99 99 99 99 99 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,inconsistent hyphenation in the original document has been preserved4 ,bolded text is marked like so4 ,obvious typographical errors have been corrected4 ,for a complete list1 please see the end of this document4 ,the opinions contained in this e-book are no longer considered valid4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mentally ,,defective ,,children ,,by ,,alfred ,,binet ,,and ,,th4 ,,simon1 ,m4,d4 ,,authorised ,,translation ,,by ,w4,b4 ,,drummond1 ,m4,b41 ,c4,m41 ,f4,r4,c4,p4 7,,edin47 ,,author ,,of ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,child ,,study1 ,,etc4 ,,with ,,an ,,appendix ,,containing ,,the ,,binet-,,simon ,,tests ,,of ,,intelligence ,,by ,,margaret ,,drummond1 ,m4,a4 ,,and ,,an ,,introduction ,,by ,,professor ,,alexander ,,darroch ,,fourth ,,impression ,,london ,,edward ,,arnold ,all rights reserved ,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,by ,,billing ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited ,,guildford ,,and ,,esher ,,introduction ,the ,binet-,simon tests of children's intelligence have been the subject of much discussion during the past few years1 both in this country and in ,america4 ,much of this discussion seems to have been carried on1 at times1 without any knowledge of the original aim or purpose for which these tests were devised1 and as if1 so to speak1 they were invented as a means for ascertaining the relative intellectual powers of all children1 and so of affording to the teacher a ready and sure means of accurately classifying and grading the children under his charge4 ,as a consequence1 there is a tendency1 in some quarters1 to search for and to endeavour to establish some absolute standard or criterion of intelligence which shall be valid1 irrespective of the nationality1 or the class1 or the particular environment of the child4 ,it is hoped that the publication in translation of the work of ,binet and ,simon in which these tests first appeared1 along with the complete series of tests as extended and revised during the lifetime of the former1 will tend to remove this twofold misapprehension1 and make the educationalist1 as well as the wider public interested in social questions1 acquainted with the real purpose which underlay the devisal or invention of the tests1 and so enable all to perceive that their relative value1 as measuring stages of intelligence1 must be judged by the purpose for which they were devised4 ,now1 the main purpose of the authors in the devisal of these tests is to furnish to the teacher a first means by which he may single out mentally backward children1 who1 upon further examination1 may also be found to have some mental defect or peculiarity which prevents them from fully profiting by the education of the ordinary school1 and who probably would benefit more by being educated in a special school or in a special class4 ,but the final selection1 it is contended1 of defective children for special education demands the experience of the doctor and of the psychologist1 as well as the knowledge of the teacher1 and the aid of all three is necessary in the devisal of courses of study for the mentally defective4 ,especially important is the division of mentally defectives into two main classes--the feeble-minded and the ill-balanced4 ,the latter1 as a rule1 are easily marked out from the normal child1 and1 if not specially looked after1 may in later life become a menace to society4 ,the feeble-minded1 on the other hand1 may easily escape the notice of the teacher1 and may pass through the ordinary school unaffected and unimproved1 enter into society1 and propagate their kind4 ,both classes require the special care of the community1 and their proper education and training are of the gravest importance for the welfare and stability of society4 ,in this selection and education of mentally defective children1 three positions of ,billet and ,simon are worthy of consideration4 ,in the first place1 it is contended that a physical examination alone can never allow us to dispense with a direct examination of the intelligence1 and that anthropometry1 stigmata1 and physical appearance must take a second place as means of discovering in school the feeble-minded and the ill-balanced4 ,again1 mental deficiency and want of balance are peculiar mental conditions which it is often impossible to connect with definite pathological changes4 ,hence the examination of the medical man is not decisive4 ,it must be accompanied and reinforced by that of the psychologist4 ,in the second place1 it is affirmed that in the devisal of schemes of training for mental defectives1 we must take into account that the dominant features in their life are the senses1 the concrete perceptions1 and motor ability1 and that in the education of defectives the workshop ought to become a more important place of instruction than the class-room4 ,in the third place1 the position is strongly emphasised that every class1 every school for defectives1 ought to aim at rendering the pupils socially useful4 ,it is not a question of enriching their minds1 but of giving them the means of working for their living4 ,hence1 the utility of special schools or special classes for such children depends ultimately upon their success in making their pupils1 according to the measure of their intelligence1 efficient workers4 ,these two problems--viz41 7#a7 the method of selecting abnormal or defective children who are not sufficiently good for the ordinary school1 nor yet sufficiently bad to be classed as idiots or imbeciles2 and 7#b7 the devisal of courses of education and training which may tend to make them hereafter useful workers and citizens--are of first-rate importance to us at the present time4 ,under recent legislation1 public local authorities have been entrusted with the devisal of the means for the proper selection and the proper education of defective children1 and the utmost wisdom and care should be taken in the beginning of this new movement4 ,the many errors that administrators may fall into are fully set forth in this little volume 7cf4 p4 #gh et seq471 and the concluding chapter on the utility of special schools should be read by all who have to do with the administration of the new ,act4 ,the importance of the work of ,binet and ,simon to teachers and inspectors is without question1 and were the duties of the teacher and inspector carried out as set forth in this volume 7cf4 p4 #hf7 throughout the whole school1 a much-needed improvement in our ordinary school education would soon result4 ,lastly1 the volume is important as marking a new attitude towards educational problems1 and as indicating the newer spirit in which we should undertake the training of all teachers4 ,this new attitude and spirit are clearly set forth in the concluding words of the volume3 ,the essential thing is for all the world to understand that empiricism has had its day1 and that methods of scientific precision must be introduced into all educational work1 to carry everywhere good sense and light4 ,,alexander ,,darroch ,,university ,,of ,,edinburgh1 ,july1 #aiad ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,,page ,,interest ,,in ,,social ,,questions #a ,,some ,,definitions #d ,,some ,,statistics #g ,,chapter ,,ii ,,some ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,psychology ,,of ,,defectives ,,what ,,is ,a ,,defective ,,child8 #aa ,,distribution ,,of ,,defective ,,children ,,in ,,the ,,public ,,schools #ae ,,psychological ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,mentally ,,defective #ai ,,psychological ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,ill-,,balanced #ba ,,intellectual ,,aptitudes ,,of ,,the ,,defective #bc ,,chapter ,,iii ,,pedagogical ,,examination ,,of ,,defective ,,school ,,children ,,the ,,board ,,of ,,examiners #cg ,,the ,,role ,,of ,,the ,,teacher3 ,,to ,,pick ,,out ,,the ,,cases #ch ,,the ,,role ,,of ,,the ,,inspector3 ,,to ,,act ,,as ,,referee #ej ,,tests ,,of ,,instruction #eb ,,reading #ee ,,arithmetic #eh ,,spelling #fa ,,psychological ,,examination #fg ,,tests ,,of ,,intelligence #fg ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,medical ,,examination ,,of ,,defectives ,,the ,,role ,,of ,,the ,,doctor #hg ,,the ,,doctor ,,not ,,to ,,pick ,,out ,,the ,,cases #hh ,,the ,,physical ,,examination #ia ,,the ,,medical ,,examination #ih ,,mental ,,deficiency ,,or ,,intercurrent ,,mental ,,affection8 #aja ,,mental ,,deficiency ,,amenable ,,to ,,medical ,,treatment8 #ajb ,,mental ,,deficiency ,,complicated ,,by ,,illness8 #ajg ,,the ,,medical ,,schedule #aae ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,educational ,,and ,,social ,,return ,,of ,,schools ,,and ,,classes ,,for ,,defectives ,,an ,,inquiry ,,in ,,the ,,hospitals #aag ,,the ,,educational ,,return #acf ,,the ,,social ,,return #adj ,,appendix #adg ,,diagrams #afe ,,index #ahj ,,mentally ,,defective ,,children ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,the ,present-,day ,interest in ,social ,questions4--,amongst questions of present-day interest1 none are more discussed or attract a greater amount of attention than those which relate to social problems4 ,the generous philanthropy of preceding generations seems to us to-day a little out of date1 and we substitute for this virtue of the rich the otherwise fruitful idea that1 by the very constitution of society itself1 we are all in duty bound to occupy ourselves with the condition of our fellow-citizens1 and especially of the less fortunate among them4 ,this duty does not rest solely upon a sentiment of humanity4 ,it is dictated equally by our own pressing personal interests2 for unless1 within a reasonable time1 satisfaction is given to the just demands of the nine-tenths of society who are actually working for wages very little in harmony with their efforts and their needs1 we already foresee that a violent revolution1 from which the haves have very little to gain1 will shake society to its very foundations4 ,the consequence is that the very people who up to the present time have kept themselves most aloof from the social problem are being brought into contact with reality4 ,it is a curious thing to see how scientific men1 who for the past fifty years have never stirred a foot outside their laboratories1 are showing a tendency to mingle in affairs4 ,in spite of the diversity of the forces at work1 there is one general fact which is undeniable4 ,pure and disinterested science retains its votaries1 but the number is increasing of those who are turning to science for useful and practical applications2 albeit1 they are thinking less of science than of society1 for it is those social phenomena which are capable of amelioration which scientific men are now studying by the most exact methods for the benefit of men of action1 who are usually empirics4 ,innumerable examples of this intervention of science in daily life might be cited4 ,on the one hand1 we see physiologists--,imbert1 for example--who are setting themselves to the study of the phenomena of the labour and the nutrition of different classes of workers2 in order to find out whether the increase in wages and the diminution in the hours of work which the workers are for ever crying for can be justified by physiology4 ,the day is not far off when such scientific observations1 which are becoming more exact and more extensive1 will play a part in the discussions between capital and labour4 ,another example may be given of a different nature1 but of identical signification4 ,psychologists are studying the value of evidence1 and are thinking out better methods of arriving at truth1 in order to discover reforms which may be introduced into the organization of justice4 ,an important movement of this nature1 started in ,france1 is being continued in ,germany with even greater energy 7,binet1 ,stern and his pupils1 ,claparede1 ,larguier1 etc474 ,as a last example we shall cite the most striking of all4 ,this is the increasing interest which doctors are taking in the upbringing of the young1 both in infancy and later4 ,this is puericulture1 and includes everything that is being done for the supervision1 protection1 and assistance of the mother and nurseling4 ,it includes the medical inspection of school-children1 which gives the doctor the opportunity of caring for their ailments and preventing overpressure4 ,it includes1 lastly1 all the reforms of but yesterday's date which make for a better hygiene1 a better physical education4 ,one might add also the work that is being done almost everywhere1 in ,germany1 in ,america1 in ,italy1 and in ,france 7,laboratory of ,psychology of the ,sorbonne1 and the ,society for ,child ,study71 with reference to the special aptitudes of children1 and1 as has been said a little ambitiously1 the making of education an exact science4 ,education of ,defectives4--,the movement referred to1 of which we see only the beginning1 but which will result1 let us hope1 in an amelioration of the lot of the great majority1 is now being directed to the education of the mentally defective4 ,their problem has been discussed theoretically for a long time1 but nothing has come of it4 ,now the problem is entering upon a new phase1 and something practical will result4 ,without attempting to write the whole history1 which would be nothing more than the study of what has been done in other countries1 let us state where we are ourselves4 ,it was in ,france that alienists first began to occupy themselves with the children known under the various names of abnormal1 backward1 idiot1 mentally defective1 unstable1 etc4 ,esquirol made the important distinction between the idiot and the dement2 and after him many other alienists--notably ,itard1 ,falret1 ,voisin--described the principal symptoms of idiocy1 or attempted to show that it is capable of amelioration4 ,seguin1 a teacher of defectives1 who has left an honoured name1 showed experimentally how one may1 by dint of much ingenuity and patience1 increase the intelligence and improve the character of some of these unfortunate children4#a ,lastly1 in our own day1 ,bourneville1 the well-known physician of ,bicetre1 after having organised the most important clinique for idiots which exists in ,france1 agitated with untiring energy for the formation in the public schools of special classes for the instruction of abnormal children4 ,this scheme has been supported by a great many doctors and philanthropists1 and laid before municipal councils1 general councils1 scientific societies1 and all the numerous educational congresses which have been held in ,france and abroad during the last twenty years4 ,this effort has had no result2 and whilst in the great majority of foreign countries there have been for a long time schools and classes for defectives--the first ,german school1 that of ,dresden1 dates from #ahfg--with us the only children of this kind who receive the care and education appropriate to their condition are the children of the rich4 ,poor children continue to attend the ordinary schools4 ,it was not till #aijd that the powers that be awakened from their indifference4 ,the ,minister of ,public ,instruction1 ,m4 ,chaumie1 appointed a ,commission to study the abnormal--physical1 mental1 and moral--from the scholastic point of view4 ,this ,commission1 over which ,m4 ,leon ,bourgeois presided most ably1 met a great number of times in #aijd and #aije1 and drew up a complete scheme for the care and education of defective children1 which has been embodied in a ,bill by the ,minister of ,public ,instruction4 ,some ,definitions4--,now1 who are these abnormal children1 and why should the authorities interest themselves in their education8 ,for the sake of clearness1 we must give some definitions4 ,in medical terminology the term abnormal is applied to every subject who diverges so clearly from the average as to constitute a pathological anomaly4 ,as a matter of fact1 the abnormal constitute quite a heterogeneous group4 ,their common characteristic1 which is a negative one1 is that by their physical and mental organisation these children are rendered incapable of profiting by the ordinary methods of instruction in use in the public schools4 ,the most definite types are the deaf and dumb1 the blind1 the epileptic1 idiots1 imbeciles1 cripples1 etc4 ,there are in this list some classes which are of less interest to us than others1 because the ,state has already to a certain extent provided for their needs4 ,this applies especially to the blind1 and to the deaf and dumb4 ,it has always been perceived that such children were not like others1 and could not be taught by ordinary methods4 ,the blind can learn to read only in a book whose characters are printed in relief1 and the deaf-mute cannot follow an oral lesson4 ,the necessity of a special education for these two groups was therefore obvious1 and at the present time about five thousand are receiving care and a professional education in the ,state institutions and in private schools1 the majority of which are religious4 ,we shall not concern ourselves with them here1 in spite of the interest which they awaken4 ,nor shall we discuss whether the methods which are used for their education might not be improved1 though the question is attractive4 ,but we must simplify the subject if we wish to get on4 ,we shall also exclude here the lowest grade of idiots1 who require continuous medical supervision1 and who are very seldom educable4 ,these subjects are received into hospitals and asylums4 ,when we have excluded these classes of children--the deaf-mutes1 the blind1 and the ineducable idiots--what remains8 ,why1 there remain just the very children with whom the new law will be concerned4 ,in the meantime these are not in any special school2 they are attending the primary schools1 which cannot shut the door in their faces when they have arrived at school age4 ,but they do not profit much by the instruction given in school1 and this fact gives rise to vigorous complaints on the part of the teachers4 ,these children1 say they1 are not in the least like the great majority of other pupils4 ,a great many of them are mentally defective4 ,without being completely lacking in intelligence1 they are not sufficiently endowed therewith to work alongside normal children2 they do not understand1 they cannot follow2 they profit so little by attending the school that some of them are never able to assimilate the instruction even of the elementary course4 ,very often they pay no attention whatever to the work of the class2 and this is quite a good thing1 for then the teacher forgets them in their corner1 and goes on as if they were not there4 ,but many of these children are ill-balanced2 they are excitable1 and their bodies are never at rest2 they are not amenable to ordinary discipline4 ,they are a constant source of trouble and annoyance to their master and to their comrades4 ,the supervision of a single ill-balanced child is more trouble1 the teachers sometimes declare1 than the direction of twenty normal ones4 ,either one or the other must be neglected1 and the alternatives are equally objectionable4 ,what1 then1 must be done with those children who are not amenable to the ordinary school discipline8 ,at first sight this seems a simple question4 ,let them be sent to an institution4 ,we actually possess in the hospitals of ,bicetre and of the ,salpetriere1 in the colony of ,vaucluse--to say nothing of provincial institutions--establishments which make provision1 both medical and educational1 for children who are idiotic1 imbecile1 vicious1 and epileptic4 ,is it not possible to send to these institutions all the abnormal children who encumber the primary schools8 ,no2 it is neither possible nor desirable to pack them off to an asylum4 ,these abnormal children are not in all cases so severely affected as to require segregation4 ,we admit that such a measure is necessary for idiots of low grade who cannot even feed themselves4 ,we have also no objection to leaving to the asylums cases of very severe nervous disturbance such as epilepsy1 for only there can they receive the medical supervision appropriate to their condition4 ,they have more need of the doctor than of the teacher4 ,as for the other abnormal children who constitute the great majority1 it seems clear that the proper place for them is not the asylum1 but the special school4 ,they have sufficient intelligence to attend a school4 ,what they probably require is instruction specially adapted to their mental state1 and such instruction can be profitably given only in classes small enough to permit of individual attention4 ,from all this we reach a very clear definition of what we mean by abnormal children1 and a very simple indication of what should be done with them4 ,abnormal and defective children are those who are suitable for neither the ordinary school nor the asylum2 for the school they are not sufficiently good1 for the asylum not sufficiently bad4 ,we must try what special schools and classes can do for them4 ,statistics4--,it is important to notice that the children so defined are not a negligible quantity4 ,their name is legion4 ,and since number is the factor that gives importance to every social problem1 we may say that the regulation of the lot of these children is a social question of the greatest gravity4 ,the statistics which have up till now been published abroad do not give such precise information as one could wish regarding the number of the defectives4 ,some give the bare figures2 others1 using a better method1 state the proportion of mentally defective children to the total population4 ,there is also much doubt as to the way in which the statisticians have used the term abnormal or defective4 ,one inquiry relates only to children slightly affected2 another bears upon all abnormal children1 including the lowest grades of idiocy1 and is therefore much more comprehensive4 ,in other cases we are not told how the selection was made4 ,as to ,france1 precise information has not been available until last year1 when two inquiries were held--one at the instance of the ,ministerial ,commission1 the other organised by the ,minister of the ,interior4 ,according to the former inquiry1 we find that the proportion of defectives amounts to scarcely #a per cent4 for the boys1 and ,o4#i per cent4 for the girls4 ,these percentages are evidently far too small1 and we ourselves have discovered1 by a small private inquiry1 that many schools returned none in the questionnaires distributed1 although the headmasters have admitted to us that they possessed several genuine defectives4 ,in ,paris1 ,m4 ,vaney1 a headmaster1 made some investigations by the arithmetical test1 which we shall explain presently1 and reached the conclusion that #b per cent4 of the school population of two districts were backward4 ,if we were to include the ill-balanced1 whose number is probably equal to that of the backward1 the proportion would be about #d per cent4 ,lastly1 and quite recently1 a special and most careful inquiry was made at ,bordeaux1 under the direction of ,m4 ,thamin1 by alienists and the school medical inspectors1 and it was found that the percentage of abnormality amongst the boys was #e4ag4 ,probably the true percentage is somewhere in the neighbourhood of #e4 ,all these inquiries are comparable because they all deal with the school population4 ,the great variation in the figures is due to several causes1 the chief of which are the following3 7#a7 ,the proportion of the abnormal varies to a surprising extent in different schools even in the same neighbourhood4 ,dr4 ,abadie1 for example1 has expressly noted that in some schools the proportion may be four times as great as in others4 7#b7 ,the definition of a child of backward intelligence has usually and quite gratuitously been left vague by the investigators2 each interprets the term in his own way1 whence arise great differences in the figures4 7#c7 ,it is particularly difficult to define the cases that are to be reckoned as ill-balanced or unstable1 and some teachers1 if they are allowed1 will place in this category all the pupils that they dislike4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have been led to interest ourselves in abnormal children in the following way3 ,one of us1 ,binet1 ,president of the ,societe ,libre pour l',etude de l',enfant1 has for many years been in daily contact with the staff of the primary schools4 ,in obedience to the wish of a great many teachers1 he has formed1 in connection with the ,society1 a committee for the care of abnormal children1 upon which are many distinguished people1 such as ,m4 ,rollet1 ,m4 ,albanel1 ,dr4 ,voisin1 ,mme4 ,meusy1 and1 above all1 ,m4 ,baguer1 who is deeply interested in the education of defectives4 ,this committee initiated various investigations relating to backward children4 ,some time afterwards ,m4 ,binet1 having been nominated a member of the ,ministerial ,commission on ,abnormal ,children1 became the director of the work of the ,commission relating to the backward and the unstable4 ,he then1 in conjunction with ,dr4 ,simon1 undertook in certain districts various inquiries into the condition of such cases4 ,in regard to several questions we enjoyed the intelligent and devoted co-operation of ,m4 ,vaney1 ,head of the ,primary ,school of the ,rue ,grange-aux-,belles1 where one of us has founded a laboratory of pedagogy4 ,we have thus been interested in abnormal children for a long time1 either from the point of view of school organisation1 or from that of their differentiation from the normal4 ,let us add that lately ,m4 ,bedorez1 the distinguished ,director of ,primary ,education in the ,seine ,district1 has kindly permitted one of us 7,binet7 to co-operate in the organisation of some classes for defective children1 which have been started experimentally in the primary schools of ,paris4 ,let us now state quite clearly our aim in writing this book4 ,ever since public interest has been aroused in the question of schools for defective children1 selfish ambition has seen its opportunity4 ,the most frankly selfish interests conceal themselves behind the mask of philanthropy1 and whoever dreams of finding a fine situation for himself in the new schools never speaks of the children without tears in his eyes4 ,this is the everlasting human comedy4 ,there is no reason for indignation4 ,everyone has the right to look after his own interest1 so long as he does not compromise interests superior to his own--namely1 those of society4 ,it is this social interest with which we are concerned4 ,having found out by our own personal experience how a class for defectives may be established and conducted1 we have noted the faults which could not but be committed1 and the mistakes which will certainly occur unless one is forewarned and makes every possible effort to prevent them4 ,may our book1 then1 be regarded as a means of prophylaxis1 a means of escaping conscious or unconscious error4 ,may it also prove a guide--imperfect1 no doubt1 but still useful--for the organisation of some of those social inquiries conducted in a strictly scientific spirit1 which are becoming more and more necessary for the proper management of public affairs4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,it is common to cite with respect the names of one's predecessors1 and ,seguin's portrait may justly hang in such a gallery of one's ancestors4 ,but ,seguin's work must not be examined too closely2 those who praise it have certainly not read it4 ,seguin impresses us as an empiric1 endowed with great personal talent1 which he has not succeeded in embodying clearly in his works4 ,these contain some pages of good sense1 with many obscurities1 and many absurdities4 ,we refer the curious reader to his chief work1 ,traitement ,moral1 ,hygiene1 et ,education des ,idiots et des autres ,enfants ,arrieres1 published in #ahdf4 ,one might make many criticisms on the writings of alienists2 but to what end8 ,we prefer to say of such predecessors what ,ingres said to his pupils in the ,rubens gallery at the ,louvre1 ,salute them1 but pay no attention to them6 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,some ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,psychology ,,of ,,defectives ,although this book is specially intended as a guide to the admission of mentally defective children to special schools or classes1 we cannot commence by an exposition of the methods of recruiting such children4 ,we must first describe the children and indicate their principal characteristics1 mental and moral4 ,we must also discuss the question what a mentally defective child really is--a very important question1 upon which depends everything else1 the organisation of the schools and the special methods of education4 ,every educational method depends upon a theory1 formulated or implicit1 which is at once its point of departure and its justification4 ,one would run the risk of falling into a blind empiricism if one were content to apply an educational method independently of the theory which is its soul4 ,there are two conceptions of a totally different nature1 either of which may inspire the training of defective children4 ,let us examine each of these in turn1 and find out which is the more reasonable4 ,according to the first1 the defective child is practically the same as a normal child several years younger2 or1 in other words1 he is a child who has been retarded in his development4 ,a backward child of twelve years of age1 who has not yet been able to learn to read1 would thus be comparable to an ordinary child of six1 who is just beginning to spell4 ,it is evident that such a comparison must not be pushed too far4 ,many reservations must be made4 ,on the one hand1 the defective has not so much time in front of him for development as a normal and younger child4 ,he is then not strictly comparable to the latter4 ,on the other hand1 the very fact of his age has given to the defective of twelve a bodily and even a mental development never attained at six4 ,for example1 he is nearer puberty2 his vocabulary is more extensive2 and he possesses greater general knowledge4 ,but these reservations once made1 the theory that the defective is the victim of a retardation of development has seemed reasonable to many competent people4 ,as a rule one just accepts it without taking the trouble to formulate it in precise terms4 ,perhaps it is for this very reason that one accepts it so easily2 it is the classic theory4 ,to the cursory reader it may seem that we adopt this theory ourselves1 for we shall frequently use such phrases as defective of eleven who is at the level of a child of nine4 ,but the sense in which we use such an expression must not be misunderstood1 because it is only intended to imply that a certain standard has been attained4 ,it has no bearing on the cause of the retardation1 nor upon its particular nature1 nor upon the means of rectifying it4 ,now for the educational consequences of the preceding theory4 ,if the backwardness is only a slowness of development1 it will suffice to apply to the backward the same methods as to the normal4 ,one will make them follow the same course of study and go just as far as possible4 ,every defective must work towards the primary school certificate4 ,to attain that end1 he ought to pass through seven regular stages1 one each year4 ,the teacher of defectives cannot hope that he will bring his pupils to the last stage4 ,he will stop half-way4 ,one day1 at the agricultural colony of ,vaucluse1 when some foreign doctors were visiting the establishment1 the teacher showing his class to the visitors remarked with naive pride3 ,our pupils follow step by step the curriculum of the primary school4 ,a second and totally different theory is tenable1 and this one appears to us to be much nearer the truth4 ,it is that a defective child does not resemble in any way a normal one whose development has been retarded or arrested4 ,he is inferior1 not in degree1 but in kind4 ,the retardation of his development has not been uniform4 ,obstructed in one direction1 his development has progressed in others4 ,to some extent he has cultivated substitutes for what is lacking4 ,consequently such a child is not strictly comparable to a normal child younger than himself4 ,so far as certain faculties are concerned1 he remains at the level of a younger child2 but in respect to others1 he is on a level with normal children of his own age4 ,an unequal and imperfect development is consequently his specific characteristic4 ,these inequalities of development may vary to any degree in different subjects4 ,they always produce a want of equilibrium1 and this want is the differentiating attribute of the defective child4 ,but to draw a faithful picture we must add yet other traits4 ,according to general opinion1 mental deficiency is a disease1 and although the idea of disease is very vague1 we are inclined to fall in with this general opinion4 ,in the first place1 we frequently find in such children defects of speech4 ,besides1 in studying their mental condition more closely1 one finds in some cases peculiarities of understanding1 reasoning1 imagining1 difficult to define1 but which do not appear to have their equivalent in younger normal children1 and which therefore do not result from simple retardation of development4 ,here is a boy1 twelve years of ago1 who tries to answer our questions1 and succeeds pretty well2 but hardly has he finished his answer when he deserts the subject altogether and begins to talk a lot of nonsense4 ,this want of coordination in thought constitutes a special defect1 and not a retardation of development4 ,possibly one would not find analogous features in other backward children1 who tend rather to be laconic2 but it is also possible that a careful analysis of their mental state might reveal in them other mental symptoms1 and1 indeed1 such are very obvious in the variety called unstable or ill-balanced4 ,to sum up1 we are of opinion that the defective child usually exhibits the following characters3 7#a7 ,a retardation of development2 7#b7 a defect of equilibrium--i4e41 the retardation is more marked in some faculties than in others2 7#c7 individual peculiarities of a pathological kind in the mental powers4 ,if this second theory is correct1 there follows a very important practical consequence--namely1 that the curriculum drawn up for normal children is very imperfectly suited to the defective4 ,we cannot force the latter to fit the ordinary course4 ,to attempt this would be quite as unreasonable as to make our teaching appeal to the ears of the deaf or the eyes of the blind4 ,the first duty of the teacher is to take account of the faculties already developed1 the aptitudes which are already apparent4 ,his work is thankless and difficult2 he would be foolish not to take advantage of the indications of nature4 ,if a pupil show a special taste for any subject1 it is evidently towards such a line of study that he should be directed4 ,consequently1 in conformity with these ideas1 we would reject on principle any programme of special instruction which would rigorously include all the children in a common plan4 ,on the contrary1 we would prefer for the defective a scheme which would take the most account of their natural aptitudes4 ,such considerations lead us to put the following question--,what are the most common aptitudes in children of this class8 ,we say the most common1 because we have not to do with a single well-defined type1 for there are as many varieties as there are individuals2 but in spite of the number of those varieties1 which shows the need for individual teaching1 it will always be possible to establish categories in which those most nearly alike may be grouped ,it is also possible that the aptitudes most frequently lacking are always1 or almost always1 of the same nature4 ,to solve the question which we have just raised1 we shall employ two methods-- ,the questionnaire4 ,direct observation4 ,a printed questionnaire containing thirty-eight questions has been distributed through the agency of ,m4 ,belot1 school inspector1 to the heads of all the elementary schools in two districts of ,paris--one central1 the other suburban4 ,nothing would be gained by reproducing here the questionnaire1 which has served its purpose4 ,we shall simply lay down the conclusions we have reached1 after studying the replies with the greatest care4 ,the replies confirm the division1 which we have ourselves suggested1 of all the abnormal into three groups3 7#a7 ,the mentally defective2 7#b7 the ill-balanced2 7#c7 a mixed type which includes those who are both mentally defective and ill-balanced4 ,the simply defective do not present any well-defined anomaly of character1 but they do not profit1 or profit very little1 from the ordinary school teaching4 ,the ill-balanced1 who might also be called the undisciplined1 are abnormal chiefly in character4 ,they are distinguished by their unruliness1 their talkativeness1 their lack of attention1 and sometimes their wickedness4 ,the ,distribution of ,defective ,children in the ,public ,schools4--,in which school divisions do we find these several varieties of children8 ,let us begin with the mentally defective4 ,these are found chiefly in the junior division1 as might be expected4 ,some manage to reach the intermediate division1 but scarcely any reach the senior4 ,the exact distribution is as follows3 #ge per cent4 in the junior department2 #be per cent4 in the intermediate4 ,let us be more precise with regard to two points--the age of the child and his school position4 ,some heads of schools1 not all1 have taken the trouble to satisfy our demands1 and have fixed to almost a year the mental retardation of the child as compared with normal children of the same age4 ,the following table summarises these replies1 and shows that the majority of cases present a retardation of three years3 ,mentally defective children with a retardation of-- #j #j #a year #f #b years #ab #c #ab #d #i #e #j #f #d #g #a ,according to a convention1 of which we shall speak more fully later1 we regard as defective in intelligence a child who shows a retardation of three years1 when he himself is nine years of age or more4 ,the results shown above agree with this convention4 ,moreover1 one may draw the conclusion1 which is of practical value1 that one need not seek children of this group in the senior division of a primary school4 ,the distribution of the ill-balanced in the divisions of the primary school is quite different4 ,in the first place1 one is surprised to find none1 or practically none 7only two out of forty-five7 in the senior division4 ,we did not expect this4 ,a priori1 we should have supposed that1 in spite of their defect in character1 the unstable were not without intelligence1 and that a fair number of them would succeed in passing the gates of the senior division4 ,if none are found there1 this shows clearly that instability must be associated with some mental defect1 unless some independent condition1 such as inveterate laziness1 has checked the child on the way4 ,the ill-balanced1 like the simply defective1 are to be found in the intermediate and junior divisions1 but their distribution is different4 ,while #ge per cent4 of the simply defective are in the junior division1 and #be per cent4 in the intermediate1 #de per cent4 of the ill-balanced are in the junior1 and #ej per cent4 in the intermediate3 practically1 they are divided equally between these two divisions4 ,this indicates a degree of intelligence superior to that of the defective1 as one would expect4 ,but1 on the other hand1 their absence from the senior division shows that the intelligence of the ill-balanced is in general below the average4 ,as this conclusion is new1 and may be open to question1 let us examine it more closely3 ,the amount of the retardation of the ill-balanced1 as shown in our returns1 is as follows3 ,mentally ill-balanced children with a retardation of-- #j #ad #a year #af #b years #ad #c #b #d #a ,these figures show1 in a novel form1 that the mental retardation is much less clear in the