,,astronomical ,,myths4                 
,illustration     ,illustration3 ,,the  
,,cliffs ,,of ,,flamanville4            
,,astronomical ,,myths1    ,,based ,,on 
,,flammarion',s   ,,history ,,of ,,the  
,,heavens4    ,,by    ,,john ,f4        
,,blake4    ,illustration    ,london3   
,,macmillan ,,and ,,co4   #ahgg4        
,,london3   ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,sons1 ,,and   
,,taylor1 ,,printers1   ,,bread ,,street
 ,,hill1   ,,queen ,,victoria ,,street4 
,illustration  ,,preface4   ,the ,book  
which is here presented to the public is
 founded upon a ,french work by ,m4     
,flammarion which has enjoyed           
considerable popularity4 ,it contained a
 number of interesting accounts of the  
various ideas1 sometimes mythical1      
sometimes intended to be serious1 that  
had been entertained concerning the     
heavenly bodies and our own earth2 with 
a popular history of the earliest       
commencement of astronomy among several 
ancient peoples4 ,it was originally     
written in the form of conversations    

between the members of an imaginary     
party at the seaside4 ,it was thought   
that this style would hardly be so much 
appreciated by ,english as by ,french   
readers1 and therefore in presenting the
 materials of the ,french author in an  
,english dress the conversational form  
has been abandoned4 ,several facts of   
extreme interest in relation to the     
early astronomical myths and the        
development of the science among the    
ancients having been brought to light1  
especially by the researches of ,mr4    
,haliburton1 a considerable amount of   
new matter1 including the whole chapter 
on the ,pleiades1 has been introduced1  
which makes the present issue not       
exactly a translation1 but rather a book
 founded on the ,french author's work4  
,it is hoped that it may be found of    
interest to those who care to know about
 the early days of the oldest of our    
sciences1 which is now attracting       
general attention again by the magnitude
 of its recent advances4 ,astronomy     

also1 in early days1 as will be seen by 
a perusal of this book1 was so mixed up 
with all the affairs of life1 and       
contributed so much even to religion1   
that a history of its beginnings is     
found to reveal the origin of several of
 our ideas and habits1 now apparently   
quite unconnected with the science4     
,there is matter of interest here1      
therefore1 for those who wish to know   
only the history of the general ideas of
 mankind4     ,illustration3 ,,the      
,,annual ,,revolution ,,of ,,the ,,earth
 ,,round ,,the ,,sun1 ,,with ,,the      
,,signs ,,of ,,the ,,zodiac ,,and ,,the 
,,constellations4     ,,list ,,of       
,,illustrations4     ,,the ,,cliffs ,,of
 ,,flamanville                          
,frontispiece4   ,,the ,,annual         
,,revolution ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,round 
,,the ,,sun1 ,,with         ,,the       
,,signs ,,of ,,the ,,zodiac ,,and ,,the 
,,constellations         ,page   ix     
,,the ,,earth',s ,,year1 ,,and ,,the    
,,months                                

xiv   ,,an ,,astronomer ,,at ,,work     
,to face page    #a   ,,the ,,northern  
,,constellations                        
#di   ,,the ,,constellations ,,from     
,,the ,,sea-,,shore                     
#fe   ,,the ,,zodiac ,,of ,,denderah    
#ajb       ,i4 ,,babylonian             
,,astronomers                           
#ai     ,,ii4 ,,druidical ,,worship     
#cg    ,,iii4 ,,chaldean ,,astronomers  
#hg     ,,iv4 ,,the ,,zodiac ,,and ,,the
 ,,dead ,,in ,,egypt                    
#ajh      ,v4 ,,the ,,legends ,,of ,,the
 ,,druids                               
#abc     ,,vi4 ,,the ,,nemaean ,,lion   
#adf    ,,vii4 ,,heavens ,,of ,,the     
,,fathers                               
#aia   ,,viii4 ,,death ,,of ,,copernicus
                                        
#bjh     ,,ix4 ,,the ,,solar ,,system   
#bbe      ,x4 ,,the ,,discovery ,,of    
,,the ,,telescope                       
#bbg     ,,xi4 ,,the ,,foundation ,,of  
,,the ,,paris ,,observatory             
#bbi    ,,xii4 ,,the ,,legend ,,of      

,,owen                                  
#cae   ,,xiii4 ,,christopher ,,columbus 
,,and ,,the ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,moon 
#ccf    ,,xiv4 ,,prodigies ,,in ,,the   
,,middle ,,ages                         
#ceh     ,,xv4 ,,an ,,astrologer ,,at   
,,work                                  
#che    ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the   
,,world                                 
#dbi     #a4 ,,the ,,earliest 7,,aryan7 
,,representation ,,of ,,the ,,earth     
#ab    #b4 ,,ancient ,,gaulish ,,medals1
  ,,bearing  ,,astronomical ,,signs     
#db    #c4 ,,ancient ,,celestial        
,,sphere                                
#eh    #d4 ,,positions ,,of ,,the       
,,great ,,bear ,,on ,,september #d      
#fb    #e4 ,,constellation ,,of ,,the   
,,bear                                  
#fc    #f4 ,,constellation ,,of ,,orion 
#gc    #g4 ,,chart ,,of ,,constellations
 ,,in ,,sixteenth ,,and ,,seventeenth   
,,centuries  #gh    #h4 ,,flamsteed',s  
,,chart                                 
#gi    #i4 ,,arabian ,,sphere ,,of ,,the

 ,,eleventh ,,century                   
#hd   #aj4 ,,ancient ,,chinese ,,pieces 
,,of ,,money1 ,,bearing                 
,,representations ,,of         ,,the    
,,zodiac                                
#ic   #aa4 ,,the ,,zodiac               
#if   #ab4 ,,diagram ,,illustrating     
,,the ,,position ,,of ,,certain ,,stars1
 ,b4,c4 #abjj   #ih   #ac4 ,,curious    
,,fifteenth ,,century ,,figure1         
,,representing ,,eleven                 
,,different ,,heavens                   
#aej   #ad4 ,,ptolemy',s ,,astronomical 
,,system                                
#aha   #ae4 ,,the ,,epicycles ,,of      
,,ptolemy                               
#ahd   #af4 ,,heavens ,,of ,,the        
,,middle ,,ages                         
#ahh   #ag4 ,,emblematic ,,drawing      
,,from ,,ancient ,,astronomical ,,work  
#aic   #ah4 ,,egyptian ,,system         
#aid   #ai4 ,,capella',s ,,system       
#aie   #bj4 ,,the ,,copernican ,,system 
#bje   #ba4 ,,tycho ,,brahe',s ,,system 
#bab   #bb4 ,,descartes' ,,theory ,,of  

,,vortices                              
#baf   #bc4 ,,vortices ,,of ,,the       
,,stars                                 
#bah   #bd4 ,,variation ,,of            
,,descartes' ,,theory                   
#bai   #be4 ,,the ,,earth ,,floating    
#bcg   #bf4 ,,the ,,earth ,,with ,,roots
                                        
#bcg   #bg4 ,,the ,,earth ,,of ,,the    
,,vedic ,,priests                       
#bch   #bh4 ,,hindoo ,,earth            
#bci   #bi4 ,,the ,,earth ,,of          
,,anaximander                           
#bdj   #cj4 ,,plato',s ,,cubical ,,earth
                                        
#bda   #ca4 ,,egyptian ,,representation 
,,of ,,the ,,earth                      
#bdc   #cb4 ,,homeric ,,cosmography     
#bdg   #cc4 ,,the ,,earth ,,of ,,the    
,,later ,,greeks                        
#bef   #cd4 ,,pomponius ,,mela',s       
,,cosmography                           
#beg   #ce4 ,,the ,,earth',s ,,shadow   
#bfb   #cf4 ,,ditto                     
#bfc   #cg4 ,,ditto                     

#bfd   #ch4 ,,ditto                     
#bfd   #ci4 ,,the ,,cosmography ,,of    
,,cosmas                                
#bfh   #dj4 ,,the ,,square ,,earth      
#bfi   #da4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,sunrise
                                        
#bga   #db4 ,,the ,,earth ,,as ,,an     
,,egg                                   
#bgc   #dc4 ,,the ,,earth ,,as ,a       
,,floating ,,egg                        
#bgd   #dd4 ,,eighth-,,century ,,map    
,,of ,,the ,,world                      
#bgf   #de4 ,,tenth-,,century ,,maps    
#bgg   #df4 ,,the ,,map ,,of ,,andrea   
,,bianco                                
#bhc   #dg4 ,,from ,,the ,,map ,,in     
,,hereford ,,cathedral                  
#bhe   #dh4 ,,ditto                     
#bhf   #di4 ,,cosmography ,,of ,,st4    
,,denis                                 
#bia   #ej4 ,,the ,,map ,,of ,,marco    
,,polo                                  
#bic   #ea4 ,,map ,,on ,a ,,medal ,,of  
,,charles ,v                            
#bid   #eb4 ,,dante',s ,,infernal       

,,regions                               
#caa   #ec4 ,,paradise ,,of ,,fra       
,,mauro                                 
#cbb   #ed4 ,,the ,,paradise ,,of ,,the 
,,fifteenth ,,century                   
#cbd   #ee4 ,,representation ,,of ,a    
,,comet1 ,,sixteenth ,,century          
#cdi   #ef4 ,,an ,,egg ,,marked ,,with  
,a ,,comet                              
#ceb   #eg4 ,,the ,,roman ,,calendar    
#djc   #eh4 ,,diagram ,,illustrating    
,,the ,,order ,,of ,,the ,,days ,,of    
,,the ,,week         #dac               
,illustration3 ,,the ,,earth',s ,,year1 
,,and ,,the ,,months4     ,,contents4   
,,page   ,,chapter ,i4   ,,the ,,first  
,,beginnings ,,of ,,astronomy           
#a    ,,chapter ,,ii4   ,,astronomy ,,of
 ,,the ,,celts                          
#bi    ,,chapter ,,iii4   ,,origin ,,of 
,,the ,,constellations                  
#di    ,,chapter ,,iv4   ,,the ,,zodiac 
#hi    ,,chapter ,v4   ,,the ,,pleiades 
#aaa    ,,chapter ,,vi4   ,,the ,,nature
 ,,and ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,heavens 

,,according ,,to ,,the ,,ancients  #ach 
,,chapter ,,vii4   ,,the ,,celestial    
,,harmony                               
#afa    ,,chapter ,,viii4               
,,astronomical ,,systems                
#agi    ,,chapter ,,ix4   ,,the         
,,terrestrial ,,world ,,of ,,the        
,,ancients4--,,cosmography ,,and        
,,geography  #bca    ,,chapter ,x4      
,,cosmography ,,and ,,geography ,,of    
,,the ,,church                          
#beh    ,,chapter ,,xi4   ,,legendary   
,,worlds ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages     
#cjj    ,,chapter ,,xii4   ,,eclipses   
,,and ,,comets                          
#ccj    ,,chapter ,,xiii4   ,,the       
,,greatness ,,and ,,the ,,fall ,,of     
,,astrology                             
#cfj    ,,chapter ,,xiv4   ,,time ,,and 
,,the ,,calendar                        
#chg    ,,chapter ,,xv4   ,,the ,,end   
,,of ,,the ,,world                      
#dah     ,illustration3 ,,an            
,,astronomer ,,at ,,work4               
,illustration  ,,history ,,of ,,the     

,,heavens4     ,,chapter ,i4  ,,the     
,,first ,,beginnings ,,of ,,astronomy4  
,astronomy is an ancient science2 and   
though of late it has made a fresh start
 in new regions1 and we are opening on  
the era of fresh and unlooked-for       
discoveries which will soon reveal our  
present ignorance1 our advance upon     
primitive ideas has been so great that  
it is difficult for us to realize what  
they were without an attentive and not  
uninstructive study of them4 ,no other  
science1 not even geology1 can compare  
with astronomy for the complete         
revolution which it has effected in     
popular notions1 or for the change it   
has brought about in men's estimate of  
their place in creation4 ,it is probable
 that there will always be men who      
believe that the whole universe was made
 for their benefit2 but1 however this   
may be1 we have already learned from    
astronomy that our habitation is not    
that central spot men once deemed it1   
but only an ordinary planet circulating 

round an ordinary star1 just as we are  
likely also to learn from biology1 that 
we occupy the position1 as animals1 of  
an ordinary family in an ordinary class4
  ,that we may more perfectly realize   
this strange revolution of ideas1 we    
must throw ourselves as far as possible 
into the feeling and spirit of our      
ancestors1 when1 without the knowledge  
we now possess1 they contemplated1 as   
they could not fail to do1 the          
marvellous and awe-inspiring phenomena  
of the heavens by night4 ,to them1 for  
many an age1 the sun and moon and stars1
 with all the planets1 seemed absolutely
 to rise1 to shine1 and to set2 the     
constellations to burst out by night in 
the east1 and travel slowly and in      
silence to the west2 the ocean waves to 
rise and fall and beat against the      
rock-bound shore as if endowed with     
life2 and even in the infancy of the    
intellect they must have longed to      
pierce the secrets of this mysterious   
heavenly vault1 and to know the nature  

of the starry firmament as it seemed to 
them1 and the condition of the earth    
which appeared in the centre of these   
universal movements4 ,the simplest      
hypothesis was for them the truth1 and  
they believed that the sky was in       
reality a lofty and extended canopy     
bestudded with stars1 and the earth a   
vast plain1 the solid basis of the      
universe1 on which dwelt man1 sole      
creature that lifted his eyes and       
thoughts above4 ,two distinct regions   
thus appeared to compose the whole      
system--the upper one1 or the air1 in   
which were the moving stars1 the lights 
of heaven1 and the firmament over all2  
and the lower one1 or earth and sea1    
adorned on the surface with the products
 of life1 and below with the minerals1  
metals1 and stones4 ,for a long time the
 various theories of the universe1      
grotesque and changing as they might be1
 were but modifications of this one     
central idea1 the earth below1 the      
heavens above1 and on this was based    

every religious system that was         
promulgated--the very phrases founded   
upon it remaining to this day for a     
testimony to the intimate relation thus 
manifested between the infant ideas in  
astronomy and theology4 ,no wonder that 
early revolutions in the conceptions in 
one science were thought to militate    
against the other4 ,it is only when the 
thoughts on both are enlarged that it is
 seen that their connection is not      
necessary1 but accidental1 or1 at least1
 inevitable only in the infancy of both4
  ,it is scarcely possible to estimate  
fully the enormous change from these    
ideas representing the appearances to   
those which now represent the reality2  
or to picture to ourselves the total    
revolution in men's minds before they   
could transform the picture of a vast   
terrestrial surface1 to which the sun   
and all the heavenly bodies were but    
accessories for various purposes1 to one
 in which the earth is but a planet like
 ,mars1 moving in appearance among the  

stars1 as it does1 and rotating with a  
rapidity that brings a whole hemisphere 
of the heavens into view through the    
course of a single day and night4 ,at   
first sight1 what a loss of dignity6    
but1 on closer thought1 what a gain of  
grandeur6 ,no longer some little        
neighbouring lights shine down upon us  
from a solid vault2 but we find         
ourselves launched into the sea of      
infinity2 with power to gaze into its   
almost immeasurable depths4  ,to        
appreciate rightly our position1 we have
 to plant ourselves1 in imagination1 in 
some spot removed from the surface of   
the earth1 where we may be uninfluenced 
by her motion1 and picture to ourselves 
what we should see4 ,were we placed in  
some spot far enough removed from the   
earth1 we should find ourselves in      
eternal day2 the sun would ever shine1  
for no great globe would interpose      
itself between it and our eyes2 there   
would be no night there4 ,were we in the
 neighbourhood of the earth's orbit1 and

 within it1 most wonderful phenomena    
would present themselves4 ,at one time  
the earth would appear but an ordinary  
planet1 smaller than ,venus1 but1 as    
time wore on1 unmeasured by recurring   
days or changing seasons1 it would      
gradually be seen to increase in        
size--now appearing like the moon at the
 full1 and shining like her with a      
silver light4 ,as it came nearer1 and   
its magnitude increased1 the features of
 the surface would be distinguished2 the
 brighter sea and the darker shining    
continents1 with the brilliant ice-caps 
at the poles2 but1 unlike what we see in
 the moon1 these features would appear  
to move1 and1 one after another1 every  
part of the earth would be visible4 ,the
 actual time required for all to pass   
before us would be what we here call a  
day and night4 ,and still1 as it        
rotates1 the earth passes nearer to us1 
assumes its largest apparent size1 and  
so gradually decreasing again1 becomes  
once more1 after the interval we here   

call a year1 an ordinary-looking        
star-like planet4 ,to us1 in these days1
 this description is easy of            
imagination2 we find no difficulty in   
picturing it to ourselves2 but1 if we   
will think for a moment what such an    
idea would have been to the earliest    
observers of astronomy1 we shall better 
appreciate the vast change that has     
taken place--how we are removed from    
them1 as we may say1 toto coelo4  ,but  
not only as to the importance of the    
earth in the universe1 but on other     
matters connected with astronomy1 we    
perceive the immensity of the change in 
our ideas--in that of distance1 for     
instance4 ,this celestial vault of the  
ancients was near enough for things to  
pass from it to us2 it was in close     
connection with the earth1 supported by 
it1 and therefore of less diameter2 but 
now1 when our distance from the sun is  
expressed by numbers that we may write1 
indeed1 but must totally fail to        
adequately appreciate1 and the distance 

from the next nearest star is such1 that
 with the velocity of light--a velocity 
we are accustomed to regard as          
instantaneous--we should only reach it  
after a three years' journey1 we are    
reminded of the pathetic lines of       
,thomas ,hood3    ,i remember1 ,i       
remember1 the fir trees straight and    
high1   ,and how ,i thought their       
slender tops were close against the sky2
   ,it was a childish fantasy1 but now  
'tis little joy1   ,to know ,i'm further
 off from heaven than when ,i was a boy4
  ,the astronomer's answer to the last  
line would be that as far as the        
material heaven goes1 we are just as    
much in it as the stars or as any other 
member of the universe2 we cannot1      
therefore1 be far off or near to it4    
,it is probable that we are even yet but
 little awake to true cosmical ideas in 
other respects2--as to velocity1 for    
instance4 ,we know indeed1 of light and 
electricity and the motions of the      
earth1 but revelations are now being    

made to us of motions of material       
substances in the sun with such         
velocities that in comparison with them 
any motions on the earth appear         
infinitesimally small4 ,our progress to 
our present notions1 and appreciations  
of the truth of nature in the heavens1  
will thus occupy much of our thoughts2  
but we must also recount the history of 
the acquirement of those facts which    
have ultimately become the basis for our
 changes of idea4  ,our rustic          
forefathers1 whatever their nation1 were
 not so enamoured of the wonders of     
science--that their astronomy was       
greatly a collection of theories1 though
 theories1 and wild ones1 they had2 it  
was a more practical matter1 and was    
believed too by them to be more         
practical than we now find reason to    
believe to be the case4 ,they noticed   
the various seasons1 and they marked the
 changes in the appearances of the      
heavens that accompanied them2 they     
connected the two together1 and         

conceived the latter to be the cause of 
the former1 and so1 with other          
apparently uncertain events4 ,the       
celestial phenomena thus acquired a     
fictitious importance which rendered    
their study of primary necessity1 but   
gave no occasion for a theory4  ,that we
 may better appreciate the earliest     
observations on astronomy1 it may be    
well to mention briefly what are the    
varying phenomena which may most easily 
be noticed4 ,if we except the phases of 
the moon1 which almost without          
observation would force their           
recognition on people who had no other  
than lunar light by night1 and which    
must therefore1 from the earliest       
periods of human history have divided   
time into lunar months2 there are three 
different sets of phenomena which depend
 on the arrangement of our planetary    
system1 and which were early observed4  
,the first of these depends upon the    
earth's rotation on its axis1 the result
 of which is that the stars appear to   

revolve with a uniform motion from east 
to west2 the velocity increasing with   
the distance from the pole star1 which  
remains nearly fixed4 ,this circumstance
 is almost as easy of observation as the
 phases of the moon1 and was used from  
the earliest ages to mark the passage of
 time during the night4 ,the next arises
 from the motion of the earth in her    
orbit about the sun1 by which it happens
 that the earth is in a different       
position with respect to the sun every  
night1 and1 therefore1 a different set  
of stars are seen in his neighbourhood2 
these are setting with him1 and         
therefore also a different set are just 
rising at sunset every evening4 ,these  
changes1 which would go through the     
cycle in a year1 are1 of course1 less   
obvious1 but of great importance as     
marking the approach of the various     
seasons during ages in which the hour of
 the sun's rising could not be noted by 
a clock4 ,the last depends on the proper
 motions of the moon and planets about  

the earth and sun respectively1 by      
reason of which those heavenly bodies   
occupy varying positions among the      
stars4 ,only a careful and continuous   
scrutiny of the heavens would detect    
these changes1 except1 perhaps1 in the  
case of the moon1 and but little of     
importance really depends on them2      
nevertheless1 they were very early the  
subject of observation1 as imagination  
lent them a false value1 and in some    
cases because their connection with     
eclipses was perceived4 ,the practical  
cultivation of astronomy amongst the    
earliest people had always reference to 
one or other of these three sets of     
appearances1 and the various terms and  
signs that were invented were intended  
for the clearer exposition of the       
results of their observations on these  
points4  ,in looking therefore into     
extreme antiquity we shall find in many 
instances our only guide to what their  
knowledge was is the way in which they  
expressed these results4  ,we do not    

find1 and perhaps we should scarcely    
expect to find1 any one man or even one 
nation who laid the foundation of       
astronomy--for it was an equal necessity
 for all1 and was probably antecedent to
 the practice of remembering men by     
their names4 ,we cannot1 either1        
conjecture the antiquity of ideas and   
observations met with among races who   
are themselves the only record of their 
past2 and if we are to find any origins 
of the science1 it is only amongst those
 nations which have been cultivators of 
arts by which their ancient doings are  
recorded4  ,amongst the earliest        
cultivators of astronomy we may refer to
 the ,primitive ,greeks1 the ,chinese1  
the ,egyptians1 the ,babylonians1 and   
the ,aryans1 and also to certain        
traditions met with amongst many savage 
as well as less barbarous races1 the    
very universality of which proclaims as 
loudly as possible their extreme        
antiquity4  ,each of the four           
above-mentioned races have names with   

which are associated the beginnings of  
astronomy--,uranus and ,atlas amongst   
the ,greeks2 ,folic amongst the         
,chinese2 ,thaut or ,mercury in ,egypt2 
,zoroaster and ,bel in ,persia and      
,babylonia4 ,names such as these1 if    
those of individuals1 are not           
necessarily those of the earliest       
astronomers--but only the earliest that 
have come down to us4 ,indeed it is very
 far from certain whether these ancient 
celebrities have any real historical    
existence4 ,the acts and labours of the 
earliest investigators are so wrapped in
 obscurity1 there is such a mixture of  
fable with tradition1 that we can have  
no reliance that any of them1 or that   
others mentioned in ancient mythology1  
are not far more emblematical than      
personal4 ,some1 such as ,uranus1 are   
certainly symbolical2 but the very      
existence of the name handed down to us1
 if it prove nothing else1 proves that  
the science was early cultivated amongst
 those who have preserved or invented   

them4  ,if we attempt to name in years  
the date of the commencement--not of    
astronomy itself--for that probably in  
some form was coeval with the race of   
man itself1 but of recorded             
observations1 we are met with a new     
difficulty arising from the various ways
 in which they reckoned time4 ,this was 
in every case by the occurrence of the  
phases of one or other of the           
above-mentioned phenomena2 sometimes    
however they selected the apparent      
rotation of the sun in twenty-four      
hours1 sometimes that of the moon in a  
month1 sometimes the interval from one  
solstice to the next1 and yet they      
apparently gave to each and all of these
 the same title--such as                
annus--obviously representing a cycle   
only1 but without reference to its      
length4 ,by these different methods of  
counting1 hopeless confusion has often  
been introduced into chronology2 and the
 moderns have in many instances unjustly
 accused the ancients of vanity and     

falsehood4 ,bailly attempted to         
reconcile all these various methods and 
consequent dates with each other1 and to
 prove that practical astronomy         
commenced about #a1ejj years before the 
,deluge1 or that it is about #g1jjj     
years old2 but we shall see reason in   
the sequel for suspecting any such      
attempt1 and shall endeavour to arrive  
at more reliable dates from independent 
evidence4  ,perhaps the remotest        
antiquity to which we can possibly mount
 is that of the ,aryans1 amongst whom   
the hymns of the ,rig ,veda were        
composed4 ,the short history of ,hebrew 
and ,greco-,roman civilization seems to 
be lost in comparison with this the     
earliest work of human imagination4     
,when seeking for words to express their
 thoughts1 these primitive men by the   
banks of the ,oxus personified the      
phenomena of the heavens and earth1 the 
storm1 the wind1 the rain1 the stars and
 meteors4 ,here1 of course1 it is not   
practical but theoretical astronomy we  

find4 ,we trace the first figuring of   
that primitive idea alluded to          
before--the heaven above1 the earth     
below4 ,here1 as we see1 is the earth   
represented as an indefinite plane      
surface and passive being forming the   
foundation of the world2 and above it   
the sky1 a luminous and variable vault  
beneath which shines out the fertile and
 life-giving light4 ,thus to the earth  
they gave the name ,p',,rthovi1 the wide
 expanse2 the blue and star-bespangled  
heavens they called ,,varuna1 the vault2
 and beneath it in the region of the    
clouds they enthroned the light ,,dyaus1
 i4e4 the luminous air4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #a4  ,from hence1 it would       
appear1 or on this model1 the early     
ideas of all peoples have been formed4  
,among the ,greeks the name for heaven  
expresses the same idea of a hollow     
vault 7,greek3 koilos1 hollow1 concave7 
and the earth is called ,greek3 ge1 or  
mother4 ,among the ,latins the name     
coelum has the same signification1 while

 the earth terra comes from the         
participle tersa 7the dry element7 in   
contradistinction to mare the wet4  ,in 
this original ,aryan notion1 however1 as
 represented by the figure1 we have more
 than this1 the origin of the names     
,jupiter and ,deus comes out4 ,for it is
 easy to trace the connection between   
,dyaus 7the luminiferous air7 and the   
,greek word ,zeus from whence ,dios1    
,greek3 theos1 ,deus1 and the ,french   
word ,dieu1 and then by adding pater or 
father we get ,deuspater1 ,zeuspater1   
,jupiter4  ,these etymologies are not   
however matters beyond dispute1 and     
there are at least two other modes of   
deriving the same words4 ,thus we are   
told the earliest name for the ,deity   
was ,jehovah1 the word ,jehov meaning   
father of life2 and that the ,greeks    
translated this into ,dis or ,zeus1 a   
word having1 according to this theory1  
the same sense1 being derived from      
,greek3 zao to live4 ,of course there   
can be no question of the later word    

,deus being the direct translation of   
,dios4  ,a third theory is that there   
exists in one of the dialects which     
formed the basis of the old languages of
 ,asia1 a word ,yahouh1 a participle of 
the verb nih1 to exist1 to be2 which    
therefore signifies the self-existent1  
the principle of life1 the origin of all
 motion1 and this is supposed to be the 
allusion of ,diodorus1 who explaining   
the theology of the ,greeks1 says that  
the ,egyptians according to ,manetho1   
priest of ,memphis1 in giving names to  
the five elements have called the spirit
 or ether ,youpiter in the proper sense 
of the word1 for the spirit is the      
source of life1 the author of the vital 
principle in animals1 and is hence      
regarded as the father or generator of  
all beings4 ,the people of the ,homeric 
ages thought the lightning-bearing      
,jupiter was the commencement1 origin1  
end1 and middle of all things1 a single 
and universal power1 governing the      
heavens1 the earth1 fire1 water1 day and

 night1 and all things4 ,porphyry says  
that when the philosophers discoursed on
 the nature and parts of the ,deity1    
they could not imagine any single figure
 that should represent all his          
attributes1 though they presented him   
under the appearance of a man1 who was  
seated to represent his immovable       
essence2 uncovered in his upper part1   
because the upper parts of the universe 
or region of the stars manifest most of 
his nature2 but clothed below the loins1
 because he is more hidden in           
terrestrial things2 and holding a       
sceptre in his left hand1 because his   
heart is the ruler of all things4 ,there
 are1 besides1 the etymologies which    
assert that ,jupiter is derived from    
juvare to help1 meaning the assisting   
father2 or again that he is ,dies       
pater--the god of the day--in which case
 no doubt the sun would be alluded to4  
,it appears then that the ancient ,aryan
 scheme1 though possibly supplying us   
with the origin of one of the widest    

spread of our words1 is not universally 
allowed to do so4 ,this origin1 however1
 appears to derive support from the     
apparent occurrence of the original of  
another well-known ancient classical    
word in the same scheme1 that is        
,varuna1 obviously the same word as     
,greek3 ,ouranos1 and ,uranus1          
signifying the heavens4 ,less clearly   
too perhaps we may trace other such     
words to the same source4 ,thus the     
,sun1 which according to these primitive
 conceptions is the husband of the      
,earth1 which it nourishes and makes    
fruitful1 was called ,savitr and ,surya1
 from which the passage to the ,gothic  
,sauil is within the limits of known    
etymological changes1 and so comes the  
,lithuanian ,saull1 the ,cymric ,haul1  
the ,greek ,heilos1 the ,latin ,sol1 and
 the ,english ,solar4 ,so from their    
,nakt1 the destructive1 we get ,nux1    
,nacht1 ,night4 ,from ,glu1 the         
,shining1 whence the participle         
,glucina1 and so to ,lucina1 ,luena1    

,luna1 ,lune4  ,turning from the ancient
 ,aryans1 whose astronomy we know only  
from poems and fables1 and so learn but 
little of their actual advance in the   
science of observation1 we come to the  
,babylonians1 concerning whose          
astronomical acquirements we have lately
 been put in possession of valuable     
evidence by the tablets obtained by ,mr4
 ,smith from ,kouyunjik1 an account the 
contents of which has been given by ,mr4
 ,sayce 7,nature1 vol4 xii4 p4 #dhi74   
,as the knowledge thus obtained is more 
certain1 being derived from their actual
 records1 than any that we previously   
possessed1 it will be well to give as   
full an account of it as we are able4   
,the originators of ,babylonian         
astronomy were not the ,chaldaeans1 but 
another race from the mountains of      
,elam1 who are generally called         
,acadians4 ,of the astronomy of this    
race we have no complete records1 but   
can only judge of their progress by the 
words and names left by them to the     

science1 as afterwards cultivated by the
 ,semitic ,babylonians4 ,these last were
 a subsequent race1 who entering the    
country from the ,east1 conquered the   
original inhabitants about #bjjj ,b4,c41
 and borrowed their civilization1 and   
with it their language in the arts and  
sciences4 ,but even this latter race is 
one of considerable antiquity1 and when 
we see1 as we shortly shall1 the great  
advances they had made in observations  
of the sun and moon1 and consider the   
probable slowness of development in     
those early ages1 we have some idea of  
the remoteness of the date at which     
astronomical science was there          
commenced4 ,our chief source of         
information is an extremely ancient work
 called ,the ,observations of ,bell1    
supposed to have been written before    
#agjj ,b4,c41 which was compiled for a  
certain ,king ,saigou1 of ,agave in     
,babylonia4 ,this work is in seventy    
books or parts1 and is composed of      
numerous small earthen tablets having   

impressed upon them the cuneiform       
character in which they printed1 and    
which we are now able to read4 ,we      
generally date the art of printing from 
,caxton1 in #adgd1 because it took the  
place of manuscript that had been       
previously in use in the ,west2 but that
 method of writing1 if in some respects 
an improvement on previous methods of   
recording ideas as more easily executed1
 was in others a retrogression as being 
less durable3 while the manuscripts have
 perished the impressions on stone have 
remained to this day1 and will no doubt 
last longer than even our printed books4
 ,these little tablets represented so   
many leaves1 and in large libraries1    
such as that from which those known have
 been derived1 they were numbered as our
 own are now1 so that any particular one
 could be asked for by those who might  
wish to consult it4 ,the great          
difficulty of interpreting these        
records1 which are written in two       
different dialects1 and deal often with 

very technical matters1 may well be     
imagined4 ,these difficulties however   
have been overcome1 and a good approach 
to the knowledge of their contents has  
been made4 ,the ,chaldaeans1 as is well 
known1 were much given to astronomy and 
many of their writings deal with this   
subject2 but they did practical work as 
well1 and did not indulge so much in    
theory as the ,aryans4 ,we shall have   
future occasion in this book to refer to
 their observations on various points1  
as they did not by any means confine    
themselves to the simplest matters2     
much1 in fact1 of that with which modern
 astronomy deals1 the dates and duration
 of eclipses of the sun and moon1 the   
accurate measurement of time1 the       
existence of cycles in lunar and solar  
phenomena1 was studied and recorded by  
them4 ,we can make some approach to the 
probable dates of the invention of some 
part of their system1 by means of the   
signs of the ,zodiac1 which were        
invented by them and which we will      

discuss more at length hereafter4 ,we   
need only say at present that what is   
now the sign of spring1 was not reckoned
 so with them1 and that we can calculate
 how long ago it is that the sign they  
reckoned the spring sign was so4        
,semiramis also raised in the centre of 
,babylon a temple consecrated to        
,jupiter1 whom the ,babylonians called  
,bel4 ,it was of an extraordinary height
 and served for an observatory4 ,the    
whole edifice was constructed with great
 art in asphalte and brick4 ,on its     
summit were placed the statues of       
,jupiter1 ,juno1 and ,rhea1 covered with
 gold4  ,the ,egyptians have always been
 named as the earliest cultivators of   
astronomy by the ,grecian writers1 by   
whom the science has been handed down to
 us1 and the ,chaldaeans have even been 
said to have borrowed from them4 ,the   
testimony of such writers however is not
 to be received implicitly1 but to be   
weighed with the knowledge we may now   
obtain1 as we have noticed above with   

respect to the ,babylonians1 from the   
actual records they have left us1       
whether by actual records1 or by words  
and customs remaining to the present    
day4  ,illustration3 ,,plate            
,i4--,,babylonian ,,astronomers4        
,herodotus declares that the ,egyptians 
had made observations for #aa1cdj years 
and had seen the course of the sun      
change four times1 and the ecliptic     
placed perpendicular to the equator4    
,this is the style of statement on which
 opinions of the antiquity of ,egyptian 
astronomy have been founded1 and it is  
obviously unworthy of credit4  ,diodorus
 says that there is no country in which 
the positions and motions of the stars  
have been so accurately observed as in  
,egypt 7i4e4 to his knowledge74 ,they   
have preserved1 he says1 for a great    
number of years registers in which their
 observations are recorded4 ,expositions
 are found in these registers of the    
motions of the planets1 their           
revolutions and their stations1 and1    

moreover1 the relation which each bears 
to the birthdays of animals1 and its    
good or evil influence4 ,they often     
predicted the future with success4 ,the 
earthquakes1 inundations1 the appearance
 of comets1 and many other phenomena    
which it is impossible for the vulgar to
 know beforehand1 were foreseen by them 
by means of the observations they had   
made over a long series of years4  ,on  
the occasion of the ,french expedition  
to ,egypt1 a long passage was discovered
 leading from ,karnak to ,lucksor4 ,this
 passage was adorned on each side of the
 way with a range of #afjj sphinxes with
 the body of a lion and the head of a   
ram4 ,now in ,egyptian architecture1 the
 ornaments are never the result of      
caprice or chance2 on the contrary1 all 
is done with intention1 and what often  
appears at first sight strange1 appears1
 after having been carefully examined   
and studied1 to present allegories full 
of sense and reason1 founded on a       
profound knowledge of natural phenomena1

 that the ornaments are intended to     
record4 ,these sphinxes and rams of the 
passage were probably the emblems of the
 different signs of the ,zodiac along   
the route of the sun4 ,the date of the  
avenue is not known2 but it would       
doubtless lead us to a high antiquity   
for the ,egyptian observations4  ,the   
like may be said of the great pyramid1  
which according to ,piazzi ,smyth was   
built about #bagj ,b4,c4 ,certainly     
there are no carvings about it          
exhibiting any astronomical designs2 but
 the exact way in which it is executed  
would seem to indicate that the builders
 had a very clear conception of the     
importance of the meridian line4 ,it    
should1 however1 be stated that ,piazzi 
,smyth does not consider it to have been
 built by the ,egyptians for themselves2
 but under the command of some older    
race4  ,there seem1 however1 to be      
indications in various festivals and    
observances1 which are met with widely  
over the earth's surface1 as will be    

indicated more in detail in the chapter 
on the ,pleiades1 that some astronomical
 observations1 though of the rudest1    
were made by races anterior even to     
those whose history we partially        
possess2 and that not merely because of 
its naturalness1 but because of positive
 evidence1 we must trace back astronomy 
to a source from whence ,egyptians1     
,indians1 and perhaps ,babylonians      
themselves derived it4  ,the ,chinese   
astronomy is totally removed from these 
and stands on its own basis4 ,with them 
it was a matter concerning the          
government1 and stringent laws were     
enforced on the state astronomers4 ,the 
advance1 however1 that they made would  
appear to be small2 but if we are to    
believe their writers1 they made        
observations nearly three thousand years
 before our era4  ,under the reign of   
,hoangti1 ,yuchi recorded that there was
 a large star near the poles of the     
heavens4 ,by a method which we shall    
enlarge upon further on1 it can be      

astronomically ascertained that about   
the epoch this observation was said to  
be made there was a star 7,greek3 a     
,draconis7 so near the pole as to appear
 immovable1 which is so far a           
confirmation of his statement4 ,in #bafi
 the first of a series of eclipses was  
recorded by them2 but the value of their
 astronomy seems to be doubtful when we 
learn that calculation proves that not  
one of them previous to the age of      
,ptolemy can be identified with the     
dates given4  ,amongst all nations      
except the ,chinese1 where it was       
political1 and the ,greeks1 where it was
 purely speculative1 astronomy has been 
intimately mixed with religious ideas1  
and we consequently find it to have     
taken considerable hold on the mind4    
,just as we have seen among the ,indians
 that the basis of their astronomical   
ideas was the two-fold division into    
heaven and earth1 so among other nations
 this duality has formed the basis of   
their religion4 ,two aspects of things  

have been noticed by men in the         
constitution of things--that which      
remains always1 and that which is merely
 transitory1 causes and effects4 ,the   
heaven and the earth have presented the 
image of this to their minds--one being 
the eternal existence1 the other the    
passing form4 ,in heaven nothing seems  
to be born1 increase1 decrease1 or die  
above the sphere of the moon4 ,that     
alone showed the traces of alteration in
 its phases2 while on the other hand    
there was an image of perpetuity in its 
proper substance1 in its motion1 and the
 invariable succession of the same      
phases4  ,from another point of view1   
the heavens were regarded as the father1
 and the earth as the mother of all     
things4 ,for the principle of fertility 
in the rains1 the dew and the warmth1   
came from above2 while the earth brought
 forth abundantly of the products of    
nature4 ,such is the idea of ,plutarch1 
of ,hesiod1 and of ,virgil4 ,from hence 
have arisen the fictions which have     

formed the basis of theogony4 ,uranus is
 said to have espoused ,ghe1 or the     
heavens took the earth to wife1 and from
 their marriage was born the god of time
 or ,saturn4  ,another partly religious1
 and partly astronomical antagonism has 
been drawn between light and darkness1  
associated respectively with good and   
evil4 ,in the days when artificial      
lights1 beyond those of the flickering  
fire1 were unknown1 and with the setting
 of the sun all the world was enveloped 
in darkness and seemed for a time to be 
without life1 or at least cut off       
entirely from man1 it would seem that   
the sun and its light was the entire    
origin of life4 ,hence it naturally     
became the earliest divinity whose      
brilliant light leaping out of the bosom
 of chaos1 had brought with it man and  
all the universe1 as we see it          
represented in the theologies of        
,orpheus and of ,moses2 whence the god  
,bel of the ,chaldeans1 the ,oromaza of 
the ,persians1 whom they invoke as the  

source of all that is good in nature1   
while they place the origin of all evil 
in darkness and its god ,ahrinam4 ,we   
find the glories of the sun celebrated  
by all the poets1 and painted and       
represented by numerous emblems and     
different names by the artists and      
sculptors who have adorned the temples  
raised to nature or the great first     
cause4  ,among the ,jews there are      
traditions of a very high antiquity for 
their astronomy4 ,josephus assures us   
that it was cultivated before the       
,mosaic ,deluge4 ,according to him it is
 to the public spirit and the labour of 
the antediluvians that we owe the       
science of astrology3 and since they had
 learnt from ,adam that the world should
 perish by water and by fire1 the fear  
that their science should be lost1 made 
them erect two columns1 one of brick the
 other of stone1 on which they engraved 
the knowledge they had acquired1 so that
 if a deluge should wash away the column
 of brick1 the stone one might remain to

 preserve for posterity the memory of   
what they had written4 ,the prescience  
was rewarded1 and the column of stone is
 still to be seen in ,syria4 ,whatever  
we may think of this statement it would 
certainly be interesting if we could    
find in ,syria or anywhere else a       
monument that recorded the ancient      
astronomical observations of the ,jews4 
,ricard and others believe that they    
were very far advanced in the science1  
and that we owe a great part of our     
present astronomy to them2 but such a   
conjecture must remain without proof    
unless we could prove them anterior to  
the other nations1 whom1 we have seen1  
cultivated astronomy in very remote     
times4  ,one observation seems peculiar 
to them1 if indeed it be a veritable    
observation4 ,josephus says1 ,god       
prolonged the life of the patriarchs    
that preceded the deluge1 both on       
account of their virtues1 and to give   
them the opportunity of perfecting the  
sciences of geometry and astronomy which

 they had discovered2 which they could  
not have done if they had not lived for 
#fjj years1 because it is only after the
 lapse of #fjj years that the great year
 is accomplished4  ,now what is this    
great year or cycle of #fjj years8 ,m4  
,cassini1 the director of the           
,observatory of ,paris1 has discussed it
 astronomically4 ,he considers it as a  
testimony of the high antiquity of their
 astronomy4 ,this period1 he says1 is   
one of the most remarkable that have    
been discovered2 for1 if we take the    
lunar month to be #bi days #ab;h4 #ddm4 
#cs4 we find that #bai1adf-a_/b days    
make #g1dba lunar months1 and that this 
number of days gives #fjj solar years of
 #cfe days #e;h4 #eam4 #cfs4 ,if this   
year was in use before the deluge1 it   
appears very probable it must be        
acknowledged that the patriarchs were   
already acquainted to a considerable    
degree of accuracy with the motions of  
the stars1 for this lunar month agrees  
to a second almost with that which has  

been determined by modern astronomers4  
,a very similar argument has been used  
by ,prof4 ,piazzi ,smyth to prove that  
the ,great ,pyramids were built by the  
descendants of ,abraham near the time of
 ,noah2 namely1 that measures of two    
different elements in the measurement of
 time or space when multiplied or       
divided produce a number which may be   
found to represent some proportion of   
the edifice1 and hence to assume that   
the two numbers were known to the       
builders4  ,we need scarcely point out  
that numbers have always been capable of
 great manipulation1 and the mere fact  
of one number being so much greater than
 another1 is no proof that both were    
known1 unless we knew that one of them  
was known independently1 or that they   
are intimately connected4  ,in the case 
of ,josephus' number the cycle during   
which the lunar months and solar years  
are commensurable has been long         
discussed and if the number had been #ai
 instead of #fjj1 we should have had    

little doubt of its reference2 yet #fjj 
is a very simple number and might refer 
to many other cycles than the           
complicated one pointed out by ,m4      
,cassini4 ,a similar case may be quoted 
with regard to the ,indians1 which1     
according to our temperament1 may be    
either considered a proof that these    
reasonings are correct1 or that they are
 easy to make4 ,they say that there are 
two stars diametrically opposite which  
pass through the zodiac in #add years2  
nothing can be made of this period1 nor 
yet of another equally problematical one
 of #ahj years2 but if we multiply the  
two together we obtain #be1ibj1 which is
 very nearly the length of the cycle for
 the precession of the equinoxes4  ,in  
this review of the ancient ideas of     
different peoples1 we have followed the 
most probable order in considering that 
the observation of nature came first1   
and the different parts of it were      
afterwards individualized and named4 ,it
 is proper to add that according to some

 ancient authors--such as ,diodorus     
,siculus--the process was considered to 
have been the other way4 ,that ,uranus  
was an actual individual1 that ,atlas   
and ,saturn were his sons or descendants
 or followers1 and that because ,atlas  
was a great astronomer he was said to   
support the heavens1 and that his seven 
daughters were real1 and being very     
spiritual they were regarded as         
goddesses after death and placed in     
heaven under the name of the ,pleiades4 
,however1 the universality of the ideas 
seems to forbid this interpretation1    
which is also in itself much less       
natural4  ,these various opinions lead  
us to remark1 in conclusion1 that the   
fables of ancient mythological astronomy
 must be interpreted by means of various
 keys4 ,allegory is the first--the      
allegory employed by philosophers and   
poets who have spoken in figurative     
language4 ,their words taken in the     
letter are quite unnatural1 but many of 
the fables are simply the description or

 explanation of physical facts4         
,hieroglyphics are another key4 ,having 
become obscure by the lapse of time they
 sometimes1 however1 present ideas      
different from those which they         
originally expressed4 ,it is pretty     
certain that hieroglyphics have been the
 source of the men with dogs' heads1 or 
feet of goats1 c4 ,fables also arise    
from the adoption of strange words whose
 sound is something like another word in
 the borrowing language connected with  
other ideas1 and the connection between 
the two has to be made by fable4        
,,chapter ,,ii4  ,,astronomy ,,of ,,the 
,,celts4   ,the numerous stone monuments
 that are to be found scattered over    
this country1 and over the neighbouring 
parts of ,normandy1 have given rise to  
many controversies as to their origin   
and use4 ,by some they have been        
supposed to be mere sepulchral monuments
 erected in late times since the ,roman 
occupation of ,great ,britain4 ,such an 
idea has little to rest upon1 and we    

prefer to regard them1 as they have     
always been regarded1 as relics of the  
,druidical worship of the ,celtic or    
,gaulish races that preceded us in this 
part of ,europe4  ,if we were to believe
 the accounts of ordinary historians1 we
 might believe that the ,druids were    
nothing more than a kind of savage race1
 hidden1 like the fallow-deer in the    
recesses of their woods4 ,thought to be 
sanguinary1 brutal1 superstitious1 we   
have learned nothing of them beyond     
their human sacrifices1 their worship of
 the oak1 their raised stones2 without  
inquiring whether these characteristics 
which scandalize our tastes1 are not    
simply the legacy of a primitive era1 to
 which1 by the side of the tattered     
religions of the old ,paganism1         
,druidism remained faithful4            
,nevertheless the ,druids were not      
without merit in the order of thought4  
,for the ,celts1 as for all primitive   
people1 astronomy and religion were     
intimately associated4 ,they considered 

that the soul was eternal1 and the stars
 were worlds successively inhabited by  
the spiritual emigrants4 ,they          
considered that the stars were as much  
the abodes of human life as our own     
earth1 and this image of the future life
 constituted their power and their      
grandeur4 ,they repelled entirely the   
idea of the destruction of life1 and    
preferred to see in the phenomena of    
death1 a voyage to a region already     
peopled by friends4  ,under what form   
did ,druidical science represent the    
universe8 ,their scientific             
contemplation of the heavens was at the 
same time a religious contemplation4 ,it
 is therefore impossible to separate in 
our history their astronomical and      
theological heavens4  ,in their         
theological astronomy1 or astronomical  
theology1 the ,druids considered the    
totality of all living beings as divided
 into three circles4 ,the first of these
 circles1 the circle of immensity1      
,ceugant1 corresponding to              

incommunicable1 infinite attributes1    
belonged to ,god alone2 it was properly 
the absolute1 and none1 save the        
ineffable being1 had a right there4 ,the
 second circle1 that of blessedness1    
,gwyn-fyd1 united in it the beings that 
have arrived at the superior degrees of 
existence2 this was heaven4 ,the third1 
the circle of voyages1 ,abred1 comprised
 all the noviciate2 it was there1 at the
 bottom of the abysses1 in the great    
oceans1 as ,taliesin says1 that the     
first breath of man commenced4 ,the     
object proposed to men's perseverance   
and courage was to attain to what the   
bards called the point of liberty1 very 
probably the point at which1 being      
suitably fortified against the assaults 
of the lower passions1 they were not    
exposed to be troubled1 against their   
wills1 in their celestial aspirations2  
and when they arrived at such a         
point--so worthy of the ambition of     
every soul that would be its own        
master--they quitted the circle of      

,abred and entered that of ,gwyn-fyd2   
the hour of their recompense had come4  
,demetrius1 cited by ,plutarch1 relates 
that the ,druids believed that these    
souls of the elect were so intimately   
connected with our circle that they     
could not emerge from it without        
disturbing its equilibrium4 ,this writer
 states1 that being in the suite of the 
,emperor ,claudius1 in some part of the 
,british isles1 he heard suddenly a     
terrible hurricane1 and the priests1 who
 alone inhabited these sacred islands1  
immediately explained the phenomenon1 by
 telling him that a vacuum had been     
produced on the earth1 by the departure 
of an important soul4 ,the great men1 he
 said1 while they live are like torches 
whose light is always beneficent and    
never harms any one1 but when they are  
extinguished their death generally      
occasions1 as you have just seen1 winds1
 storm1 and derangements of the         
atmosphere4  ,the palingenetic system of
 the ,druids is complete in itself1 and 

takes the being at his origin1 and      
conducts him to the ultimate heaven4 ,at
 the moment of his creation1 as ,henry  
,martyn says in his ,commentary1 the    
being has no conscience of the gifts    
that are latent in him4 ,he is created  
in the lowest stage of life1 in ,annwfn1
 the shadowy abyss at the base of       
,abred4 ,there1 surrounded by nature1   
submitted to necessity1 he rises        
obscurely through the successive degrees
 of inorganic matter1 and then through  
the organic4 ,his conscience at last    
awakes4 ,he is man4 ,three things are   
primarily contemporaneous--man1 liberty1
 and light4 ,before man there was       
nothing in creation but fatal obedience 
to physical laws2 with man commences the
 great battle between liberty and       
necessity1 good and evil4 ,the good and 
the evil present themselves to man in   
equilibrium1 and he can at his pleasure 
attach himself to one or the other of   
them4  ,it might appear at first sight  
that it was carrying things too far to  

attribute to the ,druids the knowledge1 
not indeed of the true system of the    
world1 but the general idea on which it 
was constructed4 ,but1 on closer        
examination1 this opinion seems to have 
some consistency4 ,if it was from the   
,druids that ,pythagoras derived the    
basis of his theology1 why should it not
 be from them that he derived also that 
of his astronomy8 ,why1 if there is no  
difficulty in seeing that the principle 
of the subordination of the earth might 
arise from the meditations of an        
isolated spirit1 should there be any    
more difficulty in thinking that the    
principles of astronomy should take     
birth in the midst of a corporation of  
theologians embued with the same ideas  
as the philosophers on the circulation  
of life1 and applied with continued     
diligence to the study of celestial     
phenomena4 ,the ,druid1 not having to   
receive mythological errors1 might be   
led by that circumstance to imagine in  
space other worlds similar to our own4  

,independently of its intrinsic value1  
this supposition rests also upon the    
testimony of historians4 ,a singular    
statement made by ,hecataeus with regard
 to the religious rites of ,great       
,britain exhibits this in a striking    
manner4 ,this historian relates that the
 moon1 seen in this island1 appears much
 larger than it does anywhere else1 and 
that it is possible to distinguish      
mountains on its surface1 such as there 
are on the earth4 ,now1 how had the     
,druids made an observation of this     
kind8 ,it is of not much consequence    
whether they had actually seen the lunar
 mountains or had only imagined them1   
the curious thing is that they were     
persuaded that that body was like the   
earth1 and had mountains and other      
features similar to our own4 ,plutarch1 
in his treatise ,de facie in orbe       
,lunae1 tells us that1 according to the 
,druids1 and conformably to an idea     
which had long been held in science1 the
 surface of the moon is furrowed with   

several ,mediterraneans1 which the      
,grecian philosophers compare to the    
,red and ,caspian seas4 ,it was also    
thought that immense abysses were seen1 
which were supposed to be in            
communication with the hemisphere that  
is turned away from the earth4 ,lastly1 
the dimensions of this sky-borne country
 were estimated2 7ideas very different  
to those that were current in ,greece73 
its size and its breadth1 says the      
traveller depicted by the writer1 are   
not at all such as the geometers say1   
but much larger4  ,it is through the    
same author1 who is in accordance in    
this respect with all the bards1 that we
 know that this celestial earth was     
considered by the theologians of the    
,west as the residence of happy souls4  
,they rose and approached it in         
proportion as their preparation had been
 complete1 but1 in the agitation of the 
whirlwind1 many reached the moon that it
 would not receive4 ,the moon repelled a
 great number1 and rejected them by its 

fluctuations1 at the moment they reached
 it2 but those that had better success  
fixed themselves there for good2 their  
soul is like the flame1 which1 raising  
itself in the ether of the moon1 as fire
 raises itself on that of the earth     
receives force and solidity in the same 
way that red-hot iron does when plunged 
into the water4  ,they thus traced an   
analogy between the moon and the earth1 
which they doubtless carried out to its 
full development1 and made the moon an  
image of what they knew here1 picturing 
there the lunar fields and brooks and   
breezes and perfumes4 ,what a charm such
 a belief must have given to the heavens
 at night4 ,the moon was the place and  
visible pledge of immortality4 ,on this 
account it was placed in high position  
in their religion2 the order of all the 
festivals was arranged after that which 
was dedicated to it2 its presence was   
sought in all their ceremonies1 and its 
rays were invoked4 ,the ,druids are     
always therefore represented as having  

the crescent in their hands4  ,astronomy
 and theology being so intimately       
connected in the spirit of the ,druids1 
we can easily understand that the two   
studies were brought to the front       
together in their colleges4 ,from       
certain points of view we may say that  
the ,druids were nothing more than      
astronomers4 ,this quality was not less 
striking to the ancients in them than in
 the ,chaldaeans4 ,the observation of   
the stars was one of their official     
functions4 ,caesar tells us1 without    
entering more into particulars1 that    
they taught many things about the form  
and dimensions of the earth1 the size   
and arrangements of the different parts 
of heaven1 and the motions of the stars1
 which includes the greater part of the 
essential problems of celestial         
geometry1 which we see they had already 
proposed to themselves4 ,we can see the 
same fact in the magnificent passage of 
,taliesin4 ,i will ask the bards1 he    
says in his ,hymn of the ,world1 and why

 will not the bards answer me8 ,i will  
ask of them what sustains the earth1    
since having no support it does not     
fall8 or if it falls which way does it  
go8 ,but what can serve for its support8
 ,is the world a great traveller8       
,although it moves without ceasing1 it  
remains tranquil in its route2 and how  
admirable is that route1 seeing that the
 world moves not in any direction4 ,this
 suffices to show that the ideas of the 
,druids on material phenomena were not  
at all inferior to their conceptions of 
the destiny of the soul1 and that they  
had scientific views of quite another   
origin from the ,alexandrian ,greeks1   
the ,latins1 their disciples1 or the    
middle ages4 ,an anecdote of the eighth 
century furnishes another proof in      
favour of ,druidical science4 ,every one
 knows that ,virgilius1 bishop of       
,salzburg1 was accused of heresy by     
,boniface before the ,pope ,zacharias1  
because he had asserted that there were 
antipodes4 ,now ,virgilius was educated 

in one of the learned monasteries of    
,ireland1 which were fed by the         
,christian bards1 who had preserved the 
scientific traditions of ,druidism4     
,illustration3 ,,plate                  
,,ii4--,,druidical ,,worship4  ,the     
fundamental alliance between the        
doctrine of the plurality of worlds and 
of the eternity of the soul is perhaps  
the most memorable character in the     
thoughts of this ancient race4 ,the     
death upon earth was for them only a    
psychological and astronomical fact1 not
 more grave than that which happened to 
the moon when it was eclipsed1 nor the  
fall of the verdant clothing of the oak 
under the breath of the autumnal breeze4
 ,we see these conceptions and manners1 
at first sight so extraordinary1 clothe 
themselves with a simple and natural    
aspect4 ,the ,druids were so convinced  
of the future life in the stars1 that   
they used to lend money to be repaid in 
the other world4 ,such a custom must    
have made a profound impression on the  

minds of those who daily practised it4  
,pomponius ,mela and ,valerius ,maximus 
both tell us of this custom4 ,the latter
 says1 ,after having left ,marseilles ,i
 found that ancient custom of the ,gauls
 still in force1 namely1 of lending one 
another money to be paid back in the    
infernal regions1 for they are persuaded
 that the souls of men are immortal4    
,in passing to the other world they lost
 neither their personality1 their       
memory1 nor their friends2 they there   
re-encountered the business1 the laws1  
the magistrates of this world4 ,they had
 capitals and everything the same as    
here4 ,they gave one another rendezvous 
as emigrants might who were going to    
,america4 ,this superstition1 so        
laudable as far as it had the effect of 
pressing on the minds of men the firm   
sentiment of immortality1 led them to   
burn1 along with the dead1 all the      
objects which had been dear to them1 or 
of which they thought they might still  
wish to make use4 ,the ,gauls1 says     

,pomponius ,mela1 burn and bury with the
 dead that which had belonged to the    
living4  ,they had another custom       
prompted by the same spirit1 but far    
more touching4 ,when any one bade       
farewell to the earth1 each one charged 
him to take letters to his absent       
friends1 who should receive him on his  
arrival and doubtless load him with     
questions as to things below4 ,it is to 
,diodorus that we owe the preservation  
of the remembrance of this custom4 ,at  
their funerals1 he says1 they place     
letters with the dead which are written 
to those already dead by their parents1 
so that they may be read by them4 ,they 
followed the soul in thought in its     
passage to the other planets1 and the   
survivors often regretted that they     
could not accomplish the voyage in their
 company2 sometimes1 indeed1 they could 
not resist the temptation4 ,there are   
some1 says ,mela1 who burn themselves   
with their friends in order that they   
may continue to live together4 ,they    

entertained another idea also1 which led
 even to worse practices than this1     
namely1 that death was a sort of        
recruiting that was commanded by the    
laws of the universe for the sustenance 
of the army of existences4 ,in certain  
cases they would replace one death by   
another4 ,posidonius1 who visited ,gaul 
at an epoch when it had not been broken 
up1 and who knew it far better than     
,caesar1 has left us some very curious  
information on this subject4 ,if a man  
felt himself seriously warned by his    
disease that he must hold himself in    
readiness for departure1 but who1       
nevertheless1 had1 for the moment1 some 
important business on hand1 or the needs
 of his family chained him to this life1
 or even that death was disagreeable to 
him2 if no member of his family or his  
clients were willing to offer himself   
instead1 he looked out for a substitute2
 such a one would soon arrive           
accompanied by a troop of friends1 and  
stipulating for his price a certain sum 

of money1 he distributed it himself as  
remembrances among his                  
companions1--often even he would only   
ask for a barrel of wine4 ,then they    
would erect a stage1 improvise a sort of
 festival1 and finally1 after the       
banquet was over1 our hero would lie    
down on the shield1 and driving a sword 
into his bosom1 would take his departure
 for the other world4  ,such a custom1  
indeed1 shows anything but what we      
should rightly call civilization1       
however admirable may have been their   
opinions2 but it receives its only      
palliation from the fact that their     
indifference to death did not arise from
 their undervaluing life here1 but that 
they had so firm a belief in the        
existence and the happiness of a life   
hereafter4  ,that these beliefs were not
 separated from their astronomical ideas
 is seen from the fact that they peopled
 the firmament with the departed4 ,the  
,milky ,way was called the town of      
,gwyon 7,coer or ,ker ,gwydion1 ,ker in 

,breton1 ,caer in ,gaulish1 ,kohair in  
,gaelic72 certain bardic legends gave to
 ,gwyon as father a genius called ,don1 
who resides in the constellation of     
,cassiopeia1 and who figures as the king
 of the fairies in the popular myths of 
,ireland4 ,the empyrean is thus divided 
between various heavenly spirits4       
,arthur had for residence the ,great    
,bear1 called by the ,druids ,arthur's  
,chariot4  ,we are not1 however1        
entirely limited to tradition and the   
reports of former travellers for our    
information as to the astronomy of the  
,druids1 but we have also at our service
 numerous coins belonging to the old    
,gauls1 who were of one family with     
those who cultivated ,druidism in our   
island1 which have been discovered      
buried in the soil of ,france4 ,the     
importance which was given to astronomy 
in that race becomes immediately evident
 upon the discovery of the fact that    
these coins are marked with figures     
having reference to the heavenly bodies1

 in other words are astronomical coins4 
,if we examine1 from a general point of 
view1 a large collection of ,gaulish    
medals such as that preserved in the    
,national ,museum of ,paris1 we observe 
that among the essential symbols that   
occupy the fields are types of the      
,horse1 the ,bull1 the ,boar1 the       
,eagle1 the ,lion1 the ,horseman1 and   
the ,bear4 ,we remark next a great      
number of signs1 most often             
astronomical1 ordinarily accessory1 but 
occasionally the chief1 such as the sign
 symbol3 rotated mirrored ,s1 globules  
surrounded by concentric circles1 stars 
of five1 six1 or eight points1 radiated 
and flaming bodies1 crescents1          
triangles1 wheels with four spokes1 the 
sign symbol3 infinity1 the lunar        
crescent1 the zigzag1 c4 ,lastly1 we    
remark other accessory types represented
 by images of real objects or imaginary 
figures1 such as the ,lyre1 the ,diota1 
the ,serpent1 the ,hatchet1 the ,human  
,eye1 the ,sword1 the ,bough1 the ,lamp1

 the ,jewel1 the ,bird1 the ,arrow1 the 
,ear of ,corn1 the ,fishes1 c4  ,on a   
great number of medals1 on the stateres 
of ,vercingetorix1 on the reverses of   
the coins of several epochs1 we         
recognize principally the sign of the   
,waterer1 which appears to symbolize for
 one part of antiquity the knowledge of 
the heavenly sphere4 ,on the ,gaulish   
types this sign 7an amphora with two    
handles7 bears the name of ,diota1 and  
represents amongst the ,druids as       
amongst the ,magi the sciences of       
astronomy and astrology4  ,some of these
 coins are represented in the woodcut   
below4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4  ,the 
first of these represents the course of 
the ,sun-,horse reaching the ,tropic of 
,cancer 7summer solstice71 and brought  
back to the ,tropic of ,capricorn       
7winter solstice74  ,on the second is   
seen the symbol of the year between the 
south 7represented by the sun symbol3   
sun7 and the north 7represented by the  
,northern ,bear74 ,in the third the     

calendar 7or course of the year7 between
 the sun symbol3 sun and the moon       
symbol3 moon4 ,time the ,sun1 and the   
,bear are visible on the fourth4 ,the   
diurnal motion of the heavens is        
represented on the fifth2 and lastly1 on
 the sixth1 appears the ,watering-pot1  
the ,sun-,horse1 and the sign of the    
course of the heavenly bodies4  ,on     
other groups of money the presence of   
the zodiac may be made out4  ,these     
medals would seem to show that some part
 of the astronomical knowledge of the   
,druids was not invented by themselves1 
but borrowed from the ,chaldeans or     
others who in other lands invented them 
in previous ages1 and from whom they may
 have possibly derived them from the    
,phenicians4  ,we may certainly expect1 
however1 from these pieces of money1 if 
found in sufficient number and carefully
 studied1 to discover a good many       
positive facts now wanting to us1 of the
 religion1 sciences1 manners1 language1 
commercial relation1 c4 which belonged  

to the ,celtic civilization4 ,it was far
 from being so barbarous as is          
ordinarily supposed1 and we shall do    
more justice to it when we know it      
better4  ,m4 ,fillioux1 the curator of  
the museum of ,gueret1 who has studied  
these coins with care1 after having     
sought for a long time for a clear and  
concise method of determining exactly   
the symbolic and religious character of 
the ,gaulish money1 has been able to    
give the following general statements4  
,the coins have for their ordinary field
 the heavens4  ,on the right side they  
present almost universally the ideal    
heads of gods or goddesses1 or in       
default of these1 the symbols that are  
representative of them4  ,on the reverse
 for the most part1 they reproduce1     
either by direct types or by emblems    
artfully combined1 the principal        
celestial bodies1 the divers aspects of 
the constellations1 and probably the    
laws1 which1 according to their ancient 
science1 presided over their course2 in 

a smaller proportion they denote the    
religious myths which form the base of  
the national belief of the ,gauls4 ,as  
we have seen above1 for them the present
 life was but a transitory state of the 
soul1 only a prodrome of the future     
life1 which should develop itself in    
heaven and the astronomical worlds with 
which it is filled4  ,borrowed from an  
elevated spiritualism1 incessantly      
tending towards the celestial worlds1   
these ideas were singularly appropriate 
to a nation at once warlike and         
commercial4 ,these circumstances explain
 the existence of these strange types1  
founded at the same time on those of    
other nations1 and on the symbolism     
which was the soul of the ,druidical    
religion4 ,to this religious caste1     
indeed1 we must give the merit of this  
ingenious and original conception1 of   
turning the reverses of the coins into  
regular charts of the heavens4 ,nothing 
indeed could be better calculated to    
inspire the people with respect and     

confidence than these mysterious and    
learned symbols1 representing the       
phenomena of the heavens4  ,not making  
use of writing to teach their dogmas1   
which they wished to maintain as part of
 the mysteries of their caste1 the      
,druids availed themselves of this      
method of placing on the money that     
celestial symbolism of which they alone 
possessed the key4  ,the religious ideas
 founded on astronomical observations   
were not peculiar to1 or originated by1 
the ,druids1 any more than their zodiac4
 ,there seems reason to believe that    
they had come down from a remote        
antiquity1 and been widely spread over  
many nations1 as we shall see in the    
chapter on the ,pleiades2 but we can    
certainly trace them to the ,east1 where
 they first prevailed in ,persia and    
,egypt1 and were afterwards brought to  
,greece1 where they disappeared before  
the new creations of anthropomorphism1  
though they were not forgotten in the   
days of the poet ,anacreon1 who says1   

