,,antonio ,,stradivari4 ,,printed ,,by ,e4 ,,shore ,,and ,,co41 #c1 ,,green ,,terrace1 ,,rosebery ,,avenue1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 ,illustration3 ,,horace ,,petherick4 ,,the ,,strad ,,library1 ,no4 ,,viii4 ,,antonio ,,stradivari1 ,,by ,,horace ,,petherick4 ,of the ,music ,jury1 ,international ,inventions ,exhibition1 ,south ,kensington1 #ahhe2 ,international ,exhibition1 ,edinburgh1 #ahij2 ,expert in ,law ,courts1 #ahia2 ,vice-,president of the ,cremona ,society4 ,,copyright4 ,london3 ,,the ,,strad ,,office1 #c4 ,,green ,,terrace1 ,,rosebery ,,avenue1 ,e4,c4 ,e4 ,,donajowski1 #bf1 ,,castle ,,street1 ,,berners ,,street1 ,w4 ,d4 ,r4 ,,duncan1 #ahf1 ,,fleet ,,street1 ,e4,c4 #aijj ,,contents4 ,,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,date and ,place of ,birth of ,antonio ,stradivari--,his ,instructor in the ,art of ,violin ,making--,peculiarity of ,his ,early ,work1 ,nothing ,striking1 but ,slowly ,progressive--,which of the ,designs of ,his ,master ,he was ,most ,impressed by1 and ,his ,own ,modifications for ,improvement--,his ,departure from the ,house of ,his ,master ,free to ,carry ,out ,his ,own ,inclinations #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,details of ,further ,improvements upon ,his ,new ,designs--,modification of the ,soundholes--,the ,amati ,varnish and ,stradivari's--,his ,secrecy of ,method in ,working--,his ,knowledge of ,what was ,wanted and ,efforts at ,advance in ,tone ,quality #h ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,date of the ,true ,stradivarian ,individuality--,alterations in ,design--,proportions ,settled for ,good--,the ,exceptions--,the ,long ,strad--,the ,inlaid ,strads--,an ,acknowledged ,master of ,his ,art--,black ,edging--,the ,arching and ,channelling--,the ,brescians1 the ,amatis and ,stradivari #ac ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,lesser ,known ,patterns of ,stradivari--,the ,treatment of the ,scroll by ,him--,the ,individuality and ,maturing of the ,style--,the ,purfling #ai ,,chapter ,v4 ,stradivari's ,great ,success--,his ,so-called ,grand ,epoch--,his ,patrons--,his ,violins ,reputed for ,tone when ,quite ,new and ,sought ,after--,the ,help ,he ,received--,his ,assistants and ,pupils--,parts of the ,work ,requiring ,his ,individual ,touch--,the ,members of ,his ,family who may have ,assisted ,him--,stradivari's ,varnish--,his ,imitators #bb ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,some ,modifications in ,stradivari's ,works--,variation in ,finish of ,details--,the ,interior of ,his ,violins--,the ,blocks and ,linings--,the ,bar--,thicknesses of the ,tables--,heads or ,scrolls of ,his ,different ,periods #db ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,stradivari's ,tone and ,system--,those of ,his ,pupils and ,assistants--,qualities of ,tone ,produced in ,different ,localities #ef ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,the ,reputed ,golden ,period of ,stradivari ,late in ,life--,his ,later ,modifications of ,design--,signs of ,old ,age ,appearing--,the ,help ,he ,received #gj ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,evidences in ,stradivari's ,work of ,old ,age--,his ,death and ,burial--,work ,left by ,him--,the ,advance in ,value of ,his ,work ,since ,his ,decease #gi ,,list ,,of ,,plates4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,horace ,,petherick ,frontispiece4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,antonio ,,stradivari ,to face page #a ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,stradivari #d ,,stradivari',s ,,workshop #f ,,patterns ,,of ,,violins page #f ,,illustrations ,,of ,,soundholes ,to face page #dh ,,illustrations ,,of ,,scrolls1 ,,fig4 a4 #ej ,,fig4 b4 #eb ,,fig4 c4 #ed ,,fig4 d4 #ef ,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,domenico1 ,,cremona #hj ,,preface4 ,it was in the month of ,april1 #ahih1 when ,,the ,,strad monthly magazine had completed its eighth year of issue1 that the ,editor ,suggested that then might be an appropriate time for giving a biographical sketch of the great ,cremonese master in serial form1 expressed in a manner interesting and instructive as possible4 ,with this view ,i took up the subject with some enthusiasm and proposed to work upon lines which ,i believed to be bound by truth4 ,all references to peculiarities in connection with ,stradivari's designs1 construction and purposes should be the result of my own personal observation during many years of experience as connoisseur and expert4 ,in formulating my results of study of a great number--possibly the majority--of the instruments of the master extant--,i have abstained as far as possible from using technical terms not readily comprehended by a reader coming newly to the subject1 and ,i trust all persons reading through the matter now collected1 added to1 and presented in book form1 will find their time not mis-spent at least when they arrive at the conclusion4 ,,horace ,,petherick4 ,croydon4 ,,introduction4 ,it was during the second half of the sixteenth century that the violin1 with its well recognised combined excellences of artistic form and musical sonority1 was started on its way in the world to supply a want and prove its fitness as a leading instrument at once and for future times4 ,so happily was this effected1 so complete and mature was it in conception1 that the advancing intellect of three centuries has proved incompetent to insert any fresh and permanent addition to its original simple arrangement4 ,precisely as it came from the hands of an artistic and inventive genius in the city of ,brescia so we have it now1 unchanged in its essential details of construction1 although having its natural qualities made more evident after undergoing the modern adjustment with regard to accessories of detail1 or regulation as it is termed4 ,this has been effected by simply enlarging some parts for the purpose of allowing more freedom and convenience in the execution of more modern music1 its elaboration of rhythm1 besides the extended range of notes in the higher positions of the register1 necessitating this4 ,as might have been expected in connection with the then still living ,renaissance period1 on the violin making its appearance it was soon taken in hand by men of superlative talent1 who stamped it with their own individuality in which was a marvellous perception of artistic quality4 ,all that was to be done by means of proportion1 form and colour1 not setting aside the essentials of refined sonority1 were combined1 each aiding in the grand total and producing that known and so much sought after at the present day--a beautiful ,italian violin4 ,for about a century or more many ,italian liutaros were busily engaged in sending forth under competition works which are now by the cognoscenti treated as unrivalled excellence of quality1 classical1 and the outcome of genius4 ,each worker being anxious to maintain the standard of excellence1 or take a step forward in the practice of their art1 the culminating point seems to have been reached when the artist under consideration in the following pages was executing his masterpieces in ,cremona4 ,illustration3 ,,antonio ,,stradivari4 ,,antonio ,,stradivari4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,date ,,and ,,place ,,of ,,birth ,,of ,,antonio ,,stradivari--,,his ,,instructor ,,in ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,violin ,,making--,,peculiarity ,,of ,,his ,,early ,,work1 ,,nothing ,,striking1 ,,but ,,slowly ,,progressive--,,which ,,of ,,the ,,designs ,,of ,,his ,,master ,,he ,,was ,,most ,,impressed ,,by1 ,,and ,,his ,,own ,,modifications ,,for ,,improvement--,,his ,,departure ,,from ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,his ,,master1 ,,free ,,to ,,carry ,,out ,,his ,,own ,,inclinations4 ,the year #afad1 although not particularly noticeable at the time for its portentous events1 was destined to be one of considerable interest to those who are enthusiastic lovers of the delightful quality of sound emitted by a certain section--and that only--of a class of stringed instruments which have made the city of ,cremona famous throughout the civilised world4 ,for in that city and in that year was born a male child1 whose surname was eventually to eclipse by its own refulgence the renown of the city itself4 ,its paternal name was ,stradivari1 people trouble themselves very little about the prefix ,antonio1 common enough in ,italy1 and which was the ,christian name given him by his parents4 ,of these we can only say1 that as might be supposed1 they were of a respectable portion of the middle class socially considered and from which have sprung all over the world--with few exceptions--the greatest luminaries of the whole firmament of intellect4 ,of his private life during manhood we know very little1 of his boyhood nothing4 ,but we may fairly and truly draw our conclusions that as the time arrived when he was supposed fit for training to fight life's battle1 he had already exhibited talent indicative of fitness for that artistic branch of industry in which he was hereafter to be the world-wide acknowledged head4 ,that his special abilities were thoroughly recognised by his parents receives much emphasis from the fact of his being offered to1 and received as pupil by1 ,nicolas ,amati1 greatest of that great family of stringed instrument makers4 ,young ,antonio was thus placed in the most favourable situation possible for the fructifying and development of his own particular talents4 ,that portion of his life which was spent with the great master of line in violin facture1 will1 probably1 in its details always remain a blank to us3 but there is a lightning like flash thrown out by the fact of old ,nicolas ,amati bequeathing his collection of tools1 patterns1 etc41 to ,antonio ,stradivari1 and1 be it noticed1 not to his own son1 then over thirty years of age4 ,that the future master of his craft had been a steady and beloved pupil of his great teacher1 there is no room for doubt2 indeed1 steadiness1 fixity of purpose and honest intention1 are manifested in his work during the whole of his career4 ,the earliest of his handiwork has become known to us while he was with ,nicolas ,amati4 ,in this he exhibits extreme delicacy of handling1 and seemingly1 in the confidence of his master1 certain little modifications in the design of the sound holes were permitted1 or perhaps passed as improvements1 but there is nothing eccentric or extravagant introduced1 a gentle addition1 or a trifle less here and there1 being the way in which he ever cautiously worked out his idea of improvement1 and this latter seems to have been the moving spirit during his whole life4 ,at no time do we meet with sudden departures1 or what are sometimes termed flashes of genius--the onward progress of his style of design and its execution was as unimpassioned as his life was uneventful4 ,when we examine the earliest known work of his hand--it may be observed on some of the late violins of his master--there is plainly perceptible the efforts at excelling where at all possible2 and if1 as is extremely probable--his master was sometimes desirous that the purfling should be somewhat bolder than was to the taste of his refined pupil1 this was inserted with a delicacy and precision beyond what had been before deemed the acme of finish4 ,his departure from the house of ,nicolas ,amati had to be taken some day in the ordinary course of events1 and he would then act alone in competition among the growing swarms of makers who were now busy as bees in most parts of ,italy4 ,the start is generally reckoned to have occurred between the years #affd and #afff1 it may have been in #affe1 when he had reached his twenty-first year4 ,that old ,nicolas ,amati was right in his estimate that young ,antonio ,stradivari's natural abilities augured well for his success as a liutaro1 was now to be proven4 ,with the best possible recommendation--that of being trained by the most distinguished maker of the city--he carried others no less necessary for the long course of thought and labour that he was about to enter upon4 ,these were1 an earnest desire for improvement in all his undertakings1 natural1 indigenous ability for tasteful design and its mechanical execution and the power of steady concentration of the faculties1 backed up withal by a sound1 physical constitution in which nerves of iron must have been a conspicuous element4 ,to those who at the time may have been looking forward with some speculation as to what young ,stradivari would put forth now that his course was free and untrammelled before him1 there was probably some disappointment at finding no signs of striking originality1 no spasmodic struggles of genius to assert itself by throwing aside those individualities1 general and detailed1 which were so well marked in the work of his great teacher1 and which as pupil he had been studiously and conscientiously carrying out4 ,on the contrary1 his efforts seem to have been rather to draw the mantle thrown by his master closer around him than to dispense with any part of its protective power4 ,thus we see in his works of this period which have remained to us1 very little more than replicas of those of his master in which he for some years perhaps had taken no inconsiderable part4 ,but in doing this1 the intention and power of selection guided by sound judgment at once asserted itself4 ,he did not take that pattern known to us moderns by the name of grand1 and which term was in all likelihood quite unthought of by either himself or his master4 ,who invented it is a question that may be left complacently to the bookworm of the future4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,antonio ,,stradivari4 ,there is really nothing in the so-called grand pattern of ,nicolas ,amati that seems to agree happily with that title1 it is1 on the other hand1 one in which the love of dainty elegance of contour has been allowed almost unrestricted play by its author1 and to an extent undreamt of before4 ,he perceived1 however1 that there was a limit1 a step further1 and disaster would be certain2 ,nicolas was sufficiently wide awake not to take it1 but left it for his hosts of imitators1 many of whom1 not gifted with the same perspicuity1 rushed in where angels fear to tread1 their just reward being laughter and derision4 ,the attainment of elegance at the expense of strength and stability was not at all in agreement with ,stradivari's artistic tastes1 and we accordingly have no evidence of his having touched the so-called ,grand ,amati2 that which he did take up with was less complex in the subdivision of its curves1 and a more simple looking thing altogether4 ,to him it may have seemed to have more of the true characteristic quality always accompanying the grand in art1 that of simplicity4 ,it was this pattern1 and this only1 so far as our information goes--that ,stradivari took as the basis on which any future developments should be grounded4 ,he worked upon it for some time seemingly to his own contentment and probably the satisfaction of his patrons1 these being sufficiently numerous and influential to enable him ere many years had passed to think of purchasing a house4,a ,this he accomplished in the year #afhj1 when he was thirty-six years of age4 ,now be it noted ,stradivari had been working on the simplest of ,amati patterns for fourteen years1 and during that time from his steady industry the number of violins1 besides other instruments of the family1 which left his atelier must have been very large4 ,the similarity in type and regularity of excellence in finished workmanship was almost enough to have impressed the connoisseurs of the day that there was no originality or speculation in the maker1 but it was just about this time that the independency of thought began to manifest itself2 it was almost as if the acquisition of the freehold property had stimulated the self-reliance which had no doubt always been present1 but which was now to show itself more clearly in his art4 ,he had been in practise long and successfully enough to give a right claim to mastership4 ,the veteran ,nicolas ,amati1 who was now over eighty years of age1 had probably been doing little or nothing for some time1 and so his pupil1 with all his admiration for the retiring chief1 felt at full liberty to do really as he liked4 ,illustration3 ,,stradivari',s ,,workshop4 ,our illustration of ,stradivari's atelier is from a painting by ,rinaldi1 the sketch for which was made on the premises4 ,the church of ,st4 ,domenico1 ,cremona1 was demolished some twenty years since and our illustration is from a photo taken just before the event4 ,the ,chapel of the ,rosary1 being the place where ,antonio ,stradivari was interred1 is the one below and to the right of the tower and lighter in colour than the others4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #a4 ,grand ,nicolas ,amati4 ,no4 #b4 ,nicolas ,amati pattern of ,stradivari4 ,no4 #c4 ,first independent pattern of ,stradivari4 ,the step he took1 insignificant enough to the casual observer now1 must have been equally so then1 but proved one of the most important ever taken in this branch of art1 considering the restraints necessarily encompassing any efforts at original design4 ,this is perhaps the more evident when the main features of the ,amati designs and others of the time are analysed4 ,it will be seen that the upper and lower thirds of the design have much in common with each other1 and that the middle or waist partakes also of the same characteristics1 the whole being a series of full rounded curves1 varied as required1 to harmonise and flow with ease and grace to the squared corners4 ,the slightest possible narrowing or decrease in the size of the upper of the waist curve and a corresponding enlargement of the lower part1 served in the hands of ,stradivari to impart a different aspect to the whole pattern4 ,the waist1 now less pinched in at the middle1 looked longer without being really so4 ,the parts above the upper corners and those below the lower ones were modified1 the large curves becoming a little flatter just before blending with the smaller ones4 ,from these alterations1 each one trifling in itself1 there resulted what may be called the first or earliest ,stradivari pattern2 in it were the germs of all the succeeding ones that contributed more and more to the fame of their designer as they appeared4 ,the natural caution or indisposition to throw aside one pattern before a fair trial of the newest had proved acceptable to his numerous patrons1 was possibly the cause of ,stradivari's running the older designs alongside the newest creations of his fancy4 ,thus we find that mixed with the innovations are what he might have called his old ,amati pattern1 probably off the same moulds that he had used when first starting in business on his own account1 or even before4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,details ,,of ,,further ,,improvements ,,upon ,,his ,,new ,,designs--,,modification ,,of ,,the ,,sound ,,holes--,,the ,,amati ,,varnish ,,and ,,stradivari',s--,,his ,,secrecy ,,of ,,method ,,in ,,working--,,his ,,knowledge ,,of ,,what ,,was ,,wanted1 ,,and ,,efforts ,,at ,,advance ,,in ,,tone ,,quality4 ,leaving the consideration in general of the designs of ,stradivari's early days1 that is1 for such a long life1 we may look over some of the details4 ,it is well known to connoisseurs that the handiwork of ,nicolas ,amati was during his best days of the utmost delicacy2 in his later work we notice an approach to heaviness in some respects4 ,the very beautiful subdivisions and subtleties of the curves in pattern and modelling began to disappear and the purfling became bolder4 ,young ,stradivari1 when working on some of his master's violins1 seems to have been allowed to do some of this1 probably with the material given out by old ,nicolas4 ,the work of the young man may be known by its greater decision1 such as would be reasonably expected2 but after leaving the ,amati household the natural bent towards exceeding refinement soon asserted itself4 ,the purfling1 particularly after some years1 is narrower1 and inserted with a precision and ease in its course impossible to excel1 even if approachable4 ,the mitring at the corners ends in a bent point in the manner introduced by ,hieronymus ,amati and not1 as has been stated1 by ,stradivari2 the latter carried out the ideas of ,nicolas in making it very sharp and this mannerism he continued throughout the whole of his career4 ,stradivari from the first made his sound holes more perpendicular than those of his master2 after leaving him1 they also became more slender and the upper and lower wings wider and closer to the opposing curve4 ,the precision and sharpness of the cutting of these parts has become the standard of excellence to which hundreds of ,stradivari's imitators of different countries and times have striven to attain4 ,it is1 perhaps1 in these parts of the different instruments--for ,stradivari soon got to work on all the four sizes1 besides other kinds not played with the bow--that his fine nervous system manifests itself1 the sureness of his knife when passing along from one point to another leaving an edge upright and clean as cut glass1 yet with a free grace of line never excelled by any master of the renaissance period4 ,of the parts the young assistant of ,nicolas ,amati was allowed to put his individuality to1 conspicuously stands the scroll4 ,the one typical of ,nicolas's later days1 although free and elegant1 yet had a somewhat heavier touch about it1 possibly the master was gradually losing his muscular power1 more necessary to exert in this matter of detail than any other4 ,stradivari began his own type by bringing the first turn from the axis or eye a little higher up than that of his master2 the axis itself is a trifle larger and flatter1 the edges of the turns are squared off with a machine-like exactness that does not interfere with the ease and flow of line4 ,the peg box is strong and ample1 after a few years it became massive1 more so occasionally than is to be met with at any other time1 the grooves down the back are not so deep1 the termination or shell likewise and a little wider4 ,that ,nicolas ,amati would by any possibility