,illustration3 #ea ,messier2 #ii        
,messier       ,,the   ,,plurality ,,of 
,,worlds4              ,on ,nature's    
,alps ,i stand1     ,and see a thousand 
firmaments beneath6     ,a thousand     
systems1 as a thousand grains6     ,so  
much a stranger1 and so late arrived1   
,how shall man's curious spirit not     
inquire     ,what are the natives of    
this world sublime1     ,of this so     
distant1 unterrestrial sphere1          
,where mortal1 untranslated1 never      
strayed8                                
,,night ,,thoughts4    ,,with ,,an      
,,introduction   ,,by   ,,edward        
,,hitchcock1 ,d4,d41    ,,president ,,of
 ,,amherst ,,college1 ,,and ,,professor 
,,of   ,,theology ,,and ,,geology4      
,,boston3   ,,gould ,,and ,,lincoln1    
#ej ,,washington ,,street4    #ahed4    
,entered1 according to ,act of          
,congress1 in the year #ahed1 by        
,,gould ,,and ,,lincoln1   ,in the      
,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court
 of   the ,district of ,massachusetts4  

,,preface4   ,although the opinions     
presented in the following ,essay are   
put forwards without claiming for them  
any value beyond what they may derive   
from the arguments there offered1 they  
are not published without some fear of  
giving offence4 ,it will be a curious1  
but not a very wonderful event1 if it   
should now be deemed as blamable to     
doubt the existence of inhabitants of   
the ,planets and ,stars1 as1 three      
centuries ago1 it was held heretical to 
teach that doctrine4 ,yet probably there
 are many who will be willing to see the
 question examined by all the light     
which modern science can throw upon it2 
and such an examination can be          
undertaken to no purpose1 except the    
view which has of late been generally   
rejected have the arguments in its favor
 fairly stated and candidly considered4 
,though ,revealed ,religion contains no 
doctrine relative to the inhabitants of 
planets and stars2 and though1 till     
within the last three centuries1 no     

,christian thinker deemed such a        
doctrine to be required1 in order to    
complete our view of the attributes of  
the ,creator2 yet it is possible that at
 the present day1 when the assumption of
 such inhabitants is very generally made
 and assented to1 many persons have so  
mingled this assumption with their      
religious belief1 that they regard it as
 an essential part of ,natural          
,religion4 ,if any such persons find    
their religious convictions interfered  
with1 and their consolatory impressions 
disturbed1 by what is said in this      
,essay1 the ,author will deeply regret  
to have had any share in troubling any  
current of pious thought belonging to   
the time4 ,but1 as some excuse1 it may  
be recollected1 that if such            
considerations had prevailed1 this very 
doctrine1 of the ,plurality of ,worlds1 
would never have been publicly          
maintained4 ,and if such considerations 
are to have weight1 it must be          
recollected1 on the other hand1 that    

there are many persons to whom the      
assumption of an endless multitude of   
,worlds appears difficult to reconcile  
with the belief of that which1 as the   
,christian ,revelation teaches us1 has  
been done for this our ,world of ,earth4
 ,in this conflict of religious         
difficulties1 on a point which rather   
belongs to science than to religion1    
perhaps philosophical arguments may be  
patiently listened to1 if urged as      
arguments merely2 and in that hope1 they
 are here stated1 without reserve and   
without exaggeration4  ,all speculations
 on subjects in which ,science and      
,religion bear upon each other1 are     
liable to one of the two opposite       
charges2--that the speculator sets      
,philosophy and ,religion at variance2  
or that he warps ,philosophy into a     
conformity with ,religion4 ,it is       
confidently hoped that no candid reader 
will bring either of these charges      
against the present ,essay4 ,with regard
 to the latter1 the arguments must speak

 for themselves4 ,to the ,author at     
least1 they appear to be of no small    
philosophical force2 though he is quite 
ready to weigh carefully and candidly   
any answers which may be offered to     
them4 ,with regard to the amount of     
agreement between our ,philosophy and   
,religion1 it may perhaps be permitted  
to the ,author to say1 that while it    
appears to him that some of his         
philosophical conclusions fall in very  
remarkably with certain points of       
religious doctrine1 he is well aware    
that ,philosophy alone can do little in 
providing man with the consolations1    
hopes1 supports1 and convictions which  
,religion offers2 and he acknowledges it
 as a ground of deep gratitude to the   
,author of all good1 that man is not    
left to ,philosophy for those blessings2
 but has a fuller assurance of them1 by 
a more direct communication from ,him4  
,perhaps1 too1 the ,author may be       
allowed to say1 that he has tried to    
give to the book1 not only a moral1 but 

a scientific interest2 by collecting his
 scientific facts from the best         
authorities1 and the most recent        
discoveries4 ,he would flatter himself1 
in particular1 that the view of the     
,nebulae and of the ,solar ,system1     
which he has here given1 may be not     
unworthy of some attention on the part  
of astronomers and observers1 as an     
occasion of future researches in the    
skies4       ,,contents   ,,of   ,,the  
,,plurality ,,of ,,worlds4              
,,page    ,introduction4                
#i    ,,chapter ,i4   ,astronomical     
,discoveries4                  #ag      
,,chapter ,,ii4   ,astronomical         
,objection to ,religion4        #cc     
,,chapter ,,iii4   ,the ,answer from the
 ,microscope4            #da            
,,chapter ,,iv4   ,further ,statement of
 the ,difficulty4       #di    ,,chapter
 ,v4   ,geology4                        
#gb    ,,chapter ,,vi4   ,the ,argument 
from ,geology4                 #ih      
,,chapter ,,vii4   ,the ,nebulae4       

#ace    ,,chapter ,,viii4   ,the ,fixed 
,stars4                          #afc   
,,chapter ,,ix4   ,the ,planets4        
#aib    ,,chapter ,x4   ,theory of the  
,solar ,system4               #bai      
,,chapter ,,xi4   ,the ,argument from   
,design4                 #bcf           
,,chapter ,,xii4   ,the ,unity of the   
,world4                   #bge          
,,chapter ,,xiii4   ,the ,future4       
#bib       ,,introductory ,,notice      
,,to ,,the   ,,american ,,edition4   ,it
 is an interesting feature in the       
literature of our day1 that so many     
minds are turning their attention to the
 bearings of science upon religion4     
,with a few honorable exceptions1       
,christian scholars have regarded this  
as a most unpromising field1 which they 
have left to the tilting and            
gladiatorship of scepticism4 ,but we owe
 it mainly to the disclosures of        
geology1 that the tables are beginning  
to be turned4 ,for a long time suspected
 of being in league with infidelity1 it 

was treated as an enemy1 and ,christians
 thought only of fortifying themselves  
against its attacks4 ,but they are      
finding out1 that if this science has   
been seen in the enemy's camp1 it was   
only because of their jealousy that it  
was compelled to remain there2 like     
captives that are sometimes pushed      
forwards to cover the front rank and    
receive the fire of their friends4      
,judging from the number of works1 some 
of them very able1 that appear almost   
monthly from the press1 in which        
illustrations of religion are drawn from
 geology1 we may infer that this science
 is beginning to be recognized by the   
friends of religion as an efficient     
auxiliary4  ,the ,plurality of ,worlds1 
now republished1 is the most recent work
 of this description that has fallen    
under our notice4 ,we can see no reason 
why an ,essay of so much ability1 in    
which the reasoning is so dispassionate1
 and opponents are treated so candidly1 
should appear anonymously4 ,true1 the   

author takes ground against some        
opinions widely maintained respecting   
the extent of the inhabited universe1   
and seems to suppose that he shall meet 
with little sympathy2 and this may be   
his reason1 though in our view quite    
insufficient1 for remaining incognito4  
,we think he will find that there are a 
secret seven thousand1 who never have   
bowed their understandings to a belief  
of many of the doctrines which he       
combats1 and he might reasonably        
calculate that his reasoning will add   
seven thousand more to the number4 ,we  
confess1 however1 that though we have   
long been of this number to a certain   
extent1 we cannot go as far as this     
writer has done in his conclusions4     
,all the world is acquainted with ,dr4  
,chalmers' splendid ,astronomical       
,discourses4 ,assuming1 or rather       
supposing that he has proved1 that the  
universe contains a vast number of      
worlds peopled like our own1 he imagines
 the infidel to raise an objection to   

the mission of the ,son of ,god1 on the 
ground that this world is too           
insignificant to receive such an        
extraordinary interposition4 ,his       
replies to this objection1 drawn chiefly
 from our ignorance1 are ingenious and  
convincing4 ,but the author of the      
,plurality of ,worlds doubts the        
premises on which the objection is      
founded4 ,he thinks the facts of science
 will not sustain the conclusion that   
many of the heavenly bodies are         
inhabited2 certainly not with moral and 
intellectual beings like man4 ,nay1 by  
making his appeal to geology1 he thinks 
the evidence strong against such an     
opinion4 ,this science shows us that    
this world was once certainly in a      
molten state1 and very probably1 at a   
still earlier date1 may have been       
dissipated into self-luminous vapor1    
like the nebulae or the comets4 ,immense
 periods1 then1 must have passed before 
any organic structures1 such as have    
since peopled the earth1 could have     

existed4 ,and during the vast cycles    
that have elapsed since the first       
animals and plants appeared upon the    
globe1 it was not in a proper condition 
to have sustained any other than the    
inferior races4 ,accordingly1 it has    
been only a few thousand years since man
 appeared4  ,now1 so far as astronomy   
has revealed the condition of other     
worlds1 almost all of them appear to be 
passing through those preparatory       
changes which the earth underwent       
previous to man's creation4 ,what are   
the unresolvable nebulae and most of the
 comets also1 but intensely heated vapor
 and gas8 ,what is the sun but a molten 
globe1 or perhaps gaseous matter        
condensed so as to possess almost the   
density of water8 ,the planets beyond   
,mars1 also1 7excluding the asteroids17 
appear to be in a liquid condition1 but 
not from heat1 and therefore may be     
composed of water1 or some fluid perhaps
 lighter than water2 or at least be     
covered by such fluid4 ,moreover1 so    

great is their distance from the sun1   
that his light and heat could not       
sustain organic beings such as exist    
upon the earth4 ,of the inferior        
planets1 ,mercury is so near the sun    
that it would be equally unfit for the  
residence of such beings4 ,mars1 ,venus1
 and the ,moon1 then1 appear to be the  
only worlds known to us capable of      
sustaining a population at all analogous
 to that upon earth4 ,but of these1 the 
,moon appears to be merely a mass of    
extinguished volcanos1 with neither     
water nor atmosphere4 ,it has proceeded 
farther in the process of refrigeration 
than the earth1 because it is smaller2  
and in its present state1 is manifestly 
unfit for the residence either of       
rational or irrational creatures4 ,so   
that we are left with only ,mars and    
,venus in the solar system to which the 
common arguments in favor of other      
worlds being inhabited1 will apply4     
,but are not the fixed stars the suns of
 other systems8 ,we will thank those who

 think so1 to read the chapter in this  
work that treats of the fixed stars1 and
 we presume they will be satisfied that 
at least many of these bodies exhibit   
characters quite irreconcilable with    
such an hypothesis4 ,and if some are not
 central suns1 the presumption that the 
rest are1 is weakened1 and we must wait 
till a greater perfection of instruments
 shall afford us some positive evidence1
 before we know whether our solar system
 is a type of any others4  ,thus far1 it
 seems to us1 our author has firm       
ground1 both geological and             
astronomical1 to stand upon4 ,but he    
does not stop here4 ,he takes the       
position that probably our earth may be 
the only body in the solar system1 nay  
in the universe1 where an intellectual1 
moral and immortal being1 like man1 has 
an existence4 ,he makes the earth the   
domestic hearth of the solar system2    
adjusted between the hot and fiery haze 
on one side1 and the cold and watery    
vapor on the other3 the only fit region 

to be a domestic hearth1 a seat of      
habitation4 ,he says that it is quite   
agreeable to analogy that the solar     
system should have borne but one fertile
 flower4 ,and even if any number of the 
fixed stars were also found to be barren
 flowers of the sky1 we need not think  
the powers of creation wasted1 or       
frustrated1 thrown away1 or perverted4  
,he does not deny that some other worlds
 may be the abodes of plants and animals
 such as peopled this earth during the  
long ages of preadamic history4 ,but he 
regards the creation of man as the great
 event of our world4 ,he looks upon the 
space between man and the highest of the
 irrational creatures1 as a vast one3   
for though in physical structure they   
approach one another1 in intellectual   
and moral powers they cannot be         
compared4 ,he does not think it         
derogatory to ,divine ,wisdom to have   
created and arranged all the other      
bodies of the universe to give          
convenience and elegance to the abode of

 such a being2 especially since this was
 to be the theatre of the work of       
redemption4  ,now we sympathize strongly
 in views that give dignity and         
exaltation to man1 and not at all with  
that debasing philosophy1 so common at  
this day1 that looks upon him as little 
more than a somewhat improved orang4    
,but we cannot admit that man is the    
only exalted created being to be found  
among the vast array of worlds around   
us4 ,geology does1 indeed1 teach us1    
that it is no disparagement of ,divine  
,wisdom and benevolence to make a       
world--and if one1 why not many--the    
residence of inferior creatures2 nay to 
leave it without inhabitants through    
untold ages4 ,but it also shows us1 that
 when such worlds have passed through   
these preparatory changes1 rational and 
immortal beings may be placed upon them4
 ,nay1 does not the history of our world
 show us that this seems to be the grand
 object of such vast periods of         
preparation4 ,and is it not incredible1 

that amid the countless bodies of the   
universe1 a single globe only1 and that 
a small one1 should have reached the    
condition adapted to the residence of   
beings made in the image of ,god8 ,of   
what possible use to man are those      
numberless worlds visible only through  
the most powerful telescopes8 ,surely   
such a view gives us a very narrow idea 
of the plans and purposes of ,jehovah1  
and one not sustained in our opinion by 
the analogies of science4  ,there is    
another principle to which our author   
attaches1 as we think1 too little       
importance in this connection4 ,when we 
see how vast is the variety of organic  
beings on this globe1 and how manifold  
the conditions of their existence2 how  
exactly adapted they are to the solid1  
the liquid1 and the gaseous states of   
matter1 can we doubt that rational and  
intelligent beings may be adapted to    
physical conditions in other worlds     
widely diverse from those on this globe8
 ,may not spirits be connected with     

bodies much heavier1 or much lighter1   
than on earth2 nay1 with mere tenuous   
ether2 and those bodies1 perhaps1 be    
better adapted to the play of intellect 
than ours2 and be unaffected by         
temperatures which1 on earth1 would be  
fatal8 ,it does seem to us that such    
conclusions are legitimate inferences   
from the facts of science2 and if so1 we
 can hardly avoid the conclusion that   
there may be races of intelligent beings
 upon other worlds where the condition  
of things is widely different from that 
on earth4 ,yet there is a limit to this 
principle2 and when we can prove another
 world to be in a similar condition to  
our earth1 when it was inhabited by     
preadamic races1 or not at all          
inhabited1 the presumption is strong1   
that such a world has inhabitants of a  
like character1 or none at all4  ,our   
author makes but a slight allusion to   
some most important statements of       
revelation1 that seem to us to bear     
strongly upon the hypothesis which he   

adopts4 ,we refer to the existence of   
angels1 holy and unholy4 ,in the history
 of the latter1 we learn that they kept 
not their first estate1 but left their  
own habitation4 ,have we not here an    
example of other rational creatures1    
more exalted than man1 who1 like him1   
have fallen from their first estate2 and
 does not the presumption hence arise1  
that there may be similar examples in   
other worlds8 ,and is there not a       
probability1 that holy angels now in    
heaven1 may be rational intelligences   
who have passed a successful probation  
in other worlds8 ,it does seem to us1   
that these biblical facts make the      
hypothesis of our author respecting man 
extremely improbable4  ,but though we   
must demur as to some of the views of   
this work1 we can cordially recommend   
its perusal to intelligent and reasoning
 minds4 ,it is an effort in the right   
direction1 and we think will do much to 
correct some false notions respecting   
the ,plurality of ,worlds4 ,and even the

 author's peculiar hypothetical views   
are sustained with much ability4 ,he    
states the facts of geology and         
astronomy with great clearness and      
correctness1 and seems quite familiar   
with mathematical reasoning4 ,nor does  
he advance opinions that come into      
collision with natural or revealed      
religion2 though1 as already stated1 we 
think his favorite notions narrow our   
conceptions of the ,divine plans and    
purposes4 ,we predict for the work an   
extended circulation among scientific   
men and theologians2 and commend it with
 confidence to all readers--and in our  
country they are numerous--who are fond 
of tracing out the connection between   
science and religion4                   
,e4 ,h4                                 
,amherst ,college1 ,april1 #ahed4       
,,the ,,plurality ,,of ,,worlds4        
,,chapter ,i4  ,,astronomical           
,,discoveries4   ,when ,i consider the  
heavens1 the work of thy fingers1 the   
moon and the stars1 which thou hast     

ordained2 ,what is man1 that thou art   
mindful of him8 and the son of man1 that
 thou visitest him8  #a4 ,these striking
 words of the ,hebrew ,psalmist have    
been made1 by an eloquent and pious     
writer of our own time1 the starting    
point of a remarkable train of          
speculation4 ,dr4 ,chalmers1 in his     
,astronomical ,discourses1 has treated  
the reflection thus suggested1 in       
connection with such an aspect of the   
heavens and the stars1 the earth and the
 universe1 as modern astronomy presents 
to us4 ,even from the point of view in  
which the ancient ,hebrew looked at the 
stars2 seeing only their number and     
splendor1 their lofty position1 and the 
vast space which they visibly occupy in 
the sky2 compared with the earth1 which 
lies dark1 and mean1 and perhaps small  
in extent1 far beneath them1 and on     
which man has his habitation2 it        
appeared wonderful1 and scarcely        
credible1 that the maker of all that    
array of luminaries1 the lord of that   

wide and magnificent domain1 should     
occupy himself with the concerns of men3
 and yet1 without a belief in ,his      
fatherly care and goodness to us1       
thoughtful and religious persons1       
accustomed to turn their minds          
constantly to a ,supreme ,governor and  
constant ,benefactor1 are left in a     
desolate and bewildered state of        
feeling4 ,the notion that while the     
heavens are the work of ,god's fingers1 
the sun1 moon1 and stars ordained by    
him1 ,he is not mindful of man1 does not
 regard him1 does not visit him1 was not
 tolerable to the thought of the        
,psalmist4 ,while we read1 we are sure  
that he believed that1 however          
insignificant and mean man might be1 in 
comparison with the other works of      
,god1--however difficult it might seem  
to conceive1 that he should be found    
worthy the regards and the visits of the
 ,creator of ,all1--yet that ,god was   
mindful of him1 and did visit him4 ,the 
question1 ,what is man1 that this is so8

 implies that there is an answer1       
whether man can discover it or not4     
,what is man1 that ,god is mindful of   
him8 indicates a belief1 unshaken1      
however much perplexed1 that man is     
something1 of such a kind that ,god is  
mindful of him4  #b4 ,but if there was  
room for this questioning1 and cause for
 this perplexity1 to a contemplative    
person1 who looked at the skies1 with   
that belief concerning the stars1 which 
the ancient ,hebrew possessed1 the      
question recurs with far greater force1 
and the perplexity is immeasurably      
increased1 by the knowledge1 concerning 
the stars1 which is given to us by the  
discoveries of modern astronomy4 ,the   
,jew probably believed the earth to be a
 region1 upon the whole1 level1 however 
diversified with hills and valleys1 and 
the skies to be a vault arched over this
 level2--a firmament in which the moon  
and the stars were placed4 ,what        
magnitude to assign to this vault1 he   
had no means of knowing2 and indeed1 the

 very aspect of the nocturnal heavens1  
with the multitude of stars1 of various 
brightness1 which come into view1 one   
set after another1 as the light of day  
dies away1 suggests rather the notion of
 their being scattered through a vast   
depth of space1 at various distances1   
than of their being so many lights      
fastened to a single vaulted surface4   
,but however he might judge of this1 he 
regarded them as placed in a space1 of  
which the earth was the central region4 
,the host of heaven all had reference to
 the earth4 ,the sun and the moon were  
there1 in order to give light to it1 by 
day and by night4 ,and if the stars had 
not that for their principal office1 as 
indeed the amount of light which they   
gave was not such as to encourage such a
 belief1--and perhaps the perception1   
that the stars must have been created   
for some other object than to give light
 to man1 was one of the principal       
circumstances which suggested the train 
of thought that we are now              

considering2--yet still1 the region of  
the stars had the earth for its centre  
and base4 ,perhaps the ,psalmist1 at a  
subsequent period of his contemplations1
 when he was pondering the reflections  
which he has expressed in this passage1 
might have been led to think that the   
stars were placed there in order to draw
 man's thoughts to the greatness of the 
,creator of all things2 to give some    
light to his mental1 rather than to his 
bodily eye2 to show how far ,his mode of
 working transcends man's faculties2 to 
suggest that there are things in heaven1
 very different from the things which   
are on earth4 ,if he thought thus1 he   
was only following a train of thought on
 which contemplative minds1 in all ages 
and countries1 have often dwelt2 and    
which we cannot1 even now1 pronounce to 
be either unfounded or exhausted2 as we 
trust hereafter to show4 ,but whether or
 not this be so1 we may be certain that 
the ,psalmist regarded the stars1 as    
things having a reference to the earth1 

and yet not resembling the earth2 as    
works of ,god's fingers1 very different 
from the earth with its tribes of       
inhabitants2 as luminaries1 not worlds4 
,in the feeling of awe and perplexity1  
which made him ask1 ,what is man that   
thou art mindful of him8 there was no   
mixture of a persuasion that there were1
 in those luminaries1 creatures1 like   
man1 the children and subjects of ,god2 
and therefore1 like man1 requiring his  
care and attention4 ,in asking1 ,what is
 man1 that thou visitest him8 there was 
no latent comparison1 to make the       
question imply1 that thou visitest him1 
rather than those who dwell in those    
abodes8 ,it was the multitude and       
magnificence of ,god's works1 which made
 it seem strange that he should care for
 a thing so small and mean as man2 not  
the supposed multitude of ,god's        
intelligent creatures inhabiting those  
works1 which made it seem strange that  
he should attend to every person upon   
this earth4 ,it was not that the        

,psalmist thought that1 among a         
multitude of earths1 all peopled like   
this earth1 man might seem to be in     
danger of being overlooked and neglected
 by his ,maker2 but that1 there being   
only one earth1 occupied by frail1      
feeble1 sinful1 short-lived creatures1  
it might be unworthy the regards of ,him
 who dwelt in regions of eternal light  
and splendor1 unsullied by frailty1     
inaccessible to corruption4  #c4 ,this1 
we can have no doubt1 or something      
resembling this1 was the ,psalmist's    
view1 when he made the reflection1 which
 we have taken as the basis of our      
remarks4 ,and even in this view1 7which1
 after all that science has done1 is    
perhaps still the most natural and      
familiar17 the reflection is extremely  
striking2 and the words cannot be       
uttered without finding an echo in the  
breast of every contemplative and       
religious person4 ,but this view is1 as 
most readers at this time are aware1    
very different from that presented to us

 by ,modern ,astronomy4 ,the discoveries
 made by astronomers are supposed by    
most persons to have proved1 or to have 
made it in the highest degree probable1 
that this view of the earth1 as the sole
 habitation of intelligent subjects of  
,god's government2 and of the stars1 as 
placed in a region of which the earth is
 the centre1 and yet differing in their 
nature from this lower world2 is        
altogether erroneous4 ,according to     
astronomers1 the earth is not a level   
space1 but a globe4 ,some of the stars  
which we see in the vault of heaven1 are
 globes1 like it2 some smaller than the 
earth1 some larger4 ,there are reasons1 
drawn from analogy1 for believing that  
these globes1 the other planets1 are    
inhabited by living creatures1 as the   
earth is4 ,the earth is not at rest1    
with the celestial luminaries           
circulating above it1 as the ancients   
believed1 but itself moves in a circle  
about the sun1 in the course of every   
year2 and the other planets also move   

round the sun in like manner1 in        
circles1 some within and some without   
that which the earth describes4 ,this   
collection of planets1 thus circulating 
about the sun1 is the ,,solar ,,system3 
of which the earth thus forms a very    
small part4 ,jupiter and ,saturn are    
much larger than the earth4 ,mars and   
,venus are nearly as large4 ,if these be
 inhabited1 as the ,earth is1 which the 
analogy of their form1 movements and    
conditions1 seems to suggest1 the       
population of the earth is a very small 
portion of the population of the solar  
system4 ,and if the mere number of the  
subjects of ,god's government could     
produce any difficulty in the           
application of his providence to them1 a
 person to whom this view of the world  
which we inhabit had been disclosed1    
might well1 and with far more reason    
than the ,psalmist1 exclaim1 ,lord1 what
 is man1 that thou art mindful of him8  
the inhabitants of this ,earth1 that    
thou regardest him8  #d4 ,but this is   

only the first step in the asserted     
revelations of astronomy4 ,some of the  
stars are1 as we have said1 planets of  
the kind just described4 ,but these     
stars are a few only3--five1 or at most 
six1 of those visible to the unassisted 
eye of man4 ,all the rest1 innumerable  
as they appear1 and numerous as they    
really are1 are1 it is found1 objects of
 another kind4 ,they are not1 as the    
planets are1 opaque globes1 deriving    
their light from a sun1 about which they
 circulate4 ,they shine by a light of   
their own4 ,they are of the nature of   
the sun1 not of the planets4 ,that they 
appear mere specks of light1 arises from
 their being at a vast distance from us4
 ,at a vast distance they undoubtedly   
are2 for even with our most powerful    
telescopes1 they still appear mere      
specks of light2--mere luminous points4 
,they do not1 as the planets do1 when   
seen through telescopes1 exhibit to us a
 circular face or disk1 capable of being
 magnified and distinguished into parts 

and features4 ,but this impossibility of
 magnifying them by means of telescopes1
 does not at all make us doubt that they
 may be far larger than the planets4    
,for we know1 from other sources of     
information1 that their distance is     
immensely greater than that of any of   
the planets4 ,we can measure the bodies 
of the solar system2--the earth1 by     
absolutely going round a part of it1 or 
in other ways2 the other bodies of the  
system1 by comparing their positions1 as
 seen from different parts of the earth4
 ,in this manner we find that the earth 
is a globe #h1jjj miles in diameter4 ,in
 this way1 again1 we find that the      
circle which the earth describes round  
the sun has1 in round numbers1 a radius 
about #bd1jjj times the earth's radius2 
that is1 nearly a hundred millions of   
miles4 ,the earth is1 at one time1 a    
hundred millions of miles on one side of
 the sun2 and at another time1 half a   
year afterwards1 a hundred millions of  
miles on the other side4 ,of the bright 

stars which shine by their own          
light1--the fixed stars1 as we call     
them1 7to distinguish them from the     
planets1 the wandering stars17--if any  
one were at any moderate distance from  
us1 we should see it change its apparent
 place with regard to the others1 in    
consequence of our thus changing our    
point of view two hundred millions of   
miles3 just as a distant spire changes  
its apparent place with regard to the   
more distant mountain1 when we move from
 one window of our house to the other4  
,but no such change of place is         
discernible in any of the fixed stars3  
or at least1 if we believe the most     
recent asserted discoveries of          
astronomers1 the change is so small as  
to imply a distance in the star1 of more
 than two hundred thousand times the    
radius of the earth's orbit1 which is1  
itself1 as we have said1 one hundred    
millions of miles4#a ,this distance is  
so vastly great1 that we can very well  
believe that the fixed stars1 though to 

our best telescopes they appear only as 
points of light1 are really as large as 
our sun1 and would give as much light as
 he does1 if we could approach as near  
to them4 ,for since they are thus1 the  
nearest of them1 two hundred thousand   
times as far off as he is1 even if we   
could magnify them a thousand times1    
which we can hardly do1 they would still
 be only one two-hundredth of the       
breadth of the sun2 and thus1 still a   
mere point4  #e4 ,but if each fixed star
 be of the nature of the sun1 and not   
smaller than the sun1 does not analogy  
lead us to suppose that they have1 some 
of them at least1 planets circulating   
about them1 as our sun has8 ,if the ,sun
 is the centre of the ,solar ,system1   
why should not ,sirius1 7one of the     
brightest of the fixed stars17 be the   
centre of the ,sirian ,system8 ,and why 
should not that system have as many     
planets1 with the same resemblances and 
differences of the figure1 movements1   
and conditions of the different planets1

 as this8 ,why should not the ,sirian   
,system be as great and as varied as the
 solar system8 ,and this being granted1 
why should not these planets be         
inhabited1 as men have inferred the     
other planets of the solar system1 as   
well as the earth1 to be8 ,and thus we  
have1 added to the population of the    
universe of which we have already       
spoken1 a number 7so far as we have     
reason to believe7 not inferior to the  
number of inhabitants of the solar      
system3 this number being1 according to 
all the analogies1 very many fold that  
of the population of the whole earth8   
,and this is the conclusion1 when we    
reason from one star only1 from ,sirius4
 ,but the argument is the same1 from    
each of the stars4 ,for we have no      
reason to think that ,sirius1 though one
 of the brightest1 is more like our sun 
than any of the others is4 ,the others  
appear less bright in various degrees1  
probably because they are further       
removed from us in various degrees4     

,they may not be all of the same size   
and brightness2 it is very unlikely that
 they are4 ,but they may as easily be   
larger than the sun1 as smaller4 ,the   
natural assumption for us to make1      
having no ground for any other opinion1 
is1 that they are1 upon the average1 of 
the size of our sun4 ,on that           
assumption1 we have as many solar       
systems as we have fixed stars2 and1 it 
may be1 six or ten1 or twenty times as  
many inhabited globes2 inhabited by     
creatures of whom we must suppose1 by   
analogy1 that ,god is mindful1 if he is 
mindful of us4 ,the question recurs with
 overwhelming force1 if we still follow 
the same train of reflection3 ,what is  
man1 that ,god is mindful of him8  #f4  
,but we have not yet exhausted the views
 which thus add to the force of this    
reflection4 ,the fixed stars1 which     
appear to the eye so numerous1 so       
innumerable1 in the clear sky on a      
moonless night1 are not really so       
numerous as they seem4 ,to the naked    

eye1 there are not visible more than    
four or five thousand4 ,the astronomers 
of ,greece1 and of other countries1 even
 in ancient times1 counted them1 mapped 
them1 and gave them names and           
designations4 ,but ,astronomy1 who thus 
began her career by diminishing1 in some
 degree1 the supposed numbers of the    
host of heaven1 has ended by            
immeasurably increasing them4 ,the first
 application of the telescope to the    
skies discovered a vast number of fixed 
stars1 previously unseen3 and every     
improvement in that instrument has      
disclosed myriads of new stars1 visibly 
smaller than those which had before been
 seen2 and smaller and smaller1 as the  
power of vision is more and more        
strengthened by new aids from art2 as if
 the regions of space contained an      
inexhaustible supply of such objects2 as
 if infinite space were strewn with     
stars in every part of it to which      
vision could reach4 ,the small patch of 
the sky which forms1 at any moment1 the 

field of view of one of the great       
telescopes of ,herschel1 discloses to   
him as many stars1 and those of as many 
different magnitudes1 as the whole vault
 of the sky exhibits to the naked eye4  
,but the magnifying power of such an    
instrument only discloses1 it does not  
make1 these stars4 ,there appears to be 
quite as much reason to believe1 that   
each of these telescopic stars is a sun1
 surrounded by its special family of    
planets1 as to believe that ,sirius or  
,arcturus is so4 ,here1 then1 we have   
again an extension1 indefinite to our   
apprehension1 of the universe1 as       
occupied by material structures2 and if 
so1 why not by a living population1 such
 as the material structures which are   
nearest to us support8  #g4 ,even yet we
 have not finished the series of        
successive views which astronomers have 
had opened to them1 extending more and  
more their spectacle of the fulness and 
largeness of the universe4 ,not only    
does the telescope disclose myriads of  

stars1 unseen to the naked eye1 and new 
myriads with each increase of the powers
 of the instrument2 but it discloses    
also patches of light1 which1 at first  
at least1 do not appear to consist of   
stars3 ,nebulae1 as they are called2    
bright specks1 it might seem1 of stellar
 matter1 thin1 diffused1 and irregular2 
not gathered into regular and definite  
forms1 such as we may suppose the stars 
to be4 ,every one who has noticed the   
starry skies1 may understand what is the
 general aspect of such nebulae1 by     
looking at the milky way or galaxy1 an  
irregular band of nebulous light1 which 
runs quite round the sky2 ,a circling   
zone1 powdered with stars2 as ,milton   
calls it4 ,but the nebulae of which ,i  
more especially speak1 are minute       
patches1 discovered mainly by the       
telescope1 and in a few instances only  
discernible by the naked eye4 ,and what 
,i have to remark especially concerning 
them at present is1 that though to      
visual powers which barely suffice to   

discern them1 they appear like mere     
bright clouds1 patches of diffused      
starry matter2 yet that1 when examined  
by visual powers of a higher order1 by  
more penetrating telescopes1 these      
patches of continuous feeble light are1 
in many instances at least1             
distinguishable into definite points3   
they are found1 in fact1 to be          
aggregations of stars2 which before     
appeared as diffused light1 only because
 our telescopes1 though strong enough to
 reveal to our senses the aggregate mass
 of light of the cluster1 were not      
strong enough to enable us to discern   
any one of the stars of which the       
cluster consists4 ,the galaxy1 in this  
way1 may1 in almost every part1 be      
resolved into separate stars2 and thus1 
the multitude of the stars in the region
 of the sky occupied by that winding    
stream of light1 is1 when examined by a 
powerful telescope1 inconceivably       
numerous4  #h4 ,the small telescopic    
nebulae are of various forms2 some of   

them may be in the shape of flat strata1
 or cakes1 as it were1 of stars1 of     
small thickness1 compared with the      
extent of the stratum4 ,now1 if our sun 
were one of the individuals of such a   
stratum1 we1 looking at the stars of the
 stratum from his neighborhood1 should  
see them very numerous and close in the 
direction of the edge of the stratum1   
and comparatively few and rare in other 
parts of the sky4 ,we should1 in short1 
see a galaxy running round the sky1 as  
we see in fact4 ,and hence ,sir ,william
 ,herschel has inferred1 that our sun1  
with its attendant planets1 has its     
place in such a stratum2 and that it    
thus belongs to a host of stars which   
are1 in a certain way1 detached from the
 other nebulae which we see4 ,perhaps1  
he adds1 some of those other nebulae are
 beds and masses of stars not less      
numerous than those which compose our   
galaxy1 and which occupy a larger       
portion of the sky1 only because we are 
immersed in the interior of the crowd4  

,and thus1 a minute speck of nebulous   
light1 discernible only by a good       
telescope1 may contain not only as many 
stars as occupy the sky to ordinary     
vision1 but as many as is the number    
into which the most powerful telescope  
resolves the milky light of the galaxy4 
,and of such resolvable nebulae the     
number which are discovered in the sky  
is very great1 their forms being of the 
most various kind2 so that many of them 
may be1 for aught we can tell1 more     
amply stocked with stars than the galaxy
 is4 ,and if all the stars1 or a large  
proportion of the stars1 of the galaxy1 
be suns attended by planets1 and these  
planets peopled with living creatures1  
what notion must we form of the         
population of the universe1 when we have
 thus to reckon as many galaxies as     
there are resolvable nebulae6 the stock 
of discoverable nebulae being as yet    
unexhausted by the powers of our        
telescopes2 and the possibility of      
resolving them into stars being also an 

operation which has not yet been pursued
 to its limit4  #i4 ,for1 7and this is  
the last step which ,i shall mention in 
this long series of ascending steps of  
multitude apparently infinite17 it now  
begins to be suspected that not some    
nebulae only1 but all1 are resolvable   
into separate stars4 ,when the nebulae  
were first carefully studied1 it was    
supposed that they consisted1 as they   
appeared to consist1 of some diffused   
and incoherent matter1 not of definite  
and limited masses4 ,it was conceived   
that they were not stars1 but ,stellar  
,matter in the course of formation into 
stars2 and it was conceived1 further1   
that by the gradual concentration of    
such matter1 whirling round its centre  
while it concentrated1 not only stars1  
that is1 suns1 might be formed1 but also
 systems of planets1 circling round     
these suns2 and thus this ,nebular      
,hypothesis1 as it has been termed1 gave
 a kind of theory of the origin and     
formation of systems1 such as the solar 

system4 ,but the great telescope which  
,lord ,rosse has constructed1 and which 
is much more powerful than any optical  
instrument yet fabricated1 has been     
directed to many of the nebulae1 whose  
appearance had given rise to this       
theory2 and the result has been1 in a   
great number of cases1 that the nebulae 
are proved to consist entirely of       
distinct stars2 and that the diffused   
nebulous appearance is discovered to    
have been an illusion1 resulting from   
the accumulated light of a vast number  
of small stars near to each other4 ,in  
this manner1 we are led to regard every 
nebula1 not as an imperfectly formed    
star or system1 but as a vast multitude 
of stars1 and1 for aught we can tell1 of
 systems2 for the apparent smallness and
 nearness of these stars are1 it is     
thought1 mere results of the vast       
distance at which they are placed from  
us4 ,and thus1 perhaps1 all the nebulae 
are1 what some of them seem certainly to
 be1 so many vast armies of stars1 each 

of which stars1 we have reason to       
believe1 is of the nature of our sun2   
and may have1 and according to analogy  
has1 an accompaniment of living         
creatures1 such as our sun has1         
certainly on the earth1 probably1 it is 
thought1 in the other planets4  #aj4 ,it
 is difficult to grasp1 in one view1 the
 effect of the successive steps from    
number to number1 from distance to      
distance1 which we have thus been       
measuring over4 ,we may1 however1 state 
them again briefly1 in the way of       
enumeration4  ,from our own place on the
 earth1 we pass1 in thought1 as a first 
step1 to the whole globe of the ,earth2 
from this1 as a second step1 to the     
,planets1 the other globes which compose
 the ,solar ,system4 ,a third step      
carries us to the ,fixed ,stars1 as     
visible to the naked eye2 very numerous 
and immensely distant4 ,the transition  
to the ,telescopic ,stars makes a fourth
 step2 and in this1 the number and the  
space are increased1 almost beyond the  

power of numbers to express how many    
there are1 and at what distances4 ,but a
 fifth step3--perhaps all this array of 
stars1 obvious and telescopic1 only make
 up our ,nebula2 while the universe is  
occupied by other ,nebulae innumerable1 
so distant that1 seen from them1 our    
nebula1 though including1 it may be1    
stars of the #bjth magnitude1 which may 
be #bj times or #b1jjj times more remote
 than ,sirius1 would become a telescopic
 speck1 as their nebulae are to us4     
#aa4 ,various images and modes of       
representation have been employed1 in   
order to convey to the mind some notion 
of the dimensions of the scheme of the  
universe to which we are thus           
introduced4 ,thus1 we may reckon that a 
cannon-ball1 moving with its usual      
original velocity unabated1 would       
describe the interval between the sun   
and the earth in about one year4 ,and   
this being so1 the same missile would1  
from what has been said1 occupy more1 we
 know not how much more1 than #bjj1jjj  

years in going to the nearest fixed     
star3 and perhaps a thousand times as   
much1 in going to other stars belonging 
to our group2 and then again1 #bjj1jjj  
times so much1 or some number of the    
like order1 in going from one group to  
another4 ,when we have advanced a step  
or two in this mode of statement1 the   
velocity of the cannon-ball hardly      
perceptibly affects the magnitude of the
 numbers which we have to use4  ,and the
 same nearly is the case if we have     
recourse to the swiftest motion with    
which we are acquainted2 that of ,light4
 ,light travels1 it is shown by         
indisputable scientific reasonings1 in  
about eight minutes from the sun to the 
earth4 ,hence we can easily calculate   
that it would occupy at least three     
years to travel as far as ,sirius1 and  
probably1 three thousand years1 or a    
much greater number1 to reach to the    
smallest stars1 or to come from them to 
us4 ,and thus1 as ,sir ,w4 ,herschel    
remarked1 since light is the only       

vehicle by which information concerning 
these distant bodies is conveyed to us1 
we do1 by seeing them1 receive          
information1 not what they are at this  
moment1 but what they were1 as to       
visible condition1 thousands of years   
ago4 ,stars may have been created when  
man was created1 and yet their light may
 not have reached him4#b ,stars may have
 been extinguished thousands of years   
ago1 and yet may still be visible to our
 eyes1 by means of the light which they 
emitted previous to their extinction1   
and which has not yet died away4  #ab4  
,so vast then are the distances at which
 the different bodies of the universe   
are distributed2 and yet so numerous are
 those bodies4 ,in the vastness of their
 distances1 there is1 indeed1 nothing   
which need disturb our minds1 or which1 
after a little reflection1 is likely to 
do so3 for when we have said all that   
can be said1 about the largeness of     
these distances1 still there is no      
difficulty in finding room for them4 ,we

 necessarily conceive ,space as being   
infinite in its extent3 however much    
space the heavenly bodies occupy1 there 
is space beyond them3 if they are not   
there1 space is there nevertheless4     
,that the stars and planets are so far  
from each other1 is an arrangement which
 prevents their disturbing each other   
with their mutual attractions1 to any   
destructive extent2 and is an           
arrangement which the spacious1 the     
infinite universe1 admits of1 without   
any difficulty4  #ac4 ,but we are more  
especially concerned with the ,numbers  
of the heavenly bodies4 ,so many planets
 about our sun3 so many suns1 each      
perhaps with its family of planets3 and 
then1 all these suns making but one     
group3 and other groups coming into     
view1 one after another1 in seemingly   
endless succession3 and all these       
planets being of the nature of our      
earth1 as all these stars are of the    
nature of our sun3--all this1 presents  
to us a spectacle of a world--of a      

countless host of worlds--of which1 when
 we regard them as thus arranged in     
planetary systems1 and as having1       
according to all probability1 years and 
seasons1 days and nights1 as we have1 we
 cannot but accept it as at least a     
likely suggestion1 that they have also  
inhabitants2--intelligent beings who can
 reckon these days and years2 who       
subsist on the fruits which the season  
brings forth1 and have their daily and  
yearly occupations1 according to their  
faculties4 ,when we take1 as our scheme 
of the universe1 such a scheme as this1 
we may well be overwhelmed with the     
number of provinces1 besides that in    
which man dwells1 which the empire of   
the ,lord of all includes2 and1         
recurring to the words of the ,psalmist1
 we may say with a profundity of meaning
 immeasurably augmented--,lord1 what is 
man8  ,it was this view1 ,i conceive1   
which ,dr4 ,chalmers had in his         
thoughts1 in pursuing the speculations  
which ,i have mentioned1 in the outset  

of this ,essay4  ,,footnotes3  #a ,it is
 quite to our purpose to recollect the  
impression which such discoveries       
naturally make upon a pious mind4       
,oh6 rack me not to such extent1        
,these distances belong to ,thee2       
,the world's too little for ,thy tent1  
,a grave too big for me6                
,,george ,,herbert4  #b ,this thought   
is1 however1 older4 ,young expresses it 
in his ,night ,thoughts1 ,night ,,ix41  
7published in #agdd73      ,how distant 
some of these nocturnal suns6     ,so   
distant 7says the sage7 'twere not      
absurd     ,to doubt if beams1 set out  
at nature's birth1     ,are yet arrived 
at this so foreign world4     ,,chapter 
,,ii4  ,,the ,,astronomical ,,objection 
,,to ,,religion4   #a4 ,such            
astronomical views1 then1 as those just 
stated1 we may suppose to be those to   
which ,chalmers had reference1 in the   
argument of his ,astronomical           
,discourses4 ,these real or supposed    
discoveries of astronomers1 or a        

considerable part of them1 were the     
facts which were present to his mind1   
and of which he there discusses the     
bearings upon religious truths4 ,this   
multiplicity of systems and worlds1     
which the telescopic scrutiny of the    
stars is assumed to have disclosed1 or  
to have made probable1 is the main      
feature in the constitution of the      
universe1 as revealed by science1 to    
which his reflections are directed4 ,nor
 can we say that1 in fixing upon this   
view1 he has gone out of his way1 to    
struggle with obscure and latent        
difficulties1 such as the bulk of       
mankind know and care little about4 ,for
 in reality1 such views are generally   
diffused in our time and country1 are   
common to all classes of readers1 and as
 we may venture to express it1 are the  
popular views of persons of any degree  
of intellectual culture1 who have1      
directly or derivatively1 accepted the  
doctrines of modern science4 ,among such
 persons1 expressions which imply that  

the stars are globes of luminous matter1
 like the sun2 that there are1 among    
them1 systems of revolving bodies1 seats
 of life and of intelligence2 are so    
frequent and familiar1 that those who so
 speak1 do not seem to be aware that1 in
 using such expressions1 they are making
 any assumption at all2 any more than   
they suppose themselves to be making    
assumptions1 when they speak of the     
globular form of the earth1 or of its   
motion round the sun1 or of its         
revolution on its axis4 ,it was1        
therefore1 a suitable and laudable      
purpose1 for a writer like ,chalmers1   
well instructed in science1 of large and
 comprehensive views with regard both to
 religion and to philosophy1 of deep and
 pervasive piety1 and master of a       
dignified and persuasive eloquence1 to  
employ himself in correcting any        
erroneous opinions and impressions      
respecting the bearing which such       
scientific doctrines have upon religious
 truth4 ,it was his lot to labor among  

men of great intellectual curiosity1    
acuteness1 and boldness3 it was his     
tendency to deal with new views of      
others on the most various subjects1    
religious1 philosophical1 and social2   
and1 on such subjects1 to originate new 
views of his own4 ,it fell especially   
within his province1 therefore1 to      
satisfy the minds of the public who     
listened to him1 with regard to the     
conflict1 if a conflict there was1 or   
seemed to be1 between new scientific    
doctrines1 and permanent religious      
verities4 ,he was1 by his culture and   
his powers1 peculiarly fitted1 and      
therefore peculiarly called1 to mediate 
between the scientific and the religious
 world of his time4  #b4 ,the scientific
 doctrine which he especially deals     
with1 in the work to which ,i refer1 is 
the multiplicity of worlds2--the        
existence of many seats of life1 of     
enjoyment1 of intelligence2 and it may  
be1 as he suggests also1 of moral law1  
of transgression1 of alienation from    

,god1 and of the need1 and of the means1
 of reconciliation to ,him2 or of       
obedience to ,him and sympathy with     
,him4 ,that if there be many worlds     
resembling our world in other respects1 
they may resemble it in some of these1  
is an obvious1 and we may say1 an       
irresistible conjecture1 in any         
speculative mind to which the doctrine  
itself has been conveyed4 ,nor can it   
fail to be very interesting1 to see how 
such a writer as ,i have described deals
 with such a suggestion2 how far he     
accepts or inclines to accept it2 and if
 so1 what aspect such a view leads him  
to give to truths1 either belonging to  
,natural or to ,revealed ,theology1     
which1 before the introduction of such a
 view1 were regarded as bearing only    
upon the world of which man is the      
inhabitant4  #c4 ,the mode in which     
,chalmers treats this suggestion1 is to 
regard it as the ground of an objection 
to ,religion1 either ,natural or        
,revealed4 ,he supposes an objector to  

take his stand upon the multiplicity of 
worlds1 assumed or granted as true2 and 
to argue that1 since there are so many  
worlds beside this1 all alike claiming  
the care1 the government1 the goodness1 
the interposition1 of the ,creator1 it  
is in the highest degree extravagant and
 absurd1 to suppose that he has done1   
for this world1 that which ,religion1   
both ,natural and ,revealed1 represents 
him as having done1 and as doing4 ,when 
we are told that ,god has provided1 and 
is constantly providing1 for the life1  
the welfare1 the comfort of all the     
living things which people this earth1  
we can1 by an effort of thought and     
reflection1 bring ourselves to believe  
that it is so4 ,when we are further told
 that ,he has given a moral law to man1 
the intelligent inhabitant of the earth1
 and governs him by a moral government1 
we are able1 or at least the great bulk 
of thoughtful men1 on due consideration 
of all the bearings of the case1 are    
able1 to accept the conviction1 that    

this also is so4 ,when we are still     
farther asked to believe that the       
imperfect sway of this moral law over   
man has required to be remedied by a    
special interposition of the ,governor  
of the world1 or by a series of special 
interpositions1 to make the ,law clear1 
and to remedy the effects of man's      
transgression of it2 this doctrine      
also1--according to the old and         
unscientific view1 which represents the 
human race as1 in an especial manner1   
the summit and crown of ,god's material 
workmanship1 the end of the rest of     
creation1 and the selected theatre of   
,god's dealings with transgression and  
with obedience1--we can conceive1 and1  
as religious persons hold1 we can find  
ample and satisfactory evidence to      
believe4 ,but if this world be merely   
one of innumerable worlds1 all1 like it1
 the workmanship of ,god2 all1 the seats
 of life1 like it2 others1 like it1     
occupied by intelligent creatures1      
capable of will1 of law1 of obedience1  

of disobedience1 as man is2 to hold that
 this world has been the scene of ,god's
 care and kindness1 and still more1 of  
his special interpositions1             
communications1 and personal dealings   
with its individual inhabitants1 in the 
way which ,religion teaches1 is1 the    
objector is conceived to maintain1      
extravagant and incredible4 ,it is to   
select one of the millions of globes    
which are scattered through the vast    
domain of space1 and to suppose that one
 to be treated in a special and         
exceptional manner1 without any reason  
for the assumption of such a            
peculiarity1 except that this globe     
happens to be the habitation of us1 who 
make this assumption4 ,if ,religion     
require us to assume1 that one          
particular corner of the ,universe has  
been thus singled out1 and made an      
exception to the general rules by which 
all other parts of the ,universe are    
governed2 she makes1 it may be said1 a  
demand upon our credulity which cannot  

fail to be rejected by those who are in 
the habit of contemplating and admiring 
those general laws4 ,can the ,earth be  
thus the centre of the moral and        
religious universe1 when it has been    
shown to have no claim to be the centre 
of the physical universe8 ,is it not as 
absurd to maintain this1 as it would be 
to hold1 at the present day1 the old    
,ptolemaic hypothesis1 which places the 
,earth in the centre of the heavenly    
motions1 instead of the newer           
,copernican doctrine1 which teaches that
 the ,earth revolves round the ,sun8 ,is
 not ,religion disproved1 by the        
necessity under which she lies1 of      
making such an assumption as this8  #d4 
,such is1 in a general way1 the         
objection to ,religion with which       
,chalmers deals2 and1 as ,i have said1  
his mode of treating it is highly       
interesting and instructive4 ,perhaps1  
however1 we shall make our reasonings   
and speculations apply to a wider class 
of readers1 if we consider the view now 

spoken of1 not as an objection1 urged by
 an opponent of religion1 but rather as 
a difficulty1 felt by a friend of       
religion4 ,it is1 ,i conceive1 certain  
that many of those who are not at all   
disposed to argue against religion1 but 
who1 on the contrary1 feel that their   
whole internal comfort and repose are   
bound up indissolubly with their        
religious convictions1 are still        
troubled and dismayed at the doctrines  
of the vastness of the universe1 and the
 multitude of worlds1 which they suppose
 to be taught and proved by astronomy4  
,they have a profound reverence for the 
,idea of ,god2 they are glad to         
acknowledge their constant and universal
 dependence upon ,his preserving power  
and goodness2 they are ready and        
desirous to recognize the working of    
,his providence2 they receive the moral 
law1 as ,his law1 with reverence and    
submission2 they regard their           
transgressions of this law as sins      
against ,him2 and are eager to find the 

mode of reconciliation to ,him1 when    
thus estranged from him2 they willingly 
think of ,god1 as near to them4 ,but    
while they listen to the evidence which 
science1 as we have said1 sets before   
them1 of the long array of groups1 and  
hosts1 and myriads1 of worlds1 which are
 brought to our knowledge1 they find    
themselves perturbed and distressed4    
,they would willingly think of ,god as  
near to them2 but during the progress of
 this enumeration1 ,he appears1 at every
 step1 to be removed further and further
 from them4 ,to discover that the ,earth
 is so large1 the number of its         
inhabitants so great1 its form so       
different from what man at first        
imagines it1 may perhaps have startled  
them2 but in this view1 there is nothing
 which a pious mind does not easily     
surmount4 ,but if ,venus and ,mars also 
have their inhabitants2 if ,saturn and  
,jupiter1 globes so much larger than the
 earth1 have a proportional amount of   
population2 may not man be neglected or 

overlooked8 ,is he worthy to be regarded
 by the ,creator of all8 ,may not1 must 
not1 the most pious mind recur to the   
exclamation of the ,psalmist3 ,lord1    
what is man1 that thou art mindful of   
him8 ,and must not this exclamation1    
under the new aspect of things1 be      
accompanied by an enfeebled and less    
confident belief that ,god is mindful of
 him8 ,and then1 this array of planets1 
which derive their light from the ,sun1 
extends much further than even the      
astronomer at first suspected4 ,the     
orbit of ,saturn is ten times as wide as
 the orbit of the earth2 but beyond     
,saturn1 and almost twice as far from   
the sun1 ,herschel discovers ,uranus1   
another great planet2 and again1 beyond 
,uranus1 and again at nearly twice his  
distance1 the subtle sagacity of the    
astronomers of our day1 surmises1 and   
then detects1 another great planet4 ,in 
such a system as this1 the earth shrinks
 into insignificance4 ,can its concerns 
engage the attention of him who made the

 whole8 ,but again1 this whole ,solar   
,system itself1 with all its orbits and 
planets1 shrinks into a mere point1 when
 compared with the nearest fixed star4  
,and again1 the distance which lies     
between us and such stars1 shrinks into 
incalculable smallness1 when we journey 
in thought to other fixed stars4 ,and   
again1 and again1 the field of our      
previous contemplation suffers an       
immeasurable contraction1 as we pass on 
to other points of view4  #e4 ,and in   
all these successive moves1 we are still
 within the dominions of the same       
,creator and ,governor2 and at every    
move1 we are brought1 we may suppose1 to
 new bodies of his subjects1 bearing1 in
 the expansion of their number1 some    
proportion to the expanse of space which
 they occupy4 ,and if this be so1 how   
shall the earth1 and men1 its           
inhabitants1 thus repeatedly            
annihilated1 as it were1 by the growing 
magnitude of the known ,universe1       
continue to be anything in the regard of

 ,him who embraces all8 ,least of all1  
how shall men continue to receive that  
special1 persevering1 providential1     
judicial1 personal care1 which religion 
implies2 and without the belief of      
which1 any man who has religious        
thoughts1 must be disturbed and unhappy1
 desolate and forsaken8  #f4 ,such are1 
,i conceive1 the thoughts of many       
persons1 under the influence of the     
astronomical views which ,chalmers      
refers to as being sometimes employed   
against religious belief4 ,of course1 it
 is natural that the views which are    
used by unbelievers as arguments against
 religious belief1 should create        
difficulties and troubles in the minds  
of believers2 at least1 till the        
argument is rebutted4 ,and of course    
also1 the answers to the arguments1     
considered as infidel arguments1 would  
operate to remove the difficulties which
 believers entertain on such grounds4   
,chalmers' reasonings against such      
arguments1 therefore1 will1 so for as   

they are valid1 avail to relieve the    
mental trouble of believers1 who are    
perplexed and oppressed by the          
astronomical views of which ,i have     
spoken2 as well as to confute and       
convince those who reject religion1 on  
such astronomical grounds4 ,it may1     
however1 as ,i have said1 be of use to  
deal with these difficulties rather as  
difficulties of religious men1 than as  
objections of irreligious men2 to       
examine rather how we can quiet the     
troubled and perplexed believer1 than   
how we can triumph over the dogmatic and
 self-satisfied infidel4 ,i1 at least1  
should wish to have the former1 rather  
than the latter of these tasks1 regarded
 as that which ,i propose to myself4  ,i
 shall hereafter attempt to explain more
 fully the difficulties which the       
doctrine of the ,plurality of ,worlds   
appears to some persons to throw in the 
way of ,revealed ,religion2 but before  
,i do so1 there is one part of          
,chalmers' answer1 bearing especially   

upon ,natural ,religion1 which it may be
 proper to attend to4     ,,chapter     
,,iii4  ,,the ,,answer ,,from ,,the     
,,microscope4   #a4 ,it is not my       
business1 nor my intention1 to criticize
 the remarkable work of ,chalmers to    
which ,i have so often referred4 ,but ,i
 may say1 that the arguments there      
employed by him1 so far as they go upon 
astronomical or philosophical grounds1  
are of great weight2 and upon the whole1
 such as we may both assent to1 as      
scientifically true1 and accept as      
rationally persuasive4 ,i think1        
however1 that there are other arguments1
 also drawn from scientific discoveries1
 which bear1 in a very important and    
striking manner1 upon the opinions in   
question1 and which ,chalmers has not   
referred to2 and ,i conceive that there 
are philosophical views of another kind1
 which1 for those who desire and who    
will venture to regard the ,universe and
 its ,creator in the wider and deeper   
relations which appear to be open to    

human speculation1 may be a source of   
satisfaction4 ,when certain positive    
propositions1 maintained as true while  
they are really highly doubtful1 have   
given rise to difficulties in the minds 
of religious persons1 other positive    
propositions1 combating these1          
propounded and supported by argument1   
that they may be accepted according to  
their evidence1 may1 at any rate1 have  
force enough to break down and dissipate
 such loosely founded difficulties4 ,to 
present to the reader's mind such       
speculations as ,i have thus indicated1 
is the object of the following pages4   
,they can1 of course1 pretend to no     
charm1 except for persons who are       
willing to have their minds occupied    
with such difficulties and such         
speculations as ,i have referred to4    
,those who are willing to be so         
employed1 may1 perhaps1 find in what ,i 
have to say something which may interest
 them4 ,for1 of the arguments which ,i  
have to expound1 some1 though they      

appear to me both very obvious and very 
forcible1 have never1 so far as ,i am   
aware1 been put forth in that religious 
bearing which seems to belong to them2  
and others1 though aspiring to point out
 in some degree the relation of the     
,universe and its ,creator1 are of a    
very simple kind2 that is1 for minds    
which are prepared to deal with such    
subjects at all4  #b4 ,as ,i have said1 
the arguments with which we are here    
concerned refer both to ,natural        
,religion and to ,revealed ,religion2   
and there is one of ,chalmers'          
arguments1 bearing especially upon the  
former branch of the subject1 which ,i  
may begin by noticing4 ,among the       
thoughts which1 it was stated1 might    
naturally arise in men's minds1 when the
 telescope revealed to them an          
innumerable multitude of worlds besides 
the one which we inhabit1 was this3 that
 the ,governor of the ,universe1 who has
 so many worlds under his management1   
cannot be conceived as bestowing upon   

this ,earth1 and its various tribes of  
inhabitants1 that care which1 till then1
 ,natural ,religion had taught men that 
he does employ1 to secure to man the    
possession and use of his faculties of  
mind and body2 and to all animals the   
requisites of animal existence and      
animal enjoyment4 ,and upon this        
,chalmers remarks1 that just about the  
time when science gave rise to the      
suggestion of this difficulty1 she also 
gave occasion to a remarkable reply to  
it4 ,just about the same time that the  
invention of the ,telescope showed that 
there were innumerable worlds1 which    
might have inhabitants requiring the    
,creator's care as much as the tribes of
 this earth do1--the invention of the   
,microscope showed that there were1 in  
this world1 innumerable tribes of       
animals1 which had been all along       
enjoying the benefits of the ,creator's 
care1 as much as those kinds with which 
man had been familiar from the          
beginning4 ,the telescope suggested that

 there might be dwellers in ,jupiter or 
in ,saturn1 of giant size and unknown   
structure1 who must share with us the   
preserving care of ,god4 ,the microscope
 showed that there had been1 close to   
us1 inhabiting minute crevices and      
crannies1 peopling the leaves of plants1
 and the bodies of other animals1       
animalcules of a minuteness hitherto    
unguessed1 and of a structure hitherto  
unknown1 who had been always sharers    
with us in ,god's preserving care4 ,the 
telescope brought into view worlds as   
numerous as the drops of water which    
make up the ocean2 the microscope       
brought into view a world in almost     
every drop of water4 ,infinity in one   
direction was balanced by infinity in   
the other4 ,the doubts which men might  
feel as to what ,god could do1 were     
balanced by certainties which they      
discovered1 as to what he had always    
been doing4 ,his care and goodness could
 not be supposed to be exhausted by the 
hitherto known population of the earth1 

for it was proved that they had not     
hitherto been confined to that          
population4 ,the discovery of new worlds
 at vast distances from us1 was         
accompanied by the discovery of new     
worlds close to us1 even in the very    
substances with which we were best      
acquainted2 and was thus rendered       
ineffective to disturb the belief of    
those who had regarded the world as     
having ,god for its governor4  #c4 ,this
 is a striking reflection1 and is put by
 ,chalmers in a very striking manner2   
and it is well fitted to remove the     
scruples to which it is especially      
addressed4 ,if there be any persons to  
whom the astronomical discoveries which 
the telescope has brought to light1     
suggests doubts or difficulties with    
regard to such truths of ,natural       
,religion as ,god's care for and        
government of the inhabitants of the    
earth1 the discoveries of the many      
various forms of animalcular life which 
the microscope has brought to light are 

well fitted to remove such doubts1 and  
to solve such difficulties4 ,we may     
easily believe that the power of ,god to
 sustain and provide for animal life1   
animal sustenance1 animal enjoyment1 can
 suffice for innumerable worlds besides 
this1 without being withdrawn or        
distracted or wearied in this earth2 for
 we find that it does suffice for       
innumerable more inhabitants of this    
earth than we were before aware of4 ,if 
we had imagined before1 that1 in        
conceiving ,god as able and willing to  
provide for the life and pleasure of all
 the sentient beings which we knew to   
exist upon the earth1 we had formed an  
adequate notion of his power and of his 
goodness1 these microscopical           
discoveries are well adapted to         
undeceive us4 ,they show us that all the
 notions which our knowledge1 hitherto1 
had enabled us to form of the powers and
 attributes of the ,creator and         
,preserver of all living things1 are    
vastly1 are immeasurably below the real 

truth of the case4 ,they show us that   
,god1 as revealed to us in the animal   
creation1 is the ,author and ,giver of  
life1 of the organization which life    
implies1 of the contrivances by which it
 is conducted and sustained1 of the     
enjoyment by which it is                
accompanied1--to an extent infinitely   
beyond what the unassisted vision of man
 could have suggested4 ,the facts which 
are obvious to man1 from which religious
 minds in all ages have drawn their     
notions and their evidence of the       
,divine power and goodness1 care and    
wisdom1 in providing for its creatures1 
require1 we find1 to be indefinitely    
extended1 in virtue of the new tribes of
 minute creatures1 and still new tribes1
 and still more minute1 which we find   
existing around us4 ,the views of our   
,natural ,theology must be indefinitely 
extended on one side2 and therefore we  
need not be startled or disturbed at    
having to extend them indefinitely on   
the other side2--at having to believe   

that there are1 in other worlds1        
creatures whom ,god has created1 whom he
 sustains in life1 for whom he provides 
the pleasures of life1 as he does for   
the long unsuspected creatures of this  
world4  #d4 ,this is1 ,i say1 a         
reflection which might quiet the mind of
 a person1 whom astronomical discoveries
 had led to doubt of the ordinary       
doctrines of ,natural ,religion4 ,but1  
,i think1 it may be questioned1 whether1
 to produce such doubts1 is a common or 
probable effect of an acquaintance with 
astronomical discoveries4 ,undoubtedly1 
by such discoveries1 a person who       
believes in ,god1 in his wisdom1 power1 
and goodness1 on the evidence of the    
natural world1 is required to extend and
 exalt his conceptions of those ,divine 
,attributes4 ,he had believed ,god to be
 the ,author of many forms of life2--he 
finds him to be the ,author of still    
more forms of life4 ,he had traced many 
contrivances in the structure of        
animals1 for their sustentation and     

well-being2 his new discoveries disclose
 to him 7for that is undoubtedly among  
the effects of microscopic researches7  
still more nice contrivances4 ,he had   
seen reason to think that all sentient  
beings have their enjoyments2 he finds  
new fields of enjoyment of the same     
kind4 ,but in all this1 there is little 
or nothing to disturb the views and     
convictions of the ,natural ,theologian4
 ,he must1 even by the evidence of facts
 patent to ordinary observation1 have   
been led to believe that the ,divine    
,wisdom and ,power are not only great1  
but great in a degree which we cannot   
fathom or comprehend2--that they are1 to
 our apprehension1 infinite3 his new    
discoveries only confirm the impression 
of this infinite character of the       
,divine ,attributes4 ,he had before     
believed the existence of an intelligent
 and wise ,creator1 on the evidence of  
the marks of design and contrivance1    
which the creation exhibited3 of such   
design and contrivance he discovers new 

marks1 new examples4 ,he had believed   
that ,god is good1 because he found     
those contrivances invariably had the   
good of the creature for their object3  
he finds1 still1 that this is the       
general1 the universal scheme of the    
creation1 now when his view of it is    
extended4 ,he has no difficulty in      
expanding his religious conceptions1 to 
correspond with his scientific          
discoveries1 so far as the microscope is
 the instrument of discovery2 there is  
no reason why he should have any more   
difficulty in doing the same1 when the  
telescope is his informant4 ,it is true1
 that in this case the information is   
more imperfect4 ,it does not tell him1  
even that there are living inhabitants  
in the regions which it reveals2 and1   
consequently1 it does not disclose any  
of those examples of design which belong
 to the structure of living things4 ,but
 if we suppose1 from analogy1 that there
 are living things in those regions1 we 
have no difficulty in conceiving1 from  