,do not represent for me1 around this   
vase 7a vase he had ordered of the      
worker in silver71 either the heavenly  
bodies1 or the chariot1 or the          
melancholy ,orion2 ,i have nothing to do
 with the ,pleiades or the ,herdsman4   
,he only wanted mythological subjects   
which were more to his taste4  ,the     
characters which are made use of in     
these astronomical moneys of the ,druids
 would appear to have a more ancient    
origin than we are able to trace        
directly1 since they are most of them   
found on the arms and implements of the 
bronze age4 ,some of them1 such as the  
concentric pointed circles1 the crescent
 with a globule or a star1 the line in  
zigzag1 were used in ,egypt2 where they 
served to mark the sun1 the month1 the  
year1 the fluid element2 and they appear
 to have had among the ,druids the same 
signification4 ,the other signs1 such as
 the symbol3 wave1 and its multiple     
combinations1 the centred circles1      
grouped in one or two1 the little rings1

 the alphabetical characters recalling  
the form of a constellation1 the wheel  
with rays1 the radiating discs1 c4 are  
all represented on the bronze arms found
 in the ,celtic1 ,germanic1 ,breton1 and
 ,scandinavian lands4 ,from this remote 
period1 which was strongly impressed    
with the ,oriental genius1 we must date 
the origin of the ,celtic symbolism4 ,it
 has been supposed1 and not without     
reason1 that this epoch1 besides being  
contemporaneous with the ,phenician     
establishments on the borders of the    
ocean1 was an age of civilization and   
progress in ,gaul1 and that the ideas of
 the ,druids became modified at the same
 time that they acquired just notions in
 astronomy and in the art of casting    
metals4 ,at a far later period1 the     
,druidic theocracy having1 with         
religious care1 preserved the symbols of
 its ancient traditions1 had them       
stamped on the coins which they caused  
to be struck4  ,this remarkable fact is 
shown in an incontestable manner in the 

rougher attempts in ,gaulish money1 and 
this same state of things was           
perpetuated even into the epoch of the  
high arts1 since we find on the         
imitation statues of ,macedonia the old 
,celtic symbols associated with emblems 
of a ,grecian origin4  ,in ,italy a     
different result was arrived at1 because
 the warlike element of the nobles soon 
predominated over the religious4        
,nevertheless the most ancient ,roman   
coins1 those which are known to us under
 the name of ,consular1 have not escaped
 the common law which seems to have     
presided1 among all nations1 over the   
origin of money4 ,the two commonest     
types1 one in bronze of ,janus ,bifrons 
with the palus2 the other in silver1 the
 ,dioscures with their stars1 have an   
eminently astronomical aspect4  ,the    
comparison between the ,gaulish and     
,roman coins may be followed in a series
 of analogies which are very remarkable 
from an astronomical point of view4 ,to 
cite only a few examples1 we may observe

 on a large number of pennies of        
different families1 the impression of   
,auriga the ,coachman conducting a      
quadriga2 or the sun under another form 
7with his head radiated and drawn in    
profile72 or ,diana with her lunar      
attributes2 or the five planets well    
characterised2 for example1 ,venus by a 
double star1 as that of the morning or  
of the evening2 or the constellations of
 the ,dog1 ,hercules1 the ,kid1 the     
,lyre1 and almost all those of the      
zodiac and of the circumpolar region and
 the seven-kine 7septemtriones74 ,in    
later times1 under the ,caesars1 in the 
villa of ,borghese1 is found a calendar 
whose arrangements very much recall the 
ancient ,gaulish coin4 ,the head of the 
twelve great gods and the twelve signs  
of the zodiac are represented1 and the  
drawing of the constellations           
establishes a correspondence between    
their rising and the position of the sun
 in the zodiac4 ,it may therefore be    
affirmed that in the coinage and works  

of art in ,italy and ,greece1 the       
characteristic influence of astronomical
 worship is found as strongly as among  
the ,druids4 ,nor have the ,western     
nations alone had the curious habit of  
impressing their astronomical ideas upon
 their coinage1 for in ,china and ,japan
 coins of a similar description have    
been met with1 containing on their      
reverse all the signs of the zodiac     
admitted by them4  ,in conclusion1 we   
may say1 that it was cosmography1 that  
constructed the dogmas of the ,druidical
 religion1 which was1 in its essential  
elements1 the same as that of the old   
,oriental theocracies4 ,the outward     
ceremonies were addressed to the sun1   
the moon1 the stars1 and other visible  
phenomena2 but1 above nature1 there was 
the great generating and moving         
principle1 which the ,celts placed1 at a
 later period perhaps1 among the        
attributes of their supreme deities4    
,illustration3 ,,the ,,northern         
,,constellations4  ,the                 

,lyre--,cassiopeia--,the ,little        
,bear--,the ,dragon--,andromeda--,the   
,great ,bear--,capella--,algol1 or      
,medusa's ,head4     ,,chapter ,,iii4   
,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,constellations4   
,when we look upon the multitude of     
heavenly bodies with which the celestial
 vault is strewed1 our attention is     
naturally arrested by certain groupings 
of brilliant stars1 apparently          
associated together on account of their 
great proximity2 and also by certain    
remarkable single stars which have      
excessive brilliancy or are completely  
isolated from the rest4 ,these natural  
groups seem to have some obscure        
connection with or dependence on each   
other4 ,they have always been noticed1  
even by the most savage races4 ,the     
languages of several such races contain 
different names for the same identical  
groups1 and these names1 mostly borrowed
 from terrestrial beings1 give an       
imaginary life to the solitude and      
silence of the skies4 ,a celestial      

globe1 as we know1 presents us with a   
singular menagerie1 rich in curious     
monsters placed in inconceivable        
positions4 ,how these constellations1 as
 they are called1 were first invented1  
and by whom1 is an interesting question 
which by the aid of comparative         
philology we must endeavour now to      
answer4  ,among these constellations    
there are twelve which have a more than 
ordinary importance1 and to which more  
attention has always been paid4 ,they   
are those through which the sun appears 
to pass in his annual journey round the 
ecliptic1 entering one region each      
month4 ,at least1 this is what they were
 when first invented4 ,they were called 
the zodiacal constellations or signs of 
the zodiac--the name being derived from 
their being mostly named after living   
beasts4 ,in our own days the zodiacal   
constellations are no longer the signs  
of the zodiac4 ,when they were arranged 
the sun entered each one on a certain   
date4 ,he now is no longer at the same  

point in the heavens at that date1      
nevertheless he is still said to enter  
the same sign of the zodiac--which      
therefore no longer coincides with the  
zodiacal constellation it was named     
from--but merely stands for a certain   
twelfth part of the ecliptic1 which     
varies from time to time4 ,it will be of
 course of great interest to discover   
the origin of these particular          
constellations1 the date of their       
invention1 c42 and we shall hope to do  
so after having discussed the origin of 
those seen in the ,northern hemisphere  
which may be more familiar even than    
those4  ,we have represented in the     
frontispiece the two halves of the      
,grecian celestial sphere--the ,northern
 and the ,southern1 with the various    
constellations they contain4 ,this      
sphere was not invented by the ,greeks1 
but was received by them from more      
ancient peoples1 and corrected and      
augmented4 ,it was used by ,hipparchus  
two thousand years ago2 and ,ptolemy has

 given us a description of it4 ,it      
contained #dh constellations1 of which  
#ba belonged to the ,northern1 #ae to   
the ,southern hemisphere1 and the       
remaining twelve were those of the      
zodiac1 situated along the ecliptic4    
,the constellations reckoned by ,ptolemy
 contained altogether #a1jbf stars1     
whose relative positions were determined
 by ,hipparchus2 with reference to which
 accomplishment ,pliny says1            
,hipparchus1 with a height of audacity  
too great even for a god1 has ventured  
to transmit to posterity the number of  
the stars6  ,ptolemy's catalogue        
contains3--        ,for the northern    
constellations          #cfa stars      
,for the zodiacal                       
#cej          ,for the southern         
#cah              or                    
-----       ,for all the #dh            
constellations          #a1jbi      or1 
since #c of these are named twice       
#a1jbf     ,of course this number is not
 to be supposed to represent the whole  

of the stars visible even to the naked  
eye2 there are twice as many in the     
,northern hemisphere alone1 while there 
are about #e1jjj in the whole sky4 ,the 
number visible in a telescope completely
 dwarfs this1 so that more than #cjj1jjj
 are now catalogued2 while the number   
visible in a large telescope may be     
reckoned at not less than #gg millions4 
,the principal northern constellations  
named by ,ptolemy are contained in the  
following list1 with the stars of the   
first magnitude that occur in each3--   
,the ,great ,bear1 or ,david's ,chariot1
 near the centre4  ,the ,little ,bear1  
with the ,pole ,star at the end of the  
tail4  ,the ,dragon4  ,cepheus1 situated
 to the right of the ,pole4  ,the       
,herdsman1 or the ,keeper of the ,bear1 
with the star ,arcturus4  ,the ,northern
 ,crown to the right4  ,hercules1 or the
 ,man who ,kneels4  ,the ,lyre1 or      
,falling ,vulture1 with the beautiful   
star ,vega4  ,the ,swan1 or ,bird1 or   
,cross4  ,cassiopeia1 or the ,chair1 or 

the ,throne4  ,perseus4  ,the ,carter1  
or the ,charioteer1 with ,capella       
,ophiuchus1 or ,serpentarius1 or        
,esculapius4  ,the ,serpent4  ,the ,bow 
and ,arrow1 or the ,dart4  ,the ,eagle1 
or the ,flying ,vulture1 with ,altair4  
,the ,dolphin4  ,the ,little ,horse1 or 
the ,bust of the ,horse4  ,pegasus1 or  
the ,winged ,horse1 or the ,great       
,cross4  ,andromeda1 or the ,woman with 
the ,girdle4  ,the ,northern ,triangle1 
or the ,delta4  ,the fifteen            
constellations on the south of the      
ecliptic were3--  ,the ,whale4  ,orion1 
with the beautiful stars ,rigel and     
,betelgeuse4  ,the ,river ,endanus1 or  
the ,river ,orion1 with the brilliant   
,achernar4  ,the ,hare4  ,the ,great    
,dog1 with the magnificent ,sirius4     
,the ,little ,dog1 or the ,dog which    
runs before1 with ,procyon4  ,the ship  
,argo1 with its fine ,alpha 7,canopus7  
and ,eta4  ,the ,female ,hydra1 or the  
,water ,snake4  ,the ,cup1 or the ,urn1 
or the ,vase4  ,the ,raven4  ,the       

,altar1 or the ,perfuming ,pot4  ,the   
,centaur1 whose star ,alpha is the      
nearest to the earth4  ,the ,wolf1 or   
the ,centaur's ,lance1 or the ,panther1 
or the ,beast4  ,the ,southern ,crown1  
or the ,wand of ,mercury1 or ,uraniscus4
  ,the ,southern ,fish1 with ,fomalhaut4
  ,the twelve zodiacal constellations1  
which are of more importance than the   
rest1 are generally named in the order  
in which the sun passes through them in 
its passage along the ecliptic1 and both
 ,latins and ,english have endeavoured  
to impress their names on the vulgar by 
embodying them in verses4 ,the poet     
,ausonius thus catalogues them3--       
,sunt3 ,aries1 ,taurus1 ,gemini1        
,cancer1 ,leo1 ,virgo1   ,libraque1     
,scorpius1 ,arcitenens1 ,caper1         
,amphora1 ,pisces4  and the ,english    
effusion is as follows3--    ,the ,ram1 
the ,bull1 the ,heavenly ,twins1   ,and 
next the ,crab the ,lion shines1        
,the ,virgin and the ,scales4   ,the    
,scorpion1 ,archer1 and ,he ,goat1      

,the ,man that holds the watering-pot1  
,and ,fish with glittering scales4      
,these twelve have hieroglyphics        
assigned to them1 by which they are     
referred to in calendars and            
astronomical works1 some of the marks   
being easily traced to their origin4    
,thus symbol3 aries refers to the horns 
of the ,ram2 symbol3 taurus to the head 
of the ,bull2 symbol3 scorpion to the   
joints and tail-sting of the ,scorpion2 
symbol3 saggitarius is very clearly     
connected with an archer2 symbol3       
capricorn is formed by the junction of  
the first two letters ,greek3 t and     
,greek3 r in ,greek3 tragos1 the        
,sea-goat1 or ,capricorn2 symbol3 libra 
for the ,balance1 is suggestive of its  
shape2 symbol3 aquarius refers to the   
water in the ,watering-pot2 and perhaps 
symbol3 pisces to the ,two ,fishes2     
symbol3 gemini for ,twins may denote two
 sides alike2 symbol3 cancer for the    
,crab1 has something of its side-walking
 appearance2 while symbol3 leo for the  

,lion1 and symbol3 virgo for the        
,virgin1 seem to have no reference that 
is traceable4  ,these constellations    
contain the following stars of the first
 magnitude--,aldebaran1 ,antares1 and   
,spica4  ,to these constellations       
admitted by the ,greeks should be added 
the ,locks of ,berenice1 although it is 
not named by ,ptolemy4 ,it was invented 
indeed by the astronomer ,conon4 ,the   
story is that ,berenice was the spouse  
and the sister of ,ptolemy ,euergetes1  
and that she made a vow to cut off her  
locks and devote them to ,venus if her  
husband returned victorious2 to console 
the king the astronomer placed her locks
 among the stars4 ,if this is a true    
account ,arago must be mistaken in      
asserting that the constellation was    
created by ,tycho ,brahe in #afjc4 ,the 
one he did add to the former ones was   
that of ,antinoeus1 by collecting into  
one figure some unappropriated stars    
near the ,eagle4 ,at about the same time
 ,j4 ,bayer1 from the information of    

,vespuccius and the sailors1 added      
twelve to the southern constellations of
 ,ptolemy2 among which may be mentioned 
the ,peacock1 the ,toucan1 the ,phoenix1
 the ,crane1 the ,fly1 the ,chameleon1  
the ,bird of ,paradise1 the ,southern   
,triangle1 and the ,indian4  ,augustus  
,royer1 in #afgi1 formed five new       
groups1 among which we may name the     
,great ,cloud1 the ,fleur-de-,lis1 and  
the ,southern ,cross4  ,hevelius1 in    
#afij1 added #af2 the most important    
being the ,giraffe1 the ,unicorn1 the   
,little ,lion1 the ,lynx1 the ,little   
,triangle4  ,among these newer-named    
constellations none is more interesting 
than the ,southern ,cross1 which is by  
some considered as the most brilliant of
 all that are known4 ,some account of   
it1 possibly from the ,arabs1 seems to  
have reached ,dante1 who evidently      
refers to it1 before it had been named  
by ,royer1 in a celebrated passage in   
his ,purgatory4 ,some have thought that 
his reference to such stars was only    

accidental1 and that he really referred 
only to the four cardinal virtues of    
theology1 chiefly on account of the     
difficulty of knowing how he could have 
heard of them2 but as the ,arabs had    
establishments along the entire coast of
 ,africa1 there is no difficulty in     
understanding how the information might 
reach ,italy4  ,americus ,vespuccius1   
who in his third voyage refers to these 
verses of ,dante1 does not mention the  
name of the ,southern ,cross4 ,he simply
 says that the four stars form a        
rhomboidal figure4 ,as voyages round the
 ,cape multiplied1 however1 the         
constellation became rapidly more       
celebrated1 and it is mentioned as      
forming a brilliant cross by the        
,florentine ,andrea ,corsali1 in #aeag1 
and a little later by ,pigafetta1 in    
#aebj4  ,all these constellations have  
not been considered sufficient1 and many
 subsequent additions have been made4   
,thus ,lacaille1 in #ageb1 created      
fourteen new ones1 mostly characterized 

by modern names--as the ,sculptor's     
,studio1 the ,chemical ,furnace1 the    
,clock1 the ,compass1 the ,telescope1   
the ,microscope1 and others4            
,lemonnier1 in #agff1 added the         
,reindeer1 the ,solitaire1 and the      
,indian ,bird1 and ,lalande the         
,harvestman4 ,poczobut1 in #aggg1 added 
one more1 and ,p4 ,hell another4        
,finally1 in the charts drawn by ,bode1 
eight more appear1 among which the      
,aerostat1 and the ,electrical and      
,printing ,machines4  ,we thus arrive at
 a total of #ajh constellations4 ,to    
which we may add that the following     
groups are generally recognized4 ,the   
,head of ,medusa1 near ,perseus2 the    
,pleiades1 on the back1 and the ,hyades 
on the forehead of the ,bull2 the ,club 
of ,hercules2 the ,shield of ,orion1    
sometimes called the ,rake2 the ,three  
,kings2 the ,staff of ,s4 ,james2 the   
,sword of ,orion2 the ,two ,asses in the
 ,crab1 having between them the ,star   
,cluster1 called the ,stall1 or the     

,manger2 and the ,kids1 near ,capella1  
in the constellation of the ,coachman4  
,this brings the list of the            
constellations to #aag1 which is the    
total number now admitted4  ,a curious  
episode with respect to these star      
arrangements may here be mentioned4     
,about the eighth century ,bede and     
certain other theologians and           
astronomers wished to depose the        
,olympian gods4 ,they proposed1         
therefore1 to change the names and      
arrangements of the constellations2 they
 put ,s4 ,peter in the place of the     
,ram2 ,s4 ,andrew instead of the ,bull2 
and so on4 ,in more recent calendars    
,david1 ,solomon1 the ,magi1 and other  
,new and ,old ,testament characters were
 placed in the heavens instead of the   
former constellations2 but these changes
 of name were not generally adopted4    
,as an example of these celestial       
spheres we figure a portion of one named
 ,coeli stellati ,christiani            
hemisphericum prius4 ,we here see the   

,great ,bear replaced by the ,barque of 
,s4 ,peter1 the ,little ,bear by ,s4    
,michael1 the ,dragon by the ,innocents1
 the ,coachman by ,s4 ,jerome1 ,perseus 
by ,s4 ,paul1 ,cassiopeia by the        
,magdalene1 ,andromache by ,s4          
,sepulchre1 and the ,triangle by ,s4    
,peter's mitre2 while for the zodiac    
were substituted the ,twelve ,apostles4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4  ,in the      
seventeenth century a proposal was made 
by ,weigel1 a professor in the          
,university of ,jena1 to form a series  
of heraldic constellations1 and to use  
for the zodiac the arms of the twelve   
most illustrious families in ,europe2   
but these attempts at change have been  
in vain1 the old names are still kept4  
,having now explained the origin in     
modern times of #fi out of the #aag     
constellations1 there remain the #dh    
which were acknowledged by the ,greeks1 
whose origin is involved in more        
obscurity4  ,one of the first to be     
noticed and named1 as it is now the most

 easily recognized and most widely      
known1 is the ,great ,bear1 which       
attracts all the more attention that it 
is one of those that never sets1 being  
at a less distance from the pole than   
the latter is from the horizon4  ,every 
one knows the seven brilliant stars that
 form this constellation4 ,the four in  
the rectangle and the three in a curved 
line at once call to mind the form of a 
chariot1 especially one of antique      
build4 ,it is this resemblance1 no      
doubt1 that has obtained for the        
constellation the name of the ,chariot  
that it bears among many people4 ,among 
the ancient ,gauls it was ,arthur's     
,chariot4 ,in ,france it is ,david's    
,chariot1 and in ,england it goes by the
 name of ,king ,charles' ,wain1 and by  
that of the ,plough4 ,the latter name   
was in vogue1 too1 among the ,latins    
7,plaustrum71 and the three stars were  
three oxen1 from whence it would appear 
that they extended the idea to all the  
seven stars1 and at last called them the

 seven oxen1 septem-triones1 from whence
 the name sometimes used for the        
north--septentrional4 ,the ,greeks also 
called it the ,chariot 7,greek3         
,hamaxa71 and the same word seems to    
have stood sometimes for a plough4 ,it  
certainly has some resemblance to this  
instrument4  ,if we take the seven stars
 as representing the characteristic     
points of a chariot1 the four stars of  
the quadrilateral will represent the    
four wheels1 and the three others will  
represent the three horses4 ,above the  
centre of the three horses any one with 
clear sight may perceive a small star of
 the fifth or sixth magnitude1 called   
the ,cavalier4 ,each of these several   
stars is indicated1 as is usual with all
 the constellations1 by a ,greek letter1
 the largest being denoted by the first 
letter4 ,thus the #d stars in the       
quadrilateral are ,greek3 a1 ,greek3 b1 
,greek3 g1 ,greek3 d1 and the #c tail   
stars ,greek3 e1 ,greek3 x1 ,greek3 e4  
,the ,arabs give to each star its       

special name1 which in this case are as 
follows3--,dubhe and ,merak are the     
stars at the back2 ,phegda and ,megrez  
those of the front2 ,alioth1 ,mizat1 and
 ,ackiar the other three1 while the     
little one over ,mizat is ,alcor4       
,another name for it is ,saidak1 or the 
,tester1 the being able to see it being 
a mark of clear vision4  ,there is some 
little interest in the ,great ,bear on  
account of the possibility of its being 
used as a kind of celestial time-keeper1
 and its easy recognition makes it all  
the more available4 ,the line through   
,greek3 a and ,greek3 b passes almost   
exactly through the pole4 ,now this line
 revolves of course with the            
constellation round the pole in #bd     
hours2 in every such interval being     
once1 vertical above the pole1 and once 
vertical below1 taking the intermediate 
positions to right and left between     
these times4 ,the instant at which this 
line is vertical over the pole is not   
the same on any two consecutive nights1 

since the stars advance each day #d     
minutes on the sun4 ,on the #bast of    
,march the superior passage takes place 
at #e minutes to #aa at night2 on the   
following night four minutes earlier1 or
 at #i minutes to #aa4 ,in three months 
the culmination takes place #f hours    
earlier1 or at #e minutes to #e4 ,in six
 months1 i4e4 on ,sept4 #bb1 it         
culminates at #aj4ee in the morning1    
being vertically below the pole at the  
same hour in the evening4 ,the following
 woodcut exhibits the positions of the  
,great ,bear at the various hours of    
,september #dth4 ,it is plain from this 
that1 knowing the day of the month1 the 
hour of the night may be told by        
observing what angle the line joining   
,greek3 a and ,greek3 b of this         
constellation makes with the vertical4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4  ,we have used
 the name ,great ,bear1 by which the    
constellation is best known4 ,it is one 
of the oldest names also1 being derived 
from the ,greeks1 who called it ,arctos 

megale 7,greek3 ,arktos megale71 whence 
the name ,arctic2 and singularly enough 
the ,iroquois1 when ,america was        
discovered1 called it ,okouari1 their   
name for a bear4 ,the explanation of    
this name is certainly not to be found  
in the resemblance of the constellation 
to the animal4 ,the three stars are     
indeed in the tail1 but the four are in 
the middle of the back2 and even if we  
take in the smaller stars that stand in 
the feet and head1 no ingenuity can make
 it in this or any other way resemble a 
bear4 ,it would appear1 as ,aristotle   
observes1 that the name is derived from 
the fact1 that of all known animals the 
bear was thought to be the only one that
 dared to venture into the frozen       
regions of the north and tempt the      
solitude and cold4  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #e4  ,other origins of the name1 
and other names1 have been suggested1 of
 which we may mention a few4 ,for       
example1 ,ursa is said to be derived    
from versus1 because the constellation  

is seen to turn about the pole4 ,it has 
been called the ,screw 7,greek3 ,elike71
 or ,helix1 which has plainly reference 
to its turning4 ,another name is        
,callisto1 in reference to its beauty2  
and lastly1 among the ,arabs the ,great 
and ,little ,bears were known as the    
,great and ,little ,coffins in reference
 to their slow and solemn motion4 ,these
 names referred to the four stars of    
each constellation1 the other three     
being the mourners following the        
bearers4 ,the ,christian ,arabs made it 
into the grave of ,lazarus and the three
 weepers1 ,mary1 ,martha1 and their     
maid4  ,next as to the ,little ,bear4   
,this constellation has evidently       
received its name from the similarity of
 its form to that of the ,great ,bear4  
,in fact1 it is composed of seven stars 
arranged in the same way1 only in an    
inverse order4 ,if we follow the line   
from ,greek3 b to ,greek3 a of the      
,great ,bear to a distance of five times
 as great as that between these stars we

 reach the brightest star of the ,little
 ,bear1 called the ,pole ,star4 ,all the
 names of the one constellation have    
been applied to the other1 only at a    
later date4  ,the new constellations    
were added one by one to the celestial  
sphere by the ,greeks before they       
arranged certain of them as parts of the
 zodiac4 ,the successive introduction of
 the constellations is proved completely
 by a long passage of ,strabo1 which has
 been often misunderstood4 ,it is wrong1
 he says1 to accuse ,homer of ignorance 
because he speaks only of one of the two
 ,celestial ,bears4 ,the second was     
probably not formed at that time4 ,the  
,phenicians were the first to form them 
and to use them for navigation4 ,they   
came later to the ,greeks4              
,illustration3 ,,the ,,constellations   
,,from ,,the ,,sea-,,shore4  ,the       
,swan--,the ,lyre--,hercules--,the      
,crown--,the ,herdsman--,the            
,eagle--,the ,serpent--,the             
,balance--,the ,scorpion--,sagittarius4 

,all the commentators on ,homer1 ,hygin 
and ,diogenes ,laertes1 attribute to    
,thales the introduction of this        
constellation4 ,pseudo-,eratosthenes    
called the ,little ,bear ,greek3        
,phoinike1 to indicate that it was a    
guide to the ,phenicians4 ,a century    
later1 about the seventeenth ,olympiad1 
,cleostrates of ,tenedos enriched the   
sphere with the ,archer 7,greek3        
,toxotes1 ,sagittarius7 and the ,ram    
7,greek3 ,krios1 ,aries71 and about the 
same time the zodiac was introduced into
 the ,grecian sphere4  ,with regard to  
the ,little ,bear there is another      
passage of ,strabo which it will be     
interesting to quote4 ,he says--,the    
position of the people under the        
parallel of ,cinnamomophore1 i4e4 #c1jjj
 stadia south of ,meroe and #h1hjj      
stadia north of the equator1 represents 
about the middle of the interval between
 the equator and the tropic1 which      
passes by ,syene1 which is #e1jjj stadia
 north of ,meroe4 ,these same people are

 the first for whom the ,little ,bear is
 comprised entirely in the ,arctic      
circle and remains always visible2 the  
most southern star of the constellation1
 the brilliant one that ends the tail   
being placed on the circumference of the
 ,arctic circle1 so as just to touch the
 horizon4 ,the remarkable thing in this 
passage is that it refers to an epoch   
anterior to ,strabo1 when the star      
,greek3 a of the ,little ,bear1 which   
now appears almost immovable1 owing to  
its extreme proximity to the pole1 was  
then more to the south than the other   
stars of the constellation1 and moved in
 the ,arctic circle so as to touch the  
horizon of places of certain latitudes1 
and to set for latitudes nearer the     
equator4  ,in those days it was not the 
,pole ,star--if that word has any       
relation to ,greek3 poleo1 ,i turn--for 
the heavens did not turn about it then  
as they do now4  ,the ,grecian          
geographer speaks in this passage of a  
period when the most brilliant star in  

the neighbourhood of the pole was       
,greek3 a of the ,dragon4 ,this was more
 than three thousand years ago4 ,at that
 time the ,little ,bear was nearer to   
the pole than what we now call the      
,polar ,star1 for this latter was the   
most southern star in the constellation4
 ,if we could alight upon documents     
dating back fourteen thousand years1 we 
should find the star ,vega 7,greek3 a   
,lyra7 referred to as occupying the pole
 of the world1 although it now is at a  
distance of #ea degrees from it1 the    
whole cycle of changes occupying a      
period of about twenty-six thousand     
years4  ,before leaving these two       
constellations we may notice the origin 
of the names according to ,plutarch4 ,he
 would have it that the names are       
derived from the use that they were put 
to in navigation4 ,he says that the     
,phenicians called that constellation   
that guided them in their route the     
,dobebe1 or ,doube1 that is1 the        
speaking constellation1 and that this   

same word happens to mean also in that  
language a bear2 and so the name was    
confounded4 ,certainly there is still a 
word dubbeh in ,arabic having this      
signification4  ,next as to the         
,herdsman4 ,the name of its             
characteristic star and of itself1      
,arcturus 7,greek3 ,arktos1 bear2       
,greek3 ,ouros1 guardian71 is explained 
without difficulty by its position near 
the ,bears4 ,there are six small stars  
of the third magnitude in the           
constellation round its chief one--three
 of its stars forming an equilateral    
triangle4 ,arcturus is in the           
continuation of the curved line through 
the three tail stars of the ,great      
,bear4 ,the constellation has also been 
called ,atlas1 from its nearness to the 
pole--as if it held up the heavens1 as  
the fable goes4  ,beyond this triangle1 
in the direction of the line continued  
straight from the ,great ,bear1 is the  
,northern ,crown1 whose form immediately
 suggests its name4 ,among the stars    

that compose it one1 of the second      
magnitude1 is called the ,pearl of the  
,crown4 ,it was in this point of the    
heavens that a temporary star appeared  
in ,may1 #ahff1 and disappeared again in
 the course of a few weeks4  ,among the 
circumpolar constellations we must now  
speak of ,cassiopeia1 or the ,chair--or 
,throne--which is situated on the       
opposite side of the ,pole from the     
,great ,bear2 and which is easily found 
by joining its star ,greek3 d to the    
,pole and continuing it4 ,the ,chair is 
composed principally of five stars1 of  
the third magnitude1 arranged in the    
form of an ,m4 ,a smaller star of the   
fourth magnitude completes the square   
formed by the three ,greek3 b1 ,greek3  
a1 and ,greek3 g4 ,the figure thus      
formed has a fair resemblance to a chair
 or throne1 ,greek3 d and ,greek3 e     
forming the back2 and hence the         
justification for its popular name4 ,the
 other name ,cassiopeia has its         
connection and meaning unknown4  ,we may

 suitably remark in this place1 with    
,arago1 that no precise drawing of the  
ancient constellations has come down to 
us4 ,we only know their forms by written
 descriptions1 and these often very     
short and meagre4 ,a verbal description 
can never take the place of a drawing1  
especially if it is a complex figure1 so
 that there is a certain amount of doubt
 as to the true form1 position1 and     
arrangement of the figures of men1      
beasts1 and inanimate objects which     
composed the star-groups of the ,grecian
 astronomers--so that unexpected        
difficulties attend the attempt to      
reproduce them on our modern spheres4   
,add to this that alterations have been 
avowedly introduced by the ancient      
astronomers themselves1 among others by 
,ptolemy1 especially in those given by  
,hipparchus4 ,ptolemy says he determined
 to make these changes because it was   
necessary to give a better proportion to
 the figures1 and to adapt them better  
to the real positions of the stars4     

,thus in the constellation of the       
,virgin1 as drawn by ,hipparchus1       
certain stars corresponded to the       
shoulders2 but ,ptolemy placed them in  
the sides1 so as to make the figure a   
more beautiful one4 ,the result is that 
modern designers give scope to their    
imagination rather than consult the     
descriptions of the ,greeks4            
,cassiopeia1 ,cepheus1 ,andromeda1 and  
,perseus holding in his hand the ,head  
of ,medusa1 appear to have been         
established at the same epoch1 no doubt 
subsequently to the ,great ,bear4 ,they 
form one family1 placed together in one 
part of the heavens1 and associated in  
one drama2 the ardent ,perseus          
delivering the unfortunate ,andromeda1  
daughter of ,cepheus and ,cassiopeia4   
,we can never be sure1 however1 whether 
the constellations suggested the fable1 
or the fable the constellations3 the    
former may only mean that ,perseus1     
rising before ,andromeda1 seems to      
deliver it from the ,night and from the 

constellation of the ,whale4 ,the ,head 
of ,medusa1 a celebrated woman1 that    
,perseus cut off and holds in his hand1 
is said by ,volney to be only the head  
of the constellation ,virgo1 which      
passes beneath the horizon precisely as 
the ,perseus rises1 and the serpents    
which surround it are ,ophiucus and the 
polar ,dragon1 which then occupies the  
zenith4  ,either way1 we have no account
 of the origin of the names1 and it is  
possible that we may have to seek it1 if
 ever we find it1 from other            
sources--for it would appear that       
similar names were used for the same    
constellations by the ,indians4 ,this   
seems inevitably proved by what is      
related by ,wilford 7,asiatic           
,researches1 ,,iii47 of his conversation
 with his pundit1 an astronomer1 on the 
names of the ,indian constellations4    
,asking him1 he says1 to show me in the 
heavens the constellation of ,antarmada1
 he immediately pointed to ,andromeda1  
though ,i had not given him any         

information about it beforehand4 ,he    
afterwards brought me a very rare and   
curious work in ,sanscrit1 which        
contained a chapter devoted to          
,upanacchatras1 or extra-zodiacal       
constellations1 with drawings of ,capuja
 7,cepheus71 and of ,casyapi            
7,cassiopeia7 seated and holding a lotus
 flower in her hand1 of ,antarmada      
charmed with the fish beside her1 and   
last of ,parasiea 7,perseus7 who1       
according to the explanation of the     
book1 held the head of a monster which  
he had slain in combat2 blood was       
dropping from it1 and for hair it had   
snakes4 ,as the stars composing a       
constellation have often very little    
connection with the figure they are     
supposed to form1 when we find the same 
set of stars called by the same name by 
two different nations1 as was the case1 
for instance1 in some of the ,indian    
names of constellations among the       
,americans1 it is a proof that one of   
the nations copied it from the other1 or

 that both have copied from a common    
source4 ,so in the case before us1 we   
cannot think these similar names have   
arisen independently1 but must conclude 
that the ,grecian was borrowed from the 
,indian4  ,another well-known           
constellation in this neighbourhood1    
forming an isosceles triangle with      
,arcturus and the ,pole ,star1 is the   
,lyre4 ,lucian of ,samosatus says that  
the ,greeks gave this name to the       
constellation to do honour to the ,lyre 
of ,orpheus4 ,another possible          
explanation is this4 ,the word for lyre 
in ,greek ,greek3 chelys and in ,latin  
7testudo7 means also a tortoise4 ,now at
 the time when this name was imposed the
 chief star in the ,lyre may have been  
very near to the pole of the heavens and
 therefore have had a very slow motion1 
and hence it might have been named the  
tortoise1 and this in ,greek would      
easily be interpreted into lyre instead4
 ,indeed this double meaning of the word
 seems certainly to have given rise to  

the fable of ,mercury having constructed
 a lyre out of the back of a tortoise4  
,circling round the pole of the         
ecliptic1 and formed by a sinuous line  
of stars passing round from the ,great  
,bear to the ,lyre1 is the ,dragon1     
which owes its name to its form4 ,its   
importance is derived from its relation 
to the ecliptic1 the pole of which is   
determined by reference to the stars of 
the first coil of the body4 ,the centre 
of the zodiacal circle is a very        
important point1 that circle being      
traced on the most ancient spheres1 and 
probably being noticed even before the  
pole of the heavens4  ,closely          
associated with the ,dragon both in     
mythology and in the celestial sphere is
 ,hercules4 ,he is always drawn         
kneeling2 in fact1 the constellation is 
rather a man in a kneeling posture than 
any particular man4 ,the poets called it
 ,engonasis with reference to this1     
which is too melancholy or lowly a      
position than would agree well with the 

valiant hero of mythology4 ,there is a  
story related by ,a,eschylus about the  
stones in the ,champ des ,cailloux1     
between ,marseilles and the embouchure  
of the ,rhone1 to the effect that       
,hercules1 being amongst the ,ligurians1
 found it necessary to fight with them2 
but he had no more missiles to throw2   
when ,jupiter1 touched by the danger of 
his son1 sent a rain of round stones1   
with which ,hercules repulsed his       
enemies4 ,the ,engonasis is thus        
considered by some to represent him     
bending down to pick up the stones4     
,posidonius remarks that it was a pity  
,jupiter did not rain the stones on the 
,ligurians at once1 without giving      
,hercules the trouble to pick them up4  
,ophiucus1 which comes close by1 simply 
means the man that holds the serpent    
,greek3 ophi-ouchos4  ,it is obviously  
impossible to know the origins of all   
the names1 as those we now use are only 
the surviving ones of several that from 
time to time have been applied to the   

various constellations according to     
their temporary association with the    
local legends4 ,the prominent ones are  
favoured with quite a crowd of names4   
,we need only cite a few4 ,hercules1 for
 instance1 has been called ,greek3      
,okalzon ,korynetes1 ,engonasis1        
,ingeniculus1 ,nessus1 ,thamyris1       
,desanes1 ,maceris1 ,almannus1          
,al-chete1 c4 ,the ,swan has the names  
of ,greek3 ,kyknos1 ,greek3 ,iktin1     
,greek3 ,ornis1 ,olar1 ,helenae genitor1
 ,ales ,jovis1 ,ledaeus1 ,milvus1       
,gallina1 ,the ,cross1 while the        
,coachman has been ,greek3 ,ippilates1  
,greek3 ,elastippos1 ,greek3            
,airoelates1 ,greek3 ,eniochos1 ,auriga1
 ,acator1 ,hemochus1 ,erichthonus1      
,mamsek1 ,alanat1 ,athaiot1 ,alatod1 c4 
,with respect to the ,coachman1 in some 
old maps he is drawn with a whip in his 
left hand turned towards the chariot1   
and is called the charioteer4 ,no doubt 
its proximity to the former             
constellation has acquired for it its   

name4 ,the last we need mention1 as of  
any celebrity1 is that of ,orion1 which 
is situated on the equator1 which runs  
exactly through its midst4 ,regel forms 
its left foot1 and the ,hare serves for 
a footstool to the right foot of the    
hero4 ,three magnificent stars in the   
centre of the quadrilateral1 which lie  
in one straight line are called the     
,rake1 or the ,three ,kings1 or the     
,staff of ,jacob1 or the ,belt4 ,these  
names have an obvious origin2 but the   
meaning of ,orion itself is more        
doubtful4 ,in the ,grecian sphere it is 
written ,greek3 ,orion1 which also means
 a kind of bird4 ,the allied word       
,greek3 oros has very numerous meanings1
 the only one of which that could be    
conjectured to be connected with the    
constellations is a guardian4 ,the word 
,greek3 horion1 on the contrary1 the    
diminutive of ,greek3 horos1 means a    
limit1 and has been assigned to         
,jupiter2 and in this case may have     
reference to the constellation being    

situated on the confines of the two     
hemispheres4 ,in mythology ,orion was an
 intrepid hunter of enormous size4 ,he  
was the same personage as ,orus1 ,arion1
 the ,minotaur1 and ,nimrod1 and        
afterwards became ,saturn4 ,orion is    
called ,tsan in ,chinese1 which         
signifies three1 and corresponds to the 
three kings4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 
,the ,asiatics used not to trace the    
images of their constellations1 but     
simply joined the component stars by    
straight lines1 and placed at the side  
the hieroglyphic characters that        
represented the object they wished to   
name4 ,thus joining by five lines the   
principal stars in ,orion1 they placed  
at the side the hieroglyphics           
representing a man and a sword1 from    
whence the ,greeks derived the figure   
they afterwards drew of a giant armed   
with a sword4  ,we must include in this 
series that brightest of all stars1     
,sirius4 ,it forms part of the          
constellation of the ,great ,dog1 and   

lies to the south of ,orion near the    
extreme limit of our vision into the    
,southern hemisphere in our latitudes4  
,this star seems to have been intimately
 connected with ,egypt1 and to have     
derived its name--as well as the name of
 the otherwise unimportant constellation
 it forms part of--from that country1   
and in this way3--  ,the overflowing of 
the ,nile was always preceded by an     
,etesian wind1 which1 blowing from north
 to south about the time of the passage 
of the sun beneath the stars of the     
,crab1 drove the mists to the south1 and
 accumulated them over the country      
whence the ,nile takes its source1      
causing abundant rains1 and hence the   
flood4 ,the greatest importance attached
 to the foretelling the time of this    
event1 so that people might be ready    
with their provisions and their places  
of security4 ,the moon was no use for   
this purpose1 but the stars were1 for   
the inundation commenced when the sun   
was in the stars of the ,lion4 ,at this 

time the stars of the ,crab just        
appeared in the morning1 but with them1 
at some distance from the ecliptic1 the 
bright star ,sirius also rose4 ,the     
morning rising of this star was a sure  
precursor of the inundation4 ,it seemed 
to them to be the warning star1 by whose
 first appearance they were to be ready 
to move to safer spots1 and thus acted  
for each family the part of a faithful  
dog4 ,whence they gave it the name of   
the ,dog1 or ,monitor1 in ,egyptian     
,anubis1 in ,phenician ,hannobeach1 and 
it is still the ,dog-,star--,caniculus1 
and its rising commences our dog-days4  
,the intimate connection between the    
rising of this star and the rising of   
the ,nile led people to call it also the
 ,nile star1 or simply the ,nile2 in    
,egyptian and ,hebrew1 ,sihor2 in       
,greek1 ,greek3 ,sothis2 in ,latin1     
,sirius4  ,in the same way the          
,egyptians and others characterised the 
different days of the year by the stars 
which first appeared in the evening--as 

we shall see more particularly with     
reference to the ,pleiades--and in this 
way certain stars came to be associated 
in their calendar with variations of    
temperature and operations of           
agriculture4 ,they soon took for the    
cause what was originally but the sign1 
and thus they came to talk of moist     
stars1 whose rising brought rain1 and   
arid stars1 which brought drought4 ,some
 made certain plants to grow1 and others
 had influence over animals4  ,in the   
case of ,egypt1 no other so great event 
could occur as that which the ,dog-,star
 foretold1 and its appearance was       
consequently made the commencement of   
the year4 ,instead1 therefore1 of       
painting it as a simple star1 in which  
case it would be indistinguishable from 
others1 they gave it shape according to 
its function and name4 ,when they wished
 to signify that it opened the year1 it 
was represented as a porter bearing     
keys1 or else they gave it two heads1   
one of an old man1 to represent the     

passing year1 the other of a younger1 to
 denote the succeeding year4 ,when they 
would represent it as giving warning of 
the inundation they painted it as a dog4
 ,to illustrate what they were to do    
when it appeared1 ,anubis had in his    
arms a stew-pot1 wings to his feet1 a   
large feather under his arm1 and two    
reptiles behind him1 a tortoise and a   
duck4  ,there is also in the celestial  
sphere a constellation called the       
,little ,dog and ,procyon2 the latter   
name has an obvious meaning1 as         
appearing before the ,dog-,star4  ,we   
cannot follow any farther the various   
constellations of the northern sphere1  
nor of the southern4 ,the zodiacal      
constellations we must reserve for the  
present1 while we conclude by referring 
to some of the changes in form and      
position that some of the               
above-mentioned have undergone in the   
course of their various representations4
  ,these changes are sometimes very     
curious1 as1 for example1 in a coloured 

chart1 printed at ,paris in #afej1 we   
have the ,charioteer drawn in the       
costume of ,adam1 with his knees on the 
,milky ,way1 and turning his back to the
 public2 the she-goat appears to be     
climbing over his neck1 and two little  
she-goats seem to be running towards    
their mother4 ,cassiopeia is more like  
,king ,solomon than a woman4 ,compare   
this with the ,phenomena of ,aratus1    
published #aeei1 where ,cassiopeia is   
represented sitting on an oak chair with
 a ducal back1 holding the holy palm in 
her left hand1 while the ,coachman1     
,erichthon1 is in the costume of a      
minion of ,henry the ,third of ,france4 
,now compare the ,cassiopeia of the     
,greeks with that drawn in the sixteenth
 and seventeenth centuries1 or the      
,coachman of the same periods1 and we   
can easily see the fancies of the       
painters have been one of the most      
fertile sources of change4 ,they seem1  
too1 to have had the fancy in the middle
 ages to draw them all hideous and      

turning their backs4 ,compare1 for      
instance1 the two pictures of ,andromeda
 and ,hercules1 as given below1 where   
those on one side are as heavy and gross
 as the others are artistic and pretty4 
,unfortunately for the truth of         
,andromeda's beauty1 as depicted in     
these designs1 she was supposed to be a 
negress1 being the daughter of the      
,ethiopians1 ,cepheus and ,cassiopeia4  
,not one of the drawings indicates this2
 indeed they all take after their local 
beauties4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4    
,in ,flamsteed's chart1 as drawn above1 
the ,coachman is a female2 and instead  
of the she-goat being on the back1 she  
holds it in her arms4 ,no one1 indeed1  
from any of the figures of this         
constellation would ever dream it was   
intended to represent a coachman4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4  ,one more    
fundamental cause of changes has been   
the confusion of names derived by one   
nation from another1 these having       
sometimes followed their signification1 

but at others being translated          
phonetically4 ,thus the ,latins1 in     
deriving names from the ,greek ,greek3  
,arktos1 have partly translated it by   
,ursa1 and partly have copied it in the 
form ,arcticus4 ,so also with reference 
to the three stars in the head of the   
,bull1 called by the ,greeks ,hyades4   
,the ,romans thought it was derived from
 ,greek3 hyes1 sows1 so they called them
 suculae1 or little sows2 whereas the   
original name was derived from ,greek3  
hyein1 to rain1 and signified stars     
whose appearance indicated the approach 
of the rainy season4  ,more curious     
still is the transformation of the      
,pearl of the ,northern ,crown          
7,margarita ,coronae7 in a saint--,s4   
,marguerite4  ,the names may have had   
many origins whose signification is     
lost1 owing to their being              
misunderstood4 ,thus figurative language
 may have been interpreted as real1 as  
when a conjunction is called a marriage2
 a disappearance1 death2 and a          

reappearance1 a resurrection2 and then  
stories must be invented to fit these   
words2 or the stars that have in one    
country given notice of certain events  
lose the meaning of their names when    
these are used elsewhere2 as when a boat
 painted near the stars that accompany  
an inundation1 becomes the ship ,argo2  
or when1 to represent the wind1 the     
bird's wing is drawn2 or those stars    
that mark a season are associated with  
the bird of passage1 the insect or the  
animal that appears at that time3 such  
as these would soon lose their original 
signification4  ,the celestial sphere1  
therefore1 as we now possess it1 is not 
simply a collection of unmeaning names1 
associated with a group of stars in no  
way connected with them1 which have been
 imposed at various epochs by capricious
 imagination1 but in most instances1 if 
not in all1 they embody a history1      
which1 if we could trace it1 would      
probably lead us to astronomical facts1 
indicating the where and the when of    

their first introduction2 and the story 
of their changes1 so far as we can trace
 it1 gives us some clue to the mental   
characteristics or astronomical progress
 of the people who introduced the       
alterations4  ,we shall find1 indeed1 in
 a subsequent chapter1 that many of our 
conclusions as to the birth and growth  
of astronomy are derived from           
considerations connected with the       
various constellations1 more especially 
those of the zodiac4  ,with regard to   
the date when and the country where the 
constellations of the sphere were       
invented1 we will here give what        
evidence we possess1 independent of the 
origin of the zodiac4  ,in the first    
place it seems capable of certain proof 
that they were not invented by the      
,greeks1 from whom we have received     
them1 but adopted from an older source1 
and it is possible to give limits to the
 date of introduction among them4       
,newton1 who attributes its introduction
 to ,musaeus1 a contemporary of ,chiron1

 remarks1 that it must have been settled
 after the expedition of the ,argonauts1
 and before the destruction of ,troy2   
because the ,greeks gave to the         
constellation names that were derived   
from their history and fables1 and      
devoted several to celebrate the memory 
of the famous adventurers known as the  
,argonauts1 and they would certainly    
have dedicated some to the heroes of    
,troy1 if the siege of that place had   
happened at the time4 ,we remark that at
 this time astronomy was in too infant a
 state in ,greece for them to have fixed
 with so much accuracy the position of  
the stars1 and that we have in this a   
proof they must have borrowed their     
knowledge from older cultivators of the 
science4  ,the various statements we    
meet with about the invention of the    
sphere may be equally well interpreted  
of its introduction only into ,greece4  
,such1 for instance1 as that ,eudoxus   
first constructed it in the thirteenth  
or fourteenth century ,b4,c41 or that by

 ,clement of ,alexandria1 that ,chiron  
was the originator4  ,the oldest direct 
account of the names of the             
constellations and their component stars
 is that of ,hesiod1 who cites by name  
in his ,works and ,days the ,pleiades1  
,arcturus1 ,orion1 and ,sirius4 ,he     
lived1 according to ,herodotus1 about   
#hhd years before ,christ4  ,the        
knowledge of all the constellations did 
not reach the ,greeks at the same time1 
as we have seen from the omission by    
,homer of any mention of the ,little    
,bear1 when if he had known it1 he could
 hardly have failed to speak of it4 ,for
 in his description of the shield of    
,achilles1 he mentions the ,pleiades1   
the ,hyades1 ,orion and the ,bear1 which
 alone does not bathe in the ,ocean4 ,he
 could never have said this last if he  
had known of the ,dragon and ,little    
,bear4  ,we may then safely conclude    
that the ,greeks received the idea of   
the constellations from some older      
source1 probably the ,chaldeans4 ,they  

received it doubtless as a sphere1 with 
figured1 but nameless constellations2   
and the ,greeks by slight changes       
adapted them to represent the various   
real or imaginary heroes of their       
history4 ,it would be a gracious task1  
for their countrymen would glory in     
having their great men established in   
the heavens4 ,when they saw a ship      
represented1 what more suitable than to 
name it the ship ,argo8 ,the ,swan must 
be ,jupiter transformed1 the ,lyre is   
that of ,orpheus1 the ,eagle is that    
which carried away ,ganymede1 and so on4
  ,this would be no more than what other
 nations have done1 as1 for example1 the
 ,chinese1 who made greater changes     
still1 unless we consider theirs to have
 had an entirely independent origin4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4  ,that the    
celestial sphere was a conception known 
to others than the ,greeks is easily    
proved4 ,the ,arabians1 for instance1   
certainly did not borrow it from them2  
yet they have the same things           

represented4 ,above is a figure of a    
portion of an ,arabian sphere drawn in  
the eleventh century1 where we get      
represented plainly enough the ,great   
and ,little ,bears1 the ,dragon1        
,cassiopeia1 ,andromeda1 ,perseus1 with 
the ,triple ,head of ,medusa2 the       
,triangle1 one of the ,fishes1 ,auriga1 
the ,ram1 the ,bull obscurely1 and the  
,twins4  ,there is also the famous      
so-called zodiac of ,denderah1 brought  
from ,egypt to ,paris4 ,this in reality 
contains more constellations than those 
of the zodiac4 ,most of the northern    
ones can be traced1 with certain        
modifications4 ,its construction is     
supposed to belong to the eighth century
 ,b4,c4 ,most conspicuous on it is the  
,lion1 in a kind of barque1 recalling   
the shape of the ,hydra4 ,below it is   
the calf ,isis1 with ,sirius1 or the    
,dog-,star1 on the forehead2 above it is
 the ,crab1 to the right the ,twins1    
over these along instrument1 the        
,plough1 and above that a small animal1 

the ,little ,bear1 and so we may go     
on3--all the zodiacal constellations1   
especially the ,balance1 the ,scorpion1 
and the ,fishes being very clear4 ,this 
sphere is indeed of later date than that
 supposed for the ,grecian1 but it      
certainly appears to be independent4    
,the remains we possess of older spheres
 are more particularly connected with   
the zodiac1 and will be discussed       
hereafter4  ,from what people the       
,greeks received the celestial sphere1  
is a question on which more than one    
opinion has been formed4 ,one is that it
 was originated in the tropical         
latitudes of ,egypt4 ,the other1 that it
 came from the ,chaldeans1 and a third  
that it came from more temperate        
latitudes further to the east4 ,the     
arguments for the last of these are as  
follow3  ,there is an empty space of    
about #ij deg41 formed by the last      
constellations of the sphere1 towards   
the south pole1 that is by the ,centaur1
 the ,altar1 the ,archer1 the ,southern 

,fish1 the ,whale1 and the ,ship4 ,now  
in a systematic plan1 if the author were
 situated near the equator there would  
be no vacant space left in this way1 for
 in this case the southern stars1       
attracting as much attention as the     
northern1 would be inevitably inserted  
in the system of constellations which   
would be extended to the horizon on all 
sides4 ,but a country of sufficiently   
high latitude to be unable to see at any
 time the stars about the southern pole 
must be north both of ,egypt and        
,chaldea4  ,this empty space remained   
unfilled until the discovery of the     
,cape of ,good ,hope1 except that the   
star ,canopus was included in the       
constellation ,argo1 and the river      
,eridan had an arbitrary extension given
 to it1 instead of terminating in       
latitude #dj deg44  ,another less cogent
 argument is derived from the           
interpretation of the fable of the      
,phoenix4 ,this is supposed to represent
 the course of the sun1 which commences 

its growth at the time of its death4 ,a 
similar fable is found among the        
,swedes4 ,now a tropical nation would   
find the difference of days too little  
to lead it to invent such a fable to    
represent it4 ,it must needs have arisen
 where the days of winter were very much
 shorter than those of summer4  ,the    
,book of ,zoroaster1 in which some of   
the earliest notices of astronomy are   
recorded1 states that the length of a   
summer day is twice as long as that of  
winter4 ,this fixes the latitude in     
which that book must have been composed1
 and makes it #di deg44 ,whence it      
follows1 that to such a place must we   
look for the origin of these spheres1   
and not to ,egypt or ,chaldea4          
,illustration3 ,,plate                  
,,iii4--,,chaldean ,,astronomers4       
,diodorus ,siculus speaks of a nation in
 that part of the world1 whom he calls  
,hyperboreans1 who had a tradition that 
their country is the nearest to the     
moon1 on which they discovered mountains

 like those on the earth1 and that      
,apollo comes there once every nineteen 
years4 ,this period being that of the   
metonic cycle of the moon1 shows that if
 this could have really been discovered 
by them1 they must have had a long      
acquaintance with astronomy4  ,the      
,babylonian tablets lead us to the      
belief that astronomy1 and with it the  
sphere1 and the zodiac were introduced  
by a nation coming from the ,east1 from 
the mountains of ,elam1 called the      
,accadians1 before #cjjj ,b4,c41 and    
these may have been the nation to whom  
the whole is due4  ,on the other hand1  
the arguments for the ,egyptians1 or    
,chaldeans being the originators depend 
solely on the tradition handed down by  
many1 that one or other are the oldest  
people in the world1 with the oldest    
civilization1 and they have long        
cultivated astronomy4 ,more precise     
information1 however1 seems to render   
these traditions1 to say the least1     
doubtful1 and certainly incapable of    

overthrowing the arguments adduced      
above4     ,,chapter ,,iv4  ,,the       
,,zodiac4   ,the zodiac1 as already     
stated1 is the course in the heavens    
apparently pursued by the sun in his    
annual journey through the stars4 ,let  
us consider for a moment1 however1 the  
series of observations and reflections  
that must have been necessary to trace  
this zone as representing such a course4
  ,first1 the diurnal motion of the     
whole heavens from east to west must    
have been noticed during the night1 and 
the fact that certain stars never set1  
but turn in a circle round a fixed      
point4 ,what becomes then1 the next     
question would be1 of those stars that  
do descend beneath the horizon1 since   
they rise in the same relative positions
 as those in which they set4 ,they could
 not be thought to be destroyed1 but    
must complete the part of the circle    
that is invisible beneath the earth4    
,the possibility of any stars finding a 
path beneath the earth must have led    

inevitably to the conception of the     
earth as a body suspended in the centre 
with nothing to support it4 ,but leaving
 this alone1 it would also be concluded 
that the sun went with the stars1 and   
was in a certain position among them1   
even when both they and it were         
invisible4 ,the next observations       
necessary would be that the zodiacal    
constellations visible during the nights
 of winter were not the same as those   
seen in summer1 that such and such a    
group of stars passed the meridian at   
midnight at a certain time1 and that six
 months afterwards the group exactly    
opposite in the heavens passed at the   
same hour4 ,now since at midnight the   
sun will be exactly opposite the        
meridian1 if it continues uniformly on  
its course1 it will be among that group 
of stars that is opposite the group that
 culminates at midnight1 and so the sign
 of the zodiac the sun occupies would be
 determined4  ,this method would be     
checked by comparisons made in the      

morning and evening with the            
constellations visible nearest to the   
sun at its rising and setting4  ,the    
difficulty and indirectness of these    
observations would make it probable that
 originally the zodiac would be         
determined rather by the path of the    
moon1 which follows nearly the same path
 as the sun1 and which could be observed
 at the same time as1 and actually      
associated with1 the constellations4    
,now the moon is found each night so far
 to the east of its position on the     
previous night that it accomplishes the 
whole circumference in twenty-seven days
 eight hours4 ,the two nearest whole    
number of days have generally been      
reckoned1 some taking twenty-eight1 and 
others twenty-seven4 ,the zodiac1 or1 as
 the ,chinese called it1 the ,yellow    
,way1 was thus divided into twenty-eight
 parts1 which were called ,nakshatras   
7mansions1 or hotels71 because the moon 
remains in each of them for a period of 
twenty-four hours4 ,these mansions were 

named after the brightest stars in each1
 though sometimes they went a long way  
off to fix upon a characteristic star1  
as in the sixteenth ,indian             
constellation1 ,vichaca1 which was named
 after the ,northern ,crown1 in latitude
 #dj deg44 ,this arose from the         
brightness of the moon extinguishing the
 light of those that lie nearest to it4 
,this method of dividing the zodiac was 
very widely spread1 and was common to   
almost all ancient nations4 ,the        
,chinese have twenty-eight              
constellations1 but the word siou does  
not mean a group of stars1 but simply a 
mansion or hotel4 ,in the ,coptic and   
ancient ,egyptian the word for          
constellation has the same meaning4     
,they also had twenty-eight1 and the    
same number is found among the          
,arabians1 ,persians1 and ,indians4     
,among the ,chaldeans1 or ,accadians1 we
 find no sign of the number             
twenty-eight4 ,the ecliptic or ,yoke of 
the ,sky1 with them1 as we see in the   

newly-discovered tablets1 was divided   
into twelve divisions as now1 and the   
only connection that can be imagined    
between this and the twenty-eight is the
 opinion of ,m4 ,biot1 who thinks that  
the ,chinese had originally only        
twenty-four mansions1 four more being   
added by ,chenkung 7,b4,c4 #aajj71 and  
that they corresponded with the         
twenty-four stars1 twelve to the north  
and twelve to the south1 that marked the
 twelve signs of the zodiac among the   
,chaldeans4 ,but under this supposition 
the twenty-eight has no reference to the
 moon1 whereas we have every reason to  
believe that it has4  ,the ,siamese only
 reckoned twenty-seven1 and occasionally
 inserted an extra one1 called          
,abigitten1 or intercalary moon4 ,they  
made use1 moreover1 of the              
constellations to tell the hour of the  
night by their position in the heavens1 
and their method of doing this appears  
to have involved their having           
twenty-eight constellations4 ,the names 

of the twenty-eight divisions among the 
,arabs were derived from parts of the   
larger constellations that made the     
twelve signs1 the first being the horns1
 and the second the belly1 of the ,ram4 
,the twenty-eight divisions among the   
,persians1 of which we may notice that  
the second was formed by the ,pleiades1 
and called ,pervis1 soon gave way to the
 twelve1 the names of which1 recorded in
 the works of ,zoroaster1 and therefore 
not less ancient than he1 were not quite
 the same as those now used4 ,they were 
the ,lamb1 the ,bull1 the ,twins1 the   
,crab1 the ,lion1 the ,ear of ,corn1 the
 ,balance1 the ,scorpion1 the ,bow1 the 
,sea-,goat1 the ,watering-pot1 and the  
,fishes4  ,nor were the ,chinese        
continually bound to the number         
twenty-eight4 ,they1 too1 had a zodiac  
for the sun as well as the moon1 as may 
be seen on some very curious pieces of  
money1 of which those figured below are 
specimens4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4  
,on some of these the various           

constellations of the ,northern         
hemisphere are engraved1 especially the 
,great ,bear--under innumerable         
disguises--and on others the twelve     
signs of the zodiac4 ,these are very    
different1 however1 from the ,grecian   
set--they are the ,mouse1 the ,bull1 the
 ,tiger1 the ,hare1 the ,dragon1 the    
,serpent1 the ,horse1 the ,ram1 the     
,monkey1 the ,cock1 the ,dog1 and the   
,pig4 ,the ,japanese series were the    
same4 ,the ,mongolians had a series of  
zodiacal coins struck in the reign of   
,jehanjir ,shah 7#ajad74 ,he had pieces 
of gold stamped1 representing the sun in
 the constellation of the ,lion2 and    
some years afterwards other coins were  
made1 with one side having the impress  
of the particular sign in which the sun 
happened to be when the coin was struck4
 ,in this way a series is preserved     
having all the twelve signs4 ,tavernier 
tells the story that one of the wives of
 the ,sultan1 wishing to immortalise    
herself1 asked ,jehanjir to be allowed  

to reign for four-and-twenty hours1 and 
took the opportunity to have a large    
quantity of new gold and silver zodiacal
 coins struck and distributed among the 
people4  ,the twenty-eight divisions are
 less known now1 simply from the fact   
that the ,greeks did not adopt them2 but
 they were much used by the early ,asian
 peoples1 who distinguished them1 like  
the twelve1 by a series of animals1 and 
they are still used by the ,arabs4  ,so 
far for the nature of the zodiac1 as    
used in various countries1 and as       
adopted from more ancient sources by the
 ,greeks and handed on to us4 ,it is    
very remarkable that the arrangement of 
it1 and its relation to the pole of the 
equator1 carries with it some indication
 of the age in which it must have been  
invented1 as we now proceed to show4    
,we may remark1 in the first place1 that
 from very early times the centre of the
 zodiacal circle has been marked in the 
celestial sphere1 though there is no    
remarkable star near the spot2 and the  

centre of the equatorial circle1 or     
pole1 has been even less noticed1 though
 much more obvious4 ,we cannot perhaps  
conclude that the instability of the    
pole was known1 but that the necessity  
for drawing the zodiac led to attention 
being paid to its centre4 ,both the     
,persians and the ,chinese noted in     
addition four bright stars1 which they  
said watched over the rest1 ,taschter   
over the east1 ,sateris over the west1  
,venaud over the south1 and ,hastorang  
over the north4 ,now we must understand 
these points to refer to the sun1 the   
east being the spring equinox1 the west 
the autumnal1 and the north and south   
the summer and winter solstices4 ,there 
are no stars of any brilliancy that we  
could now suppose referred to in these  
positions2 but if we turn the zodiac    
through #fj deg4 we shall find          
,aldebaran1 the ,antares1 ,regulus1 and 
,fomalhaut1 four stars of the first     
magnitude1 pretty nearly in the right   
places4 ,does the zodiac then turn in   

this way8 ,the answer is1 ,it does4     
,the effect of the attraction of the sun
 and moon upon the equatorial           
protuberance of the earth is to draw it 
round from west to east by a very slow  
motion1 and make the ecliptic cross the 
equator each year about one minute of   
arc to the east of where it crossed it  
the year before4 ,so1 then1 the sidereal
 year1 or interval between the times at 
which the sun is in a certain position  
amongst the stars1 is longer than the   
solar year1 or interval between the     
times at which the sun crosses the      
equator at the vernal equinox4 ,now the 
sun's position in the zodiac refers to  
the former1 his appearance at the       
equinox to the latter kind of year4     
,each solar year then--and these are the
 years we usually reckon by--the equinox
 is at a point fifty seconds of arc to  
the east on the zodiac1 an effect which 
is known by the name of the precession  
of the equinoxes4  ,now it is plain that
 if it keeps moving continuously to the 

east it will at last come round to the  
same point again1 and the whole period  
of its revolution can easily be         
calculated from the distance it moves   
each year4 ,the result of such a        
calculation shows that the whole        
revolution is completed in #be1hgj      
years1 after which time all will be     
again as it is now in this respect4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4  ,if we draw 
a figure of the zodiac1 as below1 and   
know that at this time the vernal       
equinox takes place when the sun is in  
the ,fishes1 then1 the constellation of 
the ,ram being to the west of this1 the 
date at which the equinox was there must
 be before our present date1 while at   
some time in the future it will be in   
,aquarius4  ,now if in any old          
description we find that the equinox is 
referred to as being in the ,ram or in  
the ,bull1 it tells us at once how long 
ago such a description was a true one1  
and1 therefore1 when it was written4    
,this is the way in which the ,zodiac   

carries with it an intimation of its    
date4 ,thus in the example lately       
referred to of the ,persians and their  
four stars1 it must have been about     
#e1jjj years ago1 according to the above
 calculation1 that these were in the    
positions assigned1 which is therefore  
the date of this part of ,persian       
astronomy1 if we have rightly           
conjectured the stars referred to4  ,we 
have already said that the signs of the 
zodiac are not now the same as the      
zodiacal constellations1 and this is now
 easily understood4 ,it is not worth    
while to say that the sun enters such   
and such a part of the ,fishes at the   
equinox1 and changes every year4 ,so the
 part of the heavens it does then       
enter--be it ,fishes1 or ,aquarius1 or  
the ,ram--is called by the same         
name--and is called a sign2 the name    
chosen is the ,ram or ,aries1 which     
coincided with the constellation of that
 name when the matter was arranged4     
,there is another equally important and 

instructive result of this precession of
 the equinox4 ,for the earth's axis is  
always perpendicular to the plane of the
 equator1 and if the latter moves1 the  
former must too1 and change its position
 with respect to the axis of the        
ecliptic1 which remains immovable4 ,and 
the ends of these axes1 or the points   
they occupy among the stars1 called     
their poles1 will change in the same    
way2 the pole of the equator1 round     
which the heavens appear to move1       
describing a curve about the pole of the
 ecliptic2 and since the ecliptic and   
equator are always nearly at the same   
angle1 this curve will be very nearly a 
circle1 as represented on preceding     
page4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4  ,now 
the pole of the equator is a very marked
 point in the heavens1 because the star 
nearest to it appears to have no motion4
 ,if then we draw such a figure as      
above1 so as to see where this pole     
would be at any given date1 and then    
read in any old record that such and    

such a star had no motion1 we know at   
once at what date such a statement must 
have been made4 ,this means of          
estimating dates is less certain than   
the other1 because any star that is     
nearer to the pole than any other will  
appear to have no motion relatively to  
the rest1 unless accurate measurements  
were made4 ,nevertheless1 when we have  
any reason to believe that observations 
were carefully made1 and there is any   
evidence that some particular star was  
considered the ,pole ,star1 we have some
 confidence in concluding the date1     
examples of which will appear in the    
sequel2 and we may give one illustration
 now1 though not a very satisfactory    
one4 ,hipparchus cites a passage from   
the sphere of ,eudoxus1 in which he     
says1 ,est vero stella quaedam in eodem 
consistens loco1 quae quidem polus est  
mundi4 7,there is a certain immovable   
star1 which is the pole of the world47  
,now referring to our figure1 we find   
that about #acjj ,b4,c4 the two stars1  

,greek3 b ,ursae ,minoris and ,greek3 k 
,draconis were fairly near the pole1 and
 this fact leads us to date the         
invention of this sphere at about this  
epoch1 rather than a little before or a 
little after1 although1 of course1 there
 is nothing in this argument 7though    
there may be in others71 to prevent us  
dating it when ,greek3 a ,draconis was  
near the pole1 #bhej ,b4,c4 ,this star  
was indeed said by the ,chinese         
astronomers in the reign of ,hoangti to 
mark the pole1 which gives a date to    
their observations4 ,the chief use of   
this latter method is to confirm our    
conclusions from the former1 rather than
 to originate any4 ,let us now apply our
 knowledge to the facts4  ,in the first 
place we may notice that in the time of 
,hipparchus the vernal equinox was in   
the first degree of the ,ram1 from which
 our own arrangement has originated4    
,hipparchus lived #abh years ,b4,c41 or 
nearly #b1jjj years ago1 at which time  
the equinox was exactly at ,greek3 b    

