associations result8 ,anticipations of such conflicts would probably result in treaties1 and even in the establishment of federal tribunals1 as courts of last resort1 by the co-operation of the various associations1 on the same voluntary principle in accordance with which the associations themselves were organized4#gej ,voluntary defensive associations acting on the ,anarchistic principle would not only demand redress for1 but would prohibit1 all clearly invasive acts4#gea ,to fulfil this function they may choose any appropriate means1 without thereby exercising a government4 ,government is the subjection of the non-invasive individual to a will not his own4 ,the subjection of the invasive individual is not government1 but resistance to and protection from government4#geb--;,anarchism recognizes the right to arrest1 try1 convict1 and punish for wrong doing4#gec ,anarchism will take enough of the invader's property from him to repair the damage done by his invasion4#ged ,if it can find no better instrument of resistance to invasion1 ,anarchism will use prisons4#gee ,it admits even capital punishment4 ,the society which inflicts capital punishment does not commit murder4 ,murder is an offensive act4 ,the term cannot be applied legitimately to any defensive act4 ,there is nothing sacred in the life of an invader1 and there is no valid principle of human society that forbids the invaded to protect themselves in whatever way they can4#gef ,it is allowable to punish invaders by torture4 ,but1 if the 'good' people are not fiends1 they are not likely to defend themselves by torture until the penalties of death and tolerable confinement have shown themselves destitute of efficacy4#geg--;,all disputes will be submitted to juries4#geh ,speaking for myself1 ,i think the jury should be selected by drawing twelve names by lot from a wheel containing the names of all the citizens in the community4#gei ,the juries will judge not only the facts1 but the law1 the justice of the law1 its applicability to the given circumstances1 and the penalty or damage to be inflicted because of its infraction4#gfj #e4--,,property ,i4 ,according to ,tucker1 from the standpoint of every one's self-interest and the equal liberty of all there is no objection to property4 ,tucker rejects only the distribution of property on the basis of monopoly1 as it everywhere and always exists in the ,state4 ,that the ,state is essentially invasion appears in the laws which not only prescribe personal habits1 but1 worse still1 create and sustain monopolies#gfa and thereby make usury possible4#gfb #a4 ,usury is the taking of surplus value4#gfc ,a laborer's product is such portion of the value of that which he delivers to the consumer as his own labor has contributed4#gfd ,the laborer does not get this product1 at least not as laborer2 he gains a bare subsistence by his work4#gfe ,but1 somebody gets the surplus wealth4 ,who is the somebody8#gff ,the usurer4#gfg ,there are three forms of usury3 interest on money1 rent of land and houses1 and profit in exchange4 ,whoever is in receipt of any of these is a usurer4 ,and who is not8 ,scarcely any one4 ,the banker is a usurer2 the manufacturer is a usurer2 the merchant is a usurer2 the landlord is a usurer2 and the workingman who puts his savings1 if he has any1 out at interest1 or takes rent for his house or lot1 if he owns one1 or exchanges his labor for more than an equivalent1--he too is a usurer4 ,the sin of usury is one under which all are concluded1 and for which all are responsible4 ,but all do not benefit by it4 ,the vast majority suffer4 ,only the chief usurers accumulate3 in agricultural and thickly settled countries1 the landlords2 in industrial and commercial countries1 the bankers4 ,those are the ,somebodies who swallow up the surplus wealth4#gfh #b4 ,and where do they get their power8 ,from monopoly maintained by the ,state4 ,usury rests on this4#gfi ,and of the various monopolies that now prevail1 four are of principal importance4#ggj ,first in the importance of its evil influence they the founders of ,anarchism considered the money monopoly1 which consists of the privilege given by the government to certain individuals1 or to individuals holding certain kinds of property1 of issuing the circulating medium1 a privilege which is now enforced in this country by a national tax of ten per cent4 upon all other persons who attempt to furnish a circulating medium1 and by ,state laws making it a criminal offence to issue notes as currency4 ,it is claimed that holders of this privilege control the rate of interest1 the rate of rent of houses and buildings1 and the prices of goods1--the first directly1 and the second and third indirectly4 ,for1 if the business of banking were made free to all1 more and more persons would enter into it until the competition should become sharp enough to reduce the price of lending money to the labor cost1 which statistics show to be less than three-fourths of one per cent4#gga ,then down will go house-rent4 ,for no one who can borrow capital at one per cent4 with which to build a house of his own will consent to pay rent to a landlord at a higher rate than that4#ggb ,finally1 down will go profits also4 ,for merchants1 instead of buying at high prices on credit1 will borrow money of the banks at less than one per cent41 buy at low prices for cash1 and correspondingly reduce the prices of their goods to their customers4#ggc ,second in importance comes the land monopoly1 the evil effects of which are seen principally in exclusively agricultural countries1 like ,ireland4 ,this monopoly consists in the enforcement by government of land-titles which do not rest upon personal occupancy and cultivation4#ggd ,ground-rent exists only because the ,state stands by to collect it and to protect land-titles rooted in force or fraud4#gge ,as soon as individuals should no longer be protected in anything but personal occupancy and cultivation of land1 ground-rent would disappear1 and so usury have one less leg to stand on4#ggf ,the third and fourth places are occupied by the tariff and patent monopolies4#ggg ,the tariff monopoly consists in fostering production at high prices and under unfavorable conditions by visiting with the penalty of taxation those who patronize production at low prices and under favorable conditions4 ,the evil to which this monopoly gives rise might more properly be called misusury than usury1 because it compels labor to pay1 not exactly for the use of capital1 but rather for the misuse of capital4#ggh ,the patent monopoly protects inventors and authors against competition for a period long enough to enable them to extort from the people a reward enormously in excess of the labor measure of their services1--in other words1 it gives certain people a right of property for a term of years in laws and facts of nature1 and the power to exact tribute from others for the use of this natural wealth1 which should be open to all4#ggi ,it is on the tariff and patent monopolies1 next to the money monopoly1 that profit in exchange is based4 ,if they were done away along with the money monopoly1 it would disappear4#ghj ,,ii4 ,every one's self-interest1 and particularly the equal liberty of all1 demands a distribution of property in which every one is guaranteed the product of his labor4#gha #a4 ,equal liberty1 in the property sphere1 is such a balance between the liberty to take and the liberty to keep that the two liberties may coexist without conflict or invasion4#ghb ,nearly all ,anarchists consider labor to be the only basis of the right of ownership in harmony with that law2#ghc the laborers1 instead of having only a small fraction of the wealth in the world1 should have all the wealth4#ghd ,this form of property secures each in the possession of his own products1 or of such products of others as he may have obtained unconditionally without the use of fraud or force1 and in the realization of all titles to such products which he may hold by virtue of free contract with others4#ghe ,it will be seen from this definition that ,anarchistic property concerns only products4 ,but anything is a product upon which human labor has been expended1 whether it be a piece of iron or a piece of land4 7,it should be stated1 however1 that in the case of land1 or of any other material the supply of which is so limited that all cannot hold it in unlimited quantities1 ,anarchism undertakes to protect no titles except such as are based on actual occupancy and use47#ghf #b4 ,a distribution of property in which every one is guaranteed the product of his labor presupposes merely that equal liberty be applied in those spheres which are as yet dominated by ,state monopoly4#ghg ,free money first4#ghh ,i mean by free money the utter absence of restriction upon the issue of all money not fraudulent2#ghi making the issue of money as free as the manufacture of shoes4#gij ,money is here understood in the broadest sense1 it means both commodity money and credit money1#gia by no means coin alone2 if the idea of the royalty of gold and silver could once be knocked out of the people's heads1 and they could once understand that no particular kind of merchandise is created by nature for monetary purposes1 they would settle this question in a trice4#gib ,if they only had the liberty to do so1 there are enough large and small property-holders willing and anxious to issue money1 to provide a far greater amount than is needed4#gic ,does the law of ,england allow citizens to form a bank for the issue of paper money against any property that they may see fit to accept as security2 said bank perhaps owning no specie whatever2 the paper money not redeemable in specie except at the option of the bank2 the customers of the bank mutually pledging themselves to accept the bank's paper in lieu of gold or silver coin of the same face value2 the paper being redeemable only at the maturity of the mortgage notes1 and then simply by a return of said notes and a release of the mortgaged property1--is such an institution1 ,i ask1 allowed by the law of ,england8 ,if it is1 then ,i have only to say that the working people of ,england are very great fools not to take advantage of this inestimable liberty4#gid ,then competition would reduce the rate of interest on capital to the mere cost of banking1 which is much less than one per cent41#gie for capitalists will not be able to lend their capital at interest when people can get money at the bank without interest with which to buy capital outright4#gif ,likewise the charge of rent on buildings would be almost entirely and directly abolished1#gig and profits fall to the level of the manufacturer's or merchant's proper wage1#gih except in business protected by tariff or patent laws4#gii ,this facility of acquiring capital will give an unheard-of impetus to business2#hjj if free banking were only a picayunish attempt to distribute more equitably the small amount of wealth now produced1 ,i would not waste a moment's energy on it4#hja ,free land is needed in the second place4#hjb ',the land for the people1' according to ',liberty'1 means the protection of all people who desire to cultivate land in the possession of whatever land they personally cultivate1 without distinction between the existing classes of landlords1 tenants1 and laborers1 and the positive refusal of the protecting power to lend its aid to the collection of any rent whatsoever4#hjc ,this system of occupying ownership1 accompanied by no legal power to collect rent1 but coupled with the abolition of the ,state-guaranteed monopoly of money1 thus making capital readily available1#hjd would abolish ground-rent#hje and distribute the increment naturally and quietly among its rightful owners4#hjf ,in the third and fourth place1 free trade and freedom of intellectual products are necessary4#hjg ,if they were added to freedom in money1 profit on merchandise would become merely the wages of mercantile labor4#hjh ,free trade would result in a great reduction in the prices of all articles taxed4#hji ,and the abolition of the patent monopoly would fill its beneficiaries with a wholesome fear of competition which would cause them to be satisfied with pay for their services equal to that which other laborers get for theirs4#haj ,if equal liberty is realized in these four spheres1 its realization in the sphere of property follows of itself3 that is1 a distribution of property in which every one is guaranteed the product of his labor4#haa ,economic privilege must disappear as a result of the abolition of political tyranny4#hab ,in a society in which there is no more government of man by man1 there can be no such things as interest1 rent1 and profits2#hac every one is guaranteed the ownership of the product of his labor4 ,socialism does not say3 ',thou shalt not steal6' ,it says3 ',when all men have ,liberty1 thou wilt not steal4'#had #c4 ,liberty will abolish all means whereby any laborer can be deprived of any of his product2 but it will not abolish the limited inequality between one laborer's product and another's4#hae ,there will remain the slight disparity of products due to superiority of soil and skill4 ,but even this disparity will soon develop a tendency to decrease4 ,under the new economic conditions and enlarged opportunities resulting from freedom of credit and land classes will tend to disappear2 great capacities will not be developed in a few at the expense of stunting those of the many2 freedom of locomotion will be vastly increased2 the toilers will no longer be anchored in such large numbers in the present commercial centres1 and thus made subservient to the city landlords2 territories and resources never before utilized will become easy of access and development2 and under all these influences the disparity above mentioned will decrease to a minimum4#haf ,probably it will never disappear entirely4#hag ,now1 because liberty has not the power to bring this about1 there are people who say3 ,we will have no liberty1 for we must have absolute equality4 ,i am not of them4 ,if ,i can go through life free and rich1 ,i shall not cry because my neighbor1 equally free1 is richer4 ,liberty will ultimately make all men rich2 it will not make all men equally rich4 ,authority may 7and may not7 make all men equally rich in purse2 it certainly will make them equally poor in all that makes life best worth living4#hah #f4--,,realization ,according to ,tucker1 the manner in which the change called for by every one's self-interest takes place is to be that those who have recognized the truth shall first convince a sufficient number of people how necessary the change is to their own interests1 and that then they all of them1 by refusing obedience1 abolish the ,state1 transform law and property1 and thus bring about the new condition4 ,i4 ,first a sufficient number of men are to be convinced that their own interests demand the change4 #a4 ,a system of ,anarchy in actual operation implies a previous education of the people in the principles of ,anarchy4#hai ,the individual must be penetrated with the ,anarchistic idea and taught to rebel4#hbj ,persistent inculcation of the doctrine of equality of liberty1 whereby finally the majority will be made to see in regard to existing forms of invasion what they have already been made to see in regard to its obsolete forms1--namely1 that they are not seeking equality of liberty at all1 but simply the subjection of all others to themselves4#hba ,the ,irish ,land ,league failed because the peasants were acting1 not intelligently in obedience to their wisdom1 but blindly in obedience to leaders who betrayed them at the critical moment4 ,had the people realized the power they were exercising and understood the economic situation1 they would not have resumed the payment of rent at ,parnell's bidding1 and to-day they might have been free4 ,the ,anarchists do not propose to repeat their mistake4 ,that is why they are devoting themselves entirely to the inculcation of principles1 especially of economic principles4 ,in steadfastly pursuing this course regardless of clamor1 they alone are laying a sure foundation for the success of the revolution4#hbb #b4 ,in particular1 according to ,tucker1 appropriate means for the inculcation of the ,anarchistic idea are speech and the press4#hbc--;,but what if the freedom of speech and of the press be suppressed8 ,then force is justifiable4#hbd ,but force is to be used only as a last resort4#hbe ,when a physician sees that his patient's strength is being exhausted so rapidly by the intensity of his agony that he will die of exhaustion before the medical processes inaugurated have a chance to do their curative work1 he administers an opiate4 ,but a good physician is always loth to do so1 knowing that one of the influences of the opiate is to interfere with and defeat the medical processes themselves4 ,it is the same with the use of force1 whether of the mob or of the ,state1 upon diseased society2 and not only those who prescribe its indiscriminate use as a sovereign remedy and a permanent tonic1 but all who ever propose it as a cure1 and even all who would lightly and unnecessarily resort to it1 not as a cure1 but as an expedient1 are social quacks4#hbf ,therefore violence should be used against the oppressors of mankind only when they have succeeded in hopelessly repressing all peaceful methods of agitation4#hbg ,bloodshed in itself is pure loss4 ,when we must have freedom of agitation1 and when nothing but bloodshed will secure it1 then bloodshed is wise4#hbh ,as long as freedom of speech and of the press is not struck down1 there should be no resort to physical force in the struggle against oppression4 ,it must not be inferred that1 because ',libertas' thinks it may become advisable to use force to secure free speech1 it would therefore sanction a bloody deluge as soon as free speech had been struck down in one1 a dozen1 or a hundred instances4 ,not until the gag had become completely efficacious would ',libertas' advise that last resort1 the use of force4#hbi ,terrorism is expedient in ,russia and inexpedient in ,germany and ,england4#hcj--;,in what form is violence to be used8 ,the days of armed revolution have gone by4 ,it is too easily put down4#hca ,terrorism and assassination#hcb are necessary1 but they will have to consist of a series of acts of individual dynamiters4#hcc #c4 ,but1 besides speech and the press1 there are yet other methods of propagandism4#hcd ,such a method is isolated individual resistance to taxation4#hce ,some year1 when an ,anarchist feels exceptionally strong and independent1 when his conduct can impair no serious personal obligations1 when on the whole he would a little rather go to jail than not1 and when his property is in such shape that he can successfully conceal it1 let him declare to the assessor property of a certain value1 and then defy the collector to collect4 ,or1 if he have no property1 let him decline to pay his poll tax4 ,the ,state will then be put to its trumps4 ,of two things one1--either it will let him alone1 and then he will tell his neighbors all about it1 resulting the next year in an alarming disposition on their part to keep their own money in their own pockets2 or else it will imprison him1 and then by the requisite legal processes he will demand and secure all the rights of a civil prisoner and live thus a decently comfortable life until the ,state shall get tired of supporting him and the increasing number of persons who will follow his example4 ,unless1 indeed1 the ,state1 in desperation1 shall see fit to make its laws regarding imprisonment for taxes more rigorous1 and then1 if our ,anarchist be a determined man1 we shall find out how far a republican government1 'deriving its just powers from the consent of the governed1' is ready to go to procure that 'consent1'--whether it will stop at solitary confinement in a dark cell or join with the czar of ,russia in administering torture by electricity4 ,the farther it shall go the better it will be for ,anarchy1 as every student of the history of reform well knows4 ,who shall estimate the power for propagandism of a few cases of this kind1 backed by a well-organized force of agitators outside the prison walls8#hcf ,another method of propaganda consists in a practical test of ,anarchistic principles4#hcg ,but this cannot take place in isolated communities1 but only in the very heart of existing industrial and social life4#hch ,in some large city fairly representative of the varied interests and characteristics of our heterogeneous civilization let a sufficiently large number of earnest and intelligent ,anarchists1 engaged in nearly all the different trades and professions1 combine to carry on their production and distribution on the cost principle1 and1#hci setting at defiance the national and ,state banking prohibitions1#hdj to start a bank through which they can obtain a non-interest-bearing currency for the conduct of their commerce and dispose their steadily accumulating capital in new enterprises1 the advantages of this system of affairs being open to all who should choose to offer their patronage1--what would be the result8 ,why1 soon the whole composite population1 wise and unwise1 good1 bad1 and indifferent1 would become interested in what was going on under their very eyes1 more and more of them would actually take part in it1 and in a few years1 each man reaping the fruit of his labor and no man able to live in idleness on an income from capital1 the whole city would become a great hive of ,anarchistic workers1 prosperous and free individuals4#hda ,,ii4 ,if a sufficient number of persons are convinced that their self-interest demands the change1 then the time is come to abolish the ,state1 transform law and property1 and bring about the new condition1 by the ,social ,revolution1#hdb i4 e4 by as general a refusal of obedience as possible4 ,the ,state is sheer tyranny1 and has no rights which any individual is bound to respect2 on the contrary1 every individual who understands his rights and values his liberties will do his best to overthrow it4#hdc #a4 ,many believe that the ,state cannot disappear until the individual is perfected4 ,in saying which1 ,mr4 ,appleton joins hands with those wise persons who admit that ,anarchy will be practicable when the millennium arrives4 ,no doubt it is true that1 if the individual could perfect himself while the barriers to his perfection are standing1 the ,state would afterwards disappear4 ,perhaps1 too1 he could go to heaven1 if he could lift himself by his boot-straps4#hdd ',bullion' thinks that 'civilization consists in teaching men to govern themselves and then letting them do it4' ,a very slight change suffices to make this stupid statement an entirely accurate one1 after which it would read3 ',civilization consists in teaching men to govern themselves by letting them do it4'#hde ,therefore it is necessary to abolish the ,state#hdf by the impending social revolution4#hdg #b4 ,others have the fallacious idea that ,anarchy can be inaugurated by force4#hdh ,in what way it is to be inaugurated is solely a question of expediency4#hdi ,to brand the policy of terrorism and assassination as immoral is ridiculously weak4 ',liberty' does not assume to set any limit on the right of an invaded individual to choose his own methods of defence4 ,the invader1 whether an individual or a government1 forfeits all claim to consideration from the invaded4 ,this truth is independent of the character of the invasion4 ,it makes no difference in what direction the individual finds his freedom arbitrarily limited2 he has a right to vindicate it in any case1 and he will be justified in vindicating it by whatever means are available4#hej ,the right to resist oppression by violence is beyond doubt4 ,but its exercise would be unwise unless the suppression of free thought1 free speech1 and a free press were enforced so stringently that all other means of throwing it off had become hopeless4#hea ,if government should be abruptly and entirely abolished to-morrow1 there would probably ensue a series of physical conflicts about land and many other things1 ending in reaction and a revival of the old tyranny4 ,but1 if the abolition of government shall take place gradually1 it will be accompanied by a constant acquisition and steady spreading of social truth4#heb #c4 ,the social revolution is to come about by passive resistance2 that is1 refusal of obedience4#hec ,passive resistance is the most potent weapon ever wielded by man against oppression4#hed ',passive resistance1' said ,ferdinand ,lassalle1 with an obtuseness thoroughly ,german1 'is the resistance which does not resist4' ,never was there a greater mistake4 ,it is the only resistance which in these days of military discipline meets with any result4 ,there is not a tyrant in the civilized world to-day who would not do anything in his power to precipitate a bloody revolution rather than see himself confronted by any large fraction of his subjects determined not to obey4 ,an insurrection is easily quelled1 but no army is willing or able to train its guns on inoffensive people who do not even gather in the street but stay at home and stand back on their rights4#hee ,power feeds on its spoils1 and dies when its victims refuse to be despoiled4 ,they can't persuade it to death2 they can't vote it to death2 they can't shoot it to death2 but they can always starve it to death4 ,when a determined body of people1 sufficiently strong in numbers and force of character to command respect and make it unsafe to imprison them1 shall agree to quietly close their doors in the faces of the tax-collector and the rent-collector1 and shall1 by issuing their own money in defiance of legal prohibition1 at the same time cease paying tribute to the money-lord1 government1 with all the privileges which it grants and the monopolies which it sustains1 will go by the board4#hef ,consider the enormous and utterly irresistible power of a large and intelligent minority1 comprising say one-fifth of the population in any given locality1 refusing to pay taxes4#heg ,i need do no more than call attention to the wonderfully instructive history of the ,land ,league movement in ,ireland1 the most potent and instantly effective revolutionary force the world has ever known so long as it stood by its original policy of ',pay ,no ,rent1' and which lost nearly all its strength the day it abandoned that policy4 ,but it was pursued far enough to show that the ,british government was utterly powerless before it2 and it is scarcely too much to say1 in my opinion1 that1 had it been persisted in1 there would not to-day be a landlord in ,ireland4 ,it is easier to resist taxes in this country than it is to resist rent in ,ireland2 and such a policy