,transcriber's ,note  ,a number of      
typographical errors have been          
maintained in this version of this book4
 ,they have been marked with a ,,tn-1   
which refers to a description in the    
complete list found at the end of the   
text4  ,text surrounded with  was       
originally printed in ,greek4  ,the     
following codes for less common         
characters were used3    a  a with      
macron   u  u with macron        dagger 
double dagger       double vertical line
       ,,the    ,,philosophic ,,grammar 
--,,of--    ,,american ,,languages1     
,as ,set ,forth by ,wilhelm von         
,humboldt2    ,,with ,,the ,,translation
 ,,of ,,an ,,unpublished ,,memoir ,,by  
,,him ,,on ,,the ,,american ,,verb4     
--,,by--    ,,daniel ,g4 ,,brinton1     
,a4,m41 ,m4,d41    ,,professor ,,of     
,,ethnology ,,and ,,arch,,ology ,,at    
,,the ,,academy ,,of ,,natural          
,,sciences1   ,,philadelphia4           
,president of the ,numismatic and       
,antiquarian ,society of ,philadelphia2 

,member of the ,american ,philosophical 
,society1 the ,american ,antiquarian    
,society1 the ,pennsylvania ,historical 
,society1 etc42 ,membre de la   ,socit  
,royale des ,antiquaires du ,nord2 de la
 ,socit ,amricaine   de ,france2 ,dlgu  
,gnral de l',institution                
,ethnographique2   ,vice-,prsident du   
,congrs ,international des              
,amricanistes2   ,corresponding ,member 
of the ,anthropological   ,society of   
,washington1 etc4    7,read before the  
,american ,philosophical ,society1      
,march #bj1 #ahhe47    ,,philadelphia3  
,,press ,,of ,,mccalla  ,,stavely1      
#bcg-i ,,dock ,,street4   #ahhe4        
,,contents4   ,the ,philosophic ,grammar
 of ,american ,languages4      #a4      
,introduction1 p4 #c4 #b4 ,humboldt's   
,studies in ,american ,languages1       
p4 #d4 #c4 ,the ,final ,purpose of the  
,philosophy of ,language1 p4 #g4        
#d4 ,historical1 ,comparative and       
,philosophic ,grammar1 p4 #i4 #e4       
,definition and ,psychological ,origin  

of ,language1 p4 #aj4 #f4               
,primitive ,roots and ,grammatical      
,categories1 p4 #aa4 #g4 ,formal and    
,material ,elements of ,language1 p4    
#ac4 #h4 ,the ,development of           
,languages1 p4 #ad4 #i4 ,internal ,form 
of ,languages1 p4 #af4 #aj4             
,criteria of ,rank in ,languages1 p4    
#ag4 #aa4 ,classification of            
,languages1 p4 #ba4 #ab4 ,nature of     
,incorporation1 p4 #bb4 #ac4            
,psychological ,origin of               
,incorporation1 p4 #bd4 #ad4 ,effect of 
,incorporation on ,compound ,sentences1 
p4 #be4 #ae4 ,the ,dual in              
,american ,languages1 p4 #bg4 #af4      
,humboldt's ,essay on the ,american     
,verb1 p4 #bh4   ,on the ,verb in       
,american ,languages4 ,by ,wilhelm von  
,humboldt1 p4 #bi4  ,verbal forms       
classified as they indicate the notion  
of ,being3  ,i4 ,when the notion of     
,being is expressed independently1 p4   
#ca4     #a4 ,when the notion of ,being 
is understood1 p4 #cb4 #b4 ,when the    

notion      of ,being is expressed by a 
special word1 but without a phonetic    
radical1 p4 #ce4  ,,ii4 ,the notion of  
,being is incorporated with the verb as 
an auxiliary1 p4 #cg4     ,analysis of  
the ,maya ,verb1 p4 #ch4 ,other         
,examples4 ,the idea of past      time  
as related to death and negation1 p4    
#dj4  ,,iii4 ,the notion of ,being is   
present in the verbal form only in idea1
 p4 #da4     ,case #ast4 ,when the      
person1 tense and mode signs are        
separable1 p4 #da4      ,case #b;d4     
,when either the person1 or the tense   
and mode signs1 are      attached to the
 verb1 p4 #da4 ,case #c;d4 ,when both   
person and tense      and mode signs are
 attached to the verb4 #a4 ,approach    
toward a ,fixed      ,form1 p4 #dd4 #b4 
,divisibility of ,verbal ,forms to allow
 the insertion      of governed parts of
 speech1 p4 #dg4 ,general ,conclusions  
on the      organism of ,american       
,languages1 p4 #dh4     ,notes 7by the  
,translator7 on the various ,american   

,tribes and      ,languages mentioned by
 ,humboldt in the preceding ,memoir1 p4 
#di4     ,the ,philosophic ,grammar of  
,american ,languages4    #a4            
,,introductory4  ,the foundations of the
 ,philosophy of ,language were laid by  
,wilhelm von ,humboldt 7b4 ,june #bb1   
#agfg1 d4 ,april #h1 #ahce74 ,the       
principles he advocated have frequently 
been misunderstood1 and some of them    
have been modified1 or even             
controverted1 by more extended research2
 but a careful survey of the tendencies 
of modern thought in this field will    
show that the philosophic scheme of the 
nature and growth of languages1 which he
 set forth1 is gradually reasserting its
 sway1 after having been neglected and  
denied through the preponderance of the 
so-called naturalistic school during the
 last quarter of a century4  ,the time  
seems ripe1 therefore1 to bring the     
general principles of his philosophy to 
the knowledge of ,american scholars1    
especially as applied by himself to the 

analysis of ,american languages4  ,any  
one at all acquainted with ,humboldt's  
writings1 and the literature to which   
they have given rise1 will recognize    
that this is a serious task4 ,i have    
felt it such1 and have prepared myself  
for it not only by a careful perusal of 
his own published writings1 but also by 
a comparison of the conflicting         
interpretations put upon them by ,dr4   
,max ,schasler1#c-99 ,prof4 ,h4         
,steinthal1#c- ,prof4 ,c4 ,j4 ,adler1#c-
 and others1 as well as by obtaining a  
copy of an entirely unpublished memoir  
by ,humboldt on the ,american ,verb1 a  
translation of which accompanies this   
paper4 ,but my chief reliance in solving
 the obscurities of ,humboldt's         
presentation of his doctrines has been a
 close comparison of allied passages in 
his various essays1 memoirs and letters4
 ,of these ,i need scarcely say that ,i 
have attached the greatest weight to his
 latest and monumental work sometimes   
referred to as his ,introduction to the 

,kawi ,language1 but whose proper title 
is ,on ,differences in ,linguistic      
,structure1 and their ,influence on the 
,mental ,development of the ,human      
,race4#d-99  ,i would not have it       
understood that ,i am presenting a      
complete analysis of ,humboldt's        
linguistic philosophy4 ,this is far     
beyond the scope of the present paper4  
,it aims to set forth merely enough of  
his general theories to explain his     
applications of them to the languages of
 the ,american race4  ,what ,i have to  
present can best be characterized as a  
series of notes on ,humboldt's writings1
 indicating their bearing on the        
problems of ,american philology1        
introducing his theories to students of 
this branch1 and serving as a preface to
 the hitherto unpublished essay by him  
on the ,american ,verb1 to which ,i have
 referred4    #b4 ,,humboldt',s         
,,studies ,,in ,,american ,,languages4  
,the ,american languages occupied       
,humboldt's attention earnestly and for 

many years4 ,he was first led to their  
study by his brother ,alexander1 who    
presented him with the large linguistic 
collection he had amassed during his    
travels in ,south and ,north ,america4  
,while ,prussian ,minister in ,rome     
7#ahjb-jh71 he ransacked the library of 
the ,collegio ,romano for rare or       
unpublished works on ,american tongues2 
he obtained from the ex-,jesuit ,forneri
 all the information the latter could   
give about the ,yurari1 a tongue spoken 
on the ,meta river1 ,new ,granada2#d-   
and he secured accurate copies of all   
the manuscript material on these idioms 
left by the diligent collector and      
linguist1 the ,abb ,hervas4  ,a few     
years later1 in #ahab1 we find him      
writing to his friend ,baron ,alexander 
von ,rennenkampff1 then in ,st4         
,petersburg3 ,i have selected the       
,american languages as the special      
subject of my investigations4 ,they have
 the closest relationship of any with   
the tongues of north-eastern ,asia2 and 

,i beg you therefore to obtain for me   
all the dictionaries and grammars of the
 latter which you can4#e-99  ,it is     
probable from this extract that         
,humboldt was then studying these       
languages from that limited1            
ethnographic point of view1 from which  
he wrote his essay on the ,basque       
tongue1 the announcement of which       
appeared1 indeed1 in that year1 #ahab1  
although the work itself was not issued 
until #ahba4  ,ten years more of study  
and reflection taught him a far loftier 
flight4 ,he came to look upon each      
language as an organism1 all its parts  
bearing harmonious relations to each    
other1 and standing in a definite       
connection with the intellectual and    
emotional development of the nation     
speaking it4 ,each language again bears 
the relation to language in general that
 the species does to the genus1 or the  
genus to the order1 and by a            
comprehensive process of analysis he    
hoped to arrive at those fundamental    

laws of articulate speech which form the
 ,philosophy of ,language1 and which1 as
 they are also the laws of human        
thought1 at a certain point coincide1 he
 believed1 with those of the ,philosophy
 of ,history4  ,in the completion of    
this vast scheme1 he continued to attach
 the utmost importance to the ,american 
languages4 ,his illustrations were      
constantly drawn from them1 and they    
were ever the subject of his earnest    
studies4 ,he prized them as in certain  
respects the most valuable of all to the
 philosophic student of human speech4   
,thus1 in #ahbf1 he announced before the
 ,berlin ,academy that he was preparing 
an exhaustive work on the ,organism of  
,language1 for which he had selected the
 ,american languages exclusively1 as    
best suited for this purpose4 ,the      
languages of a great continent1 he      
writes1 peopled by numerous             
nationalities1 probably never subject to
 foreign influence1 offer for this      
branch of linguistic study specially    

favorable material4 ,there are in       
,america as many as thirty little known 
languages for which we have means of    
study1 each of which is like a new      
natural species1 besides many others    
whose data are less ample4#f-99  ,in his
 memoir1 read two years later1 ,on the  
,origin of ,grammatical ,forms1 and     
their ,influence on the ,development of 
,ideas1 he chose most of his examples   
from the idioms of the ,new ,world2#f-  
and the year following1 he read the     
monograph on the ,verb in ,american     
languages1 which is printed for the     
first time with the present essay4  ,in 
a later paper1 he announced his special 
study of this group as still in         
preparation4 ,it was1 however1 never    
completed4 ,his earnest desire to reach 
the fundamental laws of language led him
 first into a long series of            
investigations into the systems of      
recorded speech1 phonetic hieroglyphics 
and alphabetic writing1 on which he read
 memoirs of great acuteness4  ,in one of

 these he again mentions his studies of 
the ,american tongues1 and takes        
occasion to vindicate them from the     
current charge of being of a low grade  
in the linguistic scale4 ,it is         
certainly unjust1 he writes1 to call the
 ,american languages rude or savage1    
although their structure is widely      
different from those perfectly          
formed4#f-  ,in #ahbh1 there is a       
published letter from him making an     
appointment with the ,abb ,thavenet1    
missionary to the ,canadian ,algonkins1 
then in ,paris1 to enjoy the pleasure of
 conversing with him on his interesting 
studies of the ,algonkin language4#f-   
,and a private letter tells us that in  
#ahca he applied himself with new zeal  
to mastering the intricacies of ,mexican
 grammar4#f-  ,about #ahbg1 he found it 
indispensable to subject to a critical  
scrutiny the languages of the great     
island world of the ,pacific and ,indian
 oceans4 ,this resulted at last in his  
selecting the ,kawi language1 a learned 

idiom of the island of ,java1 ,malayan  
in origin but with marked traces of     
,hindu influence1 as the point of       
departure for his generalizations4 ,his 
conclusions were set forth in the       
introductory essay above referred to4   
,the avowed purpose of this essay was to
 demonstrate the thesis that the        
diversity of structure in languages is  
the necessary condition of the evolution
 of the human mind4#g-99  ,in the       
establishment of this thesis he begins  
with a profound analysis of the nature  
of speech in general1 and then proceeds 
to define the reciprocal influences     
which thought exerts upon it1 it upon   
thought4  ,portions of this work are    
extremely obscure even to those who are 
most familiar with his theories and     
style4 ,this arises partly from the     
difficulty of the subject2 partly       
because his anxiety to avoid dogmatic   
statements led him into vagueness of    
expression2 and partly because in some  
cases he was uncertain of his ground4   

,in spite of these blemishes1 this essay
 remains the most suggestive work ever  
written on the philosophy of language4  
#c4 ,,the ,,final ,,purpose ,,of ,,the  
,,philosophy ,,of ,,language4  ,humboldt
 has been accused of being a            
metaphysician1 and a scientific         
idealist4  ,it is true that he believed 
in an ideal perfection of language1 to  
wit3 that form of expression which would
 correspond throughout to the highest   
and clearest thinking4 ,but it is       
evident from this simple statement that 
he did not expect to find it in any     
known or possible tongue4 ,he distinctly
 says1 that this ideal is too           
hypothetical to be used otherwise than  
as a stimulus to investigation2 but as  
such it is indispensable to the linguist
 in the pursuit of his loftiest         
task--the estimate of the efforts of man
 to realize perfection of expression4#g-
  ,there is nothing teleological in his 
philosophy2 he even declines to admit   
that either the historian or the        

linguist has a right to set up a theory 
of progress or evolution2 the duty of   
both is confined to deriving the        
completed meaning from the facts before 
them4#h-99 ,he merely insists that as   
the object of language is the expression
 of thought1 certain forms of language  
are better adapted to this than others4 
,what these are1 why they are so1 and   
how they react on the minds of the      
nations speaking them1 are the questions
 he undertakes to answer1 and which     
constitute the subject-matter with which
 the philosophy of language has to do4  
,humboldt taught that in its highest    
sense this philosophy of language is one
 with the philosophy of history4 ,the   
science of language misses its purpose  
unless it seeks its chief end in        
explaining the intellectual growth of   
the race4#h-  ,each separate tongue is a
 thought-world in tones established     
between the minds of those who speak it 
and the objective world without4#h-     
,each mirrors in itself the spirit of   

the nation to which it belongs4 ,but it 
has also an earlier and independent     
origin2 it is the product of the        
conceptions of antecedent generations1  
and thus exerts a formative and         
directive influence on the national     
mind1 an influence1 not slight1 but more
 potent than that which the national    
mind exerts upon it4#h-  ,so also every 
word has a double character1 the one    
derived from its origin1 the other from 
its history4 ,the former is single1 the 
latter is manifold4#h-  ,were the       
gigantic task possible to gather from   
every language the full record of every 
word and the complete explanation of    
each grammatical peculiarity1 we should 
have an infallible1 the only infallible 
and exhaustive1 picture of human        
progress4    #d4 ,,historical1          
,,comparative ,,and ,,philosophic       
,,grammar4  ,the ,science of ,grammar   
has three branches1 which differ more in
 the methods they pursue than in the    
ends at which they aim4 ,these are      

,historic1 ,comparative and ,philosophic
 ,grammar4 ,historic ,grammar occupies  
itself with tracing the forms of a      
language back in time to their earlier  
expression1 and exhibits their          
development through the archaic         
specimens of the tongue4 ,comparative   
,grammar extends this investigation by  
including in the survey the similar     
development of a number of dialects of  
the same stock or character1 and        
explains the laws of speech1 which      
account for the similarities and        
diversities observed4  ,both of these1  
it will be observed1 begin with the     
language and its forms1 and are confined
 to these4 ,philosophic ,grammar1 on the
 other hand1 proceeds from the universal
 constructive principles of language1   
from the abstract formul of grammatical 
relations1 and investigates their       
application in various languages4 ,it   
looks upon articulate speech as the more
 or less faithful expression of certain 
logical procedures1 and analyzes tongues

 in order to exhibit the success1 be it 
greater or less1 which attends this     
effort4 ,the grammatical principles with
 which it deals are universals1 they    
exist in all minds1 although it often   
happens that they are not portrayed with
 corresponding clearness in             
language4#i-99  ,philosophic ,grammar1  
therefore1 includes in its horizon all  
languages spoken by men2 it essays to   
analyze their inmost nature with        
reference to the laws of thought2 it    
weighs the relations they bear to the   
character and destiny of those who speak
 them2 and it ascends to the            
psychological needs and impulses which  
first gave them existence4  ,it was     
grammar in this highest sense1 it was   
the study of languages for such lofty   
purposes as these1 with which ,humboldt 
occupied himself with untiring zeal for 
the last fifteen years of his life1 when
 he had laid aside the cares of the     
elevated and responsible political      
positions which he had long filled with 

distinguished credit4    #e4            
,,definition ,,and ,,psychological      
,,origin ,,of ,,language4  ,humboldt    
remarks that the first hundred pages or 
so of his celebrated ,introduction are  
little more than an expansion of his    
definition of language4 ,he gives this  
definition in its most condensed form as
 follows3 ,language is the              
ever-recurring effort of the mind to    
make the articulate sound capable of    
expressing thought4#aj-99  ,according to
 this definition1 language is not a dead
 thing1 a completed product1 but it is  
an ever-living1 active function1 an     
energy of the soul1 which will perish   
only when intelligence itself1 in its   
highest sense1 is extinguished4 ,as he  
expresses it1 language is not an ergon1 
but an energeia4 ,it is the proof and   
the product of a mind consciously       
working to a definite end4  ,hence1 in  
,humboldt's theory the psychological    
element of self-consciousness lies at   
the root of all linguistic expression4  