neglect to duly initiate his favourite pupil in the mysteries and secrecies whereby his work should receive its final crowning adornment1 its envelopment in the thin film of glory1 is not to be thought of4 ,the lustrous solution that was so fitting an accompaniment to the dainty designs of the ,amatis1 was from the first handled with a masterly dexterity and perfect knowledge by ,stradivari4 ,most of the early work is covered with the orange or amber colour that were the prevailing tints on the early productions of the brothers ,amati as well as ,nicolas4 ,it is somewhat curious that most of the prominent varnishers among the liutaros of ,italy seemed to prefer this in their early days3 or was it that the deeper or more intense colours required longer experience in management8 ,anyhow1 so it was1 and ,stradivari seems to have been no exception to the general rule4 ,if a well preserved early ,stradivari is placed side by side with one of the brothers or ,nicolas ,amati's amber coloured specimens1 the varnish enveloping them will be seen to be precisely alike1 whether considered in respect of transparency1 consistency or thickness4 ,here is art indication that for the best part of a century1 these clever artificers of ,cremona had the same stuff1 used it in precisely the same manner1 to a hair's breadth1 for they knew there was no going beyond it2 every part of the process was methodically carried out in compliance with certain laws known to1 or instituted by1 previous masters4 ,there is an old ,latin motto implying that the perfection of art is to conceal art2--it it has often been quoted in illustrative reference1 sometimes with sly humour1 at others in most serious vein1 for instance1 when an eminent judge's judicial wig was known to have beneath it another of equally natural pretentions1 and when quoted as the motto for the year in a ,royal ,academy catalogue1 to be interpreted by the noble army of rejected outsiders as meaning extra efforts that year by the ,council at concealment or suppression of art that was superior to their own4 ,but if there ever was an instance in which this motto could with strictest appropriateness be applied1 it was the work of ,stradivari4 ,most if not all of the known masters have at times shown by some little accident or other1 their method of working1 thus1 notwithstanding the extremely careful and finished work of the ,amati family1 there is occasionally to be seen some unobliterated signs--truly very slight--of their having traced their pattern on the wood for either the sound holes or the turns of the scroll4 ,stradivari left no evidence of this1 nor are any distinct traces left inside or out that would betray the manner1 kind of tool1 or direction of working4 ,further1 in most beautiful specimens by the brothers ,amati1 besides other great varnishers1 some faint indications have been seen of imperfectly dissolved resin1 but not so with ,stradivari1 who carried out to the letter in this department of his art1 that steadfastness of purpose in striving to do in the best way1 that which his judgment had pronounced to be the best thing to accomplish4 ,he further carried this out afterwards in the application of the deeper coloured1 and usually softer1 varnishes1 which when manipulated by other masters of the same school1 have frizzled or cockled from some cause4 ,this is seldom if at all to be observed in any of ,stradivari's work1 he seems to have taken every possible precaution for preventing change in aspect after the instrument had received his final touches4 ,we may now retrace our steps for awhile and take up another thread of the fabric of ,stradivari's individuality1 that which is in fact by dealers ignored and by players adored4 ,there can be no question that during his minority under the great ,amati1 young ,antonio must have been much interested in his master's fame for imparting a fine quality of tone to his instruments4 ,it must soon have been apparent to him that success in his career would not be achieved by progress in the artistic part of his work alone4 ,the critics of the day1 who must have been sufficiently numerous and exacting in accordance with the advanced state of the art1 would naturally be alive to any subtleties of difference between the productions of the reigning king of liutaros and his successor4 ,the onward progress of musical composition and increase in the numbers of public performers1 virtuosi1 and others1 demanded from an artificer taking this position1 at least equal skill in producing those essential qualities for which the city of ,cremona had become famous4 ,old master and young man probably had many a talk over what was best to be done to keep pace with the increasing requirements of the moment1 and the time approaching when the hand of the former in the course of nature would lose its cunning4 ,the hour came1 the man was ready4 ,stradivari started forth from his master's house with full confidence in having a true and good grasp of the wants of the moment and those looming in the future4 ,in the good patronage which soon came to him1 was contained the assurance that his estimate1 although formed so early1 was perfectly correct2 thenceforward he saw no reason for alteration in the type of acoustical quality that distinguishes all of his instruments1 and that which he had once for all fixed upon4 ,briefly the acoustical quality of his instruments may be described as a further development of the tone brought to such a high degree of excellence by the great ,amati2 an increase in the volume and energy1 with more equality of scale1 while retaining all the other qualities that had caused players and listeners alike to be delighted1 and which had given such renown to the great family of liutaros in ,cremona4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,date ,,of ,,the ,,true ,,stradivarian ,,individuality--,,alterations ,,in ,,design--,,proportions ,,settled ,,for ,,good--,,the ,,exceptions--,,the ,,long ,,strad--,,the ,,inlaid ,,strads--,,an ,,acknowledged ,,master ,,of ,,his ,,art--,,black ,,edging--,,the ,,arching ,,and ,,channelling--,,the ,,brescians1 ,,the ,,amatis ,,and ,,stradivari4 ,we now resume our consideration of the progressive development of the ,stradivarian design as exhibited in the instruments of #afhj to #afij or a little later4 ,at the earliest of these dates the complete independency or self consciousness of power1 as a master liutaro1 is already perceptible4 ,there is no possibility of these violins having been made on the moulds used during his bachelorship4 ,people sometimes speak of these instruments as being ,amatise1 which is great nonsense2 had ,stradivari died somewhere between #afhj and #afij1 they would have been rapturous in their admiration of his originality and widely separated ideas from those of the ,amati1 but as he lived many years on and gave forth many more manifestations of his own individuality1 the likeness of these #afhj and #afij to old ,nicolas is eagerly searched for and often supposed to be evident4 ,it was at this time that ,stradivari probably made more new moulds or blocks on which to construct1 than at any other4 ,with some few exceptions those that were now being made could be used for any of his violins during the remainder of his career4 ,the average proportions remain the same1 the differences are minute in measurement1 notwithstanding their effectiveness in helping to a different expression in the designs4 ,the exceptions referred to and made between the above dates are of a diverse kind4 ,there is the well-known long ,strad1 of which one author has said that it has received the title1 not from increased length1 but from the appearance of additional length which its narrowness gives it1 and which is particularly observable between the sound holes4 ,the actual measurements of this pattern are1 length #ad-c_/af inches by greatest width #h inches bare as contrasted with the ordinary #ad by #h-a_/h2 it will therefore be evident at once that there is a positive increase in length1 and a decrease in width4 ,these violins are not very rare as compared with the total work of ,stradivari extant4 ,another variation1 but now very seldom seen1 is a pattern that may be said to be somewhat opposite in its tendencies1 as it is a trifle shorter1 but of full average width1 with a proportionately wider waist4 ,this type of violin must have been sufficiently plentiful at one time1 as one of the first ,gaglianos made a deliberate copy of it2 that is1 so far as his ,neapolitan idiosyncrasy and pride would permit4 ,besides these were the inlaid ,strads1 instruments of the greatest beauty in all respects1 but having instead of the ordinary purfling a broad black fillet and diamond or lozenge shaped ivory insertions alternated with smaller circular ones2 they are further embellished with a floral inlaying round the sides or ribs and also on the sides and back of the scroll4 ,these instruments--,stradivari is known to have made a quartette of them for the ,spanish court--are of the greatest rarity4 ,they are said to be all known1 but this statement seems open to question when coupled with the assertion that ,stradivari made other similar but very small violins4 ,the known ones are of very full size1 the parties ordering them at the time possibly being alive to the advantages of quantity as well as quality4 ,public opinion since the time these were made has not grown in appreciation of the additional ornamentation4 ,the violin pure and simple1 with its single line of purfling only as it left the hands of the first master of the art of ,brescia1 is the one which has found the most lasting favour with connoisseurs and the public generally4 ,decorative additions1 in various and more or less eccentric or extravagant styles1 have been introduced from time to time by enterprising liutaros of different countries1 but the discerning portion of the public will have none1 and thereby pronounce the violin to be an unfit subject for extra clothing2 beauty unadorned1 adorned is most1 is a figure of speech quite applicable to the simplicity of the violin as a work of art4 ,stradivari1 who had now acquired--at the period #afhj-ij--;a standing as an acknowledged master of his craft1 showed in his handiwork a decided leaning in consonance with this1 as--excepting these inlaid ,strads--he carefully refrained from introducing any of the little tricks1 or fanciful alteration of details1 that so many1 even of his own countrymen1 seem to have been led to affix to their productions4 ,after all1 the inlaid ,strads were probably so made1 not at their maker's suggestion1 but by desire of the patrons holding a high social position4 ,double purfled violins seem never to have left his hands1 as none appear to be extant and no mention is made of any4 ,there is one particular part of the finishing of the violin which calls for remark1 and in the absence of evidence to the contrary must be put to the responsibility of ,stradivari4 ,this is known as the black edging4 ,it cannot come properly under the term decoration1 as it has no variety in its management and consists only of the blackening of the squaring off of the junction of the ribs2 likewise at the edges of the turns of the scroll and continued down the front and back of the peg-box to the shell4 ,its first appearance is not possible to determine and will probably remain unknown4 ,nicolas ,amati did not introduce it1 his work being of the kind that had no accommodation1 or sufficient surface for it4 ,once begun1 however1 ,stradivari seems to have persistently held to it4 ,there is no proof positive that it was henceforth his invariable rule to put this kind of finish4 ,the parts concerned are the first to receive and show signs of wear2 therefore an instrument must be very fresh indeed to have much black edging left4 ,viewed from an artistic standpoint it cannot be considered an improvement1 or any adornment1 for1 however neatly it is executed1 the work of hand beneath is more or less obscured4 ,further1 the eye of the connoisseur is distracted by it1 and the neatness of the work is not seen to advantage until the black has become nearly effaced4 ,other makers of renown1 besides ,stradivari1 adopted this method of putting the final touches to their work1 ,giuseppe ,guarneri1 ,i4,h4,s41 ,carlo ,bergonzi1 and other later makers1 among them ,storioni4 ,concerning the rise of the arching1 or modelling of the periods above referred to1 there has been much erroneous supposition in connection therewith4 ,that all the early ,strads were of high build1 that the progress was gradual towards the flat model1 that ,stradivari was feeling his way and becoming enlightened as to the necessity of reducing the arching in order to obtain a fuller and more telling tone with better ring2 further1 that the channelling or scooping near the border was gradually reduced for the same reasons1 and that these things did not reveal themselves at once1 but gently dawned upon his perceptions2 moreover1 that he earnestly communed with nature1 made numberless experiments concerning her acoustical and other mysteries1 and that the outcome was faintly looming in the horizon and soon was to blossom forth as the golden period1 with grand pattern1 all of which is really nothing more than grand tomfoolery spread abroad a generation since by critics having an eye only to such things that seemed to them agreeable with the conditions and surroundings of money getting commodities4 ,these worthies were forgetful of the fact that the different varieties of flat and high model1 channelling deep or none at all1 long waists and short waists1 sound holes long1 short1 near or wide apart1 had been well1 if not exhaustively treated by the artists of the ,brescian school4 ,to assume that those refined artificers1 the ,amati family and their disciples1 were not conversant with everything for or against the use of a flat model would be crediting them with but little mental capacity1 particularly in respect of their perceptive faculties4 ,both ,stradivari and his teacher must have been well acquainted with the different high and low modelling of ,gasparo da ,salo1 as well as that of his pupil ,maggini1 and others4 ,he must have been aware that his own most generally used model of medium elevation1 with slight exceptions both ways1 was anticipated by each in turn4 ,this1 by the bye1 disposes of any theory that ,stradivari's distinctive quality of tone resulted1 as is often stated1 from his adopting a different elevation to what had been in use before4 ,it may be fairly argued that if it had been true1 as some writers have stated1 that the flatter the model the better and stronger is the tone1 then ,stradivari would have been less gifted with sound judgment than he has been hitherto credited with2 some of his early modellings1 #afhj-ij1 being as flat1 if not more so1 than any known during his whole career4 ,for his selection of the particular degree of rise the reasons--for there were several--are not difficult to assign3--firstly1 it was in consonance with his effort at achieving the most harmonious result--artistically in his designs2 the less determined rise in the arching being more agreeable with the disposition of line in the pattern that he had been settling down to--posterity has emphatically endorsed his views in this respect2 secondly1 having noticed that a more shallow curve in the arching was quite favourable for the exhibition of gracefulness1 while it was accompanied by more strength and permanency1 with less liability during time and usage to develop a stony or bumpy appearance4 ,but while thus looking acutely forward to future eventualities in one direction1 ,stradivari was no less careful to avoid reducing his model too much4 ,knowing the soundpost would be certainly shifted occasionally1 he saw in the very flat model a source of danger lurking in the difficulty of seeing and getting at the post1 even with the usual appliances at the command of the professional repairer or regulator1 while the sound holes would be much more liable to damage than when the sufficiently raised arching permits a fair use of the post setter4 ,he was also careful1 while keeping the depth and width of the channelling within reasonable bounds1 not to let the arching spring or commence too near the border1 as the screw cramps of the repairer1 especially the large sized ones used in olden times would1 unless most skilfully and cautiously applied1 soon register the progress of the repairer on the varnish to the destruction of the beauty of appearance as a whole4 ,these1 then1 appear to be the cogent reasons for the adoption of the medium rise in the modelling by ,stradivari4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,lesser ,,known ,,patterns ,,of ,,stradivari--,,the ,,treatment ,,of ,,the ,,scroll ,,by ,,him1 ,,the ,,individuality ,,and ,,maturing ,,of ,,the ,,style--,,the ,,purfling4 ,during the period of #afij-agjj the modification of parts of the pattern and details was slight but nevertheless important4 ,occasionally the upper corners drooped a little more1 and when they are now seen in fine preservation seem rather long in comparison with later ones1 but they are not really so1 it being in the expression no doubt arising from the greater robustness in the treatment of the corners which now were becoming in aspect more square1 but with the usual peculiarities retained4 ,there was also about this time another modification sent forth1 a pattern that has the waist curve narrowed in a trifle at about two-thirds of the way upward1 causing a slight suspicion of a wish to return to his old ,nicolo ,amati period1 but it seems to have been only momentary1 and beautiful as these violins are1 they do not appear to have been repeated4 ,they are in consequence very rare4 ,accompanying these little variations there was a slight change in the treatment of the scroll2 it became less massive1 while all the principal features of detail were retained1 the grooves at the back were deepened a little as they ran down to the shell1 which last was made a degree less shallow4 ,in the earlier part of this period the general contour has a little more flow in the disposition of line1 but later on this was checked1 as if not meeting with the full approval of the master1 whose goal of ambition was kept steadily in view from the first--that of introducing a design that should worthily rank as classical1 and in its details and execution be such1 that no weak spot or point of failure should be discernable under the closest scrutiny4 ,the sound holes now received further attention and1 it might be almost said1 for the last time1 as they were continued to the end of ,stradivari's career with no particular or intentional modification4 ,in length there was no alteration1 but the design seems more condensed1 more compact1 yet slightly wider in the opening4 ,this is all accomplished without losing the smallest touch of grace1 and although firm in the extreme it has the opposite of any tendency to hard geometrical form4 ,stradivari seems to have had some feeling of contentment with it1 for although little differences of measurement in minute particulars occur afterwards1 no modification in character is attempted4 ,he was most exact in imparting his own individuality in every instance4 ,it is in this department of the liutaro's art that the imitators or forgers of ,stradivari's work have found such an insurmountable block in the way of success4 ,the impossibility hitherto of imparting the requisite identical expression1 notwithstanding the most careful examination and tracing1 constantly adds force to an old saying among dealers that to make a perfectly successful imitation of ,stradivari he must be a ,stradivari himself4 ,in this view it is obvious that a maker having the sure consciousness of possessing the power of the master would no longer make tracings of him1 but bring out his own originals4 ,among the scores and scores of imitators1 some of them having achieved considerable renown as such1 the best of them have not succeeded further than giving their own impress to their tracing of the master's work4 ,this is quite apart from their failure to reproduce the master touch in other branches of the liutaro's art4 ,in the composition of his purfling he had been1 before the periods under consideration1 somewhat unsettled1 but he now seemed to have come to a conclusion that the middle or light coloured portion1 should be a trifle wider than the dark or outer portion4 ,this was also for a permanency with but little variation4 ,the three parts are probably of the same kind of wood1 with the outer portion darkened by artificial means and not wood with its natural colour1 as in so many early works4 ,but there was no change in the manner of insertion4 ,there was the same firm1 upright handling of the purfling tool1 which1 as in his early period1 was sent along with unerring precision and cut its way through hard and soft wood cleanly and equally well4 ,in this respect of mechanical dexterity1 the great master has had few rivals2 he was apparently equally at home in subduing to his requirements a log of tough1 curled maple1 as in gently reducing the exquisitely refined growth of pine that was to act as a soundboard in throwing out the luscious quality of tone associated with his name4 ,it was not always so among the most eminent of ,italian liutarios4 ,many of them have left unmistakeable evidence of impatience when trying to overcome the resistance of the tortuously grained maple in turn with the much softer and straight threaded pine4 ,there was a peculiarity connected with the purfling that must not be overlooked1 and that is1 its passing through the little pegs at the upper and lower part of the instrument1 and which is most carefully attended to by modern close imitators1 so that people should be convinced1 if possible1 that their's is the real thing4 ,stradivari1 however1 may not have conceived the idea of there ever being in the future the swarms of his imitators1 who1 for the last century1 have been but too evident in consequence of the daily increasing admiration or even reverence for his work4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that for some reason known only to himself1 he1 on rare occasions1 did not run the purfling through