ill-balanced than in the defective properly so called1 since in the former group are to be found many pupils--about a third--who1 in the opinion of their teachers1 are not at all backward2 but the majority are backward1 while none are in advance of their years4 ,consequently1 the whole group shows a slight retardation1 averaging about one year1 which confirms and makes more precise our original conclusion4 ,we may therefore affirm that mental instability or want of balance is usually accompanied by an intellectual retardation of about one year4 ,age ,distribution4--,it is worth while making another remark about the ages of these children4 ,the simply defective are of all possible school ages1 while the unstable are usually young children4 ,here is the distribution3 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,age4 ,defectives4 ,unstable4 ---------------------------------------- -------- #g years #b #a #h #e #i #i #e #g #aj #c ,total1 #ca #aj ,total1 #dc #aa #f #aa #ab #aj #e #ac #i #d #ad #b #j #ae #c ,total1 #ae #j ,total1 #d #af #a #j ---------------------------------------- -------- ,the defectives remain in the schools till the end of the prescribed terms1 whilst the ill-balanced hasten to leave before the time4 ,thus the defective1 like an inert mass1 become a dead weight which encumbers the school4 ,they adapt themselves as well as they can to their environment4 ,their parents are apt to leave them at school as long as possible1 because they do not know what to do with them1 and probably the teachers do not complain very much1 but are ready to put up with these defectives who do not interfere with discipline4 ,the ill-balanced1 on the other hand1 find the school environment irksome1 the discipline hostile4 ,they do not wish to stay at school2 their parents do not keep them there1 owing to the constant complaints of the teachers2 and the teachers do not want to have anything more to do with them4 ,conclusion3 ,the ill-balanced leaves school early1 and takes his place in society1 where1 owing to his character1 he may very easily become a danger4 ,to sum up1 the simply defective remain at school1 while the ill-balanced leave early4 ,another observation may be made4 ,since the ill-balanced are so numerous at ten years of age1 and even at eight1 we conclude that in many cases the mental instability is not the result of the perturbation which precedes puberty4 ,this physiological explanation is not of such general application as is sometimes supposed4 ,the ,frequency of the ,mixed ,type1 at once ,defective and ,ill-,balanced4--,the third category of defective children which we have suggested includes those of a mixed type1 who are at once mentally defective and ill-balanced4 ,we shall not be surprised to find that these subjects have characters which are the mean of those of the defective and the ill-balanced1 since they unite in themselves the two different forms of abnormality4 ,thus1 as regards their intelligence1 one finds that none of them are in the senior division2 the majority are in the junior division 7#ga per cent471 and the remainder 7#bi per cent47 in the intermediate division1 which proves that they are on the average less intelligent than the simply ill-balanced1 and more intelligent than the simply defective4 ,but we need not dwell on such details1 which are easy to understand and even to foresee4 ,the most important question is the number of the mixed cases4 ,the groups of the two simple types are almost equal in number4#b ,on the other hand1 we find only twenty-one mixed cases in a population where the ill-balanced which have been notified to us amount to forty-four1 and the defective to fifty-seven1 so that the mixed cases represent only a fifth of the whole1 whereas the simple cases form four-fifths4 ,these very different proportions indicate that as a general rule mental instability and mental deficiency are quite distinct4 ,they are not aspects of a single pathological condition1 but are two quite independent pathological conditions which may coexist in the same subject1 just as happens1 for example1 in the case of alcoholism and epilepsy1 but which are none the less distinct1 since as a rule they do not coexist4 ,psychological ,description of the ,mentally ,defective4--,now let us take a closer look at the children who are going to be pupils in our schools for defectives4 ,in looking over the replies to our questionnaire1 we are struck by the recurrence of certain phrases1 by which the teacher attempts to sum up the defective child4 ,here are some examples of such phrases4 ,they represent only general impressions1 but the frequency of similar impressions arrests one's attention4 ,charles does the best he can4 ,augustine is very attentive4 ,emile is very obedient and gentle4 ,paul is always making himself useful in little ways4 ,marcelle is obliging and polite4 ,jeanne blushes on the slightest occasion4 ,severity paralyses ,ernestine and makes her lose what little wits she possesses4 ,camilla smiles whenever anyone speaks to her1 and immediately does what she is told4 ,louis is very biddable4 ,angela does not answer back when her companions tease her1 and takes the blame herself4 ,eugenie is affectionate and is loved by her companions who make her join in their games4 ,although she herself is fifteen1 it was a child of eight who taught her to read and write4 ,from all these remarks it appears that the defective is a likeable creature4 ,he is so even in proportion to the degree of his defect4 ,with this thought in mind1 we have examined the various descriptions1 and have reached this very curious conclusion3 ,the more likeable the child is represented to be1 the greater the amount of retardation one may safely attribute to him4 ,few1 indeed1 are the exceptions to this rule4 ,the defective child is praised for his sweetness of disposition4 ,if he does not understand the work which is being done in class1 at any rate he does not show his want of comprehension in any noisy manner4 ,sitting quietly in his place1 he allows himself to be forgotten4 ,the lesson can go on just as if he were not present1 and usually that is just what happens4 ,it would not be just on this account to accuse of negligence a teacher who has charge of forty to sixty pupils4 ,the sluggishness1 both mental and physical1 of these children is a negative quality which an overtaxed master is sometimes weak enough to value4 ,when the defective child becomes subject to discipline1 we are told1 he does not rebel2 for he is obedient1 respectful1 and probably suggestible4 ,sometimes the teacher may even recognise in him the presence of qualities of a more positive nature4 ,some defectives are pleased1 and even eager1 to do little services4 ,they are kind to their companions1 affectionate1 and grateful for attentions paid to them4 ,as they are usually older than the other children in their class1 the teacher often trusts them with little commissions4 ,so far as one can judge of the morality of natures whose intellectual level is so low1 the source of the altruistic sentiments appears to be well represented in the defective1 but it remains to be considered whether his docility and complaisance may not mislead us as to the true value of his sentiments2 for one characteristic of the defective is his tendency to repeat the polite formulae or moral maxims which have been taught him4 ,he has a surface morality1 possibly purely verbal4 ,as a last trait1 it may be noted that the defective is influenced by rewards and punishments1 but1 owing to his defective intelligence1 the effect is very fleeting4 ,psychological ,description of the ,ill-,balanced4--,this description contrasts curiously with the preceding4 ,in this there is nothing to be surprised at4 ,in school the ill-balanced child is a perpetual nuisance4 ,the teacher has no weakness for this naughty child1 who is always disturbing the class and defying his authority4 ,as we have done in the case of the defective1 let us quote some of the phrases by which our correspondents sum up the unstable4 ,charles cannot sit still1 nor keep in rank1 and his heedlessness prevents reproof having any effect4 ,albert never obeys but with a bad grace4 ,martha always puts on an astonished look when she is checked4 ,maurice receives any criticism with impatience4 ,susan receives it with anger4 ,eugenie1 by tossing her head4 ,she mimics her teacher1 and makes the others laugh1 so that they have to hide their faces4 ,octavia replies1 ,what do ,i care6 ,she bursts out laughing and continues to do what she has been forbidden4 ,leontine quibbles1 answers back1 and expresses aloud her bad humour4 ,raoul flies into a passion when he is reprimanded4 ,he poses as a martyr1 a victim of injustice1 and sometimes even utters threats4 ,punishment makes him give vent to intemperate language4 ,victor assumes an attitude of revolt1 turns pale1 and refuses to obey when anyone checks him4 ,lucy broke her pen in a fit of temper4 ,helen in the same circumstances upsets everything in her neighbourhood4 ,louise strikes her elbows on the desk1 and one day she even kicked her teacher4 ,leon is quarrelsome and his companions are afraid of him4 ,george does nothing but tease his companions4 ,he destroys their copybooks1 tears pages from their books1 and puts the blame on them4 ,charles1 who is rendered obstinate by strictness and merely irritated by punishment1 seems happy when one takes an interest in him4 ,eugenie1 who is greatly excited by punishment and who smiles at rewards1 loves to be flattered and picked out to do some little service4 ,the three following traits are constantly met with in the descriptions of the ill-balanced3 they are turbulent1 boastful1 and incapable of attention4 ,to this may be reduced the psychology of the less strongly marked cases4 ,they have an instability of body1 of speech1 of attention1 which may result either from an excessively nervous disposition1 or simply from a nature whose restlessness rebels against sedentary and silent study4 ,but in many cases other features are present4 ,in addition to the preceding symptoms1 there are found impatience of discipline and a tendency to annoy their comrades4 ,the ill-balanced are spoken of as brutal1 deceitful1 cruel2 and as to their obstinacy1 the abundant details in the questionnaires show that these children have left a disagreeable impression on the school staff4 ,it is especially on their account that an outcry for special schools has arisen4 ,the way in which these children react to discipline is very interesting4 ,we are told that they are very little influenced by rewards1 which they often receive with disdain1 laughter1 or irony1 if they do not refuse them altogether4 ,punishments1 on the other hand1 produce a bad effect4 ,the ill-balanced nearly always become angry1 and rebel against punishment1 so that the teachers strive to avoid coming into conflict with them4 ,here we have a trait which is very interesting for psychology1 but very embarrassing for pedagogy4 ,how1 then1 can the ill-balanced be subjected to any discipline whatever8 ,this is an important question1 which it will be all the more necessary to solve because it is the ill-balanced who profit most by special education2 it is for them that one would have most hope4 ,our advice is that1 in order to control these children1 account should be taken1 in the first place1 of their dominant tendency4 ,the study of the answers to the questionnaires shows us that the chief thing to which one can appeal in these cases is their amour-propre1 their pride1 their vanity--in a word1 the whole range of the egoistic sentiments4 ,on natures of this stamp punishment cannot have much effect1 seeing that it is opposed by an often indomitable pride4 ,the end may be reached more directly1 not by breaking the resistance1 but by giving it a different direction4 ,it is better to praise the ill-balanced when he has done well than to punish him for his faults4 ,it is desirable also to show him some appreciation1 or even to trust him with some duty of a very modest kind1 which he may perform under discreet supervision4 ,mental ,aptitudes of the ,defective4--,having briefly sketched the moral aptitudes of the abnormal1 let us now examine their mental aptitudes4 ,we have here a very captivating subject of inquiry4 ,the study of individual aptitudes ought to have been undertaken long ago in the interest of education4 ,everyone is crying out for it4 ,no one1 or almost no one1 undertakes it4 ,in the case of the abnormal there is even more urgent need that it should be undertaken1 for the younger or less intelligent the pupils1 the more depends upon educational methods4 ,when a mind is of a superior kind1 very little really depends upon the culture supplied to it4 ,if a ,berthelot or a ,pasteur should even have had imbeciles as their first masters in chemistry1 they would none the less have turned out men of genius4 ,it is those of average intelligence who have need of good methods of instruction4 ,it is the young children who really require intelligent methods4 ,consequently we should give the defectives the best teachers4 ,every fault of method committed in their education may have consequences which will prejudice them later on4 ,in order to discover the aptitudes of the mentally defective1 we have three means of interrogating our questionnaires4 ,in the first place these contain the following question3 ,does the child show any particular aptitude either at school or outside8 ,this question has evoked replies which vary very little1 for amongst the aptitudes of the children scarcely anything is mentioned but bodily occupations--errands1 domestic duties1 gymnastics1 sewing1 and drawing4 ,in the same questionnaire another question1 placed on the following page1 is almost identical in form with the first3 ,is there anything in which the child is particularly interested8 ,the replies to this second question have been a little more numerous than to the previous one4 ,it is true that the two differ by a shade--the distinction between interest and aptitude4 ,one may interest oneself in something for which one has no aptitude4 ,the following table shows the distribution of the replies to the two preceding questions3 ,,the ,,mentally ,,defective4 ,aptitudes4 ,interests4 ,pupils4 ,pupils4 ,none #ai ,none #aa ,practical life #g ,writing #h ,sewing #g ,drawing #g ,gymnastics #a ,sewing #f ,drawing #a ,gymnastics #e ,arithmetic #c ,recitation #c ,history #b ,french #a ,music #a ,singing #a ,reading #a ,object lessons #a ,these two lists are not superposable1 but if we take them together we shall notice that sensori-motor occupations1 such as gymnastics1 practical life1 sewing1 writing1 and drawing1 are those which are most interesting to these pupils4 ,sewing1 writing1 and drawing are1 indeed1 their favourite lessons4 ,we should have expected that singing would not have left them indifferent1 for other investigations have shown us that the majority have a good voice2 but it is quite apparent that singing is less attractive to them than drawing4 ,a very characteristic feature is the absence of any mention of composition4 ,some of the abnormal are fond of arithmetic2 none shine in composition4 ,this fact1 though negative1 seems worth consideration4 ,speaking generally1 we never find that a child who is good at composition is mentally defective4 ,we have mentioned that there is a third method of weighing the aptitudes of defective children4 ,in our questionnaire we asked the teachers to give marks showing the relative ability of these children in the different subjects4 ,from these marks it appears that in four subjects they are more successful than in others4 ,these are gymnastics1 drawing1 writing1 and reading4 ,we regret that we did not include in our list sewing1 manual work1 and object lessons4 ,here are our results in figures4 ,these indicate for each pupil the two subjects in which he has obtained the highest marks4 ,pupils4 ,pupils4 ,reading #bc ,arithmetic #f ,writing #ah ,spelling #e ,drawing #aa ,singing #c ,gymnastics #aa ,recitation #c ,it is not at all uncommon for a defective to take the first place in writing or in drawing4 ,this is quite a remarkable fact1 although we must hasten to add that in such cases the defective is usually the oldest child in the class4 ,all these observations are sufficiently uniform1 and lead to the same conclusion4 ,the dominant features in the defective are the senses1 the concrete perceptions1 and motor ability4 ,these are the faculties which are normally developed4 ,his constant weakness in composition shows that the function of speech is quite evidently inferior to the sensory and motor functions4 ,let us weigh these facts and sum up4 ,what a great mistake it would be to give to children of this kind the syllabus of instruction which has been made to suit normal children4 ,this syllabus harmonises with the development of all the faculties4 ,how1 then1 could one make children follow it whose aptitudes are limited8 99 99 99 99 99 ,inquiries by questionnaire have one defect which has often been noted4 ,they bring together statements furnished by correspondents who are often unknown1 and whose judgment and accuracy it is impossible to estimate4 ,each of their observations1 taken by itself1 has little authority4 ,it is the sum of concurring observations which should alone be taken into consideration2 and even then it is necessary to be cautious before drawing any practical conclusion1 because an agreement in the replies sometimes indicates nothing more than a general misconception4 ,such doubts1 which are known to all investigators1 led us to decide to make direct observations on our own account upon abnormal school-children1 and to compare them with normal children of the same age--a long and difficult task1 as all pioneer work is4 ,we have collected facts which we were not seeking1 whilst we often failed to find what we expected4 ,it would be impossible to summarise here everything which contact with reality has taught and suggested4 ,we shall extract from our observations only what concerns the aptitudes of the abnormal1 and shall even limit ourselves to a single category of these4 ,it happens that we have methodical observations relating to twelve defective children of between eleven and twelve years of age4 ,these form a sufficiently homogeneous group from the point of view both of age and of mental ability4 ,we shall inquire what are the best marked aptitudes and the most apparent deficiencies of this little group4 ,without denying individual differences or forgetting that defectives cannot easily be reduced to a single type1 we have thought it more interesting for the present to emphasise their resemblances rather than their differences4 ,let us1 then1 compare them en bloc with a group of normal children of the same age and the same social position1 attending the same schools1 in the same district4 ,this equivalence of conditions is necessary if we are to lay our finger on the distinctive characters of the defective child4 ,we have subjected our twelve defectives to certain tests as speedy and precise as possible4#c ,we devised these tests before studying the returns furnished to our questionnaires1 and the latter were tabulated before our observations4 ,there have1 therefore1 been two studies absolutely independent1 both in their mode of execution1 and in their aim4 ,consequently1 any points in which they agree will be very significant4 ,our collection of tests of mental deficiency is already known to readers of the ,annee ,psychologique4#d ,in vol4 xi4 we described at length the details necessary for making use of our method of experimentation4 ,since then ,dr4 ,decroly1 who specialises on defective children in ,belgium1 has tried our methods1 and verified our conclusions4 ,the end which we have constantly set before ourselves has been to bring to light the intellectual capacity of the child1 taken by itself1 as distinct from what the child actually knows4 ,our psychological examinations are consequently the very opposite of school examinations1 which test chiefly the candidate's memory1 his judgment very little4 ,we have made numerous observations in this way4 ,the best way to explain our method1 and more especially our results1 will be to describe a few of the experiments4 ,memory of ,pictures of ,known ,objects4--,the children are allowed to look for thirty seconds at pictures of thirteen objects1 which they are then told to enumerate from memory4 ,comparison of ,short ,lines4--,two lines for comparison are drawn in ink side by side on the same sheet of paper1 so that they can both be seen at a glance4 ,we have a whole series of such pairs4 ,between the lines1 whose average length is #cj millimetres1 there is a variable difference4 ,estimation of ,weights4--,five little boxes1 weighing respectively #c1 #f1 #i1 #ab1 and #ae grammes1 are to be arranged in order of weight4 ,memory of ,figures4--,this test consists in repeating a series of figures immediately after having heard them4 ,memory of ,phrases4--,the child is asked to repeat a phrase of twelve to fifteen words immediately after having heard it4 ,we do not wish to insist on the details of these observations4 ,they are still very incomplete4 ,it will be necessary to experiment for a long time#e before it will be possible to say exactly what it is that is wanting1 or that is wrong1 in the mental machinery of the defective4 ,no doubt when the classes for defectives shall be under way1 when a great many such children are brought together in conditions which suit the convenience of the experimenters1 the latter will be able after persevering effort to see daylight in this matter4 ,in the meantime we must be content with a general survey4 ,but however superficial1 however defective1 our first attempts may be1 they may at least give us a start4 ,let us see1 then1 what results have been obtained from our tests4 ,these results clearly separate the tests themselves into two groups4 ,to the one set the defectives furnished replies practically equivalent to those of normal children4 ,to the other1 on the contrary1 they gave answers which clearly exhibited their retardation1 or rather their defect4 ,this difference would be deprived of all significance if any of the tests presented no difficulty to a normal intelligence4 ,but in all cases the difficulty was so great that even the normal made many mistakes1 and we can affirm that1 whilst for the one set the two groups of children were practically equal1 for the other1 on the contrary1 the inferiority of the defective is quite clear4 ,the tests in which the defectives are on a par with the normal are--7#a7 ,the comparison of short lines2 7#b7 the memory of pictures4 ,let us give some details of the latter test1 which appears to us typical4 ,each child individually was shown a sheet of paper1 on which were pasted thirteen pictures of known objects4 ,these pictures1 drawn in black and very simple1 almost reduced to outlines1 represented a nose1 a head of hair1 a rose1 two cherries1 a bed1 a barrel1 a nail1 a key1 an omnibus1 some eggs1 a bell1 a sun setting in the sea1 and a mouth4 ,we have here a test of sense memory1 for the child is asked to recall a visual impression4 ,something more1 however1 is necessary1 for he must understand the picture and give it a name4 ,but this constitutes no real difficulty1 and the whole exercise is a test of sense intelligence4 ,we were quite surprised to find that in this case our defectives were at the level normal for eleven years4 ,the average of their replies is seven1 which is exactly the normal value4 ,this is shown in the following table1 which gives the comparison between them and normal children of eleven3 ,,naming ,,by ,,memory ,,thirteen ,,pictures4 ,number of pictures remembered-- ,normal children #d1 #e1 #f1 #f1 #g1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aj4 ,defective children #d1 #d1 #g1 #g1 #g1 #h1 #h1 #i1 #aa4 ,have we not here a very interesting confirmation of what we have already learned from the questionnaires8 ,the exercise is one which certainly presents some difficulty1 since the normal children forgot some of the pictures4 ,if it had been too easy1 one would not have been surprised at the fact that the two groups--the normal and the defective--were equally successful4 ,now1 in spite of the difficulty1 the defective shows no inferiority as compared with the normal4 ,any commentary would diminish the eloquence of this result4 ,without lingering over each of the other tests1 let us select from the group one which forms a remarkable contrast to the preceding4 ,just as striking as the equality between the defective and the normal in visual memory of pictures is the difference between them in memory for phrases4 ,the latter is a test of immediate memory4 ,one repeats to the child a phrase of about twelve to fifteen words1 and asks him to repeat it immediately afterwards4 ,for this memory is necessary1 and also voluntary attention1 and some power of comprehension into the bargain2 for if some of these phrases are quite easy to understand 7e4g41 ,germaine has not been good2 she did not want to work2 she will be scolded71 others1 again1 are a little involved 7e4g41 ,the chestnut-tree in the garden casts the quite faint shadow of its new leaves on the ground74 ,the number of phrases which the defectives managed to repeat correctly is very small4 ,it averages only two4 ,here are the figures3 ,,immediate ,,memory ,,of ,,phrases4 ,number of phrases repeated exactly-- #g years #a1 #b1 #b1 #c1 #c1 #c1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #e4 ,normal children #i years #b1 #d1 #d1 #d1 #d1 #e1 #e1 #e1 #f1 #f1 #g4 #aa years #c1 #c1 #d1 #d1 #e1 #e1 #f1 #f1 #g1 #g4 ,defective children1 #aa years #j1 #a1 #a1 #b1 #b1 #b1 #b1 #b1 #c1 #c1 #d1 #d4 ,if one examines these results1 one is surprised to find that some of the defectives are superior to normal children of the same age1 since they repeat four phrases1 although some of the normal repeat only three4 ,in all experiments on groups one finds exceptions of this kind4 ,we are glad to give examples in order to show how complex everything is4 ,in order to comprehend such anomalies1 it is necessary to analyse the exceptional cases4 ,one generally finds then that the defective who has broken the rule has made use of a pure sense memory1 has repeated like an echo without understanding4 ,if the repetition is delayed a little1 he is lost4 ,in other cases the defective is not far removed from the normal4 ,without stopping to discuss these exceptions1 let us examine the group as a whole4 ,when we do this we reach the important conclusion that our group of defectives resembles in a striking manner the group of children of seven years4 ,on an average1 they repeat practically the same number of phrases4 ,the average for seven years is #c4a2 that of the defectives of eleven years is a little less3 it is #b4a4 ,now1 to sum up1 let us compare just these two extremes1 the memory of pictures and the memory of phrases4 ,is not the contrast remarkable8 ,and does one not here hit upon one of the principal differences between the normal and the abnormal8 ,give the defective a piece of work which interests him1 which appeals to his organs of sense1 and which is concrete4 ,if the work is not too difficult1 he will acquit himself tolerably well4 ,if1 however1 the work involves words1 phrases1 composition--in a word1 abstract ideas expressed in speech--the defective immediately reveals wherein his inferiority lies4 ,abstract thought1 and all other mental operations that involve it1 are to him a closed domain4 ,the replies of the teachers to our questionnaires had already led us to suspect this4 ,our tests are a confirmation1 and even an exact demonstration1 of it4 ,the normal curriculum of primary education1 as one can imagine1 is therefore not suitable to the mental condition of the majority of defectives4 ,even by reducing it to its first elements1 one would make only a bad fit1 for if one were to diminish the abstract portion which is not intended for defectives1 one would equally diminish the concrete portion1 which1 far from being reduced1 when defectives are in question1 ought to be amplified4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 to change the proportions of the different parts of the curriculum1 and give the whole a special direction4 ,we shall conclude our observations by remarking that1 if we take the workshop in opposition to the class1 as the symbol of concrete work opposed to the symbol of verbal work1 the workshop ought in the education of defectives to become a more important place of instruction than the class4 ,a slight reservation1 however1 must be made as to the value of this conclusion4 ,in spite of the existence for a number of years of institutions for the abnormal1 we have yet scarcely begun our researches4 ,everywhere we are up against the same ignorance1 and shall be so for a long time to come4 ,our knowledge of these children is very imperfect4 ,we do not pretend that anything we are about to say is in any way complete4 ,thus1 having set forth a quite general principle relating to concrete1 intuitive1 sensory education1 let us hasten to add that in practice this principle must be applied to children of widely differing temperaments1 and that nothing is more complicated than the pedagogy of defectives1 if one desires it to be adapted to the numerous ends which it is necessary for it to attain4 ,one will certainly bear in mind that a greater place must be given to intuition than to abstraction2 one will bear this in mind in the detail of the education of defectives1 as well as in its general direction1 but without forgetting the numerous interests which it is necessary to satisfy4 ,there is no question but that there will be admitted into the special schools and classes many children only slightly defective1 who are destined to return as soon as possible to the ordinary school2 and one would put an obstacle in the way of this return1 or even make it impossible1 if1 from the day the child entered the special class1 a totally different direction should be given to his education from that of the ordinary school4 ,this would be both serious and troublesome4 ,the amount of abstract material in the lessons should be diminished simply in proportion to the mental deficiency4 ,there is no reason why the slight cases should not be taught in the special class in accordance with a programme little different from that of the elementary school1 except that it gives them the benefit of greater individual attention4 ,such individual attention is still more necessary in the case of the ill-balanced1 of whom we have scarcely spoken in this chapter4 ,it is not their insubordinate spirit which sets them against anything abstract1 and one would do them a very poor service by depriving the more intelligent of them of the ordinary curriculum1 and all the more as the majority of the ill-balanced are destined to improve considerably4 ,thus there are many reasons why1 in the case of certain classes of the abnormal1 one should not lose sight of the usual curriculum4 ,these reasons are as follows3 the slight degree of the deficiency in certain cases1 or the existence of instability without retardation1 or the necessity of sending the children who improve most back to the ordinary schools4 ,such are the reasons which are important from the school point of view4 ,there are others with a social bearing which are more important still4 ,at the present day it is necessary1 especially in towns1 that everyone should be able to read1 to write1 and to express himself in suitable language4 ,it has been remarked1 and justly1 that reading is the triumph of abstraction1 and that a defective may require two years to learn to read by syllables1 and very poorly even then4 ,no matter3 if the thing is possible1 even with considerable effort1 such a defective ought to learn to read4 ,this is demanded1 not by the state of the child's intelligence1 but by the society in which he lives1 where illiteracy would bring shame upon him4 ,in questions of this kind the indications of psychology and pedagogy should be subordinated to the needs of life4 ,necessity makes the law4 ,all instruction given to defectives must be dominated by the question of its practical usefulness4 ,a pedagogy which should be fitted easily to the measure of their intelligence would be dangerous1 in that it might result in making them useless4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the problem is very complex1 and it would be quite useless to attempt to express it by a single formula4 ,the nature of each individual case must be taken into account1 and one must aim at an essentially practical training1 a pedagogy of ends rather than of abstract principles4 ,our advice1 consequently1 is that in the meantime no definite curriculum should be fixed upon1 but that the teachers of defective children should be allowed some freedom1 under the cautious control of the primary school inspectors4 ,we ask that all intelligent initiative should be accepted and encouraged1 and that the teachers in special schools should frequently meet together in order that they may compare their experience4 ,in short1 we should give to the schools and classes for defectives such freedom and elasticity that the kind of education best adapted for such children would be able to evolve and perfect itself like a living organism4 ,,footnotes3 #b ,on the other hand1 ,dr4 ,abadie found #cji defective to #acd ill-balanced4 #c ,at the ,laboratoire de ,pedagogie ,normal1 #cf1 ,rue ,grange-aux-,belles4 ,for details of the work of this laboratory see ,annee ,psychologique1 tome xiii41 pp4 #a1 #bcc4 #d ,see vols4 xi41 #aije1 p4 #aia2 xiv41 #aijh1 p4 #a2 xvii41 #aiaa1 p4 #ade4 ,also ,bull4 de la ,soc4 pour l',etude de l',enfant1 #aiaa1 p4 #ahg4 #e ,the results of later observations are embodied in the tests published in #aiaa1 which are given complete in the ,appendix4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,pedagogical ,,examination ,,of ,,defective ,,school ,,children ,when legislation provides special schools and classes for the benefit of defectives1 it will be imprudent to make use of legal force to bear down the will of the parents4 ,it will be better1 in the first instance1 to have recourse to persuasion4 ,it will be pointed out to the parents that their children are behindhand in their lessons4 ,the parents1 as a matter of fact1 know this quite well4 ,it will be explained to them that classes of forty pupils are too large for children like theirs1 and that the teacher cannot devote sufficient attention to them4 ,it will be explained also that classes are being organised for ten to twenty pupils at most1 in which it will be possible to give individual attention4 ,before instructing their child1 it will be necessary to begin by awaking his intelligence1 which involves the teacher devoting himself to him with method1 order1 and patience4 ,one will appeal to the heart of these parents1 and will surely manage to persuade them1 especially the mothers4 ,for such interviews we must rely upon the school teachers and the inspectors4 ,it will only be necessary to warn them to avoid the use of certain expressions4 ,it would never do to say to the parents that their child is an idiot1 an imbecile1 a fool1 or even abnormal4 ,the admission of their son or daughter into a special school should be represented to them as an advantage or even a favour4 ,their consent should not be demanded in too formal a manner4 ,this would make them think that it is they who are giving something1 and many would refuse4 ,in a word1 much can be done by prudence1 sympathy1 and a little tact2 and the personal experience that we have acquired has shown us that it is not difficult to gain the parents to the cause of special education4 ,composition of a ,board of ,examiners4--,we have now to consider how the selection of the children is to be made4 ,it has been determined by statute that the examiners shall be three in number--the head of a special school1 an elementary school inspector1 and a doctor4 ,as to the manner in which this committee is to carry out its work1 the law preserves an absolute silence4 ,when the three examiners meet in order to judge the degree of retardation of the children who are presented to them1 is this absence of a definite programme embarrassing8 ,we do not think so4 ,a committee which is duly authorised always manages to do something4 ,the work is done more or less empirically1 perhaps1 but it is done4 ,tell the jury to find defective children1 and they are sure to find them4 ,the only question is1 ,what will be the value of their selection8 and1 above all1 ,how can so delicate a quest be saved from empiricism and rendered exact8 ,it is to be hoped that at first there will not be too many mistakes4 ,this would have a bad effect upon the new institution4 ,it is unfair to a normal child to send him to a special school1 just as it is unfair to a defective to keep him in the ordinary school4 ,it is better to make such mistakes as seldom as possible4 ,moreover1 it is of the greatest interest to try to forecast the exact way in which errors are most likely to arise4 ,in every machine there is a point of least resistance which requires to be watched4 ,in every human institution there is a detail of organisation where fraud and charlatanism are most liable to occur4 ,since we have supervised the organisation of some classes for defectives1 and have been able by some preliminary observations to take account of these dangers1 we take it upon ourselves to give warning of them in advance4 ,we fix buoys to the rocks that they may be avoided4 ,it seems to us that the selection of defectives calls for three varieties of experience--that of teachers1 of doctors1 and of psychologists4 ,we shall proceed to indicate the services which these various persons may render4 ,in this chapter we shall speak only of the pedagogical examination4 ,the duty of making the first selection among the school-children and indicating those who are suspected of being defective belongs partly to the teachers and partly to the school inspectors1 whose respective roles1 it seems to us1 can easily be defined4 ,a4 ,,the ,,role ,,of ,,the ,,teacher3 ,,to ,,select ,,the ,,children ,,suspected ,,of ,,being ,,defective4 ,it is out of the question to make an entire school pass before a committee in order that #ejj pupils may have their mental faculties analysed4 ,such a task1 at once troublesome and useless1 would require several months4 ,one should rather1 in the first place1 adopt a rapid method of picking out the children suspected of mental defect4 ,it is quite sufficient that they should be suspected4 ,such a selection once made1 the committee will have before it only a moderate number of candidates upon whom it will be possible to concentrate attention4 ,let us proceed to show how the teachers may make their selection3 ,a retardation of three years indicates a child who should be regarded as a suspect4 ,a child enters the elementary school at the age of about six years4 ,each year he ought to advance one class4 ,from six to nine years he is in the elementary course2 from nine to eleven in the intermediate course2 from eleven to thirteen in the senior course4 ,all are not quite regular4 ,some are a little in advance1 some are behind1 but the majority conform to the preceding scheme4 ,when a school is well managed1 when the assignation of the children to their respective classes is made by means of suitable tests1 and without too great regard to the demands of the parents1 the classification which results is very good4 ,there is then no better means of finding out whether a child is intelligent or not than to take into consideration his age and his class4 ,intelligence1 so extraordinarily difficult to judge1 is indicated in the above way with a really curious exactness4 ,a child two years behind his age1 when irregularities in attendance1 absence on account of illness1 etc41 do not explain his backwardness1 is very likely to be less intelligent than one who is in1 or in advance of1 the usual class for his age4 ,this