,no mere physical difference between the
 lower animals and man explains the     
latter's possession of articulate       
speech4 ,his self-consciousness alone is
 that trait which has rendered such a   
possession possible4#aj-  ,the idea of  
,self necessarily implies the idea of   
,other4 ,a thought is never separate1   
never isolated1 but ever in relation to 
another thought1 suggested by one1      
leading on to another4 ,hence1 ,humboldt
 says3 ,the mind can only be conceived  
as in action1 and as action4  ,as ,prof4
 ,adler1 in his comments on ,humboldt's 
philosophy1 admirably observes3 ,man    
does not possess any such thing as an   
absolutely isolated individuality2 the  
',i' and the 'thou' are the essential   
complements of each other1 and would1 in
 their last analysis1 be found          
identical4#aa-99  ,on these two         
fundamental conceptions1 those of       
,identity and ,relation1 or1 as they may
 be expressed more correctly1 those of  
,being and ,action1 ,humboldt builds his

 doctrines concerning the primitive     
radicals of language and the fundamental
 categories of grammar4    #f4          
,,primitive ,,roots ,,and ,,grammatical 
,,categories4  ,the roots of a language 
are classified by ,humboldt as either   
objective or subjective1 although he    
considers this far from an exhaustive   
scheme4#aa-  ,the objective roots are   
usually descriptive1 and indicate an    
origin from a process of mental         
analysis4 ,they bear the impress of     
those two attributes which characterize 
every thought1 ,being and ,action4      
,every complete objective word must     
express these two notions4 ,upon them   
are founded the fundamental grammatical 
categories of the ,noun and the ,verb2  
or to speak more accurately1 they lead  
to the distinction of nominal and verbal
 themes4  ,the characteristic of the    
,noun is that it expresses ,being2 of   
the ,verb that it expresses ,action4    
,this distinction is far from absolute  
in the word itself2 in many languages1  

especially in ,chinese and some         
,american languages1 there is in the    
word no discrimination between its      
verbal and nominal forms2 but the verbal
 or nominal value of the word is clearly
 fixed by other means4#aa-  ,another    
class of objective root-words are the   
adjective words1 or ,determinatives4    
,they are a later accession to the list1
 and by their addition bring the three  
chief grammatical categories1 the ,noun1
 the ,verb and the ,adjective1 into     
correlation with the three logical      
categories of ,substance1 ,action and   
,quality4  ,by the subjective roots1    
,humboldt meant the personal pronouns4  
,to these he attributed great importance
 in the development of language1 and    
especially of ,american languages4 ,they
 carry with them the mark of sharp      
individuality1 and express in its       
highest reality the notion of ,being4   
,it is not easy to understand           
,humboldt's theory of the evolution of  
the personal pronouns4 ,in his various  

essays he seems to offer conflicting    
statements4 ,in one of his later papers1
 he argues that the origin of such      
subjective nominals is often1 perhaps   
generally1 locative4 ,by comparing the  
personal pronouns with the adverbs of   
place in a series of languages1 he      
showed that their demonstrative         
antedated their personal meaning4#ab-99 
,with regard to their relative          
development1 he says1 in his celebrated 
,introduction3  ,the first person       
expresses the individuality of the      
speaker1 who is in immediate contact    
with external nature1 and must          
distinguish himself from it in his      
speech4 ,but in the ',i' the ',thou' is 
assumed2 and from the antithesis thus   
formed is developed the third           
person4#ab-  ,but in his ,notice of the 
,japanese ,grammar of ,father           
,oyanguren1 published in #ahbf1 he      
points out that infants begin by        
speaking of themselves in the third     
person1 showing that this comes first in

 the order of knowledge4 ,it is followed
 by the second person1 which separates  
one object from others2 but as it does  
so by putting it in conscious antithesis
 to the speaker1 it finally develops the
 ,i4#ab-  ,the latter is unquestionably 
the correct statement so far as the     
history of language is concerned and the
 progress of knowledge4 ,i can know     
myself only through knowing others4     
,the explanation which reconciles these 
theories is that the one refers to the  
order of thought1 or logical precedence1
 the other to the order of expression4  
,professor ,ferrier1 in his ,institutes 
of ,metaphysics1 has established with   
much acuteness the thesis that1 ,what is
 first in the order of nature is last in
 the order of knowledge1 and this is an 
instance of that philosophical          
principle4    #g4 ,,formal ,,and        
,,material ,,elements ,,of ,,language4  
,a fundamental distinction in           
philosophic grammar is that which       
divides the formal from the material    

element of speech4 ,this division arises
 from the original double nature of each
 radical1 as expressing both ,being and 
,action4  ,on the one hand1 ,action     
involves ,relation2 it assumes an object
 and a subject1 an agent1 a direction of
 effort1 a result of effort2 usually    
also limitations of effort1 time and    
space1 and qualifications as to the     
manner of the effort4 ,in other words1  
,action is capable of increase or       
decrease both in extension and          
intension4  ,on the other hand1 ,being  
is a conception of fixed conditions1 and
 is capable of few or no modifications4 
,the formal elements of a language are  
those which express ,action1 or the     
relation of the ideas2 they make up the 
affixes of conjugations and declensions1
 the inflections of words2 they indicate
 the parts of speech1 the so-called     
grammatical categories1 found in        
developed tongues4 ,the material        
elements are the roots or stems         
expressing the naked ideas1 the         

conceptions of existence apart from     
relation4  ,using the terms in this     
sense1 ,humboldt presents the following 
terse formula1 as his definition of     
,inflection3 ,inflection is the         
expression of the category in contrast  
to the definition of the idea4#ac-99    
,nothing could be more definitive and   
lucid than this concise phrase4  ,the   
inflectional or formal elements of      
language are usually derived from words 
expressing accessory ideas4 ,generally1 
they are worn down to single letters or 
a single syllable1 and they usually may 
be traced back to auxiliary verbs and   
pronouns4  ,often various accessories   
are found which are not required by the 
main proposition4 ,this is a common     
fault in the narratives of ignorant men 
and in languages and dialects of a lower
 grade4 ,it is seen in the              
multiplication of auxiliaries and       
qualifying particles observed in many   
,american languages1 where a vast number
 of needless accessories are brought    

into every sentence4  ,the nature of the
 relations expressed by inflections may 
be manifold1 and it is one of the tasks 
of philosophic grammar to analyze and   
classify them with reference to the     
direction of mental action they imply4  
,it is evident that where these         
relations are varied and numerous1 the  
language gains greatly in               
picturesqueness and force1 and thus     
reacts with a more stimulating effect on
 the mind4    #h4 ,,the ,,development   
,,of ,,languages4  ,humboldt believed   
that in this respect languages could be 
divided into three classes1 each        
representing a stage in progressive     
development4  ,in the first and lowest  
stage all the elements are material and 
significant1 and there are no true      
formal parts of speech4  ,next above    
this is where the elements of relation  
lose their independent significance     
where so used1 but retain it elsewhere4 
,the words are not yet fixed in         
grammatical categories4 ,there is no    

distinction between verbs and nouns     
except in use4 ,the plural conveys the  
idea of many1 but the singular not      
strictly that of unity4  ,highest of all
 is that condition of language where    
every word is subject to grammatical law
 and shows by its form what category it 
comes under2 and where the relational or
 formal elements convey no hint of      
anything but this relation4 ,here1 only1
 does language attain to that           
specialization of parts where each      
element subserves its own purpose and no
 other1 and here only does it correspond
 with clear and connected thinking4     
,these expressions1 however1 must not be
 understood in a genetic sense1 as if   
historically one linguistic class had   
preceded the other1 and led up to it4   
,humboldt entertained no such view4 ,he 
distinctly repudiated it4 ,he did not   
believe in the evolution of languages4  
,the differences of these classes are   
far more radical than that of sounds and
 signs2 they reach down to the          

fundamental notions of things4 ,his     
teaching was that a language without a  
passive voice1 or without a grammatical 
gender can never acquire one1 and       
consequently it can never perfectly     
express the conceptions corresponding to
 these features4#ad-99  ,in defining and
 appraising these inherent and          
inalienable qualities of languages lies 
the highest end and aim of linguistic   
science4 ,this is its true philosophic  
character1 its mission which lifts it   
above the mere collecting of words and  
formulating of rules4  ,if the higher   
languages did not develop from the      
lower1 how did they arise8 ,humboldt    
answered this question fairly1 so far as
 he was concerned4 ,he said1 he did not 
know4 ,individuals vary exceedingly in  
their talent for language1 and so do    
nations4 ,he was willing to call it an  
innate creative genius which endowed our
 ,aryan forefathers with a richly       
inflected speech2 but it was so contrary
 to the results of his prolonged and    

profound study of languages to believe1 
for instance1 that a tongue like the    
,sanscrit could ever be developed from  
one like the ,chinese1 that he frankly  
said that he would rather accept at once
 the doctrine of those who attribute the
 different idioms of men to an immediate
 revelation from ,god4#ae-99  ,he fully 
recognized1 however1 a progress1 an     
organic growth1 in human speech1 and he 
expressly names this as a special branch
 of linguistic investigation4#ae- ,he   
lays down that this growth may be from  
two sources1 one the cultivation of a   
tongue within the nation by enriching   
its vocabulary1 separating and          
classifying its elements1 fixing its    
expressions1 and thus adapting it to    
wider uses2 the second1 by forcible     
amalgamation with another tongue4  ,the 
latter exerts always a more profound and
 often a more beneficial influence4 ,the
 organism of both tongues may be        
destroyed1 but the dissolvent force is  
also an organic and vital one1 and from 

the ruins of both constructs a speech of
 grander plans and with wider views4    
,the seemingly aimless and confused     
interminglings of primitive tribes sowed
 the seed for the flowers of speech and 
song which flourished in centuries long 
posterior4  ,the immediate causes of the
 improvement of a language through      
forcible admixture with another1 are3   
that it is obliged to drop all          
unneccessary,,tn-#a accessory elements  
in a proposition2 that the relations of 
ideas must be expressed by conventional 
and not significant syllables2 and that 
the limitations of thought imposed by   
the genius of the language are violently
 broken down1 and the mind is thus given
 wider play for its faculties4  ,such   
influences1 however1 do not act in      
accordance with fixed laws of growth4   
,there are no such laws1 which are of   
universal application4 ,the development 
of the ,mongolian or ,aryan tongues is  
not at all that of the ,american4 ,the  
goal is one and the same1 but the paths 

to it are infinite4 ,for this reason    
each group or class of languages must be
 studied by itself1 and its own peculiar
 developmental laws be ascertained by   
searching its history4#af-99  ,with     
reference to the growth of ,american    
languages1 it was ,humboldt's view that 
they manifest the utmost refractoriness 
both to external influence and to       
internal modifications4 ,they reveal a  
marvellous tenacity of traditional words
 and forms1 not only in dialects1 but   
even in particular classes of the       
community1 men having different         
expressions from women1 the old from the
 young1 the higher from the lower       
classes4 ,these are maintained with     
scrupulous exactitude through           
generations1 and except by the          
introduction of words1 three centuries  
of daily commingling with the white     
race1 have not at all altered the       
grammer,,tn-#b and scarcely the         
phonetics of many of their languages4   
,nor is this referable to the contrast  

between an ,aryan and an ,american      
language4 ,the same immiscibility is    
shown between themselves4 ,even where   
many radically different languages are  
located closely together1 as in ,mexico1
 ,i have not found a single example     
where one exercised a constructive or   
formative influence on the other4 ,but  
it is by the encounter of great and     
contrasted differences that languages   
gain strength1 riches1 and completeness4
 ,only thus are the perceptive powers1  
the imagination and the feelings        
impelled to enrich and extend the means 
of expression1 which1 if left to the    
labors of the understanding alone1 are  
liable to be but meagre and arid4#af-   
#i4 ,,internal ,,form ,,of ,,languages4 
,besides the grammatical form of a      
language1 ,humboldt recognized another  
which he called its internal form4 ,this
 is that subtle something not expressed 
in words1 which even more than the      
formal parts of speech1 reveals the     
linguistic genius of a nation4 ,it may  

be defined as the impression which the  
language bears of the clearness of the  
conceptions of those speaking it1 and of
 their native gift of speech4 ,he       
illustrates it by instancing the absence
 of a developed mode in ,sanscrit1 and  
maintains that in the creators of that  
tongue the conception of modality was   
never truly felt and distinguished from 
tense4 ,in this respect its inner form  
was greatly inferior to the ,greek1 in  
the mind of which nation the ideally    
perfect construction of the verb        
unfolded itself with far more clearness4
  ,the study of this inner form of a    
language belongs to the highest realm of
 linguistic investigation1 and is that  
which throws the most light on the      
national character and capacities4#ag-99
    #aj4 ,,criteria ,,of ,,rank ,,in    
,,languages4  ,humboldt's one criterion 
of a language was its tendncy,,tn-#c to 
quicken and stimulate mental action4 ,he
 maintained that this is secured just in
 proportion as the grammatical structure

 favors clear definition of the         
individual idea apart from its          
relations1 in other words1 as it        
separates the material from the         
inflectional elements of speech4 ,clear 
thinking1 he argued1 means progressive  
thinking4 ,therefore he assigned a lower
 position both to those tongues which   
inseparably connect the idea with its   
relations1 as the ,american languages1  
and to those which1 like the ,chinese   
and in a less degree the modern         
,english1 have scarcely any formal      
elements at all1 but depend upon the    
position of words 7placement7 to signify
 their relations4  ,but he greatly      
modified this unfavorable judgment by   
several extenuating considerations4     
,thus he warns us that it is of         
importance to recognize fully that      
grammatical principles dwell rather in  
the mind of the speaker than in the     
material and mechanism of his           
language4#ag-  ,this led him to         
establish a distinction between explicit

 grammar1 where the relations are fully 
expressed in speech1 and implicit       
grammar1 where they are wholly or in    
part left to be understood by the mind4 
,he expressly and repeatedly states that
 an intelligent thinker1 trained in the 
grammatical distinctions of a higher    
language1 can express any thought he has
 in the grammar of any other tongue     
which he masters1 no matter how rude it 
is4 ,this adaptability lies in the      
nature of speech in general4 ,a language
 is an instrument1 the use of which     
depends entirely on the skill of him who
 handles it4 ,it is doubtful whether    
such imported forms and thoughts appeal 
in any direct sense to those who are    
native to the tongue4 ,but the fact     
remains that the forms of the most      
barbarous languages are such that they  
may be developed to admit the expression
 of any kind of idea4  ,but the meaning 
of this must not be misconstrued4 ,if   
languages were merely dead instruments  
which we use to work with1 then one     

would be as good as another to him who  
had learned it4 ,but this is not the    
case4 ,speech is a living1 physiological
 function1 and1 like any other function1
 is most invigorating and vitalizing    
when it works in the utmost harmony with
 the other functions4 ,its special      
relationship is to that brain-action    
which we call thinking2 and entire      
harmony between the two is only present 
when the form1 structure and sounds of  
speech correspond accurately to the     
logical procedure of thought4 ,this he  
considered an undeniable fact4  ,the    
measure of the excellence of a language1
 therefore1 is the clearness1           
definiteness and energy of the ideas    
which it awakes in the nation4 ,does it 
inspire and incite their mind8 ,has it  
positive and clear tones1 and do these  
define sharply the ideas they represent1
 without needless accessories8 ,does its
 structure present the leading elements 
of the proposition in their simplicity1 
and permit the secondary elements to be 

grouped around them in subordinate      
positions1 with a correct sense of      
linguistic perspective8 ,the answers to 
these queries decide its position in the
 hierarchy of tongues4#ah-99  ,as its   
capacity for expression is no criterion 
of a language1 still less is the        
abundance or regularity of its forms4   
,for this very multiplicity1 this       
excessive superfluity1 is a burden and a
 drawback1 and obscures the integration 
of the thought by attaching to it a     
quantity of needless qualifications4    
,thus1 in the language of the ,abipones1
 the pronoun is different as the person 
spoken of is conceived as present1      
absent1 sitting1 walking1 lying1 or     
running1 all quite unnecessary          
specifications4#ai-99  ,in some         
languages much appears as form which1 on
 close scrutiny1 is nothing of the kind4
  ,this misunderstanding has reigned    
almost universally in the treatment of  
,american tongues4 ,the grammars which  
have been written upon them proceed     