the peg1 or to be more strictly correct1 the peg was inserted clear of the purfling line4 ,that this peg peculiarity is no point of recognition may be inferred from the fact that ,stradivari's teacher1 ,nicolas ,amati1 treated it in like manner1 besides several of his contemporaries4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,stradivari',s ,,great ,,success--,,his ,,so-,,called ,,grand ,,epoch--,,his ,,patrons--,,his ,,violins ,,reputed ,,for ,,tone ,,when ,,quite ,,new ,,and ,,sought ,,after--,,the ,,help ,,he ,,received--,,his ,,assistants ,,and ,,pupils--,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,work ,,requiring ,,his ,,individual ,,touch--,,the ,,members ,,of ,,his ,,family ,,who ,,may ,,have ,,assisted ,,him--,,stradivari',s ,,varnish--,,his ,,imitators4 ,the period #agjj-ae or thereabouts1 found ,stradivari not only an acknowledged master of his craft but among his contemporaries recognised as the head4 ,his business had been all along steadily flourishing1 his patrons had been of high social position1 some most illustrious1 others actually royal4 ,among the latter the ,king of ,poland stands out in relief as having specially sent an envoy to ,cremona and that he had to wait three months before he could return with his commission fulfilled4 ,whether he ran in danger of being decapitated for hanging about ,cremona so long is not known1 but one thing is certain1 that patrons royal1 illustrious1 of high social standing and refined tastes1 wanted the newly made violins of ,stradivari that could never have been played upon1 almost in the absolute sense of the term1 while they could have easily obtained well seasoned1 well tried instruments of makers who had lived long before4 ,here is a nut to crack for those who persistently assert the necessity and efficacy of age and use to bring tone to maturity4 ,if any further evidence should be thought necessary to support the assumption of the equal excellence of the new ,stradivarius with those that remain with us at the present time1 it is contained in the praise of those who heard and used them when quite fresh1 declaring the agreeableness of the tone to be beyond rivalry4 ,stradivari may be said to have been now in the enjoyment of the plentitude of his powers4 ,success was attendant upon him without intermission4 ,tradition says he was reputed in the locality as positively rich1 but we do not hear of his aspiring to civic honours as alderman1 vestryman1 guardian or councilman--common or otherwise--as the outcome of the possession of full coffers4 ,stradivari simply went on making fiddles4 ,in a position to secure the best materials in the respect of quality1 artistically and acoustically considered1 he put the best workmanship upon them2 also he further selected the best help which1 in common with all eminently successful artists1 he must have found it necessary to employ4 ,we now arrive at a point when the question may be fairly put1 how much help did he have1 and of what kind was it8 ,as ,stradivari left no record behind as to the number of pupils trained on his premises1 or assistants who came perhaps as improvers1 we are left to do our best in the way of inference4 ,in the first place we may take up the acknowledged fact of his having turned out an enormous number of musical instruments during his very lengthy career2 and it must be remembered that his energies were not centred alone in turning out magnificent violins1 but that the viola1 violoncello1 double-bass1 besides some of the then not quite obsolete viols of different sizes and fantastic forms1 received his attention4 ,these had to be produced at the requirements of his patrons1 of whom many had probably not yet completely emerged from the misty musical atmosphere with which the fanciful forms with florid decorations seemed so intimately bound4 ,further1 the fittings for them had to be made presumably on the premises of the maestro and not as at present in foreign parts4 ,at the time there was not existent that extensive and special manufacture of bridges1 tailpieces1 tail-pins1 and pegs that forms a large and significant branch of commerce at the present day4 ,that the violin bridge especially was a production of the ,stradivari establishment and not made in ,germany1 is sufficiently indicated by its present form having been introduced by ,stradivari4 ,on comparing it with the different patterns of bridges that had been issued by the previous masters of ,cremona1 it will be seen at once that the master mind of ,stradivari had effected improvements that have their counterpart in the designs of his violin patterns4 ,we may notice the successful efforts at stability with simplicity1 just enough of detail that would lend itself in completing the harmony of the whole design1 while dispensing with every unnecessary angle or curve4 ,of the fingerboard and tailpiece we cannot speak in the same terms2 the master seems to have accepted the manner of treating these parts as handed down by preceding generations from ,gasparo da ,salo1 and thought there was no need for alteration4 ,the design of the inlaid ornamentation on both these accessories1 was1 of course1 of a kind with which the house of ,stradivari would be identified and the execution also in accordance4 ,of the tailpin and pegs1 with the decoration of both1 the same may be said4 ,all these particulars point to considerable time spent in direct supervision after the preliminary designs had been made by the principal4 ,this would reduce the available time for direct manual labour at his disposal4 ,there would occasionally be some time spent in the discrimination for purchasing of particular choice kinds of pine and maple1 these requiring the closest attention4 ,whether samples were brought for ,stradivari's inspection by agents or their principals1 or whether the maestro took journeys to particular districts where the exact kind of wood suitable to his requirements was to be had1 we know not1 but there seems to be much probability that the latter was his mode of obtaining that splendid growth of pine1 both in appearance and tone-producing quality1 with which he brought about such beautiful results4 ,this1 when obtained1 had to be carefully stored away until such time as it might be required for immediate use4 ,the cutting down and sawing up into lengths for different instruments would not be such as a maker with less patronage would personally engage in2 we can therefore place this aside from the time consuming duties4 ,there is1 in the foregoing1 enough and much over for reasonable inference that with a master1 such as ,stradivari1 having the refined taste and adaptability for work1 there was a considerable amount1 if not all1 of the merely mechanical work done according to his command or under his eye4 ,this would naturally enough increase in proportion as the business connection grew4 ,there would be in this nothing differing from what has been habitual with eminent professors in all branches of art2 as far back as ,phaedias1 ,praxitelles and ,appelles of the ancient classic ,greek period4 ,later on it is well known that many of the masterpieces of the ,renaissance period had much work upon them other than that immediately from the master's own hand4 ,if this were not permissible1 the number of the grandest creations of artistic genius would be most seriously limited4 ,raphael and his contemporaries1 ,rubens and ,rembrandt1 besides many other masters1 are well known to have had numerous pupils in their studios engaged in carrying out ideas previously determined upon and drawn out for their guidance4 ,these assistants were gradually drawn into the way and habit of thinking of their masters1 and on leaving them1 their own individuality or natural tendency uniting with what they had absorbed of their master's manner1 the blending of the two became a fresh production of style4 ,if we take this as our guide in summing up the probable amount of help that was drawn upon by ,stradivari during his career1 especially that part at which1 in our consideration of him and his works1 we had arrived1 it cannot possibly lead us far from the actual facts4 ,taking into account the known pupils or assistants who received the benefits of personal instruction from ,antonio ,stradivari1 they are more numerous than we can affix to the name of any other master1 as it must be borne in mind that ,stradivari had initiated a fresh style1 the influence of which was destined to be of a far more reaching character than any hitherto coming to the front4 ,the ,stradivarian school became the foremost1 most numerous and soon was to be the most imitated1 of all4 ,among the earliest of his pupils 7the precise number or even the names of all will never be known71 may be placed ,alexander ,gagliano of ,naples1 working with him about the period of #afhj and some years later1 one or two others of the ,gagliano family may have been workmen in the ,stradivari atelier4 ,lorenzo ,guadagnini1 ,joannes ,battista1 his son and ,josef of ,pavia all claim to have lent a helping hand and received instruction1 and there is nothing in their work that is in contradiction4 ,the first became a great master of the ,milanese school and was afterwards rivalled by his son1 who was more cosmopolitan and not identified with one place in particular4 ,i cannot include the names of ,montagnana or ,gobetti1 which have been frequently referred to by various authors as pupils of ,stradivari2 a close examination of their style and workmanship leads to a different fountain of inspiration1 notwithstanding which they both unquestionably were at one time influenced by the work of the great ,cremonese artist as it arrived in ,venice4 ,of ,carlo ,bergonzi1 a great master1 it is a well established fact that he worked with ,stradivari and probably did much more for him as assistant than is generally acknowledged1 but that he was originally a pupil is not in keeping with the early and varying patterns which have gone under his name4 ,further on it will be necessary to refer to this luminary of the art4 ,we must not forget the two sons of ,stradivari1 ,franciscus and ,omobono1 who received their initiation at the hands of their father and worked with him for many years1 carrying on the business after his decease4 ,rumour has brought forth another name as pupil or workman with ,stradivari1 and whose identification with some fine specimens of the liutaro's art may yet prove an interesting study4 ,a relative of the master1 we should expect to find his work strongly tinged with the ,stradivarian characteristics4 ,his tickets are said to have been all removed in very early times after their insertion and that one only is known to have been preserved intact4 ,of the great rival--in public estimation--of ,stradivari1 ,joseph ,guarnerius1 ,i4,h4,s41 it can only be said there is not a single feature in his handiwork1 style or tone1 agreeing with the supposition that he at any time was his pupil or assistant1 moreover1 having by me distinct evidence of his pupilage of another maker of a different school1 will of course prevent the inclusion of his name4 ,the number of pupils and assistants who worked with or under the supervision of ,stradivari in his prime1 might1 if we knew all1 be more considerable than we should be prepared to expect4 ,the proportion in the usual course of nature1 of those able to single out a path for themselves1 prove their individuality superior to their fellows or eventually become of great eminence1 must of necessity have been comparatively small4 ,there may have been many working on and off under the eye of the master at different periods who were without ambition or the talent to rise above the position of humble helpers among their more talented brethren1 born to be assistants only1 and1 in consequence1 never heard of outside the studio4 ,these1 and the before mentioned1 must all have had something to do with the instruments their master was sending forth into the world2 the more clever ones being intrusted with some responsibility on particular work4 ,it is not impossible to fix upon the parts the assistants probably would be allowed to work upon4 ,in the first place1 all the designing1 drawing out and tracing down of the pattern on to the mould1 or on to the unprepared blocks that were to be carved into necks1 scrolls1 or marked out for ribs1 would be ,stradivari's4 ,the different stages succeeding each other would be most likely as follows--firstly1 the master having been commissioned by a wealthy patron to make of his best pattern and highest finish a quartet of instruments1 he would take from his store of choice pine and sycamore1 which he had taken so much trouble and skill in collecting together1 such pieces that appeared to him suitable for the instruments to be constructed4 ,the upper and lower tables had previously been hewn or sawn to size1 then the jointed back and front1 if both were so1 planed carefully and made ready for the master's work1 which would first come on to the wood as a careful tracing from his original design4 ,sometimes the tracing down may have been done by some advanced pupil or competent assistant4 ,we may fairly assume the presence here of one or two1 if not more1 assistants1 besides a pupil or improver4 ,one would be selected for the bow-sawing of the pattern1 another afterwards receiving it for roughly gouging out according to measurements at hand or marked by the master4 ,another had meanwhile the bending of the thin slips for the ribs to the necessary curves1 or working down the corner and end blocks that had been affixed to the mould4 ,another1 if not the same1 might have been carrying out the first stages of the working of the scroll1 or perhaps a very competent and trusty assistant would be allowed1 under the eye of the master1 to work on more advanced forms1 making ready for the final or necessary touches of the master hand4 ,the sound holes may have been traced down and even the upper and lower circular holes bored4 ,further1 it is not impossible1 that after the modelling back and front had been sufficiently advanced1 the glueing and screwing down was intrusted to an assistant1 and even some of the finishing up with glass paper or other material in use at the time and place1 of parts of minor importance4 ,these are1 perhaps1 the majority of the details in which the individuality of the handwork of the master was not obligatory in evidence4 ,in summing up what could have been done by other hands than those of the busy master1 it would be extremely difficult1 if not impossible1 unless we admit its presence1 to account for the extremely large output of the great ,cremonese1 even when taking fully into the balance his very industrious habits and extraordinary long working career4 ,assuming the above view to be reasonable1 the number of new instruments which left the ,stradivari house must have been very large4 ,it is well known that the master undertook the repairs of musical instruments1 which department would require some personal attention or supervision1 even if actually executed by his assistants or his two sons1 ,francescus and ,omobono1 who1 when their father died1 were not very young1 the first being sixty-five years of age1 and the other fifty-five4 ,they had most likely worked with their parent for about forty years and must have done much of making and repairing1 that is1 crediting them with some of their father's industrial tendencies4 ,stradivari had two other sons by his first wife1 ,francesca ,ferraboschi1 one1 ,giulio1 died #agjg1 aged forty2 the other1 ,allesandro1 in #agcb1 aged fifty-five4 ,nothing seems to be known as to whether they were brought up by their father in his own craft or not2 if they were1 there was time for them also to have done much work with him4 ,there was a son by his second wife1 ,antonia ,zambelli1 who died #agbg1 aged twenty-four1 who under the same circumstances may have helped4 ,we have thus five sons of ,stradivari1 who1 if they were all taught the art1 may have been working together1 besides other assistants at the same time4 ,carlo ,bergonzi has already been mentioned1 but although he came late into the field1 yet there seems a slight indication that he may have had to supply the place of others who had departed for the carrying out of their own schemes4 ,having so far roughly estimated the kind and amount of work1 not necessarily his own1 on the violins that were sent forth by ,antonio ,stradivari1 we may glance at the particulars of detail that demanded his handiwork and that solely4 ,that there were keen connoisseurs living at the time of ,stradivari1 as also in the previous century and earlier1 there is no room for doubting4 ,workers in art reduce their inspirations to tangible forms helped by colour that people may see them and1 comparing them with what may have gone before and have been executed at the same time1 pass judgment on them4 ,in like manner ,stradivari1 like other masters before him1 knew that his handiwork would be scrutinised as well as the tone of his instruments4 ,it was therefore obligatory that purchasers should know his work1 that in fact his sign manual should be always present4 ,contemporaneous with him were makers1 artists1 who had been initiated in the mysteries of the manufacture and application of the wonderful varnishes which have since by their qualities made them famous throughout the civilised world4 ,there was nothing1 however1 in the material or its application that could1 under the closest examination1 be discerned as different to what might be seen on the best instruments of the ,amatis--these must have been numerous at the time--the ,ruggieris or the ,venetian masters1 but these did not in the application invariably work up to a certain standard of excellence1 whereas ,stradivari always did4 ,there was a consummate beauty of result in this branch of the liutaro's art known at the time to many1 beyond which it seemed not possible to go4 ,it was1 therefore1 more in the construction and workmanship then1 that the sign manual was perceptible4 ,with this view ,stradivari seems to have been careful to let the evidence of no hand but his own be seen in parts that were sure to be closely scrutinised as evidence4 ,standing first perhaps in importance would be the cutting of the sound holes1 the design and careful drawing of these being completed1 and cut in metal--it is said thin copper was used by him--they may have been mostly traced down by himself on the pine of the upper table prepared and in readiness to receive it1 although this part without much danger could have been done by an intelligent and experienced assistant4 ,the cutting and finishing with the thin keen edged knife1 however1 must be his1 the slightest shaving over the traced line or not quite up to it would be sufficient to impart a totally different character to the whole4 ,there is no part of the violin in which the sum total of the native characteristics and ability are shown to such exactitude as the cutting of these all important and expressive openings4 ,in those of ,stradivari is to be seen the same firmness of purpose and strict curbing of the fancy from proceeding too far1 or allowing stability to be over balanced by love of gracefulness1 as seen in the designs of his eminent master4 ,to allow no weak part to be perceptible2 strength of line with sufficient grace1 admirable proportion and balance1 and yet withal sufficient expression of mobility and freedom from heaviness were each1 seemingly in turn1 given the best attention by the great genius of ,cremona4 ,it is not using extravagant language when they are termed the eyes of the violin1 for it is to these that experienced connoisseurs turn their attention at once when inspecting a violin of character newly placed before them4 ,cut by an ,italian1 cut by a ,frenchman1 by a ,german1 by a nobody in particular or who understood nothing about it1 are the thoughts arising in the mind4 ,each country has its peculiar and native rendering of every sound hole that was first designed in ,italy4 ,this tendency to impart their own national characteristics by each native workman1 runs parallel with that in pictorial art in the transferring to various materials the impressions received after study of the original or animated reality4 ,to many the sound holes of an ,italian gem of the highest class are but sound holes that are more neatly done or prettier than usual4 ,to others they will be the expression in that simple form of an exquisitely acute perception of what will excite pleasurable emotions with regard to delicately balanced proportions1 graceful flow of line1 and freedom from all appearance of effort4 ,that there is much in little concerning this1 is proved by the non-success of all foreign copyists to give a reproduction of the ,italian native touch to these details4 ,that this is not an overdrawn description1 may be seen on a close comparison between an original ,stradivari of almost any period and the most closely traced1 laboriously studied and keenly cut sound holes of any of the modern imitators4 ,all have failed signally over these two apparently simple openings on the surface of the upper table4 ,notwithstanding this1 it may be said there are scarcely two violins alike in respect of expression of these adornments of the structure1 each instrument is made to convey its own impression1 or display its particular kind of beauty4 ,there is a difference1 scarcely to be measured mathematically1 that in one will be suggestive of masculine strength1 while in another it will be exquisite feminine grace4 ,in none of the imitations of the master are there seen these qualities expressed in the same degree and kind4 ,it has often been said1 and there is more than a substratum of truth in the remark1 that1 to copy a ,stradivari successfully--of course1 in the fullest sense of the word--the copyist must be a ,stradivari himself4 ,there might1 appropriately1 be an addition put to this1 namely1 that a man who could work up to the dizzy height of his ambition in this way1 would not copy1 but make originals4 ,another detail of the workmanship always attended to by the master himself1 was that of the purfling4 ,much has been said of the wonderful accuracy of ,stradivari's purfling and that as a purfler he stands unrivalled4 ,this must not