amounts to judging intelligence by the degree of instruction4 ,theoretically1 such a method is open to plenty of meticulous objections1 of which the most important is that we are confounding intelligence and memory4 ,to this we shall reply that the stage of instruction reached is not the result of memory alone4 ,it presupposes also some degree of application1 some facility of comprehension1 quite a collection of diverse aptitudes4 ,the child's success in his studies is1 in fact1 the best indication we have of his capacity to adapt himself to the school environment4 ,if the child is unable to keep up with the classes suited to his age1 if he is unable to profit like other children from the education provided1 this shows that he has not the same degree or the same kind of intelligence as his companions1 and there is a presumption1 if not an absolute demonstration1 that his intelligence is inferior to the average1 or that his character is different4 ,from these statements1 which we have expounded at length elsewhere1#f it follows that not only the head-master1 but an entire stranger1 can determine which are the less intelligent children1 the less well adapted to that school1 without taking the trouble to interrogate them all individually4 ,it is only necessary to compare their position in school with their age4 ,we thus obtain no merely subjective appreciation1 but a simple statement of the actual condition of things4 ,the only thing one must be careful about is to make allowance for irregular attendance4 ,backwardness in school instruction is significant only when it coincides with regular attendance4 ,at the present time the regulations as to school attendance are very little respected4 ,in country districts there are children who do not go to school till they are eight or nine years of age4 ,it is not surprising that they cannot read1 when no one has taught them4 ,allowance must also be made for long illnesses4 ,when the absences have been considerable1 their total amount must be subtracted4 ,a child of nine1 who has come to school at the age of six--i4e41 the usual age--and who has been absent for about #bej days1 should1 from the present point of view1 be counted as eight4 ,the school authorities will have no difficulty in making such estimates4 ,that is their business1 and they will quickly make up their minds even in a difficult case4 ,one will1 of course1 bear in mind that the number of classes differs in different schools1 and that certain classes are parallel4 ,lastly1 one must remember that a defective may1 on account of his age1 be placed in a class too advanced for his knowledge4 ,this1 indeed1 is often the case4 ,exception may be taken to the role that we have assigned to the teachers4 ,we may be reminded that about two years ago1 when statistics concerning defectives were being collected by circular1 many of the head-masters replied in a notoriously unsatisfactory manner4 ,even in ,paris one school was stated to contain #be per cent4 of defectives1 whilst not a single one was acknowledged in another in the same neighbourhood4 ,this amounted1 as ,m4 ,bedorez ironically remarked1 to an average of #ab per cent4 ,we shall reply1 in the first place1 by asking whether a mistake has really been committed4 ,this cannot be taken for granted1 since the proportion of defectives varies enormously from one school to another4 ,but let us admit a mistake1 and ask who is responsible4 ,the master of the school understood badly what the circular had explained more badly still4 ,in these circulars we actually read the following definition of defectives3 ,subjects who are in a condition of mental debility1 possessing only a limited intelligence and a limited responsibility1 which do not admit of their acquiring1 at the ordinary school and by the usual methods of education1 the average elementary instruction which the other pupils receive4 ,if one interprets this badly constructed formula literally1 it is evident that half the children of ,france must be defective1 being of necessity below the average4 ,if the teacher is to work intelligently1 he must have more precise directions4 ,after having explained to him that a defective child is one who does not adapt himself1 or who adapts himself badly1 to school life1 one will tell him that the degrees of non-adaptation vary indefinitely2 for it is quite exceptional for even a defective child not to adapt himself at all1 and to learn absolutely nothing at the ordinary school4 ,it remains1 therefore1 to decide what degree of retardation or of non-adaptation is to be recognised as determining a defective4 ,according to a convention accepted in ,belgium1 which we modify slightly1 the retardation which determines a child as a defective is two years when the child is under nine1 and three years when he is past his ninth birthday4 ,here we have a very precise rule1 easy to apply to all children1 with the corrections already indicated relating to school attendance4 ,the rule is1 perhaps1 a little rigid1 we admit1 but it will always be possible to make allowances when examining closely the individual cases to which it will have to be applied4 ,thus1 the method which we have just indicated permits the making of a first selection4 ,this selection will be good1 without being final4 ,it will be good1 for it is based upon a wide experience extending over several years4 ,just think what it means in the way of inattention and want of comprehension if a child is three years behind4 ,for our own part1 we consider this evidence from experience of the greatest value4 ,it is the obvious point of departure4 ,we can and should try to interpret it and to complete it1 but we are not justified in taking no account of it4 ,let us even say boldly that if1 by some unhappy chance1 other finer methods should conflict with this1 and indicate as defective a child who has shown himself well adapted to school life1 it is school life which should be considered the more important test4 ,how1 indeed1 could one call a child defective who succeeds in his studies and profits by the instruction in the normal way8 ,thus we sum up by remarking that we possess a very simple method which enables us to recognise all the children whom we have any right to suspect of mental deficiency4 ,this method consists in taking account of the retardation of the children in their studies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for the recognition of the ill-balanced children the rule is the same4 ,the head-master must pick out those children whose undisciplined character has kept them from submitting to the ordinary school regime1 and has made them a continual source of disturbance4 ,whilst the simply defective fail to adapt themselves to school life by reason of their mental deficiency1 the ill-balanced fail owing to their inco-ordination of character4 ,in the second case1 as in the first1 there is a similar defect of adaptation1 and the best proof that this defect is present in a particular child is the continued evidence of several years1 the testimony of different masters1 who declare that1 with the best will in the world1 they cannot break in the recalcitrant child to rule4 ,but it must be recognised that the appreciation of want of balance is more delicate1 more subjective1 than that of retardation4 ,the latter is indicated by a definite incontrovertible fact--the insufficiency of instruction4 ,on the other hand1 lack of balance has only a slight effect on a child's intelligence and his success in his studies4 ,it is indicated to outsiders especially by the complaints of the masters4 ,and the latter1 to tell the truth1 may be led to exaggerate a little1 especially if they see a means thereby of ridding themselves of children with whom they have not much sympathy4 ,we shall see in a little1 when we speak of the role of the inspector1 how the latter must check the statements of the head-masters4 ,distribution of the ,pupils in a ,school4--,to put into practice the principle which we have just formulated1 a circular is distributed to the schools asking the head-masters to arrange the children in each class according to age upon a blank table furnished to them4 ,the work is easy1 and the return should be required in a maximum period of eight days4 ,within this period twenty elementary schools in ,paris supplied us with the information which we asked for through their inspectors4 ,we give one of these returns1 which we shall examine briefly1 insisting only on the essential points4 ,we ask1 then1 that on the table1 of which a blank copy is supplied1 the head-master shall give the number of children who on ,october #a--that is to say1 the first day of the session--were of such and such an age--e4g41 six or seven years4 ,the normal ages for the different courses or standards are as follows3 ,preparatory or infant #f to #g years of age4 ,elementary1 first year #g to #h ,elementary1 second year #h to #i ,intermediate1 first year #i to #aj ,intermediate1 second year #aj to #aa ,senior1 first year #aa to #ab ,senior1 second year #ab to #ac ,thus a child is regular in instruction when he is found in the class named at the age indicated4 ,the normal age for the infant class is from six to seven years4 ,the children of that age are entered in the table in the appropriate column4 ,now consider the extreme ages between six and seven which obey this condition4 ,on the one hand would be a child exactly six years of age on admission4 ,such a child is exactly normal as regards age4 ,he is behind by #j years1 #j months1 #j days4 ,at the other extreme would be a child exactly seven--or1 rather1 one day less than seven--on admission4 ,such a child would be behind by exactly one year4 ,consequently1 the column headed six to seven years for the infant class contains children behind by #j day as a minimum1 and one year as a maximum4 ,the average will therefore be behind by six months 7compared to the ideal74 ,analogous reasoning would show that the children of the infant class entered in the column headed five to six years would1 on the average1 be six months in advance of their age4 ,similarly1 those shown in the column headed seven to eight years would be on the average one and a half years behind4 ,interpretation of the ,tables4--,the next point is to sort out the defectives from these tables4 ,nothing is easier if we follow the rules already given4 ,turning to our tables1 we would consider as suspects the children entered in the fourth and following columns for the infant class2 in column five and following for the elementary course1 first year2 in column six and following for the elementary course1 second year2 in column eight and following for the intermediate course1 first year2 in column nine and following for the intermediate course1 second year4 ,if the reader will calculate the retardation implied in the columns which we designate1 he will see that this retardation is equal to at least two years under the age of nine1 and equal to at least three years above the age of nine4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,pupils ,,in ,,the ,,school ,,for ,,boys1 ,,rue ,,grange-,,aux-,,belles4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,number of ,pupils who1 on ,october #a1 were-- ------------------------ ,regular ,classes ,age ,courses 7,parallel #e to #ff to #gg to #hh to #i 7,years74 ,classes ,a and ,b74,years4,years4,years4,years4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,supplementary -- -- -- -- ,senior ,a -- -- -- -- ,,vi4 #aa to #ab ,b -- -- -- -- ,v4 #aj #aa;,intermediate 7#bnd year7 -- -- -- -- ,,iv4 ,a4 #i #aj 7#ast year7 -- -- -- #i ,,iv4 ,b4 #i #aj 7#ast year7 -- -- #a #d ,,iii4 #h #i;,elementary 7#bnd year7 -- -- #f #ad ,,ii4 #g #h 7#ast year7 -- #f #bc #h ,i4 #f #g,preparatory #c #db #ab -- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,totals #c #dh #db #ce ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,number of ,pupils who1 on ,october #a1 were-- ------------------------ ,regular #i to #aj to #aa to #ab to ,classes ,age ,courses 7,parallel #aj #aa #ab #ac 7,years74 ,classes ,a and ,b74,years4,years4,years4,years4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,supplementary -- -- -- -- ,senior ,a -- -- -- -- ,,vi4 #aa to #ab ,b -- #f #ab #af ,v4 #aj #aa;,intermediate 7#bnd year7 #a #ac #ag #e ,,iv4 ,a4 #i #aj 7#ast year7 #ad #i #f -- ,,iv4 ,b4 #i #aj 7#ast year7 #ae #aj #g -- ,,iii4 #h #i;,elementary 7#bnd year7 #aa #b -- #a ,,ii4 #g #h 7#ast year7 #f -- -- #b ,i4 #f #g,preparatory -- #h #c -- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,totals #dg #dh #de #bd ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,number of ,pupils who1 on ,october #a1 were-- ------------------ ,regular #ac to #ad to #ae to ,classes ,age ,courses 7,parallel #ad #ae #af ,totals4 7,years74 ,classes ,a and ,b74,years4,years4,years4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,supplementary -- -- -- -- ,senior ,a -- -- -- -- ,,vi4 #aa to #ab ,b #d #a -- #ci ,v4 #aj #aa;,intermediate 7#bnd year7 -- -- #b #ch ,,iv4 ,a4 #i #aj 7#ast year7 -- -- -- #ch ,,iv4 ,b4 #i #aj 7#ast year7 -- #b -- #ci ,,iii4 #h #i;,elementary 7#bnd year7 -- #a -- #ce ,,ii4 #g #h 7#ast year7 #b -- -- #dg ,i4 #f #g,preparatory -- -- -- #fh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,totals #f #d #b #cjd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the number of children suspected of mental deficiency obtained by this method varies extremely from one school to another1 independently of the mistakes which are made by the head-masters with lamentable frequency4 ,we have found the proportions varying from #j4b to #aj per cent41 with all the intermediates represented4 ,the average of suspects for ten girls' schools1 with an average of #cjj pupils1 was #c4g per cent42 for eight boys' schools in the same district1 and strictly comparable to the preceding1 it was #e4ce per cent4 ,it must be clearly understood that these figures are provisional4 ,they do not correspond to real defectives1 but to children suspected of mental deficiency2 and1 moreover1 they do not include the unstable1 unless they are also defective4 ,having made these deductions1 one writes to the head-masters1 or perhaps summons them to a meeting1 in order to ascertain the names of these children and various other particulars4 ,these particulars will refer to three main points3 #a4 ,give the full names and date of birth of the backward children 7by two or three years1 according to the distinctions given above71 and indicate also whether the retardation is explained by irregular attendance1 by want of application1 or defective intelligence4 #b4 ,indicate the children who1 although they do not belong to the preceding category1 yet appear to be distinctly abnormal4 #c4 ,indicate also the children who are ill-balanced and rebellious to all discipline in the opinion of several teachers who have had them in their classes4 ,we have already received replies which seem to us instructive1 and even carry us beyond the study of the abnormal1 as they may throw some light on the psychology of those who are commonly called dunces4 ,as a general rule1 the children classed as retarded are the victims of disease1 constitutional debility1 or malnutrition4 ,we find included in our lists some who are the children of nomadic parents2 some who have been kept from school2 some who have attended a religious school1 where they learned little but sewing and writing2 some who have changed their school too often2 some also who are foreigners1 and understand little ,french2 and1 lastly1 some who have been kept back in their studies by unrecognised myopia4 ,such causes are extrinsic to the child4 ,the personal causes of retardation are defective intelligence1 sluggishness of mind1 insubordination1 an eccentric and excitable nature1 a constant want of attention1 and1 lastly1 laziness4 ,the complete and methodical study of the documents relating to #bbc children with a retardation of three years has taught us a number of interesting facts4 ,it is very rare for the cause of the retardation to be single4 ,usually1 several causes were at work simultaneously4 ,feebleness of mind complicated by illness is noted in #bj per cent4 of the cases4 ,insufficient school attendance 7due to other causes than illness71 in conjunction with feebleness of mind1 is met with in #be per cent4 of cases4 ,if1 without taking account of those associations of causes1 one enumerates simply the frequency with which each single cause of retardation is mentioned1 one obtains the following percentages3 ,feebleness of mind #ej per cent4 ,insufficient attendance 7without illness7 #cc ,illness #be ,lack of application1 laziness #g ,if we admit1 as a hypothesis1 that the frequency of each of those four principal causes indicates its importance1 we shall conclude that laziness very rarely explains a retardation so great as three years1 and that the most important factor is undoubtedly feebleness of mind4 ,we should have expected the teachers to give much more frequently the banal reason of lack of application4 ,they have not done so1 and these results confirm in a quite unexpected manner the convention according to which every retardation of three years should make one suspect feebleness of mind4 ,it would be interesting to know whether any children really defective in intelligence escape the revelation furnished by our tables4 ,we have put this question in writing to the heads of the schools1 and they have notified fifteen children1 or #f per cent41 who seem to them to be clearly defective1 although without a retardation of three years4 ,on testing the statement1 we found that mistakes had been made1 and the sole residue of defectives who had escaped our census consisted of three subjects who wanted only a month or a few weeks to have shown clearly a retardation of three years4 ,they were therefore on the border1 and such exceptional cases are always to be found when one fixes an exact limit4 ,there is no need to worry about them4 ,hostile ,head-,masters and ,teachers4--,it is important to state that the procedure for selection which we have outlined can be carried out without the concurrence of the head-masters4 ,as a matter of fact1 one has to be prepared for everything1 even the hostility of the school staff4 ,it may be that a head-master who has a defective in his school refrains from mentioning the fact4 ,it may be that he is indifferent1 or does not believe in special education1 or simply does not choose to put himself about2 or1 again1 he may be timid and afraid of trouble1 or may shrink from the recriminations of parents1 behind whom he sees the hostile shadow of some town councillor or journalist4 ,lastly1 he may be an ignoramus who1 even at this time of day1 imagines that a child cannot be a defective unless he has incontinence of urine or a sugar-loaf head4 ,we have already come across several fellows of this kind4 ,the sceptical type is most common4 ,we recollect a head-master who1 in response to our inquiry1 replied with irritating calmness3 ,i have five hundred pupils in my school4 ,i am sure that not one of them is a defective4 ,you are of a different opinion4 ,well1 my school is open4 ,come and see for yourself4 ,and he added with a sceptical smile3 ,the school doctor and myself will be very curious to learn how you manage the inquiry4 ,as a matter of fact1 the proportion of defectives in his school was just the usual one--about #b per cent4 ,at the time when the ,government ,commission was holding its inquiry as to the number of defectives1 we found in the statistical tables which we had in our hands that whole towns1 even as important as ,fontainebleau1 had replied ,none1 yet we knew by personal inquiry that that reply was wrong4 ,the systematic reticence of the head-master is therefore already in evidence1 and will certainly turn up again even when the law is in full operation4 ,doubtless wiser counsels will prevail in the long run1 and opposition will become less4 ,but it will never disappear entirely4 ,however1 one will not be affected by it in picking out the backward children1 but the children who are abnormal1 though not backward1 and the ill-balanced children1 will perhaps escape1 unless the inspector visits the school1 and1 knowing the disposition of the head-master1 takes the precaution of questioning the teachers as to the children in their class who give them the most trouble in regard to discipline4 ,as a rule the masters have an interest in pointing out these pupils in the hope that they will be removed4 ,b ,,the ,,role ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,inspector3 ,,to ,,act ,,as ,,referee4 ,in the pedagogical examination the inspector should exercise a measure of control4 ,it is he who sets the teachers to fill up the schedules1 who interprets the returns1 and estimates their value4 ,work is better done when it is subject to inspection4 ,the head-masters will take more care in the selection of the defectives if they know that all their cases will be examined by a person whose competence is equal to their own1 and whose position is higher4 ,the inspector1 who is generally well acquainted with his personnel1 will see at a glance what he ought to think of the returns which are furnished to him4 ,he knows that one master is too severe1 and another too indulgent4 ,he has to restrain the overzealous1 to stimulate the indifferent1 and encourage the despondent4 ,when it is a question of estimating a child's want of balance1 it is necessary to know the character of the judge4 ,some good teachers fail to gain the necessary ascendancy over one of their pupils1 either because they are indulgent where strictness is necessary1 or because by excessive brusqueness and severity they alienate natures which require to be humoured4 ,the inspector will succeed in taking all these things into account4 ,he will interpret correctly the facts which are laid before him1 because it is his business1 his metier4 ,significance of ,irregular ,attendance4--,the inspector will begin1 let us suppose1 by examining the returns given concerning the backward children4 ,from the notes sent to him he will be able to distinguish between the children whose backwardness is due to irregular attendance and those who may justly be suspected of mental deficiency or want of balance4 ,he will thus make a first selection4 ,here are some examples of the notes referred to3 ,renne ,g----1 age thirteen years1 is in the intermediate course1 second year2 she is therefore three years behind for her age4 ,the explanation given by the teacher is as follows3 ,had contagious ophthalmia2 not admitted to school till ten4 ,intelligence middling4 ,if the return is correct1 one is not surprised that the child has not made more progress4 ,suzanne ,m----1 age twelve and a half years 7two years behind72 always very delicate and frequently absent2 of average intelligence4 ,yvonne ,d----1 age ten and a half years 7two years behind72 lived a long time on a boat without going to school2 intelligence average2 very industrious4 ,eugenie ,v----1 age eleven and a half years 7three years behind72 educated at a convent school until ,october last2 intelligence little developed2 slow of comprehension2 writes and sews pretty well2 spelling poor4 ,suzanne ,b----1 age eleven and a half years 7two years behind72 an intelligent and industrious child1 who has travelled much with her parents1 and afterwards stayed in a little boarding-house4 ,at school since ,october2 she has made great progress4 ,anna ,e----1 age eleven and a half years 7two years behind72 born in ,german ,switzerland1 brought up in ,england1 and has been in ,paris only a year and a half4 ,germaine ,g----1 age ten years 7three years behind72 very short-sighted4 ,it was only last year that it was noticed that this defect of vision was keeping the child from learning to read4 ,since spectacles were provided she has made rapid progress4 ,marguerite ,l----1 age ten years 7two years behind74 ,this child has some affection of the eyes2 she has been operated on several times4 ,without pretending to give a final opinion on the above cases1 one may believe that the retardation is due to the ailment or to irregular attendance4 ,if it were necessary1 one might make further inquiries at the schools previously attended by the child1 or find out at the present school the exact number of days of absence4 ,in other cases it seems clear that it is the intelligence of the child that is at fault4 ,for example-- ,jeanne ,l----1 age ten years 7two years behind72 attends school regularly2 stupid and lazy4 ,hortense ,g---- 7two years behind72 irritable temper2 very backward in arithmetic and spelling2 intelligence mediocre4 ,marie ,r---- 7two years behind72 intelligence very mediocre2 inattentive2 progress very slow4 ,blanche ,b---- 7three years behind72 intelligence much below the average2 has some slight aptitude for sewing and arithmetic1 but very backward otherwise2 incapable of giving a reply indicative of good sense and reflection4 ,jeanne ,b---- 7two years behind72 intelligence decidedly mediocre2 none of her answers particularly sensible4 ,when the inspector has read these notes and formed an opinion on the children1 and obtained as far as necessary additional information about their school attendance1#g etc41 he will make his first choice4 ,he will decide which children are to be examined1 and will have them brought to him4 ,be it understood1 then1 that the child must now be presented1 and that it is by questioning him that the inspector will form an opinion of his mental level4 ,this examination is important4 ,the inspector must observe the child1 induce him to talk1 watch the play of his features4 ,in this way he receives a living impression which rarely deceives an experienced eye4 ,he will even chat with him a little about something--for example1 the occupation of his parents4444 ,after these preliminaries1 the examination proper begins4 ,it includes the estimation of the degree of instruction and the degree of intelligence4 ,tests of ,instruction4 ,a child is presented to the inspector1 for example1 as belonging to the intermediate course1 first year4 ,is this correct8 ,it may be that the child is at the foot of the class1 or is even incapable of following the lessons4 ,thus1 it may be that his class gives a very poor indication of his capacity4 ,there are plenty of cases where the head-master1 in order to please the parents1 puts a child in a class too high for him4 ,a rapid examination will suffice to test the grading4 ,this testing is absolutely necessary1 and presents no difficulty to the inspectors4 ,they have the fortnightly report brought to them1 examine the pupil's marks and his exercises1 whereby they form a first impression4 ,it is then necessary to ask some questions1 and on this point we have something to say with respect to method4 ,there are two ways in which the degree of instruction may be tested4 ,there is what we may call the casual method1 which consists in putting the first questions that come into the mind2 and there is the systematic method1 which consists in putting questions arranged in advance1 whose difficulty is known1 and for which we have a scale 7p4 #ed71 which shows the average number of errors to be expected from normal children of each age4 ,the latter method takes no longer than the former1 and is even easier1 because it makes no demand on the imagination4 ,moreover1 we consider it quite indispensable for fixing in an objective manner the degree of instruction of the defectives on the day of their admission to the special school4 ,it is very important that this degree of instruction should be definitely known1 because it will be necessary to refer to it every time one wants to find out to what extent the child is profiting by the special instruction4 ,we shall return to this point in our concluding chapter4 ,it has seemed to us that the test of instruction might bear upon three exercises1 which are easily marked--reading1 arithmetic1 and spelling4 ,here is a very simple table of tests 7p4 #ed71 of which we have made much use4 ,it has been arranged with the help of ,m4 ,vaney4 ,the table is suited to the elementary and to the intermediate course1 and that is sufficient for examining defectives1 since none of them are found in the senior division4 ,it is scarcely necessary to say that this table of tests is the outcome of careful experiment4 ,we have established for each age the average acquirements of all the children of that age whatever their place in school4 ,one might quite as well have taken into account only the results given by typical children in the class proper to their age1 but on reflection we rejected this proceeding as arbitrary1 because it is affected by the difficulty of the curriculum1 which is constructed a priori1 whilst the average furnished by all the children of a given age is less artificial and is an adequate expression of the reality4 ,let us remark in passing that these two methods of calculation do not lead to equivalent results4 ,the average furnished by the typical children is higher than that furnished by all the children1 for1 as we have shown above1 more children are backward than in advance4 ,lastly1 the time of year when the tests are made is not a matter of indifference4 ,for spelling and arithmetic the time chosen was the end of ,february--that is1 the middle of the session4 ,for reading we are obliged to make use of results a little more advanced1 for they were furnished later1 namely1 in ,june4 ,,scale ,,showing ,,knowledge ,,acquired ,,by ,,pupils ,,of ,,elementary ,,schools4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,age of ,children on ,october ,grade of #a4 ,course4 ,reading4 ,arithmetic4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,years #f to #g ,preparatory ,sub-syllabic ,from #ai apples take to syllabic away #f 7,answer #ac7 #g #h ,elementary ,hesitating ,subtract #h pence 7first from #ei pence4 year7 7,answer #ea7 #h #i ,elementary ,hesitating- ,a box contains #fjd 7second fluent oranges4 ,if #eh are year7 sold1 how many will be left8 7,answer1 #edf7 #i #aj ,intermediate ,fluent ,to make a dress1 7first #g yards of stuff year7 are required4 ,how many dresses can be made with #hi yards1 and how much will be left over8 7,answer1 #ab dresses and #e yards left7 #aj #aa ,intermediate ,fluent- ,a workman makes 7second expressive #bej shillings in year7 ,february4 ,he spends #aie shillings4 ,how much does he save per day1 ,february having #bh days8 7,answer1 #as4 #aa-a_/b;d47 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,number of ,mistakes ,age of in ,dictation ,children --------------------- on ,phrases,phrases,phrases ,october #a1 #b1 #a1 #b1 #a1 #b4 #a4 #c1 #d4 #c4 ,spelling 7,dictation74 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,years #f to #g #aai #fb #bh ,phrase #a4 ,emile est un petit garcon bien sage1 il ecoute son papa et sa maman1 il va a l'ecole4 #g #h #aai #fb #cj ,phrase #b4 ,j'ai une tete1 deux bras1 deux jambes1 une bouche1 vingt dents1 une langue1 dix doigts4 #h #i #gh #dg #ai ,phrase #c4 ,le soleil brille deja de ses plus gais rayons4 ,les hommes partent en chantant4 ,les bergers sont heureux de la belle journee qui se prepare1 ils suivent au paturage le grand troupeau des vaches pesantes4 #i #aj #db #be #d ,phrase #d4 ,le garcon de ferme1 de son pas lourd1 entrait dans la grange1 encore obscure1 ou nous reposions4 ,les boeufs mugissaient tout bas4 ,dans la cour le coq1 les #aj #aa #aa #d #a poules1 le chien1 allaient et venaient4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,let us now explain the details of the exercises shown on our table4 ,reading4--,the proceeding we adopt consists essentially in distinguishing five grades of reading3 #a4 ,sub-,syllabic4--,the child reads in syllables1 but very slowly and with many mistakes4 #b4 ,syllabic4--,this consists in stopping at every syllable1 but reading these pretty correctly4 ,thus the child reads ,the--sol--di--er--car--ries--a--big--gu n4 #c4 ,hesitating4--,there are stops as in 7#b71 but they are less frequent4 ,the child reads by words or groups of words--e4g41 ,the soldier carries--a big gun4 #d4 ,fluent4--,there are no stops except at the marks of punctuation1 but the reading is monotonous1 as if the child does not understand what he reads4 ,the voice may fall at the end of the sentences4 #e4 ,expressive4--,the child shows by his intonation that he understands what he reads4 ,we found it necessary1 as may well be believed1 to use not only the expressions syllabic reading1 fluent reading1 etc41 but compound expressions1 such as hesitating-fluent1 fluent-expressive1 and even compound expressions with accentuation of one of the epithets1 as hesitating-fluent4 ,this is very useful in practice4 ,we have stated that the scale of reading was founded on experiments made by ,m4 ,vaney at the end of the school year4 ,we have modified it slightly in consequence of experiments made by ourselves in ,february4 ,it may be of interest to give here the table arranged by ,m4 ,vaney4 ,it has been arranged not by age1 but by class4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,number of ,children who have the ,following ,grades of ,reading4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,none4,syllabic,hesitating ,fluent4 ,expressive,totals4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,infant #ab #bf #b -- -- #dj ,elementary 7first year7 -- #e #cb #d -- #da ,elementary 7second year7 -- -- #bd #aa #b #cg ,intermediate 7first year7 -- -- #ae #ah #h #da ,intermediate 7second year7 -- -- #aj #ai #i #ch ,intermediate 7second year7 -- -- #h #aa #ae #cd ,senior -- -- -- #e #ce #dj ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,totals #ab #ca #ia #fh #fi #bga ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,we shall now give some hints as to the method of procedure4 ,reading is a test which requires only a minute4 ,one chooses a text which the children can understand easily1 preferably a lively piece with dialogue1 so that one may judge more easily whether the pupil can read with expression4 ,one should avoid prolonging the reading for more than forty-five seconds1 for a young child tires quickly and reads worse at the end of a minute than at the beginning4 ,instead of contenting oneself with judging that the child reads well or ill1 which does not mean very much1 it is a great advantage to adopt these five grades of reading1 which are easy to distinguish with a little practice1 and are less subjective than might be imagined1 for two judges generally give the same mark4 ,on referring to the scale1 it will be noticed that children quickly pass from syllabic reading to hesitating reading1 but the passage from hesitating to fluent reading is slower and more troublesome4 ,one will notice this difficulty in practice4 ,by way of example let us quote our judgment of the grades of reading in the case of some backward children1 and our consequent estimates of the degree of retardation4 ,we draw them from our own observations made in a class for defectives in ,paris4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,name4 ,age4 ,grade of ,reading4 ,retardation4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,coch #ad years ,hesitating-fluent #f years ,grio #aj-a_/b ,hesitating-fluent #b-a_/b ,sev #ac-a_/b ,hesitating-fluent #e ,coff #aa ,syllabic-hesitating #d ,ro #ab ,syllabic-hesitating #e ,ostro #ab-a_/b ,hesitating-fluent #d ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,it will be noticed that in spite of their advanced age none of these children have attained the fluent grade of reading4 ,in marking the reading one is sometimes at a loss owing to the absence on the scale of an exact description4 ,thus little ,coff is judged syllabic-hesitating4 ,the scale does not contain such a combination1 which ought to figure between the syllabic reading of the infant class and the hesitating reading of the elementary class1 first year4 ,one may calculate the retardation either by admitting the existence of this intermediate term1 or by marking ,coff's reading hesitating4 ,the choice is of little practical importance1 since its effect is a variation in the amount of retardation of only six months4 ,arithmetic4--,although arithmetical ability depends upon special aptitude1 and a child may be quite intelligent though backward in arithmetic1 the tests here chosen are so elementary1 and the ignorance one tolerates is so great1 that failure is of serious significance4 ,we follow here the directions of ,m4 ,vaney1 who has taken the trouble to simplify them at our request4 ,all the questions in arithmetic ought to be dictated4 ,this may even be done collectively4 ,it is essential not to interpose to ask the child what operation is to be done4 ,such help would make the work much too easy1 and indeed that is the very problem which has to be solved in the very exact and carefully considered form in which it has been stated4 ,it is the problem rather than the operation which requires intelligence4 ,moreover1 it will be noted that the difficulty of our mode of expression is calculated4 ,the words subtract1 take away1 remain1 ought not to be replaced by synonyms1 and still less should they be explained4 ,even when1 as often happens1 the child makes a mistake in the first problem 7for example1 #ai-f #ab71 he must not be allowed to stop there2 his mistake might be due to carelessness4 ,one must always try the higher problems until one obtains a clear demonstration that the child is incapable of solving them4 ,m4 ,vaney has suggested a scale of marking for these sums4 ,it enables one to take into account slight differences by the aid of a system of points4 ,here it is3 ,correction of ,sums4 ,first ,sum 7#a point74--#a point for correct answer 7vide p4 #ed74 ,second ,sum 7#b points74--#a point for subtraction2 #a point for correct answer4 ,third ,sum 7#c points74--#a point for #fjd correctly written2 #a point for subtraction2 #a point for correct answer4 ,fourth ,sum 7#d points74--#b points for correct division 7#a if wrong72 #b points for the remainder 7#a if obtained by long division74 ,fifth ,sum 7#e points74--#b points for the subtraction 7#a if answer wrong72 #c points for correct division 7#b if it is wrong74 ,sixth ,sum 7#f points74--,a dressmaker buys #h yards of velvet at #is4 #f;d4 a yard and #be yards of cloth2 she pays for the whole ,l#f4 ,find the price of the cloth per yard4 #b points for the price of the velvet2 #b points for the price of the cloth 7#a for subtraction1 if answer wrong72 #b points for price of cloth per yard 7#a for division if answer wrong74 ,seventh ,sum 7#g points74--,a merchant mixed #be pints of wine at #bs4 a pint with #fj pints at #bs4 #f;d4 a pint2 at how much per pint must he sell the mixture in order to gain #ees48 etc4 ,this scale enables us to determine by the total number of points obtained the level of the child in arithmetic1 and at the same time we find out what sums can be done by the pupils of each age4 ,this is shown in the table4 ,,results ,,of ,,arithmetic ,,tests ,,in ,,an ,,elementary ,,school ,,in ,,paris4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,all the ,average,children ,average ,average ,children,points4in ,proper,points4 ,all ,children in ,class-- ,points4 of-- ,class4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #f years #a4de #f years #a ,infant #a4e #g #c4ic #g #f ,junior 7first year7 #f4e #h #g4jj #h #g 7second year7 #f4hc #i #i4fe #i #ad ,intermediate 7first year7 #af4jj #aj #ae4dg #aj #bc ,intermediate 7second year7#bb4db #aa #ba4dg #aa #bi ,senior #bh4de #ab #bb4ej #ac #bd4ge ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,it will be noticed in the table that the averages are a little less when calculated on all the children4 ,we have indicated this difference already1 and have explained the reason for it4 ,we have based our scale upon the marks obtained by all the children4 ,in practice we consider that ,m4 ,vaney's system of points is not indispensable4 ,it is sufficient to find out whether or not the pupil can do the sum set4 ,if he can1 he is at that level2 if not1 he must be placed in the grade below4 ,some examples will