,aries4 ,secondly1 there are many       
reasons for believing that at the time  
of the invention of the zodiac1 indeed  
in the first dawning of astronomy1 the  
,bull was the first sign into which the 
sun entered at the vernal equinox4 ,now 
it takes #b1aef years to retrograde     
through a sign1 and therefore the ,bull 
might occupy this position any time     
between #bdjj and #ddef ,b4,c41 and any 
nearer approximation must depend on our 
ability to fix on any particular part of
 the constellation as the original      
equinoctial point4 ,we may say that     
whoever invented the zodiac would no    
doubt make this point the beginning of a
 sign1 and therefore date its invention 
#bdjj ,b4,c42 or on the other hand1 if  
it can be proved that the constellations
 were known and observed before this1 we
 may have to put back the date to near  
the end of the sign1 and make its last  
remarkable stars the equinoctial ones1  
say those in the horns of ,taurus4      
,compare the line of ,virgil1           

,candidus auratis aperit cum cornibus   
annum   ,taurus4  ,the date in this case
 would be about #dejj ,b4,c4--or once   
more some remarkable part of the        
constellation may give proof that its   
appearance with the sun commenced the   
year--and our date would be intermediate
 between these two4 ,in fact1 the       
remarkable group of stars known as the  
,pleiades actually does play this part4 
,so much interest clusters1 however1    
round this group1 so much light is      
thrown by it on the past history of     
astronomical ideas--and so much new     
information has recently been obtained  
about it--that it requires a chapter to 
itself1 and we shall therefore pass over
 its discussion here4 ,let us now review
 some of the indications that some part 
of the constellation of the ,bull was   
originally the first sign of the zodiac4
  ,we need perhaps only mention the     
astrological books of the ,jews--the    
,cabal--in which the ,bull is dealt with
 as the first zodiacal sign4 ,among the 

,persians1 who designate the successive 
signs by the letters of the alphabet1 ,a
 stands for ,taurus1 ,b for the ,twins1 
and so on4 ,the ,chinese attribute the  
commencement of the sun's apparent      
motion to the stars of ,taurus4 ,in     
,thebes is a sepulchral chamber with    
zodiacal signs1 and ,taurus at the head 
of them4 ,the zodiac of the pagoda of   
,elephanta 7,salsette7 commences with   
the same constellation4  ,however1      
reasons have been given for assigning to
 the zodiac a still earlier date than   
this would involve4 ,thus ,laplace      
writes3--,the names of the              
constellations of the zodiac have not   
been given to them by chance--they      
embody the results of a large number of 
researches and of astronomical systems4 
,some of the names appear to have       
reference to the motion of the sun4 ,the
 ,crab1 for instance1 and the ,he-,goat1
 indicate its retrogression at the      
solstices4 ,the ,balance marks the      
equality of the days and nights at the  

equinoxes1 and the other names seem to  
refer to agriculture and to the climate 
of the country in which the zodiac was  
invented4 ,the ,he-,goat appears better 
placed at the highest point of the sun's
 course than the lowest4 ,in this       
position1 which it occupied fifteen     
thousand years ago1 the ,balance was at 
the vernal equinox1 and the zodiacal    
constellations match well with the      
climate and agriculture of ,egypt4 ,if  
we examine this1 however1 we see that   
all that is probable in it is satisfied 
by the ,ram being at the vernal1 and the
 ,balance at the autumnal equinox1 which
 corresponds much better with other     
evidence4  ,illustration3 ,,the ,,zodiac
 ,,of ,,denderah4  ,in the first        
instance1 no doubt1 the names of the    
zodiacal constellations would depend on 
the principal star or stars in each1 and
 these stars and the portion of the     
ecliptic assigned to each may have been 
noticed before the stars round them were
 grouped into constellations with       

different names4 ,in any case1 the      
introduction of the zodiac into ,greece 
seems to have been subsequent to that of
 the celestial sphere1 and not to have  
taken place more than five or six       
centuries before our era4 ,eudemus1 of  
,rhodes1 one of the most distinguished  
of the pupils of ,aristotle1 and author 
of a ,history of ,astronomy1 attributes 
the introduction of the zodiac to       
,oenopides of ,chio1 a contemporary of  
,anaxagoras4 ,they did not receive it   
complete1 as at first it had only eleven
 constellations1 one of them1 the       
,scorpion1 being afterwards divided1 to 
complete the necessary number4 ,their   
zodiacal divisions too would have been  
more regular had they derived them      
directly from the ,east1 and would not  
have stretched in some instances over   
#cf deg4 to #dh deg41 like the ,lion1   
the ,bull1 the ,fishes1 or the          
,virgin--while the ,crab1 the ,ram1 and 
the ,he-,goat1 have only #ai deg4 to #bc
 deg44 ,nor would their constellations  

be disposed so irregularly1 some to the 
north and some to the south of the      
ecliptic1 nor some spreading out widely 
and others crammed close together1 so   
that we see that they only borrowed the 
idea from the ,easterns1 and filled it  
out with their ancient constellations4  
,such is the opinion of ,humboldt4      
,with regard to the origin of the names 
of the signs of the zodiac1 we must     
remember that a certain portion of the  
zodiacal circle1 and not any definite   
group of stars1 forms each sign1 and    
that the constellations may have been   
formed separately1 and have received    
independent names1 though afterwards    
receiving those of the sign in which    
they were4 ,the only rational suggestion
 for the origin of the names is that    
they were connected with some events    
which took place1 or some character of  
the sun's motion observed1 when it was  
in each sign4 ,thus we have seen that   
the ,balance may refer to equal nights  
and days 7though only introduced among  

the ,greeks in the time of ,hipparchus71
 and the ,crab to the retrogression or  
stopping of the sun at the solstice4    
,the various pursuits of husbandry1     
having all their necessary times1 which 
in the primeval days were determined by 
the positions of the stars1 would give  
rise to more important names4 ,thus the 
,ethiopian1 at ,thebes1 would call the  
stars that by their rising at a         
particular time indicated the           
inundation1 ,aquarius1 or the ,waterer2 
those beneath which it was necessary to 
put the plough to the earth1 the ,bull  
stars4 ,the ,lion stars would be those  
at whose appearance this formidable     
animal1 driven from the deserts by      
thirst1 showed himself on the borders of
 the river4 ,those of the ,ear of ,corn1
 or the ,virgin of harvest1 those       
beneath which the harvest was to be     
gathered in2 and the sign of the ,goat1 
that in which the sun was when these    
animals were born4  ,there can be but   
little doubt but that such was the      

origin of the names imposed1 and for a  
time they would be understood in that   
sense4 ,but afterwards1 when time was   
more accurately kept1 and calendars     
regulated1 without each man studying the
 stars for himself1 when the precession 
of the equinoxes made the periods not   
exactly coincide1 the original meaning  
would be lost1 the stars would be       
associated with the animals1 as though  
there was a real bull1 a real lion1 c41 
in the heavens2 and then the step would 
be easy to represent these by living    
animals1 whom they would endow with the 
heavenly attributes of what they        
represented2 and so the people came at  
last to pray to and worship the several 
creatures for the sake of their supposed
 influence4 ,they asked of the ,ram from
 their flocks the influences they       
thought depended on the constellation4  
,they prayed the ,scorpion not to spread
 his evil venom on the world2 they      
revered the ,crab1 the ,scarabaeus1 and 
the ,fish1 without perceiving the       

absurdity of it4  ,it is certain at     
least that the gods of many nations are 
connected or are identical with the     
signs of the zodiac1 and it seems at    
least more reasonable to suppose the    
former derived from the latter than vice
 versa4  ,among the ,greeks indeed1 who 
had1 so to speak1 their gods ready made 
before they borrowed the idea of the    
zodiac1 the process appears to have been
 the reverse1 they made the signs to    
represent as far as they could their    
gods4 ,in the more pastoral peoples1    
however1 of the ,east1 and in ,egypt1   
this process can be very clearly traced4
 ,among the ,jews there seems to be some
 remarkable connection between their    
patriarchs and these signs1 though the  
history of that connection may not well 
be made out4 ,the twelve signs are      
mentioned as being worshipped1 along    
with the sun and moon1 in the ,book of  
,kings4 ,but what is more remarkable is 
the dream of ,joseph1 in which the sun  
and moon and the other eleven stars     

worshipped him1 coupled with the various
 designations or descriptions given to  
each son in the blessing of ,jacob4 ,in 
,reuben we have the man who is said to  
be unstable as water1 in which we may   
recognise ,aquarius4 ,in ,simeon and    
,levi the brethren1 we trace the ,twins4
 ,judah is the ,lion4 ,zebulun1 that    
dwells at the haven of the sea1         
represents ,fishes4 ,issachar is the    
,bull1 or strong ass couching down      
between two burdens4 ,dan1 the serpent  
by the way1 the adder in the path1      
represents the ,scorpion4 ,gad is the   
,ram1 the leader to a flock or troop of 
sheep4 ,asher the ,balance1 as the      
weigher of bread4 ,naphtali1 the hind   
let loose1 is the ,capricorn1 ,joseph   
the ,archer1 whose bow abode in         
strength4 ,brujanin the ,crab1 changing 
from morning to evening1 and ,dinah1 the
 only daughter1 represents the ,virgin4 
,there is doubtless something           
far-fetched in some of these            
comparisons1 but when we consider the   

care with which the number twelve was   
retained1 and that the four chief tribes
 carried on their sacred standards these
 very signs--namely1 ,judah a lion1     
,reuben a man1 ,ephraim a bull1 and ,dan
 a scorpion--and notice the numerous    
traces of astronomical culture in the   
,jewish ceremonies1 the seven lights of 
the candlestick1 the twelve stones of   
the ,high ,priest1 the feasts at the two
 equinoxes1 the ceremonies connected    
with a ram and a bull1 we cannot doubt  
that there is something more than chance
 in the matter1 but rather conclude that
 we have an example of the process by   
which1 in the hands of the ,egyptians   
themselves1 astronomical representations
 became at last actually deified4  ,it  
has been thought possible indeed to     
assign definitely each god of the       
,egyptians to one of the twelve zodiacal
 signs4 ,the ,ram was consecrated to    
,jupiter ,ammon1 who was represented    
with a ram's head and horns4 ,the ,bull 
became the god ,apis1 who was worshipped

 under that similitude4 ,the ,twins     
correspond to ,horus and ,harpocrates1  
two sons of ,osiris4 ,the ,crab was     
consecrated to ,anubis or ,mercury4 ,the
 ,lion belonged to the summer sun1      
,osiris2 the ,virgin to ,isis4 ,the     
,balance and the ,scorpion were included
 together under the name of ,scorpion1  
which animal belongs to ,typhon1 as did 
all dangerous animals4 ,the ,archer was 
the image of ,hercules1 for whom the    
,egyptians had great veneration4 ,the   
,capricorn was consecrated to ,pan or   
,mendes4 ,the ,waterer--or man carrying 
a water-pot--is found on many ,egyptian 
monuments4  ,this process of deification
 was rendered easier by the custom they 
had of celebrating a festival each      
month1 under the name neomenia4 ,they   
characterised the neomenias of the      
various months by making the animal     
whose sign the sun was entering         
accompany the ,isis which announced the 
fete4 ,they were not content with a     
representation only1 but had the animal 

itself4 ,the dog1 being the symbol of   
,cannulus1 with which the year          
commenced1 a living dog was made to head
 the ceremonial of the first neomenia4  
,diodorus testifies to this as an       
eye-witness4  ,these neomenias thus came
 to be called the festival of the ,bull1
 of the ,ram1 the ,dog1 or the ,lion4   
,that of the ,ram would be the most     
solemn and important in places where    
they dealt much in sheep4 ,that of the  
,bull in the fat pasture-lands of       
,memphis and ,lower ,egypt4 ,that of    
,capella would be brilliant at ,mendes1 
where they bred goats more than         
elsewhere4  ,we may fortify these       
opinions by a quotation from ,lucian1   
who gives expression to them very       
clearly4 ,it is from the divisions of   
the zodiac1 he says1 that the crowd of  
animals worshipped in ,egypt have had   
their origin4 ,some employed one        
constellation1 and some another4 ,those 
who used to consult that of the ,ram    
came to adore a ram4 ,those who took    

their presages from the ,fishes would   
not eat fish4 ,the goat was not killed  
in places were they observed            
,capricornus1 and so on1 according to   
the stars whose influence they cared    
most for4 ,if they adored a bull it was 
certainly to do honour to the celestial 
,bull4 ,the ,apis1 which was a sacred   
object with them1 and wandered at       
liberty through the country1 and for    
which they founded an oracle1 was the   
astrological symbol of the ,bull that   
shone in the heavens4  ,illustration3   
,,plate ,,iv4--,,the ,,zodiac ,,and     
,,the ,,dead ,,in ,,egypt4  ,their use  
of the zodiac is illustrated in an      
interesting manner by a mummy found some
 years ago in ,egypt4 ,at the bottom of 
the coffin was found painted a zodiac1  
something like that of ,denderah2       
underneath the lid1 along the body of a 
great goddess1 were drawn eleven signs1 
but with that of ,capricornus left out4 
,the inscription showed that the mummy  
was that of a young man1 aged #ba years1

 #d months1 and #bb days1 who died the  
#aith year of ,trajan1 on the #hth of   
the month ,pazni1 which corresponds to  
the #bnd of ,june1 ,a4,d4 #aaf4 ,the    
embalmed was therefore born on the #abth
 of ,january1 ,a4,d4 #ie1 at which time 
the sun was in the constellation of     
,capricornus4 ,this shows that the      
zodiac was the representation of the    
astrological theories about the person  
embalmed1 who was doubtless a person of 
some importance4 7,see ,plate ,,iv47    
,any such use as this1 however1 must    
have been long subsequent to the        
invention of the signs themselves1 as it
 involves a much more complicated idea4 
,,chapter ,v4  ,,the ,,pleiades4        
,among the most remarkable of the       
constellations is a group of seven stars
 arranged in a kind of triangular       
cluster1 and known as the ,pleiades4 ,it
 is not1 strictly speaking1 one of the  
constellations1 as it forms only part of
 one4 ,we have seen that one of the     
ancient signs of the zodiac is the      

,bull1 or ,taurus2 the group of stars we
 are now speaking of forms part of this1
 lying towards the eastern part in the  
shoulders of the ,bull4 ,the ,pleiades  
scarcely escape anybody's observation   
now1 and we shall not be1 therefore1    
surprised that they have always         
attracted great attention4 ,so great    
indeed has been the attention paid to   
them that festivals and seasons1        
calendars and years1 have by many       
nations been regulated by their rising  
or culmination1 and they have been thus 
more mixed up with the early history of 
astronomy1 and have left more marks on  
the records of past nations1 than any   
other celestial object1 except the sun  
and moon4  ,the interesting details of  
the history of the ,pleiades have been  
very carefully worked out by ,r4 ,g4    
,haliburton1 ,f4,s4,a41 to whom we owe  
the greater part of the information we  
possess on the subject4#a  ,let us first
 explain what may be observed with      
respect to the ,pleiades4 ,it is a group

 possessing peculiar advantages for     
observation2 it is a compact group1 the 
whole will appear at once2 and it is an 
unmistakable group and it is near the   
equator1 and is therefore visible to    
observers in either hemisphere4  ,now   
suppose the sun to be in the same       
latitude as the ,pleiades on some       
particular day2 owing to the proximity  
of the group to the ecliptic1 it will be
 then very near the sun1 and it will set
 with it and be invisible during the    
night4 ,if the sun were to the east of  
the ,pleiades they would have already   
set1 and the first view of the heavens  
at sunset would not contain this        
constellation2 and so it would be so    
long as the sun was to the east1 or for 
nearly half a year2 though during some  
portion of this time it would rise later
 on in the night4 ,during the other half
 year1 while the sun was to the west1   
the ,pleiades would be visible at       
sunset1 and we immediately see how they 
are thus led to divide the whole year   

into two portions1 one of which might be
 called the ,pleiades below1 and the    
other the ,pleiades above4 ,it is plain 
that the ,pleiades first become visible 
at sunset1 when they are then just      
rising1 in which case they will         
culminate a little after midnight 7not  
at midnight1 on account of the twilight7
 and be visible all night4 ,this will   
occur when the sun is about half a      
circle removed from them--that is1 at   
this time1 about the beginning of       
,november2 which would thus be the      
commencement of one half of the year1   
the other half commencing in ,may4 ,the 
culmination of the ,pleiades at midnight
 takes place a few days later1 when they
 rise at the time that the sun is really
 on the horizon1 in which case they are 
exactly opposite to it2 and this will   
happen on the same day all over the     
earth4 ,the opposite effect to this     
would be when the sun was close to the  
,pleiades--a few days before which the  
latter would be just setting after      

sunset1 and a few days after would be   
just rising before sunrise4    #a ,mr4  
,haliburton's observations are contained
 in an interesting       pamphlet1      
entitled ,new ,materials for the        
,history of ,man1 which       is quoted 
by ,prof4 ,piazzi ,smyth1 but which is  
not easy to obtain4       ,it may be    
seen1 however1 in the ,british ,museum4 
,we have thus the following             
observations1 that might be made with   
respect to this1 or any other           
well-marked constellation4 ,first1 the  
period during which it was visible at   
sunset2 secondly1 the date of its       
culmination at midnight2 thirdly1 its   
setting in the evening2 and fourthly1   
its rising in the morning3 the last two 
dates being nearly six months removed   
from the second4 ,there are also the    
dates of its culmination at sunrise and 
sunset1 which would divide these        
intervals into two equal halves4 ,on    
account of the precession of the        
equinoxes1 as explained in the last     

chapter1 the time at which the sun has  
any particular position with respect to 
the stars1 grows later year by year in  
relation to the equinoctial points4 ,and
 as we regulate our year by the date of 
the sun's entrance on the northern      
hemisphere1 the sidereal dates1 as we   
may call them1 keep advancing on the    
months4 ,as1 however1 the change is     
slow1 it has not prevented years being  
commenced and husbandry being regulated 
by the dates above mentioned4 ,any date 
that is regulated by the stars we might 
expect to be nearly the same all over   
the world1 and the customs observed to  
be universal1 though the date itself    
might alter1 and in this way4 ,so long  
as the date was directly obtained from  
the position of the star1 all would     
agree2 but as soon as a solar calendar  
was arranged1 and it was found that at  
that time this position coincided with a
 certain day1 say the ,pleiades         
culminating at midnight on ,november    
#ag1 then some would keep on the date   

,november #ag as the important day1 even
 when the ,pleiades no longer culminated
 at midnight then1 and others would keep
 reckoning by the stars1 and so have a  
different date4  ,with these            
explanations we shall be able to        
recognise how much the configurations of
 the ,pleiades have had to do with the  
festivals and calendars of nations1 and 
have even left their traces on customs  
and names in use among ourselves to the 
present day4  ,we have evidences from   
two very different quarters of the      
universality of the division of the year
 into two parts by means of the         
,pleiades4 ,on the one hand we learn    
from ,hesiod that the ,greeks commenced 
their winter seasons in his days by the 
setting of the ,pleiades in the morning1
 and the summer season by their rising  
at that time4 ,and ,mr4 ,ellis1 in his  
,polynesian ,researches1 tells us that  
the ,society ,islanders divided the year
 into two seasons of the ,pleiades1 or  
,matarii4 ,the first they called        

,matarii i nia1 or the ,pleiades above4 
,it commenced when1 in the evening1     
these stars appeared at or near the     
horizon1 and the half year during which1
 immediately after sunset1 they were    
seen above the horizon was called       
,matarii i nia4 ,the other season       
commenced when at sunset these stars are
 invisible1 and continued until at that 
time they appeared again above the      
horizon4 ,this season was called        
,matarii i raro1 i4e4 the ,pleiades     
below4 ,besides these direct evidences  
we shall find that many semi-annual     
festivals connected with these stars    
indicate the commencement of the two    
seasons among other nations4  ,one of   
these festivals was of course always    
taken for the commencement of the year1 
and much was made of it as new-year's   
day4 ,a new-year's festival connected   
with and determined by the ,pleiades    
appears to be one of the most universal 
of all customs2 and though some little  
difficulty arises1 as we have already   

pointed out1 in fixing the date with    
reference to solar calendars1 and       
differences and coincidences in this    
respect among different nations may be  
to a certain extent accidental1 yet the 
fact of the wide-spread observance of   
such a festival is certain and most     
interesting4  ,the actual observance at 
the present day of this festival is to  
be found among the ,australian savages4 
,at their midnight culmination in       
,november1 they still hold a new-year's 
corroboree1 in honour of the            
,mormodellick1 as they call the         
,pleiades1 which they say are very good 
to the black fellows4 ,with them        
,november is somewhat after the         
beginning of spring1 but in former days 
it would mark the actual commencement1  
and the new year would be regulated by  
the seasons4  ,in the northern          
hemisphere this culmination of the      
,pleiades has the same relation to the  
autumnal equinox1 which would never be  
taken as the commencement of the year2  

and we must therefore look to the       
southern hemisphere for the origin of   
the custom2 especially as we find the   
very ,pleiades themselves called        
,vergiliae1 or stars of spring4 ,of     
course we might suppose that the rising 
of the constellation in the morning had 
been observed in the northern           
hemisphere1 which would certainly have  
taken place in the beginning of spring  
some #e1jjj years ago2 but this seems   
improbable1 first1 because it is        
unlikely that different phenomena of the
 ,pleiades should have been most        
noticed1 and secondly1 because neither  
,april nor ,may are among any nations   
connected with this constellation by    
name4 ,whereas in ,india the year       
commenced in the month they called      
,cartiguey1 which means the ,pleiades4  
,among the ancient ,egyptians we find   
the same connection between ,athar-aye1 
the name of the ,pleiades1 with the     
,chaldeans and ,hebrews1 and ,athor in  
the ,egyptian name of ,november4 ,the   

,arabs also call the constellation      
,atauria4 ,we shall have more to say on 
this etymology presently1 but in the    
meantime we learn that it was the       
phenomenon connected with the ,pleiades 
at or about ,november that was noticed  
by all ancient nations1 from which we   
must conclude that the origin of the    
new-year's spring festival came from the
 southern hemisphere4  ,there is some   
corroboration of this in the ancient    
traditions as to the stars having       
changed their courses4 ,in the southern 
hemisphere a man standing facing the    
position of the sun at noon would see   
the stars rise on his right hand and    
move towards his left4 ,in the northern 
hemisphere1 if he also looked in the    
direction of the sun at noon1 he would  
see them rise on his left hand4 ,now one
 of a race migrating from one side to   
the other of the equator would take his 
position from the sun1 and fancy he was 
facing the same way when he looked at it
 at noon1 and so would think the motion 

of the stars to have altered1 instead of
 his having turned round4 ,such a       
tradition1 then1 seems to have arisen   
from such a migration1 the fact of which
 seems to be confirmed by the calling   
the ,pleiades stars of spring1 and      
commencing the year with their          
culmination at midnight4 ,in order to   
trace this new-year's festival into     
other countries1 and by this means to   
show its connection with the ,pleiades1 
we must remark that every festival has  
its peculiar features and rites1 and it 
is by these that we must recognise it1  
where the actual date of its occurrence 
has slightly changed2 bearing1 of       
course1 in mind that the actual change  
of date must not be too great to be     
accounted for by the precession of the  
equinoxes1 or about seventy-one years   
for each day of change1 since the       
institution of the festival1 and that   
the change is in the right direction4   
,now we find that everywhere this       
festival of the ,pleiades' culmination  

at midnight 7or it may be of the        
slightly earlier one of their first     
appearance at the horizon at apparent   
sunset7 was always connected with the   
memory of the dead4 ,it was a feast of  
ancestors4  ,among the ,australians     
themselves1 the corroborees of the      
natives are connected with a worship of 
the dead4 ,they paint a white stripe    
over their arms1 legs1 and ribs1 and1   
dancing by the light of their fires by  
night1 appear like so many skeletons    
rejoicing4 ,what is also to be remarked1
 the festival lasts three days1 and     
commences in the evening2 the latter a  
natural result of the date depending on 
the appearance of the ,pleiades on the  
horizon at that time4  ,the ,society    
,islanders1 who1 as we have seen1       
divided their year by the appearance of 
the ,pleiades at sunset1 commenced their
 year on the first day of the           
appearance1 about ,november1 and also   
celebrated the closing of one and the   
opening of a new year by a usage        

resembling much the popish custom of    
mass for souls in purgatory1 each man   
returning to his home to offer special  
prayers for the spirits of departed     
relatives4  ,in the ,tonga ,islands1    
which belong to the ,fiji group1 the    
festival of ,inachi1 a vernal           
first-fruits' celebration1 and also a   
commemoration of the dead takes place   
towards the end of ,october1 and        
commences at sunset4  ,in ,peru the     
new-year's festival occurs in the       
beginning of ,november1 and is called   
,ayamarca from aya1 a corpse1 and marca1
 carrying in arms1 because they         
celebrated the solemn festival of the   
dead1 with tears1 lugubrious songs1 and 
plaintive music2 and it was customary to
 visit the tombs of relations1 and to   
leave in them food and drink4 ,the fact 
that this took place at the time of the 
discovery of ,peru on the very same day 
as a similar ceremony takes place in    
,europe1 was only an accidental         
coincidence1 which is all the more      

remarkable because the two appear1 as   
will be seen in the sequel1 to have had 
the same origin1 and therefore at first 
the same date1 and to have altered from 
it by exactly the same amount4 ,these   
instances from races south of the       
equator prove clearly that there exists 
a very general connection with          
new-year's day1 as determined by the    
rising of the ,pleiades at sunset1 and a
 festival of the dead2 and in some      
instances with an offering of           
first-fruits4 ,what the origin of this  
connection may be is a more difficult   
matter4 ,at first sight one might       
conjecture that with the year that was  
passed it was natural to connect the men
 that had passed away2 and this may     
indeed be the true interpretation3 but  
there are traditions and observances    
which may be thought by some to point to
 some ancient wide-spread catastrophe   
which happened at this particular       
season1 which they yearly commemorated1 
and reckoned a new year from each       

commemoration4 ,such traditions and     
observances we shall notice as we trace 
the spread of this new-year's festival  
of the dead among various nations1 and  
its connection1 with the ,pleiades4  ,we
 have seen that in ,india ,november is  
called the month of the ,pleiades4 ,now 
on the #agth day of that month is       
celebrated the ,hindoo ,durga1 a        
festival of the dead1 and said by       
,greswell to have been a new-year's     
commemoration at the earliest time to   
which ,indian calendars can be carried  
back4  ,among the ancient ,egyptians the
 same day was very noticeable1 and they 
took care to regulate their solar       
calendars that it might remain          
unchanged4 ,numerous altered calendars  
have been discovered1 but they are all  
regulated by this one day4 ,this was    
determined by the culmination of the    
,pleiades at midnight4 ,on this day     
commenced the solemn festival of the    
,isia1 which1 like the corroborees of   
the ,australians1 lasted three days1 and

 was celebrated in honour of the dead1  
and of ,osiris1 the lord of tombs4 ,now 
the month ,athyr was undoubtedly        
connected with the ,pleiades1 being that
 in which the ,pleiades are most        
distinct--that is1 in which they rise   
near and before sunset4 ,among the      
,egyptians1 however1 more attention was 
paid to astronomy than amongst the      
savage races with which the year of the 
,pleiades would appear to have          
originated1 and they studied very       
carefully the connection between the    
positions of the stars and the entrance 
of the sun into the northern hemisphere1
 and regulated their calendar           
accordingly2 as we shall see shortly in 
speaking of the pyramid builders4  ,the 
,persians formerly called the month of  
,november ,mordad1 the angel of death1  
and the feast of the dead took place at 
the same time as in ,peru1 and was      
considered a new-year's festival4 ,it   
commenced also in the evening4  ,in     
,ceylon a combined festival of          

agriculture and of the dead takes place 
at the beginning of ,november4  ,among  
the better known of the ancient nations 
of the northern hemispheres1 such as the
 ,greeks and ,romans1 the anomaly of    
having the beginning of the year at the 
autumnal equinox seems to have induced  
them to make a change to that of spring1
 and with this change has followed the  
festival of the dead1 although some     
traces of it were left in ,november4    
,the commemoration of the dead was      
connected among the ,egyptians with a   
deluge1 which was typified by the priest
 placing the image of ,osiris in a      
sacred coffer or ark1 and launching it  
out into the sea till it was borne out  
of sight4 ,now when we connect this     
fact1 and the celebration taking place  
on the #agth day of ,athyr1 with the    
date on which the ,mosaic account of the
 deluge of ,noah states it to have      
commenced1 in the second month 7of the  
,jewish year1 which corresponds to      
,november71 the #agth day of the month1 

it must be acknowledged that this is no 
chance coincidence1 and that the precise
 date here stated must have been        
regulated by the ,pleiades1 as was the  
,egyptian date4 ,this coincidence is    
rendered even stronger by the           
similiarity of traditions among the two 
nations concerning the dove and the tree
 as connected with the deluge4 ,we find1
 however1 no festival of the dead among 
the ,hebrews2 their better form of faith
 having prevented it4  ,we have not as  
yet learnt anything of the importance of
 the ,pleiades among the ancient        
,babylonian astronomers1 but as through 
their tablets we have lately become     
acquainted with their version of the    
story of the deluge1 we may be led in   
this way to further information about   
their astronomical appreciation of this 
constellation4  ,from whatever source   
derived1 it is certain that the ,celtic 
races were partakers in this general    
culture1 we might almost call it1 of the
 ,pleiades1 as shown by the time and    

character of their festival of the dead4
 ,this is especially interesting to     
ourselves1 as it points to the origin of
 the superstitions of the ,druids1 and  
accounts for customs remaining even to  
this day amongst us4  ,illustration3    
,,plate ,v4--,,the ,,legends ,,of ,,the 
,,druids4  ,the first of ,november was  
with the ,druids a night full of        
mystery1 in which they annually         
celebrated the reconstruction of the    
world4 ,a terrible rite was connected   
with this2 for the ,druidess nuns were  
obliged at this time to pull down and   
rebuild each year the roof of their     
temple1 as a symbol of the destruction  
and renovation of the world4 ,if one of 
them1 in bringing the materials for the 
new roof1 let fall her sacred burden1   
she was lost4 ,her companions1 seized   
with a fanatic transport1 rushed upon   
her and tore her to pieces1 and scarcely
 a year is said to have passed without  
there being one or more victims4 ,on    
this same night the ,druids extinguished

 the sacred fire1 which was kept        
continually burning in the sacred       
precincts1 and at that signal all the   
fires in the island were one by one put 
out1 and a primitive night reigned      
throughout the land4 ,then passed along 
to the west the phantoms of those who   
had died during the preceding year1 and 
were carried away by boats to the       
judgment-seat of the god of the dead4   
7,plate ,v47 ,although ,druidism is now 
extinct1 the relics of it remain to this
 day1 for in our calendar we still find 
,november #a marked as ,all ,saints'    
,day1 and in the pre-,reformation       
calendars the last day of ,october was  
marked ,all ,hallow ,eve1 and the #bnd  
of ,november as ,all ,souls'2 indicating
 clearly a three days' festival of the  
dead1 commencing in the evening1 and    
originally regulated by the             
,pleiades--an emphatic testimony how    
much astronomy has been mixed up with   
the rites and customs even of the       
,english of to-day4 ,in former days the 

relics were more numerous1 in the       
,hallowe'en torches of the ,irish1 the  
bonfires of the ,scotch1 the coel-coeth 
fires of the ,welsh1 and the tindle     
fires of ,cornwall1 all lighted on      
,hallowe'en4 ,in ,france it still       
lingers more than here1 for to this very
 day the ,parisians at this festival    
repair to the cemeteries1 and lunch at  
the graves of their ancestors4  ,if the 
extreme antiquity of a rite can be      
gathered from the remoteness of the     
races that still perform it1 the fact   
related to us by ,prescott in his       
,history of the ,conquest of ,mexico    
cannot fail to have great interest4     
,there we find that the great festival  
of the ,mexican cycle was held in       
,november1 at the time of the midnight  
culmination of the ,pleiades4 ,it began 
at sunset1 and at midnight as that      
constellation approached the zenith1 a  
human victim1 was offered up1 to avert  
the dread calamity which they believed  
impended over the human race4 ,they had 

a tradition that the world had been     
previously destroyed at this time1 and  
they were filled with gloom and dismay1 
and were not at rest until the ,pleiades
 were seen to culminate1 and a new cycle
 had begun2 this great cycle1 however1  
was only accomplished in fifty-two      
years4  ,it is possible that the        
festival of lanthorns among the         
,japanese1 which is celebrated about    
,november1 may be also connected with   
this same day1 as it is certain that    
that nation does reckon days by the     
,pleiades4  ,these instances of a       
similar festival at approximately the   
same period of the year1 and regulated  
7until fixed to a particular day in a   
solar calendar7 by the midnight         
culmination of the ,pleiades1 show      
conclusively how great an influence that
 constellation has had on the manners   
and customs of the world1 and throw some
 light on the history of man4  ,even    
where we find no festival connected with
 the particular position of the         

,pleiades which is the basis of the     
above1 they still are used for the      
regulation of the seasons--as amongst   
the ,dyaks of ,borneo4 ,this race of men
 are guided in their farming operations 
by this constellation4 ,when it is low  
in the east at early morning1 before    
sunrise1 the elders know it is time to  
cut down the jungle2 when it approaches 
mid-heaven1 then it is time to burn what
 they have cut down2 when it is         
declining towards the west1 then they   
plant2 and when in the early evening it 
is seen thus declining1 then they may   
reap in safety and in peace2 the latter 
period is also that of their feast of   
,nycapian1 or first-fruits4  ,we find   
the same regulations amongst the ancient
 ,greeks in the days of ,hesiod1 who    
tells us that the corn is to be cut when
 the ,pleiades rise1 and ploughing is to
 be done when they set4 ,also that they 
are invisible for forty days1 and       
reappear again at harvest4 ,when the    
,pleiades rise1 the care of the vine    

must cease2 and when1 fleeing from      
,orion1 they are lost in the waves1     
sailing commences to be dangerous4 ,the 
name1 indeed1 by which we now know these
 stars is supposed to be derived from   
the word ,greek3 plein1 to sail--because
 sailing was safe after they had risen2 
though others derive it from ,greek3    
peleiai1 a flight of doves4  ,any year  
that is regulated by the ,pleiades1 or  
by any other group of stars1 must1 as we
 have seen before1 be what is called a  
sidereal1 and not a solar year4 ,now a  
year in uncivilised countries can only  
mean a succession of seasons1 as is     
illustrated by the use of the expression
 a person of so many summers4 ,it is    
difficult of course to say when any     
particular season begins by noticing its
 characteristics as to weather2 even the
 most regular phenomena are not certain 
enough for that2 we cannot say that when
 the days and nights become exactly     
equal any marked change takes place in  
the temperature or humidity of the      

atmosphere1 or in any other             
easily-noticed phenomena4 ,the day      
therefore on which spring commences is  
arbitrary1 except that1 inasmuch as     
spring depends on the position of the   
sun1 its commencement1 ought to be      
regulated by that luminary1 and not by  
some star-group which has no influence  
in the matter4 ,nevertheless the        
position of such a group is much more   
easily observed1 and in early ages could
 almost alone be observed2 and so long  
as the midnight culmination of the      
,pleiades--judged of1 it must be        
noticed1 by their appearance on the     
horizon at sunset--fairly coincided with
 that state of weather which might be   
reckoned the commencement of spring     
conditions1 no error would be detected1 
because the change in their position is 
so slow4 ,the solar spring is probably a
 later discovery1 which now1 from its   
greater reasonableness and constancy1   
has superseded the old one4 ,but since  
the time of the sun's crossing the      

equator is the natural commencement of  
spring1 whether discovered or not1 it is
 plain that no group of stars could be  
taken as a guide instead1 if their      
indication did not approximately        
coincide with this4  ,if then we can    
determine the exact date at which the   
,pleiades indicated by their midnight   
culmination the sun's passage across the
 equator1 we can be sure that the spring
 could only have been regulated by this 
during1 say1 a thousand years at most1  
on either side of this date4 ,it is very
 certain that if the method of reckoning
 spring by the stars had been invented  
at a more remote date1 some other set of
 stars would have been chosen instead4  
,now when was this date8 ,it is a matter
 admitting of certain calculation1      
depending only on numbers derived from  
observation in our own days and records 
of the past few centuries1 and the      
answer is that this date is about #bagj 
,b4,c4  ,we have seen that1 though it   
was probably brought from the southern  

hemisphere1 the ,egyptians adopted the  
year of the ,pleiades1 and celebrated   
the new-year's festival of the dead2 but
 they were also advanced astronomers1   
and would soon find out the change that 
took place in the seasons when regulated
 by the stars4 ,and to such persons the 
date at which the two periods coincided1
 or at least were exactly half a year   
apart1 would be one of great importance 
and interest1 and there seems to be     
evidence that they did commemorate it in
 a very remarkable manner4 ,the         
evidence1 however1 is all               
circumstantial1 and the conclusion      
therefore can only claim probability4   
,the evidence is as follows3--,the most 
remarkable buildings of ,egypt are the  
pyramids4 ,these are of various sizes   
and importance1 but are built very much 
after the same plan4 ,they seem1        
however1 to be all copies from one1 the 
largest1 namely1 the ,pyramid of ,gizeh1
 and to be of subsequent date to this4  
,their object has long been a puzzle1   

and the best conclusion has been        
supposed to be that they were for       
sepulchral purposes1 as in some of them 
coffins have been found4 ,the large one1
 however1 shows far more than the rest  
of the structure1 and cannot have been  
meant for a funeral pile alone4  ,its   
peculiarities come out on a careful     
examination and measurement such as it  
has been subjected to at the devoted    
hands of ,piazzi ,smyth1 the ,astronomer
 ,royal for ,scotland4 ,he has shown    
that it is not built at random1 as a    
tomb might be1 but it is adjusted with  
exquisite design1 and with surprising   
accuracy4 ,in the first place it lies   
due north1 south1 east1 and west1 and   
the careful ascertainment of the        
meridian of the place1 by modern        
astronomical instruments1 could not     
suggest any improvement in its position 
in this respect4 ,the outside of it is  
now1 so to speak1 pealed1 that is to    
say1 there was originally1 covering the 
whole1 another layer of stones which    

have been taken away4 ,these stones1    
which were of a different material1 were
 beautifully polished1 as some of the   
remaining ones1 now covered and         
concealed1 can testify4 ,the angle at   
which they are cut1 and which of course 
gives the angle and elevation of the    
whole pyramid1 is such that the height  
of it is in the same proportion to its  
circumference or perimeter1 as the      
radius of a circle is to its            
circumference approximately4 ,the       
height1 in fact1 is proved by           
measurement and observation to be #dhf  
ft41 and the four sides together to be  
#c1jef ft41 or about #f-b_/g times the  
height4 ,it does not seem improbable    
that1 considering their advancement1 the
 ,egyptians might have calculated       
approximately how much larger the       
circumference of the circle is than its 
diameter1 and it is a curious           
coincidence that the pyramid expresses  
it4 ,professor ,piazzi ,smyth goes much 
further and believes that they knew1 or 

were divinely taught1 the shape and size
 of the earth1 and by a little          
manipulation of the length of their     
unit1 or as he expresses it the pyramid 
inch1 he makes the base of the pyramid  
express the number of miles in the      
diameter of the earth4  ,now in the     
interior of the apparently solid        
structure1 besides the usual slanting   
passage down to a kind of cellar or     
vault beneath the middle of the base1   
which may have been used for a          
sepulchral resting-place1 there are two 
slanting passages1 one running north and
 the other running south1 and slanting  
up at different angles4 ,part of that   
which leads south is much enlarged1 and 
is known as the grand gallery4 ,it is of
 a very remarkable shape1 being         
perfectly smooth and polished along its 
ascending base1 as indeed it is in every
 part1 and having a number of steps or  
projections1 pointing also upwards at   
certain angles1 very carefully          
maintained4 ,whether we understand its  

use or not1 it is very plain that it has
 been made with a very particular       
design1 and one not easily comprehended4
 ,this leads into a chamber known as the
 king's chamber1 whose walls are        
exquisitely polished and which contains 
a coffer known as ,cheops' ,coffin4     
,this coffer has been villainously      
treated by travellers1 who have chipped 
and damaged it1 but originally it was   
very carefully made and polished4 ,it is
 too large to have been brought in by   
the only entrance into the chamber after
 it was finished1 and therefore is      
obviously no coffin at all1 as is proved
 also by the elaborateness of the means 
of approach4 ,professor ,piazzi ,smyth  
has made the happy suggestion that it   
represents their standard of length and 
capacity1 and points out the remarkable 
fact that it contains exactly as much as
 four quarters of our dry measure4 ,as  
no one has ever suggested what our      
quarters are quarters of1 ,professor    
,smyth very naturally supplies the      

answer--of the contents of the pyramid  
coffer4 ,there are various other        
measurements that have been made by the 
same worker1 and their meaning suggested
 in his interesting book1 ,our          
,inheritance in the ,great ,pyramid1    
which we may follow or agree to as we   
can2 but from all that has been said    
above1 it will appear probable that this
 pyramid was built with a definite      
design to mark various natural phenomena
 or artificial measures1 which is all we
 require for our present purpose4 ,now  
we come to the question1 what is the    
meaning of the particular angles at     
which the north-looking and             
south-looking passages rise1 if1 as we  
now believe1 they must have some        
meaning4  ,the exits of these passages  
were closed1 and they could not         
therefore have been for observation1 but
 they may have been so arranged as to be
 a memorial of any remarkable phenomena 
to be seen in those directions4 ,to     
ascertain if there be any such to which 

they point1 we must throw back the      
heavens to their position in the days of
 the ,egyptians1 because1 as we have    
seen1 the precession of the equinoxes   
alters the meridian altitude of every   
star4 ,as the passages point north and  
south1 if they refer to any star at all1
 it must be to their passing the        
meridian4  ,now let us take the heavens 
as they were #bagj ,b4,c41 the date at  
which the ,pleiades really commenced the
 spring1 by their midnight culmination1 
and ask how high they would be then4    
,the answer of astronomy is             
remarkable--,exactly at that height that
 they could be seen in the direction of 
the southward-pointing passage of the   
pyramid4 ,and would any star then be in 
a position to be seen in the direction  
of the other or northward-looking       
passage8 ,yes1 the largest star in the  
constellation of the ,dragon1 which     
would be so near the pole 7#c deg4 #eb'7
 as to be taken as the ,pole ,star in   
those days4 ,these are such remarkable  

coincidences in a structure admittedly  
made with mathematical accuracy and     
design1 and truly executed1 that we     
cannot take them to be accidental1 but  
must endeavour to account for them4     
,the simplest explanation seems to be1  
that everything in the pyramid is       
intended to represent some standard or  
measure1 and that these passages have to
 do with their year4 ,they had received 
the year of the ,pleiades from a remoter
 antiquity than their own1 they had     
discovered the true commencement of     
solar spring1 as determined from the    
solar autumnal equinox1 and they        
commemorated by the building of the     
pyramid the coincidence of the two      
dates1 making passages in it which would
 have no meaning except at that         
particular time4  ,whether the pyramid  
was built at that time1 or whether their
 astronomical knowledge was sufficient  
to enable them to predict it and build  
accordingly1 just as we calculate back  
to it1 we have no means of knowing4 ,it 

is very possible that the pyramid may   
have been built by some immigrating race
 more learned in astronomy1 like the    
,accadians among the ,babylonians4      
,either the whole of the conclusions    
respecting the pyramid is founded on    
pure imagination and the whole work upon
 it thrown away1 or we have here another
 very remarkable proof of the influence 
of the ,pleiades on the reckoning of the
 year1 and a very interesting chapter in
 the history of the heavens4  ,following
 the guidance of ,mr4 ,haliburton1 we   
shall find still more customs1 and names
 depending in all probability on the    
influence the ,pleiades once exerted1   
and the observances connected with the  
feasts in their honour4  ,the name by   
which the ,pleiades are known among the 
,polynesians is the ,tau1 which means a 
season1 and they speak of the years of  
the ,tau1 that is of the ,pleiades4 ,now
 we have seen that the ,egyptians had   
similar feasts at similar times1 in     
relation to this constellation1 and     

argued that they did not arise          
independently4 ,this seems still further
 proved by their name for these         
stars--the ,atauria4  ,now the          
,egyptians do not appear to have derived
 their signs of the ,zodiac from the    
same source2 these had a ,babylonian    
origin1 and the constellation in which  
the ,pleiades were placed by the latter 
people was the ,bull1 by whatever name  
he went4 ,the ,egyptians1 we may make   
the fair surmise1 adopted from both     
sources2 they took the ,pleiades to     
indicate the ,bull1 and they called this
 animal after the ,atauria4 ,from thence
 we got the ,latin ,taurus1 and the     
,german ,thier4  ,it is possible that   
this somehow got connected with the     
letter tau in ,greek1 which seems itself
 connected with the sacred scarabaeus or
 ,tau-beetle of ,egypt2 but the nature  
of the connection is by no means        
obvious4 ,mr4 ,haliburton even suggests 
that the tors and ,arthur's seat1 which 
are names given to ,british hill-tops1  

may be connected with the high places1  
of the worship of the ,pleiades1 but of 
this we have no proof4  ,among the      
customs possibly derived from the       
ancients1 through the ,phoenicians1     
though now adopted as conveying a       
different meaning in a ,christian sense1
 is that of the hot cross bun1 or bull  
cake4 ,it is found on ,egyptian         
monuments1 signifying the four quarters 
of the year1 and sometimes stamped with 
the head and horns of the bull4 ,it is  
found among ourselves too1 essentially  
connected with the dead1 and something  
similar to it appears in the soul cake  
connected originally with ,all ,souls'  
,day4  ,among the ,scotch it was        
traditionally thought that on ,new      
,year's ,eve the ,candlemas ,bull can be
 seen1 rising at twilight and sailing   
over the heavens--a very near approach  
to a matter-of-fact statement4  ,we have
 seen that among the ancient ,indians   
there was some notice taken of the      
,pleiades1 and that they in all         

probability guided their year by them or
 by some other stars3 it would therefore
 behove them to know something of the   
precession of the equinoxes4 ,it seems  
very well proved that their days of     
,brahma and other periods were meant to 
represent some astronomical cycles1 and 
among these we find one that is         
applicable to the above4 ,they said that
 in every thousand divine ages1 or in   
every day of ,brahma1 fourteen ,menus   
are successively invested with the      
sovereignty of the earth4 ,each ,menu   
transmits his empire to his sons during 
seventy-one divine ages4 ,we may find a 
meaning for this by putting it that the 
equinox goes forward fourteen days in   
each thousand years1 and each day takes 
up seventy-one years4  ,these may not be
 the only ones among the various        
customs1 sayings1 and names that are due
 in one way or other to this primitive  
method of arranging the seasons by the  
positions of the stars1 especially of   
those most remarkable and conspicuous   

ones the ,pleiades1 but they are those  
that are best authenticated4 ,if the    
connection between the ,pleiades and the
 festival of the dead1 the new year and 
a deluge1 can be clearly made out2 if   
the tradition of the latter be found as 
universal as that of the former1 and be 
connected with it in the ,mosaic        
narrative2 if we can trace all these    
traditions to the south of the equator1 
and find numerous further traditions    
connected with islands1 we may find some
 reason for believing in their theory   
who suggest that the early progenitors  
of the human race 78 all of them7 were  
inhabitants of some fortunate islands of
 even temperature in the southern       
hemisphere1 where they made some        
progress in civilisation1 but that their
 island was swallowed up by the sea1 and
 that they only escaped by making huge  
vessels1 and1 being carried by the      
waves1 they landed on continental       
shores1 where they commemorated yearly  
the great catastrophe that had happened 

to them1 notifying its time by the      
position of the ,pleiades1 making it a  
feast of the dead whom they had left    
behind1 and opening the year with the   
day1 whether it were spring or not1 and 
handing down to their descendants and to
 those among whom they came1 the        
traditions and customs which such events
 had impressed upon them4  ,whether such
 an account be probable1 mythical1 or   
unnatural1 there are certainly some     
strange things to account for in        
connection with the ,pleiades4          
,,chapter ,,vi4  ,,the ,,nature ,,and   
,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,heavens        
,,according ,,to ,,the ,,ancients4      
,many and various have been the ideas   
entertained by reflecting men in former 
times on the nature and construction of 
the heavenly vault1 wherein appeared    
those stars and constellations whose    
history we have already traced4 ,is it  
solid8 or liquid8 or gaseous8 ,each of  
these and many other suppositions have  
been duly formulated by the ancient     

philosophers and sages1 although1 as we 
are told by modern astronomy1 it does   
not exist at all4  ,in our study of the 
ancient ideas about the structure of the
 universe1 we will commence with that   
early and curious system which          
considered the heavenly vault to be     
material and solid4  ,the theory of a   
solid sky received the assent of all the
 most ancient philosophers4 ,in his     
commentary on ,aristotle's work on the  
heavens1 ,simplicius reveals the        
repugnance the ancient philosophers felt
 in admitting that a star could stand   
alone in space1 or have a free motion of
 its own4 ,it must have a support1 and  
they therefore conceived that the sky   
must be solid4 ,however strange this    
idea may now appear1 it formed for many 
centuries the basis of all astronomical 
theories4 ,thus ,anaximenas 7in the     
sixth century ,b4,c47 is related by     
,plutarch to have said that the outer   
sky is solid and crystalline1 and that  
the stars are fixed to its surface like 

studs1 but he does not say on what this 
opinion was founded1 though it is       
probable that1 like his master          
,anaximander1 he could not understand   
how the stars could move without being  
supported4  ,pythagoras1 who lived about
 the same epoch1 is also supposed by    
some to have held the same views1 and it
 is possible that they all borrowed     
these ideas from the ,persians1 whose   
earliest astronomers are said in the    
,zend avesta to have believed in        
concentric solid skies4  ,eudoxus of    
,cnidus1 in the fifth century ,b4,c41 is
 said by his commentator ,aratus to have
 also believed in the solidity of the   
heavens1 but his reasons are not        
assigned4  ,notwithstanding these       
previously expressed opinions1          
,aristotle 7fourth century1 ,b4,c47 has 
for a long time been generally supposed 
to be the inventor of solid skies1 but  
in fact he only gave the idea his       
valuable and entire support4 ,the sphere
 of the stars was his eighth heaven4    

,the less elevated heavens1 in which he 
also believed1 were invented to explain 
as well as they might1 the proper       
motions of the sun1 moon1 and planets4  
,the philosopher of ,stagira said that  
the motion of his eighth or outermost   
solid sky was uniform1 nor ever troubled
 by any perturbation4 ,within the       
universe there is1 he says1 a fixed and 
immovable centre1 the earth2 and without
 there is a bounding surface enclosing  
it on all sides4 ,the outermost part of 
the universe is the sky4 ,it is filled  
with heavenly bodies which we know as   
stars1 and it has a perpetual motion1   
carrying round with it these immortal   
bodies in its unaltering and unending   
revolution4  ,euclid1 to whom we may    
assign a date of about #bge before our  
present era1 also considered the stars  
to be set in a solid sphere1 having the 
eye of the observer as centre2 though   
for him this conception was simply a    
deduction from exact and fundamental    
observations1 namely1 that their        

revolution took place as a whole1 the   
shape and size of the constellation     
being never altered4  ,cicero1 in the   
last century before ,christ1 declared   
himself a believer in the solidity of   
the sky4 ,according to him the ether was
 too rarefied to enable it to move the  
stars1 which must therefore require to  
be fixed to a sphere of their own1      
independent of the ether4  ,in the time 
of ,seneca there seem to have been      
difficulties already raised about the   
solidity of the heavens1 for he only    
mentions it in the form of a            
question--,is the sky solid and of a    
firm and compact substance8 7,questions1
 ,book ii47  ,in the fifth century the  
idea of the star sphere still lingered1 
and in the eyes of ,simplicius1 the     
commentator of ,aristotle1 it was not   
merely an artifice suitable for the     
representation of the apparent motions1 
but a firm and solid reality2 while     
,mahomet and most of the ,fathers of the
 ,christian ,church had the same        

conception of these concentric spheres4 
,it appears then from this review that  
the phrases starry vault1 and especially
 fixed stars1 have been used in two very
 distinct senses4 ,when we meet with    
them in ,aristotle or ,ptolemy1 it is   
obvious that they have reference to the 
crystal sphere of ,anaximenas1 to which 
they were supposed to be affixed1 and to
 move with it2 but that later the word  
fixed carried with it the sense of      
immovable1 and the stars were conceived 
as fixed in this sense1 independently of
 the sphere to which they were          
originally thought to be attached4 ,thus
 ,seneca speaks of them as the fixum et 
immobilem populum4  ,if we would inquire
 a little further into the supposed     
nature of this solid sphere1 we find    
that ,empedocles considered it to be a  
solid mass1 formed of a portion of the  
ether which the elementary fire has     
converted into crystal1 and his ideas of
 the connection between cold and        
solidification being not very precise1  

he described it by names that give the  
best idea of transparence1 and1 like    
,lactantius1 called it vitreum caelum1  
or said caelum aerem glaciatum esse1    
though we cannot suppose that he made   
any allusion to what we now call glass1 
but simply meant some body eminently    
transparent into which the fire had     
transformed the air2 while so far from  
having any idea of cold1 as we might    
imagine possible from observations of   
the snowy tops of mountains1 they       
actually believed in a warm region above
 the lower atmosphere4 ,thus ,aristotle 
considers that the spheres heat by their
 motion the air below them1 without     
being heated themselves1 and that there 
is thus a production of heat4 ,the      
motion of the sphere of fixed stars1 he 
says1 is the most rapid1 as it moves in 
a circle with all the bodies attached to
 it1 and the spaces immediately below   
are strongly heated by the motion1 and  
the heat1 thus engendered1 is propagated
 downwards to the earth4 ,this however1 

strangely enough1 does not appear to    
have prevented their supposing an       
eternal cold to reign in the regions    
next below1 for ,macrobius1 in his      
commentary on ,cicero1 speaks of the    
decrease of temperature with the height1
 and concludes that the extreme zones of
 the heavens where ,saturn moves must be
 eternally cold2 but this they reckoned 
as part of the atmosphere1 beyond whose 
limits alone was to be found the fiery  
ether4  ,it is to the ,fathers of the   
,church that we owe the transmission    
during the middle ages of the idea of a 
crystal vault4 ,they conceived a heaven 
of glass composed of eight or ten       
superposed layers1 something like so    
many skins in an onion4 ,this idea seems
 to have lingered on in certain         
cloisters of southern ,europe even into 
the nineteenth century1 for a venerable 
,prince of the ,church told ,humboldt in
 #ahae1 that a large aerolite lately    
fallen1 which was covered with a        
vitrified crust1 must be a fragment of  

the crystalline sky4 ,on these various  
spheres1 one enveloping without touching
 another1 they supposed the several     
planets to be fixed1 as we shall see in 
a subsequent chapter4  ,whether the     
greater minds of antiquity1 such as     
,plato1 ,plutarch1 ,eudoxus1 ,aristotle1
 ,apollonius1 believed in the reality of
 these concentric spheres to carry the  
planets1 or whether this conception was 
not rather with them an imaginary one1  
serving only to simplify calculation and
 assist the mind in the solution of the 
difficult problem of their motion1 is a 
point on which even ,humboldt cannot    
decide4 ,it is certain1 however1 that in
 the middle of the sixteenth century1   
when the theory involved no less than   
seventy-seven concentric spheres1 and   
later1 when the adversaries of          
,copernicus brought them all into       
prominence to defend the system of      
,ptolemy1 the belief in the existence of
 these solid spheres1 circles and       
epicycles1 which was under the especial 

patronage of the ,church1 was very      
widespread4  ,tycho ,brahe expressly    
boasts of having been the first1 by     
considerations concerning the orbits of 
the comets1 to have demonstrated the    
impossibility of solid spheres1 and to  
have upset this ingenious scaffolding4  
,he supposed the spaces of our system to
 be filled with air1 and that this      
medium1 disturbed by the motion of the  
heavenly bodies1 opposed a resistance   
which gave rise to the harmonic sounds4 
,it should be added also that the       
,grecian philosophers1 though little    
fond of observation1 but rejoicing      
rather in framing systems for the       
explanation of phenomena of which they  
possessed but the faintest glimpse1 have
 left us some ideas about the nature of 
shooting stars and aerolites that come  
very close to those that are now        
accepted4 ,some philosophers think1 says
 ,plutarch in his life of ,lysander1    
that shooting stars are not detached    
particles of ether which are            

extinguished by the atmosphere soon     
after being ignited1 nor do they arise  
from the combustion of the rarefied air 
in the upper regions1 but that they are 
rather heavenly bodies which fall1 that 
is to say1 which escaping in some way   
from the general force of rotation are  
precipitated in an irregular manner1    
sometimes on inhabited portions of the  
earth1 but sometimes also in the ocean1 
where of course they cannot be found4   
,diogenes of ,apollonius expresses      
himself still more clearly3 ,amongst the
 stars that are visible move others that
 are invisible1 to which in consequence 
we are unable to give any name4 ,these  
latter often fall to the earth and take 
fire like that star-stone which fell all
 on fire near ,a,egos ,potamos4 ,these  
ideas were no doubt borrowed from some  
more ancient source1 as he believed that
 all the stars were made of something   
like pumice-stone4 ,anaxagoras1 in fact1
 thought that all the heavenly bodies   
were fragments of rocks which the ether1

 by the force of its circular motion1   
had detached from the earth1 set fire   
to1 and turned into stars4 ,thus the    
,ionic school1 with ,diogenes of        
,apollonius1 placed the aerolites and   
the stars in one class1 and assigned to 
all of them a terrestrial origin1 though
 in this sense only1 that the earth1    
being the central body1 had furnished   
the matter for all those that surround  
it4  ,plutarch speaks thus of this      
curious combination3--,anaxagoras       
teaches that the ambient ether is of an 
igneous nature1 and by the force of its 
gyratory motion it tears off blocks of  
stone1 renders them incandescent1 and   
transforms them into stars4 ,it appears 
that he explained also by an analogous  
effect of the circular motion the       
descent of the ,nemaean ,lion1 which1   
according to an old tradition1 fell out 
of the moon upon the ,peloponnesus4     
,according to ,boeckh1 this ancient myth
 of the ,nemaean ,lion had an           
astronomical origin1 and was            

symbolically connected in chronology    
with the cycle of intercalation of the  
lunar year1 with the worship of the moon
 in ,nemaea1 and the games by which it  
was accompanied4  ,illustration3 ,,plate
 ,,vi4--,,the ,,nemaean ,,lion4         
,anaxagoras explains the apparent motion
 of the celestial sphere from east to   
west by the hypothesis of a general     
revolution1 the interruption of which1  
as we have just seen1 caused the fall of
 meteoric stones4 ,this hypothesis is   
the point of departure of the theory of 
vortices1 which more than two thousand  
years later1 by the labours of          
,descartes1 ,huyghens1 and ,hooke1 took 
so prominent a place among the theories 
of the world4  ,it may be worth adding  
with regard to the famous aerolite of   
,a,egos ,potamus1 alluded to above1 that
 when the heavens were no longer        
believed to be solid1 the faith in the  
celestial origin of this1 as of other   
aerolites1 was for a long time          
destroyed4 ,thus ,bailly the astronomer1

 alluding to it1 says1 if the fact be   
true1 this stone must have been thrown  
out by a volcano4 ,indeed it is only    
within the last century that it has been
 finally accepted for fact that stones  
do fall from the sky4 ,laplace thought  
it probable that they came from the     
moon2 but it has now been demonstrated  
that aerolites1 meteors1 and shooting   
stars belong all to one class of        
heavenly bodies1 that they are fragments
 scattered through space1 and circulate 
like the planets round the sun4 ,when   
the earth in its motion crosses this    
heavenly host1 those which come near    
enough to touch its atmosphere leave a  
luminous train behind them by their     
heating by friction with the air3 these 
are the shooting stars4 ,sometimes they 
come so close as to appear larger than  
the moon1 then they are meteors2 and    
sometimes too the attraction of the     
earth makes them fall to it1 and these  
become aerolites4  ,but to return to our
 ancient astronomers3--  ,they believed 

the heavens to be in motion1 not only   
because they saw the motion with their  
eyes1 but because they believed them to 
be animated1 and regarded motion as the 
essence of life4 ,they judged of the    
rapidity of the stars' motion by a very 
ingenious means4 ,they perceived that it
 was greater than that of a horse1 a    
bird1 an arrow1 or even of the voice1   
and ,cleomenas endeavoured to estimate  
it in the following way4 ,he remarks    
that when the king of ,persia made war  
upon ,greece he placed men at certain   
intervals1 so as to lie in hearing of   
each other1 and thus passed on the news 
from ,athens to ,susa4 ,now this news   
took two days and nights to pass over   
this distance4 ,the voice therefore only
 accomplished a fraction of the distance
 that the stars had accomplished twice  
in the same time4  ,the heavens1 as we  
have seen1 were not supposed to consist 
of a single sphere1 but of several      
concentric ones1 the arrangement and    
names of which we must now inquire into4

  ,the early ,chaldeans established     
three4 ,the first was the empyreal      
heaven1 which was the most remote4      
,this1 which they called also the solid 
firmament1 was made of fire1 but of fire
 of so rare and penetrating a nature1   
that it easily passed through the other 
heavens1 and became universally         
diffused1 and in this way reached the   
earth4 ,the second was the ethereal     
heaven1 containing the stars1 which were
 simply formed of the more compact and  
denser parts of this substance2 and the 
third heaven was that of the planets4   
,the ,persians1 however1 gave a separate
 heaven to the sun1 and another to the  
moon4  ,the system which has enjoyed the
 longest and most widely-spread reign is
 that which places above1 or rather     
round1 the solid firmament a heaven of  
water--7the nature of which is not      
accurately defined71 and round this a   
primum mobile1 prime mover1 or          
originator of all the motions1 and round
 all this the empyreal heaven1 or abode 

of the blessed4 ,in the most anciently  
printed scientific encyclopaedia known1 
the ,magarita philosophica1 edited in   
the fifteenth century1 that is1 two     
centuries before the adoption of the    
true system of the world1 we have the   
curious figure represented on the next  
page1 in which we find no less than     
eleven different heavens4 ,we here see  
on the exterior the solid empyreal      
heaven1 which is stated in the body of  
the work to be the abode of the blessed 
and to be immovable1 while the next     
heaven gives motion to all within1 and  
is followed by the aqueous heaven1 then 
the crystal firmament1 and lastly by the
 several heavens of the planets1 sun1   
and moon4 ,the revolution of these      
spheres was not supposed to take place1 
like the motion of the earth in modern  
astronomy1 round an imaginary axis1 but 
round one which had a material          
existence1 which was provided with      
pivots moving in fixed sockets4 ,thus   
,vitruvius1 architect to ,augustus1     

teaches it expressly in these words3--  
,the heaven turns continually round the 
earth and sea upon an axis1 where two   
extremities are like two pivots that    
sustain it3 for there are two places in 
which the ,governor of ,nature has      
fashioned and set these pivots as two   
centres2 one is above the earth among   
the northern stars2 the other is at the 
opposite end beneath the earth to the   
south2 and around these pivots1 as round
 two centres1 he has placed little      
naves1 like those of a wheel upon which 
the heaven turns continually4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4  ,similarly  
curious ideas we shall find to have     
prevailed with respect to the meaning of
 everything that they observed in the   
heavens3 thus what a number of opinions 
have been hazarded on the nature of the 
,milky ,way alone6 some of which we may 
learn from ,plutarch4 ,the ,milky ,way1 
he says1 is a nebulous circle1 which    
constantly appears in the sky1 and which
 owes its name to its white appearance4 