analogy also1 that those living things  
are constructed with a care and wisdom  
such as appear in the inhabitants of    
earth4 ,it will not readily or commonly 
occur to a speculator on such subjects1 
that there is any source of perplexity  
or unbelief1 in such an assumption of   
inhabitants of other worlds1 even if we 
make the assumption4 ,it is as easy1 it 
may well and reasonably be thought1 for 
,god to create a population for the     
planets as to make the planets          
themselves2--as easy to supply ,jupiter 
with tenants1 as with satellites2--as   
easy to devise the organization of an   
inhabitant of ,saturn1 as the structure 
and equilibrium of ,saturn's ring4 ,it  
is no more difficult for the ,universal 
,creator to extend to those bodies the  
powers which operate in organized       
matter1 than the powers which operate in
 brute matter4 ,it is as easy for ,him  
to establish circulation and nutrition  
in material structures1 as cohesion and 
crystallization1 which we must suppose  

the planetary masses to possess2 or     
attraction and inertia1 which we know   
them to possess4 ,no doubt1 to our      
conception1 organization appears to be a
 step beyond cohesion2 circulation of   
living fluids1 a step beyond            
crystallization of dead masses3--but    
then1 it is in tracing such steps1 that 
we discern the peculiar character of the
 ,creator's agency4 ,he does not merely 
work with mechanical and chemical       
powers1 as man to a certain extent can  
do2 but with organic and vital powers1  
which man cannot command4 ,the ,creator1
 therefore1 can animate the dust of each
 planet1 as easily as make the dust     
itself4 ,and when from organic life we  
rise to sentient life1 we have still    
only another step in the known order of 
,creative ,power4 ,to create animals1 in
 any province of the ,universe1 cannot  
be conceived as much more               
incomprehensible or incredible1 than to 
create vegetables4 ,no doubt1 the       
addition of the living and sentient     

principle to the material1 and even to  
the organic structure1 is a mighty step2
 and one which may1 perhaps1 be made the
 occasion of some speculative           
suggestions1 in a subsequent part of    
this ,essay2 but still1 it is not likely
 that any one1 who had formed his       
conceptions of the ,divine ,mind from   
its manifestations in the production and
 sustentation of animal1 as well as     
vegetable life1 on this earth1 would    
have his belief in the operation of such
 a ,mind1 shaken1 by any necessity which
 might be impressed upon him1 of        
granting the existence of animal life on
 other planets1 as well as on the earth1
 or even on innumerable such planets1   
and on innumerable systems of planets   
and worlds1 system above system4  #e4   
,the remark of ,chalmers1 therefore1 to 
which ,i have referred1 striking as it  
is1 does not appear to bear directly    
upon a difficulty of any great force4   
,if astronomy gives birth to scruples   
which interfere with religion1 they must

 be found in some other quarter than in 
the possibility of mere animal life     
existing in other parts of the          
,universe1 as well as on our earth4     
,that possibility may require us to     
enlarge our idea of the ,deity1 but it  
has little or no tendency to disturb our
 apprehension of his attributes4        
,,chapter ,,iv4  ,,further ,,statement  
,,of ,,the ,,difficulty4   #a4 ,we have 
attempted to show that if the           
discoveries made by the ,telescope      
should excite in any one's mind1        
difficulties respecting those doctrines 
of ,natural ,religion1--the adequacy of 
the ,creator to the support and         
guardianship of all the animal life     
which may exist in the universe1--the   
discoveries of the ,microscope may      
remove such difficulties2 but we have   
remarked also1 that the train of thought
 which leads men to dwell upon such     
difficulties does not seem to be common4
  ,but what will be the train of thought
 to which we shall be led1 if we suppose

 that there are1 on other planets1 and  
in other systems1 not animals only1     
living things1 which1 however different 
from the animals of this earth1 are yet 
in some way analogous to them1 according
 to the difference of circumstances2 but
 also creatures analogous to            
man2--intellectual creatures1 living1 we
 must suppose1 under a moral law1       
responsible for transgression1 the      
subjects of a ,providential ,government8
 ,if we suppose that1 in the other      
planets of our solar systems1 and of    
other systems1 there are creatures of   
such a kind1 and under such conditions  
as these1 how far will the religious    
opinions which we had previously        
entertained be disturbed or modified8   
,will any new difficulty be introduced  
into our views of the government of the 
world by such a supposition8  #b4 ,i    
have spoken of man as an ,intellectual  
,creature2 meaning thereby that he has a
 ,mind2--powers of thought1 by which he 
can contemplate the relations and       

properties of things in a general and   
abstract form2 and among other          
relations1 moral relations1 the         
distinction of right and wrong in his   
actions4 ,those powers of thought lead  
him to think of a ,creator and ,ordainer
 of all things2 and his perception of   
right and wrong leads him to regard this
 ,creator as also the ,governor and     
,judge of his creatures4 ,the operation 
of his mind directs him to believe in a 
,supreme ,mind3 his moral nature directs
 him to believe that the course of human
 affairs1 and the condition of men1 both
 as individuals and as bodies1 is       
determined by the providential          
government of ,god4  #c4 ,with regard to
 the bearing of a merely intellectual   
nature on such questions1 it does not   
appear that any considerable difficulty 
would be at once occasioned in our      
religious views1 by supposing such a    
nature to belong to other creatures1 the
 inhabitants of other planets1 as well  
as to man4 ,the existence of our own    

minds directs us1 as ,i have said1 to a 
,supreme ,mind2 and the nature of ,mind 
is conceived to be1 in all its          
manifestations1 so much the same1 that  
we can conceive minds to be multiplied  
indefinitely1 without fear of confusion1
 interference1 or exhaustion4 ,there may
 be1 in ,jupiter1 creatures endowed with
 an intellect which enables them to     
discover and demonstrate the relations  
of space2 and if so1 they cannot have   
discovered and demonstrated anything of 
that kind as true1 which is not true for
 us also3 their ,geometry must coincide 
with ours1 as far as each goes3--thus   
showing how absurdly1 as ,plato long ago
 observed1 we give to the science which 
deals with the relations of space1 a    
name 7geometry71 borrowed from the art  
of measuring the earth4 ,the earth with 
its properties is no more the special   
basis of geometry1 than are ,jupiter or 
,saturn1 or1 so far as we can judge1    
,sirius or ,arcturus and their systems1 
with their properties4 ,wherever pure   

intellect is1 we are compelled to       
conceive that1 when employed upon the   
same objects1 its results and           
conclusions are the same4 ,if there be  
intelligent inhabitants of the ,moon1   
they may1 like us1 have employed their  
intelligence in reasoning upon the      
properties of lines and angles and      
triangles2 and must1 so far as they have
 gone1 have arrived1 in their thoughts1 
at the same properties of lines and     
angles and triangles1 at which we have  
arrived4 ,they must1 like us1 have had  
to distinguish between right angles and 
oblique angles4 ,they may have come to  
know1 as some of the inhabitants of the 
earth came to know1 four thousand years 
ago1 that1 in a right-angled triangle1  
the square on the larger side is equal  
to the sum of the squares on the other  
two sides4 ,we can conceive occurrences 
which would give us evidence that the   
,moon1 as well as the ,earth1 contains  
geometers4 ,if we were to see1 on the   
face of the full moon1 a figure         

gradually becoming visible1 representing
 a right-angled triangle with a square  
constructed on each of its three sides  
as a base2 we should regard it as the   
work of intelligent creatures there1 who
 might be thus making a signal to the   
inhabitants of the earth1 that they     
possessed such knowledge1 and were      
desirous of making known to their       
nearest neighbors in the solar system1  
their existence and their speculations4 
,in such an event1 curious and striking 
as it would be1 we should see nothing   
but what we could understand and accept1
 without unsettling our belief in the   
,supreme and ,divine ,intelligence4 ,on 
the contrary1 we could hardly fail to   
receive such a manifestation as a fresh 
evidence that the ,divine ,mind had     
imparted to the inhabitants of the      
,moon1 as he has to us1 a power of      
apprehending1 in a very general and     
abstract form1 the relations of that    
space in which he performs his works4   
,we should judge1 that having been led  

so far in their speculations1 they must1
 in all probability1 have been led also 
to a conception of the ,universe1 as the
 field of action of a universal and     
,divine ,mind2 that having thus become  
geometers1 they must have ascended to   
the ,idea of a ,god who works by        
geometry4  #d4 ,but yet1 by such a      
supposition1 on further consideration1  
we find ourselves introduced to views   
entirely different from those to which  
we are led by the supposition of mere   
animal life1 existing in other worlds   
than the earth4 ,for1 not to dwell here 
upon any speculations as to how far the 
operations of our minds may resemble the
 operations of the ,divine ,mind2--a    
subject which we shall hereafter        
endeavor to discuss2--we know that the  
advance to such truths as those of      
geometry has been1 among the inhabitants
 of the earth1 gradual and progressive4 
,though the human mind have had the same
 powers and faculties1 from the         
beginning of the existence of the race  

up to the present time1 7as we cannot   
but suppose17 the results of the        
exercise of these powers and faculties  
have been very different in different   
ages2 and have gradually grown up1 from 
small beginnings1 to the vast and       
complex body of knowledge concerning the
 scheme and relations of the ,universe1 
which is at present accessible to the   
minds of human speculators4 ,it is1 as  
we have said1 probably about four       
thousand years1 since the first steps in
 such knowledge were made4 ,geometry is 
said to have had its origin in ,egypt2  
but it assumed its abstract and         
speculative character first among the   
,greeks4 ,pythagoras is related to have 
been the first who saw1 in the clear    
light of demonstration1 the property of 
the right-angled triangle1 of which we  
have spoken4 ,the ,greeks1 from the time
 of ,socrates1 stimulated especially by 
,plato1 pursued1 with wonderful success1
 the investigation of this kind of      
truths4 ,they saw that such truths had  

their application in the heavens1 far   
more extensively than on the earth4     
,they were enabled1 by such             
speculations1 to unravel1 in a great    
degree1 the scheme of the universe1     
before so seemingly entangled and       
perplexed4 ,they determined1 to a very  
considerable extent1 the relative       
motions of the planets and of the stars4
 ,and in modern times1 after a long     
interval1 in which such knowledge was   
nearly stationary1 the progress again   
began2 and further advances were        
successively made in man's knowledge of 
the scheme and structure of the visible 
heavens2 till at length the intellect of
 man was led to those views of the      
extent of the ,universe and the nature  
of the stars1 which are the basis of the
 discussions in which we are now        
engaged4 ,and thus man1 having probably 
been1 in the earliest ages of the       
existence of the species1 entirely      
ignorant of abstract truth1 and of the  
relations which1 by the knowledge of    

such truth1 we can trace in nature1 7as 
the barbarous tribes which occupy the   
greater part of the earth's surface     
still are27 has1 by a long series of    
progressive steps1 come into the        
possession of knowledge1 which we cannot
 regard without wonder and admiration2  
and which seems to elevate him in no    
inconsiderable degree1 towards a        
community of thought with that ,divine  
,mind1 into the nature and scheme of    
whose works he is thus permitted to     
penetrate4  #e4 ,now the knowledge which
 man is capable1 by the nature of his   
mental faculties1 of acquiring1 being   
thus blank and rudimentary at first1 and
 only proceeding gradually1 by the steps
 of a progress1 numerous1 slow1 and     
often long interrupted1 to that stage in
 which it is the basis of our present   
speculations2 the view which we have    
just taken1 of the nature of ,intellect1
 as a faculty always of the same kind1  
always uniform in its operations1 always
 consistent in its results1 appears to  

require reconsideration2 and especially 
with reference to the application which 
we made of that view1 to the intelligent
 inhabitants of other planets and other 
worlds1 if such inhabitants there be4   
,for if we suppose that there are1 in   
the ,moon1 or in ,jupiter1 creatures    
possessing intellectual faculties of the
 same kind as those of man2 capable of  
apprehending the same abstract and      
general truths2 able1 like man1 to      
attain to a knowledge of the scheme of  
the ,universe2 yet this supposition     
merely gives the capacity and the       
ability2 and does not include any       
security1 or even high probability1 as  
it would seem1 of the exercise of such  
capacity1 or of the successful          
application of such ability4 ,even if   
the surface of the ,moon be inhabited by
 creatures as intelligent as men1 why   
must we suppose that they know anything 
more of the geometry and astronomy1 than
 the great bulk of the less cultured    
inhabitants of the earth1 who occupy1   

really1 a space far larger than the     
surface of the ,moon2 and1 all          
intelligent though they be1 and in the  
full possession of mental faculties1 are
 yet1 on the subjects of geometry and   
astronomy1 entirely ignorant2--their    
minds1 as to such a knowledge1 a blank8 
,it does not follow1 then1 that even if 
there be such inhabitants in the ,moon1 
or in the ,planets1 they have any       
sympathy with us1 or any community of   
knowledge on the subjects of which we   
are now speaking4 ,the surface of the   
,moon1 or of ,jupiter1 or of ,saturn1   
even if well peopled1 may be peopled    
only with tribes as barbarous and       
ignorant as ,tartars1 or ,esquimaux1 or 
,australians2 and therefore1 by making  
such a supposition1 we do little1 even  
hypothetically1 to extend the dominion  
of that intelligence1 by means of which 
all intelligent beings have some        
community of thought with each other1   
and some suggestion of the working of   
the ,divine and ,universal ,mind4  #f4  

,but1 in fact1 the view which we have   
given of the mode of existence of the   
human species upon the earth1 as being a
 progressive existence1 even in the     
development of the intellectual powers  
and their results1 necessarily fastens  
down our thoughts and our speculations  
to the earth1 and makes us feel how     
visionary and gratuitous it is to assume
 any similar kind of existence in any   
region occupied by other beings than    
man4 ,as we have said1 we have no       
insuperable difficulty in conceiving    
other parts of the ,universe to be      
tenanted by animals4 ,animal life       
implies no progress in the species4     
,such as they are in one century1 such  
are they in another4 ,the conditions of 
their sustentation and generation being 
given1 which no difference of physical  
circumstances can render incredible1 the
 race may1 so far as we can see1 go on  
forever4 ,but a race which makes a      
progress in the development of its      
faculties cannot thus1 or at least      

cannot with the same ease1 be conceived 
as existing through all time1 and under 
all circumstances4 ,progress implies1 or
 at least suggests1 a beginning and an  
end4 ,if the mere existence of a race   
imply a sustaining and preserving power 
in the ,creator1 the progress of a race 
implies a guiding and impelling power2 a
 ,governor and ,director1 as well as a  
,creator and ,preserver4 ,and progress1 
not merely in material conditions1 not  
merely in the exercise of bodily        
faculties1 but in the exercise of mental
 faculties1 in the intellectual         
condition of a portion of the species1  
still more implies a special position   
and character of the race1 which cannot1
 without great license of hypothesis1 be
 extended to other races2 and which1 if 
so extended1 becomes unmeaning1 from the
 impossibility of our knowing what is   
progress in any other species2--from    
what and towards what it tends4 ,the    
intellectual progress of the human      
species has been a progress in the use  

of thought1 and in the knowledge which  
such use procures2 it has been a        
progress from mere matter to mind2 from 
the impressions of sense to ideas2 from 
what in knowledge is casual1 partial1   
temporary1 to what is necessary1        
universal1 and eternal4 ,we can conceive
 no progress1 of the nature of this1    
which is not identical with this2       
nothing like it1 which is not the same4 
,and1 therefore1 if we will people other
 planets with creatures1 intelligent as 
man is intelligent1 we must not only    
give to them the intelligence1 but the  
intellectual history of the human       
species4 ,they must have had their minds
 unfolded by steps similar to those by  
which the human mind has been unfolded2 
or at least1 differing from them only as
 the intellectual history of one nation 
of the earth differs from that of       
another4 ,they must have had their      
,pythagoras1 their ,plato1 their        
,kepler1 their ,galileo1 their ,newton1 
if they know what we know4 ,and thus1 in

 order to conceive1 on the ,moon or on  
,jupiter1 a race of beings intelligent  
like man1 we must conceive1 there1      
colonies of men1 with histories         
resembling more or less the histories of
 human colonies2 and indeed resembling  
the history of those nations whose      
knowledge we inherit1 far more closely  
than the history of any other           
terrestrial nation resembles that part  
of terrestrial history4 ,if we do this1 
we exercise an act of invention and     
imagination which may be as coherent as 
a fairy tale1 but which1 without further
 proof1 must be as purely imaginary and 
arbitrary4 ,but if we do not do this1 we
 cannot conceive that those regions are 
occupied at all by intelligent beings4  
,intelligence1 as we see in the human   
race1 in order to have those characters 
which concern our argument1 implies a   
history of intellectual development2 and
 to assume arbitrarily a history of     
intellectual development for the        
inhabitants of a remote planet1 as a    

ground of reasoning either for or       
against ,religion1 is a proceeding which
 we can hardly be expected either to    
assent to or to refute4 ,if we are to   
form any opinions with regard to the    
condition of such bodies1 and to trace  
any bearing of such opinions upon our   
religious views1 we must proceed upon   
some ground which has more of reality   
than such a gratuitous assumption4  #g4 
,thus the condition of man upon the     
earth1 as a condition of intellectual   
progress1 implies such a special        
guidance and government exercised over  
the race by the ,author of his being1 as
 produces progress2 and we have not1 so 
far as we yet perceive1 any reason for  
supposing that ,he exercises a like     
guidance and government over any of the 
other bodies with which the researches  
of astronomers have made us acquainted4 
,the earth and its inhabitants are under
 the care of ,god in a special manner2  
and we are utterly destitute of any     
reason for believing that other planets 

and other systems are under the care of 
,god in the same manner4 ,if we regarded
 merely the existence of unprogressive  
races of animals upon our globe1 we     
might easily suppose that other globes  
also are similarly tenanted2 and we     
might infer1 that the ,creator and      
,upholder of animal life was active on  
those globes1 in the same manner as upon
 ours4 ,but when we come to a           
progressive creature1 whose condition   
implies a beginning1 and therefore      
suggests an end1 we form a peculiar     
judgment with respect to ,god's care of 
that creature1 which we have not as yet 
seen the slightest grounds to extend to 
other possible fields of existence1     
where we discern no indication of       
progress1 of beginning1 or of end4 ,so  
far as we can judge1 ,god is mindful of 
man1 and has launched and guided his    
course in a certain path which makes his
 lot and state different from that of   
all other creatures4  #h4 ,now when we  
have arrived at this result1 we have1 ,i

 conceive1 reached one of the points at 
which the difficulties which            
astronomical discovery puts in the way  
of religious conviction begin to appear4
 ,the ,earth and its human inhabitants  
are1 as far as we yet know1 in an       
especial manner the subjects of ,god's  
care and government1 for the race is    
progressive4 ,now can this be8 ,is it   
not difficult to believe that it is so8 
,the earth1 so small a speck1 only one  
among so many1 so many thousands1 so    
many millions of other bodies1 all1     
probably1 of the same nature with       
itself1 wherefore should it draw to it  
the special regards of the ,creator of  
all1 and occupy his care in an especial 
manner8 ,the teaching of the history of 
the human race1 as intellectually       
progressive1 agrees with the teaching of
 ,religion1 in impressing upon us that  
,god is mindful of man2 that he does    
regard him2 but still1 there naturally  
arises in our minds a feeling of        
perplexity and bewilderment1 which      

expresses itself in the words already so
 often quoted1 ,what is man1 that this  
should be so8 ,can it be true that this 
province is thus singled out for a      
special and peculiar administration by  
the ,lord of the ,universal ,empire8    
#i4 ,before ,i make any attempt to      
answer these questions1 ,i must pursue  
the difficulty somewhat further1 and    
look at it in other forms4 ,as ,i have  
said1 the history of ,man has been1 in  
certain nations1 a history of           
intellectual progress1 from the earliest
 times up to our own day4 ,but          
intellectual progress has been1 as ,i   
have also said1 in a great measure      
confined to certain nations thus        
especially favored4 ,the greater part of
 the earth's inhabitants have shared    
very scantily in that wealth of         
knowledge to which the brightest and    
happiest intellects among men have thus 
been led4 ,but though the bulk of       
mankind have thus had little share in   
the grand treasures of science which are

 open to the race1 their life has still 
been very different from that of other  
animals4 ,many nations1 though they may 
not have been conspicuous in the history
 of intellectual progress1 have yet not 
been without their place in progress of 
other kinds--in arts1 in arms1 and1     
above all1 in morals--in the recognition
 of the distinction of right and wrong  
in human actions1 and in the practical  
application of this distinction4 ,such a
 progress as this has been far more     
extensively aimed at1 than a progress in
 abstract and general knowledge2 and1 we
 may venture to say1 has been1 in many  
nations and in a very great measure1    
really effected4 ,no doubt the          
imperfection of this progress1 and the  
constant recurrence of events which     
appear to counteract and reverse it1 are
 so obvious and so common as to fill    
with grief and indignation the minds of 
those who regard such a progress as the 
great business of the human race2 but   
yet still1 looking at the whole history 

of the human race1 the progress is      
visible2 and even the grief and the     
indignation of which we have spoken are 
a part of its evidences4 ,there has     
been1 upon the whole1 a moral government
 of the human race4 ,the moral law1 the 
distinction of right and wrong1 has been
 established in every nation2 and       
penalties have been established for     
wrong-doing4 ,the notion of right and   
wrong has been extended1 from mere      
outward acts1 to the springs of action1 
to affection1 desire1 and will4 ,the    
course of human affairs has generally   
been such1 that the just1 the truthful1 
the kind1 the chaste1 the orderly       
portion of mankind have been happier    
than the violent and wicked4 ,external  
wrong has been commonly punished by the 
act of human society4 ,internal sins1   
impure and dishonest designs1 falsehood1
 cruelty1 have very often led to their  
own punishment1 by their effect upon the
 guilty mind itself4 ,we do not say that
 the moral government which has         

prevailed among men has been such1 that 
we can consider it complete and final in
 its visible form4 ,we see that the     
aspect of things is much the contrary2  
and we think we see reasons why it may  
be expected to be so4 ,but still1 there 
has existed upon earth a moral          
government of the human race1 exercised1
 as we must needs hold1 by the ,creator 
of man2 partly through the direct       
operation of man's faculties1           
affections1 and emotions2 and partly    
through the authorities which1 in all   
ages and nations1 the nature of man has 
led him to establish4 ,now this moral   
progress and moral government of the    
human race is one of the leading facts  
on which ,natural ,religion is founded4 
,we are thus led to regard ,god as the  
,moral ,governor of man2 not only his   
,creator and ,preserver1 but his        
,lawgiver and his ,judge4 ,and the      
grounds on which we entertain this      
belief are peculiarly the human         
faculties of man1 and their operation in

 history and in society4 ,the belief is 
derived from the whole complex nature of
 man--the working of his ,affections1   
,desires1 ,convictions1 ,reason1        
,conscience1 and whatever else enters   
into the production of human action and 
its consequences4 ,god is seen to be the
 ,moral ,governor of man by evidence    
which is especially derived from the    
character of ,man1 and which we could   
not attempt to apply to any other       
creature than man without making our    
words altogether unmeaning4 ,but would  
it not be too bold an assumption to     
speak of the ,conscience of an          
inhabitant of ,jupiter8 ,would it not be
 a rash philosophy to assume the        
operation of ,remorse or ,self-approval 
on the planet1 in order that we may     
extend to it the moral government of    
,god8 ,except we can point out something
 more solid than this to reason from1 on
 such subjects1 there is no use in our  
attempting to reason at all4 ,our       
doctrines must be mere results of       

invention and imagination4 ,here then1  
again1 we are brought to the conviction 
that ,god is1 so far as we yet see1 in  
an especial and peculiar manner1 the    
,governor of the earth and of its human 
inhabitants1 in such a way that the like
 government cannot be conceived to be   
extended to other planets1 and other    
systems1 without arbitrary and fanciful 
assumptions2 assumptions either of      
unintelligible differences with         
incomprehensible results1 or of beings  
in all respects human1 inhabiting the   
most remote regions of the universe4    
,and here1 again1 therefore1 we are led 
to the same difficulty which we have    
already encountered3 ,can the earth1 a  
small globe among so many millions1 have
 been selected as the scene of this     
especially ,divine ,government8  #aj4   
,that when we attempt to extend our     
sympathies to the inhabitants of other  
planets and other worlds1 and to regard 
them as living1 like us1 under a moral  
government1 we are driven to suppose    

them to be1 in all essential respects1  
human beings like ourselves1 we have    
proof1 in all the attempts which have   
been made1 with whatever license of     
hypothesis and fancy1 to present to us  
descriptions and representations of the 
inhabitants of other parts of the       
universe4 ,such representations1 though 
purposely made as unlike human beings as
 the imagination of man can frame them1 
still are merely combinations1 slightly 
varied1 of the elements of human being2 
and thus show us that not only our      
reason1 but even our imagination1 cannot
 conceive creatures subjected to the    
same government to which man is         
subjected1 without conceiving them as   
being men of one kind or other4 ,a mere 
animal life1 with no interest but animal
 enjoyment1 we may conceive as assuming 
forms different from those which appear 
in existing animal races2 though even   
here1 there are1 as we shall hereafter  
attempt to show1 certain general        
principles which run through all animal 

life4 ,but when in addition to mere     
animal impulses1 we assume or suppose   
moral and intellectual interests1 we    
conceive them as the moral and          
intellectual interests of man4 ,truth   
and falsehood1 right and wrong1 law and 
transgression1 happiness and misery1    
reward and punishment1 are the necessary
 elements of all that can interest      
us--of all that we can call ,government4
 ,to transfer these to ,jupiter or to   
,sirius1 is merely to imagine those     
bodies to be a sort of island of        
,formosa1 or new ,atlantis1 or ,utopia1 
or ,platonic ,polity1 or something of   
the like kind4 ,the boldest and most    
resolute attempts to devise some life   
different from human life1 have not     
produced anything more different than   
romance-writers and political theorists 
have devised as a form of human life4   
,and this being so1 there is no more    
wisdom or philosophy in believing such  
assemblages of beings to exist in       
,jupiter or ,sirius1 without evidence1  

than in believing them to exist in the  
island of ,formosa1 with the like       
absence of evidence4  #aa4 ,any         
examination of what has been written on 
this subject would show that1 in        
speculating about moral and intellectual
 beings in other regions of the         
universe1 we merely make them to be men 
in another place4 ,with regard to the   
plants and animals of other planets1    
fancy has freer play2 but man cannot    
conceive any moral creature who is not  
man4 ,thus ,fontenelle1 in his          
,dialogues on the ,plurality of ,worlds1
 makes the inhabitants of ,venus        
possess1 in an exaggerated degree1 the  
characteristics of the men of the warm  
climates of the earth4 ,they are like   
the ,moors of ,grenada2 or rather1 the  
,moors of ,grenada would be to them as  
cold as ,greenlanders and ,laplanders to
 us4 ,and the inhabitants of ,mercury   
have so much vivacity1 that they would  
pass with us for insane4 ,enfin c'est   
dans ,mercure que sont les              

,petites-,maisons de l',univers4 ,the   
inhabitants of ,jupiter and ,saturn are 
immensely slow and phlegmatic4 ,and     
though he and other writers attempt to  
make these inhabitants of remote regions
 in some respects superior to man1      
telling us that instead of only five    
senses1 they may have six1 or ten1 or a 
hundred1 still these are mere words     
which convey no meaning2 and the great  
astronomer ,bessel had reason to say1   
that those who imagined inhabitants in  
the ,moon and ,planets1 supposed them1  
in spite of all their protestations1 as 
like to men as one egg to another4#a    
#ab4 ,but there is one step more1 which 
we still have to make1 in order to bring
 out this difficulty in its full force4 
,as we have said1 the moral law has     
been1 to a certain extent1 established1 
developed1 and enforced among men4 ,but1
 as ,i have also said1 looking carefully
 at the law1 and at the degree of man's 
obedience to it1 and at the operation of
 the sanctions by which it is supported1

 we cannot help seeing1 that man's      
knowledge of the law is imperfect1 his  
conviction of its authority feeble1 his 
transgressions habitual1 their          
punishment and consequences obscure4    
,when1 therefore1 we regard ,god1 as the
 ,lawgiver and ,judge of man1 it will   
not appear strange to us1 that he should
 have taken some mode of promulgating   
his ,law1 and announcing his ,judgments1
 in addition to that ordinary operation 
of the faculties of man1 of which we    
have spoken4 ,revealed ,religion teaches
 us that he has done so3 that from the  
first placing of the race of man upon   
the earth1 it was his purpose to do so3 
that by his dealing with the race of man
 in the earlier times1 and at various   
intervals1 he made preparation for the  
mission of a special ,messenger1 whom1  
in the fulness of time1 he sent upon the
 earth in the form of a man2 and who    
both taught men the ,law of ,god in a   
purer and clearer form than any in which
 it had yet been given2 and revealed    

,his purpose1 of rewards for obedience1 
and punishments for disobedience1 to be 
executed in a state of being to which   
this human life is only an introduction2
 and established the means by which the 
spirit of man1 when alienated from ,god 
by transgression1 may be again          
reconciled to ,him4 ,the arrival of this
 especial ,messenger of ,holiness1      
,judgment1 and ,redemption1 forms the   
great event in the history of the earth1
 considered in a religious view1 as the 
abode of ,god's servants4 ,it was       
attended with the sufferings and cruel  
death of the ,divine ,messenger thus    
sent2 was preceded by prophetic         
announcements of his coming2 and the    
history of the world1 for the two       
thousand years that have since elapsed1 
has been in a great measure occupied    
with the consequences of that advent4   
,such a proceeding shows1 of course1    
that ,god has an especial care for the  
race of man4 ,the earth1 thus selected  
as the theatre of such a scheme of      

,teaching and of ,redemption1 cannot1 in
 the eyes of any one who accepts this   
,christian faith1 be regarded as being  
on a level with any other domiciles4 ,it
 is the ,stage of the great ,drama of   
,god's ,mercy and ,man's ,salvation2 the
 ,sanctuary of the ,universe2 the ,holy 
,land of ,creation2 the ,royal ,abode1  
for a time at least1 of the ,eternal    
,king4 ,this being the character which  
has thus been conferred upon it1 how can
 we assent to the assertions of         
,astronomers1 when they tell us that it 
is only one among millions of similar   
habitations1 not distinguishable from   
them1 except that it is smaller than    
most of them that we can measure2       
confused and rude in its materials like 
them8 ,or if we believe the             
,astronomers1 will not such a belief    
lead us to doubt the truth of the great 
scheme of ,christianity1 which thus     
makes the earth the scene of a special  
dispensation4  #ac4 ,this is the form in
 which ,chalmers has taken up the       

argument4 ,this is the difficulty which 
he proposes to solve2 or rather1 7such  
being as ,i have said the mode in which 
he presents the subject17 the objection 
which he proposes to refute4 ,it is the 
bearing of the ,astronomical discoveries
 of modern times1 not upon the doctrines
 of ,natural ,religion1 but upon the    
scheme of ,christianity1 which he       
discusses4 ,and the question which he   
supposes his opponent to propound1 as an
 objection to the ,christian scheme1    
is3--,how is it consistent with the     
dignity1 the impartiality1 the          
comprehensiveness1 the analogy of ,god's
 proceedings1 that he should make so    
special and pre-eminent a provision for 
the salvation of the inhabitants of this
 ,earth1 where there are such myriads of
 other worlds1 all of which may require 
the like provision1 and all of which    
have an equal claim to their ,creator's 
care8  #ad4 ,the answer which ,chalmers 
gives to this objection1 is one drawn1  
in the first instance1 from our         

ignorance4 ,he urges that1 when the     
objector asserts that other worlds may  
have the like need with our own1 of a   
special provision for the rescue of     
their inhabitants from the consequences 
of the transgression of ,god's laws1 he 
is really making an assertion without   
the slightest foundation4 ,not only does
 ,science not give us any information on
 such subjects1 but the whole spirit of 
the scientific procedure1 which has led 
to the knowledge which we possess1      
concerning other planets and other      
systems1 is utterly opposed to our      
making such assumptions1 respecting     
other worlds1 as the objection involves4
 ,modern ,science1 in proportion as she 
is confident when she has good grounds  
of proof1 however strange may be the    
doctrines proved1 is not only diffident1
 but is utterly silent1 and abstains    
even from guessing1 when she has no     
grounds of proof4 ,chalmers takes       
,newton's reasoning1 as offering a      
special example of this mixed temper1 of

 courage in following the evidence1 and 
temperance in not advancing when there  
is no evidence4 ,he puts1 in opposition 
to this1 the example of the true        
philosophical temper1--a supposed rash  
theorist1 who should make unwarranted   
suppositions and assumptions1 concerning
 matters to which our scientific        
evidence does not reach2--the animals   
and plants1 for instance1 which are to  
be found in the planet ,jupiter4 ,no    
one1 he says1 would more utterly reject 
and condemn such speculations than      
,newton1 who first rightly explained the
 motion of ,jupiter and of his attendant
 satellites1 about which ,science can   
pronounce her truths4 ,and thus1 nothing
 can be more opposite to the real spirit
 of modern science1 and astronomy in    
particular1 than arguments1 such as we  
have stated1 professing to be drawn from
 science and from astronomy4 ,since we  
know nothing about the inhabitants of   
,jupiter1 true science requires that we 
say and suppose nothing about them2     

still more requires that we should not1 
on the ground of assumptions made with  
regard to them1 and other supposed      
groups of living creatures1 reject a    
belief1 founded on direct and positive  
proofs1 such as is the belief in the    
truths of ,natural and of ,revealed     
,religion4  #ae4 ,to this argument of   
,chalmers1 we may not only give our full
 assent1 but we may venture to suggest1 
in accordance with what we have already 
said1 that the argument1 when so put1 is
 not stated in all its legitimate force4
 ,the assertion that the inhabitants of 
,jupiter have the same need as we have1 
of a special dispensation for their     
preservation from moral ruin1 is not    
only as merely arbitrary an assumption1 
as any assertion could be1 founded on a 
supposed knowledge of an analogy between
 the botany of ,jupiter1 and the botany 
of the earth2 but it is a great deal    
more so4 ,there may be circumstances    
which may afford some reason to believe 
that something of the nature of         

vegetables grows on the surface of      
,jupiter2 for instance1 if we find that 
he is a solid globe surrounded by an    
atmosphere1 vapor1 clouds1 showers4     
,but1 as we have already said1 there is 
an immeasurable distance between the    
existence of unprogressive tribes of    
organized creatures1 plants1 or even    
animals1 and the existence of a         
progressive creature1 which can pass    
through the conditions of receiving1    
discerning1 disobeying1 and obeying a   
moral law2 which can be estranged from  
,god1 and then reconciled to him4 ,to   
assume1 without further proof1 that     
there are1 in ,jupiter1 creatures of    
such a nature that these descriptions   
apply to them1 is a far bolder and more 
unphilosophical assumption1 than any    
that the objector could make concerning 
the botany of ,jupiter2 and therefore1  
the objection thus supposed to be drawn 
from our supposed knowledge1 is very    
properly answered by an appeal to our   
really utter ignorance1 as to the points

 on which the argument rests4  #af4     
,this appeal to our ignorance is the    
main feature in ,chalmers' reasonings1  
so far as the argument on the one side  
or the other has reference to science4  
,chalmers1 indeed1 pursues the argument 
into other fields of speculation4 ,he   
urges1 that not only we have no right to
 assume that other worlds require a     
redemption of the same kind as that     
provided for man1 but that the very     
reverse maybe the case4 ,man maybe the  
only transgressor2 and this1 the only   
world that needed so great a provision  
for its salvation4 ,we read in          
,scripture1 expressions which imply that
 other beings1 besides man1 take an     
interest in the salvation of man4 ,may  
not this be true of the inhabitants of  
other worlds1 if such inhabitants there 
be8 ,these speculations he pursues to a 
considerable length1 with great richness
 of imagination1 and great eloquence4   
,but the suppositions on which they     
proceed are too loosely connected with  

the results of science1 to make it safe 
for us to dwell upon them here4  #ag4 ,i
 conceive1 as ,i have said1 that the    
argument with which ,chalmers thus deals
 admits of answers1 also drawn from     
modern science1 which to many persons   
will seem more complete than that which 
is thus drawn from our ignorance4 ,but  
before ,i proceed to bring forward these
 answers1 which will require several    
steps of explanation1 ,i have one or two
 remarks still to make4  #ah4           
,undoubtedly they who believe firmly    
both that the earth has been the scene  
of a ,divine ,plan for the benefit of   
man1 and also that other bodies in the  
universe are inhabited by creatures who 
may have an interest in such a ,plan1   
are naturally led to conjectures and    
imaginations as to the nature and extent
 of that interest4 ,the religious poet1 
in his ,night ,thoughts1 interrogates   
the inhabitants of a distant star1      
whether their race too has1 in its      
history1 events resembling the fall of  

man1 and the redemption of man4         
,enjoy your happy realms their golden   
age8     ,and had your ,eden an         
abstemious ,eve8     ,or1 if your mother
 fell are you redeemed8     ,and if     
redeemed1 is your ,redeemer scorned8    
,and such imaginations may be readily   
allowed to the preacher or the poet1 to 
be employed in order to impress upon man
 the conviction of his privileges1 his  
thanklessness1 his inconsistency1 and   
the like4 ,but every form in which such 
reflections can be put shows how        
intimately they depend upon the nature  
and history of man4 ,and when such      
reflections are made the source of      
difficulty or objection in the way of   
religious thought1 and when these       
difficulties and objections are         
represented as derived from astronomical
 discoveries1 it cannot be superfluous  
to inquire whether astronomy has really 
discovered any ground for such          
objections4 ,to some persons it may be  
more grateful to remedy one assumption  

by another3 the assumption of moral     
agents in other worlds1 by the          
assumption of some operation of the     
,divine ,plan in other worlds4 ,but     
since many persons find great difficulty
 in conceiving such an operation of the 
,divine ,plan in a satisfactory way2 and
 many persons also think that to make   
such unauthorized and fanciful          
assumptions with regard to the ,divine  
,plans for the government of ,god's     
creatures is a violation of the         
humility1 submission of mind1 and spirit
 of reverence which religion requires2  
it may be useful if we can show that    
such assumptions1 with regard to the    
,divine ,plans1 are called forth by     
assumptions equally gratuitous on the   
other side3 that ,astronomy no more     
reveals to us extra-terrestrial moral   
agents1 than ,religion reveals to us    
extra-terrestrial ,plans of ,divine     
government4 ,chalmers has spoken of the 
rashness of making assumptions on such  
subjects without proof2 leaving it      

however1 to be supposed1 that though    
astronomy does not supply proof of      
intelligent inhabitants of other parts  
of the universe1 she yet does offer     
strong analogies in favor of such an    
opinion4 ,but such a procedure is more  
than rash3 when astronomical doctrines  
are presented in the form in which they 
have been already laid before the       
reader1 which is the ordinary and       
popular mode of apprehending them1 the  
analogies in favor of other worlds1 are 
7to say the least7 greatly exaggerated4 
,and by taking into account what        
astronomy really teaches us1 and what we
 learn also from other sciences1 ,i     
shall attempt to reduce such analogies  
to their true value4  #ad4 ,the         
privileges of man1 which make the       
difficulty in assigning him his place in
 the vast scheme of the ,universe1 we   
have described as consisting in his     
being an intellectual1 moral1 and       
religious creature4 ,perhaps the        
privileges implied in the last term1 and

 their place in our argument1 may       
justify a word more of explanation4     
,religion teaches us that there is      
opened to man1 not only a prospect of a 
life in the presence of ,god1 after this
 mortal life1 but also the possibility  
and the duty of spending this life as in
 the presence of ,god4 ,this is properly
 the highest result and manifestation of
 the effect of ,religion upon man4      
,precisely because it is this1 it is    
difficult to speak of this effect       
without seeming to use the language of  
enthusiasm2 and yet again1 precisely    
because it is so1 our argument would be 
incomplete without a reference to it4   
,there is for man1 a possibility and a  
duty of bringing his thoughts1 purposes1
 and affections more and more into      
continual unison with the will of ,god4 
,this1 even ,natural ,religion taught   
men1 was the highest point at which man 
could aim2 and ,revealed ,religion has  
still more clearly enjoined the duty of 
aiming at such a condition4 ,the means  

of a progress towards such a state      
belong to the ,religion of the heart and
 mind4 ,they include a constant         
purification and elevation of the       
thoughts1 affections1 and will1 wrought 
by habits of religious reflection and   
meditation1 of prayer and gratitude to  
,god4 ,without entering into further    
explanation1 all religious persons will 
agree that such a progress is1 under    
happy influences1 possible for man1 and 
is the highest condition to which he can
 attain in this life4 ,whatever names   
may have been applied at different times
 to the steps of such a progress2--the  
cultivation of the divine nature in us2 
resignation2 devotion2 holiness2 union  
with ,god2 living in ,god1 and with ,god
 in us2--religious persons will not     
doubt that there is a reality of        
internal state corresponding to these   
expressions2 and that1 to be capable of 
elevation into the condition which these
 expressions indicate1 is one of the    
especial privileges of man4 ,man's soul1

 considered especially as the subject of
 ,god's government1 is often called his 
,spirit2 and that man is capable of such
 conformity to the will of ,god1 and    
approximation to ,him1 is sometimes     
expressed by speaking of him as a       
spiritual creature4 ,and though the     
privilege of being1 or of being capable 
of becoming1 in this sense1 a spiritual 
creature1 is a part of man's religious  
privileges2 we may sometimes be allowed 
to use this additional expression1 in   
order to remind the reader1 how great   
those religious privileges are1 and how 
close is the relation between man and   
,god1 which they imply4  #ae4 ,we have  
given a view of the peculiar character  
of man's condition1 which seem to claim 
for him a nature and place unique and   
incapable of repetition1 in the scheme  
of the universe2 and to this view       
astronomy1 exhibiting to us the         
habitation of man as only one among many
 similar abodes1 offers an objection4   
,we are1 therefore1 now called upon1 ,i 

conceive1 to proceed to exhibit the     
answer which a somewhat different view  
of modern science suggests to this      
difficulty or objection4  ,for this     
purpose1 we must begin by regarding the 
,earth in another point of view1        
different from that hitherto considered 
by us4  ,,footnotes3  #a ,populaere     
,vorlesungen ueber ,wissenschaftliche   
,gegenstaende1 p4 #ca4     ,,chapter ,v4
  ,,geology4   #a4 ,man1 as ,i trust has
 been made apparent to the consciousness
 and conviction of the reader1 is an    
intelligent1 moral1 religious1 and      
spiritual creature2 and we have to      
discuss the difficulty1 or perplexity1  
or objection1 which arises in our minds1
 when we consider such a creature as    
occupying an habitation1 which is but   
one among many globes apparently equally
 fitted to be the dwelling-places of    
living things--a mere speck in the      
immensity of creation--an atom among    
such a vast array of material           
structures--a world1 as we needs must   

deem it1 among millions of other objects
 which appear to have an equal claim to 
be regarded as worlds4  #b4 ,the        
difficulty appears to be great1 either  
way4 ,can the earth alone be the theatre
 of such intelligent1 moral1 religious1 
and spiritual action8 ,on the other     
hand1 can we conceive such action to go 
on in the other bodies of the universe8 
,if we take the latter alternative1 we  
must people other planets and other     
systems with men such as we are1 even as
 to their history4 ,for the intellectual
 and moral condition of man implies a   
history of the species2 and the view of 
man's condition which religion presents1
 not only involves a scheme of which the
 history of the human race is a part1   
but also asserts a peculiar reference   
had1 in the provisions of ,god1 to the  
nature of man2 and even a peculiar      
relation and connection between the     
human and the divine nature4 ,to extend 
such suppositions to other worlds would 
be a proceeding so arbitrary and        

fanciful1 that we are led to consider   
whether the alternative supposition may 
not be more admissible4 ,the alternative
 supposition is1 that man is1 in an     
especial and eminent manner1 the object 
of ,god's care2 that his place in the   
creation is1 not that he merely occupies
 one among millions of similar domiciles
 provided in boundless profusion by the 
,creator of the ,universe1 but that he  
is the servant1 subject1 and child of   
,god1 in a way unique and peculiar2 that
 his being a spiritual creature1        
7including his other attributes in the  
highest for the sake of brevity17 makes 
him belong to a spiritual world1 which  
is not to be judged of merely by        
analogies belonging to the material     
universe4  #c4 ,between these two       
difficulties the choice is embarrassing1
 and the decision must be               
unsatisfactory1 except we can find some 
further ground of judgment4 ,but perhaps
 this is not hopeless4 ,we have hitherto
 referred to the evidence and analogies 

supplied by one science1 namely1        
astronomy4 ,but there are other sciences
 which give us information concerning   
the nature and history of the earth4    
,from some of these1 perhaps1 we may    
obtain some knowledge of the place of   
the earth in the scheme of creation--how
 far it is1 in its present condition1 a 
thing unique1 or only one thing among   
many like it4 ,any science which        
supplies us with evidence or information
 on this head1 will give us aid in      
forming a judgment upon the question    
under our consideration4 ,to such       
sciences1 then1 we will turn our        
attention4  ,one science has employed   
itself in investigating the nature and  
history of the earth by an examination  
of the materials of which it is         
composed2 namely1 ,geology4 ,let us call
 to mind some of the results at which   
this science has arrived4  #d4 ,a very  
little attention to what is going on    
among the materials of which the earth's
 surface is composed1 suffices to show  

us that there are causes of change      
constantly and effectually at work4 ,the
 earth's surface is composed of land and
 water1 hills and valleys1 rocks and    
rivers4 ,but these features undergo     
change1 and produce change in each      
other4 ,the mountain-rivers cut deeper  
and deeper into the ravines in which    
they run2 they break up the rocks over  
which they rush1 use the fragments as   
implements of further destruction1 pile 
them up in sloping mounds where the     
streams issue from the mountains1 spread
 them over the plains1 fill up lakes    
with sediment1 push into the sea great  
deltas4 ,the sea batters the cliffs and 
eats away the land1 and again1 forms    
banks and islands where there had been  
deep water4 ,volcanoes pour out streams 
of lava1 which destroy the vegetation   
over which they flow1 and which again1  
after a series of years1 are themselves 
clothed with vegetation4 ,earthquakes   
throw down tracts of land beneath the   
sea1 and elevate other tracts from the  

bottom of the ocean4 ,these agencies are
 everywhere manifest2 and though at a   
given moment1 at a given spot1 their    
effect may seem to us almost            
imperceptible1 too insignificant to be  
taken account of1 yet in a long course  
of years almost every place has         
undergone considerable changes4 ,rivers 
have altered their courses1 lakes have  
become plains1 coasts have been swept   
away or have become inland districts1   
rich valleys have been ravaged by watery
 or fiery deluges1 the country has in   
some way or other assumed a new face4   
,the present aspect of the earth is in  
some degree different from what it was a
 few thousand years ago4  #e4 ,but yet1 
in truth1 the changes of which we thus  
speak have not been very considerable4  
,the forms of countries1 the lines of   
coasts1 the ranges of mountains1 the    
groups of valleys1 the courses of       
rivers1 are much the same now as they   
were in ancient times4 ,the face of the 
earth1 since man has had any knowledge  

of it1 may have undergone some change1  
but the changeable has borne a small    
proportion to the permanent4 ,changes   
have taken place1 and are taking place1 
but they do not take place rapidly4 ,the
 ancient earth and the modern earth are1
 in all their main physical features1   
identical2 and we must go backwards     
through a considerably larger interval  
than that which carries us back to what 
we usually term antiquity1 before we are
 led1 by the operation of causes now at 
work1 to an aspect of the earth's       
surface very different from that which  
it now presents4  #f4 ,for instance1    
rivers do1 no doubt1 more or less alter1
 in the course of years1 by natural     
causes4 ,the ,rhine1 the ,rhone1 the    
,po1 the ,danube1 have1 certainly1      
during the last four thousand years1    
silted up their beds in level places1   
expanded the deltas at their mouths1    
changed the channels by which they enter
 the sea2 and very probably1 in their   
upper parts1 altered the forms of their 

waterfalls and of their shingle beds4   
,yet even if we were thus to go         
backwards ten thousand1 or twenty1 or   
thirty thousand years1 7setting aside   
great and violent causes of change1 as  
earthquakes1 volcanic eruptions1 and the
 like17 the general form and course of  
these rivers1 and of the ranges of      
mountains in which they flow1 would not 
be different from what it is now4 ,and  
the same may be said of coasts and      
islands1 seas and bays4 ,the present    
geography of the earth may be1 and from 
all the evidence which we have1 must be1
 very ancient1 according to any measures
 of antiquity which can apply to human  
affairs4  #g4 ,but yet the further      
examination of the materials of the     
earth carries us to a view beyond this4 
,though the general forms of the land   
and the waters of continents and seas1  
were1 several thousand years ago1 much  
the same as they now are2 yet it was not
 always so4 ,we have clear evidence that
 large tracts which are now dry ground1 

were formerly the bed of the ocean2 and 
these1 not tracts of the shore1 where   
the varying warfare of sea and land is  
still going on1 but the very central    
parts of great continents2 the ,alps1   
the ,pyrenees1 the ,himalayas4 ,for not 
only are the rocks of which these great 
mountain-chains consist1 of such        
structure that they appear to have been 
formed as layers of sediment at the     
bottom of water2 but also1 these layers 
contain vast accumulations of shells1 or
 impressions of shells1 and other       
remains of marine animals4 ,and these   
appearances are not few1 limited1 or    
partial4 ,the existence of such marine  
remains1 in the solid substance of      
continents and mountains1 is a general1 
predominant1 and almost universal fact1 
in every part of the earth4 ,nor is any 
other way of accounting for this fact   
admissible1 than that those materials   
really have1 at some time1 formed       
bottoms of seas4 ,the various other     
conjectures and hypotheses1 which were  

put forward on this subject1 when the   
amount1 extent1 multiplicity1 and       
coherence of the phenomena were not yet 
ascertained1 and when their natural     
history was not yet studied1 cannot now 
be considered as worthy of the smallest 
regard4 ,that many of our highest hills 
are formed of materials raised from the 
depths of ocean1 is a proposition which 
cannot be doubted1 by any one1 who      
fairly examines the evidence which      
nature offers4  #h4 ,if we take this    
proposition only1 we cannot immediately 
connect it with our knowledge respecting
 the surface of the earth in its present
 form4 ,we learn that what is now land1 
has been sea2 and we may suppose 7since 
it is natural to assume that the bulk of
 the sea has not much changed7 that what
 is now sea was formerly land4 ,but1    
except we can learn something of the    
manner in which this change took place1 
we cannot make any use of our knowledge4
 ,was the change sudden1 or gradual2    
abrupt1 or successive2 brief1 or        

long-continuing8  #i4 ,to these         
questions1 the further study of the     
facts enables us to return answers with 
great confidence4 ,the change or changes
 which produced the effects of which we 
have spoken--the conversion of the      
bottom of the ocean into the centre of  
our greatest continents and highest     
mountains1--were undoubtedly gradual1   
successive1 and long continued4 ,we must
 state very briefly the grounds on which
 we make this assertion4  #aj4 ,the     
masses which form our mountain-chains1  
offer evidence1 as ,i have said1 that   
they were deposited as sediment at the  
bottom of a sea1 and then hardened4     
,they consist of successive layers of   
such sediment1 making up the whole mass 
of the mountain4 ,these layers are1 of  
course1 to a certain extent1 a measure  
of the time during which the deposition 
of sediment took place4 ,the thicker the
 mass of sediment1 the more numerous and
 varied its beds1 and the longer period 
must we suppose to have been requisite  

for its formation4 ,without making any  
attempt at accurate or definite         
estimation1 which would be to no        
purpose1 it is plain that a mass of     
sedimentary strata five thousand or ten 
thousand feet thick1 must have required1
 for its deposit1 a long course of      
years1 or rather1 a long course of ages4
  #aa4 ,but again3 on further           
examination it is found1 that we have   
not merely one series of sedimentary    
deposits1 thus forming our mountains4   
,there are a number of different series 
of such layers or strata1 to be found in
 different ranges of hills1 and in the  
same range1 one series resting upon     
another4 ,these different series of     
strata are distinguishable from one     
another by their general structure and  
appearance1 besides more intimate       
characters1 of which we shall shortly   
have to speak4 ,each such series appears
 to have a certain consistency of       
structure within itself2 the layers of  
which it is composed being more or less 

parallel1 but the successive series are 
not thus always parallel1 the lower ones
 being often highly inclined and        
irregular1 while the upper ones are more
 level and continuous3 as if the lower  
strata had been broken up and thrown    
into disorder1 and then a new series of 
strata had been deposited horizontally  
on their fragments4 ,but in whatever way
 these different sedimentary series     
succeeded each other1 each series must  
have required1 as we have seen1 a long  
period for its formation2 and to        
estimate the length of the interval     
between the two series1 we have1 at the 
present stage of our exposition1 no     
evidence4  #ab4 ,but the mechanical     
structure of the strata1 the result1 as 
it seems1 of aqueous sedimentary        
deposit1 is not the only1 nor the most  
important evidence1 with regard to the  
length of time occupied by the formation
 of the rocky layers which now compose  
our mountains4 ,as we have said1 they   
contain shells1 and other remains of    

creatures which live in the sea4 ,these 
they contain1 not in small numbers1     
scattered and detached1 but in vast     
abundance1 as they are found in those   
parts of the ocean which is most alive  
with them4 ,there are the remains of    
oysters and other shell-fish in layers1 
as they live at present in the seas near
 our shores2 of corals1 in vast patches 
and beds1 as they now occur in the      
waters of the ,pacific2 of shoals of    
fishes1 of many different kinds1 in     
immense abundance4 ,each of these beds  
of shells1 of corals1 and of fishes1    
must have required many years1 perhaps  
many centuries1 for the growth of the   
successive individuals and successive   
generations of which it consists3 as    
long a time1 perhaps1 as the present    
inhabitants of the sea have lived       
therein3 or many times longer1 if there 
have been many such successive changes4 
,and thus1 while the present condition  
of the earth extends backwards to a     
period of vast but unknown antiquity2 we

 have1 offered to our notice1 the       
evidence of a series of other periods1  
each of which1 so far as we can judge1  
may have been as long or longer than    
that during which the dry land has had  
its present form4  #ac4 ,but the most   
remarkable feature in the evidence is   
yet to come4 ,we have spoken in general 
of the oysters1 and corals1 and fishes1 
which occur in the strata of our hills2 
as if they were creatures of the same   
kinds which we now designate by those   
names4 ,but a more exact examination of 
these remains of organized beings1 shows
 that this is not so4 ,the tribes of    
animals which are found petrified in our
 rocks are almost all different1 so far 
as our best natural historians can      
determine1 from those which now live in 
our existing seas4 ,they are different  
species2 different genera4 ,the         
creatures which we find thus embedded in
 our mountains1 are not only dead as    
individuals1 but extinct as species4    
,they belonged1 not only to a           

terrestrial period1 but to an animal    
creation1 which is now past away4 ,the  
earth is1 it seems1 a domicile which has
 outlasted more than one race of        
tenants4  #ad4 ,it may seem rash and    
presumptuous in the natural historian to
 pronounce thus peremptorily that       
certain forms of life are nowhere to be 
found at present1 even in the           
unfathomable and inaccessible depths of 
the ocean4 ,but even if this were so1   
the proposition that the earth has      
changed its inhabitants1 since the rocks
 were formed1 of which our hills        
consist1 does not depend for its proof  
on this assumption4 ,for in the organic 
bodies which our strata contain1 we find
 remains1 not only of marine animals1   
but of animals which inhabit the fresh  
waters1 and the land1 and of plants4    
,and the examination of such remains    
having been pursued with great zeal1 and
 with all the aids which natural history
 can supply1 the result has been1 the   
proofs of a vast series of different    

tribes of animals and plants1 which have
 successively occupied the earth and the
 seas2 and of which the number1 variety1
 multiplicity1 and strangeness1 exceed1 
by far1 everything which could have been
 previously imagined4 ,thus ,cuvier     
found1 in the limestone strata on which 
,paris stands1 animals of the most      
curious forms1 combining in the most    
wonderful manner the qualities of       
different species of existing           
quadrupeds4 ,in another series of       
strata1 the ,lias1 which runs as a band 
across ,england from ,n4 ,e4 to ,s4 ,w41
 we have the remains of lizards1 or     
lacertine animals1 different from those 
which now exist1 of immense size and of 
extraordinary structure1 some           
approaching to the form of fishes       
7ichthyosaurus72 others1 with the neck  
of a serpent2 others with wings1 like   
the fabled forms of dragons4 ,then      
beyond these1 that is1 anterior to them 
in the series of time1 we have the      
immense collection of fossil plants1    

which occur in the ,coal ,strata2 the   
shells and corals of the ,mountain      
,limestone2 the peculiar fishes1        
different altogether from existing      
fishes1 of the ,old ,red ,sandstone2 and
 though1 as we descend lower and lower1 
the traces of organic life appear to be 
more rare and more limited in kind1 yet 
still we have1 beneath these1 in slates 
and in beds of limestone1 many fossil   
remains1 still differing from those     
which occur in the higher1 and          
therefore1 newer strata4  #ae4 ,we have 
no intention of instituting any definite
 calculation with regard to the periods 
of time which this succession of forms  
of organic life may have occupied4      
,this1 indeed1 the boldest geological   
speculators have not ventured to do4    
,but the scientific discoveries thus    
made1 have a bearing upon the analogies 
of creation1 quite as important as the  
discoveries of astronomy4 ,and therefore
 we may state briefly some of the       
divisions of the series of terrestrial  

strata which have suggested themselves  
to geological inquirers4 ,at the outset 
of such speculations1 it was conceived  
that the lower rocks1 composed of       
granite1 slate1 and the like1 had       
existed before the earth was peopled    
with living things2 and that these1     
being broken up into inclined positions1
 there were deposited upon them1 as the 
sediment of superincumbent waters1      
strata more horizontal1 containing      
organic remains4 ,the former were then  
called ,primitive or ,primary1 the      
latter1 ,secondary rocks4 ,but it was   
soon found that this was too sweeping   
and peremptory a division4 ,rocks which 
had been classed as ,primary1 were found
 to contain traces of life2 and hence1  
an intermediate class of ,transition    
strata was spoken of4 ,but this too was 
soon seen to be too narrow a scheme of  
arrangement1 to take in the             
rapidly-accumulating mass of facts1     
organic and others1 which the geological
 record of the earth's history          

disclosed4 ,it appeared that among the  
fossil-bearing strata there might be    
discerned a long series of ,formations3 
the term ,formation being used to imply 
a collection of successive strata1      
which1 taking into account all the      
evidence1 of materials1 position1       
relations1 and organic remains1 appears 
to have been deposited during some one  
epoch or period2 so as to form a natural
 group1 chronologically and             
physiologically distinct from the       
others4 ,in this way it appeared that1  
taking as the highest part of the       
,secondary series1 the beds of chalk1   
which1 marked by characteristic fossils1
 run through great tracts of ,europe1   
with other beds1 of sand and clay1 which
 generally accompany these2 there was1  
below this ,cretaceous ,formation1 an   
,oolitic ,formation1 still more largely 
diffused1 and still more abundant in its
 peculiar organic remains4 ,below this1 
we have1 in ,england1 the ,new ,red     
,sandstone ,formation1 which1 in other  

countries1 is accompanied by beds       
abundant in fossils1 as the ,muschelkalk
 of ,germany4 ,below this again we have 
the ,coal ,formation1 and the ,mountain 
,limestone1 with their peculiar fossils4
 ,below these1 we have the ,old ,red    
,sandstone or ,devonian ,system1 with   
its peculiar fishes and other fossils4  
,beneath these1 occur still numerous    
series of distinguishable strata2 which 
have been arranged by ,sir ,roderick    
,murchison as the members of the        
,silurian formation2 the researches by  
which it was established having been    
carried on1 in the first place1 in      
,south ,wales1 the ancient country of   
the ,silures4 ,including the lower part 
of this formation1 and descending still 
lower in order1 is the ,cambrian        
formation of ,professor ,sedgwick4 ,and 
since the races of organic beings1 as we
 thus descend through successive strata1
 seem to be fewer and fewer in their    
general types1 till at last they        
disappear2 these lower members of the   

geological series have been termed1     
according to their succession1          
,palaeozoic1 ,protozoic1 and ,hypozoic  
or ,azoic4 ,the general impression on   
the minds of geologists has been1 that1 
as we descend in this long staircase of 
natural steps1 we are brought in view of
 a state of the earth in which life was 
scantily manifested1 so as to appear to 
be near its earliest stages4  #af4 ,each
 of these formations is of great        
thickness4 ,several of the members of   
each formation are hundreds1 many of    
them thousands of feet thick4 ,taken    
altogether1 they afford an astounding   
record of the time during which they    
must have been accumulating1 and during 
which these successive groups of animals
 must have been brought into being1     
lived1 and continued their kinds4  #ag4 
,we must add1 that over the ,secondary  
strata there are found1 in patches1     
generally of more limited extent1       
another1 and of course1 newer mass of   
strata1 which have been termed ,tertiary

