file which includes the original        
illustrations4       ,see #cfdbg-;h4htm 
or #cfdbg-;h4zip3                       
7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu
b_/#cfdbg_/pg#cfdbg-;images4html7       
or                                      
7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#cf
dbg_/cfdbg-;h4zip7         ,images of   
the original pages are available through
       ,internet ,archive4 ,see         
http3_/_/www4archive4org_/details_/artpr
incipleswit#jj;goverich                 
,illustration3 ,detail from ,the        
,pursuit of ,fragonard4   7,frick       
,collection7   ,,art ,,principles  ,with
 ,special ,reference to ,painting       
,together with ,notes on the ,illusions 
,produced by the ,painter  by  ,,ernest 
,,govett  ,with ,thirty-one             
,illustrations        ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's 
,sons ,new ,york and ,london ,the       
,knickerbocker ,press #aiai  ,copyright1
 #aiai by ,ernest ,govett  ,the         
,knickerbocker ,press1 ,new ,york       
,,preface   ,this book is put forward   

with much diffidence1 for ,i am well    
aware of its insufficiencies4 ,my       
original idea was to produce a work     
covering all the principles of painting1
 but after many years spent in          
considering the various recorded        
theories relating to aesthetic problems1
 and in gathering materials to indicate 
how the accepted principles have been   
applied1 ,i came to the conclusion that 
a single life is scarcely long enough   
for the preparation of an exhaustive    
treatise on the subject4 ,nevertheless1 
,i planned a work of much wider scope   
than the one now presented1 but various 
circumstances1 and principally the      
hindrance to research caused by the war1
 impelled me to curtail my ambition4    
,time was fading1 and my purpose seemed 
to be growing very old4 ,i felt that if 
one has something to say1 it is better  
to say it incompletely than to run the  
risk of compulsory silence4 ,the book   
will be found little more than a        
skeleton1 and some of its sections1     

notably those dealing with illusions in 
the art1 contain only a few suggestions 
and instances1 but perhaps enough is    
said to induce a measure of further     
inquiry into the subject4  ,that part of
 the work dealing with the fine arts    
generally is the result of long         
consideration of the apparent           
contradictions involved in the numerous 
suggested standards of art4 ,in a little
 book on ,the ,position of ,landscape in
 ,art 7published under a nom de plume a 
few years ago71 ,i threw out1 as a      
ballon d'essai1 an idea of the          
proposition now elaborated as the ,law  
of ,general ,assent1 and ,i have been   
encouraged to affirm this proposition   
more strongly by the fact that its      
validity was not questioned in any of   
the published criticism of the former   
work2 nor do ,i find reason to vary it  
after years of additional deliberation4 
,i have not before dealt with the other 
propositions now put forward4  ,the     
notes being voluminous ,i have relegated

 them to the end of the book1 leaving   
the feet of the text pages for          
references only4  ,where foreign works  
quoted have been translated into        
,english1 the ,english titles are       
recorded1 and foreign quotations are    
given in ,english1 save in one or two   
minor instances where the sense could   
not be precisely rendered in            
translation4                            
,e4 ,g4    ,,new ,,york1 ,january1      
#aiai4     ,,contents                   
,,page    ,,introduction                
#a      ,definitions of ,art and        
,beauty--,aesthetic systems--,the       
earliest ,art--,art periods--,the       
,grecian and ,italian                   
developments--,national and individual  
,inspiration--     ,powers of           
imagination and execution--,nature of   
,genius--     ,the ,impressionist       
,movement--,sprezzatura--,the broad     
manner--     ,position in art of        
,rembrandt and ,velasquez--,position of 
,landscape in art4     ,,book ,i        

,,chapter      ,i4--,,classification    
,,of ,,the ,,fine ,,arts                
#eb          ,the ,arts imitative of    
,nature--,classified according to       
the character of their signs--,relative 
value of form in         ,poetry--,scope
 of the ,arts in the production of      
beauty4      ,,ii4--,,law ,,of          
,,recognition ,,in ,,the ,,associated   
,,arts                    #ei           
,explanation of the ,law--,its          
application to ,poetry--,to             
,sculpture--,to ,painting--,to ,fiction4
      ,,iii4--,,law ,,of ,,general      
,,assent                                
#gb          ,general opinion the test  
of beauty in the ,associated            
,arts4      ,,iv4--,,limitations ,,of   
,,the ,,associated ,,arts               
#gh          ,production of beauty in   
the respective ,arts--,their            
limitations4      ,v4--,,degrees ,,of   
,,beauty ,,in ,,the ,,painter',s ,,art  
#hc      ,,vi4--,,expression4 ,,part    
#a4--,,the ,,ideal                      

#hf      ,,vii4--,,expression4 ,,part   
#b4--;,,christian ,,ideals              
#ia          ,the ,deity--,christ--,the 
,madonna--,madonna and ,child4          
,,viii4--,,expression4 ,,part           
#c4--;,,classical ,,ideals              
#ajf          ,ideals of the            
,greeks--,use of the ancient divinities 
by the ,painter4                        
,,ix4--,,expression4 ,,part             
#d4--;,,general ,,ideals                
#ace      ,x4--,,expression4 ,,part     
#e4--,,portraiture                      
#ada          ,limitations of the       
,portrait ,painter--,emphasis and       
addition of qualities in portrait       
painting--,practice         of the      
ancient ,greeks--,dignity--,importance  
of         ,simplicity--,some of the    
great masters--,portraiture         of  
women--,the ,english masters--,the      
quality of         ,grace--,the         
necessity for ,repose4                  
,,xi4--,,expression4 ,,part             
#f4--,,miscellaneous                    

#afg          ,grief--,the ,smile--,the 
,open ,mouth--,contrasts--              
,representation of ,death4              
,,xii4--,,landscape                     
#aib          ,limitations of the       
,landscape ,painter--,illusion of       
opening distance--,illusion of motion in
 ,landscape--         ,moonlight        
scenes--,transient conditions4          
,,xiii4--,,still-,,life                 
#bad      ,,xiv4--,,secondary ,,art     
#bai          ,paintings of             
record--,scenes from the ,novel--,from  
the written drama--,from the acted      
drama--,humorous                        
subjects--,allegorical paintings4       
,,xv4--,,colour                         
#bbh     ,,book ,,ii                    
,,introductory4--,,illusion ,,in ,,the  
,,painter',s ,,art                      
#bcf      ,,chapter                     
,i4--,,illusion ,,of ,,relief           
#bci      ,,ii4--,,illusion ,,of        
,,motion ,,with ,,men ,,and ,,animals   
#bdi     ,,iii4--,,illusion ,,of        

,,suspension ,,and ,,motion ,,in ,,the  
,,air               #bei     ,,notes    
#bgc     ,,index ,,of ,,artists ,,and   
,,works ,,of ,,art ,,mentioned ,,in     
,,this ,,book           #ceg            
,,general ,,index                       
#cfi     ,,list ,,of ,,plates           
,,page   ,,frontispiece4--,,detail      
,,from ,,fragonard',s ,,the ,,pursuit   
7,,frick     ,,collection1 ,,new        
,,york74      ,this work1 which is one  
of the celebrated ,grasse series of     
panels1 offers a very fine example of   
the use of an ideal head     in a       
romantic subject4 7,see ,page #aci47    
,,plate #a4--,,the ,,earliest ,,great   
,,sculptures                            
#f      7a74 ,head from a statue of     
,chefren1 a king of the #dth ,egyptian  
,dynasty1 about #cjjj ,b4,c4 7,cairo    
,museum47      7b74 ,head from a        
fragmentary statuette of ,babylonia1    
dating     about #bfjj ,b4,c4 7,louvre3 
from ,spearing's ,childhood of ,art47   
,the first head is generally regarded as

 the finest example of     ,egyptian art
 extant1 and certainly there was nothing
 executed     in ,egypt to equal it     
during the thirty centuries following   
the     #eth ,dynasty4 ,the ,babylonian 
head is the best work of ,chaldean      
art known to us1 though there are some  
fine fragments remaining     from the   
period of about a thousand years later4 
,it will be     observed that the       
tendency of the art in both examples is 
towards the aims achieved by the        
,greeks4 7,see ,page #g47    ,,plate    
#b4--,,le ,,bon ,,dieu ,d',,amiens1 ,,in
 ,,the ,,north ,,porch1 ,,amiens        
,,cathedral                             
#ah      ,this figure by a ,french      
sculptor of the thirteenth century1     
was considered by ,ruskin to be the     
finest ideal of ,christ in              
existence4 ,it is another example of the
 universality of ideals1     for the    
head from the front view might well have
 been modelled     from a ,grecian work 
of the late fourth or early third       

century     ,b4,c4 7,see ,page #cai47   
,,plate #c4--;,,after ,,an ,,ancient    
,,copy ,,of ,,the ,,cnidian ,,venus ,,of
 ,,praxiteles4     7,,vatican7          
#cj      ,it is commonly agreed that    
this is the finest model in existence   
after the great work of ,praxiteles1    
which itself has long     disappeared4  
,the figure as it now stands at the     
,vatican1 has the     right arm         
restored1 and the hand is made to hold  
up some metallic     drapery with which 
the legs are covered1 the beauty of the 
form     being thus seriously weakened4 
7,see ,pages #aaa et seq47    ,,plate   
#d4--,,venus ,,anadyomene               
#db      7a74 ,ancient ,greek sculpture 
from the design of ,venus in the        
celebrated picture of ,apelles4         
7,formerly ,chessa ,collection1 now in  
,new ,york47      ,the immense          
superiority of the sculpture over the   
painting 7,plate     #e71 from the point
 of view of pure art1 is visible at a   
glance4 ,it     is an indication of the 

far-reaching scope of the sculptor when 
executing ideals4 7,see ,page #aac47    
,,plate #e4--,,venus ,,anadyomene1      
,,from ,,the ,,painting ,,by ,,titian4  
7,,bridgewater ,,collection47 ,compare  
with the ,sculpture on     ,plate #d4   
7,see ,page #aae7                       
#db    ,,plate #f4--,,venus ,,reposing1 
,,by ,,giorgione4 7,,dresden ,,gallery7 
#ed      ,this is the finest reposing   
,venus in existence in painting4 ,it was
     the model for the representation of
 the goddess in repose used by          
,titian1 and many other artists who came
 after him4 7,see ,page #aaf47          
,,plate #g4--;,,demeter                 
#ff      7a74 ,head from the ,cnidos    
marble figure of the fourth century     
,b4,c41     attributed to ,scopas4      
7,british ,museum47      7b74 ,small    
head in bronze of the third century     
,b4,c4 7,private     ,collection47      
,in each of these heads the artist has  
been successful in maintaining     the  
ideal1 while indicating a suggestion of 

the sorrowful     resignation with which
 ,grecian legend has enveloped the mind 
picture     of ,demeter4 ,nevertheless1 
even this slight departure from the     
established rule tends to lessen the    
art1 though in a very small     degree4 
7,see ,page #abb47    ,,plate           
#h4--,,raphael',s ,,sistine ,,madonna   
7,,dresden ,,gallery71 ,,with ,,the     
,,face     ,,of ,,the ,,central ,,figure
 ,,in ,,fragonard',s ,,the ,,pursuit    
,,substituted ,,for     ,,that ,,of     
,,the ,,virgin                          
#hj      ,this and the two following    
plates show very clearly that in        
striving     for an ideal1 artists must 
necessarily arrive at the same general  
type4 7,see ,pages #ach et seq47        
,,plate #i4--,,raphael',s ,,virgin ,,of 
,,the ,,rose 7,,madrid71 ,,with ,,the   
,,face     ,,of ,,the ,,figure          
,,representing ,,profane ,,love ,,in    
,,titian',s ,,picture     ,,substituted 
,,for ,,that ,,of ,,the ,,virgin        
#ib    ,,plate #aj4--,,raphael',s ,,holy

 ,,family 7,,madrid71 ,,with ,,the      
,,face ,,of ,,luini',s     ,,salome     
,,substituted ,,for ,,that ,,of ,,the   
,,virgin                        #ajb    
,,plate #aa4--,,the ,,pursuit1 ,,by     
,,fragonard4 7,,frick ,,collection1 ,n4 
,y47    #aad      ,a detail from this   
picture forms the ,frontispiece4 ,it    
will be     observed that in the        
complete painting the central figure    
apparently     wears a startled         
expression1 but that this is entirely   
due to the     surroundings and action1 
is shown by the substitution of the face
 of     the central figure for that of  
the ,virgin in the ,sistine ,madonna1   
,plate #h4 7,see ,page #aci47    ,,plate
 #ab4--,,portrait ,,heads ,,of ,,the    
,,greek ,,type1 ,,fourth ,,century1     
,b4,c4     7,see ,page #ade7            
#acj      7a74 ,head of ,plato4         
7,copenhagen ,museum47 7b74 ,term of    
,euripides4     7,naples ,museum47      
,,plate #ac4--,,portrait ,,heads ,,of   
,,the ,,time ,,of ,,imperial ,,rome4    

7,,see ,,page     #ade7                 
#adf      7a74 ,vespasian4 7,naples     
,museum47 7b74 ,hadrian4 7,athens       
,museum47    ,,plate #ad4--,,sacrifice  
,,of ,,iphigenia1 ,,from ,a ,,pompeian  
,,fresco4 7,,roux     ,,aine',s         
,,herculanum ,,et ,,pompei1 ,,vol4      
,,iii7                           #afj   
,this work is presumed to be a copy of  
the celebrated picture of               
,timanthes1 in which the head of        
,agamemnon was hidden because the       
artist could see no other way of        
expressing extreme grief without        
distorting the features4 7,see ,pages   
#afh and #cci47    ,,plate              
#ae4--;,,all',s ,,well1 ,,by ,,winslow  
,,homer4 7,,boston ,,museum1 ,u4 ,s4    
,a47 #agf      ,an instance where the   
permanent beauty of a picture is killed 
by an     open mouth4 ,after a few      
moments' inspection1 it will be observed
     that the mouth appears to be kept  
open by a wedge4 7,see ,page #agf47     
,,plate #af4--;,,hercules               

,,contemplating ,,death1 ,,by ,a4       
,,pollaiuolo4 7,,frick     ,,collection1
 ,,new ,,york47                         
#aij      ,the only known design of this
 nature which appears to exist in any   
of the arts4 7,see ,pages #aij and      
#cdc47    ,,plate #ag4--;,,arcadian     
,,landscape1 ,,by ,,claude ,,lorraine4  
7,,national     ,,gallery1 ,,london7    
#aih      ,a fine illusion of opening   
distance created by the precise         
rendering     of the aerial perspective4
 ,the illusion is of course unobservable
 in     the reproduction owing to its   
small size and the want of colour4      
7,see ,page #aih74    ,,plate           
#ah4--,,landscape1 ,,by ,,hobbema4      
7,,met4 ,,museum1 ,,new ,,york7         
#baj      ,a fine example of ,hobbema's 
work4 ,a strong light is thrown in from 
the back to enable the artist to        
multiply his signs for the purpose      
of deepening the apparent distance4     
7,see ,page #bjb47    ,,plate           
#ai4--,,landscape1 ,,by ,,jacob         

,,ruysdael1 7,,national ,,gallery1      
,,london7                               
#bbj      ,example of an illusion of    
movement in flowing water4 7,see ,page  
#bjd47       ,,plate #bj4--,,the        
,,storm1 ,,by ,,jacob ,,ruysdael4       
7,,berlin ,,gallery7 #bcb               
,exhibiting an excellent illusion of    
motion1 due to the faithful             
representation of a series of           
consecutive movements of water as the   
vessel passes through it4 ,the illusion 
is practically lost in the              
reproduction1 but the details of design 
may be observed4 7,see ,page     #bjf47 
,,plate #ba4--,,the ,,litta ,,madonna1  
,,by ,,lionardo ,,da ,,vinci4           
7,,hermitage7    #bdj      ,this is     
perhaps the best example known of an    
illusion of relief     secured by       
shading alone4 7,see ,page #bdj47       
,,plate #bb4--;,,christ ,,on ,,the      
,,cross1 ,,by ,,van ,,dyck4 7,,antwerp  
,,museum7      #beb      ,a superb      
example of relief obtained by the       

exclusion of accessories4     ,van ,dyck
 took the idea from ,rubens1 who        
borrowed it from ,titian1     this      
artist improving on ,antonella da       
,messina4 ,the relief of course     is  
not well observed in the reproduction   
because of its miniature     form4 ,the 
work is usually regarded as the finest  
of its kind in     existence4 7,see     
,page #bdd47    ,,plate                 
#bc4--,,patricia1 ,,by ,,lydia ,,emmet4 
7,,private ,,possession1 ,n4 ,y47   #bfd
      ,a very excellent example of the  
plan of securing relief described     in
 ,book ,,ii1 ,chap4 ,i4 ,here also the  
relief is not observed in the           
reproduction1 but the original is of    
life size and provides an     illusion  
as nearly perfect as possible4 7,see    
,page #bdg47    ,,plate #bd4--,,the     
,,creation ,,of ,,adam1 ,,by            
,,michelangelo4 7,,vatican7        #bgf 
,instance of the use of an oval form of 
drapery to assist in     presenting an  
illusion of suspension in the air4 7,see

 ,page #bfj47    ,,plate #be4--,,the    
,,pleiads1 ,,by ,m4 ,,schwind4 7,,denner
 ,,collection47        #bhh      ,one of
 the finest examples of illusion of     
motion in the air4     7,see ,page      
#bfi47    ,,plate #bf4--,,st4           
,,margaret1 ,,by ,,raphael4 7,,louvre7  
#cjb      ,perhaps the best example in  
existence of a painted human figure in  
action4 ,it will be seen that every part
 of the body and every fold     of the  
drapery are used to assist in the       
expression of movement4     7,see ,page 
#bej47    ,,plate #bg4--;,,diana ,,and  
,,nymphs ,,pursued ,,by ,,satyrs1 ,,by  
,,rubens4 7,,prado7  #cah      ,a good  
example of an illusion of motion created
 by showing a number     of persons in  
different stages of a series of         
consecutive actions4     7,see ,page    
#bed47    ,,plate #bh4--;,,automedon    
,,with ,,the ,,horses ,,of ,,achilles1  
,,by ,h4 ,,regnault4     7,,boston      
,,museum1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a47                  
#ccd      ,the extraordinary spirit and 

action of these horses are above the    
experience of life1 but they do not     
appear to be beyond the bounds     of   
possibility4 ,in any case the action is 
perfectly appropriate     here1 as the  
animals are presumed to be immortal4    
7,see ,page #bef47    ,,plate           
#bi4--,,marble ,,figure ,,of ,,ariadne4 
7,,vatican7                     #cdh    
,this work1 of the ,hellenistic period1 
illustrates the possibility of          
largely varying the regular proportions 
of the human figure without     injury  
to the art1 by the skilful use of       
drapery4 7,see ,page #cbi47     ,art    
,principles     ,,introduction   ,in    
view of the many varied definitions of  
,art which have been put forward in     
recent times1 and the equally diverse   
hypotheses advanced for the solution of 
aesthetic problems relating to beauty1  
it is necessary for one who discusses   
principles of art1 to state what he     
understands by the terms ,art and       
,beauty4  ,though having a widely       

extended general meaning1 the term ,art 
in common parlance applies to the fine  
arts only1 but the term ,arts has       
reference as well to certain industries 
which have utility for their primary    
object4 ,this work considers only the   
fine arts1 and when the writer uses the 
term ,art or ,arts he refers to one or  
more of these arts1 unless a particular 
qualification is added4 ,the definition 
of ,art as applied to the fine arts1    
upon which he relies1 is ,the production
 of beauty for the purpose of giving    
pleasure1 or as it is more precisely    
put1 ,the beautiful representation of   
nature for the purpose of giving        
disinterested pleasure4 ,this is1       
broadly1 the definition generally       
accepted1 and is certainly the          
understanding of art which has guided   
the hands of all the creators of those  
great works in the various arts before  
which men have bowed as triumphs of     
human skill4  ,there has been no        
satisfactory definition of ,beauty1 nor 

can the term be shortly interpreted     
until there is a general agreement as to
 what it covers4 ,much of the confusion 
arising from the contradictory theories 
of aestheticists in respect of the      
perception of beauty is apparently due  
to the want of separate consideration of
 emotional beauty and beauty of mind1   
that is to say1 the beauty of sensorial 
effects and beauty of expression        
respectively4#a ,there are kinds of     
sensorial beauty which depend for their 
perception upon immediately preceding   
sensory experience1 or particular       
coexistent surroundings which are not   
necessarily permanent1 while in other   
cases a certain beauty may be recognized
 and subsequently appear to vanish      
altogether4 ,from this it is obvious    
that any aesthetic system based upon the
 existence of an objectivity of beauty  
must fall to the ground4 ,on the other  
hand1 without an objectivity there can  
be no system1 because in its absence a  
line of reasoning explaining cause and  

effect in the perception of beauty1     
which is open to demonstration1 is      
naturally impossible4 ,nor may we       
properly speak of a philosophy of art4#b
 ,we may reasonably consider aesthetics 
a branch of psychology1 but the emotions
 arising from the recognition of beauty 
vary only in degree and not in kind1    
whether the beauty be seen in nature or 
art4 ,consequently there can be no      
separate psychological enquiry into the 
perception of beauty created by art as  
distinguished from that observable in   
nature4  ,it must be a natural          
attraction for the insoluble mysteries  
of life that has induced so many        
philosophers during the last two        
centuries to put forward aesthetic      
systems4 ,that no two of these systems  
agree on important points1 and that each
 and every one has crumbled to dust from
 a touch of the wand of experience      
administered by a hundred hands1 are    
well-known facts1 yet still the systems 
continue to be calmly presented as if   

they were valuable contributions to     
knowledge4 ,each new critic in the      
domain of philosophy carefully and      
gravely sets them up1 and then carefully
 and gravely knocks them down4#c ,an    
excuse for the systems has been here and
 there offered1 that the explanations   
thereof sometimes include valuable      
philosophical comments or suggestions4  
,this may be1 but students cannot       
reasonably be expected to sift out a few
 oats from a bushel of husks1 even if   
the supply be from the bin of a ,hegel  
or a ,schopenhauer4 ,is it too much to  
suggest that these phantom systems be   
finally consigned to the grave of       
oblivion which has yawned for them so   
long and so conspicuously8 ,bubbles have
 certain measurements and may           
brilliantly glow1 but they are still    
bubbles4 ,it is as impossible to build  
up a system of philosophy upon the      
perception of beauty1 which depends     
entirely upon physical and physiological
 laws1 as to erect a system of ethics on

 the law of gravitation1 for a feasible 
connection between superstructure and   
foundation cannot be presented to the   
mind4  ,we may further note that a      
proper apprehension of standards of     
judgment in art cannot be obtained      
unless the separate and relative        
aesthetic values of the two forms of    
beauty are considered1 because the      
beauty of a work may appear greater at  
one time than at another1 according as  
it is more or less permanent or         
fleeting1 that is to say1 according as  
the balance of the sensorial and        
intellectual elements therein is more or
 less uneven2 or if the beauty present  
be almost entirely emotional1 according 
as the observer may be affected by      
independent sensorial conditions of time
 or place4 ,consequent upon these       
considerations1 an endeavour has been   
made in this work to distinguish between
 the two forms of beauty in the various 
arts1 and the separate grades thereof4  
,it will be noticed that the writer has 

adopted the somewhat unusual course of  
including fiction among the fine arts4  
,why this practice is not commonly      
followed is hard to determine1 but no   
definition of a fine art has been or can
 be given which does not cover fiction4 
,in the definition here accepted1 the   
art is clearly included1 for the primary
 object of fiction is the beautiful     
representation of nature for the purpose
 of giving disinterested pleasure4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,art is independent of conditions of    
peoples or countries4 ,its germ is      
unconnected with civilization1 politics1
 religion1 laws1 manners1 or morals4 ,it
 may appear like a brilliant flower     
where the mind of man is an intellectual
 desert1 or refuse to bloom in the      
busiest hive of human energy4 ,its      
mother is the imagination1 and wherever 
this has room to expand1 there art will 
grow1 though the ground may be nearly   
sterile1 and the bud wither away from   
want of nourishment4 ,every child is    

born a potential artist1 for he comes   
into the world with sensorial nerves1   
and a brain which directs the           
imagination4 ,the primitive peoples made
 beautiful things long before they could
 read or write1 and the recognition of  
harmony of form appears to have been one
 of the first understandings in life    
after the primal instincts of           
self-preservation and the continuation  
of the species4 ,some of the sketches   
made by the cave men of ,france are     
equal to anything of the kind produced  
in a thousand years of certain ancient  
civilizations1 commencing countless     
centuries after the very existence of   
the cave men had been forgotten2 and    
even if executed now1 would be          
recognized as indicating the possession 
of considerable talent by the artists4  
,the greatest poem ever written was     
given birth in a country near which     
barbaric hordes had recently devastated 
populous cities1 and wrecked a national 
fabric with which were interwoven       

centuries of art and culture4 ,that the 
author of this poem had seen great works
 of art is certain1 or he could not have
 conceived the shield of ,achilles1 but 
the laboured sculpture that had fired   
his imagination1 and the legends which  
had perhaps been the seed of his        
masterpieces were doubtless buried with 
his own records beneath the tramp of    
numberless mercenaries4 ,fortunately    
here and there the human voice could    
draw from memory's store1 and so the    
magic of ,homer was whispered by the    
dying to the living2 but even his time  
and place are now only vaguely known1   
and he remains like the waratah on the  
bleached pasture of some desert         
fringe--a solitary blaze of scarlet     
where all else is drear and desolate4   
,strong is the root of art1 though frail
 the flower4 ,stifled in sun-burnt      
ground ere it can welcome the smile of  
light2 fading with the first blast of   
air upon its delicate shoots2           
shrivelling back to dust when the buds  

are ready to break2 or falling in the   
struggle to spread its branches after   
its beautiful blossoms have scattered   
their fragrance around3 whatever        
condition has brought it low1 it ever   
fights again--ever seeks to assure      
mankind that while it may droop or      
disappear1 its seed1 its heart1 its     
life1 are imperishable1 and surely it   
will bloom again in all its majesty4    
,sometimes with decades it has run a    
fitful course2 sometimes with centuries2
 sometimes with millenniums4 ,it has    
heralded every civilization1 but its    
breath is freedom1 and it flourishes and
 sickens only with liberty4 ,trace its  
course in the life of every nation1 and 
the track will be found parallel with   
the line of freedom of thought4 ,a      
solitary plant may bloom unimpeded far  
from tyranny's thrall1 but the art and  
soul of a nation live1 and throb1 and   
die1 together4    ,illustration3 ,,plate
 #a 7,see page #g7   ,head of ,cephren1 
#dth ,egyptian ,dynasty 7,cairo ,museum7

   ,chaldean ,head3 ,about #bfjj ,b4,c4 
7,louvre7  ,egypt1 ,babylon1 ,crete1    
,greece1 ,rome1 tell their stories      
through deathless monuments1 and all are
 alike in that they demonstrate the     
dependence of art expansion upon freedom
 of action and opinion4 ,an art rises1  
develops another and another1 and they  
proceed together on their way4 ,sooner  
or later comes catastrophe in the shape 
of crushing tyranny which curbs the mind
 with slavery1 or steel-bound sacerdotal
 rules which say to the artist ,thou    
shalt go no further1 or annihilation of 
nation and life4 ,what imagination can  
picture the expansion of art throughout 
the world had its flight been free since
 the dawn of history8 ,greece reached   
the sublime because its mind was        
unfettered1 but twenty or thirty        
centuries before ,phidias1 ,egyptian art
 had arrived at a loftier plane than    
that on which the highest plastic art of
 ,greece was standing but a few decades 
before the ,olympian ,zeus uplifted the 

souls of men1 while whole civilizations 
with their arts had lived and died1 and 
were practically forgotten4  ,it is to  
be observed that while in its various   
isolated developments1 art has proceeded
 from the immature to the mature1 there 
has been no general evolution1 as in    
natural life1 but on the other hand     
there seems to be a limit to its        
progress4 ,so far as our imagination can
 divine1 no higher reaches in art are   
attainable than those already achieved4 
,the mind can conceive of nothing higher
 than the spiritual1 and this cannot be 
represented in art except by means of   
form2 while within the range of human   
intelligence1 no suggestion of spiritual
 form can rise above the ideals of      
,phidias4 ,of the purely human form1    
nothing greater than the work of        
,praxiteles and ,raphael can be pictured
 on our brains4 ,there may be poets who 
will rival ,homer and ,shakespeare1 but 
it is exceedingly doubtful4 ,in any case
 we must discard the law of evolution as

 applicable to the arts1 with the one   
exception of music1 which1 on account of
 the special functioning of its signs1  
must be put into a division by itself4a 
a ,see ,chap4 ,,iii4  ,but although     
there has been no general progression in
 art parallel with the growth of the    
sciences and civilization1 there have   
been1 as already indicated1 many        
separate epochs of art cultivation in   
various countries1 sometimes accompanied
 by the production of immortal works1   
which epochs in themselves seem to      
provide examples of restricted          
evolution4#d ,it is desirable to refer  
to these art periods1 as they are       
commonly called1 for the purpose of     
removing1 if possible1 a not uncommon   
apprehension that they are the result of
 special conditions operating an        
aesthetic stimulus1 and that similar or 
related conditions must be present in   
any country if the flame of art there is
 to burn high and brightly4#e ,the      
well-defined periods vary largely both  

in character and duration1 the most     
important of them--the ,grecian         
development and the ,italian            
,renaissance--covering two or three     
centuries each1 and the others1 as the  
,french thirteenth century sculpture    
expansion1 the ,english literary revival
 in the sixteenth century1#f and the    
,dutch development in painting in the   
seventeenth1 lasting only a few decades4
 ,these latter periods can be dispensed 
with at once because they were each     
concerned with one art only1 and        
therefore can scarcely have resulted    
from a general aesthetic stimulus4 ,but 
the ,grecian and ,italian movements     
applied to all the arts4 ,they          
represented natural developments from   
the crude to the advanced1 of which all 
nations produce examples1 and were only 
exceptional in that they reached higher 
levels in art than were attained by     
other movements4 ,but there is no       
evidence to show that they were brought 
about by special circumstances outside  

of the arts themselves4 ,while there    
were national crises preceding the one  
development1 there was no trouble of    
consequence to herald the other1 nor was
 there any parallel between the         
conditions of the two peoples during the
 progress of the movements4 ,a short    
reference to each development will show 
that its rise and decline were the      
outcome of simple matter-of-fact        
conditions of a more or less accidental 
nature1 uninfluenced by an aesthetic    
impulse in the sense of inspiration4    
,the most common suggestion advanced to 
account for the rise in ,grecian art1 is
 that it was due to the exaltation of   
the ,greek mind through the victories of
 ,marathon1 ,plataea1 and ,salamis4     
,that a people should be so trampled    
upon as were the ,greeks2 that their    
cities should be razed1 their country   
desolated1 and their commerce destroyed2
 that notwithstanding all this they     
should refuse to give way before enemies
 outnumbering them twenty1 fifty1 or    

even a hundred to one2 and that after   
all they should crush these enemies1 was
 no doubt a great and heroic triumph1   
likely to exalt the nation and feed the 
imagination of the people for a long    
time to come2 but that these victories  
were responsible for the lofty eminence 
reached by the ,greek artists1 cannot be
 maintained4 ,from what we know of      
,calamis1 ,myron1 and others1 it is     
clear that ,grecian art was already on  
its way to the summit reached by        
,phidias when ,marathon and ,salamis    
were fought1 though the victories of the
 ,greek arms hastened the development   
for the plain reason that they led to an
 increased demand for works of art4 ,and
 the decline in ,grecian art resulted   
purely and simply from a lessened       
demand4 ,though this was the reason for 
the general decay1 there was a special  
cause for the apparent weakening with   
the commencement of the fourth century  
,b4,c4 ,in the fifth century ,phidias   
climbed as high in the accomplishment of

 ideals as the imagination could soar4  
,he reached the summit of human         
endeavour4 ,necessarily then1 unless    
another ,phidias arose1 whatever in art 
came after him would appear to mark a   
decline4 ,but it is scarcely proper to  
put the case of ,phidias forward for    
comparative purposes4 ,he carried the   
art of sculpture higher than it is      
possible for the painter to ascend1 and 
so we should rather use the giants of   
the fourth century--,scopas1            
,praxiteles1 ,lysippus1 ,apelles--as the
 standards to be compared with the      
foremost spirits of the ,italian        
,renaissance--,raphael and              
,michelangelo--for each of these groups 
achieved the human ideal1 though failing
 with the spiritual ideal established by
 ,phidias4  ,it must be remembered that 
all good art means slow work--long      
thinking1 much experiment1 tedious      
attention to detail in plan1 and careful
 execution4 ,meanwhile men have to live1
 even immortal artists1 and rarely      

indeed does one undertake a work of     
importance on his own account4 ,it is   
true that in the greater days of ,greece
 the best artists were almost entirely  
employed by a ,state1 or at least to    
execute works for public exhibition1 and
 doubtless the payment they received was
 quite a secondary matter with them1 but
 nevertheless few could practise their  
art without remuneration4 ,during the   
fifth and fourth centuries great events 
were constantly happening in ,greece1   
and in consequence there were numberless
 temples to build and adorn1 groves to  
decorate1 men to honour1 and monumental 
tombs to erect4 ,innumerable statues of 
gods and goddesses were wanted1 and we  
must not forget the wholesale           
destruction of ,athenian and other      
temples and sculptures during the       
,persian invasion4 ,in fact for a       
century and a half after ,plataea1 there
 was practically an unlimited demand for
 works of art1 and it was only when the 
empire of ,alexander began to crumble   

away that conditions changed4 ,while    
,greece was weakening ,rome was growing 
and her lengthening shadows were        
approaching the walls of ,athens4       
,greece could build no more temples when
 her people were becoming slaves of     
,rome2 she could order no more monuments
 when defeat was the certain end of     
struggle4 ,and so the decline was       
brought about1 not by want of artists1  
but through the dearth of orders and the
 consequent neglect of competition4  ,in
 the case of the ,italian ,renaissance  
the decadence was not due to the same   
cause4 ,the art of ,greece declined     
gradually in respect of quantity as well
 as quality1 while in ,italy after the  
decay in quality set in1 art was as     
nourishing as ever from the point of    
view of demand4 ,the change in the      
character of the art was due entirely to
 ,raphael's achievements4 ,as with the  
early ,greek1 nearly the whole of the   
early ,italian art was concerned with   
religion1 though in this case there were

 very few ideals4 ,the numerous ancient 
gods of ,greece and ,rome were long     
gone1 to become only classical heroes   
with the ,italians1 and their places    
were taken by twenty or thirty          
personages from the ,new ,testament4    
,incidents from the ,old ,testament were
 sometimes painted1 but nearly all the  
greater work dealt with the life of     
,christ and the ,saints4 ,the painters  
of the first century of the ,renaissance
 distributed their attention fairly     
equally among these personages1 but as  
time went on and the art became of a    
superior order1 artists aimed at the    
highest development of beauty that their
 imaginations could conceive1 and hence 
the severe beauty that might be shown in
 a picture of ,christ or a prominent    
,saint1 had commonly to give way to a   
more earthly perfection of feature and  
form1 which1 suggesting an ideal1 could 
only be given to the figure of the      
,virgin4 ,and so the test of the power  
of an artist came to be instinctively   

decided by his representation of the    
,madonna4 ,no doubt there were many     
persons living in the fifteenth century 
who watched the gradually increasing    
beauty of the ,madonna as depicted by   
the succession of great painters then   
working1 and wondered when and where the
 summit would be reached--when an artist
 would appear beyond whose work the     
imagination could not pass1 for there is
 a limit to human powers4  ,the genius  
arose in ,raphael1 and when he produced 
in the last ten or twelve years of his  
life1 ,madonna after ,madonna1 so far in
 advance of anything that had hitherto  
been done1 so great in beauty as to     
leave his fellow artists lost in wonder1
 so lofty in conception that the term   
divine was applied to him in his        
lifetime1 it was inevitable that a      
decadence should set in1 for so far as  
the intelligence could see1 whatever    
came after him must be inferior4 ,he did
 not ascend to the height of ,phidias1  
for a pure ideal of spiritual form is   

beyond the power of the painter1b but as
 with ,praxiteles he reached a perfect  
human ideal1 and so gained the supreme  
pinnacle of his art4 ,but while there   
was an inevitable decadence after him1  
as after ,praxiteles1 it was1 as already
 indicated1 only in the character of the
 art1 for in ,italy artists generally   
were as busy for a hundred years after  
,raphael1 as during his time4           
,michelangelo1 ,titian1 and the other   
giants who were working when ,raphael   
died1 kept up the renown of the period  
for half a century or so1 but it seemed 
impossible for artists who came on the  
scene after ,raphael's death1 to enter  
upon an entirely original course4 ,the  
whole of the new generation seemed to   
cling to the models put forward by the  
great ,urbino painter1 save some of the 
,venetians who had a model of their own 
in ,titian4    b ,see ,chap4 ,,ix4      
,thus it is clear that the rise and     
decline of the ,grecian and ,italian    
movements were due to well ascertained  

causes which had nothing to do with a   
national aesthetic impulse2 nor is there
 evidence of such an impulse connected  
with other art developments4  ,the      
suggestion that a nation may be assisted
 in its art by emotional or             
psychological influences arising from   
patriotic exaltation1 is only an        
extension of an opinion commonly held1  
that the individual artist is subject to
 similar influences1 though due to      
personal exaltation connected with his  
art4 ,it is as well to point out that   
there is only one way to produce a work 
of art1 and that is to combine the      
exercise of the imagination with skill  
in execution4 ,the artist conceives an  
idea and puts it into form4 ,he does    
nothing more4 ,he can rely upon no      
extraneous influence4 ,it is suggested  
that to bring about a supreme           
accomplishment in art1 the imagination  
must be associated with something       
outside of our power of control--some   
impulse which acts upon the brain but is

 independent of it4 ,this unmeasured    
force or lever is usually known by the  
term ,inspiration4 ,it is supposed that 
this force comes to certain persons when
 they have particular moods upon them1  
and gives them a great idea which they  
may use in a painting1 a poem1 or a     
musical composition4 ,the suggestion is 
attractive1 but in the long range of    
historical record there is no evidence  
that accident1 in the shape of          
inspiration or other psychological      
lever1 has been responsible in the      
slightest degree for the production of a
 work of art4 ,the writer of a sublime  
poem1 or the painter of a perfect       
,madonna1 uses the same kind of mental  
and material labour as the man who      
chisels a lion's head on a chair1 or    
adds a filigree ornament to a bangle4   
,the difference is one of degree only4  
,the poet or painter is gifted with a   
vivid imagination which he has          
cultivated by study2 and by diligence   
has acquired superlative facility in    

execution1 which he uses to the best    
advantage4 ,the work of the furniture   
carver or jeweller does not require such
 high powers1 and he climbs only a few  
steps of the ladder whose uppermost     
rungs have been scaled by the greater   
artists4  ,if in the course of the five 
and twenty centuries during which works 
of high art have been produced1 some of 
them had been executed with the         
assistance of a psychological impulse   
directed independently of the will1     
there would certainly have been         
references to the phenomenon by the     
artists concerned1 or the very numerous 
art historians1 but without a known     
exception1 all the great artists who    
have left any record of the cause of    
their success1 or whose views on the    
subject are to be gained by indirect    
references1 have attributed this success
 to hard study1 or manual industry1 or  
both together4 ,we know little of the   
opinion of the ancient ,greeks on the   
matter1 but the few anecdotes we have1  

indicate that their artists were very   
practical men indeed1 and hardly likely 
to expect mysterious psychological      
influences to help them in their work4  
,so with the ,romans1 and it is         
noticeable that the key to the          
production of beauty in poetry1 in the  
opinion of ,virgil and ,horace1 is      
careful preparation and unlimited       
revision4 ,this appears to be the view  
of some modern poets1 and if ,dante1    
,shakespeare1 and ,milton1 had          
experienced visionary inspiration1 we   
should surely have heard of it4         
,fortunately some of the most eminent   
painters of modern times have expressed 
themselves definitely upon the point4   
,lionardo observed that the painter     
arrives at perfection by manual         
operation2 and ,michelangelo asserted   
that ,raphael acquired his excellence by
 study and application4 ,rubens praised 
his brushes1 by which he meant his      
acquired facility1 as the instruments of
 his fortune2 and ,nicholas ,poussin    

attributed his success to the fact that 
he neglected nothing1 referring of      
course to his studies4 ,according to his
 biographers1 the triumphs of ,claude   
were due to his untiring industry1 while
 ,reynolds held that nothing is denied  
to well directed labour4 ,and so with   
many others down to ,turner1 whose      
secret according to ,ruskin1 was        
sincerity and toil4  ,it would seem to  
be possible for an artist to work       
himself into a condition of emotional   
excitement1#g either involuntarily when 
a great thought comes to him1 or        
voluntarily when he seeks ideas         
wherewith to execute a brilliant        
conception2 and it is comprehensible    
that when in this condition1 which is   
practically an extreme concentration of 
his mental energy upon the purpose in   
hand1 images or other aesthetic         
suggestions suitable for his work may   
present themselves to his mind4 ,these  
he might regard as the result of        
inspiration1 but in reality they would  

be the product of a trained imagination 
operating under advantageous conditions4
  ,nor can any rule be laid down that   
the character or temperament of an      
artist influences his work1 for if      
instances can be given in support of    
such an assertion1 at least an equal    
number may be adduced which directly    
oppose it4 ,if we might approximately   
gauge the true characters of ,fra       
,angelico and ,michelangelo from a study
 of their work1 it is certain that no   
imagination could conjure up the actual 
personalities of ,perugino and ,cellini1
 from an examination of the paintings of
 the one and the sculptures of the      
other4 ,what can be said on the subject 
when assassins of the nature of         
,corenzio and ,caravaggio painted so    
many beautiful things1 and evil-minded  
men like ,ribera and ,battistello       
adorned great churches with sacred      
compositions8 ,if the work of ,claude   
appears to harmonize with his character1
 that of ,turner does not4 ,friendless  

in youth3 loveless in manhood2 hopeless 
in death4 ,such was ,turner according to
 ,ruskin1 but is there any sign of this 
in his works8 ,not a trace4 ,if any     
conclusion as to his character and      
temperament can be drawn from ,turner's 
paintings1 it is that he was a gay1     
light-hearted thinker1 with all the     
optimism and high spirits that come from
 a delight in beautiful things4 ,the    
element of mood is unquestionably of    
importance in the work of an artist1 but
 it is not uncommon to find the         
character of his designs contrary to his
 mood4 ,poets1 as in the case of ,hood1 
or painters as with ,tassaert1 may      
execute the most lively pieces while in 
moods verging on despair4 ,with some men
 adversity quickens the imagination with
 fancies2 with others it benumbs their  
faculties4  ,the tendency of popular    
criticism to search for psychological   
phenomena in paintings1 apparently      
arises largely from the difficulty in   
comprehending how it is that certain    

artists of high repute vary their styles
 of painting after many years of good   
work1 and produce pictures without the  
striking beauty characterizing their    
former efforts4 ,sometimes when age is  
beginning to tell upon them1 they       
broaden their manner considerably1 as   
with ,rembrandt and others of the       
seventeenth century1 and many recent    
artists of lesser fame4 ,the critic1    
very naturally perhaps1 is chary of     
condemning work from the hand of one who
 has given evidence of consummate skill1
 and so seeks for hidden beauties in    
lieu of those to which he has been      
accustomed4 ,a simple enquiry into the  
matter will show that the change of     
style in these cases has a commonplace  
natural cause4    ,illustration3 ,,plate
 #b 7,see page #cai7   ,le ,bon ,dieu   
d',amiens 7,amiens ,cathedral7  ,to be  
in the front rank an artist must have   
acquired a vast knowledge of the        
technique of his art1 and have a        
powerful imagination which has been     

highly cultivated4 ,but the             
qualifications must be balanced4        
,commonly when this balance is not      
present the deficiency is in the        
imagination1 but there are instances    
where1 though the power of execution is 
supreme1 the imagination has so far     
exceeded all bounds as to render this   
power of comparatively small practical  
value4 ,the most conspicuous example of 
this want of balance is ,lionardo1 who  
accomplished little though he was       
scarcely surpassed in execution by      
,raphael or ,michelangelo4 ,his         
imagination invariably ran beyond his   
execution2 his ideas were always above  
the works he completed or partly        
finished3 he saw in fact far beyond     
anything he could accomplish1 and so was
 never satisfied with the result of his 
labour4 ,at the same time he was filled 
with ideas in the sciences1 and         
investigated every branch of knowledge  
without bringing his conclusions to     
fruition4 ,during the latter part of his

 life1 ,michelangelo showed a similar   
defect in a lesser degree1 for his      
unfinished works of the period exceed in
 number those he completed4 ,naturally  
such intellectual giants1 whose         
imaginations cannot be levelled with the
 highest ability in execution1 are few1 
but the lesser luminaries who fail1 or  
who constantly fail1 in carrying out    
their conceptions1 are legion1 though   
they may have absorbed the limit of     
knowledge which they are capable of     
acquiring in respect of execution4 ,it  
is common for a painter to turn out a   
few masterpieces and nothing else of    
permanent value4 ,this was the case with
 numerous ,italian artists of the       
seventeenth century1 and it is indeed a 
question whether there is one of them1  
except perhaps ,domenichino1 whose works
 have not a considerable range in       
aesthetic value4  ,there have been still
 more artists whose powers of execution 
were far beyond the flights of their    
imaginations4 ,they include the whole of

 the seventeenth century ,dutch school  
with ,rembrandt at their head1 and the  
whole of the ,spanish school of the same
 period1 except ,el ,greco1 ,zurbaran1  
and ,murillo4 ,when an artist is in the 
first rank in respect of execution1 but 
is distinctly inferior in imaginative   
scope1 his work in all grades of his    
art1 except the highest1 where ideals   
are possible1 seems to have a greater   
value than it really possesses because  
we are insensibly cognizant that the    
accomplishment rises above the idea upon
 which it is founded4 ,on the other hand
 his work in the highest plane appears  
to possess a lower value1 because we are
 surprised that ideals have not been    
attempted1 and that the types of the    
spiritual and classical personages      
represented are of the same class of men
 and women as those exhibited in works  
dealing with ordinary human occupations 
or actions4 ,this is why the sacred and 
classical pictures of ,rembrandt1       
,vermeer of ,delft1 and the other       

leading ,dutch artists1 appear to be    
below their portrait and genre work in  
power4  ,the course of variation in the 
work of a great painter follows the     
relative power of his imagination and   
his execution4 ,where there is a fair   
balance between the two1 the work of the
 artist increases in aesthetic value    
with his age and experience2 but when   
his facility in execution rises above   
the force of his imagination1 then his  
middle period is invariably the best1   
his later work showing a gradual        
depreciation in quality4 ,the reason is 
obvious4 ,the surety of the hand and eye
 diminishes more rapidly than the power 
of the mind1 which in fact is commonly  
enhanced with experience till old age   
comes on4 ,great artists who rely mostly
 upon their powers of execution1 and    
exhibit limited fertility in invention1 
such as ,rembrandt1 have often a manner 
which is so interwoven with the effects 
they seek1 that they are seldom or never
 able to avail themselves of the        

assistance of others in the lesser      
important parts of their work4 ,a man   
with the fertile mind of a ,rubens may  
gather around him a troupe of artists   
nearly as good as himself in execution1 
who will carry out his designs          
completely save for certain details4    
,thus he is not occupied with laborious 
toil1 and the decreasing accuracy of his
 handiwork troubles him but little4 ,on 
the other hand a ,rembrandt1 whose      
merits lie chiefly in the delicate      
manipulation of light effects and       
intricate shades in expression1 remains 
tied to his canvas4 ,he feels intensely 
the decreasing facility in the use of   
his brush which necessarily accompanies 
his advancing years1 and his only       
recourse from a stoppage of work is an  
alteration in manner involving a        
reduction of labour and a lessened      
strain upon the eyesight4 ,with few     
exceptions the great masterpieces of    
,rembrandt were produced in his middle  
period4 ,during the last ten or fifteen 

years of his life he gradually increased
 his breadth of manner4 ,he was still   
magnificent in general expression1 but  
the intimate details which produced such
 glorious effects in the great          
,amsterdam picture1 and fifty or more of
 his single portraits1 could not be     
obtained with hog's hair4#h             
,disconnecting then the work of the     
artist with inspiration or other        
psychological force1 we may now enquire 
what is mean by ,genius1 ,natural gift1 
or other term used to explain the power 
of an artist to produce a great work8   
,it would appear that the answer is     
closely concerned with the condition of 
the sensorial nerves at birth1 and the  
precocity or otherwise of the infantile 
imagination4 ,from the fact that we can 
cultivate the eye and ear so as to      
recognize forms of harmony which we     
could not before perceive1 and seeing   
that the effect of this cultivation is  
permanent1 it follows that exercise must
 bring about direct changes in the      

nerves associated with these organs1    
attuning them so to speak1 and enabling 
them to respond to newer harmonies      
arising from increased complexity of the
 signs used4#i ,it is matter of common  
knowledge that the structure of the     
sensorial nerves varies largely in      
different persons at birth1 and when a  
boy at a very early age shows precocious
 ability in music or drawing1 we may    
properly infer that the condition of his
 optic or aural nerves is comparatively 
advanced1 that is to say1 it is much    
less rudimentary than that of the       
average person at the same age2 in other
 words accident has given him a nerve   
regularity which can only be gained by  
the average boy after long exercise4    
,the precocious youth has not a nerve   
structure superior in kind1 but it is   
abnormally developed1 and so he is ahead
 of his confreres in the matter of time1
 for under equal conditions of study he 
is sooner able to arrive at a given     
degree of skill4  ,but early            

appreciation of complex harmony1 and    
skill in execution1 are not enough to   
produce a great artist1 for there must  
be associated with these things a       
powerful imagination4 ,while the        
particular nerves or vessels of the     
brain with which the imagination is     
concerned have not been identified1 we  
know by analogy and experience that the 
exercise of the imagination like that of
 any other function1 is necessary for   
its development1 and according as we    
allow it to remain in abeyance so we    
reduce its active value4 ,clearly also1 
the seat of the imagination at birth is 
less rudimentary in some persons than in
 others4 ,from these facts it would     
appear that when both the sensory nerve 
structure and the seat of the           
imagination are advanced at birth1 then 
we have the basis upon which the        
precocious genius is built up4 ,with    
such conditions1 patient toil and deep  
study are alone necessary to produce a  
sublime artist4 ,evidently it is        

extremely rare for the imagination and  
nerve structure to be together so       
advanced naturally1 but commonly one is 
more than rudimentary1 and the          
deficiency in the other is compensated  
for by study4#aj  ,of course these      
observations are general1 for there     
arises the question1 to what extent can 
the senses and imagination be trained8  
,we may well conceive that there is a   
limit to the development of the sense   
organs4 ,there must come a period when  
the optic or aural nerves can be attuned
 no further2 and is the limit equal in  
all persons8 ,the probability is that it
 is not4 ,the physical character of the 
nerves almost certainly varies in       
different persons1 some being able to   
appreciate more complex harmonies than  
others1 granted the limit of            
development4 ,this is a point which has 
to be considered1 particularly in the   
case of music wherein as a rule1 the    
higher the beauty the more complex the  
combinations of signs4 ,there is a      

parallel problem to solve in respect of 
the imagination4 ,we can well believe   
that there was something abnormal in the
 imagination of ,shakespeare1 beyond the
 probability that in his case the       
physiological system controlling the    
seat of the imagination was unusually   
advanced at birth4 ,it is quite certain 
that with such a man a given training   
would result in a far greater advance in
 the functioning capacity of the        
imagination1 than in the vast majority  
of persons who might commence the       
training on apparently equal terms2 and 
he would be able to go further--to      
surpass the point which might be the    
limit of development with most persons4 
,these questions are of the highest     
importance1 but they cannot be          
determined4 ,we are acquainted with     
certain facts relating to the general   
development of the sense organs1 and of 
the imagination2 and in regard to the   
former we know that there is a limit    
within comprehensible bounds1 but we see

 only very dimly anything finite in the 
scope of the imagination4 ,with what    
other term than limitless can we        
describe the imagination of a           
,shakespeare8 ,but in all cases1        
whatever the natural conditions at      
birth1 it is clear that hard work is the
 key to success in art1 and though some 
must work harder than others to arrive  
at an equal result1 it is satisfactory  
to know that generally ,carlyle was     
right when he described genius as the   
transcendent capacity for taking        
trouble1 and we are not surprised that  
,cicero should have come to the         
conclusion that diligence is a virtue   
that seems to include all the others4   
,seeing that the conclusions above      
defined 7and some to be later drawn71   
are not entirely in accord with a large 
part of modern criticism based upon what
 are commonly described as new and      
improved forms of the painter's art1 it 
is necessary to refer to these forms1   
which are generally comprehended under  

what is known as ,impressionism4c ,alas1
 to the frailty of man must we ascribe  
the spread of this movement1 which has  
destroyed so many bright young          
intellects1 and is at this moment       
leading thousands of gentle spirits     
along the level path which ends in      
despair4 ,for the real road of art is   
steep1 and difficult1 and long4 ,year   
upon year of patient thought1 patient   
observation1 and patient toil1 lie ahead
 of every man who covets a crown of     
success as a painter4 ,he must seek to  
accumulate vast stores of knowledge of  
the human form and its anatomy1 of      
nature in her prolific variety1 of      
linear and aerial perspective1 of       
animals which move on land or through   
the air1 of the laws of colours and     
their combinations4 ,he must sound the  
depths of poetry1 and sculpture1 and    
architecture2 absorb the cream of sacred
 and profane history2 and with all these
 things and many more1 he must saturate 
his mind with the practical details of  

his art4 ,every artist whose work the   
world has learned to admire has done his
 best to gain this knowledge1 and       
certainly no great design was ever      
produced by one whose youth and early   
manhood were not worn with ardent study4
 ,for knowledge and experience are the  
only foundations upon which the         
imagination can build4 ,every new       
conception is a rearrangement of known  
signs1 and the imagination is powerless 
to arrange them appropriately without a 
thorough comprehension of their         
character and significance4    c ,the   
varied interpretations of ,impressionism
 are referred to     elsewhere 7see page
    74 ,when using the term in this book
     without qualification1 the writer  
means thereby the subordination     of  
design to colour1 which definition      
covers all the forms of the     new art 
without going beyond any of them4  ,this
 then is the programme of work which    
must be adopted by any serious aspirant 
to fame in the art of the painter1 and  

it is perhaps not surprising that the   
number of artists who survive the ordeal
 is strictly limited4 ,in any walk of   
life where years of struggle are        
necessary for success1 how small the    
proportion of men who persevere to the  
end2 who present a steel wall to        
misfortune and despair1 and with an     
indomitable will1 overcome care1 and    
worry1 and fatigue1 for year after year1
 till at last the clouds disappear1 and 
they are able to front the world with an
 all-powerful shield of radiant         
knowledge6 ,but unfortunately in the    
painter's art it is difficult to        
convince students of the necessity for  
long and hard study1 because there is no
 definite standard for measuring success
 or failure which they can grasp without
 long experience4 ,in industries where  
knowledge is applied to improvement in  
appliances1 or methods with definite    
ends1 or to the realization of projects 
having a fixed scope1 failure is        
determined by material results measured 

commonly by mathematical processes of   
one kind or another4 ,a man produces a  
new alloy which he claims will fulfil a 
certain purpose4 ,it is tested by       
recognized means3 all concerned admit   
the validity of the test1 and there the 
matter ends4 ,but in the arts1 while the
 relative value of the respective grades
 is equally capable of demonstration1   
the test is of a different kind4        
,instead of weights and measures which  
every man can apply1 general experience 
must be brought in4 ,the individual may 
be right in his judgment1 and commonly  
is1 but he is unable to measure the     
evidence of his senses by material      
demonstration1 and as he has no means of
 judging whether his senses are normal1 
except by comparison1 he is liable to   
doubt his own experience if it clash    
with that of others4 ,thus1 he may find 
but little beauty in a given picture1   
and then may read or hear that the work 
has a high aesthetic value1 and without 
calling to mind the fact that no        

evidence in the matter is conclusive    
unless it be based on general           
experience1 he is liable to believe that
 his own perception is in some way      
deficient4  ,thus in the arts1 and      
particularly in painting1 there is ample
 scope for the spread of false          
principles4 ,poetry has an advantage in 
that the intellect must first be        
exercised before the simplest pictures  
are thrown on the brain1 so feeble or   
eccentric verse appeals to very few     
persons1 and seldom has a clientele1 if 
one may use the word1 outside of small  
coteries of weak thinkers4 ,it is       
difficult also in sculpture to put      
forward poor works as of a high order1  
because this art deals almost entirely  
with simple human and animal forms in   
respect of which the knowledge is       
universal1 and so as signs they cannot  
be varied except in the production of   
what would be immediately recognized as 
monstrosities4 ,but in painting an      
immense variety in kind of beauty may be

 produced1 from a simple colour harmony 
to the representation of ideal forms    
involving the highest sensorial and     
intellectual reaches1 and there is ample
 scope for the misrepresentation of     
aesthetic effects--for the suggestion   
that a work yielding a momentary appeal 
to the senses is superior to a high form
 of permanent beauty4  ,it is to the    
ease with which simple forms of         
ephemeral beauty may be produced in     
painting that is due the large number of
 artists who should never have entered  
upon the profession4 ,nearly every      
person of average intelligence is       
capable with a few lessons of producing 
excellent imitations of natural things  
in colour1 as for instance1 flowers1    
bits of landscape1 and so on1 and great 
numbers of young men and women1         
surprised at the facility with which    
this work can be done1 erroneously      
suppose that nature has endowed them    
with special gifts1 and so take up the  
art of painting as a career4 ,hence for 

every sculptor there are twenty         
painters4 ,now these youthful aspirants 
usually start with determination and    
hope1 but although they know the value  
of studious toil1 they rarely comprehend
 that this toil1 long continued1 is the 
only key to success4 ,most of them seem 
under the impression that inspiration   
will come to their assistance1 and that 
their genius will enable them to        
dispense with much of the labour which  
others1 less fortunate1 must undertake4 
,they do not understand that all        
painters1 even a ,raphael1 must go      
through long years of hard application4 
,we need not be surprised that there    
should be occasional eruptions in art   
circles tending to the exaltation of the
 immature at the expense of the         
superior1 or even the sublime1 for we   
have always with us the undiligent man  
of talent1 and the unrecognized genius4 
,but hitherto1 movements of the kind    
have not been serious1 for with one     
exception they are lost in oblivion1 and

 the exception is little more than a    
vague memory4 ,that the present movement
 should have lasted so long is not      
difficult to understand when we remember
 the modern advantages for the spread of
 new sensations--the exhibitions1 the   
unlimited advertising scope1 and above  
all the new criticism1 with its extended
 vocabulary1 its original philosophy1   
and its boundless discoveries as to the 
psychological and musical qualities of  
paint4 ,that history is silent as to    
previous eruptions of the kind before   
the seventeenth century is a matter of  
regret4 ,it is unlikely that the        
greatest of all art epochs experienced  
an impressionist fever1 for one cannot  
imagine the spread of spurious          
principles within measurable distance of
 a ,state 7,thebes7 which went so far as
 to prohibit the representation of      
unbeautiful things4 ,in respect of      
poetry we know that the ,greeks stood no
 nonsense1 for did not ,zoilus suffer an
 ignominious death for venturing upon   

childish criticism of ,homer8 ,in ,rome 
eccentric painters certainly found some 
means to thrive1 for where ,bohemian    
poets gathered1 who neglected the barber
 and the bath1 and pretended an         
aesthetic exclusiveness1 there surely   
would painters of isms be found in      
variety4 ,naturally in the early stages 
of the ,renaissance1 when patronage of  
the arts was almost confined to the     
,church1 and so went hand in hand with  
learning1 inferior art stood small      
chance of recognition2 and a little     
later when ,lorenzo gathered around him 
the intellectual cream of ,italy2 when  
the pupils of ,donatello were spreading 
the light of his genius2 when the       
patrician beauties of ,florence were    
posing for ,ghirlandaio and his         
brilliant confreres1 and when the minds 
of ,lionardo and ,michelangelo were     
blooming2 who would have dared to talk  
of the psychological qualities of paint1
 or suggest the composition of a fresco 
symphony8    ,illustration3 ,,plate #c  

7,see page #aaa7   ,ancient ,copy of the
 ,cnidian ,venus of ,praxiteles         
7,vatican7  ,but another century and    
more passed away4 ,the blaze of the     
,renaissance had gone down1 but the     
embers were kept alive1 for ,italy still
 seemed to vibrate with a desire to     
paint4 ,simultaneously in ,flanders1 in 
,holland1 in ,france1 and in ,england1  
private citizens appeared to develop a  
sudden demand for pictures1 and quite   
naturally artists multiplied and fed the
 flame4 ,outside of ,italy the hustle   
and bustle in the art world were        
novelties to the general public1 though 
pleasant ones withal1 and for half a    
century or more they delighted in the   
majestic designs of ,rubens and ,van    
,dyck1 the intimate scenes of the ,dutch
 artists1 and the delicate landscapes of
 ,claude and ,poussin and their         
followers1 which were continually       
finding their way from ,rome4 ,the      
simplicity of the people protected the  
arts4 ,they knew the hard labour        

involved in the production of a picture2
 the worries1 the struggles1 the joys of
 the painters2 and daily saw beautiful  
imitations of every-day life in the     
shops and markets4 ,they must have been 
proud of them--insensibly proud of the  
value of human endeavour4 ,for them the 
sham and immature had no place3 there is
 not a single example of spurious art of
 the first three quarters of the        
seventeenth century that has come down  
to us from ,holland or ,flanders4 ,but  
while the ,dutch school was at the      
height of its fame1 a change was marking
 ,italian art conditions4 ,the half     
score of academies scattered through the
 country were still in a state of       
activity1 carrying on1 as far as they   
could1 the traditions of the            
,renaissance3 from all parts of ,europe 
students were still pouring in1         
endeavouring to glean the secrets of the
 immortals2 and there was no apparent   
decrease in the demand for pictures from
 the religious foundations and private  

buyers4 ,but the character of the art   
produced was rapidly declining3 the     
writing on the wall was being done by   
the hand that wielded the brush4 ,as a  
necessary consequence the trader was    
called in and art began to be           
commercialized4 ,worse still1 fashions  
appeared1 guided by successive masters  
in the various centres1 often with an   
influence quite out of proportion with  
their merits4  ,by the middle of the    
century a general fall in activity and  
enthusiasm was noticeable4 ,the         
disciples of the ,roman school1 largely 
through the pernicious influence of     
,bernini1 had nearly forgotten the great
 lessons taught by the followers of     
,raphael1 and later by the three        
,carracci1 and were fast descending     
below mediocrity2 the ,florentine school
 included half a dozen good painters1   
mostly students of ,berritini3 ,venice  
was falling into a stagnation in which  
she remained till the appearance of     
,longhi and ,tiepolo and their brethren2

 ,bologna was living on the reputation  
of the ,carracci1 and had yet to recover
 with the aid of ,cignani3 ,milan and   
,genoa as separate schools had          
practically faded away2 and the         
,neapolitan school was relying on       
,salvator ,rosa1 though ,luca ,giordano 
was growing into an inexhaustible hive  
of invention4 ,this was the condition of
 ,italian art1 while political and other
 troubles were further complicating the 
position of artists4 ,for most of them  
the time was gloomy and the future dark4
 ,a few turned to landscape2 others     
extended the practice of copying the    
early masters for the benefit of foreign
 capitals1 while some sought for novelty
 in still-life1 or in the then newly    
practised pastel work4 ,but there was a 
considerable number who would have none 
of these things2 some of them with      
talent but lacking industry1 and others 
with industry but void of imagination4  
,what were these to do at a time when at
 the best the outlook was poor8  ,an    

answer came to this question4 ,a new    
taste must be cultivated1 and for an art
 that required less study and trouble to
 produce than the sublime forms with    
which the ,renaissance culminated4 ,so  
whispers went round that ,raphael was   
not really so great a master as was     
supposed1 and that with ,michelangelo he
 was out of date and did not comprehend 
the real meaning of art--very similar   
conclusions with which the modern       
impressionist movement was heralded4#aa 
,the discovery was made in ,rome1 but   
the news expanded to ,florence and      
,naples1 and ,venice1 and behold the    
result--,sprezzatura1 or to use the     
modern word1 ,impressionism1 that is to 
say1 the substitution of sketches for   
finished pictures1 though this is not   
the definition usually given to it4 ,but
 fortunately for the art of the time the
 innovation was chiefly confined to     
coteries4 ,all that could be said or    
done failed to convince the principal   
patrons of the period that a half       

finished work is so beautiful as a      
completed one1 and so the novelties     
rarely found entrance into great        
collections1 nor were they used to adorn
 the interiors of public buildings4 ,but
 a good many of them were executed      
though they have long ceased to interest
 anybody4 ,now and again one comes      
across an example in a sleepy ,italian  
village1 or in the smaller shops of     
,rome or ,florence1 but it is quickly   
put aside as a melancholy memento of a  
disordered period of art when talented  
painters had to struggle for fame1 and  
the untalented for bread4  ,the cult of 
,sprezzatura faded to a glimmer before  
the end of the seventeenth century4     
,bernini was dead1 and ,carlo ,maratta  
with a few others led the way in        
re-establishing the health if not the   
brilliancy and renown of ,italian art4  
,nor did a recurrence of the movement   
occur in the next century4 ,during this 
period there was comparatively little   
call for art in ,italy1 and at the end  

of it1 when political disturbances made 
havoc with academies and artists1 the   
principal occupation of ,italian        
painters with talent was precisely that 
of their skilled brethren in ,holland   
and ,flanders--the manufacture of old   
masterpieces4 ,it was reserved for the  
second half of the nineteenth century   
for ,sprezzatura to make its            
reappearance1 and this time ,italy      
followed the lead of ,france4  ,there   
are many methods and mannerisms which go
 under the name of ,impressionism1 but  
they are mostly suggestions in design or
 experiments in tones which were        
formerly produced solely as studies to  
assist artists in executing their       
complete works1 or else eccentricities  
which are obviously mere camouflage for 
lack of skill4#ab ,sometimes the        
sketches are slightly amplified with    
more or less finished signs1 and now and
 then novelties are present in the shape
 of startling colour effects2 but in all
 cases the impartial observer sees in   

the pictures only sensorial beauty of a 
kind which is inevitably short lived1   
while his understanding is oppressed    
with the thought1 firstly that the      
picture is probably the result of a want
 of diligence on the part of the artist1
 and secondly that its exhibition as a  
serious work is somewhat of a reflection
 upon the intelligence of the public4   
,obviously the fundamental basis of     
,impressionism is weak and illogical1   
for in our conception of nature it      
invites us to eliminate the             
understanding4 ,what the impressionist  
practically says is3 ,we do not see     
solid form2 we see only flat surface in 
which objects are distinguished by      
colours4 ,the artist should reproduce   
these colours irrespective of the nature
 of the objects4 ,but the objects are   
distinguished by our knowledge and      
experience1 and if we are to eliminate  
these in one art1 why not in another8   
,why trouble about carving in the round 
when we only actually see in the human  

figure a flat surface defined by colour8
 ,there is no scene in nature such as   
the impressionist paints1 nor can such a
 scene be thrown upon the mind of the   
painter as a natural scene4 ,except in  
absolute deserts there are no scenes    
without many signs which are clearly    
defined to the eye1 and which the artist
 can paint4 ,he cannot of course produce
 all the signs in a view1 but he can    
indicate sufficient of them to make a   
beautiful picture apart from the tones1 
and there can be no valid aesthetic     
reason for substituting for these signs 
vague suggestions of colour infinitely  
less definite than the signs as they    
appear in nature4 ,nor is there any such
 atmosphere in nature as the            
impressionist usually paints4 ,we do not
 see blotched outlines of human figures1
 but the outlines in nature1 except at a
 considerable distance1 appear to us    
clear and decisive though delicately    
shaded1 and not as seen through a veil  
of steam4 ,nor has any valid reason been

 advanced for juxtaposing pure colours  
instead of blending them before use4#ac 
,why should the eye have to seek a      
particular distance from a painting in  
order that the colours might naturally  
blend1 when the artist can himself blend
 them and present a harmony which is    
observable at any reasonable distance8  
,we do not carve a statue with blurred  
and broken edges1 and then tell the     
observer that the outlines will appear  
correct if he travel a certain distance 
away before examining them4  ,in giving 
nearly his whole attention to colour the
 impressionist limits his art to the    
feeblest form1 and produces a quickly   
tiring1 ephemeral thing1 as if          
unconscious of natural beauty4 ,sylvan  
glades and fairy dales1 where the brooks
 ripple pleasantly as they moisten the  
roots of the violet1 and gently lave the
 feet of the lark and the robin2 where  
shady trees bow welcome to the wanderer2
 where the grassy carpet is sprinkled   
with flowers1 and every bush can tell of

 lovers' sighs6 ,does the impressionist 
see these things8 ,offer him the        
sweetest beauties of nature1 and he     
shows you in return a shake of a        
kaleidoscope4 ,mountain peaks towering  
one above the other till their snowy    
crests sparkle the azure sky2 mighty    
rivers dividing the hills1 crumbling the
 granite cliffs1 or thundering their    
course over impeding rocks2 cascades of 
flowing crystal falling into seething   
seas of foam and mist2 the angry ocean  
convulsively defying human power with   
its heaving walls and fearsome caverns6 
,nature in her grandest form3 sublime   
forces which kindle the spirit of man3  
exhibit them to the impressionist1 and  
he presents to you a flat experiment in 
the juxtaposition of pure colours6 ,and 
the majesty of the human form1 with its 
glorious attributes2 the noble woman and
 courageous man2 incidents of           
self-sacrifice2 the realms of spiritual 
beauty1 and the great ideals which      
expand the mind to the bounds of space  

and lift the soul to ,heaven6 ,what of  
these8 ,ask the impressionist1 and he   
knows nothing of them4 ,for his pencil  
they are but relics of the past1 like   
the bones of the men who immortalized   
them in art4  ,this is perhaps an       
overstatement of impressionism as       
applied to the works of a large number  
of artists1 who although commonly       
sacrificing form to colour1 infuse more 
or less interest in the human poses and 
actions which are nominally the subjects
 of their pictures4 ,but one can only   
deal generally with such a matter4 ,the 
evil of ,impressionism does not lie in  
the presentation of colour harmonies as 
beautiful things1 for they are          
unquestionably pleasing1 though the     
beauty is purely sensorial and of an    
ephemeral character4 ,the mischief      
arises from the declaration1 overt or   
implied1 that these harmonies represent 
the higher reaches of the painter's art1
 and that form or design therein is of  
secondary importance4 ,let something    

false in thought or activity be         
propagated in any domain where the      
trader can make use of it1 then surely  
will the evil grow1 each new weed being 
more rank than its predecessor4         
,impressionism is not a spurious form of
 art1 but seeing that its spurious      
claims were widely accepted1 with       
substantial results1 there soon appeared
 innumerable other forms inferior to it4
 ,there is no necessity to deal here    
with these forms1 with the crude        
experiments of ,cezanne1 the vagaries of
 ,van ,gogh1#ad the puerilities of      
,matisse1 or the awful sequence of isms1
 commencing with ,post-,impressionism1  
and ending in the lowest depths of art  
degradation2 but it is proper to point  
out that so long as ,impressionism puts 
forward its extravagant pretensions1    
these corrupt forms will continue to    
taint the realm of art to the detriment 
of both artists and public4  ,the       
significance of ,impressionism is       
alleged by its advocates to be of such  

considerable import that in the public  
interest they should have brought       
forward the most cogent arguments for   
its support4 ,but we have no such       
arguments1 nor has any logical reason   
been advanced to offset the obvious     
practical defects of the innovation1    
namely1 that in the general opinion the 
art is incomplete and decidedly         
inferior1 and that the leading critics  
of every country have ignored or        
directly condemned it as an immature    
form of art4 ,nevertheless1 although    
there has been no determined attempt to 
upset the basis of art criticism as this
 basis has been understood for more than
 twenty centuries2 although the whole of
 the arguments in support of the various
 forms of ,impressionism have failed to 
indicate any comprehensible basis at    
all1 but have dealt entirely with vague 
sensorial theories1 and psychological   
suggestions which have no general       
meaning2 although it has never been     
remotely advanced that the beauty       

produced by means of ,impressionism is  
connected with intellectual activity1 as
 any high form of art must necessarily  
be3 notwithstanding all this1 there has 
been gradually growing up in the public 
mind1 a vague and uncertain             
signification of the comparative forms  
of art1 which tends to the general      
confusion of thought amongst the public1
 and a chaos of ideas in the minds of   
young artists4  ,the root of these      
spreading branches of mysticism is to be
 found in the insistent affirmation that
 the broad manner of painting is        
necessary for the production of great   
work1 and that only those old masters   
who used this manner are worthy of      
study4 ,it is1 as if the advocates of   
the new departure declare1 ,if we cannot
 demonstrate the superiority of our     
work1 we can at least affirm that our   
methods are the best4 ,where a small    
minority is persistent in advocating    
certain views1 and the great majority do
 not trouble about replying thereto1    

false principles are likely to find     
considerable area for permeation among  
the rising generation1 who are easily   
impressed with the appearance of        
undisputed authority4 ,in the matter we 
are discussing1 the limited authority is
 particularly likely to be recognized by
 the inexperienced of those mostly      
concerned1 that is to say1 young        
artists1 because it sanctions a method  
of work which reduces to a minimum the  
labour involved in arriving at          
excellence by the regular channels4     
,now the artist is at liberty to use any
 method of painting in producing his    
picture providing he presents something 
beautiful4 ,there is no special virtue  
in a broad manner1 a fine manner1 or any
 other manner1 and the public1 for whom 
the artist toils1 is not concerned with 
the point4 ,it is as indifferent to the 
kind of brushwork used by the painter1  
as to the variety of chisel handled by  
the sculptor4 ,the observer of the      
picture judges it for its beauty1 and if

 it be well painted1 then the character 
of the brushwork is unconsidered4 ,if1  
however1 the brushwork is so broad that 
the manner of painting protrudes itself 
upon the observer at first sight1 then  
the work cannot be of a high class4 ,all
 the paintings which we recognize as    
great works of art are pictured upon the
 brain as complete things immediately   
they are brought within the compass of  
the eye1 and to this rule there is no   
exception4 ,if1 when encompassed by the 
sight we find that a picture is so      
broadly painted that we must move       
backwards to an unknown point before the
 character of the work can be thoroughly
 comprehended as a complete whole1 then 
it is distinctly inferior as a work of  
art1 because1 being incomprehensible on 
first inspection1 it is necessarily     
unbeautiful1 and the act of converting  
it into a thing of beauty1 by means of a
 mechanical operation1 complicates the  
picture on the brain and so weakens its 
aesthetic value4#ae ,this is axiomatic4 

,there are proportions and propriety in 
all the arts1 and the good artist is    
quite aware of the lines to be drawn in 
respect of the manner he adopts4 ,jan   
,van ,eyck's picture of ,arnolfini and  
his ,wife1 and ,holbein's ,ambassadors1 
both painted in the fine manner1 are    
equally great works of art with         
,titian's portraits2 and ,raphael's     
portrait of ,julius ,,ii4 7the ,pitti   
,palace example71#af which is in a      
manner midway between that of ,holbein  
and ,titian1 is superior to the work of 
all other portrait artists4  ,but the   
most remarkable outcome of the spread of
 ,impressionism is not the extravagant  
use of the broad manner1 for vagaries of
 this sort will always find support     
among immature minds and undiligent     
hands1 but the establishment of a       
species of cult connected with certain  
old masters who are not in the very     
first rank1 and the attempted relegation
 to the background of public opinion1 of
 the few sublime painters whose colossal

 genius and superiority are recognized  
by well balanced minds wherever the     
breath of man can open the door of his  
soul4 ,it is unnecessary to enter upon a
 long enquiry as to the validity of     
these proceedings1 but the new position 
in which two great masters have been    
placed can scarcely be ignored4 ,these  
masters are ,rembrandt and ,velasquez1  
who appear to have been set upon the    
loftiest of pedestals in order that some
 of their glory may be shed upon the new
 varieties of ,sprezzatura4 ,it has been
 frequently said that these masters were
 the first of impressionists1 but the   
connection between their work and       
,impressionism is hard to find4#ag ,not 
only is ,rembrandt entirely distinct in 
his manner from ,velasquez2 not only    
were they both portrait painters        
primarily1 while the great bulk of      
impressionist work is landscape2 but    
their aims1 their ideas1 and the whole  
of their works are as far removed from  
the new school as the poles are asunder4

