,,typographic ,,technical ,,series ,,for ,,apprentices--,,part ,i4 ,,no4 #a ,,type ,a ,,primer of ,,information ,,about ,,the ,,mechanical ,,features ,,of ,,printing ,,types3 ,,their ,,sizes1 ,,font ,,schemes1 c4 ,,with ,a ,,brief ,,description ,,of ,,their ,,manufacture ,,compiled ,,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,stewart ,,published ,,by ,,the ,,committee ,,on ,,education ,,united ,,typothetae ,,of ,,america #aiah ,,copyright1 #aiah ,,united ,,typothetae ,,of ,,america ,,chicago1 ,,ill4 ,composition by ,,pupils ,,in ,,the ,,typothetae ,,school ,,of ,,printing ,,north ,,end ,,union1 ,,boston ,,preface ,this treatise is the first of a series of text-books1 published under the general title of ,typographic ,technical ,series for ,apprentices1 which have been prepared under the auspices of the ,committee on ,education of the ,united ,typothetae of ,america1 for the use of printers' apprentices and students of typographic printing4 ,as will be noted by the table of contents1 only the mechanical features of type and the usual methods of its manufacture have been considered here4 ,no attempt has been made to review the history of type-faces or the development of type-making processes4 ,these phases of the subject are considered in other publications of the series 7see p4 #cf7 and in supplementary reading recommended for students 7p4 #bh74 ,it is not what they are but what they can be made to do under the control of trained intelligence and skilful hands that makes printer's types of importance to the world4 ,no tools used in modern industry seem simpler than these little pieces of metal1 yet they are the product of the most highly specialized skill and ingeniously perfected mechanisms4 ,to the young printer their physical elements are matters of first concern4 ,an understanding of these elements may be only a small part of his trade education1 but it is important4 ,the possibilities and the limitations of type can be appreciated only by thorough familiarity with the technical details and niceties provided by the modern typefounder4 ,a special feature of this series of technical publications is the list of ,review ,questions1 which will be found at the end of each treatise 7see pp4 #bi-ca74 ,these questions cover the essential points in each subject and will be of assistance to instructors1 for examinations1 etc4 ,a list of the other titles of the series1 as well as a statement of their plan and scope1 will be found on pp4 i-vii of this publication4 ,,contents ,,page ,,features ,,of ,a ,,type #g ,a ,,font ,,of ,,type #i ,,scheme ,,for ,,job ,,font #aa ,,scheme ,,for #ajj-,,lb4 ,,font #ab ,,the ,,sizes ,,of ,,type #ac ,,lining ,,type ,,faces #af ,,kerned ,,types #ah ,,spaces ,,and ,,quads #ai ,,how ,,type ,,is ,,made #bj ,,the ,,linotype #bc ,,the ,,monotype #be ,,ingredients ,,of ,,type ,,metal #bf ,,wood ,,type #bg ,,supplementary ,,reading #bh ,,review ,,questions #bi ,,glossary ,,of ,,terms #cb ,,mechanical ,,features ,,of ,,type ,printing owes its development first and chiefly to movable metal types4 ,the so-called invention of printing was the discovery of a method of making serviceable type in quantity4 ,the idea of a separate type for each letter of the alphabet was probably conceived long before ,gutenberg's time1 but it remained for him and his associates to devise an apparatus for making them quickly and accurately enough to be of practical value4 ,that apparatus was the type mold1 which experience has since proved to be the most efficient means of securing exactness and uniformity in a number of small pieces of metal4 ,type is made of an alloy of lead1 tin1 and antimony4 ,its length 7technically called height-to-paper7 is 4#iah of an inch4 ,each type is cast separately in a mold1 and has the letter or printing character in bold relief on one end4 ,illustration ,exact uniformity of body is necessary in order that the types1 when composed in lines and pages1 may be locked together by pressure at the sides so as to make a compact mass4 ,all types in a printing form must be of the same height1 so that their faces may present a uniformly level surface from which an impression may be made that will show all the characters clearly4 ,a short type will print faintly or will not print at all1 while a long one will be unduly forced into the sheet4 ,illustration ,there are on an average about one hundred and fifty roman letters and other characters required in ordinary book printing4 ,these letters are divided into a number of classes3 full-body letters1 ascending letters1 descending letters1 short letters2 and in some cases1 small capitals1 which are larger than short letters but not so tall as capitals or ascenders4 ,only a few letters1 like ,j and ,q1 cover nearly the entire surface on the end of the type2 other letters1 like ,b h l i1 cover the upper portion chiefly and leave a blank space at the bottom2 while the small letters1 like a e o u v1 occupy only the middle portion of the surface2 still others1 like g y p1 cover the middle and lower portions of the surface4 ,as all these irregular shapes must be made to appear in line with each other1 the type-body on which they are made is larger than the letter4 ,the blank parts around the face of a letter are called the counter1 the shoulder1 and the beard4 ,the counter is the shallow place between the lines of the face4 ,the shoulder is the low flat part of the type around the face4 ,the beard is the sloping part between the face and the shoulder4 ,illustration3 ,a ,a1 the face ,b ,b1 the serifs ,c ,c1 the counter ,e1 the pin-mark ,f ,f1 the beard ,g1 the shoulder ,h1 the nick ,j ,j1 the feet ,k1 the groove ,an important feature of a type is the nick on the side of the body4 ,in many cases there may be two1 three1 or even four nicks on a type4 ,usually all the types of a font have nicks that are identical in number and position1 and when the types are composed in lines these nicks match each other and form continuous grooves on the lower part of the line of type4 ,the nicks serve as guides to the compositor when taking the type from the case to his composing stick1 and they assist in distinguishing the types of one font or face from those of another on the same size of body4#a ,individual letters of different type faces sometimes bear such close resemblance that they are more readily distinguished by the nick or some other body-mark than by the face4 ,a difference in alignment of nicks in a line will readily show the presence of a wrong-font letter4 ,typefounders sometimes make an extra nick on a few small-capitals 7o s v w x z7 in order to distinguish these types from the lower-case letters of the same font4 ,a ,font of ,type ,a font of type is an assortment of one size and kind that is used together4 ,it is usually all the type in the composing-room of a certain kind matching in body1 nick1 and face4 ,a small font may be held in one case1 but several cases may be required for a font of large quantity4 ,an ordinary font of roman type for book work will include these characters3 ,roman ,capitals-- ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,h ,i ,j ,k ,l ,m ,n ,o ,p ,q ,r ,s ,t ,u ,v ,w ,x ,y ,z ,,ae ,,oe ,small ,capitals-- ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,h ,i ,j ,k ,l ,m ,n ,o ,p ,q ,r ,s ,t ,u ,v ,w ,x ,y ,z ,,ae ,,oe ,lower-case ,letters#b-- a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z ae oe fi fl ff ffi ffl ,figures-- #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #j 7or oldstyle #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #j7 ,marks of ,punctuation--,period 4 comma 1 colon 3 semi-colon 2 hyphen - apostrophe ' exclamation mark 6 question mark 8 parenthesis 7 bracket ,the latter two are used in pairs 77 1 the second type being set in reversed position4 ,quotation ,marks are made by two inverted commas at the beginning and two apostrophes at the end of the quoted matter4 ,in some fonts there is a double mark cast on single bodies1 but these are not often used4 ,dashes--,en - em -- two-em ---- three-em ------ ,reference ,marks--,asterisk or star 99 dagger ,symbol3 dagger double dagger ,symbol3 double dagger section ,symbol3 section parallel paragraph ,symbol3 pilcrow index 7hand1 or fist7 ,symbol3 right hand ,braces--,two-em ,graphic3 two-em brace three-em ,graphic3 three-em brace pieced braces ,graphic3 pieced brace made on em bodies1 which may be extended more or less with dashes ,graphic3 longer pieced brace ,the dollar-mark 1 short-and 7or round-and7 1 and sterling pound-mark ,l are also included with all full fonts4 ,the character ct is an old-style ligature 7two joined letters cast on one type7 made in some fonts of old-style faces4 ,it is one of the many letter combinations formerly common1 in imitation of the work of old manuscript writers4 ,many styles of roman types have italic letters to match1 but the italic fonts include only capitals1 lower-case1 figures1 and punctuation marks3 ,italic ,capitals-- ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,h ,i ,j ,k ,l ,m ,n ,o ,p ,q ,r ,s ,t ,u ,v ,w ,x ,y ,z ,,ae ,,oe ,italic ,lower-case-- a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z ae oe ,italic ,figures-- #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #j 7#a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #j7 ,italic ,points1 etc4#c-- 4 1 3 2 - ' 6 8 7 ,small capitals are not made for italic fonts1 except in rare cases4 ,when they are needed in composition1 capitals of a smaller size of type are justified into the text line4 ,other extra characters1 not included in ordinary fonts but which may be added when required1 are accented letters 7a e e i o u etc471 fractions #c_/d #e_/ac etc471 mathematical signs 7 x _/ etc471 superior 7ab #db7 and inferior 7ab #ab7 letters and figures1 leaders 744444444444471 commercial signs 7 ,symbol3 lb bar ,symbol3 per sign ,symbol3 account of c71 and many other characters for special kinds of printing4 ,fonts of advertising1 jobbing1 and display types usually consist of the capitals1 lower-case letters1 figures1 and points1 with occasionally a few extra characters4 ,for many recent styles of heavy faces the founders furnish fractions1 accented letters1 and other special characters