would be as much more potent here than there as the intelligence of the people is greater1 providing always that you can enlist in it a sufficient number of earnest and determined men and women4 ,if one-fifth of the people were to resist taxation1 it would cost more to collect their taxes1 or try to collect them1 than the other four-fifths would consent to pay into the treasury4#heh ,,footnotes3 #fee ,recognized by ,tucker as the originator of ,anarchism1 so far as any man can claim this title4 ,see ,bailie's life of ,warren4 #fef ,at present 7#aijh7 a bi-monthly magazine4 #feg ,or rather a selection4 #feh ,tucker p4 #ba4 #fei ,ib4 p4 #aab4 #ffj ,ib4 p4 #bd4 #ffa ,ib4 pp4 #bd1 #fd4 #ffb ,ib4 p4 #fd4 #ffc ,tucker p4 #ce4 ,this passage refers merely to what it mentions1 the alleged intent utterly to destroy society4 ,as to identity of interests1 ,i believe ,tucker's position is that the interest of society is that of almost every individual4 #ffd ,ib4 p4 #bd4 #ffe ,ib4 p4 #bd4 #fff ,ib4 p4 #acb4 #ffg ,ib4 p4 #db4 ,eltzbacher does not seem to perceive that ,tucker uses this as a ready-made phrase1 coined by ,herbert ,spencer and designating ,spencer's well-known formula that in justice every man has freedom to do all that he wills1 provided he infringes not the equal freedom of any other man4 #ffh ,ib4 p4 #da4 #ffi ,ib4 p4 #fd4 #fgj ,tucker p4 #ce4 ,this citation is again irrelevant1 but ,eltzbacher's misapplication of it does not misrepresent ,tucker's views4 #fga ,ib4 p4 #fe4 #fgb ,ib4 p4 #ae4 #fgc ,ib4 p4 #ei4 ,it should be understood that a great part of ,instead of a ,book is made up of the reprints of discussions with various opponents whose language is quoted and alluded to4 #fgd ,ib4 p4 #bc4 #fge ,ib4 p4 #fg4 #fgf ,ib4 p4 #aec4 #fgg ,ib4 p4 #ace4 ,since the publication of ,instead of a ,book ,tucker has had a notable discussion of the child question in ,liberty1 which1 while developing much disagreement on this point among ,tucker's friends1 has at least brought definiteness into the judgments passed upon it4 #fgh ,tucker p4 #gh4 #fgi ,ib4 p4 #bc4 #fhj ,ib4 p4 #bc4 #fha ,ib4 p4 #ei4 ,the wording of this clause is so thoroughly ,eltzbacher's own that his quotation-marks appear unjustifiable2 but the doctrine is ,tucker's4 #fhb ,ib4 p4 #ha4 #fhc ,ib4 p4 #hj4 #fhd ,ib4 p4 #afg4 #fhe ,tucker p4 #bc4 #fhf ,ib4 pp4 #fj1 #eb1 #aeh1 #ajd1 #afg4 #fhg ,ib4 p4 #be4 #fhh ,ib4 p4 #fj4 ,but see below1 page #bjj1 where ,tucker's page #fj is quoted verbatim4 #fhi ,ib4 p4 #cab4 #fij ,ib4 p4 #cab4 ,tucker is not likely to think that he is fairly represented without a fuller quotation3 not only the facts1 but the law1 the justice of the law1 its applicability to the given circumstances1 and the penalty or damage to be inflicted because of its infraction4 ,he would emphasize the justice of the law--a juryman will disregard a law that he disapproves4 ,tucker here prefixes ,all rules and laws will be little more than suggestions for the guidance of juries4 ,nevertheless the juryman is to be guided by norm and not by caprice3 see ,liberty ,sept4 #g1 #ahie1 where he says3 ,i am asked by a correspondent if ,i would 'passively see a woman throw her baby into the fire as a man throws his newspaper'4 ,it is highly probable that ,i would interfere in such a case4 ,but it is as probable1 and perhaps more so1 that ,i would personally interfere to prevent the owner of a masterpiece by ,titian from applying the torch to the canvas4 ,my interference in the former case no more invalidates the mother's property right in her child than my interference in the latter case would invalidate the property right of the owner of the painting4 ,if ,i interfere in either case1 ,i am an invader1 acting in obedience to my injured feelings4 ,as such ,i deserve to be punished4 ,i consider that it would be the duty of a policeman in the service of the defence association to arrest me for assault4 ,on my arraignment ,i should plead guilty1 and it would be the duty of the jury to impose a penalty on me4 ,i might ask for a light sentence on the strength of the extenuating circumstances1 and ,i believe that my prayer would be heeded4 ,but1 if such invasions as mine were persisted in1 it would become the duty of the jury to impose penalties sufficiently severe to put a stop to them4 #fia ,tucker p4 #cab4 #fib ,ib4 p4 #eb4 #fic ,ib4 pp4 #aef-g4 ,compare the exact words of this passage as quoted on page #bjj below4 #fid ,ib4 p4 #aca4 ,not verbatim4 #fie ,ib4 p4 #fj4 #fif ,ib4 p4 #fa4 #fig ,tucker p4 #eb4 #fih ,ib4 p4 #bd4 #fii ,ib4 pp4 #adf1 #cej4 #gjj ,ib4 p4 #dh4 #gja ,ib4 p4 #dh4 #gjb ,ib4 p4 #aeh4 #gjc ,ib4 p4 #ea4 #gjd ,ib4 p4 #aeh4 #gje ,tucker pp4 #aeg-h4 #gjf ,ib4 p4 #be4 #gjg ,ib4 p4 #bb4 #gjh ,ib4 p4 #bc4 #gji ,ib4 p4 #bc4 #gaj ,tucker p4 #bb4 #gaa ,ib4 p4 #bc4 #gab ,ib4 p4 #afi4 #gac ,ib4 p4 #aae4 ,the words are ,lucien ,v4 ,pinney's1 but ,tucker quotes them approvingly4 #gad ,ib4 pp4 #dbf-g4 #gae ,ib4 p4 #eg4 #gaf ,ib4 p4 #be4 #gag ,tucker pp4 #be-f4 #gah ,ib4 p4 #eg4 #gai ,ib4 p4 #bf4 #gbj ,ib4 p4 #cb-cc4 #gba ,tucker p4 #ed4 #gbb ,ib4 p4 #ec4 #gbc ,ib4 pp4 #bf-g4 #gbd ,ib4 pp4 #aeh-i4 #gbe ,tucker p4 #dd4 ,see my note below1 page #aie4 #gbf ,ib4 p4 #ce4 #gbg ,ib4 p4 #cba4 #gbh ,ib4 p4 #cb4 #gbi ,ib4 p4 #dd4 ,or rather p4 #afg1 and sundry other passages2 on p4 #dd see my note below1 page #aie4 #gcj ,ib4 p4 #cdb4 #gca ,ib4 p4 #dh4 #gcb ,tucker pp4 #dd-e4 ,all this is a discussion of the characteristics which the ,state of to-day would have to possess if it were to deserve to be characterized as a voluntary association4 ,the same conditions must of course be fulfilled by any future voluntary association2 but it does not follow that all the points mentioned are such as ,anarchistic associations would have most occasion to contemplate4 #gcc ,tucker p4 #ef4 #gcd ,ib4 pp4 #ef-g4 #gce ,ib4 p4 #bd4 #gcf ,ib4 p4 #dd4 ,for context and limitations see page #aie of the present book4 #gcg ,ib4 p4 #aeh4 #gch ,ib4 p4 #cb4 ,it is not necessary that taxation exist1 though it may be altogether presumable that it will4 ,still less is it necessary that the taxation be considerable in amount4 #gci ,tucker pp4 #cf-g4 #gdj ,ib4 p4 #cg4 #gda ,ib4 p4 #dc4 #gdb ,tucker p4 #dad4 #gdc ,ib4 p4 #aei4 ,tucker himself would assuredly have given the emphasis of especially to the mutual banks4 ,the defensive associations receive especially frequent mention because of the need of incessantly answering the objection ,if we lose the ,state1 who will protect us against ruffians8 but ,tucker certainly expects that the defensive association will from the start fill a much smaller sphere in every respect than the present police4 ,see e4 g4 ,instead of a ,book p4 #dj4 #gdd ,ib4 p4 #be4 #gde ,ib4 p4 #be4 #gdf ,ib4 p4 #eb4 #gdg ,ib4 p4 #dj4 #gdh ,tucker p4 #cb4 #gdi ,ib4 pp4 #cbf-g4 #gej ,ib4 p4 #cf4 #gea ,ib4 p4 #afg4 ,but the restraint of aggressions against those with whom the association has no contract1 and also the possible refusal to pay any attention to some particular class of aggressions which it may be thought best to let alone1 are optional2 in these respects the association will do what seems best to serve the interests 7including the pleasure1 altruistic or other7 of its members2 those who do not approve the policy adopted may quit the association if they like4 #geb ,tucker p4 #ci4 #gec ,ib4 p4 #ee where ,tucker explicitly refuses to approve this statement unless he is allowed to add the caveat if by the words wrong doing is meant invasion4 #ged ,ib4 p4 #ef4 #gee ,ib4 p4 #ef4 #gef ,ib4 pp4 #aef-g4 ,but accompanied by a disapproval of the ordinary practice of capital punishment4 #geg ,ib4 p4 #fj where the particular torture under discussion is failure to feed1 clothe1 and make comfortable the prisoners4 #geh ,ib4 p4 #cab4 ,but ,anarchism1 as such1 neither believes nor disbelieves in jury trial2 it is a matter of expediency1 pp4 #ee-f4 #gei ,tucker p4 #ef4 #gfj ,ib4 p4 #cab4 #gfa ,ib4 p4 #bf4 #gfb ,ib4 p4 #agh4 #gfc ,ib4 pp4 #agh1 #agg4 #gfd ,ib4 p4 #bda4 #gfe ,ib4 p4 #agg4 ,this is given as an answer to the question here quoted next1 about surplus wealth4 #gff ,ib4 p4 #agg4 ,quoted from ,n4 ,y4 ,truth4 #gfg ,ib4 p4 #agh4 #gfh ,tucker p4 #agh4 #gfi ,ib4 p4 #agh4 ,not verbatim4 #ggj ,ib4 p4 #aa4 #gga ,tucker p4 #aa4 #ggb ,ib4 p4 #ab4 #ggc ,ib4 p4 #ab4 #ggd ,ib4 p4 #ab4 #gge ,ib4 p4 #agh4 #ggf ,ib4 p4 #ab4 ,this is given as the view of ,proudhon and ,warren2 the next sentence states ,tucker's belief that for perfect correctness it should be modified by admitting that a small fraction of ground-rent1 tending constantly to a minimum1 would persist even then1 but would be no cause for serious alarm4 #ggg ,tucker pp4 #ab-ac4 #ggh ,ib4 p4 #ab4 #ggi ,ib4 p4 #ac4 #ghj ,ib4 pp4 #ab-ac1 #agh4 #gha ,ib4 pp4 #ei-fj4 #ghb ,tucker p4 #fg4 #ghc ,ib4 p4 #aca4 #ghd ,ib4 p4 #ahe4 ,quoted1 with express approval1 from ,a4 ,b4 ,brown4 #ghe ,ib4 p4 #fj4 #ghf ,ib4 p4 #fa4 #ghg ,ib4 p4 #agh4 #ghh ,ib4 p4 #bgc4 #ghi ,ib4 p4 #bgd4 #gij ,ib4 p4 #cgd4 #gia ,tucker p4 #bgb4 #gib ,ib4 p4 #aih4 #gic ,ib4 p4 #bdh4 #gid ,ib4 p4 #bbf4 #gie ,ib4 p4 #dgd4 #gif ,tucker p4 #bhg4 #gig ,ib4 pp4 #bgd-e4 #gih ,ib4 p4 #bhg4 #gii ,ib4 p4 #agh4 #hjj ,ib4 p4 #aa4 #hja ,ib4 p4 #bdc4 #hjb ,ib4 p4 #bge4 #hjc ,ib4 p4 #bii4 #hjd ,ib4 p4 #cbe4 #hje ,ib4 p4 #bge4 #hjf ,ib4 p4 #cbe4 ,meaning1 of course1 ,john ,stuart ,mill's unearned increment in the value of land4 #hjg ,ib4 pp4 #ab-ac4 #hjh ,tucker pp4 #dgd1 #agh4 #hji ,ib4 p4 #ab4 #haj ,ib4 p4 #ac4 #haa ,ib4 p4 #djc4 #hab ,ib4 p4 #djc4 #hac ,ib4 p4 #dgj4 #had ,ib4 p4 #cfb4 ,socialism is here used as including ,anarchism2 and ,tucker prefers so to use the word4 #hae ,ib4 p4 #cdg-cdh4 #haf ,tucker pp4 #ccb-c4 #hag ,ib4 p4 #ccc4 #hah ,ib4 p4 #cdh4 #hai ,tucker p4 #ajd4 #hbj ,ib4 p4 #aad4 #hba ,ib4 pp4 #gg-h4 #hbb ,ib4 p4 #daf4 #hbc ,tucker pp4 #cig1 #dac4 #hbd ,ib4 p4 #dac4 #hbe ,ib4 p4 #cig4 #hbf ,ib4 p4 #dbh4 #hbg ,ib4 p4 #dbh where the subject is not violence of all sorts great and small1 but terrorism and assassination4 #hbh ,ib4 p4 #dci4 #hbi ,tucker p4 #cig4 #hcj ,ib4 p4 #dbh4 #hca ,ib4 p4 #ddj4 #hcb ,ib4 p4 #dbh with limiting context quoted above1 page #baa4 #hcc ,ib4 p4 #ddj4 #hcd ,ib4 p4 #de4 #hce ,ib4 p4 #de where nothing is said as to whether the work is the better or the worse for being isolated4 #hcf ,tucker p4 #dab4 #hcg ,ib4 p4 #dbc4 #hch ,ib4 p4 #dbc4 #hci ,ib4 p4 #dbc4 #hdj ,tucker p4 #bg4 #hda ,ib4 pp4 #dbc-d4 #hdb ,ib4 pp4 #daf1 #dci4 #hdc ,ib4 p4 #de4 #hdd ,tucker p4 #aad4 #hde ,ib4 p4 #aeh4 #hdf ,ib4 p4 #aad4 #hdg ,ib4 p4 #dhg4 #hdh ,ib4 p4 #dbg4 #hdi ,ib4 p4 #dbi4 #hej ,ib4 pp4 #dbh-i4 #hea ,tucker p4 #dci4 #heb ,ib4 p4 #cbi where the course it must take is somewhat more precisely described4 #hec ,ib4 p4 #dac4 #hed ,ib4 p4 #dae4 #hee ,ib4 p4 #dac4 #hef ,tucker pp4 #dae-af4 #heg ,ib4 p4 #dab4 #heh ,tucker pp4 #dab-ac4 ,this chapter should be completed by a mention of ,tucker's doctrine that we must expect ,anarchy to be established by gradually getting rid of one oppression after another till at last all the domination of violence shall have disappeared4 ,see1 for instance1 ,liberty for ,december1 #aijj3 ,the fact is that ,anarchist society was started thousands of years ago1 when the first glimmer of the idea of liberty dawned upon the human mind1 and has been advancing ever since1--not steadily advancing1 to be sure1 but fitfully1 with an occasional reversal of the current4 ,mr4 ,byington looks upon the time when a jury of ,anarchists shall sit1 as a point not far from the beginning of the history of ,anarchy's growth1 whereas ,i look upon that time as a point very near the end of that history4 ,the introduction of more ,anarchy into our economic life will have made marriage a thing of the past long before the first drawing of a jury of ,anarchists to pass upon any contract whatever4 ,also ,instead of a ,book p4 #ajd3 ,anarchists work for the abolition of the ,state1 but by this they mean not its overthrow1 but1 as ,proudhon put it1 its dissolution in the economic organism4 ,this being the case1 the question before us is not1 as ,mr4 ,donisthorpe supposes1 what measures and means of interference we are justified in instituting1 but which ones of those already existing we should first lop off4 ,tucker has lately been laying more emphasis on this view than on the more programme-like propositions cited by ,eltzbacher1 which date from the first six years of the publication of ,liberty4 ,indeed1 ,i am sure ,i remember that somewhere lately1 being challenged as to the feasibility of some of the latter1 he admitted that those precise forms of action might perhaps not be adequate to bring the ,state to its end1 and added that the end of the ,state is at present too remote to allow us to specify the processes by which it must ultimately be brought about4 ,all this1 however1 does not mean that ,tucker's faith in passive resistance as the most potent instrument discoverable both for propaganda and for the practical winning of liberty has grown weaker2 he has no more given up this principle than he has given up the plan of propaganda by discussion4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,ix ,,tolstoi',s ,,teaching #a4--;,,general ,i4 ,lef ,nikolayevitch ,tolstoi was born in #ahbh at ,yasnaya ,polyana1 district of ,krapivna1 government of ,tula4 ,from #ahdc to #ahdf he studied in ,kazan at first oriental languages1 then jurisprudence2 from #ahdg to #ahdh1 in ,st4 ,petersburg1 jurisprudence4 ,after a lengthy stay at ,yasnaya ,polyana1 he entered an artillery regiment in the ,caucasus1 in #ahea2 he became an officer1 remained in the ,caucasus till #ahec1 then served in the ,crimean war1 and left the army in #ahee4 ,tolstoi now lived at first in ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,in #aheg he took a lengthy tour in ,germany1 ,france1 ,italy1 and ,switzerland4 ,after his return he lived mostly in ,moscow till #ahfj4 ,in #ahfj-ahfa he traveled in ,germany1 ,france1 ,italy1 ,england1 and ,belgium2 in ,brussels he made the acquaintance of ,proudhon4 ,since #ahfa ,tolstoi has lived almost uninterruptedly at ,yasnaya ,polyana1 as at once agriculturist and author4 ,tolstoi has published numerous works2 his works up to #ahgh are mostly stories1 among which the two novels ,war and ,peace and ,anna ,karenina are notable2 his later works are mostly of a philosophical nature4 #b4 ,of special importance for ,tolstoi's teaching about law1 the ,state1 and property are his works ,my ,confession 7#ahgi71 ,the ,gospel in ,brief 7#ahhj71 ,what ,i ,believe 7#ahhd7 also known in ,english as ,my ,religion1 ,what ,shall ,we ,do ,then8 7#ahhe71 ,on ,life 7#ahhg71 ,the ,kingdom of ,god is ,within ,you2 or1 ,christianity not a mystical doctrine1 but a new life-conception 7#ahic74 #c4 ,tolstoi does not call his teaching about law1 the ,state1 and property ,anarchism4 ,he designates as ,anarchism the teaching which sets up as its goal a life without government and wishes to see this realized by the application of force4#hei #b4--;,,basis ,according to ,tolstoi our supreme law is love2 from this he derives the commandment not to resist evil by force4 #a4 ,tolstoi designates ,christianity#hfj as his basis2 but by ,christianity he means not the doctrine of one of the ,christian churches1 neither the ,orthodox nor the ,catholic nor that of any of the ,protestant bodies1#hfa but the pure teaching of ,christ4#hfb ,strange as it may sound1 the churches have always been not merely alien but downright hostile to the teaching of ,christ1 and they must needs be so4 ,the churches are not1 as many think1 institutions that are based on a ,christian origin and have only erred a little from the right way2 the churches as such1 as associations that assert their infallibility1 are anti-,christian institutions4 ,the ,christian churches and ,christianity have no fellowship except in name2 nay1 the two are utterly opposite and hostile elements4 ,the churches are arrogance1 violence1 usurpation1 rigidity1 death2 ,christianity is humility1 penitence1 submissiveness1 progress1 life4#hfc ,the church has so transformed ,christ's teaching to suit the world that there no longer resulted from it any demands1 and that men could go on living as they had hitherto lived4 ,the church yielded to the world1 and1 having yielded1 followed it4 ,the world did everything that it chose1 and left the church to hobble after as well as it could with its teachings about the meaning of life4 ,the world led its life1 contrary to ,christ's teaching in each and every point1 and the church contrived subtleties to demonstrate that in living contrary to ,christ's law men were living in harmony with it4 ,and it ended in the world's beginning to lead a life worse than the life of the heathen1 and the church's daring not only to justify such a life but even to assert that this was precisely what corresponded to ,christ's teaching4#hfd ,particularly different from ,christ's teaching is the church creed1#hfe--that is1 the totality of the utterly incomprehensible and therefore useless dogmas4#hff ,of a ,god1 external creator1 origin of all origins1 we know nothing2#hfg ,god is the spirit in man1#hfh his conscience1#hfi the knowledge of life2#hgj every man recognizes in himself a free rational spirit independent of the flesh3 this spirit is what we call ,god4#hga ,christ was a man1#hgb the son of an unknown father2 as he did not know his father1 in his childhood he called ,god his father2#hgc and he was a son of ,god as to his spirit1 as every man is a son of ,god1#hgd he embodied ,man confessing his sonship of ,god4#hge ,those who assert that ,christ professed to redeem with his blood mankind fallen by ,adam1 that ,god is a trinity1 that the ,holy ,spirit descended upon the apostles and that it passes to the priest by the laying on of hands1 that seven mysteries are necessary to salvation1 and so forth1#hgf preach doctrines utterly alien to ,christ4#hgg ,never did ,christ with a single word attest the personal resurrection and the immortality of man beyond the grave1#hgh which indeed is a very low and coarse idea2#hgi the ,ascension and the ,resurrection are to be counted among the most objectionable miracles4#hhj ,tolstoi accepts ,christ's teaching as valid not on the ground of faith in a revelation1 but solely for its rationality4 ,faith in a revelation was the main reason why the teaching was at first misunderstood and later mutilated outright4#hha ,faith in ,christ is not a trusting in something related to ,christ1 but the knowledge of the truth4#hhb ',there is a law of evolution1 and therefore one must live only his own personal life and leave the rest to the law of evolution1' is the last word of the refined culture of our day1 and1 at the same time1 of that obscuration of consciousness to which the cultured classes are a prey4#hhc ,but human life1 from getting up in the morning to going to bed at night1 is an unbroken series of actions2 man must daily choose out from hundreds of actions possible to him those actions which he will perform2 therefore1 man cannot live without something to guide the choice of his actions4#hhd ,now1 reason alone can offer him this guide4 ,reason is that law1 recognized by man1 according to which his life is to be accomplished4#hhe ,if there is no higher reason1--and such there is not1 nor can anything prove its existence1--then my reason is the supreme judge of my life4#hhf ,the ever-increasing subjugation#hhg of the bestial personality to the rational consciousness#hhh is the true life1#hhi is life#hij as opposed to mere existence4#hia ,it used to be said1 ',do not argue1 but believe in the duty that we have prescribed to you2 reason will deceive you2 faith alone will bring you the true happiness of life4' ,and the man exerted himself to believe1 and he believed4 ,but intercourse with other men showed him that in many cases these believed something quite different1 and asserted that this other faith bestowed the highest happiness4 ,it has become unavoidable to decide the question which of the many faiths is the right one2 and only reason can decide this4#hib ,if the ,buddhist who has learned to know ,islam remains a ,buddhist1 he is no longer a ,buddhist in faith but in reason4 ,as soon as another faith comes up before him1 and with it the question whether to reject his faith or this other1 reason alone can give him an answer4 ,if he has learned to know ,islam and has still remained a ,buddhist1 then rational conviction has taken the place of his former blind faith in ,buddha4#hic ,man recognizes truth only by reason1 not by faith4#hid ,the law of reason reveals itself to men gradually4#hie ,eighteen hundred years ago there appeared in the midst of the pagan ,roman world a remarkable new teaching1 which was not comparable to any that had preceded it1 and which was ascribed to a man called ,christ4#hif ,this teaching contains the very strictest1 purest1 and completest#hig apprehension of the law of reason to which the human mind has hitherto raised itself4#hih ,christ's teaching is reason itself2#hii it must be accepted by men because it alone gives those rules of life without which no man ever has lived or can live1 if he would live as a man1--that is1 with reason4#ijj ,man has1 on the basis of reason1 no right to refuse allegiance to it4#ija #b4 ,christ's teaching sets up love as the supreme law for us4 ,what is love8 ,what men who do not understand life call 'love' is only the giving to certain conditions of their personal comfort a preference over any others4 ,when the man who does not understand life says that he loves his wife or child or friend1 he means by this only that his wife's1 child's1 or friend's presence in his life heightens his personal comfort4#ijb ,true love is always renunciation of one's personal comfort#ijc for a neighbor's sake4 ,true love is a condition of wishing well to all men1 such as commonly characterizes children but is produced in grown men only by self-abnegation4#ijd ,what living man does not know the happy feeling1 even if he has felt it only once and in most cases only in earliest childhood1 of that emotion in which one wishes to love everybody1 neighbors and father and mother and brothers and bad men and enemies and dog and horse and grass2 one wishes only one thing1 that it were well with all1 that all were happy2 and still more does one wish that he were himself capable of making all happy1 one wishes he might give himself1 give his whole life1 that all might be well off and enjoy themselves4 ,just this1 this alone1 is that love in which man's life consists4#ije ,true love is an ideal of full1 infinite1 divine perfection4#ijf ,divine perfection is the asymptote of human life1 toward which it constantly strives1 to which it draws nearer and nearer1 but which can be attained only at infinity4#ijg ,true life1 according to previous teachings1 consists in the fulfilling of commandments1 the fulfilling of the law2 according to ,christ's teaching it consists in the maximum approach to the divine perfection which has been exhibited1 and which is felt in himself by every man4#ijh ,according to the teaching of ,christ1 love is our highest law4 ,the commandment of love is the expression of the inmost heart of the teaching4#iji ,there are three conceptions of life1 and only three3 first the personal or bestial1 second the social or heathenish1#iaj third the ,christian or divine4#iaa ,the man of the bestial conception of life1 the savage1 acknowledges life only in himself2 the mainspring of his life is personal enjoyment4 ,the heathenish1 social man recognizes life no longer in himself alone1 but in a community of persons1 in the tribe1 the family1 the race1 the ,state2 the mainspring of his life is reputation4 ,the man of the divine conception of life acknowledges life no longer in his person1 nor yet in a community of persons1 but in the prime source of eternal1 never-dying life--in ,god2 the mainspring of his life is love4#iab ,that love is our supreme law according to ,christ's teaching means nothing else than that it is such according to reason4 ,as early as #aheb ,tolstoi gives utterance to the thought ,that love and beneficence are truth is the only truth on earth1#iac and much later1 in #ahhg1 he calls love man's only rational activity1#iad that which resolves all the contradictions of human life4#iae ,love abolishes the insensate activity directed to the filling of the bottomless tub of our bestial personality1#iaf does away with the foolish fight between beings that strive after their own happiness1#iag gives a meaning independent of space and time to life1 which without it would flow off without meaning in the face of death4#iah #c4 ,from the law of love ,christ's teaching derives the commandment not to resist evil by force4 ',resist not evil' means 'never resist the evil man'1 that is1 'never do violence to another'1 that is1 'never commit an act that is contrary to love'4#iai ,christ expressly derived this commandment from the law of love4 ,he gave numerous commandments1 among which five in the ,sermon on the ,mount are notable2 these commandments do not constitute the teaching1 they only form one of the numberless stages of approach to perfection2#ibj they are all negative1 and only show#iba what at mankind's present age#ibb we have already the full possibility of not doing1 along the road by which we are striving to reach perfection4#ibc ,the first of the five commandments of the ,sermon on the ,mount reads ,keep the peace with all1 and if the peace is broken use every effort to restore it2#ibd the second says ,let the man take only one woman and the woman only one man1 and let neither forsake the other under any pretext2#ibe the third1 make no vows2#ibf the fourth1 endure injury1 return not evil for evil2#ibg the fifth1 break not the peace to benefit thy people4#ibh ,among these commandments the fourth is the most important2 it is enunciated in the fifth chapter of ,matthew1 verses #ch-i3 ,ye have heard that it was said1 ,eye for eye1 and tooth for tooth4 ,but ,i say to you1 ,resist not evil4#ibi ,tolstoi tells how to him this passage became the key of the whole4#icj ,i needed only to take these words simply and downrightly1 as they were spoken1 and at once everything in ,christ's whole teaching that had seemed confused to me1 not only in the ,sermon on the ,mount but in the ,gospels altogether1 was comprehensible to me1 and everything that had been contradictory agreed1 and the main gist appeared no longer useless but a necessity2 everything formed a whole1 and the one confirmed the other past a doubt1 like the pieces of a shattered column that one has rightly put together4#ica ,the principle of non-resistance binds together the entire teaching into a whole2 but only when it is no mere dictum but a peremptory rule1 a law4#icb ,it is