be taken in the widest sense1 as there have been1 and are living1 scores and scores of makers who have cut a rut round the border of a fiddle as sharply1 and inserted the three conventional lines of dark and light wood as deftly as it could be by the hand of any man1 be he named ,amati1 ,stradivari1 ,ruggieri1 ,tononi1 or ,montagnana4 ,there is a degree of evenness and keenness of cutting and clean insertion beyond which it is not possible to go4 ,but there the imitators come to a full stop4 ,without the inventive power which will make this curious1 simple1 yet wonderful little fillet1 aid in giving the desired expression to the whole work1 the imitator is not--as people say nowadays--in the race4 ,the finishing of the border1 the corners and the delicate and often very elaborate system of curves around the sound holes1 the hollowing of the wings of these latter1 and the final surfacing of both back and front1 ,i have no doubt had ,stradivari's individual attention4 ,all the delicate and small work of the scroll1 perfecting that elegant flow of line and finish of each turn of the volute1 as if everything depended on the exactness of its individuality1 obliterating all marks of the tooling and giving his own impress to the gouging of the shell and even the completion of the peg-box2 then last and not least1 the preparation and application of that pellucid envelope that was to serve two purposes1 utility and enrichment of effect4 ,with regard to this1 much has been written and said about its incomparable quality1 its elasticity1 colour and transparency1 with other excellences needless to dilate upon4 ,summarily taken as a whole1 the simple fact is1 that in no respect is his varnish different1 or better than that of his predecessors1 the ,amatis and masters of the ,brescian school2 it had been done before and his most famous contemporaries were doing it still1 and he was in this position for the simple reason that no better could be done4 ,if it was not possible for ,stradivari to improve upon the varnish of the ,amatis who had preceded him and the masters in the art belonging to the ,brescian school1--among whom may be mentioned ,giovanni ,maggini1 ,antonio ,mariani1 and the first one to use it on violins1 ,gasparo da ,salo--it was strictly in accordance with his invariable rule of putting forth his best that he so dexterously manipulated it1 probably both as to its composition and final application1 that faultiness in some respects to be seen in specimens of other masters is not noticeable in his4 ,thus1 as is well known1 the ,brescians1 perhaps without exception1 were often very careless regarding the thickness of the film1 it being occasionally of irreproachable evenness1 at other times having almost the appearance of being laid on with a large brush in great haste4 ,on some connoisseurs this haphazard fulness of treatment1 this oft times generously effusive manner1 carried out with a careless consciousness of power1 acts as a charm1 inciting to intense admiration the like of which is roused by the rich1 juicy brush of ,rembrandt and the masters of the ,venetian school of painters4 ,but this is not the perfect realization of aim with regard to the envelopment of masterpieces by the old ,italian liutaros2 in the instances referred to1 and sufficiently numerous1 we wonder at the wealth of material and smile at its manipulation4 ,antonio ,stradivari would in no wise act thus at any time4 ,to him it was enough that he was possessor in full of the knowledge of materials1 and to deviate from the good paths pursued by the artistic ,amatis1 was not to be considered for a moment2 we therefore find that with him the best material was laid with the utmost skill and care4 ,it must be indeed rare that frizzling1 or contraction of the upper surface of the varnish1 is to be seen to any appreciable extent4 ,i do not recollect one instance1 while with the ,ruggieris1 most of the ,venetian school1 and a number of makers of lesser note1 it is quite common4 ,concerning the colour or variety of tints adopted by ,stradivari at most times1 it was most likely done to the requirements of his different patrons1 many having a desire for the rich orange1 some1 the light red or cherry tint1 while others were not content with any than the red or rich full bodied port wine tint4 ,the simple brown seems to have been less in demand1 as it is during the period under consideration1 rather exceptional4 ,while using the lustrous coverings for his works with consummate skill1 there is one qualification that must not be lost sight of4 ,beautiful1 refined and artistic in the strictest sense of the term1 ,stradivari never gave way to a desire to outbid the rest of the fraternity for congratulations in respect of gorgeousness1 he seems never to have fallen back upon his reserves in the direction of intensity of colour4 ,thus if a finely preserved specimen of his orange varnish is viewed side by side with one by ,joseph ,guarnerius1 ,i4,h4,s41 the extra degree of fieriness will be on the side of the latter1 but it by no means places ,stradivari on a lower level1 as the combined qualities of his work1 taken as a sum total1 is not reached by any liutaro of old ,italy4 ,it may be fairly taken as certain that if there was any master having at command all the necessaries for turning out musical instruments of matchless superiority1 both as to acoustical and artistic qualities1 it was ,stradivari1 and many connoisseurs would expect to find nothing but maple used of the richest curl1 and that would throw up with delightful effect the lustrous varnish so carefully laid upon it2 but1 strangely enough1 his most magnificently curled backs and sides are mixed with a few that are comparatively plain4 ,a variety of reasons might be assigned for this1 but that which bears the greatest probability about it is--that the instruments being chiefly made to order1 the maple of richest curl was not always to be had1 at least in time for the construction as required4 ,in other respects these plainer mapled instruments are fully equal to anything that came from his hands4 ,of the proper tone-giving pine he seems never to have been short2 there it is1 always of beautiful growth1 having1 like his own handiwork1 both delicacy and strength and of a general appearance such as would attract the eye of the veriest tyro in the liutaro's art4 ,how many imitators of the great manipulator have looked at this growth of pine and wondered where the old master obtained it6 and how he knew that it possessed the proper qualifications for his purpose4 ,swiss pine of course6 obtained from the lower parts of the forests of the ,alps1 is an immediate loud response1 and cut only from the south or sunniest side of the particular tree when found of course4 ,this idea was started in the early part of this century in books on the violin1 professing to tell the reader all about it or nearly so1 and he had only to go1 get the stuff1 and make ,stradivari violins1 in fact with the addition of the amount of scientific knowledge of the subject peculiar to modern imitators1 he would make old ,strad take a back seat4 ,this has been often tried by would-be ,strads1 ,guarneris1 or ,bergonzis1 and full of specious promises that if you will but purchase their wares you be rewarded for your pains by being possessor of everything good that they could endow the instrument with4 ,keep it1 persevere1 and the precious qualities will come2 some were daring enough to assert that they were already there1 if even your mental vision was so obtuse as not to perceive it1 absurd prejudice was the cause of this they said1 oblivious to the fact that the best musicians of ,stradivari's time used the violins fresh from the atelier of the master perfectly new1 expressing their unbounded admiration for their beautiful acoustic properties or pleasurable sounds4 ,is the like said of new violins at the present time8 ,these imitators1 some of them might be with perfect truth termed forgers1 are legion1 as in the case of everything that is of a high standard of excellence and which makes acquisition desirable4 ,these artificers had their day1 so far as forcing their imitations upon the credulous and unwary could be accomplished1 and others have replaced them1 yet there aloft still sits the grand master upon his high eminence1 unapproached1 with the whole world clamouring and struggling for the possession of what in the earnestness of his purpose was only his everyday work4 ,before leaving the imitators and forgers1 for they are distinct one from the other1 the first simply taken being honest1 the other not1 it may be as well to refer as briefly as possible to the general aspect as afforded by such specimens of ,stradivari's art that remain with us after fairly constant usage during the generations that have passed since his decease4 ,most connoisseurs and dealers are well acquainted with the appearance of a ,strad of fine model1 work and varnish that has done its duty in former times1 and is yet able and willing to answer all requirements of the present day and many to come4 ,if the instrument has not been hidden and forgotten in the cabinet of some deceased collector1 but has been handed down from one player to another1 kept in healthy exercise1 not meddled with1 muddled1 and maddened by the numerous would-be improvers1 bridge regulators1 sound post agitators and varnish vivifiers1 then--it will probably present an appearance of what is called handsome wear1 or as a writer has termed it1 adorned1 not injured1 by a century's fair wear4 ,striking the eye first will be the varnish that has been chipped off from the back chiefly1 often from a large space of a rough triangular form2 the front being usually more smoothly denuded of its lustrous envelope4 ,this chipping away of the varnish from the maple has been effected a long time ago1 and is the result of a custom in olden times of hanging the instrument after use on a peg attached to the wall1 or may be the interior of a cabinet4 ,fiddle-cases seem to have been used almost solely for travelling purposes4 ,they are now in general use as the best means of preservation against damage and a good resting place at all times4 ,during the last century there were scores and scores of makers in ,italy who were ready1 willing to1 and did turn out excellent instruments with fine1 artistical and acoustical properties1 but the race has died out and their remaining works are of daily increasing value1 and consequently much under lock and key1 out of harm's way as much as possible4 ,this old habit of hanging up violins not wanted for the moment was1 as a matter of course1 effected with a slight bang or two each time1 and a corresponding cost1 small or large1 according to the blow to the top layer of varnish most highly charged with colour4 ,each instrument used in this way will declare to the sufficiently acute observer1 its course of handling and even the peculiarities to some extent of the owner2 for it will be seen that the chippings give indication of different degrees of energy or hurry1 when the violin has come in contact with the more or less hard surface of the wall4 ,it must be borne in mind that the times referred to were prior to the introduction of wall-papers2 the good1 old-fashioned panelling of oak or hard wood1 often of bold design1 shattered or nicked away much of the old1 delicate and precious varnish used for enveloping the works of the ,italian masters4 ,all these constantly recurring slight collisions by degrees brought about the results that have been defined by some as picturesque wear or accidental adornment1 if such a thing be reasonable4 ,besides this there was going on the wear caused by handling by one or another of players1 rough or mild1 contact with the garments1 especially the sleeves1 all being larger and looser than are fashionable at the present time4 ,the action of these would be more gentle if more continuous4 ,it is noticeable at the lower end of the back of the violin1 which is often worn away much below the penetration of the varnish1 the corners being rounded down and if rather protuberant1 even losing their original character4 ,the upper table of pine being incapable of equal resistance to the destroying influence1 wears away sooner1 also the border at the lower end and at both sides of the tail-piece--for the old performers placed their chins on the contrary side to what is thought best now--and the right upper shoulder where the palm of the hand and part of the wrist is apt to work1 too often1 against the edge4 ,we thus see when a handsome1 fairly worn specimen of ,stradivari's work comes under our notice1 the different pieces of tell-tale evidence1 varying of course in degree with each instrument4 ,now all this must have been going on during the time the master's works were being sent out to parts of ,italy and to other countries4 ,it had been progressing and was showing the onward march of ,father ,time in the instruments left by the ,brescian makers a century before4 ,as before observed1 the varnish of ,stradivari has1 often as not1 been worn1 chipped or cracked off in1 as some fanciers still call it1 a picturesque manner or adornment1 although from the highest prices being given for those specimens that have the least of it1 the taste seems to be growing healthily in favour of perfection of preservation as far as is possible4 ,it would be out of reason to suppose that full consideration of the subject was omitted by a genius with such far reaching mental vision as ,stradivari4 ,that he gave all the necessary study and forethought to the effects of ordinary wear and such as was occasionally going on within his knowledge1 there is evidence enough4 ,he saw how the delicate work of his master1 ,nicolas ,amati1 was rapidly disappearing under sometimes rough and too often ruffianly usage4 ,it was not in his power to prevent or interfere with this by any peculiarity of construction or quality of the varnish used by him4 ,but this he doubtless knew--that the generally substantial work and total absence of any weak point of detail in design and execution was all that an artist could do4 ,this strength shown over all of ,stradivari's designs1 even from the commencement1 shows that in his grasp of the highest scale of requirement he was also anticipatory and in this wise1 that he followed up the self evident principle in art1 that the best combination of forms1 proportions and masses will answer best for their permanence4 ,the numismatist knows full well how1 on the coins used in various countries1 the masters of basso-relievo had concentrated their skill on the subject4 ,the balance of projection and depression for good and proper effect under different situations of light and shade1 or even independently of them on occasion--is of paramount importance in all branches of art in their widest range4 ,the omission of proper thoughtful attention in this direction is one of the obstacles to success among copyists in any direction of art4 ,in architecture the imitator or restorer of some early ,english mouldings has often made ignominious failures from the non-application of knowledge of this kind3 just a trifling variation from the original while in progress being deemed of little consequence1 but when finished and left for exhibition under the truth testing rays of the sun1 the qualities that should have been there are1 as the saying is1 conspicuous by their absence4 ,in full view of the above and with an intelligence unsurpassable1 ,antonio ,stradivari so arranged his forms and masses in construction that under fair usage and wearing down of the projecting parts1 the original beauty of the whole should be retained as long as possible4 ,a fine ,stradivari much worn still retains its air of distinction1 and very much of its material must have disappeared under bad treatment to make it beyond recognition almost at a glance4 ,there can be very little question of there being more than mere admiration for the appearance4 ,simply viewed1 there is the spice of romance in connection with it1 the history is written in language more or less intelligible of the knocks and bruises inflicted1 unwillingly in most instances1 but not invariably so4 ,and here attention may perhaps be appropriately drawn in these pages to what has been asserted by a few1 very few1 dealers and others1 whose general intelligence should have been a guarantee against the dissemination of utter nonsense and which has even been in print6 that--just think of this--,antonio ,stradivari1 the acknowledged master liutaro of ,cremona in his own day1 and of whose growing fame no one can foretell the limits--actually imitated wear and tear of varnish on his violins4 ,i have not the print at hand1 and so cannot give the exact words in which this scum from the boilings of a distorted imagination was conveyed2 nor point to the first unfortunate who let it flow abroad4 ,in all probability it came from the same old source1 a desire to lift up to a high level worthless imitations of the master1 confuse the public mind so as to make it more and more difficult to tell t'other from which4 ,a fine specimen1 and well known1 of ,stradivari's art was once lying on a table before me4 ,an amateur of considerable attainments and honesty of purpose then present was dilating upon its many beauties and fine preservation2 he1 ,i soon found1 had by some means become infected with the absurd notion of the varnish having been artistically pecked away by the original maker6 ,just fancy this--,raphael slitting a hole in his chef-d'oeuvre to make it look old--,michael ,angelo chipping some bits from the ceiling of the ,sistine just before the scaffolding was removed1 or ,phidias snapping off a limb and browning the raw surface to please future connoisseurs4 ,they might all have done this with an equal deficiency of reason and consistency if we allow for one moment any possibility of the genius of such a stamp as that of ,antonio ,stradivari descending to such depravity4 ,those who have lent themselves to this incongruous notion1 hastily generalising from insufficient particulars1 have strangely overlooked the fact that the same kind of chipping is seen on the violins of other masters1 ,joseph ,guarnerius1 ,carlo ,bergonzi1 and others of the ,cremonese and ,venetian ,school1 besides--going far back--the older ones of ,brescia and ,pesaro1 any number in fact over all ,italy4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,some ,,modifications ,,in ,,stradivari',s ,,works--,,variation ,,in ,,finish ,,of ,,details--,,the ,,interior ,,of ,,his ,,violins--,,the ,,blocks ,,and ,,linings--,,thicknesses ,,of ,,the ,,tables--,,heads ,,or ,,scrolls ,,of ,,his ,,different ,,periods4 ,we will now resume our consideration of the handiwork of the ,cremonese master as regards other details4 ,we left him steadily working through his so-called ,grand epoch or1 more strictly speaking1 his period of finely settled designs in outline and modelling4 ,he had arrived at the goal of his ambition and produced works of excellence which--taking them as a whole--it seemed impossible to improve upon4 ,he was henceforth content to put into them such slight modifications as would prevent too great similarity4 ,thus we find some were flatter in the arching1 others a little shorter1 being a trifle under the usual fourteen inches1 others again were over it1 but there was the same general contour1 his now well-known accentuated design1 complete as possible in all its details4 ,from the great number of finished works that were turned out one after another1 it is quite reasonable to assume that there would be occasionally some little evidence of extra pressure of business and consequently less time spent over minor details4 ,that this actually occurred at times there is no doubt and can be perceived clearly when looked for4 ,one instance occurs to me in which the purfling had been cut off a trifle short at the corners and did not quite fill up and make a good mitreing1 otherwise all along the border the easy1 swift1 yet powerful stroke was maintained up to his usual standard of accuracy4 ,in other instances the point or bee-sting1 as it is sometimes called1 is not so sharply defined perhaps in two corners1 while the others were the perfection of minute finish4 ,it seems fairly certain that the great ,cremonese was not at the time thinking of the almost microscopical scrutiny of critics certain to occur one hundred and eighty or so years in the future4 ,these little differences in accuracy of unimportant detail or accidents of work may be taken as evidence that ,stradivari was labouring day by day to meet the requirements of patrons different in disposition and perhaps patience4 ,when at the same period he has been allowed to put his full time and attention to his work1 then we find the four corners of equal unsurpassable finish1 and other minute details over the whole structure so intently studied that nothing could possibly go beyond4 ,these should really and appropriately be termed his grand pattern4 ,there is present in those instances the combined excellences in the highest degree of mechanical precision1 beautiful proportion and drawing1 such as no master designer of the ,renaissance could surpass1 the choicest materials1 including splendid varnish1 the whole united and capped with that essential1 a beautiful tone4 ,a few words about the interior of ,stradivari's instruments2 one kind of work is perceptible in all of them4 ,there is not1 as we may see in the works of other masters1 that off-handed1 or even slovenly want of finish inside while the whole attention of the maker has been concentrated on the exterior4 ,with ,stradivari all is well done1 the blocks1 end and corner ones are carefully faced and have little1 if any can be seen1 of the tool marks left upon them4 ,the linings let into the corners are in every instance done with minute exactness4 ,the wood of these and the blocks is a kind of ,italian poplar1 sometimes called willow and by the ,french sallow2 it is light and has no threads like pine to cause difficulty in the manipulation4 ,too much importance has been attached by critics to the presence of this wood in ,stradivari's violins4 ,that it had nothing whatever to do with the excellence of tone quality is clear from the fact of