to match in boldness of face1 but these are not included in ordinary letter-fonts4 ,the quantity of each character apportioned to a regular font is the estimated average required for ordinary composition in the ,english language4 ,it is rare that more than a fraction of a small font can be used in any piece of composition4 ,no general scheme can meet the needs of every kind of work2 tables and statistical matter will need extra figures1 directories and other lists will call for surplus capitals1 dialogue matter will need more than the usual portion of commas and apostrophes for quote-marks2 even plain descriptive composition will often call for extra sorts4 ,for these and other peculiar kinds of composition extra quantities of some characters1 as well as other material1 must be provided4 ,ordinary roman and other faces used in large quantities are measured by weight4 ,the proportion of letters in a #ajj-pound font1 showing the proportions of each character1 is given on the next page4 ,miscellaneous faces used in small quantities are put up in fonts containing a certain number of each letter1 the size of the font being designated by the number of capital ,a's and lower-case a's it contains4 ,scheme for #ae-;,a #cj-;a ,job ,font of #ab-,point#d --------------------------------------- ,,capitals ,,lower-,,case ,,points ,a #ae a #cj period #ca ,b #f b #ab comma #ca ,c #aj c #af colon #f ,d #h d #ah semi-colon #f ,e #ah e #dj hyphen #i ,f #g f #ab apostrophe #ac ,g #g g #ab 6 #i ,h #h h #bj 8 #h ,i #ae i #cj 7 #f ,j #e j #h ,k #e k #h ,,figures ,l #aj l #bj ,m #h m #af #a #e ,n #ae n #cj #b #d ,o #ae o #cj #c #d ,p #h p #ab #d #d ,q #c q #f #e #d ,r #ae r #cj #f #d ,s #ae s #cj #g #d ,t #ae t #cj #h #d ,u #h u #af #i #e ,v #e v #h #j #f ,w #f w #ab #d ,x #c x #f ,l #a ,y #f y #ab ,z #c z #f #f fi #c fl #c ff #c ffi #b ffl #b --------------------------------------- ,a ,,weight ,,font ,proportion of ,letters c4 in #ajj lb4 of ,roman ,type ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,capitals ,,small ,,caps4 ,,lower ,,case ,,figures oz oz lb oz oz ,a #h-a_/b ,a #b-a_/b a #d #f #a #h ,b #e ,b #a-a_/b b #a - #b #f-a_/b ,c #g-a_/b ,c #b c #a #ad #c #e-a_/b ,d #f-a_/b ,d #b d #c - #d #e ,e #aj ,e #c-a_/b e #f #h #e #f-a_/b ,f #e ,f #a-a_/b f #a #a #f #e ,g #e-a_/b ,g #a-a_/b g #a #d #g #e ,h #f-a_/b ,h #b h #c #h #h #e ,i #f ,i #a-c_/d i #b #ab #i #e ,j #d-a_/b ,j #a-a_/d j - #e #j #aj ,k #d ,k #a-a_/d k - #h #b ,l #f ,l #b l #a #h ,l #a_/b ,m #g-a_/b ,m #b-a_/d m #b #aj ----- ,n #g-a_/b ,n #b-a_/b n #d #f #dlb ,o #g-a_/b ,o #b-a_/b o #d #d ,p #f ,p #a-c_/d p #a #f ,,points ,q #b-a_/b ,q #c_/d q - #e lb oz ,r #h ,r #b-a_/d r #c #e period #a - ,s #h ,s #b-a_/d s #c #f comma #a #h ,t #i ,t #b-a_/b t #c #ab colon - #b ,u #e ,u #a-a_/b u #b #b semi-colon - #c ,v #c-a_/b ,v #a v - #ad hyphen - #i ,w #g ,w #b w #a #aj apostrophe - #d ,x #b ,x #c_/d x - #e 6 - #b ,y #d-a_/b ,y #a-a_/d y #a #d -- - #c ,z #b ,z #a_/b z - #d 7 - #b ,,ae #c_/d ,,ae #a_/d ae - #a - #a ,,oe #c_/d ,,oe #a_/d oe - #a ------ #c-a_/b #a fi - #e #d #d ------ ----- ff - #d #ajlb #clb ffi - #d ,,spaces ,,and ,,quads ----------------------- fl - #c lb oz ffl - #c hair - #b ,,totals lb ------- #e-to-em - #aj ,capitals #aj #eh #ab #d-to-em #a - ,small capitals #c #c-to-em #f - ,lower-case #eh-c_/d en-quad #b #d ,figures #d em #a #aj ,points #d-a_/d #b-;em #d #b ,spaces #bj #c-;em #d #d and ,quads ------- ------ #ajjlb #bjlb ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,weight fonts of body type are usually put up by the founders in sections or parts of fonts as given in the above summary of totals1 so that one or more of these sections may be obtained to supplement a font already in use4 ,it will be noted that braces1 dashes1 and reference-marks are omitted in the above list4 ,these characters1 like fractions1 commercial signs1 etc41 are not now considered parts of ordinary fonts1 but are put up in separate packages and must be specially ordered when wanted4 ,font schemes apportioned in quantities like the foregoing are more or less closely adhered to for original packages of foundry-cast type4 ,to insure precision1 when ordering1 it is necessary to state not only the quantity 7by number of letters or weight7 but also whether a complete font or part of a complete font 7capital font1 lower-case font1 or figure font7 is referred to4 ,the ,sizes of ,type ,all printing type has1 first1 a name denoting its size1 and second1 one denoting the style of its face4 ,for instance1 the type used for the text of this book is #aj-point 7its size7 ,lining ,caslon ,oldstyle 7the foundry name of its face74 ,illustration ,the size of a type is the vertical thickness of its body--the thickness of a line up and down the page4 ,the width of a type is its set4 ,thus a #ab-point en-quad is #ab-point body and #f-point set1 a #aj-point figure of the thickness of an en quad is #aj-point body and #e-point set1 etc4 ,the total length of a type1 including feet and face1 is its height-to-paper4 ,american type sizes conform to a graduated scale known as the point system4 ,the unit of the system is a division of space called a point1 which is 4#jach 7approximately #a_/gb7 of an inch4 ,type bodies are multiples of this point4 ,the usual sizes are graduated by points up to #ab-point4 ,sizes above #ah-point are multiples of #f-point up to #fj-point 7#ah1 #bd1 #cj1 #cf1 #db1 #dh1 #ed1 #fj74 ,larger sizes are #gb-point1 #hd-point 7rare71 #if-point1 #abj-point1 and #add-point1 the latter being the largest type commonly cast in a mold4 ,illustration3 ,agate ,a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,mabcdefghijklmn op #f-point ,a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,kabcdefehijklmnopqr stw #h-point ,a,b,c,d,e,fabcdefghijklmnop #aj-point ,a,b,c,d,eabcdefghijklmr #ab-point ,a,b,c,d,eabcdefghi #ad-point ,a,b,c,dabcdghi #ah-point ,d,e,fcdjklu #bd-point ,b,cabyc #cj-point ,bangl #cf-point ,bats #db-point ,bld #dh-point ,ht ,the above squares show one em of the sizes stated4 ,the letters show the size of face made on the body4 ,in addition to the small sizes shown in the accompanying illustration1 there are some intermediate sizes like #e-a_/b-point and #d-a_/b-point1 and type as small as #c-point has been made4 ,these are rare1 however1 as type smaller than #e-a_/b-point is not practicable for extended use4 ,these small sizes are employed for special purposes1 like miniature editions of books 7parts of the ,bible1 prayer books1 etc47 cut-in notes1 piece-fractions1 small borders1 special characters1 and occasional words or lines that are required to be put in the smallest possible space4 ,the size of type known as agate 7fourteen lines to an inch7 is considered the common standard of measurement for newspaper and magazine advertising space4 ,many plain types for books1 periodicals1 etc41 are made only in small sizes4 ,certain faces are made in a few sizes only1 while others are made in more or less complete series from #f-point to #dh-point4 ,the irregular sizes of #e-a_/b-point1 #g-point1 #i-point1 and #aa-point are mostly roman faces1 with companion italics1 and a few bolder styles for headings and other display in combination with romans of the same body4 ,many new faces are now made by founders in graded series from #f-point to #gb-point1 and in some cases even larger4 ,type faces adapted to many kinds of work are made in nearly all the regular sizes1 while those faces designed for small and dainty work1 like personal and society cards and stationery1 are made only in the smaller sizes of the list4 ,types are now often cast with faces larger or smaller than is commonly made on the body1 such as a #ab-point face on #aj-point body1 giving the effect of compactness2 or an #h-point face made on a #aj-point body1 which gives a lighter appearance as if opened with #b-point leads4 ,these are known as bastard types4 ,because of this irregularity in the faces of types it is difficult to know the exact body-size of a type by merely examining a printed sheet4 ,borders1 ornaments1 florets1 and decorative characters cast on type-bodies are now made mostly in sizes based on the #f-point as the unit 7#f1 #ab1 #ah1 #bd-point1 and larger multiples71 but #h-point1 #aj-point1 and #ad-point sizes are sometimes used4 ,before the adoption of the point system1 type sizes were named in a haphazard way4 ,arbitrary names were given to certain sizes and in many cases types of the same name made by different founders varied so much in size that they could not be used together without great inconvenience to the printer4 ,some of these old names still survive and are applied to the point-system bodies which approximate the old sizes4 ,,point ,,size ,,old ,,name #c-point excelsior #d-point brilliant #d-a_/b-point diamond #e-point pearl #e-a_/b-point agate #f-point nonpareil #g-point minion #h-point brevier #i-point bourgeois #aj-point long primer #aa-point small pica #ab-point pica #ad-point english #af-point columbian #ah-point great primer three-line nonpareil #bj-point paragon #bb-point two-line small pica #bd-point two-line pica #bh-point two-line english #cb-point two-line columbian #cf-point two-line great primer #dj-point two-line paragon #dd-point meridian #dh-point canon1 four-line pica ,while these old names and their sizes are now nearly obsolete1 young printers should learn the names and associate them with their corresponding sizes of the point system4 ,in the foregoing list there are several intermediate sizes 7#af1 #bj1 #bb1 #bh1 #cb1 #dj1 #dd-point7 rarely used for type of recent design4 ,fonts of these odd sizes may be sometimes found1 and there has been a size of #ae-point made1 but little used4 ,these odd sizes are1 however1 mostly old faces1 scripts1 and black-letter1 originally cast on old bodies and later1 after the introduction of the point system1 made on new point-bodies which are nearest to their original sizes4 ,the point system has been applied to the width of types1 as well as to the body-size2 that is1 the set of each type is fixed at a given number of points or fraction thereof4 ,this method simplifies in a degree the process of accurate justification1 as each line1 though containing various letters and spaces1 is