,,unto ,,this ,,last ,,and ,,other      
,,essays ,,on ,,political ,,economy  by 
,,john ,,ruskin        ,london          
,melbourne  ,toronto ,ward ,lock  ,co   
,limited #aiab     ,,contents4          
,,part ,i4                              
,,page   ,,the ,,political ,,economy    
,,of ,,art                              
#g      ,,lecture ,i4                   
#aa       #a4 ,discovery                
#bc       #b4 ,application              
#bh      ,,lecture ,,ii4                
#df       #c4 ,accumulation             
#df       #d4 ,distribution             
#fe      ,,addenda                      
#hf       ,note #a4--;,fatherly         
,authority                              
#hf           #b4--,right to ,public    
,support                          #ij   
#c4--,trial ,schools                    
#ie           #d4--,public ,favour      
#aja           #e4--;,invention of new  
wants                          #ajb     
#f4--;,economy of ,literature           
#ajd           #g4--,pilots of the      

,state                             #ajf 
#h4--,silk and ,purple                  
#ajg     ,,part ,,ii4    ,,unto ,,this  
,,last                                  
#aag      ,,essay         ,i4--,the     
,roots of ,honour                       
#abg        ,,ii4--,the ,veins of       
,wealth                                 
#adc       ,,iii4--,qui ,judicatis      
,terram                                 
#aef        ,,iv4--,ad ,valorem         
#agc     ,,part ,,iii4    ,,essays ,,on 
,,political ,,economy,a                 
,i4--,,maintenance ,,of ,,life3         
,,wealth1 ,,money ,,and ,,riches        
#bjg       ,section #a4 ,wealth         
#bad              #b4 ,money            
#bai              #c4 ,riches           
#bbb      ,,ii4--,,nature ,,of ,,wealth1
 ,,variations ,,of ,,value1 ,,the       
,,national     ,,store1 ,,nature ,,of   
,,labour1 ,,value ,,and ,,price1 ,,the  
,,currency       #bbe      ,,iii4--,,the
 ,,currency-,,holders ,,and             
,,store-,,holders1 ,,the ,,disease      

,,of ,,desire                           
#beb      ,,iv4--,,laws ,,and           
,,governments3 ,,labour ,,and ,,riches  
#bgh      ,a ,these ,essays were        
afterwards revised and amplified1 and   
published with others under the title   
,munera ,pulveris4     ,,the ,,political
 ,,economy ,,of ,,art4     ,,preface4   
,the greater part of the following      
treatise remains in the exact form in   
which it was read at ,manchester2 but   
the more familiar passages of it1 which 
were trusted to extempore delivery1 have
 been since written with greater        
explicitness and fullness than ,i could 
give them in speaking2 and a            
considerable number of notes are added1 
to explain the points which could not be
 sufficiently considered in the time ,i 
had at my disposal in the lecture-room4 
,some apology may be thought due to the 
reader1 for an endeavour to engage his  
attention on a subject of which no      
profound study seems compatible with the
 work in which ,i am usually employed4  

,but profound study is not1 in this     
case1 necessary either to writer or     
reader1 while accurate study1 up to a   
certain point1 is necessary for us all4 
,political economy means1 in plain      
,english1 nothing more than citizens'   
economy2 and its first principles ought1
 therefore1 to be understood by all who 
mean to take the responsibility of      
citizens1 as those of household economy 
by all who take the responsibility of   
householders4 ,nor are its first        
principles in the least obscure3 they   
are1 many of them1 disagreeable in their
 practical requirements1 and people in  
general pretend that they cannot        
understand1 because they are unwilling  
to obey them2 or1 rather1 by habitual   
disobedience1 destroy their capacity of 
understanding them4 ,but there is not   
one of the really great principles of   
the science which is either obscure or  
disputable--which might not be taught to
 a youth as soon as he can be trusted   
with an annual allowance1 or to a young 

lady as soon as she is of age to be     
taken into counsel by the housekeeper4  
,i might1 with more appearance of       
justice1 be blamed for thinking it      
necessary to enforce what everybody is  
supposed to know4 ,but this fault will  
hardly be found with me1 while the      
commercial events recorded daily in our 
journals1 and still more the            
explanations attempted to be given of   
them1 show that a large number of our   
so-called merchants are as ignorant of  
the nature of money as they are         
reckless1 unjust1 and unfortunate in its
 employment4  ,the statements of        
economical principle given in the text1 
though ,i know that most1 if not all1 of
 them are accepted by existing          
authorities on the science1 are not     
supported by references1 because ,i have
 never read any author on political     
economy1 except ,adam ,smith1 twenty    
years ago4#a ,whenever ,i have taken up 
any modern book upon this subject1 ,i   
have usually found it encumbered with   

inquiries into accidental or minor      
commercial results1 for the pursuit of  
which an ordinary reader could have no  
leisure1 and1 by the complication of    
which1 it seemed to me1 the authors     
themselves had been not unfrequently    
prevented from seeing to the root of the
 business4      #a #aheg4  ,finally1 if 
the reader should feel inclined to blame
 me for too sanguine a statement of     
future possibilities in political       
practice1 let him consider how absurd it
 would have appeared in the days of     
,edward ,i4 if the present state of     
social economy had been then predicted  
as necessary1 or even described as      
possible4 ,and ,i believe the advance   
from the days of ,edward ,i4 to our own1
 great as it is confessedly1 consists1  
not so much in what we have actually    
accomplished1 as in what we are now     
enabled to conceive4     ,,lecture ,i4  
,among the various characteristics of   
the age in which we live1 as compared   
with other ages of this not yet very    

experienced world1 one of the most      
notable appears to me to be the just and
 wholesome contempt in which we hold    
poverty4 ,i repeat1 the just and        
wholesome contempt2 though ,i see that  
some of my hearers look surprised at the
 expression4 ,i assure them1 ,i use it  
in sincerity2 and ,i should not have    
ventured to ask you to listen to me this
 evening1 unless ,i had entertained a   
profound respect for wealth--true       
wealth1 that is to say2 for1 of course1 
we ought to respect neither wealth nor  
anything else that is false of its kind3
 and the distinction between real and   
false wealth is one of the points on    
which ,i shall have a few words         
presently to say to you4 ,but true      
wealth ,i hold1 as ,i said1 in great    
honour2 and sympathize1 for the most    
part1 with that extraordinary feeling of
 the present age which publicly pays    
this honour to riches4 ,i cannot1       
however1 help noticing how extraordinary
 it is1 and how this epoch of ours      

differs from all bygone epochs in having
 no philosophical nor religious         
worshippers of the ragged godship of    
poverty4 ,in the classical ages1 not    
only there were people who voluntarily  
lived in tubs1 and who used gravely to  
maintain the superiority of tub-life to 
town-life1 but the ,greeks and ,latins  
seem to have looked on these eccentric1 
and ,i do not scruple to say1 absurd    
people1 with as much respect as we do   
upon large capitalists and landed       
proprietors2 so that really1 in those   
days1 no one could be described as purse
 proud1 but only as empty-purse proud4  
,and no less distinct than the honour   
which those curious ,greek people pay to
 their conceited poor1 is the           
disrespectful manner in which they speak
 of the rich2 so that one cannot listen 
long either to them1 or to the ,roman   
writers who imitated them1 without      
finding oneself entangled in all sorts  
of plausible absurdities2 hard upon     
being convinced of the uselessness of   

collecting that heavy yellow substance  
which we call gold1 and led generally to
 doubt all the most established maxims  
of political economy4 ,nor are matters  
much better in the middle ages4 ,for the
 ,greeks and ,romans contented          
themselves with mocking at rich people1 
and constructing merry dialogues between
 ,charon and ,diogenes or ,menippus1 in 
which the ferryman and the cynic        
rejoiced together as they saw kings and 
rich men coming down to the shore of    
,acheron1 in lamenting and lamentable   
crowds1 casting their crowns into the   
dark waters1 and searching1 sometimes in
 vain1 for the last coin out of all     
their treasures that could ever be of   
use to them4 ,but these ,pagan views of 
the matter were indulgent1 compared with
 those which were held in the middle    
ages1 when wealth seems to have been    
looked upon by the best men not only as 
contemptible1 but as criminal4 ,the     
purse round the neck is1 then1 one of   
the principal signs of condemnation in  

the pictured ,inferno2 and the ,spirit  
of ,poverty is reverenced with          
subjection of heart1 and faithfulness of
 affection1 like that of a loyal knight 
for his lady1 or a loyal subject for his
 queen4 ,and truly1 it requires some    
boldness to quit ourselves of these     
feelings1 and to confess their          
partiality or their error1 which1       
nevertheless1 we are certainly bound to 
do4 ,for wealth is simply one of the    
greatest powers which can be entrusted  
to human hands3 a power1 not indeed to  
be envied1 because it seldom makes us   
happy2 but still less to be abdicated or
 despised2 while1 in these days1 and in 
this country1 it has become a power all 
the more notable1 in that the           
possessions of a rich man are not       
represented1 as they used to be1 by     
wedges of gold or coffers of jewels1 but
 by masses of men variously employed1   
over whose bodies and minds the wealth1 
according to its direction1 exercises   
harmful or helpful influence1 and       

becomes1 in that alternative1 ,mammon   
either of ,unrighteousness or of        
,righteousness4  ,now1 it seemed to me  
that since1 in the name you have given  
to this great gathering of ,british     
pictures1 you recognise them as         
,treasures--that is1 ,i suppose1 as part
 and parcel of the real wealth of the   
country--you might not be uninterested  
in tracing certain commercial questions 
connected with this particular form of  
wealth4 ,most persons express themselves
 as surprised at its quantity2 not      
having known before to what an extent   
good art had been accumulated in        
,england3 and it will1 therefore1 ,i    
should think1 be held a worthy subject  
of consideration1 what are the political
 interests involved in such             
accumulations2 what kind of labour they 
represent1 and how this labour may in   
general be applied and economized1 so as
 to produce the richest results4  ,now1 
you must have patience with me1 if in   
approaching the specialty of this       

subject1 ,i dwell a little on certain   
points of general political science     
already known or established3 for though
 thus1 as ,i believe1 established1 some 
which ,i shall have occasion to rest    
arguments on are not yet by any means   
universally accepted2 and therefore1    
though ,i will not lose time in any     
detailed defence of them1 it is         
necessary that ,i should distinctly tell
 you in what form ,i receive1 and wish  
to argue from them2 and this the more1  
because there may perhaps be a part of  
my audience who have not interested     
themselves in political economy1 as it  
bears on ordinary fields of labour1 but 
may yet wish to hear in what way its    
principles can be applied to ,art4 ,i   
shall1 therefore1 take leave to trespass
 on your patience with a few elementary 
statements in the outset1 and with1 the 
expression of some general principles1  
here and there1 in the course of our    
particular inquiry4  ,to begin1 then1   
with one of these necessary truisms3 all

 economy1 whether of states1 households1
 or individuals1 may be defined to be   
the art of managing labour4 ,the world  
is so regulated by the laws of          
,providence1 that a man's labour1 well  
applied1 is always amply sufficient to  
provide him during his life with all    
things needful to him1 and not only with
 those1 but with many pleasant objects  
of luxury2 and yet farther1 to procure  
him large intervals of healthful rest   
and serviceable leisure4 ,and a nation's
 labour1 well applied1 is in like       
manner1 amply sufficient to provide its 
whole population with good food and     
comfortable habitation2 and not with    
those only1 but with good education     
besides1 and objects of luxury1 art     
treasures1 such as these you have around
 you now4 ,but by those same laws of    
,nature and ,providence1 if the labour  
of the nation or of the individual be   
misapplied1 and much more if it be      
insufficient1--if the nation or man be  
indolent and unwise1--suffering and want

 result1 exactly in proportion to the   
indolence and improvidence1--to the     
refusal of labour1 or to the            
misapplication of it4 ,wherever you see 
want1 or misery1 or degradation1 in this
 world about you1 there1 be sure1 either
 industry has been wanting1 or industry 
has been in error4 ,it is not accident1 
it is not ,heaven-commanded calamity1 it
 is not the original and inevitable evil
 of man's nature1 which fill your       
streets with lamentation1 and your      
graves with prey4 ,it is only that1 when
 there should have been providence1     
there has been waste2 when there should 
have been labour1 there has been        
lasciviousness2 and1 wilfulness1 when   
there should have been subordination4#b 
#b ,proverbs xiii4 #bc3 ,much food is in
 the tillage of the poor3         but   
there is that is destroyed for want of  
judgment4  ,now1 we have warped the word
 economy in our ,english3 language into 
a meaning which it has no business      
whatever to bear4 ,in our use of it1 it 

constantly signifies merely sparing or  
saving2 economy of money means saving   
money--economy of time1 sparing time1   
and so on4 ,but that is a wholly        
barbarous use of the word--barbarous in 
a double sense1 for it is not ,english1 
and it is bad ,greek2 barbarous in a    
treble sense1 for it is not ,english1 it
 is bad ,greek1 and it is worse sense4  
,economy no more means saving money than
 it means spending money4 ,it means1 the
 administration of a house2 its         
stewardship2 spending or saving1 that   
is1 whether money or time1 or anything  
else1 to the best possible advantage4   
,in the simplest and clearest definition
 of it1 economy1 whether public or      
private1 means the wise management of   
labour2 and it means this mainly in     
three senses3 namely1 first1 applying   
your labour rationally2 secondly1       
preserving its produce carefully2       
lastly1 distributing its produce        
seasonably4  ,i say first1 applying your
 labour rationally2 that is1 so as to   

obtain the most precious things you can1
 and the most lasting things1 by it3 not
 growing oats in land where you can grow
 wheat1 nor putting fine embroidery on a
 stuff that will not wear4 ,secondly1   
preserving its produce carefully2 that  
is to say1 laying up your wheat wisely  
in storehouses for the time of famine1  
and keeping your embroidery watchfully  
from the moth3 and lastly1 distributing 
its produce seasonably2 that is to say1 
being able to carry your corn at once to
 the place where the people are hungry1 
and your embroideries to the places     
where they are gay1 so fulfilling in all
 ways the ,wise ,man's description1     
whether of the queenly housewife or     
queenly nation4 ,she riseth while it is 
yet night1 and giveth meat to her       
household1 and a portion to her maidens4
 ,she maketh herself coverings of       
tapestry1 her clothing is silk and      
purple4 ,strength and honour are in her 
clothing1 and she shall rejoice in time 
to come4  ,now1 you will observe that in

 this description of the perfect        
economist1 or mistress of a household1  
there is a studied expression of the    
balanced division of her care between   
the two great objects of utility and    
splendour2 in her right hand1 food and  
flax1 for life and clothing2 in her left
 hand1 the purple and the needlework1   
for honour and for beauty4 ,all perfect 
housewifery or national economy is known
 by these two divisions2 wherever either
 is wanting1 the economy is imperfect4  
,if the motive of pomp prevails1 and the
 care of the national economist is      
directed only to the accumulation of    
gold1 and of pictures1 and of silk and  
marble1 you know at once that the time  
must soon come when all these treasures 
shall be scattered and blasted in       
national ruin4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the
 element of utility prevails1 and the   
nation disdains to occupy itself in any 
wise with the arts of beauty or delight1
 not only a certain quantity of its     
energy calculated for exercise in those 

arts alone must be entirely wasted1     
which is bad economy1 but also the      
passions connected with the utilities of
 property become morbidly strong1 and a 
mean lust of accumulation merely for the
 sake of accumulation1 or even of labour
 merely for the sake of labour1 will    
banish at last the serenity and the     
morality of life1 as completely1 and    
perhaps more ignobly1 than even the     
lavishness of pride and the lightness of
 pleasure4 ,and similarly1 and much more
 visibly1 in private and household      
economy1 you may judge always of its    
perfectness by its fair balance between 
the use and the pleasure of its         
possessions4 ,you will see the wise     
cottager's garden trimly divided between
 its well-set vegetables1 and its       
fragrant flowers2 you will see the good 
housewife taking pride in her pretty    
table-cloth1 and her glittering shelves1
 no less than in her well-dressed dish1 
and her full storeroom2 the care in her 
countenance will alternate with gaiety1 

and though you will reverence her in her
 seriousness1 you will know her best by 
her smile4  ,now1 as you will have      
anticipated1 ,i am going to address you1
 on this and our succeeding evening1    
chiefly on the subject of that economy  
which relates rather to the garden than 
the farm-yard4 ,i shall ask you to      
consider with me the kind of laws by    
which we shall best distribute the beds 
of our national garden1 and raise in it 
the sweetest succession of trees        
pleasant to the sight1 and 7in no       
forbidden sense7 to be desired to make  
us wise4 ,but1 before proceeding to open
 this specialty of our subject1 let me  
pause for a few moments to plead with   
you for the acceptance of that principle
 of government or authority which must  
be at the root of all economy1 whether  
for use or for pleasure4 ,i said1 a few 
minutes ago1 that a nation's labour1    
well applied1 was amply sufficient to   
provide its whole population with good  
food1 comfortable clothing1 and pleasant

 luxury4 ,but the good1 instant1 and    
constant application is everything4 ,we 
must not1 when our strong hands are     
thrown out of work1 look wildly about   
for want of something to do with them4  
,if ever we feel that want1 it is a sign
 that all our household is out of order4
 ,fancy a farmer's wife1 to whom one or 
two of her servants should come at      
twelve o'clock at noon1 crying that they
 had got nothing to do2 that they did   
not know what to do next3 and fancy     
still farther1 the said farmer's wife   
looking hopelessly about her rooms and  
yard1 they being all the while          
considerably in disorder1 not knowing   
where to set the spare hand-maidens to  
work1 and at last complaining bitterly  
that she had been obliged to give them  
their dinner for nothing4 ,that's the   
type of the kind of political economy we
 practise too often in ,england4 ,would 
you not at once assert of such a        
mistress that she knew nothing of her   
duties8 and would you not be certain1 if

 the household were rightly managed1 the
 mistress would be only too glad at any 
moment to have the help of any number of
 spare hands2 that she would know in an 
instant what to set them to2--in an     
instant what part of to-morrow's work   
might be most serviceably forwarded1    
what part of next month's work most     
wisely provided for1 or what new task of
 some profitable kind undertaken8 and   
when the evening came1 and she dismissed
 her servants to their recreation or    
their rest1 or gathered them to the     
reading round the work-table1 under the 
eaves in the sunset1 would you not be   
sure to find that none of them had been 
overtasked by her1 just because none had
 been left idle2 that everything had    
been accomplished because all had been  
employed2 that the kindness of the      
mistress had aided her presence of mind1
 and the slight labour had been         
entrusted to the weak1 and the          
formidable to the strong2 and that as   
none had been dishonoured by inactivity 

so none had been broken by toil8  ,now1 
the precise counterpart of such a       
household would be seen in a nation in  
which political economy was rightly     
understood4 ,you complain of the        
difficulty of finding work for your men4
 ,depend upon it1 the real difficulty   
rather is to find men for your work4    
,the serious question for you is not how
 many you have to feed1 but how much you
 have to do2 it is our inactivity1 not  
our hunger1 that ruins us3 let us never 
fear that our servants should have a    
good appetite--our wealth is in their   
strength1 not in their starvation4 ,look
 around this island of yours1 and see   
what you have to do in it4 ,the sea     
roars against your harbourless          
cliffs--you have to build the           
breakwater1 and dig the port of refuge2 
the unclean pestilence ravins in your   
streets--you have to bring the full     
stream from the hills1 and to send the  
free winds through the thoroughfare2 the
 famine blanches your lips and eats away

 your flesh--you have to dig the moor   
and dry the marsh1 to bid the morass    
give forth instead of engulphing1 and to
 wring the honey and oil out of the     
rock4 ,these things1 and thousands such1
 we have to do1 and shall have to do    
constantly1 on this great farm of ours2 
for do not suppose that it is anything  
else than that4 ,precisely the same laws
 of economy which apply to the          
cultivation of a farm or an estate apply
 to the cultivation of a province or of 
an island4 ,whatever rebuke you would   
address to the improvident master of an 
ill-managed patrimony1 precisely that   
rebuke we should address to ourselves1  
so far as we leave our population in    
idleness and our country in disorder4   
,what would you say to the lord of an   
estate who complained to you of his     
poverty and disabilities1 and1 when you 
pointed out to him that his land was    
half of it overrun with weeds1 and that 
his fences were all in ruin1 and that   
his cattle-sheds were roofless1 and his 

labourers lying under the hedges faint  
for want of food1 he answered to you    
that it would ruin him to weed his land 
or to roof his sheds--that those were   
too costly operations for him to        
undertake1 and that he knew not how to  
feed his labourers nor pay them8 ,would 
you not instantly answer1 that instead  
of ruining him to weed his fields1 it   
would save him2 that his inactivity was 
his destruction1 and that to set his    
labourers to work was to feed them8     
,now1 you may add acre to acre1 and     
estate to estate1 as far as you like1   
but you will never reach a compass of   
ground which shall escape from the      
authority of these simple laws4 ,the    
principles which are right in the       
administration of a few fields1 are     
right also in the administration of a   
great country from horizon to horizon3  
idleness does not cease to be ruinous   
because it is extensive1 nor labour to  
be productive because it is universal4  
,nay1 but you reply1 there is one vast  

difference between the nation's economy 
and the private man's3 the farmer has   
full authority over his labourers2 he   
can direct them to do what is needed to 
be done1 whether they like it or not2   
and he can turn them away if they refuse
 to work1 or impede others in their     
working1 or are disobedient1 or         
quarrelsome4 ,there is this great       
difference2 it is precisely this        
difference on which ,i wish to fix your 
attention1 for it is precisely this     
difference which you have to do away    
with4 ,we know the necessity of         
authority in farm1 or in fleet1 or in   
army2 but we commonly refuse to admit it
 in the body of the nation4 ,let us     
consider this point a little4  ,in the  
various awkward and unfortunate efforts 
which the ,french have made at the      
development of a social system1 they    
have at least stated one true principle1
 that of fraternity or brotherhood4 ,do 
not be alarmed2 they got all wrong in   
their experiments1 because they quite   

forgot that this fact of fraternity     
implied another fact quite as           
important--that of paternity or         
fatherhood4 ,that is to say1 if they    
were to regard the nation as one family1
 the condition of unity in that family  
consisted no less in their having a     
head1 or a father1 than in their being  
faithful and affectionate members1 or   
brothers4 ,but we must not forget this1 
for we have long confessed it with our  
lips1 though we refuse to confess it in 
our lives4 ,for half an hour every      
,sunday we expect a man in a black gown1
 supposed to be telling us truth1 to    
address us as brethren1 though we should
 be shocked at the notion of any        
brotherhood existing among us out of    
church4 ,and we can hardly read a few   
sentences on any political subject      
without running a chance of crossing the
 phrase paternal government1 though we  
should be utterly horror-struck at the  
idea of governments claiming anything   
like a father's authority over us4 ,now1

 ,i believe those two formal phrases are
 in both instances perfectly binding and
 accurate1 and that the image of the    
farm and its servants which ,i have     
hitherto used1 as expressing a wholesome
 national organization1 fails only of   
doing so1 not because it is too         
domestic1 but because it is not domestic
 enough2 because the real type of a     
well-organized nation must be presented1
 not by a farm cultivated by servants   
who wrought for hire1 and might be      
turned away if they refused to labour1  
but by a farm in which the master was a 
father1 and in which all the servants   
were sons2 which implied1 therefore1 in 
all its regulations1 not merely the     
order of expediency1 but the bonds of   
affection and responsibilities of       
relationship2 and in which all acts and 
services were not only to be sweetened  
by brotherly concord1 but to be enforced
 by fatherly authority4#c      #c ,see  
note #ast1 in ,addenda p4 #hf4          
,observe1 ,i do not mean in the least   

that we ought to place such an authority
 in the hands of any one person1 or of  
any class or body of persons4 ,but ,i do
 mean to say that as an individual who  
conducts himself wisely must make laws  
for himself which at some time or other 
may appear irksome or injurious1 but    
which1 precisely at the time they appear
 most irksome1 it is most necessary he  
should obey1 so a nation which means to 
conduct itself wisely1 must establish   
authority over itself1 vested either in 
kings1 councils1 or laws1 which it must 
resolve to obey1 even at times when the 
law or authority appears irksome to the 
body of the people1 or injurious to     
certain masses of it4 ,and this kind of 
national law has hitherto been only     
judicial2 contented1 that is1 with an   
endeavour to prevent and punish violence
 and crime3 but1 as we advance in our   
social knowledge2 we shall endeavour to 
make our government paternal as well as 
judicial2 that is1 to establish such    
laws and authorities as may at once     

direct us in our occupations1 protect us
 against our follies1 and visit us in   
our distresses3 a government which shall
 repress dishonesty1 as now it punishes 
theft2 which shall show how the         
discipline of the masses may be brought 
to aid the toils of peace1 as discipline
 of the masses has hitherto knit the    
sinews of battle2 a government which    
shall have its soldiers of the          
ploughshare as well as its soldiers of  
the sword1 and which shall distribute   
more proudly its golden crosses of      
industry--golden as the glow of the     
harvest1 than now it grants its bronze  
crosses of honour--bronzed with the     
crimson of blood4  ,i have not1 of      
course1 time to insist on the nature or 
details of government of this kind2 only
 ,i wish to plead for your several and  
future consideration of this one truth1 
that the notion of ,discipline and      
,interference lies at the very root of  
all human progress or power2 that the   
,let alone principle is1 in all things  

which man has to do with1 the principle 
of death2 that it is ruin to him1       
certain and total1 if he lets his land  
alone--if he lets his fellow-men        
alone--if he lets his own soul alone4   
,that his whole life1 on the contrary1  
must1 if it is healthy life1 be         
continually one of ploughing and        
pruning1 rebuking and helping1 governing
 and punishing2 and that therefore it is
 only in the concession of some great   
principle of restraint and interference 
in national action that he can ever hope
 to find the secret of protection       
against national degradation4 ,i believe
 that the masses have a right to claim  
education from their government2 but    
only so far as they acknowledge the duty
 of yielding obedience to their         
government4 ,i believe they have a right
 to claim employment from their         
governours2 but only so far as they     
yield to the governour the direction and
 discipline of their labour2 and it is  
only so far as they grant to the men    

whom they may set over them the father's
 authority to check the childishnesses  
of national fancy1 and direct the       
waywardnesses of national energy1 that  
they have a right to ask that none of   
their distresses should be unrelieved1  
none of their weaknesses unwatched2 and 
that no grief1 nor nakedness1 nor peril 
should exist for them1 against which the
 father's hand was not outstretched1 or 
the father's shield uplifted4#d      #d 
,compare ,wordsworth's ,essay on the    
,poor-,law ,amendment ,bill4         ,i 
quote one important passage3--,but1 if  
it be not safe to         touch the     
abstract question of man's right in a   
social state         to help himself    
even in the last extremity1 may we not  
still         contend for the duty of a 
,christian government1 standing in      
loco parentis towards all its subjects1 
to make such         effectual provision
 that no one shall be in danger of      
perishing either through the neglect or 
harshness of its         legislation8   

,or1 waiving this1 is it not            
indisputable that         the claim of  
the ,state to the allegiance1 involves  
the         protection of the subject8  
,and1 as all rights in one party        
impose a correlative duty upon another1 
it follows that the         right of the
 ,state to require the services of its  
members1         even to the jeoparding 
of their lives in the common defence1   
establishes a right in the people 7not  
to be gainsaid by         utilitarians  
and economists7 to public support when1 
from         any cause1 they may be     
unable to support themselves4--7,see    
note #bnd in ,addenda p4 #ij74  ,now1 ,i
 have pressed this upon you at more     
length than is needful or proportioned  
to our present purposes of inquiry1     
because ,i would not for the first time 
speak to you on this subject of         
political economy without clearly       
stating what ,i believe to be its first 
grand principle4 ,but its bearing on the
 matter in hand is chiefly to prevent   

you from at once too violently          
dissenting from me when what ,i may     
state to you as advisable economy in art
 appears to imply too much restraint or 
interference with the freedom of the    
patron or artist4 ,we are a little apt1 
though1 on the whole a prudent nation1  
to act too immediately on our impulses1 
even in matters merely commercial2 much 
more in those involving continual       
appeals to our fancies4 ,how far1       
therefore1 the proposed systems or      
restraints may be advisable1 it is for  
you to judge2 only ,i pray you not to be
 offended with them merely because they 
are systems and restraints4 ,do you at  
all recollect that interesting passage  
of ,carlyle1 in which he compares1 in   
this country and at this day1 the       
understood and commercial value of man  
and horse2 and in which he wonders that 
the horse1 with its inferior brains and 
its awkward hoofiness1 instead of       
handiness1 should be always worth so    
many tens or scores of pounds in the    

market1 while the man1 so far from      
always commanding his price in the      
market1 would often be thought to confer
 a service on the community by simply   
killing himself out of their way8 ,well1
 ,carlyle does not answer his own       
question1 because he supposes we shall  
at once see the answer4 ,the value of   
the horse consists simply in the fact of
 your being able to put a bridle on him4
 ,the value of the man consists         
precisely in the same thing4 ,if you can
 bridle him1 or which is better1 if he  
can bridle himself1 he will be a        
valuable creature directly4 ,otherwise1 
in a commercial point of view1 his value
 is either nothing1 or accidental only4 
,only1 of course1 the proper bridle of  
man is not a leathern one3 what kind of 
texture it is rightly made of1 we find  
from that command1 ,be ye not as the    
horse or as the mule which have no      
understanding1 whose mouths must be held
 in with bit and bridle4 ,you are not to
 be without the reins1 indeed1 but they 

are to be of another kind2 ,i will guide
 thee with mine ,eye4 ,so the bridle of 
man is to be the ,eye of ,god2 and if he
 rejects that guidance1 then the next   
best for him is the horse's and the     
mule's1 which have no understanding2 and
 if he rejects that1 and takes the bit  
fairly in his teeth1 then there is      
nothing left for him than the blood that
 comes out of the city1 up to the       
horsebridles4  ,quitting1 however1 at   
last these general and serious laws of  
government--or rather bringing them down
 to our own business in hand--we have to
 consider three points of discipline in 
that particular branch of human labour  
which is concerned1 not with procuring  
of food1 but the expression of emotion2 
we have to consider respecting art3     
first1 how to apply our labour to it2   
then1 how to accumulate or preserve the 
results of labour2 and then1 how to     
distribute them4 ,but since in art the  
labour which we have to employ is the   
labour of a particular class of men--men

 who have special genius for the        
business1 we have not only to consider  
how to apply the labour1 but first of   
all1 how to produce the labourer2 and   
thus the question in this particular    
case becomes fourfold3 first1 how to get
 your man of genius2 then1 how to employ
 your man of genius2 then1 how to       
accumulate and preserve his work in the 
greatest quantity2 and lastly1 how to   
distribute his work to the best national
 advantage4 ,let us take up these       
questions in succession4   ,i4          
,,discovery4--,how are we to get our men
 of genius3 that is to say1 by what     
means may we produce among us1 at any   
given time1 the greatest quantity of    
effective art-intellect8 ,a wide        
question1 you say1 involving an account 
of all the best means of art education4 
,yes1 but ,i do not mean to go into the 
consideration of those2 ,i want only to 
state the few principles which lie at   
the foundation of the matter4 ,of these1
 the first is that you have always to   

find your artist1 not to make him2 you  
can't manufacture him1 any more than you
 can manufacture gold4 ,you can find    
him1 and refine him3 you dig him out as 
he lies nugget-fashion in the           
mountain-stream2 you bring him home2 and
 you make him into current coin1 or     
household plate1 but not one grain of   
him can you originally produce4 ,a      
certain quantity of art-intellect is    
born annually in every nation1 greater  
or less according to the nature and     
cultivation of the nation or race of    
men2 but a perfectly fixed quantity     
annually1 not increaseable by one grain4
 ,you may lose it1 or you may gather it2
 you may let it lie loose in the ravine1
 and buried in the sands1 or you may    
make kings' thrones of it1 and overlay  
temple gates with it1 as you choose3 but
 the best you can do with it is always  
merely sifting1 melting1 hammering1     
purifying--never creating4 ,and there is
 another thing notable about this       
artistical gold2 not only is it limited 

in quantity1 but in use4 ,you need not  
make thrones or golden gates with it    
unless you like1 but assuredly you can't
 do anything else with it4 ,you can't   
make knives of it1 nor armour1 nor      
railroads4 ,the gold won't cut you1 and 
it won't carry you2 put it to a         
mechanical use1 and you destroy it at   
once4 ,it is quite true that in the     
greatest artists1 their proper          
artistical faculty is united with every 
other2 and you may make use of the other
 faculties1 and let the artistical one  
lie dormant4 ,for aught ,i know1 there  
may be two or three ,leonardo da ,vincis
 employed at this moment in your        
harbours and railroads3 but you are not 
employing their ,leonardesque or golden 
faculty there1 you are only oppressing  
and destroying it4 ,and the artistical  
gift in average men is not joined with  
others2 your born painter1 if you don't 
make a painter of him1 won't be a       
first-rate merchant1 or lawyer2 at all  
events1 whatever he turns out1 his own  

special gift is unemployed by you2 and  
in no wise helps him in that other      
business4 ,so here you have a certain   
quantity of a particular sort of        
intelligence1 produced for you annually 
by providential laws1 which you can only
 make use of by setting it to its own   
proper work1 and which any attempt to   
use otherwise involves the dead loss of 
so much human energy4 ,well1 then1      
supposing we wish to employ it1 how is  
it to be best discovered and refined8   
,it is easily enough discovered4 ,to    
wish to employ it is to discover it4    
,all that you need is1 a school of      
trial#e in every important town1 in     
which those idle farmers' lads whom     
their masters never can keep out of     
mischief1 and those stupid tailors'     
'prentices who are always stitching the 
sleeves in wrong way upwards1 may have a
 try at this other trade2 only this     
school of trial must not be entirely    
regulated by formal laws of art         
education1 but must ultimately be the   

workshop of a good master painter1 who  
will try the lads with one kind of art  
and another1 till he finds out what they
 are fit for4 ,next1 after your trial   
school1 you want your easy and secure   
employment1 which is the matter of chief
 importance4 ,for1 even on the present  
system1 the boys who have really intense
 art capacity1 generally make painters  
of themselves2 but then1 the best half  
of their early energy is lost in the    
battle of life4 ,before a good painter  
can get employment1 his mind has always 
been embittered1 and his genius         
distorted4 ,a common mind usually       
stoops1 in plastic chill1 to whatever is
 asked of it1 and scrapes or daubs its  
way complacently into public favour4#f  
,but your great men quarrel with you1   
and you revenge yourselves by starving  
them for the first half of their lives4 
,precisely in the degree in which any   
painter possesses original genius1 is at
 present the increase of moral certainty
 that during his early years he will    

have a hard battle to fight2 and that   
just at the time when his conceptions   
ought to be full and happy1 his temper  
gentle1 and his hopes enthusiastic--just
 at that most critical period1 his heart
 is full of anxieties and household     
cares2 he is chilled by disappointments1
 and vexed by injustice2 he becomes     
obstinate in his errors1 no less than in
 his virtues1 and the arrows of his aims
 are blunted1 as the reeds of his trust 
are broken4      #e ,see note #crd1 in  
,addenda p4 #ie4      #f ,see note #dth1
 in ,addenda p4 #aja4  ,what we mainly  
want1 therefore1 is a means of          
sufficient and unagitated employment3   
not holding out great prizes for which  
young painters are to scramble2 but     
furnishing all with adequate support1   
and opportunity to display such power as
 they possess without rejection or      
mortification4 ,i need not say that the 
best field of labour of this kind would 
be presented by the constant progress of
 public works involving various         

decoration2 and we will presently       
examine what kind of public works may   
thus1 advantageously for the nation1 be 
in constant progress4 ,but a more       
important matter even than this of      
steady employment1 is the kind of       
criticism with which you1 the public1   
receive the works of the young men      
submitted to you4 ,you may do much harm 
by indiscreet praise and by indiscreet  
blame2 but remember1 the chief harm is  
always done by blame4 ,it stands to     
reason that a young man's work cannot be
 perfect4 ,it must be more or less      
ignorant2 it must be more or less       
feeble2 it is likely that it may be more
 or less experimental1 and if           
experimental1 here and there mistaken4  
,if1 therefore1 you allow yourself to   
launch out into sudden barking at the   
first faults you see1 the probability is
 that you are abusing the youth for some
 defect naturally and inevitably        
belonging to that stage of his progress2
 and that you might just as rationally  

find fault with a child for not being as
 prudent as a privy councillor1 or with 
a kitten for not being as grave as a    
cat4 ,but there is one fault which you  
may be quite sure is unnecessary1 and   
therefore a real and blameable fault3   
that is haste1 involving negligence4    
,whenever you see that a young man's    
work is either bold or slovenly1 then   
you may attack it firmly2 sure of being 
right4 ,if his work is bold1 it is      
insolent2 repress his insolence3 if it  
is slovenly1 it is indolent2 spur his   
indolence4 ,so long as he works in that 
dashing or impetuous way1 the best hope 
for him is in your contempt3 and it is  
only by the fact of his seeming not to  
seek your approbation that you may      
conjecture he deserves it4  ,but if he  
does deserve it1 be sure that you give  
it him1 else you not only run a chance  
of driving him from the right road by   
want of encouragement1 but you deprive  
yourselves of the happiest privilege you
 will ever have of rewarding his labour4

 ,for it is only the young who can      
receive much reward from men's praise3  
the old1 when they are great1 get too   
far beyond and above you to care what   
you think of them4 ,you may urge them   
then with sympathy1 and surround them   
then with acclamation2 but they will    
doubt your pleasure1 and despise your   
praise4 ,you might have cheered them in 
their race through the asphodel meadows 
of their youth2 you might have brought  
the proud1 bright scarlet into their    
faces1 if you had but cried once to them
 ,well done1 as they dashed up to the   
first goal of their early ambition4 ,but
 now1 their pleasure is in memory1 and  
their ambition is in heaven4 ,they can  
be kind to you1 but you never more can  
be kind to them4 ,you may be fed with   
the fruit and fullness of their old age1
 but you were as the nipping blight to  
them in their blossoming1 and your      
praise is only as the warm winds of     
autumn to the dying branches4  ,there is
 one thought still1 the saddest of all1 

bearing on this withholding of early    
help4 ,it is possible1 in some noble    
natures1 that the warmth and the        
affections of childhood may remain      
unchilled1 though unanswered2 and that  
the old man's heart may still be capable
 of gladness1 when the long-withheld    
sympathy is given at last4 ,but in these
 noble natures it nearly always happens1
 that the chief motive of earthly       
ambition has not been to give delight to
 themselves1 but to their parents4      
,every noble youth looks back1 as to the
 chiefest joy which this world's honour 
ever gave him1 to the moment when first 
he saw his father's eyes flash with     
pride1 and his mother turn away her head
 lest he should take her tears for tears
 of sorrow4 ,even the lover's joy1 when 
some worthiness of his is acknowledged  
before his mistress1 is not so great as 
that1 for it is not so pure--the desire 
to exalt himself in her eyes mixes with 
that of giving her delight2 but he does 
not need to exalt himself in his        

parents' eyes3 it is with the pure hope 
of giving them pleasure that he comes to
 tell them what he has done1 or what has
 been said of him2 and therefore he has 
a purer pleasure of his own4 ,and this  
purest and best of rewards you keep from
 him if you can3 you feed him in his    
tender youth with ashes and dishonour2  
and then you come to him1 obsequious1   
but too late1 with your sharp laurel    
crown1 the dew all dried from off its   
leaves2 and you thrust it into his      
languid hand1 and he looks at you       
wistfully4 ,what shall he do with it8   
,what can he do1 but go and lay it on   
his mother's grave8  ,thus1 then1 you   
see that you have to provide for your   
young men3 first1 the searching or      
discovering school2 then the calm       
employment2 then the justice of praise3 
one thing more you have to do for them  
in preparing them for full              
service--namely1 to make1 in the noble  
sense of the word1 gentlemen of them2   
that is to say1 to take care that their 

minds receive such training1 that in all
 they paint they shall see and feel the 
noblest things4 ,i am sorry to say1 that
 of all parts of an artist's education  
this is the most neglected among us2 and
 that even where the natural taste and  
feeling of the youth have been pure and 
true1 where there was the right stuff in
 him to make a gentleman of1 you may too
 frequently discern some jarring rents  
in his mind1 and elements of degradation
 in his treatment of subject1 owing to  
want of gentle training1 and of the     
liberal influence of literature4 ,this  
is quite visible in our greatest        
artists1 even in men like ,turner and   
,gainsborough2 while in the common grade
 of our second-rate painters the evil   
attains a pitch which is far too sadly  
manifest to need my dwelling upon it4   
,now1 no branch of art economy is more  
important than that of making the       
intellect at your disposal pure as well 
as powerful2 so that it may always      
gather for you the sweetest and fairest 

things4 ,the same quantity of labour    
from the same man's hand1 will1         
according as you have trained him1      
produce a lovely and useful work1 or a  
base and hurtful one1 and depend upon   
it1 whatever value it may possess1 by   
reason of the painter's skill1 its chief
 and final value1 to any nation1 depends
 upon its being able to exalt and       
refine1 as well as to please2 and that  
the picture which most truly deserves   
the name of an art-treasure1 is that    
which has been painted by a good man4   
,you cannot but see how far this would  
lead1 if ,i were to enlarge upon it4 ,i 
must take it up as a separate subject   
some other time3 only noticing at       
present that no money could be better   
spent by a nation than in providing a   
liberal and disciplined education for   
its painters1 as they advance into the  
critical period of their youth2 and that
 also1 a large part of their power      
during life depends upon the kind of    
subjects which you1 the public1 ask them

 for1 and therefore the kind of thoughts
 with which you require them to be      
habitually familiar4 ,i shall have more 
to say on this head when we come to     
consider what employment they should    
have in public buildings4  ,there are   
many other points of nearly as much     
importance as these1 to be explained    
with reference to the development of    
genius2 but ,i should have to ask you to
 come and hear six lectures instead of  
two if ,i were to go into their detail4 
,for instance1 ,i have not spoken of the
 way in which you ought to look for     
those artificers in various manual      
trades1 who1 without possessing the     
order of genius which you would desire  
to devote to higher purposes1 yet       
possess wit1 and humour1 and sense of   
colour1 and fancy for form--all         
commercially valuable as quantities of  
intellect1 and all more or less         
expressible in the lower arts of        
ironwork1 pottery1 decorative sculpture1
 and such like4 ,but these details1     

interesting as they are1 ,i must commend
 to your own consideration1 or leave for
 some future inquiry4 ,i want just now  
only to set the bearings of the entire  
subject broadly before you1 with enough 
of detailed illustration to make it     
intelligible2 and therefore ,i must quit
 the first head of it here1 and pass to 
the second1 namely1 how best to employ  
the genius we discover4 ,a certain      
quantity of able hands and heads being  
placed at our disposal1 what shall we   
most advisably set them upon8   ,,ii4   
,,application4--,there are three main   
points the economist has to attend to in
 this4  ,first1 ,to set his men to      
various work4  ,secondly1 ,to easy work4
  ,thirdly1 ,to lasting work4  ,i shall 
briefly touch on the first two1 for ,i  
want to arrest your attention on the    
last4  ,i say first1 to various work4   
,supposing you have two men of equal    
power as landscape painters--and both of
 them have an hour at your disposal4    
,you would not set them both to paint   

the same piece of landscape4 ,you would1
 of course1 rather have two subjects    
than a repetition of one4  ,well1       
supposing them sculptors1 will not the  
same rule hold8 ,you naturally conclude 
at once that it will2 but you will have 
hard work to convince your modern       
architects of that4 ,they will put      
twenty men to work1 to carve twenty     
capitals2 and all shall be the same4 ,if
 ,i could show you the architects' yards
 in ,england just now1 all open at once1
 perhaps you might see a thousand clever
 men1 all employed in carving the same  
design4 ,of the degradation and         
deathfulness to the art-intellect of the
 country involved in such a habit1 ,i   
have more or less been led to speak     
before now2 but ,i have not hitherto    
marked its definite tendency to increase
 the price of work1 as such4 ,when men  
are employed continually in carving the 
same ornaments1 they get into a         
monotonous and methodical habit of      
labour--precisely correspondent to that 

in which they would break stones1 or    
paint house-walls4 ,of course1 what they
 do so constantly1 they do easily2 and  
if you excite them temporarily by an    
increase of wages1 you may get much work
 done by them in a little time4 ,but1   
unless so stimulated1 men condemned to a
 monotonous exertion1 work--and always1 
by the laws of human nature1 must       
work--only at a tranquil rate1 not      
producing by any means a maximum result 
in a given time4 ,but if you allow them 
to vary their designs1 and thus interest
 their heads and hearts in what they are
 doing1 you will find them become eager1
 first1 to get their ideas expressed1   
and then to finish the expression of    
them2 and the moral energy thus brought 
to bear on the matter quickens1 and     
therefore cheapens1 the production in a 
most important degree4 ,sir ,thomas     
,deane1 the architect of the new ,museum
 at ,oxford1 told me1 as ,i passed      
through ,oxford on my way here1 that he 
found that1 owing to this cause alone1  

capitals of various design could be     
executed cheaper than capitals of       
similar design 7the amount of hand      
labour in each being the same7 by about 
#cj per cent4  ,well1 that is the first 
way1 then1 in which you will employ your
 intellect well2 and the simple         
observance of this plain rule of        
political economy will effect a noble   
revolution in your architecture1 such as
 you cannot at present so much as       
conceive4 ,then the second way in which 
we are to guard against waste is by     
setting our men to the easiest1 and     
therefore the quickest1 work which will 
answer the purpose4 ,marble1 for        
instance1 lasts quite as long as        
granite1 and is much softer to work2    
therefore1 when you get hold of a good  
sculptor1 give him marble to carve--not 
granite4 ,that1 you say1 is obvious     
enough4 ,yes2 but it is not so obvious  
how much of your workmen's time you     
waste annually in making them cut glass1
 after it has got hard1 when you ought  

to make them mould it while it is soft4 
,it is not so obvious how much expense  
you waste in cutting diamonds and       
rubies1 which are the hardest things you
 can find1 into shapes that mean        
nothing1 when the same men might be     
cutting sandstone and freestone into    
shapes that meant something4 ,it is not 
so obvious how much of the artists' time
 in ,italy you waste1 by forcing them to
 make wretched little pictures for you  
out of crumbs of stone glued together at
 enormous cost1 when the tenth of the   
time would make good and noble pictures 
for you out of water-colour4 ,i could go
 on giving you almost numberless        
instances of this great commercial      
mistake2 but ,i should only weary and   
confuse you4 ,i therefore commend also  
this head of our subject to your own    
meditation1 and proceed to the last ,i  
named--the last ,i shall task your      
patience with to-night4 ,you know we are
 now considering how to apply our       
genius2 and we were to do it as         

economists1 in three ways3--    ,to     
various work2   ,to easy work2   ,to    
lasting work4  ,this lasting of the     
work1 then1 is our final question4      
,many of you may1 perhaps1 remember that
 ,michael ,angelo was once commanded by 
,pietro di ,medici to mould a statue out
 of snow1 and that he obeyed the        
command4#g ,i am glad1 and we have all  
reason to be glad1 that such a fancy    
ever came into the mind of the unworthy 
prince1 and for this cause3 that ,pietro
 di ,medici then gave1 at the period of 
one great epoch of consummate power in  
the arts1 the perfect1 accurate2 and    
intensest possible type of the greatest 
error which nations and princes can     
commit1 respecting the power of genius  
entrusted to their guidance4 ,you had   
there1 observe1 the strongest genius in 
the most perfect obedience2 capable of  
iron independence1 yet wholly submissive
 to the patron's will2 at once the most 
highly accomplished and the most        
original1 capable of doing as much as   

man could do1 in any direction that man 
could ask4 ,and its governour1 and      
guide1 and patron sets it to build a    
statue in snow--to put itself into the  
service of annihilation--to make a cloud
 of itself1 and pass away from the      
earth4      #g ,see the noble passage on
 this tradition in ,casa ,guidi         
,windows4  ,now this1 so precisely and  
completely done by ,pietro di ,medici1  
is what we are all doing1 exactly in the
 degree in which we direct the genius   
under our patronage to work in more or  
less perishable materials4 ,so far as we
 induce painters to work in fading      
colours1 or architects to build with    
imperfect structure1 or in any other way
 consult only immediate ease and        
cheapness in the production of what we  
want1 to the exclusion of provident     
thought as to its permanence and        
serviceableness in after ages2 so far we
 are forcing our ,michael ,angelos to   
carve in snow4 ,the first duty of the   
economist in art is1 to see that no     

intellect shall thus glitter merely in  
the manner of hoar-frost2 but that it   
shall be well vitrified1 like a painted 
window1 and shall be set so between     
shafts of stone and bands of iron1 that 
it shall bear the sunshine upon it1 and 
send the sunshine through it1 from      
generation to generation4  ,i can       
conceive1 however1 some political       
economist to interrupt me here1 and say1
 ,if you make your art wear too well1   
you will soon have too much of it2 you  
will throw your artists quite out of    
work4 ,better allow for a little        
wholesome evanescence--beneficent       
destruction3 let each age provide art   
for itself1 or we shall soon have so    
many good pictures that we shall not    
know what to do with them4  ,remember1  
my dear hearers1 who are thus thinking1 
that political economy1 like every other
 subject1 cannot be dealt with          
effectively if we try to solve two      
questions at a time instead of one4 ,it 
is one question1 how to get plenty of a 

thing2 and another1 whether plenty of it
 will be good for us4 ,consider these   
two matters separately2 never confuse   
yourself by interweaving one with the   
other4 ,it is one question1 how to treat
 your fields so as to get a good        
harvest2 another1 whether you wish to   
have a good harvest1 or would rather    
like to keep up the price of corn4 ,it  
is one question1 how to graft your trees
 so as to grow most apples2 and quite   
another1 whether having such a heap of  
apples in the store-room will not make  
them all rot4  ,now1 therefore1 that we 
are talking only about grafting and     
growing1 pray do not vex yourselves with
 thinking what you are to do with the   
pippins4 ,it may be desirable for us to 
have much art1 or little--we will       
examine that by and by2 but just now1   
let us keep to the simple consideration 
how to get plenty of good art if we want
 it4 ,perhaps it might be just as well  
that a man of moderate income should be 
able to possess a good picture1 as that 

any work of real merit should cost      
,l#ejj or ,l#a1jjj2 at all events1 it is
 certainly one of the branches of       
political economy to ascertain how1 if  
we like1 we can get things in           
quantities--plenty of corn1 plenty of   
wine1 plenty of gold1 or plenty of      
pictures4  ,it has just been said1 that 
the first great secret is to produce    
work that will last4 ,now1 the          
conditions of work lasting are twofold3 
it must not only be in materials that   
will last1 but it must be itself of a   
quality that will last--it must be good 
enough to bear the test of time4 ,if it 
is not good1 we shall tire of it        
quickly1 and throw it aside--we shall   
have no pleasure in the accumulation of 
it4 ,so that the first question of a    
good art-economist respecting any work  
is1 ,will it lose its flavour by        
keeping8 ,it may be very amusing now1   
and look much like a work of genius4    
,but what will be its value a hundred   
years hence8  ,you cannot always        

ascertain this4 ,you may get what you   
fancy to be work of the best quality1   
and yet find to your astonishment that  
it won't keep4 ,but of one thing you may
 be sure1 that art which is produced    
hastily will also perish hastily2 and   
that what is cheapest to you now1 is    
likely to be dearest in the end4  ,i am 
sorry to say1 the great tendency of this
 age is to expend its genius in         
perishable art of this kind1 as if it   
were a triumph to burn its thoughts away
 in bonfires4 ,there is a vast quantity 
of intellect and of labour consumed     
annually in our cheap illustrated       
publications2 you triumph in them2 and  
you think it is so grand a thing to get 
so many woodcuts for a penny4 ,why1     
woodcuts1 penny and all1 are as much    
lost to you as if you had invested your 
money in gossamer4 ,more lost1 for the  
gossamer could only tickle your face1   
and glitter in your eyes2 it could not  
catch your feet and trip you up3 but the
 bad art can1 and does2 for you can't   

like good woodcuts as long as you look  
at the bad ones4 ,if we were at this    
moment to come across a ,titian woodcut1
 or a ,durer woodcut1 we should not like
 it--those of us at least who are       
accustomed to the cheap work of the day4
 ,we don't like1 and can't like1 that   
long2 but when we are tired of one bad  
cheap thing1 we throw it aside and buy  
another bad cheap thing2 and so keep    
looking at bad things all our lives4    
,now1 the very men who do all that quick
 bad work for us are capable of doing   
perfect work4 ,only1 perfect work can't 
be hurried1 and therefore it can't be   
cheap beyond a certain point4 ,but      
suppose you pay twelve times as much as 
you do now1 and you have one woodcut for
 a shilling instead of twelve2 and the  
one woodcut for a shilling is as good as
 art can be1 so that you will never tire
 of looking at it2 and is struck on good
 paper with good ink1 so that you will  
never wear it out by handling it2 while 
you are sick of your penny-each cuts by 

the end of the week1 and have torn them 
mostly in half too4 ,isn't your         
shilling's worth the best bargain8  ,it 
is not1 however1 only in getting prints 
or woodcuts of the best kind that you   
will practise economy4 ,there is a      
certain quality about an original       
drawing which you cannot get in a       
woodcut1 and the best part of the genius
 of many men is only expressible in     
original work1 whether with pen and     
ink--pencil or colours4 ,this is not    
always the case2 but in general1 the    
best men are those who can only express 
themselves on paper or canvass2 and you 
will1 therefore1 in the long run1 get   
most for your money by buying original  
work2 proceeding on the principle       
already laid down1 that the best is     
likely to be the cheapest in the end4   
,of course1 original work cannot be     
produced under a certain cost4 ,if you  
want a man to make you a drawing which  
takes him six days1 you must1 at all    
events1 keep him for six days in bread  

and water1 fire and lodging2 that is the
 lowest price at which he can do it for 
you1 but that is not very dear3 and the 
best bargain which can possibly be made 
honestly in art--the very ideal of a    
cheap purchase to the purchaser--is the 
original work of a great man fed for as 
many days as are necessary on bread and 
water1 or perhaps we may say with as    
many onions as will keep him in good    
humour4 ,that is the way by which you   
will always get most for your money2 no 
mechanical multiplication or ingenuity  
of commercial arrangements will ever get
 you a better penny's worth of art than 
that4  ,without1 however1 pushing our   
calculations quite to this              
prison-discipline extreme1 we may lay it
 down as a rule in art-economy1 that    
original work is1 on the whole1 cheapest
 and best worth having4 ,but precisely  
in proportion to the value of it as a   
production1 becomes the importance of   
having it executed in permanent         
materials4 ,and here we come to note the

 second main error of the day1 that we  
not only ask our workmen for bad art1   
but we make them put it into bad        
substance4 ,we have1 for example1 put a 
great quantity of genius1 within the    
last twenty years1 into water-colour    
drawing1 and we have done this with the 
most reckless disregard whether either  
the colours or the paper will stand4 ,in
 most instances1 neither will4 ,by      
accident1 it may happen that the colours
 in a given drawing have been of good   
quality1 and its paper uninjured by     
chemical processes4 ,but you take not   
the least care to ensure these being so2
 ,i have myself seen the most           
destructive changes take place in       
water-colour drawings within twenty     
years after they were painted2 and from 
all ,i can gather respecting the        
recklessness of modern paper            
manufacture1 my belief is1 that though  
you may still handle an ,albert ,durer  
engraving1 two hundred years old1       
fearlessly1 not one-half of that time   

will have passed over your modern       
water-colours1 before most of them will 
be reduced to mere white or brown rags2 
and your descendants1 twitching them    
contemptuously into fragments between   
finger and thumb1 will mutter against   
you1 half in scorn and half in anger1   
,those wretched nineteenth-century      
people6 they kept vapouring and fuming  
about the world1 doing what they called 
business1 and they couldn't make a sheet
 of paper that wasn't rotten4 ,and note 
that this is no unimportant portion of  
your art economy at this time4 ,your    
water-colour painters are becoming every
 day capable of expressing greater and  
better things2 and their material is    
especially adapted to the turn of your  
best artists' minds4 ,the value which   
you could accumulate in work of this    
kind would soon become a most important 
item in the national art-wealth1 if only
 you would take the little pains        
necessary to secure its permanence4 ,i  
am inclined to think1 myself1 that      

water-colour ought not to be used on    
paper at all1 but only on vellum1 and   
then1 if properly taken care of1 the    
drawing would be almost imperishable4   
,still1 paper is a much more convenient 
material for rapid work2 and it is an   
infinite absurdity not to secure the    
goodness of its quality1 when we could  
do so without the slightest trouble4    
,among the many favours which ,i am     
going to ask from our paternal          
government1 when we get it1 will be that
 it will supply its little boys with    
good paper4 ,you have nothing to do but 
to let the government establish a paper 
manufactory1 under the superintendence  
of any of our leading chemists1 who     
should be answerable for the safety and 
completeness of all the processes of the
 manufacture4 ,the government stamp on  
the corner of your sheet of             
drawing-paper1 made in the perfect way1 
should cost you a shilling1 which would 
add something to the revenue2 and when  
you bought a water-colour drawing for   

fifty or a hundred guineas1 you would   
have merely to look in the corner for   
your stamp1 and pay your extra shilling 
for the security that your hundred      
guineas were given really for a drawing1
 and not for a coloured rag4 ,there need
 be no monopoly or restriction in the   
matter2 let the paper manufacturers     
compete with the government1 and if     
people liked to save their shilling1 and
 take their chance1 let them2 only1 the 
artist and purchaser might then be sure 
of good material1 if they liked1 and now
 they cannot be4  ,i should like also to
 have a government colour manufactory2  
though that is not so necessary1 as the 
quality of colour is more within the    
artist's power of testing1 and ,i have  
no doubt that any painter may get       
permanent colour from the respectable   
manufacturers1 if he chooses4 ,i will   
not attempt to follow the subject out at
 all as it respects architecture1 and   
our methods of modern building2         
respecting which ,i have had occasion to

 speak before now4  ,but ,i cannot pass 
without some brief notice our           
habit--continually1 as it seems to me1  
gaining strength--of putting a large    
quantity of thought and work1 annually1 
into things which are either in their   
nature necessarily perishable1 as dress2
 or else into compliances with the      
fashion of the day1 in things not       
necessarily perishable1 as plate4 ,i am 
afraid almost the first idea of a young 
rich couple setting up house in ,london1
 is1 that they must have new plate4     
,their father's plate may be very       
handsome1 but the fashion is changed4   
,they will have a new service from the  
leading manufacturer1 and the old plate1
 except a few apostle spoons1 and a cup 
which ,charles the ,second drank a      
health in to their pretty ancestress1 is
 sent to be melted down1 and made up    
with new flourishes and fresh lustre4   
,now1 so long as this is the case--so   
long1 observe1 as fashion has influence 
on the manufacture of plate--so long you

 cannot have a goldsmith's art in this  
country4 ,do you suppose any workman    
worthy the name will put his brains into
 a cup or an urn1 which he knows is to  
go to the melting pot in half a score   
years8 ,he will not2 you don't ask or   
expect it of him4 ,you ask of him       
nothing but a little quick handicraft--a
 clever twist of a handle here1 and a   
foot there1 a convolvulus from the      
newest school of design1 a pheasant from
 ,landseer's game cards2 a couple of    
sentimental figures for supporters1 in  
the style of the signs of insurance     
offices1 then a clever touch with the   
burnisher1 and there's your epergne1 the
 admiration of all the footmen at the   
wedding-breakfast1 and the torment of   
some unfortunate youth who cannot see   
the pretty girl opposite to him1 through
 its tyrannous branches4  ,but you don't
 suppose that that's goldsmith's work8  
,goldsmith's work is made to last1 and  
made with the man's whole heart and soul
 in it2 true goldsmith's work1 when it  

exists1 is generally the means of       
education of the greatest painters and  
sculptors of the day4 ,francia was a    
goldsmith2 ,francia was not his own     
name1 but that of his master the        
jeweller2 and he signed his pictures    
almost always1 ,francia1 the goldsmith1 
for love of his master2 ,ghirlandajo was
 a goldsmith1 and was the master of     
,michael ,angelo2 ,verrocchio was a     
goldsmith1 and was the master of        
,leonardo da ,vinci4 ,ghiberti was a    
goldsmith1 and beat out the bronze gates
 which ,michael ,angelo said might serve
 for gates of ,paradise4#h ,but if ever 
you want work like theirs again1 you    
must keep it1 though it should have the 
misfortune to become old fashioned4 ,you
 must not break it up1 nor melt it any  
more4 ,there is no economy in that2 you 
could not easily waste intellect more   
grievously4 ,nature may melt her        
goldsmith's work at every sunset if she 
chooses2 and beat it out into chased    
bars again at every sunrise2 but you    

must not4 ,the way to have a truly noble
 service of plate1 is to keep adding to 
it1 not melting it4 ,at every marriage1 
and at every birth1 get a new piece of  
gold or silver if you will1 but with    
noble workmanship on it1 done for all   
time1 and put it among your treasures2  
that is one of the chief things which   
gold was made for1 and made             
incorruptible for4 ,when we know a      
little more of political economy1 we    
shall find that none but partially      
savage nations need1 imperatively1 gold 
for their currency2#i but gold has been 
given us1 among other things1 that we   
might put beautiful work into its       
imperishable splendour1 and that the    
artists who have the most wilful fancies
 may have a material which will drag    
out1 and beat out1 as their dreams      
require1 and will hold itself together  
with fantastic tenacity1 whatever rare  
and delicate service they set it upon4  
#h ,several reasons may account for the 
fact that goldsmith's         work is so

 wholesome for young artists2 first1    
that it gives         great firmness of 
hand to deal for some time with a solid 
substance2 again1 that it induces       
caution and steadiness--a         boy   
trusted with chalk and paper suffers an 
immediate         temptation to scrawl  
upon it and play with it1 but he dares  
not scrawl on gold1 and he cannot play  
with it2 and1 lastly1         that it   
gives great delicacy and precision of   
touch to work         upon minute forms1
 and to aim at producing richness and   
finish of design correspondent to the   
preciousness of the         material4   
#i ,see note in ,addenda on the nature  
of property p4 #ajg4  ,so here is one   
branch of decorative art in which rich  
people may indulge themselves           
unselfishly2 if they ask for good art in
 it1 they may be sure in buying gold and
 silver plate that they are enforcing   
useful education on young artists4 ,but 
there is another branch of decorative   
art in which ,i am sorry to say we      

cannot1 at least under existing         
circumstances1 indulge ourselves1 with  
the hope of doing good to anybody1 ,i   
mean the great and subtle art of dress4 
,and here ,i must interrupt the pursuit 
of our subject for a moment or two1 in  
order to state one of the principles of 
political economy1 which1 though it is1 
,i believe1 now sufficiently understood 
and asserted by the leading masters of  
the science1 is not yet1 ,i grieve to   
say1 acted upon by the plurality of     
those who have the management of riches4
 ,whenever we spend money1 we of course 
set people to work3 that is the meaning 
of spending money2 we may1 indeed1 lose 
it without employing anybody2 but1      
whenever we spend it1 we set a number of
 people to work1 greater or less1 of    
course1 according to the rate of wages1 
but1 in the long run1 proportioned to   
the sum we spend4 ,well1 your shallow   
people1 because they see that however   
they spend money they are always        
employing somebody1 and1 therefore1     

doing some good1 think and say to       
themselves1 that it is all one how they 
spend it--that all their apparently     
selfish luxury is1 in reality1          
unselfish1 and is doing just as much    
good as if they gave all their money    
away1 or perhaps more good2 and ,i have 
heard foolish people even declare it as 
a principle of political economy1 that  
whoever invented a new want#aj conferred
 a good on the community4 ,i have not   
words strong enough--at least ,i could  
not1 without shocking you1 use the words
 which would be strong enough--to       
express my estimate of the absurdity and
 the mischievousness of this popular    
fallacy4 ,so1 putting a great restraint 
upon myself1 and using no hard words1 ,i
 will simply try to state the nature of 
it1 and the extent of its influence4    
#aj ,see note #eth1 in ,addenda p4 #ajb4
  ,granted1 that whenever we spend money
 for whatever purpose1 we set people to 
work2 and1 passing by1 for the moment1  
the question whether the work we set    

them to is all equally healthy and good 
for them1 we will assume that whenever  
we spend a guinea we provide an equal   
number of people with healthy           
maintenance for a given time4 ,but1 by  
the way in which we spend it1 we        
entirely direct the labour of those     
people during that given time4 ,we      
become their masters or mistresses1 and 
we compel them to produce1 within a     
certain period1 a certain article4 ,now1
 that article may be a useful and       
lasting one1 or it may be a useless and 
perishable one--it may be one useful to 
the whole community1 or useful only to  
ourselves4 ,and our selfishness and     
folly1 or our virtue and prudence1 are  
shown1 not by our spending money1 but by
 our spending it for the wrong or the   
right thing2 and we are wise and kind1  
not in maintaining a certain number of  
people for a given period1 but only in  
requiring them to produce1 during that  
period1 the kind of things which shall  
be useful to society1 instead of those  

which are only useful to ourselves4     
,thus1 for instance3 if you are a young 
lady1 and employ a certain number of    
sempstresses for a given time1 in making
 a given number of simple and           
serviceable dresses1 suppose1 seven2 of 
which you can wear one yourself for half
 the winter1 and give six away to poor  
girls who have none1 you are spending   
your money unselfishly4 ,but if you     
employ the same number of sempstresses  
for the same number of days1 in making  
four1 or five1 or six beautiful flounces
 for your own ball-dress--flounces which
 will clothe no one but yourself1 and   
which you will yourself be unable to    
wear at more than one ball--you are     
employing your money selfishly4 ,you    
have maintained1 indeed1 in each case1  
the same number of people2 but in the   
one case you have directed their labour 
to the service of the community2 in the 
other case you have consumed it wholly  
upon yourself4 ,i don't say you are     
never to do so2 ,i don't say you ought  

not sometimes to think of yourselves    
only1 and to make yourselves as pretty  
as you can2 only do not confuse         
coquettishness with benevolence1 nor    
cheat yourselves into thinking that all 
the finery you can wear is so much put  
into the hungry mouths of those beneath 
you3 it is not so2 it is what you       
yourselves1 whether you will or no1 must
 sometimes instinctively feel it to     
be--it is what those who stand shivering
 in the streets1 forming a line to watch
 you as you step out of your carriages1 
know it to be2 those fine dresses do not
 mean that so much has been put into    
their mouths1 but that so much has been 
taken out of their mouths4 ,the real    
politico-economical signification of    
every one of those beautiful toilettes1 
is just this2 that you have had a       
certain number of people put for a      
certain number of days wholly under your
 authority1 by the sternest of          
slave-masters--hunger and cold2 and you 
have said to them1 ,i will feed you1    

indeed1 and clothe you1 and give you    
fuel for so many days2 but during those 
days you shall work for me only3 your   
little brothers need clothes1 but you   
shall make none for them3 your sick     
friend needs clothes1 but you shall make
 none for her3 you yourself will soon   
need another1 and a warmer dress2 but   
you shall make none for yourself4 ,you  
shall make nothing but lace and roses   
for me2 for this fortnight to come1 you 
shall work at the patterns and petals1  
and then ,i will crush and consume them 
away in an hour4 ,you will perhaps      
answer--,it may not be particularly     
benevolent to do this1 and we won't call
 it so2 but at any rate we do no wrong  
in taking their labour when we pay them 
their wages3 if we pay for their work we
 have a right to it4 ,no2--a thousand   
times no4 ,the labour which you have    
paid for1 does indeed become1 by the act
 of purchase1 your own labour3 you have 
bought the hands and the time of those  
workers2 they are1 by right and justice1

 your own hands1 your own time4 ,but1   
have you a right to spend your own time1
 to work with your own hands1 only for  
your own advantage8--much more1 when1 by
 purchase1 you have invested your own   
person with the strength of others2 and 
added to your own life1 a part of the   
life of others8 ,you may1 indeed1 to a  
certain extent1 use their labour for    
your delight3 remember1 ,i am making no 
general assertions against splendour of 
dress1 or pomp of accessories of life2  
on the contrary1 there are many reasons 
for thinking that we do not at present  
attach enough importance to beautiful   
dress1 as one of the means of           
influencing general taste and character4
 ,but ,i do say1 that you must weigh the
 value of what you ask these workers to 
produce for you in its own distinct     
balance2 that on its own worthiness or  
desirableness rests the question of your
 kindness1 and not merely on the fact of
 your having employed people in         
producing it3 and ,i say farther1 that  

as long as there are cold and nakedness 
in the land around you1 so long there   
can be no question at all but that      
splendour of dress is a crime4 ,in due  
time1 when we have nothing better to set
 people to work at1 it may be right to  
let them make lace and cut jewels2 but1 
as long as there are any who have no    
blankets for their beds1 and no rags for
 their bodies1 so long it is            
blanket-making and tailoring we must set
 people to work at--not lace4  ,and it  
would be strange1 if at any great       
assembly which1 while it dazzled the    
young and the thoughtless1 beguiled the 
gentler hearts that beat beneath the    
embroidery1 with a placid sensation of  
luxurious benevolence--as if by all that
 they wore in waywardness of beauty1    
comfort had been first given to the     
distressed1 and aid to the indigent2 it 
would be strange1 ,i say1 if1 for a     
moment1 the spirits of ,truth and of    
,terror1 which walk invisibly among the 
masques of the earth1 would lift the    

dimness from our erring thoughts1 and   
show us how--inasmuch as the sums       
exhausted for that magnificence would   
have given back the failing breath to   
many an unsheltered outcast on moor and 
street--they who wear it have literally 
entered into partnership with ,death2   
and dressed themselves in his spoils4   
,yes1 if the veil could be lifted not   
only from your thoughts1 but from your  
human sight1 you would see--the angels  
do see--on those gay white dresses of   
yours1 strange dark spots1 and crimson  
patterns that you knew not of--spots of 
the inextinguishable red that all the   
seas cannot wash away2 yes1 and among   
the pleasant flowers that crown your    
fair heads1 and glow on your wreathed   
hair1 you would see that one weed was   
always twisted which no one thought     
of--the grass that grows on graves4  ,it
 was not1 however1 this last1 this      
clearest and most appalling view of our 
subject1 that ,i intended to ask you to 
take this evening2 only it is impossible

 to set any part of the matter in its   
true light1 until we go to the root of  
it4 ,but the point which it is our      
special business to consider is1 not    
whether costliness of dress is contrary 
to charity2 but whether it is not       
contrary to mere worldly wisdom3        
whether1 even supposing we knew that    
splendour of dress did not cost         
suffering or hunger1 we might not put   
the splendour better in other things    
than dress4 ,and1 supposing our mode of 
dress were really graceful or beautiful1
 this might be a very doubtful question2
 for ,i believe true nobleness of dress 
to be an important means of education1  
as it certainly is a necessity to any   
nation which wishes to possess living   
art1 concerned with portraiture of human
 nature4 ,no good historical painting   
ever yet existed1 or ever can exist1    
where the dresses of the people of the  
time are not beautiful3 and had it not  
been for the lovely and fantastic       
dressing of the #acth to the #afth      

centuries1 neither ,french1 nor         
,florentine1 nor ,venetian art could    
have risen to anything like the rank it 
reached4 ,still1 even then1 the best    
dressing was never the costliest2 and   
its effect depended much more on its    
beautiful and1 in early times1 modest1  
arrangement1 and on the simple and      
lovely masses of its colour1 than on    
gorgeousness of clasp or embroidery4    
,whether we can ever return to any of   
those more perfect types of form1 is    
questionable2 but there can be no       
question1 that all the money we spend on
 the forms of dress at present worn1 is1
 so far as any good purpose is          
concerned1 wholly lost4 ,mind1 in saying
 this1 ,i reckon among good purposes1   
the purpose which young ladies are said 
sometimes to entertain--of being        
married2 but they would be married quite
 as soon 7and probably to wiser and     
better husbands7 by dressing quietly1 as
 by dressing brilliantly3 and ,i believe
 it would only be needed to lay fairly  

and largely before them the real good   
which might be effected by the sums they
 spend in toilettes1 to make them trust 
at once only to their bright eyes and   
braided hair for all the mischief they  
have a mind to4 ,i wish we could1 for   
once1 get the statistics of a ,london   
season4 ,there was much complaining talk
 in ,parliament last week1 of the vast  
sum the nation has given for the best   
,paul ,veronese in ,venice--,l#ad1jjj3  
,i wonder what the nation meanwhile has 
given for its ball-dresses6 ,suppose we 
could see the ,london milliners' bills1 
simply for unnecessary breadths of slip 
and flounce1 from ,april to ,july2 ,i   
wonder whether ,l#ad1jjj would cover    
them4 ,but the breadths of slip and     
flounce are by this time as much lost   
and vanished as last year's snow2 only  
they have done less good3 but the ,paul 
,veronese will last for centuries1 if we
 take care of it2 and yet we grumble at 
the price given for the painting1 while 
no one grumbles at the price of pride4  