makers of inferior skill and less renown for tone having used it in the same parts4 ,the most likely reason is--as most repairers have concluded--the absence of thread1 its lightness1 pliability and evenness of texture1 being thereby adapted for the necessary long strips for fitting round the curves4 ,some makers used it invariably1 while others did so occasionally1 perhaps not always having a stock on hand4 ,when for some reasons1 such as being worm eaten or badly fractured1 it has been found compulsory to remove them and substitute others in their place and of other wood1 there has been no perceptible deterioration in the tone either as regards quality or quantity4 ,not only so1 but there is the fact that many of the ,italian masters and their numerous pupils1 to say nothing of makers of a lower order1 as often as not sent forth their violins without linings1 some even without corner blocks4 ,in most of these instances1 however1 the ribs were left very stout in substance in order to retain a sufficient holding surface for the glue4 ,the subtle curvings of the ribs of an ,amati1 and more so of a ,stradivari1 almost precluded the use of a very thick material1 especially so when the curl or figure was bold and elaborate4 ,in consonance with this1 we find with ,stradivari that the thin plate or veneer from which the ribs have been cut is not thick1 but of accurate and equal measurement along its course4 ,the linings being equally true and fitting in the closest manner to the ribs1 are in their original state somewhat stouter1 the middle or waist ones parting slightly on approaching the corner blocks each way and thus giving a gradually increasing area of attachment 7diag4 h74 ,all of the four blocks are well trimmed off and their surfaces levelled1 being quite regular in their form and size and trimmed to proper measurement4 ,the end blocks serving to sustain the greatest amount of strain longitudinally1 are also found well finished1 in contrast with so many seen in instruments by makers of eminence that are simply hacked roughly into size and shape4 ,they were carefully estimated in their proportion for strength sufficient to resist the strain caused by the size1 length1 and pull of the strings in use at the time of ,stradivari1 and with something to spare1 so that even now1 under the enormous strain of the modern high pitch1 when in perfect and original condition they are equal to their task4 ,in a number of instances1 when much repairing1 good or bad has been done1 the end1 and often the corner blocks1 have been replaced by modern ones4 ,there is1 of course1 under these circumstances less of ,stradivari present1 but it has often been a case of painful necessity or question of expense as to the choice between two steps for restoration to health and particularly for strength4 ,the form viewed vertically adopted by ,stradivari was that of a parallelogram with two rounded corners 7diag4 i474 ,the upper block was left a little thicker1 the junction or root of the neck necessitating this4 ,the renewal of one or both of these has also been caused incidentally by the deep insertion of the modern and longer neck1 thus lessening much of the grip or purchase of the block on both upper and lower table4 ,the same may be said of the nut over which the tail string passes1 this being--owing also to the rise of the modern tone pitch and increase of tension--much larger than in ,stradivari's day1 and he may in a sense be said to have had to buckle to modern requirements4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram h4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram i4 ,while the seat as it were of our criticism is at the present moment in the interior portion of the admirable structures bequeathed to us by the great ,cremonese1 we may consider further the surface work of this part4 ,everyone knows that the interior of a violin is left unvarnished by violin makers4 ,stradivari was in no way anxious to become an exception to this rule4 ,the reasons for its adoption were1 and are1 still obviously wise1 although not necessitous4 ,he knew that his work1 in common with that of other craftsman1 would be liable to fracture1 and that in the process of restoration the surfaces and junction of parts must be laid bare1 and varnish where not obviously necessary would be an obstruction4 ,for the satisfaction of the anxious inquirer it may be stated that varnishing the interior has1 to my knowledge1 been tried by an excellent modern workman as an experiment and did not bring any adequate reward by perceptible improvement in tone quality4 ,in another instance1 to prevent the encroachment of the collector's arch-enemy1 the worm1 the innovation seemed to have proved ineffectual4 ,stradivari may have tried this and perhaps1 for once at least1 met with failure4 ,the bar--there is but one--ofttimes erroneously called sound-bar or bass-bar--is1 in common with all the violins of the old ,italian school1 quite inadequate for modern requirement1 that of supporting the upper table on the fourth string side against the pressure caused by the tension of the third and fourth1 the heaviest strings4 ,that the length1 thickness and disposition of the bar has much to do with the good going order of every violin there is no disputing4 ,stradivari did not live long enough to make acquaintance with the numberless proposals for acquiring his quality by making this part longer1 shorter1 thicker1 or thinner1 besides various modes of attachment4 ,that some of them would have raised a smile on the features of the veteran ,cremonese1 we may be quite sure4 ,that he was quite content with the size of the bar in general use during his life-time there can be no doubt1 as there is no record or evidence of any experiments having been made by him1 fair argument that none were considered necessary2 the instruments finished1 the ordinary bar of the period was inserted and there was an end4 ,the whole of the interior indicates an absence of any question of improvement on what had been done before by his master ,nicolas ,amati and his predecessors1 apart from good finish4 ,a few words as to the thickness of the upper and lower tables4 ,of this much has been written1 an extremely small portion being from actual observation1 and most of the other parts being reiterated assertions started many years back by people whose supposed knowledge rested solely upon simple conviction1 without an iota of bona fide evidence in support4 ,to them the fact1 well known to everyone engaged in the manufacture of sound-boards of musical instruments1 that a very thick sound-board produces different results to that of a very thin one1 was sufficient1 therefore the secret of ,stradivari with regard to his tone1 was the adjustment of the thicknesses1 whatever that may mean4 ,the assertion seeming perhaps rather bare1 and wanting some sort of support1 was bolstered up with another no less instructive1 that if you pinged1 or tapped the separated upper and lower tables of a ,stradivari so that they each gave out a note there would be found the difference of a tone between them6 ,here was something for the babes and sucklings of the craft of violin making to swallow4 ,it was stated also which table would give the higher tone4 ,unfortunately for some would-be ,stradivaris1 the particulars of the tonal difference were copied loosely and reversed and so came confusion worse confounded4 ,the illustrations of sound holes1 or f f commonly so called1 will1 it is hoped1 be interesting as showing the modification or development from those of ,nicolas ,amati to the latter part of the period of ,stradivari's career1 called the grand4 ,they are all reproduced from fine specimens of the great ,cremonese masters1 and are the exact size of the originals4 ,the first 7a7 shows the f of a violin of the ,nicolas ,amati's late period1 #affc1 unaffected--at least in this detail--by the individuality of his hereafter eminent pupil4 7b7 ,while still going under the name of ,nicolas ,amati1 #afgh1 the f shows the actual interference of ,stradivari1 it is more vertical1 but the peculiarities of the upper and lower wings are retained4 7c7 #afhd4 ,the design is quite changed1 there is some return to the flow or inclination of ,amati1 but the whole thing is more extended1 is slender1 and the upper and lower wings are widened1 this modification was retained for a permanency4 7d7 #afij4 ,there is some return to the vertical design1 but the width of the wings is retained1 while the lower part of the design is of larger proportions4 7e7 #agjj4 ,the design is more equalised and is more substantial4 7f7 #agae4 ,the same proportions are kept with an increase of gracefulness4 ,it will be perceived the lower wing approaches at its lowest part the opposing curve more closely1 the upper one likewise2 in some specimens of this period it is still closer4 7g7 #agbe4 ,while the upper part is very like the preceding1 the lower part is more contracted and curled up4 ,there is a somewhat heavier expression about the upper part in consequence4 ,illustration3 a b c ,,see ,,page #dh4 ,illustration3 d e f g ,,see ,,page #dh4 ,history does not relate which of those parties who may have practically followed up the experiments were successful in arriving at the goal of their ambition2 they may even still be continuing the struggle for supremacy with their master4 ,we have not to look far for ascertaining whether these assertions have borne fruit4 ,there has been time enough for works built upon these so-called discoveries of fixed principles to have settled down1 and the popular verdict now is--that those which guided ,antonio ,stradivari have yet to be discovered4 ,the numbers of announcements of fresh discoveries--repeated ad nauseam--are in themselves some evidence that what has gone before was founded on deceptive evidence1 and therefore to begin anew was the only course left4 ,the illustrations of scrolls by ,nicolas ,amati and ,antonio ,stradivari1 being from good specimens by the masters1 will be interesting as showing the progression of the modification in detail under the hands of the latter4 ,in fig4 a1 ,nicolas ,amati1 c4 #afgj1 it will be seen that the first or smallest turn after leaving the axis or eye is kept for some distance rather close4 ,every effort seems to have been made for keeping the turns or winding from being too circular1 there being a general dip downward and forward4 ,the gouging is deep from the commencement4 ,the aim of the artist in the whole design appears to have been towards perfection of gracefulness4 ,fig4 b4 ,antonio ,stradivari1 #afhc1 the openness and bold swing of the first turn at once on leaving the eye is very striking1 it also commences higher up1 there is almost an absence of flow or downward tendency4 ,the throat underneath the volute is very massive1 although all the edges are finished off with the utmost delicacy and sharp tooling4 ,all the details of scroll carving by ,stradivari at this period are marvels of mechanical dexterity of handling4 ,the different depths of the gouging are carefully calculated for solidity of effect1 each portion being deep in proportion to its width1 the smaller turns thus having less depth than the larger4 ,with the ,amatis there seemed to be a striving after attainment of the greatest depth possible in the smaller gougings1 those nearest the axis reaching frequently to almost the same depth of level as the outer or broadest one4 ,in no part of his work does ,stradivari show more clearly the result of careful calculation after closely studying the work of his master and others that had gone before4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 a4 ,,see ,,page #di4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 b4 ,,see ,,page #di4 ,fig4 c4 ,the period #agae shows the result of further calculation for general effect and a consequent modification in respect of minor details2 there is present1 as always1 the sufficiently bold swing of the first turn from the axis4 ,in choice specimens the point of commencement is as sharply and clearly defined as the mitreing of the purfling at the four corners of the body of the violin and which it seems impossible to excel4 ,the throat1 with the whole of the peg-box1 is reduced slightly but consistently with strength and beauty of appearance4 ,the public verdict has remained unshaken with regard to these scrolls being in respect of the combination of excellencies the best carvings of the great artist4 ,they are in the most trifling degree smaller than those carved before the period of #agjj4 ,among those cut about the #agaj-ae period1 or even later1 are a few that seem to have been intentionally both smaller and more upright4 ,although having all the essential excellencies of detail they can scarcely be considered as coming up to the standard of the others in respect of refined grandeur4 ,this type may be said to be mixed up and continued with more or less persistency to the last1 and of this ,fig4 d gives a good representation4 ,there is frequently a more emphatic or energetic gouging at the commencement of the turns1 a more developed ear as it is often termed4 ,it is gouged with quite as much care as the rest4 ,speculation has been rife as to the possible influence or even personal help of ,joseph ,guarneri at this point1 but there is no solid foundation for surmising the presence of one or the other4 ,if the gouging of this part may be said to bear any sort of resemblance to the emphatic or impetuous touch of ,joseph1 it is confined strictly to this portion2 other essentials are wanting that would be absolutely necessary for crediting artists of distinctly opposite tendencies with--it might be almost rightly termed--tampering with each other's designs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 c4 ,,see ,,page #ej4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 d4 ,,see ,,page #ej4 ,but if the name of ,carlo ,bergonzi is brought into the field of speculation--granting for a moment that ,stradivari was not very likely to step aside occasionally from his accustomed groove--then we have much more of a possibility or even probability in the matter4 ,it has always been asserted1 and ,i believe never contradicted1 that ,carlo ,bergonzi was for a time actually working in the atelier of ,stradivari--whether as pupil or only assistant matters not--but we have in the fact of his presence a distinct factor in any of the supposed anomalies of the later periods of the grand ,cremonese master4 ,to this1 however1 we may put some consideration further on4 ,there is further in these later scrolls a modification1 alteration1 or supposed attempt at improvement in the edging of the turns1 these being left a trifle stouter than at the commencement of ,stradivari's career4 ,this is continued along over the top and down the back of the scroll to the shell1 which seems to be a little less elongated than the early specimens4 ,it may be more apparent than real in most instances in consequence of the bolder edging4 ,the hollowing of the shell is seemingly less delicate1 but this may be taken as a natural result of the foregoing4 ,further on these details will come in again for review4 ,to continue our remarks on the question of thicknesses and their adjustment with each other4 ,this is a department of the luthier's art1 to which perhaps much more attention has been directed by theorisers than by practical workers4 ,the latter class have no doubt been influenced by the former to a considerable extent1 oftentimes having their views expressly carried out under their personal supervision4 ,by musical amateurs it is found to be a good theme for conversation when the excellencies of the works of various masters are dilated upon4 ,that the richness of quality in a ,joseph is the result of his having left his wood thick in certain parts and not so much in others1 and that this1 combined with the flat modelling1 was the secret1 and that it was written that some of the ,josephs were too thick in the back1 and therefore the freedom of the vibration was checked and the tone to some degree stifled and deficient in penetrative power4 ,among my early musical acquaintances1 ,i remember an amateur violinist who would wax eloquent on the power of his ,strad1 asserting that it was owing in a great measure to its having been left thick by the maker all round near the border4 ,this1 no doubt1 many other amateurs1 acquainted with what used to be in print on the subject1 will recognise as being in opposition to what had been accepted as being the rule generally observed by ,stradivari1 that the arching in its thickness gently decreased towards the border where it was about a third less than at the centre4 ,this gentle gradation was said to be the cause of the beautiful silky and sympathetic quality so prominently characteristic of his instruments4 ,the explanation of the thing in action1 as mechanicians would term it1 was thus--the greatest thickness being at the part all round by the feet of the bridge1 was able to sustain the vibration1 or the successive shocks caused by the bow1 which were transmitted through the wood of the upper table and were gradually lessened in intensity as the thickness decreased toward the border1 where they subsided1 or were lost4 ,i do not know what explanation was given1 if any1 of the system of thickness adopted much by some of the ,milanese school1 which was that of hewing away the wood until it was thinnest at the part all round by the feet of the bridge and thickest by the lower wings of the sound holes4 ,judging by the before mentioned assertions as to the association of power of energetic vibration with the thickest wood under the bridge1 these ,milanese makers were acting very wrongly1 but1 strange to say1 many instruments of very great power were made by them under these conditions4 ,many years ago ,i was conversing on the subject of thicknesses with an ,english maker of experience and who seemed to believe in certain thicknesses1 and having then as yet made no practical experiments myself in the matter1 ,i put the following to him4 ,there are many violins to be met with that through ill-usage and pressure on the bridge have depressions instead of the level wood at the part we should expect it to be1 and yet the tone is considered fine1 how is this8 ,the answer was remarkable1 and not unworthy of the class of makers to which he belonged--that although the wood had become thinner from pressure1 the original amount was all there1 it was only squeezed closer together4 ,the instruments were1 no doubt1 rightly gauged in the first instance4 ,now there1 he said1 pointing to a 'cello hanging up almost out of reach and looking in rather a woe-begone condition1 is a bass that never would go well because it was badly gauged when first made4 ,age and usage were to be of no avail in bringing this wretched piece of workmanship up to the standard of the average4 ,this last assertion might have been of considerable weight had the maker been a personal pupil of ,stradivari1 but the public verdict has been that there was a great gulf between the two1 and that the first had not been initiated into the secret of the others4 ,foreign as well as ,english makers have announced in the most impressive manner at their command that their instruments were identical in all respects1 including the system of thicknesses in the originals1 buy them1 use them1 and be convinced that in time they would be just as good as the real thing4 ,the foregoing is perhaps enough to indicate whether or not the secret of ,stradivari1 or indeed any of the other ,italian masters1 great or small1 had been discovered by caliper measurement4 ,it is strange that the impression has held sway so strongly that the genius of the great master lay in his manner of distribution of the thick and thin parts of the upper and lower table4 ,the first thought in this direction would be that if the theory was good1 its practical application with ordinary skill and care would be sure to bring about the desired result4 ,but more than this has been done in experimenting on originals and copies from time to time4 ,we have within a mile of ,charing ,cross no lack of workmen capable of gauging and copying with sufficient exactness the thicknesses of any ,stradivari brought to them1 if that were all1 or the principal means necessary for reproducing the famous qualities of the great ,cremonese4 ,it seems to be forgotten that hundreds of clever workmen have lived since his time1 in his own as well as other countries1 who have given the most assiduous application to the making of exact copies and with a like result--that of total failure4 ,for a moment let us turn our thoughts to the nature of the materials comprised in the sum total of the structure known as a violin4 ,we have for the upper table1 or front1 a thin slab of wood known as pine1 from a species of tree that grows all over the world4 ,the varieties are1 however1 innumerable and the purposes to which they are put1 equally so4 ,for the lower table1 or back1 a more dense and tough wood is used4 ,that the particular kind used in the construction of the famous instruments of the great masters1 and mostly that known as curled maple or hare wood1 was chiefly on account of its beauty1 is evident from the fact that all the best ,italian makers had recourse at times to other and less showy wood4 ,beech was occasionally used by ,carlo ,bergonzi4 ,other tough woods grown in ,italy1 even poplar1 have been used by some makers1 seemingly when the supply of better looking material ran short4 ,that there are extant some ,strads with backs of some plain wood other than maple is more than likely4 ,we have1 then1 for the upper table of the violin a wood of soft but elastic consistency1 the strength of which lies mainly in the threads running lengthwise1 and which1 when the wood is cut in the manner usual with all violin makers since its invention1 serve the purpose of small joists running from end to end of the upper table4 ,the soft material lying between these is very susceptible to damp1 especially when fresh cut4 ,thus1 if a piece of pine be cut ever so smooth with a sharp gouge or chisel1 a slightly wetted brush drawn along the surface will at once cause the softer parts to swell and so leave a ribbed or corduroy