 ,formations4 ,of these1 the strata1    
near and under ,paris1 lying in a hollow
 of the subjacent strata1 and hence     
termed the ,paris ,basin1 attracted     
prominent notice in the first place4    
,and these are found to contain an      
immense quantity of remains of animals1 
which1 being well preserved1 and being  
subjected to a careful and scientific   
scrutiny by the great naturalist ,george
 ,cuvier1 had an eminent share in       
establishing in the minds of ,geologists
 the belief of the extinct character of 
fossil species1 and of the possibility  
of reconstructing1 from such remains1   
the animals1 different from those which 
now live1 which had formerly tenanted   
the earth4  #ah4 ,we have1 in this      
enumeration1 a series of groups of      
strata1 each of which1 speaking in a    
general way1 has its own population of  
animals and plants1 and is separated1 by
 the peculiarities of these1 from the   
groups below and above it4 ,each group  
may1 in a general manner1 be considered 

as a separate creation of animal and    
vegetable forms--creatures which have   
lived and died1 as the races now        
existing upon the earth live and die2   
and of which the living existence may1  
and according to all appearance must1   
have occupied ages1 and series of ages1 
such as have been occupied by the       
present living generations of the earth4
 ,this series of creations1 or of       
successive periods of life1 is1 no      
doubt1 a very striking and startling    
fact1 very different from anything which
 the imagination of man1 in previous    
stages of investigation of the earth's  
condition1 had conceived2 but still1 is 
established by evidence so complete1    
drawn from an examination and knowledge 
of the structures of living things so   
exact and careful1 as to leave no doubt 
whatever of the reality of the fact1 on 
the minds of those who have attended to 
the evidence2 founded1 as it is1 upon   
the analogies1 offices1 anatomy1 and    
combinations of organic structures4 ,the

 progress of human knowledge on this    
subject has been carried on and         
established by the same alternations of 
bold conjectures and felicitous         
confirmations of them1--of minute       
researches and large                    
generalizations1--which have given      
reality and solidity to the other most  
certain portions of human knowledge4    
,that the strata of the earth1 as we    
descend from the highest to the lowest1 
are distinguished in general by         
characteristic or organic fossils1 and  
that these forms of organization are    
different from those which now live on  
the earth1 are truths as clearly and    
indisputably established in the minds of
 those who have the requisite knowledge 
of geology and natural history1 as that 
the planets revolve round the sun1 and  
satellites round the planets4 ,that     
these epochs of creation are something  
quite different from anything which we  
now see taking place on the earth1 no   
more disturbs the belief of those facts1

 which scientific explorers entertain1  
than the seemingly obvious difference   
between the nebulae which are regarded  
as yet unformed planetary systems1 and  
the solar system to which our earth     
belongs1 disturbs the belief of         
astronomers1 that such nebulae1 as well 
as our system1 really exist4 ,indeed we 
may say1 as we shall hereafter see1 that
 the fact of our earth having passed    
through the series of periods of organic
 life which geologists recognize1 is1   
hitherto1 incomparably better           
established1 than the fact that the     
nebulae1 or any of them1 are passing    
through a series of changes1 such as may
 lead to a system like ours2 as some    
eminent astronomers in modern times have
 held4 ,in this respect1 the history of 
the world1 and its place in the         
universe1 are far more clearly learnt   
from geology than from astronomy4  #ai4 
,but with regard to this series of      
,organic ,creations1 if1 for the sake of
 brevity1 we may call them so2 we may   

naturally ask1 in what manner1 by what  
agencies1 at what intervals1 they       
succeeded each other on the earth8 ,now1
 do the researches of geologists give us
 any information on these points1 which 
may be brought to bear upon our present 
speculations8 ,if we ask these          
questions1 we receive1 from different   
classes of geologists1 different        
answers4 ,a little while ago1 most      
geologists held1 probably the greater   
number still hold1 that the transitions 
from one of these periods of organic    
life to another1 were accompanied       
generally by seasons of violent         
disruption and mutation of the surface  
of the earth1 exceeding anything which  
has taken place since the surface       
assumed its present general form2 in the
 same proportion as the changes of its  
organic population go beyond any such   
changes which we can discern to be at   
present in operation4 ,and there were   
found to be changes of other kinds1     
which seemed to show that these epochs  

of organic transition had also been     
epochs of mechanical violence1 upon a   
vast and wonderful scale4 ,it appeared  
that1 at some of these epochs at least1 
the strata previously deposited1 as if  
in comparative tranquillity1 had been   
broken1 thrust up from below1 or drawn  
or cast downwards2 so that strata which 
must at first have been nearly level1   
were thrown into positions highly       
inclined1 fractured1 set on edge1       
contorted1 even inverted4 ,over the     
broken edges of these strata1 thus      
disturbed and fractured1 were found vast
 accumulations of the fragments which   
such rude treatment might naturally     
produce2 these fragmentary ruins being  
spread in beds comparatively level1 over
 the bristling edges of the subjacent   
rocks1 as if deposited in the fluid     
which had overwhelmed the previous      
structure2 and with few or no traces of 
life appearing in this mass of ruins2   
while1 in the strata which lay over     
them1 and which appeared to have been   

the result of quieter times1 new forms  
of organic life made their appearance in
 vast abundance4 ,such is1 for example1 
the relation of the coal strata in a    
great part of ,england2 broken into     
innumerable basins1 ridges1 valleys1    
strips1 and shreds1 lying in all        
positions2 and then filled into a sort  
of level1 by the conglomerate of the    
magnesian limestone1 and the            
superincumbent red sandstone and        
oolites4 ,in other cases it appeared as 
if there were the means of tracing1 in  
these dislocations1 the agency of       
igneous stony matter1 which had been    
injected from below1 so as to form      
mountain-chains1 or the cores of such2  
and in which the period of the          
convulsion could be traced1 by the      
strata to which the disturbance         
extended2 those strata being supposed to
 have been deposited before the         
eruption1 which were thrust upwards by  
it into highly-inclined positions2 while
 those strata which1 though near to     

these scenes of mechanical violence1    
were still comparatively horizontal1 as 
they had been originally deposited1 were
 naturally inferred to have been formed 
in the waters1 after the catastrophe had
 passed away4 ,by such reasonings as    
these1 ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont has       
conceived that he can ascertain the     
relative ages 7according to the vast and
 loose measurements of age which belong 
to this subject7 of the principal ranges
 of mountains of the earth's surface4   
#bj4 ,such estimations of age can1      
indeed1 as we have intimated1 be only of
 the widest and loosest kind2 yet they  
all concur in assigning very great and  
gigantic periods of time1 as having been
 occupied by the events which have      
formed the earth's strata1 and brought  
them into their present position4 ,for  
not only must there have been long ages 
employed1 as we have said1 while the    
successive generations of each group of 
animals lived1 and died1 and were       
entombed in the abraded fragments of the

 then existing earth2 but the other     
operations which intervened between     
these apparently more tranquil          
processes1 must also have occupied1 it  
would seem1 long ages at each interval4 
,the dislocation1 disruption1 and       
contortion of the vast masses of        
previously existing mountains1 by which 
their framework was broken up1 and its  
ruins covered with beds of its own      
rubbish1 many thousand feet thick1 and  
gradually becoming less coarse and      
smoother1 as the higher beds were       
deposited upon the lower1 could hardly  
take place1 it would seem1 except in    
hundreds and thousands of years4 ,and   
then again1 all these processes of      
deposition1 thus arranging loose masses 
of material into level beds1 must have  
taken place in the bottom of deep       
oceans2 and the beds of these oceans    
must have been elevated into the        
position of mountain ridges which they  
now occupy1 by some mighty operation of 
nature1 which must have been            

comparatively tranquil1 since it has not
 much disturbed those more level beds2  
and which1 therefore1 must have been    
comparatively long continued4 ,if we    
accept1 as so many eminent geologists   
have done1 this evidence of a vast      
series of successive periods of         
alternate violence and repose1 we must  
assign to each such period a duration   
which cannot but be immense1 compared   
with the periods of time with which we  
are commonly conversant4 ,in the periods
 of comparative quiet1 such as now exist
 on the earth's surface1 and such as    
seem to be alone consistent with        
continued life and successive           
generation1 deposits at the bottom of   
lakes and seas take place1 it would     
seem1 only at the rate of a few feet in 
a year1 or perhaps1 in a century4 ,when1
 therefore1 we find strata1 bearing     
evidence of such a mode of deposit1 and 
piled up to the amount of thousands and 
tens of thousands of feet1 we are       
naturally led to regard them as the     

production of myriads of years2 and to  
add new myriads1 as often as1 in the    
prosecution of geological research1 we  
are brought to new masses of strata of  
the like kind2 and again1 to interpolate
 new periods of the same order1 to allow
 for the transition from one such group 
to another4  #ba4 ,nor is there anything
 which need startle us1 in the necessity
 of assuming such vast intervals of     
time1 when we have once brought         
ourselves to deal with the question of  
the antiquity of the earth upon         
scientific evidence alone4 ,for if      
geology thus carries us far backwards   
through thousands1 it may be1 millions  
of years1 astronomy does not offer the  
smallest argument to check this         
regressive supposition4 ,on the         
contrary1 all the most subtle and       
profound investigations of astronomers  
have led them to the conviction1 that   
the motions of the earth may have gone  
on1 as they now go on1 for an indefinite
 period of past time4 ,there is no      

tendency to derangement in the mechanism
 of the solar system1 so for as science 
has explored it4 ,minute inequalities in
 the movements exist1 too small to      
produce any perceptible effect on the   
condition of the earth's surface2 and   
even these inequalities1 after growing  
up through long cycles of ages1 to an   
amount barely capable of being detected 
by astronomical scrutiny1 reach a       
maximum2 and1 diminishing by the same   
slow degrees by which they increased1   
correct themselves1 and disappear4 ,the 
solar system1 and the earth as part of  
it1 constitute1 so for as we can        
discover1 a ,perpetual ,motion4  #bb4   
,there is therefore nothing1 in what we 
know of the ,cosmical conditions of our 
globe1 to contradict the ,terrestrial   
evidence for its vast antiquity1 as the 
seat of organic life4 ,if for the sake  
of giving definiteness to our notions1  
we were to assume that the numbers which
 express the antiquity of these four    
,periods2--the ,present organic         

condition of the earth2 the ,tertiary   
,period of geologists1 which preceded   
that2 the ,secondary ,period1 which was 
anterior to that2 and the ,primary      
,period which preceded the ,secondary2  
were on the same scale as the numbers   
which express these four                
magnitudes3--the magnitude of the       
,earth2 that of the ,solar ,system      
compared with the ,earth2 the distance  
of the nearest ,fixed ,stars compared   
with the solar system2 and the distance 
of the most remote ,nebulae compared    
with the nearest fixed stars2 there is1 
in the evidence which geological science
 offers1 nothing to contradict such an  
assumption4  #bc4 ,and as the infinite  
extent which we necessarily ascribe to  
space1 allows us to find room1 without  
any mental difficulty1 for the vast     
distances which astronomy reveals1 and  
even leaves us rather embarrassed with  
the infinite extent which lies beyond   
our farthest explorations2 so the       
infinite duration which we1 in like     

manner1 necessarily ascribe to past     
time1 makes it easy for us1 so far as   
our powers of intellect are concerned1  
to go millions of millions of years     
backwards1 in order to trace the        
beginning of the earth's existence1--the
 first step of terrestrial creation4 ,it
 is as easy for the mind of man to      
reason respecting a system which is     
billions or trillions of miles in       
extent1 and has endured through the like
 number of years1 or centuries1 as it is
 to reason about a system 7the earth1   
for instance17 which is forty million   
feet in extent1 and has endured for a   
hundred thousand million of seconds1    
that is1 a few thousand years4  #bd4    
,this statement is amply sufficient for 
the argument which we have to found upon
 it2 but before ,i proceed to do that1  
,i will give another view which has     
recently been adopted by some           
geologists1 of the mode in which the    
successive periods of creation1 which   
geological research discloses to us1    

have passed into one another4 ,according
 to this new view1 we find no sufficient
 reason to believe that the history of  
the earth1 as read by us in the organic 
and mechanical phenomena of its         
superficial parts1 has consisted of such
 an alternation of periods of violence  
and of repose1 as we have just attempted
 to describe4 ,according to these       
theorists1 strata have succeeded strata1
 one group of animals and plants has    
followed another1 through a season of   
uniform change2 with no greater paroxysm
 or catastrophe1 it may be1 than has    
occurred during the time that man has   
been an observer of the earth4 ,it may  
be asked1 how is this consistent with   
the phenomena which we have             
described2--with the vast masses of     
ruin1 which mark the end of one period  
and the beginning of another1 as is the 
case in passing from the coal measures  
of ,england to the superincumbent       
beds2--with the highly-inclined strata  
of the central masses1 and the level    

beds of the upper formations which have 
been described as marking the mountain  
ranges of ,europe8 ,to these questions1 
a reply is furnished1 we are told1 by a 
more extensive and careful examination  
of the strata4 ,it may be1 that in      
certain localities1 in certain          
districts1 the transition1 from the     
mountain limestone and the coal1 to the 
superjacent sandstones and oolites1 is  
abrupt and seemingly violent2 marked by 
unconformable positions of the upper    
upon the lower strata1 by beds of       
conglomerate1 by the absence of organic 
remains in certain of these beds4 ,but  
if we follow these very strata into     
other parts of the world1 or even into  
other parts of this island1 we find that
 this abruptness and incongruity between
 the lower and the higher strata        
disappears4 ,between the                
mountain-limestone and the red sandstone
 which lies over it1 certain new beds   
are found1 which fill up the incoherent 
interval2 which offer the same evidence 

as the strata below and above them1 of  
having been produced tranquilly2 and    
which do not violently differ in        
position from either group4 ,the        
appearance of incoherence in the series 
arose from the occurrence1 in the region
 first examined1 of a gap1 which is here
 filled up1--a blank which is here      
supplied4 ,hence it is inferred1 that   
whatever of violence and extreme        
disturbance is indicated by the         
dislocations and ruins there observed1  
was local and partial only2 and that1 at
 the very time when these fragmentary   
beds1 void of organized beings1 were    
forming in one place1 there were1 at the
 same time1 going on1 in another part of
 the earth's surface1 not far removed1  
the processes of the life1 death and    
imbedding of species1 as tranquilly as  
at any other period4 ,and the same      
assertion is made with regard to the    
more general fact1 before described1 of 
the stratigraphical constitution of     
mountain chains4 ,it is asserted that   

the unconformable relation of the strata
 which compose the different parts of   
those chains1 is a local occurrence     
only2 and that the same strata1 if      
followed into other regions1 are found  
conformable to each other2 or are       
reduced to a virtually continuous       
scheme1 by the interpolation of other   
strata1 which make a transition1 in     
which no evidence of exceptional        
violence appears4  #be4 ,we shall not   
attempt 7it is not at all necessary for 
us to do so7 to decide between the      
doctrines of the two geological schools 
which thus stand in this opposition to  
each other4 ,but it will be useful to   
our argument to state somewhat further  
the opinions of this latter school on   
one main point4 ,we must explain the    
view which these geologists take of the 
mode of succession of one group of      
organized beings to another2 by which1  
as we have said1 the different          
successive strata are characterized4    
,such a phenomenon1 it would at first   

seem1 cannot be brought within the      
ordinary rules of the existing state of 
things4 ,the species of plants and      
animals which inhabit the earth1 do not 
change from age to age2 they are the    
same in modern times1 as they were in   
the most remote antiquity1 of which we  
have any record4 ,the dogs and horses1  
sheep and cattle1 lions and wolves1     
eagles and swallows1 corn and vines1    
oaks and cedars1 which occupy the earth 
now1 are not1 we have the strongest     
reasons to believe1 essentially         
different now from what they were in the
 earliest ages4 ,at least1 if one or two
 species have disappeared1 no new       
species have come into existence4 ,we   
cannot conceive a greater violation of  
the known laws of nature1 than that such
 an event as the appearance of a new    
species should have occurred4 ,even     
those who hold the uniformity of the    
mechanical changes of the earth1 and of 
the rate of change1 from age to age1 and
 from one geological period to another2 

must still1 it would seem1 allow that   
the zoological and phytological changes 
of which geology gives her testimony1   
are complete exceptions to what is now  
taking place4 ,the formation of strata  
at the bottom of the ocean from the ruin
 of existing continents1 may be going on
 at present4 ,even the elevation of the 
bed of the ocean in certain places1 as a
 process imperceptibly slow1 may be in  
action at this moment1 as these         
theorists hold that it is4 ,but still1  
even when the beds thus formed are      
elevated into mountain chains1 if that  
should happen1 in the course of myriads 
of years1 7according to the supposition 
it cannot be effected in a less period17
 the strata of such mountain chains will
 still contain only the species of such 
creatures as now inhabit the waters2 and
 we shall have1 even then1 no succession
 of organic epochs1 such as geology     
discovers in the existing mountains of  
the earth4  #bf4 ,the answer which is   
made to this objection appears to me to 

involve a license of assumption on the  
part of the uniformitarian geologist1   
7as such theorists have been termed17   
which goes quite beyond the bounds of   
natural philosophy3 but ,i wish to state
 it2 partly1 in order to show that the  
most ingenious men1 stimulated by the   
exigencies of a theory1 which requires  
some hypothesis concerning the          
succession of species1 to make it       
coherent and complete1 have still found 
it impossible to bring the creation of  
species of plants and animals within the
 domain of natural science2 and partly1 
to show how easily and readily          
geological theorists are led to assume  
periods of time1 even of a higher order 
than those which ,i have ventured to    
suggest4  #bg4 ,it must1 however1 be    
first stated1 as a fact on which the    
assumption is founded which ,i have to  
notice1 that the organic groups by which
 these successive strata are            
characterized1 are not so distinct and  
separate1 as it was convenient1 for the 

sake of explanation1 to describe them in
 the first instance4 ,although each body
 of strata is marked by predominant     
groups of genera and species1 yet it is 
not true1 that all the species of each  
formation disappear1 when we proceed to 
the next4 ,some species and genera      
endure through several successive groups
 of strata2 while others disappear1 and 
new forms come into view1 as we ascend4 
,and thus1 the change from one set of   
organic forms to another1 as we advance 
in time1 is made1 not altogether by     
abrupt transitions1 but in part         
continuously4 ,the uniformitarian1 in   
the case of organic1 as in the case of  
mechanical change1 obliterates or       
weakens the evidence of sudden and      
catastrophic leaps1 by interposing      
intermediate steps1 which involve1      
partly the phenomena of the preceding1  
and partly those of the subsequent      
condition4 ,as he allows no universal   
transition from one deposit to a        
succeeding discrepant and unconformable 

deposit1 so he allows no abrupt and     
complete transition from one collection 
of organic beings1--one creation1 as we 
may call it1--to another4 ,if creation  
must needs be an act out of the region  
of natural science1 he will have it to  
be at least an act not exercised at     
distant intervals1 and on peculiar      
occasions2 but constantly going on1 and 
producing its effects1 as much at one   
time in the geological history of the   
world1 as at another4  #bh4 ,and this he
 holds1 not only with regard to the     
geological periods which have preceded  
the existing condition of the earth1 but
 also with regard to the transition from
 those previous periods to that in which
 we live4 ,the present population of the
 earth is not one in which all previous 
forms are extinct4 ,the past population 
of the earth was not one in which there 
are found no creatures still living4 ,on
 the contrary1 he finds that there      
exists a vast mass of strata1 superior  
to the secondary strata1 which are      

characterized by extinct forms1 and are 
yet inferior to those deposits which are
 now going on by the agency of obvious  
causes4 ,these masses of strata contain 
a population of creatures1 partly       
extinct species1 and partly such species
 as are still living on our land and in 
our waters4 ,the proportion in which the
 old and the new species occur in such  
strata1 is various2 and the strata are  
so numerous1 so rich in organic remains1
 so different from each other1 and have 
been so well explored1 that they have   
been classified and named according to  
the proportion of new and of old species
 which they contain4 ,those which       
contain the largest proportion of       
species still living1 have been termed  
,pliocene1 as containing a greater      
number of new or recent species4 ,below 
these1 are strata which are termed      
,miocene1 implying a smaller number of  
new species4 ,below these again1 are    
others which have been termed ,eocene1  
as containing few new species indeed1   

but yet enough to mark the dawn1 the    
,eos1 of the existing state of the      
organic world4 ,these strata are1 in    
many places1 of very considerable       
thickness2 and their number1 their      
succession1 and the great amount of     
extinct species which they contain1     
shows1 in a manner which cannot be      
questioned1 7if the evidence of geology 
is accepted at all17 in what a gradual  
manner1 a portion at least1 of the      
existing forms of organic life have     
taken the place of a different          
population previously existing on the   
surface of the globe4  #bi4 ,and thus   
the uniformitarian is led to consider   
the facts which geology brings to light1
 as indicating a slow and almost        
imperceptible1 but1 upon the whole1     
constant series of changes1 not only in 
the position of the earth's materials1  
but in its animal and vegetable         
population4 ,land becomes sea and sea   
becomes land2 the beds of oceans are    
elevated into mountain regions1 carrying

 with them the remains of their         
inhabitants2 sheets of lava pour from   
volcanic vents and overwhelm the seats  
of life2 and these1 again1 become fields
 of vegetation2 or1 it may be1 descend  
to the depths of the sea1 and are       
overgrown with groves of coral2 lakes   
are filled with sediment1 imbedding the 
remains of land animals1 and form the   
museums of future zoologists2 the deltas
 of mighty rivers become the centres of 
continents1 and are excavated as        
coal-fields by men in remote ages4 ,and 
yet all this time1 so slow is the       
change1 that man is unaware such changes
 are going on4 ,he knows that the       
mountains of ,scandinavia are rising out
 of the ,baltic at the rate of a few    
feet in a century2 he knows that the    
fertile slope of ,etna has been growing 
for thousands of years by the addition  
of lava streams and parasitic volcanos2 
he knows that the delta of the          
,mississippi accumulates hundreds of    
miles of vegetable matter every         

generation2 he knows that the shores of 
,europe are yielding to the sea2 but all
 these appear to him minute items1 not  
worth summing2 infinitesimal quantities1
 which he cannot integrate4 ,and so1 in 
truth1 they are1 for him4 ,his ephemeral
 existence does not allow him to form a 
just conception1 in any ordinary state  
of mind1 of the effects of this constant
 agency of change1 working through      
countless thousands of years4 ,but      
,time1 inexhausted and unremitting1 sums
 the series1 integrates the formula of  
change2 and thus passes1 with sure      
though noiseless progress1 from one     
geological epoch to another4  #cj4 ,and 
in the meanwhile1 to complete the view  
thus taken by the uniformitarian of the 
geological history of the earth1 by some
 constant but inscrutable law1 creative 
agency is perpetually at work1 to       
introduce1 into this progressive system 
of things1 new species of vegetable and 
animal life4 ,organic forms1 ever and   
ever new ones1 are brought into being1  

and left1 visible footsteps1 as it were1
 of the progress which ,time has        
made2--marks placed between the rocky   
leaves of the book of creation2 by which
 man1 when his time comes1 may turn back
 and read the past history of his       
habitation4 ,but the point for us to    
remark is1 the immeasurable1 the        
inconceivable length of time1 if any    
length of time could be inconceivable1  
which is required of our thoughts1 by   
this new assumption of the constant     
production of new species1 as a law of  
creation4 ,we might feel ourselves well 
nigh overwhelmed1 when1 by looking at   
processes which we see producing only a 
few feet of height or breadth or depth  
during the life of man1 we are called   
upon to imagine the construction of     
,alps and ,andes1--when we have to      
imagine a world made a few inches in a  
century4 ,but there1 at least1 we had   
something to start from3 the element of 
change was small1 but there was an      
element of change3 we had to expand1 but

 we had not to originate4 ,but in       
conceiving that all the myriads of      
successive species1 which we find in the
 earth's strata1 have come into being by
 a law which is now operating1 we have  
nothing to start from4 ,we have seen1   
and know of1 no such change2 all sober  
and skilful naturalists reject it1 as a 
fact not belonging to our time4 ,we have
 here to build a theory without         
materials2--to sum a series of which    
every term1 so far as we know1 is       
nothing2--to introduce into our         
scientific reasonings an assumption     
contrary to all scientific knowledge4   
#ca4 ,this appears to me to be the real 
character of the assumption of the      
constant creation of new species4 ,but1 
as ,i have said1 it is not my business  
here1 to pronounce upon the value or    
truth of this assumption4 ,the only use 
which ,i wish to make of it is          
this3--,if any persons1 who have adopted
 the geological view which ,i have just 
been explaining1 should feel any        

interest in the speculations here       
offered to their notice1 they must needs
 be 7as ,i have no doubt they will be7  
even more willing than other geologists1
 to grant to our argument a scale of    
time for geological succession1         
corresponding in magnitude to the scale 
of distances which astronomy teaches us1
 as those which measure the relation of 
the universe to the earth4  ,this being 
supposed to be granted1 ,i am prepared  
to proceed with my argument4            
,,chapter ,,vi4  ,,the ,,argument ,,from
 ,,geology4   #a4 ,i have endeavored to 
explain that1 according to the          
discoveries of geologists1 the masses of
 which the surface of the earth is      
composed1 exhibit indisputable evidence 
that1 at different successive periods1  
the land and the waters which occupy it1
 have been inhabited by successive races
 of plants and animals2 which1 when     
taken in large groups1 according to the 
ascending or descending order of the    
strata1 consist of species different    

from those above and below them4 ,many  
of these groups of species are of forms 
so different from any living things     
which now exist1 as to give to the life 
of those ancient periods an aspect      
strangely diverse from that which life  
now displays1 and to transfer us1 in    
thought1 to a creation remote in its    
predominant forms from that among which 
we live4 ,i have shown also1 that the   
life and successive generations of these
 groups of species1 and the events by   
which the rocks which contain these     
remains have been brought into their    
present situation and condition1 must   
have occupied immense intervals of      
time2--intervals so large that they     
deserve to be compared1 in their        
numerical expression1 with the intervals
 of space which separate the planets and
 stars from each other4 ,it has been    
seen1 also1 that the best geologists and
 natural historians have not been able  
to devise any hypothesis to account for 
the successive introduction of these new

 species into the earth's population2   
except the exercise of a series of acts 
of creation1 by which they have been    
brought into being2 either in groups at 
once1 or in a perpetual succession of   
one or a few species1 which the course  
of long intervals of time might         
accumulate into groups of species4 ,it  
is true1 that some speculators have held
 that by the agency of natural causes1  
such as operate upon organic forms1 one 
species might be transmuted into        
another2 external conditions of climate1
 food1 and the like1 being supposed to  
conspire with internal impulses and     
tendencies1 so as to produce this       
effect4 ,this supposition is1 however1  
on a more exact examination of the laws 
of animal life1 found to be destitute of
 proof2 and the doctrine of the         
successive creation of species remains  
firmly established among geologists4    
,that the extinction of species1 and of 
groups of species1 may be accounted for 
by natural causes1 is a proposition much

 more plausible1 and to a certain       
extent1 probable2 for we have good      
reason to believe that1 even within the 
time of human history1 some few species 
have ceased to exist upon the earth4    
,but whether the extinction of such vast
 groups of species as the ancient strata
 present to our notice1 can be accounted
 for in this way1 at least without      
assuming the occurrence of great        
catastrophes1 which must for a time1    
have destroyed all forms of life in the 
district in which they occurred1 appears
 to be more doubtful4 ,the decision of  
these questions1 however1 is not        
essential to our purpose4 ,what is      
important is1 that immense numbers of   
tribes of animals have tenanted the     
earth for countless ages1 before the    
present state of things began to be4    
#b4 ,the present state of things is that
 to which the existence and the history 
of ,,man belong2 and the remark which ,i
 now have to make is1 that the existence
 and the history of ,man are facts of an

 entirely different order from any which
 existed in any of the previous states  
of the earth2 and that this history has 
occupied a series of years which1       
compared with geological periods1 may be
 regarded as very brief and limited4    
#c4 ,the remains of man are nowhere     
found in the strata which contain the   
records of former states of the earth4  
,skeletons of vast varieties of         
creatures have been disinterred from    
their rocky tombs2 but these cemeteries 
of nature supply no portion of a human  
skeleton4 ,in earlier periods of natural
 science1 when comparative anatomy was  
as yet very imperfectly understood1 no  
doubt1 many fossil bones were supposed  
to be human bones4 ,the remains of      
giants and of antediluvians were        
frequent in museums4 ,but a further     
knowledge of anatomy has made it appear 
that such bones all belong to animals1  
of one kind or another2 often1 to       
animals utterly different1 in their form
 and skeleton1 from man4 ,also some     

bones1 really human1 have been found    
petrified in situations in which        
petrification has gone on in recent     
times1 and is still going on4 ,human    
skeletons1 imbedded in rocks by this    
process1 have been found in the island  
of ,guadaloupe1 and elsewhere4 ,but this
 phenomenon is easily distinguishable   
from the petrified bones of other       
animals1 which are found in rocks       
belonging to really geological periods2 
and does not at all obliterate the      
distinction between the geological and  
the historical periods4  #d4 ,indeed not
 bones only1 but objects of art1        
produced by human workmanship1 are found
 fossilized and petrified by the like   
processes2 and these1 of course1 belong 
to the historical period4 ,human bones1 
and human works1 are found in such      
deposits as morasses1 sand-banks1       
lava-streams1 mounds of volcanic ashes2 
and many of them may be of unknown1 and1
 compared with the duration of a few    
generations1 of very great antiquity2   

but such deposits are distinguishable1  
generally without difficulty1 from the  
strata in which the geologist reads the 
records of former creations4 ,it has    
been truly said1 that the geologist is  
an ,antiquary2 for1 like the antiquary1 
he traces a past condition of things in 
the remains and effects of it which     
still subsist2 but it has also been     
truly said1 at the same time1 that he is
 an antiquary of a new ,order2 for the  
remains which he studies are those which
 illustrate the history of the earth1   
not of man4 ,the geologist's antiquity  
is not that of ornaments and arms1      
utensils and habiliments1 walls and     
mounds2 but of species and of genera1 of
 seas and of mountains4 ,it is true1    
that the geologist may have to study the
 works of man1 in order to trace the    
effects of causes which produce the     
results which he investigates2 as when  
he examines the pholad-pierced pillars  
of ,pateoli1 to prove the rise and the  
fall of the ground on which they stand2 

or notes the anchoring-rings in the wall
 of some ,roman edifice1 once a maritime
 fort1 but now a ruin remote from the   
sea2 or when he remarks the streets in  
the towns of ,scania1 which are now     
below the level of the ,baltic1#a and   
therefore show that the land has sunk   
since these pavements were laid4 ,but in
 studying such objects1 the geologist   
considers the hand of man as only one   
among many agencies4 ,man is to him only
 one of the natural causes of change4   
#e4 ,and if1 with the illustrious author
 to whom we have just referred1#b we    
liken the fossil remains1 by which the  
geologist determines the age of his     
strata1 to the ,medals and ,coins in    
which the antiquary finds the record of 
reigns and dynasties2 we must still     
recollect that a ,coin really discloses 
a vast body of characteristics of man1  
to which there is nothing approaching in
 the previous condition of the world4   
,for how much does a ,coin or ,medal    
indicate8 ,property2 exchange2          

government2 a standard of value2 the    
arts of mining1 assaying1 coining1      
drawing1 and sculpture2 language1       
writing1 and reckoning2 historical      
recollections1 and the wish to be       
remembered by future ages4 ,all this is 
involved in that small human work1 a    
,coin4 ,if the fossil remains of animals
 may 7as has been said7 be termed       
,medals struck by ,nature to record the 
epochs of her history2 ,medals must be  
said to be1 not merely1 like fossil     
remains1 records of material things2    
they are the records of thought1        
purpose1 society1 long continued1 long  
improved1 supplied with multiplied aids 
and helps2 they are the permanent       
results1 in a minute compass1 of a vast 
progress1 extending through all the     
ramifications of human life4  #f4 ,not a
 coin merely1 but any1 the rudest work  
of human art1 carries us far beyond the 
domain of mere animal life4 ,there is no
 transition from man to animals4 ,no    
doubt1 there are races of men very      

degraded1 barbarous1 and brutish4 ,no   
doubt there are kinds of animals which  
are very intelligent and sagacious2 and 
some which are exceedingly disposed to  
and adapted to companionship with man4  
,but by elevating the intelligence of   
the brute1 we do not make it become the 
intelligence of the man4 ,by making man 
barbarous1 we do not make him cease to  
be a man4 ,animals have their especial  
capacities1 which may be carried very   
far1 and may approach near to human     
sagacity1 or may even go beyond it2 but 
the capacity of man is of a different   
kind4 ,it is a capacity1 not for        
becoming sagacious1 but for becoming    
rational2 or rather it is a capacity    
which he has in virtue of being         
rational4 ,it is a capacity of progress4
 ,in animals1 however sagacious1 however
 well trained1 the progress in skill and
 knowledge is limited1 and very narrowly
 limited4 ,the creature soon reaches a  
boundary1 beyond which it cannot pass2  
and even if the acquired habits be      

transmitted by descent to another       
generation1 7which happens in the case  
of dogs and several other animals17     
still the race soon comes to a stand in 
its accomplishments4 ,but in man1 the   
possible progress from generation to    
generation1 in intelligence and         
knowledge1 and we may also say1 in      
power1 is indefinite2 or if this be     
doubted1 it is at least so vast1 that   
compared with animals1 his capacity is  
infinite4 ,and this capacity extends to 
all races of men its characterizing     
efficacy3 for we have good reason to    
believe that there is no race of human  
beings who may not1 by a due course of  
culture1 continued through generations1 
be brought into a community of          
intelligence and power with the most    
intelligent and the most powerful races4
 ,this seems to be well established1 for
 instance1 with regard to the ,african  
negroes2 so long regarded by most1 by   
some probably regarded still1 as a race 
inferior to ,europeans4 ,it has been    

found that they are abundantly capable  
of taking a share in the arts1          
literature1 morality and religion of    
,european peoples4 ,and we cannot doubt 
that1 in the same manner1 the native    
,australians1 or the ,bushmen of the    
,cape of ,good ,hope1 have human        
faculties and human capacities2 however 
difficult it might be to unfold these1  
in one or two generations1 into a form  
of intelligence and civilization in any 
considerable degree resembling our own4 
#g4 ,it is not requisite for us1 and it 
might lead to unnecessary difficulties1 
to fix upon any one attribute of man1 as
 peculiarly characteristic1 and         
distinguishing him from brutes4 ,yet it 
would not be too much to say that man   
is1 in truth1 universally and           
specifically characterized by the       
possession of ,language4 ,it will not be
 questioned that language1 in its       
highest forms1 is a wonderful vehicle   
and a striking evidence of the          
intelligence of man4 ,his bodily organs 

can1 by a few scarcely perceptible      
motions1 shape the air into sounds which
 express the kinds1 properties1 actions 
and relations of things1 under thousands
 of aspects1 in forms infinitely more   
general and recondite than those in     
which they present themselves to his    
senses2--and he can1 by means of these  
forms1 aided by the use of his senses1  
explore the boundless regions of space1 
the far recesses of past time1 the order
 of nature1 the working of the ,author  
of nature4 ,this man does1 by the       
exercise of his ,reason1 and by the use 
of ,language1 a necessary implement of  
his ,reason for such purposes4  #h4     
,that language1 in such a stage1 is a   
special character of man1 will not be   
doubted4 ,but it may be thought1 there  
is little resemblance between ,language 
in this exalted degree of perfection1   
and the seemingly senseless gibberish of
 the most barbarous tribes4 ,such an    
opinion1 however1 might easily be       
carried too far4 ,all human language has

 in it the elements of indefinite       
intellectual activity1 and the germs of 
indefinite development4 ,even the rudest
 kind of speech1 used by savages1       
denotes objects by their kinds1 their   
attributes1 their relations1 with a     
degree of generality derived from the   
intellect1 not from the senses4 ,the    
generality may be very limited2 the     
relations which the human intellect is  
capable of apprehending may be          
imperfectly conveyed4 ,but to denote    
kinds and attributes and actions and    
relations at all1 is a beginning of     
generalization and abstraction2--or     
rather1 is far more than a beginning4   
,it is the work of a faculty which can  
generalize and abstract2 and these      
mental processes once begun1 the field  
of progress which is open to them is    
indefinite4 ,undoubtedly it may happen  
that weak and barbarous tribes are1 for 
many generations1 so hard pressed by    
circumstances1 and their faculties so   
entirely absorbed in providing for the  

bare wants of the poorest life1 that    
their thoughts may never travel to      
anything beyond these1 and their        
language may not be extended so as to be
 applicable to any other purposes4 ,but 
this is not the standard condition of   
mankind4 ,it is not1 by such cases1 that
 man1 or that human nature1 is to be    
judged4 ,the normal condition of man is 
one of an advance beyond the mere means 
of subsistence1 to the arts of life1 and
 the exercise of thought in a general   
form4 ,to some extent1 such an advance  
has taken place in almost every region  
of the earth and in every age4  #i4     
,perhaps we may often have a tendency to
 think more meanly than they deserve1 of
 so-called barbarous tribes1 and of     
those whose intellectual habits differ  
much from our own4 ,we may be prone to  
regard ourselves as standing at the     
summit of civilization2 and all other   
nations and ages1 as not only occupying 
inferior positions1 but positions on a  
slope which descends till it sinks into 

the nature of brutes4 ,and yet how      
little does an examination of the       
history of mankind justify this view6   
,the different stages of civilization1  
and of intellectual culture1 which have 
prevailed among them1 have had no       
appearance of belonging to one single   
series1 in which the cases differed only
 as higher or lower4 ,on the contrary1  
there have been many very different     
kinds of civilization1 accompanied by   
different forms of art and of thought2  
showing how universally the human mind  
tends to such habits1 and how rich it is
 in the modes of manifesting its innate 
powers4 ,how different have been the    
forms of civilization among the         
,chinese1 the ,indians1 the ,egyptians1 
the ,babylonians1 the ,mexicans1 the    
,peruvians6 ,yet in all1 how much was   
displayed of sagacity and skill1 of     
perseverance and progress1 of mental    
activity and grasp1 of thoughtfulness   
and power4 ,are we1 in thinking of these
 manifestations of human capacity1 to   

think of them as only a stage between us
 and brutes8 or are we to think so1 even
 of the stoical ,red ,indians of ,north 
,america1 or the energetic ,new         
,zealanders1 and ,caffres8 ,and if not1 
why of the ,african ,negroes1 or the    
,australians1 or the ,bushmen8 ,we may  
call their ,language a jargon4 ,very    
probable it would1 in its present form1 
be unable to express a great deal of    
what we are in the habit of putting into
 language4 ,but can we refuse to believe
 that1 with regard to matters with which
 they are familiar1 and on occasions    
where they are interested1 they would be
 to each other intelligible and clear8  
,and if we suppose cases in which their 
affections and emotions are strongly    
excited1 7and affections and emotions at
 least we cannot deny them17 can we not 
believe that they would be eloquent and 
impressive8 ,do we not know1 in fact1   
that almost all nations which we call   
savage1 are1 on such occasions1 eloquent
 in their own language8 ,and since this 

is so1 must not their language1 after   
all1 be a wonderful instrument as well  
as ours8 ,since it can convey one man's 
thoughts and emotions to many1 clothed  
in the form which they assume in his    
mind2 giving to things1 it may be1 an   
aspect quite different from that which  
they would have if presented to their   
own senses2 guiding their conviction1   
warming their hearts1 impelling their   
purposes2--can language1 even in such   
cases1 be otherwise than a wonderful    
produce of man's internal1 of his       
mental1 that is1 of his peculiarly human
 faculties8 ,and is not language1       
therefore1 even in what we regard as its
 lowest forms1 an endowment which       
completely separates man from animals   
which have no such faculty8--which      
cannot regard1 or which cannot convey1  
the impressions of the individual in any
 such general and abstract form8        
,probably we should find1 as those who  
have studied the language of savages    
always have found1 that every such      

language contains a number of curious   
and subtle practices1--contrivances1 we 
cannot help calling them1--for marking  
the relations1 bearings and connections 
of words2 contrivances quite different  
from those of the languages which we    
think of as more perfect2 but yet1 in   
the mouths of those who use such speech1
 answering their purpose with great     
precision4 ,but without going into such 
details1 the use of any articulate      
language is1 as the oldest ,greeks spoke
 of it1 a special and complete          
distinction of man as man4  #aj4 ,it    
would be an obscure and useless labor1  
to speculate upon the question whether  
animals have among themselves anything  
which can properly be called ,language4 
,that they have anything which can be   
termed ,language1 in the sense in which 
we here speak of it1 as admitting of    
general expressions1 abstractions1      
address to numbers1 eloquence1 is       
utterly at variance with any            
interpretation which we can put upon    

their proceedings4 ,the broad           
distinction of ,instinct and ,reason1   
however obscure it may be1 yet seems to 
be most simply described1 by saying1    
that animals do not apprehend their     
impressions under general forms1 and    
that man does4 ,resemblance1 and        
consequent association of impressions1  
may often show like generalization2 but 
yet it is different4 ,there is1 in man's
 mind1 a germ of general thoughts1      
suggested by resemblances1 which is     
evolved and fixed in language2 and by   
the aid of such an addition to the      
impressions of sense1 man has thousands 
of intellectual pathways from object to 
object1 from effect to cause1 from fact 
to inference4 ,his impressions are      
projected on a sphere of thought of     
which the radii can be prolonged into   
the farthest regions of the universe4   
,animals1 on the contrary1 are shut up  
in their sphere of sensation1--passing  
from one impression to another by       
various associations1 established by    

circumstances2 but still1 having access 
to no wider intellectual region1 through
 which lie lines of transition purely   
abstract and mental4 ,that they have    
their modes of communicating their      
impressions and associations1 their     
affections and emotions1 we know2 but   
these modes of communication do not make
 a language2 nor do they disturb the    
assignment of ,language as a special    
character of man2 nor the belief that   
man differs in his ,kind1 and we may    
say1 using a larger phrase1 in his      
,order1 from all other creatures4  #aa4 
,we may sometimes be led to assign much 
of the development of man's peculiar    
powers1 to the influence of external    
circumstances4 ,and that the development
 of those powers is so influenced1 we   
cannot doubt2 but their development     
only1 not their existence4 ,we have     
already said that savages1 living a     
precarious and miserable life1 occupied 
incessantly with providing for their    
mere bodily wants1 are not likely to    

possess language1 or any other          
characteristic of humanity1 in any but a
 stunted and imperfect form4 ,but1 that 
manhood is debased and degraded under   
such adverse conditions1 does not make  
man cease to be man4 ,even from such an 
abject race1 if a child be taken and    
brought up among the comforts and means 
of development which civilized life     
supplies1 he does not fail to show that 
he possesses1 perhaps in an eminent     
degree1 the powers which specially      
belong to man4 ,the evidences of human  
tendencies1 human thoughts1 human       
capacities1 human affections and        
sympathies1 appear conspicuously1 in    
cases in which there has been no time   
for external circumstances to operate in
 any great degree1 so as to unfold any  
difference between the man and the      
brute2 or in which the influence of the 
most general of external agencies1 the  
impressions of several of the senses1   
have been intercepted4 ,who that sees a 
lively child1 looking with eager and    

curious eyes at every object1 uttering  
cries that express every variety of     
elementary human emotion in the most    
vivacious manner1 exchanging looks and  
gestures1 and inarticulate sounds1 with 
his nurse1 can doubt that already he    
possesses the germs of human feeling1   
thought and knowledge8 that already1    
before he can form or understand a      
single articulate word1 he has within   
him the materials of an infinite        
exuberance of utterance1 and an impulse 
to find the language into which such    
utterance is to be moulded by the law of
 his human nature8 ,and perhaps it may  
have happened to others1 as it has to   
me1 to know a child who had been both   
deaf1 dumb1 and blind1 from a very early
 age4 ,yet she1 as years went on1       
disclosed a perpetually growing sympathy
 with the other children of the family  
in all their actions1 with which of     
course she could only acquaint herself  
by the sense of touch4 ,she sat1        
dressed1 walked1 as they did2 even      

imitated them in holding a book in her  
hand when they read1 and in kneeling    
when they prayed4 ,no one could look at 
the change which came over her sightless
 countenance1 when a known hand touched 
hers1 and doubt that there was a human  
soul within the frame4 ,the human soul  
seemed not only to be there1 but to have
 been fully developed2 though the means 
by which it could receive such          
communications as generally constitute  
human education1 were thus cut off4 ,and
 such modes of communication with her   
companions as had been taught her1 or as
 she had herself invented1 well bore out
 the belief1 that her mind was the      
constant dwelling-place1 not only of    
human affections1 but of human thoughts4
 ,so plainly does it appear that human  
thought is not produced or occasioned by
 external circumstances only2 but has a 
special and indestructible germ in human
 nature4  #ab4 ,i have been endeavoring 
to illustrate the doctrine that man's   
nature is different from the nature of  

other animals2 as subsidiary to the     
doctrine that the ,human ,epoch of the  
earth's history is different from all   
the preceding ,epochs4 ,but in truth1   
this subsidiary proposition is not by   
any means necessary to my main purpose4 
,even if barbarous and savage tribes1   
even if men under unfavorable           
circumstances1 be little better than the
 brutes1 still no one will doubt that   
the most civilized races of mankind1    
that man under the most favorable       
circumstances1 is far1 is1 indeed1      
immeasurably elevated above the brutes4 
,the history of man includes not only   
the history of ,scythians and           
,barbarians1 ,australians and ,negroes1 
but of ancient ,greeks and of modern    
,europeans2 and therefore there can be  
no doubt that the period of the ,earth's
 history1 which includes the history of 
man1 is very different indeed from any  
period which preceded that4 ,to         
illustrate the peculiarity1 the         
elevation1 the dignity1 the wonderful   

endowments of man1 we might refer to the
 achievements1 the recorded thoughts and
 actions1 of the most eminent among     
those nations2--to their arts1 their    
poetry1 their eloquence2 their          
philosophers1 their mathematicians1     
their astronomers2 to the acts of virtue
 and devotion1 of patriotism1           
generosity1 obedience1 truthfulness1    
love1 which took place among them2--to  
their piety1 their reverence for the    
deity1 their resignation to his will1   
their hope of immortality4 ,such        
characteristic traits of man as man1    
7which all examples of intelligence1    
virtue1 and religion1 are17 might serve 
to show that man is1 in a sense quite   
different from other creatures1         
fearfully and wonderfully made2 but ,i  
need not go into such details4 ,it is   
sufficient for my purpose to sum up the 
result in the expressions which ,i have 
already used2 that man is an            
intellectual1 moral1 religious1 and     
spiritual being4  #ac4 ,but the         

existence of man upon the earth being   
thus an event of an order quite         
different from any previous part of the 
earth's history1 the question occurs1   
how long has this state of things       
endured8 ,what period has elapsed since 
this creature1 with these high powers   
and faculties1 was placed upon the      
earth8 ,how far must we go backward in  
time1 to find the beginning of his      
wonderful history8--so utterly wonderful
 compared with anything which had       
previously occurred4 ,for as to that    
point1 we cannot feel any doubt4 ,the   
wildest imagination cannot suggest that 
corals and madrepores1 oysters and      
sepias1 fishes and lizards1 may have    
been rational and moral creatures2 nor  
even those creatures which come nearer  
to human organization2 megatheriums and 
mastodons1 extinct deer and elephants4  
,undoubtedly the earth1 till the        
existence of man1 was a world of mere   
brute creatures4 ,how long then has it  
been otherwise8 ,how long has it been   

the habitation of a rational1           
reflective1 progressive race8 ,can we by
 any evidence1 geological or other1     
approximate to the beginning of the     
,human ,history8  #ad4 ,this is a large 
and curious question1 and one on which a
 precise answer may not be within our   
reach4 ,but an answer not precise1 an   
approximation1 as we have suggested1 may
 suffice for our purpose4 ,if we can    
determine1 in some measure1 the order   
and scale of the period during which man
 has occupied the earth1 the            
determination may serve to support the  
analogy which we wish to establish4     
#ae4 ,the geological evidence with      
regard to the existence of man is       
altogether negative4 ,previous to the   
deposits and changes which we can trace 
as belonging obviously to the present   
state of the earth's surface1 and the   
operation of causes now existing1 there 
is no vestige of the existence of man1  
or of his works4 ,as was long ago       
observed1#c we do not find1 among the   

shells and bones which are so abundant  
in the older strata1 any weapons1       
medals1 implements1 structures1 which   
speak to us of the hand of man1 the     
workman4 ,if we look forwards ten or    
twenty thousand years1 and suppose the  
existing works of man to have been1 by  
that time1 ruined and covered up by     
masses of rubbish1 inundations1         
morasses1 lava-streams1 earthquakes2    
still1 when the future inhabitant of the
 earth digs into and explores these     
coverings1 he will discover innumerable 
monuments that man existed so long ago4 
,the materials of many of his works1 and
 the traces of his own mind1 which he   
stamps upon them1 are as indestructible 
as the shells and bones which give      
language to the oldest work4 ,indeed1 in
 many cases the oldest fossil remains   
are the results of objects of seemingly 
the most frail and perishable           
material2--of the most delicate and     
tender animal and vegetable tissues and 
filaments4 ,that no such remains of     

textures and forms1 moulded by the hand 
of man1 are anywhere found among these1 
must be accepted as indisputable        
evidence that man did not exist1 so as  
to be contemporary with the plants and  
animals thus commemorated4 ,according to
 geological evidence1 the race of man is
 a novelty upon the earth2--something   
which has succeeded to all the great    
geological changes4  #af4 ,and in this1 
almost all geologists are agreed4 ,even 
those who hold that1 in other ways1 the 
course of change has been uniform2--that
 even the introduction of man1 as a new 
species of animal1 is only an event of  
the same kind as myriads of like events 
which have occurred in the history of   
the earth2--still allow that the        
introduction of man1 as a moral being1  
is an event entirely different from any 
which had taken place before2 and that  
event is1 geologically speaking1 recent4
 ,the changes of which we have spoken1  
as studied by the geologist in          
connection with the works of man1 the   

destruction of buildings on sea-coasts  
by the incursions of the ocean1 the     
removal of the shore many miles away    
from ancient harbors1 the overwhelming  
of cities by earthquakes or volcanic    
eruptions2 however great when compared  
with the changes which take place in one
 or two generations2 are minute and     
infinitesimal1 when put in comparison   
with the changes by which ranges of     
mountains and continents have been      
brought into being1 one after another1  
each of them filled with the remains of 
different organic creations4  #ag4      
,further than this1 geology does not go 
on this question4 ,she has no           
chronometer which can tell us when the  
first buildings were erected1 when man  
first dwelt in cities1 first used       
implements or arms2 still less1 language
 and reflection4 ,geology is compelled  
to give over the question to ,history4  
,the external evidences of the antiquity
 of the species fail us1 and we must    
have recourse to the internal4 ,nature  

can tell us so little of the age of man1
 that we must inquire what he can tell  
us himself4  #ah4 ,what man can tell us 
of his own age--what history can say of 
the beginning of history--is necessarily
 very obscure and imperfect4 ,we know   
how difficult it is to trace to its     
origin the ,history of any single       
,nation3 how much more1 the ,history of 
all ,nations6 ,we know that all such    
particular histories carry us back to   
periods of the migrations of tribes1    
confused mixtures of populations1       
perplexed and contradictory genealogies 
of races2 and as we follow these further
 and further backwards1 they become more
 and more obscure and uncertain2 at     
least in the histories which remain to  
us of most nations4 ,still1 the         
obscurity is not such as to lead us to  
the conviction that research is useless 
and unprofitable4 ,it is an obscurity   
such as naturally arises from the lapse 
of time1 and the complexity of the      
subject4 ,the aspect of the world1      

however far we go back1 is still        
historical and human2 historical and    
human1 in as high a degree1 as it is at 
the present day4 ,men1 as described in  
the records of the oldest times1 are of 
the same nature1 act with the same      
views1 are governed by the same motives1
 as at present4 ,at all points1 we see  
thought1 purpose1 law1 religion1        
progress4 ,if we do not find a          
beginning1 we find at least evidence    
that1 in approaching the beginning1 the 
condition of man does not1 in any way1  
cease to be that of an intellectual1    
moral1 and religious creature4  #ai4    
,there are1 indeed1 some histories which
 speak to us of the beginning of man's  
existence upon earth2 and one such      
history in particular1 which comes to us
 recommended by indisputable evidence of
 its own great antiquity1 by numerous   
and striking confirmations from other   
histories1 and from facts still current1
 and by its connection with that        
religious view of man's condition1 which

 appears to thoughtful men to be        
absolutely requisite to give a meaning  
and purpose to man's faculties and      
endowments4 ,i speak1 of course1 of the 
,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,this history      
professes to inform us how man was      
placed upon the earth2 and how1 from one
 centre1 the human family spread itself 
in various branches into all parts of   
the world4 ,this genealogy of the human 
race is accompanied by a chronology1    
from which it results that the antiquity
 of the human race does not exceed a few
 thousand years4 ,even if we accept this
 history as true and authoritative1 it  
would not be wise to be rigidly         
tenacious of the chronology1 as to its  
minute exactness4 ,for1 in the first    
place1 of three different forms in which
 this history appears1 the chronology is
 different in all the three3 ,i mean the
 ,hebrew1 the ,samaritan1 and the       
,septuagint versions of the ,old        
,testament4 ,and even if this were not  
so1 since this chronology is put in the 

form of genealogies1 of which many of   
the steps may very probably have a      
meaning different from the simple       
succession of generations in a family1  
7as some of them certainly have17 it    
would be unwise to consider ourselves   
bound to the exact number of years      
stated1 in any of the three versions1 or
 even in all4 ,it makes no difference to
 our argument1 nor to any1 purpose in   
which we can suppose this narrative to  
have a bearing1 whether we accept six   
thousand or ten thousand years1 or even 
a longer period1 as the interval which  
has now elapsed since the creation of   
man took place1 and the peopling of the 
earth began4  #bj4 ,and1 in our         
speculations at least1 it will be well  
for us to take into account the view    
which is given us of the antiquity of   
the human race1 by other histories as   
well as by this4 ,a satisfactory result 
of such an investigation would be       
attained if1 looking at all these       
histories1 weighing their value1        

interpreting their expressions fairly1  
discovering their sources of error1 and 
of misrepresentation1 we should find    
them all converge to one point2 all give
 a consistent and harmonious view of the
 earliest stages of man's history2 of   
the times and places in which he first  
appeared as man4 ,if all nations of men 
are branches of the same family1 it     
cannot but interest us1 to find all the 
family traditions tending upwards       
towards the same quarter2 indicating a  
divergence from the same point2         
exhibiting a recollection of the        
original domicile1 or of the same       
original family circle4  #ba4 ,to a     
certain extent at least1 this appears to
 be the result of the historical        
investigations which have been pursued  
relative to this subject4 ,a certain    
group of nations is brought before us by
 these researches which1 a few thousands
 of years ago1 were possessed of arts1  
and manners1 and habits1 and belief1    
which make them conspicuous1 and which  

we can easily believe to have been      
contemporaneous successors of a common1 
though1 it may be even then1 remote     
stock4 ,such are the ,jews1 ,egyptians1 
,chaldeans1 and ,assyrians4 ,the        
histories of these nations are connected
 with and confirm each other4 ,their    
languages1 or most of them1 have certain
 affinities1 which glossologists1 on    
independent grounds1 have regarded as   
affinities implying an original         
connection4 ,their chronologies1 though 
in many respects discrepant1 are not    
incapable of being reduced into an      
harmony by very probable suppositions4  
,here we have a very early view of the  
condition of a portion of the earth as  
the habitation of man1 and perhaps a    
suggestion of a condition earlier still4
  #bb4 ,it is true1 that there are other
 nations also1 which claim an antiquity 
for their civilization equal to or      
greater than that which we can ascribe  
to these4 ,such are the ,indians and the
 ,chinese4 ,but while we do not question

 that these nations were at a remote    
period in possession of arts1 knowledge1
 and regular polity1 in a very eminent  
degree1 we are not at all called upon to
 assent to the immense numbers1 tens of 
thousands and hundreds of thousands of  
years1 by which such nations1 in their  
histories1 express their antiquity4     
,for1 in the first place1 such numbers  
are easily devised and transferred to   
the obscure early stages of tradition1  
when the art of numeration is once      
become familiar4 ,these vast intervals1 
applied to series of blank genealogies1 
or idle fables1 gratify the popular     
appetite for numerical wonders1 but have
 little claim on critical conviction4   
#bc4 ,and in the next place1 we discover
 that not enumeration only1 but a more  
recondite art1 had a great share in the 
fabrication of these gigantic numbers of
 years4 ,some of the nations of whom we 
have thus spoken1 the ,indians1 for     
example1 had1 at an early period1       
possessed themselves of a large share of

 astronomical knowledge4 ,they had      
observed and examined the motions of the
 ,sun1 the ,moon1 the ,planets1 and the 
,stars1 till they had discovered        
,cycles1 in which1 after long and       
seemingly irregular wanderings in the   
skies1 the heavenly bodies came round   
again to known and regular positions4   
,they had thus detected the order that  
reigns in the seeming disorder2 and had1
 by this means1 enabled themselves to   
know beforehand when certain            
astronomical events would occur2 certain
 configurations of the ,planets1 for    
instance1 and eclipses2 and knowing how 
such events would occur in future1 they 
were also able to calculate how the like
 events had occurred in the past4 ,they 
could thus determine what eclipses and  
what planetary configurations had       
occurred1 in thousands and tens of      
thousands of years of past time2 and    
could1 if they were disposed to falsify 
their early histories1 and to confirm   
the falsification by astronomical       

evidence1 do so with a very near        
approximation to astronomical truth4    
,such astronomical confirmation of their
 assertions1 so incapable in any common 
apprehension of being derived from any  
other source than actual observation of 
the fact1 naturally produced a great    
effect upon common minds2 and still     
more1 on those who examined the         
astronomical fact1 enough only to see   
that it was1 approximately1 at least1   
true4 ,but in recent times the fallacy  
of this evidence has been shown1 and the
 fabrication detected4 ,for though the  
astronomical rules which they had       
devised were approximately true1 they   
were true approximately only4 ,the more 
exact researches of modern ,european    
astronomy discovered that their cycles1 
though nearly exact1 were not quite so4 
,there was in them an error which made  
the cycle1 at every revolution of its   
period1 when it was applied to past     
ages1 more and more wrong2 so that the  
astronomical events which they asserted 

to have happened1 as they had calculated
 that they would have happened1 the     
better informed astronomer of our day   
knows would not have happened exactly   
so1 but in a manner differing more and  
more from their statement1 as the event 
was more and more remote4 ,and thus the 
fact which they asserted to have been   
observed1 had not really happened2 and  
the confirmation1 which it had been     
supposed to lend to their history1      
disappeared4 ,and thus1 there is not1 in
 the asserted antiquity of ,indian      
civilization and ,indian astronomy1     
anything which has a well-founded claim 
to disturb our belief that the nations  
of the more western regions of ,asia had
 a civilization as ancient as theirs4   
,and considerations of nearly the same  
kind may be applied to the very remote  
astronomical facts which are recorded as
 having been observed in the history of 
some others of the ancient nations above
 mentioned4  #bd4 ,still less need we be
 disturbed by the long series of        

dynasties1 each occupying a large period
 of years1 which the ,egyptians are said
 to have inserted in their early        
history1 so as to carry their origin    
beyond the earliest times which ,i have 
mentioned4 ,if they spoke of the ,greek 
nations as children compared with their 
own long-continued age1 as ,plato says  
they did1 a few thousands of years of   
previous existence would well entitle   
them to do so4 ,so far as such a period 
goes1 their monuments and their         
hieroglyphical inscriptions give a      
reality to their pretensions1 which we  
may very willingly grant4 ,and even the 
history of the ,jews supposes that the  
,egyptians had attained a high point in 
arts1 government1 knowledge1 when       
,abraham1 the father of the ,jewish     
nation1 was still leading the life of a 
nomad4 ,but this supposition is not     
inconsistent with the account which the 
,jewish ,scriptures give1 of the origin 
of nations2 especially if1 as we have   
said1 we abstain from any rigid and     

narrow interpretation of the chronology 
of those scriptures2 as on every ground1
 it is prudent to do4  #be4 ,it appears 
then not unreasonable to believe1 that a
 very few thousands1 or even a few      
hundreds of years before the time of    
,abraham1 the nations of central and    
western ,asia offer to us the oldest    
aspect of the life of man upon the      
earth2 and that in reasoning concerning 
the antiquity of the human race1 we may 
suppose that at that period1 he was in  
the earliest stages of his existence4   
,although1 in truth1 if we were to      
accept the antiquity claimed by the     
,egyptians1 the ,indians1 or the        
,chinese1 the nature of our argument    
would not be materially altered2 for ten
 thousand1 or even twenty thousand      
years1 bears a very small proportion to 
the periods of time which geology       
requires for the revolutions which she  
describes2 and1 as ,i have said1 we have
 geological evidence also1 to show how  
brief the human period has been1 when   

compared with the period which preceded 
the existence of man4 ,and if this be   
so2 if such peoples as those who have   
left to us the monuments of ,egypt and  
of ,assyria1 the pyramids and ancient   
,thebes1 the walls of ,nineveh and      
,babylon1 were the first nations which  
lived as nations2 or if they were       
separated from such only by the interval
 by which the ,germans of to-day are    
separated from the ,germans of ,tacitus2
 we may well repeat our remark1 that the
 history of man1 in the earliest times1 
is as truly a history of a wonderful1   
intellectual1 social1 political1        
spiritual creature1 as it is at present4
 ,we see1 in the monuments of those     
periods1 evidences so great and so full 
of skill1 that even now1 they amaze us1 
of arts1 government1 property1 thought1 
the love of beauty1 the recognition of  
deity2 evidences of memory1 foresight1  
power4 ,if ,london or ,berlin were now  
destroyed1 overwhelmed1 and1 four       
thousand years hence1 disinterred1 these

 cities would not afford stronger       
testimony of those attributes1 as       
existing in modern ,europeans1 than we  
have of such qualities in the ancient   
,babylonians and ,egyptians4 ,the       
history of man1 as that of a creature   
pre-eminent in the creation1 is equally 
such1 however far back we carry our     
researches4  #bf4 ,nor is there anything
 to disturb this view1 in the fact of   
the existence of the uncultured and     
barbarous tribes which occupy1 and      
always have occupied1 a large portion of
 the earth's surface4 ,for1 in the first
 place1 there is not1 in the aspect of  
the fact1 or in the information which   
history gives us1 any reason to believe 
that such tribes exhibit a form of human
 existence1 which1 in the natural order 
of progress1 is earlier than the forms  
of civilized life1 of which we have     
spoken4 ,the opinion that the most      
savage kind of human life1 least        
acquainted with arts1 and least provided
 with resources1 is the state of nature 

out of which civilized life has         
everywhere gradually emerged1 is an     
opinion which1 though at one time       
popular1 is unsupported by proof1 and   
contrary to probability4#d ,savage      
tribes do not so grow into civilization2
 their condition is1 far more probably1 
a condition of civilization degraded and
 lost1 than of civilization incipient   
and prospective4 ,add to this1 that if  
we were to assume that this were        
otherwise2 if man thus originally and   
naturally savage1 did also naturally    
tend to become civilized2 this tendency 
is an endowment no less wonderful1 than 
those endowments which civilization     
exhibits4 ,the capacity is as           
extraordinary as the developed result2  
for the capacity involves the result4   
,if savage man be the germ of the most  
highly civilized man1 he differs from   
all other animal germs1 as man differs  
from brute4 ,and add to this again1 that
 in the tribes which we call savage1 and
 whose condition most differs1 in       

external circumstances1 from ours1 there
 are1 after all1 a vast mass of human   
attributes3 thought1 purpose1 language1 
family relations2 generally property1   
law1 government1 contract1 arts1 and    
knowledge1 to no small extent2 and in   
almost every case1 religion4 ,even      
uncivilized man is an intellectual1     
moral1 social1 religious creature2 nor  
is there1 in his condition1 any reason  
why he may not be a spiritual creature1 
in the highest sense in which the most  
civilized man can be so4  #bg4 ,here    
then we are brought to the view which1  
it would seem1 offers a complete reply  
to the difficulty1 which astronomical   
discoveries appeared to place in the way
 of religion3--the difficulty of the    
opinion that man1 occupying this speck  
of earth1 which is but as an atom in the
 ,universe1 surrounded by millions of   
other globes1 larger1 and1 to           
appearance1 nobler than that which he   
inhabits1 should be the object of the   
peculiar care and guardianship1 of the  

favor and government1 of the ,creator of
 ,all1 in the way in which ,religion    
teaches us that ,he is4 ,for we find    
that man1 7the human race1 from its     
first origin till now17 has occupied but
 an atom of time1 as he has occupied but
 an atom of space3--that as he is       
surrounded by myriads of globes which   
may1 like this1 be the habitations of   
living things1 so he has been preceded1 
on this earth1 by myriads of generations
 of living things1 not possibly or      
probably only1 but certainly2 and yet   
that1 comparing his history with theirs1
 he has been1 certainly has been fitted 
to be1 the object of the care and       
guardianship1 of the favor and          
government1 of the ,master and ,governor
 of ,all1 in a manner entirely different
 from anything which it is possible to  
believe with regard to the countless    
generations of brute creatures which had
 gone before him4 ,if we will doubt or  
overlook the difference between man and 
brutes1 the difficulty of ascribing to  

man peculiar privileges1 is made as     
great by the revelations of geology1 as 
of astronomy4 ,the scale of man's       
insignificance is1 as we have said1 of  
the same order in reference to time1 as 
to space4 ,there is nothing which at all
 goes beyond the magnitude which        
observation and reasoning suggest for   
geological periods1 in supposing that   
the tertiary strata occupied1 in their  
deposition and elevation1 a period as   
much greater than the period of human   
history1 as the solar system is larger  
than the earth3--that the secondary     
strata were as much longer than these in
 their formation1 as the nearest fixed  
star is more distant than the sun3--that
 the still earlier masses1 call them    
primary1 or protozoic1 or what we will1 
did1 in their production1 extend through
 a period of time as vast1 compared with
 the secondary period1 as the most      
distant nebula is remoter than the      
nearest star4 ,if the earth1 as the     
habitation of man1 is a speck in the    

midst of an infinity of space1 the      
earth1 as the habitation of man1 is also
 a speck at the end of an infinity of   
time4 ,if we are as nothing in the      
surrounding universe1 we are as nothing 
in the elapsed eternity2 or rather1 in  
the elapsed organic antiquity1 during   
which the earth has existed and been the
 abode of life4 ,if man is but one small
 family in the midst of innumerable     
possible households1 he is also but one 
small family1 the successor of          
innumerable tribes of animals1 not      
possible only1 but actual4 ,if the      
planets may be the seats of life1 we    
know that the seas which have given     
birth to our mountains were the seats of
 life4 ,if the stars may have hundreds  
of systems of tenanted planets rolling  
round them1 we know that the secondary  
group of rocks does contain hundreds of 
tenanted beds1 witnessing of as many    
systems of organic creation4 ,if the    
nebulae may be planetary systems in the 
course of formation1 we know that the   

primary and transition rocks either show
 us the earth in the course of          
formation1 as the future seat of life1  
or exhibit such life as already begun4  
#bh4 ,how far that which astronomy thus 
asserts as possible1 is probable3--what 
is the value of these possibilities of  
life in distant regions of the universe1
 we shall hereafter consider4 ,but in   
what geology asserts1 the case is clear4
 ,it is no possibility1 but a certainty4
 ,no one will now doubt that shells and 
skeletons1 trunks and leaves1 prove     
animal and vegetable life to have       
existed4 ,even1 therefore1 if ,astronomy
 could demonstrate all that her most    
fanciful disciples assume1 ,geology     
would still have a complete right to    
claim an equal hearing2--to insist upon 
having her analogies regarded4 ,she     
would have a right to answer the        
questions of ,astronomy1 when she says1 
,how can we believe this8 and to have   
her answers accepted4  #bi4 ,astronomy  
claims a sort of dignity over all other 

sciences1 from her antiquity1 her       
certainty1 and the vastness of her      
discoveries4 ,but the antiquity of      
astronomy as a science had no share in  
such speculations as we are discussing2 
and if it had had1 new truths are better
 than old conjectures2 new discoveries  
must rectify old errors2 new answers    
must remove old difficulties4 ,the      
vigorous youth of ,geology makes her    
fearless of the age of ,astronomy4 ,and 
as to the certainty of ,astronomy1 it   
has just as little to do with these     
speculations4 ,the certainty stops1 just
 when these speculations begin4 ,there  
may1 indeed1 be some danger of delusion 
on this subject4 ,men have been so long 
accustomed to look upon astronomical    
science as the mother of certainty1 that
 they may confound astronomical         
discoveries with cosmological           
conjectures2 though these be slightly   
and illogically connected with those4   
,and then1 as to the vastness of        
astronomical discoveries1--granting that

 character1 inasmuch as it is to a      
certain degree1 a matter of             
measurement1--we must observe1 that the 
discoveries of geology are no less vast3
 they extend through time1 as those of  
astronomy do through space4 ,they carry 
us through millions of years1 that is1  
of the earth's revolutions1 as those of 
astronomy do through millions of the    
earth's diameters1 or of diameters of   
the earth's orbit4 ,geology fills the   
regions of duration with events1 as     
astronomy fills the regions of the      
universe with objects4 ,she carries us  
backwards by the relation of cause and  
effect1 as astronomy carries us upwards 
by the relations of geometry4 ,as       
astronomy steps on from point to point  
of the universe by a chain of triangles1
 so geology steps from epoch to epoch of
 the earth's history by a chain of      
mechanical and organical laws4 ,if the  
one depends on the axioms of geometry1  
the other depends on the axioms of      
causation4  #cj4 ,so far then1 ,geology 

has no need to regard ,astronomy as her 
superior2 and least of all1 when they   
apply themselves together to            
speculations like these4 ,but in truth1 
in such speculations1 ,geology has an   
immeasurable superiority4 ,she has the  
command of an implement1 in addition to 
all that ,astronomy can use2 and one1   
for the purpose of such speculations1   
adapted far beyond any astronomical     
element of discovery4 ,she has1 for one 
of her studies1--one of her means of    
dealing with her problems1--the         
knowledge of ,life1 animal and          
vegetable4 ,vital organization is a     
subject of attention which has1 in      
modern times1 been forced upon her4 ,it 
is now one of the main parts of her     
discipline4 ,the geologist must study   
the traces of life in every form2 must  
learn to decypher its faintest          
indications and its fullest development4
 ,on the question1 then1 whether there  
be in this or that quarter1 evidence of 
life1 he can speak with the confidence  