 ,the work of the two great painters    
deals almost entirely with expression1  
that of the impressionists with colour  
harmonies4 ,in the one case intellectual
 beauty is sought to accompany the      
sensorial1 in the other the production  
of beauty which is not purely or almost 
entirely sensorial1 is not even         
pretended4 ,while these differences are 
obvious1 and while no man of ordinary   
intelligence is likely to be confused in
 his mind in respect of them1 the fact  
remains that the movement1 which was    
born with ,impressionism some forty     
years ago1 to raise ,rembrandt and      
,velasquez to an elevation in art to    
which they are not entitled1 has met    
with much success amongst that          
considerable section of the community   
which is interested in art and          
appreciates its value1 but suffers from 
the delusion that special knowledge1    
which it has not acquired1 is necessary 
for the recognition of high aesthetic   
merit4 ,no definite propositions have   

been laid down in support of the        
movement3 there has been no line of     
reasoning for the critic to handle1 nor 
have the old standards been upset in the
 slightest degree3 the position has been
 brought about chiefly by a continuous  
reiteration of vague assertions and     
mystic declarations1 and by the glamour 
arising from the enormous prices paid by
 collectors for the works of the masters
 named1 consequent upon the skilful     
commercial exploitation of this         
exaggerated approbation4                
,illustration3 ,,plate #d 7,see ,page   
#aac7   ,venus ,anadyomene 7,sculpture  
after the painting of ,apelles7         
,illustration3 ,,plate #e 7,see page    
#aae7   ,venus ,anadyomene 7,the        
painting of ,titian7  ,portraiture is   
necessarily on a lower scale of art than
 historical painting 7using this term in
 its higher application71 firstly       
because ideals are not possible therein1
 and secondly in that the imagination of
 the artist is very restricted4 ,the    

greatest portrait ever painted is       
immeasurably below a picture where a    
beautiful ideal form1 with ideal        
expression is depicted2 as far below in 
fact as the best ancient sculptured     
busts were inferior to the gods of      
,praxiteles4 ,neither ,rembrandt nor    
,velasquez was capable of idealization  
of form1 and so neither left behind him 
a single painted figure to take its     
place as a type4 ,rembrandt was a master
 of human expression1 and in the        
representation of character he was      
perhaps unsurpassed by any painter1 but 
if we analyze the feeling that is at the
 bottom of the appreciation of his      
portraits1 we find that it largely      
consists of something apart from        
admiration of them as things of beauty4 
,there enters into consideration        
recognition of the extraordinary genius 
of the artist in presenting character in
 such a way that the want of corporeal  
beauty seems to be unfelt4 ,instead of  
observing that the expression in a      

countenance harmonizes with the         
features1 we involuntarily notice that  
the features harmonize perfectly with   
the expression1 which seems in itself to
 be the picture4 ,of course inasmuch as 
the expression invariably appeals to the
 good side of our nature1 it means      
intellectual beauty1 but as the depth of
 any impression of this kind of beauty  
depends upon the development of the     
mind1 the admiration must1 except where 
the artist presents corporeal beauty1 be
 confined generally to the cultivated   
section of the community4 ,from the     
point of view of pure art1 his fame as a
 great painter can only rest upon those 
of his pictures which are also          
appreciated for the corporeal beauty    
exhibited4  ,the extraordinary power of 
,velasquez lay in the sure freedom of   
his execution1 and in this he was equal 
to ,titian4 ,he was besides a master of 
balance1 and so every portrait he       
painted is one complete whole1 and has  
exactly the effect that a portrait      

should have--to direct the mind of the  
observer to the subject1 and away       
altogether from the painter4 ,but these 
high qualities as portrait painters do  
not place ,rembrandt and ,velasquez on a
 level with ,raphael1 and ,michelangelo1
 and ,correggio4 ,whatever the          
individual opinion1 it is impossible to 
move aside from the long path of        
experience and the laws dependent upon  
natural functions1 and so long as the   
world lasts1 a work of ideal beauty1    
whether it be a ,madonna by ,raphael1 a 
,prophet by ,michelangelo1 or a         
symbolical figure by ,fragonard1 will   
live in general estimation1 which is the
 only test of high beauty1 far above    
portraits from life and scenes of every 
day labour1 however they may be painted4
 ,the beauty of the one is eternal and  
exalting2 and of the other1 sympathetic 
and more or less passive4 ,the          
appreciation of ,raphael and            
,michelangelo is universal1 spontaneous1
 emphatic2 of ,rembrandt and ,velasquez1

 sometimes imperative1 but usually      
deliberative and cultivated4 ,in fact it
 is only amongst a section of cultivated
 people1 that is to say1 a small        
percentage of the community1 that       
,rembrandt and ,velasquez are given a   
status which is not1 and cannot be1     
accorded them if we adhere to the       
natural and time-honoured standards of  
judgment accepted by the first artists  
and philosophers known to the world     
since art emerged from the prehistoric  
shade4 ,to place these artists above1 or
 on a level with1 the ,italian artists  
named1 is to cast from their pedestals  
,homer1 ,phidias1 ,praxiteles1 ,apelles1
 ,shakespeare1 ,dante1 and every other  
admittedly sublime genius in art of whom
 we have record4  ,another baneful      
result of ,impressionism is the attempt 
to raise landscape to a higher level in 
art than that to which it is properly   
entitled4 ,this is perhaps a natural    
consequence of the elevation of colour  
at the expense of form1 for the movement

 is based upon new methods of colouring1
 and the significance of colour is      
vastly greater in landscape than in any 
other branch of art4 ,elsewhere the     
disabilities of the landscape painter   
are pointed out1 and it will be seen    
that fixed and unalterable restrictions 
compel an extreme limitation to his     
work4 ,it is because of these           
restrictions that the very greatest     
artists have refrained from paying close
 attention to this branch of art as a   
separate department4  ,from indirect    
records we may presume that landscape   
painting was well understood in the days
 of ancient ,greece1 but there is no    
evidence that it then formed a separate 
branch of art4 ,in ,roman times         
according to ,pliny1 landscape was used 
for mural decoration4 ,of its character 
we can only judge from the examples     
exposed during the excavations at       
,pompeii and ,herculaneum1 which        
indicate that the pictures had but a    
topographical interest1 or formed       

settings for the representation of      
industrial pursuits or classical        
adventures4 ,certainly there is no      
instance in ,greek or ,roman art        
recorded or exhibited1 of any landscape 
as we understand it1 that is1 a work    
built up as a beautiful representation  
of nature1 to be instantly recognized by
 the observer as a complete whole1 as   
one sign in fact4 ,the artists of the   
,italian ,renaissance did not paint     
landscapes as separate pictures unless  
by way of study or experiment4 ,they    
evidently considered landscape signs    
purely as accessories1 and composed     
their natural views with special        
reference to figure designs4 ,some of   
them1 particularly the leaders of the   
,venetian ,school1 occasionally painted 
pictures in which landscape appears to  
play an important part1 but in these    
cases the landscape is really           
subsidiary1 though essential to the     
design2 and the works cannot be compared
 in any way with those of ,claude and   

others who often added figures to their 
landscapes in order to comply with the  
wishes of their patrons4 ,the fifteenth 
century ,flemish artists also dealt with
 landscape purely as background1 and so 
with ,martin ,schongauer1 ,duerer1 and  
other early ,german painters4 ,but all  
the great painters down to the decline  
of the ,renaissance1 closely studied    
landscape1 as is evidenced by the       
numerous sketches still existing1 and   
the finished pictures remaining clearly 
indicate that by the middle of the      
sixteenth century artists had little or 
nothing to learn in landscape art1 save 
the management of complex aerial        
perspective4  ,since landscape painting 
was introduced as a separate art towards
 the end of the sixteenth century1 it   
has only commanded general attention    
when the higher art of the painter has  
appeared to decline4 ,in ,flanders the  
spurt in landscape due to ,paul ,bril   
was terminated with the last of the     
,breughels by the overpowering splendour

 of ,rubens in historical work1 and the 
attempts of even ,rubens himself to     
create a greater interest in landscape  
signally failed4 ,there were some good  
landscape painters in ,holland during   
the flourishing period of the ,dutch    
school1 but it was only when ,rembrandt1
 ,dow1 ,terburg1 and the rest of the    
bright constellation of figure painters 
had passed their zenith1 or were resting
 in quiet graves1 that landscape        
painting became in any way general4     
,then it was that ,hobbema1 ,jacob      
,ruysdael1 and their numerous followers1
 with coast painters like ,van der      
,cappelle1 and sea painters as ,william 
van de ,velde1 turned out the many fine 
works which are now so highly prized4   
,the ,italians of the seventeenth       
century were too close to ,raphael1 and 
,michelangelo1 and ,titian1 to permit of
 a landscape being generally received as
 a great work of art1 but there appeared
 at this time in ,rome numerous         
foreigners from ,france1 and ,flanders1 

and ,holland1 who were devoted to       
landscape1 and amongst them the greatest
 genius known in the art--,claude       
,lorraine4 ,he was the first to put the 
sun in the sky on canvas for the purpose
 of pure landscape2 the first to master 
thoroughly the intricate difficulties of
 aerial perspective2 the first to adorn 
the earth with fairy castles and dreamy 
visions of nature1 such as we might     
suppose to have been common in the days 
of the ,golden ,age1 ere yet men fought 
for power1 or toiled from morn to eve   
for daily bread4 ,with his magic wand he
 skimmed the cream of natural beauty and
 spread it over the ,roman ,campagna1   
transforming this historic ground into a
 region of palaces1 terraces1 cascades1 
and glorious foliage4 ,at the same time 
,nicholas ,poussin was also using the   
,campagna for the landscape settings of 
his classical compositions--such perfect
 settings that it is impossible to      
imagine the figures separated from their
 surroundings4 ,these two artists with  

their disciples1 and many ,flemish and  
,dutch painters headed by ,berghem and  
the two ,boths1 formed a landscape      
colony of considerable importance1 but  
no ,italian landscape school was founded
 from it4 ,in the next century there was
 little pure landscape in ,italy4 ,some 
fine works of topographical1 and a few  
of general interest were produced by    
,canaletto and his followers1 and a kind
 of landscape school was maintained in  
,venice for half a century or more1 but 
elsewhere in ,italy the cultivation of  
landscape was spasmodic and feeble4  ,in
 ,england and ,france1 landscape as a   
separate art has only made considerable 
headway quite recently1 though there    
have been local schools1 as the ,norwich
 and ,barbizon1 which followed          
particular methods in design4 ,meanwhile
 ,england produced some isolated giants 
in landscape1 as ,wilson1 ,gainsborough1
 ,turner1 and ,constable1 ,turner       
standing out as the greatest painter of 
strong sun effects on record4 ,it will  

be seen that until the last generation  
or so1 in no country has landscape been 
admitted to high rank as a separate art1
 universal opinion very properly        
recognizing that the highest beauty in  
the handiwork of man is to be found in  
the representation of the human figure4 
,profound efforts of the imagination are
 not required in landscape1 for it      
consists of a particular arrangement of 
inanimate signs which have no direct    
influence upon the mind1 and cannot     
appeal to the higher faculties4 ,there  
is no scope therein for lofty           
conceptions1 and consequently the       
sensorial beauty exhibited must be very 
high to have more than a quickly passing
 effect upon the observer4 ,this high   
beauty is most difficult to obtain1 and 
can only be reached by those who have a 
supreme knowledge of the technique of   
their art2 who have made a long and     
close study of natural signs and        
effects2 and who are possessed of       
uncommon patience and industry4 ,we need

 not be surprised that scarcely one out 
of every hundred landscape painters     
executes a work which lasts a           
generation1 and not one out of a        
thousand secures a permanent place on   
the roll of art4 ,the man who does not  
give his life from his youth up1 to his 
work1 concentrating his whole energy    
upon it1 to the exclusion of everything 
else1 will paint only inferior          
landscapes4 ,the four greatest landscape
 painters known to us are ,claude and   
,turner in distance work1 and ,hobbema  
and ,jacob ,ruysdael in near-ground4    
,claude was labouring for twenty-five   
years before he succeeded in            
accomplishing a single example of those 
lovely fairy abodes so forcibly         
described by ,goethe as absolute truth  
without a sign of reality4 ,turner took 
more than twenty years to master the    
secrets of ,claude2 ,jacob ,ruysdael    
spent a quarter of a century in working 
out to perfection the representation of 
flowing water1 and ,hobbema passed      

through more than half of his long life 
before arriving at his superlative      
scheme of increasing his available      
distance by throwing in a powerful      
sunlight from the back of his trees4    
,and a long list of landscape painters  
of lesser lustre might be given1 who    
went through from fifteen to thirty     
years of painstaking labour before      
executing a single first-class picture4 
,great landscapes of the pure variety   
are of two kinds1 and two kinds only4   
,the highest are those where an illusion
 of opening distance or other movement  
is provided1 and the second class are   
where natural scenes of common          
experience1 under common conditions of  
atmosphere1 are faithfully reproduced4  
,the lighter landscapes representing    
phases1 as the sketches of the ,barbizon
 school1#ah with the moonlight scenes1  
and the thousand and one sentimental    
colour harmonies unconcerned with human 
motives1 which are turned out with such 
painful regularity every month1 serve   

their purpose as wall decorations of the
 moment1 but then die and fade from     
memory like so many of the unfortunate  
artists who drag their weary way to the 
grave in the vain struggle for fame by  
means of them4  ,no landscape of the    
phase class can be anything more than a 
simple harmony of tone and design1 more 
ephemeral than the natural phase itself4
 ,the quiet harmony is restful for the  
fatigued eye1 and every eye is fatigued 
every day2 and because the eye feels    
relieved in glancing at the picture1 the
 conclusion arises to the unthinking    
that it must be a great work of art4    
,glowing eulogies were pronounced upon  
,whistler's ,nocturne1 in the           
,metropolitan ,museum of ,new ,york1    
when it was first placed there1 but is  
there anything less like a work of      
beauty than the dark meaningless patch  
as it is now seen8 ,and the same thing  
has happened with a thousand other      
landscapes of the kind--first presented 
to the tired eyes of business and       

professional men1 and then placed in    
collections to be surrounded by         
permanently beautiful works4 ,all these 
phase pictures must quickly lose their  
beauty in accordance with natural laws  
which cannot be varied4 ,let it not be  
supposed that the writer means to       
suggest that these simple works should  
not be executed4 ,they are surely better
 than no decoration at all in the many  
homes for which really fine pictures are
 unavailable1 but it is entirely wrong  
to endeavour to pervert the public      
judgment by putting them forward as     
works of high art4  ,and what of the    
struggling artists8 ,look around in     
every city and see the numbers of bright
 young men and women wearing away the   
bloom of their youth in vain endeavours 
to climb the heights of art by the easy 
track of glowing colours6 ,it is the    
call of ,fame they think1 that leads    
them along1 for they know not the voice 
of the siren1 and see not the gaping    
precipice which is to shatter their     

dreams4 ,there is but one sure path to  
the top of the mountain1 but it is      
drab-coloured1 and many are the slippery
 crags4 ,few of the strongest spirits   
can climb it1 but all may try1 and at   
least they may direct their minds       
upwards1 and keep ever in front of them 
a vision of the great idealists         
wandering over the summit through the   
eternal glow of the fires they lit ere  
death consecrated their glory4          
,,book ,i     ,,chapter ,i              
,classification of the fine arts        
,the arts imitative of nature--,the arts
 classified according to the            
character of their signs--,poetry not a 
compound art1 primarily--,the           
extent to which the arts may improve    
upon nature4   ,since art uses natural  
signs for the purpose of representing   
nature1 it is necessarily mimetic in    
character4#ai  ,poetry represents all   
that the other arts imitate1 and in     
addition1 presumed divine actions4      
,specially it imitates human and        

presumed spiritual actions1 with form   
and expression2 expression directly1    
form indirectly4  ,sculpture imitates   
human and presumed spiritual form and   
expression2 form directly1 expression   
indirectly4 ,it also represents animal  
forms1 and modifications of natural     
forms in ornament4  ,painting imitates  
natural forms and products1 and         
specially human form and expression2    
form directly1 expression indirectly4   
,fiction imitates human actions1 and    
form and expression2 expression         
directly1 form indirectly4  ,music      
imitates natural sounds and combines    
them and specially represents human     
emotional effects4  ,architecture is the
 least imitative of the arts1 its       
freedom in the representation of nature 
being restricted by the necessity of    
serving the end of utility4 ,it combines
 geometrical forms1 and in the positions
 and proportions of these1 is compelled 
to represent what we understand from    
experience of nature as natural balance4

  ,the poet may give to a character     
sublime attributes far above experience1
 or expand form as ,homer raises the    
stature of ,strife to the heavens1 but  
he cannot provide attributes beyond     
experience in kind1 or any part of a    
form outside of nature4 ,he may combine 
or rearrange1 and enlarge or diminish as
 he will1 and so may the painter1 the   
sculptor1 or musician1 but he is        
powerless to create signs unknown to    
nature4 ,it follows then1 that he who   
imitates nature in the most beautiful   
way1 that is to say1 he who combines the
 signs of nature to form the most       
beautiful whole1 produces the greatest  
work of art4  ,it would appear that upon
 the character of their principal signs 
is dependent the relative position of   
the arts in respect of the recognition  
of beauty therein4 ,of the six fine     
arts1 namely1 ,poetry1 ,sculpture1      
,painting1 ,fiction1 ,music1 and        
,architecture1 the first four1 which    
hereafter in this work will be known as 

the ,associated ,arts1 have for their   
principal sign the human figure1 to     
which everything else is subordinate2   
while in music the signs consist of     
tones1 and in architecture1 of lines4   
,all the other arts whose object is to  
give pleasure1 as the drama1 dancing1   
etching1 are either modifications of one
 of the fine arts1 or combinations of   
two or more of them4 ,in recent times it
 has been held that poetry is a combined
 art1 owing to the almost invariable use
 of a simple form of music in its       
construction1 but it would appear that  
primarily poetry is independent of      
metrical assistance4 ,this was clearly  
laid down by ,aristotle1 but modern     
definitions of the art have usually     
included some reference to metre4#bj    
,now in our common experience two things
 are observable in respect of poetry4   
,the first is1 that when by way of      
admiration or criticism1 we discuss the 
works of those poets whom all the world 
recognizes as the greatest known to us1 

we deal only with the substance of what 
is said1 and the manner of saying it1   
without reference to the metrical form4 
,in the second place we observe that the
 higher the poetry1 the more simple is  
the metrical form with which it is      
associated4 ,the great epics1 which     
necessarily take first rank in poetry1  
have only metre1 the higher musical     
measures in which lyrics are set being  
avoided4 ,but as we descend in the scale
 of the art1 metrical form becomes of   
more importance1 and when simple        
subjects are dealt with1 and a grand    
style is inappropriate1 the production  
would not be called poetry unless in the
 form of verse4    ,illustration3       
,,plate #f 7,see page #aaf7   ,the      
,reposing ,venus of ,giorgione 7,dresden
 ,gallery7  ,in epic and dramatic       
poetry1 we call one poet greater than   
another because of his superior         
invention and beauty of expression1 let 
the measure be what it will4 ,but the   
invention comes first1 for only high    

invention can be clothed with lofty     
expression4 ,the actions of deathless   
gods or god-like men2 qualities of      
goodness1 nobility1 courage1 grandeur1  
so high as to be above human reach3 only
 these can form the subject of language 
and sentiment soaring into regions of   
the sublime1 and indifferent to metrical
 artifice4 ,in the sacred books of all  
great religions we may find the loftiest
 poetry without regular form1 and any   
prose translation of the ,greek poets   
will provide many examples1#ba though   
often there is a cadence--a rise and    
fall in the flow of words which is more 
or less regular1 and has the effect of  
emphasizing the sentiment1 and of       
throwing the images upon the mind with  
directness and force4 ,we must conclude 
then that in poetry1 while metrical form
 is generally essential1 it is not vital
 to the highest flights of the poet1 and
 so strictly1 poetry is primarily a pure
 and not a compound art4  ,seeing that  
art uses the signs of nature of which   

man is at once a product and a tool1 it 
must in its progress follow the general 
course of nature4 ,in her development of
 life1 nature is chiefly concerned in   
the improvements of types for her own   
purposes1 and only uses the individual  
in so far as he can assist in this end1 
while the natural instinct of the       
individual is to conserve and improve   
his type4 ,the art which represents life
 is compelled to deal chiefly with      
types1 for it is only by the use of a   
type that the artist can apply his      
imagination to the production of high   
beauty1 to whatever extent he may use   
the individual to help him in this      
purpose1 and it is instinctive in the   
human being to maintain and improve the 
aesthetic attraction of the species4    
,the highest art1 as the highest work of
 nature1 consists of the presentation of
 a perfected type4 ,the artist therefore
 must consider the species before the   
individual2 the essential before the    
accidental2 the general before the      

particular4  ,the living signs of nature
 with which art deals are of two        
classes4 ,in the one sign the position  
of parts is the same throughout the     
species1 and is fixed and invariable1 as
 in fully developed animals2 in the     
other the position is irregular1 and    
variable within limits1 as in plants4   
,in the latter case the position of     
parts may be commonly varied            
indefinitely without a sense of         
incongruity arising1 as in a tree1 and  
hence there can be no conceivable       
general form or type upon which art may 
build up perfected parts and            
proportions4 ,in respect of such a sign 
therefore1 art cannot improve1 or appear
 to improve1 upon nature1 by combining  
perfected parts into a more beautiful   
whole than nature provides4  ,in the    
case of a fully developed animal1 where 
the position of parts is fixed1 a type  
may be conceived which is superior in   
symmetry and harmony to any individual  
of the species produced by nature1 for  

the imagination is restricted to an     
unchangeable form1 and has but to put   
together perfected parts and            
proportions4 ,but this conception can   
only be applied in art to human beings1 
because in respect of other animals1    
while no two are alike1 the members of  
each species1 or each section of a      
species1 seem to be alike1 or so closely
 alike in form and expression1 that no  
perfected type can be conceived which   
will appear to be superior in general   
beauty to the normal individual of the  
species1 or section thereof1 coming     
within actual experience4 ,thus1 the    
most perfect conceivable racehorse      
painted on canvas1 might in reality be  
more perfect in form than any actual    
racehorse1 but to the observer of the   
picture it would not appear to be of    
greater perfection or higher beauty than
 racehorses that come1 or may come1     
within experience4 ,the poet may        
describe the actions and appearance of a
 courser in such a way as to suggest    

that the animal has qualities far above 
experience1 but the form of the animal  
when thrown on the mind of the reader1  
would still appear to be within the     
bounds of experience4  ,with the human  
being1 in addition to the general form  
there enters into consideration the     
countenance1 which is the all-important 
seat of beauty1 is the principal key to 
expression1 and which1 to the common    
knowledge1 differs in every person in   
character and proportions4 ,nature never
 produces a perfect form with a perfect 
countenance1 and she actually refuses to
 provide a countenance which is free    
from elements connected with purely     
human instincts and passions4 ,but it is
 within the power of art to correct the 
work of nature in these respects--to put
 together perfect parts1 and to provide 
a general expression approaching our    
highest conceptions of human majesty4   
,homer1 ,phidias1 and ,raphael have     
enabled us to throw upon our minds      
images far above any of actual          

experience4  ,apart from these ideal    
forms1 nature cannot be surpassed by art
 in the production of beauty1 either in 
respect of animate or inanimate signs1  
separately or collectively1 the latter  
because within the limitations of art1  
there is no grouping or arrangement of  
signs possible which would not appear to
 correspond with what may be observed in
 nature1 unless something abnormal and  
less beautiful than any natural         
combination be presented4  ,poetry1     
painting1 and sculpture may be concerned
 with ideals4 ,in fiction an ideal is   
impossible because the writer must treat
 of life as it is1 or as it appears to  
be1 within the bounds of experience4 ,in
 neither music nor architecture is there
 a basic sign or combination of signs   
upon which the imagination may build up 
an ideal4     ,,chapter ,,ii  ,,law ,,of
 ,,recognition ,,in ,,the ,,associated  
,,arts       ,explanation of the        
law--,its application to poetry--,to    
sculpture--,to      painting--,to       

fiction4   ,while we are unable to      
explain1 logically and completely1 our  
appreciation of what we understand as   
beauty1 experience has taught us that   
there are certain phenomena connected   
with aesthetic perception which are so  
regular and undeviating in their        
application as to have all the force of 
law4 ,the first and most important of   
these phenomena relates to the interval 
of time elapsing between the sense      
perception of a thing of art1 and the   
recognition by the mind of the beauty   
therein4  ,we know from common          
experience of the ,associated ,arts that
 if one fails to appreciate a work      
almost immediately after comprehending  
its nature and purport1 he arrives at   
the conclusion that there is no beauty  
therein1 or at least that the beauty is 
so obscure as to be scarcely worth      
consideration4 ,but sometimes on further
 acquaintance with the work the view of 
the observer may be changed1 and he may 
become aware of a certain beauty which  

he did not before appreciate4 ,we notice
 also that when the beauty is           
comparatively high1 it is more rapidly  
recognized than when it is comparatively
 low4 ,continuing the examination we    
arrive at what is evidently an          
unalterable law1 namely1 that the higher
 the aesthetic value in a particular    
sphere of art1 the more rapidly is the  
beauty therein recognized2 that is to   
say1 given any two works1 other things  
being equal1 that is the higher art the 
beauty in which is the more quickly     
conveyed to the mind of the observer    
after contact with it1 and precisely to 
the extent to which the reasoning powers
 are required to be exercised in        
comprehending the work1 so the beauty   
therein is diminished4 ,the law may be  
called for convenience the ,law of      
,recognition4  ,but there are different 
kinds of beauty as well as degrees4 ,one
 kind may be more quickly recognized1   
and yet make a weaker impression on the 
mind1 a condition which is due to the   

varying relations between the sensorial 
and intellectual elements in the works4 
,we note that in all the ,associated    
,arts1 as the works therein descend in  
aesthetic value1 the emotional element  
becomes more evident1 and consequently  
the impression received1 less permanent4
 ,but sensorial beauty is the first     
essential in a work of art3 hence while 
the direct appeal to the mind must be   
made as strong as possible1 this must   
not be done at the expense of the       
emotional elements4 ,we unconsciously   
measure the emotional with the          
intellectual effect1 and if the former  
does not at least equal the latter1 we  
reject the work as inferior art4 ,a     
painted ,madonna wanting in beauty of   
features is instantly and properly      
condemned even if her figure be         
enshrined within surroundings of saintly
 glories which in themselves make a     
powerful appeal to the mind4 ,in fact   
the highest reaches in art were probably
 originally suggested by the necessity  

of balancing the one with the other form
 of beauty4 ,the highest intellectual   
considerations seem to rise far above   
any emotional experiences connected with
 ordinary life1 and hence to enable     
these considerations to enter the domain
 of art1 the divine must be introduced  
so that the artist may extend his       
imaginative scope for the provision of  
emotional effects commensurate1 as far  
as possible1 with the importance of his 
appeal to the mind4 ,hence in all arts  
which combine an intellectual with an   
emotional appeal1 the highest forms must
 ever be connected with the spiritual4  
,in other grades of these arts also1 the
 artist has to use special means to     
maintain a due balance between the two  
kinds of beauty4 ,shakespeare could not 
give men and women of every-day         
experience the wisdom1 the judgment1 and
 the foresight necessary for the        
presentation of the powerful pictures   
which some of his characters throw upon 
the mind1 so he raises them above the   

level of life by according them greater 
virtues and nobler passions than are to 
be found in people of actual experience4
 ,the supreme emotional effects he      
produces seem perfectly appropriate     
therefore to the intellectual appeals4  
,in the next lower form of art1 where   
the representation does not go beyond   
life experience1 the emotional appeal is
 of still greater relative importance   
because the appeal to the mind is rarely
 striking4 ,the emotional effect here   
may indeed be so overpowering that the  
purely mental considerations are lost   
sight of1 and we observe that in all the
 greater works of art in the division1  
whether of poetry1 painting1 sculpture1 
or fiction1 the intellectual appeal is  
vastly exceeded by the emotional4 ,when 
we reach the grade which deals with     
subjects inferior to the average level  
of human life1 as the representation of 
animals1 landscape1 humour1 still-life1 
the sensorial effect must be exceedingly
 strong relatively1 otherwise the art   

would scarcely be recognizable1 the     
appeal to the mind being necessarily    
weak4  ,it is clearly compulsory then   
that the ,associated ,arts1 all of which
 may appeal to the mind as well as to   
the senses1 should be separated into    
divisions for the purpose of applying   
the ,law of ,recognition1 and these     
divisions are obvious1 for they are     
marked by the strongest natural boundary
 lines4 ,they are3 #a4 ,the art which   
deals with divinities4 #b4 ,that which  
exhibits beauty above life experience1  
but does not reach the divine4 #c4 ,that
 which represents life4 #d4 ,that which 
produces representations inferior to    
life4 ,this separation corresponds with 
that applied by ,aristotle to poetry and
 painting1 except that he joined the two
 first sections into one1 which he      
described as better than life4 ,but the 
division of the great philosopher1 while
 being sufficient for his purpose1 is   
hardly close enough for the full        
consideration of the kinds of beauty1   

since it puts in the same class1        
representations of the divinity and the 
superman--joins ,homer and ,phidias with
 ,praxiteles and ,raphael4 ,in dealing  
with the divine the artist need place no
 limit to his imagination in the        
presentation of his picture1 whereas    
with the superman he must circumscribe  
his fancy within the limits of what may 
appear to the senses to be possibly     
natural4 ,it is true that the poet may  
use the supernatural as distinguished   
from the divine1 to enable him to extend
 his imaginative scope1 and so give us  
beautiful pictures which would be       
otherwise unpresentable4 ,shakespeare   
makes us imagine ,puck encircling the   
earth in forty minutes1 and ,shelley    
shows us iron-winged beings climbing the
 wind1 but we immediately recognize     
these pictures as figures of fancy1 or  
as in the nature of allegory1 and they  
do not impress us so deeply as the      
miraculous flight of a goddess of       
,homer1 or an assemblage of the         

satellites of ,satan in the ,hell of    
,milton1 for we involuntarily regard    
these events as compatible with the     
religious faith of great nations1 and so
 as having a nearer apparent semblance  
of truth4 ,sacred art therefore1 being  
capable of providing beauty of a much   
higher kind than any other form1 should 
be placed in a separate section for the 
purpose of considering the law under    
discussion4 ,only poetry among the arts 
is capable of appropriately representing
 divine actions1 and only sculpture of  
producing a form so perfect as to bring 
a divinity to mind4 ,hence these arts   
are alone concerned with the ,law of    
,recognition as applied to the first    
section of the ,associated ,arts4  ,the 
law applies to all the ,associated      
,arts1 and to all sections of them1     
except the lowest form of painting--that
 represented by harmony of colour       
without appeal to the mind of any       
kind--but this form is so weak and      
exceptional that it need hardly be      

considered in the general proposition4  
,indeed we might reasonably argue that  
it does not come within the fine arts1  
as it is produced by a mechanical       
arrangement of things with fixed and    
unalterable physical properties4  ,the  
law cannot apply to music and           
architecture1 for the effects of these  
are purely emotional1 and so directly   
vary with conditions of time and place  
respectively4 ,a work of architecture   
may seem more beautiful in one place    
than in another2 and a work of music    
more or less beautiful according as it  
more or less synchronizes with emotional
 conditions of human activity           
surrounding the hearer at the time of   
the performance4  ,while this law is    
unvarying in the ,associated ,arts1     
there are artificial restrictions which 
must be considered in order that        
apparent deviations from it may be      
understood4 ,special restrictions in    
relation to the higher poetry and       
sculpture are mentioned later on1 but   

there is also an important general      
restriction4 ,the sense nerves and the  
imagination1 like all other functions1  
must be exercised in order that normal  
healthy conditions may be retained2 but 
a large section of the people1 by force 
of circumstances or want of will1 have  
neglected this exercise1 and so through 
disuse or misuse these functions are    
often in a condition which is little    
more than rudimentary4 ,hence such      
persons are practically debarred from   
appreciation of many forms of art1 and  
particularly those wherein intellectual 
beauty is a marked feature4 ,in         
discussing the operation of this law    
amongst people in general therefore1 the
 writer must be understood to refer only
 to that section of the community whose 
sense nerves and imaginations may be    
supposed to be in a healthy1 active     
condition4  ,experience with all the    
,associated ,arts has clearly           
demonstrated the validity of this law4  
,the strength of the devices used by the

 poet lies in simplifying the           
presentation of his pictures4 ,metaphor 
is necessary to the poet1 for without it
 he would be powerless to present       
pictures made up of a number of parts1  
but he also uses it for the purpose of  
throwing simple images upon the mind    
more rapidly1 and consequently more     
forcibly1 than would be possible if     
direct means were employed2 and the     
beauty of the metaphor appears the      
greater according as it more completely 
fills in the picture which the poet is  
desirous of presenting4 ,when other     
artifices than metaphor or simile are   
applied1 the result only appears very   
beautiful when the condensation of the  
language used is extreme1 and when there
 is no break in the delineation of the  
action4 ,a few supreme examples of      
beauty derived from the principal       
devices of the poet for presenting his  
pictures may be instanced1 and it will  
be found that in each case the power of 
the image is directly due to the brevity

 of expression1 the simplicity of       
description and metaphor1 or the        
unimpeded representation of action4     
,more than three thousand years have    
passed since the period assigned to     
,helen of ,troy1 and yet each generation
 of men and women as they learn of her1 
have deeply sealed upon their minds the 
impression that she was of surpassing   
beauty1 almost beyond the reach of human
 conception4 ,we have practically no    
details of her appearance from ,homer or
 ,hesiod1 except that she was           
neat-ankled1 white-armed1 rich-haired1  
and had the sparkling eyes of the       
,graces1 but already in the time of     
,hesiod her renown spread over the      
earth4 ,what was it then that           
established the eternal fame of her     
beauty8 ,simply a few words of ,homer   
indicating the startling effect of her  
appearance before the elders of ,troy4  
,we are allowed to infer that these dry1
 shrunken-formed sages1 shrill-voiced   
with age1 became passionately disturbed 

by a mere glance at her figure1 and     
nervously agreed with each other that   
little blame attached to the ,greeks and
 ,trojans for suffering such long and   
severe hardships on account of her1 for 
only with the goddesses could she be    
compared4 ,how wondrous must be the     
beauty when a glimpse of it suffices to 
hasten the blood through shrivelled     
veins1 and provoke tempestuous currents 
to awake atrophied nerves6 ,without the 
record of this incident1 the vague      
notices of ,helen's appearance would be 
very far from sufficient to account for 
the universal recognition of her        
marvellous beauty4#bb    ,illustration3 
,,plate #g 7,see page #abb7   ,greek    
,sculpture1 #dth ,century ,b4,c4        
,attributed to ,scopas   ,greek ,bronze1
 #c;d ,century ,b4,c4   ,heads of       
,demeter  ,one of the finest lines of   
,shakespeare is1 ,how sweet the         
moonlight sleeps upon this bank4 ,the   
beauty of the line rests entirely upon  
the use of the word sleeps to express   

something which could not be otherwise  
said without the use of many words4 ,the
 moonbeam is apparently perfectly still1
 the atmosphere calm1 and there is      
nothing in the surroundings to disturb  
the natural tranquillity1 these         
conditions inducing a feeling of        
softness and rest in the observer4 ,if  
it had been necessary to say all this1  
,shakespeare would certainly have       
omitted reference to the moonlight1 but 
his powerful imagination brings to mind 
the word sleeps to express the          
conditions1 and we are overwhelmed with 
a beautiful picture suddenly thrown on  
the brain as if by a brilliant flash of 
light4  ,among the many illustrations of
 the point which may be found in the    
,bible1 is the great passage1 ,and ,god 
said1 ',let there be ,light1' and there 
was ,light4 ,this is described by       
,longinus as nobly expressed1 but he    
does not suggest any cause for its      
aesthetic effect4 ,it is true that      
nothing could be finer1 but the nobility

 of the expression is derived from its  
brevity--from the extreme rapidity with 
which so vast and potent an event as an 
act of creation is pictured on the      
brain4#bc ,a description of an act of   
creation1 although involving            
psychological considerations of         
sublimity1 is not necessarily so        
beautiful in expression as to be a work 
of art4  ,in the case of lyric poetry1  
brevity of expression1 though still of  
high importance1 is not of so much      
moment as in epic or dramatic verse1    
because the substance is subordinated to
 beauty of expression and musical form4 
,devices are used chiefly for           
strengthening the sensorial element1 the
 appeal to the mind being in most cases 
secondary4 ,nevertheless the lyric poet 
wastes no words4 ,take for example      
,sappho's ,ode to ,anactoria4 ,the      
substance of these amazing lines is     
comparatively insignificant1 being      
merely the expression of emotion on the 
part of an individual consequent upon   

disappointment1 yet the transcendent    
beauty of the poem has held enthralled  
fourscore generations of men and women1 
and still the world gasps with          
astonishment at its perfection4         
,obviously the beauty of the ode rests  
mainly on qualities of form which cannot
 be reproduced in translation1 but the  
substance may be1 and it will be        
observed that the description of the    
action is unsurpassable4 ,the picture1  
the whole picture1 and nothing but the  
picture1 is thrown on the mind rapidly  
and directly2 so rapidly that the       
movement of the brush is scarcely       
discernible1 and so simply that not a   
thought is required for its elucidation4
 ,with the chain of symptoms broken or  
less closely connected1 the passion     
indicated would be comparatively feeble1
 whatever the force of the artifices in 
rhythm and expression which ,sappho knew
 so well how to employ4#bd  ,as with    
poetry1 so with the arts of sculpture   
and painting3 the greatest works result 

from simple designs4 ,all the sculptures
 which we recognize as sublime or highly
 beautiful1 consist of single figures1  
or in very rare cases1 groups of two or 
three1 and indeed it is difficult to    
hold in our minds a carved group of     
several figures4 ,the images of the     
,zeus and ,athena of ,phidias1 though we
 know little of them except from        
literary records and inferior copies1   
are far more brilliantly mirrored upon  
our minds than the ,parthenon reliefs4  
,the importance of simplicity is perhaps
 more readily seen in sculpture than in 
any other art1 for the slightest fault  
in design has an immediate effect upon  
the mind of the observer4 ,it is        
noticeable that the decadence of a great
 art period is usually first marked by  
complications in sculptured figures4#be 
,in painting1 the pictures which we     
regard as great are characterized by    
their simplicity1 and the immediate     
recognition of their purport4 ,they are 
either ideal figures1 or groups where at

 least the central figure is idealized  
and commonly known4 ,the work must be   
grasped at one glance for the beauty to 
be of a high order4 ,hence in the case  
of frescoes great artists have not      
attempted to make the beauty of any part
 dependent upon the comprehension of the
 whole4 ,it is impossible for the eye to
 take in at a single glance the whole of
 a large fresco painting1 and this      
explains why a fresco celebrated for its
 beauty is often disappointing to one   
who sees it for the first time1 and     
endeavours to impress it on his mind as 
a single picture by rapidly piecing     
together the different parts4#bf        
,polygnotus could well paint forty      
scenes from ,homer as mural decoration  
in one hall1 for they could only be     
examined and understood as separate     
pictures2 and the ceiling of            
,michelangelo at the ,vatican is so     
arranged that there is no necessity for 
combining the parts in the mind4 ,so    
with the ,parma frescoes of ,correggio4 

,raphael had a different task in his    
,vatican frescoes1 but he accomplished  
it by arranging his figures so that each
 separate group is a beautiful picture2 
and ,lionardo in his great work at      
,milan divided the ,apostles into groups
 of three in order to minimize the      
consideration necessary for the         
appreciation of so large a work4        
,fiction is divided into two sections1  
the novel and the short story1 and they 
are so distinct in character that they  
must necessarily be considered          
separately in the application of the law
 under discussion4 ,form is of high     
importance in both classes of the art1  
but weighs more in the short story      
because here the appeal to the mind is  
unavoidably restricted4 ,the novelist is
 capable of producing a higher beauty   
than is within the range of the         
short-story writer4 ,the latter is      
limited in his delineation of character 
to the circumstances surrounding a      
single experience1 while the novelist1  

in describing various experiences1 may  
add shade upon shade in expression and  
thus elevate the characters and actions 
above the level possible of attainment  
by means of a single incident4 ,but     
within his limit the short-story writer 
may provide his beauty more easily than 
the novelist1 because a picture can be  
more readily freed from complications   
when away from surroundings1 than when  
it forms one of a series of pictures    
which must have connecting links4 ,a    
good short story consists of a single   
incident or experience in a life        
history4 ,it is clearly cut1 without    
introduction1 and void of a conclusion  
which is not directly part of the       
incident4 ,the subject is of general    
interest2 the language simple1 of common
 use1 and free from mannerisms2 while   
there are no accessories beyond those   
essential for the comprehension of the  
scheme4 ,these conditions1 which imply  
the most extreme simplicity1 are present
 in all the greatest short stories known

 to us--the best works of the author of 
the ,contes ,nouvelles1 of ,sacchetti1  
,boccaccio1 ,margaret of ,navarre1      
,hoffman1 ,poe1 and ,de ,maupassant4    
,the novel differs from the short story 
in that it is a large section of a life 
with many experiences1 but the          
principles under which the two varieties
 of fiction are built up1 are precisely 
the same4 ,obviously the limit in length
 of a novel is that point beyond which  
the writer cannot enhance the beauty of 
character and action1 while maintaining 
the unity of design4 ,this means the    
concentration of effort in the direction
 of simplicity1 facilitating the rapid  
reception of the pictures presented by  
the writer upon the mind of the reader4 
,it is thus evident that the higher the 
beauty in the ,associated ,arts1 the    
simpler are the signs or sign           
combinations which produce it2 and hence
 the ,law of ,recognition rests on a    
secure foundation1 for the simple must  
necessarily be recognized before the    

complex4     ,,chapter ,,iii  ,,law ,,of
 ,,general ,,assent       ,general      
opinion the test of beauty in the       
,associated ,arts4   ,the first aim of  
art is sensorial beauty1 because        
sensorial experience must precede the   
impression of beauty upon the mind4 ,the
 extent to which something appears to be
 sensorially harmonious depends upon the
 condition or character of the nerves   
conveying the impression of it to the   
brain4 ,we know from experience that    
exercise of these nerves results in the 
removal or partial removal of natural   
irregularities therein1 and enables a   
complex form of beauty to be recognized 
which was not before perceived4 ,the    
vast majority of the people have not    
cultivated their sense nerves except    
involuntarily1 and consequently can only
 recognize more or less simple beauty3  
thus1 as the sign combinations become   
more complicated1 so is diminished the  
number of persons capable of            
appreciating the beauty thereof4  ,the  

highest form of beauty conceivable to   
the imagination is that of the human    
being1 because here corporeal and       
intellectual beauty may be combined4    
,this is universally admitted and has   
been so since the first records of      
mental activity4 ,the human figure must 
be regarded as a single sign since the  
relation of its parts to each other is  
fixed and invariable2 and further it is 
the simplest1 because of all signs none 
is so quickly recognized by the         
rudimentary understanding4 ,in the      
,associated ,arts therefore1 the highest
 beauty is to be found in the simplest  
sign1 and this is the one supremely     
important sign in these arts1 for       
without it only the lowest forms may be 
produced4  ,from all this we determine  
that the higher the beauty in a work of 
the ,associated ,arts1 the larger is the
 number of persons capable of           
recognizing it2 so that if we say that  
something in these arts is beautiful    
because it pleases1 we imply that it is 

still more beautiful if we say that it  
generally pleases1 and the highest of   
all standards of beauty is involved in  
the interpretation of ,longinus3 ,that  
is sublime and beautiful which always   
pleases1 and takes equally with all     
sorts of men4 ,thus1 in the ,associated 
,arts1 the general opinion as to the    
aesthetic value of a work of high art is
 both demonstration and law4#bg  ,in    
music the significance of the signs is  
inverted compared with the progression  
in the ,associated ,arts1 for while in  
the latter the highest form of beauty is
 produced by the simplest of single     
signs1 in music the higher forms are the
 result of complex combinations of      
signs4 ,the greatest musical            
compositions consist of an immense      
variety of signs arranged in a hitherto 
unknown order4 ,thus1 while the immature
 or uncultivated mind recognizes the    
higher forms of beauty before the lower 
in the ,associated ,arts1 it first      
recognizes the lower forms in music4 ,in

 the ,associated ,arts therefore1       
cultivation results in the further      
appreciation of the forms of art as they
 descend1 and in music as they ascend4  
,in painting1 the most uncultivated     
persons1 even those who have never      
exercised their organs of sight except  
involuntarily1 will always admire the   
higher forms before the lower4#bh ,they 
will more highly appreciate a picture of
 a ,madonna or other beautiful woman    
than an interior where the scene is     
comparatively complicated by the        
presence of several persons1 and they   
will prefer the interior to a landscape1
 and a landscape to a still-life        
picture4 ,so in sculpture4 ,other things
 being equal1 a figure of a man or woman
 will be preferred to a group1 and the  
group to an animal or decorative        
ornament4 ,an exception must however be 
made in respect of the sublime reaches  
of ,grecian sculpture in the fifth and  
fourth centuries ,b4,c41 owing to an    
artificial restriction4 ,there is very  

little of this sculpture to be actually 
seen1 nearly all the more important     
works being known only from records or  
variable copies4 ,considerable          
observation1 comparison1 and study1 are 
necessary before one can gain a fair    
conception of the ,grecian ideals1 and  
so they are practically lost to the bulk
 of the people4  ,in fiction it is      
common knowledge that the greatest works
 from the point of view of art are      
always the most popular1 as they are    
invariably the most simple in           
construction and diction4 ,in           
considering poetry we must exclude the  
great epics1 as those of ,homer1        
,virgil1 ,dante1 and ,milton1 because   
where the actions of supernatural       
persons are described1 the sentiments   
and language employed are so elevated in
 character1 and the images and literary 
references so numerous1 that a certain  
superior education is required before   
the sense of the poems can be           
comprehended4 ,subject to this          

artificial restriction1 the rule holds  
entirely good4 ,shakespeare is at once  
the greatest and most popular of our    
poets3 ,shelley1 ,byron1 and ,burns1 are
 as far ahead of ,tennyson and ,browning
 in popularity as they are in general   
beauty and simplicity4  ,in music on the
 other hand the lower forms are the     
simplest and consequently the most      
popular4 ,songs1 dance measures1 and    
ditties of various kinds1 are enjoyed by
 the mass of the people in preference to
 ,beethoven and ,wagner1 a certain      
cultivation of the aural nerves being   
necessary for the appreciation of the   
greater artists4 ,the architect is under
 the necessity of meeting the ends of   
utility1 but subject to this restriction
 it is obvious that simplicity must be  
the keynote to his design1 for the      
highest quality of beauty in his power  
to produce is grandeur1 and this        
diminishes with an increase in the      
complexity of his sign combinations4    
,the combination of simplicity with     

grandeur is the first form of beauty    
that would be recognized by the immature
 eye1 and consequently in respect of the
 general test of art excellence1        
architecture falls into line with the   
,associated ,arts1 and not with music4  
,from what has been said it will be     
understood how it is that in the        
,associated ,arts opinion as to the     
aesthetic value of particular works     
begins to differ as soon as we leave the
 recognized masterpieces of the first   
rank1 and why the divergence widens with
 every step downwards4 ,as the character
 of the art is lowered so is diminished 
the number of persons capable of        
appreciating it4 ,in painting and       
sculpture this diminution is direct with
 the increased complexity of the signs  
used1 and indirect according as the     
character of the signs weakens4 ,in     
poetry the same rule applies generally1 
but in the lower forms alliance with the
 art of music may bring about a         
variation4 ,only the very lowest forms  

of music may be used with the higher    
forms of poetry because the poet must   
have the minimum of restriction when    
dealing with the character and actions  
of the personages who constitute the    
principal signs in his work1 but as the 
art descends the musical form becomes of
 more importance1 and the substance more
 simple4 ,hence the sensorial beauty of 
a lyric may be appreciated more quickly 
than that of a poem which is1 in        
substance1 of a much higher order1      
though the kind of beauty recognized    
will differ in the two cases4 ,but even 
in the greatest lyric the musical form  
is comparatively very simple1 its beauty
 being recognized without special       
cultivation of the aural nerves3 thus1  
subject to the division of poetry into  
its natural grades--the two sections    
where substance and form respectively   
predominate--the measure of its beauty  
is the extent to which it is generally  
appreciated4 ,none of the other         
,associated ,arts may be allied with a  

second art without crippling it as a    
fine art1 because of the extraordinary  
limitations forced upon the artist by   
the alliance2 and hence in respect of   
sculpture1 painting1 and fiction1 there 
is no exception to the rule that the    
beauty capable of being produced        
diminishes strictly with an increase in 
the complexity of the signs used4       
,these facts appear sufficiently to     
establish what may be called the ,law of
 ,general ,assent in the ,associated    
,arts2 that is to say1 in the arts of   
poetry1 sculpture1 painting1 and        
fiction1 the supreme test of the        
aesthetic value of a work1 is general   
opinion2 and a corollary of this is that
 the smaller the number of persons to   
whom a work of one of these arts        
appeals1 the weaker is the art therein4 
,,chapter ,,iv  ,,limitations ,,of ,,the
 ,,associated ,,arts       ,the         
production of beauty in the respective  
arts--,how they differ      in scope4   
,the ,associated ,arts have all the same

 method of producing beauty3 they throw 
pictures on the brain4#bi ,sensorial or 
intellectual beauty1 or both together1  
may be exhibited1 but in the arts of the
 painter and sculptor the picture is    
transferred to the brain through the    
optic nerves1 and is necessarily        
presented before the intellect can be   
brought to bear upon the impression4    
,the arts of the poet and the story     
writer involve the presentation of a    
picture representing the complete       
composition1 and in addition when the   
work is lengthy1 of a series of pictures
 each of which strengthens the relief of
 the general design4 ,the painter and   
sculptor each presents a complete       
picture1 the meaning of which is        
immediately determined through the sense
 of sight1 and the extent of the beauty 
is bounded by what can be recognized by 
this sense4 ,all the signs necessary to 
perfect the composition are             
simultaneously indicated1 the artist    
exhibiting at one blow a full           

description of what makes up his thing  
of beauty4 ,but the poet cannot so      
produce a picture because he presents   
the parts successively and not          
simultaneously1 and in the most         
important of all the forms which he     
represents--that of the human           
countenance--both beauty and expression 
have to be defined1 and the separate    
elements are indescribable4             
,consequently1 however1 we may combine  
the features of a countenance as        
described by the poet1 we cannot throw a
 picture of the whole upon our minds4 ,a
 particular form of beauty must be      
presented to the eye before it can be   
mentally pictured4 ,the poet therefore  
does not attempt to dovetail his picture
 of the human form with descriptive     
details1 but relies upon imagery1       
suggestion1 or other artifice1 to       
indicate his meaning in the most rapid  
way possible4#cj ,the novelist is in the
 same position as the poet in this      
respect1 except that some of the devices

 of the latter are denied him4  ,but    
although the poet or novelist cannot put
 together the parts in his description1 
he may in certain cases present natural 
beauty to the mind1 his scope depending 
upon the nature of the parts and the    
extent to which they depend upon each   
other for the completion of the picture4
 ,where the beauty of the whole rests   
upon a combination of perfected parts of
 form only1 as in the case of a horse1  
then the poet is able to present beauty 
of form notwithstanding that the        
separate parts are in themselves not    
beautiful1 though the beauty would be   
that of the type and not of the         
individual4 ,the beauty of a horse      
depends upon its possession of a        
collection of features which have each a
 particular significance4 ,if we are    
able to recognize from a description    
that a horse has qualities of form and  
action indicating speed1 high spirits1  
proud bearing1 and so on1 and at the    
same time has a harmonious symmetry in  

its general outline1 a beautiful animal 
is thrown on the mind without           
difficulty4 ,we readily picture the     
courser described by ,shakespeare in his
 ,venus and ,adonis as a beautiful      
horse1 but we should not be able to     
differentiate it from the courser of    
,mazeppa4 ,where the parts of the thing 
described are in themselves beautiful1  
then the poet may successfully throw on 
the mind a series of pictures of        
aesthetic interest4 ,thus1 he may call  
to the imagination parts of a landscape 
which are in themselves beautiful       
scenes1 as for instance a deep gorge    
opening on to a lake1 or a flowery      
valley1 though the parts could not be   
put together on the mind so that the    
beauty of the whole may be presented4#ca
  ,summing up the limits of the         
,associated ,arts in the presentation of
 the two kinds of beauty1 the poet and  
the novelist can present general or     
particular beauty of mind1 and general  
sensorial beauty1 but are powerless with

 particular sensorial beauty2 the       
sculptor and painter may present general
 or particular sensorial beauty1 and    
general1 but not particular1 beauty of  
mind4 ,particular sensorial beauty may  
be suggested by the poet or novelist1 by
 indicating its emotional effect1 or by 
symbols in the form of metaphor2 and    
particular intellectual beauty may be   
suggested by the sculptor or painter by 
representing the effect in expression of
 a particular action1 or by symbols in  
the form of human figures of beauty4    
,illustration3 ,,plate #h 7,see page    
#aci7   ,raphael's ,sistine ,madonna1   
with the ,face of the ,central ,figure  
in   ,fragonard's ,the ,pursuit         
,substituted for that of the ,virgin    
,but while the poet cannot throw upon   
the brain a particular form of human    
beauty1 he may suggest a greater beauty 
than that which the painter or sculptor 
can depict1 and further produce         
emotional effects relating to spiritual 
and human actions and passions which are

 beyond the plastic arts3 hence his art 
is capable of the highest reaches4 ,next
 to him come the sculptor and painter1  
for they may represent ideal forms which
 must be excluded from fiction4         
,theoretically1 painting and sculpture  
are equal in respect of the production  
of human beauty1 for there is no form   
designed by the one which may not be    
presented by the other2 but practically 
the painter cannot attain to the height 
of the sculptor in the representation of
 ideal beauty4a    a ,see ,chapter ,,ix4
  ,the sculptor and painter are at a    
disadvantage compared with the poet and 
novelist1 for the limitation of their   
arts compels them to confine their      
imaginations to structural work4 ,each  
of the ,associated ,arts consists       
nominally of three parts3 7a7 the       
scheme1 or idea1 or fable2 7b7 the      
design or invention#cb2 7c7 the         
execution4 ,in a representation of      
action1 the painter or sculptor can only
 depict a particular moment of it1      

neither the beginning nor the end being 
visible4 ,he must therefore choose an   
action of which the beginning and end   
are known1 for while either may be      
suggested in a simple design1 both      
cannot be implied so that the whole     
story is obvious4 ,he has consequently  
to take his moment of action from a fact
 or fable in one of the literary arts1  
or from actual life experience4#cc      
,where no particular action is          
indicated1 as in many pastoral and      
interior scenes in painting1 or         
ornamental figures in sculpture1 the    
conception and invention are one4 ,thus1
 the painter or sculptor is confined to 
only two parts of his art1 the design   
and execution4 ,while therefore the     
scope of the poet and novelist is as    
unlimited as the sea of human motives   
and passions1 that of the painter and   
sculptor is held within strictly marked 
bounds4  ,all the ,associated ,arts are 
alike in that they cannot be specially  
used for moral or social purposes       

without suffering a marked              
deterioration4 ,this is because of the  
limitations imposed upon the artist4    
,his wings are clipped3 his imagination 
is confined within a narrow groove3 he  
is converted from a master to a slave4  
,hence no great work of one of these    
arts has been produced where the        
conception of the artist was bound by   
the necessity of pointing a moral1 or of
 conforming to some idea of utility4#cd 
,,chapter ,v  ,,degrees ,,of ,,beauty   
,,in ,,the ,,painter',s ,,art   ,the    
degrees of beauty which the art of the  
painter can exhibit appear to be1 in    
order of their value1 as follows3  #a4  
,that which appeals to the senses with  
form1 and to the mind with expression1  
above the possibility of life           
experience4 ,this double beauty can only
 be found in ideals1 and the real cannot
 be associated with it except as        
accessory4 ,the highest art of the      
painter is therefore confined to sacred1
 mythological1 and symbolical subjects4 

#b4 ,that which appeals to the senses   
through representation of the human     
form1 without1 or with only partial     
idealization1 and to the mind through   
the indication in expression of high    
abstract qualities4 ,this section       
comprises subjects of profane history1  
and high class portraiture4 ,it varies  
from the succeeding section in that the 
artist may represent the human being as 
he ought to be1 or would be with the    
higher physical and abstract qualities  
emphasized1 or in certain cases1 with   
these qualities added4  #c4 ,that which 
appeals to the senses through the       
harmony of tone and design1 and to the  
mind through the representation of human
 action within the compass of life      
experience4 ,this section comprises     
interiors and exteriors relating to     
daily life and labour1 and portraiture  
which is merely accurate imitation of   
features4 ,it differs from the previous 
section in that it represents the human 
being as he is1 and not as he ought to  

be4  #d4 ,that which appeals to the     
senses through harmony of colour and    
design1 in respect of the imitation and 
the things imitated1 in addition to     
pleasing because it excites admiration  
of the skill in imitation4 ,this section
 comprises landscape1 flowers1 fine     
plumaged birds1 and certain symmetrical 
animal forms4  #e4 ,that which appeals  
to the senses through harmony of tone   
and design1 and indirectly to the mind  
through association of ideas connected  
with the other arts2 in addition to     
pleasing because of the excellent       
imitation1 and possibly because of the  
beauty of the things imitated4 ,this    
section comprises paintings of things   
connected with the other arts1 and which
 are neither beautiful nor displeasing1 
such as books and musical instruments2  
or which are imitations of products of  
another art1 as plate1 marble reliefs1  
or architectural forms4  #f4 ,that which
 appeals to the senses through harmony  
of tone and design1 in addition to      

pleasing because of the excellent       
imitation4 ,this class of beauty        
comprises paintings of objects which in 
themselves are not beautiful1 as        
vegetables1 kitchen utensils1 and       
certain animals2 or which are even      
repellent1 as dead animals4  #g4 ,that  
which appeals to the senses through     
harmony of colour1 the design having no 
beauty in itself4 ,this form of art1    
which is the lowest in the scale of the 
painter1 is only adapted for the        
simplest formal decoration4  ,the first 
three sections may produce both         
sensorial and intellectual beauty2 the  
others only sensorial4 ,limited abstract
 qualities are associated with certain  
animals in nature1 but cannot be        
indicated in the uncombined art of the  
painter4  ,beyond these sections1 there 
are classes of pictures which do not    
belong to the pure art of the painter1  
namely1 those executed for use and not  
for beauty#ce2 those painted to         
illustrate sports1 or to record passing 

events2 certain allegorical paintings2  
and those works which1 while they cannot
 represent the ideal1 require the       
assistance of another art for their     
interpretation2 as for instance1        
incidents to illustrate particular      
morals or stories2 scenes from the drama
 other than tragedy2 portraits of       
persons in character2 humorous subjects1
 and so on4 ,such works1 on account of  
the restrictions imposed on the artist1 
can exhibit but limited and fleeting    
beauty4 ,elsewhere they are noticed     
under the heading of ,secondary ,art4   
,,chapter ,,vi  ,,expression4 ,,part    
,i4--,,the ,,ideal   ,the human being is
 the only sign in the arts capable of   
idealization1 because1 while its parts  
are fixed and invariable1 it is the only
 sign as to which there is a universal  
agreement in respect of the value of    
abstract qualities connected with it4   
,there can be no ideal of the human form
 separately1 because this implies       
expression which results from abstract  

qualities4 ,nor can there be an ideal   
combination of these qualities1 except a
 general expression covering all the    
virtues and eliminating all the         
passions1 which expression cannot be    
disassociated from form4 ,the ideal     
human being is therefore a perfect      
generalization of the highest           
conceivable qualities of form and       
expression4  ,necessarily in matters of 
art1 when we use the term ,ideal1 we    
mean a general ideal1 that is to say1 an
 ideal that would be accepted as such by
 the general body of men and women4     
,from the fact that the sensorial nerves
 in all persons are alike in form and   
character1 and that they act in the same
 way under like conditions1 it follows  
that there must be a general agreement  
as to degrees of beauty1 and thus a     
common conception of the ideal human    
being4 ,experience has demonstrated this
 at all times1 both in respect of the   
general ideal we are now discussing1 and
 of particular ideals involving special 

types and characters2 and so invariable 
is this experience that the progression 
towards similar ideals has all the force
 of law4#cf ,this general agreement is  
subject to certain restrictions4 ,the   
first is in regard to form in which the 
imagination cannot proceed beyond       
experience4 ,the component parts of an  
ideal form cannot include any which are 
higher in quality than those which have 
come within the experience of the person
 compounding the ideal4 ,secondly1 in   
regard to abstract qualities1 the       
estimation of these depends upon        
intelligence and education1 and the     
accumulated experience of these things1 
which we measure in terms of degrees of 
civilization4 ,consequently1 different  
interpretations would be placed upon the
 phrase the highest conceivable         
qualities of form and expression1 by the
 various races of mankind4 ,according as
 the experience was greater1 so would   
the ideal form be higher in type2 and as
 the civilization was more advanced1 so 

would the abstract qualities exhibited  
be more perfect in character4 ,but among
 civilized peoples what is1 within our  
understanding1 the ultimate form of the 
ideal1 would not change in respect of   
abstract qualities1 and as to form would
 only vary in comparatively             
insignificant details with the width of 
experience4  ,it is obvious that there  
can be only one general ideal covering  
perfection of form and mind1 and this   
being beyond human experience1 can only 
be associated with a spiritual          
personage1 and necessarily with the     
highest conceivable spiritual           
personage--the ,supreme ,being4 ,in its 
absolute perfection it may be           
significant of the ,supreme ,being of   
any religion of civilized peoples1 but  
not of other spiritual personages to    
whom such perfection may also be        
attributed1 because absolute power can  
only be implied in one such personage4  
,this power cannot be indicated in an   
ideal expression1 and hence there is no 

alternative but to leave the one general
 ideal to the ,supreme ,being4  ,there  
are only two religions in which an ideal
 human form has been used in art to     
typify the ,supreme ,being1 and these   
are the ancient ,grecian and the        
,christian2 but the one general ideal   
referred to has only been used by the   
,greeks4 ,the ,christian conception of  
the ,deity is far nobler than that which
 the ,greeks had of ,zeus1 but in art   
nothing greater than the ,grecian ideal 
has been executed4 ,as a type of an     
,almighty ,power the best ,christian    
representation is distinctly inferior1  
and it must necessarily be so because   
convention requires that a particular   
feature of expression must be indicated 
therein which is not compulsory in the  
,grecian ideal4 ,forgiveness of sins is 
a cardinal principle in the ,christian  
doctrine1 and consequently whatever the 
character of expression given to the    
,deity1 a certain gentleness has to be  
exhibited which materially limits the   

comprehensive nature of the expression4 
,the ,grecian ideal1 as sculptured1     
strictly denied any particular          
characteristic1 while covering every    
good quality1 and hence for the         
,christian it is not so suitable as the 
accepted modification4  ,among the      
,greeks1 ideal types of the gods and    
goddesses other than ,zeus varied       
considerably4 ,those representations    
that have come down to us are usually   
deviations from the ,zeus type with     
certain special characteristics1 though 
often they can only be distinguished    
from each other by symbols4 ,they are   
above human life and so cannot be       
appropriately associated with human     
surroundings4 ,ideals appertaining to   
,christianity are practically fixed by  
convention1 or are interchangeable with 
ideals in allegorical and symbolical    
art4  ,art is not concerned with what   
are termed ideal physical qualities     
because beauty is its first             
consideration4 ,a form with powerful    

limbs and muscles may be generally      
accepted as an ideal form of strength1  
but these very limbs and muscles would  
detract from the beauty of the figure1  
and so separately such a form would be  
inferior art4  ,an ideal can only be    
applied to excellence4 ,in art1 moral or
 physical deformity cannot be           
exaggerated for the purpose of emphasis 
or contrast without lessening the       
deformity or injuring the art4 ,in the  
work of the greater artists the former  
result follows2 in that of less skilful 
artists1 the latter4 ,homer could not   
deal with evil characters without       
exciting a certain sympathy with them1  
thus diminishing the deformity in the   
minds of his readers4 ,there is a       
measure of nobility about ,shakespeare's
 bad men1 and ,milton distinctly        
ennobled ,satan in portraying his evil  
powers and influence4 ,in painting and  
sculpture there is no place for hideous 
forms of any description1 for they      
either revolt the imagination and so    

neutralize the appreciation of the      
beautiful figures present in the        
composition1 or they verge upon the     
ridiculous and disturb the mind with    
counteracting influences4 ,with rare    
exceptions the greater artists have not 
failed to recognize this truth1#cg and  
in respect of the very greatest men1 no 
really hideous figure is to be found in 
any of their works1 if we except certain
 instances where the artist had to      
comply with fixed rules and conditions1 
as for example in ,michelangelo's ,last 
,judgment where evil beings had perforce
 to be presented1 and could only be     
shown as deformities4  ,attempts to     
emphasize ugliness by artists of        
inferior rank result in the fantastic or
 the ludicrous1 as in the representation
 of evil spirits on the old ,etruscan   
tombs1 and the whimsical imps of the    
,breughels and the younger ,teniers4    
,,chapter ,,vii  ,,expression4 ,,part   
,,ii4--,,christian ,,ideals       ,the  
,deity--,christ--,the ,madonna--,the    

,madonna and ,child4   ,in considering  
the scope for the exhibition of ideals  
in art1 it should be remembered that    
ideal types of some of the principal    
personages in religious and mythological
 history have been already fixed by     
great artists1 and it is impossible to  
depart from them without producing what 
would appear to be abnormal             
representations4 ,homer led the way with
 occasional hints of the presumed       
physical appearance of some of the      
leading deities of ,greece1 and except  
in the case of ,aphrodite the later     
,grecian sculptors closely followed him4
 ,the ,zeus of ,homer as improved by    
,phidias has been the model of this     
deity in respect of form for nearly     
every succeeding sculptor to this day1  
while it was also the model which       
suggested the ,christian ,father as     
represented by the first artists of the 
,renaissance1 though1 as already        
indicated1 the majestic dignity of the  
,phidian ,zeus was partly sacrificed by 

the ,christian artists4 ,phidias in fact
 created a type which1 so far as human  
foresight can judge1 must ever guide the
 artistic mind1 whether portraying the  
mighty son of ,kronos1 or the ,god of   
the ,christians4 ,only very rarely      
nowadays is the ,christian ,deity       
pictured in art1 and as time goes on    
,his introduction in human shape in a   
painting will become still more rare in 
conformity with changing religious ideas
 and practices2 but now and hereafter   
any artist who contemplates the         
representation1 must1 voluntarily or    
involuntarily1 turn to the frescoes of  
,raphael and ,michelangelo for his      
guide4  ,there is no tradition upon     
which to base an actual portrait of     
,christ4 ,for the first four centuries  
,a4,d41 when ,he was represented in art1
 it was usually by means of symbols1 or 
as a young man without beard1 but there 
are some ,roman relics of the fifth     
century remaining in which ,he is       
depicted much in the later generally    

accepted type1 with short beard and     
flowing hair4 ,during the long centuries
 of the ,dark ,age1 when religious art  
was practically confined to the         
,byzantine ,greeks1 ,christ was almost  
invariably portrayed with a long face   
and emaciated features and limbs1 as the
 epitome of sadness and sorrow4 ,this   
expression was modified as the arts     
travelled to the north and west of      
,europe1 and gradually ,his face began  
to assume more regularity and beauty4   
,then came ,cimabue to sow the seed of  
the ,renaissance1 and with him the ideal
 of ,christ was changed to a perfect man
 of flesh and blood4 ,a century or more 
was occupied in establishing this ideal1
 but it was so established1 and has     
maintained its position to this day4#ch 
,illustration3 ,,plate #i 7,see page    
#ach7   ,raphael's ,virgin of the ,rose 
with the ,face of ,profane ,love in     
,titian's ,picture ,substituted for that
 of the ,virgin  ,this ideal represents 
the ,saviour as a man of about          

thirty-three years--,his age at the     
,crucifixion4 ,he wears flowing hair    
with a short beard and usually a        
moustache4 ,his face is rather long1    
often oval2 the features have a perfect 
regularity1 and the expression is       
commonly one of patient resignation4    
,naturally ,his body must appear well   
nourished1 otherwise corporeal beauty   
cannot be expressed4 ,this is the type  
which has been used since the height of 
the ,renaissance1 though there have been
 a few exceptional representations4     
,thus1 the face of ,christ in           
,lionardo's ,last ,supper at ,milan is  
that of a beardless young man of some   
twenty-five yearsa and ,raphael in an   
early picture shows ,him beardless1 but 
gives ,him an age of about thirty4b     
,some early ,flemish artists also       
rendered ,him beardless at times1       
notably the ,maitre de ,flemalle1 ,van  
der ,weyden1 and ,quentin ,matsys4      
,michelangelo in his ,last ,judgment    
represents the ,saviour sitting in      

judgment as a robust1 stern1 commanding 
figure1 beardless1 and with an          
expression and bearing apparently       
serving the idea of ,justice4c ,strange 
to say the artist gives a very similar  
face to ,st4 ,stephen in the same series
 of frescoes4 ,a still more unusual     
representation is that of ,francisco di 
,giorgio1 who gives ,christ the         
appearance of an ,apollo1d while        
,bramantino depicts ,his face worn with 
heavy lines4e ,in one picture ,marco    
,basaiti shows ,him as a young man with 
long hair but without beard1 and in     
another with a thick beard without      
moustache4f ,there was considerable     
variation in the type among the         
,venetians of the sixteenth century1 but
 not in important features1 and since   
then very few artists indeed have       
ventured to depart from the ideal above 
described4 ,the only notable exception  
in recent times is in a work by         
,burne-,jones who represents ,christ as 
a beardless youth1 though indicating the

 wound to ,st4 ,thomas4g ,it is supposed
 that the artist presumed that the      
,person of ,christ underwent a complete 
change after the ,resurrection4    a    
,and in the drawing for the picture at  
the ,brera4    b ,christ ,blessing at   
the ,brescia ,gallery4    c ,in the     
,sistine ,chapel frescoes4    d ,christ 
bereft of ,his clothes before the       
,crucifixion1 ,sienna         ,academy4 
e ,christ1 ,mayno ,collection4    f ,the
 ,dead ,christ1 and ,calling of the     
,children of ,zebedee1 ,academy1        
,venice4    g ,dies ,domini4  ,it is    
evident that the ideal ,christ as       
established by the ,italians can        
scarcely be improved upon in art within 
the prescribed limitations4 ,christ     
having lived as an actual man1 ,his     
representation must be within the bounds
 of possible experience2 and since ,he  
died at the age of thirty-three1        
intellectual power cannot be suggested  
in ,his countenance1 for this in life   
means an expression implying large      

experience warranted only by mature age4
 ,the representation is therefore       
confined to that of a man who1 while    
exhibiting a healthy regularity of form 
and feature1 has lost all sense of      
earthly pleasure4 ,the beauty achieved  
by this type is negative1 the only      
marked quality being a suggestion of    
sadness which1 in painting1 is          
necessarily present in all expression   
where an unconcern with human instincts 
and passions is depicted4 ,the ,italians
 in their representation of ,christ were
 thus unable to reach the height of the 
,greek divine portrayals4 ,they were    
confined to earth1 while the ,greek     
figures were symbols of spiritual forms 
which were pure products of the         
imagination4 ,giotto and his successors 
sought a physically perfect man with all
 purely human features in expression    
eliminated4 ,the ,greeks1 even when     
representing divinities below ,zeus1    
generalized all human attributes1       
excluding nothing but the exceptional4  

,they embodied in their forms1 truths   
acknowledged by the whole world2 summed 
up human life to the contentment of all 
men3 there was nothing in their         
divinities which would prevent their    
acceptance as spiritual symbols in all  
religions of civilized peoples4 ,to them
 human instincts were sacred3 all human 
passions could be ennobled3 everything  
in the natural progression of life came 
within the purview1 and under the       
protection1 of the gods4 ,so the course 
of their art was definite3 there was    
never a difference as to the goal1 for  
it was universal4  ,from the point of   
view of the development of art the ideal
 ,christ has been of little importance  
compared with the ideal ,madonna1 though
 here also the ,italians aimed for a    
particular instead of a general type4   
,they wanted a living woman with the    
form and features of a pulsating mother2
 a woman of ordinary life in fact1 but  
infinitely superior in physical beauty1 
and endowed with the highest grace that 

their imaginations could conceive and   
their hands execute4 ,this ideal seemed 
to germinate with ,cimabue1 but an      
immense advance upon him was made by    
,giotto who was unsurpassed in the      
representation of the ,holy ,mother for 
more than a century4 ,but the ideal was 
yet purely formal and continued so till 
past the middle of the fifteenth        
century1 both in ,italy and ,flanders4  
,giotto was then excelled by many       
artists1 but the ,madonnas they         
produced1 though often very beautiful1  
are not humanly attractive4 ,they are on
 the side of the ,angels2 have never    
been women evidently1 and are far1 far  
away from the human type with tingling  
veins and heaving breath4 ,filippo      
,lippi marked the border line between   
this type of ,madonna1 and the advanced 
pattern produced by the series of great 
artists of the latter part of the       
fifteenth century4 ,but with ,lionardo1 
,ghirlandaio1 ,botticelli1 and the rest1
 the ,madonna was scarcely an ideal     

woman4 ,living persons were commonly    
taken as models1 and although the       
portraits were no doubt improved1 they  
have little connection with the ideal   
which the artists evidently had in mind4
 ,the very life which the artist        
transfers to canvas in a portrait is    
destructive of the ideal1 for it is a   
particular life with evidence of        
particular emotions and passions from   
which the ,madonna should be free4  ,a  
mighty barrier must be passed before a  
woman is translated on canvas into the  
type of ,madonna sought by the first    
,renaissance artists4 ,she must be a    
woman of the earth2 a woman who has     
grown up amidst human surroundings from 
infancy to girlhood1 and from girlhood  
to womanhood2 with human aspirations and
 sympathies1 and experience of joys and 
trials3 she must have all these1 and as 
well have become a mother2 and yet with 
human beauty1 her countenance must be   
such that by no stretch of the          
imagination can the possibility of      

desire be suggested4 ,this was the      
problem1 and certainly only a genius of 
the highest order could arrive at a     
solution1 for the task appears on the   
face of it to be almost superhuman4 ,but
 ,raphael succeeded in accomplishing it1
 and his achievement will stand for all 
time as one of the greatest epoch-making
 events in history4 ,even ,michelangelo1
 who created so many superb forms1 never
 succeeded with an ideal suitable for a 
,madonna4#ci  ,it is clear that in      
reaching for his ideal1 ,raphael did not
 strive for an expression relating to   
the spiritual4 ,his purpose was to      
eliminate from the features anything    
which might possibly be construed as    
indicating earthly desires1 and yet     
retain the highest conceivable human    
beauty4 ,with this double object        
contentment is a quality in expression  
which is indispensable1 and this        
,raphael was careful to give1 sometimes 
emphasizing it with a suggestion of     
happiness4 ,it is not possible to go    

further with an expression which is to  
generalize the highest human physical   
and abstract qualities1 while keeping   
the figure within the range of apparent 
feasible realization in life4 ,the      
result was ideal but not exclusive4 ,it 
is a universal type1 and is suited to   
the ,madonna because there is nothing   
humanly higher within our comprehension2
 but it has a further general import    
which is dealt with elsewhere4          
,although the aim achieved by ,raphael  
must necessarily be the goal of all     
artists in the representation of the    
,madonna1 it is of course not essential 
that he should be accepted as the only  
guide to her form4 ,her features may    
vary indefinitely so long as the ideal  
is maintained1 and ,raphael himself     
painted no two ,madonnas with the same  
features4 ,but certain traditions must  
be observed1 however much one may depart
 from the actual circumstances of her   
life4 ,the first is in respect of her   
presumed age4 ,in pictures dealing with 

her life soon after marriage1 as for    
instance1 the ,nativity and the ,flight 
into ,egypt1 the ,madonna is invariably 
represented as many years older than she
 appears in ,annunciation subjects1     
though only a year or so actually passed
 between the respective events4 ,the    
reason for this is obvious4 ,she must be
 shown with the bloom of a matured      
woman4 ,the highest form of nobility    
cannot be disassociated from wisdom and 
experience1 which could not be indicated
 in the countenance of a girl in her    
teens4 ,innocence and purity may be     
present1 and a certain majesty even1 but
 our conception of the ,madonna as a    
woman involves the triumph over known   
evils1 the full knowledge of right and  
wrong1 and the consciousness of a       
supreme position above the possibility  
of sin4 ,hence in all representations of
 the ,madonna at the ,nativity and      
afterwards1 she must be shown at an age 
suggesting the fullest knowledge of good
 and evil4  ,while1 between the         

,annunciation and incidents occurring   
during the infancy of ,christ1 many     
years must be presumed to have passed1  
from this latter period on1 the ,madonna
 must be supposed to have aged very     
little1 if at all1 right up to the      
,crucifixion4 ,it is not often that we  
find her included in a design           
illustrating the life of ,christ between
 ,his infancy and the ,death ,scene1 a  
fact probably due to the age difficulty4
 ,in the exceptions her face is often   
partly or wholly hidden4 ,but in scenes 
of the ,crucifixion1 where the ,virgin  
is almost invariably introduced1 artists
 of all periods1 with few exceptions1   
have been careful to avoid suggesting   
the full presumed age4 ,commonly the age
 indicated is between twenty-five and   
thirty years1 but as the face is always 
pale1 and often somewhat drawn1 her     
comparatively youthful appearance is not
 conspicuous4 ,obviously under no       
circumstances should lines be present in
 the features1 for this would suggest a 

physical decay not in conformity with   
,christian ideas4#dj ,even in pictures  
relating to her death1 which is presumed
 to have occurred at an age between     
fifty and sixty years1 her face is shown
 with perfectly regular and smooth      
features1 though an extreme pallor may  
be painted4 ,but from the point of view 
of art1 the ,virgin must be regarded as 
an accessory in works relating to the   
,crucifixion1 for to throw her into     
prominence would result in dividing the 
attention of the observer of the picture
 on first inspection1 and so lessening  
the art4 ,in any case she must be       
painted with an expression of grief1 and
 hence an unalloyed ideal of            
transcendent beauty is out of the       
question4  ,the custom of representing  
the ,madonna in costume and surroundings
 indicating a higher social level than  
that in which she actually moved1 is now
 firmly established1 and cannot be      
departed from without lowering the      
ideal4 ,a woman in a lowly position of  

life1 who is compelled to bear all the  
responsibilities of a home1 with the    
care of a husband and child1 is seldom  
seen except in the performance of       
household duties4 ,we cannot see her    
without associating her in our minds    
with toil and possible privation1 and we
 naturally expect that the effect of    
these will be indicated in her          
expression and general bearing4 ,if away
 from her home her costume would usually
 declare her position1 while habits of  
mind connected with her daily occupation
 commonly engender mannerisms in air and
 gait which support the inference drawn 
from the character of her attire4 ,it   
would appear anomalous to paint a woman 
so situated with such beauty of form and
 expression that she appears to have    
never experienced earthly cares of any  
kind1 much less the long repeated daily 
worries consequent upon the charge of a 
poor household4 ,perfect beauty of form 
being essential in the representation of
 the ,madonna1 she must be painted      

amidst surroundings conformable with the
 supposition that she is free from      
earthly responsibilities1 and that her  
mind is entirely occupied with the      
boundless joy and happiness arising from
 the contemplation of the divine        
,mission of her ,son4#da                
,illustration3 ,,plate #aj 7,see ,page  
#aci7   ,raphael's ,holy ,family        
7,madrid71 with the ,face of ,luini's   
,salome ,substituted for that of the    
,virgin  ,the difficulty in painting the
 ,madonna is complicated when the       
,infant ,christ is introduced1 because  
of the liability of the ,child to       
interfere with a fine presentation of   
her figure4 ,a similar problem was met  
with by the early ,greeks1 and doubtless
 they dealt with it in their paintings  
as in their sculptures1 a few of which1 
showing an adult holding a child1 have  
come down to us4 ,these represent the   
child reduced in size as far as         
possible1 and carried at the side of the
 adult figure4a ,a like system was      

followed by most of the ,byzantine      
workers1 and it is very noticeable in   
some of the fine ,french sculpture of   
the thirteenth century4b ,in the same   
period ,giovanni ,pisano in sculpture1c 
and ,cimabue in painting1d maintained   
the tradition in ,italy1 and in the     
century following1 ,giotto1e ,duccio1f  
,lorenzetto1g and others1 often adopted 
the plan4 ,towards the middle of the    
fifteenth century1 the relative         
importance attached to the ,child in the
 group generally increased1 and by the  
end of it1 the old practice had been    
almost entirely abandoned4 ,meanwhile   
the artists had some hard problems to   
meet4 ,the first was as to the size of  
the ,child4 ,it appeared to be generally
 agreed that an older ,child should be  
represented than had been the custom1   
though a few artists held back1 notably 
,fra ,angelico1 while in sculpture1     
,donatello maintained his habit of      
moulding the ,child as only a few weeks 
old4 ,with an increased age of the      

,child1 the difficulty of securing      
repose for the group was enhanced1 for  
it seemed to be proper with a child past
 its infancy1 that it should be pictured
 as engaged in one of the charming      
simple actions common to childhood4     
,these questions were settled in        
different ways according to the genius  
and temperament of the artists4 ,a few  
of them1 as ,mantegna1h ,lorenzo        
,costa1i and ,montagna1j gave the ,child
 an age of two years or more1 and in    
some of their designs the figures seem  
to be of equal significance1 ,mantegna  
and ,montagna in several examples       
actually standing the ,child in the     
,virgin's lap with the heads touching   
each other4    a ,see the ,olympian     
,hermes of ,praxiteles1 and ,irene and  
,pluto after         ,cephisodostus at  
,munich4    b ,groups in the ,southern  
and ,western porches of ,amiens         
,cathedral4    c ,madonna and ,child1   
,arena ,chapel1 ,padua4    d ,groups at 
the ,florence ,academy and the ,louvre4 

e ,florence ,academy4    f ,national    
,gallery1 ,london4    g ,san ,francisco1
 ,assisi4    h ,madonna and ,angels1 at 
,milan1 and other works4    i           
,coronation of the ,virgin1 ,bologna4   
j ,enthronement of the ,virgin1 ,brera1 
,milan4  ,the plans usually adopted by  
the greatest masters1 were1 to present  
the maximum repose with the ,child      
sitting in the lap of the ,virgin2 or to
 place ,him apart from her1 and engaged 
in some slight action2 or to show ,him  
in the arms of the ,virgin1 either held 
at the side1 or in front1 with the      
,virgin more or less in profile4 ,in all
 of these schemes the serene            
contemplation of the ,holy ,mother is   
practically undisturbed4 ,in his many   
groups of the ,virgin and ,child1 and of
 the ,holy ,family1 ,raphael only varied
 twice from these plans1a and in both   
the exceptions the ,child reclines      
across the lap of the ,virgin1 so that  
very little of her figure is hidden4    
,titian has the ,child standing by her  

side1b or held away from her1 and in one
 example the ,virgin is placing ,him in 
the hands of ,st4 ,joseph4c ,correggio1 
when away from the influence of         
,mantegna1 usually showed the ,child    
held apart from the ,mother1 or placed  
on the floor1 or on a bench4 ,it is a   
common device to show the ,child on the 
lap of the ,virgin1 but leaning over to 
take a flower or other object offered   
,him1d and numerous artists allow ,him  
to play around separately4e ,in         
,holbein's fine group at ,augsburg1 the 
,child stands between the ,virgin and   
,st4 ,anne1 and another ,german painter 
shows ,him held up by the same          
personages1 but clear from both of      
them4f ,murillo commonly stands the     
,child at the side of the ,virgin1 but  
in one picture adopts the novel method  
of placing ,him in the arms of ,st4     
,joseph4g    a ,madonna and ,child1     
,bridgewater ,coll41 ,england2 and same 
group with         ,st4 ,john1 ,berlin4 
b ,madonna of the ,cherries1 ,imperial  