appearance when it is dry4 ,this will serve to show how far this wood is suitable for regulating by such very minute differences as would be necessary when the thicknesses theory is confided in and efforts made to reduce it to practice4 ,the exactness reasonably expected of such a master of quality as ,stradivari would be upset in an instant by the application of a little moisture1 and which either by accident or during the process of repairing would be fairly certain to occur some time or other to every violin that left the hands of its maker4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,stradivari',s ,,tone ,,and ,,system--,,those ,,of ,,his ,,pupils ,,and ,,assistants--,,qualities ,,of ,,tone ,,produced ,,in ,,different ,,localities4 ,we may now refer to actual observation or close examination of ,stradivari's work with reference to the question of system1 whether there is evidence of its presence and how followed by him4 ,that his violins should have been from time to time well measured by the very numerous army of identical imitators1 fair copyists1 and all sorts of connoisseurs and theorists during the present century will be at once admitted1 and the results may be summed up in a few words4 ,stradivari did not leave clearly defined any evidence of a system of gauging which he strictly followed1 at any rate in such a manner as to enable the least approach by such to be made by any followers in his steps with any measure of success4 ,in short1 he was guided by the exigencies of the moment as to the amount of wood left in his ordinary or choicer specimens4 ,it has been stated before that his quality of tone was one1 not several1 and for these his patrons flocked to him1 as his admirers have also more and more earnestly sought for him since the supply has ceased4 ,but it was not desirable that the greatest possible power should be given to instruments that were in many cases to simply charm a small family circle of friends in an apartment of modest dimensions4 ,he would1 therefore1 naturally enough vary the amount of wood left4 ,this would be quite in accordance with what is perfectly well known to all makers and repairers of experience--that with a violin if very thickly timbered1 the tone is less easy of emission1 or actually weak4 ,on the other hand1 if too thin the emission is comparatively easy1 but lacks intensity and is termed hollow4 ,under these circumstances we should expect to find a variation in the thicknesses of different violins of ,stradivari1 which is in accordance with fact4 ,some connoisseurs have been in their enthusiasm too hasty in their reference of general principles from a few particular instances and their researches--as time thereafter showed--did not bear the fruit so anxiously looked forward to4 ,an instance comes to mind of two well known dealers1 one ,british1 the other foreign1 meeting together one day and opening some half-a-dozen ,strads1 that appeared up to that moment to have had their interiors undisturbed1 or perhaps it might be said untampered with4 ,what a meeting6 and what a parting6 let us hope that each table1 upper or lower1 that had so long been working in harmony1 eventually became again properly mated and gave no cause for lawyers to put their fingers in the pie4 ,the results of the examination is related thus3--,in no two of the instruments were thicknesses alike2 some had thick places and thin places2 some were thicker on one side than the other2 all were thicker in the centre of the upper table and all had these as three to five for the back4 ,another is that of a well known continental repairer in his day1 relating how he had repaired a very large number of real ,strads and found the upper tables to be of the same thickness1 two and a half m's4 all over1 but that the backs varied in thickness4 ,some discrepancies here seemingly4 ,to add to this1 a correspondent says the ,strads he has measured have certainly not been thickest in the centre of the upper table4 ,my own observations as to thicknesses ,i am afraid will not afford much comfort to those who have been hopeful at any time that the calipers would drag forth the precious secret4 ,i recollect many years back seeing a very fresh ,strad1 and a hasty measurement possible at the time revealed too much wood1 that is judging according to our modern ideas of regulation4 ,one instance of a ,strad1 once my own property1 comes to my mind4 ,it had something wrong with the interior that necessitated opening4 ,the violin was of good reputation for its tone of fine quality1 quantity and ease of emission4 ,there was no help for it2 much against my inclination the separation of the upper table from the ribs would have to take place1 either by my own hands1 or those of some other person1 the rectification being impossible from the exterior as it sometimes may be4 ,with all necessary care1 guided by past experience1 the opening was safely accomplished1 and after a very interesting examination of the interior1 which to an ordinary observer would have seemed but peering into a dirty old wooden box1 having nothing perceptibly different from any other1 was in what would be called a fair state of preservation4 ,i took the calipers in hand1 expecting to learn something1 but found all the original thicknesses had been lost under the hands of numerous repairers4 ,the supposed system or rule followed by ,stradivari--that is1 according to what critics and writers have declared was his habit--was certainly not demonstrated in this instance3 in fact the eyesight alone was sufficient to perceive that whatever theory the master had believed in as necessary for the production of his inimitable quality1 or whatever rule as to gauging should be followed in order to obtain enough power and freedom of emission were1 in the present instance1 we will not say ignored1 but quite imperceptible2 and why8 because the fiddle at one time had been what we moderns--with our ideas of regulation and fitting--would term too thick in the wood4 ,the instrument had undergone much affliction from various physicians1 but1 judging from various little details of evidence1 been at almost all times highly prized4 ,here and there were the studs or buttons of various kinds of pine stuck by repairers of different nationalities and degrees of skill1 some placed with apparent good intention1 others without reason at all1 while several parts bore indications of studs having at one time rested there and been afterwards removed by succeeding repairers4 ,now all these men had a thought of doing their work properly1 and in finishing off their studs with gouge or glass-paper1 had whipped off around each spot some of the precious wood of ,stradivari1 with a general result of a series of hollows and gentle prominences not at all pleasing to the eye of the believer in the thickness theory1 but nevertheless instructive4 ,other instances in which the master's work--while still good and serviceable1 with much evidence of unskilful repair1 or want of proper attention at the time of accident1 have come under my notice1 enough1 long ago1 to have1 as the saying is1 knocked into a cocked hat1 all that has been put forth regarding the mathematical precision of the thicknesses over the different parts of a violin by ,antonio ,stradivari4 ,one or two further remarks may be interesting on this part of our subject4 ,the fact must not be lost sight of that the pupils of the now well established master of his art in ,cremona were working either at that place likewise1 or in the large cities of ,italy1 and had become famous1 or were soon to be so and themselves surrounded by learners of the art4 ,all these had been initiated in the secrets1 if any1 of their craft and in the particulars which distinguished them from others1 or we may say1 they were of the ,stradivari school1 showing in a more or less degree the same species of tone which the master had brought to maturity1 and which he retained with consistency and never swerved from to his latest day4 ,it is quite a reasonable supposition that most1 if not all1 of the personal pupils were taught by the master1 or had the way pointed out to them by which they might1 with the right ear for discrimination of tone quality and enough of industry1 impart to their works the identical qualities of those of their teacher4 ,but what are the facts left for our consideration in connection with caliper measurement8 the pupils admittedly of his teaching1 among whom we may mention ,lorenzo ,guadagnini1 his son ,joannes ,battista1 ,alexandri ,gagliano1 one or two of his sons and ,carlo ,bergonzi1 as the best known1 each adopted their own1 or shall we say1 left no more evidence for us of having a set rule for thicknesses than their master4 ,the nearest approach to the asserted system of ,stradivari1 that of a gentle declination of substance in the wood down to the edge1 was made by ,lorenzo ,guadagnini in his extra sized violins2 but then the tone1 wonderfully fine1 is not ,stradivari1 but ,guadagnini4 ,carlo ,bergonzi's system1 if we may for a moment call it1 was quite unlike ,stradivari1 and yet connoisseurs have frequently credited him with having got the same beautiful quality of tone4 ,from these few references it will be sufficiently plain that the grand secret of tone quality must not be sought for with the aid of calipers1 so we will dismiss this part of our subject and proceed to other considerations4 ,besides those who have pinned their faith to the thicknesses1 there are those who take up with the air mass theory4 ,i am afraid the arguments in favour of this last will not bear even so much knocking about as those just considered4 ,we have in the first place to take into account the fact of the larger modern bar taking up more room than the old obsolete one of1 not only ,stradivari1 but all the other masters of his time and before4 ,the upper and lower end blocks have been enlarged in many instances to obtain a better hold on the upper and lower table4 ,these alterations have been each of necessity1 not of ignorance or mere whim1 and moreover have proved efficacious for the end in view4 ,the restorers1 or regulators who have performed these operations must--according to the air mass theory--have been acting quite in the teeth of it and ,stradivari's regulation1 further there is not one fiddle in a hundred--perhaps not that--which has been in use for a generation but what shows a sinking one side or the other1 or1 when the modelling is full1 a depression in the middle of the upper table1 and very frequently a greater fulness at the back where the sound post touches and presses from the inside4 ,these alterations1 individually or collectively1 alter the air mass of the interior1 and the violin thus1 according to the theory1 contains within itself the elements of its own early dissolution1 so far as fine quality is concerned4 ,facts1 however1 go to prove the contrary1 and with the modern regulator's efforts to obtain the best amount of a good thing known to be present1 it is quite probable that ,stradivari himself never heard his instruments to such advantage as they may be now1 notwithstanding the unreasonably high pitch to which violinists are obliged to conform their tuning4 ,there was another theory promulgated many years back by certain people of some degree of eminence in their own walk in life4 ,a grand discovery was announced1 that the excellence of the violins of ,stradivari consisted in the tonal difference between the upper and lower tables peculiar no doubt to that master4 ,this sort of committee of scientific experimenter1 violin dealer and author1 did not--while centralising their efforts on the violins of one master--say whether the same relationship existed between the back and front of a ,nicola ,amati1 ,maggini or ,gasparo de ,salo1 they made something of a slip when they mentioned the violins of the great ,joseph ,guarnerius as showing the same tonal difference4 ,it would have been very interesting to have heard of results after further trials by the same experimenters upon upper or lower tables of violins by now not very much less celebrated makers1 who1 although of the same class or school1 were living--for those times--far away from the central luminary of the ,cremonese art4 ,what would have been said of ,montagnana of ,venice8 a star of the first magnitude1 curiously near in quality and quantity to the great centre to which he was willing to pay obeisance and throw out a reflected light2 of ,gobetti1 perhaps more ,straddy than any other ,italian1 ,gofrilleri1 ,seraphino1 two or three of the ,tononis1 besides other lights of lesser magnitude1 with exceedingly fine qualities1 but perhaps open to the charge of intermittency4 ,further1 several of the ,milanese school1--offshoots of the ,amati and ,stradivari1--of ,lorenzo ,guadagnini1 a master of his art in all its details1 if ever there was one1 his son ,joannes ,battista1 steadier in his working1 but more uncertain in his results--shifting from place to place1 may have had some connection with this--and the occasionally fine artificers of the same place1 ,landolfi1 the ,grancinos and ,testores and later on ,balestrieri of ,mantua and ,storioni of ,cremona4 ,these men1 always good1 and when circumstances were favourable1 great in their art1 often grand in their individuality and power1 were1 by these modern scientific interrogators placed aside or quietly ignored1 apparently either as unworthy of their recognition1 or of such inferior renown as not to come within the scope of their investigations4 ,a close and searching inquiry into the causes that enabled different masters of their art to bring about the desirable end of their labours1 that of imparting a distinct quality and individuality of tone1 might have enabled them to get at least a hint as to the means whereby ,stradivari gratified the tastes of his patrons at the time and connoisseurs in general of the present day4 ,as indicated before1 the ,venetian masters were--probably by the same means--able to put before their patrons that kind of tone most in agreement with the luxurious surroundings of the ,venetian nobility1 or offered and found acceptable to the musical public generally there4 ,a prolonged1 earnest examination of the peculiarities of tone attached to the violins of the makers of the chief seats of violin making1 has led to the inference that the difference in kind or degree was not from individual choice1 but chiefly owing to outside influence4 ,what is known as the old ,brescian type of tone was doubtless suitable to the tastes of musical circles1 among whom the then new style of musical instrument was introduced in ,brescia4 ,when settled down1 the ,amati family1 a group of thorough artists1 proved themselves alive to the requirements of the fresh district that was henceforth to be the scene of their labours for generations4 ,the ,brescian quality had either been found by them1 or was known beforehand1 to be too ponderous or insufficiently endowed with the more feminine quality desirable in the minds of the ,cremonese4 ,the ,amatis seem to have been in full possession of the means necessary for producing the kind of violin in demand and supplied it4 ,as time went on1 musical compositions changed in style1 advancing by degrees towards the culminating point of nearly a century later4 ,the simple1 oft-times wondrously sweet1 yet quaint effusions of the early composers for the violin1 were gradually giving more and stronger indication of what was possible and likely to follow soon and in its turn1 like all other things1 become antiquated and old-fashioned4 ,undoubtedly1 it was this progressive condition of the music of the period that induced ,stradivari1 early in his career1 if not at the time he was with ,nicolo ,amati1 to take up the study of tone calibre as a matter of essential importance1 in order not only to keep pace with the times1 but if possible1 anticipate further advances in musical development4 ,it was daily becoming more evident that the qualities of refinement and sympathy would not in themselves be sufficient in an instrument with such a future as the violin seemed to have4 ,melodic forms were being modified1 while harmony was becoming more varied and divided4 ,the art of appropriate phrasing was also being studied1 while practical musicians were bowing to the necessity of leaving old stereotyped forms for those having more emotional qualities4 ,in short1 the violin wanted in ,cremona was one of substantial power and suitable for more dramatic expression on the part of the performer4 ,to bring forth a violin of this desirable type1 ,stradivari directed his energies4 ,with what measure of success1 the whole musical world up to the present day have emphatically declared4 ,now1 we may ask1 was the difference of tone between the violins of ,stradivari and those of the other makers of the ,brescian1 ,cremonese1 ,venetian1 ,milanese1 or ,neapolitan school1 in consequence of the tonal difference between the upper and lower table1 as supposed to have been discovered by the modern ,parisian investigator8 was it resulting from the correct air mass inside8 the relative thickness of the tables1 or we may as well include the straight and fine grain theorists1 the amber varnish in the wood theorists1 the wood of great age theorists1 and the generations of use theorists1 and lastly those who mix them altogether4 ,if ,stradivari practically worked upon one1 some or all of these theories1 there is still more mystery concerning the close proximity at which his pupils or assistants arrived1 several of whom we might conclude were possessed of all necessary means of acquiring to the full their master's excellencies4 ,just for a moment or two we may turn aside and notice the kind of variation or the distinguishing difference between the tone in the general acceptation of the term--of ,antonio ,stradivari and other makers1 or1 as time has proved1 masters of their art1 if not on an equal standing with him4 ,there is frequently among musicians a disposition to set down as inferior any tone that may seem to differ in degree or kind with that of ,stradivari2 that is the ideal type1 it must be ,stradivari and no other2 some have even gone so far as to say1 there is only one quality1 that of ,stradivari1 and when other masters did not produce it1 they were unable to do so2 this is more than a hint at condemnation of the head of the ,cremona school as having been very lax in the proper and thoughtful training of his number of pupils2 this latter an almost necessary consequence of eminent rank1 taken apart from the usual assistance found to be obligatory from pressure of work4 ,if we glance over the ,italian schools taken one after another1 the facts1 if acknowledged1 will be seen to point in other directions4 ,taking for instance the ,milanese master1 ,lorenzo ,guadagnini1 who tells us himself that he learnt his art under ,antonio ,stradivari1 we find distinct traces of it in his tone1 the general calibre is the same and most of the fine1 distinguishing features noticed in the tone produced by his master2 the difference1 however1 is that which is peculiar to the master makers of ,milan1 that of a slightly less reedy emission of sound4 ,some have called it harder1 which is not a correct description4 ,chords are produced with it as easily and roundly as with any other1 the individual notes blend beautifully and give an impression of homogeneousness in no wise inferior to anything produced in ,italy4 ,there was no apparent difficulty in the way of ,milan acquiring and cultivating the variety of ,italian tone known as the ,cremonese had they been so disposed2 we are therefore led to infer that each place with its musical world held its own opinions as to the most satisfactory quality of tone for its purpose and considered it the best4 ,milan is situated in ,lombardy1 north-west of ,cremona1 and distant from it between forty and fifty miles2 not a very long way at any time1 but quite sufficient for each place to cultivate or indulge in any artistic or musical fancies or whims independently of the other4 ,we find maker after maker in ,milan keeping within certain limits as regards the quality of tone produced there2 ,i do not know of one whose instruments emitted other than the ,milanese quality4 ,we may1 ,i think1 safely assume that so far from loosely and superficially instructing his pupils1 ,stradivari's tuition was of a deeper1 far-reaching kind than has ever been suspected4 ,if the tone of ,lorenzo ,guadagnini is compared with that of the makers who were working in ,milan when he arrived1 it will not be difficult to perceive that the ,milanese type is still retained1 although much enlarged and matured1 in fact become freshly developed1 throwing out the additional qualities for the obtaining of which the great master of ,cremona had carefully trained his gifted pupil4 ,all this is not in the least interfered with by the fact of ,joannes ,battista ,guadagnini's tone differing in some respects--and more at times--with that of his father1 but rather helped by it2 both assert on their tickets that they were instructed by ,stradivari1 and both show the results of their training in that largeness and impressiveness which is so much beloved of violinists and which without doubt came from their great teacher4 ,josef1 the son of ,joannes ,battista ,guadagnini1 appears also to have either been instructed by ,stradivari or to have assisted under his personal supervision--which would amount to much the same thing4 ,we may perceive in the tone of this maker also the influence of the great master in the same directions as are manifested in the works of his father and grandfather1 they are all of the ,stradivarian school4 ,let us now turn in another direction4 ,alexandri ,gagliano of ,naples tells us that he too was a pupil of ,stradivari1 and looking at his work there is nothing about it inconsistent with his statement2 his typical design is formed upon that of ,stradivari1 and many of his details of workmanship are such as can only have been carried out as the result of either a lengthy study1 or from being under the immediate supervision of the master4 ,the quality of tone produced by the ,neapolitans is as distinct as possible from that of ,milan1 it is clear1 lively1 suggestive of a sunny clime1 and free