show how we use these results4 ,we select them from a class of defectives4 ,roger ,b----1 age ten and a half years1 is asked orally1 for he cannot write3 ,if ,i had #ai apples and ate #f1 how many would be left8 ,he replies first #i1 then #f4 ,one then tries easier sums4 ,q4 ,i have #d apples1 and eat #a8 ,r4 ,three are left4 ,q4 ,i have #ab apples1 and eat #b8 ,r4 ,there are #i left4 ,q4 ,i have #h apples1 and eat #b8 ,r4 ,there are #g left4 ,evidently this child does not clear even the first step4 ,he has therefore four years and a half of retardation4 ,in this connection let us remark that as ,roger is a child whose attendance has been regular1 it follows that in his four and a half years at school he has scarcely learned more than a normal child learns in two months4 ,we recently met with a similar case at ,bicetre4 ,this was a child of twelve1 who had begun to learn his letters at the age of four1 and who did not yet know how to spell6 ,in presence of such cases one may well ask whether the teacher who has not managed in four and a half years or in eight years to teach a defective child what a normal child learns in a month has not wasted his own time and that of the defective4 ,at this point let us call attention to a defect in the mechanical calculation of retardation4 ,little ,roger1 who is ten and a half years1 and cannot yet read by syllables1 has only four and a half years of retardation1 if we apply to him the usual rule4 ,it would therefore appear that he is at the same level of intelligence as a child of thirteen and a half1 who belongs to the intermediate course1 first year1 for the latter has also a retardation of four years and a half4 ,the error of this method of calculation is at once apparent4 ,the real significance of retardation is proportionate to the class and course which the pupil has reached4 ,we shall return presently to the exact estimation of retardation4 ,let us quote another example to show the application of the arithmetical test4 ,ostrow1 twelve and a half years1 replies correctly to questions #a1 #b1 and #c4 ,at the fourth he hesitates and begins by multiplying #g by #hi1 and obtains as answer #ghc1 which is doubly inexact1 because he ought not to have multiplied1 and the multiplication is incorrect4 ,then he draws back1 and tries a division of #hi by #g2 he obtains an incorrect answer 7#aa71 which does not satisfy him4 ,finally1 he tries a multiplication3 says #g times #aj makes #gj4 ,he next adds #g several times to reach #hi1 but he becomes confused1 and finishes by finding the number #ac1 which is almost correct4 ,this child is therefore at stage #d2 he does not clear it1 but he attempts it4 ,look at the scale4 ,we give him full points for ,problems #a1 #b1 and #c1 plus #b points for ,problem #d1 or a total of #h1 which puts him at the level of children of eight and a half years1 which amounts to a retardation of four years4 ,spelling4--,the test of spelling is a piece of dictation given individually or collectively4 ,the scale contains the first phrases of the dictation4 ,we reproduce them all here1 pointing out the grammatical difficulties which they contain1 and the scale for marking faults which seemed to us most fair4 ,we quote the phrases in ,french1 as a translation would not indicate the real difficulties4 ,it will be observed that in many cases correct spelling implies grammatical knowledge4--,,tr4 ,phrase #a4--,to write phonetically1 without liaison1 a phrase dictated in the ordinary vocabulary of the child4 ,example4--,emile est un petit eleve bien sage2 il ecoute son papa et sa maman2 il va a l'ecole4 ,phrase #b4--,to put the s's of the plural to words chosen from the vocabulary of the child4 ,example4--,j'ai une tete1 deux bras1 deux jambes1 une bouche1 vingt dents1 une langue1 et dix doigts4 ,phrase #c4--,plural of qualifying adjectives in simple cases2 verbs to the third person plural1 present indicative4 ,example4--,le soleil brille deja de ses plus gais rayons4 ,les hommes partent en chantant4 ,les bergers sont heureux de la belle journee qui se prepare3 ils suivent au paturage le grand troupeau des vaches pesantes4 ,phrase #d4--;,feminine of the qualifying adjectives without phonetic indication2 verbs with the plural endings ons1 ont1 ez1 aient4 ,exercise4--,le garcon de ferme1 de son pas lourd1 entrait dans la grange encore obscure1 ou nous reposions4 ,les boeufs mugissaient tout bas4 ,dans la cour le coq1 les poules1 le chien1 allaient et venaient4 ,phrases #e1 #f1 and #g4--;,finals of verbs in the singular of the different tenses of the four conjugations4 ,past participle with or without avoir4 ,infinitive in er1 and past participle in e4 ,example4--,joyeux merle1 ne viens pas dans le bocage4 ,prends garde a ce mechant qui veut te saisir et t'enfermer4 ,pendant que je te parle1 tu viens picorer les raisins que l'oiseleur a disposes comme un piege4 ,ils sont garnis de glu3 si tu y touches1 c'en est fait de ta liberte4 ,method of ,marking ,mistakes4 ,one mistake for a letter omitted4 ,one mistake for a letter too much4 ,one mistake for a letter substituted for another4 ,there may therefore be several mistakes in the same word1 but the number of mistakes for any word cannot be greater than the number of letters in the word4 ,a word omitted counts as many mistakes as it has letters4 ,the liaison of two words counts for one mistake4 ,failure to join the two parts of a word also counts one mistake4 ,it is to be noticed that we do not speak of grades of spelling--that is to say1 of different phrases which the children of each age should be able to write without mistake4 ,no doubt such could be found4 ,but we have been content to count the mistakes2 it is by the number of mistakes that the children of each age are distinguished4 ,the dictation given in ,february by ,m4 ,vaney in his school and corrected by the teachers there has enabled us to draw up the following table1 which shows the number of mistakes committed1 counted by the method indicated above3#h ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,phrases4 -------------------- ,children4 ,class4 ,course4 #ast #bnd #crd #dth #eth ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #f to #g years #a ,preparatory #ac #bb -- -- -- #g to #h years #b ,elementary 7first #f #ae #cb -- -- year7 #h to #i years #c ,elementary 7second #b #aj #ai #bj -- year7 #i to #aj years #d ,intermediate 7first #j #b #f4f #f4i #ag year7 #aj to #aa years #e ,intermediate 7second #j #j #d #d #ab year7 #aa to #ab years #f ,senior #j #j #j4f #j4g #e ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,to show how we classify a child from the point of view of spelling1 let us take an example4 ,we shall choose ,ostrow1 the defective whom we have already tested in arithmetic4 ,he writes the first phrase with one mistake1 the second with one mistake1 the third with eight mistakes2 he is at the level of a child of nine to ten 7vide ,table1 p4 #ed74 ,he has therefore a retardation of three years4 ,he must be reckoned as slightly feeble-minded4#i ,we now understand the manner of judging the capacity of a child in arithmetic1 reading1 and spelling4 ,which of all these tests is of the greatest value8 ,we shall reply to this question by giving a summary in a few words of the tests we applied to twenty children in a special class4 ,the amount of retardation varied considerably from one child to another1 and for the same child from one test to another4 ,on the average1 the amount of retardation was #c4c years for spelling1 #d years for reading1 and #d4e years for arithmetic4 ,these children did not do so badly in spelling2 there was even one who was at the normal level4 ,it was especially in the problems that their deficiency was noticeable1 because the problem requires not only memory1 but some understanding4 ,they have great difficulty in defining what is the proper arithmetical operation4 ,when addition is necessary they have a tendency to subtract1 and if they ought to divide they will more readily multiply4 ,these mistakes lead to absurd results1 which usually do not put them about1 unless their attention is drawn to the absurdity4 ,a defective will admit quite readily that if ,i have #fjd apples1 and sell #eh1 ,i shall have #ffb left4 ,these results show that in the ordinary school they do1 we will not say too much spelling1 but too little arithmetic in comparison to the amount of spelling4 ,finally1 we again insist upon the evidential value of methodical tests4 ,we demand that the elementary school inspector should have these tests carried out without assistance to the pupils1 without intervention to indicate the solution or the step to take4 ,he must neither assist nor do the lesson1 but simply note the result achieved4 ,he must therefore reduce himself to the easy role of a benevolent spectator4 ,retardation and ,knowledge ,percentage4--,we said above1 in estimating retardation1 account should be taken of the course to which the pupil belongs--that is to say1 the grade of instruction to which he has already attained4 ,a child of nine years of age who has a retardation of three years has learned absolutely nothing2 on the other hand1 a child of twelve years who has a retardation of three years has learned something1 since he has reached the intermediate course1 first year4 ,the difference between the two pupils is apparent2 probably it will increase still more as years go on4 ,to understand the matter clearly1 it is necessary to compare the amount of retardation with the period of school attendance4 ,the latter may be represented by the figure #ajj4 ,thus1 our child of nine1 who has learned nothing1 has a retardation of three years in three years at school--that is to say1 a percentage of #j2 our child of twelve1 who is in the intermediate course1 first year1 has made in six years half the normal progress2 he has therefore a knowledge percentage of #ej4 ,such figures have evidently a quite different significance from those of the amount of retardation4 ,our opinion is that it suffices to make use of the simple calculation of retardation in selecting the defectives1 for it is an easy and useful method2 but when one is in the presence of a child1 and desires to estimate his knowledge1 not only for the actual moment1 but with reference to his future and his capacity for learning1 it is necessary to note also1 and more especially1 his knowledge percentage4 ,we suggest the following schedule to be filled up after the examination of the child3 ,examination of ,instruction of a ,child proposed for ,special ,class4 ,date of examination3 ,place of examination3 ,full name of pupil3 ,date of birth of pupil3 ,this child has attended 4444444444 school1 444444 class4 ,attendance regular or irregular8 ,has he been able to follow his class8 ,what is the amount of his retardation8 ,reading4 7,syllabic1 hesitating1 fluent1 expressive1 intermediate--e4g41 fluent-expressive47 ,observations on reading3 ,arithmetic4 ,the pupil can do the problems noted without mistake3 7,refer to scale47 ,observations on arithmetic3 ,spelling4 ,phrase dictated3 ,number of mistakes3 ,conclusion4 ,retardation in reading 7taking account of school attendance73 ,retardation in arithmetic 7ibid473 ,retardation in spelling 7ibid473 ,knowledge percentage3 ,name and position of examiner3 ,in spite of the lengthy details into which we enter1 it is evident that all this work of examination can be done pretty rapidly4 ,the arithmetic alone is a little long1 because it is necessary to allow time to put the child at his ease4 ,we may put the total examination at fifteen minutes4 ,often it will be possible to abridge the time4 ,the inspector is now in a position to estimate the retardation of the pupil and his knowledge percentage4 ,he has several means at his disposal--the evidence of the teachers1 the notes concerning the pupil1 the examination of his copybook1 observation of the attitude of the child1 his physiognomy1 etc41 and1 above all1 the exact and personal test which he has made4 ,is this enough8 ,when the inspector has established the retardation and determined its causes1 may he1 should he1 give his opinion immediately8 ,in most cases1 without doubt1 a further inquiry is not necessary4 ,but in other cases the need of further inquiry is felt4 ,instruction is not everything1 and there are some children who have difficulty in assimilating school knowledge owing to want of aptitude1 to inattention1 to laziness1 who are yet quite intelligent4 ,it is the intelligence of these children that one would like to determine1 and for this it is necessary to make use of some tests of intelligence4 ,we propose1 therefore1 for the inspectors a last examination1 a psychological one4 ,let no one accuse us of complicating the examinations4 ,we do not impose them1 we do not even advise them in all cases4 ,but these tests are none the less very valuable tools to which one is very happy to have recourse when one feels embarrassed4 ,,psychological ,,examination4 ,this consists in putting the following questions1#aj which have been grouped in such a manner that the four first can be answered by normal children at seven years of age1 the five following by normal children at nine years of age1 and the four last by normal children at eleven years of age4 ,tests of ,intelligence4 ,seven ,years4 #a4 ,if you were late for school1 what would you do8 #b4 ,if you lost a train1 what would you do8 #c4 ,if one is lazy and does not want to work1 what happens8 #d4 ,if you were tired and had not enough money to take an omnibus1 what would you do8 ,nine ,years4 #e4 ,if one needed sixpence1 how could one get it8 #f4 ,why should we not spend all our money1 but put a little past8 #g4 ,if you break an object that does not belong to you1 what should you do8 #h4 ,if a companion should strike you without meaning it1 what should you do8 #i4 ,if you require some good advice1 what should you do8 ,eleven ,years4 #aj4 ,before taking part in anything important1 what should you do8 #aa4 ,why do we forgive a bad deed done in anger more readily than a bad deed done without anger8 #ab4 ,if anyone asks your opinion about a person whom you know very little1 what would you do8 #ac4 ,why should one judge a person by his acts rather than by his words8 ,these questions present various difficulties1 both in thought and in vocabulary4 ,we have tried them upon a great number of school children1 and they correspond pretty exactly to the level of children at the ages indicated4 ,the answers of the children may be good1 passable1 mediocre1 or negative 7the child makes no reply71 or even absurd or unintelligible4 ,in marking the replies one does not take account of a wrong word or an awkward phrase1 but considers the meaning and whether the child has really understood4 ,it may seem that marking these replies would be rather delicate and arbitrary1 but in practice the difficulty is not great4 ,here are some examples3 7#aj7 ,the reply1 ,ask some capable person1 a master1 a parent1 is a good reply4 ,ask it1 ,listen for it1 are passable replies4 7#g7 ,the reply1 ,pay and apologize1 is good4 ,pay for it1 is passable4 7#h7 ,the reply1 ,forgive him1 is better than the reply1 ,don't tell tales4 7#a7 ,the reply1 ,hurry up1 is better than1 ,ring the bell1 ,hurry to-morrow1 ,one is kept in4 7#c7 ,the reply1 ,one remains ignorant1 is better than1 ,one is punished4 7#d7 ,the reply1 ,take a rest1 then walk1 is better1 being more explicit1 than simply1 ,walk4 ,we mark the good replies #c1 the passable #b1 the mediocre #a1 the absurd and silence #j4 ,silence sometimes makes one hesitate4 ,it may result from timidity1 or even from prolonged reflection4 ,it is necessary1 without changing the form of the question1 to encourage the child and to press him to reply4 ,with a little practice one can easily see who is trying to find an answer and who does not understand4 ,we have stated that normal children of eleven years of age replied to the questions #aj to #ac4 ,it must be understood that by this we mean that the majority replied4 ,there are no tests which can characterise all the subjects without exception of a given group4 ,there are always failures4 ,by way of example1 we shall quote the observations we made in an elementary school with our questions #aj to #ac1 which we put to all the children of eleven1 who were distributed1 according to their ability1 in the different classes4 ,there were thirty-six of these pupils4 ,the maximum of marks obtainable was #ab1 since there were four questions1 and a good reply was worth #c4 ,we then obtained the following averages3 ,tests of ,intelligence put to ,normal ,children of ,eleven ,years of ,age4 ,average ,marks4 ,senior1 first year #aa ,intermediate1 second year #f ,intermediate1 first year #d4g ,in the intermediate course1 second year1 there were two children who obtained #j and #a4 ,in the intermediate course1 first year1 there were four who got #j1 and one who got only #a4 ,what were these pupils1 who had certainly not reached the average intellectual level of eleven years8 ,two are said to be defectives by the head-master4 ,let us subtract them1 and there remain five2 and these work sufficiently well to remain in their class and to follow the lessons4 ,their success is a very important fact4 ,a child may not have very much intelligence1 but if he has a good memory1 application1 and will1 he is regular in his studies1 and this compensates for the mental feebleness4 ,we have often noticed this4 ,if a child is regular in his school work1 the question whether he is a defective does not present itself4 ,it only presents itself if the case is reversed4 ,supposing he is very clearly backward1 by two years1 by three years1 with a sufficient school attendance4 ,if1 in spite of this retardation1 the psychological examination shows that he is all the same quite intelligent1 this is a favourable circumstance of which he should have the advantage4 ,in other terms1 the psychological examination is capable of showing that he is normal1 even when he is behindhand in his studies4 ,this examination cannot1 in any case1 serve to make him be regarded as defective if he is regular in his studies4 ,this is why we place this examination last4 ,here are some very good replies from normal children3 ,g4 ,r----3 #aj4 ,it would be necessary to consider where the affair would lead us4 #aa4 ,because when a bad action is done without anger one knows what one is doing1 while when one is angry one does not know what one is doing4 #ab4 ,one should say nothing4 ,if one does not know the person one cannot tell what he is4 #ac4 ,by his words he may deceive us4 ,by his acts we can tell what he is4 ,g----3 #aj4 ,it is necessary to think what one is going to do4 #aa4 ,because when one acts without anger one has thought beforehand1 and is more to blame2 while1 on the other hand1 it is an act of passion1 and afterwards one regrets what one has done4 #ab4 ,i would say that it would be necessary to know him first and then afterwards to judge him1 not to say anything bad or good about him without knowing him4 #ac4 ,because there are people who say words and often do not do them4 ,here are some replies which are mediocre or absurd3 #ab4 ,you should try to ask the particulars of the person you do not know4 7,mediocre47 #ac4 ,because his acts are more terrible while his words are less threatening4 7,mediocre47 #aa4 ,because the action which has been done in anger is not so violent4 7,mediocre47 #ac4 ,because you must not speak after the person who speaks4 7,absurd47 ,in a class of defectives of eleven years of age we obtained from seven children an average of replies equal to #a4c4 ,this figure1 therefore1 is considerably less than that of the normal children regular in their studies1 and even than that of the normal with a retardation of two years4 ,let us note in passing a very curious fact4 ,we had had to examine these defectives before their admission into the special class4 ,now1 the teachers sent us as defective two children who were clearly intelligent1 for one of them obtained five marks and the other eight4 ,let us give the replies of the latter1 whose name was ,cler1 age eleven years3 #aj4 ,you would have to think4 7,good47 #aa4 ,because anger is less serious4 7,absurd47 #ab4 ,say nothing bad about him1 because ,i do not know him well4 7,good47 #ac4 ,because words are not correct4 ,it is not certain that he will do it4 7,passable47 ,these replies are evidently not very brilliant1 but they are so superior to the level of a defective that we have sent this child back to the ordinary school4 ,we have since learned a fact which was not originally communicated to us4 ,this child came from the country1 and he did not begin to go to school until the age of ten4 ,to sum up1 we offer the psychological examination as a means of rehabilitating a child who has a marked degree of retardation4 ,that is its sole utility4 ,never1 in any case1 must this examination be used to label as defective a child who keeps up with his lessons4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a last word regarding the necessity of these examinations4 ,we know that1 after having read the preceding pages1 more than one inspector1 more than one teacher1 will exclaim1 ,what is the use of all this8 ,i am quite accustomed to questioning children1 and ,i don't require such precautions in order to distinguish between those who are intelligent and those who are not4 ,by two or three questions which are quite familiar to me ,i can judge the state of instruction4 ,we have paid homage to the ability of the teachers and inspectors sufficiently often to be permitted to maintain here against those who would contradict us the necessity of our methods or of others of a similar kind4 ,in order to determine the degree of intelligence or the state of instruction of a child one would require to have in mind the normal levels4 ,now1 frankly1 who knows what these are8 ,let any inspector1 any teacher1 glance over our test questions4 ,he will be very much at a difficulty to say whether it is at nine years or at seven years that a child ought to be able to reply suitably to a particular question4 ,we will go even farther4 ,let an inspector look at our scale1 and say at what age reading is fluent1 at what age a child should write the third phrase with less than ten mistakes4 ,just let him try1 and he will find the result4 ,let us add that people who are neither inspectors nor teachers will be still more embarrassed4 ,we recollect that at the recent opening of a special class some eminent people appeared much astonished at the intelligence of the pupils4 ,they were surprised at children of twelve years who made replies of which in reality normal children of eight should have been capable4 ,it is impossible to form a correct judgment about matters so delicate unless one makes use of exact tests4 ,we insist upon this because we foresee that all who visit the class for defectives will be subject to this illusion4 ,all the more will they have an optimistic tendency to overestimate the intelligence and instruction of the children since they know in advance that they are going to see defectives1 and consequently have a preconceived expectation of seeing degraded imbeciles with low foreheads and dirty habits4 ,they will be quite surprised to find that the great majority of defectives do not answer to this description1 and seeing that they have fallen into an error1 they will correct themselves as usual by falling into the opposite mistake4 ,estimation of ,want of ,balance4--,if it is easy to determine backwardness by a direct examination of a child's state of instruction1 the difficulty of establishing a lack of mental balance is1 on the other hand1 very great4 ,such want of balance is indicated by breaches of discipline1 inattention1 naughtiness1 lying1 violence1 brutality1 etc4 ,but it would be a very unruly child who would not behave quietly when taken apart by the inspector4 ,isolated in the examination room1 surrounded by strange1 grave people1 the child shrinks into himself4 ,he has little occasion or desire for a display of rebellion or naughtiness when his comrades are not there to admire him4 ,possibly an exact estimation of his reactions1 of his motor ability1 of his power of attention1 would indicate the presence of some anomalies2 but this is not certain1 and is not to be relied upon4 ,there may be some hope in that direction for the pedagogy of the future1 but scientific investigations cannot help us to-day4 ,in short1 mental want of balance cannot1 in the majority of cases1 be the object of direct examination4 ,how1 then1 can it be estimated8 ,indirectly1 by the evidence of others4 ,the inspector1 then1 must be content to accept the facts which are given to him by the teacher1 but he must not accept them altogether on trust4 ,are these facts correct8 ,are they probable8 ,is any evidence of them to be found8 ,have they been altered in the telling8 ,such will be the first queries to awaken the critical spirit of the inspector4 ,then it must not be forgotten that he can question the parents1 and hear their replies before letting them know the opinion of the teacher1 and that everything they say will help him to judge not only the child1 but the family circumstances in which he lives4 ,the ill-balanced are often spoiled1 or only children1 or children not looked after1 or children whose father has disappeared4 ,the sons of widows form a considerable contingent4 ,now1 the inspector will gain a good deal of information from the school history of the child4 ,the ill-balanced is a nomad4 ,he has attended several schools4 ,it is important to find out what impression he has left behind him4 ,the proof of want of balance is not to be taken from a single teacher4 ,if three teachers1 at least1 whose pedagogic reputation is good1 agree about a child1 the chances are that their estimate is correct4 ,the inspector will resort to such controls1 and if he is not satisfied1 and if the alleged facts are not very serious1 he will remove the child to another class or another school rather than send him to a class for defectives4 ,elimination of ,hospital or ,asylum ,cases4--,only defectives likely to improve are to be admitted to the special schools4 ,that is only common sense4 ,everyone knows that the epithet defective does not belong to a single type4 ,there are various categories which extend between two extremes3 the purely vegetative idiot who cannot speak1 or walk1 or even feed himself2 and the slightly feeble-minded1 who may easily be taken for normal4 ,in spite of all our sympathy for these poor creatures whom ,nature has treated so cruelly1 we could not think of supplying them without distinction with all the benefits of education4 ,it is certain that the worst affected would not profit much thereby4 ,it is pure folly to devote six or eight years to teaching the letters to a child who will never be able to read1 or who1 if he should manage to read a little1 will not understand what he reads4 ,to such an unfortunate it is quite enough to give lessons in walking1 feeding1 dressing himself1 and in simple occupations1 such as dusting or sweeping4 ,such cases do not require schools so much as places where they can be taken care of4 ,these will cost less to establish1 especially in the country4 ,educational efforts should be concentrated on the defectives who are less profoundly affected4 ,it is they alone whom one should try to instruct4 ,this is the practice which is rightly followed abroad4 ,for administrative purposes the defectives of different grades may be divided into two groups1 medical cases and educational cases1 or preferably1 in order to obviate the use of the equivocal term medical1 we may speak simply of hospice cases and school cases to show the difference in their destination4 ,the exact terms employed matter little so long as we understand what we mean by the words4 ,we have just pointed out the importance of reserving the schools for defectives for improvable cases4 ,but it is necessary to correct this word improvable1 because all defectives can be improved more or less4 ,their asserted arrest of development is not complete1 and the expression is equivocal4 ,it would be better to replace the word improvable by the following more precise phrase3 ,capable of being taught to gain1 in part1 their own living4 ,which of them are in this position8 ,unfortunately1 we do not know4 ,all such questions should have been solved long ago1 since thousands of defectives have passed into the hospices4 ,it would have been enough to have followed them up1 to have found out what became of them1 and to have drawn conclusions4 ,but this has never been done methodically1 and for the present we are reduced to conjecture4 ,the nearest estimate we can form is that the social value of any individual case1 not epileptic1 is in inverse proportion to the degree of deficiency2 the imbecile would seem to be more improvable than the idiot1 and the feeble-minded than the imbecile4 ,but this is simply hypothesis1 and we accept it quite provisionally1 until exact investigations have been made which will permit us to replace conjecture by demonstrated truth4 ,consequently we shall open wide the doors of the school to the feeble-minded and close them to the idiots1 while as to the imbeciles1 we shall have to find out whether the proper place for them is the school or the hospice4 ,it will be necessary to find out in what measure1 and at the price of what effort1 an imbecile can be instructed to the point1 say of being able to read4 ,there are two other indications which may help us4 ,cases of acquired mental deficiency--that is to say1 cases who have become defective as the result of something which affected them after birth--are usually less improvable than congenital cases1 or cases where the deficiency is due to some cause acting before birth4 ,and1 secondly1 cases affected by epilepsy1 with fits or frequent attacks of vertigo1 usually undergo a progressive mental deterioration4 ,what distinctions can we draw between the different degrees of mental deficiency8 ,such a question1 we think1 might be asked with regard to the ill-balanced as well as the defective4 ,with respect to the former1 we have no criterion at present to offer4 ,it will be enough to pick out and send to the hospices the most ill-balanced1 those whose presence among normal children would be a danger owing to the perversion of their instincts or the brutality of their impulses4 ,with regard to mental deficiency1 we think it possible to formulate precise definitions which will enable all competent persons to agree as to the diagnosis of idiocy1 imbecility1 and feeble-mindedness4 ,we are aware that in making this statement we are running counter to the general practice of medical alienists4 ,when these1 in an admission certificate1 call a child idiot1 feeble-minded1 or imbecile1 they are rarely in agreement with the confrere who1 a few days later1 examines the same child1 and makes a new diagnosis4 ,we have made a methodical comparison between the admission certificates filled up for the same children with a few days' interval by the doctors of ,sainte-,anne1 ,bicetre1 the ,salpetriere1 and ,vaucluse4 ,we have compared several hundreds of these certificates1 and we think we may say without exaggeration that they looked as if they had been drawn by chance out of a sack4 ,this is a fact which many alienists have already suspected1 and ,dr4 ,blin#aa has expressed himself frankly on the subject4 ,what is the cause of such contradictions8 ,they result1 in great measure from the use of ill-defined terms4 ,to the majority of alienists1 the idiot is one who is profoundly affected in his mental faculties1 the imbecile is a little less1 and the feeble-minded less still4 ,what mean those words3 profoundly1 a little less1 less still8 ,no one defines them4 ,they are taken to be indefinable4 ,it is no wonder they are understood so differently4 ,all this trouble would disappear if the following definitions were adopted3 ,,definition ,,of ,,an ,,idiot4 ,an idiot is any child who never learns to communicate with his kind by speech--that is to say1 one who can neither express his thoughts verbally nor understand the verbally expressed thoughts of others1 this inability being due solely to defective intelligence1 and not to any disturbance of hearing1 nor to any affection of the organs of phonation4 ,since a normal child of two years of age can understand the speech of others1 and can make itself understood by others1 so far as its simple wants are concerned1 it is evident that the distinction between an idiot and a normal child is easily made4 ,,definition ,,of ,,an ,,imbecile4 ,an imbecile is any child who fails to learn how to communicate with his kind by means of writing--that is to say1 one who can neither express his thoughts in writing1 nor read writing or print1 or1 more correctly1 understand what he reads1 this failure being due to defective intelligence1 and not to any defect of vision or any paralysis of the arm which would explain his inability4 ,one will not count a child an imbecile until he has had much more than the normal time to learn to read and write4 ,the normal time in schools is six months4 ,a child who does not yet know his letters after being at school for two years is likely to be an imbecile4 ,spontaneous writing or writing from dictation must not be confounded with mere transcription from a copy4 ,the latter is a kind of drawing1 and may be acquired by some who are incapable1 from defective intelligence1 of writing from dictation4 ,nor must real reading be confused with reading which consists in transforming graphic signs into sounds without meaning to the reader4 ,the distinction can easily be made by giving the child in writing some simple order which he is to carry out1 such as ,shut the door1 ,knock three times on the table4 ,,definition ,,of ,a ,,feeble-,,minded ,,child4 ,a feeble-minded child is one who can communicate with his kind by speech or writing1 but who shows a retardation of two or three years 7according to the rules already indicated7 in his school studies1 this retardation not being due to insufficient or irregular attendance4 ,these distinctions are pedagogical4 ,the inspector will make them easily4 ,if he is ever in doubt1 he has a doctor at hand who will advise him4 ,obviously the idiot is a case for the asylum or hospice4 ,obviously also the feeble-minded is a case for the school4 ,there remains the imbecile1 about whom we may hesitate4 ,from the moment the imbecile proves himself unable to learn to read or write1 his place is in the workshop4 ,we must find out to what extent he can profit by special education4 ,true and ,false ,defectives4--,we shall formulate a rule which will surely meet with no objection4 ,it is that none but defectives should be admitted to schools for defectives4 ,the moment we begin to apply this rule in practice1 however1 we meet with difficulties4 ,there are normal children who are very backward in their studies4 ,they cannot profitably follow the proper class for their age4 ,such children are numerous1 and of great interest socially4 ,as they are really intelligent they can certainly be helped to make up for lost time4 ,various terms have been applied to them1 but it will be simplest to call them backward or ignorant4 ,in ,belgium many such ignorant children were admitted to the first school for defectives4 ,in fact1 they formed the majority1 and one can understand how easily the teachers collected them4 ,these are the cases which give such grand results1 and are sometimes exhibited as genuine defectives who have been improved by teaching4 ,in ,france it has been agreed that the ignorant are not to be admitted to the classes for defectives4 ,the principle is sound4 ,but let us not confuse the questions by approaching them both at once4 ,let us consider the defectives first1 the ignorant or backward next4 ,even when we are agreed as to the principle1 we find difficulties in practice4 ,in the first place1 there are the doubtful cases1 children of whom we cannot say1 even after prolonged examination1 whether they are defective or backward4 ,demoor1 in the return he published concerning the pupils of the first school for defectives at ,brussels1 noted a considerable number of these doubtful cases4#ab ,what should be done with such cases8 ,the best thing to do is to admit them to the classes for defectives1 writing on their schedule a large mark of interrogation in order to guard against future deception4 ,again1 it is not always easy to establish irregular or insufficient attendance when this is the cause of the backwardness4 ,the child may have been at several schools1 and at some the teaching may have been faulty4 ,there are some schools which practically produce mediocrity4 ,in the next place1 it is necessary to discover the causes of defective attendance4 ,sometimes these causes are completely extrinsic to the nature of the child--frequent removals1 constant domestic disturbances1 laxity of the parents1 an infirm parent to be taken care of1 etc4 ,in such cases the interpretation presents no difficulty4 ,but sometimes the case is more embarrassing4 ,it may be a thin child1 who has been out of sorts for a long time4 ,without being1 properly speaking1 of defective intelligence1 he is weakly1 anaemic1 and consequently incapable of sustained attention4 ,would it not be advisable to admit such a case1 at least as a temporary measure1 into the class for defectives1 until his system had recovered tone8 ,should we not also open the door to cases retarded by adenoids8 ,and if we enter upon this work of charity1 shall we not also accept some of those physically abnormal children who1 affected by ,little's disease or ,pott's disease1 are so little at their ease among their more robust companions8 ,and what1 lastly1 is to be done with children retarded in their studies by an unrecognised myopia8 ,it is evident that the question ceases to seem simple and easy when regarded closely4 ,we may rigorously exclude from the class of defectives the child who is simply ignorant1 but there is a whole series of complex cases intermediate between the ignorant and the defective4 ,the inspector1 let us say in anticipation1 will consult his colleague the doctor with advantage about all these border-line cases4 ,no breach of principle is involved here4 ,it is necessary to be guided by circumstances4 ,the essential point is to mark distinctly upon the child's schedule the special reasons for his admission1 in order to prevent ultimate deception in the shape of presenting the child as an average defective who has been improved by tuition in the special class4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we now come to the normal1 the really normal cases4 ,there can evidently be no doubt as to what is to be done with them4 ,they are provided for4 ,they have only to remain in the ordinary school4 ,we hope they will be kept there4 ,we hope it2 we even demand it with all our power4 ,but we are not certain that it will be possible to save them from the special schools4 ,how many vital interests are leagued against the keeping of that rule6 ,and interests1 when they are not looked after1 are like the millions of ship-worms which slowly and silently corrode the most solid barriers4 ,in the first place1 there is the interest of the parents4 ,when it is a question of secondary education1 of rich or middle-class parents1 there is nothing to fear4 ,the bourgeois do not love their defectives2 they are ashamed of them4 ,they send them to a distance1 to some private institution4 ,they never speak of them to anyone2 they do not visit them2 they abandon them4 ,but the common people have more heart or less prejudice4 ,they will not be afraid of the special school for defectives any more than they are of the hospice4 ,when they have a really defective child in the hospice1 they never cease to visit him4 ,we can imagine the results which such a state of mind will bring about4 ,if these fathers and mothers of the working class were to hear of the existence of a boarding-school where children receive board1 lodging1 and clothing1 they would flock to obtain admission even