,certain ,pythagoreans assert that when 
,phaeton lit up the universe1 one star1 
which escaped from its proper place1 set
 light to the whole space it passed over
 in its circular course1 and so formed  
the ,milky ,way4 ,others thought that   
this circle was where the sun had been  
moving at the beginning of the world4   
,according to others it is but an       
optical phenomenon produced by the      
reflection of the sun's rays from the   
vault of the sky as from a mirror1 and  
comparable with the effects seen in the 
rainbow and illuminated clouds4         
,metrodorus says it is the mark of the  
sun's passage which moves along this    
circle4 ,parmenidas pretends that the   
milky colour arises from a mixture of   
dense and rare air4 ,anaxagoras thinks  
it an effect of the earth's shadow      
projected on this part of the heavens1  
when the sun is below4 ,democritus says 
that it is the lustre of several little 
stars which are very near together1 and 
which reciprocally illuminate each      

other4 ,aristotle believes it to be a   
vast mass of arid vapours1 which takes  
fire from a glowing tress1 above the    
region of the ether1 and far below that 
of the planets4 ,posidonius says that   
the circle is a compound of fire less   
dense than that of the stars1 but more  
luminous4 ,all such opinions1 except    
that of ,democritus1 are of little      
value1 because founded on nothing2      
perhaps the worst is that of            
,theophrastus1 who said it was the      
junction between the two hemispheres1   
which together formed the vault of      
heaven3 and that it was so badly made   
that it let through some of the light   
that he supposed to exist everywhere    
behind the solid sky4  ,we now know that
 the ,milky ,way1 like many of the      
nebulae1 is an immense agglomeration of 
suns4 ,the ,milky ,way is itself a      
nebula1 a mass of sidereal systems1 with
 our own among them1 since our sun is a 
single star in this vast archipelago of 
eighteen million orbs4 ,the ,greeks     

called it the ,galaxy4 ,the ,chinese and
 ,arabians call it the ,river of        
,heaven4 ,it is the ,path of ,souls     
among the ,north ,american ,indians1 and
 the ,road of ,s4 ,jacques de           
,compostelle among ,french peasants4    
,in tracing the history of ideas        
concerning the structure of the heavens 
among the ,greek philosophers1 we meet  
with other modifications which it will  
be interesting to recount4 ,thus        
,eudoxus1 who paid greater attention    
than others to the variations of the    
motions of the planets1 gave more than  
one sphere to each of them to represent 
these observed changes4 ,each planet1   
according to him1 has a separate part of
 the heaven to itself1 which is composed
 of several concentric spheres1 whose   
movements1 modifying each other1 produce
 that of the planet4 ,he gave three     
spheres to the sun3 one which turned    
from east to west in twenty-four hours1 
to represent the diurnal rotation2 a    
second1 which turned about the pole of  

the ecliptic in #cfe-a_/d days1 and     
produced its annual movement2 and a     
third was added to account for a certain
 supposed motion1 by which the sun was  
drawn out of the ecliptic1 and turned   
about an axis1 making such an angle with
 that of the ecliptic1 as represented   
the supposed aberration4 ,the moon also 
had three spheres to produce its motions
 in longitude and latitude1 and its     
diurnal motion4 ,each of the other      
planets had four1 the extra one being   
added to account for their stations and 
retrogressions4 ,it should be added that
 these concentric spheres were supposed 
to fit each other1 so that the different
 planets were only separated by the     
thicknesses of these crystal zones4     
,polemarch1 the disciple of ,eudoxus1   
who went to ,athens with his pupil      
,calippus for the express purpose of    
consulting ,aristotle on these subjects1
 was not satisfied with the exactness   
with which these spheres represented the
 planetary motions1 and made changes in 

the direction of still greater          
complication4 ,instead of the twenty-six
 spheres which represented ,eudoxus'    
system1 ,calippus established           
thirty-three1 and by adding also        
intermediary spheres to prevent the     
motion of one planet interfering with   
that of the adjacent ones1 the number   
was increased to fifty-six4  ,there is  
extant a small work1 ascribed to        
,aristotle1 entitled ,letter of         
,aristotle to ,alexander on the system  
of the world1 which gives so clear an   
account of the ideas entertained in his 
epoch that we shall venture to give a   
somewhat long extract from it4 ,the     
work1 it should be said1 is not by all  
considered genuine1 but is ascribed by  
some to ,nicolas of ,damas1 by others to
 ,anaximenas of ,lampsacus1 a           
contemporary of ,alexander's1 and by    
others to the ,stoic ,posidonius4 ,it is
 certain1 however1 that ,aristotle paid 
some attention to astronomy1 for he     
records the rare phenomena of an eclipse

 of ,mars by the moon1 and the          
occultation of one of the ,gemini by the
 planet ,jupiter1 and the work may well 
be genuine4 ,it contains the            
following3--  ,there is a fixed and     
immovable centre to the universe4 ,this 
is occupied by the earth1 the fruitful  
mother1 the common focus of every kind  
of living thing4 ,immediately           
surrounding it on all sides is the air4 
,above this in the highest region is the
 dwelling-place of the gods1 which is   
called the heavens4 ,the heavens and the
 universe being spherical and in        
continual motion1 there must be two     
points on opposite sides1 as in a globe 
which turns about an axis1 and these    
points must be immovable1 and have the  
sphere between them1 since the universe 
turns about them4 ,they are called the  
poles4 ,if a line be drawn from one of  
these points to the other it will be the
 diameter of the universe1 having the   
earth in the centre and the two poles at
 the extremities2 of these two poles the

 northern one is always visible above   
our horizon1 and is called the ,arctic  
pole2 the other1 to the south1 is always
 invisible to us--it is called the      
,antarctic pole4  ,the substance of the 
heavens and of the stars is called      
ether2 not that it is composed of flame1
 as pretended by some who have not      
considered its nature1 which is very    
different from that of fire1 but it is  
so called because it has an eternal     
circular motion1 being a divine and     
incorruptible element1 altogether       
different from the other four4  ,of the 
stars contained in the heavens some are 
fixed1 and turn with the heavens1       
constantly maintaining their relative   
positions4 ,in their middle portion is  
the circle called the zoophore1 which   
stretches obliquely from one tropic to  
the other1 and is divided into twelve   
parts1 which are the twelve signs 7of   
the zodiac74 ,the others are wandering  
stars1 and move neither with the same   
velocity as the fixed stars1 nor with a 

uniform velocity among themselves1 but  
all in different circles1 and with      
velocities depending on the distances of
 these circles from the earth4          
,although all the fixed stars move on   
the same surface of the heavens1 their  
number cannot be determined4 ,of the    
movable stars there are seven1 which    
circulate in as many concentric circles1
 so arranged that the lower circle is   
smaller than the higher1 and that the   
seven so placed one within the other are
 all within the spheres of the fixed    
stars4  ,on the nearer1 that is inner1  
side of this ethereal1 immovable1       
unalterable1 impassible nature is placed
 our movable1 corruptible1 and mortal   
nature4 ,of this there are several      
kinds1 the first of which is fire1 a    
subtle inflammable essence1 which is    
kindled by the great pressure and rapid 
motion of the ether4 ,it is in this     
region of air1 when any disturbance     
takes place in it1 that we see kindled  
shooting-stars1 streaks of light1 and   

shining motes1 and it is there that     
comets are lighted and extinguished4    
,below the fire comes the air1 by nature
 cold and dark1 but which is warmed and 
enflamed1 and becomes luminous by its   
motion4 ,it is in the region of the air1
 which is passive and changeable in any 
manner1 that the clouds condense1 and   
rain1 snow1 frost1 and hail are formed  
and fall to the earth4 ,it is the abode 
of stormy winds1 of whirlwinds1 thunder1
 lightning1 and many other phenomena4   
,the cause of the heaven's motion is    
,god4 ,he is not in the centre1 where   
the earth is a region of agitation and  
trouble1 but he is above the outermost  
circumference1 which is the purest of   
all regions1 a place which we call      
rightly ouranos1 because it is the      
highest part of the universe1 and       
olympos1 that is1 perfectly bright1     
because it is altogether separated from 
everything like the shadow and          
disordered movements which occur in the 
lower regions4  ,we notice in this      

extract a curious etymology of the word 
ether1 namely1 as signifying perpetual  
motion 7,greek3 aei teein71 though it is
 more probable that its true1 as its    
more generally accepted derivation is   
from ,greek3 aithein1 to burn or shine1 
a meaning doubtless alluded to in a     
remarkable passage of ,hippocrates1     
,greek3 ,peri ,sarkon4 ,it appears to   
me1 he says1 that what we call the      
principle of heat is immortal1 that it  
knows all1 sees all1 hears all1         
perceives all1 both in the past and in  
the future4 ,at the time when all was in
 confusion1 the greater part of this    
principle rose to the circumference of  
the universe2 it is this that the       
ancients have called ether4  ,the first 
,greek that can be called an astronomer 
was ,thales1 born at ,miletus #fda      
,b4,c41 who introduced into ,greece the 
elements of astronomy4 ,his opinions    
were these3 that the stars were of the  
same substance as the earth1 but that   
they were on fire2 that the moon        

borrowed its light from the sun1 and    
caused the eclipses of the latter1 while
 it was itself eclipsed when it entered 
the earth's shadow2 that the earth was  
round1 and divisible into five zones1 by
 means of five circles1 i4e4 the ,arctic
 and ,antarctic1 the two tropics1 and   
the equator2 that the latter circle is  
cut obliquely by the ecliptic1 and      
perpendicularly by the meridian4 ,up to 
his time no division of the sphere had  
been made beyond the description of the 
constellations4 ,these opinions do not  
appear to have been rapidly spread1     
since ,herodotus1 one of the finest     
intellects of ,greece1 who lived two    
centuries later1 was still so           
ill-instructed as to say1 in speaking of
 an eclipse1 ,the sun abandoned its     
place1 and night took the place of day4 
,anaxagoras1 of whom we have spoken     
before1 asserted that the sun was a mass
 of fire larger than the ,peloponnesus4 
,plutarch says he regarded it as a      
burning stone1 and ,diogenes ,laertius  

looked upon it as hot iron4 ,for this   
bold idea he was persecuted4 ,they      
considered it a crime that he taught the
 causes of the eclipses of the moon1 and
 pretended that the sun is larger than  
it looks4 ,he first taught the existence
 of one ,god1 and he was taxed with     
impiety and treason against his country4
 ,when he was condemned to death1       
,nature1 he said1 has long ago condemned
 me to the same2 and as to my children1 
when ,i gave them birth ,i had no doubt 
but they would have to die some day4    
,his disciple ,pericles1 however1       
defended him so eloquently that his life
 was spared1 and he was sent into exile4
  ,pythagoras1 who belonged to the      
school of ,thales1 and who travelled in 
,phoenicia1 ,chaldea1 ,judaea1 and      
,egypt1 to learn their ideas1 ventured1 
in spite of the warnings of the priests1
 to submit to the rites of initiation at
 ,heliopolis1 and thence returned to    
,samos1 but meeting with poor reception 
there1 he went to ,italy to teach4 ,from

 him arose the ,italian ,school1 and his
 disciples took the name of philosophers
 7lovers of wisdom7 instead of that of  
sages4 ,we shall learn more about him in
 the chapter on the ,harmony of the     
,spheres4  ,his first disciple1         
,empedocles1 famous for the curiosity   
which led him to his death in the crater
 of ,a,etna1 as the story goes1 thought 
that the true sun1 the fire that is in  
the centre of the universe1 illuminated 
the other hemisphere1 and that what we  
see is only the reflected image of that1
 which is invisible to us1 and all of   
whose movements it follows4  ,his       
disciple1 ,philolaus1 also taught that  
the sun was a mass of glass1 which sent 
us by reflection all the light that it  
scattered through the universe4 ,we must
 not1 however1 forget that these        
opinions are recorded by historians who 
probably did not understand them1 and   
who took in the letter what was only    
intended for a comparison or figure4    
,if we are to believe ,plutarch1        

,xenophanes1 who flourished about #cfj  
,b4,c41 was very wild in his opinions4  
,he thought the stars were lighted every
 night and extinguished every morning2  
that the sun is a fiery cloud2 that     
eclipses take place by the sun being    
extinguished and afterwards rekindled2  
that the moon is inhabited1 but is      
eighteen times larger than the earth2   
that there are several suns and several 
moons for giving light to different     
countries4 ,this can only be matched by 
those who said the sun went every night 
through a hole in the earth round again 
to the east2 or that it went above      
ground1 and if we did not see it going  
back it was because it accomplished the 
journey in the night4  ,parmenidas was  
the disciple of ,xenophanes4 ,he divided
 the earth1 like ,thales1 into zones2   
and he added that it was suspended in   
the centre of the universe1 and that it 
did not fall because there was no reason
 why it should move in one direction    
rather than another4 ,this argument is  

perfectly philosophical1 and illustrates
 a principle employed since the time of 
,archimedes1 and of which ,leibnitz made
 so much use4  ,such are some of the    
general ideas which were held by the    
,greeks and others on the nature of the 
heavens1 omitting that of ,ptolemy1 of  
which we shall give a fuller account    
hereafter4 ,we see that they were all   
affected by the dominant idea of the    
superiority of the earth over the rest  
of the universe1 and were spoiled for   
want of the grand conception of the     
immensity of space4 ,the universe was   
for them a closed space1 outside of     
which there was nothing2 and they busied
 themselves with metaphysical questions 
as to the possibility of space being    
infinite4 ,in the meantime their        
conceptions of the distances separating 
us from other visible parts of the      
universe were excessively cramped4      
,hesiod1 for instance1 thinks to give a 
grand idea of the size of the universe  
by saying that ,vulcan's anvil took     

seven days to fall from heaven to earth1
 when in reality1 as now calculated1 it 
would take no less than seventy-two     
years for the light1 even travelling at 
a far greater rate1 to reach us from one
 of the nearest of the fixed stars4     
,,chapter ,,vii4  ,,the ,,celestial     
,,harmony4   ,nature presents herself to
 us under various aspects4 ,at times1 it
 may be1 she presents to us the         
appearance of discord1 and we fail to   
perceive the unity that pervades the    
whole of her actions4 ,at others1       
however1 and most often to an instructed
 mind1 there is a concord between her   
various powers1 a harmony even in her   
sounds1 that will not escape us4 ,even  
the wild notes of the tempest and the   
bass roll of the thunder form themselves
 into part of the grand chorus which in 
the great opera are succeeded by the    
solos of the evening breeze1 the songs  
of birds1 or the ripple of the waves4   
,these are ideas that would most        
naturally present themselves to         

contemplative minds1 and such must have 
been the students of the silent1 but to 
them harmonious and tuneful1 star-lit   
sky1 under the clear atmosphere of      
,greece4 ,the various motions they      
observed became indissolubly connected  
in their minds with music1 and they did 
not doubt that the heavenly spheres made
 harmony1 if imperceptible to human     
ears4 ,but their ideas were more precise
 than this4 ,they discovered that       
harmony depended on number1 and they    
attempted to prove that whether the     
music they might make were audible or   
not1 the celestial spheres had motions  
which were connected together in the    
same way as the numbers belonging to a  
harmony4 ,the study of their opinions on
 this point reveals some very curious as
 well as very interesting ideas4 ,we may
 commence by referring to an ancient    
treatise by ,timaeus of ,locris on the  
soul of the universe4 ,to him we owe the
 first serious exposition of the        
complete harmonic cosmography of        

,pythagoras4 ,we must premise that1     
according to this school1 ,god employed 
all existing matter in the formation of 
the universe--so that it comprehends all
 things1 and all is in it4 ,it is a     
unique1 perfect1 and spherical          
production1 since the sphere is the most
 perfect of figures2 animated and       
endowed with reason1 since that which is
 animated and endowed with reason is    
better than that which is not4  ,so     
begins ,timaeus1 and then follows1 as a 
quotation from ,plato1 a comparison of  
the earth to what would appear to us    
nowadays to be a very singular animal4  
,not only1 says ,plato1 is the earth a  
sphere1 but this sphere is perfect1 and 
its maker took care that its surface    
should be perfectly uniform for many    
reasons4 ,the universe in fact has no   
need of eyes1 since there is nothing    
outside of it to see2 nor yet of ears1  
since there is nothing but what is part 
of itself to make a sound2 nor of       
breathing organs1 as it is not          

surrounded by air3 any organ that should
 serve to take in nourishment1 or to    
reject the grosser parts1 would be      
absolutely useless1 for there being     
nothing outside it1 it could not receive
 or reject anything4 ,for the same      
reason it needs no hands with which to  
defend itself1 nor yet of feet with     
which to walk4 ,of the seven kinds of   
motion1 its author has given it that    
which is most suitable for its figure in
 making it turn about its axis1 and     
since for the execution of this rotatory
 motion no arms or legs are wanted1 its 
maker gave it none4  ,with regard to the
 soul of the universe1 ,plato1 according
 to ,timaeus1 says that ,god composed it
 of a mixture of the divisible and      
indivisible essences1 so that the two   
together might be united into one1      
uniting two forces1 the principles of   
two kinds of motion1 one that which is  
always the same1 and the other that     
which is always changing4 ,the mixture  
of these two essences was difficult1 and

 was not accomplished without           
considerable skill and pains4 ,the      
proportions of the mixture were         
according to harmonic numbers1 so chosen
 that it is possible to know of what1   
and by what rule1 the soul of the       
universe is compounded4  ,by harmonic   
numbers ,timaeus means those that are   
proportional to those representing the  
consonances of the musical scale4 ,the  
consonances known to the ancients were  
three in number3 the diapason1 or       
octave1 in the proportion of #b to #a1  
the diapent1 or fifth1 in that of #c to 
#b1 and the diatessaron1 or fourth1 in  
that of #d to #c2 when to these are     
joined the tones which fill the         
intervals of the consonances1 and are in
 the proportion of #i to #h1 and the    
semitones in that of #bef to #bdc1 all  
the degrees of the musical scale is     
complete4  ,the discovery of these      
harmonic numbers is due to ,pythagoras4 
,it is stated that when passing one day 
near a forge1 he noticed that the       

hammers gave out very accurate musical  
concords4 ,he had them weighed1 and     
found that of those which sounded the   
octave1 one weighed twice as much as the
 other2 that of those which made a      
perfect fifth1 one weighed one third    
more than the other1 and in the case of 
a fourth1 one quarter more4 ,after      
having tried the hammers1 he took a     
musical string stretched with weights1  
and found that when he had applied a    
given weight in the first instance to   
make any particular note1 he had to     
double the weight to obtain the octave1 
to add one third extra only to obtain a 
fifth1 a quarter for the fourth1 and    
eight for one tone1 and about an        
eighteenth for a half-tone2 or more     
simply still1 he stretched a cord once  
for all1 and then when the whole length 
sounded any note1 when stopped in the   
middle it gave the octave1 at the third 
it gave the fifth1 at the quarter the   
fourth1 at the eighth the tone1 and at  
the eighteenth the semi-tone4  ,since   

the ancients conceived of the soul by   
means of motion1 the quantity of motion 
developed in anything was their measure 
of the quantity of its soul4 ,now the   
motion of the heavenly bodies seemed to 
them to depend on their distance from   
the centre of the universe1 the fastest 
being those at the circumference of the 
whole4 ,to determine the relative       
degrees of velocity1 they imagined a    
straight line drawn outwards from the   
centre of the earth1 as far as the      
empyreal heaven1 and divided it         
according to the proportions of the     
musical scale1 and these divisions they 
called the harmonic degrees of the soul 
of the universe4 ,taking the earth's    
radius for the first number1 and calling
 it unity1 or1 in order to avoid        
fractions1 denoting it by #chd1 the     
second degree1 which is at the distance 
of an harmonic third1 will be           
represented by #chd plus its eighth     
part1 or #dcb4 ,the third degree will be
 #dcb1 plus its eighth part1 or #dhf4   

,the fourth1 being a semitone1 will be  
as #bdc to #bef1 which will give #eab2  
and so on4 ,the eighth degree will in   
this way be the double of #chd or #gfh1 
and represents the first octave4  ,they 
continued this series to #cf degrees1 as
 in the following table3--  ,the ,earth4
    ,mi           #chd  #a_/h  #dcb     
,re           #dcb  #a_/h  #dhf   ,ut   
#dhf 3 #eab 3 3 #bdc 3 #bef   ,si       
#eab  #a_/h  #egf   ,la           #egf  
#a_/h  #fdh   ,sol          #fdh  #a_/h 
#gbi   ,fa           #gbi 3 #gfh 3 3    
#bdc 3 #bef   ,mi           #gfh  #a_/h 
#hfd   ,re           #hfd  #a_/h  #igb  
,ut           #igb 3 #ajbd 3 3 #bdc 3   
#bef   ,si          #ajbd  #a_/h  #aaeb 
,la          #aaeb  #a_/h  #abif   ,sol 
#abif  #a_/h  #adeh   ,fa          #adeh
 3 #aecf 3 3 #bdc 3 #bef   ,mi          
#aecf  #a_/h  #agbh   ,re          #agbh
  #a_/h  #aidd   ,ut          #aidd 3   
#bjdh 3 #bdc 3 #bef   ,si          #bjdh
  #aci  #bahg   ,si #b        #bahg 3   
#bcjd 3 3 #bdc 3 #bef   ,la             

#bcjd  #a_/h  #beib   ,sol         #beib
  #a_/h  #biaf   ,fa          #biaf 3   
#cjgb 3 3 #bdc 3 #bef   ,mi             
#cjgb  #a_/h  #cdef   ,re          #cdeg
  #a_/h  #chhh   ,ut          #chhh     
#a_/h  #dcgd   ,si          #dcgd 3     
#dfjh 3 3 #bdc 3 #bef   ,la             
#dfjh  #a_/h  #eahd   ,sol         #eahd
  #a_/h  #ehcb   ,fa          #ehcb 3   
#fadd 3 3 #bdc 3 #bef   ,mi             
#fadd  #dag  #fefa   ,mi #b        #fefa
 3 #fiab 3 3 #bdc 3 #bef   ,re          
#fiab  #a_/h  #gggf   ,ut          #gggf
  #a_/h  #hgdh   ,si          #hgdh 3   
#ibaf 3 3 #bdc 3 #bef   ,la             
#ibaf  #a_/h  #ajcfh   ,sol             
#ajcfh  #chd  #bg    ,the empyreal      
heaven4   ,sum of all the terms1        
#aad1fie4  ,this series they considered 
a complete one1 because by taking the   
terms in their proper intervals1 the    
last becomes #bg times the original     
number1 and in the school of ,pythagoras
 this #bg had a mystic signification1   
and was considered as the perfect       

number4  ,the reason for considering #bg
 a perfect number was curious4 ,it is   
the sum of the first linear1 square1 and
 cubic numbers added to unity4 ,first   
there is #a1 which represents the point1
 then #b and #c1 the first linear       
numbers1 even and uneven1 then #d and   
#i1 the first square or surface numbers1
 even and uneven1 and the last #h and   
#bg1 the first solid or cubic numbers1  
even and uneven1 and #bg is the sum of  
all the former4 ,whence1 taking the     
number #bg as the symbol of the         
universe1 and the numbers which compose 
it as the elements1 it appeared right   
that the soul of the universe should be 
composed of the same elements4  ,on this
 scale of distances1 with corresponding 
velocities1 they arranged the various   
planets1 and the universe comprehended  
all these spheres1 from that of the     
fixed stars 7which was excluded7 to the 
centre of the earth4 ,the sphere of the 
fixed stars was the common envelope1 or 
circumference of the universe1 and      

,saturn1 immediately below it1          
corresponded to the thirty-sixth tone1  
and the earth to the first1 and the     
other planets with the sun and moon at  
the various harmonic distances4  ,they  
reckoned one tone from the earth to the 
moon1 half a tone from the moon to      
,mercury1 another half-tone to ,venus1  
one tone and a half from ,venus to the  
sun1 one from the sun to ,mars1 a       
semitone from ,mars to ,jupiter1 half a 
tone from ,jupiter to ,saturn1 and a    
tone and a half from ,saturn to the     
fixed stars2 but these distances were   
not1 as we shall see1 universally agreed
 upon4  ,according to ,timaeus1 the     
sphere of the fixed stars1 which        
contains within it no principle of      
contrariety1 being entirely divine and  
pure1 always moves with an equal motion 
in the same direction from east to west4
 ,but the stars which are within it1    
being animated by the mixed principle1  
whose composition has been just         
explained1 and thus containing two      

contrary forces1 yield on account of one
 of these forces to the motion of the   
sphere of fixed stars from east to west1
 and by the other they resist it1 and   
move in a contrary direction1 in        
proportion to the degree with which they
 are endowed with each2 that is to say1 
that the greater the proportion of the  
material to the divine force that they  
possess1 the greater is their motion    
from west to east1 and the sooner they  
accomplish their periodic course4 ,now  
the amount of this force depends on the 
matter they contain4 ,thus1 according to
 this system1 the planets turn each day 
by the common motion with all the       
heavens about the earth from east to    
west1 but they also retrograde towards  
the east1 and accomplish their periods  
according to their component parts4     
,the additions which ,plato made to this
 theory have always been a proverb of   
obscurity1 and none of his commentators 
have been able to make anything of them1
 and very possibly they were never      

intended to4  ,so far the harmony of the
 heavenly bodies has been explained with
 reference to numbers only1 and we may  
add to this that they reckoned #abf1jjj 
stadia1 or #ad1bhf miles1 to represent a
 tone1 which was thus the distance of   
the earth to the moon1 and the same     
measurement made it #ejj1jjj from the   
earth to the sun1 and the same distance 
from the sun to the fixed stars4  ,but  
,plato teaches in his ,republic that    
there is actual musical1 harmony between
 the planets4 ,each of the spheres1 he  
said1 carried with it a ,siren1 and each
 of these sounding a different note1    
they formed by their union a perfect    
concert1 and being themselves delighted 
with their own harmony1 they sang divine
 songs1 and accompanied them by a sacred
 dance4 ,the ancients said there were   
nine ,muses1 eight of whom1 according to
 ,plato1 presided over celestial1 and   
the ninth over terrestrial things1 to   
protect them from disorder and          
irregularity4  ,cicero and ,macrobius   

also express opinions on this harmonious
 concert4 ,such great motions1 says     
,cicero1 cannot take place in silence1  
and it is natural that the two extremes 
should have related sounds as in the    
octave4 ,the fixed stars must execute   
the upper note1 and the moon the base4  
,kepler has improved on this1 and says  
,jupiter and ,saturn sing bass1 ,mars   
takes the tenor1 the earth and ,venus   
are contralto1 and ,mercury is soprano6 
,true1 no one has ever heard these      
sounds1 but ,pythagoras himself may     
answer this objection4 ,we are always   
surrounded1 he says1 by this melody1 and
 our ears are accustomed to it from our 
birth1 so that1 having nothing different
 to compare it with1 we cannot perceive 
it4  ,we may here recall the further    
development of the idea of the soul of  
the universe1 which was the source of   
this harmony1 and endeavour to find a   
rational interpretation of their        
meaning4 ,they said that nature had made
 the animals mortal and ephemeral1 and  

had infused their souls into them1 as   
they had been extracts from the sun or  
moon1 or even from one of the planets4  
,a portion of the unchangeable essence  
was added to the reasoning part of man1 
to form a germ of wisdom in privileged  
individuals4 ,for the human soul there  
is one part which possesses intelligence
 and reason1 and another part which has 
neither the one nor the other4  ,the    
various portions of the general soul of 
the universe resided1 according to      
,timaeus1 in the different planets1 and 
depended on their various characters4   
,some portions were in the moon1 others 
in ,mercury1 ,venus1 or ,mars1 and so   
on1 and thus they give rise to the      
various characters and dispositions that
 are seen among men4 ,but to these parts
 of the human soul that are taken from  
the planets is joined a spark of the    
supreme ,divinity1 which is above them  
all1 and this makes man a more holy     
animal than all the rest1 and enables   
him to have immediate converse with the 

,deity himself4 ,all the different      
substances in nature were supposed to be
 endowed with more or less of this soul1
 according to their material nature or  
subtilty1 and were placed in the same   
order along the line1 from the centre to
 the circumference1 on which the planets
 were situated1 as we have seen above4  
,in the centre was the earth1 the       
heaviest and grossest of all1 which had 
but little if any soul at all4 ,between 
the earth and the moon1 ,timaeus placed 
first water1 then the air1 and lastly   
elementary fire1 which he considered to 
be principles1 which were less material 
in proportion as they were more remote  
and partook of a larger quantity of the 
soul of the universe4 ,beyond the moon  
came all the planets1 and thus were     
filled up the greater number of the     
harmonic degrees1 the motions of the    
various bodies being guided by the      
principle enunciated above4  ,when we   
carefully consider this theory we find  
that by a slight change of name we may  

bring it more into harmony with modern  
ideas4 ,it would appear indeed that the 
ancients called that soul which we now  
call force1 and while we say that this  
force of attraction is in proportion to 
the masses and the inverse square of the
 distance1 they put it that it was      
proportional to the matter1 and to the  
divine substance on which the distance  
depended4 ,so that we may interpret     
,timaeus as stating this proposition3   
,the distances of the stars and their   
forces are proportional among themselves
 to their periodic times4 ,some people1 
says ,plutarch1 seek the proportions of 
the soul of the universe in the         
velocities 7or periodic times71 others  
in the distances from the centre2 some  
in the masses of the heavenly bodies1   
and others more acute in the ratios of  
the diameters of their orbits4 ,it is   
probable that the mass of each planet1  
the intervals between the spheres and   
the velocities of their motions1 are    
like well-tuned musical instruments1 all

 proportional harmonically with each    
other and with all other parts of the   
universe1 and by necessary consequence  
that there are the same relative        
proportions in the soul of the universe 
by which they were formed by the ,deity4
  ,it is marvellous how deeply occupied 
were all the best minds in ,greece and  
,italy on this subject1 both poets and  
philosophers2 ,ocellus1 ,democritus1    
,timaeus1 ,aristotle1 and ,lucretius    
have all left treatises on the same     
subject1 and almost with the same title1
 ,the ,nature of the ,universe4  ,though
 somewhat similar to that of ,timaeus1  
it will be interesting to give an       
account of the ideas of one of these1   
,ocellus of ,lucania4  ,ocellus         
represents the universe as having a     
spherical form4 ,this sphere is divided 
into concentric layers2 above that of   
the moon they were called celestial     
spheres1 while below it and inwards as  
far as the centre of the earth they were
 called the elementary spheres1 and the 

earth was the centre of them all4  ,in  
the celestial spheres all the stars were
 situated1 which were so many gods1 and 
among them the sun1 the largest and most
 powerful of all4 ,in these spheres is  
never any disturbance1 storm1 or        
destruction1 and consequently no        
reparation1 no reproduction1 no action  
of any kind was required on the part of 
the gods4 ,below the moon all is at war1
 all is destroyed and reconstructed1 and
 here therefore it is that generations  
are possible4 ,but these take place     
under the influence of the stars1 and   
particularly that of the sun1 which in  
its course acts in different ways on the
 elementary spheres1 and produces       
continual variations in them1 from      
whence arises the replenishing and      
diversifying of nature4 ,it is the sun  
that lights up the region of fire1 that 
dilates the air1 melts the water1 and   
renders fertile the earth1 in its daily 
course from east to west1 as well as in 
this annual journey into the two        

tropics4 ,but to what does the earth owe
 its germs and its species8 ,according  
to some philosophers these germs were   
celestial ideas which both gods and     
demons scattered from above over every  
part of nature1 but according to        
,ocellus they arise continually under   
the influence of the heavenly bodies4   
,the divisions of the heavens were      
supposed to separate the portion that is
 unalterable from that which is in      
ceaseless change4 ,the line dividing the
 mortal from the immortal is that       
described by the moon3 all that lies    
above that1 inclusive1 is the habitation
 of the gods2 all that lies below is the
 abode of nature and discord2 the latter
 tending constantly to destruction1 the 
former to the reconstruction of all     
created things4  ,ideas such as these1  
of which we could give other examples   
more remotely connected with harmony1   
whatever amount of truth we may discover
 in them1 prove themselves to have been 
made before the sciences of observation 

had enabled men to make anything better 
than empty theories1 and to support them
 with false logic4 ,no better example of
 the latter can perhaps be mentioned    
here than the way in which ,ocellus     
pretends to prove that the world is     
eternal4 ,the universe1 he says1 having 
always existed1 it follows that         
everything in it and every arrangement  
of it must always have been as it is    
now4 ,the several parts of the universe 
having always existed with it1 we may   
say the same of the parts of these      
parts2 thus the sun1 the moon1 the fixed
 stars1 and the planets have always     
existed with the heavens2 animals1      
vegetables1 gold1 and silver with the   
earth2 the currents of air1 winds1 and  
changes from hot to cold1 from cold to  
hot1 with the air4 ,therefore the       
heaven1 with all that it now contains2  
the earth1 with all that it produces and
 supports2 and lastly1 the whole aerial 
region1 with all its phenomena1 have    
always existed4 ,when this system of    

argument passed away1 and exact         
observation took its place1 it was soon 
found that so far from what the ancients
 had argued must be really being the    
case1 no such relation as they indicated
 between the distances or velocities of 
the planets could be traced1 and        
therefore no harmony in the heavens in  
this sense4 ,it is not indeed that we   
can say no sounds exist because we hear 
none2 but considering harmony really to 
consist of the relations of numbers1 no 
such relations exist between the        
planets' distances1 as measured now of  
course from the sun1 instead of being1  
as then1 imagined from the earth4  ,the 
gamut is nothing else than the series of
 numbers3--    do  re  mi   fa   sol  la
   si   do   #a  #i_/h  #e_/d  #d_/c    
#c_/b  #e_/c  #ae_/h  #b  and is        
independent of our perception of the    
corresponding notes4 ,a concert played  
before a deaf assembly would be a       
concert still4 ,if one note is made by  
#aj1jjj vibrations per second1 and      

another by #bj1jjj1 we should hear them 
as an octave1 but if one had only #aj   
and the other #bj1 they would still be  
an octave1 though inaudible as notes to 
us2 so too we may speak even of the     
harmony of luminous vibrations of ether1
 though they do not affect our ears4    
,the velocities of the planets do not   
coincide with the terms of this series4 
,the nearer they are to the sun the     
faster is their motion1 ,mercury        
travelling at the mean rate of #ee1jjj  
metres a second1 ,venus1 #cf1hjj1 the   
earth #cj1eej1 ,mars #bd1ddh1 ,jupiter  
#ac1jjj1 ,saturn #i1hdj1 ,uranus #f1hjj1
 and ,neptune #e1ejj1 numbers which are 
in the proportion roundly of #ajj1 #fg1 
#ee1 #dd1 #bd1 #af1 #ab1 #aj1 which have
 no sufficient relation to the terms of 
an harmonic series1 to make any harmony 
obvious4  ,returning1 however1 to the   
ancient philosophers1 we are led by     
their ideas about the soul of the       
universe to discover the origin of their
 gods and natural religion4 ,they were  

persuaded that only living things could 
move1 and consequently that the moving  
stars must be endowed with superior     
intelligence4 ,it may very well be that 
from the number seven of the planets1   
including the sun and moon1 which were  
their earliest gods1 arose the respect  
and superstition with which all nations1
 and especially the ,orientals1 regarded
 that number4 ,from these arose the     
seven superior angels that are found in 
the theologies of the ,chaldeans1       
,persians1 and ,arabians2 the seven     
gates of ,mithra1 through which all     
souls must pass to reach the abode of   
bliss2 the seven worlds of purification 
of the ,indians1 and all the other      
applications of the number seven which  
so largely figure in ,judaism1 and have 
descended from it to our own time4 ,on  
the other hand1 as we have seen1 this   
number seven may have been derived from 
the number of the stars in the          
,pleiades4  ,we have noticed in our     
chapter on the ,history of the ,zodiac  

how the various signs as they came round
 and were thought to influence the      
weather and other natural phenomena1    
came at last to be worshipped4 ,not     
less1 of course1 were the sun and moon  
deified1 and that by nations who had no 
zodiac4 ,among the ,egyptians the sun   
was painted in different forms according
 to the time of year1 very much as he is
 represented in our own days in pictures
 of the old and new years4 ,at the      
winter solstice with them he was an     
infant1 at the spring equinox he was a  
young man1 in summer a man in full age  
with flowing beard1 and in the autumn an
 old man4 ,their fable of ,osiris was   
founded on the same idea4 ,they         
represented the sun by the hawk1 and the
 moon by the ,ibis1 and to these two1   
worshipped under the names of ,osiris   
and ,isis they attributed the government
 of the world1 and built a city1        
,heliopolis1 to the former1 in the      
temple of which they placed his statue4 
,the ,phenicians in the same way1 who   

were much influenced by ideas of        
religion1 attributed divinity to the    
sun1 moon1 and stars1 and regarded them 
as the sole causes of the production and
 destruction of all things4 ,the sun1   
under the name of ,hercules1 was their  
great divinity4  ,the ,ethiopians       
worshipped the same1 and erected the    
famous table of the sun4 ,those who     
lived above ,meroe1 admitted the        
existence of eternal and incorruptible  
gods1 among which they included the sun1
 moon1 and the universe4 ,like the      
,incas of ,peru1 they called themselves 
the children of the sun1 whom they      
regarded as their common father4  ,the  
moon was the great divinity of the      
,arabs4 ,the ,saracens called it ,cabar1
 or the great1 and its crescent still   
adorns the religious monuments of the   
,turks4 ,each of their tribes was under 
the protection of some particular star4 
,sabeism was the principal religion of  
the east4 ,the heavens and the stars    
were its first object4  ,in reading the 

sacred books of the ancient ,persians   
contained in the ,zendavesta1 we find on
 every page invocations addressed to    
,mithra1 to the moon1 the stars1 the    
elements1 the mountains1 the trees1 and 
every part of nature4 ,the ethereal fire
 circulating through all the universe1  
and of which the sun is the principal   
focus1 was represented among the        
fire-worshippers by the sacred and      
perpetual fire of their priests4 ,each  
planet had its own particular temple1   
where incense was burnt in its honour4  
,these ancient peoples embodied in their
 religious systems the ideas which1 as  
we have seen1 led among the ,greeks to  
the representation of the harmony of    
heaven4 ,all the world seemed to them   
animated by a principle of life which   
circulated through all parts1 and which 
preserved it in an eternal activity4    
,they thought that the universe lived   
like man and the other animals1 or      
rather that these latter only lived     
because the universe was essentially    

alive1 and communicated to them for an  
instant an infinitely small portion of  
its own immortality4 ,they were not     
wise1 it may be1 in this1 but they      
appear to have caught some of the ideas 
that lie at the basis of religious      
thought1 and to have traced harmony     
where we have almost lost the perception
 of it4     ,,chapter ,,viii4           
,,astronomical ,,systems4   ,in our     
former chapters we have gained some idea
 of the general structure of the heavens
 as represented by ancient philosophers1
 and we no longer require to know what  
was thought in the infancy of astronomy1
 when any ideas promulgated were more or
 less random ones2 but in this chapter  
we hope to discuss those arrangements of
 the heavenly bodies which have been    
promulgated by men as complete systems1 
and were supposed to represent the      
totality of the facts4  ,the earliest   
thoroughly-established system is that of
 ,ptolemy4 ,it was not indeed invented  
by him4 ,the main ideas had been        

entertained long before his time1 but he
 gave it consistence and a name4  ,we   
obtain an excellent view of the general 
nature of this system from ,cicero4 ,he 
writes3--  ,the universe is composed of 
nine circles1 or rather of nine moving  
globes4 ,the outermost sphere is that of
 the heavens which surrounds all the    
others1 and on which are fixed the      
stars4 ,beneath this revolve seven other
 globes1 carried round by a motion in a 
direction contrary to that of the       
heavens4 ,on the first circle revolves  
the star which men call ,saturn2 on the 
second ,jupiter shines1 that beneficent 
and propitious star to human eyes2 then 
follows ,mars1 ruddy and awful4 ,below1 
and occupying the middle region1        
revolves the ,sun1 the chief1 prince1   
and moderator of the other stars1 the   
soul of the world1 whose immense globe  
spreads its light through space4 ,after 
him come1 like two companions1 ,venus   
and ,mercury4 ,lastly1 the lowest globe 
is occupied by the moon1 which borrows  

its light from the star of day4 ,below  
this last celestial circle1 there is    
nothing but what is mortal and          
corruptible1 except the souls given by a
 beneficent ,divinity to the race of    
men4 ,above the moon all is eternal4    
,the earth1 situated in the centre of   
the world1 and separated from heaven on 
all sides1 forms the ninth sphere2 it   
remains immovable1 and all heavy bodies 
are drawn to it by their own weight4    
,the earth1 we should add1 is surrounded
 by the sphere of air1 and then by that 
of fire1 and by that of ether and the   
meteors4  ,with respect to the motions  
of these spheres4 ,the first circle     
described about the terrestrial system1 
namely1 that of the moon1 was           
accomplished in #bg days1 #g hours1 and 
#dc minutes4 ,next to the moon1 ,mercury
 in the second1 and ,venus in the third1
 and the sun in the fourth circle1 all  
turned about the earth in the same time1
 #cfe days1 #e hours1 and #di minutes4  
,but these planets1 in addition to the  

general movement1 which carried them in 
#bd hours round from east to west and   
west to east1 and the annual revolution1
 which made them run through the        
zodiacal circle1 had a third motion by  
which they described a circle about each
 point of their orbit taken as a centre4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4                 
#ad4--,,ptolemy',s ,,astronomical       
,,system4  ,the fifth sphere1 carrying  
,mars1 accomplished its revolution in   
two years4 ,jupiter took #aa years1 #cac
 days1 and #ai hours to complete his    
orbit1 and ,saturn in the seventh sphere
 took #bi years and #afi days4 ,above   
all the planets came the sphere of the  
fixed stars1 or ,firmament1 turning from
 east to west in #bd hours with         
inconceivable rapidity1 and endued also 
with a proper motion from west to east1 
which was measured by ,hipparchus1 and  
which we now call the precession of the 
equinoxes1 and know that it has a period
 of #be1hgj years4 ,above all these     
spheres1 a primum mobile gave motion to 

the whole machine1 making it turn from  
east to west1 but each planet and each  
fixed star made an effort against this  
motion1 by means of which each of them  
accomplished their revolution about the 
earth in greater or less time1 according
 to its distance1 or the magnitude of   
the orbit it had to accomplish4  ,one   
immense difficulty attended this system4
 ,the apparent motions of the planets is
 not uniform1 for sometimes they are    
seen to advance from west to east1 when 
their motion is called direct1 sometimes
 they are seen for several nights in    
succession at the same point in the     
heavens1 when they are called           
stationary1 and sometimes they return   
from east to west1 and then their motion
 is called retrograde4  ,we know now    
that this apparent variation in the     
motion of the planets is simply due to  
the annual motion of the earth in its   
orbit round the sun4 ,for example1      
,saturn describes its vast orbit in     
about thirty years1 and the earth       

describes in one year a much smaller one
 inside4 ,now if the earth goes faster  
in the same direction as ,saturn1 it is 
plain that ,saturn will be left behind  
and appear to go backwards1 while if the
 earth is going in the same direction   
the velocity of ,saturn will appear to  
be decreased1 but his direction of      
motion will appear unaltered4  ,to      
explain these variations1 however1      
according to his system1 ,ptolemy       
supposed that the planets did not move  
exactly in the circumference of their   
respective orbits1 but about an ideal   
centre1 which itself moved along this   
circumference4 ,instead therefore of    
describing a circle1 they described     
parts of a series of small circles1     
which would combine1 as is easy to see1 
into a series of uninterrupted waves1   
and these he called ,epicycles4         
,another objection1 which even this     
arrangement did not overcome1 was the   
variation of the size of the planets4   
,to overcome this ,hipparchus gave to   

the sphere of each planet a considerable
 thickness1 and saw that the planet did 
not turn centrally round the earth1 but 
round a centre of motion placed outside 
the earth4 ,its revolution took place in
 such a manner1 that at one time it     
reached the inner boundary1 at another  
time the outer boundary of its spherical
 heaven4  ,but this reply was not       
satisfactory1 for the differences in the
 apparent sizes proved by the laws of   
optics such a prodigious difference     
between their distances from the earth  
at the times of conjunction and         
opposition1 that it would be extremely  
difficult to imagine spheres thick      
enough to allow of it4  ,it was a       
gigantic and formidable piece of        
machinery to which it was necessary to  
be continually adding fresh pieces to   
make observation accord with theory4 ,in
 the thirteenth century1 in the times of
 the ,king-,astronomer1 ,alphonso ,x4 of
 ,castile1 there were already           
seventy-five circles1 one within the    

other4 ,it is said that one day he      
exclaimed1 in a full assemblage of      
bishops1 that if the ,deity had done him
 the honour to ask his advice before    
creating the world1 he could have told  
,him how to make it a little better1 or 
at all events more simply4 ,he meant to 
express how unworthy this complication  
was of the dignity of nature4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,the       
,,epicycles ,,of ,,ptolemy4  ,fracastor1
 in his ,homocentrics1 says that nothing
 is more monstrous or absurd than all   
the excentrics and epicycles of         
,ptolemy1 and proposes to explain the   
difference of velocity in the planets at
 different parts of their orbits by the 
medium offering greater or less         
resistance1 and their alteration in     
apparent size by the effect of          
refraction4  ,the essential element of  
this system was that it took appearances
 for realities1 and was founded on the  
assumption that the earth is fixed in   
the centre of the universe1 and of      

course therefore neglected all the      
appearances produced by its motion1 or  
had to explain them by some peculiarity 
in the other planets4  ,although it was 
corrected from time to time to make it  
accord better with observation1 it was  
the same essentially that was taught    
officially everywhere4 ,it reigned      
supreme in ,egypt1 ,greece1 ,italy1 and 
,arabia1 and in the great school of     
,alexandria1 which consolidated it and  
enriched it by its own observations4    
,but though the same in essence1 the    
details1 and especially the means of    
overcoming the difficulties raised by   
increased observations1 have much       
varied1 and it will be interesting and  
instructive to record some of the chief 
of them4  ,one of the most important    
influences in modifying the astronomical
 systems taught to the world has been   
that of the ,fathers of the ,christian  
,church4 ,when1 after five centuries of 
patient toil1 of hopes1 ambitions1 and  
discussions1 the ,christian ,church took

 possession of the thrones and          
consciences of men1 they founded their  
physical edifice on the ancient system1 
which they adapted to their special     
wants4 ,with them ,aristotle and        
,ptolemy reigned supreme4 ,they decreed 
that the earth constituted the universe1
 that the heavens were made for it1 that
 ,god1 the angels1 and the saints       
inhabited an eternal abode of joy       
situated above the azure sphere of the  
fixed stars1 and they embodied this     
gratifying illusion in all their        
illuminated manuscripts1 their          
calendars1 and their church windows4    
,the doctors of the ,church all         
acknowledged a plurality of heavens1 but
 they differed as to the number4 ,st4   
,hilary of ,poitiers would not fix it1  
and the same doubt held ,st4 ,basil     
back2 but the rest1 for the most part   
borrowing their ideas from paganism1    
said there were six or seven1 or up to  
ten4 ,they considered these heavens to  
be so many hemispheres supported on the 

earth1 and gave to each a different     
name4 ,in the system of ,bede1 which had
 many adherents1 they were the ,air1    
,ether1 ,fiery ,space1 ,firmament1      
,heaven of the ,angels1 and ,heaven of  
the ,trinity4  ,the two chief varieties 
in the systems of the middle ages may be
 represented as follows3--  ,those who  
wished to have everything as complete as
 possible combined the system of        
,ptolemy with that of the ,fathers of   
the ,church1 and placed in the centre of
 the earth the infernal regions which   
they surrounded by a circle4 ,another   
circle marked the earth itself1 and     
after that the surrounding ocean1 marked
 as water1 then the circle of air1 and  
lastly that of fire4 ,enveloping these1 
and following one after the other1 were 
the seven circles of the seven planets2 
the eighth represented the sphere of the
 fixed stars on the firmament1 then came
 the ninth heaven1 then a tenth1 the    
coelum cristallinum1 and lastly an      
eleventh and outermost1 which was the   

empyreal heaven1 where dwelt the        
cherubim and seraphim1 and above all the
 spheres was a throne on which sat the  
,father1 as ,jupiter ,olympus4  ,the    
others who wished for more simplicity1  
represented the earth in the centre of  
the universe1 with a circle to indicate 
the ocean1 the second sphere was that of
 the moon2 the third was that of the    
sun2 on the fourth were placed the four 
planets1 ,jupiter1 ,mars1 ,venus and    
,mercury2 there was a fifth for the     
space outside the planets1 and the last 
outside one was the firmament2          
altogether seven spheres instead of     
eleven4 ,as a specimen of the style of  
representation of the astronomical      
systems of the middle ages1 we may take 
the figure on the following page3--     
,here we see the earth placed immovable 
in the centre of the universe1 and      
represented by a disc traversed by the  
,mediterranean1 and surrounded by the   
ocean4 ,round this are circumscribed the
 celestial spheres4 ,that of the moon   

first1 then that of ,mercury1 in which  
several constellations1 as the ,lyre1   
,cassiopeia1 the ,crown1 and others1 are
 roughly indicated1 then comes the      
sphere of ,venus with ,sagittarius and  
the ,swan4 ,after this comes the        
celestis paradisus1 and the legend that1
 the paradise to which ,paul was raised 
is in this third locality2 some of these
 must reach to us1 since in them repose 
the souls of the prophets4 ,in the other
 circles are yet other constellations3  
for example ,pegasus1 ,andromeda1 the   
,dog1 ,argo1 the ,he-goat1 ,aquarius1   
the ,fishes1 and ,canopus1 figured by a 
star of the first magnitude4 ,to the    
north is seen near the constellation of 
the ,swan a large star with seven rays1 
meant to represent the brightest of     
those which compose the ,great ,bear4   
,the stars of ,cassiopeia are not only  
misplaced1 but roughly represented4 ,the
 ,lyre is curiously drawn4 ,the         
positions of the constellations just    
named are all wrong in this figure1 just

 as we find those of towns in maps of   
the earth4 ,the cartographers of the    
middle ages1 with incredible ignorance1 
misplaced in general every locality4    
,they did the same for the              
constellations in the celestial         
hemispheres4 ,in the heaven of ,jupiter1
 and in that of ,saturn we read the     
words--,seraphim1 ,dominationes1        
,potestates1 ,archangeli1 ,virtutes     
coelorum1 ,principatus1 ,throni1        
,cherubim1 all derived from their       
theology4 ,a veritable muddle6 ,the     
angels placed with the heroes of        
mythology1 the immortal virgins with    
,venus and ,andromeda1 and the ,saints  
with the ,great ,bear1 the ,hydra1 and  
the ,scorpion6  ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#af4--;,,heavens ,,of ,,the ,,middle    
,,ages4  ,another such richly           
illuminated manuscript in the library at
 ,ghent1 entitled ,liber ,floridus1     
contains a drawing similar to this under
 the title ,astrologia secundum ,bedum4 
,only1 instead of the earth1 there is a 

serpent in the centre with the name     
,great ,bear1 and the twins are         
represented by a man and woman1         
,andromeda in a chasuble1 and ,venus as 
a nun6  ,several similar ones might be  
quoted1 varying more or less from this2 
one1 executed in a geographical         
manuscript of the fifteenth century1 has
 the tenth sphere1 being that of the    
fixed stars1 then the crystalline       
heaven1 and then the immovable heaven1  
which1 it says1 according to sacred and 
certain theology1 is the dwelling-place 
of the blessed1 where may we live for   
ever and ever1 ,amen2 this is also      
called the empyreal heaven4 ,near each  
planet the author marks the time of its 
revolution1 but not at all correctly4   
,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4--,,heavens
 ,,of ,,the ,,fathers4  ,the            
constructors of these systems were not  
in the least doubt as to their reality1 
for they actually measured the distance 
between one sphere and another1 though  
in every case their numbers were far    

from the truth as we now know it4 ,we   
may cite as an example an ,italian      
system whose spheres were as            
follows3--,terra1 ,aqua1 ,aria1 ,fuoco1 
,luna1 ,mercurio1 ,venus1 ,sol1 ,marte1 
,giove1 ,saturno1 ,stelle fixe1 ,sfera  
nona1 ,cielo empyreo4 ,attached to the  
design is the following table of        
dimensions which we may copy3--         
,miles4   ,from the centre of the ,earth
 to the surface                #c1bde   
inner side of the     heaven of the     
,moon                                   
#ajg1icf   ,diameter of ,moon           
#a1hif   ,from the centre of the ,earth 
to ,mercury                  #bji1aih   
,diameter of ,mercury                   
#bcj   ,from the centre of the ,earth to
 ,venus                    #egi1cbj     
,diameter of ,venus                     
#b1hhd   ,from the centre of the ,earth 
to the ,sun                #c1hib1hff   
,diameter of the ,sun                   
#ce1gjj   ,from the centre of the ,earth
 to ,mars                   #d1bfh1fbi  

,diameter of ,mars                      
#g1egb   ,from the centre of the ,earth 
to ,jupiter                #h1cbc1ebj   
,diameter of ,jupiter                   
#bi1fda   ,from the centre of the ,earth
 to outside of ,saturn's      heaven    
#eb1edd1gjb   ,diameter of ,saturn      
#bi1bjb   ,from the centre of the ,earth
 to the fixed stars       #gc1chg1gdg   
,the author states that he cannot pursue
 his calculations further1 and          
condescends to acknowledge that it is   
very difficult to know accurately what  
is the thickness of the ninth and of the
 crystalline heavens6  ,perhaps1        
however1 these reckonings are better    
than those of the ,egyptians1 who came  
to the conclusion that ,saturn was only 
distant #dib miles1 the sun only #cfi1  
and the moon #bdf4  ,these numerous     
variations and adaptations of the       
,ptolemaic system1 prove what a firm    
hold it had taken1 and how it reigned   
supreme over all minds4 ,nor are we     
merely left to gather this4 ,they       

consciously looked to ,ptolemy as their 
great light1 if we may judge from an    
emblematic drawing taken from an        
authoritative astronomical work1 the    
,margarita ,philosophica1 which we give 
on the opposite page4  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #ag4  ,in all the systems derived
 from ,ptolemy1 the order of the planets
 remained the same1 and ,mercury and    
,venus were placed nearer to the earth  
than the sun is4 ,according to many     
authors1 however1 ,plato made a         
variation in this respect1 by putting   
them outside the sun1 on the ground that
 they never were seen to pass across its
 surface4 ,he had obviously never heard 
of the ,transit of ,venus4 ,this        
arrangement was adopted by ,theon1 in   
his commentary on the ,almagesta of     
,ptolemy1 and afterwards by ,geber1 who 
alone among the ,arabians departed from 
the strict ,ptolemaic system4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,egyptian 
,,system4  ,the ,egyptians improved upon
 this idea1 and made the first step     

towards the true system1 by representing
 these two planets1 ,mercury and ,venus1
 as revolving round the sun instead of  
the earth4 ,all the rest of their system
 was the same as that of ,ptolemy1 for  
the sun itself1 and the other planets   
and the fixed stars all revolved round  
the earth in the centre4 ,this system of
 course accounted accurately for the    
motions of the two inferior planets1    
whose nearness to the sun may have      
suggested their connection with it4     
,this system was in vogue at the same   
time as ,ptolemy's1 and numbers         
,vitruvius amongst its supporters4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ai4--;,,capella',s ,,system4  ,in the  
fifth century of our era ,martian       
,capella taught a variation on the      
,egyptian system1 in which he made      
,mercury and ,venus revolve in the same 
orbit round the sun4 ,in the treatise   
entitled ,quod ,tellus non sit ,centrum 
,omnibus ,planetis1 he explains that    
when ,mercury is on this side of the    

orbit it is nearer to us than ,venus1   
and farther off from us than that planet
 when it is on the other side4 ,this    
hypothesis was also adopted in the      
middle ages4  ,we have here indicated   
the time of the revolution of the       
various planets1 and notice that the    
firmament is said to move round from    
west to east in #g1jjj years2 the second
 heaven in #di1jjj1 while the primum    
mobile outside moved in the contrary    
direction in twenty-four hours4  ,these 
,egyptian systems survived in some      
places the true one1 as they were       
thought to overcome the chief           
difficulties of the ,ptolemaic without  
interfering with the stability of the   
earth1 and they were known as the common
 system1 i4e4 containing the elements of
 both4  ,such were the astronomical     
systems in vogue before the time of     
,copernicus--all of them based upon the 
principle of the earth being the        
immovable centre of the universe4 ,we   
must now turn to trace the history of   

the introduction of that system which   
has completely thrown over all these    
former ones1 and which every one knows  
now to be the true one--the ,copernican4
  ,no revolution is accomplished1       
whether in science or politics1 without 
having been long in preparation4 ,the   
theory of the motion of the earth had   
been conceived1 discussed1 and even     
taught many ages before the birth of    
,copernicus4 ,and the best proof of this
 is the acknowledgment of ,copernicus   
himself in his great work ,de           
,revolutionibus ,orbium ,caelestium1 in 
which he laid down the principles of his
 system4 ,we will quote the passage in  
which it is contained4  ,i have been at 
the trouble1 he writes1 to read over all
 the works of philosophers that ,i could
 procure1 to see if ,i could find in    
them any different opinion to that which
 is now taught in the schools respecting
 the motions of the celestial spheres4  
,and ,i saw first in ,cicero that       
,maetas had put forth the opinion that  

the earth moves4 7,maetam sensisse      
terram moveri47 ,afterwards ,i found in 
,plutarch that others had entertained   
the same idea4  ,here ,copernicus quotes
 the original as far as it relates to   
the system of ,philolaus1 to the effect 
that the earth turns round the region of
 fire 7ethereal region71 and runs       
through the zodiac like the sun and the 
moon4 ,the principal ,pythagoreans1 such
 as ,archytas of ,tarentum1 ,heraclides 
of ,pontium1 taught also the same       
doctrine1 saying that the earth is not  
immovable in the centre of the universe1
 but revolves in a circle1 and is far   
from occupying the chief place among the
 celestial bodies4  ,pythagoras learnt  
this doctrine1 it is said1 from the     
,egyptians1 who in their hieroglyphics  
represented the symbol of the sun by the
 stercoral beetle1 because this insect  
forms a ball with the excrement of the  
oxen1 and lying down on its back1 turns 
it round and round with its legs4       
,timaeus of ,locris was more precise    

than the other ,pythagoreans in calling 
the five planets the organs of time1 on 
account of their revolutions1 adding    
that we must conclude that the earth is 
not immovable in one place1 but that it 
turns1 on the contrary1 about itself1   
and travels also through space4         
,plutarch records that ,plato1 who had  
always taught that the sun turned round 
the earth1 had changed his opinion      
towards the end of his life1 regretting 
that he had not placed the sun in the   
centre of the universe1 which was the   
only place1 he then thought1 that was   
suitable for that star4  ,three         
centuries before ,jesus ,christ1        
,aristarchus of ,samos is said by       
,aristotle to have composed a special   
work to defend the motion of the earth  
against the contrary opinions of        
philosophers4 ,in this work1 which is   
now lost1 he laid down in the most      
positive manner that the sun remains    
immovable1 and that the ,earth moves    
round it in a circular curve1 of which  

that star is the centre4 ,it would be   
impossible to state this in clearer     
terms2 and what makes his meaning more  
clear1 if possible1 is that he was      
persecuted for it1 being accused of     
irreligion and of troubling the repose  
of ,vesta--because1 says ,plutarch1 in  
order to explain the phenomena1 he      
taught that the heavens were immovable1 
and that the earth accomplished a motion
 of translation in an oblique line1 at  
the same time that it turned round its  
own axis4 ,this is exactly the opinion  
that ,copernicus took up1 after an      
interval of eighteen centuries--and he  
too was accused of irreligion4  ,in     
passing from the ,greeks to the ,romans1
 and from them to the middle ages1 the  
doctrine of ,aristarchus underwent a    
curious modification1 assimilating it to
 the system of ,tycho ,brahe1 which we  
shall hereafter consider1 rather than to
 that of ,copernicus4 ,this consisted in
 making the planets move round the sun1 
while the sun itself revolved round the 

earth1 and carried them with him1 and   
the heavens revolved round all4         
,vitruvius and ,macrobius both taught   
this doctrine4 ,although ,cicero and    
,seneca1 with ,aristotle and the        
,stoics1 taught the immobility of the   
earth in the centre of the universe1 the
 question seemed undecided1 to ,seneca  
at least1 who writes3--,it would be well
 to examine whether it is the universe  
that turns about the immovable earth1 or
 the earth that moves1 while the        
universe remains at rest4 ,indeed some  
men have taught that the earth is       
carried along1 unknown to ourselves1    
that it is not the motion of the heavens
 that produces the rising and setting of
 the stars1 but that it is we who rise  
and set relatively to them4 ,it is a    
matter worthy of contemplation1 to know 
in what state we are--whether we are    
assigned an immovable or rapidly-moving 
home--whether ,god makes all things     
revolve round us1 or we round them4     
,the double motion of the earth1 then1  

is an idea revived from the ,grecian    
philosophers4 ,the theory was known     
indeed to ,ptolemy1 who devotes a whole 
chapter in his celebrated ,almagesta to 
combat it4 ,from his point of view it   
seemed very absurd1 and he did not      
hesitate to call it so2 and it was in   
reality only when fresh discoveries had 
altered the method of examining the     
question that the absurdities           
disappeared1 and were transferred to the
 other side4 ,not until it was          
discovered that the earth was no larger 
and no heavier than the other planets   
could the idea of its revolution and    
translation have appeared anything else 
than absurd4 ,we are apt to laugh at the
 errors of former great men1 while we   
forget the scantiness of the knowledge  
they then possessed4 ,so it will be     
instructive to draw attention to        
,ptolemy's arguments1 that we may see   
where it is that new knowledge and ideas
 have led us1 as they would doubtless   
have led him1 had he possessed them1 to 

a different conclusion4  ,his argument  
depends essentially on the observed     
effects of weight4 ,light bodies1 he    
says1 are carried towards the           
circumference1 they appear to us to go  
up2 because we so speak of the space    
that is over our heads1 as far as the   
surface which appears to surround us4   
,heavy bodies tend1 on the contrary1    
towards the middle1 as towards a centre1
 and they appear to us to fall down1    
because we so speak of whatever is under
 our feet1 in the direction of the      
centre of the earth4 ,these bodies are  
piled up round the centre by the opposed
 forces of their impetus and friction4  
,we can easily see that the whole mass  
of the earth1 being so large compared   
with the bodies that fall upon it1 can  
receive them without their weight or    
their velocity communicating to it any  
perceptible oscillation4 ,now if the    
earth had a motion in common with all   
the other heavy bodies1 it would not be 
long1 on account of its weight1 in      

leaving the animals and other bodies    
behind it1 and without support1 and it  
would soon itself fall out of heaven4   
,such would be the consequences of its  
motion1 which are most ridiculous even  
to imagine4  ,against the idea of the   
earth's diurnal rotation he argued as   
follows3--,there are some who pretend   
that nothing prevents us from supposing 
that the heaven remains immovable1 and  
the earth turns round upon its axis from
 west to east1 accomplishing the        
rotation each day4 ,it is true that1 as 
far as the stars are concerned1 there is
 nothing against our supposing this1 if 
guided only by appearances1 and for     
greater simplicity2 but those who do so 
forget how thoroughly ridiculous it is  
when we consider what happens near us   
and in the air4 ,for even if we admit1  
which is not the case1 that the lighter 
bodies have no motion1 or only move as  
bodies of a contrary nature1 although we
 see that aerial bodies move with       
greater velocity than terrestrial--if we

 admit that very dense and heavy bodies 
have a rapid and constant motion of     
their own1 whereas in reality they obey 
but with difficulty the impulses        
communicated to them--we should then be 
obliged to assert that the earth1 by its
 rotation1 has a more rapid motion than 
any of the bodies that are round it1 as 
it makes so large a circuit in so short 
a time4 ,in this case the bodies which  
are not supported by it would appear to 
have a motion contrary to it1 and no    
cloud or any flying bird could ever     
appear to go to the east1 since the     
earth would always move faster than it  
in that direction4  ,the ,almagesta was 
for a long time the gospel of           
astronomers2 to believe in the motion of
 the earth was to them more than an     
innovation1 it was simply folly4        
,copernicus himself well expresses the  
state of opinion in which he found the  
question1 and the process of his own    
change1 in the following words3--,and ,i
 too1 taking occasion by these          

testimonies1 commenced to cogitate on   
the motion of the earth1 and although   
that opinion appeared absurd1 ,i thought
 that as others before me had invented  
an assemblage of circles to explain the 
motion of the stars1 ,i might also try  
if1 by supposing the earth to move1 ,i  
could not find a better account of the  
motions of the heavenly bodies than that
 with which we are at present contented4
 ,after long researches1 ,i am at last  
convinced that if we assign to the      
circulation of the earth the motions of 
the other planets1 calculation and      
observation will agree better together4 
,and ,i have no doubt that              
mathematicians will be of my opinion1 if
 they will take the trouble to consider 
carefully and not superficially the     
demonstrations ,i shall give in this    
work4 ,although the opinions of         
,copernicus had been held before1 it is 
very just that his should be the name by
 which they are known2 for during the   
time that elapsed before he wrote1 the  

adherents of such views became fewer and
 fewer1 until at last the very          
remembrance of them was almost          
forgotten1 and it required research to  
know who had held them and taught them4 
,it took him thirty years' work to      
establish them on a firm basis4 ,we     
shall make no excuse for quoting further
 from his book1 that we may know exactly
 the circumstances1 as far as he tells  
us1 of his giving this system to the    
world4  ,i hesitated for a long time    
whether ,i should publish my            
commentaries on the motions of the      
heavenly bodies1 or whether it would not
 be better to follow the example of     
certain ,pythagoreans1 who left no      
writings1 but communicated the mysteries
 of their philosophy orally from man to 
man among their adepts and friends1 as  
is proved by the letter of ,lysidas to  
,hipparchus4 ,they did not do this1 as  
some suppose1 from a spirit of jealousy1
 but in order that weighty questions1   
studied with great care by illustrious  

men1 might not be disparaged by the     
idle1 who do not care to undertake      
serious study1 unless it be lucrative1  
or by shallow-minded men1 who1 though   
devoting themselves to science1 are of  
so indolent a spirit that they only     
intrude among philosophers1 like drones 
among bees4  ,when ,i hesitated and held
 back1 my friends pressed me on4 ,the   
first was ,nicolas ,schonberg1 ,cardinal
 of ,capua1 a man of great learning4    
,the other was my best friend1 ,tideman 
,gysius1 ,bishop of ,culm1 who was as   
well versed in the ,holy ,scriptures as 
in the sciences4 ,the latter pressed me 
so much that he decided me at last to   
give to the public the work ,i had kept 
for more than twenty-seven years4 ,many 
illustrious men urged me1 in the        
interest of mathematics1 to overcome my 
repugnance and to let the fruit of my   
labours see the light4 ,they assured me 
that the more my theory of the motion of
 the earth appeared absurd1 the more it 
would be admired when the publication of

 my work had dissipated doubts by the   
clearest demonstrations4 ,yielding to   
these entreaties1 and buoying myself    
with the same hope1 ,i consented to the 
printing of my work4  ,he tried to guard
 himself against the attacks of         
dogmatists by saying1 ,if any           
evil-advised person should quote against
 me any texts of ,scripture1 ,i         
deprecate such a rash attempt4          
,mathematical truths can only be judged 
by mathematicians4  ,notwithstanding    
this1 however1 his work1 after his      
death1 was condemned by the ,index in   
#afaf1 under ,paul ,v4  ,on examining   
the ancient systems1 ,copernicus was    
struck by the want of harmony in the    
arrangements proposed1 and by the       
arbitrary manner in which new principles
 were introduced and old ones neglected1
 comparing the system to a collection of
 legs and arms not united to any trunk1 
and it was the simplicity and harmony   
which the one idea of the motion of the 
earth introduced into the whole system  

that convinced him most thoroughly of   
its truth4  ,he knew well that new views
 and truths would appear as paradoxes1  
and be rejected by men who were wedded  
to old doctrines1 and on this account he
 took such pains to show that these     
views had been held before1 and thus to 
disarm them of their apparent novelty4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,the       
,,copernican ,,system4  ,copernicus     
dealt only with the six planets then    
known and the sun and moon4 ,as to the  
stars1 he had no idea that they were    
suns like our own1 at immense and       
various distances from us4 ,the         
knowledge of the magnitude of the       
sidereal universe was reserved for our  
own century1 when it was discovered by  
the method of parallaxes4 ,we will give 
,copernicus's own sketch of the         
planetary system3--  ,in the highest    
place is the sphere of the fixed stars1 
an immovable sphere1 which surrounds the
 whole of the universe4 ,among the      
movable planets the first is ,saturn1   

which requires thirty years to make its 
revolution4 ,after it ,jupiter          
accomplishes its journey in twelve      
years2 ,mars follows1 requiring two     
years4 ,in the fourth line come the     
earth and the moon which in the course  
of one year return to their original    
position4 ,the fifth place is occupied  
by ,venus1 which requires nine months   
for its journey4 ,mercury occupies the  
sixth place1 whose orbit is accomplished
 in eighty days4 ,in the midst of all is
 the sun4 ,what man is there1 who in    
this majestic temple could choose       
another and better place for that       
brilliant lamp which illuminates all the
 planets with their satellites8 ,it is  
not without reason that the sun is      
called the lantern of the world1 the    
soul and thought of the universe4 ,in   
placing it in the centre of the planets1
 as on a regal throne1 we give it the   
government of the great family of       
celestial bodies4  ,the hypothesis of   
the motion of the earth in its orbit    

appeared simply to ,copernicus as a good
 basis for the exact determination of   
the ratios of the distances of the      
several planets about the sun4 ,but he  
did not give up the excentrics and      
epicycles for the explanation of the    
irregular motions of the planets1 and   
certain imaginary variations in the     
precession of the equinoxes and the     
obliquity of the ecliptic4 ,according to
 him the earth was endowed with three   
different motions1 the first about its  
axis1 the second along the ecliptic1 and
 a third1 which he called the           
declination1 moving it backwards along  
the signs of the zodiac from east to    
west4 ,this last motion was invented to 
explain the phenomena of the seasons4   
,he thought1 like many other ancient    
philosophers1 that a body could not turn
 about another without being fixed in   
some way to it--by a crystal sphere1 or 
something--and in this case that the    
same surface would each day be presented
 to the sun1 and so it requires a third 

rotation1 by which its axis may remain  
constantly parallel to itself4 ,galileo1
 however1 afterwards demonstrated the   
independence of the two motions in      
question1 and proved that the third was 
unnecessary4  ,copernicus was born in   
the ,polish village of ,thorn1 in #adgc1
 and died in #aedc1 at ,warmia1 of which
 he was canon1 and where he built an    
observatory4 ,the voyages of his youth1 
his labours1 adversities1 and old age at
 last broke him down1 and in the winter 
of #aedb he took to his bed1 and was    
incapable of further work4 ,his work1   
which was just finished printing at     
,nuremberg1 was brought to him by his   
friends before he died4 ,he soon after  
completely failed in strength1 and      
passed away tranquilly on the #bcrd of  
,may1 #aedc4  ,illustration3 ,,plate    
,,viii4--,,death ,,of ,,copernicus4     
,the ,copernican system required1       
however1 establishing in the minds of   
astronomers generally before it took the
 place it now holds1 and this work was  

done by ,galileo--a name as celebrated  
as that of ,copernicus himself1 if not  
more so4 ,this perhaps is due not only  
to his demonstration of the motion of   
the earth1 but to his introduction of   
experimental philosophy1 and his        
observational method in astronomy4  ,the
 next advance was made by ,kepler1 who  
overthrew at one blow all the excentrics
 and epicycles of the ancients1 when by 
his laborious calculations he proved the
 ellipticity of the orbit of ,mars4     
,the ,grecian hypotheses were the       
logical consequences of two propositions
 which were universally admitted as     
axioms in the early and middle ages4    
,first1 that the motions of the heavenly
 bodies were uniform2 second1 that their
 orbits were perfect circles4 ,nothing  
appeared more natural than this belief1 
though false4 ,so then when ,kepler1 in 
#afji1 recognised the fact1 by          
incontestable geometrical measurements1 
that ,mars described an oval orbit round
 the sun1 in which its velocity varied  

periodically1 he could not believe      
either his observation or his           
calculation1 and he puzzled his brain to
 discover what secret principle it was  
that forced the planet to approach and  
depart from the sun by turns4           
,fortunately for him1 in this inquietude
 he came across a treatise by ,gilbert1 
,de ,magnate1 which had been published  
in ,london nine years before4 ,in this  
remarkable work ,gilbert proved by      
experiment that the earth acts on       
magnetized needles and on bars of iron  
placed near its surface just as a magnet
 does--and by a conjectural extension of
 this fact1 which was a vague           
presentiment of the truth1 he supposed  
that the earth itself might be retained 
in its constant orbit round the sun by a
 magnetic attraction4 ,this idea was a  
ray of light to ,kepler4 ,it led him to 
see the secret cause of the alternating 
motions that had troubled him so much1  
and in the joy of that discovery he     
said1 ,if we find it impossible to      

attribute the vibration to a magnetic   
power residing in the sun1 acting on the
 planet without any material medium     
between1 we must conclude that the      
planet is itself endowed with a kind of 
intelligent perception which gives it   
power to know at each instant the proper
 angles and distances for its motion4   
,in the result ,kepler was led to       
enunciate to the world his three        
celebrated laws3--  #ast4 ,that the     
planets move in ellipses1 of which the  
sun is in one of the foci4  #bnd4 ,the  
spaces described by the ideal radius    
which joins each planet to the sun are  
proportional to the times of their      
description4 ,in other words1 the nearer
 a planet is to the sun1 the faster it  
moves4  #crd4 ,the squares of the times 
of revolution are as the cubes of the   
major axes of the orbits4  ,such were   
the laws of ,kepler1 the basis of modern
 astronomy1 which led in the hands of   
,newton to the simple explanation by    
universal gravitation1 which itself is  

now asking to be explained4  ,we are not
 to suppose that the system of          
,copernicus was universally accepted    
even by astronomers of note4 ,by some an
 attempt was made to invent a system    
which should have all the advantages of 
this1 and yet if possible save the      
immobility of the earth4 ,such was that 
of ,tycho ,brahe1 who was born three    
years after the death of ,copernicus1   
and died in #afja4 ,he was one of the   
most laborious and painstaking observers
 of his time1 although by the           
peculiarity of fate he is known         
generally only by his false system4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,tycho     
,,brahe',s ,,system4  ,in #aegg1 ,tycho 
,brahe wrote a little treatise1         
,tychonis ,brahe1 ,dani1 ,de ,mundi     
,a,etherei ,recentioribus phenomenis1 a 
propos of a comet that had lately       
appeared4 ,he speaks at length of his   
system as follows3--,i have remarked    
that the ancient system of ,ptolemy is  
not at all natural1 and too complicated4