,time does not permit me to go into any 
farther illustration of the various     
modes in which we build our statue out  
of snow1 and waste our labour on things 
that vanish4 ,i must leave you to follow
 out the subject for yourselves1 as ,i  
said ,i should1 and proceed1 in our next
 lecture1 to examine the two other      
branches of our subject1 namely1 how to 
accumulate our art1 and how to          
distribute it4 ,but1 in closing1 as we  
have been much on the topic of good     
government1 both of ourselves and       
others1 let me just give you one more   
illustration of what it means1 from that
 old art of which1 next evening1 ,i     
shall try to convince you that the      
value1 both moral and mercantile1 is    
greater than we usually suppose4  ,one  
of the frescoes by ,ambrozio            
,lorenzetti1 in the town-hall of ,siena1
 represents1 by means of symbolical     
figures1 the principles of ,good ,civic 
,government and of ,good ,government in 
general4 ,the figure representing this  

noble ,civic ,government is enthroned1  
and surrounded by figures representing  
the ,virtues1 variously supporting or   
administering its authority4 ,now1      
observe what work is given to each of   
these virtues4 ,three winged            
ones--,faith1 ,hope1 and                
,charity--surround the head of the      
figure1 not in mere compliance with the 
common and heraldic laws of precedence  
among ,virtues1 such as we moderns      
observe habitually1 but with peculiar   
purpose on the part of the painter4     
,faith1 as thus represented1 ruling the 
thoughts of the ,good ,governour1 does  
not mean merely religious faith1        
understood in those times to be         
necessary to all persons--governed no   
less than governours--but it means the  
faith which enables work to be carried  
out steadily1 in spite of adverse       
appearances and expediencies2 the faith 
in great principles1 by which a civic   
ruler looks past all the immediate      
checks and shadows that would daunt a   

common man1 knowing that what is rightly
 done will have a right issue1 and      
holding his way in spite of pullings at 
his cloak and whisperings in his ear1   
enduring1 as having in him a faith which
 is evidence of things unseen4 ,and     
,hope1 in like manner1 is here not the  
heavenward hope which ought to animate  
the hearts of all men2 but she attends  
upon ,good ,government1 to show that all
 such government is expectant as well as
 conservative2 that if it ceases to be  
hopeful of better things1 it ceases to  
be a wise guardian of present things3   
that it ought never1 as long as the     
world lasts1 to be wholly content with  
any existing state of institution or    
possession1 but to be hopeful still of  
more wisdom and power2 not clutching at 
it restlessly or hastily1 but feeling   
that its real life consists in steady   
ascent from high to higher3             
conservative1 indeed1 and jealously     
conservative of old things1 but         
conservative of them as pillars1 not as 

pinnacles--as aids1 but not as idols2   
and hopeful chiefly1 and active1 in     
times of national trial or distress1    
according to those first and notable    
words describing the queenly nation4    
,she riseth1 while it is yet night4 ,and
 again1 the winged ,charity which is    
attendant on ,good ,government has1 in  
this fresco1 a peculiar office4 ,can you
 guess what8 ,if you consider the       
character of contest which so often     
takes place among kings for their       
crowns1 and the selfish and tyrannous   
means they commonly take to aggrandize  
or secure their power1 you will1        
perhaps1 be surprised to hear that the  
office of ,charity is to crown the      
,king4 ,and yet1 if you think of it a   
little1 you will see the beauty of the  
thought which sets her in this function3
 since in the first place1 all the      
authority of a good governor should be  
desired by him only for the good of his 
people1 so that it is only ,love that   
makes him accept or guard his crown3 in 

the second place1 his chief greatness   
consists in the exercise of this love1  
and he is truly to be revered only so   
far as his acts and thoughts are those  
of kindness2 so that ,love is the light 
of his crown1 as well as the giver of   
it3 lastly1 because his strength depends
 on the affections of his people1 and it
 is only their love which can securely  
crown him1 and for ever4 ,so that ,love 
is the strength of his crown as well as 
the light of it4  ,then1 surrounding the
 ,king1 or in various obedience to him1 
appear the dependent virtues1 as        
,fortitude1 ,temperance1 ,truth1 and    
other attendant spirits1 of all which ,i
 cannot now give account1 wishing you   
only to notice the one to whom are      
entrusted the guidance and              
administration of the public revenues4  
,can you guess which it is likely to be8
 ,charity1 you would have thought1      
should have something to do with the    
business2 but not so1 for she is too hot
 to attend carefully to it4 ,prudence1  

perhaps1 you think of in the next place4
 ,no1 she is too timid1 and loses       
opportunities in making up her mind4    
,can it be ,liberality then8 ,no3       
,liberality is entrusted with some small
 sums2 but she is a bad accountant1 and 
is allowed no important place in the    
exchequer4 ,but the treasures are given 
in charge to a virtue of which we hear  
too little in modern times1 as distinct 
from others2 ,magnanimity3 largeness of 
heart3 not softness or weakness of      
heart1 mind you--but capacity of        
heart--the great measuring virtue1 which
 weighs in heavenly balances all that   
may be given1 and all that may be       
gained2 and sees how to do noblest      
things in noblest ways3 which of two    
goods comprehends and therefore chooses 
the greatest3 which of two personal     
sacrifices dares and accepts the        
largest3 which1 out of the avenues of   
beneficence1 treads always that which   
opens farthest into the blue fields of  
futurity3 that character1 in fine1      

which1 in those words taken by us at    
first for the description of a ,queen   
among the nations1 looks less to the    
present power than to the distant       
promise2 ,strength and honour are in her
 clothing--and she shall rejoice ,,in   
,,time ,,to ,,come4     ,,lecture ,,ii4 
,the heads of our subject which remain  
for our consideration this evening are1 
you will remember1 the accumulation and 
the distribution of works of art4 ,our  
complete inquiry fell into four         
divisions--first1 how to get our genius2
 then1 how to apply our genius2 then1   
how to accumulate its results2 and      
lastly1 how to distribute them4 ,we     
considered1 last evening1 how to        
discover and apply it2--we have to-night
 to examine the modes of its            
preservation and distribution4   ,,iii4 
,,accumulation4--,and now1 in the       
outset1 it will be well to face that    
objection which we put aside a little   
while ago2 namely1 that perhaps it is   
not well to have a great deal of good   

art2 and that it should not be made too 
cheap4  ,nay1 ,i can imagine some of the
 more generous among you1 exclaiming1 we
 will not trouble you to disprove that  
objection2 of course it is a selfish and
 base one3 good art1 as well as other   
good things1 ought to be made as cheap  
as possible1 and put as far as we can   
within the reach of everybody4  ,pardon 
me1 ,i am not prepared to admit that4 ,i
 rather side with the selfish objectors1
 and believe that art ought not to be   
made cheap1 beyond a certain point2 for 
the amount of pleasure that you can     
receive from any great work1 depends    
wholly on the quantity of attention and 
energy of mind you can bring to bear    
upon it4 ,now1 that attention and energy
 depend much more on the freshness of   
the thing than you would at all suppose2
 unless you very carefully studied the  
movements of your own minds4 ,if you see
 things of the same kind and of equal   
value very frequently1 your reverence   
for them is infallibly diminished1 your 

powers of attention get gradually       
wearied1 and your interest and          
enthusiasm worn out2 and you cannot in  
that state bring to any given work the  
energy necessary to enjoy it4 ,if1      
indeed1 the question were only between  
enjoying a great many pictures each a   
little1 or one picture very much1 the   
sum of enjoyment being in each case the 
same1 you might rationally desire to    
possess rather the larger quantity1 than
 the small2 both because one work of art
 always in some sort illustrates        
another1 and because quantity diminishes
 the chances of destruction4 ,but the   
question is not a merely arithmetical   
one of this kind4 ,your fragments of    
broken admirations will not1 when they  
are put together1 make up one whole     
admiration2 two and two1 in this case1  
do not make four1 nor anything like     
four4 ,your good picture1 or book1 or   
work of art of any kind1 is always in   
some degree fenced and closed about with
 difficulty4 ,you may think of it as of 

a kind of cocoa-nut1 with very often    
rather an unseemly shell1 but good milk 
and kernel inside4 ,now1 if you possess 
twenty cocoa-nuts1 and being thirsty1 go
 impatiently from one to the other1     
giving only a single scratch with the   
point of your knife to the shell of     
each1 you will get no milk from all the 
twenty4 ,but if you leave nineteen of   
them alone1 and give twenty cuts to the 
shell of one1 you will get through it1  
and at the milk of it4 ,and the tendency
 of the human mind is always to get     
tired before it has made its twenty     
cuts2 and to try another nut2 and       
moreover1 even if it has perseverance   
enough to crack its nuts1 it is sure to 
try to eat too many1 and so choke       
itself4 ,hence1 it is wisely appointed  
for us that few of the things we desire 
can be had without considerable labour1 
and at considerable intervals of time4  
,we cannot generally get our dinner     
without working for it1 and that gives  
us appetite for it2 we cannot get our   

holiday without waiting for it1 and that
 gives us zest for it2 and we ought not 
to get our picture without paying for   
it1 and that gives us a mind to look at 
it4 ,nay1 ,i will even go so far as to  
say1 that we ought not to get books too 
cheaply4 ,no book1 ,i believe1 is ever  
worth half so much to its reader as one 
that has been coveted for a year at a   
bookstall1 and bought out of saved      
half-pence2 and perhaps a day or two's  
fasting4 ,that's the way to get at the  
cream of a book4 ,and ,i should say more
 on this matter1 and protest as         
energetically as ,i could against the   
plague of cheap literature1 with which  
we are just now afflicted1 but that ,i  
fear your calling me to order1 as being 
unpractical1 because ,i don't quite see 
my way at present to making everybody   
fast for their books4 ,but one may see  
that a thing is desirable and possible1 
even though one may not at once know the
 best way to it--and in my island of    
,barataria1 when ,i get it well into    

order1 ,i assure you no book shall be   
sold for less than a pound sterling2 if 
it can be published cheaper than that1  
the surplus shall all go into my        
treasury1 and save my subjects taxation 
in other directions2 only people really 
poor1 who cannot pay the pound1 shall be
 supplied with the books they want for  
nothing1 in a certain limited quantity4 
,i haven't made up my mind about the    
number yet1 and there are several other 
points in the system yet unsettled2 when
 they are all determined1 if you will   
allow me1 ,i will come and give you     
another lecture1 on the political       
economy of literature4#aa     #aa ,see  
note #fth1 in ,addenda p4 #ajd4         
,meantime1 returning to our immediate   
subject1 ,i say to my generous hearers1 
who want to shower ,titians and ,turners
 upon us1 like falling leaves1 ,pictures
 ought not to be too cheap2 but in much 
stronger tone ,i would say to those who 
want to keep up the prices of pictorial 
property1 that pictures ought not to be 

too dear1 that is to say1 not as dear as
 they are4 ,for1 as matters at present  
stand1 it is wholly impossible for any  
man in the ordinary circumstances of    
,english life to possess himself of a   
piece of great art4 ,a modern drawing of
 average merit1 or a first-class        
engraving1 may perhaps1 not without some
 self-reproach1 be purchased out of his 
savings by a man of narrow income2 but a
 satisfactory example of first-rate     
art--masterhands' work--is wholly out of
 his reach4 ,and we are so accustomed to
 look upon this as the natural course   
and necessity of things1 that we never  
set ourselves in any wise to diminish   
the evil2 and yet it is an evil         
perfectly capable of diminution4 ,it is 
an evil precisely similar in kind to    
that which existed in the middle ages1  
respecting good books1 and which        
everybody then1 ,i suppose1 thought as  
natural as we do now our small supply of
 good pictures4 ,you could not then     
study the work of a great historian1 or 

great poet1 any more than you can now   
study that of a great painter1 but at   
heavy cost4 ,if you wanted a book1 you  
had to get it written out for you1 or to
 write it out for yourself4 ,but        
printing came1 and the poor man may read
 his ,dante and his ,homer2 and ,dante  
and ,homer are none the worse for that4 
,but it is only in literature that      
private persons of moderate fortune can 
possess and study greatness3 they can   
study at home no greatness in art2 and  
the object of that accumulation which we
 are at present aiming at1 as our third 
object in political economy1 is to bring
 great art in some degree within the    
reach of the multitude2 and1 both in    
larger and more numerous galleries than 
we now possess1 and by distribution1    
according to his wealth and wish1 in    
each man's home1 to render the influence
 of art somewhat correspondent in extent
 to that of literature4 ,here1 then1 is 
the subtle balance which your economist 
has to strike3 to accumulate so much art

 as to be able to give the whole nation 
a supply of it1 according to its need1  
and yet to regulate its distribution so 
that there shall be no glut of it1 nor  
contempt4  ,a difficult balance1 indeed1
 for us to hold1 if it were left merely 
to our skill to poise2 but the just     
point between poverty and profusion has 
been fixed for us accurately by the wise
 laws of ,providence4 ,if you carefully 
watch for all the genius you can detect1
 apply it to good service1 and then     
reverently preserve what it produces1   
you will never have too little art2 and 
if1 on the other hand1 you never force  
an artist to work hurriedly1 for daily  
bread1 nor imperfectly1 because you     
would rather have showy works than      
complete ones1 you will never have too  
much4 ,do not force the multiplication  
of art1 and you will not have it too    
cheap2 do not wantonly destroy it1 and  
you will not have it too dear4  ,but who
 wantonly destroys it8 you will ask4    
,why1 we all do4 ,perhaps you thought1  

when ,i came to this part of our        
subject1 corresponding to that set forth
 in our housewife's economy by the      
keeping her embroidery from the moth1   
that ,i was going to tell you only how  
to take better care of pictures1 how to 
clean them1 and varnish them1 and where 
to put them away safely when you went   
out of town4 ,ah1 not at all4 ,the      
utmost ,i have to ask of you is1 that   
you will not pull them to pieces1 and   
trample them under your feet4 ,what6 you
 will say1 when do we do such things8   
,haven't we built a perfectly beautiful 
gallery for all the pictures we have to 
take care of8 ,yes1 you have1 for the   
pictures which are definitely sent to   
,manchester to be taken care of4 ,but   
there are quantities of pictures out of 
,manchester which it is your business1  
and mine too1 to take care of no less   
than of these1 and which we are at this 
moment employing ourselves in pulling to
 pieces by deputy4 ,i will tell you what
 they are1 and where they are1 in a     

minute2 only first let me state one more
 of those main principles of political  
economy on which the matter hinges4  ,i 
must begin a little apparently wide of  
the mark1 and ask you to reflect if     
there is any way in which we waste money
 more in ,england1 than in building fine
 tombs8 ,our respect for the dead1 when 
they are just dead1 is something        
wonderful1 and the way we show it more  
wonderful still4 ,we show it with black 
feathers and black horses2 we show it   
with black dresses and bright           
heraldries2 we show it with costly      
obelisks and sculptures of sorrow1 which
 spoil half of our most beautiful       
cathedrals4 ,we show it with frightful  
gratings and vaults1 and lids of dismal 
stone1 in the midst of the quiet grass2 
and last1 and not least1 we show it by  
permitting ourselves to tell any number 
of lies we think amiable or credible1 in
 the epitaph4 ,this feeling is common to
 the poor as well as the rich1 and we   
all know how many a poor family will    

nearly ruin themselves1 to testify their
 respect for some member of it in his   
coffin1 whom they never much cared for  
when he was out of it2 and how often it 
happens that a poor old woman will      
starve herself to death1 in order that  
she may be respectably buried4  ,now1   
this being one of the most complete and 
special ways of wasting money2--no money
 being less productive of good1 or of   
any percentage whatever1 than that which
 we shake away from the ends of         
undertakers' plumes--it is of course the
 duty of all good economists1 and kind  
persons1 to prove and proclaim          
continually1 to the poor as well as the 
rich1 that respect for the dead is not  
really shown by laying great stones on  
them to tell us where they are laid2 but
 by remembering where they are laid1    
without a stone to help us2 trusting    
them to the sacred grass and saddened   
flowers2 and still more1 that respect   
and love are shown to them1 not by great
 monuments to them which we build with  

our hands1 but by letting the monuments 
stand1 which they built with their own4 
,and this is the point now in question4 
,observe1 there are two great reciprocal
 duties concerning industry1 constantly 
to be exchanged between the living and  
the dead4 ,we1 as we live and work1 are 
to be always thinking of those who are  
to come after us2 that what we do may be
 serviceable1 as far as we can make it  
so1 to them as well as to us4 ,then1    
when we die1 it is the duty of those who
 come after us to accept this work of   
ours with thanks and remembrance1 not   
thrusting it aside or tearing it down   
the moment they think they have no use  
for it4 ,and each generation will only  
be happy or powerful to the pitch that  
it ought to be1 in fulfilling these two 
duties to the ,past and the ,future4    
,its own work will never be rightly     
done1 even for itself--never good1 or   
noble1 or pleasurable to its own        
eyes--if it does not prepare it also for
 the eyes of generations yet to come4   

,and its own possessions will never be  
enough for it1 and its own wisdom never 
enough for it1 unless it avails itself  
gratefully and tenderly of the treasures
 and the wisdom bequeathed to it by its 
ancestors4  ,for1 be assured1 that all  
the best things and treasures of this   
world are not to be produced by each    
generation for itself2 but we are all   
intended1 not to carve our work in snow 
that will melt1 but each and all of us  
to be continually rolling a great white 
gathering snowball1 higher and          
higher--larger and larger--along the    
,alps of human power4 ,thus the science 
of nations is to be accumulative from   
father to son3 each learning a little   
more and a little more2 each receiving  
all that was known1 and adding its own  
gain3 the history and poetry of nations 
are to be accumulative2 each generation 
treasuring the history and the songs of 
its ancestors1 adding its own history   
and its own songs3 and the art of       
nations is to be accumulative1 just as  

science and history are2 the work of    
living men not superseding1 but building
 itself upon the work of the past4      
,nearly every great and intellectual    
race of the world has produced1 at every
 period of its career1 an art with some 
peculiar and precious character about   
it1 wholly unattainable by any other    
race1 and at any other time2 and the    
intention of ,providence concerning that
 art1 is evidently that it should all   
grow together into one mighty temple2   
the rough stones and the smooth all     
finding their place1 and rising1 day by 
day1 in richer and higher pinnacles to  
heaven4  ,now1 just fancy what a        
position the world1 considered as one   
great workroom--one great factory in the
 form of a globe--would have been in by 
this time1 if it had in the least       
understood this duty1 or been capable of
 it4 ,fancy what we should have had     
around us now1 if1 instead of           
quarrelling and fighting over their     
work1 the nations had aided each other  

in their work1 or if even in their      
conquests1 instead of effacing the      
memorials of those they succeeded and   
subdued1 they had guarded the spoils of 
their victories4 ,fancy what ,europe    
would be now1 if the delicate statues   
and temples of the ,greeks1--if the     
broad roads and massy walls of the      
,romans1--if the noble and pathetic     
architecture of the middle ages1 had not
 been ground to dust by mere human rage4
 ,you talk of the scythe of ,time1 and  
the tooth of ,time3 ,i tell you1 ,time  
is scytheless and toothless2 it is we   
who gnaw like the worm--we who smite    
like the scythe4 ,it is ourselves who   
abolish--ourselves who consume3 we are  
the mildew1 and the flame1 and the soul 
of man is to its own work as the moth1  
that frets when it cannot fly1 and as   
the hidden flame that blasts where it   
cannot illumine4 ,all these lost        
treasures of human intellect have been  
wholly destroyed by human industry of   
destruction2 the marble would have stood

 its two thousand years as well in the  
polished statue as in the ,parian cliff2
 but we men have ground it to powder1   
and mixed it with our own ashes4 ,the   
walls and the ways would have stood--it 
is we who have left not one stone upon  
another1 and restored its pathlessness  
to the desert2 the great cathedrals of  
old religion would have stood--it is we 
who have dashed down the carved work    
with axes and hammers1 and bid the      
mountain-grass bloom upon the pavement1 
and the sea-winds chaunt in the         
galleries4  ,you will perhaps think all 
this was somehow necessary for the      
development of the human race4 ,i cannot
 stay now to dispute that1 though ,i    
would willingly2 but do you think it is 
still necessary for that development8   
,do you think that in this nineteenth   
century it is still necessary for the   
,european nations to turn all the places
 where their principal art-treasures are
 into battle-fields8 ,for that is what  
they are doing even while ,i speak2 the 

great firm of the world is managing its 
business at this moment1 just as it has 
done in past time4 ,imagine what would  
be the thriving circumstances of a      
manufacturer of some delicate           
produce--suppose glass1 or china--in    
whose workshop and exhibition rooms all 
the workmen and clerks began fighting at
 least once a day1 first blowing off the
 steam1 and breaking all the machinery  
they could reach2 and then making       
fortresses of all the cupboards1 and    
attacking and defending the show-tables1
 the victorious party finally throwing  
everything they could get hold of out of
 the window1 by way of showing their    
triumph1 and the poor manufacturer      
picking up and putting away at last a   
cup here and a handle there4 ,a fine    
prosperous business that would be1 would
 it not8 and yet that is precisely the  
way the great manufacturing firm of the 
world carries on its business4  ,it has 
so arranged its political squabbles for 
the last six or seven hundred years1    

that not one of them could be fought out
 but in the midst of its most precious  
art2 and it so arranges them to this    
day4 ,for example1 if ,i were asked to  
lay my finger1 in a map of the world1 on
 the spot of the world's surface which  
contained at this moment the most       
singular concentration of art-teaching  
and art-treasure1 ,i should lay it on   
the name of the town of ,verona4 ,other 
cities1 indeed1 contain more works of   
carriageable art1 but none contain so   
much of the glorious local art1 and of  
the springs and sources of art1 which   
can by no means be made subjects of     
package or porterage1 nor1 ,i grieve to 
say1 of salvage4 ,verona possesses1 in  
the first place1 not the largest1 but   
the most perfect and intelligible ,roman
 amphitheatre that exists1 still        
unbroken in circle of step1 and strong  
in succession of vault and arch3 it     
contains minor ,roman monuments1        
gateways1 theatres1 baths1 wrecks of    
temples1 which give the streets of its  

suburbs a character of antiquity        
unexampled elsewhere1 except in ,rome   
itself4 ,but it contains1 in the next   
place1 what ,rome does not              
contain--perfect examples of the great  
twelfth-century ,lombardic architecture1
 which was the root of all the mediaeval
 art of ,italy1 without which no        
,giottos1 no ,angelicos1 no ,raphaels   
would have been possible3 it contains   
that architecture1 not in rude forms1   
but in the most perfect and loveliest   
types it ever attained--contains those1 
not in ruins1 nor in altered and hardly 
decipherable fragments1 but in churches 
perfect from porch to apse1 with all    
their carving fresh1 their pillars firm1
 their joints unloosened4 ,besides      
these1 it includes examples of the great
 thirteenth- and fourteenth-century     
,gothic of ,italy1 not merely perfect1  
but elsewhere unrivalled4 ,at ,rome1 the
 ,roman--at ,pisa1 the ,lombard1        
architecture may be seen in greater or  
in equal nobleness2 but not at ,rome1   

nor ,pisa1 nor ,florence1 nor in any    
city of the world1 is there a great     
mediaeval ,gothic like the ,gothic of   
,verona4 ,elsewhere1 it is either less  
pure in type or less lovely in          
completion3 only at ,verona may you see 
it in the simplicity of its youthful    
power1 and the tenderness of its        
accomplished beauty4 ,and ,verona       
possesses1 in the last place1 the       
loveliest ,renaissance architecture of  
,italy1 not disturbed by pride1 nor     
defiled by luxury1 but rising in fair   
fulfilment of domestic service1 serenity
 of effortless grace1 and modesty of    
home seclusion2 its richest work given  
to the windows that open on the         
narrowest streets and most silent       
gardens4 ,all this she possesses1 in the
 midst of natural scenery such as       
assuredly exists nowhere else in the    
habitable globe--a wild ,alpine river   
foaming at her feet1 from whose shore   
the rocks rise in a great crescent1 dark
 with cypress1 and misty with olive3    

illimitably1 from before her southern   
gates1 the tufted plains of ,italy sweep
 and fade in golden light2 around her1  
north and west1 the ,alps crowd in      
crested troops1 and the winds of        
,benacus bear to her the coolness of    
their snows4  ,and this is the          
city--such1 and possessing such things  
as these--at whose gates the decisive   
battles of ,italy are fought            
continually3 three days her towers      
trembled with the echo of the cannon of 
,arcola2 heaped pebbles of the ,mincio  
divide her fields to this hour with     
lines of broken rampart1 whence the tide
 of war rolled back to ,novara2 and now 
on that crescent of her eastern cliffs1 
whence the full moon used to rise       
through the bars of the cypresses in her
 burning summer twilights1 touching with
 soft increase of silver light the rosy 
marbles of her balconies--along the     
ridge of that encompassing rock1 other  
circles are increasing now1 white and   
pale2 walled towers of cruel strength1  

sable-spotted with cannon-courses4 ,i   
tell you1 ,i have seen1 when the        
thunderclouds came down on those        
,italian hills1 and all their crags were
 dipped in the dark1 terrible purple1 as
 if the winepress of the wrath of ,god  
had stained their mountain-raiment--,i  
have seen the hail fall in ,italy till  
the forest branches stood stripped and  
bare as if blasted by the locust2 but   
the white hail never fell from those    
clouds of heaven as the black hail will 
fall from the clouds of hell1 if ever   
one breath of ,italian life stirs again 
in the streets of ,verona4  ,sad as you 
will feel this to be1 ,i do not say that
 you can directly prevent it2 you cannot
 drive the ,austrians out of ,italy1 nor
 prevent them from building forts where 
they choose4 ,but ,i do say1#ab that    
you1 and ,i1 and all of us1 ought to be 
both acting and feeling with a full     
knowledge and understanding of these    
things1 and that1 without trying to     
excite revolutions or weaken            

governments1 we may give our own        
thoughts and help1 so as in a measure to
 prevent needless destruction4 ,we      
should do this1 if we only realized the 
thing thoroughly4 ,you drive out day by 
day through your own pretty suburbs1 and
 you think only of making1 with what    
money you have to spare1 your gateways  
handsomer1 and your carriage-drives     
wider--and your drawing-rooms more      
splendid1 having a vague notion that you
 are all the while patronizing and      
advancing art1 and you make no effort to
 conceal the fact1 that within a few    
hours' journey of you1 there are        
gateways and drawing-rooms which might  
just as well be yours as these1 all     
built already2 gateways built by the    
greatest masters of sculpture that ever 
struck marble2 drawing-rooms1 painted by
 ,titian and ,veronese2 and you won't   
accept1 nor save these as they are1 but 
you will rather fetch the house-painter 
from over the way1 and let ,titian and  
,veronese house the rats4 ,yes1 of      

course1 you answer2 we want nice houses 
here1 not houses in ,verona4 ,what      
should we do with houses in ,verona8    
,and ,i answer1 do precisely what you do
 with the most expensive part of your   
possessions here3 take pride in         
them--only a noble pride4 ,you know     
well1 when you examine your own hearts1 
that the greater part of the sums you   
spend on possessions are spent for      
pride4 ,why are your carriages nicely   
painted and finished outside8 ,you don't
 see the outsides as you sit in         
them--the outsides are for other people 
to see4 ,why are your exteriors of      
houses so well finished1 your furniture 
so polished and costly1 but for other   
people to see8 ,you are just as         
comfortable yourselves1 writing on your 
old friend of a desk1 with the white    
cloudings in his leather1 and using the 
light of a window which is nothing but a
 hole in the brick wall4 ,and all that  
is desirable to be done in this matter1 
is merely to take pride in preserving   

great art1 instead of in producing mean 
art2 pride in the possession of precious
 and enduring things1 a little way off1 
instead of slight and perishing things  
near at hand4 ,you know1 in old ,english
 times1 our kings liked to have         
lordships and dukedoms abroad1 and why  
should not you merchant princes like to 
have lordships and estates abroad8      
,believe me1 rightly understood1 it     
would be a prouder1 and in the full     
sense of our ,english word1 more        
respectable thing to be lord of a palace
 at ,verona1 or of a cloister full of   
frescos at ,florence1 than to have a    
file of servants dressed in the finest  
liveries that ever tailor stitched1 as  
long as would reach from here to        
,bolton3--yes1 and a prouder thing to   
send people to travel in ,italy1 who    
would have to say every now and then1 of
 some fair piece of art1 ,ah6 this was  
kept here for us by the good people of  
,manchester1 than to bring them         
travelling all the way here1 exclaiming 

of your various art treasures1 ,these   
were brought here for us1 7not          
altogether without harm7 by the good    
people of ,manchester4 ,ah6 but you say1
 the ,art ,treasures ,exhibition will   
pay2 but ,veronese palaces won't4       
,pardon me4 ,they would pay1 less       
directly1 but far more richly4 ,do you  
suppose it is in the long run good for  
,manchester1 or good for ,england1 that 
the ,continent should be in the state it
 is8 ,do you think the perpetual fear of
 revolution1 or the perpetual repression
 of thought and energy that clouds and  
encumbers the nations of ,europe1 is    
eventually profitable for us8 ,were we  
any the better of the course of affairs 
in '#dh2 or has the stabling of the     
dragoon horses in the great houses of   
,italy1 any distinct effect in the      
promotion of the cotton-trade8 ,not so4 
,but every stake that you could hold in 
the stability of the ,continent1 and    
every effort that you could make to give
 example of ,english habits and         

principles on the ,continent1 and every 
kind deed that you could do in relieving
 distress and preventing despair on the 
,continent1 would have tenfold reaction 
on the prosperity of ,england1 and open 
and urge1 in a thousand unforeseen      
directions1 the sluices of commerce and 
the springs of industry4     #ab ,the   
reader can hardly but remember ,mrs4    
,browning's beautiful         appeal for
 ,italy1 made on the occasion of the    
first great         ,exhibition of ,art 
in ,england3--            ,o ,magi of   
the east and of the west1               
,your incense1 gold1 and myrrh are      
excellent6--           ,what gifts for  
,christ1 then1 bring ye with the rest8  
,your hands have worked well4 ,is your  
courage spent           ,in handwork    
only8 ,have you nothing best1           
,which generous souls may perfect and   
present1           ,and ,he shall thank 
the givers for8 no light           ,of  
teaching1 liberal nations1 for the poor1
           ,who sit in darkness when it 

is not night8           ,no cure for    
wicked children8 ,christ1--no cure1     
,no help for women1 sobbing out of sight
           ,because men made the laws8  
no brothel-lure           ,burnt out by 
popular lightnings8 ,hast thou found    
,no remedy1 my ,england1 for such woes8 
,no outlet1 ,austria1 for the scourged  
and bound1           ,no call back for  
the exiled8 no repose1                  
,russia1 for knouted ,poles worked      
underground1           ,and gentle      
ladies bleached among the snows8        
,no mercy for the slave1 ,america8      
,no hope for ,rome1 free ,france1       
chivalric ,france8           ,alas1     
great nations have great shames1 ,i say4
           ,no pity1 ,o world1 no tender
 utterance           ,of benediction1   
and prayers stretched this way          
,for poor ,italia1 baffled by mischance8
           ,o gracious nations1 give    
some ear to me6           ,you all go to
 your ,fair1 and ,i am one              
,who at the roadside of humanity        

,beseech your alms1--,god's justice to  
be done4           ,so1 prosper6  ,i    
could press1 if ,i chose1 both these    
motives upon you1 of pride and          
self-interest1 with more force1 but     
these are not motives which ought to be 
urged upon you at all4 ,the only motive 
that ,i ought to put before you is      
simply that it would be right to do     
this2 that the holding of property      
abroad1 and the personal efforts of     
,englishmen to redeem the condition of  
foreign nations1 are among the most     
direct pieces of duty which our wealth  
renders incumbent upon us4 ,i do        
not--and in all truth and deliberateness
 ,i say this--,i do not know anything   
more ludicrous among the self-deceptions
 of well-meaning people than their      
notion of patriotism1 as requiring them 
to limit their efforts to the good of   
their own country2--the notion that     
charity is a geographical virtue1 and   
that what it is holy and righteous to do
 for people on one bank of a river1 it  

is quite improper and unnatural to do   
for people on the other4 ,it will be a  
wonderful thing1 some day or other1 for 
the ,christian world to remember1 that  
it went on thinking for two thousand    
years that neighbours were neighbours at
 ,jerusalem1 but not at ,jericho2 a     
wonderful thing for us ,english to      
reflect1 in after-years1 how long it was
 before we could shake hands with       
anybody across that shallow salt wash1  
which the very chalk-dust of its two    
shores whitens from ,folkestone to      
,ambleteuse4  ,nor ought the motive of  
gratitude1 as well as that of mercy1 to 
be without its influence on you1 who    
have been the first to ask to see1 and  
the first to show to us1 the treasures  
which this poor lost ,italy has given to
 ,england4 ,remember all these things   
that delight you here were hers--hers   
either in fact or in teaching2 hers1 in 
fact1 are all the most powerful and most
 touching paintings of old time that now
 glow upon your walls2 hers in teaching 

are all the best and greatest of        
descendant souls--your ,reynolds and    
your ,gainsborough never could have     
painted but for ,venice2 and the        
energies which have given the only true 
life to your existing art were first    
stirred by voices of the dead1 that     
haunted the ,sacred ,field of ,pisa4    
,well1 all these motives for some       
definite course of action on our part   
towards foreign countries rest upon very
 serious facts2 too serious1 perhaps you
 will think1 to be interfered with2 for 
we are all of us in the habit of leaving
 great things alone1 as if ,providence  
would mind them1 and attending ourselves
 only to little things which we know1   
practically1 ,providence doesn't mind   
unless we do4 ,we are ready enough to   
give care to the growing of pines and   
lettuces1 knowing that they don't grow  
,providentially sweet or large unless we
 look after them2 but we don't give any 
care to the good of ,italy or ,germany1 
because we think that they will grow    

,providentially happy without any of our
 meddling4  ,let us leave the great     
things1 then1 and think of little       
things2 not of the destruction of whole 
provinces in war1 which it may not be   
any business of ours to prevent2 but of 
the destruction of poor little pictures 
in peace1 from which it surely would not
 be much out of our way to save them4   
,you know ,i said1 just now1 we were all
 of us engaged in pulling pictures to   
pieces by deputy1 and you did not       
believe me4 ,consider1 then1 this       
similitude of ourselves4 ,suppose you   
saw 7as ,i doubt not you often do see7 a
 prudent and kind young lady sitting at 
work1 in the corner of a quiet room1    
knitting comforters for her cousins1 and
 that just outside1 in the hall1 you saw
 a cat and her kittens at play among the
 family pictures2 amusing themselves    
especially with the best ,vandykes1 by  
getting on the tops of the frames1 and  
then scrambling down the canvasses by   
their claws2 and on someone's informing 

the young lady of these proceedings of  
the cat and kittens1 suppose she        
answered that it wasn't her cat1 but her
 sister's1 and the pictures weren't     
hers1 but her uncle's1 and she couldn't 
leave her work1 for she had to make so  
many pairs of comforters before dinner4 
,would you not say that the prudent and 
kind young lady was1 on the whole1      
answerable for the additional touches of
 claw on the ,vandykes8 ,now1 that is   
precisely what we prudent and kind      
,english are doing1 only on a larger    
scale4 ,here we sit in ,manchester1 hard
 at work1 very properly1 making         
comforters for our cousins all over the 
world4 ,just outside there in the       
hall--that beautiful marble hall of     
,italy--the cats and kittens and monkeys
 are at play among the pictures3 ,i     
assure you1 in the course of the fifteen
 years in which ,i have been working in 
those places in which the most precious 
remnants of ,european art exist1 a      
sensation1 whether ,i would or no1 was  

gradually made distinct and deep in my  
mind1 that ,i was living and working in 
the midst of a den of                   
monkeys2--sometimes amiable and         
affectionate monkeys1 with all manner of
 winning ways and kind intentions2--more
 frequently selfish and malicious       
monkeys1 but1 whatever their            
disposition1 squabbling continually     
about nuts1 and the best places on the  
barren sticks of trees2 and that all    
this monkeys' den was filled1 by        
mischance1 with precious pictures1 and  
the witty and wilful beasts were always 
wrapping themselves up and going to     
sleep in pictures1 or tearing holes in  
them to grin through2 or tasting them   
and spitting them out again1 or twisting
 them up into ropes and making swings of
 them2 and that sometimes only1 by      
watching one's opportunity1 and bearing 
a scratch or a bite1 one could rescue   
the corner of a ,tintoret1 or ,paul     
,veronese1 and push it through the bars 
into a place of safety4 ,literally1 ,i  

assure you1 this was1 and this is1 the  
fixed impression on my mind of the state
 of matters in ,italy4 ,and see how4    
,the professors of art in ,italy1 having
 long followed a method of study        
peculiar to themselves1 have at last    
arrived at a form of art peculiar to    
themselves2 very different from that    
which was arrived at by ,correggio and  
,titian4 ,naturally1 the professors like
 their own form the best2 and1 as the   
old pictures are generally not so       
startling to the eye as the modern ones1
 the dukes and counts who possess them1 
and who like to see their galleries look
 new and fine 7and are persuaded also   
that a celebrated chef-d'oeuvre ought   
always to catch the eye at a quarter of 
a mile off71 believe the professors who 
tell them their sober pictures are quite
 faded1 and good for nothing1 and should
 all be brought bright again2 and1      
accordingly1 give the sober pictures to 
the professors1 to be put right by rules
 of art4 ,then1 the professors repaint  

the old pictures in all the principal   
places1 leaving perhaps only a bit of   
background to set off their own work4   
,and thus the professors come to be     
generally figured in my mind1 as the    
monkeys who tear holes in the pictures1 
to grin through4 ,then the              
picture-dealers1 who live by the        
pictures1 cannot sell them to the       
,english in their old and pure state2   
all the good work must be covered with  
new paint1 and varnished so as to look  
like one of the professorial pictures in
 the great gallery1 before it is        
saleable4 ,and thus the dealers come to 
be imaged1 in my mind1 as the monkeys   
who make ropes of the pictures1 to swing
 by4 ,then1 every now and then1 in some 
old stable or wine-cellar1 or           
timber-shed1 behind some forgotten vats 
or faggots1 somebody finds a fresco of  
,perugino's or ,giotto's1 but doesn't   
think much of it1 and has no idea of    
having people coming into his cellar1 or
 being obliged to move his faggots2 and 

so he whitewashes the fresco1 and puts  
the faggots back again2 and these kind  
of persons1 therefore1 come generally to
 be imaged in my mind1 as the monkeys   
who taste the pictures1 and spit them   
out1 not finding them nice4 ,while1     
finally1 the squabbling for nuts and    
apples 7called in ,italy bella liberta7 
goes on all day long4  ,now1 all this   
might soon be put an end to1 if we      
,english1 who are so fond of travelling 
in the body1 would also travel a little 
in soul4 ,we think it a great triumph to
 get our packages and our persons       
carried at a fast pace1 but we never    
take the slightest trouble to put any   
pace into our perceptions2 we stay      
usually at home in thought1 or if we    
ever mentally see the world1 it is at   
the old stage-coach or waggon rate4 ,do 
but consider what an odd sight it would 
be1 if it were only quite clear to you  
how things are really going on--how1    
here in ,england1 we are making enormous
 and expensive efforts to produce new   

art of all kinds1 knowing and confessing
 all the while that the greater part of 
it is bad1 but struggling still to      
produce new patterns of wall-papers1 and
 new shapes of tea-pots1 and new        
pictures1 and statues1 and architecture2
 and pluming and cackling if ever a     
tea-pot or a picture has the least good 
in it2--all the while taking no thought 
whatever of the best possible pictures1 
and statues1 and wall-patterns already  
in existence1 which require nothing but 
to be taken common care of1 and kept    
from damp and dust3 but we let the walls
 fall that ,giotto patterned1 and the   
canvasses rot that ,tintoret painted1   
and the architecture be dashed to pieces
 that ,st4 ,louis built1 while we are   
furnishing our drawing-rooms with prize 
upholstery1 and writing accounts of our 
handsome warehouses to the country      
papers4 ,don't think ,i use my words    
vaguely or generally3 ,i speak of       
literal facts4 ,giotto's frescos at     
,assisi are perishing at this moment for

 want of decent care2 ,tintoret's       
pictures in ,san ,sebastian at ,venice1 
are at this instant rotting piecemeal   
into grey rags2 ,st4 ,louis's ,chapel1  
at ,carcassonne1 is at this moment lying
 in shattered fragments in the          
market-place4 ,and here we are all      
cawing and crowing1 poor little         
half-fledged daws as we are1 about the  
pretty sticks and wool in our own nests4
 ,there's hardly a day passes1 when ,i  
am at home1 but ,i get a letter from    
some well-meaning country clergyman1    
deeply anxious about the state of his   
parish church1 and breaking his heart to
 get money together that he may hold up 
some wretched remnant of ,tudor tracery1
 with one niche in the corner and no    
statue--when all the while the mightiest
 piles of religious architecture and    
sculpture that ever the world saw are   
being blasted and withered away1 without
 one glance of pity or regret4 ,the     
country clergyman does not care for     
them--he has a sea-sick imagination that

 cannot cross ,channel4 ,what is it to  
him1 if the angels of ,assisi fade from 
its vaults1 or the queens and kings of  
,chartres fall from their pedestals8    
,they are not in his parish4  ,what6 you
 will say1 are we not to produce any new
 art1 nor take care of our parish       
churches8 ,no1 certainly not1 until you 
have taken proper care of the art you   
have got already1 and of the best       
churches out of the parish4 ,your first 
and proper standing is not as           
churchwardens and parish overseers in an
 ,english county1 but as members of the 
great ,christian community of ,europe4  
,and as members of that community 7in   
which alone1 observe1 pure and precious 
ancient art exists1 for there is none in
 ,america1 none in ,asia1 none in       
,africa71 you conduct yourselves        
precisely as a manufacturer would1 who  
attended to his looms1 but left his     
warehouse without a roof4 ,the rain     
floods your warehouse1 the rats frolic  
in it1 the spiders spin in it1 the      

choughs build in it1 the wall-plague    
frets and festers in it1 and still you  
keep weave1 weave1 weaving at your      
wretched webs1 and thinking you are     
growing rich1 while more is gnawed out  
of your warehouse in an hour than you   
can weave in a twelvemonth4  ,even this 
similitude is not absurd enough to set  
us rightly forth4 ,the weaver would1 or 
might1 at least1 hope that his new woof 
was as stout as the old ones1 and that1 
therefore1 in spite of rain and ravage1 
he would have something to wrap himself 
in when he needed it4 ,but our webs rot 
as we spin4 ,the very fact that we      
despise the great art of the past shows 
that we cannot produce great art now4   
,if we could do it1 we should love it   
when we saw it done--if we really cared 
for it1 we should recognise it and keep 
it2 but we don't care for it4 ,it is not
 art that we want2 it is amusement1     
gratification of pride1 present         
gain--anything in the world but art3 let
 it rot1 we shall always have enough to 

talk about and hang over our sideboards4
  ,you will 7,i hope7 finally ask me    
what is the outcome of all this1        
practicable1 to-morrow morning by us who
 are sitting here8 ,these are the main  
practical outcomes of it3 ,in the first 
place1 don't grumble when you hear of a 
new picture being bought by ,government 
at a large price4 ,there are many       
pictures in ,europe now in danger of    
destruction which are1 in the true sense
 of the word1 priceless2 the proper     
price is simply that which it is        
necessary to give to get and to save    
them4 ,if you can get them for fifty    
pounds1 do2 if not for less than a      
hundred1 do2 if not for less than five  
thousand1 do2 if not for less than      
twenty thousand1 do2 never mind being   
imposed upon3 there is nothing          
disgraceful in being imposed upon2 the  
only disgrace is in imposing2 and you   
can't in general get anything much worth
 having1 in the way of ,continental art1
 but it must be with the help or        

connivance of numbers of people who1    
indeed1 ought to have nothing to do with
 the matter1 but who practically have1  
and always will have1 everything to do  
with it2 and if you don't choose to     
submit to be cheated by them out of a   
ducat here and a zecchin there1 you will
 be cheated by them out of your picture2
 and whether you are most imposed upon  
in losing that1 or the zecchins1 ,i     
think ,i may leave you to judge2 though 
,i know there are many political        
economists1 who would rather leave a bag
 of gold on a garret-table1 than give a 
porter sixpence extra to carry it       
downstairs4  ,that1 then1 is the first  
practical outcome of the matter4 ,never 
grumble1 but be glad when you hear of a 
new picture being bought at a large     
price4 ,in the long run1 the dearest    
pictures are always the best bargains2  
and1 ,i repeat 7for else you might think
 ,i said it in mere hurry of talk1 and  
not deliberately71 there are some       
pictures which are without price4 ,you  

should stand1 nationally1 at the edge of
 ,dover cliffs--,shakespeare's--and wave
 blank cheques in the eyes of the       
nations on the other side of the sea1   
freely offered1 for such and such       
canvasses of theirs4  ,then the next    
practical outcome of it is3 ,never buy a
 copy of a picture1 under any           
circumstances whatever4 ,all copies are 
bad2 because no painter who is worth a  
straw ever will copy4 ,he will make a   
study of a picture he likes1 for his own
 use1 in his own way2 but he won't and  
can't copy2 whenever you buy a copy1 you
 buy so much misunderstanding of the    
original1 and encourage a dull person in
 following a business he is not fit for1
 besides increasing ultimately chances  
of mistake and imposture1 and           
farthering1 as directly as money can    
farther1 the cause of ignorance in all  
directions4 ,you may1 in fact1 consider 
yourself as having purchased a certain  
quantity of mistakes2 and1 according to 
your power1 being engaged in            

disseminating them4  ,i do not mean1    
however1 that copies should never be    
made4 ,a certain number of dull persons 
should always be employed by a          
,government in making the most accurate 
copies possible of all good pictures2   
these copies1 though artistically       
valueless1 would be historically and    
documentarily valuable1 in the event of 
the destruction of the original picture4
 ,the studies also made by great artists
 for their own use1 should be sought    
after with the greatest eagerness2 they 
are often to be bought cheap2 and in    
connection with the mechanical copies1  
would become very precious3 tracings    
from frescos and other large works are  
also of great value2 for though a       
tracing is liable to just as many       
mistakes as a copy1 the mistakes in a   
tracing are of one kind only1 which may 
be allowed for1 but the mistakes of a   
common copyist are of all conceivable   
kinds3 finally1 engravings1 in so far as
 they convey certain facts about the    

pictures1 without pretending adequately 
to represent or give an idea of the     
pictures1 are often serviceable and     
valuable4 ,i can't1 of course1 enter    
into details in these matters just now2 
only this main piece of advice ,i can   
safely give you--never to buy copies of 
pictures 7for your private possession7  
which pretend to give a facsimile that  
shall be in any wise representative of1 
or equal to1 the original4 ,whenever you
 do so1 you are only lowering your      
taste1 and wasting your money4 ,and if  
you are generous and wise1 you will be  
ready rather to subscribe as much as you
 would have given for a copy of a great 
picture1 towards its purchase1 or the   
purchase of some other like it1 by the  
nation4 ,there ought to be a great      
,national ,society instituted for the   
purchase of pictures2 presenting them to
 the various galleries in our great     
cities1 and watching there over their   
safety3 but in the meantime1 you can    
always act safely and beneficially by   

merely allowing your artist friends to  
buy pictures for you1 when they see good
 ones4 ,never buy for yourselves1 nor go
 to the foreign dealers2 but let any    
painter whom you know be entrusted1 when
 he finds a neglected old picture in an 
old house1 to try if he cannot get it   
for you2 then1 if you like it1 keep it2 
if not1 send it to the hammer1 and you  
will find that you do not lose money on 
pictures so purchased4  ,and the third  
and chief practical outcome of the      
matter is this general one3 ,wherever   
you go1 whatever you do1 act more for   
preservation and less for production4 ,i
 assure you1 the world is1 generally    
speaking1 in calamitous disorder1 and   
just because you have managed to thrust 
some of the lumber aside1 and get an    
available corner for yourselves1 you    
think you should do nothing but sit     
spinning in it all day long--while1 as  
householders and economists1 your first 
thought and effort should be1 to set    
things more square all about you4 ,try  

to set the ground floors in order1 and  
get the rottenness out of your          
granaries4 ,then sit and spin1 but not  
till then4   ,,iv4 ,,distribution4--,and
 now1 lastly1 we come to the fourth     
great head of our inquiry1 the question 
of the wise distribution of the art we  
have gathered and preserved4 ,it must be
 evident to us1 at a moment's thought1  
that the way in which works of art are  
on the whole most useful to the nation  
to which they belong1 must be by their  
collection in public galleries1         
supposing those galleries properly      
managed4 ,but there is one disadvantage 
attached necessarily to gallery         
exhibition1 namely1 the extent of       
mischief which may be done by one       
foolish curator4 ,as long as the        
pictures which form the national wealth 
are disposed in private collections1 the
 chance is always that the people who   
buy them will be just the people who are
 fond of them2 and that the sense of    
exchangeable value in the commodity they

 possess1 will induce them1 even if they
 do not esteem it themselves1 to take   
such care of it as will preserve its    
value undiminished4 ,at all events1 so  
long as works of art are scattered      
through the nation1 no universal        
destruction of them is possible2 a      
certain average only are lost by        
accidents from time to time4 ,but when  
they are once collected in a large      
public gallery1 if the appointment of   
curator becomes in any way a matter of  
formality1 or the post is so lucrative  
as to be disputed by place-hunters1 let 
but one foolish or careless person get  
possession of it1 and perhaps you may   
have all your fine pictures repainted1  
and the national property destroyed1 in 
a month4 ,that is actually the case at  
this moment1 in several great foreign   
galleries4 ,they are the places of      
execution of pictures3 over their doors 
you only want the ,dantesque            
inscription1 ,lasciate ogni speranza1   
voi che entrate4  ,supposing1 however1  

this danger properly guarded against1 as
 it would be always by a nation which   
either knew the value1 or understood the
 meaning1 of painting1#ac arrangement in
 a public gallery is the safest1 as well
 as the most serviceable1 method of     
exhibiting pictures2 and it is the only 
mode in which their historical value can
 be brought out1 and their historical   
meaning made clear4 ,but great good is  
also to be done by encouraging the      
private possession of pictures2 partly  
as a means of study 7much more being    
always discovered in any work of art by 
a person who has it perpetually near him
 than by one who only sees it from time 
to time71 and also as a means of        
refining the habits and touching the    
hearts of the masses of the nation in   
their domestic life4     #ac ,it would  
be a great point gained towards the     
preservation         of pictures if it  
were made a rule that at every operation
         they underwent1 the exact spots
 in which they have been                

re-painted should be recorded in        
writing4  ,for these last purposes the  
most serviceable art is the living art  
of the time2 the particular tastes of   
the people will be best met1 and their  
particular ignorances best corrected1 by
 painters labouring in the midst of     
them1 more or less guided to the        
knowledge of what is wanted by the      
degree of sympathy with which their work
 is received4 ,so then1 generally1 it   
should be the object of government1 and 
of all patrons of art1 to collect1 as   
far as may be1 the works of dead masters
 in public galleries1 arranging them so 
as to illustrate the history of nations1
 and the progress and influence of their
 arts2 and to encourage the private     
possession of the works of living       
masters4 ,and the first and best way in 
which to encourage such private         
possession is1 of course1 to keep down  
the prices of them as far as you can4   
,i hope there are not a great many      
painters in the room2 if there are1 ,i  

entreat their patience for the next     
quarter of an hour3 if they will bear   
with me for so long1 ,i hope they will  
not1 finally1 be offended by what ,i am 
going to say4  ,i repeat1 trusting to   
their indulgence in the interim1 that   
the first object of our national        
economy1 as respects the distribution of
 modern art1 should be steadily and     
rationally to limit its prices1 since by
 doing so1 you will produce two effects2
 you will make the painters produce more
 pictures1 two or three instead of one1 
if they wish to make money2 and you     
will1 by bringing good pictures within  
the reach of people of moderate income1 
excite the general interest of the      
nation in them1 increase a thousandfold 
the demand for the commodity1 and       
therefore its wholesome and natural     
production4  ,i know how many objections
 must arise in your minds at this moment
 to what ,i say2 but you must be aware  
that it is not possible for me in an    
hour to explain all the moral and       

commercial bearings of such a principle 
as this4 ,only1 believe me1 ,i do not   
speak lightly2 ,i think ,i have         
considered all the objections which     
could be rationally brought forward1    
though ,i have time at present only to  
glance at the main one1 namely1 the idea
 that the high prices paid for modern   
pictures are either honourable1 or      
serviceable1 to the painter4 ,so far    
from this being so1 ,i believe one of   
the principal obstacles to the progress 
of modern art to be the high prices     
given for good modern pictures4 ,for    
observe1 first1 the action of this high 
remuneration on the artist's mind4 ,if  
he gets on1 as it is called1 catches the
 eye of the public1 and especially of   
the public of the upper classes1 there  
is hardly any limit to the fortune he   
may acquire2 so that1 in his early      
years1 his mind is naturally led to     
dwell on this worldly and wealthy       
eminence as the main thing to be reached
 by his art2 if he finds that he is not 

gradually rising towards it1 he thinks  
there is something wrong in his work2   
or1 if he is too proud to think that1   
still the bribe of wealth and honour    
warps him from his honest labour into   
efforts to attract attention2 and he    
gradually loses both his power of mind  
and his rectitude of purpose4 ,this1    
according to the degree of avarice or   
ambition which exists in any painter's  
mind1 is the necessary influence upon   
him of the hope of great wealth and     
reputation4 ,but the harm is still      
greater1 in so far as the possibility of
 attaining fortune of this kind tempts  
people continually to become painters   
who have no real gift for the work2 and 
on whom these motives of mere worldly   
interest have exclusive influence2--men 
who torment and abuse the patient       
workers1 eclipse or thrust aside all    
delicate and good pictures by their own 
gaudy and coarse ones1 corrupt the taste
 of the public1 and do the greatest     
amount of mischief to the schools of art

 in their day which it is possible for  
their capacities to effect2 and it is   
quite wonderful how much mischief may be
 done even by small capacity4 ,if you   
could by any means succeed in keeping   
the prices of pictures down1 you would  
throw all these disturbers out of the   
way at once4  ,you may perhaps think    
that this severe treatment would do more
 harm than good1 by withdrawing the     
wholesome element of emulation1 and     
giving no stimulus to exertion2 but ,i  
am sorry to say that artists will always
 be sufficiently jealous of one another1
 whether you pay them large or low      
prices2 and as for stimulus to exertion1
 believe me1 no good work in this world 
was ever done for money1 nor while the  
slightest thought of money affected the 
painter's mind4 ,whatever idea of       
pecuniary value enters into his thoughts
 as he works1 will1 in proportion to the
 distinctness of its presence1 shorten  
his power4 ,a real painter will work for
 you exquisitely1 if you give him1 as ,i

 told you a little while ago1 bread and 
water and salt2 and a bad painter will  
work badly and hastily1 though you give 
him a palace to live in1 and a princedom
 to live upon4 ,turner got1 in his      
earlier years1 half-a-crown a day and   
his supper 7not bad pay1 neither72 and  
he learned to paint upon that4 ,and ,i  
believe that there is no chance of art's
 truly flourishing in any country1 until
 you make it a simple and plain         
business1 providing its masters with an 
easy competence1 but rarely with        
anything more4 ,and ,i say this1 not    
because ,i despise the great painter1   
but because ,i honour him2 and ,i should
 no more think of adding to his         
respectability or happiness by giving   
him riches1 than1 if ,shakespeare or    
,milton were alive1 ,i should think we  
added to their respectability1 or were  
likely to get better work from them1 by 
making them millionaires4  ,but1        
observe1 it is not only the painter     
himself whom you injure1 by giving him  

too high prices2 you injure all the     
inferior painters of the day4 ,if they  
are modest1 they will be discouraged and
 depressed by the feeling that their    
doings are worth so little1             
comparatively1 in your eyes2--if proud1 
all their worst passions will be        
aroused1 and the insult or opprobrium   
which they will try to cast on their    
successful rival will not only afflict  
and wound him1 but at last sour and     
harden him3 he cannot pass through such 
a trial without grievous harm4  ,that1  
then1 is the effect you produce on the  
painter of mark1 and on the inferior    
ones of his own standing4 ,but you do   
worse than this2 you deprive yourselves1
 by what you give for the fashionable   
picture1 of the power of helping the    
younger men who are coming forward4 ,be 
it admitted1 for argument's sake if you 
are not convinced by what ,i have said1 
that you do no harm to the great man by 
paying him well2 yet certainly you do   
him no special good4 ,his reputation is 

established1 and his fortune made2 he   
does not care whether you buy or not3 he
 thinks he is rather doing you a favour 
than otherwise by letting you have one  
of his pictures at all4 ,all the good   
you do him is to help him to buy a new  
pair of carriage horses2 whereas1 with  
that same sum which thus you cast away1 
you might have relieved the hearts and  
preserved the health of twenty young    
painters2 and if among those twenty1 you
 but chanced on one in whom a true      
latent power had been hindered by his   
poverty1 just consider what a           
far-branching1 far-embracing good you   
have wrought with that lucky expenditure
 of yours4 ,i say1 ,consider it in vain2
 you cannot consider it1 for you cannot 
conceive the sickness of heart with     
which a young painter of deep feeling   
toils through his first obscurity2--his 
sense of the strong voice within him1   
which you will not hear2--his vain1     
fond1 wondering witness to the things   
you will not see2--his far away         

perception of things that he could      
accomplish if he had but peace1 and     
time1 all unapproachable and vanishing  
from him1 because no one will leave him 
peace or grant him time3 all his friends
 falling back from him2 those whom he   
would most reverently obey rebuking and 
paralysing him2 and last and worst of   
all1 those who believe in him the most  
faithfully suffering by him the most    
bitterly2--the wife's eyes1 in their    
sweet ambition1 shining brighter as the 
cheek wastes away2 and the little lips  
at his side parched and pale1 which one 
day1 he knows1 though he may never see  
it1 will quiver so proudly when they    
name his name1 calling him our father4  
,you deprive yourselves1 by your large  
expenditure for pictures of mark1 of the
 power of relieving and redeeming this  
distress2 you injure the painter whom   
you pay so largely2--and what1 after    
all1 have you done for yourselves1 or   
got for yourselves8 ,it does not in the 
least follow that the hurried work of a 

fashionable painter will contain more   
for your money than the quiet work of   
some unknown man4 ,in all probability1  
you will find1 if you rashly purchase   
what is popular at a high price1 that   
you have got one picture you don't care 
for1 for a sum which would have bought  
twenty you would have delighted in4 ,for
 remember always that the price of a    
picture by a living artist1 never       
represents1 never can represent1 the    
quantity of labour or value in it4 ,its 
price represents1 for the most part1 the
 degree of desire which the rich people 
of the country have to possess it4 ,once
 get the wealthy classes to imagine that
 the possession of pictures by a given  
artist adds to their gentility1 and     
there is no price which his work may not
 immediately reach1 and for years       
maintain2 and in buying at that price1  
you are not getting value for your      
money1 but merely disputing for victory 
in a contest of ostentation4 ,and it is 
hardly possible to spend your money in a

 worse or more wasteful way2 for though 
you may not be doing it for ostentation 
yourself1 you are1 by your pertinacity1 
nourishing the ostentation of others2   
you meet them in their game of wealth1  
and continue it for them2 if they had   
not found an opposite player1 the game  
would have been done2 for a proud man   
can find no enjoyment in possessing     
himself of what nobody disputes with    
him4 ,so that by every farthing you give
 for a picture beyond its fair          
price--that is to say1 the price which  
will pay the painter for his time--you  
are not only cheating yourself and      
buying vanity1 but you are stimulating  
the vanity of others2 paying literally1 
for the cultivation of pride4 ,you may  
consider every pound that you spend     
above the just price of a work of art1  
as an investment in a cargo of mental   
quick-lime or guano1 which1 being laid  
on the fields of human nature1 is to    
grow a harvest of pride4 ,you are in    
fact ploughing and harrowing1 in a most 

valuable part of your land1 in order to 
reap the whirlwind2 you are setting your
 hand stoutly to ,job's agriculture1    
,let thistles grow instead of wheat1 and
 cockle instead of barley4  ,well1 but  
you will say1 there is one advantage in 
high prices1 which more than            
counterbalances all this mischief1      
namely1 that by great reward we both    
urge and enable a painter to produce    
rather one perfect picture than many    
inferior ones3 and one perfect picture  
7so you tell us1 and we believe it7 is  
worth a great number of inferior ones4  
,it is so2 but you cannot get it by     
paying for it4 ,a great work is only    
done when the painter gets into the     
humour for it1 likes his subject1 and   
determines to paint it as well as he    
can1 whether he is paid for it or not2  
but bad work1 and generally the worst   
sort of bad work1 is done when he is    
trying to produce a showy picture1 or   
one that shall appear to have as much   
labour in it as shall be worth a high   

price4#ad     #ad ,when this lecture was
 delivered1 ,i gave here some data for  
approximate estimates of the average    
value of good modern         pictures of
 different classes2 but the subject is  
too         complicated to be adequately
 treated in writing1 without            
introducing more detail than the reader 
will have patience         for4 ,but ,i 
may state1 roughly1 that prices above a 
hundred         guineas are in general  
extravagant for water-colours1 and      
above five hundred for oils4 ,an artist 
almost always does         wrong who    
puts more work than these prices will   
remunerate         him for into any     
single canvass--his talent would be     
better         employed in painting two 
pictures than one so elaborate4 ,the    
water-colour painters also are getting  
into the habit of         making their  
drawings too large1 and in a measure    
attaching         their price rather to 
breadth and extent of touch than to     
thoughtful labour4 ,of course marked    

exceptions occur here         and there1
 as in the case of ,john ,lewis1 whose  
drawings are         wrought with       
unfailing precision throughout1 whatever
 their         scale4 ,hardly any price 
can be remunerative for such work4      
,there is however1 another point1 and a 
still more important one1 bearing on    
this matter of purchase1 than the       
keeping down of prices to a rational    
standard4 ,and that is1 that you pay    
your prices into the hands of living    
men1 and do not pour them into coffins4 
,for observe that1 as we arrange our    
payment of pictures at present1 no      
artist's work is worth half its proper  
value while he is alive4 ,the moment he 
dies1 his pictures1 if they are good1   
reach double their former value2 but1   
that rise of price represents simply a  
profit made by the intelligent dealer or
 purchaser on his past purchases4 ,so   
that the real facts of the matter are1  
that the ,british public1 spending a    
certain sum annually in art1 determines 

that1 of every thousand it pays1 only   
five hundred shall go to the painter1 or
 shall be at all concerned in the       
production of art2 and that the other   
five hundred shall be paid merely as a  
testimonial to the intelligent dealer1  
who knew what to buy4 ,now1 testimonials
 are very pretty and proper things1     
within due limits2 but testimonial to   
the amount of a hundred per cent4 on the
 total expenditure is not good political
 economy4 ,do not therefore1 in general1
 unless you see it to be necessary for  
its preservation1 buy the picture of a  
dead artist4 ,if you fear that it may be
 exposed to contempt or neglect1 buy it2
 its price will then1 probably1 not be  
high3 if you want to put it into a      
public gallery1 buy it2 you are sure1   
then1 that you do not spend your money  
selfishly3 or1 if you loved the man's   
work while he was alive1 and bought it  
then1 buy it also now1 if you can see no
 living work equal to it4 ,but if you   
did not buy it while the man was living1

 never buy it after he is dead3 you are 
then doing no good to him1 and you are  
doing some shame to yourself4 ,look     
around you for pictures that you really 
like1 and in buying which you can help  
some genius yet unperished--that is the 
best atonement you can make to the one  
you have neglected--and give to the     
living and struggling painter at once   
wages1 and testimonial4  ,so far1 then1 
of the motives which should induce us to
 keep down the prices of modern art1 and
 thus render it1 as a private           
possession1 attainable by greater       
numbers of people than at present4 ,but 
we should strive to render it accessible
 to them in other ways also--chiefly by 
the permanent decoration of public      
buildings2 and it is in this field that 
,i think we may look for the profitable 
means of providing that constant        
employment for young painters of which  
we were speaking last evening4  ,the    
first and most important kind of public 
buildings which we are always sure to   

want1 are schools3 and ,i would ask you 
to consider very carefully1 whether we  
may not wisely introduce some great     
changes in the way of school decoration4
 ,hitherto1 as far as ,i know1 it has   
either been so difficult to give all the
 education we wanted to our lads1 that  
we have been obliged to do it1 if at    
all1 with cheap furniture in bare walls2
 or else we have considered that cheap  
furniture and bare walls are a proper   
part of the means of education2 and     
supposed that boys learned best when    
they sat on hard forms1 and had nothing 
but blank plaster about and above them  
whereupon to employ their spare         
attention2 also1 that it was as well    
they should be accustomed to rough and  
ugly conditions of things1 partly by way
 of preparing them for the hardships of 
life1 and partly that there might be the
 least possible damage done to floors   
and forms1 in the event of their        
becoming1 during the master's absence1  
the fields or instruments of battle4    

,all this is so far well and necessary1 
as it relates to the training of country
 lads1 and the first training of boys in
 general4 ,but there certainly comes a  
period in the life of a well educated   
youth1 in which one of the principal    
elements of his education is1 or ought  
to be1 to give him refinement of habits2
 and not only to teach him the strong   
exercises of which his frame is capable1
 but also to increase his bodily        
sensibility and refinement1 and show him
 such small matters as the way of       
handling things properly1 and treating  
them considerately4 ,not only so1 but ,i
 believe the notion of fixing the       
attention by keeping the room empty1 is 
a wholly mistaken one3 ,i think it is   
just in the emptiest room that the mind 
wanders most2 for it gets restless1 like
 a bird1 for want of a perch1 and casts 
about for any possible means of getting 
out and away4 ,and even if it be fixed1 
by an effort1 on the business in hand1  
that business becomes itself repulsive1 

more than it need be1 by the vileness of
 its associations2 and many a study     
appears dull or painful to a boy when it
 is pursued on a blotted deal desk1     
under a wall with nothing on it but     
scratches and pegs1 which would have    
been pursued pleasantly enough in a     
curtained corner of his father's        
library1 or at the lattice window of his
 cottage4 ,nay1 my own belief is1 that  
the best study of all is the most       
beautiful2 and that a quiet glade of    
forest1 or the nook of a lake shore1 are
 worth all the schoolrooms in           
,christendom1 when once you are past the
 multiplication table2 but be that as it
 may1 there is no question at all but   
that a time ought to come in the life of
 a well trained youth1 when he can sit  
at a writing table without wanting to   
throw the inkstand at his neighbour2 and
 when also he will feel more capable of 
certain efforts of mind with beautiful  
and refined forms about him than with   
ugly ones4 ,when that time comes1 he    

ought to be advanced into the decorated 
schools2 and this advance ought to be   
one of the important and honourable     
epochs of his life4  ,i have not time1  
however1 to insist on the mere          
serviceableness to our youth of refined 
architectural decoration1 as such2 for  
,i want you to consider the probable    
influence of the particular kind of     
decoration which ,i wish you to get for 
them1 namely1 historical painting4 ,you 
know we have hitherto been in the habit 
of conveying all our historical         
knowledge1 such as it is1 by the ear    
only1 never by the eye2 all our notions 
of things being ostensibly derived from 
verbal description1 not from sight4     
,now1 ,i have no doubt that1 as we grow 
gradually wiser--and we are doing so    
every day--we shall discover at last    
that the eye is a nobler organ than the 
ear2 and that through the eye we must1  
in reality1 obtain1 or put into form1   
nearly all the useful information we are
 to have about this world4 ,even as the 

matter stands1 you will find that the   
knowledge which a boy is supposed to    
receive from verbal description is only 
available to him so far as in any       
underhand way he gets a sight of the    
thing you are talking about4 ,i remember
 well that1 for many years of my life1  
the only notion ,i had of the look of a 
,greek knight was complicated between   
recollection of a small engraving in my 
pocket ,pope's ,homer1 and reverent     
study of the ,horse ,guards4 ,and though
 ,i believe that most boys collect their
 ideas from more varied sources1 and    
arrange them more carefully than ,i did2
 still1 whatever sources they seek must 
always be ocular3 if they are clever    
boys1 they will go and look at the      
,greek vases and sculptures in the      
,british ,museum1 and at the weapons in 
our armouries--they will see what real  
armour is like in lustre1 and what      
,greek armour was like in form1 and so  
put a fairly true image together1 but   
still not1 in ordinary cases1 a very    

living or interesting one4 ,now1 the use
 of your decorative painting would be1  
in myriads of ways1 to animate their    
history for them1 and to put the living 
aspect of past things before their eyes 
as faithfully as intelligent invention  
can2 so that the master shall have      
nothing to do but once to point to the  
schoolroom walls1 and for ever          
afterwards the meaning of any word would
 be fixed in a boy's mind in the best   
possible way4 ,is it a question of      
classical dress--what a tunic was like1 
or a chlamys1 or a peplus8 ,at this day1
 you have to point to some vile woodcut1
 in the middle of a dictionary page1    
representing the thing hung upon a      
stick1 but then1 you would point to a   
hundred figures1 wearing the actual     
dress1 in its fiery colours1 in all     
actions of various stateliness or       
strength2 you would understand at once  
how it fell round the people's limbs as 
they stood1 how it drifted from their   
shoulders as they went1 how it veiled   

their faces as they wept1 how it covered
 their heads in the day of battle4 ,now1
 if you want to see what a weapon is    
like1 you refer1 in like manner1 to a   
numbered page1 in which there are       
spear-heads in rows1 and sword-hilts in 
symmetrical groups2 and gradually the   
boy gets a dim mathematical notion how  
one scymitar is hooked to the right and 
another to the left1 and one javelin has
 a knob to it and another none3 while   
one glance at your good picture would   
show him1--and the first rainy afternoon
 in the schoolroom would for ever fix in
 his mind1--the look of the sword and   
spear as they fell or flew2 and how they
 pierced1 or bent1 or shattered--how men
 wielded them1 and how men died by them4
 ,but far more than all this1 is it a   
question not of clothes or weapons1 but 
of men8 how can we sufficiently estimate
 the effect on the mind of a noble      
youth1 at the time when the world opens 
to him1 of having faithful and touching 
representations put before him of the   

acts and presences of great men--how    
many a resolution1 which would alter and
 exalt the whole course of his          
after-life1 might be formed1 when in    
some dreamy twilight he met1 through his
 own tears1 the fixed eyes of those     
shadows of the great dead1 unescapable  
and calm1 piercing to his soul2 or      
fancied that their lips moved in dread  
reproof or soundless exhortation4 ,and  
if but for one out of many this were    
true--if yet1 in a few1 you could be    
sure that such influence had indeed     
changed their thoughts and destinies1   
and turned the eager and reckless youth1
 who would have cast away his energies  
on the race-horse or the gambling-table1
 to that noble life-race1 that holy     
life-hazard1 which should win all glory 
to himself and all good to his          
country--would not that1 to some        
purpose1 be political economy of art8   
,and observe1 there could be no         
monotony1 no exhaustibleness1 in the    
scenes required to be thus pourtrayed4  

,even if there were1 and you wanted for 
every school in the kingdom1 one death  
of ,leonidas2 one battle of ,marathon2  
one death of ,cleobis and ,bito2 there  
need not therefore be more monotony in  
your art than there was in the          
repetition of a given cycle of subjects 
by the religious painters of ,italy4    
,but we ought not to admit a cycle at   
all4 ,for though we had as many great   
schools as we have great cities 7one day
 ,i hope we shall have71 centuries of   
painting would not exhaust1 in all the  
number of them1 the noble and pathetic  
subjects which might be chosen from the 
history of even one noble nation4 ,but1 
besides this1 you will not1 in a little 
while1 limit your youths' studies to so 
narrow fields as you do now4 ,there will
 come a time--,i am sure of it--when it 
will be found that the same practical   
results1 both in mental discipline1 and 
in political philosophy1 are to be      
attained by the accurate study of       
mediaeval and modern as of ancient      

history2 and that the facts of mediaeval
 and modern history are1 on the whole1  
the most important to us4 ,and among    
these noble groups of constellated      
schools which ,i foresee arising in our 
,england1 ,i foresee also that there    
will be divided fields of thought2 and  
that while each will give its scholars a
 great general idea of the world's      
history1 such as all men should         
possess--each will also take upon       
itself1 as its own special duty1 the    
closer study of the course of events in 
some given place or time4 ,it will      
review the rest of history1 but it will 
exhaust its own special field of it2 and
 found its moral and political teaching 
on the most perfect possible analysis of
 the results of human conduct in one    
place1 and at one epoch4 ,and then1 the 
galleries of that school will be painted
 with the historical scenes belonging to
 the age which it has chosen for its    
special study4  ,so far1 then1 of art as
 you may apply it to that great series  

of public buildings which you devote to 
the education of youth4 ,the next large 
class of public buildings in which we   
should introduce it1 is one which ,i    
think a few years more of national      
progress will render more serviceable to
 us than they have been lately4 ,i mean1
 buildings for the meetings of guilds of
 trades4  ,and here1 for the last time1 
,i must again interrupt the course of   
our chief inquiry1 in order to state one
 other principle of political economy1  
which is perfectly simple and           
indisputable2 but which1 nevertheless1  
we continually get into commercial      
embarrassments for want of              
understanding2 and not only so1 but     
suffer much hindrance in our commercial 
discoveries1 because many of our        
business men do not practically admit   
it4  ,supposing half a dozen or a dozen 
men were cast ashore from a wreck on an 
uninhabited island and left to their own
 resources1 one of course1 according to 
his capacity1 would be set to one       

business and one to another2 the        
strongest to dig and to cut wood1 and to
 build huts for the rest3 the most      
dexterous to make shoes out of bark and 
coats out of skins2 the best educated to
 look for iron or lead in the rocks1 and
 to plan the channels for the irrigation
 of the fields4 ,but though their       
labours were thus naturally severed1    
that small group of shipwrecked men     
would understand well enough that the   
speediest progress was to be made by    
helping each other1--not by opposing    
each other2 and they would know that    
this help could only be properly given  
so long as they were frank and open in  
their relations1 and the difficulties   
which each lay under properly explained 
to the rest4 ,so that any appearance of 
secresy or separateness in the actions  
of any of them would instantly1 and     
justly1 be looked upon with suspicion by
 the rest1 as the sign of some selfish  
or foolish proceeding on the part of the
 individual4 ,if1 for instance1 the     

scientific man were found to have gone  
out at night1 unknown to the rest1 to   
alter the sluices1 the others would     
think1 and in all probability rightly   
think1 that he wanted to get the best   
supply of water to his own field2 and if
 the shoemaker refused to show them     
where the bark grew which he made the   
sandals of1 they would naturally think1 
and in all probability rightly think1   
that he didn't want them to see how much
 there was of it1 and that he meant to  
ask from them more corn and potatoes in 
exchange for his sandals than the       
trouble of making them deserved4 ,and   
thus1 although each man would have a    
portion of time to himself in which he  
was allowed to do what he chose without 
let or inquiry1--so long as he was      
working in that particular business     
which he had undertaken for the common  
benefit1 any secresy on his part would  
be immediately supposed to mean         
mischief2 and would require to be       
accounted for1 or put an end to3 and    

this all the more because1 whatever the 
work might be1 certainly there would be 
difficulties about it which1 when once  
they were well explained1 might be more 
or less done away with by the help of   
the rest2 so that assuredly every one of
 them would advance with his labour not 
only more happily1 but more profitably  
and quickly1 by having no secrets1 and  
by frankly bestowing1 and frankly       
receiving1 such help as lay in his way  
to get or to give4  ,and1 just as the   
best and richest result of wealth and   
happiness to the whole of them1 would   
follow on their perseverance in such a  
system of frank communication and of    
helpful labour2--so precisely the worst 
and poorest result would be obtained by 
a system of secresy and of enmity2 and  
each man's happiness and wealth would   
assuredly be diminished in proportion to
 the degree in which jealousy and       
concealment became their social and     
economical principles4 ,it would not1 in
 the long run1 bring good1 but only     

evil1 to the man of science1 if1 instead
 of telling openly where he had found   
good iron1 he carefully concealed every 
new bed of it1 that he might ask1 in    
exchange for the rare ploughshare1 more 
corn from the farmer1 or in exchange for
 the rude needle1 more labour from the  
sempstress3 and it would not ultimately 
bring good1 but only evil1 to the       
farmers1 if they sought to burn each    
other's cornstacks1 that they might     
raise the value of their grain1 or if   
the sempstresses tried to break each    
other's needles1 that each might get all
 the stitching to herself4  ,now1 these 
laws of human action are precisely as   
authoritative in their application to   
the conduct of a million of men1 as to  
that of six or twelve4 ,all enmity1     
jealousy1 opposition1 and secresy are   
wholly1 and in all circumstances1       
destructive in their nature--not        
productive2 and all kindness1           
fellowship1 and communicativeness are   
invariably productive in their          

operation1--not destructive2 and the    
evil principles of opposition and       
exclusiveness are not rendered less     
fatal1 but more fatal1 by their         
acceptance among large masses of men2   
more fatal1 ,i say1 exactly in          
proportion as their influence is more   
secret4 ,for though the opposition does 
always its own simple1 necessary1 direct
 quantity of harm1 and withdraws always 
its own simple1 necessary1 measurable   
quantity of wealth from the sum         
possessed by the community1 yet1 in     
proportion to the size of the community1
 it does another and more refined       
mischief than this1 by concealing its   
own fatality under aspects of mercantile
 complication and expediency1 and giving
 rise to multitudes of false theories   
based on a mean belief in narrow and    
immediate appearances of good done here 
and there by things which have the      
universal and everlasting nature of     
evil4 ,so that the time and powers of   
the nation are wasted1 not only in      

wretched struggling against each other1 
but in vain complaints1 and groundless  
discouragements1 and empty              
investigations1 and useless experiments 
in laws1 and elections1 and inventions2 
with hope always to pull wisdom through 
some new-shaped slit in a ballot-box1   
and to drag prosperity down out of the  
clouds along some new knot of electric  
wire2 while all the while ,wisdom stands
 calling at the corners of the streets1 
and the blessing of heaven waits ready  
to rain down upon us1 deeper than the   
rivers and broader than the dew1 if only
 we will obey the first plain principles
 of humanity1 and the first plain       
precepts of the skies2 ,execute true    
judgment1 and show mercy and compassion1
 every man to his brother2 and let none 
of you imagine evil against his brother 
in your heart4#ae     #ae ,it would be  
well if1 instead of preaching           
continually about         the doctrine  
of faith and good works1 our clergymen  
would         simply explain to their   

people a little what good works         
mean4 ,there is not a chapter in all the
 ,book we profess to         believe1   
more specially and directly written for 
,england1         than the second of    
,habakkuk1 and ,i never in all my life  
heard one of its practical texts        
preached from4 ,i suppose         the   
clergymen are all afraid1 and know that 
their flocks1         while they will   
sit quite politely to hear syllogisms   
out of         the epistle to the       
,romans1 would get restive directly if  
they ever pressed a practical text home 
to them4 ,but we         should have no 
mercantile catastrophes1 and no         
distressful         pauperism1 if we    
only read often1 and took to heart1     
those         plain words3--,yea1 also1 
because he is a proud man1 neither      
keepeth at home1 who enlargeth his      
desire as hell1 and         cannot be   
satisfied1--,shall not all these take up
 a parable         against him1 and a   
taunting proverb against him1 and say1  