derived from familiar knowledge2 while  
the astronomer1 to whom such studies are
 utterly foreign1 because he has no     
facts which bear upon them1 can offer1  
on such questions1 only the loosest and 
most arbitrary conjectures2 which1 as we
 have had to remark1 have been rebuked  
by eminent men1 as being altogether     
inconsistent with the acknowledged      
maxims of his science4  #ca4 ,when1     
therefore1 ,geology tells us that the   
earth1 which has been the seat of human 
life for a few thousand years only1 has 
been the seat of animal life for        
myriads1 it may be1 millions of years1  
she has a right to offer this1 as an    
answer to any difficulty which          
,astronomy1 or the readers of           
astronomical books1 may suggest1 derived
 from the considerations that the       
,earth1 the seat of human life1 is but  
one globe of a few thousand miles in    
diameter1 among millions of other       
globes1 at distances millions of times  
as great4  #cb4 ,let the difficulty be  

put in any way the objector pleases4 ,is
 it that it is unworthy of the greatness
 and majesty of ,god1 according to our  
conceptions of ,him1 to bestow such     
peculiar care on so small a part of ,his
 creation8 ,but we know1 from geology1  
that ,he has bestowed upon this small   
part of ,his creation1 mankind1 this    
special care2--,he has made their       
period1 though only a moment in the ages
 of animal life1 the only period of     
intelligence1 morality1 religion4 ,if   
then1 to suppose that ,he has done this1
 is contrary to our conceptions of ,his 
greatness and majesty1 it is plain that 
our conceptions are erroneous2 they have
 taken a wrong direction4 ,god has not  
judged1 as to what is worthy of ,him1 as
 we have judged4 ,he has found it worthy
 of ,him to bestow upon man ,his special
 care1 though he occupies so small a    
portion of time2 and why not1 then1     
although he occupies so small a portion 
of space8  #cc4 ,or is the objection    
this2 that if we suppose the earth only 

to be occupied by inhabitants1 all the  
other globes of the universe are        
wasted2--turned to no purpose8 ,is waste
 of this kind considered as unsuited to 
the character of the ,creator8 ,but here
 again1 we have the like waste1 in the  
occupation of the earth4 ,all its       
previous ages1 its seas and its         
continents1 have been wasted upon mere  
brute life2 often1 so far as we can see1
 for myriads of years1 upon the lowest1 
the least conscious forms of life2 upon 
shell-fish1 corals1 sponges4 ,why then  
should not the seas and continents of   
other planets be occupied at present    
with a life no higher than this1 or with
 no life at all8 ,will it be said that1 
so far as material objects are occupied 
by life1 they are not wasted2 but that  
they are wasted1 if they are entirely   
barren and blank of life8 ,this is a    
very arbitrary saying4 ,why should the  
life of a sponge1 or a coral1 or an     
oyster1 be regarded as a good employment
 of a spot of land and water1 so as to  

save it from being wasted8 ,no doubt1 if
 the coral or the oyster be there1 there
 is a reason why it is so1 consistently 
with the attributes of ,god4 ,but then1 
on the same ground1 we may say that if  
it be not there1 there is a reason why  
it is not so4 ,such a mode of regarding 
the parts of the universe can never give
 us reasons why they should or should   
not be inhabited1 when we have no other 
grounds for knowing whether they are4   
,if it be a sufficient employment of a  
spot of rock or water that it is the    
seat of organization--of organic powers2
 why may it not be a sufficient         
employment of the same spot that it is  
the seat of attraction1 of cohesion1 of 
crystalline powers8 ,all the planets1   
all parts of the universe1 we have good 
reason to believe1 are pervaded by      
attraction1 by forces of aggregation and
 atomic relation1 by light and heat4    
,why may not these be sufficient to     
prevent the space being wasted1 in the  
eyes of the ,creator8 as1 during a great

 part of the earth's past history1 and  
over large portions of its present mass1
 they are actually held by ,him         
sufficient2 for they are all that occupy
 those portions4 ,this notion1 then1 of 
the improbability of there being1 in the
 universe1 so vast an amount of waste   
spaces1 or waste bodies1 as is implied  
in the opinion that the earth alone is  
the seat of life1 or of intelligence1 is
 confuted by the fact1 that there are   
vast spaces1 waste districts1 and       
especially waste times1 to an extent as 
great as such a notion deems improbable4
 ,the avoidance of such waste1 according
 to our notions of waste1 is no part of 
the economy of creation1 so far as we   
can discern that economy1 in its most   
certain exemplifications4  #cd4 ,or will
 the objection be made in this way2 that
 such a peculiar dignity and importance 
given to the earth is contrary to the   
analogy of creation2--that since there  
are so many globes1 similar to the      
earth1--like her1 revolving round the   

sun1 like her1 revolving on her axes1   
several of them1 like her1 accompanied  
by satellites2 it is reasonable to      
suppose that their destination and      
office is the same as hers2--that since 
there are so many stars1 each like the  
sun1 a source of light1 and probably of 
heat1 it is reasonable to suppose that1 
like the sun1 they are the centres of   
systems of planets1 to which their light
 and heat are imparted1 to uphold       
life3--is it thought that such a        
resemblance is a strong ground for      
believing that the planets of our       
system1 and of other systems1 are       
inhabited as the earth is8 ,if such an  
astronomical analogy be insisted on1 we 
must again have recourse to geology1 to 
see what such analogy is worth4 ,and    
then1 we are led to reflect1 that if we 
were to follow such analogies1 we should
 be led to suppose that all the         
successive periods of the earth's       
history were occupied with life of the  
same order2 that as the earth1 in its   

present condition1 is the seat of an    
intelligent population1 so must it have 
been1 in all former conditions4 ,the    
earth1 in its former conditions1 was    
able and fitted to support life2 even   
the life of creatures closely resembling
 man in their bodily structure4 ,even of
 monkeys1 fossil remains have been      
found4 ,but yet1 in those former        
conditions1 it did not support human    
life4 ,even those geologists who have   
dwelt most on the discovery of fossil   
monkeys1 and other animals nearest to   
man1 have not dreamt that there existed1
 before man1 a race of rational1        
intelligent1 and progressive creatures4 
,as we have seen1 geology and history   
alike refute such a fancy4 ,the notion1 
then1 that one period of time in the    
history of the earth must resemble      
another1 in the character of its        
population1 because it resembles it in  
physical circumstances1 is negatived by 
the facts which we discover in the      
history of the earth4 ,and so1 the      

notion that one part of the universe    
must resemble another in its population1
 because it resembles it in physical    
circumstances1 is negatived as a law of 
creation4 ,analogy1 further examined1   
affords no support to such a notion4    
,the analogy of time1 the events of     
which we know1 corrects all such guesses
 founded on a supposed analogy of space1
 the furniture of which1 so far as this 
point is concerned1 we have no          
sufficient means of examining4  #ce4    
,but in truth1 we may go further4 ,not  
only does the analogy of creation not   
point to any such entire resemblance of 
similar parts1 as is thus assumed1 but  
it points in the opposite direction4    
,not entire resemblance1 but universal  
difference is what we discover2 not the 
repetition of exactly similar cases1 but
 a series of cases perpetually          
dissimilar1 presents itself2 not        
constancy1 but change1 perhaps advance2 
not one permanent and pervading scheme1 
but preparation and completion of       

successive schemes2 not uniformity and a
 fixed type of existences1 but          
progression and a climax4 ,this may be  
said to be the case in the geological   
aspect of the world2 for1 without       
occupying ourselves with the question1  
how far the monuments of animal life1   
which we find preserved in the earth's  
strata1 exhibited a gradual progression 
from ruder and more imperfect forms to  
the types of the present terrestrial    
population2 from sponges and mollusks1  
to fish and lizards1 from cold-blooded  
to warm blooded animals1 and so on1 till
 we come to the most perfect            
vertebrates2--a doctrine which many     
eminent geologists have held1 and still 
hold2--without discussing this question1
 or assuming that the fact is so2 this  
at least cannot be denied or doubted1   
that man is incomparably the most       
perfect and highly-endowed creature     
which ever has existed on the earth4    
,how far previous periods of animal     
existence were a necessary preparation  

of the earth1 as the habitation of man1 
or a gradual progression towards the    
existence of man1 we need not now       
inquire4 ,but this at least we may say2 
that man1 now that he is here1 forms a  
climax to all that has preceded2 a term 
incomparably exceeding in value all the 
previous parts of the series2 a complex 
and ornate capital to the subjacent     
column2 a personage of vastly greater   
dignity and importance than all the     
preceding line of the procession4 ,the  
analogy of nature1 in this case at      
least1 appears to be1 that there should 
be inferior1 as well as superior        
provinces1 in the universe2 and that the
 inferior may occupy an immensely larger
 portion of time than the superior2 why 
not then of space8 ,the intelligent part
 of creation is thrust into the compass 
of a few years1 in the course of myriads
 of ages2 why not then into the compass 
of a few miles1 in the expanse of       
systems8 ,the earth was brute and inert1
 compared with its present condition1   

dark and chaotic1 so far as the light of
 reason and intelligence are concerned1 
for countless centuries before man was  
created4 ,why then may not other parts  
of creation be still in this brute and  
inert and chaotic state1 while the earth
 is under the influence of a higher     
exercise of creative power8 ,if the     
earth was1 for ages1 a turbid abyss of  
lava and of mud1 why may not ,mars or   
,saturn be so still8 ,if the germs of   
life were1 gradually1 and at long       
intervals1 inserted in the terrestrial  
slime1 why may they not be just         
inserted1 or not yet inserted1 in       
,jupiter8 ,or why should we assume that 
the condition of those planets resembles
 ours1 even so far as such suppositions 
imply8 ,why may they not1 some or all of
 them1 be barren masses of stone and    
metal1 slag and scoriae1 dust and       
cinders8 ,that some of them are composed
 of such materials1 we have better      
reason to believe1 than we have to      
believe anything else respecting their  

physical constitution1 as we shall      
hereafter endeavor to show4 ,if then1   
the earth be the sole inhabited spot in 
the work of creation1 the oasis in the  
desert of our system1 there is nothing  
in this contrary to the analogy of      
creation4 ,but if1 in some way which    
perhaps we cannot discover1 the earth   
obtained1 for accompaniments1 mere      
chaotic and barren masses1 as conditions
 of coming into its present state2 as it
 may have required1 for accompaniments1 
the brute and imperfect races of former 
animals1 as conditions of coming into   
its present state1 as the habitation of 
man2 the analogy is against1 and not in 
favor of1 the belief that they too 7the 
other masses1 the planets1 c47 are      
habitations4 ,i may hereafter dwell more
 fully on such speculations2 but the    
possibility that the planets are such   
rude masses1 is quite as tenable1 on    
astronomical grounds1 as the possibility
 that the planets resemble the earth1 in
 matters of which astronomy can tell us 

nothing4 ,we say1 therefore1 that the   
example of geology refutes the argument 
drawn from the supposed analogy of one  
part of the universe with another2 and  
suggests a strong suspicion that the    
force of analogy1 better known1 may tend
 in the opposite direction4  #cf4 ,when 
such possibilities are presented to the 
reader1 he may naturally ask1 if we are 
thus to regard man as the climax of     
creation1 in space1 as in time1 can we  
point out any characters belonging to   
him1 which may tend to make it          
conceivable that the ,creator should    
thus distinguish him1 and care for      
him3--should prepare his habitation if  
it be so1 by ages of chaotic and        
rudimentary life1 and by accompanying   
orbs of brute and barren matter4 ,if    
,man be1 thus1 the head1 the crowned    
head of the creation1 is he worthy to be
 thus elevated8 ,has he any qualities   
which make it conceivable that1 with    
such an array of preparation and        
accompaniment1 he should be placed upon 

the earth1 his throne8 ,or rather1 if he
 be thus the chosen subject of ,god's   
care1 has he any qualities1 which make  
it conceivable that he should be thus   
selected2 taken under such guardianship2
 admitted to such a dispensation2 graced
 with such favor4 ,the question with    
which we began again recurs3 ,what is   
man that ,god should be thus mindful of 
him8 ,after the views which have been   
presented to us1 does any answer now    
occur to us8  #cg4 ,the answer which we 
have to give1 is that which we have     
already repeatedly stated4 ,man is an   
intellectual1 moral1 religious1 and     
spiritual creature4 ,if we consider     
these attributes1 we shall see that they
 are such as to give him a special      
relation to ,god1 and as we conceive1   
and must conceive1 ,god to be2 and may  
therefore be1 in ,god1 the occasion of  
special guardianship1 special regard1 a 
special dispensation towards man4  #ch4 
,as an intellectual creature1 he has not
 only an intelligence which he can apply

 to practical uses1 to minister to the  
needs of animal and social life2 but    
also an intellect by which he can       
speculate about the relations of things1
 in their most general form2 for        
instance1 the properties of space and   
time1 the relations of finite and       
infinite4 ,he can discover truths1 to   
which all things1 existing in space and 
time1 must conform4 ,these are          
conditions of existence to which the    
creation conforms1 that is1 to which the
 ,creator conforms2 and man1 capable of 
seeing that such conditions are true and
 necessary1 is capable1 so far1 of      
understanding some of the conditions of 
the ,creator's workmanship4 ,in this    
way1 the mind of man has some community 
with the mind of ,god2 and however      
remote and imperfect this community may 
be1 it must be real4 ,since1 then1 man  
has thus1 in his intellect1 an element  
of community with ,god1 it is so far    
conceivable that he should be1 in a     
special manner1 the object of ,god's    

care and favor4 ,the human mind1 with   
its wonderful and perhaps illimitable   
powers1 is something of which we can    
believe ,god to be mindful4  #ci4       
,again3 man is a moral creature4 ,he    
recognizes1 he cannot help recognizing1 
a distinction of right and wrong in his 
actions2 and in his internal movements  
which lead to action4 ,this distinction 
he recognizes as the reason1 the highest
 and ultimate reason1 for doing or for  
not doing4 ,and this law of his own     
reason1 he is1 by reflection1 led to    
recognize as a ,law of the ,supreme     
,reason2 of the ,supreme ,mind which has
 made him what he is4 ,the ,moral ,law1 
he owns and feels as ,god's ,law4 ,by   
the obligation which he feels to obey   
this ,law1 he feels himself ,god's      
subject2 placed under his government2   
compelled to expect his judgment1 his   
rewards1 and punishments4 ,by being a   
moral creature1 then1 he is1 in a       
special manner1 the subject of ,god2 and
 not only we can believe that1 in this  

capacity1 ,god cares for him2 but we    
cannot believe that he does not care for
 him4 ,he cares for him1 so as to       
approve of what he does right1 and to   
condemn what he does wrong4 ,and he has 
given him1 in his own breast1 an        
assurance that he will do this2 and     
thus1 ,god cares for man1 in a peculiar 
and special manner4 ,as a moral         
creature1 we have no difficulty in      
conceiving that ,god may think him      
worthy of his regard and government4    
#dj4 ,the development of man's moral    
nature1 as we have just described it1   
leads to1 and involves the development  
of his religious nature4 ,by looking    
within himself1 and seeing the ,moral   
,law1 he learns to look upwards to ,god1
 the ,author of the ,law1 and the       
,awarder of the rewards and penalties   
which follow moral good and evil4 ,but  
the belief of such a dispensation       
carries us1 or makes us long to be      
carried1 beyond the manifestations of   
this dispensation1 as they appear in the

 ordinary course of human life4 ,by     
thinking on such things1 man is led to  
ascribe a wider range to the moral      
,government of ,god3--to believe in     
methods of reward and punishment1 which 
do not appear in the natural course of  
events3 to accept events1 out of the    
order of nature1 which announce that    
,god has provided such methods3 to      
accept them1 when duly authenticated1 as
 messages from ,god2 and thus1 when ,god
 provides the means1 to allow himself to
 be placed in intercourse with ,god4    
,since man is capable of this2 since1 as
 a religious creature1 this is his      
tendency1 his need1 the craving of his  
heart1 without which1 when his religious
 nature is fully unfolded1 he can feel  
no comfort nor satisfaction2 we cannot  
be surprised that ,god should deem him a
 proper object of a special fatherly    
care2 a fit subject for a special       
dispensation of his purposes1 as to the 
consequences of human actions4 ,man     
being this1 we can believe that ,god is 

not only mindful of him1 but visits him4
  #da4 ,as we have said1 the soul of    
man1 regarded as the subject of ,god's  
religious government1 is especially     
termed his ,spirit3 the course of human 
being which results from the intercourse
 with ,god1 which ,god permits1 is a    
spiritual existence4 ,man is capable1 in
 no small degree1 of such an existence1 
of such an intercourse with ,god2 and1  
as we are authorized to term it1 of such
 a life with ,god1 and in ,god1 even    
while he continues in his present human 
existence4 ,i say authorized1 because   
such expressions are used1 though       
reverently1 by the most religious men2  
who are1 at any rate1 authority as to   
their own sentiments2 which are the     
basis of our reasoning4 ,whatever1 then1
 may be the imperfection1 in this life1 
of such a union with ,god1 yet since man
 can1 when sufficiently assisted and    
favored by ,god1 enter upon such a      
union1 we cannot but think it most      
credible and most natural1 that he      

should be the object of ,god's special  
care and regard1 even of his love and   
presence4  #db4 ,that men are1 only in a
 comparatively small number of cases1   
intellectual1 moral1 religious1 and     
spiritual1 in the degree which ,i have  
described1 does not1 by any means1      
deprive our argument of its force4 ,the 
capacity of man is1 that he may become  
this2 and such a capacity may well make 
him a special object in the eyes of ,him
 under whose guidance and by whose aid1 
such a development and elevation of his 
nature is open to him4 ,however         
imperfect and degraded1 however         
unintellectual1 immoral1 irreligious1   
and unspiritual1 a great part of mankind
 may be1 still they all have the germs  
of such an elevation of their nature2   
and a large portion of them make1 we    
cannot doubt1 no small progress in this 
career of advancement to a spiritual    
condition4 ,and with such capacities1   
and such practical exercise of those    
capacities1 we can have no difficulty in

 believing1 if the evidence directs us  
to believe1 that that part of the       
creation in which man has his present   
appointed place1 is the special field of
 ,god's care and love2 by whatever      
wastes of space1 and multitudes of      
material bodies1 it may be surrounded2  
by whatever races it may have been      
previously occupied1 of brutes that     
perish1 and that1 compared with man1 can
 hardly be said to have lived4          
,,footnotes3  #a ,lyell1 ,,ii4 #dbj4    
#fth ,ed4  #b ,cuvier4  #c ,by ,bishop  
,berkeley4 ,see ,lyell1 ,,iii4 #cdf4  #d
 ,a recent popular writer1 who has      
asserted the self-civilizing tendency of
 man1 has not been able1 it would seem1 
to adduce any example of the operation  
of this tendency1 except a single tribe 
of ,north ,american ,indians1 in whom it
 operated for a short time1 and to a    
small extent4     ,,chapter ,,vii4      
,,the ,,nebulae   #a4 ,i have attempted 
to show that1 even if we suppose the    
other bodies of the universe to resemble

 the ,earth1 so far as to seem1 by their
 materials1 forms1 and motions1 no less 
fitted than she is to be the abodes of  
life2 yet that1 knowing what we do of   
man1 we can believe that the ,earth is  
tenanted by a race who are the special  
objects of ,god's care4 ,even if the    
tendency of the analogies of creation   
were1 to incline us to suppose that the 
other planets are as well suited as our 
globe1 to have inhabitants1 still it    
would require a great amount of         
evidence1 to make us believe that they  
have such inhabitants as we are2 while  
yet such evidence is altogether wanting4
 ,even if we knew that the stars were   
the centres of revolving systems1 we    
should have an immense difficulty in    
believing that an ,earth1 with such a   
population as ours1 revolves about any  
of them4 ,if astronomy made a plurality 
of worlds probable1 we have strong      
reasonings1 drawn from other subjects1  
to think that the other worlds are not  
like ours4  #b4 ,the admirers of        

astronomical triumphs may perhaps be    
disposed to say1 that when so much has  
been discovered1 we may be allowed to   
complete the scheme by the exercise of  
fancy4 ,i have attempted to show that we
 are not in such a state of ignorance1  
when we look at other relations of the  
earth and of man1 as to allow us to do  
this4 ,but now we may go a little       
onwards in our argument2 and may ask1   
whether ,astronomy really does what is  
here claimed for her3--whether she      
carries us so securely to the bounds of 
the visible universe1 that our ,fancy   
may take up the task1 and people the    
space thus explored3--whether the bodies
 which ,astronomy has examined1 be      
really as fitted as our ,earth1 to      
sustain a population of living          
things3--whether the most distant       
objects in the universe do really seem  
to be systems1 or the beginnings of     
systems3--whether ,astronomy herself may
 not incline in favor of the condition  
of man1 as being the sole creature of   

his kind8  #c4 ,in making this inquiry1 
it will of course be understood1 that ,i
 do so with the highest admiration for  
the vast discoveries which ,astronomy   
has really made2 and for the marvellous 
skill and invention of the great men who
 have1 in all ages of the world1 and not
 least1 in our time1 been the authors of
 such discoveries4 ,from the time when  
,galileo first discovered the system of 
,jupiter's satellites1 to the last      
scrutiny of the structure of a nebula by
 ,lord ,rosse's gigantic telescope1 the 
history of the telescopic exploration of
 the sky1 has been a history of genius  
felicitously employed in revealing      
wonders4 ,in this history1 the noble    
labors of the first and the second      
,herschel relative to the distribution  
of the fixed stars1 the forms and       
classes of nebulae1 and the phenomena of
 double stars1 especially bear upon our 
present speculations2 to which we may   
add1 the examination of the aspect of   
each planet1 by various observers1 as   

,schroeter1 and of the moon by others1  
from ,huyghens to ,maedler and ,beer4   
,the achievements which are most likely 
to occur to the reader's mind are those 
of the ,earl of ,rosse2 as being the    
latest addition to our knowledge1 and   
the result of the greatest instrumental 
powers4 ,by the energy and ingenuity of 
that eminent person1 an eye is directed 
to the heavens1 having a pupil of six   
feet diameter1 with the most complete   
optical structure1 and the power of     
ranging about for its objects over a    
great extent of sky2 and thus the       
quantity of light which the eye receives
 from any point of the heavens is       
augmented1 it may be1 fifty thousand    
times4 ,the rising ,moon is seen from   
the ,observatory in ,ireland with the   
same increase of size and light1 as if  
her solid globe1 two thousand miles in  
diameter1 retaining all its             
illumination1 really rested upon the    
summits of the ,alps1 to be gazed at by 
the naked eye4 ,an object which appears 

to the naked eye a single star1 may1 by 
this telescope1 so far as its power of  
seeing is concerned1 be resolved into   
fifty thousand stars1 each of the same  
brightness as the obvious star4 ,what   
seems to the unassisted vision a nebula1
 a patch of diluted light1 in which no  
distinct luminous point can be detected1
 may1 by such an instrument1 be         
discriminated or resolved into a number 
of bright dots2 as the stippled shades  
of an engraving are resolved into dots  
by the application of a powerful        
magnifying glass4 ,similar results of   
the application of great telescopic     
power had of course been attained long  
previously2 but1 as the nature of       
scientific research is1 each step adds  
something to our means of knowledge2 and
 the last addition assumes1 includes1   
and augments the knowledge which we     
possessed before4 ,the discussions in   
which we are engaged1 belong to the very
 boundary region of science2--to the    
frontier where knowledge1 at least      

astronomical knowledge1 ends1 and       
ignorance begins4 ,such discoveries1    
therefore1 as those made by ,lord       
,rosse's telescope1 require our special 
notice here4  #d4 ,we may begin1 at what
 appears to us the outskirts of         
creation1 the ,nebulae4 ,at one time it 
was conceived by astronomers in general1
 that these patches of diffused light1  
which are seen by them in such profusion
 in the sky1 are not luminous bodies of 
regular terms and definite boundaries1  
apparently solid1 as the stars are      
supposed to be2 but really1 as even to  
good telescopes many of them seem1      
masses of luminous cloud or vapor1      
loosely held together1 as clouds and    
vapors are1 and not capable by any      
powers of vision of being resolved into 
distinct visible elements4 ,this opinion
 was for a time so confidentially       
entertained1 that there was founded upon
 it an hypothesis1 that these were      
gaseous masses1 out of which suns and   
systems might afterwards be formed1 by  

the concentration of these luminous     
vapors into a solid central sun1 more   
intensely luminous2 while detached      
portions of the mass1 flying off1 and   
cooling down so as to be no longer      
self-luminous1 might revolve round the  
central body1 as planets and satellites4
 ,this is the ,nebular ,hypothesis1     
suggested by the elder ,herschel1 and   
adopted by the great mathematician      
,laplace4  #e4 ,but the result of the   
optical scrutiny of the nebulae by more 
modern observers1 especially by ,lord   
,rosse in ,ireland1 and ,mr4 ,bond in   
,america1 has been1 that many celestial 
objects which were regarded before as   
truly nebulous1 have been resolved into 
stars2 and this resolution has been     
extended to so many cases of nebulae1 of
 such various kinds1 as to have produced
 a strong suspicion in the minds of     
astronomers that all the nebulae1       
however different in their appearance1  
may really be resolved into stars1 if   
they be attacked with optical powers    

sufficiently great4  #f4 ,if this were  
to be assumed as done1 and if each of   
the separate points1 into which the     
nebulae are thus resolved1 were         
conceived to be a star1 which looks so  
small only because it is so distant1 and
 which really is as likely to have a    
system of planets revolving about it1 as
 is a star of the first magnitude3--we  
should then have a view of the immensity
 of the visible universe1 such as ,i    
presented to the reader in the beginning
 of this essay4 ,all the distant nebulae
 appear as nebulae1 only because they   
are so distant2 if truly seen1 they are 
groups of stars1 of which each may be as
 important as our sun1 being1 like it1  
the centre of a planetary system4 ,and  
thus1 a patch of the heavens1 one       
hundredth or one thousandth part of the 
visible breadth of our sun1 may contain 
in it more life1 not only than exists in
 the solar system1 but in as many such  
systems as the unassisted eye can see   
stars in the heavens1 on the clearest   

winter night4  #g4 ,this is a stupendous
 view of the greatness of the creation2 
and1 to many persons1 its very majesty1 
derived from magnitude and number1 will 
make it so striking and acceptable1     
that1 once apprehended1 they will feel  
as if there were a kind of irreverence  
in disturbing it4 ,but if this view be  
really not tenable when more closely    
examined1 it is1 after all1 not wise to 
connect our feelings of religious       
reverence with it1 so that they shall   
suffer a shock when we are obliged to   
reject it4 ,i may add1 that we may      
entertain an undoubting trust that any  
view of the creation which is found to  
be true1 will also be found to supply   
material for reverential contemplation4 
,i venture to hope that we may1 by      
further examination1 be led to a        
reverence of a deeper and more solemn   
character than a mere wonder at the     
immensity of space and number4  #h4 ,but
 whatever the result may be1 let us     
consider the evidence for this view4 ,it

 assumes that all the ,nebulae are      
resolvable into stars1 and that they    
appear as nebulae only because they are 
more distant than the region in which   
they can appear as stars4 ,are there any
 facts1 any phenomena in the heavens1   
which may help us to determine whether  
this is a probable opinion8  #i4 ,it is 
most satisfactory for us1 when we can1  
in such inquiries1 know the thoughts    
which have suggested themselves to the  
minds of those who have examined the    
phenomena with the most complete        
knowledge1 the greatest care1 and the   
best advantages2 and have speculated    
upon these phenomena in a way both      
profound and unprejudiced4 ,some remarks
 of ,sir ,john ,herschel1 recommended by
 these precious characters1 seem to me  
to bear strongly upon the question which
 ,i have just had to ask3--,do all the  
nebulae owe their nebulous appearance to
 their being too distant to be seen as  
groups of distinct stars1 though they   
really are such groups8  #aj4 ,herschel1

 in the visit which he made to the ,cape
 of ,good ,hope1 for the purpose of     
erecting to his father the most splendid
 monument that son ever erected1--the   
completed survey of the vault of        
heaven1--had full opportunity of        
studying a certain pair of remarkable   
bright spaces of the skies1 filled with 
a cloudy light1 which lie near the      
southern pole2 and which1 having been   
unavoidably noticed by the first        
,antarctic voyagers1 are called the     
,magellanic ,clouds4 ,when the larger of
 these two clouds is examined through   
powerful telescopes1 it presents1 we are
 told1 a constitution of uncommon       
complexity3 large patches and tracts of 
nebulosity in every stage of resolution1
 from light1 irresolvable with eighteen 
inches of reflecting aperture1 up to    
perfectly separated stars like the      
,milky ,way1 and clustering groups      
sufficiently insulated and condensed to 
come under the designation of irregular1
 and in some cases pretty rich clusters4

 ,but besides these1 there are also     
nebulae in abundance1 both regular and  
irregular2 globular clusters in every   
stage of condensation1 and objects of a 
nebulous character quite peculiar1 and  
which have no analogies in any other    
region of the heavens4#a ,he goes on to 
say1 that these nebulae and clusters are
 far more crowded in this space than    
they are in any other1 even the most    
crowded parts1 of the nebulous heavens4 
,this ,nubecula ,major1 as it is termed1
 is of a round or oval form1 and its    
diameter is about six degrees1 so that  
it is about twelve times the apparent   
diameter of the moon4 ,the ,nubecula    
,minor is a smaller patch of the same   
kind4 ,if we suppose the space occupied 
by the various objects which the        
nubecula major includes1 to be1 in a    
general way1 spherical1 its nearest and 
most remote parts must 7as its angular  
size proves7 differ in their distance   
from us by little more than a tenth part
 of our distance from its centre4 ,that 

the two nubeculae are thus approximately
 spherical spaces1 is in the highest    
degree probable2 not only from the      
peculiarity of their contents1 which    
suggests the notion of a peculiar group 
of objects1 collected into a limited    
space2 but from the barrenness1 as to   
such objects1 of the sky in the         
neighborhood of these ,magellanic       
,clouds4 ,to suppose 7the only other    
possible supposition7 that they are two 
columns of space1 with their ends turned
 towards us1 and their lengths hundreds 
and thousands of times their breadths1  
would be too fantastical a proceeding to
 be tolerated2 and would1 after all1 not
 explain the facts without further      
altogether arbitrary assumptions4  #aa4 
,it appears1 then1 that1 in these       
groups1 there are stars of various      
magnitudes1 clusters of various forms1  
nebulae regular and irregular1 nebulous 
tracts and patches of peculiar          
character2 and all so disposed1 that the
 most distant of them1 whichever these  

may be1 are not more than one-tenth more
 distant than the nearest4 ,if the      
nearest star in this space be at nine   
times the distance of ,sirius1 the      
farthest nebulae1 contained in the same 
space1 will not be at more than ten     
times the distance of ,sirius4 ,of      
course1 the doctrine that nebulae are   
seen as nebulae1 merely because they are
 so distant1 requires us to assume all  
nebulae to be hundreds and thousands of 
times more distant than the smallest    
stars4 ,if stars of the eighth magnitude
 7which are hardly visible to the naked 
eye7 be eight times as remote as        
,sirius1 a nebula containing a thousand 
stars1 which is invisible to the naked  
eye1 must be more than eight thousand   
times as remote as ,sirius4 ,and thus   
if1 in the whole galaxy1 we reckon only 
the stars as far as the eighth          
magnitude1 and suppose all the stars of 
the galaxy to form a nebula1 which is   
visible to the spectators in a distant  
nebula1 only as their nebula is visible 

to us2 we must place them at eight      
thousand times two hundred thousand     
times the distance of the ,sun2 and1    
even so1 we are obviously vastly        
understating the calculation4 ,these are
 the gigantic estimates with which some 
astronomical speculators have been in   
the habit of overwhelming the minds of  
their listeners2 and these views have   
given a kind of majesty to the aspect of
 the nebulae2 and have led some persons 
to speak of the discovery of every new  
streak of nebulous light in the starry  
heavens1 as a discovery of new worlds1  
and still new worlds4 ,but the          
,magellanic ,clouds show us very clearly
 that all these calculations are        
entirely baseless4 ,in those regions of 
space1 there coexists1 in a limited     
compass1 and in indiscriminate position1
 stars1 clusters of stars1 nebulae1     
regular and irregular1 and nebulous     
streaks and patches4 ,these1 then1 are  
different kinds of things in themselves1
 not merely different to us4 ,there are 

such things as nebulae side by side with
 stars1 and with clusters of stars4     
,nebulous matter resolvable occurs close
 to nebulous matter irresolvable4 ,the  
last and widest step by which the       
dimensions of the universe have been    
expanded in the notions of eager        
speculators1 is checked by a completer  
knowledge and a sager spirit of         
speculation4 ,whatever inference we may 
draw from the resolvability of some of  
the nebulae1 we may not draw this       
inference2--that they are more distant1 
and contain a larger array of systems   
and of worlds1 in proportion as they are
 difficult to resolve4  #ab4 ,but       
indeed1 if we consider this process1 of 
the resolution of nebulae into luminous 
points1 on its own ground1 without      
looking to such facts as ,i have just   
adduced1 it will be difficult1 or       
impossible1 to assign any reason why it 
should lead to such inferences as have  
been drawn from it4 ,let us look at this
 matter more clearly4 ,an astronomer1   

armed with a powerful telescope1        
resolves a nebula1 discerns that a      
luminous cloud is composed of shining   
dots3--but what are these dots8 ,into   
what does he resolve the nebula8 ,into  
,stars1 it is commonly said4 ,let us not
 wrangle about words4 ,by all means let 
these dots be ,stars1 if we know about  
what we are speaking3 if a ,star merely 
mean a luminous dot in the sky4 ,but    
that these stars shall resemble1 in     
their nature1 stars of the first        
magnitude1 and that such stars shall    
resemble our ,sun1 are surely very bold 
structures of assumption to build on    
such a basis4 ,some nebulae are         
resolvable2 are resolvable into distinct
 points2 certainly a very curious1      
probably an important discovery4 ,we may
 hereafter learn that all nebulae are   
resolvable into distinct points3 that   
would be a still more curious discovery4
 ,but what would it amount to8 ,what    
would be the simple way of expressing   
it1 without hypothesis1 and without     

assumption8 ,plainly this3 that the     
substance of all nebulae is not         
continuous1 but discrete2--separable1   
and separate into distinct luminous     
elements2--nebulae are1 it would then   
seem1 as it were1 of a curdled or       
granulated texture2 they have run into  
lumps of light1 or have been formed     
originally of such lumps4 ,highly       
curious4 ,but what are these lumps8 ,how
 large are they8 ,at what distances8 ,of
 what structure8 ,of what use8 ,it would
 seem that he must be a bold man who    
undertakes to answer these questions4   
,certainly he must appear to ordinary   
thinkers to be very bold1 who1 in reply1
 says1 gravely and confidently1 as if he
 had unquestionable authority for his   
teaching3--,these lumps1 ,o man1 are    
,suns2 they are distant from each other 
as far as the ,dog-star is from us2 each
 has its system of ,planets1 which      
revolve around it2 and each of these    
,planets is the seat of an animal and   
vegetable creation4 ,among these        

,planets1 some1 we do not yet know how  
many1 are occupied by rational and      
responsible creatures1 like ,man2 and   
the only matter which perplexes us1     
holding this belief on astronomical     
grounds1 is1 that we do not quite see   
how to put our theology into its due    
place and form in our system4  #ac4 ,in 
discussing such matters as these1 where 
our knowledge and our ignorance are so  
curiously blended together1 and where it
 is so difficult to make men feel that  
so much ignorance can lie so close to so
 much knowledge2--to make them believe  
that they have been allowed to discover 
so much1 and yet are not allowed to     
discover more3--we may be permitted to  
illustrate our meaning1 by supposing a  
case of blended knowledge and ignorance1
 of real and imaginary discovery4       
,suppose that there were carried from a 
scientific to a more ignorant nation1   
excellent maps of the world1 finely     
engraved2 the mountain-ranges shaded in 
the most delicate manner1 and the sheet 

crowded with information of all kinds1  
in writing large1 small1 and            
microscopic4 ,suppose also1 that when   
these maps had been studied with the    
naked eye1 so as to establish a profound
 respect for the knowledge and skill of 
the author of them1 some of those who   
perused them should be furnished with   
good microscopes1 so as to carry their  
examination further than before4 ,they  
might then find that1 in several parts1 
what before appeared to be merely       
crooked lines1 was really writing1      
stating1 it may be1 the amount of       
population of a province1 or the date of
 foundation of a town4 ,to exhaust all  
the information thus contained on the   
maps1 might be a work of considerable   
time and labor4 ,but suppose that1 when 
this was done1 a body of resolute       
microscopists should insist that the    
information which the map contained was 
not exhausted3 that they should continue
 peering perseveringly at the lines     
which formed the shading of the         

mountains1 maintaining that these lines 
also were writing1 if only it might be  
deciphered2 and should go on increasing1
 with immense labor and ingenuity1 the  
powers of their microscopes1 in order to
 discover the legend contained in these 
unmeaning lines4 ,we should1 perhaps1   
have here an image of the employment of 
these astronomers1 who now go on looking
 in nebulae for worlds4 ,and we may     
notice in passing1 that several of the  
arguments which are used by such        
astronomers1 might be used1 and would be
 used1 by our microscopists3--how       
improbable it was that a person so full 
of knowledge1 and so able to convey it1 
as the author of the maps was known to  
be1 should not have a design and purpose
 in every line that he drew3 what a     
waste of space it would be to leave any 
part of the sheet blank of information2 
and the like4 ,to which the reply is to 
us obvious2 that the design of shading  
the mountains was design enough2 and    
that the information conveyed was all   

that was necessary or convenient4 ,nor  
does this illustration at all tend to   
show that such astronomical scrutiny1   
directed intelligently1 with a right    
selection of the points examined1 may   
not be highly interesting and important4
 ,if the microscopists had examined the 
map with a view to determine the best   
way in which mountains can be indicated 
by shading1 they would have employed    
themselves upon a question which has    
been the subject of multiplied and      
instructive discussion in our own day4  
#ad4 ,but to return to the subject of   
,nebulae1 we may further say1 with the  
most complete confidence1 that whether  
or not nebulous matter be generally     
resolvable into shining dots1 it cannot 
possibly be true that its being1 or not 
being so resolvable by our telescopes1  
depends merely upon its smaller or      
greater distance from the observer4     
,for1 in the first place1 that there is 
matter1 to the best assisted eye not    
distinguishable from nebulous matter1   

which is not so resolvable1 is proved by
 several facts4 ,the tails of ,comets   
often resemble nebulae2 so much so that 
there are several known nebulae1 which  
are1 by the less experienced explorers  
of the sky1 perpetually mistaken for    
comets1 till they are proved not to be  
so1 by their having no cometary motion4 
,such is the nebula in ,andromeda1 which
 is visible to the naked eye4#b ,but the
 tails and nebulous appendages of       
comets1 though they alter their         
appearance very greatly1 according to   
the power of the telescope with which   
they are examined1 have never been      
resolved into stars1 or any kind of     
dots2 and seem1 by all investigations1  
to be sheets or cylinders or cones of   
luminous vapor1 changing their form as  
they approach to or recede from the sun1
 and perhaps by the influence of other  
causes4 ,yet some of them approach very 
near the earth2 all of them come within 
the limits of our system4 ,here1 then1  
we have 7probably1 at least17 nebulous  

matter1 which when brought close to the 
eye1 compared with the stellar nebulae1 
still appears as nebulous4  #ae4 ,again1
 as another phenomenon1 bearing upon the
 same question1 we have the ,zodiacal   
,light4 ,this is a faint cone of light#c
 which1 at certain seasons1 may be seen 
extending from the horizon obliquely    
upwards1 and following the course of the
 ecliptic1 or rather1 of the sun's      
equator4 ,it appears to be a lens-shaped
 envelope of the sun1 extending beyond  
the orbits of ,mercury and ,venus1 and  
nearly attaining that of the earth2 and 
in ,sir ,john ,herschel's view1 may be  
regarded as placing the sun in the list 
of nebulous stars4 ,no one has ever     
thought that this nebulous appearance   
was resolvable into luminous points2 but
 if it were1 probably not even the most 
sanguine of speculators on the multitude
 of suns would call these points suns4  
#af4 ,but indeed the nebulae themselves1
 and especially the most remote of the  
nebulae1 or at least those which most   

especially require the most powerful    
telescopes1 offer far more decisive     
proofs that their resolvability or      
non-resolvability1--their apparent      
constitution as diffused and vaporous   
masses1--does not depend upon their     
distance4 ,a remarkable fact in the     
irregular1 and in some of the regular   
nebulae#d is1 that they consist of long 
patches and streaks1 which stretch out  
in various directions1 and of which the 
form#e and extent vary according to the 
visual power which is applied to them4  
,many of the nebulae and especially of  
the fainter ones1 entirely change their 
form with the optical power of the      
instrument by which they are            
scrutinized2 so that1 as seen in the    
mightier telescopes of modern times1 the
 astronomer scarcely recognizes the     
figures in which the earlier observers  
have recorded what they saw in the same 
place4 ,parts which1 before1 were       
separate1 are connected by thin bridges 
of light which are now detected2 and    

where the nebulous space appeared to be 
bounded1 it sends off long tails of     
faint light into the surrounding space4 
,now1 no one can suppose that these     
newly-seen portions of the nebula are   
immensely further off than the other    
parts4 ,however little we know of the   
nature of the object1 we must suppose it
 to be one connected object1 with all   
its parts1 as to sense1 at the same     
distance from us4 ,whether therefore it 
be resolvable or no1 there must be some 
other reason1 besides the difference of 
distance1 why the brighter parts were   
seen1 while the fainter parts were not4 
,the obvious reason is1 that the latter 
were not seen because they were thin    
films which required more light to see  
them4 ,we are led1 irresistibly as it   
seems1 to regard the whole mass of such 
a nebula1 as an aggregation of vaporous 
rolls and streaks1 assuming such forms  
as thin volumes of smoke or vapor often 
assume in our atmosphere1 and assuming1 
like them1 different shapes according to

 the quantity of light which comes to us
 from them4 ,if1 as soon as one of these
 new filaments or webs of a nebula comes
 into view1 we should say1 ,here we have
 a new array of suns and of worlds1 we  
should judge as fantastically1 as any   
one who should combine the like         
imaginations with the varying cloud-work
 of a summer-sky4 ,to suppose that all  
the varied streaks by which the patch of
 nebulous light shades off into the     
surrounding darkness1 and which change  
their form and extent with every        
additional polish which we can give to a
 reflecting or refracting surface1      
disclose1 with every new streak1 new    
worlds1 is a wanton indulgence of fancy1
 to which astronomy gives us no         
countenance4#f  #ag4 ,undoubtedly all   
true astronomers1 taught caution and    
temperance of thought by the discipline 
of their magnificent science1 abstain   
from founding such assumptions upon     
their discoveries4 ,they know how       
necessary it is to be upon their guard  

against the tricks which fancy plays    
with the senses2 and if they see        
appearances of which they cannot        
interpret the meaning1 they are content 
that they should have no meaning for    
them1 till the due explanation comes4   
,we have innumerable examples of this   
wise and cautious temper1 in all periods
 of astronomy4 ,one has occurred lately4
 ,several careful astronomers1 observing
 the stars by day1 had been surprised to
 see globes of light glide across the   
field of view of their telescopes1 often
 in rapid succession and in great       
numbers4 ,they did not1 as may be       
supposed1 rush to the assumption that   
these globes were celestial bodies of a 
new kind1 before unseen2 and that from  
the peculiarity of their appearance and 
movement1 they were probably inhabited  
by beings of a peculiar kind4 ,they     
proceeded very differently2 they altered
 the focus of their telescopes1 looked  
with other glasses1 made various changes
 and trials1 and finally discovered that

 these globes of light were the winged  
seeds of certain plants which were      
wafted through the air2 and which1      
illuminated by the sun1 were made       
globular by being at distances unsuited 
to the focus of the telescope4#g  #ah4  
,but perhaps something more may be      
founded on the ramified and straggling  
form which belongs to many of the       
nebulae4 ,under the powers of ,lord     
,rosse's telescope1 a considerable      
number of them assume a shape consisting
 of several spiral films diverging from 
one centre1 and growing broader and     
fainter as they diverge1 so as to       
resemble a curled feather1 or whirlpool 
of light4#h ,this form1 though generally
 deformed by irregularities1 more or    
less1 is traceable in so many of the    
nebulae1 that we cannot easily divest   
ourselves of the persuasion that there  
is some general reason for such a       
form2--that something1 in the mechanical
 causes which have produced the nebulae1
 has tended to give them this shape4    

,now1 when this thought has occurred to 
us1 since mathematicians have written a 
great deal concerning the mechanics of  
the universe1 it is natural to ask1     
whether any of the problems which they  
have solved give a result like that thus
 presented to our eyes4 ,do such spirals
 as we here see1 occur in any of the    
diagrams which illustrate the possible  
motions of celestial bodies8 ,and to    
this1 a person acquainted with          
mathematical literature might reply1    
that in the second ,book of ,newton's   
,principia1 in the part which has       
especial reference to the ,vortices of  
,descartes1 such spirals appear upon the
 page4 ,they represent the path which a 
body would describe if1 acted upon by a 
central force1 it had to move in a      
medium of which the resistance was      
considerable2--considerable1 that is1 in
 comparison with the other forces which 
act2 as for example1 the forces which   
deflect the motion from a straight line4
 ,indeed1 that in such a case a body    

would describe a spiral1 of which the   
general form would be more or less oval1
 is evident on a little consideration4  
,and in this way1 for instance1 ,encke's
 comet1 which1 if the resistance to its 
motion were insensible1 would go on     
describing an ellipse about the sun1    
always returning upon the same path     
after every revolution2 does really     
describe a path which1 at each          
revolution1 falls a little within the   
preceding revolution1 and thus gradually
 converges to the centre4 ,and if we    
suppose the comet to consist of a       
luminous mass1 or a string of masses1   
which should occupy a considerable arc  
of such an orbit1 the orbit would be    
marked by a track of light1 as an oval  
spiral4 ,or if such a comet were to     
separate into two portions1 as we have1 
with our own eyes1 recently seen        
,biela's comet do2 or into a greater    
number2 then these portions would be    
distributed along such a spiral4 ,and if
 we suppose a large mass of cometic     

matter thus to move in a highly         
resisting medium1 and to consist of     
patches of different densities1 then    
some would move faster and some more    
slowly2 but all1 in spirals such as have
 been spoken of2 and the general aspect 
produced would be1 that of the spiral   
nebulae which ,i have endeavored to     
describe4 ,the luminous matter would be 
more diffused in the outer and more     
condensed in the central parts1 because 
to the centre of attraction all the     
spirals converge4  #ai4 ,this would be  
so1 we say1 if the luminous matter moved
 in a greatly resisting medium4 ,but    
what is the measure of great resistance8
 ,it is1 as we have already said1 that  
the resistance which opposes the motion 
shall bear a considerable proportion to 
the force which deflects the motion4    
,but what is that force8 ,upon the      
theory of the universal gravitation of  
matter1 on which theory we here proceed1
 the force which deflects the motions of
 the parts of each system into curves1  

is the mutual attraction of the parts of
 the system2 leaving out of the account 
the action of other systems1 as         
comparatively insignificant and         
insensible4 ,the condition1 then1 for   
the production of such spiral figures as
 ,i have spoken of1 amounts really to   
this2 that the mutual attraction of the 
parts of the luminous matter is slight2 
or1 in other words1 that the matter     
itself is very thin and rare4 ,in that  
case1 indeed1 we can easily see that    
such a result would follow4 ,a cloud of 
dust1 or of smoke1 which was thin and   
light1 would make but a little way      
through the air1 and would soon fall    
downwards2 while a metal bullet shot    
horizontally with the same velocity1    
might fly for miles4 ,just so1 a loose  
and vaporous mass of cometic matter     
would be pulled rapidly inwards by the  
attraction to the centre2 and supposing 
it also drawn into a long train1 by the 
different density of its different      
parts1 it would trace1 in lines of      

light1 a circular or elliptical spiral  
converging to the centre of attraction1 
and resembling one of the branches of   
the spiral nebulae4 ,and if several such
 cometic masses thus travelled towards  
the centre1 they would exhibit the      
wheel-like figure with bent spokes1     
which is seen in the spiral nebulae4    
,and such a figure would all the more   
resemble some of these nebulae1 as seen 
through ,lord ,rosse's telescope1 if the
 spirals were accompanied by exterior   
branches of thinner and fainter light1  
which nebulous matter of smaller density
 might naturally form4 ,perhaps too1    
such matter1 when thin1 may be supposed 
to cool down more rapidly from its state
 of incandescence2 and thus to become   
less luminous4 ,if this were so1 a great
 optical power would of course be       
required1 to make the diverging branches
 visible at all4  #bj4 ,there is one    
additional remark1 which we may make1 as
 to the resemblance of cometary#i and   
nebular matter4 ,that cometary matter is

 of very small density1 we have many    
reasons to believe3--its transparency1  
which allows us to see stars through it 
undimmed2--the absence of any mechanical
 effect1 weight1 inertia1 impulse1 or   
attraction1 in the nearest appulses of  
comets to planets and satellites3--and  
the fact that1 in the recent remarkable 
event in the cometic history1 the       
separation of ,biela's comet into two1  
the two parts did not appear to exert   
any perceptible attraction on each      
other1 any more than two volumes of dust
 or of smoke would do on earth4         
,luminous cometary matter1 then1 is very
 light1 that is1 has very little weight 
or inertia4 ,and luminous nebulous      
matter is also very light in this sense3
 if our account of the cause of spiral  
nebulae has in it any truth4 ,but yet1  
if we suppose the nebulae to be governed
 by the law of universal gravitation1   
the attractive force of the luminous    
matter upon itself1 must be sufficient  
to bend the spirals into their forms4   

,how are we to reconcile this2 that the 
matter is so loose that it falls to the 
centre in rapid spirals1 and yet that it
 attracts so strongly that there is a   
centre1 and an energetic central force  
to curve the spirals thither8 ,to this1 
the reply which we must make is1 that   
the size of the nebular space is such1  
that though its rarity is extreme1 its  
whole mass is considerable4 ,one part   
does not perceptibly attract another1   
but the whole does perceptibly attract  
every part4 ,this indeed need the less  
surprise us1 since it is exactly the    
case with our earth4 ,one stone does not
 visibly attract another4 ,it is much   
indeed for man1 if he can make          
perceptible the attraction of a mountain
 upon a plumb-line2 or of a stratum of  
rock a thousand feet thick upon the     
going of a pendulum2 or of large masses 
of metal upon a delicate balance4 ,by   
such experiments men of science have    
endeavored to measure that minute thing1
 the attraction of one portion of       

terrestrial matter upon another2 and    
thus1 to weigh the whole mass of the    
earth4 ,and equally great1 at least1 may
 be the disproportion between the mutual
 attraction of two parts of a nebulous  
system1 and the total central           
attraction2 and thus1 though the former 
be insensible1 the latter may be        
important4  #ba4 ,it has been shown by  
,newton1 that if any mass of matter be  
distributed in a uniform sphere1 or in  
uniform concentric spherical shells1 the
 total attraction on a point without the
 sphere1 will be the same as if the     
whole mass were collected in that single
 point1 the centre4 ,now1 proceeding    
upon the supposition of such a          
distribution of the matter in a nebula1 
7which is a reasonable average          
supposition17 we may say1 that if our   
sun were expanded into a nebula reaching
 to the extreme bounds of the known     
solar system1 namely1 to the            
newly-discovered planet ,neptune1 or    
even hundreds of times further2 the     

attraction on an external point would   
remain the same as it is1 while the     
attraction on points within the sphere  
of diffusion would be less than it is2  
according to some law1 depending upon   
the degree of condensation of the       
nebular matter towards the centre2 but  
still1 in the outer regions of the      
nebula1 not differing much from the     
present solar attraction4 ,if we could  
discover a mass of luminous matter1     
descending in a spiral course towards   
the centre of such a nebula1 that is1   
towards the sun1 we should have a sort  
of element of the spiral nebulae which  
have now attracted so much of the       
attention of astronomers4 ,but1 by an   
extraordinary coincidence1 recent       
discoveries have presented to us such an
 element4 ,encke's comet1 of which we   
have just spoken1 appears to be         
describing such a spiral curve towards  
the sun4 ,it is found that its period   
is1 at every revolution1 shorter and    
shorter2 the amplitude of its sweep1 at 

every return within the limits of our   
observation1 narrower and narrower2 so  
that in the course of revolutions and   
ages1 however numerous1 still1 not such 
as to shake the evidence of the fact1 it
 will fall into the sun4  #bb4 ,here    
then we are irresistibly driven to      
calculate what degree of resemblance    
there is1 between the comet of ,encke1  
and the luminous elements of the spiral 
nebulae1 which have recently been found 
to exist in other regions of the        
universe4 ,can we compare its density   
with theirs8 ,can we learn whether the  
luminous matter in such nebulae is more 
diffused or less diffused1 than that of 
the comet of ,encke8 ,can we compare the
 mechanical power of getting through    
space1 as we may call it1 that is1 the  
ratio of the inertia to the resistance1 
in the one case1 and in the other8 ,if  
we can1 the comparison cannot fail1 it  
would seem1 to be very curious and      
instructive4 ,in this comparison1 as in 
most others to which cosmical relations 

conduct us1 we must expect that the     
numbers to which we are led1 will be of 
very considerable amount4 ,it is not    
equality in the density of the two      
luminous masses which we are to expect  
to find2 if we can mark their           
proportions by thousands of times1 we   
shall have made no small progress in    
such speculations4  #bc4 ,the comet of  
,encke describes a spiral1 gradually    
converging to the sun2 but at what rate 
converging8 ,in how many revolutions    
will it reach the sun8 ,of how many     
folds will its spire consist1 before it 
attains the end of its course8 ,the     
answer is3--,of very many4 ,the         
retardation of ,encke's ,comet is very  
small3 so small1 that it has tasked the 
highest powers of modern calculation to 
detect it4 ,still1 however1 it is there3
 detected1 and generally acknowledged1  
and confirmed by every revolution of the
 comet1 which brings it under our       
notice2 that is1 commonly1 about every  
three years4 ,and having this fact1 we  

must make what we can of it1 in         
reasoning on the condition of the       
universe4 ,no accuracy of calculation is
 necessary for our purpose3 it is       
enough1 if we bring into view the kind  
of scale of numbers to which calculation
 would lead us4  #bd4 ,encke's comet    
revolves round the sun in #a1baa days4  
,the period diminishes at present1 by   
about one-ninth of a day every          
revolution4 ,this amount of diminution  
will change1 as the orbit narrows2 but  
for our purpose1 it will be enough to   
consider it unchangeable4 ,the orbit    
therefore will cease to exist in a      
number of periods expressed by #i times 
#a1baa2 that is1 in something more that 
#aj1jjj revolutions2 and of course      
sooner than this1 in consequence of its 
coming in contact with the body of the  
sun4 ,in #cj1jjj years then1 it may be1 
this comet will complete its spiral1 and
 be absorbed by the central mass4 ,this 
long time1 this long series of ten      
thousand revolutions1 are long1 because 

the resistance is so small1 compared    
with the inertia of the moving mass4    
,however thin1 and rare1 and            
unsubstantial the comet may be1 the     
medium which resists it is much more so4
  #be4 ,but this spiral1 converging to  
its pole so slowly that it reaches it   
only after #aj1jjj circuits1 is very    
different indeed from the spirals which 
we see in the nebulae of which we have  
spoken4 ,in the most conspicuous of     
those1 there are only at most three or  
four circular or oval sweeps1 in each   
spiral1 or even the spiral reaches the  
centre before it has completed a single 
revolution round it4 ,now1 what are we  
to infer from this8 ,how is it1 that the
 comet has a spiral of so many          
revolutions1 and the nebulae of so few8 
,what difference of the mechanical      
conditions is indicated by this striking
 difference of form8 ,why1 while the    
,comet thus lingers longer in the outer 
space1 and approaches the sun by almost 
imperceptible degrees1 does the ,nebular

 ,element rush1 as it were1 headlong to 
its centre1 and show itself unable to   
circulate even for a few revolutions8   
#bf4 ,regarding the question as a       
mechanical problem1 the answer must be  
this3--,it is so1 because the nebula is 
so much more rare than the matter of the
 comet1 or the resisting medium so much 
more dense2 or combining the two        
suppositions1 because in the case of the
 comet1 the luminous matter has much    
more inertia1 more mechanical reality   
and substance1 than the medium through  
which it moves2 but in the nebula very  
little more4  #bg4 ,the numbers of      
revolutions of the spiral1 in the two   
cases1 may not exactly represent the    
difference of the proportions2 but1 as  
,i have said1 they may serve to show the
 scale of them2 and thus we may say1    
that if ,encke's comet1 approaching the 
centre by #aj1jjj revolutions1 is       
#ajj1jjj times as dense as the          
surrounding medium1 the elements of the 
nebula1 which reach the centre in a     

single revolution1 are only ten times as
 dense as the medium through which they 
have to move4#aj  #bh4 ,nor does this   
result 7that the bright element of the  
nebulae is so few times denser than the 
medium in which it moves7 offer anything
 which need surprise us3 for1 in truth1 
in a diffused nebula1 since we suppose  
that its parts have mechanical          
properties1 the nebula itself is a      
resisting medium4 ,the rarer parts1     
which may very naturally have cooled    
down in consequence of their rarity1 and
 so1 become non-luminous1 will resist   
the motions of the more dense and       
still-luminous portions4 ,if we recur to
 the supposition1 which we lately made1 
that the ,sun were expanded into a      
nebulous sphere1 reaching the orbit of  
,neptune1 the diffused matter would     
offer a far greater resistance to the   
motions of comets than they now         
experience4 ,in that case1 ,encke's     
comet might be brought to the centre    
after a few revolutions2 and if1 while  

it were thus descending1 it were to be  
drawn out into a string of luminous     
masses1 as ,biela's comet has begun to  
be1 these comets1 and any others1 would 
form separate luminous spiral tracks in 
the solar system2 and would convert it  
into a spiral nebula of many branches1  
like those which are now the most recent
 objects of astronomical wonder4  #bi4  
,it seems allowable to regard it as one 
of those coincidences1 in the epochs of 
related yet seeming unconnected         
discoveries1 which have so often        
occurred in the history of science2 that
 we should1 nearly at the same time1    
have had brought to our notice1 the     
prevalence of spiral nebulae1 and the   
circumstances1 in ,biela's and in       
,encke's comets1 which seem to explain  
them3 the one by showing the origin of  
luminous broken lines1 one part drifting
 on faster than another1 according to   
its different density1 as is usual in   
incoherent masses2#aa and the other by  
showing the origin of the spiral form of

 those lines1 arising from the motion   
being in a resisting medium4  #cj4 ,but 
though ,i have made suppositions by     
which our ,solar ,system might become a 
spiral nebula1 undoubtedly it is at     
present something very different2 and   
the leading points of difference are    
very important for us to consider4 ,and 
the main point is1 that which has       
already been cursorily noticed3 that    
instead of consisting of matter all     
nearly of the same density1 and a great 
deal of it luminous1 our ,solar ,system 
consists of kinds of matter immensely   
different in density1 and of large and  
regular portions which are not luminous4
 ,instead of a diffused nebula with     
vaporous comets trailing spiral tracks  
through a medium little rarer than      
themselves2 we have a central sun1 and  
the dark globes of the solid planets    
rolling round him1 in a medium so rare1 
that in thousands of revolutions not a  
vestige of retardation can be discovered
 by the most subtle and persevering     

researches of astronomers4 ,in the solar
 system1 the luminous matter is         
collected into the body of the sun2 the 
non-luminous matter1 into the planets4  
,and the comets and the resisting       
medium1 which offer a small exception to
 this account1 bear a proportion to the 
rest which the power of numbers scarce  
suffices to express4  #ca4 ,thus with   
regard to the density of matter in the  
solar system2 we have supposed1 as a    
mode of expression1 that the density of 
a comet1 ,encke's comet for instance1 is
 #ajj1jjj times that of the resisting   
medium4 ,probably this is greatly       
understated2 and probably also we       
greatly understate the matter1 when we  
suppose that the tail of a comet is     
#ajj1jjj times rarer than the matter of 
the sun4#ab ,and thus the resisting     
medium would be1 at a very low          
calculation1 #aj1jjj millions of times  
more rare than the substance of the sun4
  #cb4 ,and thus we are not1 ,i think1  
going too far1 when we say1 that our    

,solar ,system1 compared with spiral    
nebulous systems1 is a system completed 
and finished1 while they are mere       
confused1 indiscriminate1 incoherent    
masses4 ,in the ,nebulae1 we have loose 
matter of a thin and vaporous           
constitution1 differing as more or less 
rare1 more or less luminous1 in a small 
degree2 diffused over enormous spaces1  
in straggling and irregular forms2      
moving in devious and brief curves1 with
 no vestige of order or system1 or even 
of separation of different kinds of     
bodies4 ,in the ,solar ,system1 we have 
the luminous separated from the         
non-luminous1 the hot from the cold1 the
 dense from the rare2 and all1 luminous 
and non-luminous1 formed into globes1   
impressed with regular and orderly      
motions1 which continue the same for    
innumerable revolutions and cycles4#ac  
,the spiral nebulae1 compared with the  
solar system1 cannot be considered as   
other than a kind of chaos2 and not even
 a chaos1 in the sense of a state       

preceding an orderly and stable system2 
for there is no indication1 in those    
objects1 of any tendency towards such a 
system4 ,if we were to say that they    
appear mere shapeless masses1 flung off 
in the work of creating solar systems1  
we might perhaps disturb those who are  
resolved to find everywhere worlds like 
ours2 but it seems difficult to suggest 
any other reason for not saying so4     
#cc4 ,the same may be said of the other 
very irregular nebulae1 which spread out
 patches and paths of various degrees of
 brightness2 and shoot out1 into        
surrounding space1 faint branches which 
are of different form and extent1       
according to the optical power with     
which they are seen4 ,these irregular   
forms are incapable of being permanent  
according to the laws of mechanics4     
,they are not figures of equilibrium2   
and1 therefore1 must change by the      
attraction of the matter upon itself4   
,but if the tenuity of the matter is    
extreme1 and the resistance of the      

medium in which it floats considerable1 
this tendency to change and to          
condensation may be almost nullified2   
and the bright specks may long keep     
their straggling forms1 as the most     
fantastically shaped clouds of a        
summer-sky often do4 ,it is true1 it may
 be said that the reason why we see no  
change in the form of such nebulae1 is  
that our observations have not endured  
long enough2 all visible changes in the 
stars requiring an immense time1        
according to the gigantic scale of      
celestial mechanism4 ,but even this     
hypothesis 7it is no more7 tends to     
establish the extreme tenuity of the    
nebulae2 for more solid systems1 like   
our solar system1 require1 for the      
preservation of their form1 motions     
which are perceptible1 and indeed       
conspicuous1 in the course of a month2  
namely1 the motions of the planets4     
,all1 therefore1 concurs to prove the   
extreme tenuity of the substance of     
irregular nebulae4  #cd4 ,nebulae which 

assume a regular1 for instance1 a       
circular or oval shape1 with whatever   
variation of luminous density from the  
inner to the outer parts1 may have a    
form of equilibrium1 if their parts have
 a proper gyratory motion4 ,still1 we   
see no reason for supposing that these  
differ so much from irregular nebulae1  
as to be denser bodies1 kept in their   
forms by rapid motions4 ,we are rather  
led to believe that1 though perhaps     
denser than the spiral nebulae1 they are
 still of extremely thin and vaporous   
character4 ,it would seem very unlikely 
that these vast clouds of luminous vapor
 should be as dense as the tail of a    
comet2 since a portion of luminous      
matter so small as such a tail is1 must 
have cooled down from its most luminous 
condition2 and must require to be more  
dense than nebular matter in order to be
 visible at all by its own light4  #ce4 
,thus we appear to have good reason to  
believe that nebulae are vast masses of 
incoherent or gaseous matter1 of immense

 tenuity1 diffused in forms more or less
 irregular1 but all of them destitute of
 any regular system of solid moving     
bodies4 ,we seem1 therefore1 to have    
made it certain that these celestial    
objects at least are not inhabited4 ,no 
speculators have been bold enough to    
place inhabitants in a comet2 except1   
indeed1 some persons who have imagined  
that such a habitation1 carrying its    
inmates alternately into the close      
vicinity of the sun's surface1 and far  
beyond the orbit of ,uranus1 and thus   
exposing them to the fierce extremes of 
heat and cold1 might be the seat of     
penal inflictions on those who had      
deserved punishment by acts done in     
their life on one of the planets4 ,but  
even to give coherence to this wild     
imagination1 we must further suppose    
that the tenants of such prison-houses1 
though still sensible to human suffering
 from extreme heat and cold1 have bodies
 of the same vaporous and unsubstantial 
character as the vehicle in which they  

are thus carried about the system2 for  
no frame of solid structure could be    
sustained by the incoherent and varying 
volume of a comet4 ,and probably1 to    
people the nebulae with such thin and   
fiery forms1 is a mode of providing them
 with population1 that the most ardent  
advocates of the plurality of worlds are
 not prepared to adopt4  #cf4 ,so far   
then as the ,nebulae are concerned1 the 
improbability of their being inhabited1 
appears to mount to the highest point   
that can be conceived4 ,we may1 by the  
indulgence of fancy1 people the         
summer-clouds1 or the beams of the      
aurora borealis1 with living beings1 of 
the same kind of substance as those     
bright appearances themselves2 and in   
doing so1 we are not making any bolder  
assumption than we are1 when we stock   
the ,nebulae with inhabitants1 and call 
them in that sense1 distant worlds4     
,,footnotes3  #a ,herschel1 ,outl4 of   
,astr4 ,art4 #hic4  #b ,herschel1 ,outl4
 of ,astr4 ,art4 #hgd1 and ,plate #aa1  