,gallery1 ,vienna4    c ,meeting of     
,joachim and ,anna1 ,bridgwater ,coll41 
,england4    d ,filipino ,lippi's       
,madonna and ,angels1 ,corsini ,palace1 
,florence4    e ,luca ,signorelli's     
group at ,munich1 and ,bonfiglio's at   
,perugia4    f ,hans ,fries1 ,national  
,museum1 ,nuremburg4    g ,holy ,family1
 ,petrograd4  ,when the ,child is shown 
distinctly apart from the ,virgin1 or   
leaning away from her lap1 great care is
 necessary in avoiding strength in the  
action1 otherwise it will draw attention
 away from the ,virgin4 ,a notable      
example of this defect is in a picture  
by ,parmigiano1 where the ,child leans  
over and has his head brought close to  
that of a kneeling ,saint who is        
caressing ,him1 the effect being most   
disturbing4a ,bramantino shows the      
,child in an extraordinary attitude1 for
 ,he holds ,his head above ,his arms    
without any apparent reason1 the action 
confusing the design4b ,many artists    
represent ,him in the act of reaching   

out his hand for flowers1 without       
choosing for the moment of portrayal1 an
 instant of transition from one part of 
the action to another1c a point rarely  
overlooked by the first masters4d       
,occasionally variety is given in the   
introduction of nursery duties1 as for  
instance1 washing the ,child1e but these
 are inappropriate for reasons already  
indicated1 apart from the over strong   
action necessarily exhibited in such    
designs4 ,nor should the ,child have an 
unusual expression1 as this will        
immediately catch the eye of the        
observer4 ,in one work ,del ,sarto      
actually makes ,him laugh1f and a modern
 artist gives ,him an expression of     
fear4g ,it is questionable whether      
,masaccioh and others 7including ,a4    
della ,robbia and ,rossellino in        
sculpture7 did not go too far in        
portraying the ,child with a finger in  
its mouth1 for although such an incident
 is common with children1 in this case  
it seems opposed to propriety4          

,generally the first artists have       
striven to free the figure of the       
,virgin as far as possible1 and this is 
in conformity with first principles1 for
 it simplifies the view of the chief    
figure in the composition4 ,in all cases
 repose should be the keynote of the    
design4    a ,madonna and ,child with   
,saints1 ,bologna ,academy4    b ,virgin
 with a ,turban1 ,brera1 ,milan4    c   
,as in ,b4 da ,bagnacavallo's ,holy     
,family1 ,bologna2 and ,boltraffio's    
,holy ,family1 ,milan4    d ,see        
,titian's ,madonna with ,,ss4 ,anthony  
and ,john1 ,uffizi ,gallery4    e       
,giulio ,romano's ,holy ,family1        
,dresden4    f ,holy ,family1           
,hermitage1 ,petrograd4    g ,uhde's    
,the ,three ,magi1 ,magdeburg ,museum4  
h ,madonna enthroned1 ,sutton ,coll41   
,england4  ,there are no general ideals 
in ,christian art other than those      
mentioned4 ,the presumed occupants of   
the ,celestial regions beyond these     
,personages1 are painted as the fancy of

 the artist may dictate1 subject only to
 the limitations of the accepted        
,christian doctrines4 ,there are certain
 conventions in respect of ,angels and  
,saints1 but they are by no means       
strict2 and for the ,old ,testament     
prophets1 ,michelangelo's work in the   
,sistine ,chapel is commonly taken as a 
guide4 ,it is scarcely likely that his  
examples will ever be exceeded in       
majestic beauty4     ,,chapter ,,viii   
,,expression4 ,,part ,,iii4--,,classical
 ,,ideals       ,ideals of the          
,greeks--,aphrodite--,hera--,demeter--,a
thena--,apollo--                        
,diana--,neptune--,mars--,mercury--,bacc
hus--,vulcan--,general classical        
compositions4   ,what human being can   
appropriately describe the great ideals 
in art of ancient ,greece8 ,above us all
 they stand1 seemingly as upon the      
pinnacle of the universal mind1         
reflecting the collective human soul1   
and exhibiting the concentrated essence 
of human nature4 ,the best of men and   

women of all ages is combined in these  
ideal heads1 which look from an endless 
past to an eternal future2 which embody 
every passion and every virtue2 every   
religion and every philosophy2 all      
wisdom and all knowledge4 ,they are     
ideal gods and goddesses1 but are       
independent of legends and history4     
,they represent no mythological deities 
except in name1 and least of all do they
 assort with the deities of ,homer and  
,hesiod4 ,in all other religions the    
ideals expressed in art fail entirely to
 reach the height of the general        
conceptions1 and are far below the      
spiritual beings as depicted in the     
sacred books2 but the ,grecian ideals as
 recorded in stone are so far beyond the
 legendary gods of the ancient poets1   
that we are unable to pass from the     
stone to the literature without an      
overwhelming feeling of astonishment at 
the contrast4 ,it is unfortunate that we
 are powerless to re-establish these    
ideals definitely1 for the originals    

have been mostly lost2 nevertheless the 
ancient copies1 a few contemporary      
complete sculptures1 and many glorious  
fragments2 as well as intimate          
descriptions and repeated eulogies1     
often reaching to hyperbole1 of eminent 
men1 expressed over a succession of     
centuries when the great works were     
still exposed to view--all this         
assembled evidence indelibly stamps upon
 our minds the nature of the ideals2    
gives us a clear impression of the most 
profound conceptions that have emanated 
from the human brain4  ,the people who  
accomplished these great monuments seem 
to have thought only in terms of the    
universe4 ,they did not seek for the    
embodiment of goodness1 nobility1 and   
charity1 perfection in which qualities  
we regard as divine1 but they aimed at a
 majesty which included all these       
things2 which comprehended nothing but  
the supreme in form and mind2 and with  
an all-reaching knowledge of the human  
race1 stood outside of it1 but covered  

it with reflected glory1 as the sun     
stands ever away from the planets but   
illumines them all4 ,the wonder is not  
that these ideals were created in the   
minds of the ,greeks1 for there is no   
boundary to the imagination1 but that   
minds could be found to set them down in
 design1 and hands to mould and shape   
them in clay and stone2 and that many   
minds and hands could do these things in
 the same epoch4 ,that these sculptured 
forms have never been equalled is not   
wonderful2 that they never will be      
surpassed is as certain as that death is
 the penalty of life4 ,so firmly have   
they become grafted into the minds of   
men as things unapproachable in beauty1 
that they have themselves been converted
 into general ideals towards which all  
must climb who attempt to scale the     
heights of art4 ,the greatest artists   
known to us since the light of ,greek   
intelligence flickered away1 have been  
content to study these marble remains1  
and to cull from them a suggestion here1

 and an idea there1 with which to adorn 
their own creations4 ,indeed it is clear
 that from the time of ,niccolo ,pisano1
 who leaped at one bound to celebrity   
after studying the antique sculptures at
 ,pisa1 through ,giotto to the fifteenth
 and sixteenth century giants1 there was
 hardly a great artist who was not more 
or less dependent upon ,grecian art for 
his skill1 and the most enduring of them
 all--,donatello1 ,raphael1             
,michelangelo1 ,titian1 ,correggio--were
 the most deeply versed in the art4#db  
,bellori affirmed that the ,roman       
school1 of which ,raphael and           
,michelangelo were the greatest masters1
 derived its principles from the study  
of the statues and other works of the   
ancients4a ,this is not strictly exact1 
but it is near the truth1 and certain it
 is that ,michelangelo1 the first       
sculptor known to the world since the   
,dark ,age1 willingly bowed his head    
before the ancient triumphs of art      
presented to his view4 ,and yet he did  

not see the ,parthenon sculptures and   
other numerous works of the time of     
,phidias1 with the many beautiful       
examples of the next century which have 
been made available since his day4 ,what
 he would have said in the presence of  
the glories of the ,parthenon1 with the 
,hermes of ,praxiteles and the rest of  
the collection from ,olympia1 is hard to
 conjecture1 though it may well be      
suggested that they would have prompted 
him to still higher work than any he    
accomplished4 ,with these stupendous    
ideals in front of us1 it seems almost  
unnecessary to talk of the principles of
 art4 ,their very perfection indicates  
that they were built up on eternal      
principles1 so that in fact and in      
theory they form the surest guide for   
the sculptor and painter4    a ,le ,vite
 de' ,pittori1 ,scultori1 e ,architteti 
moderni4  ,but how is the painter to use
 these ancient gods and goddesses1 for  
the time has gone by to gather them     
together on the heights of ,olympus1 or 

to associate them with human frailties8 
,surely he may leave aside the fables of
 the poets1 and try to portray the      
deities as the ,grecian populace saw    
them in their hearts--noble forms of    
adoration1 or images of terror1 objects 
of curses veneered with prayer and of   
offerings wrapped in fear4 ,the artist  
has not now to be troubled with pangs of
 dread1 nor will his imagination be     
limited by sacerdotal scruples4 ,the    
rivalry of ,praxiteles need not concern 
him1 for there are wondrous ideals yet  
to be wrought1 which will be            
comprehended and loved even in these    
days of hastening endeavour4 ,but the   
painter must leave alone the ,zeus and  
the variation of this god in the        
pictured ,christian ,deity1 for the type
 is so firmly established in the minds  
of men that it would be useless to      
depart from it4 ,the other important    
,grecian deities with which art is      
concerned may be shortly considered from
 the point of view of the painter1      

though they are naturally of far more   
importance to the sculptor because it is
 beyond the power of the painter to     
suggest an illusion of divine form1     
since he must associate his figures with
 human accessories4#dc   ,,aphrodite    
,astarte1 ,aphrodite1 ,venus1 ,spirit of
 ,love1 or by whatever name we call her2
 the one eternal divinity recognized by 
all ages1 all races2 the universal      
essence whose fragrance intoxicates     
every soul3 the one queen before whom   
all must bow3 the one imperial autocrat 
sure of everlasting rule--sure of the   
devoted allegiance of every living thing
 to the end of time6 ,such is           
,aphrodite1 for that is the name under  
which we seem to love her best--the     
,aphrodite of the ,greeks1 without the  
vague terrifying aspect of ,astarte1 or 
the more earthly qualities of the ,roman
 ,venus4 ,who loves not the ,aphrodite  
sprung from the foam of the sea2 shading
 the sun on the ,cytheran isle with the 
light of her glory2 casting an eternal  

hallow over the groves of ,cyprus2      
flooding the god-like mind of ,greece   
with her sparkling radiance8 ,what      
conception of her beauty can rise high  
enough when the grass in astonishment   
grows beneath her feet on desert rocks2 
when lions and tigers gently purr as she
 passes1 and the rose and the myrtle    
throw out their scented blossoms to     
sweeten the air8 ,hera and ,athena leave
 the heavens to help man fight and kill3
 ,aphrodite descends to soothe          
despairing hearts1 and kindle kindly    
flame in the breast of the loveless4    
,the spear and the shield with the      
crested helmet she knows not1 nor the   
fiery coursers accustomed to the din of 
strife4 ,serenely she traverses space at
 the call of a lover's prayer1 her car a
 bower of celestial blooms4 ,from the   
ends of the earth fly the sparrows to   
draw it1 till their myriads hide the    
sun1 and mortals learn that the time has
 come when their thoughts may turn to   
the spirit of love4  ,this was the      

,aphrodite of ,grecian legend and       
poetry1 if we except ,homer and ,hesiod4
 ,it is the type of the goddess whom    
,sappho implored1 and must be accepted  
as the general ideal of the ,grecian    
worshippers who desired divine mediation
 when troubled with pangs of the heart4 
,but it was not the type of ,phidias and
 his school1 for ,phidias passed over   
,hesiod and purified ,homer1            
representing ,aphrodite with the stately
 mien and lofty bearing of a queen of   
heaven1 daughter of the all-powerful    
,dione3 goddess of beauty and love      
certainly1 but so far above the human   
understanding of these terms that all   
efforts to associate her with mundane   
ideas and aspirations must signally     
fail4#dd  ,so far as we know it was     
,praxiteles who first attempted to      
realize in stone the popular ideal of   
the goddess1 and certainly the ,cnidian 
,aphrodite was better understood by the 
people of ,greece as a type of this     
ideal than any work that preceded it4   

,we can attach to it in our minds but   
very few of the ,homeric and other      
legends surrounding the history of the  
goddess1 but we can well imagine that a 
deity who was the subject of so much    
attention and so much prayer1 could rest
 in the hearts of the people only as one
 with every supreme earthly charm1      
combined with a divine bearing and      
dignity4 ,these qualities the ,aphrodite
 of ,praxiteles appears to have         
possessed1 though it lacked the majesty 
and exclusiveness of the ,parthenon     
gods4#de  ,thus there was formed a type 
of beauty acceptable to the average     
human mind as an unsurpassable          
representation of an ideal woman3 to the
 worshipper at the ancient shrines1 a   
comprehensible goddess2 to all other men
 the personification of sublime beauty4 
,the fifth century goddess was left     
aside as beyond mortal reach1 and from  
the time it left the sculptor's hands to
 this day1 the ,cnidian ,venus has been 
regarded as a model for all that is true

 and beautiful in women4 ,to the        
sculptor it is an everlasting beacon2 to
 all men a crowning glory of human      
handiwork4 ,and this notwithstanding    
that so far as we know1 the original    
figure has long been lost1 and we have  
preserved little more than records of   
its renown1 a fair copy of it1 and a    
single authentic example of the other   
work of the sculptor4 ,but if we had the
 actual ,aphrodite before us1 it could  
not occupy a higher place in our minds  
than the goddess which our imagination  
builds upon this framework4  ,as in all 
cases where a supreme artist rises above
 his fellows and creates works of which 
emulation appears hopeless1 the period  
succeeding the time of ,praxiteles seems
 to mark a decline in the art of        
sculpture1 and though the decline was   
more apparent than real for about half a
 century1 there was naturally a         
depreciation in the representation of   
the deities of whom the great man had   
fashioned masterpieces4 ,this was so in 

the case of ,aphrodite4 ,whoever the    
sculptor it seemed impossible to        
approach the ,cnidian ideal1 and the    
result was a series of variations       
stamped with artificial devices as if to
 emphasize the departure4 ,but meanwhile
 the painter's art had developed upon   
much the same lines as sculpture1 and   
,apelles produced an ,aphrodite1 which1 
considering the limitation of the       
painter1 appears to have been almost1 if
 not quite1 as marvellous as the stone  
model of ,praxiteles4 ,nearly two       
thousand years have passed since the    
painting was last known to exist1 but   
its fame was so great that the          
reverberations from the thunder of      
praise accorded it have scarcely yet    
died away4 ,no close description of the 
painting remains1 but from certain      
references to it by ancient authors we  
know that it represented the sea-born   
goddess walking towards the shore to    
make her first appearance on earth1     
holding in each hand a tress of hair as 

if in the act of wringing out the water 
therein4#df ,these are practically all  
the written details we have of the      
famous ,venus ,anadyomene1 but we really
 know much more of it from the existence
 of certain pre-,roman sculptures4 ,all 
but one are broken1 with parts missing1 
but the exception1 which dates from     
about the beginning of the third century
 ,b4,c41 enables us to gain a good idea 
of the picture4 ,the figure represents  
the goddess with her lower limbs cut off
 close to the hips2 that is to say1 it  
produces the whole of that part of the  
figure in the picture of ,apelles which 
is visible above the water4a ,clearly a 
subject in which ,venus is shown to be  
walking in the sea1 so foreign to the   
art of the sculptor1 could not have     
suggested itself independently to a     
,grecian artist1 nor would we expect to 
find one attempting a work which        
necessitated amputation of the lower    
limbs1 unless a very special occasion   
warranted the design4 ,the special      

occasion in this case was the picture of
 ,apelles1 which was at the time        
renowned through the whole of ,greece as
 an extraordinary masterpiece1 and with 
this work in their minds the sculptured 
head and torso would appear quite       
appropriate to those ,greeks interested 
in the arts1 that is to say1 the entire 
citizen population4    a ,see ,plate #d4
  ,these two works then1 the ,cnidian   
,venus and the ,venus ,anadyomene of    
,apelles1 constitute the models upon    
which the world relies for its          
conceptions of the goddess of beauty4   
,both models depend more or less upon   
the imagination for completion1 but they
 are sufficiently definite for the      
artist1 who1 of course1 desires general 
rather than particular ideas for his    
purpose4    ,illustration3 ,,plate #aa  
7,see page #aci7   ,the ,pursuit1 by    
,fragonard 7,frick ,collection7  ,it    
must be confessed that the attempts to  
rival ,apelles in the creation of a     
,venus ,anadyomene have not been very   

successful4 ,raphael painted a small    
picture of the subject1 introducing the 
figure of ,time putting an end to the   
power of the ,titans4a ,venus stands in 
the water with one foot on a shell1     
while holding a tress of hair with her  
left hand4 ,as may be expected the      
execution is perfect1 but the design is 
less attractive than that of ,apelles4  
,the only important work of the         
,renaissance directly based upon the    
,greek design1 is from the hand of      
,titian4b ,he represents the goddess    
walking out of the water1 the surface of
 which only reaches half way up the     
thighs1 with the result that            
considerably more action is indicated   
than is necessary4 ,but the great artist
 was evidently at a loss to know how to 
give the figure the size of life or     
thereabouts1 while indicating from the  
depth of water that she had an          
appreciable distance to go before       
touching dry land4 ,he solved the       
problem by placing the line of the front

 leg to which the water rises1 at the   
bottom of the canvas1 so that the       
picture suggests an accident which has  
necessitated the cutting away of the    
lower portion of the work4 ,the master  
also varies the scheme of ,apelles by   
crossing the left hand over the breast4 
,this inferior device was imitated by   
,rubens1 who1 however1 exhibits the     
goddess rising from the water amongst a 
group of nymphs and tritons4c ,modern   
artists in designs of the birth of      
,venus1 usually represent her as having 
reached the shore1d the best work of    
this scheme being perhaps that of       
,cabanel who shows the goddess lying at 
the water's edge and just awaking1      
suggesting a state of unconsciousness   
while she floated on the waves4e        
,another exception is by ,thoma1 who    
exhibits the goddess walking in only a  
few inches of water1 reminding one of   
the old ,roman bronze workers who       
imitated the form as painted by         
,apelles1 but modelled the whole figure4

    a ,in the bathroom of ,cardinal     
,bibiena1 ,vatican4 ,there is a drawing 
for the figure of the goddess at the    
,munich ,gallery4    b ,bridgewater     
,coll41 ,england4 ,see ,plate #e4    c  
,birth of ,venus1 at ,potsdam4    d     
,notable examples are those of ,ingres  
and ,bouguereau4    e ,at the           
,luxembourg1 ,paris4 ,there are several 
replicas of this         picture4       
,repose being the first compulsory      
quality in the representation of        
,aphrodite1 it is not surprising to find
 that the greatest picture of the       
goddess extant--the masterpiece of      
,giorgione--shows her asleep4a ,she     
rests on a verdure couch in a landscape 
of which the signs indicate a soft and  
tranquil atmosphere1 with no suggestion 
to disturb the repose or remove the     
illusion of life so strongly marked by  
the skilful drawing4 ,only the calm     
sleeping beauty is there without        
appearance of fatigue or recovery from  
it3 no expression save of perfect       

dreamless unconsciousness4 ,the work is 
the nearest approach to a classical     
ideal that exists in ,venetian painting4
 ,titian in his various pictures of     
,venus reposing never reached the       
excellence of his master4 ,in all1 he   
painted the goddess in a resting        
position1 sometimes radiant and         
brilliant1 and invariably with a        
contented expression which precludes    
sensual suggestions3 still there is ever
 a distinctly earthy tone about the     
figures4 ,his ,venuses in fact are pure 
portraits4 ,he did not seek to represent
 profound repose4 ,his most important   
example is at the ,uffizi ,gallery1b the
 design of which was taken from         
,giorgione's work4 ,the goddess is a    
figure of glowing beauty1 but the pose  
indicates consciousness of this fact and
 calls the model to mind4 ,perhaps the  
surroundings tend to accentuate the     
drawback1 for in this1 as in most of his
 other pictures of ,venus1 the artist   
has introduced ,venetian accessories of 

the period4 ,palma ,vecchio also took   
,giorgione's work as a guide for his    
reposing ,venus1 but he represents her  
fully awake with ,cupid present4c ,an   
exceptional work of the subject was     
designed by ,michelangelo1 and painted  
by ,pontormod and others4 ,it represents
 the goddess reclining with ,cupid at   
her head2 but the form is entirely      
opposed to all our conceptions of       
,venus1 for she is seen as a broad      
massive woman with a short neck1 and a  
strongly formed head--a fit companion   
for some of the figures in the ,sistine 
,chapel4 ,proud dignity and a certain   
majesty are suggested in the expression1
 but the figure is without the grace and
 charm usually associated with the      
goddess4 ,the only other early ,italian 
reposing ,venus of interest is          
,botticelli's1 where he shows her in    
deep thought with two cupids by her     
side4e    a ,dresden ,gallery4 ,see     
,plate #f4 ,titian added a ,cupid to    
this         picture1 but the little god

 was subsequently painted out by        
a restorer4 7,l4 ,venturi1 ,giorgione e 
il ,giorgionismo1 #aiac47    b ,the     
sitter is supposed to have been the     
model also for ,la ,bella         in the
 ,uffizi1 and the ,woman in ,fur at the 
,vienna ,gallery4    c ,dresden         
,gallery4    d ,hampton ,court ,palace1 
,england4    e ,national ,gallery1      
,london4  ,in the seventeenth century   
,venus was rarely represented reposing4 
,nicholas ,poussin has a fine picture on
 the subject1 but unfortunately for the 
repose a couple of cupids are in action 
beside the sleeping goddess1 while the  
heads of two satyrs are dimly seen4a ,in
 the ,sleeping ,venus of ,le ,sueur1    
which was much praised in former times1 
,cupid is present with a finger to his  
mouth to indicate silence1 but ,vulcan  
is seen in an adjoining room wielding a 
heavy hammer1 the suggestion of repose  
being thus destroyed4 ,no reposing      
,venus of importance has since been     
produced1 though a few ,french artists  

have treated the subject in a light     
vein1 notably ,boucher in his ,sleeping 
,venus1 and ,fragonard in a delicate    
composition of ,venus awakened by       
,aurora4    a ,dresden ,gallery4  ,venus
 cannot be represented as conscious of  
her beauty1 or the design would         
immediately suggest vanity4             
,consequently when shown looking into a 
mirror1 she should be engaged at her    
toilet1 or at least the reflection      
should be accidental4 ,titian painted   
the first great picture of the goddess  
at her toilet1 but this is just         
completed and her hands are at rest4a   
,the attitude would be extravagant were 
it not that any suggestion of           
satisfaction is overcome by the artist  
making ,cupid hold the mirror1 and      
giving ,venus an expression of unconcern
 as she glances at her reflection4 ,the 
work suggested to ,rubens a similar     
design1 but he shows the goddess        
dressing her hair1 this being apparently
 the only definite action which may be  

properly introduced into such a         
composition4b ,albani has a delightful  
picture in which ,cupid compels ,venus  
to hold a mirror1c and some later       
artists have represented her adorning   
her tresses with the aid of a water     
reflection4 ,the only notable faux pas  
in a painting of this subject is in the 
,venus and ,cupid assigned to           
,velasquez1 in which ,venus lies on her 
side and looks into a mirror held by    
,cupid at her feet4d ,there is no       
suggestion of toilet or accident1 and   
hence the attitude is quite inapplicable
 to a goddess4    a ,the ,hermitage1    
,petrograd4    b ,hofmuseum1 ,vienna4   
c ,the ,louvre4    d ,national ,gallery1
 ,london4  ,it should be remembered that
 the province of ,aphrodite is to infuse
 the gentle warmth of love into the     
human race1 and not to attract love to  
herself4 ,the rays are presumed to      
proceed from her only1 for a mortal     
having no divine powers would be        
incapable of reflecting them4 ,zeus was 

required to bring about the adventure   
with ,anchises4 ,hence a voluptuous form
 should never be given to the goddess1  
and if an artist err at all in the      
matter1 it should be on the side of     
restraint lest the art be affected by a 
suggestion of the sensuous4 ,the surest 
means of preventing this is to represent
 the goddess in an attitude of repose1  
with perfect contentment as a feature in
 expression4 ,if any action be          
indicated1 it must be light and purely  
accidental in its nature4 ,to introduce 
an action involving an apprehension of  
human failings tends to bring the       
goddess down to the human level1 and    
thus to destroy the ideal4 ,the ,venus  
de' ,medici is a superb sculpture of a  
woman1 but an inferior representation of
 ,venus1 for modesty is a human         
attribute arising from purely artificial
 circumstances of life1 its meaning     
varying with race conditions and        
customs4 ,to depict a goddess in an     
action suggestive of modesty or other   

antidote to the coarser effects of      
natural instincts1 is therefore an      
anomaly4   ,,hera  ,there is no fixed   
type in art of the ox-eyed sister and   
spouse of ,zeus1 the ,queen of ,olympus1
 whose breast heaves ever high1 and     
flaming1 with the rushing fire of       
jealousy2 the ,virgilian incarnation of 
bitter rage2 yet withal the symbol of   
eternal ,earth1 yearly renewing her     
fruitful youth with the burning kiss of 
the sun4 ,the sculptors of ,greece saw  
in her only the supreme ,matron-,spouse1
 serenely pondering the march of time   
beneath the awful sway of her lord4 ,a  
mantle she wore1 and a high-throated    
tunic1 as she looked into space from a  
square-wrought throne2 or she stood in  
her temple with flowing robe and diadem1
 inscrutable1 before the offerings of an
 adoring multitude4 ,but nevertheless   
she was not insensible to the radiance  
of ,aphrodite4 ,polyclitus did well to  
place a cuckoo on her sceptre1 and who  
can forget how the lotus and the        

hyacinth cushioned the ground on the    
heights of ,ida beneath a golden cloud1 
which held suspended around the         
glittering couch a screen of sparkling  
dew8  ,it is unfortunate that the       
painter is at a loss to deal with the   
majestic scenes in great ,juno's story4 
,how is he to depict her flying in the  
celestial chariot between heaven and    
earth1 each leap of the fiery coursers  
measuring the range of the eye from a   
lofty peak across the sea to the endless
 haze8 ,how can he paint her anointed   
with ambrosial oil which is ever        
struggling for freedom to bathe the     
rolling earth in fragrance8 ,he may add 
a hundred tassels to her girdle2 perhaps
 give her the triple grace-showering    
eardrops1 and even the dazzling         
sun-bright veil2 but the girdle of      
,aphrodite1 which peeps from her bosom1 
will fail to turn the brains of men1 or 
pierce their hearts with rays of soft   
desire4 ,and the more dreadful side of  
,hera's history would equally trouble   

the despairing artist1 for dire anger   
and jealousy ill-become the countenance 
of a goddess4 ,the smouldering fire must
 never leap into flame4 ,eyes may not   
flash1 not the lips quiver1 and the     
noble brow must be free from fitful     
thought4  ,so with ,hera there is no    
middle course for the painter4 ,he must 
represent her alone1 calm and           
passionless1 unfathomable1 with a       
sublime disregard of earth2 or else join
 with his predecessors and drag her down
 to a mundane level in scenes of trivial
 fable4 ,but there is room for untold   
,heras of the higher type4   ,,demeter  
,matron-,guardian of the yielding soil2 
heart-stricken wanderer over the earth2 
mysterious silent ,food-,mother whom all
 men love and the gods revere2 eternal  
life-preserver2 fruitful1 but           
passionless save where the vision of    
,pluto looms1 ,iasus and ,poseidon      
notwithstanding6 ,such was the ,demeter 
of the ancient ,greeks till the hordes  
of ,alexander mingled her fame with the 

lustre from ,isis and ,de4 ,so the      
mourning haute dame of ,olympus came    
nearer the seat of her care1 nearer the 
dread home of her daughter3 passed from 
,homer to ,theocritus2 from the         
adoration of the higher priesthood of   
,greece1 to become merged in the ,ceres 
of ,rome1 the goddess beloved of the    
lowly1 who received the first fruits of 
the field amidst joyful measures of     
dance and song4 ,but it is the haute    
dame that strikes our imagination--the  
staid and mystic ,demeter of ,eleusis1  
and not the ,ceres of the ,roman lyric4 
,the light-hearted ,ceres1 as a         
beautiful woman in the prime of life1   
may be adorned with poppies and         
wheat-ears1 may stand serene and smiling
 as a symbol of harvest or the goddess  
of a ,latin temple2 but paint her as one
 will1 she will do little more than     
serve to show how fallen are the        
idols--how immeasurable is the descent  
from the stately ,earth-,mother whose   
image would be stamped on the brain of a

 ,phidias4  ,but where is the ,phidian  
,demeter8 ,surely such a goddess1 deeply
 musing in her hallowed shrine1 was a   
theme for the carver of the immortal    
,zeus and ,athena6 ,perhaps those       
inscrutable headless ,fates from the    
,parthenon1 so wonderful in noble grace 
that the conception of befitting heads  
is beyond the reach of our minds1       
include the ,earth-,mother and her      
daughter6 ,how easy it is to imagine the
 reclining figure as ,persephone leaning
 upon the mother who loved her so well6 
,but we must be content with what we    
have of ,demeter in art1 which is little
 more than a few fifth century frieze   
reliefs1 the figure from ,cnidos        
attributed to ,scopas1a and some        
,damophon memories of ,phidias4    a    
,see ,plate #g4  ,so the artist is free 
and untrammelled in respect of the      
representation of the far-famed goddess4
 ,there is no definite type of her which
 has fixed itself on the minds of men1  
though the legend and story weaved about

 her name are beautiful and wonderful in
 a high degree4   ,,athena  ,though     
swathed in legend and surrounded with a 
hallow of ,grecian reverence1 ,athena is
 always cold4 ,she may dim the sun with 
the radiance of her armour2 ride in a   
flaming car1 and have ,strength and     
,invisibility for her allies2 but she   
fights only on the side of the strong1  
and uses the tactics of spies against   
her enemies4 ,with the ,gorgon's head on
 her shield1 and a helmet which will    
cover the soldiers of a hundred towns1  
she yet whispers advice to ,grecian     
heroes1 and deflects a ,trojan arrow in 
its flight4 ,truly as ,goddess of ,war  
she is somewhat difficult to generalize4
 ,but she is also the divinity of the   
arts and sciences2 invents the pipe and 
the shuttle1 and becomes the depository 
of all industrial knowledge4 ,hence she 
embodies the triumphs of peace and      
war--combines the extremes of human     
exertion4  ,how ,phidias overcame the   
task of representing the goddess is well

 known4 ,he generalized war and wisdom1 
and from his great work of the          
,parthenon there can be little departure
 in respect of bearing and attitude1 so 
long as the province of war is          
symbolized in the design4 ,the actual   
work of the ,greek master has           
disappeared1 but from various records   
and copies1 it would appear that the    
,parthenon ,athena was the loftiest     
conception ever worked out in sculpture1
 if we except the ,olympian ,zeus4      
,majestic grace and the unconscious     
power derived from supreme knowledge1   
seem to have been the first qualities   
exhibited in the statue4 ,in the fourth 
century there was no great departure    
from the ,phidian ideal1 and it is      
difficult to see how there could be much
 modification in the direction of       
bringing the conception closer to earth1
 for the goddess had no special presumed
 form which could be adapted by the     
artist to popular ideas4 ,a nude figure 
would be impossible because in this the 

force and power implied in a hero of war
 could not be combined with feminine    
attributes4 ,the ,greeks drew the line  
at observable muscular developments1    
invariably clothing nearly the whole of 
the figure1 but they did not1 and could 
not1 free her general bearing from      
certain masculine qualities4 ,it is true
 that the costume of the goddess might  
be modified1 and ,phidias himself       
represented her in one or two statues   
without a helmet1 an example followed by
 several artists of the ,renaissance1a  
but so long as the symbols of war are   
included in her habit1 she can be only  
of formal use to the painter4    a ,see 
,piero di ,cosimo's ,marsyas and the    
,pipes of ,athena1#dg and               
,botticelli's ,athena and the ,centaur4 
,,apollo  ,although in mythology ,apollo
 is connected with everything on earth  
which is useful or pleasing to mankind1 
in art custom has so confined his       
representation in respect of both       
appearance and symbols1 that a type has 

been established from which it would be 
difficult to depart without a suggestion
 of incongruity arising4 ,this type is  
of a more purely formal character than  
that of any other god1 except perhaps   
,mercury1 a circumstance probably       
arising from the fact that the reputed  
hard nature of ,apollo fails to lend    
itself to sympathetic idealization4 ,he 
does not appear to have been a favourite
 subject with the greatest sculptors of 
ancient times1 for nearly all the       
innumerable statues of him which have   
come down to us1 are reproductions of   
two or three types which in themselves  
vary but little4 ,it is difficult to see
 how a really noble ideal of such a god 
can be suggested4 ,stern and inflexible1
 with many human vices but no weaknesses
 or gentle traits1 and withal a model of
 physical beauty without strength or    
apparent power--in fact an emphasized   
feminine form3 such is the ,apollo of   
tradition and art4 ,we cannot wonder    
that the type was quickly fixed1 the    

limitations to avoid the abnormal being 
so well defined4  ,the painter then has 
small scope with the figure of this god4
 ,he may only slightly vary the accepted
 form1 which admits of but a negative   
expression4 ,the best representation of 
,apollo in modern art is the one by     
,raphael in the ,parnassus fresco at the
 ,vatican1 though the beautiful figure  
in the ,marsyas work at the ,louvre is  
very nearly as perfect4#dh ,raphael does
 not give to the god the rounded        
swellings of a female form1 but         
overcomes the difficulty by showing him 
as a young man of perfect figure who has
 just reached maturity4 ,the expression 
is entirely general1 but does not       
suggest a god-like power4   ,,diana  ,it
 would scarcely be natural to be        
sympathetic with ,artemis4 ,she seems to
 be the feminine type of a cold         
flint-like nature1 as ,apollo is the    
masculine1 and one can well understand  
that mythology makes of them brother and
 sister4 ,mistress of wild beasts and   

goddess of sudden death1 she was always 
worshipped from fear3 her wrath had ever
 to be appeased2 she inspired neither   
affection nor respect4 ,true1 she wore  
the mantle of ,ililythia1 but only to be
 dreaded1 and even the attempt to throw 
a warm halo over her by the theft of the
 ,endymion story for her benefit1 failed
 to lift her reputation for the tireless
 satisfaction of a supernatural spleen4 
,nevertheless for the painter ,diana has
 always had a certain attraction1       
because the legends connected with her  
offer opportunities for the exercise of 
skill in the representation of the nude4
 ,but there is an end of all things1 and
 the bathing and hunting scenes have    
been fairly exhausted4 ,for the sculptor
 only is ,artemis likely to live4       
,bright colours are not the vehicle to  
represent the symbol of an idea which is
 beyond1 but not above1 nature--a       
useless abstraction which neither warms 
the heart nor elevates the soul4        
,callisto draws our sympathy1 and ,niobe

 our tears3 the goddess freezes our     
veins4   ,,neptune  ,brother of ,jupiter
 and ,pluto2 sire of ,theseus1 of       
,polyphemus1 and of the titanic lads who
 threatened to pile mountain on mountain
 in order to destroy the home of the    
deities2 the god whose footsteps tremble
 the earth2 who disputes with the sun2  
who uses floods and earthquakes for     
weapons2 who owns vast palaces in the   
caverns of the deep2 for whom the angry 
waves sink down beneath the shining sea1
 and ocean monsters play around his     
lightning track across the waters3 this 
is the divinity whom the painter is     
accustomed to portray as a rough bearded
 man with dishevelled hair and rugged   
features1 holding a three-pronged fork1 
and associating with dolphins1 mermaids1
 and shells4 ,but ,neptune is not a     
popular god4 ,he does not appeal to the 
mind as a good-natured god like ,jupiter
 or ,mercury1 with many of the virtues  
and some of the failings of mankind4    
,his acts are mostly violent2 he        

punishes but does not reward2 grows     
angry but is never kind4 ,there is      
consequently no sympathetic attitude    
towards him on the part of the artist1  
who would sooner paint good than bad    
actions4 ,beyond his violent acts1 the  
circumstances which make up the history 
of the god1 provide subjects more       
suitable for the poet than the painter1 
who is practically confined to          
unimportant and casual incidents which1 
with changes of accessories1 would      
answer a thousand scenes in mythological
 history4 ,neptune then may well        
disappear from the purview of the       
painter1 with the tritons and the       
seaweed entourage4   ,,mars  ,from the  
point of view of the painter1 there is  
little to say about the ,grecian ,ares4 
,he has not a single good trait in      
legend or story1 and we know nothing of 
his presumed personal form beyond the   
military externals4 ,it is difficult to 
understand how such a god came to be    
included among the deities of a         

civilized race4 ,of what service could  
be prayer when it is addressed to a     
blatant1 bloodstained1 genius of the    
brutal side of war1 without feeling or  
pity1 and apparently so wanting in      
intelligence that he has to leave the   
direction of battles to a goddess8 ,one 
would think that ,homer intended him as 
the god of bullies1 or he would not have
 made him roar like ten thousand men    
when struck with a stone1 nor would he  
have allowed him to be imprisoned by two
 young demigods1 and contemptuously     
wounded by a third4 ,but who is         
responsible for the association of such 
a wretched example of divinity with the 
radiant ,aphrodite1 for surely it is    
only the cloak of ,homer that covers the
 story6 ,was it a painter who had sought
 in vain from the poets a suggestion for
 a composition in which the god would at
 least appear normal1 or a cynical      
critic who wished to incite ridicule as 
well as contempt for the divinity8 ,in  
any case the painter must sigh in vain  

for an inspiriting design with ,ares as 
the leading figure3 he cannot harmonize 
love and terror4  ,the ,roman ,mars has 
a slight advantage over ,ares1 for the  
name of ,silvia is sweetly-sounding1 but
 she should be represented alone1 as the
 star of the wild ,campagna1 while yet  
it was forest-clad3 the gleaming light  
whose rays are to illumine the earth4   
,mars may disappear with the wolf1 but  
who can hide the glory of ,rome8        
,,mercury  ,it is difficult to connect  
the ,hermes of the poet with the tedious
 expressionless figure commonly seen in 
painting1 whose only costume is a       
helmet1 and whose invariable province is
 apparently to look on and do nothing4  
,for the sculptor he is a god2 for the  
painter a symbol of subordination4 ,a   
,rubens may give him the pulse of life1 
but only the sculptor can suggest the   
divinity4 ,with the painter the winged  
helmet is a bizarre ornament2 the       
immortal sandals are shrunken to        
leather2 the caduceus is a thing of     

inertia which is ever in the way4 ,but  
with the sculptor all these things may  
be endowed with the quickening spirit of
 a soaring mind1 for does not ,giovanni 
di ,bologna show the lithesome god      
speeding through space ahead of the     
wind1 the feathery foot-wings humming   
with delirium1 the trembling air        
dividing hastily before the wand8 ,true1
 the painter may represent the divine   
herald on his way through space1 as when
 he conducts ,psyche to ,olympus1 or    
leads the shades of the suitors to      
,hades2 but the accessories present must
 surround him with an earthy framework1 
unless the design be confined to a      
ceiling1 and shut away from things      
mundane with architectural forms1 as in 
the plan of ,raphael at the ,farnese    
,villa1 or to a fresco executed in the  
manner of a ,flaxman drawing4 ,beyond   
these artifices the artist cannot go    
with propriety4  ,few and worn are the  
scenes in the history of the god in     
which he takes a leading part4 ,the head

 of ,argus seems to be cut off1 or      
awaiting separation1 in nearly every    
collection1 sometimes with ,juno on a   
cloud deeply frowning with revengeful   
ire1 occasionally with the peacock      
expectant of its glorious fan1 but      
always with the weak-looking helmeted   
piper1 passive and unconcerned as if    
fulfilling a daily task4 ,a ,correggio  
may weave his golden fancy around a     
scene where ,cupid learns to strengthen 
his arrows with the rules of science and
 the wiles of art2 but let the painter  
beware of the infant ,bacchus in the    
arms of the messenger-god1 lest a vision
 of the ,olympian group arise and enfold
 his work in a robe of charity4 ,the    
schemes whereby the cradled thief       
deceived the ,pythian god are beyond the
 scope of the painter1 though there is a
 certain available range in the charming
 actions surrounding the invention of   
the lyre4 ,and if the designs relating  
to the unfortunate ,lara be properly    
consigned to oblivion1 surely the       

connection of ,hermes with ,pandora     
offers a field for the sprightly        
imagination4 ,but save where the god is 
a symbol of commerce or speed1 the      
helmet should be dispensed with1 for it 
is hackneyed beyond endurance4 ,the     
modern painter is not bound by custom   
unless the provision of beauty conflict 
with the lucidity of the design or the  
reverence for universal sentiment4 ,let 
the winged heels suffice1 for the shadow
 of ,persius will scarcely rise in      
protest4    ,illustration3 ,,plate #ab  
7,see page #ade7   ,greek ,portraiture  
,head of ,plato ,head of ,euripides     
,,bacchus  ,centuries of bacchanalian   
festivities and revelries have nearly   
killed ,bacchus for the painter4 ,who   
can further interest himself in         
meaningless processions1 where the most 
prominent figure is a fat1 drunken1     
staggering man1 supported by goat-hoofed
 monstrosities1 and attended by all the 
insignia of vinous royalty8 ,silenus is 
no more the loving nurse of the infant  

god2 the satyrs are no more the         
followers of a reed-playing woodland    
deity2 the nymphs have long forgotten   
the flowery dales1 the faithful trees   
that lived and died with them1 the fairy
 bowers where first ,semele's offspring 
clapped his hands to the measure of     
dance and pipe4 ,why should the dance be
 turned into a drunken revel8 ,why      
should the artist remember the orgies of
 ,rome1 and forget the ,grecian pastoral
 fancies8 ,what has become of ,dionysus1
 inheritor of ,vishnu traditions1 the   
many-named father of song1 the leader of
 the ,muses1 and the fire-born enemy of 
pirates8 ,nothing remains of him worth  
remembering1 save ,ariadne the          
golden-haired1 and she must in future be
 left on the desert isle lest the pathos
 of her figure be disturbed by the      
motley followers of her rescuer4  ,it is
 passing strange that the artists of the
 ,renaissance did not attempt to lift   
,bacchus out of the ditch of ignominy   
into which he had fallen4 ,they seem to 

have taken their ideas from the recorded
 accounts of the ,roman rites and vine  
festivals1 overlooking the ,grecian     
suggestions relating to ,dionysus1 and  
even the later restrained reliefs       
picturing incidents in his history4 ,in 
their art1 however1 as is evidenced by  
,pompeian frescoes1 the ,romans often   
treated ,bacchus in a serious manner1   
associating him with higher interests   
than those connected with festival      
orgies4 ,it may be that the figure of   
the god carved by ,michelangeloa had    
something to do with the later coarse   
representations of him1 for it would    
have been impossible for artists        
succeeding so great a sculptor1 to      
ignore the types he created4 ,but it    
will be an eternal mystery how he came  
to design such a ,bacchus4 ,a voluptuous
 semi-realistic god1 opposed to         
everything else that was conceived by   
the sculptor1 and antagonistic to all   
that was known in ,greece1 it can never 
be anything more than a sublime example 

of a purely earthly figure4 ,one stands 
amazed before the perfect modelling1 but
 aghast at the conception4 ,it          
represents the most extraordinary       
transition from the god-like man of the 
,greeks1 to a man-like god1 ever seen in
 art4    a ,in the ,bargello1 ,florence4
  ,the painter then has little left to  
use of the conventional ,bacchus and his
 history1 except the never-dying        
,ariadne1 but there is nothing to       
prevent him from reverting to the       
pastoral ,dionysus1 to the delightful   
abodes of the nymphs his foster-mothers1
 where ,pan played and the ,muses sang1 
while the never-tiring son of ,maia     
breathed tales of love into willing     
ears4   ,,vulcan  ,the poet may continue
 to hold our fancy with volcanic fires  
and cyclopean hammers1 but on canvas    
,etna becomes a blacksmith's forge1 and 
the figure of a begrimed human toiler is
 given to the divinity responsible for  
the golden handmaids1 and the brazen    
bull whose breath was scorching flame4  

,there is rarely a painting of ,vulcan  
without a forge and leather bellows1    
with a smith who is stripped to the     
waist1 which earthly things necessarily 
kill all suggestions of celestial       
interest1 notwithstanding the presence  
of ,venus1 or the never-fading bride of 
palsied ,peleus4 ,occasionally we have  
the incident with ,mars1 and strangely  
look for the invisible net1 but not     
finding it we are immediately called    
back to earth to ponder over the wiles  
of the ancient legend gatherers4 ,the   
art is lost behind the unreality4 ,but  
why does not the painter revert to the  
childhood of ,vulcan1 when he was hiding
 in the glistening cavern beneath the   
roll of ocean1 fashioning resplendent   
eardrops for silver-footed ,thetis8     
,here is scope for the imagination--to  
indicate the fancies of the budding     
genius who was to carve the wondrous    
shield1 and adorn the heaven-domed halls
 of ,olympus4 ,let ,hephaestus mature as
 he will for the poet3 he should only   

bloom for the painter4   ,,general      
,,classical ,,compositions  ,scenes of  
adventure from the ancient poets in     
which the gods and goddesses are        
concerned1 appear to be rapidly becoming
 things of the past for the painter4    
,this is partly due to the circumstance 
that these scenes have been so          
multiplied since the early days of the  
,renaissance1 that they are now         
positively fatiguing to both artists and
 the public2 but there is a deeper      
reason4 ,if we try to number the        
paintings of classical subjects by      
first-class artists which are enshrined 
in our minds1 we can count very few1 and
 nearly all of these are single figures1
 as a ,venus1 a ,leda1 a ,psyche1 or a  
,pandora4 ,we do not call up a ,judgment
 of ,paris1 or a ,diana and ,actaeon1 or
 any other design where divinities are  
mixed with mortals in earthly actions4  
,the cause of this seems to be that our 
minds naturally revolt against a glaring
 incongruity4 ,the imagination is unable

 to harmonize the qualities of a god    
with the possession of human instincts  
and frailties1 or strike a balance      
between divine actions and human        
motives4 ,we see these pictures and     
admire the design and execution1 but    
they leave us cold3 we are unable to    
kindle enthusiasm over patent unreality4
 ,the general conclusion is that        
painters would be wise to avoid such    
compositions1 and confine their         
attention in classical work to single   
figures of goddesses or heroines1       
leaving to the poet suggestion of       
miraculous powers4     ,,chapter ,,ix   
,,expression4 ,,part ,,iv4--,,general   
,,ideals       ,limitation of the       
painter with general ideals--,ideal     
heads      interchangeable in sacred and
 symbolical art--,ideal male human      
countenances impossible for the painter4
   ,in the arts of sculpture and        
painting1 where it is necessary that the
 beauty should be immediately recognized
 by the eye1 it is obvious that a       

general expression is superior to the   
particular4 ,this is so because the     
general covers universal experience and 
the particular does not4 ,but in the art
 of the painter there is a limit to the 
expression of general beauty4           
,theoretically there is no beauty       
possible to the sculptor which the      
painter cannot produce1 but practically 
there is4 ,a sculptor may carve what we 
understand as a god-like figure--a      
glorious image embodying all the highest
 qualities that may be conceived by man1
 with a general expression covering     
supreme wisdom and every noble          
attribute--such a figure as the greatest
 ,grecian artist chiselled4 ,this figure
 would stand in front of us1 isolated1  
serene in its glory1 and we should look 
and wonder1 and a second or two would   
suffice to fill our entire mind with the
 image4 ,for it would be above the      
earth1 above all our surroundings4 ,we  
could connect nothing on earth with     
it--neither human beings1 nor green     

fields1 nor the seas1 and certainly not 
human habitations1 and ways1 and        
manners1 and actions4 ,a ,phidian god   
can have no setting4 ,everything on     
earth is too small1 too insignificant to
 bear it company4 ,the reflection from  
the majesty of the design throws into   
shadow our loftiest earthly conceptions4
  ,let us suppose that a painter could  
be found who could execute such a       
figure3 how could he isolate it to the  
mind8 ,he may not use accessories1 for  
these could not be separated by the eye1
 and the association with earth which   
they would imply would destroy the      
illusion4 ,but the figure must have     
relief1 and hence tones4 ,a monochrome  
would not do1 for the frame or sides of 
the wall containing the picture would   
flatten it1 and suggest a painted       
imitation of a sculpture4 ,we may       
imagine a colossal figure painted on an 
immense wall whose bounds are hidden by 
the concentration of all the available  
light on the figure4 ,even then the     

colouring of the wall must be unseen4   
,the figure must stand out as if against
 infinite space1 surrounded by ambient  
air1 in majestic solitude1 pondering    
over the everlasting roll of life       
towards perfection4 ,in this way only   
could the painter match the sculptor1   
but the practical difficulties are so   
enormous as to render the scheme to all 
intents and purposes impossible4  ,for  
the painter then there is a limit to    
expression4 ,he cannot proceed with his 
ideal higher than ,praxiteles4 ,his     
limit is the most supreme form and      
expression conceivable by his           
imagination1 which does not exceed the  
apparent possibility of human           
experience4 ,apparent1 because an ideal 
must necessarily be actually above the  
possibility of experience1 but it may   
not appear to be so4 ,for instance a    
,raphael ,madonna does not seem to      
represent a supernatural woman4 ,there  
is no single feature painted which      
cannot be matched in life1 and hence it 

would not occur to the observer that the
 expression is contrary to the          
possibility of experience4 ,but the     
expression cannot be met with in life1  
for besides being entirely general1 it  
excludes all phases due to the emotions 
or passions4 ,one cannot imagine a woman
 with the expression of a ,raphael      
,madonna having concern with any special
 human interest1 and least of all with  
feelings and failings arising from      
natural instincts4 ,yet the expression  
covers every form of noble endeavour2   
every phase of innocent pleasure2 every 
degree of mental activity within the    
province of woman4 ,and herein lies the 
art--the exclusion of the bad in our    
nature1 with the exaltation of the good4
  ,now it is obvious that if the        
expression be so general that no        
particular quality can be identified    
therein1 the countenance will serve for 
the head of any personage painted in    
whose expression it is desirable to     
indicate the possession of high         

attributes1 without suggesting a        
particular condition of mind4 ,thus1 the
 head of a ,raphael ,madonna would      
equally serve for the head of a ,saint  
,cecilia or a ,judith2 or1 providing the
 age were suitable1 for a heroine of the
 stamp of ,joan of ,arc1 so long as the 
character of her actual features were   
unknown4 ,further it would be well      
adapted for a symbolical figure1 as     
,prudence or ,truth4  ,but a far wider  
significance than is thus indicated1 is 
conveyed by the necessity for           
generalizing expression in order to     
reach the painter's ideal4 ,it has      
already been noted that inasmuch as all 
men have the same general idea of       
beauty--that they generally agree as to 
what is1 or is not1 beautiful1 it       
follows that there must be a common     
opinion as to degrees of beauty1 and so 
a universality of ideal2 that is of     
course1 among people with similar       
experience of life1 as for instance the 
white races of the world4#di ,hence the 

ideals of all painters must be similar4 
,they must necessarily aim for the same 
generalization--exclude or emphasize    
like4 ,manner or style1 or national type
 may vary2 purely sensorial effects may 
differ as the minds of the painters have
 been variously trained1 but the        
combination of features and effects     
which regulate the expression will be   
practically identical in every realized 
ideal4 ,consequently1 subject to changes
 in attitude or age1 ideal heads of all 
artists are interchangeable without     
incongruity resulting1 irrespective of  
the motive of the design1 for the ideal 
countenance indicated adapts itself to  
any character where no emotional or     
passionate expression is required4 ,the 
head of the figure representing ,profane
 ,love in ,titian's great picture1 would
 serve to express spiritual nobility in 
a ,madonna1a and when a head in a       
,madonna by ,raphael is exchanged with  
that of the central figure in           
,fragonard's ,the ,pursuit1b there is no

 resulting suggestion of impropriety in 
either picture4c ,ideal countenances    
have sometimes been given to evil       
characters1 as in ,luini's ,salome1d and
 the head in this picture would equally 
well serve for a ,madonna4e    a ,see   
,plate #i4    b ,frick ,collection1 ,new
 ,york4#ej    c ,see ,plate #h4    d    
,uffizi ,gallery1 ,florence4    e ,see  
,plate #aj4  ,an ideal head then will   
suggest any expression that the design  
in which it is included seems to        
require1 subject to the restrictions    
before noted4 ,in ,the ,pursuit the face
 of the woman presumed to be fleeing    
from her lover indicates some concern1  
and even a little fear1a but that this  
is due to the surroundings in the work1 
is shown when the head is substituted   
for another in a different picture1 for 
the concern has disappeared1 and the    
expression becomes one which may        
properly represent the highest          
attributes connected with the ,madonna4 
a ,see ,frontispiece and ,plate #aa4    

,the limits within which the form and   
countenance of a woman may be idealized1
 are prescribed by ,raphael in his      
works4 ,the presumed age must be that   
when she reaches the full bloom of      
womanhood4 ,youth will not do because it
 involves an expression denying         
experience1 while physically a girl     
cannot be supposed to have reached an   
age where her form has ceased to        
progress towards perfection4 ,beauty of 
feature and form is the first           
consideration of the artist1 and hence  
his difficulty in fixing an expression  
which shall be entirely free from the   
possibility of suggesting desire4 ,for  
this reason no model1 or series of      
models1 will suffice the painter3 he has
 always to bring his imagination to     
bear1 as ,raphael admitted he had to    
do4a    a ,e di belle donne1 io mi servo
 di certa idea che mi viene nella       
mente4 ,letter to ,castiglione4  ,it is 
impossible to find a head of a woman1   
painted before the time of ,raphael1    

which fulfils the requirements of art as
 an ideal4 ,the figures are either too  
formal1 or too distinctive in type1 or  
are evidently portraits1 while in many  
of the greatest pictures of the         
fifteenth century the artists had not   
yet learned how to put warm blood into  
their ,madonnas4 ,raphael1 however1     
after taking up his sojourn at          
,florence1 became an object lesson for  
nearly every school1 and ideal          
countenances were produced by other     
masters1 though no painter other than   
,raphael succeeded with more than one or
 two4 ,nowadays the ever increasing     
hustle in the struggle for existence1   
does not lend itself to deep study and  
long contemplation on the part of       
painters1 but hope springs eternal1 and 
surely the list of immortals is not yet 
closed4  ,an ideal man of flesh and     
blood is not possible in the art of the 
painter1 for there is no general        
conception of male beauty below the     
level of the god-like4 ,perfection of   

form can be given1 but a supreme        
expression in the face of a man implies 
deep wisdom1 and this must necessarily  
be associated with maturity when high   
sensorial beauty of feature can scarcely
 be expected4     ,,chapter ,x          
,,expression4 ,,part ,v4--,,portraiture 
,limitations of the portrait            
painter--,generalizations--,emphasis    
and addition of qualities--,practice of 
the ancient ,greeks--                   
,dignity--,importance of                
simplicity--,some of the great masters--
      ,portraiture of women--,the       
,english masters--,the quality of       
grace--,the necessity of repose4        
,while in the scale of the painter's    
art1 portraiture ranks next to the      
higher branches of historical work1 yet 
it is some distance behind them1 for    
apart from the commonplace of scenic    
arrangement1 the imagination of the     
portrait painter cannot be carried      
further than the consideration of added 
or eliminated details of form and       

expression in relation to a set subject4
 ,but these details are very difficult1 
and so it comes about that a good       
portrait involves a far greater         
proportion of mental labour than the    
result appears on the surface to        
warrant4 ,it is indirectly consequent   
upon the complexity of his task that the
 work of the artist who devotes         
practically his whole time to           
portraiture1 often varies so largely in 
quality4 ,he paints some portraits which
 are generally appreciated1 but as time 
goes on he is overwhelmed with orders   
which he cannot possibly fulfil without 
reducing the value of his work4 ,he thus
 acquires a habit of throwing his whole 
power into his work only when the       
personage he represents is of public    
importance1 or has a countenance        
particularly amenable to his manner or  
style4 ,it is necessary that this fact  
should be borne in mind1 otherwise      
erroneous standards are likely to be set
 up when artists like ,van ,dyck1       

,reynolds1 or ,romney1 are referred to  
as examples4  ,in a general sense nearly
 all painting where the human figure is 
introduced1 is portraiture1 and it has  
been so since soon after the middle of  
the fifteenth century1 when artists     
commenced to use living men and women   
for secondary or accessory figures in   
sacred pictures4 ,the increasing        
importance attached to the anatomy of   
the figure resulted in the extensive use
 of models1 and so in a measure         
portraiture rose to be a leading feature
 in the work of the artist4 ,the figures
 in the larger compositions of every    
kind by the greater painters of the late
 fifteenth and early sixteenth          
centuries1 consist almost entirely of   
portraits of friends and acquaintances  
of the artists1 the exceptions being the
 countenances of the ,deity and ,christ1
 which had to be modelled from accepted 
types1 and those of the later ,saints   
the character of whose features had been
 handed down by tradition4 ,a few       

painters1 as ,raphael and ,correggio1   
idealized the ,virgin away from         
suggestion of portraiture1 but others1  
as ,del ,sarto and ,pontormo1 even in   
this case took a wife or other relative 
as a model4 ,the practice was continued 
by many artists in respect of central   
figures1 till the end of the seventeenth
 century1 after which time the identity 
of the figures was1 as a rule1 purposely
 lost4 ,nevertheless the figures1 other 
than ideals1 used in all good           
compositions1 must necessarily be       
portraits or adaptations thereof1 for   
only from life can superior             
representation of life be obtained4     
,the first duty of the portraitist is to
 generalize the expression of his       
subject4 ,a face seen once will be      
thrown upon the mind only with the      
particular expression observable at the 
moment of view4 ,if seen a second time  
we involuntarily combine the effects of 
the dual experience1 and the more often 
we see the countenance1 the more closely

 will our mental picture of it          
correspond with the general or average  
expression worn4 ,it is this average    
appearance that the portraitist tries to
 represent1 emphasizing of course       
whatever good qualities may be          
indicated4 ,the second most important   
task of the artist is to balance every  
part of the picture1 so that neither    
setting1 nor colour1 nor handling1 is   
strikingly noticeable4 ,the portrait    
should appear at first glance as one    
complete whole1 in order that the mind  
of the observer be immediately directed 
to the subject1 and away from the artist
 or the manner of execution4 ,the       
painter is limited to the actual        
character and physiognomy of the figure4
 ,he must make each feature harmonize   
with the others1 and add or subtract1   
hide or reveal1 without changing the    
general individuality1 but he cannot do 
more4 ,his scope is1 therefore1 strictly
 limited4 ,very naturally some of the   
greatest portraitists have rebelled at  

this limit4 ,they appear to have painted
 with an eye to posterity1 rather than  
to satisfy their patrons and the people 
of the time with an effective           
generalization of character and bearing4
 ,if we compare the portraits executed  
by ,titian with those representing      
certain accessory figures in some       
important compositions of the great     
masters1 as for instance1 the ,school of
 ,athens of ,raphael1a and the ,death of
 ,st4 ,francis of ,ghirlandaio1b we find
 a marked difference4 ,the latter are   
obviously true portraits of living men1 
with little accentuated or eliminated1  
just such portraits as ,carlyle wanted  
from which to obtain real instruction   
for his biographies4 ,titian painted no 
portraits of this kind4 ,he gives a     
lofty bearing to every person he        
portrays4 ,his figures seem to belong to
 a special race of men1 endowed with    
rare qualities of nobility and dignity1 
with little interest in the doings of   
ordinary people4 ,yet we know that some 

of his characters lived in an atmosphere
 of evil4 ,we cannot really believe that
 the ,aretino of ,titianc was ,aretino  
the man1 and we find it hard to imagine 
that ,philip ,,ii41d or the ,duke of    
,alba1e as ,titian painted him1 could   
grow into the monster he proved to be4  
,nevertheless ,titian was justified4 ,it
 is not the business of the artist to   
consider the historian3 his art is all  
that concerns him4 ,titian produced     
beautiful pictures which are commonly   
recognized as great portrayals of       
character2 whose character matters not1 
though when we have data upon which to  
rest a judgment1 we find the lineaments 
in his works are fully sufficient for   
purposes of identification4    a ,at the
 ,vatican4    b ,fresco at ,santa       
,trinita1 ,florence4    c ,frick        
,collection1 ,n4 ,y4    d ,the ,padro1  
,madrid1 and elsewhere4    e ,huescar   
,coll41 ,madrid4  ,while ,titian went   
further than any other ,renaissance     
painter in ennobling his subjects1 he   

did not approach the ancient ,greeks in 
this respect4 ,their sculptured busts   
and terms represent the highest         
portraiture known to us4 ,many examples 
remain1 mostly copies it is true1 but   
quite fifty of them are clearly faithful
 reproductions1 made apparently in the  
early days of ,imperial ,rome1 and      
accord closely with the few existing    
originals4 ,the ,grecian portraits      
differ from the ,roman1 and all later   
painted or carved portraits in a most   
important feature4a ,the latter aimed at
 what is still understood as the highest
 level in portraiture4 ,they endeavoured
 to give a general individualism of mind
 and bearing1 avoiding particular       
expression2 in fact to represent        
character4 ,since the ,christian era    
commenced neither sculptor nor painter  
has gone further than this1 with very   
few exceptions in ,roman days when      
,grecian sculptors of the time imitated 
the practice of the fourth and early    
third centuries4 ,the earlier ,greeks on

 the other hand not only generalized    
portraits in an extreme degree1 but1    
except in the case of athletes1 they    
altered the contour of the head and     
varied the actual features of the       
subject1 so that the possession of the  
higher human attributes should be       
indicated as clearly as possible4 ,they 
invariably showed a large facial angle1 
placed the ears well close to the head1 
sunk the eyes deep in their sockets1 and
 ennobled the brows to suggest majesty  
or profound thought4 ,in fact the       
,grecian portrait heads only differ from
 their sculptured gods in that          
particular countenances are depicted1   
and consequently the expression in them 
does not appear to be above the         
possibility of human experience4        
,apparently in ,grecian times1 only men 
who had become celebrated in some way   
were represented in stone1 and hence the
 artist had features to depict which    
could be semi-idealized without         
impropriety4 ,even ,socrates1 whose     

ugliness was proverbial1 was given a    
noble and dignified expression4b    a   
,see ,plates #ab and #ac4    b ,see     
heads in the ,national ,museums of ,rome
 and ,naples4  ,that the painter is at  
liberty to follow the example of the    
,greeks1 there can be no question from  
the point of view of art1 for his first 
object is to produce a beautiful        
picture2 but in portraiture1 practical  
and conventional considerations have to 
be met1 with which other branches of    
painting are not concerned4 ,with rare  
exceptions the portraits executed are of
 living persons1 and extreme            
accentuation of high qualities would be 
likely to result in a representation of 
the sitter that would appear false to   
contemporary observers1 though we might 
well imagine that a work exhibiting this
 accentuation would seem to be of high  
excellence in the judgment of future    
generations4 ,there must therefore be a 
line drawn in respect of added or       
accentuated qualities1 and the position 

of this line would naturally vary with  
the celebrity of the subject and the    
power of the artist4 ,something definite
 may1 however1 be said in regard to the 
emphasis of certain qualities of form1  
and particularly of dignity1 a feature  
that has occupied the attention of some 
of the greatest masters4                
,illustration3 ,,plate #ac 7,see page   
#ade7   ,roman ,portraiture   ,head of  
,vespasian   ,head of ,hadrian  ,the    
question arises1 how far may the artist 
go in imitating the manner of the stage 
with his portraits8 ,on the theatrical  
stage formalities are required with     
certain characters in order to emphasize
 their position--to assist in the       
recognition of their standing or        
relative significance in the drama1 for 
it is of the first importance that the  
audience should comprehend the meaning  
of the actions presented as rapidly as  
possible4 ,the actor must often         
exaggerate life habits of pose and      
manner in order to heighten the contrast

 between two characters1 or to give     
special significance to the words4 ,and 
the elevation of the diction sometimes  
compels this exaggeration4 ,in high     
drama where the language used is above  
experience of ordinary life in measure  
and force1 there must be appropriate    
pose and action to accompany it1 and    
hence a height of dignity or even       
majesty may appear perfectly proper on  
the stage1 which would be ridiculous in 
surroundings away from it4 ,from the    
practice of certain painters it would   
seem that they have looked upon         
portraiture as the transference of their
 subjects to the public stage as it     
were1 so that they might appear to      
occupy a higher position in the drama of
 life than that to which they are       
habituated4 ,no harm can arise from this
 provided the portraitist does not pass 
beyond the custom of the theatrical     
stage1 where1 whatever the exaggeration1
 the representation appears1 or should  
appear1 appropriate to the action2 that 

is to say1 where the exaggeration is not
 recognized as such4 ,accentuation of   
high qualities of expression1 or even   
variations in certain physical features1
 such as the ,greeks brought about1     
would not appear exaggerations in a     
portrait1 but where dignity of form is  
added to such an extent that the        
observer immediately recognizes it as   
untrue to experience1 then the artist   
goes too far4 ,while this is so1 we do  
not condemn ,titian1 ,van ,dyck1 and the
 few other portrait painters who        
emphasized the quality of dignity of    
form in past times4 ,the reason for this
 appears to be that the usual methods of
 teaching history lead us to suppose    
that nobles and leaders of society in   
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1
 who were usually the portrait subjects 
of the greater artists1 commonly assumed
 a demeanour and bearing far above our  
own experience4 ,at the present day1    
when it is a matter of universal        
knowledge that a formal dignified pose  

is very rarely assumed by any one1 such 
a bearing in a portrait would be        
regarded as untrue4  ,the portraitist   
may improve the expression of his       
subject1 adding any good quality within 
his power1 and he may remove from the   
features or figure any marked physical  
defect1 because the portrait would still
 appear to be correct2 but if he add a  
strong dignified pose1 then the result  
would be something that is possibly1 but
 improbably accurate1 and therefore     
inferior art4 ,the quality of dignity   
should be expressed rather in the       
countenance than in the pose1 the       
bearing of the form being produced as in
 life1 for this lends assistance to the 
true representation of character4 ,a    
dignified expression may well be        
appropriate to an awkward form whose    
personality would be undistinguished by 
dignity of pose4  ,titian was the first 
great artist to give a pronounced       
dignity of form to his subjects1 and he 
never varied from the practice unless   

the subject were exhibited in action1a  
or too old to be represented as an      
upright figure4b ,nor did he once       
exaggerate the pose so that arrogance   
might be suggested4 ,though he squared  
the shoulders1 he rarely threw back the 
head to emphasize the bearing1c and only
 in one portrait is the body slightly   
arched as the result of the pose4d ,in  
fact so careful was the artist in       
avoiding over-emphasis1 that there is a 
tendency in two or three of his figures 
for the upper part of the body to lean a
 little forward4e ,obviously ,titian    
gave this dignified attitude to his     
portrait subjects of set purpose1 as in 
his general compositions there is no    
suggestion of it4#ea    a ,portrait of  
his daughter1 ,berlin ,gallery1 and of  
,jacopo di ,strada         at ,vienna4  
b ,paul ,,iii4 at ,naples1 and his own  
portrait at the ,uffizi ,gallery4    c  
,an exception is ,charles ,v4 at        
,muehlberg1 ,prado1 ,madrid4    d       
,portrait of his daughter as a bride1 at

 ,dresden4    e ,notably in the portrait
 of the ,duke of ,ferrara1 ,pitti       
,palace4  ,velasquez no doubt acquired  
his habit of lending dignity to his     
important subjects from the examples of 
,titian's portraits which came under his
 view in ,spain4 ,except in one notable 
instance where the bearing is much      
over-emphasized1a he was equally        
successful with the ,italian master in  
the practice1 though many of his        
characters are far from lending him any 
natural assistance4 ,in the case of a   
,court ,dwarf1 however1 the high dignity
 given to him by the painter seems to   
require explanation4b    a ,count-,duke 
,olivares1 ,holford1 ,coll41 ,london4   
b ,don ,antonio el ,ingles1 ,prado4     
,before he went to ,italy1 ,van ,dyck   
followed the natural system of ,rubens  
in posing his portrait subjects1 but at 
,genoa he painted under the spell of    
,titian's memory1 and thereafter during 
his whole life1 he gave a dignified     
bearing to his figures whenever this was

 not opposed to individual traits4      
,during his ,english period1 when he    
undertook more work than he could       
properly accomplish1 he sometimes       
over-emphasized the dignity of a figure 
by arching the body1a but as a rule he  
produced a just balance of pose and     
setting1 completing altogether a        
magnificent series of portraits which   
remain the astonishment of the world4   
a ,earl of ,newport1 ,northbrook ,coll41
 ,england2 ,earl of ,bedford            
,spencer ,coll42 and ,queen ,henrietta  
7three-quarter length71         ,windsor
 ,castle4  ,it is obviously the duty of 
the portraitist so to design his work   
that the attention of the observer is   
concentrated upon the countenance of the
 subject immediately he has grasped the 
whole composition1 and it is in the     
successful accomplishment of this object
 that the power of ,rembrandt lies4 ,he 
rarely used accessories1 and in only a  
few cases a background of any kind4 ,he 
avoided portraits where an elaborate    

setting was required1 as for instance   
full length standing figures1 of which  
he only painted twoa2 and in his many   
three-quarter length portraits1 there is
 seldom more than a table or chair to be
 seen apart from the figure4 ,with this 
simplicity of design1 and with nearly   
all the available light directed full   
upon the head of the subject1 the eye of
 the observer of the picture is         
necessarily centred instantaneously upon
 the features4 ,these are invariably    
cast into bold relief by perfect        
management of the chiaroscuro1 and the  
correspondence with life seems as       
complete as it well can be4 ,rembrandt  
thus accomplishes the aim of every great
 artist3 he executes a faithful picture1
 and throws it on the mind of the       
observer with the maximum of rapidity4  
,only artists of a high order can       
successfully ignore a more or less      
elaborate setting for a portrait1       
particularly if it be larger than bust  
size4 ,great care has to be taken with  

such a setting lest the eye of the      
observer be attracted by the pose of the
 figure and the general harmony of the  
work before being directed to the       
countenance4 ,if we take the general    
opinion of known portraits1 so far as it
 can be gauged1 we find that the most   
highly esteemed of them are3 the ,julius
 ,,ii4 of ,raphael1 the ,mona ,lisa of  
,lionardo1 the ,man with the ,gloves by 
,titian1 the ,old ,man with a ,boy by   
,ghirlandaio1 and ,innocent ,x4 by      
,velasquez4b ,all of these except ,mona 
,lisa are remarkable for the simplicity 
of the setting1 and in the exception the
 formal landscape is altogether         
subordinated to the figure4 ,raphael was
 the first artist who saw the value of  
avoiding accessories in portraiture4    
,his half-length portraits painted after
 his arrival in ,florence1 are all free 
from them1 and his ,julius ,,ii4 has    
only the chair on which the ,pope is    
seated4    a ,martin ,day and ,machteld 
van ,doorn1 both in ,gustave ,rothschild