generally on the principles of ,latin1  
and apply a series of grammatical names 
to the forms explained1 entirely        
inappropriate to them and misleading4   
,our first duty in taking up such a     
grammar as1 for instance1 that of an    
,american language1 is to dismiss the   
whole of the arrangement of the parts of
 speech1 and1 by an analysis of words   
and phrases1 to ascertain by what       
arrangement of elements they express    
logical1 significant relations4#ai-     
,for example1 in the ,carib tongue1 the 
grammars give aveiridaco as the second  
person singular1 subjunctive imperfect1 
if thou wert4 ,analyze this1 and we     
discover that a is the possessive       
pronoun thy2 veiri is to be or being 7in
 a place72 and daco is a particle of    
definite time4 ,hence1 the literal      
rendering is on the day of thy being4   
,the so-called imperfect subjunctive    
turns out to be a verbal noun with a    
preposition4 ,in many ,american         
languages the hypothetical supposition  

expressed in the ,latin subjunctive is  
indicated by the same circumlocution4   
,again1 the infinitive1 in its classical
 sense1 is unknown in most1 probably in 
all1 ,american languages4 ,in the ,tupi 
of ,brazil and frequently elsewhere it  
is simply a noun2 caru is both to eat   
and food2 che caru ai-pota1 ,i wish to  
eat1 literally my food ,i wish4  ,in the
 ,mexican1 the infinitive is            
incorporated in the verb as an          
accusative1 and the verb is put in the  
future of the person spoken of4  ,many  
writers continue to maintain that a     
criterion of rank of a language is its  
lexicographical richness--the number of 
words it possesses4 ,even very recently1
 ,prof4 ,max ,mller has applied such a  
test to ,american languages1 and1       
finding that one of the ,fuegian        
dialects is reported to have nearly     
thirty thousand words1 he maintains that
 this is a proof that these savages are 
a degenerate remnant of some much more  
highly developed ancestry4 ,founding his

 opinion largely on similar facts1      
,alexander von ,humboldt applied the    
expression to the ,american nations that
 they are des dbris chapps  un naufrage 
commun4  ,such1 however1 was not the    
opinion of his brother ,wilhelm4 ,he    
sounded the depths of linguistic        
philosophy far more deeply than to      
accept mere abundance of words as proof 
of richness in a language4 ,many savage 
languages have twenty words signifying  
to eat particular things1 but no word   
meaning to eat in general2 the ,eskimo  
language has different words for fishing
 for each kind of fish1 but no word to  
fish1 in a general sense4 ,such apparent
 richness is1 in fact1 actual poverty4  
,humboldt taught that the quality1 not  
merely the quantity1 of words was the   
decisive measure of verbal wealth4 ,such
 quality depends on the relations of    
concrete words1 on the one hand1 to the 
primitive objective perceptions at their
 root1 and1 on the other1 to the        
abstract general ideas of which they are

 particular representatives2 and besides
 this1 on the relations which the spoken
 word1 the articulate sound1 bears to   
the philosophic laws of the formation of
 language in general4#bj-99  ,in his    
letter to ,abel-,remusat he discusses   
the theory that the ,american languages 
point to a once higher condition of     
civilization1 and are the corrupted     
idioms of deteriorated races4 ,he denies
 that there is linguistic evidence of   
any such theory4 ,these languages1 he   
says1 possess a remarkable regularity of
 structure1 and very few anomalies4     
,their grammar does not present any     
visible traces of corrupting            
intermixtures4#ba-99  ,in a later work  
he returns to the subject when speaking 
of the ,lenape 7,algonkin ,delaware7    
dialect1 and asks whether the rich      
imaginative power1 of which it bears the
 evident impress1 does not point to some
 youthful1 supple and vigorous era in   
the life of language in general8#ba-    
,but he leaves the question unanswered4 

#aa4 ,,classification ,,of ,,languages4 
,the lower unit of language is the      
,word2 the higher is the ,sentence4 ,the
 plans on which languages combine words 
into sentences are a basic character of 
their structure1 and divide them into   
classes as distinct and as decisive of  
their future1 as those of vertebrate and
 invertebrate animals in natural        
history4  ,these plans are four in      
number3  #a4 ,by ,isolation4  ,the words
 are placed in juxtaposition1 without   
change4 ,their relations are expressed  
by their location only 7placement74 ,the
 typical example of this is the         
,chinese4  #b4 ,by ,agglutination4  ,the
 sentence is formed by suffixing to the 
word expressive of the main idea a      
number of others1 more or less altered1 
expressing the relations4 ,examples of  
this are the ,eskimo of ,north ,america1
 and the ,northern ,asiatic dialects4   
#c4 ,by ,incorporation4  ,the leading   
word of the sentence is divided and the 
accessory words either included in it or

 attached to it with abbreviated forms1 
so that the whole sentence assumes the  
form and sound of one word4  #d4 ,by    
,inflection4  ,each word of the sentence
 indicates by its own form the character
 and relation to the main proposition of
 the idea it represents4 ,sanscrit1     
,greek and ,latin are familiar examples 
of inflected tongues4  ,it is possible  
to suppose that all four of these forms 
were developed from some primitive      
condition of utterance unknown to us1   
just as naturalists believe that all    
organic species were developed out of a 
homogeneous protoplasmic mass2 but it is
 as hard to see how any one of them in  
its present form could pass over into   
another1 as to understand how a radiate 
could change into a mollusk4    #ab4    
,,nature ,,of ,,incorporation4  ,of the 
four plans mentioned1 ,incorporation is 
that characteristic of1 though not      
confined to1 ,american tongues4  ,it may
 appear in a higher or a lower grade1   
but its intention is everywhere the     

effort to convey in one word the whole  
proposition4 ,the ,verb1 as that part of
 speech which especially conveys the    
synthetic action of the mental          
operation1 is that which is selected as 
the stem of this word-sentence2 all the 
other parts are subordinate accessories1
 devoid of syntactic value4  ,the higher
 grade of incorporation includes both   
subject1 object and verb in one word1   
and if for any reason the object is not 
included1 the scheme of the sentence is 
still maintained in the verb1 and the   
object is placed outside1 as in         
apposition1 without case ending1 and    
under a form different from its original
 and simple one4  ,this will readily be 
understood from the following examples  
from the ,mexican language4  ,the       
sentence ni-naca-qua1 is one word and   
means ,i1 flesh1 eat4 ,if it is desired 
to express the object independently1 the
 expression becomes ni-c-qua-in-nacatl1 
,i it eat1 the flesh4 ,the termination  
tl does not belong to the root of the   

noun1 but is added to show that it is in
 an external1 and1 as it were1 unnatural
 position4 ,both the direct and remote  
object can thus be incorporated1 and if 
they are not1 but separately appended1  
the scheme of the sentence is still     
preserved2 as ni-te-tla-maca1 literally1
 ,i1 something1 to somebody1 give4 ,how 
closely these accessories are           
incorporated is illustrated by the fact 
that the tense augments are not added to
 the stem1 but to the whole word2       
o-ni-c-te-maca-e1 ,i have given it to   
somebody2 when the o is the prefix of   
the perfect4  ,in these languages1 every
 element in the sentence1 which is not  
incorporated in the verb1 has1 in fact1 
no syntax at all4 ,the verbal exhausts  
all the formal portion of the language4 
,the relations of the other words are   
intimated by their position4 ,thus      
ni-tlagotlaz-nequia1 ,i wished to love1 
is literally ,i1 ,i shall love1 ,i      
wished4 ,tlagotlaz1 is the first person 
singular of the future1 ni-nequia1 ,i   

wished1 which is divided1 and the future
 form inserted4 ,the same expression may
 stand thus3 ni-c-nequia-tlagotlaz1     
where the c is an intercalated relative 
pronoun1 and the literal rendering is1  
,i it wished1 ,i shall love4  ,in the   
,lule language the construction with an 
infinitive is simply that the two verbs 
follow each other in the same person1 as
 caic tucuec1 ,i am accustomed to eat1  
literally1 ,i am acustomed1,,tn-#d ,i   
eat4  ,none of these devices            
fullfils,,tn-#e all the uses of the     
infinitive1 and hence they are all      
inferior to it4  ,in languages which    
lack formal elements1 the deficiency    
must be supplied by the mind4 ,words are
 merely placed in juxtaposition1 and    
their relationship guessed at4 ,thus1   
when a language constructs its cases    
merely by prefixing prepositions to the 
unaltered noun1 there is no grammatical 
form2 in the ,mbaya language e-tiboa is 
translated through me1 but it is really 
,i1 through2 l'emani1 is rendered he    

wishes1 but it is strictly he1 wish4    
,in such languages the same collocation 
of words often corresponds to quite     
different meanings1 as the precise      
relation of the thoughts is not defined 
by any formal elements4 ,this is well   
illustrated in the ,tupi tongue4 ,the   
word uba is father2 with the pronoun of 
the third person prefixed it is tuba1   
literally he1 father4 ,this may mean    
either his father1 or he is a father1 or
 he has a father1 just as the sense of  
the rest of the sentence requires4      
,certainly a language which thus leaves 
confounded together ideas so distinct as
 these1 is inferior to one which        
discriminates them2 and this is why the 
formal elements of a tongue are so      
important to intellectual growth4 ,the  
,tupis may be an energetic and skillful 
people1 but with their language they can
 never take a position as masters in the
 realm of ideas4  ,the absence of the   
passive in most1 if not all1 ,american  
tongues is supplied by similar          

inadequate collocations of words4 ,in   
,huasteca1 for example1 nana tanin      
tahjal1 is translated ,i am treated by  
him2 actually it is1 ,i1 me1 treats he4 
,this is not a passive1 but simply the  
idea of the ,ego connected with the idea
 of another acting upon it4  ,this is   
vastly below the level of inflected     
speech2 for it cannot be too strenuously
 maintained that the grammatical        
relations of spoken language are the    
more perfect and favorable to           
intellectual growth1 the more closely   
they correspond to the logical relations
 of thought4  ,sometimes what appears as
 inflection turns out on examination to 
be merely adjunction4 ,thus in the      
,mbaya tongue there are such verbal     
forms as daladi1 thou wilt throw1       
nilabuite1 he has spun1 when the d is   
the sign of the future1 and the n of the
 perfect4 ,these look like inflections2 
but in fact d1 is simply a relic of     
quide1 hereafter1 later1 and n stands in
 the same relation to quine1 which means

 and also4  ,to become true formal      
elements1 all such adjuncts must have   
completely lost their independent       
signification2 because if they retain   
it1 their material content requires     
qualification and relation just as any  
other stem word4  ,a few ,american      
languages may have reached this stage4  
,in the ,mexican there are the terminals
 ya or a in the imperfect1 the augment o
 in the preterit1 and others in the     
future4 ,in the ,tamanaca the present   
ends in a1 the preterit in e1 the future
 in c4 ,there is nothing in either of   
these tongues to show that these tense  
signs have independent meaning1 and     
therefore there is no reason why they   
should not be classed with those of the 
,greek and ,sanscrit as true            
inflectional elements4#bd-99    #ac4    
,,psychological ,,origin ,,of           
,,incorporation4  ,this ,incorporative  
plan1 which may be considered as        
distinctive of the ,american stock of   
languages1 is explained in its          

psychological origin by ,humboldt1 as   
the result of an exaltation of the      
imaginative over the intellectual       
elements of mind4 ,by this method1 the  
linguistic faculty strives to present to
 the understanding the whole thought in 
the most compact form possible1 thus to 
facilitate its comprehension2 and this  
it does1 because a thought presented in 
one word is more vivid and stimulating  
to the imagination1 more individual and 
picturesque1 than when narrated in a    
number of words4#be-99  ,but the mistake
 must not be made of supposing that     
,incorporation is a creative act of the 
language-sense1 or that its products1   
the compounds that it builds1 are real  
words4 ,humboldt was careful to impress 
this distinction1 and calls such        
incorporated compounds examples of      
collocation 7,zusammensetzung71 not of  
synthesis 7,zusammenfassung74 ,on this  
ground1 he doubted1 and with justice1   
the assertion of ,duponceau1 that the   
long words of the ,lenape 7,delaware7   

dialect are formed by an arbitrary      
selection of the phonetic parts of a    
number of words1 without reference to   
the radical syllables4#be- ,he insisted1
 as is really the case1 that in all     
instances the significant syllable or   
syllables are retained4    #ad4 ,,effect
 ,,of ,,incorporation ,,on ,,compound   
,,sentences4  ,as has been seen1 the    
theory of ,incorporation is to express  
the whole proposition1 as nearly as     
possible1 in one word2 and what part of 
it cannot be thus expressed1 is left    
without any syntax whatever4 ,not only  
does this apply to individual words in a
 sentence1 but it extends to the various
 clauses of a compound sentence1 such as
 in ,aryan languages show their relation
 to the leading clauses by means of     
prepositions1 conjunctions and relative 
pronouns4  ,when the methods are        
analyzed by which the major and minor   
clauses are assigned their respective   
values in these tongues1 it is very     
plain what difficulties of expression   

the system of ,incorporation involves4  
,few of them have any true connecting   
word of either of the three classes     
above mentioned4 ,they depend on        
scarcely veiled material words1 simply  
placed in juxtaposition4  ,it is        
probable that the prepositions and      
conjunctions of all languages were at   
first significant words1 and the degree 
to which they have lost their primary   
significations and have become purely   
formal elements expressing relation1 is 
one of the measures of the grammatical  
evolution of a tongue4 ,in most         
,american idioms their origin from      
substantives is readily recognizable4   
,frequently these substantives refer to 
parts of the body1 and this1 in passing1
 suggests the antiquity of this class of
 words and their value in comparison4   
,in ,maya tan means in1 toward1 among2  
but it is also the breast or front of   
the body4 ,the ,mexican has three       
classes of prepositions--the first1     
whose origin from a substantive cannot  

be detected2 the second1 where an       
unknown and a known element are         
combined2 the third1 where the          
substantive is perfectly clear4 ,an     
example of the last mentioned is itic1  
in1 compounded of ite1 belly1 and the   
locative particle c2 the phrase         
ilhuicatl itic1 in heaven1 is literally 
in the belly of heaven4 ,precisely the  
same is the ,cakchiquel pamcah1         
literally1 belly1 heavenin heaven4 ,in  
,mexican1 notepotzco is behind me1      
literally1 my back1 at2 this corresponds
 again to the ,cakchiquel chuih1 behind 
me1 from chi1 at1 u1 my1 vih1           
shoulder-blades4 ,the ,mixteca          
prepositions present the crude nature of
 their origin without disguise1 chisi   
huahi1 belly1 house--that is1 in front  
of the house2 sata huahi1 back1         
house--behind the house4  ,the          
conjunctions are equally transparent4   
,and in ,maya is yetel1 in ,mexican     
ihuan4 ,one would suppose that such an  
indispensable connective would long     

since have been worn down to an         
insoluble entity4 ,on the contrary1 both
 these words retain their perfect       
material meaning4 ,yetel is a compound  
of y1 his1 et1 companion1 and el1 the   
definite termination of nouns4 ,ihuan is
 the possessive1 i1 and huan1 associate1
 companion1 used also as a termination  
to form a certain class of plurals4     
,the deficiency in true conjunctions and
 relative pronouns is met in many       
,american languages by a reversal of the
 plan of expression with us4 ,the       
relative clause becomes the principal   
one4 ,there is a certain logical justice
 in this2 for1 if we reflect1 it will   
appear evident that the major           
proposition is1 in our construction1    
presented as one of the conditions of   
the minor4 ,i shall drown1 if ,i fall in
 the water1 means that1 of the various  
results of my falling in the water1 one 
of them will be that ,i shall drown4 ,i 
followed the road which you described1  
means that you described a road1 and one

 of the results of this act of yours was
 that ,i followed it4  ,this explains   
the plan of constructing compound       
sentences in ,qquichua4 ,instead of     
saying ,i shall follow the road which   
you describe1 the construction is ,you  
describe1 this road ,i shall follow2 and
 instead of ,i shall drown if ,i fall in
 the water1 it would be1 ,i fall in the 
water1 ,i shall drown4  ,the ,mexican   
language introduces the relative clause 
by the word in1 which is an article and 
demonstrative pronoun1 or1 if the       
proposition is a conditional one1 by    
intla1 which really signifies within    
this1 and conveys the sense that the    
major is included within the conditions 
of the minor clause4 ,the ,cakchiquel   
conditional particle is vue1 if1 which  
appears to be simply the particle of    
affirmation yes1 employed to give       
extension to the minor clause1 which1 as
 a rule1 is placed first4  ,or a        
conventional arrangement of words may be
 adopted which will convey the idea of  

certain dependent clauses1 as those     
expressing similitude1 as is often the  
case in ,mexican4    #ae4 ,,the ,,dual  
,,in ,,american ,,languages4  ,in his   
admirable philosophical examination of  
the dual number in language1 ,humboldt  
laid the foundation of a linguistic     
theory of numerals which has not yet    
received the development it merits4     
,here he brings into view the dual and  
plural endings of a list of ,american   
languages1 and explains the motives on  
which they base the inclusive and       
exclusive plurals so common among them4 
,it is1 in fact1 a species of pronominal
 dual confined to the first person in   
the plural4  ,this1 he goes on to say1  
is by no means the only dual in these   
tongues4 ,some of them express both the 
other classes of duals which he names4  
,thus1 the ,totonaca has duals for all  
objects which appear as pairs in nature1
 as the eyes1 the ears1 the hands1 etc42
 while the ,araucanian equals the       
,sanscrit in extending the grammatical  