',woe to him that increaseth that which 
is not his3 and to         him that     
ladeth himself with thick clay4' 7,what 
a         glorious history1 in one      
metaphor1 of the life of a man          
greedy of fortune47 ,woe to him that    
coveteth an evil         covetousness   
that he may set his nest on high4 ,woe  
to him         that buildeth a town with
 blood1 and stablisheth a city by       
iniquity4 ,behold1 is it not of the     
,lord of ,hosts that the         people 
shall labour in the very fire1 and the  
people shall         weary themselves   
for very vanity4          ,the          
,americans1 who have been sending out   
ships with sham         bolt-heads on   
their timbers1 and only half their      
bolts1 may         meditate on that     
buildeth a town with blood4  ,therefore1
 ,i believe most firmly1 that as the    
laws of national prosperity get familiar
 to us1 we shall more and more cast our 
toil into social and communicative      
systems2 and that one of the first means

 of our doing so1 will be the           
re-establishing guilds of every         
important trade in a vital1 not formal1 
condition2--that there will be a great  
council or government house for the     
members of every trade1 built in        
whatever town of the kingdom occupies   
itself principally in such trade1 with  
minor council halls in other cities2 and
 to each council-hall1 officers         
attached1 whose first business may be to
 examine into the circumstances of every
 operative1 in that trade1 who chooses  
to report himself to them when out of   
work1 and to set him to work1 if he is  
indeed able and willing1 at a fixed rate
 of wages1 determined at regular periods
 in the council-meetings2 and whose next
 duty may be to bring reports before the
 council of all improvements made in the
 business1 and means of its extension3  
not allowing private patents of any     
kind1 but making all improvements       
available to every member of the guild1 
only allotting1 after successful trial  

of them1 a certain reward to the        
inventors4  ,for these1 and many other  
such purposes1 such halls will be again1
 ,i trust1 fully established1 and then1 
in the paintings and decorations of     
them1 especial effort ought to be made  
to express the worthiness and           
honourableness of the trade for whose   
members they are founded4 ,for ,i       
believe one of the worst symptoms of    
modern society to be1 its notion of     
great inferiority1 and                  
ungentlemanliness1 as necessarily       
belonging to the character of a         
tradesman4 ,i believe tradesmen may be1 
ought to be--often are1 more gentlemen  
than idle and useless people3 and ,i    
believe that art may do noble work by   
recording in the hall of each trade1 the
 services which men belonging to that   
trade have done for their country1 both 
preserving the portraits1 and recording 
the important incidents in the lives1 of
 those who have made great advances in  
commerce and civilization4 ,i cannot    

follow out this subject1 it branches too
 far1 and in too many directions2       
besides1 ,i have no doubt you will at   
once see and accept the truth of the    
main principle1 and be able to think it 
out for yourselves4 ,i would fain also  
have said something of what might be    
done1 in the same manner1 for almshouses
 and hospitals1 and for what1 as ,i     
shall try to explain in notes to this   
lecture1 we may hope to see1 some day1  
established with a different meaning in 
their name than that they now           
bear--workhouses2 but ,i have detained  
you too long already1 and cannot permit 
myself to trespass further on your      
patience except only to recapitulate1 in
 closing1 the simple principles         
respecting wealth which we have gathered
 during the course of our inquiry2      
principles which are nothing more than  
the literal and practical acceptance of 
the saying1 which is in all good men's  
mouths2 namely1 that they are stewards  
or ministers of whatever talents are    

entrusted to them4 ,only1 is it not a   
strange thing1 that while we more or    
less accept the meaning of that saying1 
so long as it is considered             
metaphorical1 we never accept its       
meaning in its own terms8 ,you know the 
lesson is given us under the form of a  
story about money4 ,money was given to  
the servants to make use of3 the        
unprofitable servant dug in the earth1  
and hid his ,lord's money4 ,well1 we1 in
 our poetical and spiritual application 
of this1 say1 that of course money      
doesn't mean money1 it means wit1 it    
means intellect1 it means influence in  
high quarters1 it means everything in   
the world except itself4 ,and do not you
 see what a pretty and pleasant come-off
 there is for most of us1 in this       
spiritual application8 ,of course1 if we
 had wit1 we would use it for the good  
of our fellow-creatures4 ,but we haven't
 wit4 ,of course1 if we had influence   
with the bishops1 we would use it for   
the good of the ,church2 but we haven't 

any influence with the bishops4 ,of     
course1 if we had political power1 we   
would use it for the good of the nation2
 but we have no political power2 we have
 no talents entrusted to us of any sort 
or kind4 ,it is true we have a little   
money1 but the parable can't possibly   
mean anything so vulgar as money2 our   
money's our own4  ,i believe1 if you    
think seriously of this matter1 you will
 feel that the first and most literal   
application is just as necessary a one  
as any other--that the story does very  
specially mean what it says--plain      
money2 and that the reason we don't at  
once believe it does so1 is a sort of   
tacit idea that while thought1 wit1 and 
intellect1 and all power of birth and   
position1 are indeed given to us1 and1  
therefore1 to be laid out for the       
,giver1--our wealth has not been given  
to us2 but we have worked for it1 and   
have a right to spend it as we choose4  
,i think you will find that is the real 
substance of our understanding in this  

matter4 ,beauty1 we say1 is given by    
,god--it is a talent2 strength is given 
by ,god--it is a talent2 position is    
given by ,god--it is a talent2 but money
 is proper wages for our day's work--it 
is not a talent1 it is a due4 ,we may   
justly spend it on ourselves1 if we have
 worked for it4  ,and there would be    
some shadow of excuse for this1 were it 
not that the very power of making the   
money is itself only one of the         
applications of that intellect or       
strength which we confess to be talents4
 ,why is one man richer than another8   
,because he is more industrious1 more   
persevering1 and more sagacious4 ,well1 
who made him more persevering or more   
sagacious than others8 ,that power of   
endurance1 that quickness of            
apprehension1 that calmness of judgment1
 which enable him to seize the          
opportunities that others lose1 and     
persist in the lines of conduct in which
 others fail--are these not             
talents8--are they not1 in the present  

state of the world1 among the most      
distinguished and influential of mental 
gifts8 ,and is it not wonderful1 that   
while we should be utterly ashamed to   
use a superiority of body1 in order to  
thrust our weaker companions aside from 
some place of advantage1 we             
unhesitatingly use our superiorities of 
mind to thrust them back from whatever  
good that strength of mind can attain8  
,you would be indignant if you saw a    
strong man walk into a theatre or a     
lecture-room1 and1 calmly choosing the  
best place1 take his feeble neighbour by
 the shoulder1 and turn him out of it   
into the back seats1 or the street4 ,you
 would be equally indignant if you saw a
 stout fellow thrust himself up to a    
table where some hungry children were   
being fed1 and reach his arm over their 
heads and take their bread from them4   
,but you are not the least indignant if1
 when a man has stoutness of thought and
 swiftness of capacity1 and1 instead of 
being long-armed only1 has the much     

greater gift of being long-headed--you  
think it perfectly just that he should  
use his intellect to take the bread out 
of the mouths of all the other men in   
the town who are of the same trade with 
him2 or use his breadth and sweep of    
sight to gather some branch of the      
commerce of the country into one great  
cobweb1 of which he is himself to be the
 central spider1 making every thread    
vibrate with the points of his claws1   
and commanding every avenue with the    
facets of his eyes4 ,you see no         
injustice in this4  ,but there is       
injustice2 and1 let us trust1 one of    
which honourable men will at no very    
distant period disdain to be guilty4 ,in
 some degree1 however1 it is indeed not 
unjust2 in some degree it is necessary  
and intended4 ,it is assuredly just that
 idleness should be surpassed by energy2
 that the widest influence should be    
possessed by those who are best able to 
wield it2 and that a wise man1 at the   
end of his career1 should be better off 

than a fool4 ,but for that reason1 is   
the fool to be wretched1 utterly crushed
 down1 and left in all the suffering    
which his conduct and capacity naturally
 inflict8--,not so4 ,what do you suppose
 fools were made for8 ,that you might   
tread upon them1 and starve them1 and   
get the better of them in every possible
 way8 ,by no means4 ,they were made that
 wise people might take care of them4   
,that is the true and plain fact        
concerning the relations of every strong
 and wise man to the world about him4   
,he has his strength given him1 not that
 he may crush the weak1 but that he may 
support and guide them4 ,in his own     
household he is to be the guide and the 
support of his children2 out of his     
household he is still to be the father1 
that is1 the guide and support of the   
weak and the poor2 not merely of the    
meritoriously weak and the innocently   
poor1 but of the guiltily and punishably
 poor2 of the men who ought to have     
known better--of the poor who ought to  

be ashamed of themselves4 ,it is nothing
 to give pension and cottage to the     
widow who has lost her son2 it is       
nothing to give food and medicine to the
 workman who has broken his arm1 or the 
decrepit woman wasting in sickness4 ,but
 it is something to use your time and   
strength to war with the waywardness and
 thoughtlessness of mankind2 to keep the
 erring workman in your service till you
 have made him an unerring one2 and to  
direct your fellow-merchant to the      
opportunity which his dullness would    
have lost4 ,this is much2 but it is yet 
more1 when you have fully achieved the  
superiority which is due to you1 and    
acquired the wealth which is the fitting
 reward of your sagacity1 if you        
solemnly accept the responsibility of   
it1 as it is the helm and guide of      
labour far and near4 ,for you who have  
it in your hands1 are in reality the    
pilots of the power and effort of the   
,state4#af ,it is entrusted to you as an
 authority to be used for good or evil1 

just as completely as kingly authority  
was ever given to a prince1 or military 
command to a captain4 ,and1 according to
 the quantity of it that you have in    
your hands you are the arbiters of the  
will and work of ,england2 and the whole
 issue1 whether the work of the ,state  
shall suffice for the ,state or not1    
depends upon you4 ,you may stretch out  
your sceptre over the heads of the      
,english labourers1 and say to them1 as 
they stoop to its waving1 ,subdue this  
obstacle that has baffled our fathers1  
put away this plague that consumes our  
children2 water these dry places1 plough
 these desert ones1 carry this food to  
those who are in hunger2 carry this     
light to those who are in darkness2     
carry this life to those who are in     
death2 or on the other side you may say 
to her labourers3 ,here am ,i2 this     
power is in my hand2 come1 build a mound
 here for me to be throned upon1 high   
and wide2 come1 make crowns for my head1
 that men may see them shine from far   

away2 come1 weave tapestries for my     
feet1 that ,i may tread softly on the   
silk and purple2#ag come1 dance before  
me1 that ,i may be gay2 and sing sweetly
 to me1 that ,i may slumber2 so shall ,i
 live in joy1 and die in honour4 ,and   
better than such an honourable death1 it
 were that the day had perished wherein 
we were born1 and the night in which it 
was said there is a child conceived4    
#af ,see note #gth1 in ,addenda p4 #ajf4
     #ag ,see note #hth1 in ,addenda p4 
#ajg4  ,i trust1 that in a little while1
 there will be few of our rich men who1 
through carelessness or covetousness1   
thus forfeit the glorious office which  
is intended for their hands4 ,i said1   
just now1 that wealth ill used was as   
the net of the spider1 entangling and   
destroying3 but wealth well used1 is as 
the net of the sacred fisher who gathers
 souls of men out of the deep4 ,a time  
will come--,i do not think even now it  
is far from us--when this golden net of 
the world's wealth will be spread abroad

 as the flaming meshes of morning cloud 
are over the sky2 bearing with them the 
joy of light and the dew of the morning1
 as well as the summons to honourable   
and peaceful toil4 ,what less can we    
hope from your wealth than this1 rich   
men of ,england1 when once you feel     
fully how1 by the strength of your      
possessions--not1 observe1 by the       
exhaustion1 but by the administration of
 them and the power--you can direct the 
acts1--command the energies1--inform the
 ignorance1--prolong the existence1 of  
the whole human race2 and how1 even of  
worldly wisdom1 which man employs       
faithfully1 it is true1 not only that   
her ways are pleasantness1 but that her 
paths are peace2 and that1 for all the  
children of men1 as well as for those to
 whom she is given1 ,length of days are 
in her right hand1 as in her left hand  
,riches and ,honour8     ,,addenda4     
,note1 p4 #ai4--;,fatherly authority4   
,this statement could not1 of course1 be
 heard without displeasure by a certain 

class of politicians2 and in one of the 
notices of these lectures given in the  
,manchester journals at the time1       
endeavour was made to get quit of it by 
referring to the ,divine authority1 as  
the only ,paternal power with respect to
 which men were truly styled brethren4  
,of course it is so1 and1 equally of    
course1 all human government is nothing 
else than the executive expression of   
this ,divine authority4 ,the moment     
government ceases to be the practical   
enforcement of ,divine law1 it is       
tyranny2 and the meaning which ,i attach
 to the words1 paternal government1 is1 
in more extended terms1 simply          
this--,the executive fulfilment1 by     
formal human methods1 of the will of the
 ,father of mankind respecting ,his     
children4 ,i could not give such a      
definition of ,government as this in a  
popular lecture2 and even in written    
form1 it will necessarily suggest many  
objections1 of which ,i must notice and 
answer the most probable4  ,only1 in    

order to avoid the recurrence of such   
tiresome phrases as it may be answered  
in the second place1 and it will be     
objected in the third place1 etc41 ,i   
will ask the reader's leave to arrange  
the discussion in the form of simple    
dialogue1 letting ,o4 stand for         
objector1 and ,r4 for response4         
,o4--,you define your paternal          
government to be the executive          
fulfilment1 by formal human methods1 of 
the ,divine will4 ,but1 assuredly1 that 
will cannot stand in need of aid or     
expression from human laws4 ,it cannot  
fail of its fulfilment4  ,r4--,in the   
final sense it cannot2 and in that      
sense1 men who are committing murder and
 stealing are fulfilling the will of    
,god as much as the best and kindest    
people in the world4 ,but in the limited
 and present sense1 the only sense with 
which we have anything to do1 ,god's    
will concerning man is fulfilled by some
 men1 and thwarted by others4 ,and those
 men who either persuade or enforce the 

doing of it1 stand towards those who are
 rebellious against it exactly in the   
position of faithful children in a      
family1 who1 when the father is out of  
sight1 either compel or persuade the    
rest to do as their father would have   
them1 were he present2 and in so far as 
they are expressing and maintaining1 for
 the time1 the paternal authority1 they 
exercise1 in the exact sense in which ,i
 mean the phrase to be understood1      
paternal government over the rest4      
,o4--,but1 if ,providence has left a    
liberty to man in many things in order  
to prove him1 why should human law      
abridge that liberty1 and take upon     
itself to compel what the great         
,lawgiver does not compel8  ,r4--,it is 
confessed1 in the enactment of any law  
whatsoever1 that human lawgivers have a 
right to do this4 ,for1 if you have no  
right to abridge any of the liberty     
which ,providence has left to man1 you  
have no right to punish any one for     
committing murder or robbery4 ,you ought

 to leave them to the punishment of ,god
 and ,nature4 ,but if you think yourself
 under obligation to punish1 as far as  
human laws can1 the violation of the    
will of ,god by those great sins1 you   
are certainly under the same obligation 
to punish1 with proportionately less    
punishment1 the violation of ,his will  
in less sins4  ,o4--,no2 you must not   
attempt to punish less sins by law1     
because you cannot properly define nor  
ascertain them4 ,everybody can determine
 whether murder has been committed or   
not1 but you cannot determine how far   
people have been unjust or cruel in     
minor matters1 and therefore cannot make
 or execute laws concerning minor       
matters4  ,r4--,if ,i propose to you to 
punish faults which cannot be defined1  
or to execute laws which cannot be made 
equitable1 reject the laws ,i propose4  
,but do not generally object to the     
principle of law4  ,o4--,yes2 ,i        
generally object to the principle of law
 as applied to minor things2 because1 if

 you could succeed 7which you cannot7 in
 regulating the entire conduct of men by
 law in little things as well as great1 
you would take away from human life all 
its probationary character1 and render  
many virtues and pleasures impossible4  
,you would reduce virtue to the movement
 of a machine1 instead of the act of a  
spirit4  ,r4--,you have just said1      
parenthetically1 and ,i fully and       
willingly admit it1 that it is          
impossible to regulate all minor matters
 by law4 ,is it not probable1 therefore1
 that the degree in which it is possible
 to regulate them by it1 is also the    
degree in which it is right to regulate 
them by it8 ,or what other means of     
judgment will you employ1 to separate   
the things which ought to be formally   
regulated from the things which ought   
not4 ,you admit that great sins should  
be legally repressed2 but you say that  
small sins should not be legally        
repressed4 ,how do you distinguish      
between great and small sins2 and how do

 you intend to determine1 or do you in  
practice of daily life determine1 on    
what occasions you should compel people 
to do right1 and on what occasions you  
should leave them the option of doing   
wrong8  ,o4--,i think you cannot make   
any accurate or logical distinction in  
such matters2 but that common sense and 
instinct have1 in all civilized nations1
 indicated certain crimes of great      
social harmfulness1 such as murder1     
theft1 adultery1 slander1 and such like1
 which it is proper to repress legally2 
and that common sense and instinct      
indicate also the kind of crimes which  
it is proper for laws to let alone1 such
 as miserliness1 ill-natured speaking1  
and many of those commercial            
dishonesties which ,i have a notion you 
want your paternal government to        
interfere with4  ,r4--,pray do not alarm
 yourself about what my paternal        
government is likely to interfere with1 
but keep to the matter in hand4 ,you say
 that common sense and instinct have1 in

 all civilized nations1 distinguished   
between the sins that ought to be       
legally dealt with and that ought not4  
,do you mean that the laws of all       
civilized nations are perfect8          
,o4--,no2 certainly not4  ,r4--,or that 
they are perfect at least in their      
discrimination of what crimes they      
should deal with1 and what crimes they  
should let alone8  ,o4--,no2 not        
exactly4  ,r4--,what do you mean1 then8 
,o4--,i mean that the general tendency  
is right in the laws of civilized       
nations2 and that1 in due course of     
time1 natural sense and instinct point  
out the matters they should be brought  
to bear upon4 ,and each question of     
legislation must be made a separate     
subject of inquiry as it presents       
itself3 you cannot fix any general      
principles about what should be dealt   
with legally1 and what should not4      
,r4--,supposing it to be so1 do you     
think there are any points in which our 
,english legislation is capable of      

amendment1 as it bears on commercial and
 economical matters1 in this present    
time8  ,o4--,of course ,i do4           
,r4--,well1 then1 let us discuss these  
together quietly2 and if the points that
 ,i want amended seem to you incapable  
of amendment1 or not in need of         
amendment1 say so3 but don't object1 at 
starting1 to the mere proposition of    
applying law to things which have not   
had law applied to them before4 ,you    
have admitted the fitness of my         
expression1 paternal government3 it only
 has been1 and remains1 a question      
between us1 how far such government     
should extend4 ,perhaps you would like  
it only to regulate1 among the children1
 the length of their lessons2 and       
perhaps ,i should like it also to       
regulate the hardness of their          
cricket-balls3 but cannot you wait      
quietly till you know what ,i want it to
 do1 before quarrelling with the thing  
itself8  ,o4--,no2 ,i cannot wait       
quietly3 in fact ,i don't see any use in

 beginning such a discussion at all1    
because ,i am quite sure from the first1
 that you want to meddle with things    
that you have no business with1 and to  
interfere with healthy liberty of action
 in all sorts of ways2 and ,i know that 
you can't propose any laws that would be
 of real use4#ah     #ah ,if the reader 
is displeased with me for putting this  
foolish         speech into his mouth1  
,i entreat his pardon2 but he may be    
assured that it is a speech which would 
be made by many         people1 and the 
substance of which would be tacitly felt
 by         many more1 at this point of 
the discussion4 ,i have really          
tried1 up to this point1 to make the    
objector as intelligent         a person
 as it is possible for an author to     
imagine anybody         to be1 who      
differs with him4  ,r4--,if you indeed  
know that1 you would be wrong to hear me
 any farther4 ,but if you are only in   
painful doubt about me1 which makes you 
unwilling to run the risk of wasting    

your time1 ,i will tell you beforehand  
what ,i really do think about this same 
liberty of action1 namely1 that whenever
 we can make a perfectly equitable law  
about any matter1 or even a law         
securing1 on the whole1 more just       
conduct than unjust1 we ought to make   
that law2 and that there will yet1 on   
these conditions1 always remain a number
 of matters respecting which legalism   
and formalism are impossible2 enough1   
and more than enough1 to exercise all   
human powers of individual judgment1 and
 afford all kinds of scope to individual
 character4 ,i think this2 but of course
 it can only be proved by separate      
examination of the possibilities of     
formal restraint in each given field of 
action2 and these two lectures are      
nothing more than a sketch of such a    
detailed examination in one field1      
namely1 that of art4 ,you will find1    
however1 one or two other remarks on    
such possibilities in the next note4    
,note #bnd1 p4 #ba4--,right to public   

support4  ,it did not appear to me      
desirable1 in the course of the spoken  
lecture1 to enter into details or offer 
suggestions on the questions of the     
regulation of labour and distribution of
 relief1 as it would have been          
impossible to do so without touching in 
many disputed or disputable points1 not 
easily handled before a general         
audience4 ,but ,i must now supply what  
is wanting to make my general statement 
clear4  ,i believe1 in the first place1 
that no ,christian nation has any       
business to see one of its members in   
distress without helping him1 though1   
perhaps1 at the same time punishing him3
 help1 of course--in nine cases out of  
ten--meaning guidance1 much more than   
gift1 and1 therefore1 interference with 
liberty4 ,when a peasant mother sees one
 of her careless children fall into a   
ditch1 her first proceeding is to pull  
him out2 her second1 to box his ears2   
her third1 ordinarily1 to lead him      
carefully a little way by the hand1 or  

send him home for the rest of the day4  
,the child usually cries1 and very often
 would clearly prefer remaining in the  
ditch2 and if he understood any of the  
terms of politics1 would certainly      
express resentment at the interference  
with his individual liberty3 but the    
mother has done her duty4 ,whereas the  
usual call of the mother nation to any  
of her children1 under such             
circumstances1 has lately been nothing  
more than the foxhunter's1--,stay still 
there2 ,i shall clear you4 ,and if we   
always could clear them1 their requests 
to be left in muddy independence might  
be sometimes allowed by kind people1 or 
their cries for help disdained by unkind
 ones4 ,but we can't clear them4 ,the   
whole nation is1 in fact1 bound         
together1 as men are by ropes on a      
glacier--if one falls1 the rest must    
either lift him or drag him along with  
them#ai as dead weight1 not without much
 increase of danger to themselves4 ,and 
the law of right being manifestly in    

this1 as1 whether manifestly or not1 it 
is always1 the law of prudence1 the only
 question is1 how this wholesome help   
and interference are to be administered4
     #ai ,it is very curious to watch   
the efforts of two shopkeepers          
to ruin each other1 neither having the  
least idea that his         ruined      
neighbour must eventually be supported  
at his own         expense1 with an     
increase of poor rates2 and that the    
contest between them is not in reality  
which shall get         everything for  
himself1 but which shall first take upon
         himself and his customers the  
gratuitous maintenance of the           
other's family4  ,the first interference
 should be in education4 ,in order that 
men may be able to support themselves   
when they are grown1 their strength must
 be properly developed while they are   
young2 and the state should always see  
to this--not allowing their health to be
 broken by too early labour1 nor their  
powers to be wasted for want of         

knowledge4 ,some questions connected    
with this matter are noticed farther on 
under the head ,trial ,schools3 one     
point ,i must notice here1 that ,i      
believe all youths of whatever rank1    
ought to learn some manual trade        
thoroughly2 for it is quite wonderful   
how much a man's views of life are      
cleared by the attainment of the        
capacity of doing any one thing well    
with his hands and arms4 ,for a long    
time1 what right life there was in the  
upper classes of ,europe depended in no 
small degree on the necessity which each
 man was under of being able to fence2  
at this day1 the most useful things     
which boys learn at public schools1 are1
 ,i believe1 riding1 rowing1 and        
cricketing4 ,but it would be far better 
that members of ,parliament should be   
able to plough straight1 and make a     
horseshoe1 than only to feather oars    
neatly or point their toes prettily in  
stirrups4 ,then1 in literary and        
scientific teaching1 the great point of 

economy is to give the discipline of it 
through knowledge which will immediately
 bear on practical life4 ,our literary  
work has long been economically useless 
to us because too much concerned with   
dead languages2 and our scientific work 
will yet1 for some time1 be a good deal 
lost1 because scientific men are too    
fond or too vain of their systems1 and  
waste the student's time in endeavouring
 to give him large views1 and make him  
perceive interesting connections of     
facts2 when there is not one student1   
no1 nor one man1 in a thousand1 who can 
feel the beauty of a system1 or even    
take it clearly into his head2 but      
nearly all men can understand1 and most 
will be interested in1 the facts which  
bear on daily life4 ,botanists have     
discovered some wonderful connection    
between nettles and figs1 which a cowboy
 who will never see a ripe fig in his   
life need not be at all troubled about2 
but it will be interesting to him to    
know what effect nettles have on hay1   

and what taste they will give to        
porridge2 and it will give him nearly a 
new life if he can be got but once1 in a
 spring time1 to look well at the       
beautiful circlet of the white nettle   
blossom1 and work out with his          
schoolmaster the curves of its petals1  
and the way it is set on its central    
mast4 ,so1 the principle of chemical    
equivalents1 beautiful as it is1 matters
 far less to a peasant boy1 and even to 
most sons of gentlemen1 than their      
knowing how to find whether the water is
 wholesome in the back-kitchen cistern1 
or whether the seven-acre field wants   
sand or chalk4  ,having1 then1 directed 
the studies of our youth so as to make  
them practically serviceable men at the 
time of their entrance into life1 that  
entrance should always be ready for them
 in cases where their private           
circumstances present no opening4 ,there
 ought to be government establishments  
for every trade1 in which all youths who
 desired it should be received as       

apprentices on their leaving school2 and
 men thrown out of work received at all 
times4 ,at these government             
manufactories the discipline should be  
strict1 and the wages steady1 not       
varying at all in proportion to the     
demand for the article1 but only in     
proportion to the price of food2 the    
commodities produced being laid up in   
store to meet sudden demands1 and sudden
 fluctuations in prices prevented3--that
 gradual and necessary fluctuation only 
being allowed which is properly         
consequent on larger or more limited    
supply of raw material and other natural
 causes4 ,when there was a visible      
tendency to produce a glut of any       
commodity1 that tendency should be      
checked by directing the youth at the   
government schools into other trades2   
and the yearly surplus of commodities   
should be the principal means of        
government provision for the poor4 ,that
 provision should be large1 and not     
disgraceful to them4 ,at present there  

are very strange notions in the public  
mind respecting the receiving of alms3  
most people are willing to take them in 
the form of a pension from government1  
but unwilling to take them in the form  
of a pension from their parishes4 ,there
 may be some reason for this singular   
prejudice1 in the fact of the government
 pension being usually given as a       
definite acknowledgment of some service 
done to the country2--but the parish    
pension is1 or ought to be1 given       
precisely on the same terms4 ,a labourer
 serves his country with his spade1 just
 as a man in the middle ranks of life   
serves it with his sword1 pen1 or       
lancet3 if the service is less1 and     
therefore the wages during health less1 
then the reward1 when health is broken1 
may be less1 but not1 therefore1 less   
honourable2 and it ought to be quite as 
natural and straightforward a matter for
 a labourer to take his pension from his
 parish1 because he has deserved well of
 his parish1 as for a man in higher rank

 to take his pension from his country1  
because he has deserved well of his     
country4 ,if there be any disgrace in   
coming to the parish1 because it may    
imply improvidence in early life1 much  
more is there disgrace in coming to the 
government3 since improvidence is far   
less justifiable in a highly educated   
than in an imperfectly educated man2 and
 far less justifiable in a high rank1   
where extravagance must have been       
luxury1 than in a low rank1 where it may
 only have been comfort4 ,so that the   
real fact of the matter is1 that people 
will take alms delightedly1 consisting  
of a carriage and footmen1 because those
 do not look like alms to the people in 
the street2 but they will not take alms 
consisting only of bread and water and  
coals1 because everybody would          
understand what those meant4 ,mind1 ,i  
do not want any one to refuse the       
carriage who ought to have it2 but      
neither do ,i want them to refuse the   
coals4 ,i should indeed be sorry if any 

change in our views on these subjects   
involved the least lessening of         
self-dependence in the ,english mind3   
but the common shrinking of men from the
 acceptance of public charity is not    
self-dependence1 but mere base and      
selfish pride4 ,it is not that they are 
unwilling to live at their neighbours'  
expense1 but that they are unwilling to 
confess they do3 it is not dependence   
they wish to avoid1 but gratitude4 ,they
 will take places in which they know    
there is nothing to be done--they will  
borrow money they know they cannot      
repay--they will carry on a losing      
business with other people's            
capital--they will cheat the public in  
their shops1 or sponge on their friends 
at their houses2 but to say plainly they
 are poor men1 who need the nation's    
help1 and go into an almshouse--this    
they loftily repudiate1 and virtuously  
prefer being thieves to being paupers4  
,i trust that these deceptive efforts of
 dishonest men to appear independent1   

and the agonizing efforts of unfortunate
 men to remain independent1 may both be 
in some degree checked by a better      
administration and understanding of laws
 respecting the poor4 ,but the          
ordinances for relief and the ordinances
 for labour must go together2 otherwise 
distress caused by misfortune will      
always be confounded1 as it is now1 with
 distress caused by idleness1 unthrift1 
and fraud4 ,it is only when the state   
watches and guides the middle life of   
men1 that it can1 without disgrace to   
them1 protect their old age1            
acknowledging in that protection that   
they have done their duty1 or at least  
some portion of their duty1 in better   
days4  ,i know well how strange1        
fanciful1 or impracticable these        
suggestions will appear to most of the  
business men of this day2 men who       
conceive the proper state of the world  
to be simply that of a vast and         
disorganized mob1 scrambling each for   
what he can get1 trampling down its     

children and old men in the mire1 and   
doing what work it finds must be done   
with any irregular squad of labourers it
 can bribe or inveigle together1 and    
afterwards scatter to starvation4 ,a    
great deal may1 indeed1 be done in this 
way by a nation strong-elbowed and      
strong-hearted as we are--not easily    
frightened by pushing1 nor discouraged  
by falls4 ,but it is still not the right
 way of doing things for people who call
 themselves ,christians4 ,every so named
 soul of man claims from every other    
such soul1 protection and education in  
childhood--help or punishment in middle 
life--reward or relief1 if needed1 in   
old age2 all of these should be         
completely and unstintingly given2 and  
they can only be given by the           
organization of such a system as ,i have
 described4   ,note #crd1 p4            
#bd4--,trial ,schools4  ,it may be      
seriously questioned by the reader how  
much of painting talent we really lose  
on our present system1#bj and how much  

we should gain by the proposed trial    
schools4 ,for it might be thought1 that 
as matters stand at present1 we have    
more painters than we ought to have1    
having so many bad ones1 and that all   
youths who had true painters' genius    
forced their way out of obscurity4      
#bj ,it will be observed that1 in the   
lecture1 it is assumed         that     
works of art are national treasures2 and
 that it is         desirable to        
withdraw all the hands capable of       
painting or         carving from other  
employments1 in order that they may     
produce this kind of wealth4 ,i do not1 
in assuming this1         mean that     
works of art add to the monetary        
resources of a         nation1 or form  
part of its wealth1 in the vulgar sense4
 ,the         result of the sale of a   
picture in the country itself is        
merely that a certain sum of money is   
transferred from the         hands of   
,b4 the purchaser1 to those of ,a4 the  
producer2 the         sum ultimately to 

be distributed remaining the same1 only 
,a4         ultimately spending it      
instead of ,b41 while the labour of ,a4 
has been in the meantime withdrawn from 
productive channels2         he has     
painted a picture which nobody can live 
upon1 or live         in1 when he might 
have grown corn or built houses2 when   
the         sale therefore is effected  
in the country itself1 it does          
not add to1 but diminishes1 the monetary
 resources of the         country1      
except only so far as it may appear     
probable1 on         other grounds1 that
 ,a4 is likely to spend the sum he      
receives for his picture more rationally
 and usefully than         ,b4 would    
have spent it4 ,if1 indeed1 the picture1
 or other         work of art1 be sold  
in foreign countries1 either the money  
or the useful products of the foreign   
country being imported         in       
exchange for it1 such sale adds to the  
monetary resources         of the       
selling1 and diminishes those of the    

purchasing         nation4 ,but sound   
political economy1 strange as it may at 
first appear to say so1 has nothing     
whatever to do with         separations 
between national interests4 ,political  
economy         means the management of 
the affairs of citizens2 and it         
either regards exclusively the          
administration of the affairs         of
 one nation1 or the administration of   
the affairs of the         world        
considered as one nation4 ,so when a    
transaction         between individuals 
which enriches ,a41 impoverishes ,b4 in 
precisely the same degree1 the sound    
economist considers it         an       
unproductive transaction between the    
individuals2 and if         a trade     
between two nations which enriches one1 
impoverishes         the other in the   
same degree1 the sound eoonomist        
considers         it an unproductive    
trade between the nations4 ,it is not a 
general question of political economy1  
but only a particular         question  

of local expediency1 whether an article 
in itself         valueless1 may bear a 
value of exchange in transactions with  
some other nation4 ,the economist       
considers only the actual         value 
of the thing done or produced2 and if he
 sees a         quantity of labour      
spent1 for instance1 by the ,swiss1 in  
producing woodwork for sale to the      
,english1 he at once sets         the   
commercial impoverishment of the        
,english purchaser         against the  
commercial enrichment of the ,swiss     
seller2 and         considers the whole 
transaction productive only so far as   
the woodwork itself is a real addition  
to the wealth of the         world4 ,for
 the arrangement of the laws of a nation
 so as to         procure the greatest  
advantages to itself1 and leave the     
smallest advantages to other nations1 is
 not a part of the         science of   
political economy1 but merely a broad   
application         of the science of   
fraud4 ,considered thus in the abstract1

         pictures are not an addition to
 the monetary wealth of the             
world1 except in the amount of pleasure 
or instruction to be         got out of 
them day by day3 but there is a certain 
protective effect on wealth exercised by
 works of high art         which must   
always be included in the estimate of   
their         value4 ,generally         
speaking1 persons who decorate their    
houses         with pictures1 will not  
spend so much money in papers1          
carpets1 curtains1 or other expensive   
and perishable         luxuries as they 
would otherwise4 ,works of good art1    
like         books1 exercise a          
conservative effect on the rooms they   
are         kept in2 and the wall of the
 library or picture gallery             
remains undisturbed1 when those of other
 rooms are         re-papered or        
re-panelled4 ,of course1 this effect is 
still         more definite when the    
picture is on the walls themselves1     
either on canvass stretched into fixed  

shapes on their         panels1 or in   
fresco2 involving1 of course1 the       
preservation         of the building    
from all unnecessary and capricious     
alteration4 ,and generally speaking1 the
 occupation of a         large number of
 hands in painting or sculpture in any  
nation         may be considered as     
tending to check the disposition to     
indulge in perishable luxury4 ,i do not1
 however1 in my         assumption that 
works of art are treasures1 take much   
into         consideration this         
collateral monetary result4 ,i consider 
them treasures1 merely as permanent     
means of pleasure and                   
instruction2 and having at other times  
tried to show the         several ways  
in which they can please and teach1     
assume here         that they are thus  
useful2 and that it is desirable to make
         as many painters as we can4    
,this is not so4 ,it is difficult to    
analyse the characters of mind which    
cause youths to mistake their vocation1 

and to endeavour to become artists1 when
 they have no true artist's gift4 ,but  
the fact is1 that multitudes of young   
men do this1 and that by far the greater
 number of living artists are men who   
have mistaken their vocation4 ,the      
peculiar circumstances of modern life1  
which exhibit art in almost every form  
to the sight of the youths in our great 
cities1 have a natural tendency to fill 
their imaginations with borrowed ideas1 
and their minds with imperfect science2 
the mere dislike of mechanical          
employments1 either felt to be irksome1 
or believed to be degrading1 urges      
numbers of young men to become painters1
 in the same temper in which they would 
enlist or go to sea2 others1 the sons of
 engravers or artists1 taught the       
business of the art by their parents1   
and having no gift for it themselves1   
follow it as the means of livelihood1 in
 an ignoble patience2 or1 if ambitious1 
seek to attract regard1 or distance     
rivalry1 by fantastic1 meretricious1 or 

unprecedented applications of their     
mechanical skill2 while finally1 many   
men earnest in feeling1 and             
conscientious in principle1 mistake     
their desire to be useful for a love of 
art1 and their quickness of emotion for 
its capacity1 and pass their lives in   
painting moral and instructive pictures1
 which might almost justify us in       
thinking nobody could be a painter but a
 rogue4 ,on the other hand1 ,i believe  
that much of the best artistical        
intellect is daily lost in other        
avocations4 ,generally1 the temper which
 would make an admirable artist is      
humble and observant1 capable of taking 
much interest in little things1 and of  
entertaining itself pleasantly in the   
dullest circumstances4 ,suppose1 added  
to these characters1 a steady           
conscientiousness which seeks to do its 
duty wherever it may be placed1 and the 
power1 denied to few artistical minds1  
of ingenious invention in almost any    
practical department of human skill1 and

 it can hardly be doubted that the very 
humility and conscientiousness which    
would have perfected the painter1 have  
in many instances prevented his becoming
 one2 and that in the quiet life of our 
steady craftsmen--sagacious             
manufacturers and uncomplaining         
clerks--there may frequently be         
concealed more genius than ever is      
raised to the direction of our public   
works1 or to be the mark of our public  
praises4  ,it is indeed probable1 that  
intense disposition for art will conquer
 the most formidable obstacles1 if the  
surrounding circumstances are such as at
 all to present the idea of such        
conquest1 to the mind2 but we have no   
ground for concluding that ,giotto would
 ever have been more than a shepherd1 if
 ,cimabue had not by chance found him   
drawing2 or that among the shepherds of 
the ,apennines there were no other      
,giottos1 undiscovered by ,cimabue4 ,we 
are too much in the habit of considering
 happy accidents as what are called     

special ,providences2 and thinking that 
when any great work needs to be done1   
the man who is to do it will certainly  
be pointed out by ,providence1 be he    
shepherd or sea-boy2 and prepared for   
his work by all kinds of minor          
providences1 in the best possible way4  
,whereas all the analogies of ,god's    
operations in other matters prove the   
contrary of this2 we find that of       
thousand seeds1 ,he often brings but one
 to bear1 often not one2 and the one    
seed which ,he appoints to bear is      
allowed to bear crude or perfect fruit  
according to the dealings of the        
husbandman with it4 ,and there cannot be
 a doubt in the mind of any person      
accustomed to take broad and logical    
views of the world's history1 that its  
events are ruled by ,providence in      
precisely the same manner as its        
harvests2 that the seeds of good and    
evil are broadcast among men1 just as   
the seeds of thistles and fruits are2   
and that according to the force of our  

industry1 and wisdom of our husbandry1  
the ground will bring forth to us figs  
or thistles4 ,so that when it seems     
needed that a certain work should be    
done for the world1 and no man is there 
to do it1 we have no right to say that  
,god did not wish it to be done1 and    
therefore sent no man able to do it4    
,the probability 7if ,i wrote my own    
convictions1 ,i should say certainty7   
is1 that ,he sent many men1 hundreds of 
men1 able to do it2 and that we have    
rejected them1 or crushed them2 by our  
previous folly of conduct or of         
institution1 we have rendered it        
impossible to distinguish1 or impossible
 to reach them2 and when the need for   
them comes1 and we suffer for the want  
of them1 it is not that ,god refuses to 
send us deliverers1 and specially       
appoints all our consequent sufferings2 
but that ,he has sent1 and we have      
refused1 the deliverers2 and the pain is
 then wrought out by ,his eternal law1  
as surely as famine is wrought out by   

eternal law for a nation which will     
neither plough nor sow4 ,no less are we 
in error in supposing1 as we so         
frequently do1 that if a man be found1  
he is sure to be in all respects fitted 
for the work to be done1 as the key is  
to the lock2 and that every accident    
which happened in the forging him1 only 
adapted him more truly to the wards4 ,it
 is pitiful to hear historians beguiling
 themselves and their readers1 by       
tracing in the early history of great   
men1 the minor circumstances which      
fitted them for the work they did1      
without ever taking notice of the other 
circumstances which as assuredly        
unfitted them for it2 so concluding that
 miraculous interposition prepared them 
in all points for everything and that   
they did all that could have been       
desired or hoped for from them3 whereas 
the certainty of the matter is that1    
throughout their lives1 they were       
thwarted and corrupted by some things as
 certainly as they were helped and      

disciplined by others2 and that1 in the 
kindliest and most reverent view which  
can justly be taken of them1 they were  
but poor mistaken creatures1 struggling 
with a world more profoundly mistaken   
than they2--assuredly sinned against1 or
 sinning in thousands of ways1 and      
bringing out at last a maimed           
result--not what they might or ought to 
have done1 but all that could be done   
against the world's resistance1 and in  
spite of their own sorrowful falsehood  
to themselves4  ,and this being so1 it  
is the practical duty of a wise nation1 
first to withdraw1 as far as may be1 its
 youth from destructive                 
influences2--then to try its material as
 far as possible1 and to lose the use of
 none that is good4 ,i do not mean by   
withdrawing from destructive influences 
the keeping of youths out of trials2 but
 the keeping them out of the way of     
things purely and absolutely            
mischievous4 ,i do not mean that we     
should shade our green corn in all heat1

 and shelter it in all frost1 but only  
that we should dyke out the inundation  
from it1 and drive the fowls away from  
it4 ,let your youth labour and suffer2  
but do not let it starve1 nor steal1 nor
 blaspheme4  ,it is not1 of course1 in  
my power here to enter into details of  
schemes of education2 and it will be    
long before the results of experiments  
now in progress will give data for the  
solution of the most difficult questions
 connected with the subject1 of which   
the principal one is the mode in which  
the chance of advancement in life is to 
be extended to all1 and yet made        
compatible with contentment in the      
pursuit of lower avocations by those    
whose abilities do not qualify them for 
the higher4 ,but the general principle  
of trial schools lies at the root of the
 matter--of schools1 that is to say1 in 
which the knowledge offered and         
discipline enforced shall be all a part 
of a great assay of the human soul1 and 
in which the one shall be increased1 the

 other directed1 as the tried heart and 
brain will best bear1 and no otherwise4 
,one thing1 however1 ,i must say1 that  
in this trial ,i believe all emulation  
to be a false motive1 and all giving of 
prizes a false means4 ,all that you can 
depend upon in a boy1 as significative  
of true power1 likely to issue in good  
fruit1 is his will to work for the      
work's sake1 not his desire to surpass  
his schoolfellows2 and the aim of the   
teaching you give him ought to be1 to   
prove to him and strengthen in him his  
own separate gift1 not to puff him into 
swollen rivalry with those who are      
everlastingly greater than he3 still    
less ought you to hang favours and      
ribands about the neck of the creature  
who is the greatest1 to make the rest   
envy him4 ,try to make them love him and
 follow him1 not struggle with him4     
,there must1 of course1 be examination  
to ascertain and attest both progress   
and relative capacity2 but our aim      
should be to make the students rather   

look upon it as a means of ascertaining 
their own true positions and powers in  
the world1 than as an arena in which to 
carry away a present victory4 ,i have   
not1 perhaps1 in the course of the      
lecture1 insisted enough on the nature  
of relative capacity and individual     
character1 as the roots of all real     
value in ,art4 ,we are too much in the  
habit1 in these days1 of acting as if   
,art worth a price in the market were a 
commodity which people could be         
generally taught to produce1 and as if  
the education of the artist1 not his    
capacity1 gave the sterling value to his
 work4 ,no impression can possibly be   
more absurd or false4 ,whatever people  
can teach each other to do1 they will   
estimate1 and ought to estimate1 only as
 common industry2 nothing will ever     
fetch a high price but precisely that   
which cannot be taught1 and which nobody
 can do but the man from whom it is     
purchased4 ,no state of society1 nor    
stage of knowledge1 ever does away with 

the natural pre-eminence of one man over
 another2 and it is that pre-eminence1  
and that only1 which will give work high
 value in the market1 or which ought to 
do so4 ,it is a bad sign of the         
judgment1 and bad omen for the progress1
 of a nation1 if it supposes itself to  
possess many artists of equal merit4    
,noble art is nothing less than the     
expression of a great soul2 and great   
souls are not common things4 ,if ever we
 confound their work with that of       
others1 it is not through liberality1   
but through blindness4   ,note #dth1 p4 
#bd4--,public favour4  ,there is great  
difficulty in making any short or       
general statement of the difference     
between great and ignoble minds in their
 behaviour to the public4 ,it is by no  
means universally the case that a mean  
mind1 as stated in the text1 will bend  
itself to what you ask of it3 on the    
contrary1 there is one kind of mind1 the
 meanest of all1 which perpetually      
complains of the public1 contemplates   

and proclaims itself as a genius1       
refuses all wholesome discipline or     
humble office1 and ends in miserable and
 revengeful ruin2 also1 the greatest    
minds are marked by nothing more        
distinctly than an inconceivable        
humility1 and acceptance of work or     
instruction in any form1 and from any   
quarter4 ,they will learn from          
everybody1 and do anything that anybody 
asks of them1 so long as it involves    
only toil1 or what other men would think
 degradation4 ,but the point of quarrel1
 nevertheless1 assuredly rises some day 
between the public and them1 respecting 
some matter1 not of humiliation1 but of 
,fact4 ,your great man always at last   
comes to see something the public don't 
see4 ,this something he will assuredly  
persist in asserting1 whether with      
tongue or pencil1 to be as he sees it1  
not as they see it2 and all the world in
 a heap on the other side will not get  
him to say otherwise4 ,then1 if the     
world objects to the saying1 he may     

happen to get stoned or burnt for it1   
but that does not in the least matter to
 him2 if the world has no particular    
objection to the saying1 he may get     
leave to mutter it to himself till he   
dies1 and be merely taken for an idiot2 
that also does not matter to him--mutter
 it he will1 according to what he       
perceives to be fact1 and not at all    
according to the roaring of the walls of
 ,red sea on the right hand or left of  
him4 ,hence the quarrel1 sure at some   
time or other to be started between the 
public and him2 while your mean man1    
though he will spit and scratch         
spiritedly at the public1 while it does 
not attend to him1 will bow to it for   
its clap in any direction1 and say      
anything when he has got its ear1 which 
he thinks will bring him another clap2  
and thus1 as stated in the text1 he and 
it go on smoothly together4  ,there are1
 however1 times when the obstinacy of   
the mean man looks very like the        
obstinacy of the great one2 but if you  

look closely into the matter1 you will  
always see that the obstinacy of the    
first is in the pronunciation of ,i2 and
 of the second1 in the pronunciation of 
,it4   ,note #eth1 p4 #ch4--;,invention 
of new wants4  ,it would have been      
impossible for political economists long
 to have endured the error spoken of in 
the text1#ba had they not been confused 
by an idea1 in part well founded1 that  
the energies and refinements1 as well as
 the riches of civilized life arose from
 imaginary wants4 ,it is quite true1    
that the savage who knows no needs but  
those of food1 shelter1 and sleep1 and  
after he has snared his venison and     
patched the rents of his hut1 passes the
 rest of his time in animal repose1 is  
in a lower state than the man who       
labours incessantly that he may procure 
for himself the luxuries of             
civilization2 and true also1 that the   
difference between one and another      
nation in progressive power depends in  
great part on vain desires2 but these   

idle motives are merely to be considered
 as giving exercise to the national body
 and mind2 they are not sources of      
wealth1 except so far as they give the  
habits of industry and acquisitiveness4 
,if a boy is clumsy and lazy1 we shall  
do good if we can persuade him to carve 
cherrystones and fly kites2 and this use
 of his fingers and limbs may eventually
 be the cause of his becoming a wealthy 
and happy man2 but we must not therefore
 argue that cherrystones are valuable   
property1 or that kite-flying is a      
profitable mode of passing time4 ,in    
like manner1 a nation always wastes its 
time and labour directly1 when it       
invents a new want of a frivolous kind1 
and yet the invention of such a want may
 be the sign of a healthy activity1 and 
the labour undergone to satisfy the new 
want may lead1 indirectly1 to useful    
discoveries or to noble arts2 so that a 
nation is not to be discouraged in its  
fancies when it is either too weak or   
foolish to be moved to exertion by      

anything but fancies1 or has attended to
 its serious business first4 ,if a      
nation will not forge iron1 but likes   
distilling lavender1 by all means give  
it lavender to distil2 only do not let  
its economists suppose that lavender is 
as profitable to it as oats1 or that it 
helps poor people to live1 any more than
 the schoolboy's kite provides him his  
dinner4 ,luxuries1 whether national or  
personal1 must be paid for by labour    
withdrawn from useful things2 and no    
nation has a right to indulge in them   
until all its poor are comfortably      
housed and fed4     #ba ,i have given   
the political economists too much credit
 in         saying this4 ,actually1     
while these sheets are passing          
through the press1 the blunt1 broad1    
unmitigated fallacy is                  
enunciated1 formally and precisely1 by  
the ,common ,councilmen         of ,new 
,york1 in their report on the present   
commercial         crisis4 ,here is     
their collective opinion1 published in  

the         ,times of ,november #bcrd1  
#aheg3--;,another erroneous idea is     
that luxurious living1 extravagant      
dressing1 splendid         turn-outs and
 fine houses1 are the cause of distress 
to a         nation4 ,no more erroneous 
impression could exist4 ,every          
extravagance that the man of #ajj1jjj or
 #a1jjj1jjj dollars         indulges in 
adds to the means1 the support1 the     
wealth of         ten or a hundred who  
had little or nothing else but their    
labour1 their intellect1 or their taste4
 ,if a man of         #a1jjj1jjj dollars
 spends principal and interest in ten   
years1 and finds himself beggared at the
 end of that time1         he has       
actually made a hundred who have catered
 to his         extravagance1 employers 
or employed1 so much richer by the      
division of his wealth4 ,he may be      
ruined1 but the nation is         better
 off and richer1 for one hundred minds  
and hands1 with         #aj1jjj dollars 
apiece1 are far more productive than one

 with         the whole4          ,yes1 
gentlemen of the ,common ,council6 but  
what has been         doing in the time 
of the transfer8 ,the spending of the   
fortune has taken a certain number of   
years 7suppose ten71         and during 
that time #a1jjj1jjj dollars' worth of  
work has         been done by the       
people1 who have been paid that sum for 
it4         ,where is the product of    
that work8 ,by your own statement1      
wholly consumed2 for the man for whom it
 has been done is         now a beggar4 
,you have given1 therefore1 as a nation1
         #a1jjj1jjj dollars' worth of   
work1 and ten years of time1 and        
you have produced1 as ultimate result1  
one beggar6 ,excellent         economy1 
gentlemen6 and sure to conduce1 in due  
sequence1 to         the production of  
more than one beggar4 ,perhaps the      
matter         may be made clearer to   
you1 however1 by a more familiar        
instance4 ,if a schoolboy goes out in   
the morning with five         shillings 

in his pocket1 and comes home at night  
penniless1         having spent his all 
in tarts2 principal and interest are    
gone1 and fruiterer and baker are       
enriched4 ,so far so good4         ,but 
suppose the schoolboy1 instead1 has     
bought a book and a         knife2      
principal and interest are gone1 and    
bookseller and         cutler are       
enriched4 ,but the schoolboy is enriched
 also1 and         may help his         
schoolfellows next day with knife and   
book1         instead of lying in bed   
and incurring a debt to the doctor4     
,the enervating influence of luxury1 and
 its tendencies to increase vice1 are   
points which ,i keep entirely out of    
consideration in the present essay2 but1
 so far as they bear on any question    
discussed1 they merely furnish          
additional evidence on the side which ,i
 have taken4 ,thus1 in the present case1
 ,i assume that the luxuries of         
civilized life are in possession        
harmless1 and in acquirement1           

serviceable as a motive for exertion2   
and even on these favourable terms1 we  
arrive at the conclusion that the nation
 ought not to indulge in them except    
under severe limitations4 ,much less    
ought it to indulge in them if the      
temptation consequent on their          
possession1 or fatality incident to     
their manufacture1 more than            
counterbalances the good done by the    
effort to obtain them4   ,note #fth1 p4 
#dh4--;,economy of ,literature4  ,i have
 been much impressed lately by one of   
the results of the quantity of our      
books2 namely1 the stern impossibility  
of getting anything understood1 that    
required patience to understand4 ,i     
observe always1 in the case of my own   
writings1 that if ever ,i state anything
 which has cost me any trouble to       
ascertain1 and which1 therefore1 will   
probably require a minute or two of     
reflection from the reader before it can
 be accepted1--that statement will not  
only be misunderstood1 but in all       

probability taken to mean something very
 nearly the reverse of what it does     
mean4 ,now1 whatever faults there may be
 in my modes of expression1 ,i know that
 the words ,i use will always be found1 
by ,johnson's dictionary1 to bear1 first
 of all1 the sense ,i use them in2 and  
that the sentences1 whether awkwardly   
turned or not1 will1 by the ordinary    
rules of grammar1 bear no other         
interpretation than that ,i mean them to
 bear2 so that the misunderstanding of  
them must result1 ultimately1 from the  
mere fact that their matter sometimes   
requires a little patience4 ,and ,i see 
the same kind of misinterpretation put  
on the words of other writers1 whenever 
they require the same kind of thought4  
,i was at first a little despondent     
about this2 but1 on the whole1 ,i       
believe it will have a good effect upon 
our literature for some time to come2   
and then1 perhaps1 the public may       
recover its patience again4 ,for        
certainly it is excellent discipline for

 an author to feel that he must say all 
he has to say in the fewest possible    
words1 or his reader is sure to skip    
them2 and in the plainest possible      
words1 or his reader will certainly     
misunderstand them4 ,generally1 also1 a 
downright fact may be told in a plain   
way2 and we want downright facts at     
present more than any thing else4 ,and  
though ,i often hear moral people       
complaining of the bad effects of want  
of thought1 for my part1 it seems to me 
that one of the worst diseases to which 
the human creature is liable is its     
disease of thinking4 ,if it would only  
just look#bb at a thing instead of      
thinking what it must be like1 or do a  
thing1 instead of thinking it cannot be 
done1 we should all get on far better4  
#bb ,there can be no question1 however1 
of the mischievous        tendency of   
the hurry of the present day1 in the way
 people        undertake this very      
looking4 ,i gave three years' close and 
incessant labour to the examination of  

the chronology of the                   
architecture of ,venice2 two long       
winters being wholly spent        in the
 drawing of details on the spot3 and yet
 ,i see        constantly that          
architects who pass three or four days  
in a        gondola going up and down   
the ,grand ,canal1 think that their     
first impressions are just as likely to 
be true as my        patiently wrought  
conclusions4 ,mr4 ,street1 for instance1
        glances hastily at the facade of
 the ,ducal ,palace--so hastily         
that he does not even see what its      
pattern is1 and misses the              
alternation of red and black in the     
centres of its        squares--and yet  
he instantly ventures on an opinion on  
the        chronology of its capitals1  
which is one of the most                
complicated and difficult subjects in   
the whole range of        ,gothic       
archaeology4 ,it may1 nevertheless1 be  
ascertained with        very fair       
probability of correctness by any person

 who will        give a month's hard    
work to it1 but it can be ascertained no
        otherwise4   ,note #gth1 p4     
#hd4--,pilots of the ,state4  ,while1   
however1 undoubtedly1 these             
responsibilities attach to every person 
possessed of wealth1 it is necessary    
both to avoid any stringency of         
statement respecting the benevolent     
modes of spending money1 and to admit   
and approve so much liberty of spending 
it for selfish pleasures as may         
distinctly make wealth a personal reward
 for toil1 and secure in the minds of   
all men the right of property4 ,for     
although1 without doubt1 the purest     
pleasures it can procure are not        
selfish1 it is only as a means of       
personal gratification that it will be  
desired by a large majority of workers2 
and it would be no less false ethics    
than false policy to check their energy 
by any forms of public opinion which    
bore hardly against the wanton          
expenditure of honestly got wealth4 ,it 

would be hard if a man who had passed   
the greater part of his life at the desk
 or counter could not at last innocently
 gratify a caprice2 and all the best and
 most sacred ends of almsgiving would be
 at once disappointed1 if the idea of a 
moral claim took the place of           
affectionate gratitude in the mind of   
the receiver4  ,some distinction is made
 by us naturally in this respect between
 earned and inherited wealth2 that which
 is inherited appearing to involve the  
most definite responsibilities1         
especially when consisting in revenues  
derived from the soil4 ,the form of     
taxation which constitutes rental of    
lands places annually a certain portion 
of the national wealth in the hands of  
the nobles1 or other proprietors of the 
soil1 under conditions peculiarly       
calculated to induce them to give their 
best care to its efficient              
administration4 ,the want of instruction
 in even the simplest principles of     
commerce and economy1 which hitherto has

 disgraced our schools and universities1
 has indeed been the cause of ruin or   
total inutility of life to multitudes of
 our men of estate2 but this deficiency 
in our public education cannot exist    
much longer1 and it appears to be highly
 advantageous for the ,state that a     
certain number of persons distinguished 
by race should be permitted to set      
examples of wise expenditure1 whether in
 the advancement of science1 or in      
patronage of art and literature2 only   
they must see to it that they take their
 right standing more firmly than they   
have done hitherto1 for the position of 
a rich man in relation to those around  
him is1 in our present real life1 and is
 also contemplated generally by         
political economists as being1 precisely
 the reverse of what it ought to be4 ,a 
rich man ought to be continually        
examining how he may spend his money for
 the advantage of others3 at present1   
others are continually plotting how they
 may beguile him into spending it       

apparently for his own4 ,the aspect     
which he presents to the eyes of the    
world is generally that of a person     
holding a bag of money with a staunch   
grasp1 and resolved to part with none of
 it unless he is forced1 and all the    
people about him are plotting how they  
may force him2 that is to say1 how they 
may persuade him that he wants this     
thing or that2 or how they may produce  
things that he will covet and buy4 ,one 
man tries to persuade him that he wants 
perfumes2 another that he wants         
jewellery2 another that he wants        
sugarplums2 another that he wants roses 
at ,christmas4 ,anybody who can invent a
 new want for him is supposed to be a   
benefactor to society3 and thus the     
energies of the poorer people about him 
are continually directed to the         
production of covetable1 instead of     
serviceable things2 and the rich man has
 the general aspect of a fool1 plotted  
against by all the world4 ,whereas the  
real aspect which he ought to have is   

that of a person wiser than others1     
entrusted with the management of a      
larger quantity of capital1 which he    
administers for the profit of all1      
directing each man to the labour which  
is most healthy for him1 and most       
serviceable for the community4   ,note  
#hth1 p4 #hd4--,silk and ,purple4  ,in  
various places throughout these lectures
 ,i have had to allude to the           
distinction between productive and      
unproductive labour1 and between true   
and false wealth4 ,i shall here         
endeavour1 as clearly as ,i can1 to     
explain the distinction ,i mean4        
,property may be divided generally into 
two kinds2 that which produces life1 and
 that which produces the objects of     
life4 ,that which produces or maintains 
life consists of food1 in so far as it  
is nourishing2 of furniture and         
clothing1 in so far as they are         
protective or cherishing2 of fuel2 and  
of all land1 instruments1 or materials1 
necessary to produce food1 houses1      

clothes and fuel4 ,it is specially and  
rightly called useful property4  ,the   
property which produces the objects of  
life consists of all that gives pleasure
 or suggests and preserves thought3 of  
food1 furniture1 and land1 in so far as 
they are pleasing to the appetite or the
 eye1 of luxurious dress2 and all other 
kinds of luxuries2 of books1 pictures1  
and architecture4 ,but the modes of     
connection of certain minor forms of    
property with human labour render it    
desirable to arrange them under more    
than these two heads4 ,property may     
therefore be conveniently considered as 
of five kinds4  #ast4 ,property         
necessary to life1 but not producible by
 labour1 and therefore belonging of     
right1 in a due measure1 to every human 
being as soon as he is born1 and morally
 unalienable4 ,as1 for instance1 his    
proper share of the atmosphere1 without 
which he cannot breathe1 and of water1  
which he needs to quench his thirst4 ,as
 much land as he needs to feed from is  

also inalienable2 but in well regulated 
communities this quantity of land may   
often be represented by other           
possessions1 or its need supplied by    
wages and privileges4  #b4 ,property    
necessary to life1 but only producible  
by labour1 and of which the possession  
is morally connected with labour1 so    
that no person capable of doing the work
 necessary for its production has a     
right to it until he has done that      
work3--he that will not work1 neither   
should he eat4 ,it consists of simple   
food1 clothing1 and habitation1 with    
their seeds and materials1 or           
instruments and machinery1 and animals  
used for necessary draught or           
locomotion1 etc4 ,it is to be observed  
of this kind of property1 that its      
increase cannot usually be carried      
beyond a certain point1 because it      
depends not on labour only1 but on      
things of which the supply is limited by
 nature4 ,the possible accumulation of  
corn depends on the quantity of         

corn-growing land possessed or          
commercially accessible2 and that of    
steel1 similarly1 on the accessible     
quantity of coal and ironstone4 ,it     
follows from this natural limitation of 
supply that the accumulation of property
 of this kind in large masses at one    
point1 or in one person's hands1        
commonly involves1 more or less1 the    
scarcity of it at another point and in  
other persons' hands2 so that the       
accidents or energies which may enable  
one man to procure a great deal of it1  
may1 and in all likelihood will         
partially prevent other men procuring a 
sufficiency of it1 however willing they 
may be to work for it2 therefore1 the   
modes of its accumulation and           
distribution need to be in some degree  
regulated by law and by national        
treaties1 in order to secure justice to 
all men4  ,another point requiring      
notice respecting this sort of property 
is1 that no work can be wasted in       
producing it1 provided only the kind of 

it produced be preservable and          
distributable1 since for every grain of 
such commodities we produce we are      
rendering so much more life possible on 
earth4#bc ,but though we are sure1 thus1
 that we are employing people well1 we  
cannot be sure we might not have        
employed them better2 for it is possible
 to direct labour to the production of  
life1 until little or none is left for  
that of the objects of life1 and thus to
 increase population at the expense of  
civilization1 learning1 and morality3 on
 the other hand1 it is just as          
possible--and the error is one to which 
the world is1 on the whole1 more        
liable--to direct labour to the objects 
of life till too little is left for     
life1 and thus to increase luxury or    
learning at the expense of population4  
,right political economy holds its aim  
poised justly between the two extremes1 
desiring neither to crowd its dominions 
with a race of savages1 nor to found    
courts and colleges in the midst of a   

desert4     #bc ,this point has         
sometimes been disputed2 for instance1  
opening ,mill's ,political ,economy the 
other day1 ,i chanced         on a      
passage in which he says that a man who 
makes a coat1         if the person who 
wears the coat does nothing useful while
         he wears it1 has done no more  
good to society than the man         who
 has only raised a pineapple4 ,but this 
is a fallacy         induced by         
endeavour after too much subtlety4 ,none
 of us         have a right to say that 
the life of a man is of no use to       
him1 though it may be of no use to us2  
and the man who         made the coat1  
and thereby prolonged another man's     
life1 has         done a gracious and   
useful work1 whatever may come of the   
life so prolonged4 ,we may say to the   
wearer of the coat1         ,you who are
 wearing coats1 and doing nothing in    
them1 are         at present wasting    
your own life and other people's2 but we
         have no right to say that his  

existence1 however wasted1 is           
wasted away4 ,it may be just dragging   
itself on1 in its         thin golden   
line1 with nothing dependent upon it1 to
 the         point where it is to       
strengthen into good chain cable1 and   
have thousands of other lives dependent 
on it4 ,meantime1 the         simple    
fact respecting the coat-maker is1 that 
he has given         so much life to the
 creature1 the results of which he      
cannot         calculate2 they may      
be--in all probability will be--infinite
         results in some way4 ,but the  
raiser of pines1 who has only           
given a pleasant taste in the mouth to  
some one1 may see         with tolerable
 clearness to the end of the taste in   
the         mouth1 and of all           
conceivable results therefrom4  #c4 ,the
 third kind of property is that which   
conduces to bodily pleasures and        
conveniences1 without directly tending  
to sustain life2 perhaps sometimes      
indirectly tending to destroy it4 ,all  

dainty 7as distinguished from           
nourishing7 food1 and means of producing
 it2 all scents not needed for health2  
substances valued only for their        
appearance and rarity 7as gold and      
jewels72 flowers of difficult culture2  
animals used for delight 7as horses for 
racing71 and such like1 form property of
 this class2 to which the term luxury1  
or luxuries1 ought exclusively to       
belong4  ,respecting which we have to   
note first1 that all such property is of
 doubtful advantage even to its         
possessor4 ,furniture tempting to       
indolence1 sweet odours1 and luscious   
food1 are more or less injurious to     
health3 while jewels1 liveries1 and     
other such common belongings of wealthy 
people1 certainly convey no pleasure to 
their owners proportionate to their     
cost4  ,farther1 such property1 for the 
most part1 perishes in the using4       
,jewels form a great exception--but rich
 food1 fine dresses1 horses and         
carriages1 are consumed by the owner's  

use4 ,it ought much oftener to be       
brought to the notice of rich men what  
sums of interest of money they are      
paying towards the close of their lives1
 for luxuries consumed in the middle of 
them4 ,it would be very interesting1 for
 instance1 to know the exact sum which  
the money spent in ,london for ices1 at 
its desserts and balls1 during the last 
twenty years1 had it been saved and put 
out at compound interest1 would at this 
moment have furnished for useful        
purposes4  ,also1 in most cases1 the    
enjoyment of such property is wholly    
selfish1 and limited to its possessor4  
,splendid dress and equipage1 however1  
when so arranged as to produce real     
beauty of effect1 may often be rather a 
generous than a selfish channel of      
expenditure4 ,they will1 however1       
necessarily in such case involve some of
 the arts of design2 and therefore take 
their place in a higher category than   
that of luxuries merely4  #d4 ,the      
fourth kind of property is that which   

bestows intellectual or emotional       
pleasure1 consisting of land set apart  
for purposes of delight more than for   
agriculture1 of books1 works of art1 and
 objects of natural history4  ,it is1 of
 course1 impossible to fix an accurate  
limit between property of the last class
 and of this class1 since things which  
are a mere luxury to one person are a   
means of intellectual occupation to     
another4 ,flowers in a ,london ball-room
 are a luxury2 in a botanical garden1 a 
delight of the intellect2 and in their  
native fields1 both2 while the most     
noble works of art are continually made 
material of vulgar luxury or of criminal
 pride2 but1 when rightly used1 property
 of this fourth class is the only kind  
which deserves the name of real         
property2 it is the only kind which a   
man can truly be said to possess4 ,what 
a man eats1 or drinks1 or wears1 so long
 as it is only what is needful for life1
 can no more be thought of as his       
possession than the air he breathes4    

,the air is as needful to him as the    
food2 but we do not talk of a man's     
wealth of air2 and what food or clothing
 a man possesses more than he himself   
requires1 must be for others to use     
7and1 to him1 therefore1 not a real     
property in itself1 but only a means of 
obtaining some real property in exchange
 for it74 ,whereas the things that give 
intellectual or emotional enjoyment may 
be accumulated and do not perish in     
using2 but continually supply new       
pleasures and new powers of giving      
pleasures to others4 ,and these1        
therefore1 are the only things which can
 rightly be thought of as giving wealth 
or well being4 ,food conduces only to   
being1 but these to well being4 ,and    
there is not any broader general        
distinction between lower and higher    
orders of men than rests on their       
possession of this real property4 ,the  
human race may be properly divided by   
zoologists into men who have gardens1   
libraries1 or works of art2 and who have

 none2 and the former class will include
 all noble persons1 except only a few   
who make the world their garden or      
museum2 while the people who have not1  
or1 which is the same thing1 do not care
 for gardens or libraries1 but care for 
nothing but money or luxuries1 will     
include none but ignoble persons3 only  
it is necessary to understand that ,i   
mean by the term garden as much the     
,carthusian's plot of ground fifteen    
feet square between his monastery       
buttresses1 as ,i do the grounds of     
,chatsworth or ,kew2 and ,i mean by the 
term art as much the old sailor's print 
of the ,arethusa bearing up to engage   
the ,belle ,poule1 as ,i do ,raphael's  
,disputa1 and even rather more2 for when
 abundant1 beautiful possessions of this
 kind are almost always associated with 
vulgar luxury1 and become then anything 
but indicative of noble character in    
their possessors4 ,the ideal of human   
life is a union of ,spartan simplicity  
of manners with ,athenian sensibility   

and imagination1 but in actual results1 
we are continually mistaking ignorance  
for simplicity1 and sensuality for      
refinement4  #e4 ,the fifth kind of     
property is representative property1    
consisting of documents or money1 or    
rather documents only1 for money itself 
is only a transferable document1 current
 among societies of men1 giving claim1  
at sight1 to some definite benefit or   
advantage1 most commonly to a certain   
share of real property existing in those
 societies4 ,the money is only genuine  
when the property it gives claim to is  
real1 or the advantages it gives claim  
to certain2 otherwise1 it is false      
money1 and may be considered as much    
forged when issued by a government1 or a
 bank1 as when by an individual4 ,thus1 
if a dozen of men1 cast ashore on a     
desert island1 pick up a number of      
stones1 put a red spot on each stone1   
and pass a law that every stone marked  
with a red spot shall give claim to a   
peck of wheat2--so long as no wheat     

exists1 or can exist1 on the island1 the
 stones are not money4 ,but the moment  
as much wheat exists as shall render it 
possible for the society always to give 
a peck for every spotted stone1 the     
spotted stones would become money1 and  
might be exchanged by their possessors  
for whatever other commodities they     
chose1 to the value of the peck of wheat
 which the stones represented4 ,if more 
stones were issued than the quantity of 
wheat could answer the demand of1 the   
value of the stone coinage would be     
depreciated1 in proportion to its       
increase above the quantity needed to   
answer it4  ,again1 supposing a certain 
number of the men so cast ashore were   
set aside by lot1 or any other          
convention1 to do the rougher labour    
necessary for the whole society1 they   
themselves being maintained by the daily
 allotment of a certain quantity of     
food1 clothing1 etc4 ,then1 if it were  
agreed that the stones spotted with red 
should be signs of a ,government order  

for the labour of these men2 and that   
any person presenting a spotted stone at
 the office of the labourers1 should be 
entitled to a man's work for a week or a
 day1 the red stones would be money2 and
 might--probably would--immediately pass
 current in the island for as much food1
 or clothing1 or iron1 or any other     
article as a man's work for the period  
secured by the stone was worth4 ,but if 
the ,government issued so many spotted  
stones that it was impossible for the   
body of men they employed to comply with
 the orders2 as1 suppose1 if they only  
employed twelve men1 and issued eighteen
 spotted stones daily1 ordering a day's 
work each1 then the six extra stones    
would be forged or false money2 and the 
effect of this forgery would be the     
depreciation of the value of the whole  
coinage by one-third1 that being the    
period of shortcoming which would1 on   
the average1 necessarily ensue in the   
execution of each order4 ,much          
occasional work may be done in a state  

or society1 by help of an issue of false
 money 7or false promises7 by way of    
stimulants2 and the fruit of this work1 
if it comes into the promiser's hands1  
may sometimes enable the false promises 
at last to be fulfilled3 hence the      
frequent issue of false money by        
governments and banks1 and the not      
unfrequent escapes from the natural and 
proper consequences of such false       
issues1 so as to cause a confused       
conception in most people's minds of    
what money really is4 ,i am not sure    
whether some quantity of such false     
issue may not really be permissible in a
 nation1 accurately proportioned to the 
minimum average produce of the labour it
 excites2 but all such procedures are   
more or less unsound2 and the notion of 
unlimited issue of currency is simply   
one of the absurdest and most monstrous 
that ever came into disjointed human    
wits4  ,the use of objects of real or   
supposed value for currency1 as gold1   
jewellery1 etc41 is barbarous2 and it   

always expresses either the measure of  
the distrust in the society of its own  
government1 or the proportion of        
distrustful or barbarous nations with   
whom it has to deal4 ,a metal not easily
 corroded or imitated1 is a desirable   
medium of currency for the sake of      
cleanliness and convenience1 but were it
 possible to prevent forgery1 the more  
worthless the metal itself1 the better4 
,the use of worthless media1            
unrestrained by the use of valuable     
media1 has always hitherto involved1 and
 is therefore supposed to involve       
necessarily1 unlimited1 or at least     
improperly extended1 issue2 but we might
 as well suppose that a man must        
necessarily issue unlimited promises    
because his words cost nothing4         
,intercourse with foreign nations must1 
indeed1 for ages yet to come1 at the    
world's present rate of progress1 be    
carried on by valuable currencies2 but  
such transactions are nothing more than 
forms of barter4 ,the gold used at      

present as a currency is not1 in point  
of fact1 currency at all1 but the real  
property#bd which the currency gives    
claim to1 stamped to measure its        
quantity1 and mingling with the real    
currency occasionally by barter4     #bd
 ,or rather1 equivalent1 to such real   
property1 because         everybody has 
been accustomed to look upon it as      
valuable3         and therefore         
everybody is willing to give labour or  
goods         for it4 ,but real property
 does ultimately consist only in        
things that nourish body or mind2 gold  
would be useless to         us if we    
could not get mutton or books for it4   
,ultimately         all commercial      
mistakes and embarrassments result from 
people expecting to get goods without   
working for them1 or         wasting    
them after they have got them4 ,a nation
 which         labours1 and takes care  
of the fruits of labour1 would be       
rich and happy2 though there were no    
gold in the universe4 ,a         nation 

which is idle1 and wastes the produce of
 what work it         does1 would be    
poor and miserable1 though all its      
mountains         were of gold1 and had 
glens filled with diamonds instead of   
glacier4  ,the evils necessarily        
resulting from the use of baseless      
currencies have been terribly           
illustrated while these sheets have been
 passing through the press2 ,i have not 
had time to examine the various         
conditions of dishonest or absurd       
trading which have led to the late panic
 in ,america and ,england2 this only ,i 
know1 that no merchant deserving the    
name ought to be more liable to panic   
than a soldier should2 for his name     
should never be on more paper than he   
can at any instant meet the call of1    
happen what will4 ,i do not say this    
without feeling at the same time how    
difficult it is to mark1 in existing    
commerce1 the just limits between the   
spirit of enterprise and of speculation4
 ,something of the same temper which    

makes the ,english soldier do always all
 that is possible1 and attempt more than
 is possible1 joins its influence with  
that of mere avarice in tempting the    
,english merchant into risks which he   
cannot justify1 and efforts which he    
cannot sustain2 and the same passion for
 adventure which our travellers gratify 
every summer on perilous snow wreaths1  
and cloud-encompassed precipices1       
surrounds with a romantic fascination   
the glittering of a hollow investment1  
and gilds the clouds that curl round    
gulfs of ruin4 ,nay1 a higher and a more
 serious feeling frequently mingles in  
the motley temptation2 and men apply    
themselves to the task of growing rich1 
as to a labour of providential          
appointment1 from which they cannot     
pause without culpability1 nor retire   
without dishonour4 ,our large trading   
cities bear to me very nearly the aspect
 of monastic establishments in which the
 roar of the mill-wheel and the crane   
takes the place of other devotional     

music2 and in which the worship of      
,mammon or ,moloch is conducted with a  
tender reverence and an exact propriety2
 the merchant rising to his ,mammon     
matins with the self-denial of an       
anchorite1 and expiating the frivolities
 into which he may be beguiled1 in the  
course of the day by late attendance at 
,mammon vespers4 ,but1 with every       
allowance that can be made for these    
conscientious and romantic persons1 the 
fact remains the same1 that by far the  
greater number of the transactions which
 lead to these times of commercial      
embarrassment may be ranged simply under
 two great heads1--gambling and         
stealing2 and both of these in their    
most culpable form1 namely1 gambling    
with money which is not ours1 and       
stealing from those who trust us4 ,i    
have sometimes thought a day might come1
 when the nation would perceive that a  
well-educated man who steals a hundred  
thousand pounds1 involving the entire   
means of subsistence of a hundred       

families1 deserves1 on the whole1 as    
severe a punishment as an ill-educated  
man who steals a purse from a pocket1 or
 a mug from a pantry4 ,but without      
hoping for this excess of               
clearsightedness1 we may at least labour
 for a system of greater honesty and    
kindness in the minor commerce of our   
daily life2 since the great dishonesty  
of the great buyers and sellers is      
nothing more than the natural growth and
 outcome from the little dishonesty of  
the little buyers and sellers4 ,every   
person who tries to buy an article for  
less than its proper value1 or who tries
 to sell it at more than its proper     
value--every consumer who keeps a       
tradesman waiting for his money1 and    
every tradesman who bribes a consumer to
 extravagance by credit1 is helping     
forward1 according to his own measure of
 power1 a system of baseless and        
dishonourable commerce1 and forcing his 
country down into poverty and shame4    
,and people of moderate means and       

average powers of mind would do far more
 real good by merely carrying out stern 
principles of justice and honesty in    
common matters of trade1 than by the    
most ingenious schemes of extended      
philanthropy1 or vociferous declarations
 of theological doctrine4 ,there are    
three weighty matters of the            
law--justice1 mercy1 and truth2 and of  
these the ,teacher puts truth last1     
because that cannot be known but by a   
course of acts of justice and love4 ,but
 men put1 in all their efforts1 truth   
first1 because they mean by it their own
 opinions2 and thus1 while the world has
 many people who would suffer martyrdom 
in the cause of what they call truth1 it
 has few who will suffer even a little  
inconvenience1 in that of justice and   
mercy4     ,,unto ,,this ,,last3  ,,four
 ,,essays ,,on ,,the ,,first            
,,principles ,,of ,,political ,,economy4
       ,,friend1 ,i ,,do ,,thee ,,no    
,,wrong4 ,,did',,st ,,not ,,thou ,,agree
 ,,with ,,me     ,,for ,a ,,penny8      

,,take ,,that ,,thine ,,is1 ,,and ,,go  
,,thy ,,way4 ,i ,,will ,,give     ,,unto
 ,,this ,,last ,,even ,,as ,,unto       
,,thee4      ,,if ,,ye ,,think ,,good1  
,,give ,,me ,,my ,,price2 ,,and ,,if    
,,not1 ,,forbear4 ,,so     ,,they       
,,weighed ,,for ,,my ,,price ,,thirty   
,,pieces ,,of ,,silver4     ,,preface4  
,the four following essays were         
published eighteen months ago in the    
,cornhill ,magazine1 and were reprobated
 in a violent manner1 as far as ,i could
 hear1 by most of the readers they met  
with4  ,not a whit the less1 ,i believe 
them to be the best1 that is to say1 the
 truest1 rightest-worded1 and most      
serviceable things ,i have ever written2
 and the last of them1 having had       
especial pains spent on it1 is probably 
the best ,i shall ever write4  ,this1   
the reader may reply1 it might be1 yet  
not therefore well written4 ,which1 in  
no mock humility1 admitting1 ,i yet rest
 satisfied with the work1 though with   
nothing else that ,i have done2 and     

purposing shortly to follow out the     
subjects opened in these papers1 as ,i  
may find leisure1 ,i wish the           
introductory statements to be within the
 reach of any one who may care to refer 
to them4 ,so ,i republish the essays as 
they appeared4 ,one word only is        
changed1 correcting the estimate of a   
weight2 and no word is added4           
,although1 however1 ,i find nothing to  
modify in these papers1 it is a matter  
of regret to me that the most startling 
of all the statements in them--that     
respecting the necessity of the         
organization of labour1 with fixed      
wages1--should have found its way into  
the first essay2 it being quite one of  
the least important1 though by no means 
the least certain1 of the positions to  
be defended4 ,the real gist of these    
papers1 their central meaning and aim1  
is to give1 as ,i believe for the first 
time in plain ,english--it has often    
been incidentally given in good ,greek  
by ,plato and ,xenophon1 and good ,latin

 by ,cicero and ,horace1--a logical     
definition of ,,wealth3 such definition 
being absolutely needed for a basis of  
economical science4 ,the most reputed   
essay on that subject which has appeared
 in modern times1 after opening with the
 statement that writers on political    
economy profess to teach1 or to         
investigate1#be the nature of wealth1   
thus follows up the declaration of its  
thesis--,every one has a notion1        
sufficiently correct for common         
purposes1 of what is meant by wealth4   
444 ,it is no part of the design of this
 treatise to aim at metaphysical nicety 
of definition4#bf     #be ,which8 for   
where investigation is necessary1       
teaching is         impossible4     #bf 
,principles of ,political ,economy4 ,by 
,j4 ,s4 ,mill4         ,preliminary     
remarks1 p4 #b4  ,metaphysical nicety1  
we assuredly do not need2 but physical  
nicety1 and logical accuracy1 with      
respect to a physical subject1 we as    
assuredly do4  ,suppose the subject of  

inquiry1 instead of being ,house-law    
7,oikonomia71 had been ,star-law        
7,astronomia71 and that1 ignoring       
distinction between stars fixed and     
wandering1 as here between wealth       
radiant and wealth reflective1 the      
writer had begun thus3 ,every one has a 
notion1 sufficiently correct for common 
purposes1 of what is meant by stars4    
,metaphysical nicety in the definition  
of a star is not the object of this     
treatise2--the essay so opened might yet
 have been far more true in its final   
statements1 and a thousand-fold more    
serviceable to the navigator1 than any  
treatise on wealth1 which founds its    
conclusions on the popular conception of
 wealth1 can ever become to the         
economist4         99       99       99 
99       99  ,it was1 therefore1 the    
first object of these following papers  
to give an accurate and stable          
definition of wealth4 ,their second     
object was to show that the acquisition 
of wealth was finally possible only     

under certain moral conditions of       
society1 of which quite the first was a 
belief in the existence and even1 for   
practical purposes1 in the attainability
 of honesty4  ,without venturing to     
pronounce--since on such a matter human 
judgment is by no means conclusive--what
 is1 or is not1 the noblest of ,god's   
works1 we may yet admit so much of      
,pope's assertion as that an honest man 
is among ,his best works presently      
visible1 and1 as things stand1 a        
somewhat rare one2 but not an incredible
 or miraculous work2 still less an      
abnormal one4 ,honesty is not a         
disturbing force1 which deranges the    
orbits of economy2 but a consistent and 
commanding force1 by obedience to       
which--and by no other obedience--those 
orbits can continue clear of chaos4  ,it
 is true1 ,i have sometimes heard ,pope 
condemned for the lowness1 instead of   
the height1 of his standard3--,honesty  
is indeed a respectable virtue2 but how 
much higher may men attain6 ,shall      

nothing more be asked of us than that we
 be honest8  ,for the present1 good     
friends1 nothing4 ,it seems that in our 
aspirations to be more than that1 we    
have to some extent lost sight of the   
propriety of being so much as that4     
,what else we may have lost faith in1   
there shall be here no question2 but    
assuredly we have lost faith in common  
honesty1 and in the working power of it4
 ,and this faith1 with the facts on     
which it may rest1 it is quite our first
 business to recover and keep3 not only 
believing1 but even by experience       
assuring ourselves1 that there are yet  
in the world men who can be restrained  
from fraud otherwise than by the fear of
 losing employment2#bg nay that it is   
even accurately in proportion to the    
number of such men in any ,state1 that  
the said ,state does or can prolong its 
existence4     #bg ,the effectual       
discipline which is exercised over a    
workman         is not that of his      
corporation1 but of his customers4 ,it  

is         the fear of losing their     
employment which restrains his          
frauds1 and corrects his negligence     
7,wealth of ,nations1         ,book ,i4 
chap4 #aj74  ,to these two points1 then1
 the following essays are mainly        
directed4 ,the subject of the           
organization of labour is only casually 
touched upon2 because1 if we once can   
get a sufficient quantity of honesty in 
our captains1 the organization of labour
 is easy1 and will develop itself       
without quarrel or difficulty2 but if we
 cannot get honesty in our captains1 the
 organization of labour is for evermore 
impossible4  ,the several conditions of 
its possibility ,i purpose to examine at
 length in the sequel4 ,yet1 lest the   
reader should be alarmed by the hints   
thrown out during the following         
investigation of first principles1 as if
 they were leading him into unexpectedly
 dangerous ground1 ,i will1 for his     
better assurance1 state at once the     
worst of the political creed at which ,i

 wish him to arrive4  #a4 ,first1--that 
there should be training schools for    
youth established1 at ,government       
cost1#bh and under ,government          
discipline1 over the whole country2 that
 every child born in the country should1
 at the parent's wish1 be permitted     
7and1 in certain cases1 be under penalty
 required7 to pass through them2 and    
that1 in these schools1 the child should
 7with other minor pieces of knowledge  
hereafter to be considered7 imperatively
 be taught1 with the best skill of      
teaching that the country could produce1
 the following three things3--    7a7   
the laws of health1 and the exercises   
enjoined by them2   7b7 habits of       
gentleness and justice2 and   7c7 the   
calling by which he is to live4     #bh 
,it will probably be inquired by        
near-sighted persons1 out of            
what funds such schools could be        
supported4 ,the expedient         modes 
of direct provision for them ,i will    
examine hereafter2         indirectly1  

they would be far more than             
self-supporting4 ,the         economy in
 crime alone 7quite one of the most     
costly         articles of luxury in the
 modern ,european market71 which        
such schools would induce1 would suffice
 to support them ten         times over4
 ,their economy of labour would be pure 
gain1 and         that too large to be  
presently calculable4  #b4              
,secondly1--that1 in connection with    
these training schools1 there should be 
established1 also entirely under        
,government regulation1 manufactories   
and workshops1 for the production and   
sale of every necessary of life1 and for
 the exercise of every useful art4 ,and 
that1 interfering no whit with private  
enterprise1 nor setting any restraints  
or tax on private trade1 but leaving    
both to do their best1 and beat the     
,government if they could1--there       
should1 at these ,government            
manufactories and shops1 be             
authoritatively good and exemplary work 

done1 and pure and true substance sold2 
so that a man could be sure1 if he chose
 to pay the ,government price1 that he  
got for his money bread that was bread1 
ale that was ale1 and work that was     
work4  #c4 ,thirdly1--that any man1 or  
woman1 or boy1 or girl1 out of          
employment1 should be at once received  
at the nearest ,government school1 and  
set to such work as it appeared1 on     
trial1 they were fit for1 at a fixed    
rate of wages determinable every        
year3--that1 being found incapable of   
work through ignorance1 they should be  
taught1 or being found incapable of work
 through sickness1 should be tended2 but
 that being found objecting to work1    
they should be set1 under compulsion of 
the strictest nature1 to the more       
painful and degrading forms of necessary
 toil1 especially to that in mines and  
other places of danger 7such danger     
being1 however1 diminished to the utmost
 by careful regulation and discipline7  
and the due wages of such work be       

retained--cost of compulsion first      
abstracted--to be at the workman's      
command1 so soon as he has come to      
sounder mind respecting the laws of     
employment4  #d4 ,lastly1--that for the 
old and destitute1 comfort and home     
should be provided2 which provision1    
when misfortune had been by the working 
of such a system sifted from guilt1     
would be honourable instead of          
disgraceful to the receiver4 ,for 7,i   
repeat this passage out of my ,political
 ,economy of ,art1 to which the reader  
is referred for farther detail#bi7 a    
labourer serves his country with his    
spade1 just as a man in the middle ranks
 of life serves it with sword1 pen1 or  
lancet3 if the service is less1 and1    
therefore the wages during health less1 
then the reward1 when health is broken1 
may be less1 but not1 therefore1 less   
honourable2 and it ought to be quite as 
natural and straightforward a matter for
 a labourer to take his pension from his
 parish1 because he has deserved well of

 his parish1 as for a man in higher rank
 to take his pension from his country1  
because he has deserved well of his     
country4     #bi ,the ,political        
,economy of ,art3 ,addenda1 p4 #ic4  ,to
 which statement1 ,i will only add1 for 
conclusion1 respecting the discipline   
and pay of life and death1 that1 for    
both high and low1 ,livy's last words   
touching ,valerius ,publicola1 de       
publico est elatus1#cj ought not to be a
 dishonourable close of epitaph4     #cj
 ,p4 ,valerius1 omnium consensu princeps
 belli pacisque         artibus1 anno   
post moritur2 gloria ingenti1 copiis    
familiaribus adeo exiguis1 ut funeri    
sumtus deesset3 de         publico est  
elatus4 ,luxere matronae ut             
,brutum4--,lib4 ,,ii4         c4 xvi4   
,these things1 then1 ,i believe1 and am 
about1 as ,i find power1 to explain and 
illustrate in their various bearings2   
following out also what belongs to them 
of collateral inquiry4 ,here ,i state   
them only in brief1 to prevent the      

reader casting about in alarm for my    
ultimate meaning2 yet requesting him1   
for the present to remember1 that in a  
science dealing with so subtle elements 
as those of human nature1 it is only    
possible to answer for the final truth  
of principles1 not for the direct       
success of plans3 and that in the best  
of these last1 what can be immediately  
accomplished is always questionable1 and
 what can be finally accomplished1      
inconceivable4    ,denmark ,hill1 #ajth 
,may1 #ahfb4     ,,essay ,i4  ,,the     
,,roots ,,of ,,honour4   ,among the     
delusions which at different periods    
have possessed themselves of the minds  
of large masses of the human race1      
perhaps the most curious--certainly the 
least creditable--is the modern         
soi-disant science of political economy1
 based on the idea that an advantageous 
code of social action may be determined 
irrespectively of the influence of      
social affection4  ,of course1 as in the
 instances of alchemy1 astrology1       

witchcraft1 and other such popular      
creeds1 political economy has a         
plausible idea at the root of it4 ,the  
social affections1 says the economist1  
are accidental and disturbing elements  
in human nature2 but avarice and the    
desire of progress are constant         
elements4 ,let us eliminate the         
inconstants1 and1 considering the human 
being merely as a covetous machine1     
examine by what laws of labour1         
purchase1 and sale1 the greatest        
accumulative result in wealth is        
obtainable4 ,those laws once determined1
 it will be for each individual         
afterwards to introduce as much of the  
disturbing affectionate element as he   
chooses1 and to determine for himself   
the result on the new conditions        
supposed4  ,this would be a perfectly   
logical and successful method of        
analysis1 if the accidentals afterwards 
to be introduced were of the same nature
 as the powers first examined4          
,supposing a body in motion to be       

influenced by constant and inconstant   
forces1 it is usually the simplest way  
of examining its course to trace it     
first under the persistent conditions1  
and afterwards introduce the causes of  
variation4 ,but the disturbing elements 
in the social problem are not of the    
same nature as the constant ones2 they  
alter the essence of the creature under 
examination the moment they are added2  
they operate1 not mathematically1 but   
chemically1 introducing conditions which
 render all our previous knowledge      
unavailable4 ,we made learned           
experiments upon pure nitrogen1 and have
 convinced ourselves that it is a very  
manageable gas3 but behold6 the thing   
which we have practically to deal with  
is its chloride2 and this1 the moment we
 touch it on our established principles1
 sends us and our apparatus through the 
ceiling4  ,observe1 ,i neither impugn   
nor doubt the conclusions of the        
science1 if its terms are accepted4 ,i  
am simply uninterested in them1 as ,i   