 ,but neither can ,i approve of the new 
one introduced by the great ,copernicus 
after the example of ,aristarchus of    
,samos4 ,this heavy mass of earth1 so   
little fit for motion1 could not be     
displaced in this manner1 and moved in  
three ways1 like the celestial bodies1  
without a shock to the principles of    
physics4 ,besides1 it is opposed to     
,scripture6 ,i think then1 he adds1 that
 we must decidedly and without doubt    
place the earth immovable in the centre 
of world1 according to the belief of the
 ancients and the testimony of          
,scripture4 ,in my opinion the celestial
 motions are arranged in such a way that
 the sun1 the moon1 and the sphere of   
the fixed stars1 which incloses all1    
have the earth for their centre4 ,the   
five planets turn about the sun as about
 their chief and king1 the sun being    
constantly in the centre of their       
orbits1 and accompany it in its annual  
motion round the earth4 ,this system    
perfectly accounts for the apparent     

motions of the planets as seen from the 
earth1 and is essentially a variation on
 the ,copernican1 rather than on the    
,ptolemaic system1 but it lent itself   
less readily to future discoveries4 ,it 
simply amounts1 as far as the solar     
system is concerned1 to impressing upon 
all the rest of it the motions of the   
earth1 so as to leave the latter at     
rest2 and were the sun only as large    
with respect to the earth as it seems1  
were the planets really smaller than the
 moon1 and the stars only at a short    
distance1 and smaller than the planets1 
it might seem more natural that they    
should move than the earth2 but when all
 these suppositions were disproved1 the 
very argument of ,tycho ,brahe for the  
stability of the earth turned the other 
way1 and proved as incontestably that it
 moved4 ,in the ,copernican system1     
however1 these questions are of no      
consequence2 if the sun be at rest1 this
 mass makes no difference2 if the earth 
moves like the planets1 their relative  

size does not alter anything2 and if    
stars are immovable they may be at any  
distance and of any magnitude4  ,the    
objections of ,tycho ,brahe to the      
earth's motion were3 ,first1 that it was
 too heavy--we know now1 however1 that  
some other planets are heavier--and that
 the sun1 which he would make move      
instead1 is #cdj1jjj times as heavy4    
,secondly1 that if the earth moved1 all 
loose things would be carried from east 
to west2 but we have experience of many 
loose things being kept by friction on  
moving bodies1 and can conceive how1 all
 things may be kept by the attraction of
 the earth under the influence of its   
own motion4 ,thirdly1 that he could not 
imagine that the earth was turned upside
 down every day1 and that for twelve    
hours our heads are downwards4  ,but the
 existence of the antipodes overcomes   
this objection1 and shows that there is 
no up and down in the universe1 but each
 man calls that down which is nearer to 
the centre of the earth than himself4   

,a variation on ,tycho ,brahe's system  
was attempted by one ,longomontanus1 who
 had lived with him for ten years4 ,it  
consisted in admitting the diurnal      
rotation1 but not the annual revolution1
 of the earth2 but it made no progress1 
and was soon forgotten4  ,more          
remarkable than this was the attempt by 
,descartes in the same direction1       
namely1 to hold the principles of       
,copernicus1 and yet to teach the       
immobility of the earth4 ,his idea of   
immobility was however very different   
from that of ,tycho ,brahe1 or of any   
one else1 and would only be called so by
 those who were bound to believe it at  
all costs4  ,his ,theory of ,vortices1  
as it is called1 will be best given in  
his own words as contained in his ,les  
,principes de la ,philosophie1 third    
part1 chap4 xxvi41 entitled1 ,that the  
earth is at rest in its heaven1 which   
does not prevent its being carried along
 with it1 and that it is the same with  
all the planets4  ,i adhere1 he says1 to

 the hypothesis of ,copernicus1 because 
it seems to me the simplest and         
clearest4 ,there is no vacuum anywhere  
in space4444 ,the heavens are full of a 
universal liquid substance4 ,this is an 
opinion now commonly received among     
astronomers1 because they cannot see how
 the phenomena can be explained without 
it4 ,the substance of the heavens has   
the common property of all liquids1 that
 its minutest particles are easily moved
 in any direction1 and when it happens  
that they all move in one way1 they     
necessarily carry with them all the     
bodies they surround1 and which are not 
prevented from moving by any external   
cause4 ,the matter of the heaven in     
which the planets are turns round       
continually like a vortex1 which has the
 ,sun for its centre4 ,the parts that   
are nearest the ,sun move faster than   
those that are at a greater distance2   
and all the planets1 including the      
earth1 remain always suspended in the   
same place in the matter of the heaven4 

,and just as in the turns of rivers1    
when the water turns back on itself and 
twists round in circles1 if any twig or 
light body floats on it1 we see it carry
 them round1 and make them move with it1
 and even among these twigs we may see  
some turning on their own centre1 and   
those that are nearest to the middle of 
the vortex moving quicker than those on 
the outside2 so we may easily imagine it
 to be with the planets1 and this is all
 that is necessary to explain the       
phenomena4 ,the matter that is round    
,saturn takes about thirty years to run 
its circle2 that which surrounds        
,jupiter carries it and its satellites  
round in twelve years1 and so on4444    
,the satellites are carried round their 
primaries by smaller vortices4444 ,the  
earth is not sustained by columns1 nor  
suspended in the air by ropes1 but it is
 environed on all sides by a very liquid
 heaven4 ,it is at rest1 and has no     
propulsion or motion1 since we do not   
perceive any in it4 ,this does not      

prevent it being carried round by its   
heaven1 and following its motion without
 moving itself1 just as a vessel which  
is not moved by winds or oars1 and is   
not retained by anchors1 remains in     
repose in the middle of the sea1        
although the flood of the great mass of 
water carries it insensibly with it4    
,like the earth1 the planets remain at  
rest in the region of heaven where each 
one is found4 ,copernicus made no       
difficulty in allowing that the earth   
moves4 ,tycho1 to whom this opinion     
seemed absurd and unworthy of common    
sense1 wished to correct him1 but the   
earth has far more motion in his        
hypothesis than in that of ,copernicus4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#bb4--;,,descartes' ,,theory ,,of       
,,vortices4  ,such is the celebrated    
theory of vortices4 ,the comparison of  
the rotation of the earth and planets   
and their revolution round the sun to   
the turning of small portions of a rapid
 stream1 may contain an idea yet        

destined to be developed to account for 
these motions2 but as used by ,descartes
 it is a mere playing upon words        
admirably adapted to secure the         
concurrence of all parties2 those who   
believed in the motion of the earth     
seeing that it did not interfere with   
their ideas in the least1 and those who 
believed in its stability being         
gratified to find some way by which they
 might still cling to that belief and   
yet adopt the new ideas4 ,this was its  
purpose1 and that purpose it well       
served2 but as a philosophical          
speculation it was worthless4 ,when     
former astronomers declared that any    
planet moved1 whether it were the earth 
or any other1 they had no idea of       
attraction1 but supposed the planet     
fixed to a sphere2 this sphere moving   
and carrying the planet with it was what
 they meant by the planet moving3 the   
theory of vortices merely substituted a 
liquid for a solid sphere1 with this    
disadvantage1 that if the planet were   

fixed to a solid moving sphere1 it must 
move2 if only placed in a liquid one1   
that liquid might pass it if it did not 
have motion of its own4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #bc4--,,vortices ,,of ,,the      
,,stars4  ,a variation on ,descartes'   
system of vortices was proposed in the  
eighteenth century1 which supposed that 
the sun1 instead of being fixed in the  
centre of the system1 itself circulated 
round another centre1 carrying ,mercury 
with it4 ,this motion of the sun was    
intented to explain the changes of      
magnitude of its disc as seen from the  
earth1 and the diurnal and annual       
variations in its motion1 without       
discarding its circular path4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,variation 
,,of ,,descartes' ,,theory4  ,we have   
thus noticed all the chief astronomical 
systems that have at any time been      
entertained by astronomers4 ,they one   
and all have given way before the       
universally acknowledged truth about    
which there is no longer any dispute4   

,systems are not now matters of opinion 
or theory4 ,we speak of facts as certain
 as any that can be ascertained in any  
branch of knowledge4 ,we have much to   
learn1 but what we have settled as the  
basis of our knowledge will never more  
be altered as far as we can see4  ,of   
course there have been always fantastic 
fancies put forth about the solar       
system1 but they are more amusing than  
instructive4 ,some have said that there 
is no sun1 moon1 or stars1 but that they
 are reflections from an immense light  
under the earth4 ,some savage races say 
that the moon when decreasing breaks up 
into stars1 and is renewed each month by
 a creative act4 ,the ,indians used to  
say that it was full of nectar which the
 gods ate up when it waned1 and which   
grew again when it waxed4 ,the ,brahmins
 placed the earth in the centre1 and    
said that the stars moved like fishes in
 a sea of liquid4 ,they counted nine    
planets1 of which two are invisible     
dragons which cause eclipses2 which1    

since they happen in various parts of   
the zodiac1 show that these dragons     
revolve like the rest4 ,they said the   
sun was nearer than the moon1 perhaps   
because it is hotter and brighter4      
,berosus the ,chaldean gave a very      
original explanation of the phases and  
eclipses of the moon4 ,he said it had   
one side bright1 and the other side just
 the colour of the sky1 and in turning  
it represented the different colours to 
us4  ,before concluding this chapter we 
may notice what information we possess  
as to the origin of the names by which  
the planets are known4 ,these names have
 not always been given to them1 and date
 only from the time when the poets began
 to associate the ,grecian mythology    
with astronomy4 ,the earlier names had  
reference rather to their several       
characters1 although there appear to    
have been among every people two sets of
 names applied to them4  ,the earliest  
,greek names referred to their various  
degrees of brilliancy3 thus ,saturn1    

which is not easily distinguished1 was  
called ,phenon1 or that which appears2  
,jupiter was named ,phaeton1 the        
brilliant2 ,mars was ,pysois1 or        
flame-coloured2 ,mercury1 ,stilbon1 the 
sparkling2 ,venus1 ,phosphorus2 and     
,lucifer1 the light-bearer4 ,they called
 the latter also ,calliste1 the most    
beautiful4 ,it was also known then as   
now under the appellations of the       
morning star and evening star1          
indicating its special position4  ,with 
the ancient ,accadians1 the planets had 
similar names1 among others4 ,thus1     
,mars was sometimes called the vanishing
 star1 in allusion to its recession from
 the earth1 and ,jupiter the planet of  
the ecliptic1 from its neighbourhood to 
the latter 7,sayce74 ,the name of ,mars 
raises the interesting question as to   
whether they had noticed its phases as  
well as its movements--especially when1 
with reference to ,venus1 it is recorded
 in the ,observations of ,bel1 that it  
rises1 and in its orbit duly grows in   

size4 ,they had also a rather confusing 
system of nomenclature by naming each   
planet after the star that it happened  
to be the nearest to at any point of its
 course round the ecliptic4  ,among less
 cultivated nations also the same       
practice held1 as with the natives of   
,south ,america1 whose name for the sun 
is a word meaning it brings the day2 for
 the moon1 it brings the night2 and for 
,venus1 it announces the day4  ,but even
 among the ,eastern nations1 from whom  
the ,greeks and ,romans borrowed their  
astronomical systems1 it soon became a  
practice to associate these planets with
 the names of the several divinities    
they worshipped4 ,this was perhaps      
natural from the adoration they paid to 
the celestial luminaries themselves on  
account of their real or supposed       
influence on terrestrial affairs2 and1  
moreover1 as time went on1 and heroes   
had appeared1 and they had to find them 
dwelling-places in the heavens1 they    
would naturally associate them with one 

or other of the most brilliant and      
remarkable luminaries1 to which they    
might suppose them translated4 ,beyond  
these general remarks1 only conjectures 
can be made why any particular divinity 
should among the ,greeks be connected   
with the several planets as we now know 
them4 ,such conjectures as the following
 we may make4 ,thus ,jupiter1 the       
largest1 would take first rank1 and be  
called after the name of the chief      
divinity4 ,the soft and sympathising    
,venus--appearing at the twilight--would
 well denote the evening star4 ,mars    
would receive its name from its red     
appearance1 naturally suggesting carnage
 and the god of war4 ,saturn1 or        
,kronos1 the god of time1 is personified
 by the slow and almost imperceptible   
motion of that remote planet4 ,while    
,mercury1 the fiery and quick god of    
thieves and commerce1 is well matched   
with the hide-and-seek planet which so  
seldom can be seen1 and moves so        
rapidly4  ,these were the only planets  

known to the ancients1 and were indeed  
all that could be discovered without a  
telescope4 ,if the ancient ,babylonians 
possessed telescopes1 as has been       
conjectured from their speaking1 as we  
have noticed above1 of the increase of  
the size of ,venus1 and from the finding
 a crystal lens among the ruins of      
,nineveh1 they did not use them for this
 purpose4  ,the other planets now known 
have a far shorter history4 ,uranus was 
discovered by ,sir ,william ,herschel on
 the #acth of ,march1 #agha1 and was at 
first taken for a comet4 ,herschel      
proposed to call it ,georgium ,sidus1   
after ,king ,george ,,iii4 ,lalande     
suggested it should be named ,herschel1 
after its discoverer1 and it bore this  
name for some time4 ,afterwards the     
names1 ,neptune1 ,astroea1 ,cybele1 and 
,uranus were successively proposed1 and 
the latter1 the suggestion of ,bode1 was
 ultimately adopted4 ,it is the name of 
the most ancient of the gods1 connected 
with the then most modern of planets in 

point of discovery1 though also most    
ancient in formation1 if recent theories
 be correct4 ,neptune1 as everybody     
knows1 was calculated into existence1 if
 one may so speak1 by ,adams and        
,leverrier independently1 and was first 
seen1 in the quarter indicated1 by ,dr4 
,galle at ,berlin1 in ,september1 #ahdf1
 and by universal consent it received   
the name it now bears4  ,there are now  
also known a long series of what are    
called minor planets1 all circulating   
between ,mars and ,jupiter1 with their  
irregular orbits inextricably mingled   
together4 ,their discovery was led to in
 a remarkable manner4 ,it was observed  
that the distances of the several       
planets might approximately be expressed
 by the terms of a certain mathematical 
series1 if one term was supplied between
 ,mars and ,jupiter--a fact known by the
 name of ,bode's law4 ,when the new     
planet1 ,uranus1 was found to obey this 
law1 the feeling was so strong that     
there must be something to represent    

this missing term1 that strong efforts  
were made to discover it1 which led to  
success1 and several1 whose names are   
derived from the minor gods and         
goddesses1 are now well known4  ,all    
these planets1 like the signs of the    
zodiac1 are indicated by astronomers by 
certain symbols1 which1 as they derive  
their form from the names or nature of  
the planets1 may properly here be       
explained4 ,the sign of ,neptune is     
symbol3 neptune1 representing the       
trident of the sea2 for ,uranus symbol3 
uranus1 which is the first letter of    
,herschel with a little globe below2    
symbol3 saturn is the sickle of time1 or
 ,saturn2 symbol3 jupiter is the        
representation of the first letter of   
,zeus or ,jupiter2 symbol3 mars is the  
lance and buckler of ,mars2 symbol3     
venus the mirror of ,venus2 symbol3     
mercury the wand of ,mercury2 symbol3   
sun the sun's disc2 and symbol3 moon the
 crescent of the moon4  ,illustration3  
,,plate ,,ix4--,,the ,,solar ,,system4  

,the more modern discoveries have1 of   
course1 been all made by means of the   
telescope1 and a few words on the       
history of its discovery may fitly close
 this chapter4  ,according to ,olbers1 a
 concave and convex lens were first used
 in combination1 to render objects less 
distant in appearance1 in the year      
#afjf4 ,in that year the children of one
 ,jean ,lippershey1 an optician of      
,middelburg1 in ,zealand1 were playing  
with his lenses1 and happened to hold   
one before the other to look at a       
distant clock4 ,their great surprise in 
seeing how near it seemed attracted     
their father's attention1 and he made   
several experiments with them1 at last  
fixing them as in the modern            
telescope--in draw tubes4 ,on the #bnd  
of ,october1 #afjf1 he made a petition  
to the ,states-,general of ,holland for 
a patent4 ,the aldermen1 however1 saw no
 advantage in it1 as you could only look
 with one eye instead of two4 ,they     
refused the patent1 and though the      

discovery was soon found of value1      
,lippershey reaped no benefit4  ,galileo
 was the first to apply the telescope to
 astronomical observations4 ,he did not 
have it made in ,holland1 but           
constructed it himself on ,lippershey's 
principle4 ,this was in #afji4 ,its     
magnifying power was at first #d1 and he
 afterwards increased it to #g1 and then
 to #cj4 ,with this he discovered the   
phases of ,venus1 the spots on the sun1 
the four satellites of ,jupiter1 and the
 mountains of the moon4  ,illustration3 
,,plate ,x4--,,the ,,discovery ,,of     
,,the ,,telescope4  ,kepler1 in #afaa1  
made the first astronomical telescope   
with two concave glasses4  ,huyghens    
increased the magnifying power          
successively to #dh1 #ej1 and #ib1 and  
discovered ,saturn's ring and his       
satellite ,no4 #d4  ,cassini1 the first 
director of the ,paris ,observatory1    
brought it to #aej1 aided by ,auzout    
,campani of ,rome1 and ,rives of        
,london4 ,he observed the rotation of   

,jupiter 7#affe71 that of ,venus and    
,mars 7#afff71 the fifth and third      
satellites of ,saturn 7#afga71 and      
afterwards the two nearer ones 7#afhd72 
the other satellites of this planet were
 discovered1 the sixth and seventh1 by  
,sir ,william ,herschel 7#aghi71 and the
 eighth by ,bond and ,lasel 7#ahdh74    
,we may add here that the satellites of 
,uranus were discovered1 six by         
,herschel from #agij to #agid1 and two  
by ,lassel in #ahea1 the latter also    
discovering ,neptune's satellite in     
#ahdg4  ,the rotation of ,saturn was    
discovered by ,herschel in #aghi1 and   
that of ,mercury by ,schroeter in #ahjj4
  ,the earliest telescopes which were   
reflectors were made by ,gregory in     
#affc and ,newton in #afgb4 ,the        
greatest instruments of our century are 
that of ,herschel1 which magnifies      
#c1jjj times1 and ,lord ,rosse's1       
magnifying #f1jjj times1 the ,foucault  
telescope at ,marseilles1 of #d1jjj1 the
 reflector at ,melbourne1 of #g1jjj1 and

 the ,newall refractor4  ,illustration3 
,,plate ,,xi4--,,the ,,foundation ,,of  
,,paris ,,observatory4  ,the exact      
knowledge of the heavens1 which makes so
 grand a feature in modern science1 is  
due1 however1 not only to the existence 
of instruments1 but also to the         
establishment of observatories          
especially devoted to their use4 ,the   
first astronomical observatory that was 
constructed was that at ,paris4 ,in     
#affg ,colbert submitted the designs of 
it to ,louis ,,xiv41 and four years     
afterwards it was completed4 ,the       
,greenwich ,observatory was established 
in #afgf1 that of ,berlin in #agaj1 and 
that of ,st4 ,petersburg in #agbe4      
,since then numerous others have been   
erected1 private as well as public1 in  
all parts of the world1 and no night    
passes without numerous observations    
being taken as part of the ordinary duty
 of the astronomers attached to them4   
,,chapter ,,ix4  ,,the ,,terrestrial    
,,world ,,of ,,the                      

,,ancients4--,,cosmography ,,and        
,,geography4   ,with respect to the     
shape and position of the earth itself  
in the material universe1 and the       
question of its motion or immobility1 we
 cannot go so far back as in the case of
 the heavens1 since it obviously        
requires more observation1 and is not so
 pressing for an answer4  ,amongst the  
,greeks several authors appear to have  
undertaken the subject1 but only one    
complete work has come down to us which 
undertakes it directly4 ,this is a work 
attributed to ,aristotle1 ,de ,mundo4   
,it is addressed to ,alexander1 and by  
some is considered to be spurious1      
because it lacks the majestic obscurity 
that in his acknowledged works repels   
the reader4 ,although1 however1 it is   
not as obscure as it might be1 for the  
writer1 it is quite bad enough1 and its 
dryness and vagueness1 its mixture of   
metaphysical and physical reasoning1    
logic and observation1 and the change   
that has naturally passed over the      

meanings of many common words since they
 were written1 render it very tedious   
and unpleasant reading4  ,nevertheless1 
as presenting us with the first recorded
 ideas on these questions of the nature 
and properties of the earth1 it deserves
 attentive study4 ,it is not a system of
 observations like those of ,ptolemy and
 the ,alexandrian ,school1 but an       
entirely theoretical work4 ,it is       
founded entirely on logic2 but          
unfortunately1 if the premisses are bad1
 the better the syllogism the more      
erroneous will be the conclusion2 and it
 is just this which we find here4 ,thus 
if he be asked whether the earth turns  
or the heavens1 he will reply that the  
earth is evidently in repose1 and that  
this is the case not only because we    
observe it to be so1 but because it is a
 necessity that it should be2 because   
repose is natural to the earth1 and it  
is naturally in equilibrium4 ,this idea 
of natural leads very often astray4 ,he 
is guided to his idea of what is natural

 by seeing what is1 and then argues that
 what is1 or appears to be1 must be1    
because it is natural--thus arguing in a
 circle4 ,another example may be given  
in his answer to the question1 ,why must
 the stars move round the earth8 ,he    
says it is natural1 because a circle is 
a more perfect line1 and must therefore 
be described by the perfect stars1 and a
 circle is perfect because it has no    
ends6 ,unfortunately there are other    
curves that have no ends2 but the circle
 was considered1 without more reason1   
the most perfect curve1 and therefore   
the planets must move in circles--an    
idea which had to wait till ,kepler's   
time to be exploded4 ,one more specimen 
of this style may be quoted1 namely1 his
 proof that every part of heaven must be
 eternally moving1 while the earth must 
be in the centre and at rest4 ,the proof
 is this4 ,everything which performs any
 act has been made for the purpose of   
that act4 ,now the work of ,god is      
immortality1 from which it follows that 

all that is divine must have an eternal 
motion4 ,but the heavens have a divine  
quality1 and for this reason they have a
 spherical shape and move eternally in a
 circle4 ,now when a body has a circular
 motion1 one part of it must remain at  
rest in its place1 namely1 that which is
 in the centre2 the earth is in the     
centre--therefore it is at rest4        
,aristotle says in this work that there 
are two kinds of simple motion1 that in 
a circle and that in a straight line4   
,the latter belongs to the elements1    
which either go up or down1 and the     
former to the celestial bodies1 whose   
nature is more divine1 and which have   
never been known to change2 and the     
earth and world must be the only bodies 
in existence1 for if there were another1
 it must be the contrary to this1 and   
there is no contrary to a circle2 and   
again1 if there were any other body1 the
 earth would be attracted towards it1   
and move1 which it does not4 ,such is   
the style of argument which was in those

 days thought conclusive1 and which with
 a little development and inflation of  
language appeared intensely profound4   
,but what brings these speculations to  
the subject we have now in hand is this3
 that when ,aristotle thus proves the   
earth to be immovable in the centre of  
the universe1 he is led on to inquire   
how it is possible for it to remain in  
one fixed place4 ,he observed that even 
a small fragment of earth1 when it is   
raised into the air and then let go1    
immediately falls without ever stopping 
in one place--falling1 as he supposed1  
all the quicker according to its weight2
 and he was therefore puzzled to know   
why the whole mass of the earth1        
notwithstanding its weight1 could be    
kept from falling4  ,aristotle examines 
one by one the answers that have been   
given to this question4 ,thus           
,xenophanes gave to the earth infinitely
 extended roots1 against which          
,empedocles uses such arguments as we   
should use now4 ,thales of ,miletus     

makes the earth rest upon water1 without
 finding anything on which the water    
itself can rest1 or answering the       
question how it is that the heavier     
earth can be supported on the lighter   
water4 ,anaxemenes1 ,anaxagoras1 and    
,democritus1 who make the earth flat1   
consider it to be sustained by the air1 
which is accumulated below it1 and also 
presses down upon it like a great       
coverlet4 ,aristotle himself says that  
he agrees with those philosophers who   
think that the earth is brought to the  
centre by the primitive rotation of     
things1 and that we may compare it1 as  
,empedocles does1 to the water in       
glasses which are made to turn rapidly1 
and which does not fall out or move1    
even though upside down4 ,he also quotes
 with approval another opinion somewhat 
similar to this1 namely1 that of        
,anaximander1 which states that the     
earth is in repose1 on account of its   
own equilibrium4 ,placed in the centre  
and at an equal distance from its       

extremities1 there is no reason why it  
should move in one direction rather than
 the other1 and rests immovable in the  
centre without being able to leave it4  
,the result of all is that ,aristotle   
concludes that the earth is immovable1  
in the centre of the universe1 and that 
it is not a star circulating in space   
like other stars1 and that it does not  
rotate upon its axis2 and he completes  
the system by stating that the earth is 
spherical1 which is proved by the       
different aspects of the heavens to a   
voyager to the north or to the south4   
,such was the ,aristotelian system1     
containing far more error than truth1   
which was the first of any completeness4
 ,scattered ideas1 however1 on the shape
 and method of support of the earth and 
the cause of various phenomena1 such as 
the circulation of the stars1 are met   
with besides in abundance4  ,the        
original ideas of the earth were        
naturally tinged by the prepossessions  
of each race1 every one thinking his own

 country to be situated in the centre4  
,thus among the ,hindoos1 who lived near
 the equator1 and among the             
,scandinavians1 inhabiting regions      
nearer the pole1 the same meaning       
attaches to the words by which they     
express their own country1 medpiama and 
medgard1 both meaning the central       
habitation4 ,olympus among the ,greeks  
was made the centre of the earth1 and   
afterwards the temple of ,delphi4 ,for  
the ,egyptians the central point was    
,thebes2 for the ,assyrians it was      
,babylon2 for the ,indians it was the   
mountain ,mero2 for the ,hebrews        
,jerusalem4 ,the ,chinese always called 
their country the central empire4 ,it   
was then the custom to denote the world 
by a large disc1 surrounded on all sides
 by a marvellous and inaccessible ocean4
 ,at the extremities of the earth were  
placed imaginary regions and fortunate  
isles1 inhabited by giants or pigmies4  
,the vault of the sky was supposed to be
 supported by enormous mountains and    

mysterious columns4  ,numerous          
variations have been suggested on the   
earliest supposed form of the earth1    
which was1 as we have seen in a former  
chapter1 originally supposed to be an   
immense flat of infinite depth1 and     
giving support to the heavens4  ,as     
travels extended and geography began to 
be a science1 it was remarked that an   
immense area of water circumscribed the 
solid earth by irregular                
boundaries--whence the idea of a        
universal ocean4  ,when1 however1 it was
 perceived that the horizon at sea was  
always circular1 it was supposed that   
the ocean was bounded1 and the whole    
earth came to be represented as         
contained in a circle1 beneath which    
were roots reaching downwards without   
end1 but with no imagined support4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,the       
,,earth ,,floating4  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #bf4--,,the ,,earth ,,with       
,,roots4  ,the ,vedic priests asserted  
that the earth was supported on twelve  

columns1 which they very ingeniously    
turned to their own account by asserting
 that these columns were supported by   
virtue of the sacrifices that were made 
to the gods1 so that if these were not  
made the earth would collapse4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,the       
,,earth ,,of ,,the ,,vedic ,,priests4   
,these pillars were invented in order to
 account for the passing of the sun     
beneath the earth after his setting1 for
 which at first they were obliged to    
imagine a system of tunnels1 which      
gradually became enlarged to the        
intervals between the pillars4  ,the    
,hindoos made the hemispherical earth to
 be supported upon four elephants1 and  
the four elephants to stand on the back 
of an immense tortoise1 which itself    
floated on the surface of a universal   
ocean4 ,we are not however to laugh at  
this as intended to be literal2 the     
elephants symbolised1 it may be1 the    
four elements1 or the four directions of
 the compass1 and the tortoise was the  

symbol for strength and for eternity1   
which was also sometimes represented by 
a serpent4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#bh4--;,,hindoo ,,earth4  ,the floating 
of the earth on water or some other     
liquid long held ground4 ,it was adopted
 by ,thales1 and six centuries later    
,seneca adopts the same opinion1 saying 
that the humid element that supports the
 earth's disc like a vessel may be      
either the ocean or some liquid more    
simple than water4  ,diodorus tells us  
that the ,chaldeans considered the earth
 hollow and boat-shaped--perhaps turned 
upside down--and this doctrine was      
introduced into ,greece by ,heraclitus  
of ,ephesus4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#bi4--,,the ,,earth ,,of ,,anaximander4 
,anaximander represents the earth as a  
cylinder1 the upper face of which alone 
is inhabited4 ,this cylinder1 he states1
 is one-third as high as its diameter1  
and it floats freely in the centre of   
the celestial vault1 because there is no
 reason why it should move to one side  

rather than the other4 ,leucippus1      
,democritus1 ,heraclitus1 and           
,anaxagoras all adopted this purely     
imaginary form4 ,europe made the        
northern half1 and ,lybia 7,africa7 and 
,asia the southern1 while ,delphi was in
 the centre4  ,anaximenes1 without      
giving a precise opinion as to the form 
of the earth1 made it out to be         
supported on compressed air1 though he  
gave no idea as to how the air was to be
 compressed4  ,plato thought to improve 
upon these ideas by making the earth    
cubical4 ,the cube1 which is bound by   
six equal faces1 appeared to him the    
most perfect of solids1 and therefore   
most suitable for the earth1 which was  
to stand in the centre of the universe4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,,plato',s  
,,cubical ,,earth4  ,eudoxus1 who in his
 long voyages throughout ,greece and    
,egypt had seen new constellations      
appear as he went south1 while others to
 the north disappeared1 deduced the     
sphericity of the earth1 in which       

opinion he was followed by ,archimedes1 
and1 as we have seen1 by ,aristotle4    
,according to ,achilles ,tatius1        
,xenophanes gave to the earth the shape 
of an immense inclined plane1 which     
stretched out to infinity4 ,he drew it  
in the form of a vast mountain4 ,the    
summit only was inhabited by men1 and   
round it circulated the stars1 and the  
base was at an infinite depth4 ,hesiod  
had before this obscurely said3 ,the    
abyss is surrounded by a brazen barrier2
 above it rest the roots of the earth4  
,epicurus and his school were well      
pleased with this representation4 ,if   
such were the foundations of the earth1 
then it was impossible that the sun1 and
 moon1 and stars should complete their  
revolutions beneath it4 ,a solid and    
indefinite support being once admitted1 
the ,epicurean ideas about the stars    
were a necessary consequence2 the stars 
must inevitably be put out each day in  
the west1 since they are not seen to    
return to the place whence they started1

 and they must be rekindled some hours  
afterwards in the east4 ,in the days of 
,augustus1 ,cleomedes still finds       
himself obliged to combat these         
,epicurean ideas about the setting and  
rising of the sun and stars4 ,these     
stupid ideas1 he says1 have no other    
foundation than an old woman's          
story--that the ,iberians hear each     
night the hissing noise made by the     
burning sun as it is extinguished1 like 
a hot iron in the waters of the ocean4  
,modern travellers have shown us that   
similar ideas about the support of the  
earth have been entertained by more     
remote people4 ,thus1 in the opinion of 
the ,greenlanders1 handed down from     
antiquity to our own days1 the earth is 
supported on pillars1 which are so      
consumed by time that they often crack1 
and were it not that they are supported 
by the incantations of the magicians1   
they would long since have broken down4 
,this idea of the breaking of the       
pillars may possibly have originated in 

the known sinking of the land beneath   
the sea1 which is still going on even at
 the present day4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #ca4--;,,egyptian ,,representation ,,of
 ,,the ,,earth4  ,an ancient ,egyptian  
papyrus in the library of ,paris gives a
 very curious hieroglyphical            
representation of the universe4 ,the    
earth is here figured under the form of 
a reclining figure1 and is covered with 
leaves4 ,the heavens are personified by 
a goddess1 which forms the vault by her 
star-bespangled body1 which is elongated
 in a very peculiar manner4 ,two boats1 
carrying1 one the rising sun1 and the   
other the setting sun1 are represented  
as moving along the heavens over the    
body of the goddess4 ,in the centre of  
the picture is the god1 ,maon1 a divine 
intelligence1 which presides over the   
equilibrium of the universe4  ,we will  
now pass on from the early ideas of the 
general shape and situation of the world
 to inquire into the first outlines of  
geographical knowledge of details4  ,of 

all the ancient writings which deal with
 such questions1 the ,hebrew ,scriptures
 have the greatest antiquity1 and in    
them are laid down many details of known
 countries1 from which a fair map of the
 world as known to them might be made   
out4 ,the prophet ,esdras believed that 
six-sevenths of the earth was dry       
land--an idea which could not well be   
exploded till the great oceans had been 
traversed and ,america discovered4      
,more interesting1 as being more        
complete1 and written to a certain      
extent for the very purpose of relating 
what was known of the geography of the  
earth1 are the writings of the oldest   
,grecian poets4 ,the first elements of  
,grecian geography are contained in the 
two national and almost sacred poems1   
the ,iliad and ,odyssey4 ,so important  
have these writings been considered in  
regard to ancient geography1 that for   
many centuries discussions have been    
carried on with regard to the details1  
though evidently fictitious1 of the     

voyage of ,ulysses1 and twenty lines of 
the ,iliad have furnished matter for a  
book of thirty volumes4  ,the shield of 
,achilles1 forged by ,vulcan and        
described in the eighteenth book of the 
,iliad1 gives us an authentic           
representation of the primitive         
cosmographical ideas of the age4 ,the   
earth is there figured as a disc1       
surrounded on all sides by the ,river   
,ocean4 ,however strange it may appear  
to us1 to apply the term river to the   
ocean1 it occurs too often in ,homer and
 the other ancient poets to admit of a  
doubt of its being literally understood 
by them4 ,hesiod even describes the     
sources of the ocean at the western     
extremity of the world1 and the         
representation of these sources was     
preserved from age to age amongst       
authors posterior to ,homer by nearly a 
thousand years4 ,herodotus says plainly 
that the geographers of his time drew   
their maps of the world according to the
 same ideas2 the earth was figured with 

them as a round disc1 and the ocean as a
 river1 which washed it on all sides4   
,the earth's disc1 the orbis terrarum1  
was covered according to ,homer by a    
solid vault or firmament1 beneath which 
the stars of the day and night were     
carried by chariots supported by the    
clouds4 ,in the morning the sun rose    
from the eastern ocean1 and in the      
evening it declined into the western2   
and a vessel of gold1 the mysterious    
work of ,vulcan1 carried it quickly back
 by the north1 to the east again4       
,beneath the earth ,homer places1 not   
the habitation of the dead1 the caverns 
of ,hades1 but a vault called ,tartarus1
 corresponding to the firmament4 ,here  
lived the ,titans1 the enemies of the   
gods1 and no breath of wind1 no ray of  
light1 ever penetrated to this          
subterranean world4 ,writers subsequent 
to ,homer by a century determined even  
the height of the firmament and the     
depth of ,tartarus4 ,an anvil1 they     
said1 would take nine days to fall from 

heaven to earth1 and as many more to    
fall from earth to the bottom of        
,tartarus4 ,this estimate of the height 
of heaven was of course far too small4  
,if a body were to fall for nine days   
and nights1 or #ggg1fjj seconds under   
the attraction of the earth1 it would   
only pass over #dcj1ejj miles1 that is  
not much more than half as far again as 
the moon4 ,a ray of light would only    
take two seconds to pass over that      
distance1 whereas it takes eight minutes
 to reach us from the sun1 and four     
hours to come from ,neptune--to say     
nothing of the distance of the stars4   
,the limits of the world in the ,homeric
 cosmography were surrounded by         
obscurity4 ,the columns of which ,atlas 
was the guardian were supported on      
unknown foundations1 and disappeared in 
the systems subsequent to ,homer4       
,beyond the mysterious boundary where   
the earth ended and the heavens began an
 indefinite chaos spread out--a confused
 medley of life and inanity1 a gulf     

where all the elements of heaven1       
,tartarus1 and earth and sea are mixed  
together1 a gulf of which the gods      
themselves are afraid4  ,ideas such as  
these prevailed long after geometers and
 astronomers had proved the spherical   
form of the globe1 and they were revived
 by the early ,christian geographers and
 have left their trace even on the      
common language of to-day4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,,homeric  
,,cosmography4  ,the centre of the      
terrestrial disc was occupied by the    
continent and isles of ,greece1 which in
 the time of ,homer possessed no general
 name4 ,the centre of ,greece passed    
therefore for the centre of the whole   
world2 and in ,homer's system it was    
reckoned to be ,olympus in ,thessaly1   
but the priests of the celebrated       
,temple of ,apollo at ,delphi 7known    
then under the name of ,python7 gave out
 a tradition that that sacred place was 
the real centre of the habitable world4 
,the straits which separate ,italy from 

,sicily were so to speak the vestibule  
of the fabulous world of ,homer4 ,the   
threefold ebb and flow1 the howling of  
the monster ,scylla1 the whirlpools of  
,charybdis1 the floating rocks--all tell
 us that we are quitting here the region
 of truth4 ,sicily itself1 although     
already known under the name of         
,trinacria1 was filled with marvels2    
here the flocks of the ,sun wandered in 
a charming solitude under the           
guardianship of nymphs2 here the        
,cyclops1 with one eye only1 and the    
anthropophagous ,lestrigons scared away 
the traveller from a land that was      
otherwise fertile in corn and wine4 ,two
 historical races were placed by ,homer 
in ,sicily1 namely the ,sicani1 and the 
,siceli1 or ,siculi4  ,to the west of   
,sicily we find ourselves in the midst  
of a region of fables4 ,the enchanted   
islands of ,circe and ,calypso1 and the 
floating island of ,eolus can no longer 
be found1 unless we imagine them to have
 originated1 like ,graham's ,island in  

this century1 from volcanic eruptions or
 elevations1 and to have disappeared    
again by the action of the sea4  ,the   
,homeric map of the world terminated    
towards the west by two fabulous        
countries which have given rise to many 
traditions among the ancients1 and to   
many discussions among moderns4 ,near to
 the entrance of the ocean1 and not far 
from the sombre caverns where the dead  
are congregated1 ,ulysses found the     
,cimmerians1 an unhappy people1 who1    
constantly surrounded by thick shadows1 
never enjoyed the rays of the sun1      
neither when it mounted the skies1 nor  
when it descended below the earth4      
,still farther away1 and in the ocean   
itself1 and therefore beyond the limits 
of the earth1 beyond the region of winds
 and seasons1 the poet paints for us a  
,fortunate ,land1 which he calls        
,elysium1 a country where tempests and  
winter are unknown1 where a soft zephyr 
always blows1 and where the elect of    
,jupiter1 snatched from the common lot  

of mortals1 enjoy a perpetual felicity4 
,whether these fictions had an allegory 
for their basis1 or were founded on the 
mistaken notions of voyagers--whether   
they arose in ,greece1 or1 as the       
,hebrew etymology of the name ,cimmerian
 might seem to indicate1 in the east1 or
 in ,phenicia1 it is certain that the   
images they present1 transferred to the 
world of reality1 and applied           
successively to various lands1 and      
confused by contradictory explanations1 
have singularly embarrassed the progress
 of geography through many centuries4   
,the ,roman travellers thought they     
recognised the ,fortunate ,isles in a   
group to the west of ,africa1 now known 
as the ,canaries4 ,the philosophical    
fictions of ,plato and ,theopompus about
 ,atlantes and ,meropis have been long  
perpetuated in historical theories2     
though of course it is possible that in 
the numerous changes that have taken    
place in the surface of the earth1 some 
ancient vast and populous island may    

have descended beneath the level of the 
sea4 ,on the other side1 the poetic     
imagination created the ,hyperboreans1  
beyond the regions where the northern   
winds were generated1 and according to a
 singular kind of meteorology1 they     
believed them for that reason to be     
protected from the cold winds4          
,herodotus regrets that he has not been 
able to discover the least trace of     
them2 he took the trouble to ask for    
information about them from their       
neighbours1 the ,arimaspes1 a very      
clear-sighted race1 though having but a 
single eye2 but they could not inform   
him where the ,hyperboreans dwelt4 ,the 
,enchanted ,isles1 where the ,hesperides
 used to guard the golden fruit1 and    
which the whole of antiquity placed in  
the west1 not far from the ,fortunate   
,isles1 are sometimes called            
,hyperborean by authors well versed in  
the ancient traditions4 ,it is also in  
this sense that ,sophocles speaks of the
 ,garden of ,phoebus1 near the vault of 

heaven1 and not far from the sources of 
the night1 i4e4 of the setting of the   
sun4  ,avienus explains the mild        
temperature of the ,hyperborean country 
by the temporary proximity of the sun1  
since1 according to the ,homeric ideas1 
it passes during the night by the       
northern ocean to return to its palace  
in the east4 ,this ancient tradition was
 not entirely exploded in the time of   
,tacitus1 who states that on the        
confines of ,germany might be seen the  
veritable setting of ,apollo beyond the 
water1 and he believes that as in the   
east the sun gives rise to incense and  
balm by its great proximity to the      
earth1 so in the regions where it sets  
it makes the most precious of juices to 
transude from the earth and form amber4 
,it is this idea that is embedded in the
 fables of amber being the tears of gold
 that ,apollo shed when he went to the  
,hyperborean land to mourn the loss of  
his son ,a,esculapius1 or by the sisters
 of ,phaeton1 changed into poplars2 and 

it is denoted by the ,greek name for    
amber1 electron--a sun-stone4 ,the      
,grecian sages1 long before the time of 
,tacitus1 said that this very precious  
material was an exhalation from the     
earth that was produced and hardened by 
the rays of the sun1 which they thought 
came nearer to the earth in the west and
 in the north4  ,florus1 in relating the
 expedition of ,decimus ,brutus along   
the coast of ,spain1 gives great effect 
to the ,epicurean views about the sun1  
by declaring that ,brutus only stopped  
his conquests after having witnessed the
 actual descent of the sun into the     
ocean1 and having heard with horror the 
terrible noise occasioned by its        
extinction4 ,the ancients also believed 
that the sun and the other heavenly     
bodies were nourished by the            
waters--partly the fresh water of the   
rivers1 and partly the salt water of the
 sea4 ,cleanthes gave the reason for the
 sun returning towards the equator on   
reaching the solstices1 that it could   

not go too far away from the source of  
its nourishment4 ,pytheas relates that  
in the ,island of ,thule1 six days'     
journey north of ,great ,britain1 and in
 all that neighbourhood1 there was no   
land nor sea nor air1 but a compound of 
all three1 on which the earth and the   
sea were suspended1 and which served to 
unite together all the parts of the     
universe1 though it was not possible to 
go into these places1 neither on foot   
nor in ships4 ,perhaps the ice floating 
in the frozen seas and the hazy northern
 atmosphere had been seen by some       
navigator1 and thus gave rise to this   
idea4 ,as it stands1 the history may be 
perhaps matched by that of the amusing  
monk who said he had been to the end of 
the world and had to stoop down1 as     
there was not room to stand between     
heaven and earth at their junction4     
,homer lived in the tenth century before
 our era4 ,herodotus1 who lived in the  
fifth1 developed the ,homeric chart to  
three times its size4 ,he remarks at the

 commencement of his book that for      
several centuries the world has been    
divided into three parts--,europe1      
,asia1 and ,libya2 the names given to   
them being female4 ,the exterior limits 
of these countries remained in obscurity
 notwithstanding that those boundaries  
of them that lay nearest to ,greece were
 clearly defined4  ,one of the greatest 
writers on ancient geography was        
,strabo1 whose ideas we will now give an
 account of4 ,he seems to have been a   
disciple of ,hipparchus in astronomy1   
though he criticises and contradicts him
 several times in his geography4 ,he had
 a just idea of the sphericity of the   
earth2 but considered it as the centre  
of the universe1 and immovable4 ,he     
takes pains to prove that there is only 
one inhabited earth--not in this        
refuting the notion that the moon and   
stars might have inhabitants1 for these 
he considered to be insignificant       
meteors nourished by the exhalations of 
the ocean2 but he fought against the    

fact of there being on this globe any   
other inhabited part than that known to 
the ancients4  ,it is remarkable to     
notice that the proofs then used by     
geographers of the sphericity of the    
earth are just those which we should use
 now4 ,thus ,strabo says1 ,the indirect 
proof is drawn from the centripetal     
force in general1 and the tendency that 
all bodies have in particular towards a 
centre of gravity4 ,the direct proof    
results from the phenomena observed on  
the sea and in the sky4 ,it is evident1 
for example1 that it is the curvature of
 the earth that alone prevents the      
sailor from seeing at a distance the    
lights that are placed at the ordinary  
height of the eye1 and which must be    
placed a little higher to become visible
 even at a greater distance2 in the same
 way1 if the eye is a little raised it  
will see things which previously were   
hidden4 ,homer had already made the same
 remark4  ,on this globe1 representing  
the world1 ,strabo and the cosmographers

 of his time placed the habitable world 
in a surface which he describes in the  
following way3 ,suppose a great circle1 
perpendicular to the equator1 and       
passing through the poles to be         
described about the sphere4 ,it is plain
 that the surface will be divided by    
this circle1 and by the equator into    
four equal parts4 ,the northern and     
southern hemispheres contain1 each of   
them1 two of these parts4 ,now on any   
one of these quarters of the sphere let 
us trace a quadrilateral which shall    
have for its southern boundary the half 
of the equator1 for northern boundary a 
circle marking the commencement of polar
 cold1 and for the other sides two equal
 and opposite segments of the circle    
that passes through the poles4 ,it is on
 one such quadrilateral that the        
habitable world is placed4 ,he figures  
it as an island1 because it is          
surrounded on all sides by the sea4 ,it 
is plain that ,strabo had a good idea of
 the nature of gravity1 because he does 

not distinguish in any way an upper or a
 lower hemisphere1 and declares that the
 quadrilateral on which the habitable   
world is situated may be any one of the 
four formed in this way4  ,the form of  
the habitable world is that of a        
chlamys1 or cloak4 ,this follows1 he    
says1 both from geometry and the great  
spread of the sea1 which1 enveloping the
 land1 covers it both to the east and to
 the west and reduces it to a shortened 
and truncated form of such a figure that
 its greatest breadth preserved has only
 a third of its length4 ,as to the      
actual length and breadth1 he says1 it  
measures seventy thousand stadia in     
length1 and is bounded by a sea whose   
immensity and solitude renders it       
impassable2 while the breadth is less   
than thirty thousand stadia1 and has for
 boundaries the double region where the 
excess of heat on one side and the      
excess of cold on the other render it   
uninhabitable4  ,the habitable world was
 thus much longer from east to west than

 it was broad from north to south2 from 
whence come our terms longitude1 whose  
degrees are counted in the former       
direction1 and latitude1 reckoned in the
 latter direction4  ,eratosthenes1 and  
after him ,hipparchus1 while he gives   
larger numbers than the preceding for   
the dimensions of the inhabited part of 
the earth1 namely1 thirty-eight thousand
 stadia of breadth and eighty thousand  
of length1 declares that physical laws  
accord with calculations to prove that  
the length of the habitable earth must  
be taken from the rising to the setting 
of the sun4 ,this length extends from   
the extremity of ,india to that of      
,iberia1 and the breadth from the       
parallel of ,ethiopia to that of ,ierne4
  ,that the earth is an island1 ,strabo 
considers to be proved by the testimony 
of our senses4 ,for wherever men have   
reached to the extremities of the earth 
they have found the sea1 and for regions
 where this has not been verified it is 
established by reasoning4 ,those who    

have retraced their steps have not done 
so because their passage was barred by  
any continent1 but because their        
supplies have run short1 and they were  
afraid of the solitude2 the water always
 ran freely in front of them4  ,it is   
extraordinary that ,strabo and the      
astronomers of that age1 who recognised 
so clearly the sphericity of the earth  
and the real insignificance of          
mountains1 should yet have supposed the 
stars to have played so humble a part1  
but so it was2 and we find ,strabo      
arguing in what we may call quite the   
contrary direction4 ,he says1 the larger
 the mass of water that is spread round 
the earth1 so much more easy is it to   
conceive how the vapours arising from it
 are sufficient to nourish the heavenly 
bodies4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#cc4--,,the ,,earth ,,of ,,the ,,later  
,,greeks4  ,among the ,latin            
cosmographers we may here cite one who  
flourished in the first century after   
,christ1 ,pomponius ,mela1 who wrote a  

treatise1 called ,de ,situ ,orbis4 ,from
 whatever source1 whether traditional or
 otherwise1 he arrived at the           
conclusion1 he divided the earth into   
two continents1 our own and that of the 
,antichthones1 which reached to our     
antipodes4 ,this map was in use till the
 time of ,christopher ,columbus1 who    
modified it in the matter of the        
position of this second continent1 which
 till then remained a matter of mystery4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4                 
#cd4--,,pomponius ,,mela',s             
,,cosmography4  ,of those who in ancient
 times added to the knowledge then      
possessed of cosmography1 we should not 
omit to mention the name of ,pytheas1 of
 ,marseilles1 who flourished in the     
fourth century before our era4 ,his     
chief observations1 however1 were not so
 closely related to geography as to the 
relation of the earth with the heavenly 
bodies4 ,by the observation of the      
gnomon at mid-day on the day of the     
solstice he determined the obliquity of 

the ecliptic in his epoch4 ,by the      
observation of the height of the pole1  
he discovered that in his time it was   
not marked by any star1 but formed a    
quadrilateral with three neighbouring   
stars1 ,greek3 b of the little ,bear and
 ,greek3 k and ,greek3 a of the ,dragon4
     ,,chapter ,x4  ,,cosmography ,,and 
,,geography ,,of ,,the ,,church4        
,after the writers mentioned in the last
 chapter a long interval elapsed without
 any progress being made in the         
knowledge of the shape or configuration 
of the earth4 ,from the fall of the     
,roman ,empire1 whose colonies          
themselves gave a certain knowledge of  
geography1 down to the fifteenth        
century1 when the great impetus was     
given to discovery by the adventurous   
voyagers of ,spain and ,portugal1 there 
was nothing but servile copying from    
ancient authors1 who were even          
misrepresented when they were not       
understood4 ,even the peninsula of      
,india was only known by the accounts of

 ,orientals and the writings of the     
,ancients until the beginning of the    
fifteenth century4 ,vague notions1 too1 
were held as to the limits of ,africa1  
and even of ,europe and ,asia--while of 
course they knew nothing of ,america1 in
 spite of their marking on their maps an
 antichthonal continent to the south4   
,denys1 the traveller1 a ,greek writer  
of the first century1 and ,priscian1 his
 ,latin commentator of the fourth1 still
 maintained the old errors with regard  
to the earth4 ,according to them the    
earth is not round1 but leaf-shaped2 its
 boundaries are not so arranged as to   
form everywhere a regular circle4       
,macrobius1 in his system of the world1 
proves clearly that he had no notion    
that ,africa was continued to the south 
of ,ethiopia1 that is of the tenth      
degree of ,n4 latitude4 ,he thought1    
like ,cleanthus and ,crates and other   
ancient authors1 that the regions that  
lay nearest the tropics1 and were burnt 
by the sun1 could not be inhabited2 and 

that the equatorial regions were        
occupied by the ocean4 ,he divided the  
hemisphere into five zones1 of which    
only two were habitable4 ,one of them1  
he said1 is occupied by us1 and the     
other by men of whose nature we are     
ignorant4  ,orosus1 writing in the same 
century 7fourth71 and whose work        
exercised so great an influence on the  
cosmographers of the middle ages and on 
those who made the maps of the world    
during that long period1 was ignorant of
 the form or boundaries of ,africa1 and 
of the contours of the peninsulas of    
,southern ,asia4 ,he made the heavens   
rest upon the earth4  ,s4 ,basil1 also  
of the fourth century1 placed the       
firmament on the earth1 and on this     
heaven a second1 whose upper surface was
 flat1 notwithstanding that the inner   
surface which is turned towards us is in
 the form of a vault2 and he explains in
 this way how the waters can be held    
there4 ,s4 ,cyril shows how useful this 
reservoir of water is to the life of men

 and of plants4  ,diodorus1 ,bishop of  
,tarsus1 in the same century1 also      
divided the world into two stages1 and  
compared it to a tent4 ,severianus1     
,bishop of ,gabala1 about the same time1
 compared the world to a house of which 
the earth is the ground floor1 the lower
 heavens the ceiling1 and the upper1 or 
heaven of heavens1 the roof4 ,this      
double heaven was also admitted by      
,eusebius of ,caesaraea4  ,in the fifth1
 sixth1 and seventh centuries science   
made no progress whatever4 ,it was still
 taught that there were limits to the   
ocean4 ,thus ,lactantius asserted that  
there could not be inhabitants beyond   
the line of the tropics4 ,this ,father  
of the ,church considered it a monstrous
 opinion that the earth is round1 that  
the heavens turn about it1 and that all 
parts of the earth are inhabited4 ,there
 are some people1 he says1 so           
extravagant as to persuade themselves   
that there are men who have their heads 
downwards and their feet upwards2 that  

all that lies down here is hung up      
there2 that the trees and herbs grow    
downwards2 and that the snow and hail   
fall upwards4444 ,those people who      
maintain such opinions do so for no     
other purpose than to amuse themselves  
by disputation1 and to show their       
spirit2 otherwise it would be easy to   
prove by invincible argument that it is 
impossible for the heavens to be        
underneath the earth4 7,divine          
,institution74 ,saint ,augustin also1 in
 his ,city of ,god1 says3 ,there is no  
reason to believe in that fabulous      
hypothesis of the antipodes1 that is to 
say1 of men who inhabit the other side  
of the earth--where the sun rises when  
it sets with us1 and who have their feet
 opposed to ours4 444 ,but even if it   
were demonstrated by any argument that  
the earth and world have a spherical    
form1 it would be too absurd to pretend 
that any hardy voyagers1 after having   
traversed the immensity of the ocean1   
had been able to reach that part of the 

world and there implant a detached      
branch of the primaeval human family4   
,in the same strain wrote ,s4 ,basil1   
,s4 ,ambrose1 ,s4 ,justin ,martyr1 ,s4  
,chrysostom1 ,procopius of ,gaza1       
,severianus1 ,diodorus ,bishop of       
,tarsus1 and the greater number of the  
thinkers of that epoch4  ,eusebius of   
,caesaraea was bold enough on one       
occasion to write in his ,commentaries  
on the ,psalms1 that1 according to the  
opinion of some the earth is round2 but 
he draws back in another work from so   
rash an assertion4 ,even in the         
fifteenth century the monks of          
,salamanca and ,alcala opposed the old  
arguments against the antipodes to all  
the theories of ,columbus4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,the       
,,earth',s ,,shadow4  ,in the middle of 
the sixteenth century ,gregory of ,tours
 adopted also the opinion that the      
intertropical zone was uninhabitable1   
and1 like other historians1 he taught   
that the ,nile came from the unknown    

land in the east1 descended to the      
south1 crossed the ocean which separated
 the antichthone from ,africa1 and then 
alone became3 visible4 ,the geographical
 and cosmographical ideas that were then
 prevalent may also be judged of by what
 ,s4 ,avitus1 a ,latin poet of the sixth
 century and nephew of the ,emperor     
,flavius ,avitus1 says in his poem on   
the ,creation1 where he describes the   
terrestrial ,paradise4 ,beyond ,india1  
he writes1 where the world commences1   
where the confines of heaven and earth  
are joined1 is an exalted asylum1       
inaccessible to mortals1 and closed by  
eternal barriers1 since the first sin   
was committed4  ,in a treatise on       
astronomy1 published a little after this
 in #aeha1 by ,apian and ,gemma ,frison1
 they very distinctly state their belief
 in a round earth1 though they do not go
 into details of its surface4 ,the      
argument is the old one from eclipses1  
but the figures they give in            
illustration are very amusing1 with     

three or four men of the size of the    
moon disporting themselves on the       
earth's surface4 ,as1 however1 they all 
have their feet to the globe            
representing the earth1 and consequently
 have their feet in opposite directions 
at the antipodes1 the idea is very      
clearly shown4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#cf4  ,if1 they say1 the earth were     
square1 its shadow on the moon would be 
square also4  ,if the earth were        
triangular1 its shadow1 during an       
eclipse of the moon1 would also be      
triangular4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 
,if the earth had six sides1 its shadow 
would have the same figure4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4  ,since1     
then1 the shadow of the earth is round1 
it is a proof that the earth is round   
also4  ,this of course is one of the    
proofs that would be employed in the    
present day for the same purpose4  ,the 
most remarkable of all the fantastical  
systems1 however1 the chef d'oeuvre of  
the cosmography of that age1 was the    

famous system of the square earth1 with 
solid walls for supporting the heavens4 
,its author was ,cosmas1 surnamed       
,indicopleustes after his voyage to     
,india and ,ethiopia4 ,he was at first a
 merchant1 and afterwards a monk4 ,he   
died in #eej4 ,his manuscript was       
entitled ,christian ,topography1 and was
 written in #ece4 ,it was with the      
object of refuting the opinions of those
 who gave a spherical form to the earth 
that ,cosmas composed his work after the
 systems of the ,church ,fathers1 and in
 opposition to the cosmography of the   
,gentiles4 ,he reduced to a systematic  
form the opinions of the ,fathers1 and  
undertook to explain all the phenomena  
of the heavens in accordance with the   
,scriptures4 ,in his first book he      
refutes the opinion of the sphericity of
 the earth1 which he regarded as a      
heresy4 ,in the second he expounds his  
own system1 and the fifth to the ninth  
he devotes to the courses of the stars4 
,this mongrel composition is a singular 

mixture of the doctrines of the         
,indians1 ,chaldeans1 ,greeks1 and      
,christian ,fathers4  ,with respect to  
his opponents he says1 ,there are on all
 sides vigorous attacks against the     
,church1 and accuses them of            
misunderstanding ,scripture1 being      
misled by the eclipses of the sun and   
moon4 ,he makes great fun of the idea of
 rain falling upwards1 and yet accuses  
his opponents of making the earth at the
 same time the centre and the base of   
the universe4 ,the zeal with which these
 pretended refutations are used proves1 
no doubt1 that in the sixth century     
there were some men1 more sensible and  
better instructed than others1 who      
preserved the deposit of progress       
accomplished by the ,grecian genius in  
the ,alexandrian school1 and defended   
the labours of ,hipparchus and ,ptolemy2
 while it is manifest that the greater  
number of their contemporaries kept the 
old ,indian and ,homeric traditions1    
which were easier to understand1 and    

more accessible to the false witness of 
the senses1 and not improved by         
combination with texts of ,scripture    
misinterpreted4 ,in fact1 cosmographical
 science in the general opinion         
retrograded instead of advancing4       
,according to ,cosmas and his map of the
 world1 the habitable earth is a plane  
surface4 ,but instead of being supposed1
 as in the time of ,thales1 to be a     
disc1 he represented it in the form of a
 parallelogram1 whose long sides are    
twice the shorter ones1 so that man is  
on the earth like a bird in a cage4     
,this parallelogram is surrounded by the
 ocean1 which breaks in in four great   
gulfs1 namely1 the ,mediterranean and   
,caspian seas1 and the ,persian and     
,arabian gulfs4  ,beyond the ocean in   
every direction there exists another    
continent which cannot be reached by    
man1 but of which one part was once     
inhabited by him before the ,deluge4 ,to
 the east1 just as in other maps of the 
world1 and in later systems1 he placed  

the ,terrestrial ,paradise1 and the four
 rivers that watered ,eden1 which come  
by subterranean channels to water the   
post-diluvian earth4  ,after the ,fall1 
,adam was driven from ,paradise2 but he 
and his descendants remained on its     
coasts until the ,deluge carried the ark
 of ,noah to our present earth4  ,on the
 four outsides of the earth rise four   
perpendicular walls1 which surround it1 
and join together at the top in a vault1
 the heavens forming the cupola of this 
singular edifice4  ,the world1 according
 to ,cosmas1 was therefore a large      
oblong box1 and it was divided into two 
parts2 the first1 the abode of men1     
reaches from the earth to the firmament1
 above which the stars accomplish their 
revolutions2 there dwell the angels1 who
 cannot go any higher4 ,the second      
reaches upwards from the firmament to   
the upper vault1 which crowns and       
terminates the world4 ,on this firmament
 rest the waters of the heavens4        
,cosmas justifies this system by        

declaring that1 according to the        
doctrine of the ,fathers and the        
,commentators on the ,bible1 the earth  
has the form of the ,tabernacle that    
,moses erected in the desert2 which was 
like an oblong box1 twice as long as    
broad4 ,but we may find other           
similarities1--for this land beyond the 
ocean recalls the ,atlantic of the      
ancients1 and the ,mahomedans1 and      
,orientals in general1 say that the     
earth is surrounded by a high mountain1 
which is a similar idea to the walls of 
,cosmas4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#ci4--,,the ,,cosmography ,,of ,,cosmas4
  ,god1 he says1 in creating the earth1 
rested it on nothing4 ,the earth is     
therefore sustained by the power of     
,god1 the ,creator of all things1       
supporting all things by the word of    
,his power4 ,if below the earth1 or     
outside of it1 anything existed1 it     
would fall of its own accord4 ,so ,god  
made the earth the base of the universe1
 and ordained that it should sustain    

itself by its own proper gravity4       
,after having made a great square box of
 the universe1 it remained for him to   
explain the celestial phenomena1 such as
 the succession of days and nights and  
the vicissitudes of the seasons4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,the       
,,square ,,earth4  ,this is the         
remarkable explanation he gives4 ,he    
says that the earth1 that is1 the oblong
 table circumscribed on all sides by    
high walls1 is divided into three parts2
 first the habitable earth1 which       
occupies the middle2 secondly1 the ocean
 which surrounds this on all sides2 and 
thirdly1 another dry land which         
surrounds the ocean1 terminated itself  
by these high walls on which the        
firmament rests4 ,according to him the  
habitable earth is always higher as we  
go north1 so that southern countries are
 always much lower than northern4 ,for  
this reason1 he says1 the ,tigris and   
,euphrates1 which run towards the south1
 are much more rapid than the ,nile1    

which runs northwards4 ,at the extreme  
north there is a large conical mountain1
 behind which the sun1 moon1 planets1   
and comets all set4 ,these stars never  
pass below the earth1 they only pass    
behind this great mountain1 which hides 
them for a longer or shorter time from  
our observation4 ,according as the sun  
departs from or approaches the north1   
and consequently is lower or higher in  
the heavens1 he disappears at a point   
nearer to or further from the base of   
the mountain1 and so is behind it a     
longer or shorter time1 whence the      
inequality of the days and nights1 the  
vicissitudes of the seasons1 eclipses1  
and other phenomena4 ,this idea is not  
peculiar to ,cosmas1 for according to   
the ,indians1 the mountain of ,someirat 
is in the centre of the earth1 and when 
the sun appears to set1 he is really    
only hiding behind this mountain4  ,his 
idea1 too1 of the manner in which the   
motions are performed is strange1 but   
may be matched elsewhere4 ,all the stars

 are created1 he says1 to regulate the  
days and nights1 the months and the     
years1 and they move1 not at all by the 
motion of the heaven itself1 but by the 
action of certain divine ,beings1 or    
lampadophores4 ,god made the angels for 
,his service1 and ,he has charged some  
of them with the motion of the air1     
others with that of the sun1 or the     
moon1 or the other stars1 and others    
again with the collecting of clouds and 
preparing the rain4  ,similar to this   
were the ideas of other doctors of the  
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#da4--;,,explanation ,,of ,,sunrise4    
,church1 such as ,s4 ,hilary and        
,theodorus1 some of whom supposed that  
the angels carried the stars on their   
shoulders like the omophores of the     
,manichees2 others that they rolled them
 in front of them or drew them behind2  
while the ,jesuit ,riccioli1 who made   
astronomical observations1 remarks that 
each angel that pushes a star takes     
great care to observe what the others   

are doing1 so that the relative         
distances between the stars may always  
remain what they ought to be4 ,the      
,abbot ,trithemus gives the exact       
succession of the seven angels or       
spirits of the planets1 who take it in  
turns during a cycle of three hundred   
and fifty-four years to govern the      
celestial motions from the creation to  
the year #aebb4 ,the system thus        
introduced seems to have been spread    
abroad1 and to have lingered even into  
the nineteenth century among the ,arabs4
 ,a guide of that nationality hired at  
,cairo in #ahcj1 remarked to two        
travellers how the earth had been made  
square and covered with stones1 but the 
stones had been thrown into the four    
corners1 now called ,france1 ,italy1    
,england1 and ,russia1 while the centre1
 forming a circle round ,mount ,sinai1  
had been given to the ,arabians4        
,alongside of this system of the square 
was another equally curious--that of the
 egg4 ,its author was the famous        