expression of the dual through all parts
 of speech where it can find proper     
application4#bg-99    #af4 ,,humboldt',s
 ,,essay ,,on ,,the ,,american ,,verb4  
,the essay on the ,american verb        
translated in the following pages has   
never previously appeared in print1     
either in ,german or ,english4 ,the     
original ,,ms4 is in the ,royal ,library
 at ,berlin1 whence ,i obtained a       
transcript4 ,the author alludes to this 
essay in several passages of his printed
 works1 most fully in his ,letter to ,m4
 ,abel-,remusat 7#ahbf71 in which he    
says3  ,a few years ago1 ,i read before 
the ,berlin ,academy a memoir1 which has
 not been printed1 in which ,i compared 
a number of ,american languages with    
each other1 solely with regard to the   
manner in which they express the verb as
 uniting the subject with the attribute 
in the proposition1 and from this point 
of view ,i assigned them to various     
classes4 ,as this trait proves to what  
degree a language possesses grammatical 

forms1 or is near to possessing them1 it
 is decisive of the whole grammar of a  
tongue4  ,on reading the memoir1 ,i was 
so much impressed with the acuteness and
 justness of its analysis of ,american  
verbal forms that ,i prepared the       
translation which ,i now submit4  ,in   
the more recent studies of the ,american
 verb which have appeared from the pens 
of ,friedrich ,mller1 ,j4 ,hammond      
,trumbull and ,lucien ,adam1 we have the
 same central element of speech         
subjected to critical investigation at  
able hands4 ,but it seems to me that    
none of them has approached the topic   
with the broad1 philosophic conceptions 
which impress the reader in this essay  
of ,humboldt's4 ,although sixty years   
and more have elapsed since it was      
written1 ,i am confident that it will   
provide ample food for thought to the   
earnest student of language4     ,on the
 ,verb in ,american ,languages4 ,by     
,wilhelm von ,humboldt,,tn-#f           
,translated from the unpublished        

original4 ,by ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton1 ,m4,d4  
,you recently had the goodness to give  
an appreciative hearing to my essay on  
,the ,origin of ,grammatical ,forms4  ,i
 desire to-day to apply the principles  
which ,i then stated in general to a    
particular grammatical point through a  
series of languages4 ,i choose those of 
,america as best suited to such a       
purpose1 and select the ,verb as the    
most important part of speech1 and the  
central point of every language4        
,without entering into an analysis of   
the different parts of the verb1 ,i     
shall confine myself to that which      
constitutes its peculiar verbal         
character--the union of the subject and 
predicate of the sentence by means of   
the notion of ,being4 ,this alone forms 
the essence of the verb2 all other      
relations1 as of persons1 tenses1 modes 
and classes1 are merely secondary       
properties4  ,the question to be        
answered is therefore3--  ,through what 
form of grammatical notation do the     

languages under consideration indicate  
that subject and predicate are to be    
united by means of the notion of ,being8
  ,i believe ,i have shown with         
sufficient clearness that a language may
 have a great diversity of apparent     
forms1 and may express all grammatical  
relations with definiteness1 and yet    
when taken as a whole it may lack true  
grammatical form4 ,from this arises an  
essential and real graduated difference 
between languages4 ,this difference1    
however1 has nothing to do with the     
question whether particular languages   
employ exclusively agglutination or     
inflection1 as all began with           
agglutination2 but in the languages of  
the higher class1 it became in its      
effects on the mind1 identical with     
inflection4  ,as languages of the higher
 class1 one has but to name the         
cultivated idioms of ,asia and ,europe1 
,sanscrit1 ,greek and ,latin1 in order  
to apply to them the above statement4   
,it is still more necessary1 however1 to

 understand thoroughly the structure of 
those languages which are on a lower    
plane1 partly because this will convince
 us of the correctness of the           
classification1 partly because these    
tongues are less generally known4  ,it  
is enough to take up some single leading
 grammatical relation4 ,i select for    
this purpose the verb as the most       
important part of speech1 with which    
most of the others come into relation1  
and which completes the formation of the
 sentence1 the grammatical purpose of   
all language--and often embraces it     
wholly in itself4 ,but ,i shall confine 
myself solely to that which makes the   
verb a verb1 the characteristic notation
 of its peculiar verbal nature4 ,in     
every language this point is the most   
important and the most difficult1 and   
cannot be made too clear to throw light 
upon the whole of the language4         
,linguistic character can be ascertained
 through this point in the shortest and 
most certain manner4  ,the verb is the  

union of the subject and predicate of   
the sentence by means of the notion of  
,being2 yet not of every predicate4 ,the
 attribute which is united to the       
substance by the verb must be an energic
 one1 a participial4 ,the substance is  
represented in the verb as in motion1 as
 connecting the ,being with the energic 
attribute4 ,by means of this            
representation1 and the peculiar nature 
of the attribute1 the verb is           
distinguished from the mere logical     
copula1 with which it is liable to be   
confounded if these ideas are not       
understood4 ,if the verb is explained   
merely as a synthesis of ,being with any
 other attribute1 then the origin of the
 tenses cannot be wholly derived from   
one idea1 for the idea of time alone    
would allow only a three-fold           
distinction4 ,moreover1 in such case the
 true and efficient nature of the verb  
is misunderstood4 ,in the sentence1 ,the
 man is good1 the verb is not a         
synthesis of the adjective good with the

 substantive1 but it is a participial of
 the energic attribute to be good1 which
 contains a condition1 having beginning1
 middle and end1 and consequently       
resembles an action4 ,fully analyzed1   
the sentence would be1 ,he is being     
good4 ,where the substantive verb stands
 without a visible predicate1 as in the 
sentence1 ,i am1 then the verb to be has
 itself as the object of a synthesis1 ,i
 am being4 ,but as rude nations would   
find this difficult to comprehend1 the  
verb to be is either entirely lacking1  
as in many ,american languages1 or else 
it has an original material sense1 and  
is confounded with to stand1 to give1 to
 eat1 etc41 and thus indicates ,being as
 identical with the most familiar       
occupations4  ,the subject1 the         
substance represented as in action1 may 
be one independent of the speakers1 or  
it may be identical with one of them1   
and this identity is expressed by the   
pronouns4 ,from this arises the persons4
 ,the energic attribute may exert its   

action in various manners in the        
substance or between two substances2    
this gives rise to the forms or classes 
of verbs4 ,their action must be confined
 to a given point or period of time4    
,the ,being may be understood as        
definite or indefinite1 etc41 and in    
this is the origin of modes4 ,being is  
inseparably connected with the notation 
of time4 ,this1 united with the fixation
 of the point or period of time of an   
action1 forms the tenses4 ,no verb1     
therefore1 can be conceived as without  
persons and tenses1 modes and classes2  
yet these qualities do not constitute   
its essence1 but arise from the latter1 
which itself is the synthesis brought   
about by the notion of ,being4 ,the     
signs of these qualities must be made to
 appear in the grammatical notation of  
the verb1 but in such a manner that they
 appear dependent on its nature1 making 
one with it4  ,the energic attribute1   
which aids in forming the verb1 may be a
 real movement or action1 as going1     

coming1 living1 working1 etc41 or merely
 a qualitative ,being1 as a being       
beautiful1 good1 mortal1 or immortal4   
,in the former case1 we have a real     
attributive verb1 in the latter a       
substantive verb1 in which an attribute 
is considered as at rest1 hence as an   
adjective4 ,although in both cases the  
nature of the verb is the same1 yet in  
many languages this difference leads to 
a corresponding variety in grammatical  
notation4  ,in accordance with these    
ideas culled from universal grammar1 the
 forms of the conjugations in the       
various languages will now be           
considered4  ,i have taken as a basis   
for this investigation as many ,american
 languages as ,i thought sufficient for 
the purpose1 and as would not make the  
survey oppressive by their number2 but  
as ,i do not name all of them1 and pay  
still less attention to pointing out in 
what other groups of languages the      
peculiarities named occur1 it must be   
understood that what is here said is not

 intended as a characterization of      
,american languages4 ,this is reserved  
for another study4  ,in order to judge  
how closely these languages approach    
grammatical perfection in this point1 we
 must take as our criterion that        
condition of speech where there is a    
class of words1 which possess verbal    
power1 and are at the same time         
separated by a definite form from all   
other parts of speech4 ,with reference  
to this condition as the highest1 we    
must arrange in various grades all other
 structural forms or paraphrases of the 
verb4  ,the notion of ,being1 which     
constitutes the basis and the essence of
 the verb1 can be indicated either1  #a4
 ,as expressed independently4  #b4 ,as  
incorporated in the verbal form as an   
auxiliary verb4  #c4 ,as included in the
 verbal form merely as an idea4  ,the   
differences of the languages under      
comparison can be appreciated most      
correctly by means of these three       
headings2 but it must not be forgotten  

that any language may use the first and 
one of the last two methods1 and that in
 languages which have a substantive verb
 conjugated with and without auxiliary  
verbs1 all three may be employed4   ,i4 
,,when ,,the ,,notion ,,of ,,being ,,is 
,,expressed ,,independently4  ,i must   
except from this class all instances    
where the substantive verb is formed    
from a radical1 inasmuch as this root1  
like any other1 must assume the verbal  
form1 and thus come under one of the two
 other divisions4 ,in such case it      
expresses the notion of ,being1 either  
by an auxiliary1 as in the ,german ,ich 
bin gewesen1 or simply in the form1 as1 
,i am4 ,when it is remembered that the  
substantive verbs of all languages are  
derived from concrete conceptions and   
impart to these merely the general      
notion of ,being1 the above becomes     
still more obvious4  ,now if there is no
 root-form for the substantive verb1 and
 yet it is expressed independently1 and 
not by another verbal form1 this can    

only be done either by the position of  
the governing and governed words1 or by 
linguistic elements which are not       
properly verbs1 but only become so by   
this use4 ,in the former case the       
substantive verb is merely understood1  
in the latter it appears in a definite  
word1 but without a fixed radical4  #a4 
,when the notion of ,being is           
understood4  ,one of the most common    
forms of sentences in ,american         
languages is to bring together an       
adjective and a substantive1 the        
substantive verb being omitted4         
,mexican3 in ,pedro qualli1 the ,peter  
7is7 good4  ,totonaca3 aquit chixco1 ,i 
7am7 a man4  ,huasteca3 naxe uxum ibaua 
tzichniel1 this woman 7is7 not thy      
servant4  ,in the ,mixteca language such
 expressions have a peculiar            
arrangement4 ,the adjective must precede
 the substantive1 or rather the         
predicate must precede the subject1 as  
in the reverse case the words are       
understood separately1 and are not      

connected into a sentence3 quadza aha1  
the woman is bad2 aha quadza1 the bad   
woman4  ,in the language of the ,mbayas1
 a sentence can be made with any verb by
 dropping the verbal affixes1 by        
transposing a letter characterizing the 
nouns as such1 appending an adjective   
suffix1 and uniting this with an        
independent pronoun4 ,the grammars of   
this language call this form a passive1 
but it is just as much a neuter1 and is 
not a verb but a phrase4 ,from          
iigaichini1 to teach1 we have           
n-iigaichin-igi1 taught1 and as first   
person e n-iigaichin-igi1 ,i am taught4 
,the initial n which accompanies all    
nouns in this language1 is merely the   
possessive pronoun of the third person1 
added according to the usage of many of 
these tongues to leave no noun without a
 possessive2 the termination igi is a   
particle which indicates the place where
 anything remains4 ,literally1          
therefore1 eniigaichinigi means1 ,i 7am7
 the stopping-place of his teaching1 i4 

e41 one who is taught4 ,all affixes of  
mode and tense1 however1 may be united  
to this phrase1 so that thus it         
approaches a verb4  ,regarded apart from
 the changes through tenses and modes1  
the union of the subject and predicate  
with the substantive verb omitted1 is   
admirably adapted to express the        
conjunction of two words in one idea1   
and as the languages which make use of  
it also possess the ordinary forms of   
conjugation1 they thus possess a special
 expression for both the forms of verbs 
above referred to4 ,we shall note this  
particularly in the ,beto language4     
,when the subject is not an independent 
part of speech1 but an affixed pronoun1 
the analogy of this method of notation  
to a verbal form increases4 ,for this is
 present even when no characteristic of 
a tense is added1 simply by the union of
 an attribute and a pronoun4 ,it should 
be remarked once for all1 however1 that 
too much weight must not be attached to 
whether these elements form one word or 

not1 as this is not an infallible       
criterion4  ,the verb cannot be         
considered to be present as a separate  
part of speech1 when a verb can thus be 
made out of any word1 not merely those  
stamped as verbs1 but also out of those 
which bear the express characteristics  
of nouns2 and therefore ,i include all  
these cases in the class under          
consideration4 ,for in all these        
languages there is in fact no verb1 but 
only separate elements of speech with   
the verb omitted4 ,such cases are1      
however1 interesting1 as showing the    
gradual approach to the verb1 and the   
effort of the instinct of language to   
arrive at grammatical form4    ,the     
independent personal pronoun rarely     
makes an element of verbal   form1 as in
 speaking it is generally worn down to  
an affix4 ,when it is   used to form a  
verbal expression1 the difference of the
 elements is                            
#a          #c   #c               #a    
apparent4 ,thus1 in the ,carib1 anaiaca 

puin au--,i 7am7 not a divider4   ,in   
that tongue1 however1 this placement is 
not applicable to every noun1   but only
 after certain definite verbal forms1   
especially in negative   expressions4   
,the ,lule language confines this       
notation to participials1 and expresses 
by it the condition of the action and   
also its time2 ,,tn-#gmil quis          
#a        #b    #c   amaiciton1 you     
7are7 me loving4  ,the affixed pronouns 
are either special1 confined to these   
expressions1 or if elsewhere in the     
tongue1 are not employed with verbs1 or 
not in this manner2 or they are the     
pronominal affixes of the verb itself4  
,the ,maya or ,yucatecan language has a 
special pronoun which added to any noun 
forms a sentence with it1 and possesses 
the power to add the idea of the verb2  
,pedro en1 ,i am ,pedro4 ,but when it   
stands alone1 without a predicate1 it   
loses this power1 as en alone does not  
mean1 ,i am4  ,in the ,beto language    
there is1 indeed1 no special pronoun of 

this kind1 as the one used is also a    
possessive4 ,its position1 however1     
makes the difference4 ,when it is       
prefixed1 it is the possessive1 but when
 suffixed it carries with it the power  
of the verb3 humani rru1 man ,i 7am72   
fofei rru1 bad ,i 7am74 ,in a similar   
manner this tongue forms a substantive  
verb1 ajoi rru4 ,the meaning of the root
 is not given1 but it seems to mean     
something present1 at hand4 ,it is      
suggestive that in these phrases the    
accent is always on the pronoun1 as if  
to signify that that is the important   
element4  ,it is very common in         
,american languages to find the noun and
 the verb using the same pronouns1 with 
the former to indicate possession1 with 
the latter the subject4 ,this might be  
explained by supposing that the action  
is regarded as the possession of the    
agent4 ,but it is simpler to suppose    
that in each case the connection of the 
person with the noun and the verb is in 
the thoughts1 and this relation is      

recognized in expression4  ,in this way 
the ,mbaya language has a sort of       
descriptive conjugation2 connecting the 
participles with possessive pronouns2   
i-iligodi1 ,i 7am7 explaining2 but no   
doubt less definitely1 my explaining1 ,i
 to explain4  ,the language of the      
,abipones slightly alters the possessive
 pronouns in some persons and uses them 
in a similar manner3 ri-aal1 ,i am lazy2
 yo-amkata1 he is good4  ,when the      
verbal pronoun is used in such          
expressions1 it is entirely identical   
with the verb4  ,this is the case with  
the ,mexican1 where the verbal pronoun  
united to the participle forms a        
sentence3 ni-tlaotlani1 ,i 7am7 a lover4
 ,this expression differs from the      
present indicative only in the form of  
the root-word1 ni-tlaotla2 but it cannot
 form another tense or mode4 ,the       
grammarians call such an expression a   
tense indicating habit4 ,this1 however1 
would not be a tense but a mode1 and1 in
 fact1 the term rests on a              

misunderstanding4 ,that such expressions
 indicate habit is shown by the fact    
that they do not apply1 like the present
 of the verb1 to the temporary action1  
but convey that it is a custom1 or a    
business2 not that ,i am loving just    
now1 but that ,i am habitually a lover4 
,an entirely similar instance occurs in 
the ,north ,guaranay language1 which    
also permits1 besides the regular       
conjugation1 a union of the root of the 
verb with a pronoun1 the verb being     
omitted4 ,the grammarians of that tongue
 say that this adds extension and       
emphasis to the sense of the verb4 ,the 
real difference1 however1 is that this  
procedure treats the verb as a noun1 and
 the extension comes from considering   
the action expressed by the verb to have
 become a permanent quality2 a poro     
iuca1 ,i kill men 7ordinary             
conjugation72 xe poro iuca1 ,i 7am7 a   
man-killer 7form with the possessive    
pronoun72 ,i kill men as my business4   
,in both these languages1 therefore1    

what have been represented as peculiar  
and separated forms1 tenses indicating  
habit1 or forms of extension1 are simply
 erroneous explanations of quite simple 
constructions4 ,in ,mexican the         
correctness of this explanation is      
confirmed by the forms of the vocative1 
which are identical with this supposed  
tense1 in ti tlatlacoani1 ,o thou       
sinner2 literally1 thou who 7art7 a     
sinner4  ,in the above examples the     
verbal power lies in the pronouns4 ,but 
the ,mbaya language constructs verbal   
sentences by adding the sign of the     
future to any adjective without a       
pronoun4 ,this sign is de1 or before a  
vowel d3 de liidi1 it will be pleasant  
to the taste2 d otiya1 he will be fat4  
,i do not find other examples1 and am   
uncertain whether other tenses and modes
 are thus formed4 ,in that case the     
pronouns would have to be added1 and the
 expression would lose its peculiarity1 
which is that the tense sign alone      
carries with it the notion of ,being4   