in its emission1 but leaves an impression on the ear of a lack of sufficient profundity1 nearly the opposite in fact of the early ,brescian school4 ,here the best of the ,gaglianos--for it is not at all certain that there were not more than two of them assisting at different times in ,stradivari's atelier--brought the same kind of improvement to ,naples as the ,guadagninis did to ,milan1 the scale was better regulated so as to give greater breadth of effect1 notwithstanding the general quality--seemingly native to the place--being uninterfered with4 ,here then was the influence of ,stradivari having taught his pupils the means whereby the particular tone quality most appreciated in the locality could be brought forward in its most developed1 or mature condition4 ,carlo ,bergonzi we shall have to consider more fully further on1 and for the present only refer to him as a pupil or assistant much more in immediate connection with the atelier of ,stradivari than any maker known to us4 ,irregular workman as he was1 swayed about this way and that by matters unknown to us1 he kept steadfast to the ,stradivarian lines to the end4 ,the rest of his family were either his own pupils1 or they may have even been at times with his master1 as they all--so far as ,i am acquainted with them--are of the same school4 ,these particulars all point in one direction--that ,stradivari was not anxious and made no special efforts at introducing any new kind of tone--development of that already in existence was his aim1 and on this line he appears to have led his immediate or personal pupils4 ,there is great probability that some very clever workmen whose names are lost to us1 were with ,stradivari for a time1 long or short1 and were able to imbibe the valuable precepts enjoined similarly on the other disciples4 ,it is not at present known whether the sons of ,stradivari had pupils or assistants1 the rarity of their work seems to point to the contrary2 their father having been so successful from the commercial point of view1 apart from the higher aspect of his career1 there may have been--we might say--the usual disposition amongst sons of successful fathers to take life more easily and repose among the laurels won for them1 requiring only a little caretaking4 ,there is some possibility of ,thomas ,balestrieri1 of ,mantua1 having worked for a time under ,stradivari1 but not as a pupil2 there is much in his work suggestive of this theory4 ,his tone quality does not belong to the ,amati school1 in which tradition has it he was trained4 ,he may have gone as help to ,stradivari--for loose as was his general tendency1 he could work finely when the fit was on him4 ,whether he went or not1 there remains tone quality evidence of the strong influence of ,stradivari1 besides the throwing aside of the ,amati traditions concerning proportions1 curves and archings4 ,of the other places to which personal pupils of the master went1 we may take a passing glance at ,genoa1 a city not replete with makers of refinement1 or numerous1 but nevertheless with some sterling qualities4 ,among them and the most ,straddy is ,bernardus ,calcanius2 his earliest dates1 if we can rely upon them1 and they may prove at any moment to have been earlier than hitherto known1 almost preclude the possibility of his having worked under ,stradivari except as a youth4 ,the influence of the master is1 however1 decidedly paramount in his work and no other tendency being noticeable1 if not an immediate pupil1 he took all possible pains to acquire the excellencies that were to his knowledge peculiar to ,stradivari alone4 ,among the ,venetian makers there does not seem to be one that can--from his style and workmanship--be picked out as showing all necessary evidence of his having qualified under the great ,cremonese as a personal pupil4 ,nevertheless there is much indication1 and such as cannot be passed over1 of the influence of ,stradivari among the aristocracy of the business there4 ,this was not1 as in the instances of the other schools of violin making outside ,cremona1 in the first ten years of the century1 but after the different individuals of the group of eminent ,venetians must have been well known and of established reputation4 ,in this there is some apparent indication of one if not more of the party having taken a trip to ,cremona and brought back a few hints of no inconsiderable value1 perhaps received personally from the master4 ,on the other hand1 if this was not the case1 his works must have been brought into ,venice and their merits artistically as well as acoustically well thought over4 ,the outcome was a change1 the ,amati genius hitherto presiding uninterfered with1 seemingly immutable1 had to give way to that which was pronounced an improvement or a step higher in the progress of the liutaro's art4 ,as in ,cremona1 the ,amati characteristics were too deeply rooted in the affections of the ,venetians to be eradicated1 and we consequently find in the designs of a few of the prominent makers the strong influence of ,stradivari in conflict with that of ,nicolas ,amati1 and the two swaying in balance with the settled convictions of the followers of ,jacobus ,stainer4 ,having now taken a glance round at the chief centres of violin making that had during ,stradivari's lifetime been strongly influenced by him1 directly by means of his pupils or indirectly by the arrival there of his works1 we may note that his qualities artistically or acoustically considered1 while giving him a commanding position1 did not reach so far as to annihilate1 during competition1 those of the ,amatis1 especially where the latter had been of long standing and followed earnestly in detail1 they kept side by side as in ,cremona4 ,the influence of ,stradivari beyond the borders of ,italy had yet to receive its due acknowledgment from the crowds of imitators which have now become known or have pushed themselves in front of the public gaze4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,reputed ,,golden ,,period ,,of ,,stradivari ,,late ,,in ,,life--,,his ,,later ,,modifications ,,of ,,design--,,signs ,,of ,,old ,,age ,,appearing--,,the ,,help ,,he ,,received4 ,we can now return back to ,cremona1 where we left the master in what might almost be termed the heydey of success1 as he seems to have had full obeisance as the reigning chief among liutaros4 ,the amount of work put forward--estimating carefully by what remains to us after the lapse of some hundred and eighty years or more--must have been possibly larger than is suspected and now might appear incredible if it were catalogued in detail1 were it not for the extreme probability that minor or mere mechanical parts of the many instruments other than violins1 violas1 or violoncellos were effectively carried out under the supervision of ,antonio ,stradivari1 his sons and assistants1 of these probably what under the circumstances might even be termed a numerous staff4 ,the period #agjj to #agbe has been referred to by some writers as the golden period of ,stradivari1 not inaptly if we are to understand it in a pecuniary sense1 as his income at the time was no doubt of a very satisfactory nature1 but if taken from the standpoint of artistic elegance and finish in detail the master himself seems to have had some slight misgivings1 as there are well-known indications in his latter days of having used some of his early patterns1 as if a desire had arisen in his mind to return to his old love4 ,that some signs of advancing age should not be apparent in ,stradivari's work during the period of #agae to #agbe would scarcely be expected4 ,it is just at this time1 however1 that he gives the strongest evidence of being the extraordinary man that he was4 ,in #agae and thereabouts1 a time of all others1 some critics might put it1 when his most magnificent gems of art were sent out into the world1 he was a veteran seventy-one years1 a time of life that few people would look forward to as being appropriate for executing unrivalled masterpieces1 but rather as having for some time retired for final rest after a full complement of working days2 here1 however1 was a peerless artist actually in his prime6 and as busy1 possibly so1 as at any early times4 ,at #agbj to #agbe a close student of his work of hand may discern some signs of what was to follow1 it might be said naturally4 ,in the first place the purfling gradually assumes a heavier aspect1 it is a trifle bolder or thicker in substance1 although sent round the borders of the instrument with apparently the same masterly handling and iron nervousness of the preceding years4 ,the edging is also a degree stouter4 ,occasionally the corners are made to a more obtuse angle1 adding to the whole design a more stolid look1 as if mere elegance was about to be thrown aside and more simplicity and grandeur were being sought for4 ,this was not continued1 the master seemed afraid of going too far towards heaviness1 he therefore cautiously withdrew to his own old lines4 ,sometimes--possibly taking up and constructing upon some of his old and early moulds--the corners are brought out more prominently1 but with more substance than in his early days2 the result is delightful for the connoisseur's eye4 ,accompanying these minute modifications there will be noticed an increase slight and gradual in the expression of heaviness in the sound holes4 ,if possible there is more freedom from mere symmetrical proportion1 they are placed less accurately level1 one being a trifle higher than the other1 this by the bye was common with him at all times1 although usually with a subtlety that left them unnoticed by an ordinary observer4 ,this slight irregularity has been sometimes misinterpreted as one of the little secrets of the master whereby he obtained his excellent sonority2 discovered was the exclamation1 and a new rule laid down on ,stradivari's lines--never place your sound holes on the same level1 always one a trifle higher and you will get what the master was so famous for4 ,the result1 so far1 has been a disappointment which laid bare some evidence that these over zealous enthusiasts were not sufficiently acquainted with the canons of ,italian art4 ,there was another peculiarity creeping on with regard to these sound holes--that of an enlargement of the curve opposing the lower wing1 at first it gave a more staid aspect to the part1 there was less sprightliness and youth about it1 nevertheless it was fine at times1 even magnificent1 there being still the same determination of purpose1 that of combining maturity of elegance with strength4 ,afterwards1 the change--and if all the works of these later years could be seen1 saved from the destructive ravages of time and wear1 it would be pronounced scarcely perceptible in its progressive degrees--came creeping on1 old age gradually insinuating itself in the mechanical part of the design4 ,from #agbe to #agcg was a time forming a proportion of ,stradivari's career during which1 if he arouses less enthusiasm among his admirers for the work of hand1 he outbalances it by far in exciting our astonishment at the man himself4 ,in the year #agbe1 he was then eighty-one years of age1 and his work1 regarded from the standpoint of periods as given1 or arbitrarily laid down by critics of the first half of the present century1 was what is now known as just past the golden or grand period2 that is1 some signs of decadence in the finish of the instruments which he sent forth were for the first time becoming apparent4 ,it is generally believed that ,stradivari was still industriously engaged in constructing instruments of different kinds and sizes as before1 and that his time was occupied to the full in producing works in rapid succession1 as in an uninterrupted stream4 ,that the first part of this was probably quite true we can readily agree to1 also that the out-put was continuous4 ,both1 however1 will need a little qualification when the surrounding circumstances are carefully weighed4 ,allowing the master possession of unusual mental and physical powers1 with zeal unabated at the period included within the dates #agbe and #agce1 it would be too much for us to believe him capable of working with the certainty and celerity of former years2 with all his extraordinary abilities he would now be a less prolific worker4 ,this is in agreement with the number of works that have come down to us1 and as the time advanced it became less and less until a veritable specimen of his latest period is extremely rare4 ,it has before been referred to that the sons of ,stradivari worked with him for many years4 ,they must have1 from continual practice1 been able to fit their own workmanship on to the designs of their father to a nicety that could not be surpassed4 ,their own individual designs are very seldom seen1 consequent1 no doubt1 on so much of their time being devoted to helping their father1 and until his death they must have rarely made on their own account4 ,there were other assistants who lent a helping hand in different branches of the work1 among whom we will not omit mention of ,carlo ,bergonzi1 a great master himself1 but little inferior to ,stradivari1 and a good deal better than either of the sons4 ,the circumstances under which ,carlo ,bergonzi worked in the ,stradivari establishment are not known2 it is by no means certain that he received his early tuition in the place1 but that he became an influence of considerable weight admits of no question4 ,whether he worked on the premises1 or--his own being at one time or other next door--was an outside help no data is to hand that we can rely on1 certain it is that his talent must have been fully recognised by the younger ,stradivaris as their work declares4 ,many years back there was some discussion about concerning the extent to which ,carlo ,bergonzi helped1 or what part he undertook1 if it were admitted that some of the ,stradivari violins of the latest period were not entirely the work of the master4 ,there was much said for and against the possibility or probability of there being any of ,carlo ,bergonzi's handiwork to be seen on any of the late ,strads4 ,no one seems to have questioned the presence of the influence of ,bergonzi's style in the work of ,franciscus ,stradivari1 the eldest of the sons1 who1 after labouring for many years on his father's moulds and patterns1 might have reasonably been tempted to take a leaf from the book of such a master in designing as his friend and fellow-assistant1 ,carlo ,bergonzi4 ,to take any sort of hint from that wonderful1 although fitful genius1 ,giuseppe ,guarneri1 working within earshot1 was not to be entertained for a moment1 as the style of workmanship1 the calibre and quality of tone belonging to his manner1 was quite opposed to ,stradivarian teaching1 and besides which there are no records or traditions indicating even usual social intercourse4 ,we are therefore thrown upon our own resources in estimating any connection of ,carlo ,bergonzi with the late work of ,antonio ,stradivari4 ,the instruments themselves will be the only guide and1 without doubt1 in the face of other evidence1 had it been present1 the best4 ,stradivari's work during the last ten or more years of his life was showing exactly what we should expect of the man when working at a patriarchal age4 ,the stamp of the veteran handicraftsman may be traced not unfrequently on the works of other eminent makers of ,cremona1 including ,andreas1 ,hieronymus1 ,nicolas1 and his son ,hieronymus and others down to the latest period of ,cremonese art1 when ,laurentius ,storioni was proving that if in its last struggles it was not quite dead4 ,the distinguishing characteristics of old age work may be briefly summed up in a few words--heaviness in design and uncertainty of execution4 ,good1 even brilliant1 conceptions may be started on new work1 but the execution of them shows weakness1 or even inability to carry them out well4 ,we will apply this as a kind of test when overlooking the specimens handed down to us as being the production of the great ,cremonese master at the age of between eighty and ninety-three years of age4 ,if doing this simply from the connoisseur's point of view1 without admitting any such influences as present or past monetary value1 former ownership1 in short1 thrusting aside all considerations of pedigree1 we shall soon have to divide them into two sections1 one of which will be acknowledged by all connoisseurs to be really representative of the true ,stradivarian manner adhered to strictly through a long working career1 but with the only fault of not quite so well being said of it4 ,thus the sound holes1 as before referred to in the tracings1 were becoming heavier at the lower part and with a tendency in other details towards ruggedness4 ,the varnish has a thicker and less dainty aspect1 although of excellent quality still1 but there is an impression of heaviness4 ,in the carving of the scroll the same character prevails1 the edges of the turns are stouter and at the back the grooves down to the shell are less refined in their execution4 ,all these little specialities of touch1 but no modifications1 are the natural manifestation of the peculiar physical condition of the master at a very advanced age4 ,let us now turn to the other section1 that over some of which there is excellent reason for disputation1 over others none4 ,it will be readily acceded that ,stradivari at no time during his career ever favoured any exaggeration of curve in the design of his sound holes1 there was always present the indication of a desire for a fine balance of parts1 in fact1 his ideal seems always to have been that of increasing1 if possible1 the elegance of the ,amati sound holes while adding to its substantial aspect4 ,in some of what we have called the second section we find a lively1 fine and rich transparent varnish such as ,carlo ,bergonzi was particularly an adept at2 on the same instrument will be sound holes1 that a moment's consideration will remove any hesitation as to the design being other than ,carlo ,bergonzi4 ,as this remarkable artist had several types of sound holes1 and no one knows how many subtypes1 at his finger ends1 a little knowledge of his two most opposite ones will bring at once to mind that he must have had a hand in no inconsiderable portion of what is called ,stradivari's late work1 as here is found the inclining inwards of his sound holes with the smaller upper part and heavier lower end4 ,this will be found accompanied by the square looking upper part of the waist curve1 the two things being alone almost sufficient to stamp the whole as being by ,carlo ,bergonzi1 but here pedigree has stepped in and it was always called a ,stradivari4 ,this is the one type of sound holes which has to be placed aside for a moment2 the other type is of an opposite kind and very often to be seen accompanying the longer looking pattern of ,carlo ,bergonzi3 it is free in design1 having the upper and lower wings fully developed1 that is1 the straight cut of the wing is of full length1 this individuality coming from ,stradivari4 ,it is this portion of the details of the design that has led so many ,students of the works of the ,cremonese masters astray1 they see the ,stradivarian design1 or we may call it peculiarity1 and too hastily conclude as to its being the actual work of hand of the master4 ,a little further consideration of the adjoining portions of the sound holes would bring to mind how little ,stradivari was disposed towards any thinness of the opening out of the part leading from the wing to the nicks3 if he had a tendency one way or the other1 it would be towards more fulness1 but his ideal being a beautiful equilibrium of all parts1 this is clearly a point telling against the work as coming from his hand entirely4 ,there is another part1 too1 that ,stradivari seems to have most earnestly avoided1 that of making the top portion of the sound hole design reach over towards the centre1 somewhat after the tendency of ,andrea ,guarneri1 this causes the lower part to seem turned up more suddenly1 it is1 however1 only by contrast between the two parts that this is so4 ,carlo ,bergonzi's sound holes are more sprightly and vertical1 and with their more mature style should not be confused with those of the preceding maker4 ,here1 then1 are two distinct types of sound holes independently of those referred to of earlier periods1 to be seen attached to violins that have perhaps through several generations of owners been attributed to ,antonio ,stradivari1 and in consequence been sold again and again for large sums4 ,here is evidence of there being something in a name4 ,had these instruments been carefully and properly analysed1 with a strict regard to the habit of the master in respect of intention in design and execution at early and later periods1 the mistake would not have occurred4 ,the conclusions rushed at seem to have been that there was the proper age of the instrument1 the varnish was of fine ,cremonese type1 the pattern and sound holes thought to be ,straddy1 therefore it must be a ,stradivari4 ,on the other hand1 there is no obtainable evidence that these violins did not issue in new condition from ,stradivari's atelier2 we have in previous pages considered the amount of help at his elbow1 and that this would be more and more called into requisition is but a reasonable conjecture3 that it was actually the case is helped by the fact of violins being extant in which the age of the master is stated on the ticket--presumably written by himself4 ,possibly he felt some degree of pride in having accomplished1 at the patriarchal age of about ninety years1 work generally associated with the time and vigour of middle age4 ,the existence of these violins1 there may have been several more made than are known1 has much significance1 for the fact of his age being inserted may be fairly taken as indirect evidence not to be lightly put aside1 that they were by himself looked upon as an accomplished work quite out of his usual way4 ,had he been constantly putting forth instruments made by his own hands1 there would not have been anything unusual about them1 but these1 with date and age marked1 seem to be a declaration of the master--see--,i have made a violin at the age here stated6 ,in these there is present exactly