composed of the same number of units4 ,an advantage over the old method of unrelated widths is in the saving of time in composition1 by reducing the number of different widths in the characters of the alphabet4 ,by the old method each type had its own special width2 in a complete font there might be a hundred or more different widths4 ,by the modern point system those characters which are nearly alike in width are made on the same set1 or1 if different1 the variation is governed by the standard unit4 ,lining ,type ,faces ,american founders have adopted the practice of casting type-faces on uniform lining systems1 variously known as ,american line1 standard line1 uniform line1 etc4 ,the earlier practice was to cast the type of a font so that the letters would align at the bottom only with their mates of the same font1 without reference to any other face of type4 ,when the compositor had occasion to use two or more different faces of type in the same line1 these faces were rarely in even alignment1 but were irregularly high or low1 as shown in the accompanying example ,a4 ,this lack of uniformity made it necessary when a different face was used in the line1 as is often required in jobbing and advertisements1 to use thin leads1 cards1 or pieces of paper above and below different parts of the type-line in order to get the faces in line--an operation more or less troublesome and expensive4 ,by the modern lining system1 the faces made on any given size of body are cast to align with each other1 as shown in the second example ,b4 ,these different faces require no more adjustment than if they were all of one font4 ,illustration3 ,showing irregular alignment of faces1 the old method4 ,showing exact alignment of different faces1 the modern way4 ,on different sizes of type the shoulder1 or blank space1 at the bottom of the letter increases gradually with the size of the type1 so that a word of small type placed beside a larger size must have some spacing material below as well as above to keep it in its right alignment4 ,this necessary difference in the face-alignment of various sizes is graduated by points1 in the lining system1 so that when more than one size type is used in the same line the justification is made by using point-body leads4 ,this makes the use of slips of card and paper unnecessary and secures greater accuracy and solidity of the composed page4 ,illustration3 #cj-point to #f-point lined up with #a-point ,faces of radically different style are not1 however1 all cast on the same alignment1 but are classified into three groups4 ,one group embraces the majority of type-faces1 those having capitals and small letters1 g y p j4 ,another group embraces fonts of capitals only1 mostly faces known as title letters and combination lining faces which1 having no descenders1 may be made lower on the body4 ,a third group includes those faces having long descenders1 like script types1 which must be placed high on the body4 ,illustration3 ,these types show letters cast on ,a the common line1 ,b title line1 ,c script line4 ,a common class of lining types for job work are the combination series1 or those having two or more sizes of face 7capitals only7 cast on bodies of the same size4 ,each face is made to line with the others on the same body1 and all the faces are readily used in combination1 with a single size of spaces and quads4 ,in order that the type of each face may be readily distinguished1 the nicks are varied in number or position--a single nick for one face1 two nicks for another1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,american ,,lining ,,system ,kerned ,types ,when the face of a letter is so large that it projects over the type-body1 it is known as a kerned type4 ,letters of this kind are common in italic and script fonts1 and there are a few letters1 like f and j1 in some oldstyle roman fonts which have the tip of the letter overhang4 ,kerned types are a source of trouble because of the ease with which these projections break off during composition1 proofing1 etc4 ,yet they cannot be entirely dispensed with1 especially in italic and script faces having a definite slope1 where the long letters would have wide gaps on the side 7as shown in the script line above7 if they were cast on bodies wide enough to hold the entire face4 ,in some styles of upright faces having extra long descending letters g1 p1 q1 y1 these descenders may be kerned4 ,illustration3 s l o p i n g sloping ,showing why some letters must be made on kerned types4 ,illustration3 ,large italic letters are sometimes mortised at the corners1 instead of kerned1 to allow the next letter to fit close4 ,modern type-makers try1 by changing the shape of the letters slightly1 to avoid kerns as much as possible1 because of the extra care and expense involved in casting4 ,too often1 unfortunately1 this avoidance of the kern1 in order to meet mechanical convenience1 is secured by sacrificing the distinctive form of the letter4 ,spaces and ,quads ,short metal spaces and quads 7from quadrat1 a square71 used for blanks between words and elsewhere1 are of various thicknesses1 as illustrated below4 ,an em is a square of type body of any size4 ,this #aj-point em ,symbol3 hollow square is ten points square2 a #aj-point three-to-em space is one third of the em1 a four-to-em is one fourth1 etc4 ,the en quad is really a thick space1 though called a quad1 and is equal to half the em4 ,larger blanks are the two-em and three-em quads1 used to fill the last lines of paragraphs and other wide spaces4 ,illustration3 #aj-,,point ,,spaces ,,and ,,quads hair space five-to-em four-to-em three-to-em en-quad em-quad two-em three-em ,the metal blanks shown here are the regular spaces and quads belonging to a font of type of the size of #aj-point4 ,they enable the compositor to obtain the many different spacings required to make lines the required length1 and to properly separate words and place them wherever desired in the line4 ,while these thicknesses of spaces are the usual kinds for sizes of type up to #ab-point1 larger types may have other kinds of spaces1 six-to-em1 eight-to-em1 and even smaller divisions4 ,the thickness of the hair space does not always bear the same proportion to the em quad2 in some sizes it is one sixth of the em1 in others it may be one eighth or one twelfth4 ,very thin spaces 7copper #a_/b-point1 brass #a-point71 for exact spacing and justifying1 are supplied by dealers4 ,a space of the thickness intermediate between the three-to-em and the en quad1 known as a patent space1 has been made for use in book work4 ,although it has great advantage as a substitute for two of the thinner spaces when these are needed in spacing a line1 its use has been limited and it is not included with the usual assortment furnished by dealers4 ,the common spaces and quads for general work1 when the type itself is used for printing1 are about seven-eighths of the height of the type1 so that they are well below the printing surface4 ,a type-page composed with these spaces will have a little deep hole at the top of each space4 ,these numerous little holes present a difficult surface for making a good wax mold when an electroplate is made for printing4 ,where much molding is to be done1 higher spaces1 quads1 and other blanks are provided4 ,these high spaces and quads reach nearly to the shoulder of the type4 ,how ,type is ,made ,illustration3 ,solid lines indicate one half of the mold4 ,dotted lines show the other half in position4 ,shaded portion represents type metal filling aperture in the mold4 ,the molten type metal flows through the opening at ,a1 down to the side ,b1 where the matrix 7not shown in this diagram7 molds the face of the type4 ,the tag of metal1 called the jet1 marked ,c1 is cut off after casting4 ,d is a narrow flange on the mold which forms the nick on the under surface of the type body4 ,the mold in which type is cast consists of two essential parts--the steel box in which the body is formed1 and the matrix which contains a sunken image of the character4 ,the matrix covers the opening at one end of the mold1 and on the opposite end 7which is the foot of the type7 is an opening through which the melted metal is injected4 ,a mold is made for a single body-size of type but it is adjustable sideways to correspond to the various widths of the letters in an alphabet4 ,one mold may be used to cast1 in succession1 all the letters of a font of type1 or it may be used to cast any number of fonts of different faces that may be made on the same body1 by merely changing the matrices that form the face4 ,the mold is made in two sections1 which are fitted together so as to close up to the required width of the letter1 and1 after the cast is made1 to open slightly in order to release the type4 ,illustration3 ,matrix ,the ,matrix4 ,there are three different methods of making type matrices4 ,by the oldest method the first step is to cut the character on the end of a small bar of soft steel1 called a punch2 when this is done1 the steel is hardened and it is used to stamp an impression in a bar of copper4 ,this copper bar is a matrix in the rough1 and its sides are next trimmed and squared so that it will fit the mold4 ,illustration3 ,type-mold complete1 in two parts1 but without the matrix 7which is shown separately above74 ,position of the matrix when cast is made is indicated by the letter ,h on the end of the type within the mold4 ,the upper and lower halves of the mold slide horizontally1 to make the interior casting-box wide or narrow to conform to the required widths of various letters4 ,the second method of making a matrix is by electrotype process4 ,the original pattern of the letter may be engraved by hand or by other operation1 or it may be a perfect type-face of a previous casting4 ,this is fitted into a small frame of brass and then held in the vat of an electro-galvanic battery1 which deposits a thick film of copper around the pattern and fills the opening in the brass frame4 ,when this electro-plating process is completed1 the pattern letter is extracted and the brass frame1 with its copper impression of the letter1 becomes the essential feature of the matrix4 ,it is then reinforced by riveting another plate on the