,the ,othomi language makes use in such 
expressions not only of the pronouns but
 of all the affixes of the verb1 and    
conjugates a noun together with its     
article1 treating it as a verbal        
radical3 qui-no-munti-maha1 ,thou wert  
the enriched4 ,here no-munti is the     
enriched1 and all the remaining         
syllables are verbal inflections4       
,sandoval1 who wrote a grammar of the   
language1 explains no as an auxiliary   
verb2 but with the noun he calls it an  
article1 as it is1 and he evidently     
misunderstood the expression4 ,it is    
wholly a verbal1 but as this procedure  
can be applied to any noun whatever1    
such an expression is far removed from a
 real1 well-defined verbal form4  ,the  
same language has another peculiar form 
with the possessive1 which can only be  
explained by supplying an omitted verb4 
,na nuhti means my property2 but if to  
this is added the abbreviated pronoun   
used as a verbal affix1 na-nuhti-ga1 the
 words mean1 this property belongs to   

me1 or1 my property is it1 mine4  ,in   
the grammatically obscure consciousness 
of these people1 the ideas of verbal and
 merely pronominal expression are       
confounded1 as also in the ,brazilian   
language1 where my father and ,i have a 
father are expressed by the same word4  
,the advantages which these languages   
derive from the formation of sentences  
with the verb omitted are two4  ,they   
can change any noun into a verb1 or at  
least they can treat it as such4 ,it is 
true that this can also be done by a    
substantive verb when one is found1 but 
as the languages in question unite the  
noun to the verbal flexions1 their      
freedom is much greater4  ,the second   
advantage is1 that when it is desirable 
to discriminate clearly between the two 
kinds of verbs1 the one which has at    
base an energic attribute1 the other    
which merely expresses the relation of  
predicate to subject1 a thing to its    
qualities1 this end can be much better  
reached by the process described than   

even by the substantive verb1 which1 by 
its full verbal form1 always recalls the
 action of an energic attribute4  ,many 
of the languages named include in these 
expressions particles of time1 thereby  
obscuring the distinction referred to4  
,but in others this is not the case4    
,thus in the ,maya and ,beto there are  
two conjugations1 one with the pronoun  
without time particles1 and one with    
them2 and as in both these tongues the  
present of the true conjugation has a   
characteristic tense sign1 a separate   
aorist of the present is formed by the  
other conjugation1 which our cultivated 
tongues cannot express so conveniently4 
#b4 ,when the notion of ,being is       
expressed by a special word1 but without
 a phonetic radical4  ,although the     
assumption here expressed sounds at     
first rather enigmatical1 yet one can   
soon see that if the notion of ,being is
 to be conveyed without a phonetic      
radical1 it can only be done through the
 sign of the person1 that is1 in the    

pronoun1 with or without a tense sign4  
,this is actually the case in two       
languages1 the ,maya and the ,yaruri4   
,we have already seen that in the ,maya 
there is a special pronoun which unites 
a predicate to the idea of person into  
one sentence4 ,there is also another    
which by itself conveys the idea of the 
verb1 and of which each person has the  
signification both of the pronoun and   
the substantive verb1 ,i and ,i am1 thou
 and thou art1 etc4 ,not only is it so  
used in the present1 but it can take the
 signs of the tenses4 ,it is            
distinguished from the pronouns         
previously referred to in the first and 
second persons of both numbers only by a
 prefixed t1 as follows3                
,pronouns which1 with a predicate1      
,pronouns which1 by themselves1         
convey a verbal idea4                   
possess verbal power4    ,singular4     
#a4          en                         
ten         #b4          ech            
tech         #c4          lai lo        

lai    ,plural4         #a4          on 
toon         #b4          ex            
teex         #c4          ob            
loob  ,this similarity leads to the     
thought that a true phonetic radical may
 exist in this t1 and may induce us to  
consider this word not as a pronoun but 
as a substantive verb4 ,but this makes  
no difference4 ,the fact remains that   
the word is used both as a simple       
pronoun and also as a substantive verb4 
,in the translation of the ,lord's      
,prayer1 the word toon is a simple      
pronoun4 ,if t is a radical1 it may just
 as well come from the pronoun4 ,some   
languages offer clear examples of this4 
,in the ,maipure the expression for the 
third person singular recurs with all   
the other persons1 as if this sound     
meant the person1 the man generally1 and
 the first and second persons were      
denoted as the ,i-person1 thou-person1  
etc4 ,in the ,achagua language the same 
radical occurs in all the pronouns1 but 
does not1 as in the ,maipure1 stand     

alone for the third person singular1 but
 in it1 as in the other persons1 appears
 as an affix4  ,at any rate1 this       
pronoun answers1 in the ,maya1 all the  
purposes of the substantive verb1 and   
there is no other in the language4  ,it 
is quite intelligible that in the       
conceptions of rude nations the idea of 
an object1 and especially of a person1  
cannot be separated from the idea of his
 existence4 ,this may be applied to the 
forms of expression above mentioned4    
,what seems a violent and ungrammatical 
omission of the verb1 is probably in    
those people an obscure association of  
thoughts1 a non-separation of the object
 from its being4 ,probably it is from   
the same source that in some ,american  
languages every adjective is so         
considered that it includes not the idea
 alone1 but the expression1 it is thus1 
and thus constituted4  ,in the ,yaruri  
language the absence of a phonetic      
radical meaning to be is yet more       
apparent4 ,each person of the pronoun is

 a different word1 and they have no     
single letter in common4 ,the pronoun   
which has verbal power is almost        
identical with the independent personal 
pronoun4 ,the tense signs are prefixed  
to it4 ,thus1 que1 ,i am2 ri que1 ,i    
was1 c4 ,this ri1 however1 is merely a  
particle which expresses that something 
is remote1 and corresponds with our     
from4 ,ui-ri-di1 there was water there1 
literally water far is 7from us is74    
,the subjunctive of this substantive    
verb is given as ri1 if ,i were4 ,this  
means1 however1 in1 and is a particle4  
,the notion of ,being is added1 as in   
the pronoun2 and the ideas1 in the      
being1 and if ,i were1 pass into each   
other4  ,strictly speaking1 both the    
verbal notations here expressed are     
identical with those already mentioned4 
,here also the verb is supplied by the  
mind4 ,the difference is that in the    
latter case the pronouns alone signify  
being1 and contain this notion in       
themselves1 whereas in the other cases  

this notion arises from the conjunction 
of subject and predicate4 ,then also in 
the ,maya language there is a special   
pronoun for this sole purpose4 ,as far  
as the forms go1 they entirely resemble 
those of a true verb1 and if que and ten
 are regarded as mere verbs substantive1
 one who did not examine their elements 
would take them to be true verbs like   
the ,sanscrit bhu1 the ,greek eimi1 and 
the ,latin sum4 ,the example of these   
languages thus teaches that in the      
analysis of the substantive verbs of    
other tongues it is not necessary that a
 common phonetic radical need be        
employed4  ,in the ,huasteca language   
the substantive verb is replaced by     
affixing a tense sign to the independent
 pronouns2 naua itz1 ,i was1 tata itz1  
thou wert1 etc4 ,but the case is not the
 same4 ,the pronoun receives the verbal 
power by the suffix itz1 and this       
appears only in later times to have     
become a sign of the preterit1 and in an
 earlier period to have had a general   

sense4 ,the mountaineers who seem to    
have retained the older forms of the    
tongue use the itz1 not only in the     
preterit1 but in the present and future4
 ,it was doubtless the expression of    
some general verbal idea1 as1 to be1 to 
do1 etc4   ,,ii4  ,,the ,,notion ,,of   
,,being ,,is ,,incorporated ,,with ,,the
 ,,verb ,,as ,,an ,,auxiliary4          
,auxiliary verbs are used only for      
certain tenses1 or form the entire      
conjugation4 ,the former arises from    
accidental causes having relation only  
to these tenses1 not to the verb in     
general4 ,the latter readily arises when
 a substantive verb offers an easy means
 of conjugation by uniting with another 
verb4 ,sometimes the conjugation by     
means of an auxiliary shows that the    
linguistic sense of a notion sought     
something beyond the person and tense   
signs to express the verbal power       
itself1 and therefore had recourse to a 
general verb4 ,this can1 indeed1 only be
 constituted of those elements and a    

radical2 but the want in the language is
 thus supplied1 once for all1 and does  
not return with every verb4  ,an        
excellent example of this is furnished  
by the ,maya conjugation4 ,in an        
analysis of it we find an element that  
neither belongs to the root1 nor is a   
person1 tense or mode sign1 and when    
their varieties and changes are         
compared1 there is evident throughout a 
marked anxiety to express the peculiar  
verbal power in the form of the verb4   
,the conjugation in the ,maya language  
is formed by affixing the pronouns and  
mode and tense signs to the stem4 ,the  
pronoun is1 according to a distinction  
to be noted hereafter1 either the       
possessive pronoun or that one which1   
without verbal power in itself1 yet     
receives it when a predicate is attached
 to it to form a sentence4  ,besides    
this1 the suffix cah accompanies all    
verbs in the present and imperfect2 and 
the suffix ah accompanies all transitive
 verbs through the remaining tenses1    

except the future4 ,present1 #ast       
person1 sing41 canan-in-cah1 ,i guard2  
imperf4 #ast pers4 sing41 canan-in cah  
cuchi2 perf41 #ast pers4 sing41 in      
canan-t-ah4 ,in is the possessive       
pronoun1 cuchi the sign of the          
imperfect1 t in the perfect is a        
euphonic letter4  ,the idea of          
transitive verbs is here taken somewhat 
narrower than usual4 ,only those are    
included which govern a word outside of 
themselves4 ,all others are considered  
intransitive1 even those which of       
themselves are active1 but either have  
no expressed object 7as1 ,i love1 ,i    
hate1 etc471 or the word which they     
govern is in the verb itself1 as in the 
,greek oikodomeo1 oikoure4 ,as these can
 govern a second accusative1 the object 
incorporated in the verb is included in 
the idea they express4  ,the tenses of  
the intransitive verbs1 except the      
present and imperfect1 while they drop  
ah and the possessive pronoun1 are      
formed with that pronoun which forms    

sentences with a predicate4  ,there are 
cases where not only the present omits  
cah1 but where the stem1 if it ends in  
ah as is often the case1 drops it1 and  
substitutes ic4 ,the signification then 
alters1 and indicates an habitual action
 or quality4 ,as ic is the sign of the  
gerund1 this change appears to be the   
transformation of the verb into a       
verbal1 and to effect this1 it must be  
united to that pronoun which serves as  
the substantive verb2 ten yacunic1 ,i   
love1 properly1 ,i am loving            
7habitually74  ,what cah and ah mean by 
themselves1 we are not informed4 ,where 
cah is attached to the stem of some     
verbs it signifies intensity4 ,ah is as 
a prefix the sign of the male sex1 of   
the inhabitant of a place1 and of names 
derived from active verbs4 ,hence it    
seems to have meant at first person1    
man1 and later to have become a pronoun1
 and finally an affix4 ,it is noteworthy
 that the same difference exists between
 ah and cah1 as between en and ten4 ,the

 c may therefore be a radical sound4 ,in
 the conjugation1 cah is treated wholly 
as a verb4 ,for in this the possessive  
pronoun is always prefixed2 and as in   
the present and imperfect it is placed  
after the stem of the verb and before   
cah1 it is evident from the difference  
between the two forms canan-in-cah and  
in-canan-t-ah1 that in the former cah1  
and in the latter canan1 are regarded as
 the verbs4 ,canan-in-cah is precisely  
as the ,english ,i do guard4  ,cah is   
consequently a true auxiliary verb2 ten1
 when it appears in conjunction with en 
must have the notion of ,being          
understood3 ah appears to be of similar 
nature1 but as it appears only in the   
conjugation of transitive verbs1 it is a
 verbal sign1 and thus receives its     
verbal power4 ,that cah and ah do really
 possess this powever,,tn-#h is evident 
from the fact that they are never used  
whenever either of the pronouns which   
are always associated with the notion of
 ,being is present4  ,except in the     

future of transitive verbs1 there is no 
instance in the conjugation where the   
stem of the verb is not accompanied by  
one of these four syllables1 all of     
which indicate ,being1 and all of which 
have the force of auxiliary verbs4  ,the
 future of transitive verbs not only    
does not take any of these syllables1   
but even rejects ah when it is the      
terminal syllable of the stem4 ,in this 
case no other termination replaces it4  
,on the contrary1 all other verbs       
receive a new suffix in their future1   
varying as they are of one or many      
syllables4 ,the nature of these suffixes
 has not been explained4  ,the definite 
results of this analysis are as follows3
  #a4 ,the ,maya language possesses in  
its conjugation1 besides the inflection 
syllables of the persons and tenses1    
another element1 which1 except in the   
simple future of transitive verbs1      
distinctly carries with it the notion of
 ,being2 in the future of most verbs    
there is such an element1 but of unknown

 origin1 and it only fails in the future
 of one class of verbs4  #b4 ,this      
language displays an effort to express1 
besides the other purposes of the verb1 
particularly its synthetic power1 which 
is all the more apparent as it uses     
different means in different cases1 but 
all designed to accomplish the same     
purpose4  ,the ,yaruri language         
constructs the whole of its conjugation 
in a yet simpler manner by means of an  
auxiliary verb4  ,the union of the      
pronoun and the tense sign which1 as we 
have already seen1 forms the substantive
 verb1 affixed to the stem1 completes   
the inflections of the one and only     
conjugation of attributive verbs1 except
 that the independent pronouns are      
prefixed4 ,neither the stem nor the     
auxiliary words suffer any changes1     
except the insertion of an n in one     
person4 ,the union remains1 however1 a  
loose one1 and when person and tense are
 manifest by the connection1 the        
auxiliary verb is omitted4 ,this happens

 in certain verbs ending in pa4 ,these1 
contrary to the usual rule1 change in   
the perfect this termination to pea1 by 
which the tense is made apparent1 and as
 the person is evident from the prefixed
 personal pronoun1 the auxiliary can be 
dropped without danger of obscurity4    
,the formation of certain tenses by     
means of auxiliaries is also frequent in
 ,american languages4  ,an optative of  
this nature in the ,lule language has   
already been mentioned4  ,in the        
,mixteca tongue the imperfect is thus   
formed from the present1 which carries  
with it the personal sign1 and the      
perfect without its personal sign1 a    
proceeding which1 however rude and      
awkward it may be1 shows a just         
appreciation of the peculiarity of this 
past tense1 which expresses an action as
 going on1 and therefore present in past
 time4 ,the expression of continuous    
action is placed first1 ,i sin1 then    
this is more precisely defined by the   
mark of past time1 this was so2         