really the key that opens everything1 but only when it goes into the inmost of the lock4#icc ,we must necessarily derive the commandment not to resist evil by force from the law of love4 ,for this demands that either a sure1 indisputable criterion of evil be found1 or all violent resistance to evil be abandoned4#icd ,hitherto it has been the business now of the pope1 now of an emperor or king1 now of an assembly of elected representatives1 now of the whole nation1 to decide what was to be rated as an evil and combated by violent resistance4 ,but there have always been men1 both without and within the ,state1 who have not acknowledged as binding upon them either the decisions that were given out as divine commandments or the decisions of the men who were clothed with sanctity or the institutions that were supposed to represent the will of the people2 men who regarded as good what to the powers that be appeared evil1 and who1 in opposition to the force of these powers1 likewise made use of force4 ,the men who were clothed with sanctity regarded as an evil what appeared good to the men and institutions that were clothed with secular authority1 and the combat grew ever sharper and sharper4 ,thus it came to what it has come to to-day1 to the complete obviousness of the fact that there is not and cannot be a generally binding external definition of evil4#ice ,but from this follows the necessity of accepting the solution given by ,christ4#icf ,according to ,tolstoi1 the precept of non-resistance must not be taken as if it forbade every combat against evil4#icg ,it forbids only the combating of evil by force4#ich ,but this it forbids in the broadest sense4 ,it refers1 therefore1 not only to evil practised against ourselves1 but also to evil practised against our fellow-men2#ici when ,peter cut off the ear of the high priest's servant1 he was defending not himself but his beloved divine ,teacher1 but ,christ forbade him outright and said ',all who take the sword will perish by the sword4'#idj ,nor does the precept say that only a part of men are under obligation to submit without a contest to what is prescribed to them by certain authorities1#ida but it forbids everybody1 therefore even those in whom power is vested1 and these especially1 to use force in any case against anybody4#idb #c4--,,law ,i4 ,for love's sake1 particularly on the ground of the commandment not to resist evil by force1 ,tolstoi rejects law2 not unconditionally1 indeed1 but as an institution for the more highly developed peoples of our time4 ,to be sure1 he speaks only of enacted laws2 but he means all law1#idc for he rejects on principle every norm based on the will of men1#idd upheld by human force1#ide especially by courts1#idf capable of deviating from the moral law1#idg of being different in different territories1#idh and of being at any time arbitrarily changed4#idi ,perhaps once upon a time law was better than its non-existence4 ,law is upheld by violence2#iej on the other hand1 it guards against violence of individuals to each other2#iea perhaps there was once a time when the former violence was less than the latter4#ieb ,now1 at any rate1 this time is past for us2 manners have grown milder2 the men of our time acknowledge the commandments of philanthropy1 of sympathy with one's neighbor1 and ask only the possibility of quiet1 peaceable life4#iec ,law offends against the commandment not to resist evil by force4#ied ,christ declared this4 ,the words ,judge not1 that ye be not judged 7,matt4 #g4a71 ,condemn not1 and ye shall not be condemned 7,luke #f4cg71 mean not only 'do not judge your neighbor in words1' but also 'do not condemn him by act2 do not judge your neighbor according to your human laws by your courts4'#iee ,christ here speaks not merely of every individual's personal relation to the court1#ief but rejects the administration of law itself4#ieg ,he says1 ',you believe that your laws better the evil2 they only make it greater2 there is only one way to check evil1 and this consists in returning good for evil1 doing good to all without discrimination4'#ieh ,and my heart and my reason#iei say to me the same as ,christ says4 ,but this is not the only objection to be made against law4 ,authority condemns in the rigid form of law only what public opinion has in most cases long since disallowed and condemned2 withal1 public opinion disallows and condemns all actions that are contrary to the moral law1 but the law condemns and prosecutes only the actions included within certain quite definite and very narrow limits1 and thereby1 in a measure1 justifies all similar actions that do not come within these limits4 ,ever since ,moses's day public opinion has regarded selfishness1 sensuality1 and cruelty as evils and has condemned it2 it has repudiated and condemned every form of selfishness1 not only the appropriation of others' property by force1 fraud1 or guile1 but exploitation altogether2 it has condemned every sort of unchastity1 be it with a concubine1 a slave1 a divorced woman1 or even with one's own wife2 it has condemned all cruelty1 as it finds expression in the ill-treating1 starving1 and killing not only of men but of animals too4 ,but the law prosecutes only particular forms of selfishness1 like theft and fraud1 and only particular forms of unchastity and cruelty1 like marital infidelity1 murder1 and mayhem2 therefore1 in a measure1 it permits all the forms of selfishness1 unchastity1 and cruelty that do not come under its narrow definitions inspired by a false conception4#ifj ,the ,jew could easily submit to his laws1 for he did not doubt that they were written by ,god's finger2 likewise the ,roman1 as he thought they originated from the nymph ,egeria2 and man in general so long as he regarded the princes who gave him laws as ,god's anointed1 or believed that the legislating assemblies had the wish and the capacity to make the best laws4#ifa ,but as early as the time when ,christianity made its appearance men were beginning to comprehend that human laws were written by men2 that men1 whatever outward splendor may enshroud them1 cannot be infallible1 and that erring men do not become infallible even by getting together and calling themselves ',senate' or something else4#ifb ,we know how laws are made2 we have all been behind the scenes2 we all know that the laws are products of selfishness1 deception1 partisanship1 that true justice does not and cannot dwell in them4#ifc ,therefore the recognition of any special laws is a sign of the crassest ignorance4#ifd ,,ii4 ,love requires that in place of law it itself be the law for men4 ,from this it follows that instead of law ,christ's commandments should be our rule of action4#ife ,but this is the ,kingdom of ,god on earth4#iff ,when the day and the hour of the ,kingdom of ,god appear1 depends on men themselves alone4#ifg ,each must only begin to do what we must do1 and cease to do what we must not do1 and the near future will bring the promised ,kingdom of ,god4#ifh ,if only everybody would bear witness1 in the measure of his strength1 to the truth that he knows1 or at least not defend as truth the untruth in which he lives1 then in this very year #ahic there would take place such changes toward the setting up of truth on earth as we dare not dream of for centuries to come4#ifi ,only a little effort more1 and the ,galilean has won4#igj ,the ,kingdom of ,god is not outside in the world1 but in man's soul4#iga ,the ,kingdom of ,god cometh not with outward show2 neither will men say1 ',lo here6' or1 ',there6' for1 behold1 the kingdom of ,god is within you 7,luke #ag4bj74igb ,the ,kingdom of ,god is nothing else than the following of ,christ's commandments1 especially the five commandments of the ,sermon on the ,mount1#igc which tell us how we must act in our present stage in order to correspond to the ideal of love as much as possible1#igd and which command us to keep the peace and do everything for its restoration when it is broken1 to remain true to one another as man and wife1 to make no vows1 to forgive injury and not return evil for evil1 and1 finally1 not to break the peace with anybody for our people's sake4#ige ,but what form will outward life take in the ,kingdom of ,god8 ,the disciple of ,christ will be poor2 that is1 he will not live in the city but in the country2 he will not sit at home1 but work in wood and field1 see the sunshine1 the earth1 the sky1 and the beasts2 he will not worry over what he is to eat to tempt his appetite1 and what he can do to help his digestion1 but will be hungry three times a day2 he will not roll on soft cushions and think upon deliverance from insomnia1 but sleep2 he will be sick1 suffer1 and die like all men--the poor who are sick and die seem to have an easier time of it than the rich--2#igf he will live in free fellowship with all men2#igg the ,kingdom of ,god on earth is the peace of men with each other2 thus it appeared to the prophets1 and thus it appears to every human heart4#igh #d4--,,the ,,state ,,ii4 ,together with law ,tolstoi necessarily has to reject also1 for the more highly developed nations of our time1 the legal institution of the ,state4 ,perhaps there was once a time when1 in a low state of morality with a general inclination of men to mutual violence1 the existence of a power limiting this violence was advantageous--that is1 in which the ,state violence was less than that of individuals against each other4 ,but such an advantage of ,state violence over its non-existence could not last2 the more the individuals' inclination to violence decreased and manners grew milder1 and the more the governments degenerated by having nothing to check them1 the more worthless did ,state violence grow4 ,in this change--in the moral evolution of the masses on the one hand and the degeneration of the governments on the other--lies the whole history of the last two thousand years4#igi ,i cannot prove either the general necessity of the ,state or its general perniciousness1#ihj ,i know only that on the one hand the ,state is no longer necessary for me1 and that on the other hand ,i can no longer do the things that are necessary for the existence of the ,state4#iha ,christianity in its true significance abolishes the ,state1#ihb annihilates all government4#ihc ,the ,state offends against love1 particularly against the commandment not to resist evil by force4#ihd ,and not only this2 in founding a dominion#ihe the ,state furthermore offends against the principle that for love all men are ,god's sons and there is equality among them all2#ihf it is therefore to be rejected even aside from the violence on which it is based as a legal institution4 ,that the ,christian teaching has an eye only to the redemption of the individual1 and does not relate to public questions and ,state affairs1 is a bold and unfounded assertion4#ihg ,to every honest1 earnest man in our time it must be clear that true ,christianity--the doctrine of humility1 forgiveness1 love--is incompatible with the ,state and its haughtiness1 its deeds of violence1 its capital punishments and wars4#ihh ,the ,state is an idol2#ihi its objectionableness is independent of its form1 be this absolute monarchy1 the ,convention1 the ,consulate1 the empire of a first or third ,napoleon or yet of a ,boulanger1 constitutional monarchy1 the ,commune1 or the republic4#iij--,tolstoi carries this out into detail4 #a4 ,the ,state is the rule of the bad1 raised to the highest pitch4 ,the ,state is rule4 ,government in the ,state is an association of men who do violence to the rest4#iia ,all governments1 the despotic and the liberal alike1 have in our time become what ,herzen has so aptly called a ,jenghis ,khan with telegraphs4#iib ,the men in whom the power is vested practise violence not in order to overcome evil1 but solely for their advantage or from caprice2 and the other men submit to the violence not because they believe that it is practised for their good1--that is1 in order to liberate them from evil1--but only because they cannot free themselves from it4#iic ,if ,nice is united with ,france1 ,lorraine with ,germany1 ,bohemia with ,austria1 if ,poland is divided1 if both ,ireland and ,india are subjected to the ,english dominion1 if people fight with ,china1 kill the ,africans1 expel the ,chinese from ,america1 and persecute the ,jews in ,russia1 it is not because this is good or necessary or useful for men and the opposite would be evil1 but only because it so pleases those in whom the power is vested4#iid ,the ,state is the rule of the bad4#iie ',if the ,state power were to be annihilated1 the wicked would rule over the less wicked1' say the defenders of ,state rule4#iif ,but has the power1 when it has passed from some men to some others in the ,state1 really always come to the better men8 ,when ,louis the ,sixteenth1 ,robespierre1 ,napoleon1 came to power1 who ruled then1 the better or the worse8 ,when did the better rule1 when the power was vested in the ,versaillese or in the ,communards1 when ,charles the ,first or ,cromwell stood at the head of the government8 ,when ,peter the ,third was czar1 and then when after his murder the authority of czar was exercised in one part of ,russia by ,catharine and in another by ,pugatcheff1 who was wicked then and who was good8 ,all men who find themselves in power assert that their power is necessary in order that the wicked may not do violence to the good1 and regard it as self-evident that they are the good and are giving the rest of the good protection against the bad4#iig ,but in reality those who grasp and hold the power cannot possibly be the better4#iih ,in order to obtain and retain power1 one must love it4 ,but the effort after power is not apt to be coupled with goodness1 but with the opposite qualities1 pride1 craft1 and cruelty4 ,without exalting self and abasing others1 without hypocrisy1 lying1 prisons1 fortresses1 penalties1 killing1 no power can arise or hold its own4#iii ,it is downright ridiculous to speak of ,christians in power4#ajjj ,to this it is to be added that the possession of power depraves men4#ajja ,the men who have the power cannot but misuse it2 they must infallibly be unsettled by such frightful authority4#ajjb ,however many means men have invented to hinder the possessors of power from subordinating the welfare of the whole to their own advantage1 hitherto not one of these means has worked4 ,everybody knows that those in whose hands is the power--be they emperors1 ministers1 chiefs of police1 or common policemen--are1 just because the power is in their hands1 more inclined to immorality1 to the subordinating of the general welfare to their advantage1 than those who have no power2 nor can it be otherwise4#ajjc ,the ,state is the rule of the bad1 raised to the highest pitch4 ,we shall always find that the scheming of the possessors of authority--nay1 their unconscious effort--is directed toward weakening the victims of their authority as much as possible2 for1 the weaker the victim is1 the more easily can he be held down4#ajjd ,to-day there is only one sphere of human activity left that has not been conquered by the authority of government3 the sphere of the family1 of housekeeping1 private life1 labor4 ,and even this sphere1 thanks to the fighting of the ,communists and ,socialists1 the governments are already beginning to invade1 so that soon1 if the reformers have their way1 work and rest1 housing1 clothing1 and food1 will likewise be fixed and regulated by the governments4#ajje ,the most fearful band of robbers is not so horrible as a ,state organization4 ,every robber chief is at any rate limited by the fact that the men who make up his band retain at least a part of human liberty1 and can refuse to commit acts which are repugnant to their consciences4#ajjf ,but in the ,state there is no such limit2 no crime is so horrible that it will not be committed by the officials and the army at the will of him--,boulanger1 ,pugatcheff1 ,napoleon--who accidentally stands at the head4#ajjg #b4 ,the rule in the ,state is based on physical force4 ,every government has for its prop the fact that there are in the ,state armed men who are ready to execute the government's will by physical force1 a class educated to kill those whose killing the authorities command4#ajjh ,such men are the police#ajji and especially the army4#ajaj ,the army is nothing else than a collectivity of disciplined murderers1#ajaa its training is instruction in murdering1#ajab its victories are deeds of murder4#ajac ,the army has always formed the basis of power1 and does to this day4 ,the power is always in the hands of those who command the army1 and1 from the ,roman ,caesars to the ,russian and ,german emperors1 all possessors of power have always cared first and foremost for their armies4#ajad ,in the first place1 the army upholds the government's rule against external assaults4 ,it protects it against having the rule taken from it by another government4#ajae ,war is nothing but a contest of two or more governments for the rule over their subjects4 ,it is impossible to establish international peace in a rational way1 by treaty or arbitration1 so long as the insensate and pernicious subjection of nations to governments continues to exist4#ajaf ,in consequence of this importance of armies every ,state is compelled to increase its army to face the others1 and this increase has the effect of a contagion1 as ,montesquieu observed a hundred and fifty years since4#ajag ,but1 if one thinks armies are kept by governments only for external defence1 he forgets that governments need armies particularly to protect them against their oppressed and enslaved subjects4#ajah ,in the ,german ,reichstag lately1 in reply to the question why money was needed in order to increase the pay of the petty officers1 the chancellor made the direct statement that reliable petty officers were necessary for the combating of ,socialism4 ,caprivi merely said out loud what everybody knows1 carefully as it is concealed from the peoples1--the reason why the ,french kings and the popes kept ,swiss and ,scots1 why in ,russia the recruits are so introduced that the interior regiments get their contingents from the frontiers and the frontier regiments theirs from the interior4 ,caprivi told1 by accident1 what everybody knows or at least feels1--to wit1 that the existing order exists not because it must exist or because the people wills its existence1 but because the government's force1 the army with its bribed petty-officers and officers and generals1 keeps it up4#ajai #c4 ,the rule in the ,state is based on the physical force of the ruled4 ,it is peculiar to government that it demands from the citizens the very force on which it is based1 and that consequently in the ,state all the citizens are their own oppressors4#ajbj ,the government demands from the citizens both force and the supporting of force4 ,here belongs the obligation1 general in ,russia1 to take an oath at the czar's accession to the throne1 for by this oath one vows obedience to the authorities1--that is1 to men who are devoted to violence2 likewise the obligation to pay taxes1 for the taxes are used for works of violence1 and the compulsory use of passports1 for by taking out a passport one acknowledges his dependence on the ,state's institution of violence2 withal the obligation to testify in court and to take part in the court as juryman1 for every court is the fulfilment of the commandment of revenge2 furthermore1 the obligation to police service which in ,russia rests upon all the country people1 for this service demands that we do violence to our brother and torment him2 and above all the general obligation to military service1--that is1 the obligation to be executioners and to prepare ourselves for service as executioners4#ajba ,the unchristianness of the ,state comes to light most plainly in the general obligation to military service3 every man has to take in hand deadly weapons1 a gun1 a knife2 and1 if he does not have to kill1 at least he does have to load the gun and sharpen the knife1--that is1 be ready for killing4#ajbb ,but how comes it that the citizens fulfil these demands of the government1 though the government is based on this very fulfilment1 and so mutually oppress each other8 ,this is possible only by a highly artificial organization1 created with the help of scientific progress1 in which all men are bewitched into a circle of violence from which they cannot free themselves4 ,at present this circle consists of four means of influence2 they are all connected and hold each other1 like the links of a chain4#ajbc ,the first means is what is best described as the hypnotization of the people4#ajbd ,this hypnotization leads men to the erroneous opinion that the existing order is unchangeable and must be upheld1 while in reality it is unchangeable only by its being upheld4#ajbe ,the hypnotization is accomplished by fomenting the two forms of superstition called religion and patriotism2#ajbf it begins its influence even in childhood1 and continues it till death4#ajbg ,with reference to this hypnotization one may say that ,state authority is based on the fraudulent misleading of public opinion4#ajbh ,the second means consists in bribery2 that is1 in taking from the laboring populace its wealth1 by money taxes1 and dividing this among the officials1 who1 for this pay1 must maintain and strengthen the enslavement of the people4#ajbi ,the officials more or less believe in the unchangeability of the existing order1 mainly because it benefits them4#ajcj ,with reference to this bribery one may say that ,state authority is based on the selfishness of those to whom it guarantees profitable positions4#ajca ,the third means is intimidation4 ,it consists in setting down the present ,state order--of whatever sort1 be it a free republican order or be it the most grossly despotic--as something sacred and unchangeable1 and imposing the most frightful penalties upon every attempt to change it4#ajcb ,finally1 the fourth means is to separate a certain part of all the men whom they have stupefied and bewitched by the three first means1 and subject these men to special stronger forms of stupefaction and bestialization1 so that they become will-less tools of every brutality and cruelty that the government sees fit to resolve upon4#ajcc ,this is done in the army1 to which1 at present1 all young men belong by virtue of the general obligation to military service4#ajcd ,with this the circle of violence is made complete4 ,intimidation1 bribery1 hypnosis1 bring men to enlist as soldiers4 ,the soldiers1 in turn1 afford the possibility of punishing men1 plundering them in order to bribe officials with the money1 hypnotizing them1 and thus bringing them into the ranks of the very soldiers on whom the power for all this is based4#ajce ,,ii4 ,love requires that a social life based solely on its commandments take the place of the ,state4 ,to-day every man who thinks1 however little1 sees the impossibility of keeping on with the life hitherto lived1 and the necessity of determining new forms of life4#ajcf ,the ,christian humanity of our time must unconditionally renounce the heathen forms of life that it condemns1 and set up a new life on the ,christian bases that it recognizes4#ajcg #a4 ,even after the ,state is done away1 men are to live in societies4 ,but what is to hold them together in these societies8 ,not a promise1 at any rate4 ,christ commands us to make no vows1#ajch to promise men nothing4#ajci ,the ,christian cannot promise that he will do or not do a particular thing at a particular hour1 because he cannot know what the law of love1 which it is the meaning of his life to obey1 will demand of him at that hour4#ajdj ,and still less can he give his word to fulfil somebody's will1 without knowing what the substance of this will is to be2#ajda by the mere fact of such a promise he would make it manifest that the inward divine law is no longer the sole law of his life2#ajdb one cannot serve two masters4#ajdc ,men are to be held together in societies in future by the mental influence which the men who have made progress in knowledge exert upon the less advanced4 ,mental influence is such a way of working upon a man that by it his wishes change and coincide with what is wanted of him2 the man who yields to a mental influence acts according to his own wishes4#ajdd ,now1 the force by which men can live in societies#ajde is found in the mental influence which the men who have made progress in knowledge exert upon the less advanced1 in the characteristic of little-thinking men1 that they subordinate themselves to the directions of those who stand on a higher level of knowledge4#ajdf ,in consequence of this characteristic a body of men put themselves under the same rational principles1 the minority consciously1 because the principles agree with the demands of their reason1 and the majority unconsciously1 because the principles have become public opinion4#ajdg ,in this subordination there is nothing irrational or self-contradictory4#ajdh #b4 ,but in the future societary condition how shall the functions which the ,state at present performs be performed8 ,here people usually have three things in mind4#ajdi ,first1 protection against the bad men in our midst4#ajej ,but who are the bad men among us8 ,if there once were such men three or four centuries ago1 when people still paraded warlike arts and equipments and looked upon killing as a brilliant deed1 they are gone to-day anyhow2 nobody any longer carries weapons1 everybody acknowledges the commands of philanthropy4 ,but1 if by the men from whom the ,state must protect us we mean the criminals1 then we know that they are not special creatures like the wolf among the sheep1 but just such men as all of us1 who like committing crimes as little as we do2 we know that the activity of governments with their cruel forms of punishment1 which do not correspond to the present stage of morality1 their prisons1 tortures1 gallows1 guillotines1 contributes more to the barbarizing of the people than to their culture1 and hence rather to the multiplication than to the diminution of such criminals4#ajea ,if we are ,christians and start from the principle that what our life exists for is the serving of others1 then no one will be foolish enough to rob men that serve him of their means of support or to kill them4 ,miklucho-,maclay settled among the wildest so-called 'savages'1 and they not only left him alive but loved him and submitted to his authority1 solely because he did not fear them1 asked nothing of them1 and did them good4#ajeb ,secondly1 the question is asked how in the future societary condition we can find protection against external enemies4#ajec ,but we do know that the nations of ,europe profess