for their normal children1 although it were well known that the school admitted only the feeble-minded1 defectives1 and fools4 ,if necessary1 they would get municipal councillors to back up their demands4 ,this abuse was practised recently in the case of a reformatory1 which was rapidly filled with ordinary children1 whose sole characteristic was this--that their parents had political backing4 ,this fraud--for it is one--will not be perpetrated in the case of the special schools and classes where no greater material advantages are given to the pupils than is the case in the public schools1 but it is to be feared that it will recur in the case of special boarding-schools for defectives4 ,such schools1 if they are not carefully looked after1 will turn out plenty of normal young people6 ,and this is not all4 ,it is not only the parents who will try to deceive4 ,think also of the heads of the schools for defectives4 ,what is their interest8 ,take note of it1 for it is important4 ,one should always try to foresee the results of human frailty4 ,in every new school which is started one should watch that part of the organisation which gives most scope for charlatanism4 ,the head-masters and the teachers of the defectives will certainly have a tendency to show off before visitors children who have never been mentally defective1 or who have been so to a very slight degree4 ,they will take good care to say nothing about the condition of the child on admission4 ,or1 if necessary1 they will tell lies--pious lies1 told in a good cause1 and for the honour of the school6 ,these children will be shown off as advertisements1 which will be just as illegitimate as if the schools for deaf-mutes were to present to visitors the semi-deaf-mutes1 or the deaf who had formerly been able to hear1 and to claim the entire credit for the facility with which these pupils could read the lips or pronounce words4 ,all such impositions will continue to be practised as long as those who visit such institutions are content to look about and docilely question the children presented to them by the teachers1 instead of personally selecting the pupils to interrogate4 ,there is another reason why the heads of schools for defectives will keep their doors wide open to normal cases4 ,this is1 that in some cases a dearth of pupils may arise4 ,a school is opened2 it begins its work2 the staff signs on4 ,there is not much to do2 there is no gossip about the matter2 everyone is happy4 ,but the number of admissions slowly decreases4 ,it begins to be feared that the inspector will in his report notice the decrease1 and that the school will be closed as of no public utility4 ,pupils1 therefore1 must be found1 and if they must be found1 found they will be4 ,recollect those evening classes held in the elementary schools1 where the teacher1 fearing he will have to speak to empty benches1 begs the head-master to send him some school children as an audience4 ,think of those libraries1 where the staff1 uneasy at the desertion of the public1 pays a gratuity to an industrious reader for show6 ,we strongly insist that the inspectors should be alive to this danger4 ,they will be seated by the side of the manager of the special school4 ,let them take note that this manager has a direct vital interest to admit normal children4 ,it is upon the inspectors that we rely to see that everything is done honestly and correctly4 ,schedules of ,particulars4--,full and detailed particulars regarding every child admitted to a class for defectives should be furnished by the head-master and teachers of the school from which he came4 ,they will do this easily1 for when a child is a little peculiar he attracts attention4 ,abnormal children never escape unnoticed4 ,it is of the greatest importance that the future teacher of the child in the special class should be correctly informed1 and that what has already been observed should not be lost4 ,let it be remembered that the education of defectives should be individual1 made to measure1 as has been said with picturesque exaggeration4 ,now1 if the child is to be individualised1 he must be well known1 well studied4 ,the necessity of some definite method of collecting particulars has been experienced abroad4 ,a scheme of questions has been prepared1 to be answered by the teacher who sends the child4 ,the plan is a good one4 ,it avoids the worry of lapses of memory4 ,we suggest the following questionnaire3 ,,particulars4 ,,supplied ,,by ,,the ,,original ,,school4 ,concerning 4444444444 ,admitted 4444444444 to the special class at 4444444444 school4 ,,general ,,particulars4 ,original school3 ,full name of child3 ,date of birth3 ,standard to which he belongs3 ,is the child considered mentally defective8 ,is the child considered ill-balanced8 ,,family ,,history4 ,names of father and mother3 ,address of parents3 ,occupation of parents3 ,particulars of family which it would be useful to know3 ,,school ,,attendance4 ,how long has the child attended school8 ,what standards has he passed through1 and how long was he in each8 ,regularity of school attendance3 ,how many days was he absent each year8 ,what were the most frequent reasons for absence1 if any8 ,what other schools has he attended1 and at what periods8 ,,instruction4 ,what amount of intelligence has he 7count from #j to #bj78 ,what do you know of his memory8 ,in which subjects does he do least badly8 ,in which subjects is he weakest8 ,how many years behindhand do you consider him in school instruction compared with average children of the same age8 ,annex to the present sheet one of his exercise-books and samples of his drawing and manual work4 ,,character ,,and ,,discipline4 ,conduct in class4 ,does the child keep his place8 ,is he sleepy1 unruly1 talkative8 ,does he laugh without apparent cause8 ,does he disturb the class8 ,application4 ,is he attentive in class8 ,does he do his exercises8 ,does he learn his lessons8 ,to what extent does his family assist him with the school work8 ,what is his attitude towards the teacher8 ,how does he receive remarks8 ,does he pay attention to them8 ,how often8 ,is he indifferent8 ,is he restive8 ,what are his relations with his companions8 ,is he kind1 docile1 compliant8 ,does he make himself liked8 ,is he the object of marked attention8 ,or is he indifferent8 ,does he keep apart from others8 ,is he bullying1 brutal1 irascible1 untruthful1 dishonest1 wicked8 ,has he any special vices8 ,,pedagogy4 ,what moral influences are most successful for guiding him8 ,what is the effect of punishment8 ,of severity8 ,what is the effect of rewards8 ,of praise8 ,do you require to take any special measures with regard to him in class or in the playground8 ,what are the most successful methods for advancing his instruction8 ,,state ,,of ,,health4 ,what do you know of his state of health8 ,has he incontinence of urine8 ,any motor affection8 ,any defect of speech8 ,fits8 ,has he been examined by a doctor1 and do you know the doctor's opinion8 ,was any medicine prescribed8 ,what8 ,date 44444444 ,signature 44444444444444444 ,position 444444444444444444 ,all the terms of this schedule are readily intelligible to the teachers4 ,they have filled up a hundred samples in a very satisfactory manner1 and we thus have in our possession a veritable mine of valuable information4 ,it is to be hoped that the teachers in the special school may enjoy the same advantage4 ,the plan has been found of value in other countries4 ,the bulletins which are used in ,rotterdam1 for example1 scarcely differ from ours except that they are more laconic4 ,we have included in our questionnaire all that is likely to interest not only the inspector1 but the doctor and the psychologist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now to sum up1 here are the steps we advise to be taken in collecting the defectives3 ,first4--,the inspector has the pupils of each age in the schools arranged according to the standard or course they are in4 ,second4--,by examining the tabulated results1 the inspector picks out the backward1 and demands particulars regarding the school attendance of those who have a retardation of two years 7when they are under nine years of age71 and of three years 7when they have passed their ninth birthday74 ,in the same circular the inspector asks the teachers to name any of their pupils who appear to be mentally ill-balanced--that is to say1 who1 according to the testimony of at least two teachers1 are rebellious to discipline and an annoyance in the class4 ,the particulars with regard to want of discipline should be stated in each case4 ,third4--,after examining the returns relating to school attendance and to the faults alleged against the children supposed to be wanting in balance1 the inspector will make his first choice4 ,fourth4--,the direct examination of the child bears specially upon his state of instruction and degree of intelligence4 ,the inspector comes to a positive decision with regard to each child1 and asks the opinion of the doctor1 as well as of the head of the special school1 who assists4 ,fifth4--,the inspector has a schedule of particulars regarding the children finally accepted for the special school filled up by their teachers in the schools from which they came4 ,the medical examination will be considered in the next chapter4 ,let us add1 in conclusion1 that all the decisions arrived at are to be regarded as provisional2 the children are to be admitted to the class for defectives on trial1 to be kept under observation4 ,,footnotes3 #f ,see ,annee ,psychologique1 vol4 xii41 p4 #a1 and vol4 x41 p4 #aaf4 ,the method sometimes adopted1 for other purposes1 of asking the teacher to classify the children according to their intelligence is quite fallacious4 ,teachers make no allowance for age4 ,recently an excellent teacher pointed out to us1 as the most intelligent in the class1 a child who had really1 when his age was taken into account1 a retardation of two years2 but in a class of younger children his age gave him an appearance of mental superiority4 ,such facts vitiate much statistical work on the correlation of brightness in school-children with other qualities4--,,tr4 #g ,teachers have a troublesome habit of saying simply attendance regular or irregular4 ,the inspector should demand an exact return of the absences4 #h ,there are two methods of stating the representative value of a group1 the average and the median4 ,everyone knows the average4 ,the median is obtained by arranging the values in linear series from the smallest to the greatest and taking the middle one4 ,when should one use the average1 and when the median8 ,it is not easy to give a general rule1 but in this case of spelling1 we have a good example4 ,if we wish to calculate the number of mistakes for each age1 to take the average might be a disastrous proceeding4 ,a single child who made a hundred or so mistakes would obviously make the average unfairly high4 ,the median is affected much less by such aberrant cases1 and consequently is more suitable for very heterogeneous series1 in which the difference between the maximum and the minimum is very great4 #i ,by way of comparison1 the following dictation was given to ninety-two children in an ,edinburgh school4 ,the progressive difficulties depend upon the non-phonetic spelling and the lesser familiarity of words4 ,most of the children came to school in their sixth year4 #a4 ,tom is a good boy4 ,he has a book and a bat4 ,he can run fast4 #b4 ,the dog is bigger than the cat1 but he cannot climb so well4 ,he would if he could4 #c4 ,the farmer walked through the wood till he came to the field4 ,it was a fine day for sowing the corn4 ,he hoped it would not rain till he had finished his work4 #d4 ,the weather was very stormy4 ,the boughs of the trees were blowing to and fro in the wind4 ,clouds were chasing each other across the sky4 ,the crows were watching the ploughman in the field4 ,mistakes were marked according to the directions in the text4 ,thus bows for boughs counted three mistakes4 ,the results were as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,average ,mistakes in ,test ,sentences4 ,age of ,children4------------------------------ --- #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- #f to #g years #j4cb #b4fd -- -- #g #h #j4bb #a4gg #c4de #f4ah #h #i #j4b #j4cf #a4fh #e4ia ---------------------------------------- ---------- #aj ,the complete set of tests as revised in #aiaa is given in the ,appendix1 with notes regarding their subsequent use in ,britain and ,america4 #aa ,les ,debilites ,mentales1 ,rev4 de ,psychiatrie1 #aijb4 #ab ,annee ,psychologique1 vol4 vii41 #aija1 p4 #bif4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,medical ,,examination ,,of ,,defectives ,hitherto we have been studying the defective from the point of view of his school relations4 ,this point of view is incomplete1 and should not make us forget that there is another--the medical4 ,it is quite certain that in the organisation and the practical working of the special schools the doctor has a role1 and an important role1 to fill4 ,all foreign countries recognise this1 and give him a large place4 ,it is even regretted in some countries that doctors detach themselves too much from such questions1 and are content to make a rapid and superficial examination of children on their entrance to school1 instead of collaborating actively in the important work of the teacher4 ,after this declaration of principles1 it may not be without interest to fix precisely the role which belongs to the doctor and the services which he can render4 ,it seems to us1 in fact1 that there is often some confusion as to his attributes1 and two opposite tendencies may be recognised4 ,according to one1 the more widespread1 the defective are often1 if not always1 invalids1 and belong to him by right4 ,it would be an encroachment upon his privileges to concern oneself with them4 ,the opposite opinion consists in not committing to him any particular authority in the matter4 ,this is the case in ,germany1 where there are schoolmasters who carry things with a high hand in the special schools4 ,let us add that the doctors themselves have done nothing to bring about an entente4 ,speak of defectives before them1 and they say1 ,that is our business1 and they are perfectly right2 but having affirmed their right1 they pay very little attention to the territory they defend4 ,it seems to us that the field is sufficiently great for everyone to glean1 and the efforts of all will not be too great to clear it4 ,there are some questions which escape the doctor1 unless he is also an educationist and a psychologist4 ,but there are also some1 in our opinion1 for which he has special competence1 and where no one can take his place4 ,to define his role is not to lessen it2 on the contrary1 it is to assure him an authoritative position4 ,it is not his business to select the abnormal from the normal4 ,but from the children picked out as abnormal he will differentiate certain types and prescribe certain measures with regard to their care and treatment4 ,,the ,,doctor ,,not ,,to ,,pick ,,out ,,the ,,detectives ,,from ,,amongst ,,the ,,children ,,in ,,school4 ,there is a general misunderstanding with regard to the special knowledge and aptitude of the doctor4 ,one tends to credit him with a kind of omnipotence and infallibility against which he protests in vain4 ,he is made to judge questions which do not belong to his special province--namely1 the medical1 and upon which he expresses opinions which are neither more nor less valuable than those of any other intelligent person4 ,recently1 at various congresses1 we have seen doctors with the best intentions laying down educational programmes1 comparing the educative value of science with that of letters1 and expressing a variety of opinions1 no doubt very sensible1 but with which the medical art had nothing whatever to do4 ,as regards the selection of defectives1 one is influenced by the same prejudice4 ,we have discussed this with many people1 and especially with educationists1 and when we have insisted on the difficulties of examination1 they usually reply1 ,that is the doctor's business6 ,the prejudice we have noted is very tenacious1 and will doubtless be difficult to overcome1 for there are many people who have interests to maintain of a pecuniary nature4 ,let us consider this question from two points of view--the estimation of educational retardation1 and the physical examination of defectives4 ,estimation of the ,degree of ,mental ,inferiority4--,we have seen how easily1 in spite of the commonly accepted opinion1 experienced teachers and inspectors accomplish this part of their task4 ,if a doctor were charged with it his embarrassment would be great4 ,just imagine a doctor introduced into a school of #cjj children in order to pick out the defectives by strictly medical methods4 ,no doubt every doctor1 especially if he is an alienist1 is called upon to estimate the intellectual level of children1 and to sign certificates of idiocy1 imbecility1 and feeble-mindedness4 ,but just consider how things are managed at the consultation4 ,the parents bring the child4 ,they know very well that he is not like others4 ,they bring him for that very reason1 and consequently the doctor does not require to distinguish the child from a normal one4 ,he only requires to sit and listen to the parents1 who give him a crowd of particulars4 ,when he questions and examines the child1 it is only to verify what he has learned1 and to add his own personal impression4 ,as a general rule the case is a severe one2 the deficiency is so evident that any sensible person would notice it4 ,the task of the doctor is therefore narrowed4 ,he has only to certify the mental deficiency of the patient1 stating in technical terms the diagnosis which the parents have brought to him ready made4 ,even his estimation of the gravity of the case1 apart from special investigations on his part1 is not very different from that of ordinary people who readily distinguish between the idiot who cannot speak2 the imbecile1 who can make himself understood1 though he cannot be educated2 and the feeble-minded1 who can do some work1 but is not able to provide for his wants1 or to behave himself sensibly4 ,when the doctor thus certifies the intellectual level of the patient1 does he try to do so with precision8 ,by no means1 for it is not expected of him4 ,the parents do not come to him in order to ask him1 ,is my child backward in his mental development8 ,alas they see it only too well1 and little it matters to them whether his backwardness amounts to six months or a year4 ,but they do come to ask1 ,why does this child not make the usual progress8 ,is there not some medicine1 doctor1 which can help his development8 ,when they come to the doctor1 it is not even with the hope that some medico-pedagogical treatment will cure their child4 ,they know very well that the devoted care which they have always bestowed upon him from his infancy is superior to anything which can be given to him at a dispensary for children2 but their indomitable hope leads them to seek chimerical measures4 ,in all this1 let us repeat1 the doctor does not require to estimate the degree of mental deficiency with any delicacy4 ,but if he should try to do so1 what methods would he use8 ,here is a child of nine years of age1 who has been selected for a class for defectives because he cannot follow the usual lessons in the elementary school4 ,you1 however1 doctor1 put to him some of your usual questions4 ,you ask the child his name1 his age1 the occupation and address of his parents2 the date1 day1 month1 year2 some details about his life2 you even ask him to read or count4 ,the replies are given to you quietly and correctly4 ,are you going to refuse to admit him to the special school1 and by what right8 ,you have the notes of one1 of two1 or of three teachers4 ,he cannot follow2 he is still with children of seven years of age1 in spite of having been at school for three years4 ,it is evident that he is not an idiot1 nor an imbecile1 nor even feeble-minded to any great extent4 ,but you have been notified that he is behind other children of his age4 ,there is therefore something peculiar about him4 ,it is not a medical question whether he ought to remain in the ordinary school4 ,the doctor cannot go against the opinions which have been given to him1 in order to verify whether the retardation is genuine4 ,to do so1 it would be necessary for him to make a comparison with the normal condition4 ,now this varies according to age4 ,the doctor does not know exactly1 to two or three years1 the normal condition of the mental faculties2 nor1 after such and such a period of school attendance1 the habitual level of instruction reached4 ,that1 however1 in such special conditions1 is the very problem which faces him4 ,we do not hesitate to express the opinion that1 in such circumstances1 the doctor would be incapable of estimating the intellectual level of the child4 ,he has no more experience in this matter than any other person4 ,let a doctor seek to pick out a feeble-minded child from a number of normal ones1 and he will find how little he is prepared to make the selection4 ,physical ,examination of ,defectives4--,but it may be asked3 ,is not mental debility associated with physical signs which the doctor alone is able to appreciate8 ,about this question three kinds of facts may be considered3 those pertaining to anthropometry1 the stigmata of degeneration1 and physiognomy4 ,let us consider in order what help may be derived from these4 ,height and ,head ,measurements4--,numerous papers have been published upon height and cephalometry4 ,the object of some has been to compare the less intelligent school children with those who are better endowed4 ,other authors have taken as their subject the study of asylum or hospital cases4 ,the absence or paucity of results of the earlier studies seems to be due to a cause which we have referred to elsewhere 7p4 #ci74 ,the mistake has been made of judging the intelligence of the children by sole reference to the opinion of the teachers1 although account should have been taken of the relationship between the age and the stage of instruction4 ,the comparison between the height and head measurements of the hospital cases and those of school children is not subject to the same risk of error1 and striking differences between the two have been noticed4 ,but there is yet another factor which must be taken into account if the figures so obtained are to yield all they are capable of teaching4 ,if one confines oneself to comparing the averages of the two sets of children1 one finds them almost identical4 ,we have shown that the only suitable method to use here is the method of arranging the figures in series4 ,this proceeding has suggested to one of us a better method still1 that of frontiers4 ,there is for each age a height limit below which the defectives become clearly more numerous4 ,there are limits in the head diameters1 upon each side of which are grouped the abnormally small and the hypertrophied heads1 which are frequently associated with mental deficiency4 ,we give here the table which one of us has published of the provisional frontiers for height and for the two cephalic diameters4 ,,the ,,frontiers ,,of ,,abnormality 7,,boys74 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,age4 ,height4 ,antero-,posterior ,transverse ,sum of ,diameter4 ,diameter4 ,diameters4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,centimetres4 ,millimetres4 ,millimetres4 ,millimetres4 #f #ajj #afd #acd #bih #g #aje #aff #ace #h #aaj #afi #acf #cje #i #aaa #aga #acg #aj #abj #agb #ach #caj #aa #abd #agc #aci #ab #acj #agd #adj #cad #ac #ace #agf #ada #ad #adj #agh #adb #cbj #ae #adb4e #agi #adc4e #af #aed #ahj #ade #cbe #ag #adg4e #aha #adf #ah #aej #ahb #adg #cbi ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,what this table means is this3 ,if we measure #ajj children in an elementary school1 we find only a small number 7at most #aj per cent47 whose measurements are less than those indicated2 if1 on the other hand1 we measure idiots and imbeciles1 the proportion of those whose measurements are inferior is greater1 amounting to over #be per cent4 ,amongst #abj abnormal children we found not a single one who was below these frontiers in two measurements1 whilst #aj per cent4 of defectives were below4 ,certain measurements1 therefore1 are distinctly suggestive1 although1 no doubt1 not absolutely diagnostic without reference to the subject examined4 ,the ,stigmata of ,degeneration4--,everyone has heard of the physical malformations which are called the stigmata of degeneration4 ,some of these are very apparent1 such as a sixth finger on the hand1 or a hare-lip1 or those deformities of the head1 which are called plagiocephalus 7obliquely oval cranium71 scaphocephalus 7boat-shaped cranium71 etc4 ,other stigmata are less apparent1 such as abnormal shapes of the ear1 irregular growth of hair1 of the teeth1 alterations in the eye1 etc4 ,some doctors1 not all1 have made a study of these various stigmata4 ,but school directors and teachers know nothing about them except what the present-day widespread popularisation of medical knowledge has permitted them to know4 ,evidently it is no part of their business to take up the study1 although no ,state diploma will prevent their doing so if it is their good pleasure4 ,there is no law against it4 ,but they would expose themselves to grave risks of erroneous interpretations owing to their ignorance of the manner in which stigmata are produced1 and the ignorance of doctors on this subject is still great4 ,the determination of the stigmata1 their enumeration1 and their description1 belong1 therefore1 at any rate by preference1 to the doctor4 ,god save us from wanting to dispossess him6 ,but what help could their study render us in the question whether a particular child ought or ought not to be admitted into a class for defectives8 ,there is an opinion which is very widespread1 especially amongst teachers and ordinary people1 a souvenir of the doctrines of ,gall1 that the physical stigmata are signs of the original character1 and that the possessor of a certain shape of head is certainly defective4 ,i have taken my son1 a worthy mother said to us1 to consult ,dr4 ,p41 because he was learning nothing in his class4 ,he was sent away from every school ,i sent him to1 and he is unbearable at home4 ,the doctor felt all over his head4 ,he evidently saw that there was something particular wrong with the boy4 ,we do not smile at this good mother4 ,plenty of other intelligent people hold her opinions1 if they are not so naive in their language4 ,they expect that the moment defective children are brought before them1 they will find something peculiar1 something ugly1 in their physiognomy4 ,and there are plenty of doctors1 let us say frankly1 who are equally naive1 and1 more serious still1 allow themselves to be influenced by unconscious suggestions4 ,if1 like our worthy mother1 we present to the doctor a child as defective1 the doctor will1 as a general rule1 have no difficulty in demonstrating that he must be so4 ,how many of us are there without stigmata8 ,none of us is built upon the model of the ideal man4 ,it is always possible to discover some anatomical detail which will give support to a preconceived opinion4 ,but the same doctor who1 on seeing a defective child with adherent ear lobes1 will say that that was just what he expected1 will abruptly change his opinion if he discovers a whorl of frontal hair on a child who is presented to him as normal1 and will refuse to attach to the fact any importance whatever4 ,as a matter of fact1 these questions have not yet been studied as they ought to be1 by a comparison without parti pris between normal and abnormal children of the same age and in the same environment1 and we do not yet know how stigmata should be interpreted4 ,we can only suggest some provisional conclusions4 ,the first of these conclusions is that the presence or absence of a definite stigma has no exact significance for the individual who bears it2 for on the one hand one meets with all kinds of malformations in average normal children1 and on the other hand1 some who are definitely abnormal are quite normal in their conformation4 ,the stigma1 therefore1 has not the value of a definitely pathognomonic sign like the crepitating rale of pneumonia1 or the transient unconsciousness of epilepsy2 but if we compare a group of normal children with a group of abnormal1 the total number of the stigmata will be much greater in the second group2 and1 moreover1 the multiplicity of stigmata in a single individual constitutes a strong probability that that individual is abnormal4 ,here are some facts which support these two propositions3 ,recently we made a rapid examination of the heads of fifty-eight school children1 and noticed that eighteen of them had some stigma1 especially an abnormal shape of the ear4 ,we therefore find stigmata amongst children at the average school level4 ,but of these fifty-eight school children only one had four abnormalities--malformed ears1 strabismus1 prognathism1 and slight scaphocephaly4 ,the others had a maximum of two4 ,the first child alone is certainly defective4 ,in a class of nine defective children subjected to a similar examination1 we found only one who had but one stigma1 another had two1 four had three1 and three had five4 ,of the three last1 one had a very high degree of retardation2 another was mentally ill-balanced to no less a degree4 ,let us compare these two groups1 the one of fifty-eight average children1 the other of nine defectives1 and group to group1 the difference is very clear4 ,the stigmata are usually more numerous when the children are mentally defective4 ,the existence of stigmata is a presumption of deficiency1 and this presumption is greater1 the greater the number of stigmata4 ,if we consider which are the stigmata that are most commonly met with1 we find that asymmetry of the face is almost constant1 but we also find it sometimes in normal children4 ,malformations of the ear come next4 ,we are often struck by the frequency of badly defective speech--three times in nine defectives1 whilst we did not find a single example in the fifty-eight school children taken by chance4 ,here1 then1 is a group fact which is of interest from a scientific point of view4 ,but what use can be made of it for individual diagnosis8 ,this is much more delicate1 for even if one could state it as a general rule that defectives have more stigmata than the normal1 this rule is subject to important exceptions4 ,one of our abnormal cases had only one stigma1 another had two1 and in both cases the anomalies were of a very ordinary kind--slight want of symmetry of the face and sticking out ears4 ,children with stigmata few in number1 and little marked 7though as a rule we note the presence of stigmata without measuring them71 may therefore not be of normal intelligence4 ,the same is true sometimes of children with no stigma at all4 ,we may therefore conclude that stigmata may be taken into account when we are making an examination1 but they should never be regarded as of fundamental importance in diagnosis4 ,physiognomy4--,in addition to stigmata1 we have to note another feature which is of more definite significance4 ,methodical studies made by means of a collection of sixty photographs of children1 normal and abnormal1 photographs taken by ,m4 ,bertillon in conditions comparable in all cases1 have shown us that an intelligent teacher can scarcely go wrong in judging physiognomy4 ,the photographs were beautifully taken1 and the expression of the faces appeared extremely lifelike to anyone who was used to observing children4 ,we asked various teachers to examine these portraits1 and to express their opinion as to the mental capacity revealed4 ,mistakes were made1 as was to be expected2 but the correct estimations were always in the majority1 and some teachers exhibited a truly remarkable talent for observation2 they were practically never deceived4 ,let us say in passing that our list included a number of doctors amongst the teachers4 ,they were far from distinguishing themselves4 ,their percentage was not so good as that of the schoolmasters4 ,this difference in competence1 which perhaps may appear surprising1 suggests the following anecdote3 ,one day1 at the meeting of a commission1 we had thrown upon the cloth a collection of photographs of children1 the very one which we had been using for our methodical experiments4 ,everyone looked at the portraits and expressed his opinion4 ,by way of a joke we tackled a medical alienist who had a seat on the commission4 ,he was mistaken in his opinion as often as his colleagues who were most ignorant of medicine4 ,it seems to us1 and the facts mentioned support us1 that stigmata are only one part of the complicated whole which constitutes a physiognomy4 ,a physiognomy includes many other things1 especially the expression1--lively or sluggish1 strong or weak1 intelligent or lacking in intelligence2 there is the fineness or coarseness of the features1 the beauty or ugliness of the countenance1 the ordinary or unusual appearance of the face4 ,all this forms an ensemble which the eye does not analyse1 but judges en bloc by instinct1 without considering the elements separately1 and1 above all1 without being able to give reasons for its judgment4 ,will it be possible some day to analyse1 to dissociate1 and to describe all these very various elements8 ,we do not know4 ,in the meantime we think that every examiner1 as a matter of fact1 allows himself to be influenced by the general appearance of the subject1 and that the impression so formed is not entirely without value4 ,let us sum up regarding the physiognomy4 ,there does exist between the intellectual level of a subject and his physical development a real correlation1 but1 unfortunately1 it is slight4 ,with regard to the stigmata our knowledge of their significance is still very slight4 ,we have no figures which allow us to place any definite value upon them either singly or in combination4 ,there still remains the general appearance1 whose significance is apparently indubitable1 but which1 at present1 is too dependent upon individual estimate to be utilisable4 ,let us add that these relations between the mental and the physical appear to be of greater significance the lower the mental condition4 ,now1 in a school it is the feeble-minded who are in the majority1 and it is they who have to be recognised much more frequently than the idiot or the imbecile1 and this lessens the importance of the physical examination4 ,we may therefore conclude with this practical rule3 a physical examination can never allow us to dispense with a direct examination of the intelligence4 ,anthropometry1 stigmata1 and physical appearance must take a second place as means for discovering in school the feeble-minded and the ill-balanced4 ,failing direct recourse to the teacher1 these methods could1 and ought1 to be made use of4 ,but in most cases1 thanks to the assistance of the teacher1 we have better means4 ,in cases on the border-line they might help to incline the balance4 ,their principal use is not to assist in selecting children for special classes for defectives2 their significance is quite different1 as we shall see immediately4 ,,medical ,,examination ,,of ,,the ,,children ,,presented4 ,we must now define the active role of the doctor4 ,in many foreign countries a scheme has been drawn up for the medical examination1 which is often extremely comprehensive1 almost interminable4 ,we give an example of this kind1 though questioning the appropriateness1 from our point of view1 of certain questions4 ,if one does not simplify the work1 the practitioners will simplify it in their own way--by neglecting it4 ,if you ask them to do too much1 they will do nothing4 ,,scheme ,,for ,,medical ,,examination ,heredity of the ,child4--,note the name1 the date1 and the place of the birth of the father and the mother1 and find out1 by direct interrogation1 whether the parents have a pathological heredity4 ,consider first the two great hereditary influences--alcoholism and insanity4 ,next inquire concerning nervous ailments1 tuberculosis1 etc4 ,make inquiries concerning the direct ascendents and their collaterals4 ,note the number of brothers and sisters1 their illnesses1 their mortality1 and the position of the child in the family4 ,previous ,history of the ,child4--,this is the second part of the medical examination4 ,it includes many questions4 ,has the child had convulsions8 ,at what age did it begin to cut its teeth8 ,at what age did it begin to walk8 ,when did it show habits of cleanliness8 ,when did it speak8 ,what illnesses had it in infancy8 ,has the child always appeared different from others1 or did it only become so at some definite time1 or1 in other words1 is the mental deficiency congenital or acquired8 ,present ,condition4--,under this heading are included the general appearance of the subject1 his attitude1 the form and size of his head1 etc4 ,we have no objection on principle to medical investigations of this kind1 and if a doctor desires to collect such information1 he ought to be encouraged4 ,we recall in passing that ,dr4 ,ley1 of ,antwerp1 who was for some time medical specialist to a school for defectives1 has made a very complete study of the heredity and personal antecedents of hundreds of defective children4 ,but before compelling doctors to fill up conscientiously a schedule containing all these questions1 one should consider without prejudice what use the work is going to be when it is done4 ,let us distinguish between pure science and what is of immediate practical utility4 ,no doubt one ought to give a warm welcome to everything which helps us to understand the child better2 but the above observations upon his heredity do not bear upon the question of whether he is a defective1 and throw only the dimmest light upon his character and the manner in which one should treat him4 ,if he is to be counted abnormal1 he must be either ill-balanced or of deficient intelligence4 ,even if he should have an alcoholic heredity1 that would be of no importance if he were able to follow his class and to profit by the ordinary instruction4 ,at most1 the discovery of a pathological heredity might incline one in a doubtful case towards a diagnosis of mental deficiency2 but yet one should be extremely cautious about permitting oneself to be influenced in this way1 for we are ignorant to a most incredible degree concerning the heredity and antecedents of normal children1 and as our ignorance in this respect is so complete1 we are unable to say precisely what is really pathological in the heredity and the antecedents of those who are abnormal4 ,information of this kind1 therefore1 is not directly useful4 ,what1 then1 are the first problems to be solved8 ,let us consider just exactly where we are in the examination4 ,here are the children picked out by the teachers4 ,the inspectors themselves have checked the selection and referred back some of those selected1 but very few1 if they have carefully directed the methods of choice from the beginning4 ,the children presented are backward in their studies4 ,inquiries regarding their school attendance have shown that the retardation is not due to irregular attendance4 ,the examination of their intelligence has confirmed this judgment4 ,it still remains to discover whether1 amongst all these children who are unable to follow the ordinary school curriculum1 there do not exist some who are not1 properly speaking1 mentally deficient1 but who are suffering from some illness4 ,may we not find amongst them some who require medical treatment rather than special teaching--e4g41 cretins8 ,and1 lastly1 may there not be some children whose mental deficiency complicates some other disease1 such as epilepsy8 ,these are problems which are essentially medical1 and which it is necessary to solve before admitting a child to a special school4 ,let us consider them in order4 #a4 ,is the ,case one of ,mental ,deficiency1 or of an ,intercurrent ,mental ,affection8--,to tell the truth1 there is not often any doubt4 ,however1 there are two circumstances in which doubt may arise4 ,in the first place1 an arrest in a child's mental development may be the expression of a state of depression which indicates a psychosis in the course of evolution1 or it may be the first sign of decadence in one of those degenerates of whom ,morel speaks1 who seem to have a limited mental existence4 ,such cases1 which some authors describe under the name of dementia precox1 require a medical regimen4 ,in the second place1 it is possible that the etiological factor is alcohol4 ,alcoholism in the parents is frequently the cause of mental deficiency4 ,but the effects of drinking do not always stop there4 ,the child itself may be made to drink1 and consequently the doctor may sometimes find symptoms resulting from direct intoxication--nightmares1 or tremor of the hands4 ,such intoxication may be responsible partly1 if not entirely1 for the want of progress at school1 and also for the irritable temper which the child shows in class4 ,it would be necessary in such cases to see the parents1 and to advise a different hygiene for their child at any rate1 if they themselves cannot be persuaded to give up their bad habits4 ,in this way one may be able to avoid sending the child to a school for defectives4 ,it is apparent that even if the child were sent to such a school1 it would be necessary to put a stop to the administration of alcohol4 ,the rarity of such cases makes their exposition of almost theoretical interest4 #b4 ,would the ,mental ,deficiency respond to ,medical ,treatment8--,cannot the doctor prescribe something to cure the mental deficiency or want of balance8 ,let us give some consideration to this question4 ,medicines act either upon the symptoms of a disease1 or upon the organic changes which produce them1 or1 lastly1 upon the very causes of such organic changes4 ,quinine1 for example1 has a selective action on the parasites of malaria2 mercury produces an undoubted effect upon syphilitic growths2 treatment by cold baths keeps the temperature of typhoid fever below a certain level during the whole of the illness4 ,cannot analogous results be hoped for in mental deficiency8 ,a brief resume of what we know concerning the causes of mental deficiency and the anatomical lesions which accompany it will determine our answer4 ,the dominant etiological feature is that mental deficiency and want of balance depend upon hereditary conditions1 or conditions acquired in the earliest stages of development4 ,by hereditary conditions must be understood strictly those which result from alterations in the germ cells of the parents4 ,an intoxication alone seems capable of exercising upon the latter a sufficiently general action to reach the germ cells1 and by far the most frequent poison is alcohol4 ,by acquired conditions must be understood the results of diseases of the foetus or of infancy1 and especially the cerebral complications of the infectious fevers--e4g41 meningitis in the course of an eruptive fever4 ,in all such cases1 with rare exceptions to be mentioned immediately1 by the time the mental deficiency is discovered1 its causes are no longer active1 and consequently cannot be affected by medical intervention4 ,the statements we have just made with regard to the causes of mental deficiency lead to some practical conclusions4 ,the ultimate evolution of the congenital cases differs from that of acquired cases1 and this renders a study of the early history of the child important4 ,if the development of the child has been normal at first1 and has then been abruptly interrupted1 for example1 by an attack of meningitis1 of which we can obtain by inquiry a definite history1 the prognosis is not good4 ,for it is a well-recognised fact that cases of acquired mental deficiency are not likely to make a fresh start4 ,if we were hesitating whether to send an imbecile child to an asylum or to put him in a class for mental defectives1 a history like the above would lead us to give the preference to the asylum2 but let us say once more1 we do not find here an indication for treatment4 ,as to the changes which are found post-mortem1 these are manifold and of an unalterable kind4 ,they are as follows3 7#a7 ,the results of the rupture of a cerebral vessel--e4g41 from asphyxia at birth or a delivery by forceps4 ,blood has been poured out into the nervous tissue4 ,the latter has been destroyed over a greater or less extent1 and there is found in its place a cyst filled with sero-sanguineous fluid4 7#b7 ,the obstruction of an artery--e4g41 by septic thrombosis--has prevented the blood from reaching a part of the brain1 with similar results to those mentioned4 7#c7 ,in other cases are found the more or less extensive changes produced by meningitis or meningo-encephalitis4 ,the inflammation of its envelopes has interfered with the brain1 and consequently with its functions4 7#d7 ,an increased secretion of cerebro-spinal fluid has led to a compression of the nervous system or a distension of its cavities1 notably of the lateral ventricles of the cerebral hemispheres1 and has led to a separation of the bones of the cranium1 thus producing the large globular head of hydrocephalus4 7#e7 ,there may be found simply defects of development whose causes are known 7microcephalus1 or extreme smallness of the cranium relatively to the face2 microgyria1 or marked thinness of the convolutions74 7#f7 ,lastly--and this is frequently the case in the worst degrees of deficiency--the post-mortem1 and even microscopic examination of the organs may show no change at all4 ,let us add that the nature of the lesions just mentioned does not seem to have any relationship to the condition of the mental faculties4 ,an anatomico-pathological grouping of the cases and a grouping according to the mental condition1 far from being parallel1 are frequently decidedly different4 ,on the other hand1 the extent of the lesions is of more importance4 ,diffuse lesions affect the mind more than those which are circumscribed--that is to say1 limited to a certain part of the brain--as if the mental functions required the co-operation of the entire cerebral cortex4 ,one will often find1 for example1 sound judgment in the subject of a marked paralysis1 whilst it is very rare to find that good intelligence co-exists with any degree of microcephalus4 ,let us emphasise the last fact we mentioned1 the absence of any lesion4 ,some authorities have maintained that all conditions of mental deficiency and want of balance found in children are connected with definite diseases of which they are the symptoms4 ,the question is unsettled4 ,for our own part we adopt the following provisional statement3 ,mental deficiency and want of balance are peculiar mental conditions which it is often impossible to connect with definite pathological changes4 ,thus1 we do not know of any medical treatment which is likely to act upon the preceding lesions when they are present1 and we do not think it is even possible to act upon them4 ,an exception must1 however1 be made of conditions due to insufficient secretion of certain glands4 ,the type of these is cretinism4 ,marked cases of this condition are easy to recognise4 ,the very appearance of the children is sufficient for an experienced eye--the stunted growth2 the rough1 wrinkled skin2 the swollen eyelids half-concealing the eyes2 the prominent belly2 and the mental apathy4 ,one also comes across abortive cases1 where the above-mentioned characters are less marked2 the sluggishness also is less4 ,these latter cases are amenable to the same treatment as the former--namely1 the ingestion of thyroid glands from the sheep4 ,this treatment stimulates growth and makes the child more lively2 but what ultimately becomes of the cases so treated8 ,the amelioration usually ceases whenever the treatment is dropped4 ,but how far does this amelioration go8 ,to what extent does the child profit by it8 ,lasegue has jocularly remarked that the average duration of an attack of typhoid fever 7six weeks7 represents the maximum time during which medical attention could be brought to bear upon a patient4 ,one feels disposed to think he is right in face of the slight satisfaction one can obtain from the literature regarding a point of such importance4 ,other cases of mental deficiency may be due to an alteration in the pituitary gland4 ,it is for the doctor to find out whether there are any symptoms by which mental deficiency of such an origin can be recognised1 and whether it is possible to prepare a suitable substance for replacing the absent secretion4 ,the number of cases amenable to treatment of this kind is1 unfortunately1 very limited4#ac ,we may even say that1 as a general rule1 we did not find amongst the school children we examined any cases of obesity or infantilism such as are sometimes described of a truly remarkable nature4 ,even children who were abnormally short looked their age4 ,we have still1 however1 to mention one last influence--namely1 poverty4 ,its part in the production of mental debility is scarcely defined4 ,what are the exact effects upon intelligence of prolonged deficiency of nutrition8 ,how can its action be isolated from that of other agents1 such as alcoholism1 which too frequently accompanies it8 ,the complexity of such social studies sufficiently explains their present incompleteness4 ,let us recall the results we obtained from an inquiry of this kind2 the children of parents in extreme poverty are retarded in their physical development more frequently than those whose parents are in easy circumstances4 ,it is interesting to add that analogous inquiries with reference to intelligence have furnished similar results4 ,apart from the preceding cases1 the best that can be done is to treat the symptoms4 ,the two principal agents at the disposal of the doctor are the bromides and hydrotherapy4 ,unfortunately1 if the bromides are undoubtedly efficacious in certain cases of epilepsy1 that is far from being the case in simple want of mental balance1 in which cases they are at best useful adjuvants4 ,as to hydrotherapy1 and especially cold douches1 their principal indication is in certain nervous affections1 where their effect is to enable the subject to master the emotional reactions which are habitually exaggerated4 ,lastly1 the doctor can exert his moral influence to assist the educative work of the teacher in the special school4 ,his less frequent intervention1 the different motives of his advice1 will often give him even more authority than the teacher4 ,the suggestive effects of his intervention should be obtained1 in our opinion1 without resort to hypnotism4 #c4 ,does the ,mentally ,defective suffer from any ,definite ,illness8--,if the illness such as we have referred to affects those parts of the cerebral cortex which govern the muscles of a limb1 one will find1 in addition to the mental condition1 paralysis with atrophy and contracture4 ,but in addition to such very marked cases1 there exist others in which sensory or motor affections1 although slight1 may hinder the progress of education4 ,it goes without saying that if a child does not profit from the school work1 an examination of his sight and hearing should be made as a matter of course4 ,perhaps that may have been done already by the teacher himself by such methods as he is able to use4 ,but this first examination is not sufficient4 ,the doctor must correct1 as far as possible1 the want of acuity noticed4 ,no doubt the defect may not explain the mental deficiency of the child1 but one must take care that in the school for defectives a pronounced myopia or catarrh of the middle ear does not prove an obstacle to the efforts which are to be made to bring about development4 ,in the same way it must be considered whether the condition of the muscular system is such as to permit the manual work which one wants to teach the child1 and whether there exists any paralysis or tremor which would prove an obstacle to work of this kind4 ,one must consider whether any symptoms present are transitory1 like chorea2 or permanent1 like infantile hemiplegia2 and what kind of efforts may be made without risk to the health of the child4 ,such are the problems which the doctor has to solve4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the last place1 it is necessary to take into account the coexistence with the mental deficiency of other affections4 ,epilepsy4--,epilepsy frequently coexists with mental deficiency4 ,now1 epilepsy does not always reveal itself by severe fits with crying1 falling down1 loss of consciousness1 convulsions1 stiffness followed by jerking of the limbs1 foaming at the mouth1 biting of the tongue1 and involuntary passage of urine4 ,it is revealed also by symptoms of a less striking nature1 which have been described under the name of petit mal4 ,such are loss of consciousness1 vertigo1 or simply mental perturbations4 ,loss of consciousness occurs without the tremor of a muscle1 the child suddenly turns pale1 loses consciousness for a moment1 and then continues whatever he was doing--for example1 walking or writing4 ,there is nothing more impressive to notice when the fit occurs as one is talking to the little patient4 ,one sees1 as it were1 the passing of a veil4 ,but nothing could be more fugitive1 nothing could more easily escape the notice of anyone who was not a good observer4 ,often the parents know nothing about it4 ,the attacks are so short1 the consequences apparently so slight1 that even if the parents have chanced to notice them1 they do not always think of mentioning the fact4 ,the teacher of defective children ought to be instructed in the characteristics of this affection4 ,he is going to spend several hours daily with the children4 ,he will have the best opportunities for noticing the occurrence of attacks1 which may be rare1 but which1 when they occur1 are very significant4 ,although the symptoms are a little more marked1 vertigo also is of brief duration4 ,to the pallor and the loss of consciousness of the preceding condition there is added a little muscular relaxation4 ,the child totters1 supports himself by anything in his neighbourhood1 slips down in his seat1 or drops his pen4 ,sometimes there is a slight spasm of the muscles of the face1 the mouth is drawn to one side by slight jerks1 or performs some movements of mastication or deglutition4 ,and that is all--no convulsions of the limbs1 no passage of urine1 scarcely an interruption to the work which is being done4 ,whether the doctor discovers these symptoms by interrogation of the parents1 or whether the teacher some time afterwards describes them to him with sufficient detail to permit of a certain diagnosis1 a double gain results4 ,in the first place1 there is an indication for treatment2 and in the second1 the possibility of supervision4 ,as a matter of fact1 it too frequently happens that these symptoms1 little dramatic as they are1 reveal the existence of epilepsy1 which will ultimately result in progressive mental decadence4 ,and yet this is not all4 ,a few days or a few hours before such symptoms occur1 or immediately after them1 or1 lastly1 according to some authorities1 entirely independently of them1 the patient may develop a peculiar condition of irritability1 in which he will transgress against discipline1 make insolent remarks1 or even give way to violence4 ,such actions ought not to be suppressed by punishment1 because they are of morbid origin4 ,all such symptoms possess this characteristic1 that they leave no trace on the memory of the child4 ,he himself knows nothing about them1 or knows them only by what he has heard from other people4 ,there can now be no need to insist with what care inquiries must be made1 especially of the parents4 ,are epileptics to be admitted into the special class8 ,on principle they are refused admission to the ordinary school4 ,they are1 however1 to be found there4 ,there are those whose attacks occur very rarely1 or are so slight as to cause no disturbance4 ,there are probably also unrecognised cases of epilepsy in which the symptoms occur during the night1 or on awakening1 but never in class4 ,only the severe forms are turned away4 ,probably the same state of affairs will recur in the classes for the abnormal--at any rate until the time when provision for epileptics is more extensive than it is at present4 ,it will therefore be necessary to recognise these cases1 to supervise them with special care during certain kinds of manual work1 and1 if possible1 to treat the nervous symptoms suitably while the patients are receiving instruction4 ,hysteria4--,although hysteria has not the same gravity1 it is no less advisable that cases should be tracked out4 ,this neurosis is being discussed to-day as never before4 ,without setting forth at length what we think should be included under this term1 let us point out a characteristic of hysteria which is commonly recognised1 and which is of such importance that it indicates the line of treatment to be followed4 ,the two principal manifestations of the affection1 hysterical fits and the recital of lying tales1 require for their complete development the presence of a public1 of a gallery4 ,inversely1 their disappearance is assured by isolation or apparent inattention4 ,the discovery of such tendencies before entrance to the school will allow the doctor to forewarn the teacher1 and point out to him the best way of dealing with such children4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are still three affections about which we must say a few words--rickets1 adenoid vegetations1 and scrofula4 ,rickets4--,the chief characteristic of this condition is defective ossification4 ,instead of possessing their usual rigidity1 the bones become curved1 and multiple deformities result4 ,the legs become bowed1 and the knees cannot be brought into contact when the feet are placed together2 the thorax becomes constricted or gibbous1 etc4 ,in addition to the nutritive disturbance1 which appears to be at the root of all these disorders1 there may be1 according to some authors1 an affection of the entire system1 and especially of the nervous centres4 ,unfortunately1 as rickets is a disease of the earliest years of life1 one often finds oneself in the presence of the sequelae which have been left1 and which simply must be made the best of4 ,adenoid ,vegetations4--,everyone has now heard of cases of this kind where the appearance is so characteristic4 ,the lips are always half open1 the appearance is sleepy-looking1 the respiration is difficult4 ,if one looks at the throat1 or if one introduces the finger into the child's mouth in order to explore the pharynx behind the soft palate1 one will see or feel the large tonsils or the fleshy masses which obstruct the posterior orifice of the nasal fossa4 ,one would like to find in these vegetations the cause of the habitual torpor of the children1 and of their want of progress4 ,it is true that there is a connection between mental backwardness and adenoids4 ,the removal of the swellings by a surgical operation will make more free the respiration1 whose obstruction prevented sustained attention1 and will also frequently cure the deafness1 which was due to an obstruction of the ,eustachian tubes4 ,the operation may therefore result in a marked amelioration of the mental condition as well as of the general health4 ,if the amelioration is sufficient1 the child can be sent back to the ordinary school4 ,scrofula1 ,tuberculosis4--,a child with a lymphatic appearance1 whose tissues are infiltrated with serum1 and whose glands readily become enlarged1 requires plenty of country air and a nutritious diet4 ,if he is admitted to the special school1 it will be advisable to attend to his health before subjecting him to any particular educational methods4 ,the doctor1 then1 will notice in passing the existence of such conditions as rickets1 adenoids1 and scrofula in the children who are submitted to him4 ,affections of the lungs and tuberculosis of the bones will also attract his attention4 ,but such affections in abnormal children have no other significance than in the case of children of average intelligence4 ,they furnish no special indication regarding the admission or non-admission of the child into a special class4 ,their severity alone determines the course to follow with respect to their treatment4 ,we shall1 however1 say a few words about another infirmity--incontinence of urine4 ,if there is presented for a class for defectives a subject1 eleven years of age1 who cannot control himself in this respect1 the course to follow is3 submit the child to examination by a specialist1 who will decide the nature of the incontinence4 ,if it is curable1 give the condition the necessary attention1 or give instructions at the school for training the child properly2 but if there is an incurable weakness of the sphincters1 supply the child with the same kind of apparatus as is used in such cases by ordinary people4 99 99 99 99 99 ,here1 then1 are a number of important points upon which the doctor may be called to give his opinion4 ,it is he alone who is able1 by his special knowledge1 to enlighten the other members of the jury4 ,if the mental condition is doubtful and requires further observation1 it is for him to point it out4 ,one will thus avoid the mistake of placing in a class for defectives a lunatic1 or a child poisoned by alcohol1 who would not find there the kind of care required4 ,if the bodily condition discovered complicates or aggravates the mental deficiency1 as adenoid vegetations may do1 he will prescribe the proper treatment4 ,if he suspects the coexistence of some neurosis1 he will give directions by which the condition may be recognised1 and consequently treated4 ,the doctor therefore has to recognise the physical and mental ailments by which the defective may be affected4 ,he makes this diagnosis for two reasons4 ,in the first place1 in order that mental deficiency may not be confounded with conditions of illness of a different kind2 and1 secondly1 in order to relieve or cure if possible coexisting affections which may aggravate the condition of the children and interfere with the work of the school4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we shall conclude here what we have to say about the role of the doctor1 since in this volume we are specially concerned with the recognition and segregation of the children4 ,to discuss the role of the doctor quite fully would take us too far4 ,the details we have given show that the part of the doctor with regard to defectives is quite different from that of the teacher4 ,it is not so much to determine the child's precise mental level as to diagnose the condition of his brain1 and to discover1 by analysis of all the symptoms1 the original responsible agent4 ,that1 however1 is the second part of the doctor's work1 and is of scientific interest2 whereas the first part1 which consists in diagnosing the ailments which co-exist with the mental deficiency1 is of immediate practical utility4 ,let us note1 in conclusion1 the scientific trend of the present day4 ,a large proportion of medical work is of scientific interest rather than of direct utility for the patient4 ,a concrete example will explain our meaning4 ,a severe shivering1 a sudden elevation of the temperature1 a dulness on one side of the chest1 the presence in the same position of crepitant rales1 a rusty1 sticky expectoration--such is the syndrome by which a practitioner recognises an attack of acute pneumonia4 ,he knows its duration2 he knows the relief which will be produced by the application of poultices4 ,to ideas such as these may be reduced all that is indispensable for the doctor to know in order to exercise his art4 ,the post-mortem examination of the hepatised lung1 its increase in density1 the histological study of the engorged air cells and bronchioles1 the researches upon the pneumococcus1 its culture1 its vitality--all this constitutes a search into etiology and pathogenesis1 whose aim is quite different4 ,the same distinction may be made in the medical study of defective children4 ,and from this point of view the results which at first seem of secondary importance reappear in the foreground4 ,this is the case1 for example1 with the stigmata of degeneration4 ,it would be unreasonable to attribute to them an individual value1 and to utilise them for arranging children serially in the order of their mental deficiency2 but in the work of synthesis they are decidedly significant1 since their study leads one to consider them either as the effects of1 and therefore as witnesses to1 alterations in the nervous system1 or as the consequences of causes sufficiently powerful to have modified that system4 ,one would not deny all practical bearing to such investigations of pathogenesis4 ,it is a mistake of ,tolstoy to regard them as the pastime of refined dilettantes4 ,when the biological study of defectives leads to this idea1 that the mental weakness of the defectives1 like the peculiarities in the character of the ill-balanced1 is the result of degeneration--the result1 for instance1 of the alcoholisation of a people--it will quickly result in measures of social hygiene4 ,the point is1 however1 that this second part of the work cannot1 in our opinion1 be carried out under the same conditions as the first4 ,one would like to believe that1 in making observations upon heredity and stigmata1 the doctors are collecting1 in their daily work1 materials for a great scientific work which will be produced by degrees4 ,no doubt all their schedules may some day be extracted from the drawers in the office where they will sleep for a long time2 but with what object will they be taken out1 if not to compile statistics of doubtful value8 ,the truth is that scientific investigation cannot be carried on automatically and collectively4 ,there is always a personal element which is independent of all administrative prescription4 ,what use can be made of observations which are often merely a collection of paper8 ,if we are some day to understand the role of heredity1 of alcoholism1 of insanity1 of poverty1 in the production of defective children1 it will be necessary for someone1 who wants to do a really good piece of work1 to set aside all these equivocal documents1 and go straight to the facts1 collecting his information at first hand and in a critical spirit4 ,scientific work can be done in no other way4 ,when it is done otherwise it is worth nothing4 ,we therefore suggest the following schedule for the medical examination of defective children4 ,the schedule includes two parts--one part optional1 because it is only of indirect interest2 another part which is obligatory4 ,none of the questions in this part should be left unanswered1 and the doctor will also give the instructions which he thinks ought to be followed4 ,,medical ,,schedule4 ,date of examination3 ,height3 ,name and date of birth of child3 ,weight3 ,part #a4 ,obligatory4 7i47 ,has the child any mental symptoms other than mental deficiency8 ,signs of alcoholism1 etc48 7ii47 ,is there reason to think the child has any weakness1 congenital or acquired8 ,cretinism8 7iii47 ,are there any 7a7 ,sensory defects--sight8 hearing8 7b7 ,motor defects--paralysis8 tremor1 etc48 7iv47 ,is the child epileptic8 ,what symptoms are present--convulsions1 vertigo1 loss of consciousness8 ,their frequency1 etc48 7v47 ,has the child adenoids8 7vi47 ,is the child hysterical8 7vii47 ,any other ailments8 7viii47 ,what directions are to be given to the schoolmaster8 ,part ,,ii4 ,optional4 ,a4 ,cephalometry and stigmata of degeneration4 ,b4 ,history3 ,birth4 ,convulsions4 ,age at commencement of dentition4 ,age at commencement of control of bladder ,age at commencement of and bowel4 ,age at commencement of walking4 ,age at commencement of speech4 ,infantile diseases4 ,c4 ,heredity4 ,father-- ,name3 ,date of birth3 ,place of birth3 syphilis4 ,illnesses alcoholism4 insanity4 ,mother3 ,ibid4 ,brothers and ,sisters-- ,number3 ,age3 ,mortality3 ,health of survivors3 ,etc4 ,to sum up1 we do not think that the doctor will often have to reject a child1 but he will often furnish indications which will help to direct the efforts of the teacher4 ,he will proclaim the opinion1 at once so just and so humane1 that the symptoms of mental deficiency and want of balance in abnormal children do not arise from laziness or naughtiness1 but require no methods of treatment except such as are likely to relieve them4 ,and this conviction which animates him he will impress little by little on the teacher4 ,he will accustom the latter not to regard a defective child at fault like a normal1 responsible child1 whom he is sometimes tempted to punish in anger1 but rather as a patient whose faults should be overcome by persevering patience4 ,,footnotes3 #ac ,for the sake of greater completeness1 let us refer to a type of imbecile with very characteristic features--namely1 the ,mongol4 ,a little round head1 chubby cheeks1 rosy as if painted with rouge1 oblique eyes1 a nose broad at the base and with a tip like a little ball1 skin slightly yellow--the whole appearance of the child is such that one doubts his ,european origin1 and thinks of a ,chinese doll1 with limbs of india-rubber1 so great is the looseness of the joints4 ,during his first year the ,mongol is rather drowsy and quiet--too old-fashioned1 as the mothers say4 ,in the second or third year he becomes lively4 ,his countenance acquires a comic and jolly expression1 and his imitative instincts become curiously developed1 and as a general rule he is very sweet-tempered4 ,they all resemble one another1 and all promise much and achieve little1 for they never cease to be imbeciles4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,educational ,,and ,,social ,,return ,,of ,,schools ,,and ,,classes ,,for ,,defectives ,an ,inquiry in the ,hospitals4--,two years ago one of us betook himself to ,m4 ,x41 an important official in one of our ministries1 in order to ask him to join a ,ministerial ,commission which was going to pay a visit to one of our asylum-schools4 ,m4 ,x4 shrugged his shoulders1 and replied energetically3 ,no1 no1 no6 ,i have had enough of such visits4 ,i will go neither to the ,salpetriere nor to ,bicetre4 ,what would ,i see there8 ,an idiot who allows his saliva to collect in his open mouth2 another who has epileptic fits2 a third who can say nothing but ',ba1 ba6' ,what would that prove8 ,the only way in which one can find out whether a school for bad cases of mental deficiency is good for anything1 is to find out the mental condition of those who leave4 ,how many defective subjects are there who1 after having been treated at the ,salpetriere or at ,bicetre1 are able to gain their own livelihood8 ,that is what one would like to know1 and that is what no one ever tells us6 ,the listener to these incisive and sensible remarks replied1 after a moment's reflection3 ,i entirely agree with you4 ,the information which you desire is of the greatest importance for judging the value of a school4 ,i imagine that such information would be difficult to obtain4 ,but one can try4 ,i am willing to make the attempt4 ,a few days later the two authors of the present work took the field4 ,the long preliminary conversations which they had had together about this subject had convinced them that they would encounter opposition4 ,but they decided to treat the question as one treats a scientific matter--with perseverance1 with courage1 and without parti pris of any kind4 ,let us subdivide the question to make it more plain4 ,we proposed to discover the value of a school4 ,to make such an inquiry really complete1 it would be necessary to consider the question from two points of view--the one educational1 the other social4 ,the educational return consists in the degree of instruction which the institution succeeds in giving to its pupils1 after so much time1 and with so much expense4 ,in the case of an institution for the sick1 the return will take the medical form of a cure or improvement of health4 ,in order to estimate such various returns1 it would evidently be necessary to be in possession of various data3 7#a7 ,a knowledge of the state of instruction or the state of health of the subjects on their admission to the school2 7#b7 a knowledge of their state of instruction or of health on leaving1 so that one would be able to estimate by comparison what they owe to the school2 7#c7 a knowledge of the cost for each pupil1 whether for instruction or for medical expenses4 ,the social return consists in the place taken by the pupils in society4 ,this depends in part1 it is clear1 upon the educational return1 but only in part4 ,one could imagine a school1 and there are some of the kind1 which only cares about producing graduates1 without thinking of what will become of them in life1 even if they go to the dogs4 ,every class1 every school1 for defectives ought to aim at rendering its pupils socially useful4 ,it is not a question of enriching their minds1 but of giving them the means of working for their living4 ,this is an important question4 ,upon this depends our complete and final judgment of the utility of special education4 ,and be it understood this is not a simple question4 ,nothing is simple in the sphere of sociological phenomena1 and one cannot get hold of an atom of truth except by inquiries bristling with difficulties of all kinds--inquiries whose rules1 moreover1 are not yet known1 but which will certainly be known some day4 ,it is quite necessary4 ,in order to discover the social return of an institution1 school1 or hospital1 there are many data to be brought together4 ,here are some of them4 ,what is the number of those who are ultimately able to look after themselves8 ,for how long a time are they able to do so8 ,to what extent have they been assisted by what they acquired at school8 ,and1 lastly1 what becomes of the failures8 ,but whatever the social or educational return may be1 it would be most important to know what would have become of similar cases who had received no such instruction1 or1 rather1 who had been instructed or treated by different methods4 ,a single example will show the importance of these reservations4 ,recently an alienist wanted to prove that all the idiots1 without exception1 who had been treated in his asylum had been improved4 ,he published copious notes upon these children1 which had been taken during several years by different people--the physician1 resident doctor1 attendant1 teacher1 etc4 ,on reading these observations one learned that one child1 who on admission was unable to walk1 by-and-by began to do so4 ,he had grown2 he had also begun to speak1 etc4 ,in all this there was nothing surprising1 and we imagine that1 in spite of his optimism1 the doctor1 who is the author of these observations1 would not pretend to credit an increase in size to his medico-pedagogical treatment4 ,as to the rest of the development of the faculties we know nothing4 ,it is possible that an idiot who has ceased to be dirty1 or who has learned to dress himself1 would have done so in any case without object-lessons4 ,it would be necessary to understand the natural development of idiocy in order to estimate exactly the service which had been rendered by the medico-pedagogical treatment4 ,otherwise sceptics will suspect that three-quarters of what is claimed to be the result of treatment is really due to nature4 ,after these preliminaries1 let us now turn to our inquiry4 ,at the ,salpetriere4--,here we were received most kindly4 ,the superintendent of the hospital introduced us to a most excellent woman1 ,mme4 ,meusy1 who was at that time head-mistress of the school for defectives at the ,salpetriere4 ,this is a little school with about #adj girl pupils4 ,it is part of the clinique of ,dr4 ,voisin4 ,the school is divided into four classes1 each of which is under a lady teacher4 ,it is a modest school1 and1 we think1 little known4 ,elementary education is given there1 and1 be it understood1 the teachers make a point of object-lessons and the training of the senses4 ,but this education has no original feature4 ,it simply follows what is done elsewhere4 ,there is a workshop where the patients skilfully manufacture artificial flowers4 ,dr4 ,voisin has for a long time been asking for a laundry1 for the sake of the patients who require physical exercise1 but he has not been able to get it4 ,mme4 ,meusy had prepared us to some extent for the work which she had done in the school by intelligent organisation4 ,it was a pleasure to us to see with our own eyes the notes she had kept regarding each of her pupils4 ,all the schedules were in perfect order1 regularly filled up to the day4 ,they contained all the medical information1 as to diagnosis and treatment1 which ,mme4 ,meusy had been able to procure from the doctor by reiterated requests4 ,they contained also full particulars as to the state of instruction of the child1 her character1 her aptitudes1 and the amount of her school attendance4 ,such notes were repeated periodically1 so that it was easy to find out approximately whether or not the child had progressed during her stay in the school4 ,finally1 her history after discharge was noted4 ,it is only just that we should here express once more to ,mme4 ,meusy how much we admired the care1 the order1 and the intelligence with which she had kept these individual histories4 ,it is an example to be followed4 ,mme4 ,meusy readily placed before us one after another all these documents1 and allowed us to extract from them the notes which seemed of most value for our work4 ,while one of us was taking the notes1 she contributed much valuable information in a lively voice2 for she knew her pupils admirably1 she followed them after they left school1 and often received visits from them4 ,but1 although she clearly understood the importance of our inquiry1 she could not keep to herself a distressing thought1 which was that a large number of these unfortunate girls had obtained no benefit from the instruction received at the school during a long series of years4 ,the majority1 on leaving school1 had been transferred to asylums for adults4 ,it saddened her to acknowledge such impotence officially4 ,however1 neither she nor her devoted staff of teachers was responsible1 for if their educational success was restricted1 that was due to the fact that the administration had for some time been sending her the epileptic defectives1 while reserving for the ,fondation ,vallee the privilege of having the non-epileptic defectives4 ,now1 everyone knows that when epilepsy1 with repeated fits1 is present1 it produces a mental decadence against which the best teacher is powerless4 ,the information which we have collected about the work of the school of the ,salpetriere bears upon #aag children1 who had left the school during the period of four years4 ,now1 this is how these children are distributed1 if they are classified according to their condition on leaving3 #a4 ,children who had improved4 ,some of these had returned to their families2 they lived at home1 and were employed1 more or less1 and the directress states that they had improved in their mental condition4 ,these numbered eight4 ,others had become capable of following a calling1 either in the asylum as attendants1 or outside as seamstresses1 ironers1 laundresses1 domestic servants1 etc4 ,these numbered twelve4 7,none was employed in making artificial flowers1 for which there was a workshop in the school47 ,the total number who had improved1 therefore1 was twenty4 #b4 ,doubtful cases--children who had returned to their families1 but concerning whose mental state and employment precise information was lacking4 ,these numbered twenty4 #c4 ,those who had got worse4 ,these are the cases who had been marked transferred4 ,they are to be found in the lunatic asylums1 where they are destined to pass the rest of their existence4 ,of these there is a formidable number--namely1 sixty4 #d4 ,those who had died1 of whom there were seventeen4 ,from all these calculations we obtained a figure