should be in those of a science of      
gymnastics which assumed that men had no
 skeletons4 ,it might be shown1 on that 
supposition1 that it would be           
advantageous to roll the students up    
into pellets1 flatten them into cakes1  
or stretch them into cables2 and that   
when these results were effected1 the   
re-insertion of the skeleton would be   
attended with various inconveniences to 
their constitution4 ,the reasoning might
 be admirable1 the conclusions true1 and
 the science deficient only in          
applicability4 ,modern political economy
 stands on a precisely similar basis4   
,assuming1 not that the human being has 
no skeleton1 but that it is all         
skeleton1 it founds an ossifiant theory 
of progress on this negation of a soul2 
and having shown the utmost that may be 
made of bones1 and constructed a number 
of interesting geometrical figures with 
death's-heads and humeri1 successfully  
proves the inconvenience of the         
reappearance of a soul among these      

corpuscular structures4 ,i do not deny  
the truth of this theory3 ,i simply deny
 its applicability to the present phase 
of the world4  ,this inapplicability has
 been curiously manifested during the   
embarrassment caused by the late strikes
 of our workmen4 ,here occurs one of the
 simplest cases1 in a pertinent and     
positive form1 of the first vital       
problem which political economy has to  
deal with 7the relation between employer
 and employed72 and at a severe crisis1 
when lives in multitudes1 and wealth in 
masses1 are at stake1 the political     
economists are helpless--practically    
mute2 no demonstrable solution of the   
difficulty can be given by them1 such as
 may convince or calm the opposing      
parties4 ,obstinately the masters take  
one view of the matter2 obstinately the 
operatives another2 and no political    
science can set them at one4  ,it would 
be strange if it could1 it being not by 
science of any kind that men were ever  
intended to be set at one4 ,disputant   

after disputant vainly strives to show  
that the interests of the masters are1  
or are not1 antagonistic to those of the
 men3 none of the pleaders ever seeming 
to remember that it does not absolutely 
or always follow that the persons must  
be antagonistic because their interests 
are4 ,if there is only a crust of bread 
in the house1 and mother and children   
are starving1 their interests are not   
the same4 ,if the mother eats it1 the   
children want it2 if the children eat   
it1 the mother must go hungry to her    
work4 ,yet it does not necessarily      
follow that there will be antagonism    
between them1 that they will fight for  
the crust1 and that the mother1 being   
strongest1 will get it1 and eat it4     
,neither1 in any other case1 whatever   
the relations of the persons may be1 can
 it be assumed for certain that1 because
 their interests are diverse1 they must 
necessarily regard each other with      
hostility1 and use violence or cunning  
to obtain the advantage4  ,even if this 

were so1 and it were as just as it is   
convenient to consider men as actuated  
by no other moral influences than those 
which affect rats or swine1 the logical 
conditions of the question are still    
indeterminable4 ,it can never be shown  
generally either that the interests of  
master and labourer are alike1 or that  
they are opposed2 for1 according to     
circumstances1 they may be either4 ,it  
is1 indeed1 always the interest of both 
that the work should be rightly done1   
and a just price obtained for it2 but1  
in the division of profits1 the gain of 
the one may or may not be the loss of   
the other4 ,it is not the master's      
interest to pay wages so low as to leave
 the men sickly and depressed1 nor the  
workman's interest to be paid high wages
 if the smallness of the master's profit
 hinders him from enlarging his         
business1 or conducting it in a safe and
 liberal way4 ,a stoker ought not to    
desire high pay if the company is too   
poor to keep the engine-wheels in       

repair4  ,and the varieties of          
circumstance which influence these      
reciprocal interests are so endless1    
that all endeavour to deduce rules of   
action from balance of expediency is in 
vain4 ,and it is meant to be in vain4   
,for no human actions ever were intended
 by the ,maker of men to be guided by   
balances of expediency1 but by balances 
of justice4 ,he has therefore rendered  
all endeavours to determine expediency  
futile for evermore4 ,no man ever knew  
or can know1 what will be the ultimate  
result to himself1 or to others1 of any 
given line of conduct4 ,but every man   
may know1 and most of us do know1 what  
is a just and unjust act4 ,and all of us
 may know also1 that the consequences of
 justice will be ultimately the best    
possible1 both to others and ourselves1 
though we can neither say what is best1 
or how it is likely to come to pass4  ,i
 have said balances of justice1 meaning1
 in the term justice1 to include        
affection1--such affection as one man   

owes to another4 ,all right relations   
between master and operative1 and all   
their best interests1 ultimately depend 
on these4  ,we shall find the best and  
simplest illustration of the relations  
of master and operative in the position 
of domestic servants4  ,we will suppose 
that the master of a household desires  
only to get as much work out of his     
servants as he can1 at the rate of wages
 he gives4 ,he never allows them to be  
idle2 feeds them as poorly and lodges   
them as ill as they will endure1 and in 
all things pushes his requirements to   
the exact point beyond which he cannot  
go without forcing the servant to leave 
him4 ,in doing this1 there is no        
violation on his part of what is        
commonly called justice4 ,he agrees with
 the domestic for his whole time and    
service1 and takes them2--the limits of 
hardship in treatment being fixed by the
 practice of other masters in his       
neighbourhood2 that is to say1 by the   
current rate of wages for domestic      

labour4 ,if the servant can get a better
 place1 he is free to take one1 and the 
master can only tell what is the real   
market value of his labour1 by requiring
 as much as he will give4  ,this is the 
politico-economical view of the case1   
according to the doctors of that        
science2 who assert that by this        
procedure the greatest average of work  
will be obtained from the servant1 and  
therefore1 the greatest benefit to the  
community1 and through the community1 by
 reversion1 to the servant himself4     
,that1 however1 is not so4 ,it would be 
so if the servant were an engine of     
which the motive power was steam1       
magnetism1 gravitation1 or any other    
agent of calculable force4 ,but he      
being1 on the contrary1 an engine whose 
motive power is a ,soul1 the force of   
this very peculiar agent1 as an unknown 
quantity1 enters into all the political 
economist's equations1 without his      
knowledge1 and falsifies every one of   
their results4 ,the largest quantity of 

work will not be done by this curious   
engine for pay1 or under pressure1 or by
 help of any kind of fuel which may be  
supplied by the chaldron4 ,it will be   
done only when the motive force1 that is
 to say1 the will or spirit of the      
creature1 is brought to its greatest    
strength by its own proper fuel2 namely1
 by the affections4  ,it may indeed     
happen1 and does happen often1 that if  
the master is a man of sense and energy1
 a large quantity of material work may  
be done under mechanical pressure1      
enforced by strong will and guided by   
wise method2 also it may happen1 and    
does happen often1 that if the master is
 indolent and weak 7however             
good-natured71 a very small quantity of 
work1 and that bad1 may be produced by  
the servant's undirected strength1 and  
contemptuous gratitude4 ,but the        
universal law of the matter is that1    
assuming any given quantity of energy   
and sense in master and servant1 the    
greatest material result obtainable by  

them will be1 not through antagonism to 
each other1 but through affection for   
each other2 and that if the master1     
instead of endeavouring to get as much  
work as possible from the servant1 seeks
 rather to render his appointed and     
necessary work beneficial to him1 and to
 forward his interests in all just and  
wholesome ways1 the real amount of work 
ultimately done1 or of good rendered1 by
 the person so cared for1 will indeed be
 the greatest possible4  ,observe1 ,i   
say1 of good rendered1 for a servant's  
work is not necessarily or always the   
best thing he can give his master4 ,but 
good of all kinds1 whether in material  
service1 in protective watchfulness of  
his master's interest and credit1 or in 
joyful readiness to seize unexpected and
 irregular occasions of help4  ,nor is  
this one whit less generally true       
because indulgence will be frequently   
abused1 and kindness met with           
ingratitude4 ,for the servant who1      
gently treated1 is ungrateful1 treated  

ungently1 will be revengeful2 and the   
man who is dishonest to a liberal master
 will be injurious to an unjust one4    
,in any case1 and with any person1 this 
unselfish treatment will produce the    
most effective return4 ,observe1 ,i am  
here considering the affections wholly  
as a motive power2 not at all as things 
in themselves desirable or noble1 or in 
any other way abstractedly good4 ,i look
 at them simply as an anomalous force1  
rendering every one of the ordinary     
political economist's calculations      
nugatory2 while1 even if he desired to  
introduce this new element into his     
estimates1 he has no power of dealing   
with it2 for the affections only become 
a true motive power when they ignore    
every other motive and condition of     
political economy4 ,treat the servant   
kindly1 with the idea of turning his    
gratitude to account1 and you will get1 
as you deserve1 no gratitude1 nor any   
value for your kindness2 but treat him  
kindly without any economical purpose1  

and all economical purposes will be     
answered2 in this1 as in all other      
matters1 whosoever will save his life   
shall lose it1 whoso loses it shall find
 it4#ca     #ca ,the difference between 
the two modes of treatment1 and         
between their effective material        
results1 may be seen very               
accurately by a comparison of the       
relations of ,esther and                
,charlie in ,bleak ,house1 with those of
 ,miss ,brass and the                   
,marchioness in ,master ,humphrey's     
,clock4          ,the essential value   
and truth of ,dickens's writings have   
been unwisely lost sight of by many     
thoughtful persons1         merely      
because he presents his truth with some 
colour of         caricature4 ,unwisely1
 because ,dickens's caricature1 though  
often gross1 is never mistaken4         
,allowing for his manner of             
telling them1 the things he tells us are
 always true4 ,i wish         that he   
could think it right to limit his       

brilliant         exaggeration to works 
written only for public amusement2 and  
when he takes up a subject of high      
national importance1 such         as    
that which he handled in ,hard ,times1  
that he would use         severer and   
more accurate analysis4 ,the usefulness 
of that         work 7to my mind1 in    
several respects1 the greatest he has   
written7 is with many persons seriously 
diminished because         ,mr4         
,bounderby is a dramatic monster1       
instead of a         characteristic     
example of a worldly master2 and        
,stephen         ,blackpool a dramatic  
perfection1 instead of a characteristic 
example of an honest workman4 ,but let  
us not lose the use of                  
,dickens's wit and insight1 because he  
chooses to speak in a         circle of 
stage fire4 ,he is entirely right in his
 main drift         and purpose in every
 book he has written2 and all of them1  
but especially ,hard ,times1 should be  
studied with close         and earnest  

care by persons interested in social    
questions4         ,they will find much 
that is partial1 and1 because partial1  
apparently unjust2 but if they examine  
all the evidence on         the other   
side1 which ,dickens seems to overlook1 
it will         appear1 after all their 
trouble1 that his view was the          
finally right one1 grossly and sharply  
told4  ,the next clearest and simplest  
example of relation between master and  
operative is that which exists between  
the commander of a regiment and his men4
  ,supposing the officer only desires to
 apply the rules of discipline so as1   
with least trouble to himself1 to make  
the regiment most effective1 he will not
 be able1 by any rules1 or              
administration of rules1 on this selfish
 principle1 to develop the full strength
 of his subordinates4 ,if a man of sense
 and firmness1 he may1 as in the former 
instance1 produce a better result than  
would be obtained by the irregular      
kindness of a weak officer2 but let the 

sense and firmness be the same in both  
cases1 and assuredly the officer who has
 the most direct personal relations with
 his men1 the most care for their       
interests1 and the most value for their 
lives1 will develop their effective     
strength1 through their affection for   
his own person1 and trust in his        
character1 to a degree wholly           
unattainable by other means4 ,the law   
applies still more stringently as the   
numbers concerned are larger2 a charge  
may often be successful1 though the men 
dislike their officers2 a battle has    
rarely been won1 unless they loved their
 general4  ,passing from these simple   
examples to the more complicated        
relations existing between a            
manufacturer and his workmen1 we are met
 first by certain curious difficulties1 
resulting1 apparently1 from a harder and
 colder state of moral elements4 ,it is 
easy to imagine an enthusiastic         
affection existing among soldiers for   
the colonel1 not so easy to imagine an  

enthusiastic affection among            
cotton-spinners for the proprietor of   
the mill4 ,a body of men associated for 
purposes of robbery 7as a ,highland clan
 in ancient times7 shall be animated by 
perfect affection1 and every member of  
it be ready to lay down his life for the
 life of his chief4 ,but a band of men  
associated for purposes of legal        
production and accumulation is usually  
animated1 it appears1 by no such        
emotions1 and none of them are in       
anywise willing to give his life for the
 life of his chief4 ,not only are we met
 by this apparent anomaly1 in moral     
matters1 but by others connected with   
it1 in administration of system4 ,for a 
servant or a soldier is engaged at a    
definite rate of wages1 for a definite  
period2 but a workman at a rate of wages
 variable according to the demand for   
labour1 and with the risk of being at   
any time thrown out of his situation by 
chances of trade4 ,now1 as1 under these 
contingencies1 no action of the         

affections can take place1 but only an  
explosive action of disaffections1 two  
points offer themselves for             
consideration in the matter4  ,the      
first--,how far the rate of wages may be
 so regulated as not to vary with the   
demand for labour4  ,the second--,how   
far it is possible that bodies of       
workmen may be engaged and maintained at
 such fixed rate of wages 7whatever the 
state of trade may be71 without         
enlarging or diminishing their number1  
so as to give them permanent interest in
 the establishment with which they are  
connected1 like that of the domestic    
servants in an old family1 or an esprit 
de corps1 like that of the soldiers in a
 crack regiment4  ,the first question   
is1 ,i say1 how far it may be possible  
to fix the rate of wages irrespectively 
of the demand for labour4  ,perhaps one 
of the most curious facts in the history
 of human error is the denial by the    
common political economist of the       
possibility of thus regulating wages2   

while1 for all the important1 and much  
of the unimportant1 labour on the earth1
 wages are already so regulated4  ,we do
 not sell our prime-ministership by     
,dutch auction2 nor1 on the decease of a
 bishop1 whatever may be the general    
advantages of simony1 do we 7yet7 offer 
his diocese to the clergyman who will   
take the episcopacy at the lowest       
contract4 ,we 7with exquisite sagacity  
of political economy67 do indeed sell   
commissions1 but not1 openly1           
generalships3 sick1 we do not inquire   
for a physician who takes less than a   
guinea2 litigious1 we never think of    
reducing six-and-eightpence to          
four-and-sixpence2 caught in a shower1  
we do not canvass the cabmen1 to find   
one who values his driving at less than 
a sixpence a mile4  ,it is true that in 
all these cases there is1 and in every  
conceivable case there must be1 ultimate
 reference to the presumed difficulty of
 the work1 or number of candidates for  
the office4 ,if it were thought that the

 labour necessary to make a good        
physician would be gone through by a    
sufficient number of students with the  
prospect of only half-guinea fees1      
public consent would soon withdraw the  
unnecessary half-guinea4 ,in this       
ultimate sense1 the price of labour is  
indeed always regulated by the demand   
for it2 but so far as the practical and 
immediate administration of the matter  
is regarded1 the best labour always has 
been1 and is1 as all labour ought to be1
 paid by an invariable standard4  ,what6
 the reader1 perhaps1 answers amazedly3 
pay good and bad workmen alike8         
,certainly4 ,the difference between one 
prelate's sermons and his               
successor's1--or between one physician's
 opinion and another's1--is far greater1
 as respects the qualities of mind      
involved1 and far more important in     
result to you personally1 than the      
difference between good and bad laying  
of bricks 7though that is greater than  
most people suppose74 ,yet you pay with 

equal fee1 contentedly1 the good and bad
 workmen upon your soul1 and the good   
and bad workmen upon your body2 much    
more may you pay1 contentedly1 with     
equal fees1 the good and bad workmen    
upon your house4  ,nay1 but ,i choose my
 physician and 787 my clergyman1 thus   
indicating my sense of the quality of   
their work4 ,by all means1 also1 choose 
your bricklayer2 that is the proper     
reward of the good workman1 to be       
chosen4 ,the natural and right system   
respecting all labour is1 that it should
 be paid at a fixed rate1 but the good  
workman employed1 and the bad workmen   
unemployed4 ,the false1 unnatural1 and  
destructive system is1 when the bad     
workman is allowed to offer his work at 
half-price1 and either take the place of
 the good1 or force him by his          
competition to work for an inadequate   
sum4  ,this equality of wages1 then1    
being the first object towards which we 
have to discover the directest available
 road2 the second is1 as above stated1  

that of maintaining constant numbers of 
workmen in employment1 whatever may be  
the accidental demand for the article   
they produce4  ,i believe the sudden and
 extensive inequalities of demand which 
necessarily arise in the mercantile     
operations of an active nation1         
constitute the only essential difficulty
 which has to be overcome in a just     
organization of labour4 ,the subject    
opens into too many branches to admit of
 being investigated in a paper of this  
kind2 but the following general facts   
bearing on it may be noted4  ,the wages 
which enable any workman to live are    
necessarily higher1 if his work is      
liable to intermission1 than if it is   
assured and continuous2 and however     
severe the struggle for work may become1
 the general law will always hold1 that 
men must get more daily pay if1 on the  
average1 they can only calculate on work
 three days a week1 than they would     
require if they were sure of work six   
days a week4 ,supposing that a man      

cannot live on less than a shilling a   
day1 his seven shillings he must get1   
either for three days' violent work1 or 
six days' deliberate work4 ,the tendency
 of all modern mercantile operations is 
to throw both wages and trade into the  
form of a lottery1 and to make the      
workman's pay depend on intermittent    
exertion1 and the principal's profit on 
dexterously used chance4  ,in what      
partial degree1 ,i repeat1 this may be  
necessary1 in consequence of the        
activities of modern trade1 ,i do not   
here investigate2 contenting myself with
 the fact1 that in its fatallest aspects
 it is assuredly unnecessary1 and       
results merely from love of gambling on 
the part of the masters1 and from       
ignorance and sensuality in the men4    
,the masters cannot bear to let any     
opportunity of gain escape them1 and    
frantically rush at every gap and breach
 in the walls of ,fortune1 raging to be 
rich1 and affronting1 with impatient    
covetousness1 every risk of ruin2 while 

the men prefer three days of violent    
labour1 and three days of drunkenness1  
to six days of moderate work and wise   
rest4 ,there is no way in which a       
principal1 who really desires to help   
his workmen1 may do it more effectually 
than by checking these disorderly habits
 both in himself and them2 keeping his  
own business operations on a scale which
 will enable him to pursue them         
securely1 not yielding to temptations of
 precarious gain2 and1 at the same time1
 leading his workmen into regular habits
 of labour and life1 either by inducing 
them rather to take low wages in the    
form of a fixed salary1 than high wages1
 subject to the chance of their being   
thrown out of work2 or1 if this be      
impossible1 by discouraging the system  
of violent exertion for nominally high  
day wages1 and leading the men to take  
lower pay for more regular labour4  ,in 
effecting any radical changes of this   
kind1 doubtless there would be great    
inconvenience and loss incurred by all  

the originators of movement4 ,that which
 can be done with perfect convenience   
and without loss1 is not always the     
thing that most needs to be done1 or    
which we are most imperatively required 
to do4  ,i have already alluded to the  
difference hitherto existing between    
regiments of men associated for purposes
 of violence1 and for purposes of       
manufacture2 in that the former appear  
capable of self-sacrifice--the latter1  
not2 which singular fact is the real    
reason of the general lowness of        
estimate in which the profession of     
commerce is held1 as compared with that 
of arms4 ,philosophically1 it does not1 
at first sight1 appear reasonable 7many 
writers have endeavoured to prove it    
unreasonable7 that a peaceable and      
rational person1 whose trade is buying  
and selling1 should be held in less     
honour than an unpeaceable and often    
irrational person1 whose trade is       
slaying4 ,nevertheless1 the consent of  
mankind has always1 in spite of the     

philosophers1 given precedence to the   
soldier4  ,and this is right4  ,for the 
soldier's trade1 verily and essentially1
 is not slaying1 but being slain4 ,this1
 without well knowing its own meaning1  
the world honours it for4 ,a bravo's    
trade is slaying2 but the world has     
never respected bravos more than        
merchants3 the reason it honours the    
soldier is1 because he holds his life at
 the service of the ,state4 ,reckless he
 may be--fond of pleasure or of         
adventure--all kinds of bye-motives and 
mean impulses may have determined the   
choice of his profession1 and may affect
 7to all appearance exclusively7 his    
daily conduct in it2 but our estimate of
 him is based on this ultimate fact--of 
which we are well assured--that1 put him
 in a fortress breach1 with all the     
pleasures of the world behind him1 and  
only death and his duty in front of him1
 he will keep his face to the front2 and
 he knows that this choice may be put to
 him at any moment1 and has beforehand  

taken his part--virtually takes such    
part continually--does1 in reality1 die 
daily4  ,not less is the respect we pay 
to the lawyer and physician1 founded    
ultimately on their self-sacrifice4     
,whatever the learning or acuteness of a
 great lawyer1 our chief respect for him
 depends on our belief that1 set in a   
judge's seat1 he will strive to judge   
justly1 come of it what may4 ,could we  
suppose that he would take bribes1 and  
use his acuteness and legal knowledge to
 give plausibility to iniquitous        
decisions1 no degree of intellect would 
win for him our respect4 ,nothing will  
win it1 short of our tacit conviction1  
that in all important acts of his life  
justice is first with him2 his own      
interest1 second4  ,in the case of a    
physician1 the ground of the honour we  
render him is clearer still4 ,whatever  
his science1 we should shrink from him  
in horror if we found him regard his    
patients merely as subjects to          
experiment upon2 much more1 if we found 

that1 receiving bribes from persons     
interested in their deaths1 he was using
 his best skill to give poison in the   
mask of medicine4  ,finally1 the        
principle holds with utmost clearness as
 it respects clergymen4 ,no goodness of 
disposition will excuse want of science 
in a physician1 or of shrewdness in an  
advocate2 but a clergyman1 even though  
his power of intellect be small1 is     
respected on the presumed ground of his 
unselfishness and serviceableness4  ,now
 there can be no question but that the  
tact1 foresight1 decision1 and other    
mental powers1 required for the         
successful management of a large        
mercantile concern1 if not such as could
 be compared with those of a great      
lawyer1 general1 or divine1 would at    
least match the general conditions of   
mind required in the subordinate        
officers of a ship1 or of a regiment1 or
 in the curate of a country parish4 ,if1
 therefore1 all the efficient members of
 the so-called liberal professions are  

still1 somehow1 in public estimate of   
honour1 preferred before the head of a  
commercial firm1 the reason must lie    
deeper than in the measurement of their 
several powers of mind4  ,and the       
essential reason for such preference    
will be found to lie in the fact that   
the merchant is presumed to act always  
selfishly4 ,his work may be very        
necessary to the community2 but the     
motive of it is understood to be wholly 
personal4 ,the merchant's first object  
in all his dealings must be 7the public 
believe7 to get as much for himself1 and
 leave as little to his neighbour 7or   
customer7 as possible4 ,enforcing this  
upon him1 by political statute1 as the  
necessary principle of his action2      
recommending it to him on all occasions1
 and themselves reciprocally adopting   
it2 proclaiming vociferously1 for law of
 the universe1 that a buyer's function  
is to cheapen1 and a seller's to        
cheat1--the public1 nevertheless1       
involuntarily condemn the man of        

commerce for his compliance with their  
own statement1 and stamp him for ever as
 belonging to an inferior grade of human
 personality4  ,this they will find1    
eventually1 they must give up doing4    
,they must not cease to condemn         
selfishness2 but they will have to      
discover a kind of commerce which is not
 exclusively selfish4 ,or1 rather1 they 
will have to discover that there never  
was1 or can be1 any other kind of       
commerce2 that this which they have     
called commerce was not commerce at all1
 but cozening2 and that a true merchant 
differs as much from a merchant         
according to laws of modern political   
economy1 as the hero of the ,excursion  
from ,autolycus4 ,they will find that   
commerce is an occupation which         
gentlemen will every day see more need  
to engage in1 rather than in the        
businesses of talking to men1 or slaying
 them2 that1 in true commerce1 as in    
true preaching1 or true fighting1 it is 
necessary to admit the idea of          

occasional voluntary loss2 that         
sixpences have to be lost1 as well as   
lives1 under a sense of duty2 that the  
market may have its martyrdoms as well  
as the pulpit2 and trade its heroisms1  
as well as war4  ,may have--in the final
 issue1 must have--and only has not had 
yet1 because men of heroic temper have  
always been misguided in their youth    
into other fields1 not recognizing what 
is in our days1 perhaps1 the most       
important of all fields2 so that1 while 
many a zealous person loses his life in 
trying to teach the form of a gospel1   
very few will lose a hundred pounds in  
showing the practice of one4  ,the fact 
is1 that people never have had clearly  
explained to them the true functions of 
a merchant with respect to other people4
 ,i should like the reader to be very   
clear about this4  ,five great          
intellectual professions1 relating to   
daily necessities of life1 have hitherto
 existed--three exist necessarily1 in   
every civilized nation3    ,the         

,soldier's profession is to defend it4  
,the ,pastor's1 to teach it4    ,the    
,physician's1 to keep it in health4     
,the ,lawyer's1 to enforce justice in   
it4    ,the ,merchant's1 to provide for 
it4    ,and the duty of all these men   
is1 on due occasion1 to die for it4  ,on
 due occasion1 namely3--    ,the        
,soldier1 rather than leave his post in 
battle4    ,the ,physician1 rather than 
leave his post in plague4    ,the       
,pastor1 rather than teach ,falsehood4  
,the ,lawyer1 rather than countenance   
,injustice4    ,the ,merchant--,what is 
his due occasion of death8 ,it is the   
main   question for the merchant1 as for
 all of us4 ,for1 truly1 the man who    
does not know when to die1 does not know
 how to live4  ,observe1 the merchant's 
function 7or manufacturer's1 for in the 
broad sense in which it is here used the
 word must be understood to include     
both7 is to provide for the nation4 ,it 
is no more his function to get profit   
for himself out of that provision than  

it is a clergyman's function to get his 
stipend4 ,the stipend is a due and      
necessary adjunct1 but not the object1  
of his life1 if he be a true clergyman1 
any more than his fee 7or honorarium7 is
 the object of life to a true physician4
 ,neither is his fee the object of life 
to a true merchant4 ,all three1 if true 
men1 have a work to be done irrespective
 of fee--to be done even at any cost1 or
 for quite the contrary of fee2 the     
pastor's function being to teach1 the   
physician's to heal1 and the merchant's1
 as ,i have said1 to provide4 ,that is  
to say1 he has to understand to their   
very root the qualities of the thing he 
deals in1 and the means of obtaining or 
producing it2 and he has to apply all   
his sagacity and energy to the producing
 or obtaining it in perfect state1 and  
distributing it at the cheapest possible
 price where it is most needed4  ,and   
because the production or obtaining of  
any commodity involves necessarily the  
agency of many lives and hands1 the     

merchant becomes in the course of his   
business the master and governor of     
large masses of men in a more direct1   
though less confessed way1 than a       
military officer or pastor2 so that on  
him falls1 in great part1 the           
responsibility for the kind of life they
 lead3 and it becomes his duty1 not only
 to be always considering how to produce
 what he sells in the purest and        
cheapest forms1 but how to make the     
various employments involved in the     
production1 or transference of it1 most 
beneficial to the men employed4  ,and as
 into these two functions1 requiring for
 their right exercise the highest       
intelligence1 as well as patience1      
kindness1 and tact1 the merchant is     
bound to put all his energy1 so for     
their just discharge he is bound1 as    
soldier or physician is bound1 to give  
up1 if need be1 his life1 in such way as
 it may be demanded of him4 ,two main   
points he has in his providing function 
to maintain3 first1 his engagements     

7faithfulness to engagements being the  
real root of all possibilities in       
commerce72 and1 secondly1 the           
perfectness and purity of the thing     
provided2 so that1 rather than fail in  
any engagement1 or consent to any       
deterioration1 adulteration1 or unjust  
and exorbitant price of that which he   
provides1 he is bound to meet fearlessly
 any form of distress1 poverty1 or      
labour1 which may1 through maintenance  
of these points1 come upon him4  ,again3
 in his office as governor of the men   
employed by him1 the merchant or        
manufacturer is invested with a         
distinctly paternal authority and       
responsibility4 ,in most cases1 a youth 
entering a commercial establishment is  
withdrawn altogether from home          
influence2 his master must become his   
father1 else he has1 for practical and  
constant help1 no father at hand3 in all
 cases the master's authority1 together 
with the general tone and atmosphere of 
his business1 and the character of the  

men with whom the youth is compelled in 
the course of it to associate1 have more
 immediate and pressing weight than the 
home influence1 and will usually        
neutralize it either for good or evil2  
so that the only means which the master 
has of doing justice to the men employed
 by him is to ask himself sternly       
whether he is dealing with such         
subordinate as he would with his own    
son1 if compelled by circumstances to   
take such a position4  ,supposing the   
captain of a frigate saw it right1 or   
were by any chance obliged1 to place his
 own son in the position of a common    
sailor2 as he would then treat his son1 
he is bound always to treat every one of
 the men under him4 ,so1 also2 supposing
 the master of a manufactory saw it     
right1 or were by any chance obliged1 to
 place his own son in the position of an
 ordinary workman2 as he would then     
treat his son1 he is bound always to    
treat every one of his men4 ,this is the
 only effective true1 or practical      

,,rule which can be given on this point 
of political economy4  ,and as the      
captain of a ship is bound to be the    
last man to leave his ship in case of   
wreck1 and to share his last crust with 
the sailors in case of famine1 so the   
manufacturer1 in any commercial crisis  
or distress1 is bound to take the       
suffering of it with his men1 and even  
to take more of it for himself than he  
allows his men to feel2 as a father     
would in a famine1 shipwreck1 or battle1
 sacrifice himself for his son4  ,all   
which sounds very strange3 the only real
 strangeness in the matter being1       
nevertheless1 that it should so sound4  
,for all this is true1 and that not     
partially nor theoretically1 but        
everlastingly and practically3 all other
 doctrine than this respecting matters  
political being false in premises1      
absurd in deduction1 and impossible in  
practice1 consistently with any         
progressive state of national life2 all 
the life which we now possess as a      

nation showing itself in the resolute   
denial and scorn1 by a few strong minds 
and faithful hearts1 of the economic    
principles taught to our multitudes1    
which principles1 so far as accepted1   
lead straight to national destruction4  
,respecting the modes and forms of      
destruction to which they lead1 and1 on 
the other hand1 respecting the farther  
practical working of true polity1 ,i    
hope to reason further in a following   
paper4     ,,essay  ,,ii4  ,,the ,,veins
 ,,of ,,wealth4   ,the answer which     
would be made by any ordinary political 
economist to the statements contained in
 the preceding paper1 is in few words as
 follows3--  ,it is indeed true that    
certain advantages of a general nature  
may be obtained by the development of   
social affections4 ,but political       
economists never professed1 nor profess1
 to take advantages of a general nature 
into consideration4 ,our science is     
simply the science of getting rich4 ,so 
far from being a fallacious or visionary

 one1 it is found by experience to be   
practically effective4 ,persons who     
follow its precepts do actually become  
rich1 and persons who disobey them      
become poor4 ,every capitalist of       
,europe has acquired his fortune by     
following the known laws of our science1
 and increases his capital daily by an  
adherence to them4 ,it is vain to bring 
forward tricks of logic1 against the    
force of accomplished facts4 ,every man 
of business knows by experience how     
money is made1 and how it is lost4      
,pardon me4 ,men of business do indeed  
know how they themselves made their     
money1 or how1 on occasion1 they lost   
it4 ,playing a long-practised game1 they
 are familiar with the chances of its   
cards1 and can rightly explain their    
losses and gains4 ,but they neither know
 who keeps the bank of the              
gambling-house1 nor what other games may
 be played with the same cards1 nor what
 other losses and gains1 far away among 
the dark streets1 are essentially1      

though invisibly1 dependent on theirs in
 the lighted rooms4 ,they have learned a
 few1 and only a few1 of the laws of    
mercantile economy2 but not one of those
 of political economy4  ,primarily1     
which is very notable and curious1 ,i   
observe that men of business rarely know
 the meaning of the word rich4 ,at least
 if they know1 they do not in their     
reasonings allow for the fact that it is
 a relative word1 implying its opposite 
poor as positively as the word north    
implies its opposite south4 ,men nearly 
always speak and write as if riches were
 absolute1 and it were possible1 by     
following certain scientific precepts1  
for everybody to be rich4 ,whereas      
riches are a power like that of         
electricity1 acting only through        
inequalities or negations of itself4    
,the force of the guinea you have in    
your pocket depends wholly on the       
default of a guinea in your neighbour's 
pocket4 ,if he did not want it1 it would
 be of no use to you2 the degree of     

power it possesses depends accurately   
upon the need or desire he has for      
it1--and the art of making yourself     
rich1 in the ordinary mercantile        
economist's sense1 is therefore equally 
and necessarily the art of keeping your 
neighbour poor4  ,i would not contend in
 this matter 7and rarely in any matter71
 for the acceptance of terms4 ,but ,i   
wish the reader clearly and deeply to   
understand the difference between the   
two economies1 to which the terms       
,political and ,mercantile might not    
unadvisably be attached4  ,political    
economy 7the economy of a ,state1 or of 
citizens7 consists simply in the        
production1 preservation1 and           
distribution1 at fittest time and place1
 of useful or pleasurable things4 ,the  
farmer who cuts his hay at the right    
time2 the shipwright who drives his     
bolts well home in sound wood2 the      
builder who lays good bricks in         
well-tempered mortar2 the housewife who 
takes care of her furniture in the      

parlour1 and guards against all waste in
 her kitchen2 and the singer who rightly
 disciplines1 and never overstrains her 
voice3 are all political economists in  
the true and final sense2 adding        
continually to the riches and well-being
 of the nation to which they belong4    
,but mercantile economy1 the economy of 
merces or of pay1 signifies the         
accumulation1 in the hands of           
individuals1 of legal1 or moral claim   
upon1 or power over1 the labour of      
others2 every such claim implying       
precisely as much poverty or debt on one
 side1 as it implies riches or right on 
the other4  ,it does not1 therefore1    
necessarily involve an addition to the  
actual property1 or well-being1 of the  
,state in which it exists4 ,but since   
this commercial wealth1 or power over   
labour1 is nearly always convertible at 
once into real property1 while real     
property is not always convertible at   
once into power over labour1 the idea of
 riches among active men in civilized   

nations1 generally refers to commercial 
wealth2 and in estimating their         
possessions1 they rather calculate the  
value of their horses and fields by the 
number of guineas they could get for    
them1 than the value of their guineas by
 the number of horses and fields they   
could buy with them4  ,there is1        
however1 another reason for this habit  
of mind2 namely1 that an accumulation of
 real property is of little use to its  
owner1 unless1 together with it1 he has 
commercial power over labour4 ,thus1    
suppose any person to be put in         
possession of a large estate of fruitful
 land1 with rich beds of gold in its    
gravel1 countless herds of cattle in its
 pastures2 houses1 and gardens1 and     
storehouses full of useful stores2 but  
suppose1 after all1 that he could get no
 servants8 ,in order that he may be able
 to have servants1 some one in his      
neighbourhood must be poor1 and in want 
of his gold--or his corn4 ,assume that  
no one is in want of either1 and that no

 servants are to be had4 ,he must1      
therefore1 bake his own bread1 make his 
own clothes1 plough his own ground1 and 
shepherd his own flocks4 ,his gold will 
be as useful to him as any other yellow 
pebbles on his estate4 ,his stores must 
rot1 for he cannot consume them4 ,he can
 eat no more than another man could eat1
 and wear no more than another man could
 wear4 ,he must lead a life of severe   
and common labour to procure even       
ordinary comforts2 he will be ultimately
 unable to keep either houses in repair1
 or fields in cultivation2 and forced to
 content himself with a poor man's      
portion of cottage and garden1 in the   
midst of a desert of waste land1        
trampled by wild cattle1 and encumbered 
by ruins of palaces1 which he will      
hardly mock at himself by calling his   
own4  ,the most covetous of mankind     
would1 with small exultation1 ,i        
presume1 accept riches of this kind on  
these terms4 ,what is really desired1   
under the name of riches1 is1           

essentially1 power over men2 in its     
simplest sense1 the power of obtaining  
for our own advantage the labour of     
servant1 tradesman1 and artist2 in wider
 sense1 authority of directing large    
masses of the nation to various ends    
7good1 trivial1 or hurtful1 according to
 the mind of the rich person74 ,and this
 power of wealth of course is greater or
 less in direct proportion to the       
poverty of the men over whom it is      
exercised1 and in inverse proportion to 
the number of persons who are as rich as
 ourselves1 and who are ready to give   
the same price for an article of which  
the supply is limited4 ,if the musician 
is poor1 he will sing for small pay1 as 
long as there is only one person who can
 pay him2 but if there be two or three1 
he will sing for the one who offers him 
most4 ,and thus the power of the riches 
of the patron 7always imperfect and     
doubtful1 as we shall see presently1    
even when most authoritative7 depends   
first on the poverty of the artist1 and 

then on the limitation of the number of 
equally wealthy persons1 who also wants 
seats at the concert4 ,so that1 as above
 stated1 the art of becoming rich1 in   
the common sense1 is not absolutely nor 
finally the art of accumulating much    
money for ourselves1 but also of        
contriving that our neighbours shall    
have less4 ,in accurate terms1 it is the
 art of establishing the maximum        
inequality in our own favour4  ,now the 
establishment of such inequality cannot 
be shown in the abstract to be either   
advantageous or disadvantageous to the  
body of the nation4 ,the rash and absurd
 assumption that such inequalities are  
necessarily advantageous1 lies at the   
root of most of the popular fallacies on
 the subject of political economy4 ,for 
the eternal and inevitable law in this  
matter is1 that the beneficialness of   
the inequality depends1 first1 on the   
methods by which it was accomplished1   
and1 secondly1 on the purposes to which 
it is applied4 ,inequalities of wealth1 

unjustly established1 have assuredly    
injured the nation in which they exist  
during their establishment2 and1        
unjustly directed1 injure it yet more   
during their existence4 ,but            
inequalities of wealth justly           
established1 benefit the nation in the  
course of their establishment2 and1     
nobly used1 aid it yet more by their    
existence4 ,that is to say1 among every 
active and well-governed people1 the    
various strength of individuals1 tested 
by full exertion and specially applied  
to various need1 issues in unequal1 but 
harmonious results1 receiving reward or 
authority according to its class and    
service2#cb while1 in the inactive or   
ill-governed nation1 the gradations of  
decay and the victories of treason work 
out also their own rugged system of     
subjection and success2 and substitute1 
for the melodious inequalities of       
concurrent power1 the iniquitous        
dominances and depressions of guilt and 
misfortune4     #cb ,i have been        

naturally asked several times1 with     
respect         to the sentence in the  
first of these papers1 the bad          
workmen unemployed1 ,but what are you to
 do with your bad         unemployed    
workmen8 ,well1 it seems to me the      
question might         have occurred to 
you before4 ,your housemaid's place is  
vacant--you give twenty pounds a        
year--two girls come for         it1 one
 neatly dressed1 the other dirtily2 one 
with good         recommendations1 the  
other with none4 ,you do not1 under     
these circumstances1 usually ask the    
dirty one if she will         come for  
fifteen pounds1 or twelve2 and1 on her  
consenting1         take her instead of 
the well-recommended one4 ,still less do
         you try to beat both down by   
making them bid against each            
other1 till you can hire both1 one at   
twelve pounds a year1         and the   
other at eight4 ,you simply take the one
 fittest for         the place1 and send
 away the other1 not perhaps concerning 

yourself quite as much as you should    
with the question which         you now 
impatiently put to me1 ,what is to      
become of her8         ,for all that ,i 
advise you to do1 is to deal with       
workmen as         with servants2 and   
verily the question is of weight3 ,your 
bad workman1 idler1 and rogue--what are 
you to do with him8          ,we will   
consider of this presently3 remember    
that the         administration of a    
complete system of national commerce and
         industry cannot be explained in
 full detail within the space         of
 twelve pages4 ,meantime1 consider      
whether1 there being         confessedly
 some difficulty in dealing with rogues 
and         idlers1 it may not be       
advisable to produce as few of them as  
possible4 ,if you examine into the      
history of rogues1 you         will find
 they are as truly manufactured articles
 as         anything else1 and it is    
just because our present system of      
political economy gives so large a      

stimulus to that         manufacture    
that you may know it to be a false one4 
,we had         better seek for a system
 which will develop honest men1 than    
for one which will deal cunningly with  
vagabonds4 ,let us         reform our   
schools1 and we shall find little reform
 needed         in our prisons4  ,thus  
the circulation of wealth in a nation   
resembles that of the blood in the      
natural body4 ,there is one quickness of
 the current which comes of cheerful    
emotion or wholesome exercise2 and      
another which comes of shame or of      
fever4 ,there is a flush of the body    
which is full of warmth and life2 and   
another which will pass into            
putrefaction4  ,the analogy will hold1  
down even to minute particulars4 ,for as
 diseased local determination of the    
blood involves depression of the general
 health of the system1 all morbid local 
action of riches will be found          
ultimately to involve a weakening of the
 resources of the body politic4  ,the   

mode in which this is produced may be at
 once understood by examining one or two
 instances of the development of wealth 
in the simplest possible circumstances4 
,suppose two sailors cast away on an    
uninhabited coast1 and obliged to       
maintain themselves there by their own  
labour for a series of years4  ,if they 
both kept their health1 and worked      
steadily1 and in amity with each other1 
they might build themselves a convenient
 house1 and in time come to possess a   
certain quantity of cultivated land1    
together with various stores laid up for
 future use4 ,all these things would be 
real riches or property2 and1 supposing 
the men both to have worked equally     
hard1 they would each have right to     
equal share or use of it4 ,their        
political economy would consist merely  
in careful preservation and just        
division of these possessions4 ,perhaps1
 however1 after some time one or other  
might be dissatisfied with the results  
of their common farming2 and they might 

in consequence agree to divide the land 
they had brought under the spade into   
equal shares1 so that each might        
thenceforward work in his own field and 
live by it4 ,suppose that after this    
arrangement had been made1 one of them  
were to fall ill1 and be unable to work 
on his land at a critical time--say of  
sowing or harvest4  ,he would naturally 
ask the other to sow or reap for him4   
,then his companion might say1 with     
perfect justice1 ,i will do this        
additional work for you2 but if ,i do   
it1 you must promise to do as much for  
me at another time4 ,i will count how   
many hours ,i spend on your ground1 and 
you shall give me a written promise to  
work for the same number of hours on    
mine1 whenever ,i need your help1 and   
you are able to give it4  ,suppose the  
disabled man's sickness to continue1 and
 that under various circumstances1 for  
several years1 requiring the help of the
 other1 he on each occasion gave a      
written pledge to work1 as soon as he   

was able1 at his companion's orders1 for
 the same number of hours which the     
other had given up to him4 ,what will   
the positions of the two men be when the
 invalid is able to resume work8        
,considered as a ,polis1 or state1 they 
will be poorer than they would have been
 otherwise3 poorer by the withdrawal of 
what the sick man's labour would have   
produced in the interval4 ,his friend   
may perhaps have toiled with an energy  
quickened by the enlarged need1 but in  
the end his own land and property must  
have suffered by the withdrawal of so   
much of his time and thought from them2 
and the united property of the two men  
will be certainly less than it would    
have been if both had remained in health
 and activity4  ,but the relations in   
which they stand to each other are also 
widely altered4 ,the sick man has not   
only pledged his labour for some years1 
but will probably have exhausted his own
 share of the accumulated stores1 and   
will be in consequence for some time    

dependent on the other for food1 which  
he can only pay or reward him for by yet
 more deeply pledging his own labour4   
,supposing the written promises to be   
held entirely valid 7among civilized    
nations their validity is secured by    
legal measures#cc71 the person who had  
hitherto worked for both might now1 if  
he chose1 rest altogether1 and pass his 
time in idleness1 not only forcing his  
companion to redeem all the engagements 
he had already entered into1 but        
exacting from him pledges for further   
labour1 to an arbitrary amount1 for what
 food he had to advance to him4     #cc 
,the disputes which exist respecting the
 real nature of money         arise more
 from the disputants examining its      
functions on         different sides1   
than from any real dissent in their     
opinions4 ,all money1 properly so       
called1 is an         acknowledgment of 
debt2 but as such1 it may either be     
considered to represent the labour and  
property of the         creditor1 or the

 idleness and penury of the debtor4 ,the
         intricacy of the question has  
been much increased by the              
7hitherto necessary7 use of marketable  
commodities1 such as         gold1      
silver1 salt1 shells1 etc41 to give     
intrinsic value or         security to  
currency2 but the final and best        
definition of         money is that it  
is a documentary promise ratified and   
guaranteed by the nation to give or find
 a certain quantity         of labour on
 demand4 ,a man's labour for a day is a 
better         standard of value than a 
measure of any produce1 because no      
produce ever maintains a consistent rate
 of productibility4  ,there might not1  
from first to last1 be the least        
illegality 7in the ordinary sense of the
 word7 in the arrangement2 but if a     
stranger arrived on the coast at this   
advanced epoch of their political       
economy1 he would find one man          
commercially ,rich2 the other           
commercially ,poor4 ,he would see1      

perhaps with no small surprise1 one     
passing his days in idleness2 the other 
labouring for both1 and living sparely1 
in the hope of recovering his           
independence1 at some distant period4   
,this is1 of course1 an example of one  
only out of many ways in which          
inequality of possession may be         
established between different persons1  
giving rise to the ,mercantile forms of 
,riches and ,poverty4 ,in the instance  
before us1 one of the men might from the
 first have deliberately chosen to be   
idle1 and to put his life in pawn for   
present ease2 or he might have          
mismanaged his land1 and been compelled 
to have recourse to his neighbour for   
food and help1 pledging his future      
labour for it4 ,but what ,i want the    
reader to note especially is the fact1  
common to a large number of typical     
cases of this kind1 that the            
establishment of the mercantile wealth  
which consists in a claim upon labour1  
signifies a political diminution of the 

real wealth which consists in           
substantial possessions4  ,take another 
example1 more consistent with the       
ordinary course of affairs of trade4    
,suppose that three men1 instead of two1
 formed the little isolated republic1   
and found themselves obliged to separate
 in order to farm different pieces of   
land at some distance from each other   
along the coast2 each estate furnishing 
a distinct kind of produce1 and each    
more or less in need of the material    
raised on the other4 ,suppose that the  
third man1 in order to save the time of 
all three1 undertakes simply to         
superintend the transference of         
commodities from one farm to the other2 
on condition of receiving some          
sufficiently remunerative share of every
 parcel of goods conveyed1 or of some   
other parcel received in exchange for   
it4  ,if this carrier or messenger      
always brings to each estate1 from the  
other1 what is chiefly wanted1 at the   
right time1 the operations of the two   

farmers will go on prosperously1 and the
 largest possible result in produce1 or 
wealth1 will be attained by the little  
community4 ,but suppose no intercourse  
between the landowners is possible1     
except through the travelling agent2 and
 that1 after a time1 this agent1        
watching the course of each man's       
agriculture1 keeps back the articles    
with which he has been entrusted until  
there comes a period of extreme         
necessity for them1 on one side or      
other1 and then exacts in exchange for  
them all that the distressed farmer can 
spare of other kinds of produce2 it is  
easy to see that by ingeniously watching
 his opportunities1 he might possess    
himself regularly of the greater part of
 the superfluous produce of the two     
estates1 and at last1 in some year of   
severest trial or scarcity1 purchase    
both for himself1 and maintain the      
former proprietors thenceforward as his 
labourers or servants4  ,this would be a
 case of commercial wealth acquired on  

the exactest principles of modern       
political economy4 ,but more distinctly 
even than in the former instance1 it is 
manifest in this that the wealth of the 
,state1 or of the three men considered  
as a society1 is collectively less than 
it would have been had the merchant been
 content with juster profit4 ,the       
operations of the two agriculturists    
have been cramped to the utmost2 and the
 continual limitations of the supply of 
things they wanted at critical times1   
together with the failure of courage    
consequent on the prolongation of a     
struggle for mere existence1 without any
 sense of permanent gain1 must have     
seriously diminished the effective      
results of their labour2 and the stores 
finally accumulated in the merchant's   
hands will not in anywise be of         
equivalent value to those which1 had his
 dealings been honest1 would have filled
 at once the granaries of the farmers   
and his own4  ,the whole question1      
therefore1 respecting not only the      

advantage1 but even the quantity1 of    
national wealth1 resolves itself finally
 into one of abstract justice4 ,it is   
impossible to conclude1 of any given    
mass of acquired wealth1 merely by the  
fact of its existence1 whether it       
signifies good or evil to the nation in 
the midst of which it exists4 ,its real 
value depends on the moral sign attached
 to it1 just as sternly as that of a    
mathematical quantity depends on the    
algebraical sign attached to it4 ,any   
given accumulation of commercial wealth 
may be indicative1 on the one hand1 of  
faithful industries1 progressive        
energies1 and productive ingenuities2   
or1 on the other1 it may be indicative  
of mortal luxury1 merciless tyranny1    
ruinous chicane4 ,some treasures are    
heavy with human tears1 as an ill-stored
 harvest with untimely rain2 and some   
gold is brighter in sunshine than it is 
in substance4  ,and these are not1      
observe1 merely moral or pathetic       
attributes of riches1 which the seeker  

of riches may1 if he chooses1 despise2  
they are1 literally and sternly1        
material attributes of riches1          
depreciating or exalting1 incalculably1 
the monetary signification of the sum in
 question4 ,one mass of money is the    
outcome of action which has             
created1--another1 of action which has  
annihilated1--ten times as much in the  
gathering of it2 such and such strong   
hands have been paralysed1 as if they   
had been numbed by nightshade3 so many  
strong men's courage broken1 so many    
productive operations hindered2 this and
 the other false direction given to     
labour1 and lying image of prosperity   
set up1 on ,dura plains dug into        
seven-times-heated furnaces4 ,that which
 seems to be wealth may in verity be    
only the gilded index of far-reaching   
ruin2 a wrecker's handful of coin       
gleaned from the beach to which he has  
beguiled an argosy2 a camp-follower's   
bundle of rags unwrapped from the       
breasts of goodly soldiers dead2 the    

purchase-pieces of potter's fields1     
wherein shall be buried together the    
citizen and the stranger4  ,and         
therefore1 the idea that directions can 
be given for the gaining of wealth1     
irrespectively of the consideration of  
its moral sources1 or that any general  
and technical law of purchase and gain  
can be set down for national practice1  
is perhaps the most insolently futile of
 all that ever beguiled men through     
their vices4 ,so far as ,i know1 there  
is not in history record of anything so 
disgraceful to the human intellect as   
the modern idea that the commercial     
text1 ,buy in the cheapest market and   
sell in the dearest1 represents1 or     
under any circumstances could represent1
 an available principle of national     
economy4 ,buy in the cheapest           
market8--yes2 but what made your market 
cheap8 ,charcoal may be cheap among your
 roof timbers after a fire1 and bricks  
may be cheap in your streets after an   
earthquake2 but fire and earthquake may 

not therefore be national benefits4     
,sell in the dearest8--yes1 truly2 but  
what made your market dear8 ,you sold   
your bread well to-day2 was it to a     
dying man who gave his last coin for it1
 and will never need bread more1 or to a
 rich man who to-morrow will buy your   
farm over your head2 or to a soldier on 
his way to pillage the bank in which you
 have put your fortune8  ,none of these 
things you can know4 ,one thing only you
 can know1 namely1 whether this dealing 
of yours is a just and faithful one1    
which is all you need concern yourself  
about respecting it2 sure thus to have  
done your own part in bringing about    
ultimately in the world a state of      
things which will not issue in pillage  
or in death4 ,and thus every question   
concerning these things merges itself   
ultimately in the great question of     
justice1 which1 the ground being thus   
far cleared for it1 ,i will enter upon  
in the next paper1 leaving only1 in     
this1 three final points for the        

reader's consideration4  ,it has been   
shown that the chief value and virtue of
 money consists in its having power over
 human beings2 that1 without this power1
 large material possessions are useless1
 and1 to any person possessing such     
power1 comparatively unnecessary4 ,but  
power over human beings is attainable by
 other means than by money4 ,as ,i said 
a few pages back1 the money power is    
always imperfect and doubtful2 there are
 many things which cannot be reached    
with it1 others which cannot be retained
 by it4 ,many joys may be given to men  
which cannot be bought for gold1 and    
many fidelities found in them which     
cannot be rewarded with it4  ,trite     
enough1--the reader thinks4 ,yes3 but it
 is not so trite1--,i wish it           
were1--that in this moral power1 quite  
inscrutable and immeasurable though it  
be1 there is a monetary value just as   
real as that represented by more        
ponderous currencies4 ,a man's hand may 
be full of invisible gold1 and the wave 

of it1 or the grasp1 shall do more than 
another's with a shower of bullion4     
,this invisible gold1 also1 does not    
necessarily diminish in spending4       
,political economists will do well some 
day to take heed of it1 though they     
cannot take measure4  ,but farther4     
,since the essence of wealth consists in
 its authority over men1 if the apparent
 or nominal wealth fail in this power1  
it fails in essence2 in fact1 ceases to 
be wealth at all4 ,it does not appear   
lately in ,england1 that our authority  
over men is absolute4 ,the servants show
 some disposition to rush riotously     
upstairs1 under an impression that their
 wages are not regularly paid4 ,we      
should augur ill of any gentleman's     
property to whom this happened every    
other day in his drawing-room4  ,so     
also1 the power of our wealth seems     
limited as respects the comfort of the  
servants1 no less than their quietude4  
,the persons in the kitchen appear to be
 ill-dressed1 squalid1 half-starved4    

,one cannot help imagining that the     
riches of the establishment must be of a
 very theoretical and documentary       
character4  ,finally4 ,since the essence
 of wealth consists in power over men1  
will it not follow that the nobler and  
the more in number the persons are over 
whom it has power1 the greater the      
wealth8 ,perhaps it may even appear     
after some consideration1 that the      
persons themselves are the wealth--that 
these pieces of gold with which we are  
in the habit of guiding them1 are1 in   
fact1 nothing more than a kind of       
,byzantine harness or trappings1 very   
glittering and beautiful in barbaric    
sight1 wherewith we bridle the          
creatures2 but that if these same living
 creatures could be guided without the  
fretting and jingling of the byzants in 
their mouths and ears1 they might       
themselves be more valuable than their  
bridles4 ,in fact1 it may be discovered 
that the true veins of wealth are       
purple--and not in ,rock1 but in        

,flesh--perhaps even that the final     
outcome and consummation of all wealth  
is in the producing as many as possible 
full-breathed1 bright-eyed1 and         
happy-hearted human creatures4 ,our     
modern wealth1 ,i think1 has rather a   
tendency the other way2--most political 
economists appearing to consider        
multitudes of human creatures not       
conducive to wealth1 or at best         
conducive to it only by remaining in a  
dim-eyed and narrow-chested state of    
being4  ,nevertheless1 it is open1 ,i   
repeat1 to serious question1 which ,i   
leave to the reader's pondering1        
whether1 among national manufactures1   
that of ,souls of a good quality may not
 at last turn out a quite leadingly     
lucrative one8 ,nay1 in some faraway and
 yet undreamt-of hour1 ,i can even      
imagine that ,england may cast all      
thoughts of possessive wealth back to   
the barbaric nations among whom they    
first arose2 and that1 while the sands  
of the ,indus and adamant of ,golconda  

may yet stiffen the housings of the     
charger1 and flash from the turban of   
the slave1 she1 as a ,christian mother1 
may at last attain to the virtues and   
the treasures of a ,heathen one1 and be 
able to lead forth her ,sons1 saying--  
,these are ,,my ,jewels4     ,,essay    
,,iii4  ,,qui ,,judicatis ,,terram4     
,some centuries before the ,christian   
era1 a ,jew merchant1 largely engaged in
 business on the ,gold ,coast1 and      
reported to have made one of the largest
 fortunes of his time 7held also in     
repute for much practical sagacity71    
left among his ledgers some general     
maxims concerning wealth1 which have    
been preserved1 strangely enough1 even  
to our own days4 ,they were held in     
considerable respect by the most active 
traders of the middle ages1 especially  
by the ,venetians1 who even went so far 
in their admiration as to place a statue
 of the old ,jew on the angle of one of 
their principal public buildings4 ,of   
late years these writings have fallen   

into disrepute1 being opposed in every  
particular to the spirit of modern      
commerce4 ,nevertheless1 ,i shall       
reproduce a passage or two from them    
here1 partly because they may interest  
the reader by their novelty2 and chiefly
 because they will show him that it is  
possible for a very practical and       
acquisitive tradesman to hold1 through a
 not unsuccessful career1 that principle
 of distinction between well-gotten and 
ill-gotten wealth1 which1 partially     
insisted on in my last paper1 it must be
 our work more completely to examine in 
this4  ,he says1 for instance1 in one   
place3 ,the getting of treasures by a   
lying tongue is a vanity tossed to and  
fro of them that seek death3 adding in  
another1 with the same meaning 7he has a
 curious way of doubling his sayings73  
,treasures of wickedness profit nothing3
 but justice delivers from death4 ,both 
these passages are notable for their    
assertion of death as the only real     
issue and sum of attainment by any      

unjust scheme of wealth4 ,if we read1   
instead of lying tongue1 lying label1   
title1 pretence1 or advertisement1 we   
shall more clearly perceive the bearing 
of the words on modern business4 ,the   
seeking of death is a grand expression  
of the true course of men's toil in such
 business4 ,we usually speak as if death
 pursued us1 and we fled from him2 but  
that is only so in rare instances4      
,ordinarily1 he masks himself--makes    
himself beautiful--all-glorious2 not    
like the ,king's daughter1 all-glorious 
within1 but outwardly3 his clothing of  
wrought gold4 ,we pursue him frantically
 all our days1 he flying or hiding from 
us4 ,our crowning success at three-score
 and ten is utterly and perfectly to    
seize1 and hold him in his eternal      
integrity---robes1 ashes1 and sting4    
,again3 the merchant says1 ,he that     
oppresseth the poor to increase his     
riches1 shall surely come to want4 ,and 
again1 more strongly3 ,rob not the poor 
because he is poor2 neither oppress the 

afflicted in the place of business4 ,for
 ,god shall spoil the soul of those that
 spoiled them4  ,this robbing the poor  
because he is poor is especially the    
mercantile form of theft1 consisting in 
taking advantage of a man's necessities 
in order to obtain his labour or        
property at a reduced price4 ,the       
ordinary highwayman's opposite form of  
robbery--of the rich1 because he is     
rich--does not appear to occur so often 
to the old merchant's mind2 probably    
because1 being less profitable and more 
dangerous than the robbery of the poor1 
it is rarely practised by persons of    
discretion4  ,but the two most          
remarkable passages in their deep       
general significance are the            
following3--  ,the rich and the poor    
have met4 ,god is their maker4  ,the    
rich and the poor have met4 ,god is     
their light4  ,they have met3 more      
literally1 have stood in each other's   
way1 7obviaverunt74 ,that is to say1 as 
long as the world lasts1 the action and 

counteraction of wealth and poverty1 the
 meeting1 face to face1 of rich and     
poor1 is just as appointed and necessary
 a law of that world as the flow of     
stream to sea1 or the interchange of    
power among the electric clouds3--,god  
is their maker4 ,but1 also1 this action 
may be either gentle and just1 or       
convulsive and destructive3 it may be by
 rage of devouring flood1 or by lapse of
 serviceable wave2--in blackness of     
thunderstroke1 or continual force of    
vital fire1 soft1 and shapeable into    
love-syllables from far away4 ,and which
 of these it shall be depends on both   
rich and poor knowing that ,god is their
 light2 that in the mystery of human    
life1 there is no other light than this 
by which they can see each other's      
faces1 and live2--light1 which is called
 in another of the books among which the
 merchant's maxims have been preserved1 
the sun of justice1#cd of which it is   
promised that it shall rise at last with
 healing 7health-giving or helping1     

making whole or setting at one7 in its  
wings4 ,for truly this healing is only  
possible by means of justice2 no love1  
no faith1 no hope will do it2 men will  
be unwisely fond--vainly faithful1      
unless primarily they are just2 and the 
mistake of the best men through         
generation after generation1 has been   
that great one of thinking to help the  
poor by almsgiving1 and by preaching of 
patience or of hope1 and by every other 
means1 emollient or consolatory1 except 
the one thing which ,god orders for     
them1 justice4 ,but this justice1 with  
its accompanying holiness or            
helpfulness1 being even by the best men 
denied in its trial time1 is by the mass
 of men hated wherever it appears3 so   
that1 when the choice was one day fairly
 put to them1 they denied the ,helpful  
,one and the ,just2#ce and desired a    
murderer1 sedition-raiser1 and robber1  
to be granted to them2--the murderer    
instead of the ,lord of ,life1 the      
sedition-raiser instead of the ,prince  

of ,peace1 and the robber instead of the
 ,just ,judge of all the world4     #cd 
,more accurately1 ,sun of ,justness2    
but1 instead of the harsh         word  
,justness1 the old ,english             
,righteousness being         commonly   
employed1 has1 by getting confused with 
godliness1 or attracting about it       
various vague and broken                
meanings1 prevented most persons from   
receiving the force of         the      
passages in which it occurs4 ,the word  
righteousness         properly refers to
 the justice of rule1 or right1 as      
distinguished from equity1 which refers 
to the justice of         balance4 ,more
 broadly1 ,righteousness is ,king's     
justice2 and         ,equity1 ,judge's  
justice2 the ,king guiding or ruling    
all1 the         ,judge dividing or     
discerning between opposites 7therefore1
         the double question1 ,man1 who 
made me a ruler--,greek3                
dikastes--or a divider--,greek3         
meristes--over you87         ,thus1 with

 respect to the ,justice of ,choice     
7selection1 the         feebler and     
passive justice71 we have from          
lego1--lex1         legal1 loi1 and     
loyal2 and with respect to the ,justice 
of         ,rule 7direction1 the        
stronger and active justice71 we have   
from rego1--rex1 regal1 roi1 and royal4 
#ce ,in another place written with the  
same meaning1 ,just1 and         having 
salvation4  ,i have just spoken of the  
flowing of streams to the sea as a      
partial image of the action of wealth4  
,in one respect it is not a partial1 but
 a perfect image4 ,the popular economist
 thinks himself wise in having          
discovered that wealth1 or the forms of 
property in general1 must go where they 
are required2 that where demand is1     
supply must follow4 ,he farther declares
 that this course of demand and supply  
cannot be forbidden by human laws4      
,precisely in the same sense1 and with  
the same certainty1 the waters of the   
world go where they are required4 ,where

 the land falls1 the water flows4 ,the  
course neither of clouds nor rivers can 
be forbidden by human will4 ,but the    
disposition and administration of them  
can be altered by human forethought4    
,whether the stream shall be a curse or 
a blessing1 depends upon man's labour1  
and administrating intelligence4 ,for   
centuries after centuries1 great        
districts of the world1 rich in soil1   
and favoured in climate1 have lain      
desert under the rage of their own      
rivers2 not only desert1 but            
plague-struck4 ,the stream which1       
rightly directed1 would have flowed in  
soft irrigation from field to           
field--would have purified the air1     
given food to man and beast1 and carried
 their burdens for them on its          
bosom--now overwhelms the plain1 and    
poisons the wind2 its breath pestilence1
 and its work famine4 ,in like manner   
this wealth goes where it is required4  
,no human laws can withstand its flow4  
,they can only guide it3 but this1 the  

leading trench and limiting mound can do
 so thoroughly1 that it shall become    
water of life--the riches of the hand of
 wisdom2#cf or1 on the contrary1 by     
leaving it to its own lawless flow1 they
 may make it1 what it has been too      
often1 the last and deadliest of        
national plagues3 water of ,marah--the  
water which feeds the roots of all evil4
     #cf ,length of days in her right   
hand2 in her left1 riches         and   
honour4  ,the necessity of these laws of
 distribution or restraint is curiously 
overlooked in the ordinary political    
economist's definition of his own       
science4 ,he calls it1 shortly1 the     
science of getting rich4 ,but there are 
many sciences1 as well as many arts1 of 
getting rich4 ,poisoning people of large
 estates was one employed largely in the
 middle ages2 adulteration of food of   
people of small estates is one employed 
largely now4 ,the ancient and honourable
 ,highland method of black mail2 the    
more modern and less honourable system  

of obtaining goods on credit1 and the   
other variously improved methods of     
appropriation--which1 in major and minor
 scales of industry1 down to the most   
artistic pocket-picking1 we owe to      
recent genius1--all come under the      
general head of sciences1 or arts1 of   
getting rich4  ,so that it is clear the 
popular economist1 in calling his       
science the science par excellence of   
getting rich1 must attach some peculiar 
ideas of limitation to its character4 ,i
 hope ,i do not misrepresent him1 by    
assuming that he means his science to be
 the science of getting rich by legal or
 just means4 ,in this definition1 is the
 word just1 or legal1 finally to stand8 
,for it is possible among certain       
nations1 or under certain rulers1 or by 
help of certain advocates1 that         
proceedings may be legal which are by no
 means just4 ,if1 therefore1 we leave at
 last only the word just in that place  
of our definition1 the insertion of this
 solitary and small word will make a    

notable difference in the grammar of our
 science4 ,for then it will follow that1
 in order to grow rich scientifically we
 must grow rich justly2 and1 therefore1 
know what is just2 so that our economy  
will no longer depend merely on         
prudence1 but on jurisprudence--and that
 of divine1 not human law4 ,which       
prudence is indeed of no mean order1    
holding itself1 as it were1 high in the 
air of heaven1 and gazing for ever on   
the light of the sun of justice2 hence  
the souls which have excelled in it are 
represented by ,dante as stars forming  
in heaven for ever the figure of the eye
 of an eagle3 they having been in life  
the discerners of light from darkness2  
or to the whole human race1 as the light
 of the body1 which is the eye2 while   
those souls which form the wings of the 
bird 7giving power and dominion to      
justice1 healing in its wings7 trace    
also in light the inscription in heaven3
 ,,diligite ,,justitiam ,,qui           
,,judicatis ,,terram4 ,ye who judge the 

earth1 give 7not1 observe1 merely love1 
but7 diligent love to justice3 the love 
which seeks diligently1 that is to say1 
choosingly1 and by preference to all    
things else4 ,which judging or doing    
judgment in the earth is1 according to  
their capacity and position1 required   
not of judges only1 nor of rulers only1 
but of all men3#cg a truth sorrowfully  
lost sight of even by those who are     
ready enough to apply to themselves     
passages in which ,christian men are    
spoken of as called to be saints 7i4e41 
to helpful or healing functions72 and   
chosen to be kings 7i4e41 to knowing or 
directing functions72 the true meaning  
of these titles having been long lost   
through the pretences of unhelpful and  
unable persons to saintly and kingly    
character2 also through the once popular
 idea that both the sanctity and royalty
 are to consist in wearing long robes   
and high crowns1 instead of in mercy and
 judgment2 whereas all true sanctity is 
saving power1 as all true royalty is    

ruling power2 and injustice is part and 
parcel of the denial of such power1     
which makes men as the creeping things1 
as the fishes of the sea1 that have no  
ruler over them4#ch     #cg ,i hear that
 several of our lawyers have been       
greatly         amused by the statement 
in the first of these papers that a     
lawyer's function was to do justice4 ,i 
did not intend it for         a jest2   
nevertheless it will be seen that in the
 above         passage neither the      
determination nor doing of justice are  
contemplated as functions wholly        
peculiar to the lawyer4                 
,possibly1 the more our standing armies1
 whether of soldiers1         pastors1  
or legislators 7the generic term pastor 
including         all teachers1 and the 
generic term lawyer including makers    
as well as interpreters of law71 can be 
superseded by the         force of      
national heroism1 wisdom1 and honesty1  
the better         it may be for the    
nation4     #ch ,it being the privilege 

of the fishes1 as it is of rats and     
wolves1 to live by the laws of demand   
and supply2 but the         distinction 
of humanity1 to live by those of right4 
,absolute justice is indeed no more     
attainable than absolute truth2 but the 
righteous man is distinguished from the 
unrighteous by his desire and hope of   
justice1 as the true man from the false 
by his desire and hope of truth4 ,and   
though absolute justice be unattainable1
 as much justice as we need for all     
practical use is attainable by all those
 who make it their aim4  ,we have to    
examine1 then1 in the subject before us1
 what are the laws of justice respecting
 payment of labour--no small part1      
these1 of the foundations of all        
jurisprudence4  ,i reduced1 in my last  
paper1 the idea of money payment to its 
simplest or radical terms4 ,in those    
terms its nature1 and the conditions of 
justice respecting it1 can be best      
ascertained4  ,money payment1 as there  
stated1 consists radically in a promise 

to some person working for us1 that for 
the time and labour he spends in our    
service to-day we will give or procure  
equivalent time and labour in his       
service at any future time when he may  
demand it4#ci     #ci ,it might appear  
at first that the market price of labour
         expressed such an exchange3 but
 this is a fallacy1 for the             
market price is the momentary price of  
the kind of labour         required1 but
 the just price is its equivalent of the
         productive labour of mankind4  
,this difference will be                
analysed in its place4 ,it must be noted
 also that ,i speak         here only of
 the exchangeable value of labour1 not  
of that         of commodities4 ,the    
exchangeable value of a commodity is    
that of the labour required to produce  
it1 multiplied         into the force of
 the demand for it4 ,if the value of the
         labour  x and the force of     
demand  y1 the exchangeable             
value of the commodity is xy1 in which  

if either x  #j1         or y  #j1 xy   
#j4  ,if we promise to give him less    
labour than he has given us1 we         
under-pay him4 ,if we promise to give   
him more labour than he has given us1 we
 over-pay him4 ,in practice1 according  
to the laws of demand and supply1 when  
two men are ready to do the work1 and   
only one man wants to have it done1 the 
two men under-bid each other for it2 and
 the one who gets it to do1 is          
under-paid4 ,but when two men want the  
work done1 and there is only one man    
ready to do it1 the two men who want it 
done over-bid each other1 and the       
workman is over-paid4  ,i will examine  
these two points of injustice in        
succession1 but first ,i wish the reader
 to clearly understand the central      
principle lying between the two1 of     
right or just payment4  ,when we ask a  
service of any man1 he may either give  
it us freely1 or demand payment for it4 
,respecting free gift of service1 there 
is no question at present1 that being a 

matter of affection--not of traffic4    
,but if he demand payment for it1 and we
 wish to treat him with absolute equity1
 it is evident that this equity can only
 consist in giving time for time1       
strength for strength1 and skill for    
skill4 ,if a man works an hour for us1  
and we only promise to work half an hour
 for him in return1 we obtain an unjust 
advantage4 ,if1 on the contrary1 we     
promise to work an hour and a half for  
him in return1 he has an unjust         
advantage4 ,the justice consists in     
absolute exchange2 or1 if there be any  
respect to the stations of the parties1 
it will not be in favour of the         
employer3 there is certainly no         
equitable reason in a man's being poor1 
that if he give me a pound of bread     
to-day1 ,i should return him less than a
 pound of bread to-morrow2 or any       
equitable reason in a man's being       
uneducated1 that if he uses a certain   
quantity of skill and knowledge in my   
service1 ,i should use a less quantity  

of skill and knowledge in his4 ,perhaps1
 ultimately1 it may appear desirable1   
or1 to say the least1 gracious1 that ,i 
should give in return somewhat more than
 ,i received4 ,but at present1 we are   
concerned on the law of justice only1   
which is that of perfect and accurate   
exchange2--one circumstance only        
interfering with the simplicity of this 
radical idea of just payment--that      
inasmuch as labour 7rightly directed7 is
 fruitful just as seed is1 the fruit 7or
 interest as it is called7 of the labour
 first given1 or advanced1 ought to be  
taken into account1 and balanced by an  
additional quantity of labour in the    
subsequent repayment4 ,supposing the    
repayment to take place at the end of a 
year1 or of any other given time1 this  
calculation could be approximately made2
 but as money 7that is to say1 cash7    
payment involves no reference to time   
7it being optional with the person paid 
to spend what he receives at once or    
after any number of years71 we can only 

assume1 generally1 that some slight     
advantage must in equity be allowed to  
the person who advances the labour1 so  
that the typical form of bargain will   
be3 ,if you give me an hour to-day1 ,i  
will give you an hour and five minutes  
on demand4 ,if you give me a pound of   
bread to-day1 ,i will give you seventeen
 ounces on demand1 and so on4 ,all that 
is necessary for the reader to note is1 
that the amount returned is at least in 
equity not to be less than the amount   
given4  ,the abstract idea1 then1 of    
just or due wages1 as respects the      
labourer1 is that they will consist in a
 sum of money which will at any time    
procure for him at least as much labour 
as he has given1 rather more than less4 
,and this equity or justice of payment  
is1 observe1 wholly independent of any  
reference to the number of men who are  
willing to do the work4 ,i want a       
horseshoe for my horse4 ,twenty smiths1 
or twenty thousand smiths1 may be ready 
to forge it2 their number does not in   

one atom's weight affect the question of
 the equitable payment of the one who   
does forge it4 ,it costs him a quarter  
of an hour of his life1 and so much     
skill and strength of arm to make that  
horseshoe for me4 ,then at some future  
time ,i am bound in equity to give a    
quarter of an hour1 and some minutes    
more1 of my life 7or of some other      
person's at my disposal71 and also as   
much strength of arm and skill1 and a   
little more1 in making or doing what the
 smith may have need of4  ,such being   
the abstract theory of just remunerative
 payment1 its application is practically
 modified by the fact that the order for
 labour1 given in payment1 is general1  
while the labour received is special4   
,the current coin or document is        
practically an order on the nation for  
so much work of any kind2 and this      
universal applicability to immediate    
need renders it so much more valuable   
than special labour can be1 that an     
order for a less quantity of this       

general toil will always be accepted as 
a just equivalent for a greater quantity
 of special toil4 ,any given craftsman  
will always be willing to give an hour  
of his own work in order to receive     
command over half an hour1 or even much 
less1 of national work4 ,this source of 
uncertainty1 together with the          
difficulty of determining the monetary  
value of skill1#dj renders the          
ascertainment 7even approximate7 of the 
proper wages of any given labour in     
terms of currency1 matter of            
considerable complexity4 ,but they do   
not affect the principle of exchange4   
,the worth of the work may not be easily
 known2 but it has a worth1 just as     
fixed and real as the specific gravity  
of a substance1 though such specific    
gravity may not be easily ascertainable 
when the substance is united with many  
others4 ,nor is there so much difficulty
 or chance in determining it as in      
determining the ordinary maxima and     
minima of vulgar political economy4     