the principles of liberty and fraternity1 and therefore need no protection against each other2 but1 if it were a protection against the barbarians that was meant1 a thousandth part of the armies that are now kept up would suffice4 ,state authority not merely leaves in existence the danger of hostile attacks1 but even itself provokes this danger4#ajed ,but1 if there existed a community of ,christians who did evil to nobody and gave to others all the superfluous products of their labor1 then no enemy1 neither the ,german nor the ,turk nor the savage1 would kill or vex such men2 all one could do would be to take from them what they were ready to give voluntarily without distinguishing between ,russians1 ,germans1 ,turks1 and savages4#ajee ,thirdly1 the question is asked how in the future societary condition institutions for education1 popular culture1 religion1 commerce1 etc4 are to be possible4#ajef ,perhaps there was once a time when men lived so far apart1 when the means for coming together and exchanging thoughts were so undeveloped1 that people could not1 without a ,state centre1 discuss and agree on any matter either of trade and economy or of culture4 ,but to-day this separation no longer exists2 the means of intercourse have developed extraordinarily2 for the forming of societies1 associations1 corporations1 for the gathering of congresses and the creation of economic and political institutions1 governments are not needed2 nay1 in most cases they are rather a hindrance than a help toward the attainment of such ends4#ajeg #c4 ,but what form will men's life together in the future societary condition take in detail8 ,the future will be as circumstances and men shall make it4#ajeh ,we are not at this moment able to get perfectly clear ideas of it4#ajei ,men say1 ',what will the new orders be like1 that are to take the place of the present ones8 ,so long as we do not know what form our life will take in future1 we will not go forward1 we will not stir from this spot4'#ajfj ,if ,columbus had gone to making such observations1 he would never have weighed anchor4 ,it was insanity to steer across an ocean that no man had ever yet sailed upon toward a land whose existence was a question4 ,with this insanity1 he discovered the ,new ,world4 ,it would certainly be more convenient if nations had nothing to do but move out of one ready-furnished mansion into another and a better2 only1 by bad luck1 there is nobody there to furnish the new quarters4#ajfa ,but what disquiets men in their imagining of the future is less the question ',what will be8' ,they are tormented by the question ',how are we to live without all the familiar conditions of our existence1 that are called science1 art1 civilization1 culture8'#ajfb ,but all these1 bear in mind1 are only forms in which truth appears4 ,the change that lies before us will be an approach to the truth and its realization4 ,how can the forms in which truth appears be brought to naught by an approach to the truth8 ,they will be made different1 better1 higher1 but by no means will they be brought to naught4 ,only that which was false in the forms of its appearance hitherto will be brought to naught2 what was genuine will but unfold itself the more splendidly4#ajfc ,if the individual man's life were completely known to him when he passes from one stage of maturity to another1 he would have no reason for living4 ,so it is with the life of mankind too2 if at its entrance upon a new stage of growth a programme lay before it already drawn up1 this would be the surest sign that it was not alive1 not progressing1 but that it was sticking at one point4 ,the details of a new order of life cannot be known to us1 they have to be worked out by us ourselves4 ,life consists only in learning to know the unknown1 and putting our action in harmony with the new knowledge4 ,in this consists the life of the individual1 in this the life of human societies and of humanity4#ajfd #e4--,,property ,i4 ,together with law ,tolstoi necessarily has to reject also1 for the more highly developed nations of our time1 the legal institution of property4 ,perhaps there was once a time when the violence necessary to secure the individual in the possession of a piece of goods against all others was less than the violence which would have been practised in a general fight for the possession of the goods1 so that the existence of property was better than its non-existence4 ,but at any rate this time is past1 the existing order has lived out its time2#ajfe among the men of to-day no wild fight for the possession of goods would break out even if there were no property2 they all profess allegiance to the commands of philanthropy1#ajff each of them knows that all men have equal rights in the goods of the world1#ajfg and already we see many a rich man renounce his inheritance from a specially delicate sense of germinant public opinion4#ajfh ,property offends against love1 especially against the commandment not to resist evil by force4#ajfi ,but not only this2 in founding a dominion of possessors over non-possessors it also offends against the principle that for love all men are ,god's sons and there is equality among them all2#ajgj and it is therefore to be rejected1 even aside from the violence on which it is based as a legal institution4 ,the rich are under guilt by the very fact that they are rich4#ajga ,it is a crime#ajgb that tens of thousands of hungry1 cold1 deeply degraded human beings are living in ,moscow1 while ,i with a few thousand others have tenderloin and sturgeon for dinner and cover horses and floors with blankets and carpets4#ajgc ,i shall be an accomplice in this unending and uninterrupted crime so long as ,i still have a superfluous bit of bread while another has no bread at all1 or still possess two garments while another does not possess even one4#ajgd--,tolstoi carries this out into detail4 #a4 ,property means the dominion of the possessors over the non-possessors4 ,property is the exclusive right to use some things1 whether one actually uses them or not4#ajge ,many of the men who called me their horse1 ,tolstoi makes the horse ,linen-,measurer say1 did not ride me2 quite different men rode me4 ,nor did they feed me2 quite different men fed me4 ,nor was it those who called me their horse that did me kindnesses1 but coachmen1 veterinary surgeons1 strangers altogether4 ,later1 when the circle of my observations grew wider1 ,i convinced myself that the idea 'mine1' which has no other basis than men's low and bestial propensity which they call 'sense of ownership' or 'right of property1' finds application not only with respect to us horses4 ,a man says 'this house is mine' and never lives in it1 he only attends to the building and repair of the house4 ,a merchant says 'my store1 my dry-goods store1' and his clothing is not of the best fabrics he has in his store4 ,there are men who call a piece of land 'mine' and have never seen this piece of land nor set foot on it4 ,what men aim at in life is not to do what they think good1 but to call as many things as possible 'mine4'#ajgf ,but the significance of property consists in the fact that the poor man who has no property is dependent on the rich man who has property2 in order to come by the things which he needs for his living1 but which belong to another1 he must do what this other wills--in particular1 he must work for him4 ,thus property divides men into two castes1 an oppressed laboring caste that famishes and suffers and an idle oppressing caste that enjoys and lives in superfluity4#ajgg ,we are all brothers1 and yet every morning my brother or my sister carries out my dishes4 ,we are all brothers1 but every morning ,i have to have my cigar1 my sugar1 my mirror1 and other such things1 in whose production healthy brothers and sisters1 people like me1 have sacrificed and are sacrificing their health4#ajgh ,i spend my whole life in the following way3 ,i eat1 talk1 and listen2 eat1 write1 and read--that is1 talk and listen again2 eat and play2 eat1 talk1 and listen again2 eat and go to bed2 and so it goes on1 one day like another4 ,i cannot do1 do not know how to do1 anything beyond this4 ,and1 that ,i may be able to do this1 the porter1 the farmer1 the cook1 the cook's maid1 the lackey1 the coachman1 the laundress1 must work from morning till night1 not to speak of the work of other men which is necessary in order that those coachmen1 cooks1 lackeys1 and so on may have all that they need when they work for me--the axes1 barrels1 brushes1 dishes1 furniture1 likewise the wax1 the blacking1 the kerosene1 the hay1 the wood1 the beef4 ,all of them have to work day by day1 early and late1 that ,i may be able to talk1 eat1 and sleep4#ajgi ,this significance of property makes itself especially felt in the case of the things that are necessary for the producing of other things1 and so most notably in the case of land and tools4#ajhj ,there can be no farmer without land that he tills1 without scythes1 wagons1 and horses2 no shoemaker is possible without a house built on the earth1 without water1 air1 and tools2#ajha but property means that in many cases the farmer possesses no land1 no horses1 no scythe1 the shoemaker no house1 no water1 no awl3 that somebody is keeping these things back from them4#ajhb ,this leads to the consequence that for a large fraction of the workers the natural conditions of production are deranged1 that this fraction is necessitated to use other people's stock1#ajhc and may by the owner of the stock be compelled to work not on their own account1 but for an employer4#ajhd ,consequently the workman works not for himself1 to suit his own wish1 but under compulsion1 to suit the whim of some idle persons who live in superfluity1 for the benefit of some rich man1 the proprietor of a factory or other industrial plant4#ajhe ,thus property means the exploitation of the laborer by those to whom the land and tools belong2 it means that the products of human labor pass more and more out of the hands of the laboring masses into the hands of the unlaboring4#ajhf ,furthermore1 the significance of property as making the poor dependent on the rich becomes especially prominent in the case of money4 ,money is a value that remains always equal1 that always ranks as correct and legal4#ajhg ,consequently1 as the saying is1 he who has money has in his pocket those who have none4#ajhh ,money is a new form of slavery1 distinguished from the old solely by its impersonality1 by the lack of any human relation between the master and the slave2#ajhi for the essence of all slavery consists in drawing the benefit of another's labor-force by compulsion1 and it is quite immaterial whether the drawing of this benefit is founded upon property in the slave or upon property in money which is indispensable to the other man4#ajij ,now1 honestly1 of what sort is my money1 and how have ,i come by it8 ,i got part for the land that ,i inherited from my father4 ,the peasant sold his last sheep1 his last cow1 to pay me this money4 ,another part of my assets consists of the sums which ,i have received for my literary productions1 my books4 ,if my books are harmful1 then by them ,i have seduced the purchasers to evil and have acquired the money by bad means4 ,if1 on the contrary1 my books are useful to people1 the case is still worse2 ,i have not given them without ceremony to those who had a use for them1 but have said ',give me seventeen rubles and you shall have them1' and1 as in the other case the peasant sold his last sheep1 so here the poor student or teacher1 and many another poor person1 have denied themselves the plainest necessities to give me the money4 ,and thus ,i have piled up a quantity of such money1 and what do ,i do with it8 ,i bring it to the city and give it to the poor here on condition that they satisfy all my whims1 that they come after me into the city to clean the sidewalks for me1 and to make me lamps1 shoes1 and so forth1 in the factories4 ,with my money ,i take all their products to myself1 and ,i take pains to give them as little as possible and get from them as much as possible for it4 ,and then all at once1 quite unexpectedly1 ,i begin to distribute to the poor this same money gratis--not to all1 but arbitrarily to any whom ,i happen to take up at random2#ajia that is1 ,i take from the poor thousands of rubles with one hand1 and with the other ,i distribute to some of them a few kopeks4#ajib #b4 ,the dominion which property involves1 of possessors over non-possessors1 is based on physical force4 ,if the vast wealth that the laborers have piled up ranks not as the property of all1 but only as that of an elect few1--if the power of raising taxes from labor and using them at pleasure is reserved to some men1--this is not based on the fact that the people want to have it so or that by nature it must be so1 but on the fact that the ruling classes see their advantage in it and determine it so by virtue of their power over men's bodies2#ajic it is based on violence and slaying and the threat thereof4#ajid ,if men hand over the greatest part of the product of their labor to the capitalist or landlord1 though they1 as do all laborers now1 hold this to be unjust1#ajie they do it only because they know they will be beaten and killed if they do not4#ajif ,one may even say outright that in our society1 in which to every well-to-do man living an aristocratic life there are ten weary1 ravenous1 envious laborers1 probably pining away with wife and children too1 all the privileges of the rich1 all their luxury and their abundance1 are acquired and secured only by chastisement1 imprisonment1 and capital punishment4#ajig ,property is upheld by the police#ajih and the army4#ajii ,we may act as if we did not see the policeman walking up and down before the window with loaded revolver to protect us while we eat a savory meal or look at a new play1 and as if we had no inkling of the soldiers who are every moment ready to go with rifle and cartridges where any one tries to infringe on our property4 ,yet we well know1 if we can finish our meal and see the new play in peace1 if we can drive out or hunt or attend a festival or a race undisturbed1 we have to thank for this only the policeman's bullet and the soldier's weapon1 which are ready to pierce the poor victim of hunger who looks upon our enjoyments from his corner with grumbling stomach1 and who would at once disturb them if the policeman with his revolver went away1 or if in the barracks there were no longer any soldiers standing ready to appear at our first call4#aajj #c4 ,the dominion which property involves1 of the possessors over the non-possessors1 is based on the physical force of the ruled4 ,those very men of the non-possessing classes who through property are dependent on the possessing classes must do police duty1 serve in the army1 pay the taxes out of which police and army are kept up1 and in these and other ways either themselves exercise or at least support the physical force by which property is upheld4#aaja ,if there did not exist these men who are ready to discipline or kill any one whatever at the word of command1 no one would dare assert what the non-laboring landlords now do all of them so confidently assert1--that the soil which surrounds the peasants who die off for lack of land is the property of a man who does not work on it2#aajb it would not come into the head of the lord of the manor to take from the peasants a forest that has grown up under their eyes2#aajc nor would any one say that the stores of grain accumulated by fraud in the midst of a starving population must remain unscathed that the merchant may have his profit4#aajd ,,ii4 ,love requires that a distribution based solely on its commandments take the place of property4 ,the impossibility of continuing the life that has hitherto been led1 and the necessity of determining new forms of life1#aaje relate to the distribution of goods as well as to other things4 ,the abolition of property1#aajf and its replacement by a new kind of distribution of goods1 is one of the questions now in order4#aajg ,according to the law of love1 every man who works as he has strength should have so much--but only so much--as he needs4 #a4 ,that every man who works as he has strength should have so much as he needs and no more is a corollary from two precepts which follow from the law of love4 ,the first of these precepts says1 ,man shall ask no work from others1 but himself devote his whole life to work for others4 ',man lives not to be served but to serve4'#aajh ,therefore1 in particular1 he is not to keep accounts with others about his work1 or think that he has the more of a living to claim1 the greater or more useful his quantum of work done is4#aaji ,following this precept provides every man with what he needs4 ,this is true primarily of the healthy adult4 ,if a man works1 his work feeds him4 ,if another makes use of this man's work for himself1 he will feed him for the very reason that he is making use of his work4#aaaj ,man assures himself of a living not by taking it away from others1 but by making himself useful and necessary to others4 ,the more necessary he is to others1 the more assured is his existence4#aaaa ,but the following of the precept to serve others also provides the sick1 the aged1 and children with their living4 ,men do not stop feeding an animal when it falls sick2 they do not even kill an old horse1 but give it work appropriate to its strength2 they bring up whole families of little lambs1 pigs1 and puppies1 because they expect benefit from them4 ,how1 then1 should they not support the sick man who is necessary to them8 ,how should they not find appropriate work for old and young1 and bring up human beings who will in turn work for them8#aaab ,the second precept that follows from the law of love1 and of which a corollary is that every man who works as he has strength should have as much as he needs and no more1 bids us ,share what you have with the poor2 gather no riches4#aaac ,to the question of his hearers1 what they were to do1 ,john the ,baptist gave the short1 clear1 simple answer1 ',he who hath two coats1 let him share with him who hath none2 and he who hath food let him do likewise' 7,luke #c4aj-aa74 ,and ,christ too made the same declaration several times1 only still more unambiguously and clearly4 ,he said1 ',blessed are the poor1 woe to the rich4' ,he said that one could not serve ,god and ,mammon at once4 ,he not only forbade his disciples to take money1 but also to have two garments4 ,he told the rich young man that because he was rich he could not enter into the ,kingdom of ,god1 and that a camel should sooner go through a needle's eye than a rich man come into heaven4 ,he said that he who did not forsake everything--house1 children1 lands--to follow him could not be his disciple4 ,he told his hearers the parable of the rich man who did nothing bad except that he--like our rich men--clothed himself in costly apparel and fed himself on savory food and drink1 and who plunged his soul into perdition by this alone1 and of the poor ,lazarus who did nothing good and who entered into the ,kingdom of ,heaven only because he was a beggar4#aaad #b4 ,but what form can such a distribution of goods take in detail8 ,this is best shown us by the ,russian colonists4 ,these colonists arrive on the soil1 settle1 and begin to work1 and no one of them takes it into his head that any one who does not begin to make use of the land can have any right to it2 on the contrary1 the colonists regard the ground a priori as common property1 and consider it altogether justifiable that everybody plows and reaps where he chooses4 ,for working the fields1 for starting gardens1 and for building houses1 they procure implements2 and here too it does not suggest itself to them that these could of themselves produce any income--on the contrary1 the colonists look upon any profit from the means of labor1 any interest for grain lent1 etc41 as an injustice4 ,they work on masterless land with their own means or with means borrowed free of interest1 either each for himself or all together on joint account4#aaae ,in talking of such fellowship ,i am not setting forth fancies1 but only describing what has gone on at all times1 what is even at present taking place not only among the ,russian colonists but everywhere where man's natural condition is not yet deranged by some circumstances or other4 ,i am describing what seems to everybody natural and rational4 ,the men settle on the soil and go each one to work1 make their implements1 and do their labor4 ,if they think it advantageous to work jointly1 they form a labor company4#aaaf ,but1 in individual business as well as in collective industry1 neither the water nor the ground nor the garments nor the plow can belong to anybody save him who drinks the water1 wears the garments1 and uses the plow2 for all these things are necessary only to him who puts them to use4#aaag ,one can call only his labor his own2#aaah by it one has as much as one needs4#aaai #f4--,,realization ,the way in which the change required by love is to take place1 according to ,tolstoi1 is that those men who have learned to know the truth are to convince as many others as possible how necessary the change is for love's sake1 and that they1 with the help of the refusal of obedience1 are to abolish law1 the ,state1 and property1 and bring about the new condition4 ,i4 ,the prime necessity is that the men who have learned to know the truth should convince as many others as possible that love demands the change4 #a4 ,that an order of life corresponding to our knowledge may take the place of the order contrary to it1 the present antiquated public opinion must first be replaced by a new and living one4#aabj ,it is not deeds of all sorts that bring to pass the grandest and most significant changes in the life of humanity1 neither the fitting out of armies a million strong nor the construction of roads and engines1 neither the organization of expositions nor the formation of trade-unions1 neither revolutions1 barricades1 and explosions nor inventions in aerial navigation--but the changes of public opinion1 and these alone4#aaba ,liberation is possible only by a change in our conception of life2#aabb everything depends on the force with which each individual man becomes conscious of ,christian truth2#aabc know the truth and the truth shall make you free4#aabd ,our liberation must necessarily take place by the ,christian's recognizing the law of love1 which his ,master has revealed to him1 as entirely sufficient for all human relations1 and his perceiving the superfluousness and illegitimateness of all violence4#aabe ,the bringing about of this revolution in public opinion is in the hands of the men who have learned to know the truth4#aabf ,a public opinion does not need hundreds and thousands of years to arise and spread2 it has the quality of working by contagion and swiftly seizing a great number of men4#aabg ,as a jarring touch is enough to change a fluid saturated with salts to crystals in a moment1 so now the slightest effort may perhaps suffice to cause the unveiled truth to seize upon hundreds1 thousands1 millions of men so that a public opinion corresponding to knowledge shall be established and that hereby the whole order of life shall become other than it is4 ,it is in our hands to make this effort4#aabh #b4 ,the best means for bringing about the necessary revolution in public opinion is that the men who have learned to know the truth should testify to it by deed4 ,the ,christian knows the truth only in order to testify to it before those who do not know it1#aabi and that by deed4#aacj ,the truth is imparted to men by deeds of truth1 deeds of truth illuminate every man's conscience1 and thus destroy the force of deceit4#aaca ,hence you ought properly1 if you are a landlord1 to give your land at once to the poor1 and1 if you are a capitalist1 to give your money or your factory to the workingmen2 if you are a prince1 a cabinet minister1 an official1 a judge1 or a general1 you ought at once to resign your position1 and1 if you are a soldier1 you ought to refuse obedience without regard to any danger4#aacb ,but1 to be sure1 it is very probable that you are not strong enough to do this2 you have connections1 dependents1 subordinates1 superiors1 the temptations are powerful1 and your force gives out4#aacc #c4 ,but there is still another means1 though a less effective one1 for bringing about the necessary revolution in public opinion1 and this you can always#aacd employ4 ,it is that the men who have learned to know the truth should speak it out frankly4#aace ,if men--yes1 if even a few men--would do this1 the antiquated public opinion would at once fall of itself1 and a new1 living1 present-day one would arise4#aacf ,not billions of rubles1 not millions of soldiers1 no institutions1 wars1 or revolutions1 have so much power as the simple declaration of a free man that he considers something to be right or wrong4 ,if a free man speaks out honestly what he thinks and feels1 in the midst of thousands who in word and act stand for the very contrary1 one might think he must remain isolated4 ,but usually it is otherwise2 all1 or most1 have long been privately thinking and feeling in the same way2 and then what to-day is still an individual's new opinion will perhaps to-morrow be already the general opinion of the majority4#aacg ,if we would only stop lying and acting as if we did not see the truth1 if we would only testify to the truth that summons us and boldly confess it1 it would at once turn out that there are hundreds1 thousands1 millions1 of men in the same situation as ourselves1 that they see the truth like us1 are afraid like us of remaining isolated if they confess it1 and are only waiting1 like us1 for the rest to testify to it4#aach ,,ii4 ,to bring about the change and put the new condition in the place of law1 the ,state1 and property1 it is further requisite that the men who have learned to know the truth should conform their lives to their knowledge1 and1 in particular1 that they should refuse obedience to the ,state4 #a4 ,men are to bring about the change themselves4 ,they are no longer to wait for somebody to come and help them1 be it ,christ in the clouds with the sound of the trumpet1 be it a historic law or a differential or integral law of forces4 ,nobody will help us if we do not help ourselves4#aaci ,i have been told a story that happened to a courageous commissary of police4 ,he came into a village where they had applied for soldiers on account of an outbreak among the peasants4 ,in the spirit of ,nicholas the ,first he proposed to make an end of the rising by his personal presence alone4 ,he had a few cart-loads of sticks brought1 