to remember1 and also an opinion4 ,the figure is that the school for defectives at the ,salpetriere returns to active life #ab per cent4 of its pupils4 ,the opinion is what one might have known in advance1 that in the majority of these cases the education given was a waste of effort1 for none of the pupils who had acquired a calling had been affected by the worst degree of mental deficiency1 idiocy1 or imbecility4 ,moreover1 none of these was epileptic as well as mentally defective4 ,in other words1 the two worst degrees of mental deficiency do not permit any hope that the child will be made capable of following any calling2 and even a lesser degree of deficiency--that is to say1 feeble-mindedness--is equally cut off from hope when the feeble-mindedness is complicated by epilepsy4 ,before drawing from this first inquiry any practical conclusions1 we should like to reach a comprehensive view of the question4 ,we shall give our conclusions after we have synthetised all our results4 ,after the ,salpetriere1 ,bicetre4 ,bicetre4--,the reader would be wrong to imagine that in these visits to the hospitals we are forgetting the school cases of mental deficiency2 we are at the heart of the question4 ,whether we are dealing with hospital cases or school cases1 there are details of organisation which are the same for all1 and there are similar mistakes which we must try to avoid4 ,the asylum-school of ,bicetre1 which owes its origin1 in #ahib1 to the ,general ,council of the ,seine1 and its organisation to ,dr4 ,bourneville1 has a world-wide reputation4 ,dr4 ,bourneville has set himself to demonstrate1 by every possible means1 that idiots can be improved if they are treated methodically and progressively4 ,it is thanks to his initiative that the medico-pedagogical treatment of idiocy1 a treatment which has been much vaunted by the doctors1 is now known everywhere4 ,his clinique has constantly been cited as a model4 ,this model has been imitated in ,france and more especially abroad4 ,the asylums of ,saint-,yon1 of ,la ,roche-sur-,yon1 of ,clermont1 of ,sainte-,gemme1 and of ,auxerre1 have been inspired by the example of ,bicetre1 and have followed its methods4 ,the ,state supports #ddj boys in the asylum-school of ,bicetre1 and #bcj girls at the ,fondation ,vallee4 ,we have no intention of describing here at length the organisation of these establishments4 ,all who are interested may join in the ,saturday morning visits1 when ,dr4 ,bourneville goes round the whole of his clinique4 ,we shall content ourselves by saying that the children in the asylum-school of ,bicetre are divided into three groups3 #a4 ,the group of invalids--children who are idiotic1 dirty1 epileptic1 demented4 ,in this group are those who are regarded as incurable1 and some who1 although completely idiotic1 are capable of some slight improvement4 ,by means of a swing or see-saw their limbs are strengthened1 by means of a go-cart they are taught to walk1 and by means of the parallel bars they are taught to keep themselves upright4 #b4 ,the healthy children of the little school1 all of whom are able to walk alone4 ,these undergo treatment for uncleanly habits4 ,special chairs are kept for the dirty1 who are placed at stated times upon conveniences in order to regularise their functions4 ,then come strengthening exercises1 which are gymnastics of a very simple kind2 toilet lessons to teach them to wash themselves2 table lessons1 to teach them to feed themselves1 with spoon1 fork1 and even knife2 the training of the senses2 and1 lastly1 training in speech4 #c4 ,the third group includes children in the big school4 ,these are less defective than the preceding4 ,they are fit and healthy4 ,but1 on the other hand1 there are found here a great many abnormal children 7perverse and ill-balanced7 who are not wanting in intelligence4 ,the big school includes four classes1 each under the charge of a professor4 ,the education1 especially in the last class1 is carried pretty far1 and many of the pupils possess their certificate of study4 ,for reasons upon which we will not insist1 we were not so delighted with the hospital of ,bicetre as we had been with the ,salpetriere4 ,we might have dispensed with this visit4 ,the medical superintendent of the school for defectives at ,bicetre has taken the trouble for a long time to publish regularly every year a volume of several hundred pages1 which contains the most diverse statistical information about everything that goes on4 ,we have studied the volumes bearing upon four years only--the years #ahii1 #aija1 #aijb1 and #aijc4 ,moreover1 we profess that we have some knowledge of the school at ,bicetre1 having not only joined several times in the ,saturday visits1 but having on several occasions carried on there researches in cephalometry2 and1 in the last place1 we have had the pleasure of following in their inspection two members of the ministerial commission1 who had had the idea of finding out how the teachers in the big school were fulfilling their functions4 ,it will be remembered that we made a distinction between the educational and the social return4 ,this distinction is not recognised by everyone1 and many good people take into account only the social return4 ,there are those who would judge the school of ,bicetre by one thing only--the number of patients who are made useful to society4 ,this is a question of great interest1 but it is wrong to think that it is the only one to be considered4 ,it would be unjust to confine oneself to it4 ,the injustice can be understood by supposing that one is considering an institution which receives idiots only4 ,would one judge such an institution by asking how many of its patients become capable of winning their livelihood8 ,certainly not4 ,it is possible to be of real service to the patients without raising them to such a level4 ,the cure of dirty habits1 for example1 is not a thing to be disdained4 ,not only does it result in an economy of linen and washing1 but it makes the patient less disgusting1 less difficult to take care of4 ,here we have material and moral improvement which1 even for those who consider expense only1 cannot be considered negligible1 for in the end the result is pecuniary economy4 ,but1 having stated this principle1 it would be necessary to find out what is the value1 what is the duration1 what is the frequency of such improvements4 ,it would be necessary to know what is their cost1 and to compare the cost with the results in order to find out where one was4 ,this kind of stock-taking1 both financial and medical1 has no place in the publications of the ,bicetre1 and cannot be replaced by isolated observations on the treatment and improvement of idiot children4 ,there is here1 therefore1 a first lacuna4 ,we note also with regret the absence of any inspection of the teachers in the schools1 who are left to themselves without any supervision but that of the doctor4 ,now1 the doctor is not usually an educationist1 and it is to be regretted that he does not himself recognise his incompetency in pedagogy1 but that1 on the contrary1 his nature1 often prone to take offence1 will not submit to any collaboration in his work4 ,having said this1 we are going to confine ourselves to the social return of the school of ,bicetre1 since it is affirmed that such a return exists4 ,we would like to know exactly how many boys and girls have been able1 after their discharge1 to work at a trade and to maintain themselves4 ,upon this point of capital importance the publications of ,bicetre tell us nothing--absolutely nothing4 ,it is1 therefore1 impossible to find out the real value of this institution1 so richly endowed1 where the visitor perambulates palatial buildings1 is saluted by a fanfare1 and admires museums of natural history which would be the envy of many a public educational establishment4 ,the publications give a number of particulars as to the number of dancing lessons1 the walks to the ,jardin d',acclimatation1 and the cost of laundry1 etc42 but we are left in entire ignorance as to what all this is good for1 and what is the practical tangible benefit which society receives from it4 ,everyone knows1 however1 that the director of the school for defectives at ,bicetre is an enlightened philanthropist1 who has devoted himself with remarkable zeal and activity to procuring for his old pupils situations which they are capable of filling4 ,he has understood1 and was one of the first to do so1 that the question of the education of defectives will never be settled until one has settled that of the social usefulness of these children4 ,we have even learned indirectly that he has made many endeavours to induce employers to engage his defectives as workmen2 but it is likely that these suggestions have not met with the success they deserved1 for the employers1 threatened by the new law regarding accidents at work1 hesitate to saddle themselves with workers who1 being liable to attacks of epilepsy1 or affected by motor inability1 would lay upon them a very heavy responsibility4 ,on the other hand1 the school education has had a good deal of success since it has happened1 as we have already remarked1 that several of the pupils obtained their certificates of study4#ad ,but the only publications which we have consulted say no more about these certificates of study than about the trades followed by the defectives after leaving school4 ,this silence is very significant4 ,in spite of oneself1 one puts a bad interpretation upon it4 ,one has an irresistible tendency to believe1 not that all the effort at ,bicetre has been in vain1 but that it has been disproportionate in relation to the result achieved4 ,we have no difficulty in admitting that idiots have been improved1 but to what an extent this amelioration loses in importance if the majority of these idiots are destined to pass the rest of their life in an asylum1 where they will be nourished in absolute idleness1 and where1 consequently1 the heedless administration will gain nothing for what has been taught them at the price of such great efforts6 ,let us try1 however1 to interpret the silence of the text4 ,in four years #bdj boys have left the school at ,bicetre4 ,in studying the school of the ,salpetriere we distinguished three classes of children--the improved1 the stationary or doubtful1 and those who have got worse4 ,we have consulted the statistical tables of ,bicetre1 and we have not found a single one marked worse1 although one-third of the entire contingent are epileptic4 ,now1 this is very surprising1 since we know that epilepsy with repeated fits inexorably results in mental decadence4 ,it is an enigma1 which we explain in the following manner3 ,those who are really decadent have been marked stationary by medical or pedagogical optimism4 ,if our interpretation is correct1 it recoils forcibly upon the expression improved1 which is applied frequently to those discharged4 ,to the interpretation of this word improved we are1 therefore1 obliged to turn our attention4 ,what1 then1 must be understood by improved when this word is found in the publications of ,bicetre8 ,first of all we must subtract a certain number of subjects who have been marked transferred4 ,we know what is meant by this little word transferred when it is applied to the children4 ,it is lugubrious4 ,it amounts to a sentence for life4 ,a subject transferred is one who1 his time at school come to an end1 is removed to an asylum for the insane1 where1 in all probability1 he will stay to the end of his useless existence4 ,if we eliminate the transferred1 and if we keep amongst the improved only those who1 having been so designated1 have returned to their families1 we get a proportion of #eh in #bij--that is1 #bj per cent4 of boys4 ,this proportion seems to us too large1 on account of the optimism which these documents exhibit4 ,it is to be noticed1 however1 that children are sometimes marked very much improved1 or notably improved4 ,if1 for the sake of prudence1 we consider as improved only those who are designated in this way1 we have only eighteen1 or #g per cent4 ,this new proportion1 if small in absolute value1 still seems to us an exaggeration1 because it is reached only by including a certain number of children affected with epilepsy4 ,it must1 therefore1 be believed that their epilepsy has improved4 ,but the amelioration or cure of epilepsy is not a matter of education2 it cannot be considered as a success to be credited to active medico-pedagogical treatment4 ,let us therefore put the cured epileptics aside4 ,there will then remain only seven who have undergone a notable amelioration and have returned to their families4 ,what percentage is this8 ,the total contingent upon which we have been making our calculations numbered #bij1 but it is right to exclude all the epileptics1 for the reasons we have mentioned4 ,this brings the number down to #baf1 and the number of children really improved1 calculated upon #baf1 amounts1 for the boys1 to from #c to #d per cent4 ,by similar calculations1 into the details of which we will not enter1 we have shown that the improved amongst the girls are more numerous--namely1 #bj per cent4 ,but ,vallee contains relatively far fewer epileptics than ,bicetre4 ,we do not know1 also1 how many of them have become capable of working at a trade4 ,we therefore conclude with the following propositions3 #a4 ,at the school of the ,salpetriere1 #bj per cent4 of defective girls improved1 and #ab per cent4 are able to work at a trade4 #b4 ,at the ,fondation ,vallee1 also1 #bj per cent4 of defective girls have improved4 ,no return has been furnished as to their future employment4 #c4 ,in the case of ,bicetre1 the number of defective boys improved is from #c to #d per cent4 ,it is not known how many of these defectives are employed after leaving school4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some ,conclusions4--,it seldom happens that one finishes an inquiry without experiencing some disappointment4 ,one starts with great ambitions1 intending to make everything plain1 but on the way one is forced to lower one's flag4 ,the truth escapes one4 ,sometimes it is the facts which conceal it from us1 sometimes it is man who has an interest in concealing it4 ,but the disappointment which has attended our inquiry would surpass the foresight of the most sceptical4 ,on the other hand1 if the school for defectives at the ,salpetriere has enabled us to collect valuable information1 we owe this good fortune entirely to the intelligent initiative of a woman4 ,it was the directress of the school who1 apart from all intervention1 medical or other1 had had the idea of instituting these very complete schedules1 which enabled us to discover the economic return of her school4 ,the management deserved none of the credit4 ,as to the school of ,bicetre1 we have studied it only through its annual publications1 and we have managed with great difficulty to obtain only an infinitesimal amount of information of very doubtful value4 ,what lessons are we to draw from these examples as to the future organisation of our schools for defectives8 ,we had hoped that the study of these institutions would have provided us with ready-made experience as to the measures to be taken for founding schools for defectives under good conditions4 ,the contrary has happened4 ,the example of these institutions has taught us one thing--the faults which we ought not to repeat4 ,every impartial mind ought to be with us when we express the view that henceforth the activities of the schools and hospices should be made plain by precise information4 ,for this it would be necessary to take the following measures3 #a4 ,that the definition of the grades of mental deficiency should not vary from one doctor to another1 but that one should know what is meant by the word idiot1 the word imbecile1 and the word feeble-minded4 ,a purely conventional but precise definition would be infinitely better than the present want of any2 and we refer to the convention which we have suggested above4 #b4 ,that upon entrance and leaving1 the mental condition and the state of instruction of the pupils should be precisely noted1 so that by comparison of such notes1 rather than by arbitrary estimates1 one should be able to determine in what way the pupils have changed during their stay in school4 #c4 ,that on leaving the institution1 the children1 whether they return to ordinary life or are transferred to asylums for the insane1 should be followed up1 and that particulars regarding their condition should be transmitted to1 and centralised in1 the office of the school1 so that the masters may be able to judge the ulterior destiny of these children whom they have surrounded with so much solicitude during a period which often amounts to twelve or even fifteen years4 ,by such organisation one would at last know exactly1 or at any rate approximately1 what are the services rendered by such an institution4 ,one would compare these services with the expenses1 and one would see whether the receipts were sufficient to justify the expenditure1 or whether1 on the contrary1 the money had been foolishly squandered1 as we have reason to fear may be the case4 ,we would also see upon what children educational effort should be directed1 in order to obtain the maximum return4 ,it would be possible to find out1 for example1 whether it is worth while continuing for five years1 eight years1 or more1 to give lessons in reading to a child who1 after two years1 is still unable to spell4 ,we will also consider very seriously whether a child who is unfortunately subject to repeated attacks of epilepsy1 which no medical treatment has improved1 and who is destined to descend progressively and inevitably through all stages of mental decadence1 should be kept in his place in a class2 and whether the teachers would not be doing better to leave the child at peace than to teach him laboriously the rules of arithmetic and grammar1 which will certainly be forgotten soon afterwards in the cloud which will obscure the intelligence4 ,one day1 when we were walking through a residential school1 we were struck by the spectacle of a poor epileptic4 ,this was a little girl of about fifteen years of age4 ,she was wearing her school apron1 and upon her head was the little osier cap which epileptics are made to wear1 to avoid the danger of falls upon the head4 ,it was lesson-time4 ,pale and thin1 the little patient was sitting quietly in her place1 listening to the lesson of her mistress1 who was explaining the rule of the agreement of the participle4 ,did she understand8 ,we hope so1 since she belonged to one of the higher classes--the second1 if we remember rightly4 ,in any case1 she was making a great effort to follow the grammatical explanation1 and her forehead was thrown into wrinkles4 ,all at once she gave a slight sigh1 slipped down in her seat1 and fell4 ,the attendant took her in her arms and carried her into a corner of the room4 ,the lesson continued with general indifference4 ,the children pay little attention to such accidents1 because they are so used to them4 ,now one1 now another1 has her attack of epilepsy4 ,after a few minutes our little scholar came to herself4 ,she appeared quite dazed4 ,the attendant spoke to her with kind indifference4 ,come1 now1 that is better4 ,it is nothing4 ,it is all over4 ,the child did not reply1 but docilely allowed herself to be led to her seat4 ,she took up her former position1 appearing to listen vaguely2 and on her pinched face1 with its drawn features1 the lesson in grammar continued to fall4 ,the people1 visitors and professors1 who were present at that scene1 and thought it quite natural1 surely did not understand the heart-break of it4 ,some time afterwards we made inquiries about this pupil1 being curious to know how she was1 and what she was doing4 ,we were told3 ,she is a poor little thing1 who has forgotten a great deal4 ,formerly she was a bright child4 ,now she is going back every day4 ,by-and-by she will no longer be able to read4 ,this is nearly always the way with our epileptics6 ,this sad story1 which we have just recalled1 we give as a striking illustration of our statistical calculations regarding the ultimate fate of these institution cases4 ,be it remembered1 we had reached this very important conclusion3 that epileptics1 whether feeble-minded1 or imbecile1 or idiotic1 never become capable of working at a trade4 ,this somewhat vague conclusion it would be of great interest to examine more closely4 ,our little epileptic1 who is gradually falling back1 is an example4 ,she has already reached the height of her development2 she is fifteen years of age1 and she is beginning to decline4 ,we foresee the time when she will no longer know how to read4 ,is there1 then1 any use in wearying the poor thing by teaching her an abstract grammar rule8 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us turn now to our school cases4 ,our conclusions may be divined4 ,we expressly demand that the utility of the schools shall be rigorously established1 and that the teachers and inspectors shall be bound to take exact notes of the mental condition and the state of instruction of the pupils on entrance and on leaving4 ,in this way one will act like any good shopkeeper1 who considers it one of his chief duties to keep accounts of what he is doing4 ,his system of book-keeping shows his position in a way which is indispensable if he is not to lose his money4 ,he knows at what price he buys1 at what price and under what conditions he sells1 and whether1 in consequence1 his profits are sufficient to encourage him to continue to deal in such and such articles4 ,in the same way1 in a well-managed school for defectives1 it is necessary to know the exact details concerning the condition of the pupils on entrance and on leaving1 in order that one may be able to judge the services rendered by the school2 in order that one may be able to find out whether the educational methods employed are good1 bad1 or indifferent2 whether they are better than those of another school1 where different methods are followed1 and so on4 ,such control is equally necessary in order to find out whether a particular category of children gives greater degrees of success than another2 whether certain degrees of mental deficiency are capable of improvement only to an infinitesimal extent4 ,such things cannot be known in advance1 and should not be decided lightly in credence of an a priori opinion1 but should be determined by accurate scientific methods1 in the interest of the schools1 in the interest of the pupils1 and also in the interest of the tax-payers1 who bear the cost4 ,it will not do to content oneself with admiring in abstracto the goodness of the methods and the progress of the pupils1 but it must ever be remembered that the aim of the schools should be to fit the defectives to take a useful place in society4 ,the school should not aim at turning out brilliant pupils1 stars in competition1 but individuals capable of looking after themselves and gaining their own livelihood4 ,this should be the constant pre-occupation of the teachers4 ,they should not shut themselves up within the four walls of their school1 saying1 ,the life outside is no concern of ours4 ,it is their imperative duty to consider the school life as a preparation for life outside4 ,they ought1 therefore1 to pay attention to the needs of the immediate school environment1 in order to know what are the industries which require workers1 to take account of which of them are accessible to defectives1 and to direct their education accordingly4 ,domestic service in the country1 for example1 which requires but little initiative1 would seem to be an excellent refuge for feeble-minded girls with good instincts4 ,agricultural labour supplies an excellent outlet for the boys1 for in the country life is less complicated1 and adaptation is more easy1 than in the towns4 ,there is a certain1 practical1 even easy way of finding out whether the teacher has been trying to keep in contact with real life1 and whether his school for defectives is well managed4 ,it is to find out what becomes of the defectives on leaving school1 and what percentage he has been able to place in situations with a suitable salary4 ,such measures of control are so logical that they only require to be formulated to obtain the immediate assent of all sensible minds4 ,yet one may ask whether1 as a matter of fact1 in the schools managed by the ,state1 the inspectors occupy themselves sufficiently with this practical side of education1 and do not even make the mistake of judging the education by itself1 according to a conventional1 literary1 or scientific ideal4 ,we are not speaking of public schools1 colleges1 and lycees4 ,these establishments are attended by normal children1 and it may be admitted that it is not1 strictly speaking1 the business of the ,state to prepare these for social life4 ,as a matter of fact1 that is not our own opinion1 but that does not matter4 ,what is certain is that the duty of the ,state becomes more precise and more pressing when it is a question of assuring the lot of the defectives4 ,has it always been kept in mind that their education should put them in the way of an occupation1 and that one should teach them nothing useless1 so as not to make them lose their time8 ,we do not think so4 ,we hope that the schools for the blind take care to know whether the ,braille which they teach their pupils is a method of reading and writing which will be useful to them in life2 whether the manual arts1 such as caning chairs1 the making of brushes and mattresses1 are the best means which they can teach to the non-musicians whereby to gain their bread4 ,we equally hope that in the schools for the deaf and dumb1 which are teaching their pupils by the oral method--with what effort1 what expense1 and what devotion one may imagine--they have inquired what percentage of their pupils attained the ability to communicate verbally with people other than their teachers1 and also what is the percentage of pupils who1 ten years after leaving school1 still use that method and find it advantageous4 ,all these questions should be asked1 and conscientious minds should try to find an answer to them by impartial inquiry1 in order to find out whether the methods are useful1 and whether the school is directing its energies well4 ,what is being done about this with respect to the schools for defectives8 ,we must do this justice to the legislation at present projected with regard to defectives1 that it is not indifferent with regard to this question of control4 ,the ,ministerial ,commission1 in which one of us took part1 heard many demands for guarantees of this kind4 ,its mistrust was awakened1 and it made a number of suggestions which have been included in the ,bill4 ,thus1 an elementary school inspector is trusted with the duty of taking account of the educational progress of each child4 ,a little book must be kept recording full particulars of each individual case4 ,the principle of supervision by a ,care ,committee after leaving school has been adopted4 ,all this is excellent4 ,the law cannot enter into minute details4 ,administrative rules must be drawn up to provide against the two causes of error1 prejudice and negligence4 ,let us consider this question from our own point of view1 and distinguish clearly between the educational and the social return4 ,the ,educational ,return of the ,special ,schools and ,classes4--,in the first place1 in order to gauge the advantages of special education1 it is necessary to find out what becomes of defectives when they are left in the ordinary schools4 ,it is quite clear that special education should be condemned and suppressed if it does not do more than the ordinary schools4 ,we have seen that1 in the latter1 the defective is a dead weight1 and the ill-balanced is a nuisance4 ,nevertheless1 one must not jump to the conclusion that these children are in no wise modified by the school influences1 and do not profit in any degree by the instruction4 ,we have already pointed out some very touching facts3 a little defective girl has learned to read1 thanks to the persevering help of one of her normal companions4 ,this proves1 at least1 that association with normal children may be good for something1 but let us leave such anecdotes and attempt to reach a comprehensive view of the situation4 ,we have been able to collect in the primary schools of ,paris1 thanks to the kind assistance of ,m4 ,belot1 particulars which are very valuable1 though restricted in amount4 ,these particulars we have examined in every possible way1 and we always reach the same conclusion3 the defective makes very slow progress in the ordinary schools4 ,let us consider1 for example1 en bloc1 forty-five defectives of whom we possess records1 and see to what extent they are behind at different ages4 ,we get the following table3 ,age4 ,retardation4 #g #b years #h #b about #b years4 #i #a-a_/b #aj #c #aa #c-a_/b about #c years4 #ab #c #ac #c-a_/b #ad #f #ae #e about #e years4 ,thus1 the amount of retardation increases with the years4 ,it is at first two years1 then three1 then five4 ,but this augmentation in the amount of retardation1 which is the first fact to strike the attention1 ought not to conceal from us that there is real progress in the mental condition and in the studies2 in fact1 we may remark that if a defective child1 in passing from the age of eight to eleven1 has an augmentation of retardation of one year with respect to his companions1 this proves that in the same time he has progressed two years with respect to himself4 ,it is like an omnibus which goes more and more slowly1 yet advances all the same4 ,to be more precise1 let us say that1 since the defectives reach1 as an upper limit1 the intermediate course1 and that in the proportion of two-thirds1 one may conclude that they make nearly half the progress of the normal children4 ,be it understood1 this is only roughly true1 and many reservations must be made with regard to details4 ,but the indication which these documents afford is1 nevertheless1 very instructive1 for it shows us that the majority1 two-thirds at least1 of the defectives appear regularly to duplicate each class1 or to take two years to pass a stage which the normal child passes in one4 ,it is important to remember this1 for the teachers do not always give the facts their true value4 ,they have a tendency to compare the slow progress of the defective with the more rapid progress of the normal1 and to conclude from this comparison that the defective remains stationary4 ,this is a pure illusion1 which may be compared to what one experiences when looking out of the window of a train in motion4 ,one sees another train going in the same direction but more slowly1 and imagines that the second train is not moving4 ,let us retain1 therefore1 provisionally1 the following important idea3 ,only half the defectives in an ordinary school reach with difficulty the intermediate course1 first year1 passing through the different stages in double the normal time4 ,no doubt one would find many examples of slower progress still1 three or four times the normal4 ,on the other hand1 the teacher sometimes points out a defective who has improved very rapidly1 as if his intellect awoke from a long sleep4 ,such cases exist1 but they are very rare1 and they are open to the suspicion that an error in diagnosis has been made1 and that the child who has improved so greatly was wrongly considered defective4 ,with regard to the ill-balanced1 the success of the ordinary school is much greater4 ,a recent inquiry taught us that in the course of two years half the children noted as ill-balanced were regarded by the teachers as improved4 ,this figure speaks for itself4 ,from this we may conclude in a general way that it is essential that the special schools and classes should bring more than half of their defective pupils to the level of the intermediate course1 and improve more than half of the ill-balanced1 if they are to render public services superior to those of the ordinary schools4 ,this must be the aim4 ,how are we to know whether it is attained or not8 ,by supervision exercised in the most serious manner1 by well-kept individual records1 in which are noted only facts which can be controlled4 ,we remember1 a dozen years ago1 having turned over the records of young defectives in an asylum-school which had the reputation of perfect organisation1 a reputation otherwise deserved1 for everything that was shown to the public on visiting days was perfect4 ,but a distinction must be drawn between what one sees and what one does not see4 ,the records were kept with surprising negligence4 ,they were dirty in appearance1 torn1 disordered1 falling to bits4 ,on reading them one only met with vague estimations1 loosely expressed1 about children who1 as was repeated to satiety1 would make progress if they would work better4 ,the less we say the better about contradictory diagnosis1 such as one we noticed on a certificate of discharge3 ,complete idiocy--very much improved2 or the too optimistic prognosis1 really very naive1 if the writer has not had the bad taste to be ironical3 ,vicious child--would make an excellent housemaid4 ,if documents could be kept in this way1 it is quite clear that those who so kept them felt pretty sure that nobody would ever read them4 ,we demand that the notes which show the educational progress of the pupils should be written under the constant fear of control1 in order that they may be guaranteed against negligence and interested optimism4 ,the manner of control is very simple1 and may be summed up in three paragraphs4 #a4 ,the estimation of the progress of the children should be made by the professors themselves1 since they know each child well4 ,the professor will always keep in mind that his notes will be checked by the inspector4 ,with regard to instruction1 notes will be kept with regard to reading1 writing1 arithmetic1 spelling1 according to the methods which we have indicated1 and such remarks as good1 very good1 passable1 each signifying absolutely nothing1 will be avoided4 ,with regard to the manual work1 it goes without saying that the record would have to be made in a somewhat different way4 #b4 ,the inspector will examine a certain number of cases chosen haphazard4 ,he must carry out this control with an open mind and without prejudice4 #c4 ,he will make use of methods of control of a strictly impersonal nature4 ,social ,return4--,we are surprised to find that abroad there have been published very few particulars concerning the social return of the schools1 although they have been in existence for a long time1 some of them for forty years4 ,statistics are rare1 without commentaries1 and some of them are apparently prejudiced4 ,in order to find out what they are worth1 we think it would be necessary to live in the country1 and to observe carefully for oneself the work of the schools4 ,the official documents do not teach very much1 and one may suspect that every public service which is not supervised in the most intelligent manner1 and incited by competition1 will slip into routine and empiricism4 ,we demand an inquiry on the two following points3 ,how many defectives are provided with a trade when they leave the special schools8 ,how many defectives are provided with a trade when they do not leave the special schools8 ,such an inquiry1 we may be certain1 has never been seriously undertaken4 ,here are some statistics4 ,mme4 ,fuster1 after a stay in ,germany1 where she visited some ,hilfschule and ,hilfsclasse 7literally1 help-schools and help-classes7 made a communication to the ,societe de l',enfant1 from which it appears that in the case of #ij classes for defectives in ,berlin1 #gj to #ge per cent4 of the defective pupils who were there became able to carry on a trade2 #be to #cj per cent4 died in the course of study1 or returned to their homes1 or were sent to medical institutions for idiots4 ,according to a more recent inquiry1 made under the auspices of ,m4 de ,gizycki at ,berlin1 and published in a book by ,paul ,dubois1 #bb per cent4 of the children were sent home or to asylums2 #aa per cent4 were apprenticed2 #fb per cent4 worked at occupations which required no knowledge and yielded little pay 7labourers1 crossing-sweepers1 ragmen74 ,if we add together these two last groups1 we reach a proportion of #gc per cent4 of defectives who have been made1 or who have become1 more or less useful4 ,we shall quote a last document1 to which we attach more importance than to the preceding1 for we have full confidence in the author4 ,dr4 ,decroly has kindly arranged at our request a few figures relating to the occupational classification of the girls discharged from a special class in ,brussels4 ,he states that the class was opened only in #aijc1 that education in ,belgium is not compulsory1 that many of the pupils leave the class too soon--all circumstances which explain the smallness of the success4 ,he firmly believes in the educational value of special instruction1 provided one does not expect miracles4 ,he has a good critical mind4 ,we cannot publish here the whole table4 ,we shall summarise it thus3 ,of three idiots1 practically nothing is known2 of eight imbeciles1 one is employed at home1 one unemployed 7871 and one is messenger to a shoemaker4 ,one can scarcely expect any real return in the case of imbeciles and idiots1 and the merit of ,dr4 ,decroly's statistics lies in the fact of distinguishing between such children and the feeble-minded4 ,let us speak more fully of the latter4 ,they are thirty in number4 ,concerning nine there are no particulars4 ,two have entered a ,catholic school1 and nothing more is known about them4 ,if we subtract these eleven1 there remain nineteen4 ,some of these are kept at home1 or occupied at home2 of these there are five4 ,we do not know exactly what they are doing4 ,there are others who work1 but it is not stated whether this is outside1 or whether the work deserves to be taken into account4 ,four belong to this category4 ,there remain the apprentices 7tailors1 cigarette-makers1 sewers1 etc471 of whom there are nine4 ,perhaps the last figure is the only one which deserves to be taken into account4 ,finally1 then1 out of nineteen feeble-minded subjects1 regarding whom particulars have been supplied1 one half1 or #ej per cent41 have been apprenticed2 or more than half1 #ge per cent41 if we count the defectives who work4 ,we are not1 therefore1 very far from the figures collected by ,mme4 ,fuster for the special classes of ,berlin1 nor from those published by ,gizycki4 ,we do not think enough of the ordinary school1 and of the service it renders to the defectives2 or1 rather1 we are too ready to assert that it does nothing for them4 ,yet1 all the defectives who leave it do not turn out badly4 ,there are journalists who try to attract the attention of public bodies by declaring that defectives1 left to themselves1 inevitably fall into mendicancy and crime4 ,what do they know about it8 ,absolutely nothing1 since no serious inquiry has ever been carried out4 ,even we1 for several years1 allowed ourselves to be influenced by such suggestions1 until the day when one of these journalists went rather too far4 ,we refer to an alienist who published in a morning paper a series of articles on the defectives4 ,after having estimated their total number at #dj1jjj1 he called them the madmen of to-morrow1 truly an excellent title for a sensational article4 ,but1 little as one might think it1 of all that was written nothing was really proved4 ,those who think that the defectives are destined to become lunatics are just as much in a dream as those who declare they will become criminals4 ,the fact is that we are in complete ignorance1 because one has always recoiled from an inquiry which promised to be as long as it would be troublesome4 ,and it is a disgrace1 let us say frankly1 that no ,state has ever undertaken it4 ,through the intervention of an inspector1 ,m4 ,belot1 we have inquired of twenty heads of schools what has become of the defectives whom they notified to us two years ago4 ,we