         ,coll41 ,paris4    b ,the first
 at the ,pitti ,palace1 the last at the 
,doria ,gallery1 and         the others 
at the ,louvre4  ,rembrandt further     
aided the concentration of attention on 
the countenance of a sitter by the use  
of warm inconspicuous tones in the      
clothing1 which harmonize with all kinds
 of surroundings in which the picture   
may be seen4 ,the colours never         
specially attract the eye1 and the      
attire consequently forms so completely 
a part of the figure1 that after an     
inspection of the work one can rarely   
describe the costume4 ,this             
subordination of colour is of the       
highest importance in portraiture1      
though it is not sufficiently practised 
nowadays4 ,velasquez used quiet tones   
whenever possible1 that is1 when he was 
not painting great personages1 and      
,titian1 ,rubens1 and ,van ,dyck1       
followed the same course in half-length 
portraits4 ,none of these1 however1     
seemed so careful as ,rembrandt in      

adapting the tones to the general       
character of the figure1 so that the    
impression left on the mind of the      
observer should relate entirely to the  
personality4 ,rembrandt1 in fact1 aimed 
at a representation of the man1 and the 
man only2 and he gave us a natural human
 being of a commonly known type1 with   
his virtues somewhat emphasized1 and his
 faults a little veiled4  ,the          
extraordinary power of ,velasquez as a  
portraitist was due to the same general 
cause operating in the case of          
,rembrandt1 namely1 extreme simplicity  
in design4 ,apart from those instances  
where royal or official personages had  
to be represented in decorative attire1 
every portrait of ,velasquez is merely  
the impress of a personality4 ,there are
 no accessories2 the clothing is        
subordinated to the last degree1 and    
there is nothing for the eye to grasp   
but a perfectly drawn set of features   
thrown into strong relief by a method of
 chiaroscuro unsurpassed in depth and   

accuracy4 ,thus1 as in the case of      
,rembrandt1 the portrait fulfils the    
first law of art--the picture is thrown 
on the brain in the least possible      
fraction of time4  ,velasquez was       
remarkable in a greater degree than any 
other artist1 if we except ,hals1 for   
his facility in execution4 ,in his      
brush-work he appeared to do the right  
thing at all times without hesitation1  
achieving the most perfect balance as if
 by instinct4 ,so far as we can judge   
from those instances where his subjects 
were painted also by other artists1 his 
portraits are good likenesses1 but he   
followed the best practice in           
generalizing the countenance to the     
fullest extent4 ,it is unfortunate that 
his work was confined to so poor a      
variety of sitters4 ,of his known       
portraits more than half represent      
,philip ,,iv4 or his relatives2 eight   
others are nobles of the time1 and      
another half dozen are dwarfs and       
buffoons1 leaving only seventeen        

examples of the artist's work amongst   
ordinary people4 ,there never was a     
weaker royal family than that of ,philip
 ,,iv41 and it is really astonishing how
 ,velasquez was able to produce such    
excellent works of art by means of their
 portraits4 ,with his abnormal lips and 
weak face1 the king himself must have   
been a most difficult person to ennoble1
 yet the painter managed in three       
portraits to give him a highly          
distinguished countenance and bearing1  
without in any way suggesting           
exaggeration4a ,of another weak         
man--,innocent ,x4--,velasquez painted  
what ,reynolds described as the greatest
 portrait he saw in ,rome2 and it is    
truly one of the most amazing life      
representations ever executed4b ,a      
reddish face peers out through a blaze  
of warm surroundings and background2 a  
face in full relief as if cut out of    
apoplectic flesh--almost appalling in   
its verity4 ,it is like nothing else    
that ,velasquez painted3 it overpowers  

with its combined strength and realism4 
,but it is a picture to see             
occasionally1 and admire as a great     
imitation4 ,if one lived with it1 the   
colour would hurt the eye1 the          
unpleasant face would tire the mind4    
,such a face should not be painted3 it  
should be carved in stone1 where truth  
may be given to form without the        
protrusion of mortal decay4 ,bernini    
sculptured the countenance1 and gave the
 ,pope a certain majesty which no       
painting could present4 ,as a life      
portrait the work of ,velasquez is      
unrivalled1 but as a pure work of art1  
it is behind the three portraits of     
,philip ,,iv4 already mentioned4 ,a     
distinctly unhealthy face cannot be     
produced in portraiture without injuring
 the art1 for it is a variety of        
distortion4    a ,the full example at   
the ,prado2 the ,parma full length1 in  
the ,frick         ,coll41 ,n4 ,y42 and 
the three-quarter length portrait at the
         ,imperial ,gallery1 ,vienna4   

b ,in the ,doria ,gallery1 ,rome4       
,velasquez was so naturally a           
portraitist that apart from his actual  
portrait work1 every figure composition 
he painted seems to consist merely of   
the portraits of a group of persons4 ,he
 took little pains to connect the       
figures in a life action1 often painting
 them with a look of unconcern with the 
proceedings around them1 as if specially
 posing for the artist4 ,in several of  
his works there are faces looking right 
out of the picture1 and it is evident   
that in these the artist had little     
thought in his mind away from portrait  
presentation4a ,the ,surrender of ,breda
 and ,las ,meninas1b regarded generally 
as his best compositions1 are admittedly
 portrait groupings1 but the setting in 
each case is one of action1 and hence   
the faces looking out of the picture are
 a great drawback1 as they disrobe the  
illusion of a natural scene4 ,that a man
 so accurate in his drawing1 so perfect 
in his chiaroscuro1 and so skilful in   

his brushwork1 should yet be so         
conspicuously limited in imagination1 is
 a problem which art historians have yet
 to solve4    a ,see ,the ,breakfast1   
,hermitage2 ,christ in the ,house of    
,martha1         ,national ,gallery1    
,london2 and ,the ,drinkers1 ,prado4    
b ,both at the ,prado4  ,franz ,hals was
 on a level with ,velasquez in respect  
of facility in execution1 and like him  
seems to have been a born portraitist4  
,his brushwork was so rapid and decisive
 that in scarcely any of his designs is 
there evidence of deliberation4 ,he     
seems to have been able to take in the  
essential features of a subject at a    
glance1 and to transfer them to canvas  
without preliminaries1 producing an     
amazing countenance with the least      
possible detail4 ,though some of his    
large groups are a little stiff1 this is
 rather through his want of capacity in 
invention than a set purpose of         
exaggeration with a view to heightening 
the dignity of pose1 for it is obvious  

that ,hals had little imagination1 and  
knew nothing of the boundless           
possibilities of his art in general     
composition4 ,he appears to have passed 
through life without concern for his    
work beyond material results1 being well
 convinced that the magic of his        
execution would leave nothing further   
for the public to desire4 ,in the last  
forty years of his life he made no      
advance in his art except in one        
respect1 but the change was great1 for  
it doubled the art value of his         
portraits4 ,he learned how to           
subordinate his colours2 how to modify  
his chiaroscuro in order to force the   
immediate attention of the observer on  
the countenance of his subject4#eb ,such
 an advance with such an artist placed  
him in the rank of the immortals among  
the portraitists4  ,it will be seen that
 in the judgment of the greatest        
painters1 decoration in a portrait      
should be altogether subordinated to the
 truthful representation of character1  

this practice being only varied when the
 personage portrayed is of public       
importance1 and the portrait is required
 more or less as a monument4 ,the rule  
is natural and reasonable1 being based  
upon the universal agreement that the   
all-important part of a man comprehended
 by the vision is his countenance4 ,but 
the rule only strictly applies to a     
single figure portrait1 for when the    
painter goes beyond this1 and executes a
 double portrait or a multiple group1 he
 restricts the scope of his art4 ,other 
things being equal a double portrait is 
necessarily inferior art to a single    
figure picture1 since the dual objective
 complicates the impression of the work 
on the brain1 and the only remedy1 or   
partial remedy1 for this drawback       
possessed by the painter is to introduce
 accessories and arrange his group in a 
subject design4 ,this plan results in   
detracting from the force of the actual 
portraits1 as it divides the attention  
of the observer1 but there is no help   

for it unless one is content with the   
representation of the figures in a stiff
 and formal way which extinguishes the  
pictorial effect of the work4  ,the     
greatest artists have avoided dual or   
triple portrait works where possible    
except in cases of gatherings of members
 of the same family1 as one of these    
groups may be regarded as a unity by the
 observer4 ,nevertheless in his picture 
of ,leo ,x41 and the two younger        
,medici1a ,raphael was careful to       
subordinate the cardinals so that they  
should appear little more than          
accessories in a painting of the ,pope2 
an example which was followed not quite 
so successfully by ,titian in his triple
 portrait of ,paul ,,iii4 with the two  
brothers ,farnese4b ,a group of two     
persons who are in some way associated  
with each other1 though unconnected in  
action1 rarely looks out of place1 as in
 the pictures of father and son1 or of  
two brothers1 painted by ,van ,dyck1 or 
in ,the ,ambassadors of ,holbein1c but  

no painter has yet succeeded in         
producing a first-class work of art out 
of a multiple portrait group when the   
personages represented are unconnected  
with each other1 either directly in     
action1 or indirectly through           
association derived from the title4 ,the
 picture of ,rubens representing        
,lipsius and three others1 would appear 
much more stiff and formal than it is1  
without one of the two titles given to  
it1 notwithstanding the general         
excellence of the composition4d ,when   
the figures introduced are very         
numerous1 as in the many groups of civic
 organizations painted by ,hals1        
,ravesteyn1 and others1 the compulsory  
formality seriously detracts from the   
aesthetic value of the works1 however   
superior they may be in execution1 or   
whatever the connection of the          
personages represented2 and when we come
 to such crowded paintings as ,terburg's
 ,signing the ,peace of ,muenster1e we  
obtain but little more than a record1   

though it be of absorbing historical    
interest4    a ,pitti ,palace1          
,florence4    b ,naples ,museum4    c   
,national ,gallery1 ,london4    d ,the  
,four ,philosophers1 or ,lipsius and his
 ,disciples1 ,pitti ,palace4    e       
,national ,gallery1 ,london4  ,it is    
observable that as a rule portraitists  
have been more successful with          
delineations of men than of women4 ,this
 is to be accounted for by the necessity
 for subordinating the representation of
 character to the art in the case of    
women unless they have passed the prime 
of life2 while with men the art is      
usually subordinated to the portrait1   
character being sought independently of 
sensorial beauty4 ,strictly it is the   
duty of the artist to make his portrait1
 whether of a man or a woman1           
sensorially attractive1 but here again  
in portraiture custom and convention    
have to be considered with the rules of 
art4 ,it is agreed that with a woman    
sensorial beauty must be produced if    

that be possible1 even with the         
sacrifice of certain elements of        
character2 but with a man the portrait  
must be recognized by the acquaintances 
of the subject as corresponding in most 
details with his life appearance4 ,the  
future of the portrait is out of the    
question for the time being4            
,nevertheless the painter has certain   
advantages in dealing with the features 
of a man1 for the presence of lines in  
the brow1 or other evidence of          
experience1 does not interfere with the 
nobility or dignity which may be added  
to his general bearing2 but what would  
be lines in the countenance of a man    
would be wrinkles in that of a woman1   
because here they can scarcely be       
neutralized by attitude and expression  
which imply strength of character1      
without destroying what is best         
described as womanly charm1 which is a  
compulsory feature in every woman's     
portrait4 ,with a man therefore the     
portraitist considers character first   

and emphasizes qualities of form within 
his power2 while with a woman1 during   
the period of her bloom1 beauty of form 
and feature must be the first care of   
the artist1 unconflicting qualities of  
character being emphasized or added4    
,all this was of course recognized by   
the great portraitists of the           
,renaissance and the seventeenth        
century1 but while most of them         
endeavoured to enhance the sensorial    
beauty of their men subjects1 little    
attempt was made to add intellectual    
grace to the portrayals of women4       
,antonio ,moroa and ,van ,dyck1 in their
 full length portraits of women1        
sometimes succeeded in converting       
dignity of form into what we understand 
as grandeur1 which implies dignity of   
expression as well as grace and dignity 
of form1 but they were largely          
handicapped by the dress fashions of    
their times4 ,they had to deal with     
heavy formal drapery which hung over the
 figures like elongated bells1 and bid  

defiance to freedom of pose4 ,when      
fashions and customs had so changed as  
to allow of definition being given to   
the figures1 ,van ,dyck had been dead   
for many years4 ,meanwhile ,hals1       
,rembrandt1 ,velasquez1 and hundreds of 
lesser lights1 were casting around their
 flowers of form and mind1 but all on   
the old plan1 for it is difficult to    
find a portrait of a woman painted      
during the century succeeding ,van      
,dyck1 where beauty of feature is allied
 to nobility in expression4    a        
,catilina of ,portugal1 and ,maria of   
,austria1 both at the ,prado4           
,illustration3 ,,plate #ad 7,see page   
#afh7   ,sacrifice of ,iphigenia        
7,pompeian ,fresco7   ,supposed copy of 
a painting by ,timanthes  ,the          
production of this combination awaited  
the maturity of ,reynolds1 who with     
,gainsborough1 broke into a new field in
 the portraiture of women4 ,gainsborough
 took the grandeur of ,van ,dyck for his
 pattern1 but improved upon it by       

substituting simplicity for dignity and 
elaboration1 which he was able to manage
 without great difficulty1 as he had a  
clear advantage over the ,flemish master
 in that the costumes in use in his time
 were lighter in character1 and         
permitted of the contour of form being  
properly exhibited4 ,this simple grace  
of form allied to grandeur in bearing1  
naturally brings about an apparent      
modification in expression in conformity
 with it1 so long as there are no       
conflicting elements in expression      
present1 which ,gainsborough was careful
 to avoid4 ,reynolds went further than  
,gainsborough1 for after the middle of  
his career he directly added an         
expression of nobility to his portraits 
of women whenever the features would    
admit of it1 and so brought about the   
highest type of feminine portraiture    
known in art4 ,he was more nearly allied
 to ,titian than ,van ,dyck1 and though 
in sheer force of sensorial beauty he   
did not reach the level of the ,venetian

 master1 yet in pure feminine           
portraiture1 where high beauty of       
expression is combined with a perfect   
generalization of the features1         
,reynolds is unsurpassed in the history 
of painting1 so far as we can judge from
 examples remaining to us4 ,for we must 
estimate an artist from his best work4  
,reynolds painted forty or fifty        
portraits of women of the character     
indicated1 and a few of them1 notably   
,mrs4 ,siddons as ,tragedy1a and ,mrs4  
,billington as ,st4 ,cecilia1b are      
amongst the most luminous examples of   
feminine portraiture in existence4      
,there are many artists who equalled    
,reynolds in the representation of men1 
but there are very few indeed who even  
attempted to strike a just balance      
between sensorial and intellectual      
effects in the countenance of a woman4  
a ,westminster ,coll41 ,london4    b    
,new ,york ,public ,library4  ,with such
 great leaders as ,reynolds and         
,gainsborough1 it might have been hoped 

that the school they founded in         
portraiture would have taken a long     
lease of life1 but it rapidly died away1
 leaving very few indeed of footsteps   
sunk deep in the sands of glory1 save   
those of ,raeburn1 ,hoppner1 ,lawrence1 
and ,romney4 ,but between ,reynolds and 
,romney there is a wide gulf1 for while 
the former sought for his beauty among  
the higher gifts of nature1 ,romney1    
with rare exceptions1 was content with a
 formal expression allied to grace of   
pose4 ,we may shortly consider this     
graceful attitude for it seems to be    
often regarded as an all-sufficing      
feature in the representation of        
women4#ec  ,the charm of grace lies     
chiefly in movement1 and a graceful     
attitude in repose implies rest from    
graceful movement1 but this attitude is 
ephemeral in nature1 for if prolonged it
 quickly becomes an artificial pose4 ,in
 art therefore1 a graceful pose1 whether
 exhibited in action or at rest1 must   
soon tire unless attractive expression  

be present to deepen the impress of the 
work upon the mind of the observer4 ,the
 general aesthetic value of graceful    
form in a painted figure varies with the
 scale to which the figure is drawn4    
,with a heroic figure1 grace is of the  
smallest importance2 in one of life     
size1 as a portrait for instance1 the   
quality is of considerable assisting    
value2 and as the scale is diminished1  
so does the relative value of grace     
increase4 ,this is because details of   
expression can be less truthfully       
rendered in small figures than in those 
of life size1 while in miniature figures
 certain high qualities of expression1  
as nobility1 or a combined expression of
 mind and form1 as grandeur1 can be     
scarcely indicated at all1 so that      
purely sensorial beauty1 as that arising
 from grace of pose1 becomes of         
comparatively vast importance4 ,this was
 well understood in ancient times4 ,the 
,grecian sculptured life-size figures   
are nearly always graceful1 but the     

grace arises naturally from perfection  
of form and expression1 and not from a  
specially added quality1 a particular   
grace of pose being always subordinated1
 if present at all4 ,on the other hand1 
in the smaller ,grecian figures1 such as
 those found at ,tanagra and in ,asia   
,minor1 anything in expression beyond   
regularity of features is not attempted1
 but grace is always present1 and it is 
entirely upon this that the beauty of   
the figurines depends4 ,we may presume  
from the frescoes opened out at         
,pompeii1 that the ancients were well   
aware of the value and limitations of   
grace in art4 ,in all these decorations 
where the figures are of a general type1
 as fauns1 bacchantes1 nereids1 dancers1
 and so on1 they are represented in     
motion1 flying drapery being skilfully  
used to provide illusion4 ,grace is the 
highest quality evident in these forms1 
while the expression is invariably      
negative4 ,for pure wall decorations1   
which are observed in a casual way1 a   

high quality of grace such as these     
frescoes provide is all-sufficient1 but 
as with the ,greeks1 the ,romans did not
 make grace a leading feature in serious
 art4  ,with the great painters of the  
,renaissance1 nobility1 grandeur1 and   
general perfection of form and          
expression1 though necessarily implying 
a certain grace in demeanour1 altogether
 dwarfed the feature of grace of pose4  
,in the seventeenth century1 grace was  
subordinated to dignity of form in the  
case of ,van ,dyck and ,velasquez1 and  
to actual life experience with ,rubens  
and ,rembrandt4 ,when either of these   
last two added a quality of form to     
their figures1 it was always dignity and
 not grace4 ,murillo was the first      
,spanish painter to pay particular      
attention to the grace of his figures1  
but he never gave it predominance4 ,the 
,french masters of the period1 ,le      
,brun1 ,le ,sueur1 ,poussin1 ,mignard1  
and ,rigaud1 leaned too closely to      
classical traditions to permit of grace 

playing a leading part in their designs1
 though some of slightly lesser fame as 
,noel and ,antoine ,coypel1 appeared to 
attribute considerable value to the     
quality4 ,it was during this century in 
,italy that grace first appeared as a   
prominent feature in figure painting4   
,in his pastoral and classical scenes1  
,albani seems to have largely relied    
upon it for his beauty1 and ,cignani1   
,andrea ,sacchi1 ,sassoferrato1 and     
others followed in his footsteps in this
 respect1 though up to the end of the   
century no attempt was made in          
portraiture to sacrifice other features 
to grace of pose4 ,rosalba then made her
 appearance as a portraitist1 and she   
was the first to rest the entire beauty 
of her work on sensorial charm of       
feature and grace of pose4 ,she         
developed a weakened school in ,france  
which culminated with ,nattier2 and in  
,england1 ,angelica ,kauffmann1 and some
 miniature painters1 notably ,cosway and
 ,humphrey1 took up her system for their

 life-size portraits1 while many artists
 in small as ,cipriani and ,bartolozzi1 
assisted in forming a cult of the style4
 ,but of the greater ,british painters1 
only ,romney gave high importance to    
grace of pose in portraits of women4 ,it
 is safer for an artist to eschew grace 
of pose altogether than to sacrifice    
higher qualities to it4 ,a little added 
dignity is always preferable to a       
graceful attitude in a portrait1 because
 in nature it is not so evanescent a    
feature4 ,grace is a good assisting     
quality1 but an inferior substitute4    
,the greatest repose possible is        
necessary in a portrait1 as a suggestion
 of action tends to draw the attention  
of the observer to it1 thus impeding the
 impression of the whole upon his mind4 
,the leading portraitists of the        
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries     
never erred in this matter1 unless we   
except a single work by ,titian--the    
portrait group of ,paul ,,iii4 and the  
,cardinals ,farnese1 where the last     

named has just arrived and is apparently
 in the act of bowing before completing 
his final step2 but even here it may be 
fairly argued that a moment of rest     
between two parts of the final action is
 to be presumed4 ,it was not an uncommon
 practice of ,van ,dyck to pose a       
subject arrested in the act of walking1 
or with one foot on the lowest step of a
 stairway as if about to ascend2 but in 
each of these instances the head is     
turned1 and it is obvious that the      
motion is temporarily stayed4a ,a       
similar pose was sometimes adopted by   
,british artists of the eighteenth      
century with conspicuous success4 ,if a 
portrait figure be painted in the act of
 walking on level ground1 the feet must 
be together even if the moment          
represented be that between two steps in
 the action1 because it is contrary to  
all experience for a man to rest while  
so walking1 with one foot in front of   
the other4 ,in a general composition the
 representation of a man walking with   

the feet separated is permissible1      
because it is part of a general action1 
and accessory in its nature1 but in a   
portrait the beginning and end of the   
action depicted are usually unknown1 and
 hence any action must be meaningless   
and disturbing to the observer4b    a   
,see ,earl of ,pembroke1 ,wilton ,coll41
 ,countess of ,devonshire1              
,chatsworth1 and ,philip le ,roy1       
,wallace ,coll41 all in ,england4    b  
,see ,chase's ,master ,roland1 private  
,coll41 ,n4 ,y42 and ,manet's ,boy      
with a ,sword1 ,met4 ,museum1 ,n4 ,y4   
,the ,french and ,english artists of the
 eighteenth century followed the        
practice of their predecessors in       
avoiding the exhibition of movement in  
their portraits1 but occasionally they  
departed from the rule4 ,in his fine    
portrait of ,mrs4 ,thomas ,raikes1      
,romney shows the lady playing a        
harpsichord1 with the fingers apparently
 in motion2 and in his group of the     
,ladies ,spencer1 one of them is        

fingering a harp4 ,the result in each   
case is a stiff attitude which detracts 
from the beauty of the work4 ,van ,dyck 
managed such a design in a much better  
way1 for in his portrait of his wife    
with a cello1 she holds the bow         
distinctly at rest4a ,titian also1 when 
representing a man at an organ1 shows   
his hands stayed1 while turning his     
head4b ,reynolds moved aside once from  
the custom in respect of action1c and   
,raeburn seems also to have erred only  
on a single occasion4d    a ,munich     
,gallery4    b ,venus and the ,organ    
,player1 ,prado4    c ,viscountess      
,crosbie1 ,tennant ,coll41 ,london4    d
 ,dr4 ,nathaniel ,spens1 ,royal ,co4 of 
,archers1 ,edinburgh4     ,,chapter ,,xi
  ,,expression4 ,,part                  
,,vi--,,miscellaneous       ,grief--,the
 smile--,the open                       
mouth--,contrasts--,representation of   
death4   ,the painter has ever to be on 
his guard against over-emphasis of      
facial expression4 ,his first object is 

to present an immediately intelligible  
composition1 and this being             
accomplished1 much has already been done
 towards providing appropriate          
expressions for his characters4 ,it has 
been seen that attitude alone may appear
 to lend to a countenance suitable      
expression which is not observed when   
the head of the figure is considered    
separately2 and while such a condition  
is not frequent1 its possibility        
indicates that the painter is warranted 
in relying more or less upon the details
 of his action for conveying the state  
of mind of the personages concerned     
therein4 ,it is not the purpose here to 
deal with the various forms of          
expression that may be of use to the    
painter1 nor indeed is it necessary4    
,the work of ,raphael alone leaves      
little to be learned in respect of the  
expression of emotion so far as it may  
be exhibited in a painting#ed2 but there
 are a few matters in relation to the   
subject which appear to require         

attention1 judging from experience of   
modern painting1 and short notes upon   
them are here given4   ,,grief  ,intense
 grief is the most difficult expression 
to depict in the whole art of painting1 
because in nature it usually results in 
distortion of the features1 which the   
artist must avoid at all cost4 ,of the  
thousands of paintings of scenes        
relating to the ,crucifixion1 where the 
,virgin is presumed to be in great agony
 at the foot of the ,cross1 very rarely 
has an artist attempted to portray this 
agony in realistic manner4a ,he         
generally substitutes for grief an      
expression of sorrow which is produced  
without contraction of the features4    
,this expression1 which is invariably   
accompanied with extreme pallor1 does   
not prevent the addition of a certain   
nobility to the countenance1 and hence  
no suggestion of insufficiency arises in
 the mind of the observer4 ,but the     
sublime expression which may be given to
 the ,virgin would be out of place in   

her attendants who are not infrequently 
made hideous through attempts to        
represent them as overcome with grief4  
a ,a notable exception is ,poussin's    
,descent from the ,cross1               
,hermitage4  ,a method of avoiding the  
difficulty is to conceal the face of the
 personage presumed to be suffering from
 grief4 ,timanthes is recorded by ,pliny
 as having painted a picture of the     
,sacrifice of ,iphigenia in which the   
head of ,agamemnon was completely       
covered by his robe2 and a picture of   
the same subject in a ,pompeian fresco  
represents the ,grecian monarch hiding  
his face with his right hand1 while the 
left gathers up his robe4a ,this        
invention was the subject of            
considerable discussion in ,europe in   
the eighteenth century1 in which        
,reynolds1 ,falconet1 ,lessing1 and     
others took part4 ,reynolds said of the 
device that an artist might use it once1
 but if he did so a second time1 he     
would be justly suspected of improperly 

evading difficulties4 ,falconet compared
 the action of ,timanthes to that of a  
poet who avoided expressing certain     
sentiments on the ground that the action
 of his hero was above anything that    
could be saidb2 while ,lessing held that
 the grief which overcame ,agamemnon    
could only find expression in           
distortion1 and hence the artist was    
right in covering the face4c            
,unquestionably ,lessing was justified1 
for nothing more is demanded of the     
painter than to impress the imagination 
of the observer with the intensity of   
the grief depicted1 and in this he      
succeeds4 ,obviously the poet is in a   
different position from the painter     
because he can express deep grief easily
 enough without suggesting distortion of
 the features4    a ,see ,plate #adee4  
b ,traduction des #cdme1 #ceme1 et #cfme
 livres de ,pline4    c ,laocoon4  ,the 
artifice of ,timanthes was practically  
unused during the ,renaissance1 though  
,botticelli once conceals the face of a 

woman lamenting over the body of        
,christ1a and ,richardson quotes a      
drawing by ,polidoro where the ,virgin  
hides her face in drapery in a          
lamentation scene4 ,in ,flanders at a   
little earlier period1 ,roger van der   
,weyden used the device1b and the       
,maitre de ,flemalle shows ,st4 ,john   
turning his head away and holding his   
hand to his face in a ,crucifixion      
scene4c ,in the succeeding centuries    
little was known of the practice1 but   
quite lately it has come into use again4
 ,boecklin painted a ,pieta in which the
 ,virgin has thrown herself over the    
dead body of ,christ in an agony of     
grief1 her whole form being covered by a
 cloak4 ,feuerbach has a somewhat       
similar arrangement1 and in a picture of
 the ,departure of ,jason1 he hides the 
face of an attendant of ,medea1 a plan  
adopted in two or three frescoes of the 
subject at ,pompeii4 ,prud'hon1 in a    
,crucifixion scene1 hides the face of   
the ,magdalene in her hands1 and        

,kaulbach in his ,marguerite so bends   
her head that her face is completely    
concealed from the observer4 ,where the 
face cannot altogether be hidden owing  
to the character of the design1 it is   
sometimes thrown into so deep a shade   
that the features are indistinguishable1
 this being an excellent device for     
symbolical figures typifying great      
anguish4d    a ,the ,brera1 ,milan4    b
 ,in a scene of ,the ,eucharist1        
,antwerp4    c ,christ on the ,cross1   
,berlin4    d ,as in ,hacker's ,cry of  
,egypt4  ,it is not a good plan in a    
tragic design merely to turn the head   
away to indicate grief or sorrow1       
because in such a case the artist is    
unable to differentiate between a person
 experiencing intense grief1 and one who
 turns his head from horror of the      
tragedy4a ,the scheme of half veiling   
the face is not often successful1 since 
the depth of emotion that would be      
presumed from such an action may be more
 than counterbalanced by the very       

limited feeling which can be indicated  
by the part of the face remaining       
exposed4 ,on account of a neutralizing  
effect of this kind1 ,loefftz's fine    
picture of the ,dead ,christ at ,munich 
is much weakened1 for there is no       
stronger expression on the part of the  
,virgin than patient resignation4       
,sorrow may well be displayed by        
semi-concealment of the features1       
because here the necessary expression   
may be produced by the eyes alone4b ,in 
ancient art1 to half conceal the face   
indicated discretion1 as in the case of 
a ,pompeian fresco where a nurse of the 
young ,neptune1 handing him over to a   
shepherd for education1 has her mouth   
and chin covered1 the meaning of this   
being that she is acquainted with the   
high birth of the boy1 but must not     
reveal it4    a ,see ,gros's ,timoleon  
of ,corinth4    b ,leighton's ,captive  
,andromache4   ,,the ,,smile  ,a        
pronounced smile in nature is always    
transitory1 and hence should be avoided 

when possible in a painting4 ,the only  
smile that does not tire is that which  
is so faint as to appear to be permanent
 in the expression1 and it has been the 
aim of many painters to produce this    
smile4 ,an examination of numerous      
pictures where a smile is expressed in  
the countenance has convinced the writer
 that when either the eyes alone1 or the
 eyes and mouth together1 are used to   
indicate a smile1 it is invariably      
over-pronounced as a suggestive         
permanent feature1 and that in every    
case of such permanence1 success arises 
from work on the mouth alone4  ,the     
permanent smile was not studied in      
,europe till the ,milanese school was   
founded1 and in this nearly every artist
 gave his attention to it1 following the
 example of ,lionardo4 ,this great      
master1 who was well acquainted with the
 principles of art1 is not likely to    
have had in his mind an evanescent      
expression when he experimented with the
 smile1 and one can hardly understand   

therefore why this feature is almost    
invariably over-emphasized in his works4
 ,in his portrayal of women he used both
 eyes and mouth to bring about the      
smile1a and more commonly than not paid 
most attention to the eyes4 ,perhaps he 
had in view the production of a         
permanent smile solely by means of the  
eyes1 which play so great a part in     
general expression4 ,in nature it is    
physically impossible for a smile to be 
produced without a faint variation in   
the mouth line1 while the lower eyelids 
may remain perfectly free from any      
change in light and shade1 even with a  
smile more pronounced than is necessary 
for apparent permanence4 ,in the ,mona  
,lisa at ,boston1#ef the smile is very  
faintly indicated by the eyes1 and most 
pronounced at the mouth1 while in the   
famous ,paris picture1 the eyes are     
chiefly responsible for the smile1 the  
mouth only slightly assisting4#eg ,many 
smiling faces were produced by others of
 the ,milanese school1 and as a rule the

 mouth only was used1 often with        
complete success1 notably by ,b4        
,luini1b ,pedrini1c and ,ferrari4d      
,raphael never used the eyes to assist  
in producing a smile1 except with the   
,child ,christ1e and in all cases where 
he exhibits a smile in a ,madonnaf or   
portrait1g it appears definitely        
permanent4 ,as a rule the great artists 
of the ,renaissance other than the      
disciples of ,lionardo1 rarely produced 
a smile with the intention of suggesting
 a permanently happy expression1 and in 
the seventeenth century little attention
 was given to it4    a ,an exception    
where the mouth only is used is a       
drawing for the         ,madonna and    
,child with ,st4 ,anne1 ,burlington     
,house1 ,london4    b ,salome1 ,uffizi  
,gallery1 ,florence4    c ,madonna and  
,child1 ,arezzo4    d ,madonna and      
,child1 ,brera1 ,milan4    e ,cowper    
,madonna1 ,panshanger1 ,england4    f   
,see ,casa ,tempi ,madonna1 ,munich2 and
 ,virgin with a ,goldfinch1             

,uffizi4    g ,portrait of a ,young     
,man1 ,budapest2 and the ,fornarina1    
,barberini         ,gallery1 ,florence4 
,the great ,french portraitists of the  
eighteenth century frequently made the  
smile a feature in expression1 and a few
 of them1 notably ,la ,tour1 seldom     
produced a countenance without one4 ,in 
most cases the smile is a little too    
pronounced for permanence1 but there are
 many examples of a faint and delicate  
smile which may well suggest an habitual
 condition4 ,rigaud's ,louis ,,xv4 as a 
,boy is an instance1a though here the   
illusion quickly passes when we bring to
 mind the other portraits of the        
monarch4 ,nattier1b ,boucher1c ,dumont  
le ,romain1d ,perronneau1e ,chardin1    
,roslin1 and others1 sometimes          
succeeded1 but the ,french master of the
 smile was ,la ,tour who executed quite 
a dozen examples which ,lionardo might  
have envied4f ,of ,british artists      
,romney was the most adept in producing 
a permanent smile1g but strange to say  

there is no instance of one in his many 
portraits of ,lady ,hamilton1 beyond her
 representation as a bacchante4h ,here  
the smile is far too pronounced for a   
plain portrait1 but a bacchante may     
reasonably be supposed to be ever       
engaged in scenes of pleasure1 and hence
 the feature does not seem to be out of 
place4 ,reynolds commonly used both eyes
 and mouth in creating his smiles1i but 
,raeburn was nearly equal to ,romney in 
the number of his felicitous smiles1    
while he seldom exceeded the minimum    
expression required for permanence4j    
,gainsborough produced a few portraits  
of women with a vague furtive smile1    
sweet and expressive beyond degree4k    
,they are invariably brought about by a 
faint curvature of the mouth line4    a 
,at ,versailles4    b ,madame ,louise1  
at ,versailles4    c ,portrait of a     
,young ,woman1 the ,louvre4    d ,two   
examples in the group ,madame ,mercier  
and ,family1 ,louvre4    e ,madame      
,olivier1 ,groult 7formerly71 ,coll41   

,paris4    f ,see ,madame de la         
,popeliniere and ,mdlle4 ,carmago1 both 
at ,saint         ,quentin ,museum2 and 
,madame ,pompadour1 ,louvre4    g ,see  
,mrs4 ,yates1 ,llangattock ,coll42      
,william ,booth1 ,lathom ,coll42        
and ,mrs4 ,tickle1 ,a4 de ,rothschild   
7formerly7 ,coll41 all ,england4    h   
,t4 ,chamberlayne ,coll41 ,england4    i
 ,for exceptions see ,hon4 ,lavinia     
,bingham1 ,spencer ,coll41 and ,mrs4    
,abington1 ,fife ,coll41 both ,england4 
j ,see ,farmer's ,wife1 ,mitchell       
,coll42 ,mrs4 ,lauzun1 ,national        
,gallery1         ,london2 and ,mrs4    
,balfour1 ,beith ,coll41 ,scotland4    k
 ,lady ,sheffield1 ,alice ,rothschild   
,coll42 and ,mrs4 ,leybourne1 ,popham   
,coll4   ,,the ,,open ,,mouth  ,if there
 be one transient feature more than     
another which should be avoided in a    
painting1 and particularly in the       
principal figure1 it is a wide-open     
mouth4 ,necessarily1 after a short      
acquaintance with a picture containing  

such a feature1 either the mouth appears
 to be kept open by a wedge1 or1 as in  
the case of a laugh1 the face is likely 
to wear an abnormal expression          
approaching to idiocy1 for it is        
altogether contrary to experience of    
normal persons in real life1 for a mouth
 to be kept open longer than for an     
instant or two4 ,hence the first artists
 have studiously refrained from         
exhibiting a wide-open mouth1 or indeed 
one that is open at all except to such  
an extent that the parted lips appear a 
permanent condition4 ,but a few great   
men have erred in the matter4 ,thus1    
,mantegna shows the child ,christ with  
the mouth widely open in a half-vacant  
and half-startled expression1 which is  
immediately repelling4a ,dosso ,dossi   
has several pictures much injured by the
 feature1b and in ,ercole di ,roberti's 
,concert1 no less than three mouths are 
wide open4c ,one of the figures in      
,velasquez's ,three ,musicians opens his
 mouth far too widely1d while ,hals has 

half a dozen pictures with the defect4e 
,a rare mistake was made by ,carlo      
,dolci when showing ,christ with ,his   
mouth open wide in the act of           
utterance1f and ,mengs erred similarly  
in ,st4 ,john ,baptist ,preaching4g ,in 
more modern times the fault is seldom   
noticeable among artists of repute1     
though occasionally a bad example       
occurs1 as in ,winslow ,homer's ,all's  
,well4h ,even when an open mouth seems  
unavoidable1 the effect is by no means  
neutralized4i    a ,virgin and ,child at
 ,bergamo4    b ,notably ,a ,muse       
,instructing a ,court ,poet1 and ,nymph 
and ,satyr1         ,pitti ,palace4    c
 ,national ,gallery1 ,london4    d      
,berlin ,gallery4    e ,see ,merry      
,company at ,table1 ,met4 ,mus41 ,n4    
,y41 and similar         pictures4    f 
,christ ,blessing1 a single figure      
picture4    g ,hermitage1 ,petrograd4   
h ,boston ,museum1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,see     
,plate #ae4    i ,as in ,dow's ,the     
,dentist1 ,schwerin ,mus41 and a similar

 work at the         ,louvre4  ,when the
 blemish is in an accessory figure1 it  
is of lesser importance as there it     
becomes an incidental circumstance on   
the mind of the observer4 ,thus1 in     
,reynolds's ,infant ,hercules1 where    
,alcmena1 on seeing the child holding   
the snakes1 opens her mouth with        
surprise and alarm1 the action of the   
central figure is so strong that the    
importance of the others present is     
comparatively insignificant4a           
,nevertheless in a ,pompeian fresco of  
the same subject1 care has been taken to
 close the mouth of ,alcmena4 ,where the
 design represents several persons      
singing1 it is well possible to indicate
 the action without showing the mouths  
open1 as in ,raphael's ,st4 ,cecilia4b  
,in a picture of a like subject1 with   
the ,saint in the centre of a group of  
five singers1 ,domenichino shows only   
the two outside figures with open       
mouths1 and one of these is in profile4 
,there are several works where ,david is

 seen singing to the accompaniment of a 
harp1 but though his mouth is open1 the 
figure is in profile1 and the lips are  
hidden by moustache and beard4c    a    
,hermitage1 ,petrograd4    b ,bologna   
,museum4    c ,for example1 ,rubens's   
,david's ,last ,song1 ,frankfort        
,museum4  ,it may be observed1 however1 
that in certain cases artificial        
conditions may render an open mouth in a
 picture of comparatively little        
significance4 ,a painted laugh for      
instance may only become objectionable  
to the observer when the work is        
constantly before him2 but when it is in
 a picture gallery and he sees it but   
rarely1 the lasting character of the    
feature is not presented to his mind4   
,the ,laughing ,cavalier of ,franz      
,hals1 though violating the principle1  
does not appear in bad taste to the     
average visitor to the ,wallace         
,collection4 ,in the case of            
,rembrandt's portrait of himself with   
,saskia on his knee1 where the artist   

has his lips parted in the act of       
laughing1 there is an additional reason 
why the transient expression should not 
tire4 ,because of the number of         
self-portraits he painted1 the          
countenance of ,rembrandt is quite      
familiar to most picture gallery        
visitors1 and to these the laugh in the 
,dresden picture could not possibly pass
 as an habitual expression4             
,illustration3 ,,plate #ae 7,see page   
#agf7   ,winslow ,homer's ,all's ,well  
7,boston ,museum7   ,,contrasts         
,designs specially built up for the     
purpose of contrasting two or more      
attributes or conditions are almost     
invariably uninteresting unless the     
motive be hidden behind a definite      
action which appears to control the     
scheme4 ,this is because of the         
difficulty of otherwise connecting the  
personages contrasted in a particular   
action of common understanding4 ,a      
design of ,hercules and ,omphale affords
 a superior contrast of strength and    

beauty to a composition of ,strength and
 ,wisdom4 ,in each case a herculean     
figure and a lovely woman represent the 
respective qualities1 but in the first  
the figures are connected by expression 
and action1 and in the second no        
connection can be established4 ,so in   
contrasting beauty of mind with that of 
form1 this is much better represented by
 such a subject as ,hippocrates and the 
,bride of ,perdiccas than in the        
,venetian manner of figures unconnected 
in the design4 ,and in respect of       
conditions1 ,frith's picture of ,poverty
 and ,wealth1 where a carriage full of  
fashionable women drives through a poor 
section of ,london1 has little more than
 a topographical interest1 but in a     
subject such as ,the ,first ,visit of   
,croesus to ,aesop1 the contrast between
 poverty and wealth would deeply strike 
the imagination4  ,in contrasts of good 
and evil1 vice and virtue1 and similar  
subjects1 it is inferior art to         
represent the evil character by an ugly 

figure4 ,as elsewhere pointed out1      
deformity of any kind injures the       
aesthetic value of a picture because it 
tends to neutralize the pleasurable     
feeling derived from the beauty present4
 ,the poet may join physical deformity  
with beauty because he can minimize the 
defect with words1 but the painter has  
no such recourse4#eh ,a deformed        
personage in a composition is therefore 
to be deprecated unless as a necessary  
accessory in a historical work1 in which
 case he must be subordinated to the    
fullest extent possible4 ,the figure of 
,satan1 of an exaggerated satyr type1   
has often been introduced into subjects 
such as the ,temptation of ,christ1     
though not by artists of the first      
rank4a ,such pictures do not live as    
high class works of art however they be 
painted4 ,correggio makes a contrast of 
,vice and ,virtue in two paintings1b    
representing ,vice by a man bound1 but  
usually in the mature time of the       
,renaissance1 ,vice was shown as a      

woman1 either beautiful in features1 or 
with her face partly hidden1 various    
accessories indicating her character4 ,a
 notable exception is ,salviati's       
,justice where a hideous old woman takes
 the role of ,vice4c ,even in cases     
where a witch has to be introduced1 as  
in representations of ,samuel's ,curse1 
it is not necessary to follow the       
example of ,salvator ,rosa1 and render  
her with deformed features1 for there   
are several excellent works where this  
defect is avoided4d    a ,see examples  
by ,ary ,scheffer1 ,luxembourg2 and ,h4 
,thoma1 ,burnitz         ,coll4    b    
,both at the ,louvre4    c ,the         
,bargello1 ,florence4    d ,as in ,k4   
,meyer's picture4  ,an effective design 
with the purpose of contrasting the ages
 of man is not possible1 firstly1       
because the number of ages represented  
must be very limited1 and1 secondly1 for
 the reason that the figures cannot be  
connected together in a free and easy   
manner4 ,hence all such pictures have   

been failures1 though a few great       
artists have attempted the subject4     
,titian tried it with two children1 a   
young couple1 and an old man1 assorting 
the personages casually in a landscape  
without attempting to connect them      
together in action4a ,at about the same 
time ,lotto produced a contrast1 also   
with three ages represented1 namely1 a  
boy1 a young man1 and an elderly man4b  
,these personages sit together as if    
they had been photographed for the      
purpose1 without a ray of intelligence  
passing between them4 ,but this is far  
better than ,grien's ,three ,ages1c for 
here the artist has strangely confused  
life and death1 exhibiting a grown      
maiden1 a middle-aged woman1 and a      
skin-coated skeleton holding an         
hour-glass4 ,the best design of the     
subject is ,van ,dyck's ,four ,ages4d   
,he shows a child asleep near a young   
woman who is selling flowers to a       
soldier1 and an old man is in the       
background4 ,there is thus a presumed   

connection between three of the         
personages1 but naturally the           
composition is somewhat stiff4 ,the only
 other design worth mentioning is by    
,boecklin1 who also represents four     
ages4e ,two children play in the        
background of a landscape2 a little     
farther back is a young woman2 then a   
cavalier on horseback2 and finally on   
the top of an arch an old man whom      
,death in the form of a skeleton is     
about to strike4 ,but here again there  
is no connection between the figures1   
the consequent formality half destroying
 the aesthetic value of the work4 ,from 
these examples than which there is none 
better1 it may be gauged that it is     
hopeless to expect a good design from a 
subject where the ages of man are       
contrasted4 ,if represented at all1 the 
ages should be contrasted in separate   
pictures1 as ,lancret painted them4    a
 ,bridgewater ,coll41 ,england4    b    
,pitti ,palace1 ,florence4    c ,the    
,prado1 ,madrid4    d ,vincenza ,museum4

    e ,vita somnium breve4  ,the        
practice of presenting nude with clothed
 figures where the subject does not     
absolutely compel it1 is commonly       
supposed to be for the purpose of       
contrast4 ,this may have been the object
 in some cases1 but in very few is the  
interest in the contrast not outweighed 
by the bizarre appearance of the work4  
,as a rule in these pictures there is   
nothing in the expressions or actions of
 the personages depicted to suggest a   
reason for the absence of clothes from  
some of them1 and so to the average     
observer they form a problem class of   
painting4 ,the first important work of  
the kind executed was ,sebastiano del   
,piombo's ,concert1 in which the group  
consists of two nude women1 one with a  
reed pipe1 and two men attired in       
,venetian costume1 of whom one handles a
 guitar4a ,the figures are very         
beautiful and the landscape is superb1  
but as one cannot account for the nude  
figures in an open-air musical party1   

the aesthetic value of the work is      
largely diminished4 ,this painting has  
suggested several designs to modern     
artists1 the most notable being ,manet's
 ,dejeuner sur l',herbe1 where a couple 
of nude women with two men dressed in   
modern clothes are shown in a picnic on 
the grass4 ,not only is the scheme      
inexplicable1 but the invention is so   
extravagant as to provoke the lowest of 
suggestions4 ,in a composition of this  
kind only a great artist can build up a 
harmonious design4    a ,at the ,louvre4
 ,formerly attributed to ,giorgione4    
,titian's picture known as ,sacred and  
,profane ,love1a where the figure of a  
nude woman is opposed to one clothed1   
may really signify any of a dozen ideas1
 but the artist probably had no other   
scheme in his mind than to represent    
different types of beautiful women4     
,crowe and ,cavalcaselli's suggested    
title of ,l',amour ingenu et l',amour   
satisfait1 was certainly never conceived
 by ,titian1 nor is ,burckhardt's       

proposal1 ,love and ,prudery1 possible  
in view of the flowers in the hand of   
the draped figure4 ,in any case this    
picture is the greatest of its kind1 for
 the composition is so delicate and     
harmonious1 and the art so perfect1 as  
to render its precise meaning a matter  
of little consideration4 ,another       
picture of ,sacred and ,profane ,love   
was painted by ,grien4b ,he shows a nude
 woman from whom ,cupid has just drawn  
the drapery1 and another woman          
concealing her figure with loose        
drapery4 ,the effect is weak4 ,the nude 
figures in the well-known ,drinkers of  
,velasquezc are undisturbing because    
they are not very prominent in the      
picture1 but their significance is not  
apparent4    a ,borghese ,gallery1      
,rome4    b ,frankfort ,museum4    c    
,the ,prado1 ,madrid4  ,no one has yet  
properly explained the meaning of the   
nude male figures standing at ease in   
the background of ,michelangelo's       
celebrated ,holy ,family4a ,they are    

apparently pagan gods1 and it is        
suggested that the artist intended to   
signify the overthrow of the ,grecian   
deities by the coming of ,christ4 ,such 
an explanation might be possible with   
another painter1 but it does not accord 
with our conception of the mind of      
,michelangelo4 ,a still greater puzzle  
is offered by ,luca ,signorelli who1 in 
the landscape background of the bust    
portrait of a man1 shows two nude men to
 the right of the portrait1 and two     
attired women at the left4b ,it is      
impossible to suggest any meaning of    
this extraordinary invention4    a      
,uffizi ,gallery1 ,florence4    b       
,berlin ,gallery4   ,,the               
,,representation ,,of ,,death  ,death is
 a subject inappropriate to the art of  
painting except where it is dealt with  
symbolically or as an historical        
incident4 ,naturally in either of these 
cases any realistic representation of   
death1 or of distortion connected       
therewith1 should be studiously avoided4

 ,for while many aspects of death may   
not be unpleasant to the senses1 its    
actual presence--the cold immobility2   
the pulseless soulless1 decaying thing2 
the appalling mirror of our own         
fate--these things are most unpleasant1 
and hence should have no place in       
painting4 ,in sculpture1 represented in 
a certain way1 death is admissible1 for 
in marble or bronze a body may be carved
 indicating only the eternal composure  
of a beautiful form4 ,this is how the   
,greeks showed death1 whether in the    
case of a warrior fallen on the         
battlefield1 or as the twin brother of  
,sleep4 ,but the painter is less        
fortunate3 for him death is decay4  ,the
 presence of so many scenes of death in 
the paintings of the past was the result
 of accident4 ,for a long while after   
the dawn of the ,renaissance1 those     
controlling churches and other religious
 institutions of the ,christians were   
the chief and almost the only patrons of
 art1 and they required paintings as    

well for didactic purposes as for       
decoration4 ,for some time pictures     
often took the place of writing1 where  
comparatively few could read1 in the    
inculcation of ,christian doctrines and 
history1 and they were largely used as  
images before which people could kneel  
in prayer4 ,the most important facts    
bearing upon ,christian faith are       
concerned with death1 and so there have 
been accumulated thousands of paintings 
of scenes of the ,crucifixion1 the      
death-beds of saints1 instances of      
martyrdom1 and so on4 ,while these      
paintings have been highly useful as    
tending to invite reverence for a       
sublime creed1 it would be injurious to 
suggest that generally they take a high 
place in art4 ,some of them do1 but the 
very large number of them which indicate
 dying agony1 or recent death with all  
its mortal changes1 must not be approved
 from a strict art point of view1 for   
any beauty which may be present apart   
from the subject is instantly           

neutralized by the pain and horror      
arising from the invention4 ,but it is  
evidently unnecessary to produce such   
pictures1 even in the case of the       
,crucifixion1 for there are ample works 
in existence to show that the face and  
body of ,christ can be so presented as  
to be free from indications of physical 
suffering or decay4  ,but if we are to  
protest against designs exhibiting      
forbidding aspects of death in sacred   
works1 what can we say of the pictures  
of executions1 massacres1 plagues1 and  
so on1 which ever and again have been   
produced since the middle of the        
nineteenth century8 ,deeds of heroism or
 self-sacrifice on the battlefield where
 bodies of the fallen may be outlined   
are well1 but simple wholesale murders  
as presented by ,benjamin-,constant1    
,heim1 and fifty others1 where the      
motive does not pretend to be anything  
else than massacre or other ghastly     
event1 can only live as examples of     
degraded art4 ,there may be something   

said for ,verestchagin1 who painted     
heaps of heads and skulls1 and scattered
 corpses1 in order to show the evils of 
war1 but if the arts are to be used at  
all for such a purpose1 the poet or     
orator would be much more impressive    
because he could veil the hideous side  
of the subject with pathos and imagery1 
and further differentiate between just  
and unjust wars4 ,the painter is        
powerless to do these things4 ,he can   
only represent the horrors of war by    
depicting horrible things which is      
entirely beyond the province of his art4
 ,the purpose of art is to give         
pleasure1 and if the design descend     
below the line where displeasure begins1
 then the art is no more4  ,how easy it 
is for the aesthetic value of a picture 
to be lowered by the representation of a
 corpse1 is shown in three celebrated   
paintings--the anatomical works of      
,rembrandta and ,de ,keyser4b ,probably 
these works were ordered to honour the  
surgeons or schools concerned1 but the  

object would have been better served by 
a composition such as ,eakin's ,dr4     
,cross's ,surgical ,clinic4c ,here the  
leading figure is also giving a lesson  
to students1 and practical demonstration
 is proceeding1 but there is no skeleton
 or corpse to damage the picture4       
,fromentin said that the ,tulp work left
 him very cold1d and although he        
endeavoured to find technical ground for
 this1 it is more than likely that the  
principal reason lay in the involuntary 
mental disturbance brought about by the 
corpse4 ,another fine design largely    
injured by corporeal evidence of death  
is ,ingres's ,oedipus and the ,sphinx1e 
where a foot rises out of a hole in the 
rock near the ,sphinx1 the presumption  
of course being that the body of a man  
who had failed with the riddle had      
lately been thrown there4 ,the invention
 is most deplorable in such a picture4  
a ,lesson in ,anatomy of ,professor     
,tulp1 and the fragment of a similar    
work1 both at ,the ,hague4    b ,rijks  

,museum1 ,amsterdam4    c ,jefferson    
,medical ,college1 ,philadelphia4    d  
,masters of ,other ,days4    e ,at the  
,louvre4  ,the use of a skeleton as a   
symbol of death in painting seems to    
have been unusual during the            
,renaissance till towards the end of the
 fifteenth century4 ,the earliest artist
 of note in this period to adopt it1 was
 ,jean ,prevost who represented a man   
taking a letter from a skeleton without 
seeing the messenger4a ,then came ,grien
 who painted three works of the kind4   
,in the first ,death holds an hour-glass
 at the back of a woman1 and points to  
the position of the sandb2 in the second
 the bony figure has clutched a girl by 
the hairc2 and the third represents a   
skeleton apparently kissing a girl4d    
,they are all hideous works1 and might  
well have acted as a warning to         
succeeding artists4 ,after ,grien the   
use of a skeleton in design was         
practically confined to the smaller     
,german masters till the middle of the  

second half of the sixteenth century1   
when it disappeared from serious work4  
,from this time on1 for the next three  
centuries artists of repute rarely      
introduced a skeleton into a painting1  
though it is to be found occasionally in
 engravings4 ,one might have supposed   
that the unsightly form had been        
abandoned with the imps1 evil spirits1  
and other crudities of past days1 but it
 was not to be4 ,the search for         
novelties in recent times has only      
resulted in the resuscitation of bygone 
eccentricities1 and we must not be      
surprised that the skeleton is amongst  
them4    a ,old ,man and ,death1        
,bruges4    b ,imperial ,gallery1       
,vienna4    c ,girl and ,death1 ,basle  
,museum4    d ,basle ,museum4  ,modern  
artists have displayed considerable     
ingenuity in the use of the skeleton1   
but the results have necessarily only   
succeeded in degrading the art4 ,rethel 
figures a skeleton in the costume of a  
monk who is ringing a bell at a dance4a 

,several of the dancers have fallen     
dead1 apparently from plague1 and the   
whole scene is ghastly4 ,henneberg has a
 ,fortune allegory in which ,death is   
about to seize a horseman who is chasing
 a nude woman1b this design being a     
slight modification of a variety of     
prints executed in the sixteenth        
century4 ,thoma uses a skeleton in a    
most bizarre manner4 ,he substitutes it 
for the serpent in a picture of ,adam   
and ,eve1c and in another work          
associates it with ,cupid4d ,two lovers 
are talking1 and ,death stands behind   
the woman whose hat ,cupid is lifting4  
,a terrible picture with a political    
bearing was painted by ,uhde4e ,it      
represents a crowd of revolutionists    
rushing towards a bridge1 while a       
skeleton in modern costume waves a sword
 and cheers them on4 ,these instances   
suffice to indicate the difficulty in   
the production of a fine work of art    
with so hideous a form as a skeleton    
thrown into prominence4    a ,death at a

 ,masked ,ball4    b ,race for ,fortune4
    c ,sin and ,death4    d ,cupid and  
,death4    e ,revenge4  ,how simply one 
may avoid the introduction of a skeleton
 in a design concerned with death1 is   
shown by an example where three artists 
deal with the same motive--,death1 the  
,friend4 ,the first composition shows an
 old man sitting dead in a chair while a
 skeleton costumed as a monk1 tolls a   
bella3 in the second there is also an   
old man in a chair1 but an ,angel with a
 scythe is substituted for the          
skeletonb3 in the third an ,angel with  
huge folded wings forming an oval       
framework for her figure1 leans over the
 body of a child which has its face     
hidden4c ,the second design is a vast   
improvement over the first1 but the     
third is incomparably the best of the   
three4 ,it may be remarked that a scythe
 is too trivial an emblem for the ,angel
 of ,death1 for whom indeed an emblem of
 any kind is only admissible when ,death
 is represented as the result of eternal

 justice1 in which case a flaming sword 
is appropriate4    a ,woodcut by ,a4    
,rethel4    b ,lithograph by ,o4 ,redon4
    c ,painting by ,g4 ,f4 ,watts4      
,very rarely indeed can a good picture  
be made out of a funeral scene4 ,such a 
scene attending the death of a great man
 may be fitly produced1 so long as the  
imagination can be used in the          
composition2 that is to say1 if there   
are few or no records of the actual     
funerala2 but paintings relating to the 
modern burial of unnamed persons are of 
little value as works of art1 for the   
imagination of the artist cannot extend 
beyond unpleasant prosaic incidents of  
common acquaintance4 ,the purpose of the
 funeral scenes of ,courbetb and ,anne  
,ancherc has never been explained2 and  
the various interiors1 each with a      
coffin and distracted relatives of the  
dead1 by ,wiertz1d ,dalsgaard1e and     
other modern artists1 are capable of    
bringing only misery instead of pleasure
 to the observer4    a ,as in ,rubens's 

,funeral of ,decius1 ,vienna4    b ,the 
,burial at ,ornans4    c ,the ,funeral4 
d ,the ,orphans4    e ,the ,child's     
,coffin4  ,but while funerals are       
unsuitable for the painter1 interior    
scenes where death has occurred and     
friends are watching the body1 offer    
special inducements to artists1 because 
the perfect stillness of the living     
persons represented may be properly     
assumed1 and so the illusion of life is 
little likely to be disturbed through   
the non-completion of an indicated      
action4 ,on this account these works    
appear very impressive when well        
executed1 and they may take high rank   
even when the artist is limited in his  
scope by the conditions of an actual    
scene4 ,very little is required however 
to destroy the illusion of continuity4  
,in ,kampf's picture of the             
lying-in-state of ,william ,i41a where  
many watchers are shown who are presumed
 to be motionless1 a boy in the middle  
distance in the act of walking1 is a    

most disturbing element4 ,an example    
where an illusion of continuity is      
perfectly maintained is ,orchardson's   
,borgia1 where ,caesar ,borgia stands in
 contemplation over the body of his     
poisoned victim4 ,the silence indicated 
appears practically as permanent as the 
painted design1 for any reasonable time 
spent by the observer in examining the  
picture1 is not likely to be longer than
 that during which ,caesar may be       
presumed to have remained still at the  
actual occurrence4 ,scenes of           
approaching death may be arranged to    
produce a similar illusion1 as for      
instance where those present are        
praying1 or a single figure is waiting  
for the life to pass from the sick      
person4    a ,the ,night of ,march #ca1 
#ahhh1 at ,berlin4    ,illustration3    
,,plate #af 7,see page #aij7   ,hercules
 ,contemplating ,death1 in ,bronze1 by  
,pollaiuolo   7,frick ,collection7      
,little attention has been paid in art  
to the expression of dying persons4     

,there are many pictures representing   
celebrated men and women in their dying 
moments1 but very few of them exhibit an
 expression of noble resignation and    
fearlessness1 qualities which are       
naturally associated with a great man as
 his end draws near4 ,no doubt the      
artist is often limited in his invention
 by the actual circumstances of the     
death scene1 as in ,copley's ,death of  
,chatham1a for the statesman was        
unconscious at the moment of            
representation4 ,other than this the    
best known works of the kind relate to  
the death of ,seneca1b ,queen           
,elizabeth1c and ,general ,wolfe4d ,in  
the last instance only is there a fine  
expression4 ,how it was that ,rubens    
missed his opportunity with ,seneca is  
hard to understand4 ,the presence of a  
clerk taking down the utterances of a   
philosopher as he bleeds to death1 gives
 the design a theatrical appearance1 and
 removes any suggestion of unconcerned  
resignation which might have arisen4    

,one of the most powerful designs in    
existence relating to approaching death1
 is a sculptured figure in bronze of    
,hercules contemplating death4e ,the    
demi-god is represented standing on an  
altar4 ,his left foot is raised upon the
 skull of an ox2 his head is slightly   
bent1 and the whole attitude suggests a 
few moments of rest while he            
contemplates his coming fate4 ,the      
conception is as fine as the subject is 
rare4    a ,national ,gallery1 ,london4 
b ,by ,rubens1 at ,munich4    c ,by     
,delaroche1 at the ,louvre4    d ,by    
,benjamin ,west1 ,westminster ,coll41   
,london4    e ,by ,a4 ,pollaiuolo1      
,frick ,coll41 ,new ,york4 ,see ,plate  
#afei4  ,the artist should glorify death
 if possible1 but he can only do this   
when the subject has a general          
application4 ,many painters have        
introduced the ,angel of ,death into    
scenes where death has occurred1 and    
have thus converted them into work of   
pathos and beauty4 ,notable examples of 

this are ,watts's ,death1 the ,friend1  
already referred to1 and ,h4 ,levy's    
,young ,girl and ,death1 where the      
,angel gently clasps the body of a girl 
whose face is hidden4 ,one of the finest
 designs of the kind is ,lard's ,glory  
,forgets not ,obscure ,heroes4 ,on a    
battlefield1 where all else has gone1   
lies the body of a soldier over whom    
stoops a lovely winged figure who raises
 the head of the hero1 and seems to     
throw a halo of glory over him4a ,in    
historical paintings the appearance of  
sleep is often given to a dead body1 as 
in ,cogniet's ,tintoretto ,painting his 
,dead ,daughter1 a pathetic picture1    
bringing to mind the story of ,luca     
,signorelli painting his dead son4b    a
 ,the design for this picture was       
probably suggested by ,longepied's      
fine sculptured group of ,immortality at
 the ,louvre1 the idea         of which 
was no doubt drawn from ,canova's       
,l',amour et ,psyche4         ,there are
 ,tangara groups and fragments of larger

 works in         existence showing that
 the ,greeks executed many designs of   
a similar character4    b ,see also     
,girodet's ,burial of ,atala1 and ,le   
,brun's ,death of ,cato4     ,,chapter  
,,xii  ,,landscape       ,limitations of
 the landscape painter--,illusion of    
opening      distance--,illusion of     
motion in landscape--,moonlight         
scenes--,transient conditions4          
,considered as a separate branch of the 
painter's art1 landscape is on a        
comparatively low plane1 because the    
principal signs with which it deals1 and
 the arrangement of them to form a view1
 may be varied indefinitely without a   
sense of incongruity arising4 ,thus     
there can be no ideal in the art2 that  
is to say1 no ideal can be conceived    
which is general in its character4 ,the 
artist can aspire to no definite goal3  
his imagination is limited to the       
arrangement of things which are         
inanimate and expressionless4 ,he may   
produce sensorial1 but not intellectual1

 beauty4 ,the nobler human attributes   
and passions1 as wisdom1 courage1       
spiritual exaltation1 patriotism1 cannot
 be connected with landscape1 and so it 
is unable to produce in the mind the    
elevation of thought and grandeur of    
sentiment which are the sweetest        
blossoms of the tree of art4#fj         
,another drawback in landscape is the   
necessity for painting it on an         
extraordinarily reduced scale4 ,because 
of this the highest qualities of beauty 
in nature--grandeur and sublimity--can  
only with difficulty be suggested on    
canvas1 for actual magnitude is         
requisite for the production of either  
of these qualities in any considerable  
degree4 ,a volcano in eruption has no   
force at all in a painting1 a result    
which is due1 not so much to the        
inability of the painter to represent   
moving smoke and fire1 as to the        
impossibility of depicting their        
enormous masses4 ,the disability of the 
painter in respect of the representation

 of magnitude is readily seen in the    
case of a cathedral interior4 ,this may 
or may not have the quality of grandeur1
 but a picture cannot differentiate     
between one that has1 and one that has  
not1 because no feeling of grandeur can 
arise in looking at a painted interior1 
the element of actual space being       
absent4  ,seeing that an ideal in       
landscape is impossible1 the landscape  
painter cannot improve upon nature4 ,in 
the case of the human figure the painter
 may improve upon experience by         
collecting excellencies from different  
models and putting them into one form1  
thus creating what would be universally 
regarded as ideal physical beauty2 and  
he may give to this form an expression  
of spiritual nobility which is also     
beyond experience because it would imply
 the absence of inferior qualities      
inseparable from man in nature4 ,thus to
 the physical1 he adds intellectual     
beauty4 ,such a perfect form may be said
 to be an improvement upon nature1 for  

it is not only beyond experience1 but is
 nature purified4 ,but the landscape    
painter cannot improve upon the signs   
which nature provides4 ,he may vary the 
parts of a tree as he will1 but it would
 never be recognized as beyond possible 
experience unless it were a             
monstrosity4#fa ,and even if he could   
improve upon experience with his signs1 
this would help him but little1 for the 
beauty of a landscape depends upon the  
relation of the signs to each other1 and
 not upon the beauty of the separate    
signs which vary in every work with the 
character of the design4 ,in colour also
 the painter cannot apply to his        
landscape an appropriate harmony which  
the sun is incapable of giving4 ,from   
all this it follows that the aesthetic  
value of a landscape depends entirely   
upon its correspondence with nature4  ,a
 good landscape must necessarily be     
invented1 because it is impossible to   
reproduce the particular beauty of a    
natural scene4#fb ,this beauty is due to

 a relation of parts of the view1       
infinite in number1 to each other1 but  
what this relation is cannot be         
determined by the observer4 ,further1   
whatever be the relation1 the continuous
 changing light and atmospheric effects 
bring about a constant variation in the 
character of the beauty4 ,it is possible
 for an actual view to suggest to the   
artist a scheme for a beautiful         
landscape1 but in this the precise      
relation of the parts would have to be  
invented by the painter and fixed by    
experiment4 ,the principal features from
 a natural view may be taken out1 but   
not those which together bring about the
 beauty4 ,there is no great landscape in
 existence which was painted for the    
purpose of representing a particular    
view4 ,there have of course been scenes 
painted to order1 even by notable       
artists1 but these only serve the       
purpose of record1 or as mementoes4 ,the
 great view of ,the ,hague1 painted by  
,van ,goyen under instructions from the 

syndics of the town1 is the feeblest of 
his works1 and the many pictures of the 
kind executed by ,british and ,german   
artists of the eighteenth century have  
now only a topographical interest4      
,constable painted numerous scenes to   
order1 and there are something like     
forty views of ,salisbury ,cathedral    
attributed to him1 but only those in    
which he could apply his own invention  
are of considerable aesthetic value4 ,a 
good artist rarely introduces into a    
painting even a small sketch of a scene 
made from nature4 ,titian is known to   
have drawn numerous sketches in         
particular localities1 but not one has  
been identified in his pictures4 ,in    
nearly every painting of ,nicholas      
,poussin the ,roman ,campagna may be    
recognized1 and here he must have made  
thousands of sketches during the forty  
years he spent in the district1 yet the 
most patient examination has failed to  
identify a single spot in his many      
beautiful views4 ,so with ,gaspar       

,poussin1 who1 unlike his famous        
brother-in-law1 occasionally set up his 
easel in the open air2 and with ,claude 
who never left off sketching in his long
 life4 ,the greatest landscapes are     
those which are true to nature          
generally1 but are untrue in respect of 
any particular natural scene4  ,seeing  
that in landscape the production of     
sensorial beauty only is within the     
power of the painter1 and that the      
beauty is enhanced as nature is the more
 closely imitated1 it is obvious that   
for the work to have a permanent        
interest1 the scene depicted and the    
incidents therein should be of common   
experience1 otherwise the full          
recognition of the beauty is likely to  
be retarded by the reasoning powers     
being involuntarily set to work in the  
consideration of the exceptional        
conditions4 ,naturally the term common  
experience has a varied application4    
,what is of common experience in scenery
 among people in a temperate climate1 is

 rare or unknown to those living under  
the burning sun of ,africa4 ,the artist 
is fully aware of this1 and in designing
 his work he takes into account the     
experience of the people who are likely 
to see his paintings4 ,a view of a scene
 in the ,east1 say in ,palestine or     
,siam1 may be a beautiful work and be   
recognized as true because the          
conditions depicted are commonly known  
to exist2 it would further have an      
informative value which would result in 
added pleasure2 but among people        
habituated to a temperate climate it    
would tire more quickly than a scene of 
a kind to which they are daily          
accustomed4 ,in the one case an effort1 
however slight1 is required to          
accommodate the view to experience1 and 
in the other the whole meaning of the   
scene is instantaneously identified with
 its beauty4  ,in nature there is always
 movement and sound4 ,even on those rare
 days when the wind has ceased and the  
air seems still and dead1 there is      

motion with noise of some kind4 ,a brook
 trickles by1 insects buzz their zigzag 
way1 and shadows vary as the sun mounts 
or descends4 ,but most commonly there is
 a breeze to rustle the trees and       
shrubs1 to ripple the surface of the    
water1 and to throw over the scene      
evidence of life in its ever charming   
variety4 ,the painter cannot reproduce  
these movements and sounds4 ,all he     
represents is silent and still as if    
nature had suddenly suspended her       
work--stayed the tree as it bent to the 
breeze1 stopped the bird in the act of  
flight1 fixed the water1 and fastened   
the shadows to the ground4 ,what is     
there then to compensate the artist for 
this limitation8 ,why1 surely he can    
represent nature as she is at a         
particular moment1 over the hills and   
valleys1 or across great plains1 with   
sunlight and atmosphere to mark the     
breadth and distance and so produce an  
illusion of movement to delight the eyes
 of the observer with bewitching        

surprise4 ,for the eye as it            
involuntarily travels from the          
foreground of the picture to the        
background1 proceeds from sign to sign1 
each decreasing in definition in        
conformity with the changes in nature1  
till vague suggestions of form announce 
that far distance has been reached4 ,the
 effect is precisely that of the        
cinematograph1 except that the eye moves
 instead of the picture4 ,the apparent  
movement corresponds closely with the   
opening of distance in nature when one  
proceeds in a fast moving vehicle along 
a road from which a considerable stretch
 of country may be observed4 ,very      
rarely is the illusion so marked that   
the apparent movement is identified to  
the senses4 ,when it is so marked the   
distance seems to come forward1 but is  
instantaneously stayed before           
consideration can be brought to bear    
upon it4 ,clearly if one specially seek 
the illusion1 it becomes impossible     
because search implies reason and an    

examination slow out of all proportion  
with the rapidity of the sensorial      
effect4 ,accident alone will bring about
 the illusion1 for it can only arise    
when the eye travels at a certain rate  
over the picture1 the minimum of which  
rate is indeterminable4  ,it is evident 
that any landscape of fair size in which
 considerable depth is indicated must   
necessarily produce an illusion of      
opening distance if the varying signs   
are sufficiently numerous and properly  
painted in accordance with the aerial   
perspective2 and this illusion is       
undoubtedly the key to the extraordinary
 beauty observed in the works of the    
great masters of landscape since ,claude
 unveiled the secrets of distance       
painting4 ,that the apparent movement is
 rarely actually defined is immaterial1 
for it must be there and must act upon  
the eye1 producing an involuntary       
sensation which we interpret as pleasure
 arising from admiration of the skill of
 the artist in giving us so good a      

representation of distance in his       
imitation4    ,illustration3 ,,plate #ag
 7,see page xii7   ,arcadian ,landscape1
 by ,claude ,lorraine 7,national        
,gallery1 ,london7  ,as will presently  
be seen there are other kinds of        
illusion of motion which may be produced
 in landscape1 but this illusion of     
opening distance is the most important1 
and it should be produced wherever      
distance is represented4 ,in nature the 
effect of the unfolding of distance is  
caused by a sequence of signs apparently
 diminishing in size and clearness as   
the eye travels back1 and a sequence of 
this kind should be produced by the     
artist in his picture4 ,it is not       
sufficient that patches of colour of the
 tone and shape of sections of          
vegetation1 trees1 varied soils1 and so 
on1 be given1 for while these may       
indicate distance as any perspective    
must do1 yet an illusion cannot be      
produced by such signs because they are 
not sufficiently numerous for the eye to

 experience a cinematographic effect    
when passing over them4 ,it is not      
distance that gives the beauty1 but an  
illusion of opening distance1 without   
which1 and presuming the absence of any 
other illusion1 only simple harmonies of
 tone and inanimate forms are possible4 
,moreover the patches of colour do not  
properly represent nature either as she 
appears to the eye1 or as she is        
understood from experience4 ,if one were
 to take a momentary glance at a view   
specially to receive the general colour 
impression1 he might conceivably retain 
on his mind a collection of colour      
masses such as is often put forward as a
 landscape1 but natural scenes are not  
observed in this way1 and the artist has
 no right to imply that a view should be
 painted as it is observed at an        
instantaneous glance4 ,one cannot be    
supposed to keep his eyes closed1 except
 for a moment1 when in front of nature1 
and he cannot be in front of nature for 
more than a moment without involuntarily

 recognizing thousands of signs4 ,there 
must necessarily be a certain clearness 
of the atmosphere for distance to be    
represented1 and in the minimum         
clearness1 trees1 bushes1 rivulets1 and 
buildings of every kind1 are well       
defined at least to the middle distance4
 ,these can and should be painted1 and  
there can be no object whatever in      
omitting them1 except the ignominious   
end of saving trouble4  ,and it is      
necessary that the signs1 whether shadow
 or substance1 should be completely     
painted as they appear to the eye in    
nature when observed with average care  
by one inspecting a view for the purpose
 of drinking in all its beauties1 for   
this is how a painted landscape is      
usually examined4 ,there is no place in 
the painter's art for a suggestive sign 
in the sense that it may suggest a      
required complete sign4 ,a sign must be 
painted as completely as possible in    
conformity with its appearance as seen  
from the presumed point from which the  

artist sketched his view1 for the reason
 that its value as a sign depends upon  
the readiness with which it is          
understood4#fc ,this is                 
incontrovertible1 otherwise the art of  
painting would be an art of             
hieroglyphics4 ,in poetry suggestion is 
of great importance1 and it may be so   
glowing as to present to the imagination
 a higher form of beauty than can be    
painted2 but the signs of the painter   
cannot suggest beauty in this way1      
because the exercise of the imagination 
in respect of them is limited by their  
form4 ,a sign painted less distinctly   
than as it is seen in nature is         
obviously removed from its proper       
relative position1 or else is untrue1   
and in either case it must have a       
weakening effect upon the picture4  ,the
 successful representation of aerial    
perspective depends upon the careful and
 close gradation of tones in conformity 
with the varying atmospheric density4   
,this is difficult work because of the  

disabilities arising from the reduction 
of the scene into miniature form1 which 
necessitates the omission of many tones 
and effects found in nature1 just as a  
portrait in miniature involves the      
exclusion of various elements of        
expression in the human countenance4    
,but fortunately in landscape the       
variableness of nature greatly assists  
the artist4 ,only rarely is the         
atmosphere of equal density over a      
considerable depth of ground1 and this  
fact enables the painter to simplify his
 work in production of the illusion     
without appearing to depart from nature4
 ,thus he may deepen or contract his    
foreground within wide limits4 ,the     
changes in the appearance of the        
atmosphere in nature have to be greatly 
concentrated in a painting1 and as this 
concentration becomes more difficult as 
distance is reached1 it follows that the
 artist has a better chance of success  
by making the foreground of his picture 
begin some way in front of him1 rather  

than near the spot where he is presumed 
to stand when he executes his work4 ,he 
may of course maintain some very near   
ground while materially shortening his  
middle distance1 but this method must   
obviously lower the beauty of the       
painting as a distance landscape1 and   
make the execution vastly more          
difficult4 ,claude adopted this plan    
sometimes1 but it is seen in very few of
 his important works4 ,in his best time 
,turner was careful to set back his     
foreground1 and to refrain from         
restricting his middle ground4  ,if a   
scene be taken from the middle distance 
only1 as in many ,barbizon works1 the   
labour is much simplified because       
neither the close delineation of        
foliage1 nor any considerable gradation 
of atmosphere is required1 but then the 
beauty resulting from either of these   
two exercises is missing4 ,it is equally
 impossible for such a scene to indicate
 growth and life1 or the charm of a     
changing view4 ,some modern artists have

 a habit of blotting out the middle and 
far distance by the introduction of a   
thick atmosphere but this is an abuse of
 the art1 because however true the      
aspect may be in the sense that a       
natural view is sometimes obscured by   
the atmosphere1 the beauty of the scene 
as a whole is hidden1 and the picture   
consists largely of an imitation of the 
mist1 where an illusion of movement is  
impossible4 ,the painter should imitate 
the more beautiful1 and not the less    
beautiful aspects of nature4 ,jupiter   
has been sometimes painted as an        
incident in a picture1 nearly wholly    
concealed by a cloud1 but to exhibit a  
separate work of the god so concealed1  
would only be regarded as an excuse for 
avoiding exertion1 however well the     
cloud may be painted2 yet this would not
 be more reprehensible than to hide the 
greater part of a view by a dense       
atmosphere4  ,with a clear atmosphere an
 illusion of opening distance may be    
secured with the far distance and the   

greater part of the middle distance     
unobservable1 but in such a case a      
successful design is difficult to       
accomplish owing to the limited number  
of signs available4 ,many signs1 as     
trees and houses1 either darken or hide 
the view1 while sunlight effects on     
unobstructed ground1 sufficiently       
definite to be used as signs1 could not 
be very numerous without appearing      
abnormal4 ,the only really first-class  
method of producing a satisfactory      
near-ground illusion was invented by    
,hobbema in the later years of his life4
 ,this is to use skilfully placed trees 
and other signs through which paths     
wind1 or appear to wind1 and to throw in
 a strong sunlight from the back4a ,the 
light enables far more signs to be used 
in depth than would otherwise be        
possible1 and so the eye has a          
comparatively long track to follow4     
,that the remarkable beauty of the      
pictures of ,hobbema composed in this   
way is almost entirely due to the       

illusion thus created1 is readily seen  
when they are compared with some of his 
other works1 very similar in all        
respects except that the light is thrown
 in from the front or the side4 ,before 
placing his light at the back1 the      
artist tried the side plan in many      
pictures1 and while this was a decided  
improvement upon his earlier efforts to 
secure depth of near-ground signs1 it   
was naturally inferior to the latest    
scheme4 ,jacob ,ruysdael adopted the    
plan of ,hobbema in two or three works  
with great effect4b    a ,see ,plate    
#ah4    b ,for example1 ,the ,marsh1    
,hermitage4  ,when the middle distance  
is hidden by a rising foreground1 an    
illusion may be created by the far      
distance alone if this be of            
considerable depth4 ,since the fifteenth
 century it has been a frequent practice
 to conceal the middle distance1 though 
mostly in pictures of figure            
subjects4#fd ,the ,dutch artists of the 
seventeenth century who painted open-air

 scenes of human and animal life1 as    
,paul ,potter1 ,wouverman1 and ,albert  
,cuyp1 avoided the middle distance      
whenever possible1 but often managed to 
secure a fair illusion4 ,in pure        
landscape the system is less often      
practised1 and never by great artists4  
,the only means available to the painter
 of land views for creating an illusion 
of motion1 apart from that of opening   
distance1 is by the representation of   
flowing water so that a series of       
successive events in the flow1 each     
connected with1 but varying in character
 from1 the preceding one1 can be        
exhibited4 ,thus1 a volume of water from
 a fall proceeds rapidly over a flat    
surface to a ledge1 and thence perhaps  
to another ledge of a different depth1  
from which it passes over or round      
irregular rocks and boulders1 and thence
 over smaller stones or into a stream1  
creating in its passage every kind of   
eddy and current4a ,here is a series of 
progressive natural actions in which the

 progression is regular and continuous1 
while the separate actions cover such   
time and space that they may be readily 
separated by the eye4 ,if1 therefore1   
the whole series be properly            
represented1 an illusion of motion will 
result4#fe ,obviously the canvas must be
 of considerable size1 and the breaks in
 the flow of water as varied in         
character and as numerous as possible4  
,everdingen and ,jacob ,ruysdael seem to
 have been the first artists to         
recognize the significance of this      
progression1 but ,ruysdael far surpassed
 his master in the exhibition of it4 ,he
 examined the problem in all its        
variations1 solved it in a hundred ways1
 and at his death left little for       
succeeding painters to learn regarding  
it4 ,very rarely1 one meets with a      
landscape where the double illusion of  
motion of water and opening distance is 
provided1 and needless to say the effect
 is superb4b    a ,see ,plate #ai4    b 
,for examples see ,s4 ,bough's          

,borrowdale1 and ,thoma's ,view of      
,laufenburg4  ,sea views occupy a       
position by themselves inasmuch as there
 is a fixed horizontal distance for the 
artist4 ,he cannot shorten this depth   
without making his work look abnormal1  
and an effort to increase it by         
presuming that the picture is painted   
from a considerable height above the sea
 level1 is seldom successful because the
 observer of the work finds a difficulty
 in fitting in the novelty with his     
experience4 ,except when depicting      
stormy weather1 or showing a thick      
atmosphere1 the painter of a sea view   
has no trouble in obtaining absolute    
accuracy in his linear perspective1 but 
this is not sufficient1 for if a variety
 of trees1 herbage1 brooks1 and so on1  
requires an illusion of movement1 then  
certainly does a sea view which has     
monotony for its keynote4 ,the motion of
 the waves in fine weather cannot be    
suggested on canvas because it is       
continuous and equal4 ,one wave         

displaces another and so far as the eye 
can reach there is only a succession of 
similar waves4 ,thus the motion appears 
unbroken1 and from the canvas point of  
view the waves must be motionless as the
 sand hillocks of a desert4 ,of course  
in the actual view1 the expanse1 the    
immeasurable stretch of ocean1 is       
impressive and to some extent weird1 but
 nothing of this feeling is induced by a
 painted miniature4 ,with a bright sky  
and clear atmosphere the painter of a   
sea view cannot well obtain an illusion 
of opening distance by means of a       
multiplication of signs as on land1 for 
the introduction of many vessels would  
give the work a formal appearance1 but  
the problem can be satisfactorily solved
 by putting the sun in the sky towards  
the setting1 and using cloud shadows as 
signs4 ,aivasovsky1 one of the greatest 
marine painters of modern times1 was    
very successful with this class of work4
 ,his long shadows thrown at right      
angles to the line of sight1 carry back 

the distance till the horizon seems to  
be further off than experience warrants1
 the illusion being perfect4 ,an        
illusion of opening distance may1       
however1 be easily obtained in a sea    
view when there is a haze covering1 but 
not hiding1 the horizon1 by introducing 
as signs1 two or three vessels1 the     
first in the middle distance4  ,another 
method of giving a suggestion of motion1
 which may be used by the sea painter1  
is in truthfully representing the       
appearance of the water round a vessel  
passing through it4 ,what is probably   
the finest example of this work in      
existence is ,jacob ,ruysdael's ,the    
,rising ,storm4a ,the sea is shown close
 to a port1 and half a dozen smacks and 
small boats are being tossed about by   
choppy1 breaking waves4 ,in the centre  
of the picture is a large smack over the
 weather bow of which a huge foaming    
wave has broken1 and part is spending   
its force on the lee bow1 from which the
 water gradually becomes quieter till at

 the stern of the boat little more than 
a black concavity is seen4 ,the         
progression of wave movement is         
completely represented1 and the effect  
is very impressive4    a ,berlin        
,gallery4 ,see ,plate #bj4  ,the coast  
painter can produce an excellent        
illusion of motion from waves breaking  
on a beach1 for in nature this action is
 made up of a series of different       
consecutive acts each of which is easily
 distinguishable to the eye4 ,the wave  
rises1 bends over its top which becomes 
crested1 and splashes forward on the    
beach1 to be converted into foam which  
races onwards1 breaking up as it goes   
till it reaches the watermark1 then     
rapidly falling back to be met by       
another wave4 ,here is a series of      
consecutive incidents which can all be  
painted so as to deceive for a moment   
with the idea of motion4 ,the attempt to
 represent the action of waves breaking 
against steep rocks is invariably a     
failure1 because of the great reduction 

of the apparent number of incidents     
forming the consecutive series4 ,in     
nature the eye is not quick enough to   
follow the separate events1 and so they 
cannot be distinguished in a painting4  
,thomson's fine picture of ,fast ,castle
 is distinctly marred by a wide         
irregular column of water shown         
splashing up against a rock4 ,there is  
no possibility here of representing a   
series of actions1 and so an instant    
suffices to fix the water on the rock4  
,in another work by the same artist     
there are waves breaking against        
precipitous rocks1 but in this case the 
water first passes over an expanse of   
low lying rocks1 and a sequence of      
actions is shown right up to the cliff1 
an excellent illusion of movement being 
brought about4a    a ,dunluce ,castle1  
which with ,fast ,castle1 is in the     
,kingsborough         ,collection1      
,scotland4  ,apart from those exhibiting
 an illusion of motion of some kind1 the
 only landscapes which have a permanent 

value1 are near-ground scenes in which  
conditions of atmosphere of common      
experience1 as rain or storm are        
faithfully rendered4 ,in these works the
 signs must be numerous and varied in   
character1 for it is only in the        
multiplication of small changes of form 
and tone that the natural effects of a  
particular weather condition can be     
imitated4 ,jacob ,ruysdael and          
,constable were the greatest masters of 
this form of landscape1 ,crome and      
,boecklin closely approaching them1 but 
it is uncommon for a serious worker in  
landscape to attempt a picture where    
distance is not recorded4 ,the best     
paintings of ,constable present an      
illusion of opening distance1 and when  
,jacob ,ruysdael painted near-ground    
only1 it was nearly always a hilly slope
 with water breaking over low rocks4    
,moonlight and twilight scenes are not  
good subjects for the painter of        
landscape1 because1 shown as they must  
be in daylight1 or with artificial      

light1 they become distinctly           
uninteresting after the first impression
 of tonal harmony has passed away1 owing
 to the unconscious revolt of the mind  
against something with an unreal        
appearance4#ff ,this is the chief reason
 why no scene has lived which depended  
for its beauty entirely upon moonlight  
effects4 ,it is about two hundred and   
fifty years since ,van der ,neer died1  
and he still remains practically the    
only moonlight painter known to us whose
 works seem of permanent interest4 ,but 
he did not rely altogether upon         
moonlight effects for his beauty1 for   
the representation of distance is the   
principal feature in all his works4     
,further he commonly makes us acquainted
 with the human life and habitations of 
his time1 and in this way enhances our  
appreciation of his pictures4 ,before   
,van der ,neer1 moonlight scenes were   
very rarely executed1 and only two or   
three of these have remained which are  
worthy of serious consideration4 ,the   

best of them is a view by ,rubens1 where
 the light is comparatively strong1 and 
practically the whole of the beauty     
rests in the opening distance1 which can
 hardly be surpassed in a work of this  
kind4a    a ,landscape by ,moonlight1   
,mond ,collection1 ,london4  ,it is not 
necessary to deal with varieties of pure
 landscape other than those mentioned4  
,they are painted in their myriads1 and 
form pleasant tonal harmonies1 or have  
local interest1 but they do not live4   
,as the foliage in springtime they are  
fresh and welcome to the eye when they  
first appear1 but all too soon they fade
 and disappear from memory like the     
leaves of the autumn4  ,in landscape as 
in all other branches of painting1      
whatever is ephemeral in nature1 or of  
uncommon experience1 should be avoided4 
,rare sun effects and exceptional phases
 of atmosphere should not find their way
 into pictures1 while strokes of        
lightning and rainbows should only be   
present when they are necessitated by   

the design1 and then must be            
subordinated as far as possible4 ,of all
 these things the most strongly to be   
deprecated are strange sunlight effects1
 for they have the double drawback for  
the painter1 of rarity and evanescence  
in nature4 ,a stroke of lightning is not
 out of place where the conditions may  
be presumed to be more or less          
permanent1 as in the celebrated picture 
of ,apelles1 where ,alexander was       
represented in the character of ,jupiter
 casting a thunderbolt1 and forks of    
lightning proceed from his hand2 or     
where the occurrence is essential in the
 composition1 as in ,gilbert's ,slaying 
of ,job's ,sheep4a ,so in ,danby's ,the 
,sixth ,seal ,opened1 the lightning is  
quite appropriate1 for all nature is    
disturbed4 ,in ,martin's ,plague of     
,hail1 and ,the ,destruction of         
,pharaoh1 the first a night scene1 and  
the second a view darkened by dense     
black clouds1 lightning is well used for
 lighting purposes2 and in ,cot's ,the  