gathered all the peasants in a barn1 and shut himself in with them4 ,by his shouts he succeeded in so cowing the peasants that they obeyed him and began to beat each other at his command4 ,so they beat each other till there was found a simple-minded peasant who did not obey1 and who called out to his fellows that they should not beat each other either4 ,only then did the beating cease1 and the official made haste to get away4 ,the advice of this simple-minded peasant should be followed by the men of our time4#aadj #b4 ,but it is not by violence that men are to bring about the change4 ,revolutionary enemies fight the government from outside2 ,christianity does not fight at all1 but wrecks its foundations from within4#aada ,some assert that liberation from force1 or at least its diminution1 can be effected by the oppressed men's forcibly shaking off the oppressing government2 and many do in fact undertake to act on this doctrine4 ,but they deceive themselves and others3 their activity only enhances the despotism of governments1 and the attempts at liberation are welcomed by the governments as pretexts for strengthening their power4#aadb ,however1 suppose that by the favor of circumstances 7as1 for instance1 in ,france in #ahgj7 they succeed in overthrowing a government1 the party which had won by force would be compelled1 in order to remain at the helm and introduce its order into life1 not only to employ all existing violent methods1 but to invent new ones in addition4 ,it would be other men that would be enslaved1 and they would be coerced into other things1 but there would exist not merely the same but a still more cruel condition of violence and enslavement2 for the combat would have fanned the flames of hatred1 strengthened the means of enslavement1 and evolved new ones4 ,thus it has been after all revolutions1 insurrections1 and conspiracies1 after all violent changes of government4 ,every fight only puts stronger means of enslavement in the hands of the men who at a given time are in power4#aadc #c4 ,men are to bring about the change by conforming their lives to their knowledge4 ,the ,christian frees himself from all human authority by recognizing as sole plumb-line for his life and the lives of others the divine law of love that is implanted in man's soul and has been brought into consciousness by ,christ4#aadd ,this means that one is to return good for evil1#aade give to one's neighbor all that one has that is superfluous and take away from him nothing that one does not need1#aadf especially acquire no money and get rid of the money one has1#aadg not buy nor rent1#aadh and1 without shrinking from any form of work1 satisfy one's needs with one's own hands2#aadi and particularly does it mean that one is to refuse obedience to the unchristian demands of ,state authority4#aaej ,that obedience to these demands is refused we see in many cases in ,russia at present4 ,men are refusing the payment of taxes1 the general oath1 the oath in court1 the exercise of police functions1 action as jurymen1 and military service4#aaea ,the governments find themselves in a desperate situation as they face the ,christians' refusals4#aaeb ,they can chastise1 put to death1 imprison for life1 and torture1 any one who tries to overthrow them by force2 they can bribe and smother with gold the half of mankind2 they can bring into their service millions of armed men who are ready to annihilate all their foes4 ,but what can they do against men who do not destroy anything1 do not set up anything either1 but only1 each for himself1 are unwilling to act contrary to the law of ,christ1 and therefore refuse to do what is most necessary for the governments8#aaec ,let the ,state do as it will by such men1 inevitably it will contribute only to its own annihilation1#aaed and therewith to the annihilation of law and property and to the bringing in of the new order of life4 ,for1 if it does not persecute people like the ,dukhobors1 the ,stundists1 etc41 the advantages of their peaceable ,christian way of living will induce others to join them--and not only convinced ,christians1 but also such as want to get clear of their obligations to the ,state under the cloak of ,christianity4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it deals cruelly with men against whom there is nothing except that they have endeavored to live morally1 this cruelty will only make it still more enemies1 and the moment must at last come when there can no longer be found any one who is ready to back up the ,state with instrumentalities of force4#aaee #d4 ,in the conforming of life to knowledge the individual must make the beginning4 ,he must not wait for all or many to do it at the same time with him4 ,the individual must not think it will be useless if he alone conforms his life to ,christ's teaching4#aaef ,men in their present situation are like bees that have left their hive and are hanging on a twig in a great mass4 ,the situation of the bees on the twig is a temporary one1 and absolutely must be changed4 ,they must take flight and seek a new abode4 ,every bee knows that1 and wishes to make an end of its own suffering condition and that of the others2 but this cannot be done by one so long as the others do not help4 ,but all cannot rise at once1 for one hangs over another and hinders it from letting go2 therefore all remain hanging4 ,one might think that there was no way out of this situation for the bees2#aaeg if and really there would be none1 were it not that each bee is an independent living being4 ,but it is only needful that one bee spread its wings1 rise and fly1 and after it the second1 the third1 the tenth1 the hundredth1 for the immobile hanging mass to become a freely flying swarm of bees4 ,thus it is only needful that one man comprehend life as ,christianity teaches it1 and take hold of it as ,christianity teaches him to1 and then that a second1 a third1 a hundredth follow him1 and the magic circle from which no escape seemed possible is destroyed4#aaeh ,neither may the individual let himself be deterred by the fear of suffering4 ',if ,i alone1' it is commonly said1 'fulfil ,christ's teaching in the midst of a world that does not follow it1 give away my belongings1 turn my cheek without resistance1 yes1 and refuse the oath and military service1 then ,i shall have the last bit taken from me1 and1 if ,i do not die of hunger1 they will beat me to death1 and1 if they do not beat me to death1 they will jail me or shoot me2 and ,i shall have given all the happiness of my life1 nay1 my life itself1 for nothing4'#aaei ,be it so4 ,i do not ask whether ,i shall have more trouble1 or die sooner1 if ,i follow ,christ's teaching4 ,that question can be asked only by one who does not see how meaningless and miserable is his life as an individual life1 and who imagines that he shall 'not die'4 ,but ,i know that a life for the sake of one's own happiness is the greatest folly1 and that such an aimless life can be followed only by an aimless death4 ,and therefore ,i fear nothing4 ,i shall die like everybody1 like even those who do not fulfil ,christ's teaching1 but my life and my death will have a meaning for me and for others4 ,my life and my death will contribute to the rescue and life of others--and that is just what ,christ taught4#aafj ,if once enough individuals have conformed their lives to their knowledge1 the multitude will soon follow4 ,the passage of men from one order of life to another does not take place steadily1 as the sand in the hour-glass runs out1 one grain after another from the first to the last1 but rather as a vessel that has been sunk into water fills itself4 ,at first the water gets in only on one side1 slowly and uniformly2 but then its weight makes the vessel sink1 and now the thing takes in1 all at once1 all the water that it can hold4#aafa ,thus the impulse given by individuals will provoke a movement that goes on faster and faster1 wider and wider1 avalanche-like1 suddenly sweeps along the masses1 and brings about the new order of life4#aafb ,then the time is come when all men are filled with ,god1 shun war1 beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning-hooks2 that is1 in our language1 when the prisons and fortresses are empty1 when the gallows1 rifles1 and cannon are out of use4 ,what seemed a dream has found its fulfilment in a new form of life4#aafc ,,footnotes3 #hei ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #bdd-e1 #bhj1 #cae1 #cbe4 #hfj ,ib4 pp4 #bfc1 #bhe-f1 ,to4 ,gospel p4 #be1 ,religion and ,morality p4 #ad4 #hfa ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #bea4 #hfb ,to4 ,gospel pp4 #ac-ad1 #af-ag4 #hfc ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #if-g4 #hfd ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe pp4 #bdg-h4 #hfe ,to4 ,reason and ,dogma p4 #e4 #hff ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #aif4 #hfg ,to4 ,gospel pp4 #ea1 #bi-cj4 #hfh ,ib4 p4 #dg4 #hfi ,to4 ,patriotism p4 #aah4 #hgj ,to4 ,gospel p4 #bi4 #hga ,to4 ,gospel p4 #ej2 ,to4 ,religion and ,morality p4 #bg4 #hgb ,to4 ,on ,life p4 #bad4 #hgc ,to4 ,gospel p4 #ca4 #hgd ,ib4 pp4 #cb1 #ca1 #dj1 #aab4 #hge ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #afd4 #hgf ,to4 ,gospel p4 #ba4 #hgg ,ib4 p4 #ba4 #hgh ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe pp4 #afj1 #agd4 #hgi ,ib4 p4 #aff4 #hhj ,to4 ,confession p4 #ib4 #hha ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #ge-g1 #gi4 #hhb ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe pp4 #aie1 #bgb1 ,kingdom pp4 #gb-c1 ,gospel p4 #e4 #hhc ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #bcd4 #hhd ,to4 ,on ,life p4 #dh4 #hhe ,ib4 pp4 #gb1 #ff4 #hhf ,to4 ,confession p4 #ed4 #hhg ,to4 ,on ,life p4 #aja4 #hhh ,ib4 p4 #ajj4 #hhi ,ib4 p4 #ajj4 #hij ,ib4 pp4 #afj1 #aja4 #hia ,ib4 pp4 #afj1 #aja4 #hib ,ib4 pp4 #bfb-c4 #hic ,to4 ,on ,life p4 #bfc4 #hid ,ib4 p4 #bfc4 #hie ,to4 ,religion and ,morality pp4 #ba-b4 #hif ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #ga4 #hig ,to4 ,gospel p4 #be4 #hih ,ib4 p4 #be4 #hii ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe pp4 #ach-i #ijj ,ib4 p4 #bfh4 #ija ,ib4 p4 #adh4 #ijb ,to4 ,on ,life pp4 #aei-fj4 #ijc ,ib4 p4 #afe4 #ijd ,ib4 p4 #afd4 #ije ,ib4 pp4 #agj-ga4 #ijf ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #adj4 #ijg ,ib4 p4 #aci4 #ijh ,ib4 p4 #ach4 #iji ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #adb1 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #ag4 #iaj ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #abc4 #iaa ,to4 ,religion and ,morality p4 #ab4 #iab ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #abd-e4 #iac ,to4 ,morning pp4 #gj-ga4 #iad ,to4 ,on ,life p4 #adh4 #iae ,ib4 pp4 #adg1 #adh4 #iaf ,ib4 pp4 #abb1 #acc-e1 #agd1 #agf4 #iag ,ib4 pp4 #aba1 #agd4 #iah ,to4 ,on ,life pp4 #bf1 #abb-c1 #aif1 #bjf4 #iai ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #ag4 #ibj ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #add4 #iba ,ib4 pp4 #adb-c4 #ibb ,ib4 p4 #afj4 #ibc ,ib4 p4 #add4 #ibd ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #abb4 #ibe ,ib4 p4 #abc4 #ibf ,ib4 p4 #abc4 #ibg ,ib4 p4 #abc4 #ibh ,ib4 p4 #abc4 #ibi ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #ab4 #icj ,ib4 p4 #ab4 #ica ,ib4 p4 #ae4 #icb ,ib4 pp4 #ba-b4 #icc ,ib4 p4 #bb4 #icd ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #fh-i4 #ice ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #bfi-gj4 #icf ,ib4 p4 #bhb4 #icg ,ib4 p4 #fc4 #ich ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe pp4 #ag1 #bj2 ,kingdom p4 #bfh4 ,has ,tolstoi compared in a ,greek concordance the other occurrences of the word translated resist8 #ici ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #di-ej4 #idj ,ib4 p4 #ej4 #ida ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #bfh-i4 #idb ,ib4 p4 #bfi4 #idc ,he speaks only of the ,gesetz1 but he means all ,recht2 see footnote on page #ade of the present book4 #idd ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #bfh1 #cjj-cja4 #ide ,ib4 pp4 #cfa-b4 #idf ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe pp4 #bi1 #cb4 #idg ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #cfa-b1 #agb4 #idh ,ib4 p4 #agb4 #idi ,ib4 p4 #cjj4 #iej ,ib4 p4 #cfa4 #iea ,ib4 p4 #bda4 #ieb ,ib4 p4 #bdj4 #iec ,ib4 p4 #bef4 #ied ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #bi4 #iee ,ib4 pp4 #bh-i4 #ief ,ib4 p4 #cb4 #ieg ,ib4 p4 #cb4 #ieh ,ib4 pp4 #de-f4 #iei ,ib4 p4 #bi4 #ifj ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #cfa-b4 #ifa ,ib4 p4 #agb4 #ifb ,ib4 p4 #bfh4 #ifc ,ib4 p4 #agb4 #ifd ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #abj4 #ife ,ib4 pp4 #ahj1 #bce4 #iff ,ib4 pp4 #bce1 #ahj4 #ifg ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #cic1 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #aba4 #ifh ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #cic-d4 #ifi ,ib4 pp4 #dhf-g4 #igj ,to4 ,persecutions p4 #dg4 #iga ,to4 ,gospel p4 #ej4 #igb ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #ebf4 #igc ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #aba4 #igd ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #adb-c1 #add4 #ige ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe pp4 #abb-c1 #agi1 #abd1 #bai-bj2 ,gospel pp4 #ei-fj2 ,kingdom pp4 #adc-d4 #igf ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #bbe4 #igg ,ib4 p4 #bbe4 #igh ,ib4 p4 #aba4 #igi ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #bdj-da4 #ihj ,ib4 p4 #ccf4 #iha ,ib4 pp4 #cce-f4 #ihb ,ib4 p4 #ccb4 #ihc ,ib4 p4 #baa4 #ihd ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #ba2 ,persecutions p4 #df4 #ihe ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #bji-aj4 #ihf ,ib4 pp4 #afg1 #afd4 #ihg ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #be4 #ihh ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #ccb4 #ihi ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #ej4 #iij ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #dbi-cj1 #bdd4 #iia ,ib4 pp4 #bji-aj4 #iib ,ib4 p4 #bgd4 #iic ,ib4 pp4 #bga-b4 #iid ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #bga4 #iie ,ib4 pp4 #cda1 #cci4 #iif ,ib4 p4 #cdj4 #iig ,ib4 p4 #cdj4 #iih ,ib4 p4 #cci4 #iii ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #cci-dj4 #ajjj ,ib4 p4 #cdb4 #ajja ,ib4 p4 #bdc4 #ajjb ,to4 ,patriotism p4 #ia4 #ajjc ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #bci4 #ajjd ,ib4 p4 #bdc4 #ajje ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #bha4 #ajjf ,ib4 p4 #ddb4 #ajjg ,ib4 p4 #ddb4 #ajjh ,to4 ,persecutions p4 #da4 #ajji ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #cbg4 #ajaj ,ib4 p4 #bch4 #ajaa ,to4 ,patriotism p4 #abj4 #ajab ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #ddc4 #ajac ,to4 ,patriotism p4 #aai4 #ajad ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #bch4 #ajae ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #bdh-i4 #ajaf ,to4 ,patriotism p4 #ia4 #ajag ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #bdi4 #ajah ,ib4 p4 #bde4 #ajai ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #bdf-g4 #ajbj ,ib4 pp4 #bej1 #dbc-d4 #ajba ,ib4 pp4 #cad-bh4 #ajbb ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe pp4 #bf-g4 #ajbc ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #bgd4 #ajbd ,ib4 p4 #bgf4 #ajbe ,ib4 p4 #dbb4 #ajbf ,ib4 p4 #bgg4 #ajbg ,ib4 p4 #bgf4 #ajbh ,to4 ,patriotism pp4 #dj-da1 #ajj-ajb2 ,kingdom pp4 #dbi-cb4 #ajbi ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #bge4 #ajcj ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #dbb4 #ajca ,ib4 pp4 #bge-f1 #dbj-bb1 #ddd-e4 #ajcb ,ib4 p4 #bgh4 #ajcc ,ib4 p4 #bgh4 #ajcd ,ib4 p4 #bgi4 #ajce ,ib4 p4 #bgi4 #ajcf ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #eaa2 ,patriotism p4 #aag4 #ajcg ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #ahi4 #ajch ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #abc4 #ajci ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #adc-d4 #ajdj ,ib4 pp4 #cjj-cja4 #ajda ,ib4 p4 #cjj4 #ajdb ,ib4 p4 #cja4 #ajdc ,ib4 p4 #cja4 #ajdd ,ib4 p4 #bcf4 #ajde ,ib4 p4 #dfa4 #ajdf ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #dfa4 #ajdg ,ib4 pp4 #dfa-b4 #ajdh ,ib4 p4 #dfa4 #ajdi ,ib4 p4 #bee4 #ajej ,ib4 p4 #bee4 #ajea ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #bee-f4 #ajeb ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #bij4 #ajec ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #bee1 #beh4 #ajed ,ib4 p4 #beh4 #ajee ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #bhi4 #ajef ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #bee1 #beg4 #ajeg ,ib4 p4 #beg4 #ajeh ,ib4 p4 #eaj4 #ajei ,to4 ,persecutions pp4 #df-g4 #ajfj ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #cgb4 #ajfa ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #eaj4 #ajfb ,ib4 p4 #eab4 #ajfc ,ib4 pp4 #eac-ad4 #ajfd ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #cgb-c4 #ajfe ,ib4 p4 #eah4 #ajff ,ib4 p4 #bef4 #ajfg ,ib4 p4 #afd4 #ajfh ,ib4 p4 #cgf4 #ajfi ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #ba2 ,what ,shall ,we ,do pp4 #aeg-h4 #ajgj ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #afg1 #afd4 #ajga ,ib4 p4 #bgc4 #ajgb ,to4 ,what ,shall ,we ,do p4 #ai4 #ajgc ,ib4 pp4 #ah-ai4 #ajgd ,ib4 p4 #ai4 #ajge ,to4 ,money p4 #ah4 #ajgf ,to4 ,linen-,measurer pp4 #fjb-c4 #ajgg ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #afd4 #ajgh ,ib4 p4 #afh4 #ajgi ,to4 ,what ,shall ,we ,do p4 #adc4 #ajhj ,to4 ,money p4 #ah4 #ajha ,ib4 p4 #ac4 #ajhb ,ib4 p4 #ac4 #ajhc ,ib4 p4 #af4 #ajhd ,ib4 p4 #ae4 #ajhe ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #aff4 #ajhf ,to4 ,what ,shall ,we ,do p4 #aci4 #ajhg ,ib4 p4 #aeb4 #ajhh ,to4 ,money p4 #f4 #ajhi ,to4 ,what ,shall ,we ,do pp4 #aea-b4 #ajij ,ib4 p4 #afj4 #ajia ,to4 ,what ,shall ,we ,do pp4 #acd-e4 #ajib ,ib4 p4 #ace4 #ajic ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #bdg-h4 #ajid ,ib4 p4 #djf4 #ajie ,ib4 p4 #djg4 #ajif ,ib4 p4 #djg4 #ajig ,ib4 p4 #dji4 #ajih ,ib4 p4 #dib4 #ajii ,ib4 pp4 #bdg1 #ddg4 #aajj ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #dib-c4 #aaja ,ib4 pp4 #cad-bh4 #aajb ,ib4 pp4 #dbd-e4 #aajc ,ib4 p4 #dbe4 #aajd ,ib4 p4 #dbe4 #aaje ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #eaa4 #aajf ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #bdi4 #aajg ,ib4 p4 #bdi4 #aajh ,ib4 p4 #bbh4 #aaji ,ib4 pp4 #bbg-h4 #aaaj ,ib4 p4 #bbg4 #aaaa ,ib4 p4 #bbi4 #aaab ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #bcj4 #aaac ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #ebj4 #aaad ,to4 ,what ,shall ,we ,do pp4 #aeg-h4 #aaae ,to4 ,money p4 #aj4 #aaaf ,to4 ,money p4 #aa4 #aaag ,ib4 pp4 #aa-ab4 #aaah ,kernel p4 #hi4 #aaai ,ib4 p4 #hi4 #aabj ,patriotism p4 #aaf4 #aaba ,to4 ,patriotism pp4 #ajh-i4 #aabb ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #cja4 #aabc ,ib4 p4 #dgd4 #aabd ,ib4 p4 #cjb4 #aabe ,ib4 p4 #cja4 #aabf ,to4 ,patriotism pp4 #aaf-ag4 #aabg ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #ceh4 #aabh ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #ejh4 #aabi ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #bij4 #aacj ,ib4 p4 #bij4 #aaca ,ib4 p4 #bic4 #aacb ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #ebc4 #aacc ,ib4 p4 #ebc4 #aacd ,ib4 p4 #ebc4 #aace ,to4 ,patriotism p4 #aaf4 #aacf ,ib4 p4 #aji4 #aacg ,to4 ,patriotism pp4 #aab-ac4 #aach ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #eji4 #aaci ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe pp4 #adg-h4 #aadj ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #cjf-g4 #aada ,ib4 p4 #cbf4 #aadb ,ib4 pp4 #bgi-hj4 #aadc ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #bhj-ha4 #aadd ,ib4 p4 #bih4 #aade ,to4 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #bib4 #aadf ,to4 ,what ,shall ,we ,do p4 #afd2 ,what ,i ,believe p4 #bia4 #aadg ,to4 ,what ,shall ,we ,do p4 #afb4 #aadh ,ib4 p4 #afa4 #aadi ,to ,what ,shall ,we ,do p4 #afa4 #aaej ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #cad4 #aaea ,ib4 pp4 #cbg-h4 #aaeb ,ib4 p4 #ccj4 #aaec ,ib4 p4 #cbh4 #aaed ,to4 ,persecutions p4 #dd4 #aaee ,to4 ,persecutions p4 #dd4 #aaef ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #bic4 #aaeg ,ib4 pp4 #cjb-c4 #aaeh ,to4 ,kingdom pp4 #cjc-d4 #aaei ,what ,i ,believe p4 #adh4 #aafj ,ib4 pp4 #agi-hj4 #aafa ,to4 ,kingdom p4 #cec4 #aafb ,ib4 p4 #cef4 #aafc ,ib4 p4 #cib4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,anarchistic ,,teachings #a4--;,,general ,we have now gained the standpoint that permits us to view comprehensively the entire body of ,anarchistic teachings4 ,this comprehensive view is possible only as follows3 first we have to look and see what the seven recognized ,anarchistic teachings here presented have in common1 and what specialties are to be found among them2 next we must consider how far that which is common to the seven teachings may be equated to that which the entire body of ,anarchistic teachings have in common1 and1 in addition1 how far the specialties represented among the seven teachings may be equated to the specialties represented in the entire body of ,anarchistic teachings4 ,to characterize those qualities of the ,anarchistic teachings to which attention is to be paid1 words already existing are here used as far as has been found practicable4 ,where such were totally lacking1 the need of a concise formula has of necessity overcome repugnance to neologisms4 #b4--;,,basis ,i4 ,as to their basis the seven teachings here presented have nothing in common4 #a4 ,in part they recognize as the supreme law of human procedure merely a natural law1 which1 as such1 does not tell us what ought to take place but what really will take place2 these teachings may be called genetic4 ,the other part of them regard as the supreme law of human procedure a norm1 which1 as such1 tells us what ought to take place1 even if it never really will take place2 these teachings may be characterized as critical4 ,genetic are the teachings of ,bakunin and ,kropotkin3 the supreme law of human procedure is for ,bakunin the evolutionary law of mankind's progress from a less perfect existence to an existence as perfect as possible1 and for ,kropotkin that of mankind's progress from a less happy existence to an existence as happy as possible4 ,critical are the teachings of ,godwin1 ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 ,tucker1 and ,tolstoi4 #b4 ,the critical teachings1 again1 are partly such as set up a duty as the supreme law of human procedure1 the duty being itself the ultimate purpose1--these teachings may be characterized as idealistic1--and partly such as set up happiness as the supreme law of human procedure1 all duty being only a means to happiness1--these may take the name of eudemonistic4 ,idealistic are the teachings of ,proudhon and ,tolstoi3 ,proudhon sets up as the supreme law of human procedure the duty of justice1 ,tolstoi the duty of love4 ,eudemonistic are the teachings of ,godwin1 ,stirner1 and ,tucker4 #c4 ,the eudemonistic teachings1 finally1 regard as the supreme law of human procedure either the happiness of mankind as a whole1 which the individual is accordingly to further without regard to his own happiness1--these teachings may be characterized as altruistic1--or the happiness of the individual1 which he is accordingly to further without regard to the welfare of mankind as a whole1--these teachings may be called egoistic4 ,altruistic is ,godwin's teaching1 egoistic ,stirner's and ,tucker's4 ,,ii4 ,with regard to what they have in common in their basis1 the seven recognized ,anarchistic teachings here presented may be taken as equivalent to the entire body of recognized ,anarchistic teachings4 ,they have in their basis nothing in common with each other2 all the more is it impossible1 therefore1 that the entire body of recognized ,anarchistic teachings should have in their basis anything in common4 ,furthermore1 as regards the specialties that they exhibit in respect to their basis the teachings here presented may be taken as equivalent to the entire body of ,anarchistic teachings without limitation4 ,for the specialties represented among them can be arranged as a system that has no room left for any more co-ordinate specialties1 but only for subordinate4 ,no ,anarchistic teaching1 therefore1 can have any specialty that will not be subordinate to these specialties4 ,therefore1 what is true of the seven teachings here presented is true of ,anarchistic teachings altogether4 ,in their basis they have nothing in common1 and are to be divided with respect to its differences as shown in the table on page #bgc4 #c4--,,law ,i4 ,in their relation to law--that is1 to those norms which are based on men's will to have a certain procedure generally observed within a circle which includes themselves--the seven teachings here presented have nothing in common4 #a4 ,a part of them negate law for our future2 these teachings may be called anomistic4 ,the other part of them affirm it for our future2 these teachings may be characterized as nomistic4 ,anomistic are the teachings of ,godwin1 ,stirner1 ,tolstoi2 nomistic those of ,proudhon1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 and ,tucker4 ,genetic ,critical ,teachings ,teachings ---------------------------------------- ,idealistic ,eudemonistic ----------------------- ,altruistic ,egoistic ,bakunin ,proudhon ,godwin ,stirner ,kropotkin ,tolstoi ,tucker ,there cannot be given a more precise definition of what is common to the anomistic teachings on the one hand and to the nomistic on the other1 and what is peculiar to the one group as against the other1 than has here been given4 ,for both the negation and the affirmation of law for our future have totally different meanings in the different teachings4 ,the negation of law for our future means in the cases of ,godwin and ,stirner that they reject law unconditionally1 and so for our future as well as everywhere else3 ,godwin because it is always and everywhere contrary to the general happiness1 ,stirner because it is always and everywhere contrary to the individual's happiness4 ,in ,tolstoi's case the meaning of the negation of law for our future is that he rejects law1 though not unconditionally1 yet for our future1 because it is1 though not at all times and in all places1 yet under our circumstances1 in a higher degree repugnant to love than its non-existence4 ,the affirmation of law for our future means in the cases of ,proudhon and ,tucker that they approve law as such 7though certainly not every particular form of law7 unconditionally1 and hence for our future as well as elsewhere3 ,proudhon because law as such never and nowhere offends against justice1 ,tucker because law as such never and nowhere impairs the individual's happiness4#aafd ,in the cases of ,bakunin and ,kropotkin1 finally1 the affirmation of