,venerable ,bede1 one of the most       
enlightened men of his time1 who was    
educated at the ,university of ,armagh1 
which produced ,alfred and ,alcuin4 ,he 
says3 ,the earth is an element placed in
 the middle of the world1 as the yolk is
 in the middle of an egg2 around it is  
the water1 like the white surrounding   
the yolk2 outside that is the air1 like 
the membrane of the egg2 and round all  
is the fire which closes it in as the   
shell does4 ,the earth being thus in the
 centre receives every weight upon      
itself1 and though by its nature it is  
cold and dry in its different parts1 it 
acquires accidentally different         
qualities2 for the portion which is     
exposed to the torrid action of the air 
is burnt by the sun1 and is             
uninhabitable2 its two extremities are  
too cold to be inhabited1 but the       
portion that lies in the temperate      
region of the atmosphere is habitable4  
,the ocean1 which surrounds it by its   
waves as far as the horizon1 divides it 

into two parts1 the upper of which is   
inhabited by us1 while the lower is     
inhabited by our antipodes2 although not
 one of them can come to us1 nor one of 
us to them4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#db4--,,the ,,earth ,,as ,,an ,,egg4    
,this last sentence shows that however  
far he may have been from the truth1 he 
did not1 like so many of his            
contemporaries1 stumble over the idea of
 up and down in the universe1 and so    
consider the notion of antipodes absurd4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,the     
,,earth ,,as ,a ,,floating ,,egg4  ,a   
great number of the maps of the world of
 the period followed this idea1 and drew
 the world in the shape of an egg at    
rest4 ,it was broached1 however1 in     
another form by ,edrisi1 an ,arabian    
geographer of the eleventh century1 who1
 with many others1 considered the earth 
to be like an egg with one half plunged 
into the water4 ,the regularity of the  
surface is only interrupted by valleys  
and mountains4 ,he adopted the system of

 the ancients1 who supposed that the    
torrid zone was uninhabited4 ,according 
to him the known world only forms a     
single half of the egg1 the greater part
 of the water belonging to the          
surrounding ocean1 in the midst of which
 earth floats like an egg in a basin4   
,several artists and map-makers adopted 
this theory in the geographical         
representations1 and so1 whether in this
 way or the last1 the egg has had the   
privilege of representing the form of   
the earth for nearly a thousand years4  
,the celebrated ,raban ,maur1 of        
,mayence1 composed in the ninth century 
a treatise1 entitled ,de ,universo1     
divided into twenty-two books4 ,it is a 
kind of encyclopaedia1 in which he gives
 an abridged view of all the sciences4  
,according to his cosmographic system   
the earth is in the form of a wheel1 and
 is placed in the middle of the         
universe1 being surrounded by the ocean2
 on the north it is bounded by the      
,caucasus1 which he supposes to be      

mountains of gold1 which no one can     
reach because of dragons1 and griffins1 
and men of monstrous shape that dwell   
there4 ,he also places ,jerusalem in the
 centre of the earth4  ,the treatise of 
,honorus1 entitled ,imago ,mundi1 and   
many other authors of the same kind1    
represent1 #ast1 the terrestrial        
paradise in the most easterly portion of
 the world1 in a locality inaccessible  
to man2 #bnd1 the four rivers which had 
their sources in ,paradise2 #crd1 the   
torrid zone1 uninhabited2 #dth1         
fantastic islands1 transformed from the 
,atlantis into ,antillia4               
,illustration3 ,,fig #dd4--;,,eighth    
,,century ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,world4  ,in
 a manuscript commentary on the         
,apocalypse1 which is in the library of 
,turin1 is a very curious chart1        
referred to the tenth1 but belonging    
possibly to the eighth century4 ,it     
represents the earth as a circular      
planisphere4 ,the four sides of the     
earth are each accompanied by a figure  

of a wind1 as a horse on a bellows1 from
 which air is poured out1 as well as    
from a shell in his mouth4 ,above1 or to
 the east1 are ,adam1 and ,eve with the 
serpent4 ,to their right is ,asia with  
two very elevated mountains--,cappadocia
 and ,caucasus4 ,from thence comes the  
river ,eusis1 and the sea into which it 
falls forms an arm of the ocean which   
surrounds the earth4 ,this arm joins the
 ,mediterranean1 and separates ,europe  
from ,asia4 ,towards the middle is      
,jerusalem1 with two curious arms of the
 sea running past it2 while to the south
 there is a long and straight sea in an 
east and west direction4 ,the various   
islands of the ,mediterranean are put in
 a square patch1 and ,rome1 ,france1 and
 ,germany are indicated1 while ,thula1  
,britannia1 and ,scotia are marked as   
islands in the north-west of the ocean  
that surrounds the whole world4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,,tenth     
,,century ,,maps4  ,we figure below two 
very curious maps of the world of the   

tenth century--one of which is round1   
the other square4 ,the first is divided 
into three triangles2 that of the east1 
or ,asia1 is marked with the name of    
,shem2 that of the north1 or ,europe1   
with that of ,japhet2 that of the south1
 or ,africa1 with that of ,cham4 ,the   
second is also divided between the three
 sons of ,noah2 the ocean surrounds it1 
the ,mediterranean forms the upright    
portion of a cross of water which       
divides the ,adamic world4  ,omons1 the 
author of a geographical poem entitled  
,the ,image of the ,world1 composed in  
#abfe1 who was called the ,lucretius of 
the thirteenth century1 was not more    
advanced than the cosmographers of the  
former centuries of which we have       
hitherto spoken4 ,the cosmographical    
part of his poem is borrowed from the   
system of ,pythagoras and the ,venerable
 ,bede4 ,he maintains that the earth is 
enveloped in the heavens1 as the yoke in
 the white of an egg1 and that it is in 
the middle as the centre is within the  

circle1 and he speaks like ,pythagoras  
of the harmony of the celestial spheres4
  ,omons supposed also that in his time 
the terrestrial paradise was still      
existing in the east1 with its tree of  
life1 its four rivers1 and its angel    
with a flaming sword4 ,he appears to    
have confounded ,hecla with the         
purgatory of ,st4 ,patrick1 and he      
places the latter in ,iceland1 saying   
that it never ceases to burn4 ,the      
volcanoes were only1 according to him1  
the breathing places or mouths of the   
infernal regions4 ,the latter he placed 
with other cosmographers in the centre  
of the earth4  ,another author1         
,nicephorus ,blemmyde1 a monk who lived 
during the same century1 composed three 
cosmographical works1 among them the    
following3 ,on the ,heavens and the     
,earth1 ,on the ,sun and ,moon1 the     
,stars1 and ,times and ,days4 ,according
 to his system the earth is flat1 and he
 adopts the ,homeric theory of the ocean
 surrounding the world1 and that of the 

seven climates4  ,nicolas of ,oresmus1 a
 celebrated cosmographer of the         
fourteenth century1 although his        
celebrity as a mathematician attracted  
the attention of ,king ,john of ,france1
 who made him tutor to his son ,charles 
,v41 was not wiser than those we have   
enumerated above4 ,he composed among    
other works a ,treatise on the ,sphere4 
,he rejected the theory of an           
antichthonal continent as contrary to   
the faith4 ,a map of the world1 prepared
 by him about the year #acgg1 represents
 the earth as round1 with one hemisphere
 only inhabited1 the other1 or lower    
one1 being plunged in the water4 ,he    
seems to have been led by various       
borrowed ideas1 as1 for instance1       
theological ones1 such as the statement 
in the ,psalms that ,god had founded the
 earth upon the waters1 and ,grecian    
ones borrowed from the school of        
,thales1 and the theories of the        
,arabian geographers4 ,in fact we have  
seen that ,edrisi thought that half of  

the earth was in the water1 and         
,aboulfeda thought the same4 ,the earth 
was placed by ,nicolas in the centre of 
the universe1 which he represented by   
painting the sky blue1 and dotting it   
over with stars in gold4  ,leonardo     
,dati1 who composed a geographical poem 
entitled ,della ,spera1 during this     
century1 advanced no further4 ,a        
coloured planisphere showed the earth in
 the centre of the universe surrounded  
by the ocean1 then the air1 then the    
circles of the planets after the        
,ptolemaic system1 and in another       
representation of the same kind he      
figures the infernal regions in the     
centre of the earth1 and gives its      
diameter as seven thousand miles4 ,he   
proves himself not to have known one    
half of the globe by his statement of   
the shape of the earth--that it is like 
a ,t inside an ,o4 ,this is a comparison
 given in many maps of the world in the 
middle ages1 the mean parallel being    
about the #cfth degree of north         

latitude1 that is to say at the ,straits
 of ,gibraltar2 the ,mediterranean is   
thus placed so as to divide the earth   
into two equal parts4  ,john ,beauvau1  
,bishop of ,angiers under ,louis ,,xl1  
expresses his ideas as follows3--  ,the 
earth is situated and rests in the      
middle of the firmament1 as the centre  
or point is in the middle of a circle4  
,of the whole earth mentioned above only
 one quarter is inhabited4 ,the earth is
 divided into four parts1 as an apple is
 divided through the centre by cutting  
it lengthways and across4 ,if one part  
of such an apple is taken and peeled1   
and the peel is spread out over anything
 flat1 such as the palm of the hand1    
then it resembles the habitable earth1  
one side of which is called the east1   
and the other the west4  ,the ,arabians 
adopted not only the ideas of the       
ancients1 but also the fundamental      
notions of the cosmographical system of 
the ,greeks4 ,some of them1 as ,bakouy1 
regarded the earth as a flat surface1   

like a table1 others as a ball1 of which
 one half is cut off1 others as a       
complete revolving ball1 and others that
 it was hollow within4 ,others again    
went as far as to say that there were   
several suns and moons for the several  
parts of the earth4  ,in a map1         
preserved in the library at ,cambridge1 
by ,henry1 ,canon of ,st4 ,marie of     
,mayence1 the form of the world is given
 after ,herodotus4 ,the four cardinal   
points are indicated1 and the           
orientation is that of nearly all the   
cartographic monuments of the middle    
ages1 namely1 the east at the top of the
 map4 ,the four cardinal points are four
 angels1 one foot placed on the disc of 
the earth2 the colours of their         
vestments are symbolical4 ,the angel    
placed at the ,boreal extremity of the  
earth1 or to the north of the           
,scythians1 points with his finger to   
people enclosed in the ramparts of ,gog 
and ,magog1 gens immunda as the legend  
says4 ,in his left hand he holds a die  

to indicate1 no doubt1 that there are   
shut up the ,jews who cast lots for the 
clothes of ,christ4 ,his vestments are  
green1 his mantle and his wings are red4
 ,the angel placed to the left of       
,paradise has a green mantle and wings1 
and red vestments4 ,in his left hand he 
holds a kind of palm1 and by the right  
he seems to mark the way to ,paradise4  
,the position of the other angels placed
 at the west of the world is different4 
,they seem occupied in stopping the     
passage beyond the ,columns 7that is1   
the entrance to the ,atlantic ,ocean74  
,all of them have golden aureolas4 ,the 
surrounding ocean is painted of a clear 
green4  ,another remarkable map of the  
world is that of ,andrea ,bianco4 ,in it
 we see ,eden at the top1 which         
represents the east1 and the four rivers
 are running out of it4 ,much of ,europe
 is indicated1 including ,spain1 ,paris1
 ,sweden1 ,norway1 ,ireland1 which are  
named1 ,england1 ,iceland1 ,spitzbergen1
 c41 which are not named4 ,the portion  

round the ,north ,pole to the left is   
indicated as cold beneath the ,pole     
star4 ,in these maps the systematic     
theories of the ancient geographers seem
 mixed with the doctrines of the        
,fathers of the ,church4 ,they place    
generally in the ,red ,sea some mark    
denoting the passage of the ,hebrews1   
the terrestrial paradise at the extreme 
east1 and ,jerusalem in the centre4 ,the
 towns are figured often by edifices1 as
 in the list of ,theodosius1 but without
 any regard to their respective         
positions4 ,each town is ordinarily     
represented by two towers1 but the      
principal ones are distinguished by a   
little wall that appears between these  
two towers1 on which are painted several
 windows1 or else they may be known by  
the size of the edifices4 ,st4 ,james of
 ,compostella in ,gallicia and ,rome are
 represented by edifices of considerable
 size1 as are ,nazareth1 ,troy1         
,antioch1 ,damascus1 ,babylon1 and      
,nineveh4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        

#df4--,,the ,,map ,,of ,,andrea         
,,bianco4  ,one of the most remarkable  
monuments of the geography of the last  
centuries of the middle ages is the map 
in ,hereford ,cathedral1 by ,richard of 
,haldingham1 not only on account of its 
numerous legends1 but because of its    
large dimensions1 being several square  
yards in area4  ,on the upper part of   
this map is represented the ,last       
,judgment2 ,jesus ,christ1 with raised  
arms1 holding in ,his hands a scroll    
with these words1 ,ecce testimonium     
meum4 ,at ,his side two angels carry in 
their hands the instruments of ,his     
passion4 ,on the right hand stands an   
angel with a trumpet to his mouth1 out  
of which come these words1 ,levez si    
vendres vous par4 ,an angel brings      
forward a bishop by the hand1 behind    
whom is a king1 followed by other       
personages2 the angel introduces them by
 a door formed of two columns1 which    
seems to serve as an entrance to an     
edifice4  ,the ,virgin is kneeling at   

the feet1 of her ,son4 ,behind her is   
another woman kneeling1 who holds a     
crown1 which she seems ready to place on
 the head of the ,mother of ,christ1 and
 by the side of the woman is a kneeling 
angel1 who appears to be supporting the 
maternal intercessor4 ,the ,virgin      
uncovers her breast and pronounces the  
words of a scroll which is held by an   
angel kneeling in front of her1 ,vei i  
b' fiz mon piz de deuiz lauele chare    
preistes--,eles mame lettes dont leit de
 ,virgin qui estes--,syes merci de tous 
si com nos mesmes deistes4--,r 444 em   
444 ont servi kaut sauveresse me        
feistes4  ,to the left another angel1   
also with a trumpet to his mouth1 gives 
out the following words1 which are      
written on a scroll1 ,leves si alles all
 fu de enfer estable4 ,a gate1 drawn    
like that of the entrance1 represents   
probably the passage by which those must
 go out who are condemned to eternal    
pains4 ,in fact the devil is seen       
dragging after him a crowd of men1 who  

are tied by a cord which he holds in his
 hand4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4           
#dg4--;,,from ,,the ,,map ,,in          
,,hereford ,,cathedral4  ,the map itself
 commences at its upper part1 that is1  
the east1 by the terrestrial paradise4  
,it is a circle1 in the centre of which 
is represented the tree of the knowledge
 of good and evil4 ,adam and ,eve are   
there in company with the serpent that  
beguiled them4 ,the four legendary      
rivers come out of the base of the tree1
 and they are seen below crossing the   
map4 ,outside ,eden the flight of the   
first couple1 and the angel that drove  
them away1 are represented4 ,at this    
extreme eastern portion is the region of
 giants with the heads of beasts4       
,there1 too1 is seen the first human    
habitation1 or town1 built by ,enoch4   
,below appears the ,tower of ,babel4    
,near this are two men seated on a hill 
close to the river ,jaxartes2 one of    
them is eating a human leg and the other
 an arm1 which the legend explains      

thus3--,here live the ,essedons1 whose  
custom it is to sing at the funerals of 
their parents2 they tear the corpses    
with their teeth1 and prepare their food
 with these fragments of flesh1 mixed   
with that of animals4 ,in their opinion 
it is more honourable to the dead to be 
enclosed in the bodies of their         
relations than in those of worms4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,,from     
,,the ,,map ,,in ,,hereford ,,cathedral4
    ,tower of ,babel4   ,essedons4      
,dragons4   ,pigmies4   ,the ,monoceros4
   ,the ,mantichore4   ,a ,sphinx4      
,the ,king of the ,cyclops4   ,blemmye4 
,parasol lip4   ,monocle4  ,below are   
seen dragons and pigmies1 always to the 
east of ,asia1 and a little further away
 in the midst of a strange country1 the 
,king of the ,cyclops4  ,this           
extraordinary geography shows us in     
,india the ,mantichore1 who has a triple
 range of teeth1 the face of a man1 blue
 eyes1 the red colour of blood1 the body
 of a lion1 and the tail of a scorpion2 

its voice is a whistle4  ,on the north  
of the ,ganges is represented a man with
 one leg1 shading his head with his     
foot1 which is explained by the         
following legend3--,in ,india dwell the 
,monocles1 who have only one leg1 but   
who nevertheless move with surprising   
velocity2 when they wish to protect     
themselves from the heat of the sun they
 make a shadow with the sole of their   
foot1 which is very large4  ,the        
,blemmys have their mouth and eyes in   
their chest2 others have their mouths   
and eyes on their shoulders4 ,the       
,parvini are ,ethiopians that have four 
eyes4  ,to the east of ,syene is a man  
seated who is covering his head with his
 lip1 people who with their prominent   
lip shade their faces from the sun4     
,above is drawn a little sun1 with the  
word sol4 ,then comes an animal of human
 form1 having the feet of a horse and   
the head and beak of a bird2 he rests on
 a stick1 and the legend tells us it is 
a satyr2 the fauns1 half men and half   

horses2 the cynocephales--men with the  
head of a dog2 and the cyanthropes--dogs
 with the heads of men4 ,the sphinx has 
the wings of a bird1 the tail of a      
serpent1 the head of a woman4 ,it is    
placed in the midst of the ,cordilleras1
 which are joined to a great chain of   
mountains4 ,here lastly is seen the     
monoceros1 a terrible animal2 but here  
is the marvel3 ,when one shows to this  
monoceros a young girl1 who1 when the   
animal approaches1 uncovers her breast1 
the monster1 forgetting his ferocity1   
lays his head there1 and when he is     
asleep may be taken defenceless4  ,near 
to the lake ,meotides is a man clothed  
in ,oriental style1 with a hat that     
terminates in a point1 and holding by   
the bridle a horse whose harness is a   
human skin1 and which is explained thus 
by the ,latin legend3 ,here live the    
griffins1 very wicked men1 for among    
other crimes they proceed so far as to  
make clothes for themselves and their   
horses out of the skins of their        

enemies4  ,more to the south is a large 
bird1 the ostrich2 according to the     
legend1 the ostrich has the head of a   
goose1 the body of a crane1 the feet of 
a calf2 it eats iron4  ,not far from the
 ,riphean ,mountains two men with long  
tunics and round bonnets are represented
 in the attitude of fighting2 one       
brandishes a sword1 the other a kind of 
club1 and the legend tells us1 ,the     
customs of the people of the interior of
 ,scythia are somewhat wild2 they       
inhabit caves2 they drink the blood of  
the slain by sucking their wounds2 they 
pride themselves on the number of people
 they have slain--not to have slain any 
one in combat is reckoned disgraceful4  
,near the river that empties itself into
 the ,caspian ,sea it is written3 ,this 
river comes from the infernal regions2  
it enters the sea after having descended
 from mountains covered with wood1 and  
it is there1 they say1 that the mouth of
 hell opens4  ,to the south of this     
river1 and to the north of ,hyrcania1 is

 represented a monster having the body  
of a man1 the head1 tail1 and feet of a 
bull3 this is the ,minotaur4 ,further on
 are the mountains of ,armenia1 and the 
ark of ,noah on one of its plateaux4    
,here1 too1 is seen a large tiger1 and  
we read3 ,the tiger1 when he sees that  
he has been deprived of his young1      
pursues the ravisher precipitately2 but 
the latter1 hastening away on his swift 
horse1 throws a mirror to him and is    
safe4  ,elsewhere appears ,lot's wife   
changed into a pillar of salt2 the lynx 
who can see through a stone wall2 the   
river ,lethe2 so called because all who 
drink of it forget everything4          
,numerous other details might be        
mentioned1 but enough has been said to  
show the curious nature and exceeding   
interest of this map1 in which matters  
of observation and imagination are      
strangely mixed4 ,another very curious  
geographical document of that epoch is  
the map of the world of the ,grandes    
,chroniques de ,saint-,denis4 ,this     

belongs to the fourteenth century4 ,the 
capitals here too are represented by    
edifices4 ,the ,mediterranean is a      
vertical canal1 which goes from the     
,columns of ,hercules to ,jerusalem4    
,the ,caspian ,sea communicates with it 
to the north1 and the ,red ,sea to the  
south-east1 by the ,nile4 ,it preserves 
the same position for ,paradise and for 
the land of ,gog and ,magog that we have
 seen before4 ,the geography of ,europe 
is very defective4 ,britannia and       
,anglia figure as two separate islands1 
being represented off the west coast of 
,spain1 with ,allemania and ,germania1  
also two distinct countries1 to the     
north4 ,the ocean is represented as     
round the whole1 and the various points 
of the compass are represented by       
different kinds of winds on the outside4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4                 
#di4--;,,cosmography ,,of ,,st4 ,,denis4
  ,this was the general style of the    
maps of the world at that period1 as we 
may perceive from the various           

illustrations we have been able to give1
 and it curiously initiates us into the 
mediaeval ideas4 ,sometimes they are    
surrounded by laughable figures of the  
winds with inflated cheeks1 sometimes   
there are drawn light children of ,eolus
 seated on leathern bottles1 rotating   
the liquid within2 at other times1      
saints1 angels1 ,adam and ,eve1 or other
 people1 adorn the circumference of the 
map4 ,within are shown a profusion of   
animals1 trees1 populations1 monuments1 
tents1 draperies1 and monarchs seated on
 their thrones--an idea which was       
useful1 no doubt1 and which gave the    
reader some knowledge of the local      
riches1 the ethnography1 the local forms
 of government and of architecture in   
the various countries represented2 but  
the drawings were for the most part     
childish1 and more fantastic than real4 
,the language1 too1 in which they were  
written was as mixed as the drawings2 no
 regularity was preserved in the        
orthography of a name1 which on the same

 map may be written in ten different    
ways1 being expressed in barbarous      
,latin1 ,roman1 or ,old ,french1        
,catalan1 ,italian1 ,castilian1 or      
,portuguese6  ,during the same epoch    
other forms of maps in less detail and  
of smaller size show the characters that
 we have seen in the maps of earlier    
centuries4  ,marco ,polo1 the traveller1
 at the end of the fourteenth century1  
has preserved in his writings all the   
ancient traditions1 and united them in a
 singular manner with the results of his
 own observations4 ,he had not seen     
,paradise1 but he had seen the ark of   
,noah resting on the top of ,ararat4    
,his map of the world1 preserved in the 
library at ,stockholm1 is oval1 and     
represents two continents4  ,in that    
which we inhabit1 the only seas         
indicated are the ,mediterranean and the
 ,black ,sea4 ,asia appears at the east1
 ,europe to the north1 and ,africa to   
the south4 ,the other continent to the  
south of the equator1 which is not      

marked1 is ,antichthonia4  ,in a map of 
the world engraved on a medal of the    
fifteenth century during the reign of   
,charles ,v4 there is still a           
reminiscence of the ideas of the        
concealed earth and ,meropides1 as      
described by ,theopompus4 ,we see the   
winds as cherubim2 ,europe more         
accurately represented than usual2 but  
,africa still unknown1 and a second     
continent1 called ,brumae1 instead of   
,antichthonia1 with imaginary details   
upon it4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#ej--,,the ,,map ,,of ,,marco ,,polo4   
,if such were the ideas entertained     
amongst the most enlightened nations1   
what may we expect among those who were 
less advanced8 ,it would take us too    
long to describe all that more ,eastern 
nations have done upon this point since 
the commencement of our present era1 but
 we may give an example or two from the 
,arabians4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#ea4--,,map ,,on ,a ,,medal ,,of        
,,charles ,v4  ,in the ancient ,arabian 

chronicle of ,tabari is a system founded
 on the earth being the solid foundation
 of all things2 we read3 ,the prophet   
says1 the all-powerful and inimitable   
,deity has created the mountain of ,kaf 
round about the earth2 it has been      
called the foundation pile of the earth1
 as it is said in the ,koran1 ',the     
mountains are the piles4' ,this world is
 in the midst of the mountain of ,kaf1  
just as the finger is in the midst of   
the ring4 ,this mountain is emerald1 and
 blue in colour2 no man can go to it1   
because he would have to pass four      
months in darkness to do so4 ,there is  
in that mountain neither sun1 nor moon1 
nor stars2 it is so blue that the azure 
colour you see in the heavens comes from
 the brilliancy of the mountain of ,kaf1
 which is reflected in the sky4 ,if this
 were not so the sky would not be blue4 
,all the mountains that you see are     
supported by ,kaf2 if it did not exist1 
all the earth would be in a continual   
tremble1 and not a creature could live  

upon its surface4 ,the heavens rest upon
 it like a tent4  ,another ,arabian     
author1 ,benakaty1 writing in #acag1    
says3 ,know that the earth has the form 
of a globe suspended in the centre of   
the heavens4 ,it is divided by the two  
great circles of the meridian and       
equator1 which cut each other at light  
angles1 into four equal parts1 namely1  
those of the north-west1 north-east1    
south-west1 and south-east4 ,the        
inhabited portion of the earth is       
situated in the southern hemisphere1 of 
which one half is inhabited4            
,ibn-,wardy1 who lived in the same      
century1 adopted the idea of the ocean  
surrounding all the earth1 and said we  
knew neither its depth nor its extent4  
,this ocean was also acknowledged by the
 author of the ,kaf mountain2 he says it
 lies between the earth and that        
mountain1 and calls it ,bahr-al-,mohith4
  ,the end of the fifteenth century saw 
the dawn of a new era in knowledge and  
science4 ,the discoveries of ,columbus  

changed entirely the aspect of matters1 
the imagination was excited to fresh    
enterprises1 and the hardihood of the   
adventurers through good or bad success 
was such as want of liberty could not   
destroy4  ,nevertheless1 as we have     
seen1 ,columbus imagined the earth to   
have the shape of a pear4 ,not that he  
obtained this idea from his own         
observations1 but rather retained it as 
a relic of past traditions4 ,it is      
probable that it really dates from the  
seventh century4 ,we may read in several
 cosmographical manuscripts of that     
epoch1 that the earth has the form of a 
cone or a top1 its surface rising from  
south to north4 ,these ideas were       
considerably spread by the compilations 
of ,john of ,beauvais in #adgi1 from    
whom probably ,columbus derived his     
notion4  ,although ,columbus is         
generally and rightly known as the      
discoverer of the ,new ,world1 a very   
curious suit was brought by ,pinzon     
against his heirs in #aead4 ,pinzon     

pretended that the discovery was due to 
him alone1 as ,columbus had only        
followed his advice in making it4       
,pinzon told the admiral himself that   
the required route was intimated by an  
inspiration1 or revelation4 ,the truth  
was that this revelation was due to a   
flock of parrots1 flying in the evening 
towards the south-west1 which ,pinzon   
concluded must be going in the direction
 of an invisible coast to pass the night
 in the bushes4 ,certainly the          
consequences of ,columbus resisting the 
advice of ,pinzon would have been most  
remarkable2 for had he continued to sail
 due west he would have been caught by  
the ,gulf ,stream and carried to        
,florida1 or possibly to ,virginia1 and 
in this case the ,united ,states would  
have received a ,spanish and ,catholic  
population1 instead of an ,english and  
,protestant one4  ,the discoveries of   
those days were often commemorated by   
the formation of heraldic devices for   
the authors of them1 and we have in this

 way some curious coats of arms on      
record4 ,that1 for instance1 of         
,sebastian ,cano was a globe1 with the  
legend1 ,primus circumdedisti me4 ,the  
arms given to ,columbus in #adic        
consisted of the first map of ,america1 
with a range of islands in a gulf4      
,charles ,v4 gave to ,diego of ,ordaz   
the figure of the ,peak of ,orizaba as  
his arms1 to commemorate his having     
ascended it2 and to the historian       
,oviedo1 who passed thirty-four years   
without interruption 7#aeac-dg7 in      
tropical ,america1 the four beautiful   
stars of the ,southern ,cross4  ,we have
 arrived at the close of our history of 
the attempts that preceded the actual   
discovery of the form and constitution  
of the globe2 since these were          
established our further progress has    
been in matters of detail4 ,there now   
remains briefly to notice the attempts  
at discovering the size of the earth on 
the supposition1 and afterwards         
certainty1 of its being a globe4  ,the  

earliest attempt at this was made by    
,eratosthenes1 #bdf years before our    
era1 and it was founded on the following
 reasoning4 ,the sun illuminates the    
bottom of pits at ,syene at the summer  
solstice2 on the same day1 instead of   
being vertical over the heads of the    
inhabitants of ,alexandria1 it is       
#g-a_/d degrees from the zenith4        
,seven-and-a-quarter degrees is the     
fiftieth part of an entire              
circumference2 and the distance between 
the two towns is five thousand stadia2  
hence the circumference of the earth is 
fifty times this distance1 or #bej      
thousand stadia4  ,a century before our 
era ,posidonius arrived at an analogous 
result by remarking that the star       
,canopus touched the horizon at ,rhodes 
when it was #g degrees #ab minutes above
 that of ,alexandria4  ,these           
measurements1 which1 though rough1 were 
ingenious1 were1 followed in the eighth 
century by similar ones by the ,arabian 
,caliph1 ,almamoun1 who did not greatly 

modify them4  ,the first men who        
actually went round the world were the  
crew of the ship under ,magellan1 who   
started to the west in #aebj2 he was    
slain by the ,philippine islanders in   
#aeba1 but his ship1 under his          
lieutenant1 ,sebastian ,cano1 returned  
by the east in #aebb4 ,the first attempt
 at the actual measurement of a part of 
the earth's surface along the meridian  
was made by ,fernel in #aebh4 ,his      
process was a singular1 but simple one1 
namely1 by counting the number of the   
turns made by the wheels of his carriage
 between ,paris and ,amiens4 ,he made   
the number #eg1jbj1 and accurate        
measurements of the distance many years 
after showed he had not made an error of
 more than four turns4  ,the astronomer 
,picard attempted it again under ,louis 
,,xiv4 by triangulation4  ,the ,french  
astronomers have always been forward in 
this inquiry1 and to them we owe the    
systematic attempts to arrive at a truer
 knowledge of the length of an arc of   

the meridian which were made in #agce-de
 in ,lapland and in ,peru2 and later    
under ,mechain and ,delambre1 by order  
of the ,national ,assembly1 for the     
basis of the metrical system4           
,observations of this kind have also    
been made by the ,english1 as at ,lough 
,foyle in ,ireland1 and in ,india4  ,the
 review which has here been made of the 
various ideas on what now seems so      
simple a matter cannot but impress us   
with the vast contrast there is between 
the wild attempts of the earlier        
philosophers and our modern             
affirmations4 ,what progress has been   
made in the last two thousand years6    
,and all of this is due to hard work4   
,the true revelation of nature is that  
which we form ourselves1 by our         
persevering efforts4 ,we now know that  
the earth is approximately spherical1   
but flattened by about #a_/cjj at the   
poles1 is three-quarters covered with   
water1 and enveloped everywhere by a    
light atmospheric mantle4 ,the distance 

from the centre of the earth to its     
surface is #c1ief miles1 its area is    
#aig million square miles1 its volume is
 #bef1jjj millions of cubic miles1 its  
weight is six thousand trillion tons4   
,so1 thanks to the bold measurements of 
its inhabitants1 we know as much about  
it as we are likely to know for a long  
time to come4     ,,chapter ,,xi4       
,,legendary ,,worlds ,,of ,,the ,,middle
 ,,ages4   ,the legends that were for so
 many ages prevalent in ,europe had     
their foundation in the attempt to make 
the accounts of ,scripture and the ideas
 and dogmas of the ,fathers of the      
,church fit into the few and            
insignificant facts that were known with
 respect to the earth1 and the system of
 which it forms a part1 and the far more
 numerous imaginations that were        
entertained about it4  ,we are therefore
 led on to examine some of these        
legends1 that we may appreciate how far 
a knowledge of astronomy will effect the
 eradication of errors and fantasies    

which1 under the aspect of truth1 have  
so long enslaved the people4 ,no doubt  
the authors of the legendary stories    
knew well enough their allegorical      
nature2 but those who received them     
supposed that they gave true indications
 of the nature of the earth and world1  
and therefore accepted them as facts4   
,some indeed considered that the whole  
physical constitution of the world was a
 scaffold or a model1 and that there was
 a real theological universe hidden     
beneath this semblance4 ,no one omitted 
from his system the spiritual heaven in 
which the angels and just men might     
spend their existence2 but in addition  
to this there were places whose reality 
was believed in1 but whose locality is  
more difficult to settle1 and which     
therefore were moved from one place to  
another by various writers1 viz41 the   
infernal regions1 purgatory1 and the    
terrestrial paradise4  ,we will here    
recount some of those legends1 which    
wielded sufficient sway over men's minds

 as to gain their belief in the         
veritable existence of the places       
described1 and in this way to influence 
their astronomical and cosmographical   
ideas4  ,and for the first we will      
descend to the infernal regions with    
,plutarch and ,thespesius4  ,this       
,thespesius relates his adventures in   
the other world4 ,having fallen         
head-first from an elevated place1 he   
found himself unwounded1 but was        
contused in such a way as to be         
insensible4 ,he was supposed to be dead1
 but1 after three days1 as they were    
about to bury him1 he came to life      
again4 ,in a few days he recovered his  
former powers of mind and body2 but made
 a marvellous change for the better in  
his life4  ,he said that at the moment  
that he lost consciousness he found     
himself like a sailor at the bottom of  
the sea2 but afterwards1 having         
recovered himself a little1 he was able 
to breathe perfectly1 and seeing only   
with the eyes of his soul1 he looked    

round on all that was about him4 ,he saw
 no longer the accustomed sights1 but   
stars of prodigious magnitude1 separated
 from each other by immense distances4  
,they were of dazzling brightness and   
splendid colour4 ,his soul1 carried like
 a vessel on the luminous ocean1 sailed 
along freely and smoothly1 and moved    
everywhere with rapidity4 ,passing over 
in silence a large number of the sights 
that met his eye1 he stated that the    
souls of the dead1 taking the form of   
bubbles of fire1 rise through the air1  
which opens a passage above them2 at    
last the bubbles1 breaking without      
noise1 let out the souls in a human form
 and of a smaller size1 and moving in   
different ways4 ,some1 rising with      
astonishing lightness1 mounted in a     
straight line2 others1 running round    
like a whipping-top1 went up and down by
 turns with a confused and irregular    
motion1 making small advance by long and
 painful efforts4 ,among this number he 
saw one of his parents1 whom he         

recognised with difficulty1 as she had  
died in his infancy2 but she approached 
him1 and said1 ,good day1 ,thespesius4  
,surprised to hear himself called by    
this name1 he told her that he was      
called ,arideus1 and not ,thespesius4   
,that was once your name1 she replied1  
but in future you will bear that of     
,thespesius1 for you are not dead1 only 
the intelligent part of your soul has   
come here by the particular will of the 
gods2 your other faculties are still    
united to your body1 which keeps them   
like an anchor4 ,the proof ,i will give 
you is that the souls of the dead do not
 cast any shadow1 and they cannot move  
their eyes4  ,further on1 in traversing 
a luminous region1 he heard1 as he was  
passing1 the shrill voice of a female   
speaking in verse1 who presided over the
 time ,thespesius should die4 ,his      
genius told him that it was the voice of
 the ,sibyl1 who1 turning on the orbit  
of the moon1 foretold the future4       
,thespesius would willingly have heard  

more1 but1 driven off by a rapid        
whirlwind1 he could make out but little 
of her predictions4 ,in another place he
 remarked several parallel lakes1 one   
filled with melted and boiling gold1    
another with lead colder than ice1 and a
 third with very rough iron4 ,they were 
kept by genii1 who1 armed with tongs    
like those used in forges1 plunged into 
these lakes1 and then withdrew by turns1
 the souls of those whom avarice or an  
insatiable cupidity had led into crime2 
after they had been plunged into the    
lake of gold1 where the fire made them  
red and transparent1 they were thrown   
into the lake of lead4 ,then1 frozen by 
the cold1 and made as hard as hail1 they
 were put into the lake of iron1 where  
they became horribly black4 ,broken and 
bruised on account of their hardness1   
they changed their form1 and passed once
 more into the lake of gold1 and        
suffered in these changes inexpressible 
pain4  ,in another place he saw the     
souls of those who had to return to life

 and be violently forced to take the    
form of all sorts of animals4 ,among the
 number he saw the soul of ,nero1 which 
had already suffered many torments1 and 
was bound with red-hot chains of iron4  
,the workmen were seizing him to give   
him the form of a viper1 under which he 
was destined to live1 after having      
devoured the womb that bore him4  ,the  
locality of these infernal regions was  
never exactly determined4 ,the ancients 
were divided upon the point4 ,in the    
poems of ,homer the infernal regions    
appear under two different forms3 thus1 
in the ,iliad1 it is a vast subterranean
 cavity2 while in the ,odyssey1 it is a 
distant and mysterious country at the   
extremity of the earth1 beyond the      
ocean1 in the neighbourhood of the      
,cimmerians4  ,the description which    
,homer gives of the infernal region     
proves that in his time the ,greeks     
imagined it to be a copy of the         
terrestrial world1 but one which had a  
special character4 ,according to the    

philosophers it was equally remote from 
all parts of the earth4 ,thus ,cicero1  
in order to show that it was of no      
consequence where one died1 said1       
wherever we die there is just as long a 
journey to be made to reach the infernal
 regions4  ,the poets fixed upon certain
 localities as the entrance to this     
dismal empire3 such was the river       
,lethe1 on the borders of the           
,scythians2 the cavern ,acherusia in    
,epirus1 the mouth of ,pluto1 in        
,laodicoea1 the cave of ,zenarus near   
,lacedaemon4  ,in the map of the world  
in the ,polychronicon of ,ranulphus     
,uygden1 now in the ,british ,museum1 it
 is stated3 ,the ,island of ,sicily was 
once a part of ,italy4 ,there is ,mount 
,etna1 containing the infernal regions  
and purgatory1 and it has ,scylla and   
,charybdis1 two whirlpools4  ,ulysses   
was said to reach the place of the dead 
by crossing the ocean to the ,cimmerian 
land1 ,a,eneas to have entered it by the
 ,lake of ,avernus4 ,xenophon says that 

,hercules went there by the peninsula of
 ,arechusiade4  ,much of this1 no doubt1
 depends on the exaggeration and        
misinterpretation of the accounts of    
voyagers2 as when the ,phoenicians      
related that1 after passing the ,columns
 of ,hercules1 to seek tin in ,thule and
 amber in the ,baltic1 they came1 at the
 extremity of the world1 to the         
,fortunate ,isles1 the abode of eternal 
spring1 and further on to the           
,hyperborean regions1 where a perpetual 
night enveloped the country--the        
imagination of the people developed from
 this the ,elysian fields1 as the places
 of delight in the lower regions1 having
 their own sun1 moon1 and stars1 and    
,tartarus1 a place of shades and        
desolation4  ,in every case1 however1   
both among pagans and ,christians1 the  
locality was somewhere in the centre of 
the earth4 ,the poets and philosophers  
of ,greece and ,rome made very detailed 
and circumstantial maps of the          
subterranean regions4 ,they enumerated  

its rivers1 its lakes1 and woods1 and   
mountains1 and the places where the     
,furies perpetually tormented the wicked
 souls who were condemned to eternal    
punishment4 ,these ideas passed         
naturally into the creeds of ,christians
 through the sect of the ,essenes1 of   
whom ,josephus writes as follows3--,they
 thought that the souls of the just go  
beyond the ocean to a place of repose   
and delight1 where they were troubled by
 no inconvenience1 no change of seasons4
 ,those of the wicked1 on the contrary1 
were relegated to places exposed to all 
the inclemencies of the weather1 and    
suffered eternal torments4 ,the         
,essenes1 adds the same author1 have    
similar ideas about these torments to   
those of the ,greeks about ,tartarus and
 the kingdom of ,pluto4 ,the greater    
part of the ,gnostic sects1 on the      
contrary1 considered the lower regions  
as simply a place of purgatory1 where   
the soul is purified by fire4  ,amongst 
all the writings of ,christian ages in  

which matters such as we are now passing
 in review are described1 there is one  
that stands out beyond all others as a  
masterpiece1 and that is the magnificent
 poem of ,dante1 his ,divine ,comedy1   
wherein he described the infernal       
regions as they presented themselves to 
his lively and fertile imagination4 ,we 
have in it a picture of mediaeval ideas1
 painted for us in indelible lines1     
before the remembrance of them was lost 
in the past4 ,the poem is at once a tomb
 and a cradle--the tomb of a world that 
was passing1 the cradle of the world    
that was to come3 a portico between two 
temples1 that of the past and that of   
the future4 ,in it are deposited the    
traditions1 the ideas1 the sciences of  
the past1 as the ,egyptians deposited   
their kings and symbolic gods in the    
sepulchres of ,thebes and ,memphis4 ,the
 future brings into it its aspirations  
and its germs enveloped in the swaddling
 clothes of a rising language and a     
splendid poetry--a mysterious infant    

that is nourished by the two teats of   
sacred tradition and profane fiction1   
,moses and ,st4 ,paul1 ,homer and       
,virgil4  ,the theology of ,dante1      
strictly orthodox1 was that of ,st4     
,thomas and the other doctors of the    
,church4 ,natural philosophy1 properly  
so called1 was not yet in existence4 ,in
 astronomy1 ,ptolemy reigned supreme1   
and in the explanation of celestial     
phenomena no one dreamt or dared to     
dream of departing in any way from the  
traditionally sacred system4  ,in those 
days astronomy was indissolubly linked  
with a complete series of philosophical 
and theological ideas1 and included the 
physics of the world1 the science of    
life in every being1 of their           
organisation1 and the causes on which   
depended the aptitudes1 inclinations1   
and even in part the actions1 of men1   
the destinies of individuals1 and the   
events of history4 ,in this theological1
 astronomical1 and terrestrial universe 
everything emanated from ,god2 ,he had  

created everything1 and the creation    
embraced two orders of beings1 the      
immaterial and the corporeal4  ,the pure
 spirits composed the nine choirs of the
 celestial hierarchy4 ,like so many     
circles1 they were ranged round a fixed 
point1 the ,eternal ,being1 in an order 
determined by their relative perfection4
 ,first the seraphim1 then the cherubim1
 and afterwards the simple angels4      
,those of the first circle received     
immediately from the central point the  
light and the virtue which they         
communicated to those of the second2 and
 so on from circle to circle1 like      
mirrors which reflect1 with an          
ever-lessening light1 the brilliancy of 
a single luminous point4 ,the nine      
choirs1 supported by ,love1 turned      
without ceasing round their centre in   
larger and larger circles according to  
their distance2 and it was by their     
means that the motion and the divine    
inflatus was communicated to the        
material creation4  ,this latter had in 

the upper part of it the empyreal1 or   
heaven of pure light4 ,below that1 was  
the ,primum mobile1 the greatest body in
 the heavens1 as ,dante calls it1       
because it surrounds all the rest of the
 circle1 and bounds the material world4 
,then came the heaven of the fixed      
stars2 then1 continuing to descend1 the 
heavens of ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 ,mars1 the
 sun1 ,venus1 ,mercury1 the moon1 and   
lastly1 the earth1 whose solid and      
compact nucleus is surrounded by the    
spheres of water1 air1 and fire4  ,as   
the choirs of angels turn about a fixed 
point1 so the nine material circles turn
 also about another fixed point1 and are
 moved by the pure spirits4  ,let us now
 descend to the geography of the        
interior of the earth4 ,within the earth
 is a large cone1 whose layers are the  
frightful abodes of the condemned1 and  
which ends in the centre1 where the     
divine ,justice keeps bound up to his   
chest in ice the prince of the          
rebellious angels1 the emperor of the   

kingdom of woe4 ,such are the infernal  
regions which ,dante describes according
 to ideas generally admitted in the     
middle ages4  ,the form of the infernal 
regions was that of a funnel or reversed
 cone4 ,all its circles were concentric1
 and continually diminished2 the        
principal ones were nine in number4     
,virgil also admitted nine              
divisions--three times three1 a number  
sacred par excellence4 ,the seventh1    
eighth1 and ninth circles were divided  
into several regions2 and the space     
between the entrance to the infernal    
regions and the river ,acheron1 where   
the resting-place of the damned really  
commenced1 was divided into two parts4  
,dante1 guided by ,virgil1 traversed all
 these circles4  ,it was in #acjj that  
the poet1 in the midst of the course of 
life1 at the age of thirty-five1 passed 
in spirit through the three regions of  
the dead4 ,lost in a lonely1 wild1 and  
dismal forest1 he reached the base of a 
hill1 which he attempted to climb4 ,but 

three animals1 a panther1 a lion1 and a 
thin and famished wolf1 prevented his   
passage2 so1 returning again where the  
sun was powerless1 into the shades of   
the depths of the valley1 there met him 
a shadow of the dead4 ,this human form1 
whom a long silence had deprived of     
speech1 was ,virgil1 who was sent to    
guide and succour him by a celestial    
dame1 ,beatrice1 the object of his love1
 who was at the same time a real and a  
mystically ideal being4  ,virgil and    
,dante arrived at the gate of the       
infernal regions2 they read the terrible
 inscription placed over the gate2 they 
entered and found first those unhappy   
souls who had lived without virtue and  
without vice4 ,they reached the banks of
 ,acheron and saw ,charon1 who carried  
over the souls in his bark to the other 
side2 and ,dante was surprised by a     
profound sleep4 ,he woke beyond the     
river1 and he descended into the ,limbo 
which is the first circle of the        
infernal regions4 ,he found there the   

souls of those who had died without     
baptism1 or who had been indifferent to 
religion4  ,they descended next to the  
second circle1 where ,minos1 the judge  
of those below1 is enthroned4 ,here the 
luxurious are punished4 ,the poet here  
met with ,francesca of ,rimini and      
,paul1 her friend4 ,he completely       
recovered the use of his senses1 and    
passed through the third circle1 where  
the gourmands are punished4 ,in the     
fourth he found ,plutus1 who guards it4 
,here are tormented the prodigal and the
 avaricious4 ,in the fifth are punished 
those who yield to anger4 ,dante and    
,virgil there saw a bark approaching1   
conducted by ,phlegias2 they entered it1
 crossed a river1 and arrived thus at   
the base of the red-hot iron walls of   
the infernal town of ,dite4 ,the demons 
that guarded the gates refused them     
admittance1 but an angel opened them1   
and the two travellers there saw the    
heretics that were enclosed in tombs    
surrounded by flames4  ,the travellers  

then visited the circles of violence1   
fraud1 and usury1 when they came to a   
river of blood guarded by a troop of    
centaurs2 suddenly they saw coming to   
them ,geryon1 who represents fraud1 and 
this beast took them behind him to carry
 them across the rest of the infernal   
space4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4           
#eb4--;,,dante',s ,,infernal ,,regions4 
,the eighth circle was divided into ten 
valleys1 comprising3 the flatterers2 the
 simoniacal2 the astrologers2 the       
sorcerers2 the false judges2 the        
hypocrites who walked about clothed with
 heavy leaden garments2 the thieves1    
eternally stung by venomous serpents2   
the heresiarchs2 the charlatans1 and the
 forgers4  ,at last the poets descended 
into the ninth circle1 divided into four
 regions1 where are punished four kinds 
of traitors4 ,here is recounted the     
admirable episode of ,count ,ugolin4 ,in
 the last region1 called the region of  
,judas1 ,,lucifer is enchained4 ,there  
is the centre of the earth1 and ,dante1 

hearing the noise of a little brook1    
reascended to the other hemisphere1 on  
the surface of which he found1          
surrounded by the ,southern ,ocean1 the 
mountain of ,purgatory4  ,such was the  
famous ,inferno of ,dante4  ,not only   
was the geography of the infernal       
regions attempted in the middle ages1   
but even their size4 ,dexelius          
calculated that the number of the damned
 was a hundred millions1 and that their 
abode need not measure more than one    
,german mile in every direction4 ,cyrano
 of ,bergerac amusingly said that it was
 the damned that kept turning the earth1
 by hanging on the ceiling like bats1   
and trying to get away4  ,in #ageg an   
,english clergyman1 ,dr4 ,swinden1      
published a book entitled1 ,researches  
on the ,nature of the ,fire of ,hell and
 the ,place where it is situated4 ,he   
places it in the sun4 ,according to him 
the ,christians of the first century had
 placed it beneath the earth on account 
of a false interpretation of the descent

 of ,jesus into hell after his          
crucifixion1 and by false ideas of      
cosmography4 ,he attempted to show1     
#ast1 that the terrestrial globe is too 
small to contain even the angels that   
fell from heaven after their battle2    
#bnd1 that the fire of hell is real1 and
 that the closed globe of earth could   
not support it a sufficiently long      
period2 #crd1 that the sun alone        
presents itself as the necessary place1 
being a well-sustained fire1 and        
directly opposite in situation to       
heaven1 since the empyreal is round the 
outside of the universe1 and the sun in 
the centre4 ,what a change to the       
present ideas1 even of doctors of       
divinity1 in a hundred years6  ,so far1 
then1 for mediaeval ideas on the        
position and character of hell4 ,next as
 to purgatory4  ,the voyage to purgatory
 that has met with most success is      
certainly the celebrated ,irish legend  
of ,st4 ,patrick1 which for several     
centuries was admitted as authentic1 and

 the account of which was composed      
certainly a century before the poem of  
,dante4  ,this purgatory1 the entrance  
to which is drawn in more than one      
illuminated manuscript1 is situated in  
,ireland1 on one of the islands of      
,lough ,derg1 ,county ,donegal1 where   
there are still two chapels and a       
shrine1 at which annual ceremonies are  
performed4 ,a knight1 called ,owen1     
resolved to visit it for penance2 and   
the chronicle gives us an account of his
 adventures4  ,first he had his         
obsequial rites performed1 as if he had 
been dead1 and then he advanced boldly  
into the deep ravine2 he marched on     
courageously1 and entered into the      
semi-shadows2 he marched on1 and even   
this funereal twilight abandoned him1   
and when he had gone for a long time in 
this obscurity1 there appeared to him a 
little light as it were from a glimmer  
of day4 ,he arrived at a house1 built   
with much care1 an imposing mansion of  
grief and hope1 a marvellous edifice1   

but similar nevertheless to a monkish   
cloister1 where there was no more light 
than there is in this world in winter at
 vesper-time4  ,the knight was in       
dreadful suspense4 ,suddenly he heard a 
terrible noise1 as if the universe was  
in a riot2 for it seemed certainly to   
him as if every kind of beast and every 
man in the world were together1 and each
 gave utterance to their own cry1 at one
 time and with one voice1 so that they  
could not make a more frightful noise4  
,then commenced his trials1 and         
discourse with the infernal beings2 the 
demons yelled with delight or with fury 
round him4 ,miserable wretch1 said some1
 you are come here to suffer4 ,fly1 said
 others1 for you have not behaved well  
in the time that is passed3 if you will 
take our advice1 and will go back again 
to the world1 we will take it as a great
 favour and courtesy4  ,illustration3   
,,plate ,,xii4--,,the ,,legend ,,of     
,,owen4  ,owen was thrown on the dark   
shadowy earth1 where the demons creep   

like hideous serpents4 ,a mysterious    
wind1 which he scarcely heard1 passed   
over the mud1 and it seemed to the      
knight as if he had been pierced by a   
spear-head4 ,after a while the demons   
lifted him up2 they took him straight   
off to the east1 where the sun rises1 as
 if they were going to the place where  
the universe ends4 ,now1 after they had 
journeyed for a long time here and there
 over divers countries1 they brought him
 to an open field1 very long and very   
full of griefs and chastisements2 he    
could not see the end of the field1 it  
was so long2 there were men and women of
 various ages1 who lay down all naked on
 the ground with their bellies          
downwards1 who had hot nails driven into
 their hands and feet2 and there was a  
fiery dragon1 who sat upon them and     
drove his teeth into their flesh1 and   
seemed as if he would eat them2 hence   
they suffered great agony1 and bit the  
earth in spite of its hardness1 and from
 time to time they cried most piteously 

',mercy1 mercy2' but there was no one   
there who had pity or mercy1 for the    
devils ran among them and over them1 and
 beat them most cruelly4  ,the devils   
brought the knight towards a house of   
punishment1 so broad and long that one  
could not see the end4 ,this house is   
the house of baths1 like those of the   
infernal regions1 and the souls that are
 bathed in ignominy are there heaped in 
large vats4 ,now so it was1 that each of
 these vats was filled with some kind of
 metal1 hot and boiling1 and there they 
plunged and bathed many people of       
various ages1 some of whom were plunged 
in over their heads1 others up to the   
eyebrows1 others up to the eyes1 and    
others up to the mouth4 ,now all in     
truth of these people cried out with a  
loud voice and wept most piteously4     
,scarcely had the knight passed this    
terrible place1 and left behind in his  
mysterious voyage that column of fire   
which rose like a lighthouse in the     
shades1 and which shone so sadly betwixt

 hope and eternal despair1 than a vast  
and magnificent spectacle displayed     
itself in the subterranean space4  ,this
 luminous and odorescent region1 where  
one might see so many archbishops1      
bishops1 and monks of every order1 was  
the terrestrial paradise2 man does not  
stay there always2 they told the knight 
that he could not taste too long its    
rapid delights2 it is a place of        
transition between purgatory and the    
abodes of heaven1 just as the dark      
places which he had traversed were made 
by the ,creator between the world and   
the infernal regions4  ,in spite of our 
joys1 said the souls1 we shall pass away
 from here4 ,then they took him to a    
mountain1 and told him to look1 and     
asked of him what colour the heavens    
seemed to be there where he was         
standing1 and he replied it was the     
colour of burning gold1 such as is in   
the furnace2 and then they said to him1 
,that which you see is the entrance to  
heaven and the gate of paradise4  ,the  

attempts at identification of hell and  
purgatory have not been so numerous1    
perhaps because the subjects were not   
very attractive1 except as the spite of 
men might think of them in reference to 
other people2 but when we come to the   
terrestrial paradise1 quite a crowd of  
attempts by every kind of writer to fix 
its position in any and every part of   
the globe is met with on every side4    
,in the seventeenth century1 under      
,louis ,,xiv41 ,daniel ,huet1 ,bishop of
 ,avranches1 gave great attention to the
 question1 and collected every opinion  
that had been expressed upon it1 with a 
view to arriving at some definite       
conclusion for himself4 ,he was         
astonished at the number of writings and
 the diversity of the opinions they     
expressed4  ,nothing1 he says1 could    
show me better how little is really     
known about the situation of the        
terrestrial paradise than the           
differences in the opinions of those who
 have occupied themselves about the     

question4 ,some have placed it in the   
third heaven1 some in the fourth1 in the
 heaven of the moon1 in the moon itself1
 on a mountain near the lunar heaven1 in
 the middle region of the air1 out of   
the earth1 upon the earth1 beneath the  
earth1 in a place that is hidden and    
separated from man4 ,it has been placed 
under the ,north ,pole1 in ,tartary1 or 
in the place now occupied by the        
,caspian ,sea4 ,others placed it in the 
extreme south1 in the land of fire4     
,others in the ,levant1 or on the       
borders of the ,ganges1 or in the       
,island of ,ceylon1 making the name     
,india to be derived from ,eden1 the    
land where the paradise was situated4   
,it has been placed in ,china1 or in an 
inaccessible place beyond the ,black    
,sea2 by others in ,america1 in ,africa1
 beneath the equator1 in the ,east1 c4  
c4  ,notwithstanding this formidable    
array1 the good bishop was bold enough  
to make his choice between them all4    
,his opinion was that the dwelling-place

 of the first man was situated between  
the ,tigris and ,euphrates1 above the   
place where they separate before falling
 into the ,persian ,gulf2 and1 founding 
this opinion on very extensive reading1 
he declared that of all his             
predecessors1 ,calvin had come nearest  
to the truth4  ,among the other authors 
of greater or less celebrity that have  
occupied themselves in this question1 we
 may instance the following3--  ,raban  
,maur 7ninth century7 believed that the 
terrestrial paradise was at the eastern 
extremity of the earth4 ,he described   
the tree of life1 and added that there  
was neither heat nor cold in that       
garden2 that immense rivers of water    
nourished all the forest2 and that the  
paradise was surrounded by a wall of    
fire1 and its four rivers watered the   
earth4  ,james of ,vitry supposed ,pison
 to come out of the terrestrial         
paradise4 ,he describes also the garden 
of ,eden2 and1 like all the             
cosmographers of the middle ages1 he    

placed it in the most easterly portion  
of the world in an inaccessible place1  
and surrounded by a wall of fire1 which 
rose up to heaven4  ,dati placed also   
the terrestrial paradise in ,asia1 like 
the cosmographers that preceded him1 and
 made the ,nile come from the east4     
,stenchus1 the librarian of ,st4 ,siege1
 who lived in the sixteenth century1    
devoted several years to the problem1   
but discovered nothing4 ,the celebrated 
orientalist and missionary ,bochart     
wrote a treatise on this subject in     
#afej4 ,thevenot published also in the  
seventeenth century a map representing  
the country of the ,lybians1 and adds   
that several great doctors place the    
terrestrial paradise there4  ,an        
,armenian writer who translated and     
borrowed from ,st4 ,epiphanius 7eighth  
century7 produced a ,memorial on the    
,four ,rivers of the ,terrestrial       
,paradise4 ,he supposes they rise in the
 unknown land of the ,amazons1 whence   
also arise the ,danube and the          

,hellespont1 and they deliver their     
waters into that great sea that is the  
source of all seas1 and which surrounds 
the four quarters of the globe4 ,he     
afterwards says1 following up the same  
theory1 that the rivers of paradise     
surround the world and enter again into 
the sea1 which is the universal ocean4  
,gervais and ,robert of ,st4 ,marien    
d',auxerre taught that the terrestrial  
paradise was on the eastern border of   
the square which formed the world4      
,alain de ,lille1 who lived in the      
thirteenth century1 maintained in his   
,anticlaudianus that the earth is       
circular1 and the garden of ,eden is in 
the east of ,asia4 ,joinville1 the      
friend of ,st4 ,louis1 gives us a       
curious notion of his geographical      
ideas1 since1 with regard to paradise1  
he assures us that the four great rivers
 of the south come out of it1 as do the 
spices4 ,here1 he says1 referring to the
 ,nile1 it is advisable to speak of the 
river which passes by the countries of  

,egypt1 and comes from the terrestrial  
paradise4 ,where this river enters      
,egypt there are people very expert and 
experienced1 as thieves are here1 at    
stealing from the river1 who in the     
evening throw their nets on the streams 
and rivers1 and in the morning they     
often find and carry off the spices     
which are sold here in ,europe as coming
 from ,egypt at a good rate1 and by     
weight1 such as cinnamon1 ginger1       
rhubarb1 cloves1 lignum1 aloes1 and     
several other good things1 and they say 
that these good things come from the    
terrestrial paradise1 and that the wind 
blows them off the trees that are       
growing there4 ,and he says that near   
the end of the world are the peoples of 
,gog and ,magog1 who will come at the   
end of the world with ,antichrist4  ,we 
find1 however1 more than                
descriptions--we have representations of
 the terrestrial paradise by            
cartographers of the middle ages1 some  
of which we have seen in speaking of    

their general ideas of geography1 and we
 will now introduce others4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,,paradise  
,,of ,,fra ,,mauro4  ,fra ,mauro1 a     
religious cosmographer of the fifteenth 
century1 gives on the east side of a map
 of the world a representation which    
shows us that at that epoch the garden  
of delights had become very barren4 ,it 
is a vast plain1 on which we see        
,jehovah and the first human couple1    
with a circular rampart surrounding it4 
,the four rivers flow out of it by      
bifurcating4 ,an angel protects the     
principal gate1 which cannot be reached 
but by crossing barren mountains4  ,the 
cosmographical map of ,gervais1         
dedicated to the ,emperor ,otho ,,iv41  
shows the terrestrial paradise in the   
centre of the earth1 which is square1   
and is situated in the midst of the     
seas4 ,adam and ,eve appear in          
consultation4  ,the map of the world    
prepared by ,andreas ,bianco1 in the    
fifteenth century1 represents ,eden1    