,storm1b where the background is dark   
and no sky is visible1 lightning is the 
only means possessed by the artist of   
explaining that the fear expressed by   
the lovers in the foreground1 arises    
from the approaching storm4 ,great      
masters like ,giorgione1c ,rubens1d     
,poussin1e used a stroke of lightning on
 rare occasions1 but took every care    
that it should not be conspicuous1 or   
interfere in any way with the first view
 of the picture4 ,the lightning is      
invariably placed in the far background1
 and no light is apparently reflected   
from it4    a ,the fire of ,god is      
fallen from ,heaven1 and hath burned up 
the         sheep and the servants4 ,job
 #a1 #af4    b ,metropolitan ,museum1   
,n4 ,y4    c ,adrastus and ,hypsipyle1  
,venice4    d ,landscape with ,baucis   
and ,philemon1 ,munich4    e ,jonah cast
 into the sea4    ,illustration3 ,,plate
 #ah 7,see page #bjb7   ,landscape1 by  
,hobbema 7,metropolitan ,museum1 ,n4    
,y47  ,a rainbow in nature has a life of

 appreciable duration1 and so may be    
appropriately used in landscape1 but    
obviously it should be regarded as a    
minor accessory except where it forms a 
necessary feature in the design4a ,the  
great drawback in a prominent rainbow is
 that it forces itself upon the         
attention of the observer to the        
detriment of the picture as a whole1 and
 if it be very conspicuous and crosses  
the middle of the painted view1 as in   
,turner's ,arundel ,castle1 the picture 
appears divided in two parts1 and the   
possibility of an illusion of opening   
distance is destroyed4b ,almost as bad  
is the effect when a rainbow cuts off a 
corner of a picture1 for this suggests  
at first sight an accidental            
interference with the work4c ,of all    
artists ,rubens seemed to know best how 
to use a rainbow4 ,he adopts three      
methods4 ,the first and best is to put  
the bow entirely in the skyd2 the second
 to throw it right into the background  
where part of it is dissolved in the    

viewe2 and the third to indicate the bow
 in one part of the picture1 and        
overshadow it with a strong sunlight    
thrown in from another part4f ,any of   
these forms seems to answer well1 but   
they practically exhaust the            
possibilities in general design4 ,a     
section of a rainbow may be shown with  
one end of it on the ground1 because    
this is observable in natureg2 but to   
cut off the top of the arch as if there 
were no room for it on the canvas is    
obviously bad1 for the two segments left
 appear quite unnatural4h    a ,as in   
,martin's ,i have ,set ,my ,bow in the  
,clouds4    b ,in the ,rivers of        
,england series4    c ,the ,rainbow of  
,millet1 and a similar work of ,thoma4  
d ,harvest ,landscape1 ,munich ,gallery4
    e ,harvest ,landscape1 ,wallace     
,collection1 ,london4    f ,landscape   
with a ,rainbow1 ,hermitage1 ,petrograd4
    g ,rubens's ,shipwreck of ,aeneas1  
,berlin ,gallery4    h ,a4 ,p4 ,van de  
,venne's ,soul ,fishery1 ,amsterdam4    

,the small rainbows sometimes seen at   
waterfalls are occasionally introduced  
into paintings1 but rarely with success 
because they tend to interfere with the 
general view of the scene4 ,such views  
are necessarily near ground1 and so a   
bow must seriously injure the picture   
unless it be placed at the side1 as in  
,innes's fine work of ,niagara ,falls   
7the example of #ahhd74  ,the use of a  
rainbow as a track in classical pictures
 is sometimes effective1 though the     
landscape is largely sacrificed owing to
 the compulsory great width and bright  
appearance of the bow1 which must indeed
 practically absorb the attention of the
 observer4 ,the best known picture of   
this kind is ,schwind's ,rainbow1 which 
shows the beautiful form of ,iris       
wrapped in the sheen of the bow1 and    
descending with great speed1 the idea   
being apparently taken from ,virgil4a   
,to use the top of the rainbow for a    
walking track is bad1 as the mind       
instinctively repels the invention as   

opposed to reason4b    a ,aeneid ,v41   
where ,juno sends ,iris to the ,trojan  
fleet4    b ,thoma's ,progress of the   
gods to ,walhalla4  ,but if fleeting    
natural phenomena become disturbing to  
the observer of a picture1 how much more
 objectionable are the quickly          
disappearing effects of artificial      
devices1 as the lights from explosions4 
,in a battle scene covering a wide area 
of ground1 a small cloud of smoke here  
and there is not out of place1 because  
under natural conditions such a cloud   
lasts for an appreciable time2 but no   
good artist will indicate in his work a 
flash from a gun1 for this would        
immediately become stagy and unreal to  
the observer4 ,nor can fireworks of the 
ordinary kind be properly represented in
 a picture4 ,the beauty of these        
fireworks lies in the appearance out of 
nothing1 as it were1 of brilliant       
showers of coloured lights1 and their   
rapid disappearance1 to be replaced by  
others of different form and character1 

the movement and changes constituting   
important elements in their             
appreciation4 ,but the painter can only 
indicate them by fixed points of light  
which necessarily appear abnormal4      
,stationary points of light can have no 
resemblance whatever to fireworks1 and  
if the title of the picture forces the  
imagination to see in them expiring     
sparks from a rocket1 the impression can
 only last a moment1 and will be        
succeeded by a revolt in the mind       
against so glaring an impossibility as a
 number of permanent sparks4 ,the only  
painted firework display that does not  
appear abnormal is a fountain of fire   
and sparks which may be presumed to last
 for some time1 and therefore would not 
quickly tire the mind4a    a ,see       
examples by ,la ,touche1 notably ,la    
,fete de ,nuit1 ,salon1 #aiad4          
,,chapter ,,xiii  ,,still-,,life        
,its comparative difficulty--,its       
varieties--,its limitations4   ,right   
through the degrees of the art of the   

painter till we reach still-life1 the   
difficulty in producing the art is in   
proportion to the general beauty        
therein1 but in the case of still-life  
the object is much less readily gained  
than in simple landscape which is on a  
higher level in painting4 ,the causes of
 this apparent anomaly appear to be as  
follows3--,firstly in miniature painting
 one does not expect such close         
resemblance to nature as in still-life  
which usually represents things in their
 natural size3 secondly1 in still-life  
the relative position of the parts can  
never be such as to appear novel1       
whereas in landscape their position is  
always more or less unexpected3 thirdly1
 in still-life the colours are          
practically fixed1 for the painter      
cannot depart from the limited variety  
of tints commonly connected with the    
objects indicated1 while in landscape   
the colouring may vary almost           
indefinitely from sun effects without   
appearing to depart from nature4  ,the  

beauty in still-life paintings may arise
 from several causes1 namely1 the       
pleasure experienced from the excellence
 of the imitation2 the harmony of tones2
 the beauty of the things imitated2 the 
association of ideas2 and the pleasure  
derived from the acquisition of         
knowledge4 ,aristotle seemed to think   
this last one of the principal reasons  
for our appreciation of the painter's   
work1 though he agreed that the better  
the imitation1 the greater the pleasure 
to the observer4 ,the argument appears  
to apply particularly to the lower forms
 of life because in nature they are not 
often closely examined4 ,a cauliflower  
for instance may be seen a thousand     
times by one who would not carefully    
note its structure1 but if he see an    
imitation of it painted by a good       
artist1 his astonishment at the         
excellence of the imitation might cause 
him to observe the representation       
closely1 and learn much about the       
vegetable which he did not know before4 

,in this way the information gained     
would add to his pleasure4  ,as in      
landscape1 from the absence of abstract 
qualities from the things represented1  
and since the position of the signs may 
be indefinitely varied without a sense  
of incongruity resulting1 there can be  
no ideal in still-life1 and so the      
painter cannot pass beyond experience   
without achieving the abnormal4  ,the   
painter of still-life has the choice of 
four kinds of imitation1 namely1 the    
representation of products of nature    
which are in themselves beautiful1 as   
roses and fine plumaged birds2 the      
imitation of products of human industry 
which are in themselves beautiful1 as   
sculptured plate or fine porcelain2 the 
representation of natural and manual    
products which in themselves are neither
 beautiful nor displeasing1 but interest
 from association of ideas1 as certain  
fruits1 books1 and musical instruments2 
and the imitation of things which in    
themselves are not pleasing to the      

sight1 as dead game1 kitchen utensils1  
and so on4 ,obviously the artist may    
assort any two or more of these         
varieties in the same picture4 ,he may  
also associate them with life1 but here 
he is met with a grave difficulty which 
goes to the very root of art4 ,if two   
forms1 not being merely accessories1 are
 associated together in a design1 the   
lower form must necessarily be          
subordinated1 otherwise the mind of the 
observer will be disturbed by the       
apparent double objective4 ,a live dog  
or other animal in a still-life         
composition will immediately attract the
 eye of the observer1 drawing off his   
attention from the inanimate objects    
represented1 which will consequently    
thereafter lose much of their interest4 
,the presence of a man is still worse4  
,not only is it natural and inevitable  
that a human being should take          
precedence of whatever is inanimate in a
 work of art1 but in the case of        
still-life1 where he is painted of      

natural size1 he must necessarily       
overshadow everything else in the       
picture4 ,further1 his own              
representation is much injured because  
the surroundings exercise a             
disconcerting influence4 ,even with the 
human figures of such a work executed by
 a painter of the first rank1 they are  
quite uninteresting4a    a ,see         
still-life pictures at the ,hague and   
,vienna ,museums by         ,van ,dyck  
and ,snyders4  ,beautiful products of   
nature such as brilliant flowers and    
butterflies1 cannot be imitated so well 
that the representations appear as      
beautiful as the things themselves1 and 
so are unsuited as entire subjects for  
paintings1 for we are usually well      
acquainted with these things1 and       
consciously or unconsciously recognize  
the inferiority of the imitation4 ,the  
greatest flower painters have therefore 
wisely refrained from introducing into  
their works more than a few fine roses  
or similar blooms4 ,the presence of many

 less beautiful flowers in which the    
imitation is1 or appears to be1 more    
pleasing than the natural forms1        
neutralizes or overcomes the effect of  
the inferior imitation of the more      
beautiful4 ,in fact the extent to which 
natural products which are necessarily  
more beautiful than the imitations1 may 
be used in painting1 except as          
incidentals1 is very limited4 ,they     
cannot appropriately be used at all on  
walls and curtains where they           
continually cross the vision1 for they  
would there quickly tire owing to the   
involuntary dissatisfaction with the    
representation4 ,the ,japanese1 whose   
whole art of painting was for centuries 
concentrated upon light internal        
decoration1 rightly discard from this   
form of art all natural products which  
are necessarily superior to the         
imitations1 and confine their attention 
to those signs which1 while being       
actually more beautiful1 when closely   
seen1 than the imitations1 do not appear

 to be so in nature where they are      
usually observed at some distance from  
the eye4 ,thus1 waterfowl of various    
kinds1 small birds of the hedges1       
storks1 herons1 branches of fruit       
blossoms1 light trees and vegetation1   
are infinitely preferable to the more   
beautiful products for purely decorative
 purposes4 ,a common pigeon with an     
added bright feather1 is better on a    
wall or screen than the most brilliant  
pheasant1 for in the one case the       
representation appears above ordinary   
experience1 and in the other case1 below
 it4  ,the decorative artist then is at 
liberty to enhance the beauty of his    
signs1 but not to take for them things  
which are commonly observed in nature1  
and whose beauty he cannot equal4 ,but  
there should be no wide divergence      
between the natural beauty and the art1 
and nothing which in itself is          
unpleasing is suitable for decoration4  
,it may be introduced in a hanging      
picture1 because here a sense of beauty 

may be derived from the excellence of   
the imitation1 as in the case of a dead 
hare or a basket of vegetables2 but in  
pure decoration the effect is general   
and not particular1 and so the imitation
 yields no beauty apart from that of the
 thing imitated4     ,,chapter ,,xiv    
,,secondary ,,art       ,paintings of   
record--,scenes from the novel and      
written drama--,from      the acted     
drama--,humorous subjects--,allegorical 
works4   ,when the invention of the     
painter is circumscribed by the         
requirements of another art1 whether a  
fine art or not1 then his art ceases to 
be a pure art and becomes an art of     
record1 subordinate to the art by which 
his work is circumscribed4 ,this may be 
termed the ,secondary ,art of painting4 
,the art may be of importance outside   
the purposes of the fine arts1 and in   
certain cases may be productive of good 
pictures1 but only by way of accident3  
hence a work of secondary art never     
engages the attention of a great artist 

unless he be specially called upon to   
execute it4 ,hard and fast lines        
dividing the pure from the secondary art
 cannot be laid down1 as one often      
verges on the other1 but there is a     
general distinction between them which  
is easily comprehensible in the separate
 branches of painting4    ,illustration3
 ,,plate #ai 7,see page #bjd7           
,landscape1 by ,jacob ,ruysdael         
7,national ,gallery1 ,london7           
,secondary art is not produced from     
incidents or characters taken from      
sacred or mythological history1 because 
here the general invention of the       
painter is never circumscribed1 for he  
is able to produce form and expression  
above experience4 ,in profane history   
the art is secondary when the painter   
confines his invention to recorded      
details4 ,thus in a picture of the      
,coronation of ,charlemagne1 the        
composition is entirely invented by the 
artist1 and so the work becomes one of  
pure art2 but the representation of the 

,coronation of ,queen ,victoria1 where  
the artist reproduces the scene as it   
actually occurred1 is secondary art1 for
 he is precluded from the exercise of   
his imagination in the design1 the end  
of art being subordinated to that of    
record or history4 ,such a picture is   
necessarily stiff and formal4 ,where the
 scene represents a number of actions1  
as in a battle design1 the artist is    
unable to record the actual occurrence1 
though he may represent particular      
actions2 consequently he has large scope
 for his imagination1 and may limit his 
representation to those actions which   
together make a fine example of pure    
art4 ,but a battle scene where a        
particular event1 as a meeting of       
generals1 has to be painted1 immediately
 becomes secondary art1 for then the    
surrounding battle events would be      
accessory in their nature4 ,it is       
possible for simple historical works    
painted to order centuries ago to appear
 now as of high art value1 because we   

commonly connect a strict formality with
 old pictures of the kind1 whether      
executed from records or invention4     
,thus ,holbein's ,henry ,,viii4         
presenting a ,charter to the            
,barber-,surgeons no doubt closely      
depicts the actual event1 yet the       
stiffness of the design does not seem   
out of place4a ,nevertheless it is a    
refreshing change from this picture to  
,richard ,,iii4 offered the ,crown by   
,london ,merchants1 which is a          
magnificent modern work of pure         
invention4b    a ,barbers' ,hall1       
,london4    b ,royal ,exchange1 ,london4
  ,a scene from a story of actual life  
is necessarily secondary art1 because   
here the painter imitates what is       
already an imitation1 and cannot ascend 
above experience4 ,he is confined to the
 invention of the novelist1 and is      
therefore subordinate to him4  ,the     
written drama is available for the      
painter as a source for designs only in 
cases of high tragedy1 or mixed plays   

containing strong dramatic events of    
tragic import4 ,seeing that the drama is
 itself an imitative art1 only such     
actions or characters can be used by the
 painter which are above life           
experience1 and it is only in tragedy   
that the dramatist can exalt human      
attributes1 and ennoble the passions    
above this experience4 ,tragedy deals   
directly with the two great contrasting 
human mysteries--life and death4 ,from  
one to the other is the most awful and  
sublime action within human knowledge1  
and consequently the motives and        
sentiments relating to it may be carried
 to the loftiest reach of the           
understanding4 ,an exaggeration of      
ordinary life1 where the combination of 
perfected parts in form and expression  
is not possible1 means only the         
abnormal2 while comedy1 which imitates  
conditions inferior to ordinary life1   
cannot be exaggerated except into       
distortion4 ,high tragedy therefore is  
the only section of the written drama   

that concerns the painter4 ,if he draw  
from any other work of the dramatist he 
only produces secondary art1 as when he 
draws from the novelist4 ,the picture   
may be interesting1 but both interest   
and beauty will be fleeting4  ,while the
 painter may use the written drama in   
certain cases1 he can by no means be    
concerned with the acted drama4 ,it is  
useless to attempt to produce a good    
picture by imitating an imitation       
accomplished by a combined art1 as the  
opera or drama4 ,a painted scene from a 
play as it is acted1 is merely the      
execution of another man's design which 
in itself is entirely circumscribed by  
conditions of action and speech wholly  
foreign to the art of the painter4 ,a   
picture of a particular moment of action
 in a written play1 as it is thrown upon
 the brain in the course of reading1 is 
interesting1 firstly because our        
imagination has wide limits of          
invention1 and we naturally and         
instinctively adopt a harmonious        

rendering of the scene so far as the    
writing will allow2 and secondly for the
 reason that we pass rapidly from       
impression to impression1 and so the    
whole significance of each picture1     
separately and relatively1 is conveyed  
to us4 ,but a painting of an acted scene
 is meaningless1 for it can represent   
only one in a series of a thousand      
moments of action which are all         
connected1 and of which the             
comprehension of any one is dependent   
upon our knowledge of the whole4 ,the   
painter has no scope4 ,he simply copies 
a number of figures in a fixed setting1 
and the result is necessarily inferior  
art to a copy of the poorest original   
picture1 since in this case the artist  
at least copies the direct product of   
the imagination1 while in the other he  
has only before him a series of dummies 
who are imitating the product4 ,the     
sense of unreality arising from such a  
picture must instantly overpower any    
harmony of colour or form that may be   

present4  ,where the portrait of an     
actor is painted in a stage role1 the   
same principle is involved1 though the  
result is not so disastrous4 ,we still  
have the unreal1 but it is painted and  
put forward as a living person4 ,the    
artist moreover has a little imaginative
 scope4 ,he can choose a moment of      
action best suited to his art1 and may  
even vary the character of the action1  
which is not possible where an acted    
scene is depicted4 ,but notwithstanding 
all the relative advantages1 a ,raphael 
could not make a fine picture out of a  
man in character4 ,he may largely       
overcome the disabilities arising from  
the limitation to his invention2 he may 
introduce great effects of light and    
shade2 may ennoble expression and give  
grandeur to form2 but he will never hide
 the sham--never conceal the fact that  
he is representing an imitation of life4
 ,the actor on the stage is one of a    
number of signs used by the dramatist4  
,his identity apart from the sign is    

lost1 or presumed to be lost for the    
time being1 and so he is not a sham2 but
 outside of the stage his use or meaning
 as a sign does not exist4 ,hence the   
representation of this sign as a subject
 of a painting is only a degree less    
incongruous than would be the           
introduction of a painted figure as one 
of the characters of a stage scene4  ,it
 is an indication of the sure public    
instinct in matters of art principles1  
that general opinion has always tacitly 
condemned paintings of stage scenes and 
characters4 ,they have not infrequently 
been produced1 and sometimes artists of 
high rank1 as ,reynolds and ,lawrence1  
have painted portraits of actors in     
stage roles1 but never has one met with 
public appreciation as a work of art4   
,probably in most cases these works were
 executed as mementoes rather than as   
works of art1 for it is scarcely        
possible to conceive a painter of the   
stamp of ,reynolds1 who was so well     
acquainted with first principles1       

putting forward even a portrait of      
,garrick in a stage role1 as a serious  
work1 notwithstanding that he might well
 know that it was a masterpiece in      
respect of execution4  ,humour is not a 
subject for the painter to deal with1   
for a humorous picture cannot be        
comprehended without the assistance of  
another art4 ,further1 comedy is founded
 upon a sense of the ridiculous1 which  
means distortion of form or idea4       
,distortion of form would tend to       
destroy the art if reproduced1 and      
distortion of idea implies events in    
time which are beyond the scope of the  
painter4 ,if any humour were exhibited  
in the representation of a single moment
 of action in a story1 it would quickly 
disappear1 for a permanent joke is      
beyond the range of human understanding4
 ,in poetry and fiction1 humour may be  
appropriately introduced1 because here  
it is of a fugitive character1 and may  
serve as a possible relief of the mind1 
as a discordant note in music2 but in a 

painting1 the moment of humour is fixed1
 and a fixed laugh suggests mental      
disorder4  ,nor is there place in the   
art of the painter for works intending  
to convey satire or irony1 for such     
pictures also mean distortion4 ,moreover
 they are merely substitutes for1 or    
adjuncts to1 the art of writing4 ,the   
object of caricature is to present an   
idea in a more direct and rapid way than
 it can be expressed in writing1 and not
 specially to exhibit beauty1 which is  
the purpose of the painter4 ,hogarth's  
many caricatures are composed of        
superlative signs of writing1 and not of
 any fine art4 ,cartoons 7as the word is
 commonly understood7 are of the nature 
of allegory1 and may afford scope for   
the painter1 but as they necessarily    
refer to more or less fleeting          
conditions of a political or social     
character1 they cannot retain permanent 
interest4  ,allegorical paintings are   
secondary art when they endeavour to    
cover more than a moment of time in a   

single design1 or when the allegory is  
merely a metaphor applying to action4   
,the first variety is rarely seen in    
modern works1 but it was not very       
uncommon from the fifteenth to the      
seventeenth century1 though it was never
 produced by first-class artists1 and   
seldom indeed by those of the second    
rank4 ,quite a number of works of this  
period1 formerly supposed to have an    
allegorical signification1 are now      
properly identified as rarely           
represented mythological legends1 or    
historical incidents which have only    
lately been unearthed1a and we may rest 
assured from internal evidence that many
 others of the same kind will yet be    
newly interpreted4 ,a good design cannot
 be produced from an event in time      
because the figures in a presumed action
 must be shown in repose1b or else the  
action appears incongruous and opposed  
to experience1 as when a goddess is     
overpowered by a personage with the     
appearance of a human being4c ,in both  

cases the figures must seem to be       
falsities4 ,designs of the first kind   
can only be properly represented in a   
sequence of pictures1 each indicating a 
particular action1 as in the ,marie de' 
,medici series of ,rubens2 and those of 
the second by commonly accepted figures 
of sacred or mythological history or    
legend1 as where ,st4 ,michael and the  
,dragon typify ,good overcoming ,evil4  
a ,examples are ,lorenzo ,costa's ,cupid
 ,crowning ,isabella d',este1           
,giorgione's ,adrastus and ,hypsipyle1  
and ,piero di ,cosimo's         ,marsyas
 picture4    b ,religion ,succoured by  
,spain1 the ,prado1 ,madrid4    c       
,lotto's ,triumph of ,chastity1         
,rospigliosi ,gallery1 ,rome4  ,it is   
scarcely necessary to do more than      
barely refer to the use of metaphor by  
the painter when the representation of  
action is involved1 as for instance if  
he should produce a picture of a heaving
 ship in a storm1 to meet the metaphor  
,as a ship is tossed on a rough sea1 so 

has been the course of my life1 though  
this kind of picture has been           
occasionally executed1 the artist       
forgetting that it is not the object    
depicted that is compared1 but the      
action--in the example quoted1 the      
tossing of the ship--which cannot be    
represented on canvas4 ,another form of 
metaphor sometimes used by the painter  
is that where a comparison of ideas is  
represented by physical proportions1 as 
in ,wiertz's ,things of the ,present as 
seen by the ,future1 in which the things
 of the present are indicated by        
liliputian figures on the hand of a     
woman of life size who represents the   
future4 ,needless to say that such      
designs1 of which there are about a     
dozen in existence1 can only suggest    
distortion1 for the smaller figures must
 appear too small1 and the larger ones  
too great2 or if our experience with    
miniature imitations of the human figure
 warrants us in regarding the smaller   
figures as reasonable1 then the larger  

ones must appear as giants of the       
,brobdingnagian order4  ,the only form  
of metaphor which may be used by the    
painter is that wherein a beautiful     
symbol typifies a high abstract quality4
 ,metaphor belongs properly to the arts 
of the poet and novelist who can        
indicate the symbol and things          
symbolized in immediate succession1 so  
that the whole meaning is apparent4 ,the
 painter can only represent the symbol1 
and unless this is beautiful and its    
purport readily comprehended1 his sign  
is merely a hieroglyph--a sign of       
writing4 ,secondary art includes        
symbolic painting when the symbol may   
represent either the symbol itself or   
the thing symbolized1 for such a        
condition involves a confusion of ideas 
which tends to destroy the aesthetic    
effect of the work4 ,the most notable   
painting of this kind is ,holman ,hunt's
 ,the ,scapegoat1 where the design shows
 only a goat in desert country4 ,the    
scapegoat has ceased to be an actuality 

for centuries1 and the only meaning of  
the term as it is now used applies to a 
man3 hence1 with the title the goat     
appears to be a symbol of both a man and
 an animal1 while without the title it  
is merely the image of a goat without   
symbolism4 ,but the conception of an    
animal of any kind as a symbol is       
foreign to the art of the painter whose 
symbol should always be beautiful1      
whatever the nature of the              
representation4     ,,chapter ,,xv      
,,colour   ,in itself colour has no     
virtues which are not governed by       
immutable laws4 ,these are apart from   
the exercise of human faculties1 the    
recognition of colour harmony being     
involuntary and entirely dependent upon 
the condition of the optic nerves4 ,thus
 there can be no meaning in colour apart
 from its application to form1 and the  
extent to which it may be properly used 
in the representation of form is        
necessarily bound by our experience of  
nature4 ,other things being equal1 the  

most perfect painting is that wherein   
there is a just balance between the     
colour and the form1 that is to say1    
where the colour is not so vivid as to  
act upon the sense nerves before the    
general beauty of the work is           
appreciated1 or so feeble or discordant 
that its want of natural truth is       
immediately presented to the mind1 thus 
disturbing the impression of the design4
  ,as with metrical form in poetry1 the 
importance of colour in painting varies 
inversely with the character of the art4
 ,in the highest art1 where ideals are  
dealt with1 colour is of the least      
importance4 ,a composition with ideal   
figures may be produced by drawing only1
 that is to say1 by the use of a single 
tone in outline and shading4 ,the       
addition of colour heightens the beauty 
of a composition of this kind1 not so   
much because of the new sensorial       
harmony acquired1 as for the reason that
 a painting in colours1 corresponding   
better than a colourless drawing with   

our experience of nature1 assists in    
defining the work and so reduces the    
fractional time necessary for the       
recognition of the general beauty of the
 design1 which is a matter of           
importance4 ,the comparatively small    
value of colour in the highest art is   
demonstrated by experience4 ,if we were 
to choose from paintings known to us1   
those which general opinion regards as  
the very greatest works1 we should      
unquestionably name the frescoes of     
,raphael and ,michelangelo at the       
,vatican1 and those of ,correggio at    
,parma4 ,these1 with a few easel        
pictures of ,raphael1 and perhaps a     
dozen other pictures by various masters1
 are the only works of the painter's art
 to which the term sublime may be       
properly applied4 ,as with the great    
epic poems1 they are concerned entirely 
with ideals--with personages far above  
the level of life1 rising to the        
spiritual domain--or with human beings  
as they would be if the highest         

conceptions of our imagination were     
possible of realization4 ,when we recall
 these splendid legacies of genius to   
our minds1 and ponder over the          
apparently limitless range of human     
vision which they evidence1 it is the   
designs that absorb us1 and not the     
colour--the forms and expression1 and   
not the tints by which their definition 
is assisted4 ,we do not usually analyse 
the impression we receive from these    
frescoes and pictures1 but were we to do
 so1 it would be borne in upon our minds
 that while a ,raphael1 a ,michelangelo1
 or a ,correggio1 would be required to  
conceive and execute such stupendous    
designs1 many thousands of unknown      
patient workers could be found to colour
 them efficiently4 ,on the other hand if
 we remove the colour from the greatest 
landscape known to us1 we find that most
 of the beauty of the work has          
disappeared1 and that we have only a    
kind of skeleton left1 for the beauty of
 such a picture rests very largely upon 

the aerial perspective1 which is        
unobtainable without colour4  ,that the 
appreciation of colour is relative to   
the character of the design may be      
observed from common experience4 ,we may
 see the ,sistine ,madonna half a dozen 
times and then be unable to recall the  
colours when bringing the picture to    
mind1 so small an effect have they had  
upon us as compared with that of the    
majesty and general beauty of the       
central figure4 ,so with many of        
,raphael's other pictures4 ,it is a     
common thing for one to call attention  
to the superb colouring of an easel     
picture by ,correggio1 but how rarely   
does an observer notice the colouring of
 his frescoes at ,parma1 which are his  
masterpieces8 ,with some of the         
,venetian artists1 the colouring is     
often so brilliant1 not to say          
startling1 that it seems to overpower   
the observer for a moment1 and necessity
 compels him to accustom himself to the 
tones before considering the design4    

,the colouring of ,titian is not so     
strong1 but it is always forcible2      
nevertheless one seldom hears a comment 
upon the colours in his works1 the      
superior design and general beauty of   
the compositions far outweighing the    
purely sensorial elements therein4      
,titian in fact secured an approximately
 just balance between form and colour1  
while with his great followers the      
colour usually exceeded in strength the 
requirements of the design4 ,in the time
 of ,tintoretto and ,veronese the       
prestige and prosperity of ,venice were 
rapidly declining1 but we have been so  
accustomed to associate with this city  
during the ,renaissance1 a luxurious    
life with something of the character of 
an ,eastern court1 that gorgeous colour 
of any kind does not seem out of place  
as one of its products4 ,but this       
special appropriateness has not the     
effect of elevating the gay coloured    
voluptuous forms of the artists named1  
observable in their classical and       

allegorical works1 to a high level in   
art4 ,we cannot accommodate the forms to
 the ideas of the poets who invented or 
described them1 or to the attributes    
with which they were commonly           
associated2 and the colouring tends to  
bring them closer to earth4 ,while we   
feel bound to admire the colouring1 we  
are equally compelled to regret the     
particular application4#fg  ,speaking   
generally1 when the design is good we   
remember the composition irrespective of
 the colours1 but when the beauty of the
 work depends upon the colour harmony it
 fades from our memory as soon as our   
eyes experience new colour combinations4
 ,the imagination may call up the       
harmony again upon the mind1 but the    
pleasure experienced from this          
reflection must be very feeble indeed   
because the senses are not directly     
affected thereby4 ,it can have no more  
effect than a written description of the
 harmony4    ,illustration3 ,,plate #bj 
7,see page #bjf7   ,the ,storm1 by      

,jacob ,ruysdael 7,berlin ,museum7  ,the
 painter is at liberty to make what use 
he will of colour so long as he provides
 a thing of beauty1 but he must remember
 that the appreciation of colour harmony
 is dependent not only upon the         
condition of the optic nerves of the    
observer1 but also upon his experience  
at the time of observation4 ,as to the  
first consideration little heed need be 
taken1 because rudimentarily the nerve  
structure is equal or nearly so1 in all 
persons1 and while accident at birth may
 provide in some an advanced condition  
which in others is only obtained by     
exercise1 yet in respect of colours1    
experience in complex harmony is gained 
involuntarily in contact with every-day 
nature4 ,hence for the purpose of the   
painter1 all men may be considered alike
 in regard to the recognition of colour 
harmony4 ,but individual experience at  
the time of observation of a painting   
varies largely1#fh a circumstance which 
is not of importance in dealing with    

works of the higher art1 but becomes of 
great significance when considering the 
lower forms4 ,no organ of the body is so
 susceptible to fatigue as the eye1 and 
a painting of the kind known as a colour
 scheme may or may not be pleasing      
according as the tone is a relief or    
otherwise to the sight4 ,sometimes a few
 seconds are sufficient to fatigue the  
eye1 as for instance when it is directed
 towards a vivid maroon hanging1 but let
 a landscape with a grey tone be placed 
on the hanging and considerable pleasure
 will be involuntarily experienced      
through the relief to the optic nerves4 
,remove the picture to a grey wall1 and 
it will instantly lose its charm1 except
 such as it may possess apart from the  
colour4  ,as with particular tones1 so  
with colours generally4 ,people         
habituated to conditions of nature where
 extremes of sun effects are uncommon1  
as in the northern latitudes1 may be    
temporarily pleased with schemes of     
glowing colours on their walls1 because 

these relieve the monotony of daily     
experience1 but they must necessarily   
quickly tire1 as with all exceptional   
conditions of life which are concerned  
with the senses only4 ,how soon one is  
fatigued with bright colours generally  
is obvious to any visitor to a public   
gallery which is crowded with pictures4 
,in an hour or less the fatigue of his  
eyes becomes so extreme that his whole  
nervous system is affected1 and he loses
 energy of both mind and body4 ,but     
brilliant colors used sparingly with    
good designs may be a perpetual source  
of pleasure4 ,place a fine work by      
,rubens or ,paolo ,veronese in a        
living-room and it will attract         
attention every time one enters1 for the
 colouring will always be a change from 
the normal eye experience4 ,one turns to
 the picture involuntarily1 and then the
 design is observed1 and so one passes  
from sensual to intellectual pleasure4  
,this process is repeated day by day1   
and the work never tires4 ,of course it 

is a condition that the design is able  
to hold the attention1 otherwise the    
bright colours would serve little better
 purpose than if they defined a         
geometrical pattern4  ,nowadays quite a 
number of paintings are produced in     
which unusual tones are given to signs  
or shadows1 but these are not to be     
taken seriously by the earnest student4 
,in the sunlight1 amidst certain        
surroundings1 the arm of a woman may    
appear for some moments to have a bluish
 tone1 but the artist would be entirely 
wrong to paint a bluish arm4 ,the       
picture is to be seen under all lights1 
and if the tones be contrary to general 
experience under any of these lights1   
then the work appears to be a falsity1  
for the artist does not1 and cannot1    
reproduce the conditions which together 
bring about the exceptional colours4 ,to
 the normal eye under ordinary          
circumstances1 the arm of a woman is of 
flesh colour1 and the artist is not at  
liberty to vary this tone4 ,he has to   

represent what appears to be true in    
general opinion1 whether it be really   
true or not under certain conditions4   
,the dictum of ,aristotle in regard to  
poetry--that what appears probable1     
though in reality is impossible1 is     
better than what seems improbable but is
 really possible--is equally true in    
painting4 ,in fact it is of more        
importance that this maxim should be    
remembered in painting than in poetry1  
because the signs of the painter are    
permanent4 ,a poet or novelist may refer
 to a passing exceptional sun effect1   
for the impression on the mind of the   
reader would probably be as transient   
as1 or more transient than1 the effect  
itself1 but with the painter the        
transient effect becomes fixed4 ,the    
blue arm is always blue1 and in a very  
short time becomes a disagreeable       
unreality4 ,it may be claimed that the  
objectionable sun effects are not really
 exceptional1 though they are seldom    
noticed2 but for the purpose of art1    

what appears to be exceptional must be  
definitely regarded as so1 and for this 
reason discarded by the artist who      
desires to paint a good picture4        
,generally then1 the value of colour    
lies firstly in its correspondence with 
nature1 for upon this depends its       
harmony and the assistance it lends to  
the recognition of the beauty in the    
whole composition4 ,beyond this it may  
or may not have an ephemeral value      
according to local conditions4 ,in any  
case colour must ever be subordinated to
 design in a picture1 and this is what  
,poussin meant when he said that        
particular attention to colour is an    
obstacle to the art student4     ,,book 
,,ii     ,,illusions ,,in ,,the         
,,painter',s ,,art  ,,introductory      
,the painter is occupied in a perpetual 
struggle to produce an illusion4 ,he    
does not directly aim for this1 but     
except in the very highest art where    
ideals are realized1 the better the     
picture he paints1 the greater the      

illusion4 ,the natural test of the value
 of his work is its correspondence with 
nature1 and the nearer it so            
corresponds1 the more complete the      
illusion4 ,but the whole picture is     
never an illusion 7we leave out of      
consideration those instances where     
artificial devices are used to conceal  
the surroundings of the actual painted  
surface71 for the frame and other       
material evidence inform us of the art4 
,the illusion1 when it exists1 is forced
 upon our minds from moment to moment as
 our eyes travel over the work4 ,it     
occurs to us perhaps that a face lives1 
that the drapery is true to life1 that  
the tones are real1 and so on1 and      
obviously these circumstances cannot    
impress us in this way unless we are    
momentarily deceived4 ,and it is a sign 
of good quality in the work when we are 
so struck4 ,this does not mean that the 
closer the imitation1 the better the    
picture3 on the contrary it is rare to  
find a good work of art produced by an  

exact imitator4 ,the duty of the artist 
is to generalize everything that can be 
generalized without departing from the  
character of the thing represented4     
,true there are degrees of              
generalization which depend on the      
nature of the design1 the size of the   
work1 the accessories1 and other        
matters1 but if a just balance of       
generalization be secured throughout1   
then the imitation is better than a     
closely detailed reproduction1 because a
 work is always involuntarily judged    
from general1 and not from particular1  
experience4 ,a portrait for instance is 
a much better work of art if we can say 
of it ,this is a good portrait of a man1
 than if we are compelled to confine    
ourselves to ,this is a good portrait of
 ,mr4 ,jones1 even if the lineaments of 
the particular countenance are better   
defined in the latter example than in   
the former4 ,the illusion would be      
stronger1 for we are more intimately    
acquainted with a man than with ,mr4    

,jones4 ,and so with accessories4 ,an   
exceptionally fine rose or cabbage is   
never so good in a painting as one of   
these articles which is of an average   
type1 because with this the illusion is 
more certain1 for it is not likely to be
 disturbed with a mental inquiry into   
the unusual article4  ,the painter may  
produce his illusions then without      
sacrificing anything in his art1 and    
with the surety that good paintings     
necessarily result in momentary         
illusions except when form or expression
 above life experience are dealt with4  
,the first and most important illusion  
in the art is that of relief1 for       
without this no other illusion can be   
produced4 ,it is a general condition    
applying to all work on a flat surface4 
,the other illusions that may be        
provided are3 7a7 of opening distance in
 landscape2 7b7 of motion in natural    
actions1 as in flowing water2 7c7 of    
human and animal actions2 7d7 of        
suspension and motion in the air4 ,the  

two first are dealt with under          
,landscape2 the others are now          
considered4     ,,chapter ,i  ,,illusion
 ,,of ,,relief   ,the greatest value in 
the illusion of relief lies in its      
assistance to recognition1 for with the 
forms rounded by shading and separated  
with the appearance of relief which they
 have in nature1 details of the work are
 less likely to complicate the design to
 the eye1 than if the flat surface of   
the canvas be emphasized by the         
avoidance of relief4 ,for the eye has to
 be considered before the mind1 and it  
is of immense importance that the brain 
should have the least possible work to  
do in assisting the eye to interpret a  
thing of art4 ,it would appear then that
 the minimum extent to which relief     
should be given in a painting is that   
point below which the things painted do 
not seem to have their three dimensions 
indicated4 ,beyond this the painter is  
at liberty to proceed as he pleases4    
,some great artists1 notably ,lionardo1 

were inclined to think that it is       
impossible to give too much relief to a 
figure1 and this may be so              
theoretically1 but practically there is 
a line to be drawn because life is      
limited1 and after a certain point is   
reached1 the work of shading for relief 
is so tedious an operation1 that half a 
lifetime would be required to execute a 
picture of three or four figures if the 
artist wished to produce the strongest  
illusion in his power to give4 ,a       
,russian artist of high merit who       
essayed the task1 spent an average time 
of five years in ceaseless toil on each 
figure he completed1 and even then      
frequently remarked that he had not     
given to his figures the full relief he 
desired to exhibit4 ,it is well known   
that ,lionardo gave long and close      
attention to this matter in his         
pictures1 and he produced some          
extraordinary examples of relief1 of    
which the finest is1 perhaps1 the ,litta
 ,madonna1a but one cannot help         

regretting that he did not rest         
satisfied with a lower point of         
excellence in respect of the illusion1  
so that he could spend more time in     
general design4    a ,at the ,hermitage4
 ,see ,plate #ba4  ,apart from the      
relief given by shading in painting1    
there is an important mechanical method 
of improving the illusion1 though this  
can only be occasionally adopted4 ,the  
figures in any well painted picture will
 appear to stand out in high relief if  
we lose sight of the frame and other    
surroundings which distinctly inform us 
that the work is a flat surface4 ,this  
is why a painting invariably seems to   
improve if seen through a tube of such  
diameter that the frame is excluded from
 the vision4 ,advantage of this fact has
 been many times taken in the exhibition
 of single pictures1 when1 by the       
exclusion of the frame1 the concealment 
of the edges of the work by curtain     
arrangements1 and the concentration of  
all the available light upon the canvas1

 such perfect relief has been obtained  
that observers have been sometimes      
unable to distinguish the art from the  
life4 ,it was the effect of the         
surroundings of a picture upon the      
sight1 that led to a practice in design 
resulting in the exclusion of these     
surroundings to some extent when the eye
 is directed towards the centre of the  
work where the principal figure is      
commonly stationed4 ,this practice is to
 avoid accessories as far as possible   
near the figure1 and to provide         
considerable open space above it1 and   
also at the sides when the composition  
allows1 so that the observing eye has   
not of necessity to range close to the  
frame of the picture4 ,in a good design 
of this kind the central figure or      
figures come out in strong relief1 the  
attraction of the work being            
consequently much enhanced4 ,obviously  
the painted figures should be of life   
size1 or nearly so1 for the illusion of 
relief to be strikingly marked1 and the 

conditions necessarily prevent the      
adoption of the scheme in a design of   
many figures4 ,it is most successful    
with a single figure1 and has been      
carried out with two figures1 but never 
with more than two except in a few      
pictures of great size4                 
,illustration3 ,,plate #ba 7,see page   
#bdj7   ,the ,litta ,madonna1 by        
,lionardo da ,vinci 7,hermitage7  ,the  
number of artists who have taken        
advantage of this mechanical device is  
not large1 but it includes some of the  
first masters4 ,the plan may be used in 
both exterior and interior scenes4 ,in  
the former the figures must be thrown   
against the sky1 and it is a distinct   
advantage if there be no trees or other 
objects on either side of the figures1  
which also stand out above the horizon1 
though this is immaterial if the figure 
be set in a confined space1 as an arch1 
or between the columns of a loggia1 and 
the foliage is not seen through this    
space4  ,the most famous pictures where 

the scheme is used in exterior work are 
amongst the finest portraits known to   
us1 namely1 ,lionardo's ,mona ,lisa1 and
 ,raphael's ,maddalena ,doni and ,angelo
 ,doni4a ,in #aejd or thereabouts1      
,lionardo painted a portrait of ,mona   
,lisa sitting in a loggia1 the wall of  
which reached to a third of the height  
of the canvas4b ,on the wall at each    
side of the design is a column divided  
down the centre by the edge of the      
canvas4 ,there is a landscape setting1  
in which the middle distance is hidden  
by rising ground1 and only part of the  
head appears above the horizon4 ,in     
#aeje ,raphael made a study from this   
picture in which he retained the        
columns1 but raised the wall1 and threw 
the whole head of the figure against the
 sky4 ,he used this study for the       
portrait of ,maddalena ,doni1 but in    
this he still further improved the      
design by removing the columns1 and     
extending to the shoulders that part of 
the figure above the horizon1 the line  

of which divides the picture in equal   
halves1 instead of being drawn at two   
thirds of the height as in the first    
,mona ,lisa4 ,when ,lionardo executed   
the ,louvre portrait of this lady1 he   
removed the columns1 but slightly       
reduced the portion of the head seen    
against the sky4 ,raphael's plan1 which 
was also used in the portrait of ,angelo
 ,doni1 is obviously far superior to    
that in the ,mona ,lisa design1 for the 
relief is necessarily better marked4    
,the scheme was not new to ,raphael at  
the time1 except in portraiture1 for it 
is exhibited in three of his very early 
sacred works4c    a ,the first at the   
,louvre1 and the others at the ,pitti   
,palace1         ,florence4    b ,this  
painting1 or one corresponding to it1 is
 in the ,boston         ,museum1 ,u4 ,s4
 ,a4 ,see ,note #ef4    c ,saint        
,sebastian1 at ,bergamo2 ,the ,redeemer 
at ,brescia2 and ,the         ,prophets 
and ,sybils at ,perugia4  ,one of the   
best examples in existence of this      

method of securing relief is            
,tintoretto's ,presentation of the      
,virgin4a ,on the right of the picture  
is a wide flight of stairs1 curving     
round as they ascend4 ,the ,virgin is   
moving up these steps in advance of some
 attendants1 and the curved stairway    
enables all the figures to stand out in 
fine relief against the sky4 ,if well   
managed some considerable space above   
the figures is sufficient for the       
illusion even if the sides are partly   
closed1 as in ,albertinelli's beautiful 
,salutation4b ,where only a small       
portion of the figure can be shown above
 the horizon1 the use of a faint far    
distance helps in the scheme of relief4 
,thus1 in ,marco ,basaiti's ,christ on  
the ,mount of ,olives1c where ,christ   
stands on the top of a rock which hides 
the middle distance1 ,his head only is  
above the horizon1 but the rest of the  
figure is thrown against a faint far    
distance1 the relief being excellent4 ,a
 modification of this plan is observable

 in ,lionardo's ,virgin and ,child with 
,st4 ,anne4d    a ,madonna del ,orto1   
,venice4    b ,uffizi ,gallery1         
,florence4    c ,venice ,academy4    d  
,the ,louvre4  ,so far as the writer has
 been able to ascertain1 the first known
 painting where a crucifix is thrown    
against the sky is by ,antonella da     
,messina4a ,the ,cross is fixed in the  
foreground and extends to the top of the
 picture1 being cut half-way up and just
 below the feet of ,christ by the line  
of the horizon4 ,the relief is very     
fine4 ,this scheme was imitated with    
more or less success but never quite so 
perfectly1 till ,titian produced his    
magnificent ,cross4 ,here the ,crucifix 
is cast against a sombre evening sky1   
with the ,virgin and two imploring      
,saints at the foot4b ,rubens improved  
upon this design with several           
variations4 ,in one he hid the foot of  
the ,cross1 though the tops of buildings
 are seen in the middle distancec2 and  
in another1 which is still finer1 the   

time of the scene is late evening1 and  
dark vague outlines suggest a landscape4
 ,but all these examples are cast into  
the shade by ,van ,dyck's ,antwerp      
picture1 than which there is certainly  
no more impressive painted ,crucifixion 
in existence4 ,in this the foot of the  
,cross is not shown1 nor is there any   
ground to be seen1 and the figure stands
 out against a dark forbidding sky1     
awful1 but sublimely real1 as if set in 
boundless space for all eternity4d    a 
,national ,gallery1 ,london4    b       
,ancona ,gallery4    c ,antwerp ,museum4
    d ,this work was repeated several   
times with variations4 ,see             
,plate #bb4  ,there are many variations 
of the above designs1 particularly among
 the ,works of ,venetian artists1 but   
those quoted may be regarded as typical4
 ,how easy it is to hinder the illusion 
is seen in ,sodoma's ,sacrifice of      
,abraham1a where both figures are set   
against the sky1 but trees behind them  
and at the side destroy the relief1     

though the foliage is by no means thick4
 ,in ,girolami da ,libri's ,madonna and 
,child with ,st4 ,anne1 a pomegranate   
tree interposesb2 and a curtain falls at
 the back of a group by ,bernadino da   
,conti1c the illusion in both cases     
being consequently robbed of its effect4
    a ,pisa ,cathedral4    b ,national  
,gallery1 ,london4    c ,poldo ,pezzoli 
,museum1 ,milan4  ,some of the ,dutch   
artists of the seventeenth century used 
a clear sky for the purpose of enhancing
 the relief of their figures1 but as    
these are usually of a comparatively    
small size1 the result is only partially
 effective4 ,albert ,cuyp and ,philip   
,wouverman painted many pictures with   
men and animals silhouetted above the   
horizon1 and ,paul ,potter executed a   
few of the kind1 but of all ,dutch      
painters1 ,jan ,steen secured the best  
relief with his ,terrace ,scene4a ,in   
more recent times the scheme has seldom 
been adopted for the purpose of relief1 
but a few ,scottish painters practised  

it in the early nineteenth century4     
,simson followed ,cuyp's plan1b and     
,dyce in a sacred piece equalled the    
best of the old masters in his manner of
 producing the illusion4c ,grant also   
painted a fine example4d ,some portrait 
painters of the ,english school of the  
eighteenth century used the scheme in a 
partial way1 but they commonly placed   
clouds behind the figures thrown against
 the sky1 thus disturbing the illusion4 
a ,national ,gallery1 ,london4    b     
,national ,gallery1 ,edinburgh4    c    
,st4 ,john ,leading the ,virgin from the
 ,tomb1 ,national ,gallery of           
,british ,art1 ,london4    d ,the       
,countess of ,chesterfield and ,mrs4    
,anson1 ,gilmour ,collection1           
,scotland4  ,there is only one method of
 using this device for assisting in the 
production of relief in interiors4 ,this
 is to throw the figure against a high  
wall which is undecorated or nearly so4 
,the figure must be some little distance
 in front of the wall1 and it is        

observable that the best effect is      
obtained when the light throughout the  
room is equal1 but in any case the wall 
should not have less light than the     
figure4 ,inasmuch as the figure has to  
be of life size or nearly so1 to produce
 the desired result1 a very large       
picture would be necessary for the      
representation of a standing adult2     
hence the plan is not attempted with a  
life-size figure1 except with a sitting 
adult or a standing child4 ,before this 
scheme was used for the human figure1   
that master of relief1 ,m4 ,a4          
,caravaggio1 adopted it for a simple    
still-life work4a ,a basket of fruit on 
a plain table1 with a high bare wall at 
the back--the canvas now sombre and     
darkened1 like the soul of the artist1  
but still remarkable for the relief3    
this was the first application to       
interiors of a plan which had been used 
in exteriors by some of the greatest    
masters for more than a century4    a   
,ambrogia ,museum1 ,milan4  ,so far as  

can be gathered from existing works1    
thirty or forty years elapsed after the 
picture of ,caravaggio was painted      
before the scheme was brought into use  
for the human figure in interiors4 ,in  
#afcj1 or thereabouts1 ,velasquez       
produced his ,christ at the ,column4a   
,here the wall is not actually high1 but
 ,christ is shown seated on the floor1  
and hence there is ample wall space over
 which the eye may rove4 ,it is possible
 that the adoption of the plan in this  
instance was the result of accident1 but
 the very unusual pose of ,christ hardly
 warrants the suggestion4 ,velasquez    
painted no more pictures of the kind    
till a quarter of a century later1 when 
he produced ,las ,meninas4 ,in this the 
relief is excellent1 but it would have  
been still better without the picture on
 the wall1 and the open door in the     
background1 though the figure seen on   
the steps through the doorway lends     
assistance to the illusion4    a ,the   
,prado1 ,madrid4  ,towards the middle of

 the seventeenth century1 some followers
 of the ,neapolitan school used the plan
 occasionally1 but the best existing    
,italian works of the time where it is  
seen are from the hand of ,evaristo     
,baschenis1 a ,bergamese monk4 ,he was  
an excellent painter of still-life1 and 
produced several pictures1 each with a  
boy or a woman seated in the middle of a
 room near a plain table on which rests 
a dish of fruit or a gathering of       
various articles1 while at the back     
there is a high bare wall4 ,in all of   
these works a fine relief is exhibited1 
though they are now considerably marred 
by darkened shadows4 ,a few years later 
the plan was adopted by some ,dutch     
artists1 and later still in ,france and 
,germany4 ,chardin1 who in more ways    
than one seems to have been a ,french   
,baschenis1 used it in several pictures4
 ,in recent times since the study of    
,velasquez has become a vogue1 many     
artists have successfully followed the  
plan1 and one of the finest examples of 

it in existence--,lydia ,emmet's        
,patriciaa--dates as late as #aiae4    a
 ,exhibition of the ,national           
7,american7 ,association of ,portrait   
,painters1 ,n4 ,y41 #aiae4 ,see ,plate  
#bc4  ,there are several minor          
mechanical ways of enhancing relief1    
most of them providing a setting which  
acts as a kind of inner frame to the    
design1 the object being to reduce the  
effect of the actual frame in disturbing
 the illusion4 ,portrait painters of the
 ,dutch1 ,flemish1 and ,english schools1
 have often placed half length figures  
in painted ovals on canvas rectangles1  
and in the case of ,hals he sometimes   
further improved the illusion by        
extending a hand of the subject over the
 oval4 ,hanneman used this oval in a    
most exceptional way4 ,on a large canvas
 he painted the bust portraits of       
,constantine ,huygens and his six       
children1 each in a separate oval1 the  
father being in the centre4a ,the scheme
 is strangely effective1 for the        

attention of the observer is            
involuntarily confined to one portrait  
at a time4 ,in genre pictures a doorway 
may act as the inner frame1 but this is 
only of material value if the picture be
 of considerable size4 ,the ,dutch      
painters1 notably ,gerard ,dow1 loved to
 paint figures leaning over             
window-sills1 this method usually       
enhancing the relief1 because the eye is
 apt to be confined for a time to the   
window-frame4 ,perhaps the best use of a
 window for the purpose of relief is    
,rembrandt's ,samson ,menacing ,his     
,father-in-law1 where the old man's head
 and hands1 of life size1 are seen      
protruding from a small window4b    a   
,hague ,gallery4    b ,berlin ,gallery4 
,,chapter ,,ii  ,,illusion ,,of ,,motion
       ,with human figures--,with       
animals4   ,from the earliest times     
great sculptors1 in producing a single  
figure in action1 have chosen for the   
representation a moment of rest between 
two steps in the action1 so that the    

character of these steps is instantly   
recognized by the observer1 whose       
imagination unconsciously carries       
through the action4 ,if every part of   
the figure is built up conformably with 
the action1 with due regard to the      
position from which the statue is to be 
seen1 an illusion of motion will follow1
 though this is necessarily so rapid    
that the effect upon the observer is    
indirect3 he translates the impression  
into appreciation of the lifelike       
attitude of the figure4 ,nearly all the 
ancient ,greek sculptured figures known 
to us1 commencing with those of ,myron1 
are characterized by this excellence in 
design1 and so with the best work of the
 ,italian ,renaissance4 ,modern         
sculptors of repute have also           
endeavoured to provide the illusion1    
,rodin in particular holding that it    
should be the aim of every sculptor4#fi 
,the painter is in a different position 
from the sculptor because the latter may
 design his figure with special         

reference to the position it is to      
occupy1 and so he can in a measure      
compel the observer to see it in a      
particular way4 ,thus1 the base of the  
statue may be some height above the     
ground1 in which case the observer must 
necessarily run his eyes up the figure  
from the feet2 or it may be seen first  
in a three-quarter view so that the     
position of the limbs will apparently   
change as the observer moves to the     
front4 ,such accidental circumstances   
may be considered by the sculptor in his
 plan4 ,the painter has no such         
advantage1 for his figure is the same   
from whichever point it is to be seen1  
within reasonable limits2 but he has    
compensation in the use of tones and    
accessories of which the sculptor is    
deprived4 ,that the painter may provide 
an excellent illusion with a single     
figure in action is evidenced by        
,raphael's superb ,st4 ,margaret1 where 
the ,saint is seen stepping over the    
dragon4a ,every part of her body1 and   

every fold of drapery is used in the    
expression of movement1 the effect being
 so perfect that we cannot disassociate 
the figure from the action4#gj    a ,at 
the ,louvre4 ,see ,plate #bg4  ,the     
painters of the first century of the    
,renaissance never properly represented 
a figure in the act of walking1 and     
there are few pictures even of the      
fifteenth century where a serious       
attempt is made to choose the best      
moment in which to exhibit such a       
figure4 ,the first successful essay in  
the task seems to have been in ,the     
,tribute ,money of ,masaccio1a who      
indeed was fifty years ahead of his     
fellows in the faithful representation  
of action4 ,there was a jump of two     
decades or so after ,masaccio to the    
next good figure1 which was that of an  
attendant in ,filipo ,lippi's complex   
tondo at ,florence4b ,this figure must  
have caused considerable surprise at the
 time1 for it was copied into several   
works by subsequent artists1 notably    

,domenico ,ghirlandaio1c and probably   
suggested the fine figure carrying a jar
 of water on her head in ,raphael's     
,fire at the ,borgo4d ,but ,raphael1 who
 mastered every problem in composition1 
solved this one so completely that he   
left nothing for his successors to learn
 respecting it4 ,not only are the limbs 
of his moving figures so perfectly      
arranged that we see only action1 but   
folds of the drapery used on the figures
 are sufficient to indicate preceding   
movements1e and this is so even when the
 figures are stationary1 but the head1  
arms1 or upper part of the body have    
moved4f ,this extraordinary feature of  
,raphael's work will ever form a subject
 of astonishment and admiration4    a   
,santa ,maria del ,carmine1 ,florence4  
b ,madonna and ,child with other scenes 
from her life1 ,uffizi1                 
,florence4    c ,birth of ,st4 ,john    
,baptist1 ,santa ,maria ,novello1       
,florence4    d ,fresco at the ,vatican4
    e ,see ,deliverance of ,st4 ,peter1 

,flight of ,lot and his ,family1 ,moses 
,striking the ,rock1 and others at the  
,vatican4    f ,the ,transfiguration1   
,vatican4    ,illustration3 ,,plate #bb 
7,see page #bdd7   ,christ on the       
,cross1 by ,van ,dyck 7,antwerp ,museum7
  ,the painter has a comparatively easy 
task in presenting an illusion with     
several figures presumed to be moving1  
for he has only to comply with two      
simple conditions4 ,the first is that   
the particular step represented in the  
act of progression of any individual    
should vary from the steps of the       
persons immediately behind or in front  
of him2 and secondly that the actions of
 the different persons be connected with
 each other so far as possible4 ,with   
these conditions reasonably fulfilled1  
illusion of motion necessarily follows4 
,naturally in such a mechanical matter1 
the character of the invention depends  
upon the scale of the design4 ,when the 
moving figures are presumed to be       
comparatively near at hand1 the position

 of the limbs must be entirely          
presented1 or the progression will      
appear broken4 ,the effective illusion  
presented in ,burne-,jones's ,golden    
,staircase is due to his ingenuity in so
 arranging the numerous figures         
descending the winding stairs1 that all 
their feet are visible4 ,in the case of 
a crowd of figures of whom some are     
supposed to be moving and others        
standing still1 the visibility of the   
limbs is of less importance than the    
connection of the various actions4 ,in  
,menzel's ,market in ,verona1a the      
illusion1 which is remarkable1 is       
entirely produced by the skill in which 
innumerable instances of action are made
 dependent upon others4 ,an illusion is 
created in the same way though in a     
lesser degree by ,gustave ,dore in      
several works4b ,when the motion arises 
from the actions of the arms of a number
 of persons1 it suffices if the arms are
 in various positions1 as in ,menzel's  
,iron ,mill1 and ,cavalori's            

,woolworkersc where many men are using  
long tools2 but if the limbs are working
 together1 an illusion is impossible4   
,the beauty of ,guardi's great picture1 
,regatta on the ,grand ,canal1 is much  
diminished by the attitude of the       
gondoliers1 who all hold their poles in 
the same position4    a ,dresden        
,gallery4    b ,see ,samson ,slaying the
 ,philistines4    c ,palazzo ,vecchio1  
,florence4  ,where many persons are     
moving together in the same direction1  
great care has to be exercised in       
presenting the actions conformably with 
the rate at which the movement is       
proceeding1 for upon this of course     
depends the angles of the bended knees1 
and the extent to which some of the feet
 may be carried from the ground4 ,in    
slow natural movements1 as where a      
number of men are dragging a heavy      
burden1 it is rare to find an artist    
wrong in his representationa2 but in the
 case of numerous figures walking       
irregularly1 a true nearground design is

 uncommon1 the painter usually giving   
insufficient action1 with the result    
that his figures present a stagy        
appearance4b ,but a defect of this kind 
is not so serious as where several men1 
not being in marching order1 are moving 
in the same direction with their feet in
 similar positions1 and each with a foot
 off the ground1c for this is only an   
aggravation of a case where the picture 
shows but a single figure walking with  
one foot in the air4    a ,for good     
examples see ,benoit's ,morning of ,july
 #ad1 #aghi1         ,poynter's         
,building the ,treasure ,city1 and      
,colton's ,royal         ,artillery     
,memorial 7sculptured relief74    b     
,dehodencq's ,bohemians ,returning from 
a ,fete1 ,chaumont ,museum4    c ,as in 
,breton's ,cry of ,alarm4  ,an illusion 
of motion may be given to a line of     
figures in the middle distance of a     
landscape by simply winding the road    
along which they passa2 but the angles  
of the turns must be large1 for when    

they are small1 or when there is a      
distinct zigzag1 the illusion is        
destroyed through the lengthy operation 
of the eye in comprehending the whole   
scene4    a ,diaz's ,descent of the     
,bohemians4  ,when many figures are     
moving close together1 even if they be  
marching to the same step1 an illusion  
of movement may be given by the         
representation of a flying figure       
proceeding in the same direction4 ,this 
scheme has been adopted in sculpture    
with high success1 as in the ,shaw      
,memorial at ,boston1a and the          
,marseillaise of ,rude4b ,in painting1  
several horizontal figures may be used1 
but they must be placed irregularly to  
avoid the appearance of formality4 ,some
 modern ,french artists are responsible 
for effective designs indicating the    
arrival of spring by an overhead figure 
flying above young people moving through
 flowery fields4c    a ,by ,a4          
,saint-,gaudens4    b ,arc de ,triomphe1
 ,paris4    c ,see ,aman-,jean's        

decorative panels at the ,sorbonne4  ,a 
suggestion of motion may be obtained by 
exhibiting a number of persons engaged  
in similar actions1 but shown in a      
consecutive series of stages thereof4   
,this plan is admirably worked out by   
,watteau in his ,embarkation for        
,cythera4a ,a line of couples commences 
at the right of the picture1 proceeds   
towards the left1 and then descends a   
slope to the place of embarkation4 ,the 
first couple are sitting and conversing1
 the next are in the act of rising1 and 
the third have just risen and are about 
to follow the other couples already     
walking1 the whole device being most    
effective4 ,a similar kind of illusion  
is caused by ,rubens in his ,diana and  
,nymphs pursued by ,satyrs4b ,on the    
extreme right of the picture some of the
 figures are stationary2 then come a few
 who are struggling1 and finally some   
running nymphs and satyrs1 a perfect    
progression of events being suggested4  
a ,in the ,louvre1 and repeated with    

variations at ,berlin4    b ,the ,prado1
 ,madrid4 ,see ,plate #bg4  ,illusion of
 motion is more easily obtained with    
animals than with human figures1        
providing they are fairly large1 because
 of the greater number of their feet and
 the consequent wider variation between 
the apparent and the real movements4 ,it
 is exceedingly difficult to produce a  
suggestion of motion with a single      
animal represented in a natural         
attitude1 but the painter is only       
concerned with what appears to be       
natural or probable1 and not with what  
is actually so4 ,we have only a general 
idea of the action of a horse in nature 
from what we see1 and consequently in   
design this action must be generalized  
irrespective of natural possibilities4  
,some artists combine parts of different
 actions as exhibited in a series of    
photographs in order to represent a     
moment of action as it is generalized to
 the eye1 but this is only serviceable  
where the presumed action of the animal 

is one of a series of similar events1 as
 in walking or trotting4 ,it would not  
answer in the case of an isolated       
action1 as jumping or rearing1 because  
such actions vary with the circumstances
 surrounding them1 as the height of the 
jump or the cause of the rearing4 ,in   
these events therefore the artist may   
exaggerate to a great extent without    
appearing to present impossible         
movements4 ,in fact nearly all good     
pictures of one or two horses in action 
are strong exaggerations of nature1 but 
this hardly affects their aesthetic     
worth because the action is not         
recognized as abnormal or impossible4   
,the finest painting of horses in action
 known to us1 is ,regnault's ,automedon 
with the ,horses of ,achilles1a where   
the animals exhibit spirit and movement 
far above experience1 but even if we did
 not know that they are presumed to be  
immortal1 we should only regard the     
action as exceptional1 for it does not  
appear to be impossible4    a ,boston   

,museum1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,see ,plate #bh4   
,there is ample scope for the           
presentation of an illusion with a      
number of moving animals4 ,all that is  
necessary is that they should be kept   
fairly well together with their legs in 
various moving attitudes4 ,this illusion
 is perfectly managed by many of the    
,french painters of battle scenes in the
 nineteenth century1 notably ,horace    
,vernet1a ,gros1b ,chartier1c ,morot1d  
and ,meissonier4e ,the action in the    
cavalry charges of ,morot and ,chartier 
is amazingly true to life4 ,even three  
or four animals will suffice for an     
illusion1f but this cannot be provided  
with the smaller animals1 as sheep or   
goats1 because although a series of     
progressive actions may be given to     
those outside animals in a flock whose  
legs are visible to the spectator of the
 picture1 the scale to which they are   
painted is necessarily so small that the
 eye has an entirely insufficient range 
for operating the illusion4 ,where      

several horses are represented as moving
 at considerable speed1 it is necessary 
that some of their feet should touch the
 ground1 otherwise the illusion is      
destroyed1 or else the animal may appear
 to be racing through the air4g ,the    
effect is not so disturbing when all the
 feet of the moving animals are on the  
ground1h or where they are hidden by    
herbage1i or where all the animals are  
on their hind legs1j though in these    
instances an illusion is almost         
impossible4    a ,la ,smalah at         
,versailles4    b ,the ,combat of       
,nazareth4    c ,jena1 #ahjf1 and       
,hanau1 #ahac4    d ,reichsoffen4    e  
#ahad4    f ,rosa ,bonheur's ,ploughing 
in ,nivernois4    g ,fromentin's        
,couriers des ,ooled ,nayls1            
,luxembourg2 ,schreyer's ,the           
,attack1 ,n4 ,y4 ,public ,library2 and  
,gericault's ,epsom1 ,louvre4    h ,a4  
,brown's ,the ,drove4    i ,uhde's      
,cavalry ,soldiers ,going into ,action1 
,muffel ,collection4    j ,snyder's     

,hunt1 ,munich ,gallery4  ,in cases     
where horses and men are crowded        
together1 and are struggling in         
confusion1 it is only necessary in order
 to provide an illusion1 that no action 
should be entirely separated from the   
others4 ,there was a fine example of    
this work in a lost drawing or painting 
of ,titian1 of ,pharaoh's ,host         
,overwhelmed in the ,red ,seaa2 and many
 artists of the ,renaissance produced   
like illusions in pictures of the rape  
of the ,sabines4 ,where the movement is 
spread over a large area1 and the scale 
to which the animals are drawn is       
comparatively small1 the various groups 
engaged must obviously be connected     
together in a series4 ,franz ,adam      
arranges a scheme of this kind in a     
battle scene1 using running soldiers or 
hauled guns as links in the chain4b    a
 ,an engraving on wood by ,a4 ,andreani 
is in existence4    b ,a ,bavarian      
,regiment before ,orleans1 ,munich4  ,an
 illusion of motion is sometimes        

assisted by the title of the picture4 ,a
 remarkable example of this is ,robert's
 ,the ,israelites ,depart4 ,although    
individual action cannot be             
distinguished owing to the scale of the 
design1 yet when one is acquainted with 
the title1 the imagination is           
instinctively set to work1 and the      
enormous crowds packing the wide streets
 seem to be streaming in one direction4 
,obviously for the title to have this   
effect1 the number of signs must be     
overwhelming1 and there must be no      
possibility of interpreting the picture 
in two ways2 that is to say1 accessory  
signs must be used to indicate the      
direction in which the crowd is         
moving4#ga     ,,chapter ,,iii          
,,illusion ,,of ,,suspension ,,and      
,,motion ,,in ,,the ,,air       ,with   
the assistance of drapery--,of          
clouds--,of winged                      
figures--,miscellaneous devices4   ,the 
representation of figures suspended in  
the air1 or moving through it1 has never

 offered much trouble to painters1      
though necessarily involving an apparent
 miracle4 ,the very slightest pretended 
physical assistance suffices for the    
illusion1 and this help is usually      
rendered in the shape of flying drapery1
 winged figures1 clouds1 or artificial  
devices based upon the contact of two or
 more figures4 ,the only difficulty met 
with is in respect of an upward vertical
 movement4 ,here1 wings or clouds can   
scarcely be made to differentiate       
between a rising and a falling movement1
 and flying drapery is of little service
 inasmuch as a rush through the air     
would1 if the feat were actually        
performed1 cause the drapery to cling to
 the figure4 ,the surest remedy for the 
disabilty is to support the figure      
directly by winged figures placed at a  
considerable angle from the vertical1   
but this plan is only rarely adopted by 
great masters because of the consequent 
complications in the design of the      
group4 ,since flying drapery is commonly

 added to the figure presumed to be     
ascending1 and seeing that artists      
almost invariably insist upon giving    
their ascending figures upright         
attitudes1 it is seldom that the        
movement is correctly expressed4        
,usually the figure appears to be held  
immovably in suspension1 but            
occasionally1 owing to the drapery      
arrangement1 a descending movement is   
indicated4a ,without the assistance of  
winged figures1 the illusion of         
ascension can only be given when the    
figure is shown directed upwards at an  
angle of at least fifteen or twenty     
degrees from the vertical4 ,as a rule   
the larger the angle1 the more easy is  
the production of an illusion4 ,with a  
fairly large angle1 and an appropriate  
arrangement of limbs and drapery1 heavy 
figures can be made to appear naturally 
ascending1 as in ,rubens's ,boreas and  
,orithyia1 both voluptuous forms4b    a 
,as in ,murillo's ,ascension of ,christ1
 ,madrid ,academy4    b ,venice         

,academy4  ,only a very few of the first
 artists have been able to give an      
illusion of movement in the air by use  
of drapery alone1 the device adopted by 
,michelangelo in the ,sistine ,chapel   
frescoes being perhaps the most         
effective4 ,he throws behind the moving 
figure of the ,deity a large fold of    
drapery1 which assumes an oval or nearly
 round shape1 the whole acting as a     
concave framework for the ,deity and    
attending ,angels4a ,the success of the 
plan arises of course from the apparent 
resistance to the air offered by a large
 and compact surface4 ,this form with   
more or less marked modifications in the
 concavity was probably used by the     
ancient ,greeks in their paintings1 as a
 nearly similar arrangement is found in 
a sculptured figure which has come down 
to us1 though in this case a running    
movement is indicated4b ,it is also seen
 in some ,pompeian frescoes1 where it is
 applied to figures moving through the  
air and on the ground4c ,raphael adopted

 the device occasionally1d but generally
 varied it with excellent effect by     
flowing out from the waist a large      
scarf-like fold to take a circular form 
above the head and shoulders of the     
figure1e or by causing heavy drapery to 
flow out from the lower part of the     
body4f ,no doubt in the case of         
,raphael1 the extraordinary grace of    
figure1 and the perfect pose of the     
limbs1 assist the illusion4 ,tintoretto 
and other artists of the ,renaissance   
used an oval drapery in a similar way2  
while sometimes the figure is half      
hidden within it1g and ,le ,sueur       
wrapped part of the figure in folds     
before forming the oval4h ,there seems  
to be a simple virtue in any oval form  
connected with figures presumed to be   
suspended in the air4 ,it was quite     
common in the early days of the         
,renaissance for the ,deity or ,virgin  
and ,child to be placed in a regular    
oval framework1 sometimes supported by  
,angels or cherubs1 and the illusion was

 usually successful4i ,rubens by way of 
experiment went a little further in one 
picture1 for he placed the ,virgin and  
,child in an oval picture frame         
supported by cherubs4j ,this however    
does not seem so novel as some of       
,perugino's ovals which are bordered    
with the heads of cherubs4k    a ,see   
,plate #bd4    b ,the ,son of ,niobe1   
,uffizi ,gallery1 ,florence4#gb    c    
,herculanum et ,pompei1 vol4 iv41 by    
,roux ,aine4    d ,ceiling of the ,hall 
of ,heliodorus1 ,vatican4    e ,vatican 
frescoes ,god ,separating ,water and    
,earth1 and ,god ,appearing         to  
,isaac4    f ,the ,creation of the ,sun 
and ,moon4    g ,poussin's ,st4 ,francis
 ,zavier1 ,louvre4    h ,the ,virgin    
appearing to ,st4 ,martin4    i ,see the
 ,assumption of ,orcagna1 and of ,luca  
di ,tome2 ,giunto         ,pisano's     
,christ and the ,virgin2 and ,mainardi's
 ,madonna giving         her ,girdle to 
,st4 ,thomas4    j ,virgin and ,child1  
,chiesa ,nuovo1 ,rome4    k ,ascension  

of ,christ1 ,perugia2 ,assumption1      
,florence ,academy1 and         others4 
,wings are seldom sufficient to suggest 
lightness in the air1 because they can  
scarcely be designed of the size and    
strength which we judge to be           
proportionate to the presumed weight of 
the body1 without making the form appear
 abnormal1 though there are instances in
 which partial success has been achieved
 by using comparatively small figures   
and giving them unusually large wings4a 
,the use of more than a single pair of  
wings is hardly permissible because of  
the apparent anomaly4 ,actually one pair
 is not less incomprehensible from an   
anatomical point of view than several   
pairs1 but custom has driven from our   
minds any suggestion of incongruity in  
respect of the representation of the    
common type of ,angel4 ,naturally when  
skilfully arranged1 the more wings1 the 
stronger the illusion of flight1 and if 
a habit of giving four wings to an      
,angel were engendered1 we should       

perhaps see nothing strange in them4    
,even six wings have been given to      
,angels without making them appear      
ungraceful4b    a ,j4 ,h4 ,witt's ,bless
 the ,lord4    b ,picart's ,the ,burning
 ,coal4  ,when there is no assistance1  
as clouds or flowing drapery1 lent to   
,angels to promote the illusion of      
suspension1 it is necessary to give them
 an attitude which is nearly horizontal4
 ,properly managed1 a pair of           
comparatively small wings may in this   
way appear to support a heavy form4a    
,luini actually adds the weight of the  
body of ,st4 ,catherine to three        
,angels1 flying horizontally1 who carry 
her to the tombb2 an invention1         
strangely enough1 followed by ,kulmbach 
in ,germany at about the same time4c ,in
 both cases the illusion is excellent4  
,some of the early ,flemish and ,german 
masters1 including ,van ,eyckd and      
,holbein1e employed ,angels in scenes   
with the ,virgin to hold suspended      
behind her seat1 large falls of brocaded

 material1 and it is curious to note    
that the ,angels themselves seem to be  
supported by the drapery4 ,in order to  
assist the suggestion of lightness1     
,perugino sometimes arched the lower    
limbs of the ,angels1 adding a narrow   
tape scrollf2 an addition improved upon 
by ,raphael who substituted for the     
scroll a loosened girdle flying out from
 the waist4g    a ,rembrandt's ,the     
,angel quitting ,tobias1 ,louvre4    b  
,the ,brera1 ,milan4    c ,st4 ,mary's1 
,krakan4    d ,virgin and ,child at the 
,fountain1 ,antwerp4    e ,virgin and   
,child1 ,augsburg4    f ,the ,ascension1
 ,borgo ,san ,sepolcro1 ,perugia4    g  
,creation of ,woman1 ,castello ,gallery2
 ,prophets and ,sybils1 ,perugia1       
and others4  ,the most frequently used  
form of support for figures in          
suspension are irregular masses of      
clouds1 upon which the figures sit or   
stand1 and occasionally are partly      
enfolded therein4 ,sometimes the cloud  
bank is more or less shaped for the     

purpose of relief1 or for variety in    
design4 ,thus1 ,raphael makes part of   
the cloud a perfect footrest for the    
,virgin1a and ,palma ,giovane does a    
similar thing for a figure of ,christ1b 
but in this case the illusion is        
hazarded as the seat is not directly    
indicated4 ,ingres produces an excellent
 illusion by making the footrest a small
 separate cloud1c which is a variation  
from the practice of many painters of   
the ,renaissance1 who used a separate   
cloud for each personage in the         
composition1 or even with each foot as  
with ,carlo ,crivelli4d ,in a fresco of 
the ,evangelists at ,florence1 each of  
them sits with his insignia on a        
foliated bank of clouds4e ,perugino in  
using a similar plan sometimes places   
the clouds at the bottom of the picture1
 no part of the earth being seen1 so    
that the illusion is considerably       
enhanced4f ,at other times he shows     
,angels apparently running through the  
air1 with each front foot resting on a  

tiny cloud1 giving the impression that  
it is fastened there4g ,durer extended  
this plan by directly attaching a small 
cloud to each foot1 the effect being    
somewhat whimsical4h ,titian was        
unsuccessful in the use of an isolated  
cloud4i ,in a ,resurrection scene       
,christ stands on a small thin cloud1   
and holds a flag-pole1 the lower end of 
which rests upon the cloud4 ,obviously  
with such a design no suggestion of     
ascent can enter the mind4    a ,foligna
 ,madonna1 ,vatican4    b ,christ in    
,judgment1 ,venice4    c ,the ,oath of  
,louis ,,xiii4    d ,coronation of the  
,virgin1 ,milan4    e ,santa ,maria4 ,by
 an unknown artist of the ,ghirlandaio  
school4    f ,christ's ,rule4    g      
,madonna and ,child with ,penitents1 and
 others4    h ,the ,virgin with a       
,canary1 ,berlin4    i ,urbino ,gallery4
    ,illustration3 ,,plate #bc 7,see    
page #bdg7   ,patricia1 by ,lydia ,emmet
 7,private owner1 ,n4 ,y47  ,some       
artists1 as ,luca ,signorelli1a hide the

 lower part of the figure behind clouds1
 but this method1 while indicating      
suspension1 cannot provide an illusion  
of movement without an assisting device4
 ,thus ,schonherr shows an ,angel so    
concealed in a nearly horizontal        
position with wings fully expanded1 the 
effect being good4b ,when a figure is   
suspended on clouds1 very rarely indeed 
is repose emphasized by placing it in a 
horizontal position1 but ,poussin once  
adopts the plan1c and ,guercino goes so 
far as to represent a reclining ,angel  
resting her head on her hand as if      
suffering from fatigue4d ,perfect repose
 of the ,deity in an upright position on
 clouds is produced by ,gustave ,dore1  
who reduces the size of the earth1 above
 which ,he stands1 to an insignificant  
proportion1 so that the imagination     
sends it moving round below ,him4e    a 
,madonna and ,child in ,glory1 ,arezzo4 
b ,the ,agony in the ,garden4    c ,adam
 and ,eve4    d ,martyrdom of ,st4      
,peter1 ,modena4    e ,creation of the  

,earth4  ,quite a number of artists     
represent the suspended figures standing
 on the backs of cherubs or cupids1     
which in their turn are supported by    
clouds1 as for instance1 ,r4            
,ghirlandaio1a ,liberale di ,verona1b   
and ,francesco da ,cotignola4c ,fra     
,bartolommeo places a single foot of the
 ,deity on a cherub who holds a         
banderole1 the illusion being           
excellent4d ,domenichino adopts a most  
ingenious device in ,st4 ,paul's        
,vision4 ,he shows the ,apostle being   
carried to ,heaven by winged cherubs1   
who appear to find the weight           
considerable1 and to struggle under it4 
,there is little else to induce the     
illusion1 which is complete4e ,a similar
 scheme is successfully managed in      
,prud'hon's ,abduction of ,psyche4      
,tassaert uses a like device1 but in    
addition has a cherub supporting each   
arm of the ,virgin4 ,palma ,vecchio     
makes the ,virgin stand on the          
outstretched wings of a cherub1 but her 

robe blows upwards1 giving her the      
appearance of descending instead of     
ascending4f ,rubens has three           
alternatives in the use of cherubs4 ,the
 figure sits on clouds with feet resting
 on small globes sustained by cherubsg2 
or the cherubs hold the dress and mantle
 of the ,virgin2 or they help to control
 the clouds upon which she sits4h ,in   
some of his pictures of the ,immaculate 
,conception1 ,murillo also uses globes1 
but places the cherubs on them instead  
of under4 ,francia has a picture in     
which cherubs hold up clouds bearing the
 ,virgin1i a device once used by        
,rembrandt4j ,genga shows the ,deity    
kneeling upon the heads of cherubs1 a   
scheme not satisfactory4k ,cherubs were 
used by ,titian to hold up the ,virgin  
and clouds1l while ,velasquez rested the
 robes on clouds1 but used cherubs to   
sustain the ,holy ,mother4m    a ,the   
,madonna giving her ,girdle to ,st4     
,thomas1 ,prato4    b ,the ,magdalene   
and ,saints4    c ,adoration of the     

,shepherds1 ,ravenna ,academy4    d ,the
 ,deity with ,,ss4 ,catherine and       
,magdalene4    e ,assumption of the     
,virgin4    f ,assumption of the        
,virgin1 ,venice4    g ,the ,deity and  
,christ1 ,weimar4    h ,assumption of   
the ,virgin at ,dusseldorf1 ,augsburg1  
,brussels1 and         ,vienna4    i    
,madonna and ,child in ,glory1 ,berlin4 
j ,the ,ascension1 ,munich4    k ,the   
,magdalene and ,saints1 ,milan4    l    
,assumption of the ,virgin1 ,venice4    
m ,coronation of the ,virgin1 ,madrid4  
,the illusion is usually more complete  
when ,angels are used instead of cherubs
 for support1 apparently because they   
may be presumed to have greater         
strength1 and the plan was adopted by   
some of the earlier masters of the      
,renaissance4 ,the simple design of     
,rubens in resting the foot of ,christ  
on the arm of a flying ,angel is quite  
successful4a ,fontana places the ,deity 
on clouds supported by ,angels1b a      
method adopted by ,granacci1 who however

 assists the illusion by adding two     
,angels who are directly supporting the 
figure4c ,peter ,cornelius has the      
,deity with ,his foot on a small globe  
which is held in position by ,angels4d  
,a fine example of their use is shown by
 ,gutherz4 ,two ,angels with large      
outstretched wings are bearing the body 
of a woman to ,heaven4 ,she lies        
recumbent upon a lengthy hammock formed 
by the robes of the ,angels1 the ends of
 the drapery being gathered up by the   
flying cherubs4e ,the illusion is       
perfect4 ,rembrandt also has a beautiful
 design in a ,resurrection scene1 for he
 shows the figure of ,christ as a shade 
whose hands are held by a flying ,angel 
lifting ,him to ,heaven4f ,a few        
artists1 as ,poussing and ,bouguereau1h 
use ,angels to carry the figure with no 
other assisting device1 but if the body 
is recumbent it is necessary that the   
,angels should be in a nearly upright   
position1 otherwise they will appear to 
be moving horizontally4i ,rubens in an  