law for our future has the meaning that they foresee that the progress of evolution will in our future leave in existence law as such1 even though not the present particular form of law3 ,bakunin meaning by this the progress of mankind from a less perfect existence to an existence as perfect as possible1 and ,proudhon its progress from a less happy existence to an existence as happy as possible4 #b4 ,the anomistic teachings part company again in regard to what they 7in the same different senses in which they negate law for our future7 affirm for our future in contrast to the law4 ,according to ,godwin1 in future the general happiness ought to be men's controlling principle in the place of law4 ,according to ,stirner1 in future the happiness of self ought to be men's controlling principle in the place of law4 ,according to ,tolstoi1 in future love ought to be men's controlling principle in the place of law4 #c4 ,on the other part1 the nomistic teachings part company in regard to the particular form of law that they affirm for our future4 ,according to ,tucker1 even in future there ought to exist enacted law1 in which the will that creates the law is expressly declared1#aafe as well as unenacted law1 in which such an express declaration of this will is not present4 ,according to ,bakunin and ,kropotkin1 in future only unenacted law will exist4 ,according to ,proudhon1 there ought to exist in future only the single legal norm that contracts must be lived up to4#aaff ,,ii4 ,with regard to what they have in common in their relation to law1 the seven recognized ,anarchistic teachings here presented may be taken as equivalent to the entire body of recognized ,anarchistic teachings4 ,in their relation to law they have nothing in common4 ,much less1 therefore1 can the entire body of recognized ,anarchistic teachings have anything in common in their relation to law4 ,furthermore1 as regards the specialties that they exhibit in their relation to law the teachings here presented may be taken as equivalent to the entire body of ,anarchistic teachings without limitation4 ,for the specialties represented among them can be arranged as a system in which there is no room left for any more co-ordinate specialties1 but only for subordinate4 ,no ,anarchistic teaching1 therefore1 can have any specialty that will not be subordinate to these specialties4 ,therefore1 what is true of the seven teachings here presented is true of ,anarchistic teachings altogether4 ,in their relation to law they have nothing in common1 and are to be divided as follows with respect to the differences of this relation3 ,anomistic ,teachings ,nomistic ,teachings ,godwin ,proudhon ,stirner ,bakunin ,tolstoi ,kropotkin ,tucker #d4--,,the ,,state ,i4 ,in their relation to the ,state--that is1 to the legal relation by virtue of which a supreme authority exists in a territory--the seven teachings here presented have something in common4 #a4 ,they have this in common1 that they negate the ,state for our future4 ,there cannot be given a more precise definition of what the teachings here presented have in common in their relation to the ,state than has here been given4 ,for the negation of the ,state for our future has totally different meanings in them4 ,in the cases of ,godwin1 ,stirner1 ,tucker1 and ,proudhon1 the negation of the ,state for our future means that they reject the ,state unconditionally1 and hence for our future as well as everywhere else3 ,godwin because the ,state always and everywhere impairs the general happiness1 ,stirner and ,tucker because it always and everywhere impairs the individual's happiness1 ,proudhon because at all times and in all places the ,state offends against justice4 ,in ,tolstoi's case the negation of the ,state for our future means that he rejects the ,state1 though not unconditionally1 yet for our future1 because the ,state is1 though not always and everywhere1 yet under our circumstances1 more repugnant to love than its non-existence4 ,finally1 in the cases of ,bakunin and ,kropotkin the negation of the ,state for our future has the meaning that they foresee that in our future the progress of evolution will abolish the ,state3 ,bakunin meaning mankind's progress from a less perfect existence to one as perfect as possible1 ,kropotkin its progress from a less happy existence to one as happy as possible4 #b4 ,as to what they affirm for our future in contrast to the ,state 7in the same different senses in which they negate the ,state for our future7 the seven teachings here presented have nothing in common4 ,one part of them affirm for our future1 in contrast to the ,state1 a social human life in a voluntary legal relation--to wit1 under the legal norm that contracts must be lived up to2 these teachings may take the name of federalistic4 ,the other part of them affirm for our future1 in contrast to the ,state1 a social human life without any legal relation--to wit1 under the same controlling principle that they affirm for our future in contrast to law2 these teachings may be characterized as spontanistic4 ,federalistic are the teachings of ,proudhon1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 and ,tucker2 spontanistic those of ,godwin1#aafg ,stirner1 and ,tolstoi4 #c4 ,the spontanistic teachings in turn part company in respect to the non-legal controlling principle which they affirm in contrast to the ,state as the basis of the social human life for our future4 ,according to ,godwin1 the place of the ,state ought to be taken by a social human life based on the principle that the general happiness should be every one's rule of action4 ,according to ,stirner1 the place of the ,state ought to be taken by a social human life based on the principle that each one's own happiness should be his rule of action4 ,according to ,tolstoi1 the place of the ,state ought to be taken by a social human life based on the principle that love should be every one's rule of action4 ,,ii4 ,with regard to what they have in common in their relation to the ,state1 the seven recognized ,anarchistic teachings here presented may be taken as equivalent to the entire body of recognized ,anarchistic teachings4 ,in their relation to the ,state they have only this one thing in common1 that they negate the ,state for our future--and in very different senses at that4 ,but this is common to all recognized ,anarchistic teachings3 observation of any recognized ,anarchistic teaching shows that in one sense or another it negates the ,state for our future4 ,furthermore1 as regards the specialties that they exhibit in their relation to the ,state the teachings here presented may be taken as equivalent to the entire body of ,anarchistic teachings without limitation4 ,for the specialties represented among them can be arranged as a system which affords no room for any more co-ordinate specialties1 but only for subordinate4 ,no ,anarchistic teaching1 therefore1 can have any specialty that will not be subordinate to these specialties4 ,therefore1 what is true of the seven teachings here presented is true of the ,anarchistic teachings altogether4 ,in their relation to the ,state they have in common their negating the ,state for our future2 and with regard to the differences in what they affirm for our future in contrast to the ,state they are to be divided as shown in the table on page #bhj4 ,federalistic ,teachings ,spontanistic ,teachings ,proudhon ,godwin ,bakunin ,stirner ,kropotkin ,tolstoi ,tucker #e4--,,property ,i4 ,in their relation to property--that is1 to that legal relation by virtue of which some one has within a certain group of men the exclusive privilege of ultimately disposing of a thing--the seven teachings here presented have nothing in common4 #a4 ,one part of them negate property for our future2 these teachings may be characterized as indoministic4 ,the other part affirm it for our future2 these teachings may be called doministic4 ,indoministic are the teachings of ,godwin1 ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 and ,tolstoi2 doministic the teachings of ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 and ,tucker4 ,there cannot be given a more precise definition of what is common to the indoministic teachings on the one hand and to the doministic on the other1 and what is peculiar to the one group as against the other1 than has here been given4 ,for both the affirmation and the negation of property for our future have totally different meanings in the different teachings4 ,in the cases of ,godwin1 ,stirner1 and ,proudhon1 the negation of property for our future means that they reject property unconditionally1 and so for our future as well as elsewhere3 ,godwin because it is always and everywhere contrary to the general happiness1 ,stirner because it is always and everywhere contrary to the individual's happiness1 ,proudhon because it always and everywhere offends against justice4 ,in ,tolstoi's case the meaning of the negation of property for our future is that he rejects property1 though not absolutely1 yet for our future1 because it is1 though not at all times and in all places1 yet under our circumstances1 in a higher degree repugnant to love than is its non-existence4 ,in ,tucker's case the affirmation of property for our future means that he approves property as such 7though certainly not every particular form of property7 unconditionally1 and hence for our future as well as elsewhere1 because property as such is never and nowhere contrary to the individual's happiness4#aafh ,finally1 in the cases of ,bakunin and ,kropotkin the affirmation of property for our future is as much as to say that they foresee that in our future the progress of evolution will leave in existence property as such1 even though not the present particular form of property3 ,bakunin meaning mankind's progress from a less perfect existence to one as perfect as possible1 ,kropotkin its progress from a less happy existence to one as happy as possible4 #b4 ,the indoministic teachings part company again as to what they affirm for our future 7in the same different senses in which they negate property for our future7 in contrast to property4 ,according to ,proudhon1 a distribution of goods determined by a voluntary legal relation1 and based on the legal norm that contracts ought to be lived up to1 ought to take the place of property4 ,according to ,godwin1 ,stirner1 and ,tolstoi1 the place of property ought to be taken by a distribution without any legal relation1 based rather on the same rule of action that is affirmed by them in contrast to law4 ,according to ,godwin1 therefore1 that distribution of goods which is to take the place of property ought to be based on what is prescribed to each one by the general happiness4 ,according to ,stirner it ought to be based on what is prescribed to each one by his own happiness4 ,according to ,tolstoi it ought to be based on what is prescribed to each one by love4 #c4 ,the doministic teachings on their side part company again as to the particular form of property that they affirm for our future4 ,according to ,tucker there ought to exist in future1 as at present1 both property of the individual and property of the collectivity1 in all things indiscriminately4#aafi ,this teaching may be called individualistic4 ,according to ,bakunin1 in future there will exist property of the individual and of the entire community only in goods for consumption1 indiscriminately1 while in the materials and instruments of production there will be solely property of the collectivity4 ,this teaching may be characterized as collectivistic4 ,according to ,kropotkin1 in future there will exist solely property of the collectivity in all things indiscriminately4 ,this teaching may be called communistic4 ,,ii4 ,with regard to what they have in common in their relation to property1 the seven ,anarchistic teachings here presented may be taken as equivalent to the entire body of recognized ,anarchistic teachings4 ,they have nothing in common in their relation to property4 ,all the more is it impossible1 therefore1 that the entire body of recognized ,anarchistic teachings should in their relation to property have anything in common4 ,furthermore1 in regard to the specialties that they exhibit in their relation to property the teachings here presented may be taken as equivalent to the entire body of ,anarchistic teachings without limitation4 ,for the specialties represented among them can be arranged as a system in which there is no room left for any more co-ordinate specialties1 but only for subordinate4 ,no ,anarchistic teaching1 therefore1 can have any specialty that will not be subordinate to these specialties4 ,therefore1 what is true of the seven teachings here presented is true of ,anarchistic teachings altogether4 ,they have nothing in common in their relation to property1 and are to be divided with respect to the differences of this relation as shown in the table on page #bhd4 ,indoministic ,doministic ,teachings ,teachings ---------------------------------------- ------ ,individualistic,collectivistic,communis tic ,godwin ,tucker ,bakunin ,kropotkin ,proudhon ,stirner ,tolstoi #f4--,,realization ,i4 ,with regard to the manner in which they conceive their realization--that is1 the transition from the negated condition to the affirmed condition--as taking place1 the seven teachings here presented have nothing in common4 #a4 ,the one part of them conceive their realization as taking place without breach of law3 they have in mind a transition from the negated to the affirmed condition merely by the application of legal norms of the negated condition2 these teachings may be characterized as reformatory4 ,reformatory are the teachings of ,godwin and ,proudhon4 ,the other part conceive their realization as a breach of law3 they have in mind a transition from the negated to the affirmed condition with violation of legal norms of the negated condition2 these teachings may be called revolutionary4 ,revolutionary are the teachings of ,stirner1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 ,tucker1 and ,tolstoi4 ,there cannot be given a more precise definition of what is common to the reformatory teachings on the one hand1 to the revolutionary on the other1 and what is peculiar to the one group as against the other1 than has here been given4 ,for the conceiving the transition from a negated to an affirmed condition as taking place in any given way has totally different meanings in the different teachings4 ,if ,godwin1 ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 ,tucker1 and ,tolstoi conceive the transition from a negated to an affirmed condition as taking place in any given way1 this is as much as to say that they demand that we should in a given way first prepare for1 and then effect1 the transition from a disapproved to an approved condition4 ,if1 on the contrary1 ,bakunin and ,kropotkin conceive the transition from a negated to an affirmed condition as taking place in any given way1 this means that they foresee that in the progress of evolution the transition from a disappearing to a newly-appearing condition will of itself take place in a given way1 and that they only demand that we should make a certain sort of preparation for this transition4 #b4 ,the revolutionary teachings part company again as to the fashion in which they conceive of the breach of law that helps in the transition from the negated to the affirmed condition4 ,some of them conceive of the breach of law as taking place without the employment of force2 these teachings may be characterized as renitent4 ,renitent are the teachings of ,tucker and ,tolstoi3 ,tucker conceiving the breach of law chiefly as a refusal to pay taxes and rent and an infringement of the banking monopoly1 ,tolstoi especially as a refusal to do military1 police1 or jury service1 and also to pay taxes4 ,the other revolutionary teachings conceive of the breach of law that helps in the transition from the negated to the affirmed condition as taking place with the employment of force2 these teachings may take the name of insurgent4 ,insurgent are the teachings of ,stirner1 ,bakunin1 and ,kropotkin3 ,stirner and ,bakunin conceiving only of the transition itself as attended with the use of violence1 but ,kropotkin also of preparation for it by such acts 7propaganda of deed74 ,,ii4 ,with regard to what they have in common in respect of the conceived manner of realization1 the seven recognized ,anarchistic teachings which have been presented may be taken as equivalent to the entire body of recognized ,anarchistic teachings4 ,in respect of the conceived manner of realization they have nothing in common4 ,much less1 therefore1 can the entire body of recognized ,anarchistic teachings have anything in common in this respect4 ,furthermore1 as regards the specialties that they exhibit in respect of the conceived manner of realization the teachings here presented may be taken as equivalent to the entire body of ,anarchistic teachings without limitation4 ,for the specialties represented among them can be arranged as a system in which there is no room left for any more co-ordinate specialties1 but only for subordinate4 ,no ,anarchistic teaching1 therefore1 can have any specialty that will not be subordinate to these specialties4 ,therefore1 what is true of the seven teachings here presented is true of the ,anarchistic teachings altogether4 ,in respect of the conceived manner of realization they have nothing in common1 and are to be arranged as follows with reference to the differences therein3 ,reformatory ,revolutionary ,teachings ,teachings ----------------------------- ,renitent ,insurgent ,godwin ,tucker ,stirner ,proudhon ,tolstoi ,bakunin ,kropotkin ,,footnotes3 #aafd ,i shall not indorse this statement till ,i understand it1 and ,i doubt if ,tucker will4 ,perhaps ,eltzbacher might have been content with saying is in no case more injurious to the happiness of most individuals than its non-existence4 #aafe ,this1 if interpreted by ,eltzbacher's quotations from ,tucker1 must refer to the right of a voluntary association of any sort to make rules for its own members4 ,but in this sense it seems in the highest degree doubtful whether ,eltzbacher is justified in denying the same to all the other six1 who have omitted to mention this point 7perhaps regarding it as self-evident7 while they were talking against laws in the sense of laws compulsorily binding everybody in the land4 #aaff ,but see on ,proudhon and ,stirner my notes on pages #hj and #ig4 #aafg ,it will be seen by consulting the footnotes on pages #df1 #dg1 and #dh that the warrants for this statement about ,godwin are drawn exclusively from the first one-fifth of his book1 contrary to ,eltzbacher's profession at the top of page #da2 that the passages quoted verbatim are not in ,godwin's second edition2 and that the quotations which are not verbatim are of doubtful correctness by the second edition4 ,this makes it appear that ,godwin's sweeping rejection of the principle of contract was one of those over-hasty propositions about which he changed his mind even before they were published 7see his words quoted on page #dj1 and the preface to his second edition74 ,yet ,i am not prepared to assert that ,godwin would at any time have made contract the basis of his civil order4 #aafh ,on ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 ,tucker1 see my notes on pages #hj1 #ig1 #bgd4 #aafi ,we are getting into an ambiguity of language here4 ,the collectivity in which ,kropotkin vests property is1 as ,i understand1 the entire population2 the only collectivity which ,tucker could recognize as owning property would be a voluntary association1 whose membership1 whether large or small1 would in general be limited by the arbitrary choice of men4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,anarchism ,,and ,,its ,,species ,i4--,,errors ,,about ,,anarchism ,,and ,,its ,,species ,it has now become possible to set aside some of the numerous errors about ,anarchism and its species4 ,i4 ,it is said that ,anarchism has abolished morality and bases itself upon scientific materialism1#aagj that its ideal of society is determined by its peculiar conception of the way things come to pass in history4#aaga ,if this were correct1 the teachings of ,godwin1 ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 ,tucker1 ,tolstoi1 and very many other recognized ,anarchistic teachings1 would have to be regarded as not ,anarchistic4 #b4 ,it is asserted that ,anarchism sets up the happiness of the individual as final goal1#aagb that it appraises every human action from the abstract view-point of the unlimited right of the individual1#aagc that to it the supreme law is not the general welfare but every individual's free preference4#aagd ,were this really the case1 we should have to look upon the teachings of ,godwin1 ,proudhon1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 ,tolstoi1 and a multitude of other recognized ,anarchistic teachings1 as not ,anarchistic4 #c4 ,the moral law of justice is set down as ,anarchism's supreme law4#aage ,were this assertion correct1 the teachings of ,godwin1 ,stirner1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 ,tucker1 ,tolstoi1 and numerous other recognized ,anarchistic teachings1 could not rank as ,anarchistic4 #d4 ,it is said that ,anarchism culminates in the negation of every programme1#aagf that it has only a negative goal4#aagg ,if this were in accordance with truth1 the teachings of ,godwin1 ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 ,tucker1 ,tolstoi1 and well-nigh all other recognized ,anarchistic teachings1 would not admit of being regarded as ,anarchistic4 #e4 ,it is asserted that ,anarchism rejects law1#aagh the compulsion of law4#aagi ,if this were so1 the teachings of ,proudhon1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 ,tucker1 and very many other recognized ,anarchistic teachings1 could not rank as ,anarchistic4 #f4 ,it is declared that ,anarchism rejects society1#aahj that its ideal consists in wiping out society to make a fresh start1#aaha that for it fellowship exists only to be combated4#aahb ,were this correct1 we should have to look upon the teachings of ,godwin1 ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 ,tucker1 ,tolstoi1 and pretty nearly all other recognized ,anarchistic teachings1 as not ,anarchistic4 #g4 ,it is said that ,anarchism demands the abolition of the ,state1#aahc wills to destroy the ,state off the face of the earth1#aahd wills to have the ,state in no form at all1#aahe wills to have no government4#aahf ,if this were correct1 the teachings of ,bakunin and ,kropotkin1 and all the other recognized ,anarchistic teachings which only foresee the abolition of the ,state but do not demand it1 could not rank as ,anarchistic4 #h4 ,it is asserted that in ,anarchism's future society the individual's consent binds him only so long as he is disposed to keep it up4#aahg ,were this really so1 then the teachings of ,proudhon1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 ,tucker1 and very many other recognized ,anarchistic teachings1 would have to be looked upon as not ,anarchistic4 #i4 ,it is said that ,anarchism wills to put a federation in the place of the ,state1#aahh that what it is striving for is the ordering of all public affairs by free contracts among federalistically instituted communes and societies4#aahi ,were this in accordance with truth1 the teachings of ,godwin1 ,stirner1 ,tolstoi1 and very many other recognized ,anarchistic teachings1 would not admit of being regarded as ,anarchistic1 and no more would the teachings of ,bakunin and ,kropotkin and the rest of the recognized ,anarchistic teachings that do not demand1 but only foresee1 a fellowship of contract4 #aj4 ,it is declared that ,anarchism rejects property4#aaij ,if this were correct1 we should have to rate the teachings of ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 ,tucker1 and all the other recognized ,anarchistic teachings that affirm property either unconditionally or at any rate in some particular form1 as not ,anarchistic4 #aa4 ,it is asserted that ,anarchism rejects private property1#aaia endeavors to establish community of goods1#aaib is necessarily communistic4#aaic ,were ,anarchism necessarily communistic1 then1 in the first place1 the teachings of ,godwin1 ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 ,tolstoi1 and all the other recognized ,anarchistic teachings which negate property in every form1 even as the property of society1 could not rank as ,anarchistic2 and furthermore1 neither could the teachings of ,tucker and ,bakunin1 and such other recognized ,anarchistic teachings as affirm private property either in all things or at least in goods for direct consumption4 ,and if in addition to this it were a matter of rejection or endeavor1 then not even ,kropotkin's teaching1 and the rest of the recognized ,anarchistic teachings which do not demand1 but foresee1 a communistic form of property1 could be regarded as ,anarchistic4 #ab4 ,a distinction is made between ,communist1 ,collectivist1 and ,individualist ,anarchism1#aaid or simply between ,communist and ,individualist ,anarchism4#aaie ,were the first division a complete one1 the teachings of ,godwin1 ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 ,tolstoi1 and all the other recognized ,anarchistic teachings that do not affirm property in any form1 could not rank as ,anarchistic2 were the second complete1 these again could not1 nor yet could ,bakunin's teaching and such other recognized ,anarchistic teachings as affirm a property in the means of production only for society1 but in the supplies of consumption for individuals also4 #ac4 ,it is said that ,anarchism preaches crime1#aaif looks to a violent revolution for the initiation of the new condition1#aaig seeks to attain its goal with the help of all agencies1 even theft and murder4#aaih ,if ,anarchism conceived of its realization as taking place by crime1 we should have to look upon the teachings of ,godwin and ,proudhon and very many more recognized ,anarchistic teachings as not ,anarchistic2 and1 if it conceived of its realization as taking place by criminal acts of violence1 the teachings of ,tucker and ,tolstoi and numerous other recognized ,anarchistic teachings would also have to be regarded as not ,anarchistic4 #ad4 ,it is asserted that ,anarchism recognizes the propaganda of deed as a means toward its realization4#aaii ,if this were correct1 the teachings of ,godwin1 ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 ,bakunin1 ,tucker1 ,tolstoi1 and most of the other recognized ,anarchistic teachings1 could not rank as ,anarchistic4 #b4--,,the ,,concepts ,,of ,,anarchism ,,and ,,its ,,species ,it is now possible1 