,adam and ,eve1 and the tree of life4   
,on the left1 on a peninsula1 are seen  
the reprobated people of ,gog and       
,magog1 who are to accompany            
,antichrist4 ,alexander is also         
represented there1 but without apparent 
reason4 ,the paradisaical peninsula has 
a building on it with this inscription1 
,ospitius ,macarii4  ,formalconi says1  
on this subject1 that a certain         
,macarius lives near paradise1 who is a 
witness to all that the author states1  
and as ,bianco has indicated1 his cell  
was close to the gates of paradise4     
,this legend has reference to the       
pilgrims of ,st4 ,macarius1 a tradition 
that was spread on the return of the    
,crusaders1 of three monks who undertook
 a voyage to discover the point where   
the earth and heaven meet1 that is to   
say1 the place of the terrestrial       
paradise4 ,the map of ,rudimentum1 a    
vast compilation published at ,luebeck  
in #adge by the ,dominican ,brocard1    
represents the terrestrial paradise     

surrounded by walls1 but it is less     
sterile that in the last picture1 as may
 be seen on the next page4  ,in the year
 #aejc1 when ,varthema1 the adventurous 
,bolognian1 went to the ,indies by the  
route of ,palestine and ,syria1 he was  
shown the evil-reputed house which ,cain
 dwelt in1 which was not far from the   
terrestrial paradise4 ,master ,gilius1  
the learned naturalist who travelled at 
the expense of ,francis ,i41 had the    
same satisfaction4 ,the simple faith of 
our ancestors had no hesitation in      
accepting such archaeology4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,,the       
,,paradise ,,of ,,the ,,fifteenth       
,,century4  ,the most curious and       
interesting of all attempts to discover 
the situation of paradise was that made 
half unconsciously by ,columbus when he 
first found the ,american shore4  ,in   
his third voyage1 when for the first    
time he reached the main land1 he was   
persuaded not only that he had arrived  
at the extremity of ,asia1 but that he  

could not be far from the position of   
paradise4 ,the ,orinoco seemed to be one
 of those four great rivers which1      
according to tradition1 came out of the 
garden inhabited by our first parents1  
and his hopes were supported by the     
fragrant breezes that blew from the     
beautiful forests on its banks4 ,this1  
he thought1 was but the entrance to the 
celestial dwelling-place1 and if he had 
dared--if a religious fear had not held 
back him who had risked everything      
amidst the elements and amongst men1 he 
would have liked to push forward to     
where he might hope to find the         
celestial boundaries of the world1 and1 
a little further1 to have bathed his    
eyes1 with profound humility1 in the    
light of the flaming swords which were  
wielded by two seraphim before the gate 
of ,eden4  ,he thus expresses himself on
 this subject in his letter to one of   
the monarchs of ,spain1 dated ,hayti1   
,october1 #adih4 ,the ,holy ,scriptures 
attest that the ,lord created paradise1 

and placed in it the tree of life1 and  
made the four great rivers of the earth 
to pass out of it1 the ,ganges of       
,india1 the ,tigris1 the ,euphrates     
7passing from the mountains to form     
,mesopotamia1 and ending in ,persia71   
and the ,nile1 which rises in ,ethiopia 
and goes to the ,sea of ,alexander4 ,i  
cannot1 nor have been ever able to find 
in the books of the ,latins or ,greeks  
anything authentic on the site of this  
terrestrial paradise1 nor do ,i see     
anything more certain in the maps of the
 world4 ,some place it at the source of 
the ,nile1 in ,ethiopia2 but the        
travellers who have passed through those
 countries have not found either in the 
mildness of the climate or in the       
elevation of the site towards heaven    
anything that could lead to the         
presumption that paradise was there1 and
 that the waters of the ,deluge were    
unable to reach it or cover it4 ,several
 pagans have written for the purpose of 
proving it was in the ,fortunate ,isles1

 which are the ,canaries4 ,st4 ,isidore1
 ,bede1 and ,strabo1 ,st4 ,ambrosius1   
,scotus1 and all judicious theologians  
affirm with one accord that paradise was
 in the ,east4 ,it is from thence only  
that the enormous quantity of water can 
come1 seeing that the course of the     
rivers is extremely long2 and these     
waters 7of paradise7 arrive here1 where 
,i am1 and form a lake4 ,there are great
 signs here of the neighbourhood of the 
terrestrial paradise1 for the site is   
entirely conformable to the opinion of  
the saints and judicious theologians4   
,the climate is of admirable mildness4  
,i believe that if ,i passed beneath the
 equinoctial line1 and arrived at the   
highest point of which ,i have spoken1  
,i should find a milder temperature1 and
 a change in the stars and the waters2  
not that ,i believe that the point where
 the greatest height is situated is     
navigable1 or even that there is water  
there1 or that one could reach it1 but  
,i am convinced that there is the       

terrestrial paradise1 where no one can  
come except by the will of ,god4  ,in   
the opinion of this illustrious         
navigator the earth had the form of a   
pear1 and its surface kept rising       
towards the east1 indicated by the point
 of the fruit4 ,it was there that he    
supposed might be found the garden where
 ancient tradition imagined the creation
 of the first human couple was          
accomplished4  ,we can scarcely think   
without astonishment of the great amount
 of darkness that obscured scientific   
knowledge1 when this great man appeared 
on the scene of the world1 nor of the   
rapidity with which the obscurity and   
vagueness of ideas were dissipated      
almost immediately after his marvellous 
discoveries4 ,scarcely had a half       
century elapsed after his death1 than   
all the geographical fables of the      
middle ages did no more than excite     
smiles of incredulity1 although during  
his life the universal opinion was not  
much advanced upon the times of the     

famous knight ,john of ,mandeville1 who 
wrote gravely as follows3--  ,no mortal 
man can go to or approach this paradise4
 ,by land no one can go there on account
 of savage beasts which are in the      
deserts1 and because of mountains and   
rocks that cannot be passed over1 and   
dark places without number2 nor can one 
go there any better by sea2 the water   
rushes so wildly1 it comes in so great  
waves1 that no vessel dare sail against 
them4 ,the water is so rapid1 and makes 
so great a noise and tempest1 that no   
one can hear however loud he is spoken  
to1 and so when some great men with good
 courage have attempted several times to
 go by this river to paradise1 in large 
companies1 they have never been able to 
accomplish their journey4 ,on the       
contrary1 many have died with fatigue in
 swimming against the watery waves4     
,many others have become blind1 others  
have become deaf by the noise of the    
water1 and others have been suffocated  
and lost in the waves1 so that no mortal

 man can approach it except by the      
special grace of ,god4  ,with one       
notable exception1 no attempts have been
 made of late years to solve such a     
question4 ,that exception is by the     
noble and indefatigable ,livingstone1   
who declared his conviction to ,sir     
,roderick ,murchison1 in a letter       
published in the ,athenaeum1 that       
paradise was situated somewhere near the
 sources of the ,nile4  ,those generally
 who now seek an answer to the question 
of the birthplace of the human race do  
not call it paradise4  ,since man is    
here1 and there was a time quite recent1
 geologically speaking1 when he was not1
 there must have been some actual       
locality on the earth's surface where he
 was first a man4 ,whether we have1 or  
even can hope to have1 enough           
information to indicate where that      
locality was situated1 is a matter of   
doubt4 ,we have not at present4 ,those  
who have attended most to the subject   
appear to think some island the most    

probable locality1 but it is quite      
conjectural4  ,the name ,paradise       
appears to have been derived from the   
,persian1 in which it means a garden2   
similarly derived words express the same
 idea in other languages2 as in the     
,hebrew pardes1 in the ,arabian firdaus1
 in the ,syriac pardiso1 and in the     
,armenian partes4 ,it has been thought  
that the ,persian word itself is derived
 from the ,sanscrit pradesa1 or         
paradesa1 which means a circle1 a       
country1 or strange region2 which1      
though near enough as to sound1 does not
 quite agree as to meaning4 ,eden is    
from a ,hebrew root meaning delights4   
,,chapter ,,xii4  ,,eclipses ,,and      
,,comets4   ,we have seen in the earlier
 chapters on the systems of the ancients
 and their ideas of the world how       
everything was once supposed to have    
exclusive reference to man1 and how he  
considered himself not only chief of    
animate objects1 but that his own city  
was the centre of the material world1   

and his own world the centre of the     
material universe2 that the sun was made
 to shine1 as well as the moon and      
stars1 for his benefit2 and that1 were  
it not for him they would have no reason
 for existence4 ,and we have seen how1  
step by step1 these illusions have been 
dispelled1 and he has learnt to         
appreciate his own littleness in        
proportion as he has realised the       
immensity of the universe of which he   
forms part4  ,if such has been his      
history1 and such his former ideas on   
the regular parts1 as we may call them1 
of nature1 much more have similar ideas 
been developed in relation to those     
other phenomena which1 coming at such   
long intervals1 have not been recognised
 by him as periodic1 but have seemed to 
have some relation to mundane affairs1  
often of the smallest consequence4 ,such
 are eclipses of the sun and moon1      
comets1 shooting-stars1 and meteors4    
,among the less instructed of men1 even 
when astronomers of the same age and    

nation knew their real nature1 eclipses 
have always been looked upon as         
something ominous of evil4  ,among the  
ancient nations people used to come to  
the assistance of the moon1 by making a 
confused noise with all kinds of        
instruments1 when it was eclipsed4 ,it  
is even done now in ,persia and some    
parts of ,china1 where they fancy that  
the moon is fighting with a great       
dragon1 and they think the noise will   
make him loose his hold and take to     
flight4 ,among the ,east ,indians they  
have the same belief that when the sun  
and the moon are eclipsed1 a dragon is  
seizing them1 and astronomers who go    
there to observe eclipses are troubled  
by the fears of their native attendants1
 and by their endeavours to get into the
 water as the best place under the      
circumstances4 ,in ,america the idea is 
that the sun and moon are tired when    
they are eclipsed4 ,but the more refined
 ,greeks believed for a long time that  
the moon was bewitched1 and that the    

magicians made it descend from heaven1  
to put into the herbs a certain         
maleficent froth4 ,perhaps the idea of  
the ,dragon arose from the ancient      
custom of calling the places in the     
heavens at which the eclipses of the    
moon took place the head and tail of the
 ,dragon4  ,in ancient history we have  
many curious instances of the very      
critical influence that eclipses have   
had1 especially in the case of events in
 a campaign1 where it was thought       
unfavourable to some projected attempt4 
,thus an eclipse of the moon was the    
original cause of the death of the      
,athenian general ,nicias4 ,just at a   
critical juncture1 when he was about to 
depart from the harbour of ,syracuse1   
the eclipse filled him and his whole    
army with dismay4 ,the result of his    
terror was that he delayed the departure
 of his fleet1 and the ,athenian army   
was cut in pieces and destroyed1 and    
,nicias lost his liberty and life4      
,plutarch says they could understand    

well enough the cause of the eclipse of 
the sun by the interposition of the     
moon1 but they could not imagine by the 
opposition of what body the moon itself 
could be eclipsed4  ,one of the most    
famous eclipses of antiquity was that of
 ,thales1 recorded by ,herodotus1 who   
says3--,the ,lydians and the ,medes were
 at war for five consecutive years4 ,now
 while the war was sustained on both    
sides with equal chance1 in the sixth   
year1 one day when the armies were in   
battle array1 it happened that in the   
midst of the combat the day suddenly    
changed into night4 ,thales of ,miletus 
had predicted this phenomenon to the    
,ionians1 and had pointed out precisely 
that very year as the one in which it   
would take place4 ,the ,lydians and     
,medes1 seeing the night succeeding     
suddenly to the day1 put an end to the  
combat1 and only cared to establish     
peace4  ,another notable eclipse is that
 related by ,diodorus ,siculus4 ,it was 
a total eclipse of the sun1 which took  

place while ,agathocles1 fleeing from   
the port of ,syracuse1 where he was     
blockaded by the ,carthaginians1 was    
hastening to gain the coast of ,africa4 
,when ,agathocles was already surrounded
 by the enemy1 night came on1 and he    
escaped contrary to all hope4 ,on the   
day following so complete an eclipse of 
the sun took place that it seemed       
altogether night1 for the stars shone   
out in all places4 ,the soldiers        
therefore of ,agathocles1 persuaded that
 the gods were intending them some      
misfortune1 were in the greatest        
perturbation about the future4          
,agathocles was equal to the occasion4  
,when disembarked in ,africa1 where1 in 
spite of all his fine words1 he was     
unable to reassure his soldiers1 whom   
the eclipse of the sun had frightened1  
he changed his tactics1 and pretending  
to understand the prodigy1 ,i grant1    
comrades1 he said1 that had we perceived
 this1 eclipse before our embarkation we
 should indeed have been in a critical  

situation1 but now that we have seen it 
after our departure1 and as it always   
signifies a change in the present state 
of affairs1 it follows that our         
circumstances1 which were very bad in   
,sicily1 are about to amend1 while we   
shall indubitably ruin those of the     
,carthaginians1 which have been hitherto
 so flourishing4  ,we are reminded by   
this of the story of ,pericles1 who1    
when ready to set sail with his fleet on
 a great expedition1 saw himself stopped
 by a similar phenomenon4 ,he spread his
 mantle over the eyes of the pilot1 whom
 fear had prevented acting1 and asked   
him if that was any sign of misfortune1 
when the pilot answered in the negative4
 ,what misfortune then do you suppose1  
said he1 is presaged by the body that   
hides the sun1 which differs from this  
in nothing but being larger8  ,with     
reference to these eclipses1 when their 
locality and approximate date is known1 
astronomy comes to the assistance of    
history1 and can supply the exact day1  

and even hour1 of the occurrence4 ,for  
the eclipses depend on the motions of   
the moon1 and just as astronomers can   
calculate both the time and the path of 
a solar eclipse in the future1 so they  
can for the past4 ,if then the eclipses 
are calculated back to the epoch when   
the particular one is recorded1 it can  
be easily ascertained which one it was  
that about that time passed over the    
spot at which it was observed1 and as   
soon as the particular eclipse is fixed 
upon1 it may be told at what hour it    
would be seen4  ,thus the eclipse of    
,thales has been assigned by different  
authors to various dates1 between the   
#ast of ,october1 #ehc ,b4,c41 and the  
#crd of ,february1 #fbf ,b4,c4 ,the only
 eclipse of the sun that is suitable    
between those dates has been found by   
the ,astronomer-,royal to be that which 
would happen in ,lydia on the #bhth of  
,may1 #ehe ,b4,c41 which must therefore 
be the date of the event4  ,so of the   
eclipse of ,agathocles1 ,m4 ,delaunay   

has fixed its date to the #aeth ,august1
 #caj ,b4,c4  ,in later days1 when      
,christopher ,columbus had to deal with 
the ignorant people of ,america1 the    
same kind of story was repeated4 ,he    
found himself reduced to famine by the  
inhabitants of the country1 who kept him
 and his companions prisoners2 and being
 aware of the approach of the eclipse1  
he menaced them with bringing upon them 
great misfortunes1 and depriving them of
 the light of the moon1 if they did not 
instantly bring him provisions4 ,they   
cared little for his menaces at first2  
but as soon as they saw the moon        
disappear1 they ran to him with         
abundance of victuals1 and implored     
pardon of the conqueror4 ,this was on   
the #ast of ,march1 #aejd1 a date which 
may be tested by the modern tables of   
the moon1 and ,columbus's account proved
 to be correct4 ,the eclipse was indeed 
recorded in other places by various     
observers4  ,eclipses in their natural  
aspect have thus had considerable       

influence on the vulgar1 who knew       
nothing of their cause4 ,this of course 
was the state with all in the early     
ages1 and it is interesting to trace the
 gradual progress from their being quite
 unexpected to their being predicted4   
,it is very probable1 if not certain1   
that their recurrence in the case of the
 moon at least was recognised long      
before their nature was understood4     
,illustration3 ,,plate                  
,,xiii4--,,christopher ,,columbus ,,and 
,,the ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,moon4      
,among the ,chinese they were long      
calculated1 and1 in fact1 it is thought 
by some that they have pretended to a   
greater antiquity by calculating        
backwards1 and recording as observed    
eclipses those which happened before    
they understood or noticed them4 ,it    
seems1 however1 authenticated that they 
did in the year #bafi ,b4,c4 observe an 
eclipse of the sun1 and that at that    
date they were in the habit of          
predicting them4 ,for this particular   

eclipse is said to have cost several of 
the astronomers their lives1 as they had
 not calculated it rightly4 ,as the     
lives of princes were supposed to be    
dependent on these eclipses1 it became  
high treason to expose them to such a   
danger without forewarning them4 ,they  
paid more attention to the eclipses of  
the sun than of the moon4  ,among the   
,babylonians the eclipses of the moon   
were observed from a very early date1   
and numerous records of them are        
contained in the ,observations of ,bel  
in ,sargon's library1 the tablets of    
which have lately been discovered4 ,in  
the older portion they only record that 
on the #adth day of such and such a     
7lunar7 month an eclipse takes place1   
and state in what watch it begins1 and  
when it ends4 ,in a later portion the   
observations were more precise1 and the 
descriptions of the eclipse more        
accurate4 ,long before #agjj ,b4,c4 the 
discovery of the lunar cycle of #bbc    
lunar months had been made1 and by means

 of it they were able to state of each  
lunar eclipse1 that it was either       
according to calculation or contrary to 
calculation4  ,they dealt also with     
solar eclipses1 and tried to trace on a 
sphere the path they would take on the  
earth4 ,accordingly1 like the eclipses  
of the moon1 these too were spoken of as
 happening either according to          
calculation or contrary to calculation4 
,in a report sent in to one of the later
 kings of ,assyria by the state         
astronomer1 ,abil ,islar states that a  
watch had been kept on the #bhth1 #bith1
 and #cjth of ,sivan1 or ,may1 for an   
eclipse of the sun1 which did not1      
however1 take place after all4 ,the     
shadow1 it is clear1 must have fallen   
outside the field of observation4       
,besides the more ordinary kind of solar
 eclipses1 mention is made in the       
,observations of ,bel of annular        
eclipses which1 strangely enough1 are   
seldom alluded to by classical writers4 
,a record of a later eclipse has been   

found by ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson on one  
of the ,nineveh ,tablets4 ,this occurred
 near that city in ,b4,c4 #gfc1 and from
 the character of the inscription it may
 be inferred that it was a rare         
occurrence with them1 indeed that it was
 nearly1 if not quite1 a total eclipse4 
,this has an especial interest as being 
the earliest that we have any           
approximate date for4  ,it is possible  
that the remarkable phenomenon1 alluded 
to by the prophet ,isaiah1 of the shadow
 going backwards ten degrees on the dial
 of ,ahaz1 may be really a record of an 
eclipse of the sun1 such as astronomy   
proves to have occurred at ,jerusalem in
 the year #fhi ,b4,c4  ,we have very    
little notice of the calculation of     
eclipses by the ,egyptians2 all that is 
told us is more or less fabulous4 ,thus 
,diogenes ,laertius says that they      
reckoned that during a period of #dh1hfc
 years1 #cgc eclipses of the sun and    
#hcb eclipses of the moon had occurred1 
which is far fewer than the right number

 for so long a time1 and which1 of      
course1 has no basis in fact4  ,among   
the ,greeks1 ,anaxagoras was the first  
who entertained clear ideas about the   
nature of eclipses2 and it was from him 
that ,pericles learnt their             
harmlessness4  ,plutarch relates that   
,helicon of ,cyzicus predicted an       
eclipse of the sun to ,dionysius of     
,syracuse1 and received as a reward a   
talent of silver4  ,livy records an     
eclipse of the sun as having taken place
 on the #aath of ,quintilis1 which      
corresponds to the #aath of ,july4 ,it  
happened during the ,appollinarian      
games1 #aij ,b4,c4  ,the same author    
tells us of an eclipse of the moon that 
was predicted by one ,gallus1 a tribune 
of the second legion1 on the eve of the 
battle of ,pydna--a prediction which was
 duly fulfilled on the following night4 
,the fact of its having been foretold   
quieted the superstitious fears of the  
soldiers1 and gave them a very high     
opinion of ,gallus4 ,other authors1     

among them ,cicero1 do not give so      
flattering a story1 but state that      
,gallus's part consisted only in        
explaining the cause of the eclipse     
after it had happened4 ,the date of this
 eclipse was the #crd of ,september1    
#afh ,b4,c4  ,ennius1 writing towards   
the end of the second century ,b4,c41   
describes an eclipse which was said to  
have happened nearly two hundred years  
before 7#djd1 ,b4,c471 in the following 
remarkable words3--,on the nones of     
,july the moon passed over the sun1 and 
there was night4 ,aristarchus1 three    
centuries before ,christ1 understood and
 explained the nature of eclipses2 but  
the chief of the ancient authors upon   
this subject was ,hipparchus4 ,he and   
his disciples were able to predict      
eclipses with considerable accuracy1    
both as to their time and duration4     
,geminus and ,cleomedes were two other  
writers1 somewhat later1 who explained  
and predicted eclipses4 ,in later times 
regular tables were drawn up1 showing   

when the eclipses would happen4 ,one    
that ,ptolemy was the author of was     
founded on data derived from ancient    
observers--,callipus1 ,democritus1      
,eudoxus1 ,hipparchus--aided by his own 
calculations4 ,after the days of        
,ptolemy the knowledge of the eclipses  
advanced pari passu with the advance of 
astronomy generally4 ,so long as        
astronomy itself was empirical1 the time
 of the return of an eclipse was only   
reckoned by the intervals that had      
elapsed during the same portion of      
previous cycles2 but after the discovery
 of elliptic orbits and the force of    
gravitation the whole motion of the moon
 could be calculated with as great      
accuracy as any other astronomical      
phenomenon4  ,in point of fact1 if the  
new moon is in the plane of the ecliptic
 there must be an eclipse of the sun2 if
 the full moon is there1 there must be  
an eclipse of the moon2 and if it should
 in these cases be only partially in    
that plane1 the eclipses also will be   

partial4 ,the cycle of changes that the 
position of the moon can undergo when   
new and full occupies a period of       
eighteen years and eleven days1 in which
 period there are forty-one eclipses of 
the sun and twenty-nine of the moon4    
,each year there are at most seven and  
at least two eclipses2 if only two1 they
 are eclipses of the sun4 ,although more
 numerous in reality for the whole      
earth1 eclipses of the sun are more     
rarely observed in any particular place1
 because they are not seen everywhere1  
but only where the shadow of the moon   
passes2 while all that part of the earth
 that sees the moon at all at the time  
sees it eclipsed4  ,we now come to      
comets4  ,the ancients divided comets   
into different classes1 the chief points
 of distinction being derived from the  
shape1 length1 and brilliancy of the    
tails4 ,pliny distinguished twelve      
kinds1 which he thus                    
characterised3--,some frighten us by    
their blood-coloured mane2 their        

bristling hair rises towards the heaven4
 ,the bearded ones let their long hair  
fall down like a majestic beard4 ,the   
javelin-shaped ones seem to be projected
 forwards like a dart1 as they rapidly  
attain their shape after their first    
appearance2 if the tail is shorter1 and 
terminates in a point1 it is called a   
sword2 this is the palest of all the    
comets2 it has the appearance of a      
bright sword without any diverging rays4
 ,the plate or disc derives its name    
from its shape1 its colour is that of   
amber1 it gives out some diverging rays 
from its sides1 but not in large        
quantity4 ,the cask has really the form 
of a cask1 which one might suppose to be
 staved in smoke enveloped in light4    
,the retort imitates the figure of a    
horn1 and the lamp that of a burning    
flame4 ,the horse-comet represents the  
mane of a horse which is violently      
agitated1 as by a circular1 or rather   
cylindrical1 motion4 ,such a comet      
appears also of singular whiteness1 with

 hair of a silver hue2 it is so bright  
that one can scarcely look at it4 ,there
 are bristling comets1 they are like the
 skins of beasts with their hair on1 and
 are surrounded by a nebulosity4        
,lastly1 the hair of the comet sometimes
 takes the form of a lance4  ,pingre1 a 
celebrated historian of comets1 tells us
 that one of the first comets noticed in
 history is that which appeared over    
,rome forty years before ,christ1 and in
 which the ,roman people imagined they  
saw the soul of ,caesar endowed with    
divine honours4 ,next comes that which  
threw its light on ,jerusalem when it   
was being besieged and remained for a   
whole year above the city1 according to 
the account of ,josephus4 ,it was of    
this kind that ,pliny said it is of so  
great a whiteness that one can scarcely 
look at it1 and one may see in it the   
image of ,god in human form4  ,diodorus 
tells us that1 a little after the       
subversion of the towns of ,helix and   
,bura1 there were seen1 for several     

nights in succession1 a brilliant light1
 which was called a beam of fire1 but   
which ,aristotle says was a true comet4 
,plutarch1 in his life of ,timoleon1    
says a burning flame preceded the fleet 
of this general until his arrival at    
,sicily1 and that during the consulate  
of ,caius ,servilius a bright shield was
 seen suspended in the heavens4  ,the   
historians ,sazoncenas and ,socrates    
relate that in the year #djj ,a4,d4 a   
comet in the form of a sword shone over 
,constantinople1 and appeared to touch  
the town just at the time when great    
misfortunes were impending through the  
treachery of ,gainas4  ,the same        
phenomenon appeared over ,rome previous 
to the arrival of ,alaric4  ,in fact the
 ancient chroniclers always associated  
the appearance of a comet with some     
terrestrial event1 which it was not     
difficult to do1 seeing that critical   
situations were at all times existing in
 some one country or other where the    
comet would be visible1 and probably    

those which could not be connected with 
any were not thought worthy of being    
recorded4  ,it is well known that the   
year #ajjj ,a4,d4 was for a long time   
predicted to be the end of the world4   
,in this year the astronomers and       
chroniclers registered the fall of an   
enormous burning meteor and the         
appearance of a comet4 ,pingre says3 ,on
 the #aith of the calends of            
,january--that is the #adth of          
,december--the heavens being dark1 a    
kind of burning sword fell to the earth1
 leaving behind it a long train of      
light4 ,its brilliancy was such that it 
frightened not only those who were in   
the fields1 but even those who were shut
 up in their houses4 ,this great opening
 in the heavens was gradually closed1   
and then was seen the figure of a       
dragon1 whose feet were blue1 and whose 
head kept continually increasing4 ,a    
comet having appeared at the same time  
as this chasm1 or meteor1 they were     
confounded4 ,this relation is given in  

the chronicles of ,seigbert in ,hermann 
,corner1 in the ,chronique de ,tours1 in
 ,albert ,casin1 and other historians of
 the time4  ,bodin1 resuscitating an    
idea of ,democritus1 wrote that the     
comets were the souls of illustrious    
personages1 who1 after having lived on  
the earth a long series of centuries1   
and being ready at last to pass away1   
were carried in a kind of triumph to    
heaven4 ,for this reason1 famine1       
epidemics1 and civil wars followed on   
the apparition of comets1 the towns and 
their inhabitants finding themselves    
then deprived of the help of the        
illustrious souls who had laboured to   
appease their intestinal feuds4  ,one of
 the comets of the middle ages which    
made the greatest impression on the     
minds of the people was that which      
appeared during ,holy ,week of the year 
#hcg1 and frightened ,louis the         
,debonnaire4 ,the first morning of its  
appearance he sent for his astrologer4  
,go1 he said1 on to the terrace of the  

palace1 and come back again immediately 
and tell me what you have seen1 for ,i  
have not seen that star before1 and you 
have not shown it to me2 but ,i know    
that this sign is a comet3 it announces 
a change of reign and the death of a    
prince4 ,the son of ,charlemagne having 
taken counsel with his bench of bishops1
 was convinced that the comet was a     
notice sent from heaven expressly for   
him4 ,he passed the nights in prayer1   
and gave large donations to the         
monasteries1 and finally had a number of
 masses performed out of fear for       
himself and forethought for the ,church 
committed to his care4 ,the comet1      
however1 was a very inoffensive one1    
being none other than that known as     
,halley's comet1 which returned in      
#ahce4 ,while they were being thus      
frightened in ,france1 the ,chinese were
 observing it astronomically4  ,the     
historian of ,merlin the enchanter      
relates that a few days after the fetes 
which were held on the occasion of the  

erection of the funeral monument of     
,salisbury1 a sign appeared in heaven4  
,it was a comet of large size and       
excessive splendour4 ,it resembled a    
dragon1 out of whose mouth came a long  
two-forked tongue1 one part of which    
turned towards the north and the other  
to the east4 ,the people were in a state
 of fear1 each one asking what this sign
 presaged4 ,uter1 in the absence of the 
king1 ,ambrosius1 his brother1 who was  
engaged in pursuing one of the sons of  
,vortigern1 consulted all the wise men  
of ,britain1 but no one could give him  
any answer4 ,then he thought of ,merlin 
the enchanter1 and sent for him to the  
court4 ,what does this apparition       
presage8 demanded the king's brother4   
,merlin began to weep4 ,o son of        
,britain1 you have just had a great     
loss--the king is dead4 ,after a moment 
of silence he added1 ,but the ,britons  
have still a king4 ,haste thee1 ,uter1  
attack the enemy4 ,all the island will  
submit to you1 for the figure of the    

fiery dragon is thyself4 ,the ray that  
goes towards ,gaul represents a son who 
shall be born to thee1 who will be great
 by his achievements1 and not less so by
 his power4 ,the ray that goes towards  
,ireland represents a daughter of whom  
thou shalt be the father1 and her sons  
and grandsons shall reign over all the  
,britons4 ,these predictions were       
realised2 but it is more than probable  
that they were made up after the event4 
,the comet of #ajff was regarded as a   
presage of the ,conquest under ,william 
of ,normandy4 ,in the ,bayeaux tapestry1
 on which ,matilda of ,flanders had     
drawn all the most memorable episodes in
 the transmarine expedition of her      
husband1 the comet appears in one of the
 corners with the inscription1 ,isti    
mirantur stellam1 which proves that the 
comet was considered a veritable marvel4
 ,it is said even to be traditionally   
reported that one of the jewels of the  
,british crown was taken from the tail  
of this comet4 ,nevertheless it was no  

more than ,halley's comet again in its  
periodical visit every seventy-six      
years4  ,in ,july1 #abad1 a brilliant   
comet appeared which was lost to view on
 the same day as the ,pope1 ,urban      
,,iv41 died1 i4e4 the third of ,october4
  ,in ,june1 #adef1 a similar body of   
enormous size1 with a very long and     
extraordinarily bright tail1 put all    
,christendom in a fright4 ,the ,pope1   
,calixtus ,,iii41 was engaged in a war  
at that time with the ,saracens4 ,he    
showed the ,christians that the comet   
had the form of a cross1 and announced  
some great event4 ,at the same time     
,mahomet announced to his followers that
 the comet1 having the form of a        
yataghan1 was a blessing of the         
,prophet's4 ,it is said that the ,pope  
afterwards recognised that it had this  
form1 and excommunicated it4            
,nevertheless1 the ,christians obtained 
the victory under the walls of          
,belgrade4 ,this was another appearance 
of ,halley's comet4  ,in the early      

months of #adgb appeared a large comet1 
which historians agree in saying was    
very horrible and alarming4 ,belleforest
 said it was a hideous and frightening  
comet1 which threw its rays from east to
 west1 giving great cause for fear to   
great people1 who were not ignorant that
 comets are the menacing rods of ,god1  
which admonish those who are in         
authority1 that they may be converted4  
,pingre1 who has told us of so many of  
the comets that were seen before his    
time1 wrote of this epoch3 ,comets      
became the most efficacious signs of the
 most important and doubtful events4    
,they were charged to announce wars1    
seditions1 and the internal movements of
 republics2 they presaged famines1      
pestilence1 and epidemics2 princes1 or  
even persons of dignity1 could not pay  
the tribute of nature without the       
previous appearance of that universal   
oracle1 a comet2 men could no longer be 
surprised by any unexpected event2 the  
future might be as easily read in the   

heavens as the past in history4 ,their  
effect depended on the place in the     
heavens where they shone1 the countries 
over which they directly lay1 the signs 
of the zodiac that they measured by     
their longitude1 the constellations they
 traversed1 the form and length of their
 tails1 the place where they went out1  
and a thousand other circumstances more 
easily indicated than distinguished2    
they also announced in general wars1 and
 the death of princes1 or some grand    
personage1 but there were few years that
 passed without something of this kind  
occurring4 ,the devout astrologers--for 
there were many of that sort--risked    
less than the others4 ,according to     
them1 the comet threatened some         
misfortune2 if it did not happen1 it was
 because the prayers of penitence had   
turned aside the wrath of ,god2 he had  
returned his sword to the scabbard4 ,but
 a rule was invented which gave the     
astrologers free scope1 for they said   
that events announced by a comet might  

be postponed for one or more periods of 
forty years1 or even as many years as   
the comet had appeared days2 so that one
 which had appeared for six months need 
not produce its effect for #ahj years4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ee4--,,representation ,,of ,a ,,comet1 
#af,,th ,,century4  ,the most frightful 
of the comets of this period1 according 
to ,simon ,goulart1 was that of #aebg4  
,it put some into so great a fright that
 they died2 others fell sick4 ,it was   
seen by several thousand people1 and    
appeared very long1 and of the colour of
 blood4 ,at the summit was seen the     
representation of a curved arm1 holding 
a large sword in its hand1 as if it     
would strike2 at the top of the point of
 the sword were three stars1 but that   
which touched the point was more        
brilliant than the others4 ,on the two  
sides of the rays of this comet were    
seen large hatchets1 poignards1 bloody  
swords1 among which were seen a great   
number of men decapitated1 having their 

heads and beards horribly bristling4  ,a
 view of this comet is given in the     
,history of ,prodigies4  ,there was     
another comet remarked in #aeef1 and    
another in #aegg1 like the head of an   
owl1 followed by a mantle of scattered  
light1 with pointed ends4 ,of this comet
 we read in the same book that recorded 
the last described3 ,the comet is an    
infallible sign of a very evil event4   
,whenever eclipses of the sun or moon1  
or comets1 or earthquakes1 conversions  
of water into blood1 and such like      
prodigies happen1 it has always been    
known that very soon after these        
miserable portents afflictions1 effusion
 of human blood1 massacres1 deaths of   
great monarchs1 kings1 princes1 and     
rulers1 seditions1 treacheries1 raids1  
overthrowings of empires1 kingdoms1 or  
villages2 hunger and scarcity of        
provisions1 burning and overthrowing of 
towns2 pestilences1 widespread          
mortality1 both of beasts and men2 in   
fact all sorts of evils and misfortunes 

take place4 ,nor can it be doubted that 
all these signs and prodigies give      
warning that the end of the world is    
come1 and with it the terrible last     
judgment of ,god4  ,but even now comets 
were being observed astronomically1 and 
began to lose their sepulchral aspect4  
,a remarkable comet1 however1 which     
appeared in #afhj1 was not without its  
fears for the vulgar4 ,we are told that 
it was recognised as the same which     
appeared the year of ,caesar's death1   
then in #eca1 and afterwards in #aajf1  
having a period of about #ege years4    
,the terror it produced in the towns was
 great2 timid spirits saw in it the sign
 of a new deluge1 as they said water was
 always announced by fire4 ,while the   
fearful were making their wills1 and1 in
 anticipation of the end of the world1  
were leaving their money to the monks1  
who in accepting them showed themselves 
better physicists than the testators1   
people in high station were asking what 
great person it heralded the death of1  

and it is reported of the brother of    
,louis ,,xiv41 who apparently was afraid
 of becoming too suddenly like ,caesar1 
that he said sharply to the courtiers   
who were discussing it1 ,ah1 gentlemen1 
you may talk at your ease1 if you       
please2 you are not princes4  ,this same
 comet gave rise to a curious story of  
an extraordinary prodigy1 how at ,rome a
 hen laid an egg on which was drawn a   
picture of the comet4  ,the fact was    
attested by his ,holiness1 by the ,queen
 of ,sweden1 and all the persons of     
first quality in ,rome4 ,on the #dth    
,december1 #afhj1 a hen laid an egg on  
which was seen the figure of the comet1 
accompanied by other marks such as are  
here represented4 ,the cleverest        
naturalists in ,rome have seen and      
examined it1 and have never seen such a 
prodigy before4  ,of this same comet    
,bernouilli wrote1 ,that if the body of 
the comet is not a visible sign of the  
anger of ,god1 the tail may be4 ,it was 
this too that suggested to ,whiston the 

idea that he put forward1 not as a      
superstitious1 but as a physical        
speculation1 that a comet approaching   
the earth was the cause of the deluge4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,,an ,,egg 
,,marked ,,with ,a ,,comet4  ,the last  
blow to the superstitious fear of the   
comets was given by ,halley1 when he    
proved that they circulated like planets
 round the sun1 and that the comets     
noticed in #hcg1 #ajff1 #acgh1 #adef1   
#aeca1 #afjg1 #afhb were all one1 whose 
period was about #gf years1 and which   
would return in #agei1 which prediction 
was verified1 and the comet went        
afterwards by the name of this          
astronomer4 ,it returned again in #ahce1
 and will revisit us in #aiaa4  ,even   
after the fear arising from the relics  
of astrology had died away1 another     
totally different alarm was connected   
with comets--an alarm which has not     
entirely subsided even in our own times4
 ,this is that a comet may come in      
contact with the earth and destroy it by

 the collision4 ,the most remarkable    
panic in this respect was that which    
arose in ,paris in #aggc4 ,at the       
previous meeting of the ,academy of     
,sciences1 ,m4 ,lalande was to have read
 an interesting paper1 but the time     
failed4 ,it was on the subject of comets
 that could1 by approaching the earth1  
cause its destruction1 with special     
reference to the one that was soon to   
come4 ,from the title only of the paper 
the most dreadful fears were spread     
abroad1 and1 increasing day by day1 were
 with great difficulty allayed4 ,the    
house of ,m4 ,lalande was filled with   
those who came to question him on the   
memoir in question4 ,the fermentation   
was so great that some devout people1 as
 ignorant as weak1 asked the archbishop 
to make a forty hours' prayer to turn   
away the enormous deluge that they      
feared1 and the prelate was nearly going
 to order these prayers1 if the members 
of the ,academy had not persuaded him   
how ridiculous it would be4 ,finally1   

,m4 ,lalande1 finding it impossible to  
answer all the questions put to him     
about his fatal memoir1 and wishing to  
prevent the real evils that might arise 
from the frightened imaginations of the 
weak1 caused it to be printed1 and made 
it as clear as was possible4 ,when it   
appeared1 it was found that he stated   
that of the sixty comets known there    
were eight which could1 by coming too   
near the earth1 say within #dj1jjj      
miles1 occasion such a pressure that the
 sea would leave its bed and cover part 
of the globe1 but that in any case this 
could not happen till after twenty      
years4 ,this was too long to make it    
worth while to make provision for it1   
and the effervescence subsided4  ,a     
similar case to this occurred with      
respect to ,biela's comet1 which was to 
return in #ahcb4 ,in calculating its    
reappearance in this year1 ,damoiseau   
found that it would pass through the    
plane of the earth's orbit on the #bith 
of ,october4 ,rushing away with this1   

the papers made out that a collision was
 inevitable1 and the end of the world   
was come4 ,but no one thought to inquire
 where the earth would be when the comet
 passed through the plane in which it   
revolved4 ,arago1 however1 set people's 
minds at rest by pointing out that at   
that time the earth would be a month's  
journey from the spot1 which with the   
rate at which the earth is moving would 
correspond to a distance of sixty       
millions of miles4  ,this1 like other   
frights1 passed away1 but was repeated  
again in #ahdj and #aheg with like      
results1 and even in #ahgb a similar end
 to the world was announced to the      
public for the #abth of ,august1 on the 
supposed authority of a ,professor at   
,geneva1 but who had never said what was
 supposed4  ,but in reality all cause of
 fear has now passed away1 since it has 
been proved that the comet is made of   
gaseous matter in a state of extreme    
tenuity1 so that1 though it may make    
great show in the heavens1 the whole    

mass may not weigh more than a few      
pounds2 and we have in addition the     
testimony of experience1 which might    
have been relied on on the occasions    
above referred to1 for in #aggj         
,lexele's comet was seen to pass through
 the satellites of ,jupiter without     
deranging them in the least1 but was    
itself thrown entirely out of its path1 
while there is reason to believe that on
 the #bith of ,june1 #ahfa1 the earth   
remained several hours in the tail of a 
comet without having experienced the    
slightest inconvenience4  ,as to the    
nature of comets1 the opinions that have
 been held have been mostly very vague4 
,metrodorus thought they were           
reflections from the sun2 ,democritus1 a
 concourse of several stars2 ,aristotle1
 a collection of exhalations which had  
become dry and inflamed2 ,strabo1 that  
they are the splendour of a star        
enveloped in a cloud2 ,heracletes of    
,pontus1 an elevated cloud which gave   
out much light2 ,epigenes1 some         

terrestrial matter that had caught fire1
 and was agitated by the wind2 ,boecius1
 part of the air1 coloured2 ,anaxagoras1
 sparks fallen from the elementary fire2
 ,xenophanes1 a motion and spreading out
 of clouds which caught fire2 and       
,descartes1 the debris of vortices that 
had been destroyed1 the fragments of    
which were coming towards us4  ,it is   
said that the ,chaldaeans held the      
opinion that they were analogous to     
planets by their regular course1 and    
that when we ceased to see them1 it was 
because they had gone too far from us2  
and ,seneca followed this explanation1  
since he regarded them as globes turning
 in the heavens1 and which appear and   
disappear in certain times1 and whose   
periodical motions might be known by    
regular observation4  ,we have thus     
traced the particular ideas that have   
attached themselves to eclipses and     
comets1 as the two most remarkable of   
the extraordinary phenomena of the      
heavens1 and have seen how the fears and

 superstitions of mankind have been     
inevitably linked with them in the      
earlier days of ignorance and darkness1 
but they are only part of a system of   
phenomena1 and have been no more        
connected with superstition than others 
less remarkable1 except in proportion to
 their remarkableness4 ,other minor     
appearances that are at all unusual     
have1 on the same belief in the         
inextricable union of celestial and     
terrestrial matters1 been made the signs
 of calamities or extra-prosperity2 the 
doleful side of human nature being      
usually the strongest1 the former have  
been chosen more often than the latter4 
,according to ,seneca1 the tradition of 
the ,chaldees announced that a universal
 deluge would be caused by the          
conjunction of all the planets in the   
sign of ,capricorn1 and that a general  
breaking up of the earth would take     
place at the moment of their conjunction
 in ,cancer4 ,the general break-up of   
the world1 they said1 will happen when  

the stars which govern the heaven1      
penetrated with a quality of heat and   
dryness1 meet one another in a fiery    
triplicity4  ,illustration3 ,,plate     
,,xiv4--,,prodigies ,,in ,,the ,,middle 
,,ages4  ,everywhere1 and in all ages of
 the past1 men have thought that a      
protecting providence1 always watching  
over them1 has taken care to warn them  
of the destinies which await them2      
thence the good and evil presages taken 
from the appearance of certain heavenly 
bodies1 of divers meteors1 or even the  
accidental meeting of certain animate or
 inanimate objects4 ,the ,indian of     
,north ,america dying of famine in his  
miserable cabin1 will not go out to the 
chase if he sees certain presages in the
 atmosphere4 ,nor need we be astonished 
at such ideas in an uncultivated man1   
when even among ,europeans1 a           
salt-cellar upset1 a glass broken1 a    
knife and fork crossed1 the number      
thirteen at dinner1 and such things are 
regarded as unlucky accidents4 ,the     

employment of sorcery and divination is 
closely connected with these            
superstitions4 ,besides eclipses and    
comets1 meteors were taken as the signs 
of divine wrath4 ,we learn from ,s4     
,maximus of ,turin1 that the ,christians
 of his time admitted the necessity of  
making a noise during eclipses1 so as to
 prevent the magicians from hurting the 
sun or moon1 a superstition entirely    
pagan4 ,they used to fancy they could   
see celestial armies in the air1 coming 
to bring miraculous assistance to man4  
,they thought the hurricanes and        
tempests the work of evil spirits1 whose
 rage kept them set against the earth4  
,s4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 the great         
theologian of the thirteenth century1   
accepted this opinion1 just as he       
admitted the reality of sorceries4 ,but 
the full development1 as well as the    
nourishment of these superstitious      
ideas1 was derived from the storehouse  
of astrology1 which dealt with matters  
of ordinary occurrence1 both in the     

heavens and on the earth--and to the    
history of which our next chapter is    
devoted4     ,,chapter ,,xiii4  ,,the   
,,greatness ,,and ,,the ,,fall ,,of     
,,astrology4   ,our study of the        
opinions of the ancients on the various 
phenomena of astronomy1 leads us        
inevitably to the discussion of their   
astrology1 which has in every age and   
among every people accompanied it--and  
though astrology be now no more as a    
science1 or lingers only with those who 
are ignorant and desirous of taking     
advantage of the still greater ignorance
 of others--yet it is not lacking in    
interest as showing the effect of the   
phenomena of the heavens on the human   
mind1 when that effect is brought to its
 most technical and complete            
development4  ,we must distinguish in   
the first place two kinds of astrology1 
viz41 natural and judicial4 ,the first  
proposed to foresee and announce the    
changes of the seasons1 the rains1 wind1
 heat1 cold1 abundance1 or sterility of 

the ground1 diseases1 c41 by means of a 
knowledge of the causes which act on the
 air and on the atmosphere4 ,the other  
is occupied with objects which would be 
still more interesting to men4 ,it      
traced at the moment of his birth1 or at
 any other period of his life1 the line 
that each must travel according to his  
destiny4 ,it pretended to determine our 
characters1 our passions1 fortune1      
misfortunes1 and perils in reserve for  
each mortal4  ,we have not here to      
consider the natural astrology1 which is
 a veritable science of observation and 
does not deserve the name of astrology4 
,it is rather worthy to be called the   
meteorological calendar of its          
cultivators4 ,more rural than their     
descendants of the nineteenth century1  
the ancients had recognised the         
connection between the celestial        
phenomena and the vicissitudes of the   
seasons2 they observed these phenomena  
carefully to discover the return of the 
same inclemencies2 and they were able   

7or thought they were7 to state the date
 of the return of particular kinds of   
weather with the same positions of the  
stars4 ,but the very connection with the
 stars soon led the way to a degeneracy4
 ,the autumnal constellations1 for      
example1 ,orion and ,hercules1 were     
regarded as rainy1 because the rains    
came at the time when these stars rose4 
,the ,egyptians who observed in the     
morning1 called ,sirius the burning1    
because his appearance in the morning   
was followed by the great heat of the   
summer3 and it was the same with the    
other stars4 ,soon they regarded them as
 the cause of the rain and the          
heat--although they were but remote     
witnesses4 ,the star ,sirius is still   
connected with heat--since we call it   
the dog-star--and the hottest days of   
the year1 ,july #bbnd to ,august #bcrd1 
we call dog-days4 ,at the commencement  
of our era1 the morning rising of       
,sirius took place on the earlier of    
those days--though it does not now rise 

in the morning till the middle of       
,august--and #d1jjj years ago it rose   
about the #bjth of ,june1 and preceded  
the annual rise of the ,nile4  ,the     
belief in the meteorological influence  
of the stars is one of the causes of    
judicial astrology4 ,this latter has    
simply subjected man1 like the          
atmosphere1 to the influence of the     
stars2 it has made dependent on them the
 risings of his passions1 the good and  
ill fortune of his life1 as well as the 
variations of the seasons4 ,indeed1 it  
was very easy to explain4 ,it is the    
stars1 or heavenly bodies in general1   
that bring the winds1 the rains1 and the
 storms2 their influences mixed with the
 action of the rays of the sun modify   
the cold or heat2 the fertility of the  
fields1 health or sickness1 depend on   
these beneficial or injurious           
influences2 not a blade of grass can    
grow without all the stars having       
contributed to its increase2 man        
breathes the emanations which escaping  

from the heavenly bodies fill the air2  
man is therefore in his entire nature   
subjected to them2 these stars must     
therefore influence his will and his    
passions2 the good and evil passages in 
his career1 in a word1 must direct his  
life4  ,as soon as it was established   
that the rising of a certain star or    
planet1 and its aspect with regard to   
other planets1 announced a certain      
destiny to man1 it was natural to       
believe that the rarer configurations   
signified extraordinary events1 which   
concerned great empires1 nations1 and   
towns4 ,and lastly1 since errors grow   
faster than truth1 it was natural to    
think that the configurations which were
 still more rare1 such as the reunion of
 all the planets in conjunction with the
 same star1 which can occur only after  
thousands of centuries1 while nations   
have been renewed an infinity of times1 
and empires have been ruined1 had       
reference to the earth itself1 which had
 served as the theatre for all these    

events4 ,joined to these superstitious  
ideas was the tradition of a deluge1 and
 the belief that the world must one day 
perish by fire1 and so it was announced 
that the former event took place when   
all the planets were in conjunction in  
the sign of the ,fishes1 and the latter 
would occur when they all met in the    
sign of the ,lion4  ,the origin of      
astrology1 like that of the celestial   
sphere1 was in all probability in upper 
,asia4  ,there1 the starry heavens1     
always pure and splendid1 invited       
observation and struck the imagination4 
,we have already seen this with respect 
to the more matter-of-fact portions of  
astronomy4 ,the ,assyrians looked upon  
the stars as divinities endued with     
beneficent or maleficent power4 ,the    
adoration of the heavenly bodies was the
 earliest form of religion among the    
pastoral population that came down from 
the mountains of ,kurdestan to the      
plains of ,babylon4 ,the ,chaldaeans at 
last set apart a sacerdotal and learned 

caste devoted to the observation of the 
heavens2 and the temples became regular 
observatories4 ,such doubtless was the  
tower of ,babel--a monument consecrated 
to the seven planets1 and of which the  
account has come down to us in the      
ancient book of ,genesis4  ,a long      
series of observations put the          
,chaldaeans in possession of a          
theological astronomy1 resting on a more
 or less chimerical theory of the       
influence of the celestial bodies on the
 events of nations and private          
individuals4 ,diodorus ,siculus1 writing
 towards the commencement of our era1   
has put us in possession of the most    
circumstantial details that have reached
 us with regard to the ,chaldaean       
priests4  ,at the head of the gods1 the 
,assyrians placed the sun and moon1     
whose courses and daily positions they  
had noted in the constellation of the   
zodiac1 in which the sun remained1 one  
month in each4 ,the twelve signs were   
governed by as many gods1 who had the   

corresponding months under their        
influence4 ,each of these months were   
divided into three parts1 which made    
altogether thirty-six subdivisions1 over
 which as many stars presided1 called   
gods of consultation4 ,half of these    
gods had under their control the things 
which happen above the earth1 and the   
other half those below4 ,the sun and    
moon and the five planets occupied the  
most elevated rank in the divine        
hierarchy and bore the name of gods of  
interpretation4 ,among these planets    
,saturn or old ,bel1 which was regarded 
as the highest star and the most distant
 from us1 was surrounded by the greatest
 veneration2 he was the interpreter par 
excellence--the revealer4 ,each of the  
other planets had his own particular    
name4 ,some of them1 such as ,bel       
7,jupiter71 ,merodaez 7,mars71 ,nebo    
7,mercury71 were regarded as male1 and  
the others1 as ,sin 7the ,moon71 and    
,mylitta or ,baulthis 7,venus71 as      
females2 and from their position        

relative to the zodiacal constellations1
 which were also called ,lords or       
masters of the ,gods1 the ,chaldaeans   
derived the knowledge of the destiny of 
the men who were born under such and    
such a conjunction--predictions which   
the ,greeks afterwards called           
horoscopes4 ,the ,chaldaeans invented   
also relations between each of the      
planets and meteorological phenomena1 an
 opinion partly founded on fortuitous   
coincidences which they had more or less
 frequently observed4 ,in the time of   
,alexander their credit was             
considerable1 and the king of           
,macedonia1 either from superstition or 
policy1 was in the habit of consulting  
them4  ,it is probable that the         
,babylonian priests1 who referred every 
natural property to sidereal influences1
 imagined there were some mysterious    
relations between the planets and the   
metals whose colours were respectively  
somewhat analogous to theirs4 ,gold     
corresponded to the sun1 silver to the  

moon1 lead to ,saturn1 iron to ,mars1   
tin to ,jupiter1 and mercury still      
retains the name of the planet with     
which it was associated4 ,it is less    
than two centuries ago1 since the metals
 have ceased to be designated by the    
signs of their respective planets4      
,alchemy1 the mother of chemistry1 was  
an intimately connected sister of       
,astrology1 the mother of ,astronomy4   
,egyptian civilisation dates back to a  
no less remote period than that of      
,babylon4 ,not less careful observers   
than the ,babylonish astrologers of the 
meteors and the atmospheric revolutions1
 they could predict certain phenomena1  
and they gave it out that they had      
themselves been the cause of them4      
,diodorus ,siculus tells us that the    
,egyptian priests pretty generally      
predicted the years of barrenness or    
abundance1 the contagions1 the          
earthquakes1 inundations1 and comets4   
,the knowledge of celestial phenomena   
made an essential part of the theology  

of the ,egyptians as it did of the      
,chaldaeans4 ,they had colleges of      
priests specially attached to the study 
of the stars1 at which ,pythagoras1     
,plato1 and ,eudoxus were instructed4   
,religion was besides completely filled 
with the symbols relating to the sun or 
moon4 ,each month1 each decade1 each day
 was consecrated to a particular god4   
,these gods1 to the number of thirty1   
were called in the ,alexandrine         
astronomy decans 7,greek3 dekavoi74 ,the
 festivals were marked by the periodical
 return of certain astronomical         
phenomena1 and those heliacal risings to
 which any mythological ideas were      
attached1 were noted with great care4   
,we find even now proof of this old     
sacerdotal science in the zodiac        
sculptured on the ceilings of certain   
temples1 and in the hieroglyphic        
inscriptions relating to celestial      
phenomena4  ,according to the           
,egyptians1 who were no less aware than 
the ,greeks1 of the influence of        

atmospheric changes on our organs1 the  
different stars had a special action on 
each part of the body4 ,in the funeral  
rituals which were placed at the bottom 
of the coffins1 constant allusion is    
made to this theory4 ,each limb of the  
dead body was placed under the          
protection of a particular god4 ,the    
divinities divided between them1 so to  
speak1 the spoils of the dead4 ,the head
 belonged to ,ra1 or the ,sun1 the nose 
and lips to ,anubis1 and so on4 ,to     
establish the horoscope of anyone1 this 
theory of specific influences was       
combined with the state of the heavens  
at the time of his birth4 ,it seems even
 to have been the doctrine of the       
,egyptians1 that a particular star      
indicated the coming of each man into   
the world1 and this opinion was held    
also by the ,medes1 and is alluded to in
 the ,gospels4 ,in ,egypt1 as in ,persia
 and ,chaldaea1 the science of nature   
was a sacred doctrine1 of which magic   
and astrology constituted the two       

branches1 and in which the phenomena of 
the universe were attached very firmly  
to the divinities or genii with which   
they believed it filled4 ,it was the    
same in the primitive religions of      
,greece4  ,the ,thessalian women had an 
especially great reputation in the art  
of enchantments4 ,all the poets rival   
one another in declaring how they are   
able1 by their magical hymns1 to bring  
down the moon4 ,menander1 in his comedy 
entitled ,the ,thessalian1 represents   
the mysterious ceremonies by the aid of 
which these sorcerers force the moon to 
leave the heavens1 a prodigy which so   
completely became the type of           
enchantments that ,nonnus tells us it is
 done by the ,brahmins4 ,there was1 in  
addition1 another cultus in ,greece1    
namely1 that of ,hecate with mysterious 
rays1 the patron of sorcerers4 ,lucian  
of ,samosate--if the work on astrology  
which is ascribed to him be really      
his--justifies his belief in the        
influence of the stars in the following 

terms3--,the stars follow their orbit in
 the heaven2 but independently of their 
motion1 they act upon what passes here  
below4 ,if you admit that a horse in a  
gallop1 that birds in flying1 and men in
 walking1 make the stones jump or drive 
the little floating particles of dust by
 the wind of their course1 why should   
you deny that the stars have any effect8
 ,the smallest fire sends us its        
emanations1 and although it is not for  
us that the stars burn1 and they care   
very little about warming us1 why should
 we not receive any emanations from     
them8 ,astrology1 it is true1 cannot    
make that good which is evil4 ,it can   
effect no change in the course of       
events2 but it renders a service to     
those who cultivate it by announcing to 
them good things to come2 it procures   
joy by anticipation at the same time    
that it fortifies them against the evil4
 ,misfortune1 in fact1 does not take    
them by surprise1 the foreknowledge of  
it renders it easier and lighter4 ,that 

is my way of looking at astrology4      
,very different is the opinion of the   
satirist ,juvenal1 who says that women  
are the chief cultivators of it4 ,all   
that an astrologer predicts to them1 he 
says1 they think to come from the temple
 of ,jupiter4 ,avoid meeting with a lady
 who is always casting up her           
ephemerides1 who is so good an          
astrologer that she has ceased to       
consult1 and is already beginning to be 
consulted2 such a one on the inspection 
of the stars will refuse to accompany   
her husband to the army or to his native
 land4 ,if she only wishes to drive a   
mile1 the hour of departure is taken    
from her book of astrology4 ,if her eye 
itches and wants rubbing1 she will do   
nothing till she has run through her    
conjuring book4 ,if she is ill in bed1  
she will take her food only at the times
 fixed in her ,petosiris4 ,women of     
second-rate condition1 he adds1 go round
 the circus before consulting their     
destiny1 after which they show their    

hands and face to the diviner4  ,when   
,octavius came into the world a senator 
versed in astrology1 ,nigidius ,figulus1
 predicted the glorious destiny of the  
future emperor4 ,livia1 the wife of     
,tiberius1 asked another astrologer1    
,scribius1 what would be the destiny of 
her infant2 his reply was1 they say1    
like the other's4  ,the house of        
,poppea1 the wife of ,nero1 was always  
full of astrologers4 ,it was one of the 
soothsayers attached to her house1      
,ptolemy1 who predicted to ,otho his    
elevation to the empire1 at the time of 
the expedition into ,spain1 where he    
accompanied him4  ,the history of       
astrology under the ,roman empire       
supplies some very curious stories1 of  
which we may select an illustrative few4
  ,octavius1 in company with ,agrippa1  
consulted one day the astrologer        
,theagenes4 ,the future husband of      
,julia1 more credulous or more curious  
than the nephew of ,caesar1 was the     
first to take the horoscope4 ,theagenes 

foretold astonishing prosperity for him4
 ,octavius1 jealous of so happy a       
destiny1 and fearing that the reply     
would be less favourable to him1 instead
 of following the example of his        
companion1 refused at first to state the
 day of his birth4 ,but1 curiosity      
getting the better of him1 he decided to
 reply4 ,no sooner had he told the day  
of his birth than the astrologer threw  
himself at his feet1 and worshipped him 
as the future master of the empire4     
,octavius was transported with joy1 and 
from that moment was a firm believer in 
astrology4 ,to commemorate the happy    
influence of the zodiacal sign under    
which he was born1 he had the picture of
 it struck on some of the medals that   
were issued in his reign4  ,the masters 
of the empire believed in astrological  
divination1 but wished to keep the      
advantages to themselves4 ,they wanted  
to know the future without allowing     
their subjects to do the same4 ,nero    
would not permit anyone to study        

philosophy1 saying it was a vain and    
frivolous thing1 from which one might   
take a pretext to divine future events4 
,he feared lest some one should push his
 curiosity so far as to wish to find out
 when and how the emperor should die--a 
sort of indiscreet question1 replies to 
which lead to conspiracies and attempts4
 ,this was what the heads of the state  
were most afraid of4  ,tiberius had been
 to ,rhodes1 to a soothsayer of renown1 
to instruct himself in the rules of     
astrology4 ,he had attached to his      
person the celebrated astrologer        
,thrasyllus1 whose fate-revealing       
science he proved by one of those       
pleasantries which are only possible    
with tyrants4  ,whenever ,tiberius      
consulted an astrologer he placed him in
 the highest part of his palace1 and    
employed for his purpose an ignorant and
 powerful freedman1 who brought by      
difficult paths1 bounded by precipices1 
the astrologer whose science his        
,majesty wished to prove4 ,on the return

 journey1 if the astrologer was         
suspected of indiscretion or treachery1 
the freedman threw him into the sea1 to 
bury the secret4 ,thrasyllus having been
 brought by the same route across these 
precipices1 struck ,tiberius with awe   
while he questioned him1 by showing him 
his sovereign power1 and easily         
disclosing the things of the future4    
,caesar asked him if he had taken his   
own horoscope1 and with what signs were 
marked that day and hour for himself4   
,thrasyllus then examined the position  
and the distance of the stars2 he       
hesitated at first1 then he grew pale2  
then he looked again1 and finally1      
trembling with astonishment and fear1 he
 cried out that the moment was perilous1
 and he was very near his last hour4    
,tiberius then embraced him and         
congratulated him on having escaped a   
danger by foreseeing it2 and accepting  
henceforth all his predictions as       
oracles1 he admitted him to the number  
of his intimate friends4  ,tiberius had 

a great number of people put to death   
who were accused of having taken their  
horoscope to know what honours were in  
store for them1 although in secret he   
took the horoscopes of great people1    
that he might ascertain that he had no  
rivalry to fear from them4 ,septimus    
,severus was very nearly paying with his
 head for one of those superstitious    
curiosities that brought the ambitious  
of the time to the astrologer4 ,in      
prosperous times he had gained faith in 
their predictions1 and consulted them   
about important acts4 ,having lost his  
wife1 and wishing to contract a second  
marriage1 he took the horoscopes of the 
well-connected ladies who were at the   
time open to marriage4 ,none of their   
fortunes1 taken by the rules of         
astrology1 were encouraging4 ,he learnt 
at last that there was living in ,syria 
a young woman to whom the ,chaldaeans   
had predicted that she should be the    
wife of a king4 ,severus was as yet but 
a legate4 ,he hastened to demand her in 

marriage1 and he obtained her2 ,julia   
was the name of the woman who was born  
under so happy a star2 but was he the   
crowned husband which the stars had     
promised to the young ,syrian8 ,this    
reflection soon began to perplex        
,severus1 and to get out of his         
perplexity he went to ,sicily to consult
 an astrologer of renown4 ,the matter   
came to the ears of the ,emperor        
,commodus2 and judge of his anger6 ,the 
anger of ,commodus was rage and frenzy2 
but the event soon gave the response    
that ,severus was seeking in            
,sicily1--,commodus was strangled4      
,divination which had the emperor for   
its object at last came to be a crime of
 high treason4 ,the rigorous measures   
resorted to against the indiscreet      
curiosity of ambition took more terrible
 proportions under the ,christian       
emperors4  ,under ,constantine1 a number
 of persons who had applied to the      
oracles were punished with cruel        
tortures4  ,under ,valens1 a certain    

,palladius was the agent of a terrible  
persecution4 ,everyone found himself    
exposed to being denounced for having   
relations with soothsayers4 ,traitors   
slipped secretly into houses magic      
formulae and charms1 which then became  
so many proofs against the inhabitant4  
,the fear was so great in the ,east1    
says ,ammienus ,marcellinus1 that a     
great number burned their books1 lest   
matter should be found in them for an   
accusation of magic or sorcery4  ,one   
day in anger1 ,vitellius commanded all  
the astrologers to leave ,italy by a    
certain day4 ,they responded by a       
poster1 which impudently commanded the  
prince to leave the earth before that   
date1 and at the end of the year        
,vitellius was put to death2 on the     
other hand1 the confidence accorded to  
astrologers led sometimes to the        
greatest extremes4 ,for instance1 after 
having consulted ,babylus1 ,nero put to 
death all those whose prophecies        
promised the elevation of ,heliogabalus4

 ,another instance was that of ,marcus  
,aurelius and his wife ,faustina4 ,the  
latter was struck with the beauty of a  
gladiator4 ,for a long time she vainly  
strove in secret with the passion that  
consumed her1 but the passion did       
nothing but increase4 ,at last ,faustina
 revealed the matter to her husband1 and
 asked him for some remedy that should  
restore peace to her troubled soul4 ,the
 philosophy of ,marcus ,aurelius could  
not suggest anything4 ,so he decided to 
consult the ,chaldaeans1 who were adepts
 at the art of mixing philters and      
composing draughts4 ,the means          
prescribed were more simple than might  
have been expected from their           
complicated science2 it was that the    
gladiator should be cut in pieces4 ,they
 added that ,faustina should afterwards 
be anointed with the blood of the       
victim4 ,the remedy was applied1 the    
innocent athlete was immolated1 and the 
empress afterwards only dreamed of him  
with great pleasure4  ,the first        

,christians were as much addicted to    
astrology as the other sects4 ,the      
,councils of ,laodicea 7#cff1 ,a4,d471  
of ,arles 7#cad71 of ,agdus 7#eje71     
,orleans 7#eaa71 ,auxerre 7#egj71 and   
,narbonne 7#ehi71 condemned the         
practice4 ,according to a tradition of  
the commencement of our era1 which      
appears to have been borrowed from      
,mazdeism1 it was the rebel angels who  
taught men astrology and the use of     
charms4  ,under ,constantius the crime  
of high treason served as a pretext for 
persecution4 ,a number of people were   
accused of it1 who simply continued to  
practise the ancient religion4 ,it was  
pretended that they had recourse to     
sorceries against the life of the       
emperor1 in order to bring about his    
fall4 ,those who consulted the oracles  
were menaced with severe penalties and  
put to death by torture1 under the      
pretence that by dealing with questions 
of fate they had criminal intentions4   
,plots without number multiplied the    

accusations2 and the cruelty of the     
judges aggravated the punishments4 ,the 
pagans1 in their turn had to suffer the 
martyrdom which they had previously     
inflicted on the early disciples of     
,christ--or rather1 to be truer1 it was 
authority1 always intolerable1 whether  
pagan or ,christian1 that showed itself 
inexorable against those who dared to   
differ from the accepted faith4         
,libanius and ,jamblicus were accused of
 having attempted to discover the name  
of the successor to the empire4         
,jamblicus1 being frightened at the     
prosecution brought against him1        
poisoned himself4 ,the name only of     
philosopher was sufficient to found an  
accusation upon4 ,the philosopher       
,maximus ,diogenes ,alypius1 and his son
 ,hierocles1 were condemned to lose     
their lives on the most frivolous       
pretence4 ,an old man was put to death  
because he was in the habit of driving  
off the approach of fever by            
incantations1 and a young man who was   

surprised in the act of putting his     
hands alternately to a marble and his   
breast1 because he thought that by      
counting in this way seven times seven1 
he might cure the stomach-ache1 met with
 the same fate4  ,theodosius prohibited 
every kind of manifestation or usage    
connected with pagan belief4 ,whoever   
should dare to immolate a victim1 said  
his law1 or consult the entrails of the 
animals he had killed1 should be        
regarded as guilty of the crime of high 
treason4  ,the fact of having recourse  
to a process of divination was          
sufficient for an accusation against a  
man4  ,theodosius ,,ii4 thought that the
 continuation of idolatrous practices   
had drawn down the wrath of heaven1 and 
brought upon them the recent calamities 
that had afflicted his empire--the      
derangement of the seasons and the      
sterility of the soil--and he thundered 
out terrible threats when his faith and 
his anger united themselves into        
fanaticism4  ,he wrote as follows to    