,ascension uses the strange method of   
placing an ,angel beneath ,christ1 but  
without touching ,him4j ,the drapery    
flies out at the back1 so that without  
some assistance he would appear to be   
descending2 but the ,angel below1 with  
her hands held up1 seems to correct the 
position4 ,guido ,reni carries the      
,virgin up with ,angels who support her 
beneath1 and she seems in fact to be    
standing on their shoulders4k ,in one   
instance ,correggio substitutes a       
smiling boy for an ,angel1 and he holds 
up a cloud on which the ,virgin sits4l  
,there are many works where winged      
figures hold a body in suspension1 most 
of them providing excellent illusions4  
,among the best is ,lux's ,sarpedon1    
where the body of the ,trojan is held up
 for ,jupiter to kiss4m    a ,ascension 
of ,christ1 ,vienna4    b ,vision of the
 ,resurrection4    c ,the ,virgin giving
 her ,girdle to ,st4 ,thomas1 ,uffizi   
,gallery1         ,florence4    d ,let  
there be ,light4    e ,they shall bear  

thee up4    f ,munich ,gallery4    g    
,assumption of the ,virgin1 and ,vision 
of ,st4 ,paul4    h ,assumption of the  
,virgin4    i ,bouguereau's ,une ,ame au
 ,ciel4    j ,the ,academy1 ,venice4    
k ,assumption of the ,virgin1 ,munich4  
l ,madonna and ,child with ,saints1     
,parma4    m ,the ,luxembourg4  ,even a 
simple banderole or scarf suffices to   
indicate movement in the air if well    
arranged4 ,usually a flying cherub holds
 an end of the banderole1 and ,ferri    
shows a wingless putto even1 flying with
 no other assistance4a ,boucher creates 
an illusion by the bold device of       
connecting two cupids with a narrow     
scarf blown out into a semicircleb2 and 
in another instance very narrow tape    
streamers suffice4c    a ,david plans a 
,temple4    b ,birth of ,venus4    c    
,altdorfer's ,nativity at ,berlin4  ,the
 use of thick smoke for suspension      
purposes is nearly always successful1   
because volumes of smoke in nature      
necessarily tend to move upwards2 but   

obviously this scheme can only be       
arranged when an altar is possible4 ,the
 plan is not uncommon in pictures       
relating to ,cain and ,abel1 and the    
,translation of ,enoch4 ,in one of the  
latter subject1 ,hoet makes part of the 
smoke from an altar envelop the         
surrounding ground so as to widen the   
volume1 while ,schnorr achieves the same
 end by curling round the smoke as it   
ascends into the form of a large saucer 
upon which the ,deity sits1a a method   
slightly varied by ,amiconi4b    a      
,god's ,promise to ,abraham4    b ,god  
,appearing to ,moses4  ,where a number  
of figures are connected together in a  
circular form in the air1 the double    
illusion of suspension and motion       
follows naturally1 provided their       
attitudes indicate a circular movement4 
,an excellent example of this is shown  
in a picture by ,botticelli1 where      
,angels dance in the air over the hut of
 the ,nativity4a ,the finest work of the
 kind in existence is probably          

,schwind's ,pleiads1 in which the stars 
are represented by a circle of beautiful
 nude women4b ,extraordinary activity is
 suggested by the perfect arrangement of
 the limbs and light flowing drapery    
used4 ,bouguereau has a work of a       
similar kind1 ,the ,lost ,pleiad1 but   
here the dancers are upright1 and the   
circle is only accessory to the title   
figure4c ,watteau is fairly successful  
in giving an illusion of suspension to  
cupids even with a half circle1 though  
the invention is somewhat formal4d    a 
,national ,gallery1 ,london4    b       
,denner ,collection4 ,see ,plate #be4   
c ,brooklyn ,museum1 ,new ,york4    d   
,the ,berlin example of the ,embarkation
 for ,cythera4  ,some of the devices    
used to bring about an illusion are most
 ingenious4 ,thus in his ,bacchus and   
,ariadne1a ,tintoretto actually applies 
a disability of his art for the purpose4
 ,venus is shown in a horizontal        
position in the air1 placing a crown of 
stars upon the head of ,ariadne4        

,bacchus is standing by1 and the form of
 the goddess floats just at the back of 
him1 the lower side of her hip being on 
a level with the top of his head4       
,seeing that the head is covered with a 
profusion of vine leaves1 it is         
impossible for the artist to indicate1  
or the observer to recognize1 that the  
goddess does not actually touch the head
 of ,bacchus1 and she apparently        
balances herself upon his head while    
crowning ,ariadne1 the artist having    
been careful to place the centre of     
gravity of her figure over the apparent 
point of contact4 ,a similar kind of    
illusion is provided by ,burne-,jones1  
whose ,angel of the ,annunciation is    
upright in midair near the ground1 but  
her feet seem to find support on the    
branches of a shrub4b ,rossetti1 in the 
same subject1 shows the ,angel with his 
feet wrapped in flames1 the weight being
 thus apparently removed4 ,the design   
seems bizarre1 perhaps because of the   
absence of an expression of surprise    

which one would expect to see on the    
countenance of the ,virgin at so        
extraordinary a phenomenon4#gc ,schwind 
also uses a disability of his art for an
 illusion in his ,phantom of the        
,forest4c ,she moves near the ground    
away from the spectator with such       
rapidity that her robe1 a simple        
rectangular piece of drapery1 has opened
 out wide from the front1 and hides her 
figure from the shoulders down1 so that 
from the point of view of the observer  
she may1 or may not1 be touching the    
ground as she moves4    a ,ducal        
,palace1 ,venice4    b ,tate ,gallery1  
,london4    c ,schack ,gallery1 ,munich4
  ,how slight the apparent support need 
be1 is indicated in ,bouguereau's       
,aurora and ,twilight4 ,each figure is  
represented by a nude woman holding a   
light scarf1 the first rapidly1 and the 
second slowly1 skimming the surface of a
 stream of water with soft touches of   
the feet1 and yet there is no anomaly   
that strikes the mind4 ,a still more    

daring device is used by ,battistello1  
though quite successfully4 ,he places   
two wingless putti in the air1 but one  
holds up the other1 and this action     
seems to sustain them both4a ,another   
amazing design is from the hand of ,a4  
,p4 ,roll1 who shows a nude-man in the  
air clutching another1 and apparently   
struggling to pull him down1 yet the    
action seems perfectly natural4b    a   
,adoration of the ,shepherds1 ,san      
,martino1 ,naples4    b ,design for the 
,petit ,palais1 ,paris4          99     
99       99       99       99           
,,notes    ,,note #a4 ,,page #b  ,it is 
usual and proper to distinguish three   
kinds of beauty in painting1 namely1 of 
colour1 of form1 and of expression4 ,but
 form must be defined by tones1 and     
colour without form is meaningless3     
hence in the general consideration of   
the painter's art1 it is convenient to  
place form and colour together as       
representing the sensorial element of   
beauty4 ,nevertheless colour and form   

are not on the same plane in regard to  
sense perception4 ,harmony of colour is 
distinguished involuntarily by nerve    
sensations1 but in the case of harmony  
of form there must be a certain         
consideration before its aesthetic      
determination4 ,the recognition of this 
harmony commonly appears to be          
instantaneous1 but still it is delayed1 
the delay varying with the complexity of
 the signs1 that is to say1 with the    
quality of the beauty4    ,,note #b4    
,,page #b  ,benedetto ,croce1 the       
inventor of the latest serious aesthetic
 system1 talks of the science of art1   
but he saysa3       ,science--true      
science1 is a science of the            
spirit--,philosophy4      ,natural      
sciences spoken of apart from           
philosophy1 are complexes      of       
knowledge1 arbitrarily abstracted and   
fixed4  ,it is perhaps needless to say  
that ,croce's aesthetic system1 like all
 the others1 collapses on a breath of   
inquiry4 ,on the purely philosophical   

side of it1 further criticism is        
unnecessary1 and its practical outcome  
from the point of view of art is not far
 removed from the amazing conclusions of
 ,hegel4 ,from the latter philosopher we
 learn that an idol in the form of a    
stone pillar1 or an animal set up by the
 primitive races1 is higher art than a  
drama by ,shakespeare1 or a portrait by 
,titian1 because it represents the ,idea
 7,hegel's unintelligible               
abstraction--see ,note #e71 while ,croce
 tells us that the art of savages is not
 inferior1 as art1 to that of civilized 
peoples1 provided it be correlated to   
the impressions of the savages4 ,clearly
 if this be so1 we are not surprised to 
learn from ,croce that ,aristotle failed
 to discern the true nature of the      
aesthetic4 ,nevertheless1 whatever be   
the outcome of ,croce's arguments1 his  
system is at least more plausible than  
that of either ,hegel or ,schopenhauer1 
for while these two invent highly       
improbable abstractions upon which to   

base their systems1 ,croce only gives   
new functions to an old and reasonable  
abstraction4    a ,aesthetic1 ,douglas  
,ainslie ,translation1 #aiji4    ,,note 
#c4 ,,page #c  ,the writer does not mean
 to suggest that these systems are set  
up for the purpose of being knocked     
down3 he desires only to indicate       
surprise that in new works dealing with 
the perception of beauty1 it is         
considered necessary to restate the old 
aesthetic theories and to point out     
their drawbacks1 albeit the fatal       
objections to them are so numerous that 
there is always fresh ground available  
for destructive criticism4 ,the best of 
the recent works on the subject that    
have come under the notice of the       
writer1 is ,e4 ,f4 ,carritt's review of 
the present position in respect of      
aesthetic systems4 ,though profound1 he 
is so comprehensive that he leaves      
little or nothing of importance for     
succeeding critics to say till the next 
system is put forward4 ,yet here is his 

conclusiona3       ,if any point can be 
thought to have emerged from the        
foregoing      considerations1 it is    
this3 that in the history of aesthetics 
we      may discover a growing pressure 
of emphasis upon the doctrine that      
all beauty is the expression of what may
 be generally called      emotion1 and  
that all such expression is beautiful4  
,this is all that an acute investigator 
can draw from the sum of the aesthetic  
systems advanced4 ,now what does this   
mean8 ,let us turn to the last page of  
,carritt's book and find the object of  
the search after a satisfactory         
aesthetic system4 ,it is1 he says1 the  
desire to understand goodness and beauty
 and their relations with each other or 
with knowledge1 as well as to practise  
or enjoy them4 ,if we accept beauty as  
the expression of emotion1 how far have 
we progressed towards the indicated     
goal8 ,not a step1 for we have only     
agreed upon a new way of stating an     
obvious condition which applies to the  

animal world as well as to human beings4
 ,beyond this there is nothing--not a   
glimpse of sunshine from all the        
aesthetic systems laid down since the   
time of ,baumgarten4  ,more than twenty 
years ago ,leo ,tolstoy pointed out the 
unintelligible character of these       
systems1 but no further light has been  
thrown upon them4 ,nevertheless         
,tolstoy's own interpretation of the    
significance of beauty cannot possibly  
meet with general approval4 ,he disputes
 that art is directly associated with   
beauty or pleasure1 and finds in fact   
that what we call the beautiful         
representation of nature is not         
necessarily art1 but thatb       ,art is
 a human activity1 consisting in this1  
that one man      consciously1 by means 
of certain external signs1 hands on to  
others      feelings he has lived       
through1 and that other people are      
affected      by these feelings1 and    
also experience them4  ,this definition 
may mean almost anything1 and           

particularly it may imply pure imitation
 which ,tolstoy condemns as outside of  
art4 ,but it certainly does not include 
many forms of what we call art1 the     
author specially condemning for         
instance1 ,romeo and ,juliet1 and       
declaring that while ,faust is          
beautiful1 it cannot produce a really   
artistic impression4 ,the definition    
then seems to represent little more than
 a quibble over terms4 ,tolstoy says    
that the beautiful representation of    
nature is not art1 but something else   
is4 ,very well then1 all we have to do  
is to find a new term for this          
representation of nature1 and the       
position remains as before except that  
the meaning of the term art has been    
changed4    a ,the ,theory of ,beauty1  
#aiad4    b ,what is ,art8 ,aylmer      
,maude ,translation4    ,,note #d4      
,,page #h  ,the evolutionary principle  
has been applied to art by ,herbert     
,spencer and ,j4 ,a4 ,symonds1 but not  
in the sense in which it is used in     

connection with the development of      
living organisms4 ,spencer traces a     
progression from the simple to the      
complex in the application of the arts1 
but not in the arts themselvesa2 and    
,symonds endeavours to prove that each  
separate marked period of art shows a   
progression which is common to all2 that
 is1 from immature variations to a high 
type1 then downwards through a lower    
form represented by romanticism or      
elegance1 to realism1 and from this to  
hybrid forms4b ,spencer's argument is   
suggestive1 but his conclusions have    
been mostly upset by archaeological     
discoveries made since his great book   
was published4 ,the illustrations given 
by ,symonds are highly illuminating1 but
 they are very far from postulating a   
general law of evolution operating in   
the production of art4    a ,first      
,principles4    b ,essay on             
,evolutionary ,principles4              
,illustration3 ,,plate #bd 7,see page   
#bfj7   ,the ,creation of ,adam1 by     

,michelangelo 7,vatican7    ,,note #e4  
,,page #h  ,it seems necessary to       
mention ,hegel's art periods1 though one
 can only do so with a feeling of regret
 that a man who achieved a high         
reputation as a philosopher should have 
entered the province of art only to     
misconstrue its purpose with fantastic  
propositions which have no historical or
 other apparent foundation4 ,he divides 
art history into ,symbolic1 ,classic1   
and ,romantic periods respectively4 ,to 
accomplish this he invents or discovers 
a new abstraction which he calls the    
,idea1 this representing man's          
conception1 not of ,god1 but of ,his    
perfection--,his supreme qualities1 so  
that in one sense the ,idea may be      
called the ,absolute1 in another the    
,spirit1 and in another1 ,truth4 ,these 
terms are in fact interchangeable1 and  
each may be a manifestation of another1 
or of ,god4 ,this ,idea1 he says1 being 
perfect beauty1 is the basic concept of 
art4 ,in archaic times man was unable to

 give expression to this concept1 so he 
represented it by symbols3 hence the    
earliest art was ,symbolic art4 ,in the 
time of the ,greeks man had so advanced 
that he was able to give higher         
expression to the ,idea1 and he embodied
 it in a perfect human form4 ,this is   
the ,classic period1 which ,hegel       
indicates continued till ,christianity  
spread abroad1 when ,classic form1      
though perfect as art1 was found        
insufficient for the now desired still  
higher expression of the ,idea4 ,this   
expression could not be put into stone1 
so other arts than sculpture were used  
for it1 namely1 poetry1 painting1 and   
music1 which are placed together as     
,romantic art4 ,this is as nearly as    
possible a statement of the periods of  
,hegel in short compass4 ,it is         
impossible to interpret logically his   
arguments1 nor is it necessary1 for his 
conclusions when tested in the light of 
experience1 develop into inexplicable   
paradoxes and contradictions which      

border on the ridiculous4 ,needless to  
say1 the acceptance of this division    
means the annihilation of our ideas of  
the meaning of art1 and the condemnation
 to the limbo of forgetfulness of nearly
 all the artists whose memory is        
honoured4  ,the general interpretation  
of the terms ,classic ,art and ,romantic
 ,art widely differs from that of       
,hegel1 and varies with the arts4 ,in   
the literary arts the distinction is    
obvious1 but the terms are used to      
define both periods and classes2 in     
architecture the ,gothic period is      
usually called the ,romantic epoch2 and 
in painting the terms have reference to 
manner1 the more formal manner being    
called ,classic1 and the soft manner1   
,romantic2 though it is commonly        
understood that ,romantic art is        
especially concerned with subjects      
associated with the gentler side of     
life4 ,but there is no general          
agreement4 ,some writers assert that    
,giorgione was the first of the         

romanticists1 others give the palm to   
,watteau1 a third section to ,delacroix1
 and a fourth to the ,barbizon ,school4 
,we must await a clear definition of    
,romantic ,art4    ,,note #f4 ,,page #h 
,it may be reasonably argued that the   
want of development of the plastic arts 
in ,england during the literary revival1
 was largely due to artificial          
restrictions4 ,fine paintings were      
ordered out of the churches by          
,elizabeth1 and many were destroyed2    
while1 following the lead of the court1 
there was little or no encouragement    
offered by the public to artists except 
perhaps in portraiture4 ,flaxman truly  
said of the destruction of works of art 
in this period1 that the check to the   
national art in ,england occurred at a  
time which offered the most essential   
and extraordinary assistance to its     
progress4    ,,note #g4 ,,page #af      
,during the last half century or so1    
various writers of repute1 including    
,ruskin and ,dean ,farrar1 have         

professed to find in the poorer works of
 the ,italian painters of the fourteenth
 century1 and even in paintings of      
,margaritone and others of the previous 
century1 evidence of strong religious   
emotion on the part of the artists4 ,it 
is claimed that their purpose in giving 
simple solemn faces to their ,madonnas  
and ,saints1 was to tell the sacred     
story in all its beauty and simplicity2 
that they possessed a powerful sincerity
 of emotion2 that they delivered the    
burning messages of prophecy with the   
stammering lips of infancy1 and so on4  
,it is proper to say that there is      
nothing to support this view of the     
early painters4 ,we find no trace of any
 suggestions of the kind till the last  
of these artists had been dead for about
 four hundred years1 while their lives1 
so far as we have any record1 lend no   
warranty to the statements4 ,the        
painters of the fourteenth century took 
their art seriously1 but purely as a    
craft1 and it was not uncommon with them

 to combine two or three other crafts   
with that of painting4 ,they designed   
mostly sacred subjects for the simple   
reason that the art patrons of the day  
seldom ordered anything else4 ,in their 
private lives they associated together1 
were generally agreeable companions1 and
 not averse to an occasional escapade4  
,moreover the time in which they lived  
was notable for what we should call     
loose habits1 and indeed from the       
thirteenth century to the end of the    
fifteenth1 religious observances and    
practices were of a more hollow and     
formal character than they have ever    
been since4  ,the position occupied by  
these painters in the progression of art
 from the crude ,byzantine period       
upwards1 corresponds with that of the   
,roman painters of the third and fourth 
centuries in the progression downwards  
to the ,byzantine epoch1 and there is no
 more reason for supposing that the     
,italians were actuated by special      
emotions in their work1 than that the   

,romans were so moved4 ,in both cases   
the character of the work1 as ,reynolds 
put it in referring to the ,italians1   
was the result of want of knowledge4    
,the countenances usually presented by  
both ,roman and ,italian artists have a 
half sad1 half resigned expression1     
because this was the only kind of       
expression that could be given by an    
immature painter whose ideal was        
restricted by the necessity of          
eliminating elements which might        
indicate happiness4 ,giotto1 ,taddeo    
,gaddi1 ,duccio1 and a few more1 were   
exceptions in that their art was        
infinitely superior to the average of   
the century1 but all from ,giotto       
downwards1 laboured as craftsmen only4  
,no doubt they often worked with        
enthusiasm1 and in this way their       
emotions may have been brought into     
play1 but there is no possible means of 
identifying in a picture the emotions   
which an artist may have experienced    
while he was painting it4  ,as to the   

sad expression referred to in these     
,italian works1 it may be observed that 
,edgar ,a4 ,poe held that the tone of   
the highest manifestation of beauty is  
one of sadness4 ,beauty of whatever     
kind1 he says1 in its supreme           
development invariably excites the      
sensitive soul to tears4a ,but ,poe is  
clearly mistaken here4 ,it is not the   
beauty of the work that affects the     
emotions to tears1 when they are so     
affected1 but the subject of the design 
exhibiting the beauty4 ,a picture or    
poem representing a sad subject may be  
very beautiful1 but the sadness itself  
would not assist the beauty1 though it  
might increase the emotional effect4    
,the higher forms of beauty rarely draw 
our tears1 but elicit our admiration    
without direct thought of anything but  
the beauty4  ,who would weep when in    
front of the greatest marvels of ,greek 
sculpture8    a ,the ,philosophy of     
,composition4    ,,note #h4 ,,page #ba  
,it is commonly1 but wrongfully1        

supposed that ,rembrandt used his       
broadest manner in painting commissioned
 portraits4 ,the number of his portraits
 known to exist is about #dej1 of which 
fifty-five are representations of       
himself1 and fifty-four of members of   
his household1 or relatives4 ,there are1
 further1 more than seventy studies of  
old men and women1 and thirty of younger
 men4 ,the balance are commissioned     
portraits or groups4 ,this last section 
includes none at all of his palette     
knife pictures1 and not more than two or
 three which are executed with his      
heaviest brushes4 ,generally his work   
broadened in his later period1 but up to
 the end of his life his more important 
works were often painted in a           
comparatively fine manner1 though the   
handling was less careful and close4a   
,the broadest style of the artist is    
rarely exhibited except in his studies  
and family portraits4 ,further it is    
extremely unlikely that a palette-knife 
picture would have been accepted in     

,holland during ,rembrandt's time as a  
serious work in portraiture4    a ,see  
among works dating after #affj1 ,the    
,syndics of the ,drapers1               
,portrait of a ,young ,man1             
,wachtmeister ,collection2 ,lady with   
a ,dog1 ,colmar ,museum2 and ,portrait  
of a ,young ,man1 late ,beit            
,collection4    ,,note #i4 ,,page #bb   
,darwin pointed out the permanent       
character of the changes in the nerves1 
though he submitted another             
demonstrationa3       ,that some        
physical change is produced in the nerve
 cells or nerves      which are         
habitually used can hardly be doubted1  
for otherwise it      is impossible to  
understand how the tendency to certain  
acquired      movements is inherited4   
a ,the ,expression of the ,emotions in  
,man and ,animals4    ,,note #aj4 ,,page
 #bc  ,reynolds evidently had little    
faith in original genius4 ,addressing   
,royal ,academy students1 he saida3     
,you must have no dependence on your own

 genius4 ,if you have great             
talents1 industry will improve them2 if 
you have but moderate      abilities1   
industry will supply the deficiency4    
,nothing is denied      to well-directed
 labour2 nothing is to be obtained      
without it4444 ,i      will venture to  
assert that assiduity unabated by       
difficulty1 and a      disposition      
eagerly directed to the object of its   
pursuit1 will      produce effects      
similar to those which some call the    
result of      natural powers4  ,on     
another occasion ,reynolds observed of  
,michelangelob3       ,he appears not to
 have had the least conception that his 
art was to      be acquired by any other
 means than great labour2 and yet he of 
all      men that ever lived1 might make
 the greatest pretensions to the        
efficacy of native genius and           
inspiration4  ,gibbon said that         
,reynolds agreed with ,dr4 ,johnson in  
denying all original genius1 any natural
 propensity of the mind to one art or   

science rather than another4c ,hogarth  
also agreed with ,reynolds1 for he      
describes genius as nothing but labour  
and diligence4  ,croce says that genius 
has a quantitative and not a qualitative
 signification1 but he offers no        
demonstration4d ,evidently he is        
mistaken1 for the signification is both 
quantitative and qualitative4 ,it is    
true that what a ,phidias1 or a         
,raphael1 or a ,beethoven puts together 
is a sum of small beauties1 any one of  
which may be equalled by another man1   
but he does more than represent a number
 of beauties1 for he combines these into
 a beautiful whole which is superior in 
quality and cannot be estimated         
quantitatively4 ,we may possibly call   
,darwin a genius because of the large   
number of facts he ascertained1 and the 
correct inferences he drew from them1   
but we particularly apply the term to   
him by reason of the general result of  
all these facts and inferences1 this    
result being qualitative and not        

quantitative4 ,croce probably took his  
dictum from ,schopenhauer1 who1 however1
 represented degrees of quality as      
quantitative1e which is of course       
confusing the issue4    a ,reynolds's   
,second ,discourse4    b ,his ,fifth    
,discourse4    c ,gibbon's ,memoirs of  
my ,life and ,writings4    d ,aesthetic4
    e ,essay on ,genius4    ,,note #aa4 
,,page #cb  ,it is often observed by    
advocates of new forms of art that the  
work of many great artists has been     
variously valued at different           
periods--that leaders of marked         
departures in art now honoured1 were    
frequently more or less ignored in their
 own time1 while other artists who      
acquired a great reputation when living1
 have been properly put into the        
background by succeeding generations4   
,for the first statement no solid ground
 can be shown4 ,in painting1 the artists
 since the ,dark ,age who can be said to
 have led departures of any importance1 
are ,cimabue1 ,giotto1 the ,van ,eycks1 

,masaccio1 ,lionardo1 ,duerer1          
,giorgione1 ,raphael1 ,michelangelo1    
,titian1 ,holbein1 ,claude1 ,rubens1    
,rembrandt1 ,velasquez1 ,watteau1       
,reynolds1 and ,fragonard4 ,all of these
 had their high talents recognized and  
thoroughly appreciated in their         
lifetime4 ,in sculpture the experience  
is the same1 for there is no sculptor   
now honoured whose work was not highly  
valued by his contemporaries4 ,so with  
poetry1 but before the invention of     
printing and in the earlier days of this
 industry1 poetry of any kind was very  
slow in finding its way among the       
people4 ,what might seem nowadays to    
have been inappreciation of certain     
poets was really want of knowledge of   
them4  ,there is more truth in the      
assertion that many artists who had a   
high reputation in their lifetime are   
now more or less disregarded1 though it 
does not follow from this that there has
 been a reversal of opinion on the part 
of the public1 or a variation in the    

acuteness of aesthetic perception4      
,generally we find that these artists   
very properly held the position they    
occupied in their time and country1 and 
if they do not now stand on exalted     
pedestals it is only because we compare 
them with men of other periods and      
places1 which their contemporary        
countrymen did not do1 at least for the 
purpose of establishing their permanent 
position in art4 ,carlo ,maratta for    
instance was celebrated in ,italy as the
 best painter of his country in his     
time1 and even now we must so regard    
him1 but his contemporaries as with     
ourselves did not place him on so high a
 level as his great predecessors of the 
sixteenth century1 and some of the      
seventeenth4 ,a special reason why many 
of the seventeenth century artists of   
,italy have fallen in public esteem may 
be found in the fact that they excelled 
mostly in the production of sensorial   
beauty1 paying little attention to      
intellectual grace1 and the ripening of 

general intelligence as time goes on    
makes us more and more sensitive to     
beauty of mind4    ,,note #ab4 ,,page   
#cd  ,there have been many definitions  
of ,impressionism given1 but they vary  
considerably4 ,professor ,clausen       
describes it as the work of a number of 
artists whose interest is in recording  
effects of light1 seeking to express    
nature only and disregarding old        
conventions4a ,mr4 ,d4 ,s4 ,mac,coll    
says that an impressionist isb       a  
painter who1 out of the completed       
contacts of vision constructs      an   
image moulded upon his own interest in  
the thing seen1 and not      on that of 
any imaginary schoolmaster4  ,this      
definition is insufficient by itself1   
but the writer makes his meaning clearer
 in the same article when he says3      
,impressionism is the art that surveys  
the field1 and determines      which of 
the shapes and tones are of chief       
importance to the      interested eye1  
and expresses these and sacrifices the  

rest4  ,according to ,c4 ,mauclair1 an  
acknowledged authority on impressionism1
 the impressionist holds3       ,light  
becomes the one subject of a picture4   
,the interest of the      objects on    
which it shines is secondary4 ,painting 
thus understood      becomes an art of  
pure optics1 a seeking for harmonies1 a 
species      of natural poem1 entirely  
distinct from expression1 style1        
drawing1      which have formed the main
 endeavour of preceding painting4 ,it is
      almost necessary to invent a new  
word for this special art1 which1       
while remaining throughout pictural1    
approaches music in the same      degree
 as it departs from literature or       
psychology4c  ,what can be said of so   
amazing a declaration8 ,the arts of     
painting and music do not1 and cannot1  
have any connection with each other4    
,they are concerned with different      
senses and different signs1 and by no   
stretch of the imagination can they be  
combined4 ,seeing that musical terms    

when used in respect of painting by     
modern critics are almost invariably    
made to apply to colour harmonies1 we   
may infer that a confusion of thought   
arises in the minds of the writers from 
the similar physical means by which     
colour and sound are conveyed to the    
senses concerned4 ,but this similarity  
has nothing to do with the appreciation 
of art4 ,the aesthetic value of a work  
is determined when it is conveyed to the
 mind1 irrespective of the means by     
which it is so conveyed4  ,according to 
,la ,touche it was ,fantin ,latour who  
invented modern impressionism4          
,braquemond relates that ,la ,touche    
told him the following story4d ,he 7,la 
,touche7 was one day at the ,louvre with
 ,manet1 when they saw ,latour copying  
,paolo ,veronese's ,marriage at ,cana in
 a novel manner1 for instead of blending
 his colours in the usual way1 he laid  
them on in small touches of separate    
tones4 ,the result was an unexpected    
brilliancy 7papillotage imprevu7 which  

amazed but charmed the visitors4        
,nevertheless when ,manet left the      
,louvre with ,la ,touche1 he appeared   
anything but satisfied with what he had 
seen1 and pronounced it humbug4 ,but    
,latour's method evidently sunk into his
 mind1 for a few days later he commenced
 to use it himself4 ,thus1 added ,la    
,touche1 was modern impressionism       
unchained4 ,the date of this visit was  
not given by ,la ,touche1 but #ahgd was 
subsequently suggested4 ,this account   
does not fit in with the statement of   
,mac,coll that when ,monet and ,pissarro
 were in ,london during the siege of    
,paris1 the study of ,turner's pictures 
gave them the suggestion of these broken
 patches of colour4e ,if this be true   
,monet must have antedated ,manet in the
 application of isolated tones4  ,d4 ,s4
 ,eaton asserts that in the ,salon of   
#ahfg1 there was exhibited a picture by 
,monet which was entitled ,impressions1f
 and from this arose the word           
,impressionist2 but ,phythian says that 

the word resulted from ,monet's         
,impression1 soleil levant1 exhibited in
 #ahgd at the ,nadar ,gallery in ,paris 
with other works from ,le ,societe      
,anonyme des ,artistes1 ,peintres1      
,sculpteurs1 et ,graveurs4 ,phythian    
addsg3       ,thus1 unwittingly led by  
one of the exhibitors1 visitors to the  
exhibition came to use the word         
impressioniste1 and within a few        
days a contemptuously unfavourable      
notice of the exhibition      appeared  
in ,le ,charivari under the heading     
,exposition des      ,impressionistes4  
,it was not until the lapse of several  
years that      the name came into      
general use4 ,the painters to whom it   
was applied      disowned it because it 
was used in a depreciatory sense4       
,eventually      however1 unable to find
 a better one1 they adopted it4         
,another origin of ,impressionism is    
given by ,muther4 ,he saysh3       ,the 
name ,impressionists dates from an      
exhibition in ,paris which      was     

given at ,nadar's in #ahga4 ,the        
catalogue contained a great deal        
about impressions--for instance1        
,impression de mon pot au feu1          
,impression d'un chat qui se promene4   
,in his criticism ,claretie      summed 
up the impressions1 and spoke of the    
,salon des      ,impressionistes4  ,but 
the real origin of impressionism must be
 sought earlier than #ahga1 for in #ahfe
 ,manet exhibited his ,olympia in the   
,salon des ,refuses4 ,this picture did  
not represent what was understood as    
impressionism ten years later1 but it   
led the way towards the establishment of
 the innovation1 in that it pretended   
that healthy ideas and noble designs    
were secondary considerations in art4   
,certainly ,manet could not descend     
lower than this wretched picture1 and in
 this sense his subsequent work was a   
distinct advance4    a ,royal ,academy  
,lectures4    b ,article on             
,impressionism1 ,encyclopaedia          
,britannica1 #aath         ,edition4    

c ,l',impressionism1 son histoire1 son  
esthetique1 ses maitres4    d ,le       
,journal des ,arts1 #aiji4    e ,article
 on ,impressionism1 ,encyclopaedia      
,britannica1 #aath         edition4    f
 ,handbook of ,modern ,french ,painting4
    g ,fifty ,years of ,modern          
,painting4    h ,history of ,modern     
,painting1 vol4 iii4    ,,note #ac4     
,,page #ce  ,the reason given by        
impressionists for the juxtaposition of 
pure colours is that the natural blend  
produced is more brilliant than the tone
 from the mixed colours applied1 but it 
is pointed out by ,moreau-,vauthier that
 the contrary is the case4 ,he saysa3   
,we find in practice that the parent    
colours do not1 with material           
colours1 produce the theoretical        
binaries4 ,we get dark1 dull            
greens1 oranges1 and violets1 that clash
 with the parent colours4      ,to make 
them harmonize we should be obliged to  
dim these material      colours1 to     
transform them1 and consequently to lose

 them partly4    a ,the ,technique of   
,painting1 #aiab4    ,,note #ad4 ,,page 
#cg  ,cezanne and ,van ,gogh are not    
usually put forward as representative   
impressionists1 but it is impossible to 
differentiate logically between the     
various isms of which impressionism is  
the mother1 and to attempt a serious    
argument upon them would be apt to      
reflect upon the common sense of the    
reader4 ,the sincere impressionist      
certainly produces a thing of beauty1   
however ephemeral and lacking in high   
character the beauty may be1 but most of
 the productions of the other isms only 
serve the purpose of degrading the      
artist and the art4    ,,note #ae4      
,,page #dj  ,this form of picture is by 
no means new1 though except among the   
inventors of sprezzatura1 and the modern
 impressionists1 it has always been     
executed as a rough sketch for the      
purpose of settling harmonies for       
serious work4 ,lomazzo relates that     
,aurelio1 son of ,bernadino ,luini1     

while visiting ,titian1 asked him how he
 managed to make his landscape tones    
harmonize so well4 ,for reply the great 
master showed ,aurelio a large sketch1  
the character of which could not be     
distinguished when it was closely       
inspected1 but on the observer stepping 
back1 a landscape appeared as if it had 
suddenly been lit up by a ray of the    
sun4a ,from ,luini's surprise1 and      
inasmuch as we have no record of similar
 work before his time1 it is reasonable 
to suppose that ,titian was the first   
great artist to use this form of sketch 
for experimental purposes4    a         
,trattato dell' ,arte de la ,pittura4   
,illustration3 ,,plate #be 7,see page   
#bfi7   ,the ,pleiads1 by ,m4 ,schwind  
,,note #af4 ,,page #dj  ,the example of 
this picture at the ,pitti ,palace is   
specially noted because it seems        
impossible that the duplicate in the    
,uffizi ,gallery can be by ,raphael1 for
 it has obvious defects1 some of which  
have many times been pointed out4 ,the  

expression is vastly inferior to that in
 the ,pitti portrait1 for instead of a  
calm1 noble1 benign countenance1 we have
 a half-worried senile face which is    
anything but pleasant4 ,raphael was the 
last man to execute a portrait of a     
,pope without generalizing high         
character in the features4 ,it will be  
observed also that in the ,uffizi       
portrait1 the left hand is stiff and    
cramped1 and the drapery ungracefully   
flowing1 while both uprights of the     
chair are actually out of drawing4      
,there are other examples of the same   
picture in different museums1 but the   
,pitti work is far above these in every 
respect1 and seems the only one which   
can be properly attributed to the       
master4 ,passavant affirms that some of 
the repetitions of the work were        
certainly made in the studio of ,raphael
 under his orders1 and thinks that the  
duplicates passed for originals even in 
his time4a    a ,raphael d',urbin1 vol4 
ii4    ,,note #ag4 ,,page #da  ,to the  

knowledge of the writer1 the only       
logical connection between the work of  
,rembrandt and impressionism that has   
been suggested1 is from the pen of      
,professor ,baldwin ,brown1 who         
remarksa3       ,rembrandt in his later 
work attended to the pictorial effect   
alone1      and practically annulled the
 objects by reducing them to pure tone  
and colour4 ,things are not there at    
all1 but only the semblance1 or         
effect1 or impression of things4        
,breadth is in this way combined        
with the most delicate variety1 and a   
new form of painting1 now      called   
impressionism has come into being4  ,the
 professor is mistaken here4 ,during the
 last fifteen years of his life1 apart  
from portraits1 a few studies of heads1 
and some colour experiments with        
carcases of meat1 ,rembrandt executed1  
so far as is known1 about three dozen   
pictures1 and in all of these he        
effectually prevents us from forming a  
general impression of the designs before

 considering the more important details1
 by concentrating nearly all the        
available light upon the countenances of
 the principal personages represented2  
while in the management of the features1
 the whole purpose of the chiaroscuro is
 for the purpose of obtaining relief4   
,moreover the pictures are nearly all   
groups of personages in set subjects1   
and there would be no meaning in the    
designs if the objects were practically 
annulled1 for particular action and     
expression are necessary for their      
comprehension4  ,as to ,velasquez there 
is no evidence tending to support the   
statement that he was an impressionist4 
,the first authority on the artist has  
definitely pointed out that he never    
took up his brushes except for an       
important and definite work3 he neither 
painted impressions nor daubs4b    a    
,article on ,painting1 ,encyclopaedia   
,britannica1 #aath edition4    b        
,velasquez1 by ,de ,beruete1 #aijb4     
,,note #ah4 ,,page #di  ,it will always 

be a matter of surprise that so much    
popularity was secured by the light     
sketches of the ,barbizon ,school1      
considering their general insignificance
 from the point of view of art1 and the 
conspicuously artificial means adopted  
for their exploitation4 ,some of the    
artists of this school1 having          
accomplished many studio works of merit1
 acquired the habit of painting in the  
open air4 ,by this method it is         
impossible to execute a comprehensive   
natural scene1 and the painters did not 
attempt the task1 but they produced     
numberless sketchy works of local scenes
 under particular atmospheric           
conditions4 ,they laboured honestly and 
conscientiously1 and their sketches were
 put out for what they were and nothing 
more4 ,the paintings would probably have
 retained their place as simple studies 
had not some commercial genius conceived
 the idea of putting them into heavy1   
gorgeous1 gilt frames4 ,with this       
embellishment they were successfully    

scattered round the world1 mostly in the
 newer portions1 much to the general    
astonishment4 ,the raison d'etre of the 
frames puzzled many persons1 though it  
was frequently observed that the        
pictures do not look well unless        
surrounded by ample gold leaf4 ,thus1   
,c4 ,j4 ,holmes1 ,director of the       
,london ,national ,gallery1 and an      
authority on impressionism1 notesa3     
,barbizon pictures are almost invariably
 set in frames with an      undeniably  
vulgar look4 ,yet in such a rectangle of
 gilded      contortion a ,corot or a   
,daubigny shows to perfection3 place it 
in a      frame of more reticent design1
 and it becomes in a moment flat1       
empty1 and tame4  ,the purpose of this  
frame is obvious4 ,the eye is caught by 
the dazzling glitter1 and feels         
immediate relief when it rests upon the 
quiet grey tone of the painting1 the    
pleasurable sensation resulting         
therefrom being mistaken for involuntary
 appreciation of the beauty of the work4

  ,as finished paintings these ,barbizon
 sketches are novel1 but as studies they
 are not1 for similar work has been     
executed for two or three centuries1 and
 particularly by the ,dutch artists of  
the seventeenth century4 ,in every      
considerable collection of drawings such
 sketches may be found1 and there is    
scarcely a ,barbizon painter whose work 
was not anticipated by a ,dutch master4 
,one has only to examine the drawings in
 the public art institutions of ,europe 
by ,de ,molyn1 ,blyhooft1 ,jan de       
,bischop1 ,lambert ,doomer1 ,berghem1   
,avercamp1 and others1 to find examples 
which1 if executed now1 might easily be 
taken for works by the ,barbizon        
masters4    a ,notes on the ,science of 
,picture-,making4    ,,note #ai4 ,,page 
#eb  ,in recent times attempts have been
 made to upset the dictum of ,aristotle 
as to the imitative character of the    
arts generally1 exception being taken in
 respect of music and architecture4 ,the
 first objection as to music arose with 

,schopenhauer1 though he does not appear
 to have been quite certain of his      
position4 ,he stated that while the     
other arts represent ideas1 music does  
not1 but being an art it must represent 
something1 and he suggested that this   
something is the ,will1 the term being  
used in the ,schopenhauer philosophical 
sense1 that is to say1 implying the     
active principle of the universe1 not   
being ,god4 ,this means nothing at all  
from the point of view of art1 and      
cannot even be seriously considered4    
,the most notable essay on the subject  
since ,schopenhauer is from the pen of  
,sidney ,colvin who places music and    
architecture in a non-imitative group by
 themselves1 the former on the principal
 ground that it is like nothing else2 it
 is no representation or similitude of  
anything whatever2 while architecture1  
he says1 appeals to our faculties for   
taking pleasure in non-imitative        
combinations of stationary masses4a ,but
 what ,aristotle meant is that the arts 

are imitative in character1 and not that
 they necessarily attempt to produce    
works of similitude with nature1 this   
being evident from the fact that he     
pointed out that the higher works of art
 surpass nature1 and he divided poetry  
and painting into three sections1 of    
which the first is better than life1 and
 the third inferior to it4  ,the        
musician in producing his art proceeds  
in precisely the same way as the poet or
 painter4 ,he takes natural signs and   
rearranges them in a new order1         
producing a combination which is not to 
be found complete in nature1 but every  
sign therein is natural and must        
necessarily be so4 ,the higher the      
flight of the poet1 or musician1 or     
painter1 or sculptor1 the farther is the
 result from nature1 but nevertheless   
the whole aim of the musician1 as of the
 poet1 is to represent emotional effects
 or natural phenomena beyond experience 
in life1 as the great sculptor          
represents form and expression1 and the 

great poet besides these things1 every  
abstract quality1 passion1 and emotional
 effect1 above this experience2 but he  
cannot do more2 he cannot represent     
something outside of nature1 and so must
 imitate1 that is1 in the sense of      
representation4  ,darwin notes that even
 a perfect musical scale can be found in
 nature4 ,he saysb3       ,it is a      
remarkable fact that an ape1 a species  
of the gibbon      family1 produces an  
exact octave of musical sounds1         
ascending and      descending the scale 
by half tones4 ,from this fact1 and from
 the      analogy of other animals1 ,i  
have been led to infer that the         
progenitors of man probably uttered     
musical tones1 and that                 
consequently1 when the voice is used    
under any strong emotion1 it      tends 
to assume1 through the principle of     
association1 a musical      character4  
,it has been further demonstrated that  
the strength of the sensory impressions 
from certain sounds is due to the       

structure of the ear1 and that generally
 a particular kind of sound produces a  
similar kind of emotional effect in     
animals as in man4 ,obviously the       
musician is powerless to do more than   
widen or deepen this effect4 ,colvin    
admits that the musician sometimes      
directly imitates1 as when he produces  
the notes of birds or the sounds of     
natural forces1 or when he represents   
particular emotions2 but he regards the 
former instances as hazardous and       
exceptional1 and indicates that a       
particular emotional harmony may affect 
the hearers differently4 ,true1 but the 
hazard of the first condition is the    
result of the limitations of the artist1
 and the second condition is the        
consequence of the limitations of the   
art4 ,the effect of music being purely  
sensorial must vary with the emotional  
conditions surrounding the hearer4 ,the 
musician does what he can1 but he is    
unable to go so far as the poet and     
produce an emotional effect which will  

with certainty be recognized by every   
person affected1 at all times1 as having
 the same particular bearing4  ,taine   
separates music 7properly so called as  
distinguished from dramatic music7 and  
architecture from the imitative arts1 as
 they combine mathematical relationships
 so as to create works that do not      
correspond with real objects4c          
,obviously the whole purpose of dramatic
 music is to imitate the effects of the 
passions1 but its necessary inclusion   
amongst the imitative arts upsets the   
dictum of ,taine1 for the emotional     
effects of one kind of music only differ
 from those of another kind when they   
differ at all1 in the character of the  
natural emotional effects represented4  
,in the case of the architect1 seeing   
that his art is subordinated to utility1
 his scheme1 his measurements1 and the  
character of his materials1 are largely 
or almost entirely governed by          
conditions outside of his art1 and      
consequently it is only possible for him

 to represent nature to a limited       
extent4 ,rarely can he vaguely suggest a
 natural aisle beneath the celestial    
dome1 a rock-walled cave whose roof     
soars into obscurity1 or a fairy grotto 
backed by a beetling cliff4 ,sometimes  
he may cause us to experience similar   
effects in kind to those we feel when we
 recognize grandeur in nature1 but      
usually he is compelled to confine his  
beauty to harmonies produced by         
symmetrical designs of straight lines   
and curves4 ,but in his simplest as in  
his most complex designs1 he must follow
 nature as closely as possible4 ,purely 
ornamental forms always appear more     
beautiful when the parts have a direct  
mathematical relationship with each     
other than when they have not2 that is  
to say1 when the parts appear to be     
naturally related4 ,thus1 that a cross  
appears to be less agreeable to the     
sight when the horizontal bar is below  
the centre of the perpendicular than    
when it is above this point1 is due to  

what appears to be a want of balance    
because the form is unobservable in     
nature4 ,in trees the horizontal parts  
are usually above the middle of the     
height of the observable trunk1 and in  
the exceptions nature gives the whole   
tree a conical or other shape1 the      
relative position of the horizontal     
parts being obscured in the general     
form4  ,as with parts of forms1 so with 
the forms as wholes4 ,other things being
 equal1 that design is the best where   
the forms are directly proportioned one 
with the other and with the whole1 and  
this is because we are accustomed to the
 order of design in nature where        
everything is balanced by means of      
direct proportions and corresponding    
relations4 ,the architect therefore1    
like the musician or poet1 must         
represent nature so far as he can within
 the limits of his art1 though his      
representation is comparatively weak    
owing to the artificial restrictions    
imposed upon him4    a ,article on ,fine

 ,arts1 ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1     
#aath ,edition4    b ,the ,expression of
 the ,emotions in ,man and ,animals4    
c ,on the ,ideal in ,art4    ,,note #bj4
 ,,page #ed  ,the dictum of ,aristotle  
in reference to metre in poetry related 
only to epic and dramatic verse1 for    
what we understand as lyric poetry was  
separated by the ,greeks as song in     
which of course metre is compulsory4 ,it
 is doubtful whether a single definition
 can cover both epic poetry1 whose      
beauty lies almost wholly in the        
substance1 and lyric verse where the    
beauty rests chiefly in qualities of    
expression and musical form1 and in     
which indeed the substance may be       
altogether negligible4 ,a cursory       
examination of ,watts-,dunton's         
definition of ,poetry1 which is         
admittedly the best put forward in      
recent times1 shows its entire          
inadequacy4 ,absolute poetry1 he says1  
is the concrete and artistic expression 
of the human mind in emotional and      

rhythmical language4a ,this would       
exclude from the art some of the finest 
sacred verse1 which1 though in the form 
of prose1 has been recognized as poetry 
from time immemorial4 ,metre is only one
 of the devices of the poet for         
accomplishing his end---the presentation
 of beautiful pictures upon the mind1   
but in high poetry there is a still more
 compulsory artifice which is not       
included in ,watts-,dunton's definition1
 and that is metaphor4 ,in the form of  
words the details of a picture can only 
be dealt with successively1 and not     
simultaneously1 and without metaphor the
 poet would sometimes be in the position
 of the painter who should present a    
dozen different pictures each containing
 only one part of a composition1 and    
call upon the observer to put the pieces
 together in his mind4 ,further the term
 absolute in the definition quoted has  
no comprehensible meaning if it does not
 exclude a good deal of verse which is  
commonly recognized as poetry1 while1 as

 is admitted by ,watts-,dunton1 there is
 much accepted lyric verse without      
concrete expression4  ,in high poetry as
 in high painting1 the beauty appeals   
both to the senses and the mind1 and in 
each art the quality descends as the    
sensorial overbalances the intellectual 
appeal1 and the effect becomes more     
ephemeral4 ,in the very highest of the  
plastic arts1 colour has little value   
except in assisting definition2 and in  
the very highest poetry musical form has
 only an emphasizing value1 for the     
sensorial beauty arising from form in   
the one case1 and form and action in the
 other1 entirely overpowers the         
harmonies of colour and tone            
respectively4 ,but colour without design
 is meaningless1 so that it cannot be   
applied in the fine arts apart from     
design3 hence in painting1 colour       
presents no complication in respect of  
definition4 ,on the other hand music1   
with or without association with poetry1
 is equally an art since in either case 

it imitates the effects of human        
emotions in a beautiful way4 ,thus1     
where metre is present poetry is a      
combined art1 and seeing that metre may 
not be present1 a definition of ,poetry 
must cover what may be in one case a    
pure1 and in another1 a compound art4   
a ,article on ,poetry1 ,encyclopaedia   
,britannica1 #aath edition4    ,,note   
#ba4 ,,page #ee  ,there seems to be a   
tendency to overestimate the disparity  
between translations of high poetry and 
the originals4 ,the value of a          
translation depends primarily upon the  
character of the thing translated1 since
 it is the form that is unreproducible  
in another tongue1 and not the          
substance4 ,in epic and dramatic poetry 
where the form is of secondary          
importance1 a good literal translation  
may come much nearer to the original    
than a translation of a lyric where the 
form is usually of at least equal       
importance with the substance4 ,we lose 
less of ,homer or ,sophocles than of    

,sappho or ,theocritus in translation4  
,in the case of epic poetry the higher  
its character1 the closer to the        
original appears the translation1       
because the form is of less relative    
importance4 ,more of ,dante is lost than
 of ,homer in literal translation1 but  
the difference narrows when the new     
versions are in metrical form1 for the  
use of metre in translation is          
necessarily more detrimental as the     
substance of the original increases in  
power1 and this relative weakening is   
emphasized as the beauty of form in the 
translation is raised4 ,pope is farther 
from ,homer than ,chapman1 and ,chapman 
than the prose translations of ,buckley 
and ,lang4 ,as we descend in the scale  
of the art1 so it becomes more difficult
 to reproduce the poet in translation1  
and in most lyric poetry the beauty     
seems almost entirely lost in another   
tongue from the original1 though when   
the substance is of weight1 and the     
translator is himself a good poet1 he   

sometimes gives us a paraphrase with a  
high beauty of its own4 ,some modern    
poets seem to eschew substance          
altogether4 ,much of the verse of       
esteemed ,french and ,belgian poets is  
quite meaningless in literal            
translation1 the authors relying for the
 effects entirely upon musical form and 
beauty of expression4    ,,note #bb4    
,,page #ff  ,lessing points out this    
remarkable picture of ,homer as         
emphasizing the beauty of ,helen1       
observing3       ,what could produce a  
more vivid idea of beauty than making   
old age      confess that it is well    
worth while the war which cost so much  
blood1 and so much treasure8            
,nevertheless the remark of the old men 
does not seem to mean so much as the    
description of the sages and their      
reference to the goddesses4 ,it is      
difficult to imagine several wise men   
agreeing that the sanguinary war of nine
 years was really excusable in view of  
,helen's beauty1 and the statement      

therefore is naturally received as a    
permissible overcolour4 ,consequently   
the effect of the remark would be       
discounted1 and unlikely to be          
sufficient for the purpose of the poet4 
,true1 the ,greeks seem to have been    
childlike sometimes in their simplicity1
 but there is no evidence that they were
 so wanting in a sense of proportion as 
to accept literally this opinion of the 
elders4 ,but when we observe the        
senility of the elders1 and the physical
 feebleness which has apparently        
rendered them incapable of sensual      
pleasures1 then indeed we must marvel at
 a beauty which excites their emotions  
so powerfully as to bring the goddesses 
to their minds4a  ,in discussing the    
suitableness of this incident as a      
subject for a painting1 ,lessing remarks
 that the passion felt by the old men   
was a momentary spark which their wisdom
 at once extinguished1 but later on1    
referring to the possibility that the   
veil worn by ,helen when she passed     

through the streets of ,troy had not    
been removed when she was seen by the   
elders1 he points outb3       ,when the 
elders displayed their admiration for   
her1 it must not be      forgotten that 
they were not seeing her for the first  
time4 ,their      confession therefore  
did not necessarily arise from the      
present      momentary view of her1 for 
they had doubtless often experienced    
before the feelings which they now for  
the first time acknowledged4  ,this is  
very true1 but it only serves to deepen 
the impression of ,helen's beauty1 for  
the element of surprise is removed from 
the minds of the elders1 the mere sight 
of her1 veiled or unveiled1 being       
sufficient to recall the passionate     
thrills previously experienced4    a    
,see on this subject ,quintilian1 viii41
 #d4    b ,laocoon1 ,roennfeldt         
translation4    ,,note #bc4 ,,page #fg  
,in nearly all the instances of         
sublimity quoted by ,longinus there is  
this particular merit of brevity---the  

picture is thrown upon the brain        
immediately1 without pause or anything  
whatever to complicate the beauty4 ,but 
the learned critic directs attention    
only to the magnificent thoughts and the
 appropriate use of them1 without       
pointing out the extraordinary          
condensation of the language employed4  
,apart from the instance from ,genesis  
given1 there is another of his examples 
in which practically the whole beauty of
 the picture is produced by the rapidity
 of its presentation4 ,this is the      
exclamation of ,hyperides when accused  
of passing an illegal decree for the    
liberation of slaves--,it was not an    
orator that made this decree1 but the   
battle of ,chaeronea4 ,longinus         
observesa3       ,at the same time that 
he exhibits proof of his legal          
proceedings1      he intermixes an image
 of the battle1 and by that stroke of   
art      quite passes the bounds of mere
 persuasion4  ,but it was rather the    
manner in which the battle was          

introduced than the fact of its         
introduction1 that gave force to the    
argument4 ,if instead of confining      
himself to a short brilliant            
observation1 ,hyperides had carefully   
traced cause and effect in the matter1  
he would still have intermixed an image 
of the battle1 but he would not then    
have produced a work of art4  ,still    
finer instances of the use of brevity in
 expresssion by the orator are to be    
found in the speeches of ,demosthenes4  
,for example in his oration ,on the     
,crown he says3 ,man is not born to his 
parents only1 but to his country4 ,a    
whole volume on the meaning and virtue  
of patriotism could not say more3 hence 
the sublime art4 ,the simple statement  
lights a torch by which we examine every
 convulsion in history2 presents a      
moving picture in which we see the      
motives and aspirations guiding the     
patriots of a hundred generations2 sets 
an eternal seal of nobility upon the    
love of man for his native country4 ,and

 a few words suffice4 ,the same thought 
might be elaborated into a large volume1
 but the art would fly with the brevity4
    a ,on the ,sublime1 ,,xv41 ,william 
,smith translation4    ,,note #bd4      
,,page #fh  ,there are many translations
 of the ,ode to ,anactoria1 but the best
 of them reflects only slightly the     
depth of passion in the original4 ,the  
version which most nearly represents the
 substance1 while maintaining the       
unhalting flow of language1 is perhaps  
that of ,ambrose ,philips 7#afge-agdi71 
which runs thus3--    ,blest as th'     
immortal gods is he1   ,the youth who   
fondly sits by thee1   ,and hears1 and  
sees thee all the while   ,softly speak1
 and sweetly smile4    ',twas this      
deprived my soul of rest1   ,and raised 
such tumults in my breast2   ,for while 
,i gazed1 in transport tost1   ,my      
breath was gone1 my voice was lost4     
,my bosom glowed2 the subtle flame      
,ran quick through all my vital frame2  
,o'er my dim eyes a darkness hung2   ,my

 ears with hollow murmurs rung4    ,in  
dewy damps my limbs were chilled2   ,my 
blood with gentle horrors thrilled2     
,my feeble pulse forgot to play2   ,i   
fainted1 sunk1 and died away4  ,the     
,english reproductions of this ode in   
the ,sapphic measure are not very       
successful1 the difficulty of course    
being due to the practical impossibility
 of fulfilling the quantitative         
conditions of the strophe without       
stilting the flow of language1 or unduly
 varying the substance4 ,but it has been
 shown by ,dr4 ,marion ,miller in his   
translation of ,sappho's ,hymn to       
,aphrodite1 which is much higher in     
substance and somewhat less condensed in
 expression than the ,ode to ,anactoria1
 that with certain liberties in respect 
of quantities1 a very beautiful         
semblance of the ,sapphic measure may be
 produced in ,english4 ,his translation 
of this hymn is unquestionably the best 
in our language1 though this is perhaps 
partly due to the fact that he is almost

 the only translator who has adhered to 
the text in regard to the sex of the    
loved person4 ,to make the object of    
affection a man seems inappropriate to  
the language employed in the verse4 7,it
 is proper to mention that a license    
taken by ,dr4 ,miller in his            
translation---where he renders the      
passage relating to the sparrows1 as    
clouding with their pinions1 ,earth's   
wide dominions--suggested to the present
 writer the somewhat similar picture to 
be found on ,page #aaa47                
,illustration3 ,,plate #bf 7,see page   
#bej7   ,st4 ,margaret1 by ,raphael     
7,louvre7    ,,note #be4 ,,page #fh     
,the gradual decadence of the great     
period of ,grecian sculpture is well    
marked by the successive variations of  
the ,cnidian ,aphrodite of ,praxiteles4 
,the copy of this at the ,vatican is no 
doubt a close representation of the     
original1 but later there was commenced 
a long series of variations1 all of them
 more or less complicating the design4  

,first a pillar was substituted for the 
vase1 reaching nearly to the armpits1   
and the left forearm rested upon it1    
while drapery fell down the front1 so   
that some exertion was required to      
separate the figure to the eye4 ,then a 
dolphin was substituted for the pillar1 
the head of the animal resting on the   
ground1 and the body rising up straight 
with the bent tail forming the support4 
,then for this was placed a dolphin with
 its body corkscrew shaped1 which was   
particularly weak as it tended to       
deprive the figure of repose4 ,after    
this1 while the dolphin was maintained1 
a cestus was sometimes added1 and heavy 
drapery applied in various folds4       
,finally the attitude of the figure was 
changed1 that of the ,venus de' ,medici 
being adopted1 while the pillar or      
dolphin was retained4 ,each alteration  
necessarily diminished the beauty of the
 figure4    ,,note #bf4 ,,page #fi      
,reynolds seems to have been            
disappointed with the frescoes of       

,raphael when he first saw them1 and    
this fact has been called in evidence by
 some modern critics to support their   
contention that the art of the great    
masters is really inferior to that      
wherein design is subordinated to       
colour4 ,but ,reynolds very definitely  
admitted that his first impression was  
wrong1 for after studying the frescoes1 
he notesa3       ,in a short time a new 
taste and a new perception began to dawn
 upon      me1 and ,i was convinced that
 ,i had originally formed a false       
opinion of the perfection of art1 and   
that this great painter was      well   
entitled to the high rank which he holds
 in the admiration of      the world4   
,reynolds was quite a young man when he 
went to ,rome1 and his appreciation of  
,raphael increased as his experience    
matured4 ,more than twenty years after  
the visit1 he remarked that ,raphael had
 a greater combination of the high      
qualities of the art than any other     
man1b and ten years later he affirmed   

that the ,urbino artist stood foremost  
among the first painters4c ,reynolds    
supposed that his lack of appreciation  
of the frescoes when he first saw them  
arose from want of immediate            
comprehension of them3 he was           
unaccustomed to works of such great     
power1 but it is to be observed that his
 inspection was a very short one1 and we
 may reasonably draw the conclusion that
 changing light conditions had much to  
do with the effect the paintings left   
upon him at the time4 ,when one enters a
 room where the light differs materially
 in intensity or quality from that      
experienced just previously1 it is      
advisable to rest quietly for a little  
while before examining works defined by 
colour1 in order that the eyes may      
become accustomed to the new light4    a
 ,reynolds's ,italian ,note ,book4    b 
,his ,fifth ,discourse at the ,royal    
,academy4    c ,his ,twelfth ,discourse4
    ,,note #bg4 ,,page #gc  ,that the   
judgment of the public upon a work of   

art is final seems to have been         
recognized by all the ancient writers   
who dealt with the matter1 and that the 
,greeks generally held this view is     
evident from many incidents1 notably the
 reference to public judgment in the    
great competition between ,phidias and  
,alcamenes4 ,during the ,renaissance    
also the opinion held good1 and it is   
worth noting that the suggestion        
sometimes made that ,michelangelo did   
not conform to this view is unsupported 
by evidence4 ,vasari relates the        
following anecdotea3       ,he          
,michelangelo went to see a work of     
sculpture which was about      to be    
sent out because it was finished1 and   
the sculptor was taking      much       
trouble to arrange the lights from the  
windows to the end that      it might   
show up well2 whereupon ,michelangelo   
said to him3 ,do not      trouble       
yourself1 the important thing will be   
the light of the      piazza2 meaning to
 infer that when works are in public    

places1 the      people must judge      
whether they are good or bad4  ,lionardo
 went so far as to advise artists to    
hear any man's opinion on his work1 for1
 he said1 we know very well that though 
a man may not be a painter1 he has a    
true conception of the form of another  
man4b ,it is a common misconception with
 the general public1 though not among   
serious artists1 that by reason of their
 profession artists are better judges of
 works of art than other men4 ,obviously
 the recognition of beauty in art is    
apart altogether from the means by which
 it is created1 and subject to the      
exceptions noted elsewhere1 all men are 
alike able to appreciate high beauty4   
,winckelmann even advised his readers   
against the judgment of artists on the  
ground that they generally preferred    
what is difficult to what is beautiful1c
 but experience with the great art      
bodies in ,europe who hold exhibitions  
does not support this view4 ,it is only 
the weaker artists who are liable to be 

prejudiced in such matters1 and when the
 judges are of high attainments in art1 
they almost invariably make the same    
choice in competitions that would be    
made if general opinion were solicited4 
,but although artists cannot be better  
judges of high-class works of art 7as   
beautiful things7 than other men of     
equal intelligence1 their training      
usually enables them to distinguish     
obscure forms of beauty which would be  
unrecognized by the general public1 and 
in matters of colour to differentiate   
between ephemeral and more or less      
permanent harmonies4 ,hence while the   
public interests would not suffer from  
the introduction of the lay element in  
judging high class sculpture and        
painting1 it is obvious that the        
consideration of works where the lower  
forms of beauty only are produced1 as in
 formal decoration1 should be confined  
to the profession4  ,in music alone of  
the arts1 for reasons already given1    
special cultivation is necessary for the

 judgment of the higher forms of beauty4
    a ,life of ,michelangelo            
,buonarotti1 ,de ,vere translation4    b
 ,mc,curdy's ,lionardo da ,vinci's ,note
 ,books4    c ,history of ,ancient ,art1
 ,part ,v41 #f4    ,,note #bh4 ,,page   
#gd  ,it is commonly supposed that the  
vast multitude of men and women--the    
toilers in the fields and factories1 and
 their families1 do not appreciate great
 works of art2 that rarely they take an 
interest in any kind of art1 and then   
only in simple representations of       
everyday incidents4 ,this is so         
apparently1 but it is not strictly true4
 ,the great bulk of working people grow 
up amidst surroundings where they do not
 have an opportunity of seeing good     
works of art4 ,they toil from morn to   
eve during their whole life3 their      
imaginations are almost entirely        
confined to their means of livelihood1  
their daily routine of labour1 and their
 household duties4 ,a mute inglorious   
,milton remains mute because he wants   

the knowledge and experience around     
which his fancy may roam1 and a         
potential ,raphael dies in obscurity    
from the enforced rigidity of his       
imagination4 ,but even so1              
notwithstanding that the nervous        
activities and the imaginations of the  
poorer workers remain undeveloped1 they 
are still subservient to the irrevocable
 laws of nature4 ,their faculties may be
 little changed from childhood in       
respect of matters appertaining to the  
higher senses1 but they still exist4 ,so
 it comes about that in all times since 
art has been practised1 the paintings   
and sculptures of the greater masters   
have been well appreciated by the       
multitude when they could come into     
contact with them4 ,in modern times     
great works of art are seldom available 
to the masses except in public galleries
 where their sense perception and minds 
are quickly confused and fatigued--in   
fact rendered incapable of legitimate   
use1 but the trend of popular opinion is

 very decidedly settled by the          
experience of those business houses     
which undertake the reproduction of     
important works4 ,there are many times  
the demand for prints and cards of      
pictures belonging to the higher forms  
of art1 as for instance1 sacred and     
historical subjects1 and portraits1 than
 for interiors and landscapes1 and so   
incessant is this demand for the better 
works1 that a painter desiring to copy  
one of the great ,raphael or ,correggio 
,madonnas at ,florence for reproduction1
 will usually have to wait three or four
 years after entering his name1 before  
his turn comes to set up his easel4 ,it 
is rather the want of intelligent       
contact with them1 than indifference to 
them1 that is due the apparent lack of  
interest in great works of art on the   
part of the labouring classes4  ,there  
is a deal of truth in the incisive      
remarks of ,leo ,tolstoy when dealing   
with this question4 ,he says a3         
,art cannot be incomprehensible to the  

great masses only because it      is    
very good1 as artists of our day are    
fond of telling us4 ,rather      we are 
bound to conclude that this art is      
unintelligible because it      is very  
bad art1 or even is not art at all4 ,so 
that the favourite      argument        
7naively accepted by the cultured       
crowd71 that in order to      feel art  
one has first to understand it 7which   
really means to      habituate oneself  
to it71 is the truest indication that   
what we are      asked to understand by 
such a method1 is either very bad art1  
exclusive art1 or is not art at all4    
,one may observe however that1 as a     
rule1 it is only inferior artists who   
complain of the want of public          
appreciation of great works of art4    a
 ,what is ,art8 ,aylmer ,maude          
translation1 #aijd4    ,,note #bi4      
,,page #gh  ,according to ,lessing and  
,watts-,dunton1 what the former calls   
the dazzling antithesis of              
,simonides--,poetry is speaking         

painting1 and painting dumb poetry--has 
had a wide and deleterious effect upon  
art criticism4 ,lessing1 who wrote      
,laocoon about #agfa1 said in his       
preface in reference to this saying3    
,it was one of those ideas held by      
,simonides1 the truth of which is       
so obvious that one feels compelled to  
overlook the indistinctness      and    
falsehood which accompany it4444 ,but of
 late many critics1 just      as though 
no difference existed1 have drawn the   
crudest conclusions      one can imagine
 from this harmony of painting and      
poetry4  ,watts-,dunton1 writing a few  
years ago1 added to thisa3       ,it the
 saying of ,simonides appears to have   
had upon modern      criticism as much  
influence since the publication of      
,lessing's      ,laocoon as it had      
before4  ,lessing points out that the   
,greeks confined the saying to the      
effect produced by the two arts1 and    
7evidently referring to ,aristotle7 did 
not forget to inculcate that these arts 

differed from each other in the things  
imitated and the manner of imitation4   
,since the business of both poetry and  
painting is to throw pictures on the    
mind1 the declaration of ,simonides must
 be accepted1 but it has no particular  
meaning as applied either to criticism  
or the practice of the arts4 ,it is     
merely a fact of common knowledge put   
into the form of a misleading jeu       
d'esprit1 though one has a natural      
reluctance in so describing a           
time-honoured saying4 ,there is room for
 doubt whether it really had the effect 
upon criticism that is alleged4         
,annibale ,carracci varied it slightly  
into a better form with ,poets paint    
with words1 and painters speak with the 
pencil1 and it was certainly as well    
known in his time as in the eighteenth  
century1 yet we find no particular      
evidence of weak art criticism either in
 the sixteenth or seventeenth century4  
,moreover allegorical painting was not  
less common in these centuries than in  

the century following2 and while there  
was unquestionably a spurt of           
descriptive poetry in the eighteenth1 it
 is difficult to trace a connection     
between this phenomenon and general     
criticism based upon the dictum of      
,simonides4 ,in regard to later times1  
the statement of ,watts-,dunton wants   
demonstration4    a ,article on ,poetry1
 ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 #aath      
edition4    ,,note #cj4 ,,page #gi  ,a  
few distinguished poets have attempted  
to portray beauty of form by description
 of features1 but they have all been    
signally unsuccessful4 ,the best known  
essay of the kind is ,ariosto's portrait
 of ,araminta1 where he closely         
describes all details of her features   
and form1 using forty lines for the     
purpose2 but put together the pieces as 
one will1 it is quite impossible to gain
 from them an idea of the beauty of her 
countenance4a ,this is pointed out by   
,lessing4 ,the very length of the       
catalogue is apt to kill the beauty as  

one endeavours to dovetail the separate 
elements4 ,perhaps the lines of         
,cornelius ,gallus to ,lydia form the   
most perfect poetical delineation of a  
beautiful face known to us1 but as will 
be seen from the translation below1 they
 are quite insufficient to enable us to 
picture the beauty of the combined      
features on our minds4b    ,lydia6 girl 
of prettiest mien1   ,and fairest skin1 
that e'er were seen3   ,lilies1 cream1  
thy cheeks disclose2   ,the ruddy and   
the milky rose2   ,smooth thy limbs as  
ivory shine1   ,burnished from the      
,indic mine4   ,oh1 sweet girl6 those   
ringlets spread   ,long and loose1 from 
all thy head2   ,glistening like gold in
 yellow light   ,o'er thy falling       
shoulders white4   ,show1 sweet girl6   
thy starry eyes1   ,and black brows that
 arching rise3   ,show1 sweet girl6 thy 
rose-bloom cheeks1   ,which ,tyre's     
vermillion scarlet streaks3   ,drop     
those pouting lips to mine1   ,those    
ripe1 those coral lips of thine4    a   

,orlando ,furioso1 ,c4 ,,vii4    b ,c4  
,a4 ,elton translation4    ,,note #ca4  
,,page #hj  ,if there be one example of 
descriptive poetry relating to landscape
 which throws upon the mind a complete  
natural scene during the process of     
reading1 it is the beautiful chant of   
the ,chorus in ,oedipus ,coloneus4 ,the 
perfection of form and majestic diction 
of this poetry are remarkable1 but the  
successful presentation of the picture  
on the mind is largely due to the simple
 and direct language used1 and the      
astonishing brevity with which the many 
features of the scene are described4    
,green dells1 fields1 plains1 groves1   
rocks1 flowers1 fruit1 and rushing      
waters1 are all brought in1 and the few 
lines used do not prevent the           
introduction of the ,muses1 the jovial  
,bacchus with the nursing nymphs1 and   
radiant ,aphrodite4 ,all modern poetry  
descriptive of landscape entirely fails 
in presenting a comprehensive view4 ,it 
is too discursive--over descriptive1 to 

permit of the mind collecting the       
details together as one whole4 ,here is 
the best prose version of the lines of  
,sophoclesa3       ,thou hast come1 ,o  
stranger1 to the seats of this land1    
renowned for      the steed2 to seats   
the fairest on earth1 the chalky        
,colonus2 where      the vocal          
nightingale1 chief abounding1 trills her
 plaintive note      in the green dells1
 tenanting the dark-hued ivy1 and the   
leafy      grove of the god1 untrodden1 
teeming with fruits1 impervious to the  
sun1 and unshaken by the winds of every 
storm2 where ,bacchus the      reveller 
ever roams attending his divine nurses4 
,and ever day by      day the narcissus1
 with its beauteous clusters1 bursts    
into bloom      by heaven's dew1 the    
ancient coronet of the mighty goddesses1
 and      the saffron with golden ray2  
nor do the sleepless founts of          
,cephisus that wander through the fields
 fail1 but every day it      rushes o'er
 the plains with its limpid wave1       

fertilizing the bosom      of the earth2
 nor have the choirs of the ,muses      
loathed this clime2      nor ,aphrodite 
too1 of the golden reign4    a ,oxford  
translation4    ,,note #cb4 ,,page #ha  
,it is perhaps necessary to remind some 
readers that the term invention is used 
in two senses in art1 referring to the  
original idea or scheme1 or to the      
preparation of the design embodying the 
idea4 ,in poetry and fiction the term   
has the former significance2 in painting
 and sculpture the latter4 ,the         
restriction in the use of the term in   
the last named arts is compulsory4 7,see
 ,chap4 ,,iii41 and ,note #cc47         
,,note #cc4 ,,page #ha  ,apparently     
,lessing did not observe that inasmuch  
as the painter cannot present the       
beginning and end of an incident1 he    
must necessarily take his moment of     
action from the literary arts or from   
nature4 ,the critic notices that the    
painter does not invent the action he   
depicts1 but states that this is due to 

his indifference towards invention1     
developed by the natural readiness of   
the public to dispense with the merit of
 invention in his case4 ,that is to say1
 the public expects the painter to take 
his idea from the poet or from nature1  
and looks to him only for correct design
 and execution3 hence the painter is    
under no necessity to invent his own    
scheme4  ,it is curious that a reason of
 this kind for the practice of the      
painter should be put forward by so keen
 a critic as ,lessing1 but it is not    
altogether surprising when we remember  
the discussion as to whether ,virgil    
drew his representation of the ,laocoon 
incident from the celebrated sculptured 
group1 or the sculptors adopted the     
device of the poet4 ,lessing definitely 
settled the point in favour of the poet 
as the author of the design1 and since  
his time this decision has been         
confirmed over and over again by        
practical evidence4 ,but the conclusion 
of ,lessing seems obvious in the absence

 of any such evidence4 ,as we must      
exclude the possibility of both poet and
 sculptors taking the design from the   
same original source1 it is clear that  
the poet could only have imitated the   
sculptors on the supposition that they  
had so widely varied the legend as to   
necessitate a new beginning and end of  
the story1 these being provided by the  
poet4 ,consideration of such a series of
 events is not permissible1 as it would 
reflect upon the common sense of the    
sculptors1 and actually degrade the     
poet4  ,consequent upon the inability of
 the painter to originate a scheme for a
 picture1 the famous proposition of     
,lessing as to the relative importance  
of invention and execution with the poet
 and painter1 must fall to the ground4  
,the critic states that our admiration  
of ,homer would be less if we knew that 
he took certain of his work from        
pictures1 and asksa3       ,how does it 
happen that we withdraw none of our     
esteem from the      painter when he    

does no more than express the words of  
the poem in      forms and colours8  ,he
 suggests as an answer to this3         
,with the painter1 execution appears to 
be more difficult than      invention3  
with the poet on the other hand the case
 seems to be      reversed1 and his     
execution seems to be an easier         
achievement than      the invention4    
,the word invention is to be taken here 
in the sense of plot or fable1 and not  
as the details of design invented by the
 painter for the purpose of representing
 the action described by the poet4 ,the 
premisses of ,lessing's argument        
therefore will not stand1 for the       
painter cannot originate a fable by     
means of a picture4 ,and sequential to  
this of course1 the painter can be of no
 service to the poet4 ,homer could not  
draw an original scheme from a painting4
 ,nor may the poet take a detail from   
the painter1 for this has already been  
borrowed4 ,a poet may vary a detail in a
 legend because he can make the         

successive parts of his relation fit in 
with the variation1 but the painter can 
only deal with a single moment of       
action1 and if this does not correspond 
with an accepted legend1 then his design
 appears to be untrue4  ,it may be said 
in regard to painting1 that the relative
 difficulty of the invention 7the work  
of gathering and arranging the signs7   
and the execution1 varies with the      
character of the art4 ,in the higher    
forms1 as sacred and historical work1   
the invention is the more difficult2 in 
ordinary scenes of life and labour the  
trouble involved in invention would     
about equal that in execution2 while in 
the lower forms1 as landscape and       
still-life1 the execution is obviously  
the more difficult4 ,in the case of the 
poet1 the idea or fable is the hardest  
part of his work1 but the relative      
difficulty of the arrangement of the    
parts1 and the execution1 would         
naturally depend upon the general       
character of the composition1 and the   

form of the poem4    a ,laocoon1        
,phillimore translation4    ,,note #cd4 
,,page #hb  ,the works here referred to 
are those designed for the purpose of   
achieving a political or social aim1 or 
conveying instruction or moral lessons4 
,there are many examples of good art    
where advocacy of a social or           
administrative reform is presented by   
way of incident or accessory1 though the
 art itself is never1 and cannot be1    
assisted thereby4 ,didactic ,art1 if    
such a term may be appropriately used1  
is practically a thing of the past1 but 
judging from certain conventions the    
opinion seems to be rather widely held  
that art should point a moral when      
possible1 and an opinion of ,aristotle  
is not infrequently called in to support
 this view4 ,but when ,aristotle        
connected morals with art1 he evidently 
did not mean to suggest that art should 
have a moral purpose1 but that it should
 have a moral tendency in not being     
morally harmful1 for art which is not   

morally harmful must necessarily be     
morally beneficial4 ,the general        
connection of the good with the         
beautiful in ancient ,greece seems to   
have merely implied that what is good is
 beautiful1 and what is beautiful is    
good1 or should be good1 and not that   
goodness is a manifestation of beauty1  
or beauty of goodness4 ,it was admitted 
that the two things may not coincide4   
,,note #ce4 ,,page #he  ,that landscape 
painting may be of considerable value in
 assisting scientific exploration is    
instanced by an anecdote related to the 
writer by a geological friend4          
,professor ,jack1 formerly ,government  
,geologist of ,queensland1 while        
travelling in that colony1 having put up
 one night at the house of a small      
squatter1 noticed on the walls of the   
interior1 a number of colour drawings   
which had been painted by a son of the  
settler from views in the neighbouring  
hills4 ,one of these drawings showed a  
reddish-brown tint running down the     

slope of a grey and nearly barren hill4 
,this caught the eye of the professor   
who asked the artist if the colours     
roughly represented the natural         
conditions1 and receiving an affirmative
 reply1 recommended the squatter to     
prospect the ground for minerals4 ,this 
was done with the result that profitable
 copper deposits were found4 ,it seems  
that in ,australia many of the best     
mineral veins are capped with iron1 and 
run through schistose rocks traversed by
 dioritic dykes4 ,professor ,jack was   
well aware that the hills in the        
district were formed of these rocks and 
dykes1 and as the reddish-brown streak  
indicated iron oxide1 it occurred to him
 that the iron might be the cap of a    
lode holding valuable minerals4a    a   
,this note is from ,the ,position of    
,landscape in ,art1 by the              
present author4    ,,note #cf4 ,,page   
#hg  ,remarkable evidence of the        
universality of ideals1 is afforded by  
the galaxy of ,french sculptors who     

appeared in the thirteenth century4     
,they could have had no teachers beyond 
those responsible for the stiff and     
formal works characterizing the merging 
of ,norman with ,gothic art2 they could 
have seen few of the fragments of       
ancient sculpture2 and yet they left    
behind them monuments which rival in    
noble beauty much of the work produced  
in the greatest art period4 ,how their  
art grew1 and how it withered2 how such 
a brilliant bloom in the life of a      
nation should so quickly fade1 needs too
 detailed an argument to be ventured    
upon here1 if indeed a properly reasoned
 explanation can be given at all2 but   
the flower remains1 as great a pride to 
mankind as it is a glory to ,france3    
remains1 though sadly drooping1 for the 
petals of ,rheims are gone4  ,now these 
,frenchmen were in much the same        
position as the early ,greeks4 ,they    
were confronted with the task of making 
images of their objects of worship for  
great temples4 ,they had no more real   

knowledge of the ,personality of        
,christ1 the ,virgin1 and most of the   
,saints than had the ,greeks of the     
,homeric gods and legendary heroes1 and 
like the ,grecian sculptors they fully  
believed in the spiritual personages and
 religious events with which they dealt4
 ,the ,grecian and ,french artists      
therefore started from the same line    
with similar general ideals1 for the    
ancient workers took no heed of ,homer  
and ,hesiod in respect of the failings  
of their gods2 and they both had only   
pure formalities in sculpture behind    
them4 ,and what was the result8 ,the    
ideal divine head of the ,christian     
,frenchman is much the same as that of  
the ,greeks in regard to form1 and only 
varies in expression with the character 
of the respective religious conceptions4
  ,the ,french sculptors did not reach  
the sublime height of the ,phidian      
school1 nor did they attempt the more   
human beauty typified by the giants of  
the fourth century ,b4,c42 but apart    

from these1 and leaving aside           
considerations of the nude with which   
they were little concerned1 they climbed
 to the highest level of the latter end 
of the fourth century and the beginning 
of the third--the level attained by     
those ,grecian sculptors who more or    
less idealized portrait heads by adding 
,phidian traits4 ,and it would appear   
that in reaching towards their goal they
 followed the same line of thought as   
the ,greeks1 and arrived at similar     
conclusions in respect to every detail  
of the head and pose of the figure4 ,as 
a rule they gave to the faces of ,christ
 and the ,saints a large facial angle1  
set the eyes in deeply and the ears     
close to the head1 and generally worked 
on parallel lines with the principal    
sculptors of ,peloponesia living sixteen
 hundred years before their time4 ,it is
 perhaps natural that they should make  
similar variations in the proportions of
 the figures to provide for the         
different levels from which they were to

 be seen1 but it is curious that they   
should adopt the practice followed by   
the ,greeks in the representation of    
children in arms1 by minimizing to the  
last degree the figure of the ,infant   
,christ in the arms of the ,madonna4    
,they could not have more closely       
imitated the ,greeks in this respect had
 they had ,grecian models in front of   
them4 ,no doubt they fixed the position 
of the ,child at the side of the ,virgin
 in order that the line of her majestic 
form might not be broken1 and that her  
face might be revealed to observers     
below the level of the statues1 but that
 they should have made the ,child so    
extremely small and insignificant       
considering ,his relative importance    
compared with that of the ,grecian      
infant in arms1 is remarkable4    ,,note
 #cg4 ,,page #ij  ,it is too early yet  
to fix definitely the position of ,rodin
 in art4 ,there is much sifting of his  
works to be done1 for of all artists    
with a wide reputation1 he was perhaps  

the most variable4 ,still he may be     
called one of the greater artists1 and  
so is amongst the rare exceptions       
mentioned1 for he executed one or two   
hideous figures1 the most notable being 
,la ,vieille ,heaulmiere4a ,this cannot 
properly be described as a work of art  
because it is revolting to the senses3  
it is merely a species of writing--a    
hieroglyph1 and ,rodin's own apology for
 it is a direct condemnation1 since a   
work of sculpture cannot be good if     
general opinion does not approve of it4 
,he saysb3       ,what matters solely to
 me is the opinion of people of taste1  
and ,i      have been delighted to gain 
their approbation for my ,la ,vieille   
,heaulmiere4 ,i am like the ,roman      
singer who replied to the jeers of      
the populace1 ,equitibus ,cano4 ,i sing 
only for the nobles2 that is      to say
 for the connoisseurs4 ,the vulgar      
readily imagine that what      they     
consider ugly is not a fit subject for  
the artist4 ,they would      like to    

forbid us to represent what displeases  
and offends them in      nature4 ,it is 
a great error on their part4 ,what is   
commonly called      ugliness in nature 
can in art become full of great beauty4 
,in the      domain of art we call ugly 
what is deformed1 whatever is           
unhealthy4444 ,ugly also is the soul of 
the vicious or criminal      man4444    
,but let a great artist or writer make  
use of one or other      of these       
uglinesses1 instantly it becomes        
transfigured3 with a      touch of his  
fairy wand he has turned it into beauty3
 it is      alchemy3 it is enchantment4 
,rodin then goes on to refer to the     
description of ugly objects by the      
poets1 in support of his argument that  
they may be represented by the painter6 
,it was his error in confusing the      
objects of the literary with those of   
the plastic arts1 that led him to carve 
,la ,vieille ,heaulmiere1 for he        
admitted that he wished to put into     
sculpture what ,villon had put into a   

poem4 ,professor ,waldstein properly    
pointed out that1 this being so1 the    
observer of the sculpture should be     
provided with a copy of the poem when in
 front of the statue1 addingc3       and
 even then the work remains only the    
presentation of a female      figure    
deformed in every detail by the wear and
 tear of time1 and      of a life ending
 in disease and nothing more4 ,it is the
 worst form      of literary sculpture1 
of which we have had so much by artists 
who      represent the very opposite    
pole of the modern realists4  ,elsewhere
 the respective positions of the poet   
and painter 7or sculptor7 in the        
representation of ugliness are dealt    
with1 but it may be added that in the   
case of ,la ,vieille ,heaulmiere1 ,rodin
 does not render in sculpture the poem  
of ,villion1 but only a part of it1 for 
of course he could not show the         
progression in the life of the          
courtesan1 indicated by the poet1 which 
progression puts an entirely different  

complexion upon the ugly figure of the  
poet compared with that of the sculptor4
 ,clearly ,rodin was misled when he said
 that people of taste have given their  
approbation to his appalling figure1 for
 it has been condemned among all        
classes1 while its few defenders have   
failed to support their opinions by     
reason or experience4  ,we may note that
 at another time ,rodin reflected upon  
the character of the ancient ,greek     
sculpture for the very reason upon which
 he bases his claim for public approval 
of ,la ,vieille ,heaulmiere4 ,he saysd3 
,that was the fault of the ,hellenic    
ideal4 ,the beauty conceived by      the
 ,greeks was the order dreamed of by    
intelligence1 but it only      appealed 
to the cultivated mind1 disdaining the  
humble4  ,here also is a confusion of   
ideas1 for the intelligence cannot dream
 of a special kind of beauty which would
 not be recognized by the humble1 unless
 it were so feeble as to be altogether  
below ,greek conceptions4 ,the aim of   

the ,greek sculptors was to appeal to   
all classes1 and in this they were      
eminently successful4    a ,at the      
,luxembourg4    b ,gsell's ,art1 by     
,auguste ,rodin4    c ,greek ,sculpture 
and ,modern ,art1 #aiad4    d ,gsell's  
,art1 by ,auguste ,rodin4               
,illustration3 ,,plate #bg 7,see page   
#bed7   ,diana and ,nymphs1 by ,rubens  
7,prado1 ,madrid7    ,,note #ch4 ,,page 
#ib  ,ruskin considered the figure of   
,christ1 known as ,le ,bon ,dieu        
d',amiens1 at ,amiens ,cathedral1 the   
noblest ideal of ,christ in existence1a 
and ,dean ,farrar wrote of it3 ,christ  
is represented as standing at the       
central point of all history1 and of all
 ,revelation4b ,it is true that the     
sculpture is a noble representation of  
,christ1 but this is not because it is a
 ,christian ideal4 ,in type it is purely
 ,greek of the late fourth or early     
third century ,b4,c4 ,the expression is 
general1 exhibiting the calm repose that
 the ,greeks gave to a great            

philosopher4    a ,the ,bible of        
,amiens4 ,see ,plate #b4    b ,the ,life
 of ,christ as ,represented in ,art4    
,,note #ci4 ,,page #ig  ,in the case of 
the ,madonna1 ,michelangelo does not    
appear to produce an ideal woman3 he    
only gives an improved woman4 ,his      
nearest approach to the ideal is in his 
early ,pieta at ,st4 ,peter's1 but even 
here the ,virgin is only a less earthly 
prototype of his later figures4 ,the    
,madonna in the ,holy ,family at the    
,uffizi is much inferior1 being merely a
 slightly ennobled ,italian peasant4    
,the other ,madonnas are far higher in  
character and seem to suggest the       
antique1 except that the more material  
qualities of woman are always present4  
,the ,madonnas at the ,bargello and ,san
 ,lorenzo are of the same general type  
as the figure in the ,last ,judgment1   
the ,night in the ,medici ,chapel1 the  
,leda in the ,bargello1 and the ,venus  
in the sketch made for ,pontormo4 ,this 
being so1 it may be imagined when the   