,fig4 #c4  #c ,ibid4 ,art4 #hig4  #d    
,hersch4 #hgd4  #e ,ibid4 #hha-h4  #f   
,at the recent meeting of the ,british  
,association 7,sept4 #ahec71 drawings   
were exhibited of the same nebulae1 as  
seen through ,lord ,rosse's large       
telescope1 and through a telescope of   
three feet aperture4 ,with the smaller  
telescopic power1 all the characteristic
 features were lost4 ,the spiral        
structure 7see next ,article but one7   
has been almost entirely brought to     
light by the large telescope4  #g ,see  
monthly ,notices of the ,royal          
,astronomical ,society1 ,dec4 #ac1      
#ahej4  #h ,the frontispiece to this    
volume represents two of these ,spiral  
,nebulae2 those denominated #ea         
,messier1 and #ii ,messier1 as given by 
,lord ,rosse in the ,phil4 ,trans4 for  
#ahej4 ,the former of these two has a   
lateral focus1 besides the principal    
focus or pole4  #i ,i am aware that some
 astronomers do not consider it as      
proved that cometary matter is entirely 

self-luminous4 ,arago found that the    
light of a ,comet contained a portion of
 polarized light1 thus proving that it  
had been reflected 7,cosmos1 ,i4 p4     
#aaa1 and ,,iii4 p4 #eff74 ,but ,i think
 the opinion that the greater part of   
the light is self-luminous1 like the    
nebulae1 generally prevails4 ,any other 
supposition is scarcely consistent with 
the rapid changes of brightness which   
occur in a comet during its motion to   
and from the ,sun4  #aj ,we assume here 
that the number of revolutions to the   
centre is greater in proportion as the  
relative density of the resisting medium
 is less2 which is by no means          
mechanically true2 but the calculation  
may serve1 as we have said1 to show the 
scale of the numbers involved4  #aa     
,humboldt1 whom nothing relative to the 
history of science escapes1 quotes from 
,seneca a passage in which mention is   
made of a ,comet which divided into two 
parts2 and from the ,chinese ,annals1 a 
notice of three coupled ,comets1 which  

in the year #hif appeared1 and described
 their paths together4 ,cosmos1 ,,iii4  
p4 #egj1 and the notes4  #ab ,laplace   
has proved that the masses of comets are
 very small4 ,he reckons their mean mass
 as very much less than #a-ajjjjjth of  
the ,earth's mass4 ,and hence1          
considering their great size1 we see how
 rare they must be4 ,see ,expos4 du     
,syst4 du ,monde4  #ac ,humboldt        
repeatedly expresses his conviction that
 our ,solar ,system contains a greater  
variety of forms than other systems4    
7,cosmos1 ,,iii4 #cgc and #ehg47        
,,chapter ,,viii4  ,,the ,,fixed        
,,stars4   #a4 ,we appear1 in the last  
chapter1 to have cleared away the       
supposed inhabitants of the outskirts of
 creation1 so far as the ,nebulae are   
the outskirts of creation4 ,we must now 
approach a little nearer1 in appearance 
at least1 to our own system4 ,we must   
consider the ,fixed ,stars2 and examine 
any evidence which we may be able to    
discover1 as to the probability of their

 containing1 in themselves or in        
accompanying bodies1 as planets1        
inhabitants of any kind4 ,any special   
evidence which we can discern on this   
subject1 either way1 is indeed slight4  
,on the one side we have the asserted   
analogy of the parts of the universe2 of
 which point we have spoken1 and may    
have more to say hereafter4 ,each ,fixed
 ,star is conceived to be of the nature 
of our ,sun2 and therefore1 like him1   
the centre of a planetary system4 ,on   
the other side1 it is extremely         
difficult to find any special facts     
relative to the nature of the fixed     
stars1 which may enable us in any degree
 to judge how far they really are of a  
like nature with the ,sun1 and how far  
this resemblance goes4 ,we may1 however1
 notice a few features in the starry    
heavens1 with which1 in the absence of  
any stronger grounds1 we may be allowed 
to connect our speculations on such     
questions4 ,the assiduous scrutiny of   
the stars which has been pursued by the 

most eminent astronomers1 and the       
reflections which their researches have 
suggested to them1 may have a new       
interest1 when discussed under this     
point of view4  #b4 ,next after the     
,nebulae1 the cases which may most      
naturally engage our attention1 are     
,clusters of stars4 ,the cases1 indeed1 
in which these clusters are the closest1
 and the stars the smallest1 and in     
which1 therefore1 it is only by the aid 
of a good telescope that they are       
resolved into stars1 do not differ from 
the resolvable nebulae1 except in the   
degree of optical power which is        
required to resolve them4 ,we may1      
therefore1 it would seem1 apply to such 
clusters1 what we have said of          
resolvable nebulae3 that when they are  
thus1 by the application of telescopic  
power1 resolved into bright points1 it  
seems to be a very bold assumption to   
assume1 without further proof1 that     
these bright points are suns1 distant   
from each other as far as we are from   

the nearest stars4 ,the boldness of such
 an assumption appears to be felt by our
 wisest astronomers4#a ,that several of 
the clusters which are visible1 some of 
them appearing as if the component stars
 were gathered together in a nearly     
spherical form1 are systems bound       
together by some special force1 or some 
common origin1 we may regard1 with those
 astronomers1 as in the highest degree  
probable4 ,with respect to the stability
 of the form of such a system1 a curious
 remark has been made by ,sir ,john     
,herschel1#b that if we suppose a       
globular space filled with equal stars1 
uniformly dispersed through it1 the     
particular stars might go on forever1   
describing ellipses about the centre of 
the globe1 in all directions1 and of all
 sizes2 and all completing their        
revolutions in the same time4 ,this     
follows1 because1 as ,newton has shown1 
in such a case1 the compound force which
 tends to the centre of the sphere would
 be everywhere proportional to the      

distance from the centre2 and under the 
action of such a force1 ellipses about  
the centre would be described1 all the  
periods being of the same amount4 ,this 
kind of symmetrical and simple          
systematic motion1 presented by ,newton 
as a mere exemplification of the results
 of his mechanical principles1 is       
perhaps realized1 approximately at      
least1 in some of the globular clusters4
 ,the motions will be swift or slow1    
according to the total mass of the      
groups4 ,if1 for instance1 our ,sun were
 thus broken into fragments1 so as to   
fill the sphere girdled by the earth's  
orbit1 all the fragments would revolve  
round the centre in a year4 ,now1 there 
is no symptom1 in any cluster1 of its   
parts moving nearly so fast as this2 and
 therefore we have1 it would seem1      
evidence that the groups are much less  
dense than would be the space so filled 
with fragments of the sun4 ,the slowness
 of the motions1 in this case1 as in the
 nebulae1 is evidence of the weakness of

 the forces1 and therefore1 of the      
rarity of the mass2 and till we have    
some gyratory motion discovered in these
 groups1 we have nothing to limit our   
supposition of the extreme tenuity of   
their total substance4  #c4 ,let us then
 go on to the cases in which we have    
proof of such gyratory motions in the   
stars2 for such are not wanting4 ,fifty 
years ago1 ,herschel the father1 had    
already ascertained that there are      
certain pairs of stars1 very near each  
other 7so near1 indeed1 that to the     
unassisted eye they are seen as single  
stars only17 and which revolve about    
each other4 ,these ,binary ,sidereal    
,systems have since been examined with  
immense diligence and profound skill by 
,herschel the son1 and others2 and the  
number of such binary systems has been  
found1 by such observers1 to be very    
considerable4 ,the periods of their     
revolutions are of various lengths1 from
 #cj or #dj years to several hundreds of
 years4 ,some of those pairs which have 

the shortest periods1 have already1     
since the nature of their movements was 
discovered1 performed more than a       
complete revolution2#c thus leaving no  
room for doubting that their motions are
 really of this gyratory kind4 ,not only
 the fact1 but the law of this orbital  
motion1 has been investigated2 and the  
investigations1 which naturally were    
commenced on the hypothesis that these  
distant bodies were governed by that    
,law of universal ,gravitation1 which   
prevails throughout the solar system1   
and so completely explains the minutest 
features of its motions1 have ended in  
establishing the reality of that ,law1  
for several ,binary ,systems1 with as   
complete evidence as that which carries 
its operations to the orbits of ,uranus 
and ,neptune4  #d4 ,being able thus to  
discern1 in distant regions of the      
universe1 bodies revolving about each   
other1 we have the means of determining1
 as we do in our own solar system1 the  
masses of the bodies so revolving4 ,but 

for this purpose1 we must know their    
distance from each other2 which is1 to  
our vision1 exceedingly small1          
requiring1 as we have said1 high        
magnifying powers to make it visible at 
all4 ,and again1 to know what linear    
distance this small visible distance    
represents1 we must know the distance of
 the stars from us1 which is1 for every 
star1 as we know1 immensely great2 and  
for most1 we are destitute of all means 
of determining how great it is4 ,there  
are1 however1 some of these binary      
systems1 in which astronomers conceive  
that they have sufficiently ascertained 
the value of both these elements1 7the  
distance of the two stars from each     
other1 and from us17 to enable them to  
proceed with the calculation of which ,i
 have spoken2 the determination of the  
masses of the revolving bodies4 ,in the 
case of the star ,alpha ,centauri1 the  
first star in the constellation of the  
,centaur1 the period is reckoned to be  
#gg years2 and as1 by the same          

calculator1 the apparent semi-axis of   
the orbit described is stated at #ae    
seconds of space1 while the annual      
parallax of each star is about one      
second1 it is evident that the orbit    
must have a radius about #ae times the  
radius of the earth's orbit2 that is1 an
 orbit greater than that of ,saturn1 and
 approaching to that of ,uranus4 ,in the
 solar system1 a revolution in such an  
orbit would occupy a time greater than  
that of ,saturn1 which is #cj years1 and
 less than that of ,uranus1 which is    
about #hj years3 it would1 in fact1 be  
about #eh years4 ,and since1 in the     
binary star1 the period is greater than 
this1 namely #gg years1 the attraction  
which holds together its two elements   
must be less than that which holds      
together the ,sun and a planet at the   
same distance2 and therefore the masses 
of the two stars together are           
considerably less than the mass of our  
sun4  #e4 ,a like conclusion is derived 
from another of these conspicuous double

 stars1 namely1 the one termed by       
astronomers #fa ,cygni2 of which the    
annual parallax has lately been         
ascertained to be one-third of a second 
of space1 while the distance of the two 
stars is #ae seconds4 ,here therefore we
 have an orbit #de times the size of the
 ,earth's orbit2 larger than that of the
 newly-discovered planet ,neptune1 whose
 orbit is #cj times as large as the     
earth's1 and his period nearly #afe     
years4 ,the period of #fa ,cygni is     
however1 it appears1 probably not short 
of #ejj years2 and hence it is          
calculated that the sum of the masses of
 the two stars which make up this pair  
is about one-third of the mass of our   
,sun4#d  #f4 ,these results give some   
countenance to the opinion1 that the    
quantity of luminous matter1 in other   
systems1 does not differ very           
considerably from the mass of our ,sun4 
,it differs in these cases as #a to #c1 
or thereabouts4 ,in what degree of      
condensation1 however1 the matter of    

these binary systems is1 compared with  
that of our solar system1 we have no    
means whatever of knowing4 ,each of the 
two stars may have its luminous matter  
diffused through a globe as large as the
 earth's orbit2 and in that case1 would 
probably not be more dense than the tail
 of a comet4#e ,it is observed by       
astronomers1 that in the pairs of binary
 stars which we have mentioned1 the two 
stars of each pair are of different     
colors2 the stars being of a high       
yellow1 approaching to orange color1#f  
but the smaller individual being in each
 case of a deeper tint4 ,this might     
suggest to us the conjecture that the   
smaller mass had cooled further below   
the point of high luminosity than the   
larger2 but that both these degrees of  
light belong to a condition still       
progressive1 and probably still gaseous4
 ,without attaching any great value to  
such conjectures1 they appear to be at  
least as well authorized as the         
supposition that each of these stars1   

thus different1 is nevertheless         
precisely in the condition of our sun4  
#g4 ,but1 even granting that each of the
 individuals of this pair were a sun    
like ours1 in the nature of its material
 and its state of condensation1 is it   
probable that it resembles our ,sun also
 in having planets revolving about it8  
,a system of planets revolving around or
 among a pair of suns1 which are1 at the
 same time1 revolving about one another1
 is so complex a scheme1 so impossible  
to arrange in a stable manner1 that the 
assumption of the existence of such     
schemes1 without a vestige of evidence1 
can hardly require confutation4 ,no     
doubt1 if we were really required to    
provide such a binary system of suns    
with attendant planets1 this would be   
best done by putting the planets so near
 to one sun1 that they should not be    
sensibly affected by the other2 and this
 is accordingly what has been           
proposed4#g ,for1 as has been well said 
of the supposed planets1 in making this 

proposal1 ,unless closely nestled under 
the protecting wing of their immediate  
superior1 the sweep of the other sun in 
his perihelion passage round their own1 
might carry them off1 or whirl them into
 orbits utterly inconsistent with the   
existence of their inhabitants4 ,to     
assume the existence of the inhabitants1
 in spite of such dangers1 and to       
provide against the dangers by placing  
them so close to one sun as to be out of
 the reach of the other1 though the     
whole distance of the two may not1 and  
as we have seen1 in some cases does not1
 exceed the dimensions of our solar     
system1 is showing them all the favor   
which is possible4 ,but in making this  
provision1 it is overlooked that it may 
not be possible to keep them in         
permanent orbits so near to the selected
 centre3 their sun may be a vast sphere 
of luminous vapor2 and the planets1     
plunged into this atmosphere1 may1      
instead of describing regular orbits1   
plough their way in spiral paths through

 the nebulous abyss to its central      
nucleus4  #h4 ,clustered stars1 then1   
and double stars1 appear to give us but 
little promise of inhabitants4 ,we must 
next turn our attention to the single   
stars1 as the most hopeful cases4       
,indeed1 it is certain that no one would
 have thought of regarding the          
individual stars of clusters1 or of     
pairs1 as the centres of planetary      
systems1 if the view of insulated stars1
 as the centres of such systems1 had not
 already become familiar1 and1 we may   
say1 established4 ,what1 then1 is the   
probability of that view8 ,is there good
 evidence that the ,fixed ,stars1 or    
some of them1 really have planets       
revolving round them8 ,what is the kind 
of proof which we have of this8  #i4 ,to
 this we must reply1 that the only proof
 that the fixed stars are the centres of
 planetary systems1 resides in the      
assumption that those stars are like the
 ,sun2--resemble him in their qualities 
and nature1 and therefore1 it is        

inferred1 must have the same offices1   
and the same appendages4 ,they are1 as  
the ,sun is1 independent sources of     
light1 and thence1 probably1 of heat2   
and therefore they must have attendant  
planets1 to which they can impart their 
light and heat2 and these planets must  
have inhabitants1 who live under and    
enjoy those influences4 ,this is1       
probably1 the kind of reasoning on which
 those rely1 who regard the fixed stars 
as so many worlds1 or centres of        
families of worlds4  #aj4 ,everything in
 this argument1 therefore1 depends upon 
this3 that the ,stars are like the ,sun2
 and we must consider1 what evidence we 
have of the exactness of this likeness4 
#aa4 ,the ,stars are like the ,sun in   
this1 that they shine with an           
independent light1 not with a borrowed  
light1 as the planets shine4 ,in this1  
however1 the stars resemble1 not only   
the ,sun1 but the nebulous patches in   
the sky1 and the tails of comets2 for   
these also1 in all probability1 shine   

with an original light4 ,probably it    
will hardly be urged that we see1 by the
 very appearance of the stars1 that they
 are of the nature of the ,sun3 for the 
appearance of luminaries in the sky is  
so far from enabling us to discriminate 
the nature of their light1 that to a    
common eye1 a planet and a fixed star   
appear alike as stars4 ,there is no     
obvious distinction between the original
 light of the stars and the reflected   
light of the planets4 ,the stars1 then1 
being like the sun in being luminous1   
does it follow that they are1 like the  
sun1 definite dense masses8#h ,or are   
they1 or many of them1 luminous masses  
in a far more diffused state2 visually  
contracted to points1 by the immense    
distance from us at which they are8     
#ab4 ,we have seen that some of those   
stars1 which we have the best means of  
examining1 are1 in mass1 one third1 or  
less1 of our ,sun4 ,if such a mass1 at  
the distance of the fixed stars1 were   
diffused through a sphere equal in      

radius to the earth's orbit1 it would   
still appear to us as a point2 as is    
evident by this1 that the fixed stars1  
for the most part1 have no discoverable 
annual parallax2 that is1 the earth's   
orbit appears to them a point4 ,if one  
of the fixed stars1 ,sirius1 for        
instance1 be in this diffused condition1
 such a circumstance will not1          
mechanically speaking1 prevent his      
having planets revolving round him2 for1
 as we have said1 the attraction of his 
whole mass1 in whatever state of        
spherical diffusion1 will be the same as
 if it were collected at the centre4    
,but such a state of diffusion will make
 him so unlike our ,sun1 as much to     
break the force of the presumption that 
he must have planets because our ,sun   
has4 ,if the luminous matter of the     
stars gradually cools1 grows dark1 and  
solidifies1 such diffusion would imply  
that the time of solidification is not  
yet begun2 and therefore that the solid 
planets which accompany the luminous    

central body are not yet brought into   
being4 ,if there be any truth in this   
hypothetical account of the changes1    
through which the matter of the stars   
successively passes2 and if1 by such    
changes1 planetary systems are formed2  
how many of the fixed stars may never   
yet have reached the planetary state6   
how many1 for want of some necessary    
mechanical condition1 may never give    
rise to permanent orbits at all6  #ac4  
,and that the matter of the stars does  
go through changes1 we have evidence1 in
 many such changes which have actually  
been observed2#i and perhaps in the     
different colors of different stars2    
which may1 not improbably1 arise from   
their being at different stages of their
 progress4 ,that planetary systems1 once
 formed1 go through mighty changes1 we  
have evidence in the view which geology 
gives us of the history of this earth2  
and in that view1 we see also1 how      
unique1 and how far elevated in its     
purpose1 the last period of this history

 may be1 compared with the preceding    
periods2 and1 up to the present time at 
least1 how comparatively brief in its   
duration4 ,if1 therefore1 stellar globes
 can become planetary systems in the    
progress of ages1 it will not be at all 
inconsistent with what we know of the   
order of nature1 that only a few1 or    
even that only one1 should have yet     
reached that condition4 ,all the others1
 but the one1 may be systems yet        
unformed1 or fragments struck off in the
 forming of the one4 ,if any one is not 
satisfied with this account of the      
degree of resemblance between the fixed 
stars and the sun1 but would make the   
likeness greater than this2 we have only
 to say1 that the proof that it is so   
lies upon him4 ,such a resemblance as we
 have supposed1 is all that the facts   
suggest4 ,that the stars are independent
 luminaries1 we see2 but whether they   
are as dense as the sun1 or globes a    
hundred or a thousand times as rare1 we 
have no means whatever of knowing4 ,and1

 to assume that besides these luminous  
bodies which we see1 there are dark     
bodies which we do not see1 revolving   
round the others in permanent orbits1   
which require special mechanical        
conditions2 and to suppose this1 in     
order that we may build upon this       
assumption a still larger one1 that of  
living inhabitants of these dark bodies2
 is a hypothetical procedure1 which it  
seems strange that we should have to    
combat1 at the present stage of the     
history of science1 and in dealing with 
those whose minds have been disciplined 
by the previous events in the progress  
of astronomy4  #ad4 ,let us consider1   
however1 further1 how far astronomy     
authorizes us to regard the ,fixed      
,stars as being1 like our ,sun1 the     
centres of systems of ,planets4 ,those  
who hold this1 consider them as having a
 permanent condition of brightness1 as  
our ,sun has had for an indefinite      
period1 so far as we have any knowledge 
on the subject4 ,yet1 as we have said1  

no small number of the stars undergo    
changes of brightness2 and some of them 
undergo such changes1 in a manner which 
is not discernibly periodical2 and which
 must therefore be regarded as          
progressive4 ,this phenomenon           
countenances the opinion of such a      
progress from one material condition to 
another2 which1 we have seen1 is        
suggested by the analogy of the probable
 formation of our own solar system4 ,the
 very star which is so often taken as   
the probable centre of a system1        
,sirius1 has1 in the course of the last 
#b1jjj years1 changed its light from red
 to white4 ,ptolemy notes it as a red   
star3 in ,tycho's time it was already1  
as it is now1 a white one4#aj ,the star 
,eta ,argus changes both its degree of  
light and its color2 ranging1 in        
seemingly irregular intervals of time1  
from the fourth to the first            
magnitude1#aa and from yellow to red4   
,several other examples of the like kind
 have been observed4 ,mr4 ,hind#ab gives

 an example in which he has1 quite      
recently1 observed in two years a star  
change its color from very red to       
bluish4 ,these variable unperiodical    
stars are probably very numerous4 ,also1
 some stars1 observed of old1 are now   
become invisible4 ,the lost ,pleiad1 by 
the loss of which the cluster1 called   
the ,seven ,stars1 offers now only six  
to the naked eye1 is an example of a    
change of this kind already noted in    
ancient times4 ,there are several       
others1 of which the extinction is      
recognized by astronomers as proved4#ac 
,in other cases1 new stars have         
appeared1 and have then seemed to die   
away and vanish4 ,the appearance of a   
new star in the time of the ,greek      
astronomer ,hipparchus1 induced him to  
construct his famous ,catalogue of the  
,stars4 ,others are recorded to have    
appeared in the middle ages4 ,the first 
which was observed by modern astronomers
 was the celebrated star seen by ,tycho 
,brahe in #aegb4 ,it appeared suddenly  

in the constellation ,cassiopeia1 was   
fixed in its place like the neighboring 
stars1 had no nebula or tail1 exceeded  
in splendor all other stars1 being as   
bright as ,venus when she is nearest the
 earth4 ,it soon began to diminish in   
brightness1 and passing through various 
diminishing degrees of magnitude1       
vanished altogether after seventeen     
months4 ,this star also passed through  
various colors2 being first white1 then 
yellow1 then red4 ,in like manner1 in   
#afjd1 a new star of great magnitude    
blazed forth in the constellation       
,serpentarius2 and was seen by ,kepler4 
,and this also1 like that of #aegb1     
after a few months1 declined and        
vanished4  #ae4 ,these appearances led  
,tycho to frame an hypothesis like that 
which ,sir ,william ,herschel afterwards
 proposed1 that the stars are formed by 
the condensation of luminous nebulous   
matter4 ,nor is it easy to think of such
 phenomena 7of which several others have
 been observed1 though none so          

conspicuous as these71 without regarding
 them as showing that the matter of the 
fixed stars1 occasionally at least1     
passes through changes of consistence as
 great as would be the condensation and 
extinction of a luminous vapor4 ,and if 
such changes have been but few within   
the recorded period of man's observation
 of the stars1 we must recollect how    
small that period is1 compared with the 
period during which the stars have      
existed4 ,the stars themselves give us  
testimony of their having been in being 
for millions of years4 ,for according to
 the best estimates we can form of their
 distances1 the time which light would  
employ in reaching us from the most     
remote of them1 would be millions of    
years2 and1 therefore1 we now see those 
remote stars by means of the light      
emitted from them millions of years ago4
 ,and if1 in the #b1jjj years during    
which such observations are recorded1   
only #bjj stars have undergone such     
changes in a degree visible to the      

earth's inhabitants2 in a million of    
years1 change going on at the same rate1
 #ajj1jjj stars would exhibit visible   
progressive change1 showing that they   
had not yet reached a permanent         
condition4 ,and how much of change may  
go on in any star without its being in  
any degree perceptible to the most exact
 astronomical scrutiny6  #af4 ,the      
tendency of these considerations is1 to 
lead us to think that the fixed stars   
are not generally in that permanent     
condition in which our sun is2 and which
 appears to be alone consistent with the
 existence of a system such as the solar
 system4#ad ,these views1 therefore1    
fall in with that which we have been led
 to by this consideration of the        
,nebulae3 that the ,solar ,system is in 
a more complete and advanced state1 as a
 system1 than many at least of the      
stellar systems can be2 it may be1 than 
any other4  #ag4 ,it has been alleged1  
as a proof of the likeness of the ,fixed
 ,stars to our ,sun1 that like him1 they

 revolve upon their axes4#ae ,this has  
been supposed to be proved with regard  
to many of them1 by their having        
periodical recurrences of fainter and   
brighter lustre2 as if they were        
revolving orbs1 with one side darkened  
by spots4 ,such facts are not very      
numerous or definite in the heavens4    
,omicron#af in the constellation ,cetus1
 is the longest known of them2 and is   
held to revolve in #hca days4 ,from the 
curious phenomena now spoken of1 it has 
been called ,mira ,ceti4#ag ,algol1 the 
second star 7,beta7 of ,perseus1 called 
also ,caput ,medusae1 is another1 with a
 period of #b days #ba hours2 and in    
this case1 the obscuration of the light1
 and the restoration of it1 are so      
sudden1 that from the time when it was  
first remarked1 7by ,goodricke1 in      
#aghb17 it suggested the hypothesis of  
an opaque body revolving round the star4
 ,the star ,delta1 in the constellation 
,cephus1 is another1 with a period of #e
 days #i hours4 ,the star ,beta in the  

,lyre1 has a period of #f days #aj      
hours1 or perhaps #ab days #ba hours1   
one revolution having been taken for    
two4 ,another such star is ,eta         
,aquilae1 with a period of #g days #d   
hours4 ,these five are all the          
periodical stars of which astronomers   
can speak with precision4#ah ,but about 
thirty more are supposed to be subject  
to such change1 though their periods1   
epochs1 and phases of brightness1 cannot
 at present be given exactly4  #ah4     
,that these periodical changes in       
certain of the fixed stars are a curious
 and interesting astronomical fact1 is  
indisputable4 ,nothing can be more      
probable also1 than that it indicates1  
in the stellar masses1 a revolution on  
their axes2 which cannot surprise us1   
seeing that revolution upon an axis is1 
so far as we know1 a universal law of   
all the large compact masses of matter  
which exist in the universe2 and may be 
conceived to be a result derived from   
their origin1 and a condition of any    

permanent or nearly permanent figure4   
,but this can prove little or nothing as
 to their being like the sun1 in any way
 which implies their having inhabitants1
 in themselves or in accompanying       
planets4 ,the rotation of our ,sun is   
not1 in any intelligible way1 connected 
with its having near it the inhabited   
,earth4  #ai4 ,if we were to suppose    
some of the stars to be centres of      
planetary systems1 we can hardly suppose
 it likely that these alone rotate1 and 
that the others stand still4 ,probably  
all the stars rotate1 more or less      
regularly1 according as they are        
permanent or variable in form2 but the  
most regular may still have no planets2 
and if they have1 those planets may be  
as blank of inhabitants as our moon will
 be proved to be4  #bj4 ,the revolution 
of ,algol seems to approach the nearest 
to a fact in favor of a star being the  
centre of a revolving system2 and from  
the first1 as we have said1 the         
periodical change1 and the sudden       

darkening and brightening of this       
luminary1 suggested the supposition of  
an opaque body revolving about it4 ,but 
this body cannot be a planet4 ,the      
planets which revolve about our ,sun are
 not1 any of them1 nor all of them      
together1 large enough to produce a     
perceptible obscuration of his light1 to
 a spectator outside the system4 ,but in
 ,algol1 the phenomena are very         
different from this4#ai ,the star is    
usually visible as a star of the second 
magnitude2 but during each period of #b 
days #ba hours1 7or #fi hours17 it      
suffers a kind of eclipse1 which reduces
 it to a star of the fourth magnitude4  
,during this eclipse1 the star          
diminishes in splendor for #c-a_/b      
hours2 is at its lowest brightness for a
 quarter of an hour2 and then1 in       
#c-a_/b hours more1 is restored to its  
original splendor4 ,according to these  
numbers1 if the obscuration be produced 
by a dark body revolving round a central
 luminary1 and describing a circular    

orbit1 as the regular recurrence of the 
obscuration implies1 the space of the   
orbit during which the eclipsing body is
 interposed must be about one-ninth of  
the circumference2 for the obscuration  
occupies #g-a_/d hours out of #fi4 ,and 
therefore the space during which the    
eclipsing body obscures the central one1
 must be about one sixth of the diameter
 of its orbit4 ,but in order that the   
revolving body may1 through this space1 
obscure the central one1 the latter must
 extend over this space1 namely1 one    
sixth of the diameter of the orbit4 ,but
 we may remark that there is no proof1  
in the phenomena1 that the darkening    
body is detached from the bright mass4  
,the effect would be the same if the    
dark mass were a part of the revolving  
star itself4 ,it may be that the star   
has not yet assumed a spherical form1   
but is an oblong nebular mass with one  
part 7perhaps from being thinner in     
texture7 cooled down and become opaque4 
,and the amount of obscuration1 reducing

 the star from the second to the fourth 
magnitude1 implies that the obscuring   
mass is large 7perhaps one half the     
diameter1 or much more7 compared with   
the luminous mass4 ,if this be a        
probable hypothesis to account for the  
phenomena1 they are much more against   
than for the supposition of the star    
being the centre of seats of habitation4
 ,and even if we have a planet nearly as
 large as its sun1 revolving at the     
distance of only six of the sun's radii1
 how unlike is this to the solar system6
  #ba4 ,in fact1 all these periodical   
stars1 in so far as they are periodical1
 are proved1 not to be like1 but to be  
unlike our sun4 ,it is true that the sun
 has spots1 by means of which his       
rotation has been determined by         
astronomers4 ,but these spots1 besides  
being so small that they produce no     
perceptible alteration in his           
brightness1 and are never1 or very      
rarely1 visible to the naked eye1 are   
not permanent4 ,a star with a permanent 

dark side would be very unlike our sun4 
,the largest known of these stars1      
,mira1 as the old astronomers called it1
 becomes invisible to the naked eye for 
#e months during a period of #aa months4
 ,it must1 therefore1 have nearly one   
half its surface quite dark4 ,this is   
very unlike the condition of the sun2   
and is a condition1 it would seem1 very 
little fitted to make this star the     
centre of a planetary system like ours4 
#bb4 ,but there are other remarkable    
phenomena respecting these periodical   
stars1 which have a bearing on our      
subject4 ,their periods are not quite   
regular1 but are subject to certain     
variations4 ,thus it has been supposed  
that the period of ,mira is subject to a
 cyclical fluctuation1 embracing #hh of 
its periods2 that is1 about #hj years4  
,but this notion of a cycle of so long a
 duration1 requires confirmation2 the   
fact of fluctuation in the period is    
alone certain4 ,in like manner1 ,algol's
 periods are not quite uniform4 ,all    

these facts agree with our suggestion1  
that the periodical stars are bodies of 
luminous matter which have not yet      
assumed a permanent form2 and which1    
therefore1 as they revolve about their  
axes1 and turn to us their darker and   
their brighter parts1 do so at          
intervals1 and in an order somewhat     
variable4 ,and this suggestion appears  
to be remarkably confirmed1 by a result 
which recent observations have          
discovered relative to this star1       
,algol2 namely1 that its periods become 
shorter and shorter4 ,for if the        
luminous matter1 which is thus          
revolving1 be gradually gathering into a
 more condensed form2--becoming less    
rare1 or more compact2 as1 for instance1
 it would do1 if it were collecting     
itself from an irregular1 or elongated1 
into a more spherical form2 such a      
shortening of the period of revolution  
would take place2 for a mass which      
contracts while it is revolving1        
accelerates its rate of revolution1 by  

mechanical principles4 ,and thus we do  
appear to have1 in this observed        
acceleration of the periods of ,algol1  
an evidence that that luminous mass has 
not yet reached its final and permanent 
condition4  #bc4 ,it is true1 it has    
been conjectured1 by high authority1#bj 
that this accelerated rapidity of the   
periods of ,algol will not continue2 but
 will gradually relax1 and then be      
changed to an increase2 like many other 
cyclical combinations in astronomy4 ,but
 this conjecture seems to have little to
 support it4 ,the cases in which an     
acceleration of motion is retarded1     
checked1 and restored1 all belong to our
 ,solar ,system2 and to assume that     
,algol1 like the solar system1 has      
assumed a permanent and balanced        
condition1 is to take for granted       
precisely the point in question4 ,we    
know of no such cycles among the fixed  
stars1 at least with any certainty2 for 
the cycle proposed for ,mira must be    
considered as greatly needing           

confirmation2 considering how long is   
the cycle1 and how recent the suggestion
 of its existence4  #bd4 ,and even in   
the solar system1 we have accelerated   
motions1 in which no mathematician or   
astronomer looks for a check or regress 
of the acceleration4 ,no one expects    
that ,encke's comet will cease to be    
accelerated1 and to revolve in periods  
continually shorter2 though all the     
other motions hitherto observed in the  
system are cyclical4 ,in the case of a  
fixed star1 we have much less reason to 
look for such a cycle1 than we have in  
,encke's comet4 ,but further3 with      
regard to the existence of such a cycle 
of faster and slower motion in the case 
of ,algol1 the most recent observed     
facts are strongly against it2 for it   
has been observed by ,argelander1 that  
not only there is a diminution of the   
period1 but that this diminution        
proceeds with accelerated rapidity2 a   
course of events which1 in no instance1 
in the whole of the cosmical movements1 

ends in a regression1 retardation1 and  
restoration of the former rate4 ,we are 
led to believe1 therefore1 that this    
remarkable luminary will go on revolving
 faster and faster1 till its extreme    
point of condensation is attained4 ,and 
in the meantime1 we have very strong    
reasons to believe that this mutable    
body is not1 like the sun1 a permanent  
centre of a permanent system2 and that  
any argument drawn from its supposed    
likeness to the sun1 in favor of the    
supposition that the regions which are  
near it are the seats of habitation1 is 
quite baseless4  #be4 ,there are other  
phenomena of the ,fixed ,stars1 and     
other conjectures of astronomers        
respecting them1 which ,i need not      
notice1 as they do not appear to have   
any bearing upon our subject4 ,such are 
the proper motions of the stars1 and the
 explanation which has been suggested of
 some of them2 that they arise from the 
stars revolving round other stars which 
are dark1 and therefore invisible4 ,such

 again is the attempt to show that the  
,sun1 carrying with it the whole ,solar 
,system1 is in motion2 and the further  
attempt to show the direction of this   
motion2 and again1 the hypothesis that  
the ,sun itself revolves round some     
distant body in space4 ,these minute    
inquiries and bold conjectures1 as to   
the movements of the masses of matter   
which occupy the universe1 do not throw 
any light on the question whether any   
part besides the earth is inhabited2 any
 more than the investigation of the     
movements of the ocean1 and of their    
laws1 could prove or disprove the       
existence of marine plants and animals4 
,they do not on that account cease to be
 important and interesting subjects of  
speculation2 but they do not belong to  
our subject4  #bf4 ,in ,fontenelle's    
,dialogues on the ,plurality of ,worlds1
 a work which may be considered as      
having given this subject a place in    
popular literature1 he illustrates his  
argument by a comparison1 which it may  

be worth while to look at for a moment4 
,the speaker who asserts that the moon1 
the planets1 and the stars1 are the     
seats of habitation1 describes the      
person1 who denies this1 as resembling a
 citizen of ,paris1 who1 seeing from the
 towers of ,notre ,dame the town of     
,saint ,denis1 7it being supposed that  
no communication between the two places 
had ever occurred17 denies that it is   
inhabited1 because he cannot see the    
inhabitants4 ,of course the conclusion  
is easy1 if we may thus take for granted
 that what he sees is a town4 ,but we   
may modify this image1 so as to         
represent our argument more fairly4 ,let
 it be supposed that we inhabit an      
island1 from which innumerable other    
islands are visible2 but the art of     
navigation being quite unknown1 we are  
ignorant whether any of them are        
inhabited4 ,in some of these islands1   
are seen masses more or less resembling 
churches2 and some of our neighbors     
assert that these are churches2 that    

churches must be surrounded by houses2  
and that houses must have inhabitants4  
,others hold that the seeming churches  
are only peculiar forms of rocks4 ,in   
this state of the debate1 everything    
depends upon the degree of resemblance  
to churches which the forms exhibit4    
,but suppose that telescopes are        
invented1 and employed with diligence   
upon the questionable shapes4 ,in a long
 course of careful and skilful          
examination1 no house is seen1 and the  
rocks do not at all become more like    
churches1 rather the contrary4 ,so far1 
it would seem1 the probability of       
inhabitants in the islands is lessened4 
,but there are other reasons brought    
into view4 ,our island is a long extinct
 volcano1 with a tranquil and fertile   
soil2 but the other islands are         
apparently somewhat different4 ,some of 
them are active volcanoes1 the volcanic 
operations covering1 so far as we can   
discern1 the whole island2 others       
undergo changes1 such as weather or     

earthquakes may produce2 but in none of 
them can we discover such changes as    
show the hand of man4 ,for these        
islands1 it would seem the probability  
of inhabitants is further lessened4 ,and
 so long as we have no better materials 
than these for forming a judgment1 it   
would1 surely1 be accounted rash1 to    
assert that the islands in general are  
inhabited2 and unreasonable1 to blame   
those who deny or doubt it4 ,nor would  
such blame be justified by adducing     
theological or a priori arguments2 as1  
that the analogy of island with island  
makes the assumption allowable2 or that 
it is inconsistent with the plan of the 
,creator of islands to leave them       
uninhabited4 ,for we know that many     
islands are1 or were long1 uninhabited4 
,and if ours were an island occupied by 
a numerous1 well-governed1 moral1 and   
religious race1 of which the history was
 known1 and of which the relation to the
 ,creator was connected with its        
history2 the assumption of a history1   

more or less similar to ours1 for the   
inhabitants of the other islands1 whose 
existence was utterly unproved1 would1  
probably1 be generally deemed a fitter  
field for the romance-writer than for   
the philosopher4 ,it could not1 at best1
 rise above the region of vague         
conjecture4  #bg4 ,fontenelle1 in the   
agreeable book just referred to1 says1  
very truly1 that the formula by which   
his view is urged on adversaries is1    
,pourquoi non8 which he holds to be a   
powerful figure of logic4 ,it is1       
however1 a figure which has this        
peculiarity1 that it may1 in most cases1
 be used with equal force on either     
side4 ,when we are asked ,why the ,moon1
 ,mercury1 ,saturn1 the system of       
,sirius1 should not be inhabited by     
intelligent beings2 we may ask1 ,why the
 earth in the ages previous to man might
 not be so inhabited8 ,the answer would 
be1 that we have proof how it was       
inhabited4 ,and as to the fact in the   
other case1 ,i shall shortly attempt to 

give proof that the ,moon is certainly  
not1 and ,mercury and ,saturn probably  
not inhabited4 ,with regard to the      
,fixed ,stars1 it is more difficult to  
reason2 because we have the means of    
knowing so little of their structure4   
,but in this case also1 we might easily 
ask on our side1 ,pourquoi non8 ,why    
should not the ,solar ,system be the    
chief and most complete system in the   
universe1 and the ,earth the principal  
planet in that ,system8 ,so far as we   
yet know1 the ,sun is the largest ,sun  
among the stars2 and we shall attempt to
 show1 that the ,earth is the largest   
solid opaque globe in the solar system4 
,some ,system must be the largest and   
most finished of all2 why not ours8     
,some planet must be the largest planet2
 why not the ,earth8  #bh4 ,it should be
 recollected that there must be some    
system which is the most complete of all
 systems1 some planet which is the      
largest of all planets4 ,and if that    
largest planet1 in the most complete    

system1 be1 after being for ages        
tenanted by irrational creatures1 at    
last1 and alone of all1 occupied by a   
rational race1 that race must           
necessarily have the power of asking    
such questions as these3 ,why they      
should be alone rational8 ,why their    
planet should be alone thus favored8 ,if
 the case be ours1 we may hope to be    
then able to answer these questions1    
when we can explain the most certain    
fact which they involve2 ,why the ,earth
 was occupied so long by irrational     
creatures1 before the rational race was 
placed upon it8 ,the mere power of      
asking such questions can prove or      
disprove nothing2 for it is a power     
which must equally subsist1 whether the 
human inhabitants of the earth be or be 
not the only rational population which  
the universe contains4 ,if there be a   
race thus favored by the ,creator1 they 
must1 at that stage of their knowledge  
in which man now is1 be able to doubt1  
as man does1 of the extent and greatness

 of the privilege which they enjoy4     
#bi4 ,the argument that the ,fixed      
,stars are like the ,sun1 and therefore 
the centres of inhabited systems as the 
,sun is1 is sometimes called an argument
 from ,analogy2 and this word ,analogy  
is urged1 as giving great force to the  
reasoning4 ,but it must be recollected1 
that precisely the point in question is1
 whether there is an analogy4 ,the      
stars1 it is said1 are like the ,sun4   
,in what respects8 ,we know of none1    
except in being self-luminous2 and this 
they have in common with the nebulae1   
which1 as we have seen1 are not centres 
of inhabited systems4 ,nor does this    
quality of being self-luminous at all   
determine the degree of condensation of 
a star4 ,sirius may be less than a      
hundredth or a thousandth of the density
 of the ,sun4 ,but the ,stars1 it may be
 further urged1 are like the ,sun in    
turning on their axes4 ,to this we      
reply1 that we know this only of those  
stars in which1 the very phenomenon     

which proves their revolution1 proves   
also that they are unlike the ,sun1 in  
having one side darker than the other4  
,add to which1 their revolution is not  
connected with the existence of planets1
 still less of inhabitants of planets1  
in any intelligible manner4 ,the        
resemblance1 therefore1 so far as it    
bears upon the question1 is confined to 
one single point1 in the highest degree 
ambiguous and inconclusive2 and any     
argument drawn from this one point of   
resemblance1 has little claim to be     
termed an argument from analogy4#ba     
#cj4 ,on a subject on which we know so  
little1 it is difficult to present any  
view which deserves to be regarded as an
 analogy4 ,we see1 among the stars1     
nebulae more or less condensed1 which   
are possibly1 in some cases1 stages of a
 connected progress towards a definite  
star2 and it may be1 to a star with     
planets in permanent orbits4 ,we see1 in
 our planet1 evidence of successive     
stages of a connected series of brute   

animals1 preceded perhaps by various    
stages of lifeless chaos4 ,if the       
histories of the ,sun1 and of all the   
stars1 are governed by a common analogy1
 the nebulous condensation1 and the     
stages of animal life1 may be parts of  
the same continued series of events2 and
 different stars may be at different    
points of that series4 ,but even on this
 supposition1 but a few of the stars may
 be the seats of conscious life1 and    
none1 of intelligence4 ,for among the   
stars which have condensed to a         
permanent form1 how many have failed in 
throwing off a permanent planet6 ,how   
many may be in some stage of lifeless   
chaos6 ,we must needs suppose a vast    
number of stages between a nebular chaos
 and the lowest forms of conscious life4
 ,perhaps as many as there are fixed    
stars2 and far more than there are of   
stars which become fertile of life3 so  
that no two systems may be at the same  
stage of the planetary progress4 ,and if
 this be so1--our system being so       

complicated1 that we must suppose it    
peculiarly developed1 having the largest
 ,sun that we know of1 and our ,earth   
being 7as we shall hereafter attempt to 
prove7 the largest solid planet that we 
know of1--this ,earth may be the sole   
seat of the highest stage of planetary  
development4  #ca4 ,the assumption that 
there is anything of the nature of a    
regular law or order of progress from   
nebular matter to conscious life1--a law
 which extends to all the stars1 or to  
many of them1--is in the highest degree 
precarious and unsupported2 but since it
 is sometimes employed in such          
speculations as we are pursuing1 we may 
make a remark or two connected with it4 
,if we suppose1 on the planets of other 
systems1 a progress in some degree      
analogous to that which geology shows to
 have occurred on the ,earth1 there may 
be1 in those planets1 creatures in some 
way analogous to our vegetables and     
animals2 but analogy also requires that 
they should differ far more from the    

terrestrial vegetables and animals of   
any epoch1 than those of one epoch do   
from those of another2 since they belong
 to a different stellar system1 and     
probably exist under very different     
conditions from any that ever prevailed 
on the ,earth4 ,we are forbidden1       
therefore1 by analogy1 to suppose that  
on any other planet there was such an   
anatomical progression towards the form 
of man1 as we can discern 7according to 
some eminent physiologists7 among the   
tribes which have occupied the ,earth4  
,are we to conceive that the creatures  
on the planets of other systems are1    
like the most perfect terrestrial       
animals1 symmetrical as to right and    
left1 vertebrate1 with fore limbs and   
hind limbs1 heads1 organs of sense in   
their heads1 and the like8 ,every one   
can see how rash and fanciful it would  
be to make such suppositions4 ,those who
 have1 in the play of their invention1  
imagined inhabitants of other planets1  
have tried to avoid this servile        

imitation of terrestrial forms4 ,here is
 ,sir ,humphry ,davy's account of the   
inhabitants of ,saturn4 ,i saw moving on
 the surface below me1 immense masses1  
the forms of which ,i find it impossible
 to describe4 ,they had systems for     
locomotion similar to that of the morse 
or sea-horse1 but ,i saw with great     
surprise that they moved from place to  
place by six extremely thin membranes1  
which they used as wings4 ,i saw        
numerous convolutions of tubes1 more    
analogous to the trunk of the elephant1 
than to anything else ,i can imagine1   
occupying what ,i supposed to be the    
upper parts of the body4#bb ,the        
attendant ,genius informs the narrator1 
that though these creatures look like   
zoophytes1 they have a sphere of        
sensibility and intellectual enjoyment  
far superior to that of the inhabitants 
of the ,earth4 ,if we were to reason    
upon a work of fancy like this1 we might
 say1 that it was just as easy to       
ascribe superior sensibility and        

intelligence to zoophyte-formed         
creatures upon the ,earth1 as in        
,saturn4 ,even fancy cannot aid us in   
giving consistent form to the           
inhabitants of other planets4  #cb4 ,but
 even if we could assent to the opinion1
 as probable1 that there may occur1 on  
some other planet1 progressions of      
organized forms analogous in some way to
 that series of animal forms which has  
appeared upon the earth1 we should still
 have no ground to assume that this     
series must terminate in a rational and 
intelligent creature like man4 ,for the 
introduction of reason and intelligence 
upon the ,earth is no part nor          
consequence of the series of animal     
forms4 ,it is a fact of an entirely new 
kind4 ,the transition from brute to man 
does not come within the analogy of the 
transition from brute to brute4 ,the    
thread of analogy1 even if it could lead
 us so far1 would break here4 ,we may   
conceive analogues to other animals1 but
 we could have no analogue to man1      

except man4 ,man is not merely a higher 
kind of animal2 he is a creature of a   
superior order1 participating in the    
attributes of a higher nature2 as we    
have already said1 and as we hope       
hereafter further to show4 ,even1       
therefore1 if we were to assume the     
general analogy of the ,stars and of the
 ,sun1 and were to join to that the     
information which geology gives us of   
the history of our own planet2 though we
 might1 on this precarious path1 be led 
to think of other planets as peopled    
with unimagined monsters2 we should     
still find a chasm in our reasoning1 if 
we tried1 in this way1 to find          
intelligent and rational creatures in   
planets which may revolve round ,sirius 
or ,arcturus4  #cc4 ,the reasonable view
 of the matter appears to be this4 ,the 
assumption that the ,fixed ,stars are of
 exactly the same nature as the ,sun1   
was1 at the first1 when their vast      
distance and probable great size were   
newly ascertained1 a bold guess2 to be  

confirmed or refuted by subsequent      
observations and discoveries4 ,any      
appearances1 tending in any degree to   
confirm this guess1 would have deserved 
the most considerate attention4 ,but    
there has not been a vestige of any such
 confirmatory fact4 ,no planet1 nor     
anything which can fairly be regarded as
 indicating the existence of a planet1  
revolving about a star1 has anywhere    
been discerned4 ,the discovery of       
nebulae1 of binary systems1 of clusters 
of stars1 of periodical stars1 of       
varying and accelerated periods of such 
stars1 all seem to point the other way4 
,and if all these facts be held to be   
but small in amount1 as to the          
information which they convey1 about the
 larger1 and perhaps nearer stars2 still
 they leave the original assumption a   
mere guess1 unsupported by all that     
three centuries of most diligent1 and in
 other respects successful research1 has
 been able to bring to light4 ,that     
,copernicus1 that ,galileo1 that        

,kepler1 should believe the stars to be 
,suns1 in every sense of the term1 was a
 natural result of the expansion of     
thought which their great discoveries   
produced1 in them and in their          
contemporaries4 ,nor are we yet called  
upon to withdraw from them our sympathy2
 or entitled to contradict their        
conjecture4 ,but all the knowledge that 
the succeeding times have given us2 the 
extreme tenuity of much of the luminous 
matter in the skies2 the existence of   
gyratory motion among the stars1 quite  
different from planetary systems2 the   
absence of any observed motions at all  
resembling such systems2 the appearance 
of changes in stars1 quite inconsistent 
with such permanent systems2 the        
disclosure of the history of our own    
planet1 as one in which changes have    
constantly been going on2 the certainty 
that by far the greater part of the     
duration of its existence1 it has been  
tenanted by creatures entirely different
 from those which give an interest1 and 

thence1 a persuasiveness1 to the belief 
of inhabitants in worlds appended to    
each star2 the impossibility1 which     
appears1 on the gravest consideration1  
of transferring to other worlds such    
interests as belong to our own race in  
this world2 all these considerations    
should1 it would seem1 have prevented   
that old and arbitrary conjecture from  
growing up1 among a generation          
professing philosophical caution1 and   
scientific discipline1 into a settled   
belief4  #cd4 ,some of the moral and    
theological views which tend to         
encourage and uphold this belief1 may be
 taken under our more special           
consideration hereafter3 but here1 where
 we are reasoning principally upon      
astronomical grounds1 we may conclude   
what we have to remark about the ,fixed 
,stars1 as the centres of inhabited     
systems of worlds1 by saying2 that it   
will be time enough to speculate about  
the inhabitants of the planets which    
belong to such systems1 when we have    

ascertained that there are such planets1
 or one such planet4 ,when that is done1
 we can then apply to them any reasons  
which may exist1 for believing that all1
 or many planets1 are the seats of      
habitation of living things4 ,what      
reasons of this kind can be adduced1 and
 what is their force with regard to our 
own solar system1 we must now proceed to
 discuss4#bc  ,,footnotes3  #a          
,herschel1 #hff4  #b ,ibid4 #hff4  #c   
,herschel1 #hdf4  #d ,herschel1 #hdh4   
#e ,that these systems have not         
condensed to one centre1 appears to     
imply a less complete degree of         
condensation than exists in those       
systems which have done so4  #f         
,herschel1 #hej4  #g ,herschel1 #hdg4   
#h ,the density of the sun is about as  
great as the density of water4  #i      
,herschel1 #hbg-hcb4  #aj ,cosmos1      
,,iii4 #afi1 #bje1 and #fda4  #aa       
,ibid41 ,,iii4 #agb and #beb4  #ab      
,astron4 ,soc4 ,notices1 ,dec4 #ac1     
#ahej4  #ac ,see ,grant's ,hist4 of     

,physical ,astronomy1 p4 #ech4  #ad ,i  
am aware of certain speculations1 and   
especially of some recent ones1 tending 
to show that even our ,sun is wasting   
away by the emission of light and heat2 
but these opinions1 even if established1
 do not much affect our argument one way
 or the other4  #ae ,chalmers' ,astron4 
,disc4 p4 #ci4  #af ,hersch4 #hbj4  #ag 
,the periodical character of this star  
was discovered by ,david ,fabricius1 a  
parish priest in ,east ,friesland1 the  
father of ,john ,fabricius1 who         
discovered the solar spots4 7,cosmos1   
,,iii4 #bcd47  #ah ,hersch4 #hbe4 ,in   
,humboldt's ,cosmos1 ,,iii4 #bdc1       
,argelander1 who has most carefully     
observed and studied these periodical   
stars1 has given a catalogue containing 
#bd1 with the most recent determinations
 of their periods4  #ai ,hersch4 #hba4  
,humboldt 7,cosmos1 ,,iii4 #bch and     
#bdf17 gives the period as #fh hours #di
 minutes1 and says that it is #g or #h  
hours in its less bright state4 ,if we  

could suppose the times of the warning1 
and of the greatest eclipse1 given by   
,herschel1 to be exactly determined1 as 
#c-a_/b and #a_/d1 that is1 in the      
proportion of #ad to #a1 the darkening  
body must have its effective breadth    
#ad_/ae of that of the star4 ,but this  
is on the supposition that the orbit of 
the darkening body has the spectator's  
eye in its plane2 if this be not so1 the
 darkening body may be much larger4  #bj
 ,hersch4 ,outl4 ,astr4 #hba4 ,another  
explanation of the variable period of   
,algol1 is that the star is moving      
towards us1 and therefore the light     
occupies less and less time to reach us4
  #ba ,humboldt1 very justly1 regards   
the force of analogy as tending in the  
opposite direction4 ,after all1 he asks1
 7,cosmos1 ,,iii4 #cgc17 is the         
assumption of satellites to the ,fixed  
,stars so absolutely necessary8 ,if we  
were to begin from the outer planets1   
,jupiter1 c41 analogy might seem to     
require that all planets have           

satellites4 ,but yet this is not true   
for ,mars1 ,venus1 ,mercury4 ,to which  
we may further add the twenty-three     
,planetoids4 ,in this case there is a   
much greater number of bodies which have
 not satellites1 than which have them4  
#bb ,consolations in ,travel4 ,dial4 #a4
  #bc ,what is said in ,art4 #ae1 that  
in consequence of the time employed in  
the transmission of visual impressions1 
our seeing a star is evidence1 not that 
it exists now1 but that it existed1 it  
may be1 many thousands of years ago2 may
 seem1 to some readers1 to throw doubts 
upon reasonings which we have employed4 
,it may be said that a star which was a 
mere chaos1 when the light1 by which we 
see it1 set out from it1 may1 in the    
thousands of years which have since     
elapsed1 have grown into an orderly     
world4 ,to which bare possibility1 we   
may oppose another supposition at least 
equally possible3--that the distant     
stars were sparks or fragments struck   
off in the formation of the ,solar      

,system1 which are really long since    
extinct2 and survive in appearance1 only
 by the light which they at first       
emitted4     ,,chapter ,,ix4  ,,the     
,,planets4   #a4 ,when it was           
discovered1 by ,copernicus and ,galileo1
 that ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1
 ,saturn1 which had hitherto been       
regarded only as wandering fires1 that  
move in mystic dance1 were really1 in   
many circumstances1 bodies resembling   
the ,earth2--that they and the ,earth   
alike1 were opaque globes1 revolving    
about the ,sun in orbits nearly         
circular1 revolving also about their own
 axes1 and some of them accompanied by  
their ,satellites1 as the ,earth is by  
the ,moon2--it was inevitable that the  
conjecture should arise1 that they too  
had inhabitants1 as the ,earth has4     
,each of these bodies were seemingly    
coherent and solid2 furnished with an   
arrangement for producing day and night1
 summer and winter2 and might therefore1
 it was naturally conceived1 have       

inhabitants moving upon its solid       
surface1 and reckoning their lives and  
their employment by days1 and months1   
and years4 ,this was an unavoidable     
guess4 ,it was far less bold and        
sweeping than the guess that there are  
inhabitants in the region of the ,fixed 
,stars1 but still1 like that1 it was1   
for the time at least1 only a guess2 and
 like that1 it must depend upon future  
explorations of these bodies and their  
conditions1 whether the guess was       
confirmed or discredited4 ,the          
conjecture could not1 by any moderately 
cautious man1 be regarded as so         
overwhelmingly probable1 that it had no 
need of further proof4 ,its final       
acceptance or rejection must depend on  
the subsequent progress of astronomy1   
and of science in general4  #b4 ,we have
 to consider then how far subsequent    
discoveries have given additional value 
to this conjecture4 ,and1 as1 in the    
first place1 important among such       
discoveries1 we must note the addition  

of several new planets to our system4   
,it was found1 by the elder ,herschel1  
7in #agha17 that1 far beyond ,saturn1   
there was another planet1 which1 for a  
time1 was called by the name of its     
sagacious discoverer2 but more recently1
 in order to conform the nomenclature of
 the planets to the mythology with which
 they had been so long connected1 has   
been termed ,uranus4 ,this was a vast   
extension of the limits of the solar    
system4 ,the ,earth is1 as we have      
already said1 nearly a hundred millions 
of miles from the ,sun4 ,jupiter is at  
more than five times1 and ,saturn nearly
 at ten times this distance3 but        
,uranus1 it was found1 describes an     
orbit of which the radius is about      
nineteen times as great as that of the  
,earth4 ,but this did not terminate the 
extension of the solar system which the 
progress of astronomy revealed4 ,in     
#ahdf1 a new planet1 still more remote1 
was discovered3 its existence having    
been divined1 before it was seen1 by two

 mathematicians1 ,mr4 ,adams1 of        
,cambridge1 and ,m4 ,leverrier1 of      
,paris1 from the effects of its force   
upon ,uranus4 ,this new planet was      
termed ,neptune3 its distance from the  
,sun is about thirty times the ,earth's 
distance4 ,besides these discoveries of 
large planets1 a great number of small  
planets were detected in the region of  
the solar system which lies between the 
orbits of ,mars and ,jupiter4 ,this     
series of discoveries began on the first
 day of #ahja1 when ,ceres was detected 
by ,piazzi at ,palermo2 and has gone on 
up to the present time1 when            
twenty-three of these small bodies have 
been brought to light2 and probably the 
group is not yet exhausted4  #c4 ,now if
 we have to discuss the probability that
 all these bodies are inhabited1 we may 
begin with the outermost of them at     
present known1 namely ,neptune4 ,how far
 is it likely that this globe is        
occupied by living creatures which      
enjoy1 like the creatures on the ,earth1

 the light and heat of the ,sun1 about  
which the planet revolves8 ,it is plain1
 in the first place1 that this light and
 heat must be very feeble4 ,since       
,neptune is thirty times as far from the
 sun as the earth is1 the diameter of   
the sun as seen from ,neptune will only 
be one-thirtieth as large as it is1 seen
 from the earth4 ,it will1 in fact1 be  
reduced to a mere star4 ,it will be     
about the diameter under which ,jupiter 
appears when he is nearest to us4 ,of   
course its brightness will be much      
greater than that of ,jupiter2 nearly as
 much indeed1 as the sun is brighter    
than the moon1 both being nearly of the 
same size3 but still1 with our          
full-moonlight reduced to the amount of 
illumination which we receive from a    
full ,jupiter1 and our sun-light reduced
 in nearly the same proportion1 we      
should have but a dark1 and also a cold 
world4 ,in fact1 the light and the heat 
which reach ,neptune1 so far as they    
depend on the distance of the sun1 will 

each be about nine hundred times smaller
 than they are on the earth4 ,now are we
 to conceive animals1 with their vital  
powers unfolded1 and their vital        
enjoyments cherished1 by this amount of 
light and heat8 ,of course1 we cannot   
say1 with certainty1 that any feebleness
 of light and heat are inconsistent with
 the existence of animal life3 and if we
 had good reason to believe that        
,neptune is inhabited by animals1 we    
might try to conceive in what manner    
their vital scheme is accommodated to   
this scanty supply of heat and light4   
,if it were certain that they were      
there1 we might inquire how they could  
live there1 and what manner of creatures
 they could be4 ,if there were any      
general grounds for assuming            
inhabitants1 we might consider what     
modifications of life their particular  
conditions would require4  #d4 ,but is  
there any such general ground68 ,such a 
ground we should have1 if we could      
venture to assume that all the bodies of

 the ,solar ,system are inhabited2--if  
we could proceed upon such a principle1 
we might reject or postpone the         
difficulties of particular cases4  #e4  
,but is such an assumption true8 ,is    
such a principle well founded8 ,the best
 chance which we have of learning       
whether it is so1 is to endeavor to     
ascertain the fact1 in the body which is
 nearest to us2 and thus1 the best      
placed for our closer scrutiny4 ,this   
is1 of course1 the ,moon2 and with      
regard to the ,moon1 we have1 again1    
this advantage in beginning the inquiry 
with her3--that she1 at least1 is in    
circumstances1 as to light and heat1 so 
far as the ,sun's distance affects them1
 which we know to be quite consistent   
with animal and vegetable life4 ,for her
 distance from the ,sun is not          
appreciably different from that of the  
,earth2 her revolutions round the earth 
do not make nearly so great a           
difference1 in her distance from the    
sun1 as does the earth's different      

distances from the sun in summer and in 
winter3 the fact also being1 that the   
earth is considerably nearer to the sun 
in the winter of this our northern      
hemisphere1 than in the summer4 ,the    
moon's distance from the sun then1      
adapts her for habitation3 is she       
inhabited8  #f4 ,the answer to this     
question1 so far as we can answer it1   
may involve something more than those   
mere astronomical conditions1 her       
distance from the sun1 and the nature of
 her motions4 ,but still1 if we are     
compelled to answer it in the           
negative2--if it appear1 by strong      
evidence1 that the ,moon is not         
inhabited2 then is there an end of the  
general principle1 that1 all the bodies 
of the solar system are inhabited1 and  
that we must begin our speculations     
about each1 with this assumption4 ,if   
the ,moon be not inhabited1 then1 it    
would seem1 the belief that each special
 body in the system is inhabited1 must  
depend upon reasons specially belonging 

to that body2 and cannot be taken for   
granted without such reasons4 ,of the   
two bodies of the solar system which    
alone we can examine closely1 so as to  
know anything about them1 the ,earth and
 the ,moon1 if the one be inhabited1 and
 the other blank of inhabitants1 we have
 no right to assume at once1 that any   
other body in the solar system belongs  
to the former of these classes rather   
than to the latter4 ,if1 even under     
terrestrial conditions of light and     
heat1 we have a total absence of the    
phenomenon of life1 known to us only as 
a terrestrial phenomenon2 we are surely 
not entitled to assume that when these  
conditions fail1 we have still the      
phenomenon1 life4 ,we are not entitled  
to assume it2 however it may be capable 
of being afterwards proved1 in any      
special case1 by special reasons2 a     
question afterwards to be discussed4    
#g4 ,is1 then1 the ,moon inhabited8     
,from the moon's proximity to us1 7she  
is distant only thirty diameters of the 

earth1 less than ten times the earth's  
circumference2 a railroad carriage1 at  
its ordinary rate of travelling1 would  
reach her in a month17 she can be       
examined by the astronomer with peculiar
 advantages4 ,the present powers of the 
telescope enable him to examine her     
mountains as distinctly as he could the 
,alps at a few hundred miles distance1  
with the naked eye2 with the additional 
advantage that her mountains are much   
more brilliantly illuminated by the     
,sun1 and much more favorably placed for
 examination1 than the ,alps are4 ,he   
can map and model the inequalities of   
her surface1 as faithfully and exactly  
as he can those of the surface of       
,switzerland4 ,he can trace the streams 
that seem to have flowed from eruptive  
orifices over her plains1 as he can the 
streams of lava from the craters of     
,etna or ,hecla4  #h4 ,now1 this minute 
examination of the ,moon's surface being
 possible1 and having been made1 by many
 careful and skilful astronomers1 what  

is the conviction which has been        
conveyed to their minds1 with regard to 
the fact of her being the seat of       
vegetable or animal life8 ,without      
exception1 it would seem1 they have all 
been led to the belief1 that the ,moon  
is not inhabited2 that she is1 so far as
 life and organization are concerned1   
waste and barren1 like the streams of   
lava or of volcanic ashes on the earth1 
before any vestige of vegetation has    
been impressed upon them3 or like the   
sands of ,africa1 where no blade of     
grass finds root4 ,it is held1 by such  
observers1 that they can discern and    
examine portions of the moon's surface  
as small as a square mile2#a yet1 in    
their examination1 they have never      
perceived any alteration1 such as the   
cycle of vegetable changes through the  
revolutions of seasons would produce4   
,sir ,william ,herschel did not doubt   
that if a change had taken place on the 
visible part of the ,moon1 as great as  
the growth or the destruction of a great

 city1 as great1 for instance1 as the   
destruction of ,london by the great fire
 of #afff1 it would have been           
perceptible to his powers of            
observation4 ,yet nothing of the kind   
has ever been observed4 ,if there were  
lunar astronomers1 as well provided as  
terrestrial ones are1 with artificial   
helps of vision1 they would undoubtedly 
be able to perceive the differences     
which the progress of generations brings
 about on the surface of our globe2 the 
clearing of the forests of ,germany or  
,north ,america2 the embankment of      
,holland2 the change of the modes of    
culture which alter the color of the    
ground in ,europe2 the establishment of 
great nests of manufactures which shroud
 portions of the land in smoke1 as those
 which have their centres at ,birmingham
 or at ,manchester4 ,however obscurely  
they might discern the nature of those  
changes1 they would still see that      
change was going on4 ,and so should we1 
if the like changes were going on upon  

the face of the ,moon4 ,yet no such     
changes have ever been noticed4 ,nor    
even have such changes been remarked1 as
 might occur in a mere brute mass       
without life2--the formation of new     
streams of lava1 new craters1 new       
crevices1 new elevations4 ,the ,moon    
exhibits strong evidences1 which strike 
all telescopic observers1 of an action  
resembling1 in many respects1 volcanic  
action1 by which its present surface has
 been formed4#b ,but1 if it have been   
produced by such internal fires1 the    
fires seem to be extinguished2 the      
volcanoes to be burned out4 ,it is a    
mere cinder2 a collection of sheets of  
rigid slag1 and inactive craters4 ,and  
if the ,moon and the ,earth were both1  
at first in a condition in which igneous
 eruptions from their interior produced 
the ridges and cones which roughen their
 surfaces2 the ,earth has had this state
 succeeded by a series of states of life
 in innumerable forms1 till at last it  
has become the dwelling-place of man2   