,florentius1 prefect of the praetorium  
in #dci1 the year that preceded his     
death3--  ,are we to suffer any longer  
from the seasons being upset by the     
effect of the divine wrath1 on account  
of the atrocious perfidy of the pagans1 
which disturbs the equilibrium of       
nature8 ,for what is the cause that now 
the spring has no longer its ordinary   
beauty1 that the autumn no longer       
furnishes a harvest to the laborious    
workman and that the winter1 by its     
rigour1 freezes the soil and renders it 
sterile8  ,perhaps we are unduly amused 
with these ideas of ,theodosius so long 
as we retain the custom of asking the   
special intervention of ,providence for 
the presence or absence of rain6  ,in   
the middle ages1 when astrology took    
such a hold on the world1 several       
philosophers went so far as to consider 
the celestial vault as a book1 in which 
each star1 having the value of one of   
the letters of the alphabet1 told in    
ineffaceable characters the destiny of  

every empire4 ,the book of ,unheard-of  
,curiosities1 by ,gaffarel1 gives us the
 configuration of these celestial       
characters1 and we find them also in the
 writings of ,cornelius ,agrippa4 ,the  
middle ages took their astrological     
ideas from the ,arabians and ,jews4 ,the
 ,jews themselves at this epoch borrowed
 their principles from such contaminated
 sources that we are not able to trace  
in them the transmission of the ancient 
ideas4 ,to give an example1 ,simeon     
,ben-,jochai1 to whom is attributed the 
famous book called ,zohar1 had attained 
in their opinion such a prodigious      
acquaintance with celestial mysteries as
 indicated by the stars1 that he could  
have read the divine law in the heavens 
before it had been promulgated on the   
earth4 ,during the whole of the middle  
ages1 whenever they wanted to clear up  
doubts about geography or astronomy1    
they always had recourse to this        
,oriental science1 as cultivated by the 
,jews and ,arabians4 ,in the thirteenth 

century ,alphonse ,x4 was very          
importunate with the ,jews to make them 
assist him with their advice in his vast
 astronomical and historical works4     
,nicholas ,oresmus1 when the most       
enlightened monarch in ,europe was      
supplying ,du ,guesclin with an         
astrologer to guide him in his          
strategical operations1 was physician to
 ,charles ,v4 of ,france1 who was       
himself devoted to astrology1 and gave  
him the bishopric of ,lisieux4 ,he      
composed the ,treatise of the ,sphere1  
of which we have already spoken4 ,a few 
years later1 a learned man1 the bishop  
,peter d',ailly1 actually dared to take 
the horoscope of ,jesus ,christ1 and    
proved by most certain rules that the   
great event which inaugurated the new   
era was marked with very notable signs  
in astrology4  ,mathias ,corvin1 ,king  
of ,hungary1 never undertook anything   
without first consulting the            
astrologers4 ,the ,duke of ,milan and   
,pope ,paul also governed themselves by 

their advice4 ,king ,louis ,,xi41 who so
 heartily despised the rest of mankind1 
and had as much malice in him as he had 
weakness1 had a curious adventure with  
an astrologer4  ,it was told him that an
 astrologer had had the hardihood to    
predict the death of a woman of whom the
 king was very fond4 ,he sent for the   
wretched prophet1 gave him a severe     
reprimand1 and then asked him the       
question1 ,you1 who know everything1    
when will you die8 ,the astrologer1     
suspecting a trick1 replied immediately1
 ,sire1 three days before your ,majesty4
 ,fear and superstition overcame the    
monarch's resentment1 and the king took 
particular care of the adroit impostor4 
,it is well known how much ,catherine de
 ,medicis was under the influence of the
 astrologers4 ,she had one in her ,hotel
 de ,soissons in ,paris1 who watched    
constantly at the top of a tower4 ,this 
tower is still in existence1 by the     
,wool-,market1 which was built in #agfc 
on the site of the hotel4 ,it is        

surmounted by a sphere and a solar dial1
 placed there by the astronomer ,pingre4
  ,one of the most celebrated of the    
astrologers who was under her patronage 
was ,nostradamus4 ,he was a physician of
 ,provence1 and was born at ,st4 ,reny  
in #aejc4 ,to medicine he joined        
astrology1 and undertook to predict     
future events4 ,he was called to ,paris 
by ,catherine in #aeef1 and attempted to
 write his oracles in poetry4 ,his      
little book was much sought after during
 the whole of the remainder of the      
sixteenth century1 and even in the      
beginning of the next4 ,according to    
contemporary writers many imitations    
were made of it4 ,it was written in     
verses of four lines1 and was called    
,quatrains ,astronomiques4 ,as usual1   
the prophecies were obscure enough to   
suit anything1 and many believers have  
thought they could trace in the various 
verses prophecies of known events1 by   
duly twisting and manipulating the      
sense4  ,a very amusing prophecy1 which 

happened to be too clear to leave room  
for mistakes as to its meaning1 and     
which turned out to be most ludicrously 
wrong1 was one contained in a little    
book published in #aegb with this       
title3--,prognostication touching the   
marriage of the very honourable and     
beloved ,henry1 by the ,grace of ,god   
,king of ,navarre1 and the very         
illustrious ,princess ,marguerite of    
,france1 calculated by ,master ,bernard 
,abbatio1 ,doctor in ,medicine1 and     
,astrologer to the very ,christian ,king
 of ,france4  ,first he asked if the    
marriage would be happy1 and            
says3--,having in my library made the   
figure of the heavens1 ,i found that the
 lord of the ascendant is joined to the 
lord of the seventh house1 which is for 
the woman of a trine aspect1 from whence
 ,i have immediately concluded1         
according to the opinion of ,ptolemy1   
,haly1 ,zael1 ,messahala1 and many other
 sovereign astrologers1 that they will  
love one another intensely all their    

lives4 ,in point of fact they always    
detested each other4 ,again1 as to      
length of life1 ,i have prepared another
 figure1 and have found that ,jupiter   
and ,venus are joined to the sun with   
fortification1 and that they will       
approach a hundred years2 after all     
,henri ,,iv4 died before he was sixty4  
,our good ,king of ,navarre will have by
 his most noble and virtuous ,queen many
 children2 since1 after ,i had prepared 
another figure of heaven1 ,i found the  
ascendant and its lord1 together with   
the moon1 all joined to the lord of the 
fifth house1 called that of children1   
which will be pretty numerous1 on       
account of ,jupiter and also of ,venus2 
and yet they had no children6 ,jupiter  
and ,venus are found domiciled on the   
aquatic signs1 and since these two      
planets are found concordant with the   
lord of the ascendant1 all this proves  
that the children will be upright and   
good1 and that they will love their     
father and mother1 without doing them   

any injury1 nor being the cause of their
 destruction1 as is seen in the fruit of
 the nut1 which breaks1 opens1 and      
destroys the stock from which it took   
its birth4 ,the children will live long1
 they will be good ,christians1 and with
 their father will make themselves so   
benign and favourable towards those of  
our religion1 that at last they will be 
as beloved as any man of our period1 and
 there will be no more wars among the   
,french1 as there would have been but   
for the present marriage4 ,god grant us 
grace that so long as we are in this    
transitory life we may see no other king
 but ,charles ,,ix41 the present ,king  
of ,france4 ,and yet these words were   
written in the year of the massacre of  
,st4 ,bartholomew's day6 and the        
marriage was broken off1 and ,henri     
,,iv4 married to ,marie de ,medici4 ,so 
much for the astrological predictions6  
,the aspect in which astrology was      
looked upon by the better minds even    
when it was flourishing may be          

illustrated by two quotations we may    
make1 from ,shakespeare and ,voltaire4  
,our immortal poet puts into the mouth  
of ,edmund in ,king ,lear3--,this is the
 excellent foppery of the world1 that   
when we are sick in fortune 7often the  
surfeit of our own behaviour7 we make   
guilty of our disasters the sun1 the    
moon1 and the stars1 as if we were      
villains by necessity2 fools by heavenly
 compulsion2 knaves1 thieves1 and       
treacherous1 by spherical predominance2 
drunkards1 liars1 and adulterers by an  
enforced obedience of planetary         
influence2 and all that we are evil in1 
by a divine thrusting on4 ,an admirable 
evasion of a libertine to lay his       
goatish disposition to the charge of a  
star6 ,my father married my mother under
 the ,dragon's tail2 and my nativity was
 under ,ursa major2 so that it follows  
,i am rough lecherous4 ,tut1 ,i should  
have been that ,i am1 had the           
maidenliest star in the firmament       
twinkled on my birth4  ,voltaire writes 

thus3--,this error is ancient1 and that 
is enough4 ,the ,egyptians1 the         
,chaldaeans1 the ,jews could predict1   
and therefore we can predict now4 ,if no
 more predictions are made it is not the
 fault of the art4 ,so said the         
alchemists of the philosopher's stone4  
,if you do not find to-day it is because
 you are not clever enough2 but it is   
certain that it is in the clavicle of   
,solomon1 and on that certainty more    
than two hundred families in ,germany   
and ,france have been ruined4 ,do you   
wonder either that so many men1         
otherwise much exalted above the vulgar1
 such as princes or popes1 who knew     
their interests so well1 should be so   
ridiculously seduced by this            
impertinence of astrology4 ,they were   
very proud and very ignorant4 ,there    
were no stars but for them2 the rest of 
the universe was canaille1 for whom the 
stars did not trouble themselves4 ,i    
have not the honour of being a prince4  
,nevertheless1 the celebrated ,count of 

,boulainvilliers and an ,italian1 called
 ,colonne1 who had great reputation in  
,paris1 both predicted to me that ,i    
should infallibly die at the age of     
thirty-two4 ,i have had the malice      
already to deceive them by thirty years1
 for which ,i humbly beg their pardon4  
,the method by which these predictions  
were arrived at consisted in making the 
different stars and planets responsible 
for different parts of the body1        
different properties1 and different     
events1 and making up stories from the  
association of ideas thus obtained1     
which of course admitted of the greatest
 degree of latitude4 ,the principles are
 explained by ,manilius in his great    
poem entitled ,the ,astronomicals1      
written two thousand years ago4         
,according to him the sun presided over 
the head1 the moon over the right arm1  
,venus over the left1 ,jupiter over the 
stomach1 ,mars the parts below1 ,mercury
 over the right leg1 and ,saturn over   
the left4  ,among the constellations1   

the ,ram governed the head2 the ,bull   
the neck2 the ,twins the arms and       
shoulders2 the ,crab the chest and the  
heart2 the ,lion the stomach2 the       
abdomen corresponded to the sign of the 
,virgin2 the reins to the ,balance2 then
 came the ,scorpion2 the ,archer1       
governing the thighs2 the ,he-goat the  
knees2 the ,waterer the legs2 and the   
,fishes the feet4  ,albert the ,great   
assigned to the stars the following     
influences3--,saturn was thought to rule
 over life1 changes1 sciences1 and      
buildings2 ,jupiter over honour1 wishes1
 riches1 and cleanness2 ,mars over war1 
prisons1 marriages1 and hatred2 the sun 
over hope1 happiness1 gain1 and         
heritages2 ,venus over friendships and  
amours2 ,mercury over illness1 debts1   
commerce1 and fear2 the moon over       
wounds1 dreams1 and larcenies4  ,each of
 these stars also presides over         
particular days of the week1 particular 
colours1 and particular metals4  ,the   
sun governed the ,sunday2 the moon1     

,monday2 ,mars1 ,tuesday2 ,mercury1     
,wednesday2 ,jupiter1 ,thursday2 ,venus1
 ,friday2 and ,saturn1 ,saturday2 which 
is partially indicated by our own names 
of the week1 but more particularly in   
the ,french names1 which are each and   
all derived from these stars4  ,the sun 
represented yellow2 the moon1 white2    
,venus1 green2 ,mars1 red2 ,jupiter1    
blue2 ,saturn1 black2 ,mercury1 shaded  
colours4  ,we have already indicated the
 metals that corresponded to each4  ,the
 sun was reckoned to be beneficent and  
favourable2 ,saturn to be sad1 morose1  
and cold2 ,jupiter1 temperate and       
benign2 ,mars1 vehement2 ,venus1        
benevolent and fertile2 ,mercury1       
inconstant2 and the moon1 melancholy4   
,among the constellations1 the ,ram1 the
 ,lion1 and the ,archer were hot1 dry   
and vehement4 ,the ,bull1 the ,virgin1  
and the ,he-goat were heavy1 cold1 and  
dry2 the ,twins1 the ,balance1 and the  
,waterer were light1 hot1 and moist2 the
 ,crab1 ,scorpion1 and the ,fishes were 

moist1 soft1 and cold4  ,illustration3  
,,plate ,,xv4--,,an ,,astrologer ,,at   
,,work4  ,in this way the heavens were  
made to be intimately connected with the
 affairs of earth2 and astrology was in 
equally intimate connection with        
astronomy1 of which it may in some sense
 be considered the mother4 ,the drawers 
of horoscopes were at one time as much  
in request as lawyers or doctors4 ,one  
,thurneisen1 a famous astrologer and an 
extraordinary man1 who lived last       
century at the electoral court of       
,berlin1 was at the same time physician1
 chemist1 drawer of horoscopes1 almanack
 maker1 printer1 and librarian4 ,his    
astrological reputation was so          
widespread that scarcely a birth took   
place in families of any rank in        
,germany1 ,poland1 ,hungary1 or even    
,england without there being sent an    
immediate envoy to him to announce the  
precise moment of birth4 ,he received   
often three and sometimes as many as ten
 messages a day1 and he was at last so  

pressed with business that he was       
obliged to take associates and agents4  
,in the days of ,kepler we know that    
astrology was more thought of than      
astronomy1 for though on behalf of the  
world he worked at the latter1 for his  
own daily bread he was in the employ of 
the former1 making almanacks and drawing
 horoscopes that he might live4         
,,chapter ,,xiv4  ,,time ,,and ,,the    
,,calendar4   ,the opinions of thinkers 
on the nature of time have been very    
varied4 ,some have considered time as an
 absolute reality1 which is exactly     
measured by hours1 days1 and years1 and 
is as known and real as any other object
 whose existence is known to us4 ,others
 maintain that time is only a matter of 
sensation1 or that it is an illusion1 or
 a hallucination of a lively brain4     
,the definitions given of it by         
different great writers is as various4  
,thus ,kant calls it one of the forms of
 sensibility4 ,schelling declares it is 
pure activity with the negation of all  

being4 ,leibnitz defines it the order of
 successions as he defined space to be  
the order of co-existences4 ,newton and 
,clarke make space and time two         
attributes of the ,deity4  ,a study of  
the astronomical phenomena of the       
universe1 and a consideration of their  
teaching1 give us authority for saying1 
that neither space nor time are         
realities1 but that the only things     
absolute are eternity and infinity4  ,in
 fact1 we give the name of time to the  
succession of the terrestrial events    
measured by the motion of the earth4 ,if
 the earth were not to move1 we should  
have no means of measuring1 and         
consequently no idea of time as we have 
it now4 ,so long as it was believed that
 the earth was at rest1 and that the sun
 and all the stars turned round us1 this
 apparent motion was then1 as the real  
motion of the earth is now1 the method  
of generating time4 ,in fact1 the       
,fathers said that at the end of the    
world the diurnal motion would cease1   

and there would be no more time4 ,but   
let us examine the fact a little        
further4  ,suppose for an instant that  
the earth was1 as it was formerly       
believed to be1 an immense flat surface1
 which was illuminated by a sun which   
remained always immovable at the zenith1
 or by an invariable diffused           
light--such an earth being supposed to  
be alone by itself in the universe and  
immovable4 ,now if there were a man     
created on that earth1 would there be   
such a thing as time for him8 ,the light
 which illumines him is immovable4 ,no  
moving shadow1 no gnomon1 no sun-dial   
would be possible4 ,no day nor night1 no
 morning nor evening1 no year4 ,nothing 
that could be divided into days1 hours1 
minutes1 and seconds4  ,in such a case  
one would have to fall back upon some   
other terminating events1 which would   
indicate a lapse of time2 such for      
instance as the life of a man4 ,this1   
however1 would be no universal measure1 
for on one planet the life might be a   

thousand years1 and on another only a   
hundred4  ,or we may look at it in      
another way4 ,suppose the earth were to 
turn twice as fast about itself and     
about the sun1 the persons who lived    
sixty of such years would only have     
lived thirty of our present years1 but  
they would have seen sixty revolutions  
of the earth1 and1 rigorously speaking1 
would have lived sixty years4 ,if the   
earth turned ten times as fast1 sixty   
years would be reduced to ten1 but they 
would still be sixty of those years4 ,we
 should live just as long2 there would  
be four seasons1 #cfe days1 c41 only    
everything would be more rapid3 but it  
would be exactly the same thing for us1 
and the other apparently celestial      
motions having a similar diminution1    
there would be no change perceived by   
us4  ,again1 consider the minute animals
 that are observable under the          
microscope1 which live but for five     
minutes4 ,during that period1 they have 
time to be born and to grow4 ,from      

embryos they become adult1 marry1 so to 
speak1 and have a numerous progeny1     
which they develop and send into the    
world4 ,afterwards they die1 and all    
this in a few minutes4 ,the impressions 
which1 in spite of their minuteness1 we 
are justified in presuming them to      
possess1 though rapid and fleeting1 may 
be as profound for them in proportion as
 ours are to us1 and their measure of   
time would be very different from ours4 
,all is relative4 ,in absolute value1 a 
life completed in a hundred years is not
 longer than one that is finished in    
five minutes4  ,it is the same for      
space4 ,the earth has a diameter of     
#h1jjj miles1 and we are five or six    
feet high4 ,now if1 by any process1 the 
earth should diminish till it became as 
small as a marble1 and if the different 
elements of the world underwent a       
corresponding diminution1 our mountains 
might become as small as grains of sand1
 the ocean might be but a drop1 and we  
ourselves might be smaller than the     

microscopic animals adverted to above4  
,but for all that nothing would have    
changed for us4 ,we should still be our 
five or six feet high1 and the earth    
would remain exactly the same number of 
our miles4  ,a value then that can be   
decreased and diminished at pleasure    
without change is not a mathematical    
absolute value4 ,in this sense then it  
may be said that neither time nor space 
have any real existence4  ,or once      
again4 ,suppose that instead of our     
being on the globe1 we were placed in   
pure space4 ,what time should we find   
there8 ,no time4 ,we might remain ten   
years1 twenty1 a hundred1 or a thousand 
years1 but we should never arrive at the
 next year6 ,in fact each planet makes  
its own time for its inhabitants1 and   
where there is no planet or anything    
answering to it there is no time4       
,jupiter makes for its inhabitants a    
year which is equal to twelve years of  
ours1 and a day of ten of our hours4    
,saturn has a year equal to thirty of   

ours1 and days of ten hours and a       
quarter4 ,in other solar systems there  
are two or three suns1 so that it is    
difficult to imagine what sort of time  
they can have4 ,all this infinite       
diversity of time takes place in        
eternity1 the only thing that is real4  
,the whole history of the earth and its 
inhabitants takes place1 not in time1   
but in eternity4 ,before the existence  
of the earth and our solar system1 there
 was another time1 measured by other    
motions1 and having relation to other   
beings4 ,when the earth shall exist no  
longer1 there may be in the place we now
 occupy1 another time again1 for other  
beings4 ,but they are not realities4 ,a 
hundred millions of centuries1 and a    
second1 have the same real length in    
eternity4 ,in the middle of space1 we   
could not tell the difference4 ,our     
finite minds are not capable of grasping
 the infinite1 and it is well to know   
that our only idea of time is relative1 
having relation to the regular events   

that befall this planet in its course1  
and not a thing which we can in any way 
compare with that1 which is so alarming 
to the ideas of some--eternity4  ,we    
have then to deal with the particular   
form of time that our planet makes for  
us1 for our personal use4  ,it turns    
about the sun4 ,an entire circuit forms 
a period1 which we can use for a measure
 in our terrestrial affairs4 ,we call it
 a year1 or in ,latin annus1 signifying 
a circle1 whence our word annual4  ,a   
second1 shorter revolution1 turns the   
earth upon itself1 and brings each      
meridian directly facing the sun1 and   
then round again to the opposite side4  
,this period we call a day1 from the    
,latin dies1 which in ,italian becomes  
giorne1 whence the ,french jour4 ,in    
,sanscrit we have the same word in      
dyaus4  ,the length of time that it     
takes for the earth to arrive at the    
same position with respect to the stars1
 which is called a sidereal year1       
amounts to #cfe4befcgdd days4 ,but      

during this time1 as we have seen1 the  
equinox is displaced among the stars4   
,this secular retrogression brings it   
each year a little to the east of its   
former position1 so that the sun arrives
 there about eleven minutes too soon4   
,by taking this amount from the sidereal
 we obtain the tropical year1 which has 
reference to the seasons and the        
calendar4 ,its length is #cfe4bdbbaff   
days1 or #cfe days1 #e hours1 #dh       
minutes1 #dg4h seconds4  ,in what way   
was the primitive year regulated8 was it
 a solar or a sidereal year8  ,there can
 be no doubt that when there was an     
absence of all civilisation and a       
calendar of any sort was unknown1 the   
year meant simply the succession of     
seasons1 and that no attempt would be   
made to reckon any day as its           
commencement4 ,and as soon as this was  
attempted a difficulty would arise from 
there not being an exact number of days 
in the year4 ,so that when reckoned as  
the interval between certain positions  

of the sun they would be of different   
lengths1 which would introduce some     
difficulty as to the commencement of the
 year4 ,be this the case1 however1 or   
not1 ,mr4 ,haliburton's researches seem 
to show that the earliest form of year  
was the sidereal one1 and that it was   
regulated by the ,pleiades4  ,in        
speaking of that constellation we have  
noticed that among the islanders of the 
southern hemisphere and others there are
 two years in one of ours1 the first    
being called the ,pleiades above and the
 second the ,pleiades below2 and we have
 seen how the same new year's day has   
been recognised in very many parts of   
the world and among the ancient         
,egyptians and ,hindoos4 ,this year     
would begin in ,november1 and from the  
intimate relation of all the primitive  
calendars that have been discovered to a
 particular day1 taken as ,november #ag 
by the ,egyptians1 it would appear      
probable that for a long time           
corrections were made both by the       

,egyptians and others in order to keep  
the phenomenon of the ,pleiades just    
rising at sunset to one particular named
 day of their year--showing that the    
year they used was a sidereal one4 ,this
 can be traced back as far as #acee     
,b4,c4 among the ,egyptians1 and to     
#acjf ,b4,c4 among the ,hindoos4 ,there 
seem to have been in use also shorter   
periods of three months1 which1 like the
 two-season year1 appear to have been1  
as they are now among the ,japanese1    
regulated by the different positions of 
the ,pleiades4  ,among the ,siamese of  
the present day1 there are both forms of
 the year existing1 one sidereal1       
beginning in ,november1 and regulated by
 the fore-named constellation2 and the  
other tropical1 beginning in ,april4    
,whether1 however1 the year be reckoned 
by the stars or by the sun1 there will  
always be a difficulty in arranging the 
length of the year1 because in each case
 there will be about a quarter of a day 
over4  ,it seems1 too1 to have been     

found more convenient in early times to 
take #cfj days as the length of the     
year1 and to add an intercalary month   
now and then1 rather than #cfe and add a
 day4  ,thus among the earliest         
,egyptians the year was of #cfj days1   
which were reckoned in the months1 and  
five days were added each year1 between 
the commencement of one and the end of  
the other1 and called unlucky days4 ,it 
was the belief of the ,egyptians that   
these five days were the birthdays of   
their principal gods2 ,osiris being born
 on the first1 ,anieris 7or ,apollo7 on 
the second1 ,typhon on the third1 ,isis 
on the fourth1 ,nephys 7or ,aphrodite7  
on the fifth4 ,these appear to have some
 relation with similar unlucky days     
among the ,greeks and ,romans1 and other
 nations4  ,the #cfj days of the        
,egyptian year were represented at      
,acantho1 near ,memphis1 in a symbolical
 way1 there being placed a perforated   
vessel1 which each day was filled with  
water by one of a company of #cfj       

priests1 each priest having charge over 
one day in the year4 ,a similar         
symbolism was used at the tomb of       
,osiris1 around which were placed #cfj  
pitchers1 one of which each day was     
filled with milk4  ,on the other hand1  
the #cfe days were represented by the   
tomb of ,osymandyas1 at ,thebes1 being  
surrounded by a circle of gold which was
 one cubit broad and #cfe cubits in     
circumference4 ,on the side were written
 the risings and settings of the stars1 
with the prognostications derived from  
them by the ,egyptian astrologers4 ,it  
was destroyed1 however1 by ,cambyses    
when the ,persians conquered ,egypt4    
,they divided their year according to   
,herodotus into twelve months1 the names
 of which have come down to us4  ,even  
with the #cfe days1 which their method  
of reckoning would practically come to1 
they would still be a quarter of a day  
each year short2 so that in four years  
it would amount to a whole day1 an error
 which would amount to something        

perceptible even during the life of a   
single man1 by its bringing the         
commencement of the civil year out of   
harmony with the seasons4 ,in fact the  
first day of the year would gradually go
 through all the seasons1 and at the end
 of #adfj solar years there would have  
been completed #adfa civil years1 which 
would bring back the day to its original
 position4 ,this period represents a    
cycle of years in which approximately   
the sun and the earth come to the same  
relative position again1 as regards the 
earth's rotation on its axis and        
revolution round the sun4 ,this cycle   
was noticed by ,firmicius4 ,another more
 accurate cycle of the same kind1       
noticed by ,syncellus1 is obtained by   
multiplying #adfa by #be1 making #cf1ebe
 years1 which takes into account the    
defect which the extra hours over #cfe  
have from six4 ,the ,egyptians1 however1
 did not allow their year to get into so
 large an error1 though it was in error 
by their using sidereal time1 regulating

 their year1 and intercalating days1    
first according to the risings of the   
,pleiades1 and after according to that  
of ,sirius1 the dog-star1 which         
announced to them the approaching       
overflowing of the ,nile1 a phenomenon  
of such great value to ,egypt that they 
celebrated it with annual fetes of the  
greatest magnificence4  ,among the      
,babylonians1 as we are informed by ,mr4
 ,sayce1 the year was divided into      
twelve lunar months and #cfj days1 an   
intercalary month being added whenever a
 certain star1 called the star of stars1
 or ,icu1 also called ,dilgan1 by the   
ancient ,accadians1 meaning the         
messenger of light1 and what is now     
called ,aldebaran1 which was just in    
advance of the sun when it crossed the  
vernal equinox1 was not parallel with   
the moon until the third of ,nisan1 that
 is1 two days after the equinox4 ,they  
also added shorter months of a few days 
each when this system became            
insufficient to keep their calendar     

correct4  ,they divided their year into 
four quarters of three months each2 the 
spring quarter not commencing with the  
beginning of the year when the sun      
entered the spring equinox1 proving that
 the arrangement of seasons was         
subsequent to the settling of the       
calendar4 ,the names of their months    
were given them from the corresponding  
signs of the zodiac2 which was the same 
as our own1 though the zodiac began with
 ,aries and the year with ,nisan4  ,they
 too had cycles1 but they arose from a  
very different cause2 not from errors of
 reckoning in the civil year or the     
revolution of the earth1 but from the   
variations of the weather4 ,every twelve
 solar years they expected to have the  
same weather repeated4 ,when we connect 
this with their observations on the     
varying brightness of the sun1          
especially at the commencement of the   
year on the first of ,nisan1 which they 
record at one time as bright yellow and 
at another as spotted1 and remember that

 modern researches have shown that      
weather is certainly in some way        
dependent on the solar spots1 which have
 a period now of about eleven years1 we 
cannot help fancying that they were very
 near to making these discoveries4  ,the
 year of the ancient ,persians consisted
 of #cfe days4 ,the extra quarter of a  
day was not noticed for #abj years1 at  
the end of which they intercalated a    
month--in the first instance1 at the end
 of the first month1 which was thus     
doubled4 ,at the end of another #abj    
years they inserted an intercalary month
 after the second month1 and so on      
through all their twelve months4 ,so    
that after #addj years the series began 
again4 ,this period they called the     
intercalary cycle4  ,the calendar among 
the ,greeks was more involved1 but more 
useful4 ,it was luni-solar1 that is to  
say1 they regulated it at the same time 
by the revolutions of the moon and the  
motion about the sun1 in the following  
manner3--  ,the year commenced with the 

new moon nearest to the #bjth or #bast  
of ,june1 the time of the summer        
solstice2 it was composed in general of 
twelve months1 each of which commenced  
on the day of the new moon1 and which   
had alternately twenty-nine and thirty  
days4  ,this arrangement1 conformable to
 the lunar year1 only gave #ced days to 
the civil year1 and as this was too     
short by ten days1 twenty-one hours1    
this difference1 by accumulation1       
produced nearly eighty-seven days at the
 end of eight years1 or three months of 
twenty-nine days each4 ,to bring the    
lunar years into accordance with the    
solstices1 it was necessary to add three
 intercalary months every eight years4  
,the phases of the moon being thus      
brought into comparison with the        
rotation of the earth1 a cycle was      
discovered by ,meton1 now known as the  
,metonic cycle1 useful also in          
predicting eclipses1 which comprised    
nineteen years1 during which time #bce  
lunations will have very nearly         

occurred1 and the full moons will return
 to the same dates4 ,in fact1 the year  
and the lunation are to one another very
 nearly in the proportion of #bce to    
#ai4 ,by observing for nineteen years   
the positions and phases of the moon1   
they will be found to return again in   
the same order at the same times1 and   
they can therefore be predicted4 ,this  
lunar cycle was adopted in the year #dcc
 ,b4,c4 to regulate the luni-solar      
calendar1 and it was engraved in letters
 of gold on the walls of the temple of  
,minerva1 from whence comes the name    
golden number1 which is given to the    
number that marks the place of the given
 year in this period of nineteen4       
,caliphus made a larger and more exact  
cycle by multiplying by four and taking 
away one day4 ,thus he made of #bg1gei  
days #gf ,julian years1 during which    
there were #idj lunations4  ,the ,roman 
calendar was even more complicated than 
the ,greek1 and not so good4 ,romulus is
 said to have given to his subjects a   

strange arrangement that we can no      
longer understand4 ,more of a warrior   
than a philosopher1 this founder of     
,rome made the year to consist of ten   
months1 some being of twenty days and   
others of fifty-five4 ,these unequal    
lengths were probably regulated by the  
agricultural works to be done1 and by   
the prevailing religious ideas4 ,after  
the conclusion of these days they began 
counting again in the same order2 so    
that the year had only #cjd days4  ,the 
first of these ten months was called    
,mars after the name of the god from    
whom ,romulus pretended to have         
descended4 ,the name of the second1     
,aprilis1 was derived from the word     
aperire1 to open1 because it was at the 
time that the earth opened2 or it may   
be1 from ,aphrodite1 one of the names of
 ,venus1 the supposed grandmother of    
,a,eneas4 ,the third month was          
consecrated to ,maia1 the mother of     
,mercury4 ,the names of the six others  
expressed simply their                  

order--,quintilis1 the fifth2 ,sextilis1
 the sixth2 ,september1 the seventh2 and
 so on4  ,numa added two months to the  
ten of ,romulus2 one took the name of   
,januarius1 from ,janus3 the name of the
 other was derived either from the      
sacrifices 7februalia71 by which the    
faults committed during the course of   
the past year were expiated1 or from    
,februo1 the god of the dead1 to which  
the last month was consecrated4 ,the    
year then had #cee days4  ,these ,roman 
months have become our own1 and hence a 
special interest attaches to the        
consideration of their origin1 and the  
explanation of the manner in which they 
have been modified and supplemented4    
,each of them was divided into unequal  
parts1 by the days which were known as  
the calends1 nones1 and ides4 ,the      
calends were invariably fixed to the    
first day of each month2 the nones came 
on the #eth or #gth1 and the ides the   
#acth or #aeth4  ,the ,romans1 looking  
forward1 as children do to festive days1

 to the fete which came on these        
particular days1 named each day by its  
distance from the next that was         
following4 ,immediately after the       
calends of a month1 the dates were      
referred to the nones1 each day being   
called seven1 six1 five1 and so on days 
before the nones2 on the morrow of the  
nones they counted to the ides2 and so  
the days at the end of the month always 
bore the name of the calends of the     
month following4  ,to complete the      
confusion the #bnd day before the fete  
was called the #crd1 by counting the    
fete itself as the #ast1 and so they    
added one throughout to the number that 
we should now say expressed our distance
 from a certain date4  ,since there were
 thus ten days short in each year1 it   
was soon found necessary to add them on1
 so a supplementary month was created1  
which was called ,mercedonius4 ,this    
month1 by another anomaly1 was placed   
between the #bcrd and #bdth of          
,february4 ,thus1 after ,february #bcrd1

 came #ast1 #bnd1 #crd of ,mercedonius2 
and then after the dates of this        
supplementary month were gone through1  
the original month was taken up again1  
and they went on with the #bdth of      
,february4  ,and finally1 to complete   
the medley1 the priests who had the     
charge of regulating this complex       
calendar1 acquitted themselves as badly 
as they could2 by negligence or an      
arbitrary use of their power they       
lengthened or shortened the year without
 any uniform rule4 ,often1 indeed1 they 
consulted in this nothing but their own 
convenience1 or the interests of their  
friends4  ,the disorder which this      
license had introduced into the calendar
 proceeded so far that the months had   
changed from the seasons1 those of      
winter being advanced to the autumn1    
those of the autumn to the summer4 ,the 
fetes were celebrated in seasons        
different from those in which they were 
instituted1 so that of ,ceres happened  
when the wheat was in the blade1 and    

that of ,bacchus when the raisins were  
green4 ,julius ,caesar1 therefore1      
determined to establish a solar year    
according to the known period of        
revolution of the sun1 that is #cfe days
 and a quarter4 ,he ordained that each  
fourth year a day should be intercalated
 in the place where the month           
,mercedonius used to be inserted1 i4e4  
between the #bcrd and #bdth of          
,february4  ,the #fth of the calends of 
,march in ordinary years was the #bdth  
of ,february2 it was called             
sexto-kalendas4 ,when an extra day was  
put in every fourth year before the     
#bdth1 this was a second #fth day1 and  
was therefore called bissexto-kalendas1 
whence we get the name bissextile1      
applied to leap year4  ,but it was      
necessary also to bring back the public 
fetes to the seasons they ought to be   
held in3 for this purpose ,caesar was   
obliged to insert in the current year1  
#df ,b4,c4 7or #gjh ,a4,u4,c471 two     
intercalary months beside the month     

,mercedonius4 ,there was1 therefore1 a  
year of fifteen months divided into #dde
 days1 and this was called the year of  
confusion4  ,caesar gave the strictest  
injunctions to ,sosigenes1 a celebrated 
,alexandrian astronomer whom he brought 
to ,rome for this purpose2 and on the   
same principles ,flavius was ordered to 
compose a new calendar1 in which all the
 ,roman fetes were entered--following1  
however1 the old method of reckoning the
 days from the calends1 nones1 and ides4
 ,antonius1 after the death of ,caesar1 
changed the name of ,quintilis1 in which
 ,julius ,caesar was born1 into the name
 ,julius1 whence we derive our name     
,july4 ,the name of ,augustus was given 
to the month ,sextilis1 because the     
,emperor ,augustus obtained his greatest
 victories during that month4           
,tiberius1 ,nero1 and other imperial    
monsters attempted to give their names  
to the other months4 ,but the people had
 too much independence and sense of     
justice to accord them such a flattery4 

,the remaining months we have as they   
were named in the days of ,numa         
,pompilius4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#eg4--,,the ,,roman ,,calendar4  ,a     
cubical block of white marble has been  
found at ,pompeii which illustrates this
 very well4  ,each of the four sides is 
divided into three columns1 and on each 
column is the information about the     
month4 ,each month is surmounted by the 
sign of the zodiac through which the sun
 is passing4 ,beneath the name of the   
month is inscribed the number of days it
 contains2 the date of the nones1 the   
number of the hours of the day1 and of  
the night2 the place of the sun1 the    
divinity under whose protection the     
month is placed1 the agricultural works 
that are to be done in it1 the civil and
 ecclesiastical ceremonies that are to  
be performed4 ,these inscriptions are to
 be seen under the month ,january to the
 left of the woodcut4  ,the reform thus 
introduced by ,julius ,caesar is        
commonly known as the ,julian reform4   

,the first year in which this calendar  
was followed was #dd ,b4,c4  ,the       
,julian calendar was in use1 without any
 modification1 for a great number of    
years2 nevertheless1 the mean value     
which had been assigned to the civil    
year being a little different to that of
 the tropical1 a noticeable change at   
length resulted in the dates in which1  
each year1 the seasons commenced2 so    
that if no remedy had been introduced1  
the same season would be displaced      
little by little each year1 so as to    
commence successively in different      
months4  ,the ,council of ,nice1 which  
was held in the year #cbe of the        
,christian era1 adopted a fixed rule to 
determine the time at which ,easter     
falls4 ,this rule was based on the      
supposed fact that the spring equinox   
happened every year on the #bast of     
,march1 as it did at the time of the    
meeting of the ,council4 ,this would    
indeed be the case if the mean value of 
the civil year of the ,julian calendar  

was exactly equal to the tropical year4 
,but while the first is #cfe4be days1   
the second is #cfe4bdbbfd days2 so that 
the tropical year is too small by #aa   
minutes and #h seconds4 ,it follows     
hence that after the lapse of four      
,julian years the vernal equinox1       
instead of happening exactly at the same
 time as it did four years before1 will 
happen #dd minutes #cb seconds too soon2
 and will gain as much in each          
succeeding four years4 ,so that at the  
end of a certain number of years1 after 
the year #cbe1 the equinox will happen  
on the #bjth of ,march1 afterwards on   
the #aith1 and so on4 ,this continual   
advance notified by the astronomers1    
determined ,pope ,gregory ,,xiii4 to    
introduce a new reform into the         
calendar4  ,it was in the year #aehb    
that the ,gregorian reform was put into 
operation4 ,at that epoch the vernal    
equinox happened on the #aath instead of
 the #bast of ,march4 ,to get rid of    
this advance of ten days that the       

equinox had made and to bring it back to
 the original date1 ,pope ,gregory      
decided that the day after the #dth of  
,october1 #aehb1 should be called the   
#aeth instead of the #eth4 ,this change 
only did away with the inconvenience at 
the time attaching to the ,julian       
calendar2 it was necessary to make also 
some modification in the rule which     
served to determine the lengths of the  
civil years1 in order to avoid the same 
error for the future4  ,so the ,pope    
determined that in each #djj years there
 should be only #ig bissextile years1   
instead of #ajj1 as there used to be in 
the ,julian calendar4 ,this made three  
days taken off the #djj years1 and in   
consequence the mean value of the civil 
year is reduced to #cfe4bdbe days1 which
 is not far from the true tropical year4
 ,the ,gregorian year thus obtained is  
still too great by 4#jjjbbf of a day2   
the date of the vernal equinox will     
still then advance in virtue of this    
excess1 but it is easy to see that the  

,gregorian reform will suffice for a    
great number of centuries4  ,the method 
in which it is carried out is as        
follows3--,in the ,julian calendar each 
year that divided by four when expressed
 in its usual way1 by ,a4,d41 was a leap
 year1 and therefore each year that     
completed a century was such1 as #acjj1 
#adjj and so on--but in the ,gregorian  
reform1 all these century numbers are to
 be reckoned common years1 unless the   
number without the two cyphers divides  
by four2 thus #a1ijj will be a common   
year and #b1jjj a leap year4 ,it is easy
 to see that this will leave out three  
leap years in every #djj years4  ,the   
,gregorian calendar was immediately     
adopted in ,france and ,germany1 and a  
little later in ,england4 ,now it is in 
operation in all the ,christian         
countries of ,europe1 except ,russia1   
where the ,julian calendar is still     
followed4 ,it follows that ,russian     
dates do not agree with ours4 ,in #aehb1
 the difference was ten days1 and this  

difference remained the same till the   
end of the seventeenth century1 when the
 year #agjj was bissextile in the       
,julian1 but not in the ,gregorian      
calendar1 so the difference increased to
 eleven days1 and now in the same way is
 twelve days4  ,next to the year1 comes 
the day as the most natural division of 
time in connection with the earth1      
though it admits of less difference in  
its arrangements1 as we cannot be       
mistaken as to its length4 ,it is the   
natural standard too of our division of 
time into shorter intervals such as     
hours1 minutes1 and seconds4 ,by the    
word day we mean of course the interval 
during which the earth makes a complete 
revolution round itself1 while daytime  
may be used to express the portion of it
 during which our portion of the earth  
is towards the sun4 ,the ,greeks to     
avoid ambiguity used the word nyctemere1
 meaning night and day4  ,no ancient    
nation is known that did not divide the 
day into twenty-four hours1 when they   

divided it at all into such small parts1
 which seems to show that such a        
division was comparatively a late       
institution1 and was derived from the   
invention of a single nation4 ,it would 
necessarily depend on the possibility of
 reckoning shorter periods of time than 
the natural one of the day4 ,in the     
earliest ages1 and even afterwards1 the 
position of the sun in the heavens by   
day1 and the position of the            
constellations by night1 gave           
approximately the time4 ,instead of     
asking ,what o'clock is it8 the ,greeks 
would say1 ,what star is passing8 ,the  
next method of determining time depended
 on the uniform motion of water from a  
cistern4 ,it was invented by the        
,egyptians1 and was called a clepsydra1 
and was in use among the ,babylonians1  
the ,greeks1 and the ,romans4 ,the more 
accurate measurement of time by means of
 clocks was not introduced till about   
#adj ,b4,c41 when ,trimalcion had one in
 his dining chamber4 ,the use of them1  

however1 had been so lost that in #gfj  
,a4,d4 they were considered quite       
novelties4 ,the clocks1 of course1 have 
to be regulated by the sun1 an operation
 which has been the employment of       
astronomers1 among other things1 for    
centuries4 ,each locality had its own   
time according to the moment when the   
sun passed the meridian of the place1 a 
moment which was determined by          
observation4  ,before the introduction  
of the hour1 the day and night appear to
 have been divided into watches4 ,among 
the ,babylonians the night was reckoned 
from what we call #f ,a4,m4 to #f       
,p4,m41 and divided into three watches  
of four hours each--called the evening1 
middle1 and morning watch4 ,these were  
later superseded by the more accurate   
hour1 or rather double hour or casbri1  
each of which was divided into sixty    
minutes and sixty seconds1 and the      
change taking place not earlier than    
#b1jjj ,b4,c4 ,whether the ,babylonians 
7or ,accadians7 were the inventors of   

the hour it is difficult to say1 though 
they almost certainly were of other     
divisions of time4 ,it is remarkable    
that in the ancient ,jewish ,scriptures 
we find no mention of any such division 
until the date at which the prophecy of 
,daniel was written1 that is1 until the 
,jews had come in contact with the      
,babylonians4  ,some nations have       
counted the twenty-four hours           
consecutively from one to twenty-four as
 astronomers do now1 but others and the 
majority have divided the whole period  
into two of twelve hours each4  ,the    
time of the commencement of the day has 
varied much with the different nations4 
,the ,jews1 the ancient ,athenians1 the 
,chinese1 and several other peoples1    
more or less of the past1 have commenced
 the day with the setting of the sun1 a 
custom which perhaps originated with the
 determination of the commencement of   
the year1 and therefore of the day1 by  
the observation of some stars that were 
seen at sunset1 a custom continued in   

our memory by the well-known words1 the 
evening and the morning were the first  
day4  ,the ,italians1 till recently1    
counted the hours in a single series1   
between two settings of the sun4 ,the   
only gain in such a method would be to  
sailors1 that they might know how many  
hours they had before night overtook    
them2 the sun always setting at         
twenty-four o'clock2 if the watch marked
 nineteen or twenty1 it would mean they 
had five or four hours to see by--but   
such a gain would be very small against 
the necessity of setting their watches  
differently every morning1 and the      
inconvenience of never having fixed     
hours for meals4  ,among the            
,babylonians1 ,syrians1 ,persians1 the  
modern ,greeks1 and inhabitants of the  
,balearic ,isles1 c41 the day commenced 
with the rising of the sun4             
,nevertheless1 among all the            
astronomical phenomena that may be      
submitted to observation1 none is so    
liable to uncertainty as the rising and 

setting of the heavenly bodies1 owing   
among other things to the effects of    
refraction4  ,among the ancient         
,arabians1 followed in this by the      
author of the ,almagesta1 and by        
,ptolemy1 the day commenced at noon4    
,modern astronomers adopt this usage4   
,the moment of changing the date is then
 always marked by a phenomenon easy to  
observe4  ,lastly1 that we may see how  
every variety possible is sure to be    
chosen when anything is left to the free
 choice of men1 we know that with the   
,egyptians1 ,hipparchus1 the ancient    
,romans1 and all the ,european nations  
at present1 the day begins at midnight4 
,copernicus among the astronomers of our
 era followed this usage4 ,we may remark
 that the commencement of the           
astronomical day commences twelve hours 
after the civil day4  ,of the various   
periods composed of several days1 the   
week of seven days is the most widely   
spread--and of considerable antiquity4  
,yet it is not the universal method of  

dividing months4 ,among the ,egyptians  
the month was divided into periods of   
ten days each2 and we find no sign of   
the seven days--the several days of the 
whole month having a god assigned to    
each4 ,among the ,hindoos no trace has  
been found by ,max ,mueller in their    
ancient ,vedic literature of any such   
division1 but the month is divided into 
two according to the moon2 the clear    
half from the new to the full moon1 the 
obscure half from the full to the new1  
and a similar division has been found   
among the ,aztecs4 ,the ,chinese divide 
the month like the ,egyptians4 ,among   
the ,babylonians two methods of dividing
 the month existed1 and both of them    
from the earliest times4 ,the first     
method was to separate it into two      
halves of fifteen days each1 and each of
 these periods into three shorter ones  
of five days1 making six per month4 ,the
 other method is the week of seven days4
 ,the days of the week with them1 as    
they are with many nations now1 were    

named after the sun and moon and the    
five planets1 and the #gth1 #adth1      
#aith1 #bast1 and #bhth days of each    
month--days separated by seven days each
 omitting the #aith--were termed days of
 rest1 on which certain works were      
forbidden to be done4 ,from this it is  
plain that we have here all the elements
 of our modern week4 ,we find it1 as is 
well known1 in the earliest of ,hebrew  
writings1 but without the mark which    
gives reason for the number seven1 that 
is the names of the seven heavenly      
bodies4 ,it would seem most probable1   
then1 that we must look to the          
,accadians as the originators of our    
modern week1 from whom the ,hebrews may 
have--and1 if so1 at a very early       
period--borrowed the idea4  ,it is known
 that the week was not employed in the  
ancient calendars of the ,romans1 into  
which it was afterwards introduced      
through the medium of the biblical      
traditions1 and became a legal usage    
under the first ,christian ,emperors4   

,from thence it has been propagated     
together with the ,julian calendar      
amongst all the populations that have   
been subjected to the ,roman power4 ,we 
find the period of seven days employed  
in the astronomical treatises of ,hindoo
 writers1 but not before the fifth      
century4  ,dion ,cassius1 in the third  
century1 represents the week as         
universally spread in his times1 and    
considers it a recent invention which he
 attributes to the ,egyptians2 meaning  
thereby1 doubtless1 the astrologers of  
the ,alexandrian school1 at that time   
very eager to spread the abstract       
speculations of ,plato and ,pythagoras4 
,if the names of the days of the week   
were derived from the planets1 the sun  
and moon1 as is easy to see1 it is not  
so clear how they came to have their    
present order4 ,the original order in   
which they were supposed to be placed in
 the various heavens that supported them
 according to their distance from the   
earth was thus3--,saturn1 ,jupiter1     

,mars1 the ,sun1 ,venus1 ,mercury1 the  
,moon4 ,one supposition is that each    
hour of the day was sacred to one of    
these1 and that each day was named from 
the god that presided over the first    
hours4 ,now1 as seven goes three times  
into twenty-four1 and leaves three over1
 it is plain that if ,saturn began the  
first hour of ,saturday1 the next day   
would begin with the planet three       
further on in the series1 which would   
bring us to the ,sun for ,sunday1 three 
more would bring us next day to the     
,moon for ,monday1 and so to ,mars for  
,tuesday1 to ,mercury for ,wednesday1 to
 ,jupiter for ,thursday1 to ,venus for  
,friday1 and so round again to ,saturn  
for ,saturday4  ,the same method is     
illustrated by putting the symbols in   
order round the circumference of a      
circle1 and joining them by lines to the
 one most opposite1 following always in 
the same order as in the following      
figure4 ,we arrive in this way at the   
order of the days of the week4          

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4  ,all the    
nations who have adopted the week have  
not kept to the same names for them1 but
 have varied them according to taste4   
,thus ,sunday was changed by the        
,christian ,church to the ,lord's ,day1 
a name it still partially retains among 
ourselves1 but which is the regular name
 among several continental nations1     
including the corrupted ,dimanche of the
 ,french4 ,the four middle days have    
also been very largely changed1 as they 
have been among ourselves and most      
northern nations to commemorate the     
names of the great ,scandinavian gods   
,tuesco1 ,woden1 ,thor1 and ,friga4     
,this change was no doubt due to the old
 mythology of the ,druids being         
amalgamated with the new method of      
collecting the days into weeks4  ,we    
give below a general table of the names 
of the days of the week in several      
different languages4                    
----------------------------------------
-------------------------   ,,english4  

,,french4    ,,italian4    ,,spanish4   
,,portuguese4                           
----------------------------------------
-------------------------   ,sunday4    
,dimanche4  ,domenica4   ,domingo4      
,domingo4            ,monday4           
,lundi4     ,lunedi4     ,luneo4        
,secunda feira4      ,tuesday4          
,mardi4     ,marteti4    ,martes4       
,terca feira4        ,wednesday4        
,mercredi   ,mercoledi4  ,miercoles4    
,quarta feira4       ,thursday4         
,jeudi4     ,giovedi4    ,jueves4       
,quinta feira4       ,friday4           
,vendredi4  ,venerdi4    ,viernes4      
,sexta feira4        ,saturday4         
,samedi4    ,sabbato4    ,sabado4       
,sabbado4                               
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
----------------------------------------
-------------------------   ,,german4   
,,anglo-,,saxon4  ,,ancient             
,,ancient        ,,dutch4               
,,frisian4     ,,northmen4              

----------------------------------------
-------------------------   ,sonntag4   
,sonnan daeg4   ,sonna dei4   ,sunnu    
dagr4    ,zondag4      ,montag4         
,monan daeg4    ,mona dei4    ,mana     
dagr4     ,maandag4     ,dienstag4      
,tives daeg4    ,tys dei4     ,tyrs     
dagr4     ,dingsdag4    ,mitwoch4       
,vodenes daeg4  ,werns dei4   ,odins    
dagr4    ,woensdag4    ,donnerstag4     
,thunores daeg4 ,thunres dei4 ,thors    
dagr4    ,donderdag4   ,freitag4        
,frige daeg4    ,frigen dei4  ,fria     
dagr4     ,vrijdag4     ,samstag4       
,soeternes     ,sater dei4   ,laugar    
dagr    ,zaturdag4                      
daeg4                     7washing day7 
----------------------------------------
-------------------------  ,the cycle   
which must be completed with the present
 calendar to bring the same day of the  
year to the same day of the week1 is    
twenty-eight years1 since there is one  
day over every ordinary year1 and two   
every leap year2 which will make an     

overlapping of days which1 except at the
 centuries1 will go through all the     
changes in twenty-eight times1 which    
forms what is called the solar cycle4   
,there is but one more point that will  
be interesting about the calendar1      
namely1 the date from which we reckon   
our years4  ,among the ,jews it was from
 the creation of the world1 as recorded 
in their sacred books--but no one can   
determine when that was with sufficient 
accuracy to make it represent anything  
but an agreement of the present day4    
,different interpreters do not come     
within a thousand years of one another  
for its supposed date2 although some of 
them have determined it very accurately 
to their own satisfaction--one going so 
far as to say that creation finished at 
nine o'clock one ,sunday morning6 ,in   
other cases the date has been reckoned  
from national events--as in the         
,olympiads1 the foundation of ,rome1 c4 
,the word we now use1 ,,aera1 points to 
a particular date from which to reckon1 

since it is composed of the initials of 
the words ,,ab ,,exordio ,,regni        
,,augusti from the commencement of the  
reign of ,augustus4 ,at the present day 
the point of departure1 both forwards   
and backwards1 is the year of the birth 
of ,jesus ,christ--a date which is      
itself controverted1 and the use of     
which did not exist among the first     
,christians4 ,they exhibited great      
indifference1 for many centuries1 as to 
the year in which ,jesus ,christ entered
 the world4 ,it was a monk who lived in 
obscurity at ,rome1 about the year #ehj1
 who was a native of so unknown a       
country that he has been called a       
,scythian1 and whose name was ,denys1   
surnamed ,exiguus1 or the ,little1 who  
first attempted to discover by          
chronological calculations the year of  
the birth of ,jesus ,christ4  ,the era  
of ,denys the ,little was not adopted by
 his contemporaries4 ,two centuries     
afterwards1 the ,venerable ,bede        
exhorted ,christians to make use of     

it--and it only came into general use   
about the year #hjj4  ,among those who  
adopted the ,christian era1 some made   
the year commence with ,march1 which was
 the first month of the year of         
,romulus2 others in ,january1 which     
commences the year of ,numa2 others     
commenced on ,christmas ,day2 and others
 on ,lady ,day1 ,march #be4 ,another    
form of nominal year was that which     
commenced with ,easter ,day1 in which   
case1 the festival being a movable one1 
some years were shorter than others1 and
 in some years there might be two #bnd1 
#crd1 c41 of ,april1 if ,easter fell in 
one year on the #bnd1 and next year a   
few days later4  ,the #ast of ,january  
was made to begin the year in ,germany  
in #aejj4 ,an edict of ,charles ,,ix4   
prescribes the same in ,france in #aefc4
 ,but it was not till #ageb that the    
change was made in ,england by ,lord    
,chesterfield's ,act4 ,the year #agea1  
as the year that had preceded it1 began 
on ,march #beth1 and it should have     

lasted till the next ,lady ,day2 but    
according to the ,act1 the months of    
,january1 ,february1 and part of ,march 
were to be reckoned as part of the year 
#ageb4 ,by this means the unthinking    
seemed to have grown old suddenly by    
three months1 and popular clamour was   
raised against the promoter of the      
,bill1 and cries raised of ,give us our 
three months4 ,such have been the       
various changes that our calendar has   
undergone to bring it to its present    
state4     ,,chapter ,,xv4  ,,the ,,end 
,,of ,,the ,,world4   ,perhaps the most 
anxious question that has been asked of 
the astronomer is when the world is to  
come to an end4 ,it is a question which1
 of course1 he has no power to answer   
with truth2 but it is also one that has 
often been answered in good faith4 ,it  
has perhaps been somewhat natural to ask
 such a question of an astronomer1      
partly because his science naturally    
deals with the structure of the         
universe1 which might give some light as

 to its future1 and partly because of   
his connection with astrology1 whose    
province it was supposed to be to open  
the destiny of all things4 ,yet the     
question has been answered by others    
than by astronomers1 on grounds         
connected with their faith4 ,in the     
early ages of the ,church1 the belief in
 the rapid approach of the end of the   
world was universally spread amongst    
,christians4 ,the ,apocalypse of ,st4   
,john and the ,acts of the ,apostles    
seemed to announce its coming before    
that generation passed away4            
,afterwards1 it was expected at the year
 #ajjj2 and though these beliefs did not
 rest in any way on astronomical        
grounds1 yet to that science was        
recourse had for encouragement or       
discouragement of the idea4 ,the middle 
ages1 fall of simple faith and          
superstitious credulity1 were filled    
with fear of this terrible catastrophe4 
,as the year #ajjj approached1 the      
warnings became frequent and very       

pressing4 ,thus1 for example1 ,bernard  
of ,thuringia1 about #ifj1 began to     
announce publicly that the world was    
about to end1 declaring that he had had 
a particular revelation of the fact4 ,he
 took for his text the enigmatical words
 of the ,apocalypse3 ,at the end of one 
thousand years1 ,satan shall be loosed  
from his prison1 and shall seduce the   
people that are in the four quarters of 
the earth4 ,the book of life shall be   
open1 and the sea shall give up her     
dead4 ,he fixed the day when the        
,annunciation of the ,virgin should     
coincide with ,good ,friday as the end  
of all things4 ,this happened in #iib1  
but nothing extraordinary happened4     
,during the tenth century the royal     
proclamations opened by this            
characteristic phrase3 ,whereas the end 
of the world is approaching4444  ,in    
#aahf the astrologers frightened ,europe
 by announcing a conjunction of all the 
planets4 ,rigord1 a writer of that      
period1 says in his ,life of ,philip    

,augustus3 ,the astrologers of the      
,east1 ,jews1 ,saracens1 and even       
,christians1 sent letters all over the  
world1 in which they predicted1 with    
perfect assurance1 that in the month of 
,september there would be great         
tempests1 earthquakes1 mortality among  
men1 seditions and discords1 revolutions
 in kingdoms1 and the destruction of all
 things4 ,but1 he adds1 the event very  
soon belied their predictions4  ,some   
years after1 in #aaih1 another alarm of 
the end of the world was raised1 but    
this time it was not dependent on       
celestial phenomena4 ,it was said that  
,antichrist was born in ,babylon1 and   
therefore all the human race would be   
destroyed4  ,it would be a curious list 
to make of all the years in which it was
 said that ,antichrist was born2 they   
might be counted by hundreds1 to say    
nothing of the future4  ,at the         
commencement of the fourteenth century1 
the alchemist ,arnault of ,villeneuve   
announced the end of the world for      

#acce4 ,in his treatise ,de ,sigillis he
 applies the influence of the stars to  
alchemy1 and expounds the mystical      
formula by which demons are to be       
conjured4  ,st4 ,vincent ,ferrier1 a    
famous ,spanish preacher1 gave to the   
world as many years' duration as there  
were verses in the ,psalms--about #becg4
  ,the sixteenth century produced a very
 plentiful crop of predictions of the   
final catastrophe4 ,simon ,goulart1 for 
example1 gave the world an appalling    
account of terrible sights seen in      
,assyria--where a mountain opened and   
showed a scroll with letters of         
,greek--,the end of the world is coming4
 ,this was in #aecb2 but after that year
 had passed in safety1 ,leovitius1 a    
famous astrologer1 predicted it again   
for #aehd4 ,louis ,gayon reports that   
the fright at this time was great4 ,the 
churches could not hold those who sought
 a refuge in them1 and a great number   
made their wills1 without reflecting    
that there was no use in it if the whole

 world was to finish4  ,one of the most 
famous mathematicians of ,europe1 named 
,stoffler1 who flourished in the #afth  
century1 and who worked for a long time 
at the reform of the calendar proposed  
by the ,council of ,constance1 predicted
 a universal deluge for #aebd4 ,this    
deluge was to happen in the month of    
,february1 because ,saturn1 ,jupiter1   
and ,mars were then together in the sign
 of the ,fishes4 ,everyone in ,europe1  
,asia1 and ,africa1 to whom these       
tidings came1 was in a state of         
consternation4 ,they expected a deluge1 
in spite of the rainbow4 ,many          
contemporary authors report that the    
inhabitants of the maritime provinces of
 ,germany sold their lands for a mere   
trifle to those who had more money and  
less credulity4 ,each built himself a   
boat like an ark4 ,a doctor of          
,toulouse1 named ,auriol1 made a very   
large ark for himself1 his family1 and  
his friends1 and the same precautions   
were taken by a great many people in    

,italy4 ,at last the month of ,february 
came1 and not a drop of rain fell4      
,never was a drier month or a more      
puzzled set of astrologers4             
,nevertheless they were not discouraged 
nor neglected for all that1 and         
,stoffler himself1 associated with the  
celebrated ,regiomontanus1 predicted    
once more that the end of the world     
would come in #aehh1 or at least that   
there would be frightful events which   
would overturn the earth4  ,this new    
prediction was a new deception2 nothing 
extraordinary occurred in #aehh4 ,the   
year #aegb1 however1 witnessed a strange
 phenomenon1 capable of justifying all  
their fears4 ,an unknown star came      
suddenly into view in the constellation 
of ,cassiopeia1 so brilliant that it was
 visible even in full daylight1 and the 
astrologers calculated that it was the  
star of the ,magi which had returned1   
and that it announced the second coming 
of ,jesus ,christ4  ,the seventeenth and
 eighteenth centuries were filled with  

new predictions of great variety4  ,even
 our own century has not been without   
such4 ,a religious work1 published in   
#ahbf1 by the ,count ,sallmard          
,montfort1 demonstrated perfectly that  
the world had no more than ten years to 
exist4 ,the world1 he said1 is old1 and 
its time of ending is near1 and ,i      
believe that the epoch of that terrible 
event is not far off4 ,jacob1 the chief 
of the twelve tribes of ,israel1 and    
consequently of the ancient ,church1 was
 born in #bafh of the world1 i4e41 #ahcf
 ,b4,c4 ,the ancient ,church1 which was 
the figure of the new1 lasted #ahcf     
years4 ,hence the new one will only last
 till #ahcf ,a4,d4  ,similar prophecies 
by persons of various nations have in   
like manner been made1 without being    
fulfilled4 ,indeed1 we have had our own 
prophets2 but they have proved          
themselves incredulous of their own     
predictions1 by taking leases that      
should commence in the year of the      
world's destruction4  ,but we have one  

in store for us yet4 ,in #ahdj1 ,pierre 
,louis of ,paris calculated that the end
 would be in #aijj1 and he calculated in
 this way3--,the ,apocalypse says the   
,gentiles shall occupy the holy city for
 forty-two months4 ,the holy city was   
taken by ,omar in #fcf4 ,forty-two      
months of years is #abfj1 which brings  
the return of the ,jews to #ahif1 which 
will precede by a few years the final   
catastrophe4 ,daniel also announces the 
arrival of ,antichrist #b1cjj days after
 the establishment of ,artaxerxes on the
 throne of ,persia1 #djj ,b4,c41 which  
again brings us to #aijj4  ,some again  
have put it at #bjjj ,a4,d41 which will 
make #f1jjj years1 as they think1 from  
the creation2 these are the days of     
work2 then comes the #a1jjj years of    
millennial sabbath4  ,we are led far    
away by these vain speculations from the
 wholesome study of astronomy2 they are 
useful only in showing how by a little  
latitude that science may wind itself   
into all the questions that in any way  

affect the earth4  ,indeed1 since the   
world began1 the world will doubtless   
end1 and astronomers are still asked how
 could it be brought about8  ,certainly 
it is not an impossible event1 and there
 are only too many ways in which it has 
been imagined it might occur4  ,the     
question is one that stands on a very   
different footing from that it occupied 
before the days of ,galileo and         
,copernicus4 ,then the earth was        
believed to be the centre of the        
universe1 and all the heavens and stars 
created for it4 ,then the commencement  
of the world was the commencement of the
 universe1 its destruction would be the 
destruction of all4 ,now1 thanks to the 
revolution in feeling that has been     
accomplished by the progress of         
astronomy1 we have learned our own      
insignificance1 and that amongst the    
infinite number of stars1 each          
supporting their own system of inhabited
 planets1 our earth occupies an         
infinitesimally small portion1 and the  

destruction of it would make no         
difference whatever--still less its     
becoming uninhabitable4 ,it is an event 
which must have happened and be         
happening to other worlds1 without      
affecting the infinite life of the      
universe in any marked degree4          
,nevertheless1 for ourselves1 the       
question remains as interesting as if we
 were the all in all1 but must be       
approached in a different manner4       
,numerous hypotheses have been put forth
 on the question but they may mostly be 
dismissed as vain4  ,buffon calculated  
that it had taken #gd1hcb years for the 
earth to cool down to its present       
temperature1 and that it will take      
#ic1bia years more before it would be   
too cold for men to live upon it4 ,but  
,sir ,william ,thomson has shown that   
the internal heat of the earth1 supposed
 to be due to its cooling from fusion1  
cannot have seriously modified climate  
for a long series of years1 and that    
life depends essentially on the heat of 

the sun4  ,another hypothesis1 the most 
ancient of all1 is that which supposes  
the earth will be destroyed by fire4 ,it
 comes down from ,zoroaster and the     
,jews2 and on the improbable supposition
 of the thin crust of the earth over a  
molten mass1 this is thought possible4  
,however1 as the tendency in the past   
has been all the other way1 namely1 to  
make the effect of the inner heat of the
 earth less marked on the surface1 we   
have no reason to expect a reversal4  ,a
 third theory would make the earth die  
more gradually and more surely4 ,it is  
known that by the wearing down of the   
surface by the rains and rivers1 there  
is a tendency to reduce mountains and   
all high parts of the earth to a uniform
 level1 a tendency which is only        
counteracted by some elevating force    
within the earth4 ,if these elevating   
forces be supposed to be due to the     
internal heat--a hypothesis which cannot
 be proved--then with the cooling of the
 earth the elevating forces would cease1

 and1 finally1 the whole of the         
continent would be brought beneath the  
sea and terrestrial life perish4        
,another interesting but groundless     
hypothesis is that of ,adhemar on the   
periodicity of deluges4 ,this theory    
depends on the fact of the unequal      
length of the seasons in the two        
hemispheres4 ,our autumn and our winter 
last #agi days4 ,in the southern        
hemisphere they last #ahf days4 ,these  
seven days1 or #afh hours1 of           
difference1 increase each year the      
coldness of the pole4 ,during #aj1ejj   
years the ice accumulates at one pole   
and melts at the other1 thereby         
displacing the earth's centre of        
gravity4 ,now a time will arrive when1  
after the maximum of elevation of       
temperature on one side1 a catastrophe  
will happen1 which will bring back the  
centre of gravity to the centre of      
figure1 and cause an immense deluge4    
,the deluge of the north pole was #d1bjj
 years ago1 therefore the next will be  

#f1cjj hence4 ,it is very obvious to ask
 on this--,why should there be a        
catastrophe8 and why should not the     
centre of gravity return gradually as it
 was gradually displaced8  ,another     
theory has been that it would perish by 
a comet4 ,that it will not be by the    
shock we have already seen from the     
light weight of the comet and from      
experience2 but it has been suggested   
that the gas may combine with the air1  
and an explosion take place that would  
destroy us all2 but is not that also    
contradicted by experience8  ,another   
idea is that we shall finally fall into 
the sun by the resistance of the ether  
to our motion4 ,encke's comet loses in  
thirty-three years a thousandth part of 
its velocity4 ,it appears then that we  
should have to wait millions of         
centuries before we came too near the   
sun4  ,in reality1 however1 we are      
simply dependent on our sun1 and our    
destiny depends upon that4  ,in the     
first place1 in its voyage through space

 it might encounter or come within the  
range of some dark body we at present   
know nothing of1 and the attraction     
might put out of harmony all our solar  
system with calamitous results4 ,or     
since we are aware that the sun is a    
radiating body giving out its heat on   
all sides1 and therefore growing colder1
 it may one day happen that it will be  
too cold to sustain life on the earth4  
,it is1 we know1 a variable star1 and   
stars have been seen to disappear1 or   
even to have a catastrophe happen to    
them1 as the kindling of enormous       
quantities of gas4 ,a catastrophe in the
 sun will be our own end4  ,fontenelle  
has amusingly described in verse the    
result of the sun growing cold1 which   
may be thus ,englished3--    ,of this1  
though1 ,i haven't a doubt1     ,one day
 when there isn't much light1   ,the    
poor little sun will go out     ,and bid
 us politely--good-night4   ,look out   
from the stars up on high1     ,some    
other to help you to see2   ,i can't    

shine any longer1 not ,i1     ,since    
shining don't benefit me4    ,then down 
on our poor habitation     ,what        
numberless evils will fall1   ,when the 
heavens demand liquidation1     ,why all
 will go smash1 and then all   ,society 
come to an end4     ,soon out of the    
sleepy affair   ,his way will each      
traveller wend1     ,no testament       
leaving1 nor heir4  ,the cooling of the 
sun must1 however1 take place very      
gradually1 as no cooling has been       
perceived during the existence of man2  
and the growth of plants in the earliest
 geological ages1 and the life of       
animals1 prove that for so long a time  
it has been within the limits within    
which life has been possible--and we may
 look forward to as long in the future4 
,it is not of course the time when the  
sun will become a dark ball1 surrounded 
by illuminated planets1 that we must    
reckon as the end of the earth4 ,life   
would have ceased long before that      
stage--no man will witness the death of 

the sun4  ,illustration3 ,,plate        
,,xvi4--,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,world4 
,the diminution of the sun's heat would 
have for its natural effect the         
enlargement of the glacial zones6 the   
sea and the land in those parts of the  
earth would cease to support life1 which
 would gradually be drawn closer to the 
equatorial belt4 ,man1 who by his nature
 and his intelligence is best fitted to 
withstand cold climates1 would remain   
among the last of the inhabitants1      
reduced to the most miserable           
nourishment4 ,drawn together round the  
equator1 the last of the sons of earth  
would wage a last combat with death1 and
 exactly as the shades approached1 would
 the human genius1 fortified by all the 
acquirements of ages past--give out its 
brightest light1 and attempt in vain to 
throw off the fatal cover that was      
destined to engulf him4 ,at last1 the   
earth1 fading1 dry1 and sterile1 would  
become an immense cemetery4 ,and it     
would be the same with the other        

planets4 ,the sun1 already become red1  
would at last become black1 and the     
planetary system would be an assemblage 
of black balls revolving round a larger 
black ball4  ,of course this is all     
imaginary1 and cannot affect ourselves1 
but the very idea of it is melancholy1  
and enough to justify the words of      
,campbell3--    ,for this hath science  
searched on weary wing   ,by shore and  
sea--each mute and living thing1   ,or  
round the cope her living chariot driven
   ,and wheeled in triumph through the  
signs of heaven4   ,oh1 star-eyed       
science1 hast thou wandered there   ,to 
waft us home the message of despair8    
,in reality1 as we know nothing of the  
origin1 so we know nothing of the end of
 the world2 and where so much has been  
accomplished1 there are obviously       
infinite possibilities enough to satisfy
 the hopes of every one4  ,while some   
stars may be fading1 others may be      
rising into their place1 and man need   
not be identified with one earth alone1 

but may rest content in the idea that   
the life universal is eternal4   ,,the  
,,end4     ,,london3 ,p4 ,,clay1 ,,sons1
 ,,and ,,taylor1 ,,printers4            
,,transcriber',s ,,notes3   #a4         
,passages in italics are surrounded by  
underscores4  #b4 ,images have been     
moved from the middle of a paragraph to 
the closest paragraph break4  #c4 ,the  
original text includes ,greek           
characters4 ,for this text version these
 letters have been replaced with        
transliterations1 for example1 ,greek3 a
 represents first ,greek letter alpha4  
#c4 ,the original text includes certain 
symbols for planets and zodiac signs4   
,for this text version these symbols are
 replaced by text name of the           
corresponding symbol4 ,for example1     
symbol3 sun replaces the symbolic       
representation of sun4  #d4 ,in this    
text version1 fractions are represented 
using hyphen and forward slash4 ,for    
example1 #c-a_/b stands for three and a 
half4  #e4 ,certain words use oe        

ligature in the original4  #f4 ,obvious 
errors in punctuation and a few         
misprints have been silently corrected4 
#g4 ,other than the corrections listed  
above1 printer's inconsistencies in     
hyphenation and ligature usage have been
 retained4