back1 and is trimmed and fitted to place on the mold4 ,a third process of making matrices is with an automatic matrix-cutting machine1 in which the shape of the desired letter is cut in the face of a plate of composition metal by a small rapidly-revolving cutting point4 ,a large pattern of the letter is placed in one part of the machine1 and while the operator traces the outline with the point of a lever all the motions are duplicated in miniature by the cutting tool on the bar of metal1 which becomes1 when completed1 a matrix4 ,casting the ,type4 ,the old-time method of casting type was with hand molds1 the melted metal being poured in at the foot of the mold with a small ladle while the mold was held in the hand4 ,in the modern casting machine1 the mold with its matrix1 is assembled by the side of the metal pot1 in which the metal is kept at a uniform temperature by means of a gas furnace4 ,in the center of this metal pot is a rod with a spring attachment which1 at each operation of the machine1 acts as a plunger to force a small stream of hot metal through a side aperture into the jet-hole of the mold4 ,after the casting1 the two parts of the mold separate slightly1 the matrix is drawn away from the face of the type1 and the cast is moved out2 then the mold and matrix close together again and the operation is repeated4 ,cold water or air is circulated near the mold to keep an even temperature4 ,the matrix for one character only is placed in the machine and when enough types have been cast1 it is taken out and replaced by another1 the change usually requiring but a few moments4 ,there are several kinds of type-casting machines in use1 such as hand casters1 steam casters1 and automatic casters4 ,the older style is the hand caster1 which is operated by a small wheel with a handle attached4 ,steam casters are operated by mechanical power 7originally steam power74 ,when type is cast by a hand machine it is unfinished1 as a piece of metal called the jet still adheres to the bottom of each type4 ,this jet is broken off1 and the types are set in long lines and fastened in a narrow channel1 face down4 ,a small plane smooths away the rough surface caused by breaking off the jet4 ,this leaves a shallow groove on the bottom of each type and allows it to stand squarely on its feet4 ,the types also have slight burs and sharp edges of metal which must be rubbed off before they are ready for inspection and for the font-room4 ,type cast on the older steam machines require the jet to be broken off after the casting1 and the final finishing of the type is done afterward by other operations4 ,these finishing touches are done mostly by hand1 with the aid of a polishing stone or a small dressing wheel4 ,on the automatic machine1 which is the modern method of casting type1 breaking off the jet1 rubbing1 dressing1 etc41 are all accomplished automatically on the machine1 the types coming out in a continuous line practically ready for the compositor's case4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the foregoing describes in a general way the methods of making type by the regular founders4 ,there is now a great deal of type made by automatic composing and casting machines installed directly in many composing rooms4 ,two distinctive styles of these machines are now extensively used--the ,linotype and the ,monotype4 ,both of these have reached a high degree of efficiency because of their nice mechanisms1 based on the principle of automatically operated molds1 matrices1 and delivery devices4 ,in the ,linotype the matrices for a desired line of words are assembled side by side and the line is cast in one piece4 ,in the ,monotype the mechanism automatically and rapidly adjusts the matrix of the desired letters one at a time over the mold1 and each type is cast and moved along into lines and then into a column on a galley4 ,the ,linotype ,the ,linotype 7line-o'-type7 consists of a mechanism for assembling brass dies or matrices in lines1 presenting them in front of a mold in which a type-high metal bar1 or slug1 is cast1 and returning the matrices to their respective channels for use again4 ,the brass matrices have the characters of the alphabet1 figures1 points1 etc41 sunk into their edges2 these are held in a magazine1 which is an arrangement of channels in an inclined position above a keyboard4 ,by the pressing of a key the required matrix is released1 which drops and is carried into place by a small belt4 ,wedge-shaped space-bands are also controlled by a key1 and when sufficient matrices and space-bands are assembled to make the line a bell rings4 ,by operating a lever the line of matrices then moves in front of the mold inserted in the side of a wheel and behind which is a pot of melted metal4 ,illustration3 ,four-,magazine ,linotype ,machine ,by the next operation the space-bands are pushed between the words1 thus spreading them to the measure4 ,the line justified1 a plunger in the metal-pot forces a quantity of metal into the mold and against the line of matrices1 forming a metal strip or slug with the letters in relief on one edge4 ,after the cast is made1 a turn of the mold-wheel and other mechanism shaves off the surplus metal on the foot of the slug and pushes it between knife-edges1 where it is trimmed on the sides1 and is then pushed on to a galley4 ,the melting of the metal is done by a small gas furnace under the metal-pot4 ,after the matrices have been used for the line they are lifted by an arm to the top of the machine and distributed again1 each character in its particular channel in the magazine4 ,the matrices for each character have a set of notches or teeth different from every other character2 and as they are moved along the distributing apparatus by horizontal screws each matrix reaches a point where its notches are matched and it drops into the top of its channel4 ,there are a number of matrices of each character1 and the arrangement of the machine is such that three lines of matrices may be kept in operation at once--one being assembled1 one at the casting mold1 and the third being distributed4 ,the work of the operator is to manipulate the keyboard and1 at the end of each line1 move a lever which engages the mechanism that carries the assembled line to the mold4 ,all other operations are performed by mechanical power4 ,the ,monotype ,illustration3 ,monotype ,keyboard ,the ,lanston ,monotype is a type-casting machine which produces separate types set in lines of any length1 up to sixty ems pica1 spaced and justified4 ,it is in two parts--a keyboard and a casting machine4 ,the function of the keyboard section is to punch a series of holes in a moving strip of paper1 which unwinds from one spool to another1 passing under a series of punches in its journey4 ,the punches are operated by pressing the keys on the keyboard1 the result of this operation being a roll of perforated paper ribbon4 ,this ribbon is then taken to the casting machine1 which contains a pot for melted metal1 a stationary mold for the size of type to be cast1 and a matrix-plate4 ,the matrix-plate is about five inches square1 and has on its face depressed images or matrices of each letter and character of the font4 ,the perforated strip of paper1 when fed to its place1 controls the movement of the matrix-plate1 so that the required letter is adjusted exactly in place over the mold1 while the melted metal is squirted in to form the type4 ,the type then moves away and takes its proper place in the line1 until the line is completed1 when it is automatically moved out on to a galley4 ,the ,monotype keyboard1 being an entirely separate machine1 may be and usually is operated in any place away from the casting apparatus and work may be executed on it anytime before casting4 ,the perforated roll may be fed through any number of times to produce duplicate castings of the matter1 and a matrix-plate for a different face may be used if desired4 ,in the casting of the line the proper spaces are cast with it1 the spacing needed to justify each line being indicated on the perforated record during composition on the keyboard4 ,illustration3 ,monotype ,casting ,machine ,a peculiarity of ,monotype composition is that1 while the keyboard produces the perforated roll in the usual sequence from beginning to end of the story1 the casting machine reverses the process by starting at the end of the composition and finishing up with the beginning4 ,ingredients of ,type ,metal ,the metal used for casting type is a mixture of lead 7five parts71 antimony 7two parts71 tin 7one part71 and sometimes a small addition of copper4 ,lead forms the chief part of all type metal1 as it melts easily and fuses readily with other metals2 but lead alone is too soft for the service required of type4 ,antimony is brittle and gives hardness1 and tin is added to impart toughness4 ,lead and antimony in approximately these proportions make an alloy which has the unusual quality of expanding slightly1 instead of shrinking1 when cooling1 thus permitting a full1 sharp cast in all parts of the mold4 ,tin flows readily when melted and increases the smoothness of the cast on the surface of the mold4 ,a small quantity of copper may sometimes be added to give still greater toughness4 ,the metal used for small sizes of type is commonly harder than that used for the large sizes1 the softness of the metal gradually increasing with the size of type made4 ,script types and faces with delicate lines are usually cast with metal a little harder than that used for the normal and bolder faces4 ,the foregoing refers more particularly to type cast by the regular foundries4 ,the metal used in automatic casting machines1 like the ,monotype1 contains a larger proportion of lead and less antimony2 while the metal used for casting line-slugs in the ,linotype machine is composed of still larger proportion of lead and very little of the other two metals4 ,stereotype metal and metals used for leads1 slugs1 furniture1 etc41 are largely lead4 ,wood ,type ,large types1 such as are used for posters and large bills1 are made of wood4 ,the smallest size for practical use is #dh-point1 or #d-line pica4 ,sizes of wood type are multiples of the pica1 and are so named1 as #h-line1 #aj-line1 etc4 ,they are much cheaper than metal types1 though not as durable or satisfactory for printing4 ,the wood commonly used is maple1 and the letter is made on the end of the grain4 ,it must be well seasoned and polished4 ,pine and other soft woods are used for very large sizes of wood type and poster engravings4 ,the manner of cutting the letter is by routing away the blank parts with a small rapidly-revolving cutter4 ,the strip of wood1 large enough to make several letters1 and planed type-high1 is placed in a machine equipped with a pantagraph apparatus4 ,a pattern letter is put in place1 and over this a guide-point is moved4 ,on another part of the machine is the revolving cutting tool4 ,as the guide-point is moved over the pattern its motions are duplicated on the block under the cutting tool1 which cuts away the wood4 ,when the letters on a block are thus routed out1 they are sawed apart1 the finishing touches given1 and the letters oiled4 ,,supplementary ,,reading ,the ,invention of ,printing4 ,by ,theodore ,l4 ,de ,vinne4 ,oswald ,publishing ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,cloth1 #eeg pp4 #f4 ,plain ,printing ,types4 ,by ,theodore ,l4 ,de ,vinne4 ,oswald ,publishing ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,cloth1 #dgf pp4 #b4 ,the ,monotype ,system4 ,published by the ,lanston ,monotype ,machine ,co41 ,philadelphia4 #bid pp4 and diagrams4 ,the ,mechanism of the ,linotype4 ,by ,john ,s4 ,thompson4 ,the ,inland ,printer ,co41 ,chicago4 #baf pp4 #b4 ,history of ,composing ,machines4 ,by ,john ,s4 ,thompson4 ,the ,inland ,printer ,co41 ,chicago4 ,cloth1 #eeg pp4 #b4 ,specimen ,books of ,american ,type ,founders ,co42 ,h4 ,c4 ,hansen1 ,boston2 ,barnhart ,brothers ,spindler1 ,chicago2 ,keystone ,type ,foundry1 ,philadelphia4 ,,review ,,questions ,,suggestions ,,to ,,students ,,and ,,instructors ,the following questions1 based on the contents of this pamphlet1 are intended to serve 7#a7 as a guide to the study of the text1 7#b7 as an aid to the student in putting the information contained into definite statements without actually memorizing the text1 7#c7 as a means of securing from the student a reproduction of the information in his own words4 ,a careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full acquaintance with every part of the text1 avoiding the accidental omission of what might be of value4 ,these primers are so condensed that nothing should be omitted4 ,in teaching from these books it is very important that these questions and such others as may occur to the teacher1 should be made the basis of frequent written work1 and of final examinations4 ,the importance of written work cannot be overstated4 ,it not only assures knowledge of material but the power to express that knowledge correctly and in good form4 ,if this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form it will be doubly useful4 ,,questions #a4 ,what was the so-called invention of printing8 #b4 ,what was ,gutenberg's contribution to printing8 #c4 ,describe a type4 #d4 ,upon what does the utility of type depend8 ,why8 #e4 ,how many different characters are required in ordinary book printing8 #f4 ,into what classes are they divided8 #g4 ,how much of the surface of a type is covered by the letter8 #h4 ,how is the type body related in size to the letter face8 ,why8 #i4 ,what are the blank parts around the face of the letter called8 #aj4 ,describe each part4 #aa4 ,what is the nick and what is its use8 #ab4 ,what is a font of type8 #ac4 ,in what is it kept for the compositor's use8 #ad4 ,what characters are included in an ordinary font of roman type for book work8 #ae4 ,what can you say about small capitals8 #af4 ,what can you say about other extra characters8 #ag4 ,what characters do fonts of advertising and jobbing type include8 #ah4 ,name some other characters supplied by the foundries8 #ai4 ,what determines the number of characters of the various sorts in a font of type8 #bj4 ,is there any rule fitting all kinds of composition8 #ba4 ,mention some special kinds of composition and tell what extra sorts each demands4 #bb4 ,how are ordinary faces measured when used in large quantities8 #bc4 ,how are job fonts designated8 #bd4 ,to what kind of type do these schemes apply8 #be4 ,what are the three measurements for type8 #bf4 ,what is the size of a type8 #bg4 ,what is the set of a type8 #bh4 ,describe the point system4 #bi4 ,what are the usual sizes of type8 #cj4 ,what other sizes are made and for what are they used8 #ca4 ,what determines the choice of sizes for any particular face8 #cb4 ,what are bastard types8 #cc4 ,can you always tell the size of type used by examining a printed page8 ,why8 #cd4 ,what is meant by height-to-paper8 #ce4 ,how were types described before the adoption of the point system8 #cf4 ,give the old names in common use and the approximate equivalents in points4 #cg4 ,what can you say of #af1 #bj1 #bb1 #bh1 and #dj-point sizes8 #ch4 ,what are the advantages of the application of the point system to the width of type8 #ci4 ,what is meant by lining type faces8 #dj4 ,what is the chief advantage of the lining system8 #da4 ,what is needed when a word of small type is placed beside a word of large type8 ,why8 #db4 ,how is the line justified8 #dc4 ,into what groups are type faces divided for aligning purposes8 #dd4 ,what are combination series of lining types8 #de4 ,what are kerned types8 #df4 ,how is kerning avoided8 #dg4 ,what are the advantages and disadvantages of these expedients8 #dh4 ,what is an em quad8 #di4 ,describe the spaces used in type composition4 #ej4 ,describe the mold used in type casting4 #ea4 ,describe the three methods of making the matrix4 #eb4 ,what was the old method of casting type8 #ec4 ,what is the modern method8 #ed4 ,describe the different kinds of type-casting machines4 #ee4 ,describe the finishing of type after casting4 #ef4 ,how is type made outside the type foundries8 #eg4 ,what is a ,linotype8 #eh4 ,what does a ,linotype produce8 #ei4 ,describe briefly the operation of a ,linotype4 #fj4 ,how are ,linotype matrices distributed8 #fa4 ,what does the operator have to do8 #fb4 ,what is a ,monotype8 #fc4 ,what does a ,monotype do8 #fd4 ,what are the essential differences between a ,monotype and a ,linotype8 #fe4 ,describe the operation of the ,monotype keyboard4 #ff4 ,describe the operation of the casting machine4 #fg4 ,what peculiarity has the ,monotype8 #fh4 ,what is type made of8 #fi4 ,what are the qualities of the several ingredients8 #gj4 ,what can you say of the uses of different metals in the type foundries8 #ga4 ,what sort of type metal is used in composing machines8 #gb4 ,what other material is used for type8 #gc4 ,for what purpose is it used8 #gd4 ,how is this kind of type made8 ,,glossary ,,of ,,terms ,,relating ,,to ,,type ,the numbers in parentheses refer to preceding pages in the text1 where further information about the different subjects may be found4 ,,agate--,a small size of type1 about #e-a_/b-point4 7#ad7 ,,ascending ,,letters--,the tall letters of the lower-case alphabet4 7#g7 ,,antimony--,one of the ingredients of type-metal2 a silver-white1 hard crystalline metallic substance1 used in chemistry and medicine1 as well as in industrial arts4 7#bf7 ,,bastard ,,types--,those with faces larger or smaller than is commonly made on a type-body4 7#ae7 ,,beard--,the beveled space below the face of a type4 7#ae7 ,,body--,the piece of metal upon which the face is cast4 7#g1 #h1 #ac7 ,,body ,,size--,the size of a type considered from top to bottom of the letter4 7#ac7 ,,body ,,type--,the kinds of type1 mostly roman faces1 used for plain composition in paragraphs or pages of one face2 text letter4 ,,borders--,characters cast in type1 which may be adjustable in many ways1 as for marginal lines1 panels1 and other decorative uses4 7#ae7 ,,bourgeois--,an old size of type1 about #i-point4 ,,brass ,,type--,for stamping book covers1 etc4 ,ordinary type-metal cannot endure the heat which must be applied for stamping gold leaf1 or printing on hard1 rough surfaces4 ,brass types are more expensive as well as more durable4 ,,brevier--,an old size of type nearly equal to #h-point4 7#ae7 ,,canon--,an old size of type approximately #dh-point4 7#ae7 ,,cap4--,abbreviation for capital letter2 s4c4 or sm4cap41 small capital4 ,,copper-,,faced ,,type--,new type coated by electric action1 depositing a thin film of copper1 to make it more durable4 ,,copper ,,thin ,,spaces--,extra thin spaces for justifying lines4 7#ai7 ,,corner ,,quads--,blanks cast in this shape ,symbol3 thick right angle matching #f-point and #ab-point quads2 placed outside the corners of pages with mitered brass rules to keep the joints in place4 ,,counter--,the blank space within the lines of a letter or other character4 7#h7 ,,descending ,,letters--,those which have part of the face below the regular alignment1 g1 p1 y4 7#h7 ,,diamond--,a small size of type1 equal to about #d-a_/b-point4 7#ae7 ,,display ,,type--,a general term meaning the kinds of type made for advertising1 title pages1 and other composition in which different sizes and faces are used2 in distinction from body type4 ,,em--,the square of a type body4 ,en1 half the width of the square4 7#ai7 ,,extended1 ,,expanded--,an extra wide face of type4 ,,face--,that part of a type or printing surface which leaves its impression upon the sheet4 7#h7 ,,feet--,the bottom of the type body4 7#h7 ,,font--,a complete assortment of type of one size and face4 7#i7 ,,furniture--,a general term applied to pieces of soft metal1 steel1 or wood1 used to fill the large blank spaces in a printing form2 made in different sizes based upon a #ab-point 7pica7 unit4 ,,great ,,primer--,an old size of type nearly equal to #ah-point4 7#ae7 ,,hair ,,spaces--,very thin spaces4 7#ai7 ,,height-,,to-,,paper--,the length of a type from top to bottom1 including feet and face4 ,this is not measured by points1 but by thousandths of an inch4 ,see ,type-high4 7#g1 #ac7 ,,high ,,spaces ,,and ,,quads--,used in type composition when the page is to be molded for electrotyping4 7#bj7 ,,high-,,to-,,line--,when the face of a type is above the regular alignment of the other letters in the line2 when below the alignment it is low-to-line4 7#ag7 ,,hollow ,,quads--,large blanks are sometimes cast with hollow parts to make them lighter and to economize metal4 ,see ,quotations4 ,,italic--,the style of letters that slope forward1 in distinction from upright1 or roman1 letters4 7#aj7 ,,jet--,the waste metal at the bottom of a type when it is first cast1 being the metal which cools in the aperture of the mold4 7#bb7 ,,job ,,font--,a small assortment of type4 7#aa7 ,,job ,,type--,the kinds used for miscellaneous work1 usually in small fonts1 in distinction from book type1 body letter1 etc4 ,,kerned ,,types--,those which have a small part of the face projecting over the body4 7#ah7 ,,laying ,,type--,putting a font of type into cases4 ,,leaders--,dots or short dashes placed at intervals in open lines to guide the eye1 as in indexes1 price-lists1 etc4 ,they are cast like quads for sizes of type most used4 ,leaders are also made of brass4 ,,letter--,sometimes this word is used to mean type4 ,letter-press printing1 that done with type4 ,letter foundry1 a type foundry4 ,,lining ,,type--,the exact alignment at top or bottom of the face on a type-body4 7#af-ah7 ,,linotype--,a machine for casting type in solid lines4 7#bc7 ,,long ,,primer--,an old size of type nearly equal to #aj-point4 7#ae7 ,,low-,,to-,,paper--,said of a type when it does not come up to the height of its mates2 opposite of high-to-paper4 7#g7 ,,low ,,spaces ,,and ,,quads--,those used for ordinary composition1 about seven-eighths of the length of the type4 7#bj7 ,,lower-,,case--,the small letters of the alphabet4 7#i7 ,,matrix--,the shallow mold in which the face of a type is cast4 7#ba7 ,,minion--,an old size of type1 about #g-point4 7#ae7 ,,monotype--,a machine for casting and composing type4 7#be7 ,,mortised ,,type--,when some part of the body is cut away1 either in the interior or on the sides1 to allow the insertion of another letter1 or to fit closer to an adjoining type4 7#ah7 ,,music ,,type--,an assortment of characters cast in type for printing music scores4 ,,nick--,the notch on the side of a type4 7#h7 ,in fonts made for use on the ,unitype composing machine each character has nicks in different position and combination from every other character1 to fit its special channel1 in order to control the various characters in the operation of the machine4 ,thus the nicks in a line of ,unitype matter show great irregularity4 ,,nonpareil--,old name for size of type equal to #f-point2 half pica 7#ae7 ,,off ,,its ,,feet--,type must stand squarely upright in order to give a good impression2 when it leans one way or the other it is off its feet4 ,,paragon--,an old size of type1 about #bj-point 7#ae7 ,,patent ,,space--,a type space thicker than three-to-em and less than the en-quad4 7#ai7 ,,pearl--,an old size of type1 about #e-point4 7#ae7 ,,pi--,types of different kinds mixed up in confusion4 ,,pica--,old name1 but still commonly used1 for a size of type equal to #ab-point4 7#ae7 ,a common unit of measurement in typography4 ,,piece ,,fractions--,fractions made up of two or more types2 the numerator and denominator cast separately1 usually on bodies half the size of the whole numbers or the type with which they are used4 ,sometimes called split fractions4 ,,pin-,,mark--,the little mark sometimes seen on the side of foundry-made type4 7#h7 ,,point ,,system--,the standard system of type bodies1 based on the point as a unit2 in ,america the point is 4#jach of an inch4 ,calculations are simplified ordinarily by assuming the point as #a_/gb of an inch4 7#ac7 ,,poster ,,type--,large sizes for billboard printing1 mostly made of wood4 7#bg7 ,,punch--,in typefounding1 an original die of a letter or character cut on the end of a steel bar1 used to make a matrix4 7#ba7 ,,quads--,metal blanks used for large spaces in composing type4 7#ai7 ,,quotations--,large hollow quads2 similar to metal furniture4 ,,rubber ,,type--,cast with a vulcanized-rubber face mounted on short metal bodies2 not used in ordinary typographic printing1 but classed with rubber hand stamps4 ,,script--,a general name for that class of type designed to imitate handwriting4 7#ah7 ,,sectional ,,type--,a style of type now in disuse1 in which each letter was made in two parts1 the upper half being separate from the lower4 ,any letter or character cast in two or more parts4 ,,serif--,the short cross-line or tick at the end of the main strokes in roman letters4 7#h7 ,,set--,the width of a type4 7#ac7 ,,shoulder--,the blank space on the top of a type not covered by the letter2 specifically1 the space above and below the letter1 the space on the side being designated by typefounders as side-bearings4 7#h7 ,,small ,,caps--,a secondary set of capitals made for fonts intended for book work4 ,they are slightly larger than the small 7lower-case7 letters1 but smaller than the regular capitals4 ,see the side-headings in this glossary4 7#i1 #aj1 #ab7 ,,small ,,pica--,an old size of type nearly equal to #aa-point4 7#ae7 ,,spaces--,thin metal blanks used to separate words in a line4 7#ai7 ,,sort--,any particular letter or character of a font1 in distinction from the complete assortment4 ,out of sorts1 when some needed letters of a font are missing4 ,,sort ,,order--,a request for some particular character of a font4 ,,two-,,line ,,letter--,a large letter covering two lines of the adjoining text1 used for initials at the beginning of paragraphs4 ,two-line figures1 used for displaying price-figures in advertisements1 etc4 ,,type-,,high--,of the standard height of type2 said of an electrotype or engraving that is the right height to accompany type4 7#g7 ,,type ,,metal--,a composition of lead1 tin1 and antimony4 7#bf7 ,,typography--,the process of printing with forms composed of movable types and small relief blocks4 ,,weight ,,font--,a complete assortment of type measured by its weight instead of by the number of each letter4 7#ab7 ,,weight ,,of ,,type--,four square inches of type1 composed solid1 weigh approximately one pound4 ,thus1 to find the weight of any given amount of type composition1 find the number of square inches and divide by four4 ,one pound of type 7about #d square inches7 contains the following number of ems 7solid7 of the different sizes3 #ah-point #fd ems #ab-point #add ems #aa-point #agj ems #aj-point #bjg ems #i-point #bef ems #h-point #cbd ems #g-point #dbc ems #f-point #egf ems ,,typographic ,,technical ,,series ,,for ,,apprentices ,the following list of publications1 comprising the ,,typographic ,,technical ,,series ,,for ,,apprentices1 has been prepared under the supervision of the ,committee on ,education of the ,united ,typothetae of ,america for use in trade classes1 in course of printing instruction1 and by individuals4 ,each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of authors1 and carefully edited1 the purpose being to provide the printers of the ,united ,states--employers1 journeymen1 and apprentices--with a comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable1 up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the printing craft1 all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study4 ,the publications of the series are of uniform size1 #e x #h inches4 ,their general make-up1 in typography1 illustrations1 etc41 has been1 as far as practicable1 kept in harmony throughout4 ,a brief synopsis of the particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be found under each title in the following list4 ,each topic is treated in a concise manner1 the aim being to embody in each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the subject4 ,care has been taken to make all statements accurate and clear1 with the purpose of bringing essential information within the understanding of beginners in the different fields of study4 ,wherever practicable1 simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text4 ,in order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction1 each title is accompanied by a list of ,review ,questions covering essential items of the subject matter4 ,a short ,glossary of technical terms belonging to the subject or department treated is also added to many of the books4 ,these are the ,official ,text-books of the ,united ,typothetae of ,america4 ,address all orders and inquiries to ,,committee ,,on ,,education1 ,,united ,,typothetae ,,of ,,america1 ,,chicago1 ,,illinois1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,part ,i--,types1 ,tools1 ,machines1 and ,materials #a4 ,type3 a ,primer of ,information ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,relating to the mechanical features of printing types2 their sizes1 font schemes1 etc41 with a brief description of their manufacture4 #dd pp42 illustrated2 #gd review questions2 glossary4 #b4 ,compositors' ,tools and ,materials ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,a primer of information about composing sticks1 galleys1 leads1 brass rules1 cutting and mitering machines1 etc4 #dg pp42 illustrated2 #ej review questions2 glossary4 #c4 ,type ,cases1 ,composing ,room ,furniture ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,a primer of information about type cases1 work stands1 cabinets1 case racks1 galley racks1 standing galleys1 etc4 #dc pp42 illustrated2 #cc review questions2 glossary4 #d4 ,imposing ,tables and ,lock-up ,appliances ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the press1 including some modern utilities for special purposes4 #ei pp42 illustrated2 #gj review questions2 glossary4 #e4 ,proof ,presses ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,a primer of information about the customary methods and machines for taking printers' proofs4 #dj pp42 illustrated2 #da review questions2 glossary4 #f4 ,platen ,printing ,presses ,by ,daniel ,baker ,a primer of information regarding the history and mechanical construction of platen printing presses1 from the original hand press to the modern job press1 to which is added a chapter on automatic presses of small size4 #ea pp42 illustrated2 #di review questions2 glossary4 #g4 ,cylinder ,printing ,presses ,by ,herbert ,l4 ,baker ,being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types of cylinder printing machines4 #fd pp42 illustrated2 #dg review questions2 glossary4 #h4 ,mechanical ,feeders and ,folders ,by ,william ,e4 ,spurrier ,the history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines2 with hints on their care and adjustments4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #i4 ,power for ,machinery in ,printing ,houses ,by ,carl ,f4 ,scott ,a treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive4 #ec pp42 illustrated2 #fi review questions2 glossary4 #aj4 ,paper ,cutting ,machines ,by ,niel ,gray1 ,jr4 ,a primer of information about paper and card trimmers1 hand-lever cutters1 power cutters1 and other automatic machines for cutting paper4 #gj pp42 illustrated2 #aae review questions2 glossary4 #aa4 ,printers' ,rollers ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,a primer of information about the composition1 manufacture1 and care of inking rollers4 #df pp42 illustrated2 #fa review questions2 glossary4 #ab4 ,printing ,inks ,by ,philip ,ruxton ,their composition1 properties and manufacture 7reprinted by permission from ,circular ,no4 #ec1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,standards72 together with some helpful suggestions about the everyday use of printing inks by ,philip ,ruxton4 #hj pp42 #ajj review questions2 glossary4 #ac4 ,how ,paper is ,made ,by ,william ,bond ,wheelwright ,a primer of information about the materials and processes of manufacturing paper for printing and writing4 #fh pp42 illustrated2 #fb review questions2 glossary4 #ad4 ,relief ,engravings ,by ,joseph ,p4 ,donovan ,brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of engraving2 woodcut1 zinc plate1 halftone2 kind of copy for reproduction2 things to remember when ordering engravings4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #ae4 ,electrotyping and ,stereotyping ,by ,harris ,b4 ,hatch and ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,a primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and stereotyping4 #id pp42 illustrated2 #abi review questions2 glossaries4 ,,part ,,ii--,hand and ,machine ,composition #af4 ,typesetting ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,a handbook for beginners1 giving information about justifying1 spacing1 correcting1 and other matters relating to typesetting4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #ag4 ,printers' ,proofs ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,the methods by which they are made1 marked1 and corrected1 with observations on proofreading4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #ah4 ,first ,steps in ,job ,composition ,by ,camille ,de,veze ,suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first jobs1 especially about the important little things which go to make good display in typography4 #fc pp42 examples2 #ee review questions2 glossary4 #ai4 ,general ,job ,composition ,how the job compositor handles business stationery1 programs and miscellaneous work4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #bj4 ,book ,composition ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,bothwell ,chapters from ,de,vinne's ,modern ,methods of ,book ,composition1 revised and arranged for this series of text-books by ,j4 ,w4 ,bothwell of ,the ,de,vinne ,press1 ,new ,york4 ,part ,i3 ,composition of pages4 ,part ,,ii3 ,imposition of pages4 #bbi pp42 illustrated2 #ebe review questions2 glossary4 #ba4 ,tabular ,composition ,by ,robert ,seaver ,a study of the elementary forms of table composition1 with examples of more difficult composition4 #cf pp42 examples2 #de review questions4 #bb4 ,applied ,arithmetic ,by ,e4 ,e4 ,sheldon ,elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade1 calculation of materials1 paper weights and sizes1 with standard tables and rules for computation1 each subject amplified with examples and exercises4 #aei pp4 #bc4 ,typecasting and ,composing ,machines ,a4 ,w4 ,finlay1 ,editor ,section ,i--,the ,linotype ,by ,l4 ,a4 ,hornstein ,section ,,ii--,the ,monotype ,by ,joseph ,hays ,section ,,iii--,the ,intertype ,by ,henry ,w4 ,cozzens ,section ,,iv--,other ,typecasting and ,typesetting ,machines ,by ,frank ,h4 ,smith ,a brief history of typesetting machines1 with descriptions of their mechanical principles and operations4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 ,,part ,,iii--,imposition and ,stonework #bd4 ,locking ,forms for the ,job ,press ,by ,frank ,s4 ,henry ,things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms1 and about general work on the stone4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #be4 ,preparing ,forms for the ,cylinder ,press ,by ,frank ,s4 ,henry ,pamphlet and catalog imposition2 margins2 fold marks1 etc4 ,methods of handling type forms and electrotype forms4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 ,,part ,,iv--,presswork #bf4 ,making ,ready on ,platen ,presses ,by ,t4 ,g4 ,mc,grew ,the essential parts of a press and their functions2 distinctive features of commonly used machines4 ,preparing the tympan1 regulating the impression1 underlaying and overlaying1 setting gauges1 and other details explained4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #bg4 ,cylinder ,presswork ,by ,t4 ,g4 ,mc,grew ,preparing the press2 adjustment of bed and cylinder1 form rollers1 ink fountain1 grippers and delivery systems4 ,underlaying and overlaying2 modern overlay methods4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #bh4 ,pressroom ,hints and ,helps ,by ,charles ,l4 ,dunton ,describing some practical methods of pressroom work1 with directions and useful information relating to a variety of printing-press problems4 #hg pp42 #agf review questions4 #bi4 ,reproductive ,processes of the ,graphic ,arts ,by ,a4 ,w4 ,elson ,a primer of information about the distinctive features of the relief1 the intaglio1 and the planographic processes of printing4 #hd pp42 illustrated2 #ajj review questions2 glossary4 ,,part ,v--,pamphlet and ,book ,binding #cj4 ,pamphlet ,binding ,by ,bancroft ,l4 ,goodwin ,a primer of information about the various operations employed in binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #ca4 ,book ,binding ,by ,john ,j4 ,pleger ,practical information about the usual operations in binding books2 folding2 gathering1 collating1 sewing1 forwarding1 finishing4 ,case making and cased-in books4 ,hand work and machine work4 ,job and blank-book binding4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 ,,part ,,vi--,correct ,literary ,composition #cb4 ,word ,study and ,english ,grammar ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a primer of information about words1 their relations1 and their uses4 #fh pp42 #hd review questions2 glossary4 #cc4 ,punctuation ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their use1 both grammatically and typographically4 #ef pp42 #ei review questions2 glossary4 #cd4 ,capitals ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a primer of information about capitalization1 with some practical typographic hints as to the use of capitals4 #dh pp42 #ib review questions2 glossary4 #ce4 ,division of ,words ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,rules for the division of words at the ends of lines1 with remarks on spelling1 syllabication and pronunciation4 #db pp42 #gj review questions4 #cf4 ,compound ,words ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a study of the principles of compounding1 the components of compounds1 and the use of the hyphen4 #cd pp42 #fb review questions4 #cg4 ,abbreviations and ,signs ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a primer of information about abbreviations and signs1 with classified lists of those in most common use4 #eh pp42 #cb review questions4 #ch4 ,the ,uses of ,italic ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a primer of information about the history and uses of italic letters4 #ca pp42 #cg review questions4 #ci4 ,proofreading ,by ,arnold ,levitas ,the technical phases of the proofreader's work2 reading1 marking1 revising1 etc42 methods of handling proofs and copy4 ,illustrated by examples4 #ei pp42 #fi review questions2 glossary4 #dj4 ,preparation of ,printers' ,copy ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,suggestions for authors1 editors1 and all who are engaged in preparing copy for the composing room4 #cf pp42 #fg review questions4 #da4 ,printers' ,manual of ,style ,a reference compilation of approved rules1 usages1 and suggestions relating to uniformity in punctuation1 capitalization1 abbreviations1 numerals1 and kindred features of composition4 #db4 ,the ,printer's ,dictionary ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,a handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about various processes of printing1 alphabetically arranged4 ,technical terms explained4 ,illustrated4 ,,part ,,vii--,design1 ,color1 and ,lettering #dc4 ,applied ,design for ,printers ,by ,harry ,l4 ,gage ,a handbook of the principles of arrangement1 with brief comment on the periods of design which have most influenced printing4 ,treats of harmony1 balance1 proportion1 and rhythm2 motion2 symmetry and variety2 ornament1 esthetic and symbolic4 #cg illustrations2 #df review questions2 glossary2 bibliography4 #dd4 ,elements of ,typographic ,design ,by ,harry ,l4 ,gage ,applications of the principles of decorative design4 ,building material of typography3 paper1 types1 ink1 decorations and illustrations4 ,handling of shapes4 ,design of complete book1 treating each part4 ,design of commercial forms and single units4 ,illustrations2 review questions1 glossary2 bibliography4 #de4 ,rudiments of ,color in ,printing ,by ,harry ,l4 ,gage ,use of color3 for decoration of black and white1 for broad poster effect1 in combinations of two1 three1 or more printings with process engravings4 ,scientific nature of color1 physical and chemical4 ,terms in which color may be discussed3 hue1 value1 intensity4 ,diagrams in color1 scales and combinations4 ,color theory of process engraving4 ,experiments with color4 ,illustrations in full color1 and on various papers4 ,review questions2 glossary2 bibliography4 #df4 ,lettering in ,typography ,by ,harry ,l4 ,gage ,printer's use of lettering3 adaptability and decorative effect4 ,development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on type design4 ,classification