have made these inquiries with regard to sixty-six children only4 ,poor figures1 indeed1 and we would not give them1 but that a little is better than nothing4 ,these sixty-six children may be classified thus3 ,thirty-five are defective1 twenty-six ill-balanced1 and three both defective and ill-balanced4 ,retardation is quite plain in the unstable1 amounting to from one to two years2 it is very marked in the case of the defectives 7one alone has a retardation of two years1 the others have a retardation of three1 four1 six1 and even seven years74 ,we give these figures only that it may not be imagined that we are dealing with cases of slight feeble-mindedness with a retardation of one or two years4 ,it is necessary to understand these details in order to form a correct idea of the value of the figures4 ,the particulars regarding the ultimate destiny of these sixty-six children are as follows3 #a4 ,no ,return in the ,case of ,fourteen ,children4--,some left the district without giving an address4 ,some even left school with insults from the parents directed against the teachers4 #b4 ,children still at ,school4--,these number twenty-two4 ,we have already spoken about this little group1 and have remarked that some of them have improved4 #c4 ,children sent ,home or placed in ,asylums4--,there are three who have been sent to asylums4 ,we know one of them1 an imbecile1 but he had bad instincts1 and who knows but that he might have been made useful8 ,with regard to the others1 who have been sent home1 we have only very vague particulars1 and the interpretation of their condition is quite arbitrary4 ,some of them seem to be useful4 ,some girls help at home4 ,some boys assist their fathers at their work1 but are said to be wanting in balance or to require constant supervision4 ,we have thought it well to include them in this third category1 which stands for the social waste4 ,they number ten4 ,we repeat that the limits of this group are extremely ill-defined4 ,with a little optimism one might have passed three-quarters into the following group2 with a little more strictness1 on the other hand1 the present group would have been larger4 ,we emphasise the difficulty of limiting the frontier impartially4 ,it would be a good thing to make use of a criterion1 good or bad1 but exact4 ,one will1 no doubt1 be found1 but in the meantime we have none4 #d4 ,children who have become ,useful4--,these are they who have become capable of following some calling4 ,it is evident that one should take account of the nature of the calling followed2 many are misery in disguise4 ,a little time should also be allowed1 for a child may not find definite occupation immediately on leaving school4 ,in fact1 the only particular we have regarding this last group of children is1 that they have entered on an apprenticeship4 ,girls are apprenticed to dressmakers or laundresses4 ,boys are apprenticed as hairdressers1 tinsmiths1 gilders1 printers1 carpenters1 etc4 ,these children number seventeen4 ,these results have impressed us rather favourably4 ,we did not expect that the majority of defectives from the ordinary school would enter an apprenticeship2 but1 in fact1 the majority did so4 ,if we abstract the two first groups1 those about whom the particulars are wanting1 and those who have not yet left school1 there remain twenty-seven children1 of whom seventeen have been apprenticed1 or #gf per cent4 ,from these statements the following conclusion is reached--namely1 that1 contrary to an opinion which attempts are being made to spread abroad1 the ordinary school does render real service to the defective child4 ,we have already seen1 a propos of the educational return1 that the ordinary school carries a proportion of the defectives as far as the intermediate course4 ,all these facts are mutually confirmatory4 ,is it possible to go farther8 ,we have just seen that the ordinary school permits the occupational classing of #gf per cent4 of the defectives4 ,now1 this proportion is1 by an unexpected agreement1 identical with that obtained in the classes of ,berlin and ,brussels1 whence an opponent of special instruction would hasten to argue that such instruction is useless1 or that1 at least1 it could not prove its usefulness except on the condition of insuring occupational classing superior to #gf per cent4 ,we do not think1 after mature reflection1 that this proposition would be justified4 ,all our figures show is that the majority of defectives who pass through the ordinary school had not entirely lost their time1 since they reached the stage of entering upon an apprenticeship4 ,but it will not do to take account only of the proportion of children classed as workers2 it would be necessary also to take account of the duration of such classing1 and especially of its quality4 ,a defective enters upon an apprenticeship4 ,that is good1 but how long does he retain it8 ,will he be discharged as incapable at the end of a few months8 ,if he is kept1 will he remain in the lowest employments--for example1 unskilled labour8 ,in connection with all trades1 there are minor occupations in which defectives stagnate4 ,our figures do not take account of these differences1 which are of considerable interest1 nor do they give any fuller ideas with regard to the utilisation of the defectives4 ,and it would be necessary for the statistical method to be carried out with greater perfection to enable us to measure the services rendered by special instruction4 ,it is probable that the special school would render greater services than the ordinary school1 because it has greater advantages3 teachers experienced in the training of defectives1 a curriculum better fitted to the aptitudes of the latter1 and1 most important of all1 the possibility of individual instruction4 ,let us stop here4 ,in the meantime this is all that we can say with regard to the organisation and control of special education4 ,if we were to attempt to go farther we could do so only on a priori grounds4 ,the time has come for experiment4 ,the new classes which are being formed in ,bordeaux1 ,paris1 and elsewhere1 must be carefully watched4 ,we shall grope1 we shall make attempts1 certainly we shall commit mistakes1 which will not matter very much if only we have the mind to recognise them and the courage to put them right4 ,the essential thing is for all the world to understand that empiricism has had its day1 and that methods of scientific precision must be introduced into all educational work1 to carry everywhere good sense and light4 ,,footnotes3 #ad ,in trying to explain this success1 one must1 no doubt1 take into account the comparatively advanced age of the children1 the probable leniency of the examiners1 and1 above all1 the fact that the ill-balanced subject is a moral rather than a mental defective4 ,,appendix ,n4,b4--,throughout the ,appendix ,roman numerals refer to ages--e4g41 ,,iv4 #b second test for children of four years4 ,part of the interest of this work on defective children consists in the fact that in it we find the origin of those ideas and investigations which culminated in the formation of the ,binet-,simon ,scale of ,intelligence1 now so widely known throughout ,europe and ,america4 ,the ideal that ,binet set before himself was the formation of a scale which should measure intelligence in something the same way as the foot-rule measures height4 ,the first difficulty was the unit4 ,if we regard intelligence as the power to cope with a situation1 we see that this power in a general way increases with the experience of the child1 or1 we may say1 with his age4 ,a child of nine should have more intelligence than one of eight1 a child of eight than a child of seven1 and so on4 ,we may suppose1 then1 that there is a normal intelligence for each age just as there is a normal height for each age1 although in the first case1 as in the second1 many children fall below and many rise above the standard4 ,it is clearly by no means so easy to establish a norm for intelligence as for height1 nevertheless1 the method should be the same2 that is1 we should begin by finding out what the intelligence of children of different ages actually is1 and from these results we should derive averages which might be used as norms4 ,in the course of his work with defectives1 ,binet1 as we have seen1 had gathered a number of questions which he had found useful as tests of intelligence4 ,he now1 in conjunction with ,dr4 ,simon1 proceeded to extend the number of these tests and to assign each to its appropriate age4 ,the method he adopted was this3 ,he tried each test on a great number of normal children of the same age4 ,if a large majority answered satisfactorily1 he set the test down as suitable for that age2 if a majority failed1 he moved it to a more advanced age1 and tested it again on older children4 ,when we consider his scale then1 we must remember that the arrangement is no arbitrary one1 but has been derived from actual experiment4 ,in #aijh1 after having been tried on over two hundred ,parisian school children1 the tests were published in the form of a scale1 giving a measure of intelligence graded from three to thirteen years of age4 ,by this scale it was held a child's mental age1 which1 of course1 was often not the same as his chronological age1 could be determined4 ,in #aiaa there was published a revised scale in which1 owing to the results of further experiment and criticism1 a considerable number of alterations in the grading of the tests was made4 ,this revised form of the scale is given below4 ,for convenience in use the exact words to be said to the child are placed first1 the particular directions for each test being given afterwards4 ,general directions regarding the tests and the method of marking will be found at the end of the scale4 ,tests of ,intelligence4 ,three ,years4 #a4 ,show me your eyes4 ,show me your nose4 ,show me your mouth4 ,count the child correct if he indicates in any way that he understands4 #b4 ,i am going to say two numbers4 ,say them after me--#c1 #g4--;,again1 #f1 #d4--;,again1 #j1 #e4 ,the examiner must say the figures slowly2 an interval of half a second should be allowed between the two4 ,the child passes if he is successful once out of the three trials4 #c4 ,here is a picture2 tell me what you see4 ,the child passes at this level if he simply enumerates objects seen in the pictures 7,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c74 #d4 ,what is your name8 ,for a pass the surname must be given1 but if the child says his ,christian name only1 the examiner may press him by asking ,what else8 #e4 ,say this sentence after me--',i am cold and hungry4' ,if the child is timid1 he may be tried first with shorter sentences4 ,he is not allowed to pass unless his enunciation is perfect4 ,a sentence containing six syllables should be remembered at this level4 ,four ,years4 #a4 ,are you a little boy or a little girl8 ,if necessary1 this question may be divided3 ,are you a little boy8 ,are you a little girl8 #b4 ,what is this8--,and this8--,and this8 ,the examiner shows the child successively a key1 a penny1 and a knife4 #c4 ,i am going to say three numbers4 ,i want you to repeat them4 ,listen4 #b1 #g1 #e4--;,again1 #i1 #j1 #d4--;,again1 #c1 #h1 #a4 ,one success suffices4 #d4 ,you see these lines4 ,tell me which is longer4 ,see ,fig4 #g4 ,no hesitation or uncertainty is satisfactory4 ,five ,years4 #a4 ,you see these boxes4 ,tell me which is heavier4 ,the examiner places two boxes precisely the same in appearance1 but weighing respectively #c grammes and #ab grammes1 before the child4 ,he repeats the test with similar boxes1 weighing respectively #f and #ae grammes1 and then the first pair is again presented4 ,the boxes should be arranged so that the heavier one is alternately at the right and at the left side4 ,very young children nearly always indicate one of the boxes by chance without testing them4 ,in this case the examiner is allowed to say1 ,you must take the boxes in your hand and weigh them4 #b4 ,copy this picture for me4 ,the examiner shows the child a card on which is drawn a square1 the side of which measures an inch and a half4 ,the child is given pen and ink1 an unfamiliar instrument to him at this age4 ,he passes if his square can be recognised as a square4 #c4 ,listen to this1 and repeat it after me3 ',my name is ,charlie4 ,oh6 the naughty dog6' ,memory of a sentence containing ten syllables is required4 #d4 ,you see these pennies4 ,now count them with your finger4 ,four pennies are placed before the child4 ,they are juxtaposed1 but not superposed4 ,in order to pass1 he must count them1 touching each with his forefinger as he says its number4 ,some little children begin to count before they touch the first penny2 thus they may reach five or six or even more4 #e4 ,put these pieces together so as to make them look like this4 ,the examiner has two oblong cards--postcards do very well--one of which is cut in two pieces along the diagonal4 ,before giving the direction to the child1 he places the intact card on the table1 and1 nearer the child1 the two pieces of the other card arranged so that the two hypotenuses form a right angle4,a ,six ,years4 #a4 ,is it morning or afternoon now8 ,as many little children tend simply to repeat the examiner's last words1 it is better to reverse the terms morning and afternoon when the examination takes place in the afternoon4 #b4 ,what is a fork8--,what is a table8--,a chair8--,a horse8--,a mamma8 ,three levels of intelligence may be distinguished in the responses4 ,the lowest is that of silence1 or repetition of the term1 or designation by gesture4 ,the second1 which should be attained at the age of six1 is that of definition by use1 as3 ,a fork is for eating with4 ,the third level is attained by the ninth year2 the child at this level attempts to describe the object or to say what it is made of4 ,the type of the majority of the definitions determines one's judgment of the level attained4 #c4 ,copy this picture for me4 ,the examiner shows the child a card on which is drawn a diamond1 of which the side measures an inch and a half1 and the acute angles #fj degrees4 ,the drawing must be done with pen and ink4 #d4 ,count these pennies4 ,thirteen pennies are placed on the table in a group 7not in a line7 touching one another1 but not superposed4 #e4 ,which is the prettier of these two faces8--,and of these8--,and of these8 ,see ,fig4 #d4 ,three correct responses required4 ,seven ,years4 #a4 ,show me your right hand4--,show me your left ear4 #b4 ,here is a picture4 ,tell me what you see4 ,description of picture required 7,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c47 #c4 ,do you see this key8 ,go and put it on that chair4 ,then close the door4 ,then take the box which is lying on the chair near the door and bring it to me4 ,first put the key on the chair1 then close the door1 then bring me the box4 ,no help or suggestion by word or look must be given during the execution of this task4 #d4 ,how much money is there here altogether8 ,three pennies and three halfpennies are placed on the table before the child4 #e4 ,what is this colour8--,and this8--,and this8--,and this8 ,the examiner shows the child successively the four colours--red1 yellow1 blue1 and green4 ,eight ,years4 #a4 ,you know a butterfly8--,and you know a fly8--,are they like one another8--,well1 in what way are they not alike8 ,the same questions are asked about wood and glass1 and paper and cardboard4 ,two comparisons at least must be given correctly4 #b4 ,you can count1 can't you8--,well1 will you count for me backwards from twenty to nothing8 ,begin #bj1 #ai4444 ,one error is allowed1 but the task must be finished in twenty seconds4 #c4 ,what is missing in this picture8 ,the child must not be allowed to see the figure in the diagram until he has answered the questions regarding the heads4 ,otherwise1 when shown a head1 he may say1 being influenced by suggestion1 ,it has no body4 ,see ,fig4 #e4 ,the same question is put for each of the four pictures4 #d4 ,can you tell me what day it is8--,and will you tell me the date also8 ,the year must be given2 three or four days' latitude is allowed in the day of the month4 #e4 ,i am going to say five numbers4 ,listen and repeat them after me4 #e1 #h1 #b1 #i1 #a4--;,again1 #c1 #g1 #e1 #b1 #j4--;,again1 #a1 #c1 #g1 #b1 #i4 ,one success suffices4 ,nine ,years4 #a4 ,would you like to play shop8 ,you be shopkeeper4 ,i will buy from you this box4 ,it costs twopence4 ,here the examiner hands the child a shilling4 ,now1 will you give me change out of this money here8 ,in order to give the change the child is provided with one of each of our current coins--sovereign1 half-sovereign1 crown1 half-crown1 florin1 shilling1 sixpence1 threepence1 penny1 halfpenny--and in addition five halfpence and six pennies4 ,note4--,binet gives the child a franc for an article valued at #bj sous1 and the child has to select his change from the following coins3 #h coins of the value #j fr4 #je1 #d of the value #j fr4 #aj1 and #a of each of the others--viz41 #j fr4 #be1 #j fr4 #ej1 #a fr41 #b fr41 #e fr41 #aj fr41 #bj fr4 #b4 ,what is a fork8--,what is a table8--,a chair8--,a horse8--,a mamma8 ,for a pass three at least of the definitions must be given in a form superior to the use type4 #c4 ,what is the name of this coin8--,and of this8--,and of this8 ,the examiner in this way goes through in irregular order all our current pieces of money4 ,coins like one another should not be shown in immediate succession4 #d4 ,will you tell me the names of the months in order8 ,one omission or one inversion is allowed to pass4 #e4 ,what would you do if you missed a train8--,what would you do if one of your playmates should hit you without meaning to do so8--,what would you do if you broke something belonging to someone else8 ,for a pass two at least of these questions must be answered sensibly4 ,ten ,years4 #a4 ,you see these little boxes4 ,they are not all the same weight4 ,some are heavy and some are light4 ,place the heaviest one here1 and at its side the one which is a little less heavy1 then the one still a little less1 and finally the lightest of all4 ,the boxes in question weigh respectively #f1 #i1 #ab1 #ae1 and #ah grammes1 and all look the same4 ,they are placed in a pile before the child1 and as the examiner gives the directions he indicates with his finger the place he appoints for each box4 ,three trials should be given1 the boxes being mixed after each trial4 ,in order to pass the child must be correct at least twice4 ,the time should not exceed three minutes4 ,the material for the test can be easily made from match-boxes4 #b4 ,now ,i am going to show you two drawings4 ,you may look at them for ten seconds1 which is a very short time4 ,then ,i will ask you to draw them from memory4 ,for the drawings see ,fig4 #f4 ,the child is counted correct if he reproduces the whole of one drawing and half the other4 #c4 ,i am going to read you some sentences1 each of which contains something foolish4 ,listen attentively and tell me each time what is foolish4 ,the examiner reads the sentences impressively1 but without any special emphasis on the part the child should comment on4 ,each time when he finishes he changes his tone1 and demands1 ,what is foolish in that8 ,sentences4--7#a7 ,an unfortunate bicycle rider fell on his head and was killed instantly2 he was taken to a hospital1 and they fear he will not recover4 7#b7 ,i have three brothers1 ,paul1 ,ernest1 and myself4 7#c7 ,the body of an unfortunate young girl1 cut into eighteen pieces1 was found yesterday on the fortifications4 ,it is thought that she killed herself4 7#d7 ,there was a railway accident yesterday1 but it was not a bad one2 the number of dead is only forty-eight4 7#e7 ,someone said ,if ,i should ever grow desperate and kill myself1 ,i will not choose ,friday1 because ,friday is an unlucky day1 and will bring me unhappiness4 ,three satisfactory answers are required4 #d4 ,what would you do if you were delayed in going to school8--,what would you do before taking part in an important affair8--,why is a bad action done when one is angry more excusable than the same action done when one is not angry8--,what would you do if you were asked your opinion of someone whom you did not know well8--,why should one judge a person by his acts rather than by his words8 ,three sensible answers must be given4 #e4 ,i am going to read you three words1 and ,i want you to make a sentence and use in it the three words4 ,the words are ,paris1 fortune1 stream4 ,the expression make a sentence must not be further explained1 but the instructions may be repeated4 ,the child is given a pencil and paper1 and1 if necessary1 should be urged to write something4 ,for a pass the sentence should be well co-ordinated4 ,at this stage it may contain two distinct ideas1 but not three2 at the higher level it must contain only one idea 7see ,,xii4 #b74 ,one minute is the time allowed for writing4 ,twelve ,years4 #a4 ,which is the longer of these two lines8--,and of those8--,and of those8--,and of those8--,and of those8--,and of those8 ,this test is aimed at the suggestibility of the child4 ,for the material see ,figs4 #h-ac4 ,the first three pairs of lines differ in length1 the longer being at the right hand2 the last three pairs are equal4 ,it is sufficient if the child correctly judges two of the last three pairs to be equal4 #b4 ,i am going to read you three words4 ,i want you to make a sentence and use in it the three words4 ,the words are ,paris1 fortune1 stream4 ,for directions see ,,xi4 #e4 #c4 ,i am going to allow you three minutes1 and ,i want you to say as many words as you can think of4 ,some children have said more than two hundred4 ,let us see how many you can do4 ,ready8 ,start4 ,in order to pass the child must say over sixty words4 #d4 ,what is ,charity8--,what is ,justice8--,what is ,kindness8 ,two correct responses are required4 #e4 ,put these words in their proper order and find the sentence which they make4 ,three cards are successively presented to the child1 on each of which is very clearly written or printed one of the following sets of words arranged in three lines4 7#a7 ,for--an--the--at--hour--early--we--coun try--started4 7#b7 ,to--asked--exercise--my--,i--teacher--c orrect--my4 7#c7 ,a--defends--dog--good--his--master--bra vely4 ,one minute is allowed for each sentence1 and two correct answers are required4 ,fifteen ,years4 #a4 ,i am going to say seven numbers to you1 and ,i want you to repeat them after me4 ,now1 #e1 #b1 #g1 #i1 #a1 #f1 #j4--;,again1 #f1 #d1 #a1 #c1 #i1 #g1 #e4--;,again1 #h1 #j1 #d1 #b1 #g1 #c1 #f4 ,one success suffices4 #b4 ,do you know the meaning of the word 'rhyme'8 ,two words are said to rhyme when they have similar endings1 such as hour and flower1 or candy and dandy4 ,do you understand8 ,now1 find all the words which rhyme with day4 ,the child is required to find three rhymes in one minute4 #c4 ,i am going to say some sentences to you1 and ,i want you to repeat them exactly after me4 ,ready8 ',the other day ,i saw on the street a pretty yellow dog4 ,little ,maurice has stained his nice new apron4' ,the examiner is advised to have ready a series of sentences formed of words easy to understand4 ,he should begin with one somewhat shorter than that suggested1 which consists of twenty-six syllables--the length required by ,binet at this age4 #d4 ,here is a picture4 ,tell me what you see4 ,at this level interpretation of the picture is required4 ,mere description of the activities represented is not sufficient4 #e4 ,listen to what ,i am going to read to you3 ,a woman was walking through a park in ,chicago4 ,suddenly she stopped1 dreadfully frightened4 ,she ran to the nearest policeman and told him she had seen hanging to the limb of a tree--after a pause--a what8 ,again3 ,my neighbour has just received some singular visitors3 one after another a doctor1 a lawyer1 and a priest called4 ,what is happening at my neighbour's8 ,both problems must be solved satisfactorily4 ,adult4 #a4 ,here is a paper folded in four4 ,suppose that here 7pointing to a small triangle that has been drawn in the middle of the edge which presents a single fold7 ,i cut out this little triangle4 ,now1 if ,i unfold the paper1 how would it look8 ,draw the paper as1 it would appear if unfolded and show how and where it would be cut4 ,the paper is square to begin with1 and is folded twice so as to show a square one quarter of the original size4 ,the required drawing will show two diamonds drawn in line with each other1 and each in the centre of one half of a square4 #b4 ,look at this card4 ,suppose ,i lift this lower part and place this edge 7tracing the edge ,a ,c with the finger7 on this edge 7the diagonal of the upper piece74 ,suppose also that this point 7,c7 is placed just on this point 7,b74 ,now ,i will take away the piece1 and do you draw the whole figure as it will appear when the proposed change is made4 ,begin by drawing the upper part4 ,illustration ,a right angle must be represented at ,b1 and the edge ,a ,c be shown shorter than the edge ,a ,b4 #c4 ,what is the difference between laziness and idleness8--,what is the difference between event and advent8--,what is the difference between evolution and revolution8 ,two correct answers required4 #d4 ,there are three principal differences between a ,king and a ,president of a ,republic4 ,what are they8 ,required answer3 ,royalty is hereditary1 the tenure of office is for life1 and its powers are very great2 the ,president is elected1 his tenure of office is for a limited time1 and his powers are less extensive4 #e4 ,listen to what ,i am going to read to you4 ,when ,i have finished ,i shall ask you to give me the sense of the passage3 ',many opinions have been given on the value of life4 ,some call it good1 others call it bad4 ,it would be more just to say that it is mediocre1 for on the one hand our happiness is never so great as we would have it1 and on the other hand our misfortunes are never so great as others would have them4 ,it is this mediocrity of life which makes it just1 or rather which prevents it from being radically unjust4' ,directions to ,examiners4--,in the use of the ,binet scale there are various pitfalls that await the beginner4 ,in the first place he is almost certain to array himself on the side of the child and to declare in some instances that the test is not a fair one--the child could have passed had he understood what was wanted4 ,one frequently sees this attitude towards the puzzle test4 7,v4 #e47 ,for example1 the examiner is dissatisfied when the child simply moves the pieces of card about in a meaningless way1 and he tries to explain more clearly what is wanted4 ,i have seen one examiner go so far as to show the child the solution1 and then give him a pass when he repeated it4 ,the examiner must always remember that a child who has reached the required level of intelligence will himself see what is wanted4 ,this comprehension is indeed the very thing we are testing for4 ,secondly1 the examiner is apt to show by his manner when he is dissatisfied with a child's answer4 ,in some cases this may lead him to correct himself--e4g41 ,,vii4 #a4 ,the examiner must bear constantly in mind that all answers are equally pleasing to him2 he is not there to instruct the child1 but to test him4 ,when meaningless or absurd responses are given1 as they frequently are1 the examiner must accept them cheerfully1 even in some cases with praise1 and record a failure4 ,the record1 of course1 must never be visible to the child4 ,again1 the examiner must not suppose that the scale can be applied mechanically4 ,both experience and judgment are necessary before the results can be correctly gauged4 ,in certain tests--e4g41 the absurdities--a child's manner tells as much as his words4 ,the children on whom ,i have tried this test nearly always laughed when they really grasped the point4 ,before he lays much stress on his results an examiner should have tested at least twenty children4 ,there is another factor which prevents any mechanical use of the scale leading to satisfactory results1 and that is the variability of the child's responsiveness4 ,with an unsympathetic examiner1 or with an unfortunate start1 he will do himself less than justice4 ,it is the business of the examiner to keep the child in that state of mental exhilaration which enables him to do his best4 ,words of encouragement and praise should in some cases be freely used1 but1 of course1 care must always be taken to avoid1 whether in word1 tone1 gesture1 or facial expression1 the slightest suggestion of the correct solution4 ,the happy state of mind must be secured at the very beginning1 and for this purpose the choice of the first test is very important4 ,i call to mind a bright child of eight who was confronted first with a simple puzzle test4 ,for some reason1 probably over-anxiety to do well1 she did not see the solution1 and being too intelligent not to perceive her own failure1 she burst into tears4 ,such unfortunate accidents are1 however1 rare4 ,the children usually enjoy the interview4 ,to secure a good start one must begin with a test which the child will regard as easy and pleasant4 ,one soon knows almost at sight of the child what it is best to try first4 ,one usually begins with tests for an age at least a year younger than that of the little subject1 and works upward4 ,the examiner should be alone with the child except for the presence of someone whose business it is to make notes4 ,in such tests as the description of a picture1 the definition tests1 the questions of everyday life1 the child's full answers should be written down4 ,the examiner should1 however1 record his own judgment as to whether the child has passed or failed at once1 as there are various factors which tend to make an immediate judgment both more certain and more accurate than a delayed one4 ,so far as the actual testing is concerned1 the examiner should confine himself to the words given in the text4 ,he will find himself tempted sometimes to draw the child out4 ,for instance1 in the picture test1 when the child has given him a brief enumeration of objects and then stopped1 he will find himself saying1 ,but what is this man doing8 ,the child can probably tell2 but he must not on this account be accorded a pass on the descriptive level2 he has already shown that his level is that of simple enumeration4 ,some of the tests 7definitions1 comparisons1 suggestion7 bring out a tendency to automatism which is present in many children4 ,thus1 a child having replied correctly that a butterfly is bigger than a fly1 may go on to state that wood is bigger than glass1 and paper than cardboard2 or having found that ,it is a fork is well received as a definition of that implement1 he may give similar replies to the other queries in the definition test4 ,this automatism should not be checked3 it should be recorded4 ,the more intelligent children begin to exhibit a certain dissatisfaction with their own answers1 however readily they are accepted4 ,it is not always easy to follow the working of the childish mind1 and it is not usually advisable to press for further explanation4 ,such a course is apt to puzzle the child1 and render the conditions less favourable4 ,if you are not certain that he should be allowed to pass1 you may be practically certain that he should not4 ,sometimes one gets interesting glimpses into the subject's mentality4 ,a little boy once told me he had never seen a butterfly4 ,nevertheless1 ,i asked the comparison question1 and he gave what is a very usual answer3 ,a butterfly is bigger than a fly4 ,how do you know1 ,i said1 if you have never seen a butterfly8 ,it's a bigger word1 he replied4 ,another time a little girl1 who also declared she had never seen a butterfly1 gave another answer which is also very common3 ,a butterfly is yellow1 and a fly is black4 ,the source of this knowledge was not discovered2 but one of my students told me later that a child whom she questioned about a butterfly said3 ,i have seen one2 it was blue1 but it ought to have been yellow4 ,on being asked why1 she responded3 ,butter is yellow4 ,the test1 of course1 is not for the knowledge of the things1 but for the power of making a comparison4 ,occasionally one has to mark a child as doubtful4 ,thus1 in defining abstract terms 7,,xii4 #d7 ,binet records that out of forty-five nine-year-old children1 four passed1 thirty-six failed1 and five were doubtful4 ,this test1 however1 gives an unusually large percentage of doubtfuls4 ,method of ,marking4--,the examiner should have a large sheet of paper or a note-book with the names of the tests written in column at the left-hand side4 ,opposite each in a second column he should enter a sign indicating his judgment4 ,binet recommends the use of the following signs3 6 excellent1 pass1 8 almost a pass1 8 doubtful1 #j silence1-- 8 almost a failure1 -- a failure1 -- 6 a bad failure4 ,later this record should be supplemented from the notes taken by the secretary1 also by information regarding the child's personal history1 and by comments on his behaviour during the examination4 ,the mental age assigned to him is determined in this way3 one finds the age-level at which he passes all the tests1 and adds a year for every five tests that he passes above that level4 ,thus1 if a child of seven passes all the tests for seven years1 three of those for eight1 and two of those for nine1 he has a mental age of eight years4 ,binet allows the use of fractions1 one-fifth of a year for every test passed1 but he admits that this gives an appearance of a degree of exactitude which is probably not attained4 ,should a child's mental age show a retardation of three years as compared with his chronological age1 and should there be no evident explanation of this1 such as ill-health1 neglect of school attendance1 etc41 he is reckoned as deficient mentally4 ,binet's scale has been criticised from various points of view4 ,generally speaking1 it seems to be found too easy at the lower end and too difficult at the higher end4 ,it seems certain that some of the tests have not yet found their proper level1 or1 indeed1 that the proper level may vary from country to country1 from school to school1 and from one social rank to another4 ,thus1 the writer has found that practically all the five-year-old children present in a certain school during the past two or three years are able to pass the colour test assigned by ,binet to seven years of age4 ,these children1 however1 probably belong to a higher social class than the five-year-olds tested by ,binet4 ,an examiner very quickly learns which of the tests beyond his age it is advisable to put to the particular child he is dealing with1 and owing to the method of marking it does not matter much if one or two tests are misplaced with reference to a particular group of children4 ,the important thing is that there is a general consensus of opinion on the part of those who have tried the scale as to its value as a mental probe and register of mental attainment4 ,revisions and elaborations of it have already been published1,b but in view of its simplicity and brevity1 and the valuable analytical work of which it has proved itself capable1 the #aiaa form will probably remain a standard for at least some years to come4 ,for the complete series of tests the examiner will require the following material in addition to the diagrams3 ,three suitable pictures4 ,key1 penny1 knife4 ,,iv4 #b4 ,weights4 ,v4 #a and ,x4 #a4 ,drawing of square4 ,v4 #b4 ,drawing of diamond4 ,,vi4 #c4 ,rectangular card and divided rectangle4 ,v4 #e and ,adult1 #b4 ,colours4 ,,vii4 #e4 ,cards with mixed sentences4 ,,xii4 #e4 ,square of paper4 ,adult1 #a4 ,,footnotes3 ,a ,the directions for this test1 given in #aijh1 are to arrange the two triangles so that the hypotenuses are as far distant as possible from one another4 ,in the #aiaa article the directions are as above4 ,it seems to the writer that both directions are ambiguous4 ,in certain experiments in which she followed the #aijh directions she placed the triangles thus ,illustration3 oblique triangle point up1 oblique triangle point down1 so that the children had to lift one across the other to effect a solution4 ,a very small percentage of five-year-old children succeeded4 ,if the triangles are placed thus ,illustration3 oblique triangle point up1 oblique triangle long side down the task would probably be easier4 ,b ,see ,journal of ,educational ,psychology1 #aiab3 ,a ,tentative ,revision and ,extension of the ,binet-,simon ,measuring ,scale of ,intelligence1 by ,terman and ,child4 ,for an excellent brief review of the experimental work which has been done with the tests1 see the same volume1 pp4 #aja-aaj4 ,the #aiaa scale1 with detailed instructions for the application of each test1 appeared in the ,bulletin de la ,societe ,libre pour l',etude ,psychologique de l',enfant1 ,nos4 #gj and #ga1 ,april1 #aiaa4 ,this article has been translated by ,clara ,harrison ,town 7,chicago ,medical ,press74 ,see also ,meumann1 ,vorlesungen ,z4 ,einfuehrung in die experimentelle ,paedagogik1 ,leipzig1 #aiac4 ,,diagrams ,for the picture tests ,binet used the following3 ,fig4 #a4 ,man and boy pulling a barrow with furniture4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a poor old man and a young woman sitting on a seat outside on a wintry day4 ,fig4 #c4 ,a prisoner standing on his bed to look out of the window of his cell4 ,the student should choose pictures which contain familiar figures and objects1 and which tell a story capable of sympathetic interpretation4 ,they should not be too childish4 ,the following pictures1 all in the ,tate ,gallery1 may be suggested3 ,the ,doctor1 by ,luke ,fildes4 ,the ,blind ,beggar1 by ,j4,l4 ,dyckmans4 ,the ,wedding1 by ,stanhope ,a4 ,forbes4 ,a ,hopeless ,dawn1 by ,frank ,bramley4 ,the ,man with the ,scythe1 by ,h4,h4 ,la ,thangue4 ,mark the pictures chosen ,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,,index ,abnormal children1 #e ,abnormality1 frontiers of1 #ib ,adenoids1 #aaj ,alcohol1 #ajb ,appendix1 #adf ,aptitudes1 #bc et seq4 ,arithmetic1 #eh ,asylum cases1 #gd ,attendance1 irregular1 #ej ,bicetre1 #f1 #abc ,bromides1 #ajf ,cretin1 #ajd ,curriculum1 #ad1 #bf1 #cb1 #aca ,definitions3 abnormal1 #e defective1 #g feeble-minded1 #gh idiot1 #gg ill-balanced1 #f imbecile1 #gg ,distribution of defectives1 #ae1 #dc ,doctor1 role of1 #hh et seq4 ,dunces1 #dg ,employment1 #abf1 #abi1 #acd ,epilepsy1 #g1 #ajg ,examination3 pedagogical1 #cf1 #fe physical1 #ia psychological1 #fg ,feeble-minded1 #gh ,frontiers of abnormality1 #ib ,heredity1 #ii1 #ajb ,hospital cases1 #gd ,hydrocephalus1 #ajc ,hydrotherapy1 #ajf ,hysteria1 #aaj ,ill-balanced1 #f1 #h1 #ae1 #ba1 #gb1 #ach ,inspector1 role of1 #ej et seq4 ,instruction3 scale of1 #ed tests of1 #eb ,intelligence1 tests of1 #bh1 #fg1 ,app4 ,knowledge percentage1 #fd ,laboratory of pedagogy1 #i1 #bg ,medical examination1 #ia 7,chap4 ,,iv47 ,medical schedule1 #aae ,mental deficiency1 v4 ,definitions ,microcephalus1 #ajc ,microgyria1 #ajc ,mongol1 #aje ,moral deficiency1 v4 ,ill-balanced ,pedagogical examination1 #cf1 #fe ,physical examination1 #ia ,physiognomy1 #ie ,picture tests1 #cj ,psychological examination1 #fg utility of1 #ga ,psychology of defective1 #ai of ill-balanced1 #ba ,reading1 #ee ,retardation1 #af1 #ch ,salpetriere1 #f1 #abj ,scale of instruction1 #ed ,schedules3 instruction1 #fe medical1 #aae suspected mental deficiency1 #he ,school1 special1 #g educational value1 #aah1 #acf social value1 #aah1 #adj ,spelling1 #fa ,statistics1 #g ,stigmata1 #ic ,teacher1 role of1 #ch et seq4 ,tests3 instruction1 #eb intelligence1 #bh1 #fg1 #adh marking of1 #afb material for1 #afd method of conducting1 #aei ,unstable1 v4 ,ill-balanced4 ,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,by ,,billing ,,and ,,sons1 ,,ltd41 ,,guildford ,,and ,,esher 99 99 99 99 99 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,typographical errors corrected in text3 ,page #bh3 comparsion replaced with comparison ,the following words are correct3 ,page #be3 superposable ---------------------------------------- ------------------- 99 99 99 99 99