,yo-dzatevain-di-ni-cuvui4 ,yo is the   
sign of the present1 ni of the preterit1
 di is the pronoun2 the other two words1
 to sin and to be3 ,i was sinning4  ,the
 sign of the present1 yo1 is probably an
 abbreviation of the verb yodzo1 ,i     
stand upon or over something1 and so    
there is a second auxiliary in the      
sentence4 ,this may often be a means of 
discovering the origin of tense signs1  
as1 especially in ,american tongues1    
tenses are often formed by the union of 
verbs1 as also occurs in ,sanscrit and  
,greek4  ,the ,othomi distinguishes     
certain past tenses1 which1 however1 are
 separated by other characteristics1 by 
a prefixed xa1 which is called the third
 person singular of a substantive verb4 
,as these tenses are precisely those in 
which the action must be completed1 the 
perfect1 pluperfect and future perfect1 
not1 however1 the imperfect and past    
aorist1 such a connection is very       
suitable4 ,of this verb we have only xa1
 and there is another substantive verb  

gui1 which itself takes oca in its      
conjugation4  ,the ,totonaca language   
unites the perfect1 in the person spoken
 of1 with the third person singular of  
the future of the substantive verb1 to  
form a future perfect4 ,this is no      
completed form1 but only an awkward     
sequence of two verbs2                  
yc-paxquilh-na-huan1 literally1 ,i have 
loved1 it will be1,i shall have loved4  
,in similar manner the substantive verb 
is used to form a tense of the          
subjunctive4  ,the sign of both the     
perfects in this tongue is the syllable 
nit1 and niy means to die4 ,it is not   
improbable that this affix is derived   
from this verb4 ,death and destruction  
are suitable ideas to express the past1 
and some languages employ negative      
particles as signs of the preterit4 ,in 
the ,tamanaca this is not exactly the   
case1 but the negative particle puni    
added to a word which signifies an      
animate thing1 intimates that it has    
died2 papa puni1 the deceased father1   

literally1 father not4 ,in the ,omagua  
tongue the same word signifies old1     
dead1 and not present4  ,in the ,maipure
 and ,carib tongues the negative        
particles ma and spa are also the signs 
of the preterit4 ,bopp's suggestion that
 the ,sanscrit augment was originally a 
privative finds support in this analogy4
 ,yet ,i would not speak conclusively on
 this point1 as probably that1 the      
,greek augment e1 and the ,mexican o1   
are only lengthened sounds1 intended to 
represent concretely the length of the  
past time4 ,at any rate one must regard 
the negation as an actual destruction1 a
 been1 and no longer being1 not as      
simply a negation of the present4       
,,iii4  ,,the ,,notion ,,of ,,being ,,is
 ,,present ,,in ,,the ,,verbal ,,form   
,,only ,,in ,,idea4  ,in this case the  
verb consists only of the stem1 and the 
person1 tense1 and mode signs4 ,the     
former are originally pronouns1 the     
latter particles4 ,before they are worn 
down by use to mere affixes1 the three  

following cases may arise3  #a4 ,that   
all three of these elements are equally 
separable and loosely connected4  #b4   
,that one of the two1 the person or the 
tense and mode signs1 obtains a closer  
connection with the stem1 and becomes   
formal1 while the other remains loosely 
attached4  #c4 ,that both these are     
incorporated with the stem1 and the     
whole approaches a true grammatical     
form1 although it does not fully        
represent it4  ,case #ast4  ,the only   
language ,i can instance here is that of
 the ,omaguas1 as ,i know no other with 
such a decided absence of all true      
grammatical forms in the verb4 ,the     
independent pronouns1 the stem words of 
the verbs1 and the particles of tense   
and mode are merely placed together     
without any change1 without internal    
connection1 and apparently without fixed
 order2 usu1 to go2 #ast pers4 sing4    
pres4 ta usu2 #b;d pers4 sing4 perf4 avi
 ene usu 7ene is the pronoun1 avi the   
sign of the perfect74 ,subjunctive1 #ast

 pers4 sing4 pres4 ta usu mia2 #b;d     
pers4 sing4 perf4 avi epe usu mia4      
,sometimes1 when a misunderstanding is  
not feared1 the verbal stem is employed 
without these qualifying particles1 and 
cannot then be distinguished from a     
noun4 ,paolo amai amano4 ,the last word 
means to die1 but grammatically the     
sentence can as well be rendered1 ,paul 
only die 7i4 e4 has died71 as ,paul only
 dead4  ,it is true that the suffix ta  
changes nouns to verbs3 zhiru1 clothes1 
zhiru-ta1 to clothe2 but it also changes
 verbs to nouns1 yasai1 to cover1       
yasai-ta1 a cover4 ,this may be         
explained by the theory that this suffix
 conveys the idea to make1 which is     
taken sometimes actively1 sometimes     
passively4  ,according to the above1 the
 ,omagua conjugation falls in the class 
where an attributive is united to a     
pronoun and the verb is omitted2 only   
that here definite tense syllables      
appear1 and this brings the construction
 nearer to the idea of a conjugation4   

,case #b;d4  #a4 ,the ,maipure1         
,abipone1 ,mbaya and ,mocobi languages  
place only the personal sign in intimate
 connection with the verb1 and allow the
 tense and mode signs to be loosely     
attached4 ,they have therefore but one  
type of personal forms to be applied in 
every tense and mode by means of the    
particles or the affixes formed from    
them4 ,this type1 taken alone1 usually  
forms the present2 but1 accurately      
speaking1 this name cannot be assigned  
it2 because the signs of the other      
tenses are also dropped when this can be
 done without obscurity4                
,ya-chaguani-me-yaladi4 ,here the first 
word is in the indefinite form1 though  
it is not the present but the perfect4  
,the me is really the preposition in2   
but usage has adopted it for the        
subjunctive sign1 and so the ,spanish   
grammarians call it2 or rather1 the verb
 is considered to be introduced by a    
conjunction1 if1 as1 so that it is      
usually not in the present but a past   

tense4 ,if this is the case with the    
last verb1 the first one must have the  
same tense1 and so the whole phrase1    
without any tense sign1 means1 ,i had   
helped him when ,i said it4  ,one would 
scarcely expect to find anything like   
this in cultivated languages4 ,yet it   
does occur in both ,sanscrit and ,greek4
 ,the now meaningless particle sma in   
,sanscrit when it follows the present   
changes it into a past1 and in ,greek an
 alters the indicative into a           
subjunctive4  ,to form this general     
type1 the ,maipure makes use of the     
unchanged possessive pronoun1 and treats
 nouns and verbs in the same manner4    
,the noun must always be united to a    
possessive pronoun1 a trait common to   
all the ,orinoco tongues and many other 
,american languages4 ,in the #c;d person
 sing41 however1 neither the verb nor   
the noun has such a pronoun1 but it is  
to be understood2 nuani1 my son2 ani1   
alone1 not son1 but his son4 ,the #c;d  
pers4 sing4 of the verb is often the    

mere stem1 without a personal sign1 but 
that this peculiarity should also extend
 to the noun ,i have met only in this   
tongue4 ,it is evident that a pronoun is
 considered as essential to a noun as to
 a verb1 and although a similar usage is
 found in many tongues1 yet it appears  
in none so binding4 ,there are1 indeed1 
some nouns which are free from the      
necessity of thinking them in connection
 with a person1 but these have the      
suffix ti1 which is dropped when the    
possessive pronoun is added2 java ti1 a 
hatchet1 nu java1 my hatchet4 ,from this
 it is evident that ti does not belong  
to the stem1 and is incompatible with   
the use of a possessive1 hence it is the
 sign of the substantive1 in its        
independent condition4 ,the same occurs 
in ,mexican1 and the chief termination  
of substantives1 tli1 is almost         
identical in sound with that in the     
,maipure4  ,in this respect the verbal1 
conjugated with the personal signs1     
differs nothing from the noun united to 

its possessive pronouns4 ,grammatically1
 the form first becomes a verbal one by 
the added particles of tense and mode4  
,the signification of these can         
generally be clearly ascertained1 and   
thus are united closely to the stem4    
,the particles which the language of the
 ,abipones uses to form the general     
verbal type are quite different from the
 possessives4 ,the tense and mode       
particles have elsewhere in the tongue  
independent meanings4 ,thus kan1 the    
sign of the perfect1 means a thing which
 has been1 time that has past4  ,in the 
language of the ,mocobis the personal   
signs consist merely in letters1        
prefixed and suffixed1 and have no      
apparent relationship to the pronouns4  
,by affixing these letters1 phonetic    
changes take place so that the stem is  
combined with them into one form4       
,among the tense signs1 a prefixed l    
indicates a past time1 a suffixed o1 the
 future2 but the others are independent 
particles1 loosely attached to the stem4

  ,i have already shown how the ,mbaya  
language conjugates adjectives with the 
independent pronoun1 and participles    
with the possessive pronoun4 ,the signs 
used in the conjugation proper of the   
attributive verb1 do not appear         
elsewhere in the tongue1 and must have  
descended from an older period of its   
existence4  ,in the tense and mode signs
 it is easily perceived how descriptive 
phrases pass into true forms4 ,for the  
imperfect and pluperfect the speaker can
 choose among a number of particles1 all
 of which indicate past time4 ,the modes
 have definite signs1 but these are     
merely appended1 and some have separate 
significations4 ,the future and perfect 
have not merely fixed particles1 but    
these are worn down to one letter1 so   
that the stem is actually incorporated  
with them4  #b4 ,in the languages       
heretofore considered the personal signs
 added to the word make up the          
conjugation1 and the other signs are    
attached loosely and externally4 ,the   

reverse of this1 though not perfectly   
so1 appears in the ,lule language4 ,the 
tense and mode signs1 often of but one  
letter1 are immediately and firmly      
attached to the stem1 and the pronouns  
are affixed to this to complete the     
conjugation4 ,these pronouns are1       
however1 the ordinary possessives1 so   
that noun and verb become in a measure  
identical2 thus1 camc means both ,i eat 
and my food2 cumuee1 ,i marry and my    
wife2 only in a few examples are the    
verbal pronouns distinct from the       
possessives4  ,in this case1 therefore1 
the personal signs are independent      
elements1 occurring elsewhere in the    
language1 while the tense and mode signs
 are true affixes4  ,the                
inflection-syllables form with the stem 
real verbal forms1 and so far the       
conjugation of this language belongs to 
the third case4 ,but each of the        
elements has its fixed position1 and as 
soon as one has the key to the          
combination1 he can recognize and       

separate them at once4  ,reasons which  
it would require too much space to set  
forth render it probable that all the   
tense signs are really auxiliary verbs  
or come from them4 ,this is evident of  
the optative1 as has already been shown4
 ,the present only is simple1 as it has 
no tense sign4  ,slight differences are 
found between the personal signs of some
 tenses1 so that these tenses can be    
distinguished by them1 a trait usually  
seen only in tongues so far cultivated  
that the grammatical forms have         
undergone such changes as no longer to  
present simple and uniform combinations4
 ,equally curious is the regular        
omission of the tense sign of past time 
in the third person plural only4        
,although1 except in this case and that 
of the present1 each tense has its      
definite sign1 inserted between the stem
 and the personal sign1 yet there are1  
besides these1 various particles        
expressing past time1 which can         
accompany the usual tense form1 so that 

there is a double sign of time1 one in  
the word itself and one loosely attached
 to it4  ,the languages of the ,mbayas1 
,abipones1 ,mocobis and ,lules are      
closely allied both in words and in some
 grammatical forms4 ,it is all the more 
extraordinary1 therefore1 to find the   
last-mentioned pursuing a method in the 
structure of its verb which is almost   
totally opposed to that in the other    
three tongues4  ,case #c;d4  ,the       
languages of this class approach in     
their conjugations those of the more    
cultivated tongues1 in which each verbal
 inflection has a fixed and independent 
form4 ,both the person1 the tense and   
the mode signs are united to the stem1  
in such a manner that none of the three 
can be said to be either less or more   
loosely attached than the others4  ,all 
the conjugations about to be discussed  
lack1 however1 that fixity of form which
 grammatically satisfies the mind4  ,the
 elements are placed definitely and     
regularly one by the other1 but are not 

incorporated into each other1 and are   
therefore readily recognizable4  ,they  
are found1 moreover1 outside of the verb
 elsewhere in the language either       
without any change or with slight       
differences of sound2 the personal signs
 as pronouns1 the other affixes as      
particles4  ,the composition of the verb
 is separable1 and may receive into     
itself other parts of speech4  ,no      
,american language is free from these   
drawbacks to perfection of form in the  
conjugations4 ,in some all three are    
found2 in most the first and last4 ,in  
really grammatically developed tongues1 
as in the ,sanscrit1 ,greek1 ,latin and 
,german1 none of these imperfections    
exists4 ,the verb includes in itself no 
part of its object1 the affixes         
modifying the stem have lost all        
independent life1 and the analysis of   
the formal elements becomes a difficult 
philological task1 which often fails and
 only rarely can be fully proved4  ,i   
shall discriminate in regard to the     

conjugations about to be considered that
 which is an approach toward a fixed    
form from the intentional separation of 
the form to insert a governed word4  #a4
 ,approach toward a ,fixed ,form4  ,in  
the ,mixteca language1 the personal sign
 is the unchanged possessive pronoun4   
,if the verb is governed by a noun in   
the third person1 the possessive is     
dropped4 ,it is left to the speaker to  
choose whether he designates the person1
 either by prefixing the personal       
pronoun or suffixing the possessive4    
,the tense signs are prefixed syllables1
 but the perfect and future signs are   
altogether different from those of the  
present1 and materially alter the verbal
 stem4  ,the ,beto language prefixes the
 personal signs and also the possessive 
pronouns to the nouns4 ,as the latter   
are not fully known1 we cannot judge of 
their identity with the verbal pronouns4
 ,the latter do not seem to differ much 
from the personal pronouns4 ,the tense  
signs are easily recognized suffixes4   

,another conjugation of the same        
language1 by the suffixed pronoun       
without tense signs1 and with the verb  
omitted1 has been mentioned above 7,i1  
#a71 as forming a substantive verb4  ,a 
second substantive verb arises from the 
conjugation above explained1 with the   
tense signs4  ,these two forms may also 
be combined1 and this illustrates with  
what superfluous fullness grammatical   
forms spring up even among rude nations4
 ,the conjugation with the tense sign is
 changed by a participial suffix into a 
verbal1 and then the pronoun is         
suffixed1 as in the conjugation without 
the tense sign4 ,the latter1 therefore1 
stands twice in the form4 ,the pronoun  
used in the conjugation with tense signs
 may also be prefixed to a simple       
adjective1 and the pronoun used in the  
conjugation without tense sign is       
suffixed to this1 and the participial   
ending is then added4 ,this is treated  
as a verb with the substantive verb     
understood4 ,but sometimes the verb to  

be in the form without tense signs is   
added1 and then the whole form contains 
the pronoun three times1 without gaining
 thereby any additional meaning4  ,the  
,carib conjugation seems to have arisen 
from the forms of many dialects or      
epochs1 and is therefore more           
complicated and formal1 and less easy to
 analyze4  ,the personal signs are      
prefixed4 ,in the substantive verb there
 are two classes1 of which only one is  
also common to attributive verbs4 ,the  
other indicates in the verb to be also  
the connection of persons with the      
infinitive and gerund1 and is therefore 
of the nature of a possessive4 ,it may  
also be that when it is combined with   
other tenses1 the notion among these    
nations is altogether a substantial one1
 as we have already seen with the       
subjunctive4  ,the stem often receives  
the addition r or ri1 the meaning of    
which is not known4  ,the structure of  
the ,tamanaca conjugation also reveals a
 combination of at least two separate   

structures4 ,some tenses use as their   
personal signs entire pronouns1 almost  
identical with the personals4 ,other    
tenses merely change the initial letter 
of the verb1 while there is little      
similarity between these affixes and the
 pronouns4 ,in the plural some of the   
persons insert a syllable between the   
verb and the tense sign4  ,the tense    
signs are suffixed1 and consist merely  
of terminal letters or syllables1 except
 two true particles1 which distinguish  
the continued present from the present  
aorist4  ,there are an initial y and a t
 occasionally appearing in all persons1 
of which we can only say that they are  
not radicals4  ,the conjugation of this 
language1 therefore1 consists of        
elements not readily analyzed4  ,the    
,huasteca language prefixes the         
possessive pronouns as personal signs4  
,it may also drop them1 and use in their
 stead the independent pronouns2 or may 
combine both2 or may use abbreviated    
personals2 so that there is a prevailing

 arbitrariness in this part of the      
verbal form4  ,the tense signs are      
usually suffixes2 but in the future they
 are prefixes1 which are incorporated   
with the personal sign placed between   
them and the stem4 ,they consist of     
simple sounds1 of no independent        
signification4 ,but the particles of the
 imperative are so separable that when  
this mode is preceded by an adverb1 they
 attach themselves to it4  ,the ,othomi 
language does not make use of the       
possessive pronouns in the conjugation1 
but suffixes abbreviated forms of the   
personals1 or else prefixes others of   
special form1 but identical in many     
letters and syllables with the          
personals4 ,in the present condition of 
the language the suffixes are used only 
with the substantive verb2 in the       
attributive verb1 however1 they may have
 been driven forward by the governed    
pronouns suffixed4 ,every verbal        
inflection may also take1 besides its   
pronominal prefix1 also the             

unabreviated,,tn-#i personal pronoun in 
front1 or the abbreviated one after it4 
,the tense signs consist principally of 
single vowels1 by means of which the    
pronominal prefixes are attached to the 
stem4 ,the imperfect and pluperfect     
alone have besides this a loosely       
attached particle4 ,the past tenses     
possess a prefix1 which we have already 
seen appears to have been derived from  
an auxiliary verb4  ,in the third person
 of some tenses in certain verbs the    
stem undergoes a change of its initial  
letters1 which appears to transform     
these inflections into verbal           
adjectives1 an instance of the confusion
 of the ideas of noun and verb common in
 all these languages4  ,the ,mexican    
language possesses a peculiar class of  
verbal pronouns which form the personal 
signs4 ,this pronoun is similar to the  
personal in its consonants1 but has a   
vowel of its own4 ,it is a prefix4 ,the 
plural is marked by the accent1 or by a 
special termination4 ,this personal sign