while the ,moon1 smaller in dimensions1 
has at an earlier period completely     
cooled down1 as to its exterior at      
least1 without ever being judged fit or 
worthy by its ,creator of being the seat
 of life2 and remains1 hung in the sky1 
as an object on which man may gaze1 and 
perhaps1 from which he may learn        
something of the constitution of the    
universe2 and among other lessons this2 
that he must not take for granted1 that 
all the other globes of the solar system
 are tenanted1 like that on which he has
 his appointed place4  #i4 ,it is true1 
that in coming to this conclusion1 the  
astronomers of whom ,i speak1 have been 
governed by other reasons1 besides those
 which ,i have mentioned1 the absence of
 any changes1 either rapid or slow1     
discoverable in the ,moon's face4 ,they 
have seen reason to believe that water  
and air1 elements so essential to       
terrestrial life1 do not exist in the   
,moon4 ,the dark spaces on her disk1    
which were called seas by those who     

first depicted them1 have an appearance 
inconsistent with their being oceans of 
water4 ,they are not level and smooth1  
as water would be2 nor uniform in their 
color1 but marked with permanent streaks
 and shades1 implying a rigid form4 ,and
 the absence of an atmosphere of        
transparent vapor and air1 surrounding  
the moon1 as our atmosphere surrounds   
the earth1 is still more clearly proved1
 by the absence of all the optical      
effects of such an atmosphere1 when     
stars pass behind the moon's disk1 and  
by the phenomena which are seen in solar
 eclipses1 when her solid mass is masked
 by the ,sun4#c ,this absence of        
moisture and air in the ,moon1 of       
course1 entirely confirms our previous  
conclusion1 of the absence of vegetable 
and animal life2 and leaves us1 as we   
have said1 to examine the question for  
the other bodies1 on their special      
grounds1 without any previous           
presumption that such life exists4      
,undoubtedly the aspect of the case will

 be different in one feature1 when we   
see reason to believe that other bodies 
have an atmosphere2 and if there be in  
any planet sufficient light and heat1   
and clouds and winds1 and a due         
adjustment of the power of gravity1 and 
the strength of the materials of which  
organized frames consist1 there may be1 
so far as we can judge1 life of some    
kind or other4 ,but yet1 even in those  
cases1 we should be led to judge also1  
by analogy1 that the life which they    
sustain is more different from the      
terrestrial life of the present period  
of the earth1 than that is from the     
terrestrial life of any former          
geological period1 in proportion as the 
conditions of light and heat1 and       
attraction and density1 are more        
different on any other planet1 than they
 can have been on the earth1 at any     
period of its history4  #aj4 ,let us    
then consider the state of these        
elements of being in the other planets4 
,i have mentioned1 among them1 the force

 of gravity1 and the density of         
materials2 because these are important  
elements in the question4 ,it may seem  
strange1 that we are able1 not only to  
measure the planets1 but to weigh them2 
yet so it is4 ,the wonderful discovery  
of universal gravitation1 so firmly     
established1 as the law which embraces  
every particle of matter in the solar   
system1 enables us to do this1 with the 
most perfect confidence4 ,the           
revolutions of the satellites round     
their primary planets1 give us a measure
 of the force by which the planets      
retain them in their orbits2 and in this
 way1 a measure of the quantity of      
matter of which each planet consists4   
,and other effects of the same universal
 law1 enable us to measure1 though less 
easily and less exactly1 the masses1    
even of those planets which have no     
satellites4 ,and thus we can1 as it     
were1 put the ,earth1 and ,jupiter or   
,saturn1 in the balance against each    
other2 and tell the proportionate number

 of pounds which they would weigh1 if so
 poised4 ,and again1 by another kind of 
experiment1 we can1 as we have said1    
weigh the earth against a known         
mountain2 or even against a small sphere
 of lead duly adjusted for the purpose4 
,and this has been done2 and the results
 are extremely curious2 and very        
important in our speculations relative  
to the constitution of the universe4    
#aa4 ,and in the first place1 we may    
remark that the ,earth is really much   
less heavy than we should expect1 from  
what we know of the materials of which  
it consists4 ,for1 measuring the        
density1 or specific gravity1 of        
materials1 7that is their comparative   
weight in the same bulk17 by their      
proportion to water1 which is the usual 
way1 the density of iron is #h1 that of 
lead #aa1 that of gold #ai3 the ordinary
 rocks at the ,earth's surface have a   
density of #c or #d4 ,moreover1 all the 
substances with which we are acquainted1
 contract into a smaller space1 and have

 their density increased1 by being      
subjected to pressure4 ,air does this1  
in an obvious manner2 and hence it is1  
that the lower parts of our atmosphere  
are denser than the upper parts2 being  
pressed by a greater superincumbent     
weight1 the weight of the superior parts
 of the atmosphere itself4 ,air is thus 
obviously and eminently elastic4 ,but   
all substances1 though less obviously   
and eminently1 are still1 really1 and in
 some degree1 elastic4 ,they all        
contract by compression4 ,water for     
instance1 if pressed by a column of     
water #ajjjjj feet high1 would be       
reduced to a bulk one-tenth less than   
before4 ,in the same manner iron1       
compressed by a column of iron #ijjjj   
feet high1 loses one-tenth of its bulk1 
and of course gains so much in density4 
,and the like takes place1 in different 
amounts1 with all material whatever4    
,this is the rate at which compression  
produces its effect of increasing the   
density1 in bodies which are in the     

condition of those which lie around us4 
,but if this law were to go on at the   
same rate1 when the compression is      
greatly increased1 the density of bodies
 deep down towards the centre of the    
,earth must be immense4 ,the ,earth's   
radius is above #bj million feet4 ,at a 
million feet depth we should have matter
 subjected to the pressure of a column  
of a million feet of superincumbent     
matter1 heavier than water2 and hence we
 should have a compression of water #aj 
times as great as we have mentioned2    
and1 therefore1 the bulk of the water   
would be reduced almost to nothing1 its 
density increased almost indefinitely3  
and the same would be the case with     
other materials1 as metals and stones4  
,if1 therefore1 this law of compression 
were to hold for these great pressures1 
all materials whatever1 contained in the
 depths of the ,earth's mass1 must be   
immensely denser1 and immensely         
specifically heavier1 than they are at  
the surface4 ,and thus1 the ,earth      

consisting of these far denser materials
 towards the centre1 but1 nearer the    
surface1 of lighter materials1 such as  
rock1 and metals1 in their ordinary     
state1 must1 we should expect1 be1 on   
the whole1 much heavier than if it      
consisted of the heaviest ordinary      
materials2 heavier than iron1 or than   
lead2 hundreds of times perhaps heavier 
than stone4  #ab4 ,this1 however1 is not
 found to be so4 ,the expectation of the
 great density of the ,earth1 which we  
might have derived from the known laws  
of condensation of terrestrial          
substances1 is not confirmed4 ,the mass 
of the ,earth being weighed1 by means of
 such processes as we have already      
referred to1 is found to be only five   
times heavier than so much water3 less  
heavy than if it were made of iron3 less
 than twice as heavy as if it were made 
of ordinary rock4 ,this1 of course1     
shows us that the condensation of the   
interior parts of the ,earth's mass1 is 
by no means so great as we should have  

expected it to be1 from what we know of 
the laws of condensation here2 and from 
considering the enormous pressure of    
superincumbent materials to which those 
interior parts are subjected4 ,the laws 
of condensation1 it would seem1 do not  
go on operating for these enormous      
pressures1 by the same progression as   
for smaller pressure4 ,if a mass of a   
material is compressed into nine-tenths 
its bulk by the weight of a column of   
#ajjjjj feet high1 it does not follow   
that it will be again compressed into   
nine-tenths of its condensed bulk1 by   
another column of #ajjjjj feet high4    
,the compression and condensation reach1
 or tend to1 a limit2 and probably1     
before they have gone very far4 ,it may 
be possible to compress a piece of iron 
by one-thousandth part1 even by such    
forces as we can use2 and yet it may not
 be possible to compress the same piece 
of iron into one half its bulk1 even by 
the weight of the whole ,earth1 if made 
to bear upon it4 ,this appears to be    

probable3 and this will explain1 how it 
is1 that the materials of the ,earth are
 not so violently condensed as we should
 have supposed2 and thus1 why1 the      
,earth is so light4  #ac4 ,we must avoid
 drawing inferences too boldly1 on a    
subject where our means of knowledge are
 so obscure as they are with regard to  
the interior of the ,earth2 but yet1    
perhaps1 we may be allowed to say1 that 
the result which we have just stated1   
that the ,earth is so light1 suggests to
 us the belief that the interior        
consists of the same materials as the   
exterior1 slightly condensed by         
pressure4#d ,we find no encouragement to
 believe that there is a nucleus within1
 of some material1 different from what  
we have on the outside2 some metal1 for 
instance1 heavier than lead4 ,if the    
earth were of granite1 or of lava1 to   
the centre1 it would1 so far as we can  
judge1 have much the same weight which  
it now has4 ,such a central mass1       
covered with the various layers of      

stone1 which form the upper crust of the
 ,earth1 would naturally make this globe
 of at least the weight which it really 
has4 ,and therefore1 if we were to learn
 that a planet was much lighter than    
this1 as to its materials1--much less   
dense1 taking the whole mass            
together1--we should be compelled to    
infer that it was1 throughout1 or nearly
 so1 formed of less compact matter than 
metal and stone2 or else1 that it had   
internal cavities1 or some other complex
 structure1 which it would be absurd to 
assume1 without positive reasons4  #ad4 
,now having decided these views from an 
examination of the ,earth1 let us apply 
them to other planets1 as bearing upon  
the question of their being inhabited2  
and in the first place1 to ,jupiter4 ,we
 can1 as we have said1 easily compare   
the mass of ,jupiter and of the ,earth2 
for both of them have ,satellites4 ,it  
is ascertained1 by this means1 that the 
mass of weight of ,jupiter is about #ccc
 times the weight of the earth2 but as  

his diameter is also #aa times that of  
the earth1 his bulk is #acca times that 
of the earth3 7the cube of #aa is       
#acca72 and1 therefore1 the density of  
,jupiter is to that of the earth1 only  
as #ccc to #acca1 or about #a to #d4    
,thus the density of ,jupiter1 taken as 
a whole1 is about a quarter of the      
earth's density2 less than that of any  
of the stones which form the crust of   
the earth2 and not much greater than the
 density of water4 ,indeed1 it is       
tolerably certain1 that the density of  
,jupiter is not greater than it would   
be1 if his entire globe were composed of
 water2 making allowance for the        
compression which the interior parts    
would suffer by the pressure of those   
parts superincumbent4 ,we might1        
therefore1 offer it as a conjecture not 
quite arbitrary1 that ,jupiter is a mere
 sphere of water4  #ae4 ,but is there   
anything further in the appearance of   
,jupiter1 which may serve to contradict1
 or to confirm1 this conjecture8 ,there 

is one circumstance in ,jupiter's form1 
which is1 to say the least1 perfectly   
consistent with the supposition1 that he
 is a fluid mass2 namely1 that he is not
 an exact sphere1 but oblate1 like an   
orange4 ,such a form is produced1 in a  
fluid sphere1 by a rotation upon its    
axis4 ,it is produced1 even in a sphere 
which is 7at present at least17 partly  
solid and partly fluid2 and the         
oblateness of the earth is accounted for
 in this way4 ,but ,jupiter1 who1 while 
he is much larger than the earth1       
revolves much more rapidly1 is much more
 oblate than the earth4 ,his polar and  
equatorial diameters are in the         
proportion of #ac to #ad4 ,now it is a  
remarkable circumstance1 that this is   
the amount of oblateness1 which1 on     
mechanical principles1 would result from
 his time of revolution1 if he were     
entirely fluid1 and of the same density 
throughout4#e ,so far1 then1 we have    
some confirmation at least1 of his being
 composed entirely of some fluid which  

in its density agrees with water4  #af4 
,but there are other circumstances in   
the appearances of ,jupiter1 which still
 further confirm this conjecture of his 
watery constitution4 ,his               
belts1--certain bands of darker and     
lighter color1 which run parallel to his
 equator1 and which1 in some degree1    
change their form1 and breadth1 and     
place1 from time to time1--have been    
conjectured1 by almost all astronomers1 
to arise from lines of cloud1           
alternating with tracts comparatively   
clear1 and having their direction       
determined by currents analogous to our 
trade-winds1 but of a much more steady  
and decided character1 in consequence of
 the great rotatory velocity4#f ,now    
vapors1 supplying the materials of such 
masses of cloud1 would naturally be     
raised from such a watery sphere as we  
have supposed1 by the action of the     
,sun2 would form such lines2 and would  
change their form from slight causes of 
irregularity1 as the belts are seen to  

do4 ,the existence of these lines of    
cloud does of itself show that there is 
much water on ,jupiter's surface1 and is
 quite consistent with our conjecture1  
that his whole mass is water4#g  #ag4   
,perhaps some persons may be disposed to
 doubt whether1 if ,jupiter be1 as we   
suppose1 merely or principally a mass of
 water and of vapor1 we are entitled to 
extend to him the law of universal      
gravitation1 which is the basis of our  
speculations4 ,but this doubt may be    
easily dismissed4 ,we know that the     
waters of the earth are affected by     
gravitation2 not only towards the earth1
 as shown by their weight1 but towards  
those distant bodies1 the ,sun and the  
,moon2 for this gravitation produces the
 tides of the ocean4 ,and our atmosphere
 also has weight1 as we know2 and       
probably has also solar and lunar tides1
 though these are marked by many other  
causes of diurnal change4 ,we have1     
then1 the same reason for supposing that
 air and water1 in other parts of the   

system1 are governed by universal       
gravitation1 and exercise themselves the
 attractive force of gravitation1 which 
we have for making the like suppositions
 with regard to the most solid bodies4  
,whatever argument proves universal     
gravitation1 proves it for all matter   
alike2 and ,newton1 in the course of his
 magnificent generalization of the law1 
took care to demonstrate1 by experiment1
 as well as by reasoning1 that it might 
be so generalized4  #ah4 ,as bearing    
upon the question of life in ,jupiter1  
there is another point which requires to
 be considered2 the force of gravity at 
his surface4 ,though1 equal bulk for    
equal bulk1 he is lighter than the      
earth1 yet his bulk is so great that1 as
 we have seen1 he is altogether much    
heavier than the earth4 ,this1 his      
greater mass1 makes bodies1 at equal    
distances from the centres1 ponderate   
proportionally more to him than they    
would do to the earth4 ,and though his  
surface is #aa times further from his   

centre than the earth's is1 and         
therefore the gravity at the surface is 
thereby diminished1 yet1 even after this
 deduction1 gravity at the surface of   
,jupiter is nearly two and a half times 
that on the earth4#h ,and thus a man    
transferred to the surface of ,jupiter  
would feel a stone1 carried in his      
hands1 and would feel his own limbs     
also1 7for his muscular power would not 
be altered by the transfer17 become     
#b-a_/b times as heavy1 as difficult to 
raise1 as they were before4 ,under such 
circumstances animals of large          
dimensions would be oppressed with their
 own weight4 ,in the smaller creatures  
on the earth1 as in insects1 the        
muscular power bears a great proportion 
to the weight1 and they might continue  
to run and to leap1 even if gravity were
 tripled or quadrupled4 ,but an elephant
 could not trot with two or three       
elephants placed upon his back4 ,a lion 
or tiger could not spring1 with twice or
 thrice his own weight hung about his   

neck4 ,such an increase of gravity would
 be inconsistent then1 with the present 
constitution and life of the largest    
terrestrial animals2 and if we are to   
suppose planets inhabited1 in which     
gravity is much more energetic than it  
is upon the earth1 we must suppose      
classes of animals which are adapted to 
such a different mechanical condition4  
#ai4 ,taking into account then1 these   
circumstances in ,jupiter's state2 his  
7probably7 bottomless waters2 his light1
 if any1 solid materials2 the strong    
hand with which gravity presses down    
such materials as there are2 the small  
amount of light and heat which reaches  
him1 at #e times the earth's distance   
from the sun2 what kind of inhabitants  
shall we be led to assign to him8 ,can  
they have skeletons where no substance  
so dense as bone is found1 at least in  
large masses8 ,it would seem not        
probable4#i ,and it would seem they must
 be dwellers in the waters1 for against 
the existence there of solid land1 we   

have much evidence4 ,they must1 with so 
little of light and heat1 have a low    
degree of vitality4 ,they must then1 it 
would seem1 be cartilaginous and        
glutinous masses2 peopling the waters   
with minute forms3 perhaps also with    
larger monsters2 for the weight of a    
bulky creature1 floating in the fluid1  
would be much more easily sustained than
 on solid ground4 ,if we are resolved to
 have such a population1 and that they  
shall live by food1 we must suppose that
 the waters contain at least so much    
solid matter as is requisite for the    
sustenance of the lowest classes2 for   
the higher classes of animals will      
probably find their food in consuming   
the lower4 ,i do not know whether the   
advocates of peopled worlds will think  
such a population as this worth         
contending for3 but ,i think the only   
doubt can be1 between such a population1
 and none4 ,if ,jupiter be a mere mass  
of water1 with perhaps a few cinders at 
the centre1 and an envelope of clouds   

around it1 it seems very possible that  
he may not be the seat of life at all4  
,but if life be there1 it does not seem 
in any way likely1 that the living      
things can be anything higher in the    
scale of being1 than such boneless1     
watery1 pulpy creatures as ,i have      
imagined4  #bj4 ,perhaps it may occur to
 some one to ask1 if this planet1 which 
presents so glorious an aspect to our   
eyes1 be thus the abode only of such    
imperfect and embryotic lumps of        
vitality as ,i have described2 to what  
purpose was all that gorgeous array of  
satellites appended to him1 which would 
present1 to intelligent spectators on   
his surface1 a spectacle far more       
splendid than any that our skies offer  
to us3 four moons1 some as great1 and   
others hardly less1 than our moon1      
performing their regular revolutions in 
the vault of heaven4 ,to which it will  
suffice1 at present1 to reply1 that the 
use of those moons1 under such a        
supposition1 would be precisely the     

same1 as the use of our moon1 during the
 myriads of years which elapsed while   
the earth was tenanted by corals and    
madrepores1 shell-fish and belemnites1  
the cartilaginous fishes of the ,old    
,red ,sandstone1 or the ,saurian        
monsters of the ,lias2 and in short1    
through all the countless ages which    
elapsed1 before the last few thousand   
years3 before man was placed upon the   
earth to eye the blue vault and bless   
the useful light3 to reckon by it his   
months and years3 to discover by means  
of it1 the structure of the universe1   
and perhaps1 the special care of his    
,creator for him alone of all his       
creatures4 ,the moons of ,jupiter1 may  
in this way be of use1 as our own moon  
is4 ,indeed we know that they have been 
turned to most important purposes1 in   
astronomy and navigation4 ,and knowing  
this1 we may be content not to know how1
 either the satellites of ,jupiter1 or  
the satellite of the ,earth1 tend to the
 advantage of the brute inhabitants of  

the waters4  #ba4 ,there is another     
point1 connected with this doctrine of  
the watery nature of ,jupiter1 which ,i 
may notice1 though we have little means 
of knowledge on the subject4 ,jupiter   
being thus covered with water1 is the   
water ever converted into ice8 ,the     
planet is more than #e times as far from
 the sun as the earth is3 the heat which
 he receives is1 on that account1 #be   
times less than ours4 ,the veil of      
clouds which covers a large part of his 
surface1 must diminish the heat still   
further4 ,what effect the absence of    
land produces1 on the freezing of the   
ocean1 it is not easy to say4 ,we       
cannot1 therefore1 pronounce with any   
confidence whether his waters are ever  
frozen or not4 ,in the next considerable
 planet1 ,mars1 astronomers conceive    
that they do trace the effects of frost2
 but in ,mars we have also appearances  
of land4 ,in ,jupiter1 we are left to   
mere conjecture2 whether continents and 
floating islands of ice still further   

chill the fluids of the slimy tribes    
whom we have been led to regard as the  
only possible inhabitants2 or whether   
the watery globe is converted into a    
globe of ice2 retaining on its surface1 
of course1 as much fluid as is          
requisite1 under the evaporating power  
of the sun1 to supply the currents of   
vapor which form the belts4 ,in this    
case1 perhaps1 we may think it most     
likely that there are no inhabitants of 
these shallow pools in a planet of ice3 
at any rate1 it is not worth while to   
provide any new speculations for such a 
hypothesis4  #bb4 ,we may turn our      
consideration from ,jupiter to ,saturn2 
for in many respects the two planets are
 very similar4 ,but in almost every     
point1 which is of force against the    
hypothesis of inhabitants1 the case is  
much stronger in ,saturn than it is in  
,jupiter4 ,light and heat1 at his       
distance1 are only one ninetieth of     
those at the ,earth4 ,none but a very   
low degree of vitality can be sustained 

under such sluggish influences4 ,the    
density of his mass is hardly greater   
than that of cork2 much less than that  
of water3 so that1 it does not appear   
what supposition is left for us1 except 
that a large portion of the globe1 which
 we see as his1 is vapor4 ,that the     
outer part of the globe is vapor1 is    
proved1 in ,saturn as in ,jupiter1 by   
the existence of several cloudy streaks 
or belts running round him parallel to  
his equator4 ,yet his mass1 taken       
altogether1 is considerable1 on account 
of his great size2 and gravity would be 
greater1 at his outer surface1 than it  
is at the earth's4 ,for such reasons1   
then1 as were urged in the case of      
,jupiter1 we must either suppose that he
 has no inhabitants2 or that they are   
aqueous1 gelatinous creatures2 too      
sluggish1 almost to be deemed alive1    
floating on their ice-cold waters1      
shrouded forever by their humid skies4  
#bc4 ,whether they have eyes or no1 we  
cannot tell2 but probably if they had1  

they would never see the ,sun2 and      
therefore we need not commiserate their 
lot in not seeing the host of ,saturnian
 satellites2 and the ,ring1 which to an 
intelligent ,saturnian spectator1 would 
be so splendid a celestial object4 ,the 
,ring is a glorious object for man's    
view1 and his contemplation2 and        
therefore is not altogether without its 
use4 ,still less need we 7as some appear
 to do7 regard as a serious misfortune  
to the inhabitants of certain regions of
 the planet1 a solar eclipse of fifteen 
years' duration1 to which they are      
liable by the interposition of the ,ring
 between them and the ,sun4#aj  #bd4    
,the cases of ,uranus and ,neptune are  
similar to that of ,saturn1 but of      
course stronger1 in proportion to their 
smaller light and heat4 ,for ,uranus1   
this is only #a-cfjth1 for ,neptune1 as 
we have already said1 #a-ijjth of the   
light and heat at the earth4 ,moreover1 
these two new planets agree with        
,jupiter and with ,saturn1 in being of  

very large size and of very small       
density2 and also we may remark1 one of 
them1 probably both1 in revolving with  
great rapidity1 and in nearly the same  
period1 namely1 about #aj hours3 at     
least1 this has been the opinion of     
astronomers with regard to ,uranus4 ,the
 arguments against the hypothesis of    
these two planets being inhabited1 are  
of course of the same kind as in the    
case of ,jupiter and ,saturn1 but much  
increased in strength2 and the          
supposition of the probably watery      
nature and low vitality of their        
inhabitants must be commended to the    
consideration of those who contend for  
inhabitants in those remote regions of  
the solar system4  #be4 ,we may now     
return towards the ,sun1 and direct our 
attention to the planet ,mars4 ,here we 
have some approximation to the condition
 of the ,earth1 in circumstances1 as in 
position4 ,it is true1 his light and    
heat1 so far as distance from the ,sun  
affects them1 are less than half those  

at the ,earth4 ,his density appears to  
be nearly equal to that of the ,earth1  
but his mass is so much smaller1 that   
gravity at his surface is only one-half 
of what it is here4 ,then1 as to his    
physical condition1 so far as we can    
determine it1 astronomers discern in his
 face#aa the outlines of continents and 
seas4 ,the ruddy color by which he is   
distinguished1 the red and fiery aspect 
which he presents1 arise1 they think1   
from the color of the land1 while the   
seas appear greenish4 ,clouds often seem
 to intercept the astronomer's view of  
the globe1 which with its continents and
 oceans thus revolves under his eye2 and
 that there is an atmosphere on which   
such clouds may float1 appears to be    
further proved1 by brilliant white spots
 at the poles of the planet1 which are  
conjectured to be snow2 for they        
disappear when they have been long      
exposed to the sun1 and are greatest    
when just emerging from the long night  
of their polar winter2 the snow-line    

then extending to about six degrees     
7reckoned upon the meridian of the      
planet7 from the pole4 ,moreover1 ,mars 
agrees with the earth1 in the period of 
his rotation2 which is about #bd hours2 
and in having his axis inclined to his  
orbit1 so as to produce a cycle of long 
and short days and nights1 a return of  
summer and winter1 in every revolution  
of the planet4  #bf4 ,we have here a    
number of circumstances which speak far 
more persuasively for a similarity of   
condition1 in this planet and the       
,earth1 than in any of the cases        
previously discussed4 ,it is true1 ,mars
 is much smaller than the earth1 and has
 not been judged worthy of the          
attendance of a satellite1 although     
further from the ,sun2 but still1 he may
 have been judged worthy of inhabitants 
by his ,creator4 ,perhaps we are not    
quite certain about the existence of an 
atmosphere2 and without such an         
appendage1 we can hardly accord him     
tenants4 ,but if he have inhabitants1   

let us consider of what kind they must  
be conceived to be1 according to any    
judgment which we can form4 ,the force  
of his gravity is so small1 that we may 
allow his animals to be large1 without  
fearing that they will break down by    
their own weight4 ,in a planet so dense1
 they may very likely have solid        
skeletons4 ,the ice about his poles will
 cumber the seas1 cold even for the want
 of solar heat1 as it does in our arctic
 and antarctic oceans2 and we may easily
 imagine that these seas are tenanted1  
like those1 by huge creatures of the    
nature of whales and seals1 and by other
 creatures which the existence of these 
requires and implies4 ,or rather1 since1
 as we have said1 we must suppose the   
population of other planets to be more  
different from our existing population1 
than the population of other ages of our
 own planet1 we may suppose the         
population of the seas and of the land  
of ,mars1 7if there be any1 and if we   
are not carrying it too high in the     

scale of vital activity17 to differ from
 any terrestrial animals1 in something  
of the same way in which the great land 
and sea saurians1 or the iguanodon and  
dinotherium1 differed from the animals  
which now live on the earth4  #bg4 ,that
 we need not discuss the question1      
whether there are intelligent beings    
living on the surface of ,mars1 perhaps 
the reader will allow1 till we have some
 better evidence that there are living  
things there at all2 if he calls to mind
 the immense proportion which1 on the   
earth1 far better fitted for the        
habitation of the only intelligent      
creature which we know or can conceive1 
the duration of unintelligent life has  
borne to that of intelligent4 ,here1 on 
this ,earth1 a few thousand years ago1  
began the life of a creature who can    
speculate about the past and the future1
 the near and the absent1 the ,universe 
and its ,maker1 duty and immortality4   
,this began a few thousand years ago1   
after ages and myriads of ages1 after   

immense varieties of lives and          
generations1 of corals and mollusks1    
saurians1 iguanodons1 and dinotheriums4 
,no doubt the ,creator might place an   
intelligent creature upon a planet1     
without all this preparation1 all this  
preliminary life4 ,he has not chosen to 
do so on the earth1 as we know2 and that
 is by much the best evidence attainable
 by us1 of what ,his purposes are4 ,it  
is also possible that ,he should1 on    
another planet1 have established        
creatures of the nature of corals and   
mollusks1 saurians and iguanodons1      
without having yet arrived at the period
 of intelligent creatures3 especially if
 that other planet have longer years1 a 
colder climate1 a smaller mass1 and     
perhaps no atmosphere4 ,it is also      
possible that ,he should have put that  
smaller planet near the ,earth1         
resembling it in some respects1 as the  
,moon does1 but without any inhabitants1
 as she has none2 and that ,mars may be 
such a planet4 ,the probability against 

such a belief can hardly be considered  
as strong1 if the arguments already     
offered be regarded as effective against
 the opinion of inhabitants in the other
 planets1 and in the ,moon4  #bh4 ,the  
numerous tribe of small bodies1 which   
revolve between ,jupiter and ,mars1 do  
not admit of much of the kind of        
reasoning1 which we have applied to the 
larger planets4 ,they have1 with perhaps
 one exception 7,vesta7 no disk of      
visible magnitude2 they are mere dots1  
and we do not even know that their form 
is spherical4 ,the near coincidence of  
their orbits has suggested1 to          
astronomers1 the conjecture that they   
have resulted from the explosion of a   
larger body1 and from its fracture into 
fragments4 ,perhaps the general         
phenomena of the universe suggest rather
 the notion of a collapse of portions of
 sidereal matter1 than of a sudden      
disruption and dispersion of any portion
 of it2 and these small bodies may be   
the results of some imperfectly effected

 concentration of the elements of our   
system2 which1 if it had gone on more   
completely and regularly1 might have    
produced another planet1 like ,mars or  
,venus4 ,perhaps they are only the      
larger masses1 among a great number of  
smaller ones1 resulting from such a     
process3 and it is very conceivable1    
that the meteoric stones which1 from    
time to time1 have fallen upon the      
earth's surface1 are other results of   
the like process3--bits of planets which
 have failed in the making1 and lost    
their way1 till arrested by the         
resistance of the earth's atmosphere4 ,a
 remarkable circumstance in these bodies
 is1 that though thus coming apparently 
from some remote part of the system1    
they contain no elements but such as had
 already been found to exist in the mass
 of the earth2 although some substances1
 as nickel and chrome1 which are        
somewhat rare in the earth's materials1 
are common parts of the composition of  
meteoric stones4 ,also they are of      

crystalline structure1 and exhibit some 
peculiarities in their crystallization4 
,such as these strange visitors are1    
they seem to show that the other parts  
of the solar system contain the same    
elementary substances1 and are subject  
to the same laws of chemical synthesis  
and crystalline force1 which obtain in  
the terrestrial region4 ,the smallness  
of these specimens is a necessary       
condition of their reaching us2 for if  
they had been more massive1 they would  
have followed out the path of their     
orbits round the sun1 however eccentric 
these might be4 ,the great eccentricity 
of the smaller planets1 their great     
deviation from the zodiacal path1 which 
is the highway of the large planets1    
their great number1 probably by no means
 yet exhausted by the discoveries of    
astronomers2 all fall in with the       
supposition that there are1 in the solar
 system1 a vast multitude of such       
abnormal planetoidal lumps4 ,as ,i have 
said1 we do not even know that they are 

approximately spherical2 and if they are
 of the nature of meteoric stones1 they 
are mere crude and irregularly          
crystallized masses of metal and earth4 
,it will therefore1 probably1 be deemed 
unnecessary to give other reasons why   
these planetoids are not inhabited4 ,but
 if it be granted that they are not1 we 
have here1 in addition to the moon1 a   
large array of examples1 to prove how   
baseless is the assumption1 that all the
 bodies of the solar system are the     
seats of life4  #bi4 ,we have thus      
performed our journey from the extremest
 verge of the ,universe1 so far as we   
have any knowledge of it1 to the orbit  
of our own planet2 and have found1 till 
we came into our own most immediate     
vicinity1 strong reasons for rejecting  
the assumption of inhabited worlds like 
our own2 and indeed1 of the habitation  
of worlds in any sense4 ,and even if    
,mars1 in his present condition1 may be 
some image of the ,earth1 in some of its
 remote geological periods1 it is at    

least equally possible that he may be an
 image of the ,earth1 in the still      
remoter geological period before life   
began4 ,of peculiar fitnesses which make
 the earth suited to the sustentation of
 life1 as we know that it is1 we shall  
speak hereafter2 and at present pass on 
to the other planets1 ,venus and        
,mercury4 ,but of these1 there is1 in   
our point of view1 very little to say4  
,venus1 which1 when nearest to us1 fills
 a larger angle than any other celestial
 body1 except the ,sun and the ,moon1   
might be expected to be the one of which
 we know most4 ,yet she is really one of
 the most difficult to scrutinize with  
our telescopes4 ,astronomers cannot     
discover in her1 as in ,mars1 any traces
 of continents and seas1 mountains and  
valleys2 at least with any certainty4#ab
 ,her illuminated part shines with an   
intense lustre which dazzles the        
sight2#ac yet she is of herself         
perfectly dark2 and it was the          
discovery1 that she presented the phases

 of the ,moon1 made by the telescope of 
,galileo1 which gave the first impulse  
to planetary research4 ,she is almost as
 large as the earth2 almost as heavy4   
,the light and heat which she receives  
from the ,sun must be about double those
 which come to the earth4 ,we discern no
 traces of a gaseous or watery          
atmosphere surrounding her4 ,perhaps if 
we could see her better1 we might find  
that she had a surface like the moon2 or
 perhaps1 in the nearer neighborhood of 
the sun1 she may have cooled more slowly
 and quietly1 like a glass which is     
annealed in the fire2 and hence1 may    
have a smooth surface1 instead of the   
furrowed and pimpled visage which the   
,moon presents to us4 ,with this        
ignorance of her conditions1 it is hard 
to say what kind of animals we could    
place in her1 if we were disposed to    
people her surface2 except perhaps the  
microscopic creatures1 with siliceous   
coverings1 which1 as modern explorers   
assert1 are almost indestructible by    

heat4 ,to believe that she has a surface
 like the earth1 and tribes of animals1 
like terrestrial animals1 and like man1 
is an exercise of imagination1 which not
 only is quite gratuitous1 but contrary 
to all the information which the        
telescope gives us2 and with this       
remark1 we may dismiss the hypothesis4  
#cj4 ,of ,mercury we know still less4   
,he receives seven times as much light  
and heat as the ,earth2 is much smaller 
than the earth1 but perhaps more dense2 
and has not1 so far as we can tell1 any 
of the conditions which make animal     
existence conceivable4 ,if it is so     
difficult to find suitable inhabitants  
for ,venus1 the difficulty for ,mercury 
is immensely greater4  #ca4 ,so far     
then1 we have traversed the ,solar      
,system1 and have found even here1 the  
strongest grounds that there can be no  
animal existence1 like that which alone 
we can conceive as animal existence1    
except in the planet next beyond the    
earth1 ,mars2 and there1 not without    

great modifications4 ,but we may make   
some further remarks on the condition of
 the several planets1 with regard to    
what appears to us to be the necessary  
elements of animal life4  ,,footnotes3  
#a ,more recently1 at the meeting of the
 ,british ,association in ,september1   
#ahec1 ,professor ,phillips has         
declared1 that astronomers can discern  
the shape of a spot on the ,moon's      
surface1 which is a few hundred feet in 
breadth4  #b ,a person visiting the     
,eifel1 a region of extinct volcanoes1  
west of the ,rhine1 can hardly fail to  
be struck with the resemblance of the   
craters there1 to those seen in the moon
 through a telescope4  #c ,bessel has   
discussed and refuted 7it was hardly    
necessary7 the conjecture of some       
persons 7he describes them as the       
feeling hearts who would find sympathy  
even in the ,moon7 that there may be in 
the ,moon's valleys air enough to       
support life1 though it does not rise   
above the hills4--,populaere            

,vorlesungen1 p4 #gh4  #d ,the doctrine 
that the interior nucleus of the ,earth 
is fluid1 whether accepted or rejected1 
does not materially affect this         
argument4 ,it appears1 that in some     
cases1 at least1 the melting of         
substances is prevented1 by their being 
subjected to extreme pressure2 but the  
density1 the element from which we      
reason1 is measured by methods quite    
independent of such questions4  #e      
,herschel1 #eab4 ,bessel1 however1 holds
 that the oblateness of ,jupiter proves 
that his interior is somewhat denser    
than his exterior4 ,pop4 ,vorles4 p4    
#ia4  #f ,herschel1 #eac4  #g ,a        
difficulty may be raised1 founded on    
what we may suppose to be the fact1 as  
to the extreme cold of those regions of 
the ,solar ,system4 ,it may be supposed 
that water under such a temperature     
could exist in no other form than ice4  
,and that the cold must there be        
intense1 according to our notion1 there 
is strong reason to believe4 ,even in   

the outer regions of our atmosphere1 the
 cold is probably very many degrees     
below freezing1 and in the blank and    
airless void beyond1 it may be colder   
still4 ,it has been calculated by       
physical philosophers1 on grounds which 
seem to be solid1 that the cold of the  
space beyond our atmosphere is #ajj deg4
 below zero4 ,the space near to         
,jupiter1 if an absolute vacuum1 in     
which there is no matter to receive and 
retain heat emitted from the ,sun1 may1 
perhaps1 be no colder than it is nearer 
the ,sun4 ,and as to the effect the     
great cold would produce on ,jupiter's  
watery material1 we may remark1 that if 
there be a free surface1 there will be  
vapor produced by the ,sun's heat2 and  
if there be air1 there will be clouds4  
,we may add1 that so far as we have     
reason to believe1 below the freezing   
point1 no accession of cold produces any
 material change in ice4 ,even in the   
expeditions of our ,arctic navigators1 a
 cold of #dj deg4 below zero was        

experienced1 and ice was still but ice1 
and there were vapors and clouds as in  
our climate4 ,it is quite an arbitrary  
assumption1 to suppose that any cold    
which may exist in ,jupiter would       
prevent the state of things which we    
suppose4  #h ,herschel1 #ejh4  #i ,it   
may be thought fanciful to suppose that 
because there is little or no solid     
matter 7of any kind known to us7 in     
,jupiter1 his animals are not likely to 
have solid skeletons4 ,the analogy is   
not very strong2 but also1 the weight   
assigned to it in the argument is small4
 ,valeat quantum valere debet4  #aj     
,herschel1 #ebb4  #aa ,herschel1 #eaj4  
#ab ,according to ,bessel1 ,schroeter   
once saw one bright point on the dark   
ground1 near the boundary of light in   
,venus4 ,this was taken as proving a    
mountain1 estimated at #fj1jjj feet     
high4 ,pop4 ,vorles4 p4 #hf4  #ac       
,herschel1 #eji4     ,,chapter ,x4      
,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,solar ,,system4   
#a4 ,we have given our views respecting 

the various planets which constitute the
 ,solar ,system2--views established1 it 
would seem1 by all that we know1 of the 
laws of heat and moisture1 density and  
attraction1 organization and life4 ,we  
have examined and reasoned upon the     
cases of the different planets          
separately4 ,but it may serve to confirm
 this view1 and to establish it in the  
reader's mind1 if we give a description 
of the system which shall combine and   
connect the views which we have         
presented1 of the constitution and      
peculiarities1 as to physical           
circumstances1 of each of the planets4  
,it will help us in our speculations1 if
 we can regard the planets not only as a
 collection1 but as a scheme2--if we can
 give1 not an enumeration only1 but a   
theory4 ,now such a scheme1 such a      
theory1 appears to offer itself to us4  
#b4 ,the planets exterior to ,mars1     
,jupiter1 and ,saturn especially1 as the
 best known of them1 appear1 by the best
 judgment which we can form1 to be      

spheres of water1 and of aqueous vapor1 
combined1 it may be1 with atmospheric   
air1 in which their cloudy belts float  
over their deep oceans4 ,mars seems to  
have some portion at least of aqueous   
atmosphere2 the earth1 we know1 has a   
considerable atmosphere of air1 and of  
vapor2 but the ,moon1 so near to her    
mistress1 has none4 ,on ,venus and      
,mercury1 we see nothing of a gaseous or
 aqueous atmosphere2 and they1 and      
,mars1 do not differ much in their      
density from the ,earth4 ,now1 does not 
this look as if the water and the vapor1
 which belong to the solar system1 were 
driven off into the outer regions of its
 vast circuit2 while the solid masses   
which are nearest to the focus of heat1 
are all approximately of the same       
nature8 ,and if this be so1 what is the 
peculiar physical condition which we are
 led to ascribe to the ,earth8 ,plainly 
this3 that she is situated just in that 
region of the system1 where the         
existence of matter1 both in a solid1 a 

fluid1 and a gaseous condition1 is      
possible4 ,outside the ,earth's orbit1  
or at least outside ,mars and the small 
,planetoids1 there is1 in the planets1  
apparently1 no solid matter2 or rather1 
if there be1 there is a vast            
preponderance of watery and vaporous    
matter4 ,inside the ,earth's orbit1 we  
see1 in the planets1 no traces of water 
or vapor1 or gas2 but solid matter1     
about the density of terrestrial matter4
 ,the ,earth1 alone1 is placed at the   
border where the conditions of life are 
combined2 ground to stand upon2 air to  
breathe2 water to nourish vegetables1   
and thus1 animals2 and solid matter to  
supply the materials for their more     
solid parts2 and with this1 a due supply
 of light and heat1 a due energy of the 
force of weight4 ,all these conditions  
are1 in our conception1 requisite for   
life3 that all these conditions meet1   
elsewhere than in the neighborhood of   
the ,earth's orbit1 we see strong       
reasons to disbelieve4 ,the ,earth1     

then1 it would seem1 is the abode of    
life1 not because all the globes which  
revolve round the ,sun may be assumed to
 be the abodes of life2 but because the 
,earth is fitted to be so1 by a curious 
and complex combination of properties   
and relations1 which do not at all apply
 to the others4 ,that the ,earth is     
inhabited1 is not a reason for believing
 that the other ,planets are so1 but for
 believing that they are not so4  #c4   
,can we see any physical reason1 for the
 fact which appears to us so probable1  
that all the water and vapor of the     
system is gathered in its outward parts8
 ,it would seem that we can4 ,water and 
aqueous vapor are driven from the ,sun  
to the outer parts of the solar system1 
or are allowed to be permanent there    
only1 as they are driven off and        
retained at a distance by any other     
source of heat2--to use a homely        
illustration1 as they are driven from   
wet objects placed near the             
kitchen-fire3 as they are driven from   

the hot sands of ,egypt into the upper  
air3 as they are driven from the tropics
 to the poles4 ,in this latter case1 and
 generally1 in all cases1 in which vapor
 is thus driven from a hotter region1   
when it comes into a colder1 it may     
again be condensed in water1 and fall in
 rain4 ,so the cold of the air in the   
temperate zone condenses the aqueous    
vapors which flow from the tropics2 and 
so1 we have our clouds and our showers4 
,and as there is this rainy region1     
indistinctly defined1 between the torrid
 and the frigid zones on the earth2 so  
is there a region of clouds and rain1 of
 air and water1 much more precisely     
defined1 in the solar system1 between   
the central torrid zone and the external
 frigid zone which surrounds the ,sun at
 a greater distance4  #d4 ,the ,earth's 
,orbit is the ,temperate ,zone of the   
,solar ,system4 ,in that ,zone only is  
the play of ,hot and ,cold1 of ,moist   
and ,dry1 possible4 ,the ,torrid ,zone  
of the ,earth is not free from moisture2

 it has its rains1 for it has its upper 
colder atmosphere4 ,but how much hotter 
are ,venus and ,mercury than the ,torrid
 ,zone8 ,there1 no vapors can linger2   
they are expelled by the fierce solar   
energy2 and there is no cool stratum to 
catch them and return them4 ,if they    
were there1 they must fly to the outer  
regions2 to the cold abodes of ,jupiter 
and ,saturn1 if on their way1 the ,earth
 did not with cold and airy finger      
outstretched afar1 catch a few drops of 
their treasures1 for the use of plant1  
and beast1 and man4 ,the solid stone    
only1 and the metallic ore which can be 
fused and solidified with little loss of
 substance1 can bear the continual force
 of the near solar fire1 and be the     
material of permanent solid planets in  
that region4 ,but the lava pavement of  
the ,inner ,planets bears no            
superstructure of life2 for all life    
would be scorched away along with water1
 its first element4 ,on the ,earth      
first1 can this superstructure be       

raised2 and there1 through we know not  
what graduation of forms1 the waters    
were made to bring forth abundantly     
things that had life2 plants1 and       
animals nourished by plants1 and        
conspiring with them1 to feed on their  
respective appointed elements1 in the   
air which surrounded them4 ,and so1     
nourished by the influences of air and  
water1 plants and animals lived and     
died1 and were entombed in the scourings
 of the land1 which the descending      
streams carried to the bottom of the    
waters4 ,and then1 these beds of dead   
generations were raised into mountain   
ranges2 perhaps by the yet              
unextinguished forces of subterraneous  
fires4 ,and then a new creation of      
plants and animals succeeded2 still     
living under the fostering influence of 
the united pair1 ,air and ,water1 which 
never ceased to brood over the ,world of
 ,life1 their ,nurseling2 and then1     
perhaps1 a new change of the limits of  
land and water1 and a new creation      

again3 till at last1 ,man was placed    
upon the ,earth2 with far higher powers1
 and far different purposes1 from any of
 the preceding tribes of creatures3 and 
with this1 for one of his offices2--that
 there might be an intelligent being to 
learn how wonderfully the scheme of     
creation had been carried on1 and to    
admire1 and to worship the ,creator4    
#e4 ,but we have a few more remarks to  
make on the structure of the ,solar     
,system1 in this point of view4 ,when we
 say that the water and vapor of the    
,system were driven to the outer parts1 
or retained there1 by the central heat  
of the ,sun1 perhaps it might be        
supposed to be most simple and natural1 
that the aqueous vapor1 and the water1  
should assume its place in a distinct   
circle1 or rather a spherical shell1 of 
which the ,sun was the centre2 thus     
making an elemental sphere about the    
centre1 such as the ancients imagined in
 their schemes of the ,universe4 ,nor   
will we venture to say that such an     

arrangement of elements might not be2   
though perhaps it might be shown that no
 stable equilibrium of the system would 
be1 in this way1 mechanically possible4 
,but this at least we may say2 that a   
rotatory motion of all the parts of the 
universe appears to be a universal law  
prevalent in it1 so far as our          
observation can reach3 and that1 by such
 rotation of the separate masses1 the   
whole is put in a condition which is    
everywhere one of stable equilibrium4   
,it was1 then1 agreeable to the general 
scheme1 that the excess of water and    
vapor1 which must necessarily be carried
 away1 or stored up1 in the outer       
regions of the ,system1 should be put   
into shapes in which it should have a   
permanent place and form4 ,and thus1 it 
is suitable to the general economy of   
creation1 that this water and vapor     
should be packed into rotating masses1  
such as are ,jupiter and ,saturn1       
,uranus and ,neptune4 ,when once        
collected in such rotating masses1 the  

attraction of its parts would gather it 
into spheroidal forms2 oblate by the    
effect of rotation1 as ,jupiter1 or     
perhaps into annular forms1 like the    
,ring of ,saturn2#a for such also is a  
mechanically possible form of           
equilibrium1 for a fluid mass4 ,and     
these spheroids once formed1 the water  
would form a central nucleus1 over which
 would hang a cover of vapor1 raised by 
the evaporating power of the ,sun1 and  
forming clouds1 where the rarity of the 
upper strata of vapor allowed the cold  
of the external space to act2 and these 
clouds1 spun into belts by the rotation 
of the sphere4 ,and thus1 the vapor1    
which would otherwise have wandered     
loose about the atmosphere1 was neatly  
wound into balls2 which1 again1 were    
kept in their due place1 by being made  
to revolve in nearly circular orbits    
about the ,sun4  #f4 ,and thus1         
according to our view1 water and gases1 
clouds and vapors1 form mainly the      
planets in the outer part of the solar  

system2 while masses such as result from
 the fusion of the most solid materials1
 lie nearer the sun1 and are found      
principally within the orbit of         
,jupiter4#b ,to conceive planetary      
systems as formed by the gradual        
contraction of a nebular mass1 and by   
the solidification of some of its parts1
 is a favorite notion of several        
speculators4 ,if we adopt this notion1  
we shall1 ,i think1 find additional     
proofs in favor of our view of the      
system4 ,for1 in the first place1 we    
have the zodiacal light1 a nebulous     
appendage to the ,sun1 as ,herschel     
conceives1 extending beyond the orbits  
of ,mercury and ,venus4 ,these planets1 
then1 have not yet fully emerged from   
the atmosphere in which they had their  
origin3--the mother-light and           
mother-fire1 in which they began to     
crystallize1 as crystals do in their    
mother-water4 ,though they are already  
opaque1 they are still immersed in      
luminous vapor3 and bearing such traces 

of their chaotic state being not yet    
ended1 we need not wonder1 if we find no
 evidence of their having inhabitants1  
and some evidence to the contrary4 ,they
 are within a nebular region1 which may 
easily be conceived to be uninhabitable4
 ,and where this nebular region1 marked 
by the zodiacal light1 terminates1 the  
world of life begins1 namely at the     
,earth4  #g4 ,but further1 outside this 
region of the ,earth1 what do we find in
 the solar system8 ,of solid matter1 if 
our views are right1 we find nothing but
 an immense number of small bodies2     
namely1 first1 ,mars1 who1 as we have   
said1 is only about one-eighth the earth
 in mass3 the twenty-six small          
planetoids1 7or whatever number may have
 been discovered when these pages meet  
the reader's eye1#c7 between ,mars and  
,jupiter2 the four satellites of        
,jupiter2 the eight satellites of       
,saturn2 the six 7if that be the true   
number17 satellites of ,uranus2 and the 
one satellite of ,neptune1 already      

detected4 ,it is very remarkable1 that  
all this array of small bodies begins to
 be found just outside the ,earth's     
orbit4 ,supposing1 as we have found so  
much reason to suppose1 that ,jupiter1  
and the other exterior planets1 are not 
solid bodies1 but masses of water and of
 vapor2 the existence of great solid    
planetary masses1 such as exist in the  
region of the ,earth's orbit1 is        
succeeded externally by the existence of
 a vast number of smaller bodies4 ,the  
real quantity of matter in these smaller
 bodies we cannot in general determine4 
,perhaps the largest of them1 7after    
,mars17 may be ,jupiter's third         
satellite2 which#d is reckoned1 by      
,laplace1 to have a mass less than      
#a-aj1jjjth of that of ,jupiter himself2
 and thus1 since ,jupiter1 as we have   
seen1 has a mass #ccc times that of the 
,earth1 the satellite would be above    
#a-cjth of the ,earth's mass4#e ,that   
none but masses of this size1 and many  
far below this1 are found outside of    

,mars1 appears to indicate1 that the    
planet-making powers which were         
efficacious to this distance from the   
sun1 and which produced the great globe 
of the ,earth1 were1 beyond this point1 
feebler2 so that they could only give   
birth to smaller masses2 to planetoids1 
to satellites1 and to meteoric stones4  
,perhaps we may describe this want of   
energy in the planet-making power1 by   
saying1 that at so great a distance from
 the central fire1 there was not heat   
enough to melt together these smaller   
fragments into a larger globe2#f or     
rather1 when they existed in a nebular1 
perhaps in a gaseous state1 that there  
was not heat enough to keep them in that
 state1 till the attraction of the parts
 of all of them had drawn them into one 
mass1 which might afterwards solidify   
into a single globe4 ,the tendency of   
nebular matter to separate into distinct
 portions1 which may afterwards be more 
and more detached from each other1 so as
 to break the nebulous light into       

patches and specks1 appears to be seen  
in the structure of the resolvable      
nebulae1 as we have already had occasion
 to notice4 ,and according to the view  
we are now taking1 we may conceive such 
patches1 by further cooling and         
concentration1 to remain luminous as    
comets1 and perhaps shooting stars2 or  
to become opaque as planets1 planetoids1
 satellites1 or meteoric stones4 ,and   
here we may call to mind what we have   
already said1 that the meteoric stones  
consist of the same elements as those of
 the earth1 combined by the same laws2  
and thus appear to bring us a message   
from the other solid planets1 that they 
also have the same elements and the same
 chemical forces as the earth has4  #h4 
,it has already been supposed1 by many  
astronomers1 that shooting stars1 and   
meteoric stones1 are bodies of connected
 nature and origin2 and that they are   
cosmical1 not terrestrial bodies2--parts
 of the solar system1 not merely        
appendages to the earth4 ,it has been   

conceived1 that the luminous masses1    
which appear as shooting stars1 when    
they are without the sphere of          
terrestrial influences1 may1 when they  
reach our atmosphere1 collapse into such
 solid lumps as have from time to time  
fallen upon the earth's surface3 many of
 them1 with such sudden manifestations  
of light and heat1 as implied some rapid
 change taking place in their chemical  
constitution and consistence4 ,if       
shooting stars are of this nature1 then1
 in those cases in which a great number 
of them appear in close succession1 we  
have evidence that there is a region in 
which there is a large collection of    
matter of a nebulous kind1 collected    
already into small clouds1 and ready1 by
 any additional touch of the powers that
 hover round the earth1 to be further   
consolidated into planetary matter4     
,that the earth's orbit carries her     
through such regions1 in her annual     
course1 we have evidence1 in the curious
 fact1 now so repeatedly observed1 of   

showers of shooting stars1 seen at      
particular seasons of every year2       
especially about the #acth of ,november1
 and the #ajth of ,august4 ,this        
phenomenon has been held1 most          
reasonably1 to imply that at those      
periods of the year1 the earth passes   
through a crowd of such meteor-planets1 
which form a ring round the sun2 and    
revolving round him1 like the other     
planets1 retain their place in the      
system from year to year4#g ,it may be  
that the orbits of these meteor-planets 
are very elliptical4 ,that they are to a
 certain extent elliptical1 appears to  
be shown1 by our falling in with them   
only once a year1 not every half year1  
as we should do1 if their orbit1 being  
nearly circular1 met the earth's orbit  
in two opposite points4 ,that the       
shooting stars1 thus seen in great      
numbers when the earth is at certain    
points of her orbit1 are really         
planetoidal bodies1 appears to be       
further proved by this2--that they all  

seem to move nearly in the same         
direction4#h ,they are1 each of them1   
visible for a short time only1 7indeed  
commonly only for a few seconds71 while 
they are nearest the earth2 much in the 
same way in which a comet is visible    
only for a small portion of its path3   
and this portion is described in a short
 time1 because they move near the earth4
 ,they are so small that a little change
 of distance removes them beyond our    
vision4  #i4 ,perhaps these revolving   
specks of nebulae are the outriders of  
the zodiacal light2 portions of it1     
which1 being external to the permanently
 nebulous central mass1 have broken into
 patches1 and are seen as stars for the 
moment that we are near to them4 ,and if
 this be true1 we have to correct1 in a 
certain way1 what we have previously    
said of the zodiacal light2--that no one
 had thought of resolving it into stars3
 for it would thus appear1 that in its  
outer region1 it resolves itself into   
stars1 visible1 though but for a moment1

 to the naked eye4  #aj4 ,and thus1 all 
these phenomena concur in making it     
appear probable1 that the ,earth is     
placed in that region of the solar      
system in which the planet-forming      
powers are most vigorous and            
potent2--between the region of permanent
 nebulous vapor1 and the region of mere 
shreds and specks of planetary matter1  
such as are the satellites and the      
planetoidal group4 ,and from these      
views1 finally it follows1 that the     
,earth is really the largest planetary  
body in the ,solar ,system4 ,the vast   
globes of ,jupiter and ,saturn1 ,uranus 
and ,neptune1 which roll far above her1 
are still only huge masses of cloud and 
vapor1 water and air2 which1 from their 
enormous size1 are ponderous enough to  
retain round them a body of small       
satellites1 perhaps1 in some degree at  
least1 solid2 and which have perhaps a  
small lump1 or a few similar lumps1 of  
planetary matter at the centre of their 
watery globe4 ,the ,earth is really the 

domestic hearth of this ,solar ,system2 
adjusted between the hot and fiery haze 
on one side1 the cold and watery vapor  
on the other4 ,this region only is fit  
to be a domestic hearth1 a seat of      
habitation2 and in this region is placed
 the largest solid globe of our system2 
and on this globe1 by a series of       
creative operations1 entirely different 
from any of those which separated the   
solid from the vaporous1 the cold from  
the hot1 the moist from the dry1 have   
been established1 in succession1 plants1
 and animals1 and man4 ,so that the     
habitation has been occupied2 the       
domestic hearth has been surrounded by  
its family2 the fitnesses so wonderfully
 combined have been employed2 and the   
,earth alone1 of all the parts of the   
frame which revolves round the ,sun1 has
 become a ,world4  #aa4 ,perhaps it may 
tend still further to illustrate1 and to
 fix in the reader's mind1 the view of  
the constitution of the solar system    
here given1 if we remark an analogy     

which exists1 in this respect1 between  
the ,earth in particular1 and the ,solar
 ,system in general4 ,the earth1 like   
the central parts of the system1 is     
warmed by the sun2 and hence1 drives off
 watery vapors into the circumambient   
space1 where they are condensed by the  
cold4 ,the upper regions of the         
atmosphere1 like the outer regions of   
the solar system1 form the vapors thus  
raised into clouds1 which are really    
only water in minute drops2 while in the
 solar system1 the cold of the outer    
regions1 and the rotation of the masses 
themselves1 maintain the water1 and the 
vapor1 in immense spheres4 ,but ,jupiter
 and ,saturn may be regarded as1 in many
 respects1 immense clouds2 the          
continuous water being collected at     
their centres1 while the more airy and  
looser parts circulate above4 ,they are 
the permanent receptacles of the        
superfluous water and air of the system4
 ,what is not wanted on the ,earth1 is  
stored up there1 and hangs above us1 far

 removed from our atmosphere2 but yet1  
like the clouds in our atmosphere1 an   
example1 what glorious objects          
accumulations of vapor and water1       
illuminated by the rays of the sun1 may 
become in our eyes4  #ab4 ,these views  
are so different from those hitherto    
generally entertained1 and considered as
 having a sort of religious dignity     
belonging to them1 that we may fear1 at 
first at least1 they will appear to     
many1 rash and fanciful1 and almost1 as 
we have said1 irreverent4 ,on the       
question of reverence we may hereafter  
say a few words2 but as to the rashness 
of these views1 we would beg the reader1
 calmly and dispassionately1 to consider
 the very extraordinary number of points
 in the solar system1 hitherto          
unexplained1 which they account for1 or1
 at least reduce into consistency and   
connection1 in a manner which seems     
wonderful4 ,the ,theory1 as we may      
perhaps venture to call it1 brings      
together all these known phenomena2--the

 great size and small density of the    
exterior planets2--their belts and      
streaks2--,saturn's ring2--,jupiter's   
oblateness2--the great number of        
satellites of the exterior planets2--the
 numerous group of planetoid bodies     
between ,jupiter and ,mars2--the        
appearance of definite shapes of land   
and water on ,mars2--the showers of     
shooting stars which appear at certain  
periods of the year2--the ,zodiacal     
,light2--the appearance of ,venus as    
different from ,mars2--and finally1 the 
material composition of meteoric stones4
  #ac4 ,perhaps there are other         
phenomena which more readily find an    
explanation in this theory1 than in any 
other3 for instance1 the recent         
discovery of a dim half-transparent     
ring1 as an appendage to the luminous   
ring of ,saturn1 which has hitherto     
alone been observed4 ,perhaps this is   
the ring of vapor which may naturally be
 expected to accompany the ring of      
water4 ,it is the annular atmosphere of 

the aqueous annulus4 ,but1 the discovery
 of this faint ring being so new1 and   
hitherto not fully unfolded1 we shall   
not further press the argument1 which1  
hereafter1 perhaps1 may be more         
confidently derived from its existence4 
#ad4 ,there are some other facts in the 
,solar ,system1 which1 we can hardly    
doubt1 must have a bearing upon the     
views which we have urged2 though we    
cannot yet undertake to explain that    
bearing fully4 ,not only do all the     
planetary bodies of the solar system1 as
 well as the ,sun himself1 revolve upon 
their axes2 but there is a very curious 
fact relative to these revolutions1     
which appears to point out a further    
connection among them4 ,so far as has   
yet been ascertained1 all those which   
we1 in our theory1 regard as solid      
bodies1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth1   
and ,mars1 revolve in very nearly the   
same time3 namely1 in about twenty-four 
hours4 ,all those larger masses1 on the 
other hand1 which we1 in our theory1    

hold to be watery planets1 ,jupiter1    
,saturn1 ,uranus1 revolve1 not in a     
longer time1 as would perhaps have been 
expected1 from their greater size1 but  
in a shorter time2 in less than half the
 time2 in about ten hours4 ,the near    
agreement of the times of revolution in 
each of these two groups1 is an         
extremely curious fact2 and cannot fail 
to lead our thoughts to the probability 
of some common original cause of these  
motions4 ,but no such common cause has  
been suggested1 by any speculator on    
these subjects4 ,if1 in this blank1 even
 of hypotheses1 one might be admitted1  
as at least a mode of connecting the    
facts1 we might say1 that the compound  
collection of solid materials1 water1   
and air1 of which the solar system      
consists1 and of which our earth alone1 
perhaps1 retains the combination1 being1
 by whatever means1 set a spinning round
 an axis1 at the rate of one revolution 
in #bd hours1 the solid masses which    
were detached from it1 not being liable 

to much contraction1 retained their rate
 of revolution2 while the vaporous      
masses which were detached from the     
fluid and airy part1 contracting much1  
when they came into a colder region1    
increased their rate of revolution on   
account of their contraction4 ,that such
 an acceleration of the rate of         
revolution would be the result of       
contraction1 is known from mechanical   
principles2 and indeed1 is evident3 for 
the contraction of a circular ring of   
such matter into a narrower compass1    
would not diminish the linear velocity  
of its elements1 while it would give    
them a smaller path to describe in their
 revolutions4 ,such an hypothesis would 
account1 therefore1 both for the nearly 
equal times of revolution of all the    
solid planets1 and for the smaller      
period of rotation1 which the larger    
planets show4  #ae4 ,in what manner1    
however1 portions are to be detached    
from such a rotating mass1 so as to form
 solid planets on the one side1 and     

watery planets on the other1 and how    
these planets1 so detached1 are to be   
made to revolve round the ,sun1 in      
orbits nearly circular1 we have no      
hypothesis ready to explain4 ,and       
perhaps we may say1 that no             
satisfactory1 or even plausible1        
hypothesis to explain these facts1 has  
been proposed3 for the ,nebular         
,hypothesis1 the only one which is      
likely to be considered as worthy any   
notice on this subject1 is too          
imperfectly worked out1 as yet1 to      
enable us to know1 what it will or will 
not account for4 ,according to that     
hypothesis1 the nebular matter of a     
system1 having originally a rotatory    
motion1 gradually contracts2 and        
separating1 at various distances from   
the centre1 forms rings2 which again1   
breaking at some point of their         
circumference1 are1 by the mutual       
attraction of their parts1 gathered up  
into one mass2 which1 when cooled down1 
so as to be opaque1 becomes a planet2   

still revolving round the luminous mass 
which remains at the centre4 ,that such 
a process1 if we suppose the            
consistency1 and other properties1 of   
the nebulous matter to be such as to    
render it possible1 would produce       
planetary masses revolving round a sun  
in nearly circular orbits1 and rotating 
about their own axes1 seems most likely2
 though it does not appear that it has  
been very clearly shown4#i ,but no      
successful attempt has been made to     
deduce any laws of the distances from   
the centre1 times of rotation1 or other 
properties of such planets2 and         
therefore1 we cannot say that the       
nebular hypothesis is yet in any degree 
confirmed4  #af4 ,the ,theory which we  
have ventured to propose1 of the ,solar 
,system1 agrees with the ,nebular       
,hypothesis1 so far as that hypothesis  
goes2 if we suppose that there is1 at   
the centre of the exterior planets1     
,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 and         
,neptune1 a solid nucleus1 probably     

small1 of the same nature as the other  
planets4 ,such an addition to our theory
 is1 perhaps1 on all accounts1 probable3
 for that circumstance would seem to    
determine1 to particular points1 the    
accumulation of water and vapors1 to    
which we hold that those planets owe the
 greater part of their bulk4 ,those     
planets then1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 and the
 others1 are really small solid planets1
 with enormous oceans and atmospheres4  
,the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 in that case1
 is that part of our ,hypothesis1 which 
relates to the condensation of luminous 
nebular matter2 while we consider1      
further1 the causes which1 scorching the
 inner planets1 and driving the vapors  
to the outer orbs1 would make the region
 of the earth the only habitable part of
 the system4  #ag4 ,the belief that     
other planets1 as well as our own1 are  
the seats of habitation of living       
things1 has been entertained1 in        
general1 not in consequence of physical 
reasons1 but in spite of physical       

reasons2 and because there were         
conceived to be other reasons1 of       
another kind1 theological or            
philosophical1 for such a belief4 ,it   
was held that ,venus1 or that ,saturn1  
was inhabited1 not because any one could
 devise1 with any degree of probability1
 any organized structure which would be 
suitable to animal existence on the     
surfaces of those planets2 but because  
it was conceived that the greatness or  
goodness of the ,creator1 or ,his       
wisdom1 or some other of ,his           
attributes1 would be manifestly         
imperfect1 if these planets were not    
tenanted by living creatures4 ,the      
evidences of design1 of which we can    
trace so many1 and such striking        
examples1 in our own sphere1 the sphere 
of life1 must1 it was assumed1 exist1 in
 the like form1 in every other part of  
the universe4 ,the disposition to regard
 the ,universe in this point of view1 is
 very general2 the disinclination to    
accept any change in our belief which   

seems1 for a time1 to interfere with    
this view1 is very strong2 and the      
attempt to establish the necessity of   
new views discrepant from these has1 in 
many eyes1 an appearance as if it were  
unfriendly to the best established      
doctrines of ,natural ,theology4 ,all   
these apprehensions will1 we trust1 be  
shown1 in the sequel1 to be utterly     
unfounded3 and in order that any such   
repugnance to the doctrines here urged1 
may not linger in the reader's mind1 we 
shall next proceed to contemplate the   
phenomena of the universe in their      
bearing upon such speculations4         
,,footnotes3  #a ,other speculators also
 have regarded ,saturn's ,ring as a ring
 of cloud or water4 ,see ,cosmos1 ,,iii4
 #ebg and #eec4  #b ,humboldt has       
already remarked 7,cosmos1 ,i4 #ie1 and 
,,iii4 #dbg71 that the inner planets as 
far as ,mars1 and the outer ones        
beginning with ,jupiter1 form two groups
 having different properties4 ,also     
,encke4 7,see ,humboldt's ,note47  #c   