,leda is called to mind1 that it is hard
 to associate the two ,madonnas with    
,christian ideals4 ,the figures are     
magnificent works1 but they are behind  
the ,madonnas of ,raphael from the point
 of view of ,christian conceptions4 ,the
 expression is general1 and all the     
countenances except one1 indicate       
unconcern with surroundings2 not the    
sublime unconcern of a ,phidian god1    
which implies an apparent disregard of  
particulars because they are necessarily
 understood with an all-powerful        
comprehension of principles1 but an     
unconcern which suggests a want of deep 
interest in life4 ,the exception is the 
,san ,lorenzo ,madonna1 in which a      
certain calm resignation is the         
principal feature in expression4        
,michelangelo was more successful with  
his men than with his women4 ,his       
painted prophets in the ,sistine ,chapel
 are as sublime as his scenes from the  
,creation2 and his ,moses in ,st4       
,peter's is rightly regarded as the     

first sculpture of the ,renaissance4    
,,note #dj4 ,,page #ii  ,when the ,pieta
 of ,michelangelo 7in ,st4 ,peter's1    
,rome7 was first exposed1 some comment  
was made upon the comparatively youthful
 appearance of the ,virgin1 and ,condivi
 relates that he spoke to the sculptor  
on the subject4 ,in reply ,michelangelo 
saida3       ,don't you know that chaste
 women preserve their beauty and        
youthful      character much longer than
 those who are not chaste8 ,how youthful
      then must appear the immaculate   
,virgin who cannot be supposed ever     
to have had a vitiated thought4 ,and    
this is only according to the           
natural order of things3 but why may not
 we suppose in this      particular     
case1 that nature might be assisted by  
,divine      interposition1 to          
demonstrate to the world the virginity  
and      perpetual purity of the        
,mother8 ,this was not necessary in the 
,son1      nay1 rather on the contrary1 
since ,divine omnipotence was willing   

to show that the ,son of ,god would take
 upon ,him1 as he did1 the      body of 
man1 with all his earthly infirmities   
except that of sin4      ,therefore it  
was not necessary for me to make the    
human subordinate      to the ,divine   
character1 but to consider it in the    
ordinary course      of nature under the
 actual existing circumstances4 ,hence  
you ought      not to wonder that from  
such a consideration1 ,i should make the
      most holy ,virgin-,mother of ,god1
 in comparison with the ,son1 much      
younger than would otherwise be         
required1 and that ,i should have       
represented the ,son at ,his proper age4
    a ,lanzi's ,history of ,painting in 
,italy1 ,roscoe translation1            
vol4 i4    ,,note #da4 ,,page #ajj  ,a  
few modern painters have produced works 
in which the ,holy ,family are pictured 
in lowly surroundings1 but generally    
they appear to shock the public sense of
 propriety4 ,many persons will remember 
the sensation caused by ,millais's ,the 

,carpenter's ,shop1 where ,christ is    
shown as a boy of about ten years of age
 in the workshop of ,st4 ,joseph1 and   
,holman ,hunt's ,shadow of the ,cross4  
,later artists have been still more     
realistic1 notably ,uhde1 whose sacred  
scenes almost stagger one with their    
modern suggestions1 and ,demont-,breton1
 whose ,divine ,apprentice represents   
the ,boy ,christ sharpening a tool at a 
grindstone which is turned by the       
,virgin4    ,,note #db4 ,,page #ajh     
,unquestionably the rapid advance in    
,italian art in the fifteenth century   
was largely due to the influence of the 
ancient ,greek and ,roman remains4      
,indeed there are very few sculptors of 
the period who fail to show evidence of 
studies in ,greek forms and ornaments1  
while in painting there are hundreds of 
figures which could scarcely have been  
designed in the absence of antique      
models4 ,true in some cases the artists 
do not appear to have gone beyond the   
ancient literature1 as with ,masaccio   

who must have had ,homer in his mind    
when he painted his figures of ,eve in  
the ,florence frescoes1 and ,piero di   
,cosimo1 whose fanciful compositions    
savour of the old legends wrapped up in 
fairy stories2 but many painters were   
steeped both in the art and literature  
of ,greece and ,rome1 and made good use 
of them4  ,but the most direct evidence 
of the influence of ,greek art upon     
,italian artists of the fifteenth and   
early sixteenth centuries1 is to be     
found in the splendid series of bronze  
statuettes of the period4 ,in their     
monumental figures the sculptors were   
more or less confined in their designs  
by considerations of portraiture1       
conventional drapery and symbols1 and   
local requirements1 and while they were 
greatly assisted by ,greek experience1  
yet only rarely were they strictly at   
liberty except with ornaments and       
accessories4 ,but in the small bronze   
figures their fancy could roam at will1 
and they made good use of this freedom  

in displaying their ready acceptance of 
the first principle in the design of the
 human figure recognized by the         
,greeks--that the sculptor must arrive  
at perfection of form if that be        
possible2 that this perfection is not to
 be found in any single form in life1   
and consequently the artist must combine
 perfected parts into a harmonious      
whole1 independently of particular      
models4 ,the agreement with this        
principle was general1 with scarcely an 
exception amongst the bronze figure     
designers1 and the result was that in   
the period say1 from #adej to #aebe1    
there was executed a series of bronzes  
fully representative of the highest     
level which plastic art has reached     
since the greater days of ,greece4      
,right up to the time of the maturity of
 ,michelangelo1 nearly every bronze     
figurine cast is purely ,grecian in     
type1 and every ornament1 and even every
 accessory which is not from its nature 
of contemporary style1 can be traced to 

,greece1 either directly or through     
,rome4  ,michelangelo brought about a   
change in accentuating the muscular     
development of the body1 and before the 
middle of the sixteenth century most    
sculptors had come under his influence4 
,this was unfortunate for he alone      
seemed to be capable of harmoniously    
combining ,greek lines with muscular    
power4 ,a few of his contemporaries1 as 
,sansovino1 ,leone1 ,cellini1 learned   
how to join1 with due restraint1 his    
innovations with modifications of the   
,greek torso1 but generally the         
imitation of the great ,florentine      
initiated a decadence1 as it was bound  
to do1 for it was accompanied with life 
modelling1 and so meant a radical       
departure from the ,greek forms4        
,giovanni di ,bologna alone among the   
later sixteenth century sculptors1 was  
strong enough to move in an independent 
direction4 ,he restrained the           
accentuation of the muscles1 and        
lightened the ,greek type of torso1     

combining with these conditions an      
elegance in design which has never since
 been surpassed4  ,this then is the     
principal cause of the high aesthetic   
value of the ,renaissance bronzes3 the  
human form exhibited by them is         
altogether more beautiful than the form 
coming within the compass of life       
experience4 ,then the details of work on
 the bronzes are immensely superior to  
those of the general modern handiwork4  
,for instance the chiselling of such men
 as ,riccio and ,cellini1 has never been
 equalled since their time1 save perhaps
 by ,gouthiere4 ,and how poor1          
comparatively1 are the present-day      
castings6 ,how carefully the old masters
 worked2 how particular they were with  
their clay2 how skilfully they prepared 
their wax1 and how slowly and           
deliberately the mould6 ,how many       
artists now would have the patience to  
make such a mould8 ,for the beautiful   
patinas on many of the ,renaissance     
bronzes1 age is mostly responsible1     

though lacquers were often used for the 
provision of artificial patinas1        
particularly after the middle of the    
sixteenth century1 the finest being     
found on some of the works of ,giovanni 
di ,bologna4 ,the tone of natural patina
 depends largely upon the kind of       
oxidation to which the bronze has been  
subjected1 and it is no doubt often     
affected by the alloy used4 ,few modern 
artists have given close attention to   
the alloys1 while the method of casting 
is now usually regarded as a detail of  
minor importance4  ,seeing that the     
production of figurines accompanied     
every civilization from the dawn of     
history to the collapse of the ,roman   
,empire1 it is curious that the         
renaissance of sculpture after the ,dark
 ,age should have progressed a long way 
before general attention was again      
turned to these bronzes4 ,there are a   
few figures of animals which seem to be 
,italian work of the late trecento1 but 
beyond these the small cast bronzes made

 in ,italy before the maturity of       
,ghiberti1 were practically confined to 
,madonnas and ,saints1 mostly gilt1 made
 to fill ,gothic niches1 or adorn the   
altars of churches and private chapels4 
,slender ,saints they were as a rule1   
but always elegant1 with serene         
countenances and delicate features2     
beautifully modelled as became the      
inheritors of the traditions of the     
,pisanos4 ,it was somewhere about the   
middle of the fifteenth century that    
,italy commenced to make ungilt         
statuettes suitable for household       
ornaments1 and fully ten or fifteen     
years more passed away before they were 
produced with any regularity4 ,the      
earliest of them of any importance      
appear to be a couple of ,flagellators  
from the design of ,ghiberti4 ,they are 
fine pieces of work1 evidently from clay
 models made for the scourging scene in 
one of the gates of the ,florence       
,baptistry--gates described by          
,michelangelo as worthy to fill the     

portals of ,paradise4 ,these figures    
date about #addj4 ,there is a ,child    
,christ of a few years later by ,luca   
della ,robbia2 and two or three figures 
from models of ,donatello may be        
assigned to the neighbourhood of #adej4 
,in the next ten years were turned out  
some figures from remaining models of   
,donatello which had been used for his  
work at ,prato and ,padua4  ,so far the 
small bronzes made were from studies for
 larger works of sculpture1 but about   
this time intense interest began to be  
taken in the remains of ,greek and      
,roman art1 and no doubt it was the     
increased importance attached to the    
antique bronze figures1 mostly household
 gods of the ,greeks1 ,etruscans1 and   
,romans1 that first led the principal   
,renaissance artists to turn their      
attention to similar work4 ,from this   
time on1 for a century and a half1 these
 bronze figures were regularly made4    
,the existing figurines may be broadly  
classified in four divisions1 namely1   

the ,paduan and ,florentine figures     
executed prior to #aebe2 those of the   
school of ,michelangelo2 those of the   
,venetian school headed by ,sansovino2  
and those of ,giovanni di ,bologna and  
his school4 ,leaving out of             
consideration the small ornaments for   
inkstands1 vases1 etc41 the little      
animals1 and the purely commercial      
imitations1 chiefly ,venetian1 made at  
the end of the sixteenth century1 the   
total number of ,renaissance bronzes now
 known is roughly six thousand4 ,of     
these under a hundred are from models   
for larger works by ,ghiberti1          
,donatello1 ,verrocchio1 ,lionardo1     
,michelangelo1 and a few lesser lights2 
about two thousand represent original   
designs specially prepared for bronze   
production2 some three thousand five    
hundred are duplicates of1 or slight    
variations from1 these originals1       
executed by pupils or near              
contemporaries of the masters2 and the  
balance of four hundred or so1 are      

direct reproductions of1 or variations  
from1 antique sculptures4 ,naturally all
 collectors aim for the first two       
sections1 but the third section contains
 many fine bronzes1 often close to the  
originals1 with equally good patinas4   
,they vary greatly1 though they are all 
ascribed in commerce to the artists     
responsible for the originals4  ,the    
character of these variations is best   
seen in the case of ,riccio1 the most   
prolific of the bronze workers of the   
,renaissance4 ,he designed and executed 
under forty small bronze figures and    
groups1 besides some large bronze works 
of high importance4 ,of his small pieces
 there are in existence about a hundred 
duplicates made by his pupils and       
immediate contemporaries1 who also      
adapted into household ornaments1       
various details from his larger works1  
bringing up the number of ,riccios made 
from his models during his lifetime1    
other than by himself1 to about a       
hundred and fifty4 ,these are all       

bronzes of a high order4 ,then about an 
equal number of both kinds of models    
were reproduced during the twenty years 
following his death1 all fairly good1   
but often slightly varied from the      
originals2 and finally there are        
,riccios copied by ,venetian craftsmen  
in the third quarter of the sixteenth   
century1 sometimes considerably varied1 
and occasionally with purely ,venetian  
ornaments added4 ,these last mark the   
first distinct decadence in the small   
bronze art of the period4 ,next to      
,riccio among the earlier sculptors1 in 
the number of bronzes designed1 was his 
great contemporary1 ,antico1 who        
accomplished some thirty or so4 ,he     
differed from ,riccio in that while the 
latter adhered to the ,grecian practice 
in the design of details and ornaments1 
but varied the modelling somewhat to    
bring it more in conformity with the    
contemporary ideas of elegance1 ,antico 
kept strictly to the ,grecian modelling1
 but commonly varied the ancient        

designs4 ,there are few duplicates of   
,antico's work1 made either during his  
lifetime or after4 ,as with ,riccio1 his
 imitators overcame the difficulty of   
the chiselling by leaving it out1       
relying upon the wax to give close      
enough resemblance to the originals4    
,of the other small bronze sculptors    
prior to the maturity of ,michelangelo1 
few executed more than half a score of  
figures4 ,the best known are the        
immediate successors of ,donatello in   
the ,paduan school1 as ,bertoldo and    
,bellano1 and the giants of the         
,florentine school1 as ,filarete and ,a4
 ,pollaiuolo4 ,bronzes by these artists 
are very rare1 and so are the duplicates
 of them made by pupils1 though         
,bertoldo1 who reminds one strangely of 
,lysippus1 had occasional imitators for 
the next two centuries4 ,these bronzes  
include many models which have not been 
equalled by the greatest of later       
sculptors1 and they will never be       
matched until there arises a new school 

of sculptors resolved to imbibe the     
truths which the ,renaissance artists   
gleaned from the ancient ,greeks4       
,,note #dc4 ,,page #aaj  ,the writer has
 used ,greek and ,roman names for these 
gods to some extent indiscriminately1 in
 accordance with the universal custom in
 art4 ,nevertheless the practice is to  
be regretted as it tends to complicate  
the general ideas of the ,greek and     
,roman religions4 ,notwithstanding the  
occasional direct association of some of
 their deities with human personages by 
their poets1 the ,romans regarded their 
gods as purely spiritual beings1 having 
no special earthly habitation1 or sex   
relations with the human race1 while    
their powers widely differed from those 
of the respective ,greek deities with   
whom they are commonly identified4      
,authorities differ as to whether the   
gods were supposed to have spiritual    
marital relations with each other4a ,in 
any case the whole nature of their      
religion precluded the development      

amongst the ,romans of a separate sacred
 art4 ,their sculptured gods1 which were
 taken from ,grecian models1 were       
symbols rather than presumed types4    a
 ,see ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer's ,adonis1 ,attis1
 ,osiris1 #aiad1 vol4 ii42 and ,w4      
,w4 ,fowler's ,religious ,experience of 
the ,roman ,people1 #aiaa4    ,,note    
#dd4 ,,page #aaa  ,if we may judge from 
the headless figures of the goddesses1  
commonly known as the ,three ,fates1    
from the east pediment of the           
,parthenon1 there seems to be little    
difference between the general lines of 
the feminine torso represented by the   
,phidian ideal1 and those of the        
,praxitelean model4 ,the ,parthenon     
torsos are more massive proportionately1
 but the object of both ,phidias and    
,praxiteles was evidently to straighten 
the outer lines of the torso as nearly  
as possible1 making due allowance for   
the varied natural swellings of their   
respective forms4 ,it is obvious that   
the use of attire gave ,phidias         

7presuming the ,parthenon figures       
referred to were designed by him1 as    
they probably were7 a latitude in       
varying the proportions of the torsos   
which he could not have exercised in the
 case of nude forms4 ,unclothed1 the    
figures would appear unwieldy1 and the  
graceful flowing lines resulting from   
the partly clinging drapery could not be
 so completely presented with nude      
reclining or semi-reclining figures4    
,there are other features also which    
prevent the nude representation of such 
massive forms4 ,thus1 the breasts would 
necessarily be out of proportion in     
size1 and widely separated4 ,these      
conditions are common in fifth century  
and archaic figures1 and do not appear  
to be defects in forms of life size or  
less1 but they would be strikingly      
noticeable in super figures of the broad
 massive type with ,phidian lines4 ,the 
addition of light drapery1 however1     
converts the apparent faults into       
virtues1 for the artist is enabled      

therewith to give new sweeping curves to
 the forms which conspicuously enhance  
the general beauty of the figure4  ,a   
still more amazing instance where the   
use of drapery allows the artist to vary
 the recognized proportions of the      
feminine form to an extent which would  
be impossible with nude figures1 is the 
celebrated ,ariadne at the ,vatican4a   
,this beautiful work1 which is of the   
,hellenistic period1 shows the daughter 
of ,minos attired in a light flowing    
single garment1 and reclining on a      
couch1 asleep4 ,the upper part of her   
body leans against the head of the      
couch1 but the remainder is extended    
nearly at full length4 ,the             
extraordinary feature of the work is    
that the length of the figure is        
altogether out of proportion with the   
head and with the breadth of the torso1 
being much too great1 and yet so        
skilfully is the drapery arranged that  
this very defect becomes an advantage1  
for it enables a lofty grace1 almost    

approaching grandeur1 to be given to the
 figure1 which would be impossible      
without the exaggeration4 ,by the       
excellent device of a closely arranged  
cross fold of drapery passing round the 
middle of the figure1 the artist        
apparently shortens it1 so that the eye 
of the observer is not held by its great
 length4 ,only one other example of the 
supreme use of drapery in this way seems
 to be known--a bronze sitting figure of
 ,calliope1b which is of the late       
,hellenistic period1 and is obviously of
 the same school as the ,ariadne marble4
    a ,see ,plate #bi4    b ,dreicer    
,collection1 ,new ,york4    ,,note #de4 
,,page #aab  ,praxiteles is known to    
have executed at least four other       
statues of ,aphrodite besides the       
,cnidian example1 but this last is the  
only one as to which we have fairly     
complete records1 and of which copies   
have been closely identified4 ,it is    
also the most celebrated4 ,we may       
therefore accept the work as typical for

 comparative purposes4    ,,note #df4   
,,page #aac  ,there has been much       
discussion as to whether ,apelles showed
 the same extent of figure as is        
represented in the sculpture1 a common  
suggestion being that he brought the    
surface of the water to the waist line2 
but it is evident that the painting     
corresponded with the sculpture in this 
particular4 ,the artist had to represent
 the goddess walking towards the shore4 
,if he brought the water to the waist   
line he could not definitely suggest    
movement1 as a deflection of the        
shoulder line might mean that the       
goddess was in an attitude of rest1     
corresponding to the pose of nearly all 
the sculptured figures of the           
,praxitelean school4 ,on the other hand 
if he carried the water line down       
towards the knees1 the advance of the   
right leg would be most marked1 and the 
effect disturbing because of the loss of
 repose1 a quality at all times valuable
 in a painting of a single figure1 and  

really necessary in the representation  
of ,venus4 ,the artist very properly    
reduced the portion of the thighs       
visible to the smallest fraction        
possible compatible with an expression  
of movement1 in order to give the figure
 the greatest repose attainable4 ,under 
any circumstances there was nothing to  
gain by showing the water reaching to   
the waist4  ,certain details of the     
picture by ,apelles are to be obtained  
from ,grecian epigrams4 ,thus1 one by   
,antipater of ,sidon contains these     
linesa3    ,venus1 emerging from her    
parent sea1     ,apelles' graphic skill 
does here portray3   ,she wrings her    
hair1 while round the bright drops flee1
     ,and presses from her locks the    
foamy spray4  ,from this it would appear
 that the position of the goddess when  
painted was presumed to be comparatively
 near the artist1 otherwise the separate
 drops of falling water would not have  
been observed4 ,the last line in the    
following epigram by ,leonides of       

,tarentum indicates the ideal character 
of the countenance1 though evidence of  
this is scarcely necessaryb3    ,as     
,venus from her mother's bosom rose     
7,her beauty with the murmuring sea-foam
 glows71   ,apelles caught and fixed    
each heavenly charm2   ,no picture1 but 
the life1 sincere and warm4   ,see how  
those finger tips those tresses wring6  
,see how those eyes a calm-like radiance
 fling6    a ,translated by ,lord       
,neaves4    b ,translated by ,lord      
,neaves4    ,,note #dg4 ,,page #abd  ,so
 far as the writer knows1 ,piero was the
 only artist of the ,renaissance who    
used this mythological story for a      
composition 7his picture has hitherto   
been called an allegory71 a circumstance
 which is rather singular considering   
the suitableness of the subject for the 
provision of effective designs4 ,the    
,greek sculptors in dealing with the    
legend confined themselves to the moment
 when ,athena threw down the pipes1     
apparently for the reason that this     

instant gave an opportunity of rendering
 ,marsyas in a strong dramatic action4  
,the famous statue of the faun after    
,myron in ,rome1 is supposed to have    
formed part of a group representing     
,athena and ,marsyas immediately after  
the pipes were dropped1 and the design  
appears on still existing coins and     
vases of the fifth and fourth centuries 
,b4,c4 ,piero takes a later moment1     
showing ,marsyas comfortably squatting  
in the foreground of a delightful       
fanciful landscape1 expressing boyish   
satisfaction with the prizes he is about
 to try4 ,he is properly shown as a     
satyr instead of in the faun form of the
 sculptor4 ,there appears to be no      
legitimate place in painting for a faun1
 while a satyr may at times be          
appropriately introduced into a pastoral
 composition4    ,,note #dh4 ,,page #abe
  ,controversy has raged around this    
picture for something like seventy      
years4 ,the work came to light before   
#ahej at a public auction sale when it  

was attributed to ,mantegna1 with whom  
of course it had nothing to do4 ,then it
 was pronounced a ,raphael1 but this was
 disputed by ,passavant who held that on
 account of the thin lower limbs of the 
figures1 and the minute way in which the
 landscape was painted1 it could not be 
by ,raphael1 but was of the school of   
,francia1 or by ,timoteo della ,viti4   
,morelli brought back the attribution to
 ,raphael1 and the work then came into  
the possession of the ,louvre4          
,subsequently ,pinturicchio and         
,perugino were alternately suggested as 
the painter1 and to the latter the      
picture was assigned by the ,louvre     
authorities4 ,all are agreed that the   
date of the work is about #aejb4 ,it    
does not seem possible that ,perugino   
could have painted the picture1 for the 
subject and invention are entirely      
foreign to him1 while the lithe active  
form of ,apollo does not consort with   
the least formal of his known figures4  
,the landscape is much in his manner1   

but so it is also in the style of       
,raphael's early period1 while the small
 buildings therein are closely finished 
as in some of ,raphael's other works of 
the time4a ,perugino used similar towers
 and buildings1 but being a more        
experienced painter he did not so finely
 elaborate the details4 ,the suggestion 
relating to the school of ,francia was  
afterwards very properly withdrawn1 and 
,pinturicchio must be ruled out on      
account of the landscape1 apart from the
 supple figure of ,apollo of which he   
was incapable4 ,there remain then only  
,timoteo della ,viti and ,raphael as the
 possible painters of the work4 ,but it 
cannot reasonably be suggested that     
,timoteo could have accomplished so     
perfect a figure as the ,apollo1 and    
moreover so original a figure4 ,it      
certainly required an exceptionally bold
 mind to overcome the difficulty in     
rendering the traditionally             
semi-feminine form of ,apollo by        
representing him as a young man just    

past his teens4 ,besides1 the general   
delicacy of the work is not in the style
 of ,timoteo4 ,passavant's objection to 
the limbs is overruled by the presence  
of similar limbs in the ,mond           
,crucifixion4 ,it would seem then that  
,morelli was right in assigning the     
beautiful little picture to the youthful
 period of the greatest of all painters4
    a ,see ,portrait of a young ,man at 
,budapest1 and the ,terranuova ,virgin  
and ,child at ,berlin4    ,,note #di4   
,,page #ach  ,the white races are here  
referred to merely by way of example1   
and there is no intention to suggest    
that the more or less uncivilized       
peoples have no perception of beauty4   
,it is well known that both             
semi-civilized and savage races differ  
from the whites in the matter of beauty1
 and the fact has been partly           
responsible for several theories for    
explaining aesthetic perception1 notably
 that of association1 laid down by      
,alison and ,jeffrey1 but long since    

discarded4 ,seeing that there is no     
difference in kind between the sense    
nerves of the whites and the blacks1    
they must necessarily act in the same   
way4 ,that the blacks appreciate as     
beautiful forms which the whites        
disregard1 seems to arise partly from   
want of experience1 partly from         
training1 and partly from neglect in the
 exercise of the sense nerves4 ,take for
 example an inhabitant of ,morocco where
 corpulency is commonly regarded as an  
element of beauty in women4 ,if none but
 ,moroccan women are seen or pictured1  
it is impossible for a higher form of   
beauty than is to be found amongst them 
to be conceived1 for the imagination    
cannot act beyond experience4 ,in cases 
where the ,moroccan has had experience  
of both white and black1 it is certain  
that1 other things being equal1 the     
white woman would be the more admired1  
for this is the general experience among
 the black races1 and is strikingly     
noticeable in ,america with the         

descendants of ,african tribes4 ,the    
appreciation of very fat women can      
easily be understood on the ground of   
custom or training4 ,a youthful         
,moroccan may be firmly of opinion that 
corpulency is not an element of beauty1 
but seeing that his older acquaintances 
hold a contrary view1 he may well form  
the conclusion that his judgment is     
wrong1 and so accept the decision of his
 more mature countrymen4 ,it is quite   
common among the whites for people to   
doubt their own aesthetic perceptions   
when an inferior work of art is put     
forward as a thing of beauty4 ,the      
general want of appreciation of certain 
musical harmonies on the part of        
uncivilized peoples is undoubtedly due  
to the neglect of the sense nerves      
concerned1 for these are not cultivated 
except to a small extent involuntarily4 
,the most ignorant and poor of the      
whites unavoidably come into frequent   
contact with the simpler forms of art1  
but the savage races see only the result

 of their own handiwork4 ,the           
uncivilized races can scarcely be       
expected to admire the higher reaches of
 art wherein intellectual considerations
 enter1 except for their sensorial      
excellence4      ,illustration3 ,,plate 
#bh 7,see page #bef7   ,automedon and   
the ,horse of ,achilles1 by ,regnault   
7,boston ,museum7    ,,note #ej4 ,,page 
#aci  ,there seems to be some           
uncertainty as to whether ,fragonard    
intended his splendid series of the     
,frick collection to represent the      
subjects usually assigned to them1      
namely1 ,the ,pursuit 7or ,the ,flight  
of ,design1 a title given to the        
original sketch for the picture72 ,the  
,rendezvous 7or ,the ,surprise1 or ,the 
,escalade72 ,souvenirs 7or ,confidences1
 or ,the ,reader72 ,the ,lover ,crowned 
7or ,before the ,painter72 and ,the     
,abandonment 7or ,the ,reverie74 ,it is 
suggested that the works have an        
allegorical signification connected with
 art1 and certainly three of them--the  

first1 second1 and fourth--could be so  
interpreted4 ,but magnificent paintings 
of this kind are usually fitted for many
 allegorical suggestions4 ,each picture 
represents an incident of common        
experience1 elaborated with beautiful   
figures in a perfect setting4 ,this     
approaches the summit of the painter's  
art1 for no conception can be greater   
apart from spiritual ideals4 ,it is     
symbolism in its highest form--of       
universal experience in which all are   
interested4 ,the works are not to be    
taken as a necessary sequence 7the last 
of the series was painted twenty years  
after the others71 but the scheme of one
 or more of them has come within the    
experience of every man and woman since 
the world began4    ,,note #ea4 ,,page  
#adi  ,seeing that this precise         
dignified pose1 coming so near the line 
of exaggeration1 but never crossing it1 
is present in all the authenticated     
portraits of ,titian1 save those of very
 aged persons1 we may reasonably        

consider the pose an important factor in
 determining the validity of certain    
portraits as to which a doubt has       
arisen4 ,thus in the case of the        
,physician of ,parmaa 7this title is    
admittedly wrong71 which has been       
variously given to ,titian and          
,giorgione1 the verdict must be in      
favour of ,titian1 for the pose is      
certainly his1 while it is unknown in   
any work of ,giorgione4 ,on the other   
hand1 the portrait of ,catherine        
,cornara1b commonly ascribed to ,titian1
 but also attributed to ,giorgione1c    
cannot be by the former master2 nor is  
the ,portrait of a ,man 7with his hand  
on a bust71d which seems to pair with   
the ,cornara portrait4 ,the portrait    
known as ,an ,old ,man ,asleep1e        
sometimes given to ,titian1 clearly does
 not belong to him4  ,it should be noted
 that the general confusion observable  
for many years in the estimation of     
,giorgione's work arose from the        
attribution to him of paintings executed

 in the comparatively broad manner of   
,titian1 but which this artist did not  
adopt till ,giorgione had been dead for 
a decade or more4 ,the recent exhaustive
 critique of ,lionelli ,venturif of the 
earlier master has cleared the air1 and 
we now know the range of his work very  
positively4 ,giorgione was less fine in 
some of his paintings than in others1   
for he paid more attention to           
chiaroscuro as he matured1 but there is 
no instance where he painted in the     
broader manner occasionally exhibited by
 ,titian4 ,all the works in the style of
 ,the ,concert and ,the ,three ,ages are
 now known to be by other hands than    
those of ,giorgione1 and it must be     
unfortunately admitted that not a single
 painting by him exists either in       
,england or ,america4    a ,vienna      
,gallery4    b ,cook ,collection1       
,london4    c ,by ,herbert ,cook in     
,giorgione4    d ,uffizi ,gallery1      
,florence4    e ,the ,brera1 ,milan4    
f ,giorgione e il ,giorgionismo1 #aiac4 

,note #eb4 ,page #aef  ,hals is another 
artist as to whom many misconceptions   
have arisen in regard to his use of a   
very broad manner in his portraits4     
,there is a total of about #cej works   
attributed to him1 of which some two    
thirds are single portraits1 and twenty 
are portrait groups4 ,the balance       
includes over thirty genre pictures1    
mostly with single figures1 and fifty   
heads of boys and girls generally shown 
in the act of laughing4 ,it is in his   
genre work that the broad manner is     
mostly observable1 and only very        
occasionally is it to be found in his   
portraits4 ,in the more important works 
of the artist1 even during his later    
period1 his manner is by no means       
broad1a though it is not so fine as in  
his best years1 say from #afce to #afej4
 ,this estimate can however only be     
general1 as his dated paintings of      
different periods after #afcj often     
correspond so closely that it is        
difficult to assign dates to the other  

pictures with certainty4  ,perhaps the  
frequent attribution to ,hals of works  
by his pupils and imitators1 has had    
something to do with the public         
estimation of the breadth of his manner4
 ,this was often greatly exaggerated by 
his followers1 and many portraits are   
given to him which he could not possibly
 have painted4 ,in his important work on
 the artist1 ,dr4 von ,bode points out  
that some of the duplicates of his      
pictures were apparently executed by his
 pupils1 but these are not separated in 
the book4b ,it is a simple matter to    
divide the works painted by ,hals from  
the studio copies and the portraits of  
imitators4 ,his brushwork and impasto   
were quite exceptional4 ,he had a firm  
direct stroke1 never niggled or         
scumbled1 and his loading was restrained
 though very effective4 ,quite naturally
 his pupils1 however industrious and    
skilled1 could not closely imitate his  
remarkable freedom in handling4 ,they   
were incapable of firm decisive strokes 

throughout a portrait1 and endeavoured  
to overcome the loading difficulty by   
using brushes of a coarseness foreign to
 the master when rendering light tones4 
,moreover ,hals was nearly perfect in   
drawing1 and in this there are usually  
marked defects in the studio copies4    
a ,see ,stephanus ,gereardts1 ,antwerp  
,museum2 ,isabella ,coymans1         ,e4
 ,rothschild ,collection1 ,paris2 ,lady 
with a ,fan1 ,national         ,gallery1
 ,london2 and ,william van ,heythuysen1 
,liechtenstein         ,collection1     
,vienna4    b ,frans ,hals3 his ,life   
and ,work1 #aiad4    ,,note #ec4 ,,page 
#afa  ,the term grace as applied in art 
has so many significations that it is   
difficult to deal with one of them      
without confusion4 ,what is here        
specially referred to is the grace of   
pose designed by the artist4 ,the object
 of the portrait painter is to pose his 
sitter so that the grace indicated shall
 appear natural and habitual1 a feature 
as important now in the appearance of   

women as it was twenty-five centuries   
ago when ,sappho askeda3    ,what       
country maiden charms thee1     ,however
 fair her face1   ,who knows not how to 
gather     ,her dress with artless      
grace8  ,but the grace of pose never    
appears to be artless1 after the first  
inspection1 unless there is something in
 the expression to hold the mind4       
,without this appeal to the mind the    
portrait must soon tire1 and the pose   
become artificial and stiff1 that is to 
say1 in representations of life size1   
for in miniature portraiture the        
countenance seldom or never crosses the 
vision involuntarily4  ,in the ancient  
,greek forms1 ,winckelmann distinguishes
 four kinds of grace--lofty1 pleasing1  
humble1 and comic--but the grace        
exhibited by sculptured forms           
necessarily depends upon the harmony of 
expression1 character of form1 and pose4
 ,this should be the case with painted  
portraits also1 but drapery restrictions
 and accessories commonly compel a      

limitation in the design of the artist4 
,in three quarter and full length       
portraits it is impossible to depart    
from the dress customary at the period  
of execution1 unless the sitter assume a
 classical character1 and this is only  
possible in comparatively few instances4
 ,in any case the pose should always be 
subordinated to the expression4    a    
,free translation 7quoted by ,wharton71 
the term artless grace         being    
implied but not expressed by ,sappho4   
,,note #ed4 ,,page #afg  ,the remarkable
 range of ,raphael in expression has    
been commented upon by many critics1 and
 practically all agree with ,lanzi in   
his eloquent summarya3       ,there is  
not a movement of the soul1 there is not
 a character of      passion known to   
the ancients and capable of being       
expressed in      art1 that he          
7,raphael7 has not caught1 expressed1   
and varied in a      thousand different 
ways1 and always within the bounds of   
propriety4444 ,his figures are passions 

personified2 and love1 hope1      fear1 
desire1 anger1 placability1 humility1   
and pride1 assume their      places by  
turns as the subject changes2 and while 
the spectator      regards the          
countenances1 the air1 and the gestures 
of the figures1      he forgets that    
they are the work of art1 and is        
surprised to find      his own feelings 
excited1 and himself an actor in the    
scene before      him4    a ,history of 
,painting in ,italy1 vol4 i41 ,roscoe   
translation4    ,,note #ee4 ,,page #afi 
,this ,pompeian fresco is supposed to be
 a copy of the picture of ,timanthes1   
but there is an ancient marble relief of
 the same subject at ,florence1 the     
design of which is also said to have    
been taken from the ,grecian painter1   
though it differs considerably from the 
fresco4 ,quintilian observes as to the  
work of ,timanthes1 that having rendered
 ,calchas sad1 ,ulysses still more sad1 
and ,menelaus with the deepest          
expression of grief possible in art1 the

 painter could not properly portray the 
countenance of ,agamemnon1 who as father
 of ,iphigenia was presumed to be the   
most deeply affected of all present1 and
 so covered his head1 leaving the       
intensity of his suffering to be        
understood4a    a ,school of ,oratory1  
ii4    ,,note #ef4 ,,page #agb  ,the    
authenticity of the ,boston example of  
,mona ,lisa is still in dispute4 ,so far
 no serious objection to it has been    
brought forward1 and there are certain  
points in its favour1 as the presence of
 the columns which are reproduced in    
,raphael's sketch1 and the bold         
brushwork of the drapery where this can 
be distinguished4 ,but there is another 
example of the work in existence1 and   
this fact1 with the natural hesitation  
in pronouncing definitely on so         
important a matter1 will probably leave 
the authenticity of the picture         
undecided for a long time4 ,meanwhile   
the literature upon ,mona ,lisa is ever 
increasing1 and some important facts    

have been recently brought out4 ,amongst
 these is an announcement by ,a4 ,c4    
,coppier that the lady was not a        
,florentine1 but a ,neapolitan of the   
,gheradini family1 and that she was     
married in #adie1 when eighteen years of
 age4a ,she would therefore be          
twenty-seven years old in #aejd when the
 picture which ,raphael sketched is     
supposed to have been painted4 ,but the 
,mona ,lisa in the ,louvre was completed
 between #aeae and #aeai2 hence there is
 much to ascertain as to the history of 
the work4    a ,les ,arts1 ,no4 #ade1   
#aiad4    ,,note #eg4 ,,page #agb  ,the 
various suggestions that have been made 
as to the meaning of ,mona ,lisa's      
smile1 seem to have no other foundation 
than the fancies of mystic minds4 ,the  
smile has been called dangerous1        
sinister1 ambiguous1 provocative1       
purposely enigmatic1 significant of a   
loose woman1 expressive of sublime      
motherhood1 reminiscent of ,eastern     
intrigue1 and so on1 the mildest        

criticism of this kind affirming that   
the smile will ever remain an enigma4   
,it is of course impossible for any     
meaning to be put into a smile by the   
painter1 other than that of pleasure4   
,psychological suggestions are possible 
with the poet or novelist1 but not with 
the painter4 ,if there be any enigma or 
mystery in a picture1 then the art is   
bad1 for the work is incomprehensible1  
but there is no problem to be solved in 
,mona ,lisa's smile4 ,it is not         
different from any other smile except in
 degree1 and of course in the quality   
appertaining to the particular          
countenance4 ,lionardo1 with his        
scientific turn of mind1 was not likely 
to attempt the impossible by trying to  
mix psychology with paint4    ,,note    
#eh4 ,,page #agh  ,it is necessary to   
dissent from the conclusion of ,lessing 
as to the representation of ugliness by 
the poet4 ,he says in referring to      
,homer's portrayal of ,thersitesa3      
,why in the case of ugliness did he     

adopt a method from which he so         
judiciously refrained in that of beauty8
 ,does not a successive      enumeration
 of its compound parts diminish the     
effect of ugliness1      just as a      
similar enumeration of its parts        
destroys that of beauty8                
,undoubtedly it does1 but in this very  
fact lies ,homer's      justification4  
,for the very reason that ugliness in   
the poet's      description is reduced  
to a less repulsive appearance of bodily
      imperfection1 and in point of its 
effect ceases as it were to be          
ugliness1 the poet is enabled to make   
use of it4  ,it is true that as he      
cannot present a particular form of     
beauty by description1 so the poet      
cannot describe an ugly countenance in  
such a way that it may be pictured on   
the mind as a whole2 but on the other   
hand1 as he can1 by reference to its    
effect1 or by imagery1 present a greater
 beauty than the painter can portray1 so
 he may by similar means suggest a more 

hideous form of ugliness4 ,and apart    
from this1 while a detail in the        
description of a beautiful countenance  
is immaterial until it is combined with 
other details1 a detail of ugliness may 
in itself be sufficient to render the   
countenance wholly repulsive to the     
reader4 ,thus1 if one said of a maid    
that her cheeks were a compound of the  
lily and the rose1 this would not       
necessarily imply that she was generally
 beautiful2 but if it were said of a man
 that he had a large bulbous nose1 we   
should consider him ugly whatever the   
character of his other features4 ,it was
 only necessary for ,milton to refer to 
one or two details of the figure of     
,sin1 to throw upon our minds a form of 
appalling ugliness4b  ,a successive     
enumeration of its component parts1 does
 not therefore diminish the effect of   
ugliness1 as ,lessing claims1 but       
increases it4 ,on the other hand a      
successive enumeration of the parts of  
beauty does not destroy the beauty1 but 

simply fails to represent it4  ,the poet
 may use ugliness where the painter     
cannot1 because his ugly form does not  
dominate the scene1 save for an instant 
or two1 being quickly subordinated by   
surrounding conditions of speech and    
action2 whereas the ugly figure of the  
painter is fixed for ever4 ,further1 the
 poet may surround his description of   
the ugly thing with beautiful imagery   
and lofty sentiment1 practically hiding 
the ugliness with a cloak of beauty2 but
 the painter can only depict the ugly   
thing as it is1 naked to the sight1     
without gloss or apology4    a ,laocoon1
 ,ronnfeldt translation4    b ,paradise 
,lost1 ii4    ,,note #ei4 ,,page #aij   
,it has been suggested that the foot of 
,hercules in this fine bronze was placed
 upon the skull of an ox to indicate a  
successful hunt1a but ,hercules was a   
demigod1 and so could not be connected  
in art with any but a superhuman task or
 exploit4 ,moreover the only instance   
recorded in mythological history where  

,hercules fought with an ox 7unless the 
feat of strength against the white bull 
of ,augeas be called a fight71 is that  
of the ,cretan bull1 which was captured 
and not killed4 ,there is no other      
sculptured figure now known where a foot
 is placed on the skull of an ox1 but   
,pausanias records that he saw one in a 
temple of ,apollo at ,patrae1 the figure
 being that of the god himself4b        
,pausanias attributes the motive of the 
design to ,apollo's love of cattle4     
,there is no doubt about the            
significance of the ,frick bronze4 ,the 
skull of an ox1 and rams' heads are     
frequently found on ancient tombs1 and  
acanthus leaves were commonly used both 
in ,greece and ,rome as funereal signs1 
while the base of the statuette1 which  
is cast with the figure1 is clearly     
intended to represent an altar4 ,it is  
noticeable that the form of acanthus    
leaf used is ,roman1 suggesting that    
,pollaiuolo had access to the           
reproductions of tomb inscriptions made 

to the order of ,lorenzo de' ,medici4   
,there is apparently no other existing  
design of a hero contemplating death1   
but ,lysippus carved several figures1   
now lost1 of ,hercules in a sad or      
depressed mood4 ,in the most celebrated 
of these1 the demigod was seated in a   
thoughtful attitude on a lion's skin1   
and it is possible that this design was 
connected with the contemplation of     
death1 because it was produced in relief
 soon after the time of ,lysippus1 and  
later in a ,pompeian fresco1 in both    
cases in the presence of ,lichas1 the   
bearer of the poisoned garment4    a    
,bode's ,preface to the ,catalogue of   
the ,morgan ,bronzes4    b ,pausanias1  
vii4    ,,note #fj4 ,,page #aib  ,the   
attempt of ,ruskin to raise landscape to
 a high level in the art of the paintera
 need scarcely be referred to here1 so  
completely have his arguments been      
refuted elsewhere4  ,the authority of   
,alexander ,humboldt has been sometimes 
quoted in support of the assertion that 

landscape can appeal to the higher      
attributes1 the passage relied upon     
affirming that descriptive poetry and   
landscape painting are alike capable in 
a greater or lesser degree of combining 
the visible and invisible in our        
contemplation of nature4 ,but it is     
clear from the whole references of the  
writer to these arts1 that he means     
nothing more by his statement than that 
a painting or descriptive poem may1 like
 an actual landscape1 induce a feeling  
of wonder at the powers of the original 
,cause of nature4 ,the opinion of       
,humboldt upon the position of landscape
 painting may be gathered from his      
definite observation that it has a more 
material origin and a more earthly      
limitation than the art which deals with
 the human form4b    a ,modern          
,painters1 vols i4 and ii41 and the     
preface to the second         edition of
 the work4    b ,cosmos1 vol4 ii4       
,,note #fa4 ,,page #aid  ,it is doubtful
 whether an artist can invent a form of 

tree which does not exist in nature1    
without producing something of the      
character of a monstrosity4 ,from the   
point of view of dimensions1 the two    
extreme forms of trees used in painting1
 are represented in ,raphael's ,madonna 
with the ,goldfincha as to the slender  
forms1 and as to the giant trunks1 in   
two or three of ,claude's pictures4 ,the
 very beautiful trees of ,raphael have  
been often regarded as pure inventions1 
and ,ruskin was actually surprised that 
the artist did not delineate the true   
form of the trees and the true thickness
 of the boughs2b but as a matter of fact
 precisely similar trees 7a variety of  
ash7 are to be found in the valleys of  
the ,apennines to this day4 ,all the    
change that ,raphael made was to        
transport the trees from a sheltered    
spot to an open position4 ,very similar 
trees are introduced in the same        
master's ,apollo and ,marsyas4c         
,perugino was the first painter to use  
them1 and in some of his earlier works  

he made them of great height1d but he   
gradually modified the form till he     
approached the perfect symmetry and     
delicacy of ,raphael's examples4e ,marco
 ,basaiti introduced them into at least 
three of his pictures1 and they are also
 to be found in works by ,timoteo della 
,viti and ,francia4f ,higher and equally
 slender trees have been appropriately  
used by ,antonio della ,ceraiuolo1g and 
even by so late a painter as ,nicholas  
,poussin4h    a ,uffizi ,gallery1       
,florence4    b ,modern ,painters1 vol4 
iv4    c ,the ,louvre4    d ,baptism of 
,christ1 ,perugia2 and ,the             
,crucifixion1 ,florence4    e ,the      
,deposition1 ,pitti ,palace4    f       
,madonna and ,child in a ,rose ,garden1 
,munich4    g ,the ,crucifixion1        
,florence ,academy4    h ,diana sleeps  
in the ,forest1 ,prado1 ,madrid4        
,,note #fb4 ,,page #aid  ,in noting the 
fact that the great landscape artist    
invents his designs1 ,byron observes    
that nature does not furnish him with   

the scenes that he requires1 and addsa3 
,nature is not lavish of her beauties2  
they are widely scattered1      and     
occasionally displayed1 to be selected  
with care1 and gathered      with       
difficulty4  ,had ,byron been a painter1
 he would have known that the trouble of
 the artist is due to the over1 and not 
the under1 supply of beauty by nature4  
,the artist sees the beauty1 but cannot 
identify it with particular signs1 and  
so has to invent a scene himself1 using 
nature only for sketches or ideas4    a 
,art and ,nature4    ,,note #fc4 ,,page 
#bjj  ,the force of natural signs1 says 
,lessing1 consists in their resemblance 
to the things they represent4a ,in a    
criticism upon the second part of       
,faust1 ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes writesb3         
,the forms which are his 7the artist's7 
materials1 the symbols which      are   
his language1 must in themselves have   
beauty and an interest      readily     
appreciable by those who do not         
understand the occult      meaning4     

,unless they have this they cease to be 
art3 they become      hieroglyphs4 ,art 
is picture painting1 not picture        
writing4  ,while this is generally true1
 beauty in the lesser signs of the poet 
is of greater importance than in those  
of the painter1 because a painting is   
looked upon direct as a whole1 while a  
poem has to be comprehended in its parts
 before it can be properly considered as
 a whole4    a ,laocoon4    b ,life of  
,goethe1 #b;d edition4    ,,note #fd4   
,,page #bjc  ,although those of the     
fifteenth-century artists who treated   
landscape seriously did not thoroughly  
understand perspective1 yet they were   
seldom at a loss in representing        
distance1 that is1 in the clear         
atmosphere which they invariably used4  
,they were diffident in attempting      
distance with unbroken level country1   
and till quite the end of the century   
there is no instance where middle and   
far distance are shown together1 even   
with the assistance of hilly ground4    

,the almost invariable practice of the  
leading painters who made landscape a   
feature in their works1 was to introduce
 water leading back from the foreground1
 so that breaks therein could be used to
 indicate distance4 ,more or less       
numerous jutting forks of low lying land
 were thrown into the stream from either
 side1 this plan being successfully     
adopted in ,italy1a ,flanders1b and     
,germany4c  ,early in the sixteenth     
century much improvement was made in the
 use of water for providing distance1   
and a few of the ,venetian painters gave
 some consideration to aerial           
perspective1 but the most perfect       
example of this perspective in the      
period is contained in an early work of 
,raphael4d ,in the background is a lake 
extending into a gradually deepening    
haze1 and in this a boat is so skilfully
 placed as to increase considerably the 
apparent distance to the horizon4 ,this 
picture is a distinct advance upon the  
,venetian distance work of the time4e   

,later on in the century an artist      
rarely introduced water into a view     
specially to assist in producing        
distance by means of boats1 more        
advanced methods being adopted4 ,titian 
used sunlight effects with varying      
shadows1f or alternating clear and      
wooded ground4g ,these plans1 and the   
use of water with the addition of trees 
and low hills1h constitute the chief    
devices to be found in the late         
sixteenth-century ,italian pictures4    
,some of the sun effects rendered for   
distance purposes even before ,titian's 
best time are quite effective1 though   
formal4i    a ,see ,piero di ,cosimo's  
,death of ,procris1 ,national ,gallery1 
,london1         and ,mars and ,cupid1  
,berlin4    b ,van ,eyck's ,chancellor  
,rollin before the ,virgin1 and ,bout's 
,adoration of the ,magi4    c ,lucas    
,moser's ,voyage of the ,saints 7#adca71
 ,tiefenbroun1 ,germany4    d ,central  
panel in a triptych of the ,crucifixion1
 ,hermitage1         ,petrograd4 ,this  

picture has been sometimes attributed to
         ,perugino1 but it is           
unquestionably from the hand of         
,raphael4    e ,see ,titian's ,jacopo   
,pesaro presented to ,st4 ,peter1       
,antwerp4    f ,charles ,v4 at          
,muehlberg1 ,madrid4    g ,meeting of   
,joachim and ,anna1 ,padua2 and others4 
h ,bronzino's ,venus and ,cupid1        
,uffizi1 ,florence4    i ,schiavone's   
,jupiter and ,io1 ,hermitage4    ,,note 
#fe4 ,,page #bjd  ,lessing apparently   
overlooked the possibilities of         
landscape painting in his dictum as to  
progressive actions4 ,he writesa3       
,if painting on account of the signs and
 means of imitation which it            
employs1 and which can only be combined 
in space1 must entirely      renounce   
time1 then progressive actions cannot1  
in so far as they      are progressive1 
be included in the number of its        
subjects1 but it      must content      
itself with coexistent actions1 or with 
mere bodies1      which on account of   

their position cause an action to be    
suspected4  ,it is true that a series of
 progressive human actions cannot be    
included in one painting1 but           
progressive natural actions can be so   
included when the progression is regular
 and repeated and the actions are       
clearly separated to the eye4 ,although 
the painter can only depict a moment of 
time1 he can show the whole progression1
 which is not the case in a series of   
human actions1 as in the example quoted 
by ,lessing1 of ,pandarus arranging his 
bow1 opening his quiver1 choosing an    
arrow1 and so on4  ,strange to say1 ,de 
,quincey1 in an explanatory note to     
,lessing's observations1 also overlooks 
the movement of water broken by rocks1  
though he refers specially to landscape 
painting4 ,he saysb3       ,in the      
succession of parts which make up       
appearance in nature1      either the   
parts simply repeat each other 7as in   
the case of a man      walking1 a river 
flowing1 etc471 or they unfold          

themselves through      a cycle1 in     
which each step effaces the preceding1  
as in the case      of a gun exploding1 
where the flash is swallowed up by the  
smoke      effaced by its own           
dispersion4  ,but for the purpose of the
 painter1 the action of water breaking  
over ledges and boulders does not       
correspond with the case of a man       
walking or a river flowing1 because the 
series of events forming the progression
 in the case of the water breaking1     
cover such time and space that the      
events can be distinctly separated by   
the eye4 ,clearly also this action      
should not be included in ,de ,quincey's
 second category1 because the repetition
 is both regular and 7to all intents and
 purposes7 perpetual4 ,there should     
therefore be a third category to        
comprise those repeated progressive acts
 in which the events can be so separated
 by the eye as to be portrayed on canvas
 in the order of their progression1 and 
in such a way that the whole            

progression1 and the meaning of it1 are 
at once apparent4    a ,laocoon1        
,phillimore translation4    b ,essay on 
,lessing4      ,illustration3 ,,plate   
#bi 7,see page #cbi7   ,greek ,sculpture
 of ,ariadne 7,vatican7    ,,note #ff4  
,,page #bjh  ,professor ,clausen relates
 that ,whistler told him that his object
 in painting nocturnes was to try and   
exhibit the mystery and beauty of the   
night4 ,it is obvious that ,whistler was
 here confusing psychological with      
visual impressions4 ,the depth of gloom1
 the apparently limitless dark void     
which the eye cannot penetrate1 mean    
mystery in a sense1 because we can never
 accustom ourselves to the suggestion of
 infinity involved in something which is
 boundless to the senses4 ,a sensation  
of the sublime may consequently arise1  
and this means beauty in a psychological
 sense4 ,but we are considering art and 
not psychology4 ,where nothing is       
distinguished1 nothing can be painted1  
and if there be sufficient light for    

objects to be determined1 there can be  
no mystery for the painter4 ,if he be   
desirous of representing ,night1 he must
 follow the example of ,michelangelo and
 symbolize it4  ,it is curious that     
since the death of ,whistler1 a picture 
entitled ,mysteries of the ,night has   
been painted by another ,american       
artist--,j4 ,h4 ,johnston4 ,a figure of 
a beautiful nude woman is standing on a 
rocky shore in a contemplative attitude1
 with the moonlight thrown upon her4    
,the design is excellent1 but the       
realistic modelling of the figure       
effectually kills any suggestion of     
mystery4    ,,note #fg4 ,,page #bca     
,vasari mentions that ,michelangelo1    
though admiring the colour and manner of
 ,titian regretted that the ,venetian   
painters did not pay more attention to  
drawing in their studies4a ,in quoting  
this1 ,reynolds observedb3       ,but if
 general censure was given to that      
school from the sight of a      picture 
by ,titian1 how much more heavily and   

more justly would the      censure fall 
on ,paolo ,veronese1 and more especially
 on ,tintoretto4  ,reynolds himself     
rightly excluded ,titian when he        
condemned the later ,venetian painters  
of the ,renaissance for their           
exaggeration of colour1 and no doubt    
,titian was also exempted by ,j4 ,a4    
,symonds in his trenchant criticism of  
the work of this school4 ,when dealing  
with the decline of ,lesbian poetry     
after the brilliant period of ,sappho1  
he wrotec3       ,in this the ,lesbian  
poets were not unlike the ,provencal    
troubadours1 who made a literature of   
love1 or the ,venetian      painters1   
who based their art on the beauty of    
colour1 the      voluptuous charms of   
the flesh4 ,in each case the motive of  
enthusiastic passion sufficed to produce
 a dazzling result4 ,but as      soon as
 its freshness was exhausted there was  
nothing left for art      to live on1   
and mere decadence to sensuality ensued4
    a ,life of ,titian4    b ,reynolds's

 ,fourth ,discourse4    c ,studies of   
the ,greek ,poets1 vol4 i4    ,,note    
#fh4 ,,page #bcb  ,sir ,george ,beaumont
 relates of ,reynoldsa3       ,on his   
return from his second tour over        
,flanders and ,holland1 he      observed
 to me that the pictures of ,rubens     
appeared much less      brilliant than  
they had done on his former inspection4 
,he could not      for some time account
 for this little circumstance2 but when 
he      recollected that when he first  
saw them he had his notebook in his     
hand for the purpose of writing down    
short remarks1 he perceived      what   
had occasioned their now making a less  
impression than they      had done      
formerly4 ,by the eye passing           
immediately from the white      paper to
 the picture1 the colours derived       
uncommon richness and      warmth2 but  
for want of this foil they afterwards   
appeared      comparatively cold4    a  
,cunningham's ,lives of the ,british    
,painters4    ,,note #fi4 ,,page #bdi   

,rodina observes that in giving movement
 to his personages1 the artist          
represents the transition from one pose 
to another--he indicates      how       
insensibly the first glides into the    
second4 ,in his work we      still see a
 part of what was1 and we discover a    
part of what is to      be4  ,rodin     
points to ,rude's fine statue of        
,marshal ,ney1 and practically says that
 here the illusion is created by a      
series of progressive actions indicated 
in the attitude3 the legs remaining as  
they were when the sword was about to be
 drawn1 and the hand still holding the  
scabbard away from the body1 while the  
chest is being thrown out and the sword 
held aloft4 ,thus the sculptor          
compels1 so to speak1 the spectator to  
follow the development of an      act in
 an individual4 ,the eyes are forced to 
travel upwards from      the lower limbs
 to the raised arm1 and as in so doing  
they find the      different parts of   
the figure represented at successive    

instants1      they have the illusion of
 beholding the movement performed4      
,rodin himself has followed a similar   
course with much success4 ,the ancient  
,greek sculptors1 when representing a   
figure in action1 invariably chose a    
moment of rest between two progressive  
steps in the action4 ,the ,discobolus   
and ,marsyas of ,myron1 and particularly
 the ,atalanta in the ,louvre1 are fine 
examples4    a ,art1 by ,auguste ,rodin1
 compiled by ,paul ,gsell1 #aiaf4       
,,note #gj4 ,,page #bej  ,mengs1 in     
referring to the arrangement of the     
drapery in ,raphael's figures1 saysa3   
,with him every fold has its proper     
cause2 either in its own weight      or 
in the motion of the limbs4 ,sometimes  
the folds enable us to      tell what   
has preceded2 herein too ,raphael has   
endeavoured to find      significance4  
,it can be seen by the position of the  
folds1 whether      an arm or a leg has 
been moved forwards or backwards into   
the      attitude which it actually     

occupies2 whether a limb has been1 or is
      being1 moved from a contracted    
position into a straightened one1 or    
whether it was extended at first and is 
being contracted4    a ,the ,works of   
,anton ,raphael ,mengs1 vol4 ii41       
,d',azara translation4    ,,note #ga4   
,,page #beh  ,besides assisting in      
providing an illusion1 the title of a   
picture may lend great additional       
interest to it4 ,thus in ,millet's ,the 
,angelus the associations called up by  
the title act most powerfully on the    
mind1 and one almost listens for the    
sound of the bell4a ,a work of a similar
 character is ,bonvin's ,ave ,maria1    
where the nuns of a convent are         
answering the callb2 and ,horace ,walker
 has a picture with the same title1 in  
which a boy who is driving cattle1 stops
 in front of a ,crucifix by the         
waysidec4 ,an excellent example of this 
added interest is the title of ,turner's
 great picture of the ,temeraire1d as to
 which ,r4 ,phillimore writese3         

,it is not difficult to imagine the     
picture of an old man-of-war      towed 
by a steam tug up a river4 ,the         
execution of such a subject      may    
deserve great praise and give great     
satisfaction to the      beholder4 ,but 
add to the representation the statement 
that it is      ,the fighting ,temeraire
 towed to her last berth1  and a series 
of      the most stirring events of our 
national history fills our              
imagination4    a ,the ,louvre4    b    
,the ,luxembourg4    c ,corcoran        
,gallery1 ,washington4    d ,national   
,gallery1 ,london4    e ,preface to     
translation of ,lessing's ,laocoon4     
,,note #gb4 ,,page #bfa  ,there is an   
antique sculptured group in the ,vatican
 in which a precisely similar figure of 
the son of ,niobe has his left hand on  
the shoulder of his sister who has      
fallen to her knees from the effect of a
 wound1 and it is very reasonably       
suggested that the ,florence figure     
originally formed part of a like group4 

,but the explanation of the act given by
 ,perrya and others1 that the drapery   
was raised by the brother to shield the 
girl1 will scarcely hold good1 as the   
folds are spread out at the back1       
forming a concavity1 whereas they would 
fall loosely if the youth were resting4 
,apart from this1 his legs are widely   
separated1 and in a running position4   
,it may therefore be surmised that in   
the ,vatican group the artist intended  
to represent the precise moment when the
 fleeing youth reached his sister4    a 
,greek and ,roman ,sculpture4    ,,note 
#gc4 ,,page #bgj  ,it is curious that   
among the countless pictures of the     
,annunciation1 in very few indeed has   
surprise been expressed in the          
countenance and attitude of the ,virgin1
 though it is impossible to imagine an  
incident more properly calling for      
profound astonishment on the part of the
 principal personage in a composition1  
even in the absence of startling        
miraculous accessories such as that     

introduced by ,rossetti4 ,probably the  
reason for this is connected with the   
difficulty of expressing great surprise 
unaccompanied with some other feeling1  
as pleasure1 or sorrow1 or fear1 but    
there does not seem to be any cause why 
an exalted joyful excitement should not 
be exhibited4 ,mrs4 ,jameson thinks that
 the ,virgin should not appear startled1
 as ,she was accustomed to the perpetual
 ministry of ,angels who daily and      
hourly attended on ,her1a but it is     
questionable whether this can be        
properly assumed by the artist1 and in  
any case from the point of view of art1 
the action should correspond with the   
nature of the event as it is generally  
understood4 ,of the few masters who have
 indicated surprise in an ,annunciation 
picture1 ,tintoretto has gone the       
farthest4 ,he shows the ,virgin with    
,her lips parted1 and both hands held   
up1 evidently with astonishment1b an    
example followed by ,paris ,bordone4c   
,raphael in an early picture represents 

,her holding up one hand1 but the       
attitude might signify the reception of 
an announcement of importance4d         
,perugino shows ,her with both hands    
raised1 but otherwise ,she appears      
unconcerned4e ,a few other artists1     
including ,venusti and ,foppa1 and among
 modern men1 ,girodet1 adopt ,raphael's 
method of composition4 ,rubens goes a   
step farther1 and represents the ,virgin
 apparently standing back with surprise1
 though this is only faintly suggested  
by the facial expression4f    a ,legends
 of the ,madonna4    b ,scuolo di ,san  
,rocoo1 ,venice4    c ,sienna ,gallery4 
d ,the ,vatican4    e ,santa ,maria     
,nouvo1 ,perugia4    f ,vienna ,gallery4
     ,,index ,,of ,,sculptors1          
,,painters1 ,,and ,,works ,,of ,,art    
,,note4--,the ,schools to which the     
earlier ,italian painters belonged are  
given in brackets4   ,a    ,adam1       
,franz1 #ahae-ahhf1 ,german             
--,bavarian ,regiment before ,orleans1  
#beg    ,aivasovsky1 ,i4 ,k41           

#ahag-aijj1 ,russian1 #bje    ,albani1  
,francesco1 #aegh-affj1 ,italian1 #afc  
--,toilet of ,venus1 #aah               
,albertinelli1 ,mariotto1 #adfg-aeab1   
,italian ,florentine     --,the         
,salutation1 #bdc    ,alcamenes1 fifth  
century ,b4,c41 ,greek1 #cjd            
,altdorfer1 ,a41 #adhj 7c47-#aech1      
,german     --,the ,nativity1 #bfh      
,aman1 ,jean1 #ahfj-1 ,french           
--,sorbonne panels1 #bed    ,ancher1    
,anna ,k41 #ahei-1 ,danish     --,the   
,funeral1 #ahi    ,andreani1 ,a41       
#aedj-afbc1 ,italian1 #beg    ,angelico1
 ,fra 7,giovanni da ,fiesole71          
#achg-adee1           ,italian          
,florentine1 #ag1 #aja    ,antico 7,pier
 ,giacomo ,ilario71 worked late #aeth   
and early #afth century1                
,italian1 #cbf    ,antonella da         
,messina1 #adba 7c47-#adic1 ,italian    
,venetian     --,crucifixion1 #bdc      
,antonio del ,ceraiolo1 worked first    
half sixteenth century1                 
,italian ,florentine1 #cde    ,apelles1 

fourth century ,b4,c41 ,greek1 #aj1 #dd 
--,venus ,anadyomene1 #aac1 #ccj1 ,plate
 #d2     ,alexander in the character of 
,jupiter1 #bji    ,avercamp1 ,hendrick  
van1 #aehe-affc1 ,dutch1 #bib   ,b      
,bartolommeo da ,bagnacavallo 7,bart4   
,ramenghi71 #adhd-aedb1                 
,italian ,bolognese     --,holy ,family1
 #ajc    ,bartolommeo1 ,fra 7,baccio    
della ,porta1 or ,bart4 di ,pagholo71   
#adge-aeag1           ,italian          
,florentine     --,adoration of the     
,shepherds1 #bfe    ,bartolozzi1        
,francesco1 #agbe-ahae1 ,italian1 #afd  
,basaiti1 ,marco1 died after #aeba1     
,italian ,venetian     --,the ,dead     
,christ1 #ic2     ,calling of the       
,children of ,zebedee1 #ic2     ,christ 
on the ,mount of ,olives1 #bdc          
,baschenis1 ,evaristo1 #afag-afgg1      
,italian1 #bdg    ,battistello          
7,giovanni ,battista ,caracciolo71      
#aehj-afda1 ,italian1 #ag               
--,adoration of the ,shepherds1 #bga    
,bellano1 ,bartolommeo1 #adcj-adih1 #cbg

    ,benjamin-,constant1 ,j4 ,j41       
#ahde-aijb1 ,french1 #ahd               
,benoit-,levy1 ,jules1 #ahff-1 ,french  
--,morning of ,july #d1 #aghi1 #bec     
,berghem1 ,nicholas 7or ,berchem71      
#afbj-afhc1 ,dutch1 #dg1 #bib           
,bernadino da ,conti1 died #aebe1       
,italian ,venetian     --,virgin and    
,child1 #bde    ,bernini1 ,g4 ,l41      
#aeih-affi1 ,italian1 #ca1 #cc          
,berritini1 ,pietro1 #aeif-affi1        
,italian1 #ca    ,bertoldo di ,giovanni1
 #adbj 7c47-#adia1 ,italian1 #cbg       
,bischop1 ,c1 #afcj-afgd1 ,dutch1 #bib  
,blyhooft1 ,z41 #afbb 7c47-#afih1       
,dutch1 #bib    ,boecklin1 ,a41         
#ahbg-aija1 ,german1 #bjh     --,vita   
,somnium breve1 #ahj2     ,pieta1 #agj  
,boltraffio1 ,g4 ,a41 #adfg-aeaf1       
,italian ,milanese     --,virgin and    
,child1 #ajc    ,bonfiglio1 ,benedetto1 
#adbj-adif 7c47 ,italian ,perugian      
--,virgin and ,child1 #ajc    ,bonheur1 
,rosa1 #ahbb-ahii1 ,french              
--,ploughing in ,nivernois1 #bef        

,bordone1 ,paris1 #aejj-aegj1 ,italian  
,venetian     --,annunciation1 #ced     
,both1 ,andries1 #afji-afdd1 ,flemish1  
#dg    ,both1 ,jan1 #afaj 7c47-#afeb1   
,flemish1 #dg    ,botticelli1 ,sandro   
7,alessandro di ,mariano dei ,filippi71 
#addd-aeaj1           ,italian          
,florentine #if     --,pieta1 #afi2     
,nativity1 #bfi2     ,reposing ,venus1  
#aag2     ,athena and the ,centaur1 #abd
    ,boucher1 ,francois1 #agjd-aggj1    
,french     --,louvre ,portrait1 #agc2  
,sleeping ,venus1 #aah2     ,birth of   
,venus1 #bfh    ,bough1 ,s41 #ahbb-ahgh1
 ,british     --,borrowdale1 #bjd       
,bouguereau1 ,a4 ,w41 #ahbe-aije1       
,french     --,assumption of the        
,virgin1 #bfg2     ,une ame au ,ciel1   
#bfg2     ,birth of ,venus1 #aae2       
,aurora1 #bga2     ,twilight1 #bga2     
,the ,lost ,pleiad1 #bfi    ,bouts1     
,dirk1 #adjj-adge1 ,flemish             
--,adoration of the ,magi1 #cdg         
,braquemond1 ,j4 ,f41 #ahcc-1 ,french1  
#bhe    ,bramantino 7,bartolommeo       

,suardi71 #adfh-7;c47 #aecj1 ,italian   
,milanese     --,christ1 #ic2           
,virgin and ,child1 #ajc    ,breton1    
,jules1 #ahbg-aijf1 ,french     --,cry  
of ,alarm1 #bec    ,breughel1 ,jan1     
#aefi-afdb1 ,flemish1 #df    ,breughel1 
,pieter1 #aebh-aefi1 ,flemish1 #ij      
,bril1 ,paul1 #aeed-afbf1 ,flemish1 #df 
,bronzino 7,angelo ,allori71 #aejb-aegb1
 ,italian ,florentine     --,venus and  
,cupid1 #cdh    ,brown1 ,arnesby1       
#ahff-1 ,british     --,the ,drove1 #beg
    ,burne-,jones1 ,e4 ,b41 #ahcc-ahih1 
,british     --,annunciation1 #bgj2     
,golden ,stairs1 #beb2     ,dies        
,domini1 #ic   ,c    ,cabanel1          
,aexandre1 #ahbc-ahhi1 ,french          
--,venus ,anadyomene1 #aae    ,calamis1 
fifth century ,b4,c41 ,greek1 #i        
,canaletto 7,antonio ,canale71          
#afig-agfh1 ,italian1 #dg    ,canova1   
,antonio1 #ageg-ahbb1 ,italian          
--,l',amour et ,psyche1 #aia            
,cappelle1 ,jan van de1                 
#afbd7;c47-#afgi1 ,dutch1 #df           

,carracci1 ,agostino1 #aeeh-afja1       
,italian1 #ca    ,carracci1 ,annibale1  
#aefj-afji1 ,italian1 #ca    ,carracci1 
,ludovico1 #aeee-afai1 ,italian1 #ca    
,caravaggio1 ,m4 7,michelangelo         
,amerighi71 #aefi-afji1 ,italian1 #ag1  
#bdf    ,cavalori1 ,mirabello1 middle   
sixteenth century1 ,italian ,florentine 
--,the ,carpet ,weavers1 #beb           
,cellini1 ,benvenuto1 #aejj-aega1       
,italian1 #ag1 #cbc    ,cephisodostos1  
early fourth century ,b4,c41 ,greek     
--,irene and ,pluto1 #aja    ,cezanne1  
,paul1 #ahci-aijf1 ,french1 #cg1 #bhh   
,chardin1 ,j4 ,s41 #afii-aggi1 ,french1 
#agc1 #bdg    ,chartier1 ,h41 #ahgj     
7c47-1 ,french     --,jena1 #bef2       
,hanan1 #bef    ,chase1 ,w4 ,m41        
#ahdi-aiaf1 ,american     --,master     
,roland1 #afe    ,cignani1 ,carlo1      
#afbh-agai1 ,italian1 #cb1 #afd         
,cimabue1 ,giovanni1 #abdj 7c47-#acjb1  
,italian ,florentine #ib1 #ie1 #bhc     
--,virgin and ,child1 #aja    ,cipriani1
 ,g4 ,b41 #agbg-aghe1 ,italian1 #afd    

,claude ,lorraine 7,claude ,gelee71     
#afjj-afhb1           ,french1 #ag1 #cj1
 #dg1 #aie1 #aih1 #bja1 #bhc            
--,arcadian ,landscape1 ,plate #ag      
,clausen1 ,george1 #aheb-1 ,british1    
#bhd1 #cdi    ,cogniet1 ,l41 #agid-ahhj1
 ,french4     --,tintoretto ,painting   
his ,dead ,daughter1 #aia    ,colton1   
,w4 ,r41 #ahfg-1 ,british     --,royal  
,artillery ,memorial1 #bec              
,constable1 ,john1 #aggf-ahcg1 ,british1
 #dh1 #aie1 #bjh    ,copley1 ,j4 ,s41   
#agcg-ahae1 ,american     --,death of   
,chatham1 #aij    ,corenzio1            
,bellisario1 #aehh 7c47-#afdc1 ,greek1  
#ag    ,cornelius1 ,peter1 #aghc-ahfg1  
,german     --,let there be ,light1 #bfg
    ,correggio 7,antonio ,allegri71     
#adid-aecd1           ,italian ,parma1  
#dc1 #fi1 #ajb1 #ajh1 #adb     --,vice1 
#agi2     ,virtue1 #agi2     ,mercury   
instructing ,cupid1 #acj2     ,madonna  
and ,child with ,saints 7,parma71 #bfh2 
,parma frescoes1 #bbi    ,costa1        
,lorenzo1 #adfj-aece1 ,italian          

,ferrarese     --,coronation of the     
,virgin1 #ajb2     ,cupid crowning      
,isabella d',este1 #bbe    ,cosway1     
,richard1 #agdb-ahba1 ,british1 #afd    
,cot1 ,p4 ,a41 #ahcg-ahhc1 ,french      
--,the ,storm1 #baj    ,courbet1 ,g41   
#ahai-ahgg1 ,french     --,funeral at   
,ornans1 #ahi    ,coypel1 ,antoine1     
#affa-agdb1 ,french1 #afc    ,coypel1   
,noel1 #afbh-agjg1 ,french1 #afc        
,crivelli1 ,carlo1 #addj 7c47-#adif1    
,italian 7,venetian7     --,coronation  
of the ,virgin1 #bfd    ,crome1 ,john1  
#agfi-ahba1 ,british1 #bjh    ,cuyp1    
,albert1 #afje-afia1 ,dutch1 #bjc1 #bde 
,d    ,dalsgaard1 ,christen1 #ahbd-1    
,danish     --,the ,child's ,coffin1    
#ahi    ,damophon1 second century       
,b4,c41 ,greek1 #abb    ,danby1 ,f41    
#agic-ahfa1 ,british1 #bji              
,dehodencq1 ,e4 ,a41 #ahbb-ahhb1 ,french
     --,bohemians returning from a      
,fete1 #bec    ,delacroix1 ,e4 ,v4 ,e41 
#agih-ahfc1 ,french1 #bgh    ,delaroche1
 ,paul 7,hippolyte ,delaroche71         