 is inseparable from the verb1 but the  
speaker may also prefix the independent 
personal pronoun4  ,the tense signs are 
all without signification1 being single 
letters or syllables4 ,the perfect is   
marked not so much by an affix1 as by   
changing1 the termination of the verb in
 various ways1 but chiefly by shortening
 and strengthening the sound4 ,all tense
 designations are placed at the end of  
the word1 except the augment for past   
time4 ,if by augment we mean a vowel    
sound prefixed to the verb in certain   
tenses in addition to their usual signs1
 then the ,mexican is the only ,american
 language which possesses one4  ,the    
modes are designated by loosely attached
 particles1 also by a different         
structure of the tenses1 and in the     
second person a peculiar pronoun4  ,thus
 the ,mexican conjugation consists of   
true verbal forms1 not of separate parts
 of speech of independent significance2 
but the elements of these forms are     
easily recognizable1 and can be reached 

without difficulty4  ,the most difficult
 to analyze1 and hence the most nearly  
approaching our conjugations1 is that of
 the ,totonaca language4  ,the personal 
signs differ from the pronouns4 ,that of
 the #b;d pers4 sing4 is not easily     
recognized1 and several forms of it must
 be assumed4 ,its position as a prefix  
or suffix differs1 and it is variously  
located with reference to the other     
verbal signs4 ,still more difficult is  
it to distinguish the tense signs4      
,there are three different systems of   
prefixes and suffixes in the            
conjugation1 and the plan on which these
 are combined with each other serves to 
distinguish the tense4 ,but only a few  
of these affixes really appear to       
designate tense2 of the others this may 
be suspected at best1 and of others     
again it is improbable4  ,thus there are
 verbal affixes which cannot be         
considered to designate either persons1 
modes or tenses4  ,the stem undergoes   
little change1 but the attaching of the 

affixes to it renders it impossible to  
apply the same scheme to all verbs1 and 
hence leads to a division of them into  
three conjugations4  ,some tenses have  
two different forms1 without any change 
in signification4  #b4 ,divisibility of 
,verbal ,forms to allow the insertion of
 governed parts of speech4  ,of the     
,mixteca tongue it cannot exactly be    
said that it divides the essential parts
 of the verbal form to allow the        
insertion of the governed object4 ,as a 
rule1 the object is merely appended1 and
 where it appears in the form itself1 it
 is inserted between the stem and the   
suffixed pronoun4 ,the latter is1       
however1 no necessary part of the form1 
as it is dropped when the verb is       
governed by a noun1 and can always be   
replaced by prefixing the indefinite    
pronoun4  ,nor is it mentioned that the 
,beto language includes the object in   
the verb4  ,the ,carib tongue unites the
 governed pronoun with the verbal form1 
and in some cases the personal sign is  

thus displaced4 ,but here the object is 
not inserted in the middle1 but is      
prefixed or suffixed4  ,our information 
about the ,tamanaca language discloses  
nothing on this point4  ,in the         
,huasteca1 the governed pronoun         
separates sometimes the last1 sometimes 
the first syllable of the inflectional  
form from the stem4  ,the ,othomi merely
 attaches the governed words closely to 
the verbal form1 in this resembling the 
,mixteca4  ,the ,mexican language is    
that which has developed this           
peculiarity to the greatest degree4 ,the
 governed noun is placed in the middle  
of the verb2 or1 if this is not done1 a 
pronoun representing it is inserted4 ,if
 there are two objects1 an accusative   
and a dative1 then two corresponding    
pronouns are inserted2 and if no object 
is named1 but the verb is of that class 
which is followed by an immediate or    
remote object1 or both1 then two        
indefinite pronouns appear in the verb4 
,the ,mexican verb therefore1 expresses 

either a complete sentence1 or else a   
complete scheme of one1 which merely    
requires to be filled out4 ,it says1 in 
one word1 ,i give something to somebody1
 nititlamaca1 and then defines what it  
is and to whom4  ,it follows necessarily
 that a part of the verbal form is      
fluctuating according to the sense and  
connection of the sentence1 and that the
 governing pronoun stands sometimes     
immediately before the verb1 and        
sometimes is separated from it by       
indefinite pronouns or even nouns4  ,in 
the ,totonaca language1 the prefixes and
 suffixes make room for the governed    
words between themselves and the stem4  
,this examination of the languages whose
 conjugations approach a fixed form1    
shows clearly that this fixedness is    
seriously shaken precisely where it is  
most important1 through this insertion  
of the governed words4                  
------  ,now if we reflect on the       
structure of the various verbal forms   
here analyzed1 certain general          

conclusions are reached1 which are      
calculated to throw light upon the whole
 organism of these languages4  ,the     
leading and governing part of speech in 
them is the ,pronoun2 every subject of  
discourse is connected with the idea of 
,personality4  ,noun and ,verb are not  
separated2 they first become so through 
the pronouns attached to them4  ,the    
employment of the ,pronoun is two-fold1 
one applying to the ,noun1 the second to
 the ,verb4 ,both1 however1 convey the  
idea of belonging to a person2 in the   
noun appearing as ,possession1 in the   
verb as ,energy4 ,but it is on this     
point1 on whether these ideas are       
confused and obscure1 or whether they   
are defined and clear1 that the         
grammatical perfection of a language    
depends4 ,the just discrimination of the
 kinds of pronouns is therefore         
conclusive1 and in this respect we must 
yield the decided pre-eminence to the   
,mexican4  ,it follows that the speaker 
must constantly make up his verbs1      

instead of using those already on hand2 
and also that the structure of the verb 
must be identical throughout the        
language1 that there must be only one   
conjugation1 and that the verbs1 except 
a few irregular ones1 can possess no    
peculiarities4  ,this is different in   
the ,greek1 ,latin and ancient ,indian4 
,in those tongues many verbs must be    
studied separately1 as they have        
numerous exceptions1 phonetic changes1  
deficiencies1 etc41 and in other        
respects carry with them a marked       
individuality4  ,the difference between 
these cultivated and those rude         
languages is chiefly merely one of time1
 and of the more or less fortunate      
mixture of dialects2 though it certainly
 also depends in a measure on the       
original mental powers of the nations4  
,those whose languages we have here     
analyzed are1 in speaking1 constantly   
putting together elementary parts2 they 
connect nothing firmly1 because they    
follow the changing requirements of the 

moment1 joining together only what these
 requirements demand1 and often leave   
connected through habit1 that which     
clear thinking would necessarily divide4
  ,hence no just division of words can  
arise1 such as is demanded by accurate  
and appropriate thought1 which requires 
that each word must have a fixed and    
certain content and a defined           
grammatical form1 and as is also        
demanded by the highest phonetic laws4  
,nations richly endowed in mind and     
sense will have an instinct for such    
correct divisions2 the incessant moving 
to and fro of elementary parts of speech
 will be distasteful to them2 they will 
seek true individuality in the words    
they use2 therefore they will connect   
them firmly1 they will not accumulate   
too much in one1 and they will only     
leave that connected which is so in     
thought1 and not merely in usage or     
habit4                                  
------------  ,notes 7by the translator7
 on the various ,american ,tribes and   

,languages mentioned by ,humboldt in the
 preceding ,memoir4  ,abipones4--,a     
tribe formerly residing on the broad    
grassy plains known as ,el ,gran ,chaco1
 west of the ,parana river and on the   
right bank of the ,rio ,vermejo4 ,they  
are a nomadic1 hunting people1 and are  
related by language closely to the      
,mocobis and ,tobas1 more remotely to   
the ,mbayas4 ,the ,jesuit1 ,father ,jose
 ,brigniel1 wrote an ,arte y            
,vocabulario de la ,lengua ,abipona1    
which has not been published4           
,achaguas4--,a small tribe formerly     
living in ,venezuela1 between the ,apure
 and ,meta rivers4 ,they are mentioned  
by ,piedrahita as an intelligent people4
 ,aristides ,rojas says they are now    
extinct 7,estudios ,indigenas1 p4 #bad4 
,caracas1 #ahgh74  ,beto4--,usually     
spelled ,betoi or ,betoya4 ,they live on
 the upper waters of the ,meta river in 
,colombia and are related to the        
,yaruris4  ,caribs4--,this widely       
extended stock occupied much of the     

northern coast of ,south ,america and   
had planted colonies on many of the     
,antilles4 ,it is believed that they are
 distantly connected with the ,tupis and
 ,guaranis4  ,guaranis4--,the name of a 
number of affiliated tribes in ,southern
 ,brazil1 ,paraguay1 ,uruguay and the   
,argentine ,republic4 ,the ,tupis of    
,brazil are a branch of the ,guaranis4  
,huastecas4--,a northern colony of the  
great ,maya stock of ,yucatan1 dwelling 
in the province of ,tampico on the river
 ,panuco4 ,at the time of the discovery 
they were an important and cultured     
nation4  ,lule4--,one of the nations of 
,el ,gran ,chaco1 west of the ,parana   
river4 ,the ,arte y ,vocabulario de la  
,lengua ,lule y ,tonocote1 by ,father   
,antonio ,machoni de ,cerdea 7,madrid1  
#agcb71 was republished with a careful  
ethnographic introduction by ,j4 ,m4    
,larsen1 at ,buenos ,ayres1 #ahgg4      
,maipures4--,tribes of various dialects 
who live on both sides of the ,orinoco  
river where it forms the boundary       

between ,venezuela and ,new ,granada1   
about #e ,n4 lat4  ,mayas4--,natives of 
,yucatan1 and the most highly developed 
of any of the ,american nations4        
,related dialects are spoken in         
,guatemala1 in ,tabasco1 and by the     
,huastecas4  ,mbayas4--,a people of the 
,gran ,chaco in the northern part of the
 ,argentine ,republic1 and distantly    
related to the ,abipones4               
,mexican4--,otherwise called the        
,nahuatl or ,aztec language4 ,spoken in 
the greatest purity in the valley of    
,mexico1 it extended from the ,gulf of  
,mexico to the ,pacific1 and along the  
latter from ,sonora to ,guatemala1 with 
few interruptions4  ,mixtecas4--,a tribe
 speaking several dialects living in the
 ,state of ,oaxaca1 ,mexico4            
,mocobis4--,one of the four principal   
nations who formerly occupied ,el ,gran 
,chaco1 west of the ,parana river4 ,by  
some the name is spelled ,mbocoby4      
,omaguas4--,once a nation of            
considerable extent and culture between 

the ,maraon and the ,orinoco4           
,othomis4--,a tribe resident near ,san  
,louis ,potosi1 ,mexico1 and neighboring
 parts4 ,their proper name is said to be
 ,hia-hiu4 ,their language is           
monosyllabic and nasal4                 
,tamanacas4--,these dwell on the right  
bank of the ,upper ,orinoco1 and are    
connected by dialect with the ,carib    
stock on the one hand and the ,guaranay 
on the other4  ,totonacas4--,a nation   
asserted by ,pimentel to speak a mixed  
language 7,nahuatl and ,maya7 dwelling  
in the southern portion of the ,province
 of ,vera ,cruz1 ,mexico1 and parts     
adjacent4  ,tupis4--,the natives of the 
eastern area of ,brazil1 related to the 
,guaranis of the south and perhaps to   
the ,caribs of the north4 ,the ,lingoa  
,geral of ,brazil is a corrupt ,tupi4   
,yaruris4--,residents on the upper      
streams of the ,meta river in ,new      
,granada1 related to the ,betoi4        
,,footnotes3  #c-99 ,die ,elemente der  
,philosophischen ,sprachwissenschaft    

,wilhelm von ,humboldt's4 ,in           
systematischer ,entwicklung dargestellt 
und kritisch erlutert1 von ,dr4 ,max    
,schasler1 ,berlin1 #ahdg4  #c- ,die    
,sprachwissenschaft ,wilhelm von        
,humboldt's und die ,hegel'sche         
,philosophie1 von ,h4 ,steinthal1 ,dr41 
,berlin1 #ahdh4 ,the same eminent       
linguist treats especially of           
,humboldt's teachings in ,grammatik1    
,logik und ,psychologie1 ihre           
,principien und ihr ,verhltniss zu      
einander1 pp4 #abc-ace 7,berlin1 #ahee72
 in his well-known volume               
,characteristik,,tn-#aj der             
,hauptschlichsten ,typen des            
,sprachbaues1 pp4 #bj-gj 7,berlin1      
#ahfj72 in his recent oration ,ueber    
,wilhelm von ,humboldt 7,berlin1 #ahhc72
 and elsewhere4  #c- ,wilhelm von       
,humboldt's ,linguistical ,studies4 ,by 
,c4 ,j4 ,adler1 ,a4,m4 7,new ,york1     
#ahff74 ,this is the only attempt1 so   
far as ,i know1 to present ,humboldt's  
philosophy of language to ,english      

readers4 ,it is meritorious1 but        
certainly in some passages ,prof4 ,adler
 failed to catch ,humboldt's meaning4   
#d-99 ,ueber die ,verschiedenheit des   
menschlichen ,sprachbaues und ihren     
,einfluss auf die geistige ,entwickelung
 des ,menschengeschlechts4 ,prof4 ,adler
 translates this ,the ,structural       
,differences of ,human ,speech and their
 ,influence on the ,intellectual        
,development of the ,human ,race4 ,the  
word geistige1 however1 includes        
emotional as well as intellectual       
things4  #d- ,ueber die                 
,verschiedenheit1 etc41 ,bd4 vi1 s4     
#bga1 note4 ,i may say1 once for all1   
that my references1 unless otherwise    
stated1 are to the edition of           
,humboldt's ,gesammelte ,werke1 edited  
by his brother1 ,berlin1 #ahda-aheb4    
#e-99 ,aus ,wilhelm von ,humboldt's     
letzien ,lebensjahren4 ,eine ,mtheilung 
bisher unbekannter ,briefe4 ,von        
,theodor ,distel1 p4 #ai 7,leipzig1     
#ahhc74  #f-99 ,from his memoir ,ueber  

das vergleichende                       
,sprachtstudium,,tn-#aa in ,beziehung   
auf die verschiedenen ,epochen der      
,sprachentwicklung1 ,bd4 iii1 s4 #bdi4  
#f- ,he draws examples from the ,carib1 
,lule1 ,tupi1 ,mbaya1 ,huasteca1        
,nahuatl1 ,tamanaca1 ,abipone1 and      
,mixteca2 ,ueber das ,entstehen der     
grammatischen ,formen1 und ihren        
,einfluss auf die ,ideenentwicklung1    
,bd4 iii1 ss4 #bfi-cjf4  #f- ,ueber die 
,buchstabenschrift und ihren            
,zusummenhang,,tn-#ab mit dem           
,sprachbau1 ,bd4 vi1 s4 #ebf  #f- ,this 
letter is printed in the memoir of      
,prof4 ,e4 ,teza1 ,intorno agli ,studi  
del ,thavenet sulla ,lingua ,algonchina1
 in the ,annali delle ,universit        
toscane1 ,tomo xviii 7,pisa1 #ahhj74    
#f- ,compare ,prof4 ,adler's ,essay1    
above mentioned1 p4 #aa4  #g-99 ,this is
 found expressed nowhere else so clearly
 as at the beginning of  #ac1 where the 
author writes3 ,der ,zweck dieser       
,einleitung1 die ,sprachen1 in der      

,verschiedenartigkeit ihres ,baues1 als 
die nothwendige ,grundlage der          
,fortbildung des menschlichen ,geistes  
darzustellen1 und den wechsel seitigen  
,einfluss des ,einen auf das ,andre zu  
errtern1 hat mich genthigt1 in die      
,natur der ,sprache berhaupt einzugehen4
 ,bd4 vi1 s4 #ajf4  #g- ,der ,idee der  
,sprachvollendung ,dasein in der        
,wirklichkeit zu gewinnen4 ,ueber die   
,verschiedenheit1 ss4 #aj and #aa4 ,the 
objection which may be urged that a true
 philosophy of language must deal in    
universals and not confine itself to    
mere differentiations 7particulars7 is  
neatly met by ,dr4 ,schasler1 ,die      
,elemente der ,philosophischen          
,sprachwissenschaft1 etc41 p4 #ba1 note4
  #h-99 ,in his remarkable essay ,on the
 ,mission of the ,historian1 which      
,prof4 ,adler justly describes as       
scarcely anything more than a           
preliminary to his linguistical         
researches1 ,humboldt writes3 ,die      
,philosophie schreibt den ,begebenheiten

 ein ,ziel vor3 dies ,suchen nach       
,endursachen1 man mag sie auch aus dem  
,wesen des ,menschen und der ,natur     
selbst ableiten wollen1 strt und        
verfalscht alle freie ,ansicht des      
eigenthmlichen ,wirkens der ,krfte4     
,ueber die ,aufgabe des                 
,geschichtschreibers1 ,bd4 i1 s4 #ac4   
#h- ,das ,studium der verschiedenen     
,sprachen des ,erdbodens verfehlt seine 
,bestimmung1 wenn es nicht immer den    
,gang der geistigen ,bildung im ,auge   
behlt1 und darin seinen eigentlichen    
,zweck sucht4 ,ueber den ,zusammenhang  
der ,schrift mit der ,sprache1 ,bd4 vi1 
s4 #dbh4  #h- ,eine ,gedankenwelt an    
,tne geheftet4 ,ueber die               
,buchstabenschrift und ihre             
,zusammenhang mit dem ,sprachbau1 ,bd4  
vi1 s4 #ecj4  #h- ,this cardinal point  
in ,humboldt's philosophy is very       
clearly set forth in his essay1 ,ueber  
die ,aufgabe des ,geschichtschreibers1  
,bd4 i1 s4 #bc1 and elsewhere4  #h- ,see
 ,ueber die ,buchstabenschrift1 etc41   