,printed ,oct4 #ai1 #ahec4  #d          
,herschel1 #edj4  #e ,it is probable1   
from the small density of ,jupiter's    
satellites1 that they also consist in a 
great measure of water and vapor4 ,only 
one of them is denser than ,jupiter     
himself4--,cosmos4  #f ,it has1 in our  
own day1 even in the present year1 been 
regarded as a great achievement of man  
to direct the fiery influences which he 
can command1 so as to cast a colossal   
statue in a single piece1 instead of    
casting it in several portions4  #g     
,herschel1 #ijj-ije4  #h ,herschel1     
#ija4  #i ,besides the curious relation 
of the times of rotation of the planets1
 just noticed1 there is another curious 
relation1 of their distance from the    
,sun1 which any one1 wishing to frame an
 hypothesis on the origin of our ,solar 
,system1 ought by all means to try to   
account for4  ,the distances from the   
,sun1 of the planets1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 
,earth1 ,mars1 the ,planetoids1         
,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 are nearly  

as the numbers1      #d1 #g1 #aj1 #af1  
#bh1 #eb1 #ajj1 #aif3  now the excesses 
of each of these numbers above the first
 are1      #c1 #c1 #f1 #ab1 #bd1 #dh1   
#if3  a series in which each term 7after
 the first17 is double of the preceding 
one4 ,hence1 the distances of the       
planets conform to a series following   
this law1 7,bode's law1 as it is        
termed47 ,and though the law is by no   
means exact1 yet it was so far          
considered a probable expression of a   
general fact1 that the deviation from   
this law1 in the interval between ,mars 
and ,jupiter1 was the principal cause   
which led first to the suspicion of a   
planet interposed in the seemingly      
vacant space2 and thus led to the       
discovery of the planetoids1 which      
really occupy that region4 ,it is true1 
that the law is found not to hold1 in   
the case of the newly-discovered planet 
,neptune2 for his distance from the     
,sun1 which according to this law1      
should be #chh1 is really only #cjj1 #cj

 times the ,earth's distance1 instead of
 #ci times4 ,still1 ,bode's law has a   
comprehensive approximate reality in the
 ,solar ,system1 sufficient to make it a
 strong recommendation of any hypothesis
 of the origin of the system1 that it   
shall account for this law4 ,this1      
however1 the nebular hypothesis does    
not4     ,,chapter ,,xi4  ,,the         
,,argument ,,from ,,design4   #a4 ,there
 is no more worthy or suitable          
employment of the human mind1 than to   
trace the evidences of ,design and      
,purpose in the ,creator1 which are     
visible in many parts of the ,creation4 
,the conviction thus obtained1 that man 
was formed by the wisdom1 and is        
governed by the providence1 of an       
intelligent and benevolent ,being1 is   
the basis of ,natural ,religion1 and    
thus1 of all ,religion4 ,we trust that  
some new lights will be thrown upon the 
traces of ,design which the ,universe   
offers1 even in the work now before the 
reader2 and as our views1 regarding the 

plan of such ,design1 are different1 in 
some respects1 and especially as relates
 to the ,planets and ,stars1 from those 
which have of late been generally       
entertained1 it will be proper to make  
some general remarks1 mainly tending to 
show1 that the argument remains         
undisturbed1 though the physical theory 
is changed4  #b4 ,it cannot surprise any
 one who has attended to the history of 
science1 to find that the views1 even of
 the most philosophical minds1 with     
regard to the plan of the universe1     
alter1 as man advances from falsehood to
 truth3 or rather1 from very imperfect  
truth to truth less imperfect4 ,but yet 
such a one will not be disposed to look1
 with any other feeling than profound   
respect1 upon the reasonings by which   
the wisest men of former times ascended 
from their erroneous views of nature to 
the truth of ,natural ,religion4 ,it    
cannot seem strange to us that man at   
any point1 and perhaps at every point1  
of his intellectual progress1 should    

have an imperfect insight into the plan 
of the ,universe2 but1 in the most      
imperfect condition of such knowledge1  
he has light enough from it1 to see     
vestiges of the ,wisdom and ,benevolence
 of the ,creating ,deity2 and at the    
highest point of his scientific         
progress1 he can probably discover      
little more1 by the light which physical
 science supplies4 ,we can hardly hope1 
therefore1 that any new truths with     
regard to the material universe1 which  
may now be attainable1 will add very    
much to the evidence of creative design2
 but we may be confident1 also1 that    
they will not1 when rightly understood1 
shake or weaken such evidence4 ,it has  
indeed happened1 in the history of      
mankind1 that new views of the          
constitution of the universe1 brought to
 the light by scientific researches1 and
 established beyond doubt1 in the       
conviction of impartial persons1 have   
disturbed the thoughts of religious men2
 because they did not fall in with the  

view then entertained1 of the mode in   
which ,god effects his purpose in the   
universe4 ,but in these cases1 it soon  
came to be seen1 after a season of      
controversy1 reproach1 and alarm1 that  
the old argument for design was capable 
of being translated into the language of
 the new theory1 with no loss of force2 
and the minds of men were gradually     
tranquillized and pacified4 ,it may be  
hoped that the world is now so much     
wiser than it was two or three centuries
 ago1 that if any modification of the   
current arguments for the ,divine       
,attributes1 drawn from the aspect of   
the universe1 become necessary1 in      
consequence of the rectification of     
received errors1 it will take place     
without producing pain1 fear1 or anger4 
,to promote this purpose1 we proceed to 
make a few remarks4  #c4 ,the proof of  
,design1 as shown in the works of       
,creation1 is seen most clearly1 not in 
mere physical arrangement1 but in the   
structure of organized things2--in the  

constitution of plants and animals4 ,in 
those parts of nature1 the evidences of 
intelligent purpose1 of wise adaptation1
 of skilful selection of means to ends1 
of provident contrivance1 are1 in many  
instances1 of the most striking kind4   
,such1 for example1 are the structure of
 the human eye1 so curiously adapted for
 its office of seeing2 the muscles1     
cords1 and pullies by which the limbs of
 animals are moved1 exceeding far the   
mechanical ingenuity shown in human     
inventions2 the provisions which exist1 
before the birth of offspring1 for its  
sustenance and well-being when it shall 
have been born2--these are lucid and    
convincing proofs of an intelligent     
,creator1 to which no ordinary mind can 
refuse its conviction4 ,nor is the      
evidence1 which we here recognize1      
deprived of its force1 when we see that 
many parts of the structure of animals1 
though adapted for particular purposes1 
are yet framed as a portion of a system 
which does not seem1 in its general     

form1 to have any bearing on such       
purposes4#a ,the beautiful contrivances 
which exist in the skeleton of man1 and 
the contrivances1 possessing the same   
kind of beauty1 in the skeleton of a    
sparrow1 do not appear to any reasonable
 person less beautiful1 because the     
skeleton of a man1 and of a sparrow1    
have an agreement1 bone for bone1 for   
which we see no reason1 and which       
appears to us to answer no purpose4 ,the
 way in which the human hand and arm are
 made capable of their infinite variety 
of use1 by the play of the radius and   
ulna1 the bones of the wrist and the    
fingers1 is not the less admirable1     
because we can trace the representatives
 and rudiments of each of these bones1  
in cases where they answer no such      
ends2--in the foreleg of the pig1 the   
ox1 the horse1 or the seal4 ,the        
provision for feeding the young         
creature1 which is made1 with such      
bounteous liberality1 and such opportune
 punctuality1 by the breasts of the     

mother1 has not any doubt thrown upon   
its reality1 by the teats of male       
animals and the paps of man1 which      
answer no such purpose4 ,that in these  
cases there is manifested a wider plan1 
which does not show any reference to the
 needs of particular cases2 as well as  
peculiar contrivances for the particular
 cases1 does not disturb our impression 
of design in each case4 ,why should so  
large a portion of the animal kingdom1  
intended1 as it seems1 for such         
different fields of life and modes of   
living2--beasts1 birds1 fishes2--still  
have a skeleton of the same plan1 and   
even of the same parts1 bone for bone2  
though many of the parts1 in special    
cases1 appear to be altogether useless  
7namely1 the vertebrate plan78 ,we      
cannot tell4 ,our naturalists and       
comparative anatomists1 it would seem1  
cannot point out any definite end1 which
 is answered by making so many classes  
of animals on this one vertebrate plan4 
,and since they cannot do this1 and     

since we cannot tell why animals are so 
made1 we must be content to say that we 
do not know2 and therefore1 to leave    
this feature in the structure of animals
 out of our argument for design4 ,hence 
we do not say that the making of beasts1
 birds1 and fishes1 on the same         
vertebrate plan1 proves design in the   
,creator1 in any way in which we can    
understand design4 ,that plan is not of 
itself a proof of design2 it is         
something in addition to the proofs of  
design2 a general law of the animal     
creation1 established1 it may be1 for   
some other reason4 ,but this common plan
 being given1 we can discern and admire1
 in every kind of animal1 the manner in 
which the common plan is adapted to the 
particular purpose which the animal's   
kind of life involves4#b ,the general   
law is not all2 there is also1 in every 
instance1 a special care for the        
species4 ,the general law may seem1 in  
many cases1 to remove further from us   
the proof of providential care2 by      

showing that the elements of the        
benevolent contrivance are not provided 
in the cases alone where they are       
needed1 but in others also4 ,but yet    
this seeming1 this obscuration of the   
evidence of design1 by interposing the  
form of general law1 cannot last long4  
,if the general law supplies the        
elements1 still a special adaptation is 
needed to make the elements answer such 
a purpose2 and what is this adaptation1 
but design8 ,the radius and ulna1 the   
carpal and metacarpal bones1 are all in 
the general type of the vertebrate      
skeleton4 ,but does this fact make it   
the less wonderful1 that man's arm and  
hand and fingers should be constructed  
so that he can make and use the spade1  
the plow1 the loom1 the pen1 the pencil1
 the chisel1 the lute1 the telescope1   
the microscope1 and all other           
instruments8 ,is it not1 rather1 very   
wonderful that the bones which are to be
 found rudimentally1 in the leg-bone of 
a horse1 or the hoof of an ox1 should be

 capable of such a curious and fertile  
development and modification8 ,and is   
not such development and modification a 
work1 and a proof1 of design and        
intention in the ,creator8 ,and so in   
other cases4 ,the teats of male animals1
 the nipples of man1 may arise from     
this1 that the general plan of the      
animal frame includes paps1 as portions 
of it2 and that the frame is so far     
moulded in the embryo1 before the sex of
 the offspring is determined4 ,be it so4
 ,yet still this provision of paps in   
the animal form in general1 has         
reference to offspring2 and the         
development of that part of the frame1  
when the sex is determined1 is evidence 
of design1 as clear as it is possible to
 conceive in the works of nature4 ,the  
general law is moulded to the special   
purpose1 at the proper stage2 and this  
play of general laws1 and special       
contrivances1 into each other's         
provinces1 though it may make the       
phenomena a little more complex1 and    

modify our notion as to the mode of the 
,creator's working1 will not1 in        
philosophical minds1 disturb the        
conviction that there is design in the  
special adaptations3 besides which1 some
 other feature of the operation of the  
,creative ,mind may be suggested by the 
prevalence of general laws in the       
,creation4  #d4 ,there is1 however1 one 
caution suggested by this view4 ,since1 
besides1 and mixed with the examples of 
,design which the creation offers1 there
 are also results of ,general ,laws1 in 
which we cannot trace the purpose and   
object of the law2 we may fall into     
error1 if we fasten upon something which
 is a result of such mere general laws1 
and imagine that we can discern its     
object and purpose4 ,thus1 for instance1
 we might possibly persuade ourselves   
that we had discovered the use and      
purpose of the teats of male animals2 or
 of the trace of separation into parts  
which the leg-bone of a horse offers2 or
 of the false toes of a pig3 all which  

are1 as we have seen1 the rudiments of a
 plan more general than is developed in 
the particular case4 ,and if1 when we   
had made such a fancied discovery1 it   
were found that the uses and purposes   
which we had imagined to belong to these
 parts or features1 were not really     
served by them2 at first1 perhaps1 we   
might be somewhat disturbed1 as having  
lost one of the evidences of the design 
of the ,creator1 all which are1 precious
 to a reverent mind4 ,but it is not     
likely that any disturbance of a        
reverent mind on such grounds as this1  
would continue long1 or go far4 ,we     
should soon come to recollect1 how light
 and precarious1 perhaps how arbitrary  
and ill-supported by our real knowledge1
 were the grounds on which we had       
assigned such uses to such parts4 ,we   
should turn back from them to the more  
solid and certain evidences1 not shaken1
 nor likely to be shaken1 by any change 
in prevalent zoological or anatomical   
doctrines1 which those who love to      

contemplate such subjects habitually    
dwell upon2 and1 holding ourselves ready
 to entertain any speculations by which 
the bearing of those general ,laws upon 
,natural ,religion could be shown1 in   
such a way as to convince our reason1 we
 should rest in the confident and       
tranquil persuasion that no success or  
failure in such speculations could      
vitally affect our belief in a wise and 
benevolent ,deity3--that though         
additional illustrations of his         
attributes might be interesting and     
welcome1 no change of our scientific    
point of view could make his being or   
action doubtful4  #e4 ,this is1 it would
 seem1 the manner in which a reasonable 
and reverent man would regard the proof 
of a ,supreme ,creator and ,governor1   
which is derived from ,design1 as seen  
in the organic creation2 and the mode in
 which such proof would be affected by  
changes in the knowledge which we may   
acquire of the general laws by which the
 organic creation is constituted and    

governed4 ,and hence1 if it should be   
found to be established by the          
researches of the most comprehensive and
 exact philosophy1 that there are1 in   
any province of the universe1           
resemblances1 gradations1 general laws1 
indications of the mode in which one    
form approaches to another1 and seems to
 pass into and generate another1 which  
tend to obliterate distinctions which at
 first appeared broad and conspicuous2  
still the argument1 from the design     
which appears in the parts of which we  
most clearly see the purpose1 would not 
lose its force4 ,if1 for instance1 it   
should be made apparent1 by geological  
investigations of the extinct fossil    
creation1 that the animal forms which   
have inhabited the earth1 have gradually
 approached to that type in which the   
human form is included1 passing from the
 rudest and most imperfect animal       
organizations1 mollusks1 or even organic
 monads1 to vertebrate animals1 to      
warm-blooded animals1 to monkeys1 and to

 men2 still1 the evidences of design in 
the anatomy of man are not less striking
 than they were1 when no such gradation 
was thought of4 ,and what is more to the
 purpose of our argument1 the evidences 
of the peculiar nature and destination  
of man1 as shown in other characters    
than his anatomy1--his moral and        
intellectual nature1 his history and    
capacities1--stand where they stood     
before2 nor is the vast chasm which     
separates man1 as a being with such     
characters as these latter1 from all    
other animals1 at all filled up or      
bridged over4  #f4 ,the evidence of     
design in the inorganic world1--in the  
relation of earth1 air1 water1 heat and 
light1--is1 to most persons1 less       
striking and impressive1 than it is in  
the organic creation4 ,but even among   
these mere physical elements of the     
world1 when we consider them with       
reference to living things1 we find many
 arrangements which1 on a reflective    
view1 excite our admiration1 by the     

beneficial effect1 and seemingly        
beneficent purpose4 ,our condition is   
furnished with the solid earth1 on which
 we stand1 and in which we find the     
materials of man's handiworks2 stone and
 metal1 clay and sand2--with the        
atmosphere which we breathe1 and which  
is the vehicle of oral intercourse      
between man and man2--with revolutions  
of the sun1 by which are brought round  
the successions of day and night1       
through all their varying lengths1 and  
of summer and winter2--with the clouds  
above us1 which pour upon the earth     
their fertilizing showers4 ,all this    
furniture of the earth1 so marvellously 
adapting it for the abode of living     
creatures1 and especially of man1 may   
well be regarded as a collection of     
provisions for his benefit3--as intended
 to do him the good1 which they do4 ,nor
 would this impression be removed1 or   
even weakened1 if we were to discover   
that some of these arrangements1 instead
 of being produced by a machinery       

confined to that single purpose1 were   
only partial results of a more general  
plan4 ,for instance2 we learn that the  
varying lengths of days and nights      
through the year1 and the varying       
declination of the sun1 are produced1   
not1 as was at first supposed1 by the   
sun moving round the earth1 in a complex
 diurnal and annual path1 but by the    
earth revolving in an annual orbit round
 the sun2 while at the same time she has
 a diurnal rotation about her own axis1 
which axis1 by the laws of mechanics1   
remains always parallel to itself4 ,when
 we learn that this is so1 we see that  
the effect is produced by a mechanical  
arrangement far more simple than any    
which the imagination of man had        
devised2 but in this case1 the effect is
 plainly rather an increased admiration 
at the simplicity of the mechanism1 than
 a wavering belief in the reality of the
 purpose4 ,in like manner when1 instead 
of supposing water to exist in a        
continuous reservoir in a firmament     

above the earth1 and to fall in the     
earlier and in the latter rain1 by some 
special agency for that purpose2 men    
learnt to see that the water in the     
upper regions of the air must exist in  
clouds and in vapors only1 and must fall
 in showers by the condensing influence 
of cold currents of air2 they needed not
 to cease to admire the kindness of the 
,creator1 in providing the rain to water
 the earth1 and the wind to dry it2     
although the mechanism by which the     
effect was produced was of a larger kind
 than they had before imagined4 ,and    
even if this mechanism extend through   
the solar system3 if the arrangement by 
which the ,earth's atmosphere is the    
special region in which there are winds 
hot and cold1 clouds compact or         
dissolving1--be an arrangement which    
extends its influence to other planets1 
as well as to ours2--if this mixed      
atmosphere be placed1 not only at the   
meeting point of clear aqueous vapor    
above1 and warmer airs below1 but also  

at the meeting point of a hot central   
region surrounding the ,sun1 and a cold 
exterior zone in which water and vapor  
can exist in immense collected masses1  
such as are ,jupiter and ,saturn2--still
 it would not appear1 to a reasonable   
view1 that this larger expansion of the 
machinery by which the effect is        
produced1 makes the machinery less      
remarkable2 or can at all tend to       
diminish the belief that it was intended
 to produce the effect which it does    
produce4 ,hot and cold1 moist and dry1  
are constantly mixed together for the   
support of vegetable and animal life2   
and not the less so1 if we believe that1
 though elements of this kind pervade   
the whole solar system1 it is only at   
the ,earth that they are combined so as 
to foster and nourish living things4    
#g4 ,but it will perhaps be said1 that  
to suppose the whole ,solar ,system to  
be a machine merely operating for the   
benefit of the ,earth and its           
population1 is to give to the ,earth and

 its population an importance in the    
scheme of creation which is quite       
extravagant and improbable3--it is to   
make the greater orbs1 ,jupiter and     
,saturn1 minister to the less2 instead  
of having their own purpose1 and their  
own population1 which their size        
naturally leads us to expect4 ,to this  
we reply1 that1 in the first place1 we  
have shown good reason for believing    
that the ,earth is really the largest   
dense solid globe which exists in the   
solar system1 and that the size of      
,jupiter and ,saturn arises from their  
being composed mainly of water and      
vapor4 ,and with regard to the          
difficulty of the greater ministering to
 the less2--if by greater1 mere size and
 extent be understood1 it appears to be 
the universal law of creation1 that the 
greater1 in that sense1 should minister 
to the less1 when the less includes     
living things4 ,even if the planets be  
all inhabited1 the sun1 which is greater
 far than all of them together1         

ministers light and heat to all of them4
 ,even on this supposition1 the vast    
spaces by which the planets are         
separated have no use1 that we can      
discern1 except to place them at        
suitable distances from the sun4 ,even  
on this supposition1 their solid globes 
within1 their atmospheres without are   
all merely subservient to the benefit of
 a thin and scattered population on the 
surface4 ,the space occupied by men and 
animals on the earth's surface1 even    
taking into account the highest         
buildings and the deepest seas1 is only 
a few hundreds1 or a thousand feet4 ,the
 benefit of this minute shell1          
interrupted in many places for vast     
distances1 everywhere loosely and       
sparsely filled1 is ministered to by the
 solidity and attraction of a mass below
 it #bj millions of feet deep2 by the   
influence of an atmosphere above it #bjj
 thousand feet high at least1 and it may
 be1 much more4 ,and this being so1 if  
we increase the depth of the centre #bj 

thousand times2 if we carry the extreme 
verge of air and vapor to thirty times  
the radius of the earth's orbit from us1
 how does the construction of the       
machine become more improbable1 or the  
disproportion of its size to its purpose
 more incongruous8 ,is mere             
size1--extent of brute matter or blank  
space1--so majestic a thing8 ,is not    
infinite space large enough to admit of 
machines of any size without grudging8  
,but if we thus move the centre of the  
,earth's peopled surface #bj thousand   
times further off1 we reach the ,sun4   
,if we carry the limit of air and vapor 
to the distance of #cj times the radius 
of the ,earth's orbit we arrive at      
,neptune4 ,are these new numbers        
monstrous1 while the old ones were      
accepted without scruple8 ,is number    
such an alarming feature in the         
description of the ,universe8 ,does not 
the description of every part and every 
aspect of it1 present us with numbers so
 large1 that wonder and repugnance1 on  

that ground are long ago exhausted8     
,surely this is so3 and if the evidence 
really tend to prove to us that all the 
solar system ministers to the earth's   
population2 the mere size of the system1
 compared with the space occupied by the
 population1 will not long stand in the 
way of the reception of such a doctrine4
  #h4 ,but the objection will perhaps be
 urged in another form4 ,it will be said
 that the other ,planets have so many   
points of resemblance with the ,earth1  
that we must suppose their nature and   
purpose the same4 ,they1 like the       
,earth1 revolve in circles round the    
sun1 rotate on their own axes1 have1    
several of them1 satellites1 are opaque 
bodies1 deriving light and probably heat
 from the sun4 ,to an external spectator
 of the ,solar ,system1 they would not  
be distinguishable from the ,earth4     
,such a spectator would never be tempted
 to guess that the ,earth alone1 of all 
these1 neither the greatest nor the     
least1 neither the one with the most    

satellites1 nor the fewest1 neither the 
innermost nor the outermost of the      
planets1 is the only one inhabited2 or  
at any rate the only one inhabited by an
 intelligent population4 ,and to this we
 reply2 that the largest of the other   
planets1 if we judge rightly1 are not   
like the ,earth in one most essential   
respect1 their density2 and none of     
them1 in having a surface consisting of 
land and water2 except perhaps ,mars3   
that if the supposed external spectator 
could see that this was so1 he might see
 that the earth was different from the  
rest2 and he might be able to see the   
vaporous nature of the outer planets1 so
 that he would no more think of peopling
 them1 than we do1 of peopling the grand
 ,alpine ridges and vallies which we see
 in the clouds of a summer-sky4  #i4    
,but even if the supposed spectator     
attended only to the obvious and        
superficial resemblances between one of 
the planets and another1 he might still1
 if he were acquainted with the general 

economy of the ,universe1 have great    
hesitation in inferring that1 if one of 
them were inhabited1 the others also    
must be inhabited4 ,for1 as we have     
said1 in the plan of creation1 we have a
 profusion of examples1 where similar   
visible structures do not answer a      
similar purpose2 where1 so far as we can
 see1 the structure answers no purpose  
in many cases2 but exists1 as we may    
say1 for the sake of similarity3 the    
similarity being a general ,law1 the    
result1 it would seem1 of a creative    
energy1 which is wider in its operation 
than the particular purpose4 ,such      
examples are1 as we have said1 the      
finger-bones which are packed into the  
hoofs of a horse1 or the paps and       
nipples of a male animal4 ,now the      
spectator1 recollecting such cases might
 say3 ,i know that the earth is         
inhabited2 no doubt ,mars and ,jupiter  
are a good deal like the ,earth2 but are
 they inhabited8 ,they look like the    
terrestrial breast of ,nature3 but are  

they really nursing breasts8 ,do they1  
like that1 give food to living          
offspring8 ,or are they mere images of  
such breasts8 male teats1 dry of all    
nutritive power8 sports1 or rather      
overworks of nature2 marks of a wider   
law than the needs of ,mother ,earth    
require8 many sketches of a design1 of  
which only one was to be executed8 many 
specimens of the preparatory process of 
making a ,planet1 of which only one was 
to be carried out into the making of a  
,world8 ,such questions might naturally 
occur to a person acquainted with the   
course of creation in general2 even     
before he remarked the features which   
tend to show that ,jupiter and ,saturn1 
that ,venus and ,mercury1 have not been 
developed into peopled worlds1 like our 
,earth4  #aj4 ,perhaps it may be said1  
that to hold this1 is to make ,nature   
work in vain2 to waste her powers2 to   
suppose her to produce the frame work1  
and not to build2 to make the skeleton1 
and not to clothe it with living flesh2 

to delude us with appearances of analogy
 and promises of fertility1 which are   
fallacious4 ,what can we reply to this8 
#aa4 ,we reply1 that to work in vain1 in
 the sense of producing means of life   
which are not used1 embryos which are   
never vivified1 germs which are not     
developed2 is so far from being contrary
 to the usual proceedings of nature1    
that it is an operation which is        
constantly going on1 in every part of   
nature4 ,of the vegetable seeds which   
are produced1 what an infinitely small  
proportion ever grow into plants6 ,of   
animal ova1 how exceedingly few become  
animals1 in proportion to those that do 
not2 and that are wasted1 if this be    
waste6 ,it is an old calculation1 which 
used to be repeated as a wonderful      
thing1 that a single female fish        
contains in its body #bjj millions of   
ova1 and thus1 might1 of itself alone1  
replenish the seas1 if all these were   
fostered into life4 ,but in truth1 this1
 though it may excite wonder1 cannot    

excite wonder as anything uncommon4 ,it 
is only one example of what occurs      
everywhere4 ,every tree1 every plant1   
produces innumerable flowers1 the       
flowers innumerable seeds1 which drop to
 the earth1 or are carried abroad by the
 winds1 and perish1 without having their
 powers unfolded4 ,when we see a field  
of thistles shed its downy seeds upon   
the wind1 so that they roll away like a 
cloud1 what a vast host of possible     
thistles are there6 ,yet very probably  
none of them become actual thistles4    
,few are able to take hold of the ground
 at all2 and those that do1 die for lack
 of congenial nutriment1 or are crushed 
by external causes before they are      
grown4 ,the like is the case with every 
tribe of plants4#c ,the like with every 
tribe of animals4 ,the possible         
fertility of some kinds of insects is as
 portentous as anything of this kind can
 be4 ,if allowed to proceed unchecked1  
if the possible life were not           
perpetually extinguished1 the           

multiplying energies perpetually        
frustrated1 they would gain dominion    
over the largest animals1 and occupy the
 earth4 ,and the same is the case1 in   
different degrees1 in the larger        
animals4 ,the female is stocked with    
innumerable ovules1 capable of becoming 
living things3 of which incomparably the
 greatest number end as they began1 mere
 ovules2--marks of mere possibility1 of 
vitality frustrated4 ,the universe is so
 full of such rudiments of things1 that 
they far outnumber the things which     
outgrow their rudiments4 ,the marks of  
possibility are much more numerous than 
the tale of actuality4 ,the vitality    
which is frustrated is far more copious 
than the vitality which is consummated4 
,so far1 then1 as this analogy goes1 if 
the earth alone1 of all the planetary   
harvest1 has been a fertile seed of     
creation2--if the terrestrial embryo    
have alone been evolved into life1 while
 all the other masses have remained     
barren and dead3--we have1 in this1     

nothing which we need regard as an      
unprecedented waste1 an improbable      
prodigality1 an unusual failure in the  
operations of nature3 but on the        
contrary1 such a single case of success 
among many of failure1 is exactly the   
order of nature in the production of    
life4 ,it is quite agreeable to analogy1
 that the ,solar ,system1 of which the  
flowers are not many1 should have borne 
but one fertile flower4 ,one in eight1  
or in twice eight1 reared into such     
wondrous fertility as belongs to the    
,earth1 is an abundant produce1 compared
 with the result in the most fertile    
provinces of ,nature4 ,and even if any  
number of the ,fixed ,stars were also   
found to be barren flowers of the sky2  
objects1 however beautiful1 yet not     
sources of life or development1 we need 
not think the powers of creation wasted 
or frustrated1 thrown away or perverted4
 ,one such fertile result as the ,earth1
 with all its hosts of plants and       
animals1 and especially with ,man1 an   

intelligent being1 to stand at the head 
of those hosts1 is a worthy and         
sufficient produce1 so far as we can    
judge of the ,creator's ways by analogy1
 of all the ,universal ,scheme4  #ab4   
,but when we follow this analogy1 so far
 as to speak of the mere material mass  
of a planet as an embryo world2--a      
barren flower2--a seed which has never  
been developed into a plant2--we are in 
danger of allowing the analogy to       
mislead us4 ,for a planet1 as to its    
brute mass1 has really nothing in common
 with a seed or an embryo4 ,it has no   
organization1 or tendency to            
organization2 no principle of life1     
however obscure4 ,so far as we can      
judge1 no progress of time1 or operation
 of mere natural influence1 would clothe
 a brute mass with vegetables1 or stock 
it with animals4 ,no species of living  
thing would have its place upon the     
surface2 by the mere order of           
unintelligent nature4 ,so much is this  
so1 according to all that our best      

knowledge teaches1 that those geologists
 who must most have desired1 for the    
sake of giving completeness and         
consistency to their systems1 to make   
the production of vegetable and animal  
species from brute matter1 a part of the
 order of nature1 7inasmuch as they have
 explained everything else by the order 
of nature17 have not ventured to do so4 
,they allow1 generally at least1 each   
separate species to require a special   
act of creative power1 to bring it into 
being4 ,they make the peopling of the   
earth1 with its successive races of     
inhabitants1 a series of events         
altogether different from the operation 
of physical laws in the sustentation of 
existing species4 ,the creation of life 
is1 they allow1 something out of the    
range of the ordinary laws of nature4   
,and therefore1 when we speak of        
uninhabited planets1 as cases in which  
vital tendencies have been defeated2 in 
which their apparent destiny1 as worlds 
of life1 has been frustrated2 we really 

do injustice to our argument4 ,the      
planets had no vital tendencies3 they   
could have had such given1 only by an   
additional act1 or a series of          
additional acts1 of ,creative power4 ,as
 mere inert globes1 they had no settled 
destiny to be seats of life3 they could 
have such a destiny1 only by the        
appointment of ,him who creates living  
things1 and puts them in the places     
which he chooses for them4 ,if1 when a  
planetary mass had come into being1 7in 
virtue of the same general physical law1
 suppose1 which produced the earth17 the
 ,creator placed a host of living things
 upon the earth1 and none upon the other
 planet2 there was still no violation of
 analogy1 no seeming change of purpose1 
no unfinished plan4 ,in the solar       
system1 we can see what seem to be good 
reasons why he did this2 but if we could
 not see such reasons1 still we should  
be yet further from being able to see   
reasons why he necessarily must place   
inhabitants upon the other planet4  #ac4

 ,it is sometimes said1 that it is      
agreeable to the goodness of ,god1 that 
all parts of the creation should swarm  
with life2 that life is enjoyment2 and  
that the benevolence of the ,supreme    
,being is shown in the diffusion of such
 enjoyment into every quarter of the    
universe4 ,to leave a planet without    
inhabitants1 would1 it is thought1 be to
 throw away an opportunity of producing 
happiness4 ,now we shall not here dwell 
upon the consideration1 that the        
enjoyment thus spoken of1 is1 in a great
 degree1 the enjoyment which the mere   
life of the lower tribes of animals     
implies2--the enjoyment of madrepores   
and oysters1 cuttle-fish and sharks1    
tortoises and serpents2 but we reply    
more broadly1 that it is not the rule   
followed by the ,creator1 to fill all   
places with living things4 ,to say      
nothing of the vast intervals between   
planet and planet1 which1 it is         
presumed1 no one supposes to be occupied
 by living things2 how large a portion  

of the surface of the earth is          
uninhabited1 or inhabited only in the   
scantiest manner4 ,vast desert tracts   
exist in ,africa and in ,asia1 where the
 barren sand nourishes neither animal   
nor vegetable life4 ,the highest regions
 of mountain-ranges1 clothed with       
perpetual snow1 and with far-reaching   
sheets of glacier ice1 are untenanted1  
except by the chamois at their          
outskirts4 ,there are many uninhabited  
islands2 and were formerly many more4   
,the ocean1 covering nearly             
three-fourths of the globe1 is no seat  
of habitation for land animals or for   
man2 and though it has a large          
population of the fishy tribes1 is      
probably peopled in smaller numbers than
 if it were land1 as well as by inferior
 orders4 ,we see1 in the ,earth then1   
which is the only seat of life of which 
we really know anything1 nothing to     
support the belief that every field in  
the material universe is tenanted by    
living inhabitants4  #ad4 ,that         

vegetables and animals1 being once      
placed upon the earth1 have multiplied  
or are multiplying1 so as to occupy     
every part of the land and water which  
is suited for their habitation1 we can  
see much reason to believe4             
,philosophical natural-historians have  
been generally led to the conviction    
that each species has had an original   
centre of dispersion1 where it was first
 native1 and that from this centre it   
has been diffused in all directions1 as 
far as the circumstances of climate and 
soil were favorable to its production4  
,but we can see also much reason to     
believe that this general diffusion of  
vegetable and animal life from centres1 
is a part of the order of nature which  
may often be made to give way to other  
and higher purposes2--to the diffusion1 
over the whole surface of the earth1 of 
a race of intelligent1 moral agents4    
,this process may often interfere with  
the general law of diffusion3 as for    
instance1 when man exterminates noxious 

animals4 ,and whatever may be the laws  
which tend to replenish the earth1 on   
which such centres of the diffusion of  
life exist for animals and plants2      
according to all analogy1 these laws can
 have no force on any other planet1 till
 such origins and centres of life are   
established on their surfaces4 ,and even
 if any of the species which have ever  
tenanted the earth were so established  
on any other planet1 we have the        
strongest reason to believe that they   
could not survive to a second           
generation4  #ae4 ,perhaps it may be    
said that we unjustifiably limit the    
power and skill of the ,supreme         
,creator1 if we deny that he could frame
 creatures fitted to live on any of the 
other planets1 as well as in the        
,earth3--that the wonderful variety1 and
 unexpected resource1 of the ways in    
which animals are adapted for all kinds 
of climates1 habitations1 and           
conditions1 upon the earth1 may give us 
confidence that1 under conditions still 

more extended1 in habitations still     
further removed1 in climates going      
beyond the terrestrial extremes1 still  
the same wisdom and skill may well be   
supposed to have devised possible modes 
of animal life4  #af4 ,to this we reply1
 that we are so far from saying that the
 ,creator could not place inhabitants in
 the other planets1 that we have        
attempted to show what kind of          
inhabitants would be most likely to be  
placed there1 by considering the way in 
which animals are accommodated to       
special conditions in their habitation4 
,in judging of such modes of            
accommodating animals to an abode on    
other planets1 as well as the earth1 we 
have reasoned from what we know1 of the 
mode in which animals are accommodated  
to their different habitations on the   
earth4 ,we believe this to be the only  
safe and philosophical way of treating  
the question4 ,if we are to reason at   
all about the possibility of animal     
life1 we must suppose that heat and     

light1 gravity and buoyancy1 materials  
and affinities1 air and moisture1       
produce the same effect1 require the    
same adaptations1 in ,jupiter or in     
,venus1 as they do on the ,earth4 ,if we
 do not suppose this1 we run into the   
error which so long prevented many from 
accepting the ,newtonian system3--the   
error of thinking that matter in the    
heavens is governed by quite different  
laws from matter on the earth4 ,we must 
adopt that belief1 if we hold that      
animals may live under relations of heat
 and moisture1 materials and affinities1
 in ,jupiter or ,venus1 under which they
 could not live on our planet4 ,and that
 belief1 as we have said1 appears to us 
contrary to all the teaching which the  
history of science offers us4  #ag4 ,and
 not only is it contrary to the teaching
 of the history of science1 to suppose  
the laws1 which connect elemental and   
organic nature1 to be different in the  
other planets from what they are on     
ours2 but moreover the supposition would

 not at all answer the purpose1 of      
making it probable that the planets are 
inhabited4 ,for if we begin to imagine  
new and unknown laws of nature for those
 abodes1 what is there to limit or      
determine our assumptions in any degree8
 ,what extravagant mixtures of the      
attributes and properties of mind and   
matter may we not then accept as        
probable truths8 ,we know how difficult 
the poets have found it to describe1    
with any degree of consistency1 the     
actions and events of a world of angels1
 or of evil spirits1 souls or shades1   
embodied in forms so as to admit of     
description1 and yet not subject to the 
laws of human bodies4 ,virgil1 ,tasso1  
,milton1 ,klopstock1 and many others1   
have struggled with this difficulty3--no
 one of them1 it will be probably       
agreed1 with any great success2 at      
least1 regarding his representation as a
 hypothesis of a possible form of life1 
different from all the forms which we   
know4 ,yet if we are to reject the laws 

which govern the known forms of life1 in
 order that we may be able to maintain  
the possibility of some unknown form in 
a different planet1 we must accept some 
of these hypotheses1 or find a better4  
,we must suppose that weight and        
cohesion1 wounds and mutilations1 wings 
and plumage1 would have1 either the     
effect which the poets represent them as
 having1 or some different effect3 and  
in either case it will be impossible to 
give any sufficient reason why we should
 confine the population to the surface  
of a planet4 ,if gravity have not1 upon 
any set of beings1 the effect which it  
has upon us1 such beings may live upon  
the surface of ,saturn1 though it be    
mere vapor3 but then1 on that           
supposition1 they may equally well live 
in the vast space between ,saturn and   
,jupiter1 without needing any planet for
 their mansion4 ,if we are ready to     
suppose that there are1 in the solar    
system1 conscious beings1 not subject to
 the ordinary laws of life1 we may go on

 to imagine creatures constituted of    
vaporous elements1 floating in the fiery
 haze of a nebula1 or close to the body 
of a sun2 and cloudy forms which soar as
 vapors in the region of vapor4 ,but    
such imaginations1 besides being rather 
fitted for the employment of poets than 
of philosophers1 will not1 as we have   
said1 find a population for the planets2
 since such forms may just as easily be 
conceived swimming round the sun in     
empty space1 or darting from star to    
star1 as confining themselves to the    
neighborhood of any of the solid globes 
which revolve about the central sun4    
#ah4 ,we should not1 then add anything  
to the probability of inhabitants on the
 other planets of our system1 even if we
 were arbitrarily to assume unlimited   
changes in the laws of nature1 when we  
pass from our region to theirs4 ,but    
probably1 all readers will be of opinion
 that such assumptions are contrary to  
the whole scheme and spirit of such     
speculations as we are here             

presuming3--that if we speculate on such
 subjects at all1 it must be done by    
supposing that the same laws of nature  
operate in the same manner1 in          
planetary1 as in terrestrial            
spaces2--and that as we suppose1 and    
prove1 gravity and attraction1 inertia  
and momentum1 to follow the same rules1 
and produce the same effects1 on brute  
matter there1 which they do here2 so1   
both these forces1 and others1 as light 
and heat1 moisture and air1 if1 in the  
planets1 they go beyond the extremes    
which limit them here1 yet must imply1  
in any organized beings which exist in  
the planets1 changes1 though greater in 
amount1 of the same kind as those which 
occur in approaching the terrestrial    
extremes of those elementary agents4    
,and what kind of a population that     
would lead us to suppose in ,jupiter or 
,saturn1 ,mars or ,venus1 the reader has
 already seen our attempt to determine2 
and may thence judge whether1 when we go
 so far beyond the terrestrial extremes 

of heat and cold1 light and dimness1    
vapor and water1 air and airlessness1   
any population at all is probable4  #ai4
 ,perhaps some persons1 even if they    
cannot resist the force of these        
reasons1 may still yield to them with   
regret2 and may feel as if1 having      
hitherto believed that the planets were 
inhabited1 and having now to give up    
that belief1 their view of the solar    
system1 as one of the provinces of      
,god's creation1 were made narrower and 
poorer than it was before4 ,and this    
feeling may be still further increased1 
if they are led to believe also that    
many of the fixed stars are not the     
centres of inhabited systems2 or that   
very few1 or none are4 ,it may seem to  
them1 as if1 by such a change of belief1
 the field of ,god's greatness1         
benevolence1 and government1 were       
narrowed and impoverished1 to an extent 
painful and shocking2--as if1 instead of
 being the ,maker and ,governor of      
innumerable worlds1 of the most varied  

constitution1 we were called upon to    
regard him as merely the ,master of the 
single world in which we live3--as if1  
instead of being the object of reverence
 and adoration to the intelligent       
population of these thousand spheres1 he
 was recognized and worshipped on one   
only1 and on that1 how scantily and     
imperfectly6  #bj4 ,it is not to be     
denied that there may be such a regret  
and disturbance naturally felt at having
 to give up our belief that the planets 
and the stars probably contain servants 
and worshippers of ,god4 ,it must always
 be a matter of pain and trouble1 to be 
urged with tenderness1 and to be        
performed in time1 to untwine our       
reverential religious sentiments from   
erroneous views of the constitution of  
the universe with which they have been  
involved4 ,but the change once made1 it 
is found that religion is uninjured1 and
 reverence undiminished4 ,and therefore 
we trust that the reader will receive   
with candor and patience the argument   

which we have to offer with reference to
 this view1 or rather1 this sentiment4  
#ba4 ,we remark1 in the first place1    
that however repugnant it may be to us  
to believe a state of any part of the   
universe in which there are not         
creatures who can know1 obey and worship
 ,god2 we are compelled1 by geological  
evidence1 to admit that such a state of 
things has existed upon the earth1      
during a far longer period than the     
whole duration of man's race4 ,if we    
suppose that the human race1 if not by  
their actual knowledge1 obedience1 and  
worship of ,god1 yet at least by their  
faculties for knowing1 obeying1 and     
worshipping1 are a sufficient reason why
 there should be such a province in     
,god's empire2 still in fact1 this race 
has existed only for a few thousand     
years1 out of the1 perhaps1 millions of 
years of the earth's existence2 and     
during all the previous period1 the     
earth1 if tenanted1 was tenanted by     
brute creatures1 fishes and lizards1    

beasts and birds1 of which none had any 
faculty1 intellectual1 moral1 or        
religious4 ,by the same analogy1        
therefore1 on which we have already     
insisted1 we may argue that there is    
reason to believe1 that if other        
planets1 and other stars1 are the seats 
of habitation1 it is rather of such     
habitation as has prevailed upon the    
earth during the millions1 than during  
the six thousand years2 and that if we  
have1 in consequence of physical        
reasons1 to give up the belief of a     
population in the other planets1 or in  
the stars2 we are giving up1 not        
anything with which we might dwell with 
religious pleasure--hosts of            
fellow-servants and fellow-worshippers  
of the ,divine ,author of all3--but the 
mere brute tribes1 of the land and of   
the water1 things that creep and crawl1 
prowl and spring2--none that can lift   
its visage to the sky1 with a feeling   
that it is looking for its ,maker and   
,master4 ,there have not existed upon   

the ,earth1 during the immense ages of  
its praehuman existence1 beings who     
could recognize and think of the        
,creator of the world3 and if astronomy 
introduces us1 as geology has done1 to a
 new order of material structures1 thus 
barren of an intelligent and religious  
population1 we must learn to accept the 
prospect1 in the one case1 as in the    
other4 ,nor need we fear that on a      
further contemplation of the universe1  
we shall find every part of it          
ministering1 though perhaps not in the  
way our first thoughts had guessed1 to  
sentiments of reverence and adoration   
towards the ,maker of the universe4     
#bb4 ,the truth is1 as the slightest    
recollection of the course of opinion   
about the stars may satisfy us1 that men
 have had repeatedly to give up the     
notions which they had adopted1 of the  
manner in which the material heavens1   
the stars and the skies1 are to minister
 to man's feeling of reverence for the  
,creator4 ,it was long ago said1 that   

the heavens declare the glory of ,god1  
and the firmament showeth his handiwork3
 that day and night1 sun and moon1      
clouds and stars1 unite in impressing   
upon us this sentiment4 ,and this       
language still finds a sympathetic echo1
 in the breasts of all religious        
persons4 ,nor will it ever cease to do  
so1 however our opinions of the         
structure and nature of the heavenly    
bodies may alter4 ,when the new aspects 
of things become familiar1 they will    
show us the handiwork of ,god1 and      
declare his glory1 as plainly as the old
 ones4 ,but in the progress of opinions1
 man has often had to resign what seemed
 to him1 at the time1 visions so        
beautiful1 sublime1 and glorious1 that  
they could not be dismissed without     
regret4 ,the ,universal ,lord was at one
 time conceived as directing the motions
 of all the spheres by means of ,ruling 
,angels1 appointed to preside over each4
 ,the prevalence of proportion and      
number1 in the dimensions of these      

spheres1 was assumed to point to the    
existence of harmonious sounds1         
accompanying their movements1 though    
unheard by man2 as proportion and number
 had been found to be the accompaniments
 and conditions of harmony upon earth4  
,the time came1 when these opinions were
 no longer consistent with man's        
knowledge of the heavenly motions1 and  
of the wide-spreading causes by which   
they are produced4 ,then ,ruling ,angels
 from their spheres were hurled1 as a   
matter of belief2 though still the poets
 loved to refer to imagery in which so  
many lofty and reverent thoughts had so 
long been clothed4 ,the aspect of the   
stars was most naturally turned to a    
lesson of cheerful and thoughtful piety1
 by the adoption of such a view of their
 nature and office2 and thus1 the       
midnight contemplator of an ,italian sky
 teaches his companion concerning the   
starry host2      ,sit1 ,jessica2 look  
how the floor of heav'n     ,is thick   
inlaid with patterns of bright gold4    

,there's not the meanest orb1 which thou
 behold'st1     ,but in his motion like 
an angel sings1     ,still quiring to   
the young-eyed cherubims2     ,such     
harmony is in immortal souls4  meaning1 
apparently1 the harmony between the     
immortal spirits that govern each star1 
and the cherubims that sing before the  
throne of ,god4 ,but however beautiful  
and sublime may be this representation1 
the philosopher has had to abandon it in
 its literal sense4 ,he may have        
adopted1 instead1 the opinion that each 
of the stars is the seat1 or the centre 
of a group of seats1 of choirs of       
worshippers2 but this again1 is still to
 suppose the nature of those orbs to be 
entirely different from that of this    
earth2 though in many respects1 we know 
that they are governed by the same laws4
 ,and if he will be content to know no  
more than he has the means of knowing1  
or even to know only according to his   
best means of knowing1 he must be       
prepared1 if the force of proof so      

requires1 to give up this belief also2  
at least for the present4  #bc4 ,indeed1
 those who have not been content with   
this1 and have sought to combine with   
the visible splendor of the skies1 some 
scheme1 founded upon astronomical views1
 which shall people them with           
intelligent beings and worshippers1 have
 drawn upon their fancy quite as much as
 ,lorenzo in his lesson to ,jessica2 or 
rather1 they have done what he and those
 from whom his love was derived1 had    
done before4 ,they have taken the truths
 which astronomers have discovered and  
taught1 and made the objects and regions
 so revealed1 the scenes and occasions  
of such sentiments of piety as they     
themselves have1 or feel that they ought
 to have4 ,even in ,shakspeare1 the     
stars are already orbs1 each orb has his
 motion1 and in his motion produces the 
music of the spheres4 ,more recent      
preachers1 following sounder views of   
the nature of these orbs and motions1   
have been equally poetical when they    

come to their religious reflection4     
,when the poet of the ,night ,thoughts  
says1      ,each of these stars is a    
religious house2     ,i saw their altars
 smoke1 their incense rise1     ,and    
heard hosannas ring through every       
sphere4  he is no less imaginative than 
the poet of that ,midsummer ,night's    
,dream1 which we have in the ,merchant  
of ,venice4 ,and we are compelled1 by   
all the evidence which we can discern1  
to say the same of the preacher who     
speaks1 from the pulpit1 of these orbs  
of worlds1 and tells us of the stars    
which give animation to other systems#d2
 when he says#e worlds roll in these    
distant regions2 and these worlds must  
be the centres of life and intelligence2
 when he speaks of the earth#f as the   
humblest of the provinces of ,god's     
empire4 ,but then we must recollect that
 these thoughts still prove the         
religious nature of man2 they show how  
he is impelled to endeavor to elevate   
his mind to ,god by every part of the   

universe2 and it is not too much to say1
 that through the faculties of man1 thus
 regarding the starry heavens1 every    
star does really testify to the         
greatness of ,god1 and minister to ,his 
worship4  #bd4 ,we may trust that this  
mere material magnificence does not     
require inhabitants1 to make it lift    
man's heart towards the ,universal      
,creator1 and to make him accept it as a
 sublime evidence of ,his greatness4    
,the grandest objects in nature are     
blank and void of life2--the            
mountain-peaks that stand1 ridge beyond 
ridge1 serene in the region of perpetual
 snow2--the summer-clouds1 images of    
such mountain tracts1 even upon a       
grander scale1 and tinted with more     
gorgeous colors2--the thunder-cloud with
 its dazzling bolt2--the stormy ocean   
with its mountainous waves2--the ,aurora
 ,borealis1 with its mysterious pillars 
of fire2--all these are sublime2 all    
these elevate the soul1 and make it     
acknowledge a mighty ,worker in the     

elements1 in spite of any teaching of a 
material philosophy4 ,and if we have to 
regard the planets as merely parts of   
the same great spectacle of nature1 we  
shall not the less regard them with an  
admiration which ministers to pious awe4
 ,even merely as a spectacle1 ,saturn   
made visible in his real shape1 only by 
a vast exertion of human skill1 yet     
shining like a star1 in form so         
curiously complex1 symmetrical and      
seemingly artificial1 will never cease  
to be an object of the ardent and       
contemplative gaze of all who catch a   
sight of him4 ,and however much the     
philosopher may teach that he is merely 
a mass of water and vapor1 ice and snow1
 he must be far more interesting to the 
eye than the ,alps1 or the clouds that  
crown them1 or the ocean with its       
icebergs2 where the same elements occur 
in forms comparatively shapeless and    
lawless1 irregular and chaotic4  #be4   
,but perhaps there is in the minds of   
many persons1 a sentiment connected with

 this regular and symmetrical form of   
the heavenly bodies2 that being thus    
beautifully formed and finished they    
must have been the objects of especial  
care to the ,creator4 ,these regular    
globes1 these nearly circular orbits1   
these families of satellites1 they too  
so regular in their movements2 this ring
 of ,saturn2 all the adjustments by     
which the planetary motions are secured 
from going wrong1 as the profoundest    
researches into the mechanics of the    
universe show2--all these things seem to
 indicate a peculiar attention bestowed 
by the ,maker on each part of the       
machine4 ,so much of law and order1 of  
symmetry and beauty in every part1      
implies1 it may be thought1 that every  
part has been framed with a view to some
 use2--that its symmetry and its beauty 
are the marks of some noble purpose4    
#bf4 ,to reply to this argument1 so far 
as it is requisite for us to do so1 we  
must recur to what we have already said2
 that though we see in many parts of the

 universe1 inorganic as well as organic1
 marks which we cannot mistake1 of      
design and purpose2 yet that this design
 and purpose are often effected by laws 
which are of a much wider sweep than the
 design1 so far as we can trace its     
bearing4 ,these laws1 besides answering 
the purpose1 produce many other effects1
 in which we can see no purpose4 ,we    
have now to observe further that these  
laws1 thus ranging widely through the   
universe1 and working everywhere1 as if 
the ,creator delighted in the generality
 of the law1 independently of its       
special application1 do often produce   
innumerable results of beauty and       
symmetry1 as if the ,creator delighted  
in beauty and symmetry1 independently of
 the purpose answered4  #bg4 ,thus1 to  
exemplify this reflection3 the powers of
 aggregation and cohesion1 which hold   
together the parts of solid bodies1 as  
metals and stones1 salts and ice1--which
 solidify matter1 in short1--we can     
easily see1 to be necessary1 in order to

 the formation and preservation of solid
 terrestrial bodies4 ,they are          
requisite1 in order that man may have   
the firm earth to stand upon1 and firm  
materials to use4 ,but let us observe1  
what a wonderful and beautiful variety  
of phenomena grows out of this law1 with
 no apparent bearing upon that which    
seems to us its main purpose4 ,the power
 of aggregation of solid bodies is1 in  
fact1 the force of crystallization4 ,it 
binds together the particles of bodies  
by molecular forces1 which not only hold
 the particles together1 but are exerted
 in special directions1 which form      
triangles1 squares1 hexagons1 and the   
like4 ,and hence we have all the variety
 of crystalline forms which sparkle in  
gems1 ores1 earths1 pyrites1 blendes2   
and which1 when examined by the         
crystallographers1 are found to be an   
inexhaustible field of the play of      
symmetrical complexity4 ,the diamond1   
the emerald1 the topaz1 have got each   
its peculiar kind of symmetry4 ,gold and

 other metals have1 for the basis of    
their forms1 the cube1 but run from this
 into a vastly greater variety of       
regular solids than ever geometer dreamt
 of4 ,some single species of minerals1  
as calc-spar1 present hundreds of forms1
 all rigorously regular1 and have been  
alone the subject of volumes4 ,ice      
crystallizes by the same laws as other  
solid bodies2 and our ,arctic voyagers  
have sometimes relieved the weariness of
 their sojourn in those regions1 by     
collecting some of the innumerable      
forms1 resembling an endless collection 
of hexagonal flowers1 sporting into     
different shapes1 which are assumed by  
flakes of snow#g4 ,in these and many    
other ways1 the power of crystallization
 produces an inexhaustible supply of    
examples of symmetrical beauty4 ,and    
what are we to conceive to be the object
 and purpose of this8 ,as we have said1 
that part of the purpose which is       
intelligible to us is1 that we have here
 a force holding together the particles 

of bodies1 so as to make them solid4    
,but all these pretty shapes add nothing
 to this intelligible use4 ,why then are
 they there8 ,they are there1 it would  
seem1 for their own sake2--because they 
are pretty2--symmetry and beauty are    
there on their own account2 or because  
they are universal adjuncts of the      
general laws by which the creator works4
 ,or rather we may say1 combining       
different branches of our knowledge1    
that crystallization is the mark and    
accompaniment of chemical composition3  
and that as chemical composition takes  
place according to definite numbers1 so 
crystalline aggregation takes place     
according to definite forms4 ,the       
symmetrical relations of space in       
crystals correspond to the simple       
relations of number in synthesis2 and   
thus1 because there is rule1 there is   
regularity1 and regularity assumes the  
form of beauty4  #bh4 ,this1 which thus 
shows itself throughout the mineral     
kingdom1 or1 speaking more widely and   

truly1 throughout the whole range of    
chemical composition1 is still more     
manifest in the vegetable domain4 ,all  
the vast array of flowers1 so infinitely
 various1 and so beautiful in their     
variety1 are the results of a few       
general laws2 and show1 in the degree of
 their symmetry1 the alternate operation
 of one law and another4 ,the rose1 the 
lily1 the cowslip1 the violet1 differ in
 something of the same way1 in which the
 crystalline forms of the several gems  
differ4 ,their parts are arranged in    
fives or in threes1 in pentagons or in  
hexagons1 and in these regular forms1   
one part or another is expanded or      
contracted1 rendered conspicuous by     
color or by shape1 so as to produce all 
the multiplicity of beauty which the    
florist admires4 ,or rather1 in the eye 
of the philosophical botanist1 the whole
 of the structure of plants1 with all   
their array of stems and leaves1        
blossoms and fruits1 is but the         
manifestation of one ,law2 and all these

 members of the vegetable form1 are1 in 
their natures1 the same1 developed more 
or less in this way or in that4 ,the    
daisy consists of a close cluster of    
flowers of which each has1 in its form1 
the rudiments of the valerian4 ,the     
peablossom is a rose1 with some of its  
petals expanded into butterfly-like     
wings4 ,even without changing the       
species1 this general law leads to      
endless changes4 ,the garden-rose is the
 common hedge-rose with innumerable     
filaments changed into glowing petals4  
,by the addition of whorl to whorl1 of  
vegetable coronet over coronet1 green   
and colored1 broad and narrow1 filmy and
 rigid1 every plant is generated1 and   
the glory of the field and of the       
garden1 of the jungle and of the forest1
 is brought forth in all its            
magnificence4 ,here1 then1 we have an   
immeasurable wealth of beauty and       
regularity1 brought to view by the      
operation of a single law4 ,and to what 
use8 ,what purpose do these beauties    

answer8 ,what is the object for which   
the lilies of the field are clothed so  
gaily and gorgeously8 ,some plants1     
indeed1 are subservient to the use of   
animals and of man3 but how small is the
 number in which we can trace this1 as  
an intelligent purpose of their         
existence6 ,and does it not1 in fact1   
better express the impression which the 
survey of this province of nature       
suggests to us1 to say1 that they grow  
because the ,creator willed that they   
should grow8 ,their vegetable life was  
an object of ,his care and contrivance1 
as well as animal and human life4 ,and  
they are beautiful1 also because ,he    
willed that they should be so3--because 
,he delights in producing beauty2--and1 
as we have further tried to make it     
appear1 because ,he acts by general law1
 and law produces beauty4 ,is not such a
 tendency here apparent1 as a part of   
the general scheme of ,creation8  #bi4  
,we have already attempted to show1 that
 in the structure of animals1 especially

 that large class best known to us1     
vertebrate animals1 there is also a     
general plan which1 so far as we can    
see1 goes beyond the circuit of the     
special adaptation of each animal to its
 mode of living3 and is a rule of       
creative action1 in addition to the rule
 that the parts shall be subservient to 
an intelligible purpose of animal life4 
,we have noticed several phenomena in   
the animal kingdom1 where parts and     
features appear1 rudimentary and inert1 
discharging no office in their economy1 
and speaking to us1 not of purpose1 but 
of law3--consistent with an end which is
 visible1 but seemingly the results of a
 rule whose end is in itself4  #cj4 ,and
 do we not1 in innumerable cases1 see   
beauties of color and form1 texture and 
lustre1 which suggests to us            
irresistibly the belief that beauty and 
regular form are rules of the ,creative 
agency1 even when they seem to us1      
looking at the creation for uses only1  
idle and wanton expenditure of beauty   

and regularity4 ,to what purpose are the
 host of splendid circles which decorate
 the tail of the peacock1 more          
beautiful1 each of them1 than ,saturn   
with his rings8 ,to what purpose the    
exquisite textures of microscopic       
objects1 more curiously regular than    
anything which the telescope discloses8 
,to what purpose the gorgeous colors of 
tropical birds and insects1 that live   
and die where human eye never approaches
 to admire them8 ,to what purpose the   
thousands of species of butterflies with
 the gay and varied embroidery of their 
microscopic plumage1 of which one in    
millions1 if seen at all1 only draws the
 admiration of the wandering schoolboy8 
,to what purpose the delicate and       
brilliant markings of shells1 which     
live1 generation after generation1 in   
the sunless and sightless depths of the 
ocean8 ,do not all these examples1 to   
which we might add countless others1    
7for the world1 so far as human eye has 
scanned it1 is full of them17 prove that

 beauty and regularity are universal    
features of the work of ,creation1 in   
all its parts1 small and great3 and that
 we judge in a way contrary to a vast   
range of analogy1 which runs through the
 whole of the ,universe1 when we infer  
that1 because the objects which are     
presented to our contemplation are      
beautiful in aspect and regular in form1
 they must1 in each case1 be means for  
some special end1 of those which we     
commonly fix upon1 as the main ends of  
the ,creation1 the support and advantage
 of animals or of man8  #ca4 ,if this be
 so1 then the beautiful and regular     
objects which the telescope reveals to  
us2 ,jupiter and his ,moons1 ,saturn and
 his ,rings1 the most regular of the    
,double ,stars1 ,clusters and ,nebulae2 
cannot reasonably be inferred1 because  
they are beautiful and regular1 to be   
also fields of life1 or scenes of       
thought4 ,they may be1 as to the poet's 
eye they often appear1 the gems of the  
robe of ,night1 the flowers of the      

celestial fields4 ,like gems and like   
flowers1 they are beautiful and regular1
 because they are brought into being by 
vast and general laws4 ,these laws1     
although1 in the mind of the ,creator1  
they have their sufficient reason1 as   
far as they extend1 may have1 in no     
other region than that which we inhabit1
 the reason which we seek to discover   
everywhere1 the sustentation of a life  
like ours4 ,that we should connect with 
the existence of such laws1 the         
existence of ,mind like our own mind1 is
 most natural2 and1 as we might easily  
show1 is justifiable1 reasonable1 even  
necessary4 ,but that we should suppose  
the result of such laws are so connected
 with ,mind1 that wherever the laws     
gather matter into globes1 and whirl it 
round the central body1 there is also a 
local seat of minds like ours2 is an    
assumption altogether unwarranted2 and  
is1 without strong evidence1 of which we
 have as yet no particle1 quite         
visionary4  #cb4 ,but finally1 it may be

 said that by this our view of the      
universe1 we diminish the greatness of  
the work of creation1 and the majesty of
 the ,creator4 ,such a view appears to  
represent the other planets as mere     
fragments1 which have flown off in the  
fabrication of this our earth1 and of   
the mechanism by which it answers its   
purpose4 ,instead of a vast array of    
completed worlds1 we have one world1    
surrounded by abortive worlds and inert 
masses4 ,instead of perfection          
everywhere1 we have imperfection        
everywhere1 except at one spot2 if even 
there the workmanship be perfect4  #cc4 
,to this1 the reply is contained in what
 we have already said3 but we may add1  
that it cannot be wise or right1 to prop
 up our notions of ,god's greatness1 by 
physical doctrines which will not bear  
discussion4 ,god's greatness has no need
 of man's inventions for its support4   
,the very conviction that the ,creation 
must be such as to confirm our belief in
 the greatness of ,god1 shows that such 

a belief is more deeply seated than any 
special views of the structure of the   
universe1 and will triumphantly survive 
the removal of error in such views4 ,we 
may add1 that till within a few thousand
 years1 this earth1 compared with what  
it now is1 having upon it no intelligent
 beings1 might be regarded as an        
abortive world2 that all the parts of   
the solar system which we can best      
scrutinize1 the moon1 and meteoric      
stones1 are inert masses2 and further1  
that there is everywhere the perfection 
which results from the operation of law1
 and that that seems to be the          
perfection with which the ,creator is   
contented4  #cd4 ,and perhaps1 when the 
view of the universe which we here      
present has become familiar1 we may be  
led to think that the aspect which it   
gives to the mode of working of the     
,creator1 is sufficiently grand and     
majestic4 ,instead of manufacturing a   
multitude of worlds on patterns more or 
less similar1 ,he has been employed in  

one great work1 which we cannot call    
imperfect1 since it includes and        
suggests all that we can conceive of    
perfection4 ,it may be that all the     
other bodies1 which we can discover in  
the universe1 show the greatness of this
 work1 and are rolled into forms of     
symmetry and order1 into masses of light
 and splendor1 by the vast whirl which  
the original creative energy imparted to
 the luminous element4 ,the planets and 
the stars are the lumps which have flown
 from the potter's wheel of the ,great  
,worker2--the shred-coils which1 in the 
working1 sprang from ,his mighty        
lathe3--the sparks which darted from    
,his awful anvil when the solar system  
lay incandescent thereon2--the curls of 
vapor which rose from the great cauldron
 of creation when its elements were     
separated4 ,if even these superfluous   
portions of the material are marked with
 universal traces of regularity and     
order1 this shows that universal rules  
are his implements1 and that ,order is  

the first and universal ,law of the     
heavenly work4  #ce4 ,and1 that we may  
see the full dignity of this work1 we   
must always recollect that ,man is a    
part of it1 and the crowning part4 ,the 
workmanship which is employed on mere   
matter is1 after all1 of small account1 
in the eyes of intellectual and moral   
creatures1 when compared with the       
creation and government of intellectual 
and moral creatures4 ,the majesty of    
,god does not reside in planets and     
stars1 in orbs and systems2 which are1  
after all1 only stone and vapor1        
materials and means4 ,if1 as we believe1
 ,god has not only made the material    
world1 but has made and governs man1 we 
need not regret to have to depress any  
portion of the material world below the 
place which we had previously assigned  
to it2 for1 when all is done1 the       
material world must be put in an        
inferior place1 compared with the world 
of mind4 ,if there be a ,world of ,mind1
 that1 according to all that we can     

conceive1 must have been better worth   
creating1 must be more worthy to exist1 
as an object of care in the eyes of the 
,creator1 than thousands and millions of
 stars and planets1 even if they were   
occupied by a myriad times as many      
species of brute animals as have lived  
upon the earth since its vivification4  
,in saying this1 we are only echoing the
 common voice of mankind1 uttered1 as so
 often it is1 by the tongues of poets4  
,one such speaks thus of stellar        
systems3      ,behold this midnight     
splendor1 worlds on worlds2     ,ten    
thousand add and twice ten thousand     
more1     ,then weigh the whole3 one    
soul outweighs them all1     ,and calls 
the seeming vast magnificence     ,of   
unintelligent creation1 poor4  ,and as  
this is true of intelligence1 with the  
suggestion which that faculty so        
naturally offers1 of the                
inextinguishable nature of mind1 so is  
it true of the moral nature of man4 ,no 
accumulation of material grandeur1 even 

if it fill the universe1 has any dignity
 in our eyes1 compared with moral       
grandeur3 as poetry has also expressed3 
,look then abroad through nature1 to the
 range     ,of planets1 suns1 and       
adamantine spheres1     ,wheeling       
unshaken through the void immense1      
,and speak1 ,o man6 ,can this capacious 
scene     ,with half that kindling      
majesty exalt     ,thy strong           
conception1 as when ,brutus rose        
,refulgent from the stroke of ,caesar's 
fate     ,amid the band of patriots2 and
 his arm     ,aloft extending1 like     
eternal ,jove     ,when guilt calls down
 the thunder1 call'd aloud     ,on      
,tully's name1 and shook his crimson    
steel1     ,and bade the ,father of his 
,country1 ,hail6     ,for lo6 the tyrant
 prostrate in the dust1     ,and ,rome  
again is free4  ,this action being      
taken1 as it is here meant to be        
conceived1 for one of the highest       
examples of moral greatness4 ,and       
however we may judge of this action1 we 

must allow that the characters which are
 implied in this praise of it1--the     
loftiest kinds of moral excellence1--are
 more suitable to the highest idea of   
the object and purpose of a ,deity      
creating worlds1 than would be any mere 
material structure of planets and suns1 
whether kept in their places by         
adamantine spheres1 wheeling unshaken   
through the void immense1 or themselves 
wheeling unshaken by the power of a     
universal law4 ,the thoughts of ,rights 
and ,obligations1 ,duty and ,virtue1 of 
,law and ,liberty1 of ,country and      
,constitution1 of the ,glory of our     
,ancestors1 the ,elevation of our       
,fellow-,citizens1 the ,freedom and     
,happiness and ,dignity of              
,posterity1--are thoughts which belong  
to a world1 a race1 a body of beings1 of
 which any one individual1 with the     
capacities which such thoughts imply1 is
 more worthy of account1 than millions  
of millions of mollusks and belemnites1 
lizards and fishes1 sloths and          

pachyderms1 diffused through myriads of 
worlds4  #cf4 ,we might illustrate this 
argument further1 by taking actions of  
the moral character of which there will 
be less doubt4 ,if we look at the great 
acts which render ,greece illustrious   
and interesting in our eyes1--such as   
the death of ,socrates1 for instance1   
the triumph of a reverence for ,law and 
a love of country2--can we think it any 
real diminution of the glory of the     
universe1 if we are reduced to the      
necessity of rejecting the belief in a  
multitude of worlds1 which though1 it   
may be1 peopled with lower animals1     
contain none endowed with any higher    
principle than hunger and thirst8  #cg4 
,that the human race possesses a worth  
in the eyes of ,reason beyond that which
 any material structure1 or any brute   
population can possess1 might be        
maintained on still higher and stronger 
grounds2 namely1 on religious grounds3  
but we do not intend here to dwell on   
that part of the subject4 ,if man be1   

not merely 7and he alone of all animals7
 capable of ,virtue and ,duty1 of       
,universal ,love and ,self-,devotion1   
but be also immortal2 if his being be of
 infinite duration1 his soul created    
never to die2 then1 indeed1 we may well 
say that one soul outweighs the whole   
unintelligent creation4 ,and if the     
,earth have been the scene of an action 
of ,love and ,self-,devotion for the    
incalculable benefit of the whole human 
race1 in comparison with which the death
 of ,socrates fades into a mere act of  
cheerful resignation to the common lot  
of humanity2 and if this action1 and its
 consequences to the whole race of man1 
in his temporal and eternal destiny1 and
 in his history on earth before and     
after it1 were the main object for which
 man was created1 the cardinal point    
round which the capacities and the      
fortunes of the race were to turn2 then 
indeed we see that the ,earth has a     
pre-eminence in the scheme of creation1 
which may well reconcile us to regard   

all the material splendor which         
surrounds it1 all the array of mere     
visible luminaries and masses which     
accompany it1 as no unfitting appendages
 to such a drama4 ,the elevation of     
millions of intellectual1 moral1        
religious1 spiritual creatures1 to a    
destiny so prepared1 consummated1 and   
developed1 is no unworthy occupation of 
all the capacities of space1 time1 and  
matter4 ,and1 so far as any one has yet 
shown1 to regard this great scheme as   
other than the central point of the     
divine plan2 to consider it as one part 
among other parts1 similar1 co-ordinate1
 or superior2 involves those who so     
speculate1 in difficulties1 even with   
regard to the plan itself1 which they   
strive in vain to reconcile2 while the  
assumption of the subjects of such a    
plan1 in other regions of the universe1 
is at variance with all which we1       
looking at the analogies of space and   
time1 of earth and stars1 of life in    
brutes and in man1 have found reason to 

deem in any degree probable4  #ch4 ,and 
thus that conjecture of the ,plurality  
of ,worlds1 to which a wide and careful 
examination of the physical constitution
 of the ,universe supplied no           
confirmation1 derives also little       
support from a contemplation of the     
,design which the ,creator may be       
supposed to have had in the work of the 
,creation2 when such ,design is regarded
 in a comprehensive manner1 and in all  
its bearings4 ,such a survey seems to   
speak rather in favor of the ,unity of  
the ,world1 than of a ,plurality of     
,worlds4 ,a further consideration of the
 intellectual1 moral1 and religious     
nature of man may still further         
illustrate this view2 and with that     
object1 we shall make a few additional  
remarks4  ,,footnotes3  #a ,the greatest
 anatomists1 and especially ,mr4 ,owen1 
have recently expressed their           
conviction1 that researches on the      
structure of animals must be guided by  
the principle of unity of composition as

 well as the principle of final causes4 
,see ,owen ,on the ,nature of ,limbs4   
#b ,this has been termed by             
physiologists ,the ,law of the          
,development from the ,general to the   
,special4  #c ,every reader of          
physiological works knows how easy it   
would be to multiply examples of this   
kind to any extent4 ,thus it is held by 
physiologists1 that the sporules of     
fungi are universally diffused through  
the atmosphere1 ready to vegetate       
whenever an opportunity presents itself3
 and that a single individual produces  
not less than ten millions of germs4 ,it
 is held also that innumerable seeds of 
plants still capable of vegetation1 lie 
in strata far below the earth's surface1
 finding the occasion to vegetate only  
by the rarest and most exceptional      
occurrences4--,carpenter1 ,manual of    
,physiology4 #ahea1 ,art4 #dd4  #d      
,chalmers1 p4 #ce4  #e ,ibid4 p4 #ba  #f
 ,ibid4 p4 #aai4  #g ,dr4 ,scoresby1 in 
his ,account of the ,arctic ,regions    