furthermore1 to determine the common and special qualities of the ,anarchistic teachings1 to assign them a place in the total realm of our experience1 and thus to define conceptually ,anarchism and its species4 ,i4 ,the common and special qualities of the ,anarchistic teachings4 #a4 ,the ,anarchistic teachings have in common only this1 that they negate the ,state for our future4 ,in the cases of ,godwin1 ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 and ,tucker1 the negation means that they reject the ,state unconditionally1 and so for our future as well as elsewhere2 in the case of ,tolstoi it means that he rejects the ,state1 though not unconditionally1 yet for our future2 in the cases of ,bakunin and ,kropotkin it means that they foresee that in future the progress of evolution will do away with the ,state4 #b4 ,as to their basis1 the ,anarchistic teachings are classifiable as genetic1 recognizing as the supreme law of human procedure merely a law of nature 7,bakunin1 ,kropotkin7 and critical1 regarding a norm as the supreme law of human procedure4 ,the critical teachings1 again1 are classifiable as idealistic1 whose supreme law is a duty 7,proudhon1 ,tolstoi71 and eudemonistic1 whose supreme law is happiness4 ,the eudemonistic teachings1 finally1 are on their part further classifiable as altruistic1 for which the general happiness is supreme law 7,godwin71 and egoistic1 for which the individual's happiness takes this rank 7,stirner1 ,tucker74 ,as to what they affirm for our future in contrast to the ,state1 the ,anarchistic teachings are either federalistic--that is1 they affirm for our future a social human life on the basis of the legal norm that contracts must be lived up to 7,proudhon1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 ,tucker7--or spontanistic--that is1 they affirm for our future a social human life on the basis of a non-juridical controlling principle 7,godwin1 ,stirner1 ,tolstoi74 ,as to their relation to law1 a part of the ,anarchistic teachings are anomistic1 negating law for our future 7,godwin1 ,stirner1 ,tolstoi72 the other part are nomistic1 affirming it for our future 7,proudhon1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 ,tucker74 ,as to their relation to property1 the ,anarchistic teachings are partly indoministic1 negating property for our future 7,godwin1 ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 ,tolstoi71 partly doministic1 affirming it for our future4 ,the doministic teachings1 again1 are partly individualistic1 affirming property1 without limitation1 for the individual as well as for the collectivity 7,tucker71 partly collectivistic1 affirming as to supplies for direct consumption a property that will sometimes be the individual's1 but as to the means of production a property that is only for the collectivity 7,bakunin71 and1 finally1 partly communistic1 affirming property solely for the collectivity 7,kropotkin74 ,as to how they conceive their realization1 the ,anarchistic teachings divide into the reformatory1 which conceive the transition from the negated to the affirmed condition as without breach of law 7,godwin1 ,proudhon71 and revolutionary1 which conceive this transition as a breach of law4 ,the revolutionary teachings1 again1 divide into renitent1 which conceive the breach of law as without the use of force 7,tucker1 ,tolstoi7 and insurgent1 which conceive it as attended by the use of force 7,stirner1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin74 ,,ii4 ,the place of the ,anarchistic teachings in the total realm of our experience4 #a4 ,there must be distinguished three lines of thought in the philosophy of law3 that is1 three fashions of judging law4 ,the first is jurisprudential dogmatism4 ,it judges whether a legal institution ought to exist or not1 and it judges quite unconditionally1 solely by what the institution consists of1 without regard to its effect under this or that particular set of circumstances4 ,it embraces1 therefore1 the doctrines of a proper law3 that is1 the schools that seek to determine what law--for instance1 whether the legal institution of marriage--is under all circumstances to be approved or to be disapproved4 ,its best known form is natural law4 ,the weakness of jurisprudential dogmatism lies in its not taking account of the fact that our judgment of legal institutions must depend on their effects1 and that one and the same legal institution has under different circumstances altogether different effects4 ,the second line of thought is jurisprudential skepticism4 ,in view of the weakness of jurisprudential dogmatism it foregoes judgment on whether a legal institution ought to exist or not1 and pronounces judgment only on whether the tendency of evolution gives ground for expecting that a legal institution will persist or disappear1 arise or remain non-existent4 ,it embraces1 therefore1 the doctrines of the evolution of law3 that is1 the schools that undertake to inform us what sort of law is to be expected in future--for instance1 whether the legal institution of marriage has a prospect of remaining in force among us4 ,its best-known forms are the historical school in the science of law1 and ,marxism4 ,the weakness of jurisprudential skepticism consists in its not meeting our want of a scientific basis that shall enable us to recognize as correct or incorrect the incessantly-appearing judgments on the value of legal institutions1 and to approve or disapprove the manifold propositions for changes in law4 ,the third line of thought is jurisprudential criticism4 ,in view of the weakness of jurisprudential dogmatism it foregoes passing judgment1 without regard to the particular circumstances under which a legal institution operates1 on whether that institution ought to exist or not2 but yet in view of the weakness of jurisprudential skepticism it does not forego answering the question whether a legal institution ought to exist or not4 ,it therefore sets up a supreme governing principle by which legal institutions are to be judged with regard to the particular circumstances under which they operate1 the point being whether1 under the particular circumstances under which a legal institution operates1 it fulfils that supreme governing principle as well as is possible under these circumstances1 or at least better than any other legal institution4 ,it embraces1 therefore1 the doctrines of the propriety of law3 that is1 the schools that set up fundamental principles by which it is to be determined what law--for instance1 whether the legal institution of marriage--ought under any particular circumstances to exist or not to exist4 #b4 ,with respect to the ,state these three lines of thought in the philosophy of law may arrive at different judgments1 each one from its standpoint4 ,first1 to the affirmation of the ,state4 ,so far as the schools of jurisprudential dogmatism affirm the ,state1 they approve of it unconditionally1 and so for our future as well as elsewhere1 without any regard to its effects under this or that particular set of circumstances4 ,among the numerous affirmative doctrines of the ,state in the sense of jurisprudential dogmatism1 the teachings of ,hobbes1 ,hegel1 and ,jhering may perhaps be selected for emphasis as belonging to different sections of history4 ,so far as the doctrines of jurisprudential skepticism affirm the ,state1 they foresee1 looking to the course evolution is taking1 that in our future the ,state will continue to exist4 ,the most notable representatives of jurisprudential skepticism1 such as ,puchta and ,merkel1 have offered no teaching regarding the ,state2 but affirmative doctrines of the ,state in the sense of jurisprudential skepticism may be found1 for instance1 in ,montaigne and ,bernstein4 ,finally1 so far as the doctrines of jurisprudential criticism affirm the ,state1 they commend it for our future in consideration of the particular circumstances that at present prevail in our case4 ,jurisprudential criticism has thus far been most clearly set forth by ,stammler1 who1 however1 has offered no teaching with regard to the ,state2 but1 for instance1 ,spencer's teaching may rank as an affirmative doctrine of the ,state in the sense of jurisprudential criticism4 ,second1 the three lines of thought in the philosophy of law may arrive at the negation of the ,state1 each one from its standpoint4 ,so far as the doctrines of jurisprudential dogmatism negate the ,state1 they reject it unconditionally1 and so for our future as well as elsewhere1 without any regard to its effects under this or that particular set of circumstances4 ,negative doctrines of the ,state in the sense of jurisprudential dogmatism are the teachings of ,godwin1 ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 and ,tucker4 ,so far as the doctrines of jurisprudential skepticism negate the ,state1 they foresee1 looking to the course evolution is taking1 that in our future the ,state will disappear4 ,negative doctrines of the ,state in the sense of jurisprudential skepticism are the teachings of ,bakunin and ,kropotkin4 ,so far as the doctrines of jurisprudential criticism negate the ,state1 they reject it for our future in consideration of the particular circumstances that at present prevail in our case4 ,a negative doctrine of the ,state in the sense of jurisprudential criticism is ,tolstoi's teaching4 #c4 ,therefore1 the place of the ,anarchistic teachings in the total realm of our experience is defined by the fact that they1 as a species of doctrine about the ,state in the philosophy of law1--to wit1 as negative doctrines of the ,state1--stand in opposition to the other species of doctrine about the ,state1 the affirmative doctrines of the ,state4 ,this may be represented as shown in the table on the following page4 ,,iii4 ,the concepts of ,anarchism and its species4 #a4 ,anarchism is the negation of the ,state in the philosophy of law3 that is1 it is that species of jurisprudential doctrine of the ,state which negates the ,state4 #b4 ,an ,anarchistic teaching cannot be complete without stating on what basis it rests1 what condition it affirms in contrast to the ,state1 and how it conceives the transition to this condition as taking place4 ,a basis1 an affirmative side1 and a conception of the transition to that which it affirms1 are necessary constituents of any ,anarchistic teaching4 ,with regard to these constituents the following species of ,anarchism may be distinguished4 ,affirmative ,doctrines,negative ,doctrines of the ,state of the ,state ,hobbes ,godwin ,in the sense of ,hegel ,proudhon jurisprudential ,jhering ,stirner dogmatism ,tucker ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,in the sense of ,montaigne ,bakunin jurisprudential ,bernstein ,kropotkin skepticism ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,in the sense of jurisprudential ,spencer ,tolstoi criticism ,first1 as to basis1 genetic ,anarchism1 which recognizes as supreme law of human procedure only a law of nature 7,bakunin1 ,kropotkin71 and critical ,anarchism1 which regards a norm as supreme law of human procedure2 as subspecies of critical ,anarchism1 idealistic ,anarchism1 whose supreme law is a duty 7,proudhon1 ,tolstoi71 and eudemonistic ,anarchism1 whose supreme law is happiness2 and1 finally1 as subspecies of eudemonistic ,anarchism1 altruistic ,anarchism1 for which the supreme law is the general happiness 7,godwin71 and egoistic ,anarchism1 for which the supreme law is the individual's happiness 7,stirner1 ,tucker74 ,second1 as to the condition affirmed in contrast to the ,state1 there may be distinguished federalistic ,anarchism1 which affirms for our future a social human life according to the legal norm that contracts must be lived up to 7,proudhon1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 ,tucker71 and spontanistic ,anarchism1 which affirms for our future a social life according to a non-juridical governing principle 7,godwin1 ,stirner1 ,tolstoi74 ,third1 as to the conception of the transition to the affirmed condition1 there may be distinguished reformatory ,anarchism1 which conceives the transition from the ,state to the condition affirmed in contrast thereto as taking place without breach of law 7,godwin1 ,proudhon71 and revolutionary ,anarchism1 which conceives this transition as a breach of law2 as subspecies of revolutionary ,anarchism1 renitent ,anarchism1 which conceives the breach of law as without the use of violence 7,tucker1 ,tolstoi71 and insurgent ,anarchism1 which conceives it as attended by the use of violence 7,stirner1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin74 #c4 ,an ,anarchistic teaching may be complete without taking up a position toward law or property4 ,whenever1 therefore1 an ,anarchistic teaching takes up a position toward the one or the other1 it contains an accidental adjunct4 ,the ,anarchistic teachings that contain this adjunct may be classified according to its character2 but1 since ,anarchism as such can be classified only according to the character of the necessary constituents of every ,anarchistic teaching1 such a classification does not give us species of ,anarchism4 ,so far as the ,anarchistic teachings take up a position toward law1 they are either anomistic--that is1 they negate law for our future 7,godwin1 ,stirner1 ,tolstoi7--or nomistic--that is1 they affirm it for our future 7,proudhon1 ,bakunin1 ,kropotkin1 ,tucker74 ,so far as they take up a position toward property1 they are either indoministic1 negating property for our future 7,godwin1 ,proudhon1 ,stirner1 ,tolstoi71 or doministic1 affirming it for our future2 the doministic teachings1 again1 are either individualistic1 affirming property1 without limitation1 for the individual as well as for the collectivity 7,tucker71 or collectivistic1 affirming as to supplies for direct consumption a property which may be the individual's1 but as to the means of production a property that is only for the collectivity 7,bakunin71 or1 last of all1 communistic1 affirming property for the collectivity alone 7,kropotkin74 ,all this is brought before the eye in the table on page #cjb4 9999,symbol3 hand pointing right,the table is given as compiled by ,eltzbacher4 ,for correction of errors either certain or probable1 see footnotes to pages #hj1 #ig1 #bgh2 note also that under condition affirmed the distinction is excessively fine between ,stirner1 who would have men agree on the terms of a union which they are to stick to as long as they find it advisable1 and ,bakunin and ,tucker1 who would have them bound together by a contract limited by the inalienable right of secession4 ,,key3 ,a - ,genetic ,b - ,idealistic ,c - ,altrustic ,d - ,egoistic ,e - ,federalistic ,f - ,spontanistic ,g - ,reformatory ,h - ,renitent ,i - ,insurgent ,j - ,anomistic ,k - ,nomistic ,l - ,indoministic ,m - ,individualistic ,n - ,collectivistic ,o - ,communistic ,doctrines of the ,state ,anarchistic ,teachings in the ,philosophy of ,law may possibly be ------------------------------------- ,affirmative ,negative ,doctrines ,doctrines of the ,state of the ,state ----------------- ,,anarchism ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,as to ,as to its ,as to ,as to their conditionconception their attitude toward affirmed of the attitude property ,as to its basis in transition toward contrast to the law to the affirmed ,state condition ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,critical ,revolu- ,doministic ------------ tionary -------------- ,eudemon- ------- istic -------- ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,h ,i ,j ,k ,l ,m ,n ,o ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,go ,go99 ,go ,go ,go ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,pr ,pr ,pr ,pr ,pr99 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,st ,st99 ,st ,st99 ,st99 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,ba ,ba ,ba ,ba ,ba ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,kr ,kr ,kr ,kr ,kr ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,tu ,tu ,tu ,tu ,tu ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,to ,to ,to ,to ,to 99 ,see note1 p4 #cja4 ,,footnotes3 #aagj ,der ,anarchismus und seine ,traeger pp4 #abg1 #abd1 #abe4 #aaga ,reichesberg p4 #bg4 #aagb ,lenz p4 #c4 #aagc ,plechanow p4 #hj4 #aagd ,rienzi p4 #dc4 #aage ,bernatzik pp4 #b1 #c4 #aagf ,lenz p4 #e4 #aagg ,crispi p4 #d4 #aagh ,stammler pp4 #b1 #d1 #cd1 #cf4 #aagi ,lenz pp4 #a1 #d4 #aahj ,garraud p4 #ab1 ,tripels p4 #bec4 #aaha ,silio p4 #ade4 #aahb ,reichesberg pp4 #ad1 #af4 #aahc ,bernstein p4 #cei4 #aahd ,lenz p4 #e4 #aahe ,bernatzik p4 #c4 #aahf ,hintermaenner p4 #ad4 #aahg ,reichesberg p4 #cj4 #aahh ,hintermaenner p4 #ad4 #aahi ,lombroso p4 #ca4 #aaij ,silio p4 #ade1 ,dubois p4 #bac4 #aaia ,proal p4 #ej4 #aaib ,lombroso p4 #ca4 #aaic ,sernicoli vol4 #b p4 #fg1 ,garraud pp4 #c1 #d4 #aaid ,die historische ,entwickelung des ,anarchismus p4 #af2 ,zenker p4 #afa4 #aaie ,rienzi p4 #i2 ,stammler pp4 #bh-ca2 ,merlino pp4 #ah1 #bg2 ,shaw p4 #bc4 #aaif ,garraud p4 #f2 ,lenz p4 #e4 #aaig ,sernicoli vol4 #b p4 #aaf2 ,garraud p4 #b2 ,reichesberg p4 #ch2 ,van ,hamel p4 #aac4 #aaih ,lombroso pp4 #ca1 #ce4 #aaii ,garraud pp4 #aj-aa2 ,lombroso p4 #cd2 ,ferri p4 #beg4 ,,conclusion #a4 ,the personal want that impelled us toward a scientific knowledge of ,anarchism has met with some satisfaction4 ,the concepts of ,anarchism and its species have been defined2 the most important errors have been removed2 the most prominent ,anarchistic teachings of earlier and recent times have been presented in detail4 ,we have become acquainted with ,anarchism's armory4 ,we have seen all that can be objected against the ,state from all possible standpoints4 ,we have been shown the most diverse orders of life as destined to take the ,state's place in future4 ,the transition from the ,state to these orders of life has been represented to us in the most manifold ways4 ,he who would know ,anarchism still more intimately1 investigate the less notable teachings as well as the most prominent1 and assign to both these and those their place in the causal nexus of historical events1 will now find at least the foundation laid for his work4 ,he knows with what sorts of teachings1 and what parts of these teachings1 he must concern himself1 and what questions he must put to each of them4 ,in this investigation he must expect many surprises3 the teaching of the unknown ,pisacane will astonish him by its originality1 and that of the much-talked-of ,most will show itself to be only a coarsened form of ,kropotkin's4 ,but on the whole it is hardly likely that the investigation will be worth the trouble it takes3 the special ideas that ,anarchism has to offer are given with tolerable completeness in the seven teachings here presented4 #b4 ,the external want on account of which ,anarchism had to be scientifically known may now also be satisfied4 ,one thing we must at any rate do with regard to ,anarchism3 examine its teachings1 as to their soundness or unsoundness1 with courage1 composure1 and impartiality4 ,but success in this task can be expected only if we no longer wander about aimlessly in the night of jurisprudential skepticism1 or try to light it up with the lantern of dogmatism1 but rather keep our eye fixed upon the guiding star of criticism4 ,whether1 besides this1 it is requisite to oppose ,anarchism or at least one or another of its species by especial instrumentalities of power1--whether1 in particular1 crime committed for the realization of ,anarchistic teachings is a more serious misdeed than any political or even ordinary crime1--as to this the legislators of each country must decide with a view to the special conditions existing therein4 ,,index ,,of ,,details1 ,,exemplifications1 ,,and ,,catchwords ,,in ,,the ,,quotations ,,from ,,the ,,seven ,,writers ,the following index is not a translation of ,eltzbacher's1 and does not index his part of the work1 but only the matter quoted from the seven writers4 ,furthermore1 it does not index such parts of their work as are readily found by consulting the table of contents and ,chapter ,x4 ,the reader will therefore1 in general1 for ,justice1 see the sections ,basis and ,property in each chapter1 and the whole of ,chapter ,,iv2 for ,self-,interest1 ,basis in each chapter and the whole of ,chapters ,v and ,,viii2 for ,classes1 ,state and ,property in each chapter2 for ,organization1 ,state and ,realization2 for ,government1 ,democracy1 ,tyranny1 ,state2 for ,capitalism1 ,poverty1 ,inequality1 ,property2 for ,communism1 ,chapters ,,vii and ,,ix1 especially ,property and ,realization1 comparing ,chapter ,,vi2 for ,propaganda1 ,social ,revolution1 ,realization in each chapter2 and so on4 ,so far as general points of this nature are mentioned in the index1 it is in most cases only on some incidental occasion1 and does not supersede this general reference3 nor could this be superseded without thereby misleading the reader4 ,law has received somewhat exceptional treatment4 ,the reader will of course not assume1 because in the index he does not find a certain author among those who are cited on a certain topic1 that this author has not mentioned it4 ,while the index shows a wider range of topics than might have been expected in such a book1 the nature of ,eltzbacher's compilation forbids us to expect that it should serve as a complete ,cyclopedia of ,anarchism4 ,absenteeism1 ,kr4 #afb-c1 ,to4 #bej-ea1 #bef1 #bei ,aged1 see ,dependent ,agriculture1 ,kr4 #afh1 #agg1 ,to4 #bcd ,american ,revolution1 ,go4 #ei ,anarchism1 first use of name1 ,pr4 #fg1 ,kr4 #adj ,anarchy1 lesser evil1 ,go4 #da ,areas of jurisdiction1 ideally3 small1 ,go4 #dh-ej nation-wide1 ,pr4 #gf-hj larger and larger1 ,ba4 #abg undefined1 ,kr4 #aef1 ,tu4 #aie ,army3 cannot crush revolution1 ,kr4 #agc basis of ,state1 ,to4 #bci-dc refuse to serve in1 ,to4 #bfb1 #bff of revolution1 ,ba4 #acf1 #ach1 ,kr4 #agf ,associations1 voluntary1 ,st4 #ajd-e1 ,kr4 #aee-f1 ,tu4 #aid-bjj ,astronomy1 ,kr4 #afh ,authority3 object of competition1 ,pr4 #gc-d sought only by the bad1 ,to4 #bcg-h ,bad men1 see ,criminals ,ballot1 see ,voting ,bank1 ,pr4 #fe1 #hh-ia1 ,tu4 #bjf-g1 #bad ,bees swarming1 ,to4 #bfg ,bloodshed3 insignificant1 ,ba4 #acc1 ,kr4 #agc see ,force1 ,war ,boundaries3 abolished1 ,ba4 #abg1 #acg no economic1 ,kr4 #aeh see ,areas ,bribery by ,state1 ,to4 #bdb-c ,california1 ,pr4 #hg ,central authority in future1 ,go4 #ea-b1 ,pr4 #gi-hj1 ,ba4 #acf ,centralization1 ,pr4 #gf-hj ,children1 ,tu4 #ahe1 ftn4 #ahg2 see ,dependent ,christianity1 ,to4 #bbj-fi ,church3 anti-,christian1 ,to4 #bbj-b organization1 ,pr4 #gf-g property1 ,ba4 #ace ,collectivism1 ,ba4 #aca1 ,kr4 #afe-f ,colonists1 ,to4 #bei-fj ,columbus1 ,to4 #bdg-h ,commune3 economic unit1 ,kr4 #aef-i1 #aff1 #agj1 #agf-g political unit1 ,ba4 #acf ,communism in present society1 ,kr4 #afd-e1 #agj ,contract3 basic1 ,pr4 #ga1 #ge1 ,kr4 #aeg1 ,tu4 #aid-f eschewed1 ,go4 #df-h 7but see footnotes71 #ea1 ,to4 #bdd scope of1 ,ba4 #abj1 ,tu4 #ahi ,courts1 future3 drawn by lot1 ,tu4 #bjj elective1 ,pr4 #gh free from law1 ,go4 #de1 #ej partly free from law1 ,tu4 #bja1 ftn4 #ahg merely recommend1 ,go4 #eb ,criminals3 ,state gives power to1 ,to4 #bcg-h ,state makes1 ,kr4 #adg1 #afa1 ,tu4 #aic1 #aih1 ,to4 #bde-f ,debts3 private1 ,ba4 #ace1 ,tu4 #ahi-ij of ,state1 ,ba4 #ace1 ,kr4 #aej ,defence3 a commodity1 ,tu4 #aib1 #aih-i force justified in1 ,tu4 #ahe-ij1 #bjj1 #bae force not justified in1 ,to4 #bbg-h see ,invasion ,defensive associations1 ,tu4 #aih-bjj ,deliberative assemblies1 ,go4 #dh1 #ea-b1 #fa-c2 see ,central ,dependent3 the poor are1 ,to4 #bea-d provision for the1 ,go4 #eg-h1 ,st4 #ajg-h1 ,kr4 #agj1 ,to4 #beh ,destruction1 ,kr4 #agb-c ,discussion1 ,go4 #ei1 ,kr4 #agh1 ,tu4 #baj ,distress1 relief of1 ,tu4 #aic ,egoism1 ,st4 #ic-aad1 ,tu4 #ahc ,english history1 ,go4 #ei1 ,kr4 #aea-b ,evolution no excuse for inertness1 ,kr4 #adb-e1 ,to4 #bbb-c1 #bfc ,example1 propaganda by1 ,pr4 #hh1 ,ba4 #acf1 ,kr4 #agh-i1 ,tu4 #bab-ad1 ,to4 #bfb1 #bfg-i ,exploitation1 ,state stands for1 ,ba4 #aag1 #aai1 #abh ,expropriation1 ,kr4 #agd-e ,expulsion1 ,pr4 #gb1 ,kr4 #adh1 #aeg ,extradition in future1 ,go4 #ej-ea ,force3 inadmissible1 ,to4 #bbg-cj justification of1 ,tu4 #ahf1 #aij1 #bae in law1 ,to4 #bca may be necessary1 ,tu4 #baa-ab necessary1 ,st4 #aaa1 #aad in property1 ,to4 #bee-f in ,state1 ,st4 #aja1 ,ba4 #abc1 ,tu4 #aia1 ,to4 #bci-dc undesirable1 ,pr4 #hg unreliable1 ,go4 #eh useful1 ,kr4 #aea1 #ahj works badly1 ,tu4 #baa1 #bae-af1 ,to4 #bfd-e ,frankness1 ,to4 #bcc1 #bfb-c ,freedom1 see ,liberty2 also ,speech1 etc4 ,french ,revolution3 events1 ,go4 #ei1 ,kr4 #aej1 #agf-h1 #ahj-a legislatures1 ,go4 #fa1 ,pr4 #gj ,government1 see ,state ,heirs dividing property1 ,go4 #eg-h ,houses1 ,kr4 #agd1 #agg ,hypnotizing the people1 ,to4 #bdb ,independence1 ,ba4 #abj1 #abf-g ,inequality will persist but diminish1 ,tu4 #bjh-i ,institutions to be preserved1 ,pr4 #gd1 #hb ,intelligence1 government checks progress in1 ,go4 #dj1 #df ,intercourse of social organizations1 ,go4 #di-ej and ftn41 ,kr4 #aeg-h1 ,tu4 #aii ,intimidation1 ,to4 #bdc ,invasion3 foreign1 ,go4 #ea1 ,kr4 #aei1 ,to4 #bdf personal1 ,tu4 #ahe-f ,irish ,land ,league1 ,tu4 #aig-h1 #baj1 #bag ,judge1 ,jury1 see ,courts ,labor3 amount of1 ,go4 #ef1 ,kr4 #afg-h basis of distribution1 ,pr4 #hd1 ,ba4 #aca basis of ownership1 ,tu4 #ahh1 #bje basis of sharing1 ,kr4 #afg1 #afi-gj of past generations1 ,kr4 #afa-b product of1 ,tu4 #bja1 #bje seeking higher pay1 ,st4 #ajc1 #aad universal duty1 ,to4 #bcd1 #beg ,land3 monopoly1 ,tu4 #bjc tenure1 ,tu4 #ahh1 #bje1 #bjg ,law3 dwarfs character1 ,go4 #dd is changeful1 ,go4 #dc is consecrated1 ,st4 #ig-h is hostile in purpose1 ,st4 #ajb-c1 ,ba4 #aai1 ,to4 #bch is inadequate1 ,to4 #bca-b is not agreed to1 ,pr4 #gj1 ,kr4 #adh1 ,to4 #bbh-i is not impartial1 ,pr4 #gj1 ,st4 #aja1 ,kr4 #adf-g1 #aea-c is not up to date1 ,to4 #bca-b is obstructive1 ,st4 #ajb1 ,kr4 #aea is prophetic1 ,go4 #dc is rigid1 ,go4 #db-c1 ,kr4 #adf1 ,tu4 #ahg is uncertain1 ,go4 #dc is violent1 ,to4 #bca is voluminous1 ,go4 #dc1 #fc1 ,pr4 #fi-gj1 ,kr4 #aej origin of1 ,go4 #dc1 ,kr4 #adf-h1 ,to4 #bcb tends to encroach1 ,go4 #dc1 ,pr4 #fi1 ,st4 #ajb1 ,kr4 #aea1 ,to4 #bch ,liberty1 equal1 ,tu4 #ahd-g1 ftn4 #ahd ,liquor1 ,tu4 #ahf ,mental influence1 ,to4 #bdd-e ,military1 see ,army ,money3 monopoly1 ,tu4 #bjb-c1 #bje-g power of1 ,to4 #bec-d see ,bank ,monopoly3 economic1 ,tu4 #bjb-h ,state is1 ,tu4 #aib ,music1 ,kr4 #afh ,mutuality1 ,pr4 #he ,non-resistance1 ,to4 #bbg-h ,occupancy and use3 title to land1 ,tu4 #ahh1 #bjc title to everything1 ,to4 #bei-fj ,paine quoted1 ,go4 #dg and ftn4 ,papers1 legal1 ,pr4 #gj1 ,ba4 #ace ,passive resistance1 ,tu4 #baf-ah1 ,to4 #bff-g ,patents1 ,tu4 #bjd1 #bjh ,peasants3 beating each other1 ,to4 #bfd condition of1 ,kr4 #afj1 ,to4 #bec economic practices of1 ,kr4 #agj-ga1 ,to4 #bei-fj how to reach1 ,ba4 #acf revolutionary achievements of1 ,kr4 #aea1 #ahj2 see ,irish ,police3 agency of governmental violence1 ,to4 #bci1 #bda depraved1 ,to4 #bch in future society1 ,tu4 ftn4 #ahg1 #aih-i1 ftn4 #aih2 see ,extradition lawless1 ,kr4 #aeb obstructive1 ,st4 #ajb to be replaced by voluntary intervention of citizens1 ,kr4 #aei the support of property1 ,to4 #bee ,power1 see ,authority ,press1 freedom of1 ,tu4 #baa ,printing1 ,kr4 #afi ,private wants in ,communism1 ,kr4 #afh-i ,product1 see ,labor ,production will increase1 ,kr4 #afi-gj1 ,tu4 #bjg ,promise1 see ,contract ,property1 definition of1 ,pr4 #hj-ha1 ,to4 #bej ,public opinion3 in advance of law1 ,to4 #bcj-cb to be changed1 ,pr4 #hf-g1 ,ba4 #acg1 ,tu4 #baj1 ,to4 #bfj-fa doctored by ,state1 ,ba4 #acg1 ,to4 #bdb-c society to be ruled by1 ,to4 #bde ,punishment3 is antiquated1 ,to4 #bde is not wanted1 ,kr4 #aeg is proper1 ,tu4 #ahg-i1 #bjj is useless1 ,kr4 #adg makes criminals1 ,kr4 #adg1 ,to4 #bdf see ,expulsion ,railroads3 agreement of1 ,kr4 #aef building1 ,kr4 #aeh ownership of1 ,kr4 #afc ,rationing1 ,kr4 #agj-ga1 #agf ,red ,cross ,society1 ,kr4 #aee ,religion foundation of ,state1 ,ba4 #aba-b ,rent3 economic1 ,tu4 #bjh-i1 ftn4 #bjc of landlord1 ,kr4 #agd1 ,tu4 #bjc1 #bjg1 #baj1 #bag ,resistance1 see ,defence1 ,force1 ,passive ,revolution part of evolution1 ,kr4 #adb-c ,rich1 the3 depraved1 ,ba4 #abi1 ,kr4 #afj-fa guilty1 ,to4 #bej1 #bec-d will help us1 ,go4 #fd1 ,pr4 #hg ,right1 ,rights3 admissible sense1 ,tu4 #ahe a delusion1 ,st4 #ih-i1 ,tu4 #ahd to enforce contract1 ,tu4 #ahi-ij to independence1 ,ba4 #abj1 #abf-g to live comfortably1 ,go4 #ee-f1 ,kr4 #adi1 #agj only for rich1 ,kr4 #aea-c of secession1 ,ba4 #abg1 ,tu4 #aid-g ,state has no1 ,tu4 #bad ,robbery1 forms of1 ,pr4 #ha-b ,ruling classes3 bad men originally1 ,to4 #bcg-h depraved by ruling1 ,ba4 #abc1 ,to4 #bch incompetent1 ,kr4 #afc ,schools1 ,kr4 #aei1 ,to4 #bdg ,secession1 ,ba4 #abg1 ,tu4 #aid-g ,secret societies1 ,ba4 #acb1 #ach1 ,kr4 #agg ,self the thing to be changed1 ,st4 #aaj-aa1 ,to4 #bcc-d1 #bfe ,sick1 see ,dependent ,society3 distinguished from government1 ,go4 #dg indispensable1 ,ba4 #abe1 ,tu4 #aid organism1 evolving1 ,kr4 #adb-d values all due to1 ,kr4 #afa-b see ,secret ,soldiers1 see ,army ,speech1 freedom of1 ,tu4 #baa ,spencer quoted1 ,tu4 #ahd and ftn4 ,spooner1 ,lysander1 xi ,staff of revolutionary army1 ,ba4 #ach ,state defined1 ,tu4 #aij-ia ,stop beating each other1 ,to4 #bfd ,street-making1 ,kr4 #aeh ,tariff1 ,tu4 #bjd ,taxation3 robbery which vitiates all ,state's acts1 ,tu4 #aia refuse to pay1 ,tu4 #bab-ac1 #bag-ah1 ,to4 #bff ,theft1 see ,robbery ,violence1 see ,force ,virtue1 ,state hostile to1 ,ba4 #abc ,voting3 for officers now appointed otherwise1 ,pr4 #gf-i in ,state1 a form of force1 ,tu4 #aia irrational1 ,go4 #ea-b in voluntary association1 ,tu4 #aif ,war3 a fight for dominion1 ,to4 #bdj ,state stands for1 ,kr4 #aej ,see ,force1 ,invasion ,warren1 ,josiah1 ,tu4 ftn4 #ahb1 #bjb 7for they see ftn4 #bjc7 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,adventures of ,caleb ,williams ,,or ,things as ,they ,are ,,by ,,william ,,godwin ,it was proposed1 in the invention of the following work1 to comprehend1 as far as the progressive nature of a single story would allow1 a general review of the modes of domestic and unrecorded despotism by which man becomes the destroyer of man4--,,from ,,the ,,preface4 ,limp lambskin1 gilt top1 #a4bi ,photogravure ,frontispiece ,mailed1 post-paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,works of ,p4 ,j4 ,,proudhon ,,in ,,the ,,original ,,french ,qu'est-ce que la propriete8 ,premier memoire3 ,recherches sur le principe du droit et du gouvernement4 ,deuxieme memoire3 ,lettre a ,m4 ,blanqui sur la propriete4 #cee pages4 #gi cents4 ,avertissement aux proprietaires4 ,celebration du dimanche2 ,de la concurrence entre les chemins de fer et les voies navigables2 ,le miserere4 #cjh pages4 #gb cents4 ,de la creation de l'ordre dans l'humanite3 ou1 principes d'organisation politique4 #cid pages4 #gg cents4 ,systeme des contradictions economiques3 ou1 philosophie de la misere4 #b vols4 #gif pages4 #a4ea4 ,solution du probleme social4 ,organisation du credit et de la circulation2 ,banque d'echange2 ,banque du peuple4 #cae pages4 #ge cents4 ,du principe federatif et de la necessite de reconstituer le parti de la ,revolution4 ,si les traites de #ahae ont cesse d'exister4 #cbj pages4 #ge cents4 ,les confessions d'un revolutionnaire4 ,pour servir a l'histoire de la ,revolution de fevrier4 #bcd pages4 #ge cents4 ,idee generale de la ,revolution au ,x,i,xe siecle4 #cbj pages4 #gb cents4 ,des reformes a operer dans l'exploitation des chemins de fer1 et des consequences qui peuvent en resulter soit pour l'augmentation du revenu des compagnies1 soit pour l'abaissement des prix de transport1 l'organisation de l'industrie voituriere1 et la constitution economique de la societe4 #cdb pages4 #ge cents4 ,la guerre et la paix4 ,recherches sur le principe et la constitution du droit des gens4 #b vols4 #feb pages4 #a4di4 ,theorie de l'impot4 #cbh pages4 #ge cents4 ,mailed1 post-paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,works of ,p4 ,j4 ,,proudhon ,,in ,,the ,,original ,,french ,les majorats litteraires3 examen d'un projet de loi ayant pour but de creer1 au profit des auteurs1 inventeurs1 et artistes un monopole perpetuel4 ,la federation et l'unite en ,italie2 ,nouvelles observations sur l'unite italienne2 ,les democrates assermentes et les refractaires4 #cbg pages4 #ge cents4 ,melanges4 ,articles de journaux4 #ahdh-aheb4 #c vols4 #icf pages4 #b4bj4 ,philosophie du progres1 and ,la justice poursuivie par l'eglise4 #ccf pages4 #gg cents4 ,de la justice dans la ,revolution et dans l',eglise4 #d vols4 #a1ejj pages4 #c4jc4 ,de la capacite politique des classes ouvrieres4 #cei pages4 #gg cents4 ,theorie de la propriete4 ,suivi d'un projet d'exposition perpetuelle4 #caj pages4 #ge cents4 ,france et ,rhin4 #bfd pages4 #gb cents4 ,contradictions politiques4 ,theorie du mouvement constitutionnel au ,x,i,xe siecle4 #bfe pages4 #gb cents4 ,la pornocratie3 ou1 les femmes dans les temps modernes4 #bfi pages4 #gh cents4 ,cesarisme et ,christianisme 7de l'an #de avant ,j4 ,c4 a l'an #dgf apres74 ,with a preface by ,j4 ,a4 ,langlois4 #b vols4 #faa pages4 #a4ea4 ,commentaires sur les memoires de ,fouche4 ,suivis du parallele entre ,napoleon et ,wellington4 ,manuscrits inedits publies par ,clement ,rochel4 #cdh pages4 #a4dd4 ,correspondance4 ,with a biographical sketch by ,j4 ,a4 ,langlois4 #ad vols41 of nearly #djj pages each4 #g4jj4 ,mailed1 post-paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,works of ,p4 ,j4 ,,proudhon ,,in ,,english ,what is ,property8 ,an ,inquiry into the ,principle of ,right and of ,government4 ,translated by ,benj4 ,r4 ,tucker4 ,with a biography by ,j4 ,a4 ,langlois4 #dih pages4 #b4jj4 ,in a given society the authority of man over man is inversely proportional to the stage of intellectual development which that society has reached4--,the ,author4 ,that element in the idea of property which is necessary1 immutable1 and absolute is reducible to individual and transmissible possession1 susceptible of exchange but not of alienation1 founded on labor1 and not on fictitious occupancy or idle caprice4--,the ,author4 ,,in ,,german ,was ist das ,eigentum8 ,erste ,denkschrift4 ,untersuchungen ueber den ,ursprung und die ,grundlagen des ,rechts und der ,herrschaft4 ,translated1 with a preface1 by ,alfons ,fedor ,cohn4 #bee pages4 #bg cents4 ,kapital und ,zins4 ,die ,polemik zwischen ,bastiat und ,proudhon4 ,translated1 with an introduction1 by ,arthur ,muelberger4 #bcg pages4 #ig cents4 ,,in ,,italian ,la soluzione del problema sociale4 ,portrait and biographical sketch4 #fj pages4 #aa cents4 ,psicologia della rivoluzione4 #eh pages4 #aa cents4 ,mailed1 post-paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,works ,relating to ,p4 ,j4 ,,proudhon ,,in ,,english ,,dana1 ,,charles ,a4 ,proudhon and ,his ,bank of the ,people4 #gd pages4 ,leatherette1 #aj cents2 paper1 #e cents4 ,,greene1 ,,william ,b4 ,mutual ,banking4 ,showing the radical deficiency of the present circulating medium and the advantages of a free currency4 ,portrait4 #ajd pages4 #aj cents4 ,,in ,,french ,,bourgin1 ,,hubert4 ,proudhon4 ,portrait4 #ig pages4 #ae cents4 ,,desjardins1 ,,arthur4 ,p4-,j4 ,proudhon3 sa vie1 ses oeuvres1 sa doctrine4 #b vols4 #fje pages4 #a4fb4 ,,lagarde1 ,,edmond4 ,la revanche de ,proudhon3 ou1 l'avenir du socialisme mutuelliste4 ,these pour le doctorat presentee et soutenue le vendredi #i juin #aije4 #ebh pages4 #a4ei4 ,,sainte-,,beuve1 ,c4 ,a4 ,p4 ,j4 ,proudhon3 sa vie et sa correspondance4 #ahcf-dh4 #ceb pages4 #gj cents4 ,,in ,,german ,,biermann1 ,w4 ,,ed4 ,anarchismus und ,communismus4 #agg pages4 #hj cents4 ,m,ue,l,b,e,r,g,e,r1 ,,arthur4 ,p4 ,j4 ,proudhon3 ,leben und ,werke4 #bdj pages4 #ic cents4 ,,in ,,italian ,,zani1 ,,bartolomeo4 ,la questione monetaria in relazione alla questione sociale4 #ci pages4 #bf cents4 ,mailed1 post-paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,works of ,,max ,,stirner ,,in ,,english ,the ,ego and ,his ,own4 ,translated from the ,german by ,steven ,t4 ,byington1 in collaboration with other students of ,german and of ,stirner4 ,with an introduction by ,j4 ,l4 ,walker4 #ebe pages4 ,the only edition1 in any language1 that has an index4 ,ordinary cloth1 #a4ej2 superior cloth1 full gilt edges1 #a4ge4 ,the most revolutionary book ever written1 its purpose being to totally destroy the idea of duty and assert the supremacy of the will1 and from this standpoint to effect a transmutation of all values and displace the ,state by a union of conscious egoists4 ,if you devour the sacred1 you have made it your own4 ,digest the sacramental wafer1 and you are rid of it4--,the ,author4 ,this work of genius is not inferior in style to that of ,nietzsche1 and in philosophical value surpasses ,nietzsche's by a thousand cubits4--,eduard von ,hartmann4 ,that there was a pen to write such things is incomprehensible4 ,one must have read the book to believe that it exists4--,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 ,,in ,,german ,der ,einzige und sein ,eigentum4 #dbi pages4 #cf cents4 ,kleinere ,schriften4 #ahe pages4 ,cloth1 #gb cents2 paper1 #df cents4 ,,in ,,french ,l'unique et sa propriete4 ,translated by ,robert ,l4 ,reclaire4 #dga pages4 #gc cents4 ,l'unique et sa propriete4 ,translated1 with a preface1 by ,henri ,lasvignes4 #eja pages4 #a4de4 ,mailed1 post-paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,works ,relating to ,,max ,,stirner ,,in ,,german ,,duboc1 ,,julius4 ,das ,ich und die ,uebrigen4 ,fuer und wider ,m4 ,stirner4 #fj pages4 #bc cents4 ,,hartmann1 ,,eduard ,,von4 ,ethische ,studien4 #bdg pages4 #a4bj4 ,,mackay1 ,,john ,,henry4 ,max ,stirner3 sein ,leben und sein ,werk4 #bgj pages4 ,cloth1 #a4ab2 paper1 #hf cents4 ,,messer1 ,,max4 ,max ,stirner4 #ga pages4 #cd cents4 ,,ruest1 ,,anselm4 ,max ,stirner4 #ccf pages4 #fd cents4 ,stirnerbrevier4 #bhd pages4 #ea cents4 ,,in ,,french ,,basch1 ,,victor4 ,l'individualisme anarchiste3 ,max ,stirner4 #bid pages4 #a4ci4 ,mailed1 post-paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,works of ,,michael ,,bakounine ,,in ,,english ,god and the ,state4 ,with a preface by ,carlo ,cafiero and ,elisee ,reclus4 ,translated from the ,french by ,benj4 ,r4 ,tucker4 #eb pages4 #ae cents4 ,one of the most eloquent pleas for liberty ever written4 ,paine's ',age of ,reason' and ',rights of ,man' consolidated and improved4 ,it stirs the pulse like a trumpet-call4--,the ,truth ,seeker4 ,,in ,,french ,correspondance4 ,letters to ,herzen and to ,ogareff4 #ahfj-gd4 ,with preface and annotations by ,michel ,dragomanow4 ,translated by ,marie ,stromberg4 #chb pages4 #ha cents4 ,oeuvres4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,federalisme1 socialisme1 et antitheologisme2 ,lettres sur le patriotisme2 ,dieu et l'etat4 #cff pages4 #gd cents4 ,oeuvres4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,les ours de ,berne et l'ours de ,saint-,petersbourg 7#ahgj72 ,lettres a un ,francais sur la crise actuelle 7,septembre1 #ahgj72 ,l',empire knouto-germanique et la revolution sociale 7#ahgj-ga74 ,with biographical sketch1 prefaces1 and notes by ,james ,guillaume4 #hc cents4 ,,in ,,german ,michail ,bakunins sozial-politischer ,briefwechsel mit ,alexander ,iw4 ,herzen und ,ogarjow4 ,with preface and annotations by ,michail ,dragomanow4 ,translated by ,boris ,minzes4 #ebh pages4 #ia cents4 ,mailed1 post-paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,works of ,,peter ,,kropotkine ,,in ,,english ,fields1 ,factories1 and ,workshops2 or1 ,industry combined with ,agriculture and ,brain ,work with ,manual ,work4 ,illustrated4 #bfh pages4 #ig cents4 ,the main subject of social economy--i4 e41 the economy of energy required for the satisfaction of human needs--is the last subject which one expects to find treated in a concrete form in economical treatises4--,from the ,preface4 ,memoirs of a ,revolutionist4 ,with an introduction by ,georg ,brandes4 ,portrait4 #ecc pages4 ,gilt top4 #b4jj4 ,one will find in this volume a combination of all the elements out of which an intensely eventful life is composed3 idyl and tragedy1 drama and romance4--,brandes4 ,russian ,literature4 #cda pages4 ,gilt top4 #b4fi4 ,,in ,,german ,memoiren eines ,revolutionaers4 ,translated by ,max ,pannwitz4 ,illustrated4 #b vols4 #fhi pages4 #b4fd4 ,ideale und ,wirklichkeit in der russischen ,literatur4 ,translated by ,b4 ,ebenstein4 #dje pages4 #b4db4 ,gegenseitige ,hilfe in der ,entwickelung4 ,translated by ,gustav ,landauer4 #cdc pages4 #b4bh4 ,mailed1 post-paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,instead of a ,book ,,by ,a ,,man ,,too ,,busy ,,to ,,write ,,one ,a ,,fragmentary ,,exposition ,,of ,,philosophical ,,anarchism ,culled from the writings of ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker ,,editor ,,of ,,liberty ,with a ,full-,page ,half-,tone ,portrait of the ,author ,a large1 well-printed1 and excessively cheap volume of #ebd pages1 consisting of articles selected from ,liberty and classified under the following headings3 7#a7 ,state ,socialism and ,anarchism3 ,how ,far ,they ,agree1 and ,wherein ,they ,differ2 7#b7 ,the ,individual1 ,society1 and the ,state2 7#c7 ,money and ,interest2 7#d7 ,land and ,rent2 7#e7 ,socialism2 7#f7 ,communism2 7#g7 ,methods2 7#h7 ,miscellaneous4 ,the whole elaborately indexed4 ,cloth1 ,one ,dollar2 ,paper1 ,fifty cents ,,mailed1 ,,post-,,paid1 ,,by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,state ,socialism ,,and ,anarchism ,how ,far ,they ,agree and ,wherein ,they ,differ ,,by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker ,the opening chapter of ,instead of a ,book1 reprinted separately4 ,the best pamphlet with which to meet the demand for a compact exposition of ,anarchism4 ,price1 #e cents ,,mailed1 ,,post-,,paid1 ,,by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,works of ,,leo ,n4 ,,tolstoi ,,in ,,english ,war and ,peace4 ,translated by ,nathan ,haskell ,dole4 #b vols4 #hje pages4 #c4jj4 ,anna ,karenina4 ,translated by ,nathan ,haskell ,dole4 #ghj pages4 #a4be4 ,resurrection4 ,translated by ,louise ,maude4 ,illustrated4 #ebi pages4 ,gilt top4 #a4ej4 ,twenty-,three ,tales4 ,translated by ,l4 and ,a4 ,maude4 #bga pages4 #dj cents4 ,,in ,,italian ,la potenza delle tenebre4 #aaa pages4 #bd cents4 ,resurrezione4 ,translated by ,nina ,romanowsky4 #b vols4 #gja pages4 #eg cents4 ,la sonata a ,kreutzer4 #bea pages4 #bg cents4 ,anna ,karenine4 ,con uno studio di ,domenico ,ciampoli sui romanzi russi4 #b vols4 #ffc pages4 #eg cents4 ,la guerra e la paco4 ,with a preface by ,m4 de ,voguee4 #d vols4 #a1bgj pages4 #a4ji4 ,che cosa e l'arte8 #bi cents4 ,mailed1 post-paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,works of ,,leo ,n4 ,,tolstoi ,,in ,,french ,paroles d'un homme libre4 ,translated by ,j4 ,w4 ,bienstock4 #dbj pages4 #ha cents4 ,le patriotisme et le gouvernement4 #ci pages4 #ag cents4 ,la guerre ,russo-,japonaise4 ,translated by ,e4 ,halperine-,kaminsky4 #bih pages4 #gi cents4 ,plaisirs vicieux4 ,translated by ,halperine-,kaminsky4 ,with a preface by ,alexandre ,dumas4 #bed pages4 #gj cents4 ,plaisirs cruels4 ,contenant la profession de foi de l'auteur4 ,translated by ,halperine-,kaminsky4 ,with a preface by ,charles ,richet4 #bij pages4 #gb cents4 ,la fin de notre ere4 ,a propos de la ,revolution en ,russie4 ,translated by ,j4 ,w4 ,bienstock4 #fd pages4 #ad cents4 ,les ,decembristes4 ,translated by ,b4 ,tseytline and ,e4 ,jaubert4 ,with a historical introduction by ,e4 ,jaubert4 #cjj pages4 #gj cents4 ,la puissance des tenebres4 ,translated by ,e4 ,halperine-,kaminsky4 #bej pages4 #gj cents4 ,,in ,,german ,anna ,karenina4 ,translated by ,hans ,moser4 #b vols4 #a1jif pages4 #gb cents4 ,krieg und ,frieden4 #b vols4 #a1beg pages4 #gd cents4 ,mailed1 post-paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,works ,relating to ,,anarchism ,,in ,,german ,,borgius1 ,w4 ,die ,ideenwelt des ,anarchismus4 #fh pages4 #bh cents4 ,,eltzbacher1 ,,paul4 ,der ,anarchismus4 #cag pages4 #a4bg4 ,f,r,i,e,d,l,ae,n,d,e,r1 ,,benedict4 ,marxismus und ,anarchismus4 #bdj pages4 #fi cents4 ,,humboldt1 ,,wilhelm ,,von4 ,ideen zu einem ,versuch1 die ,grenzen der ,wirksamkeit des ,staats zu bestimmen4 #bjd pages4 #ad cents4 ,,ibsen1 ,,henrik4 ,ein ,volksfeind4 ,translated by ,wilhelm ,lange4 #aje pages4 #h cents4 ,,mackay1 ,,john ,,henry4 ,die ,anarchisten4 ,kulturgemaelde aus dem ,ende des ,,xix4 ,jahrhunderts4 #cci pages4 ,cloth1 #if cents2 paper1 #fe cents4 ,sturm4 #di cents4 ,,saitzeff1 ,,helene4 ,william ,godwin und die ,anfaenge des ,anarchismus im ,,xviii4 ,jahrhundert4 ,ein ,beitrag zur ,geschichte des politischen ,individualismus4 #gg pages4 #di cents4 ,,zenker1 ,e4 ,v4 ,der ,anarchismus4 ,kritische ,geschichte der anarchistischen ,theorie4 #bga pages4 #a4bh4 ,,in ,,italian ,,ibsen1 ,,enrico4 ,un nemico del popolo4 #bf cents4 ,,zoccoli1 ,,estore ,g4 ,l'anarchia3 gli agitatori1 le idee1 i fatti4 ,saggio di una revisione sistematica e critica e di una valutazione etica4 #eeb pages4 #b4ig4 ,mailed1 post-paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,works ,relating to ,,anarchism ,,in ,,english ,,burke1 ,,edmund4 ,a ,vindication of ,natural ,society4 ,pamphlet4 #cf pages4 #aj cents4 ,in vain you tell me that artificial government is good1 but that ,i fall out only with the abuse4 ,the thing--the thing itself is the abuse4--,from the above pamphlet4 ,,donisthorpe1 ,,wordsworth4 ,law in a ,free ,state4 #cac pages4 #a4ha4 ,if the doctrine of passive obedience to the ,odd ,man had been universally held by our forefathers1 there would have been no ,smithfield fires to light the way to liberty4--,the ,author4 ,,ibsen1 ,,henrik4 ,an ,enemy of ,society4 ,translated by ,william ,archer4 #acj pages4 ,paper covers4 #be cents4 ,,ouida4 ,the ,waters of ,edera4 #cdh pages4 ,gilt top4 #a4af4 ,a thoroughly ,anarchistic novel4 ,,tandy1 ,,francis ,d4 ,voluntary ,socialism4 ,a sketch4 #bbh pages4 #ge cents4 ,,in ,,french ,,eltzbacher1 ,,paul4 ,l'anarchisme4 ,translated by ,otto ,karmin4 #dag pages4 #hg cents4 ,,ghio1 ,,paul4 ,l'anarchisme aux ,etats-unis4 #bab pages4 #eh cents4 ,,ibsen1 ,,henrik4 ,un ennemi du peuple4 ,translated1 with a preface1 by the ,comte ,prozor4 #cjj pages4 #gc cents4 ,,mackay1 ,,john ,,henry4 ,les anarchistes4 ,moeurs de la fin du ,x,i,xe siecle4 ,translated by ,auguste ,lavalle 7,louis de ,hessem74 #dda pages4 #gd cents4 ,,rabani1 ,,emile4 ,l'anarchie scientifique4 #aaa pages4 #ch cents4 ,mailed1 post-paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,,liberty ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,editor ,an ,anarchistic journal1 expounding the doctrine that in ,equal ,liberty is to be found the most satisfactory solution of social questions1 and that majority rule1 or democracy1 equally with monarchical rule1 is a denial of ,equal ,liberty4 ,,appreciations ,g4 ,,bernard ,,shaw1 author of ,man and ,superman3 ,liberty is a lively paper1 in which the usual proportions of a half-pennyworth of discussion to an intolerable deal of balderdash are reversed4 ,,william ,,douglas ,o',,connor1 author of ,the ,good ,gray ,poet3 ,the editor of ,liberty would be the ,gavroche of the ,revolution1 if he were not its ,enjolras4 ,,frank ,,stephens1 well-known ,single-,tax champion1 ,philadelphia3 ,liberty is a paper which reforms reformers4 ,,bolton ,,hall1 author of ,even ,as ,you and ,i3 ,liberty shows us the profit of ,anarchy1 and is the prophet of ,anarchy4 ,,allen ,,kelly1 formerly chief editorial writer on the ,philadelphia ,north ,american3 ,liberty is my philosophical ,polaris4 ,i ascertain the variations of my economic compass by taking a sight at her whenever she is visible4 ,,samuel ,w4 ,,cooper1 counsellor at law1 ,philadelphia3 ,liberty is a journal that ,thomas ,jefferson would have loved4 ,,edward ,,osgood ,,brown1 ,judge of the ,illinois ,circuit ,court3 ,i have seen much in ,liberty that ,i agreed with1 and much that ,i disagreed with1 but ,i never saw any cant1 hypocrisy1 or insincerity in it1 which makes it an almost unique publication4 ,published ,bimonthly4 ,twelve ,issues1 #a4jj ,single ,copies1 #aj ,cents ,,address3 ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,,josiah ,,warren ,the ,first ,american ,anarchist ,a ,biography1 with portrait ,,by ,,william ,,bailie ,the biography is preceded by an essay on ,the ,anarchist ,spirit1 in which ,mr4 ,bailie defines ,anarchist belief in relation to other social forces4 ,price1 ,one ,dollar ,,mailed1 ,,post-,,paid1 ,,by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,,box #acab1 ,,new ,,york ,,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker',s ,,unique ,,book-,,shop #ejb ,sixth ,ave41 near #cjth ,st4 ,,open ,,evenings ,largest ,stock in the ,world ,of ,advanced ,literature in ,english1 ,french1 ,german1 and ,italian ,lowest ,prices in the ,united ,states ,by #bj to #cj ,per ,cent4 ,for ,all ,books in ,french1 ,german1 and ,italian ,promptest ,service in ,america ,for ,importation of ,books from ,europe ,benj4 ,r4 ,tucker's ,unique ,catalogues ,of ,english ,books1 #abe pages1 #adjj ,titles ,of ,french ,books1 #eg pages1 #adjj ,titles ,of ,italian ,books1 #bd pages1 #ejj ,titles ,of ,german ,books1 #fd pages1 #aejj ,titles ,english ,catalogue1 #aj ,cents2 ,french1 #e ,cents2 ,german1 #e ,cents2 ,italian1 #c ,cents ,any catalogue sent to any address on receipt of price ,mail ,address3 ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,,box #acab1 ,,new ,,york ,,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,sanity ,,of ,,art ,,by ,,bernard ,,shaw ,this is the first publication in book or pamphlet form of ,bernard ,shaw's famous open letter to ,benj4 ,r4 ,tucker1 the editor of ,liberty1 in review of ,max ,nordau's ,degeneration1 and originally contributed to the pages of ,liberty4 ,the issue of ,liberty containing it is out of print1 and copies of it are very valuable4 ,the volume contains also a characteristic ,shaw preface in which he declares that the essay was prepared in response to the highest offer ever made for a magazine article4 ,the ,sanity of ,art is ,mr4 ,shaw's most important pronouncement on the subject of ,art1 and admittedly one of the finest pieces of art criticism ever penned4 #aad pages4 ,cloth1 gilt top1 #ge cts42 paper1 #ce cts4 ,mailed1 post-paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,,two ,,of ,a ,,kind6 ,a ,brace of ,anarchist ,classics ,,spencer ,,and ,,thoreau ,the ,right to ,ignore the ,state ,by ,herbert ,spencer ,being a reprint of the suppressed chapter from the original edition of ,social ,statics1 now rare and costly4 ,price1 ,ten ,cents ,on the ,duty of ,civil ,disobedience ,by ,henry ,d4 ,thoreau ,i quietly declare war with the ,state1 after my fashion1 though ,i will still make what use and get what advantage of her ,i can1 as is usual in such cases4--,thoreau4 ,price1 ,seven ,cents ,mailed1 post-paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city 99 99 99 99 99 ,,anarchist ,,stickers ,aggressive1 concise ,anarchistic assertions and arguments1 in sheets1 gummed and perforated1 to be planted everywhere as broadcast seed for thought4 ,printed in clear1 heavy type4 ,size1 #b-a_/h by #a-a_/d inches4 ,excellent for use on first1 third1 and fourth class mail matter4 ,there is no better method of propagandism for the money4 ,there are #dh different ,stickers4 ,each sheet contains #d copies of one ,sticker4 ,,sample ,,stickers ,no4 #b4--;,it can never be unpatriotic to take your country's side against your ,government4 ,it must always be unpatriotic to take your ,government's side against your country4 ,no4 #g4--,what ,i must not do1 the ,government must not do4 ,no4 #h4--,whatever really useful thing ,government does for men they would do for themselves if there was no ,government4 ,no4 #i4--,the institution known as government cannot continue to exist unless many a man is willing to be ,government's agent in committing what he himself regards as an abominable crime4 ,no4 #ab4--;,considering what a nuisance the ,government is1 the man who says we cannot get rid of it must be called a confirmed pessimist4 ,no4 #ah4--;,anarchism is the denial of force against any peaceable individual4 ,no4 #bd4--;,all ,governments1 the worst on earth and the most tyrannical on earth1 are free ,governments to that portion of the people who voluntarily support them4--,lysander ,spooner4 ,no4 #cb4--;,i care not who makes th' laws iv a nation1 if ,i can get out an injunction4--,mr4 ,dooley4 ,no4 #cc4--;,it will never make any difference to a hero what the laws are4--,emerson4 ,no4 #cd4--,the population of the world is gradually dividing into two classes--,anarchists and criminals4 ,no4 #ch4--,liberty means responsibility4 ,that is why most men dread it4--,bernard ,shaw4 ,no4 #dd4--,there is one thing in the world more wicked than the desire to command1 and that is the will to obey4--,w4 ,kingdon ,clifford4 ,no4 #df4--,the only protection which honest people need is protection against that vast ,society for the ,creation of ,theft which is euphemistically designated as the ,state4 ,no4 #dg4--,with the monstrous laws that are accumulating on the statute-books1 one may safely say that the man who is not a confirmed criminal is scarcely fit to live among decent people4 ,send for circular giving entire list of #dh ,stickers1 with their numbers4 ,order by number4 ,price3 #ajj ,stickers1 assorted to suit purchaser1 #e cents2 #bjj1 or more1 ,stickers1 assorted to suit purchaser1 #c cents per hundred4 ,mailed1 post paid1 by ,,benj4 ,r4 ,,tucker1 ,p4 ,o4 ,box #acab1 ,new ,york ,city4