,there are few bargains in which the    
buyer can ascertain with anything like  
precision that the seller would have    
taken no less2--or the seller acquire   
more than a comfortable faith that the  
purchaser would have given no more4     
,this impossibility of precise knowledge
 prevents neither from striving to      
attain the desired point of greatest    
vexation and injury to the other1 nor   
from accepting it for a scientific      
principle that he is to buy for the     
least and sell for the most possible1   
though what the real least or most may  
be he cannot tell4 ,in like manner1 a   
just person lays it down for a          
scientific principle that he is to pay a
 just price1 and1 without being able    
precisely to ascertain the limits of    
such a price1 will nevertheless strive  
to attain the closest possible          
approximation to them4 ,a practically   
serviceable approximation he can obtain4
 ,it is easier to determine             
scientifically what a man ought to have 

for his work1 than what his necessities 
will compel him to take for it4 ,his    
necessities can only be ascertained by  
empirical1 but his due by analytical1   
investigation4 ,in the one case1 you try
 your answer to the sum like a puzzled  
schoolboy--till you find one that fits2 
in the other1 you bring out your result 
within certain limits1 by process of    
calculation4     #dj ,under the term    
skill ,i mean to include the united     
force of         experience1 intellect1 
and passion in their operation on       
manual labour3 and under the term       
passion1 to include the         entire  
range and agency of the moral feelings2 
from the         simple patience and    
gentleness of mind which will give      
continuity and fineness to the touch1 or
 enable one person         to work      
without fatigue1 and with good effect1  
twice as long         as another1 up to 
the qualities of character which render 
science possible--7the retardation of   
science by envy is one         of the   

most tremendous losses in the economy of
 the present         century7--and to   
the incommunicable emotion and          
imagination         which are the first 
and mightiest sources of all value in   
art4          ,it is highly singular    
that political economists should not    
yet have perceived1 if not the moral1 at
 least the         passionate element1  
to be an inextricable quantity in every 
calculation4 ,i cannot conceive1 for    
instance1 how it was         possible   
that ,mr4 ,mill should have followed the
 true clue so         far as to         
write1--,no limit can be set to the     
importance--even in a purely productive 
and material point         of view--of  
mere thought1 without seeing that it was
         logically necessary to add     
also1 and of mere feeling4 ,and         
this the more1 because in his first     
definition of labour he         includes
 in the idea of it all feelings of a    
disagreeable         kind connected with
 the employment of one's thoughts in a  

particular occupation4 ,true2 but why   
not also1 feelings of         an        
agreeable kind8 ,it can hardly be       
supposed that the         feelings which
 retard labour are more essentially a   
part of         the labour than those   
which accelerate it4 ,the first are     
paid for as pain1 the second as power4  
,the workman is merely                  
indemnified for the first2 but the      
second both produce a         part of   
the exchangeable value of the work1 and 
materially         increase its actual  
quantity4          ,fritz is with us4   
,he is worth fifty thousand men4 ,truly1
         a large addition to the        
material force2--consisting1            
however1 be it observed1 not more in    
operations carried on         in        
,fritz's head1 than in operations       
carried on in his         armies' heart4
 ,no limit can be set to the importance 
of         mere thought4 ,perhaps not6  
,nay1 suppose some day it         should
 turn out that mere thought was in      

itself a         recommendable object of
 production1 and that all ,material     
production was only a step towards this 
more precious         ,immaterial one8  
,supposing1 then1 the just wages of any 
quantity of given labour to have been   
ascertained1 let us examine the first   
results of just and unjust payment1 when
 in favour of the purchaser or employer2
 i4e41 when two men are ready to do the 
work1 and only one wants to have it     
done4  ,the unjust purchaser forces the 
two to bid against each other till he   
has reduced their demand to its lowest  
terms4 ,let us assume that the lowest   
bidder offers to do the work at half its
 just price4  ,the purchaser employs    
him1 and does not employ the other4 ,the
 first or apparent result1 is1          
therefore1 that one of the two men is   
left out of employ1 or to starvation1   
just as definitely as by the just       
procedure of giving fair price to the   
best workman4 ,the various writers who  
endeavoured to invalidate the positions 

of my first paper never saw this1 and   
assumed that the unjust hirer employed  
both4 ,he employs both no more than the 
just hirer4 ,the only difference 7in the
 outset7 is that the just man pays      
sufficiently1 the unjust man            
insufficiently1 for the labour of the   
single person employed4  ,i say1 in the 
outset2 for this first or apparent      
difference is not the actual difference4
 ,by the unjust procedure1 half the     
proper price of the work is left in the 
hands of the employer4 ,this enables him
 to hire another man at the same unjust 
rate on some other kind of work2 and the
 final result is that he has two men    
working for him at half-price1 and two  
are out of employ4  ,by the just        
procedure1 the whole price of the first 
piece of work goes into the hands of the
 man who does it4 ,no surplus being left
 in the employer's hands1 he cannot hire
 another man for another piece of       
labour4 ,but by precisely so much as his
 power is diminished1 the hired         

workman's power is increased2 that is to
 say1 by the additional half of the     
price he has received2 which additional 
half he has the power of using to employ
 another man in his service4 ,i will    
suppose1 for the moment1 the least      
favourable1 though quite probable1      
case--that1 though justly treated       
himself1 he yet will act unjustly to his
 subordinate2 and hire at half-price1 if
 he can4 ,the final result will then be1
 that one man works for the employer1 at
 just price2 one for the workman1 at    
half-price2 and two1 as in the first    
case1 are still out of employ4 ,these   
two1 as ,i said before1 are out of      
employ in both cases4 ,the difference   
between the just and unjust procedure   
does not lie in the number of men hired1
 but in the price paid to them1 and the 
persons by whom it is paid4 ,the        
essential difference1 that which ,i want
 the reader to see clearly1 is1 that in 
the unjust case1 two men work for one1  
the first hirer4 ,in the just case1 one 

man works for the first hirer1 one for  
the person hired1 and so on1 down or up 
through the various grades of service2  
the influence being carried forward by  
justice1 and arrested by injustice4 ,the
 universal and constant action of       
justice in this matter is therefore to  
diminish the power of wealth1 in the    
hands of one individual1 over masses of 
men1 and to distribute it through a     
chain of men4 ,the actual power exerted 
by the wealth is the same in both cases2
 but by injustice it is put all into one
 man's hands1 so that he directs at once
 and with equal force the labour of a   
circle of men about him2 by the just    
procedure1 he is permitted to touch the 
nearest only1 through whom1 with        
diminished force1 modified by new minds1
 the energy of the wealth passes on to  
others1 and so till it exhausts itself4 
,the immediate operation of justice in  
this respect is1 therefore1 to diminish 
the power of wealth1 first in           
acquisition of luxury1 and1 secondly1 in

 exercise of moral influence4 ,the      
employer cannot concentrate so          
multitudinous labour on his own         
interests1 nor can he subdue so         
multitudinous mind to his own will4 ,but
 the secondary operation of justice is  
not less important4 ,the insufficient   
payment of the group of men working for 
one1 places each under a maximum of     
difficulty in rising above his position4
 ,the tendency of the system is to check
 advancement4 ,but the sufficient or    
just payment1 distributed through a     
descending series of offices or grades  
of labour1#da gives each subordinated   
person fair and sufficient means of     
rising in the social scale1 if he       
chooses to use them2 and thus not only  
diminishes the immediate power of       
wealth1 but removes the worst           
disabilities of poverty4     #da ,i am  
sorry to lose time by answering1 however
 curtly1 the         equivocations of   
the writers who sought to obscure the   
instances given of regulated labour in  

the first of these         papers1 by   
confusing kinds1 ranks1 and quantities  
of labour         with its qualities4 ,i
 never said that a colonel should have  
the same pay as a private1 nor a bishop 
the same pay as a         curate4       
,neither did ,i say that more work ought
 to be paid as         less work 7so    
that the curate of a parish of two      
thousand         souls should have no   
more than the curate of a parish of     
five hundred74 ,but ,i said that1 so far
 as you employ it at         all1 bad   
work should be paid no less than good   
work2 as a         bad clergyman yet    
takes his tithes1 a bad physician takes 
his fee1 and a bad lawyer his costs4    
,and this1 as will be         farther   
shown in the conclusion1 ,i said1 and   
say1 partly         because the best    
work never was1 nor ever will be1 done  
for         money at all2 but chiefly   
because1 the moment people know         
they have to pay the bad and good alike1
 they will try to         discern the   

one from the other1 and not use the bad4
 ,a         sagacious writer in the     
,scotsman asks me if ,i should like     
any common scribbler to be paid by      
,messrs4 ,smith1 ,elder and         ,co4
 the original publishers of this work as
 their good         authors are4 ,i     
should1 if they employed him--but would 
seriously recommend them1 for the       
scribbler's sake1 as well         as    
their own1 not to employ him4 ,the      
quantity of its money         which the 
country at present invests in scribbling
 is not1         in the outcome of it1  
economically spent2 and even the        
highly ingenious person to whom this    
question occurred1         might perhaps
 have been more beneficially employed   
than in         printing it4  ,it is on 
this vital problem that the entire      
destiny of the labourer is ultimately   
dependent4 ,many minor interests may    
sometimes appear to interfere with it1  
but all branch from it4 ,for instance1  
considerable agitation is often caused  

in the minds of the lower classes when  
they discover the share which they      
nominally1 and to all appearance1       
actually1 pay out of their wages in     
taxation 7,i believe thirty-five or     
forty per cent474 ,this sounds very     
grievous2 but in reality the labourer   
does not pay it1 but his employer4 ,if  
the workman had not to pay it1 his wages
 would be less by just that sum3        
competition would still reduce them to  
the lowest rate at which life was       
possible4 ,similarly the lower orders   
agitated for the repeal of the corn     
laws1#db thinking they would be better  
off if bread were cheaper2 never        
perceiving that as soon as bread was    
permanently cheaper1 wages would        
permanently fall in precisely that      
proportion4 ,the corn laws were rightly 
repealed2 not1 however1 because they    
directly oppressed the poor1 but because
 they indirectly oppressed them in      
causing a large quantity of their labour
 to be consumed unproductively4 ,so also

 unnecessary taxation oppresses them1   
through destruction of capital1 but the 
destiny of the poor depends primarily   
always on this one question of dueness  
of wages4 ,their distress               
7irrespectively of that caused by sloth1
 minor error1 or crime7 arises on the   
grand scale from the two reacting forces
 of competition and oppression4 ,there  
is not yet1 nor will yet for ages be1   
any real over-population in the world2  
but a local over-population1 or1 more   
accurately1 a degree of population      
locally unmanageable under existing     
circumstances for want of forethought   
and sufficient machinery1 necessarily   
shows itself by pressure of competition2
 and the taking advantage of this       
competition by the purchaser to obtain  
their labour unjustly cheap1 consummates
 at once their suffering and his own2   
for in this 7as ,i believe in every     
other kind of slavery7 the oppressor    
suffers at last more than the oppressed1
 and those magnificent lines of ,pope1  

even in all their force1 fall short of  
the truth--    ,yet1 to be just to these
 poor men of pelf1   ,each does but     
,,hate ,,his ,,neighbour ,,as ,,himself3
   ,damned to the mines1 an equal fate  
betides   ,the slave that digs it1 and  
the slave that hides4     #db ,i have to
 acknowledge an interesting             
communication on the         subject of 
free trade from ,paisley 7for a short   
letter from         ,a ,well-wisher at  
----1 my thanks are yet more due74 ,but 
the ,scottish writer will1 ,i fear1 be  
disagreeably surprised         to hear1 
that ,i am1 and always have been1 an    
utterly         fearless and            
unscrupulous free trader4 ,seven years  
ago1         speaking of the various    
signs of infancy in the ,european       
mind 7,stones of ,venice1 vol4 iii4 p4  
#afh71 ,i wrote3 ,the         first     
principles of commerce were acknowledged
 by the         ,english parliament only
 a few months ago1 in its free trade    
measures1 and are still so little       

understood by the million1         that 
no nation dares to abolish its          
custom-houses4          ,it will be     
observed that ,i do not admit even the  
idea of         reciprocity4 ,let other 
nations1 if they like1 keep their       
ports shut2 every wise nation will throw
 its own open4 ,it is         not the   
opening them1 but a sudden1             
inconsiderate1 and         blunderingly 
experimental manner of opening them1    
which does         harm4 ,if you have   
been protecting a manufacture for a long
         series of years1 you must not  
take the protection off in a            
moment1 so as to throw every one of its 
operatives at once         out of       
employ1 any more than you must take all 
its wrappings         off a feeble child
 at once in cold weather1 though the    
cumber of them may have been radically  
injuring its health4         ,little by 
little1 you must restore it to freedom  
and to air4          ,most people's     
minds are in curious confusion on the   

subject         of free trade1 because  
they suppose it to imply enlarged       
competition4 ,on the contrary1 free     
trade puts an end to all                
competition4 ,protection 7among various 
other mischievous         functions7    
endeavours to enable one country to     
compete with         another in the     
production of an article at a           
disadvantage4         ,when trade is    
entirely free1 no country can be        
competed with         in the articles   
for the production of which it is       
naturally         calculated2 nor can it
 compete with any other1 in the         
production of articles for which it is  
not naturally         calculated4       
,tuscany1 for instance1 cannot compete  
with         ,england in steel1 nor     
,england with ,tuscany in oil4 ,they    
must         exchange their steel and   
oil4 ,which exchange should be as       
frank and free as honesty and the       
sea-winds can make it4                  
,competition1 indeed1 arises at first1  

and sharply1 in order         to prove  
which is strongest in any given         
manufacture         possible to both3   
this point once ascertained1 competition
         is at an end4  ,the collateral 
and reversionary operations of justice  
in this matter ,i shall examine         
hereafter 7it being needful first to    
define the nature of value72 proceeding 
then to consider within what practical  
terms a juster system may be            
established2 and ultimately the vexed   
question of the destinies of the        
unemployed workmen4#dc ,lest1 however1  
the reader should be alarmed at some of 
the issues to which our investigations  
seem to be tending1 as if in their      
bearing against the power of wealth they
 had something in common with those of  
socialism1 ,i wish him to know1 in      
accurate terms1 one or two of the main  
points which ,i have in view4     #dc ,i
 should be glad if the reader would     
first clear the ground         for      
himself so far as to determine whether  

the difficulty         lies in getting  
the work or getting the pay for it4     
,does he         consider occupation    
itself to be an expensive luxury1       
difficult of attainment1 of which too   
little is to be found         in the    
world8 or is it rather that1 while in   
the enjoyment         even of the most  
athletic delight1 men must nevertheless 
be         maintained1 and this         
maintenance is not always forthcoming8  
,we must be clear on this head before   
going farther1 as most         people   
are loosely in the habit of talking of  
the difficulty         of finding       
employment4 ,is it employment that we   
want to         find1 or support during 
employment8 ,is it idleness we wish     
to put an end to1 or hunger8 ,we have to
 take up both         questions in      
succession1 only not both at the same   
time4 ,no         doubt that work is a  
luxury1 and a very great one4 ,it is1   
indeed1 at once a luxury and a          
necessity2 no man can retain            

either health of mind or body without   
it4 ,so profoundly do ,i         feel   
this1 that1 as will be seen in the      
sequel1 one of the         principal    
objects ,i would recommend to benevolent
 and         practical persons1 is to   
induce rich people to seek for a        
larger quantity of this luxury than they
 at present possess4                    
,nevertheless1 it appears by experience 
that even this         healthiest of    
pleasures may be indulged in to excess1 
and         that human beings are just  
as liable to surfeit of labour as       
to surfeit of meat2 so that1 as on the  
one hand1 it may be         charitable  
to provide1 for some people1 lighter    
dinner1 and         more work1--for     
others1 it may be equally expedient to  
provide lighter work1 and more dinner4  
,whether socialism has made more        
progress among the army and navy 7where 
payment is made on my principles71 or   
among the manufacturing operatives 7who 
are paid on my opponents' principles71  

,i leave it to those opponents to       
ascertain and declare4 ,whatever their  
conclusions may be1 ,i think it         
necessary to answer for myself only     
this3 that if there be any one point    
insisted on throughout my works more    
frequently than another1 that one point 
is the impossibility of ,equality4 ,my  
continual aim has been to show the      
eternal superiority of some men to      
others1 sometimes even of one man to all
 others2 and to show also the           
advisability of appointing such persons 
or person to guide1 to lead1 or on      
occasion even to compel and subdue1     
their inferiors1 according to their own 
better knowledge and wiser will4 ,my    
principles of ,political ,economy were  
all involved in a single phrase spoken  
three years ago at ,manchester3         
,soldiers of the ,ploughshare as well as
 ,soldiers of the ,sword3 and they were 
all summed in a single sentence in the  
last volume of ,modern                  
,painters--,government and co-operation 

are in all things the ,laws of ,life2   
,anarchy and competition the ,laws of   
,death4  ,and with respect to the mode  
in which these general principles affect
 the secure possession of property1 so  
far am ,i from invalidating such        
security1 that the whole gist of these  
papers will be found ultimately to aim  
at an extension in its range2 and       
whereas it has long been known and      
declared that the poor have no right to 
the property of the rich1 ,i wish it    
also to be known and declared that the  
rich have no right to the property of   
the poor4  ,but that the working of the 
system which ,i have undertaken to      
develop would in many ways shorten the  
apparent and direct1 though not the     
unseen and collateral1 power1 both of   
wealth1 as the ,lady of ,pleasure1 and  
of capital1 as the ,lord of ,toil1 ,i do
 not deny3 on the contrary1 ,i affirm it
 in all joyfulness2 knowing that the    
attraction of riches is already too     
strong1 as their authority is already   

too weighty1 for the reason of mankind4 
,i said in my last paper that nothing in
 history had ever been so disgraceful to
 human intellect as the acceptance among
 us of the common doctrines of political
 economy as a science4 ,i have many     
grounds for saying this1 but one of the 
chief may be given in few words4 ,i know
 no previous instance in history of a   
nation's establishing a systematic      
disobedience to the first principles of 
its professed religion4 ,the writings   
which we 7verbally7 esteem as divine1   
not only denounce the love of money as  
the source of all evil1 and as an       
idolatry abhorred of the ,deity1 but    
declare mammon service to be the        
accurate and irreconcileable opposite of
 ,god's service2 and1 whenever they     
speak of riches absolute1 and poverty   
absolute1 declare woe to the rich1 and  
blessing to the poor4 ,whereupon we     
forthwith investigate a science of      
becoming rich1 as the shortest road to  
national prosperity4    ,tai ,cristian  

dannera l',etiope1   ,quando si         
partiranno i due collegi1   ,l',,uno    
,,in ,,eterno ,,ricco1 ,e ,l',,altro    
,,inope4     ,,essay ,,iv4  ,,ad        
,,valorem4   ,in the last paper we saw  
that just payment of labour consisted in
 a sum of money which would             
approximately obtain equivalent labour  
at a future time3 we have now to examine
 the means of obtaining such            
equivalence4 ,which question involves   
the definition of ,value1 ,wealth1      
,price1 and ,produce4  ,none of these   
terms are yet defined so as to be       
understood by the public4 ,but the last1
 ,produce1 which one might have thought 
the clearest of all1 is1 in use1 the    
most ambiguous2 and the examination of  
the kind of ambiguity attendant on its  
present employment will best open the   
way to our work4  ,in his ,chapter on   
,capital1#dd ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill         
instances1 as a capitalist1 a hardware  
manufacturer1 who1 having intended to   
spend a certain portion of the proceeds 

of his business in buying plate and     
jewels1 changes his mind1 and pays it as
 wages to additional workpeople4 ,the   
effect is stated by ,mr4 ,mill to be    
that more food is appropriated to the   
consumption of productive labourers4    
#dd ,book ,i4 chap4 iv4 s4 #a4 ,to save 
space1 my future references         to  
,mr4 ,mill's work will be by numerals   
only1 as in this         instance1 ,i4  
iv4 #a4 ,ed4 in #b vols4 #hvo1 ,parker1 
#ahdh4  ,now ,i do not ask1 though1 had 
,i written this paragraph1 it would     
surely have been asked of me1 ,what is  
to become of the silversmiths8 ,if they 
are truly unproductive persons1 we will 
acquiesce in their extinction4 ,and     
though in another part of the same      
passage1 the hardware merchant is       
supposed also to dispense with a number 
of servants1 whose food is thus set free
 for productive purposes1 ,i do not     
inquire what will be the effect1 painful
 or otherwise1 upon the servants1 of    
this emancipation of their food4 ,but ,i

 very seriously inquire why ironware is 
produce1 and silverware is not8 ,that   
the merchant consumes the one1 and sells
 the other1 certainly does not          
constitute the difference1 unless it can
 be shown 7which1 indeed1 ,i perceive it
 to be becoming daily more and more the 
aim of tradesmen to show7 that          
commodities are made to be sold1 and not
 to be consumed4 ,the merchant is an    
agent of conveyance to the consumer in  
one case1 and is himself the consumer in
 the other3#de but the labourers are in 
either case equally productive1 since   
they have produced goods to the same    
value1 if the hardware and the plate are
 both goods4     #de ,if ,mr4 ,mill had 
wished to show the difference in result 
between consumption and sale1 he should 
have represented the         hardware   
merchant as consuming his own goods     
instead of         selling them2        
similarly1 the silver merchant as       
consuming         his own goods instead 
of selling them4 ,had he done this1 he  

would have made his position clearer1   
though less tenable2         and perhaps
 this was the position he really        
intended to         take1 tacitly       
involving his theory1 elsewhere stated1 
and         shown in the sequel of this 
paper to be false1 that demand          
for commodities is not demand for       
labour4 ,but by the most                
diligent scrutiny of the paragraph now  
under examination1 ,i         cannot    
determine whether it is a fallacy pure  
and simple1 or         the half of one  
fallacy supported by the whole of a     
greater         one2 so that ,i treat it
 here on the kinder assumption that     
it is one fallacy only4  ,and what      
distinction separates them8 ,it is      
indeed possible that in the comparative 
estimate of the moralist1 with which    
,mr4 ,mill says political economy has   
nothing to do 7,,iii4 i4 #b71 a steel   
fork might appear a more substantial    
production than a silver one3 we may    
grant also that knives1 no less than    

forks1 are good produce2 and scythes and
 ploughshares serviceable articles4     
,but1 how of bayonets8 ,supposing the   
hardware merchant to effect large sales 
of these1 by help of the setting free of
 the food of his servants and his       
silversmith1--is he still employing     
productive labourers1 or1 in ,mr4       
,mill's words1 labourers who increase   
the stock of permanent means of         
enjoyment 7,i4 iii4 #d78 ,or if1 instead
 of bayonets1 he supply bombs1 will not 
the absolute and final enjoyment of even
 these energetically productive articles
 7each of which costs ten pounds#df7 be 
dependent on a proper choice of time and
 place for their enfantement2 choice1   
that is to say1 depending on those      
philosophical considerations with which 
political economy has nothing to do8#dg 
#df ,i take ,mr4 afterwards ,sir ,a4    
,helps' estimate in his essay         on
 ,war4     #dg ,also when the wrought   
silver vases of ,spain were dashed to   
fragments by our custom-house officers1 

because bullion         might be        
imported free of duty1 but not brains1  
was the axe         that broke them     
productive8--the artist who wrought them
         unproductive8 ,or again4 ,if   
the woodman's axe is productive1        
is the executioner's8 as also1 if the   
hemp of a cable be         productive1  
does not the productiveness of hemp in a
 halter         depend on its moral more
 than on its material application8  ,i  
should have regretted the need of       
pointing out inconsistency in any       
portion of ,mr4 ,mill's work1 had not   
the value of his work proceeded from its
 inconsistencies4 ,he deserves honour   
among economists by inadvertently       
disclaiming the principles which he     
states1 and tacitly introducing the     
moral considerations with which he      
declares his science has no connection4 
,many of his chapters1 are1 therefore1  
true and valuable2 and the only         
conclusions of his which ,i have to     
dispute are those which follow from his 

premises4  ,thus1 the idea which lies at
 the root of the passage we have just   
been examining1 namely1 that labour     
applied to produce luxuries will not    
support so many persons as labour       
applied to produce useful articles1 is  
entirely true2 but the instance given   
fails--and in four directions of failure
 at once--because ,mr4 ,mill has not    
defined the real meaning of usefulness4 
,the definition which he has            
given--capacity to satisfy a desire1 or 
serve a purpose 7,,iii4 i4 #b7--;applies
 equally to the iron and silver2 while  
the true definition1--which he has not  
given1 but which nevertheless underlies 
the false verbal definition in his mind1
 and comes out once or twice by accident
 7as in the words any support to life or
 strength in ,i4 i4 #e7--;applies to    
some articles of iron1 but not to       
others1 and to some articles of silver1 
but not to others4 ,it applies to       
ploughs1 but not to bayonets2 and to    
forks1 but not to filigree4#dh     #dh  

,filigree3 that is to say1 generally1   
ornament dependent         on           
complexity1 not on art4  ,the eliciting 
of the true definition will give us the 
reply to our first question1 ,what is   
value8 respecting which1 however1 we    
must first hear the popular statements4 
,the word 'value1' when used without    
adjunct1 always means1 in political     
economy1 value in exchange 7,mill1      
,,iii4 i4 #c74 ,so that1 if two ships   
cannot exchange their rudders1 their    
rudders are1 in politico-economic       
language1 of no value to either4  ,but  
the subject of political economy is     
wealth4--7,preliminary remarks1 page    
#a47  ,and wealth consists of all useful
 and agreeable objects which possess    
exchangeable value4--7,preliminary      
remarks1 page #aj47  ,it appears then1  
according to ,mr4 ,mill1 that usefulness
 and agreeableness underlie the exchange
 value1 and must be ascertained to exist
 in the thing1 before we can esteem it  
an object of wealth4  ,now1 the         

economical usefulness of a thing depends
 not merely on its own nature1 but on   
the number of people who can and will   
use it4 ,a horse is useless1 and        
therefore unsaleable1 if no one can     
ride1--a sword if no one can strike1 and
 meat1 if no one can eat4 ,thus every   
material utility depends on its relative
 human capacity4  ,similarly3 ,the      
agreeableness of a thing depends not    
merely on its own likeableness1 but on  
the number of people who can be got to  
like it4 ,the relative agreeableness1   
and therefore saleableness1 of a pot of 
the smallest ale1 and of ,adonis painted
 by a running brook1 depends virtually  
on the opinion of ,demos1 in the shape  
of ,christopher ,sly4 ,that is to say1  
the agreeableness of a thing depends on 
its relative human disposition4#di      
,therefore1 political economy1 being a  
science of wealth1 must be a science    
respecting human capacities and         
dispositions4 ,but moral considerations 
have nothing to do with political       

economy 7,,iii4 i4 #b74 ,therefore1     
moral considerations have nothing to do 
with human capacities and dispositions4 
#di ,these statements sound crude in    
their brevity2 but will         be found
 of the utmost importance when they are 
developed4         ,thus1 in the above  
instance1 economists have never         
perceived         that disposition to   
buy is a wholly moral element in        
demand3 that is to say1 when you give a 
man half-a-crown1 it         depends on 
his disposition whether he is rich or   
poor with         it--whether he will   
buy disease1 ruin1 and hatred1 or buy   
health1 advancement1 and domestic love4 
,and thus the         agreeableness or  
exchange value of every offered         
commodity         depends on production1
 not merely of the commodity1 but of    
buyers of it2 therefore on the education
 of buyers1 and on         all the moral
 elements by which their disposition to 
buy         this1 or that1 is formed4 ,i
 will illustrate and expand into        

final consequences every one of these   
definitions in its         place3 at    
present they can only be given with     
extremest         brevity2 for in order 
to put the subject at once in a         
connected form before the reader1 ,i    
have thrown into one1         the       
opening definitions of four chapters2   
namely1 of that on         ,value 7,ad  
,valorem72 on ,price 7,thirty ,pieces72 
on         ,production 7,demeter72 and  
on ,economy 7,the ,law of the           
,house74  ,i do not wholly like the look
 of this conclusion from ,mr4 ,mill's   
statements3--let us try ,mr4 ,ricardo's4
  ,utility is not the measure of        
exchangeable value1 though it is        
absolutely essential to it4--7,chap4 #a4
 sect4 i47 ,essential to what degree1   
,mr4 ,ricardo8 ,there may be greater and
 less degrees of utility4 ,meat1 for    
instance1 may be so good as to be fit   
for any one to eat1 or so bad as to be  
fit for no one to eat4 ,what is the     
exact degree of goodness which is       

essential to its exchangeable value1 but
 not the measure of it8 ,how good must  
the meat be1 in order to possess any    
exchangeable value2 and how bad must it 
be--7,i wish this were a settled        
question in ,london markets7--in order  
to possess none8  ,there appears to be  
some hitch1 ,i think1 in the working    
even of ,mr4 ,ricardo's principles2 but 
let him take his own example4 ,suppose  
that in the early stages of society the 
bows and arrows of the hunter were of   
equal value with the implements of the  
fisherman4 ,under such circumstances the
 value of the deer1 the produce of the  
hunter's day's labour1 would be exactly 
7italics mine7 equal to the value of the
 fish1 the product of the fisherman's   
day's labour4 ,the comparative value of 
the fish and game would be entirely     
regulated by the quantity of labour     
realized in each4 7,ricardo1 chap4 iii4 
,on ,value47  ,indeed6 ,therefore1 if   
the fisherman catches one sprat1 and the
 huntsman one deer1 one sprat will be   

equal in value to one deer2 but if the  
fisherman catches no sprat1 and the     
huntsman two deer1 no sprat will be     
equal in value to two deer8  ,nay2      
but--,mr4 ,ricardo's supporters may     
say--he means1 on an average2--if the   
average product of a day's work of      
fisher and hunter be one fish and one   
deer1 the one fish will always be equal 
in value to the one deer4  ,might ,i    
inquire the species of fish4 ,whale8 or 
whitebait8#ej     #ej ,perhaps it may be
 said1 in farther support of ,mr4       
,ricardo1         that he meant1 when   
the utility is constant or given1 the   
price varies as the quantity of labour4 
,if he meant this1         he should    
have said it2 but1 had he meant it1 he  
could have         hardly missed the    
necessary result1 that utility would be 
one measure of price 7which he expressly
 denies it to be72         and that1 to 
prove saleableness1 he had to prove a   
given         quantity of utility1 as   
well as a given quantity of labour3     

to wit1 in his own instance1 that the   
deer and fish would         each feed   
the same number of men1 for the same    
number of         days1 with equal      
pleasure to their palates4 ,the fact is1
 he         did not know what he meant  
himself4 ,the general idea which        
he had derived from commercial          
experience1 without being         able  
to analyse it1 was1 that when the demand
 is constant1         the price varies  
as the quantity of labour required for  
production2 or1--using the formula ,i   
gave in last         paper--when y is   
constant1 xy varies as x4 ,but demand   
never is1 nor can be1 ultimately        
constant1 if x varies                   
distinctly2 for1 as price rises1        
consumers fall away2 and as         soon
 as there is a monopoly 7and all        
scarcity is a form of         monopoly2 
so that every commodity is affected     
occasionally         by some colour of  
monopoly71 y becomes the most           
influential condition of the price4     

,thus the price of a         painting   
depends less on its merit than on the   
interest         taken in it by the     
public2 the price of singing less on the
         labour of the singer than the  
number of persons who desire         to 
hear him2 and the price of gold less on 
the scarcity         which affects it in
 common with cerium or iridium1 than on 
the sun-light colour and unalterable    
purity by which it         attracts the 
admiration and answers the trust of     
mankind4          ,it must be kept in   
mind1 however1 that ,i use the word     
demand in a somewhat different sense    
from economists         usually4 ,they  
mean by it the quantity of a thing sold4
 ,i         mean by it the force of the 
buyer's capable intention to            
buy4 ,in good ,english1 a person's      
demand signifies1 not         what he   
gets1 but what he asks for4             
,economists also do not notice that     
objects are not valued by               
absolute bulk or weight1 but by such    

bulk and weight as is         necessary 
to bring them into use4 ,they say1 for  
instance1         that water bears no   
price in the market4 ,it is true that a 
cupful does not1 but a lake does2 just  
as a handful of dust         does not1  
but an acre does4 ,and were it possible 
to make         even the possession of  
the cupful or handful permanent         
7i4e41 to find a place for them71 the   
earth and sea would         be bought up
 by handfuls and cupfuls4  ,it would be 
waste of time to pursue these fallacies 
farther2 we will seek for a true        
definition4  ,much store has been set   
for centuries upon the use of our       
,english classical education4 ,it were  
to be wished that our well-educated     
merchants recalled to mind always this  
much of their ,latin schooling1--that   
the nominative of valorem 7a word       
already sufficiently familiar to them7  
is valor2 a word which1 therefore1 ought
 to be familiar to them4 ,valor1 from   
valere1 to be well1 or strong 7,greek3  

hugiaino72--strong1 in life 7if a man71 
or valiant2 strong1 for life 7if a      
thing71 or valuable4 ,to be valuable1   
therefore1 is to avail towards life4 ,a 
truly valuable or availing thing is that
 which leads to life with its whole     
strength4 ,in proportion as it does not 
lead to life1 or as its strength is     
broken1 it is less valuable2 in         
proportion as it leads away from life1  
it is unvaluable or malignant4  ,the    
value of a thing1 therefore1 is         
independent of opinion1 and of quantity4
 ,think what you will of it1 gain how   
much you may of it1 the value of the    
thing itself is neither greater nor     
less4 ,for ever it avails1 or avails    
not2 no estimate can raise1 no disdain  
depress1 the power which it holds from  
the ,maker of things and of men4  ,the  
real science of political economy1 which
 has yet to be distinguished from the   
bastard science1 as medicine from       
witchcraft1 and astronomy from          
astrology1 is that which teaches nations

 to desire and labour for the things    
that lead to life2 and which teaches    
them to scorn and destroy the things    
that lead to destruction4 ,and if1 in a 
state of infancy1 they suppose          
indifferent things1 such as excrescences
 of shellfish1 and pieces of blue and   
red stone1 to be valuable1 and spend    
large measure of the labour which ought 
to be employed for the extension and    
ennobling of life1 in diving or digging 
for them1 and cutting them into various 
shapes1--or if1 in the same state of    
infancy1 they imagine precious and      
beneficent things1 such as air1 light1  
and cleanliness1 to be valueless1--or   
if1 finally1 they imagine the conditions
 of their own existence1 by which alone 
they can truly possess or use anything1 
such1 for instance1 as peace1 trust1 and
 love1 to be prudently exchangeable1    
when the market offers1 for gold1 iron1 
or excrescences of shells--the great and
 only science of ,political ,economy    
teaches them1 in all these cases1 what  

is vanity1 and what substance2 and how  
the service of ,death1 the ,lord of     
,waste1 and of eternal emptiness1       
differs from the service of ,wisdom1 the
 ,lady of ,saving1 and of eternal       
fulness2 she who has said1 ,i will cause
 those that love me to inherit          
,,substance2 and ,i will ,,fill their   
treasures4  ,the ,lady of ,saving1 in a 
profounder sense than that of the       
savings' bank1 though that is a good    
one3 ,madonna della ,salute1--,lady of  
,health--which1 though commonly spoken  
of as if separate from wealth1 is indeed
 a part of wealth4 ,this word1 wealth1  
it will be remembered1 is the next we   
have to define4  ,to be wealthy1 says   
,mr4 ,mill1 is to have a large stock of 
useful articles4  ,i accept this        
definition4 ,only let us perfectly      
understand it4 ,my opponents often      
lament my not giving them enough logic3 
,i fear ,i must at present use a little 
more than they will like2 but this      
business of ,political ,economy is no   

light one1 and we must allow no loose   
terms in it4  ,we have1 therefore1 to   
ascertain in the above definition1      
first1 what is the meaning of having1 or
 the nature of ,possession4 ,then1 what 
is the meaning of useful1 or the nature 
of ,utility4  ,and first of possession4 
,at the crossing of the transepts of    
,milan ,cathedral has lain1 for three   
hundred years1 the embalmed body of ,st4
 ,carlo ,borromeo4 ,it holds a golden   
crosier1 and has a cross of emeralds on 
its breast4 ,admitting the crosier and  
emeralds to be useful articles1 is the  
body to be considered as having them8   
,do they1 in the politico-economical    
sense of property1 belong to it8 ,if    
not1 and if we may1 therefore1 conclude 
generally that a dead body cannot       
possess property1 what degree and period
 of animation in the body will render   
possession possible8  ,as thus3 lately  
in a wreck of a ,californian ship1 one  
of the passengers fastened a belt about 
him with two hundred pounds of gold in  

it1 with which he was found afterwards  
at the bottom4 ,now1 as he was          
sinking--had he the gold8 or had the    
gold him8#ea     #ea ,compare ,george   
,herbert1 ,the ,church ,porch1 ,stanza  
#bh4  ,and if1 instead of sinking him in
 the sea by its weight1 the gold had    
struck him on the forehead1 and thereby 
caused incurable disease--suppose palsy 
or insanity1--would the gold in that    
case have been more a possession than in
 the first8 ,without pressing the       
inquiry up through instances of         
gradually increasing vital power over   
the gold 7which ,i will1 however1 give1 
if they are asked for71 ,i presume the  
reader will see that possession1 or     
having1 is not an absolute1 but a       
gradated1 power2 and consists not only  
in the quantity or nature of the thing  
possessed1 but also 7and in a greater   
degree7 in its suitableness to the      
person possessing it1 and in his vital  
power to use it4  ,and our definition of
 ,wealth1 expanded1 becomes3 ,the       

possession of useful articles1 which we 
can use4 ,this is a very serious change4
 ,for wealth1 instead of depending      
merely on a have1 is thus seen to depend
 on a can4 ,gladiator's death1 on a     
habet2 but soldier's victory1 and       
state's salvation1 on a quo plurimum    
posset4 7,liv4 ,,vii4 #f47 ,and what we 
reasoned of only as accumulation of     
material1 is seen to demand also        
accumulation of capacity4  ,so much for 
our verb4 ,next for our adjective4 ,what
 is the meaning of useful8  ,the inquiry
 is closely connected with the last4    
,for what is capable of use in the hands
 of some persons1 is capable1 in the    
hands of others1 of the opposite of use1
 called commonly1 from-use1 or ab-use4  
,and it depends on the person1 much more
 than on the article1 whether its       
usefulness or ab-usefulness will be the 
quality developed in it4 ,thus1 wine1   
which the ,greeks1 in their ,bacchus1   
made1 rightly1 the type of all passion1 
and which1 when used1 cheereth god and  

man 7that is to say1 strengthens both   
the divine life1 or reasoning power1 and
 the earthly1 or carnal power1 of man72 
yet1 when abused1 becomes ,dionusos1    
hurtful especially to the divine part of
 man1 or reason4 ,and again1 the body   
itself1 being equally liable to use and 
to abuse1 and1 when rightly disciplined1
 serviceable to the ,state1 both for war
 and labour2--but when not disciplined1 
or abused1 valueless to the ,state1 and 
capable only of continuing the private  
or single existence of the individual   
7and that but feebly7--the ,greeks      
called such a body an idiotic or private
 body1 from their word signifying a     
person employed in no way directly      
useful to the ,state3 whence1 finally1  
our idiot1 meaning a person entirely    
occupied with his own concerns4  ,hence1
 it follows1 that if a thing is to be   
useful1 it must be not only of an       
availing nature1 but in availing hands4 
,or1 in accurate terms1 usefulness is   
value in the hands of the valiant2 so   

that this science of wealth being1 as we
 have just seen1 when regarded as the   
science of ,accumulation1 accumulative  
of capacity as well as of               
material1--when regarded as the science 
of ,distribution1 is distribution not   
absolute1 but discriminate2 not of every
 thing to every man1 but of the right   
thing to the right man4 ,a difficult    
science1 dependent on more than         
arithmetic4  ,wealth1 therefore1 is     
,,the ,,possession ,,of ,,the ,,valuable
 ,,by ,,the ,,valiant2 and in           
considering it as a power existing in a 
nation1 the two elements1 the value of  
the thing1 and the valour of its        
possessor1 must be estimated together4  
,whence it appears that many of the     
persons commonly considered wealthy1 are
 in reality no more wealthy than the    
locks of their own strong boxes are2    
they being inherently and eternally     
incapable of wealth2 and operating for  
the nation1 in an economical point of   
view1 either as pools of dead water1 and

 eddies in a stream 7which1 so long as  
the stream flows1 are useless1 or serve 
only to drown people1 but may become of 
importance in a state of stagnation1    
should the stream dry72 or else1 as dams
 in a river1 of which the ultimate      
service depends not on the dam1 but the 
miller2 or else1 as mere accidental     
stays and impediments1 acting1 not as   
wealth1 but 7for we ought to have a     
correspondent term7 as illth1 causing   
various devastation and trouble around  
them in all directions2 or lastly1 act  
not at all1 but are merely animated     
conditions of delay 7no use being       
possible of anything they have until    
they are dead71 in which last condition 
they are nevertheless often useful as   
delays1 and impedimenta1 if a nation is 
apt to move too fast4  ,this being so1  
the difficulty of the true science of   
,political ,economy lies not merely in  
the need of developing manly character  
to deal with material value1 but in the 
fact1 that while the manly character and

 material value only form wealth by     
their conjunction1 they have            
nevertheless a mutually destructive     
operation on each other4 ,for the manly 
character is apt to ignore1 or even cast
 away1 the material value3--whence that 
of ,pope3--    ,sure1 of qualities      
demanding praise   ,more go to ruin     
fortunes1 than to raise4  ,and on the   
other hand1 the material value is apt to
 undermine the manly character2 so that 
it must be our work1 in the issue1 to   
examine what evidence there is of the   
effect of wealth on the minds of its    
possessors2 also1 what kind of person it
 is who usually sets himself to obtain  
wealth1 and succeeds in doing so2 and   
whether the world owes more gratitude to
 rich or to poor men1 either for their  
moral influence upon it1 or for chief   
goods1 discoveries1 and practical       
advancements4 ,i may1 however1          
anticipate future conclusions so far as 
to state that in a community regulated  
only by laws of demand and supply1 but  

protected from open violence1 the       
persons who become rich are1 generally  
speaking1 industrious1 resolute1 proud1 
covetous1 prompt1 methodical1 sensible1 
unimaginative1 insensitive1 and         
ignorant4 ,the persons who remain poor  
are the entirely foolish1 the entirely  
wise1#eb the idle1 the reckless1 the    
humble1 the thoughtful1 the dull1 the   
imaginative1 the sensitive1 the         
well-informed1 the improvident1 the     
irregularly and impulsively wicked1 the 
clumsy knave1 the open thief1 and the   
entirely merciful1 just1 and godly      
person4     #eb ,greek3 ho ,zeus depou  
penetai4--,arist4 ,plut4 #ehb4 ,it      
would but weaken the grand words to lean
 on the preceding         ones3--,greek3
 hoti tou ,ploutou parecho beltionas    
andras1         kai ten gnomen1 kai ten 
idean4  ,thus far then of wealth4 ,next1
 we have to ascertain the nature of     
,,price2 that is to say1 of exchange    
value1 and its expression by currencies4
  ,note first1 of exchange1 there can be

 no profit in it4 ,it is only in labour 
there can be profit--that is to say a   
making in advance1 or making in favour  
of 7from proficio74 ,in exchange1 there 
is only advantage1 i4e41 a bringing of  
vantage or power to the exchanging      
persons4 ,thus1 one man1 by sowing and  
reaping1 turns one measure of corn into 
two measures4 ,that is ,profit4 ,another
 by digging and forging1 turns one spade
 into two spades4 ,that is ,profit4 ,but
 the man who has two measures of corn   
wants sometimes to dig2 and the man who 
has two spades wants sometimes to       
eat3--,they exchange the gained grain   
for the gained tool2 and both are the   
better for the exchange2 but though     
there is much advantage in the          
transaction1 there is no profit4        
,nothing is constructed or produced4    
,only that which had been before        
constructed is given to the person by   
whom it can be used4 ,if labour is      
necessary to effect the exchange1 that  
labour is in reality involved in the    

production1 and1 like all other labour1 
bears profit4 ,whatever number of men   
are concerned in the manufacture1 or in 
the conveyance1 have share in the       
profit2 but neither the manufacture nor 
the conveyance are the exchange1 and in 
the exchange itself there is no profit4 
,there may1 however1 be acquisition1    
which is a very different thing4 ,if1 in
 the exchange1 one man is able to give  
what cost him little labour for what has
 cost the other much1 he acquires a     
certain quantity of the produce of the  
other's labour4 ,and precisely what he  
acquires1 the other loses4 ,in          
mercantile language1 the person who thus
 acquires is commonly said to have made 
a profit2 and ,i believe that many of   
our merchants are seriously under the   
impression that it is possible for      
everybody1 somehow1 to make a profit in 
this manner4 ,whereas1 by the           
unfortunate constitution of the world we
 live in1 the laws both of matter and   
motion have quite rigorously forbidden  

universal acquisition of this kind4     
,profit1 or material gain1 is attainable
 only by construction or by discovery2  
not by exchange4 ,whenever material gain
 follows exchange1 for every plus there 
is a precisely equal minus4  ,unhappily 
for the progress of the science of      
,political ,economy1 the plus           
quantities1 or--if ,i may be allowed to 
coin an awkward plural--the pluses1 make
 a very positive and venerable          
appearance in the world1 so that every  
one is eager to learn the science which 
produces results so magnificent2 whereas
 the minuses have1 on the other hand1 a 
tendency to retire into back streets1   
and other places of shade1--or even to  
get themselves wholly and finally put   
out of sight in graves3 which renders   
the algebra of this science peculiar1   
and difficultly legible2 a large number 
of its negative signs being written by  
the account-keeper in a kind of red ink1
 which starvation thins1 and makes      
strangely pale1 or even quite invisible 

ink1 for the present4  ,the science of  
,exchange1 or1 as ,i hear it has been   
proposed to call it1 of ,catallactics1  
considered as one of gain1 is1          
therefore1 simply nugatory2 but         
considered as one of acquisition1 it is 
a very curious science1 differing in its
 data and basis from every other science
 known4 ,thus3--,if ,i can exchange a   
needle with a savage for a diamond1 my  
power of doing so depends either on the 
savage's ignorance of social            
arrangements in ,europe1 or on his want 
of power to take advantage of them1 by  
selling the diamond to any one else for 
more needles4 ,if1 farther1 ,i make the 
bargain as completely advantageous to   
myself as possible1 by giving to the    
savage a needle with no eye in it       
7reaching1 thus1 a sufficiently         
satisfactory type of the perfect        
operation of catallactic science71 the  
advantage to me in the entire           
transaction depends wholly upon the     
ignorance1 powerlessness1 or            

heedlessness of the person dealt with4  
,do away with these1 and catallactic    
advantage becomes impossible4 ,so far1  
therefore as the science of exchange    
relates to the advantage of one of the  
exchanging persons only1 it is founded  
on the ignorance or incapacity of the   
opposite person4 ,where these vanish1 it
 also vanishes4 ,it is therefore a      
science founded on nescience1 and an art
 founded on artlessness4 ,but all other 
sciences and arts1 except this1 have for
 their object the doing away with their 
opposite nescience and artlessness4     
,this science1 alone of sciences1 must1 
by all available means1 promulgate and  
prolong its opposite nescience2         
otherwise the science itself is         
impossible4 ,it is1 therefore1          
peculiarly and alone1 the science of    
darkness2 probably a bastard            
science--not by any means a divina      
scientia1 but one begotten of another   
father1 that father who1 advising his   
children to turn stones into bread1 is  

himself employed in turning bread into  
stones1 and who1 if you ask a fish of   
him 7fish not being producible on his   
estate71 can but give you a serpent4    
,the general law1 then1 respecting just 
or economical exchange1 is simply       
this3--,there must be advantage on both 
sides 7or if only advantage on one1 at  
least no disadvantage on the other7 to  
the persons exchanging2 and just payment
 for his time1 intelligence1 and labour1
 to any intermediate person effecting   
the transaction 7commonly called a      
merchant73 and whatever advantage there 
is on either side1 and whatever pay is  
given to the intermediate person1 should
 be thoroughly known to all concerned4  
,all attempt at concealment implies some
 practice of the opposite1 or undivine  
science1 founded on nescience4 ,whence  
another saying of the ,jew              
merchant's--,as a nail between the stone
 joints1 so doth sin stick fast between 
buying and selling4 ,which peculiar     
riveting of stone and timber1 in men's  

dealing with each other1 is again set   
forth in the house which was to be      
destroyed--timber and stones            
together--when ,zechariah's roll 7more  
probably curved sword7 flew over it3 the
 curse that goeth forth over all the    
earth upon every one that stealeth and  
holdeth himself guiltless1 instantly    
followed by the vision of the ,great    
,measure2--the measure of the injustice 
of them in all the earth 7,greek3 aute  
he adikia auton en pase te ge71 with the
 weight of lead for its lid1 and the    
woman1 the spirit of wickedness1 within 
it2--that is to say1 ,wickedness hidden 
by ,dulness1 and formalized1 outwardly1 
into ponderously established cruelty4   
,it shall be set upon its own base in   
the land on ,babel4#ec     #ec ,zech4 v4
 #aa4 ,see note on the passage1 at pp4  
#aia-b4  ,i have hitherto carefully     
restricted myself1 in speaking of       
exchange1 to the use of the term        
advantage2 but that term includes two   
ideas3 the advantage1 namely1 of getting

 what we need1 and that of getting what 
we wish for4 ,three-fourths of the      
demands existing in the world are       
romantic2 founded on visions1 idealisms1
 hopes1 and affections2 and the         
regulation of the purse is1 in its      
essence1 regulation of the imagination  
and the heart4 ,hence1 the right        
discussion of the nature of price is a  
very high metaphysical and psychical    
problem2 sometimes to be solved only in 
a passionate manner1 as by ,david in his
 counting the price of the water of the 
well by the gate of ,bethlehem2 but its 
first conditions are the                
following3--,the price of anything is   
the quantity of labour given by the     
person desiring it1 in order to obtain  
possession of it4 ,this price depends on
 four variable quantities4 ,a4 ,the     
quantity of wish the purchaser has for  
the thing2 opposed to ,greek3 a1 the    
quantity of wish the seller has to keep 
it4 ,b4 ,the quantity of labour the     
purchaser can afford1 to obtain the     

thing2 opposed to ,greek3 b1 the        
quantity of labour the seller can       
afford1 to keep it4 ,these quantities   
are operative only in excess2 i4e41 the 
quantity of wish 7,a7 means the quantity
 of wish for this thing1 above wish for 
other things2 and the quantity of work  
7,b7 means the quantity which can be    
spared to get this thing from the       
quantity needed to get other things4    
,phenomena of price1 therefore1 are     
intensely complex1 curious1 and         
interesting--too complex1 however1 to be
 examined yet2 every one of them1 when  
traced far enough1 showing itself at    
last as a part of the bargain of the    
,poor of the ,flock 7or flock of        
slaughter71 ,if ye think good1 give ,,me
 my price1 and if not1 forbear--,zech4  
xi4 #ab2 but as the price of everything 
is to be calculated finally in labour1  
it is necessary to define the nature of 
that standard4  ,labour is the contest  
of the life of man with an              
opposite3--the term life including his  

intellect1 soul1 and physical power1    
contending with question1 difficulty1   
trial1 or material force4  ,labour is of
 a higher or lower order1 as it includes
 more or fewer of the elements of life3 
and labour of good quality1 in any kind1
 includes always as much intellect and  
feeling as will fully and harmoniously  
regulate the physical force4  ,in       
speaking of the value and price of      
labour1 it is necessary always to       
understand labour of a given rank and   
quality1 as we should speak of gold or  
silver of a given standard4 ,bad 7that  
is1 heartless1 inexperienced1 or        
senseless7 labour cannot be valued2 it  
is like gold of uncertain alloy1 or     
flawed iron4#ed     #ed ,labour which is
 entirely good of its kind1 that is to  
say1         effective1 or efficient1   
the ,greeks called weighable1         or
 ,greek3 axios1 translated usually      
worthy1 and         because thus        
substantial and true1 they called its   
price         ,greek3 time1 the         

honourable estimate of it 7honorarium73 
this word being founded on their        
conception of true labour         as a  
divine thing1 to be honoured with the   
kind of honour         given to the     
gods2 whereas the price of false labour1
 or of         that which led away from 
life1 was to be1 not honour1 but        
vengeance2 for which they reserved      
another word1 attributing         the   
exaction of such price to a peculiar    
goddess called         ,tisiphone1 the  
requiter 7or quittance-taker7 of death2 
a person versed in the highest branches 
of arithmetic1 and         punctual in  
her habits2 with whom accounts current  
have been         opened also in modern 
days4  ,the quality and kind of labour  
being given1 its value1 like that of all
 other valuable things1 is invariable4  
,but the quantity of it which must be   
given for other things is variable3 and 
in estimating this variation1 the price 
of other things must always be counted  
by the quantity of labour2 not the price

 of labour by the quantity of other     
things4  ,thus1 if we want to plant an  
apple sapling in rocky ground1 it may   
take two hours' work2 in soft ground1   
perhaps only half an hour4 ,grant the   
soil equally good for the tree in each  
case4 ,then the value of the sapling    
planted by two hours' work is nowise    
greater than that of the sapling planted
 in half an hour4 ,one will bear no more
 fruit than the other4 ,also1 one       
half-hour of work is as valuable as     
another half-hour2 nevertheless the one 
sapling has cost four such pieces of    
work1 the other only one4 ,now the      
proper statement of this fact is1 not   
that the labour on the hard ground is   
cheaper than on the soft2 but that the  
tree is dearer4 ,the exchange value may1
 or may not1 afterwards depend on this  
fact4 ,if other people have plenty of   
soft ground to plant in1 they will take 
no cognizance of our two hours' labour1 
in the price they will offer for the    
plant on the rock4 ,and if1 through want

 of sufficient botanical science1 we    
have planted an upas-tree instead of an 
apple1 the exchange value will be a     
negative quantity2 still less           
proportionate to the labour expended4   
,what is commonly called cheapness of   
labour1 signifies1 therefore1 in        
reality1 that many obstacles have to be 
overcome by it2 so that much labour is  
required to produce a small result4 ,but
 this should never be spoken of as      
cheapness of labour1 but as dearness of 
the object wrought for4 ,it would be    
just as rational to say that walking was
 cheap1 because we had ten miles to walk
 home to our dinner1 as that labour was 
cheap1 because we had to work ten hours 
to earn it4  ,the last word which we    
have to define is ,production4  ,i have 
hitherto spoken of all labour as        
profitable2 because it is impossible to 
consider under one head the quality or  
value of labour1 and its aim4 ,but      
labour of the best quality may be       
various in aim4 ,it may be either       

constructive 7gathering1 from con and   
struo71 as agriculture2 nugatory1 as    
jewel-cutting2 or destructive           
7scattering1 from de and struo71 as war4
 ,it is not1 however1 always easy to    
prove labour1 apparently nugatory1 to be
 actually so2#ee generally1 the formula 
holds good1 he that gathereth not1      
scattereth2 thus1 the jeweller's art is 
probably very harmful in its ministering
 to a clumsy and inelegant pride4 ,so   
that1 finally1 ,i believe nearly all    
labour may be shortly divided into      
positive and negative labour3 positive1 
that which produces life2 negative1 that
 which produces death2 the most directly
 negative labour being murder1 and the  
most directly positive1 the bearing and 
rearing of children3 so that in the     
precise degree in which murder is       
hateful1 on the negative side of        
idleness1 in that exact degree          
child-rearing is admirable1 on the      
positive side of idleness4 ,for which   
reason1 and because of the honour that  

there is in rearing#ef children1 while  
the wife is said to be as the vine 7for 
cheering71 the children are as the      
olive-branch1 for praise2 nor for praise
 only1 but for peace 7because large     
families can only be reared in times of 
peace73 though since1 in their spreading
 and voyaging in various directions1    
they distribute strength1 they are1 to  
the home strength1 as arrows in the hand
 of the giant--striking here and there1 
far away4     #ee ,the most accurately  
nugatory labour is1 perhaps1 that of    
which not enough is given to answer a   
purpose effectually1         and which1 
therefore1 has all to be done over      
again4 ,also1         labour which fails
 of effect through non-cooperation4 ,the
         cure of a little village near  
,bellinzona1 to whom ,i had             
expressed wonder that the peasants      
allowed the ,ticino to         flood    
their fields1 told me that they would   
not join to         build an effectual  
embankment high up the valley1 because  

everybody said that would help his      
neighbours as much as         himself4  
,so every proprietor built a bit of low 
embankment         about his own field2 
and the ,ticino1 as soon as it had a    
mind1 swept away and swallowed all up   
together4     #ef ,observe1 ,i say1     
rearing1 not begetting4 ,the praise is  
in the seventh season1 not in ,greek3   
sporetos1 nor in         ,greek3        
phytalia1 but in ,greek3 opora4 ,it is  
strange         that men always praise  
enthusiastically any person who1        
by a momentary exertion1 saves a life2  
but praise very         hesitatingly a  
person who1 by exertion and self-denial 
prolonged through years1 creates one4   
,we give the crown ob         civem     
servatum1--why not ob civem natum8      
,born1 ,i mean1 to         the full1 in 
soul as well as body4 ,england has oak  
enough1 ,i         think1 for both      
chaplets4  ,labour being thus various in
 its result1 the prosperity of any      
nation is in exact proportion to the    

quantity of labour which it spends in   
obtaining and employing means of life4  
,observe1--,i say1 obtaining and        
employing2 that is to say1 not merely   
wisely producing1 but wisely            
distributing and consuming4 ,economists 
usually speak as if there were no good  
in consumption absolute4#eg ,so far from
 this being so1 consumption absolute is 
the end1 crown1 and perfection of       
production2 and wise consumption is a   
far more difficult art than wise        
production4 ,twenty people can gain     
money for one who can use it2 and the   
vital question1 for individual and for  
nation1 is1 never how much do they make8
 but to what purpose do they spend8     
#eg ,when ,mr4 ,mill speaks of          
productive consumption1 he only         
means consumption which results in      
increase of capital1 or         material
 wealth4 ,see ,i4 iii4 #d1 and ,i4 iii4 
#e4  ,the reader may1 perhaps1 have been
 surprised at the slight reference ,i   
have hitherto made to capital1 and its  

functions4 ,it is here the place to     
define them4  ,capital signifies head1  
or source1 or root material--it is      
material by which some derivative or    
secondary good is produced4 ,it is only 
capital proper 7caput vivum1 not caput  
mortuum7 when it is thus producing      
something different from itself4 ,it is 
a root1 which does not enter into vital 
function till it produces something else
 than a root2 namely1 fruit4 ,that fruit
 will in time again produce roots2 and  
so all living capital issues in         
reproduction of capital2 but capital    
which produces nothing but capital is   
only root producing root2 bulb issuing  
in bulb1 never in tulip2 seed issuing in
 seed1 never in bread4 ,the ,political  
,economy of ,europe has hitherto devoted
 itself wholly to the multiplication1 or
 7less even7 the aggregation1 of bulbs4 
,it never saw1 nor conceived such a     
thing as a tulip4 ,nay1 boiled bulbs    
they might have been--glass             
bulbs--,prince ,rupert's drops1         

consummated in powder 7well1 if it were 
glass-powder and not gunpowder71 for any
 end or meaning the economists had in   
defining the laws of aggregation4 ,we   
will try and get a clearer notion of    
them4  ,the best and simplest general   
type of capital is a well-made          
ploughshare4 ,now1 if that ploughshare  
did nothing but beget other             
ploughshares1 in a polypous             
manner1--however the great cluster of   
polypous plough might glitter in the    
sun1 it would have lost its function of 
capital4 ,it becomes true capital only  
by another kind of splendour1--when it  
is seen splendescere sulco1 to grow     
bright in the furrow2 rather with       
diminution of its substance1 than       
addition1 by the noble friction4 ,and   
the true home question1 to every        
capitalist and to every nation1 is not1 
how many ploughs have you8 but1 where   
are your furrows8 not--how quickly will 
this capital reproduce itself8--but1    
what will it do during reproduction8    

,what substance will it furnish1 good   
for life8 what work construct1          
protective of life8 if none1 its own    
reproduction is useless--if worse than  
none 7for capital may destroy life as   
well as support it71 its own            
reproduction is worse than useless2 it  
is merely an advance from ,tisiphone1 on
 mortgage--not a profit by any means4   
,not a profit1 as the ancients truly    
saw1 and showed in the type of          
,ixion2--for capital is the head1 or    
fountain head1 of wealth--the well-head 
of wealth1 as the clouds are the        
well-heads of rain3 but when clouds are 
without water1 and only beget clouds1   
they issue in wrath at last1 instead of 
rain1 and in lightning instead of       
harvest2 whence ,ixion is said first to 
have invited his guests to a banquet1   
and then made them fall into a pit      
filled with fire2 which is the type of  
the temptation of riches issuing in     
imprisoned torment1--torment in a pit   
7as also ,demas' silver mine71 after    

which1 to show the rage of riches       
passing from lust of pleasure to lust of
 power1 yet power not truly understood1 
,ixion is said to have desired ,juno1   
and instead1 embracing a cloud 7or      
phantasm71 to have begotten the         
,centaurs2 the power of mere wealth     
being1 in itself1 as the embrace of a   
shadow1--comfortless 7so also ,ephraim  
feedeth on wind and followeth after the 
east wind2 or that which is not--,prov4 
xxiii4 #e2 and again ,dante's ,geryon1  
the type of avaricious fraud1 as he     
flies1 gathers the air up with          
retractile claws1--l'aer a se           
raccolse#eh71 but in its offspring1 a   
mingling of the brutal with the human   
nature3 human in sagacity--using both   
intellect and arrow2 but brutal in its  
body and hoof1 for consuming1 and       
trampling down4 ,for which sin ,ixion is
 at last bound upon a wheel--fiery and  
toothed1 and rolling perpetually in the 
air2--the type of human labour when     
selfish and fruitless 7kept far into the

 middle ages in their wheel of fortune72
 the wheel which has in it no breath or 
spirit1 but is whirled by chance only2  
whereas of all true work the ,ezekiel   
vision is true1 that the ,spirit of the 
living creature is in the wheels1 and   
where the angels go1 the wheels go by   
them2 but move no otherwise4     #eh ,so
 also in the vision of the women bearing
 the ephah1 before         quoted1 the  
wind was in their wings1 not wings of a 
stork1 as in our version2 but milvi1 of 
a kite1 in the         ,vulgate1 or     
perhaps more accurately still in the    
,septuagint1         hoopoe1 a bird     
connected typically with the power of   
riches by many traditions1 of which that
 of its petition for         a crest of 
gold is perhaps the most interesting4   
,the ,birds         of ,aristophanes1 in
 which its part is principal1 is full of
         them2 note especially the      
fortification of the air with           
baked bricks1 like ,babylon1 l4 #eej2   
and1 again1 compare the         ,plutus 

of ,dante1 who 7to show the influence of
 riches in         destroying the       
reason7 is the only one of the powers of
 the         ,inferno who cannot speak  
intelligibly2 and also the              
cowardliest2 he is not merely quelled or
 restrained1 but         literally      
collapses at a word2 the sudden and     
helpless         operation of mercantile
 panic being all told in the brief      
metaphor1 as the sails1 swollen with the
 wind1 fall1 when         the mast      
breaks4  ,this being the real nature of 
capital1 it follows that there are two  
kinds of true production1 always going  
on in an active ,state2 one of seed1 and
 one of food2 or production for the     
,ground1 and for the ,mouth2 both of    
which are by covetous persons thought to
 be production only for the granary2    
whereas the function of the granary is  
but intermediate and conservative1      
fulfilled in distribution2 else it ends 
in nothing but mildew1 and nourishment  
of rats and worms4 ,and since production

 for the ,ground is only useful with    
future hope of harvest1 all essential   
production is for the ,mouth2 and is    
finally measured by the mouth2 hence1 as
 ,i said above1 consumption is the crown
 of production2 and the wealth of a     
nation is only to be estimated by what  
it consumes4  ,the want of any clear    
sight of this fact is the capital error1
 issuing in rich interest and revenue of
 error among the political economists4  
,their minds are continually set on     
money-gain1 not on mouth-gain2 and they 
fall into every sort of net and snare1  
dazzled by the coin-glitter as birds by 
the fowler's glass2 or rather 7for there
 is not much else like birds in them7   
they are like children trying to jump on
 the heads of their own shadows2 the    
money-gain being only the shadow of the 
true gain1 which is humanity4  ,the     
final object of political economy1      
therefore1 is to get good method of     
consumption1 and great quantity of      
consumption3 in other words1 to use     

everything1 and to use it nobly2 whether
 it be substance1 service1 or service   
perfecting substance4 ,the most curious 
error in ,mr4 ,mill's entire work       
7provided for him originally by         
,ricardo7 is his endeavour to           
distinguish between direct and indirect 
service1 and consequent assertion that a
 demand for commodities is not demand   
for labour 7,i4 v4 #i1 et seq474 ,he    
distinguishes between labourers employed
 to lay out pleasure grounds1 and to    
manufacture velvet2 declaring that it   
makes material difference to the        
labouring classes in which of these two 
ways a capitalist spends his money2     
because the employment of the gardeners 
is a demand for labour1 but the purchase
 of velvet is not4#ei ,error colossal as
 well as strange4 ,it will1 indeed1 make
 a difference to the labourer whether we
 bid him swing his scythe in the spring 
winds1 or drive the loom in pestilential
 air2 but1 so far as his pocket is      
concerned1 it makes to him absolutely no

 difference whether we order him to make
 green velvet1 with seed and a scythe1  
or red velvet1 with silk and scissors4  
,neither does it anywise concern him    
whether1 when the velvet is made1 we    
consume it by walking on it1 or wearing 
it1 so long as our consumption of it is 
wholly selfish4 ,but if our consumption 
is to be in any wise unselfish1 not only
 our mode of consuming the articles we  
require interests him1 but also the kind
 of article we require with a view to   
consumption4 ,as thus 7returning for a  
moment to ,mr4 ,mill's great hardware   
theory#fj73 it matters1 so far as the   
labourer's immediate profit is          
concerned1 not an iron filing whether ,i
 employ him in growing a peach1 or      
forging a bombshell2 but my probable    
mode of consumption of those articles   
matters seriously4 ,admit that it is to 
be in both cases unselfish1 and the     
difference1 to him1 is final1 whether   
when his child is ill1 ,i walk into his 
cottage and give it the peach1 or drop  

the shell down his chimney1 and blow his
 roof off4     #ei ,the value of raw    
material1 which has1 indeed1 to be      
deducted         from the price of the  
labour1 is not contemplated in the      
passages referred to1 ,mr4 ,mill having 
fallen into the         mistake solely  
by pursuing the collateral results of   
the         payment of wages to         
middlemen4 ,he says3--,the consumer does
         not1 with his own funds1 pay   
the weaver for his day's work4          
,pardon me2 the consumer of the velvet  
pays the weaver with         his own    
funds as much as he pays the gardener4  
,he pays1         probably1 an          
intermediate ship-owner1 velvet         
merchant1 and         shopman2 pays     
carriage money1 shop rent1 damage money1
 time         money1 and care money2 all
 these are above and beside the         
velvet price 7just as the wages of a    
head gardener would be         above the
 grass price72 but the velvet is as much
 produced         by the consumer's     

capital1 though he does not pay for it  
till six months after production1 as the
 grass is produced         by his       
capital1 though he does not pay the man 
who mowed and         rolled it on      
,monday1 till ,saturday afternoon4 ,i do
 not know         if ,mr4 ,mill's       
conclusion--the capital cannot be       
dispensed         with1 the purchasers  
can--has yet been reduced to practice   
in the ,city on any large scale4     #fj
 ,which1 observe1 is the precise        
opposite of the one         under       
examination4 ,the hardware theory       
required us to         discharge our    
gardeners and engage manufacturers2 the 
velvet         theory requires us to    
discharge our manufacturers and engage  
gardeners4  ,the worst of it1 for the   
peasant1 is1 that the capitalist's      
consumption of the peach is apt to be   
selfish1 and of the shell1              
distributive2#fa but1 in all cases1 this
 is the broad and general fact1 that on 
due catallactic commercial principles1  

somebody's roof must go off in          
fulfilment of the bomb's destiny4 ,you  
may grow for your neighbour1 at your    
liking1 grapes or grapeshot2 he will    
also1 catallactically1 grow grapes or   
grapeshot for you1 and you will each    
reap what you have sown4     #fa ,it is 
one very awful form of the operation of 
wealth in         ,europe that it is    
entirely capitalists' wealth which      
supports unjust wars4 ,just wars do not 
need so much money to         support   
them2 for most of the men who wage such1
 wage them         gratis2 but for an   
unjust war1 men's bodies and souls have 
both to be bought2 and the best tools of
 war for them         besides2 which    
makes such war costly to the maximum2   
not to         speak of the cost of base
 fear1 and angry suspicion1 between     
nations which have not grace nor honesty
 enough in all their         multitudes 
to buy an hour's peace of mind with3 as1
 at         present1 ,france and        
,england1 purchasing of each other ten  

millions sterling worth of consternation
 annually 7a         remarkably light   
crop1 half thorns and half aspen        
leaves1--sown1 reaped1 and granaried by 
the science of the         modern       
political economist1 teaching           
covetousness instead of         truth74 
,and all unjust war being supportable1  
if not by         pillage of the enemy1 
only by loans from capitalists1 these   
loans are repaid by subsequent taxation 
of the people1 who         appear to    
have no will in the matter1 the         
capitalists' will         being the     
primary root of the war2 but its real   
root is the         covetousness of the 
whole nation1 rendering it incapable of 
faith1 frankness1 or justice1 and       
bringing about1 therefore1         in   
due time1 his own separate loss and     
punishment to each         person4  ,it 
is1 therefore1 the manner and issue of  
consumption which are the real tests of 
production4 ,production does not consist
 in things laboriously made1 but in     

things serviceably consumable2 and the  
question for the nation is not how much 
labour it employs1 but how much life it 
produces4 ,for as consumption is the end
 and aim of production1 so life is the  
end and aim of consumption4  ,i left    
this question to the reader's thought   
two months ago1 choosing rather that he 
should work it out for himself than have
 it sharply stated to him4 ,but now1 the
 ground being sufficiently broken 7and  
the details into which the several      
questions1 here opened1 must lead us1   
being too complex for discussion in the 
pages of a periodical1 so that ,i must  
pursue them elsewhere71 ,i desire1 in   
closing the series of introductory      
papers1 to leave this one great fact    
clearly stated4 ,,there ,,is ,,no       
,,wealth ,,but ,,life4 ,life1 including 
all its powers of love1 of joy1 and of  
admiration4 ,that country is the richest
 which nourishes the greatest number of 
noble and happy human beings2 that man  
is richest who1 having perfected the    

functions of his own life to the utmost1
 has also the widest helpful influence1 
both personal and by means of his       
possessions1 over the lives of others4  
,a strange political economy2 the only  
one1 nevertheless1 that ever was or can 
be3 all political economy founded on    
self-interest#fb being but the          
fulfilment of that which once brought   
schism into the ,policy of angels1 and  
ruin into the ,economy of ,heaven4      
#fb ,in all reasoning about prices1 the 
proviso must be         understood1     
'supposing all parties to take care of  
their         own interest4'--,mill1    
,,iii4 i4 #e4  ,the greatest number of  
human beings noble and happy4 ,but is   
the nobleness consistent with the       
number8 ,yes1 not only consistent with  
it1 but essential to it4 ,the maximum of
 life can only be reached by the maximum
 of virtue4 ,in this respect the law of 
human population differs wholly from    
that of animal life4 ,the multiplication
 of animals is checked only by want of  

food1 and by the hostility of races2 the
 population of the gnat is restrained by
 the hunger of the swallow1 and that of 
the swallow by the scarcity of gnats4   
,man1 considered as an animal1 is indeed
 limited by the same laws3 hunger1 or   
plague1 or war1 are the necessary and   
only restraints upon his                
increase1--effectual restraints         
hitherto1--his principal study having   
been how most swiftly to destroy        
himself1 or ravage his dwelling-places1 
and his highest skill directed to give  
range to the famine1 seed to the plague1
 and sway to the sword4 ,but1 considered
 as other than an animal1 his increase  
is not limited by these laws4 ,it is    
limited only by the limits of his       
courage and his love4 ,both of these    
have their bounds2 and ought to have3   
his race has its bounds also2 but these 
have not yet been reached1 nor will be  
reached for ages4  ,in all the ranges of
 human thought ,i know none so          
melancholy as the speculations of       

political economists on the population  
question4 ,it is proposed to better the 
condition of the labourer by giving him 
higher wages4 ,nay1 says the economist1 
if you raise his wages1 he will either  
drag people down to the same point of   
misery at which you found him1 or drink 
your wages away4 ,he will4 ,i know it4  
,who gave him this will8 ,suppose it    
were your own son of whom you spoke1    
declaring to me that you dared not take 
him into your firm1 nor even give him   
his just labourer's wages1 because if   
you did1 he would die of drunkenness1   
and leave half a score of children to   
the parish4 ,who gave your son these    
dispositions8--,i should inquire4 ,has  
he them by inheritance or by education8 
,by one or other they must come2 and as 
in him1 so also in the poor4 ,either    
these poor are of a race essentially    
different from ours1 and unredeemable   
7which1 however often implied1 ,i have  
heard none yet openly say71 or else by  
such care as we have ourselves received1

 we may make them continent and sober as
 ourselves--wise and dispassionate as we
 are--models arduous of imitation4 ,but1
 it is answered1 they cannot receive    
education4 ,why not8 ,that is precisely 
the point at issue4 ,charitable persons 
suppose the worst fault of the rich is  
to refuse the people meat2 and the      
people cry for their meat1 kept back by 
fraud1 to the ,lord of ,multitudes4#fc  
,alas6 it is not meat of which the      
refusal is cruelest1 or to which the    
claim is validest4 ,the life is more    
than the meat4 ,the rich not only refuse
 food to the poor2 they refuse wisdom2  
they refuse virtue2 they refuse         
salvation4 ,ye sheep without shepherd1  
it is not the pasture that has been shut
 from you1 but the presence4 ,meat6     
perhaps your right to that may be       
pleadable2 but other rights have to be  
pleaded first4 ,claim your crumbs from  
the table1 if you will2 but claim them  
as children1 not as dogs2 claim your    
right to be fed1 but claim more loudly  

your right to be holy1 perfect1 and     
pure4     #fc ,james v4 #d4 ,observe1 in
 these statements ,i am not taking      
up1 nor countenancing one whit1 the     
common socialist idea of                
division of property2 division of       
property is its         destruction2 and
 with it the destruction of all hope1   
all         industry1 and all justice3  
it is simply chaos--a chaos             
towards which the believers in modern   
political economy are         fast      
tending1 and from which ,i am striving  
to save them4 ,the         rich man does
 not keep back meat from the poor by    
retaining         his riches2 but by    
basely using them4 ,riches are a form of
         strength2 and a strong man does
 not injure others by keeping           
his strength1 but by using it           
injuriously4 ,the socialist1            
seeing a strong man oppress a weak one1 
cries out--,break         the strong    
man's arms2 but ,i say1 ,teach him to   
use them to         better purpose4 ,the

 fortitude and intelligence which       
acquire riches are intended1 by the     
,giver of both1 not to         scatter1 
nor to give away1 but to employ those   
riches in the         service of        
mankind2 in other words1 in the         
redemption of the         erring and aid
 of the weak--that is to say1 there is  
first         to be the work to gain    
money2 then the ,sabbath of use for     
it--the ,sabbath1 whose law is1 not to  
lose life1 but to         save4 ,it is  
continually the fault or the folly of   
the poor         that they are poor1 as 
it is usually a child's fault if it     
falls into a pond1 and a cripple's      
weakness that slips at a                
crossing2 nevertheless1 most passers-by 
would pull the child         out1 or    
help up the cripple4 ,put it at the     
worst1 that all         the poor of the 
world are but disobedient children1 or  
careless cripples1 and that all rich    
people are wise and         strong1 and 
you will see at once that neither is the

         socialist right in desiring to 
make everybody poor1         powerless1 
and foolish as he is himself1 nor the   
rich man         right in leaving the   
children in the mire4  ,strange words to
 be used of working people3 ,what6 holy2
 without any long robes nor anointing   
oils2 these rough-jacketed1 rough-worded
 persons set to nameless and dishonoured
 service8 ,perfect6--these1 with dim    
eyes and cramped limbs1 and slowly      
wakening minds8 ,pure6--these1 with     
sensual desire and grovelling thought2  
foul of body1 and coarse of soul8 ,it   
may be so2 nevertheless1 such as they   
are1 they are the holiest1 perfectest1  
purest persons the earth can at present 
show4 ,they may be what you have said2  
but if so1 they yet are holier than we1 
who have left them thus4  ,but what can 
be done for them8 ,who can clothe--who  
teach--who restrain their multitudes8   
,what end can there be for them at last1
 but to consume one another8  ,i hope   
for another end1 though not1 indeed1    

from any of the three remedies for      
over-population commonly suggested by   
economists4  ,these three are1 in       
brief--,colonization2 ,bringing in of   
waste lands2 or ,discouragement of      
,marriage4  ,the first and second of    
these expedients merely evade or delay  
the question4 ,it will1 indeed1 be long 
before the world has been all colonized1
 and its deserts all brought under      
cultivation4 ,but the radical question  
is not how much habitable land is in the
 world1 but how many human beings ought 
to be maintained on a given space of    
habitable land4  ,observe1 ,i say1 ought
 to be1 not how many can be4 ,ricardo1  
with his usual inaccuracy1 defines what 
he calls the natural rate of wages as   
that which will maintain the labourer4  
,maintain him6 yes2 but how8--the       
question was instantly thus asked of me 
by a working girl1 to whom ,i read the  
passage4 ,i will amplify her question   
for her4 ,maintain him1 how8 ,as1 first1
 to what length of life8 ,out of a given

 number of fed persons how many are to  
be old--how many young2 that is to say1 
will you arrange their maintenance so as
 to kill them early--say at thirty or   
thirty-five on the average1 including   
deaths of weakly or ill-fed             
children8--or so as to enable them to   
live out a natural life8 ,you will feed 
a greater number1 in the first case1#fd 
by rapidity of succession2 probably a   
happier number in the second3 which does
 ,mr4 ,ricardo mean to be their natural 
state1 and to which state belongs the   
natural rate of wages8     #fd ,the     
quantity of life is the same in both    
cases2 but it         is differently    
allotted4  ,again3 ,a piece of land     
which will only support ten idle1       
ignorant1 and improvident persons1 will 
support thirty or forty intelligent and 
industrious ones4 ,which of these is    
their natural state1 and to which of    
them belongs the natural rate of wages8 
,again3 ,if a piece of land support     
forty persons in industrious ignorance2 

and if1 tired of this ignorance1 they   
set apart ten of their number to study  
the properties of cones1 and the sizes  
of stars2 the labour of these ten1 being
 withdrawn from the ground1 must either 
tend to the increase of food in some    
transitional manner1 or the persons set 
apart for sidereal and conic purposes   
must starve1 or some one else starve    
instead of them4 ,what is1 therefore1   
the natural rate of wages of the        
scientific persons1 and how does this   
rate relate to1 or measure1 their       
reverted or transitional productiveness8
  ,again3 ,if the ground maintains1 at  
first1 forty labourers in a peaceable   
and pious state of mind1 but they become
 in a few years so quarrelsome and      
impious that they have to set apart     
five1 to meditate upon and settle their 
disputes2 ten1 armed to the teeth with  
costly instruments1 to enforce the      
decisions2 and five to remind everybody 
in an eloquent manner of the existence  
of a ,god2--what will be the result upon

 the general power of production1 and   
what is the natural rate of wages of the
 meditative1 muscular1 and oracular     
labourers8  ,leaving these questions to 
be discussed1 or waived1 at their       
pleasure1 by ,mr4 ,ricardo's followers1 
,i proceed to state the main facts      
bearing on that probable future of the  
labouring classes which has been        
partially glanced at by ,mr4 ,mill4     
,that chapter and the preceding one     
differ from the common writing of       
political economists in admitting some  
value in the aspect of nature1 and      
expressing regret at the probability of 
the destruction of natural scenery4 ,but
 we may spare our anxieties1 on this    
head4 ,men can neither drink steam1 nor 
eat stone4 ,the maximum of population on
 a given space of land implies also the 
relative maximum of edible vegetable1   
whether for men or cattle2 it implies a 
maximum of pure air2 and of pure water4 
,therefore3 a maximum of wood1 to       
transmute the air1 and of sloping       

ground1 protected by herbage from the   
extreme heat of the sun1 to feed the    
streams4 ,all ,england may1 if it so    
chooses1 become one manufacturing town2 
and ,englishmen1 sacrificing themselves 
to the good of general humanity1 may    
live diminished lives in the midst of   
noise1 of darkness1 and of deadly       
exhalation4 ,but the world cannot become
 a factory1 nor a mine4 ,no amount of   
ingenuity will ever make iron digestible
 by the million1 nor substitute hydrogen
 for wine4 ,neither the avarice nor the 
rage of men will ever feed them1 and    
however the apple of ,sodom and the     
grape of ,gomorrah may spread their     
table for a time with dainties of ashes1
 and nectar of asps1--so long as men    
live by bread1 the far away valleys must
 laugh as they are covered with the gold
 of ,god1 and the shouts of ,his happy  
multitudes ring round the winepress and 
the well4  ,nor need our more           
sentimental economists fear the too wide
 spread of the formalities of a         

mechanical agriculture4 ,the presence of
 a wise population implies the search   
for felicity as well as for food2 nor   
can any population reach its maximum but
 through that wisdom which rejoices in  
the habitable parts of the earth4 ,the  
desert has its appointed place and work2
 the eternal engine1 whose beam is the  
earth's axle1 whose beat is its year1   
and whose breath is its ocean1 will     
still divide imperiously to their desert
 kingdoms1 bound with unfurrowable rock1
 and swept by unarrested sand1 their    
powers of frost and fire3 but the zones 
and lands between1 habitable1 will be   
loveliest in habitation4 ,the desire of 
the heart is also the light of the eyes4
 ,no scene is continually and untiringly
 loved1 but one rich by joyful human    
labour2 smooth in field2 fair in garden2
 full in orchard2 trim1 sweet1 and      
frequent in homestead2 ringing with     
voices of vivid existence4 ,no air is   
sweet that is silent2 it is only sweet  
when full of low currents of under      

sound--triplets of birds1 and murmur and
 chirp of insects1 and deep-toned words 
of men1 and wayward trebles of          
childhood4 ,as the art of life is       
learned1 it will be found at last that  
all lovely things are also              
necessary3--the wild flower by the      
wayside1 as well as the tended corn2 and
 the wild birds and creatures of the    
forest1 as well as the tended cattle2   
because man doth not live by bread only1
 but also by the desert manna2 by every 
wondrous word and unknowable work of    
,god4 ,happy1 in that he knew them not1 
nor did his fathers know2 and that round
 about him reaches yet into the         
infinite1 the amazement of his          
existence4  ,note1 finally1 that all    
effectual advancement towards this true 
felicity of the human race must be by   
individual1 not public effort4 ,certain 
general measures may aid1 certain       
revised laws guide1 such advancement2   
but the measure and law which have first
 to be determined are those of each     

man's home4 ,we continually hear it     
recommended by sagacious people to      
complaining neighbours 7usually less    
well placed in the world than           
themselves71 that they should remain    
content in the station in which         
,providence has placed them4 ,there are 
perhaps some circumstances of life in   
which ,providence has no intention that 
people should be content4 ,nevertheless1
 the maxim is on the whole a good one2  
but it is peculiarly for home use4 ,that
 your neighbour should1 or should not1  
remain content with his position1 is not
 your business2 but it is very much your
 business to remain content with your   
own4 ,what is chiefly needed in ,england
 at the present day is to show the      
quantity of pleasure that may be        
obtained by a consistent1               
well-administered competence1 modest1   
confessed1 and laborious4 ,we need      
examples of people who1 leaving ,heaven 
to decide whether they are to rise in   
the world1 decide for themselves that   

they will be happy in it1 and have      
resolved to seek--not greater wealth1   
but simpler pleasure2 not higher        
fortune1 but deeper felicity2 making the
 first of possessions1 self-possession2 
and honouring themselves in the harmless
 pride and calm pursuits of peace4  ,of 
which lowly peace it is written that    
justice and peace have kissed each      
other2 and that the fruit of justice is 
sown in peace of them that make peace2  
not peace-makers in the common          
understanding--reconcilers of quarrels2 
7though that function also follows on   
the greater one27 but peace-,creators2  
,givers of ,calm4 ,which you cannot     
give1 unless you first gain2 nor is this
 gain one which will follow assuredly on
 any course of business1 commonly so    
called4 ,no form of gain is less        
probable1 business being 7as is shown in
 the language of all nations--,greek3   
polein from ,greek3 pelo1 ,greek3 prasis
 from ,greek3 perao1 venire1 vendre1 and
 venal1 from venio1 etc47 essentially   

restless--and probably                  
contentious2--having a raven-like mind  
to the motion to and fro1 as to the     
carrion food2 whereas the olive-feeding 
and bearing birds look for rest for     
their feet3 thus it is said of ,wisdom  
that she hath builded her house1 and    
hewn out her seven pillars2 and even    
when1 though apt to wait long at the    
doorposts1 she has to leave her house   
and go abroad1 her paths are peace also4
  ,for us1 at all events1 her work must 
begin at the entry of the doors3 all    
true economy is ,law of the house4      
,strive to make that law strict1 simple1
 generous3 waste nothing1 and grudge    
nothing4 ,care in nowise to make more of
 money1 but care to make much of it2    
remembering always the great1 palpable1 
inevitable fact--the rule and root of   
all economy--that what one person has1  
another cannot have2 and that every atom
 of substance1 of whatever kind1 used or
 consumed1 is so much human life spent2 
which1 if it issue in the saving present

 life1 or gaining more1 is well spent1  
but if not1 is either so much life      
prevented1 or so much slain4 ,in all    
buying1 consider1 first1 what condition 
of existence you cause in the producers 
of what you buy2 secondly1 whether the  
sum you have paid is just to the        
producer1 and in due proportion lodged  
in his hands2#fe thirdly1 to how much   
clear use1 for food1 knowledge1 or joy1 
this that you have bought can be put2   
and fourthly1 to whom and in what way it
 can be most speedily and serviceably   
distributed3 in all dealings whatsoever 
insisting on entire openness and stern  
fulfilment2 and in all doings1 on       
perfection and loveliness of            
accomplishment2 especially on fineness  
and purity of all marketable commodity3 
watching at the same time for all ways  
of gaining1 or teaching1 powers of      
simple pleasure2 and of showing hoson en
 asphodelph geg honeiar--the sum of     
enjoyment depending not on the quantity 
of things tasted1 but on the vivacity   

and patience of taste4     #fe ,the     
proper offices of middlemen1 namely1    
overseers 7or         authoritative     
workmen71 conveyancers 7merchants1      
sailors1         retail dealers1 etc471 
and order-takers 7persons employed to   
receive directions from the consumer71  
must1 of course1 be         examined    
before ,i can enter farther into the    
question of         just payment of the 
first producer4 ,but ,i have not spoken 
of them in these introductory papers1   
because the evils         attendant on  
the abuse of such intermediate functions
 result         not from any alleged    
principle of modern political economy1  
but from private carelessness or        
iniquity4  ,and if1 on due and honest   
thought over these things1 it seems that
 the kind of existence to which men are 
now summoned by every plea of pity and  
claim of right1 may1 for some time at   
least1 not be a luxurious one3--consider
 whether1 even1 supposing it guiltless1 
luxury would be desired by any of us1 if

 we saw clearly at our sides the        
suffering which accompanies it in the   
world4 ,luxury is indeed possible in the
 future--innocent and exquisite3 luxury 
for all1 and by the help of all2 but    
luxury at present can only be enjoyed by
 the ignorant2 the cruelest man living  
could not sit at his feast1 unless he   
sat blindfold4 ,raise the veil boldly2  
face the light2 and if1 as yet1 the     
light of the eye can only be through    
tears1 and the light of the body through
 sackcloth1 go thou forth weeping1      
bearing precious seed1 until the time   
come1 and the kingdom1 when ,christ's   
gift of bread1 and bequest of peace     
shall be ,unto this last as unto thee2  
and when1 for earth's severed multitudes
 of the wicked and the weary1 there     
shall be holier reconciliation than that
 of the narrow home1 and calm economy1  
where the ,wicked cease--not from       
trouble1 but from troubling--and the    
,weary are at rest4     ,,essays ,,on   
,,political ,,economy3  ,,contributed   