#agig-ahef1 ,french     --,death of     
,queen ,elizabeth1 #aij                 
,demont-,breton1 ,v41 #ahei-1 ,french   
--,the ,divine ,apprentice1 #cba        
,diaz1 ,n41 #ahjg-ahgf1 ,french         
--,descent of the ,bohemians1 #bec      
,dolci1 ,carlo1 #afaf-afhf1 ,italian    
--,christ ,blessing1 #age               
,domenichino 7,domenico ,zampieri71     
#aeha-afda1 ,italian1 #ai     --,st4    
,cecilia1 #agf2     ,st4 ,paul's        
,vision1 #bfe    ,donatello 7,donate di 
,betto ,bardi71 #ache 7c47-#adff1       
,italian1 #cj1 #aja1 #ajh1 #cbe         
,doomer1 ,lambert1 #afdg 7c47-#afid1    
,dutch1 #bib    ,dore1 ,gustave1        
#ahcb-ahhc1 ,french     --,creation of  
the ,earth1 #bfe2     ,samson ,slaying  
the ,philistines1 #beb    ,dossi1       
,dosso1 #adgi-aeeb1 ,italian ,ferrarese 
--,muse instructing a ,court ,poet1     
#age2     ,nymph and ,satyr1 #age       
,dow1 ,gerard1 #afac-afge1 ,dutch1 #df1 
#bdh     --,the ,dentist1 #agf          
,duccio1 ,boninsegna di1 #abfj          

7c47-#acdj1 ,italian ,siennese1 #bhj    
--,madonna and ,child1 #aja    ,dumont1 
,jacques 7,le ,romain71 #agja-agha1     
,french     --,madame ,mercier and      
,family1 #agc    ,duerer1 ,albrecht1    
#adgd-aebh1 ,german1 #de     --,the     
,virgin with a ,canary1 #bfd    ,dyce1  
,william1 #ahjf-ahfd1 ,british          
--,st4 ,john leading the ,virgin from   
the ,tomb1 #bde   ,e    ,eakins1        
,thomas1 #ahdd-aiaf1 ,american          
--,dr4 ,cross's ,surgical ,clinic1 #ahe 
,emmet1 ,lydia1 #ahff-1 ,american       
--,patricia1 #bdg1 ,plate #bc    ,ercole
 di ,roberti 7,e4 di ,r4 ,grandi71 #adgj
 7c47-#aeca1           ,italian         
,ferrarese     --,the ,concert1 #age    
,everdingen1 ,e4 van1 #afab-afge1       
,dutch1 #bjd   ,f    ,falconet1 ,p4 ,e41
 #agda-agia1 ,french1 #afi    ,ferrari1 
,gaudenzio1 #adhd-aedi1 ,italian        
,milanese     --,madonna and ,child1    
#agc    ,ferri ,c41 #afcd-afhi1 ,italian
     --,david plans a ,temple1 #bfh     
,feuerbach1 ,a41 #ahbh-ahhj1 ,german    

--,medea1 #agj    ,filarete 7,antonio   
,averlino71 7c47 #acii-adgj1 ,italian1  
#cbg    ,flaxman1 ,john1 #agee-ahbf1    
,british1 #acj    ,fontana1 ,b4 7,g4 ,b4
 ,farinati71 #aecb-aeib1 ,italian       
--,vision of ,resurrection1 #bfg        
,foppa1 ,vincenzo1 #adbg 787-#aeae1     
,italian ,milanese     --,annunciation1 
#ced    ,fragonard1 ,j4 ,h41 #agcb-ahjf1
 ,french1 #dc1 #bhc     --,the ,pursuit1
 #aci2     ,the ,rendezvous1 #cce2      
,souvenirs1 #cce2     ,the ,lover       
,crowned1 #cce2     ,the ,abandonment1  
#cce2     ,venus ,awakened by ,aurora1  
#aah    ,francesco da ,cotignola 7,f4   
dei ,zaganelli71 worked early sixteenth 
century1 ,italian ,parma                
--,adoration of the ,shepherds1 #bfe    
,francia 7,francesco ,raibolini71       
#adej-aeag1 ,italian ,bolognese1 #ccb   
--,madonna and ,child in ,glory1 #bff2  
,madonna and ,child in a ,rose ,garden1 
#cde    ,fries1 ,hans1 7c47 #adej-aebj1 
,german     --,virgin and ,child with   
,st4 ,anne1 #ajc    ,frith1 ,w4 ,p41    

#ahai-aiji1 ,british     --,poverty and 
,wealth1 #agh    ,fromentin1 ,e41       
#ahbj-ahhf1 ,french1 #ahe               
--,couriers des ,ooled ,nayls1 #beg   ,g
    ,gaddi1 ,taddeo1 #acjj-acff1        
,italian ,florentine1 #bhj              
,gainsborough1 ,t41 #agbg-aghh1         
,british1 #afj     --,mrs4 ,leybourne1  
#agd2     ,lady ,sheffield1 #agd        
,genga1 ,girolamo1 #adgf-aeea1 ,italian4
     ,magdalene with ,saints1 #bff      
,gericault1 ,jean ,louis1 #agia-ahbd1   
,french     --,epsom1 #beg    ,ghiberti1
 ,lorenzo1 #acha-adee1 ,italian1 #cbd   
,ghirlandaio1 ,domenico1 #addi-adid1    
,italian ,florentine1 #cj1 #if          
--,old ,man and ,boy1 #aea2     ,birth  
of ,st4 ,john ,baptist1 #bea2     ,death
 of ,st4 ,francis1 #add    ,ghirlandaio1
 ,ridolfo1 #adhc-aefj1 ,italian         
,florentine     --,madonna giving her   
girdle to ,st4 ,thomas1 #bfe            
,gilbert1 ,john1 #ahag-ahig1 ,british   
--,slaying of ,job's ,sheep1 #bji       
,giordano1 ,luca1 #afcb-agje1 ,italian1 

#cb    ,giorgio1 ,francesco di1         
#adci-aejb1 ,italian ,siennese          
--,christ bereft of ,his clothes before 
the ,crucifixion1 #ic    ,giorgione     
7,giorgio ,barbarelli71 #adgg-aeaj1     
,italian ,venetian1 #bgh1 #bhc1 #ccf    
--,adrastus and ,hysipyle1 #baj1 #bbe2  
,the ,sleeping ,venus1 #aaf    ,giotto  
7,giotto di ,bondone71 #abfg 7c47-#accg1
           ,italian ,florentine1 #ie1   
#ajh1 #bhj1 #bhc     --,madonna and     
,child1 #aja    ,giovanni di ,bologna   
7,jean de ,douai71 #aebd-afjh1 ,french  
or ,flemish1 #cbc     --,mercury1 #abi  
,girodet de ,roncy1 ,a4 ,l41 #agfg-ahdb1
 ,french     --,burial of ,atala1 #aia2 
,annunciation1 #cee    ,girolamo da     
,libri1 #adgb-aeee1 ,italian ,venetian  
--,virgin and ,child1 #bdd              
,gouthiere1 ,pierre1 #agdj-ahjf1        
,french1 #cbc    ,goyen1 ,jan van1      
#aeif-afef1 ,dutch     --,view of ,the  
,hague1 #aie    ,granacci1 ,francesco1  
#adgg-aedd1 ,italian ,florentine        
--,the ,virgin giving her girdle to ,st4

 ,thomas1 #bfg    ,grant1 ,francis1     
#ahjc-ahgh1 ,british     --,countess of 
,chesterfield and ,mrs4 ,anson1 #bde    
,greco1 ,el 7,dominico ,theotocopuli71  
#aedg 7c47-#afad1 ,greek1 #ai    ,grien1
 ,hans ,baldung1 #adhj-aede1 ,german    
--,the ,three ,ages1 #ahj2     ,sacred  
and ,profane ,love1 #ahb2     ,pictures 
representing ,death1 #ahf    ,gros1 ,a4 
,j41 #agga-ahce1 ,french     --,the     
,combat of ,nazareth1 #bef2             
,timoleon of ,corinth1 #agj    ,guardi1 
,francesco1 #agab-agic1 ,italian        
--,regatta on the ,grand ,canal1 #beb   
,guercino 7,g4 ,f4 da ,cento71          
#aeij-afff1 ,italian     --,martyrdom of
 ,st4 ,peter1 #bfe    ,gutherz1 ,c1     
#ahdd-aijg1 ,swiss     --,they shall    
bear thee up1 #bfg   ,h    ,hacker1 ,a41
 #aheh-1 ,british     --,the ,cry of    
,egypt1 #agj    ,hals1 ,franz1          
#aehj-afff1 ,dutch1 #aee1 #bdh1 #ccf    
--,the ,laughing ,cavalier1 #agg2       
,stephanus ,gereardts1 #ccg2            
,isabella ,coymans1 #ccg2     ,lady with

 a ,fan1 #ccg2     ,willem van          
,heythuysen1 #ccg2     ,merry ,company  
at ,table1 #age    ,hanneman1 ,adrian1  
#afaa-afhj1 ,dutch     --,constantine   
,huygens and ,children1 #bdh    ,heim1  
,f4 ,j41 #aghg-ahfe1 ,french1 #ahd      
,henneberg1 ,r4 ,f41 #ahbe-ahgf1 ,german
     --,race for ,fortune1 #ahg         
,hobbema1 ,m41 #afch-agji1 ,dutch1 #df1 
#di1 #bjb     --,landscape1 ,plate #ah  
,hoet1 ,g41 #afdh-agcc1 ,dutch          
--,translation of ,enoch1 #bfi          
,hogarth1 ,w41 #afig-agfd1 ,british1    
#bbe1 #bhb    ,holbein1 ,hans1          
#adig-aedc1 ,german1 #bhc     --,the    
,barber ,surgeons1 #bbj2     ,holy      
,family1 #ajc2     ,the ,ambassadors1   
#dj1 #aeg2     ,virgin and ,child1 #bfc 
,homer1 ,winslow1 #ahcf-aiaj1 ,american 
--,all's ,well1 #agf1 ,plate #ae        
,hoppner1 ,john1 #ageh-ahaj1 ,british1  
#afa    ,humphrey1 ,ozias1 #agdb-ahaj1  
,british1 #afd    ,hunt1 ,w4 ,h41       
#ahbg-aiaj1 ,british     --,shadow of   
the ,cross1 #cba2     ,the ,scapegoat1  

#bbg   ,i    ,ingres1 ,j4 ,a4 ,d41      
#aghj-ahfg1 ,french     --,oath of      
,louis ,,xiii41 #bfd2     ,,oedipus and 
the ,sphinx1 #ahf2     ,birth of ,venus1
 #aae    ,innes1 ,george1 #ahbe-ahid1   
,american     --,niagara ,falls1 #baa   
,j    ,johnstone1 ,j4 ,h41 #aheg-1      
,american     --,mysteries of the       
,night1 #cej   ,k    ,kampf1 ,arthur1   
#ahfd-1 ,german     --,night of ,march  
#ca1 #ahhh1 #ahi    ,kauffmann1 ,maria  
,angelica1 #agda-ahjg1 ,german1 #afd    
,kaulbach1 ,w4 von1 #ahje-ahgd1 ,german 
--,marguerite1 #agj    ,keyser1 ,thomas 
de1 #aeif 7c47-#afgi1 ,dutch            
--,lesson in ,anatomy1 #ahe             
,kulmbach1 ,hans 7,hans ,suess71 #adgf  
7c47-#aebb1 ,german     --,entombment of
 ,st4 ,catherine1 #bfc   ,l    ,lancret1
 ,nicolas1 #affj-agdc1 ,french1 #ahj    
,lard1 ,f4 ,m41 late nineteenth century1
 ,french     --,glory ,forgets not      
,obscure ,heroes1 #aia    ,la ,touche1  
,g41 #ahed-aiac1 ,french1 #bhe          
--,firework pictures1 #bac    ,la ,tour1

 ,maurice ,q41 #agjd-aghh1 ,french      
--,madame de la ,popeliniere1 #agd2     
,mdlle4 ,camargo1 #agd2     ,madame de  
,pompadour1 #agd    ,latour1 ,i4 ,h4    
,fantin1 #ahcf-aijd1 ,french1 #bhe      
,lawrence1 ,thomas1 #agfi-ahcj1         
,british1 #afa1 #bbd    ,le ,brun1      
,charles1 #afai-afij1 ,french1 #afc     
--,death of ,cato1 #aia    ,leighton1   
,f41 #ahcj-ahif1 ,british     --,captive
 ,andromache1 #aga    ,leoni1 ,leone1   
died #aeij1 ,italian1 #cbc    ,le       
,sueur1 ,e41 #afaf-afee1 ,french1 #afc  
--,venus reposing1 #aah2     ,the       
,virgin appearing to ,st4 ,martin1 #bfa 
,levy1 ,h4 ,l41 #ahdj-aijd1 ,french     
--,young ,girl and ,death1 #aia         
,liberale di ,verona1 #adeb-aeai1       
,italian ,veronese     --,magdalene with
 ,saints1 #bfe    ,lionardo da ,vinci1  
#adeb-aeai1           ,italian          
,milanese1 #af1 #ah1 #cj1 #if1 #agb1    
#bhc1 #cbe     --,the ,last ,supper1    
#fi1 #ic2     ,mona ,lisa 7,paris71     
#aea1 #bdb1 #cda       --7formerly      

,boston71 #bdb1 #cdj2     ,litta        
,madonna1 #bdj1 ,plate #ba2     ,virgin 
and ,child with ,st4 ,anne1 #agb1 #bdc  
,lippi1 ,filippo1 #adjf-adfi1 ,italian  
,florentine1 #if     --,virgin and      
,child1 #ajc1 #bea    ,loefftz1 ,l41    
#ahde-1 ,german     --,the ,dead        
,christ1 #aga    ,longepied1 ,l41       
#ahdi-ahhh1 ,french     --,immortality1 
#aia    ,longhi1 ,pietro1 #agjb-agfb1   
,italian1 #ca    ,lorenzetto1 ,p41 first
 half fourteenth century1 ,italian      
,siennese     --,madonna and ,child1    
#aja    ,lotto1 ,lorenzo1 #adhj-aeef1   
,italian ,venetian     --,three ,ages of
 ,man1 #agi2     ,triumph of ,chastity1 
#bbf    ,luca di ,tome1 first half      
fourteenth century1 ,italian ,siennese1 
#bfa    ,luini1 ,aurelio 7,a4 del       
,lupino71 #aecj-aeic1 ,italian          
,milanese1 #bhh    ,luini1 ,bernadino   
7,b4 del ,lupino71 #adge 7c47-#aecf1    
,italian ,milanese     --,entombment of 
,st4 ,catherine1 #bfc2     ,salome1 #agc
    ,lux1 ,h4 ,l41 late nineteenth      

century1 ,french     --,sarpedon1 #bfh  
,lysippus1 fourth century ,b4,c41       
,greek1 #aj     --,hercules in depressed
 mood1 #cdd   ,m    ,mainardi1 ,s41 died
 about #aeae1 ,italian ,florentine      
--,madonna giving her girdle to ,st4    
,thomas1 #bfa    ,maitre de ,flemelle   
7,robert ,campin71 #acge 7c47-#addd1    
,french or ,flemish1 #ic1 #agj          
,manet1 ,edouard1 #ahcb-ahhc1 ,french1  
#bhf     --,boy with a ,sword1 #afe2    
,dejeuner sur l',herbe1 #aha2           
,olympia1 #bhg    ,mantegna1 ,andrea1   
#adca-aejf1 ,italian ,paduan     --,the 
,infant ,christ1 #ajb2     ,virgin and  
,child1 #age    ,margaritone of ,arezzo1
 #abaf-abic1 ,italian ,tuscan1 #bgi     
,maratta1 ,carlo1 #afbe-agac1 ,italian1 
#cc1 #bhd    ,martin1 ,john1 #aghi-ahed1
 ,british     --,plague of ,hail1 #baj2 
,destruction of ,pharaoh1 #baj2     ,i  
have ,set ,my ,bow in the ,cloud1 #baj  
,masaccio 7,tommaso ,guidi71 #adjb-adbi1
 ,italian ,florentine1 #bhc1 #cbb       
--,the ,madonna enthroned1 #ajd2        

,tribute ,money1 #bej    ,matisse1      
,henry1 #ahgf-1 ,french1 #cg    ,matsys1
 ,quentin1 #adfc 7c47-#aecj1 ,flemish1  
#ic    ,meissonier1 ,j4 ,l4 ,e41        
#ahae-ahia1 ,french     --#ahad1 #bef   
,mengs1 ,anton ,r41 #agbh-aggi1 ,german1
 #ceb     --,st4 ,john ,baptist         
,preaching1 #age    ,menzel1 ,a41       
#ahae-aije1 ,german     --,market ,place
 in ,verona1 #beb2     ,iron ,mill1 #beb
    ,meyer1 ,k41 #afah-afhi1 ,swiss1    
#agi    ,michelangelo ,buonarotti1      
#adge-aefd1           ,italian          
,florentine1 ,roman1 #aj1 #ac1 #af1 #ah1
 #ai1 #cj1 #dc1 #fi1           #ib1     
#bbi1 #bfj1 #bcc1 #cej     --,holy      
,family 7,florence71 #ahb2     ,last    
,judgment1 #ij1 #ic2     ,reposing      
,venus1 #aag2     ,leda1 #cbj2          
,night1 #cbj2     ,san ,lorenzo         
,madonna1 #cbj2     ,bargello ,madonna1 
#cbj2     ,pieta1 #cbj2     ,moses1     
#cbj2     ,bacchus1 #acb2     ,st4      
,stephen1 #ic2     ,creation of ,adam1  
,plate #bd    ,mignard1 ,pierre1        

#afaj-afie1 ,french1 #afc    ,millais1  
,j4 ,e41 #ahbi-ahif1 ,british     --,the
 ,carpenter's ,shop1 #cba    ,millet1   
,j4 ,f41 #ahad-ahge1 ,french     --,the 
,angelus1 #ceb    ,molyn1 ,p41          
#aeib7;c47-#affa1 ,dutch1 #bib          
,monet1 ,c4 ,j41 #ahdj-1 ,french1 #bhf  
,montagna1 ,b41 #adej7;c47-#aebc1       
,italian ,venetian     --,the ,virgin   
,enthroned1 #ajb    ,moro1 ,antonio1    
#aeab-aege1 ,flemish     --,catilina of 
,portugal1 #aei2     ,maria of ,austria1
 #aei    ,morot1 ,a4 ,n41 #ahej-1       
,french     --,reichsoffen1 #bef        
,moser1 ,lucas1 first half fifteenth    
century1 ,german     --,voyage of the   
,saints1 #cdg    ,murillo1 ,b4 ,e41     
#afah-afhb1 ,spanish1 #ai1 #afc         
--,holy ,family1 #ajc2     ,ascension of
 ,christ1 #bfj2     ,immaculate         
,conception pictures1 #bff    ,myron1   
fifth century ,b4,c41 ,greek1 #i1 #bdi  
--,discobolus1 #ceb2     ,marsyas1 #cca1
 #ceb   ,n    ,nattier1 ,j4 ,m41        
#afhe-agff1 ,french1 #afd     --,madame 

,louise1 #agc   ,o    ,orcagna 7,andrea 
di ,cione71 #acjh7;c47-#acgj1 ,italian  
,florentine     --,assumption of the    
,virgin1 #bfa    ,orchardson1 ,w4 ,q41  
#ahce-aijg1 ,british     --,the ,borgia1
 #ahi   ,p    ,palma ,giovane 7,jacopo  
,palma71 #aedd-afbh1 ,italian ,venetian 
--,christ in ,judgment1 #bfd    ,palma  
,vecchio 7,jacopo ,palma71              
#adhj7;c47-#aebh1 ,italian ,venetian    
--,reposing ,venus1 #aag2               
,assumption1 #bff    ,parmigiano        
7,francesco ,mazzuoli71 #aejd-aedj1     
,italian ,parma     --,madonna and      
,child with ,saints1 #ajc    ,pedrini1  
,giovanni 7,giampietrino71 late         
fifteenth and early sixteenth           
centuries1 ,italian ,milanese           
--,madonna1 #agc    ,perronneau1 ,j4    
,b41 #agae-aghc1 ,french     --,madame  
,olivier1 #agc    ,perugino1 ,pietro    
7,pietro ,vanucci71 #addf-aebd1         
,italian ,umbrian1 #ag1 #ccb            
--,christ's ,rule1 #bfd2                
,deposition1 #cde2     ,assumption of   

the ,virgin1 #bfb2     ,ascension1 #bfb1
 #bfc2     ,baptism of ,christ1 #cde2   
,madonna with ,child and ,penitents1    
#bfd2     ,annunciation1 #ced2          
,crucifixion 7,florence71 #cde          
,phidias1 fifth century ,b4,c41 ,greek1 
#g1 #aj1 #dd1 #eg1 #ia1 #ajh1 #abb1 #cbh
     --,olympian ,zeus1 #fh2            
,parthenon ,athena1 #fh1 #abc           
,picart1 ,b41 #afgc-agcc1 ,french       
--,the ,burning ,coal1 #bfb    ,piero di
 ,cosimo 7,piero ,rosselli or ,piero di 
,lorenzo71 #adfb-aeba1                  
,italian ,florentine1 #cbb              
--,marsyas and the ,pipes of ,athena1   
#abd1 #bbe1 #cca2     ,death of         
,procris1 #cdg2     ,mars and ,cupid1   
#cdg    ,pinturicchio1 ,b41 #aded-aeac1 
,italian ,umbrian1 #ccb    ,pisano1     
,giovanni1 fourteenth century1 ,italian 
--,madonna and ,child1 #aja    ,pisano1 
,giunto1 first half thirteenth century1 
,italian     --,christ and the ,virgin1 
#bfa    ,pisano1 ,niccolo1 #abjf        
7c47-#abgh1 ,italian     --,infant      

,christ1 #ajh    ,pissarro1 ,c41        
#ahcj-aijc1 ,french1 #bhf    ,polidoro  
da ,caravaggio 7,polidoro ,caldara71    
died #aedc1           ,italian          
,neapolitan1 #afi    ,pollaiuolo1       
,antonio 7,a4 di ,jacopo ,benci71       
#adbi-adih1           ,italian          
,florentine1 #cbg     --,hercules       
contemplating death1 #aij1 ,plate #af1  
#cdc    ,polyclitus1 fifth century      
,b4,c41 ,greek     --,hera1 #abj        
,polygnotus1 fifth century ,b4,c41      
,greek     --,frescoes from ,homer1 #fi 
,pontormo 7,jacopo ,carrucci71          
#adic-aeeh1 ,italian ,florentine1 #adb  
--,venus ,reposing1 #aag    ,potter1    
,paul1 #afbe-afed1 ,dutch1 #bjc1 #bde   
,poussin1 ,gaspar 7,gaspar ,dughet71    
#afac-afge1 ,french1 #aie    ,poussin1  
,nicholas1 #aeid-affe1 ,french1 #af1    
#cj1 #dg1 #afc1 #aie     --,jonah cast  
into the sea1 #baj2     ,assumption of  
the ,virgin1 #bfg2     ,st4 ,francis    
,xavier1 #bfa2     ,vision of ,st4      
,paul1 #bfg2     ,venus ,reposing1 #aag2

     ,adam and ,eve1 #bfe2     ,diana   
,sleeps in the ,forest1 #cde2           
,descent from the ,cross1 #afh          
,poynter1 ,e4 ,j41 #ahcf-1 ,british     
--,building the ,treasure ,city1 #bec   
,praxiteles1 fourth century ,b4,c41     
,greek1 #g1 #aj1 #ac1 #dd1 #acf1 #cbh   
--,the ,cnidian ,aphrodite1 #aab1 #cbi2 
,hermes and the ,infant ,bacchus1 #aja1 
#aji1 #abi    ,prevost1 ,jean1 died     
#aebi1 ,french     --,old ,man and      
,death1 #ahf    ,prudhon1 ,p4 ,p4       
#ageh-ahbc1 ,french     --,crucifixion1 
#agj2     ,abduction of ,psyche1 #bff   
,r    ,raeburn1 ,henry1 #agef-ahbc1     
,british1 #afa     --,the ,farmer's     
,wife1 #agd2     ,mrs4 ,lauzun1 #agd2   
,mrs4 ,balfour1 #agd2     ,dr4 ,n4      
,spens1 #aff    ,raphael 7,raffaello    
,sanzio71 #adgc-aebj1           ,italian
 ,umbrian1 ,florentine1 ,roman1 #g1 #aj1
 #ac1 #af1 #ah1 #bh1           #dc1 #eg1
 #fi1 #ib1 #ajh1 #abe1 #acg1 #adb1 #afg1
 #bbi1 #bhc     --,god ,appearing to    
,isaac1 #bfa2     ,god ,separating      

,water from ,earth1 #bfa2     ,creation 
of the ,sun and ,moon1 #bfa2            
,transfiguration1 #bea2     ,julius     
,,ii41 #dj1 #aea1 #bhi2     ,school of  
,athens1 #add2     ,parnassus1 #abe2    
,prophets and ,sybils1 #bdc1 #bfc2      
,foligna ,madonna1 #bfc2     ,creation  
of ,woman1 #bfc2     ,maddalena ,doni1  
#bdb2     ,angelo ,doni1 #bdb2          
,study from ,mona ,lisa1 #bdb2     ,the 
,redeemer1 #bdc2     ,madonna and ,child
 7,bridgewater71 #ajb2     ,madonna and 
,child with ,st4 ,john 7,berlin71 #ajb2 
,holy ,family 7,madrid71 ,deliverance of
 ,st4 ,peter1 #bea2     ,fire at the    
,borgo1 #bea2     ,flight of ,lot and   
his ,family1 #bea2     ,crucifixion1    
#cdg2     ,moses ,striking the ,rock1   
#bea2     ,saint ,cecilia1 #agf2        
,saint ,sebastian1 #bdc2     ,venus     
,anadyomene1 #aac2     ,christ          
,blessing1 #ic2     ,casa ,tempi        
,madonna1 #agc2     ,cowper ,madonna1   
#agc2     ,leo ,n4 and the ,cardinals   
,medici1 #aeg2     ,fornarina1 #agc2    

,portrait of a ,young ,man1 #agc2       
,mercury and ,psyche1 #abi2     ,st4    
,margaret1 #bej1 ,plate #bf2            
,annunciation1 #ced2     ,apollo and    
,marsyas1 #abe1 #ccb1 #cde2     ,virgin 
with a ,goldfinch1 #agc1 #cde2          
,sistine ,madonna1 #bcj    ,ravestyn1   
,jan van1 #aegb-afeg1 ,dutch1 #aeh      
,redon1 ,o41 died #aiag1 ,french        
--,death1 the ,friend1 #ahh             
,regnault1 ,h41 #ahdc-ahga1 ,french     
--,automedon and the ,horses of         
,achilles1 #bef1 ,plate #bh             
,rembrandt van ,ryn1 ,h41 #afjf-affi1   
,dutch1 #bj1 #ba1 #aeb1 #afj1 #bhc1 #bhi
     --,rembrandt and ,saskia1 #agg2    
,angel quitting ,tobias1 #bfc2          
,lesson in ,anatomy1 #ahe2     ,lady    
with a ,dog1 #bha2     ,ascension of    
,christ1 #bff1 #bfg2     ,night ,watch1 
#ba2     ,syndics of the ,drapers1 #bha2
     ,portrait ,young ,man 7,beit       
,coll471 #bha2     do4 7,wachtmeister   
,coll471 #bha2     ,martin ,day1 #aej2  
,machteld von ,doorn1 #aej2     ,samson 

menacing his father-in-law1 #bdh        
,reni1 ,guido1 #aege-afdb1 ,italian     
--,assumption of the ,virgin1 #bfh      
,rethel1 ,a41 #ahaf-ahei1 ,german       
--,death at a ,masked ,ball1 #ahg2      
,death the ,friend1 #ahh    ,reynolds1  
,joshua1 #agbc-agib1 ,british1 #adb1    
#aed1 #afj1 #bbd1 #bhb1 #cej     --,the 
,infant ,hercules1 #agf2     ,mrs4      
,siddons as ,tragedy1 #afa2     ,mrs4   
,billington as ,cecilia1 #afa2     ,hon4
 ,lavinia ,bingham1 #agd2     ,mrs4     
,abington1 #agd2     ,viscountess       
,crosbie1 #aff    ,riccio 7,andrea      
,briosco71 #adgj-aecb1 ,italian1 #cbc1  
#cbf    ,ribera1 ,giuseppe1 #aeic-afef1 
,italian1 #ag    ,rigaud1 ,h41          
#afei-agdc1 ,french1 #afc     --,louis  
,,xv4 as a boy1 #agc    ,robbia1 ,luca  
della1 #adjj-adhb1 ,italian1 #cbe       
,robbia1 ,andrea della #adce-aebe1      
,italian1 #ajd    ,roberts1 ,david1     
#agif-ahfd1 ,british     --,the         
,israelites depart1 #beg    ,rodin1 ,a41
 #ahdj-aiag1 ,french1 #bdi1 #cea        

--,la ,vieille ,heaulmiere1 #cag        
,roll1 ,a4 ,p41 #ahdg-1 ,french1 #bga   
,romano1 ,giulio 7,g4 ,pippi71          
#adib-aedf1 ,italian ,roman     --,holy 
,family1 #ajd    ,romney1 ,george1      
#agcd-ahjb1 ,british1 #adb1 #afa1 #afd  
--,lady ,hamilton as a ,bacchante1 #agd2
     ,william ,booth1 #agd2     ,mrs4   
,thomas ,raikes1 #afe2     ,the ,ladies 
,spencer1 #aff2     ,mrs4 ,yates1 #agd2 
,mrs4 ,tickle1 #agd    ,rosa1 ,salvator1
 #afae-afgc1 ,italian1 #cb              
--,samuel's ,curse1 #agi    ,rosalba    
7,rosalba ,carriera71 #afge-ageg1       
,italian1 #afd    ,roslin1 ,a41         
#agah-agic1 ,french1 #agc4              
,rossellino1 ,antonio1 #adbi-adgi1      
,italian1 #ajd    ,rossetti1 ,d4 ,g41   
#ahbh-ahhb1 ,british                    
--,annunciation1 #bgj    ,rubens1 ,p4   
,p41 #aegg-afdj1 ,flemish1 #af1 #bj1    
#cj1 #df1 #aeb1 #bbf1 #bhc              
--,assumption of the ,virgin            
7,dusseldorf71 #bff2     do4 7,vienna71 
#bff2     do4 7,augsburg71 #bff2     do4

 7,brussels71 #bff2     ,ascension      
7,vienna71 #bfg2     do 7,venice71 #bfh2
     ,deity and ,christ1 #bff2          
,diana and ,nymphs1 #bed1 ,plate #bg2   
,harvest ,landscape 7,munich71 #baa2    
do4 7,wallace ,coll471 #baa2     ,virgin
 and ,child 7,rome71 #bfb2     ,birth of
 ,venus1 #aae2     ,landscape with a    
,rainbow1 #baa2     ,shipwreck of       
,aeneas1 #baa2     ,annunciation        
7,vienna71 #cee2     ,landscape with    
,baucis and ,philemon1 #baj2            
,funeral of ,decius1 #ahh2     ,boreas  
and ,oreithyia1 #bfj2     ,landscape by 
,moonlight1 #bji2     ,toilet of ,venus1
 #aah2     ,christ on the ,cross1 #bdd2 
,death of ,seneca1 #aij2     ,the ,four 
,philosophers1 #aeg2     ,david's ,last 
,song1 #agf2     ,marie de' ,medici     
series1 #bbf    ,rude1 ,francois1       
#agid-ahee1 ,french     --,marshal ,ney1
 #cea2     ,marseillaise1 #bed          
,ruysdael1 ,jacob1 #afbh 7c47-#afhb1    
,dutch1 #di1 #bjc1 #bjh     --,the      
,rising ,storm1 #bjf1 ,plate #bj2       

,landscape with flowing water1 #bjd1    
,plate #ai2     ,the ,marsh1 #bjc   ,s  
,sacchi1 ,andrea1 #afjj-affa1 ,italian1 
#afd    ,saint-,bonvin1 ,f41 #ahag-ahhg1
 ,french     --,ave ,maria1 #cec        
,saint-,gaudens1 ,a41 #ahdh-aijg1       
,american     --,shaw ,memorial ,relief1
 #bed    ,salviati1 ,f4 7,francesco de  
,rossi71 #aeaj-aefc1 ,italian           
,florentine     --,justice1 #agi        
,sansovino 7,jacopo ,tatti71 #adhf-aegj1
 ,italian1 #cbc    ,sarto1 ,andrea del  
7,andrea ,agnolo71 #adhh-aecj1          
,italian ,florentine1 #adb     --,holy  
,family 7,hermitage71 #ajd              
,sassoferrato 7,giovanni ,battisto      
,salvi71 #afje-afhe1 ,italian1 #afd     
,scheffer1 ,ary1 #agie-aheh1 ,dutch     
--,temptation of ,christ1 #agh          
,schiavone1 ,andrea1 #adfb-aebb1        
,italian ,venetian     --,jupiter and   
,io1 #cdh    ,schnorr1 ,j4 von ,k41     
#agid-ahgb1 ,german     --,god's        
,promise to ,abraham1 #bfi              
,schongauer1 ,martin1 7c47 #adde-adia1  

,german1 #de    ,schonherr1 ,c41        
nineteenth century1 ,german     --,agony
 in the ,garden1 #bfe    ,schreyer1     
,adolf1 #ahbh-ahii1 ,german     --,the  
,attack1 #beg    ,schwind1 ,m41         
#ahjd-ahga1 ,austrian     --,the        
,pleiads1 #bfi1 ,plate #be2             
,rainbow1 #bab2     ,phantom in the     
,forest1 #bgj    ,scopas1 fourth century
 ,b4,c41 ,greek1 #aj     --,demeter1    
#abb1 ,plate #g    ,sebastiano del      
,piombo 7,sebastiano ,luciani71         
#adhe-aedg1           ,italian ,venetian
     --,concert1 #aha    ,signorelli1   
,luca1 #addj 7c47-#aeba1 ,italian       
,umbrian1 #aia     --,portrait of a     
,man1 #ahb2     ,madonna and ,child1    
#ajc1 #bfd    ,simson1 ,william1        
#ahjj-ahdg1 ,british1 #bde    ,snyders1 
,frans1 #aegi-afgg1 ,flemish1 #baf1 #beg
    ,sodoma1 ,il1 7,giovanni ,a4        
,bazzi71 #adgg-aedi1 ,italian ,siamese  
--,sacrifice of ,abraham1 #bdd          
,steen1 ,jan1 #afbi-afgi1 ,dutch        
--,terrace ,scene1 #bde   ,t            

,tassaert1 ,o41 #ahjj-ahgd1 ,french1 #ag
     --,assumption of the ,virgin1 #bff 
,teniers1 ,david1 #afaj-afij1 ,dutch1   
#ij    ,terburg 7or ,terborch71 ,gerard1
 #afag-afha1 ,dutch1 #df     --,peace of
 ,munster1 #aeh    ,thoma1 ,hans1       
#ahci-1 ,german     --,temptation of    
,christ1 #ahg2     ,cupid and ,death1   
#agh2     ,sin and ,death1 #ahg2        
,progress of the gods to ,walhalla1     
#bab2     ,rainbow1 #baa2     ,view of  
,laufenburg1 #bjd    ,thomson1 ,john1   
#aggh-ahdj1 ,british     --,fast        
,castle1 #bjg2     ,dunluce ,castle1    
#bjg    ,tiepolo1 ,g4 ,b41 #afib-agfi1  
,italian1 #ca    ,timanthes1 fourth     
century ,b4,c41 ,greek     --,sacrifice 
of ,iphigenia1 #afh1 ,plate #ad1 #cci   
,tintoretto 7,jacopo ,robusti71         
#aeah-aeid1 ,italian ,venetian1 #bfa    
--,bacchus and ,ariadne1 #bgj2          
,annunciation1 #ced2     ,presentation  
of the ,virgin1 #bdc    ,titian         
7,titiano ,vecelli71 #adgg-aegf1        
,italian ,venetian1 #ac1 #dj1 #ajh1     

#adh1 #aeb1 #bhc1 #ccf1 #cej            
--,assumption of the ,virgin1 #bff2     
,sacred and ,profane ,love1 #ach1 #aha2 
,resurrection1 #bfd2     ,madonna of the
 ,cherries1 #ajb2     ,meeting of       
,joachim and ,anna1 #ajb2     ,three    
,ages of ,man1 #agi2     ,madonna with  
,,ss4 ,anthony and ,john1 #ajd1 #cdh2   
,jacopo ,pesaro presented to ,st4       
,peter1 #cdg2     ,paul ,,iii4 with the 
two ,brothers ,farnese1 #aeg1 #afd2     
,reposing ,venus 7,uffizi71 #aaf2       
,venus ,anadyomene1 #aae2     ,aretino1 
#add2     ,man with the ,gloves1 #aea2  
,duke of ,alba1 #add2     portraits of  
,philip ,,ii41 #add2     ,charles ,v4 at
 ,muehlberg1 #adi1 #cdg2     portraits  
of his ,daughter1 #adi2     ,duke of    
,ferrara1 #adi2     ,physician of       
,parma1 #ccf2     ,toilet of ,venus1    
#aah2     ,christ on the ,cross1 #bdd2  
,pharaoh's ,host overwhelmed1 #beg2     
self-portrait1 #adi2     ,venus and the 
,organ ,player1 #aff    ,turner1 ,j4 ,m4
 ,w41 #agge-ahea1 ,british1 #af1 #ag1   

#bja     --,arundel ,castle1 #baj2      
,the ,temeraire towed to her last berth1
 #cec   ,u    ,uhde1 ,fritz von1 #ahdh-1
 ,german1 #cba     --,cavalry going into
 action1 #beg2     ,revenge1 #ahg2      
,the ,three ,magi1 #ajd   ,v    ,van der
 ,neer1 ,a41 #afai-afhc1 ,dutch1 #bjh   
,van de ,velde1 ,w41 #afcc-agjg1 ,dutch1
 #df    ,van der ,venne1 ,a4 ,p41       
#aehi-affa1 ,dutch     --,the ,soul     
,fishery1 #baa    ,van der ,weyden1     
,roger1 #adjj 7c47-#adfd1 ,flemish1 #ic1
 #agj    ,van ,dyck1 ,anthony1          
#aeii-afda1 ,flemish1 #adb1 #adh1 #aeg1 
#baf     --,four ,ages1 #ahj2           
,christ on the ,cross1 #bdd1 ,plate #bb2
     ,earl of ,pembroke1 #afe2     ,earl
 of ,bedford1 #aej2     ,philip le ,roy1
 #afe2     ,henrietta ,maria 7,windsor71
 #aej2     portrait of his ,wife1 #aff2 
,earl of ,newport1 #aej2     ,countess  
of ,devonshire1 #afe    ,van ,eyck1     
,jan1 #ache 7c47-#adda1 ,flemish1 #bhc  
--,virgin and ,child at the ,fountain1  
#bfc2     ,arnolfini and his ,wife1 #dj2

     ,chancellor ,rollin before the     
,virgin1 #cdg    ,van ,gogh1 ,v41       
#ahec-ahij1 ,dutch1 #cg1 #bhh           
,velasquez1 ,d4 ,r4 de ,silva1          
#aeii-affj1 ,spanish1 #aeb et seq41 #bhc
     --,christ at the ,column1 #bdf2    
,las ,meninas1 #aee1 #bdg2              
,coronation of the ,virgin1 #bff2       
,the ,drinkers1 #ahb2     ,the ,three   
,musicians1 #age2     ,the ,breakfast1  
#aee2     portraits of ,philip ,,iv41   
#aec2     ,olivares1 #adi2     ,innocent
 ,x41 #aea2     ,don ,antonio el        
,ingles1 #adi2     ,rokeby ,venus1 #aai2
     ,surrender of ,breda1 #aee2        
,christ in the house of ,martha1 #aee   
,venusti1 ,marcello1 died after #aegi1  
,italian ,florentine                    
--,annunciation1 #ced    ,verestchagin1 
,v41 #ahdb-aijd1 ,russian1 #ahd         
,vermeer1 ,jan 7of ,delft71 #afcb-afge1 
,dutch1 #bj    ,vernet1 ,e4 ,j4 ,horace1
 #aghi-ahfc1 ,french     --,la ,smalah1 
#bef    ,veronese1 ,paolo 7,paolo       
,caliari71 #aebh-aehh1                  

,italian ,venetian1 #bca1 #bhf1 #cej    
,verrocchio1 ,andrea del1 #adce-adhh1   
,italian1 #cbe    ,viti1 ,timoteo della1
 #adgj-aebc1 ,italian ,umbrian1 #ccb1   
#cde   ,w    ,walker1 ,horatio1 #aheh-1 
,american     --,ave ,maria1 #cec       
,watteau1 ,antoine1 #afhd-agba1 ,french1
 #bgh1 #bhc     --,embarkation for      
,cythera 7,paris71 #bed2     do4        
7,berlin71 #bfi    ,watts1 ,george ,f41 
#ahag-aijd1 ,british     --,death1 the  
,friend1 #ahh1 #aia    ,west1 ,benjamin1
 #agch-ahbj1 ,american     --,death of  
,general ,wolfe1 #aij    ,whistler1 ,j4 
,a4 ,mc,n41 #ahcd-aijc1 ,american1 #ej1 
#cdi    ,wiertz1 ,a41 #ahjf-ahfe1       
,belgian     --,the ,orphans1 #ahi2     
,things of the ,past1 #bbf    ,wilson1  
,richard1 #agad-aghb1 ,british1 #dh     
,witt1 ,j4 ,h41 #ahdj-aija1 ,american   
--,bless the ,lord1 #bfb    ,wouverman1 
,philip1 #afad-afgj1 ,dutch1 #bjc1 #bde 
,z    ,zurbaran1 ,francisco1 #aeih-affb1
 ,spanish1 #ai     ,,general ,,index    
,a    ,actors in stage roles1 portraits 

of1 #bbc    ,aerial perspective1 ,claude
 the first master of1 #dg2     its      
importance1 #aih2     method of         
producing1 #bjj    ,aesthetic systems1  
all of them untenable1 #c1 #bgd2        
,carritt on1 #bgd2     of ,hegel1 #bgg2 
of ,croce1 #bgc    ,ages of man1        
pictures contrasting the1 #agi          
,allegorical painting1 when secondary   
art1 #bbe    ,angel of ,death in art1   
instances of1 #aia2     symbol of1 #ahh 
,angels1 representation of1 in aerial   
suspension and flight1 #bfb1 #bff       
,animal painting1 in action1 #bee2      
ideals in1 not possible1 #ef            
,annunciation1 ,the1 indication of      
surprise in expression1 #bgj1 #ced      
,apelles1 his ,venus ,anadyomene1 #aac1 
#ccj2     epigrams on1 #cca             
,aphrodite 7see ,venus7    ,apollo1 his 
representation in art1 #abd             
,architecture1 its position in the ,fine
 ,arts1 #ec2     imitative character of1
 #ec1 #bid2     unconcerned with ideals1
 #eh2     produces sensorial beauty     

only1 #fd2     simplicity its keynote1  
#ge2     standard of judgment in1 #ge2  
,s4 ,colvin on1 #bib    ,ares 7see      
,mars7    ,aristotle1 on imitation in   
art1 #bae1 #bib2     on metrical form in
 poetry1 #ed1 #bif2     his division of 
the painter's art1 #fb2     his         
connection of morals with art1 #cad     
,art1 definition of1 #a2     its mimetic
 character1 #eb2     sensorial beauty1  
first aim of1 #gb2     must deal chiefly
 with types1 #ee2     independent of    
social and political conditions1 #d2    
of psychological impulses1 #h1 #ad2     
great periods of1 #h2     suggested     
evolution in1 #g2     ,classic and      
,romantic1 #bgh2     relation of1 to    
nature1 #ee2     popular appreciation   
of1 #gd2     ,grecian1 cause of its     
decline1 #aj2     ,italian ,renaissance 
of1 cause of its decline1 #aa2          
limitation of sculpture and painting in1
 #ha2     ,tolstoy's definition of1     
#bge2     ideals in 7see ,the ,ideal in 
,art7    ,artemis 7see ,diana7          

,artists1 training necessary for1 #be2  
cause of variation in work of1 #bj2     
reputations of great1 #bhc2     as      
judges of works of art1 #cje    ,arts   
7see ,fine ,arts7    ,assent1 ,law of   
,general1 #gb et seq4    ,associated    
,arts1 the arts associated1 #ec2        
first law of the1 #fj2     highest art  
in1 recognized by general opinion1 #gg2 
ideals in1 #eh2     cannot properly be  
used for moral or social purposes1 #hb2 
their method of producing beauty1 #gh et
 seq42     limitations of1 #hj          
,athena1 her representation in art1 #abc
    ,atmospheric effects1 limitations in
 producing1 #bjb2     exceptional       
phases1 #bjb   ,b    ,bacchus1 his      
representation in art1 #aca    ,barbizon
 ,school1 anticipated by ,dutch masters1
 #bia2     sketches of the1 of little   
importance1 #bij2     use of heavy gilt 
frames for works of the1 #bia           
,beauty1 definitions of1 unsatisfactory1
 #b1 #ei2     alleged objectivity of1   
#b2     highest form of1 #gb2           

unconnected with philosophy1 #b2        
first law of1 in the ,associated ,arts1 
#fj2     ideal1 #hf2     kinds of1 in   
the arts1 #d1 #fj1 #bgc2     degrees of1
 in the arts generally1 #fj1 in         
painting1 #hc2     sensorial 7or        
emotional71 #fj1 #gb2     intellectual  
7or beauty of expression71 #b1 #bgc2    
of form1 #bgc2     of color1 #bbh et    
seq42     methods of producing1 #gh2    
as the expression of emotion1 #bge2     
,longinus on the highest1 #gc2          
standard of judgment of1 in poetry1 #gg1
       in sculpture1 #gg1       in      
painting1 #gg1       in architecture1   
#ge1       in fiction1 #gg1       in    
landscape1 #aid1       in still-life1   
#bad1       in secondary art1 #bai et   
seq42     general agreement in respect  
of1 #hf    ,bon ,dieu d',amiens1 ,ruskin
 on1 #cai2     ,farrar on1 #cai2        
corresponds with certain ,greek art1    
#cai1 ,plate #b    ,brevity in          
expression1 highest beauty in poetry1   
marked by1 #fe    ,broad style of       

painting1 cause of1 with great artists1 
#ba2     its limitations1 #ci2          
advocacy of1 by impressionists1 #ch2    
as used by ,rembrandt1 #bha2     by     
,hals1 #ccf    ,bronze statuettes of the
 ,renaissance1 #cba et seq4    ,byron on
 nature and art in respect of landscape1
 #cde   ,c    ,caricature1 its place in 
art1 #bbe    ,carritt1 ,e4 ,f41 on the  
result of aesthetic systems1 #bge       
,cave men1 their art1 #e    ,ceres 7see 
,demeter7    ,chaldean ,art1            
,illustration of1 ,plate #a             
,character of ,artists1 influence of1 in
 their work1 #af    ,cherubs1 use of1 in
 assisting illusion of suspension in the
 air1 #bfe    ,christ1 representation in
 art1 #ib2     the established ideal1   
#ib2     ,ruskin on the best ideal of1  
#cai    ,christian conception of the    
,deity1 its effect in art1 #hh          
,classic ,art1 ,hegel's definition1     
#bgg2     varied meanings of the term1  
#bgh    ,claude ,lorraine1 the first    
great landscape painter1 #dg2     the   

cause of his success1 #af2     ,goethe  
on1 #di2     the model for ,turner1 #di 
,clausen1 ,g41 his definition of        
,impressionism1 #bhd2     on ,whistler's
 nocturnes1 #cdi    ,clouds1 use of1 in 
relation to air-suspended figures1 #bfc 
,coast views1 illusion of motion in1    
#bjf    ,color1 beauty of1 #bbh et seq42
     its relative importance1 #bbh2     
in landscape1 #aid2     juxtaposition of
 pure colors1 #ce1 #bhg2     by         
,venetian artists1 #bca1 #cej2          
exceptional color effects1 #bcd2     its
 use by impressionists1 #cd et seq4     
,colvin1 ,s41 claims music and          
architecture as non-imitative arts1 #bib
    ,comedy1 its place in the painter's 
art1 #bbd    ,contentment1 quality of   
expression in the ,madonna1 #ig2     in 
,venus1 #aai    ,contrast1 its use in   
composition1 #agg2     of forms1 #agg2  
of ages1 #agi2     of beauty and        
strength1 #agg2     of ,good and ,evil1 
#agh2     of ,poverty and ,wealth1 #agh2
     of ,vice and ,virtue1 #agh2     of 

nude and clothed figures1 #ahj          
,correggio1 and the sublime1 #bbi       
,criticism1 the new1 #bi    ,croce1 ,b41
 his aesthetic system1 #bgc2     on     
genius1 #bhb   ,d    ,darwin1 ,c41 on   
the result of nerve exercise1 #bha2     
on natural music1 #bic    ,death1       
representation of1 #ahc et seq42     in 
the ,crucifixion1 #ahd2     typified by 
a skeleton1 #ahf2     in massacres and  
executions1 #ahd2     in interior       
scenes1 #aij2     funeral scenes1 #ahh2 
scenes of approaching1 #aij2     ,angel 
of1 #ahh    ,decorative art1 imitation  
in1 #bah    ,deformity in art1 #hi      
,deity1 the1 representation of1 #ib2    
ideals of1 #ia    ,demeter1             
representation of1 #aba1 ,plate #g      
,demosthenes1 example of his art1 #cjj  
,de ,quincey1 ,t41 on the representation
 of progressive actions1 #cdh           
,descriptive poetry1 its limits1 #gi2   
in the seventeenth century1 #cjh2       
example from ,sophocles1 #caj1          
from ,cornelius ,gallus1 #cji    ,diana1

 representation of1 #abf    ,dignity1 in
 portraiture1 #adf2     practice of     
,titian1 #adh2     of ,van ,dyck1 #adh2 
of ,velasquez1 #adi    ,dionysus 7see   
,bacchus7    ,drama1 ,the1 pictures from
 the written1 #bba2     from the acted1 
#bbb2     importance of tragedy in      
painting1 #bba    ,drapery1 with use of 
in sculpture1     proportions possible  
which are not feasible in nude figures1 
#cbh2     use of1 in painting by        
,raphael1 #bea1 #ceb2     for assisting 
illusions1 #bfj    ,dutch painters of   
the seventeenth century1     their      
limited imaginations1 #ai   ,e          
,eaton1 ,d4 ,c41 on the origin of       
impressionism1 #bhf    ,egyptian art1   
its early high development1 #g1 ,plate  
#a    ,emotional element in beauty 7see 
,beauty7    ,emotions1 ,the1 influence  
of1 in the work of artists1 #af2        
expression of1 in relation to beauty1   
#bge    ,evolution1 not applicable to   
art generally1 #g2     ,spencer on1     
#bgf2     ,symonds on1 #bgf             

,execution in painting1 must be balanced
 with imagination1 #ah2     of ,hals1   
#aee2     of ,lionardo1 #ah2     of     
,rembrandt1 #ai2     of ,velasquez1 #aec
    ,expression1 in ideals generally1   
#hf2     in ,christian ideals1 #ia et   
seq42     in classical ideals1 #ajf et  
seq42     in portraiture1 #ada et seq42 
in the representation of grief1 #afh2   
with the smile1 #aga2     the open      
mouth1 #agd2     in the exhibition of   
deformity1 #hi2     in scenes of death1 
#ahc2     of ,raphael1 #cci2     of     
,rembrandt1 #db2     of the fourteenth  
century ,italian painters1 #bgi2     of 
the thirteenth century ,french          
sculptors1 #cae2     in the literary    
arts1 #fe et seq4   ,f    ,falconet1    
,e41 on the representation of grief1    
#afi    ,farrar1 ,dean1 on the ideal of 
,christ1 #cai2     on the early ,italian
 painters1 #bgi    ,fiction1 as a fine  
art1 #d1 #eb2     one of the ,associated
 ,arts1 #ec2     imitation in1 #eb2     
forms of1 #fi2     basic and structural 

in character1 #ha2     standard of      
judgment in1 #gc2     in relation to    
sensorial beauty1 #gi2     unconcerned  
with ideals1 #eh     7see also ,novel7  
,fine ,arts1 imitative in character1    
#eb2     classified according to their  
signs1 #ec2     their methods of        
producing beauty1 #gh2     standards of 
judgment in the1 #gg    ,fireworks1     
unsuitable for the painter1 #bab        
,flight1 representation of     7see     
,illusion of suspension and motion in   
the air7    ,flowers1 their             
representation in still-life1 #baf2     
in decorative art1 #bag    ,foreground  
in landscape1 illusion of opening       
distance in1 #bjb    ,form1 beauty of1  
#bgc2     ideal1 #hf    ,frames of      
pictures1 their use in ,barbizon works1 
#bia2     exclusion of1 in artificial   
means to secure relief1 #bdj    ,french 
sculptors of the thirteenth century1    
their forms in the ,greek manner1 #cae2 
their representation of the ,virgin and 
,child1 #aja1 #cae    ,frescoes1        

necessarily divided into sections1 #fi2 
,reynolds on ,raphael's1 #cjc           
,funeral scenes in art1 #ahh   ,g       
,general opinion1 standard of judgment  
in all arts except music1 #gc1 #gg      
,genius1 how produced1 #ba et seq42     
,reynolds on1 #bhb2     ,johnson on1    
#bhb2     ,hogarth on1 #bhb    ,geology1
 study of1 may be assisted by landscape 
painting1 #cae    ,gods1 ,mythological  
7see ,grecian1 under their separate     
headings72     ,roman1 #cbh    ,grace1  
inferior as a special quality in        
portraiture1 #afd2     as applied in    
,greece and ,rome1 #afb2     in         
sixteenth century art1 #afc2     in     
seventeenth century art1 #afc2     in   
,england in the eighteenth century1     
#afd2     in ,france1 #afc2     kinds   
of1 #cch    ,grandeur1 highest quality  
of beauty in architecture1 #ge2         
practically impossible in landscape1    
#aic2     in portraiture1 #afj2     in  
,van ,dyck's works1 #afj2     in        
,gainsborough's works1 #afj    ,grecian 

art1 cause of its decline1 #aj2         
development of1 compared with that of   
the ,renaissance1 #aj et seq4           
,grecian sculpture1 its high place in   
art1 #ajf2     ideals in1 #hh1 #ie2     
representation of adults with children  
in1 #ajj2     studied by the great      
masters of the ,renaissance1 #ajh2      
in portraiture1 #ade   ,h    ,hals1     
,franz1 his facility1 #aee2     his     
limited imagination1 #aee2     his broad
 manner1 #ccf2     the works of pupils  
attributed to him1 #ccg    ,hegel1 ,g4  
,w41 his periods in art1 #bgg           
,hephaestus 7see ,vulcan7    ,hera 7see 
,juno7    ,hercules1 his representation 
as contemplating death1 #aij    ,hermes 
7see ,mercury7    ,historical painting1 
its place in art1 #hc    ,hogarth1 ,w41 
on genius1 #bhb    ,holmes1 ,c4 ,j41 on 
the framing of ,barbizon pictures1 #bia 
,homer1 example of his art1 #fe         
,hood1 ,t41 his moods and his work1 #ag 
,horses1 representation in action1 #bee 
,human figure1 principal sign in the    

,associated ,arts1 #ec1 #gc2            
produces highest form of beauty1 #gb2   
general ideal of1 #hf2     ,greek       
ideals1 #ajf    ,humboldt1 ,a41 on the  
position of landscape in art1 #cdd      
,humorous subjects1 their place in the  
painter's art1 #bbd    ,hyperides1      
example of his art1 #cjj   ,i    ,ideal 
in art1 ,the1 only possible in respect  
of the human form1 #eg1 #hg2            
inapplicable to form without expression1
 #hf2     definition of1 #hf2     must  
be general1 #hf2     general agreement  
in respect of1 #hg2     can only be     
applied to excellence1 #hi2             
limitation of1 #ef2     ideals of the   
,greeks1 #hi1 #ia1       of the early   
,italians1 #id1       of the thirteenth 
century ,french sculptors1 #cae1        
of the ,deity1 #hh1 #ia1       of       
,christ1 #ib1 #id1       of the         
,madonna1 #ie1       of ,zeus1 #hh1     
of the other ,grecian deities1 #hi1     
of ,phidias1 #aj1       of ,raphael1    
#ig1 #acg1       of ,praxiteles1 #aj1   

in1 of ,michelangelo1 #cbj2     general 
ideals1 #ace2     universality of1 #ach1
 #cae2     ideal qualities1 #hi         
,illusion of continuity1 in death       
scenes1 #ahi    ,illusion of movement1  
in landscape1 #aig2     in sea views1   
#bje2     in coast views1 #bjf2     in  
sculpture1 #bdi1 #cea2     in figure    
painting1 #bej et seq42     in animal   
painting1 #bee et seq42     may be      
suggested by title of work1 #beg        
,illusion of opening distance1 in       
distance landscape1 #aig2     in        
nearground work1 #bjc2     in sea views1
 #bje    ,illusion of relief1 its value 
in painting1 #bcf2     mechanical       
methods of producing1 #bdj    ,illusion 
of suspension and motion in the air1    
with the assistance     of flowing      
drapery1 #bfj2     of clouds1 #bfc2     
of cherubs1 #bfe2     of ,angels1 #bff2 
of smoke1 #bfh    ,imagination1 ,the1   
influence of precocious1 in the         
production of genius1 #bc2     must be  
balanced with skill in execution1 #ah2  

of ,lionardo1 #ah2     of the ,dutch    
painters1 #ai2     of the ,spanish      
painters1 #ai2     of ,shakespeare1 #bc1
 #bd    ,imitation1 the province of art1
 #eb2     should be generalized1 #bcg2  
in landscape1 #aid1       in still-life1
 #bad1       in decorative art1 #bah1   
in architecture1 #bid1       in music1  
#bic2     of other arts by the painter1 
#bba et seq42     ,aristotle on1 #bae2  
,s4 ,colvin on1 in respect of the fine  
arts1 #bib    ,impressionism1           
definitions of1 #be1 #bhd et seq42      
its origin1 #bhe et seq42     its       
influence1 #ch2     its limitations1    
#ce2     its defects1 #cd et seq42      
its effects1 #ea2     its correspondence
 with ,sprezzatura1 #cb    ,industry1   
the key to success in art1 #bd1 #bhb    
,inspiration in art1 not recognized by  
great artists1 #af2     actual instances
 of1 unknown1 #ae2     suggested        
national1 #i et seq42     individual1   
#ad    ,interiors1 pictures of1 their   
place in art1 #hd    ,invention in art1 

its relative importance1 #ed2     in    
poetry1 #ed2     in painting1 #cab2     
,lessing on1 in poetry and painting1    
#cab2     in landscape1 #aic2     the   
term used in two senses1 #caa    ,irony1
 works conveying1 unsuitable for the    
painter1 #bbd    ,italy1 ,art of1       
decline of the ,renaissance1 #aa et     
seq42     in the seventeenth and        
eighteenth centuries1 #cj et seq42      
,renaissance ideals1 #ab   ,j           
,japanese1 their practice in decoration1
 #bag    ,johnson1 ,dr41 on genius1 #bhb
    ,juno1 representation of1 by the    
painter1 #abj    ,jupiter1 ,greek       
representation of1 #hh1 #hi2     ideal  
of1 #hi1 #ia2     by the painter1 #aji  
,l    ,landscape painting1 its place in 
art1 #dh1 #hd2     produces only        
sensorial beauty1 #aib2     ,humboldt   
on1 #cdd2     signs in1 #aii2           
disadvantages of1 #dd2     limitations  
in1 #aib et seq41 #cdh2     varieties   
of1 #di2     relative difficulty of     
execution in1 #dh2     compositions must

 be invented1 #aid2     illusion of     
motion in1 #aig et seq42     precise    
imitation necessary in1 #aid2     as a  
useful art1 #cad2     early development 
of1 #df1       in ancient ,rome1 #de1   
in ,italy1 #dg1       in ,holland1 #df1 
in ,england and ,france1 #dh    ,lanzi1 
,a4 ,l41 on the range of ,raphael in    
expression1 #cci    ,la ,touche1 ,g41 on
 the origin of impressionism1 #bhf      
,latour1 ,fantin1 and the origin of     
impressionism1 #bhe    ,laugh1 a1 when  
unobjectionable in painting1 #agg       
,lessing1 ,g41 on progressive actions1  
#cdh2     on the relative importance of 
invention and execution1 #cab2     on   
the representation of grief1 #afi2      
on descriptive poetry1 #cji2     on     
signs in art1 #cdf2     on ,homer and   
the beauty of ,helen1 #bih2     on the  
,laocoon design1 #caa2     on the dictum
 of ,simonides1 #cjg2     on ugliness in
 poetry and painting1 #cda    ,lewes1   
,g4 ,h41 on the execution of signs in   
art1 #cdf    ,lightning1 its use in     

landscape1 #bji2     must be            
subordinated1 #bji2     where used in   
painting by great masters1 #baj         
,lionardo da ,vinci1 his imagination    
compared with his execution1 #ah2       
his relief1 #bci2     on success in     
painting1 #af2     his representation of
 ,christ1 #ic    ,literary arts1     the
 painter must take his action from them 
or from nature direct1 #ha     7see     
,poetry and ,the ,novel74    ,literary  
movement in ,england in the sixteenth   
century1 #bgh    ,longinus1 on the test 
of the sublime and beautiful1 #gc2      
on certain examples of beauty in the    
literary arts1 #cjj    ,luini1 ,a41 ,on 
an impressionist landscape by ,titian1  
#bhh   ,m    ,mac,coll1 ,d4 ,s41 on the 
origin of impressionism1 #bhd           
,madonna1 ,the1 her representation1     
the test of art during the ,renaissance1
 #ab1       by ,cimabue and ,giotto1    
#ie1       in ,crucifixion scenes1 #ii2 
her surroundings in art1 #ii1       her 
representation at different ages1 #ih1  

,michelangelo on her presumed age1 #cbj2
     her presumed social condition1     
#ajj2     the ideal of the early        
,italian1 #ab1 #ie1       of ,raphael1  
#ig1       ,michelangelo's portrayals   
of1 #cbj2     limitations in the ideal  
of1 #ih    ,madonna and ,child1         
representation of1 by thirteenth century
 ,french sculptors1 #aja1 #cae2     in  
,italy1 #aja2     changes in grouping   
of1 in the fifteenth century1 #aja2     
practice of later artists1 #ajb et seq4 
,manner in painting1 its limitations1   
#ci2     the public indifferent to1 #ci2
     of ,rembrandt1 #ba2     of ,hals1  
#ccf    ,manet1 ,e41 his connection with
 the rise of impressionism1 #bhg        
,marine painting 7see ,sea views7       
,mars1 representation of1 in painting1  
#abh    ,mauclair1 ,c41 on              
impressionism1 #bhe    ,mengs1 ,a4 ,r41 
on ,raphael's treatment of drapery1 #ceb
    ,mercury1 his representation in     
painting1 #abi    ,metaphor1 with the   
poet1 #fe1 #bbg1 #bif2     with the     

painter1 #bbf    ,michelangelo1 and the 
sublime1 #bbi2     his studies in ,greek
 art1 #ajh2     ,reynolds on1 #bhb2     
his ideals of the ,madonna1 #cbj2     on
 her presumed age at the ,crucifixion1  
#cbj2     on the cause of ,raphael's    
success1 #af2     on the public judgment
 of works of art1 #cjd2     on the      
,venetian painters1 #cej    ,miller1    
,marion ,m41 his translation of         
,sappho's ,hymn to ,aphrodite1 #cjb     
,minerva 7see ,athena7    ,modesty1     
quality in expression unsuitable to a   
goddess1 #aai    ,mona ,lisa1 the       
,louvre example1 #aea1 #agb2     the    
,boston example1 #agb2     her reputed  
age in the picture1 #bdj2     her smile1
 #cda    ,mood1 influence of1 in the    
work of artists1 #ag    ,moonlight      
scenes1 their place in art1 #bjh        
,morals1 pictures illustrating1 their   
place in art1 #he    ,moreau-,vautier1  
,c41 on the juxtaposition of pure       
colors1 #bhg    ,music1     highest     
beauty in1 produced by complex          

combinations of signs1 #gc2     greatest
 works in1 the least popular1 #ge2      
ideals not possible in1 #eh2     cannot 
present intellectual beauty1 #fd2       
standard of judgment in1 #cje2          
cannot be connected with painting1 #bhe2
     its connection with poetry1 #ed1   
#gf2     imitative character of1 #ec1   
#bic2     claimed by ,colvin as         
non-imitative1 #bib2     ,darwin on     
natural1 #bic    ,muther1 ,r41 on the   
origin of ,impressionism1 #bhg          
,mystery in painting1 indicates inferior
 art1 #cda    ,mythological subjects1   
their place in painting1 #hc1 #acc   ,n 
,nature1 relation of1 to art1 #eg2      
and landscape1 ,byron on1 #cde          
,near-ground painting in landscape1 #bjb
    ,neptune1 his representation in     
painting1 #abg    ,nerves of the senses1
     their advanced condition at birth  
cause of precocity in art1 #ba2         
alike in all people1 #hf2     connection
 of genius with development of1 #bb2    
physiological changes in1 #bb1 #gb2     

,darwin on the1 #bha    ,night1 should  
be symbolized in painting1 #cej2        
,whistler attempts to represent beauty  
of1 #cdi    ,nocturnes1 origin of       
,whistler's1 #cdi    ,norwich school of 
painting1 #dh    ,novel1 the1 compared  
with the short story1 #gj2     limit of1
 #ga2     of little service to the      
painter1 #bba 7see ,fiction7    ,nude   
with clothed figures1 contrasts of1 #ahj
   ,o    ,objectivity of beauty1 #b     
,open ,mouth1 ,the1 #agd2     when not  
objectionable1 #agg   ,p    ,painter1   
the1 his requirements1 #be    ,painting1
 imitative character of1 #eb2           
degrees of beauty in1 #hc2     compared 
with sculpture1 #ace2     its relation  
to poetry1 #cjg2     general ideals in1 
#hf et seq42     classical ideals in1   
#ajf et seq42     ,christian ideals in1 
#ia et seq42     action cannot be       
originated in1 #ha2     great1 marked by
 simplicity1 #fi2     standard of       
judgment in1 #gc2     general expression
 in1 #afg2     relation of invention to 

execution in1 #cab2     broad manner of1
 #ci2     of divinities1 #aji2     of   
classical scenes1 #acc2     of humorous 
subjects1 #bbd2     of contrasts1 #agg  
et seq42     of scenes from fiction1    
#bba1       from the written drama1     
#bba1       from the acted drama1 #bbb2 
of portraits in character1 #bbb2     of 
ugliness1 #cda2     deformity in1 #agh2 
representation of death in1 #ahc2       
portrait1 #ada et seq42     landscape1  
#aib et seq42     of moonlight scenes1  
#bjh2     of still-life1 #bad2          
secondary art of1 #he1 #bai2            
metaphor in1 #bbf2     color in1 #bbh et
 seq42     impressionist1 #be2     of   
events in time1 #bai2     symbolical1   
#bbg2     ,barbizon school of1 #bij2    
quality of grace in1 #afa1       of     
contentment1 #ig1       of modesty in   
respect of goddesses1 #aai2     illusion
 of relief in1 #bci et seq42            
illusion of movement in1 #bdi1       in 
animal action1 #bee1       of opening   
distance1 #aig1       of suspension in  

the air1 #bei1       in representation  
of progressive actions1 #bjd1       of  
continuity1 #ahi1       assisted by     
title1 #beg2     portraiture1 #ada et   
seq4    ,pastoral occupations1 pictures 
representing1 #hd    ,periods of art1   
not attributable to national aesthetic  
stimulus1 #h2     ,hegel's1 #bgg        
,phidias1 his exalted position in art1  
#aj2     his ideals1 #ia    ,philips1   
,a41 his translation of ,sappho's ,ode  
to ,anactoria1 #cja    ,philosophy1 art 
not specially related to1 #b            
,pythian1 ,f41 on the origin of         
impressionism1 #bhf    ,poe1 ,edgar ,a41
 on sadness and beauty1 #bhj    ,poetry1
 the highest art1 #ha2     its imitative
 scope1 #eb2     not primarily a        
combined art1 #ee2     value of metrical
 form in1 #ed2     its association with 
music1 #gf2     its relation to         
painting1 #cjg2     cannot depict       
sensorial beauty by description1 #gi2   
descriptive1 #cji2     in relation to   
human beauty1 #gi1       to natural     

beauty1 #gi2     basic and structural in
 character1 #ha2     its range          
unlimited1 #ha2     ugliness in1 #cda2  
standard of judgment in1 #gc1 #gf2      
,watts-,dunton's definition of1 #bif2   
translations of1 #big    ,pompeian      
,frescoes1 #de1 #afb1 #afi1 #agj1 #aga1 
#bfa1 #cdd    ,popular appreciation of  
art1 #gc et seq41 #cjf2     ,tolstoy on1
 #cjg    ,portraiture1 its position in  
art1 #ada2     variation in work of     
portraitists1 #ada2     generalization1 
#adc2     added qualities in1 #adh2     
quality of dignity in1 #adf2     quality
 of nobility in1 #afa2     action in1   
#afd2     use of the smile in1 #aga2    
of stage characters1 #bbc2     in       
ancient ,greece1 #ade1 #afb2     in     
ancient ,rome1 #ade2     of women1 #aeh2
     of ,raphael1 #aea2     of ,titian1 
#adh2     of ,moro1 #aei2     of ,van   
,dyck1 #aej2     of ,rembrandt1 #aej2   
of ,velasquez1 #adi1 #aeb2     of ,hals1
 #aee2     of ,reynolds1 #afj2     of   
,gainsborough1 #afj2     of ,romney1    

#afa2     effects of fashion in1 #aei2  
quality of grace in1 #afa2              
limitations in1 #ada1 #adc2             
decoration in1 should be subordinated1  
#aef2     multiple portraits1 #aef      
,poseidon 7see ,neptune7    ,praxiteles1
 his development of new ideals1 #aaa2   
his ,cnidian ,aphrodite1 #aaa           
,precocity in art1 cause of1 #bb        
,progressive actions1 in figure         
subjects1 #bed2       in sea views1     
#bjd2       in coast scenes1 #bjf2      
in landscape1 #bjc2     ,lessing on1    
#cdh2     ,de ,quincey on1 #cdi         
,psychological influence in art         
conceptions1 alleged1 #ad   ,q          
,quintilian3 on the ,sacrifice of       
,iphigenia1 by ,timanthes1 #cdj   ,r    
,rainbow1 its use in landscape1 #baj et 
seq4    ,raphael1 and the sublime1 #bbi2
     his superiority the cause of the   
decline of the ,renaissance1 #aa2       
his achievement in the ideal ,madonna1  
#ab et seq41 #adj2     the composition  
of his ideal1 #ig2     his range in     

expression1 #afg2     ,lanzi on1 #cci2  
his representation of movement1 #bej2   
his portraiture1 #aea2     his drapery  
arrangements1 #bej2     his             
representation of suspension in the air1
 #bfa2     his study of ancient art1    
#ajh2     his fresco work1 #fi2         
,michelangelo on1 #af2     his trees1   
#cde    ,recognition1 ,law of1          
explanation of1 #eg2     examples of1   
#fe et seq42     music and architecture 
excluded from the1 #fd2     division of 
the arts in applying1 #fb    ,relief    
7see ,illusion of ,relief7              
,rembrandt1 his imagination compared    
with his execution1 #bj2     cause of   
variation in his work1 #ba2     his     
simplicity1 #aej2     his broad work1   
#bhi2     his use of color1 #aeb2       
his position in art1 #dd2     his       
representation of character1 #db2       
suggested as impressionist1 #da1 #bij2  
compared with the idealists1 #dc2       
his palette-knife pictures1 #bha2       
classification of his portraits1 #bha   

,renaissance 7see ,italy1 ,art of7      
,repose1 in portraiture1 #afd2     in   
the representation of ,venus1 #aaf      
,reynolds1 ,joshua1 his high position in
 portraiture1 #afj2     on color1 #cej2 
on the representation of grief1 #afi2   
on the cause of excellence in painting1 
#bhb2     on genius in art1 #bhb2       
nobility in his portraits1 #afj2     as 
a painter of women1 #afa2     on the    
work of ,raphael1 #cjc2     on          
,michelangelo1 #bhb2     on the early   
,italian painters1 #bhj2     on the     
,venetian painters1 #cej2     his       
portraits of actors in character1 #bbd2 
his use of the smile1 #agd    ,rodin1   
,a41 on the suggestion of movement in   
sculpture1 #bdi1 #cea2     on ugliness  
in art1 #cag2     his ,la ,vieille      
,heaulmiere1 #cag2     on ,greek ideals1
 #cai    ,romans1 ,the ancient1 had no  
separate sacred art1 #cbh    ,romantic  
,art1 its various meanings1 #bgh2       
,hegel's period of1 #bgg    ,romney1    
,g41 the quality of grace in his        

portraits1 #afa    ,ruskin1 ,j41 on the 
trees of ,raphael1 #cde2     on the     
ideal of ,christ1 #cai2     on the      
position of landscape in art1 #cdd2     
on the ,italian painters of the         
fourteenth century1 #bgi    ,ruysdael1  
,jacob1 his painting of breaking water1 
#bjd1 #bjf2     his near-ground work1   
#bjc   ,s    ,sacred ,art1 offers       
highest scope for the artist1 #fc2      
in ,greece1 #ia2     in ,italy1 #ab     
,sadness1 as a quality of beauty1 #bhj  
,saints1 representation of1 #ajd        
,sappho1 her ,ode to ,anactoria1 and the
 cause of its beauty1 #fg2              
translation of the ,ode1 #cja2     her  
,hymn to ,aphrodite1 #cjb    ,satan1    
representation of1 #agh    ,satire1     
works conveying1 unsuited to the        
painter1 #bbd    ,schopenhauer1 on music
 as a non-imitative art1 #bib           
,sculpture1 its imitative scope1 #eb2   
ideals in1 #ace2     compared with      
painting1 #ace2     importance of       
simplicity in1 #fh2     standard of     

judgment in1 #gc2     illusion of motion
 in1 #bdi2     ,rodin on the illusion1  
#cea2     in ancient ,greece1 #ajf2     
in ,greek and ,roman portraiture1 #ade2 
thirteenth century ,french1 #cae    ,sea
 views1 illusion of opening distance in1
 #bjd2     progressive actions in1 #bjf 
,secondary ,art1 its nature1 #he2     in
 historical work1 #bbj2     in actions  
drawn from the novelist1 #bba2     from 
the written drama1 #bba2     from the   
acted drama1 #bbb2     humorous         
pictures1 #bbd2     in allegorical and  
symbolical painting1 #bbe et seq4       
,shakespeare1 his imagination1 #bc2     
example of his art1 #ff2     represents 
characters above experience1 #fa        
,short story1 the1 its essentials1 #gj2 
compared with the novel1 #fi 7see also  
,fiction7    ,signs1 of the fine arts1  
#ef2     separation of the arts         
according to character of1 #ec2     the 
two classes of1 in art1 #ef2     must be
 completely painted1 #aii2     ,lewes   
on1 #cdf2     ,lessing on1 #cdf2        

suggestive1 belong to the poet and not  
to the painter1 #bjj    ,simonides1 on  
the relation of poetry to painting1 #cjg
    ,simplicity1 necessary in the higher
 forms of the ,associated ,arts1 #ga    
,skeleton1 as a symbol in art1 #ahf et  
seq4    ,smile1 the1 transitory1 should 
be avoided in art1 #aga2     in         
,raphael's work1 #agc2     in           
,lionardo's1 #agb1 #cda2     of the     
,milanese artists generally1 #agb2      
in portraiture1 #agc2     in ,french    
portraits1 #agd2     in ,british1 #agd  
,smoke1 use of1 in illusions of air     
suspension1 #bfh    ,sophocles1 example 
of descriptive poetry from1 #caj        
,spencer1 ,herbert1 on evolution in art1
 #bgf    ,sporting pictures1 their place
 in art1 #he    ,sprezzatura1 origin of1
 in the seventeenth century1 #cj et     
seq42     correspondence with           
impressionism1 #cb    ,stage scenes1    
pictures of1 #bbb    ,still-life1 its   
place in art1 #he1 #bad2     beauty in1 
#bad2     its varieties1 #bae2     in   

decoration1 #bah2     custom of the     
,japanese in1 #bag    ,stories1 pictures
 illustrating1 their place in art1 #he1 
#bba2     painter of1 subordinate to the
 writer1 #bba    ,sublime1 ,the1        
,longinus on1 #gc2     painters who have
 achieved1 #bbi    ,supreme ,being1     
final ideal of human form can only apply
 to1 #hh    ,symbolic period of         
painting1 ,hegel's1 #bgg    ,symbolical 
painting1 when secondary art1 #bbg      
,symonds1 ,j4 ,a41 on evolution in art1 
#bga2     on the ,venetian artists1 #cej
   ,t    ,taine1 ,h41 on music as a     
non-imitative art1 #bid    ,tanagra     
figures1 quality of grace in1 #afb      
,temperament1 influence of1 on the work 
of artists1 #af    ,titian1 as a        
portrait painter1 #add2     the         
dignified pose in his figures1 #adh2    
the pose a test of his portraiture1     
#cce2     his impressionist landscape1  
#bhh2     his coloring1 #bca2     some  
doubtful attributions to1 #ccf          
,titles of pictures1 may assist in      

providing illusion of motion1 #beg2     
may add interest to a work1 #ceb        
,tolstoy1 ,leo1 on the meaning of art1  
#bge2     on popular appreciation of    
art1 #cjg    ,tragedy1 only section of  
drama which the painter may properly    
use1 #bba    ,translations of poetry1   
varying values of1 #big    ,trees in    
art1 the slender trees of ,raphael1     
#cde2     of other artists1 #cde        
,turner1 ,j4 ,m4 ,w41 secret of his     
success1 #af    ,twilight scenes1 their 
place in art1 #bjh    ,types1 importance
 of1 in nature and art1 #ee   ,u        
,ugliness in art1 may be used in poetry1
 but not in painting1 #cdb2     ,rodin  
on1 #cag2     ,lessing on1 #cda2        
,waldstein on1 #cah    ,uncivilized     
races1 their understanding of beauty1   
#ccc   ,v    ,van ,dyck1 ,a41 #cj2      
his portraiture1 #aej    ,velasquez1 his
 place in art1 #dd2     his simplicity  
in design1 #aeb2     his limited        
imagination1 #aee2     his execution1   
#aec2     compared with the idealists1  

#dc2     his perfect balance1 #dc2      
claimed as an impressionist1 #da1 #bij  
,venus1 her representation in art1 #aaj2
     ,anadyomene1 #aad et seq42         
reposing1 #aaf2     at her toilet1 #aah2
     of ,phidias1 #aaa2     of          
,praxiteles1 #aaa et seq42     of       
,apelles1 #aac2     of ,raphael1 #aad2  
of ,michelangelo1 #aag2     de' ,medici1
 #aai2     of ,titian1 #aae2     of     
other artists1 #aae et seq4             
,verestchagin1 ,v41 his war pictures1   
#ahd    ,vinci1 ,lionardo da 7see       
,lionardo7    ,virgin1 ,the 7see        
,madonna1 ,the7    ,virtue and ,vice1   
pictures representing1 #agh    ,vulcan1 
representation in painting1 #acb   ,w   
,waldstein1 ,c41 on ugliness in         
sculpture1 #cah    ,watts-,dunton1 ,t41 
his definition of poetry1 #bif          
,whistler1 ,j4 ,mc,n41 his nocturnes1   
#cdi    ,wings1 use of1 in suspended    
figures1 #bfb    ,women in portraiture1 
during the ,renaissance1 #aei2     by   
,moro1 #aei2     by ,van ,dyck1 #aei2   

by the eighteenth century ,british      
artists1 #afa2     ,reynolds preeminent 
in painting of1 #afj   ,z    ,zeus 7see 
,jupiter7