,bd4 vi1 s4 #ecj4  #i-99 ,les notions   
grammaticales resident bien plutt dans  
l'esprit de celui qui parle que dans le 
matriel du language4 ,humboldt1 ,lettre 
,m4 ,abel-,remusat ,werke1 ,bd4 vii1 s4 
#cif4 ,on the realms of the three       
varieties of grammar1 see also ,dr4 ,m4 
,schasler1 ,die ,elemente der           
,philosophischen ,sprachwissenschaft1   
etc41 s4 #ce1 #cf1 and ,friedrich       
,mller1 ,grundriss der                  
,sprachwissenschaft1 ,band #a1 ss4 #h-aj
 7,wien1 #ahgf74 ,schasler observes that
 a main object in philosophic grammar is
 an investigation of die                
genetisch-qualitativen ,unterschiede der
 ,redetheile1 that is1 of the           
fundamental psychological differences of
 the parts of speech1 as1 what is the   
ultimate distinction between noun and   
adjective1 etc48  #aj-99 ,steinthal does
 not like ,humboldt's expression to make
 capable 7fhig zu machen74 ,he objects  
that the capacity to express thought is 
already in the articulate sounds4 ,but  

what ,humboldt wishes to convey is      
precisely that this capacity is only    
derived from the ceaseless1 energizing  
effort of the intellect4 ,steinthal1    
,die ,sprachwissenschaft ,wilhelm von   
,humboldt's1 s4 #ia1 note4 ,the words in
 the original are3 ,die sich ewig       
wiederholende ,arbeit des ,geistes1 den 
articulirten ,laut zum ,ausdruck des    
,gedanken fhig zu machen4  #aj- ,nur die
 ,strke des ,selbstbewusstseins nthigt  
der krperlichen ,natur die scharfe      
,theilung und feste ,begrenzung der     
,laute ab1 die wir ,artikulation nennen4
 ,ueber das ,vergleichende              
,sprachstudium in ,beziehung auf die    
,verschiedenen ,epochen der             
,sprachentwicklung1 ,bd4 iii1 s4 #bdd4  
#aa-99 ,ubi supr1 p4 #ag4 ,compare      
,humboldt's words1 ,im ,ich aber ist von
 selbst auch das ,du gegeben4 ,ueber die
 ,verschiedenheit1 etc41 ,bd4 vi1 s4    
#aae4  #aa- ,ueber die ,verschiedenheit1
 etc41 ,bd4 vi1 s4 #aaf2 and compare    
,dr4 ,schasler's discussion of this     

subject 7which is one of the best parts 
of his book71 ,die ,elemente der ,phil4 
,sprachwissenschaft1 etc41 ss4 #bjb-ad4 
#aa- ,expressed in detail by ,humboldt  
in his ,lettre  ,m4 ,abel-,remusat sur  
la nature des formes grammaticules1     
etc41 ,bd4 vii1 ss4 #cjj-cjc4  #ab-99   
,ueber die ,verwandtschaft der          
,ortsadverbia mit dem ,pronomen in      
einigen ,sprachen1 in the ,abhandlungen 
der hist4-phil4 ,classe der ,berliner   
,akad4 der ,wiss4 #ahbi4  #ab- ,ueber   
die ,verschiedenheit1 etc41 ,bd4 vi1 s4 
#aae4  #ab- ,gesammelte ,werke1 ,bd4    
vii1 ss4 #cib-f4  #ac-99 ,his           
explanation of inflection is most fully 
given in his ,introductory ,essay1      
,ueber die ,verschiedenheit1 etc41  #ad1
 ,gesammelte ,werke1 s4 #aba1 sqq4 ,a   
sharp1 but friendly criticism of this   
central point of his linguistic         
philosophy may be found in ,steinthal1  
,charakteristik der ,hauptschlichsten   
,typen des ,sprachbones1,,tn-#ac ss4    
#eh-fa4 ,humboldt certainly appears not 

only obscure in parts but contradictory4
  #ad-99 ,see these teachings clearly   
set forth in his ,essay1 ,ueber das     
vergleichende ,sprachstudium in         
,beziehung auf die verschiedenen        
,epochen der ,sprachentwicklung1 ,werke1
 ,bd4 iii1 especially1 s4 #bee and s4   
#bfb4  #ae-99 ,the eloquent and         
extraordinary passage in which these    
opinions are expressed is in his ,lettre
  ,m4 ,abel-,remusat1 ,gesammelte       
,werke1 ,bd4 vii1 ss4 #ccf-g4  #ae-     
,gesammelte ,werke1 ,bd4 iii1 ss4 #bdh1 
#beg4  #af-99 ,this reasoning is        
developed in the essay1 ,ueber das      
,vergleichende ,sprachstudium1 etc41    
,gesammelte ,werke1 ,bd4 iii1 ss4       
#bda-bfh2 and see ibid1 s4 #bgj4  #af-  
,see the essay ,ueber die               
,buchstabenschrift und ihren            
,zusammenhang mit dem ,sprachbau1 ,ges4 
,werke1 ,bd4 vi1 ss4 #eea-b4  #ag-99 ,on
 this subtle point1 which has been by no
 means the least difficult to his       
commentators1 see ,humboldt's           

,introduction ,ueber die                
,verschiedenheit1 etc41 ,ges4 ,werke1   
,bd4 vi1 ss4 #de-f1 #ib-e1 #bed-e1 by a 
careful comparison of which passages his
 real intent will become apparent4  #ag-
 ,lettre  ,m4 ,abbe-,remusat1,,tn-#ad   
,ges4 ,werke1 ,bd4 vii1 s4 #cif4  #ah-99
 ,nicht was in einer ,sprache ausgedrckt
 zu werden vermag1 sondern das1 wozu sie
 aus eigner1 innerer ,kraft anfeuert und
 begeistert1 entscheidet ber ihre       
,vorzge oder ,mngel4 ,ueber das         
,entstehen der ,grammatischen ,formen1  
etc,,tn-#ae1 ,werke1 ,bd4 iii1 s4 #bgb4 
,compare with this the expression in his
 celebrated ,einleitung3 ,die ,sprache  
ist das bildende ,organ des ,gedanken1  
,werke1 ,bd4 vi1 s4 #ea4 ,a perfected   
language will allseitig und harmonisch  
durch sich selbst auf den ,geist        
einwirken4 ,ibid1 s4 #caa4  #ai-99      
,,tn-#af,ueber das ,entstehen der       
grammatischen ,formen1 etc41 ,werke1    
,bd4 iii1 s4 #bib4  #ai- ,speaking of   
such imperfect languages1 he gives the  

following wise suggestion for their     
study3 ,ihr einfaches ,geheimniss1      
welches den ,weg anzeigt1 auf welchem   
man sie1 mit gnzlicher ,vergessenheit   
unserer ,grammatik1 immer zuerst zu     
entrthseln versuchen muss1 ist1 das in  
sich ,bedeutende unmittelbar an einander
 zu reihen4 ,ueber das ,vergleichende   
,sprachstudium1 etc41 ,werke1 ,bd4 iii1 
s4 #bee2 and for a practical            
illustration of his method1 see the     
essay1 ,ueber das ,entstehen der        
grammatischen ,formen1 etc41 ,bd4 iii1  
s4 #bgd4  #bj-99 ,his teachings on this 
point1 of which ,i give the barest      
outline1 are developed in sections #ab  
and #ac of his ,introduction1 ,ueber die
 ,verschiedenheit1 etc4 ,steinthal's    
critical remarks on these sections 7in  
his ,charakteristik der haupt4 ,typen   
des ,sprachbaues7 seem to me            
unsatisfactory1 and he even does not    
appear to grasp the chain of ,humboldt's
 reasoning4  #ba-99 ,lettre  ,m4        
,abel-,remusat1 ,werke1 ,bd4 vii1 ss4   

#cec-d4  #ba- ,ueber die                
,verschiedenheit1 etc41 ,sec4 #bc1      
,werke1 ,bd4 vi1 s4 #cbi4  #bd-99 ,der  
,mexikanischen kann man am ,verbum1 in  
welchem die ,zeiten durch einzelne      
,endbuchstaben und zum ,theil offenbar  
symbolisch bezeichnet werden1 ,flexionen
 und ein gewisses ,streben nach         
,sanskritischer ,worteinheit nicht      
absprechen4 ,ueber die ,verschiedenheit1
 etc41 ,werke1 ,bd4 vi1 s4 #agf4  #be-99
 ,daher ist das ,einschliessen in ,ein  
,wort mehr ,sache der ,einbildungskraft1
 die ,trennung mehr die des ,verstandes4
 ,ueber die ,verschiedenheit1 etc41 s4  
#cbg4 ,compare also1 s4 #cbf and #aff4  
,steinthal points out the disadvantages 
of the incorporative plan and puts it   
lower than the isolating system of the  
,chinese2 but fails to recognize its    
many and striking advantages4 ,see his  
remarks1 ,ueber das ,wesen und ,werth   
der ,einverleibungsmethode1 in his      
,charakteristik der haupt4 ,typen des   
,sprachbaues1 s4 #bad4  #be- ,ueber die 

,verschiedenheit1 etc41 in ,werke1 ,bd4 
vi1 ss4 #cbc sqq4  #bg-99 ,see the      
essay1 ,ueber den ,dualis1 ,gesammelte  
,werke1 ,bd4 vi1 ss4 #efb-eif4          
,,library ,,of ,,aboriginal ,,american  
,,literature4  ,,general ,,editor ,,and 
,,publisher3 ,d4 ,g4 ,,brinton1 ,m4,d4  
,the aim of this series of publications 
is to put within the reach of scholars  
authentic materials for the study of the
 languages and culture of the native    
races of ,america4 ,each work is the    
production of the native mind1 and is   
printed in the original tongue1 with a  
translation and notes1 and only such are
 selected as have some intrinsic        
historical or ethnological importance4  
,the volumes of the series are sold     
separately1 at the prices named4  ,,now 
,,ready4  ,no4 ,i4 ,,the ,,chronicles   
,,of ,,the ,,mayas4  ,edited by ,,daniel
 ,g4 ,,brinton1 ,m4,d4 #bgi pages4      
,cloth1 uncut1 #e4jj4 7#c4jj when a     
complete set is ordered47  ,this volume 
contains five brief chronicles in the   

,maya language of ,yucatan1 written     
shortly after the ,conquest1 and        
carrying the history of that people back
 many centuries4 ,to these is added a   
history of the ,conquest1 written in his
 native tongue1 by a ,maya ,chief1 in   
#aefb4 ,the texts are preceded by an    
introduction on the history of the      
,mayas2 their language1 calendar1       
numeral system1 etc42 and a vocabulary  
is added at the close4  ,no4 ,,ii4 ,,the
 ,,iroquois ,,book ,,of ,,rites4        
,edited by ,,horatio ,,hale4 #bbb pages4
 ,cloth1 uncut1 #c4jj4  ,this work      
contains1 in the ,mohawk and ,onondaga  
languages1 the speeches1 songs and      
rituals with which a deceased chief was 
lamented and his successor installed in 
office4 ,it may be said to throw a      
distinct light on the authentic history 
of ,northern ,america to a period fifty 
years earlier than the era of ,columbus4
 ,the ,introduction treats of the       
ethnology and history of the            
,huron-,iroquois4 ,a map1 notes and a   

glossary complete the work4  ,no4 ,,iii4
 ,,the ,,comedy-,,ballet ,,of           
,g,,eg,,ence4  ,edited by ,,daniel ,g4  
,,brinton1 ,m4,d4 #adf pages4 ,cloth1   
uncut1 #b4ej4  ,a curious and unique    
specimen of the native comic dances1    
with dialogues1 called bailes1 formerly 
common in ,central ,america4 ,it is in  
the mixed ,nahuatl-,spanish jargon of   
,nicaragua1 and shows distinctive       
features of native authorship4 ,the     
,introduction treats of the ethnology of
 ,nicaragua1 and the local dialects1    
musical instruments1 and dramatic       
representations4 ,a map and a number of 
illustrations are added4  ,no4 ,,iv4 ,a 
,,migration ,,legend ,,of ,,the ,,creek 
,,indians4  ,by ,a4 ,s4 ,,gatschet4 #bea
 pages4 ,cloth1 uncut1 #c4jj4  ,this    
learned work offers a complete survey of
 the ethnology of the native tribes of  
the ,gulf ,states4 ,the strange myth or 
legend told to ,gov4 ,oglethorpe1 in    
#agcb1 by the ,creeks1 is given in the  
original1 with an ,introduction and     

,commentary4  ,no4 ,v4 ,,the ,,len,p    
,,and ,,their ,,legends4  ,by ,dr4      
,,daniel ,g4 ,,brinton4 ,cloth1 uncut1  
#c4jj4  ,contains the complete text and 
symbols1 #ahd in number1 of the ,,walam 
,,olum ,,or ,,red ,,score of the        
,delaware ,indians1 with the full       
original text1 and a new translation1   
notes and vocabulary4 ,a lengthy        
introduction treats of the ,lenp or     
,delawares1 their history1 customs1     
myths1 language1 etc41 with numerous    
references to other tribes of the great 
,algonkin stock4  ,,in ,,preparation3   
,,the ,,annals ,,of ,,the ,,cakchiquels4
 ,by ,francisco ,arana ,ernantez        
,xahila4     ,with a translation and    
notes by ,dr4 ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton4         
,,aboriginal ,,american ,,anthology4    
,chiefly original material1 furnished   
by various collaborators4     ,,recent  
,,publications ,,on ,,american          
,,ethnology4   ,,american               
,,hero-,,myths4  ,a ,study in the       
,native ,religions of the ,western      

,continent4 ,by ,daniel ,g4 ,brinton1   
,a4,m41 ,m4,d41 etc4 #a vol41 #hvo1 pp4 
#bea4 7,philad'a1 #ahhb47 ,cloth1       
,price1 #a4ge4  ,,notices ,,of ,,the    
,,press4  ,dr4 ,brinton writes from a   
minute and extended knowledge of the    
original sources4 99 99 ,his work       
renders a signal service to the cause of
 comparative mythology in our           
country4--,the ,literary ,world         
7,boston74  ,this study of certain of   
the most remarkable stories of ,american
 mythology is exceedingly               
interesting4--,the ,saturday ,review    
7,london74   ,,aboriginal ,,american    
,,authors1 ,and ,their ,productions4    
,especially those in the ,native        
,languages4 ,a ,contribution to the     
,history of ,literature4 ,by ,daniel ,g4
 ,brinton1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d41 etc4 #a vol41
 #hvo1 pp4 #fc4 ,boards1 ,price1 #a4jj4 
,an essay founded on an address         
presented to the ,congress of           
,americanists1 at ,copenhagen1 in #ahhc4
 ,it is an extended review of the       

literary efforts of the red race1 in    
their own tongues1 and in ,english1     
,latin and ,spanish 7both manuscript and
 printed74   ,a ,,grammar ,,of ,,the    
,,cakchiquel ,,language of ,guatemala4  
,translated with an ,introduction and   
,additions by ,daniel ,g4 ,brinton1     
,m4,d4 ,map1 pp4 #gb4 ,price1 boards1   
#a4jj4   ,,the ,,names ,,of ,,the ,,gods
 ,,in ,,the ,,quiche ,,myths1 of        
,central ,america4 ,by ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton1
 ,m4,d41 #hvo1 pp4 #ch1 paper1 #ej;c4   
,,the ,,lineal ,,measures ,,of ,,the    
,,semi-,,civilized ,,nations of ,mexico 
and ,central ,america4 ,by ,d4 ,g4      
,brinton1 ,m4,d41 pp4 #ad1 paper1 #be;c4
    ,transcriber's ,note   ,the         
following typographical errors were     
maintained in this version of the book4 
,page    ,error   ,,tn-#a     #ae       
unneccessary should read unnecessary    
,,tn-#b     #af    grammer should read  
grammar   ,,tn-#c     #ag    tendncy    
should read tendency   ,,tn-#d     #bc  
acustomed1 should read accustomed       

,,tn-#e     #bc    fullfils should read 
fulfils   ,,tn-#f     #bi    ,humboldt  
should read ,humboldt4   ,,tn-#g     #cc
    mil quis amaiciton1 should have     
numbers over the words                  
to match numbers on the next line       
,,tn-#h     #ci    powever should read  
power   ,,tn-#i     #df    unabreviated 
should read unabbreviated   ,,tn-#aj fn 
#c-   ,characteristik should read       
,charakteristik   ,,tn-#aa fn #f-99     
,sprachtstudium should read             
,sprachstudium   ,,tn-#ab fn #f-        
,zusummenhang should read ,zusammenhang 
,,tn-#ac fn #ac-99  ,sprachbones1 should
 read ,sprachbaues   ,,tn-#ad fn #ag-   
,abbe-,remusat1 should read             
,abel-,remusat   ,,tn-#ae fn #ah-99  etc
 should read etc4   ,,tn-#af fn #ai-99  
,ueber should read ,ueber