,,to ,,fraser',s ,,magazine ,,in #ahfb  
,,and #ahfc1 ,,being ,a ,,sequel ,,to   
,,papers ,,which ,,appeared ,,in ,,the  
,,cornhill ,,magazine1 ,,under ,,the    
,,title ,,of ,,unto ,,this ,,last4      
,i4  ,,maintenance ,,of ,,life2         
,,wealth1 ,,money1 ,,and ,,riches4   ,as
 domestic economy regulates the acts and
 habits of a household1 political       
economy regulates those of a society or 
,state1 with reference to its           
maintenance4  ,political economy is     
neither an art nor a science1#ff but a  
system of conduct and legislature1      
founded on the sciences1 directing the  
arts1 and impossible1 except under      
certain conditions of moral culture4    
,by the maintenance of a ,state is to be
 understood the support of its          
population in healthy and happy life2   
and the increase of their numbers1 so   
far as that increase is consistent with 
their happiness4 ,it is not the object  
of political economy to increase the    
numbers of a nation at the cost of      

common health or comfort2 nor to        
increase indefinitely the comfort of    
individuals1 by sacrifice of surrounding
 lives1 or possibilities of life4       
#ff ,the science which in modern days   
had been called ,political              
,economy is in reality nothing more than
 the investigation of         the       
phenomena of commercial operations4 ,it 
has no connexion         with political 
economy1 as understood and treated of by
 the         great thinkers of past     
ages2 and as long as it is allowed      
to pass under the same name1 every word 
written by those         thinkers--and  
chiefly the words of ,plato1 ,xenophon1 
,cicero1         and ,bacon--must be    
either misunderstood or misapplied4 ,the
         reader must not1 therefore1 be 
surprised at the care and               
insistence with which ,i have retained  
the literal and earliest         sense  
of all important terms used in these    
papers2 for a word         is usually   
well made at the time it is first       

wanted2 its         youngest meaning has
 in it the full strength of its youth2  
subsequent senses are commonly warped or
 weakened2 and as a         misused word
 always is liable to involve an obscured
 thought1         and all careful       
thinkers1 either on this or any other   
subject1         are sure to have used  
their words accurately1 the first       
condition1 in order to be able to avail 
ourselves of their         sayings at   
all1 is a firm definition of terms4     
,the assumption which lies at the root  
of nearly all erroneous reasoning on    
political economy--namely1 that its     
object is to accumulate money or        
exchangeable property--may be shown in  
few words to be without foundation4 ,for
 no economist would admit national      
economy to be legitimate which proposed 
to itself only the building of a pyramid
 of gold4 ,he would declare the gold to 
be wasted1 were it to remain in the     
monumental form1 and would say it ought 
to be employed4 ,but to what end8       

,either it must be used only to gain    
more gold1 and build a larger pyramid1  
or to some purpose other than the       
gaining of gold4 ,and this other        
purpose1 however at first apprehended1  
will be found to resolve itself finally 
into the service of man--that is to say1
 the extension1 defence1 or comfort of  
his life4 ,the golden pyramid may       
perhaps be providently built1 perhaps   
improvidently2 but1 at all events1 the  
wisdom or folly of the accumulation can 
only be determined by our having first  
clearly stated the aim of all economy1  
namely1 the extension of life4  ,if the 
accumulation of money1 or of            
exchangeable property1 were a certain   
means of extending existence1 it would  
be useless1 in discussing economical    
questions1 to fix our attention upon the
 more distant object--life--instead of  
the immediate one--money4 ,but it is not
 so4 ,money may sometimes be accumulated
 at the cost of life1 or by limitations 
of it2 that is to say1 either by        

hastening the deaths of men1 or         
preventing their births4 ,it is         
therefore necessary to keep clearly in  
view the ultimate object of economy1 and
 to determine the expediency of minor   
operations with reference to that       
ulterior end4 ,it has been just stated  
that the object of political economy is 
the continuance not only of life1 but of
 healthy and happy life4 ,but all true  
happiness is both a consequence and     
cause of life2 it is a sign of its      
vigour1 and means of its continuance4   
,all true suffering is in like manner a 
consequence and cause of death4 ,i shall
 therefore1 in future1 use the word     
,life singly3 but let it be understood  
to include in its signification the     
happiness and power of the entire human 
nature1 body and soul4  ,that human     
nature1 as its ,creator made it1 and    
maintains it wherever ,his laws are     
observed1 is entirely harmonious4 ,no   
physical error can be more profound1 no 
moral error more dangerous than that    

involved in the monkish doctrine of the 
opposition of body to soul4 ,no soul can
 be perfect in an imperfect body2 no    
body perfect without perfect soul4      
,every right action and true thought    
sets the seal of its beauty on person   
and face2 every wrong action and foul   
thought its seal of distortion2 and the 
various aspects of humanity might be    
read as plainly as a printed history1   
were it not that the impressions are so 
complex that it must always in some     
cases--and1 in the present state of our 
knowledge1 in all cases--be impossible  
to decipher them completely4            
,nevertheless1 the face of a            
consistently just1 and of a consistently
 unjust person1 may always be rightly   
discerned at a glance2 and if the       
qualities are continued by descent      
through a generation or two1 there      
arises a complete distinction of race4  
,both moral and physical qualities are  
communicated by descent1 far more than  
they can be developed by education      

7though both may be destroyed for want  
of education71 and there is as yet no   
ascertained limit to the nobleness of   
person and mind which the human creature
 may attain1 by persevering observance  
of the laws of ,god respecting its birth
 and training4 ,we must therefore yet   
farther define the aim of political     
economy to be the multiplication of     
human life at the highest standard4 ,it 
might at first seem questionable whether
 we should endeavour to maintain a small
 number of persons of the highest type  
of beauty and intelligence1 or a larger 
number of an inferior class4 ,but ,i    
shall be able to show in the sequel1    
that the way to maintain the largest    
number is first to aim at the highest   
standard4 ,determine the noblest type of
 man1 and aim simply at maintaining the 
largest possible number of persons of   
that class1 and it will be found that   
the largest possible number of every    
healthy subordinate class must          
necessarily be produced also4  ,the     

perfect type of manhood1 as just stated1
 involves the perfections 7whatever we  
may hereafter determine these to be7 of 
his body1 affections1 and intelligence4 
,the material things1 therefore1 which  
it is the object of political economy to
 produce and use 7or accumulate for     
use71 are things which serve either to  
sustain and comfort the body1 or        
exercise rightly the affections and form
 the intelligence4#fg ,whatever truly   
serves either of these purposes is      
useful to man1 wholesome1 healthful1    
helpful1 or holy4 ,by seeking such      
things1 man prolongs and increases his  
life upon the earth4     #fg ,it may be 
observed1 in anticipation of some of our
 future         results1 that while some
 conditions of the affections are       
aimed at by the economist as final1     
others are necessary to         him as  
his own instruments3 as he obtains them 
in greater or         less degree his   
own farther work becomes more or less   
possible4 ,such1 for instance1 are the  

fortifying virtues1         which the   
wisest men of all time have1 with more  
or less         distinctness1 arranged  
under the general heads of ,prudence1   
or ,discretion 7the spirit which        
discerns and adopts         rightly72   
,justice 7the spirit which rules and    
divides         rightly72 ,fortitude    
7the spirit which persists and endures  
rightly72 and ,temperance 7the spirit   
which stops and refuses                 
rightly72 or in shorter terms still1 the
 virtues which teach         how to     
consist1 assist1 persist1 and desist4   
,these outermost         virtues are not
 only the means of protecting and       
prolonging         life itself1 but they
 are the chief guards or sources of the 
material means of life1 and are the     
visible governing powers         and    
princes of economy4 ,thus 7reserving    
detailed statements         for the     
sequel7 precisely according to the      
number of just         men in a nation1 
is their power of avoiding either       

intestine         or foreign war4 ,all  
disputes may be peaceably settled1 if a 
sufficient number of persons have been  
trained to submit to         the        
principles of justice4 ,the necessity   
for war is in         direct ratio to   
the number of unjust persons who are    
incapable of determining a quarrel but  
by violence4 ,whether         the       
injustice take the form of the desire of
 dominion1 or of         refusal to     
submit to it1 or of lust of territory1  
or lust of         money1 or of mere    
irregular passion and wanton will1 the  
result is economically the same2--loss  
of the quantity of         power and    
life consumed in repressing the         
injustice1 as well         as of that   
requiring to be repressed1 added to the 
material         and moral destruction  
caused by the fact of war4 ,the early   
civil wars of ,england1 and the existing
 war in ,america1 are         curious   
examples--these under monarchical1 this 
under         republican                

institutions--of the results of the want
 of         education of large masses of
 nations in principles of               
justice4 ,this latter war1 especially1  
may perhaps at least         serve for  
some visible1 or if that be impossible  
7for the         ,greeks told us that   
,plutus was blind1 as ,dante that he was
         speechless71 some feelable     
proof that true political economy       
is an ethical1 and by no means a        
commercial business4 ,the               
,americans imagined themselves to know  
somewhat of         money-making2 bowed 
low before their ,dollar1 expecting     
,divine help from it2 more than         
potent--even omnipotent4 ,yet           
all the while this apparently tangible1 
was indeed an         imaginary         
,deity2--and had they shown the         
substance of him to         any true    
economist1 or even true mineralogist1   
they would         have been told1 long 
years ago1--,alas1 gentlemen1 this that 
you are gaining is not gold1--not a     

particle of it4 ,it is         yellow1  
and glittering1 and like enough to the  
real         metal1--but see--it is     
brittle1 cat-gold1 'iron firestone4'    
,out of this1 heap it as high as you    
will1 you will get so         much steel
 and brimstone--nothing else2 and in a  
year or         two1 when 7had you known
 a little of right economy7 you         
might have had quiet roof-trees over    
your heads1 and a fair         account  
at your banker's1 you shall instead have
 to sleep         a-field1 under red    
tapestries1 costliest1 yet comfortless2 
and at your banker's find deficit at    
compound interest4 ,but         the mere
 dread or distrust resulting from the   
want of inner         virtues of ,faith 
and ,charity among nations1 is often no 
less         costly than war itself4    
,the fear which ,france and ,england    
have of each other costs each nation    
about fifteen millions         sterling 
annually1 besides various paralyses of  
commerce2         that sum being spent  

in the manufacture of means of          
destruction instead of means of         
production4 ,there is no more           
reason in the nature of things that     
,france and ,england         should be  
hostile to each other than that ,england
 and         ,scotland should be1 or    
,lancashire and ,yorkshire2 and the     
reciprocal terrors of the opposite sides
 of the ,english         ,channel are   
neither more necessary1 more economical1
 nor         more virtuous than the old 
riding and reiving on opposite          
flanks of the ,cheviots1 or than        
,england's own weaving for              
herself of crowns of thorn from the     
stems of her ,red and         ,white    
,roses4  ,on the other hand1 whatever   
does not serve either of these          
purposes1--much more whatever           
counteracts them1--is in like manner    
useless to man1 unwholesome1 unhelpful1 
or unholy2 and by seeking such things   
man shortens and diminishes his life    
upon the earth4 ,and neither with       

respect to things useful or useless can 
man's estimate of them alter their      
nature4 ,certain substances being good  
for his food1 and others noxious to him1
 what he thinks or wishes respecting    
them can neither change their nature1   
nor prevent their power4 ,if he eats    
corn1 he will live2 if nightshade1 he   
will die4 ,if he produce or make good   
and beautiful things1 they will recreate
 him 7note the solemnity and weight of  
the word72 if bad and ugly things1 they 
will corrupt or break in pieces--that   
is1 in the exact degree of their power1 
kill him4 ,for every hour of labour1    
however enthusiastic or well intended1  
which he spends for that which is not   
bread1 so much possibility of life is   
lost to him4 ,his fancies1 likings1     
beliefs1 however brilliant1 eager1 or   
obstinate1 are of no avail if they are  
set on a false object4 ,of all that he  
has laboured for1 the eternal law of    
heaven and earth measures out to him for
 reward1 to the utmost atom1 that part  

which he ought to have laboured for1 and
 withdraws from him 7or enforces on him1
 it may be7 inexorably that part which  
he ought not to have laboured for4 ,the 
dust and chaff are all1 to the last     
speck1 winnowed away1 and on his summer 
threshing-floor stands his heap of corn2
 little or much1 not according to his   
labour1 but to his discretion4 ,no      
commercial arrangements1 no painting of 
surfaces nor alloying of substances1    
will avail him a pennyweight4 ,nature   
asks of him calmly and inevitably1 ,what
 have you found1 or formed--the right   
thing or the wrong8 ,by the right thing 
you shall live2 by the wrong you shall  
die4  ,to thoughtless persons it seems  
otherwise4 ,the world looks to them as  
if they could cozen it out of some ways 
and means of life4 ,but they cannot     
cozen ,,it2 they can only cozen their   
neighbours4 ,the world is not to be     
cheated of a grain2 not so much as a    
breath of its air can be drawn          
surreptitiously4 ,for every piece of    

wise work done1 so much life is granted2
 for every piece of foolish work1       
nothing2 for every piece of wicked work1
 so much death4 ,this is as sure as the 
courses of day and night4 ,but when the 
means of life are once produced1 men1 by
 their various struggles and industries 
of accumulation or exchange1 may        
variously gather1 waste1 restrain1 or   
distribute them2 necessitating1 in      
proportion to the waste or restraint1   
accurately so much more death4 ,the rate
 and range of additional death is       
measured by the rate and range of waste1
 and is inevitable2--the only question  
7determined mostly by fraud in peace1   
and force in war7 is1 ,who is to die1   
and how8  ,such being the everlasting   
law of human existence1 the essential   
work of the political economist is to   
determine what are in reality useful and
 life-giving things1 and by what degrees
 and kinds of labour they are attainable
 and distributable4 ,this investigation 
divides itself under three great        

heads--first1 of ,wealth2 secondly1 of  
,money2 and thirdly1 of ,riches4  ,these
 terms are often used as synonymous1 but
 they signify entirely different things4
 ,wealth1 consists of things in         
themselves valuable2 ,money1 of         
documentary claims to the possession of 
such things2 and ,riches is a relative  
term1 expressing the magnitude of the   
possessions of one person or society as 
compared with those of other persons or 
societies4  ,the study of ,wealth is a  
province of natural science3--it deals  
with the essential properties of things4
  ,the study of ,money is a province of 
commercial science3--it deals with      
conditions of engagement and exchange4  
,the study of ,riches is a province of  
moral science3--it deals with the due   
relations of men to each other in regard
 of material possessions2 and with the  
just laws of their association for      
purposes of labour4  ,i shall in this   
paper shortly sketch out the range of   
subjects which will come before us as we

 follow these three branches of inquiry4
   ,,section ,i4--,,wealth4  ,wealth1 it
 has been said1 consists of things      
essentially valuable4 ,we now1          
therefore1 need a definition of value4  
,value signifies the strength or        
availing of anything towards the        
sustaining of life1 and is always       
twofold2 that is to say1 primarily1     
,,intrinsic1 and1 secondarily1          
,,effectual4  ,the reader must1 by      
anticipation1 be warned against         
confusing value with cost1 or with      
price4 ,value is the life-giving power  
of anything2 cost1 the quantity of      
labour required to produce it2 price1   
the quantity of labour which its        
possessor will take in exchange for it4 
,cost and price are commercial          
conditions1 to be studied under the head
 of ,money4  ,intrinsic value is the    
absolute power of anything to support   
life4 ,a sheaf of wheat of given quality
 and weight has in it a measurable power
 of sustaining the substance of the     

body2 a cubic foot of pure air1 a fixed 
power of sustaining its warmth2 and a   
cluster of flowers of given beauty1 a   
fixed power of enlivening or animating  
the senses and heart4  ,it does not in  
the least affect the intrinsic value of 
the wheat1 the air1 or the flowers1 that
 men refuse or despise them4 ,used or   
not1 their own power is in them1 and    
that particular power is in nothing     
else4  ,but in order that this value of 
theirs may become effectual1 a certain  
state is necessary in the recipient of  
it4 ,the digesting1 the breathing1 and  
perceiving functions must be perfect in 
the human creature before the food1 air1
 or flowers can become their full value 
to it4 ,the production of effectual     
value1 therefore1 always involves two   
needs2 first1 the production of a thing 
essentially useful2 then the production 
of the capacity to use it4 ,where the   
intrinsic value and acceptant capacity  
come together there is ,,effectual      
value1 or wealth4 ,where there is either

 no intrinsic value1 or no acceptant    
capacity1 there is no effectual value2  
that is to say1 no wealth4 ,a horse is  
no wealth to us if we cannot ride1 nor a
 picture if we cannot see1 nor can any  
noble thing be wealth1 except to a noble
 person4 ,as the aptness of the user    
increases1 the effectual value of the   
thing used increases2 and in its        
entirety can co-exist only with perfect 
skill of use1 or harmony of nature4 ,the
 effectual value of a given quantity of 
any commodity existing in the world at  
any moment is therefore a mathematical  
function of the capacity existing in the
 human race to enjoy it4 ,let its       
intrinsic value be represented by x1 and
 the recipient faculty by y2 its        
effectual value is x y1 in which the sum
 varies as either co-efficient varies1  
is increased by either's increase1#fh   
and cancelled by either's absence4      
#fh ,with this somewhat strange and     
ungeometrical limitation1               
however1 which1 here expressed for the  

moment in the         briefest terms1 we
 must afterwards trace in detail--that x
         y may be indefinitely increased
 by the increase of y         only2 but 
not by the increase of x1 unless y      
increases         also in a fixed       
proportion4  ,valuable material things  
may be conveniently referred to five    
heads3--  #a4 ,land1 with an associated 
air1 water1 and organisms4  #b4 ,houses1
 furniture1 and instruments4  #c4       
,stored or prepared food and medicine1  
and articles of bodily luxury1 including
 clothing4  #d4 ,books4  #e4 ,works of  
art4  ,we shall enter into separate     
inquiry as to the conditions of value   
under each of these heads4 ,the         
following sketch of the entire subject  
may be useful for future reference3--   
#a4 ,land4 ,its value is twofold--      
,a4 ,as producing food and mechanical   
power4   ,b4 ,as an object of sight and 
thought1 producing intellectual power4  
,a4 ,its value1 as a means of producing 
food and mechanical power1 varies with  

its form 7as mountain or plain71 with   
its substance 7in soil or mineral       
contents71 and with its climate4 ,all   
these conditions of intrinsic value1 in 
order to give effectual value1 must be  
known and complied with by the men who  
have to deal with it2 but at any given  
time1 or place1 the intrinsic value is  
fixed2 such and such a piece of land1   
with its associated lakes and seas1     
rightly treated in surface and          
substance1 can produce precisely so much
 food and power1 and no more4 ,its      
surface treatment 7agriculture7 and     
substance treatment 7practical geology  
and chemistry71 are the first roots of  
economical science4 ,by surface         
treatment1 however1 ,i mean more than   
agriculture as commonly understood2 ,i  
mean land and sea culture2--dominion    
over both the fixed and the flowing     
fields2--perfect acquaintance with the  
laws of climate1 and of vegetable and   
animal growth in the given tracts of    
earth or ocean1 and of their relations  

regulating especially the production of 
those articles of food which1 being in  
each particular spot producible in the  
highest perfection1 will bring the best 
price in commercial exchanges4  ,b4 ,the
 second element of value in land is its 
beauty1 united with such conditions of  
space and form as are necessary for     
exercise1 or pleasant to the eye1       
associated with vital organism4  ,land  
of the highest value in these respects  
is that lying in temperate climates1 and
 boldly varied in form2 removed from    
unhealthy or dangerous influences 7as of
 miasm or volcano72 and capable of      
sustaining a rich fauna and flora4 ,such
 land1 carefully tended by the hand of  
man1 so far as to remove from it        
unsightlinesses and evidences of decay2 
guarded from violence1 and inhabited1   
under man's affectionate protection1 by 
every kind of living creature that can  
occupy it in peace1 forms the most      
precious property that human beings can 
possess4  ,the determination of the     

degree in which these two elements of   
value can be united in land1 or in which
 either element must1 or should1 in     
particular cases1 be sacrificed to the  
other1 forms the most important branch  
of economical inquiry respecting        
preferences of things4  #b4 ,buildings1 
furniture1 and instruments4  ,the value 
of buildings consists--,a1 in permanent 
strength1 with convenience of form1 of  
size1 and of position2 so as to render  
employment peaceful1 social intercourse 
easy1 temperature and air healthy4 ,the 
advisable or possible magnitude of      
cities and mode of their distribution in
 squares1 streets1 courts1 etc41 the    
relative value of sites of land1 and the
 modes of structure which are healthiest
 and most permanent1 have to be studied 
under this head4  ,b4 ,the value of     
buildings consists1 secondarily1 in     
historical association and architectural
 beauty1 of which we have to examine the
 influence on manners and life4  ,the   
value of instruments consists--  ,a4 ,in

 their power of shortening labour1 or   
otherwise accomplishing 7as ships7 what 
human strength unaided could not4 ,the  
kinds of work which are severally best  
accomplished by hand or by machine2--the
 effect of machinery in gathering and   
multiplying population1 and its         
influence on the minds and bodies of    
such population2 together with the      
conceivable uses of machinery on a      
colossal scale in accomplishing mighty  
and useful works1 hitherto unthought of1
 such as the deepening of large river   
channels2--changing the surface of      
mountainous districts2--irrigating      
tracts of desert in the torrid          
zone2--breaking up1 and thus rendering  
capable of quicker fusion edges of ice  
in the northern and southern ,arctic    
seas1 etc41 so rendering parts of the   
earth habitable which hitherto have not 
been so1 are to be studied under this   
head4  ,b4 ,the value of instruments is1
 secondarily1 in their aid to abstract  
sciences4 ,the degree in which the      

multiplication of such instruments      
should be encouraged1 so as to make     
them1 if large1 easy of access to       
numbers 7as costly telescopes71 or so   
cheap as that they might1 in a          
serviceable form1 become a common part  
of the furniture of households1 is to be
 considered under this head4  #c4 ,food1
 medicine1 and articles of luxury4      
,under this head we shall have to       
examine the possible methods of         
obtaining pure and nourishing food in   
such security and equality of supply as 
to avoid both waste and famine2 then the
 economy of medicine and just range of  
sanitary law2 finally1 the economy of   
luxury1 partly an aesthetic and partly  
an ethical question4  #d4 ,books4 ,the  
value of these consists--  ,a4 ,in their
 power of preserving and communicating  
the knowledge of facts4  ,b4 ,in their  
power of exciting vital or noble emotion
 and intellectual action4 ,they have    
also their corresponding negative powers
 of disguising and effacing the memory  

of facts1 and killing the noble         
emotions1 or exciting base ones4 ,under 
these two heads we have to consider the 
economical and educational value1       
positive and negative1 of               
literature2--the means of producing and 
educating good authors1 and the means   
and advisability of rendering good books
 generally accessible1 and directing the
 reader's choice to them4  #e4 ,works of
 art4 ,the value of these is of the same
 nature as that of books1 but the laws  
of their production and possible modes  
of distribution are very different1 and 
require separate examination4           
,,section ,,ii4--,,money4  ,under this  
head1 we shall have to examine the laws 
of currency and exchange2 of which ,i   
will note here the first principles4    
,money has been inaccurately spoken of  
as merely a means of circulation4 ,it   
is1 on the contrary1 an expression of   
right4 ,it is not wealth1 being the     
sign#fi of the relative quantities of   
it1 to which1 at a given time1 persons  

or societies are entitled4     #fi      
,always1 and necessarily1 an imperfect  
sign2 but capable         of approximate
 accuracy if rightly ordered4  ,if all  
the money in the world1 notes and gold1 
were destroyed in an instant1 it would  
leave the world neither richer nor      
poorer than it was4 ,but it would leave 
the individual inhabitants of it in     
different relations4  ,money is1        
therefore1 correspondent in its nature  
to the title-deed of an estate4 ,though 
the deed be burned1 the estate still    
exists1 but the right to it has become  
disputable4  ,the worth of money remains
 unchanged1 as long as the proportion of
 the quantity of existing money to the  
quantity of existing wealth1 or         
available labour which it professes to  
represent1 remains unchanged4  ,if the  
wealth increases1 but not the money1 the
 worth of the money increases2 if the   
money increases1 but not the wealth1 the
 worth of the money diminishes4  ,money1
 therefore1 cannot be arbitrarily       

multiplied1 any more than title-deeds   
can4 ,so long as the existing wealth or 
available labour is not fully           
represented by the currency1 the        
currency may be increased without       
diminution of the assigned worth of its 
pieces4 ,but when the existing wealth1  
or available labour1 is once fully      
represented1 every piece of money thrown
 into circulation diminishes the worth  
of every other existing piece1 in the   
proportion it bears to the number of    
them1 provided the new piece be received
 with equal credit2 if not1 the         
depreciation of worth takes place       
exclusively in the new piece1 according 
to the inferiority of its credit4       
,when1 however1 new money1 composed of  
some substance of supposed intrinsic    
value 7as of gold71 is brought into the 
market1 or when new notes are issued    
which are supposed to be deserving of   
credit1 the desire to obtain money will1
 under certain circumstances1 stimulate 
industry2 an additional quantity of     

wealth is immediately produced1 and if  
this be in proportion to the new claims 
advanced1 the value of the existing     
currency is undepreciated4 ,if the      
stimulus given be so great as to produce
 more goods than are proportioned to the
 additional coinage1 the worth of the   
existing currency will be raised4       
,arbitrary control and issues of        
currency affect the production of       
wealth1 by acting on the hopes and fears
 of men2 and are1 under certain         
circumstances1 wise4 ,but the issue of  
additional currency to meet the         
exigencies of immediate expense1 is     
merely one of the disguised forms of    
borrowing or taxing4  ,it is1 however1  
in the present low state of economical  
knowledge1 often possible for           
,governments to venture on an issue of  
currency1 when they could not venture on
 an additional loan or tax1 because the 
real operation of such issue is not     
understood by the people1 and the       
pressure of it is irregularly           

distributed1 and with an unperceived    
gradation4 ,finally1 the use of         
substances of intrinsic value as the    
materials of a currency1 is a           
barbarism2--a remnant of the conditions 
of barter1 which alone can render       
commerce possible among savage nations4 
,it is1 however1 still necessary1 partly
 as a mechanical check on arbitrary     
issues2 partly as a means of exchanges  
with foreign nations4 ,in proportion to 
the extension of civilization1 and      
increase of trustworthiness in          
,governments1 it will cease4 ,so long as
 it exists1 the phenomena of the cost   
and price of the articles used for      
currency1 are mingled with those of     
currency itself1 in an almost           
inextricable manner2 and the worth of   
money in the market is affected by      
multitudinous accidental circumstances1 
which have been traced1 with more or    
less success1 by writers on commercial  
operations2 but with these variations   
the true political economist has no more

 to do than an engineer fortifying a    
harbour of refuge against ,atlantic     
tide1 has to concern himself with the   
cries or quarrels of children who dig   
pools with their fingers for its ebbing 
currents among the sand4   ,,section    
,,iii4--,,riches4  ,according to the    
various industry1 capacity1 good        
fortune1 and desires of men1 they obtain
 greater or smaller share of1 and claim 
upon1 the wealth of the world4  ,the    
inequalities between these shares1      
always in some degree just and          
necessary1 may be either restrained by  
law 7or circumstance7 within certain    
limits2 or may increase indefinitely4   
,where no moral or legal restraint is   
put upon the exercise of the will and   
intellect of the stronger1 shrewder1 or 
more covetous men1 these differences    
become ultimately enormous4 ,but as soon
 as they become so distinct in their    
extremes as that1 on one side1 there    
shall be manifest redundance of         
possession1 and on the other manifest   

pressure of need1--the terms riches and 
poverty are used to express the opposite
 states2 being contrary only in the     
manner of the terms warmth and cold2    
which neither of them imply an actual   
degree1 but only a relation to other    
degrees1 of temperature4  ,respecting   
riches1 the economist has to inquire1   
first1 into the advisable modes of their
 collection2 secondly1 into the         
advisable modes of their administration4
 ,respecting the collection of national 
riches1 he has to inquire1 first1       
whether he is justified in calling the  
nation rich2 if the quantity of money it
 possesses relatively to that possessed 
by other nations be large1              
irrespectively of the manner of its     
distribution4 ,or does the mode of      
distribution in any wise affect the     
nature of the riches8 ,thus1 if the king
 alone be rich--suppose ,croesus or     
,mausolus--are the ,lydians and ,carians
 therefore a rich nation8 ,or if one or 
two slave-masters be rich1 and the      

nation be otherwise composed of slaves1 
is it to be called a rich nation8 ,for  
if not1 and the ideas of a certain mode 
of distribution or operation in the     
riches1 and of a certain degree of      
freedom in the people1 enter into our   
idea of riches as attributed to a       
people1 we shall have to define the     
degree of fluency or circulative        
character which is essential to their   
vitality2 and the degree of independence
 of action required in their possessors4
 ,questions which look as if they would 
take time in answering4 ,and farther4   
,since there are two modes in which the 
inequality1 which is indeed the         
condition and constituent of riches1 may
 be established--namely1 by increase of 
possession on the one side1 and by      
decrease of it on the other--we have to 
inquire1 with respect to any given state
 of riches1 precisely in what manner the
 correlative poverty was produced2 that 
is to say1 whether by being surpassed   
only1 or being depressed1 what are the  

advantages1 or the contrary1 conceivable
 in the depression4 ,for instance1 it   
being one of the commonest advantages of
 being rich to entertain a number of    
servants1 we have to inquire1 on the one
 side1 what economical process produced 
the poverty of the persons who serve    
him2 and what advantage each 7on his own
 side7 derives from the result4  ,these 
being the main questions touching the   
collection of riches1 the next1 or last1
 part of the inquiry is into their      
administration4  ,they have in the main 
three great economical powers which     
require separate examination3 namely1   
the powers of selection1 direction1 and 
provision4  ,a4 ,their power of         
,,selection relates to things of which  
the supply is limited 7as the supply of 
best things is always74 ,when it becomes
 matter of question to whom such things 
are to belong1 the richest person has   
necessarily the first choice1 unless    
some arbitrary mode of distribution be  
otherwise determined upon4 ,the business

 of the economist is to show how this   
choice may be a ,wise one4  ,b4 ,their  
power of ,,direction arises out of the  
necessary relation of rich men to poor1 
which ultimately1 in one way or another1
 involves the direction of1 or authority
 over1 the labour of the poor2 and this 
nearly as much over their mental as     
their bodily labour4 ,the business of   
the economist is to show how this       
direction may be a ,just one4  ,c4      
,their power of ,,provision or          
preparatory sight 7for pro-accumulation 
is by no means necessarily pro-vision71 
is dependent upon their redundance2     
which may of course by active persons be
 made available in preparation for      
future work or future profit2 in which  
function riches have generally received 
the name of capital2 that is to say1 of 
head- or source-material4 ,the business 
of the economist is to show how this    
provision may be a ,distant one4  ,the  
examination of these three functions of 
riches will embrace every final problem 

of political economy2--and1 above1 or   
before all1 this curious and vital      
problem1--whether1 since the wholesome  
action of riches in these three         
functions will depend 7it appears7 on   
the ,wisdom1 ,justice1 and              
,far-sightedness of the holders2 and it 
is by no means to be assumed that       
persons primarily rich1 must therefore  
be just and wise1--it may not be        
ultimately possible so1 or somewhat so1 
to arrange matters1 as that persons     
primarily just and wise1 should         
therefore be rich4  ,such being the     
general plan of the inquiry before us1  
,i shall not limit myself to any        
consecutive following of it1 having     
hardly any good hope of being able to   
complete so laborious a work as it must 
prove to me2 but from time to time1 as  
,i have leisure1 shall endeavour to     
carry forward this part or that1 as may 
be immediately possible2 indicating     
always with accuracy the place which the
 particular essay will or should take in

 the completed system4     ,,ii4        
,,nature ,,of ,,wealth1 ,,variations    
,,of ,,value1 ,,the ,,national ,,store1 
,,nature ,,of ,,labour1 ,,value ,,and   
,,price1 ,,the ,,currency4   ,the last  
paper having consisted of little more   
than definition of terms1 ,i purpose1 in
 this1 to expand and illustrate the     
given definitions1 so as to avoid       
confusion in their use when we enter    
into the detail of our subject4  ,the   
view which has been taken of the nature 
of wealth1 namely1 that it consists in  
an intrinsic value developed by a vital 
power1 is directly opposed to two nearly
 universal conceptions of wealth4 ,in   
the assertion that value is primarily   
intrinsic1 it opposes the idea that     
anything which is an object of desire to
 numbers1 and is limited in quantity1   
may be called1 or virtually become1     
wealth4 ,and in the assertion that value
 is secondarily dependent upon power in 
the possessor1 it opposes the idea that 
wealth consists of things exchangeable  

at rated prices4 ,before going farther1 
we will make these two positions        
clearer4   ,first4 ,all wealth is       
intrinsic1 and is not constituted by the
 judgment of men4 ,this is easily seen  
in the case of things affecting the     
body2 we know that no force of fantasy  
will make stones nourishing1 or poison  
innocent2 but it is less apparent in    
things affecting the mind4 ,we are      
easily--perhaps willingly--misled by the
 appearance of beneficial results       
obtained by industries addressed wholly 
to the gratification of fanciful desire2
 and apt to suppose that whatever is    
widely coveted1 dearly bought1 and      
pleasurable in possession1 must be      
included in our definition of wealth4   
,it is the more difficult to quit       
ourselves of this error because many    
things which are true wealth in moderate
 use1 yet become false wealth in        
immoderate2 and many things are mixed of
 good and evil1--as1 mostly1 books and  
works of art1--out of which one person  

will get the good1 and another the evil2
 so that it seems as if there were no   
fixed good or evil in the things        
themselves1 but only in the view taken1 
and use made of them4 ,but that is not  
so4 ,the evil and good are fixed in     
essence and in proportion4 ,they are    
separable by instinct and judgment1 but 
not interchangeable2 and in things in   
which evil depends upon excess1 the     
point of excess1 though indefinable1 is 
fixed2 and the power of the thing is on 
the hither side for good1 and on the    
farther side for evil4 ,and in all cases
 this power is inherent1 not dependent  
on opinion or choice4 ,our thoughts of  
things neither make1 nor mar their      
eternal force2 nor--which is the most   
serious point for future                
consideration--can they prevent the     
effect of it upon ourselves4            
,therefore1 the object of special       
analysis of wealth into which we have   
presently to enter will be not so much  
to enumerate what is serviceable1 as to 

distinguish what is destructive2 and to 
show that it is inevitably destructive2 
that to receive pleasure from an evil   
thing is not to escape from1 or alter   
the evil of it1 but to be altered by it2
 that is1 to suffer from it to the      
utmost1 having our own nature1 in that  
degree1 made evil also4 ,and it will be 
shown farther that1 through whatever    
length of time or subtleties of         
connexion the harm is accomplished      
7being also less or more according to   
the fineness and worth of the humanity  
on which it is wrought71 still1 nothing 
but harm ever comes of a bad thing4  ,so
 that1 finally1 wealth is not the       
accidental object of a morbid desire1   
but the constant object of a legitimate 
one4#gj ,by the fury of ignorance1 and  
fitfulness of caprice1 large interests  
may be continually attached to things   
unserviceable or hurtful2 if their      
nature could be altered by our passions1
 the science of ,political ,economy     
would be but as the weighing of clouds1 

and the portioning out of shadows4 ,but 
of ignorance there is no science2 and of
 caprice no law4 ,their disturbing      
forces interfere with the operations of 
economy1 but have nothing in common with
 them2 the calm arbiter of national     
destiny regards only essential power for
 good in all it accumulates1 and alike  
disdains the wanderings of imagination  
and the thirsts of disease4     #gj ,few
 passages of the ,book which at least   
some part of the         nations at     
present most advanced in civilization   
accept as         an expression of final
 truth1 have been more distorted than   
those bearing on ,idolatry4 ,for the    
idolatry there denounced         is     
neither sculpture1 nor veneration of    
sculpture4 ,it is         simply the    
substitution of an ,eidolon1 phantasm1  
or         imagination of ,good1 for    
that which is real and enduring2        
from the ,highest ,living ,good1 which  
gives life1 to the         lowest       
material good which ministers to it4    

,the ,creator1 and         the things   
created1 which ,he is said to have seen 
good in         creating1 are in this   
their eternal goodness always called    
,helpful or ,holy3 and the sweep and    
range of idolatry extend         to the 
rejection of all or any of these1       
calling evil good1         or good      
evil1--putting bitter for sweet1 and    
sweet for         bitter1 so betraying  
the first of all ,loyalties1 to the     
fixed ,law of life1 and with resolute   
opposite loyalty         serving our own
 imagination of good1 which is the law1 
not         of the dwelling1 but of the 
,grave 7otherwise called the law        
of error2 or mark missing1 which we     
translate law of         ,sin71 these   
two masters1 between whose services we  
have         to choose1 being otherwise 
distinguished as ,god and               
,mammon1 which ,mammon1 though we       
narrowly take it as the         power of
 money only1 is in truth the great evil 
spirit of         false and fond desire1

 or ,covetousness1 which is ,idolatry4  
,so that ,iconoclasm--image or          
likeness-breaking--is easy2 but         
an idol cannot be broken--it must be    
forsaken1 and this is         not so    
easy1 either in resolution or           
persuasion4 ,for men may         readily
 be convinced of the weakness of an     
image1 but not of         the emptiness 
of a phantasm4  ,secondly4 ,the         
assertion that wealth is not only       
intrinsic1 but dependent1 in order to   
become effectual1 on a given degree of  
vital power in its possessor1 is opposed
 to another popular view of             
wealth2--namely1 that though it may     
always be constituted by caprice1 it is1
 when so constituted1 a substantial     
thing1 of which given quantities may be 
counted as existing here1 or there1 and 
exchangeable at rated prices4  ,in this 
view there are three errors4 ,the first 
and chief is the overlooking the fact   
that all exchangeableness of commodity1 
or effective demand for it1 depends on  

the sum of capacity for its use         
existing1 here or elsewhere4 ,the book  
we cannot read1 or picture we take no   
delight in1 may indeed be called part of
 our wealth1 in so far as we have power 
of exchanging either for something we   
like better4 ,but our power of effecting
 such exchange1 and yet more1 of        
effecting it to advantage1 depends      
absolutely on the number of accessible  
persons who can understand the book1 or 
enjoy the painting1 and who will dispute
 the possession of them4 ,thus the      
actual worth of either1 even to us1     
depends no less on their essential      
goodness than on the capacity consisting
 somewhere for the perception of it2 and
 it is vain in any completed system of  
production to think of obtaining one    
without the other4 ,so that1 though the 
great political economist knows that    
co-existence of capacity for use with   
temporary possession cannot be always   
secured1 the final fact1 on which he    
bases all action and administration1 is 

that1 in the whole nation1 or group of  
nations1 he has to deal with1 for every 
grain of intrinsic value produced he    
must with exactest chemistry produce its
 twin grain of governing capacity1 or in
 the degrees of his failure he has no   
wealth4 ,nature's challenge to us is in 
earnest1 as the ,assyrian's mock1 ,i    
will give you two thousand horses1 if   
thou be able on thy part to set riders  
upon them4 ,bavieca's paces are brave1  
if the ,cid backs him2 but woe to us1 if
 we take the dust of capacity1 wearing  
the armour of it1 for capacity itself1  
for so all procession1 however goodly in
 the show of it1 is to the tomb4  ,the  
second error in this popular view of    
wealth is that1 in estimating property  
which we cannot use as wealth1 because  
it is exchangeable1 we in reality       
confuse wealth with money4 ,the land we 
have no skill to cultivate1 the book    
which is sealed to us1 or dress which is
 superfluous1 may indeed be             
exchangeable1 but as such are nothing   

more than a cumbrous form of bank-note1 
of doubtful and slow convertibility4 ,as
 long as we retain possession of them1  
we merely keep our bank-notes in the    
shape of gravel or clay1 of book leaves1
 or of embroidered tissue4              
,circumstances may perhaps render such  
forms the safest1 or a certain          
complacency may attach to the exhibition
 of them2--into both these advantages we
 shall inquire afterwards2 ,i wish the  
reader only to observe here1 that       
exchangeable property which we cannot   
use is1 to us personally1 merely one of 
the forms of money1 not of wealth4  ,the
 third error in the popular view is the 
confusion of guardianship with          
possession2 the real state of men of    
property being1 too commonly that of    
curators1 not possessors of wealth4 ,for
 a man's power of ,use1 ,administration1
 ,ostentation1 ,destruction1 or         
,bequest2 and possession is in use only1
 which for each man is sternly limited2 
so that such things1 and so much of     

them1 are well for him1 or ,wealth2 and 
more of them1 or any other things1 are  
ill for him1 or ,illth4 ,plunged to the 
lips in ,orinoco1 he shall drink to his 
thirst measure1--more1 at his peril2    
with a thousand oxen on his lands1 he   
shall eat to his hunger measure1--more1 
at his peril4 ,he cannot live in two    
houses at once2 a few bales of silk or  
wool will suffice for the fabric of all 
the clothes he can ever wear1 and a few 
books will probably hold all the        
furniture good for his brain4#ga ,beyond
 these1 in the best of us but narrow1   
capacities1 we have but the power of    
administering1 or if for harm1          
mal-administering1 wealth 7that is to   
say1 distributing1 lending1 or          
increasing it72--of exhibiting it 7as in
 magnificence of retinue or furniture71 
of destroying1 or1 finally1 of          
bequeathing it4 ,and with multitudes of 
rich men1 administration degenerates    
into curatorship2 they merely hold their
 property in charge1 as ,trustees1 for  

the benefit of some person or persons to
 whom it is to be delivered upon their  
death2 and the position1 explained in   
clear terms1 would hardly seem a        
covetable one4 ,what would be the       
probable decision of a youth on his     
entrance into life1 to whom the career  
hoped for him was proposed in terms such
 as these3 ,you must work unremittingly1
 and with your utmost intelligence1     
during all your available years2 you    
will thus accumulate wealth to a large  
amount2 but you must touch none of it1  
beyond what is needful for your support4
 ,whatever sums you may gain beyond     
those required for your decent and      
moderate maintenance shall be properly  
taken care of1 and on your death-bed you
 shall have the power of determining to 
whom they shall belong1 or to what      
purposes be applied8     #ga ,i reserve1
 until the completion and collection of 
these         papers1 any support by the
 authority of other writers of the      
statements made in them2 were1 indeed1  

such authorities         wisely sought  
for and shown1 there would be no        
occasion for         my writing at all4 
,even in the scattered passages         
referring         to this subject in    
three books of ,carlyle's3--,sartor     
,resartus2 ,past and ,present2 and the  
,latter-,day         ,pamphlets2 all has
 been said that needs to be said1 and   
far         better than ,i shall ever   
say it again4 ,but the habit of the     
public mind at the present is to require
 everything to be         uttered       
diffusely1 loudly1 and seven times over1
 before it         will listen2 and it  
has exclaimed against these papers of   
mine1 as if they contained things daring
 and new1 when there         is not one 
assertion in them of which the truth has
 not been         for ages known to the 
wisest1 and proclaimed by the most      
eloquent of men4 ,it will be a far      
greater pleasure to me                  
hereafter1 to collect their words than  
add to mine2 ,horace's         clear    

rendering of the substance of the       
preceding passages         in the text  
may be found room for at once3--        
,si quis emat citharas1 emptas comportet
 in unum1           ,nec studio         
citharae1 nec ,musae deditus ulli2      
,si scalpra et formas1 non sutor2       
nautica vela1           ,aversus        
mercaturis3 delirus et amens            
,undique dicatur merito4 ,qui discrepat 
istis1           ,qui nummos aurumque   
recondit1 nescius uti                   
,compositis1 metuensque velut contingere
 sacrum8          ,with which it is     
perhaps desirable also to give          
,xenophon's         statement1 it being 
clearer than any ,english one can be1   
owing to the power of the general ,greek
 term for wealth1         useable       
things3--          ,greek3 ,tauta ara   
onta1 to men epistameno chresthai       
auton hekastois chremata esti1 to de me 
epistameno1         ou chremata2 hosper 
ge auloi to men epistameno axios        
logou aulein chremata eisi1 to de me    

epistameno ouden         mallon e       
achrestoi lithoi1 ei me apsdidoito ge   
autous4         99 99 99 ,me poloumenoi 
men gar ou chremata eisin hoi auloi2    
7ouden gar chresimoi eisi7 poloumenoi de
 chremata2         ,pros tauta d' ho    
,sokrates eipen1 en epistetai ge polein4
         ,ei de poloin hau pros touton  
hos me epistetai chresthai1         oude
 poloumenoi eisi chremata4  ,the labour 
of life1 under such conditions1 would   
probably be neither zealous nor         
cheerful2 yet the only difference       
between this position and that of the   
ordinary capitalist is the power which  
the latter delights in supposing himself
 to possess1 and which is attributed to 
him by others1 of spending his money at 
any moment4 ,this pleasure1 taken in the
 imagination of power to part with that 
which we have no intention of parting   
with1 is one of the most curious though 
commonest forms of ,eidolon1 or         
,phantasm of ,wealth4 ,but the political
 economist has nothing to do with this  

idealism1 and looks only to the         
practical issue of it1--namely1 that the
 holder of wealth1 in such temper1 may  
be regarded simply as a mechanical means
 of collection2 or as a money-chest with
 a slit in it1#gb set in the public     
thoroughfare2--chest of which only      
,death has the key1 and probably ,chance
 the distribution of contents4 ,in his  
function of lender 7which1 however1 is  
one of administration1 not use1 as far  
as he is himself concerned71 the        
capitalist takes1 indeed1 a more        
interesting aspect2 but even in that    
function1 his relations with the state  
are apt to degenerate into a mechanism  
for the convenient contraction of       
debt2--a function the more mischievous1 
because a nation invariably appeases its
 conscience with respect to an          
unjustifiable expense by meeting it with
 borrowed funds1--expresses its         
repentance of a foolish piece of        
business by letting its tradesmen wait  
for their money1--and always leaves its 

descendants to pay for the work which   
will be of the least service to them4#gc
     #gb ,the orifice being not merely  
of a receptant1 but of a                
suctional character4 ,among the types of
 human virtue and         vice presented
 grotesquely by the lower animals1      
perhaps         none is more curiously  
definite that that of avarice in the    
,cephalopod1 a creature which has a     
purse for a body2 a         hawk's beak 
for a mouth2 suckers for feet and hands2
 and         whose house is its own     
skeleton4     #gc ,it would be well if a
 somewhat dogged conviction could       
be enforced on nations as on            
individuals1 that1 with few             
exceptions1 what they cannot at present 
pay for1 they should         not at     
present have4  ,quit of these three     
sources of misconception1 the reader    
will have little farther difficulty in  
apprehending the real nature of         
,effectual value4 ,he may1 however1 at  
first not without surprise1 perceive the

 consequences involved in the acceptance
 of our definition4 ,for if the actual  
existence of wealth be dependent on the 
power of its possessor1 it follows that 
the sum of wealth held by the nation1   
instead of being constant or calculable1
 varies hourly1 nay1 momentarily1 with  
the number and character of its holders2
 and that in changing hands1 it changes 
in quantity4 ,and farther1 since the    
worth of the currency is proportioned to
 the sum of material wealth which it    
represents1 if the sum of the wealth    
changes1 the worth of the currency      
changes4 ,and thus both the sum of the  
property1 and power of the currency1 of 
the ,state1 vary momentarily1 as the    
character and number of the holders4    
,and not only so1 but a different rate  
and manner of variation is caused by the
 character of the holders of different  
kinds of wealth4 ,the transitions of    
value caused by the character of the    
holders of land differ in mode from     
those caused by character in holders of 

works of art2 and these again from those
 caused by character in holders of      
machinery or other working capital4 ,but
 we cannot examine these special        
phenomena of any kind of wealth until we
 have a clear idea of the way in which  
true currency expresses them2 and of the
 resulting modes in which the cost and  
price of any article are related to its 
value4 ,to obtain this we must approach 
the subject in its first elements4  ,let
 us suppose a national store of wealth1 
real or imaginary 7that is to say1      
composed of material things either      
useful1 or believed to be so71 presided 
over by a ,government1#gd and that every
 workman1 having produced any article   
involving labour in its production1 and 
for which he has no immediate use1      
brings it to add to this store1         
receiving1 from the ,government1 in     
exchange an order either for the return 
of the thing itself1 or of its          
equivalent in other things1#ge such as  
he may choose out of the store at any   

time when he needs them4 ,now1 supposing
 that the labourer speedily uses this   
general order1 or1 in common language1  
spends the money1 he has neither changed
 the circumstances of the nation nor his
 own1 except in so far as he may have   
produced useful and consumed useless    
articles1 or vice versa4 ,but if he does
 not use1 or uses in part only1 the     
order he receives1 and lays aside some  
portion of it2 and thus every day       
bringing his contribution to the        
national store1 lays by some percentage 
of the order received in exchange for   
it1 he increases the national wealth    
daily by as much as he does not use of  
the received order1 and to the same     
amount accumulates a monetary claim on  
the ,government4 ,it is of course always
 in his power1 as it is his legal right1
 to bring forward this accumulation of  
claim1 and at once to consume1 to       
destroy1 or distribute1 the sum of his  
wealth4 ,supposing he never does so1 but
 dies1 leaving his claim to others1 he  

has enriched the ,state during his life 
by the quantity of wealth over which    
that claim extends1 or has1 in other    
words1 rendered so much additional life 
possible in the ,state1 of which        
additional life he bequeaths the        
immediate possibility to those whom he  
invests with his claim1 he would        
distribute this possibility of life     
among the nation at large4     #gd ,the 
reader is to include here in the idea of
 ,government1         any branch of the 
,executive1 or even any body of private 
persons1 entrusted with the practical   
management of public         interests  
unconnected directly with their own     
personal ones4         ,in theoretical  
discussions of legislative interference 
with political economy1 it is usually   
and of course         unnecessarily1    
assumed that ,government must be always 
of         that form and force in which 
we have been accustomed to see          
it2--that its abuses can never be less1 
nor its wisdom         greater1 nor its 

powers more numerous4 ,but1 practically1
 the         custom in most civilized   
countries is1 for every man to          
deprecate the interference of           
,government as long as things           
tell for his personal advantage1 and to 
call for it when         they cease to  
do so4 ,the request of the ,manchester  
,economists to be supplied with cotton  
by the ,government 7the         system  
of supply and demand having1 for the    
time1 fallen         sorrowfully short  
of the expectations of scientific       
persons         from it71 is an         
interesting case in point4 ,it were to  
be         wished that less wide and    
bitter suffering 7suffering1 too1       
of the innocent7 had been needed to     
force the nation1 or         some part  
of it1 to ask itself why a body of men1 
already         confessedly capable of  
managing matters both military and      
divine1 should not be permitted1 or even
 requested at need         to provide in
 some wise for sustenance as well as for

         defence1 and secure1 if it     
might be 7and it might1 ,i think1       
even the rather be71 purity of bodily   
ailment1 as well as of         religious
 conviction8 ,why1 having made many     
roads for the         passage of armies1
 they may not make a few for the        
conveyance of food2 and after           
organizing1 with applause1              
various schemes of spiritual instruction
 for the ,public1         organize1     
moreover1 some methods of bodily        
nourishment for         them8 ,or is the
 soul so much less trustworthy in its   
instincts than the stomach1 that        
legislation is necessary         for the
 one1 but inconvenient to the other8    
,there is a strange fallacy running at  
this time through all         talk about
 free trade4 ,it is continually assumed 
that every         kind of ,government  
interference takes away liberty of      
trade4         ,whereas liberty is lost 
only when interference hinders1 not     
when it helps4 ,you do not take away a  

man's freedom by         showing him his
 road--nor by making it smoother for him
 7not         that it is always         
desirable to do so1 but it may be72 nor 
even by fencing it for him1 if there is 
an open ditch at the         side of it4
 ,the real mode in which protection     
interferes         with liberty1 and the
 real evil of it1 is not in its         
protecting one person1 but in its       
hindering another2 a         form of    
interference which invariably does most 
mischief to         the person it is    
intended to serve1 which the ,northern  
,americans are about discomfortably to  
discover1 unless they         think     
better of it4 ,there is also a ludicrous
 confusion in         many persons'     
minds between protection and            
encouragement2         they differ      
materially4 ,protection is saying to    
the commercial schoolboy1 ,nobody shall 
hit you4         ,encouragement1 is     
saying to him1 ,that's the way to       
hit4     #ge ,the question of           

equivalence 7namely1 how much wine a man
         is to receive in return for so 
much corn1 or how much coal         in  
return for so much iron7 is a quite     
separate one1 which         we will     
examine presently4 ,for the time let it 
be assumed         that this equivalence
 has been determined1 and that the      
,government order in exchange for a     
fixed weight of any         article     
7called1 suppose1 a71 is either for the 
return of         that weight of the    
article itself1 or of another fixed     
weight of the article b1 or another of  
the article c1         and so on4  ,we  
hitherto consider the ,government itself
 as simply a conservative power1 taking 
charge of the wealth entrusted to it4   
,but a ,government may be far other than
 a conservative power4 ,it may be on the
 one hand constructive1 on the other    
destructive4  ,if a constructive1 or    
improving power1 using all the wealth   
entrusted to it to the best advantage1  
the nation is enriched in root and      

branch at once1 and the ,government is  
enabled for every order presented1 to   
return a quantity of wealth greater than
 the order was written for1 according to
 the fructification obtained in the     
interim4#gf     #gf ,the reader must be 
warned in advance that the conditions   
here supposed have nothing to do with   
the interest of         money commonly  
so called4  ,this ability may be either 
concealed1 in which case the currency   
does not completely represent the wealth
 of the country1 or it may be manifested
 by the continual payment of the excess 
of value on each order1 in which case   
there is 7irrespectively1 observe1 of   
collateral results afterwards to be     
examined7 a perpetual rise in the worth 
of the currency1 that is to say1 a fall 
in the price of all articles represented
 by it4  ,but if the ,government be     
destructive1 or a consuming power1 it   
becomes unable to return the value      
received on the presentation of the     
order4  ,this inability may either 7,a71

 be concealed by meeting demands to the 
full1 until it issue in bankruptcy1 or  
in some form of national debt2--or 7,b71
 it may be concealed during oscillatory 
movements between destructiveness and   
productiveness1 which result on the     
whole in stability2--or 7,c71 it may be 
manifested by the consistent return of  
less than value received on each        
presented order1 in which case there is 
a consistent fall in the worth of the   
currency1 or rise in the price of the   
things represented by it4  ,now1 if for 
this conception of a central            
,government1 we substitute that of      
another body of persons occupied in     
industrial pursuits1 of whom each adds  
in his private capacity to the common   
store3 so that the store itself1 instead
 of remaining a public property of      
ascertainable quantity1 for the         
guardianship of which a body of public  
men are responsible1 becomes            
disseminated private property1 each man 
giving in exchange for any article      

received from another1 a general order  
for its equivalent in whatever other    
article the claimant may desire 7such   
general order being payable by any      
member of the society in whose          
possession the demanded article may be  
found71 we at once obtain an            
approximation to the actual condition of
 a civilized mercantile community from  
which approximation we might easily     
proceed into still completer analysis4  
,i purpose1 however1 to arrive at every 
result by the gradual expansion of the  
simpler conception2 but ,i wish the     
reader to observe1 in the meantime1 that
 both the social conditions thus        
supposed 7and ,i will by anticipation   
say also all possible social conditions7
 agree in two great points2 namely1 in  
the primal importance of the supposed   
national store or stock1 and in its     
destructibility or improvability by the 
holders of it4  ,i4 ,observe that in    
both conditions1 that of central        
,government-holding1 and diffused       

private-holding1 the quantity of stock  
is of the same national moment4 ,in the 
one case1 indeed1 its amount may be     
known by examination of the persons to  
whom it is confided2 in the other it    
cannot be known but by exposing the     
private affairs of every individual4    
,but1 known or unknown1 its significance
 is the same under each condition4 ,the 
riches of the nation consist in the     
abundance1 and their wealth depends on  
the nature of this store4  ,,ii4 ,in the
 second place1 both conditions 7and all 
other possible ones7 agree in the       
destructibility or improvability of the 
store by its holders4 ,whether in       
private hands1 or under ,government     
charge1 the national store may be daily 
consumed1 or daily enlarged1 by its     
possessors2 and while the currency      
remains apparently unaltered1 the       
property it represents may diminish or  
increase4  ,the first question1 then1   
which we have to put under our simple   
conception of central ,government1      

namely1 ,what store has it8 is one of   
equal importance1 whatever may be the   
constitution of the ,state2 while the   
second question--namely1 ,who are the   
holders of the store8--involves the     
discussion of the constitution of the   
,state itself4  ,the first inquiry      
resolves itself into three heads3    #a4
 ,what is the nature of the store8   #b4
 ,what is its quantity in relation to   
the population8   #c4 ,what is its      
quantity in relation to the currency8   
,the second inquiry1 into two3    #a4   
,who are the ,holders of the store1 and 
in what proportions8   #b4 ,who are the 
,claimants of the store 7that is to say1
 the holders      of the currency71 and 
in what proportions8  ,we will examine  
the range of the first three questions  
in the present paper2 of the two        
following1 in the sequel4  ,question    
,first4 ,what is the nature of the      
store8 ,has the nation hitherto worked  
for and gathered the right thing or the 
wrong8 ,on that issue rest the          

possibilities of its life4  ,for        
example1 let us imagine a society1 of no
 great extent1 occupied in procuring and
 laying up store of corn1 wine1 wool1   
silk1 and other such preservable        
materials of food and clothing2 and that
 it has a currency representing them4   
,imagine farther1 that on days of       
festivity1 the society1 discovering     
itself to derive satisfaction from      
pyrotechnics1 gradually turns its       
attention more and more to the          
manufacture of gunpowder2 so that an    
increasing number of labourers1 giving  
what time they can spare to this branch 
of industry1 bring increasing quantities
 of combustibles into the store1 and use
 the general orders received in exchange
 to obtain such wine1 wool1 or corn as  
they may have need of4 ,the currency    
remains the same1 and represents        
precisely the same amount of material in
 the store1 and of labour spent in      
producing it4 ,but the corn and wine    
gradually vanish1 and in their place1 as

 gradually1 appear sulphur and          
saltpetre2 till at last1 the labourers  
who have consumed corn and supplied     
nitre1 presenting on a festal morning   
some of their currency to obtain        
materials for the feast1 discover that  
no amount of currency will command      
anything ,festive1 except ,fire4 ,the   
supply of rockets is unlimited1 but that
 of food limited in a quite final       
manner2 and the whole currency in the   
hands of the society represents an      
infinite power of detonation1 but none  
of existence4  ,the statement1          
caricatured as it may seem1 is only     
exaggerated in assuming the persistence 
of the folly to extremity1 unchecked1 as
 in reality it would be1 by the gradual 
rise in price of food4 ,but it falls    
short of the actual facts of human life 
in expression of the depth and intensity
 of the folly itself4 ,for a great part 
7the reader would not believe how great 
until he saw the statistics in detail7  
of the most earnest and ingenious       

industry of the world is spent in       
producing munitions of war2 gathering   
that is to say the materials1 not of    
festive1 but of consuming fire2 filling 
its stores with all power of the        
instruments of pain1 and all affluence  
of the ministries of death4 ,it was no  
true ,trionfo della ,morte which men    
have seen and feared 7sometimes scarcely
 feared7 so long2--wherein he brought   
them rest from their labours4 ,we see   
and share another and higher form of his
 triumph now4 ,task-master instead of   
,releaser1 he rules the dust of the     
arena no less than of the tomb2 and1    
content once in the grave whither man   
went1 to make his works cease and his   
devices to vanish1--now1 in the busy    
city and on the serviceable sea1 makes  
his work to increase1 and his devices to
 multiply4  ,to this doubled loss1 or   
negative power of labour1 spent in      
producing means of destruction1 we have 
to add in our estimate of the           
consequences of human folly1 whatever   

more insidious waste of toil there is in
 the production of unnecessary luxury4  
,such and such an occupation 7it is     
said7 supports so many labourers1       
because so many obtain wages in         
following it2 but it is never considered
 that unless there be a supporting power
 in the product of the occupation1 the  
wages given to one man are merely       
withdrawn from another4 ,we cannot say  
of any trade that it maintains such and 
such a number of persons1 unless we know
 how and where the money1 now spent in  
the purchase of its produce1 would have 
been spent1 if that produce had not been
 manufactured4 ,the purchasing funds    
truly support a number of people in     
making ,this2 but 7probably7 leave      
unsupported an equal number who are     
making1 or could have made ,that4 ,the  
manufacturers of small watches thrive in
 ,geneva2--it is well2--but where would 
the money spent on small watches have   
gone1 had there been no small watches to
 buy8  ,if the so frequently uttered    

aphorism of mercantile economy--labour  
is limited by capital--were true1 this  
question would be a definite one4 ,but  
it is untrue2 and that widely4 ,out of a
 given quantity of wages1 more or less  
labour is to be had1 according to the   
quantity of will with which we can      
inspire the workman2 and the true limit 
of labour is only in the limit of this  
moral stimulus of the will1 and the     
bodily power4 ,in an ultimate1 but      
entirely practical sense1 labour is     
limited by capital1 as it is by         
matter--that is to say1 where there is  
no material1 there can be no work--but  
in the practical sense1 labour is       
limited only by the great original      
capital#gg of ,head1 ,heart1 and ,hand4 
,even in the most artificial relations  
of commerce1 it is to capital as fire to
 fuel3 out of so much fuel you shall    
have so much fire--not in proportion to 
the mass of combustibles1 but to the    
force of wind that fans and water that  
quenches2 and the appliance of both4    

,and labour is furthered1 as            
conflagration is1 not so much by added  
fuel1 as by admitted air4     #gg ,the  
aphorism1 being hurried ,english for    
labour is limited         by want of    
capital1 involves also awkward ,english 
in its         denial1 which cannot be  
helped4  ,for which reasons1 ,i had to  
insert1 above1 the qualifying probably2 
for it can never be said positively that
 the purchase money1 or wages fund of   
any trade is withdrawn from some other  
trade4 ,the object itself may be the    
stimulus of the production of the money 
which buys it2 that is to say1 the work 
by which the purchaser obtained the     
means of buying it would not have been  
done by him1 unless he had wanted that  
particular thing4 ,and the production of
 any article not intrinsically 7nor in  
the process of manufacture7 injurious1  
is useful1 if the desire of it causes   
productive labour in other directions4  
,in the national store1 therefore1 the  
presence of things intrinsically        

valueless does not imply an entirely    
correlative absence of things valuable4 
,we cannot be certain that all the      
labour spent on vanity has been diverted
 from reality1 and that for every bad   
thing produced1 a precious thing has    
been lost4 ,in great measure1 the vain  
things represent the results of roused  
indolence2 they have been carved1 as    
toys1 in extra time2 and1 if they had   
not been made1 nothing else would have  
been made4 ,even to munitions of war    
this principle applies2 they partly     
represent the work of men who1 if they  
had not made spears1 would never have   
made pruning-hooks1 and who are         
incapable of any activities but those of
 contest4  ,thus1 then1 finally1 the    
nature of the store has to be considered
 under two main lights1 the one1 that of
 its immediate and actual utility2 the  
other1 that of the past national        
character which it signifies by its     
production1 and future character which  
it must develop by its uses4 ,and the   

issue of this investigation will be to  
show us that ,economy does not depend   
merely on principles of demand and      
supply1 but primarily on what is        
demanded1 and what is supplied4         
,question ,second4 ,what is the quantity
 of the store in relation to the        
population8 ,it follows from what has   
been already stated that the accurate   
form in which this question has to be   
put is--,what quantity of each article  
composing the store exists in proportion
 to the real need for it by the         
population8 ,but we shall for the time  
assume1 in order to keep all our terms  
at the simplest1 that the store is      
wholly composed of useful articles1 and 
accurately proportioned to the several  
needs of them4  ,now it does not follow1
 because the store is large in          
proportion to the number of people1 that
 the people must be in comfort1 nor     
because it is small1 that they must be  
in distress4 ,an active and economical  
race always produces more than it       

requires1 and lives 7if it is permitted 
to do so7 in competence on the produce  
of its daily labour4 ,the quantity of   
its store1 great or small1 is therefore 
in many respects indifferent to it1 and 
cannot be inferred by its aspect4       
,similarly an inactive and wasteful     
population1 which cannot live by its    
daily labour1 but is dependent1 partly  
or wholly1 on consumption of its store1 
may be 7by various difficulties         
hereafter to be examined1 in realization
 of getting at such store7 retained in a
 state of abject distress1 though its   
possessions may be immense4 ,but the    
results always involved in the magnitude
 of store are1 the commercial power of  
the nation1 its security1 and its mental
 character4 ,its commercial power1 in   
that according to the quantity of its   
store1 may be the extent of its         
dealings2 its security1 in that         
according to the quantity of its store  
are its means of sudden exertion or     
sustained endurance2 and its character1 

in that certain conditions of           
civilization cannot be attained without 
permanent and continually accumulating  
store1 of great intrinsic value1 and of 
peculiar nature4  ,now1 seeing that     
these three advantages arise from       
largeness of store in proportion to     
population1 the question arises         
immediately1 ,given the store--is the   
nation enriched by diminution of its    
numbers8 ,are a successful national     
speculation and a pestilence1           
economically the same thing8  ,this is  
in part a sophistical question2 such as 
it would be to ask whether a man was    
richer when struck by disease which must
 limit his life within a predicable     
period than he was when in health4 ,he  
is enabled to enlarge his current       
expenses1 and has for all purposes a    
larger sum at his immediate disposal    
7for1 given the fortune1 the shorter the
 life the larger the annuity72 yet no   
man considers himself richer because he 
is condemned by his physician4 ,the     

logical reply is that1 since ,wealth is 
by definition only the means of life1 a 
nation cannot be enriched by its own    
mortality4 ,or in shorter words1 the    
life is more than the meat2 and         
existence itself more wealth than the   
means of existence4 ,whence1 of two     
nations who have equal store1 the more  
numerous is to be considered the richer1
 provided the type of the inhabitant be 
as high 7for1 though the relative bulk  
of their store be less1 its relative    
efficiency1 or the amount of effectual  
wealth1 must be greater74 ,but if the   
type of the population be deteriorated  
by increase of its numbers1 we have     
evidence of poverty in its worst        
influence2 and then1 to determine       
whether the nation in its total may     
still be justifiably esteemed rich1 we  
must set or weigh the number of the poor
 against that of the rich4  ,to effect  
which piece of scalework1 it is of      
course necessary to determine1 first1   
who are poor and who are rich2 nor this 

only1 but also how poor and how rich    
they are6 ,which will prove a curious   
thermometrical investigation2 for we    
shall have to do for gold and for silver
 what we have done for                  
quicksilver--determine1 namely1 their   
freezing-point1 their zero1 their       
temperate and fever-heat points2        
finally1 their vaporescent point1 at    
which riches1 sometimes explosively1 as 
lately in ,america1 make to themselves  
wings2--and correspondently the number  
of degrees below zero at which poverty1 
ceasing to brace with any wholesome     
cold1 burns to the bone4  ,for the      
performance of these operations1 in the 
strictest sense scientific1 we will     
first look to the existing so-called    
science of ,political ,economy2 we will 
ask it to define for us the             
comparatively and superlatively rich1   
and the comparatively and superlatively 
poor2 and on its own terms--if any terms
 it can pronounce--examine1 in our      
prosperous ,england1 how many rich and  

how many poor people there are2 and     
whether the quantity and intensity of   
the poverty is indeed so overbalanced by
 the quantity and intensity of wealth1  
that we may permit ourselves a luxurious
 blindness to it1 and call ourselves1   
complacently1 a rich country4 ,and if we
 find no clear definition in the        
existing science1 we will endeavour for 
ourselves to fix the true degrees of the
 ,plutonic scale1 and to apply them4    
,question ,third4 ,what is the quantity 
of the store in relation to the         
,currency8 ,we have seen that the real  
worth of the currency1 so far as        
dependent on its relation to the        
magnitude of the store1 may vary within 
certain limits1 without affecting its   
worth in exchange4 ,the diminution or   
increase of the represented wealth may  
be unperceived1 and the currency may be 
taken either for more or less than it is
 truly worth4 ,usually1 it is taken for 
more2 and its power in exchange1 or     
credit-power1 is thus increased 7or     

retained7 up to a given strain upon its 
relation to existing wealth4 ,this      
credit-power is of chief importance in  
the thoughts1 because most sharply      
present to the experience1 of a         
mercantile community2 but the conditions
 of its stability#gh and all other      
relations of the currency to the        
material store are entirely simple in   
principle1 if not in action4 ,far other 
than simple are the relations of the    
currency to that available labour which 
by our definition 7p4 #bai7 it also     
represents4 ,for this relation is       
involved not only with that of the      
magnitude of the store to the number1   
but with that of the magnitude of the   
store to the mind1 of the population4   
,its proportion to their number1 and the
 resulting worth of currency1 are       
calculable2 but its proportion to their 
will for labour is not4 ,the worth of   
the piece of money which claims a given 
quantity of the store1 is1 in exchange1 
less or greater according to the        

facility of obtaining the same quantity 
of the same thing without having        
recourse to the store4 ,in other words1 
it depends on the immediate ,cost and   
,price of the thing4 ,we must now1      
therefore1 complete the definition of   
these terms4     #gh ,these are nearly  
all briefly represented by the image    
used         for the force of money by  
,dante1 of mast and sail1--             
,quali dal vento be gonfiate vele       
,caggiono avvolte1 poi che l'alber      
fiacca           ,tal cadde a terra la  
fiera crudele4          ,the image may  
be followed out1 like all of ,dante's1  
into as         close detail as the     
reader chooses4 ,thus the stress of the 
sail must be proportioned to the        
strength of mast1 and it is         only
 in unforeseen danger that a skilful    
seaman ever carries         all the     
canvas his spars will bear3 states of   
mercantile         languor are like the 
flap of the sail in a calm1--of         
mercantile precaution1 like taking in   

reefs2 and the         mercantile ruin  
is instant on the breaking of the mast4 
,all cost and price are counted in      
,labour4 ,we must know first1 therefore1
 what is to be counted as ,labour4  ,i  
have already defined labour to be the   
,contest of the life of man with an     
opposite4#gi ,literally1 it is the      
quantity of ,lapse1 loss1 or failure of 
human life caused by any effort4 ,it is 
usually confused with effort itself1 or 
the application of power 7opera72 but   
there is much effort which is merely a  
mode of recreation1 or of pleasure4 ,the
 most beautiful actions of the human    
body and the highest results of the     
human intelligence1 are conditions1 or  
achievements1 of quite unlaborious1 nay1
 of recreative1 effort4 ,but labour is  
the suffering in effort4 ,it is the     
negative quantity1 or quantity of       
de-feat which has to be counted against 
every ,feat1 and of de-fect which has to
 be counted against every ,fact1 or     
,deed of men4 ,in brief1 it is that     

quantity of our toils which we die in4  
#gi ,that is to say1 its only price is  
its return4 ,compare         ,unto ,this
 ,last1 p4 #afb and what follows4  ,we  
might1 therefore1 a priori1 conjecture  
7as we shall ultimately find7 that it   
cannot be bought1 nor sold4 ,everything 
else is bought and sold for ,labour1 but
 labour itself cannot be bought nor sold
 for anything1 being priceless4#hj ,the 
idea that it is a commodity to be bought
 or sold1 is the alpha and omega of     
,politico-,economic fallacy4     #hj    
,the object of ,political ,economy is   
not to buy1 nor to sell                 
labour1--but to spare it4 ,every attempt
 to buy or sell it         is1 in the   
outcome1 ineffectual2--so far as        
successful1 it         is not sale1 but 
,betrayal2 and the purchase money is a  
part         of that typical thirty     
pieces which bought1 first the          
greatest of labours1 and afterwards the 
burial field of the         ,stranger2  
for this purchase-money1 being in its   

very         smallness or vileness the  
exactly measured opposite of            
vilis annona amicorum1 makes all men    
strangers to each         other4  ,this 
being the nature of labour1 the ,cost of
 anything is the quantity of labour     
necessary to obtain it2--the quantity   
for which1 or at which1 it stands       
7constat74 ,it is literally the         
,constancy of the thing2--you shall win 
it--move it--come at it--for no less    
than this4  ,cost is measured and       
measurable only in labor1 not in        
opera4#ha ,it does not matter how much  
power a thing needs to produce it2 it   
matters only how much distress4         
,generally the more power it requires1  
the less the distress2 so that the      
noblest works of man cost less than the 
meanest4     #ha ,cicero's distinction1 
sordidi quaestus1 quorum operae1 non    
quorum artes emuntur1 admirable in      
principle1 is inaccurate         in     
expression1 because ,cicero did not     
practically know how         much       

operative dexterity is necessary in all 
the higher         arts2 but the cost of
 this dexterity is incalculable4 ,be    
it great or small1 the cost of the mere 
authority and         perfectness of    
touch in a hammerstroke of ,donatello's1
 or a         pencil touch of           
,correggio's1 is inestimable by any     
ordinary         arithmetic4 7,the best 
masters themselves usually estimate it  
at sums varying from two to three or    
four shillings a day1         with wine 
or soup extra47  ,true labour1 or       
spending of life1 is either of the body1
 in fatigue or pain1 of the temper or   
heart 7as in perseverance of search for 
things1--patience in waiting for        
them1--fortitude or degradation in      
suffering for them1 and the like71 or of
 the intellect4 ,all these kinds of     
labour are supposed to be included in   
the general term1 and the quantity of   
labour is then expressed by the time it 
lasts4 ,so that a unit of labour is an  
hour's work or a day's work1 as we may  

determine4#hb     #hb ,only observe1 as 
some labour is more destructive of life 
than other labour1 the hour or day of   
the more destructive         toil is    
supposed to include proportionate rest4 
,though men         do not1 or cannot1  
usually take such rest1 except in death4
  ,cost1 like value1 is both intrinsic  
and effectual4 ,intrinsic cost is that  
of getting the thing in the right way2  
effectual cost is that of getting the   
thing in the way we set about it4 ,but  
intrinsic cannot be made a subject of   
analytical investigation1 being only    
partially discoverable1 and that by long
 experience4 ,effectual cost is all that
 the political economist can deal with2 
that is to say1 the cost of the thing   
under existing circumstances and by     
known processes4  ,cost 7irrespectively 
of any question of demand or supply7    
varies with the quantity of the thing   
wanted1 and with the number of persons  
who work for it4 ,it is easy to get a   
little of some things1 but difficult to 

get much2 it is impossible to get some  
things with few hands1 but easy to get  
them with many4  ,the cost and value of 
things1 however difficult to determine  
accurately1 are thus both dependent on  
ascertainable physical circumstances4#hc
     #hc ,there is1 therefore1 observe1 
no such thing as cheapness         7in  
the common use of that term71 without   
some error or         injustice4 ,a     
thing is said to be cheap1 not because  
it is         common1 but because it is 
supposed to be sold under its           
worth4 ,everything has its proper and   
true worth at any given         time1 in
 relation to everything else2 and at    
that worth         should be bought and 
sold4 ,if sold under it1 it is cheap to 
the buyer by exactly so much as the     
seller loses1 and no         more4      
,putrid meat1 at twopence a pound1 is   
not cheaper         than wholesome meat 
at sevenpence a pound2 it is probably   
much dearer2 but if1 by watching your   
opportunity1 you can         get the    

wholesome meat for sixpence a pound1 it 
is cheaper         to you by a penny1   
which you have gained1 and the seller   
has         lost4 ,the present rage for 
cheapness is either1 therefore1         
simply and literally1 a rage for badness
 of all commodities1         or it is an
 attempt to find persons whose          
necessities will         force them to  
let you have more than you should for   
your         money4 ,it is quite easy to
 produce such persons1 and in           
large numbers2 for the more distress    
there is in a nation1         the more  
cheapness of this sort you can obtain1  
and your         boasted cheapness is   
thus merely a measure of the extent of  
your national distress4          ,there 
is1 indeed1 a condition of apparent     
cheapness1 which         we confuse1 in 
practice and in reasoning1 with the     
other2         namely1 the real         
reduction in cost of articles by right  
application of labour4 ,but in this case
 the article is only         cheap with 

reference to its former price1 the      
so-called         cheapness is only our 
expression for the sensation of         
contrast between its former and existing
 prices4 ,so soon as         the new    
methods of producing the article are    
established1 it         ceases to be    
esteemed either cheap or dear1 at the   
new         price1 as at the old one1   
and is felt to be cheap only when       
accident enables it to be purchased     
beneath this new value4         ,and it 
is to no advantage to produce the       
article more         easily1 except as  
it enables you to multiply your         
population4 ,cheapness of this kind is  
merely the discovery         that more  
men can be maintained on the same       
ground2 and the         question1 how   
many you will maintain in proportion to 
your         means1 remains exactly in  
the same terms that it did before4      
,a form of immediate cheapness results1 
however1 in many         cases1 without 
distress1 from the labour of a          

population         where food is        
redundant1 or where the labour by which 
the         food is produced leaves much
 idle time on their hands1 which        
may be applied to the production of     
cheap articles4          ,all such      
phenomena indicate to the political     
economist         places where the      
labour is unbalanced4 ,in the first     
case1         the just balance is to be 
effected by taking labourers from       
the spot where the pressure exists1 and 
sending them to that         where food 
is redundant4 ,in the second1 the       
cheapness is a         local accident1  
advantageous to the local purchaser1    
disadvantageous to the local producer4  
,it is one of the         first duties  
of commerce to extend the market and    
thus give         the local producer his
 full advantage4          ,cheapness    
caused by natural accidents of harvest1 
weather1         etc41 is always        
counterbalanced1 in due time1 by natural
         scarcity similarly caused4 ,it 

is the part of wise         ,government1
 and healthy commerce1 so to provide in 
times and         places of plenty for  
times and places of dearth1 as that     
there shall never be waste1 nor famine4 
,cheapness caused by gluts of the market
 is merely a disease         of clumsy  
and wanton commerce4  ,but their price  
is dependent on the human will4  ,such  
and such a thing is demonstrably good   
for so much4 ,and it may demonstrably be
 bad for so much4  ,but it remains      
questionable1 and in all manner of ways 
questionable1 whether ,i choose to give 
so much4#hd     #hd ,price has already  
been defined 7pp4 #bad1 #bae7 to be the 
quantity of labour which the possessor  
of a thing is willing         to take   
for it4 ,it is best to consider the     
price to be that         fixed by the   
possessor1 because the possessor has    
absolute         power of refusing sale1
 while the purchaser has no absolute    
power of compelling it2 but the         
effectual or market price is            

that at which their estimates coincide4 
,this choice is always a relative one4  
,it is a choice to give a price for     
this1 rather than for that2--a          
resolution to have the thing1 if getting
 it does not involve the loss of a      
better thing4 ,price depends1 therefore1
 not only on the cost of the commodity  
itself1 but on its relation to the cost 
of every other attainable thing4        
,farther4 ,the power of choice is also a
 relative one4 ,it depends not merely on
 our own estimate of the thing1 but on  
everybody else's estimate2 therefore on 
the number and force of the will of the 
concurrent buyers1 and on the existing  
quantity of the thing in proportion to  
that number and force4  ,hence the price
 of anything depends on four            
variables4#he    #a4 ,its cost4   #b4   
,its attainable quantity at that cost4  
#c4 ,the number and power of the persons
 who want it4   #d4 ,the estimate they  
have formed of its desirableness4  7,its
 value only affects its price so far as 

it is contemplated in this estimate2    
perhaps1 therefore1 not at all47     #he
 ,the two first of these variables are  
included in the x1         and the two  
last in the y1 of the formula given at  
p4 #afb         of ,unto ,this ,last1   
and the four are the radical conditions 
which regulate the price of things on   
first production2 in         their price
 in exchange1 the third and fourth of   
these         divide each into two      
others1 forming the ,four which are     
stated at p4 #ahf of ,unto ,this ,last4 
,now1 in order to show the manner in    
which price is expressed in terms of a  
currency1 we must assume these four     
quantities to be known1 and the estimate
 of desirableness1 commonly called the  
,demand1 to be certain4 ,we will take   
the number of persons at the lowest4    
,let ,a and ,b be two labourers who     
demand1 that is to say1 have resolved to
 labour for1 two articles1 a and b4     
,their demand for these articles 7if the
 reader likes better1 he may say their  

need7 is to be absolute1 existence      
depending on the getting these two      
things4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that    
they are bread and fuel in a cold       
country1 and let a represent the least  
quantity of bread1 and b the least      
quantity of fuel1 which will support a  
man's life for a day4 ,let a be         
producible by an hour's labour but b    
only by two hours' labour2 then the cost
 of a is one hour1 and of b two 7cost1  
by our definition1 being expressible in 
terms of time74 ,if1 therefore1 each man
 worked both for his corn and fuel1 each
 would have to work three hours a day4  
,but they divide the labour for its     
greater ease4#hf ,then if ,a works three
 hours1 he produces #c;a1 which is one a
 more than both the men want4 ,and if ,b
 works three hours1 he produces only    
#a-a_/b;b1 or half of b less than both  
want4 ,but if ,a works three hours and  
,b six1 ,a has #c;a1 and ,b has #c;b1 a 
maintenance in the right proportion for 
both for a day and a half2 so that each 

might take a half a day's rest4 ,but as 
,b has worked double time1 the whole of 
this day's rest belongs in equity to    
him4 ,therefore1 the just exchange      
should be1 ,a1 giving two a for one b1  
has one a and one b2--maintenance for a 
day4 ,b1 giving one b for two a1 has two
 a and two b2--maintenance for two days4
     #hf ,this greater ease ought to be 
allowed for by a diminution         in  
the times of the divided work2 but as   
the proportion of         times would   
remain the same1 ,i do not introduce    
this         unnecessary complexity into
 the calculation4  ,but ,b cannot rest  
on the second day1 or ,a would be left  
without the article which ,b produces4  
,nor is there any means of making the   
exchange just1 unless a third labourer  
is called in4 ,then one workman1 ,a1    
produces a1 and two1 ,b and ,c1 produce 
b2--,a1 working three hours1 has three  
a2--,b1 three hours1 #a-a_/b;b2--,c1    
three hours1 #a-a_/b;b4 ,b and ,c each  
give half of b for a1 and all have their

 equal daily maintenance for equal daily
 work4  ,to carry the example a single  
step farther1 let three articles1 a1 b1 
and c1 be needed4  ,let a need one      
hour's work1 b two1 and c four2 then the
 day's work must be seven hours1 and one
 man in a day's work can make #g;a1 or  
#c-a_/b;b1 or #a-c_/d;c4 ,therefore one 
,a works for a1 producing #g;a2 two ,b's
 work for b1 producing #g;b2 four ,c's  
work for c1 producing #g;c4  ,a has six 
a to spare1 and gives two a for one b1  
and four a for one c4 ,each ,b has      
#b-a_/b;b to spare1 and gives #a_/b;b   
for one a1 and two b for one c4 ,each ,c
 has #c_/d of c to spare1 and gives     
#a_/b;c for one b1 and #a_/d of c for   
one a4 ,and all have their day's        
maintenance4  ,generally1 therefore1 it 
follows that1 if the demand is          
constant1#hg the relative prices of     
things are as their costs1 or as the    
quantities of labour involved in        
production4     #hg ,compare ,unto ,this
 ,last1 p4 #agg1 et seq4  ,then1 in     

order to express their prices in terms  
of a currency1 we have only to put the  
currency into the form of orders for a  
certain quantity of any given article   
7with us it is in the form of orders for
 gold71 and all quantities of other     
articles are priced by the relation they
 bear to the article which the currency 
claims4  ,but the worth of the currency 
itself is not in the slightest degree   
founded more on the worth of the article
 for which the gold is exchangeable4 ,it
 is just as accurate to say1 ,so many   
pounds are worth an acre of land1 as ,an
 acre of land is worth so many pounds4  
,the worth of gold1 of land1 of houses1 
and of food1 and of all other things1   
depends at any moment on the existing   
quantities and relative demands for all 
and each2 and a change in the worth of1 
or demand for1 any one1 involves an     
instantaneously correspondent change in 
the worth1 and demand for1 all the      
rest--a change as inevitable and as     
accurately balanced 7though often in its

 process as untraceable7 as the change  
in volume of the outflowing river from  
some vast lake1 caused by change in the 
volume of the inflowing streams1 though 
no eye can trace1 no instrument detect  
motion either on its surface1 or in the 
depth4  ,thus1 then1 the real working   
power or worth of the currency is       
founded on the entire sum of the        
relative estimates formed by the        
population of its possessions2 a change 
in this estimate in any direction 7and  
therefore every change in the national  
character71 instantly alters the value  
of money1 in its second great function  
of commanding labour4 ,but we must      
always carefully and sternly distinguish
 between this worth of currency1        
dependent on the conceived or           
appreciated value of what it represents1
 and the worth of it1 dependent on the  
existence of what it represents4 ,a     
currency is true or false1 in proportion
 to the security with which it gives    
claim to the possession of land1 house1 

horse1 or picture2 but a currency is    
strong or weak1 worth much or worth     
little1 in proportion to the degree of  
estimate in which the nation holds the  
house1 horse1 or picture which is       
claimed4 ,thus the power of the ,english
 currency has been1 till of late1       
largely based on the national estimate  
of horses and of wine3 so that a man    
might always give any price to furnish  
choicely his stable1 or his cellar1 and 
receive public approval therefor3 but if
 he gave the same sum to furnish his    
library1 he was called mad1 or a        
,bibliomaniac4 ,and although he might   
lose his fortune by his horses1 and his 
health or life by his cellar1 and rarely
 lost either by his books1 he was yet   
never called a ,hippomaniac nor an      
,oinomaniac2 but only ,bibliomaniac1    
because the current worth of money was  
understood to be legitimately founded on
 cattle and wine1 but not on literature4
 ,the prices lately given at sales for  
pictures and ,,mss4 indicate some       

tendency to change in the national      
character in this respect1 so that the  
worth of the currency may even come in  
time to rest1 in an acknowledged manner1
 somewhat on the state and keeping of   
the ,bedford missal1 as well as on the  
health of ,caractacus or ,blink ,bonny2 
and old pictures be considered property1
 no less than old port4 ,they might have
 been so before now1 but it is more     
difficult to choose the one than the    
other4  ,now1 observe1 all these sources
 of variation in the power of the       
currency exist wholly irrespective of   
the influences of vice1 indolence1 and  
improvidence4 ,we have hitherto         
supposed1 throughout the analysis1 every
 professing labourer to labour honestly1
 heartily1 and in harmony with his      
fellows4 ,we have now to bring farther  
into the calculation the effects of     
relative industry1 honour1 and          
forethought1 and thus to follow out the 
bearings of our second inquiry3 ,who are
 the holders of the ,store and          