of general forms in lettering4 ,application of design to lettering4 ,drawing for reproduction4 ,fully illustrated2 review questions2 glossary2 bibliography4 #dg4 ,typographic ,design in ,advertising ,by ,harry ,l4 ,gage ,the printer's function in advertising4 ,precepts upon which advertising is based4 ,printer's analysis of his copy4 ,emphasis1 legibility1 attention1 color4 ,method of studying advertising typography4 ,illustrations2 review questions2 glossary2 bibliography4 #dh4 ,making ,dummies and ,layouts ,by ,harry ,l4 ,gage ,a layout3 the architectural plan4 ,a dummy3 the imitation of a proposed final effect4 ,use of dummy in sales work4 ,use of layout4 ,function of layout man4 ,binding schemes for dummies4 ,dummy envelopes4 ,illustrations2 review questions2 glossary2 bibliography4 ,,part ,,viii--,history of ,printing #di4 ,books ,before ,typography ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types4 #fb pp42 illustrated2 #fd review questions4 #ej4 ,the ,invention of ,typography ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about4 #fd pp42 #fb review questions4 #ea4 ,history of ,printing--,part ,i ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a primer of information about the beginnings of printing1 the development of the book1 the development of printers' materials1 and the work of the great pioneers4 #fc pp42 #ee review questions4 #eb4 ,history of ,printing--,part ,,ii ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry from #adej to #aghi1 including government regulations1 censorship1 internal conditions and industrial relations4 #id pp42 #abh review questions4 #ec4 ,printing in ,england ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a short history of printing in ,england from ,caxton to the present time4 #hi pp42 #fe review questions4 #ed4 ,printing in ,america ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a brief sketch of the development of the newspaper1 and some notes on publishers who have especially contributed to printing4 #ih pp42 #hd review questions4 #ee4 ,type and ,presses in ,america ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and press building in the ,united ,states4 #eb pp42 #fa review questions4 ,,part ,,ix--,cost ,finding and ,accounting #ef4 ,elements of ,cost in ,printing ,by ,henry ,p4 ,porter ,the ,standard ,cost-,finding ,forms and their uses4 ,what they should show4 ,how to utilize the information they give4 ,review questions4 ,glossary4 #eg4 ,use of a ,cost ,system ,by ,henry ,p4 ,porter ,the ,standard ,cost-,finding ,forms and their uses4 ,what they should show4 ,how to utilize the information they give4 ,review questions4 ,glossary4 #eh4 ,the ,printer as a ,merchant ,by ,henry ,p4 ,porter ,the selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing4 ,the relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of the finished product4 ,review questions4 ,glossary4 #ei4 ,fundamental ,principles of ,estimating ,by ,henry ,p4 ,porter ,the estimator and his work2 forms to use2 general rules for estimating4 ,review questions4 ,glossary4 #fj4 ,estimating and ,selling ,by ,henry ,p4 ,porter ,an insight into the methods used in making estimates1 and their relation to selling4 ,review questions4 ,glossary4 #fa4 ,accounting for ,printers ,by ,henry ,p4 ,porter ,a brief outline of an accounting system for printers2 necessary books and accessory records4 ,review questions4 ,glossary4 ,,part ,x--,miscellaneous #fb4 ,health1 ,sanitation1 and ,safety ,by ,henry ,p4 ,porter ,hygiene in the printing trade2 a study of conditions old and new2 practical suggestions for improvement2 protective appliances and rules for safety4 #fc4 ,topical ,index ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a book of reference covering the topics treated in the ,typographic ,technical ,series1 alphabetically arranged4 #fd4 ,courses of ,study ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a guidebook for teachers1 with outlines and suggestions for classroom and shop work4 ,,acknowledgment ,this series of ,typographic ,text-books is the result of the splendid co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the printing business and its allied industries in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,the ,committee on ,education of the ,united ,typothetae of ,america1 under whose auspices the books have been prepared and published1 acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many authors1 printers1 and others identified with this work4 ,while due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of those contributing to each book1 the ,committee nevertheless felt that a group list of co-operating firms would be of interest4 ,the following list is not complete1 as it includes only those who have co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes1 constituting the first printing4 ,as soon as the entire list of books comprising the ,typographic ,technical ,series has been completed 7which the ,committee hopes will be at an early date71 the full list will be printed in each volume4 ,the ,committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many subscribers to this ,series who have patiently awaited its publication4 ,,committee ,,on ,,education1 ,,united ,,typothetae ,,of ,,america4 ,,henry ,p4 ,,porter1 ,chairman1 ,e4 ,,lawrence ,,fell1 ,a4 ,m4 ,,glossbrenner1 ,j4 ,,clyde ,,oswald1 ,,toby ,,rubovits4 ,,frederick ,w4 ,,hamilton1 ,education ,director4 ,,contributors ,for ,composition and ,electrotypes ,,isaac ,h4 ,,blanchard ,,company1 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,s4 ,h4 ,,burbank ,,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,cushing ,,co41 ,norwood1 ,mass4 ,,the ,,devinne ,,press1 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,r4 ,r4 ,,donnelley ,,sons ,,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,,geo4 ,h4 ,,ellis ,,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,,evans-,,winter-,,hebb1 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,,franklin ,,printing ,,company1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,f4 ,h4 ,,gilson ,,company1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,,stephen ,,greene ,,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,hall ,,printing ,,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,,mccalla ,,co4 ,,inc41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,,the ,,patteson ,,press1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,york ,,the ,,plimpton ,,press1 ,norwood1 ,mass4 ,,poole ,,bros41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,,edward ,,stern ,,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,,the ,,stone ,,printing ,,mfg4 ,,co41 ,roanoke1 ,va4 ,c4 ,d4 ,,traphagen1 ,lincoln1 ,neb4 ,,the ,,university ,,press1 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,for ,composition ,,boston ,,typothetae ,,school ,,of ,,printing1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,,william ,f4 ,,fell ,,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,,the ,,kalkhoff ,,company1 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,oxford-,,print1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,,toby ,,rubovits1 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,for ,electrotypes ,,blomgren ,,brothers ,,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,,flower ,,steel ,,electrotyping ,,co41 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,c4 ,j4 ,,peters ,,son ,,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,,royal ,,electrotype ,,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,h4 ,c4 ,,whitcomb ,,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,for ,engravings ,,american ,,type ,,founders ,,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,c4 ,b4 ,,cottrell ,,sons ,,co41 ,westerly1 ,r4 ,i4 ,,golding ,,manufacturing ,,co41 ,franklin1 ,mass4 ,,harvard ,,university1 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,,inland ,,printer ,,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,,lanston ,,monotype ,,machine ,,company1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,,mergenthaler ,,linotype ,,company1 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,geo4 ,h4 ,,morrill ,,co41 ,norwood1 ,mass4 ,,oswald ,,publishing ,,co41 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,the ,,printing ,,art1 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,b4 ,d4 ,,rising ,,paper ,,company1 ,housatonic1 ,mass4 ,,the ,,vandercook ,,press1 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,for ,book ,paper ,,american ,,writing ,,paper ,,co41 ,holyoke1 ,mass4 ,,west ,,virginia ,,pulp ,,paper ,,co41 ,mechanicville1 ,n4 ,y4 ,footnotes3 #a ,in old or much-used fonts to which additions have been made after the first supply1 the new letters1 being cast later in a different mold1 may often show a difference in the position or the number of nicks4 ,in cases of this kind the apprentice should observe carefully and inquire before deciding that a type with a different nick does not belong to the font4 #b ,the small letters are called lower-case by printers1 because they are commonly kept in the lower case of a pair on the case-stand4 #c ,the period1 comma1 hyphen1 apostrophe1 and occasionally some other character 7such as the 7 are often the same in both roman and italic fonts that are intended as companion faces4 #d ,job fonts are usually put up by founders in two sections1 one containing capitals1 figures1 and points2 the other lower-case1 with a small portion of points4 ,diphthongs ,,ae ,,oe ae oe are not now included in job fonts1 and many advertising type fonts do not include the lower-case ligatures fi ff fl ffi ffl4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the original printed text contains a significant number of characters which are not included in standard ,,ascii or ,,iso-#hhei-a encodings4 ,those glyphs are represented in this file either as square-bracketed sets of letters 7for accents or ligatures71 or as square-bracketed type_/description pairs1 e4g4 ,symbol3 per sign4 ,these limitations are not present in the ,,html version of this document1 which uses numeric entities of the ,unicode characters which accurately represent these glyphs as printed in the original4