what would be expected in such work--indication of insufficiency of the physical powers for carrying into execution the dictates of the mental4 ,the intellect of this wonder of humanity appears to have remained unclouded to the last4 ,the other violins of about the same epoch1 and going under the master's name1 have a manner of work that ought to have been perceived as being also distinct4 ,mere hastiness or slovenliness of work is not identical with the effect of inability to achieve mechanical neatness4 ,it is this slovenliness of handiwork which ,carlo ,bergonzi gave way to so frequently2 he could1 when in the humour1 work beautifully2 this1 with his fine perception of elegance of line1 was possibly the secret of his being admitted into the atelier of ,stradivari and of his influence over the sons4 ,there may have been other special particulars regarding him that helped in the matter of which there does not appear to be any record4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,evidences ,,in ,,stradivari',s ,,work ,,of ,,old ,,age--,,his ,,death ,,and ,,burial--,,work ,,left ,,by ,,him--,,the ,,advance ,,in ,,value ,,of ,,his ,,work ,,since ,,his ,,decease4 ,returning to the analysis of the individuality of the mechanical work on the violins of the latest epoch of ,stradivari1 one or two further details are worth consideration4 ,the size1 style and tool work of the scroll have always been admitted to take up a large share in the estimation of evidence present for identification of authorship4 ,in some of the late specimens of ,stradivari we can see at once that the hand has become less firm1 the bold turns seem to have lost much of their former vigorous expression1 and although thick enough in edge are closer1 and impress the connoisseur of the inability of the artificer to spend more time and attention than was absolutely necessary4 ,the groove down the back to the shell is less refined than previously1 besides being more heavily gouged at the termination4 ,almost in contrast with these parts there are seen on other very late ,strads a neatly cut shell widening out a trifle and minus the thick edging2 an examination of the turns of the scroll will reveal the fact of its having been gouged in quite a different manner1 the declevity being more concave1 the result of running the gouge along the course instead of towards the centre which was the manner of the ,amatis4 ,this hollowing out of the turns was so frequently done by ,carlo ,bergonzi that it might be called his most natural mode of treatment2 we can here see what evidence there is of this maker's probable help in the work of his master4 ,if we admit the possibility of these being entirely ,antonio ,stradivari's handiwork1 then there were more phenomenal aspects of the master's working powers left for our consideration than he had hitherto given the slightest hint of during his extraordinarily long career4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,domenico4 ,taking therefore all the facts at our command in connection with the circumstances of the time1 and the artist himself with his extended life1 sifting these carefully we find the residue left is1--that his working powers gradually lessened in a perfectly natural way and that such entire work as left his hands during the last few1 say six or seven years was1 taken at the best1 small in quantity2 they came forth as from the last flickering embers of a decaying power whose influence1 bequeathed to the world at large1 was destined to increase indefinitely and whose secrets were left unrevealed1 to be sought for earnestly1 but in vain1 by generation after generation4 ,time1 he with his hour glass1 passing by the home of ,antonio ,stradivari in ,cremona1 found him full of years and honour among his own little world of friends and acquaintances1 for beyond the borders of his country his name could have been known to few1 and those only recognising him as a clever and successful practitioner in perhaps their own craft2 his world wide fame had as yet received but a slight impetus when it became known that no more of the unapproachable gems of art were to issue from the unassuming house in the square of ,s4 ,domenico1 ,cremona4 ,antonio ,stradivari died in his #idth year at ,cremona on the #ahth of ,december1 #agcg1 and was buried in the chapel of the ,rosary in the ,church of ,san ,domenico4 ,this church was situated exactly opposite his house1 where1 standing at his door--as he must have done many a time--the tomb which was to be his final resting-place came directly on the line of vision in front of him1 but within the third recess or chapel past the intervening wall4 ,so far as our scanty knowledge goes1 there were no circumstances connected with his death that called for any special notice at the time4 ,possibly little more was remarked by the neighbours than that the aged musical instrument maker of the ,piazza di ,san ,domenico had died1 and his two sons were to carry on the business4 ,perhaps none of them gave a thought to the immensely enhanced value of each of his works of art--or as they may have described them--the goods that he sold--that might be remaining two centuries forward4 ,he had lived to an almost patriarchal age1 over ninety-three years4 ,it is rare to find in the world's history a leading light among professors of science or art completing such a career of almost incessant labour both mental and physical4 ,it is still more so to find the work of such a genius1 large as was the quantity1 increasing in value by leaps and bounds as time progressed after his decease4 ,most probably at the present day--supposing there to be extant as much as one-eighth of what he put forth--and that may be very much over the mark1 the market value of what is recognised as his handiwork would still be a very long way above that of the whole of the work put forth throughout his life4 ,it is on record that when he died there were ninety violins remaining unsold4 ,there may be several good reasons for this2 among them the fact that ,carlo ,bergonzi and ,joseph ,guarneri were working in rivalry at the time1 and bidding for public favour less on account of fine workmanship than force and magnificence of style and general aspect1 and that public attention was to some extent diverted in their direction2 further1 and perhaps more cogent1 the recognition of the great brilliancy and largeness of ,joseph ,guarneri's tone1 that must have seemed to the musical cognoscenti of ,cremona remarkably fresh and vigorous4 ,but when the master had departed it was not long before the loss was seen to be irreparable4 ,his work was sought for1 there being none other of the kind to supply its place2 further and further as time advanced it was becoming more and more evident that his like was not to be hoped for1 notwithstanding the favour with which the public viewed the two rivals who were destined to work for a comparatively short period4 ,when these two at last disappeared1 it was a signal for another rise in the monetary value of ,stradivari's work1 and which was to continue progressing indefinitely until such time when there may be signs of an approaching renaissance4 ,,footnote3 ,a ,our illustration of this house is from a photo4 ,it will be noticed that it has not an imposing exterior and not much indication of the more spacious premises in the rear where the great master worked4 ,,advertisements4 ,,eleventh ,,year ,,of ,,issue4 ,the ,largest ,circulation in the ,world of any paper amongst ,violinists4 ,,the ,,strad ,a ,monthly ,journal for ,professionals and ,amateurs of all ,stringed ,instruments played with the ,bow4 ,published on the ,first of every ,month4 ,price #b;d41 ,annual ,subscription1 ,post ,free1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,strad is the only recognised organ of the string family and has subscribers in every country of the civilised world4 ,our circulation has increased to so great an extent that we are enabled to engage as contributors ,,the ,,leading ,,writers in the ,,violin ,,world4 ,the following eminent ,authors1 ,critics and ,players are writing for the paper3 ,,basil ,,althaus1 ,,esq41 ,,arthur ,,broadley1 ,,esq41 ,,lancastrian1 ,,andre ,,la ,,tarche1 ,,esq41 ,,robin ,h4 ,,legge1 ,,esq41 ,j4 ,,matthews1 ,,esq41 ,,walter ,h4 ,,mayson1 ,,esq41 ,,rev4 ,,meredith ,,morris1 ,,horace ,,petherick1 ,,esq41 ,,dr4 ,t4 ,l4 ,,phipson1 ,e4 ,,van ,,der ,,straeten1 ,,esq41 c41 c4 ,,the ,,strad contains technical articles by the leading artists4 ,,the ,,strad1 in the ,answers to ,correspondents column1 gives minute information on every detail connected with the ,violin by ,experts4 ,,the ,,strad gives all the important doings of ,violinists at home and abroad all the year round4 ,,the ,,strad gives early critical notices of all important ,new ,music for ,stringed ,instruments1 with numbers to show the grade of difficulty of every piece4 ,,the ,,strad gives every month a beautifully executed portrait on fine art paper1 of some leading celebrity in the violin world1 together with a biographical sketch4 ,now appearing1 ,,violin ,,making4 ,,by ,,walter ,h4 ,,mayson4 ,copiously ,illustrated4 ,this important work goes minutely into every detail of the ,luthier's ,art1 and is the only work on ,violin ,making that has ever been actually written by a ,violin ,maker4 ,this series of articles commenced in the ,january issue1 #aijj4 ,all ,subscriptions1 ,advertisements1 etc41 to be addressed to the ,manager1 ,,harry ,,lavender1 #c4 ,green ,terrace1 ,rosebery ,avenue1 ,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,london3 ,,strad ,,office1 #c4 ,green ,terrace1 ,rosebery ,avenue1 ,e4,c4 ,,the ,,strad ,,library1 ,no4 ,i4 ,crown #hvo41 ,cloth1 #b_/f1 ,post ,free1 #b_/i4 ,,the ,,strad ,,library ,,edition is the only ,authorised ,edition of ,technics of ,violin ,playing ,,on ,,joachim',s ,,method ,,by ,,carl ,,courvoisier4 ,with ,folding ,plates1 ,containing ,fifteen ,illustrations4 ,,letter ,,from ,,dr4 ,,joachim ,,copy4 ,,my ,,dear ,,mr4 ,,courvoisier3 ,i have read the book on ,violin ,playing you have sent me1 and have to congratulate you sincerely on the manner in which you have performed a most difficult task1 i4e41 to describe the best way of arriving at a correct manner of playing the violin4 ,it cannot but be welcome to thoughtful teachers1 who reflect on the method of our art1 and ,i hope that your work will prove useful to many students4 ,believe me1 my dear ,mr4 ,courvoisier1 to be most faithfully yours1 ,,joseph ,,joachim4 ,berlin1 ,november #crd1 #ahid4 ,the ,new and ,revised ,edition of ,technics of ,violin ,playing issued by ,,the ,,strad is the only authorised edition of my work4 ,the several ,english editions which have all appeared without my knowledge are incomplete and faulty4 ,,carl ,,courvoisier4 ,,london3 ,,strad ,,office1 #c4 ,green ,terrace1 ,rosebery ,avenue1 ,e4,c4 ,,the ,,strad ,,library1 ,no4 ,,ii4 ,crown #hvo41 ,cloth1 #b_/f1 ,post ,free1 #b_/i4 ,,how ,,to ,,study ,,the ,,violin ,by ,j4 ,t4 ,,carrodus ,,contents4 ,strings and ,tuning4 ,the ,bow and ,bowing4 ,faults and their ,correction4 ,scales and their ,importance4 ,course of ,study4 ,advice on ,elementary ,matters4 ,concerning ,harmonics1 ,octaves1 etc4 ,orchestral ,playing4 ,some ,experiences as a ,soloist4 ,with full page portraits of ,carrodus1 ,molique1 ,paganini1 ,spohr1 ,sivori1 ,de ,beriot1 ,blagrove and ,sainton1 and a photo-reproduction of ,dr4 ,spohr's testimonial to ,carrodus4 ,an interesting series of articles ',how to ,study the ,violin1' which ,carrodus contributed to ,,the ,,strad1 and completed only a week or two before his death1 have now been collected in cheap book form4 ,the technical hints to violin students1 which are practical1 plainly worded1 and from such a pen most valuable4--,daily ,news4 ,but a few weeks before his sudden death the most distinguished of native violinists completed in ,,the ,,strad a series of chats to students of the instrument associated with his name4 ,these chats are now re-issued1 with a sympathetic preface and instructive annotations4 ,all who care to listen to what were virtually the last words of such a conscientious teacher will recognise the pains taken by ,carrodus to render every detail as clear to the novice as to the advanced pupil4 ,pleasant gossip concerning provincial festivals at which ,carrodus was for many years 'leader1' of the orchestra1 ends a little volume worthy a place in musical libraries both for its practical value and as a memento of the life-work of an artist universally esteemed4--,daily ,chronicle4 ,it is surely1 hardly necessary to direct the attention of students to the unique value of the hints and advice given by so experienced and accomplished a virtuoso as the late ,mr4 ,carrodus1 so that it only remains to state that the ',recollections' make delightful reading1 and that the book1 as a whole1 is as entertaining as it is instructive4 ,the value of the brochure is enhanced by an excellent portrait of ,mr4 ,carrodus1 as well as of a number of other violin worthies1 and the printing1 paper1 and get up generally are good as could possibly be4--,musical ,answers4 ,,london3 ,,strad ,,office1 #c1 ,,green ,,terrace1 ,,rosebery ,,avenue1 ,e4,c4 ,,the ,,strad ,,library1 ,no4 ,,iii4 ,crown #hvo41 ,cloth #b_/f1 ,post ,free #b_/i4 ,,the ,,bow ,its ,history1 ,manufacture and ,use ,,by ,,henry ,,saint-,,george4 ,with ,full ,page ,illustrations 7exact size7 by ,photo ,process4 ,,mons4 ,,emile ,,sauret writes--,i have read it with great interest1 and think that it supplies a real want in giving musicians such an excellent description of all matters referring to this important instrument4 ,,signor ,,guido ,,papini writes--,thanks so much for your splendid and interesting book4 ,you are quite successful and all the artists and amateurs are indebted to you for a so exact and correct ',texte' on the subject4 ,,adolf ,,brodsky writes--,i am delighted with the book and find it very instructive1 even for those who think to know everything about the bow4 ,it is very original and at times very amusing4 ,no violinist should miss the opportunity to buy it4 ,,the ,,times4--,a useful treatise on the ,bow1 in which the history1 manufacture and use of the bow are discussed with considerable technical knowledge4 ,,daily ,,telegraph4--,to the student there is much of interest in the work1 which has the advantage of being copiously illustrated4 ,,daily ,,news4--,this book seems practically to exhaust its subject4 ,,london3 ,,strad ,,office1 #c4 ,green ,terrace1 ,rosebery ,avenue1 ,e4,c4 ,,the ,,strad ,,library1 ,no4 ,,iv4 ,crown #hvo41 ,cloth #e_/-1 ,post ,free #e_/d4 ,,celebrated ,,violinists1 ,,past ,,and ,,present ,translated from the ,german of ,a4 ,,ehrlich4 ,and ,edited with ,notes and ,additions by ,,robin ,h4 ,,legge4 ,,with ,,eighty-,,nine ,,portraits4 ,,press ,,notices4 ,those who love their fiddles better than their fellows1 and who treasure up every detail that can be found and recorded about their favourite and cherished players will not fail to provide themselves with a copy of this book4--,musical ,opinion4 ,this book of #bhj pages is a most interesting and valuable addition to the violinist's library4 ,it contains #hi biographical sketches of well-known artists1 ancient and modern1 of all nations4 ,this is not intended to be a perfect dictionary of violinists2 the aim of the ,editor of the present volume being merely to give a few more up-to-date details concerning some of the greatest of stringed instrument players1 and we must concede that no name of the first importance has been omitted4 ,germany is represented by #ba names1 ,italy by #ac1 ,france by #aj1 ,england by #d1 ,bohemia by #h1 ,belgium by #g1 and the fair sex by seven well-known ladies1 such as ,teresina ,tua1 ,therese and ,marie ,milanollo1 ,lady ,halle1 ,marie ,soldat1 ,gabrielle ,wietrowetz1 and ,arma ,senkrah4 ,altogether this is most agreeable reading to the numerous army of violinists1 both professionals and amateurs1 and after careful examination we can find nothing but praise for this translation into ,english of a book well-known on the ,continent4--,the ,piano1 ,organ and ,music ,trades ,journal4 ,,london3 ,,strad ,,office1 #c4 ,green ,terrace1 ,rosebery ,avenue1 ,e4,c4 ,,the ,,strad ,,library1 ,no4 ,v4 ,crown #hvo41 ,cloth #b_/f1 ,post ,free #b_/i4 ,,technics ,,of ,,violoncello ,,playing ,,by ,e4 ,,van ,,der ,,straeten4 ,,copiously ,,illustrated4 ,copy of ,letter received by the ,author from the great 'cellist1 ,,signor ,,alfred ,,piatti4 ,cadenabbia1 ,lake of ,como1 ,march #ith1 #ahih4 ,,dear ,,sir1--,i received the book you kindly sent me on ,the ,technics of ,violoncello ,playing1 which ,i found excellent1 particularly for beginners1 which naturally was your scope4 ,with many thanks for kindly remembering an old ex-violoncello player4 ,believe me1 yours sincerely1 ,,alfred ,,piatti4 ,copy of ,letter received by the ,author from the eminent 'cellist1 ,,herr ,,david ,,popper4 ,budapest1 ,february #bbnd1 #ahih4 ,,dear ,,sir1--,in sending me your book on ,the ,technics of ,violoncello ,playing you have given me a real and true pleasure4 ,i know of no work1 tutors and studies not excepted1 which presents so much valuable material1 so much that is absolutely to the point1 avoiding--,i might say1 on principle--all that is superfluous and dispensable4 ,every earnest thinking violoncello student will in future make your book his own and thereby receive hints which will further and complete the instructions of his master4 ,i congratulate you and ourselves most heartily on the new violoncello book4 ,with kind regards1 ,yours most sincerely1 ,,david ,,popper4 ,,london3 ,,strad ,,office1 #c4 ,green ,terrace1 ,rosebery ,avenue1 ,e4,c4 ,,the ,,strad ,,library1 ,no4 ,,vi4 ,crown #hvo41 ,cloth1 #b_/f1 ,post ,free #b_/i4 ,,violin ,,playing ,,by ,,john ,,dunn ,,contents ,,introductory--,qualities indispensable to the ideal ,violinist--,hints on the ,choice of a ,teacher--,some ,tricks of pretending professors exposed4 ,,on ,,the ,,choice ,,of ,a ,,violin ,,and ,,bow--,advice regarding general adjustment and repairs4 ,,on ,,the ,,choice ,,of ,,strings--,stringing the ,instrument and keeping the ,pegs in ,order4 ,,on ,,the ,,general ,,posture--,the manner of holding the ,violin and ,bow as accepted by the leading artists of the day4 ,,on ,,fingering ,,generally--,the various positions--,scales recommended--,the ,modern ,orchestral ,principal or 7so-called7 ,leader4 ,,on ,,gliding--,special ,characteristics of some of the most ,eminent ,players4 ,,double ,,stopping--,the main difficulty in ,double ,stopping--,how to gain independence of ,finger4 ,,bowings--,smooth ,bowings--,solid ,staccato--,spiccato--,spring ,bow--,mixed ,bowings4 ,,tone ,,production--,character of ,tone--,rules and ,conditions necessary to produce a good tone--,style and ,expression4 ,,london3 ,,strad ,,office1 #c4 ,green ,terrace1 ,rosebery ,avenue1 ,e4,c4 ,,the ,,strad ,,library1 ,no4 ,,vii4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b_/f1 ,post ,free #b_/i4 ,,chats ,,to ',,cello ,,students ,,by ,,arthur ,,broadley4 ,,contents4 ,preliminary remarks--',cello ,difficult to ,master--,choice of a ,teacher--,choice of an ,instrument and ,bow4 ,how to ,hold the ,instrument--,attitude of the ,player--,use of a ,sliding ,pin ,recommended--,correct ,way of ,holding the ,bow--,some ,incorrect ,sketches of ,same4 ,general ,knowledge--,eccentricity not ,necessarily a ,mark of ,genius--,musical ,notation--,common ,errors with ,respect to the ,actual ,position of the ,various ,clefs--,tenor ,clef ,indispensable to the ',cellist4 ,early ,attempts at ',cello ,playing--,firmness in ,fingering--,the ,left ,hand--,correct ,method of ,placing the ,left ,hand ,fingers4 ,general ,remarks on ,bowing--,useful ,method of ,combining ,scale ,practice with ,study of ,various ,bowings--,smooth ,bowings--,crescendo--,diminuendo--,the ,slur4 ,bowing ,continued--,martele--,detached ,stroke--,mixed ,bowings--,the ,various ,divisions of the ,bow4 ,on ,staccato ,bowing-,spiccato--,slurred ,springing-,bow--,varieties of ,phrasing ,occasioned by the ,portion of ,bow ,used--,sautille--,dotted ,notes4 ,on the ,positions--,the ,individual ,requirements of the ,orchestral ,player and ,soloist--,the ,necessity of ,stretching for the ,intervals--,locality of the ,neck ,positions--,the ,enharmonic ,difference of ,sharp and ,flat ,keys--,absolute ,pitch--,how to ,leap any ,awkward ,interval--,the ,positions not ,determined by ,mathematical ,rules1 but by the ,ear--,shifting--,economy of ,motion v4 ,effect--,choice of ,positions4 ,portamento--,the ,various ,uses of ,gilding--,some ,exaggerations ,exposed--,how to ,leap ,great ,intervals without ,howling--,combination of ,glissando and ,sforzando4 ,double-,stopping--,useful in ,developing the ,hand--,how to ,determine the ,fingering of ,various ,intervals--,gliding in ,double ,stops--,chords--,a ,correct ,manner of ,playing ,chords4 ,arpeggios--,their ,evolution from ,various ,chords--,the ,bowing of ,arpeggios4 ,graces and ,embellishments--,the ,use of the ,thumb--,extensions--,octaves4 ,scientific ,basis of ,harmonics--,some ,peculiar ,laws which ,govern a ,vibrating ,string--,natural and ,artificial ,harmonics--,manner of ,bowing ,harmonics--,special ,effects--,trick ,staccato--,various ,methods of ,producing ,chromatic ,scale ,passages--,sul ,ponticello ,bowing and ,bowed ,harmonics--,flautando--,pizzicato ,glide and ,grace ,notes6 ,delivery--,style--,form v4 ,feeling--,conception--,essentials of a ,fine ,delivery--,orchestral ,playing4 ,,london3 ,,strad ,,office1 #c4 ,green ,terrace1 ,rosebery ,avenue1 ,e4,c4 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes3 ,passages in italics are indicated by italics4 ,passages in bold are indicated by bold4 ,inconsistencies in spelling and hypenation have been retained from the original4 ,obvious typographical errors have been corrected as follows3 ,page #c3 occured changed to occurred ,page #bb3 be changed to he ,page #ca3 connoissiers changed to connoisseurs ,page #ci3 ignominous changed to ignominious ,page #fj3 ,guadaguini changed to ,guadagnini ,page numbers in the ,list of ,plates for the ,,illustrations ,,of ,,scrolls have been retained1 but illustrations have been moved to be next to the paragraph in which they are referred4