,currency1 and in what proportions8     
,this1 however1 we must reserve for our 
next paper1--noticing here only that1   
however distinct the several branches of
 the subject are1 radically1 they are so
 interwoven in their issues that we     
cannot rightly treat any one1 till we   
have taken cognisance of all4 ,thus the 
quantity of the currency in proportion  
to number of population is materially   
influenced by the number of the holders 
in proportion to the non-holders2 and   
this again by the number of holders of  
goods4 ,for as1 by definition1 the      
currency is a claim to goods which are  
not possessed1 its quantity indicates   
the number of claimants in proportion to
 the number of holders2 and the force   
and complexity of claim4 ,for if the    
claims be not complex1 currency as a    
means of exchange may be very small in  
quantity4 ,a sells some corn to ,b1     
receiving a promise from ,b to pay in   
cattle1 which ,a then hands over to ,c1 
to get some wine4 ,c in due time claims 

the cattle from ,b2 and ,b takes back   
his promise4 ,these exchanges have1 or  
might have been1 all effected with a    
single coin or promise2 and the         
proportion of the currency to the store 
would in such circumstances indicate    
only the circulating vitality of        
it--that is to say1 the quantity and    
convenient divisibility of that part of 
the store which the habits of the nation
 keep in circulation4 ,if a             
cattle-breeder is content to live with  
his household chiefly on meat and milk1 
and does not want rich furniture1 or    
jewels1 or books1--if a wine- and       
corn-grower maintains himself and his   
men chiefly on grapes and bread2--if the
 wives and daughters of families weave  
and spin the clothing of the household1 
and the nation1 as a whole1 remains     
content with the produce of its own soil
 and the work of its own hands1 it has  
little occasion for circulating media4  
,it pledges and promises little and     
seldom2 exchanges only so far as        

exchange is necessary for life4 ,the    
store belongs to the people in whose    
hands it is found1 and money is little  
needed either as an expression of right1
 or practical means of division and     
exchange4  ,but in proportion as the    
habits of the nation become complex and 
fantastic 7and they may be both1 without
 therefore being civilized71 its        
circulating medium must increase in     
proportion to its store4 ,if everyone   
wants a little of everything1--if food  
must be of many kinds1 and dress of many
 fashions1--if multitudes live by work  
which1 ministering to fancy1 has its pay
 measured by fancy1 so that large prices
 will be given by one person for what is
 valueless to another1--if there are    
great inequalities of knowledge1 causing
 great inequalities of estimate1--and   
finally1 and worst of all1 if the       
currency itself1 from its largeness1 and
 the power which the possession of it   
implies1 becomes the sole object of     
desire with large numbers of the nation1

 so that the holding of it is disputed  
among them as the main object of        
life3--in each and all these cases1 the 
currency enlarges in proportion to the  
store1 and1 as a means of exchange and  
division1 as a bond of right1 and as an 
expression of passion1 plays a more and 
more important part in the nation's     
dealings1 character1 and life4  ,against
 which part1 when1 as a bond of ,right1 
it becomes too conspicuous and too      
burdensome1 the popular voice is apt to 
be raised in a violent and irrational   
manner1 leading to revolution instead of
 remedy4 ,whereas all possibility of    
,economy depends on the clear assertion 
and maintenance of this bond of right1  
however burdensome4 ,the first necessity
 of all economical government is to     
secure the unquestioned and             
unquestionable working of the great law 
of ,property--that a man who works for a
 thing shall be allowed to get it1 keep 
it1 and consume it1 in peace2 and that  
he who does not eat his cake to-day1    

shall be seen1 without grudging1 to have
 his cake to-morrow4 ,this1 ,i say1 is  
the first point to be secured by social 
law2 without this1 no political advance1
 nay1 no political existence1 is in any 
sort possible4 ,whatever evil1 luxury1  
iniquity1 may seem to result from it1   
this is nevertheless the first of all   
,equities2 and to the enforcement of    
this1 by law and by police-truncheon1   
the nation must always primarily set its
 mind--that the cupboard door may have a
 firm lock to it1 and no man's dinner be
 carried off by the mob1 on its way home
 from the baker's4 ,which1 thus         
fearlessly asserting1 we shall endeavour
 in the next paper to consider how far  
it may be practicable for the mob       
itself1 also1 in due breadth of dish1 to
 have dinners to carry home4     ,,iii4 
,,the ,,currency-,,holders ,,and        
,,store-,,holders4 ,,the ,,disease ,,of 
,,desire4   ,it will be seen by         
reference to the last paper that our    
present task is to examine the relation 

of holders of store to holders of       
currency2 and of both to those who hold 
neither4 ,in order to do this1 we must  
determine on which side we are to place 
substances such as gold1 commonly known 
as bases of currency4 ,by aid of        
previous definitions the reader will now
 be able to understand closer statements
 than have yet been possible4  ,the     
currency of any country consists of     
every document acknowledging debt which 
is transferable in the country4  ,this  
transferableness depends upon its       
intelligibility and credit4 ,its        
intelligibility depends chiefly on the  
difficulty of forging anything like     
it2--its credit much on national        
character1 but ultimately always on the 
existence of substantial means of       
meeting its demand4  ,as the degrees of 
transferableness are variable 7some     
documents passing only in certain       
places1 and others passing1 if at all1  
for less than their inscribed value71   
both the mass and1 so to speak1         

fluidity1 of the currency1 are variable4
 ,true or perfect currency flows freely1
 like a pure stream2 it becomes sluggish
 or stagnant in proportion to the       
quantity of less transferable matter    
which mixes with it1 adding to its bulk1
 but diminishing its purity4 ,substances
 of intrinsic value1 such as gold1      
mingle also with the currency1 and      
increase1 while they modify1 its power2 
these are carried by it as stones are   
carried by a torrent1 sometimes         
momentarily impeding1 sometimes         
concentrating its force1 but not        
affecting its purity4 ,these substances 
of intrinsic value may be also stamped  
or signed so as to become               
acknowledgments of debt1 and then       
become1 so far as they operate          
independently of their intrinsic value1 
part of the real currency4  ,deferring  
consideration of minor forms of         
currency1 consisting of documents       
bearing private signature1 we will      
examine the principle of legally        

authorized or national currency4  ,this1
 in its perfect condition1 is a form of 
public acknowledgment of debt1 so       
regulated and divided that any person   
presenting a commodity of tried worth in
 the public market1 shall1 if he please1
 receive in exchange for it a document  
giving him claim for the return of its  
equivalent1 7#a7 in any place1 7#b7 at  
any time1 and 7#c7 in any kind4  ,when  
currency is quite healthy and vital1 the
 persons entrusted with its management  
are always able to give on demand       
either--  ,a4 ,the assigning document   
for the assigned quantity of goods4 ,or1
  ,b4 ,the assigned quantity of goods   
for the assigning document4  ,if they   
cannot give document for goods1 the     
national exchange is at fault4  ,if they
 cannot give goods for document1 the    
national credit is at fault4  ,the      
nature and power of the document are    
therefore to be examined under the three
 relations which it bears to ,place1    
,time1 and ,kind4  #a4 ,it gives claim  

to the return of equivalent wealth in   
any ,place4 ,its use in this function is
 to save carriage1 so that parting with 
a bushel of corn in ,london1 we may     
receive an order for a bushel of corn   
for the ,antipodes1 or elsewhere4 ,to be
 perfect in this use1 the substance of  
currency must be to the maximum         
portable1 credible1 and intelligible4   
,its non-acceptance or discredit results
 always from some form of ignorance or  
dishonour3 so far as such interruptions 
rise out of differences in denomination1
 there is no ground for their           
continuance among civilized nations4 ,it
 may be convenient in one country to use
 chiefly copper for coinage1 in another 
silver1 and in another gold1--reckoning 
accordingly in centimes1 francs1 or     
sequins2 but that a ,french franc should
 be different in weight from an ,english
 shilling1 and an ,austrian zwanziger   
vary in weight and alloy from both1 is  
wanton loss of commercial power4  #b4   
,it gives claim to the return of        

equivalent wealth at any ,time4 ,in this
 second use1 currency is the exponent of
 accumulation3 it renders the laying up 
of store at the command of individuals  
unlimitedly possible2--whereas1 but for 
its intervention1 all gathering would be
 confined within certain limits by the  
bulk of poverty1 or by its decay1 or the
 difficulty of its guardianship4 ,i will
 pull down my barns and build greater   
cannot be a daily saying2 and all       
material investment is enlargement of   
care4 ,the national currency transfers  
the guardianship of the store to many2  
and preserves to the original producer  
the right of re-entering on its         
possession at any future period4  #c4   
,it gives claim 7practical1 though not  
legal7 to the return of equivalent      
wealth in any ,kind4 ,it is a           
transferable right1 not merely to this  
or that1 but to anything2 and its power 
in this function is proportioned to the 
range of choice4 ,if you give a child an
 apple or a toy1 you give him a         

determinate pleasure1 but if you give   
him a penny1 an indeterminate one1      
proportioned to the range of selection  
offered by the shops in the village4    
,the power of the world's currency is   
similarly in proportion to the openness 
of the world's fair1 and commonly       
enhanced by the brilliancy of external  
aspect1 rather than solidity of its     
wares4  ,we have said that the currency 
consists of orders for equivalent goods4
 ,if equivalent1 their quality must be  
guaranteed4 ,the kinds of goods chosen  
for specific claim must1 therefore1 be  
capable of test1 while1 also1 that a    
store may be kept in hand to meet the   
call of the currency1 smallness of bulk1
 with great relative value1 is          
desirable2 and indestructibility1 over  
at least a certain period1 essential4   
,such indestructibility and facility of 
being tested are united in gold2 its    
intrinsic value is great1 and its       
imaginary value is greater2 so that1    
partly through indolence1 partly through

 necessity and want of organization1    
most nations have agreed to take gold   
for the only basis of their             
currencies2--with this grave            
disadvantage1 that its portability      
enabling the metal to become an active  
part of the medium of exchange1 the     
stream of the currency itself becomes   
opaque with gold--half currency and half
 commodity1 in unison of functions which
 partly neutralize1 partly enhance each 
other's force4  ,they partly neutralize1
 since in so far as the gold is         
commodity1 it is bad currency1 because  
liable to sale2 and in so far as it is  
currency1 it is bad commodity1 because  
its exchange value interferes with its  
practical use4 ,especially its          
employment in the higher branches of the
 arts becomes unsafe on account of its  
liability to be melted down for         
exchange4  ,again4 ,they partly enhance1
 since in so far as the gold has        
acknowledged intrinsic value1 it is good
 currency1 because everywhere           

acceptable2 and in so far as it has     
legal exchangeable value1 its worth as a
 commodity is increased4 ,we want no    
gold in the form of dust or crystal2 but
 we seek for it coined because in that  
form it will pay baker and butcher4 ,and
 this worth in exchange not only absorbs
 a large quantity in that use1#hh but   
greatly increases the effect on the     
imagination of the quantity used in the 
arts4 ,thus1 in brief1 the force of the 
functions is increased1 but their       
precision blunted1 by their unison4     
#hh ,the waste of labour in obtaining   
the gold1 though it cannot         be   
estimated by help of any existing data1 
may be understood         in its bearing
 on entire economy by supposing it      
limited to         transactions between 
two persons4 ,if two farmers in         
,australia have been exchanging corn and
 cattle with each         other for     
years1 keeping their accounts of        
reciprocal debt         in any simple   
way1 the sum of the possessions of      

either         would not be diminished1 
though the part of it which was         
lent or borrowed were only reckoned by  
marks on a stone1 or         notches on 
a tree2 and the one counted himself     
accordingly1         so many scratches1 
or so many notches1 better than the     
other4 ,but it would soon be seriously  
diminished if1         discovering gold 
in their fields1 each resolved only to  
accept golden counters for a reckoning2 
and accordingly1         whenever he    
wanted a sack of corn or a cow1 was     
obliged to         go and wash sand for 
a week before he could get the means of 
giving a receipt for them4  ,these      
inconveniences1 however1 attach to gold 
as a basis of currency on account of its
 portability and preciousness4 ,but a   
far greater inconvenience attaches to it
 as the only legal basis of currency4   
,imagine gold to be only attainable in  
masses weighing several pounds each1 and
 its value1 like that of a malachite or 
marble1 proportioned to its largeness of

 bulk2--it could not then get itself    
confused with the currency in daily use1
 but it might still remain as its basis2
 and this second inconvenience would    
still affect it1 namely1 that its       
significance as an expression of debt1  
varies1 as that of every other article  
would1 with the popular estimate of its 
desirableness1 and with the quantity    
offered in the market4 ,my power of     
obtaining other goods for gold depends  
always on the strength of public passion
 for gold1 and on the limitation of its 
quantity1 so that when either of two    
things happen--that the world esteems   
gold less1 or finds it more easily1--my 
right of claim is in that degree        
effaced2 and it has been even gravely   
maintained that a discovery of a        
mountain of gold would cancel the       
,national ,debt2 in other words1 that   
men may be paid for what costs much in  
what costs nothing4 ,now1 if it is true 
that there is little chance of sudden   
convulsion in this respect1 the world   

will not rapidly increase in wisdom so  
as to despise gold1 and perhaps may even
 desire it more eagerly the more easily 
it is obtained2 nevertheless the right  
of debt ought not to rest on a basis of 
imagination2 nor should the frame of a  
national currency vibrate with every    
miser's panic and every merchant's      
imprudence4  ,there are two methods of  
avoiding this insecurity1 which would   
have been fallen upon long ago if1      
instead of calculating the conditions of
 the supply of gold1 men had only       
considered how the world might live and 
manage its affairs without gold at      
all4#hi ,one is to base the currency on 
substances of truer intrinsic value2 the
 other1 to base it on several substances
 instead of one4 ,if ,i can only claim  
gold1 the discovery of a continent of   
cornfields need not trouble me4 ,if1    
however1 ,i wish to exchange my bread   
for other things1 a good harvest will   
for the time limit my power in this     
respect2 but if ,i can claim either     

bread1 iron1 or silk at pleasure1 the   
standard of value has three feet instead
 of one1 and will be proportionally     
firm4 ,thus1 ultimately the steadiness  
of currency depends upon the breadth of 
its base2 but the difficulty of         
organization increasing with this       
breadth1 the discovery of the condition 
at once safest and most convenient#ij   
can only be by long analysis which must 
for the present be deferred4 ,gold or   
silver#ia may always be retained in     
limited use1 as a luxury of coinage and 
questionless standard1 of one weight and
 alloy among nations1 varying only in   
the die4 ,the purity of coinage when    
metallic1 is closely indicative of the  
honesty of the system of revenue1 and   
even of the general dignity of the      
,state4#ib     #hi ,it is difficult to  
estimate the curious futility of        
discussions such as that which lately   
occupied a section of         the       
,british ,association1 on the absorption
 of gold1 while no         one can      

produce even the simplest of the data   
necessary for         the inquiry4 ,to  
take the first occurring one1--,what    
means         have we of ascertaining   
the weight of gold employed this        
year in the toilettes of the women of   
,europe 7not to         speak of ,asia72
 and1 supposing it known1 what means of 
conjecturing the weight by which1 next  
year1 their fancies1         and the    
changes of style among their jewellers1 
will         diminish or increase it8   
#ij ,see1 in ,pope's epistle to ,lord   
,bathurst1 his sketch of the            
difficulties and uses of a currency     
literally pecuniary--            ,his   
,grace will game--to ,white's a bull he 
led1 etc4     #ia ,perhaps both2 perhaps
 silver only4 ,it may be found          
expedient ultimately to leave gold free 
for use in the arts4         ,as a means
 of reckoning1 the standard might be1   
and in some         cases has already   
been1 entirely ideal4--,see ,mill's     
,political ,economy1 book iii41 chap4   

#g1 at beginning4     #ib ,the purity of
 the drachma and sequin were not without
         significance of the state of   
intellect1 art1 and policy1         both
 in ,athens and ,venice2--a fact first  
impressed upon         me ten years ago1
 when1 in daguerreotypes of ,venetian   
architecture1 ,i found no purchasable   
gold pure enough         to gild them   
with1 but that of the old ,venetian     
sequin4  ,whatever the article or       
articles may be which the national      
currency promises to pay1 a premium on  
that article indicates bankruptcy of the
 ,government in that proportion1 the    
division of the assets being restrained 
only by the remaining confidence of the 
holders of notes in the return of       
prosperity to the firm4                 
,incontrovertible currencies1 those of  
forced acceptance1 or of unlimited      
issue1 are merely various modes of      
disguising taxation1 and delaying its   
pressure1 until it is too late to       
interfere with its causes4 ,to do away  

with the possibility of such disguise   
would have been among the first results 
of a true economical science1 had any   
such existed2 but there have been too   
many motives for the concealment1 so    
long as it could by any artifices be    
maintained1 to permit hitherto even the 
founding of such a science4  ,and1      
indeed1 it is only through evil conduct1
 wilfully persisted in1 that there is   
any embarrassment either in the theory  
or the working of currency4 ,no         
exchequer is ever embarrassed1 nor is   
any financial question difficult of     
solution1 when people keep their        
practice honest1 and their heads cool4  
,but when ,governments lose all office  
of pilotage1 protection1 scrutiny1 and  
witness2 and live only in magnificence  
of proclaimed larceny1 effulgent        
mendacity1 and polished mendicity2 or   
when the people choosing ,speculation   
7the ,s usual redundant in the spelling7
 instead of ,toil1 pursue no dishonesty 
with chastisement1 that each may with   

impunity take his dishonest turn2 and   
enlarge their lust of wealth through    
ignorance of its use1 making their      
harlot of the dust1 and setting ,earth1 
the ,mother1 at the mercy of ,earth1 the
 ,destroyer1 so that she has to seek in 
hell the children she left playing in   
the meadows1--there are no tricks of    
financial terminology that will save    
them2 all signature and mintage do but  
magnify the ruin they retard2 and even  
the riches that remain1 stagnant or     
current1 change only from the slime of  
,avernus to the sand of                 
,phlegethon2--quicksand at the          
embouchure2--land fluently recommended  
by recent auctioneers as eligible for   
building leases4  ,finally1 then1 the   
power of true currency is fourfold4  #a4
 ,credit power4 ,its worth in exchange1 
dependent on public opinion of the      
stability and honesty of the issuer4    
#b4 ,real worth4 ,supposing the gold1 or
 whatever else the currency expressly   
promises1 to be required from the       

issuer1 for all his notes2 and that the 
call cannot be met in full4 ,then the   
actual worth of the document 7whatever  
its credit power7 would be1 and its     
actual worth at any moment is to be     
defined as being1 what the division of  
the assets of the issuer1 and his       
subsequent will work1 would produce for 
it4  #c4 ,the exchange power of its     
base4 ,granting that we can get five    
pounds in gold for our note1 it remains 
a question how much of other things we  
can get for five pounds in gold4 ,the   
more of other things exist1 and the less
 gold1 the greater this power4  #d4 ,the
 power over labour1 exercised by the    
given quantity of the base1 or of the   
things to be got for it4 ,the question  
in this case is1 how much work1 and     
7question of questions7 whose work1 is  
to be had for the food which five pounds
 will buy4 ,this depends on the number  
of the population2 on their gifts1 and  
on their dispositions1 with which1 down 
to their slightest humours and up to    

their strongest impulses1 the power of  
the currency varies2 and in this last of
 its ranges1--the range of passion1     
price1 or praise 7converso in pretium   
,deo71 is at once least1 and greatest4  
,such being the main conditions of      
national currency1 we proceed to examine
 those of the total currency1 under the 
broad definition1 transferable          
acknowledgment of debt2#ic among the    
many forms of which there are in effect 
only two1 distinctly opposed2 namely1   
the acknowledgments of debts which will 
be paid1 and of debts which will not4   
,documents1 whether in whole or part1 of
 bad debt1 being to those of good debt  
as bad money to bullion1 we put for the 
present these forms of imposture aside  
7as in analysing a metal we should wash 
it clear of dross71 and then range1 in  
their exact quantities1 the true        
currency of the country on one side1 and
 the store or property of the country on
 the other4 ,we place gold1 and all such
 substances1 on the side of documents1  

as far as they operate by signature2--on
 the side of store as far as they       
operate by value4 ,then the currency    
represents the quantity of debt in the  
country1 and the store the quantity of  
its possession4 ,the ownership of all   
the property is divided between the     
holders of currency and holders of      
store1 and whatever the claiming value  
of the currency is at any moment1 that  
value is to be deducted from the riches 
of the store-holders1 the deduction     
being practically made in the payment of
 rent for houses and lands1 of interest 
on stock1 and in other ways to be       
hereafter examined4     #ic ,under which
 term1 observe1 we include all documents
 of debt         which1 being honest1   
might be transferable1 though they      
practically are not transferred2 while  
we exclude all         documents which  
are in reality worthless1 though in fact
         transferred temporarily as bad 
money is4 ,the document of              
honest debt1 not transferred1 is merely 

to paper currency as         gold       
withdrawn from circulation is to that of
 bullion4 ,much         confusion has   
crept into the reasoning on this subject
 from         the idea that withdrawal  
from circulation is a definable         
state1 whereas it is a gradated state1  
and indefinable4 ,the         sovereign 
in my pocket is withdrawn from          
circulation as long         as ,i choose
 to keep it there4 ,it is no otherwise  
withdrawn         if ,i bury it1 nor    
even if ,i choose to make it1 and       
others1         into a golden cup1 and  
drink out of them2 since a rise in      
the price of the wine1 or of other      
things1 may at any time         cause me
 to melt the cup and throw it back into 
currency2         and the bullion       
operates on the prices of the things in 
the         market as directly1 though  
not as forcibly1 while it is in         
the form of a cup1 as it does in the    
form of a sovereign4 ,no                
calculation can be founded on my humour 

in any ease4 ,if ,i         like to     
handle rouleaus1 and therefore keep a   
quantity of         gold1 to play with1 
in the form of jointed basaltic columns1
         it is all one in its effect on 
the market as if ,i kept it in          
the form of twisted filigree1 or        
steadily amicus lamnae1 beat         the
 narrow gold pieces into broad ones1 and
 dined off them4         ,the           
probability is greater that ,i break the
 rouleau than         that ,i melt the  
plate2 but the increased probability is 
not         calculable4 ,thus1 documents
 are only withdrawn from the            
currency when cancelled1 and bullion    
when it is so         effectually lost  
as that the probability of finding it is
 no         greater than that of finding
 new gold in the mine4  ,at present ,i  
wish only to note the broad relations of
 the two great classes--the             
currency-holders and store-holders4#id  
,of course they are partly united1 most 
monied men having possessions of land or

 other goods2 but they are separate in  
their nature and functions4 ,the        
currency-holders as a class regulate the
 demand for labour1 and the             
store-holders the laws of it2 the       
currency-holders determine what shall be
 produced1 and the store-holders the    
conditions of its production4 ,farther1 
as true currency represents by          
definition debts which will be paid1 it 
represents either the debtor's wealth1  
or his ability and willingness2 that is 
to say1 either wealth existing in his   
hands transferred to him by the         
creditor1 or wealth which1 as he is at  
some time surely to return it1 he is    
either increasing1 or1 if diminishing1  
has the will and strength to reproduce4 
,a sound currency1 therefore1 as by its 
increase it represents enlarging debt1  
represents also enlarging means2 but in 
this curious way1 that a certain        
quantity of it marks the deficiency of  
the wealth of the country from what it  
would have been if that currency had not

 existed4#ie ,in this respect it is like
 the detritus of a mountain2 assume that
 it lies at a fixed angle1 and the more 
the detritus1 the larger must be the    
mountain2 but it would have been larger 
still1 had there been none4     #id     
,they are 7up to the amount of the      
currency7 simply creditors         and  
debtors--the commercial types of the two
 great sects of         humanity which  
those words describe2 for debt and      
credit are         of course merely the 
mercantile forms of the words duty      
and creed1 which give the central ideas3
 only it is more         accurate to say
 faith than creed1 because creed has    
been         applied carelessly to mere 
forms of words4 ,duty properly          
signifies whatever in substance or act  
one person owes to         another1 and 
faith the other's trust in his rendering
 it4         ,the ,french devoir and foi
 are fuller and clearer words           
than ours2 for1 faith being the passive 
of fact1 foi comes         straight     

through fides from fio2 and the ,french 
keep the         group of words formed  
from the infinitive--fieri1 se fier1    
se defier1 defiance1 and the grand      
following defi4 ,our         ,english   
affiance1 defiance1 confidence1         
diffidence1         retain accurate     
meanings2 but our faithful has become   
obscure1 from being used for            
faithworthy1 as well as full         of 
faith4 ,his name that sat on him was    
called ,faithful and         ,true4     
,trust is the passive of true saying1 as
 faith is the passive         of due    
doing2 and the right learning of these  
etymologies1         which are in the   
strictest sense only to be learned by   
heart1 is of considerably more          
importance to the youth of a            
nation than its reading and ciphering4  
#ie ,for example1 suppose an active     
peasant1 having got his         ground  
into good order and built himself a     
comfortable         house1 finding still
 time on his hands1 sees one of his     

neighbours little able to work1 and ill 
lodged1 and offers         to build him 
also a house1 and to put his land in    
order1 on         condition of receiving
 for a given period rent for the        
building and tithe of the fruits4 ,the  
offer is accepted1 and         a        
document given promissory of rent and   
tithe4 ,this note is         money4 ,it 
can only be good money if the man who   
has incurred         the debt so far    
recovers his strength as to be able to  
take         advantage of the help he   
has received1 and meet the demand       
of the note2 if he lets his house fall  
to ruin1 and his         field to waste1
 his promissory note will soon be       
valueless3         but the existence of 
the note at all is a consequence of his 
not having worked so stoutly as the     
other4 ,let him gain as         much as 
to be able to pay back the entire debt2 
the note is         cancelled and we    
have two rich store-holders and no      
currency4  ,finally1 though1 as above   

stated1 every man possessing money has  
usually also some property beyond what  
is necessary for his immediate wants1   
and men possessing property usually also
 hold currency beyond what is necessary 
for their immediate exchanges1 it mainly
 determines the class to which they     
belong1 whether in their eyes the money 
is an adjunct of the property1 or the   
property of the money4 ,in the first    
case1 the holder's pleasure is in his   
possessions1 and in his money           
subordinately1 as the means of bettering
 or adding to them4 ,in the second1 his 
pleasure is in his money1 and in his    
possessions only as representing it4 ,in
 the first case1 the money is as an     
atmosphere surrounding the wealth1      
rising from it and raining back upon it2
 but in the second1 it is a deluge1 with
 the wealth floating1 and for the most  
part perishing in it4 ,the shortest     
distinction between the men is that the 
one wishes always to buy and the other  
to sell4  ,such being the great         

relations of the classes1 their several 
characters are of the highest importance
 to the nation2 for on the character of 
the store-holders depends the           
preservation1 display1 and              
serviceableness of its wealth2--on that 
of the currency-holders its nature1 and 
in great part its distribution2 and on  
both its production4  ,the store-holders
 are either constructive1 or neutral1 or
 destructive2 and in subsequent papers  
we shall1 with respect to every kind of 
wealth1 examine the relative power of   
the store-holder for its improvement or 
destruction2 and we shall then find it  
to be of incomparably greater importance
 to the nation in whose hands the thing 
is put1 than how much of it is got2 and 
that the character of the holders may be
 conjectured by the quality of the      
store1 for such and such a thing2 nor   
only asks for it1 but if to be bettered1
 betters it3 so that possession and     
possessor reciprocally act on each other
 through the entire sum of national     

possession4 ,the base nation asking for 
base things sinks daily to deeper       
vileness of nature and of use2 while the
 noble nation1 asking for noble things1 
rises daily into diviner eminence in    
both2 the tendency to degradation being 
surely marked by ,greek3 ataxia1        
carelessness as to the hands in which   
things are put1 competition for the     
acquisition of them1 disorderliness in  
accumulation1 inaccuracy in reckoning1  
and bluntness in conception as to the   
entire nature of possession4  ,now1 the 
currency-holders always increase in     
number and influence in proportion to   
the bluntness of nature and clumsiness  
of the store-holders2 for the less use  
people can make of things the more they 
tire of them1 and want to change them   
for something else1 and all frequency of
 change increases the quantity and power
 of currency2 while the large           
currency-holder himself is essentially a
 person who never has been able to make 
up his mind as to what he will have1 and

 proceeds1 therefore1 in vague          
collection and aggregation1 with more   
and more infuriate passion1 urged by    
complacency in progress1 and pride in   
conquest4  ,while1 however1 there is    
this obscurity in the nature of         
possession of currency1 there is a charm
 in the absoluteness of it1 which is to 
some people very enticing4 ,in the      
enjoyment of real property others must  
partly share4 ,the groom has some       
enjoyment of the stud1 and the gardener 
of the garden2 but the money is1 or     
seems shut up2 it is wholly enviable4   
,no one else can have part in any       
complacencies arising from it4  ,the    
power of arithmetical comparison is also
 a great thing to unimaginative people4 
,they know always they are so much      
better than they were1 in money2 so much
 better than others1 in money2 wit      
cannot be so compared1 nor character4   
,my neighbour cannot be convinced ,i am 
wiser than he is1 but he can that ,i am 
worth so much more2 and the universality

 of the conviction is no less flattering
 than its clearness4 ,only a few can    
understand1 none measure1 superiorities 
in other things2 but everybody can      
understand money1 and count it4  ,now1  
these various temptations to            
accumulation would be politically       
harmless1 if what was vainly accumulated
 had any fair chance of being wisely    
spent4 ,for as accumulation cannot go on
 for ever1 but must some day end in its 
reverse--if this reverse were indeed a  
beneficial distribution and use1 as     
irrigation from reservoir1 the fever of 
gathering1 though perilous to the       
gatherer1 might be serviceable to the   
community4 ,but it constantly happens   
7so constantly1 that it may be stated as
 a political law having few exceptions71
 that what is unreasonably gathered is  
also unreasonably spent by the persons  
into whose hands it finally falls4 ,very
 frequently it is spent in war1 or else 
in stupefying luxury1 twice hurtful1    
both in being indulged by the rich and  

witnessed by the poor4 ,so that the mal 
tener and mal dare are as correlative as
 complementary colours2 and the         
circulation of wealth1 which ought to be
 soft1 steady1 strong1 far-sweeping1 and
 full of warmth1 like the ,gulf ,stream1
 being narrowed into an eddy1 and       
concentrated on a point1 changes into   
the alternate suction and surrender of  
,charybdis4 ,which is1 indeed1 ,i doubt 
not1 the true meaning of that marvellous
 fable1 infinite1 as ,bacon said of it1 
in matter of meditation4#if     #if ,it 
is a strange habit of wise humanity to  
speak in enigmas         only1 so that  
the highest truths and usefullest laws  
must be         hunted for through whole
 picture-galleries of dreams1 which     
to the vulgar seem dreams only4 ,thus   
,homer1 the ,greek         tragedians1  
,plato1 ,dante1 ,chaucer1 ,shakespeare1 
and ,goethe1         have hidden all    
that is chiefly serviceable in their    
work1         and in all the various    
literature they absorbed and            

re-embodied1 under types which have     
rendered it quite         useless to the
 multitude4 ,what is worse1 the two     
primal         declarers of moral       
discovery1 ,homer and ,plato1 are partly
 at         issue2 for ,plato's logical 
power quenched his imagination1         
and he became incapable of understanding
 the purely         imaginative element 
either in poetry or painting2 he        
therefore somewhat overrates the pure   
discipline of         passionate art in 
song and music1 and misses that of      
meditative art4 ,there is1 however1 a   
deeper reason for his         distrust  
of ,homer4 ,his love of justice1 and    
reverently         religious nature made
 him dread as death1 every form of      
fallacy2 but chiefly1 fallacy respecting
 the world to come         7his own     
myths being only symbolic exponents of a
 rational         hope74 ,we shall      
perhaps now every day discover more     
clearly         how right ,plato was in 
this1 and feel ourselves more and       

more wonderstruck that men such as      
,homer and ,dante 7and1 in         an   
inferior sphere1 ,milton71 not to speak 
of the great         sculptors and      
painters of every age1 have permitted   
themselves1 though full of all nobleness
 and wisdom1 to coin         idle       
imaginations of the mysteries of        
eternity1 and mould         the faiths  
of the families of the earth by the     
courses of         their own vague and  
visionary arts3 while the indisputable  
truths respecting human life and duty1  
respecting which they         all have  
but one voice1 lie hidden behind these  
veils of         phantasy1 unsought and 
often unsuspected4 ,i will gather       
carefully1 out of ,dante and ,homer1    
what of this kind bears         on our  
subject1 in its due place2 the first    
broad intention         of their symbols
 may be sketched at once4 ,the rewards  
of a         worthy use of riches1      
subordinate to other ends1 are shown    
by ,dante in the fifth and sixth orbs of

 ,paradise2 for the         punishment  
of their unworthy use1 three places are 
assigned2         one for the avaricious
 and prodigal whose souls are lost      
7,hell3 ,canto #g72 one for the         
avaricious and prodigal whose           
souls are capable of purification       
7,purgatory3 ,canto #ai72         and   
one for the usurers1 of whom none can be
 redeemed         7,hell3 ,canto #ag74  
,the first group1 the largest in all    
hell         7gente piu che altrove     
troppa71 meet in contrary currents1     
as the waves of ,charybdis1 casting     
weights at each other         from      
opposite sides4 ,this weariness of      
contention is the         chief element 
of their torture2 so marked by the      
beautiful         lines1 beginning1 ,or 
puoi1 figliuol1 etc4 7but the usurers1  
who made their money inactively1 sit on 
the sand1 equally         without rest1 
however1 ,di qua1 di la soccorrien1     
etc474         ,for it is not avarice   
but contention for riches1 leading to   

this double misuse of them1 which1 in   
,dante's sight1 is the                  
unredeemable sin4 ,the place of its     
punishment is guarded by                
,plutus1 the great enemy1 and la fiera  
crudele1 a spirit         quite         
different from the ,greek ,plutus1 who1 
though old and         blind1 is not    
cruel1 and is curable1 so as to become  
far-sighted 7,greek3 hou typhlos all'   
oxy blepon--,plato's         epithets in
 first book of the ,laws74 ,still more  
does this         ,dantesque type differ
 from the resplendent ,plutus of ,goethe
         in the second part of ,faust1  
who is the personified power         of 
wealth for good or evil2 not the passion
 for wealth2 and         again from the 
,plutus of ,spenser1 who is the passion 
of mere         aggregation4 ,dante's   
,plutus is specially and definitely the 
spirit of ,contention and ,competition1 
or ,evil ,commerce2 and         because1
 as ,i showed in my last paper1 this    
kind of commerce         makes all men  

strangers1 his speech is unintelligible1
 and         no single soul of all those
 ruined by him has recognizable         
features4            7,la sconescente   
vita--           ,ad ogni conoscenza or 
li fa bruni74          ,on the other    
hand1 the redeemable sins of avarice and
         prodigality are1 in ,dante's   
sight1 those which are without          
deliberate or calculated operation4 ,the
 lust1 or lavishness1         of riches 
can be purged1 so long as there has been
 no         servile consistency of      
dispute and competition for them4 ,the  
sin is spoken of as that of degradation 
by the love of         earth2 it is     
purified by deeper humiliation--the     
souls crawl         on their bellies2   
their chant1 my soul cleaveth unto the  
dust4 ,but the spirits here condemned   
are all recognizable1         and even  
the worst examples of the thirst for    
gold1 which         they are compelled  
to tell the histories of during the     
night1 are of men swept by the passion  

of avarice into         violent crime1  
but not sold to its steady work4 ,the   
precept         given to each of these  
spirits for its deliverance is--,turn   
thine eyes to the lucre 7lure7 which the
 ,eternal ,king rolls         with the  
mighty wheels3 otherwise1 the wheels of 
the         ,greater ,fortune1 of which 
the constellation is ascending          
when ,dante's dream begins4 ,compare    
,george ,herbert1--                     
,lift up thy head2           ,take stars
 for money2 stars1 not to be told       
,by any art1 yet to be purchased4       
,and ,plato's notable sentence in the   
third book of         ,polity3--,tell   
them they have divine gold and silver in
         their souls for ever2 that they
 need no money stamped of               
men--neither may they otherwise than    
impiously mingle the         gathering  
of the divine with the mortal treasure1 
for         through that which the law  
of the multitude has coined1            
endless crimes have been done and       

suffered2 but in theirs is              
neither pollution nor sorrow4 ,at the   
entrance of this place         of       
punishment an evil spirit is seen by    
,dante1 quite other         than the    
,gran ,nemico4 ,the great enemy is      
obeyed knowingly         and willingly2 
but this spirit--feminine--and called a 
,siren--is the ,deceitfulness of riches1
 ,greek3 apate         ploutou of the   
gospels1 winning obedience by guile4    
,this is         the ,idol of ,riches1  
made doubly phantasmal by ,dante's      
seeing         her in a dream4 ,she is  
lovely to look upon1 and enchants by    
her sweet singing1 but her womb is      
loathsome4 ,now1 ,dante         does not
 call her one of the ,sirens carelessly1
 any more         than he speaks of     
,charybdis carelessly1 and though he had
         only got at the meaning of the 
,homeric fable through         ,virgil's
 obscure tradition of it1 the clue he   
has given us         is quite enough4   
,bacon's interpretation1 the ,sirens1 or

         pleasures1 which has become    
universal since his time1 is            
opposed alike to ,plato's meaning and   
,homer's4 ,the ,sirens are         not  
pleasures1 but ,desires3 in the ,odyssey
 they are the         phantoms of vain  
desire2 but in ,plato's vision of       
,destiny1         phantoms of constant  
,desire2 singing each a different note  
on the circles of the distaff of        
,necessity1 but forming one             
harmony1 to which the three great ,fates
 put words4 ,dante1         however1    
adopted the ,homeric conception of them1
 which was         that they were demons
 of the ,imagination1 not carnal 7desire
         of the eyes2 not lust of the   
flesh72 therefore said to be            
daughters of the ,muses4 ,yet not of the
 muses1 heavenly or         historical1 
but of the muse of pleasure2 and they   
are at         first winged1 because    
even vain hope excites and helps when   
first formed2 but afterwards1 contending
 for the possession         of the      

imagination with the muses themselves1  
they are         deprived of their      
wings1 and thus we are to distinguish   
the         ,siren power from the ,power
 of ,circe1 who is no daughter of       
the muses1 but of the strong elements1  
,sun and ,sea2 her         power is that
 of frank and full vital pleasure1      
which1 if         governed and watched1 
nourishes men2 but1 unwatched1 and      
having no moly1 bitterness or delay     
mixed with it1 turns         men into   
beasts1 but does not slay them1 leaves  
them1 on the         contrary1 power of 
revival4 ,she is herself indeed an      
,enchantress2--pure ,animal life2       
transforming--or         degrading--but 
always wonderful 7she puts the stores on
         board the ship invisibly1 and  
is gone again1 like a ghost72           
even the wild beasts rejoice and are    
softened around her         cave2 to    
men1 she gives no rich feast1 nothing   
but pure and         right              
nourishment1--,pramnian wine1 cheese and

 flour2 that is         corn1 milk1 and 
wine1 the three great sustainers of     
life--it         is their own fault if  
these make swine of them2 and swine     
are chosen merely as the type of        
consumption2 as ,plato's         ,greek3
 huon polis in the second book of the   
,polity1 and         perhaps chosen by  
,homer with a deeper knowledge of the   
likeness of nourishment1 and internal   
form of body4 ,et quel         est1 s'il
 vous plait1 cet audacieux animal qui se
 permet         d'etre bati au dedans   
comme une jolie petite fille8           
,helas6 chere enfant1 j'ai honte de le  
nommer1 et il ne         foudra pas m'en
 vouloir4 ,c'est 444 c'est le cochon4   
,ce n'est         pas precisement       
flatteur pour vous2 mais nous en sommes 
tous         la1 et si cela vous        
contrarie par trop1 il faut aller vous  
plaindre au bon ,dieu qui a voulu que   
les choses fussent         arrangees    
ainsi3 seulement le cochon1 qui ne pense
 qu' a         manger1 a l'estomac bien 

plus vaste que nous1 et c'est           
toujours une consolation4 7,histoire    
d'une ,bouchee de         ,pain1 ,lettre
 ix47 ,but the deadly ,sirens are all   
things         opposed to the ,circean  
power4 ,they promise pleasure1 but      
never give it4 ,they nourish in no wise2
 but slay by slow         death4 ,and   
whereas they corrupt the heart and the  
head1         instead of merely         
betraying the senses1 there is no       
recovery         from their power2 they 
do not tear nor snatch1 like ,scylla1   
but the men who have listened to them   
are poisoned1 and         waste away4   
,note that the ,sirens' field is        
covered1 not         merely with the    
bones1 but with the skins of those who  
have         been consumed there4 ,they 
address themselves1 in the part of      
the song which ,homer gives1 not to the 
passions of ,ulysses1         but to his
 vanity1 and the only man who ever came 
within         hearing of them1 and     
escaped untempted1 was ,orpheus1 who    

silenced the vain imaginations by       
singing the praises of the         gods4
          ,it is1 then1 one of these    
,sirens whom ,dante takes as the        
phantasm or deceitfulness of riches2 but
 note further1 that         she says it 
was her song that deceived ,ulysses4    
,look back to         ,dante's account  
of ,ulysses' death1 and we find it was  
not         the love of money1 but pride
 of knowledge1 that betrayed            
him2 whence we get the clue to ,dante's 
complete meaning3         that the souls
 whose love of wealth is pardonable have
 been         first deceived into       
pursuit of it by a dream of its higher  
uses1 or by ambition4 ,his ,siren is    
therefore the ,philotime         of     
,spenser1 daughter of ,mammon--         
,whom all that folk with such contention
           ,do flock about1 my deare1 my
 daughter is--           ,honour and    
dignitie from her alone                 
,derived are4          ,by comparing    
,spenser's entire account of this       

,philotime with         ,dante's of the 
,wealth-,siren1 we shall get at the full
         meaning of both poets2 but that
 of ,homer lies hidden much         more
 deeply4 ,for his ,sirens are           
indefinite1 and they are         desires
 of any evil thing2 power of wealth is  
not specially         indicated by him1 
until1 escaping the harmonious danger of
         imagination1 ,ulysses has to   
choose between two practical            
ways of life1 indicated by the two rocks
 of ,scylla and         ,charybdis4 ,the
 monsters that haunt them are quite     
distinct         from the rocks         
themselves1 which1 having many other    
subordinate significations1 are in the  
main ,labour and         ,idleness1 or  
getting and spending2 each with its     
attendant         monster1 or betraying 
demon4 ,the rock of gaining has its     
summit in the clouds1 invisible and not 
to be climbed2 that         of spending 
is low1 but marked by the cursed        
fig-tree1 which         has leaves but  

no fruit4 ,we know the type elsewhere2  
and         there is a curious lateral  
allusion to it by ,dante when           
,jacopo di ,sant' ,andrea1 who had      
ruined himself by profusion         and 
committed suicide1 scatters the leaves  
of the bush of         ,lotto degli     
,agli1 endeavouring to hide himself     
among them4         ,we shall hereafter 
examine the type completely2 here ,i    
will         only give an approximate   
rendering of ,homer's words1 which      
have been obscured more by translation  
than even by         tradition--        
,they are overhanging rocks4 ,the great 
waves of blue water         break round 
them2 and the blessed ,gods call them   
the         ,wanderers4          ,by one
 of them no winged thing can pass--not  
even the wild         doves that bring  
ambrosia to their father ,jove--but the 
smooth rock seizes its sacrifice of     
them4 7,not even         ambrosia to be 
had without ,labour4 ,the word is       
peculiar--as         a part of anything 

offered for sacrifice2 especially used  
of         heave-offering47 ,it reaches 
the wide heaven with its top1           
and a dark-blue cloud rests on it1 and  
never passes2 neither         does the  
clear sky hold it in summer nor in      
harvest4 ,nor can         any man climb 
it--not if he had twenty feet and hands1
 for         it is smooth as though it  
were hewn4          ,and in the midst of
 it is a cave which is turned the way of
         hell4 ,and therein dwells      
,scylla1 whining for prey3 her cry1     
indeed1 is no louder than that of a     
newly-born whelp3 but         she       
herself is an awful thing--nor can any  
creature see her         face and be    
glad2 no1 though it were a god that rose
 against         her4 ,for she has      
twelve feet1 all fore-feet1 and six     
necks1         and terrible heads on    
them2 and each has three rows of        
teeth1 full of black death4             
,but the opposite rock is lower than    
this1 though but a         bow-shot     

distant2 and upon it there is a great   
fig-tree1         full of leaves2 and   
under it the terrible ,charybdis sucks  
it         down1 and thrice casts it up 
again2 be not thou there when           
she sucks down1 for ,neptune himself    
could not save thee4          ,the      
reader will find the meaning of these   
types gradually         elicited as we  
proceed4  ,this disease of desire having
 especial relation to the great art of  
,exchange1 or ,commerce1 we must1 in    
order to complete our code of first     
principles1 shortly state the nature and
 limits of that art4  ,as the currency  
conveys right of choice out of many     
things in exchange for one1 so ,commerce
 is the agency by which the power of    
choice is obtained2 and countries       
producing only timber can obtain for    
their timber silk and gold2 or1         
naturally producing only jewels and     
frankincense1 can obtain for them cattle
 and corn4 ,in this function commerce is
 of more importance to a country in     

proportion to the limitations of its    
products and the restlessness of its    
fancy2--generally of greater importance 
towards ,northern latitudes4  ,commerce 
is necessary1 however1 not only to      
exchange local products1 but local      
skill4 ,labour requiring the agency of  
fire can only be given abundantly in    
cold countries2 labour requiring        
suppleness of body and sensitiveness of 
touch only in warm ones2 labour         
involving accurate vivacity of thought  
only in temperate ones2 while peculiar  
imaginative actions are produced by     
extremes of heat and cold1 and of light 
and darkness4 ,the production of great  
art is limited to climates warm enough  
to admit of repose in the open air1 and 
cool enough to render such repose       
delightful4 ,minor variations in modes  
of skill distinguish every locality4    
,the labour which at any place is       
easiest1 is in that place cheapest2 and 
it becomes often desirable that products
 raised in one country should be wrought

 in another4 ,hence have arisen         
discussions on ,international values1   
which will be one day remembered as     
highly curious exercises of the human   
mind4 ,for it will be discovered1 in due
 course of tide and time1 that          
international value is regulated just as
 inter-provincial or inter-parishional  
value is4 ,coals and hops are exchanged 
between ,northumberland and ,kent on    
absolutely the same principles as iron  
and wine between ,lancashire and ,spain4
 ,the greater breadth of an arm of the  
sea increases the cost1 but does not    
modify the principle of exchange2 and a 
bargain written in two languages will   
have no other economical results than a 
bargain written in one4 ,the distances  
of nations are measured not by seas1 but
 by ignorances2 and their divisions     
determined1 not by dialects1 but by     
enmities4  ,of course1 a system of      
international values may always be      
constructed if we assume a relation of  
moral law to physical geography2 as1 for

 instance1 that it is right to cheat    
across a river1 though not across a     
road2 or across a lake1 though not      
across a river2 or over a mountain1     
though not across a lake1 etc43--again1 
a system of such values may be          
constructed by assuming similar         
relations of taxation to physical       
geography2 as1 for instance1 that an    
article should be taxed in crossing a   
river1 but not in crossing a road2 or in
 being carried over a mountain1 but not 
over a ferry1 etc43 such positions are  
indeed not easily maintained when once  
put in logical form2 but one law of     
international value is maintainable in  
any form2 namely1 that the farther your 
neighbour lives from you1 and the less  
he understands you1 the more you are    
bound to be true in your dealings with  
him2 because your power over him is     
greater in proportion to his ignorance1 
and his remedy more difficult in        
proportion to his distance4  ,i have    
just said the breadth of sea increases  

the cost of exchange4 ,exchange or      
commerce1 as such1 is always costly2 the
 sum of the value of the goods being    
diminished by the cost of their         
conveyance1 and by the maintenance of   
the persons employed in it4 ,so that it 
is only when there is advantage to both 
producers 7in getting the one thing for 
the other71 greater than the loss in    
conveyance1 that the exchange is        
expedient4 ,and it is only justly       
conducted when the porters kept by the  
producers 7commonly called merchants7   
look only for pay1 and not for profit4  
,for in just commerce there are but     
three parties--the two persons or       
societies exchanging and the agent or   
agents of exchange3 the value of the    
things to be exchanged is known by both 
the exchangers1 and each receives       
equivalent value1 neither gaining nor   
losing 7for whatever one gains the other
 loses74 ,the intermediate agent is paid
 an equal and known percentage by both1 
partly for labour in conveyance1 partly 

for care1 knowledge1 and risk2 every    
attempt at concealment of the amount of 
the pay indicates either effort on the  
part of the agent to obtain exorbitant  
percentage1 or effort on the part of the
 exchangers to refuse him a just one4   
,but for the most part it is the first1 
namely1 the effort on the part of the   
merchant to obtain larger profit 7so    
called7 by buying cheap and selling     
dear4 ,some part1 indeed1 of this larger
 gain is deserved1 and might be openly  
demanded1 because it is the reward of   
the merchant's knowledge1 and foresight 
of probable necessity2 but the greater  
part of such gain is unjust2 and unjust 
in this most fatal way1 that it depends 
first on keeping the exchangers ignorant
 of the exchange value of the articles1 
and secondly1 on taking advantage of the
 buyer's need and the seller's poverty4 
,it is1 therefore1 one of the essential1
 and quite the most fatal1 forms of     
usury2 for usury means merely taking an 
exorbitant sum for the use of anything1 

and it is no matter whether the         
exorbitance is on loan or exchange1 in  
rent or in price--the essence of the    
usury being that it is obtained by      
advantage of opportunity or necessity1  
and not as due reward for labour4 ,all  
the great thinkers1 therefore1 have held
 it to be unnatural and impious1 in so  
far as it feeds on the distress of      
others1 or their folly4#ig ,nevertheless
 attempts to repress it by law 7in other
 words1 to regulate prices by law so far
 as their variations depend on iniquity1
 and not on nature7 must for ever be    
ineffective2 though ,plato1 ,bacon1 and 
the ,first ,napoleon--all three of them 
men who knew somewhat more of humanity  
than the ,british merchant usually      
does--tried their hands at it1 and have 
left some 7probably7 good moderative    
forms of law1 which we will examine in  
their place4 ,but the only final check  
upon it must be radical purifying of the
 national character1 for being1 as      
,bacon calls it1 concessum propter      

duritiem cordis1 it is to be done away  
with by touching the heart only2 not1   
however1 without medicinal law--as in   
the case of the other permission1       
propter duritiem4 ,but in this1 more    
than in anything 7though much in all1   
and though in this he would not himself 
allow of their application1 for his own 
laws against usury are sharp enough71   
,plato's words are true in the fourth   
book of the ,polity1 that neither drugs1
 nor charms1 nor burnings1 will touch a 
deep-lying political sore1 any more than
 a deep bodily one2 but only right and  
utter change of constitution2 and that  
they do but lose their labour who think 
that by any tricks of law they can get  
the better of these mischiefs of        
intercourse1 and see not that they hew  
at a ,hydra4     #ig ,hence ,dante's    
companionship of ,cahors1 ,inf41 canto  
xi41         supported by the view taken
 of the matter throughout the           
middle ages1 in common with the ,greeks4
  ,and indeed this ,hydra seems so      

unslayable1 and sin sticks so fast      
between the joinings of the stones of   
buying and selling1 that to trade in    
things1 or literally cross-give them1   
has warped itself1 by the instinct of   
nations1 into their worst word for      
fraud2 for1 because in trade there      
cannot but be trust1 and it seems also  
that there cannot but also be injury in 
answer to it1 what is merely fraud      
between enemies becomes treachery among 
friends3 and trader1 traditor1 and      
traitor are but the same word4 ,for     
which simplicity of language there is   
more reason than at first appears2 for  
as in true commerce there is no profit1 
so in true commerce there is no sale4   
,the idea of sale is that of an         
interchange between enemies respectively
 endeavouring to get the better of one  
another2 but commerce is an exchange    
between friends2 and there is no desire 
but that it should be just1 any more    
than there would be between members of  
the same family4 ,the moment there is a 

bargain over the pottage1 the family    
relation is dissolved2--typically the   
days of mourning for my father are at   
hand4 ,whereupon follows the resolve    
then will ,i slay my brother4  ,this    
inhumanity of mercenary commerce is the 
more notable because it is a fulfilment 
of the law that the corruption of the   
best is the worst4 ,for as1 taking the  
body natural for symbol of the body     
politic1 the governing and forming      
powers may be likened to the brain and  
the labouring to the limbs1 the         
mercantile1 presiding over circulation  
and communication of things in changed  
utilities is symbolized by the heart2   
which1 if it harden1 all is lost4 ,and  
this is the ultimate lesson which the   
leader of ,english intellect meant for  
us 7a lesson1 indeed1 not all his own1  
but part of the old wisdom of humanity71
 in the tale of the ,merchant of        
,venice2 in which the true and incorrupt
 merchant1--kind and free1 beyond every 
other ,shakespearian conception of      

men1--is opposed to the corrupted       
merchant1 or usurer2 the lesson being   
deepened by the expression of the       
strange hatred which the corrupted      
merchant bears to the pure one1 mixed   
with intense scorn--  ,this is the fool 
that lent out money gratis2 look to him1
 jailor1 7as to lunatic no less than    
criminal72 the enmity1 observe1 having  
its symbolism literally carried out by  
being aimed straight at the heart1 and  
finally foiled by a literal appeal to   
the great moral law that flesh and blood
 cannot be weighed1 enforced by ,portia 
7,portion71 the type of divine          
,fortune1#ih found1 not in gold1 nor in 
silver1 but in lead1 that is to say1 in 
endurance and patience1 not in          
splendour2 and finally taught by her    
lips also1 declaring1 instead of the law
 and quality of merces1 the greater law 
and quality of mercy1 which is not      
strained1 but drops as the rain1        
blessing him that gives and him that    
takes4 ,and observe that this mercy is  

not the mean ,misericordia1 but the     
mighty ,gratia1 answered by ,gratitude  
7observe ,shylock's leaning on the1 to  
him detestable1 word gratis1 and compare
 the relation of ,grace to ,equity given
 in the second chapter of the second    
book of the ,memorabilia72 that is to   
say1 it is the gracious or loving1      
instead of the strained1 or competing   
manner1 of doing things1 answered1 not  
only with merces or pay1 but with merci1
 or thanks4 ,and this is indeed the     
meaning of the great benediction1       
,grace1 mercy1 and peace1 for there can 
be no peace without grace 7not even by  
help of rifled cannon71#ii nor even     
without triplicity of graciousness1 for 
the ,greeks1 who began with but one     
,grace1 had to open their scheme into   
three before they had done4     #ih     
,shakespeare would certainly never have 
chosen this name had         he been    
forced to retain the ,roman spelling4   
,like ,perdita1         lost lady1 or   
,cordelia1 heart-lady1 ,portia is       

fortune-lady4 ,the two great relative   
groups of words1         ,fortune1 fero1
 and fors--,portio1 porto1 and pars     
7with the         lateral branch1       
op-portune1 im-portune1 opportunity1    
etc471         are of deep and intrinsic
 significance2 their various senses     
of bringing1 abstracting1 and           
sustaining1 being all                   
centralized by the wheel 7which bears   
and moves at once71 or         still    
better1 the ball 7spera7 of             
,fortune1--,volve sua         spera1 e  
beata si gode3 the motive power of this 
wheel         distinguishing its goddess
 from the fixed majesty of              
,necessitas with her iron nails2 or     
,greek3 ananke1 with         her pillar 
of fire and iridescent orbits1 fixed at 
the         centre4 ,portus and porta1  
and gate in its connexion with          
gain1 form another interesting branch   
group2 and ,mors1 the                   
concentration of delaying1 is always to 
be remembered with         ,fors1 the   

concentration of bringing and bearing1  
passing on         into ,fortis and     
,fortitude4     #ii ,out of whose       
mouths1 indeed1 no peace was ever       
promulgated1         but only equipoise 
of panic1 highly tremulous on the edge  
in         changes in the wind4  ,with  
the usual tendency of long-repeated     
thought to take the surface for the     
deep1 we have conceived their goddesses 
as if they only gave loveliness to      
gesture2 whereas their true function is 
to give graciousness to deed1 the other 
loveliness arising naturally out of     
that4 ,in which function ,charis becomes
 ,charitas#ajj and has a name and praise
 even greater than that of ,faith or    
truth1 for these may be maintained      
sullenly and proudly2 but ,charis#aja is
 in her countenance always gladdening   
7,aglaia71 and in her service instant   
and humble2 and the true wife of        
,vulcan1 or ,labour4 ,and it is not     
until her sincerity of function is lost1
 and her mere beauty contemplated1      

instead of her patience1 that she is    
born again of the foam flake1 and       
becomes ,aphrodite2 then only capable of
 joining herself to ,war and to the     
enmities of men1 instead of to ,labour  
and their services4 ,therefore the fable
 of ,mars and ,venus is1 chosen by      
,homer1 picturing himself as ,demodocus1
 to sing at the games in the ,court of  
,alcinous4 ,phaeacia is the ,homeric    
island of ,atlantis2 an image of noble  
and wise government1 concealed1 how     
slightly6 merely by the change of a     
short vowel for a long one in the name  
of its queen2 yet misunderstood by all  
later writers1 even by ,horace in his   
pinguis1 ,phaeaxque1 etc4 ,that fable   
expresses the perpetual error of men1   
thinking that grace and dignity can only
 be reached by the soldier1 and never by
 the artizan2 so that commerce and the  
useful arts have had the honour and     
beauty taken away1 and only the         
,fraud#ajb and ,pain left to them1 with 
the lucre4 ,which is1 indeed1 one great 

reason of the continual blundering about
 the offices of government with respect 
to commerce4 ,the higher classes are    
ashamed to deal with it2 and though     
ready enough to fight for 7or           
occasionally against7 the people1--to   
preach to them1--or judge them1 will not
 break bread for them2 the refined upper
 servant who has willingly looked after 
the burnishing of the armoury and       
ordering of the library1 not liking to  
set foot into the larder4     #ajj ,the 
reader must not think that any care can 
be misspent         in tracing the      
connexion and power of the words which  
we         have to use in the sequel4   
,not only does all soundness of         
reasoning depend on the work thus done  
in the outset1 but         we may       
sometimes gain more by insistence on the
 expression         of a truth1 than by 
much wordless thinking about it2 for    
to strive to express it clearly is often
 to detect it         thoroughly2 and   
education1 even as regards thought1     

nearly         sums itself in making men
 economise their words1 and             
understand them4 ,nor is it possible to 
estimate the harm         that has been 
done1 in matters of higher speculation  
and         conduct1 by loose verbiage1 
though we may guess at it by            
observing the dislike which people show 
to having anything         about their  
religion said to them in simple words1  
because         then they understand it4
 ,thus congregations meet weekly to     
invoke the influence of a ,spirit of    
,life and ,truth2 yet if         any    
part of that character were intelligibly
 expressed to         them by the       
formulas of the service1 they would be  
offended4         ,suppose1 for         
instance1 in the closing benediction1   
the         clergyman were to give its  
vital significance to the word          
,holy1 and were to say1 the ,fellowship 
of the ,helpful and         ,honest     
,ghost be with you1 and remain with you 
always1 what         would be the horror

 of many1 first1 at the irreverence of  
so         intelligible an expression1  
and1 secondly1 at the                   
discomfortable entry of the suspicion   
that 7while throughout         the      
commercial dealings of the week they had
 denied the         propriety of ,help1 
and possibility of ,honesty7 the ,person
         whose company they had been    
asking to be blessed with could         
have no fellowship with knaves4    #aja 
,as ,charis becomes ,charitas see next  
page1 the word ,cher1         or ,dear1 
passes from ,shylock's sense of it 7to  
buy cheap         and sell dear7 into   
,antonio's sense of it3 emphasized with 
the final i in tender ,cheri1 and hushed
 to ,english         calmness in our    
noble ,cherish4    #ajb ,while ,i have  
traced the finer and higher laws of this
 matter         for those whom they     
concern1 ,i have also to note the       
material law--vulgarly expressed in the 
proverb1 ,honesty is         the best   
policy4 ,that proverb is indeed wholly  

inapplicable         to matters of      
private interest4 ,it is not true that  
honesty1         as far as material gain
 is concerned1 profits individuals4 ,a  
clever and cruel knave will1 in a mixed 
society1 always be         richer than  
an honest person can be4 ,but ,honesty  
is the best         policy1 if policy   
means practice of ,state4 ,for fraud    
gains         nothing in a ,state4 ,it  
only enables the knaves in it to live   
at the expense of honest people2 while  
there is for every         act of fraud1
 however small1 a loss of wealth to the 
community4 ,whatever the fraudulent     
person gains1 some other         person 
loses1 as fraud produces nothing2 and   
there is1         besides1 the loss of  
the time and thought spent in           
accomplishing the fraud2 and of the     
strength otherwise         obtainable by
 mutual help 7not to speak of the fevers
 of         anxiety and jealousy in the 
blood1 which are a heavy                
physical loss1 as ,i will show in due   

time74 ,practically1         when the   
nation is deeply corrupt1 cheat answers 
to cheat1         every one is in turn  
imposed upon1 and there is to the body  
politic the dead loss of ingenuity1     
together with the         incalculable  
mischief of the injury to each defrauded
         person1 producing collateral   
effect unexpectedly4 ,my                
neighbour sells me bad meat3 ,i sell him
 in return flawed         iron4 ,we     
neither of us get one atom of pecuniary 
advantage         on the whole          
transaction1 but we both suffer         
unexpected         inconvenience2--my   
men get scurvy1 and his cattle-truck    
runs         off the rails4  ,farther   
still4 ,as ,charis becomes ,charitas on 
the one side1 she becomes--better       
still--,chara1 ,joy1 on the other2 or   
rather this is her very mother's milk   
and the beauty of her childhood2 for    
,god brings no enduring ,love1 nor any  
other good1 out of pain1 nor out of     
contention2 but out of joy and          

harmony4#ajc ,and in this sense1 human  
and divine1 music and gladness1 and the 
measures of both1 come into her name2   
and ,cher becomes full-vowelled ,cheer1 
and ,cheerful2 and ,chara1 companioned1 
opens into ,choir and ,choral4    #ajc  
,greek3 ta men houn alla zoa ouk echein 
aisthesin ton         en tais kinesesi  
taxeon oude ataxion1 hoi de rhuthmos    
onoma kai harmonia hemin de ous eipomen 
tous theous         ,apollo1 the ,muses1
 and ,bacchus--the grave ,bacchus1 that 
is---ruling the choir of age2 or        
,bacchus restraining2         'saeva    
tene1 cum ,berecyntio cornu1 tympana1'  
etc4         ,greek3 sunchoreutas       
dedosthai1 toutous einai kai tous       
dedokotas ten enruthmon te kai          
henarmonion aisthesin         meth'     
edones 444 chorous te onomakenai para   
tes charas         emphyton             
unoma4--,laws1 book ii4  ,and lastly4   
,as ,grace passes into ,freedom of      
action1 ,charis becomes ,eleutheria1 or 
liberality2 a form of liberty quite     

curiously and intensely different from  
the thing usually understood by ,liberty
 in modern language2 indeed1 much more  
like what some people would call        
slavery2 for a ,greek always understood1
 primarily1 by liberty1 deliverance from
 the law of his own passions 7or from   
what the ,christian writers call bondage
 of corruption71 and this a complete    
liberty3 not having to resist the       
passion1 but making it fawn upon1 and   
follow him--7this may be again partly   
the meaning of the fawning beasts about 
the ,circean cave2 so1 again1 ,george   
,herbert--    ,correct thy passion's    
spite2   ,then may the beasts draw thee 
to happy light7--  not being merely safe
 from the ,siren1 but also unbound from 
the mast4 ,and it is only in such       
generosity that any man becomes capable 
of so governing others as to take true  
part in any system of national economy4 
,nor is there any other eternal         
distinction between the upper and lower 
classes than this form of liberty1      

,eleutheria1 or benignity1 in the one1  
and its opposite of slavery1 ,douleia1  
or malignity1 in the other2 the         
separation of these two orders of men1  
and the firm government of the lower by 
the higher1 being the first conditions  
of possible wealth and economy in any   
state1--the ,gods giving it no greater  
gift than the power to discern its      
freemen1 and malignum spernere vulgus4  
,the examination of this form of ,charis
 must1 therefore1 lead us into the      
discussion of the principles of         
government in general1 and especially of
 that of the poor by the rich1          
discovering how the ,graciousness joined
 with the ,greatness1 or ,love with     
,majestas1 is the true ,dei ,gratia1 or 
,divine ,right1 of every form and manner
 of ,king2 i4e41 specifically1 of the   
thrones1 dominations1 princedoms1       
virtues1 and powers of the earth2--of   
the thrones1 stable1 or ruling1         
literally right-doing powers 7rex eris1 
recte si facies37 of the dominations1   

lordly1 edifying1 dominant1 and         
harmonious powers2 chiefly domestic1    
over the built thing1 domus1 or house2  
and inherently twofold1 ,dominus and    
,domina2 ,lord and ,lady3 of the        
,princedoms1 pre-eminent1 incipient1    
creative1 and demonstrative powers2 thus
 poetic and mercantile1 in the princeps 
carmen deduxisse and the                
merchant-prince3 of the ,virtues or     
,courages2 militant1 guiding1 or ,ducal 
powers2 and finally of the ,strengths   
and ,forces pure2 magistral powers1 of  
the more over the less1 and the forceful
 and free over the weak and servile     
elements of life4  ,subject enough for  
the next paper involving economical     
principles of some importance1 of which1
 for theme1 here is a sentence1 which ,i
 do not care to translate1 for it would 
sound harsh in ,english1 though1 truly1 
it is one of the tenderest ever uttered 
by man2 which may be meditated over1 or 
rather through1 in the meanwhile1 by any
 one who will take the pains3--         

,greek3 ,arh oun1 hosper hippos to      
anepistemoni men encheirounti     de    
chresthai zemia estin1 houto kai        
adelphos hotan tis auto me              
epistamenos encheire chresthai1 zemia   
esti8     ,,iv4  ,,laws ,,and           
,,governments3 ,,labour ,,and ,,riches4 
,it remains1 in order to complete the   
series of our definitions1 that we      
examine the general conditions of       
government1 and fix the sense in which  
we are to use1 in future1 the terms     
applied to them4  ,the government of a  
state consists in its customs1 laws1 and
 councils1 and their enforcements4      
,i4--,,customs4  ,as one person         
primarily differs from another by       
fineness of nature1 and secondarily1 by 
fineness of training1 so also1 a polite 
nation differs from a savage one1 first 
by the refinement of its nature1 and    
secondly by the delicacy of its customs4
  ,in the completeness1 or              
accomplishment of custom1 which is the  
nation's self-government1 there are     

three stages--first1 fineness in method 
of doing or of being2--called the manner
 or moral of acts3 secondly1 firmness in
 holding such method after adoption1 so 
that it shall become a habit in the     
character3 i4e41 a constant having or   
behaving2 and1 lastly1 practice1 or     
ethical power in performance and        
endurance1 which is the skill following 
on habit1 and the ease reached by       
frequency of right doing4  ,the         
sensibility of the nation is indicated  
by the fineness of its customs2 its     
courage1 patience1 and temperance by its
 persistence in them4  ,by sensibility  
,i mean its natural perception of       
beauty1 fitness1 and rightness2 or of   
what is lovely1 decent1 and just3       
faculties dependent much on race1 and   
the primal signs of fine breeding in    
man2 but cultivable also by education1  
and necessary perishing without it4     
,true education has1 indeed1 no other   
function than the development of these  
faculties1 and of the relative will4 ,it

 has been the great error of modern     
intelligence to mistake science for     
education4 ,you do not educate a man by 
telling him what he knew not1 but by    
making him what he was not4  ,and making
 him what he will remain for ever3 for  
no wash of weeds will bring back the    
faded purple4 ,and in that dyeing there 
are two processes--first1 the cleansing 
and wringing out1 which is the baptism  
with water2 and then the infusing of the
 blue and scarlet colours1 gentleness   
and justice1 which is the baptism with  
fire4  ,the customs and manners of a    
sensitive and highly-trained race are   
always vital3 that is to say1 they are  
orderly manifestations of intense life  
7like the habitual action of the fingers
 of a musician74 ,the customs and       
manners of a vile and rude race1 on the 
contrary1 are conditions of decay3 they 
are not1 properly speaking1 habits1 but 
incrustations2 not restraints1 or forms1
 of life2 but gangrenes2--noisome1 and  
the beginnings of death4 ,and generally1

 so far as custom attaches itself to    
indolence instead of action1 and to     
prejudice instead of perception1 it     
takes this deadly character1 so that    
thus    ,custom hangs upon us with a    
weight   ,heavy as frost1 and deep      
almost as life4  ,this power and depth  
are1 however1 just what give value to   
custom1 when it works with life1 instead
 of against it4  ,the high ethical      
training1 of a nation being threefold1  
of body1 heart1 and practice 7compare   
the statement in the preface to ,unto   
,this ,last71 involves exquisiteness in 
all its perceptions of                  
circumstance1--all its occupations of   
thought4 ,it implies perfect ,grace1    
,pitifulness1 and ,peace2 it is         
irreconcilably inconsistent with filthy 
or mechanical employments1--with the    
desire of money1--and with mental states
 of anxiety1 jealousy1 and indifference 
to pain4 ,the present insensibility of  
the upper classes of ,europe to the     
aspects of suffering1 uncleanness1 and  

crime1 binds them not only into one     
responsibility with the sin1 but into   
one dishonour with the foulness1 which  
rot at their thresholds4 ,the crimes    
daily recorded in the police courts of  
,london and ,paris 7and much more those 
which are unrecorded7 are a disgrace to 
the whole body politic2#ajd they are1 as
 in the body natural1 stains of disease 
on a face of delicate skin1 making the  
delicacy itself frightful4 ,similarly1  
the filth and poverty permitted or      
ignored in the midst of us are as       
dishonourable to the whole social body1 
as in the body natural it is to wash the
 face1 but leave the hands and feet     
foul4 ,christ's way is the only true    
one3 begin at the feet2 the face will   
take care of itself4 ,yet1 since        
necessarily1 in the frame of a nation1  
nothing but the head can be of gold1 and
 the feet1 for the work they have to do1
 must be part of iron1 part of          
clay2--foul or mechanical work is always
 reduced by a noble race to the minimum 

in quantity2 and1 even then1 performed  
and endured1 not without sense of       
degradation1 as a fine temper is wounded
 by the sight of the lower offices of   
the body4 ,the highest conditions of    
human society reached hitherto1 have    
cast such work to slaves2--supposing    
slavery of a politically defined kind to
 be done away with1 mechanical and foul 
employment must in all highly-organized 
states take the aspect either of        
punishment or probation4 ,all criminals 
should at once be set to the most       
dangerous and painful forms of it1      
especially to work in mines and at      
furnaces1#aje so as to relieve the      
innocent population as far as possible3 
of merely rough 7not mechanical7 manual 
labour1 especially agricultural1 a large
 portion should be done by the upper    
classes2--bodily health1 and sufficient 
contrast and repose for the mental      
functions1 being unattainable without   
it2 what necessarily inferior labour    
remains to be done1 as especially in    

manufactures1 should1 and always will1  
when the relations of society are       
reverent and harmonious1 fall to the lot
 of those who1 for the time1 are fit for
 nothing better4 ,for as1 whatever the  
perfectness of the educational system1  
there must remain infinite differences  
between the natures and capacities of   
men2 and these differing natures are    
generally rangeable under the two       
qualities of lordly 7or tending towards 
rule1 construction1 and harmony7 and    
servile 7or tending towards misrule1    
destruction1 and discord72 and1 since   
the lordly part is only in a state of   
profitableness while ruling1 and the    
servile only in a state of              
redeemableness while serving1 the whole 
health of the state depends on the      
manifest separation of these two        
elements of its mind3 for1 if the       
servile part be not separated and       
rendered visible in service1 it mixes   
with and corrupts the entire body of the
 state2 and if the lordly part be not   

distinguished1 and set to rule1 it is   
crushed and lost1 being turned to no    
account1 so that the rarest qualities of
 the nation are all given to it in      
vain4#ajf ,the effecting of which       
distinction is the first object1 as we  
shall see presently1 of national        
councils4    #ajd ,the ordinary brute1  
who flourishes in the very centre       
of ornate life1 tells us of unknown     
depths on the verge of         which we 
totter1 being bound to thank our stars  
every day we         live that there is 
not a general outbreak and a revolt from
         the yoke of                    
civilization4--,times leader1 ,dec4     
#beth1 #ahfb4         ,admitting that   
our stars are to be thanked for our     
safety1         whom are we to thank for
 the danger8    #aje ,our politicians1  
even the best of them1 regard only the  
distress caused by the failure of       
mechanical labour4 ,the                 
degradation caused by its excess is a   
far more serious         subject of     

thought1 and of future fear4 ,i shall   
examine this         part of our subject
 at length hereafter4 ,there can hardly 
be         any doubt1 at present1 cast  
on the truth of the above               
passages1 as all the great thinkers are 
unanimous on the         matter4        
,plato's words are terrific in their    
scorn and pity         whenever he      
touches on the mechanical arts4 ,he     
calls the men         employed in them  
not even human1--but partially and      
diminutively human1 ,greek3             
anthropiskoi1 and opposes         such  
work to noble occupations1 not merely as
 prison is         opposed to freedom1  
but as a convict's dishonoured prison is
         to the temple 7escape from them
 being like that of a         criminal  
to the sanctuary71 and the destruction  
caused by         them being of soul no 
less than body4--,rep41 vi4 #i4 ,compare
         ,laws1 v4 #aa4 ,xenophon dwells
 on the evil of occupations at          
the furnace 7root of ,greek3 banausos71 

and especially their         ,greek3    
ascholia1 want of leisure--,econ4 i4 #d4
 7,modern         ,england1 with all its
 pride of education1 has lost that      
first sense of the word school1 and till
 it recover that         it will find no
 other rightly47 ,his word for the harm 
to the         soul is to break it1 as  
we say of the heart4--,econ4 i4 #f4     
,and herein also is the root of the     
scorn1 otherwise         apparently most
 strange and cruel1 with which ,homer1  
,dante1         and ,shakespeare always 
speak of the populace2 for it is        
entirely true that in great states the  
lower orders are low         by nature  
as well as by task1 being precisely that
 part of         the commonwealth which 
has been thrust down for its            
coarseness or unworthiness 7by          
coarseness ,i mean especially           
insensibility and irreverence2 the      
profane of ,horace72 and         when   
this ceases to be so1 and the corruption
 and the         profanity are in the   

higher instead of the lower orders1     
there arises1 first1 helpless confusion2
 then1 if the lower         classes     
deserve power1 ensues swift revolution1 
and they get         it3 but if neither 
the populace nor their rulers deserve   
it1         there follows mere darkness 
and dissolution1 till1 out of           
the putrid elements1 some new capacity  
of order rises1 like         grass on a 
grave2 if not1 there is no more hope1   
nor shadow         of turning1 for that 
nation4 ,atropos has her way with it4   
,so that the law of national health is  
like that of a great         lake or    
sea1 in perfect but slow circulation1   
letting the         dregs fall          
continually to the lowest place1 and the
 clear         water rise2 yet so as    
that there shall be no neglect of the   
lower orders1 but perfect supervision   
and sympathy1 so that         if one    
member suffer1 all members shall suffer 
with it4    #ajf ,greek3 oliges1 kai    
allos gignomenes4 ,the bitter           

sentence never was so true as at this   
day4   ,,ii4--,,laws4  ,these are the   
definitions and bonds of custom1 or1 of 
what the nation desires should become   
custom4  ,law is either archic#ajg 7of  
direction71 meristic 7of division71 or  
critic 7of judgment74 ,archic law is    
that of appointment and precept3 it     
defines what is and is not to be done4  
,meristic law is that of balance and    
distribution3 it defines what is and is 
not to be possessed4 ,critic law is that
 of discernment and award3 it defines   
what is and is not to be suffered4      
#ajg ,thetic1 or ,thesmic1 would perhaps
 be a better term than         ,archic2 
but liable to be confused with some     
which we shall         want relating to 
,theoria4 ,the administrators of the    
three         great divisions of law are
 severally ,archons1 ,merists1 and      
,dicasts4 ,the ,archons are the true    
princes1 or beginners of         things2
 or leaders 7as of an orchestra72 the   
,merists are         properly the       