7#ahbj7 ,vol4 ,,ii4 has given figures of
 #if such forms1 selected for their     
eminent regularity from many more4      
,,chapter ,,xii4  ,,the ,,unity ,,of    
,,the ,,world4   #a4 ,the two doctrines 
which we have here to weigh against each
 other are the ,plurality of ,worlds1   
and the ,unity of the ,world4 ,in so    
saying1 we include in our present view1 
a necessary part of the conception of a 
,world1 a collection of intelligent     
creatures3 for even if the suppositions 
to which we have been led1 respecting   
the kind of unintelligent living things 
which may inhabit other parts of the    
,universe1 be conceived to be probable2 
such a belief will have little interest 
for most persons1 compared with the     
belief of other worlds1 where reside    
intelligence1 perception of truth1      
recognition of moral ,law1 and reverence
 for a ,divine ,creator and ,governor4  
,in looking outwards at the ,universe1  
there are certain aspects which suggest 
to man1 at first sight1 a conjecture    

that there may be other bodies like the 
,earth1 tenanted by other creatures like
 man4 ,this conjecture1 however1        
receives no confirmation from a closer  
inquiry1 with increased means of        
observation4 ,let us now look inwards1  
at the constitution of man2 and consider
 some characters of his nature1 which   
seem to remove or lessen the            
difficulties which we may at first feel1
 in regarding the ,earth as1 in a unique
 and special manner1 the field of ,god's
 ,providence and ,government4  #b4 ,in  
the first place1 the ,earth1 as the     
abode of man1 the intellectual creature1
 contains a being1 whose mind is1 in    
some measure1 of the same nature as the 
,divine ,mind of the ,creator4 ,the     
,laws which man discovers in the        
,creation must be ,laws known to ,god4  
,the truths1--for instance the truths of
 geometry1--which man sees to be true1  
,god also must see to be true4 ,that    
there were1 from the beginning1 in the  
,creative ,mind1 ,creative ,thoughts1 is

 a doctrine involved in every           
intelligent view of ,creation4  #c4     
,this doctrine was presented by the     
ancients in various forms2 and the most 
recent scientific discoveries have      
supplied new illustrations of it4 ,the  
mode in which ,plato expressed the      
doctrine which we are here urging was1  
that there were in the ,divine ,mind1   
before or during the work of creation1  
certain archetypal ,ideas1 certain      
exemplars or patterns of the world and  
its parts1 according to which the work  
was performed3 so that these ,ideas or  
,exemplars existed in the objects around
 us being in so many cases discernible  
by man1 and being the proper objects of 
human reason4 ,if a mere metaphysician  
were to attempt to revive this mode of  
expressing the doctrine1 probably his   
speculations would be disregarded1 or   
treated as a pedantic resuscitation of  
obsolete ,platonic dreams4 ,but the     
adoption of such language must needs be 
received in a very different manner1    

when it proceeds from a great discoverer
 in the field of natural knowledge3 when
 it is1 as it were1 forced upon him1 as 
the obvious and appropriate expression  
of the result of the most profound and  
comprehensive researches into the frame 
of the whole animal creation4 ,the      
recent works of ,mr4 ,owen1 and         
especially one work1 ,on the ,nature of 
,limbs1 are full of the most energetic  
and striking passages1 inculcating the  
doctrine which we have been endeavoring 
to maintain4 ,we may take the liberty of
 enriching our pages with one passage   
bearing upon the present part of the    
subject4  ,if the world were made by any
 antecedent ,mind or ,understanding1    
that is by a ,deity1 then there must    
needs be an ,idea and ,exemplar of the  
whole world before it was made1 and     
consequently actual knowledge1 both in  
the order of ,time and ,nature1 before  
,things4 ,but conceiving of knowledge as
 it was got by their own finite minds1  
and ignorant of any evidence of an ideal

 ,archetype for the world or any part of
 it1 they the ,democritic ,philosophers 
who denied a ,divine ,creative ,mind    
affirmed that there was none1 and       
concluded that there could be no        
knowledge or mind before the world was1 
as its cause4 ,plato's assertion of     
,archetypal ,ideas was a protest against
 this doctrine1 but was rather a guess1 
suggested by the nature of mathematical 
demonstration1 than a doctrine derived  
from a contemplation of the external    
world4  ,now however1 ,mr4 ,owen        
continues1 the recognition of an ideal  
exemplar for the vertebrated animals    
proves that the knowledge of such a     
being as ,man must have existed before  
,man appeared4 ,for the ,divine ,mind   
which planned the ,archetypal also      
foreknew all its modifications4 ,the    
,archetypal ,idea was manifested in the 
flesh under divers modifications upon   
this planet1 long prior to the existence
 of those animal species which actually 
exemplify it4 ,to what natural or       

secondary causes the orderly succession 
and progression of such organic         
phenomena may have been committed1 we   
are as yet ignorant4 ,but if without    
derogation to the ,divine ,power1 we may
 conceive such ministers and personify  
them by the term ,nature1 we learn from 
the past history of our globe that she  
has advanced with slow and stately      
steps1 guided by the archetypal light   
amidst the wreck of worlds1 from the    
first embodiment of the vertebrate idea1
 under its old ichthyic vestment1 until 
it became arrayed in the glorious garb  
of the human form4  #d4 ,law implies a  
,lawgiver1 even when we do not see the  
object of the ,law2 even as ,design     
implies a ,designer1 when we do not see 
the object of the ,design4 ,the ,laws of
 ,nature are the indications of the     
operation of the ,divine ,mind2 and are 
revealed to us1 as such1 by the         
operations of our minds1 by which we    
come to discover them4 ,they are the    
utterances of the ,creator1 delivered in

 language which we can understand2 and  
being thus ,language1 they are the      
utterances of an ,intelligent ,spirit4  
#e4 ,it may seem to some persons too    
bold a view1 to identify1 so far as we  
thus do1 certain truths as seen by man1 
and as seen by ,god3#a--to make the     
,divine ,mind thus cognizant of the     
truths of geometry1 for instance4 ,if   
any one has such a scruple1 we may      
remark that truth1 when of so luminous  
and stable a kind as are the truths of  
geometry1 must be alike ,truth for all  
minds1 even for the highest4 ,the mode  
of arriving at the knowledge of such    
truths1 may be very different1 even for 
different human minds2--deduction for   
some2--intuition for others4 ,but the   
intuitive apprehension of necessary     
truth is an act so purely intellectual1 
that even in the ,supreme ,intellect1 we
 may suppose that it has its place4 ,can
 we conceive otherwise1 than that ,god  
does contemplate the universe as        
existing in space1 since it really does 

so2--and subject to the relations of    
space1 since these are as real as space 
itself8 ,we are well aware that the     
,supreme ,being must contemplate the    
world under many other aspects than     
this2--even man does so4 ,but that does 
not prevent the truths1 which belong to 
the aspect of the world1 contemplated as
 existing in space1 from being truths1  
regarded as such1 even by the ,divine   
,mind4  #f4 ,if these reflections are   
well founded1 as we trust they will1 on 
consideration1 be seen to be1 we may    
adopt many of the expressions by which  
philosophers heretofore have attempted  
to convey similar views2 for in fact1   
this view1 in its general bearing at    
least1 is by no means new4 ,the ,mind of
 ,man is a partaker of the thoughts of  
the ,divine ,mind4 ,the ,intellect of   
,man is a spark of the ,light by which  
the world was created4 ,the ,ideas      
according to which man builds up his    
knowledge1 are emanations of the        
archetypal ,ideas according to which the

 work of creation was planned and       
executed4 ,these1 and many the like     
expressions1 have been often used2 and  
we now see1 we may trust1 that there is 
a great philosophical truth1 which they 
all tend to convey2 and this truth shows
 at the same time1 how man may have some
 knowledge respecting the ,laws of      
,nature1 and how this knowledge may1 in 
some cases1 seem to be a knowledge of   
necessary relations1 as in the case of  
space4#b  #g4 ,now1 the views to which  
we have been led1 bear very strongly    
upon that argument4 ,for if man1 when he
 attains to a knowledge of such laws1 is
 really admitted1 in some degree1 to the
 view with which the ,creator himself   
beholds his creation2--if we can gather1
 from the conditions of such knowledge1 
that his intellect partakes of the      
,nature of the ,supreme ,intellect2--if 
his ,mind1 in its clearest and largest  
contemplations1 harmonizes with the     
,divine ,mind2--we have1 in this1 a     
reason which may well seem to us very   

powerful1 why1 even if the ,earth alone 
be the habitation of intelligent beings1
 still1 the great work of ,creation is  
not wasted4 ,if ,god have placed upon   
the earth a creature who can so far     
sympathize with ,him1 if we may venture 
upon the expression2--who can raise his 
intellect into some accordance with the 
,creative ,intellect2 and that1 not once
 only1 nor by few steps1 but through an 
indefinite gradation of discoveries1    
more and more comprehensive1 more and   
more profound2 each1 an advance1 however
 slight1 towards a ,divine              
,insight2--then1 so far as intellect    
alone 7and we are here speaking of      
intellect alone7 can make ,man a worthy 
object of all the vast magnificence of  
,creative ,power1 we can hardly shrink  
from believing that he is so4  #h4 ,we  
may remark further1 that this view of   
,god1 as the ,author of the ,laws of the
 ,universe1 leads to a view of all the  
phenomena and objects of the world1 as  
the work of ,god2 not a work made1 and  

laid out of hand1 but a field of his    
present activity and energy4 ,and such a
 view cannot fail to give an aspect of  
dignity to all that is great in         
creation1 and of beauty to all that is  
symmetrical1 which otherwise they could 
not have4 ,accordingly1 it is by calling
 to their thoughts the presence of ,god 
as suggested by scenes of grandeur or   
splendor1 that poets often reach the    
sympathies of their readers4 ,and this  
dignity and sublimity appear especially 
to belong to the larger objects1 which  
are destitute of conscious life2 as the 
mountain1 the glacier1 the pine-forest1 
the ocean2 since in these1 we are1 as it
 were1 alone with ,god1 and the only    
present witnesses of ,his mysterious    
working4  #i4 ,now if this reflection be
 true1 the vast bodies which hang in the
 sky1 at such immense distances from us1
 and roll on their courses1 and spin    
round their axles with such exceeding   
rapidity2 ,jupiter and his array of     
,moons1 ,saturn with his still larger   

host of ,satellites1 and with his       
wonderful ,ring1 and the other large and
 distant ,planets1 will lose nothing of 
their majesty1 in our eyes1 by being    
uninhabited2 any more than the          
summer-clouds1 which perhaps are formed 
of the same materials1 lose their       
dignity from the same cause2--any more  
than our ,moon1 one of the tribe of     
satellites1 loses her soft and tender   
beauty1 when we have ascertained that   
she is more barren of inhabitants than  
the top of ,mount ,blanc4 ,however      
destitute the planets and moons and     
rings may be of inhabitants1 they are at
 least vast scenes of ,god's presence1  
and of the activity with which he       
carries into effect1 everywhere1 the    
laws of nature4 ,the light which comes  
to us from them is transmitted according
 to laws which ,he has established1 by  
an energy which ,he maintains4 ,the     
remotest planet is not devoid of life1  
for ,god lives there4 ,at each stage    
which we make1 from planet to planet1   

from star to star1 into the regions of  
infinity1 we may say1 with the          
patriarch1 ,surely ,god is here1 and ,i 
knew it not4 ,and when those who        
question the habitability of the remote 
planets and stars are reproached as     
presenting a view of the universe1 which
 takes something from the magnificence  
hitherto ascribed to it1 as the scene of
 ,god's glory1 shown in the things which
 ,he has created2 they may reply1 that  
they do not at all disturb that glory of
 the creation which arises from its     
being1 not only the product1 but the    
constant field of ,god's activity and   
thought1 wisdom and power2 and they may 
perhaps ask1 in return1 whether the     
dignity of the ,moon would be greatly   
augmented if her surface were           
ascertained to be abundantly peopled    
with lizards2 or whether ,mount ,blanc  
would be more sublime1 if millions of   
frogs were known to live in the         
crevasses of its glaciers4  #aj4 ,again3
 the ,earth is a scene of ,moral ,trial4

 ,man is subject to a ,moral ,law2 and  
this ,moral ,law is a ,law of which ,god
 is the ,legislator4 ,it is a law which 
man has the power of discovering1 by the
 use of the faculties which ,god has    
given him4 ,by considering the nature   
and consequences of actions1 man is able
 to discern1 in a great measure1 what is
 right and what is wrong2--what he ought
 and what he ought not to do2--what his 
duty and virtue1 what his crime and     
vice4 ,man has a ,law on such subjects1 
written on his heart1 as the ,apostle   
,paul says4 ,he has a conscience which  
accuses or excuses him2 and thus1       
recognizes his acts as worthy of        
condemnation or approval4 ,and thus1 man
 is1 and knows himself to be1 the       
subject of ,divine ,law1 commanding and 
prohibiting2 and is here1 in a state of 
probation1 as to how far he will obey or
 disobey this ,law4 ,he has impulses1   
springs of action1 which urge him to the
 violation of this ,law4 ,appetite1     
,desire1 ,anger1 ,lust1 ,greediness1    

,envy1 ,malice1 impel him to courses    
which are vicious4 ,but these impulses  
he is capable of resisting and          
controlling2--of avoiding the vices and 
practising the opposite virtues2--and of
 rising from one stage of ,virtue to    
another1 by a gradual and successive    
purification and elevation of the       
desires1 affections and habits1 in a    
degree1 so far as we know1 without      
limit4  #aa4 ,now in considering the    
bearing of this view upon our original  
subject1 we have1 in the first place1 to
 make this remark3 that the existence of
 a body of creatures1 capable of such a 
,law1 of such a ,trial1 and of such an  
,elevation as this1 is1 according to all
 that we can conceive1 an object        
infinitely more worthy of the exertion  
of the ,divine ,power and ,wisdom1 in   
the ,creation of the universe1 than any 
number of planets occupied by creatures 
having no such lot1 no such law1 no such
 capacities1 and no such                
responsibilities4 ,however imperfectly  

the moral law be obeyed2 however ill the
 greater part of mankind may respond to 
the appointment which places them here  
in a state of moral probation2 however  
few those may be who use the capacities 
and means of their moral purification   
and elevation2--still1 that there is    
such a plan in the creation1 and that   
any respond to its appointments1--is    
really a view of the ,universe which we 
can conceive to be suitable to the      
nature of ,god1 because we can approve  
of it1 in virtue of the moral nature    
which ,he has given us4 ,one school of  
moral discipline1 one theatre of moral  
action1 one arena of moral contests for 
the highest prizes1 is a sufficient     
centre for innumerable hosts of stars   
and planets1 globes of fire and earth1  
water and air1 whether or not tenanted  
by corals and madrepores1 fishes and    
creeping things4 ,so great and majestic 
are those names of ,right and ,good1    
,duty and ,virtue1 that all mere        
material or animal existence is         

worthless in the comparison4  #ab4 ,but 
further3 let us consider what is this   
moral progress of which we have         
spoken2--this purification and elevation
 of man's inner being4 ,man's           
intellectual progress1 his advance in   
the knowledge of the general laws of the
 ,universe1 we found reason to believe  
that we were not describing unfitly1    
when we spoke of it as bringing us      
nearer to ,god2--as making our thoughts1
 in some degree1 resemble ,his          
thoughts2--as enabling us to see things 
as ,he sees them4 ,and on that account1 
we held that the placing man1 with his  
intellectual powers1 in a condition in  
which he was impelled1 and enabled1 to  
seek such knowledge1 was of itself a    
great thing1 and tended much to give to 
the ,creation a worthy end4 ,now the    
moral elevation of man's being is the   
elevation of his sentiments and         
affections towards a standard or idea1  
which ,god1 by his ,law1 has indicated  
as that point towards which man ought to

 tend4 ,we do not ascribe ,virtue to    
,god1 adapting to ,him our notions taken
 from man's attributes1 as we do when we
 ascribe ,knowledge to ,god3 for ,virtue
 implies the control and direction of   
human springs of action2--implies human 
efforts and human habits4 ,but we       
ascribe to ,god infinite ,goodness1     
,justice1 and ,truth1 as well as        
infinite ,wisdom and ,power2 and        
,goodness1 ,justice1 ,truth1 form       
elements of the character at which man  
also is1 by the ,moral ,law1 directed to
 aim4 ,so far1 therefore1 man's moral   
progress is a progress towards a        
likeness with ,god2 and such a progress1
 even more than a progress towards an   
intellectual likeness with ,god1 may be 
conceived as making the soul of man fit 
to endure forever with ,god2 and        
therefore1 as making this earth a       
prefatory stage of human souls1 to fit  
them for eternity2--a nursery of plants 
which are to be fully unfolded in a     
celestial garden4  #ac4 ,and to this1 we

 must add that1 on other accounts also1 
as well as on account of the capacity of
 the human soul for moral and           
intellectual progress1 thoughtful men   
have always been disposed1 on grounds   
supplied by the light of nature1 to     
believe in the existence of human souls 
after this present earthly life is past4
 ,such a belief has been cherished in   
all ages and nations1 as the mode in    
which we naturally conceive that which  
is apparently imperfect and deficient in
 the moral government of the world1 to  
be completed and perfected4 ,and if this
 mortal life be thus really only the    
commencement of an infinite ,divine     
,plan1 beginning upon earth and destined
 to endure for endless ages after our   
earthly life2 we need no array of other 
worlds in the universe to give          
sufficient dignity and majesty to the   
scheme of the ,creation4  #ad4 ,we may  
make another remark which may have an   
important bearing upon our estimate of  
the value of the moral scheme of the    

world which occupies the earth4 ,if1 by 
any act of the ,divine ,government1 the 
number of those men should be much      
increased1 who raise themselves towards 
the moral standard which ,god has       
appointed1 and thus1 towards a likeness 
to ,god1 and a prospect of a future     
eternal union with him2--such an act of 
,divine ,government would do far more   
towards making the ,universe a scene in 
which ,god's goodness and greatness were
 largely displayed1 than could be done  
by any amount of peopling of planets    
with creatures who were incapable of    
moral agency2 or with creatures whose   
capacity for the development of their   
moral faculties was small1 and would    
continue to be small till such an act of
 ,divine ,government were performed4    
,the ,interposition of ,god1 in the     
history of man1 to remedy man's         
feebleness in moral and spiritual tasks1
 and to enable those who profit by the  
,interposition1 to ascend towards a     
union with ,god1 is an event entirely   

out of the range of those natural       
courses of events which belong to our   
subject2 and to such an ,interposition1 
therefore1 we must refer with great     
reserve2 using great caution that we do 
not mix up speculations and conjectures 
of our own1 with what has been revealed 
to man concerning such an               
,interposition4 ,but this1 it would     
seem1 we may say3--that such a ,divine  
,interposition for the moral and        
spiritual elevation of the human race1  
and for the encouragement and aid of    
those who seek the purification and     
elevation of their nature1 and an       
eternal union with ,god1 is far more    
suitable to the ,idea of a ,god of      
,infinite ,goodness1 ,purity1 and       
,greatness1 than any supposed           
multiplication of a population1 7on our 
planet or on any other17 not provided   
with such means of moral and spiritual  
progress4  #ae4 ,and if we were1 instead
 of such a supposition1 to imagine to   
ourselves1 in other regions of the      

,universe1 a moral population purified  
and elevated without the aid or need of 
any such ,divine ,interposition2 the    
supposed possibility of such a moral    
race would make the sin and misery1     
which deform and sadden the aspect of   
our earth1 appear more dark and dismal  
still4 ,we should therefore1 it would   
seem1 find no theological congruity1 and
 no religious consolation1 in the       
assumption of a ,plurality of ,worlds of
 ,moral ,beings3 while1 to place the    
seats of such worlds in the ,stars and  
the ,planets1 would be1 as we have      
already shown1 a step discountenanced by
 physical reasons2 and discountenanced  
the more1 the more the light of science 
is thrown upon it4  #af4 ,perhaps it may
 be said1 that all which we have urged  
to show that other animals1 in          
comparison with man1 are less worthy    
objects of creative design1 may be used 
as an argument to prove that other      
planets are tenanted by men1 or by moral
 and intellectual creatures like man2   

since1 if the creation of one world of  
such creatures exalts so highly our     
views of the dignity and importance of  
the plan of creation1 the belief in many
 such worlds must elevate still more our
 sentiments of admiration and reverence 
of the greatness and goodness of the    
,creator2 and must be a belief1 on that 
account1 to be accepted and cherished by
 pious minds4  #ag4 ,to this we reply1  
that we cannot think ourselves          
authorized to assert cosmological       
doctrines1 selected arbitrarily by      
ourselves1 on the ground of their       
exalting our sentiments of admiration   
and reverence for the ,deity1 when the  
weight of all the evidence which we can 
obtain respecting the constitution of   
the universe is against them4 ,it       
appears to us1 that to discern one great
 scheme of moral and religious          
government1 which is the spiritual      
centre of the universe1 may well suffice
 for the religious sentiments of men in 
the present age2 as in former ages such 

a view of creation was sufficient to    
overwhelm men with feelings of awe1 and 
gratitude1 and love2 and to make them   
confess1 in the most emphatic language1 
that all such feelings were an          
inadequate response to the view of the  
scheme of ,providence which was revealed
 to them4 ,the thousands of millions of 
inhabitants of the ,earth to whom the   
effects of the ,divine ,plan extend1    
will not seem1 to the greater part of   
religious persons1 to need the addition 
of more1 to fill our minds with         
sufficiently vast and affecting         
contemplations1 so far as we are capable
 of pursuing such contemplations4 ,the  
possible extension of ,god's spiritual  
kingdom upon the earth will probably    
appear to them a far more interesting   
field of devout meditation1 than the    
possible addition to it of the          
inhabitants of distant stars1 connected 
in some inscrutable manner with the     
,divine ,plan4  #ah4 ,to justify our    
saying that the weight of the evidence  

is against such cosmological doctrines1 
we must recall to the reader's          
recollection the whole course of the    
argument which we have been pursuing4   
,it is a possible conjecture1 at first1 
that there may be other ,worlds1 having1
 as this has1 their moral and           
intellectual attributes1 and their      
relations to the ,creator4 ,it is also a
 possible conjecture1 that this ,world1 
having such attributes1 and such        
relations1 may1 on that account1 be     
necessarily unique and incapable of     
repetition1 peculiar1 and spiritually   
central4 ,these two opposite            
possibilities may be placed1 at first1  
front to front1 as balancing each other4
 ,we must then weigh such evidence and  
such analogies as we can find on the one
 side or on the other4 ,we see much in  
the intellectual and moral nature of    
man1 and in his history1 to confirm the 
opinion that the human race is thus     
unique1 peculiar and central4 ,in the   
views which ,religion presents1 we find 

much more1 tending the same way1 and    
involving the opposite supposition in   
great difficulties4 ,we find1 in our    
knowledge of what we ourselves are1     
reasons to believe that if there be1 in 
any other planet1 intellectual and moral
 beings1 they must not only be like men1
 but must be men1 in all the attributes 
which we can conceive as belonging to   
such beings4 ,and yet to suppose other  
groups of the human species1 in other   
parts of the universe1 must be allowed  
to be a very bold hypothesis1 to be     
justified only by some positive evidence
 in its favor4 ,when from these views1  
drawn from the attributes and relations 
of man1 we turn to the evidence drawn   
from physical conditions1 we find very  
strong reason to believe that1 so far as
 the ,solar ,system is concerned1 the   
,earth is1 with regard to the conditions
 of life1 in a peculiar and central     
position2 so that the conditions of any 
life approaching at all to human life1  
exist on the ,earth alone4 ,as to other 

systems which may circle other suns1 the
 possibility of their being inhabited by
 men1 remains1 as at first1 a mere      
conjecture1 without any trace of        
confirmatory evidence4 ,it was suggested
 at first by the supposed analogy of    
other stars to our sun2 but this analogy
 has not been verified in any instance2 
and has been1 we conceive1 shown in many
 cases1 to vanish altogether4 ,and that 
there may be such a plan of             
creation1--one in which the moral and   
intelligent race of man is the climax   
and central point to which innumerable  
races of mere unintelligent species     
tend1--we have the most striking        
evidence1 in the history of our own     
earth1 as disclosed by geology4 ,we are 
left1 therefore1 with nothing to cling  
to1 on one side1 but the bare           
possibility that some of the stars are  
the centres of systems like the ,solar  
,system2--an opinion founded upon the   
single fact1 shown to be highly         
ambiguous1 of those stars being         

self-luminous2 and to this possibility1 
we oppose all the considerations1       
flowing from moral1 historical1 and     
religious views1 which represent the    
human race as unique and peculiar4 ,the 
force of these considerations will1 of  
course1 be different in different minds1
 according to the importance which each 
person attaches to such moral1          
historical1 and religious views2 but    
whatever the weight of them may be      
deemed1 it is to be recollected that we 
have on the other side a bare           
possibility1 a mere conjecture2 which1  
though suggested at first by            
astronomical discoveries1 all more      
recent astronomical researches have     
failed to confirm in the smallest       
degree4 ,in this state of our knowledge1
 and with such grounds of belief1 to    
dwell upon the ,plurality of ,worlds of 
intellectual and moral creatures1 as a  
highly probable doctrine1 must1 we      
think1 be held to be eminently rash and 
unphilosophical4  #ai4 ,on such a       

subject1 where the evidences are so     
imperfect1 and our power of estimating  
analogies so small1 far be it from us to
 speak positively and dogmatically4 ,and
 if any one holds the opinion1 on       
whatever evidence1 that there are other 
spheres of the ,divine ,government than 
this earth1--other regions in which ,god
 has subjects and servants1--other      
beings who do his will1 and who1 it may 
be1 are connected with the moral and    
religious interests of man2--we do not  
breathe a syllable against such a       
belief2 but1 on the contrary1 regard it 
with a ready and respectful sympathy4   
,it is a belief which finds an echo in  
pious and reverent hearts2#c and it is1 
of itself1 an evidence of that religious
 and spiritual character in man1 which  
is one of the points of our argument4   
,but the discussion of such a belief    
does not belong to the present occasion1
 any further than to observe1 that it   
would be very rash and unadvised1--a    
proceeding unwarranted1 we think1 by    

,religion1 and certainly at variance    
with all that ,science teaches1--to     
place those other1 extra-human spheres  
of ,divine ,government1 in the ,planets 
and in the ,stars4 ,with regard to the  
planets and the stars1 if we reason at  
all1 we must reason on physical grounds2
 we must suppose1 as to a great extent  
we can prove that the laws and          
properties of terrestrial matter and    
motion apply to them also4 ,on such     
grounds1 it is as improbable that       
visitants from ,jupiter or from ,sirius 
can come to the ,earth1 as that men can 
pass to those stars3 as unlikely that   
inhabitants of those stars know and take
 an interest in human affairs1 as that  
we can learn what they are doing4 ,a    
belief in the ,divine ,government of    
other races of spiritual creatures      
besides the human race1 and in ,divine  
,ministrations committed to such beings1
 cannot be connected with our physical  
and astronomical views of the nature of 
the stars and the planets1 without      

making a mixture altogether incongruous 
and incoherent2 a mixture of what is    
material and what is spiritual1 adverse 
alike to sound religion and to sound    
philosophy4  #bj4 ,perhaps again1 it may
 be said1 that in speaking of the       
shortness of the time during which man  
has occupied the earth1 in comparison   
with the previous ages of irrational    
life1 and of blank matter1 we are taking
 man at his present period of existence 
on the earth3--that we do not know that 
the race may not be destined to continue
 upon the earth for as many ages as     
preceded the creation of man4 ,and to   
this we reply1 that in reasoning1 as we 
must do1 at the present period1 we can  
only proceed upon that which has        
happened up to the present period4 ,if  
we do not know how long man will        
continue to inhabit the earth1 we cannot
 reason as if we did know that he will  
inhabit it longer than any other species
 has done4 ,we may not dwell upon a mere
 possibility1 which1 it is assumed1 may 

at some indefinitely future period1     
alter the aspect of the facts now before
 us4 ,for it would be as easy to assume 
possibilities which may come hereafter  
to alter the aspect of the facts1 in    
favor of the one side1 as of the        
other4#d ,what the future destinies of  
our race1 and of the earth1 may be1 is a
 subject which is1 for us1 shrouded in  
deep darkness4 ,it would be very rash to
 assume that they will be such as to    
alter the impression derived from what  
we now know1 and to alter it in a       
certain preconceived manner4 ,but yet it
 is natural to form conjectures on this 
subject2 and perhaps we may be allowed  
to consider for a moment what kind of   
conjectures the existing stage of our   
knowledge suggests1 when we allow       
ourselves the license of conjecturing4  
,the next ,chapter contains some remarks
 bearing upon such conjectures4         
,,footnotes3  #a ,among the most recent 
expositors of this doctrine we may place
 ,m4 ,henri ,martin1 whose ,philosophie 

,spiritualiste de la ,nature is full of 
striking views of the universe in its   
relation to ,god4 7,paris4 #ahdi47  #b  
,most readers who have given any        
attention to speculations of this kind1 
will recollect ,newton's remarkable     
expressions concerning the ,deity3      
,a,eternus est et infinitus1 omnipotens 
et omnisciens2 id est1 durat ab aeterno 
in aeternum1 et adest ab infinito in    
infinitum4444 ,non est aeternitas et    
infinitas1 sed aeternus et infinitus2   
non est duratio et spatium1 sed durat et
 adest4 ,durat semper et adest ubique1  
et existendo semper et ubique durationem
 et spatium constituit4  ,to say that   
,god by existing always and everywhere  
constitutes duration and space1 appears 
to be a form of expression better       
avoided4 ,besides that it approaches too
 near to the opinion1 which the writer  
rejects1 that ,he is duration and space1
 it assumes a knowledge of the nature of
 the ,divine existence1 beyond our means
 of knowing1 and therefore rashly4 ,it  

appears to be safer1 and more in        
conformity with what we really know1 to 
say1 not that the existence of ,god     
constitutes time and space2 but that    
,god has constituted man1 so that he can
 apprehend the works of creation1 only  
as existing in time and space4 ,that    
,god has constituted time and space as  
conditions of man's knowledge of the    
creation1 is certain3 that ,god has     
constituted time and space as results of
 his own existence in any other way1 we 
cannot know4  #c     ,for doubt not that
 in other worlds above     ,there must  
be other offices of love1     ,that     
other tasks and ministries there are1   
,since it is promised that ,his         
servants1 there1     ,shall serve ,him  
still4--,,trench4  #d ,for instance1 we 
may assume that in two or three hundred 
years1 by the improvement of telescopes1
 or by other means1 it may be           
ascertained that the other planets of   
the ,solar ,system are not inhabited1   
and that the other ,stars are not the   

centres of regular systems4             
,,chapter ,,xiii4  ,,the ,,future4   #a4
 ,we proceed then to a few reflections  
to which we cannot but feel ourselves   
invited by the views which we have      
already presented in these pages4 ,what 
will be the future history of the human 
race1 and what the future destination of
 each individual1 most persons will1 and
 most wisely1 judge on far other grounds
 than the analogies which physical      
science can supply4 ,analogies derived  
from such a quarter can throw little    
light on those grave and lofty          
questions4 ,yet perhaps a few thoughts  
on this subject1 even if they serve only
 to show how little the light thus      
attainable really is1 may not be an     
unfit conclusion to what has been said2 
and the more so1 if these analogies of  
science1 so far as they have any        
specific tendency1 tend to confirm some 
of the convictions1 with regard to those
 weighty and solemn points1--the destiny
 of ,man1 and of ,mankind1--which we    

derive from other and higher sources of 
knowledge4  #b4 ,man is capable of      
looking back upon the past history of   
himself1 his ,race1 the ,earth1 and the 
,universe4 ,so far as he has the means  
of doing so1 and so far as his          
reflective powers are unfolded1 he      
cannot refrain from such a retrospect4  
,as we have seen1 man has occupied his  
thoughts with such contemplations1 and  
has been led to convictions thereupon1  
of the most remarkable and striking     
kind4 ,man is also capable of looking   
forwards to the future probable or      
possible history of himself1 his race1  
the earth1 and the universe4 ,he is     
irresistibly tempted to do this1 and to 
endeavor to shape his conjectures on the
 ,future1 by what he knows of the ,past4
 ,he attempts to discern what future    
change and progress may be imagined or  
expected1 by the analogy of past change 
and progress1 which have been           
ascertained4 ,such analogies may be     
necessarily very vague and loose2 but   

they are the peculiar ground of         
speculation1 with which we have here to 
deal4 ,perhaps man cannot discover with 
certainty any fixed and permanent laws  
which have regulated those past changes 
which have modified the surface and     
population of the earth2 still less1 any
 laws which have produced a visible     
progression in the constitution of the  
rest of the universe4 ,he cannot1       
therefore1 avail himself of any close   
analogies1 to help him to conjecture the
 future course of events1 on the earth  
or in the universe2 still less can he   
apply any known laws1 which may enable  
him to predict the future configurations
 of the elements of the world2 as he can
 predict the future configurations of   
the planets for indefinite periods4 ,he 
can foresee the astronomical revolutions
 of the heavens1 so long as the known   
laws subsist4 ,he cannot foresee the    
future geological revolutions of the    
earth1 even if they are to be produced  
by the same causes which have produced  

the past revolutions1 of which he has   
learnt the series and order4 ,still less
 can he foresee the future revolutions  
which may take place in the condition of
 man1 of society1 of philosophy1 of     
religion2 still less1 again1 the course 
which the ,divine ,government of the    
world will take1 or the state of things 
to which1 even as now conducted1 it will
 lead4  #c4 ,all these subjects are     
covered with a veil of mystery1 which   
science and philosophy can do little in 
raising4 ,yet these are subjects to     
which the mind turns1 with a far more   
eager curiosity1 than that which it     
feels with regard to mere geological or 
astronomical revolutions4 ,man is       
naturally1 and reasonably1 the greatest 
object of interest to man4 ,what shall  
happen to the human race1 after         
thousands of years1 is a far dearer     
concern to him1 than what shall happen  
to ,jupiter or ,sirius2 and even1 than  
what shall happen to the continents and 
oceans of the globe on which he lives1  

except so far as the changes of his     
domicile affect himself4 ,if our        
knowledge of the earth and of the       
heavens1 of animals and of man1 of the  
past condition and present laws of the  
world1 is quite barren of all suggestion
 of what may or may not hereafter be the
 lot of man1 such knowledge will lose   
the charm which would have made it most 
precious and attractive in the eyes of  
mankind in general4 ,and if1 on such    
subjects1 any conjectures1 however      
dubious1--any analogies1 however        
loose1--can be collected from what we   
know1 they will probably be received as 
acceptable1 in spite of their           
insecurity2 and will be deemed a fit    
offering from the scientific faculty1 to
 those hopes and expectations1--to that 
curiosity and desire of all             
knowledge1--which gladly receive their  
nutriment and gratification from every  
province of man's being4  #d4 ,now if we
 ask1 what is likely to be the future   
condition of the population of the earth

 as compared with the present2 we are   
naturally led to recollect1 what has    
been the past condition of that         
population as compared with the present4
 ,and here1 our thoughts are at once    
struck by that great fact1 to which we  
have so often referred2 which we        
conceive to be established by           
irrefragable geological evidence1 and of
 which the importance cannot be         
overrated3--namely1 the fact that the   
existence of man upon the earth has been
 for only a few thousand years3--that   
for thousands1 and myriads1 and it may  
be for millions of years1 previous to   
that period1 the earth was tenanted1    
entirely and solely1 by brute creatures1
 destitute of reason1 incapable of      
progress1 and guided merely by animal   
instincts1 in the preservation and      
continuation of their races4 ,after this
 period of mere brute existence1 in     
innumerable forms1 had endured for a    
vast series of cycles1 there appeared   
upon the earth a creature1 even in his  

organization1 superior far to all2 but  
still more superior1 in his possession  
of peculiar endowments2--reason1        
language1 the power of indefinite       
progress1 and of raising his thoughts   
towards his ,creator and ,governor3 in  
short1 to use terms already employed1 an
 intellectual1 moral1 religious1 and    
spiritual creature4 ,after the ages of  
intellectual darkness1 there took place 
this creation of intellectual light4    
,after the long-continued play of mere  
appetite and sensual life1 there came   
the operation of thought1 reflection1   
invention1 art1 science1 moral          
sentiments1 religious belief and hope2  
and thus1 life and being1 in a far      
higher sense than had ever existed1 even
 in the highest degree1 in the long ages
 of the earth's previous existence4  #e4
 ,now1 this great and capital fact      
cannot fail to excite in us many        
reflections1 which1 however vaguely and 
dimly1 carry us to the prospect of the  
future4 ,the present being so related to

 the past1 how may we suppose that the  
future will be related to the present8  
,in the first place1 this is a natural  
reflection4 ,the terrestrial world      
having made this advance from brute to  
human life1 can we think it at all      
likely1 that the present condition of   
the earth's inhabitants is a final      
condition8 ,has the vast step from      
animal to human life1 exhausted the     
progressive powers of nature8 or to     
speak more reverently and justly1 has it
 completed the progressive plan of the  
,creator8 ,after the great revolution by
 which man became what he is1 can and   
will nothing be done1 to bring into     
being something better than now is2     
however that future creature may be     
related to man8 ,we leave out of        
consideration any supposed progression1 
which may have taken place in the animal
 creation previous to man's existence2  
any progression by which the animal     
organization was made to approximate1   
gradually or by sudden steps1 to the    

human organization2 partly1 because such
 successive approximation is questioned 
by some geologists2 and is1 at any rate1
 obscure and perplexed3 but much more1  
because it is not really to our purpose4
 ,similarity of organization is not the 
point in question4 ,the endowments and  
capacities of man1 by which he is ,man1 
are the great distinction1 which places 
all other animals at an immeasurable    
distance below him4 ,the closest        
approximation of form or organs1 does   
nothing to obliterate this distinction4 
,it does not bring the monkey nearer to 
man1 that his tongue has the same       
muscular apparatus as man's1 so long as 
he cannot talk2 and so long as he has   
not the thought and idea which language 
implies1 and which are unfolded         
indefinitely in the use of language4    
,the step1 then1 by which the earth     
became1 a human habitation1 was an      
immeasurable advance on all that existed
 before2 and therefore there is a       
question which we are1 it seems1        

irresistibly prompted to ask1 ,is this  
the last such step8 ,is there nothing   
beyond it8 ,man is the head of creation1
 in his present condition2 but is that  
condition the final result and ultimate 
goal of the progress of creation in the 
plan of the ,creator8 ,as there was     
found and produced something so far     
beyond animals1 as man is1 may there not
 also1 in some course of the revolutions
 of the world1 be produced something far
 beyond what man is8 ,the question is   
put1 as implying a difficulty in        
believing that it should be so2 and this
 difficulty must be very generally felt4
 ,considering how vast the resources of 
the ,creative ,power have been shown to 
be1 it is difficult to suppose they are 
exhausted4 ,considering how great things
 have been done1 in the progress of the 
work of creation1 we naturally think    
that even greater things than these1    
still remain to be done4  #f4 ,but then1
 on the other hand1 there is an immense 
difficulty in supposing1 even in        

imagining1 any further change1 at all   
commensurate in kind and degree1 with   
the step which carried the world from a 
mere brute population1 to a human       
population4 ,in a proportion in which   
the two first terms are brute and man1  
what can be the third term8 ,in the     
progress from mere ,instinct to ,reason1
 we have a progress from blindness to   
sight2 and what can we do more than see8
 ,when pure ,intellect is evolved in    
man1 he approaches to the nature of the 
,supreme ,mind3 how can a creature rise 
higher8 ,when mere impulse1 appetite1   
and passion are placed under the control
 and direction of duty and virtue1 man  
is put under ,divine ,government3 what  
greater lot can any created being have8 
#g4 ,and the difficulty of conceiving   
any ulterior step at all analogous to   
the last and most wonderful of the      
revolutions which have taken place in   
the condition of the earth's            
inhabitants1 will be found to grow upon 
us1 as it is more closely examined4 ,for

 it may truly be said1 the change which 
occurred when man was placed on the     
earth1 was not one which could have been
 imagined and constructed beforehand1 by
 a speculator merely looking at the     
endowments and capacities of the        
creatures which were previously living4 
,even in the way of organization1 could 
any intelligent spectator1 contemplating
 anything which then existed in the     
animal world1 have guessed the wonderful
 new and powerful purposes to which it  
was to be made subservient in man8      
,could such a spectator1 from seeing the
 rudiments of a ,hand1 in the horse or  
the cow1 or even from seeing the hand of
 a quadrumanous animal1 have            
conjectured1 that the ,hand was1 in man1
 to be made an instrument by which      
infinite numbers of new instruments were
 to be constructed1 subduing the        
elements to man's uses1 giving him a    
command over nature which might seem    
supernatural1 taming or conquering all  
other animals1 enabling him to          

scrutinize the farthest regions of the  
universe1 and the subtlest combinations 
of material things8  #h4 ,or again2     
could such a spectator1 by dissecting   
the tongues of animals1 have divined    
that the ,tongue1 in man1 was to be the 
means of communicating the finest       
movements of thought and feeling2 of    
giving one man1 weak and feeble1 an     
unbounded ascendency over robust and    
angry multitudes2 and1 assisted by the  
7writing7 hand1 of influencing the      
intimate thoughts1 laws1 and habits of  
the most remote posterity8  #i4 ,and    
again1 could such a spectator1 seeing   
animals entirely occupied by their      
appetites and desires1 and the objects  
subservient to their individual         
gratification1 have ever dreamt that    
there should appear on earth a creature 
who should desire to know1 and should   
know1 the distances and motions of the  
stars1 future as well as present2 the   
causes of their motions1 the history of 
the earth1 and his own history2 and even

 should know truths by which all        
possible objects and events not only    
are1 but must be regulated8  #aj4 ,and  
yet again1 could such a spectator1      
seeing that animals obeyed their        
appetites with no restraint but external
 fear1 and knew of no difference of good
 and bad except the sensual difference1 
ever have imagined that there should be 
a creature acknowledging a difference of
 right and wrong1 as a distinction      
supreme over what was good or bad to the
 sense2 and a rule of duty which might  
forbid and prevent gratification by an  
internal prohibition8  #aa4 ,and        
finally1 could such a spectator1 seeing 
nothing but animals with all their      
faculties thus entirely immersed in the 
elements of their bodily being1 have    
supposed that a creature should come1   
who should raise his thoughts to his    
,creator1 acknowledge ,him as his       
,master and ,governor1 look to ,his     
,judgment1 and aspire to live eternally 
in ,his presence8  #ab4 ,if it would    

have been impossible for a spectator of 
the praehuman creation1 however         
intelligent1 imaginative1 bold and      
inventive1 to have conjectured          
beforehand the endowments of such a     
creature as ,man1 taking only those     
which we have thus indicated2 it may    
well be thought1 that if there is to be 
a creature which is to succeed man1 as  
man has succeeded the animals1 it must  
be equally impossible for us to         
conjecture beforehand1 what kind of     
creature that must be1 and what will be 
his endowments and privileges4  #ac4    
,thus a spectator who should thus have  
studied the praehuman creation1 and who 
should have had nothing else to help him
 in his conjectures and conceptions1 7of
 course1 by the supposition of a        
praehuman period1 not any knowledge of  
the operation of intelligence1 though a 
most active intelligence would be       
necessary for such speculations17 would 
not have been able to divine the future 
appearance of a creature1 so excellent  

as ,man2 or to guess at his endowments  
and privileges1 or his relation to the  
previous animal creation2 and just as   
little able may we be1 even if there is 
to exist at some time1 a creature more  
excellent and glorious than man1 to     
divine what kind of creature he will be1
 and how related to man4 ,and here1     
therefore1 it would perhaps be best1    
that we should quit the subject2 and not
 offer conjectures which we thus        
acknowledge to have no value4 ,perhaps1 
however1 the few brief remarks which we 
have still to make1 put forwards1 as    
they are1 merely as suggestions to be   
weighed by others1 can not reasonably   
give offence1 or trouble even the most  
reverent thinker4  #ad4 ,to suppose a   
higher development of endowments which  
already exist in man1 is a natural mode 
of rising to the imagination of a being 
nobler than man is2 but we shall find   
that such hypotheses do not lead us to  
any satisfactory result4 ,looking at the
 first of those features of the         

superiority of man over brutes1 which we
 have just pointed out1 the ,human      
,hand1 we can imagine this superiority  
carried further4 ,indeed1 in the course 
of human progress1 and especially in    
recent times1 and in our own country1   
man employs instead of1 or in addition  
to the hand1 innumerable instruments to 
make nature serve his needs and do his  
will4 ,he works by ,tools and           
,machinery1 derivative hands1 which     
increase a hundred-fold the power of the
 natural hand4 ,shall we try to ascend  
to a ,new ,period1 to imagine a ,new    
,creature1 by supposing this power      
increased hundreds and thousands of     
times more1 so that nature should obey  
man1 and minister to his needs1 in an   
incomparably greater degree than she now
 does8 ,we may imagine this carried so  
far1 that all need for manual labor     
shall be superseded2 and thus1 abundant 
time shall be left to the creature thus 
gifted1 for developing the intellectual 
and moral powers which must be the      

higher part of its nature4 ,but still1  
that higher nature of the creature      
itself1 and not its command over        
external material nature1 must be the   
quarter in which we are to find anything
 which shall elevate the creature above 
man1 as man is elevated above brutes4   
#ae4 ,or1 looking at the second of the  
features of human superiority1 shall we 
suppose that the means of ,communication
 of their thoughts to each other1 which 
exist for the human race1 are to be     
immensely increased1 and that this is to
 be the leading feature of a ,new       
,period8 ,already1 in addition to the   
use of the tongue1 other means of       
communication have vastly multiplied    
man's original means of carrying on the 
intercourse of thought3--writing1       
employed in epistles1 books1 newspapers2
 roads1 horses and posting              
establishments2 ships2 railways2 and1 as
 the last and most notable step1 made in
 our time1 electric telegraphs1         
extending across continents and even    

oceans4 ,we can imagine this facility   
and activity of communication1 in which 
man so immeasurably exceeds all animals1
 still further increased1 and more      
widely extended4 ,but yet so long as    
what is thus communicated is nothing    
greater or better than what is now      
communicated among men2--such news1 such
 thoughts1 such questions and answers1  
as now dart along our roads2--we could  
hardly think that the creature1 whatever
 wonderful means of intercourse with its
 fellow-creatures it might possess1 was 
elevated above man1 so as to be of a    
higher nature than man is4  #af4 ,thus1 
such improved endowments as we have now 
spoken of1 increased power over         
materials1 and increased means of motion
 and communication1 arising from        
improved mechanism1 do little1 and we   
may say1 nothing1 to satisfy our idea of
 a more excellent condition than that of
 man4 ,for such extensions of man's     
present powers are consistent with the  
absence of all intellectual and moral   

improvement4 ,men might be able to dart 
from place to place1 and even from      
planet to planet1 and from star to star1
 on wings1 such as we ascribe to angels 
in our imagination3 they might be able  
to make the elements obey them at a     
beck2 and yet they might not be better1 
nor even wiser1 than they are4 ,it is   
not found generally1 that the           
improvement of machinery1 and of means  
of locomotion1 among men1 produces an   
improvement in morality1 nor even an    
improvement in intelligence1 except as  
to particular points4 ,we must therefore
 look somewhat further1 in order to find
 possible characters1 which may enable  
us to imagine a creature more excellent 
than man4  #ag4 ,among the distinctions 
which elevate man above brutes1 there is
 one which we have not mentioned1 but   
which is really one of the most eminent4
 ,we mean1 his faculty and habit of     
forming himself into ,societies1 united 
by laws and language for some common    
object1 the furtherance of which        

requires such union4 ,the most general  
and primary kind of such societies1 is  
that ,civil ,society which is bound     
together by ,law and ,government1 and   
which secures to men the ,rights of     
property1 person1 family1 external      
peace1 and the like4 ,that this kind of 
society may be conceived1 as taking a   
more excellent character than it now    
possesses1 we can easily see3 for not   
only does it often very imperfectly     
attain its direct object1 the           
preservation of ,rights1 but it becomes 
the means and source of wrong4 ,not only
 does it often fail to secure peace with
 strangers1 but it acts as if its main  
object were to enable men to make wars  
with strangers4 ,if we were to conceive 
a ,universal and ,perpetual ,peace to be
 established among the nations of the   
earth2 7for instance by some general    
agreement for that purpose27 and if we  
were to suppose1 further1 that those    
nations should employ all their powers  
and means in fully unfolding the        

intellectual and moral capacities of    
their members1 by early education1      
constant teaching1 and ready help in all
 ways2 we might then1 perhaps1 look     
forwards to a state of the earth in     
which it should be inhabited1 not indeed
 by a being exalted above ,man1 but by  
,man exalted above himself as he now is4
  #ah4 ,that by such combinations of    
communities of men1 even with their     
present powers1 results may be obtained1
 which at present appear impossible1 or 
inconceivable1 we may find good reason  
to believe2 looking at what has already 
been done1 or planned as attainable by  
such means1 in the promotion of         
knowledge1 and the extension of man's   
intellectual empire4 ,the greatest      
discovery ever made1 the discovery1 by  
,newton1 of the laws which regulate the 
motions of the cosmical system1 has been
 earned to its present state of         
completeness1 only by the united efforts
 of all the most intellectual nations   
upon earth2 in addition to vast labors  

of individuals1 and of smaller          
societies1 voluntarily associated for   
the purpose4 ,astronomical observatories
 have been established in every land2   
scientific voyages1 and expeditions for 
the purpose of observation1 wherever    
they could throw light upon the theory1 
have been sent forth2 costly instruments
 have been constructed1 achievements of 
discovery have been rewarded2 and all   
nations have shown a ready sympathy with
 every attempt to forward this part of  
knowledge4 ,yet the largest and wisest  
plans for the extension of human        
knowledge in other provinces of science 
by the like means1 have remained        
hitherto almost entirely unexecuted1 and
 have been treated as mere dreams4 ,the 
exhortations of ,francis ,bacon to men1 
to seek1 by such means1 an elevation of 
their intellectual condition1 have been 
assented to in words2 but his plans of a
 methodical and organized combination of
 society for this purpose1 it has never 
been even attempted to realize4 ,if the 

nations of the earth were to employ1 for
 the promotion of human knowledge1 a    
small fraction only of the means1 the   
wealth1 the ingenuity1 the energy1 the  
combination1 which they have employed in
 every age1 for the destruction of human
 life and of human means of enjoyment2  
we might soon find that what we hitherto
 knew1 is little compared with what man 
has the power of knowing4  #ai4 ,but    
there is another kind of ,society1 or   
another object of ,society among men1   
which in a still more important manner  
aims at the elevation of their nature4  
,man sympathizes with man1 not only in  
his intellectual aspirations1 but in his
 moral sentiments1 in his religious     
beliefs and hopes1 in his efforts after 
spiritual life4 ,society1 even ,civil   
,society1 has generally recognized this 
sympathy1 in a greater or less degree2  
and has included ,morality and          
,religion1 among the objects which it   
endeavored to uphold and promote4 ,but  
any one who has any deep and            

comprehensive perception of man's       
capacities and aspirations1 on such     
subjects1 must feel that what has       
commonly1 or indeed ever1 been done by  
nations for such a purpose1 has been far
 below that which the full development  
of man's moral1 religious1 and spiritual
 nature requires4 ,can we not conceive a
 ,society among men1 which should have  
for its purpose1 to promote this        
development1 far more than any human    
society has yet done8--a ,body selected 
from all nations1 or rather1 including  
all nations1 the purpose of which should
 be to bind men together by a universal 
feeling of kindness and mutual regard1  
to associate them in the acknowledgment 
of a common ,divine ,lawgiver1          
,governor1 and ,father2--to unite them  
in their efforts to divest themselves of
 the evil of their human nature1 and to 
bring themselves nearer and nearer to a 
conformity with the ,divine ,idea2 and  
finally1 a ,society which should unite  
them in the hope of such a union with   

,god that the parts of their nature     
which seem to claim immortality1 the    
,mind1 the ,soul1 and the ,spirit1      
should endure forever in a state of     
happiness arising from their exalted and
 perfected condition8 ,and if we can    
suppose such a ,society2 fully          
established and fully operative1 would  
not this be a condition1 as far elevated
 above the ordinary earthly condition of
 man1 as that of man is elevated above  
the beasts that perish8  #bj4 ,yet one  
more question2 though we hesitate to mix
 such suggestions from analogy1 with    
trains of thought and belief1 which have
 their proper nutriment from other      
quarters4 ,we know1 even from the       
evidence of natural science1 that ,god  
has interposed in the history of this   
,earth1 in order to place ,man upon it4 
,in that case1 there was a clear1 and1  
in the strongest sense of the term1 a   
supernatural interposition of the       
,divine ,creative ,power4 ,god          
interposed to place upon the earth1     

,man1 the social and rational being4    
,god thus directly instituted ,human    
,society2 gave man his privileges and   
his prospects in such society2 placed   
him far above the previously existing   
creation2 and endowed him with the means
 of an elevation of nature entirely     
unlike anything which had previously    
appeared4 ,would it then be a violation 
of analogy1 if ,god were to interpose   
again1 to institute a ,divine ,society1 
such as we have attempted to describe2  
to give to its members their privileges2
 to assure to them their prospects2 to  
supply to them his aid in pursuing the  
objects of such a union with each other2
 and thus1 to draw them1 as they aspire 
to be drawn1 to a spiritual union with  
,him8  ,it would seem that those who    
believe1 as the records of the earth's  
history seem to show1 that the          
establishment of ,man1 and of ,human    
,society1 or of the germ of human       
society1 upon the earth1 was an         
interposition of ,creative ,power beyond

 the ordinary course of nature2 may also
 readily believe that another           
supernatural ,interposition of ,divine  
,power might take place1 in order to    
plant upon the earth the ,germ of a more
 ,divine ,society2 and to introduce a   
period in which the earth should be     
tenanted by a more excellent creature   
than at present4  #ba4 ,but though we   
may thus prepare ourselves to assent to 
the possibility1 or even probability1 of
 such a ,divine ,interposition1         
exercised for the purpose of            
establishing upon earth a ,divine       
,society3 it would be a rash and        
unauthorized step1--especially taking   
into account the vast differences       
between material and spiritual          
things1--to assume that such an         
,interposition would have any           
resemblance to the commencement of a    
,new ,period in the earth's history1    
analogous to the ,periods by which that 
history has already been marked4 ,what  
the manner and the operation of such a  

,divine ,interposition would be1        
,philosophy would attempt in vain to    
conjecture4 ,it is conceivable that such
 an event should produce its effect1 not
 at once1 by a general and simultaneous 
change in the aspect of terrestrial     
things1 but gradually1 by an almost     
imperceptible progression4 ,it is       
possible also that there may be such an 
,interposition1 which is only one step  
in the ,divine ,plan2--a preparation for
 some other subsequent ,interposition1  
by which the change in the ,earth's     
inhabitants is to be consummated4 ,or it
 is possible that such a ,divine        
,interposition in the history of man1 as
 we have hinted at1 may be a            
preparation1 not for a new form of      
terrestrial life1 but for a new form of 
human life2--not for a new peopling of  
the ,earth1 but for a new existence of  
,man4 ,these possibilities are so vague 
and doubtful1 so far as any scientific  
analogies lead1 that it would be most   
unwise to attempt to claim for them any 

value1 as points in which ,science      
supplies support to ,religion4 ,those   
persons who most deeply feel the value  
of religion1 and are most strongly      
convinced of its truths1 will be the    
most willing to declare1 that religious 
belief is1 and ought to be1 independent 
of any such support1 and must be1 and   
may be1 firmly established on its own   
proper basis4  #bb4 ,we find no         
encouragement1 then1 for any attempt to 
obtain1 from ,science1 by the light of  
the analogy of the past1 any definite   
view of a future condition of the       
,creation4 ,and that this is so1 we     
cannot1 for reasons which have been     
given1 feel any surprise4 ,yet the      
reasonings which we have1 in various    
parts of this ,essay1 pursued1 will not 
have been without profit1 even in their 
influence upon our religious thoughts1  
if they have left upon our minds these  
convictions3--,that if the analogy of   
science proves anything1 it proves that 
the ,creator of man can make a ,creator 

as far superior to ,man1 as ,man1 when  
most intellectual1 moral1 religious1 and
 spiritual1 is superior to the          
brutes3--and again1 ,that ,man's        
,intellect is of a divine1 and therefore
 of an immortal nature4 ,those persons  
who can1 on any basis of belief1 combine
 these two convictions1 so as to feel   
that they have a personal interest in   
both of them2--those who have such      
grounds as ,religion1 happily appealed  
to1 can furnish1 for hoping that their  
imperishable element may1 hereafter1 be 
clothed with a new and more glorious    
apparel by the hand of its ,almighty    
,maker2--may be well content to         
acknowledge that ,science and           
,philosophy could not give them this    
combined conviction1 in any manner in   
which it could minister that            
consolation1 and that trust in the      
,divine ,power and ,goodness1 which     
human nature1 in its present condition1 
requires4   ,,the ,,end4                
,transcriber's ,notes4   ,spelling      

irregularities where there was no       
obviously preferred version were left as
 is4 ,variants include3 embedded and    
imbedded2 a hypothesis and an           
hypothesis2 inexhausted and unexhausted2
 volcanos and volcanoes4  ,changed      
intelligencies to intelligences on page 
xvi3 may be rational intelligences4     
,changed familar to familiar on page    
#dc3 had been familiar4  ,changed       
,chalmer's to ,chalmers' on page #fg3   
,chalmers' reasonings4  ,inserted       
missing period after live in the sea on 
page #gh4  ,changed disapear to         
disappear on page #hb3 at last they     
disappear4  ,changed natturally to      
naturally on page #hd3 we may naturally 
ask4  ,changed planets to plants on page
 #ia3 plants and animals4  ,changed     
intelligenee to intelligence on page    
#abe3 intelligence1 morality1 religion4 
,changed crystaline to crystalline on   
page #abf3 of crystalline powers4       
,changed dissimiliar to dissimilar on   
page #abh3 perpetually dissimilar4      

,changed words to worlds on page #ace3  
plurality of worlds4  ,changed          
insignificent to insignificant on page  
#aea3 insignificant and insensible4     
,changed tales to tails on page #agj3   
tails of comets4  ,changed ,chambers' to
 ,chalmers' in the footnote on page     
#age3 ,chalmers' ,astron4 ,disc4  ,in   
the footnote on page #agg1 the times of 
the warning might be a typographic error
 for the times of the waning1 but was   
not changed4  ,changed disaprove to     
disprove on page #ahe3 prove or         
disprove4  ,changed one-thirteenth to   
one-thirtieth on page #aid3 be          
one-thirtieth as large4  ,changed       
skeletous to skeletons on page #bjh3    
,can they have skeletons4  ,in the      
footnote from page #bag1 ,schroeter     
appears with the oe-ligature2 elsewhere 
it does not4 ,the ligature was replaced 
by the two separate characters in the   
footnote4  ,changed how-however to      
however in the footnote from page #bcc3 
,this1 however4  ,changed hisorians to  

historians on page #bec3                
natural-historians4  ,changed ,meaning  
to meaning at the beginning of page     
#bfa1 since it's not a new sentence4    
,changed crystalizes to crystallizes and
 crystaline to crystalline on page #bfe3
 ,ice crystallizes2 crystalline         
aggregation4  ,changed ,artic to ,arctic
 in the footnote from page #bfe3        
,account of the ,arctic ,regions4       
,changed kingdon to kingdom on page     
#bfg3 the animal kingdom4  ,changed     
splendour to splendor on page #bgc3 the 
material splendor4  ,changed hightest to
 highest on page #bie3 the highest      
degree4  ,changed deely to deeply on    
page #cje3 who most deeply feel4