,domini1 or ,lords 7law-words7 of houses
 and         nations2 the ,dicasts      
properly the judges1 and that with      
,olympian justice1 which reaches to     
heaven and hell4 ,the         violation 
of archic law is ,greek3 hamartia       
7error7         ,greek3 poneria         
7failure71 ,greek3 plemmeleia 7discord74
         ,the violation of meristic law 
is ,greek3 anomia 7iniquity74           
,the violation of critic law is ,greek3 
adikia 7injury74         ,iniquity is   
central generic term2 for all law is    
fatal2 it         is the division to men
 of their fate2 as the fold of their    
pasture1 it is ,greek3 nomos2 as the    
assigning of their         portion1     
,greek3 moira4  ,if we choose to class  
the laws of precept and distribution    
under the general head of statutes1 all 
law is simply either of statute or      
judgment2 that is1 first1 the           
establishment of ordinance1 and1        
secondly1 the assignment of the reward  
or penalty due to its observance or     

violation4  ,to some extent these two   
forms of law must be associated1 and1   
with every ordinance1 the penalty of    
disobedience to it be also determined4  
,but since the degrees and guilt of     
disobedience vary1 the determination of 
due reward and punishment must be       
modified by discernment of special fact1
 which is peculiarly the office of the  
judge1 as distinguished from that of the
 lawgiver and lawsustainer1 or king2 not
 but that the two offices are always    
theoretically and1 in early stages1 or  
limited numbers1 of society1 are often  
practically1 united in the same person  
or persons4  ,also1 it is necessary to  
keep clearly in view the distinction    
between these two kinds of law1 because 
the possible range of law is wider in   
proportion to their separation4 ,there  
are many points of conduct respecting   
which the nation may wisely express its 
will by a written precept or resolve2   
yet not enforce it by penalty2 and the  
expedient degree of penalty is always   

quite a separate consideration from the 
expedience of the statute1 for the      
statute may often be better enforced by 
mercy than severity1 and is also easier 
in bearing1 and less likely to be       
abrogated4 ,farther1 laws of precept    
have reference especially to youth1 and 
concern themselves with training2 but   
laws of judgment to manhood1 and concern
 themselves with remedy and reward4     
,there is a highly curious feeling in   
the ,english mind against educational   
law2 we think no man's liberty should be
 interfered with till he has done       
irrevocable wrong2 whereas it is then   
just too late for the only gracious and 
kingly interference1 which is to hinder 
him from doing it4 ,make your           
educational laws strict1 and your       
criminal ones may be gentle2 but1 leave 
youth its liberty1 and you will have to 
dig dungeons for age4 ,and it is good   
for a man that he wear the yoke in his  
youth2 for the yoke of youth1 if you    
know how to hold it1 may be of silken   

thread2 and there is sweet chime of     
silver bells at that bridle rein2 but1  
for the captivity of age1 you must forge
 the iron fetter1 and cast the passing  
bell4  ,since no law can be in a final  
or true sense established1 but by right 
7all unjust laws involving the ultimate 
necessity of their own abrogation71 the 
law-sustaining power in so far as it is 
,royal1 or right doing2--in so far1 that
 is1 as it rules1 not mis-rules1 and    
orders1 not dis-orders1 the things      
submitted to it4 ,throned on this rock  
of justice1 the kingly power becomes    
established and establishing1 ,greek3   
theios1 or divine1 and1 therefore1 it is
 literally true that no ruler can err1  
so long as he is a ruler1 or ,greek3    
archon oudeis hamartanei tote hotan     
archon e 7perverted by careless thought1
 which has cost the world somewhat1 into
 the king can do no wrong74 ,which is a 
divine right of kings indeed1 and quite 
unassailable1 so long as the terms of it
 are ,god and my ,right1 and not ,satan 

and my ,wrong1 which is apt1 in some    
coinages1 to appear on the reverse of   
the die1 under a good lens4  ,meristic  
law1 or that of tenure of property1     
first determines what every individual  
possesses by right1 and secures it to   
him2 and what he possesses by wrong1 and
 deprives him of it4 ,but it has a far  
higher provisory function3 it determines
 what every man should possess1 and puts
 it within his reach on due conditions2 
and what he should not possess1 and puts
 this out of his reach conclusively4    
,every article of human wealth has      
certain conditions attached to its      
merited possession1 which1 when they are
 unobserved1 possession becomes rapine4 
,the object of meristic law is not only 
to secure every man his rightful share  
7the share1 that is1 which he has worked
 for1 produced1 or received by gift from
 a rightful owner71 but to enforce the  
due conditions of possession1 as far as 
law may conveniently reach2 for         
instance1 that land shall not be        

wantonly allowed to run to waste1 that  
streams shall not be poisoned by the    
persons through whose properties they   
pass1 nor air be rendered unwholesome   
beyond given limits4 ,laws of this kind 
exist already in rudimentary degree1 but
 needing large development2 the just    
laws respecting the possession of works 
of art have not hitherto been so much as
 conceived1 and the daily loss of       
national wealth1 and of its use1 in this
 respect1 is quite incalculable4#ajh    
,while1 finally1 in certain conditions  
of a nation's progress1 laws limiting   
accumulation of property may be found   
expedient4    #ajh ,these laws need     
revision quite as much respecting       
property         in national as in      
private hands4 ,for instance3 the public
         are under a vague impression1  
that because they have paid         for 
the contents of the ,british ,museum1   
every one has an         equal right to 
see and to handle them4 ,but the public 
have         similarly paid for the     

contents of ,woolwich ,arsenal2 yet do  
not expect free access to it1 or        
handling of its contents4         ,the  
,british ,museum is neither a free      
circulating library1         nor a free 
school2 it is a place for the safe      
preservation1         and exhibition on 
due occasion1 of unique books1 unique   
objects of natural history1 and unique  
works of art2 its         books can no  
more be used by everybody than its coins
 can be         handled1 or its statues 
cast4 ,free libraries there ought to    
be in every quarter of ,london1 with    
large and complete         reading-rooms
 attached2 so also free educational     
institutions should be open in every    
quarter of ,london1 all         day long
 and till late at night1 well lighted1  
well         catalogued1 and rich in    
contents both of art and natural        
history4 ,but neither the ,british      
,museum nor ,national ,gallery          
are schools2 they are treasuries2 and   
both should be         severely         

restricted in access and in use4 ,unless
 some order         is taken1 and that  
soon1 in the ,,mss4 department of the   
,museum 7,sir ,frederic ,madden was     
complaining of this to me         only  
the other day71 the best ,,mss4 in the  
collection will be         destroyed1   
irretrievably1 by the careless and      
continual         handling to which they
 are now subjected4  ,critic law        
determines questions of injury1 and     
assigns due rewards and punishments to  
conduct4#aji    #aji ,two curious       
economical questions arise laterally    
with         respect to this branch of  
law1 namely1 the cost of crime and      
the cost of judgment4 ,the cost of crime
 is endured by         nations          
ignorantly1 not being clearly stated in 
their         budgets2 the cost of      
judgment patiently 7provided only it    
can be had pure for the money71 because 
the science1 or         perhaps we ought
 rather to say the art1 of law1 is felt 
to         found a noble profession1 and

 discipline2 so that civilized          
nations are usually glad that a number  
of persons should be         supported  
by funds devoted to disputation and     
analysis4 ,but         it has not yet   
been calculated what the practical value
         might have been1 in other      
directions1 of the intelligence         
now occupied in deciding1 through       
courses of years1 what         might    
have been decided as justly1 had the    
date of judgment         been fixed1 in 
as many hours4 ,imagine one half of the 
funds         which any great nation    
devotes to dispute by law1 applied to   
the determination of physical questions 
in medicine1         agriculture1 and   
theoretic science2 and calculate the    
probable results within the next ten    
years4          ,i say nothing yet1 of  
the more deadly1 more lamentable loss1  
involved in the use of purchased instead
 of personal         justice1--,greek3  
epakto par' allon--aporia' oikeion4     
,therefore1 in order to true analysis of

 it1 we must understand the real meaning
 of this word injury4  ,we commonly     
understand by it any kind of harm done  
by one man to another2 but we do not    
define the idea of harm2 sometimes we   
limit it to the harm which the sufferer 
is conscious of1 whereas much the worst 
injuries are those he is unconscious of2
 and1 at other times1 we limit the idea 
to violence1 or restraint1 whereas much 
the worse forms of injury are to be     
accomplished by carelessness1 and the   
withdrawal of restraint4  ,injury is1   
then1 simply the refusal1 or violation  
of any man's right or claim upon his    
fellows3 which claim1 much talked of in 
modern times1 under the term right1 is  
mainly resolvable into two branches3 a  
man's claim not to be hindered from     
doing what he should2 and his claim to  
be hindered from doing what he should   
not2 these two forms of hindrance being 
intensified by reward1 or help and      
fortune1 or ,fors on one side1 and      
punishment1 impediment1 and even final  

arrest1 or ,mors1 on the other4  ,now1  
in order to a man's obtaining these two 
rights1 it is clearly needful that the  
worth of him should be approximately    
known2 as well as the want of worth1    
which has1 unhappily1 been usually the  
principal subject of study for critic   
law1 careful hitherto only to mark      
degrees of de-merit1 instead of         
merit2--assigning1 indeed1 to the       
deficiencies 7not always1 alas6 even to 
these7 just fine1 diminution1 or 7with  
the broad vowels7 damnation2 but to the 
efficiencies1 on the other side1 which  
are by much the more interesting1 as    
well as the only profitable part of its 
subject1 assigning in any clear way     
neither measurement nor aid4  ,now1 it  
is in this higher and perfect function  
of critic law1 enabling as well as      
disabling1 that it becomes truly kingly 
or basilican1 instead of ,draconic 7what
 ,providence gave the great1 old1       
wrathful legislator his name872 that is1
 it becomes the law of man and of life1 

instead of the law of the worm and of   
death--both of these laws being set in  
everlasting poise one against another1  
and the enforcement of both being the   
eternal function of the lawgiver1 and   
true claim of every living soul3 such   
claim being indeed as straight and      
earnest to be mercifully hindered1 and  
even1 if need be1 abolished1 when longer
 existence means only deeper            
destruction1 as to be mercifully helped 
and recreated when longer existence and 
new creation mean nobler life4 ,so that 
what we vulgarly term reward and        
punishment will be found to resolve     
themselves mainly into help and         
hindrance1 and these again will issue   
naturally from true recognition of      
deserving1 and the just reverence and   
just wrath which follow instinctively on
 such recognition4  ,i say follow1 but  
in reality they are the recognition4    
,reverence is but the perceiving of the 
thing in its entire truth3 truth        
reverted is truth revered 7vereor and   

veritas having clearly the same root71  
so that ,goethe is for once1 and for a  
wonder1 wrong in that part of the noble 
scheme of education in ,wilhelm         
,meister1 in which he says that         
reverence is not innate1 and must be    
taught4 ,reverence is as instinctive as 
anger2--both of them instant on true    
vision3 it is sight and understanding   
that we have to teach1 and these are    
reverence4 ,make a man perceive worth1  
and in its reflection he sees his own   
relative unworth1 and worships thereupon
 inevitably1 not with stiff courtesy1   
but rejoicingly1 passionately1 and1 best
 of all1 restfully3 for the inner       
capacity of awe and love is infinite in 
man2 and when his eyes are once opened  
to the sight of beauty and honour1 it is
 with him as with a lover1 who1 falling 
at his mistress's feet1 would cast      
himself through the earth1 if it might  
be1 to fall lower1 and find a deeper and
 humbler place4 ,and the common         
insolences and petulances of the people1

 and their talk of equality1 are not    
irreverence in them in the least1 but   
mere blindness1 stupefaction1 and fog in
 the brains1#aaj which pass away in the 
degree that they are raised and         
purified3 the first sign of which       
raising is1 that they gain some power of
 discerning1 and some patience in       
submitting to their true counsellors and
 governors2 the modes of such           
discernment forming the real            
constitution of the state1 and not the  
titles or offices of the discerned      
person2 for it is no matter1 save in    
degree of mischief1 to what office a man
 is appointed1 if he cannot fulfil it4  
,and this brings us to the third        
division of our subject4    #aaj        
,compare ,chaucer's villany             
7clownishness74            ,full foul   
and chorlishe seemed she1           ,and
 eke villanous for to be1           ,and
 little coulde of norture           ,to 
worship any creature4                   
,,iii4--,,government ,,by ,,council4    

,this is the determination1 by living   
authority1 of the national conduct to be
 observed under existing circumstances2 
and the modification or enlargement1    
abrogation or enforcement1 of the code  
of national law according to present    
needs or purposes4 ,this government is  
necessarily always by ,council1 for     
though the authority of it may be vested
 in one person1 that person cannot form 
any opinion on a matter of public       
interest but by 7voluntarily or         
involuntarily7 submitting himself to the
 influence of others4  ,this government 
is always twofold--visible and          
invisible4  ,the visible government is  
that which nominally carries on the     
national business2 determines its       
foreign relations1 raises taxes1 levies 
soldiers1 fights battles1 or directs    
that they be fought1 and otherwise      
becomes the exponent of the national    
fortune4 ,the invisible government is   
that exercised by all energetic and     
intelligent men1 each in his sphere1    

regulating the inner will and secret    
ways of the people1 essentially forming 
its character1 and preparing its fate4  
,visible governments are the toys of    
some nations1 the diseases of others1   
the harness of some1 the burdens of the 
more1 the necessity of all4 ,sometimes  
their career is quite distinct from that
 of the people1 and to write it1 as the 
national history1 is as if one should   
number the accidents which befall a     
man's weapons and wardrobe1 and call the
 list his biography4 ,nevertheless a    
truly noble and wise nation necessarily 
has a noble and wise visible government1
 for its wisdom issues in that          
conclusively4 ,not out of the oak1 nor  
out of the rock1 but out of the temper  
of man1 is his polity3 where the temper 
inclines1 it inclines as ,samson by his 
pillar1 and draws all down with it4     
,visible governments are1 in their      
agencies1 capable of three pure forms1  
and of no more than three4  ,they are   
either monarchies1 where the authority  

is vested in one person2 oligarchies1   
when it is vested in a minority2 or     
democracies1 when vested in a majority4 
,but these three forms are not only1 in 
practice1 variously limited and         
combined1 but capable of infinite       
difference in character and use1        
receiving specific names according to   
their variations2 which names1 being    
nowise agreed upon1 nor consistently    
used1 either in thought or writing1 no  
man can at present tell1 in speaking of 
any kind of government1 whether he is   
understood1 nor in hearing whether he   
understands4 ,thus we usually call a    
just government by one person a         
monarchy1 and an unjust or cruel one1 a 
tyranny2 this might be reasonable if it 
had reference to the divinity of true   
government2 but to limit the term       
oligarchy to government by a few rich   
people1 and to call government by a few 
wise or noble people aristocracies1 is  
evidently absurd1 unless it were proved 
that rich people never could be wise1 or

 noble people rich2 and farther absurd  
because there are other distinctions in 
character1 as well as riches or wisdom  
7greater purity of race1 or strength of 
purpose1 for instance71 which may give  
the power of government to the few4 ,so 
that if we had to give names to every   
group or kind of minority1 we should    
have verbiage enough4 ,but there is one 
right name--oligarchy4  ,so also the    
terms republic and democracy are        
confused1 especially in modern use2 and 
both of them are liable to every sort of
 misconception4 ,a republic means1      
properly1 a polity in which the state1  
with its all1 is at every man's service1
 and every man1 with his all1 at the    
state's service 7people are apt to lose 
sight of the last condition72 but its   
government may nevertheless be          
oligarchic 7consular1 or decemviral1 for
 instance71 or monarchic 7dictatorial74 
,but a democracy means a state in which 
the government rests directly with the  
majority of the citizens4 ,and both     

these conditions have been judged only  
by such accidents and aspects of them as
 each of us has had experience of2 and  
sometimes both have been confused with  
anarchy1 as it is the fashion at present
 to talk of the failure of republican   
institutions in ,america1 when there has
 never yet been in ,america any such    
thing as an institution2 neither any    
such thing as a res-publica1 but only a 
multitudinous res-privata2 every man for
 himself4 ,it is not republicanism which
 fails now in ,america2 it is your model
 science of political economy1 brought  
to its perfect practice4 ,there you may 
see competition1 and the law of demand  
and supply 7especially in paper71 in    
beautiful and unhindered operation4#aaa 
,lust of wealth1 and trust in it2 vulgar
 faith in magnitude and multitude1      
instead of nobleness2 besides that faith
 natural to backwoodsmen1--lucum        
ligna1--perpetual self-contemplation1   
issuing in passionate vanity3 total     
ignorance of the finer and higher arts1 

and of all that they teach and          
bestow2#aab and the discontent of       
energetic minds unoccupied1 frantic with
 hope of uncomprehended change1 and     
progress they know not whither2#aac     
these are the things that they have     
failed with in ,america2 and yet not    
altogether failed--it is not collapse1  
but collision2 the greatest railroad    
accident on record1 with fire caught    
from the furnace1 and ,catiline's       
quenching non aqua1 sed ruina4 ,but ,i  
see not1 in any of our talk of them1    
justice enough done to their erratic    
strength of purpose1 nor any estimate   
taken of the strength of endurance of   
domestic sorrow in what their women and 
children suppose a righteous cause4 ,and
 out of that endurance and suffering1   
its own fruit will be born with time2   
and ,carlyle's prophecy of them 7,june1 
#ahej71 as it has now come true in the  
first clause1 will in the last4         
,america too will find that caucuses1   
division-lists1     stump-oratory and   

speeches to ,buncombe will not carry men
     to the immortal gods2 that the     
,washington ,congress1 and              
constitutional battle of ,kilkenny cats 
is1 there as here1     naught for such  
objects2 quite incompetent for such2    
and1 in     fine1 that said sublime     
constitutional arrangement will         
require to be 7with terrible throes1 and
 travail such as few     expect yet7    
remodelled1 abridged1 extended1         
suppressed2 torn     asunder1 put       
together again2--not without heroic     
labour1 and     effort quite other than 
that of the ,stump-,orator and the      
,revival ,preacher1 one day6    #aaa    
,supply-and-demand1--alas6 ,for what    
noble work was there         ever any   
audible 'demand' in that poor sense8    
7,past and         ,present74 ,nay1 the 
demand is not loud even for ignoble     
work4 ,see ,average earnings of ,betty  
,taylor1 in ,times1 of         #dth     
,february1 of this year #ahfc3 ,worked  
from ,monday         morning at #h a4m41

 to ,friday night at #e4cj p4m41 for    
#as4         #e-a_/b;d4--,laissez faire4
    #aab ,see ,bacon's note in the      
,advancement of ,learning1 on           
didicisse fideliter artes 7but indeed   
the accent had need         be upon     
fideliter74 ,it taketh away vain        
admiration of         anything1 which is
 the root of all weakness3 for all      
things         are admired either       
because they are new1 or because they   
are         great1 etc4    #aac ,ames1  
by report of ,waldo ,emerson1 expressed 
the popular         security wisely1    
saying1 that a monarchy is a            
merchantman1         which sails well1  
but will sometimes strike on a rock1 and
         go to the bottom2 whilst a     
republic is a raft1 which would         
never sink1 but then your feet are      
always in the water4         ,yes1 and  
when the four winds 7your only pilots7  
steer         competitively from the    
four corners1 ,greek3 hos d' hot'       
oporinos ,borees phoreesin akanthas1    

perhaps the wiser         mariner may   
wish for keel and wheel again4          
,understand1 then1 once for all1 that no
 form of government1 provided it be a   
government at all1 is1 as such1 either  
to be condemned or praised1 or contested
 for in anywise but by fools4 ,but all  
forms of government are good just so far
 as they attain this one vital necessity
 of policy--that the wise and kind1 few 
or many1 shall govern the unwise and    
unkind2 and they are evil so far as they
 miss of this or reverse it4 ,nor does  
the form in any case signify one whit1  
but its firmness and adaptation to the  
need2 for if there be many foolish      
persons in a state1 and few wise1 then  
it is good that the few govern2 and if  
there be many wise and few foolish1 then
 it is good that many govern2 and if    
many be wise1 yet one wiser1 then it is 
good that one should govern2 and so on4 
,thus1 we may have the ants' republic1  
and the realm of bees1 both good in     
their kind2 one for groping1 and the    

other for building2 and nobler still1   
for flying1 the ,ducal monarchy of those
    ,intelligent of seasons1 that set   
forth   ,the aery caravan1 high over    
seas4  ,nor need we want examples1 among
 the inferior creatures1 of             
dissoluteness1 as well as resoluteness  
in1 government4 ,i once saw democracy   
finely illustrated by the beetles of    
,north ,switzerland1 who1 by universal  
suffrage1 and elytric acclamation1 one  
,may twilight1 carried it that they     
would fly over the ,lake of ,zug2 and   
flew short1 to the great disfigurement  
of the ,lake of ,zug--,greek3 ,kantharou
 limen--over some leagues square1 and to
 the close of the ,cockchafer democracy 
for that year4 ,the old fable of the    
frogs and the stork finely touches one  
form of tyranny2 but truth will touch it
 more nearly than fable1 for tyranny is 
not complete when it is only over the   
idle1 but when it is over the laborious 
and the blind4 ,this description of     
pelicans and climbing perch which ,i    

find quoted in one of our popular       
natural histories1 out of ,sir ,emerson 
,tennent's ,ceylon1 comes as near as may
 be to the true image of the thing3--   
,heavy rains came on1 and as we stood on
 the high ground1 we      observed a    
pelican on the margin of the shallow    
pool gorging      himself2 our people   
went towards him1 and raised a cry of   
,fish6 fish6 ,we hurried down1 and found
 numbers of fish      struggling upward 
through the grass1 in the rills formed  
by      the trickling of the rain4      
,there was scarcely water to cover      
them1 but nevertheless they made rapid  
progress up the bank1      on which our 
followers collected about two baskets of
 them4      ,they were forcing their way
 up the knoll1 and had they not         
been interrupted1 first by the pelican1 
and afterwards by      ourselves1 they  
would in a few minutes have gained the  
highest point1 and descended on the     
other side into a pool      which formed
 another portion of the tank4 ,in going 

this      distance1 however1 they must  
have used muscular exertion      enough 
to have taken them half a mile on level 
ground2 for      at these places all the
 cattle and wild animals of the         
neighbourhood had latterly come to      
drink1 so that the      surface was     
everywhere indented with footmarks1 in  
addition      to the cracks in the      
surrounding baked mud1 into which the   
fish tumbled in their progress4 ,in     
those holes which were      deep1 and   
the sides perpendicular1 they remained  
to die1 and      were carried off by    
kites and crows4  ,but whether          
governments be bad or good1 one general 
disadvantage seems to attach to them in 
modern times--that they are all costly4 
,this1 however1 is not essentially the  
fault of the governments4 ,if nations   
choose to play at war1 they will always 
find their governments willing to lead  
the game1 and soon coming under that    
term of ,aristophanes1 ,greek3 kapeloi  
aspidon1 shield-sellers4 ,and when      

7,greek3 pem' epipemati7 the shields    
take the form of iron ships1 with       
apparatus for defence against liquid    
fire--as ,i see by latest accounts they 
are now arranging the decks in ,english 
dockyards1--they become costly biers    
enough for the grey convoy of           
chief-mourner waves1 wreathed with      
funereal foam1 to bear back the dead    
upon2 the massy shoulders of those      
corpse-bearers being intended for quite 
other work1 and to bear the living1 if  
we would let them4  ,nor have we the    
least right to complain of our          
governments being expensive so long as  
we set the government to do precisely   
the work which brings no return4 ,if our
 present doctrines of political economy 
be just1 let us trust them to the       
utmost2 take that war business out of   
the government's hands1 and test therein
 the principles of supply and demand4   
,let our future sieges of ,sebastopol be
 done by contract--no capture1 no       
pay--7,i am prepared to admit that      

things might go better so72 and let us  
sell the commands of our prospective    
battles1 with our vicarages1 to the     
lowest bidder2 so may we have cheap     
victories and divinity4 ,on the other   
hand1 if we have so much suspicion of   
our science that we dare not trust it on
 military or spiritual business1 it     
would be but reasonable to try whether  
some authoritative handling may not     
prosper in matters utilitarian4 ,if we  
were to set our governments to do useful
 things instead of mischievous1 possibly
 even the apparatus might in time come  
to be less costly6 ,the machine1 applied
 to the building of the house1 might    
perhaps pay1 when it seems not to pay1  
applied to pulling it down4 ,if we made 
in our dockyards ships to carry timber  
and coals1 instead of cannon1 and with  
provision for brightening of domestic   
solid culinary fire1 instead of for the 
averting of hostile liquid fire1 it     
might have some effect on the taxes8 ,or
 if the iron bottoms were to bring us   

home nothing better than ivory and      
peacocks1 instead of martial glory1 we  
might at least have gayer suppers1 and  
doors of the right material for dreams  
after them4 ,or suppose that we tried   
the experiment on land instead of water 
carriage2 already the government1 not   
unapproved1 carries letters and parcels 
for us2 larger packages may in time     
follow3--parcels2--even general         
merchandise8 ,why not1 at last1         
ourselves8 ,had the money spent in local
 mistakes and vain private litigation1  
on the railroads of ,england1 been laid 
out1 instead1 under proper government   
restraint1 on really useful railroad    
work1 and had no absurd expense been    
incurred in ornamenting stations1 we    
might already have had1--what ultimately
 will be found we must have1--quadruple 
rails1 two for passengers1 and two for  
traffic1 on every great line2 and we    
might have been carried in swift safety1
 and watched and warded by well-paid    
pointsmen1 for half the present fares4  

,greek3 ho ,demidion1 horas ta lago' ha 
soi phero8 ,suppose it should turn out1 
finally1 that a true government set to  
true work1 instead of being a costly    
engine1 was a paying one8 that your     
government1 rightly organized1 instead  
of itself subsisting by an income tax1  
would produce its subjects some         
subsistence in the shape of an income   
dividend6--police and judges duly paid  
besides1 only with less work than the   
state at present provides for them4  ,a 
true government set to true work6--,not 
easily imagined1 still less obtained1   
but not beyond human hope or ingenuity4 
,only you will have to alter your       
election systems somewhat1 first4 ,not  
by universal suffrage1 nor by votes     
purchasable with beer1 is such          
government to be had4 ,that is to say1  
not by universal equal suffrage4 ,every 
man upwards of twenty1 who had been     
convicted of no legal crime1 should have
 his say in this matter2 but afterwards 
a louder voice1 as he grows older1 and  

approves himself wiser4 ,if he has one  
vote at twenty1 he should have two at   
thirty1 four at forty1 and ten at fifty4
 ,for every one vote which he has with  
an income of a hundred a year1 he should
 have ten with an income of a thousand  
7provided you first see to it that      
wealth is1 as nature intended it to be1 
the reward of sagacity and              
industry1--not of good luck in a        
scramble or a lottery47 ,for every one  
vote which he had as subordinate in any 
business1 he should have two when he    
became a master2 and every office and   
authority nationally bestowed1 inferring
 trustworthiness and intellect1 should  
have its known proportional number of   
votes attached to it4 ,but into the     
detail and working of a true system in  
these matters we cannot now enter2 we   
are concerned as yet with definitions   
only1 and statements of first           
principles1 which will be established   
now sufficiently for our purposes when  
we have examined the nature of that form

 of government last on the list in the  
previous paper1--the purely ,magistral1 
exciting at present its full share of   
public notice1 under its ambiguous title
 of slavery4  ,i have not1 however1 been
 able to ascertain in definite terms1   
from the declaimers against slavery1    
what they understand by it4 ,if they    
mean only the imprisonment or compulsion
 being in many cases highly expedient1  
slavery1 so defined1 would be no evil in
 itself1 but only in its abuse2 that is1
 when men are slaves1 who should not be1
 or masters1 who should not be1 or under
 conditions which should not be4 ,it is 
not1 for instance1 a necessary condition
 of slavery1 nor a desirable one1 that  
parents should be separated from        
children1 or husbands from wives2 but   
the institution of war1 against which   
people declaim with less violence1      
effects such separations--not           
unfrequently in a higher permanent      
manner4 ,to press a sailor1 seize a     
white youth by conscription for a       

soldier1 or carry off a black one for a 
labourer1 may all be right1 or all      
wrong1 according to needs and           
circumstances4 ,it is wrong to scourge a
 man unnecessarily4 ,so it is to shoot  
him4 ,both must be done on occasion2 and
 it is better and kinder to flog a man  
to his work1 than to leave him idle till
 he robs1 and flog him afterwards4 ,the 
essential thing for all creatures is to 
be made to do right2 how they are made  
to do it--by pleasant promises1 or hard 
necessities1 pathetic oratory1 or the   
whip1 is comparatively immaterial4 ,to  
be deceived is perhaps as incompatible  
with human dignity as to be whipped1 and
 ,i suspect the last instrument to be   
not the worst1 for the help of many     
individuals4 ,the ,jewish nation throve 
under it1 in the hand of a monarch      
reputed not unwise2 it is only the      
change of whip for scorpion which is    
expedient1 and yet that change is as    
likely to come to pass on the side of   
licence as of law2 for the true scorpion

 whips are those of the nation's        
pleasant vices1 which are to it as ,st4 
,john's locusts--crown on the head1     
ravin in the mouth1 and sting in the    
tail4 ,if it will not bear the rule of  
,athena and her brother1 who shepherd   
without smiting 7,greek3 ou plege       
nemontes71 ,athena at last calls no more
 in the corners of the streets2 and then
 follows the rule of ,tisiphone1 who    
smites without shepherding4  ,if1       
however1 slavery1 instead of absolute   
compulsion1 is meant the purchase1 by   
money1 of the right of compulsion1 such 
purchase is necessarily made whenever a 
portion of any territory is transferred1
 for money1 from one monarch to another3
 which has happened frequently enough in
 history1 without its being supposed    
that the inhabitants of the districts so
 transferred became their slaves4 ,in   
this1 as in the former case1 the dispute
 seems about the fashion of the thing   
rather than the fact of it4 ,there are  
two rocks in mid-sea1 on each of which1 

neglected equally by instructive and    
commercial powers1 a handful of         
inhabitants live as they may4 ,two      
merchants bid for the two properties1   
but not in the same terms4 ,one bids for
 the people1 buys them1 and sets them to
 work1 under pain of scourge2 the other 
bids for the rock1 buys it1 and throws  
the inhabitants into the sea4 ,the      
former is the ,american1 the latter the 
,english method1 of slavery2 much is to 
be said for1 and something against1     
both1 which ,i hope to say in due time  
and place4  ,if1 however1 slavery mean  
not merely the purchase of the right of 
compulsion1 but the purchase of the body
 and soul of the creature itself for    
money1 it is not1 ,i think1 among the   
black races that purchases of this kind 
are most extensively made1 or that      
separate souls of a fine make fetch the 
highest price4 ,this branch of the      
inquiry we shall have occasion also to  
follow out at some length2 for in the   
worst instance of the ,greek3 ,bion     

prasis we are apt to get only ,pyrrhon's
 answer--,greek3 ti phes8--epriamen se8 
,adelon4  ,the fact is that slavery is  
not a political institution at all1 but 
an inherent1 natural1 and eternal       
inheritance of a large portion of the   
human race--to whom the more you give of
 their own will1 the more slaves they   
will make themselves4 ,in common        
parlance1 we idly confuse captivity with
 slavery1 and are always thinking of the
 difference between pine-trunks and     
cowslip bells1 or between carrying wood 
and clothes-stealing1 instead of noting 
the far more serious differences between
 ,ariel and ,caliban1 and the means by  
which practically that difference may be
 brought about4#aad    #aad ,the passage
 of ,plato1 referred to in note p4 #bhj1
 in its         context1 respecting the 
slave who1 well dressed and washed1     
aspires to the hand of his master's     
daughter1 corresponds         curiously 
to the attack of ,caliban on ,prospero's
 cell1 and         there is an          

undercurrent of meaning throughout1 in  
the         ,tempest as well as in the  
,merchant of ,venice2 referring         
in this case to government1 as in that  
to commerce4 ,miranda         7the      
wonderful1 so addressed first by        
,ferdinand1 ,oh1 you         wonder67   
corresponds to ,homer's ,arete3 ,ariel  
and ,caliban         are respectively   
the spirits of freedom and mechanical   
labour4 ,prospero 7for hope71 a true    
governor1 opposed to         ,sycorax1  
the mother of slavery1 her name1        
,swine-raven1         indicating at once
 brutality and deathfulness2 hence the  
line--,as wicked dew as e'er my mother  
brushed1 with raven's                   
feather1--etc4 ,for all dreams of       
,shakespeare1 as those of         true  
and strong men must be1 are ,greek3     
phantasmata theia1         kai skiai ton
 onton1 phantasms of ,god1 and shadows  
of         things that are4 ,we hardly  
tell our children1 willingly1 a         
fable with no purport in it2 yet we     

think ,god sends ,his best              
messengers only to say fairy tales to   
us1 all fondness and         emptiness4 
,the ,tempest is just like a grotesque  
in a rich         missal1 clasped where 
paynims pray4 ,ariel is the spirit of   
true liberty1 in early stages of human  
society oppressed by         ignorance  
and wild tyranny2 venting groans as fast
 as         mill-wheels strike2 in      
shipwreck of states1 fearful2 so that   
all but mariners plunge in the brine1   
and quit the vessel1         then all   
afire with me1 yet having in itself the 
will and         sweetness of truest    
peace1 whence that is especially called 
,ariel's song1 ,come unto these yellow  
sands--7fenceless1         and          
countless--changing with the sweep of   
the sea--vaga         arena4 ,compare   
,horace's opposition of the sea-sand to 
the         dust of the grave3 numero   
carentis--exigui2 and again             
compare animo rotundum percurrisse with 
put a girdle         round the          

earth7--and then take hands3 court'sied 
when you         have1 and kiss'd1--the 
wild waves whist3 7mind it is           
courtesia1 not curtsey7 and read quiet  
for whist if         you want the full  
sense4 ,then may you indeed foot it     
featly1         and sweet spirits bear  
the burden for you--with watch in the   
night1 and call in early morning4 ,the  
power of liberty in         elemental   
transformation follows--,full fathom    
five thy         father lies1 of his    
bones are coral made4 ,then1 giving rest
         after labour1 it fetches dew   
from the still-vex'd                    
,bermoothes1 and1 with a charm joined to
 their suffered         labour1 leaves  
men asleep4 ,snatching away the feast of
 the         cruel1 it seems to them as 
a harpy1 followed by the utterly        
vile1 who cannot see it in any shape1   
but to whom it is the         picture of
 nobody1 it still gives shrill harmony  
to their         false and mocking      
catch1 ,thought is free1 but leads them 

into briars and foul places1 and at last
 hollas the hounds         upon them4   
,minister of fate against the great     
criminal1 it         joins itself with  
the incensed seas and shores--the sword 
that layeth at it cannot hold1 and may1 
with bemocked-at         stabs as soon  
kill the still-closing waters1 as       
diminish one         dowle that's in my 
plume4 ,as the guide and aid of true    
love1 it is always called by ,prospero  
fine 7the ,french         fine--not the 
,english71 or delicate--another long    
note         would be needed to explain 
all the meaning in this word4           
,lastly1 its work done1 and war1 it     
resolves itself to the         elements4
 ,the intense significance of the last  
song1 ,where         the bee sucks1 ,i  
will examine in its due place4 ,the     
types         of slavery in ,caliban are
 more palpable1 and need not be         
dwelt on now3 though ,i will notice them
 also1 severally1 in         their      
proper places2--the heart of his slavery

 is in his         worship3 ,that's a   
brave god1 and bears celestial liquor4  
,but1 in illustration of the sense in   
which the ,latin         benignus and   
malignus1 are to be coupled with        
,eleutheria         and ,douleia1 not   
that ,caliban's torment is always the   
physical reflection of his own          
nature--cramps and         side-stitches
 that shall pen thy breath up--thou     
shalt be         pinched as thick as    
honeycomb3 the whole nature of slavery  
being one cramp and cretinous           
contraction4 ,fancy this of             
,ariel6 ,you may fetter him1 but yet set
 no mark on him2 you         may put him
 to hard work and far journey1 but you  
cannot         give him a cramp4        
,of ,shakespeare's names ,i will        
afterwards speak at more         length3
 they are curiously--often              
barbarously--mixed out of               
various traditions and languages4 ,three
 of the clearest in         meaning have
 been already noticed4 ,desdemona1      

,greek3         dysdaimonia1 miserable  
fortune1 is also plain enough4          
,othello is1 ,i believe1 the careful2   
all the calamity of         the tragedy 
arising from the single flaw and error  
in his         magnificently collected  
strength4 ,ophelia1                     
serviceableness1 the true lost wife of  
,hamlet1 is marked         as having a  
,greek name by that last word of her1   
where her         gentle preciousness is
 opposed to the uselessness of the      
churlish clergy--,a ministering angel   
shall my sister be         when thou    
liest howling4 ,hamlet is1 ,i believe1  
connected in         some way with      
homely1 the entire event of the tragedy 
turning on betrayal of home duty4       
,hermione 7,greek3 herma71              
pillar-like 7,greek3 he eidos eche      
chryses ,aphrodites74         ,titania  
7,greek3 titene71 the queen2 ,benedict  
and         ,beatrice1 blessed and      
blessing2 ,valentine and ,proteus1      
enduring 7or strong7 7valens7 and       

changeful4 ,iago and         ,iachimo   
have evidently the same root--probably  
the ,spanish         ,iago1 ,jacob1 the 
supplanter4 ,leonatus1 and other such   
names are interpreted1 or played with1  
in the plays         themselves4 ,for   
the interpretation of ,sycorax1 and     
reference         to her raven's        
feather1 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,john   
,r4 ,wise4  ,i should dwell1 even in    
these prefatory papers1 at somewhat more
 length on this matter1 had not all ,i  
would say1 been said 7already in vain7  
by ,carlyle1 in the first of the        
,latter-,day ,pamphlets1 which ,i       
commend to the reader's gravest reading3
 together with that as much neglected1  
and still more immediately needed1 on   
model prisons1 and with the great       
chapter on ,permanence 7fifth of the    
last section of ,past and ,present71    
which sums1 what is known1 and          
foreshadows1--or rather fore-lights1 all
 that is to be learned1 of ,national    
,discipline4 ,i have only here farther  

to examine the nature of one world-wide 
and everlasting form of slavery1        
wholesome in use1 deadly in abuse--the  
service of the rich by the poor4  ,as in
 all previous discussions of our        
subject1 we must study this relation in 
its simplest elements in order to reach 
its first principles4 ,the simplest     
state of it is1 then1 this3#aae a wise  
and provident person works much1        
consumes little1 and lays by store2 an  
improvident person works little1        
consumes all the produce1 and lays by no
 store4 ,accident interrupts the daily  
work1 or renders it less productive2 the
 idle person must then starve1 or be    
supported by the provident one1--who1   
having him thus at his mercy1 may either
 refuse to maintain him altogether1 or1 
which will evidently be more to his own 
interest1 say to him1 ,i will maintain  
you1 indeed1 but you shall now work     
hard1 instead of indolently1 and instead
 of being allowed to lay by what you    
save1 as you might have done1 had you   

remained independent1 ,i will take all  
the surplus4 ,you would not lay it up   
yourself2 it is wholly your own fault   
that has thrown you into my power1 and  
,i will force you to work1 or starve2   
yet you shall have no profit1 only your 
daily bread4 ,this mode of treatment has
 now become so universal that it is     
supposed the only natural--nay1 the only
 possible one2 and the market wages are 
calmly defined by economists as the sum 
which will maintain the labourer4       
#aae ,in the present general examination
 ,i concede so much to         ordinary 
economists as to ignore all innocent    
poverty4 ,i         assume poverty to be
 always criminal2 the conceivable       
exceptions we will examine afterwards4  
,the power of the provident person to do
 this is only checked by the correlative
 power of some neighbour of similarly   
frugal habits1 who says to the          
labourer--,i will give you a little more
 than my provident friend3--come and    
work for me4 ,the power of the provident

 over the improvident depends thus      
primarily on their relative numbers2    
secondarily1 on the modes of agreement  
of the adverse parties with each other4 
,the level of wages is a variable       
function of the number of provident and 
idle persons in the world1 of the enmity
 between them as classes1 and of the    
agreement between those of the same     
class4 ,it depends1 from beginning to   
end1 on moral conditions4  ,supposing   
the rich to be entirely selfish1 it is  
always for their interest that the poor 
should be as numerous as they can employ
 and restrain4 ,for1 granting the entire
 population no larger than the ground   
can easily maintain1--that the classes  
are stringently divided1--and that there
 is sense or strength of hand enough    
with the rich to secure obedience2 then1
 if nine-tenths of a nation are poor1   
the remaining tenth have the service of 
nine persons each2#aaf but1 if          
eight-tenths are poor1 only of four     
each2 if seven-tenths are poor1 of two  

and a third each2 but1 practically if   
the rich strive always to obtain more   
power over the poor1 instead of to raise
 them1--and if1 on the other hand1 the  
poor become continually more vicious and
 numerous1 through neglect and          
oppression--though the range of the     
power of the rich increases1 its tenure 
becomes less secure2 until1 at last1 the
 measure of iniquity being full1        
revolution1 civil war1 or the subjection
 of the state to a healthier or stronger
 one1 closes the moral corruption and   
industrial disease4    #aaf ,i say      
nothing yet of the quality of the       
servants1 which1         nevertheless1  
is the gist of the business4 ,will you  
have         ,paul ,veronese to paint   
your ceiling1 or the plumber from       
over the way8 ,both will work for the   
same money2 ,paul1 if         anything1 
a little cheaper of the two1 if you keep
 him in         good humour2 only you   
have to discern him first1 which will   
need eyes4  ,it is rare1 however1 that  

things come to this extremity4 ,kind    
persons among the rich1 and wise among  
the poor1 modify the connexion of the   
classes3 the efforts made to raise and  
relieve on the one side1 and the success
 and honest toil on the other1 bind and 
blend the orders of society into the    
confused tissue of half-felt obligation1
 sullenly-rendered obedience1 and       
variously-directed1 or mis-directed1    
toil1 which form the warp of daily life4
 ,but this great law rules all the wild 
design of the weaving2 that success     
7while society is guided by laws of     
competition7 signifies always so much   
victory over your neighbour as to obtain
 the direction of his work1 and to take 
the profits of it4 ,this is the real    
source of all great riches4 ,no man can 
become largely rich by his personal     
toil4#aag ,the work of his own hands1   
wisely directed1 will indeed always     
maintain himself and his family1 and    
make fitting provision for his age4 ,but
 it is only by the discovery of some    

method of taxing the labour of others   
that he can become opulent4 ,every      
increase of his capital enables him to  
extend this taxation more widely2 that  
is1 to invest larger funds in the       
maintenance of his labourers--to direct1
 accordingly1 vaster and yet vaster     
masses of labour2 and to appropriate its
 profits4 ,there is much confusion of   
idea on the subject of this             
appropriation4 ,it is1 of course1 the   
interest of the employer to disguise it 
from the persons employed2 and for his  
own comfort and complacency he often    
desires no less to disguise it from     
himself4 ,and it is matter of much doubt
 with me1 how far the foolish arguments 
used habitually on this subject are     
indeed the honest expressions of foolish
 convictions1--or rather 7as ,i am      
sometimes forced to conclude from the   
irritation with which they are advanced7
 are resolutely dishonest1 wilful       
sophisms1 arranged so as to mask to the 
last moment the real state of economy1  

and future duties of men4 ,by taking a  
simple example1 and working it          
thoroughly out1 the subject may be      
rescued from all but determined         
misconception4    #aag ,by his heart he 
may2 but only when its produce1 or the  
sight or hearing of it1 becomes a       
subject of dispute1 so as         to    
enable the artist to tax the labour of  
multitudes highly1         in exchange  
for his own4  ,let us imagine a society 
of peasants1 living on a river-shore1   
exposed to destructive inundation at    
somewhat extended intervals2 and that   
each peasant possesses of this good1 but
 imperilled ground1 more than he needs  
to cultivate for immediate subsistence4 
,we will assume farther 7and with too   
great probability of justice7 that the  
greater part of them indolently keep in 
tillage just as much land as supplies   
them with daily food2--that they leave  
their children idle and untaught2 and   
take no precautions against the rise of 
the stream4 ,but one of them 7we will   

say only one1 for the sake of greater   
clearness7 cultivates carefully all the 
ground of his estate2 makes his children
 work hard and healthily2 uses his spare
 time and theirs in building a rampart  
against the river2 and at the end of    
some years has in his storehouses large 
reserves of food and clothing1 and in   
his stables a well-tended breed of      
cattle4  ,the torrent rises at          
last--sweeps away the harvests and many 
of the cottages of the careless         
peasantry1 and leaves them destitute4   
,they naturally come for help to the    
provident one1 whose fields are unwasted
 and whose granaries are full4 ,he has  
the right to refuse it them2 no one     
disputes his right4 ,but he will        
probably not refuse it2 it is not his   
interest to do so1 even were he entirely
 selfish and cruel4 ,the only question  
with him will be on what terms his aid  
is to be granted4  ,clearly not on terms
 of mere charity4 ,to maintain his      
neighbours in idleness would be his ruin

 and theirs4 ,he will require work from 
them in exchange for their maintenance2 
and whether in kindness or cruelty1 all 
the work they can give4 ,not now the    
three or four hours they were wont to   
spend on their own land1 but the eight  
or ten hours they ought to have spent4  
,but how will he apply this labour8 ,the
 men are now his slaves--nothing less4  
,on pain of starvation1 he can force    
them to work in the manner and to the   
end he chooses4 ,and it is by his wisdom
 in this choice that the worthiness of  
his mastership is proved1 or its        
unworthiness4 ,evidently he must first  
set them to bank out the water in some  
temporary way1 and to get their ground  
cleansed and resown2 else1 in any case1 
their continued maintenance will be     
impossible4 ,that done1 and while he has
 still to feed them1 suppose he makes   
them raise a secure rampart for their   
own ground against all future flood1 and
 rebuild their houses in safer places1  
with the best material they can find2   

being allowed time out of their working 
hours to fetch such material from a     
distance4 ,and for the food and clothing
 advanced1 he takes security in land    
that as much shall be returned at a     
convenient period4  ,at the end of a few
 years1 we may conceive this security   
redeemed1 and the debt paid4 ,the       
prudent peasant has sustained no loss2  
but is no richer than he was1 and has   
had all his trouble for nothing4 ,but he
 has enriched his neighbours materially2
 bettered their houses1 secured their   
land1 and rendered them1 in worldly     
matters1 equal to himself4 ,in all true 
and final sense1 he has been throughout 
their lord and king4  ,we will next     
trace his probable line of conduct1     
presuming his object to be exclusively  
the increase of his own fortune4 ,after 
roughly recovering and cleansing the    
ground1 he allows the ruined peasantry  
only to build huts upon it1 such as he  
thinks protective enough from the       
weather to keep them in working health4 

,the rest of their time he occupies     
first in pulling down and rebuilding on 
a magnificent scale his own house1 and  
in adding large dependencies to it4     
,this done1 he follows the example of   
the first great ,hebrew financier1 and  
in exchange for his continued supply of 
corn1 buys as much of his neighbours6   
land1 as he thinks he can superintend   
the management of2 and makes the former 
owners securely embank and protect the  
ceded portion4 ,by this arrangement he  
leaves to a certain number of the       
peasantry only as much ground as will   
just maintain them in their existing    
numbers3 as the population increases1 he
 takes the extra hands1 who cannot be   
maintained on the narrow estates1 for   
his own servants2 employs some to       
cultivate the ground he has bought1     
giving them of its produce merely enough
 for subsistence2 with the surplus1     
which1 under his energetic and careful  
superintendence1 will be large1 he      
supports a train of servants for state1 

and a body of workmen1 whom he educates 
in ornamental arts4 ,he now can         
splendidly decorate his house1 lay out  
its grounds magnificently1 and richly   
supply his table1 and that of his       
household and retinue4 ,and thus1       
without any abuse of right1 we should   
find established all the phenomena of   
poverty and riches1 which 7it is        
supposed necessarily7 accompany modern  
civilization4 ,in one part of the       
district1 we should have unhealthy land1
 miserable dwellings and half-starved   
poor2 in another1 a well-ordered estate1
 well-fed servants1 and refined         
conditions of highly-educated and       
luxurious life4  ,i have put the two    
cases in simplicity1 and to some        
extremity4 ,but though in more complex  
and qualified operation1 all the        
relations of society are but the        
expansion of these two typical sequences
 of conduct and result4 ,i do not say1  
observe1 that the first procedure is    
entirely right2 still less1 that the    

second is wholly wrong4 ,servants and   
artists1 and splendour of habitation and
 retinue1 have all their use1 propriety 
and office4 ,i only wish the reader to  
understand clearly what they cost2 that 
the condition of having them is the     
subjection to you of a certain number of
 imprudent or unfortunate persons 7or1  
it may be1 more fortunate than their    
master71 over whose destinies you       
exercise a boundless control4 ,riches   
mean eternally and essentially this2 and
 may heaven send at last a time when    
those words of our best-reputed         
economist shall be true1 and we shall   
indeed all know what it is to be rich2  
that is to be slave-master over farthest
 earth1 and over all ways and thoughts  
of men4 ,every operative you employ is  
your true servant3 distant or near1     
subject to your immediate orders1 or    
ministering to your widely-communicated 
caprice--for the pay he stipulates1 or  
the price he tempts1--all are alike     
under this great dominion of the gold4  

,the milliner who makes the dress is as 
much a servant 7more so1 in that she    
uses more intelligence in the service7  
as the maid who puts it on2 the         
carpenter who smoothes the door1 as the 
footman who opens it2 the tradesmen who 
supply the table1 as the labourers and  
sailors who supply the tradesmen4 ,why  
speak of these lower services8 ,painters
 and singers 7whether of note or rhyme71
 jesters and story-tellers1 moralists1  
historians1 priests--so far as these1 in
 any degree1 paint1 or sing1 or tell    
their tale1 or charm their charm1 or    
perform their rite1 for pay1 in so far  
they are all slaves2 abject utterly1 if 
the service be for pay only2 abject less
 and less in proportion to the degrees  
of love and wisdom which enter into     
their duty1 or can enter into it1       
according as their function is to do the
 bidding and the work of a man2--or to  
amuse1 tempt1 and deceive a child4      
,there may be thus1 and1 to a certain   
extent1 there always is1 a government of

 the rich by the poor1 as of the poor by
 the rich2 but the latter is the        
prevailing and necessary one1 and it    
consists1 observe1 of two distinct      
functions1--the collection of the       
profits of labour from those who would  
have misused them1 and the              
administration of those profits for the 
service either of the same person in    
future1 or of others2 or1 as is more    
frequently the case in modern times1 for
 the service of the collector himself4  
,the examination of these various modes 
of collection and use of riches will    
form the third branch of our future     
inquiries2 but the key to the whole     
subject lies in the clear understanding 
of the difference between selfish and   
unselfish expenditure4 ,it is not easy1 
by any course of reasoning1 to enforce  
this on the generally unwilling hearer2 
yet the definition of unselfish         
expenditure is brief and simple4 ,it is 
expenditure which if you are a          
capitalist1 does not pay you1 but pays  

somebody else2 and if you are a         
consumer1 does not please you1 but      
pleases somebody else4 ,take one special
 instance1 in further illustration of   
the general type given above4 ,i did not
 invent that type1 but spoke of a real  
river1 and of real peasantry1 the       
languid and sickly race which inhabits1 
or haunts--for they are often more like 
spectres than living men--the thorny    
desolation on the banks of the ,arve4   
,some years ago1 a society formed at    
,geneva offered to embank the river1 for
 the ground which would have been       
recovered by the operation2 but the     
offer was refused by the 7then          
,sardinian7 government4 ,the capitalists
 saw that this expenditure would have   
paid1 if the ground saved from the river
 was to be theirs4 ,but if when the     
offer that had this aspect of profit was
 refused1 they had nevertheless         
persisted in the plan and1 merely taking
 security for the return of their       
outlay1 lent the funds for the work1 and

 thus saved a whole race of human souls 
from perishing in a pestiferous fen 7as1
 ,i presume1 some among them would1 at  
personal risk1 have dragged any one     
drowning creature out of the current of 
the stream1 and not expected payment    
therefor71 such expenditure would have  
precisely corresponded to the use of his
 power made1 in the first instance1 by  
our supposed richest peasant--it would  
have been the king's1 of grace1 instead 
of the usurer's1 for gain4  ,impossible1
 absurd1 ,utopian6 exclaim nine-tenths  
of the few readers whom these words may 
find4 ,no1 good reader1 this is not     
,utopian3 but ,i will tell you what     
would have seemed1 if we had not seen   
it1 ,utopian on the side of evil instead
 of good3 that ever men should have come
 to value their money so much more than 
their lives1 that if you call upon them 
to become soldiers1 and take chance of  
bullet1 for their pride's sake1 they    
will do it gaily1 without thinking      
twice2 but if you ask them for their    

country's sake to spend a hundred pounds
 without security of getting back a     
hundred-and-five#aah they will laugh in 
your face4    #aah ,i have not hitherto 
touched on the subject of interest of   
money2 it is too complex2 and must be   
reserved for its         proper place in
 the body of the work4 7,i should be    
glad if a         writer1 who sent me   
some valuable notes on this subject1 and
         asked me to return a letter    
which ,i still keep at his              
service1 would send me his address47    
,the definition of         interest     
7apart from compensation for risk7 is1  
the         exponent of the comfort of  
accomplished labour1 separated          
from its power2 the power being what is 
lent3 and the         ,french economists
 who have maintained the entire         
illegality         of interest are      
wrong2 yet by no means so curiously or  
wildly wrong as the ,english and ,french
 ones opposed to them1         whose    
opinions have been collected by ,dr4    

,whewell at page #da         of his     
,lectures2 it never seeming to occur to 
the mind of         the compiler any    
more than to the writers whom he quotes1
         that it is quite possible1 and 
even 7according to ,jewish              
proverb7 prudent1 for men to hoard1 as  
ants and mice do1 for         use1 not  
usury2 and lay by something for winter  
nights1 in         the expectation of   
rather sharing than lending the         
scrapings4 ,my ,savoyard squirrels would
 pass a pleasant time         of it     
under the snow-laden pine-branches1 if  
they always         declined to         
economize because no one would pay them 
interest         on nuts4  ,not but that
 also this game of                      
life-giving-and-taking is1 in the end1  
somewhat more costly than other forms of
 play might be4 ,rifle practice is1     
indeed1 a not unhealthy pastime1 and a  
feather on the top of the head is a     
pleasing appendage2 but while learning  
the stops and fingering of the sweet    

instrument1 does no one ever calculate  
the cost of an overture8 ,what melody   
does ,tityrus meditate on his tenderly  
spiral pipe8 ,the leaden seed of it1    
broad cast1 true conical ,dents de ,lion
 seed--needing leas allowance for the   
wind than is usual with that kind of    
herb--what crop are you likely to have  
of it8 ,suppose1 instead of this        
volunteer marching and countermarching1 
you were to do a little volunteer       
ploughing and counterploughing8 ,it is  
more difficult to do it straight3 the   
dust of the earth1 so disturbed1 is more
 grateful than for merely rhythmic      
footsteps4 ,golden cups1 also1 given for
 good ploughing would be more suitable  
in colour 7ruby glass1 for the wine     
which giveth his colour on the ground1  
as well as in the cup1 might be fitter  
for the rifle prize in the ladies'      
hands72 or1 conceive a little volunteer 
exercise with the spade1 other than such
 as is needed for moat and breastwork1  
or even for the burial of the fruit of  

the leaden avena-seed1 subject to the   
shrill ,lemures' criticism--  ,wer hat  
das ,haus so schlecht gebaut8  ,if you  
were to embank ,lincolnshire now1--more 
stoutly against the sea8 or strip the   
peat of ,solway1 or plant ,plinlimmon   
moors with larch--then1 in due hour of  
year1 some amateur reaping and          
threshing8  ,nay1 we reap and thresh by 
steam in these advanced days4  ,i know  
it1 my wise and economical friends4 ,the
 stout arms ,god gave you to win your   
bread by1 you would fain shoot your     
neighbours--and ,god's sweet            
singers--with2#aai then you invoke the  
friends to your farm-service1 and--     
,when young and old come forth to play  
,on a sulphurous holiday1   ,tell how   
the darling goblin sweat   7,his feast  
of cinders duly set71   ,and belching   
night1 where breathed the morn4   ,his  
shadowy flail hath threshed the corn    
,that ten day-labourers could not end4  
,but we will press the example closer4  
,on a green knoll above that plain of   

the ,arve1 between ,cluses and          
,bonneville1 there was1 in the year     
#ahfj1 a cottage1 inhabited by a        
well-doing family--man and wife1 three  
children1 and the grandmother4 ,i call  
it a cottage but1 in truth1 it was a    
large chimney on the ground1 wide at the
 bottom 7so that the family might live  
round the fire71 with one broken window 
in it1 and an unclosing door4 ,the      
family1 ,i say1 was well-doing1 at      
least1 it was hopeful and cheerful2 the 
wife healthy1 the children1 for         
,savoyards1 pretty and active1 but the  
husband threatened with decline1 from   
exposure under the cliffs of the ,mont  
,vergi by day1 and to draughts between  
every plank of his chimney in the frosty
 nights4 ,why could he not plaster the  
chinks8 asks the practical reader4 ,for 
the same reason that your child cannot  
wash its face and hands till you have   
washed them many a day for it1 and will 
not wash them when it can1 till you     
force it4    #aai ,compare ,chaucer's   

feeling respecting birds 7from ,canace's
         falcon1 to the nightingale1    
singing ,domine labia --to the          
,lord of ,love7 with the usual modern   
,british sentiments on         this     
subject4 ,or even ,cowley's3--          
,what prince's choir of music can excel 
,that which within this shade does      
dwell4           ,to which we nothing   
pay1 or give1           ,they1 like all 
other poets1 live           ,without    
reward1 or thanks for their obliging    
pains6           ',tis well if they     
became not prey4          ,yes2 it is   
better than well2 particularly since the
 seed         sown by the wayside has   
been protected by the peculiar          
appropriation of part of the church     
rates in our country         parishes4  
,see the remonstrance from a ,country   
,parson1 in         the ,times of ,june 
#dth 7or #eth2 the letter is dated ,june
         #crd1 #ahfb73--;,i have heard  
at a vestry meeting a good deal         
of higgling over a few shillings' outlay

 in cleaning the         church2 but ,i 
have never heard any dissatisfaction    
expressed         on account of the part
 of the rate which is invested in       
fifty or #ajj dozens of birds' heads4   
,i passed this cottage often in my      
walks1 had its window and door mended1  
sometimes mended also a little the meal 
of sour bread and broth1 and generally  
got kind greeting and smile from the    
face of young or old2 which greeting1   
this year1 narrowed itself into the     
half-recognizing stare of the elder     
child and the old woman's tears2 for the
 father and mother were both dead1--one 
of sickness1 the other of sorrow4 ,it   
happened that ,i passed not alone1 but  
with a companion1 a practised ,english  
joiner1 who1 while these people were    
dying of cold1 had been employed from   
six in the morning to six of the evening
 for two months1 in fitting the panels  
without nails1 of a single door in a    
large house in ,london4 ,three days of  
his work taken1 at the right time1 from 

the oak panels1 and applied to the larch
 timbers1 would have saved these        
,savoyards' lives4 ,he would have been  
maintained equally 7,i suppose him      
equally paid for his work by the owner  
of the greater house1 only the work not 
consumed selfishly on his own walls27   
and the two peasants1 and eventually1   
probably their children1 saved4  ,there 
are1 therefore1 let me finally enforce  
and leave with the reader this broad    
conclusion1--three things to be         
considered in employing any poor person4
 ,it is not enough to give him          
employment4 ,you must employ him first  
to produce useful things2 secondly1 of  
the several 7suppose equally useful7    
things he can equally well produce1 you 
must set him to make that which will    
cause him to lead the healthiest life2  
lastly1 of the things produced1 it      
remains a question of wisdom and        
conscience how much you are to take     
yourself1 and how much to leave to      
others4 ,a large quantity1 remember1    

unless you destroy it1 must always be so
 left at one time or another2 the only  
questions you have to decide are1 not   
what you will give1 and what you will   
keep1 but when1 and how1 and to whom1   
you will give4 ,the natural law of human
 life is1 of course1 that in youth a man
 shall labour and lay by store for his  
old age1 and when age comes1 should use 
what he has laid by1 gradually          
slackening his toil1 and allowing       
himself more frank use of his store1    
taking care always to leave himself as  
much as will surely suffice for him     
beyond any possible length of life4     
,what he has gained1 or by tranquil and 
unanxious toil1 continues to gain1 more 
than is enough for his own need1 he     
ought so to administer1 while he yet    
lives1 as to see the good of it again   
beginning in other hands2 for thus he   
has himself the greatest sum of pleasure
 from it1 and faithfully uses his       
sagacity in its control4 ,whereas most  
men1 it appears1 dislike the sight of   

their fortunes going out into service   
again1 and say to themselves1--,i can   
indeed nowise prevent this money from   
falling at last into the hands of       
others1 nor hinder the good of it1 such 
as it is1 from becoming theirs1 not     
mine2 but at least let a merciful death 
save me from being a witness of their   
satisfaction2 and may ,god so far be    
gracious to me as to let no good come of
 any of this money of mine before my    
eyes4 ,supposing this feeling           
unconquerable1 the safest way of        
rationally indulging it would be for the
 capitalist at once to spend all his    
fortune on himself1 which might         
actually1 in many cases1 be quite the   
rightest as well as the pleasantest     
thing to do1 if he had just tastes and  
worthy passions4 ,but1 whether for      
himself only1 or through the hands and  
for the sake of others also1 the law of 
wise life is1 that the maker of the     
money should also be the spender of it1 
and spend it1 approximately1 all1 before

 he dies2 so that his true ambition as  
an economist should be1 to die1 not as  
rich1 but as poor1 as possible1         
calculating the ebb tide of possession  
in true and calm proportion to the ebb  
tide of life4 ,which law1 checking the  
wing of accumulative desire in the      
mid-volley1#abj and leading to peace of 
possession and fulness of fruition in   
old age1 is also wholesome in that by   
the freedom of gift1 together with      
present help and counsel1 it at once    
endears and dignifies age in the sight  
of youth1 which then no longer strips   
the bodies of the dead1 but receives the
 grace of the living4 ,its chief use    
would 7or will be1 for men are indeed   
capable of attaining to this much use   
for their reason71 that some temperance 
and measure will be put to the          
acquisitiveness of commerce4#aba ,for as
 things stand1 a man holds it his duty  
to be temperate in his food1 and of his 
body1 but for no duty to be temperate in
 his riches1 and of his mind4 ,he sees  

that he ought not to waste his youth and
 his flesh for luxury2 but he will waste
 his age1 and his soul1 for money1 and  
think it no wrong1 nor the delirium     
tremens of the intellect any evil4 ,but 
the law of life is1 that a man should   
fix the sum he desires to make annually1
 as the food he desires to eat daily2   
and stay when he has reached the limit1 
refusing increase of business1 and      
leaving it to others1 so obtaining due  
freedom of time for better thoughts4    
,how the gluttony of business is        
punished1 a bill of health for the      
principals of the richest city houses1  
issued annually1 would show in a        
sufficiently impressive manner4    #abj 
,greek3 kai penian hegoumenous heinai me
 to ten ousian         elatto poiein1   
alla to ten aplestian pleio4--,laws1 v4 
#h4          ,read the context and      
compare4 ,he who spends for all that is 
noble1 and gains by nothing but what is 
just1 will hardly be         notably    
wealthy1 or distressfully poor4--,laws1 

v4 #db4    #aba ,the fury of modern     
trade arises chiefly out of the         
possibility of making sudden fortune by 
largeness of         transaction1 and   
accident of discovery or contrivance4   
,i have no doubt that the final interest
 of every nation         is to check the
 action of these commercial lotteries4  
,but         speculation absolute1      
unconnected with commercial effort1 is  
an unmitigated evil in a state1 and the 
root of countless         evils beside4 
,i know1 of course1 that these          
statements will be received by the      
modern merchant1 as an active ,border   
rider of the sixteenth century would    
have heard of its being proper for men  
of the ,marches to get their living by  
the spade instead of the spur4 ,but my  
business is only to state veracities and
 necessities2 ,i neither look for the   
acceptance of the one1 nor promise      
anything for the nearness of the other4 
,near or distant1 the day will assuredly
 come when the merchants of a state     

shall be its true ministers of exchange1
 its porters1 in the double sense of    
carriers and gate-keepers1 bringing all 
lands into frank and faithful           
communication1 and knowing for their    
master of guild1 ,hermes the herald1    
instead of ,mercury the gain-guarder4   
,and now1 finally1 for immediate rule to
 whom it concerns4  ,the distress of any
 population means that they need food1  
houseroom1 clothes1 and fuel4 ,you can  
never1 therefore1 be wrong in employing 
any labourer to produce food1 houseroom1
 clothes1 or fuel3 but you are always   
wrong if you employ him to produce      
nothing 7for then some other labourer   
must be worked double time to feed him72
 and you are generally wrong1 at        
present1 if you employ him 7unless he   
can do nothing else7 to produce works of
 art1 or luxuries2 because modern art is
 mostly on a false basis1 and modern    
luxury is criminally great4#abb    #abb 
,it is especially necessary that the    
reader should keep his         mind     

fixed on the methods of consumption and 
destruction1 as         the true sources
 of national poverty4 ,men are apt to   
watch         rather the exchanges in a 
state than its damages2 but the         
exchanges are only of importance so far 
as they bring about         these last4 
,a large number of the purchases made by
 the         richer classes are mere    
forms of interchange of unused          
property1 wholly without effect on      
national prosperity4 ,it         matters
 nothing to the state1 whether if a     
china pipkin be         rated as worth a
 hundred pounds1 ,a has the pipkin1 and 
,b the         pounds1 or ,a the pounds 
and ,b the pipkin4 ,but if the pipkin   
is pretty1 and ,a or ,b breaks it1 there
 is national loss2 not                  
otherwise4 ,so again1 when the loss has 
really taken place1         no shifting 
of the shoulders that bear it will do   
away with         the fact of it4 ,there
 is an intensely ludicrous notion in    
the public mind respecting the          

abolishment of debt by         denying  
it4 ,when a debt is denied1 the lender  
loses instead         of the borrower1  
that is all2 the loss is precisely1     
accurately1 everlastingly the same4 ,the
 ,americans borrow         money to     
spend in blowing up their own houses4   
,they deny         their debt2 by one   
third already1 gold being at fifty      
premium2 and will probably deny it      
wholly4 ,that merely means         that 
the holders of the notes are to be the  
losers instead         of the issuers4  
,the quantity of loss is precisely      
equal1 and         irrevocable2 it is   
the quantity of human industry spent in 
explosion1 plus the quantity of goods   
exploded4 ,honour only         decides  
who shall pay the sum lost1 not whether 
it is to be         paid or not4 ,paid  
it must be and to the uttermost         
farthing4  ,the way to produce more food
 is mainly to bring in fresh ground1 and
 increase facilities of carriage2--to   
break rock1 exchange earth1 drain the   

moist1 and water the dry1 to mend roads1
 and build harbours of refuge4 ,taxation
 thus spent will annihilate taxation1   
but spent in war1 it annihilates        
revenue4  ,the way to produce houseroom 
is to apply your force first to the     
humbler dwellings4 ,when your           
bricklayers are out of employ1 do not   
build splendid new streets1 but better  
the old ones3 send your paviours and    
slaters to the poorest villages1 and see
 that your poor are healthily lodged    
before you try your hand on stately     
architecture4 ,you will find its        
stateliness rise better under the trowel
 afterwards2 and we do not yet build so 
well as that we need hasten to display  
our skill to future ages4 ,had the      
labour which has decorated the ,houses  
of ,parliament filled1 instead1 rents in
 walls and roofs throughout the county  
of ,middlesex2 and our deputies met to  
talk within massive walls that would    
have needed no stucco for five hundred  
years1--the decoration might have been  

better afterwards1 and the talk now4    
,and touching even our highly           
conscientious church building1 it may be
 well to remember that in the best days 
of church plans1 their masons called    
themselves logeurs du bon ,dieu2 and    
that since1 according to the most       
trusted reports1 ,god spends a good deal
 of ,his time in cottages as well as in 
churches1 ,he might perhaps like to be a
 little better lodged there also4  ,the 
way to get more clothes is1--not        
necessarily1 to get more cotton4 ,there 
were words written twenty years ago     
which would have saved many of us some  
shivering had they been minded in time4 
,shall we read them8  ,the ,continental 
people1 it would seem1 are 'importing   
our machinery1 beginning to spin cotton 
and manufacture for themselves1 to cut  
us out of this market and then out of   
that6' ,sad news indeed2 but            
irremediable2--by no means4 ,the saddest
 news is1 that we should find our       
,national ,existence1 as ,i sometimes   

hear it said1 depend on selling         
manufactured cotton at a farthing an ell
 cheaper than any other ,people4 ,a most
 narrow stand for a great ,nation to    
base itself on6 ,a stand which1 with all
 the ,corn-,law ,abrogations            
conceivable1 ,i do not think will be    
capable of enduring4  ,my friends1      
suppose we quitted that stand2 suppose  
we came honestly down from it and said3 
',this is our minimum cotton-prices4 ,we
 care not1 for the present1 to make     
cotton any cheaper4 ,do you1 if it seem 
so blessed to you1 make cotton cheaper4 
,fill your lungs with cotton-fuzz1 your 
hearts with copperas-fumes1 with rage   
and mutiny2 become ye the general gnomes
 of ,europe1 slaves of the lamp6' ,i    
admire a ,nation which fancies it will  
die if it do not undersell all other    
,nations1 to the end of the world4      
,brothers1 we will cease to undersell   
them2 we will be content to equal-sell  
them2 to be happy selling equally with  
them6 ,i do not see the use of          

underselling them4 ,cotton-cloth is     
already two-pence a yard or lower2 and  
yet bare backs were never more numerous 
among us4 ,let inventive men cease to   
spend their existence incessantly       
contriving how cotton can be made       
cheaper2 and try to invent1 a little1   
how cotton at its present cheapness     
could be somewhat justlier divided among
 us4 ,let inventive men consider1       
,whether the ,secret of this ,universe1 
and of ,man's ,life there1 does1 after  
all1 as we rashly fancy it1 consist in  
making money8444 ,with a ,hell which    
means--',failing to make money1' ,i do  
not think there is any ,heaven possible 
that would suit one well2 nor so much as
 an ,earth that can be habitable long6  
,in brief1 all this ,mammon-,gospel of  
,supply-and-demand1 ,competition1       
,laissez-faire1 and ,devil take the     
hindmost 7foremost1 is it not1 rather1  
,mr4 ,carlyle87 begins to be one of the 
shabbiest ,gospels ever preached4 7,in  
the matter of clothes1 decidedly47 ,the 

way to produce more fuel is first to    
make your coal mines safer1 by sinking  
more shafts2 then set all your convicts 
to work in them1 and if1 as is to be    
hoped1 you succeed in diminishing the   
supply of that sort of labourer1        
consider what means there may be1 first 
of growing forest where its growth will 
improve climate2 then of splintering the
 forests which now make continents of   
fruitful land pathless and poisonous1   
into faggots for fire2--so gaining at   
once dominion sunwards and icewards4    
,your steam power has been given you    
7you will find eventually7 for work such
 as that2 and not for excursion trains1 
to give the labourer a moment's breath1 
at the peril of his breath for ever1    
from amidst the cities which you have   
crushed into masses of corruption4 ,when
 you know how to build cities1 and how  
to rule them1 you will be able to       
breathe in their streets1 and the       
excursion will be the afternoon's walk  
or game in the fields round them4 ,long 

ago1 ,claudian's peasant of ,verona     
knew1 and we must yet learn1 in his     
fashion1 the difference between via and 
vita4 ,but nothing of this work will    
pay4  ,no2 no more than it pays to dust 
your rooms or wash your doorsteps4 ,it  
will pay2 not at first in currency1 but 
in that which is the end and the source 
of currency1--in life 7and in currency  
richly afterwards74 ,it will pay in that
 which is more than life1--in ,god's    
first creature1 which was light1 whose  
true price has not yet been reckoned in 
any currency1 and yet into the image of 
which all wealth1 one way or other1 must
 be cast4 ,for your riches must either  
as the lightning1 which1                
begot but in a cloud1   ,though shining 
bright1 and speaking loud1   ,whilst it 
begins1 concludes its violent race1     
,and1 where it gilds1 it wounds the     
place2  or else as the lightning of the 
sacred sign1 which shines from one part 
of the heaven to the other4 ,there is no
 other choice2 you must either take dust

 for deity1 spectre for possession1     
fettered dream for life1 and for        
epitaph1 this reversed verse of the     
great ,hebrew hymn of economy 7,psalm   
cxii473--,he hath gathered together1 he 
hath stripped the poor1 his iniquity    
remaineth for ever4 ,or else1 having the
 sun for justice to shine on you1 and   
the sincere substance of good in your   
possession1 and the pure law and liberty
 of life within you1 leave men to write 
this better legend over your grave3 ,he 
hath dispersed abroad4 ,he hath given to
 the poor4 ,his righteousness remaineth 
for ever4         99       99       99  
99       99       ,the present paper    
completes the definitions necessary for 
future service4 ,the next in order will 
be the first chapter      of the body of
 the work4       ,these introductory    
essays are as yet in imperfect form2 ,i 
suffer them to appear1 though they were 
not intended for      immediate         
publication1 for the sake of such chance
 service      as may be found in them4  

,here the author indicated certain      
corrections1 which have      been       
carried out in this edition4 ,he then   
went on to say      that the note on    
,charis 7p4 #bgd7 required a word or two
 in      further illustration1 as       
follows3--       ,the derivation of     
words is like that of rivers3 there is  
one      real source1 usually small1    
unlikely1 and difficult to find1        
far up among the hills2 then1 as the    
word flows on and comes      into       
service1 it takes in the force of other 
words from      other sources1 and      
becomes itself quite another word--even 
more than one word1 after the           
junction--a word as it were of      many
 waters1 sometimes both sweet and       
bitter4 ,thus the whole      force of   
our ,english charity depends on the     
guttural in      ,charis getting        
confused with the c of the ,latin carus2
      thenceforward throughout the      
middle ages1 the two ideas      ran on  
together1 and both got confused with    

,st4 ,paul's      ,greek3 agape1 which  
expresses a different idea in all       
sorts of ways2 our charity1 having not  
only brought in the      entirely       
foreign sense of almsgiving1 but lost   
the essential      sense of contentment1
 and lost much more in getting too far  
away from the charis1 of the final      
,gospel benedictions4      ,for truly it
 is fine ,christianity we have come to1 
which      professing to expect the     
perpetual grace of its ,founder1        
has not itself grace enough to save it  
from overreaching      its friends in   
sixpenny bargains2 and which1           
supplicating      evening and morning   
the forgiveness of its own debts1 goes  
forth in the daytime to take its        
fellow-servants by the      throat1     
saying--not ,pay me that thou owest1 but
 ,pay me      that thou owest me not4   
,not but that we sometimes wear         
,ophelia's rue with a      difference1  
and call it1 ,herb o' grace o' ,sundays1
 taking      consolation out of the     

offertory with--,look1 what he layeth   
out1 it shall be paid him again4        
,comfortable words1 indeed1      and    
good to set against the old royalty of  
,largesse--          ,whose moste joie  
was1 ,i wis1         ,when that she     
gave1 and said1 ',have this4'           
,again3 the first root of the word faith
 being far away      in----7compare my  
note on this force of it in ,modern     
,painters1 vol4 v41 p4 #bee71 the       
,latins1 as proved by      ,cicero's    
derivation of the word1 got their facio1
 also      involved in the idea2 and so 
the word1 and the world with      it1   
gradually lose themselves in an         
arachnoid web of      disputation       
concerning faith and works1 no one ever 
taking      the pains to limit the      
meaning of the term3 which in           
earliest ,scriptural use is as nearly as
 possible our ,english      obedience4  
,then the ,latin fides1 a quite         
different word1      alternately active 
and passive in different uses1 runs into

      foi2 facere1 through ficare1 into 
fier1 at the end      of words2 and     
fidere1 into fier absolute2 and out of  
this endless reticulation of thought and
 word rise still      more finely       
reticulated theories concerning         
salvation by      faith--the things     
which the populace expected to be saved 
from1 being indeed carved for them in a 
very graphic manner      in their       
cathedral porches1 but the things they  
were      expected to believe being     
carved for them not so clearly4         
,lastly ,i debated with myself whether  
to make the note on      ,homer longer  
by examining the typical meaning of the 
shipwreck of ,ulysses1 and his escape   
from ,charybdis by help      of her     
fig-tree2 but as ,i should have had to  
go on to the      lovely myth of        
,leucothea's veil1 and did not care to  
spoil      this by a hurried account of 
it1 ,i left it for future               
examination2 and three days after the   
paper was published1      observed that 

the reviewers1 with their usual useful  
ingenuity1 were endeavouring to throw   
the whole subject back      into        
confusion by dwelling on the single 7as 
they imagined7      oversight4 ,i       
omitted also a note on the sense of the 
word      ,greek3 lygron1 with respect  
to the pharmacy of ,circe1 and          
herb-fields of ,helen 7compare its use  
in ,odyssey1 xvii4 #dgc1      etc471    
which would further have illustrated the
 nature of      the ,circean power4     
,but1 not to be led too far into the    
subtleness of these myths1 respecting   
them all ,i have but      this to say3  
,even in very simple parables1 it is not
 always      easy to attach indisputable
 meaning to every part of them4 ,i      
recollect some years ago1 throwing an   
assembly of learned      persons who had
 met to delight themselves with         
interpretations of the parable of the   
prodigal son      7interpretations which
 had up to that moment gone very        
smoothly7 into high indignation1 by     

inadvertently asking who      the       
prodigal son was1 and what was to be    
learned by his      example4 ,the       
leading divine of the company 7still one
 of our      great popular preachers7 at
 last explained to me that the          
unprodigal son was a lay figure1 put in 
for dramatic effect1      to make the   
story prettier1 and that no note was to 
be taken      of him4 ,without1 however1
 admitting that ,homer put in the       
last escape of ,ulysses merely to make  
his story prettier1      this is        
nevertheless true of all ,greek myths1  
that they have      many opposite lights
 and shades3 they are as changeful as   
opal and1 like opal1 usually have one   
colour by reflected1      and another by
 transmitted1 light4 ,but they are true 
jewels      for all that1 and full of   
noble enchantment for those who      can
 use them2 for those who cannot1 ,i am  
content to repeat      the words ,i     
wrote four years ago1 in the appendix to
 the      ,two ,paths--       ,the      

entire purpose of a great thinker may be
 difficult to      fathom1 and we may be
 over and over again more or less       
mistaken in guessing at his meaning2 but
 the real1 profound1      nay1 quite    
bottomless and unredeemable mistake1 is 
the      fool's thought1 that he had no 
meaning4   ,,london3 ,,ward1 ,,lock     
,,co41 ,,limited4            99       99
       99       99       99             
,transcriber's note3  #a4 ,text in      
italics is enclosed by underscores      
7italics74  #b4 ,footnotes have been    
renumbered and moved from the middle of 
the paragraph to the closest paragraph  
break4  #c4 ,the original text includes 
,greek characters4 ,for this text       
version these letters have been replaced
 with transliterations4 ,for example1   
,greek3 b represents greek letter beta4 
#d4 ,certain words use an oe ligature in
 the original4  #e4 ,mixed fractions are
 indicated with a hyphen and forward    
slash4 ,for example1 #c-a_/b indicates  
three and a half4  #f4 ,obvious         

misprints and punctuation errors have   
been silently corrected in this text    
version4  #g4 ,other than the changes   
listed above1 printer's inconsistencies 
in hyphenation and ligature usage have  
been retained4